,,fur ,,farming4 ,illustration3 ,,some ,,young ,,black ,,and ,,silver ,,fox4 ,,fur ,,farming ,a ,,book ,,of ,,information ,,about ,,fur ,,bearing ,,animals1 ,,enclosures1 ,,habits1 ,,care1 ,,etc4 ,,by ,a4 ,r4 ,,harding ,published ,by ,a4 ,r4 ,,harding ,,publishing ,,co4 ,columbus1 ,ohio4 ,copyright1 #aiji ,by ,a4 ,r4 ,,harding ,,pub4 ,,co4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter4 ,,page ,i4 ,,supply ,,and ,,demand #ae ,,ii4 ,,what ,,animals ,,to ,,raise #bg ,,iii4 ,,enclosures #ch ,,iv4 ,,box ,,trap ,,trapping #ec ,v4 ,,fox ,,raising #fc ,,vi4 ,,skunk ,,raising #hc ,,vii4 ,,mink ,,raising #ig ,,viii4 ,,opossum ,,raising #ajg ,,ix4 ,,muskrat ,,raising #aae ,x4 ,,raccoon ,,raising #abi ,,xi4 ,,the ,,beaver ,,and ,,otter #acg ,,xii4 ,,killing1 ,,skinning ,,and ,,stretching #adf ,,xiii4 ,,deer ,,farming #aeb ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,some ,young ,black and ,silver ,fox ,frontispiece ,enclosure in ,thick ,woods #cb ,corner of ,enclosure #ci ,fence with ,wire ,turned in at ,top #da ,fence ,showing ,sheet ,tin #dc ,plan for ,combined ,enclosures #df ,box ,trap for ,catching ,animals ,alive #ee ,box ,trap with ,swing ,gate #eh ,barrel ,trap for ,catching ,animals ,alive #fj ,another ,box ,trap #fb ,northwestern ,fox ,skins #ff ,map ,showing ,where ,fox ,farming is ,feasible #gb ,plan for ,arrangement of ,fox ,yards #gd ,box ,shelter for ,female and ,young #ge ,corner of ,fox ,yard #gg ,fox ,yard1 ,showing ,outer ,fence #gh ,yards of a ,maine ,fox ,farm #ha ,corner of an ,ohio ,skunk ,farm #ij ,mink ,enclosure in ,detail #ajc ,ideal ,location for an ,opossum ,farm #aab ,fur ,farm ,near a ,farmhouse #aag ,muskrat ,house in a ,marsh #abb ,barrel ,shelter for ,female and ,young #acd ,fur ,farm on ,open ,ground #ace ,elk in ,enclosure #afc ,tame ,deer ,eating ,watermelon #agh ,illustration3 ,g4 ,r4 ,harding4 ,,introduction4 ,ever since ,columbus discovered ,america1 furs have been an important article of commerce1 but at the rate of the catch during recent years1 the supply drawn from the natural sources--forest1 field and stream--will soon prove inadequate if not entirely depleted in some species4 ,less than #cj years ago1 there were countless thousands of ,buffalo upon the ,western ,plains4 ,where are they today8 ,in the #gj's and early #hj's they were slain by tens of thousands by hide and robe hunters4 ,does or does not such a condition face some of the ,american fur bearing animals at the present time8 ,many hunters and trappers must think that the supply will not long be equal to the demand1 judging from the hundreds of letters written the ,editor of ,,hunter-,,trader-,,trapper1 asking information about raising fur bearing animals4 ,this work has been hastily gotten out to meet this demand1 yet the sources of information from which the work has been gathered1 are authentic4 ,much of the habits1 nature1 etc41 of the various animals has been furnished by ,mr4 ,e4 ,kreps1 a trapper of wide experience4 ,facts have also been furnished by those that have to a certain extent followed ,fur ,farming and as well some information has been added from the ,united ,states ,government ,bulletins4 ,a4 ,r4 ,,harding4 ,columbus1 ,ohio1 ,april #a1 #aiji4 ,,fur ,,farming4 ,,chapter #a4 ,,supply ,,and ,,demand4 ,for years there has been a belief that the supply of fur-bearing animals would soon be inadequate to the demand4 ,this belief is well founded and is apparent when the fact is known that the natural haunts and homes of the fur-producing animals are becoming less each year4 ,the draining of swamps and marshes is destroying the homes and breeding places of muskrat and to a certain extent coon and mink4 ,the saw mill and clearing of the land is rapidly lessening the natural resorts of coon1 bear1 wild cat and opossum in the ,south and ,central ,states1 while in the ,north1 marten1 fisher and lynx are being deprived of their natural homes4 ,beaver and otter do not like civilization and leave on signs of man and his works4 ,this is especially true of beaver2 otter linger in waters fringed with timber longer even if settled4 ,some animals1 it is true1 do well in fairly thickly-settled sections4 ,among animals of this kind are red fox1 skunk1 mink and muskrat4 ,yet no fur bearer can hold its numbers against the ever-increasing number of trappers and the persistency with which they now seek the fur producers4 ,north ,america furnishes a large per cent4 of the furs of the world--foxes1 mink1 otter1 beaver1 skunk1 marten1 lynx1 coon1 opossum1 muskrat1 wolves1 etc4 ,considerable quantities of fine furs are still secured in parts of ,russia1 in ,europe and ,siberia in ,asia2 ,australia furnishes great quantities of opossum1 while from parts of ,south ,america1 the trade in chinchilla is large4 ,yet ,north ,america has been for centuries1 the great fur-producing continent and now that trapping is being pressed harder than ever and the natural haunts of the animals are becoming less each year1 the question is1--where will the future supply come from8 ,in this connection the following article on ,the ,fur ,markets is reproduced from the ,april issue of ,the ,hunter-,trader-,trapper3 ,the ,spring or ,march ,london ,sales began ,march #bb and ended ,april #b4 ,during that time ,american ,raw ,furs were offered by ,hudson's ,bay ,company2 ,c4 ,m4 ,lampson ,co41 and ,a4 ,w4 ,nesbitt4 ,in face of the fact that prices on some articles have advanced so materially that ,american manufacturers have bought sparingly1 the outcome of the sales was awaited with much interest by the trade4 ,a year ago in giving the quantity of goods offered by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 this magazine said3 ,the quantity seems to be decreasing as the offering this year is less than #aijg1 and #aijg less than #aijf4 ,the offerings this year are still less than #aijh1 and for ready comparison the ,hudson's ,bay ,company offerings at the ,march ,sales for three years are given3 #aiji #aijh #aijg ,otter #e1cda #d1ifh #f1icc ,fisher #b1fga #c1bbd #c1bbh ,cross ,fox #a1dde #b1fgh #d1dij ,red ,fox #b1ihg #f1eih #aj1bjj ,silver ,fox #cdd #ebf #hif ,blue ,fox #ad #fc #hh ,white ,fox #b1jeh #f1gjc #aa1dji ,marten #ba1egg #bi1hjh #dc1gih ,mink #aj1iff #ac1jia #cb1hag ,ermine #ae1cad #ad1bhj #bj1gcg ,lynx #h1hef #ca1hib #ef1faa ,wolf #c1gef #d1bjg #b1gga ,wolverine #gah #hfe #gcd ,skunk #a1dgh #e1jbc #aa1dcj ,bear1 ,black #c1idc #c1gdj #d1jdb ,bear1 ,brown #chg #cec #dcb ,bear1 ,grey #ajh #abc #id ,bear1 ,white #hi #ei #acg ,badger #abe #afi #cbb ,raccoon #adj #bdc #fjj ,the combined offerings of ,c4 ,m4 ,lampson ,co41 and ,a4 ,w4 ,nesbitt were as follows at the ,spring ,sales in #aijg1 #aijh and #aiji3 #aiji #aijh #aijg ,mink #hb1ege #acd1bjj #ge1fjj ,skunk #ede1bhd #daf1jjj #fae1ijj ,muskrat #a1bch1beg #a1jae1jjj #a1jah1jjj ,raccoon #bjc1aee #caf1jjj #fi1gbf ,opossum #bbe1fga #bfg1jjj #bbe1cej ,marten #h1afh #ae1jjj #ah1fjj ,lynx #a1ejj #g1eej #aa1gbg ,fox1 ,red #be1fjj #cf1ffj #ca1hgj ,fox1 ,cross #a1ehe #e1jba #e1jhj ,fox1 ,silver #eci #gbh #a1jae ,fox1 ,grey #ac1fjj #bc1bgj #h1ifa ,fox1 ,kitt #a1fgj #chh #fee ,fox1 ,white #c1caj #ad1jjj #d1ghe ,fox1 ,blue #c1fcj #b1fjj #c1fjj ,otter #e1baa #i1jjj #b1iaf ,fisher #b1iad #c1ddj #a1gje ,beaver #ad1bhb #f1hjj #aa1ijj ,bear #g1bdj #f1ihj #e1ggj ,badger #d1jgj #d1dge #e1ije ,cat1 ,wild #f1ibe #e1hjj #g1jgb ,cat1 ,house #bj1cdd #ae1hjj #ag1jjj ,wolf #ba1cfe #bd1aej #ab1ajj ,wolverine #cej #dej #cbc ,ermine #gg1fjj #gg1jjj #ajj1ehj ,civet #ai1bjj #cc1jjj #ec1hjj ,the noticeable falling off in the ,hudson's ,bay ,company offerings can be accounted for from the fact that more free traders1 as the ,great ,company calls them1 are yearly encroaching upon their territory4 ,the offerings of ,lampson and ,nesbitt is short of a year ago with the exceptions of beaver1 muskrat and skunk4 ,the advanced price of muskrat1 no doubt1 caused more trapping of these animals than ever before4 ,again the fact of the dry fall in many localities bunched the rats1 so that they were much easier caught4 ,the rats offered at the recent sales are largely fall and winter4 ,from reports1 the collection of spring rats will be very light--in many localities not more than one-fourth of an average collection4 ,while the offerings now show some #bjj1jjj in excess of ,march1 #aijh1 and also ,march1 #aijg1 indications are that before the year #aiji ends there will be a shortage in the total rat catch for the year4 ,considerable anxiety is felt regarding skunk1 as the number offered was #ede1bhj compared with #daf1jjj in ,march1 #aijh1 which is nearly #acj1jjj more4 ,this is hardly a fair test4 ,the offerings at ,march ,sales #aijh were light from the fact that skunk were not in demand at the beginning of the fall season of #aijg1 when a good per cent4 of skunk are caught for the following ,march ,sales4 ,go back another year1 that is ,march1 #aijg1 and see what the offerings of skunk were2 you perhaps will be surprised to learn that it was #fae1ijj or #gj1jjj more than at this spring's sale4 ,the offerings of beaver were larger than a year ago1 but with these exceptions1 there appears a decided falling off--note the quantity of fox1 coon1 marten1 lynx--all much less4 ,furs are fashionable throughout the entire civilized world1 and the catch seems inadequate on many articles4 ,this is probably responsible for the high prices4 ,at any rate1 some articles have advanced beyond all previous high record4 ,prices for wolf1 fox1 lynx1 wild cat and muskrat are very high1 as well as many other ,american raw furs4 ,skunk reached a price that no one expected the past season4 ,since early in ,march or shortly after1 too late to get goods into the ,london ,sales1 prices were lowered on skunk1 opossum1 raccoon and some grades of mink1 especially ,southern and ,southwestern1 but at the same time it should be taken into consideration that the quality is not so desirable as during the midwinter months4 ,many believe that by far the most of the furs come from the ,far ,north4 ,this is erroneous4 ,it is true that the most valuable furs1 such as silver1 black and cross foxes1 lynx and marten1 come from that section4 ,some of the best otter1 red fox and mink are also secured in the far northern country4 ,yet fully one-half of the value of the ,american catch of raw furs is comprised in the three following articles--skunk1 mink and muskrat4 ,in the ,far ,north there will be foxes1 otter1 mink1 and marten for some time to come4 ,but what about that part of the country1 say south of the ,great ,lakes1 west of the ,allegheny ,mountains1 north of the ,tennessee and ,arkansas ,rivers and east of the ,rocky ,mountains8--a section which has been producing about half of the furs4 ,this section is the great skunk producing one and as well as one of the best mink and muskrat sections4 ,it also furnishes from the ,southern ,states within the area outlined1 great quantities of coon and opossum4 ,when those interested in the fur business consider that half the value of the annual catch is skunk1 mink1 and muskrat and that the best producing section has hitherto been the section as outlined1 one can easily see that the supply will not long be equal to the demand4 ,during recent years1 owing to persistent trapping1 the fur producers have been greatly reduced and if not practically exterminated in parts of the country1 are destined to become nearly so4 ,the fact that skunk1 mink and muskrat have been so greatly reduced in the past few years has caused those interested in the fur industry to ask1--what of the future8 with the settlement of the country and the draining of the swamps1 clearing of the forests1 etc41 which deprives many species of fur producers of their natural homes1 how can it be expected that the supply will last8 ,that skunk1 mink and muskrat do well in settled sections1 there is no question1 but since their pelts are so valuable1 more trappers are after them than ever before4 ,in addition1 magazines and books on the subject are more plentiful than in former years1 so that the inexperienced hunter and trapper has far better success than in past years4 ,there is always a cash market for raw furs and since the discovery of ,america1 raw furs have been an important article of commerce4 ,in the early days1 beaver was the leading article and even at this date thousands of skins are secured annually by the professional trapper in the swamps of the south and along the streams and lakes of the north4 ,scattered thruout the ,south1 ,rocky ,mountain sections1 ,northern ,canada and parts of the ,east1 are several thousand professional hunters and trappers whose annual catch amounts to several hundred dollars each4 ,the aggregate of these men1 footing up to perhaps #c1jjj1jjj or #d1jjj1jjj4 ,in the settled sections are tens of thousands of boys and amateur trappers with here and there a professional4 ,the annual catch of these foot up to perhaps #f1jjj1jjj to #h1jjj1jjj1 or double the catch of the professionals who leave civilization in ,september and are not seen again until ,may or ,june4 ,it is this class 7boys and amateurs7 that secures the greatest quantities of fur and as the number of trappers is so large and the grounds necessarily limited1 here is where the animals are rapidly decreasing and at the present rate are in danger of extermination4 ,in some sections there has been a wonderful falling off in the catch of late years1 altho the number of trappers is larger4 ,an industry paying the hunter and trapper probably #ae1jjj1jjj yearly is one that should receive attention4 ,at the present rate of extermination1 some of the fur bearers are destined to soon follow in the wake of the buffalo4 ,the demand for furs is increasing as the population of the world is becoming more and more4 ,again furs are being put to more uses than ever4 ,while the demand for furs are increasing1 what of the supply8 ,the day1 perhaps1 is not far in the distance when the demand will call for two or three times as many furs as today4 ,where are they to come from8 ,the natural supply is surely diminishing4 ,the matter of ',supply and ,demand' is one that there is considerable difference of opinion upon4 ,hunters and trappers1 as a rule1 are of one opinion and that is that the number of pelts secured upon a certain territory is becoming less each year4 ,trappers going over their lines are surely the ones who know whether the fur is holding out or not4 ,the number of persons seeking fur is larger each year4 ,in localities furnishing as much fur as ever1 the chances are that the number of animals left for breeding is less each year4 ,if such is true the day when these localities will show a falling off in the receipts is not far in the distance4 ,until recently1 many dealers and manufacturers believed that the supply of wild fur-bearing animals was practically inexhaustible--that when wanted1 trappers would go out into the wilds1 catch1 skin and send the pelts to market4 ,these people are beginning to awaken to the true situation and while they send out price lists1 circulars1 and traveling buyers after raw furs1 they say it is much harder to secure the goods wanted than formerly4 ,a well known dealer in ,minneapolis in sizing up the situation1 says3 ,with the vast fund of information about trapping being sent out and with improved traps for catching and the great stimulus to trapping owing to high prices1 in five to ten years1 there will not be one-fourth to one-half the fur bearers that there are now1 unless stringent laws are enacted to curtail the trapping4 ,under proper conditions1 with intelligent care1 no doubt1 raising fur animals can be made to pay4 ,the raiser starting on a small scale and increasing as their knowledge increases4 ,most all successful business is built up by starting small4 ,the dealer who wrote the above advertises quite extensively for furs4 ,the territory tributary to that city has always been considered a good fur producing one4 ,during recent years1 the supply has fallen off materially in face of the fact of improved trapping methods and a greatly increased number of persons seeking the fur bearers4 ,the same conditions are true to a greater or less degree in many parts of the country4 ,the ,american people1 however1 can be depended upon to meet all emergencies4 ,they have already set about to provide for the future raw fur supply by raising the animals4 ,as early as #ahhd1 experiments were made at raising foxes on the islands in the ,northern ,pacific ,ocean1 along the coast of ,british ,columbia and ,alaska4 ,the experiments1 as a rule1 proved successful and there has been for years a number of successful fox raisers on the islands of the ,north ,pacific4 ,more will be said about them elsewhere4 ,in various parts of ,north ,america1 experiments have been made1 principally with skunk1 altho a few have tried mink and other animals but only in a small way1 or by men who expected to get rich quick and who did not give the enterprise the care and attention that is necessary to make a success at any business4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,what ,,animals ,,to ,,raise4 ,there is a bright future to ,fur ,farming4 ,the person who knows something of the habits of the animal or animals that they expect to raise1 will be the successful ones4 ,a person who has always lived in the city would not be apt to make a success at general farming or fruit raising4 ,the same applies to fur farming4 ,the person who has followed hunting and trapping or the farmer who has given attention to fur bearing animals are the ones most apt to be successful4 ,foxes1 no doubt1 will be the animals that the majority would like to begin with1 especially the more valuable species1 as black1 silver and cross4 ,these for breeding purposes of course can be secured1 but the present raisers do not seem to care to sell any of their stock unless at good round figures4 ,they want to further increase their own numbers4 ,a good many attempts were made at raising skunk a few years ago1 most of which were failures4 ,some entered the business on a large scale1 knowing nothing of the animal1 and of course failed2 others penned up a few skunk and as they were not properly cared for resulted in failures4 ,the recent advanced price for skunk skins has caused a revival in their raising4 ,this time1 an entirely different class of people are taking up their raising1 and they are going to succeed1 why8 ,because they know something of the animal and are going at the business in a calm and business-like way4 ,mink1 at present prices1 look good to the fur-farmer4 ,they are small animals but yield a pelt worth from #c to #g1 depending upon the size and color4 ,raccoon and opossum are compared with many fur-bearing animals as producers of cheap furs4 ,this is true1 but at the same time1 they offer the most promising future for the fur-farmer in many localities4 ,they are easily raised1 and in addition to their fur1 the carcass finds a ready sale in most cities4 ,opossum and coon will not dig deep seeking escape1 but are good climbers and considerable precaution should be taken to see that the wire netting is either extended in several feet at the top1 or that a strip of tin a couple of feet wide is fastened to the posts some three feet from the ground4 ,the fur-farmer1 should the market be low for certain animals1 can keep over2 or the better plan would no doubt be to kill off the surplus males and perhaps some females4 ,at such times do not make the mistake of killing off too closely1 as some will do1 claiming that the fur is low and that there is no need of trying to increase4 ,nine times in ten1 this is the time to raise as many as possible1 for by another season1 that particular article is apt to be in demand4 ,to illustrate3 skunk were low in #aijg1 yet had the raisers gone ahead1 they would have had a supply to kill during the ,winter of #aijh-i1 at prices that were indeed satisfactory4 ,had the opossum raiser1 during the low prices for this fur in #aijg and #aijh1 sold off his breeding stock at low prices1 as he would have been compelled to do1 he would not had a supply when the prices advanced in ,january1 #aiji4 ,some farmers make the mistake of selling off all their stock when prices ease up1 expecting to go into the raising again when a reaction takes place4 ,this is not the way to make the most money2 when a reaction comes1 other farmers who have continued raising this certain animal1 reap the harvest1 selling to the market or to their neighbors at high prices4 ,the prices paid for the various articles shows about what the grower may expect for his crop4 ,the demand1 of course1 will have much to do with the price4 ,fashion is constantly changing but indications are that owing to diminishing supply and increased consumption1 prices will be on a fairly high level always4 ,trappers and hunters often catch fur too early and as a consequence have blue pelts which are graded down4 ,in the spring shedders and rubbed skins are secured which are sold as ,no4 #b or lower4 ,with the fur farmer1 there will be no early caught blue skins or late caught spring and shedders4 ,the animals will be killed when prime1 and will bring best prices4 ,some reports from those that have experimented in a small way at raising fur animals is to the effect that they do not fur properly4 ,this is true in regard skunk1 when kept in a box or a small enclosure for weeks and fed largely on meat4 ,the writer when a fur buyer has bought skunk that had been kept in a pen or small enclosure for weeks and in addition to being thinly furred1 the hide was much thicker than it should have been4 ,indians and professional hunters and trappers of the north say that they can notice a difference in the fur of foxes1 lynx1 marten1 etc41 when the food supply is abundant4 ,the fur is thicker and has a healthier1 silkier and glossier appearance4 ,the secret1 no doubt1 is to give the animals plenty of room and feed should be varied4 ,here is where the person who knows the habits of the animal or animals he is raising is valuable4 ,when cattle1 sheep and hogs are fed properly they take on fat readily and produce a healthy coat of hair or wool4 ,the same applies to the fur bearing animals4 ,what animals offer the best inducement to raise8 ,this is a question that each individual going into the business must largely decide4 ,the place you have in view for the starting of the farm will have much to do with this4 ,is the location one best adapted to skunk1 mink1 coon1 fox1 muskrat or some other fur bearer8 ,again1 your experience should be taken into consideration1--what fur bearers you are most familiar with4 ,if you live near a large city which offers a market for coon and opossum carcasses1 this should be considered as these animals are easy to raise and opossum especially are very prolific1 producing from six to twelve at a litter4 ,while the fur of coon and opossum will never be very valuable1 yet1 as both fur and carcass have a cash value1 they will prove greater money makers than many believe4 ,muskrat are another animal that should not be overlooked as they increase rapidly and their flesh is now being sold in many of the larger cities4 ,marten and silver fox should not be raised in the south1 as these are animals that do best in the cold sections4 ,otter and mink are two animals that the sun fades the fur and as the darker the fur1 the more valuable1 it is important that as little sun as possible shines upon them4 ,for this reason it is advisable to have the enclosure for these animals in the woods or thicket4 ,in fact some trees should be in enclosures for all animals4 ,if raising coon or opossum1 they will be at home in the trees while other animals will enjoy the shade in the summer and will make use of the leaves in the dens for winter4 ,illustration3 ,enclosure in thick woods4 ,there are some animals such as marten1 fisher1 wild cat1 weasel1 badger and wolves that do not seem promising to us to raise for various reasons4 ,marten do best in the high mountain sections2 fisher and wild cat would be hard to keep in an inclosure2 weasel and badger are not valuable and would both be difficult to keep in2 wolves are not valuable for fur and would require considerable attention and food1 hence1 not desirable to raise4 ,in most states there is a bounty on wolf and coyote scalps but the raising of them for the purpose of the bounty would not work--the bounty would not be paid if county officials knew from what source they came4 ,among the animals promising the best for raising are the black1 silver1 cross and red fox1 skunk1 mink1 coon1 opossum and muskrat4 ,the otter1 beaver1 bear and lynx under certain conditions may be well worth considering1 especially lynx at present value4 ,do you think present prices for furs will continue8 ,generally speaking1 yes4 ,in fact1 some articles are liable to go higher4 ,on the other hand some furs may go lower but are sure to sooner or later react4 ,the chances are that raw furs will not soon sell at the low figures of past years4 ,suppose thousands engaged in the business of raising fox1 skunk1 mink1 coon1 opossum and muskrat1 what effect would it have upon the market8 ,would they overstock it8 ,how many hundreds of thousands of persons are today raising cotton and wool to furnish clothing to the millions of people and there has always been a market4 ,the same will be the case with fur4 ,in fact1 unless thousands engage in the fur raising business1 the demand is going to far exceed the supply at no distant day4 ,furs in the north are a necessity as no cloth will repel the piercing winds4 ,teamsters and others much out of doors wear fur overcoats1 caps and use fur laprobes4 ,farther south1 say in the latitude of ,new ,york1 ,pittsburg1 ,denver1 etc41 while furs are not an absolute necessity1 yet they are much worn for comfort4 ,in all the cities of the north1 furs are worn eight or nine months in the year2 in the central sections perhaps six months2 while in the south only a few months4 ,in addition to this1 ,american furs are worn in all civilized countries of the world4 ,the farmer or stock raiser1 as a rule1 who is making the most money1 is the one who raises not horses1 cattle1 sheep or swine alone1 but often two or more of them4 ,the same can be applied to fur farming4 ,suppose an enclosure of a few acres is made for skunk1 why not take in a pond and raise muskrat1 coon1 fish and frogs4 ,there is a ready market in all cities for fresh fish and frogs4 ,the farmer that raises sheep not only sells the wool but fattens and sells some of the lambs1 wethers or old ewes from time to time4 ,the farmer is in the business to make the most out of it and such will be the case with the fur farmer4 ,in the cities there is a demand for the carcasses of coon and opossum at prices ranging from #be to #ge cents for coon and #aj to #ej cents for opossum1 depending upon the size of the carcass1 as well as the city in which you are marketing4 ,in ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 there is a ready sale for all coon and opossum carcasses at good prices4 ,other cities that use large quantities are ,buffalo1 ,cleveland1 ,pittsburg1 ,detroit1 ,chicago1 and ,milwaukee4 ,there is no city of any size north of the ,ohio ,river but offers a market4 ,st4 ,louis1 ,louisville and other southern cities being near the coon and opossum producing sections does not offer so good a market4 ,muskrat are now served as marsh rabbit in ,baltimore and other cities4 ,the trapper realizing from #e to #aj cents each4 ,with the exception of muskrat1 fur bearing animals breed only once a year1 unless the first litter are killed or die1 when another is sometimes born and it might be said1 such is frequently the case4 ,the number that the various animals produce at a litter is given in the chapter dealing with that animal4 ,it is not all that are successful bee raisers who have gone into that business1 yet how few failures are there among men who began in a small way1 learning more of the business and gradually increasing the number of hives in their apiary4 ,one thing is important and that is1 get the animals accustomed to their keeper as soon as possible4 ,the old will be wild for some time but the young soon become tame4 ,skunk and coon are easily tamed and even beaver1 otter and mink have become so tame when secured young1 that children have safely handled them4 ,a man who has been in the fur farming industry for years1 in response to the inquiry1 ,will the business pay1 says3 ,yes1 it will pay the right man big dividends on the capital invested4 ,the right man is one who has natural aptitude for this sort of work1 and who is cut out for fur farming4 ,if he has an inkling for this sort of work1 he will study the nature and requirements of the animals and attend carefully to their every want4 ,fur farming as an industry is only in its infancy1 in fact1 not begun4 ,the future looks bright to those who engage in the business in a business way4 ,to those who expect to make a fortune at the business in a year or two1 we predict failure1 but to all who are willing to go at the industry1 building a substantial enclosure1 paying the same careful attention to the feed and care of their fur animals1 that they would to other stock1 to get best results1 far more than ordinary profits should result4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,enclosures4 ,this is indeed1 one of the important things in connection with fur-farming4 ,some of the first experimenters in raising skunk and other fur animals1 dug a trench from #b to #c feet deep1 putting in rocks or boards edgewise to keep them from digging out1 on top of which they constructed an upright fence of boards from #d to #g feet4 ,on top of this fence was fastened a wide board to keep the animals from climbing out4 ,the enclosure should be an acre in extent and #b to #e would be better4 ,the ranch should be located where the water will drain off quickly1 so that the dens will be dry1 making a good place to burrow4 ,the ground should not be level1 or at any rate1 should have good drainage4 ,skunk and perhaps other animals are liable to disease1 if kept in damp and crowded quarters1 such as sore throat or similar diseases1 which may cause death4 ,illustration3 ,corner of enclosure1 showing sheet tin at top and stones at bottom4 ,galvanized wire1 ,no4 #ad or #af1 with about one-inch mesh1 seems to be the proper material for fencing4 ,posts should be of locust1 cedar1 or some other long lasting wood4 ,they should be fully #aj feet long and put in the ground #c feet or more1 depending upon how firm the earth is2 they should be set about #h feet or not more than ten apart1 as your fence should be about #g feet above ground4 ,a trench two feet deep is dug1 into which your wire is put4 ,from this it will be seen that you need woven wire #i feet high to make your fence #g feet above ground1 as two feet are under4 ,after your wire is in place1 fill up the trench with dirt1 or if there are flat stones1 it would be well to place a layer about a foot wide1 extending inward from the fence or bottom of wire4 ,should any of the animals dig downward from the bottom of the wire1 striking the stone they would become discouraged and give up1 as the stone would cause them to dig in the wrong direction to escape4 ,on top of the wire fence1 a sheet of tin roofing about #ah inches wide1 should extend around the enclosure1 on the inside1 to keep the animals from climbing out1 for skunk as well as coon can easily climb out of your enclosure4 ,instead of placing the tin around the top some turn the fence in as shown in the illustration4 ,if this is done to make the fence #g feet high1 a #aj-a_/b foot meshed wire is required as two feet are under ground and at least #ah inches should be used for turning in--#b feet would be best4 ,illustration3 ,showing ,fence with ,wire ,turned in at ,top4 ,the turning in method has some advantages over the tin2 one being that dogs cannot get in so easily1 and another is that the fence will stand up better2 the wide strip of tin or sheet-iron catching wind or snow which helps to sag the wire or cause the fence to lean4 ,the tin or sheet-iron1 however1 seems to be the best in preventing any animal's escape4 ,the enclosure can be enlarged at any time1 but do not make the mistake of beginning with too small an enclosure1 as some have4 ,also have your fence about #g feet high to keep dogs out1 as well as to keep the fur-bearers in4 ,just how much the enclosure will cost depends upon several things3 ,the cost of #i foot1 #a inch mesh ,no4 #af galvanized wire is about #a4ej per rod4 ,this price1 of course1 will vary some1 depending upon where you are located4 ,in some of the smaller cities you perhaps cannot get the kind you want and will be compelled to send to some of the larger cities or catalogue houses4 ,perhaps you can not get wider than #e feet4 ,if such is the case buy in two widths--#e feet and #d feet4 ,this will give you the desired height4 ,posts as already mentioned should be of locust or some other long lasting wood1 as cedar1 and should be thoroughly seasoned before putting in the ground4 ,the posts should be fully #f inches in diameter4 ,if from larger locust and split1 so much the better1 as the older the tree the longer it will last4 ,the cutting and setting of the posts1 putting up of the fence1 can be done by the fur-farmer in those sections where locust and cedar grow1 so that all the cash outlay necessary in building the enclosure1 will be for galvanized wire1 some staples and sheet tin for the top4 ,instead of placing the tin around the top1 it may be fastened on the inside of the wire 7as shown71 about four feet from the ground4 ,the corner posts should be two or three times larger than the others2 they should be set more firmly in the ground1 five feet being about right4 ,this will necessitate these posts being two feet longer than the rest4 ,they should be firmly braced in both ways4 ,illustration3 ,fence with ,sheet ,tin ,four ,feet from ,ground4 ,the cost of fencing an acre1 varies1 of course4 ,an acre contains #afj square rods or about #ab-a_/b rods each side--equal to #ej rods of fence4 ,if the wire costs #a4ej a rod1 and posts #dj cents each1 the cost of material required to enclose an acre will be #ie4jj4 ,we are figuring on two posts to the rod4 ,add to this staples1 gates1 etc41 and the cost will perhaps be about #ajj4jj4 ,of course a much cheaper wire could be used1 poorer posts1 etc41 so that the cost would be greatly reduced--but it generally pays to do a thing well4 ,to enclose a certain amount of ground with the smallest number of rods of fencing possible1 the plat or ground to be enclosed should be in a square4 ,the additional cost to enclose an acre1 say #bj rods long by #h wide1 would be material for #f additional rods4 ,to fully illustrate1 an acre fenced in a square would be #ab-a_/b rods on each side1 or #ej rods2 if #bj rods long1 the two sides would be #dj rods1 and the ends #h each or #af rods1 making a total of #ef rods4 ,while the cost of enclosing an oblong piece of ground would be a few dollars more than if square1 this should not stand in the way if the oblong piece of ground would make a better home for your fur-bearing animals4 ,the persons who expect to make fur-farming a business1 can begin in a small way and same need not interfere with other work to a great extent4 ,year after year1 as they learn more of the business1 they can enlarge1 etc4 ,trappers1 hunters and others who from experience know much of the animals1 will no doubt be the most successful from the start4 ,one party writes to know if skunk1 fox1 opossum and mink can be successfully raised in the same enclosure4 ,if he means allowed to run together1 they can not4 ,if he means the same outside enclosure1 with separate apartments for the various animals1 there is no reason why such a place should not be successful as there will be advantages in such a plan4 ,first1 an enclosure of four acres can be built much cheaper than four separate enclosures of one acre each4 ,to enclose four one-acre enclosures would require #bjj rods of fencing--#ej rods for each4 ,the four acres in one enclosure would be only about half or #ajj rods4 ,a square #be rods on each side would be almost #d acres4 ,should the fur-farmer wish to subdivide this into four tracts1 a fence thru the middle each way would take #be rods additional or #ej rods for both ways4 ,this fencing need not be so high or so secure as the outside one4 ,should animals manage to get into another part of the four-acre enclosure1 they would still not be at liberty1 altho they might kill or injure some of the other species before being discovered by the owner4 ,if possible have a small stream of running water in the enclosure4 ,illustration3 ,plan for ,combined ,enclosures4 ,without labor the cost of material will vary from #b4jj to #c4jj per rod4 ,the greatest variation in expense will be for posts4 ,those living where posts can be had1 having considerable the advantage4 ,this estimate being for galvanized one-inch mesh wire ,no4 #ad1 per rod1 smaller wire of course being cheaper4 ,this is by far the best material in making enclosures1 yet found4 ,some of the first experimenters used boards1 but where there were cracks1 or the sap or bark on edges rotted1 affording the animals a place to gnaw1 they soon found a way out4 ,this had to be guarded against where the boards extended into the ground they often rotted so that there was always danger of the animals escaping4 ,where stones were set up edgewise or cement used1 it was rather expensive and as galvanized wire lasts well either in the ground1 where not exposed to the air1 or being galvanized1 it stands the elements well1 it seems to meet the requirements of the fur farmer for fencing or enclosure purposes4 ,where is the farmer who would expect to make a success at raising horses1 cattle or sheep1 by keeping them in a small pen and feeding them foods not to their liking or nature8 ,yet1 such has been the case with some of those who tried fur animal raising4 ,they made a failure of it and no one who is at all familiar with fur-bearing animals is surprised4 ,those who will be successful at fur-farming are trappers1 hunters and farmers who know something of the animal or animals they expect to raise--those who love the animal and have a desire for the business4 ,the ox1 horse and sheep were all wild at one time1 but have become domesticated4 ,why not the same with the fur-bearers8 ,this is exactly what should be done4 ,skunk1 especially1 are very easily domesticated1 and other fur-bearers1 such as coon1 mink and opossum1 soon lose much of their fear4 ,when the raiser learns this and furnishes a large enclosure with dens and food similar to their wild state1 they will be on the road to success4 ,as one raiser says3 ,they do well in a semi-wild state4 ,if the enclosure is too small1 fleas1 seed ticks1 and other parasites are a great enemy to the animals4 ,in a large enclosure the animals are more at home although at first they are restless and will walk around seeking a way to escape2 that is they try to escape at night4 ,they are seldom1 if ever1 seen during the day when first let loose in the enclosure2 they generally go in the first den that has been prepared for them4 ,water is important4 ,if you are raising skunk1 fox or opossum1 water for drinking is all that they require2 the same is the case with the coon1 although they will do best where they have water to wade1 play and search for food4 ,muskrat1 otter1 beaver and mink must have water to swim and play in1 as well as to drink or they cannot be raised4 ,the enclosure for mink and muskrat should include a stream of running water if possible1 or a pond of pure water4 ,the same conditions apply to otter and beaver1 but of course the wire should be of larger size than for mink and muskrat4 ,several different species of fur-bearers can be successfully raised in the same enclosure4 ,coon1 opossum1 and skunk will all do well together4 ,beaver and otter1 apparently1 live peaceably for weeks in the same beaver lodge or house4 ,the thousands of small lakes1 ponds1 etc41 offer a splendid opportunity for the successful raising of muskrat4 ,while many owners of such1 today1 in their natural condition1 or without any fence1 are reaping a profitable and furry harvest2 yet there are additional hundreds that by building a fence around1 would soon have a muskrat lake or pond worth a great deal4 ,muskrat are fond of their homes and often remain at the same location for years4 ,if a wire fence three feet high were built around this lake or pond1 7with one foot underground71 it would keep the rats at home1 as some would leave1 especially as soon as the increase became large4 ,such a fence would also keep out mink1 which kill muskrat1 often4 ,muskrat1 in their wild or natural homes1 seldom leave the water more than a rod or two1 so that a pond a considerable distance from any stream1 would be a comparatively safe place to raise them1 without any enclosure4 ,the danger would be1 mainly1 that after the animals became quite plentiful1 some would perhaps leave1 for instinct seems to teach them that some should seek homes not so crowded4 ,this has happened in their natural breeding places where they became very plentiful4 ,how large and where to build enclosures for fur farming1 must be decided by each individual4 ,one party may have a creek1 pond or lake1 perhaps a swamp1 already inhabited by muskrat1 and all that is necessary is to keep other hunters and trappers off4 ,on navigable rivers or lakes having an inlet and outlet1 we believe in most states any one can trap so long as he is upon the water4 ,in other words1 the water does not belong to the land owner and he cannot keep others off2 but any small lake or pond may be enclosed4 ,on this point it would be well to see some lawyer in your county1 as different states may have different laws4 ,a wooded bluff containing some den trees for coon1 and hollow logs1 stumps1 etc41 for opossum and skunk1 would be an ideal place for a fur-farm4 ,the location of the farm should be within sight of the home of the raiser1 in case a dog should get within or a thief should visit the farm4 ,to guard against stealing at night your dog would give the alarm1 or you could have an electric appliance connect the farm with the house4 ,islands in large lakes offer a splendid place to begin raising fur-bearing animals1 and especially those that do not like to get their fur wet or that naturally are not swimmers4 ,in this class are the various kinds of foxes1 skunk and opossum2 marten1 it is true1 are not included in the swimming class1 but the successful marten raiser perhaps will be found1 if at all1 in the higher altitudes where the snow gets several feet deep during the winter months1 and the ground is covered with snow eight or nine months each year--such is the ideal and natural home of the marten4 ,skunk and opossum are two animals that do not travel much in extreme cold weather1 so that an island in a lake or large river1 could be used with no fencing4 ,it perhaps would be best to put up a wire fence but it need not be so substantial as if it were not surrounded by water4 ,of course islands in rivers that overflow1 would not be suitable4 ,there are1 however1 islands in the ,great ,lakes and elsewhere1 that can be used for raising both skunk and opossum with little or no cash outlay at the start4 ,if islands are used for foxes 7except in salt water where the water does not freeze71 the same precaution in fencing must be taken as elsewhere4 ,foxes travel during all kinds of weather and the first night the ice formed sufficient to bear their weight1 they would be very apt to leave4 ,coon could not be successfully raised on an island4 ,they do not travel much during severe weather1 but unless the island happened to be some distance from the mainland1 they would likely swim to shore4 ,mink would be at home on an island where there was fish1 frogs1 etc41 with drift and log piles to wander through1 but as they are good swimmers1 there would be nothing gained by starting with this animal on an island4 ,skunk and opossum seem to be the only animals that can be safely raised on an island without the same precaution taken in fencing and enclosing1 as upon the mainland4 ,these two animals1 while not the highest priced furred ones1 for various reasons will prove to be as profitable1 or more so1 where conditions favor1 than many other fur-bearers4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,box ,,trap ,,trapping4 ,i was born in ,central ,pennsylvania and spent the greater part of my early life among the mountains of that part of our country1 writes ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,williams1 a well known trapper4 ,from my early boyhood1 ,i had a decided liking for the wilder class of literature1 and took special interest in tales of hunting and trapping adventures2 but at that time1 did not know that there were many who still followed hunting and trapping for profit4 ,when ,i did learn of it1 ,i naturally became even more interested1 and tried to find a partner among my boy friends1 intending1 if ,i could find some person to accompany me1 to make an extended hunting and trapping trip into some one of the wilder portions of the ,west or ,north4 ,of course ,i was no more fitted for such a trip than any other country boy of the same age1 and knew nothing of the wilderness2 but being a boy1 and having read so many tales of boy hunters traversing the wilderness as they would their own back yards1 ,i naturally thought that life in the forests was a very simple thing1 and that there was no reason why ,i should not go4 ,as ,i grew older ,i learned that there was still some fur to be found in ,pennsylvania1 and not only that but that there were parties who made trapping a business1 in season4 ,i was interested1 and decided to try my hand on the fur-bearing animals found near my own home1 before going farther1 but ,i had no traps and knew nothing about the various sizes and grades2 as a consequence1 ,i sought out one of the trappers that ,i had heard of1 and asked his advice regarding different traps for the various animals4 ,he gave me the desired information1 very willingly1 and also remarked that he had been very successful in trapping mink and other small animals with box-traps4 ,after he had mentioned it1 ,i remembered that my father had1 on one occasion1 caught a mink in a box trap1 after it had been paying nightly visits to our chicken coop for a week or more1 killing a hen each night2 but for all of that ,i did not know that these traps could be used successfully when trapping for profit4 ,it was not very long after my conversation with this trapper1 that ,i had an opportunity of examining one of these wooden traps and studying its construction4 ,i will give here a description of the trap used in that section3 ,a plain box1 size #aj by #aj by #bd inches1 is made of one-inch lumber1 hardwood preferred1 and is left open on one end and the top 7see ,a7 another part 7,b7 the cover1 is fitted in top and end1 and hinged at back by driving a nail in each side1 being careful to get both nails same distance from the end of board4 ,this cover should work freely1 and when dropped down in place1 should fill the opening neatly1 leaving no cracks for the captured animal to gnaw at4 ,illustration3 ,box ,trap for ,catching ,animals ,alive4 ,now nail two strips 7,,cc7 on opposite sides of the box and about three inches from the mouth of the trap4 ,these strips should extend about ten inches above the top of the box1 and should have the tops notched to hold stick 7,d74 ,stick 7,e7 is tied at one end to a nail driven in the end of cover1 and at the other end1 is attached the trigger 7,f74 ,one end of this trigger fits into a notch cut into the end of the box1 and the other end fits into a similar notch cut in the bait-stick 7,g74 ,the bait-stick1 as will be noticed in the drawing1 is slipped through a hole in the end of the box1 just below the trigger notch1 and is kept in place by means of a nail driven through on the inside of the box4 ,a small trip board 7,h71 rests under the bait-stick on the inside of the trap4 ,this trip board doubles the value of the trap1 as by its use many an animal which merely enters the trap to smell at the bait1 will be caught2 which would not occur if the board were not used4 ,to complete the trap1 a snap catch 7,i7 is fastened to one side of the trap in front of upright strip 7,c7 and its purpose is to catch and hold the cover when the trap is sprung4 ,this snap is made of springy wood1 beveled on the top1 and the falling cover presses it outward2 but as soon as the trap is fully closed1 it springs back to the original position holding the cover securely4 ,in making this trap it is advisable1 always1 to use old1 weather-beaten lumber4 ,as a result of my investigation1 ,i made a number of these traps and was successful with them1 from the start4 ,in that part of the country there had been many saw-mills and logging camps1 at one time or another and at such places ,i could always find old boards from which to construct the traps4 ,the only tools required being a saw1 a hatchet1 and a half-inch auger1 ,i would go to these places during the summer1 whenever ,i had a day to spare1 and make a few traps1 hiding them near the places where ,i wished to set them4 ,the trap described above is of the size used for mink1 skunk and opossum1 but ,i made most of mine on a larger scale1 and by baiting with fish1 ,i caught many coons4 ,on one occasion ,i caught three coons in one night1 with only three traps set1 and in another trap1 set by the side of a small stream1 in a gap of the mountains1 ,i caught three mink and two coons in one fall season4 ,at another time ,i caught a large bob-cat in such a trap4 ,as ,i said before ,i baited with fish when ,i could get them2 but those trappers who used them for mink alone1 never used bait1 but attracted the mink into the trap by means of mink musk rubbed on the trip board4 ,i caught quite a lot of skunks in box traps1 and it is a nice way to catch these animals1 for the trap may be carried to the nearest water and the catch drowned by holding the trap beneath the surface4 ,it is advisable always1 to place a weight--a few stones or wet chunks--on the cover1 as this will make it more certain in its action4 ,these traps are specially suitable for catching animals alive and uninjured1 for breeding purposes1 and now1 that so many people are interested in raising fur-bearing animals1 there is a ready sale for live animals1 and this matter should be given attention4 ,illustration3 ,box ,trap with ,swing ,gate4 ,i have used another style of box-trap for muskrats1 but is not intended for catching the animals alive1 and the muskrats are always drowned4 ,it is a simple box or square tube of boards1 #f x #f x #bd or #bf inches1 open at both ends4 ,a wire screen is fastened over one end1 and a loosely hinged gate of pointed wires is hung in the other end4 ,i used for the gate1 pieces of umbrella ribs1 cut about eight inches long and the ends filed sharp4 ,with the wires cut this length the gate will hang at an angle of forty-five degrees1 or more1 and will push in easily1 allowing the animal to enter the trap without effort2 but once inside1 escape is impossible1 as the gate cannot be pushed out1 and even if the captured animal should raise the gate and attempt to creep under it1 the pointed wires will catch in its back and prevent escape4 ,they are set in the dens1 under water1 and if the mouth of the den is too large1 the space around the trap should be closed with sods4 ,set in this way1 it will catch any muskrat that attempts to leave the den1 and ,i have caught three at one time in such a trap4 ,while muskrats caught in this way are always drowned1 other animals1 such as3 mink1 skunk and opossum1 may be taken alive by setting the trap in the mouth of the den1 blocking up all side openings4 ,the width of the trap as shown in the cut1 is considerably out of proportion1 when compared with its length--it being drawn this way to show more clearly the working of the swing gate4 ,a very effective skunk trap may be made from an old barrel4 ,the barrel is pivoted to a pair of stakes1 driven firmly into the ground along a bank or hillside1 where skunks are found1 and the bait is fastened on the bottom of the inside of the barrel4 ,this trap is shown plainly in the illustration4 ,it will be apparent to all that when the skunk1 in approaching the bait1 passes the center1 where it is hinged to the stakes1 the barrel tips over1 and it will be impossible for the animal to escape4 ,muskrats are sometimes taken with a wire net4 ,to hunt them successfully in this way1 two persons are required4 ,while one holds the net over the mouth of the den1 the other hunter drives the inmates from the burrow by prodding the ground with a pointed pole4 ,a wire cage with a cover must be used to carry the captured animals1 and each individual must be shaken into the cage as soon as captured1 and the cage closed immediately to prevent their escape4 ,illustration3 ,barrel ,trap for ,catching ,animals ,alive4 ,when box traps are used1 no difficulty whatever will be encountered in transporting the animals1 as trap and catch may be carried into the enclosure before the animal is liberated4 ,even the skunk may be carried along in this way without any danger of scenting4 ,the trap should be handled carefully--not thrown about4 ,muskrats may be handled with perfect safety if grasped by the end of the tail and held at arm's length4 ,trappers1 as a rule1 know just what time of year the young of each species of animal are born and ,i would advise1 when trapping animals for breeding purposes1 to catch them before this time1 or at such a length of time after the birth of the young1 that there will be no danger of their starving in case they are not captured along with the mother4 ,even if the very young animals are taken from the den1 there is danger of them suffering from careless handling1 or from not receiving proper care4 ,it is better to catch the female animals before the young are born4 99 99 99 99 99 ,another box trap that is a good one1 is described by an ,illinois trapper as follows3 ,i here enclose a sketch for making a trap for catching mink which ,i have used for years1 and think it can't be beat4 ,make a box #bb inches long1 #e inches wide1 and #f inches high out of inch lumber2 bore a hole at the back for the string 7,d7 to pass through1 which is tied to a bait at 7,e7 and fastened at the other end to a heavy wire 7,c71 on top of the box1 which holds the sliding door 7,a71 when set4 ,a couple of strips 7,b7 are nailed on each side to hold the door in place4 ,this is a good trap for mink that are afraid of steel traps4 ,for bait use a rabbit's head tied securely to the string1 also a few drops of good scent put on the bait1 and set near the mouth of some tiles or wherever mink abound4 ,illustration3 ,another ,box ,trap4 ,this trap1 as well as all the box-traps in this chapter1 are recommended for catching such animals as skunk1 coon1 mink1 and opossum1 alive and uninjured1 for stocking fur-farms4 ,muskrat can be caught in these traps by baiting and setting where they feed1 or on runways from one pond to another4 ,animals caught in these traps can be carried with safety to both catcher and animal1 to the enclosure1 before taking out of the trap4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,fox ,,raising4 ,the foxes of ,north ,america are divided by naturalists into only three distinct groups or species1 namely1 the red1 the gray and the ,arctic foxes4 ,of these1 the red species is divided into a number of varieties1 among which are the ,nova ,scotia ,red ,fox1 the ,newfoundland ,red ,fox and the ,western ,kit or ,swift ,fox1 etc4 ,the black1 cross and silver foxes are commonly supposed to be only color varieties of the red1 there being no difference whatever1 except in the fur4 ,while naturalists all agree on this subject there is considerable difference of opinion among others who give as proof that they are of a different species1 the fact that the black1 cross and silver are only found in the northern districts while the red variety is found well down into the south4 ,there are1 however1 certain facts which go to prove that they are all of the same variety or if different that they interbreed1 the most convincing of these being the fact that the various colors are sometimes found in the same litter4 ,but1 be this as it may1 the matter is of little importance to the prospective fox breeder as it has become a well known fact that the red color can be entirely eliminated by careful breeding4 ,the red fox is found throughout the greater part of ,canada and the ,united ,states except in the far south where it is replaced by the gray species and in the extreme northern portions of ,canada and ,alaska1 where it gives place to the ,arctic fox1 also they are not found in the far western states nor on the ,pacific coast1 being replaced here by the gray4 ,they are perhaps most abundant in the ,new ,england ,states1 ,newfoundland and the eastern provinces of ,canada1 but are also found in good numbers in parts of ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,virginia1 ,west ,virginia and the mountainous and hilly sections of the ,south4 ,the silver and black foxes are found but rarely in the most northern tier of states and are probably found in the greatest numbers in ,newfoundland1 ,labrador1 northern ,quebec and northern ,ontario1 but an odd specimen is occasionally met with in all parts of ,canada4 ,they appear also to be quite plentiful in the interior of ,alaska and the ,yukon ,province of ,canada4 ,the range of the cross fox is the same as that of the silver and black except that it probably extends somewhat farther southward into the ,united ,states4 ,of the gray foxes1 several varieties are recognized1 all however1 being very much alike4 ,they are found throughout the ,southern and ,south ,central ,states--in the east being found as far north as ,connecticut and on the ,pacific ,coast are found in ,california and ,oregon4 ,the ,arctic fox1 also known as the blue fox and the white fox1 is found only in northern ,canada and ,alaska4 ,in the most northern parts of their range they are a bluish color in summer1 changing to white in winter1 but in the lower latitudes they retain the blue color throughout the year4 ,there is an immense difference in the value of the various varieties of foxes4 ,while the fur of the gray variety is seldom worth more than a dollar or a dollar and a half1 that of the fine silver and black foxes will range from several hundred to a thousand dollars1 and more if the skin is an exceptionally fine one4 ,the ,arctic fox comes next in value to the silver1 while the cross is as a rule of less value1 depending mostly on color1 and the red variety sells for from three to five dollars each and upwards for prime skins4 ,illustration3 ,northwestern ,fox ,skins--,silver1 ,cross and ,red4 ,the various members of the red fox family are practically the same as regards habits1 being influenced to a certain extent by environments1 differences in climate and food1 etc41 but on the whole very much alike4 ,they are all of a cunning1 wary and suspicious nature and it is owing to this fact alone that they have been enabled to live and thrive in the face of the persistent hunting and trapping4 ,they are hardy animals and while they generally have a den somewhere on the side of a gravelly or sandy hill1 they spend comparatively little of their time in the dens and prefer to spend the day in a bunch of grass or weeds1 a clump of brush1 or1 curled up on top of a stump4 ,in their search for food they sometimes start out quite early in the evening1 but are probably most active in the early morning when all animal life is on the move4 ,then it is that the rabbits and other nocturnal animals are seeking their places of rest and the birds1 etc41 are commencing to move about and the fox stands a better chance of securing some article of food4 ,their food consists principally of small animals and birds1 such as rabbits1 partridge1 quail1 chipmunks and mice1 but they also eat fruit1 such as apples1 wild grapes and nuts4 ,however1 they are more strictly carnivorous than the gray fox4 ,they are fond of eggs and often rob the nests of ground building birds1 of eggs and young1 and in the settled sections have acquired a decided liking for poultry of all kinds4 ,the food of the gray fox is practically the same as that of the red variety but they are more given to eating fruit and feed extensively on grapes1 apples1 etc41 and in some sections they feed on green corn4 ,all foxes will eat fish with a relish when they can get them and will refuse scarcely anything in the line of flesh1 being especially fond of muskrat1 skunk and opossum4 ,in captivity they take very kindly to a vegetable diet4 ,the ,arctic foxes live chiefly on lemmings1 small animals which are found quite plentifully in the far north1 but in captivity they thrive on fish and cooked corn meal4 ,the mating season of the red fox comes mainly in ,february and the beginning of ,march and the young1 from five to eight or nine1 are born in ,april or early in ,may4 ,the young of the gray fox are born in ,may1 the mating season of this species being somewhat later than that of the red fox4 ,the breeding dens of the fox are usually located on some gravelly hillside but in places where the country is broken and rocky4 ,they use natural dens in the rocks4 ,it is only during the breeding season and while the young foxes are still quite small that these dens are regularly inhabited4 ,at other times they may spend an occasional day there or seek safety in the dens when hard pressed by hounds1 but for the most part they prefer to rest out of doors4 ,foxes prefer the rough hilly countries and are usually found in good numbers in the hilly farming sections where there are old pastures and an occasional patch of woodland4 ,the gray fox is most at home in the wooded districts but the red species1 including the silver1 cross and black prefer the more open stretches of country4 ,in the north they will be found most plentiful in the barrens and sections where second-growth timber prevails4 ,the two species do not appear to be on very friendly terms and not given to mixing one with the other4 ,in some sections where red foxes were once numerous and the gray variety were unknown1 the grays now predominate1 having driven out the red variety4 ,in other parts the reds have supplanted the grays4 ,this1 however1 is only in the central and southern districts1 as the gray fox is never found far north4 ,,fox ,,farming4--,fox farming has been attempted by various parties from time to time and those who have given the business considerable study and have persevered have generally been successful4 ,many of the parties1 however1 were men who have had practically no knowledge of nature1 having gone into the business too deeply in the start and being ignorant of the nature and habits of the animals when found in a wild state1 have as a consequence1 failed4 ,very few of those who have made a success of breeding the valuable silver foxes have gone into this business in the start1 but have first experimented with the less valuable red fox1 and as the silver and red foxes are of the same variety their nature and habits are also the same1 and the knowledge of their habits gained by experimenting with one is of equal value as applied to the other4 ,the ,arctic foxes are being raised successfully on many of the islands off the coast of ,alaska4 ,as the seas never freeze over there1 no enclosures are necessary and the business has proved comparatively easy from the start4 ,such islands are not within the reach of the average fox farmer and other means must be resorted to4 ,the breeding of silver foxes has1 thus far1 been carried on mainly in the ,canadian ,maritime ,provinces and the state of ,maine1 but it has also been undertaken to some extent in ,michigan1 ,alaska1 ,labrador and ,newfoundland4 ,we are certain that if one will give the matter sufficient study1 learn the habits and nature of the animals thoroughly and act accordingly1 success is sure to follow and that the red1 cross and silver foxes may be bred and raised successfully4 ,experiments should be conducted on a small scale1 for otherwise failure would mean a great loss4 ,we would advise that the amateur conduct his experiments with red foxes1 learning their habits thoroughly before attempting the breeding of the valuable silver-gray4 ,,favorable ,,localities4--,it is a well known fact that the finest furs are produced in northern localities and fox farming should not be attempted in the far south4 ,the accompanying map1 which is taken from the bulletin of the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 will show the area most suitable for silver fox farming4 ,the plainly lined portions show the most suitable country1 and conditions in those parts are most excellent and the cross-hatched parts show the area where silver fox raising is possible and conditions favorable4 ,the red fox will do well somewhat farther south1 but as before stated1 the warm climate of the south is detrimental to fine furs1 and it will be wise to not locate too far south of the shaded portions shown on the map4 ,illustration3 ,map of life zones in which fox farming is feasible in the ,united ,states1 showing the ,canadian zone where conditions are excellent1 and the ,transition zone1 in parts of which conditions are favorable4 ,having decided on a favorable section of country the next step is to find a suitable location4 ,it is not necessary or even advisable to have a large enclosure4 ,for the beginner a half-acre to an acre will be sufficient1 and a space of four or five acres is ample for extensive operations4 ,if the enclosure is too large the animals will be wild and unmanageable1 and on the other hand if too small they will become nervous and restless and will not breed well1 and it is advised also that the foxes be not disturbed by visitors and be allowed to live as quietly as possible4 ,a sandy soil is recommended1 and there should be some trees for shade1 but a thick woods is not desirable4 ,,enclosures4--,fences should be made of galvanized woven wire of two-inch mesh1--number #ad or #af wire being best4 ,the fence should be ten feet in height and should be sunk in the ground two feet and turned in two feet at the top4 ,the overhang at the top is easily adjusted by means of cross strips on the top of the posts4 ,care in making the fences is essential1 and if there is much snow in winter the drifts must not be allowed to become high enough to allow the animals to leap over4 ,it is advisable to have a set of inside enclosures1 and as it is necessary that the animals are not annoyed by visitors4 ,it is a good plan to have the space between the inside and outside fences filled with trees and clumps of brush so as to obstruct the view4 ,the inner enclosures are small and designed for single animals and pairs and should be about thirty or forty feet in size4 ,there should also be several larger enclosures for the males and females1 for1 except during the breeding season it will do no harm to allow the males to run together4 ,each separate enclosure should be provided with a gate so that it will be an easy matter to remove the foxes from one enclosure to another4 ,the plan for the arrangement of the yards as shown here is a good one and is taken from the ,government ,bulletin4 ,illustration3 ,plan for ,arrangement of ,fox ,yards4 ,each compartment should be provided with small kennels1 for although the fox will usually dig a den1 the nature of the ground is not always suitable and they take kindly to these artificial dens4 ,they are usually made four or five feet square and two or three feet high4 ,if desired1 shelters may be made of boxes as shown in the cut4 ,no bedding is required1 as the old foxes will do well without or will provide one themselves4 ,illustration3 ,box ,shelter for ,female and ,young4 ,,feeding4--,many fox raisers have failed to recognize the fact that the fox is almost omnivorous and give a strictly meat diet according4 ,while this does not always have disastrous results1 it is better to give them a mixed food1 including besides meat1 table scraps1 bread and milk1 etc4 ,overfeeding is a common trouble and should be avoided4 ,of course they must have sufficient1 but should not be allowed to become too fat1 as this spoils them for breeding purposes2 also feeding should be at regular intervals4 ,the weight of a healthy fox is from six to nine pounds1 and when an animal weighs more than ten pounds it is almost certain that it is too fat4 ,when a number of animals are kept together in one enclosure the boldest and strongest will usually get more than its share of the food4 ,of course fresh drinking water must be provided regularly4 ,one of the most successful breeders feeds a quarter of a pound of meat and a quart of skim milk daily4 ,a quarter of a pound of meat and a handful of scraps is a fair daily allowance4 ,another fox farmer feeds along with the meat a hoecake made of corn meal and sour milk4 ,beef1 mutton1 fish1 horseflesh1 etc41 are all good food for the fox4 ,old worn-out animals may be secured in any rural district1 but it is absolutely necessary that the animals be healthy and the meat should be kept on ice4 ,one breeder claims that if everything were purchased1 his foxes would not cost him more than one cent each a day1 but as he feeds considerable table scraps the cost is even less4 ,,breeding4--,in the wild state the male fox mates with a single female but in captivity one male will answer for two or even three females but it is best to have all animals in pairs4 ,it has been found best to place the male with the female in ,december or ,january and leave them in company until the last of ,march when the males should be removed4 ,the females should be kept in the small enclosures continuously and the young foxes removed when weaned4 ,they breed the first season1 when less than a year old1 but as a rule the litters are small4 ,illustration3 ,corner of ,fox ,yard showing ,stones to ,prevent ,escape by ,digging4 ,as before stated it is absolutely necessary to prevent the animals from becoming nervous from too frequent visits of strangers4 ,this nervousness has a bad effect on their breeding qualities4 ,it is especially bad after the young foxes are born1 as the mother fearing for the safety of her young1 will move them about continuously until they are badly injured or die of exposure4 ,the keeper also should not disturb the young but should keep away from them as much as possible4 ,in raising silver foxes1 only the most perfect specimens should be kept for breeding purposes4 ,however1 if there is a tendency to show some red among the fur this may be bred out entirely by using care in selecting the breeding stock4 ,illustration3 ,fox ,yards1 ,showing ,detail of ,outer ,fence4 ,as there is considerable difference in the disposition of individuals this should also be kept in mind and those animals showing the least aversion to man should be selected1 providing1 of course1 that they are prolific and otherwise perfect4 ,a party in ,ohio who has been raising foxes for some time writes as follows3 ,two years ago ,i added foxes to my game preserve and last spring my red gave birth to five young foxes4 ,my black male fox got to the young and killed the three males4 ,i now have three cross foxes1 one black and four red4 ,i expect to have a big increase in the spring4 ,should ,i get a lot of black pups next spring ,i will surely do well with my foxes4 ,i find that foxes are not strictly carnivorous 7flesh eating7 animals4 ,i feed them stale bread1 milk and any kind of a dead fowl1 rats1 mice1 stale meats1 muskrat1 coon or any other carcass4 ,i aim to give them all they will eat1 yet ,i often have thought that ,i feed them too much at one time and not enough at other times4 ,i think foxes should be fed morning and evening only about what they will eat4 ,they should be given fresh water twice a day during the summer months and the water should not be given them in a shallow vessel1 nothing lower than an ordinary bucket4 ,they are sure to foul the water if they can get over or in it4 ,allow me to suggest to any one who contemplates raising foxes that one of the essential things to do is to first build a kennel in such a way that they will not gnaw or dig out4 ,a safe fox pen can be built by putting a stone wall or concrete two feet down1 setting posts first1 then build wall around posts4 ,don't use any netting over two-inch mesh and the poultry netting should be made of ,no4 #ag wire4 ,fox will tear the ordinary two-inch poultry netting as fast as you can put it on4 ,my kennel is #ej feet by #be feet and #g feet high1 covered over the top with ordinary poultry netting4 ,one of the essential things to do after kennel is built is to see that it is properly underdrained and to see that plenty of dry leaves are put in kennel4 ,straw will do if leaves cannot be gotten4 ,a mound of earth would be an excellent thing in each apartment of your kennels4 ,foxes are great to be constantly digging in the ground4 ,keep plenty of boxes in your kennel with a nice smooth hole in each box1 as a rough hole destroys their fur4 ,illustration3 ,yards of a ,successful ,maine ,fox ,farm4 ,a summary of the whole shows that the points most necessary of consideration for success is in proper feeding1 in giving particular attention to the animals during the breeding season1 in using special care to prevent them from being frightened and in the keeper winning the confidence of the captive animals4 ,a careful study of their nature is advised and it should always be kept in mind that foxes are wild animals and therefore should have far more attention than is necessary with domestic animals4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,skunk ,,raising4 ,there are but two species of skunk found in ,north ,america1 namely1 the common striped skunk and the small spotted skunk of the ,central ,states1--commonly known as the civet cat4 ,this latter name is wrong as the real civet cat is an entirely different animal4 ,it is with the true skunk that this article has to deal1 and of this animal naturalists recognize several varieties1 the only difference being in size and markings4 ,they are found in all parts of the ,united ,states1 with the exception of the bunch-grass plains and the mountainous district of the ,west4 ,they occur again to the west of the mountain ranges and also are found in most parts of ,southern ,canada4 ,they are found in the prairie country and in the hilly and mountainous districts of the ,east1 and are at home in the wilds as well as in the thickly settled districts1 however1 they seem to thrive best in the farming sections and especially if the country is of a hilly nature4 ,their dens are located along the gravelly hillsides1 quite often under the roots of trees and stumps but in the prairie they den along the washouts and creek banks4 ,in thickly settled sections they frequently make their home under houses and outbuildings1 showing practically no fear of man and often appropriate the den of the woodchuck4 ,they are nocturnal animals and as a rule do not wander far from the den but in the fall they travel farther1 looking for a good den in which to spend the winter4 ,again1 in early spring during the mating season1 the males travel considerably4 ,while they are not a hibernating animal1 they stay in the dens during cold weather1 also when the snow is loose and deep1 but are sure to be out on the first nice night4 ,the mating season of this animal is in ,february and early ,march and the young are born mostly in ,may1 although some will be born in ,april4 ,there are usually from four to ten young in a litter but occasionally there will be a larger number4 ,the value of a skunk skin depends mainly on its size and markings1 they being graded by the buyers entirely by the amount of black fur1 providing1 of course1 that the skin is prime and well handled4 ,there is a considerable difference in respect to sizes and markings of the average catches of the various sections4 ,from some parts of the country they will run quite large1 in other parts small1 and while in one section they will run perhaps ninety per cent4 long stripes1 in other parts of the country the black and short stripe grade predominates4 ,of course the skunks of the ,south are not as well furred as those found farther north4 ,being slow moving animals1 they can not catch the more active animals and birds as do the other members of the weasel family and their food consists mainly of mice1 insects and grubs1 also on the eggs and young of such birds as nest on the ground4 ,they are very fond of poultry and frequently visit the poultry houses1 killing the young birds4 ,they also feed on carrion4 ,when they can get it they will eat almost any kind of animal food4 ,even in the wild state the skunk is not1 strictly speaking1 a carnivorous animal as they will eat and in fact are fond of sweet corn when in a milky state1 also sweet potatoes1 melons and wild fruits4 ,they have no means of defense other than their scent1 but this is sufficient in many cases and the majority of people will give them a wide berth4 ,this scent is only used when alarmed or frightened and in captivity there is no trouble whatever from this source as they soon learn that there is no occasion for alarm and become quite tame4 ,,past ,,experiments4--,beyond all doubt the skunk has been given more consideration by raisers of fur-bearers than any other animal1 with the exception of the fox4 ,there are many who have tried raising these animals with more or less success and where the experimenters have used good judgment and have given the subject all of the attention it deserves1 they have been reasonably successful4 ,most of these people have started in on a small scale1 having perhaps only a dozen or two of skunks to start with2 in fact1 nowhere has the business been carried on as extensively as some newspaper articles would lead one to believe2 the majority of these parties having at the most only two or three hundred animals4 ,one of the largest ranches was located in ,eastern ,pennsylvania1 but for various reasons this venture was a failure4 ,it is the smaller experimenters1 in other words1 those who have begun on a small scale1 who have been most successful4 ,they are for the most part trappers who had even before venturing into the business a fair knowledge of the nature and habits of the skunk and therefore were more qualified for making the business a successful one4 ,trappers naturally take an interest in all nature and are most likely to give the proper amount of attention to the animals1 also learn their habits readily and act accordingly and these qualities are absolutely necessary for the successful raising of all fur-bearing animals4 ,the most successful stock breeders are those who make a special study of their animals and take a great interest in them and those who do not are almost certain to fail and really deserve failure4 ,if so much care is necessary in breeding domestic animals1 how much more important the care in handling the wild creatures1 knowing so little of them as the average man does4 ,but even handicapped by lack of knowledge the experimenters have been fairly successful from the start if they were the right men for the business4 ,without exception they all report that the animals breed well in captivity and are easily kept2 in a short time becoming quite tame and losing their fear of man4 ,the skunk is an animal which is despised and feared by many people because of its readiness to make use of its powerful scent1 the only means of defense with which nature has provided it1 but it is only when frightened that it uses this scent and once they have become tame and learn that they will not be harmed they are practically harmless4 ,we will say1 however1 to those who are afraid of the scent do not attempt to raise skunks1 but devote your time to some other calling for which you are more fitted4 ,it is true that the scent glands may be removed from the young animals but many of them will die from the operation and there is practically nothing gained2 therefore1 this practice is not advised4 ,those who have failed were for the most part people who knew nothing regarding the habits of the animal and its care when in captivity4 ,they were men with capital1 who began on a large scale expecting to make a fortune in a short time1 but in this they were mistaken1 for many of them lost all that they invested4 ,these parties have had trouble from the older animals killing and eating the young1 also from depredations of owls1 but mainly from the first reason4 ,it is our opinion that this cannibalistic tendency is caused by improper feeding1 as those parties who have used care in that respect have had no trouble whatever4 ,to those who are thinking of embarking in the business of skunk farming1 we would say1--start on a small scale with only a small number of animals1 say two dozen females and six males4 ,give them every possible attention and study them under all conditions4 ,do not expect to make a fortune in a short time4 ,,enclosures4--,after you have decided on this business the first thing is to find the proper location and make a suitable enclosure4 ,there should be a spring on1 or a small stream crossing the ground to be inclosed1 but at the same time the ground must not be wet2 in fact1 it should be of rather dry nature1 so that there will not be too much dampness in the dens4 ,there should be banks of earth for the animals to den in and the ground should have a gradual slope so that it will drain readily4 ,if it is of a sandy nature it will be all the better4 ,some who have tried skunk farming have located the yards on the shore of a small lake or pond and have included a portion of the pond in the enclosure4 ,this is a good idea and it will not be necessary to extend the fence very deep into the water1 as the skunk is not a water animal and will not dive under2 however1 where the fence crosses a stream of running water the fence should reach to the bed of the stream as the water will fall considerably during dry weather4 ,the enclosures should be large4 ,when the animals are inclosed in small yards or pens they become infested with fleas1 ticks1 etc41 and they do not do well4 ,such small enclosures will answer for a short time but as soon as possible they should be placed in a large roomy yard4 ,for fencing material1 galvanized wire netting of one-inch mesh is advised1 as the young animals will escape through a two-inch mesh4 ,the fence should be seven feet in height4 ,under ordinary conditions the skunk would not escape over a four-foot fence1 but there is danger in winter from drifting snow1 and dogs and other animals must be kept out at all times2 therefore1 the fence should be of the height mentioned and it must be turned in at the top or a sheet of tin placed along the edge to prevent the animals from climbing out4 ,illustration3 ,corner of an ,ohio ,skunk ,farm4 ,the interior of the enclosure should be divided into compartments1 using the same material for the fences but they need not be so high4 ,the largest compartment would be for the females and there should be a smaller one for the males1 also one for the young animals after they have become large enough to take care of themselves4 ,some also make small yards in which to place the females1 two or three together1 after the young animals are born4 ,the most of those who have tried skunk breeding1 however1 have not found this necessary1 but there should always be a separate enclosure for the males4 ,when the number of animals increases it will be necessary to have a few small breeding yards1 large enough for ten or twelve animals4 ,one need not1 however1 make such an elaborate enclosure in the start but can enlarge it as needed1 adding more compartments4 ,in each compartment a number of dens should be made by digging a trench and covering afterwards4 ,while the animals will dig dens if necessary1 they prefer even while in a wild state to use dens already made4 ,boxes1 barrels or pens with board floors should not be used4 ,some of the successful ones claim that this has a tendency to cause a thick pelt and thin fur and say that it is absolutely necessary that they have natural dens in the ground4 ,the dens should be made quite deep so that there will be no danger from frost in winter4 ,,feeding4--,skunks should have plenty of food especially during the summer and they should be fed at regular intervals1 giving just enough for a meal each time4 ,it is advisable to give a mixed diet1 partly animal and partly vegetable4 ,they will eat almost all kinds of flesh and fish1 table scraps1 fruits1 especially if very ripe1 melons1 sweet potatoes1 berries1 etc4 ,one of the most satisfactory foods is bread and milk1 but it is considered too expensive by some people4 ,however1 it could be given occasionally4 ,they are very fond of carrion1 but such food should not be given1 for it is likely to cause disease4 ,if near a slaughter house one can get plenty of offal and in the country one can buy old1 worn-out horses1 etc41 but one should remember that the skunk will consume an amazing amount of food4 ,one party claims that three hundred skunk will eat two horses in a week4 ,in the fall especially1 when they are laying on fat for winter1 they should have plenty of food4 ,in winter they do not require so much4 ,it should be remembered that it is a lack of food that causes them to eat their young and one should feed well during the spring and summer4 ,skunks feed largely on insects1 grubs1 etc41 and it is to be regretted that one can not supply this food4 ,they are fond of eggs1 either fresh or spoiled1 and should be given a feed of this kind occasionally if possible4 ,they also have a fondness for poultry of all kinds4 ,the matter of providing sufficient food is not as difficult as it would appear at first glance4 ,if the farm is located near a large town or city1 hotel and restaurant keepers will generally save table scraps1 stale bread1 etc41 on request1 if one will make a regular habit of calling for it4 ,even in the country the neighbors will help out4 ,the farmers will be only too glad to have you take the dead stock1 poultry1 etc41 thus saving them the time and labor of otherwise disposing of it4 ,,breeding4--,as before stated the mating season comes late in ,february and in ,march and the young animals make their appearance in ,may4 ,the period of gestation being about nine weeks4 ,one male animal will easily serve eight or ten females and he should be left in their company a number of days4 ,after that he should be removed and to make certain1 another male should be installed for a few days4 ,two males should never be allowed with the females at one time or they will fight and one or both may be seriously injured4 ,this is the plan which is used by the most successful skunk farmers and is recommended4 ,great care should be exercised in the selection of the males for breeding stock4 ,only the large and healthy animals of good color should be used and all others should be killed and their skins marketed while they are in good condition4 ,while the animals do not always breed strictly true to color1 the white markings may be greatly reduced and the general stock improved by selected breeding4 ,one should1 each year secure fresh breeding stock from other localities and related animals should not be allowed to breed together or in a few years the result will be disastrous4 ,one can not be too careful in this respect for it is very important4 ,after the mating season the females should be separated1 placing three or four together in small enclosures and they should be well fed or otherwise they may kill and eat the young4 ,they should be allowed to remain in these small enclosures until the young animals are large enough to take care of themselves1 when they should be separated and the females may again be placed in the large enclosure4 ,,general ,,information4--,from the commencement of the breeding season until late in the fall the animals require a larger amount of food than during the winter and especially during the breeding season and while the mother is still nursing the young they will require plenty of nourishing food4 ,they require fresh drinking water at all times and the enclosures should be so arranged that each compartment will be supplied4 ,as before stated one should use care in selecting animals for breeding purposes as it is in this way that the quality of the fur will be improved and the business made to be a profitable one4 ,all small and weak animals and those showing considerable white fur1 especially males should be killed off while the fur is in good condition4 ,if you wish to increase the number of animals do not be tempted for the sake of the higher prices realized for the finer skins to kill off animals that should be kept for breeding4 ,the animals should never be allowed to become frightened by the intrusion of dogs into the enclosure--dogs should be kept away at all times4 ,the skunk raiser must watch closely at all times to see that the enclosure fences are in good shape so that the animals do not escape4 ,if they are found digging holes near the fence1 these holes should be filled up so as to discourage the workers4 ,fleas and other parasites are likely to bother the animals and they should have plenty of room so that they can change dens when the old habitations become infested with vermin4 ,on the whole1 one should study the habits of the animals on every opportunity and attend to their wants4 ,if one will give the proper attention to the animals and take an interest in them there is no reason why he should not succeed4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,mink ,,raising4 ,there is only one species of mink found in ,north ,america1 altho there are a number of varieties differing in size1 color and quality of fur4 ,thus we find in ,northern ,maine and ,new ,brunswick a very small variety having a fine silky fur of a very dark shade2 farther west and south a somewhat larger variety1 paler in color1 and thruout the ,mississippi valley and parts of the south1 also parts of ,western ,canada1 a very large mink is found1 but running quite pale1 and the fur somewhat coarser than the northeastern varieties4 ,again1 on parts of the ,pacific ,coast1 a very small and poorer quality are found1 and the mink from the lower ,yukon ,river of ,alaska are said to be of very poor quality4 ,one or more varieties are found in almost every part of the ,united ,states1 ,canada and ,alaska4 ,wherever there is running water their tracks may be seen2 but they seem to prefer the smaller streams1 as a rule1 and they will be found as plentiful in the thickly settled parts as in the wilderness4 ,mink are great travelers1 but each individual animal has his regular route and seldom ventures far out of his course4 ,while they travel streams and lake shores as much as possible1 they do not hesitate to leave the stream and cut across country in order to reach some other water-course4 ,during the mating season they also wander away from the streams more than at other times4 ,while they are always found in the neighborhood of fresh water1 they are not a water animal1 and in following a stream1 always run on the bank1 but usually as near to the water as possible4 ,in the thickly settled districts where the most valuable fur-bearing animals1 such as the silver foxes1 otters1 etc41 are not to be found1 the mink is the most valuable and is eagerly sought by the trappers4 ,the fur is at its best during the first two months after it becomes prime1 which in the north will be about ,november #ast1 and in the south perhaps a month later4 ,after the first two months1 the fur commences to fade1 especially where the country is open and the animal is exposed to the bright light1 for the mink is not1 strictly1 a nocturnal animal4 ,the darkest skins come1 as a rule1 from the timbered parts of the country4 ,while the female is smaller than the male1 she is also darker1 and the skins have about an equal value4 ,the food of the mink consists mostly of rabbits1 partridges1 quail1 squirrels1 muskrats1 mice1 fish1 frogs1 birds' eggs1 etc4 ,while they will eat stale meat1 if hungry1 they prefer strictly fresh food4 ,occasionally they will pay a visit to the poultry house1 for like most animals of the weasel family1 they have a decided liking for the domesticated birds4 ,they are very fond of fish1 and when same may be secured easily1 they will kill large numbers1 merely for the sake of killing4 ,they are active and hardy little animals1 apparently almost tireless1 as they will travel long distances in a night4 ,they are perhaps most active during the fall months1 and in the north they travel very little during the cold part of winter4 ,the burrow or den of the mink is usually located in the high bank of some stream1 but they frequently inhabit deserted dens of other animals1 but always near the water4 ,it is in these dens that the female and her offspring spend the summer months1 never straying far from home4 ,the first two weeks of ,march is the minks' season for mating1 and the young--from four to six--are born about six weeks later4 ,when confined in enclosures where the diet1 water and temperature are similar with each animal1 there is so little difference in the time of mating and bearing their young1 that five or six litters may make their appearance within twelve hours of each other4 ,the young are blind from four to five weeks1 but are very active and as playful as kittens4 ,the mother weans them when they are eight or ten weeks old4 ,at about four weeks the mother begins to feed them meat1 and they learn to suck at it before they have teeth to eat it4 ,the young are fed by the mother on frogs1 fish1 mice1 etc41 until they are three or four months old1 when she leaves them to shift for themselves4 ,the young soon separate and do their hunting alone4 ,they do not pair and the male is a rover and free lover4 ,mink are extremely cleanly and as soon as the den becomes foul1 the mother moves the family to some other nest4 ,,mink ,,breeding4--,there are a great many readers of the ,h-,t-,t who live in the city1 that long for some way to profitably spend their idle time4 ,i will give a successful way of breeding mink1 according to ,mr4 ,boughton's ,guide3 ,wild adult mink are almost untamable1 but young ones readily submit to handling and are easily domesticated4 ,the time to secure young mink is in ,may or ,june when they begin to run with their dams4 ,the streams must be quietly watched for mink trails1 and these1 if possible1 tracked to the nest4 ,when they leave the hole1 the young ones may be secured1 or they may be dug out4 ,those who own a breeding stock of mink ask very high prices for them1 but if the aforesaid plan is carried out1 it is an easy matter to get the young wild ones4 ,,management ,,of ,,mink4--,mink being by nature solitary1 wandering animals1 being seldom seen in company except in mating season1 it is impossible to rear them successfully if large numbers are kept together constantly2 therefore1 their enclosure should be a large one4 ,the male and the female should be permitted to be together frequently from the middle of ,february until the middle of ,march4 ,at all other times keep them entirely separate4 ,about this season the mink should be allowed plenty of fine grass1 which they will carry into their boxes to make their nests out of4 ,a box #c or #d feet long and #ah inches wide is the shape they prefer4 ,it should be placed as far as possible from the water to prevent the mink from carrying mud and water into it4 ,the young mink1 when first born1 are small and delicate1 destitute of any kind of fur and much resemble young rats4 ,if the old mink is tame1 the young ones may be taken out of the nest and handled when they are three weeks old4 ,they will soon learn to drink milk1 and may be fed every day4 ,at three weeks of age they may be taken from their mother and put into a pen by themselves1 and then they will soon become very playful1 are pretty1 and make much better mothers than they would if allowed to run with the old one4 ,the shelter should be in the shape of a long box1 #e or #f feet wide and #c or #d feet high1 set upon legs1 with a good floor and roof4 ,divide into separate apartments #f feet long 7longer would be better71 the front of each apartment to be furnished with a swinging door of strong screen wire1 with hinges at the top1 and a latch on the bottom4 ,a trough #f inches square1 should run the entire length of pen at rear side2 one end of the trough should be made several inches lower than the other1 so that the water could be drawn off4 ,with this arrangement the water can be turned in at one end of trough1 and be drawn off and changed as often as desired4 ,the lower end of the trough should be a little deeper than the other end to prevent the water from running over4 ,each apartment is furnished with a box #c feet long and #ac inches wide4 ,on one side of the box1 and near one end is made a round hole about #d inches in diameter1 and provided with a sliding cover1 so by means of a stick it can be opened or closed from the outside4 ,this is so the mink can be closed up while the pen is being cleaned4 ,illustration3 ,mink ,enclosure in ,detail4 ,on the top of the box and at the other end should be a door large enough to put in grass1 straw1 etc41 for the nest1 and take out young4 ,it is necessary that they have an abundance of pure soft water1 fresh air1 desirable shade and plenty of exercise4 ,these conditions secure for the mink a good quality of dark fur and good health4 ,brush1 weeds1 etc41 are allowed to grow up in the yard1 but not near enough to the fence to admit of their climbing up and out4 ,the fence for the enclosure should be of poultry netting of one-inch mesh4 ,if of larger mesh the young animals will escape4 ,the general plan for the fence should be the same as described under the heading1 ,enclosures4 ,there should be separate apartments for the males and females1 and also some smaller breeding pens4 ,as it is not advisable to attempt handling the animals1 each compartment should be provided with a small gate so that the animals may be driven from one pen to the other4 ,during the breeding season1 and afterwards1 while the young animals are under the care of the mother1 the same general methods of handling as is recommended in skunk raising1 should be adopted4 ,at all times1 plenty of fresh water must be provided1 and the enclosures should be so arranged that the water will be distributed to all parts4 ,while the mink is always found near the water1 it is not a water animal1 as is the muskrat1 and a large body of same is not needed4 ,a spring or a small stream is all that is needed2 and a pond may be dug in each of the large enclosures4 ,careful and regular feeding is advised4 ,the mink is strictly a carnivorous animal1 and always prefers fresh food4 ,the matter of supplying sufficient food will be more difficult than in the case of the skunk and muskrat4 ,as they are fond of fish1 if one is near a place where they may be obtained1 the feeding will be comparatively easy4 ,they should not1 however1 be fed on fish alone4 ,an occasional fowl will be acceptable1 also rabbit1 muskrat1 etc4 ,the natural home and breeding place of the mink is near the water4 ,their den is often under an old stump1 tree or in some drift pile4 ,the nest where the young are born generally being in the ground4 ,when the animals become tame enough1 the raiser should provide dens similar to those used in their wild state4 ,these can be made by burying tile in the ground and in other ways making artificial burrows4 ,a few hollow logs placed in the enclosure would be enjoyed by the animals4 ,many report that the males kill the young4 ,this should be guarded against by keeping the males separate4 ,some hesitate about starting a minkery for fear that the animals will not fur properly4 ,there is no danger on that point if properly fed1 watered and given homes in keeping with those they lived in when roving at their own free will4 ,this only brings out more forcibly the fact that those who are going to be the most successful mink raisers should have a natural aptitude for the business--trappers1 hunters1 animal lovers1 etc4 ,who has made the greatest success at raising stock in your neighborhood--the man who loves stock or someone who thought they saw a fortune in the business but neither loved animals or knew anything about them8 ,we venture the answer1 without fear of contradiction1 that it has been the party who loves and delights in stock4 ,remember1 this applies to fur animals as well as horses1 sheep and cattle4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,opossum ,,raising4 ,the opossum is a southern animal and is found in abundance in most parts of the ,southern ,states4 ,in late years they have been moving farther northward and are now found1 though not numerous1 as far north as ,central ,pennsylvania2 but are found most plentifully in the wooded portions of the ,south1 where they are such a common animal as to be well known to all4 ,they are slow moving and inoffensive1 having no means of defense whatever4 ,when approached1 they make a great show by opening the mouth1 and present a rather fierce appearance1 but when touched by man or animal1 they pretend to be dead1 and this very characteristic habit has given rise to the expression1 playing 'possum4 ,while the opossum is a nocturnal animal1 it is sometimes seen in daylight1 but this is of rare occurrence4 ,they do not hibernate but will remain in the dens during cold weather1 and do not like to roam about when the leaves are dry and rustly4 ,the dens are1 as a rule1 located in the ground1 under a rock1 log or tree1 and are quite shallow2 the nest at the extremity being lined with leaves or grass4 ,they also den in hollow logs and stumps occasionally1 and in natural openings in rock bluffs4 ,the young of this animal are born in the last half of ,april and the beginning of ,may1 the number of young varying from six to twelve1 and sometimes even more4 ,when born they are very small and imperfectly formed and are immediately placed by the mother in the pouch on her belly1 where they remain until they have attained a perfect form and have become large enough to walk about4 ,after being placed in the pouch1 they attach themselves to the teats of the mother1 and remain in that condition until they have become large enough to move about4 ,on leaving the pouch1 they quite often ride about1 when tired1 on the mother's back1 holding fast by winding their tails about that of the parent4 ,they will reach their full growth within a year1 if the conditions are favorable--that is1 if they have plenty of food1 etc4 ,in captivity1 when well cared for1 they attain considerable size by midwinter4 ,the opossum is omnivorous1 feeding alike on animal and vegetable food1 but it prefers flesh to fruit4 ,they feed on carrion1 and on any small animal which their slow movements will allow of capturing1 also on eggs and young birds1 for they are good climbers4 ,they are quite fond of wild fruits1 such as persimmons1 polk berries1 apples and paw-paws2 also of certain vegetables1 especially onions4 ,they also eat mice1 insects1 etc4 ,opossums are hunted extensively in the ,south1 and when pursued they usually climb the nearest tree1 unless they are close to the den4 ,as an article of food they are highly esteemed1 especially by the colored people1 and find a ready sale in the market4 ,while the fur of this animal is not1 strictly speaking1 a valuable one1 to the prospective fur-farmer it is well worth considering1 especially if located near a market4 ,at present prices the young animals by midwinter1 will average a dollar each in value1 when selling both the skin and carcass4 ,the ease with which they may be raised is also an important factor1 so that on the whole1 in many sections1 they will be found to be a profitable animal to handle4 ,opossums are fairly good climbers and the enclosure should have a wide strip of tin around1 as described elsewhere in the chapter on ,enclosures4 ,they will also gnaw out of wooden enclosures if there is a crack or any chance to get a start4 ,they will readily climb out of the enclosure if made of wood unless covered or at least partially covered4 ,there has been no better or cheaper material found for constructing fences for opossum raising purposes than galvanized wire4 ,they are not much given to digging and the wire need not be buried very deep in the earth4 ,if the ground is solid1 #ah inches will be deep enough4 ,the animals1 if properly fed1 watered and cared for1 will soon become accustomed to their quarters1 and make little or no effort to escape4 ,the young will become tame and quite playful4 ,the natural home of the opossum can be described as south of a line drawn west from ,new ,york ,city through ,pennsylvania1 ,northern ,ohio and ,indiana1 south of ,chicago1 through ,iowa near ,des ,moines1 and into ,nebraska near ,omaha1 extending about half way into ,nebraska1 then ,south through ,kansas1 all of ,oklahoma and the lowlands or the ,eastern half of ,texas4 ,the opossum is not a cold weather animal1 and in its wild state would freeze if it inhabited territory much farther north than the northern boundary of the line shown4 ,a severe winter a few years ago1 is said to have frozen large numbers in their dens in ,southern ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 and parts of ,west ,virginia1 ,indiana and ,illinois4 ,in their natural or wild state1 they often hole up in shallow dens1 old logs1 trees1 etc41 and while they are endowed with the instinct of playing 'possum when injured1 their instinct along other lines seems very shallow1 as they do not always know enough to get in out of the cold2 in other words1 on the approach of severe winter weather1 they do not all seek deep dens where the ground does not freeze4 ,while the natural home of the opossum is in the section as outlined1 there is no reason why they cannot be successfully raised hundreds of miles north of their northern limit4 ,the thing to guard against will be freezing4 ,the raiser must see that they have good and deep burrows--deep enough that the ground will never freeze to their nest4 ,they should have plenty of leaves in their nest4 ,if the enclosure is in a thicket1 and there are trees within and leaves near1 the animals will no doubt carry an abundance of leaves into their dens for nests4 ,if there are no trees in the enclosure1 see that a supply is furnished each den before freezing weather in the ,fall4 ,the opossum is going to become one of the important animals in fur-farming for various reasons3 ,they are prolific breeders1 bringing forth from #f to #ab at a litter2 grow rapidly2 are easily fed and eat a great variety of food4 ,illustration3 ,ideal ,spot for an ,opossum or ,raccoon ,fur ,farm4 ,the opossum raiser has two sources of revenue--fur and carcass4 ,there is a ready market for the carcasses in all cities4 ,the grower should make arrangements with butchers and others to take so many carcasses on a certain date4 ,the fur is at its best from about ,thanksgiving to the middle of ,february4 ,thanksgiving1 ,christmas and ,new ,years are three holidays when the fur will be prime and the meat in demand4 ,in cities like ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 ,pittsburg1 ,buffalo1 ,cleveland1 ,detroit1 ,columbus1 ,cincinnati1 ,indianapolis1 ,chicago1 ,milwaukee1 ,omaha1 ,des ,moines1 ,kansas ,city1 ,st4 ,louis1 etc41 a market can be had in each for large quantities at each of these holidays1 as well as considerable quantities each week during the winter months4 ,in the smaller places1 from #ejjj up1 there will be found a demand for the meat1 so that the market for the carcasses as well as fur1 is one that will always be open4 ,prices at which the carcasses sell will of course vary1 depending to some extent upon the supply of other meats1 as well as the times1 etc4 ,when it is taken into consideration that the litters are large2 that they eat cheap food2 their growth is rapid and that the pelt is extra1 does not this animal promise to lead as a money maker over some of the other and higher priced fur-producers8 ,in the latitude of ,west ,virginia1 the young are born about the middle of ,april4 ,in two months1 or by ,june fifteenth1 they are about the size of rats and always gaining4 ,six months later1 or ,december fifteenth1 if well fed and cared for1 they will weigh from nine to fifteen pounds4 ,by this it will be seen that at only eight months old--born ,april fifteenth and killed ,december fifteenth--they have attained sizes ranging from medium to large4 ,the males should be kept by themselves1 at least from the time the young are born1 until they are two months of age or older4 ,the female1 with her large family1 should be given plenty of food from the time the young are a few days old until weaned1 as she requires a great deal of food to satisfy her cravings and to supply the numerous young4 ,as the severe weather is over by the time the young are born1 very good places for the old can be made in boxes1 old logs and the like4 ,these should be so placed and constructed that food can be given to the female handily1 so as not to disturb her and the young more than necessary4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,muskrat ,,raising4 ,the muskrat is one of our most common fur-bearing animals and is found in greater numbers than any other animal1 notwithstanding its fur is very popular and is gradually increasing in value4 ,muskrats are found throughout the greater part of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 but for various reasons are more plentiful in certain sections4 ,being water animals they are found in greater numbers in marshy places1 on ponds and lakes and sluggish rivers1 but also thrive and are found in fair numbers on the smaller and more rapid streams4 ,they are very plentiful in ,western ,canada and especially in the marshy country lying west of ,hudson's ,bay4 ,in the salt water marshes of ,delaware and ,maryland they are probably found in greater numbers than in any other part of the world4 ,there1 hundreds of the houses of these little creatures may be seen in every direction4 ,it is said that the value of the catch from ,dorchester ,county1 ,md41 will usually run to #bj1jjj a year and in some seasons reaches almost to #ej1jjj4 ,the number of animals required to reach such a figure must necessarily be very large and the number of muskrats found in that locality may be judged from the fact that the open season for these animals and the only time of year when they are trapped1 is during the months of ,january1 ,february and ,march4 ,they are also very plentiful in the marshes along the western shore of ,lake ,erie and about ,lake ,champlain4 ,they are not found on parts of the ,pacific ,coast and portions of the ,south and never range south of the ,state of ,arizona4 ,while there is only one species of the muskrat1 naturalists find several varieties differing mainly in size and color4 ,for instance1 there is the southern muskrat1 which is comparatively small and is dull sooty in color1 found in the lower ,mississippi ,valley and along the coasts of ,mississippi and ,alabama2 then there is the ,dismal ,swamp ,muskrat of the ,dismal ,swamp1 ,va41 which is larger1 darker and richer colored than the common variety and has larger teeth4 ,in ,labrador a small and very dark variety is found4 ,the muskrat of the ,northwest1 while of the same variety as those of the ,central and ,eastern districts1 are small and thin skinned and as a consequence are less valuable4 ,what causes this difference in size is not known1 but it is supposed to be due either to the presence of alkali in most of the ,northwestern waters or to the scanty and poor quality of its natural food4 ,illustration3 ,fur ,farm on ,open ,ground near a ,farmhouse4 ,the popularity of muskrat fur is on the increase1 while large numbers are exported to foreign countries1 it is being more and more used in the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,at present it is much used for lining ladies coats and its rich appearance when used in this way seems certain to increase its popularity4 ,it is also dyed and is then known as electric seal and ,french seal4 ,the great demand for the fur during the past two seasons has resulted in such persistent hunting and trapping that the number of animals in many sections has decreased visibly and as a consequence the spring catch has been comparatively light4 ,just before this book went to press1 considerable inquiry was made about the supply of raw fur the past season4 ,the general report was that the catch of ,spring ,rats in #aiji was perhaps not more than #be what it was the year prior4 ,the fall catch of #aijh and the winter catch of #aijh-i was quite heavy4 ,from this it appears that the high prices of muskrat during the months of ,october1 ,november and ,december1 #aijh1 caused an unusual number of hunters and trappers to seek these animals4 ,the consequence being that they were caught off much closer than ever before4 ,to further bear this out1 dealers say that in many of the ,central ,states where last year they collected #bj1jjj during ,march and ,april1 this year they only secured #djjj or #ejjj4 ,trappers say that there are very few muskrats left in certain localities4 ,this shows that continued trapping will practically exterminate the muskrat4 ,along the ,atlantic ,coast south from ,new ,york for hundreds of miles the marshes along the coast1 bays1 rivers and creeks are literally alive with muskrats4 ,the marsh owners farm out the rat catching privileges1 usually on the halves4 ,the ,state of ,delaware protects the rats some eight or nine months each year4 ,there are laws in several other states protecting these animals4 ,a few states prohibit the destroying of rat houses at all times4 ,while hundreds of people follow rat catching along the marshes the owners and state see that enough are left for breeding and replenishing the marshes4 ,they get their food from the flags and other weeds largely1 which flourish in these swamps4 ,fifty acres of swamp has been known to furnish #bjjj rats or fifty per acre year after year4 ,in this section black muskrats are not uncommon1 the catch some seasons running as high as #dj black1 but as a rule it is lower4 ,what causes this strange color phase is unknown4 ,black muskrats are met with occasionally in other sections but nowhere is the proportion as large as along the ,east ,coast4 ,what nature in a way does for the muskrat in the ,eastern swamps1 fur raisers can help to accomplish in hundreds of localities throughout ,america4 ,there are scores of ponds1 small lakes1 swamps1 etc41 in practically all states where the muskrat is found that can be made to yield large profits from muskrats4 ,they are easily raised1 in fact1 will raise themselves if given half a chance4 ,there is no doubt whatever that the fur of this animal will steadily increase in value4 ,while there will be fluctuations as in the past1 we do not believe that prices will ever go as low as they were some years ago4 ,our conclusions in this are based on the fact that the catch is growing smaller and the popularity of furs for wearing apparel and especially muskrat fur1 is steadily increasing1 also the population of all countries grows larger each year and there is bound to be a steady demand for furs4 ,another thing worthy of consideration is the fact that the flesh of the muskrat has become a very popular dish in many of the ,eastern cities and there is a market for the carcass of the animal4 ,the trappers of ,maryland and ,delaware find ready sale for the flesh4 ,the muskrats found on the ,east ,coast as well as those found in the marshes and the shallow lakes and ponds of other parts of the country are of the house building kind4 ,it should be understood1 however1 that the muskrat living in houses and those living in burrows in the banks of streams are the same variety1 their different1 styles of habitation being due to the different conditions of their respective locations4 ,where streams are swift or where there is danger of the houses being carried away by freshets1 they dig burrows in the bank1 making the entrance below the surface of the water4 ,these burrows extend sometimes twenty-five or thirty feet into the bank and the interior chamber is sometimes quite large4 ,along the streams of the farming sections1 much damage is done by muskrats because of these burrows4 ,the houses of the marsh-dwellers are composed of grass and flags1 grass roots1 mud1 etc4 ,they are of cone shaped structure and to those unacquainted with the animals1 they are simply piles of grass and weeds in the water1 for that is what they resemble4 ,the entrances to these houses are always deep under water4 ,it is said that the muskrats build their houses with thicker walls when they feel instinctively that an unusually severe winter is approaching4 ,illustration3 ,muskrat ,house in a ,marsh4 ,in addition to the house the animals build small feeding places near by4 ,these feed beds as they are called1 are constructed in the same way as the houses1 but only rise to the level of the water4 ,these beds are the dining rooms of the muskrats1 for to them they bring all of their food so that they may have a place to rest while they are enjoying their meal4 ,they also have like the raccoon1 a habit of washing their food before they will eat it4 ,the muskrat is a vegetarian and seldom eats any animal food4 ,in the wild state their natural food is grass and roots1 fruit1 grain and clams or mussels4 ,they are also fond of parsnips1 carrots1 artichokes1 white flag roots1 wild rice1 pond lily roots1 sweet corn and pumpkin1 and will eat almost all kinds of vegetables4 ,it will be seen that in captivity the food problem would be easily solved4 ,they are very fond of wild rice1 and those who have ponds suitable for muskrats and are contemplating the raising of these animals would do well to sow them with wild rice4 ,the rice may be obtained from almost any of the seed houses and it will grow in six or eight feet of water4 ,they are also fond of pumpkins and it is a cheap and satisfactory food4 ,some of them will lay up stores of food for winter1 but they do not all do this4 ,where the streams are rapid they can get out to hunt for food at almost all times1 and where they are located on lakes and marshes that freeze over in winter they can find plenty of food in the water under the ice4 ,this food is taken to the feed bed to be eaten4 ,in early spring the warmth from their bodies will sometimes thaw a hole through the ice over the bed and the muskrat stops this hole with grass roots1 etc4 ,the trapper is looking for just such places and it is the bunch of grass roots on the ice that gives them away4 ,the steel trap is soon in place1 awaiting the coming of the animal1 and many of them are trapped in this way4 ,the breeding habits of the muskrat are different from those of other fur-bearing animals1 as they will have three litters in a season4 ,the first are born in ,april1 and there will be from six to nine young4 ,it is claimed that the female of the first litter will also bear young that season and this accounts for the small rats1 or kits1 caught during the fall season4 ,it would appear from this that the animals should increase in numbers very rapidly1 but they have many enemies other than man1 and perhaps one-half of the muskrats born in a season never reach maturity4 ,with the exception of man1 their greatest enemies are the birds of prey1 such as owls1 hawks1 buzzards1 etc41 but chiefly the owl1 as it is a nocturnal bird and has a fine opportunity to capture the unwary4 ,the fox frequently makes a capture1 as does also the mink and otter4 ,it is a deplorable fact that there is a large proportion of small animals in the trapper's catch4 ,these are the young muskrats1 for while they grow rapidly the first summer1 it requires several years for them to attain full size1 yet they class as ,no4 #a the first season4 ,the old animals are larger and their fur is more valuable than that of the young4 ,for those who raise the animals there would be less trouble from catching young and immature rats4 ,muskrats do not become fully prime until midwinter and many of them are not strictly number one until ,march4 ,when fully prime the skin will be of a cream or pink color1 with no dark spots showing4 ,winter caught skins will have a number of dark spots1 while those taken in the fall have a very pronounced stripe or two on the back4 ,along the ,atlantic ,coast for many years land owners have rented the rat catching privileges to ratters on shares1 which is generally one-half of the catch4 ,the ratters only trap when the fur is at its best1 so that the supply is holding out4 ,on lands free for all the rats are thinned out4 ,during recent years1 property owners in various rat producing sections have awakened to the fact that their swampy land is of more value for the animal fur harvest than for any other purpose4 ,muskrats are easily raised and increase rapidly4 ,they often make their homes in the banks of canals1 fish ponds1 etc41 coming from nearby waters of their own accord4 ,these places seem to be ideal places for muskrats and instead of their leaving they remain year after year1 even though they are trapped and the property owners resort to other means endeavoring to get rid of them4 ,muskrats are not afraid of civilization1 and do well in thickly settled sections where there are rivers1 creeks1 lakes1 ponds1 marshes1 etc4 ,they seem to do well in their natural state where they have water and feed and on some ponds hundreds are caught annually4 ,as already mentioned1 these animals need little care4 ,if the waters where the animals are is naturally productive of muskrat food1 the animals will take care of themselves unless the numbers are too large and they consume the entire food supply4 ,the raisers should guard against this by feeding1 as the natural supply should be protected so as to help furnish the food supply year after year4 ,lakes1 ponds1 etc41 that abound in wild rice1 flags1 lilies1 etc41 make an ideal home for muskrats1 as they are fond of both the wild rice seed and roots1 as well as the roots of flags and lilies1 on which they feed when the surface is frozen over4 ,artichokes should also be started1 as muskrats are fond of them4 ,those who expect to raise this fur-bearer should take into consideration that little or no fencing is required on lakes1 ponds and creeks if proper feed grows there4 ,if the feed is not there the prospective raiser should see that it is started at once by sowing wild rice seed1 transplanting some flags and lily roots to his muskrat waters4 ,in fact1 the prospective muskrat raiser should have the food supply well under way before the rats are brought or secured or they will destroy it4 ,there are no doubt hundreds of places that can be converted into ideal muskrat preserves by a little work4 ,low1 marshy land on which the water is not deep enough to be dammed4 ,such a place would require a wire fence around it4 ,perhaps the best way would be to place the fence several rods back from the water1 as there would then be no danger of the animals burrowing under4 ,the fence should be of five-foot wire1 one foot in the ground4 ,where the fence crosses any inlets or outlets1 the wire should be put much deeper for two rods or more on each side and it would be well to place flat stones in the bottom of the trench1 as shown and described in the chapter on ,enclosures4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,raccoon ,,raising4 ,the raccoon is closely allied to the bears1 although much smaller4 ,like them it possesses an omnivorous appetite1 is plantigrade1 and hibernates during cold weather4 ,it is found throughout the ,southern1 ,central and ,eastern ,states1 and in ,southern ,ontario and ,nova ,scotia4 ,it is also found in good numbers on the ,pacific coast1 northward into ,british ,columbia2 but they are found in greatest numbers in the extreme ,south of the ,united ,states1 and especially in ,florida1 ,louisiana and the lowlands of ,arkansas and ,texas4 ,their natural home is in the heavily timbered parts1 but they are also found in the sparsely wooded bottom lands of the ,central ,states4 ,they den1 as a rule1 in hollow trees1 well up from the ground1 and seldom if ever in a tree which has a continuous hollow and an opening at the bottom1 preferring a hollow1 broken off limb1 or a hole in the trunk1 high up on the tree4 ,in some places they den in natural caves in the rocks1 and in the western part of their range1 it is said that they sometimes occupy dens in some high and dry bank of earth4 ,during the mating season the males travel considerably1 and will1 when daylight approaches1 seek a place of rest in any hollow tree that is to be found1 or failing to find this1 may spend the day in a hollow log or under a stump4 ,the mating season comes mainly1 late in ,february or early in ,march1 and the young1 from four to six in number1 are born in ,april and the beginning of ,may4 ,they remain with the parents for some time during the summer1 but will find a den for themselves as soon as possible4 ,however1 they will be found1 the first season1 in the near vicinity of the parents' den4 ,the food of the coon is variable1 to conform with conditions of different sections1 but wherever found1 they feed on both vegetable and animal food4 ,fish1 frogs1 crawfish1 clams1 eggs of birds1 and turtles2 water snails1 wild fruits1 such as grapes and berries1 nuts1 acorns1 etc41 are all eaten with a relish4 ,they are especially fond of corn when in the milky state1 and in late summer they feed on it extensively4 ,they are fond of poultry1 also of honey1 and will dig out the nests of bumble bees when they find them1 for the sake of the little bit of sweet which is found therein4 ,they are nocturnal animals and are seldom seen by daylight4 ,in their travels they follow the streams mostly1 and catch fish by feeling under the stones in shallow water4 ,whenever possible1 they wash their food before eating4 ,the raccoon has a peculiar cry1 which is heard sometimes1 on still nights1 during the summer4 ,it is a quavering note somewhat resembling that of the screech owl1 but lower and softer1 and seems to come from a distance1 though really close by4 ,to one inexperienced in the ways of this animal1 the cry would not be recognized4 ,the fur of the raccoon meets with ready sale at fair prices1 and there is also sale for the flesh in many markets4 ,there is considerable difference in color in individual animals1 some of them being very dark1 and others quite pale4 ,of course the northern animals are more heavily furred than those of the south4 ,the darker and larger specimens1 as a rule1 are secured in the northern states--,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,northern ,ohio1 ,northern ,indiana1 ,northern ,illinois1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota and the ,northwest4 ,the greatest numbers1 but smaller and lighter colored1 are secured from the southern states1 those bordering on the ,gulf of ,mexico1 ,tennessee1 ,arkansas1 ,missouri1 and ,kentucky4 ,while raccoon can be raised in nearly all parts of ,america1 the best furred specimens can only be raised where the climate is productive of good fur1--say north of #dj degrees4 ,this would be on a line passing through ,philadelphia1 south of ,pittsburg1 just north of ,columbus1 through ,central ,indiana and ,illinois1 northern ,missouri1 boundary between ,kansas and ,nebraska1 north of ,denver1 and on to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,it is not meant that coon cannot be profitably raised south of this line indicated1 for they can4 ,the chances1 however1 are that far south of the line mentioned1 the skins would not be as valuable and being nearer the coon-producing section1 there would not be as ready a market for the carcasses4 ,the coon raiser should secure good dark males and females for breeding purposes1 from northern sections4 ,if unable to do this1 a good male or two crossed with the females1 would help to produce larger and darker animals4 ,this is important1 as the larger and darker the pelt1 the more valuable1 and the larger the carcass the more it brings4 ,that raccoons do well in captivity is well known from the many kept in zoos1 parks1 etc4 ,countless numbers have been caught while young1 when they soon become tame and interesting pets4 ,even those caught when grown1 soon become accustomed to their owners and keepers4 ,they can be handled and become amusing pets4 ,they know strangers and will often put their paws over their eyes and look between their toes1 thinking perhaps1 that the stranger cannot see them1 while their paws are over their eyes4 ,large numbers of raccoons could be raised by fencing in a piece of woods1 embracing a few acres1 with a creek running through4 ,if the fence was considerable distance from the edge of the woods1 it is doubtful if the animals would make much effort to escape4 ,the places they would be apt to frequent the most1 would be where the stream entered and left the enclosure4 ,at these places the fence should be extra high1 strong and secure4 ,the raccoon and opossum farmer have a double advantage where their farm is situated near a city4 ,first1 if the fur farm is one containing a large number of animals1 the supplying of food will be quite a problem and the city offers a means of plenty and cheap food for your animals1 such as offals from slaughter houses and other feed4 ,second1 the city offers a market for the meat at killing time4 ,while raccoon will eat decayed meat to some extent1 it should be furnished them fresh1 in which condition it is much better for them4 ,most animals will eat carrion1 yet it is doubtful if it is advisable to feed when in such condition4 ,putrid flesh is unhealthy and some claim1 causes fur-bearing animals to become affected with mange4 ,raccoon are naturally a clean animal1 and in their wild state are particular that their food is clean4 ,they seldom1 if ever1 eat left-over food or flesh that has become tainted4 ,illustration3 ,barrel ,shelter for ,female and ,young4 ,that raccoon raising promises well is borne out from the fact that they are easily handled1 eat a variety of food easily secured1 and their fur and meat both have a ready cash market4 ,the pelt of a full grown and dark raccoon is worth from #a4jj to #b4jj1 depending upon the section2 to this add from #dj;c to #ge;c for the carcass and it will be seen that the raccoon brings to its owner #a4dj to #b4ej or upwards4 ,this price is for the better grade4 ,the smaller and lighter colored skins from the more southerly sections1 will perhaps only bring two-thirds as much--#ge cents to #a4ej for the pelts and #be to #ej cents for the carcass4 ,at what other branch of farming is there greater profit8 ,no one is going to become immensely rich at coon raising in a few years1 but if they enter the business and give the same attention and care to it that they would to poultry1 sheep1 horses and cattle1 there is reason to believe that the profits will be as large if not larger4 ,again1 the person who loves the handling of fur-bearing animals will be making his living at the business he enjoys most4 ,illustration3 ,fur ,farm on ,open ,ground4 ,those who expect to raise coon in a small enclosure1 should have the wire turned in several feet at the top1 or the chances are they will follow along the under side to the edge and thus escape4 ,in the enclosure for raccoon1 the strip of tin around the fence some three or four feet high is strongly recommended4 ,there should be some logs1 dens1 and low1 branchy trees for the animals to play in is to their liking4 ,the more homelike their enclosure1 the sooner they become contented4 ,this means that they grow faster1 which is all to the financial interest of the coon raiser4 ,an enclosure of several acres for coon1 taking in trees suitable for dens1 could be used for fox raising as well4 ,the coon would raise their young in the den trees and therefore would not bother the foxes1 as those having young would be in pens4 ,the male foxes having access to the entire enclosure might steal the feed for the female coon left at the roots of the den trees4 ,should there be trouble on this point1 the food could be placed on a platform against the body of the tree out of reach of the foxes4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,beaver ,,and ,,otter4 ,these two very important fur-bearing animals were once quite numerous throughout practically the whole of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 but because of the persistency with which they were hunted1 have become rare in many of the sections where they were once found in abundance4 ,especially is this true of the beaver4 ,almost all of the states in which beavers are still found1 as well as the various provinces of ,canada1 have made laws to protect these animals1 but they are still hunted and trapped1 and the day is not far distant when the beaver will be extinct4 ,the otter is a more wary animal than the beaver1 and as a consequence will linger within the bounds of civilization long after the beaver has disappeared1 but for all this they are becoming very rare in most of the settled sections4 ,as these animals both belong to different orders and their habits are entirely different1 it will be necessary to take up each separately4 ,,the ,,beaver4--,as before mentioned1 the beaver has become extinct in many sections where it was once found1 and at present they are practically confined to ,canada1 ,alaska1 the ,northern ,states and the ,western mountain regions4 ,a few are still found in the more isolated portions of the ,south1 but there they are quite rare except in a few small sections4 ,thruout the ,central and many of the ,eastern and ,southern ,states1 they have entirely disappeared4 ,there is only one species of the beaver1 but there are several varieties1 all of which are very much alike in appearance and the habits of all are the same1 except where it is changed because of difference in food1 climate1 etc4 ,the beaver has always been an interesting animal1 not only to those directly interested in furs1 but to all others1 and practically everybody knows something regarding the habits of the animal4 ,one of their most remarkable habits is that of building dams on the stream1 or at the outlet of the pond or lake on which they are located4 ,these dams are intended to regulate the height of the water4 ,they will vary from two to five feet in height1 and from twenty to one hundred yards in length1 according to the size of the stream and the nature of the shores4 ,the dams are composed of sticks and chunks of wood1 stones1 sods1 etc4 ,they always watch the dam closely and keep it in repair1 and each fall it is strengthened by adding new material4 ,in addition to the main dam there are1 as a rule1 one or more smaller dams built lower down stream4 ,what these small dams are for is not known for a certainty1 but sometimes1 when the lower dam backs the water up to the large one1 the beavers will1 in the fall after the ice has formed1 dig a passage through the upper dam1 which allows the water to fall and leaves an air space between the water and the ice1 and it is perhaps for this reason that the smaller dams are constructed4 ,somewhere on the edge of the pool where the water is not too deep1 the beavers make their lodge1 or house4 ,these houses sometimes rise eight feet above the water and will measure fifteen feet in diameter4 ,they are constructed of the same materials as used for the dam1 and are always repaired and strengthened before freezing weather comes4 ,there are two entrances to the house and they are always located deep under water4 ,the food of the beaver consists principally of bark of poplar1 birch1 willow1 cottonwood1 alder and wild cherry4 ,they are also fond of the roots of the water lily4 ,in the ,south it is said that they quite often feed on corn1 when located near the farms4 ,they would doubtless eat many kinds of roots and vegetables if same could be procured4 ,in some few sections1 where the nature of the stream is such that houses and dams are not a success1 the beavers live in holes in the bank of the stream and are called bank beavers2 however1 they are the same variety as the house building kind4 ,in the ,northern districts1 where the ponds are covered with ice six months of the year1 the beavers spend the entire winter under the ice4 ,for this long period of imprisonment they must lay up a large store of food4 ,this food consists of small1 green saplings and brush1 cut into suitable lengths and stored under water1 in front of the house4 ,they eat only the bark and the peeled sticks are used to repair the house and dam4 ,the young beavers are born in ,april and ,may and there are usually only two at a birth1 but sometimes there will be three4 ,these young animals remain two years with the parents1 so that a full family will consist of the two old ones1 two or three medium size and two or three small beavers4 ,however1 there are bachelor beavers1 old males who always live alone1 and have a small house somewhere along the shore of a stream or pond4 ,it was the beaver that was most sought by the early trappers1 for the fur was more in demand than the fur of any other animal4 ,at present it is not as popular as in days of old1 but we do not believe that its value will decrease1 as the catch becomes lighter each succeeding year4 ,the skins do not become prime as early as those of some other animals1 but are in good condition in advance of the muskrat4 ,the fur of the beaver1 otter1 muskrat and bear remains in good condition until late in the spring4 ,during the summer months many of the beavers travel about on the streams and if a house is found at this time it may be deserted1 or at the best1 only one or two animals will be found there4 ,as fall approaches1 they all return to the lodge and from that time until the water is frozen they will be hard at work laying up the winter's store of food4 ,,the ,,otter4--,the otter is occasionally met with in almost all parts of ,north ,america1 in some places fairly plentiful1 in others very rare1 but they are found in greatest numbers in the swamps of some of the ,southern ,states1 and in the wilder portions of ,canada1 ,alaska and ,newfoundland4 ,there are two species1 the common otter and the sea otter1 which latter is only found in the ,north ,pacific and is now quite rare4 ,of the common otter there are some three or four varieties1 differing only in size and color4 ,the habits of the otter are very little known by the average man1 and many of the trappers know little about this animal4 ,they are rambling animals1 traveling the streams and lakes for great distances4 ,they will travel sometimes ten or fifteen miles to visit some certain lake and perhaps will only stay there over night4 ,again1 if undisturbed1 they may remain for a month or more on some small pond4 ,they are on very friendly terms with the beaver and will frequently spend several weeks or months with a beaver family1 apparently living in the same house4 ,if an otter knows the location of two or more families of beavers1 it will spend practically all of its time with one or other of the beaver families1 or may make frequent visits from one to the other4 ,the otter is an exceedingly active animal and is so much at home in the water that it is able to catch fish with ease1 and they are its principal food4 ,where fish are plentiful1 they will kill them merely for pleasure1 and what they can not eat1 they will store up in some little bay or inlet along the shore4 ,these1 however1 are not placed there for future use1 as the otter will only eat food that is strictly fresh4 ,besides fish1 they also eat large numbers of frogs1 which are easily secured4 ,they also eat muskrats and sometimes surprise these animals by coming up into the houses from below1 thus preventing the inmates from escaping4 ,the otter does not travel much on land1 except when crossing country from one lake or stream to another4 ,their bodies being long and their legs short1 walking is1 for them1 rather difficult and their mode of locomotion is a series of plunging leaps4 ,on the snow or ice they move along rapidly by throwing themselves forward1 sliding on their bellies4 ,they are very playful animals and sometimes amuse themselves by sliding down a slippery bank4 ,they also have landing places where they go to roll in the leaves and grass4 ,in the spring they often lay for hours on some old log by the side of the stream1 basking in the warm sun4 ,they can remain a long time under water1 and in winter travel long distances under the ice1--in fact1 they prefer to travel this way whenever possible4 ,the home of the otter is a burrow in the bank of a stream1 the entrance under water4 ,at the end of the burrow is a nest lined with leaves and grass4 ,they also1 sometimes1 den in hollow logs and the trunks of hollow trees4 ,the dens are always located in the most secluded places1 as far as possible removed from danger of discovery4 ,the young are born in ,april or ,may and the number is from two to four4 ,with regard to raising the beaver and otter for profit1 we will say that there has been comparatively few attempts at the business and we are unable to get any authentic data with regard to these experiments4 ,however1 the animals do well in captivity1 in zoos1 and when kept by private individuals1 as pets1 and it is our opinion that if one will but go slowly and learn the habits and nature of the animals1 a fair degree of success may be attained4 ,it should be understood that conditions must be favorable and the animals should be given a range as nearly like their natural home as possible4 ,of course1 one could not make a success of raising beavers in an open field4 ,they must have wooded land where their natural food1 quaking aspen 7sometimes poplar71 birch1 willow1 cottonwood1 alder1 is plentiful4 ,a pool on some quiet little stream1 bordered by a large tract of forest1 would be the proper place4 ,beavers are not given to roaming1 except during the summer months1 and in such cases they always return to their home before cold weather comes4 ,we believe that the animals could not be raised successfully by any of the plans recommended for the rearing of other fur-bearing animals1 but should simply be placed in a large enclosure1 in the proper location1 and allowed to take care of themselves4 ,the animals will breed perfectly without any attention and there will be no danger of them killing their offspring1 as is the case with other fur bearers4 ,there is no doubt that the beaver and the otter will do well in the same enclosure1 for in the wild state they are very sociable and are fond of one another's company4 ,if otters are kept in an enclosed pond1 it will be necessary to keep them supplied with food1 and perhaps the best way would be to keep the ponds stocked with live fish and frogs4 ,with the beaver the matter of providing food is more simple1 as it will only be necessary to make the enclosure where their natural food is found in abundance4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,killing1 ,,skinning ,,and ,,stretching4 ,when killing time comes1 care should be taken to not frighten the animals left for breeding purposes more than is absolutely necessary4 ,all animals that are tame enough should be driven into a separate enclosure and out of sight of the others before being killed4 ,perhaps as good a method of killing as any is to use a good club1 striking on the head just over the eyes or ears4 ,the above method is not for skunk1 as they should be killed without the enclosure becoming so strongly scented4 ,a pole several feet long with a strong loop on the end can be slipped over their head and well back on the neck4 ,the animal can now be lifted clear off the ground and carried wherever the killing is desired4 ,if the killer does not mind a little perfume he knocks them on the head1 or if a barrel of water is handy they can be drowned and few scent4 ,the drowning1 however1 is not recommended1 as it takes the fur hours to dry and is therefore extra work4 ,some even claim that the water spoils the luster of the fur to a certain extent4 ,some animals1 such as coon and skunk1 do not leave their dens during severe weather1 so that it is advisable to begin selecting those that are to be killed days and even weeks in advance of the time decided upon4 ,these should be placed in an enclosure or pen by themselves so that the remaining ones will not be disturbed4 ,even those animals that come out to their feed regularly during the cold days should be handled in a similar manner so as not to disturb those to be kept4 ,the animals that are to be kept for breeding purposes need not be fed so heavily during the winter months or after those that were intended for market have been killed4 ,of course in the spring after the females have young1 they must be fed heavily4 ,some raisers1 as soon as the young are weaned1 select those that are to be killed the coming winter1 keeping them separate from the breeding stock so that they can be fed properly4 ,that is a great saving of food1 as those for market should be fed much more than the breeders at this season--say during the months of ,september1 ,october and ,november4 ,much importance should be attached to the skinning and stretching of all kinds of skins so as to command the highest commercial value4 ,the otter1 foxes1 marten1 mink1 opossum1 civet and skunk should be cased1 that is1 taken off whole4 ,commence with the knife in the center of one hind foot and slit up the inside of the leg1 up to and around the vent and down the other leg in a like manner4 ,cut around the vent1 taking care not to cut the lumps or glands in which the musk of certain animals is secreted2 then strip the skin from the bone of the tail with the aid of a split stick gripped firmly in the hand while the thumb of the other hand presses against the animal's back just above4 ,make no other slits in the skin1 except in the case of the skunk or otter1 whose tails require to be split1 spread1 and tacked on a board4 ,turn the skin back over the body1 leaving the pelt side out and the fur side inward1 and by cutting a few ligaments1 it will peel off very readily4 ,care should be taken to cut closely around the nose1 ears and lips1 so as not to tear the skin4 ,the beaver and raccoon should be skinned open2 that is1 ripped up the belly from vent to chin after the following manner3 ,cut across the hind leg as if to be cased and then rip up the belly4 ,the skin can then be removed by flaying as in skinning a beef4 ,many inexperienced trappers stretch coon skins too long and draw out the head and neck4 ,this can be avoided4 ,coon can be cased but most dealers prefer to have them stretched open4 ,you should have about three sizes of stretching boards for mink and fox4 ,for mink they should be #d-a_/b inches down to #c inches and for fox from #f-a_/d inches down to #e inches wide2 in length the fox boards may be #d feet and the mink boards #c feet4 ,the boards should taper slightly down to within #h inches of the end for fox1 and then rounded up to a round point4 ,the mink boards should be rounded at #d or #e inches from this point4 ,you will vary the shape of the board in proportion to the width4 ,stretching boards should not be more than #c_/h inch thick4 ,have the boards smooth and even on the edges4 ,other stretching boards should be made in proportion to the size and shape of the animal whose skin is to be stretched4 ,you should not fail to remove all the fat and flesh from the skin immediately after the skin is on the board4 ,if a skin is wet when taken from the animal1 it should be drawn lightly on a board until the fur is quite dry4 ,then turn the skin flesh side out and stretch4 ,do not dry skins at a fire nor in the sun1 nor in smoke4 ,it often burns them1 when they will not dress and are of no value4 ,dry in a well-covered shed or tent where there is a free circulation of air1 and never use any preparation1 such as alum and salt1 as it only injures them for market4 ,never stretch the noses out long1 as some trappers are inclined to do1 but treat them as above described1 and they will command better values4 ,fur buyers and dealers are inclined to class long nosed skins as southern and pay a small price for them1 as southern skins are so much lighter than those of the north1 in fur4 ,foxes of the various kinds should be cased and put on boards fur side in for a few days1 or until dry4 ,as the pelt is thin1 they soon dry1 when they must be taken off and should be turned fur side out4 ,in shipping1 see that they are not packed against furs flesh side out4 ,skunk should be cased fur side in1 and stretched on boards for several days4 ,the white stripe cut out1 blackened1 etc41 reduces the value4 ,mink should be cased fur side in and stretched on boards for several days or until dry4 ,muskrat should be stretched fur side in1 and a few days on the board will be sufficient4 ,they are left as taken off1 that is1 fur side in4 ,cut the tails off when skinning--they are worthless4 ,opossum are stretched on boards fur side in and are left in that condition after removing the boards4 ,cut the tails off when skinning--they have no value4 ,raccoon should be stretched open 7ripped up the belly71 and nailed on boards or the inside of a building4 ,some dealers allow as much for coons cased1 from any section1 while others prefer that only ,southern coon1 if any1 be cased4 ,otter are cased and stretched fur side in4 ,the pelt being thick and heavy1 takes several days to dry properly4 ,they are shipped flesh side out4 ,beaver are split but stretched round and should be left in the hoop or stretcher for several days4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,deer ,,farming4 ,this chapter is from ,farmers' ,bulletin #ccj1 issued ,july #bh1 #aijh1 by ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture and written by ,d4 ,e4 ,lantz1 ,assistant1 ,biological ,survey4 ,the term deer is here used in its general sense1 in which it includes the elk1 the reindeer or caribou1 the moose and other species1 besides those usually referred to as deer4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,bureau ,,of ,,biological ,,survey1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,june #c1 #aijh4 ,,sir3 ,i have the honor to transmit the accompanying manuscript on the subject of ,deer ,farming in the ,united ,states1 and to recommend its publication as ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #ccj4 ,as a result of the growing scarcity of game animals in this country the supply of venison is wholly inadequate to the demand1 and the time seems opportune for developing the industry of deer farming1 which may be made profitable alike to the state and the individuals engaged therein4 ,the raising of venison for market is as legitimate a business as the growing of beef and mutton1 and state laws1 when prohibitory1 as many of them are1 should be so modified as to encourage the industry4 ,furthermore1 deer and elk may be raised to advantage in forests and on rough1 brushy ground unfitted for either agriculture or stock raising1 thus utilizing for profit much land that is now waste4 ,an added advantage is that the business is well adapted to landowners of small means4 ,respectfully1 ,c4 ,,hart ,,merriam1 ,chief ,biological ,survey4 ,,hon4 ,,james ,,wilson1 ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,,introduction4 ,the present bulletin discusses briefly the economic possibilities of raising deer and elk in the ,united ,states4 ,it is believed that when the restrictions now imposed by ,state laws are removed this business may be made an important and highly profitable industry1 especially since it will be the means of utilizing much otherwise unproductive land4 ,the raising of venison should be1 and is naturally1 as legitimate a business as the growing of beef or mutton1 and ,state laws should be so modified as to permit the producer1 who has stocked a preserve with deer at private expense1 to dispose of his product at any time1 under reasonable regulations1 either for breeding purposes or for food4 ,the growing scarcity of game mammals and birds in the ,united ,states and the threatened extinction of some of them over large parts of their present ranges make the preservation of the remnant highly important4 ,very important also is the increase of this remnant so as to make game once more abundant4 ,it is believed that by means of intelligent game propagation1 both by the states and by private enterprise1 many of our depleted ranges can be restocked with big game4 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,deer ,,family4 ,the members of the deer family 7,cervidae7 rank next to the cattle and sheep family 7,bovidae7 in general utility1 and are the most important of the big game animals of ,america4 ,wherever obtainable in quantity the flesh of deer of different kinds has always been a staple article of diet1 and under present market conditions it is hardly necessary to say that venison is perhaps the most important game1 being a favorite with epicures and also having a wide use as a substitute for beef and mutton1 which meats it resembles in texture1 color1 and general characteristics4 ,its flavor is distinctive1 though it suggests mutton rather than beef4 ,in chemical composition it is very similar to beef1 though1 judging from available data1 it is not so fat as stall-fed cattle4 ,the following figures show how it compares with beef and mutton3 ,a lean venison roast before cooking has been found to contain on an average #ge per cent of water1 #bj per cent of protein or nitrogenous material1 and #b per cent of fat2 a lean beef rump1 some #fe to #gj per cent of water1 #bj to #bc per cent of protein1 and #e to #ad per cent of fat2 a lean leg of mutton1 #fg per cent of water1 #ai per cent of protein1 and #ac per cent of fat4 ,venison1 beef1 and other common meats are very thoroughly digested1 whatever the method of cooking4 ,venison may be roasted1 broiled1 pan-broiled1 or used for making stews1 in much the same way as beef4 ,venison1 particularly steak1 to be at its best1 should be eaten as soon as possible after it is cooked4 ,the general popularity of venison is so great and the demand for it so widespread that over-production is improbable4 ,the other products of the deer--skins and horns--are of considerable importance1 and in countries where deer are abundant and especially where large herds are kept in semi-domestication1 the commerce in both is very extensive4 ,,the ,,domestication ,,of ,,deer4 ,a number of species of the deer family have been proved to be susceptible to domestication4 ,the reindeer1 however1 is the only one that has been brought fully under the control of man4 ,the fact that the ,european red deer and the fallow deer have been bred in parks for centuries without domestication does not prove that they are less susceptible to the process than the reindeer4 ,the purposes for which they have been held captive and the environment given them have been markedly different4 ,it must be remembered1 also1 that few attempts have been made to rear and domesticate deer under intelligent management4 ,the work has been largely a matter of chance experiment4 ,if they had been as long under careful management as cattle1 they would now1 probably1 be equally plastic in the hands of a skillful breeder4 ,but raising deer for profit does not necessarily imply their complete domestication4 ,they may be kept in large preserves with surroundings as nearly natural as possible and their domestication entirely ignored4 ,thus the breeder may reap nearly all the profit that could be expected from a domestic herd1 while the animals escape most of the dangers incident to close captivity4 ,but the breeder who aims at the ultimate domestication of the animals1 and whose herd approaches nearest to true domesticity1 will in the end be most successful4 ,,species ,,to ,,be ,,selected ,,for ,,breeding4 ,the number of species of deer suited for breeding in inclosures in the ,united ,states is great1 though the chances for success are by no means the same for all4 ,as a rule those native to ,america are to be preferred1 since they are already acclimated4 ,in selecting any species1 similarity between its natural habitat and that to which it is to be transferred must be considered4 ,important1 also1 is its adaptability to varied conditions1 as shown by former attempts to acclimatize it4 ,unless they have shown a peculiar adaptability to such change1 deer should not be taken from arid parts of the ,united ,states to humid parts4 ,to a disregard of this principle are probably due many of the failures that have attended experiments in breeding the ,american antelope1 the ,columbia blacktail deer1 the moose1 and other animals in places differing widely from their natural ranges4 ,the history of attempts to acclimatize the several kinds of deer shows that some readily adapt themselves to a great variety of conditions1 and efforts to introduce them into new countries have been almost uniformly successful4 ,such has been the experience with the axis deer1 the ,japanese and ,pekin sikas1 the red and the fallow deer of ,europe1 and especially with the wapiti1 or ,rocky ,mountain elk1 and the ,virginia deer4 ,while experiments with the foreign species named offer every promise of success to the owners of ,american preserves1 there are obvious reasons for recommending the two native animals just mentioned as best suited for the production of venison in the ,united ,states4 ,,the ,,wapiti1 ,,or ,,rocky ,,mountain ,,elk4 ,the ,wapiti 7,cervus canadensis71 including two related species and a geographic race1 and known in ,america as the elk1 is1 next to the moose1 the largest of our deer4 ,it was once abundant over the greater part of the ,united ,states1 whence its range extended northward to about latitude #fj deg4 in the ,peace ,river region of the interior of ,canada4 ,in the ,united ,states the limits of its range eastward were the ,adirondacks1 western ,new ,jersey1 and eastern ,pennsylvania2 southward it reaches the southern ,alleghenies1 northern ,texas1 southern ,mexico1 and ,arizona2 and westward the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,for the practical purposes of this bulletin all the forms of the wapiti are treated as a single species4 ,at the present time the range of these animals has so far diminished that they occur only in a few scattered localities outside of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park and the mountainous country surrounding it1 where large herds remain4 ,smaller herds still occur in ,colorado1 western ,montana1 ,idaho1 eastern ,oregon1 ,manitoba1 ,alberta1 ,british ,columbia1 and the coast mountains of ,washington1 ,oregon1 and northwestern ,california4 ,a band of the small ,california valley elk still inhabits the southern part of the ,san ,joaquin ,valley4 ,the herds that summer in the ,yellowstone ,national ,park and in winter spread southward and eastward in ,wyoming are said to number about #cj1jjj head1 and constitute the only large bands of this noble game animal that are left4 ,although protected in their summer ranges and partially safeguarded from destruction in winter by the ,state of ,wyoming1 there is yet great danger that these herds may perish from lack of food in a succession of severe winters4 ,partial provision for winter forage has been made within the ,national ,park1 but the supply is inadequate for the large number of animals4 ,further safeguards are needed to place the ,wyoming elk herds beyond the reach of winter starvation4 ,in addition to the wild herds1 there are a considerable number of elk in private game preserves and parks1 as well as in nearly all the public zoological parks and gardens of this country4 ,the herds in captivity form the nucleus from which1 under wise management1 some of the former ranges of this animal may be restocked and from which a profitable business of growing elk venison for market may be developed4 ,at the present time this species affords a most promising field for ventures in breeding for profit4 ,habits of ,elk4 ,the elk is both a browsing and a grazing animal4 ,while it eats grasses freely and has been known to subsist entirely upon pasture1 it seems to prefer a mixture of grass and browse4 ,the elk is extremely polygamous4 ,the adult bulls shed their antlers annually in ,march or ,april1 and new ones attain their full size in about ninety days4 ,the velvet adheres until about ,august4 ,while the horns are growing the bulls usually lead solitary lives2 but early in ,september1 when the horns are fully matured1 the rutting season begins4 ,fights for supremacy then take place1 and the victor takes charge of as many cows as he can round up and control4 ,the period of gestation is about #h-a_/b months4 ,the female does not usually breed until the third year1 and produces but one calf at a time4 ,although the elk is less prolific than the common deer and some other species that have been bred in parks1 it increases fully as rapidly as the common red deer of ,europe4 ,moreover1 it makes up for any lack of fecundity by its superior hardiness and ease of management4 ,it has been acclimatized in many parts of the world1 and shows the same vigor and hardiness wherever it has been transplanted4 ,in ,europe it has been successfully crossed with ,altai wapiti and the red deer1 and in both instances the offspring were superior in size and general stamina to the native stock4 ,elk ,venison4 ,the flesh of the elk1 although somewhat coarse1 is superior in flavor to most venison4 ,that of the bulls is in its best condition about the time the velvet is shed4 ,by the time the rut is over1 in ,october1 their flesh is in the poorest condition4 ,as the open season for elk is usually in ,october and ,november1 and only bulls are killed1 it follows that hunters often obtain the venison when it is poorest4 ,the meat is not best when freshly killed1 but should be left hanging for four or five days before it is used4 ,of course fat elk are better eating than lean1 and it is said that venison from castrated bulls is superior to any other4 ,domestication of ,elk4 ,with few exceptions the early attempts to domesticate elk were made by men who were wealthy enough to disregard all thought of profit in raising them4 ,they were usually placed under the care of servants and the bucks were left uncastrated until they became old and unmanageable4 ,soon the serious problem of controlling them outweighed the novelty of their possession1 and one by one attempts at domestication were abandoned4 ,a desire to preserve this important game animal has caused a renewal of attempts to breed it in confinement1 and at present there are small herds under private ownership in many places in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,biological ,survey has recently obtained much information from owners of herds in regard to their experience in breeding and rearing the animals1 and also their opinions as to the possibility of making the business of raising them profitable4 ,of about a dozen successful breeders1 nearly all are of the opinion that raising elk for market can be made remunerative if present laws as to the sale of the meat are modified4 ,illustration3 ,elk in ,enclosure4 ,shelter in ,background4 ,one especially important fact has been developed by the reports from breeders4 ,it is that the elk readily adapts itself to almost any environment4 ,even within the narrow confines of the paddocks of the ordinary zoological park the animal does well and increases so that periodically the herds have to be reduced by sales4 ,the fullest reports that have been received by the ,department of ,agriculture from breeders of elk are from ,george ,w4 ,russ1 of ,eureka ,springs1 ,ark41 through ,h4 ,n4 ,vinall1 of the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry4 ,mr4 ,russ has a herd of #cd elk4 ,they have ample range in the ,ozarks on rough land covered with hardwood forest and abundant underbrush4 ,the animals improve the forest by clearing out part of the thicket4 ,they feed on buds and leaves to a height of #h feet1 and any growth under this is liable to be eliminated if the range is restricted4 ,if not closely confined1 elk do not eat the bark from trees1 nor do they eat evergreens4 ,in clearing out underbrush from thickets they are more useful than goats1 since they browse higher4 ,goats1 however1 eat closer to the ground2 and as the two animals get along well together1 ,mr4 ,russ recommends the use of both for clearing up brushy land and fitting it for tame grasses4 ,the increase of elk under domestication is equal to that of cattle4 ,fully #ij per cent4 of the females produce healthy young4 ,an adult male elk weighs from #gjj to #a1jjj pounds2 a female from #fjj to #hjj pounds4 ,the percentage of dressed meat is greater than with cattle1 but1 owing to hostile game laws1 experience in marketing it is very limited4 ,an offer of #dj cents a pound for dressed meat was received from ,st4 ,louis1 but the law would not permit its export4 ,mr4 ,russ says3 ,from the fact that as high as #a4ej per pound has been paid for this meat in ,new ,york ,city and ,canada1 and that the best hotels and restaurants pronounce it the finest of all the meats of mammals1 we are of the opinion that if laws were such that domesticated elk meat could be furnished it would be many years before the supply would make the price reasonable compared with other meats4 ,elk meat can be produced in many sections of this country at less cost per pound than beef1 mutton1 or pork4 ,mr4 ,russ thinks that large areas of rough lands in the ,united ,states not now utilized1 especially in localities like the ,ozarks and the ,alleghanies1 could be economically used to produce venison for sale1 and he regards the elk as especially suited for this purpose4 ,another feature of ,mr4 ,russ's report is of more than passing interest4 ,he says3 ,we find from long experience that cattle1 sheep1 and goats can be grazed in the same lots with elk1 providing1 however1 that the lots or inclosures are not small2 the larger the area the better4 ,we know of no more appropriate place to call attention to the great benefit of a few elk in the same pasture with sheep and goats4 ,an elk is the natural enemy of dogs and wolves4 ,we suffered great losses to our flocks until we learned this fact2 since then we have had no loss from that cause4 ,a few elk in a thousand-acre pasture will absolutely protect the flocks therein4 ,our own dogs are so well aware of the danger in our elk park that they can not be induced to enter it4 ,judge ,caton1 in his ,antelope and ,deer of ,america1 also remarks on the animosity of elk toward dogs1 and says that the does always lead in the chase of dogs that get into the elk park4 ,if elk will attack and vanquish dogs and coyotes and thus help to protect domestic animals grazing in the same pastures1 a knowledge of the fact may be of great advantage to stockmen who desire to give up herding sheep and resort to fenced pastures instead4 ,the addition of a few elk in the pasture may be an efficient protection from dogs1 coyotes1 and wolves4 ,however1 outside of fenced pastures elk do not always show themselves hostile to dogs and coyotes4 ,management of ,elk in ,inclosures4 ,lorenzo ,stratton1 of ,little ,valley1 ,cattaraugus ,county1 ,n4 ,y41 began experiments in breeding elk about sixty years ago4 ,his plan of management consisted essentially in taming the calves when very young and continuing the petting process with the entire herd4 ,he visited the animals daily in the pasture and always carried dainties to feed them4 ,as the bulls became old and developed signs of viciousness1 they were castrated1 younger animals being used for breeding4 ,he thus developed a thoroughly domesticated herd4 ,for economic reasons1 it is not always possible to follow ,mr4 ,stratton's plan4 ,those who grow the animals for venison and in large preserves would find it impracticable to tame all the calves4 ,however1 if elk or deer are grown for stocking parks or private preserves1 the tamer they are the easier it will be to handle and ship them4 ,,range4--,in choosing a range for elk1 the natural food supply is important4 ,they thrive best in preserves having a variety of food plants--grasses1 bushes1 and trees4 ,rough lands1 well watered with clear streams and having some forested area1 are well adapted to their needs4 ,about as many elk can be kept on such a range as cattle on an equal area of fair pasture4 ,there should be thickets enough to furnish winter browse1 but this should be supplemented by a supply of winter forage4 ,,food4--,except when deep snows cover the ground1 elk will keep in good condition on ordinary pasture and browse2 but a system of management that provides other food regularly will be found more satisfactory4 ,hay and corn fodder are excellent winter forage2 but alfalfa hay has proved to be the best dry food for both elk and deer4 ,a little oats or corn--whole or chopped--may be fed each day4 ,elk are fond of corn1 and feeding it affords excellent opportunities for winning their confidence and taming them4 ,the same may be said of salt1 which should be furnished liberally to all deer kept in inclosures4 ,running water1 although not essential1 is of great importance in maintaining elk in good condition4 ,,fence4--,elk are much less nervous than ordinary deer1 and less disposed to jump fences4 ,when they escape from an enclosure they usually return of their own accord4 ,if tame1 they may be driven like cattle4 ,ordinarily1 a #e-;foot fence of any kind will confine elk4 ,henry ,binning1 of ,cora1 ,wyo41 writes us that a #d-;foot woven-wire fence is ample for these animals4 ,a small enclosure in which a vicious bull elk is to be kept should be higher and of stronger material4 ,mr4 ,russ's report1 already partly quoted1 states that where lumber for posts is cheap a good elk fence may be built for #bjj a mile4 ,but the actual cost will1 of course1 vary greatly according to style1 price of labor1 nearness to market1 and other circumstances4 ,,cost ,,of ,,stock4--,the cost of stocking an elk preserve is not great4 ,usually surplus stock from zoological parks or small private preserves may be obtained at low cost1 varying with the immediate demand for the animals4 ,at times they have sold for less than #bj a head1 and with the present restrictions on sale1 low prices are likely to continue4 ,a few years ago ,t4 ,j4 ,wilson1 of ,lewisburg1 ,ohio1 paid #afe for three animals4 ,a ,michigan breeder recently offered to deliver a dozen head1 sex and age not given1 all fine specimens1 for #ejj4 ,this is1 of course1 a low price1 not more than cattle would bring and less than the venison would be worth if it could be sold4 ,if restrictions on the sale and shipment of venison from private preserves were removed1 prices of the stock would1 of course1 soon advance1 and necessitate a greater outlay in starting the business4 ,,vicious ,,male ,,elk4--,the male elk is ordinarily docile1 but in the rutting season the older ones often become ill-tempered and dangerous4 ,several tragedies connected with attempts to domesticate elk are matters of history4 ,one was recorded by ,judge ,caton in his ,antelope and ,deer of ,america as having occurred in his own park4 ,another took place at ,bull ,city1 ,osborne ,county1 ,kans41 in ,october #ahgi1 and resulted in the instant death of ,gen4 ,h4 ,c4 ,bull1 the mortal wounding of two other men1 and the serious injury of another1 from the attacks of an infuriated bull elk that had previously been regarded as extremely gentle4 ,wild and unconfined deer and elk flee from man under nearly all circumstances1 but when wounded and closely pressed they have been known to attack hunters4 ,it is unlikely that1 even in the rutting season1 a wild bull elk would attack a human being4 ,but the tame or partially tame animals that have become familiar with man are to be feared and should not be approached in that season without extreme caution4 ,a male elk or deer that has once shown viciousness can not again be trusted4 ,the remedy for viciousness in the male elk is castration4 ,it is unsafe to keep an uncastrated male elk over #d years old1 unless he is in a strongly fenced inclosure from which visitors are excluded4 ,the effects of castration are to make the animal docile and to greatly enhance his value for venison4 ,this is in accord with observed results in the production of beef1 pork1 and mutton4 ,venison grown in domestication under a system in which the male animals intended for slaughter are castrated should be uniformly of the highest grade and far superior to that obtained in the wild state during the usual open season for hunting4 ,this consideration is of the greatest importance in fixing the final status of venison grown under domestication4 ,breeding the ,virginia ,deer4 ,the ,virginia1 or whitetail deer 7,odocoileus virginianus7 is the common deer of the ,united ,states4 ,including the half dozen geographic races that occur within our borders1 it is distributed over most of the country1 except ,nevada and the major portions of ,utah1 ,arizona1 ,washington1 ,oregon1 and ,california4 ,it is extinct in ,delaware and practically so in a number of ,states in the ,middle ,west4 ,south of our borders a number of closely related species occur4 ,in view of the wide natural range of the whitetail deer1 its adaptability to nearly all sections of the ,united ,states can not be doubted4 ,testimony as to its hardiness in parks and preserves is not so unanimous as that concerning the wapiti2 but the general experience of breeders is that with suitable range1 plenty of good water1 and reasonable care in winter1 raising this deer for stocking preserves or for venison may be made as profitable as any other livestock industry4 ,not only do deer thrive on land unsuited for cattle or horses1 but1 like elk1 they may be raised to great advantage in brushy or timbered pastures fully stocked with cattle or horses1 as the food of deer rarely includes grass4 ,advocates of the ,angora goat industry state that within the ,united ,states there are #bej1jjj1jjj acres of land not suited to tillage or to the pasture of horses1 cattle1 or sheep1 which are well adapted to goats4 ,much of this land is suited also to deer and elk1 and can be utilized for these animals with less injury to the forest cover than would result from its browsing by goats4 ,the whitetail deer has often been the subject of experiments in domestication4 ,the beauty of these animals1 especially the fawns1 appeals to every admirer of wild life1 and early settlers of the country soon learned how easily they could be tamed and how promptly they attached themselves to the persons who fed them4 ,the dangerous character of the same pets1 especially the males1 when grown up was soon learned also4 ,it followed that the domesticating process usually ended with the maturity of the first subject1 which was soon disposed of or banished to a safe inclosure4 ,the propagation of the ,virginia deer has seldom been undertaken in a systematic way4 ,the animals have often been bred in parks for pleasure or in large preserves for sport1 but the economic possibilities in raising them have received little attention4 ,recently breeders have recognized the fact that they are profitable under proper management and would be much more so were conditions for marketing live animals and venison more favorable4 ,experiences of ,breeders4 ,the ,biological ,survey has reports of successful experience in raising ,virginia deer from more than a dozen persons1 located in different parts of the country1 who are now engaged in the business4 ,the management of the herds varies slightly with the surroundings and the object for which they are kept4 ,thomas ,blagden1 of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 began raising deer in #ahgd4 ,after an experience of over a third of a century he is confident that the business can be made profitable4 ,in his own herds he has carefully avoided in-breeding by securing new bucks from time to time4 ,his stock is vigorous and of the large size characteristic of the ,adirondack and other northern deer4 ,consequently the animals are in demand for breeding purposes1 the bucks bringing #ej each and the does1 #ge4 ,he feeds grain1 using corn and a mixture of bran and meal1 and during the summer cuts as much wild forage as possible4 ,he finds that the animals prefer the rankest weeds to the choicest grass4 ,of the various kinds of hay1 they prefer alfalfa4 ,he provides abundant water at all times4 ,john ,w4 ,griggs1 of ,goodell1 ,iowa1 writes that he has been engaged in raising deer for about fourteen years4 ,until two years ago he sold all his surplus stock for parks1 but since then has disposed of about half of it for venison4 ,for park purposes he gets #bj to #cj a head1 but they bring fully as much or more when fattened for venison4 ,as to management of deer1 ,mr4 ,griggs writes3 ,in raising a large herd the park should be divided into two or three lots1 and one plowed each year and sown to red clover1 mustard1 rape1 and seeds of different kinds of weeds4 ,bluegrass and timothy are useless4 ,corn is the principal grain ,i feed4 ,i feed it winter and summer4 ,in winter ,i feed also clover hay1 oat straw1 and weedy wild hay4 ,deer when rightly handled are very prolific1 and from #ej does one can count on #ge fawns4 ,they can be raised profitably for venison--very profitably until overdone2 but ,i would not advise one to go into it on a large scale without previous experience with deer4 ,the report received from ,c4 ,h4 ,roseberry1 of ,stella1 ,mo41 although less enthusiastic than others1 is quoted because his herd approaches more nearly a state of true domestication4 ,under date of ,january #ac1 #aijh1 ,mr4 ,roseberry wrote as follows3 ,my experience in breeding the common or ,virginia deer covers a period of seventeen years1 beginning in ,march1 #ahia1 when1 as a boy of #af1 ,i built a small inclosure of #a-a_/b acres to confine a single doe that was captured as a fawn in the neighboring forest4 ,a buck and other does were secured from year to year1 until in #aijj1 by purchase and natural increase1 my herd numbered #be head of all ages4 ,from #ahia to #aija ,i lost every year from disease an average of #bj per cent4 ,the climax came in the drought year of #aija1 when my loss was #ej per cent from the disease known as black tongue4 ,i am convinced that1 like cholera in swine1 individuals recovering from this disease are immune from further attack4 ,apparently all of my herd were afflicted4 ,the survivors and their progeny constitute my present breeding stock4 ,i have made no purchases since #aija1 nor have ,i suffered any loss from disease4 ,for the last seven years my herd has averaged #gj per cent increase1 all of which ,i have sold at satisfactory prices4 ,i began selling at #bj per pair of fawns at #d months of age and #cj per pair of adults4 ,i now get #dj and #fj1 respectively4 ,i sell almost exclusively for pets and for propagating purposes1 although a few surplus bucks have been sold for venison1 averaging me #ae cents per pound gross weight4 ,if we except the goat1 ,i know of no domestic animal common to the farm that requires so little feed and attention as the deer4 ,my herd has a range of only #ae acres1 two-thirds of which are set to white clover1 bluegrass1 and orchard grass4 ,i provide also a small plat of wheat or rye for winter pasture4 ,with the above provision1 in this latitude1 no feed is required between ,april #ae and ,november #ae4 ,during the rest of the year a ration of corn1 bran1 or other mill feed somewhat smaller than that required for sheep1 in connection with a stack of clover or pea hay to which they have free access1 is sufficient to keep them in good condition4 ,deer eat with relish nearly all of the common coarse weeds1 and for clearing land of brush they are1 ,i think1 second only to the common goat4 ,probably the greatest expense connected with the business of raising deer is the fencing4 ,another item of trouble and expense1 when the animals are raised for pets1 requiring that they be handled and shipped alive1 is the fact that the fawns must be taken from the does when #aj days old and raised by hand on cow's milk4 ,they are quite easily raised in this way1 with but slight percentage of loss1 but require frequent and careful attention for the first month4 ,when they are allowed to run with the does their natural wildness can not be overcome1 no matter how gentle the does may be4 ,i have found the business profitable on the lines indicated4 ,i believe they could be profitably bred for venison alone--certainly with less trouble and expense1 since the fawns could be reared by the does and the trouble and expense of raising by hand would be eliminated4 ,my experience does not coincide with that of some other breeders in respect to the weakening of reproductive powers of deer by the confinement in parks4 ,i have no barren does4 ,usually they produce a single fawn at two years of age2 afterwards twins1 and in rare cases triplets4 ,illustration3 ,tame ,deer ,eating ,watermelon4 ,management of ,virginia ,deer4 ,as to the management of deer little need be added to the statements from practical breeders already given4 ,virginia deer are polygamous1 like cattle2 the rutting season is in ,november2 the period of gestation is about seven months1 and the fawns are born in ,may or ,june4 ,young does usually breed when about #ag months old and have but one fawn the first time2 afterwards they commonly produce twins4 ,the fawns are spotted until the first shedding of the hair in the fall4 ,while deer are chiefly browsing animals1 in captivity they eat nearly every kind of vegetation1 including most kinds of garden stuff4 ,they are fond of acorns1 beechnuts1 chestnuts1 and other mast4 ,lily pads1 leaves1 lichens1 and mosses are freely eaten4 ,with plenty of range and an abundant variety of plants there need be1 therefore1 no apprehension concerning the deer's food4 ,a good supply of running water must be provided1 and the animals should have access to rock salt4 ,if the browse and pasturage are scant1 a small ration of grain should be fed4 ,of the grains1 corn is generally recommended as a food2 there is no waste1 as the deer pick up every grain4 ,coarse hay full of weeds is preferable to timothy or other tame hays1 except alfalfa4 ,of clover hay1 deer usually eat the blossom heads greedily1 but waste the other parts4 ,in winter feeding is necessary everywhere1 and in the northern half of the ,united ,states shelter of some kind should be provided4 ,the remarks about castrating elk apply as well to the common deer4 ,a number of vigorous bucks1 however1 must be kept with any considerable herd of does1 for a single buck can not serve an unlimited number4 ,frequent changes of blood by introducing new bucks should be practiced to avoid in-breeding4 ,wild ,deer in ,private ,game ,preserves4 ,individual owners1 as well as associations1 have established large private preserves in many parts of the country and stocked them with deer and other big game4 ,the objects have been to preserve the animals and to provide sport for the owners4 ,in the free life under the protected conditions generally provided1 deer do remarkably well1 the increase being even more rapid than in small parks4 ,there can be no doubt of the success of ventures in propagating the ,virginia deer under natural conditions as wild game1 as is proved by the experience of a large number of hunting clubs and private owners4 ,deer in ,buckwood ,park1 a ,new ,jersey preserve of #d1jjj acres1 belonging to ,charles ,s4 ,worthington1 increased in the ten years between #ahib and #aijc from #ai to about #djj head1 and the number was then lessened because it was thought too large for the permanent sustaining capacity of the park4 ,the ,st4 ,louis ,park and ,agricultural ,company have about #a1jjj deer and #djj elk in their #e1jjj-;acre preserve in ,taney ,county1 ,mo4 ,the ,otzinachson ,rod and ,gun ,club six years ago placed about #ij deer1 mostly does1 in their #d1jjj acre park in ,clinton ,county1 ,pa4 ,these have multiplied to nearly #b1jjj head1 and a further increase of about a thousand fawns is expected during the present season 7#aijh74 ,doubtless these experiences are not exceptional4 ,the good effect of such preserves on the supply of game in the ,state should not be overlooked4 ,while they may temporarily restrict the hunting privileges of a few citizens1 they ultimately become a source of game supply secondary in importance only to ,state preserves or game refuges4 ,already a number of private reserves have become overstocked1 and game has escaped or been turned over to the ,state to become the property of the people4 ,the success of private enterprise in propagating large game in inclosures has thus become an object lesson for ,state game commissioners and others1 and suggests the feasibility of the ,state's undertaking a similar work for the people4 ,,game ,,laws ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,deer ,,farming4 ,the chief obstacle to profitable propagation of deer in the ,united ,states is the restrictive character of ,state laws governing the killing1 sale1 and transportation of game4 ,many of the ,states1 following precedent1 lay down the broad rule that all the game animals in the ,state1 whether resident or migratory1 are the property of the ,state4 ,a few ,states except game animals that are under private ownership legally acquired4 ,a few others encourage private ownership by providing a way in which wild animals--deer and the like--may be captured for domestication4 ,generally1 when private ownership of game is recognized by law1 the right to kill such game is granted1 but the owner is hampered by the same regulations as to season1 sale1 and shipment that apply to wild game4 ,one by one1 however1 ,state legislatures are coming to recognize the interests of game propagators1 and game laws are gradually being modified in accordance with the change of view4 ,the chief source from which deer and elk may be obtained for stocking preserves is from animals already in captivity4 ,these must be transported from place to place or there can be no commerce in them1 yet the laws of many ,states absolutely forbid their shipment4 ,the laws as to possession and transportation of deer carcasses make the shipping of venison also illegal4 ,general export of venison is legal from only six of the ,states1 and three of these have no wild deer left to protect4 ,the laws concerning the season for killing and the sale of deer are often equally embarrassing to those who would produce venison for profit4 ,the owner of domesticated deer can not legally kill his animals except in open season4 ,owners of private preserves are similarly restricted and are limited to the killing of one or two animals in a season4 ,more than half the ,states and territories absolutely forbid the sale of venison4 ,a few forbid the sale of venison produced within the ,state1 but permit the sale of that imported from other ,states1 a most unjust discrimination against home industry4 ,the following ,states have recently modified their laws so as to provide1 under regulations1 for the sale of deer from private preserves4 ,transportation and even export are included in some of them4 ,,arkansas4--,possession1 sale1 and shipment of deer or fawns is permitted when they have been raised in captivity for domestic purposes and are accompanied by an affidavit from the raiser4 ,,colorado4--,owners of private preserves under a license are permitted to sell and ship deer or other quadrupeds that are accompanied by an invoice4 ,a fee is required for each animal sold4 ,,illinois4--,any person who raises deer for market may kill and sell them at any time in the same manner as other domestic animals4 ,,indiana4--,the provisions of the law as to possession and sale do not apply to persons who have under ownership or control any deer raised in a deer park4 ,,massachusetts4--,the owner may sell his own tame deer kept on his own grounds4 ,,minnesota4--,persons who desire to domesticate deer1 moose1 elk1 or caribou may secure a permit to do so from the ,state board of game and fish commissioners by paying a fee of #ej cents for each animal in captivity and a like fee for each animal added later by natural increase or otherwise4 ,the animals kept in captivity may be sold or shipped within or without the ,state1 by permission of the commissioners4 ,,missouri4--,deer or elk1 alive or dead1 may be shipped from any private preserve and sold in the markets of the ,state when accompanied by a tag furnished by the game warden of the county1 showing whose property it is1 where killed and to whom shipped4 ,,new ,,hampshire4--,the ,blue ,mountain ,forest ,association may kill elk1 deer1 or moose in their preserve for one month after the open season1 and at any time may transport them outside the ,state4 ,,new ,,york4--,deer may be sold during the open season2 and moose1 elk1 caribou1 and antelope from private parks may be sold during the same period4 ,common carriers may transport animals into the ,state for breeding purposes1 but may not transport venison unless it is accompanied by the owner4 ,,north ,,carolina4--,seventeen counties permit the owner and keeper of an inclosed game preserve1 who raises deer for use or sale1 to kill1 sell1 or use those raised or kept in said inclosure4 ,,pennsylvania4--,owners of game preserves who hold a game propagating certificate may sell and transport deer or fawn alive for propagating purposes only1 after securing the written consent of the president of the board of game commissioners4 ,in three or four other ,states game under private ownership1 legally acquired1 is supposed to be exempt from general provisions of the game law2 but in a test case as to its sale or export it is doubtful whether the courts would so hold without more specific provision legalizing such commerce4 ,,summary4 ,the domestication of deer and elk offers an interesting field for experiment1 as well as remunerative returns for the investment of capital4 ,the wapiti and the ,virginia deer can be raised successfully and cheaply under many different conditions of food and climate4 ,the production of venison and the rearing of both species for stocking parks may be made profitable industries in the ,united ,states4 ,instead of hampering breeders by restrictions1 as at present1 ,state laws should be so modified as to encourage the raising of deer1 elk1 and other animals as a source of profit to the individual and to the ,state4 ,safeguards against the destruction and sale of wild deer in place of domesticated deer are not difficult to enforce4 ,for this purpose a system of licensing private parks1 and of tagging deer or carcases sold or shipped1 so that they may be easily identified1 is recommended4 ,it is believed that with favorable legislation much otherwise waste land in the ,united ,states may be utilized for the production of venison so as to yield profitable returns1 and also that this excellent and nutritious meat1 instead of being denied to #ii per cent of the population of the country1 may become as common and as cheap in our markets as mutton4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,the above illustration shows the front cover of ,hunter-,trader-,trapper1 a monthly magazine1 published by ,the ,a4 ,r4 ,harding ,publishing ,co41 ,columbus1 ,ohio1 who are also publishers of books on ,trapping and ,out-o-,door ,sports1 bringing out new ones continually4 ,their latest booklet descriptive of their magazine and books published will be sent free upon application4 ,see following pages4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hunter ,trader ,trapper ,as its ,name ,indicates is a ,magazine of ,information for ,hunters1 ,traders1 ,trappers and ,out-o-,door ,people4 ,if you are interested in hunting1 trapping1 raw furs1 ginseng1 raising wild animals1 taxidermy1 etc41 you will find this magazine of interest and value4 ,the magazine is published monthly and treats on the following subjects3 ,steel ,traps1 ,where and ,how to ,set2 ,baits and ,scents2 ,proper ,season to ,trap2 ,how to ,skin1 ,stretch and ,handle ,furs2 ,new ,ways to ,capture ,mink1 ,fox1 ,wolf1 ,marten1 ,beaver1 ,otter and ,other ,shy ,animals2 ,raising ,fur ,bearing ,animals2 ,growing ,ginseng and ,golden ,seal2 ,training ,night ,hunting ,dogs2 ,leading ,fur ,markets2 ,london ,raw ,fur ,sales2 ,fox ,hunting and ,hounds2 ,coon ,hunting2 ,letters ,from ,old ,hunters and ,trappers1 etc4 ,the ,editor is a man of long experience in handling raw furs and trapping4 ,the articles published and photos used are largely from those who have had actual experience with trap1 gun and dog--you will enjoy them4 ,the magazine contains from #abh to #bjj pages each month1 averaging about #afj each month or #bjjj pages a year4 ,about #gjj illustrations are used each year4 ,the magazine is printed on good quality paper and the subscription price is only #a4jj a ,year ,single ,copy ,,ten ,,cents ,a4 ,r4 ,harding ,publishing ,co41 ,columbus1 ,o4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,ginseng ,,plant4 ,showing ,root1 ,stock1 ,leaves and ,seed4 ,this is only one of about #ge illustrations shown in ,ginseng and ,other ,medicinal ,plants as described on opposite page4 ,the illustrations are of actual gardens1 as well as some fifty of the most valuable medicinal plants true to life4 ,after reading this book and looking closely at the illustrations you should be able to distinguish the various plants4 ,the paper used is of good quality so that the illustrations are clear and distinct4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ginseng and ,other ,medicinal ,plants ,this book contains about #cjj pages and #ge illustrations 7see opposite page for one of them7 with chapters on the following3 ,the ,story of ,ginseng2 ,something ,about ,ginseng2 ,cultivation of ,ginseng2 ,marketing ,ginseng2 ,seeds and ,roots2 ,letters ,from ,ginseng ,growers2 ,government ,reports2 ,ginseng in ,china2 ,general ,information2 ,habits of ,ginseng2 ,ginseng ,prices2 ,diseases of ,ginseng2 ,medicinal ,qualities2 ,golden ,seal ,cultivation2 ,plants as a ,source of ,revenue2 ,list of ,plants ,having ,medicinal ,value2 ,gigantic ,mint ,farm in ,michigan4 ,the publishers say--,a ,book of ,valuable ,information for ,growers and ,collectors of ,wild ,medicinal ,plants--,tells ,how to ,grow1 ,medicinal ,uses1 ,value1 ,etc4 ,much additional information is also given about other ,plants which furnish ,root ,drugs1 such as3 ,male ,fern2 ,wild ,turnip2 ,skunk ,cabbage2 ,sweet ,flag2 ,helonias2 ,american ,hellebore2 ,aletris2 ,bethroot2 ,wild ,yam2 ,blue ,flag2 ,lady's ,slipper2 ,crawley ,root2 ,canada ,snakeroot2 ,serpentaria 7,southern ,snakeroot72 ,yellow ,dock2 ,pokeweed2 ,soapwort2 ,goldthread2 ,black ,cohosh2 ,oregon ,grape2 ,blue ,cohosh2 ,twinleaf2 ,mayapple2 ,canada ,moonseed2 ,bloodroot2 ,hydrangea2 ,indian ,physic2 ,wild ,indigo2 ,crane's ,bill2 ,seneca ,snakeroot2 ,stillingia2 ,wild ,sarsaparilla2 ,water ,eryngo2 ,american ,angelica2 ,yellow ,jasmine2 ,pinkroot2 ,american ,colombo2 ,black ,indian ,hemp2 ,pleurisy ,root2 ,comfrey2 ,stoneroot2 ,culvers ,root2 ,dandelion2 ,queen-of-the-,meadow2 ,elecampane2 ,echinacea2 ,burdock4 ,a good photograph of each of these is shown with the description4 ,considerable money can be made collecting and preparing for the market4 ,this book explains in detail4 ,price1 cloth bound1 postpaid1 #a4jj 99 99 99 99 99 ,land ,cruising and ,prospecting ,is a valuable book for homesteaders1 hunters1 trappers1 guides1 etc4 ,the writer--,mr4 ,a4 ,f4 ,wallace1 an experienced surveyor1 land cruiser and prospector--in his introduction says3 ,to the men who follow the compass1 the trap and the trail this work is inscribed4 ,it is not intended for the ,professors who can tell you all about things after they are done 7by somebody else74 ,the publishers say3 ,a book of ,valuable ,information for hunters1 trappers1 land cruisers1 prospectors and men of the trail--tells how to locate one's self on the map1 etc4 ,this book contains about #bjj pages #e x #g inches1 is printed on good quality paper1 with nearly #dj illustrations and contains #bj chapters as follows3 ,i4 ,maps4 ,,ii4 ,the ,compass4 ,,iii4 ,examining and ,locating4 ,,iv4 ,early ,surveys4 ,v4 ,corner ,marks4 ,,vi4 ,miscellaneous ,information4 ,,vii4 ,points for ,homesteaders4 ,,viii4 ,prospecting for ,gold4 ,,ix4 ,sampling ,ore4 ,x4 ,how to ,locate a ,claim4 ,,xi4 ,poor ,man's ,ore ,mill4 ,,xii4 ,prospecting for ,fur4 ,,xiii4 ,prospecting for ,pearls4 ,,xiv4 ,prospecting for ,bees4 ,,xv4 ,rations and ,camp ,cookery4 ,,xvi4 ,camp ,kits4 ,,xvii4 ,guns1 ,axes and ,pack-straps4 ,,xviii4 ,building ,cabins1 ,tanning1 ,etc4 ,,xix4 ,getting ,lost4 ,,xx4 ,the ,red ,river ,trapper4 ,this book is practical and may be worth many times the price to you4 ,remember it is written by one who has had many1 many years of experience4 ,price1 ,cloth ,bound1 ,postpaid1 #fj ,cents ,a4 ,r4 ,harding ,publishing ,co4 ,columbus1 ,ohio 99 99 99 99 99 ,bee ,hunting ,a ,,book ,,of ,,valuable ,,information ,,for ,,bee ,,hunters4 ,tells ,how to ,line ,bees to ,trees1 ,etc4 ,the following is taken from the ,author's ,introduction to ,,bee ,,hunting ,illustration ,many books on sports of various kinds have been written1 but outside of an occasional article in periodicals devoted to bee literature1 but little has been written on the subject of ,bee ,hunting4 ,therefore1 ,i have tried in this volume--,bee ,hunting for ,pleasure and ,profit--to give a work in compact form1 the product of what ,i have learned along this line during the forty years in nature's school room4 ,brother1 if in reading these pages1 you find something that will be of value to you1 something that will inculcate a desire for manly pastime and make your life brighter1 then my aim will have been reached4 ,the book contains #ac chapters as follows3 ,i4 ,bee ,hunting4 ,,ii4 ,early ,spring ,hunting4 ,,iii4 ,bee ,watering--,how to ,find ,them4 ,,iv4 ,hunting ,bees from ,sumac4 ,v4 ,hunting ,bees from ,buckwheat4 ,,vi4 ,fall ,hunting4 ,,vii4 ,improved ,mode of ,burning4 ,,viii4 ,facts ,about ,line of ,flight4 ,,ix4 ,baits and ,scents4 ,x4 ,cutting the ,tree and ,transferring4 ,,xi4 ,customs and ,ownership of ,wild ,bees4 ,,xii4 ,benefactors and ,their ,inventions4 ,,xiii4 ,bee ,keeping for ,profit4 ,this book contains #hj pages1 paper cover4 ,price1 postpaid1 only #be cents4 ,a4 ,r4 ,harding ,pub4 ,co41 ,columbus1 ,ohio