,transcriber's ,note4 ,this is ,paper #dj from the ,smithsonian ,institution ,united ,states ,national ,museum ,bulletin #bdj1 comprising ,papers #cd-dd1 which will also be available as a complete e-book4 ,the front material1 introduction and relevant index entries from the ,bulletin are included in each single-paper e-book4 ,corrections are listed at the end of the e-book4 ,,smithsonian ,,institution ,,united ,,states ,,national ,,museum ,,bulletin #bdj ,illustration ,,smithsonian ,,press ,,museum ,,of ,,history ,,and ,,technology ,,contributions ,,from ,,the ,,museum ,,of ,,history ,,and ,,technology ,papers #cd-dd ,on ,science and ,technology ,,smithsonian ,,institution 4 ,,washington1 ,d4,c4 #aiff ,publications of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum ,the scholarly and scientific publications of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum include two series1 ,proceedings of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum and ,united ,states ,national ,museum ,bulletin4 ,in these series1 the ,museum publishes original articles and monographs dealing with the collections and work of its constituent museums--,the ,museum of ,natural ,history and the ,museum of ,history and ,technology--setting forth newly acquired facts in the fields of anthropology1 biology1 history1 geology1 and technology4 ,copies of each publication are distributed to libraries1 to cultural and scientific organizations1 and to specialists and others interested in the different subjects4 ,the ,proceedings1 begun in #ahgh1 are intended for the publication1 in separate form1 of shorter papers from the ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,these are gathered in volumes1 octavo in size1 with the publication date of each paper recorded in the table of contents of the volume4 ,in the ,bulletin series1 the first of which was issued in #ahge1 appear longer1 separate publications consisting of monographs 7occasionally in several parts7 and volumes in which are collected works on related subjects4 ,bulletins are either octavo or quarto in size1 depending on the needs of the presentation4 ,since #aijb papers relating to the botanical collections of the ,museum of ,natural ,history have been published in the ,bulletin series under the heading ,contributions from the ,united ,states ,national ,herbarium1 and since #aiei1 in ,bulletins titled ,contributions from the ,museum of ,history and ,technology1 have been gathered shorter papers relating to the collections and research of that ,museum4 ,the present collection of ,contributions1 ,papers #cd-dd1 comprises ,bulletin #bdj4 ,each of these papers has been previously published in separate form4 ,the year of publication is shown on the last page of each paper4 ,,frank ,a4 ,,taylor ,director1 ,united ,states ,national ,museum ,,contributions ,,from ,,the ,,museum ,,of ,,history ,,and ,,technology3 ,,paper #dj ,,history ,,of ,,phosphorus ,eduard ,farber ,,the ,,element ,,from ,,animals ,,and ,,plants #agh ,,early ,,uses #aha ,,chemical ,,constitution ,,of ,,phosphoric ,,acids #ahb ,,phosphates ,,as ,,plant ,,nutrients #ahe ,,from ,,inorganic ,,to ,,organic ,,phosphates #ahg ,,phosphatides ,,and ,,phosphagens #ahi ,,nuclein ,,and ,,nucleic ,,acids #aib ,,phosphates ,,in ,,biological ,,processes #aig ,,medicines ,,and ,,poisons #aih ,eduard ,farber ,,history ,,of ,,phosphorus ,the cold light produced by phosphorus caused it to be considered a miraculous chemical for a long time after its discovery1 about #affi4 ,during the intervening three centuries numerous other chemical miracles have been found1 yet phosphorus retains a special aura of universal importance in chemistry4 ,many investigators have occupied themselves with this element and its diverse chemical compounds4 ,further enlightenment and insight into the ways of nature can be expected from these efforts4 ,not only is the story of phosphorus a major drama in the history of chemistry2 it also illustrates1 in a spectacular example1 the growth of this science through the discovery of connections between apparently unrelated phenomena1 and the continuous interplay between basic science and the search for practical usage4 ,,the ,,author3 ,eduard ,farber is a research professor at ,american ,university1 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 and has been associated with the ,smithsonian ,institution as a consultant in chemistry4 ,when phosphorus was discovered1 nearly three centuries ago1 it was considered a miraculous thing4 ,the only event that provoked a similar emotion was the discovery of radium more than two centuries later4 ,the excitement about the ,phosphorus igneus1 ,boyle's ,icy ,noctiluca1 was slowly replaced by1 or converted into1 chemical research4 ,yet1 if we would allow room for emotion in research1 we could still be excited about the wondrous substance that chemical and biological work continues to reveal as vitally important4 ,it is a fundamental plant nutrient1 an essential part in nerve and brain substance1 a decisive factor in muscle action and cell growth1 and also a component in fast-acting1 powerful poisons4 ,the importance of phosphorus was gradually recognized and the means by which this took place are characteristic and similar to other developments in the history of science4 ,this paper was written in order to summarize these various means which led to the highly complex ways of present research4 ,the ,element from ,animals and ,plants ,it was a little late to search for the philosophers' stone in #affi1 yet it was in such a search that phosphorus was discovered4 ,wilhelm ,homberg 7#afeb-agae7 described it in the following manner3 ,brand1 a man little known1 of low birth1 with a bizarre and mysterious nature in all he did1 found this luminous matter while searching for something else4 ,he was a glassmaker by profession1 but he had abandoned it in order to be free for the pursuit of the philosophical stone with which he was engrossed4 ,having put it into his mind that the secret of the philosophical stone consisted in the preparation of urine1 this man worked in all kinds of manners and for a very long time without finding anything4 ,finally1 in the year #affi1 after a strong distillation of urine1 he found in the recipient a luminant matter that has since been called phosphorus4 ,he showed it to some of his friends1 among them ,mister ,kunkel sic4#a ,neither the name nor the phenomenon were really new4 ,organic phosphorescent materials were known to ,aristotle1 and a lithophosphorus was the subject of a book published in #afdj1 based on a discovery made by a shoemaker1 ,vicenzo ,casciarolo1 on a mountain-side near ,bologna in #afcj4b ,was the substance new which ,brand showed to his friends8 ,johann ,gottfried ,leonhardi quotes a book of #afhi in which the author1 ,kletwich1 claims that this phosphorus had already been known to ,fernelius1 the court physician of ,king ,henri ,,ii of ,france 7#aaed-aahi74c ,to the same period belongs the ,ordinatio ,alchid ,bechil ,saraceni philosophi1 in which ,ferdinand ,hoefer found a distillation of urine with clay and carbonaceous material described1 and the resulting product named escarbuncle4#d ,it would be worth looking for this source2 although ,bechil would still remain an entirely unsuccessful predecessor1 it does seem strange that in all the distillations of arbitrary mixtures1 the conditions should never before #affi have been right for the formation and the observation of phosphorus4 ,illustration3 ,figure #a4--,,the ,,alchemist ,,discovers ,,phosphorus4 ,a painting by ,joseph ,wright 7#agcd-aggi7 of ,derby1 ,england4 ,for ,brand's contemporaries at least1 the discovery was new and exciting4 ,the philosopher ,gottfried ,wilhelm von ,leibniz 7#afdf-agaf7 considered it important enough to devote some of his time 7between his work as librarian in ,hanover and ,wolfenbuettel1 his efforts to reunite the ,protestant and the ,catholic churches1 and his duties as ,privy ,councellor in what we would call a ,department of ,justice7 to a history of phosphorus4 ,this friend of ,huygens and ,boyle tried to prove that ,kunckel was not justified in claiming the discovery for himself4#e ,since then1 it has been shown that ,johann ,kunckel 7#afcj-agjc7 actually worked out the method which neither ,brand nor his friend ,kraft wanted to disclose4 ,boyle also developed a method independently1 published it1 and instructed ,gottfried ,hankwitz in the technique4 ,later on1 ,jean ,hellot 7#afhe-agfe7 gave a meticulous description of the details and a long survey of the literature4#f ,illustration3 ,figure #b4--;,,galley-,,oven1 #ahfi4 ,the picture is a cross section through the front of the oven showing one of the #cf retorts1 the receivers for the distillate1 and the space in the upper story used for evaporating the mixture of acid solution of calcium phosphate and coal4 7,according to ,,anselme ,,payen1 ,precis de ,chimie industrielle1 ,paris1 #ahdi2 reproduced from ,,hugo ,,fleck1 ,die ,fabrikation chemischer ,produkte aus thierischen ,abfaellen1 ,vieweg1 ,braunschweig1 #ahfb1 page #hj of volume #b1 #bnd group1 of ,p4 ,,bolley',s ,handbuch der chemischen ,technologie47 ,to obtain phosphorus1 a good proportion of coal 7regarded as a type of phlogiston7 was added to urine1 previously thickened by evaporation and preferably after putrefaction1 and the mixture was heated to the highest attainable temperature4 ,it was obvious that phlogiston entered into the composition of the distillation product4 ,the question remained whether this product was generated de novo4 ,in his research of #agdc to #agdf1 ,andreas ,sigismund ,marggraf 7#agji-aghb7 provided the answer4 ,he found the new substance in edible plant seeds1 and he concluded that it enters the human system through the plant food1 to be excreted later in the urine4 ,he did not convince all the chemists with his reasoning4 ,in #aghi1 ,macquer wrote3 ,there are some who1 even at this time1 hold that the phosphorical 7'phosphorische'7 acid generates itself in the animals and who consider this to be the 'animalistic acid4'#g ,although ,marggraf was more advanced in his arguments than these chemists1 yet he was a child of his time4 ,the luminescent and combustible1 almost wax-like substance impressed him greatly4 ,my thoughts about the unexpected generation of light and fire out of water1 fine earth1 and phlogiston ,i reserve to describe at a later time4 ,these thoughts went so far as to connect the new marvel with alchemical wonder tales4 ,when ,marggraf used the essential salt of urine1 also called sal microcosmicum1 and admixed silver chloride 7horny silver7 to it for the distillation of phosphorus1 he expected a partial conversion of silver by phlogiston and the added fine vitrifiable earth1 but no trace of a more noble metal appeared4#h ,robert ,boyle had already found that the burning of phosphorus produced an acid4 ,he identified it by taste and by its influence on colored plant extracts serving as indicators4 ,hankwitz#i described methods for obtaining this acid1 and ,marggraf showed its chemical peculiarities4 ,they did not necessarily establish phosphorus as a new element4 ,to do that was not as important1 at that time1 as to conjecture on analogies with known substances4 ,underlying all its unique characteristics was the analogy of phosphorus with sulfur4 ,like sulfur1 phosphorus can burn in two different ways1 either slowly or more violently1 and form two different acids4 ,the analogy can1 therefore1 be extended to explain the results in both groups in the same way4 ,in the process of burning1 the combustible component is removed1 and the acid originally combined with the combustible is set free4 ,whether the analogy should be pursued even further remained doubtful1 although some suspicion lingered on for a while that phosphoric acid might actually be a modified sulfuric acid4 ,analogies and suspicions like these were needed to formulate new questions and stimulate new experiments4 ,they are cited here for their important positive value in the historical development1 and not for the purpose of showing how wrong these chemists were from our point of view1 a point of view which they helped to create4 ,the widespread interest in the burning of sulfur and of phosphorus1 naturally1 caught ,lavoisier's attention4 ,in his first volume of ,opuscules ,physiques et ,chimiques 7#aggd71 he devoted #bj pages to his experiments on phosphorus4 ,he amplified them a few years later#aj when he attributed the combustion to a combination of phosphorus with the eminently respirable part of air4 ,in the ,methode de ,nomenclature ,chimique of #aghg1 the column of undecomposed substances lists sulfur as the radical sulfurique1 and phosphorus1 correspondingly1 as the radical phosphorique4 ,the acids are now shown to be compounds of the undecomposed radicals1 the complete reversion of the previous concept of this relationship4 ,a part of the old analogy remained as far as the acids are concerned3 sulfuric acid corresponds to phosphoric2 sulfurous acid to phosphorous acid with less oxygen than in the former4#aa ,early ,uses ,in the #ahth century1 phosphorus was a costly material4 ,it was produced mostly for display and to satisfy curiosity4 ,guillaume ,francois ,rouelle 7#agjc-aggj7 demonstrated the process in his lectures1 and1 as ,macquer reports1 he very often succeeded in making it4#ab ,robert ,boyle had the idea of using phosphorus as a light for underwater divers4#ac ,a century later1 instant lights were sold1 with molten phosphorus as the igniter1 but they proved cumbersome and unreliable4#ad ,because white phosphorus is highly poisonous1 an active development of the use in matches occurred only after the conversion of the white modification into the red had been studied by ,emile ,kopp 7#ahdd71 by ,wilhelm ,hittorf 7#ahbd-aiad7 and1 in its practical application1 by ,anton ,schroetter 7#ahjb-ahge74ae ,illustration3 ,figure #c4--;,,distillation ,,apparatus 7#ahdi7 for refining crude phosphorus4 ,the crude phosphorus is mixed with sand under hot water1 cooled1 drained1 and filled into the retort4 ,the outlet of the retort1 at least #f cm4 in diameter1 is partially immersed in the water contained in the bucket4 ,a small dish1 made from lead1 with an iron handle1 receives the distilled phosphorus4 7,from ,,hugo ,,fleck1 ,die ,fabrikation chemischer ,produkte 444 page #ij47 ,the most exciting early use1 however1 was in medicine4 ,it is not surprising that such a use was sought at that time4 ,any new material immediately became the hope of ailing mankind--and of striving inventors4#af ,phosphorus was prescribed1 in liniments with fatty oils or as solution in alcohol and ether1 for external and internal application4 ,a certain ,dr4 ,kramer found it efficient against epilepsy and melancholia 7#agcj74 ,a ,professor ,hartmann recommended it against cramps4#ag ,however1 in the growing production of phosphorus for matches1 the workers experienced the poisonous effects4 ,in the plant of ,black and ,bell at ,stratford1 this was prevented by inhaling turpentine4 ,experiments on dogs were carried out to show that poisoning by phosphorus could be remedied through oil of turpentine4#ah ,illustration3 ,figure #d4--;,,apparatus ,,for ,,converting ,,white ,,phosphorus into the red allotropic form1 #ahea4 ,redistilled phosphorus is heated in the glass or porcelain vessel 7g7 which is surrounded by a sandbath 7e7 and a metal bath 7b74 ,vessel 7j7 is filled with mercury and water2 together with valve 7k71 it serves as a safety device4 ,the alcohol lamp 7l7 keeps the tube warm against clogging by solidified vapors4 ,because of hydrogen phosphides1 the operation1 carried out at #bfj deg4 ,c41 had to be watched very carefully4 7,according to ,arthur ,albright1 #ahea2 reproduced from ,,hugo ,,fleck1 ,die ,fabrikation chemischer ,produkte 4441 page #aab47 ,chemical ,constitution of ,phosphoric ,acids ,in a long article on phosphorus1 ,edmond ,willm wrote in #ahgf3 ,for a century1 urine was the only source from which phosphorus was obtained4 ,after ,gahn1 in #agfi1 recognized the presence of phosphoric acid in bones1 ,scheele indicated the procedure for making phosphorus from them4#ai ,actually1 ,gahn used at first hartshorn 7,cornu cervi ustum71 and ,scheele doubted1 until he checked it himself1 that his esteemed friend was right4 ,a few years later1 ,scheele corrected ,gahn's assumption that the sal microcosmicum was an ammonia salt2 instead1 it is a tertiary neutral salt1 consisting of alkali minerali fixo 7i4e41 sodium71 alkali volatili1 and acido phosphori4#bj ,in the years after #aggj1 phosphorus was discovered in bones and many other parts of various animals4 ,treatment with sulfuric acid decomposed these materials into a solid residue and dissolved phosphoric acid4 ,many salts of this acid were produced in crystalline form4 ,heat resistance had been considered one of the outstanding characteristics of phosphoric acid4 ,now1 however1 in the processes of drying and heating certain phosphates1 it became clear that three kinds of phosphoric acids could be produced3 ortho1 pyro1 and meta4 ,berzelius cited these acids as examples of compounds which are ,,isomeric4 ,this word was intended to designate compounds which contain the same number of atoms of the same elements but combined in different manners1 thereby explaining their different chemical properties and crystal forms4 ,it was in #ahcj that ,berzelius propounded this companion of the concept1 ,,isomorphism1 which was to collect all cases of equal crystal form in compounds in which equal numbers of atoms of different elements are put together in the same manner4 ,together1 the two concepts of isomerism and isomorphism seemed to cover all the known exceptions from the simplest assumption as to specificity and chemical composition4 ,however1 only a few years later ,thomas ,graham 7#ahje-ahfi7 proved that the three phosphoric acids are not isomeric4 ,he used the proportion of #b ,p to #e ,o in the oxide which ,berzelius had thought justified at least until an example of the contrary could be sufficiently established4#ba ,refining the techniques of ,gay-,lussac 7#ahaf7 and several other investigators1 ,graham characterized the three phosphoric acids as a terphosphate1 a biphosphate1 and phosphate of water4 ,actually1 this was the wrong terminology for what he meant and formulated as trihydrate1 bihydrate1 and monohydrate of phosphorus oxide4 ,in his manner of writing the formulas1 each dot over the symbol for the element was to indicate an atom of oxygen2 thus1 he wrote3 444 33 44 444 4 4 ,h#c ,p ,h#b ,p and ,h ,p4#bb ,illustration3 ,figure #e4--,,oven ,,for ,,the ,,calcination ,,of ,,bones1 about #ahgj4 ,the operation is carried out in a rather high oven1 such as shown4444 ,the fresh bones are thrown in at the top of the oven1 ,b4 ,first1 fuel in chamber ,f is lighted1 and a certain quantity of bones is burnt on the grid ,d4 ,when these bones are burning well1 the oven is gradually filled with bones1 and the combustion maintains itself without addition of other fuel4 ,a circular gallery1 ,c1 surrounds the bottom of the oven and carries the products of combustion into the chimney1 ,h4 ,the calcined bones are taken out at the lower opening1 ,g1 by removing the bars of grid ,b4 7,translation of the description from ,,figuier1 ,merveilles de l'industrie1 volume #c1 #ahgd1 page #ecg47 ,illustration3 ,figure #f4--;,,an ,,advertisement with view of plant for manufacturing superphosphate about #ahfg4 7,from ,e4 ,t4 ,,freedley1 ,philadelphia and its ,manufacturers in #ahfg1 page #bhh47 ,graham had come to this understanding of the phosphoric acids through his previous studies of ,alcoates1 definite compounds of ,salts and ,alcohol analogous to the ,hydrates 7#ahca74 ,liebig started from analogies he saw with certain organic acids when he formulated the phosphoric acids with a constant proportion of water 7aq47 and varying proportions of phosphoric acid 7,p7 as follows3 #b ,p #c aq4 phosphoric acid #c ,p #c aq4 pyrophosphoric acid #f ,p #c aq4 metaphosphoric acid4 ,illustration3 ,figure #g4--;,,florida ,,hard-,,rock ,,phosphate ,,mining4 7,from ,carroll ,d4 ,wright1 ,the ,phosphate ,industry of the ,united ,states1 sixth special report of the ,commissioner of ,labor1 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 #ahic1 plate facing page #dc47 ,salts are formed when a basis1 i4e41 a metal oxide1 replaces water4 ,when potassium-acid sulfate is neutralized by sodium base1 the acid-salt divides into ,glauber's salt and potassium sulfate1 which proves the acid-salt to be a mixture of the neutral salt with its acid4 ,sodium-acid phosphate behaves quite differently4 ,after neutralization by a potassium base 7hydroxide71 the salt does not split up2 a uniform sodium-potassium phosphate is obtained4 ,therefore1 phosphoric acid is truly three-basic6#bc ,this result has later been confirmed1 but the analogy by means of which it had been obtained was very weak1 in certain parts quite wrong4 ,the acids from the two lower oxides of phosphorus were also considered as three-basic4 ,adolphe ,wurtz 7#ahag-ahhd7 formulated them in #ahdf1 according to the theory of chemical types3 7,,po7444 ,o#c phosphoric acid ,h#c 7,,pho744 ,o#b phosphorus acid ,h#b 7,,ph#b,o74 ,o hypophosphorous acid4#bd ,h ,further proof for these constitutions was sought in the study of the esters formed when the acids react with alcohols4 ,among the analogies and generalizations by which the research on phosphoric acid was supported1 and to the results of which it contributed a full share1 was the new theory of acids4 ,not oxygen1 ,lavoisier's general acidifier1 but reactive hydrogen determines the character of acids4 ,in this brief survey1 it seems sufficient just to mention this connection without describing it in detail4 ,the study of phosphoric acids led to important new concepts in theoretical chemistry4 ,the finding of polybasicity was extended to other acids and formed the model that helped to recognize the polyfunctionality in other compounds1 like alcohols and amines4 ,the hydrogen theory of acids was fundamental for further advance4 ,in another dimension1 it is particularly interesting to see that large-scale applications followed almost immediately and directly from the new theoretical insight4 ,the first and foremost of these applications was in agriculture4 ,phosphates as ,plant ,nutrients ,one hundred years after the discovery of cold light1 the presence of phosphorus in plants and animals was ascertained1 and its form was established as a compound of phosphoric acid4 ,this knowledge had little practical effect until the nature of the acid1 in its various forms1 was explained through the work of ,thomas ,graham4 ,from it1 there started a considerable technical development4 ,at about that time 7#ahcc71 the ,duke of ,richmond proved that the fertilizing value of bones resided not in the gelatin1 nor in the calcium1 but in the phosphoric acid4 ,thus1 he confirmed what ,theodore de ,saussure had said in #ahjd1 that we have no reason to believe that plants can exist without phosphorus4 ,unknowingly at first1 the farmer had supplied this element by means of the organic fertilizers he used3 manure1 excrements1 bones1 and horns4 ,now1 with the value of phosphorus known1 a search began for mineral phosphates to be applied as fertilizers4 ,jean ,baptiste ,boussingault 7#ahjb-ahhg71 an agricultural chemist in ,lyons1 traveled to ,peru to see the guano deposits4 ,garcilaso de la ,vega 7ca4 #aedj to ca4 #afaf7 noted in his history of ,peru 7#afjd7 that guano was used by the ,incas as a fertilizer4 ,two hundred years later1 ,alexander von ,humboldt revived this knowledge1 and ,humphry ,davy wrote about the benefits of guano to the soil4 ,yet1 the application of this fertilizer developed only slowly1 until ,justus ,liebig sang its praise4 ,imports into ,england rose and far exceeded those into ,france where1 between #aheg and #ahfg1 about #ej1jjj tons were annually received4 ,the other great advance in the use of phosphatic plant nutrients started with ,liebig's recommendation 7#ahdj7 to treat bones with sulfuric acid for solubilization4 ,this idea was not entirely new2 since #ahcb1 a production of a superphosphate from bones and sulfuric acid had been in progress at ,prague4 ,at ,rothamsted in #ahdb1 ,john ,bennet ,lawes obtained a patent on the manufacture of superphosphate4 ,other manufactures in ,england followed and were successful1 although ,james ,muspratt 7#agic-ahhf7 at ,newton lost much time and some thousands of pounds on ,liebig's idea of a mineral manure4 ,illustration3 ,figure #h4--;,,florida ,,land-,,pebble ,,phosphate ,,mining4 7,from ,carroll ,d4 ,wright1 ,the ,phosphate ,industry of the ,united ,states 4441 plate facing page #eh47 ,it was difficult enough to establish the efficacy of bones and artificially produced phosphates in promoting the growth of plants under special conditions of soils and climate2 therefore1 the question as to the action of phosphates in the growing plant was not even seriously formulated at that time4 ,the beneficial effects were obvious enough to increase the use of phosphates as plant nutrients and to call for new sources of supply4 ,active developments of phosphate mining and treating started in ,south ,carolina in #ahfg1 and in ,florida in #ahhh4be ,in a reciprocal action1 more phosphate application to soils stimulated increasing research on the conditions and reactions obtaining in the complex and varying compositions called soil4 ,the findings of bacteriologists made it clear that physics and chemistry had to be amplified by biology for a real understanding of fertilizer effects4 ,after #aijj1 for example1 ,julius ,stoklasa 7#aheg-aicf7 pointed out that bacterial action in soil solubilizes water-insoluble phosphates and makes them available to the plants4#bf ,illustration3 ,figure #i4--;,,florida ,,river-,,pebble ,,phosphate ,,mining4 7,from ,carroll ,d4 ,wright1 ,the ,phosphate ,industry of the ,united ,states 4441 plate facing page #fd47 ,the insight into the importance of phosphorus in organisms1 especially since ,liebig's time1 is reflected in the work of ,friedrich ,nietzsche 7#ahdd-aijj74 ,this re-valuator of all values who modestly said of himself3 ,i am dynamite6 once explained the human temperaments as caused by the inorganic salts they contain3 ,the differences in temperament are perhaps caused more by the different distribution and quantities of the inorganic salts than by everything else4 ,bilious people have too little sodium sulfate1 the melancholics are lacking in potassium sulfate and phosphate2 too little calcium phosphate in the phlegmatics4 ,courageous natures have an excess of iron phosphate4 7,see volume #ab of ,nietzsche's ,works1 edit4 ,naumann-,kroener1 ,leipzig1 #ahhf47 ,in this strange association of inorganic salts with human temperaments1 the role of iron phosphate as a producer of courage is particularly interesting4 ,what would a modern philosopher conclude if he followed the development of insight into the composition and function of complex phosphate compounds in organisms8 ,from ,inorganic to ,organic ,phosphates ,by the middle of the #aith century1 the source of phosphorus in natural phosphates and the chemistry of its oxidation products had been established4 ,the main difficulty that had to be overcome was that these oxidation products existed in so many forms1 not only several stages of oxidation1 but1 in addition1 aggregations and condensations of the phosphoric acids4 ,once the fundamental chemistry of these acids was elucidated1 the attention of chemists and physiologists turned to the task of finding the actual state in which phosphorus compounds were present in the organisms4 ,it had been a great advance when it had been shown that plants need phosphates in their soil4 ,this led to the next question concerning the materials in the body of the plant for which phosphates were being used and into which they were incorporated4 ,similarly1 the knowledge that animals attain their phosphates from the digested plant food called1 in the next step of scientific inquiry1 for information on the nature of phosphates produced from this source4 ,the method used in this inquiry was to subject anatomically separated parts of the organisms to chemical separations4 ,the means for such separations had to be more gentle than the strong heat and destructive chemicals that had been considered adequate up to then4 ,the interpretation of the new results naturally relied on the general advance of chemistry1 the development of new methods for isolating substances of little stability1 of new concepts concerning the arrangements of atoms in the molecules1 and of new apparatus to measure their rates of change4 ,in the system of chemistry1 as it developed in the first half of the #aith century1 the new development can be characterized as the turn from inorganic to organic phosphates1 from the substance of minerals and strong chemical interactions to the components in which phosphate groups remained combined with carbon-containing substances4 ,illustration3 ,figure #aj4--;,,electric ,,furnace ,,for ,,producing ,,elemental ,,phosphorus1 invented by ,thomas ,parker of ,newbridge1 ,england1 and assigned to ,the ,electric ,construction ,corporation of the same place4 ,the drawing is part of ,united ,states patent #dhb1ehf 7,september #ac1 #ahib74 ,the furnace was patented in ,england on ,october #bi1 #ahhi 7no4 #ag1jfj72 in ,france on ,june #bc1 #ahij 7no4 #bjf1eff72 in ,germany on ,june #ag1 #ahij 7no4 #ee1gjj72 and in ,italy on ,october #bc1 #ahij 7no4 #dca74 ,the following explanation is cited from the ,u4,s4 patent3 ,figure #a shown here is a vertical section of the furnace1 and ,fig4 #b is a diagram to illustrate the means for regulating the electro-motive force or quantity of current across the furnace4 ,f is the furnace containing the charge to be treated4 ,it has an inlet-hopper at a1 with slides ,,aa1 by which the charge can be admitted without opening communication between the interior of the furnace and the outer air4 ,b is a screw conveyer by which the charge is pushed forward into the furnace4 c'c' are the electrodes1 consisting of blocks or cylinders or the like of carbon fixed in metal socket-pieces c c1 to which the electric-circuit wires d from the dynamo ,d are affixed4 ,the current1 as aforesaid1 may be either continuous or alternating4 c#b;c#b are rods of metal or carbon1 which are used to establish the electric circuit through the furnace1 the said rods being inserted into holes in conductors c#c 7in contact with the socket-pieces c7 and in the furnace1 as shown4 g is the outlet for the gas or vapor1 h the slag-tap hole1 and x the opening for manipulating the charge1 the said openings being closed by clay or otherwise when the furnace is at work4 ,i use coke or other form of carbon in the charge between the electrodes c'1 the said coke being in contact with the said electrodes1 so that complete incandescence is insured4 ,a means for varying the electro-motive force or quantity of current across the furnace with the varying resistance of the charge is illustrated by the diagram1 ,fig4 #b4 c' c#b indicate the electrodes in the furnace1 as in ,fig4 #a1 and ,d is the dynamo and ,t its terminals4 ,e represents the exciting-circuit4 ,r ,r are resistances1 and ,r ,s is the resistance-switch1 which is operated to put in more or less resistance at ,r as the resistance of the charge in the furnace lessens or increases4 ,this switch may be automatically operated1 and a suitable arrangement for the purpose is a current-regulator such as is described in the specification of ,english ,letters ,patent ,no4 #ad1ejd1 of ,september #ad1 #ahhi1 granted to ,william ,henry ,douglas and ,thomas ,hugh ,parker4 ,illustration3 ,t4 ,,parker4 ,,electrical ,,furnace4 ,patented ,sept4 #ac1 #ahib4 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,inventor ,thomas ,parker ,by his attorneys ,howson and ,howson ,witnesses3 ,george ,baumann ,john ,revell ,illustration3 ,figure #aa4--;,,dipping ,,of ,,matchsticks in ,france1 about #ahgj4 ,the frame which holds the matches so that one end protrudes at the bottom1 is lowered over a pan containing molten sulfur4 ,the sulfur-covered matches are then dropped into a phosphorous paste4 ,see figure #ab4 7,from ,,figuier1 ,merveilles de l'industrie1 volume #c1 #ahgd1 page #ege47 ,phosphatides and ,phosphagens ,the important phosphorus compounds in organisms are much more complex than the simple salts1 to which ,nietzsche attributed such influence on man's character4 ,long before he wrote1 it was known that phosphoric acid combines not only with inorganic bases to form salts1 but with alcohols to form esters4 ,in the middle of the #aith century1 ,theophile ,juste ,pelouze 7#ahjg-ahfg7 extended this knowledge to an ester of glycerol4 ,this proved to be significant in several respects4 ,glycerol had been shown by ,michel ,chevreul 7#aghf-ahhi7 as the substance in fats that is released in the process of soap boiling1 when the fatty acids are converted into their salts4 ,that it has the nature of an alcohol had been demonstrated by ,marcellin ,berthelot4 ,instead of one alcoholic hydroxyl group1 ,,oh1 like ethanol 7the alcohol of fermentation71 or two hydroxyl groups 7like ethylene glycol71 glycerol contains three such groups4 ,it was the only natural alcohol known at that time4 ,that this alcohol would combine with phosphoric acid could be predicted1 but that the ester1 as obtained by ,pelouze1 still contained free acidic functions and formed a water-soluble barium salt was a new experience4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ab4--,,pan ,,for ,,dipping ,,matchsticks into phosphorus paste1 about #ahgj4 ,the letters on the picture are3 ,a1 matches2 ,b1 water bath2 ,c1 frame2 ,d1 plate2 ,e1 phosphorus paste2 ,f1 oven4 ,the phosphorus paste of ,boettger1 #ahdb1 contained #aj phosphorus1 #be antimony sulfide1 #ab4e manganese dioxide1 #ae gelatin4 ,according to ,figuier 7page #egi71 ,r4 ,wagner substituted lead dioxide for the manganese dioxide4 7,from ,,figuier1 volume #c1 #ahgd1 page #egf47 ,,alcoholic ,,fermentation 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7n ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f glycogen glucose fructose ,h#c,,po#d -- ,,atp --,,atp v v v --------------- ------ ,h--,c--,,opo#c;,h#b ,h--,c--,,oh ,h #b;,c--,,oh ,h--,c--,,oh ,h--,c--,,oh ,c--7,,oh7-- ,,ho--,c--,h ,o ,,ho--,c--,h ,o ,,ho--,c--,h ,o ,h--,c--,,oh ,h--,c--,,oh ,h--,c--,,oh ,h--,c-------------- ,h--,c----- ,h--,c-------- ,,ch#b,,oh ,h#b;,c--,,opo#c;,h#b;,,adp ,h#b;,c--,,opo#c;,h#b;,,adp glucose-#a-phosphate glucose-#f-phosphate fructose-#f-phosphate 7,cori-ester7 7,robison-ester7 7,neuberg-ester7 -- ,,atp ---- ------ v ,h#b;,c--,,opo#c;,h#b ,c7,,oh7-- ,,ho--,c--,h fructose-#a1f-;diphosphate ,o 7,harden-,young-ester7 ,h--,c--,,oh ,h--,c------ ,h#b;,c--,,opo#c;,h#b ,,adp ,o _/_/ ,,ch#b,,opo#c;,h#b ,,ch v #c-phosphoglycer-aldehyde dihydroxyacetone-phosphate ,c,o ,,choh 7,fischer-ester7 ,,ch#b,,oh ,,ch#b,,opo#c;,h#b coenzyme ,h#c,,po#d ,o,c--,,opo#c;,h#b #a1c-;diphosphoglyceric acid ,,choh dihydro-coenzyme 7,negelein-ester7 ,,ch#b,,opo#c;,h ,,adp -- ,o v_/_/ ,c--,,oh --- #c-phosphoglyceric acid ,,choh ,,atp 7,nilsson-ester7 --- ,,ch#b,,opo#c;,h#b v ,,cooh #b-phosphoglyceric acid ,,chopo#c;,h#b ,,ch#b,,oh v ,,cooh phosphopyruvic acid ,,copo#c;,h#b 7enol-7 ,,ch#b ,,adp -- ,,cooh ------ --- ,,co#b ,,ch#c;,,cho -------- ,c,o ,,atp ------ acetaldehyde --- carbon ,,ch#c dioxide dihydro-coenzyme pyruvic acid v ---------------- ,,ch#c;,,ch#b,,oh coenzyme ---------------- ethyl alcohol ,illustration3 ,figure #ac4--,,survey ,,of ,,alcoholic ,,fermentation1 #aiea4 ,the well-known scheme of alcoholic fermentation according to ,albert ,jan ,kluyver 7#ahhh-aief71 presented before the ,society of ,chemical ,industry in the ,royal ,institution1 ,march #g1 #aiea4 ,in ,chemistry ,industry1 #aieb1 page #acf ff41 ,kluyver restates that 444 the fermentation of one molecule of glucose is indissolubly connected with the formation of two molecules of adenosine triphosphate 7,,atp7 out of two molecules of adenosine diphosphate 7,,adp74 ,shortly after this experience had been gained1 it became valuable for understanding the chemical nature of a new substance extracted from a natural organ4 ,this substance was named lecithin by its discoverer1 ,nicolas ,theodore ,gobley#bg 7#ahaa-ahgf71 because he obtained it from egg yolk 7in ,greek1 lekidos74 ,he used ether and alcohol for this extraction4 ,had he used water and mineral acid instead1 he would not have found lecithin1 but only its components4 ,as ,gobley and1 slightly later1 ,oscar ,liebreich 7#ahci-aijh71 subjected lecithin to treatment with boiling water and acid1 they separated it into three parts4 ,one of them was the glycerophosphoric acid of ,pelouze1 the second was the well-known stearic acid of ,chevreul1 but the third was somewhat mysterious4 ,this third substance was the same as one previously noticed when nerves had been subjected to an extraction by boiling water and acid and1 therefore1 called nerve-substance or neurine4 ,adolf ,friedrich ,strecker 7#ahbb-ahga7 established the identity of this neurine with a product he had extracted from bile and which went under the name of choline4 ,adolphe ,wurtz 7#ahag-ahhd7 succeeded in synthesizing this substance from ethylene oxide1 ,,ch#b4,o4,,ch#b and trimethylamine ,n7,,ch#c7c4bh ,thus1 all three parts were identified1 and ,strecker put them together to construct a chemical formula for lecithin1 glycerophosphoric acid combined with a fatty acid and with choline 7a hydrate of neurine74 ,,oh ,n 7,,ch#c7c ,choline ,c#b;,h#d,o ,c#ah;,h#cc,o#b ,,ho ,,po ,c#af;,h#ca,o#b ,c#c;,h#e,o ,fatty ,acids ,glycerophosphate --------v-------_/ ,lecithin according to ,strecker ,this formula was not quite correct4 ,richard ,willstaetter showed that an internal neutralization takes place between the amino group and the free acidic residue4 ,this is expressed in his lecithin formula of #aiah4 ,,ch#b4,o4,r ,,ch#b4,o4,r#b ,o4,,ch#b4;,,ch#b _/ ,,ch#b4,o--,p,o ,n7,,ch#c7c _/ ---,o----_/ ,illustration3 ,lecithin 7#aiah7 ,when the aim was to distill elementary phosphorus out of an organic material1 it did not matter whether this was fresh or putrified4 ,for obtaining lecithin out of egg yolk and similar materials1 it was essential to use it in fresh condition4 ,otherwise1 enzymes would have decomposed it4 ,through more recent work1 four enzymes have been separated1 which act specifically in decomposing lecithin4 ,enzyme ,a removes one fatty acid and leaves a complex residue1 called lysolecithin1 intact4 ,enzyme ,b attacks this residue and splits off the remaining fatty acid group from it1 enzyme ,c liberates only the choline from lecithin1 and enzyme ,d opens lecithin at the ester bond between glycerol and phosphoric acid4 ,this is shown in the following diagram4 ,,enzymatic ,,splitting ,,of ,,lecithins ,,enzyme ,,substrate ,,products ,a ,lecithin ,lysolecithin and fatty acids4 ,b ,lysolecithin ,glycero-phospho-choline and fatty acids4 ,c ,lecithin ,phosphatidic acid and choline4 ,d ,lecithin ,phosphoryl choline and diglyceride4 ,several fatty acids can be present in lecithin from various sources3 palmitic and oleic acid1 besides the stearic acid which at first had been thought the only one involved4 ,in another group of extracts from brain or nerve tissue1 amino-ethanol ,h#b,,nch#b;,,ch#b,,oh is found instead of the choline of lecithin4 ,the variations include the alcohol1 to which the fatty acids and choline phosphate are attached1 for example1 glycerol can be replaced by the so-called meat-sugar1 inositol1 which has six hydroxyl groups in its hexagon-shaped molecule ,c#f;,h#f7,,oh7#f4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ad4--;,,eduard ,,buchner 7#ahfj-aiag7 received the ,nobel ,prize in ,chemistry for his discovery of cell-free fermentation1 the first step in finding the role of phosphate in fermentations 7#aijg74 ,the generally similar behavior of these phosphate-and fat-containing substances was emphasized by ,ludwig ,thudichum 7#ahbi-aija74 ,he coined the name phosphatides for this group of substances from seeds and nerves4#bi ,his work on the phosphates in brain substance aroused particular interest4 ,when ,william ,crookes drew his highly imaginative picture of an evolution of the chemical elements1 he put into it phosphorus for the brain1 salt for the sea1 clay for the solid earth4444#cj ,but phosphatides occur in many places of organisms1 in bacteria1 in leaves and roots of plants1 in fat and tissues of animals4 ,and where phosphatides are found1 there are also enzymes that specifically act on them4 ,they are called phosphatases to imply that they split the phosphatides4 ,in addition1 enzymes are present1 which transfer phosphate groups from one compound to another4 ,they are more abundant in seeds of high fat content than in the more starch-containing seeds1 but even potatoes and orange juice have phosphatases4#ca ,thus1 from phosphatides1 phosphoric acid is generated1 and they could also be called phosphagens4 ,since #aibf1 however1 the name phosphagens has been reserved for a group of organic substances that release their phosphoric acid very readily4 ,the link between phosphorus and carbon is provided by oxygen in the phosphatides1 by nitrogen in the phosphagens4 ,in vertebrates1 the basis for the phosphoric acid is creatine1 whereas invertebrates have arginine instead4 ,h ,,oh ,,oh _/ _/ ,n--,p,o ,,nh--,p,o _/ _/ ,c,,nh ,,oh ,c,,nh ,,oh ,n--,,ch#b;,,cooh ,,nh ,,ch#c ,,ch#b ,creatine phosphate ,,ch#b ,,ch#b ,,chnh#b ,,cooh ,arginine phosphate ,nuclein and ,nucleic ,acids ,all parts of an organism are essential for life4 ,only with this in mind does it make sense to say that the most important part of the cell is its nucleus4 ,from the nuclei of cells in pus and in salmon sperm1 ,johann ,friedrich ,miescher 7#ahaa-ahhg7 obtained a peculiar kind of substance1 which he named nuclein 7#ahfh74 ,its phosphate content was easily discovered1 but to find the exact proportions and the nature of the other components required special methods of separation from phosphatides and other proteins4 ,it was difficult to develop such methods at a time when little was known about the properties1 and particularly the stability1 of a nuclein4 ,for preparing nuclein from yeast cells1 ,felix ,hoppe-,seyler 7#ahbe-ahie7 described the following details3 ,yeast is dispersed in water to extract soluble materials1 like salts or sugars4 ,after a few hours1 the insoluble material is separated1 washed once more with water1 and then extracted with a very dilute solution of sodium hydroxide4 ,the slightly alkaline solution1 freed from insoluble residues1 is slowly added to a weak hydrochloric acid4 ,a precipitate forms which is separated by filtration1 washed with dilute acid1 then with cold alcohol1 and finally extracted by boiling alcohol4 ,the dried residue is the nuclein4#cb ,it contains six percent phosphorus4 ,a little more washing with water1 a slightly longer treatment with acid or alcohol gives products of lower phosphorus content4 ,many experimental variations were necessary to establish the procedure that leads to purification without alteration of the natural substance4 ,this was also true for the methods of chemical degradation1 carried out in order to find the components of nucleins in their highest state of natural complexity4 ,it was learned for example1 that the special kind of carbohydrate present in nucleins was very susceptible to change under the conditions of hydrolysis by acids4 ,phoebus ,aaron ,theodor ,levine 7#ahfi-aidj71 therefore1 used the digestion by a living organism4 ,with ,e4 ,s4 ,london1 he introduced a solution of nucleic acid into1 e4g41 the gastrointestinal segment of a dog through a gastric fistula and withdrew the product of digestion through an intestinal fistula4 ,fortunately1 the products obtained in such degradations were not new in themselves4 ,the carbohydrate in this nucleic acid proved to be identical with ,d-ribose1 which ,emil ,fischer had artificially made from arabinose and named ribose to indicate this relationship 7#ahia74 ,the nitrogenous products of the degradation were identical with substances previously prepared in the long study of uric acid4 ,in the course of this study1 ,emil ,fischer established uric acid and a number of its derivatives as having the elementary skeleton of what he called pure uric acid1 abbreviated to purine4 ,out of ,adolf ,baeyer's work on barbituric acid came the knowledge of pyrimidine and its derivatives4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ae4--;,,albrecht ,,kossel 7#ahec-aibg7 received the ,nobel ,prize in ,medicine and ,physiology in #aiaj for his work on nucleic substances1 which contain a high proportion of phosphorus4 ,the chemical bonds of this phosphorus in the molecules of nucleic substances were determined in later work4 7,photo courtesy ,national ,library of ,medicine1 ,washington1 ,d4,c47 ,from these findings1 together with what ,oswald ,schmiedeberg 7#ahch-aiba7 had established concerning the presence of four phosphate groups in the molecule 7#ahii71 ,robert ,feulgen 7#ahhd-aiee7 constructed the following scheme of a nucleic acid4 ,feulgen's formula of #aiah is3 ,phosphoric acid--,carbohydrate--,guanine ,phosphoric acid--,carbohydrate--,cytosine ,phosphoric acid--,carbohydrate--,thymine ,phosphoric acid--,carbohydrate--,adenine ,of the four basic components on the right1 thymine occurs in the nucleic acid from the thymus gland4 ,yeast contains uracil instead4 ,the difference between these two bases is one methyl group3 thymine is a #e-methyluracil4 ,in all of these basic substances1 the structure of urea ,,nh#b _/ ,c,o ,,nh#b is involved1 and they form pairs of oxidized and reduced states3 ,,purine ,,pyrimidine 7reduced7 ,adenine 7oxidized7 ,thymine 7oxidized7 ,guanine 7reduced7 ,cytosine #c,n ,,ch#d #b;,h--,c ,,ch#e #a,n--,,ch#f ,pyrimidine #a,n,,ch#f ,h #g_/ ,n,c--,,nh#b #b;,h--,c ,c--,n #e ,h--,c ,c--,,nh ,,ch#h ,,ch _/_/ _/_/ #c,n--,c--,n ,n--,c--,n #d #i ,adenine ,purine ,,hn--,c,o ,,nh#b--;,c ,c--,,nh ,n,c--,,nh#b ,h--,n--,c,o ,,ch ,o,c ,c--,h ,o,c ,,ch _/_/ ,n--,c--,n ,h--,n--,,ch ,,hn--,,ch ,guanine ,cytosine ,uracil ,the carbohydrate is ribose or deoxyribose4 ,,cho ,,cho ,h--,c--,,oh ,,ho--,c--,h ,,ho--,c--,h ,,ho--,c--,h ,,ho--,c--,h ,,ho--,c--,h ,,ch#b,,oh ,,ch#b,,oh ,arabinose ,l-,ribose ,fischer and ,piloty1 #ahia ,h 7#a7_/-----,o-----7#d7 7#e7 ,c ,,ch--,,ch#b,,oh _/ 7#b7 7#c7_/ ,,ho ,,ch#b--;,,hc7,,oh7 ,deoxyribose ,the exact position of phosphoric acid was established after long work and verified by synthesis4#cc ,a compound of adenine1 ribose1 and phosphoric acid was found in yeast1 blood1 and in skeletal muscle of mammals4 ,from #ajj grams of such muscle1 #j4ce-j4dj grams of this compound were isolated4 ,if the muscle is at rest1 the compound contains three molecules of phosphoric acid1 linked through oxygen atoms4 ,it was named adenosine triphosphate or adenyltriphosphoric acid1#cd usually abbreviated by the symbol ,,atp4 ,it releases one phosphoric acid group very easily and goes over in the diphosphate1 ,,adp1 but it can also lose #b ,p-groups as pyrophosphoric acid and leave the monophosphate1 ,,amp4 ,n,c--,,nh#b ,,hc ,c--,n ----,o---- ,,ch ,,oh ,,oh ,h ,,oh _/ _/ ,n--,c--,n-----,c--,c---,c--,c--,c--,o-- ,p,o ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,,oh ---------_/---------------_/--------_/ ,adenine ,d-,ribose ,phosphoric acid ,this change of ,,atp was considered to be the main source of energy in muscle contraction by ,otto ,meyerhof4#ce ,the corresponding derivatives of guanine1 cytosine1 and uracil were also found1 and they are active in the temporary transfer of phosphoric acid groups in biological processes4 ,thus1 the study of organic phosphates progressed from the comparatively simple esters connected with fatty substances of organisms to the proteins and the nuclear substances of the cell4 ,the proportional amount of phosphorus in the former was larger than in the latter2 the actual importance and function in the life of organisms1 however1 is not measured by the quantity but determined by the special nature of the compounds4 ,illustration3 ,figure #af4--,,otto ,,meyerhof 7#ahhd-aiea7 received one-half of the ,nobel ,prize in ,medicine and ,physiology in #aibb for his discovery of the metabolism of lactic acid in muscle1 which involves the action of phosphates1 especially adenosine duophosphates4 7,photo courtesy ,national ,library of ,medicine1 ,washington1 ,d4,c47 ,illustration3 ,figure #ag4--;,,arthur ,,harden 7#ahfe-aidj71 left1 ,,and ,,hans ,a4 ,s4 ,,von ,,euler-,,chelpin 7b4 #ahge71 right1 shared the ,nobel ,prize in ,chemistry in #aibi4 ,harden received it for his research in fermentation1 which showed the influence of phosphate1 particularly the formation of a hexose diphosphate4 ,euler-,chelpin received his award for his research in fermentation4 ,he found coenzyme ,a which is a nucleotide containing phosphoric acid4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ah4--;,,george ,,de ,,hevesy 7b4 #ahhe7 received the ,nobel ,prize in ,chemistry in #aidc for his research with isotopic tracer elements1 particularly radiophosphorus of weight #cb 7ordinary phosphorus is #ca74 ,illustration3 ,figure #ai4--;,,carl ,f4 ,,cori 7b4 #ahif7 ,,and ,,his ,,wife1 ,,gerty ,t4 ,,cori 7#ahif-aieg7 received part of the ,nobel ,prize in ,medicine and ,physiology in #aidg for their study on glycogen conversion4 ,in the course of this study1 they identified glucose #a-phosphate1 now usually referred to as ,cori ester1 and its function in the glycogen cycle4 7,photo courtesy ,national ,library of ,medicine1 ,washington1 ,d4,c47 ,the study of this function is the newest phase in the history of phosphorus and represents the culmination of the previous efforts4 ,this newest phase developed out of an accidental discovery concerning one of the oldest organic-chemical industries1 the production of alcohol by the fermentative action of yeast on sugar4 ,a transition of carbohydrates through phosphate compounds to the end products of the fermentation process was found1 and it gradually proved to be a kind of model for a host of biological processes4 ,specific phosphates were thus found to be indispensable for life4 ,in reverse1 the wrong kind of phosphates can destroy life4 ,as a result1 an important part of the new phase in phosphorus history consisted in the study--and use--of antibiotic phosphorus compounds4 ,phosphates in ,biological ,processes ,the first indication that phosphorus is important for life came from the experience that plants take it up from the substances in the soil4 ,they incorporate it in their body substance4 ,what makes phosphorus so important that they cannot grow without it8 ,the next insight was that animals acquire it from their plant food4 ,it is then found in bones1 in fat and nerve tissue1 in all cells and particularly in the cell nuclei4 ,what are its functions there8 ,the answers to such questions were developed from the study of a long-known process1 the conversion of carbohydrates into carbon dioxide and alcohol by yeast4 ,it started with ,eduard ,buchner's discovery of #ahij1 that fermentation is produced by a preparation from yeast in which all living cells have been removed4 ,when yeast is dead-ground and pressed out1 the juice still has the ability to produce fermentation4 ,it is strange1 but in many ways characteristic for the process of science1 that the riddle of phosphorus in life was solved by first eliminating life4 ,in such lifeless fermentations1 ,arthur ,harden found that the conversion of sugar begins with the formation of a hexose phosphate 7#aijd74 ,the ferment of yeast1 called zymase1 proved to be a composite of several enzymes4 ,hans von ,euler-,chelpin isolated one part of zymase1 which remains active even after heating its solution to the boiling point4 ,from #a kilogram of yeast1 he obtained #bj milligrams of this heat-stable enzyme1 which he called cozymase and identified as a nucleotide composed of a purine1 a sugar1 and phosphoric acid4#cf ,in the years between the two ,world ,wars1 zymase was further resolved into more enzymes1 one of them the coenzyme ,i1 which was shown to be ,,adp connected with another molecule of ribose attached to the amide of nicotinic acid1 or diphosphopyridine nucleotide3 ,,nh#b _/ _/ ,n -,,conh#b _/_/ _/ ,n _/_/ ,n ,n-- _/_/ ,n ,h--,c------ ,h--,c------ ,h--,c--,,oh ,h--,c--,,oh ,o ,o ,h--,c--,,oh ,h--,c--,,oh ,h--,c------ ,o ,o ,h--,c------ ,,ch#b--,o--,p--,o--,p--,o--,,ch#b ,o- ,,oh ,coenzyme ,i ,illustration3 ,figure #bj4--;,,fritz ,a4 ,,lipmann 7b4 #ahii7 shared with ,hans ,adolf ,krebs the ,nobel ,prize in ,medicine and ,physiology in #aiec for his work on coenzyme ,a4 ,he discovered acetyl phosphate as the substance in bacteria1 which transfers phosphate to adenylic acid4 ,illustration3 ,figure #ba4--;,,alexander ,r4 ,,todd 7b4 #aijg7 received the ,nobel ,prize in ,chemistry in #aieg for his research on nucleotides4 ,he determined the position of the phosphate groups in the molecule and confirmed it by synthesis of dinucleotide phosphates4 ,its function is connected with the transfer of hydrogen between intermediates formed through phosphate-transferring enzymes4 ,fermentation proceeds by a cascade of processes1 in which phosphate groups swing back and forth1 and equilibria between ,,atp with ,,adp play a major role4 ,many of the enzymes are closely related to vitamins4 ,thus1 cocarboxylase ,a1 which takes part in the separation of carbon dioxide from an intermediate fermentation product1 is the phosphate of vitamin ,b#a4 ,others of the ,b vitamins contain phosphate groups1 for example those of the ,b#b and ,b#f group1 and in ,b#ab1 one lonely phosphate forms a bridge in the large molecule that contains one atom of cobalt3 ,c#fc;,h#ij,n#ad,o#ad,p,co4 ,the formation of vitamin ,a from carotine occurs under the influence of ,,atp4 ,the first stages in fermentation are like those in respiration1 which ends with carbon dioxide and water4 ,these two are the materials for the reverse process in photosynthesis4 ,when light is absorbed by the chlorophyll of green plants1 one of the initial reactions is a transfer of hydrogen from water to a triphosphopyridine nucleotide1 which later acts to reduce the carbon dioxide4 ,under the influence of ,,atp1 phosphoglyceric acid is synthesized and further built up by way of carbohydrate phosphates to hexose sugars and finally to starch4 ,in many starchy fruits1 a small proportion of phosphate remains attached to the end product4 ,the synthesis of proteins is under the control of deoxyribonucleic acid or ribonucleic acid1 abbreviated by the symbols ,,dna and ,,rna4 ,the genes in the nucleus are parts of a giant ,,dna molecule4 ,,rna is a universal constituent of all living cells4 ,where protein synthesis is intense1 the content in ,,rna is high4 ,thus1 the spinning glands of silkworms are extraordinarily rich in ,,rna4#cg ,in his research on the radioactive isotope ,p#cb1 ,george de ,hevesy gained some insight into the surprising mobility of phosphates in organisms3 ,a phosphate radical taken up with the food may first participate in the phosphorylation of glucose in the intestinal mucose1 soon afterwards pass into the circulation as free phosphate1 enter a red corpuscle1 become incorporated with an adenosine triphosphoric-acid molecule1 participate in a glycolytic process going on in the corpuscle1 return to circulation1 penetrate into the liver cells1 participate in the formation of a phosphatide molecule1 after a short interval enter the circulation in this form1 penetrate into the spleen1 and leave this organ after some time as a constituent of a lymphocyte4 ,we may meet the phosphate radical again as a constituent of the plasma1 from which it may find its way into the skeleton4#ch ,much has been added in the last #cj years to complete this picture in many details and to extend it to other biochemical processes1 including even the changes of the pigments in the retina in the visual process1 or in the conversion of chemical energy to light by bacteria and insects4 ,medicines and ,poisons ,in the delicate balance of these processes1 disturbances may occur which can be remedied by specific phosphate-containing medicines4 ,thus1 adenosine phosphate has been recommended in cases of angina pectoris and marketed under trade names like sarkolyt1 or in compounds named angiolysine4 ,a considerable number of physiologically active organic phosphates can be found in the patent literature4#ci ,yeast itself is considered to be a valuable food additive4 ,on the other hand1 there are phosphate compounds that act as poisons4 ,one group of such compounds was discovered in #aibi by ,w4 ,lange1 who wrote3 ,of interest is the strong action of mono-fluorophosphate esters on the human body--the effect is produced by very small quantities4#dj ,diisopropyl fluorophosphate has since become a potential agent for chemical warfare4 ,it inactivates an enzyme which controls the transmission of nerve impulses to muscle1 acetylcholine esterase4 ,organic esters of phosphoric acids are used as insecticides4 ,the hexa-ethylester of tetraphosphoric acid1 prepared by ,gerhard ,schrader by heating triethylphosphate with phosphorus oxychloride1#da actually contains tetraethylpyrophosphate 7,,tepp7 among others4 ,bayer's ,dipterex1 the dimethyl ester of #b1b1b-trichloro-#a-;hydroxyethyl-phosph onate1 has been modified to dimethyl-#b1b-;dichlorovinyl-phosphate and is especially active against the oriental fruit fly4#db ,illustration3 ,figure #bb4--;,,arthur ,,kornberg 7b4 #aiah7 ,,and ,,severo ,,ochoa 7b4 #aije7 shared the ,nobel ,prize in ,medicine and ,physiology in #aiei4 ,kornberg received it for research on the biological synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid4 ,in particular1 he found that four triphosphate components and a small amount of the end product as a template had to be present for the enzymatic synthesis4 ,ochoa received his share of the prize for research in ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid4 ,in particular1 ,ochoa synthesized polyribonucleotides and used the radioactive isotope1 ,p#cb4 ,the synthetic polyribonucleotides were found to resemble the natural substances in all essentials4 ,cl ,h ,o ,,och#c _/ ,cl--,c--,c--,p ,bayer's ,l #ac_/ei 7,dipterex7 ,,och#c ,cl ,,oh 7,,ch#c7b,n ,o ,o ,n7,,ch#c7b _/ ,p--,o--,p ,schradan _/ 7,,ch#c7b,n ,n7,,ch#c7b ,octamethylpyrophosphoramide ,illustration3 ,figure #bc4--,,melvin ,,calvin 7b4 #aiaa7 received the ,nobel ,prize in ,chemistry in #aifa for his research in photosynthesis1 in which he specified the function of phosphoglyceric acid as an intermediate in the synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by green plants4 ,the story of phosphorus1 which began #cjj years ago1 has acquired new importance in this century4 ,many scientists have contributed to it3 #ac of them have received ,nobel ,prizes for work directly bearing on the chemical and biological importance of phosphorus compounds4 ,in chronological order1 they are3 ,eduard ,buchner1 ,albrecht ,kossel1 ,otto ,meyerhof1 ,arthur ,harden1 ,hans von ,euler-,chelpin1 ,george de ,hevesy1 ,carl ,f4 ,cori1 ,gerty ,t4 ,cori1 ,fritz ,lipmann1 ,lord ,alexander ,todd1 ,arthur ,kornberg1 ,severo ,ochoa1 and ,melvin ,calvin4 ,the developers of industrial production and commercial utilization of phosphate compounds have had other rewards4 ,some impression of the continuing growth in this field#dc can be gained from the following data4 ,,phosphate ,,rock annually sold or used by producer in the ,united ,states in million long tons 7#b1bdj lbs47 #ahhj #j4b #ahij #j4e #aijj #a4e #aiaj #b4fee #aibj #d4ajd #aicj #c4ibf #aidj #d4jjc #aide #e4hjg #aiej #aa4aad #aiee #ab4bfe #aiee 7world3 about #ef7 #aifj #ag4bjb #aifb #ai4jfj ,sources3 ,u4,s4 ,bureau of the ,census4 ,historical ,statistics of the ,united ,states #aghi-aide 7#aidi72 ,statistical ,abstract of the ,united ,states4 ,,elemental ,,phosphorus annually produced in the ,united ,states in short tons 7#b1jjj lbs47 #aici #dc1jjj #aidd #he1fgi #aiej #aec1bcc #aief #cab1bjj #aieh #cce1gej #aiei #cff1cej #aifj #dji1jif #aifa #dcj1fag #aifb #dea1igj ,source3 ,u4,s4 ,department of ,commerce4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,,wilhelm ,,homberg1 ,memoires ,academie1 #afff-afii 7,paris1 #agcj71 vol4 #aj1 under date of ,april #cj1 #afib1 pp4 #eg-fa4 #b ,,fortunio ,,licetus1 ,lithiophosphorus sive de lapide ,bononiensi 7,venice1 #afdj74 #c ,cited in ,,peter ,,joseph ,,macquer ,chymisches ,woerterbuch1 #bnd ed4 7,leipzig3 ,weidmann1 #aghi71 vol4 #d1 p4 #ejh1 footnote c as ,kletwich 7de phosph4 liqu4 et solid4 #afhi1 ,thes4 ,,ii74 #d ,,ferdinand ,,hoefer1 ,histoire de la ,chimie 7,paris1 #ahdc71 vol4 #a1 p4 #cci4 #e ,g4 ,w4 ,,von ,,leibniz1 ,memoires ,academie 7,paris1 #afhb72 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,miscellanea ,berolinensia 7,berlin1 #agaj71 vol4 #a1 p4 #ia4 #f ,,jean ,,hellot1 ,memoires ,academie #agcg 7,paris1 #agff71 under date of ,november #ac1 #agcg1 pp4 #cdb-cgh4 #g ,,macquer1 op4 cit4 7footnote #c71 p4 #eea4 #h ,a4 ,s4 ,,marggraf1 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 ,miscellanea ,berolinensia 7,berlin1 #agdc71 vol4 #g1 #cdb ff42 see also ,,wilhelm ,,ostwald ,klassiker der ,exakten ,naturwissenschaften 7,leipzig3 ,engelmann1 #aiac71 no4 #ahg4 #i ,g4 ,,hanckewitz1 ,hankwitz1 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 #agbd-agcd1 abridged 7,london1 #ahji71 vol4 #g1 pp4 #eif-fjb4 #aj ,,antoine ,,laurent ,,lavoisier1 ,sur la ,combustion du ,phosphore de ,kunckel1 ,et sur la nature de l'acide qui resulte de cette ,combustion1 ,memoires ,academie #aggg1 7,paris1 #aghj71 pp4 #fe-gh4 #aa ,,guyton ,,de ,,morveau and others1 ,methode de ,nomenclature ,chimique1 ,proposee par ,,mm4 de ,morveau1 ,lavoisier1 ,bertholet1 de ,fourcroy 7,paris1 #aghg71 plate #i4 #ab ,,macquer1 op4 cit4 7footnote #c71 p4 #eac4 #ac ,,marie ,,boas1 ,robert ,boyle and ,seventeenth ,century ,chemistry 7,new ,york3 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aieh71 p4 #bbf2 see also ,,wyndham ,,miles1 ,the ,history of ,dr4 ,brand's ,phosphorus ,elementarus1 ,armed ,forces ,chemical ,journal 7,november-,december #aieh71 p4 #be4 #ad ,,archibald ,,clow and ,,nan ,l4 ,,clow1 ,the ,chemical ,revolution 7,london3 ,batchworth ,press1 #aieb71 p4 #dea4 #ae ,,emile ,,kopp1 ,comptes-rendus hebdomadaires des ,seances de l',academie des ,sciences1 ,paris 7#ahdd71 vol4 #ah1 p4 #hga2 ,,wilhelm ,,hittorf1 ,annalen der ,chemie und ,pharmazie1 suppl4 to vol4 #d1 p4 #cg2 ,,anton ,s,c,h,r,oe,t,t,e,r1 ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 series #c1 vol4 #bd 7#ahdh71 p4 #djf2 see also ,schroetter's report on ,phosphor und ,zuendwaaren in ,a4 ,w4 ,,von ,,hofmann1 ,bericht ueber die ,entwicklung der ,chemischen ,industrie 7,braunschweig3 ,vieweg1 #ahge71 pp4 #bai-bdf4 #af ,r4 ,,glauber1 ,furni ,novi ,philosphici 7,amsterdam1 #afdi71 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ab ff4 #ag ,,hermann ,,schelenz1 ,geschichte der ,pharmazie 7,berlin3 ,springer1 #aijd71 p4 #eih4 #ah ,j4 ,,personne1 ,comptes-rendus 4441 ,paris 7#ahfi71 vol4 #fh1 pp4 #edc-edf4 #ai ,a4 ,,wurtz1 ,dictionnaire de ,chimie 7,paris1 #ahgf71 vol4 #b1 part #b1 p4 #iea4 #bj ,,karl ,w4 ,,scheele1 ,nachgelassene ,briefe und ,aufzeichnungen1 edit4 ,a4 ,e4 ,nordenskioeld 7,stockholm3 ,norstedt1 #ahib71 pp4 #ch1 #add4 #ba ,j4 ,j4 ,,berzelius1 ,lehrbuch1 transl4 ,f4 ,woehler 7,dresden1 #ahbg71 vol4 #c1 part #a1 p4 #if4 #bb ,,thomas ,,graham1 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society of ,london 7#ahcc71 pp4 #bec-bhd4 #bc ,,justus ,,liebig',s ,annalen der ,pharmacie 7#ahch71 vol4 #bf1 p4 #aac ff4 #bd ,a4 ,,wurtz1 ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 series #c1 vol4 #af 7#ahdf71 p4 #aij4 #be ,,carroll ,d4 ,,wright1 ,the ,phosphate ,industry in the ,united ,states1 sixth special report of the ,commissioner of ,labor 7,washington1 #ahic74 #bf ,j4 ,,stoklasa1 ,biochemischer ,kreislauf des ,phosphat-,ions im ,boden1 ,centralblatt fuer ,bakteriologie 444 7,jena3 ,fischer1 ,march #bb1 #aiaa71 vol4 #bi1 nos4 #ae-ai4 #bg ,n4 ,t4 ,,gobley1 ,comptes-rendus 4441 ,paris 7#ahde71 vol4 #ba1 p4 #gah4 #bh ,a4 ,,wurtz1 ,comptes-rendus 4441 ,paris 7#ahfh71 vol4 #ff1 p4 #ggb4 #bi ,l4 ,,thudichum1 ,die chemische ,constitution des ,gehirns des ,menschen und der ,tiere 7#aija72 see also ,h4 ,,wittcoff1 ,,the ,,phosphatides 7,new ,york3 ,reinhold1 #aiea74 #cj ,,william ,,crookes1 ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,reports 7#ahhg71 sec4 ,b1 p4 #egc4 #ca ,j4 ,e4 ,,courtois and ,a4 ,,lino1 ,progress in the ,chemistry of ,organic ,natural ,products1 edit4 ,l4 ,zechmeister 7,vienna3 ,springer ,verlag1 #aifa71 vol4 #ai1 p4 #caf-cgc4 #cb ,a4 ,,wurt1 ,dictionnaire de ,chimie1 supp4 part #b1 n4d4 p4 #ajhg2 ,a4 ,,kossel1 ,zeitschrift fuer physiologische ,chemie1 series #c 7#ahgi71 p4 #bhd4 #cc ,,alexander ,,todd1 ,les ,prix ,nobel en #aieg 7,stockholm74 #cd ,,hans ,,von ,,euler-,,chelpin1 ,les ,prix ,nobel en #aibi 7,stockholm74 #ce ,o4 ,,meyerhof and ,e4 ,,lundsgaard1 ,naturwissenschaften 7,berlin1 #aicj71 vol4 #ah1 pp4 #ccj1 #ghg4 #cf ,k4 ,,lohmann1 ,naturwissenschaften 7,berlin1 #aibi71 vol4 #ag1 p4 #fbd2 ,c4 ,h4 ,,fiske and ,y4 ,,subbarow1 ,science 7,washington1 #aibi71 vol4 #gj1 p4 #cha f4 #cg ,j4 ,,brachet1 ,scientia1 ,revista di ,scienza 7#aifj71 vol4 #ie1 p4 #aai4 #ch ,,george ,,de ,,hevesy1 ,les ,prix ,nobel en #aidj 7,stockholm74 ,see also ,,eduard ,,farber1 ,nobel ,prize ,winners in ,chemistry1 #bnd ed4 7,new ,york3 ,schuman1 #aifc71 p4 #agi4 #ci ,see1 e4g41 ,chemical ,week1 vol4 #gg 7,september #c1 #aiee71 p4 #gi f42 ,j4 ,,bolle1 ,chimie et ,industrie 7#aifj71 vol4 #hc1 p4 #beb4 #dj ,w4 ,,lange1 ,berichte der ,deutschen ,chemischen ,gesellschaft 7,berlin1 #aibi71 vol4 #fb1 p4 #gic2 vol4 #fe 7#aicb71 p4 #aeih4 #da ,,gerhard ,,schrader1 ,u4,s4 patent #b1ccf1cjb of #aidc 7priority in ,germany1 #aich72 ,s4 ,a4 ,,hall and ,m4 ,,jacobson1 ,industrial and ,engineering ,chemistry 7#aidc71 vol4 #dj1 p4 #fid4 #db ,a4 ,m4 ,,mattsen and others1 ,journal of ,agriculture and ,food ,chemistry 7#aiee71 vol4 #c1 p4 #cai4 #dc ,,john ,b4 ,,van ,,wazer1 ,phosphorus and its ,compounds1 #b vols4 7vol4 #a1 ,chemistry2 vol4 #b ,technology1 ,biological ,functions and ,applications1 ,new ,york3 ,interscience1 #aieh1 #aifa4 99 99 99 99 99 ,u4,s4 ,,government ,,printing ,,office3 #aife ,for sale by the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,u4,s4 ,government ,printing ,office ,washington1 ,d4,c4 #bjdjb--,price #be cents ,,index ,aristotle1 #agi ,baeyer1 ,adolf1 #aic ,bechil1 ,achild1 #agi ,berthelot1 ,marcellin1 #ahi ,berzelius1 ,joens ,jakob1 #ahb ,black and ,bell1 plant at ,stratford1 #ahb ,boussingault1 ,jean ,baptiste1 #ahe ,boyle1 ,robert1 #agh1 #agi ,brand1 ,h41 #agh1 #agi ,buchner1 ,hans1 #aig1 #bjj ,calvin1 ,melvin1 #bjj ,casciarolo1 ,vicenzo1 #agi ,chevreul1 ,michel1 #ahi ,cori1 ,carl ,f41 #bjj ,cori1 ,gerti ,t41 #bjj ,crookes1 ,william1 #aib ,davy1 ,sir ,humphry1 #ahe ,de ,hevesy1 ,george1 #aih1 #bjj ,de la ,vega1 ,garcilaso1 #ahe ,de ,saussure1 ,theodore1 #ahe ,euler-,chelpin1 ,hans von1 #aig1 #bjj ,fernelius1 ,jean1 #agi ,feulgen1 ,robert1 #aic ,fischer1 ,emil1 #aic ,gahn1 ,johann ,gottlieb1 #ahb ,gay-,lussac1 ,joseph ,louis1 #ahb ,gobley1 ,nicolas ,theodore1 #aia ,graham1 ,thomas1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahe ,hankwitz1 ,gottfried1 #ahj ,harden1 ,arthur1 #aig1 #bjj ,hartmann1 ,immanuel ,peter1 #aha ,hellot1 ,jean1 #ahj ,henry ,,ii1 ,king of ,france1 #agi ,hittorf1 ,wilhelm1 #aha ,hoefer1 ,ferdinand1 #agi ,holmberg1 ,wilhelm1 #agh ,hoppe-,seyler1 ,felix1 #aic ,humboldt1 ,alexander von1 #ahe ,huygens1 ,christiaan1 #agi ,incas1 #ahe ,kletwich1 ,johann ,christopher1 #agi ,koppe1 ,emile1 #aha ,kornberg1 ,arthur1 #bjj ,kossel1 ,albrecht1 #bjj ,kraft1 ,johann ,daniel1 #agi ,kramer1 ,dr4 ----1 #aha ,kunckel1 ,johann1 #agi ,lange1 ,w41 #aii ,lavoisier1 ,antoine ,laurent1 #aha1 #ahe ,laws1 ,john ,bennet1 #ahf ,leibnitz1 ,gottfried ,wilhelm von1 #agi ,lennox1 ,charles1 third ,duke of ,richmond1 #ahe ,leonhardi1 ,johann ,gottfried1 #agi ,levine1 ,phoebus ,aaron ,theodor1 #aic ,liebig1 ,justus1 #ahc1 #ahe1 #ahf ,liebreich1 ,oscar1 #aia ,lipmann1 ,fritz1 #bjj ,london1 ,e4 ,s41 #aic ,macquer1 ,peter ,joseph1 #ahj ,marggraf1 ,andreas ,sigismund1 #ahj ,meyerhof1 ,otto1 #aid1 #bjj ,miescher1 ,johann ,friedrich1 #aib ,muspratt1 ,james1 #ahf ,nietzsche1 ,friedrich1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #ahi ,ochoa1 ,severo1 #bjj ,pelouze1 ,theophile ,juste1 #ahi ,rouelle1 ,guillaume ,francois1 #aha ,scheele1 ,karl ,w41 #ahb ,schmiedeberg1 ,oswald1 #aic ,schrader1 ,gerhard1 #aii ,schroetter1 ,anton1 #aha ,stoklasa1 ,julius1 #ahf ,strecker1 ,adolf ,friedrich1 #aia ,thudichum1 ,ludwig1 #aib ,todd1 ,lord ,alexander1 #bjj ,willm1 ,edmond1 #ahb ,willstaetter1 ,richard1 #aia ,wurtz1 ,adolphe1 #ahe1 #aia ,transcriber's ,notes ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,page #ahj ,abfaellen1 ,vieweg1 ,braunschweig1 - had ,viewig4 ,page #ahh wires d from the dynamo ,d - had dynano4 ,page #aia phosphate are attached1 for example1 - had attached1 ,for4 ,page #aib ,but phosphatides occur - had phosphatide soccur4 ,page #aic the nucleic acid from the thymus - had nucleidic4 ,page #aii acetylcholine esterase4 - had acetylcholin4 ,page #bjj ,george de ,hevesy1 ,carl ,f4 ,cori1 - comma added after ,hevesy4 ,footnote #ci ,see1 e4g41 ,chemical ,week1 vol4 #gg - had ,see4 e4g4 ,index ,entry3 ,gahn1 ,johann ,gottlieb1 #ahb - had ,gaehn ,the spelling of ,bertholet ,claude ,louis ,berthollet is as given on the original title page of the work referenced in this paper4 ,inconsistent hyphenation of chemical names has been retained4