,transcriber's ,note ,illustration captions in curly brackets have been added by the transcriber for the convenience of the reader4 ,a considerable number of the page references in the index are incorrect2 however1 they have been preserved as printed4 ,,illustrated ,,text-,,books ,,of ,,art ,,education ,,edited ,,by ,,edward ,j4 ,,poynter1 ,r4,a4 ,,architecture ,,gothic ,,and ,,renaissance ,,by ,t4 ,,roger ,,smith1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,illustration3 ,p4 #aad ,,the ,,certosa1 ,,near ,,pavia4 ,,from ,,the ,,cloisters4 ,,begun ,,by ,,marco ,,di ,,campione1 ,a4,d4 #acic4 ,,text-,,book ,,of ,,art ,,education1 ,,edited ,,by ,,edward ,j4 ,,poynter1 ,r4,a4 ,,architecture ,,gothic ,,and ,,renaissance ,,by ,t4 ,,roger ,,smith1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,occasional ,lecturer on ,architecture at ,university ,college1 ,london ,illustration3 ,,saint ,,george4 ,,panel ,,from ,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,cardinal ,,amboise ,,in ,,rouen ,,cathedral4 ,,new ,,york ,,scribner ,,and ,,welford4 ,,london ,,sampson ,,low1 ,,marston1 ,,searle1 ,,rivington ,,crown ,,buildings1 #ahh1 ,,fleet ,,street #ahhj 7,all rights reserved47 ,,london3 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,sons1 ,,and ,,taylor1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill1 ,e4 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,,crete ,,from ,,notre ,,dame1 ,,paris4 ,,preface4 ,the history1 the features1 and the most famous examples of ,european architecture1 during a period extending from the rise of the ,gothic1 or pointed1 style in the twelfth century to the general depression which overtook the ,renaissance style at the close of the eighteenth1 form the subject of this little volume4 ,i have endeavoured to adopt as free and simple a mode of treatment as is compatible with the accurate statement of at least the outlines of so very technical a subject4 ,though it is to be hoped that many professional students of architecture will find this hand-book serviceable to them in their elementary studies1 it has been my principal endeavour to adapt it to the requirements of those who are preparing for the professional pursuit of the sister arts1 and of that large and happily increasing number of students who pursue the fine arts as a necessary part of a complete liberal education1 and who know that a solid and comprehensive acquaintance with art1 especially if joined to some skill in the use of the pencil1 the brush1 the modelling tool1 or the etching needle1 will open sources of pleasure and interest of the most refined description4 ,the broad facts of all art history2 the principles which underlie each of the fine arts2 and the most precious or most noteworthy examples of each1 ought to be familiar to every art student1 whatever special branch he may follow4 ,beyond these limits ,i have not attempted to carry this account of ,gothic and ,renaissance architecture2 within them ,i have endeavoured to make the work as complete as the space at my disposal permitted4 ,some portions of the text formed part of two courses of lectures delivered before the students of the ,school of ,military ,engineering at ,chatham1 and are introduced here by the kind permission of ,sir ,john ,stokes4 ,many of the descriptive and critical remarks are transcripts of notes made by myself1 almost under the shadow of the buildings to which they refer4 ,it would1 however1 have been impossible to give a condensed view of so extended a subject had not every part of it been treated at much greater length by previous writers4 ,the number and variety of the books consulted renders it impossible to make any other acknowledgment here than this general recognition of my indebtedness to their authors4 ,t4 ,r4 ,s4 ,illustration3 ,,stained ,,glass ,,from ,,chartres ,,cathedral4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,,illustrated ,,glossary ,,of ,,technical ,,words4 xv to xxxix ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,buildings ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 #f ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,gothic ,,architecture4 #ba ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,in ,,england4 ,analysis of ,buildings4 ,plans4 ,walls4 ,towers and ,spires4 ,gables4 ,piers and ,columns #bh ,,chapter ,v4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,in ,,england 7continued74 ,analysis 7continued74 ,openings4 ,roofs4 ,spires4 ,ornaments4 ,stained ,glass4 ,sculpture #de ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,in ,,western ,,europe4 #a4 ,,france4 ,chronological ,sketch4 ,analysis of ,buildings4 ,plans4 ,walls1 ,towers and ,gables4 ,columns and ,piers4 ,roofs and ,vaults4 ,openings4 ,mouldings and ,ornaments4 ,construction and ,design #fi #b4 ,,belgium and the ,,netherlands #hg #c4 ,,scotland1 ,,wales1 and ,,ireland #ia ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,in ,,central ,,and ,,northern ,,europe4 #a4 ,,germany4 ,chronological ,sketch4 ,analysis of ,buildings4 ,plans4 ,walls1 ,towers and ,gables4 ,roofs and ,vaults4 ,openings4 ,ornaments4 ,construction and ,design #ic #b4 ,,northern ,,europe #aaa ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,in ,,southern ,,europe4 #a4 ,,italy and ,,sicily4 ,topographical ,sketch4 ,,northern ,,italy4 ,,central ,,italy4 ,,southern ,,italy4 ,analysis of ,buildings4 ,plans4 ,walls1 ,towers1 and ,columns4 ,openings and ,arches4 ,roofs and ,vaults4 ,mouldings and ,ornaments4 ,construction and ,design #aab #b4 ,,spain4 ,chronological ,sketch #acg #c4 ,,portugal #adb ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,gothic ,,architecture4 ,principles of ,construction and ,design4 ,materials and ,construction #adc ,,chapter ,x4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture4 ,,general ,,view4 ,analysis of ,buildings4 ,plans4 ,walls and ,columns4 ,openings4 ,construction and ,design #aed ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture ,,in ,,italy4 ,,florence4 ,,rome4 ,,venice1 ,,vicenza1 ,,verona4 ,,milan1 ,,pavia4 ,,genoa1 ,,turin1 ,,naples4 ,country ,villas #afe ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture ,,in ,,france ,,and ,,northern ,,europe4 #a4 ,,france4 ,chronological ,sketch #aic #b4 ,,belgium and the ,,netherlands #bjf #c4 ,,germany #baj ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture ,,in ,,great ,,britain1 ,,spain1 ,,and ,,portugal4 #a4 ,,england4 ,chronological ,sketch #bad #b4 ,,scotland #bbg #c4 ,,spain and ,,portugal #bbi ,illustration3 ,,sculptured ,,ornament ,,from ,,rheims ,,cathedral4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,,certosa1 ,,the1 ,,near ,,pavia4 ,,from ,,the ,,cloisters ,frontispiece ,,saint ,,george4 ,,panel ,,from ,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,cardinal ,,amboise ,,in ,,rouen ,,cathedral ,title ,page ,,glossary4 ,,forty ,,engravings ,,of ,,details xv to xxxix #a4 ,,west ,,entrance1 ,,lichfield ,,cathedral4 7#abge47 #e #b4 ,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,peterborough ,,cathedral4 7#aaah to #aaic47 #f #c4 ,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,nave ,,of ,,salisbury ,,cathedral #g #d4 ,,choir ,,of ,,worcester ,,cathedral4 7,,begun #abbd47 #i #e4 ,,nave ,,of ,,wells ,,cathedral4 7#abjf to #abdb47 #i #f4 ,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,westminster ,,abbey #aa #g4 ,,house ,,of ,,jaques ,,coeur ,,at ,,bourges4 7,,begun #addc47 #ae #h4 ,,plan ,,of ,,warwick ,,castle4 7#ad,,th ,,and #ae,,th ,,centuries47 #af #i4 ,,palaces ,,on ,,the ,,grand ,,canal1 ,,venice4 7#ad,,th ,,century47 #ah #aj4 ,,well ,,at ,,regensburg4 7#ae,,th ,,century47 #bj #aa4 ,,gothic ,,ornament4 ,,from ,,sens ,,cathedral 7,,headpiece7 #ba #ab4 ,,lincoln ,,cathedral4 7,,mostly ,,early ,,english47 #ce #ac4 ,,st4 ,,pierre1 ,,caen1 ,,tower ,,and ,,spire4 7,,spire1 #acjb47 #cg #ad4 ,,house ,,at ,,chester4 7#af,,th ,,century47 #ch #ae4 ,,houses ,,at ,,lisieux1 ,,france4 7#af,,th ,,century47 #da #af4 ,,lancet ,,window4 7#ab,,th ,,century47 #df #ag4 ,,two-,,light ,,window4 7#ac,,th ,,century47 #dg #ah4 ,,geometrical ,,tracery4 7#ad,,th ,,century47 #dh #ai4 ,,triforium ,,arcade1 ,,westminster ,,abbey4 7#abfi47 #di #bj4 ,,rose ,,window ,,from ,,the ,,transept ,,of ,,lincoln ,,cathedral #ej #ba4 ,,perpendicular ,,window #ea #bb4 ,,roof ,,of ,,hall ,,at ,,eltham ,,palace4 7#ae,,th ,,century47 #ec #bc4 ,,henry ,,vii4',s ,,chapel4 7#aejc-aeab47 #eg #bd4 ,,spire ,,of ,,st4 ,,mary ,,magdalene1 ,,warboys1 ,,lincolnshire #ei #be4 ,,decorated ,,spire4 ,,all ,,saints' ,,church1 ,,oakham #fj #bf4 ,,early ,,arch ,,in ,,receding ,,planes #fb #bg4 ,,arch ,,in ,,receding ,,planes ,,moulded #fb #bh4 ,,doorway1 ,,king',s ,,college ,,chapel1 ,,cambridge4 7#ae,,th ,,cent47 #fc #bi4 ,,stained ,,glass ,,window ,,from ,,chartres ,,cathedral #fe #cj4 ,,sculpture ,,from ,,chapter ,,house1 ,,westminster ,,abbey #fg #ca4 ,,church ,,at ,,fontevrault4 7,,begun #aabe47 #gj #cb4 ,,doorway ,,at ,,loches1 ,,france4 7#aahj47 #gb #cc4 ,,notre ,,dame1 ,,paris1 ,,west ,,front4 7#abad47 #gd #cd4 ,,plan ,,of ,,amiens ,,cathedral4 7#abbj-abgb47 #gf #ce4 ,,amiens ,,cathedral1 ,,west ,,front4 7#abbj-abgb47 #gh #cf4 ,,piers ,,and ,,superstructure1 ,,rheims ,,cathedral4 7#abaa-abdj47 #hj #cg4 ,,capital ,,from ,,st4 ,,nicholas1 ,,blois1 ,,france4 7#ac,,th ,,century47 #hd #ch4 ,,beauvais ,,cathedral1 ,,interior4 7#abbe-aecg47 #hf #ci4 ,,the ,,town ,,hall ,,of ,,middleburgh4 7#aeah47 #hi #dj4 ,,tower ,,at ,,ghent4 7,,begun #aahc47 #ij #da4 ,,abbey ,,church ,,of ,,arnstein4 7#ab,,th ,,and #ac,,th ,,centuries47 #id #db4 ,,church ,,at ,,andernach4 7,,early #ac,,th ,,century47 #if #dc4 ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,barbara ,,at ,,kuttenberg4 ,,east ,,end4 7#aceh-aedh47 #ii #dd4 ,,double ,,church ,,at ,,schwartz-,,rheindorff4 ,,section4 7#aaeh47 #aja #de4 ,,double ,,church ,,at ,,schwartz-,,rheindorff4 7#aaeh47 #ajb #df4 ,,cologne ,,cathedral4 ,,ground ,,plan4 7,,begun #abdh47 #ajd #dg4 ,,western ,,doorway ,,of ,,church ,,at ,,thann4 7#ad,,th ,,century47 #ajf #dh4 ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,catherine ,,at ,,oppenheim4 7#abfb ,,to #adci47 #ajg #di4 ,,st4 ,,sebald',s ,,church ,,at ,,nuremberg4 ,,the ,,bride',s ,,doorway #aji #ej4 ,,palace ,,of ,,the ,,jurisconsults ,,at ,,cremona #aag #ea4 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,florence4 ,,with ,,giotto',s ,,campanile #aba #eb4 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,siena4 ,,west ,,front ,,and ,,campanile #abc #ec4 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,orvieto4 7,,begun #abij2 ,,facade1 #acaj47 #abe #ed4 ,,ogival ,,window-,,head #abi #ee4 ,,tracery ,,in ,,window-,,head1 ,,from ,,venice #acj #ef4 ,,window ,,from ,,tivoli #acd #eg4 ,,italian ,,gothic ,,window1 ,,with ,,tracery ,,in ,,head #acf #eh4 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,toledo4 ,,interior4 7,,begun #abbg47 #aci #ei4 ,,the ,,giralda ,,at ,,seville4 7,,begun ,,in #aaif2 ,,finished ,,in #aefh47 #ada #fj4 ,,doorway ,,from ,,church ,,at ,,batalha4 7,,begun #ache47 #aea #fa4 ,,strozzi ,,palace ,,at ,,florence4 7,,begun #adhi47 #afi #fb4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,loggia ,,del ,,consiglio ,,at ,,verona #aga #fc4 ,,the ,,pandolfini ,,palace1 ,,florence4 ,,designed ,,by ,,raphael #agc #fd4 ,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,at ,,rome4 ,,interior4 7#aejf-affa47 #agg #fe4 ,,monument ,,by ,,sansovino1 ,,in ,,sta4 ,,maria ,,del ,,popolo1 ,,rome #agi #ff4 ,,palazzo ,,giraud1 ,,rome4 ,,by ,,bramante4 7#aejf47 #ahj #fg4 ,,italian ,,shell ,,ornament #ahc #fh4 ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,redentore1 ,,venice4 7#aegf47 #ahe #fi4 ,,certosa ,,near ,,pavia4 ,,part ,,of ,,west ,,front4 7,,begun #adgc47 #ahh #gj4 ,,villa ,,medici--,,on ,,the ,,pincian ,,hill ,,near ,,rome4 ,,by ,,annibale ,,lippi 7,,now ,,the ,academie ,francaise74 7,a4,d4 #aedj47 #aia #gj;,a4 ,,early ,,renaissance ,,corbel #aib #ga4 ,,window ,,from ,a ,,house ,,at ,,orleans4 7,,early #af,,th ,,century47 #aie #gb4 ,,capital ,,from ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,francis ,i41 ,,orleans4 7#aedj47 #aig #gc4 ,,pavillon ,,richelieu ,,of ,,the ,,louvre1 ,,paris #aii #gd4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,tuileries1 ,,paris4 7,,begun #aefd47 #bja #ge4 ,,capital ,,from ,,delorme',s ,,work ,,at ,,the ,,louvre #bjb #gf4 ,,hotel ,,des ,,invalides1 ,,paris #bjd #gg4 ,,window ,,from ,,colmar4 7#aege47 #bjh #gh4 ,,zeughaus1 ,,dantzic4 7#afje47 #bji #gi4 ,,council-,,house ,,at ,,leyden4 7#aeii47 #baa #hj4 ,,quadrangle ,,of ,,the ,,castle ,,of ,,schalaburg #bac #ha4 ,,holland ,,house1 ,,kensington4 7#afjg47 #baf #hb4 ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,cathedral1 ,,london4 7#afge-agaj47 #bbj #hc4 ,,houses ,,at ,,chester4 7#af,,th ,,century47 #bbe #hd4 ,,the ,,alcazar ,,at ,,toledo4 7,,begun #aefh47 #bca ,illustration3 ,,stained ,,glass ,,from ,,chartres ,,cathedral4 ,,glossary ,,of ,,technical ,,words4 ,,abacus4--,the upper portion of the capital of a column1 upon which the weight to be carried rests4 ,,aisle 7,lat4 ala74--,the side subdivision in a church2 occasionally all the subdivisions1 including the nave1 are called aisles4 ,,apse4--,a semicircular or polygonal termination to1 or projection from1 a church or other public building4 ,,arcade4--,a range of arches1 supported on piers or columns4 ,,arch4--,a construction of wedge-shaped blocks of stone1 or of bricks1 of a curved outline1 and spanning an open space4 ,the principal forms of arch in use are ,semicircular2 ,acutely-pointed1 or ,lancet2 ,equilateral1 or ,less ,acutely-pointed2 ,four-centred1 or ,depressed ,tudor2 ,three-centred1 or ,elliptic2 ,ogival2 ,segmental2 and ,stilted4 7,figs4 ,a to ,f47 ,,architrave4--7#a7 ,the stone which in ,classic and ,renaissance architecture is thrown from one column or pilaster to the next4 7#b7 ,the moulding which in the same styles is used to ornament the margin of a door or window opening or arch4 ,,ashlar4--,finely-wrought masonry1 employed for the facing of a wall of coarser masonry or brick4 ,,attic 7,in ,renaissance ,architecture74--,a low upper story1 distinctly marked in the architecture of the building1 usually surmounting an order2 7#b7 in ordinary building1 any story in a roof4 ,,bailey 7from vallum74--,the enclosure of the courtyard of a castle4 ,,ball-,,flower4--,an ornament representing a globular bud1 placed usually in a hollow moulding4 ,,baluster4--,a species of small column1 generally of curved outline4 ,,balustrade4--,a parapet or rail formed of balusters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,a4--,,semicircular ,,arch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,b4--,,stilted ,,arch4 ,the ,semicircular and the ,stilted ,semicircular ,arch were the only arches in use till the introduction of the ,pointed ,arch4 ,throughout the ,early ,english1 ,decorated1 and ,perpendicular periods they occur as exceptional features1 but they were practically superseded after the close of the #abth cent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,c4--,,equilateral ,,arch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,d4--,,lancet ,,arch4 ,the ,lancet ,arch was characteristic of the ,early ,english period1 is never found earlier1 and but rarely occurs later4 ,the ,equilateral ,arch was the favourite arch of the architects of the geometrical ,decorated1 but is not unfrequently met with in the early part of the ,perpendicular period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,e4--,,ogival ,,arch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,f4--,,depressed ,,tudor ,,arch4 ,the ,depressed 7or ,four-centred7 ,tudor ,arch is characteristic of the ,perpendicular period1 and was then constantly employed4 ,the ,ogival ,arch is occasionally employed late in that period1 but was more used by ,french and ,italian architects than by those of ,great ,britain4 ,,band4--,a flat moulding or projecting strip of stone4 ,,barrel-,,vaulting4--,see ,waggon-head vaulting4 ,,barge-,,board 7,,or ,,verge-,,board74--,an inclined and pierced or ornamented board placed along the edge of a roof when it overhangs a gable wall4 ,,base4--7#a7 ,the foot of a column2 7#b7 sometimes that of a buttress or wall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,g4--,,base ,,of ,,early ,,english ,,shaft4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,h4--,,base ,,of ,,perpendicular ,,shaft4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,,base ,,of ,,decorated ,,shaft4 ,,basilica4--7#a7 ,a ,roman public hall2 7#b7 an early ,christian church1 similar to a ,roman basilica in disposition4 ,,bastion 7in ,fortification74--,a bold projecting mass of building1 or earthwork thrown out beyond the general line of a wall4 ,,battlement4--,a notched or indented parapet4 ,,bay4--,one of the compartments in a building which is made up of several repetitions of the same group of features2 e4g41 in a church the space from one column of the nave arcade to the next is a bay4 ,,bay-,,window4--,a window projecting outward from the wall4 ,it may be rectangular or polygonal4 ,it must be built up from the ground4 ,if thrown out above the ground level1 a projecting window is called an ,oriel4 7,see ,bow window47 ,,bead4--,a small moulding of circular profile4 ,,belfry4--,a chamber fitted to receive a peal of bells4 ,,belfry ,,stage4--,the story of a tower where the belfry occurs4 ,usually marked by large open arches or windows1 to let the sound escape4 ,,bell 7of a capital74--,the body between the necking and the abacus 7which see74 ,,billet ,,moulding4--,a moulding consisting of a group of small blocks separated by spaces about equal to their own length4 ,,blind ,,story4--,triforium 7which see74 ,,boss4--,a projecting mass of carving placed to conceal the intersection of the ribs of a vault1 or at the end of a string course which it is desired to stop1 or in an analogous situation4 ,,bow ,,window4--,similar to a ,bay-window 7which see71 but circular or segmental4 ,,broach-,,spire4--,a spire springing from a tower without a parapet and with pyramidal features at the feet of its four oblique sides 7see ,fig4 #bb7 to connect them to the four angles of the tower4 ,,broachead 7,,spire74--,formed as above described4 ,,buttress4--,a projection built up against a wall to create additional strength or furnish support 7see ,flying ,buttress74 ,,byzantine4--,the round-arched ,christian architecture of the ,eastern ,church1 which had its origin in ,byzantium 7,constantinople74 ,,canopy4--7#a7 ,an ornamented projection over doors1 windows1 c42 7#b7 a covering over niches1 tombs1 c4 ,,campanile4--,the ,italian name for a bell-tower4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,j4--,,buttress4 ,,capital4--,the head of a column or pilaster 7,figs4 ,l to ,p74 ,,cathedral4--,a church which contains the seat of a bishop2 usually a building of the first class4 ,,certosa4--,a monastery 7or church7 of ,carthusian monks4 ,,chamfer4--,a slight strip pared off from a sharp angle4 ,,chancel4--,the choir or eastern part of a church4 ,,chantry ,,chapel4--,a chapel connected with a monument or tomb in which masses were to be chanted4 ,this was usually of small size and very rich4 ,,chapel4--7#a7 ,a chamber attached to a church and opening out of it1 or formed within it1 and in which an altar was placed2 7#b7 a small detached church4 ,,chapter ,,house4--,the hall of assembly of the chapter 7dean and canons7 of a cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,l4--,,early ,,norman ,,capital4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,m4--,,early ,,english ,,capital4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,n4--,,later ,,norman ,,capital4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,o4--,,perpendicular ,,capital4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,p4--,,early ,,french ,,capital4 ,,chateau4--,the ,french name for a country mansion4 ,,chevron4--,a zig-zag ornament4 ,,chevet4--,the ,french name for an apse when surrounded by chapels2 see the plan of ,westminster ,abbey 7,fig4 #f74 ,,choir4--,the part of a church in which the services are celebrated2 usually1 but not always1 the east end or chancel4 ,in a ,spanish church the choir is often at the crossing4 ,,clerestory4--,the upper story or row of windows lighting the nave of a ,gothic church4 ,,cloister4--,a covered way round a quadrangle of a monastic building4 ,,clustered 7,,shafts74--,grouped so as to form a pier of some mass out of several small shafts4 ,,corbel4--,a projecting stone 7or timber7 supporting1 or seeming to support1 a weight 7,fig4 ,k74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,k4--,,early ,,renaissance ,,corbel4 ,,corbelling4--,a series of mouldings doing the same duty as a corbel2 a row of corbels4 ,,corbel ,,table4--,a row of corbels supporting an overhanging parapet or cornice4 ,,cortile 7,italian74--,the internal arcaded quadrangle of a palace1 mansion1 or public building4 ,,column4--,a stone or marble post1 divided usually into base1 shaft1 and capital2 distinguished from a pier by the shaft being cylindrical or polygonal1 and in one1 or at most1 in few pieces4 ,,cornice4--,the projecting and crowning portion of an order 7which see7 or of a building1 or of a stage or story of a building4 ,,course4--,a horizontal layer of stones in the masonry of a building4 ,,crocket4--,a tuft of leaves arranged in a formal shape1 used to decorate ornamental gables1 the ribs of spires1 c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,q4--,,decorated ,,crocket4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,r4--,,perpendicular ,,crocket4 ,,crossing4--,the intersection 7which see7 in a church or cathedral4 ,,cross ,,vault4--,a vault of which the arched surfaces intersect one another1 forming a groin 7which see74 ,,crypt4--,the basement under a church or other building 7almost invariably vaulted74 ,,cusp4--,the projecting point thrown out to form the leaf-shaped forms or foliations in the heads of ,gothic windows1 and in tracery and panels4 ,,dec4 ,the ,gothic architecture of the fourteenth century ,,decorated4 in ,england4 ,abbreviated ,dec4 ,,detail4--,the minuter features of a design or building1 especially its mouldings and carving4 ,,diaper 7,gothic74--,an uniform pattern of leaves or flowers carved or painted on the surface of a wall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,s4--,,diaper ,,in ,,spandrel1 ,,from ,,westminster ,,abbey4 ,,dogtooth4--,a sharply-pointed ornament in a hollow moulding which is peculiar to ,early ,english ,gothic4 ,it somewhat resembles a blunt tooth4 ,,dormer ,,window4--,a window pierced through a sloping roof and placed under a small gable or roof of its own4 ,,dome4--,a cupola or spherical convex roof1 ordinarily circular on plan4 ,,domical ,,vaulting4--,vaulting in which a series of small domes are employed2 in contradistinction to a waggon-head vault1 or an intersecting vault4 ,,double ,,tracery4--,two layers of tracery one behind the other and with a clear space between4 ,e4 ,e4 ,the ,gothic architecture of ,england in the ,,early ,,english4 thirteenth century4 ,abbreviated ,e4 ,e4 ,,eaves4--,the verge or edge of a roof overhanging the wall4 ,,eaves-,,course4--,a moulding carrying the eaves4 ,,elevation4--7#a7 ,a geometrical drawing of part of the exterior or interior walls of a building2 7#b7 the architectural treatment of the exterior or interior walls of a building4 ,,elizabethan4--,the architecture of ,england in1 and for some time after1 the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,,embattled4--,finished with battlements1 or in imitation of battlements4 ,,enrichments4--,the carved 7or coloured7 decorations applied to the mouldings or other features of an architectural design4 7,see ,mouldings47 ,,entablature 7in ,classic and ,renaissance architecture74--,the superstructure above the columns where an order is employed4 ,it is divided into the architrave1 which rests on the columns1 the frieze and the cornice4 ,,facade4--,the front of a building or of a principal part of a building4 ,,fan ,,vault4--,the vaulting in use in ,england in the fifteenth century1 in which a series of conoids bearing some resemblance to an open fan are employed4 ,,fillet4--,a small moulding of square flat section4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,t4--,,perpendicular ,,finial4 ,,finial4--,a formally arranged bunch of foliage or other similar ornament forming the top of a pinnacle1 gablet1 or other ornamented feature of ,gothic architecture4 ,,flamboyant ,,style4--,the late ,gothic architecture of ,france at the end of the fifteenth century1 so called from the occurrence of flame-shaped forms in the tracery4 ,,fleche4--,a name adapted from the ,french4 ,a slender spire1 mostly placed on a roof2 not often so called if on a tower4 ,,flying ,,buttress4--,a buttress used to steady the upper and inner walls of a vaulted building1 placed at some distance from the wall which it supports1 and connected with it by an arch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,u4--,,flying ,,buttress4 ,,foil4--,a leaf-shaped form produced by adding cusps to the curved outline of a window head or piece of tracery4 ,,foliation4--,the decoration of an opening1 or of tracery by means of foils and cusps4 ,,fosse4--,the ditch of a fortress4 ,,francois ,i4 ,,style4--,the early ,renaissance architecture of ,france during part of the sixteenth century4 ,,frieze4--7#a7 ,the middle member of a ,classic or ,renaissance entablature2 this was often sculptured and carved2 7#b7 any band of sculptured ornament4 ,,gable4--,the triangular-shaped wall carrying the end of a roof4 ,,gablet4--,a small gable 7usually ornamental only74 ,,gallery4--7#a7 ,an apartment of great length in proportion to its width2 7#b7 a raised floor or stage in a building4 ,,gargoyle4--,a projecting waterspout1 usually carved in stone1 more rarely formed of metal4 ,,geometrical4--,the architecture of the earlier part of the decorated period in ,england4 ,,grille4--,a grating or ornamental railing of metal4 ,,groin4--,the curved line which is made by the meeting of the surfaces of two vaults or portions of vaults which intersect4 ,,group4--,an assemblage of shafts or mouldings or other small features intended to produce a combined effect4 ,,grouping4--,combining architectural features as above4 ,,hall4--7#a7 ,the largest room in an ancient ,english mansion1 or a college1 c42 7#b7 any large and stately apartment4 ,,half ,,timbered ,,construction4--,a mode of building in which a framework of timbers is displayed and the spaces between them are filled in with plaster or tiles4 ,,hammer ,,beam ,,roof4--,a roof peculiar to ,english architecture of the fifteenth century1 deriving its name from the use of a hammer beam 7a large bracket projecting from the walls7 to partly support the rafters4 ,,head 7of an arch or other opening74--,the portion within the curve2 whether filled in by masonry or left open1 sometimes called a tympanum4 ,,hip4--,the external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping sides of a roof where there is no gable4 ,,hotel 7,french74--,a town mansion4 ,,impost4--,a moulding or other line marking the top of the jambs of an arched opening1 and the starting point1 or apparent starting point1 of the arch4 ,,inlay4--,a mode of decoration in which coloured materials are laid into sinkings of ornamental shape1 cut into the surface to be decorated4 ,,intersection 7,,or ,,crossing74--,the point in a church where the transepts cross the nave4 ,,intersecting ,,vaults4--,vaults of which the surfaces cut one another4 ,,interpenetration4--,a ,german mode of treating mouldings1 as though two or more sets of them existed in the same stone and they could pass through 7interpenetrate7 each other4 ,,jamb4--,the side of a door or window or arch1 or other opening4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,v4--,,plan ,,of ,a ,,jamb ,,and ,,central ,,pier ,,of ,a ,,gothic ,,doorway4 ,,keep4--,the tower which formed the stronghold of a mediaeval castle4 ,,king ,,post4--,the middle post in the framing of a timber roof4 ,,lancet ,,arch4--,the sharply-pointed window-head and arch1 characteristic of ,english ,gothic in the thirteenth century4 ,,lantern4--,a conspicuous feature rising above a roof or crowning a dome1 and intended usually to light a ,hall1 but often introduced simply as an architectural finish to the whole building4 ,,lierne 7rib74--,a rib intermediate between the main ribs in ,gothic vaulting4 ,,light4--,one of the divisions of a window of which the entire width is divided by one or more mullions4 ,,lintel4--,the stone or beam covering a doorway or other opening not spanned by an arch4 ,sometimes applied to the architrave of an order4 ,,loggia 7,italian74--,an open arcade with a gallery behind4 ,,loop4--,short for loophole4 ,a very narrow slit in the wall of a fortress1 serving as a window1 or to shoot through4 ,,lucarne4--,a spire-light4 ,a small window like a slender dormer window4 ,,moat 7or ,fosse74--,the ditch round a fortress or semi-fortified house4 ,,mosaic4--,an ornament for pavements1 walls1 and the surfaces of vaults1 formed by cementing together small pieces of coloured material 7stone1 marble1 tile1 c47 so as to produce a pattern or picture4 ,,moulding4--,a term applied to all varieties of contour or outline given to the angles1 projections1 or recesses of the various parts of a building4 ,the object being either to produce an outline satisfactory to the eye2 or1 more frequently1 to obtain a play of light and shade1 and to produce the appearance of a line or a series of lines1 broad or narrow1 and of varying intensity of lightness or shade in the building or some of its features4 ,the contour which a moulding would present when cut across in a direction at right angles to its length is called its profile4 ,the profile of mouldings varied with each style of architecture and at each period 7,figs4 ,w to ,z74 ,when ornaments are carved out of some of the moulded surfaces the latter are technically termed enriched mouldings4 ,the enrichments in use varied with each style and each period1 as the mouldings themselves did4 ,,mullion4--,the upright bars of stone frequently employed 7especially in ,gothic architecture7 to subdivide one window into two or more lights4 ,,nave4--7#a7 ,the central avenue of a church or cathedral2 7#b7 the western part of a church as distinguished from the chancel or choir2 7#c7 occasionally1 any avenue in the interior of a building which is divided by one or more rows of columns running lengthways is called a nave4 ,,necking 7of a column74--,the point 7usually marked by a fillet or other small projecting moulding7 where the shaft ends and the capital begins4 ,,newel ,,post4--,the stout post at the foot of a staircase from which the balustrade or the handrail starts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,w4--,,arch ,,moulding4 7,gothic1 #abth ,century47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,y4--,,arch ,,moulding4 7,decorated1 #adth ,century47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,z4--,,arch ,,moulding4 7,gothic1 #acth ,century47 ,,niche4--,a recess in a wall for a statue1 vase1 or other upright ornament4 ,,norman4--,the architecture of ,england from the ,norman ,conquest till the latter part of the twelfth century4 ,,ogee4--,a moulding or line of part concave and part convex curvature 7see ,fig4 ,e1 showing an ogee-shaped arch74 ,,ogival4--,ogee-shaped 7see ,fig4 #ed74 ,,open ,,tracery4--,tracery in which the spaces between the bars are neither closed by slabs of stone nor glazed4 ,,order4--7#a7 ,in ,classical and ,renaissance architecture a single column or pilaster and its appropriate entablature or superstructure2 7#b7 a series of columns or pilasters with their entablature2 7#c7 an entire decorative system appropriate to the kind of column chosen4 ,in ,renaissance architecture there are five orders--the ,tuscan1 ,doric1 ,ionic1 ,corinthian1 and ,composite4 ,each has its own proper column1 and its proper base1 shaft1 and capital2 and its own entablature4 ,the proportions and the degree of enrichment appropriate to each vary4 ,the ,tuscan being the sturdiest and plainest1 the ,composite the most slender and most small1 and the others taking place in the succession in which they stand enumerated above4 ,where more than one order occurs in a building1 as constantly happens in ,classic and ,renaissance buildings1 the orders which are the plainest and most sturdy 7and have been named first7 if employed1 are invariably placed below the more slender orders2 e4g4 the ,doric is never placed over the ,corinthian or the ,ionic1 but if employed in combination with either of those orders it is always the lowest in position4 ,,oriel4--,a window projecting like a bay or bow window1 not resting on the ground but thrown out above the ground level and resting on a corbel4 ,,palladian4--,a phase of fully developed ,renaissance architecture introduced by the architect ,palladio1 and largely followed in ,england as well as in ,italy4 ,,panel4--7#a7 ,the thinner portions of the framed woodwork of doors and other such joiner's work2 7#b7 all sunk compartments in masonry1 ceilings1 c4 ,,panelling4--7#a7 ,woodwork formed of framework containing panels2 7#b7 any decoration formed of a series of sunk compartments4 ,,parapet4--,a breastwork or low wall used to protect the gutters and screen the roofs of buildings2 also1 perhaps primarily1 to protect the ramparts of fortifications4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,a ,a4--,,open ,,parapet1 ,,late ,,decorated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,b ,b4--,,battlemented ,,parapet1 ,,perpendicular4 ,,pavilion4--,a strongly marked single block of building2 most frequently applied to those blocks in ,french and other ,renaissance buildings that are marked out by high roofs4 ,,pedestal4--7#a7 ,a substructure sometimes placed under a column in ,renaissance architecture2 7#b7 a similar substructure intended to carry a statue1 vase1 or other ornament4 ,,pediment4--7#a7 ,the gable1 where used in ,renaissance buildings2 7#b7 an ornamental gable sometimes placed over windows1 doors1 and other features in ,gothic buildings4 ,,perp4 ,the ,gothic architecture of the fifteenth century ,,perpendicular4 in ,england4 ,abbreviated ,perp4 ,,pier4--7#a7 ,a mass of walling1 either a detached portion of a wall or a distinct structure of masonry1 taking the place of a column in the arcade of a church or elsewhere2 7#b7 a group or cluster of shafts substituted for a column4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,c ,c4--,,early ,,english ,,piers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,d ,d4--,,late ,,decorated ,,and ,,perpendicular ,,piers4 ,,pilaster4--,a square column1 usually attached to a wall2 frequently used in ,classic and ,renaissance architecture in combination with columns4 ,,pinnacle 7in ,gothic architecture74--,a small turret1 or ornament1 usually with a pointed top1 employed to mark the summit of gables1 buttresses1 and other tall features4 ,,pitch4--,the degree of slope given to a roof1 gable1 or pediment4 ,,plan4--7#a7 ,a map of the floor of a building1 showing the piers1 if any1 and the walls which inclose and divide it1 with the openings in them2 7#b7 the actual arrangement and disposition of the floors1 piers1 and walls of the building itself4 ,,plane4--,the imaginary surface within which a series of mouldings lies1 and which coincides with the salient and important points of that series4 ,mouldings are said to be on an oblique plane when their plane forms an angle less than a right angle with the face of the wall2 and in receding planes1 when they can be divided into a series of groups of more or less stepped outline1 each within and behind the other1 and each partly bounded by a plane parallel with the face of the wall4 ,,plaster4--,the plastic material1 of which the groundwork is lime and sand1 used to cover walls internally and to form ceilings4 ,sometimes employed as a covering to walls externally4 ,,plinth4--,the base of a wall or of a column or range of columns4 ,,portal4--,a dignified and important entrance doorway4 ,,portico4--,a range of columns with their entablature 7and usually covered by a pediment71 marking the entrance to a ,renaissance or ,classic building4 ,,prismatic ,,rustication4--,in ,elizabethan architecture rusticated masonry with diamond-shaped projections worked on the face of each stone4 ,,profile4--,the contour or outline of mouldings as they would appear if sawn across at right angles to their length4 ,,porch4--,a small external structure to protect and ornament the doorway to a building 7rarely met with in ,renaissance74 ,,quatrefoil4--,a four-leaved ornament occupying a circle in tracery or a panel4 ,,rafters4--,the sloping beams of a roof upon which the covering of the roof rests4 ,,ragstone4--,a coarse stone found in parts of ,kent and elsewhere1 and used for walling4 ,,receding ,,planes4--7,see ,plane47 ,,recess4--,a sinking in a building deeper than a mere panel4 ,,recessing4--,forming one or more recesses4 ,throwing back some part of a building behind the general face4 ,,renaissance4--,the art of the period of the ,classic revival which began in the sixteenth century4 ,in this volume used chiefly to denote the architecture of ,europe in that and the succeeding centuries4 ,,rib 7in ,gothic vaulting74--,a bar of masonry or moulding projecting beyond the general surface of a vault1 to mark its intersections or subdivide its surface1 and to add strength4 ,,ridge4--7#a7 ,the straight line or ornament which marks the summit of a roof2 7#b7 the line or rib1 straight or curved1 which marks the summit of a vault4 ,,roll4--,a round moulding4 ,,rose ,,window4--,a wheel window 7which see74 ,,rubble4--,rough stonework forming the heart of a masonry wall2 sometimes faced with ashlar 7which see71 sometimes shown4 ,,rustication 7or ,,rusticated ,,masonry74--,the sort of ornamental ashlar masonry 7chiefly ,classic and ,renaissance7 in which each stone is distinguished by a broad channel all round it1 marking the joints4 ,,rustics4--,the individual blocks of stone used in rustication 7as described above74 ,,screen4--,an internal partition or inclosure cutting off part of a building4 ,at the entrance to the choir of a church screens of beautiful workmanship were used4 ,,scroll ,,moulding4--,a round roll moulding showing a line along its face 7distinctive of decorated ,gothic74 ,,scroll ,,work4--,ornament showing winding spiral lines like the edge of a scroll of paper 7chiefly found in ,elizabethan74 ,,section4--7#a7 ,a drawing of a building as it would appear if cut through at some fixed plane4 7#b7 ,that part of the construction of a building which would be displayed by such a drawing as described above4 7#c7 ,the profile of a moulding4 ,,set-,,off4--,a small ledge formed by diminishing the thickness of a wall or pier4 ,,sexpartite ,,vaulting4--,where each bay or compartment is divided by its main ribs into six portions4 ,,sgraffito 7,italian74--,an ornament produced by scratching lines on the plastered face of a building so as to show a different colour filling up the lines or surfaces scratched away4 ,,shaft4--7#a7 ,the middle part of a column between its base and capital4 7#b7 ,in ,gothic1 slender columns introduced for ornamental purposes1 singly or in clusters4 ,,shell ,,ornament4--,a decoration frequently employed in ,italian and ,french ,renaissance1 and resembling the interior of a shell4 ,,sky-,,line4--,the outline which a building will show against the sky4 ,,spandrel4--,the triangular 7or other shaped7 space between the outside of an arch and the mouldings1 or surfaces inclosing it or in contact with it4 7,see ,fig4 ,s1 under ,diaper47 ,,spire4--,the steep and pointed roof of a tower 7usually a church tower74 ,,spire-,,light 7or ,,lucarne74--,a dormer window 7which see7 in a spire4 ,,splay4--,a slope making with the face of a wall an angle less than a right angle4 ,,stage4--,one division in the height of any building or portion of a building where horizontal divisions are distinctly marked1 e4g41 the belfry stage of a tower1 the division in which the bells are hung4 ,,steeple4--,a tower and spire in combination4 ,sometimes applied to a tower or spire separately4 ,,stepped ,,gable4--,a gable in which1 instead of a sloping line1 the outline is formed by a series of steps4 ,,stilted ,,arch4--,an arch of which the curve does not commence till above the level of the impost 7which see74 ,,story4--7#a7 ,the portion of a building between one floor and the next2 7#b7 any stage or decidedly marked horizontal compartment of a building1 even if not corresponding to an actual story marked by a floor4 ,,strap-,,work 7,elizabethan74--,an ornament representing strap-like fillets interlaced4 ,,string-,,course4--,a projecting horizontal 7or occasionally sloping7 band or line of mouldings4 ,,tabernacle ,,work4--,the richly ornamented and carved work with which the smaller and more precious features of a church1 e4g41 the fittings of a choir1 were adorned and made conspicuous4 ,,terminal 7or ,finial74--,the ornamental top of a pinnacle1 gable1 c4 ,,terra-,,cotta4--,a fine kind of brick capable of being highly ornamented1 and formed into blocks of some size4 ,,thrust4--,the pressure exercised laterally by an arch or vault1 or by the timbers of a roof on the abutments or supports4 ,,tie4--,a beam of wood1 bar of iron1 or similar expedient employed to hold together the feet or sides of an arch1 vault1 or roof1 and so counteract the thrust4 ,,torus4--,a large convex moulding4 ,,tower4--,a portion of a building rising conspicuously above the general mass1 and obviously distinguished by its height from that mass4 ,a detached building of which the height is great1 relative to the width and breadth4 ,,tracery 7,gothic74--,the ornamental stonework formed by the curving and interlacing of bars of stone1 and occupying the heads of windows1 panels1 and other situations where decoration and lightness have to be combined4 ,the simplest and earliest tracery might be described as a combination of openings pierced through the stone head of an arch4 ,cusping and foliation 7which see7 are features of tracery4 7,see ,figs4 #ah1 #ai1 #ee1 and #eg in the text47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,e ,e4--,,perpendicular ,,window-,,head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,f ,f4--,,late ,,perpendicular ,,window-,,head4 ,,transept4--,the arms of a church or cathedral which cross the line of the nave4 ,,transition4--,the architecture of a period coming between and sharing the characteristics of two distinctly marked styles or phases of architecture1 one of which succeeded the other4 ,,transom4--,a horizontal bar 7usually of stone7 across a window or panel4 ,,trefoil4--,a three-leaved or three-lobed form found constantly in the heads of windows and in other situations where tracery is employed4 ,,triforium 7or ,,thorough-,,fare74--,the story in a large church or cathedral intermediate between the arcade separating the nave and aisles1 and the clerestory4 ,,tudor4--,the architecture of ,england during the reigns of the ,tudor kings4 ,the use of the term is usually1 however1 restricted to a period which closes with the end of ,henry ,,viii4's reign1 #aedg4 ,,turret4--,a small tower1 sometimes rising from the ground1 but often carried on corbels and commencing near the upper part of the building to which it is an appendage4 ,,tympanum4--,the filling in of the head of an arch1 or occasionally of an ornamental gable4 ,,undercutting4--,a moulding or ornament of which the greater part stands out from the mouldings or surfaces which it adjoins1 as though almost or quite detached from them1 is said to be undercut4 ,,vault4--,an arched ceiling to a building1 or part of a building1 executed in masonry or in some substitute for masonry4 ,the vaults of the ,norman period were simple barrel- or waggon-headed vaults1 and semicircular arches only were used in their construction4 ,with the ,gothic period the use of intersecting1 and as a result of pointed arches1 was introduced into vaulting1 and vaults went on increasing in complexity and elaboration till the ,tudor period1 when fan-vaulting was employed4 ,our illustrations show some of the steps in the development of ,gothic vaults referred to in ,chapter ,v4 of the text4 ,no4 #a represents a waggon-head vault with an intersecting vault occupying part of its length4 ,no4 #b represents one of the expedients adopted for vaulting an oblong compartment before the pointed arch was introduced4 ,the narrower arch is stilted and the line of the groin is not true4 ,no4 #c represents a similar compartment vaulted without any distortion or irregularity by the help of the pointed arch4 ,no4 #d represents one lay of a sexpartite ,gothic vault4 ,no4 #e represents a vault with lierne ribs making a star-shaped pallom on plan1 and ,no4 #f is a somewhat more intricate example of the same class of vault4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,g ,g4--,,vaults4 ,vaults are met with in ,renaissance buildings1 but they are a less distinctive feature of such buildings than they were in the ,gothic period2 and in many cases where a vault or a series of vaults would have been employed by a ,gothic architect1 a ,renaissance architect has preferred to make use of a dome or a series of domes4 ,this is called domical vaulting4 ,examples of it occur occasionally in ,gothic work4 ,,waggon-,,head ,,vaulting1 ,,or ,,barrel-,,vaulting4--,a simple form of tunnel-like vaulting1 which gets its name from its resemblance to the tilt often seen over large waggons1 or to the half of a barrel4 ,,wainscot4--7#a7 ,the panelling often employed to line the walls of a room or building2 7#b7 a finely marked variety of oak imported chiefly from ,holland2 probably so called because wainscot oak was at one time largely employed for such panelling4 ,,weathering4--,a sloping surface of stone employed to cover the set-off 7which see7 of a wall or buttress and protect it from the effects of weather4 ,,wheel ,,window4--,a circular window1 and usually one in which mullions radiate from a centre towards the circumference like the spokes of a wheel2 sometimes called a rose-window4 ,,window-,,head4--,for illustrations of the various forms and filling-in of ,gothic window-heads1 see the words ,arch and ,tracery4 ,illustration3 ,,ornamental ,,dolphin ,,pattern4 ,,head ,,and ,,tailpieces4 ,,page ,,headpiece4--,,crete ,,from ,,notre ,,dame1 ,,paris #a ,,sculptured ,,ornament ,,from ,,rheims ,,cathedral #f ,,sens ,,cathedral #ba ,,westminster ,,abbey #bh ,,tailpiece4--,,norman ,,capitals #dd ,,headpiece4--,,sculptured ,,ornament ,,from ,,westminster ,,abbey #de ,,tailpiece4--,,miserere ,,seat ,,from ,,wells ,,cathedral #fh ,,headpiece4--,,stained ,,glass ,,from ,,chartres ,,cathedral #fi ,,tailpiece4--,,miserere ,,seat ,,from ,,wells ,,cathedral #ib ,,ornament ,,from ,,rheims ,,cathedral #aec ,,headpiece4--,,renaissance ,,ornament ,,from ,a ,,frieze #aed ,,from ,a ,,terra-,,cotta ,,frieze ,,at ,,lodi #afe ,,tailpiece4--,,from ,a ,,door ,,in ,,santa ,,maria1 ,,venice #aib ,,headpiece4--,,ornament ,,by ,,giulio ,,romano #aic ,,from ,a ,,frieze ,,at ,,venice #bce ,,the ,,end-,,papers ,,are ,,from ,a ,,tapestry ,,in ,,hardwick ,,hall4 ,illustration3 ,the ,lily of ,florence4 ,illustration3 ,,crete ,,from ,,notre ,,dame1 ,,paris4 ,,gothic ,,architecture4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,the architecture generally known as ,gothic1 but often described as ,christian ,pointed1 prevailed throughout ,europe to the exclusion of every rival for upwards of three centuries2 and it is to be met with1 more or less1 during two others4 ,speaking broadly1 it may be said that its origin took place in the twelfth century1 that the thirteenth was the period of its development1 the fourteenth that of its perfection1 and the fifteenth that of its decline2 while many examples of its employment occur in the sixteenth4 ,in the following chapters the principal changes in the features of buildings which occurred during the progress of the style in ,england will be described4 ,subsequently1 the manner in which the different stages of development were reached in different countries will be given2 for architecture passed through very nearly the same phases in all ,european nations1 though not quite simultaneously4 ,it must be understood that through the whole ,gothic period1 growth or at least change was going on2 the transitions from one stage to another were only periods of more rapid change than usual4 ,the whole process may be illustrated by the progress of a language4 ,if1 for instance1 we compare round-arched architecture in the eleventh century to the ,anglo-,saxon form of speech of the time of ,alfred the ,great1 and the architecture of the twelfth century to the ,english of ,chaucer1 that of the thirteenth will correspond to the richer language of ,shakespeare1 that of the fourteenth to the highly polished language of ,addison and ,pope1 and that of the fifteenth to the ,english of our own day4 ,we can thus obtain an apt parallel to the gradual change and growth which went on in architecture2 and we shall find that the oneness of the language in the former case1 and of the architecture in the latter1 was maintained throughout4 ,for an account of the ,christian round-arched architecture which preceded ,gothic1 the reader is referred to the companion volume in this series4 ,here it will be only necessary briefly to review the circumstances which went before the appearance of the pointed styles4 ,the ,roman empire had introduced into ,europe some thing like a universal architecture1 so that the buildings of any ,roman colony bore a strong resemblance to those of every other colony and of the metropolis2 varying1 of course1 in extent and magnificence1 but not much in design4 ,the architecture of the ,dark ,ages in ,western ,europe exhibited1 so far as is known1 the same general similarity4 ,down to the eleventh century the buildings erected 7almost exclusively churches and monastic buildings7 were not large or rich1 and were heavy in appearance and simple in construction4 ,their arches were all semicircular4 ,the first rays of light across the gloom of the ,dark ,ages seem to have come from the energy and ability of ,charlemagne in the eighth century4 ,in the succeeding century1 this activity received a check2 an idea became generally prevalent that the year one thousand was to see the end of the world2 men's minds were overshadowed with apprehension2 and buildings1 in common with other undertakings of a permanent nature1 were but little attempted4 ,when the millennium came and passed1 and left all as it had been1 a kind of revulsion of feeling was experienced2 many important undertakings were set on foot1 such as during the preceding years it had not been thought worth while to prosecute4 ,the eleventh century thus became a time of great religious activity2 and if the ,first ,crusade1 which took place #ajie1 may be taken as one outcome of that pious zeal1 another can certainly be found in the large and often costly churches and monasteries which rose in every part of ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,lombardy1 and ,south ,italy4 ,keen rivalry raged among the builders of these churches2 each one was built larger and finer than the previous examples1 and the details began to grow elaborate4 ,construction and ornament were in fact advancing and improving1 if not from year to year1 at any rate from decade to decade1 so that by the commencement of the twelfth century a remarkable development had taken place4 ,the ideas of the dimensions of churches then entertained were really almost as liberal as during the best period of ,gothic architecture4 ,an illustration of this fact is furnished by the rebuilding of ,westminster ,abbey under ,edward the ,confessor4 ,he pulled down a small church which he found standing on the site1 in order to erect one suitable in size and style to the ideas of the day4 ,the style of his cathedral 7but not its dimensions7 soon became so much out of date that ,henry ,,iii4 pulled the buildings down in order to re-erect them of the lofty proportions and with the pointed arches which we now see in the choir and transepts of the ,abbey2 but the size remained nearly the same1 for there is evidence to show that the ,confessor's buildings must have occupied very nearly1 if not quite1 as much ground as those which succeeded them4 ,at the beginning of the twelfth century many local peculiarities1 some of them due to accident1 some to the nature and quality of the building materials obtainable1 some to differences of race1 climate1 and habits1 and some to other causes1 had begun to make their appearance in the buildings of various parts of ,europe2 and through the whole ,gothic period such peculiarities were to be met with4 ,still the points of similarity were greater and more numerous than the differences2 so much so1 that by going through the course which ,gothic architecture ran in one of the countries in which it flourished1 it will readily be possible to furnish a general outline of the subject as a whole2 it will then only be requisite to point out the principal variations in the practice of other countries4 ,on some grounds ,france would be the most suitable country to select for this purpose1 for ,gothic appeared earlier and flourished more brilliantly in that country than in any other2 the balance of advantage lies however1 when writing for ,english students1 in the selection of ,great ,britain4 ,the various phases through which the art passed are well marked in this country1 they have been fully studied and described1 and1 what is of the greatest importance1 ,english examples are easily accessible to the majority of students1 while those which cannot be visited may be very readily studied from engravings and photographs4 ,english ,gothic will therefore be first considered2 but as a preliminary a few words remain to be said describing generally the buildings which have come down to us from the ,gothic period4 ,the word ,gothic1 which was in use in the eighteenth century1 and probably earlier1 was invented at a time when a ,goth was synonymous with everything that was barbarous2 and its use then implied a reproach4 ,it denotes1 according to ,mr4 ,fergusson1 all the styles invented and used by the ,western barbarians who overthrew the ,roman empire1 and settled within its limits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #a4--,,west ,,entrance1 ,,lichfield ,,cathedral1 7#abge47 7,see ,chapter ,v47 ,illustration3 ,,sculptured ,,ornament ,,from ,,rheims ,,cathedral4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,buildings ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,by far the most important specimens of ,gothic architecture are the cathedrals and large churches which were built during the prevalence of the style4 ,they were more numerous1 larger1 and more complete as works of art than any other structures1 and accordingly they are to be considered on every account as the best examples of pointed architecture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,peterborough ,,cathedral4 7#aaah to #aaic47 ,a4 ,nave4 ,b ,b4 ,transepts4 ,c4 ,choir4 ,d ,d4 ,aisles4 ,e4 ,principal ,entrance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,nave ,,of ,,salisbury ,,cathedral4 7,a4,d4 #abag74 ,the arrangement and construction of a ,gothic cathedral were customarily as follows3--7,see ,fig4 #b47 ,the main axis of the building was always east and west1 the principal entrance being at the west end1 usually under a grand porch or portal1 and the high altar stood at the east end4 ,the plan 7or main floor7 of the building almost always displays the form of a cross4 ,the stem of the cross is the part from the west entrance to the crossing1 and is called the nave4 ,the arms of the cross are called transepts1 and point respectively north and south4 ,their crossing with the nave is often called the intersection4 ,the remaining arm1 which prolongs the stem eastwards1 is ordinarily called the choir1 but sometimes the presbytery1 and sometimes the chancel4 ,all these names really refer to the position of the internal fittings of the church1 and it is often more accurate simply to employ the term eastern arm for this portion of a church4 ,the nave is flanked by two avenues running parallel to it1 narrower and lower than itself1 called aisles4 ,they are separated from it by rows of columns or piers1 connected together by arches4 ,thus the nave has an arcade on each side of it1 and each aisle has an arcade on one side1 and a main external wall on the other4 ,the aisle walls are usually pierced by windows4 ,the arches of the arcade carry walls which rise above the roofs of the aisles1 and light the nave4 ,these walls are usually subdivided internally into two heights or stories2 the lower story consists of a series of small arches1 to which the name of triforium is given4 ,this arcade usually opens into the dark space above the ceiling or vault of the aisle1 and hence it is sometimes called the blind story4 ,the upper story is the range of windows already alluded to as lighting the nave1 and is called the clerestory4 ,thus a spectator standing in the nave1 and looking towards the side 7,figs4 #d and #e71 will see opposite him the main arcade1 and over that the triforium1 and over that the clerestory1 crowned by the nave vault or roof2 and looking through the arches of the nave arcade1 he will see the side windows of the aisle4 ,above the clerestory of the nave1 and the side windows of the aisles1 come the vaults or roofs4 ,in some instances double aisles 7two on each side7 have been employed4 ,the transepts usually consist of well-marked limbs1 divided like the nave into a centre avenue and two side aisles1 and these usually are of the same width and height as the nave and its aisles4 ,sometimes there are no transepts2 sometimes they do not project beyond the line of the walls1 but still are marked by their rising above the lower height of the nave aisles4 ,sometimes the transepts have no aisles1 or an aisle only on one side4#a ,on the other hand1 it is sometimes customary1 especially in ,english examples1 to form two pairs of transepts4 ,this occurs in ,lichfield ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,choir ,,of ,,worcester ,,cathedral4 7,,begun #abbd47 ,a4 ,nave ,arcade4 ,b4 ,triforium4 ,c4 ,clerestory4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,nave ,,of ,,wells ,,cathedral4 7#abjf ,,to #abdb47 ,a4 ,nave ,arcade4 ,b4 ,triforium4 ,c4 ,clerestory4 ,the eastern arm of the cathedral is the part to which most importance was attached1 and it is usual to mark that importance by greater richness1 and by a difference in the height of its roof or vault as compared with the nave2 its floor is always raised4 ,it also has its central passage and its aisles2 and it has double aisles much more frequently than the nave4 ,the eastern termination of the cathedral is sometimes semicircular1 sometimes polygonal1 and when it takes this form it is called an apse or an apsidal east end2 sometimes it is square1 the apse being most in use on the ,continent1 and the square east end in ,england4 ,attached to some of the side walls of the church it is usual to have a series of chapels2 these are ordinarily chambers partly shut off from the main structure1 but opening into it by arched openings2 each chapel contains an altar4 ,the finest chapel is usually one placed on the axis of the cathedral1 and east of the east end of the main building2 this is called1 where it exists1 the ,lady ,chapel1 and was customarily dedicated to the ,virgin4 ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel at ,westminster 7,fig4 #f7 furnishes a familiar instance of the lady chapel of a great church4 ,next in importance rank the side chapels which open out of the aisles of the apse1 when there is one4 ,westminster ,abbey furnishes good examples of these also4 ,the eastern wall of the transept is a favourite position for chapels4 ,they are less frequently added to the nave aisles4 ,the floor of the eastern arm of the cathedral1 as has been pointed out1 is always raised1 so as to be approached by steps2 it is inclosed by screen work which shuts off the choir1 or inclosure for the performance of divine service1 from the nave4 ,the fittings of this part of the building generally include stalls for the clergy and choristers and a bishop's throne1 and are usually beautiful works of art4 ,tombs1 and inclosures connected with them1 called chantry chapels1 are constantly met with in various positions1 but most frequently in the eastern arm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,westminster ,,abbey4 ,below the raised floor of the choir1 and sometimes below other parts of the building1 there often exists a subterranean vaulted structure known as the crypt4 ,passing to the exterior of the cathedral1 the principal doorway is in the western front3#b usually supplemented by entrances at the ends of the transepts1 and one or more side entrances to the nave4 ,a porch on the north side of the nave is a common feature4 ,the walls are now seen to be strengthened by stone piers1 called buttresses4 ,frequently arches are thrown from these buttresses to the higher walls of the building4 ,the whole arrangement of pier and arch is called a flying buttress1#c and1 as will be explained later1 is used to steady the upper part of the building when a stone vault is employed 7see ,chap4 ,v474 ,the lofty gables in which the nave and transepts1 and the eastern arm when square terminate1 form prominent features1 and are often occupied by great windows4 ,in a complete cathedral1 the effect of the exterior is largely due to the towers with which it was adorned4 ,the most massive tower was ordinarily one which stood1 like the central one of ,lichfield ,cathedral1 at the crossing of the nave and transepts4 ,two towers were usually intended at the western front of the building1 and sometimes one1 or occasionally two1 at the end of each transept4 ,it is rare to find a cathedral where the whole of these towers have been even begun1 much less completed4 ,in many cases only one1 in others three1 have been built4 ,in some instances they have been erected1 and have fallen4 ,in others they have never been carried up at all4 ,during a large portion of the ,gothic period it was usual to add to each tower a lofty pyramidal roof or spire1 and these are still standing in some instances1 though many of them have disappeared4 ,occasionally a tower was built quite detached from the church to which it belonged4 ,to cathedrals and abbey churches a group of monastic buildings was appended4 ,it will not be necessary to describe these in much detail4 ,they were grouped round an open square1 surrounded by a vaulted and arcaded passage1 which is known as the cloister4 ,this was usually fitted into the warm and sheltered angle formed by the south side of the nave and the south transept1 though occasionally the cloister is found on the north side of the nave4 ,the most important building opening out of the cloister is the chapter-house1 frequently a lofty and richly-ornamented room1 often octagonal1 and generally standing south of the south transept4 ,the usual arrangement of the monastic buildings round and adjoining the cloister varied in details with the requirements of the different monastic orders1 and the circumstances of each individual religious house1 but1 as in the case of churches1 the general principles of disposition were fixed early4 ,they are embodied in a manuscript plan1 dating as far back as the ninth century1 and found at ,st4 ,gall in ,switzerland1 and never seem to have been widely departed from4 ,the monks' dormitory here occupies the whole east side of the great cloister1 there being no chapter-house4 ,it is usually met with as nearly in this position as the transept and the chapter-house will permit4 ,the refectory is on the south side of the cloister1 and has a connected kitchen4 ,the west side of the cloister in this instance was occupied by a great cellar4 ,frequently a hospitum1 or apartment for entertaining guests1 stood here4 ,the north side of the cloister was formed by the church4 ,for the abbot a detached house was provided in the ,st4 ,gall plan to stand on the north side of the church2 and a second superior hospitum for his guests4 ,eastward of the church are placed the infirmary with its chapel1 and an infirmarer's lodging4 ,the infirmary was commonly arranged with a nave and aisles1 much like1 a small parish church4 ,other detached buildings gave a public school1 a school for novices with its chapel1 and1 more remotely placed1 granaries1 mills1 a bakehouse1 and other offices4 ,a garden and a cemetery formed part of the scheme1 which corresponds tolerably well with that of many monastic buildings remaining in ,england1 as e4g41 those at ,fountains' ,abbey1 ,furness ,abbey1 or ,westminster ,abbey1 so far as they can be traced4 ,generally speaking the principal buildings in a monastery were long and not very wide apartments1 with windows on both sides4 ,frequently they were vaulted1 and they often had a row of columns down the middle4 ,many are two stories high4 ,of the dependencies1 the kitchen1 which was often a vaulted apartment with a chimney1 and the barn1 which was often of great size1 were the most prominent4 ,they are often fine buildings4 ,at ,glastonbury very good examples of a monastic barn and kitchen can be seen4 ,second only in importance to the churches and religious buildings come the military and domestic buildings of the ,gothic period 7,fig4 #g74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,house ,,of ,,jaques ,,coeur ,,at ,,bourges4 7,,begun #adac47 ,every dwelling-house of consequence was more or less fortified1 at any rate during the twelfth1 thirteenth1 and fourteenth centuries4 ,a lofty square tower1 called a keep1 built to stand a siege1 and with a walled inclosure at its feet1 often protected by a wide ditch 7fosse or moat71 formed the castle of the twelfth century1 and in some cases 7e4g4 the ,white ,tower of ,london71 this keep was of considerable size4 ,the first step in enlargement was to increase the number and importance of the buildings which clustered round the keep1 and to form two inclosures for them1 known as an inner and an outer bailey4 ,the outer buildings of the ,tower of ,london1 though much modernised1 will give a good idea of what a first class castle grew to be by successive additions of this sort4 ,in castles erected near the end of the thirteenth century 7e4g4 ,conway ,castle in ,north ,wales71 and later1 the square form of the keep was abandoned1 and many more arrangements for the comfort and convenience of the occupants were introduced2 and the buildings and additions to buildings of the fifteenth century took more the shape of a modern dwelling-house1 partly protected against violence1 but by no means strong enough to stand a siege4 ,penshurst may be cited as a good example of this class of building4 ,it will be understood that1 unlike the religious buildings which early received the form and disposition from which they did not depart widely1 mediaeval domestic buildings exhibit an amount of change in which we can readily trace the effects of the gradual settlement of this country1 the abandonment of habits of petty warfare1 the ultimate cessation of civil wars1 the introduction of gunpowder1 the increase in wealth and desire for comfort1 and last1 but not least1 the confiscation by ,henry ,,viii4 of the property of the monastic houses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,plan ,,of ,,warwick ,,castle4 7#ad,,th ,,and ,,following ,,centuries47 ,warwick ,castle1 of which we give a plan 7,fig4 #h71 maybe cited as a good example of an ,english castellated mansion of the time of ,richard ,,ii4 ,below the principal story there is a vaulted basement containing the kitchens and many of the offices4 ,on the main floor we find the hall1 entered as usual at the lower or servants' end1 from a porch4 ,the upper end gives access to a sitting-room1 built immediately behind it1 and beyond are a drawing-room and state bed-rooms1 while across a passage are placed the private chapel and a large dining-room 7a modern addition74 ,bed-rooms occupy the upper floors of the buildings at both ends of the hall4 ,perhaps even more interesting as a study than ,warwick ,castle is ,haddon ,hall1 the well-preserved residence of the ,duke of ,rutland1 in ,derbyshire4 ,the five or six successive enlargements and additions which this building has received between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries show the growth of ideas of comfort and even luxury in this country4 ,as it now stands1 ,haddon ,hall contains two internal quadrangles1 separated from one another by the great hall with its dais1 its minstrels' gallery1 its vast open fire-place1 and its traceried windows1 and by the kitchens1 butteries1 c41 belonging to it4 ,the most important apartments are reached from the upper end of the hall1 and consist of the magnificent ball-room1 and a dining-room in the usual position1 i4e4 adjoining the hall and opening out of it2 with1 on the upper floor1 a drawing-room1 and a suite of state bed-rooms1 occupying the south side of both quadrangles and the east end of one4 ,a large range of apartments1 added at a late period1 and many of them finely panelled and lined with tapestry1 occupies the north side of this building and the northwestern tower4 ,at the south-western corner of the building stands a chapel of considerable size1 and which once seems to have served as a kind of parochial church2 and a very considerable number of rooms of small size1 opening out of both quadrangles1 would afford shelter1 if not comfortable lodging1 to retainers1 servants1 and others4 ,the portions built in the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth centuries are more or less fortified4 ,the ball-room1 which is of ,elizabethan architecture1 opens on to a terraced garden1 accessible from without by no more violent means than climbing over a not very formidable wall4 ,probably nowhere in ,england1 can the growth of domestic architecture be better studied1 whether we look to the alterations which took place in accommodation and arrangement1 or to the changes which occurred in the architectural treatment of windows1 battlements1 doorways and other features1 than at ,haddon ,hall4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,palaces ,,on ,,the ,,grand ,,canal1 ,,venice4 7#ad,,th ,,century47 ,in towns and cities much beautiful domestic architecture is to be found in the ordinary dwelling-houses1 e4g4 houses from ,chester and ,lisieux 7,figs4 #ad and #ae72 but many specimens have of course perished1 especially as timber was freely used in their construction4 ,dwelling-houses of a high order of excellence1 and of large size1 were also built during this period4 ,the ,gothic palaces of ,venice1 of which many stand on the ,grand ,canal 7,fig4 #i71 are the best examples of these1 and the lordly ,ducal ,palace in that city is perhaps the finest secular building which exists of ,gothic architecture4 ,municipal buildings of great size and beauty are to be found in ,north ,italy and ,germany1 but chiefly in ,belgium1 where the various town-halls of ,louvain1 ,bruges1 ,ypres1 ,ghent1 ,antwerp1 ,brussels1 c41 vie with each other in magnificence and extent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,many secular buildings also remain to us of which the architecture is ,gothic4 ,among these we find public halls and large buildings for public purposes--as ,westminster ,hall1 or the ,palace of ,justice at ,rouen2 hospitals1 as that at ,milan2 or colleges1 as ,king's ,college1 ,cambridge1 with its unrivalled chapel4 ,many charming minor works1 such as fountains1 wells 7,fig4 #aj71 crosses1 tombs1 monuments1 and the fittings of the interior of churches1 also remain to attest the versatility1 the power of design1 and the cultivated taste of the architects of the ,gothic period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,well ,,at ,,regensburg4 7#ae,,th ,,century47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,as the north transept at ,peterborough 7,fig4 #b74 #b ,at ,e on the plan of ,peterborough 7,fig4 #b74 #c ,see ,glossary4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,sculptured ,,ornament ,,from ,,sens ,,cathedral4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,in ,,great ,,britain4 ,english ,gothic architecture has been usually subdivided into three periods or stages of advancement1 corresponding to those enumerated on page #a2 the early stage known as ,early ,english1 or sometimes as ,lancet1 occupying the thirteenth century and something more2 the middle stage1 known as ,decorated1 occupying most of the fourteenth century2 and the latest stage1 known as ,perpendicular1 occupying the fifteenth century and part of the sixteenth4 ,the duration of each of these coincides approximately with the century1 the transition from each phase to the next taking place chiefly in the last quarter of the century4 ,adding the periods of the ,english types of round arched ,architecture1 we obtain the following table3-- ,up to #ajff or up to middle of #aath century1 ,,saxon4 ,a4,d4 #ajff to #aahi or up to end of #abth ,,norman4 ,a4,d4 #aahi to #acjg or up to end of #acth ,,early ,,english4 ,a4,d4 #acjg to #acgg or up to end of #adth ,,decorated4 ,a4,d4 #acgg to #aedf or up to middle of #afth ,,perpendicular4 ,the term ,early ,english 7short for ,early ,english ,gothic7 applied to ,english thirteenth-century architecture explains itself4 ,the term ,lancet sometimes applied to the ,early ,english style1 is derived from the shape of the ordinary window-heads1 which resemble the point of a lancet in outline 7,fig4 #af74 ,whatever term be adopted1 it is necessary to remark that a wide difference exists between the earlier and the late examples of this period4 ,it will suffice for our purposes if1 when speaking of the fully-developed style of the late examples1 we refer to it as ,advanced ,early ,english4 ,the architecture of the fourteenth century is called ,decorated1 from the great increase of ornament1 especially in window tracery and carved enrichments4 ,the architecture of the fifteenth century is called ,perpendicular1 from the free use made of perpendicular lines1 both in general features and in ornaments1 especially in the tracery of the windows and the panelling with which walls are ornamented4#d ,the following condensed list1 partly from ,morant1#e of the most striking peculiarities of each period1 may be found useful for reference1 and is on that account placed here1 notwithstanding that it contains many technical words1 for the meaning of which the student must consult the ,glossary which forms part of this volume4 ,,anglo-,,saxon--7,prior to the ,norman ,conquest74-- ,rude work and rough material2 walls mostly of rubble or ragstone with ashlar at the angles in long and short courses alternately2 openings with round or triangular heads1 sometimes divided by a rude baluster4 ,piers plain1 square1 and narrow4 ,windows splayed externally and internally4 ,rude square blocks of stone in place of capitals and bases4 ,mouldings generally semi-cylindrical and coarsely chiselled4 ,corners of buildings square without buttresses4 ,,norman4 ,william ,i4 ,a4,d4 #ajff4 ,william ,,ii4 #ajhg4 ,henry ,i4 #aajj4 ,stephen #aace4 ,henry ,,ii4 #aaed to #aahi4 ,arches semicircular1 occasionally stilted2 at first plain1 afterwards enriched with chevron or other mouldings2 and frequent repetition of same ornament on each stone4 ,piers low and massive1 cylindrical1 square1 polygonal1 or composed of clustered shafts1 often ornamented with spiral bands and mouldings4 ,windows generally narrow and splayed internally only2 sometimes double and divided by a shaft4 ,walls sometimes a series of arcades1 a few pierced as windows1 the rest left blank4 ,doorways deeply recessed and richly ornamented with bands of mouldings4 ,doors often square headed1 but under arches the head of the arch filled with carving4 ,capitals carved in outline1 often grotesquely sculptured with devices of animals and leaves4 ,abacus square1 lower edge moulded4 ,bases much resembling the classic orders4 ,the mouldings at first imperfectly formed4 ,pedestals of piers square4 ,buttresses plain1 with broad faces and small projections4 ,parapets plain with projecting corbel table under4 ,plain mouldings consist of chamfers1 round or pointed rolls at edges1 divided from plain face by shallow channels4 ,enriched mouldings--the chevrons or zig-zag1 the billet square or round1 the cable1 the lozenge1 the chain1 nail heads1 and others4 ,niches with figures over doorways4 ,roofs of moderately high pitch1 and open to the frame2 timbers chiefly king-post trusses4 ,towers square and massive--those of late date richly adorned with arcades4 ,openings in towers often beautifully grouped4 ,vaulting waggon-headed1 and simple intersecting vaults of semicircular outline4 ,towards the close of the style in reign of ,henry ,,ii41 details of transitional character begin to appear4 ,pointed arch with ,norman pier4 ,arcades of intersecting semicircular arches4 ,norman abacus blended with ,early ,english foliage in capitals4 ,,early ,,english4 ,richard ,i4 ,a4,d4 #aahi ,transition4 ,john #aaii4 ,henry ,,iii4 #abaf4 ,edward ,i4 #abgb to #acjg4 ,general proportions more slender1 and height of walls1 columns1 c41 greater4 ,arches pointed1 generally lancet2 often richly moulded4 ,triforium arches and arcades open with trefoiled heads4 ,piers slender1 composed of a central circular shaft surrounded by several smaller ones1 almost or quite detached2 generally with horizontal bands4 ,in small buildings plain polygonal and circular piers are used4 ,capitals concave in outline1 moulded1 or carved with conventional foliage delicately executed and arranged vertically4 ,the abacus always undercut4 ,detached shafts often of ,purbeck marble4 ,base a deep hollow between two rounds4 ,windows at first long1 narrow1 and deeply splayed internally1 the glass within a few inches of outer face of wall2 later in the style less acute1 divided by mullions1 enriched with cusped circles in the head1 often of three or more lights1 the centre light being the highest4 ,doorways often deeply recessed and enriched with slender shafts and elaborate mouldings4 ,shafts detached4 ,buttresses about equal in projection to width1 with but one set-off1 or without any4 ,buttresses at angles always in pairs4 ,mouldings bold and deeply undercut1 consisting chiefly of round mouldings sometimes pointed or with a fillett1 separated by deep hollows4 ,great depth of moulded surface generally arranged on rectangular planes4 ,hollows of irregular curve sometimes filled with dogtooth ornament or with foliage4 ,roofs of high pitch1 timbers plain1 and where there is no vault open4 ,early in the style finials were plain bunches of leaves2 towards the close beautifully carved finials and crockets with carved foliage of conventional character were introduced4 ,flat surfaces often richly diapered4 ,spires broached4 ,vaulting pointed with diagonal and main ribs only2 ridge ribs not introduced till late in the style2 bosses at intersection of ribs4 ,,decorated4 ,edward ,,ii4 ,a4,d4 #acjg4 ,edward ,,iii4 #acgg to #acgi4 ,proportions less lofty than in the previous style4 ,arches mostly inclosing an equilateral angle1 the mouldings often continued down the pier4 ,windows large1 and divided into two or more lights by mullions4 ,tracery in the head1 at first composed geometrical forms1 later of flowing character4 ,clerestory windows generally small4 ,diamond shaped piers with shafts engaged4 ,capitals with scroll moulding on under side of abacus1 with elegant foliage arranged horizontally4 ,doors frequently without shafts1 the arch moulding running down the jambs4 ,rich doorways and windows often surrounded with triangular and ogee-shaped canopies4 ,buttresses in stages variously ornamented4 ,parapet pierced with quatrefoils and flowing tracery4 ,niches panelled and with projecting canopies4 ,spires lofty2 the broach rarely used1 parapets and angle pinnacles take the place of it4 ,roofs of moderate pitch open to the framing4 ,mouldings bold and finely proportioned1 generally in groups1 the groups separated from each other by hollows1 composed of segments of circles4 ,deep hollows1 now generally confined to inner angles4 ,mouldings varying in size and kind1 arranged on diagonal as well as rectangular planes1 often ornamented with ball flower4 ,foliage chiefly of ivy1 oak1 and vine leaves2 natural1 also conventional4 ,rich crockets1 finials1 and pinnacles4 ,vaulting with intermediate ribs1 ridge ribs1 and late in the style lierne ribs1 and bosses4 ,,perpendicular4 ,richard ,,ii4 ,a4,d4 #acgg4 7,transition47 ,henry ,,iv4 #acii4 ,henry ,v4 #adac4 ,henry ,,vi4 #adbb4 ,edward ,,iv4 #adfa4 ,edward ,v4 #adhc4 ,richard ,,iii4 #adhc4 ,,tudor4 ,henry ,,vii4 #adhe4 ,henry ,,viii4 #aeji to #aedf4 ,arches at first inclosing an equilateral triangle1 afterwards obtusely pointed and struck from four centres4 ,piers generally oblong2 longitudinal direction north and south4 ,mouldings continued from base through arch4 ,capitals with mouldings large1 angular1 and few1 with abacus and bell imperfectly defined4 ,foliage of conventional character1 shallow1 and square in outline4 ,bases polygonal4 ,windows where lofty divided into stories by transoms4 ,the mullions often continued perpendicularly into the head4 ,canopies of ogee character enriched with crockets4 ,doors generally with square label over arch1 the spandrels filled with ornament4 ,buttresses with bold projection often ending in finials4 ,flying buttresses pierced with tracery4 ,walls profusely ornamented with panelling4 ,parapets embattled and panelled4 ,open timber roofs of moderate pitch1 of elaborate construction1 often with hammer beams1 richly ornamented with moulded timbers1 carved figures of angels and with pierced tracery in spandrels4 ,roofs sometimes of very flat pitch4 ,lofty clerestories4 ,mouldings large1 coarse1 and with wide and shallow hollows and hard wiry edges1 meagre in appearance and wanting in minute and delicate detail1 generally arranged on diagonal planes4 ,early in the style the mouldings partake of decorated character4 ,in the ,tudor period depressed four-centered arch prevails2 transoms of windows battlemented4 ,tudor flower1 rose1 portcullis1 and fleur-de-lis common ornaments4 ,crockets and pinnacles much projected4 ,roofs of low pitch4 ,vaulting4 ,fan vaulting1 with tracery and pendants elaborately carved4 ,other modes of distinguishing the periods of ,english ,gothic have been proposed by writers of authority4 ,the division given above is that of ,rickman1 and is generally adopted4 ,a more minute subdivision and a different set of names were proposed by ,sharpe as follows3-- ,,romanesque4 ,saxon ,a4,d4 to #ajff4 ,norman #ajff to #aade4 ,,gothic4 ,transitional #aade to #aaij4 ,lancet #aaij to #abde4 ,geometrical #abde to #acae4 ,curvilinear #acae to #acfj4 ,rectilinear #acfj to #aeej4 ,of the new names proposed by ,mr4 ,sharpe transitional explains itself2 and geometrical1 curvilinear1 and rectilinear refer to the characters of the window tracery at the different periods which they denote4#f 99 99 99 99 99 ,the history of ,english ,gothic proper may be said to begin with the reign of ,henry ,,ii41 coinciding very nearly with the commencement of the period named by ,mr4 ,sharpe transitional 7#aade to #aaij71 when ,norman architecture was changing into ,gothic4 ,this history we propose now to consider somewhat in detail1 dividing the buildings in the simplest possible way1 namely1 into floors1 walls1 columns1 roofs1 openings1 and ornaments4 ,after this we shall have to consider the mode in which materials were used by the builders of the ,gothic period1 i4e4 the construction of the buildings2 and the general artistic principles which guided their architects1 i4e4 the design of the buildings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it may be useful to students in and near ,london to give ,sir ,g4 ,gilbert ,scott's list of striking ,london examples#g of ,gothic architecture 7with the omission of such examples as are more antiquarian than architectural in their interest73-- ,norman 7temp4 ,conquest74--,the ,keep and ,chapel of the ,tower of ,london4 ,advanced ,norman4--,chapel of ,st4 ,catherine1 ,westminster ,abbey2 ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,priory1 ,smithfield4 ,transitional4--,the round part of the ,temple ,church4 ,early ,english4--,eastern part of the ,temple ,church2 ,choir and ,lady ,chapel of ,st4 ,mary ,overy1 ,southwark2 ,chapel of ,lambeth ,palace4 ,advanced ,early ,english 7passing to decorated74--,eastern part of ,westminster ,abbey generally and its ,chapter ,house4 ,early ,decorated4--,choir of ,westminster1 7but this has been much influenced by the design of the earlier parts adjacent72 ,chapel of ,st4 ,etheldreda1 ,ely ,place1 ,holborn4 ,late ,decorated4--,the three bays of the ,cloister at ,westminster opposite the entrance to ,chapter ,house2 ,crypt of ,st4 ,stephen's ,chapel1 ,westminster2 ,dutch ,church1 ,austin ,friars4 ,early ,perpendicular4--,south and ,west walks of the ,cloister1 ,westminster2 ,westminster ,hall4 ,advanced ,perpendicular 7,tudor period74--,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel2 ,double ,cloister of ,st4 ,stephen's1 ,westminster4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,the abbreviations1 ,e4 ,e41 ,dec41 and ,perp41 will be employed to denote these three periods4 #e ,notes on ,english ,architecture1 ,costumes1 ,monuments1 c4 ,privately printed4 ,quoted here with the author's permission4 #f ,see examples in ,chapter ,v4 and in ,glossary4 #g ,address to ,conference of ,architects1 ,builder1 ,june #bd1 #ahgf4 ,illustration3 ,,sculptured ,,ornament ,,from ,,westminster ,,abbey4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,gothic ,,architecture4--,,england4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,buildings4--,,floor1 ,,walls1 ,,towers1 ,,gables1 ,,columns4 ,floor1 or ,plan4 ,the excellences or defects of a building are more due to the shape and size of its floor and1 incidentally1 of the walls and columns or piers which inclose and subdivide its floor than to anything else whatever4 ,a map of the floor and walls 7usually showing also the position of the doors and windows71 is known as a plan1 but by a pardonable figure of speech the plan of a building is often understood to mean the shape and size and arrangement of its floor and walls themselves1 instead of simply the drawing representing them4 ,it is in this sense that the word plan will be used in this volume4 ,the plan of a ,gothic ,cathedral has been described1 and it has been already remarked that before the ,gothic period had commenced the dimensions of great churches had been very much increased4 ,the generally received disposition of the parts of a church had indeed been already settled or nearly so4 ,there were consequently few radical alterations in church plans during the ,gothic period4 ,one1 however1 took place in ,england in the abandonment of the apse4 ,at first the apsidal east end1 common in the ,norman times1 was retained4 ,for example1 it is found at ,canterbury1 where the choir and transept are transitional1 having been begun soon after #aagd and completed about #aahd2 but the eastern end of ,chichester1 which belongs to the same period 7the transition71 displays the square east end1 and this termination was almost invariably preferred in our country after the twelfth century4 ,a great amount of regularity marks the plans of those great churches which had vaulted roofs1 as will be readily understood when it is remembered that the vaults were divided into equal and similar compartments1 and that the points of support had to be placed with corresponding regularity4 ,where1 however1 some controlling cause of this nature was not at work much picturesque irregularity prevailed in the planning of ,english ,gothic buildings of all periods4 ,the plans of our ,cathedrals are noted for their great length in proportion to their width1 for the considerable length given to the transepts1 and for the occurrence in many cases 7e4g4 ,salisbury1 thirteenth century7 of a second transept4 ,the principal alterations which took place in plan as time went on originated in the desire to concentrate material as much as possible on points of support1 leaving the walls between them thin and the openings wide1 and in the use of flying buttresses1 the feet of which occupy a considerable space outside the main walls of the church4 ,the plans of piers and columns also underwent the alterations which will be presently described4#h ,buildings of a circular shape on plan are very rare1 but octagonal ones are not uncommon4 ,the finest chapter-houses attached to our ,cathedrals are octagons1 with a central pier to carry the vaulting4 ,on the whole1 play of shape on plan was less cultivated in ,england than in some continental countries4 ,the plans of domestic buildings are usually simple1 but grew more elaborate and extensive as time went on4 ,the cloister with dwelling-rooms and common-rooms entered from its walk1 formed the model on which colleges1 hospitals1 and alms-houses were planned4 ,the castle1 already described1 was the residence of the wealthy during the earlier part of the ,gothic period1 and when1 in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 houses which were rather dwellings than fortresses began to be erected1 the hall1 with a large bay window and a raised floor or dais at one end and a mighty open fire-place1 was always the most conspicuous feature in the plan4 ,towards the close of the ,gothic period the plan of a great dwelling1 such as ,warwick ,castle 7,fig4 #h71 began to show many of the features which distinguish a mansion of the present day4 ,in various parts of the country remains of magnificent ,gothic dwelling-houses of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist1 and long before the close of the perpendicular period we had such mansions as ,penshurst and ,hever1 such palaces as ,windsor and ,wells1 such castellated dwellings as ,warwick and ,haddon1 differing in many respects but all agreeing in the possession of a great central hall4 ,buildings for public purposes also often took the form of a great hall4 ,westminster ,hall may be cited as the finest example of such a structure1 not only in ,england but in ,europe4 ,the student who desires to obtain anything beyond the most superficial acquaintance with architecture must endeavour to obtain enough familiarity with ground plans1 to be able to sketch1 measure1 and lay down a plan to scale and to read one4 ,the plan shows to the experienced architect the nature1 arrangement1 and qualities of a building better than any other drawing1 and a better memorandum of a building is preserved if a fairly correct sketch of its plan1 or of the plan of important parts of it1 is preserved than if written notes are alone relied upon4 ,walls4 ,the walls of ,gothic buildings are generally of stone2 brick being the exception4 ,they were in the transitional and ,early ,english times extremely thick1 and became thinner afterwards4 ,all sorts of ornamental masonry were introduced into them1 so that diapers1#i bands1 arcades1 mouldings1 and inlaid patterns are all to be met with occasionally1 especially in districts where building materials of varied colours1 or easy to work1 are plentiful4 ,in the perpendicular period the walls were systematically covered with panelling closely resembling the tracery of the windows 7e4g41 ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel at ,westminster74 ,the wall of a building ordinarily requires some kind of base and some kind of top4 ,the base or plinth in ,english ,gothic buildings was usually well marked and bold1 especially in the perpendicular period1 and it is seldom absent4 ,the eaves of the roof in some cases overhang the walls1 resting on a simple stone band1 called an eaves-course1 and constitute the crowning feature4 ,in many instances1 however1 the eaves are concealed behind a parapet#aj which is often carried on a moulded cornice or on corbels4 ,this1 in the ,e4 ,e4 period1 was usually very simple4 ,in the ,dec4 it was panelled with ornamental panels1 and often made very beautiful4 ,in the ,perp4 it was frequently battlemented as well as panelled4 ,a distinguishing feature of ,gothic walls is the buttress4 ,it existed1 but only in the form of a flat pier of very slight projection in ,norman1 as in almost all ,romanesque buildings1 but in the ,gothic period it became developed4 ,the buttress1 like many of the peculiarities of ,gothic architecture1 originated in the use of stone vaults and the need for strong piers at these points1 upon which the thrust and weight of those vaults were concentrated4 ,the use of very large openings1 for wide windows full of stained glass also made it increasingly necessary in the ,dec4 and ,perp4 periods to fortify the walls at regular points4 ,a buttress#aj is1 in fact1 a piece of wall set athwart the main wall1 usually projecting considerably at the base and diminished by successive reductions of its mass as it approaches the top1 and so placed as to counteract the thrust of some arch or vault inside4 ,it had great artistic value2 in the feeble and level light of our ,northern climate it casts bold shadows and catches bright lights1 and so adds greatly to the architectural effect of the exterior4 ,in the ,e4 ,e4 the buttress was simple and ordinarily projected about its own width4 ,in the ,dec4 it obtained much more projection1 was constructed with several diminutions 7technically called weatherings71 and was considerably ornamented4 ,in the ,perp4 it was frequently enriched by panelling4 ,the buttresses in the ,dec4 period are often set diagonally at the corner of a building or tower4 ,in the ,e4 ,e4 period this was never done4 ,the flying buttress#aa is one of the most conspicuous features of the exterior of those ,gothic buildings which possessed elaborate stone vaults4 ,it was a contrivance for providing an abutment to counterbalance the outward pressure of the vault covering the highest and central parts of the building in cases where that vault rested upon and abutted against walls which themselves were carried by arches1 and were virtually internal walls1 so that no buttress could be carried up from the ground to steady them4 ,a pier of masonry1 sometimes standing alone1 sometimes thrown out from the aisle wall opposite the point to be propped1 formed the solid part of this buttress2 it was carried to the requisite height and a flying arch spanning the whole width of the aisles was thrown across from it to the wall at the point whence the vault sprung4 ,the pier itself was in many cases loaded by an enormous pinnacle1 so that its weight might combine with the pressure transmitted along the slope of the flying arch to give a resultant which should fall within the base of the buttress4 ,the back of such an arch was generally used as a water channel4 ,the forest of flying buttresses round many ,french cathedrals produces an almost bewildering effect1 as1 for instance1 at the east end of ,notre ,dame2--our ,english specimens1 at ,westminster ,abbey for example1 are comparatively simple4 ,towers4 ,the gable and the tower are developments of the walls of the building4 ,gothic is par excellence the style of towers4 ,many towers were built detached from all other buildings1 but no great ,gothic building is complete without one main tower and some subordinate ones4 ,in the ,e4 ,e4 style church towers were often crowned by low spires1 becoming more lofty as the style advanced4 ,in the ,dec4 style lofty spires were almost universal4 ,in the ,perp4 the tower rarely has a visible roof4#ab ,the artistic value of towers in giving unity coupled with variety to a group of buildings can hardly be exaggerated4 ,the positions which towers occupy are various4 ,they produce the greatest effect when central1 i4e4 placed over the crossing of the nave and transepts4 ,lichfield1 ,chichester1 and ,salisbury may be referred to as examples of cathedrals with towers in this position and surmounted by spires4 ,canterbury1 ,york1 ,lincoln1 and ,gloucester are specimens of the effectiveness of the tower similarly placed1 but without a spire 7,fig4 #ab74 ,at ,wells a fine central octagon occupies the crossing1 and is remarkable for the skill with which it is fitted to the nave and aisles internally4 ,next to central towers rank a pair of towers at the western end of the building4 ,these exist at ,lichfield with their spires2 they exist 7square-topped7 at ,lincoln1 and 7though carried up since the ,gothic period7 at ,westminster4#ac ,many churches have a single tower in this position 7,fig4 #ac74 ,the obvious purpose of a tower1 beyond its serviceableness as a feature of the building and as a landmark1 is to lift up a belfry high into the air3 accordingly1 almost without exception1 church and cathedral towers are designed with a large upper story1 pierced by openings of great size and height called the belfry stage2 and the whole artistic treatment of the tower is subordinate to this feature4 ,it is also very often the case that a turret to contain a spiral staircase which may afford the means of access to the upper part of the tower1 forms a prominent feature of its whole height1 especially in the ,dec4 and ,perp4 periods4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,lincoln ,,cathedral4 7,,mostly ,,early ,,english47 ,in domestic and monastic buildings1 low towers were frequently employed with excellent effect4 ,many castles retained the ,norman keep1 or square strong tower1 which had served as the nucleus round which other buildings had afterwards clustered2 but where during the ,gothic period a castle was built1 or rebuilt1 without such a keep1 one or more towers1 often of great beauty1 were always added4 ,examples abound2 good ones will be found in the ,edwardian castles in ,wales 7end of thirteenth century71 as for example at ,conway and ,caernarvon4 ,gables4 ,the gable forms a distinctive ,gothic feature4 ,the gables crowned those parts of a great church in which the skill of the architect was directed to producing a regular composition1 often called a front1 or a facade4 ,the west fronts of ,cathedrals were the most important architectural designs of this sort1 and with them we may include the ends of the transepts and the east fronts4 ,the same parts of parish churches are often excellent compositions4 ,the gable of the nave always formed the central feature of the main front4 ,this was flanked by the gables1 or half-gables1 of the aisles where there were no towers1 or by the lower portions of the towers4 ,as a rule the centre and sides of the facade are separated by buttresses1 or some other mode of marking a vertical division1 and the composition is also divided by bands of mouldings or otherwise1 horizontally into storeys4 ,some of the horizontal divisions are often strongly marked1 especially in the lower part of the building1 where in early examples there is sometimes in addition to the plinth1 or base of the wall1 an arcade or a band of sculpture running across the entire front 7e4g4 east front of ,lincoln ,cathedral74 ,the central gable is always occupied by a large window--or in early buildings a group of windows--sometimes two storeys in height4 ,a great side window usually occurs at the end of each aisle4 ,below these great windows are introduced1 at any rate in west fronts1 the doorways1 which1 even in the finest ,english examples1 are comparatively small4 ,the gable also contains as a rule one or more windows often circular which light the space above the vaults4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,st4 ,,pierre1 ,,caen1 ,,tower ,,and ,,spire4 7,,spire1 #acjb47 ,part of the art in arranging such a composition is to combine and yet contrast its horizontal and vertical elements4 ,the horizontal lines1 or features1 are those which serve to bind the whole together1 and the vertical ones are those which give that upward tendency which is the great charm and peculiar characteristic of ,gothic architecture4 ,it is essential for the masses of solid masonry and the openings to be properly contrasted and proportioned to each other1 and here1 as in every part of a building1 such ornaments and ornamental features as are introduced must be designed to contribute to the enrichment of the building as a whole1 so that no part shall be conspicuous either by inharmonious treatment1 undue plainness1 or excessive enrichment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,house ,,at ,,chester4 7#af,,th ,,century47 ,during the transition the gable became steeper in pitch than the comparatively moderate slope of ,norman times4 ,in the ,e4 ,e4 it was acutely pointed1 in the ,dec4 the usual slope was that of the two sides of an equilateral triangle3 in the ,perp4 it became extremely flat and ceased to be so marked a feature as it had formerly been4 ,in domestic buildings the gable was employed in the most effective manner1 and town dwelling-houses were almost invariably built their gable ends to the street 7,fig4 #ad74 99 99 99 99 99 ,a very effective form of wall was frequently made use of in dwelling-houses4 ,this consisted of a sturdy framework of stout timbers exposed to view1 with the spaces between them filled in with plaster4 ,of this work1 which is known as half-timbered work1 many beautiful specimens remain dating from the fifteenth and following centuries 7,figs4 #ad and #ae71 and a few of earlier date4 ,in those parts of ,england where tiles are manufactured such framework was often covered by tiles instead of being filled in with plastering4 ,in half-timbered houses1 the fire-places and chimneys1 and sometimes also the basement storeys1 are usually of brickwork or masonry2 so are the side walls in the case of houses in streets4 ,it was usual in such buildings to cause the upper storeys to overhang the lower ones4 ,columns and ,piers4 ,the columns and piers of a building virtually form portions of its walls1 so far as aiding to support the weight of the roof is concerned1 and are appropriately considered in connection with them4 ,in ,gothic architecture very little use is made of columns on the outside of a building1 and the porticoes and external rows of columns proper to the classic styles are quite unknown4 ,on the other hand the series of piers1 or columns1 from which spring the arches which separate the central avenues of nave1 transepts and choir from the aisles1 are among the most prominent features in every church4 ,these piers varied in each century4#ad ,the ,norman piers had been frequently circular or polygonal1 but sometimes nearly square1 and usually of enormous mass4 ,thus1 at ,durham 7,norman71 oblong piers of about eleven feet in diameter occur alternately with round ones of about seven feet4 ,in transitional examples columns of more slender proportions were employed either 7as in the choir of ,canterbury7 as single shafts or collected into groups4 ,where grouping took place it was intended that each shaft of the group should be seen to support some definite feature of the superincumbent structure1 as where a separate group of mouldings springs from each shaft in a doorway1 and this principle was very steadily adhered to during the greater part of the ,gothic period4#ad ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,,houses ,,at ,,lisieux1 ,,france4 7#af,,th ,,century47 ,through the ,e4 ,e4 period groups of shafts are generally employed2 they are often formed of detached shafts clustering round a central one1 and held together at intervals by bands or belts of masonry1 and generally the entire group is nearly circular on plan4 ,in the succeeding century 7,dec4 period7 the piers also take the form of groups of shafts1 but they are generally carved out of one block of stone1 and the ordinary arrangement of the pier is on a lozenge-shaped plan4 ,in the ,perp41 the piers retain the same general character1 but are slenderer1 and the shafts have often shrunk to nothing more than reedy mouldings4 ,the column is often employed in ,transitional and ,e4 ,e4 churches as a substitute for piers carrying arches4 ,in every period small columns are freely used as ornamental features4 ,they are constantly met with1 for example1 in the jambs of doorways and of windows4 ,every column is divided naturally into three parts1 its base1 or foot2 its shaft1 which forms the main body2 and its capital1 or head4 ,each of these went through a series of modifications4 ,part of the base usually consisted of a flat stone larger than the diameter of the column1 sometimes called a plinth1 and upon this stood the moulded base which gradually diminished to the size of the shaft4 ,this plain stone was in ,e4 ,e4 often square1 and in that case the corner spaces which were not covered by the mouldings of the base were often occupied by an elegantly carved leaf4 ,in ,dec4 and ,perp4 buildings the lower part of the base was often polygonal1 and frequently moulded so as to make it into a pedestal4#ae ,the proportions of shafts varied extraordinarily2 they were1 as a rule1 extremely slender when their purpose was purely decorative1 and comparatively sturdy when they really served to carry a weight4 ,the capital of the column has been perhaps the most conspicuous feature in the architecture of every age and every country1 and it is one of the features which a student may make use of as an indication of date and style of buildings1 very much as the botanist employs the flower as an index to the genus and species of plants4 ,the capital almost invariably starts from a ring1 called the neck of the column4 ,this serves to mark the end of the shaft and the commencement of the capital4 ,above this follows what is commonly called the bell1--the main portion of the capital1 which is that part upon which the skill of the carver and the taste of the designer can be most freely expended1 and on the top of the bell is placed the abacus1 a flat block of stone upon the upper surface of which is built the superstructure or is laid the beam or block which the column has to support4 ,the shape and ornaments given to the abacus are often of considerable importance as indications of the position in architectural history which the building in which it occurs should occupy4 ,the ,norman capital differed to some extent from the ,romanesque capitals of other parts of ,europe4 ,it was commonly of a heavy1 strong-looking shape1 and is often appropriately called the cushion capital4 ,in its simpler forms the cushion capital is nothing but a cubical block of stone with its lower corners rounded off to make it fit the circular shaft on which it is placed1 and with a slab by way of abacus placed upon it4 ,in later ,norman and transitional work the faces of this block and the edges of the abacus are often richly moulded4 ,by degrees1 however1 as the transition to ,e4 ,e4 approached1 a new sort of capital#af was introduced1 having the outline of the bell hollow instead of convex4 ,the square faces of the ,norman capital of course disappeared1 and the square abacus soon 7at least in this country7 became circular1 involving no small loss of vigour in the appearance of the work4 ,the bell of this capital was often decorated with rich mouldings1 and had finely-designed and characteristic foliage1 which almost always seemed to grow up the capital1 and represented a conventional kind of leaf easily recognised when once seen4 ,in the ,dec4 period the capitals have1 as a rule1 fewer and less elaborate mouldings2 the foliage is often very beautifully carved in imitation of natural leaves1 and wreathed round the capital instead of growing up it4 ,in the ,perp4 this feature is in every way less ornate1 the mouldings are plainer1 and the foliage1 often absent1 is1 when it occurs1 conventional and stiff4 ,polygonal capitals are common in this period4 ,illustration3 ,later ,norman ,capital4 ,,footnotes3 #h ,for illustrations consult the ,glossary under ,pier4 #i ,for illustration consult the ,glossary4 #aj ,for illustrations consult the ,glossary4 #aa ,for illustration consult the ,glossary under ,flying buttress4 #ab ,for remarks on ,spires1 see ,chap4 ,v4 #ac ,york1 ,lichfield1 and ,lincoln1 are the cathedrals distinguished by the possession of three towers4 #ad ,for illustrations consult the ,glossary under ,pier4 #ae ,for illustrations consult the ,glossary under ,base4 #af ,for illustrations consult the ,glossary4 ,illustration3 ,,sculptured ,,ornament ,,from ,,westminster ,,abbey4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,gothic ,,architecture4--,,england4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,buildings 7continued7--,,openings1 ,,roofs1 ,,spires1 ,,ornaments1 ,,stained ,,glass1 ,,sculpture4 ,openings and ,arches4 ,the openings 7i4e4 doors and windows7 in the walls of ,english ,gothic buildings are occasionally covered by flat heads or lintels1 but this is exceptional2 ordinarily they have arched heads4 ,the shape of the arch varies at all periods4 ,architects always felt themselves free to adopt any shape which best met the requirements of any special case2 but at each period there was one shape of arch which it was customary to use4 ,in the first transitional period 7end of twelfth century7 semicircular and pointed arches are both met with1 and are often both employed in the same part of the same building4 ,the mouldings and enrichments which are common in ,norman work are usually still in use4 ,in the ,e4 ,e4 period the doorways are almost invariably rather acutely pointed1 the arched heads are enriched by a large mass of rich mouldings1 and the jambs#ag have usually a series of small columns1 each of which is intended to carry a portion of the entire group of mouldings4 ,large doorways are often subdivided into two1 and frequently approached by porches4 ,a most beautiful example occurs in the splendid west entrance to ,ely ,cathedral4 ,other examples will be found at ,lichfield 7,fig4 #a7 and ,salisbury4 ,it was not uncommon to cover doorways with a lintel1 the whole being under an archway2 this left a space above the head of the door which was occupied by carving often of great beauty4 ,ornamental gables are often formed over the entrances of churches1 and are richly sculptured2 but though beautiful1 these features rarely attained magnificence4 ,the most remarkable entrance to an ,english cathedral is the west portal of ,peterborough--a composition of lofty and richly moulded arches built in front of the original west wall4 ,a portal on a smaller scale1 but added in the same manner adorns the west front of ,wells4 ,as a less exceptional example we may refer to the entrance to ,westminster ,abbey at the end of the north transept 7now under restoration71 which must have been a noble example of an ,e4 ,e4 portal when in its perfect state4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,lancet ,,window4 7#ab,,th ,,century47 ,the windows in this style were almost always long1 narrow1 and with a pointed head resembling the blade of a lancet 7,fig4 #af74 ,the glass is generally near the outside face of the wall1 and the sides of the opening are splayed towards the inside4 ,it was very customary to place these lancet windows in groups4 ,the best known group is the celebrated one of the five sisters1 five lofty single lights1 occupying the eastern end of one of the transepts of ,york ,minster4 ,a common arrangement in designing such a group was to make the central light the highest1 and to graduate the height of the others4 ,it after a time became customary to render the opening more ornamental by adding pointed projections called cusps4 ,by these the shape of the head of the opening was turned into a form resembling a trefoil leaf4 ,sometimes two cusps were added on each side4 ,the head is1 in the former case1 said to be trefoiled--in the latter1 cinqfoiled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,two-,,light ,,window4 7#ac,,th ,,century47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,geometrical ,,tracery4 7#ad,,th ,,century47 ,when two windows were placed close together it began to be customary to include them under one outer arch1 and after a time to pierce the solid head between them with a circle1 which frequently was cusped1 forming often a quatrefoil 7,fig4 #ag74 ,this completed the idea of a group1 and was rapidly followed by ornamental treatment4 ,three1 four1 five1 or more windows 7which in such a position are often termed lights7 were often placed under one arch1 the head of which was filled by a more or less rich group of circles2 mouldings were added1 and thus rose the system of decoration for window-heads known as tracery4 ,so long as the tracery preserves the simple character of piercings through a flat stone1 filling the space between the window heads1 it is known as plate tracery4 ,the thinning down of the blank space to a comparatively narrow surface went on1 and by and by the use of mouldings caused that plain surface to resemble bars of stone bent into a circular form3 this was called bar tracery1 and it is in this form that tracery is chiefly employed in ,england 7,fig4 #ah74 ,westminster ,abbey is full of exquisite examples of ,e4 ,e4 window-tracery 7temp4 ,henry ,,iii472 as1 for example1 in the windows of the choir1 the great circular windows 7technically termed rose-windows7 at the ends of the transepts1 the windows of the chapter-house4 ,last1 but not least1 the splendid arcade which forms the triforium is filled with tracery similar in every respect to the best window tracery of the period 7,fig4 #ai74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,the ,,triforium ,,arcade1 ,,westminster ,,abbey4 7#abfi47 ,in the decorated style of the fourteenth century tracery was developed till it reached a great pitch of perfection and intricacy4 ,in the earlier half of the century none save regular geometrical forms1 made up of circles and segments of circles1 occur2 in other words1 the whole design of the most elaborate window could be drawn with the compasses1 and a curve of contrary flexure rarely occurred4 ,in the latest half of that period flowing lines are introduced into the tracery1 and very much alter its character 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the cusping throughout is bolder than in the ,e4 ,e4 period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,rose ,,window ,,from ,,the ,,transept ,,of ,,lincoln ,,cathedral4 7#acdb-acdg47 ,in perpendicular windows spaces of enormous size are occupied by the mullions and tracery4 ,horizontal bars1 called transoms1 are now for the first time introduced1 and the upright bars or mullions form with them a kind of stone grating2 but below each transom a series of small stone arches forms heads to the lights below that transom1 and a minor mullion often springs from the head of each of these arches1 so that as the window increases in height1 the number of its lights increases4 ,the character of the cusping changed again1 the cusps becoming club-headed in their form 7,fig4 #ba74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,perpendicular ,,window4 ,arches in the great arcades of churches1 or in the smaller arcades of cloisters1 or used as decorations to the surface of the walls1 were made acute1 obtuse1 or segmental1 to suit the duty they had to perform2 but when there was nothing to dictate any special shape1 the arch of the ,e4 ,e4 period was by preference acute#ah and of lofty proportions1 and that of the ,dec4 less lofty1 and its head equilateral 7i4e4 described so that if the ends of the base of an equilateral triangle touch the two points from which it springs1 the apex of the angle shall touch the point of the arch74 ,in the ,perp4 period the four centred depressed arch1 sometimes called the ,tudor arch1 was introduced1 and though it did not entirely supersede the equilateral arch1 yet its employment became at last all but universal1 and it is one of the especially characteristic features of the ,tudor period4 ,roofs and ,vaults4 ,the external and the internal covering of a building are very often not the same2 the outer covering is then usually called a roof--the other1 a vault or ceiling4 ,in not a few ,gothic buildings1 however1 they were the same2 such buildings had what are known as open roofs--i4e4 roofs in which the whole of the timber framing of which they are constructed is open to view from the interior right up to the tiles or lead4 ,very few open roofs of ,e4 ,e4 character are now remaining1 but a good many parish churches retain roofs of the ,dec41 and more of the ,perp4 period4 ,the roof of ,westminster ,hall 7,perp41 erected #acig7 shows how fine an architectural object such a roof may become4 ,the roof of the hall of ,eltham ,palace 7,fig4 #bb7 is another good example4 ,wooden ceilings1 often very rich1 are not uncommon1 especially in the churches of ,norfolk and ,suffolk1 but greater interest attaches to the stone vaults with which the majority of ,gothic buildings were erected1 than to any other description of covering to the interiors of buildings4 ,the vault was a feature rarely absent from important churches1 and the structural requirements of the ,gothic vault were among the most influential of the elements which determined both the plan and the section of a mediaeval church4 ,there was a regular growth in ,gothic vaults4 ,those of the thirteenth century are comparatively simple2 those of the fourteenth are much richer and more elaborate1 and often involve very great structural difficulties4 ,those of the fifteenth are more systematic1 and consequently more simple in principle than the ones which preceded them1 but are such marvels of workmanship1 and so enriched by an infinity of parts1 that they astonish the beholder1 and it appears1 till the secret is known1 impossible to imagine how they can be made to stand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,roof ,,of ,,hall ,,at ,,eltham ,,palace4 7#ae,,th ,,century47 ,it has been held by some very good authorities that the pointed arch was first introduced into ,gothic architecture to solve difficulties which presented themselves in the vaulting4 ,in all probability the desire to give to everything1 arches included1 a more lofty appearance and more slender proportions may have had as much to do with the adoption of the pointed arch as any structural considerations1 but there can be no doubt that it was used for structural arches from the very first1 even when window heads and wall arcades were semicircular1 and that the introduction of it cleared the way for the use of stone vaults of large span to a wonderful extent4 ,it is not easy to explain this without being more technical than is perhaps desirable in the present volume1 but the subject is one of too much importance for it to be possible to avoid making the attempt4 ,churches1 it will be recollected1 were commonly built with a wide nave and narrower aisles1 and it was in the ,norman period customary to vault the aisles and cover the nave with a ceiling4 ,there was no difficulty in so spacing the distances apart of the piers of the main arcade that the compartments 7usually termed bays7 of the aisle should be square on plan2 and it was quite possible1 without doing more than the ,romans had done1 to vault each bay of the aisles with a semicircular intersecting vault 7i4e4 one which has the appearance of a semicircular or waggon-head vault1 intersected by another vault of the same outline and height74 ,this produced a simple series of what are called groined or cross vaults1 which allowed height to be given to the window heads of the aisle and to the arcades between the aisles and nave4 ,after a time it was desired to vault the nave also1 and to adopt for it an intersecting vault1 so that the heads of the windows of the clerestory might be raised above the springing line of the vault1 but so long as the arches remained semicircular1 this was very difficult to accomplish4 ,the ,romans would probably have contented themselves with employing a barrel vault and piercing it to the extent required by short lateral vaults1 but the result would have been an irregular1 weak1 curved line at each intersection with the main vault2 and the aisle vaults having made the pleasing effect of a perfectly regular intersection familiar1 this expedient does not seem to have found favour1 at any rate in ,england4 ,other expedients were however tried1 and with curious results4 ,it was for example attempted to vault the nave with a cross vault1 embracing two bays of the arcade to one of the vault1 but the wall space so gained was particularly ill suited to the clerestory windows1 as may be seen by examining the nave of ,st4 ,stephen's at ,caen4 ,in short1 if the vaulting compartment were as wide as the nave one way1 but only as wide as the aisle the other way1 and semicircular arches alone were employed1 a satisfactory result seemed to be unattainable4 ,in the search for some means of so vaulting a bay of oblong plan that the arches should spring all at one level1 and the groins or lines of intersection should cross one another in the centre of the ceiling1 the idea either arose or was suggested that the curve of the smaller span should be a pointed instead of a semicircular arch4 ,the moment this was tried all difficulty vanished1 and groined 7i4e4 intersecting7 vaults1 covering compartments of any proportions became easy to design and simple to construct1 for if the vault which spanned the narrow way of the compartment were acutely pointed1 and that which spanned it the wide way were either semicircular or flatly-pointed1 it became easy to arrange that the startings of both vaults should be at the same level1 and that they should rise to the same height1 which is the condition essential to the production of a satisfactory intersection4 ,scott enumerates not fewer than fourteen varieties of mediaeval vaults#ai and points out that specimens of thirteen are to be found at ,westminster4 ,without such minute detail we may select some well-known varieties3--7#a7 ,the plain waggon-head vault1 as at the ,chapel of the ,tower2 7#b7 in advanced ,norman works1 cross-vaults formed by two intersecting semicircular vaults1 the diagonal line being called a groin4 7#c7 ,the earliest transitional and ,e4 ,e4 vaults1 pointed and with transverse and diagonal ribs1 and bosses at the intersection of ribs1 e4g41 in the aisles and the early part of the cloisters at ,westminster4 7#d7 ,in the advanced part of the ,e4 ,e4 period1 the addition of a rib at the ridge1 as seen in the presbytery and transepts at ,westminster4 7#e7 ,at the time of the transition to ,dec4 7temp4 ,ed4 #a47 additional ribs began to be introduced between the diagonal and the transverse ribs4 7#f7 ,as the ,dec4 period advanced other ribs1 called liernes1 were introduced1 running in various directions over the surface of the vault1 making star-like figures on the vault4 7#g7 ,the vault of the early ,perp41 which is similar to the last1 but more complicated and approaching ,no4 #h1 e4g41 ,abbot ,islip's chapel4 7#h7 ,lastly1 the distinctive vault of the advanced or ,tudor ,perp41 is the fan-tracery vault of which ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel roof is the climax4 ,the vaulting surfaces in these are portions of hollow conoids1 and are covered by a net-work of fine ribs1 connected together by bands of cusping 7,fig4 #bc74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,henry ,,vii4',s ,,chapel4 7#aejc-aeab47 ,in ,scott's enumeration the vaults of octagons and irregular compartments1 and such varieties as the one called sexpartite1 find a place2 here they have been intentionally excluded4 ,many of them are works of the greatest skill and beauty1 especially the vaults of octagonal chapter houses springing from one centre pier 7e4g41 ,chapter ,houses at ,worcester1 ,westminster1 ,wells1 and ,salisbury74 ,externally1 the roofs of buildings became very steep in the thirteenth century2 they were not quite so steep in the fourteenth1 and in the fifteenth they were frequently almost flat4 ,they were always relied upon to add to the effectiveness of a building1 and were enriched sometimes by variegated tiles or other covering1 sometimes by the introduction of small windows1 known as dormer windows1 each with its own gablet and its little roof1 and sometimes by the addition of a steep sided roof in the shape of a lantern or a fleche on the ridge1 or a pyramidal covering to some projecting octagon or turret4 ,all these have their value in breaking up the sky-line of the building1 and adding interest and beauty to it4 ,still more striking1 however1 in its effect on the sky-line was the spire1 a feature to which great attention was paid in ,english architecture4 ,spires4 ,the early square towers of ,romanesque churches were sometimes surmounted by pyramidal roofs of low pitch4 ,we have probably none now remaining1 but we have some examples of large pinnacles1 crowned with pyramids1 which show what the shape must have been4 ,they were square in plan and somewhat steep in slope4 ,the spire was developed early in the ,e4 ,e4 period4 ,it was octagonal in plan1 and the four sides which coincided with the faces of the tower rose direct from the walls above a slightly masked eaves course4 ,the four oblique sides are connected to the tower by a feature called a broach1 which may be described as part of a blunt pyramid4 ,the broach-spire 7,fig4 #bd7 is to be met with in many parts of ,england1 but especially in ,northamptonshire4 ,the chief ornaments of an ,e4 ,e4 spire consist in small windows 7called spire-lights or lucarnes7 each surmounted by its gablet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,early ,,english ,,spire4 ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,mary ,,magdalene1 ,,warboys1 ,,lincolnshire4 ,in the ,dec4 period it was common to finish the tower by a parapet1 and to start the spire behind the parapet1 sometimes with a broach1 often without4 ,pinnacles were frequently added at the corners of the tower1 and an arch1 like that of a flying buttress1 was sometimes thrown across from the pinnacle to the spire4 ,spire-lights occur as before1 and the surface of the spire is often enriched by bands of ornament at intervals4 ,the general proportions of the spire were more slender than before1 and the rib1 which generally ran up each angle1 was often enriched by crockets1 i4e4 tufts of leaves arranged in a formal shape 7,fig4 #be74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,,decorated ,,spire4 ,,all ,,saints' ,,church1 ,,oakham1 ,,rutlandshire4 ,towers were frequently intended to stand without spires in the ,perp4 period1 and are often finished by four effective angle-pinnacles and a cornice with battlements4 ,where spires occur in this period they resemble those of the ,dec4 period4 ,spires end usually in a boss or finial1 surmounted by a weathercock4 ,ordinary roofs were usually finished by ornamental cresting1 and their summits were marked by finials1#bj frequently of exquisite workmanship4 ,ornaments4 ,we now come to ornaments1 including mouldings1 carving1 and colour1 and here we are landed upon a mass of details which it would be impossible to pursue far4 ,mouldings play a prominent part in ,gothic architecture1 and from the first to the last they varied so constantly that their profiles and grouping may be constantly made use of as a kind of architectural calendar1 to point out the time1 to within a few years1 when the building in which they occur was erected4 ,a moulding is the architect's means of drawing a line on his building4 ,if he desires to mark on the exterior the position of an internal floor1 or in any other way to suggest a division into storeys1 a moulded string-course is introduced4 ,if he wishes to add richness and play of light and shade to the sides of an important arch1 he introduces a series of mouldings1 the profile of which has been designed to form lights and shadows such as will answer his purpose4 ,if again he desires to throw out a projection and to give the idea of its being properly supported1 he places under his projection a corbel of mouldings which are of strong as well as pleasing form1 so as to convey to the eye the notion of support4 ,mouldings1 it can be understood1 differ in both size and profile1 according to the purpose which they are required to serve1 the distance from the spectator at which they are fixed1 and the material out of which they are formed4 ,in the ,gothic periods they also differed according to the date at which they were executed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,early ,,arch ,,in ,,receding ,,planes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,,arch ,,in ,,receding ,,planes ,,moulded4 ,the first step towards the ,gothic system of mouldings was taken by the ,romanesque architects when the idea of building arches in thick walls1 not only one within the others1 but also in planes receding back from the face of the wall one behind as well as within another1 was formed and carried out1 and when a corresponding recessed arrangement of the jamb of the arch was made 7,fig4 #bf74 ,the next step was the addition of some simple moulding to the advancing angle of each rim of such a series of arches either forming a bead 7,fig4 #bg7 or a chamfer4 ,in the transitional part of the twelfth century and the ,e4 ,e4 period this process went on till at last1 though the separate receding arches still continued to exist1 the mouldings#ba into which they were cut became so numerous and elaborate as to render it often difficult to detect the subordination or division into distinct planes which really remained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,doorway1 ,,king',s ,,college ,,chapel1 ,,cambridge4 7#ae,,th ,,century47 ,this passion for elaborate mouldings1 often extraordinarily undercut1 reached its climax in the thirteenth century1 the ,e4 ,e4 period4 ,in the ,dec4 period1 while almost everything else became more elaborate1 mouldings grew more simple1 yet hardly less beautiful4 ,in the ,perp4 period they were not only further simplified1 but often impoverished1 being usually shallow1 formal1 and stiff4#bb ,ornaments abounded1 and included not only enrichments in the shape of carved foliage and figures1 statuary1 mosaics1 and so forth1 but ornamental features1 such as canopies1 pinnacles1 arcades1 and recesses 7,fig4 #bh74 ,in each period these are distinct in design from all that went before or came after1 and thus to catch the spirit of any one ,gothic period aright1 it is not enough to fix the general shapes of the arches and proportions of the piers but every feature1 every moulding1 and every ornament must be wrought in the true spirit of the work1 or the result will be marred4 ,stained ,glass4 ,ornamental materials and every sort of decorative art1 such as mosaic1 enamel1 metal work and inlays1 were freely employed to add beauty in appropriate positions2 but there was one ornament1 the crowning invention of the ,gothic artists1 which largely influenced the design of the finest buildings1 and which reflected a glory on them such as nothing else can approach3 this was stained glass4 ,so much of the old glass has perished1 and so little modern glass is even passable1 that this praise may seem overcharged to those who have never seen any of the best specimens still left4 ,we have in the choir at ,canterbury a remnant of the finest sort of glass which ,england possesses4 ,some good fragments remain at ,westminster1 though not very many2 but to judge of the effect of glass at its best1 the student should visit ,la ,sainte ,chapelle at ,paris1 or the ,cathedrals of ,chartres1 ,le ,mans1 ,bourges1 or ,rheims1 and he will find in these buildings effects in colour which are nothing less than gorgeous in their brilliancy1 richness1 and harmony4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,stained ,,glass ,,window ,,from ,,chartres ,,cathedral4 ,the peculiar excellence of stained glass as compared with every other sort of decoration1 is that it is luminous4 ,to some extent fresco-painting may claim a sort of brightness2 mosaic when executed in polished materials possesses brilliancy2 but in stained glass the light which comes streaming in through the window itself gives radiance1 while the quality of the glass determines the colour1 and thus we obtain a glowing1 lustre of colour which can only be compared to the beauty of gems4 ,in order properly to fill their place as decorations1 stained-glass windows must be something quite different from transparent pictures1 and the scenes they represent must not detach themselves too violently from the general ground4 ,the most perfect effect is produced by such windows as those at ,canterbury or ,chartres 7,fig4 #bi71 which recall a cluster of jewels rather than a picture4 ,coloured ,decoration4 ,colour was also freely introduced by the lavish employment of coloured materials where they were to be had1 and by painting the interiors with bright pigments4 ,we meet with traces of rich colour on many parts of ancient buildings1 where we should hardly dare to put it now1 and we cannot doubt that painted decoration was constantly made use of with the happiest effect4 ,sculpture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,,sculpture ,,from ,,the ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,chapter ,,house1 ,,westminster ,,abbey4 7#abej47 ,the last1 perhaps the noblest ornament1 is sculpture4 ,the ,gothic architects were alive to its value1 and in all their best works statues abounded2 often conventional to the last degree2 sometimes to our eyes uncouth1 but always the best which those who carved them could do at the time2 always sure to contribute to architectural effect2 never without a picturesque power1 sometimes rising to grace and even grandeur1 and sometimes sinking to grotesque ugliness4 ,whatever the quality of the sculpture was1 it was always there1 and added life to the whole4 ,monsters gaped and grinned from the water-spouts1 little figures or strange animals twisted in and out of the foliage at angles and bosses and corbels4 ,stately effigies occupied dignified niches1 in places of honour2 and in the mouldings and tympanum of the head of a doorway there was often carved a whole host of figures representing heaven1 earth1 and hell1 with a rude force and a native eloquence that have not lost their power to the present day4 ,in the positions where modest ornamentation was required1 as for example the capitals of shafts1 the hollows of groups of mouldings1 and the bosses of vaulting1 carving of the most finished execution and masterly design constantly occurs4 ,speaking roughly1 this was chiefly conventional in the ,e4 ,e4 period1 chiefly natural in the ,dec4 and mixed1 but with perhaps a preference for the conventional in the ,perp4 ,examples abound1 but both for beauty and accessibility we can refer to no better example than the carving which enriches the entrance to the ,chapter ,house of ,westminster ,abbey 7,fig4 #cj74 ,illustration3 ,miserere ,seat from ,wells ,cathedral4 ,,footnotes3 #ag ,for illustrations consult the ,glossary under ,jamb4 #ah ,for illustrations consult the ,glossary under ,arch4 #ai ,address to the ,conference of ,architects4 ,reported in the ,builder of #bdth ,june1 #ahgf4 ,outlines illustrating some of these varieties of vault will be found in the ,glossary under ,vault4 #bj ,see ,glossary4 #ba ,for illustrations consult the ,glossary4 #bb ,for further illustrations see the ,glossary4 ,illustration3 ,,stained ,,glass ,,from ,,chartres ,,cathedral4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,in ,,western ,,europe4 ,,france4--,,chronological ,,sketch4 ,the architecture of ,france during the ,middle ,ages throws much light upon the history of the country4 ,the features in which it differs from the work done in ,england at the same period can1 many of them1 be directly traced to differences in the social1 political1 or religious situation of the two nations at the time4 ,for example1 we find ,england in the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the hands of the ,normans1 a newly-conquered country under uniform administration2 and accordingly few local variations occur in the architecture of our ,norman period4 ,the twelfth-century work1 at ,durham or ,peterborough for instance1 differs but little from that at ,gloucester or ,winchester4 ,in ,france the case is different4 ,that country was divided into a series of semi-independent provinces1 whose inhabitants differed1 not only in the leaders whom they followed1 but in speech1 race1 and customs4 ,as might be expected1 the buildings of each province presented an aspect different in many respects from those of every other2 and we may as well add that these peculiarities did not die out with the end of the round-arched period of architecture1 but lingered far into the pointed period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,,church ,,at ,,fontevrault4 7,,begun #aabe47 ,the south of ,france was occupied by people speaking what are now known as the ,romance dialects1 and some writers have adopted the name as descriptive of the peculiarities of the architecture of these districts4 ,the ,romance provinces clung tenaciously to their early forms of art1 so that pointed architecture was not established in the south of ,france till half a century1 and in some places nearly a whole century1 later than in the north4 ,on the other hand1 the ,frankish part of the country was the cradle of ,gothic4 ,the transition from round to pointed architecture first took place in the royal domain1 of which ,paris was the centre1 and it may be assumed that the new style was already existing when in #aadj ,abbot ,suger laid the foundations of the choir of the church of ,st4 ,denis1 about forty years before the commencement of the eastern arm of our own ,canterbury4 ,de ,caumont1 who in his ,abecedaire did for ,french architecture somewhat the same work of analysis and scientific arrangement which ,rickman performed for ,english1 has adopted the following classification3-- ,primitive4 #eth to #ajth ,primordiale4 century4 ,second4 ,end of #ajth to ,romanesque ,architecture4 ,secondaire4 commencement of ,architecture ,romane4 #abth century4 ,third or ,transition ,tertiaire ou de #abth century4 ,transition4 ,first4 ,primitive4 #acth century4 ,pointed ,architecture4 ,second4 ,architecture ogivale4 ,secondaire4 #adth century4 ,third4 ,tertiaire4 #aeth century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,,doorway ,,at ,,loches1 ,,france4 7#aahj47 ,the transitional architecture of ,france is no exception to the rule that the art of a period of change is full of interest4 ,much of it has disappeared1 but examples remain in the eastern part of the cathedral of ,st4 ,denis already referred to1 in portions of the cathedrals of ,noyon and ,sens1 the west front of ,chartres1 the church of ,st4 ,germain des ,pres at ,paris1 and elsewhere4 ,we here often find the pointed arch employed for the most important parts of the structure1 while the round arch is still retained in the window and door-heads1 and in decorative arcades1 as shown in our illustrations of a section of the church at ,fontevrault 7,fig4 #ca71 and of a doorway at ,loches 7,fig4 #cb74 ,the first pointed architecture of the thirteenth century in ,france differs considerably from the early ,english of this country4 ,the arches are usually less acute1 and the windows not so tall in proportion to their width4 ,the mouldings employed are few and simple compared with the many and intricate ,english ones4 ,large round columns are much used in place of our complicated groups of small shafts for the piers of the nave2 and the abacus of the capital remains square4 ,an air of breadth and dignity prevails in the buildings of this date to which the simple details1 noble proportions1 and great size largely contribute4 ,the western front of ,notre ,dame1 ,paris 7,fig4 #cc71 dates from the early years of this century1 the interior being much of it a little earlier4 ,the well-known cathedrals of ,chartres1 ,rheims1 ,laon1 and later in the style1 ,amiens1 and ,beauvais1 may be taken as grand examples of ,french first pointed4 ,to these may be added the very graceful ,sainte ,chapelle of ,paris1 the choir and part of the nave of the cathedral at ,rouen1 the church of ,st4 ,etienne at ,caen1 and the cathedrals of ,coutances1 ,lisieux1 ,le ,mans1 and ,bourges4 ,this list of churches could be almost indefinitely extended1 and many monastic buildings1 and not a few domestic and military ones1 might be added4 ,among the most conspicuous of these may be named the monastic fortress at ,mont ,st4 ,michel1 probably the most picturesque structure in ,france1 the remarkable fortifications of ,carcassonne1 and the lordly castle of ,coucy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,notre ,,dame1 ,,paris1 ,,west ,,front4 7#abad47 ,the second pointed1 or fourteenth century ,gothic of ,france1 bears more resemblance to contemporary ,english ,gothic than the work of the centuries preceding or following4 ,large windows for stained glass1 with rich geometrical tracery prevailed1 and much the same sort of ornamental treatment as in ,england was adopted in richly decorated buildings4 ,specimens of the work of this century occur everywhere in the shape of additions to the great churches and cathedrals which had been left unfinished from the previous century1 and also of side chapels which it became customary to add to the aisles of churches4 ,the great and well-known abbey of ,st4 ,ouen at ,rouen is one of the few first-class churches which can be named as begun and almost entirely completed in this century4 ,the tower and spire of the church of ,st4 ,pierre at ,caen 7,fig4 #ac7 are very well-known and beautiful specimens of this period4 ,french fifteenth century architecture1 or third pointed1 is far from being so dignified or so scientific as ,english perpendicular1 and differs from it considerably4 ,exuberant richness in decoration was the rage1 and shows itself both in sculpture1 tracery1 and general design4 ,much of the later work of this period has received the name of flamboyant1 because of the flame-like shapes into which the tracery of the heads of windows was thrown4 ,in flamboyant buildings we often meet with art which1 though certainly over-florid1 is brilliant1 rich1 and full of true feeling for decoration4 ,in this century1 secular and domestic buildings attained more prominence than at any previous periods4 ,some of them are among the best works which this period produced4 ,familiar examples will be found in the noble ,palais de ,justice at ,rouen1 and the ,hotel de ,bourgtherould in the same city2 in parts of the great chateau at ,blois1 the splendid chateau of ,pierrefonds1 and the ,hotels de ,ville of ,oudenarde and ,caen4 ,,france4--,,analysis ,,of ,,buildings4 ,plan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,,plan ,,of ,,amiens ,,cathedral4 7#abbj-abgb47 ,the plans of ,french cathedrals and other buildings conform in general to the description of ,gothic plans given in ,chapter ,,ii41 but they have of course certain distinctive peculiarities 7,fig4 #cd74 ,the cathedrals are as a rule much broader in proportion to their length than ,english ones4 ,double aisles frequently occur1 and not infrequently an added range of side chapels fringes each of the main side walls1 so that the interior of one of these vast buildings presents1 in addition to the main vista along the nave1 many delightful cross views of great extent4 ,the transepts are also much less strongly marked than our ,english examples4 ,there are even some great cathedrals 7e4g41 ,bourges7 without transepts2 and where they exist it is common to find that1 as in the case of ,notre ,dame de ,paris1 they do not project beyond the line of the side walls1 so that1 although fairly well-marked in the exterior and interior of the building1 they add nothing to its floor-space4 ,the eastern end of a ,french cathedral 7and indeed of ,french churches generally1 with very few exceptions7 is terminated in an apse4 ,when1 as is frequently the case1 this apse is encircled by a ring of chapels1 with flying buttresses on several stages rising from among them1 the whole arrangement is called a chevet1 and very striking and busy is the appearance which it presents4 ,walls1 ,towers1 and ,gables4 ,the walls are rarely built of any other material than stone1 and much splendid masonry is to be found in ,france4 ,low towers are often to be met with1 and so are projecting staircase turrets of polygonal or circular forms4 ,the facades of cathedrals1 including ends of transepts as well as west fronts1 are most striking1 and often magnificently enriched4 ,it is an interesting study to examine a series of these fronts1 each a little more advanced than the last1 as for example ,notre ,dame 7,fig4 #cc71 the transept at ,rouen1 ,amiens 7,fig4 #ce71 and ,rheims1 and to note how the horizontal bands and other level features grow less and less conspicuous1 while the vertical ones are more and more strongly marked2 showing an increasing desire1 not only to make the buildings lofty1 but to suppress everything which might interfere with their looking as high as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,,amiens ,,cathedral1 ,,west ,,front4 7#abbj-abgb47 ,columns and ,piers4 ,the column is a greater favourite than the pier in ,france1 as has already been said4 ,sometimes1 where the supports of the main arcade are really piers1 they are built like circular shafts of large size2 and even when they have no capital 7as was the case in third-pointed examples71 these piers still retain much of the air of solid strength which belongs to the column1 and which the ,french architects appear to have valued highly4 ,in cases where a series of mouldings has to be carried--as for example when the main arcade of a building is richly moulded--,english architects would usually have provided a distinct shaft for each little group 7or as ,willis named them order71 into which the whole can be subdivided4 ,in ,france1 at any rate during the earlier periods1 the whole series of mouldings would spring from the square unbroken abacus of a single large column1 to which perhaps one shaft1 or as in our illustration 7,fig4 #cf7 four shafts1 would be attached which would be carried up to the springing of the nave vault1 at which point the same treatment would be repeated1 though on a smaller scale1 with the moulded ribs of that vault4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,piers ,,and ,,superstructure1 ,,rheims ,,cathedral4 7#abaa-abdj47 i4 ,springing of main ribs of the vault4 h4 ,string-course below the clerestory4 a b4 ,triforium arcade4 g4 ,string-course below the triform4 ,b4 ,main arcade separating the nave from the aisles4 ,a and ,n4 ,shafts attached to pier and supporting portions of the superstructure4 ,a peculiarity of some districts of southern ,france is the suppression of the external buttress2 the buttresses are in fact built within the church walls instead of outside1 and masonry enough is added to make each into a separating wall which divides side chapels4 ,some large churches1 e4g41 the cathedral at ,alby1 in ,southern ,france1 consist of a wide nave buttressed in this way1 and having side chapels between the buttresses1 but without side aisles4 ,the plans of the secular1 military1 and domestic buildings of ,france also present many interesting peculiarities1 but not such as it is possible to review within the narrow limits of this chapter4 ,roofs and ,vaults4 ,the peculiarly ,english feature of an open roof is hardly ever met with in any shape3 yet though stone vaults are almost universal1 they are rarely equal in scientific skill to the best of those in our own country4 ,in transitional examples1 many very singular instances of the expedients employed before the pointed vault was fully developed can be found4 ,in some of the central and southern districts1 domes1 or at least domical vaults1 were employed4 7,see the section of ,fontevrault1 ,fig4 #ca74 ,the dome came in from ,byzantium4 ,it was introduced in ,perigord1 where the very curious and remarkable church of ,st4 ,front 7begun early in the eleventh century7 was built4 ,this is to all intents a ,byzantine church4 ,it is an almost exact copy in plan and construction of ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice1 a church designed and built by ,eastern architects1 and it is roofed by a series of domes1 a peculiarity which is as distinctive of ,byzantine 7i4e41 ,eastern early ,christian71 as the vaulted roof is of ,romanesque 7or ,western early ,christian7 architecture4 ,artists from ,constantinople itself probably visited ,france1 and from this centre a not inconsiderable influence extended itself in various directions1 and led to the use of many ,byzantine features both of design and ornament4 ,as features in the exterior of their buildings1 the roofs have been in every period valued by the ,french architects2 they are almost always steep1 striking1 and ornamented4 ,all appropriate modes of giving prominence and adding ornament to a roof have been very fully developed in ,french ,gothic architecture1 and the roofs of semicircular and circular apses1 staircase towers1 c41 may be almost looked upon as typical4#bc ,openings4 ,the treatment of openings gives occasion for one of the most strongly marked points of contrast between ,french and ,english ,gothic architecture4 ,with us the great windows are unquestionably the prominent features1 but with the ,french the doors are most elaborated4 ,this result is reached not so much by any lowering of the quality of the treatment bestowed upon the windows1 but by the greatly increased importance given to doorways4 ,the great portals of ,notre ,dame at ,paris 7,fig4 #cc71 ,rheims1 or ,amiens 7,fig4 #ce71 and the grand porches of ,chartres may be named as the finest examples1 and are probably the most magnificent single features which ,gothic ,art produced in any age or any country2 but in its degree the western portal of every great church is usually an object upon which the best resources of the architect have been freely lavished4 ,the wall is built very thick so that enormous jambs1 carrying a vast moulded arch1 can be employed4 ,the head of the door is filled with sculpture1 which is also lavishly used in the sides and arch1 and over the whole rises an ornamental gable1 frequently profusely adorned with tracery and sculpture1 its sides being richly decorated by crockets or similar ornaments1 and crowned by a sculptured terminal or finial4 ,the windows in the earliest periods are simpler than in our ,e4 ,e41 as well as of less slender proportions4 ,in the second and third periods they are full of rich tracery1 and are made lofty and wide to receive the magnificent stained glass with which it was intended to fill them1 and which many churches retain4 ,circular windows1 sometimes called wheel-windows1 often occupy the gables1 and are many of them very fine compositions4 ,mouldings and ,ornaments4 ,the mouldings of the ,french first pointed are usually larger than our own4 ,compared with ours they are also fewer1 simpler1 and designed to produce more breadth of effect4 ,this may partly result from their originating in a sunshiny country where effects of shade are easily obtained4 ,in the second and third periods they more nearly resemble those in use in ,england at the corresponding times4 ,the carving is very characteristic and very beautiful4 ,in the transition and first pointed a cluster of stalks1 ending in a tuft of foliage or flowers1 is constantly employed1 especially in capitals4 ,the use of this in ,england is rare2 and1 on the other hand1 foliage like ,e4 ,e4 conventional foliage is rare in ,france4 ,in the second pointed1 natural foliage is admirably rendered 7,fig4 #cg74 ,in the third a somewhat conventional kind of foliage1 very luxuriant in its apparent growth1 is constantly met with4 ,this carving is at every stage accompanied by figure-sculpture of the finest character4 ,heads of animals1 statues1 groups of figures1 and has reliefs are freely employed1 but always with the greatest judgment1 so that their introduction adds richness to the very point in the whole composition where it is most needed4 ,in every part of ,france1 and in every period of ,gothic architecture1 good specimens of sculpture abound4 ,easily accessible illustrations will be found in the west entrance and south transept front of ,rouen ,cathedral1 the porches and portals at ,chartres1 the choir inclosure of ,notre ,dame at ,paris1 and the richly sculptured inclosure of the choir of ,amiens ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,,capital ,,from ,,st4 ,,nicholas1 ,,blois1 ,,france4 7#ac,,th ,,century47 ,stained glass has been more than once referred to4 ,it is to be found in its greatest perfection in ,france1 as for example in ,la ,sainte ,chapelle at ,paris1 and the cathedrals of ,le ,mans1 ,bourges1 ,chartres1 and ,rheims4 ,all that has been said in the introductory chapter on this1 the crowning ornament of ,gothic architecture1 and on its influence upon window design1 and through that1 upon the whole structure of the best churches1 is to the full as applicable to ,french examples4 ,coloured decoration was also frequently employed in the interior of churches and other buildings1 and is constantly to be met with in ,french buildings1 both secular and religious4 ,in most cases1 however1 it is less easy to appreciate this than the stained glass1 for1 as it is now to be seen1 the colours are either faded and darkened by time and smoke1 or else restored1 not always with the exactness that could be desired4 ,construction and ,design4 ,the construction of the great buildings of the middle ages in ,france is an interesting subject of study1 but necessarily a thoroughly technical one4 ,great sagacity in designing the masonry1 carpentry1 joinery1 and metal-work2 and trained skill in the carrying out the designs1 have left their traces everywhere2 and while the construction of the earlier castles and of the simple churches shows a solidity but little inferior to that of the ,romans themselves1 the most elaborate works1 such for example as the choir at ,beauvais 7,fig4 #ch71 can hardly be surpassed as specimens of skill and daring1 careful forethought1 and bold execution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,,beauvais ,,cathedral1 ,,interior4 7#abbe-aecg47 ,design1 in ,france1 pursued the general principles of ,gothic architecture to their logical conclusions with the most uncompromising consistency4 ,perhaps the most distinctive peculiarity in ,french cathedrals is a love of abstract beauty1 and a strong preference for breadth1 regularity1 dignity1 and symmetry wherever they come into competition with picturesqueness and irregular grouping4 ,there is1 it is true1 plenty of the picturesque element in ,french mediaeval art2 but if we take the finest buildings1 and those in which the greatest effort would be made to secure the qualities which were considered the greatest and most desirable1 we shall find very strong evidences of a conviction that beauty was to be attained by regularity and order1 rather than by unsymmetrical and irregular treatment4 ,,belgium ,,and ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,belgium is a country rich in remains of ,gothic architecture4 ,its art was influenced so largely by its neighbourhood to ,france1 that it will not be necessary to attempt anything like a chronological arrangement of its buildings4 ,fine churches exist in its principal cities1 but they cannot be said to form a series differing widely from the churches of ,france1 with which they were contemporary1 and where they differ the advantage is generally on the side of the ,french originals4 ,the principal cathedral of the ,low ,countries1 that at ,antwerp1 is a building remarkable for its great width 7having seven aisles71 and for the wonderful picturesqueness of its interior4 ,the exterior1 which is unfinished1 is also very effective1 with its one lofty spire4 ,the other cathedrals of note include those of ,tournay1 ,brussels1 ,mechlin1 ,louvain1 ,liege1 and ,ghent4 ,belgium also possesses a great number of large parochial churches4 ,when we turn to secular buildings we find the ,belgian architecture of the middle ages taking a leading position4 ,the free cities of ,belgium acquired municipal privileges at an early date1 and accumulated great wealth4 ,accordingly we find town halls1 trade halls1 belfries1 warehouses1 and excellent private dwelling-houses in abundance4 ,the cloth hall at ,ypres has been repeatedly illustrated and referred to as an example of a grand and effective building for trade purposes2 it is of thirteenth-century architecture and of great size1 its centre marked by a massive lofty tower2 and its angles carrying slight turrets2 but in other respects it depends for its effectiveness solely on its repetition of similar features4 ,examples of the same kind of architecture exist at ,louvain and ,ghent4 ,the ,town ,halls of ,brussels1 ,louvain1 ,bruges1 ,mechlin1 ,ghent1 ,oudenarde1 and ,ypres1 are all buildings claiming attention4 ,they were most of them in progress during the fifteenth century1 and are fine1 but florid examples of late ,gothic4 ,some one or two at least of the town halls were begun and partly carried out in the fourteenth century2 on the other hand1 the ,hotel de ,ville at ,oudenarde1 was begun as late as the beginning of the sixteenth2 so were the ,exchange at ,antwerp 7destroyed by fire and rebuilt not long since7 and some other well-known structures3 their architecture1 though certainly ,gothic1 is debased in style4 ,the general aspect of these famous buildings was noble and bold in mass1 and rich in ornament4 ,our illustration 7,fig4 #ci7 shows the ,town ,hall of ,middleburgh in ,holland2 one which is less famous and of smaller dimensions than those enumerated above1 but equally characteristic4 ,the main building usually consisted of a long unbroken block surmounted by a high-pitched roof1 and usually occupied one side of a public place4 ,the side of the building presents several storeys1 filled by rows of fine windows1 though in some cases the lowest storey is occupied by an open arcade4 ,the steep roof1 usually crowded with dormer windows1 carries up the eye to a lofty ridge1 and from the centre of it rises the lofty tower which forms so conspicuous a feature in most of these buildings4 ,in the ,town ,hall at ,bruges the tower is comparatively simple1 though of a mass and height that are truly imposing2 but in ,brussels1 ,ypres1 and other examples1 it is a richly ornamented composition on which every resource of the mason and the carver has been lavished4 ,our illustration 7,fig4 #dj7 shows the well-known tower at ,ghent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,,the ,,town ,,hall ,,of ,,middleburgh4 7#aeah47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,tower ,,at ,,ghent4 7,,begun #aahc47 ,the gable ends of the great roof are often adorned by pinnacles and other ornaments2 but they rarely come prominently into view1 as it is invariably the long side of the building which is considered to be the principal front4 ,,scotland1 ,,wales1 ,,and ,,ireland4 ,in ,scotland good but simple examples of early work 7transition from ,romanesque to ,e4 ,e47 occur1 as for example1 at ,jedburgh and ,kelso1 ,dryburgh and ,leuchars abbey churches4 ,a very interesting and in many respects unique cathedral of the thirteenth century1 with later additions1 exists at ,glasgow4 ,it is a building of much beauty1 with good tracery1 and the crypt offers a perfect study of various and often graceful modes of forming groined vaults4 ,the ,cathedral of ,elgin 7thirteenth century71 an admirable ,edwardian building1 now in ruins1 and the ,abbey at ,melrose1 also ruined1 of fourteenth century architecture 7begun #acbb71 are both excellent specimens of the art of the periods to which they belong1 and bear a close resemblance to what was being done in ,england at the same time4 ,the famous tower of ,st4 ,giles's ,cathedral1 ,edinburgh1 and the ,chapel at ,roslyn1 of the fifteenth century1 on the other hand1 are of thoroughly un-,english character1 resembling in this respect much of the ,scotch architecture of the succeeding centuries2 ,roslyn is ascribed by ,mr4 ,fergusson to a ,spanish or ,portuguese architect1 with great probability4 ,other abbey churches and remains of architectural work exist at ,dumblane1 ,arbroath1 ,dunkeld1 and in many other localities2 and ,holyrood ,palace1 still retains part of its elegant early fourteenth-century chapel4 ,of secular and domestic work ,linlithgow is a fair specimen1 but of late date4 ,most of the castles and castellated mansions of ,scotland belong indeed to a later time than the ,gothic period1 though there is a strong infusion of ,gothic feeling in the very picturesque style in which they are designed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wales is distinguished for the splendid series of castles to which allusion has been made in a previous chapter4 ,they were erected at the best time of ,english ,gothic architecture 7,edward ,i47 under ,english direction1 and are finely designed and solidly built4 ,wales can also boast the interesting ,cathedrals of ,chester1 ,llandaff1 ,st4 ,david's1 and some smaller churches1 but in every case there is little to distinguish them from contemporary ,english work4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ireland is more remarkable for antiquities of a date anterior to the beginning of the ,gothic period than for works belonging to it4 ,a certain amount of graceful and simple domestic work1 however1 exists there2 and in addition to the cathedrals of ,kildare1 ,cashel1 and ,dublin1 numerous monastic buildings1 not as a rule large or ambitious1 but often graceful and picturesque1 are scattered about4 ,illustration3 ,miserere ,seat in ,wells ,cathedral4 ,,footnotes3 #bc ,for an example of these see the house of ,jaques ,coeur 7,fig4 #g74 ,illustration3 ,,sculptured ,,ornament ,,from ,,westminster ,,abbey4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,in ,,central ,,and ,,northern ,,europe4 ,,germany4--,,chronological ,,sketch4 ,the architecture of ,germany1 from the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries1 can be divided into an early1 a middle1 and a late period1 with tolerable distinctness4 ,of these1 the early period possesses the greatest interest1 and the peculiarities of its buildings are the most marked and most beautiful4 ,in the middle period1 ,german ,gothic bore a very close general resemblance to the ,gothic of the same time in ,france2 and1 as a rule1 such points of difference as exist are not in favour of the ,german work4 ,late ,gothic work in ,germany is very fantastic and unattractive4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,,abbey ,,church ,,of ,,arnstein4 7#ab,,th ,,and #ac,,th ,,centuries47 ,through the twelfth1 and part of the thirteenth centuries1 the architects of ,germany pursued a course parallel with that followed in ,france and in ,england1 but without adopting the pointed arch4 ,they developed the simple and rude ,romanesque architecture which prevailed throughout ,europe in the tenth and eleventh centuries1 and which they learnt originally from ,byzantine artists who fled from their own country during the reign of the iconoclasts2 and they not only carried it to a point of elaboration which was abreast of the art of our best ,norman architecture1 but went on further in the same course2 for while the ,french and ourselves were adopting lancet windows and pointed arches1 they continued to employ the round-headed window and the semicircular arch in buildings which in their size1 richness1 loftiness1 and general style1 correspond with early ,gothic examples in other countries4 ,this early ,german architecture has been sometimes called fully developed ,romanesque1 and sometimes round-arched ,gothic1 and both terms may be applied to it without impropriety1 for it partakes of the qualities implied by each4 ,the ,church of the ,holy ,apostles at ,cologne1 and those of ,st4 ,martin and ,st4 ,maria in ,capitolo1 in the same city1 may be referred to as among the best works of this class4 ,each of these has an eastern apse1 and also an apsidal termination to each transept4 ,the ,apostles' church has a low octagon at the crossing1 and its sky-line is further broken up by western and eastern towers1 the latter of comparatively small size and octagonal2 and under the eaves of the roof occurs an arcade of small arches4 ,a view of the ,abbey ,church of ,arnstein 7,fig4 #da7 illustrates some of the features of these transitional churches4 ,it will be noticed that though there is no transept1 there are no less than four towers1 two octagonal1 and two square1 and that the apse is a strongly developed feature4 ,in the church at ,andernach1 of which we give an illustration 7,fig4 #db71 the same arrangement1 namely1 that of four towers1 two to the west1 and two to the east1 may be noticed2 but there is not the same degree of difference between the towers1 and the result is less happy4 ,this example1 like the last1 has no central feature1 and in both the arcade under the eaves of the roof is conspicuous only by its absence4 ,it does1 however1 occur on the western towers at ,andernach4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,,church ,,at ,,andernach4 7,,early #ac,,th ,,century47 ,the pointed arch1 when adopted in ,germany1 was in all probability borrowed from ,france1 as the general aspect of ,german churches of pointed architecture seems to prove4 ,the greatest ,gothic cathedral of ,germany1 ,cologne ,cathedral1 was not commenced till about the year #abge1 and its choir was probably completed during the first quarter of the fourteenth century4 ,this cathedral1 one of the largest in ,europe1 is also one of the grandest efforts of mediaeval architecture1 and it closely resembles ,french examples of the same period1 both in its general treatment1 and in the detail of its features4 ,the plan of ,cologne ,cathedral 7,fig4 #df7 is one of the most regular and symmetrical which has come down to us from the middle ages4 ,the works were carried on slowly after the choir was consecrated1 but without any deviation from the original plan1 though some alteration in style and details crept in4 ,in our own day the works have been resumed and vigorously pushed on towards completion2 and1 the original drawings having been preserved1 the two western towers1 the front1 and other portions have been carried on in accordance with them4 ,cologne1 accordingly1 presents the almost unique spectacle of a great ,gothic church1 erected without deviation from its original plan1 and completed in the style in which it was begun4 ,it is fair to add that though splendid in the extreme1 this cathedral has far less charm1 and less of that peculiar quality of mystery and vitality than many1 we might say most1 of the great cathedrals of ,europe4 ,the plan consists of a nave of eight bays1 two of which form a kind of vestibule1 and five avenues1 i4e4 two aisles on each side2 transepts of four bays each1 with single aisles2 and a choir of four bays and an apse1 the double aisle of the nave being continued and carried down the choir4 ,that part of the outer aisle which sweeps round the apse has been formed into a series of seven polygonal chapels1 thus gaining a complete chevet4#bd ,over the crossing there is a comparatively slender spire1 and at the west end stand two massive towers terminated by a pair of lofty and elaborate spires1 of open tracery1 and enriched by crockets1 finials1 and much ornamentation4 ,the cathedral is built of stone1 without much variation in colour2 it is vaulted throughout1 and a forest of flying buttresses surrounds it on all sides4 ,the beauty of the tracery1 the magnificent boldness of the scale of the whole building1 and its orderly regularity1 are very imposing1 and give it a high rank among the greatest works of ,european architecture2 but it is almost too majestic to be lovely1 and somewhat cold and uninteresting from its uniform colour1 and perhaps from its great regularity4 ,strasburg ,cathedral--not so large as ,cologne--has been built at various times2 the nave and west front are the work of the best ,gothic period4 ,this building has a nave and single aisles1 short transepts1 and a short apsidal choir4 ,there is great richness in much of the work2 double tracery1 i4e4 a second layer1 so to speak1 of tracery1 is here employed in the windows1 and extended beyond them1 but the effect is not happy4 ,the front was designed to receive two open tracery spires1 but only one of them has been erected4 ,it is amazingly intricate and rich1 the workmanship is very astonishing1 but the artistic effect is not half so good as that of many plain stone spires4 ,another important ,german church famous for an open spire is the cathedral at ,friburg4 ,here only one tower1 standing at the middle of the west front1 was ever intended1 and partly because the composition is complete as proposed1 and partly because the design of the tracery in the spire itself is more telling1 this building forms a more effective object than ,strasburg1 though by no means so lofty or so grandiose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,barbara ,,at ,,kuttenberg4 ,,east ,,end4 7#aceh-aedh47 ,the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,stephen at ,vienna is a large and exceedingly rich church4 ,in this building the side aisles are carried to almost the same height as the centre avenue--an arrangement not infrequent in ,german churches having little save novelty to recommend it1 and by which the triforium1 and1 as a rule1 the clerestory disappear1 and the church is lighted solely by large side windows4 ,the three avenues are covered by one wide roof1 which makes a vast and rather clumsy display externally4 ,a lofty tower1 surmounted by a fine and elaborate spire of open tracery1 stands on one side of the church--an unusual position--and an unfinished companion tower is begun on the corresponding side4 ,great churches and cathedrals are to be found in many of the cities of ,germany1 but their salient points are1 as a rule1 similar to those of the examples which have been already described4 ,the incomplete ,church of ,st4 ,barbara at ,kuttenberg1 in ,bohemia1 is one of somewhat exceptional design4 ,it has double aisles1 but the side walls for the greater part of the length of the church rest upon the arcade dividing the two aisles1 instead of that separating the centre avenue from the side one2 and a vault over the inner side aisle forms in effect a kind of balcony or gallery in the nave4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #dc7 which we give of the exterior does not of course indicate this peculiarity1 but it shows a very good example of a ,german adaptation of the ,french chevet1 and may be considered as a specimen of ,german pointed architecture at its ripest stage4 ,the church is vaulted1 as might be inferred from the forest of flying buttresses2 and the vaulting displays some resemblance to our ,english fan-vaulting in general idea4 ,german churches include some specimens of unusual disposition or form1 as for example the ,church of ,st4 ,gereon at ,cologne1 with an oval choir1 and one or two double churches1 one of the most curious being the one at ,schwartz-,rheindorff1 of which we give a section and view4 7,figs4 #dd1 #de47 ,in their doorways and porches the ,german architects are often very happy4 ,our illustration 7,fig4 #dg7 of one of the portals of the church at ,thann may be taken as giving a good idea of the amount of rich ornament often concentrated here3 it displays a wealth of decorative sculpture1 which was one of the great merits of the ,german architects4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,,double ,,church ,,at ,,schwartz-,,rheindorff4 ,,section4 7#aaeh47 ,the latest development of ,gothic in ,germany1 of which the ,church of ,st4 ,catherine at ,oppenheim 7,fig4 #dh7 is a specimen1 was marked 7just as late ,french was by flamboyant tracery1 and late ,english by fan-vaulting7 by a peculiarity in the treatment of mouldings by which they were robbed of almost all their grace and beauty1 while the execution of them became a kind of masonic puzzle4 ,two or more groups of mouldings were supposed to coexist in the same stone1 and sometimes a part of one group1 sometimes a part of the other group1 became visible at the surface4 ,the name given to this eccentric development is interpenetration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,,double ,,church ,,at ,,schwartz-,,rheindorff4 7,a4,d4 #aaeh47 ,secular architecture in ,germany1 though not carried to such a pitch of perfection as in ,belgium1 was by no means overlooked2 but the examples are not numerous4 ,in some of the older cities1 such as ,prague1 ,nuremberg1 and ,frankfort1 much picturesque domestic architecture abounds1 most of it of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 and even later1 and all full of piquancy and beauty4 ,in ,north ,germany1 where there is a large tract of country in which building stone is scarce1 a style of brick architecture was developed1 which was applied to all sorts of purposes with great success4 ,the most remarkable of these brick buildings are the large dwelling-houses1 with facades ornamented by brick tracery and panelling1 to be found in ,eastern ,prussia1 together with some town halls and similar buildings4 ,,germany4--,,analysis ,,of ,,buildings4 ,plan4 ,the points of difference between ,german and ,french ,gothic are not so numerous as to render a very minute analysis of the ,gothic of ,germany requisite in order to make them clear4 ,the plans of ,german churches usually show internal piers2 and columns occur but rarely4 ,the churches have nave and aisles1 transepts and apsidal choir2 but they are peculiar from the frequent use of apses at the ends of the transepts1 and also from the occurrence1 in not a few instances1 of an apse at the west end of the nave as well as at the east end of the choir4 ,they are almost invariably vaulted4 ,as the style advanced1 large churches were constantly planned with double aisles1 and the western apse disappeared4 ,some ,german church plans1 notably those of ,cologne ,cathedral 7,fig4 #df7 and the great church of ,st4 ,lawrence at ,nuremberg1 are fine specimens of regularity of disposition1 though full of many parts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,,cologne ,,cathedral4 ,,ground ,,plan4 7,,begun #abdh47 ,walls1 ,towers1 and ,gables4 ,the ,german architects delighted in towers with pointed roofs1 and in a multiplicity of them4 ,a highly characteristic feature is a tower of great mass1 but often extremely low1 covering the crossing4 ,the ,cathedral at ,mayence shows a fine example of this feature1 which was often not more than a low octagon4 ,western towers1 square on plan1 are common1 and small towers1 frequently octagonal1 are often employed to flank the choir or in combination with the transepts4 ,these in early examples1 are always surmounted by high roofs2 in late ones1 by stone spires1 often of rich open tracery4 ,a very characteristic feature of the round arched ,gothic churches is an arcade of small arches immediately below the eaves of the roof and opening into the space above the vaults 7,fig4 #de74 ,this is rarely wanting in churches built previous to the time when the ,french type was followed implicitly4 ,the gables are seldom such fine compositions as in ,france1 or even in ,italy2 but in domestic and secular buildings many striking gabled fronts occur1 the gable being often stepped in outline and full of windows4 ,roofs and ,vaults4 ,vaults are universal in the great churches1 and ,german vaulting has some special peculiarities1 but they are such as hardly come within the scope of this hand-book4 ,roofs1 however1 are so conspicuous that in any general account of ,german architecture attention must be paid to them4 ,they were from very early times steep in pitch and picturesque in outline1 and are evidently much relied upon as giving play to the sky-line4 ,indeed1 for variety of form and piquancy of detail the ,german roofs are the most successful of the middle ages4 ,the spires1 as will have been easily gathered from the descriptions of those at ,strasburg1 ,cologne1 c41 became extremely elaborate1 and were constructed in many cases entirely of open tracery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,,western ,,doorway ,,of ,,church ,,at ,,thann4 7#ad,,th ,,century47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,catherine ,,at ,,oppenheim4 7#abfb ,,to #adci47 ,openings4 ,openings are1 on the whole1 treated very much as the ,french treated them4 ,a good example is the western doorway at ,thann 7,fig4 #dg72 but the use of double tracery in the windows in late examples is characteristic4 ,sometimes a partial screen of outside tracery is employed in other features besides windows1 as may be seen by the very elegant doorway of ,st4 ,sebald's ,church at ,nuremberg1 which we have illustrated 7,fig4 #di74 ,ornaments4 ,the ornaments of ,german ,gothic are often profuse1 but rarely quite happy4 ,sculpture1 often of a high class1 carving of every sort1 tracery1 and panelling1 are largely employed2 but with a hardness and a tendency to cover all surfaces with a profusion of weak imitations of tracery that disfigures much of the masonry4 ,the tracery became towards the latter part of the time intricate and unmeaning1 and the interpenetrating mouldings already described1 though of course intended to be ornamental1 are more perplexing and confusing than pleasing3 the carving exaggerates the natural markings of the foliage represented1 and being thin1 and very boldly undercut1 resembles leaves beaten out in metal1 rather than foliage happily and easily imitated in stone1 which is what good architectural carving should be4 ,the use of coloured building materials and of inlays and mosaics does not prevail to any great extent in ,germany1 though stained glass is often to be found and coloured wall decoration occasionally4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,st4 ,,sebald',s ,,church ,,at ,,nuremberg4 ,,the ,,bride',s ,,doorway4 7#acjc-acgg47 ,construction and ,design4 ,the marked peculiarities of construction by which the ,german ,gothic buildings are most distinguished1 are the prevalent high-pitched roofs1 the vaulting with aisle vaults carried to the same height as in the centre1 and the employment in certain districts of brick to the exclusion of stone1 all of which have been already referred to4 ,in a great part of that large portion of ,europe1 which is included under the name of ,germany1 the materials and modes of construction adopted during the middle ages1 bear a close resemblance to those in general use in ,france and ,england4 ,some of the characteristics of ,german ,gothic design have been already alluded to4 ,the ,german architects display an exuberant fancy1 a great love of the picturesque1 and even the grotesque1 and a strong predilection for creating artificial difficulties in order to enjoy the pleasure of surmounting them4 ,their work is full of unrest2 they attach small value to the artistic quality of breadth1 and destroy the value of the plain surfaces of their buildings as contrasts to the openings1 by cutting them up by mouldings and enrichments of various sorts4 ,the sculpture introduced is1 as a rule1 naturalistic rather than conventional4 ,the capitals of piers and columns are often fine specimens of effective carving1 while the delicate and ornamental details of the tabernacle work with which church furniture is enriched1 are unsurpassed in elaboration1 and often of rare beauty4 ,the churches of ,nuremberg are specially distinguished for the richness and number of their sculptured fittings4 ,there is1 moreover1 in some of the best ,german buildings a rugged grandeur which approaches the sublime2 and in the humbler ones a large amount of picturesque and thoroughly successful architecture4 ,in the smaller objects upon which the art of the architect was often employed the ,germans were frequently happy4 ,public fountains1 such for example as the one illustrated in ,chapter ,,ii4 7,fig4 #aj71 are to be met within the streets of many towns1 and rarely fail to please by their simple1 graceful1 and often quaint design4 ,crosses1 monuments1 and individual features in domestic buildings1 such e4g4 as bay windows1 frequently show a very skilful and picturesque treatment and happy enrichment4 ,,northern ,,europe4 ,gothic architecture closely resembling ,german work may be found in ,switzerland1 ,norway and ,sweden1 and ,denmark2 but there are few very conspicuous buildings1 and not enough variety to form a distinct style4 ,in ,norway and ,sweden curious and picturesque buildings exist1 erected solely of timber1 and both there and in ,switzerland many of the traditions of the ,gothic period have been handed down to our own day with comparatively little change1 in the pleasing and often highly enriched timber buildings which are to be met with in considerable numbers in those countries4 ,,footnotes3 #bd ,see p4 #gg for an explanation of chevet4 ,illustration3 ,,sculptured ,,ornament ,,from ,,sens ,,cathedral4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,gothic ,,architecture ,,in ,,southern ,,europe4 ,,italy ,,and ,,sicily4--,,topographical ,,sketch4 ,gothic architecture in ,italy may be considered as a foreign importation4 ,the ,italians1 it is true1 displayed their natural taste and artistic instinct in their use of the style1 and a large number of their works possess1 as we shall see1 strongly-marked characteristics and much charm2 but it is impossible to avoid the feeling that the architects were working in a style not thoroughly congenial to their instincts nor to the traditions they had inherited from classical times2 and not entirely in harmony with the requirements of the climate and the nature of their building materials4 ,italian ,gothic may be conveniently considered geographically1 dividing the buildings into three groups1 the first and most important containing the architecture of ,northern ,italy 7,lombardy1 ,venetia1 and the neighbourhood71 the second that of ,central ,italy 7,tuscany1 c471 the third that of the south and of ,sicily--a classification which will suit the subject better than the chronological arrangement which has been our guide in examining the art of other countries2 for the variations occasioned by development as time went on are less strongly marked in ,italy than elsewhere4 ,northern ,italy4 ,lombardy in the ,romanesque period was thoroughly under ,german influence1 and the buildings remaining to us from the eleventh and twelfth centuries bear a close resemblance to those erected north of the ,alps at the same date4 ,the twelfth century ,lombard churches again are specimens of round-arched ,gothic1 just as truly as those on the banks of the ,rhine4 ,many of them are also peculiar as being erected chiefly in brickwork2 the great alluvial plain of ,lombardy being deficient in building-stone4 ,st4 ,michele at ,pavia1 a well-known church of this date1 may be cited as a good example4 ,this is a vaulted church1 with an apsidal east end and transepts4 ,the round arch is employed in this building1 but the general proportions and treatment are essentially ,gothic4 ,a striking campanile 7bell tower7 belongs to the church1 and is a good specimen of a feature very frequently met with in ,lombardy2 the tower here 7and usually7 is square1 and rises by successive stages1 but with only few and small openings or ornaments1 to a considerable height4 ,there are no buttresses1 no diminution of bulk1 no staircase turrets4 ,at the summit is an open belfry-stage1 with large semicircular-headed arches1 crowned by a cornice and a low-pitched conical roof4#be ,in the same city a good example of an ,italian ,gothic church1 erected after the pointed arch had been introduced1 may be found in the church of ,sta4 ,maria del ,carmine4 ,the west front of this church is but clumsy in general design4 ,its width is divided into five compartments by flat buttresses4 ,the gables are crowned by a deep and heavy cornice of moulded brick and the openings are grouped with but little skill4 ,individually1 however1 the features of this front are very beautiful1 and the great wheel-window1 full of tracery1 and the two-light windows flanking it1 may be quoted as remarkable specimens of the ornamental elaboration which can be accomplished in brickwork4 ,the campanile of this church1 like the one just described1 is a plain square tower4 ,it rises by successive stages1 each taller than the last1 each stage being marked by a rich brick cornice4 ,the belfry-stage has on each face a three-light window1 with a traceried head1 and above the cornice the square tower is finished by a tall conical roof1 circular on plan1 an arrangement not unfrequently met with4 ,the ,certosa1 the great ,carthusian ,church and ,monastery near ,pavia1#bf best known by the elaborate marble front added in a different style about a century after the erection of the main building1 is a good example of a highly-enriched church1 with dependencies1 built in brickwork1 and possessing most of the distinctive peculiarities of a great ,gothic church1 except the general use of the pointed arch4 ,it was begun in #acif1 and is consistent in its exterior architecture1 the front excepted1 though it took a long time to build4 ,attached to it are two cloisters1 of which the arches are semicircular1 and the enrichments1 of wonderful beauty1 are modelled in terra-cotta4 ,this church resembles the great ,german round-arched ,gothic churches on the ,rhine in many of its features4 ,its plan includes a nave1 with aisles and side chapels1 transepts and a choir4 ,the eastern arm and the transepts are each ornamented by an apse1 somewhat smaller than would be met with in a ,german church2 but as a compensation each of these three arms has two side apses1 as well as the one at the end4 ,the exterior possesses the ,german arcade of little arches immediately under the eaves of the roof2 it is marked by the same multiplicity of small towers1 each with its own steep roof2 and it possesses the same striking central feature1 internally a small dome1 externally a kind of light pyramidal structure1 ornamented by small arcades rising tier above tier1 and ending in a central pointed roof4 ,the finest ,gothic cathedral in ,north ,italy1 if dimensions1 general effectiveness1 and beauty of material be the test1 is that of ,milan4 ,this building is disfigured by a west front in a totally inappropriate style1 but apart from this it is virtually a ,german church of the first class1 erected entirely in white marble1 and covered with a profusion of decoration4 ,its dimensions show that1 with the exception of ,seville1 this was the largest of all the ,gothic cathedrals of ,europe4 ,it has double aisles1 transepts1 and a polygonal apse4 ,at the crossing of the nave and transepts a low dome rises1 covered by a conical roof1 and surmounted by an elegant marble spire4 ,the structure is vaulted throughout1 and each of the great piers which carry the nave arcade is surmounted by a mass of niches and tabernacle work1 occupied by statues--a splendid substitute for ordinary capitals4 ,the interior effect of ,milan ,cathedral is grand and full of beauty4 ,the exterior1 though much of its power is destroyed by the weakly-designed ornament with which all the surfaces of the walls are covered1 is endowed with a wonderful charm4 ,this building was commenced in the year #ache1 and consecrated in the year #adah4 ,the details of the window-tracery1 pinnacles1 c4 7but not the statues which are of ,italian character71 correspond very closely to those of ,german buildings erected at the same period 7close of the fourteenth century74 ,milan possesses1 among other examples of pointed architecture1 one secular building1 the ,great ,hospital1 well known for its ,gothic facade4 ,this hospital was founded in #adef1 and most of it is of later date and of renaissance character2 the street front of two storeys in height1 with pointed arches1 is very rich4 ,the church of ,chiaravalle1 near ,milan1 which has been more than once illustrated and described1 ought not to be passed unnoticed1 on account of the beauty of its fully developed central dome4 ,it was built in the early part of the thirteenth century 7#abba74 ,almost all the great cities of ,north ,italy possess striking ,gothic buildings4 ,genoa1 for instance1 can boast of her cathedral1 with a front in alternate courses of black and white marble1 dating from about the year #acjj1 and full of beauty2 the details bearing much resemblance to the best ,western ,gothic work4 ,passing eastward1 ,verona possesses a wealth of ,gothic work in the well-known tombs of the ,scaligers1 the churches of ,sta4 ,anastasia1 ,san ,zenone1 and several minor churches and campaniles2 and at ,como1 ,bergamo1 ,vicenza1 ,padua1 ,treviso1 ,cremona1 ,bologna1 and many other cities and towns1 good churches of pointed architecture are to be found4 ,our illustration 7,fig4 #ej7 of the ancient ,palace of the ,jurisconsults at ,cremona1 is a good specimen of the secular architecture of ,north ,italy4 ,originally the lower storey was a loggia1 or open arcaded storey1 but the arches have been built up4 ,telling1 simple1 and graceful1 this building owes its effect chiefly to its well-designed openings and a characteristic brick cornice4 ,it is entirely without buttresses1 has no spreading base1 no gables1 and no visible roof3 some of these features would have been present had it been designed and erected north of the ,alps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,the ,,palace ,,of ,,the ,,jurisconsults ,,at ,,cremona4 ,venice is the city in the whole of ,north ,italy where ,gothic architecture has had freest scope and has achieved the greatest success1 not1 however1 in ecclesiastical1 but in secular buildings4 ,the great ,cathedral of ,st4 ,mark1 perhaps the most wonderful church in ,europe1 certainly the foremost in ,italy1 is a ,byzantine building1 and though it has received some additions in ,gothic times1 does not fairly come within the scope of this volume2 and the ,gothic churches of ,venice are not very numerous nor1 with the exception of the fine brick church of the ,frari1 extremely remarkable4 ,on the banks of the ,grand ,canal and its tributaries1 however1 stand not a few ,gothic palaces of noble design 7see ,fig4 #i1 p4 #ah71 while the ,ducal ,palace itself alone is sufficient to confer a reputation upon the city which it adorns4 ,the ,ducal ,palace at ,venice is a large rectangular block of buildings erected round a vast quadrangle4 ,of its exterior two sides only are visible from a distance1 one being the sea front looking over the lagoon1 and the other the land front directed towards the piazzetta4 ,rather less than one half the height of each front is occupied by two storeys of arcades2 the lower storey bold1 simple1 and vigorous2 the upper storey lighter1 and ending in a mass of bold tracery4 ,above this open work1 and resting upon it1 rises the external wall of the palace1 faced with marble in alternate slabs of rose-colour and white1 pierced by a few large pointed windows and crowned by an open parapet4 ,few buildings are so familiar1 even to untravelled persons1 as this fine work1 which owes its great charm to the extent1 beauty1 and mingled solidity and grace of its arcades1 and to the fine sculpture by which the capitals from which they spring are enriched4 ,the ,gothic palaces are almost invariably remarkable for the skill with which the openings in their fronts are arranged and designed4 ,it was not necessary to render any other part of the exterior specially architectural1 as the palaces stand side by side like houses in a modern street1 as can be seen from our illustration 7,fig4 #i74 ,in almost all cases a large proportion of the openings are grouped together in the centre of the front1 and the sides are left comparatively plain and strong-looking1 the composition presenting a centre and two wings4 ,by this simple expedient each portion of the composition is made to add emphasis to the other1 and a powerful but not inharmonious contrast between the open centre and the solid sides is called into existence4 ,the earliest ,gothic buildings in point of date are often the most delicate and graceful1 and this rule holds good in the ,gothic palaces of ,venice2 yet one of the later palaces1 the ,ca' d',oro1 must be at least named on account of the splendid richness of its marble front--of which1 however1 only the centre and one wing is built--and the beauty of the ornament lavishly employed upon it4 ,the balconies1 angle windows1 and other minor features with which the ,venetian ,gothic palaces abound1 are among the most graceful features of the architecture of ,italy4 ,central ,italy4 ,those towns of ,central ,italy 7by which is meant ,tuscany and the former ,states of the ,church71 in which the best ,gothic buildings are to be found1 are ,pisa1 ,lucca1 ,florence1 ,siena1 ,orvieto1 and ,perugia4 ,as a general rule the ,gothic work in this district is more developed and more lavishly enriched than that in ,lombardy4 ,in ,pisa1 the ,cathedral and the ,campanile 7the famous leaning tower7 belong to the late ,romanesque style1 but the ,baptistry1 an elegant circular building1 has a good deal of ,gothic ornament in its upper storeys1 and may be fairly classed as a transitional building4 ,the most charming and thoroughly characteristic work of ,gothic architecture in ,pisa is1 however1 a small gem of a chapel1 the church of ,sta4 ,maria della ,spina4 ,it displays exquisite ornament1 and1 notwithstanding much false construction1 the beauty of its details1 of its sculpture1 and of the marble of which it is built1 invest it with a great charm4 ,pisan ,gothic is remarkable as being associated with the name of a family of highly gifted sculptors and architects1 the ,pisani1 of whom ,nicola ,pisano was the earliest and greatest artist2 he was followed by his descendants ,giovanni1 ,nino1 and ,andrea4 ,with the ,pisani and ,giotto the series of the known names of architects of great buildings may be said to begin4 ,florence1 the most important of the cities we have named1 is distinguished by a cathedral built in the early part of the fourteenth century1 and one of the grandest in ,italy4 ,it has very few columns1 and its walls and vaults are of great height4 ,the walls are adorned externally with inlays in coloured marble1 and the windows have stained glass--a rarity in ,italy2 but its lofty dome1 added after the completion of the rest of the building1 is its chief feature4 ,this was always intended1 but the pointed octagonal dome actually erected by ,brunelleschi1 between the years #adbj and #addd1 though it harmonises fairly well with the general lines of the building1 and forms1 as can be seen from our illustration 7,fig4 #ea71 a striking object in all distant views of the city1 is probably very different from what was originally intended4 ,near the cathedral stand the ,baptistry1 famous for the possession of the finest gates in the world1 and the ,campanile of ,giotto4 ,this tower is built1 or at least faced1 entirely with marble2 and when it is stated that its height is not far short of that of the ,victoria ,tower of our ,houses of ,parliament1 though of slenderer proportions1 it will be seen that it is magnificently liberal in its general scheme4 ,the tower is covered with panels of variously coloured marbles from base to summit1 and enriched by fine sculpture4 ,the angles are strengthened by slightly projecting piers4 ,the windows are comparatively small till the highest or belfry stage is reached1 and here each face of the tower is pierced by a magnificent three-light window4 ,a deep and elaborate cornice now crowns the whole1 but it was originally designed to add a high-pitched roof or a spire as a terminal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,the ,,cathedral ,,at ,,florence4 ,,with ,,giotto',s ,,campanile4 7,,begun1 #abih2 ,,dome1 #adbj-addd2 ,,campanile ,,begun1 #acbd47 ,our illustration 7,fig4 #eb7 shows the west front and campanile of the ,cathedral at ,siena1 an exceedingly good specimen of the beauties and peculiarities of the style4 ,this building was commenced in #abdc4 ,the plan is simple but singular1 for the central feature is a six-sided dome1 at the crossing of the nave and transepts2 and some ingenuity has been spent in fitting this figure to the arches of the main avenues of the building4 ,the interior is rich and effective2 the exterior1 as can be seen by the illustration1 is covered with ornament1 and the front is the richest and probably the best designed of all the cathedral fronts of ,central ,italy4 ,the strongly-marked horizontal lines of cornices1 arcades1 c41 the moulded gables1 the great wheel-window set in a square panel1 and the use of marble of various colours1 are all points to note4 ,so is the employment of the semicircular arch for the doorways of this thoroughly ,gothic building4 ,the campanile is a good example of that feature1 except that instead of the rich window which usually occupies the belfry stage1 or highest storey1 two storeys of small lights have been formed4 ,the introduction of angle turrets is not very usual1 and it here supplies a deficiency which makes itself felt in other campaniles1 where the junction of tower and spire is not always happy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,,cathedral ,,at ,,siena4 ,,west ,,front ,,and ,,campanile4 7,,facade ,,begun #abhd47 ,gothic churches of importance can be found in many of the cities and towns of ,central ,italy4 ,none are more remarkable than the singular double church of ,st4 ,francis at ,assisi1 with its wealth of mural paintings and stained glass1 and the cathedral at ,orvieto 7,fig4 #ec7 with its splendid front4 ,in ,rome1 so rich in specimens of the architecture of many styles and times1 ,gothic could find no footing2 the one solitary church which can be claimed as ,gothic may be taken as an exception4 ,and south of the ,capital there lies a considerable tract of country1 containing few if any examples of the style we are considering4 ,southern ,italy4 ,southern ,italy is conveniently grouped with ,sicily1 but the mainland is deficient in examples of ,gothic buildings4 ,the old towns of ,apulia indeed1 such as ,bari1 ,bitonto and ,brindisi1 possess an architecture which the few who have had an opportunity of examining1 declare to be surpassingly rich in its decoration1 but it is for the most part ,romanesque4 ,the ,gothic work remaining in and about ,naples is most of it extremely florid1 and often rich1 but seldom possesses the grace and charm of that which exists further north4 ,sicily shows the picturesquely mixed results of a complication of agencies which have not affected the mainland1 and is accordingly an interesting field for architectural study4 ,the island was first under ,byzantine influence2 was next occupied and held by the ,saracens2 and was later seized and for some time retained by the ,normans4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,the ,,cathedral ,,at ,,orvieto4 7,,begun #abij2 ,,facade1 #acaj47 ,the most striking early ,gothic building in ,sicily is the richly adorned cathedral of ,monreale1 commenced in the twelfth century4 ,here very simple pointed arches are made use of1 as the entire surface of the interior is covered with mosaic pictures of ,norman origin4 ,the small ,capella ,palatina in ,palermo itself is of the same simple and early architectural character1 and adorned with equally magnificent mosaics4 ,in these buildings the splendour of the colouring is only equalled by the vigorous and often pathetic power with which the stories of sacred history are embodied in these mosaics4 ,the cathedral of ,cefalu is a building bearing a general resemblance to that at ,monreale1 but not enriched in the same manner4 ,of the fourteenth century are the richly ornamented cathedral of ,palermo and that of ,messina4 ,the latter has been so much altered as to have lost a good deal of its interest2 but at ,palermo there is much that is striking and almost unique4 ,this building has little in common with the works of northern or central ,italy1 and not much more alliance with the ,gothic of ,north ,europe4 ,it is richly panelled and decorated1 but its most striking feature is its bold arcaded portal4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,buildings4 ,plan4 ,the plans of ,italian churches are simple1 compared with those of the northern and western architects4 ,as a rule they are also moderate in size1 and they bear a close resemblance to those of the early basilica churches from which they are directly descended4 ,though the apse is all but universal1 the ,french chevet1 with its crown of clustering chapels1 was not adopted in ,italy4 ,there is very much in common between the churches of ,lombardy and those of ,germany1 but the ,german western apse and the apsidal ends to the transept do not occur4 ,the spaces between the piers of the main arcade are greater than in ,french or ,english examples1 so that there are fewer piers1 and the vaults are of wider span4 ,in the churches founded by the great preaching orders1 the division into nave and aisle does not take place1 and the church consists of nothing but a large hall for the congregation1 with a chancel for the choir4 ,in monastic1 secular1 and domestic building a general squareness and simplicity of plan prevails1 and where an internal arcaded quadrangle can be made use of 7e4g4 in the cloister of a monastery71 it is almost always relied upon to add effect4 ,the famous external arcade at the ,ducal ,palace1 ,venice1 was nowhere repeated1 though simpler external arcades occur frequently2 but it is so splendid as to form1 itself alone a feature in ,italian planning4 ,the arrangements of the mansions and palaces found in the great cities were a good deal influenced by the circumstance that it was customary1 in order to secure as much cool air as possible1 to devote one of the upper floors to the purpose of a suite of reception rooms2 to this was given the name of piano nobile4 ,walls1 ,towers1 ,columns4 ,walls are usually thick and stand unbuttressed1 and rarely have such slopes and diminutions of apparent thickness towards their upper part as are not uncommon in ,england4 ,base mouldings are not universal4 ,the cornice1 on the other hand1 is far more cared for1 and is made much more conspicuous than with us4 ,in the brick buildings especially it attains great development4 ,above the cornice a kind of ornamental parapet1 bearing some resemblance to battlements1 is common4 ,the strikingly peculiar use of materials of different colours in alternate courses1 or in panels1 to decorate the wall surfaces1 has already been referred to4 ,it is very characteristic of the style4 ,the campanile or bell-tower of an ,italian church is a feature very different from western towers4 ,it is never placed over the crossing of nave and aisles and rarely forms an essential part of the church1 often being quite detached and not seldom placed at an angle with the walls of the main building4 ,such towers are not unfrequently appended to palaces1 and are sometimes 7e4g4 at ,venice7 erected alone4 ,some of the ,italian cities were also remarkable for strong towers erected in the city itself as fortresses by the heads of influential families4 ,many of these are still standing in ,bologna4 ,the smaller towers in which northern architects took so much delight are almost unknown in ,italy1 though on a few of the great churches of the north 7e4g4 the ,certosa at ,pavia1 and ,st4 ,antonio at ,padua7 they are to be found4 ,the use of constructive columns is general2 piers are by no means unknown1 but fine shafts of marble meet the eye frequently in ,italian churches4 ,the constant use of the column for decorative purposes is a marked characteristic4 ,not only is it employed where ,french and ,english architects used it1 as in the jambs of doorways1 but it constantly replaces the mullion in traceried windows4 ,it is employed as an ornament at the angles of buildings to take off the harshness of a sharp corner1 and it is introduced in many unexpected and often picturesque situations4 ,twisted1 knotted1 and otherwise carved and ornamental shafts are not unfrequently made use of in columns that serve purely decorative purposes4 ,openings and ,arches4 ,the constructive arches in ,italian ,gothic buildings are1 as a rule1 pointed1 but it is remarkable that at every period round and pointed arches are indiscriminately employed for doors and windows1 both being constantly met with in the same building4 ,the naves of ,italian churches rarely show the division into three1 common in the north4 ,the triforium is almost invariably absent1 and the clerestory is often reduced to a series of small round windows1 sufficient to admit the moderate light which1 in a very bright climate1 is grateful in the interior of such a building as a church2 but they are far less effective features than our own well-marked clerestory windows4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,ogival ,,window-,,head4 ,the doorways are often very beautiful1 and are frequently sheltered by projecting porches of extreme elegance and lightness4 ,the window openings are1 as a rule1 cusped4 ,an ogee-shaped arch 7,fig4 #ed7 is constantly in use in window-heads1 especially at ,venice1 and much graceful design is lavished on the arched openings of domestic and secular buildings4 ,a great deal of the tracery employed is plate tracery4#bg ,the tracery in terra-cotta has already been referred to4 ,in the large windows of the principal apartments and other similar positions of the palaces in ,venice and ,vicenza1 a sort of tracery not met with in other countries is freely employed4 ,the openings are square-headed1 and are divided into separate lights by small columns2 the heads of these lights are ogee-shaped1 and the spaces between them and the horizontal lintel are filled in with circles1 richly quatrefoiled or otherwise cusped 7,fig4 #ee74 ,the upper arcade of the ,ducal ,palace at ,venice offers the best known and finest example of this class of tracery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,tracery1 ,,from ,,venice4 ,roofs and ,vaults4 ,the vaulting of ,italian churches is always simple1 and the bays1 as has been pointed out1 are usually wider than those of the northern ,gothic churches4 ,frequently there are no ribs of any sort to the groins of the vaults4 ,a characteristic feature of ,italian ,gothic is the central dome4 ,it is rarely very large or overpowering1 and in the one instance of a magnificent dome--the ,cathedral at ,florence1 the feature1 though intended from the first1 was added after the ,gothic period had closed4 ,still many churches have a modest dome1 and it frequently forms a striking feature in the interior1 while in some northern instances 7e4g4 at the ,certosa at ,pavia1 or at ,chiaravalle7 it is treated like a many storeyed pyramid and becomes an external feature of importance4 ,at ,sant' ,antonio at ,padua there are five domes4 ,the churches of the preaching orders are some of them covered by timber ceilings1 not perfectly flat but having an outline made up of hollow curves of rather flat sweep4 ,the great halls at ,padua and ,vicenza displayed a vast wooden curved ceiling resembling the hull of a ship turned upside down4 ,the ordinary church roof is of flat pitch and frequently concealed behind a parapet4 ,dormer windows1 crestings1 and other similar features1 by the use of which northern architects enriched their roofs1 are hardly ever employed by ,italian architects4 ,mouldings and ,ornaments4 ,ornament is almost instinctively understood by the ,italians1 and their mastery of it is well shown in their architecture4 ,the carving of spandrels1 capitals1 and other ornaments1 and the sculpture of the heads and statues introduced is full of power and beauty4 ,the famous capitals of the lower arcade of the ,ducal ,palace may be quoted as illustrations4 ,the employment of coloured materials is carried so far as sometimes to startle an eye trained to the sombreness of ,english architecture1 but a great deal of the beauty of this style is derived from colour1 and much of the comparative simplicity and scarcity of mouldings is due to the desire to leave large unbroken surfaces for marble linings1 mosaics or fresco painting4 ,mouldings1 where they are introduced1 differ from northern mouldings in being flatter and far less bold1 their enrichments are chiefly confined to dentils1 notches1 and small and simple ornaments4 ,stained glass is not so often seen as in ,france1 but is to be met with1 as1 for example1 in the fine church of ,san ,petronio at ,bologna1 and in ,sta4 ,maria ,novella1 and in the ,cathedral at ,florence4 ,at ,florence the stained glass has a character of its own both in colour and style of treatment4 ,it is not too much to say that every kind of decoration which can be employed to add beauty to a building may be found at its best in ,italy4 ,in the churches much of the finest furniture1 such as stall-work1 screens1 altar frontals1 will be found in profusion2 and the church porches and the mural monuments should be especially studied on account of the singular elegance with which they are usually designed4 ,construction and ,design4 ,the material employed for the external and internal face of the walls in a very large proportion of the buildings mentioned in this chapter is marble4 ,this is sometimes used in blocks as stone is with us1 but more frequently in the form of thin slabs as a facing upon masonry or brickwork4 ,in ,lombardy1 where brick is the natural building material1 most of the walls are not only built but faced with brick2 and the ornamental features1 including tracery1 are often executed in ornamental brickwork1 or in what is known as terra-cotta 7i4e4 bricks or blocks of brick clay of fine quality1 moulded or otherwise ornamented and burnt like bricks74 ,stone was less commonly employed as a building material in ,italy during the ,gothic period1 than in other countries of ,europe4 ,the surfaces of the vaults1 and the surfaces of the internal walls were often covered with mosaics1 or with paintings in fresco4 ,vaulting is frequently met with1 but it is generally simple in character1 the flat external roof over it is commonly covered with tiles or metal1 while the apparent gable frequently rises more sharply than the actual roof4 ,the ,italians seem never to have cordially welcomed the ,gothic principle of resisting the thrust of vaults or arches by a counter-thrust1 or by the weight of a buttress4 ,the buttress is almost unknown in ,italian ,gothic1 and as a rule an iron tie is introduced at the feet of such arches as would in ,france or ,germany have been buttressed4 ,this expedient is1 of course1 economical1 but to northern eyes it appears strange and out of place4 ,the ,italians1 however1 take no pains to conceal it1 and many of their lighter works1 such as canopies over tombs1 porches1 c41 would fall to pieces at once were the iron ties removed4 ,open timber roofs in the ,english fashion are unknown2 but the wooden ceilings already alluded to are found in ,san ,zeno at ,verona1 and the ,eremitani at ,padua4 ,a kind of open roof of large span1 carried by curved ribs and tied by iron ties1 covers the great hall of the ,basilica at ,vicenza1 and the very similar hall at ,padua4 ,the ribs of these roofs are built up of many thicknesses of material bolted together4 ,the design of ,italian ,gothic buildings presents many peculiarities1 some of which are due to the materials made use of4 ,for example1 where brick and terra-cotta are alone employed1 wide moulded cornices of no great projection1 and broad masses of enriched moulding encircling arches are easily executed1 and they are accordingly constantly to be found2 but bold mouldings1 with deep hollows1 similar to those of ,early ,english arches1 could not be constructed of these materials1 and are not attempted4 ,these peculiarities will be found in the ,town ,hall at ,cremona1 of which an illustration 7,fig4 #ej7 has already been given4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,window ,,from ,,tivoli4 ,where marble is used1 the peculiar fineness of its surface1 upon which the bright ,italian sun makes the smallest moulding effective1 combined with the fact that the material1 being costly1 is often used in thin slabs1 has given occasion to extreme flatness of treatment1 and to the use of modes of enrichment which do not require much depth of material4 ,our illustration of a window from the ,piazza ,s4 ,croce at ,tivoli1 shows these peculiarities extremely well 7,fig4 #ef71 and also illustrates the strong predilection which the ,italian architects retained throughout the ,gothic period for squareness and for horizontal lines4 ,the whole ornamental treatment is here square2 the window rests on a strongly-moulded horizontal sill1 and is surrounded by flatly-carved enrichment1 making a square panel of the entire feature4 ,even in the richly-decorated window 7,fig4 #eg71 which is in its pointed outline more truly ,gothic than the ,tivoli example1 much of the same quality can be traced4 ,the arch and jamb are richly moulded1 but the whole mass of mouldings is flat1 and the flat cuspings of the tracery1 elaborately carved though it be1 more resemble the cusps of early ,western ,gothic1 executed at a time when tracery was beginning its career1 than work belonging to the period of full maturity to which this feature1 as a whole1 undoubtedly belongs4 ,where marbles were plentiful enough to be built into the fabric1 the national love of colour gave rise to the use of black and white--or sometimes red and white--alternate courses1 already mentioned4 ,the effect of this striped masonry may be partly judged of from the illustration of the cathedral at ,siena 7,fig4 #eb71 where it is employed to a considerable extent4 ,a finer method of surface decoration1 less simple1 however1 and perhaps less frequently practised1 was open to the ,italian architect1 in the use of panels of various coloured marbles4 ,a beautiful example of the employment of this expedient exists in ,giotto's campanile at ,florence 7,fig4 #ea74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,,italian ,,gothic ,,window1 ,,with ,,tracery ,,in ,,the ,,head4 7#ac,,th ,,century47 ,the flatness of the roofs1 which the ,italians never abandoned1 was always found difficult to reconcile with the ,gothic tendency to height and steepness4 ,in many cases1 the sharp pitched gables which the buildings display1 are only masks1 and do not truly denote the pitch of the roofs behind them4 ,in other instances the walls finish with a horizontal parapet1 plain or ornamental1 quite concealing the roof4 ,in the roofs of their campaniles1 however1 the ,gothic architects of ,italy were usually happy2 they almost always adopted a steep conical terminal1 with or without pinnacles1 which is very telling against the sky2 even if its junction with the tower is at times clumsy4 ,the brightness of southern suns prevented the adoption of the great windows1 adapted to masses of stained glass1 which were the ambition of northern architects in the fourteenth century2 and the tenacity with which a love for squareness of effect and for strongly-marked horizontal lines of various sorts retained its hold1 tended to keep ,italian ,gothic buildings essentially different from those of northern nations2 but the love of colour1 the command of precious materials1 and of fine sculpture1 the passion for beauty and for a decorative richness1 and the artistic taste of the ,italians1 display themselves in these buildings in a hundred ways3 all this lends to them a charm such as few works of the middle ages existing elsewhere can surpass4 ,,spain4--,,chronological ,,sketch4 ,an early1 middle1 and late period can be distinguished in dealing with ,spanish ,gothic4 ,the first period reaches to the first quarter of the thirteenth century1 the second occupies the remainder of the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries1 the third completes the fifteenth and runs on into part of the sixteenth4 ,the early style is one of much purity and dignity1 and is developed directly from the ,romanesque of the country4 ,the cathedral of ,st4 ,iago di ,compostella1 a fine cruciform church of round-arched ,gothic1 with a magnificent western portal1#bh recalling the great lateral porches at ,chartres1 is an early and fine example4 ,like other churches of the type in ,spain1 it is far plainer inside than out1 but it is vaulted throughout4 ,the cathedral of ,zamora1 and those of ,tarragona and ,salamanca must also be referred to4 ,in each of these1 the most thoroughly ,spanish feature is a dome1 occupying the crossing of the nave and transepts1 and apparently better developed than those in early ,german churches or in ,italian ones4 ,it is called in ,spanish the cimborio4 ,this feature was constructed so as to consist of an inner dome1 decorated by ribs thrown over the central space1 and carried by pendentives2 having above it a separate outer dome somewhat higher and often richly decorated4 ,this feature unfortunately disappeared when the ,french designs of the thirteenth century began to be the rage4 ,a peculiarity of plan1 however1 which was retained throughout the whole ,gothic period in ,spain1 is to be found in the early churches2 it consists of an inclosure for the choir quite in the body of the church1 and often west of the transepts1--in such a position1 in fact1 as the choir at ,westminster ,abbey occupies4 ,a third peculiarity is the addition of an outer aisle1 not unlike the arcade of a cloister1 to the side walls of the churches1 possibly with a view of protecting them from heat4 ,with the thirteenth century a strong passion for churches1 closely resembling those being erected in ,france at the same time1 set in1 as has just been remarked4 ,accordingly the cathedrals of ,toledo1 ,burgos1 and ,leon1 approach very closely to ,french types4 ,toledo is very large1 five aisled1 and with a vast chevet4 ,its exterior is unfinished1 but the dignity of its fine interior may be well understood from the illustration 7,fig4 #eh7 here given4 ,burgos is not so ambitious in size as ,toledo1 but has a florid exterior of late architecture with two lofty1 open-traceried spires1 like ,strasburg and other ,german examples4 ,leon is remarkable for its lofty clerestory4 ,spanish ,gothic may be said to have culminated in the vast cathedral at ,seville 7begun #adja71 claiming to be of greater extent than any ,gothic cathedral in the world1 larger1 therefore1 than ,milan or ,cologne4 ,it stands on the site of a mosque1 and has never been completed externally4 ,the interior is very imposing and rich1 but when it is stated that it was not completed till #aebj1 it may be readily understood that many of the details are very late1 and far from the purity of earlier examples4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,the ,,cathedral ,,at ,,toledo4 ,,interior4 7,,begun #abbg47 ,in the fourteenth century an innovation1 of which ,french architects immediately north of the ,pyrenees were also availing themselves1 found favour in ,barcelona4 ,the great buttresses by which the thrust of the vaults was met were brought inside the boundary walls of the church1 and were made to serve as division walls between a series of side chapels4 ,both here and at ,manresa and ,gerona1 cathedrals were built1 resembling in construction that at ,alby1 in ,southern ,france2 in these this arrangement was carried a step further1 and the side aisles were suppressed1 leaving the whole nave to consist of a very bold vaulted hall1 fringed by a series of side chapels1 which were separated from each other by the buttresses which supported the main vault4 ,these large vaults1 however1 when bare of decoration1 as most of the ,spanish vaults are1 appear bald and poor in effect1 though they are grand objects structurally4 ,the ,gothic work of the latest period in ,spain became extraordinarily florid in its details1 especially in the variety introduced into the ribs of the vaulting and the enrichments generally4 ,the great cathedrals of ,segovia and ,salamanca were neither of them begun till the sixteenth century had already well set in4 ,they are the two principal examples of this florid ,gothic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,the ,,giralda ,,at ,,seville4 7,,begun ,,in #aaif4 ,,finished ,,in #aech74 ,it will not be forgotten that the country we are now considering was fully occupied by the ,moors1 and that they left in ,southern ,spain buildings of great merit4 ,a certain number of ,christian churches exist built in a style which has been called ,moresco1 as being a kind of fusion of ,moorish and ,gothic4 ,the towers of these churches bear a close resemblance to the ,saracenic towers of which the beautiful bell-tower1 called the ,giralda1 at ,seville 7,fig4 #ei7 is the type2 with this and similar examples in the country it is not surprising that at ,toledo1 ,saragoza1 and other places1 towers of the same character should be erected as parts of churches in which the architecture throughout is as much ,saracenic as ,christian4 ,to many of these great churches1 cloisters1 and monastic buildings1 which are often both extensive and of a high order of architectural excellence1 are attached4 ,the secular buildings1 of ,spain in the ,gothic period are1 on the other hand1 neither numerous nor remarkable4 ,,portugal4 ,the architecture of ,portugal has been very little investigated4 ,the great church at ,batalha#bi is probably the most important in the country4 ,this building1 though interesting in plan1 is more remarkable for a lavish amount of florid ornament1 of which our illustration 7,fig4 #fj7 may furnish some idea1 than for really fine architecture4 ,the conventual church at ,belem1 near ,lisbon1 a work of the beginning of the sixteenth century1 and equally florid1 is another of the small number of specimens of ,portuguese ,gothic of which descriptions or illustrations have been published4 ,,footnotes3 #be ,an illustration of such a campanile will be found in that belonging to the ,cathedral of ,siena 7,fig4 #eb74 #bf ,see ,frontispiece4 #bg ,for an explanation of this term1 see ante1 ,chapter ,v41 page #dh4 #bh ,a cast of this portal is at the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 #bi ,see ,sculptures of the ,monastery at ,batalha1 published by the ,arundel ,society4 ,illustration3 ,,crete ,,from ,,notre ,,dame1 ,,paris4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,gothic ,,architecture4 ,,principles ,,of ,,construction ,,and ,,design4 ,materials and ,construction4 ,the ,gothic architects adhered1 at any rate till the fifteenth century1 to the use of very small stones in their masonry4 ,in many buildings of large size it is hard to find any stone heavier than two men can lift4 ,bad roads and the absence of good mechanical means of hoisting and moving big blocks led to this4 ,the mortar1 though good1 is not equal to the ,roman4 ,as a rule in each period mortar joints are thick4 ,they are finest in the fifteenth century4 ,the masonry of all important features of the building is always good2 it is often a perfect marvel of dexterity and skill as well as of beauty4 ,the arts of workers in other materials1 such as carpenters1 joiners1 smiths1 and plumbers were carried to great perfection during the ,gothic period4 ,the appropriate ornamental treatment which each material is best fitted to receive was invariably given to it1 and forms appropriate to one material were very rarely copied in others4 ,for example1 whenever wrought iron1 a material which can be beaten and welded1 or rivetted1 was employed1 those ornamental forms were selected into which hot iron can with ease be beaten1 and such groups of those forms were designed as can be obtained by welding or by rivetting them together4 ,wood1 on the other hand1 cannot be bent with ease1 but can be readily cut1 drilled with holes1 notched and carved2 accordingly1 where wood had to be treated ornamentally1 we only find such forms as the drill1 the chisel1 the saw1 or the gouge readily and naturally leave behind them4 ,again1 the mode into which wood can be best framed together was carefully considered from a constructional point of view1 and mediaeval joiners' work is always first so designed as to reduce the damage from shrinkage to the smallest amount possible2 and the pieces of which it is composed are then appropriately ornamented1 moulded1 or carved4 ,stone is now always1 at least in this country1 worked by being first squared and then worked-down or sunk from the squared faces to the mouldings required1 and this procedure seems to have been common1 though not quite universal1 in the ,middle ,ages4 ,consequently we usually find the whole of the external mouldings with which the doorways and arcades of important buildings were enriched1 designed so as to be easily formed out of stones having squared faces1 or1 to use the technical phrase1 to be sunk from the squared blocks4 ,the character of sculpture in wood differs from that in stone1 the material being harder1 more capable of standing alone2 so in stone we find more breadth1 in wood finer lines and more elaboration4 ,in a word1 no material was employed in simulating another 7or with the rarest exceptions71 and when any ornament was to be executed in one place in one material and in another place in a different one1 such alterations were always made in the treatment as corresponded to the different qualities of the two materials4 ,the arch was introduced whenever possible1 and the structure of a great ,gothic building presents the strongest possible contrast to that of a ,greek building4 ,in the ,greek temple there was no pressure that was not vertical and met by a vertical support1 wall1 or column1 and no support that was not vastly in excess of the dimensions actually required to do the work4 ,a great ,gothic building attains stability through the balanced counterpoise of a vast series of pressures1 oblique1 perpendicular1 or horizontal1 so arranged as to counteract each other4 ,the vault was kept from spreading by the flying buttress1 the thrust of the arcade was resisted by massive walls1 and so on throughout4 ,the equilibrium thus obtained was sometimes so ticklish that a storm of wind1 a trifling settlement1 or a slight concussion sufficed to occasion a disaster2 and many of the daring feats of the masons of the ,middle ,ages are lost to us1 because they dared a little too much and the entire structure collapsed4 ,this happened more often in the middle period of the style than in the earliest1 but during the whole ,gothic period there is a constant uniform tendency in one direction3 thinner walls1 wider arches1 loftier vaults1 slenderer buttresses1 slighter piers1 confront us at every step1 and we need only compare some ,norman structure 7such as ,durham71 with a perpendicular 7such as ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel71 to see how vast a change took place in this respect4 ,the ,principles of ,gothic ,design4 ,all the germs of ,gothic architecture exist in the ,romanesque of the eleventh and twelfth centuries1 and became developed as the passion for more slender proportions1 greater lightness1 and loftiness of effect1 and more delicate enrichment became marked4 ,it is quite true that the pointed arch is universally recognised as1 so to speak1 the badge of ,gothic1 even to the extent of having suggested the title of ,christian pointed architecture1 by which it is often called4 ,but the pointed arch must be regarded rather as a token that the series of changes1 which1 starting from the heavy if majestic ,romanesque of such a cathedral as ,peterborough1 culminated in the gracefulness of ,salisbury or ,lincoln1 was far advanced towards completion1 than as really essential to their perfection4 ,many of the examples of the transition period exhibit the round arch blended with the pointed 7e4g4 the nave of ,st4 ,david's ,cathedral or the ,choir of ,canterbury71 and when we come to consider ,german architecture we shall find that the adoption of the pointed arch was postponed till long after the development of all1 or almost all1 the other features of the ,gothic style2 so as to place beyond question the existence1 in that country at least1 of round arched ,gothic4 ,some of the best authorities have indeed proposed to employ this title as a designation for much1 if not all1 the round arched architecture of the west of ,europe1 but ,scott1 ,sharpe1 and other authorities class mediaeval art down to the middle of the twelfth century under the general head of ,romanesque1 a course which has been adopted in this volume4 ,the proportions of ,gothic buildings were well studied1 their forms were always lofty1 their gables sharp1 and their general composition more or less pyramidal4 ,remarkable numerical relations between the dimensions of the different parts of a great ,gothic cathedral can be discovered upon careful examination in most1 if not all instances1 and there can be little doubt that a system of geometrical proportions ran through the earlier design1 and that much of the harmony and beauty which the buildings present is traceable to this fact4 ,independent of this the skill with which subordinate features and important ones are fitted to their respective positions1 both by their dimensions and by their relative elaboration or plainness1 forms a complete system of proportion1 making use of the word in its broadest sense2 and the results are extremely happy4 ,apparent size was imparted to almost every ,gothic building by the smallness1 great number1 and variety of its features1 and by the small size of the stones employed4 ,the effect of strength is generally1 though not perhaps so uniformly1 also obtained1 and dignity1 beauty1 and harmony are rarely wanting4 ,symmetry1 though not altogether overlooked1 has but a slender hold upon ,gothic architects4 ,it is far more observed in the interior than in the exterior of the buildings2 but it must be remembered that symmetry formed the basis of many designs which1 owing to the execution having been carried on through a long series of years and by different hands1 came to be varied from the original intentions4 ,thus1 for example1 ,chartres is a cathedral with two western towers4 ,one of these was carried up and its spire completed in the twelfth century4 ,the companion spire was not added till the end of the fifteenth1 when men's ideas as to the proportions1 shape1 ornaments1 and details of a spire had altered entirely2--the later architect did not value symmetry enough to think himself bound to adhere either to the design or to the height of the earlier spire1 so we have in this great facade two similar flanking towers but spires entirely unlike4 ,what happened at ,chartres happened elsewhere4 ,the original design of buildings was in the main symmetrical1 but it was never considered that symmetry was a matter so important as to require that much sacrifice should be made to preserve it4 ,on the other hand the subordination of a multitude of small features to one dominant one enters largely into the design of every good ,gothic building2 with the result that if the great governing feature or mass has been carried out in its entirety1 almost any feature1 no matter how irregular or unsymmetrical1 may be safely introduced1 and will only add picturesqueness and piquancy to the design4 ,this is more or less a leading principle of ,gothic design4 ,a building with no irregularities1 none of those charming additions which add individual character to ,gothic churches1 and none of the isolated features which the principle of subordination permits the architect to employ1 has missed one of the chief qualities of the style4 ,it is here that unskilled architects mostly fail when they attempt ,gothic designs2 they either hold on to symmetry as though they were designing a ,greek temple1 and they are unaware that the spirit of the style in which they are trying to work not only permits1 but requires some irregular features2 or if they do not fall into this error they are overtaken by the opposite one1 and omit to make their irregular features subordinate to the general effect of the whole1 an error less serious in its effects than the other1 but still destructive of anything like the highest qualities in a building4 ,repetition1 like symmetry1 is recognised by ,gothic architecture1 but not adhered to in a rigid way4 ,no buildings gain more from the repetition of parts than ,gothic churches and cathedrals2 the series of pillars or piers and arches inside1 the series of buttresses and windows outside1 add scale to the general effect4 ,but so long as it was in the main a series of features which broadly resembled one another1 the ,gothic architect was satisfied1 and did not feel bound to exact repetition4 ,we are often1 for example1 surprised to find in the columns of a church an octagonal one alternating with a circular one1 and almost invariably1 if a series of capitals be examined1 each will be discovered to differ from the others to some extent4 ,in one bay of a church there may be a two-light window1 and in the next a three-light window1 and so on4 ,this we find in buildings erected at one time and under one architect4 ,where1 however1 a building begun at one period was continued at another 7and this1 it must be remembered1 was the rule1 not the exception1 with all large ,gothic buildings71 the architect1 while usually repeating the same features1 with the same general forms1 invariably followed his own predilections as to detail4 ,there is a very good example of this in ,westminster ,abbey1 in the western bays of the nave1 which were built years later than the eastern bays4 ,they are1 to a superficial observer1 identical1 being of the same height and width and shape of arch1 but nearly every detail differs4 ,disclosure1 rather than concealment1 was a principle of ,gothic design4 ,this was demonstrated long ago by ,pugin1 and many of his followers pushed the doctrine to such extremes1 that they held--and some of them still hold--that no building is really ,gothic in which any part1 either of its construction or arrangement1 is not obviously visible inside and out4 ,this is1 however1 carrying the principle too far4 ,it is sufficient to say that the interior disposition of every ,gothic building was as much as possible disclosed by the exterior4 ,thus1 in a secular building1 where there is a large room1 there usually was a large window2 when a lofty apartment occurs1 its roof was generally proportionately high2 where a staircase rises1 we usually can detect it by a sloping row of little windows following the line of the stair1 or by a turret roof4 ,the mode in which the thrust of vaults is counterpoised is1 as has been shown1 frankly displayed by the ,gothic architects1 and as a rule1 every portion of the structure is freely exhibited4 ,it grows out of this1 that when an ornamental feature is desired1 it is not constructed purely for ornament1 as the ,romans added the columns and cornices of the orders to the outside of their massive walls purely as an architectural screen2 but some requisite1 of the building is taken and ornamented1 and in some cases elaborated4 ,thus the belfry grew into the enormous bell tower2 the tower roof grew into the spire2 the extra weight required on flying buttresses grew into the ornamental pinnacle2 and the window head grew into tracery4 ,there were1 however1 some exceptions4 ,the walls were still constantly faced with finer masonry than in the heart1 and though some are unwilling to admit the fact1 were often plastered outside as well as in2 and what is more remarkable1 no other sign of the vault appeared outside the building than the buttresses required to sustain it4 ,the external gable conforms to the shape of the roof which covered the vault1 but the vault1 perhaps the most remarkable and characteristic feature of the whole building1 does not betray its presence by any external line or mark corresponding to its position and shape in the interior of the building4 ,notwithstanding these and some other exceptions1 frank disclosure must be reckoned one of the main principles of ,gothic architecture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,doorway ,,from ,,church ,,at ,,batalha4 7,,begun #ache47 ,elaboration and simplicity were both so well known to the ,gothic architect that it is difficult to say that either of these qualities belongs exclusively to his work4 ,but he was rarely simple when he had the opportunity of being elaborate1 and simplicity was perhaps rather forced upon him by the circumstances under which he worked1 by rude materials1 scanty funds1 and lack of skilled workmen1 than freely chosen4 ,many of the great works of the ,gothic period are as elaborate as they could be made 7,fig4 #fj71 and yet1 when simplicity had to be the order of the day1 no architecture has lent it such a grace as ,gothic4 ,the last pair of qualities is similarity and contrast4 ,what has been said about repetition has anticipated the remarks called for by these qualities1 so far as to point out that even where the arrangement of the building dictated the repetition of similar features1 a general resemblance1 and not an exact similarity1 was considered sufficient4 ,in the composition of masses of building1 contrast and not similarity was the ruling principle4 ,even in the interiors of great churches which1 as a rule1 are far more regular than the exteriors1 the contrast between the comparative plainness of the nave and the richness of the choir was an essential element of design4 ,external design in ,gothic buildings depends almost entirely upon contrast for its power of charming the eye1 and it is this circumstance which has left the successive generations of men who toiled at our great ,gothic cathedrals so free to follow the bent of their own taste in their additions1 rather than that of their forerunners4 ,but setting aside the irregularities due to the caprice of various builders1 and the constant changes which took place in detail through the ,gothic period1 it is to contrast that we must trace most of the surprising effects attained by the architecture of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the rich tracery was made richer by contrast with plain walls1 the loftiest towers appeared higher from their contrast with the long level lines of roofs and parapets4 ,it is1 in truth1 one of the principal marks of the decadence which began in the fifteenth century that the principle of contrast was1 to a considerable extent1 abandoned1 at least in the details of the buildings if not in their great masses4 ,walls were at that time panelled in imitation of the tracery of the adjoining windows1 and no longer acted as a foil to them by their solid plainness2 long rows of pinnacles1 all exactly alike1 followed the line of the parapets1 and a repetition of absolutely identical features became the rule for the first time in the history of ,gothic art4 ,there can be no doubt that had this modification run its natural course unchecked and undisturbed by the change in taste which abruptly brought the ,gothic period to a close1 it must have resulted in the deterioration of the art4 ,illustration3 ,,sculptured ,,ornament ,,from ,,rheims ,,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,renaissance ,,ornament ,,from ,a ,,frieze4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,general ,,view4 ,gothic architecture had begun1 before the close of the fifteenth century1 to show marks of decadence1 and men's minds and tastes were ripening for a change4 ,the change1 when it did take place1 arose in ,italy1 and was a direct consequence of that burst of modern civilisation known as the revival of letters4 ,all the characteristics of the middle ages were rapidly thrown off4 ,the strain of old ,roman blood in the modern ,italians asserted itself1 and almost at a bound1 literature and the arts sprang back1 like a bow unstrung1 into the forms they had displayed fifteen hundred years before4 ,it became the rage to read the choice ,greek and ,latin authors1 and to write ,latin with a pedantic purity4 ,can we wonder that in painting1 in sculpture1 and in architecture1 men reverted to the form1 the style1 and the decorations of the antique compositions1 statues1 and architectural remains8 ,this was the more easy in ,italy1 as ,gothic art had never at any time taken so firm a hold upon ,italians as it had upon nations north of the ,alps4 ,though1 however1 the details and forms employed were all ,roman1 or ,graeco-,roman1 they were applied to buildings essentially modern1 and used with much freedom and spirit4 ,this revival of classic taste in art is commonly and appropriately called ,renaissance4 ,in ,italy it took place so rapidly that there was hardly any transition period4 ,brunelleschi1 the first great ,renaissance architect1 began his work as early as the middle of the fifteenth century1 and his buildings1 in which classic details of great severity and purity are employed1 struck1 so to speak1 a keynote which had been responded to all over ,italy before the close of the fifteenth century4 ,to other countries the change spread later1 and it found them less prepared to welcome it unreservedly4 ,accordingly1 in ,france1 in ,england1 and in many parts of ,germany1 we find a transition period1 during which buildings were designed in a mixed style4 ,in ,england1 the transition lasted almost through the sixteenth century4 ,as the century went on1 a most picturesque and telling style1 the earlier phases of which are known as ,tudor and the later as ,elizabethan1 sprang up in ,england4 ,it betrays in its mixture of ,gothic and classic forms great incongruities and even monstrosities2 but it allows unrestrained play for the fancies1 and the best mansions and manors of the time1 such as ,hatfield1 ,hardwick1 ,burleigh1 ,bramshill1 and ,audley ,end1 are unsurpassed in their picturesqueness and romantic charm4 ,the old red-brick1 heavily chimneyed1 and gabled buildings1 with their large windows divided by bold mullions and transoms1 and their simple noble outlines1 are familiar to us all1 and so are their characteristic features4 ,the great hall with its oriel or its bay1 the fine plastered ceiling1 supported by heavy beams of timber2 the wide oak staircase1 with its carved balusters1 and ornamented newel post1 and heavy-moulded handrail2 the old wainscoted parlour1 with its magnificent chimney-piece reaching to the ceiling2 these are all essentially ,english features1 and are full of vigour and life1 as indeed the work of every period of transition must almost necessarily prove4 ,the transitional period in ,france produced exquisite works more refined and elegantly treated than ours1 but not so vigorous4 ,its manner is known as the ,francois ,premier 7,francis ,i47 style4 ,no modern buildings are more profusely ornamented1 and yet not spoilt4 ,in ,germany1 the ,castle of ,heidelberg may be named as a well-known specimen of the transition period1 a period over which however we must not linger4 ,suffice it to say1 that sooner or later the change was fully accomplished in every ,european country1 and ,renaissance architecture1 modified as climate1 materials1 habits1 or even caprice suggested1 yet the same in its essential characteristics1 obtained a firm footing3 this it has succeeded in retaining1 though not to the exclusion of other styles1 for now nearly three centuries4 ,in ,italy1 ,renaissance churches1 great and small--from ,st4 ,peter's downwards--and magnificent secular buildings1 some1 like the ,vatican ,palace or the ,library of ,st4 ,mark at ,venice1 for public purposes1 but most for the occupation of the great wealthy and princely families1 abound in ,naples1 ,rome1 ,florence1 ,genoa1 ,venice1 ,milan1 and indeed every great city4 ,in ,france1 the transition period was succeeded by a time when vast undertakings1 e4g4 the ,hotel de ,ville1 the ,louvre1 the ,tuileries1 ,versailles1 were carried out in the revived style with the utmost magnificence1 and were imitated in every part of the country in the structures greater or smaller which were then built4 ,in ,england1 the works of ,inigo ,jones1 and of ,wren1 are the most famous works of the developed style1 and to the last-named architect we owe a cathedral second to none in ,europe for its beauty of outline1 and play of light and shade4 ,to ,germany1 and the countries of the north-east ,europe1 and to ,spain and ,portugal on the south1 the style also extended with no very great modification1 either of its general forms or of its details4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,buildings4 ,plan4 ,the plan of ,renaissance buildings was uniform and symmetrical1 and the picturesqueness of the ,gothic times was abandoned4 ,the plans of churches were not widely different from those in use in ,italy before the revival of classic art took place1 but it will be remembered that these were by no means so irregular or picturesque at any time as the plans of ,french and ,english cathedral churches4 ,in secular architecture1 the vast piles erected in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by ,italian1 ,french1 and ,spanish architects are to the last degree orderly in their disposition4 ,they are adapted to a great variety of purposes1 and they display a varying degree of skill4 ,the palaces of ,genoa are1 on the one hand1 among the cleverest examples of planning existing2 on the other hand1 many of the palaces in ,france are weak and poor to the last degree4 ,as a rule the scale of the plan is more considerable than in ,gothic work4 ,a very large building is often not divided into more parts than a small one1 or one of moderate size4 ,in ,st4 ,peter's1 for example1 there are only four bays between the west front and the dome1 everything being on a most gigantic scale4 ,as a contrast to this principle we may cite the nave of the ,gothic cathedral at ,milan1 which is not so long at ,st4 ,peter's1 but has at least thrice as many bays1 and looks much larger in consequence4 ,no style affords more room for skill in planning than the ,renaissance1 and in no style is the exercise of such skill more repaid by results4 ,walls and ,columns4 ,in the treatment of external walls1 the mediaeval use of small materials1 involving many joints for the exterior of walls has quite disappeared1 and they are universally faced with stone or plaster1 and are consequently uniformly smooth4 ,perhaps the principal feature to note is the very great use made of that elaborate sort of masonry in which the joints of the stones are very carefully channelled or otherwise marked1 and which is known by the singularly inappropriate name of rustic work4 ,the basements of most ,italian and ,french palaces are rusticated1 and in many cases 7as the ,pitti ,palace1 ,florence7 rustic work covers an entire facade4 ,the ,gothic mouldings in receding planes disappear entirely1 and the classic architrave takes their place4 ,the orders are again revived and are used 7as the ,romans often used them7 as purely decorative features added for the mere sake of ornament to a wall sufficient without them1 and are freely piled one upon the other4 ,palladio 7a very influential ,italian architect7 reproduced the use of lofty pilasters running through two or even more storeys of the building1 and often combined one tall order and two short ones in his treatment of the same part of the building1 a contrivance which in less clever hands than his has given rise to the greatest confusion4 ,the ,renaissance architects also revived the late ,roman manner of employing the column and entablature4 ,they frequently carried on the top of a column a little square pier divided up as the architrave and frieze proper to the column would be divided1 and they surmounted it with a cornice which was carried quite round this pier1 and from this curious compound pedestal an arch will frequently spring4 ,the classic portico1 with pediments1 was constantly employed by them2 and small pediments over window heads were common4 ,a peculiarity worth mention is the introduction in many ,italian palaces of a great crowning cornice1 proportioned not to the size of the columns and of the order upon which it rests 7if an order be employed71 but to the height of the whole building4 ,much fine effect is obtained by means of this feature2 it is1 however1 better fitted for sunny ,italy than for gloomy ,england1 and it is not an unmixed success when repeated in our climate4 ,towers are less frequently employed than by the ,gothic architects1 and indeed in ,italy the sky-line was less thought of at this period than it was in the middle ages4 ,in churches1 towers sometimes occur1 nowhere more picturesque than those designed by ,sir ,christopher ,wren for many of his ,london parish churches4 ,the frequent use of the dome takes the place of the tower both in churches and secular buildings4 ,openings4 ,openings are both flat-headed and semicircular1 occasionally elliptical1 but hardly ever pointed4 ,renaissance buildings may be to some extent divided into those which depend for effect upon window openings1 and those which depend chiefly upon architectural features such as cornices1 pilasters1 and orders4 ,among the buildings where fenestration 7or the treatment of windows7 is relied upon the palaces of ,venice stand pre-eminent as compositions admirably designed for effect and very successful4 ,in them the openings are massed near the centre of the facade1 and strong piers are left near the angles1 a simple expedient when once known1 and one inherited from the ,gothic palaces in that city1 but giving remarkable individuality of character to this group of buildings4 ,in roofs1 including vaults and domes1 we meet with a divergence of practice between ,italy and ,france4 ,in ,italy low-pitched roofs were the rule3 the parapet alone often formed the sky-line1 and the dome and pediment are usually the only telling features of the outline4 ,france1 on the other hand1 revived a most picturesque feature of ,gothic days1 namely1 the high-pitched roof1 employing it in the shape commonly known as the ,mansard#cj roof4 ,nothing adds more to the effectiveness of the great ,french ,renaissance buildings than these lofty terminals4 ,the dome is1 however1 the glory of this style1 as it had been of the ,roman4 ,it is the one feature by which revived and original classic architects retain a clear and defined advantage over ,gothic architects1 who1 strange to say1 all but abandoned the dome4 ,the mouldings and other ornaments of the ,renaissance are much the same as those of the ,roman style1 which the ,italians revived2 their sculptures and their mural decorations were all originally drawn from classic sources4 ,these1 however1 attained very great excellence1 and it is probable that such decorative paintings as ,raphael and his scholars executed in ,rome1 at ,genoa1 at ,mantua1 and elsewhere1 far surpass anything which the old ,roman decorative artists ever executed4 ,construction and ,design4 ,the earlier ,renaissance buildings are remarkable for the great use which their architects made of carpentry1 as the most modern structures are for the use of wrought and cast-iron construction4 ,as regards carpentry1 it is of course true that all the woodwork of the classic periods1 and much of that done in the ,gothic period1 has perished1 either through decay or fire2 but making every allowance for this1 we must still recognise a very great increase in the employment of timber as an integral part of large structures4 ,vaulted roofs for example are comparatively rare1 and domes1 even when the inner dome is of brickwork or masonry1 have their outer envelope of carpentry4 ,a disuse of brick and rough masonry1 or rather a constant effort to conceal them from view1 is a distinctive mark of ,renaissance work4 ,the ,roman method of facing rough walls with fine stone was resorted to in the best buildings4 ,in humbler buildings plaster is employed4 ,renaissance architects made very free use of plaster4 ,inside and out this material is utilised1 not merely to cover surfaces1 but to form architectural features4 ,cornices1 panels1 and enrichments of all kinds modelled in plaster are constantly employed in the interior of rooms and buildings4 ,on the exterior we constantly find imitations of similar architectural features proper to stone executed in plaster and simulating stone2 a short-sighted practice which cannot be commended1 and which has only cheapness and convenience in its favour4 ,there can be no question of the fact that the features thus executed never equal those done in stone in their effectiveness1 and are far more liable to decay4 ,design in ,renaissance buildings may be said to be directed towards producing a telling result by the effect of the buildings taken as a whole1 rather than by the intricacy or the beauty of individual parts2 and herein lies one of the great contrasts between ,renaissance and ,gothic architecture4 ,a ,renaissance building which fails to produce an impression as a whole is rarely felt to be successful4 ,no better example of this can be given than the straggling1 unsatisfactory ,palace of ,versailles1 magnificent as it is in dimensions and rich in treatment4 ,to the production of a homogeneous impression the arrangement of plan1 the proportion of storeys1 the contrasts of voids and solids1 and above all the outline of the entire building1 should be devoted4 ,the general arrangement of buildings is usually strictly symmetrical1 one half corresponding to the other1 and with some well-defined feature to mark the centre4 ,of course in very large buildings this does not occur1 nor in the nature of things can it often take place in the sides of churches2 but the individual features of such buildings1 and all those parts of them which permit of symmetry in their arrangement1 always display it4 ,proportion plays an important part in the design of ,renaissance buildings4 ,the actual shape of openings1 the proportion which they bear to voids1 the proportion of storeys to one another2 and1 going into details1 the proportions which the different features--e4g41 cornice1 and the columns supporting it--should bear to one another1 have to be carefully studied4 ,it is to the possession of a keen sense of what makes a pleasing proportion and one satisfactory to the eye1 that the great architects of ,italy owed the greater part of their success4 ,renaissance architecture is so familiar in its general features1 and these have been so constantly repeated1 that we may not easily recognise the great need for skill and taste which exists if they are to be designed so as to produce the most refined effect possible4 ,many of the successful buildings of the style owe their excellence to the great delicacy and elegance of the mode in which the details have been studied1 rather than to the vigour and boldness with which the masses have been shaped and disposed2 and though grandeur is the noblest quality of which the style is capable1 yet many more opportunities for displaying grace and refinement than for attaining grandeur offer themselves1 and by nothing are the best works of the style so well marked out as by the success with which those opportunities have been grasped and turned to account4 ,the concealment both of construction and arrangement is largely practised in ,renaissance buildings4 ,behind an exterior wall filled by windows of uniform size and equally spaced1 rooms large and small1 corridors1 staircases1 and other features have to be provided for4 ,this is completely in contrast to the ,gothic principle of displaying frankly on the outside the arrangement of what is within2 but it must be remembered that art often works most happily and successfully when limited by apparently strict and difficult conditions1 and these rules have not prevented the great architects of the ,renaissance from accomplishing works where both the exterior and the interior are thoroughly successful1 and are brought into such happy harmony that the difficulties have clearly been no bar to success4 ,there is no canon of art violated by such a method1 the simple fact being that ,gothic buildings are designed under one set of conditions and ,renaissance under another4 ,it is less easy to defend the use of pilasters and columns large enough to appear as though they were the main support of the building1 for purely decorative purposes2 yet here perhaps the fault lies rather in the extent to which the practice has been carried1 and above all the scale upon which it is carried out1 than in anything else4 ,small columns are constantly employed in ,gothic buildings in positions where they serve the aesthetic purpose of conveying a sense of support1 but where it is impossible for them to carry any weight4 ,the ,renaissance architects have done the same thing on a large scale1 but it must not be forgotten that they only revived a ,roman practice as part of the ancient style to which they reverted1 and that they are not responsible for originating it4 ,it will be understood therefore that symmetry1 strict uniformity1 not mere similarity1 in features intended to correspond1 and constant repetition1 are leading principles in ,renaissance architecture4 ,these qualities tend to breadth rather than picturesqueness of effect1 and to similarity rather than contrast4 ,simplicity and elaboration are both compatible with ,renaissance design2 the former distinguishes the earlier and purer examples of the style1 the latter those more recent and more grandiose4 ,it should be observed that in the transition styles1 such as our own ,elizabethan1 or the ,french style of ,francis the ,first1 these principles of design are mixed up in a very miscellaneous way with those followed in the ,gothic period4 ,the result is often puzzling and inconsistent if we attempt to analyse it with exactness1 but rarely fails to charm by its picturesque and irregular vividness4 ,,footnotes3 #cj ,named after a ,french architect of the #agth century4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,a ,,terra-,,cotta ,,frieze ,,at ,,lodi4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture ,,in ,,italy4 ,renaissance architecture--the architecture of the classic revival--had its origin in ,italy1 and should be first studied in the land of its birth4 ,there are more ways than one in which it may be attempted to classify ,italian ,renaissance buildings4 ,the names of conspicuous architects are sometimes adopted for this purpose1 for now1 for the first time1 we meet with a complete record of the names and performances of all architects of note3 the men who raised the great works of ,gothic art are1 with a few exceptions1 absolutely unknown to us4 ,an approximate division into three stages can also be recognised4 ,there is an early1 a developed1 and a late ,renaissance1 but this is very far indeed from being a completely marked series1 and was more interfered with by local circumstances and by the character and genius of individual artists than in ,gothic4 ,for this reason a local division will be of most service4 ,the best examples exist in the great cities1 with a few exceptions1 and it is almost more useful to group them--as the paintings of the ,renaissance are also often grouped--by locality than in either of the other methods4 ,,florence4 ,renaissance architecture first sprang into existence in ,florence4 ,here chiefly the works of the early ,renaissance are met with1 and the names of the great ,florentine architects are ,brunelleschi and ,alberti4 ,brunelleschi was a citizen of ,florence1 of very ardent temperament and great energy1 and a true artist4 ,he was born in #acgg1 was originally trained as a goldsmith and sculptor1 but devoted himself to the study of architecture1 and early set his heart upon being appointed to complete the dome of the then unfinished cathedral of ,florence1 of which some account has already been given4 ,florence in the fifteenth century was full of artistic life1 and the revival of learning and arts had then begun to take definite shape4 ,the first years of the century found ,brunelleschi studying antiquities at ,rome1 to fit himself for the work he desired to undertake4 ,after his return to his native city1 he ultimately succeeded in the object of his ambition2 the cathedral was entrusted to him1 and he erected the large pointed dome with which it is crowned4 ,he also erected two large churches in ,florence1 which1 as probably the first important buildings designed and built in the new style1 possess great interest4 ,santo ,spirito1 one of these1 shows a fully matured system of architectural treatment1 and though it is quite true that it was a revived system1 yet the application of it to a modern building1 different in its purpose and in its design from anything the ,romans had ever done1 is little short of a work of genius4 ,santo ,spirito has a very simple and beautifully regular plan1 and its interior has a singular charm and grace3 over the crossing is raised a low dome4 ,the columns of the arcade are ,corinthian columns1 and the refinement of their detail and proportions strikes the eye at once on entering the building4 ,the influence of ,brunelleschi1 who died in #addj1 was perpetuated by the works and writings of ,alberti 7born #acih7 an architect of literary cultivation who wrote a systematic treatise which became extremely popular1 and helped to form the taste and guide the practice of his contemporaries4 ,he lived till near the close of the fifteenth century1 and erected some buildings of great merit4 ,to ,alberti we owe the design of the ,ruccellai ,palace in ,florence1 a building begun in #adfj1 and which had been preceded by somewhat bolder and simpler designs4 ,this is a three storey building1 but has pilasters carried up the piers between the windows and a regular entablature and cornice#ca at each storey4 ,the building is elegant and graceful1 and though the employment of the orders#cb as its decoration gives it a distinctive character1 it bears a strong general resemblance to the group of which the ,strozzi ,palace 7,fig4 #fa7 may be taken as the type4 ,the earliest ,florentine palaces are the ,riccardi1 which dates from #adcj1 and the ,pitti of almost the same date2 ,brunelleschi is said to have been consulted in the design of both1 but ,michelozzo was the architect4 ,the distinguishing characteristic of the early palaces in this city is solidity1 which rises from the fact that they were also fortresses4 ,the ,pitti1 well known for its picture gallery1 is a building of vast extent1 built throughout in very boldly rusticated masonry1 the joints and projections of the stones being greatly exaggerated4 ,the ,riccardi1 a square block of building1 bears a considerable resemblance to the ,strozzi1 but is plainer4 ,it is a most dignified building in its effect4 ,the ,strozzi ,palace 7,fig4 #fa7 was the next great palatial pile erected4 ,it was designed by ,cronaca1 and begun in #adih4 ,like the ,riccardi1 it is of three storeys1 with a bold projecting cornice4 ,the whole wall is covered with rusticated masonry2 the windows of the lower floor are small and square2 those of the two upper floors are larger and semicircular headed1 and with a shaft acting as a mullion1 and carrying arches which occupy the window head with something like tracery4 ,the entrance is by a semicircular headed archway4 ,there is a great height of unpierced wall in the lowest storey and above the heads of the two upper ranges of windows2 and to this and the bold overhanging cornice1 this building1 and those like it1 owe much of their dignity and impressiveness4 ,an elevation1 such as our illustration1 may convey a fair idea of the good proportion and ensemble of the front1 but it is difficult without actually seeing the buildings to appreciate the effect produced by such palaces as these1 seen foreshortened in the narrow streets1 and with the shadows from their bold cornices and well-defined openings intensified by the effect of the ,italian sun4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,strozzi ,,palace ,,at ,,florence4 7,,begun #adhi47 ,many excellent palatial buildings belong to the end of the fifteenth century4 ,one among them is attributed to ,bramante 7who died #aeac71 a ,florentine1 whom we shall meet with in ,rome and elsewhere4 ,the ,guadagni ,palace has an upper storey entirely open1 forming a sheltered loggia1 but it is mentioned here chiefly on account of the decorations incised on its walls by the method known as ,sgraffito4 ,part of the plain wall is covered in this way with decorative designs1 which appear as though drawn with a bold line on their surface4 ,an example of this decoration will be found in our illustration 7,fig4 #fb71 representing a portion of the ,loggia del ,consiglio at ,verona4 ,the series of great ,florentine palaces closes with a charming example1 the ,pandolfini1 designed by the great ,raphael1 and commenced in #aebj--;in other words1 in the first quarter of the sixteenth century4 ,this palace is only one of many instances to be found in ,italy of the skill in more walks of art than one1 of some of the greatest artists4 ,raphael1 though best known as a painter1 executed works of sculpture of great merit1 and designed some other buildings besides the one now under notice4 ,the ,pandolfini ,palace 7,fig4 #fc7 is small1 the main building having only four windows in the front and two storeys in height1 with a low one-storey side building4 ,its general design has been very successfully copied in the ,travellers' ,club ,house1 ,pall ,mall4 ,on comparing this with any of the previously named designs1 it will be seen that the semicircular headed windows have disappeared1 the rusticated masonry is only now retained at the angles1 and to emphasise the side entrance2 and a small order with a little pediment 7i4e4 gable7 is employed to mark each opening1 door or window4 ,in short this building belongs not only to another century1 but to that advanced school of art to which we have given the name of developed ,italian ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,,part ,,of ,,the ,,loggia ,,del ,,consiglio ,,at ,,verona4 7#af,,th ,,century47 ,showing the incised decoration known as ,sgraffito4 ,in ,florence some of the work of ,michelangelo is to be met with4 ,his own house is here2 so is the famous ,medici chapel1 a work in which we find him displaying power at once as a sculptor and an architect4 ,this interior is very fine and very studied both in its proportions and its details4 ,the church of the ,annunziata1 remarkable for a fine dome1 carried on a drum resting directly on the ground1 is the foremost ,renaissance church in ,florence4 ,the contrast between early and matured ,renaissance can indeed be better recognised in ,florence than in almost any other city4 ,the early work1 that of ,bramante1 ,brunelleschi1 and the architects who drew their inspirations from these masters1 was delicate and refined4 ,the detail was always elegant1 the ornament always unobtrusive1 and often most graceful4 ,features comparatively small in scale were employed1 and were set off by the use of plain wall-surface1 which was unhesitatingly displayed4 ,the classic orders were used in a restricted1 unobtrusive way1 and with pilasters in preference to columns2 and though probably the architects themselves would have repudiated the idea that the ,gothic art1 which they had cast behind them1 influenced their practice of revived classic in the remotest degree1 it is nevertheless true that many of these peculiarities1 and still more the general quality of the designs1 were to a large extent those to which the practice of ,gothic architecture had led them4 ,a change which was partly due to a natural desire for progress1 was helped on by the great attention paid by students of architecture to the remains of ancient ,roman buildings2 but it was the influence excited by the powerful genius of ,michelangelo1 and by the gigantic scale and vigorous treatment of his masterpiece1 ,st4 ,peter's1 which was the proximate occasion of a revolution in taste and practice1 to which1 the labours1 both literary and artistic1 of ,vignola1 and the designs of ,palladio1 gave form and consistency4 ,in the fully-developed1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 pure ,renaissance of ,italy1 great use is made of the classic orders and pediment1 and indeed of all the features which the ,romans had employed4 ,plain wall space almost disappears under the various architectural features introduced1 and all ornaments1 details1 and mouldings become bolder and richer1 but often less refined and correct in design4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,the ,,pandolfini ,,palace1 ,,florence4 ,,designed ,,by ,,raphael4 7,,begun #aebj47 ,,rome4 ,rome1 the capital of the country1 contains1 as was fit1 the central building of the fully-developed ,renaissance1 ,st4 ,peter's4 ,bramante1 the ,florentine1 was the architect to whom the task of designing a cathedral to surpass anything existing in ,europe was committed by ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 at the opening of the sixteenth century4 ,some such project had been entertained1 and even begun1 fifty years earlier1 but the enterprise was now started afresh1 a new design was made1 and the first stone was laid by the ,pope in #aejf4 ,bramante died in some six or seven years1 and five or six architects in succession1 one of whom was ,raphael1 proceeded with the work1 without advancing it rapidly1 for nearly half a century1 during which time the design was modified again and again4 ,in #aedf the great ,michelangelo was appointed architect1 and the last eighteen years of his life were spent in carrying on this great work4 ,he completed the magnificent dome in all its essential parts1 and left the church a ,greek cross 7i4e4 one which has all its four arms equal7 on plan1 with the dome at the crossing4 ,the boast is attributed to him that he would take the dome of the ,pantheon and hang it in the air2 and this he has virtually accomplished in the dome of ,st4 ,peter's--a work of the greatest beauty of design and boldness of construction4 ,unfortunately1 at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 ,maderno was employed to lengthen the nave4 ,this transformed the plan of the cathedral into a ,latin cross4 ,the existing portico was built at the same time2 and in #affa ,bernini added the vast forecourt1 lined by colonnades1 which now forms the approach4 ,this cathedral1 of which the history has been briefly sketched1 is the largest in the world4 ,as we now see it1 it consists of a vast vestibule2 a nave of four bays with side aisles2 a vast square central space over which hangs the great dome2 transepts and a choir1 each of one bay and an apse4 ,outside the great central space1 an aisle1 not quite like the ordinary aisle of a church1 exists1 and there are two side chapels4 ,it can be well understood that if the largest church in ,christendom is divided into so few parts1 these must be themselves of colossal dimensions1 and the truth is that the piers are masses of masonry which can be called nothing else than vast1 while the spaces spanned by the arches and vaults are prodigious4 ,there is little sense of mystery about the interior of the building 7,fig4 #fd71 the eye soon grasps it as a whole1 and hours must be spent in it before an idea of its gigantic size is at all taken in4 ,the beauty of the colouring adds wonderfully to the effect of ,st4 ,peter's upon the spectator1 for the walls are rich with mosaics and coloured marbles2 and the interior1 the dome especially1 with the drum upon which it rests1 are decorated in colour throughout1 with fine effect and in excellent taste4 ,the interior is amply lighted1 and1 though very rich1 not over decorated2 its design is simple and noble in the extreme1 and all its parts are wonderful in their harmony4 ,the connection between the dome and the rest of the building is admirable1 and there is a sense of vast space when the spectator stands under that soaring vault which belongs to no other building in the world4 ,the exterior is disappointing as long as the building is seen in front1 for the facade is so lofty and advances so far forward as to cut off the view of the lower part of the dome4 ,to have an idea of the building as ,michelangelo designed it1 it is necessary to go round to the back2 and then1 with the height of the drum fully seen and the contour of the dome1 with all its massy lines of living force1 carrying the eye with them right up to the elegant lantern that crowns the summit1 some conception of the hugeness and the symmetry of this mountain of art seems to dawn on the mind4 ,but even here it is with the utmost difficulty that one can apply any scale to the mass1 so that the idea which the mind forms of its bulk is continually fluctuating4 ,the history of this building extends over all the period of developed ,renaissance in ,rome1 and its list of architects includes all the best known names4 ,by the side of it every other church1 even ,st4 ,john ,lateran1 appears insignificant2 so that the secular buildings in ,rome1 which are numerous1 and some of them excellent1 are more worth attention than the churches1 though not a few of the three hundred churches and basilicas of the metropolis of ,italy are good examples of ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,at ,,rome4 ,,interior4 7#aejf-affa47 ,the altars1 tombs1 and other architectural or semi-architectural works which occur in many of the churches of ,rome1 are1 however1 finer works of art as a rule than the buildings which they adorn4 ,such gems are not confined to ,rome1 but are to be found throughout ,italy3 many of them belong to the best period of art4 ,marble is generally the material1 and the light as a rule falls on these works in one direction only4 ,under these circumstances the most subtle moulding gives a play of light and shade1 and the most delicate carving produces a richness of effect which cannot be attained in exterior architecture1 executed for the most part in stone1 exposed to the weather1 and seen by diffused and reflected light4 ,nothing of this sort is finer than the monuments by ,sansovino1 erected in ,sta4 ,maria del ,popolo at ,rome1 one of which we illustrate on a small scale 7,fig4 #fe74 ,the magnificent altar-piece in ,sta4 ,coronale at ,vicenza1 in which is framed ,bellini's picture of the baptism of ,christ1 is another example1 on an unusually large scale--fine in style1 and covered with beautiful ornament4 ,no secular building exists in ,rome so early or so simple as the severe ,florentine palaces2 but ,bramante1 who belongs to the early period1 erected there the fine ,cancelleria palace2 and the ,palazzo ,giraud 7,fig4 #ff74 ,these buildings resemble one another very closely2 each bears the impress of refined taste1 but delicacy has been carried almost to timidity4 ,the pilasters and cornices which are employed have the very slightest projection1 but the large mass of the wall as compared with the openings1 secures an appearance of solidity1 and hence of dignity4 ,the interior of the ,cancelleria contains an arcaded quadrangle 7cortile7 of great beauty4 ,smaller palaces belonging to the same period and of the same refined1 but somewhat weak1 character exist in ,rome4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,monument1 ,,by ,,sansovino1 ,,in ,,sta4 ,,maria ,,del ,,popolo1 ,,rome4 7#ae,,th ,,century47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,,palazzo ,,giraud 7,,now ,,torlonia71 ,,rome4 ,,by ,,bramante4 7#aejf47 ,the ,vatican ,palace is so vast that1 like ,st4 ,peter's1 it took more than one generation to complete4 ,to ,bramante's time belongs the great ,belvedere1 since much altered1 but in its original state an admirable work4 ,this palace also can show some remarkable additions by ,bernini1 a much later architect1 with much that is not admirable or remarkable by other hands4 ,the finest ,roman palace is the ,farnese1 begun by ,san ,gallo in #aecj1 continued by ,michelangelo1 and completed by ,giacomo della ,porta1 each architect having altered the design4 ,this building1 notwithstanding its chequered history1 is a dignified1 impressive mass4 ,it has only three storeys and a scarcely marked basement1 and is nearly square1 with a large quadrangle in its heart4 ,it is very lofty1 and has a great height of unpierced wall over each storey of windows1 and is crowned by a bold and highly-enriched cornice--an unusual thing for ,rome4 ,in this1 and in many palaces built about the same time1 the windows are ornamented in the same manner as those of the ,pandolfini ,palace at ,florence2 the use of pilasters instead of columns is general2 the openings are usually square-headed1 circular heads being usually confined to arcades and loggie2 the angles are marked by rustication1 and the only cornice is the one that crowns the whole4 ,this general character will apply to most of the works of ,baldassare ,peruzzi1 ,vignola1 ,sangallo1 and ,raphael1 who were1 with ,michelangelo1 the foremost architects in ,rome in the sixteenth century4 ,but the works executed by ,michelangelo are in a bolder and more pictorial style1 as are also many productions grafted on the earlier ,italian manner by a numerous class of succeeding architects4 ,in these is to be remarked a greater use of columns1 engaged and isolated2 stronger but less studied details2 and a greater use of colonnades1 in which however the combination with the semicircular arch is still unusual1 the antique in this respect being followed to a great disadvantage4 ,still there is a nobility1 a palatial look about these large mansions which is very admirable1 and is to be remarked in all the palaces1 even up to the time of ,borromini1 circa #afdj1 by whom all the principles and parts of ,roman architecture were literally turned topsy-turvey4 ,michelangelo's peculiar style was more thoroughly carried out on ecclesiastical buildings1 and as practised by his successors1 exhibits much that is fine1 in large masses1 boldly projecting cornices1 three-quarter columns1 and noble domes2 but it is otherwise debased by great misconceptions as to the reasonable application of architecture4--,m4 ,d4 ,w4 ,in the seventeenth century a decline set in4 ,the late ,renaissance has neither the severity of the early1 nor the dignified richness of the mature time1 but is extravagant2 though at ,rome examples of its extreme phase are not common4 ,maderno1 who erected the west front of ,st4 ,peter's1 and ,bernini1 who added the outer forecourt and also built the curiously designed state staircase 7the scala regia7 in the ,vatican1 are the foremost architects4 ,to these must be added ,borromini4 ,the great ,barberini ,palace belongs to this century2 but perhaps its most characteristic works are the fountains1 some of them with elaborate architectural backgrounds1 which ornament many of the open places in ,rome4 ,few of the buildings of the eighteenth century in ,rome1 or indeed in ,italy generally1 claim attention as architectural works of a high order of merit4 ,before leaving central ,italy for the north1 it is necessary to mention the masterpiece of ,vignola--the great ,farnese ,palace at ,caprarola2 and to add that in every city of importance examples more or less admirable of the art of the time were erected4 ,,venice1 ,,vicenza1 ,,and ,,verona4 ,the next great group of ,renaissance buildings is to be found at ,venice1 where the style was adopted with some reluctance1 and not till far on in the sixteenth century4 ,at first we meet with some admixture of ,gothic elements2 as1 for example1 in the rebuilding of the internal quadrangle of the ,ducal ,palace4 ,pointed arches are partly employed in this work1 which was completed about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,in the earlier palaces--which1 it will be remembered1 are comparatively narrow buildings standing side by side on the banks of the canals--the storeys are well marked2 the windows are round headed with smaller arches within the main ones2 the orders when introduced are kept subordinate2 the windows are grouped together in the central portion of the front1 as was the case with those of the ,gothic palaces1 and very little use is made of rusticated masonry4 ,the ,vendramini1 ,cornaro1 and ,trevisano ,palaces conform to this type4 ,to the same period belong one or two fine churches1 the most famous being ,san ,zacaria1 a building with a very delicately panelled front1 and a semicircular pediment in lieu of a gable2 here1 too1 semicircular-headed openings are made use of4 ,in many of these churches and other buildings1 a beautiful ornament1 which may be regarded as typical of early ,venetian ,renaissance1 is to be found4 ,it is the shell ornament1 so called from its resemblance to a flat semicircular shell1 ribbed from the centre to the circumference 7,fig4 #fg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,italian ,,shell ,,ornament4 ,as time went on the style was matured into one of great richness1 not to say ostentation1 with which the names of ,sansovino1 ,sanmichele1 ,palladio1 and ,scamozzi are identified as the prominent architects of the latter part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,in this city of palaces ,sansovino1 also a very fine sculptor1 built the celebrated ,library of ,st4 ,mark1 facing the ,ducal ,palace1 which has been followed very closely in the design of the ,carlton ,club1 ,pall ,mall4 ,here1 as in the splendid ,cornaro ,palace1 the architect relied chiefly upon the columns and entablatures of the orders1 combined with grand arcades enriched by sculpture1 so arranged as to occupy the spaces between the columns2 almost the whole of the wall-space was so taken up1 and the basement only was covered with rustication1 often rough worked1 as at the beautiful ,palazzo ,pompeii1 ,verona1 and the ,grimani ,palace1 ,venice4 ,sanmichele's works are characterised chiefly by their excellent proportions1 their carefully studied detail1 their strength1 and their beauty 7qualities so difficult to combine74 ,we believe that the buildings of this great architect and engineer at ,verona are pre-eminent in their peculiar style over those of any other artist of the sixteenth century4 ,in a different1 but no less meritorious1 manner are the buildings designed by ,sansovino2 they are characterised by a more sculptural and ornamental character2 order over order with large arched voids in the interspaces of the columns producing a pictorial effect which might have led his less gifted followers into a false style1 but for the example of the celebrated ,palladio4--,m4 ,d4 ,w4 ,to the latest time of the ,renaissance in ,venice belongs the picturesque domed church of ,st4 ,maria della ,salute1 conspicuous in many views of the ,grand ,canal1 a building which is a work of real genius in spite of what is considered its false taste4 ,it dates from #afcb4 ,the architect is ,longhena4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,the ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,redentore1 ,,venice4 7#aegf47 ,an almost endless series of palaces and houses can be found in ,venice1 all of them rich1 but few of great extent1 for every foot of space had to be won from the sea by laborious engineering4 ,there are some features which never fail to present themselves1 and which are consequences of the conditions under which the structures were designed4 ,all rise from the water1 and require to admit of gondolas coming under the walls2 hence there is always a principal central entrance with steps in front1 but this entrance never has any sort of projecting portico or porch1 and is never very much larger than the other openings in the front4 ,as a straight frontage to the water had to be preserved1 we hardly ever meet with such a thing as a break or projection of any sort2 but the ,venetian architects have found other means of giving interest to their elevations1 and it is to the very restrictions imposed by circumstances that we owe the great originality displayed in their earlier buildings4 ,the churches do not usually front directly on to the water2 and though they are almost all good of their kind1 they are far more commonplace than the palaces4 ,the system of giving variety to the facade of the secular buildings by massing openings near the centre1 has been already referred to4 ,both shadow and richness were also aimed at in the employment of projecting balconies2 in fact the two usually go together1 for the great central window or group of windows mostly has a large and rich balcony belonging to it4 ,not far from ,venice is ,vicenza1 and here ,palladio1 whose best buildings in ,venice are churches1 such1 for example1 as the ,redentore 7,fig4 #fh71 enjoyed an opportunity of erecting a whole group of palaces1 the fronts of which are extremely remarkable as designs2 though1 being executed in brick and plastered1 they are now falling to ruin4 ,there is much variety in them1 and while some of them rely upon his device of lofty pilasters to include two storeys of the building under one storey of architectural treatment1 others are handled differently4 ,in all a singularly fine feeling for proportion and for the appropriate omission as well as introduction of ornament is to be detected4 ,the worst defect of these fronts is1 however1 that they appear more like masks than the exteriors of buildings1 for there is little obvious connection between the features of the exterior and anything which we may suppose to exist inside the building4 ,the finest architectural work left behind by ,palladio in this city are1 however1 the great arcades with which he surrounded the ,basilica1 a vast building of the middle ages already alluded to4 ,these arcades are two storeys high1 and are rich1 yet vigorous2 they ornament the great structure1 the roof of which may be seen rising behind1 without overpowering it4 ,,milan ,,and ,,pavia4 ,in ,milan two buildings at least belong to the early ,renaissance4 ,these are the sacristy of ,sta4 ,maria presso ,san ,satiro1 and the eastern portion of the church of ,sta4 ,maria delle ,grazie2 ,bramante was the architect of both4 ,the last-named work is an addition to an existing ,gothic church2 it is executed in the terra-cotta and brick of ,lombardy1 materials which the ,renaissance architects seemed to shun in later times1 and is full of the most profuse and elegant ornaments4 ,the design consists of a dome1 treated externally a little like some of the ,lombard domes of earlier date2 and three apses forming choir and transepts4 ,it is divided into several stages1 and abundantly varied in its panelling and arcading1 and is full of vigour4 ,by ,bramante is also the very beautiful arcaded quadrangle of the great hospital at ,milan1 the ,gothic front of which has been already noticed4 ,there are many ,renaissance buildings of later date in ,milan1 but none very remarkable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,the ,,certosa ,,near ,,pavia4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,front4 7,,begun ,,by ,,borgognone #adgc47 ,to the early period belongs the design of the facade of the ,certosa near ,pavia1 part of which is shown 7,fig4 #fi74 ,this was begun as early as #adgc1 by ,ambrogio ,borgognone1 and was long in hand4 ,it proceeded on the lines settled thus early1 and is probably the richest facade belonging to any church in ,christendom2 it is executed entirely in marble4 ,sculpture is employed to adorn every part that is near the eye1 and especially the portal1 which is flanked by pilasters with their faces panelled and occupied by splendid alti relievi4 ,the upper part is enriched by inlays of costly marbles1 but the two systems of decoration do not thoroughly harmonise2 for the upper half looks coarse1 which it in reality is not1 in contrast with the delicate richness of the carving near the eye4 ,the great features1 such as the entrance1 the windows1 and the angle pinnacles are thoroughly good1 and an arcade of small arches is twice introduced1--once running completely across the front at about half its height1 and again near the top of the central portion1--with excellent effect 7see ,frontispiece74 ,,genoa1 ,,turin1 ,,and ,,naples4 ,turning now to ,genoa we find1 as we may in several great cities of ,italy1 that very great success has been achieved by an artist whose works are to be seen in no other city1 and whose fame is proportionally restricted4 ,just as the power of ,luini as a painter can only be fully understood at ,milan1 or that of ,giulio ,romano at ,mantua1 so the genius of ,alessio 7#aejj to #aegb7 as an architect can only be understood at ,genoa4 ,from the designs of this architect were built a series of well planned and imposing palaces4 ,these buildings have most of them the advantage of fine and roomy sites4 ,the fronts are varied1 but as a rule consist of a very bold basement1 with admirably-treated vigorous mouldings1 supporting a lighter superstructure1 and in one or two instances flanked by an open arcade at the wings4 ,the entrance gives access1 through a vaulted hall1 to the cortile1 which is usually planned and designed in the most effective manner2 and in several instances the state staircase is so combined with this feature that on ascending the first flight the visitor comes to a point of sight for which the whole may be said to have been designed1 and from which a splendid composition of columns and arches is seen4 ,the rooms and galleries in these palaces are very fine1 and in several instances have been beautifully decorated in fresco by ,perino del ,vaga4 ,alessio was also the architect of a large domical church 7il ,carignano7 in the same city2 but it is far inferior in merit to his series of palaces4 ,genoa also possesses a famous church 7the ,annunziata7 of late ,renaissance1 attributed to ,puget 7#afbb-afid74 ,it is vaulted1 and enriched with marbles1 mosaics1 and colour to such an extent that it may fairly claim to be the most gaudy church in ,italy1 which is unfortunate1 as its original undecorated design is fine and simple4 ,turin in the north1 and ,naples in the south1 are chiefly remarkable for examples of the latest and more or less debased ,renaissance1 and we therefore do not propose to illustrate or describe any of the buildings in either city4 ,,country ,,villas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,villa ,,medici--,,on ,,the ,,pincian ,,hill ,,near ,,rome4 ,,by ,,annibale ,,lippi 7,,now ,,the ,academie ,francaise74 7,a4,d4 #aedj47 ,as the ancient ,roman patrician had his villa1 which was his country resort1 the ,italian of the revival followed his example1 and1 if he was wealthy enough1 built himself a pleasure house1 which he called a villa1 either in the immediate suburbs of his city1 or at some little distance away in the country4 ,these buildings occur throughout ,italy4 ,many of them are excellent examples of ,renaissance architecture of a more modest type than that of the palaces4 ,the ,villa ,papa ,giulio1 built from the designs of ,vignola1 and the ,villa ,medici1 designed by ,annibale ,lippi1 but attributed1 for some unknown reason1 to ,michelangelo1 may be mentioned as among the most thoroughly architectural out of some twenty or more splendid villas in the suburbs of ,rome alone4 ,many of these buildings were erected late in the ,renaissance period1 and are better worth attention for their fine decorations and the many works of art collected within their walls than as architectural studies--but this is not always the case2 and as they were mostly designed to serve the purpose of elegant museums rather than that of country houses as we understand the term1 they usually possess noble interiors1 and exhibit throughout elaborate finish1 choice materials1 and lavish outlay4 ,illustration3 ,,early ,,renaissance ,,corbel4 ,,from ,a ,,door ,,in ,,santa ,,maria1 ,,venice4 ,,footnotes3 #ca ,an entablature is the superstructure which ordinarily is carried by a column1 and which it is usual to divide into architrave 7or beam71 frieze1 and cornice4 #cb ,an order consists of a column 7or pilaster7 with its distinctive base and capital1 its entablature1 and the appropriate decorations4 ,there are five orders1 differing in proportions1 in the degree of enrichment required1 and in the design of the base and capital of the column or pilaster1 and of the entablature4 ,illustration3 ,,ornament ,,by ,,giulio ,,romano4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture ,,in ,,france ,,and ,,north ,,europe4 ,,chronological ,,sketch4 ,the revived classic architecture came direct from ,italy1 and did not reach ,france till it had been well established in the land of its origin4 ,it was not however received with the same welcome which hailed its appearance in ,italy4 ,gothic architecture had a strong hold on ,france1 and accordingly1 instead of a sudden change1 we meet with a period of transition1 during which buildings were erected with features partly ,gothic and partly ,renaissance1 and on varied principles of design4 ,french ,renaissance underwent great fluctuations1 and it is less easy to divide it into broad periods than to refer1 as most ,french writers prefer to do1 to the work of each prominent monarch's reign separately4 ,francis the ,first 7#aeae-aedg7 made the architecture of ,italy fashionable in his kingdom1 and his name is borne by the beautiful transitional style of his day4 ,this in most cases retains some ,gothic forms1 and the principles of composition are in the main ,gothic1 but the features are mostly of ,italian origin1 though handled with a fineness of detail and a smallness of scale that is not often met with1 even in early ,italian ,renaissance4 ,there are few buildings more charming in the architecture of any age or country than the best specimens of the style of ,francis the ,first1 and none that can bear so much decoration and yet remain so little overladen by the ornaments they carry4 ,the finest example is the ,chateau of ,chambord1 a large building1 nearly square on plan1 with round corner towers1 capped by simple and very steep roofs1 at the angles2 and having as its central feature1 a large and lofty mass of towers1 windows and arcades1 surmounted by steep roofs1 ending in a kind of huge lantern4 ,the windows have mullions and transoms like ,gothic windows1 but pilasters of elegant ,renaissance design ornament the walls4 ,the main cornice is a kind of compromise between an ,italian and a ,gothic treatment4 ,dormer windows1 high and sharply pointed1 but with little pilasters and pediments as their ornaments1 occur constantly2 and the chimneys1 which are of immense mass and great height1 are panelled profusely1 and almost ostentatiously displayed1 especially on the central portion4 ,in the interior of the central building is a famous staircase2 but the main attractions are the bright and animated appearance of the whole exterior1 and the richness and gracefulness of the details4 ,the same architecture is to be well seen in the north side of the famous ,chateau of ,blois--a building parts of which were executed in three different periods of ,french architecture4 ,the exterior of the ,francois premier part of ,blois is irregular1 and portions of the design are wildly picturesque2 on the side which fronts towards the quadrangle1 the architecture is more symmetrically designed1 and beauty rather than picturesque effect has been aimed at4 ,an open staircase is the part of the quadrangle upon which most care has been lavished4 ,throughout the whole block of buildings the character of each individual feature and of every combination of features is graceful and piquant4 ,the elegance and delicacy of some of the carved decoration in the interior is unsurpassed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,,window ,,from ,a ,,house ,,at ,,orleans4 7,,early #af,,th ,,century47 ,in the valley of the ,loire there exist many noblemen's chateaux of this date1 corresponding in general character with ,chambord and ,blois1 though on a smaller scale4 ,of these ,chenonceaux1 fortunate alike in its design and its situation1 is the most elegant and the best known3 yet many others exist which approach it closely1 such1 for example1 as the ,chateau de ,gaillon--a fragment of which forms part of the ,ecole des ,beaux ,arts at ,paris--the ,hotel de ,ville of ,beaugency1 the ,chateaux of ,chateaudun1 ,azay-le-,rideau1 ,la ,cote1 and ,usse2 the ,hotel d',anjou at ,angers1 and the house of ,agnes ,sorel at ,orleans4 ,in the streets of ,orleans houses of this date 7,fig4 #ga7 are to be found1 showing the style cleverly adapted to the requirements of town dwellings and shops4 ,several of them also possess courtyards with arcades or other architectural features treated with great freedom and beauty1 for instance1 the arcades in the house of ,francois ,premier 7,fig4 #gb74 ,an arcade in the courtyard of the ,gothic ,hotel de ,bourgtherould at ,rouen1 is one of the best known examples of the style remaining1 and instances of it may be met with as far apart as at ,caen 7east end of church of ,st4 ,pierre7 and ,toulouse 7parts of ,st4 ,sernin74 ,one ,paris church1 that of ,st4 ,eustache1 belonging to this transitional period claims mention1 since for boldness and completeness it is one of the best of any date in that city4 ,st4 ,eustache is a five-aisled church with an apse1 transept1 and lateral chapels outside the outer aisle4 ,it is vaulted throughout1 and its plan and structure are those of a ,gothic church in all respects4 ,its details are however all ,renaissance1 but not so good as those to be found at ,blois1 nor so appropriately used1 yet notwithstanding this it has a singularly impressive interior4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,,capital ,,from ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,francis ,i41 ,,orleans4 7#aedj47 ,meantime1 and alongside the buildings resulting from this fusion of styles1 others which were almost direct importations from ,italy were rising2 in some cases1 if not in all1 under the direction of ,italian architects4 ,thus on ,fontainebleau1 which ,francis ,i4 erected1 three or four ,italian architects1 one of whom was ,vignola1 were engaged4 ,it may or may not have been this connection of the great architect with this work which gave him influence in ,france1 but certainly almost the whole of the later ,french ,renaissance1 or at any rate its good time1 was marked by a conformity to the practice of ,vignola1 in whose designs we usually find one order of columns or pilasters for each storey1 rather than to that of ,palladio1 whose use of tall columns equalling in height two or more floors of the building has been already noticed4 ,designs for the ,louvre1 the rebuilding of which was commenced in the reign of ,francis the ,first 7about ,a4,d4 #aedd71 were made by ,serlio1 an ,italian2 and though ,pierre ,lescot was the architect of the portion built in that reign1 it is probable that the design obtained from ,serlio was in the main followed4 ,the part then finished1 which1 to a certain extent gave the keynote to the whole of this vast building1 was unquestionably a happy effort1 and may be taken to mark the establishment of a ,french version of matured ,renaissance architecture4 ,the main building has two orders of pilasters with cornices1 c41 and above them a low attic storey1 with short piers3 at the angles a taller pavilion was introduced1 and next the quadrangle arcades are introduced between the pilasters4 ,the sculpture1 some of it at least1 is from the chisel of ,jean ,goujon2 it is good and well placed1 and the whole has an air of dignity and richness4 ,the ,pavillon ,richelieu1 shewn in our engraving 7,fig4 #gc71 was not built till the next century4 ,the colossal figures are by ,barye4 ,a little later in date than the early part of the ,louvre was the ,hotel de ,ville1 built from the designs of ,pietro da ,cortona1 an ,italian1 and said to have been begun in #aedi4 ,the building had been greatly extended before its recent total destruction by fire1 but the central part1 which was the original portion1 was a fine vigorous composition1 having two lofty pavilions1 with high roofs at the extremities1 and a remarkably rich stone lantern of great height for a central feature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,,pavillon ,,richelieu ,,of ,,the ,,louvre1 ,,paris4 ,in the reign of ,charles ,,ix4 the ,palace of the ,tuileries was commenced 7#aefd7 for ,catherine de ,medicis1 from the designs of ,philibert ,delorme4 ,of this building1 that part only which fronted the garden was erected at the time4 ,our illustration 7,fig4 #gd7 shows the architectural character of a portion of it1 and it is easy to detect that considerable alterations have by this time been introduced into the treatment of the features of ,renaissance architecture4 ,the bands of rustication passing round the pilasters as well as the walls1 the broken pediments on the upper storey1 surmounted by figures1 and supported by long carved pilasters1 and the shape of the dormer windows are all of them quite foreign to ,renaissance architecture as practised in ,italy1 and may be looked upon as essentially ,french features4 ,similar details were employed in the work executed at about the same period1 by the same and other architects1 in other buildings1 as may be seen by our illustration 7,fig4 #ge7 of a portion of ,delorme's work at the ,louvre4 ,in these features1 which may be found in the ,chateau d',anet and other works of the same time1 and in the style to which they belong1 may be seen the direct result of ,michelangelo's ,medici ,chapel at ,florence1 a work which had much more effect on ,french than on ,italian architecture4 ,the full development of the architecture of ,michelangelo 7or rather the ornamental portions of it7 is to be found in ,french ,renaissance1 rather than in the works of his own successors in ,italy4 ,much of the late sixteenth century architecture of ,france was very inferior1 and the parts of the ,louvre and ,tuileries which date from the reign of ,henry ,,iv4 are the least satisfactory portions of those vast piles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,part ,,of ,,the ,,tuileries1 ,,paris4 7,,begun #aefd47 ,dating from the early part of the seventeenth century1 we have the ,palais ,royal built for ,richelieu1 and the ,palace of the ,luxembourg1 a building perhaps more correct and quiet than original or beautiful1 but against which the reproach of extravagant ornament cannot certainly be brought4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,capital ,,from ,,delorme',s ,,work ,,at ,,the ,,louvre4 7,,middle ,,of #af,,th ,,century47 ,with ,louis the ,fourteenth 7#afdc to #agae7 came in a great building period1 of which the most striking memorial is the vast and uninteresting ,palace of ,versailles4 ,the architect was the younger ,mansard 7#afdg to #agfh71 and the vastness of the scale upon which he worked only makes his failure to rise to his grand opportunity the more conspicuous4 ,the absence of features to diversify the sky-line is one of the greatest defects of this building1 a defect the less excusable as the high-pitched roof of ,gothic origin had never been abandoned in ,france4 ,this roof has been employed with great success in many buildings of the ,french ,renaissance4 ,apart from this fault1 the architectural features of ,versailles are so monotonous1 weak1 and uninteresting that the building1 though its size may astonish the spectator1 seldom rouses admiration4 ,far better is the eastern block of the ,louvre 7the portion facing the ,place du ,louvre71 though here also we find the absence of high roofs1 and the consequent monotony of the sky-line--a defect attaching to hardly any other portion of the building4 ,bernini was invited from ,italy for this work1 and there is a curious story in one of ,sir ,christopher ,wren's published letters of an interview he had with ,bernini while the latter was in ,paris on this business1 and of the glimpse which he was allowed to enjoy of the design the ,italian had made4 ,the building was1 however1 after all1 designed and carried out by ,perrault1 and1 though somewhat severe1 possesses great beauty and much of that dignity in which ,versailles is wanting4 ,the best ,french work of this epoch to be found in or out of ,paris is probably the ,hotel des ,invalides 7,fig4 #gf71 with its fine central feature4 ,this is crowned by the most striking dome in ,paris1 one which takes rank as second only in ,europe to our own ,st4 ,paul's1 for beauty of form and appropriateness of treatment4 ,the two domes are indeed somewhat alike in general outline4 ,the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 witnessed a large amount of building throughout ,france1 as well as in the metropolis1 and to the same period we must refer an enormous amount of lavish decoration in the interior of buildings1 the taste of which is to our eyes painfully extravagant4 ,purer taste on the whole prevailed1 if not in the reign of ,louis ,,xv4 certainly in that of ,louis ,,xvi41 to which period much really good decorative work1 and some successful architecture belongs4 ,the chief building of the latter part of the eighteenth century is the ,pantheon 7,ste4 ,genevieve71 the best domed church in ,france1 and one which must always take a high rank among ,renaissance buildings of any age or country4 ,the architect was ,soufflot1 and his ambition1 like that of the old ,gothic masons1 was not only to produce a work of art1 but a feat of skill2 his design accordingly provided a smaller area of walls and piers compared with the total floor space than any other ,renaissance church1 or indeed than any great church1 except a few of the very best specimens of late ,gothic construction1 such for example as ,king's ,college ,chapel4 ,the result has been that the fabric has not been quite stout enough to bear the weight of the dome1 and that it has required to be tied and propped and strengthened in various ways from time to time4 ,the plan of the ,pantheon is a ,greek cross1 with a short vestibule1 and a noble portico at the west1 and a choir corresponding to the vestibule on the east4 ,it has a fine central dome1 which is excellently seen from many points of view externally1 and forms the principal feature of the very effective interior4 ,each arm of the building is covered by a flat domical vault2 a single order of pilasters and columns runs quite round the interior of the church occupying the entire height of the walls2 and the light is admitted in a most successful manner by large semicircular windows at the upper part of the church1 starting above the cornice of the order4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,l',,eglise ,,des ,,invalides1 ,,paris4 ,,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,mansard4 7,,begun ,a4,d4 #afde47 ,one other work of the eighteenth century challenges the admiration of every visitor to ,paris and must not be overlooked1 because it is at once a specimen of architecture and of that skilful if formal arrangement of streets and public places in combination with buildings which the ,french have carried so far in the present century4 ,we allude to the two blocks of buildings1 occupied as government offices1 which front to the ,place de la ,concorde and stand at the corner of the ,rue ,royale4 ,they are the work of ,gabriel 7#agaj-aghb71 and are justly admired as dignified if a little heavy and uninteresting4 ,as specimens of architecture these buildings1 with the ,pantheon1 are enough to establish a high character for ,french art at a time when in most other ,european countries the standard of taste had fallen to a very low level4 ,the hotels 7i4e4 town mansions7 and chateaux of the ,french nobility furnish a series of examples1 showing the successive styles of almost every part of the ,renaissance period4 ,the phases of the style1 subsequent to that of ,francis the ,first1 can however1 be so well illustrated by public buildings in ,paris1 that it will be hardly necessary to go through a list of private residences however commanding2 but the ,chateau of ,maisons1 and the ,royal ,chateau of ,fontainebleau1 may be named as specimens of a class of building which shows the capacity of the ,renaissance style when freely treated4 ,renaissance buildings in ,france are distinguished by their large extent and the ample space which has been in many instances secured in connection with them4 ,they are rarely of great height or imposing mass like the early ,italian palaces4 ,for the most part they are a good deal broken up1 the surface of the walls is much covered by architectural features1 not usually on a large scale1 so that the impression of extent which really belongs to them is intensified by the treatment which their architects have adopted4 ,orders are frequently introduced and usually correspond with the storeys of the building4 ,however this may be the storeys are always well marked4 ,the sky-line also is generally picturesque and telling1 though ,versailles and the work of ,lescot at the ,louvre form an exception4 ,rustication is not much employed1 and the vast but simple crowning cornices of the ,italian palaces are never made use of4 ,narrow fronts like those at ,venice1 and open arcades or loggias like those of ,genoa1 do not form features of ,french ,renaissance buildings2 but on the other hand1 much richness1 and many varieties of treatment which the ,italians never attempted1 were tried1 and as a rule successfully1 in ,france4 ,much good sculpture is employed in external enrichments1 and a cultivated if often luxuriant taste is always shown4 ,many of the interiors are rich with carving1 gilding1 and mirrors1 but harmonious coloured decoration is rare1 and the fine and costly mosaics of ,italy are almost unknown4 ,,belgium ,,and ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,these countries afford but few examples of ,renaissance4 ,the ,town ,hall at ,antwerp1 an interesting building of the sixteenth century1 and the ,church of ,st4 ,anne at ,bruges1 are the most conspicuous buildings2 and there are other churches in the style which are characteristic1 and parts of which are really fine4 ,the interiors of some of the town halls display fittings of ,renaissance character1 often rich and fanciful in the extreme1 and bearing a general resemblance to ,french work of the same period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,,window ,,from ,,colmar4 7#aege47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,,zeughaus1 ,,dantzic4 7#afje47 ,,germany ,,and ,,northern ,,europe4 ,buildings of pure ,renaissance architecture1 anterior to the nineteenth century1 are scarce in ,germany1 or indeed in ,north-east ,europe2 but a transitional style1 resembling our own ,elizabethan1 grew up and long held its ground1 so that many picturesque buildings can be met with1 of which the design indicates a fusion of the ideas and features of ,gothic with those of classic art4 ,this architectural style took so strong a hold that examples of it may be found throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in almost every northern town4 ,that part of the ,castle of ,heidelberg1 which was built at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 may be cited as belonging to this ,german transitional style4 ,the front in this case is regularly divided by pilasters of the classic orders1 but very irregular in their proportions and position4 ,the windows are strongly marked1 and with carved mullions4 ,large dormer windows break into the high roof2 ornaments abound1 and the whole presents a curiously blended mixture of the regular and the picturesque4 ,rather earlier in date1 and perhaps rather more ,gothic in their general treatment1 are such buildings as the great ,council ,hall at ,rothenberg 7#aegb71 that at ,leipzig 7#aeef71 the ,castle of ,stuttgart 7#aeec71 with its picturesque arcaded quadrangle1 or the lofty and elaborate ,cloth ,hall at ,brunswick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,,council-,,house ,,at ,,leyden4 7#aeii47 ,examples of similar character abound in the old inns of ,germany and ,switzerland1 and many charming features1 such as the window from ,colmar 7,fig4 #gg71 dated #aege1 which forms one of our illustrations could be brought forward4 ,another development of the same mixed style may be illustrated by the ,zeug ,house at ,dantzic 7#afje71 of which we give the rear elevation 7,fig4 #gh74 ,not altogether dissimilar from these in character is the finely-designed ,castle of ,fredericksberg at ,copenhagen1 testifying to the wide spread of the phase of architecture to which we are calling attention4 ,the date of this building is #afaj4 ,a richer example1 but one little if at all nearer to ,italian feeling1 is the ,council ,house at ,leyden1 a portion of which we illustrate 7,fig4 #gi74 ,this building dates from #aeii1 and bears more resemblance to ,english ,elizabethan in its ornaments1 than to the architecture of any other country4 ,simultaneously with these1 some buildings made their appearance in ,germany1 which1 though still picturesque1 showed the dawn of a wish to adopt the features of pure ,renaissance4 ,the quadrangle of the ,castle of ,schalaburg 7,fig4 #hj71 may be taken as a specimen of the adoption of ,renaissance ideas as well as forms4 ,it is in effect an ,italian cortile1 though more ornate than ,italian architects would have made it4 ,it was built in the latter part of the sixteenth century1 and seems to point to a wish to make use of the new style with but little admixture of northern ornament or treatment4 ,when architecture had quite passed through the transition period1 which fortunately lasted long1 the buildings1 not only of ,germany1 but of the north generally1 became uninteresting and tame2 in fact1 they present so few distinguishing features1 that it is not necessary to describe or illustrate them4 ,russia1 it is true1 contains a few striking buildings belonging to the eighteenth century1 but most of those which we might desire to refer to1 were built subsequent to the close of that century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,quadrangle ,,of ,,the ,,castle ,,of ,,schalaburg4 7,,late #af,,th ,,century47 ,illustration3 ,,ornamental ,,foliage ,,pattern4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,renaissance ,,architecture ,,in ,,great ,,britain1 ,,spain1 ,,and ,,portugal4 ,,england4--,,chronological ,,sketch4 ,in ,england1 as in ,france and ,germany1 the introduction of the ,italian ,renaissance was not accomplished without a period of transition4 ,the architecture of this period is known as ,elizabethan1 though it lasted long after ,elizabeth's reign4 ,sometimes it is called ,tudor2 but it is more convenient and not unusual to limit the term ,tudor to the latest phase of ,english ,gothic4 ,probably the earliest introduction into any ,english building of a feature derived from the newly-revived classic sources is in the tomb of ,henry ,,vii4 in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,the grille inclosing this is of good1 though late ,gothic design2 but when the tomb itself came to be set up1 for which a contract was made with ,torregiano in #aeab1 it was ,italian in its details4 ,the earliest examples of ,renaissance features actually built into a structure1 so far as we are aware1 is in the terra-cotta ornamentation of ,layer ,marney ,house in ,essex1 which it is certain was erected prior to #aebe4 ,it is however long--surprisingly long--after this period before we come upon the traces of a general use of ,renaissance details4 ,in fact1 up to the accession of ,elizabeth 7#aeeh7 they appear to have been little employed4 ,it is however said that early in her reign the treatises on ,renaissance architecture of ,philibert de l',orme and ,lomazzo were translated from ,italian into ,english1 and in #aefc ,john ,shute published a book on ,italian architecture4 ,john of ,padua1 an ,italian architect1 was brought to this country by ,henry ,,viii4 and practised here2 and ,theodore ,havenius of ,cleves was employed as architect in the buildings of ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge 7#aefe-aegd74 ,these two foreigners undoubtedly played an important part in a change of taste which1 though not general so early1 certainly did commence before ,elizabeth's death in #afjc4 ,at the two universities1 and in many localities throughout ,england1 new buildings and enlargements of old ones were carried out during the long and prosperous reign of ,elizabeth2 and the style in which they were built will be found to have admitted of very great latitude4 ,where the intention was to obtain an effect of dignity or state1 the classic principles of composition were more or less followed4 ,the buildings at ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,longleat1 built between #aefg and #aegi by ,john of ,padua1 ,woollaton1 built about #aehj by ,smithson1 and ,burleigh 7built #aegg71 may be named as instances of this4 ,on the other hand where a manorial or only a domestic character was desired1 the main lines of the building are ,gothic1 but the details1 in either case1 are partly ,gothic and partly modified ,renaissance4 ,this description will apply to such buildings as ,knowle1 ,penshurst1 ,hardwick1 ,hatfield1 ,bramshill1 or ,holland ,house 7,fig4 #ha74 ,in the introductory chapter some account has been given1 in general terms1 of the features familiar to most and endeared to many1 which mark these peculiarly ,english piles of buildings2 those remarks may be appropriately continued here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,,holland ,,house ,,at ,,kensington4 7#afjg47 ,the hall of ,gothic houses was still retained1 but only as one of a series of fine apartments4 ,in many cases ,english mansions had no internal quadrangle1 and are built as large solid blocks with boldly projecting wings4 ,they are often of three storeys in height1 the roofs are frequently of flat pitch1 and in that case are hidden behind a parapet which is sometimes of fantastic design4 ,where the roofs are steeper and not concealed the gables are frequently of broken outline4 ,windows are usually very large1 and with mullions and transoms1 and it is to these large openings that ,elizabethan interiors owe their bright and picturesque effects4 ,entrances are generally adorned with some classic or semi-classic features1 often1 however1 much altered from their original model2 here balustrades1 ornamental recesses1 stone staircases1 and similar formal surroundings are commonly found1 and are generally arranged with excellent judgment1 though often quaint in design4 ,this style is characterised by a somewhat grotesque application of the ancient orders and ornaments1 by large and picturesquely-formed masses1 spacious staircases1 broad terraces1 galleries of great length 7at times #ajj feet long71 orders placed on orders1 pyramidal gables formed of scroll-work often pierced1 large windows divided by mullions and transoms1 bay windows1 pierced parapets1 angle turrets1 and a love of arcades4 ,the principal features in the ornament are pierced scroll-work1 strap-work1 and prismatic rustication1 combined with boldly-carved foliage 7usually conventional7 and roughly-formed figures4--,m4 ,d4 ,w4 ,interiors are bright and with ample space2 very richly ornamented plaster ceilings are common2 the walls of main rooms are often lined with wainscot panelling1 and noble oak staircases are frequent4 ,in the reign of ,james ,i41 our first ,renaissance architect of mark1 ,inigo ,jones 7#aegb-afeb7 became known4 ,he was a man of taste and genius1 and had studied in ,italy4 ,he executed many works1 the designs for which were more or less in the style of ,palladio4 ,these include the addition of a portico to the 7then ,gothic7 cathedral of ,st4 ,paul's1 and a magnificent design for a palace which ,charles ,i4 desired to build at ,whitehall4 ,a fragment of this building1 now known as the ,chapel ,royal ,whitehall1 was erected1 and small though it be1 has done much by its conspicuous position and great beauty1 to keep up a respect for ,inigo ,jones's undoubted high attainments as an artist4 ,more fortunate than ,inigo ,jones1 ,christopher ,wren 7#afcb-agbc7 had just attained a high position as a young man of science1 skill1 and cultivation1 and as the architect of the ,sheldonian ,theatre at ,oxford1 when in #afff the great fire of ,london destroyed the ,metropolitan ,cathedral1 the parochial churches1 the ,royal ,exchange1 the ,companies' ,halls1 and an immense mass of private property in ,london1 and created an opportunity which made great demands upon the energy1 skill1 and fertility of design of the architect who might attempt to grasp it4 ,fortunately1 ,wren was equal to the occasion1 and he has endowed ,london with a ,cathedral which takes rank among the very foremost ,renaissance buildings in ,europe1 as well as a magnificent series of parochial churches1 and other public buildings4 ,it is not pretended that his works are free from defects1 but there can be no question that admitting anything which can be truly said against them1 they are works of artistic genius1 full of fresh and original design1 and exhibiting rare sagacity in their practical contrivance and construction4 ,st4 ,paul's stands second only to ,st4 ,peter's as a great domical cathedral of ,renaissance architecture4 ,it falls far short of its great rival in actual size and internal effect1 and is all but entirely devoid of that decoration in which ,st4 ,peter's is so rich4 ,on the other hand1 the exterior of ,st4 ,paul's 7,fig4 #hb7 is far finer1 and as the ,english cathedral had the good fortune to be erected entirely from the plans and under the supervision of one architect1 it is a building consistent with itself throughout1 which1 as we have seen1 is more than can be said of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,the plan of ,st4 ,paul's is a ,latin cross1 with well marked transepts1 a large portico1 and two towers at the western entrance2 an apse of small size forms the end of the eastern arm1 and of each of the transepts2 a great dome covers the crossing2 the cathedral has a crypt raising the main floor considerably1 and its side walls are carried high above the aisle roofs so as to hide the clerestory windows from sight4 ,the dome is very cleverly planted on eight piers instead of four at the crossing1 and is a triple structure2 for between the dome seen from within1 and the much higher dome seen from without1 a strong cone of brickwork rises which bears the weight of the stone lantern and ball and cross that surmount the whole4 ,the skill with which the dome is made the central feature of a pyramidal composition whatever be the point of view1 the great beauty of the circular colonnade immediately below the dome1 the elegant outline of the western towers1 and the unusual but successful distribution of the great portico1 are among the most noteworthy elements which go to make up the charm of this very successful exterior4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,cathedral1 ,,london4 7#afge-agaj47 ,wren may be said to have introduced to ,renaissance architecture the tower and spire1 for though many examples occur in ,spain1 there is reason to suppose that he was before the architects of that country in his employment of that feature4 ,he has enriched the ,city of ,london with a large number of steeples1 which are ,gothic so far as their general idea goes1 but thoroughly classic in details1 and all more or less distinctive4 ,the most famous of these is the one belonging to ,bow ,church2 others of note belong to ,st4 ,clement ,danes and ,st4 ,bride1 ,fleet ,street4 ,the interiors of some of these churches1 as for example ,st4 ,stephen1 ,walbrook1 ,st4 ,andrew1 ,holborn1 and ,st4 ,james1 ,piccadilly1 are excellent both for their good design and artistic treatment1 and for their being well contrived and arranged for the special purposes they were intended to fill4 ,wren's secular works were considerable4 ,the ,sheldonian ,theatre at ,oxford1 the library of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 and the theatre of the ,college of ,physicians ,london 7long since disused71 are a group of special buildings each of which was undoubtedly a remarkable and successful work4 ,chelsea and ,greenwich hospitals are noteworthy as among the first specimens of those great buildings for public purposes in which ,england is now so rich1 and which to a certain extent replace the monastic establishments of the middle ages4 ,at ,chelsea the building is simple and dignified4 ,without lavish outlay1 or the use of expensive materials1 much ornament1 or any extraneous features1 an artistic and telling effect has been produced1 such as few hospitals or asylums since built have equalled4 ,greenwich takes a higher level1 and though ,wren's work had the disadvantage of having to be accommodated to buildings already erected by another architect1 this building1 with its twin domes1 its rich outline1 and its noble and dignified masses1 will always reflect honour upon its designer4 ,the view of ,greenwich hospital from the river may fairly be said to be unique for beauty and picturesqueness4 ,at ,greenwich1 too1 we meet with some of that skill in associating buildings and open spaces together which is so much more common in ,france than in this country1 and by the exercise of which the architecture of a good building can be in so many ways set off4 ,wren1 like ,inigo ,jones1 has left behind him a great unexecuted design which in many respects is more noble than anything that he actually built4 ,this is his earlier design for ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 which he planned as a ,greek cross1 with an ampler dome than the present cathedral possesses1 but not so lofty4 ,a large model of this design exists4 ,had it been carried out the exterior of the building would probably not have appeared so commanding1 perhaps not so graceful1 as it actually is2 but the interior would have surpassed all the churches of the style in ,europe1 both by the grandeur of the vast arched space under the dome and by the intricacy and beauty of the various vistas and combinations of features1 for which its admirably-designed plan makes provision4 ,wren had retired from practice before his death in #agbc4 ,his immediate successors were ,hawksmoor1 whose works were heavy and uninteresting1 and ,sir ,james ,vanbrugh4 ,vanbrugh was a man of genius and has a style of his own1 bold1 original1 and pictorial4 ,his greatest and best work is ,blenheim1 in ,oxfordshire1 built for the ,duke of ,marlborough4 ,this fine mansion1 equal to any ,french chateau in extent and magnificence1 is planned with much dignity4 ,the entrance front looks towards a large space1 inclosed right and left by low buildings1 which prolong the wings of the main block4 ,the angles of the wings and the centre are masked by two colonnades of quadrant shape1 and the central entrance with lofty columns which form a grand portico1 is a noble composition4 ,the three garden fronts of ,blenheim are all fine1 and there is a magnificent entrance hall1 but the most successful part of the interior is the library1 a long and lofty gallery1 occupying the entire flank of the house and treated with the most picturesque variety both of plan and ornament4 ,vanbrugh also built ,castle ,howard1 ,grimesthorpe1 ,wentworth1 ,king's ,weston1 as well as many other country mansions of more moderate size4 ,campbell1 ,kent1 and ,gibbs are the best known names next in succession4 ,of these ,campbell is most famous as an author1 but ,gibbs 7#afgd-aged7 is the architect of two prominent ,london churches--,st4 ,martin's and ,st4 ,mary le ,strand1 in which the general traditions of ,wren's manner are ably followed4 ,he was the architect of the ,radcliffe ,library at ,oxford4 ,kent 7#afhd-agdh7 was the architect of ,holkham1 the ,treasury ,buildings1 and the ,horse ,guards4 ,he was associated with the ,earl of ,burlington1 who acquired a high reputation as an amateur architect1 which the design of ,burlington ,house 7now remodelled for the ,royal ,academy71 went far to justify4 ,probably the technical part of this and other designs was supplied by ,kent4 ,sir ,william ,chambers 7#agbf-agif7 was the architect of ,somerset ,house1 a building of no small merit1 notwithstanding that it is tame and very bare of sculpture4 ,this building is remarkable as one of the few in ,london in which the ,italian feature of an interior quadrangle is attempted to be reproduced4 ,chambers wrote a treatise which has become a general text-book of revived classical architecture for ,english students4 ,contemporary with him were the brothers ,john and ,robert ,adam1 who built much1 and began to introduce a severity of treatment and a fineness of detail which correspond to some extent to the ,french style of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,the interior decorations in plaster by these architects are of great elegance and often found in old houses in ,london1 as in ,hanover ,square1 on the ,adelphi ,terrace1 and elsewhere4 ,the list of the eighteenth century architects closes with the names of ,sir ,robert ,taylor and the two ,dances1 one of whom built the ,mansion ,house and the other ,newgate2 and ,stuart1 who built several country mansions1 but who is best known for the magnificent work on the antiquities of ,athens1 which he and ,revett published together in #agfb1 and which went far to create a revolution in public taste2 for before the close of the century there was a general cry for making every building and every ornamental detail purely and solely ,greek4 ,the architects above named1 and others of less note were much employed during the eighteenth century in the erection of large country houses of ,italian1 usually ,palladian design1 many of them extremely incongruous and unsatisfactory4 ,here and there a design better than the average was obtained1 but as a rule these stately but cold buildings are very far inferior to the picturesque and home-like manors and mansions built during the reigns of ,elizabeth and ,james ,i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,houses ,,at ,,chester4 7#af,,th ,,century47 ,it is worth notice that the picturesque element1 inherited from the ,gothic architecture of the middle ages1 which before the eighteenth century had completely vanished from our public buildings1 and the mansions of the wealthy did not entirely die out of works executed in remote places4 ,in the half-timbered manors and farmhouses which abound in ,lancashire1 ,cheshire1 ,shropshire1 and ,staffordshire1 and in other minor works1 we always find a tinge1 sometimes a very full colouring1 of the picturesque and the irregular2 the gables are sharp1 upper storeys overhang1 and the treatment of the timbers is thoroughly ,gothic 7,fig4 #hc72 so are the mouldings1 transoms and mullions to the windows1 and barge boards to the roofs4 ,in the reign of ,james ,i4 a mode of enriching the exteriors of dwelling-houses1 as well as their ceilings1 chimney-pieces1 c41 with ornaments modelled in plaster came in1 and though the remaining specimens are from year to year disappearing1 yet in some old towns 7e4g4 in ,ipswich7 examples of this sort of treatment 7known as ,jacobean7 still linger4 ,in ,queen ,anne's reign a semi-,gothic version of ,renaissance architecture was practised1 to which great attention has been directed in the present day4 ,the ,queen ,anne style is usually carried out in brickwork1 executed in red bricks and often most admirable in its workmanship4 ,pilasters1 cornices1 and panels are executed in cut bricks1 and for arches1 niches1 and window heads very finely jointed bricks are employed4 ,the details are usually ,renaissance1 but of debased character2 a crowning cornice of considerable projection under a high-pitched hipped roof 7i4e4 one sloping back every way like a truncated pyramid7 is commonly employed2 so also are gables of broken outline4 ,dormer windows rich and picturesque1 and high brick chimneys are also employed2 so are bow windows1 often carried on concave corbels of a clumsy form4 ,prominence is given in this style to the joiner's work2 the windows1 which are usually sash windows1 are heavily moulded and divided into small squares by wooded sash bars4 ,the doors have heavily moulded panels1 and are often surmounted by pediments carried by carved brackets or by pilasters2 in the interiors the woodwork of staircases such as the balusters1 newel posts1 and handrails is treated in a very effective and well considered way1 the greater part of the work being turned on the lathe and enriched with mouldings extremely well designed for execution in that manner4 ,by this style and the modifications of it which were more or less practised till they finally died out1 the traditional picturesqueness of ,english architecture which it had inherited from the middle ages was kept alive1 so that it has been handed down1 in certain localities almost1 if not quite1 to the present century4 ,,scotland4 ,the architecture of ,scotland during the sixteenth and succeeding centuries possesses exceptional interest4 ,it was the case here1 as it had been in ,england1 that the most important buildings of the time were domestic2 the erection of churches and monasteries had ceased4 ,the castles and semi-fortified houses of ,scotland form a group apart1 possessing strongly-marked and well-defined character2 they are designed in a mixed style in which the ,gothic elements predominated over the classic ones4 ,but the ,scottish domestic ,gothic1 from which the new style was partly derived1 had borne little or no resemblance to the florid ,tudor of ,england4 ,it was the severe and simple architecture of strongholds built with stubborn materials1 and on rocky sites1 where there was little inducement to indulge in decoration4 ,dunstaffnage or ,kilchurn ,castles may be referred to as examples of these plain1 gloomy keeps with their stepped gables1 small loops for windows1 and sometimes angle turrets4 ,the classic elements of the style were not drawn 7as had been the case in ,england7 direct from ,italy1 but came from ,france4 ,the ,scotch1 during their long struggles with the ,english1 became intimately allied with the ,french1 and it is therefore not surprising that ,scottish ,baronial architecture should resemble the early ,renaissance of ,french chateaux very closely4 ,the hardness of the stone in which the ,scotch masons wrought forbade their attempting the extremely delicate detail of the ,francois ,i4 ornament1 executed as it is in fine1 easily-worked stone of smooth texture2 and the difference in the climate of the two countries justified in ,scotland a boldness which would have appeared exaggerated and extreme in ,france4 ,accordingly the style in passing from one country to the other has changed its details to no inconsiderable extent4 ,many castles were erected in the sixteenth and following centuries in ,scotland1 or were enlarged and altered2 the most characteristic features in almost all of them are short round angle turrets1 thrown out upon bold corbellings near the upper part of towers and other square masses4 ,these are often capped by pointed roofs2 and the corbels which carry them1 and which are always of bold1 vigorous character1 are frequently enriched by a kind of cable ornament1 which is very distinctive4 ,towers of circular plan1 like bastions1 and projecting from the general line of the walls1 or at the angles1 constantly occur4 ,they are frequently crowned by conical roofs1 but sometimes 7as at ,fyvie ,castle7 they are made square near the top by means of a series of corbels1 and finished with gables or otherwise4 ,parapets are in general use1 and are almost always battlemented4 ,roofs1 when visible1 are of steep pitch1 and their gables are almost always of stepped outline1 while dormer windows1 frequently of fantastic form1 are not infrequent4 ,chimneys are prominent and lofty4 ,windows are square-headed1 and1 as a rule1 small2 sometimes they retain the ,gothic mullions and transom1 but in many cases these features are absent4 ,doorways are generally arched1 and not often highly ornamented4 ,cawdor ,castle1 ,glamis ,castle1 ,fyvie ,castle1 ,castle ,fraser1 the old portions of ,dunrobin ,castle1 ,tyninghame ,house1 the extremely picturesque palace at ,falkland1 and a considerable part of ,stirling ,castle1 may be all quoted as good specimens of this thoroughly national style1 but it would be easy to name two or three times as many buildings nearly1 if not quite1 equal to these in architectural merit4 ,heriot's ,hospital1 ,edinburgh1 may be quoted 7with part of ,holyrood ,palace7 as showing the style of the seventeenth century4 ,heriot's ,hospital was built between the years #afbh and #affj4 ,it is built round a great quadrangle1 and has square towers at the four corners1 each relieved by small corbelled angle turrets4 ,the entrance displays columns and an entablature of debased but not unpleasing ,renaissance architecture1 and the building altogether resembles an ,english ,elizabethan or ,jacobean building to a greater extent than most ,scottish designs4 ,when this picturesque style1 which appears indeed to have retained its hold for long1 at last died out1 very little of any artistic value was substituted for it4 ,late in the eighteenth century1 it is true1 the ,brothers ,adam erected public buildings in ,edinburgh and ,glasgow1 and carried out various works of importance in a classic style which has certainly some claim to respect2 but if correct it was tame and uninteresting1 and a poor exchange for the vigorous vitality which breathes in the works of the architects of the early ,renaissance in ,scotland4 ,,spain ,,and ,,portugal4 ,in the ,spanish peninsula1 ,renaissance architecture ran through three phases1 very strongly distinguished from one another1 each being marked by peculiarities of more than ordinary prominence4 ,the early stage1 to which the ,spaniards give the name of ,plateresco1 exhibits the same sort of fusion of ,gothic with classic which we find in ,france and ,scotland4 ,the masses are often simple1 but the individual features are overladen with an extravagant amount of ornament1 and1 as in ,france1 many things which are essentially ,gothic1 such as pinnacles1 gargoyles1 and parapets1 are retained4 ,the ,renaissance style was introduced at the latter part of the fifteenth century1 and a very considerable number of buildings to which the description given above will apply were erected prior to the middle of the sixteenth4 ,among these may be enumerated the cathedral at ,granada1 the ,hospital of ,santa ,cruz at ,toledo 7#aejd-aead71 the dome of ,burgos ,cathedral 7#aefg71 the ,cathedral of ,malaga1 ,san ,juan della ,penitencia at ,toledo 7#aeaa71 the facade of the ,alcazar at ,toledo 7#aedh71 the ,town ,hall 7#aeea71 and ,casa ,zaporta 7#aefj7 at ,zarragoza1 and the ,town ,hall of ,seville 7#aeei74 ,a great number of tombs1 staircases1 doorways1 and other smaller single features1 executed during this period from the designs of good artists1 are to be found scattered through the country4 ,these ,renaissance monuments exhibit an extraordinary degree of variety in their ornaments1 which are of the most fantastic nature2 an exuberant fancy would seem to have sought a vent1 especially in the sculptured ornament of the style1 which though at times crowded1 overladen1 and we must add disfigured by the most grotesque ideas1 is very striking for its originality and excellent workmanship4--7,m4 ,d4 ,w47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,,the ,,alcazar ,,at ,,toledo4 7,,begun #aefh47 ,the second phase of ,spanish architecture was marked by a plain and simple dignity1 equally in contrast with the ,plateresco which had preceded it and with the extravagant style to which it at length gave place4 ,the earliest architect who introduced into ,spain an architectural style founded on the best examples of ,italy1 was ,juan ,baptista de ,toledo4 ,he in the year #aefc commenced the ,escurial ,palace--the ,versailles of ,spain2 but the principal part of the building was erected by his more celebrated pupil1 ,juan de ,herrera1 who carried on the works during the years from #aefg to #aegi4 ,this building1 one of the most extensive palaces in ,europe1 is noble in its external aspect from a distance1 thanks to its great extent1 its fine central dome1 and its many towers1 but it is disappointing when approached4 ,of the interior the most noteworthy feature is a magnificently decorated church1 of great size and unusual arrangement2 and this dignified central feature has raised the ,escurial1 in spite of many faults1 to the position of the most famous and probably most deservedly admired among the great ,renaissance palaces of ,europe4 ,by the same architect numerous buildings were erected1 among others the beautiful1 if somewhat cold1 arcaded interior of the ,alcazar of ,toledo 7,fig4 #hd71 which may be taken as a fair specimen of the noble qualities to be found in his dignified and comparatively simple designs4 ,about the middle of the sixteenth century ,charles ,v4 erected his palace at ,granada2 but here the architecture is strongly coloured by ,italian or ,french examples1 and much of the building resembles ,perrault's work at the ,louvre very closely4 ,herrera and his school were probably too severe in taste to suit the fancy of their countrymen1 for ,spanish architecture in the eighteenth century fell a victim to debased forms and a fantastic and exaggerated style of ornament4 ,churriguera was the architect who has the credit of having introduced this unfortunate third manner1 and has lent it his name4 ,for a time ,churriguerismo found general acceptance1 and the century closed under its influence4 ,we must not pass over the excellent and varied ,renaissance towers and steeples of ,spain in silence4 ,they are not unlike ,wren's spires in general idea2 they are to be met with in many parts of the country attached to the churches1 and their variety and picturesqueness increase the claim of ,spanish architecture to our respect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the one ,renaissance building in ,portugal which has been much illustrated1 and is spoken of in high terms1 is the ,convent at ,mafra1 a building of the eighteenth century1 of great extent and picturesque effect4 ,great skill is shown in dealing with the unwieldy bulk of an overgrown establishment which does not yield even to the ,escurial in point of extent4 ,we are1 however1 up to the present time without the means of forming an opinion upon the nature and value of the architecture of ,portugal as a whole4 ,illustration3 ,,ornamental ,,foliage ,,pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,from ,a ,,frieze ,,at ,,venice4 ,,index4 ,see also ,,contents at beginning4 ,adam1 ,john and ,robert1 #bbc4 ,alberti1 ,architect1 #afg4 ,amiens ,cathedral1 #gf1 #gh4 ,andernach1 ,church at1 #if4 ,anne1 ,queen1 ,style of1 #bbe4 ,arnstein ,abbey1 #id4 ,baptista1 ,architect1 #bcb4 ,batalha1 ,monastery at1 #adb1 #aec4 ,beauvais ,cathedral1 ,interior1 #hf4 ,belgium and ,netherlands1 ,gothic1 #hg4 ---- ,renaissance1 #bjf4 ,bernini1 ,architect1 #age1 #aha1 #bjc4 ,blenheim1 #bba4 ,blois1 ,chateau of1 #aid4 ,blois1 ,capital from ,st4 ,nicholas1 #hd4 ,bourges1 ,house of ,jaques ,coeur1 #ae4 ,bramante1 ,architect1 #afh1 #agd1 #ahj4 ,brunelleschi1 ,architect1 #abj1 #aff4 ,buttresses1 #cb4 ,caen1 ,saint ,pierre at1 #cg4 ,cambridge1 ,king's ,college1 #fc4 ,campaniles in ,italy1 #abh4 ,capitals1 ,gothic1 #dc4 ,certosa1 near ,pavia1 frontispiece1 #ahc4 ,chambers1 ,architect1 #bbb4 ,chambord1 ,chateau of1 #aid4 ,chartres1 ,stained glass at1 #fe1 #fi4 ,chester1 ,old ,houses at1 #ch1 #bbd4 ,churriguera1 ,architect1 #bcj4 ,colmar1 ,window at1 #bjf4 ,cologne ,cathedral1 #ig1 #ajd4 ,columns and ,piers1 #dj4 ,cortona1 ,pietro da1 ,architect1 #aih4 ,cremona1 ,palace at1 #aag4 ,dantzic1 ,zeughaus at1 #bjc4 ,de ,caumont4 ,abecedaire1 #ga4 ,decorated style of ,architecture1 #bd4 ,delorme1 ,architect1 #bjj1 #bad4 ,domestic ,buildings1 ,gothic1 #ad4 ,early ,english ,architecture1 #bd4 ,eltham ,palace1 ,roof of1 #ec4 ,england1 ,gothic ,architecture in1 #ba4 ---- ,renaissance in1 #bac4 ,florence1 ,cathedral at1 #aba4 ---- ,pandolfini ,palace1 #agj1 #agc4 ---- ,riccardi ,palace1 #afg4 ---- ,strozzi ,palace1 #afi4 ,fontevrault1 ,church at1 #gj4 ,france1 ,gothic ,architecture in1 #fi4 ---- ,renaissance in1 #aic4 ,francis the ,first of ,france1 #aic4 ,friburg ,cathedral1 #ih4 ,gables in ,gothic ,architecture1 #cf4 ,germany1 ,gothic ,architecture in1 #ic4 ---- ,renaissance1 #bji4 ,ghent1 ,tower at1 #ij4 ,gibbs1 ,architect1 #bbb4 ,giotto's ,campanile at ,florence1 #abj4 ,gothic1 ,the word1 #e4 ,goujon1 ,jean1 ,sculptor1 #aih4 ,haddon ,hall1 #ag4 ,havenius of ,cleves1 ,architect1 #bad4 ,hawksmoor1 ,architect1 #bba4 ,heidelberg1 ,castle of1 #aef1 #bji4 ,herrera1 ,juan de1 ,architect1 #bag4 ,holland ,house1 #bae4 ,italy1 ,gothic ,architecture in1 #aab4 ---- ,renaissance in1 #afe4 ,john of ,padua1 ,architect1 #bad4 ,jones1 ,inigo1 ,architect1 #bag4 ,kent1 ,architect1 #bbb4 ,kuttenberg1 ,st4 ,barbara at1 #ii4 ,lescot1 ,architect1 #aih4 ,leyden1 ,council-house at1 #baj4 ,lichfield ,cathedral1 ,west ,door1 #e4 ,lincoln ,cathedral1 ,general view1 #ce4 ,lippi ,annibale1 ,architect1 #aib4 ,lisieux1 ,old ,houses at1 #da4 ,loches1 ,doorway at1 #gb4 ,london1 ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 #bah4 ,maderno1 ,architect1 #age1 #aha4 ,mafra1 ,convent at1 #bcb4 ,mansard1 ,architect1 #afj4 ,michelangelo as an ,architect1 #agj1 #agd4 ,michelozzo1 ,architect1 #afg4 ,middleburgh1 ,town ,hall at1 #hi4 ,milan ,cathedral1 #aae4 ,misereres in ,wells ,cathedral1 #fh1 #ib4 ,mouldings1 ,gothic1 #fb4 ,nuremberg1 ,st4 ,sebald's at1 #aji4 ,oakham1 ,decorated ,spire of1 #fj4 ,ogee-shaped arch1 #abi4 ,oppenheim1 ,st4 ,catherine at1 #ajg4 ,orleans1 ,capital from house at1 #aig4 ,orleans1 ,window at1 #aif4 ,pavia1 ,certosa1 near1 #aad1 #ahh4 ,palladio1 ,architect1 #agb1 #ahd1 #ahg4 ,paris1 ,cathedral of ,notre ,dame1 #gd4 ---- ,hotel des ,invalides at1 #bje4 ---- ,louvre1 ,capital from1 #bjb4 ---- ,louvre1 ,pavillon ,richelieu1 #aii4 ---- ,pantheon at1 #bjd4 ---- ,tuileries1 by ,delorme1 #bjj4 ,perpendicular ,architecture1 #be4 ,peruzzi1 ,architect1 #aha4 ,peterborough ,cathedral1 ,plan1 #f4 ,pisano1 ,nicola1 ,sculptor1 #abj4 ,plateresco1 ,spanish1 #bcj4 ,principles of ,gothic ,design1 #adf4 ,raphael as an ,architect1 #agj4 ,renaissance ,architecture1 #aed4 ,regensburg 7,ratisbon71 ,well at1 #bj4 ,rheims ,cathedral1 ,piers1 #hj4 ,rome1 ,monument in ,santa ,maria del ,popolo1 #agi4 ,rome1 ,palazzo ,giraud1 #agh1 #ahj4 ---- ,st4 ,peter's1 #agd1 #agg4 ---- ,villa ,medici1 #aia4 ,saint ,gall ,manuscript1 ,the1 #ac4 ,salisbury ,cathedral1 ,section1 #g4 ,saint ,iago di ,compostella1 #acg4 ,sangallo1 ,architect1 #aha4 ,sansovino1 ,architect1 #agh1 #ahd4 ,scamozzi1 ,architect1 #ahd4 ,scotland1 ,cawdor ,castle1 #bbg4 ---- ,dunrobin ,castle1 #bbh4 ---- ,heriot's ,hospital1 #bbh4 ,schalaburg1 ,castle of1 #bab4 ,schwartz-,rheindorff1 ,church at1 #aja4 ,serlio1 ,architect1 #aih4 ,seville1 ,the ,giralda at1 #adj4 ,siena ,cathedral1 #abc4 ,spain1 ,gothic ,architecture in1 #acg4 ---- ,renaissance in1 #bbh4 ,spires1 #eh4 ,stained ,glass1 #fd4 ,strasburg ,cathedral1 #ih4 ,thann1 ,doorway at1 #ajf4 ,tivoli1 ,window from1 #acd4 ,toledo1 ,alcazar at1 #bcb4 ---- ,cathedral1 #ach4 ,towers and ,spires1 #cc4 ,tracery1 ,venetian1 #acj4 ,tudor ,architecture1 #be4 ,vanbrugh1 ,architect1 #bba4 ,venice1 #ahb4 ,venice1 ,church of ,redentore1 #ahf4 ---- ,ducal ,palace at1 #aah4 ---- ,palaces on ,grand ,canal1 #ah4 ,vienna1 ,st4 ,stephen at1 #ih4 ,vignola1 ,architect1 #agb1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,warboys1 ,early ,english ,spire1 #ei4 ,warwick ,castle1 ,plan1 #af4 ,wells ,cathedral1 ,nave1 #i4 ,westminster ,abbey1 ,plan1 #aa4 ,westminster ,abbey1 ,carving1 #fg4 ---- ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel1 #eg4 ---- ,triforium1 #di4 ,windows1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #ej1 #ea4 ,window1 ,italian ,gothic1 #acd1 #acf4 ,worcester ,cathedral1 ,choir1 #i4 ,wren1 ,sir ,c41 ,architect1 #bjc1 #bag1 #bbj4 ,,london3 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,sons1 ,,and ,,taylor4 ,now in course of ,publication4 ,a ,,new ,,series ,,of ,,illustrated ,,text-,,books ,,of ,,art ,,education1 ,,edited ,,by ,,edward ,j4 ,,poynter1 ,r4,a4 ,each volume contains numerous illustrations1 and is strongly bound for the use of students4 ,price #es4 ,to be issued in the following ,divisions3-- ,,painting4 99 ,,classic and ,,italian4 ,by ,,edward ,j4 ,,poynter1 ,r4,a41 and ,,percy ,r4 ,,head1 ,lincoln ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,german1 ,,flemish1 and ,,dutch4 ,by ,h4 ,,wilmot ,,buxton1 ,m4,a4 ,,french and ,,spanish4 ,by ,,gerard ,,smith1 ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,english and ,,american4 ,by ,h4 ,,wilmot ,,buxton1 ,m4,a4 ,,architecture4 ,,classic and ,,early ,,christian4 ,by ,t4 ,,roger ,,smith1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 99 ,,gothic and ,,renaissance4 ,by ,t4 ,,roger ,,smith1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,,sculpture4 ,,antique3 ,,egyptian and ,,greek4 ,by ,,george ,,redford1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,,renaissance and ,,modern4 ,by ,,george ,,redford1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,,ornament4 ,,decoration ,,in ,,colour4 ,by ,,george ,,aitchison1 ,m4,a4 ,,architectural ,,ornament4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 99 ,these ,divisions are now ready4 ,transcriber's ,note ,minor punctuation errors have been repaired4 ,hyphenation and accent usage has been made consistent4 ,spelling was made consistent as follows3 ,page xxxvii--,transome amended to ,transom--,,transom4--,a horizontal bar 7usually of stone7 444 ,page xl--,hardwicke amended to ,hardwick--,,the ,,end-,,papers ,,are ,,from ,a ,,tapestry ,,in ,,hardwick ,,hall4 ,page #aih--;di amended to da--444 built from the designs of ,pietro da ,cortona1 444 ,page #bag--transomes amended to transoms--444 and with mullions and transoms1 444 ,page #bag--transomes amended to transoms--444 large windows divided by mullions and transoms1 444 ,page #bbd--;,cotemporary amended to ,contemporary--,contemporary with him were the brothers ,john and ,robert ,adam1 444 ,page #bbf--transomes amended to transoms--444 so are the mouldings1 transoms and mullions to the windows1 444 ,page #bcf--,middleburg amended to ,middleburgh--,middleburgh1 ,town ,hall at1 #hi4 ,page #bcf--,nicolo amended to ,nicola--,pisano1 ,nicola1 ,sculptor1 #abj4 ,page #bcf--,strassburg amended to ,strasburg--,strasburg ,cathedral1 #ih4 ,page #bcf--,van ,brugh amended to ,vanbrugh--,vanbrugh1 ,architect1 #bba4 ,the following amendments have been made3 ,page x--omitted page number added--#c4 ,,scotland1 ,,wales1 and ,,ireland #ia ,page xxiv--frize amended to frieze--444 the architrave1 which rests on the columns1 the frieze and the cornice4 ,page xxiv--,the entry for ,entablature originally followed ,embattled4 ,it has been moved to the correct place in the glossary4 ,page xxv--,styl amended to ,style--,,francois ,i4 ,,style4--,the early ,renaissance architecture of ,france during part of the sixteenth century4 ,page xxvii--,lintol amended to ,lintel--,,lintel4--,the stone or beam covering a doorway 444 ,page #ab--;arrangment amended to arrangement--,the whole arrangement of pier and arch 444 ,page #be--;ierced amended to pierced--,parapet pierced with quatrefoils and flowing tracery4 ,page #cj--repeated 'and' deleted--444 ,gothic dwelling-houses of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist1 444 ,page #cf--;constrast amended to contrast--444 is to combine and yet contrast its horizontal and vertical elements4 ,page #ci--storys amended to storeys--444 and sometimes also the basement storeys1 444 ,page #df--;and amended to end--444 occupying the eastern end of one of the transepts 444 ,page #hb--semi-circula amended to semicircular--444 and the roofs of semicircular and circular apses1 444 ,page #hh--;achitecture amended to architecture--444 their architecture1 though certainly ,gothic1 is debased in style4 ,page #aad--laboration amended to elaboration--444 remarkable specimens of the ornamental elaboration which can be accomplished in brickwork4 ,page #adb--,ths amended to ,the--,the great church at ,batalha 444 ,page #aei--omitted 'the' added before building--444 in his treatment of the same part of the building 444 ,page #agf--repeated 'is' deleted--444 as long as the building is seen in front 444 ,page #ahf--;builing amended to building--444 lofty pilasters to include two storeys of the building 444 ,page #aid--;first amended to ,first--444than the best specimens of the style of ,francis the ,first 444 ,page #bbf--hb amended to #hc--444 the treatment of the timbers is thoroughly ,gothic 7,fig4 #hc72 444 ,page #bcj--;archiect amended to architect--,the earliest architect who introduced into ,spain an architectural style 444 ,page #bcc--picuresque amended to picturesque--444 a building of the eighteenth century1 of great extent and picturesque effect4 ,page #bce--page references put into numerical order--,brunelleschi1 ,architect1 #abj1 #aff4 ,page #bce--acg amended to #agc--;,florence 444 ---- ,pandolfini ,palace1 #agj1 #agc4 ,page #bce--omitted #g added--,haddon ,hall1 #ag4 ,illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in the middle of a paragraph4 ,there was an error in the ,list of ,illustrations4 ,the original read3 #ff4 ,,palazzo ,,giraud1 ,,rome4 ,,by ,,bramante4 7#aejf47 #ahj #fg4 ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,st4 ,,francesco1 ,,at ,,ferrara4 ,,interior #ahc #fh4 ,,italian ,,shell ,,ornament #ahd #fi4 ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,the ,,redentore1 ,,venice4 7#aegf47 #ahf #gj4 ,,certosa ,,near ,,pavia4 ,,part ,,of ,,west ,,front4 7,,begun #adgc47 #ahi #gj;,a4 ,,early ,,renaissance ,,corbel #aib #ga4 ,,window ,,from ,a ,,house ,,at ,,orleans4 7,,early #af,,th ,,century47 #aie ,the listed ,fig4 #fg does not appear anywhere in the text4 ,the ,list of ,illustrations has been amended to accurately list the figures in the main body of the book1 by removing the erroneous listing1 renumbering the figures as necessary1 including a previously omitted figure1 ,,fig4 #gj4--,,villa ,,medici--,,on ,,the ,,pincian ,,hill ,,near ,,rome4 ,,by ,,annibale ,,lippi 7,,now ,,the ,academie ,francaise74 7,a4,d4 #aedj471 and amending the page numbers4 ,the advertising material has been moved to the end of the book4