,,gray',s ,,lessons ,,in ,,botany ,,revised ,,edition ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,botany ,,for ,,beginners ,,and ,,for ,,schools ,by ,,asa ,,gray ,,ivison1 ,,blakeman1 ,,and ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,chicago ,copyright1 ,by ,asa ,gray4 #ahhg4 ,,preface4 ,this volume takes the place of the author's ,lessons in ,botany and ,vegetable ,physiology1 published over a quarter of a century ago4 ,it is constructed on the same lines1 and is a kind of new and much revised edition of that successful work4 ,while in some respects more extended1 it is also more concise and terse than its predecessor4 ,this should the better fit it for its purpose now that competent teachers are common4 ,they may in many cases develop paragraphs into lectures1 and fully illustrate points which are barely1 but it is hoped clearly1 stated4 ,indeed1 even for those without a teacher1 it may be that a condensed is better than a diffuse exposition4 ,the book is adapted to the higher schools1 ,how ,plants ,grow and ,behave being the ,botany for ,young ,people and ,common ,schools4 ,it is intended to ground beginners in ,structural ,botany and the principles of vegetable life1 mainly as concerns ,flowering or ,phanerogamous plants1 with which botanical instruction should always begin2 also to be a companion and interpreter to the ,manuals and ,floras by which the student threads his flowery way to a clear knowledge of the surrounding vegetable creation4 ,such a book1 like a grammar1 must needs abound in technical words1 which thus arrayed may seem formidable2 nevertheless1 if rightly apprehended1 this treatise should teach that the study of botany is not the learning of names and terms1 but the acquisition of knowledge and ideas4 ,no effort should be made to commit technical terms to memory4 ,any term used in describing a plant or explaining its structure can be looked up when it is wanted1 and that should suffice4 ,on the other hand1 plans of structure1 types1 adaptations1 and modifications1 once understood1 are not readily forgotten2 and they give meaning and interest to the technical terms used in explaining them4 ,in these ,elements naturally no mention has been made of certain terms and names which recent cryptogamically-minded botanists1 with lack of proportion and just perspective1 are endeavoring to introduce into phanerogamous botany1 and which are not needed nor appropriate1 even in more advanced works1 for the adequate recognition of the ascertained analogies and homologies4 ,as this volume will be the grammar and dictionary to more than one or two ,manuals1 ,floras1 etc41 the particular directions for procedure which were given in the ,first ,lessons are now relegated to those works themselves1 which in their new editions will provide the requisite explanations4 ,on the other hand1 in view of such extended use1 the ,glossary at the end of this book has been considerably enlarged4 ,it will be found to include not merely the common terms of botanical description but also many which are unusual or obsolete2 yet any of them may now and then be encountered4 ,moreover1 no small number of the ,latin and ,greek words which form the whole or part of the commoner specific names are added to this ,glossary1 some in an ,anglicized1 others in their ,latin form4 ,this may be helpful to students with small ,latin and less ,greek1 in catching the meaning of a botanical name or term4 ,the illustrations in this volume are largely increased in number4 ,they are mostly from the hand of ,isaac ,sprague4 ,it happens that the title chosen for this book is that of the author's earliest publication1 in the year #ahcf1 of which copies are rarely seen2 so that no inconvenience is likely to arise from the present use of the name4 ,,asa ,,gray4 ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 ,march1 #ahhg4 ,,contents4 ,page ,,section ,i4 ,,introductory #i ,,section ,,ii4 ,,flax ,,as ,a ,,pattern ,,plant #aa ,growth from the ,seed1 ,organs of ,vegetation #aa ,blossoming1 ,flower1 c4 #ad ,,section ,,iii4 ,,morphology ,,of ,,seedlings #ae ,germinating ,maples #ae ,cotyledons thickened1 hypogaeous in germination #ah ,store of ,food external to the ,embryo #bj ,cotyledons as to number #bb ,dicotyledonous and ,polycotyledonous #bc ,monocotyledonous #bd ,simple-stemmed ,plants #bf ,,section ,,iv4 ,,growth ,,from ,,buds2 ,,branching #bg ,buds1 situation and kinds #bg ,vigorous vegetation from strong ,buds #bh ,arrangement of ,branches #bi ,non-developed1 ,latent1 and ,accessory ,buds #cj ,enumeration of kinds of ,buds #ca ,definite and ,indefinite growth2 ,deliquescent and ,excurrent #ca ,,section ,v4 ,,roots #cc ,primary and ,secondary4 ,contrast between ,stem and ,root #cd ,fibrous and ,fleshy ,roots2 names of kinds #cd ,anomalous ,roots4 ,epiphytic and ,parasitic ,plants #cf ,duration3 ,annuals1 ,biennials1 ,perennials #cg ,,section ,,vi4 ,,stems #ch ,those above ,ground3 kinds and modifications #ci ,subterranean ,stems and ,branches #db ,rootstock #db ,tuber #dd ,corm #de ,bulb and ,bulblets #df ,consolidated ,vegetation #dg ,,section ,,vii4 ,,leaves #di ,sec4 #a4 ,,leaves ,,as ,,foliage #di ,parts and ,venation #ej ,forms as to general outline #eb ,as to apex and particular outline #ec ,as to lobing or division #ef ,compound1 ,perfoliate1 and ,equitant ,leaves #eg ,with no distinction of ,petiole and ,blade1 ,phyllodia1 c4 #fa ,sec4 #b4 ,,leaves ,,of ,,special ,,conformation ,,and ,,use #fb ,leaves for storage #fb ,leaves as bud-scales #fc ,spines #fd and for ,climbing #fd ,pitchers #fd and ,fly-traps #fe ,sec4 #c4 ,,stipules #ff ,sec4 #d4 ,,the ,,arrangement ,,of ,,leaves #fg ,phyllotaxy #fg ,of ,alternate ,leaves #fi ,of ,opposite and ,whorled ,leaves #ga ,vernation or ,praefoliation #ga ,,section ,,viii4 ,,flowers #gb ,sec4 #a4 ,,position ,,and ,,arrangement1 ,,inflorescence #gc ,raceme #gc ,corymb1 ,umbel1 ,spike1 ,head #gd ,spadix1 ,catkin1 or ,ament #ge ,panicle3 ,determinate ,inflorescence #gf ,cyme1 ,fascicle1 ,glomerule1 ,scorpioid or ,helicoid ,cymes #gg ,mixed ,inflorescence #gh ,sec4 #b4 ,,parts ,,or ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,flower #gi ,floral ,envelopes3 ,perianth1 ,calyx1 ,corolla #gi ,essential ,organs3 ,stamen1 ,pistil #hj ,torus or ,receptacle #ha ,sec4 #c4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,flower #ha ,when perfect1 complete1 regular1 or symmetrical #ha ,numerical ,plan and ,alternation of ,organs #hb ,flowers are altered branches #hc ,sec4 #d4 ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,type #he ,unisexual or diclinous #he ,incomplete1 ,irregular1 and ,unsymmetrical #hf ,flowers with ,multiplication of ,parts #hh ,flowers with ,union of ,parts3 ,coalescence #hh ,regular ,forms #hi ,irregular ,forms #ij ,papilionaceous #ia ,labiate #ib and ,ligulate ,corollas #ic ,adnation or ,consolidation #id ,position of ,flower or of its ,parts #if ,sec4 #e4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,parts ,,in ,,the ,,bud #ig ,a,estivation or ,praefloration1 its kinds #ig ,,section ,,ix4 ,,stamens ,,in ,,particular #ih ,androecium #ih ,insertion1 ,relation1 c4 #ii ,anther and ,filament4 ,pollen #aja ,,section ,x4 ,,pistils ,,in ,,particular #aje ,sec4 #a4 ,,angiospermous ,,or ,,ordinary ,,gynoecium #aje ,parts of a complete ,pistil #aje ,carpels1 ,simple ,pistil #ajf ,compound ,pistil with ,cells and ,axile ,placentae #ajg ,one-celled with ,free ,central ,placenta #ajh ,one-celled with ,parietal ,placentae #ajh ,sec4 #b4 ,,gymnospermous ,,gynoecium #aji ,,section ,,xi4 ,,ovules #aaj ,their ,parts1 ,insertion1 and ,kinds #aaa ,,section ,,xii4 ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,receptacle #aab ,torus1 ,stipe1 ,carpophore1 ,disk #aac ,,section ,,xiii4 ,,fertilization #aad ,sec4 #a4 ,,adaptations ,,for ,,pollination ,,of ,,the ,,stigma #aad ,close and ,cross ,fertilization1 ,anemophilous and ,entomophilous #aae ,dichogamy and ,heterogony #aaf ,sec4 #b4 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,pollen ,,and ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,embryo #aag ,,section ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,fruit #aag ,nature and kinds #aah ,berry1 ,pepo1 ,pome #aai ,drupe and ,akene #abj ,cremocarp1 ,caryopsis1 ,nut #aba ,follicle1 ,legume1 ,capsule #abb ,capsular ,dehiscence1 ,silique and ,silicle #abc ,pyxis1 ,strobile or ,cone #abd ,,section ,,xv4 ,,the ,,seed #abe ,seed-coats and their appendages #abe ,the ,kernel or ,nucleus1 ,embryo and its parts1 ,albumen #abg ,,section ,,xvi4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,and ,,work #abh ,sec4 #a4 ,,anatomical ,,structure ,,and ,,growth #abi ,nature of ,growth1 ,protoplasm #abi ,cells and ,cell-walls4 ,cellular ,structure or ,tissue #acj ,strengthening ,cells4 ,wood1 ,wood-cells1 ,vessels or ,ducts #acb ,sec4 #b4 ,,cell-,,contents #acf ,sap1 ,chlorophyll1 ,starch #acf ,crystals1 ,rhaphides #acg ,sec4 #c4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,roots ,,and ,,stems #ach ,endogenous and ,exogenous ,stems #aci ,particular structure of the latter #adj ,wood1 ,sapwood and ,heart-wood4 ,the living parts of a ,tree #ada ,sec4 #d4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,leaves #adb ,epidermis1 ,stomata or ,breathing pores #adc ,sec4 #e4 ,,plant ,,food ,,and ,,assimilation #add ,sec4 #f4 ,,plant ,,work ,,and ,,movement #adi ,movements in ,cells or ,cyclosis #adi ,transference from ,cell to ,cell #aej ,movements of ,organs1 ,twining ,stems1 ,leaf-movements #aej ,movements of ,tendrils1 ,sensitiveness #aeb ,movements in ,flowers #aec ,movements for capture of ,insects #aed ,work costs1 using up ,material and ,energy #aee ,,section ,,xvii4 ,,cryptogamous ,,or ,,flowerless ,,plants #aef ,vascular ,cryptogams1 ,pteridophytes #aef ,horsetails 7,equisetaceae71 ,ferns #aeg ,club-,mosses 7,lycopodium71 c4 #afa ,quillworts 7,isoetes71 ,pillworts 7,marsilia7 #afa ,azolla4 ,cellular ,cryptogams #afb ,bryophytes4 ,mosses 7,musci7 #afc ,liverworts 7,hepaticae7 #afd ,thallophytes #afe ,characeae #afg ,algae1 ,seaweeds1 c4 #afh ,lichenes or ,lichens #aga ,fungi #agb ,,section ,,xviii4 ,,classification ,,and ,,nomenclature #age ,sec4 #a4 ,,kinds ,,and ,,relationship #age ,species1 ,varieties1 ,individuals #agf ,genera1 ,orders1 ,classes1 c4 #agg ,sec4 #b4 ,,names1 ,,terms ,,and ,,characters #agh ,nomenclature of ,genera1 ,species1 and ,varieties #agi ,nomenclature of ,orders1 ,classes1 c4 ,terminology #ahj ,sec4 #c4 ,,system #aha ,artificial and ,natural #ahb ,synopsis of ,series1 ,classes1 c4 #ahc ,,section ,,xix4 ,,botanical ,,work #ahd ,sec4 #a4 ,,collection ,,or ,,herborization #ahd ,sec4 #b4 ,,herbarium #ahf ,sec4 #c4 ,,investigation ,,and ,,determination ,,of ,,plants #ahg ,sec4 #d4 ,,signs ,,and ,,abbreviations #ahh ,,abbreviations ,,of ,,the ,,names ,,of ,,botanists #aij ,,glossary ,,combined ,,with ,,index #aic ,,elements ,,of ,,botany4 ,section ,i4 ,,introductory4 #a4 ,,botany is the name of the science of the vegetable kingdom in general2 that is1 of plants4 #b4 ,plants may be studied as to their kinds and relationships4 ,this study is ,,systematic ,,botany4 ,an enumeration of the kinds of vegetables1 as far as known1 classified according to their various degrees of resemblance or difference1 constitutes a general ,system of plants4 ,a similar account of the vegetables of any particular country or district is called a ,flora4 #c4 ,plants may be studied as to their structure and parts4 ,this is ,,structural ,,botany1 or ,,organography4 ,the study of the organs or parts of plants in regard to the different forms and different uses which the same kind of organ may assume1--the comparison1 for instance1 of a flower-leaf or a bud-scale with a common leaf1--is ,,vegetable ,,morphology1 or ,,morphological ,,botany4 ,the study of the minute structure of the parts1 to learn by the microscope what they themselves are formed of1 is ,,vegetable ,,anatomy1 or ,,histology2 in other words1 it is ,microscopical ,structural ,botany4 ,the study of the actions of plants or of their parts1 of the ways in which a plant lives1 grows1 and acts1 is the province of ,,physiological ,,botany1 or ,,vegetable ,,physiology4 #d4 ,this book is to teach the outlines of ,structural ,botany and of the simpler parts of the physiology of plants1 that it may be known how plants are constructed and adapted to their surroundings1 and how they live1 move1 propagate1 and have their being in an existence no less real1 although more simple1 than that of the animal creation which they support4 ,particularly1 this book is to teach the principles of the structure and relationships of plants1 the nature and names of their parts and their modifications1 and so to prepare for the study of ,systematic ,botany2 in which the learner may ascertain the name and the place in the system of any or all of the ordinary plants within reach1 whether wild or cultivated4 ,and in ascertaining the name of any plant1 the student1 if rightly taught1 will come to know all about its general or particular structure1 rank1 and relationship to other plants4 #e4 ,the vegetable kingdom is so vast and various1 and the difference is so wide between ordinary trees1 shrubs1 and herbs on the one hand1 and mosses1 moulds1 and such like on the other1 that it is hardly possible to frame an intelligible account of plants as a whole without contradictions or misstatements1 or endless and troublesome qualifications4 ,if we say that plants come from seeds1 bear flowers1 and have roots1 stems1 and leaves1 this is not true of the lower orders4 ,it is best for the beginner1 therefore1 to treat of the higher orders of plants by themselves1 without particular reference to the lower4 #f4 ,let it be understood1 accordingly1 that there is a higher and a lower series of plants2 namely3-- ,,phanerogamous ,,plants1 which come from seed and bear flowers1 essentially stamens and pistils1 through the co-operation of which seed is produced4 ,for shortness1 these are commonly called ,,phanerogams1 or ,phaenogams1 or by the equivalent ,english name of ,,flowering ,,plants4#a ,,cryptogamous ,,plants1 or ,,cryptogams1 come from minute bodies1 which answer to seeds1 but are of much simpler structure1 and such plants have not stamens and pistils4 ,therefore they are called in ,english ,,flowerless ,,plants4 ,such are ,ferns1 ,mosses1 ,algae or ,seaweeds1 ,fungi1 etc4 ,these sorts have each to be studied separately1 for each class or order has a plan of its own4 #g4 ,but ,phanerogamous1 or ,flowering1 ,plants are all constructed on one plan1 or type4 ,that is1 taking almost any ordinary herb1 shrub1 or tree for a pattern1 it will exemplify the whole series3 the parts of one plant answer to the parts of any other1 with only certain differences in particulars4 ,and the occupation and the delight of the scientific botanist is in tracing out this common plan1 in detecting the likenesses under all the diversities1 and in noting the meaning of these manifold diversities4 ,so the attentive study of any one plant1 from its growth out of the seed to the flowering and fruiting state and the production of seed like to that from which the plant grew1 would not only give a correct general idea of the structure1 growth1 and characteristics of ,flowering ,plants in general1 but also serve as a pattern or standard of comparison4 ,some plants will serve this purpose of a pattern much better than others4 ,a proper pattern will be one that is perfect in the sense of having all the principal parts of a phanerogamous plant1 and simple and regular in having these parts free from complications or disguises4 ,the common ,flax-plant may very well serve this purpose4 ,being an annual1 it has the advantage of being easily raised and carried in a short time through its circle of existence1 from seedling to fruit and seed4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the name is sometimes ,phanerogamous1 sometimes ,phaenogamous 7,phanerogams1 or ,phaenogams71 terms of the same meaning etymologically2 the former of preferable form1 but the latter shorter4 ,the meaning of such terms is explained in the ,glossary4 ,section ,,ii4 ,,flax ,,as ,a ,,pattern ,,plant4 #h4 ,growth from the ,seed4 ,phanerogamous plants grow from seed1 and their flowers are destined to the production of seeds4 ,a seed has a rudimentary plant ready formed in it1--sometimes with the two most essential parts1 i4 e4 stem and leaf1 plainly discernible2 sometimes with no obvious distinction of organs until germination begins4 ,this incipient plant is called an ,,embryo4 #i4 ,in this section the ,flax-plant is taken as a specimen1 or type1 and the development and history of common plants in general is illustrated by it4 ,in flax-seed the embryo nearly fills the coats1 but not quite4 ,there is a small deposit of nourishment between the seed-coat and the embryo3 this may for the present be left out of the account4 ,this embryo consists of a pair of leaves1 pressed together face to face1 and attached to an extremely short stem4 7,fig4 #b-d47 ,in this rudimentary condition the real nature of the parts is not at once apparent2 but when the seed grows they promptly reveal their character1--as the accompanying figures 7,fig4 #e-g7 show4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,pod of ,flax4 #b4 ,section lengthwise1 showing two of the seeds2 one whole1 the other cut half away1 bringing contained embryo into view4 #c4 ,similar section of a flax-seed more magnified and divided flatwise2 turned round1 so that the stem-end 7caulicle7 of the embryo is below3 the whole broad upper part is the inner face of one of the cotyledons2 the minute nick at its base is the plumule4 #d4 ,similar section through a seed turned edgewise1 showing the thickness of the cotyledons1 and the minute plumule between them1 i4 e4 the minute bud on the upper end of the caulicle4 #aj4 ,before the nature of these parts in the seed was altogether understood1 technical names were given to them1 which are still in use4 ,these initial leaves were named ,,cotyledons4 ,the initial stem on which they stand was called the ,,radicle4 ,that was because it gives rise to the first root2 but1 as it is really the beginning of the stem1 and because it is the stem that produces the root and not the root that produces the stem1 it is better to name it the ,,caulicle4 ,recently it has been named ,hypocotyle2 which signifies something below the cotyledons1 without pronouncing what its nature is4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,early ,flax seedling2 stem 7caulicle71 root at lower end1 expanded seed-leaves 7cotyledons7 at the other3 minute bud 7plumule7 between these4 #f4 ,same later2 the bud developed into second pair of leaves1 with hardly any stem-part below them2 then into a third pair of leaves1 raised on a short joint of stem2 and a fifth leaf also showing4 #g4 ,same still older1 with more leaves developed1 but these singly 7one after another71 and with joints of stem between them4 #aa4 ,on committing these seeds to moist and warm soil they soon sprout1 i4 e4 germinate4 ,the very short stem-part of the embryo is the first to grow4 ,it lengthens1 protrudes its root-end2 this turns downward1 if not already pointing in that direction1 and while it is lengthening a root forms at its point and grows downward into the ground4 ,this root continues to grow on from its lower end1 and thus insinuates itself and penetrates into the soil4 ,the stem meanwhile is adding to its length throughout2 it erects itself1 and1 seeking the light1 brings the seed up out of the ground4 ,the materials for this growth have been supplied by the cotyledons or seed-leaves1 still in the seed3 it was the store of nourishing material they held which gave them their thickish shape1 so unlike that of ordinary leaves4 ,now1 relieved of a part of this store of food1 which has formed the growth by which they have been raised into the air and light1 they appropriate the remainder to their own growth4 ,in enlarging they open and throw off the seed-husk2 they expand1 diverge into a horizontal position1 turn green1 and thus become a pair of evident leaves1 the first foliage of a tiny plant4 ,this seedling1 although diminutive and most simple1 possesses and puts into use1 all the ,,organs of ,,vegetation1 namely1 root1 stem1 and leaves1 each in its proper element1--the root in the soil1 the stem rising out of it1 the leaves in the light and open air4 ,it now draws in moisture and some food-materials from the soil by its root1 conveys this through the stem into the leaves1 where these materials1 along with other crude food which these imbibe from the air1 are assimilated into vegetable matter1 i4 e4 into the material for further growth4 #ab4 ,further ,growth soon proceeds to the formation of new parts1--downward in the production of more root1 or of branches of the main root1 upward in the development of more stem and leaves4 ,that from which a stem with its leaves is continued1 or a new stem 7i4 e4 branch7 originated1 is a ,,bud4 ,the most conspicuous and familiar buds are those of most shrubs and trees1 bearing buds formed in summer or autumn1 to grow the following spring4 ,but every such point for new growth may equally bear the name4 ,when there is such a bud between the cotyledons in the seed or seedling it is called the ,,plumule4 ,this is conspicuous enough in a bean 7,fig4 #bi471 where the young leaf of the new growth looks like a little plume1 whence the name1 plumule4 ,in flax-seed this is very minute indeed1 but is discernible with a magnifier1 and in the seedling it shows itself distinctly 7,fig4 #e1 #f1 #g74 #ac4 ,as it grows it shapes itself into a second pair of leaves1 which of course rests on a second joint of stem1 although in this instance that remains too short to be well seen4 ,upon its summit appears the third pair of leaves1 soon to be raised upon its proper joint of stem2 the next leaf is single1 and is carried up still further upon its supporting joint of stem2 and so on4 ,the root1 meanwhile1 continues to grow underground1 not joint after joint1 but continuously1 from its lower end2 and commonly it before long multiplies itself by branches1 which lengthen by the same continuous growth4 ,but stems are built up by a succession of leaf-bearing growths1 such as are strongly marked in a reed or corn-stalk1 and less so in such an herb as ,flax4 ,the word joint is ambiguous3 it may mean either the portion between successive leaves1 or their junction1 where the leaves are attached4 ,for precision1 therefore1 the place where the leaf or leaves are borne is called a ,,node1 and the naked interval between two nodes1 an ,,internode4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,upper part of ,flax-plant in blossom4 #ad4 ,in this way a simple stem with its garniture of leaves is developed from the seed4 ,but besides this direct continuation1 buds may form and develop into lateral stems1 that is1 into branches1 from any node4 ,the proper origin of branches is from the ,,axil of a leaf1 i4 e4 the angle between leaf and stem on the upper side2 and branches may again branch1 so building up the herb1 shrub1 or tree4 ,but sooner or later1 and without long delay in an annual like ,flax1 instead of this continuance of mere vegetation1 reproduction is prepared for by #ae4 ,blossoming4 ,in ,flax the flowers make their appearance at the end of the stem and branches4 ,the growth1 which otherwise might continue them farther or indefinitely1 now takes the form of blossom1 and is subservient to the production of seed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,flax-flowers about natural size4 #aj4 ,section of a flower moderately enlarged1 showing a part of the petals and stamens1 all five styles1 and a section of ovary with two ovules or rudimentary seeds4 #af4 ,the ,flower of ,flax consists1 first1 of five small green leaves1 crowded into a circle3 this is the ,,calyx1 or flower-cup4 ,when its separate leaves are referred to they are called ,,sepals1 a name which distinguishes them from foliage-leaves on the one hand1 and from petals on the other4 ,then come five delicate and colored leaves 7in the ,flax1 blue71 which form the ,,corolla1 and its leaves are ,,petals2 then a circle of organs1 in which all likeness to leaves is lost1 consisting of slender stalks with a knob at summit1 the ,,stamens2 and lastly1 in the centre1 the rounded body1 which becomes a pod1 surmounted by five slender or stalk-like bodies4 ,this1 all together1 is the ,,pistil4 ,the lower part of it1 which is to contain the seeds1 is the ,,ovary2 the slender organs surmounting this are ,,styles2 the knob borne on the apex of each style is a ,,stigma4 ,going back to the stamens1 these are of two parts1 viz4 the stalk1 called ,,filament1 and the body it bears1 the ,,anther4 ,anthers are filled with ,,pollen1 a powdery substance made up of minute grains4 #ag4 ,the pollen shed from the anthers when they open falls upon or is conveyed to the stigmas2 then the pollen-grains set up a kind of growth 7to be discerned only by aid of a good microscope71 which penetrates the style3 this growth takes the form of a thread more delicate than the finest spider's web1 and reaches the bodies which are to become seeds 7,,ovules they are called until this change occurs72 these1 touched by this influence1 are incited to a new growth within1 which becomes an embryo4 ,so1 as the ovary ripens into the seed-pod or capsule 7,fig4 #a1 etc47 containing seeds1 each seed enclosing a rudimentary new plantlet1 the round of this vegetable existence is completed4 ,section ,,iii4 ,,morphology ,,of ,,seedlings4 #ah4 ,having obtained a general idea of the growth and parts of a phanerogamous plant from the common ,flax of the field1 the seeds and seedlings of other familiar plants may be taken up1 and their variations from the assumed pattern examined4 #ai4 ,germinating ,maples are excellent to begin with1 the parts being so much larger than in ,flax that a common magnifying glass1 although convenient1 is hardly necessary4 ,the only disadvantage is that fresh seeds are not readily to be had at all seasons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,embryo of ,sugar ,maple1 cut through lengthwise and taken out of the seed4 #ab1 #ac4 ,whole embryo of same just beginning to grow2 a1 the stemlet or caulicle1 which in #ac has considerably lengthened4 #bj4 ,the seeds of ,sugar ,maple ripen at the end of summer1 and germinate in early spring4 ,the embryo fills the whole seed1 in which it is nicely packed2 and the nature of the parts is obvious even before growth begins4 ,there is a stemlet 7caulicle7 and a pair of long and narrow seed-leaves 7cotyledons71 doubled up and coiled1 green even in the seed1 and in germination at once unfolding into the first pair of foliage-leaves1 though of shape quite unlike those that follow4 #ba4 ,red ,maple seeds are ripe and ready to germinate at the beginning of summer1 and are therefore more convenient for study4 ,the cotyledons are crumpled in the seed1 and not easy to straighten out until they unfold themselves in germination4 ,the story of their development into the seedling is told by the accompanying ,fig4 #ad-bj2 and that of ,sugar ,maple is closely similar4 ,no plumule or bud appears in the embryo of these two ,maples until the seed-leaves have nearly attained their full growth and are acting as foliage-leaves1 and until a root is formed below4 ,there is no great store of nourishment in these thin cotyledons2 so further growth has to wait until the root and seed-leaves have collected and elaborated sufficient material for the formation of the second internode and its pair of leaves1 which lending their help the third pair is more promptly produced1 and so on4 #bb4 ,some change in the plan comes with the ,silver or ,soft ,white ,maple4 7,fig4 #ba-be74 ,this blossoms in earliest spring1 and it drops its large and ripened keys only a few weeks later4 ,its cotyledons have not at all the appearance of leaves2 they are short and broad1 and 7as there is no room to be saved by folding7 they are straight1 except a small fold at the top1--a vestige of the habit of ,maples in general4 ,their unusual thickness is due to the large store of nutritive matter they contain1 and this prevents their developing into actual leaves4 ,correspondingly1 their caulicle does not lengthen to elevate them above the surface of the soil2 the growth below the cotyledons is nearly all of root4 ,it is the little plumule or bud between them which makes the upward growth1 and which1 being well fed by the cotyledons1 rapidly develops the next pair of leaves and raises them upon a long internode1 and so on4 ,the cotyledons all the while remain below1 in the husk of the fruit and seed1 and perish when they have yielded up the store of food which they contained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,one of the pair of keys or winged fruits of ,red ,maple2 the seed-bearing portion cut open to show the seed4 #ae4 ,seed enlarged1 and divided to show the crumpled embryo which fills it4 #af4 ,embryo taken out and partly opened4 #ag4 ,embryo which has unfolded in early stage of germination and begun to grow4 #ah4 ,seedling with next joint of stem and leaves apparent2 and #ai with these parts full-grown1 and bud at apex for further growth4 #bj4 ,seedling with another joint of stem and pair of leaves4 #bc4 ,so1 even in plants so much alike as ,maples1 there is considerable difference in the amount of food stored up in the cotyledons by which the growth is to be made2 and there are corresponding differences in the germination4 ,the larger the supply to draw upon1 the stronger the growth1 and the quicker the formation of root below and of stem and leaves above4 ,this deposit of food thickens the cotyledons1 and renders them less and less leaf-like in proportion to its amount4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,fruit 7one key7 of ,silver ,maple1 ,acer dasycarpum1 of natural size1 the seed-bearing portion divided to show the seed4 #bb4 ,embryo of the seed taken out4 #bc4 ,same opened out1 to show the thick cotyledons and the little plumule or bud between them4 #bd4 ,germination of ,silver ,maple1 natural size2 merely the base of the fruit1 containing the seed1 is shown4 #be4 ,embryo of same1 taken out of the husk2 upper part of growing stem cut off1 for want of room4 #bd4 ,examples of ,embryos with thickened ,cotyledons4 ,in the ,pumpkin and ,squash 7,fig4 #bf1 #bg71 the cotyledons are well supplied with nourishing matter1 as their sweet taste demonstrates4 ,still1 they are flat and not very thick4 ,in germination this store is promptly utilized in the development of the caulicle to twenty or thirty times its length in the seed1 and to corresponding thickness1 in the formation of a cluster of roots at its lower end1 and the early production of the incipient plumule2 also in their own growth into efficient green leaves4 ,the case of our common ,bean 7,phaseolus vulgaris1 ,fig4 #bh-cj7 is nearly the same1 except that the cotyledons are much more gorged2 so that1 although carried up into the air and light upon the lengthening caulicle1 and there acquiring a green color1 they never expand into useful leaves4 ,instead of this1 they nourish into rapid growth the plumule1 which is plainly visible in the seed1 as a pair of incipient leaves2 and these form the first actual foliage4 #be4 ,very similar is the germination of the ,beech 7,fig4 #ca-cc71 except that the caulicle lengthens less1 hardly raising the cotyledons out of the ground4 ,nothing would be gained by elevating them1 as they never grow out into efficient leaves2 but the joint of stem belonging to the plumule lengthens well1 carrying up its pair of real foliage-leaves4 #bf4 ,it is nearly the same in the ,bean of the ,old ,world 7,vicia ,faba1 here called ,horse ,bean and ,windsor ,bean73 the caulicle lengthens very little1 does not undertake to elevate the heavy seed1 which is left below or upon the surface of the soil1 the flat but thick cotyledons remaining in it1 and supplying food for the growth of the root below and the plumule above4 ,in its near relative1 the ,pea 7,fig4 #cd1 #ce71 this use of cotyledons for storage only is most completely carried out4 ,for they are thickened to the utmost1 even into hemispheres2 the caulicle does not lengthen at all2 merely sends out roots from the lower end1 and develops its strong plumule from the upper1 the seed remaining unmoved underground4 ,that is1 in technical language1 the germination is hypogaeous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,embryo of ,pumpkin-seed1 partly opened4 #bg4 ,young seedling of same4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,embryo of ,common ,bean 7,phaseolus vulgaris73 caulicle bent down over edge of cotyledons4 #bi4 ,same germinating3 caulicle well lengthened and root beginning2 thick cotyledons partly spreading2 and plumule 7pair of leaves7 growing between them4 #cj4 ,same1 older1 with plumule developed into internode and pair of leaves4 #bg4 ,there is sufficient nourishment in the cotyledons of a pea to make a very considerable growth before any actual foliage is required4 ,so it is the stem-portion of the plumule which is at first conspicuous and strong-growing4 ,here1 as seen in ,fig4 #ce1 its lower nodes bear each a useless leaf-scale instead of an efficient leaf1 and only the later ones bear leaves fitted for foliage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,a ,beech-nut1 cut across4 #cb4 ,beginning germination of the ,beech1 showing the plumule growing before the cotyledons have opened or the root has scarcely formed4 #cc4 ,the same1 a little later1 with the plumule-leaves developing1 and elevated on a long internode4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,embryo of ,pea1 i4 e4 a pea with the coats removed2 the short and thick caulicle presented to view4 #ce4 ,same in advanced germination3 the plumule has developed four or five internodes1 bearing single leaves2 but the first and second leaves are mere scales1 the third begins to serve as foliage2 the next more so4 #bh4 ,this hypogaeous germination is exemplified on a larger scale by the ,oak 7,fig4 #cf1 #cg7 and ,horse-chestnut 7,fig4 #ch1 #ci72 but in these the downward growth is wholly a stout tap-root4 ,it is not the caulicle2 for this lengthens hardly any4 ,indeed1 the earliest growth which carries the very short caulicle out of the shell comes from the formation of foot-stalks to the cotyledons2 above these develops the strong plumule1 below grows the stout root4 ,the growth is at first entirely1 for a long time mainly1 at the expense of the great store of food in the cotyledons4 ,these1 after serving their purpose1 decay and fall away4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,half of an acorn1 cut lengthwise1 filled by the very thick cotyledons1 the base of which encloses the minute caulicle4 #cg4 ,oak-seedling4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,half of a horse-chestnut1 similarly cut2 the caulicle is curved down on the side of one of the thick cotyledons4 #ci4 ,horse-chestnut in germination2 foot-stalks are formed to the cotyledons1 pushing out in their lengthening the growing parts4 #bi4 ,such thick cotyledons never separate2 indeed1 they sometimes grow together by some part of their contiguous faces2 so that the germination seems to proceed from a solid bulb-like mass4 ,this is the case in a horse-chestnut4 #cj4 ,germinating ,embryo supplied by its own ,store of ,nourishment1 i4 e4 the store in the cotyledons4 ,this is so in all the illustrations thus far1 essentially so even in the ,flax4 ,this nourishment was supplied by the mother plant to the ovule and seed1 and thence taken into the embryo during its growth4 ,such embryos1 filling the whole seed1 are comparatively large and strong1 and vigorous in germination in proportion to the amount of their growth while connected with the parent plant4 #ca4 ,germinating ,embryo supplied from a ,deposit outside of ,itself4 ,this is as common as the other mode2 and it occurs in all degrees4 ,some seeds have very little of this deposit1 but a comparatively large embryo1 with its parts more or less developed and recognizable4 ,in others this deposit forms the main bulk of the seed1 and the embryo is small or minute1 and comparatively rudimentary4 ,the following illustrations exemplify these various grades4 ,when an embryo in a seed is thus surrounded by a white substance1 it was natural to liken the latter to the white of an egg1 and the embryo or germ to the yolk4 ,so the matter around or by the side of the embryo was called the ,albumen1 i4 e4 the white of the seed4 ,the analogy is not very good2 and to avoid ambiguity some botanists call it the ,,endosperm4 ,as that means in ,english merely the inwards of a seed1 the new name is little better than the old one2 and1 since we do not change names in botany except when it cannot be avoided1 this name of albumen is generally kept up4 ,a seed with such a deposit is albuminous1 one with none is exalbuminous4 #cb4 ,the ,,albumen forms the main bulk of the seed in wheat1 maize1 rice1 buckwheat1 and the like4 ,it is the floury part of the seed4 ,also of the cocoa-nut1 of coffee 7where it is dense and hard71 etc42 while in peas1 beans1 almonds1 and in most edible nuts1 the store of food1 although essentially the same in nature and in use1 is in the embryo itself1 and therefore is not counted as anything to be separately named4 ,in both forms this concentrated food for the germinating plant is food also for man and for animals4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,seed of ,morning ,glory divided1 moderately magnified2 shows a longitudinal section through the centre of the embryo as it lies crumpled in the albumen4 #da4 ,embryo taken out whole and unfolded2 the broad and very thin cotyledons notched at summit2 the caulicle below4 #db4 ,early state of germination4 #dc4 ,same1 more advanced2 caulicle or primary stem1 cotyledons or seed-leaves1 and below1 the root1 well developed4 #cc4 ,for an albuminous seed with a well-developed embryo1 the common ,morning ,glory 7,ipomoea purpurea1 ,fig4 #dj-dc7 is a convenient example1 being easy and prompt to grow1 and having all the parts well apparent4 ,the seeds 7duly soaked for examination7 and the germination should be compared with those of ,sugar and ,red ,maple 7#ai-ba74 ,the only essential difference is that here the embryo is surrounded by and crumpled up in the albumen4 ,this substance1 which is pulpy or mucilaginous in fresh and young seeds1 hardens as the seed ripens1 but becomes again pulpy in germination2 and1 as it liquefies1 the thin cotyledons absorb it by their whole surface4 ,it supplements the nutritive matter contained in the embryo4 ,both together form no large store1 but sufficient for establishing the seedling1 with tiny root1 stem1 and pair of leaves for initiating its independent growth2 which in due time proceeds as in ,fig4 #dd1 #de4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,seedling of ,morning ,glory more advanced 7root cut away72 cotyledons well developed into foliage-leaves3 succeeding internode and leaf well developed1 and the next forming4 #de4 ,seedling more advanced2 reduced to much below natural size4 #cd4 ,smaller embryos1 less developed in the seed1 are more dependent upon the extraneous supply of food4 ,the figures #df-ec illustrate four grades in this respect4 ,the smallest1 that of the ,peony1 is still large enough to be seen with a hand magnifying glass1 and even its cotyledons may be discerned by the aid of a simple stage microscope4 #ce4 ,the broad cotyledons of ,mirabilis1 or ,four-o'clock 7,fig4 #eb1 #ec71 with the slender caulicle almost encircle and enclose the floury albumen1 instead of being enclosed in it1 as in the other illustrations4 ,evidently here the germinating embryo is principally fed by one of the leaf-like cotyledons1 the other being out of contact with the supply4 ,in the embryo of ,abronia 7,fig4 #ed1 #ee71 a near relative of ,mirabilis1 there is a singular modification2 one cotyledon is almost wanting1 being reduced to a rudiment1 leaving it for the other to do the work4 ,this leads to the question of the #cf4 ,number of ,cotyledons4 ,in all the preceding illustrations1 the embryo1 however different in shape and degree of development1 is evidently constructed upon one and the same plan1 namely1 that of two leaves on a caulicle or initial stem1--a plan which is obvious even when one cotyledon becomes very much smaller than the other1 as in the rare instance of ,abronia 7,fig4 #ed1 #ee74 ,in other words1 the embryos so far examined are all #cg4 ,dicotyledonous1 that is1 two-cotyledoned4 ,plants which are thus similar in the plan of the embryo agree likewise in the general structure of their stems1 leaves1 and blossoms2 and thus form a class1 named from their embryo ,,dicotyledones1 or in ,english1 ,,dicotyledonous ,,plants4 ,so long a name being inconvenient1 it may be shortened into ,,dicotyls4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,section of a seed of a ,peony1 showing a very small embryo in the albumen1 near one end4 #dg4 ,this embryo detached1 and more magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,section of a seed of ,barberry1 showing the straight embryo in the middle of the albumen4 #di4 ,its embryo detached4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,section of a ,potato seed1 showing the embryo coiled in the albumen4 #ea4 ,its embryo detached4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,section of the seed of ,mirabilis or ,four-o'clock1 showing the embryo coiled round the outside of the albumen4 #ec4 ,embryo detached2 showing the very broad and leaf-like cotyledons1 applied face to face1 and the pair incurved4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,embryo of ,abronia umbellata2 one of the cotyledons very small4 #ee4 ,same straightened out4 #ch4 ,polycotyledonous is a name employed for the less usual case in which there are more than two cotyledons4 ,the ,pine is the most familiar case4 ,this occurs in all ,pines1 the number of cotyledons varying from three to twelve2 in ,fig4 #ef1 #eg they are six4 ,note that they are all on the same level1 that is1 belong to the same node1 so as to form a circle or whorl at the summit of the caulicle4 ,when there are only three cotyledons1 they divide the space equally1 are one third of the circle apart4 ,when only two they are #ahj deg4 apart1 that is1 are opposite4 #ci4 ,the case of three or more cotyledons1 which is constant in ,pines and in some of their relatives 7but not in all of them71 is occasional among ,dicotyls4 ,and the polycotyledonous is only a variation of the dicotyledonous type1--a difference in the number of leaves in the whorl2 for a pair is a whorl reduced to two members4 ,some suppose that there are really only two cotyledons even in a ,pine embryo1 but these divided or split up congenitally so as to imitate a greater number4 ,but as leaves are often in whorls on ordinary stems1 they may be so at the very beginning4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,section of a ,pine-seed1 showing its polycotyledonous embryo in the centre of the albumen1 moderately magnified4 #eg4 ,seedling of same1 showing the freshly expanded six cotyledons in a whorl1 and the plumule just appearing4 #dj4 ,monocotyledonous 7meaning with single cotyledon7 is the name of the one-cotyledoned sort of embryo4 ,this goes along with peculiarities in stem1 leaves1 and flowers1 which all together associate such plants into a great class1 called ,,monocotyledonous ,,plants1 or1 for shortness1 ,,monocotyls4 ,it means merely that the leaves are alternate from the very first4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,section of a seed of the ,iris1 or ,flower-de-,luce1 enlarged1 showing its small embryo in the albumen1 near the bottom4 #ei4 ,a germinating seedling of the same1 its plumule developed into the first four leaves 7alternate71 the first one rudimentary1 the cotyledon remains in the seed4 #da4 ,in ,iris 7,fig4 #eh1 #ei7 the embryo in the seed is a small cylinder at one end of the mass of the albumen1 with no apparent distinction of parts4 ,the end which almost touches the seed coat is caulicle1 the other end belongs to the solitary cotyledon4 ,in germination the whole lengthens 7but mainly the cotyledon7 only enough to push the proximate end fairly out of the seed2 from this end the root is formed1 and from a little higher the plumule later emerges4 ,it would appear therefore that the cotyledon answers to a minute leaf rolled up1 and that a chink through which the plumule grows out is a part of the inrolled edges4 ,the embryo of ,indian ,corn shows these parts on a larger scale and in a more open state 7,fig4 #ff-fh74 ,there1 in the seed1 the cotyledon remains1 imbibing nourishment from the softened albumen1 and transmitting it to the growing root below and new-forming leaves above4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,section of an ,onion seed showing the slender and coiled embryo in the albumen1 moderately magnified4 #fa4 ,seed of same in early germination4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,germinating ,onion1 more advanced1 the chink at base of cotyledon opening for the protrusion of the plumule1 consisting of a thread-shaped leaf4 #fc4 ,section of base of ,fig4 #fb1 showing plumule enclosed4 #fd4 ,section of same later1 plumule emerging4 #fe4 ,later stage of #fb1 upper part cut off4 #ff4 ,a grain of ,indian ,corn1 flatwise1 cut away a little1 so as to show the embryo1 lying on the albumen which makes the principal bulk of the seed4 #fg4 ,a grain cut through the middle in the opposite direction1 dividing the embryo through its thick cotyledon and its plumule1 the latter consisting of two leaves1 one enclosing the other4 #fh4 ,the embryo taken out whole2 the thick mass is the cotyledon1 the narrow body partly enclosed by it is the plumule1 the little projection at its base is the very short radicle enclosed in the sheathing base of the first leaf of the plumule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,grain of ,indian ,corn in germination1 the ascending sprout is the first leaf of the plumule1 enclosing the younger leaves within1 at its base the primary root has broken through4 #gj4 ,the same1 advanced2 the second and third leaves developing1 while the sheathing first leaf does not further develop4 #db4 ,the general plan is the same in the ,onion 7,fig4 #fj-fe71 but with a striking difference4 ,the embryo is long1 and coiled in the albumen of the seed4 ,to ordinary examination it shows no distinction of parts4 ,but germination plainly shows that all except the lower end of it is cotyledon4 ,for after it has lengthened into a long thread1 the chink from which the plumule in time emerges is seen at the base1 or near it1 so the caulicle is extremely short1 and does not elongate1 but sends out from its base a simple root1 and afterwards others in a cluster4 ,not only does the cotyledon lengthen enormously in the seedling1 but 7unlike that of ,iris1 ,indian ,corn1 and all the cereal grains7 it raises the comparatively light seed into the air1 the tip still remaining in the seed and feeding upon the albumen4 ,when this food is exhausted and the seedling is well established in the soil1 the upper end decays and the emptied husk of the seed falls away4 #dc4 ,in ,maize or ,indian ,corn 7,fig4 #ff-gj71 the embryo is more developed in the seed1 and its parts can be made out4 ,it lies against the starchy albumen1 but is not enclosed therein4 ,the larger part of it is the cotyledon1 thickish1 its edges involute1 and its back in contact with the albumen2 partly enclosed by it is the well-developed plumule or bud which is to grow4 ,for the cotyledon remains in the seed to fulfil its office of imbibing nourishment from the softened albumen1 which it conveys to the growing sprout2 the part of this sprout which is visible is the first leaf of the plumule rolled up into a sheath and enclosing the rudiments of the succeeding leaves1 at the base enclosing even the minute caulicle4 ,in germination the first leaf of the plumule develops only as a sort of sheath1 protecting the tender parts within2 the second and the third form the first foliage4 ,the caulicle never lengthens3 the first root1 which is formed at its lower end1 or from any part of it1 has to break through the enclosing sheath2 and succeeding roots soon spring from all or any of the nodes of the plumule4 #dd4 ,simple-stemmed ,plants are thus built up1 by the continuous production of one leaf-bearing portion of stem from the summit of the preceding one1 beginning with the initial stem 7or caulicle7 in the embryo4 ,some ,dicotyls and many ,monocotyls develop only in this single line of growth 7as to parts above ground7 until the flowering state is approached4 ,for some examples1 see ,cycas 7,fig4 #ga1 front1 at the left72 a tall ,yucca or ,spanish ,bayonet1 and two ,cocoa-nut ,palms behind2 at the right1 a group of ,sugar-canes1 and a ,banana behind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,simple-stemmed vegetation4 ,section ,,iv4 ,,growth ,,from ,,buds3 ,,branching4 #de4 ,most plants increase the amount of their vegetation by branching1 that is1 by producing lateral shoots4 #df4 ,roots branch from any part and usually without definite order4 ,stems normally give rise to branches only at definite points1 namely1 at the nodes1 and there only from the axils of leaves4 #dg4 ,buds 7,fig4 #gb1 #gc74 ,every incipient shoot is a ,bud 7#ab74 ,a stem continues its growth by its terminal bud2 it branches by the formation and development of lateral buds4 ,as normal lateral buds occupy the axils of leaves1 they are called axillary buds4 ,as leaves are symmetrically arranged on the stem1 the buds in their axils and the branches into which axillary buds grow partake of this symmetry4 ,the most conspicuous buds are the scaly winter-buds of most shrubs and trees of temperate and cold climates2 but the name belongs as well to the forming shoot or branch of any herb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,shoot of ,horse-chestnut1 of one year's growth1 taken in autumn after the leaves have fallen2 showing the large terminal bud and smaller axillary buds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,similar shoot of ,shagbark ,hickory1 ,carya alba4 #dh4 ,the ,terminal ,bud1 in the most general sense1 may be said to exist in the embryo1--as cotyledons1 or the cotyledons and plumule1--and to crown each successive growth of the simple stem so long as the summit is capable of growth4 ,the whole ascending growth of the ,palm1 ,cycas1 and the like 7such as in ,fig4 #ga7 is from a terminal bud4 ,branches1 being repetitions of the main stem and growing in the same way1 are also lengthened by terminal buds4 ,those of ,horse-chestnut1 ,hickory1 ,maples1 and such trees1 being the resting buds of winter1 are conspicuous by their protective covering of scales4 ,these bud-scales1 as will hereafter be shown1 are themselves a kind of leaves4 #di4 ,axillary ,buds were formed on these annual shoots early in the summer4 ,occasionally they grow the same season into branches2 at least1 some of them are pretty sure to do so whenever the growing terminal bud at the end of the shoot is injured or destroyed4 ,otherwise they may lie dormant until the following spring4 ,in many trees or shrubs these axillary buds do not show themselves until spring2 but if searched for1 they may be detected1 though of small size1 hidden under the bark4 ,sometimes1 although early formed1 they are concealed all summer long under the base of the leaf-stalk1 which is then hollowed out into a sort of inverted cup1 like a candle-extinguisher1 to cover them2 as in the ,locust1 the ,yellow-wood1 or more strikingly in the ,button-wood or ,plane-tree 7,fig4 #gd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,an axillary bud1 concealed under the hollowed base of the leaf-stalk1 in ,buttonwood or ,plane-tree4 #ej4 ,the leaf-scars1 so conspicuous in ,fig4 #gb1 #gc1 under each axillary bud1 mark the place where the stalk of the subtending leaf was attached until it fell in autumn4 #ea4 ,scaly ,buds1 which are well represented in ,fig4 #gb1 #gc1 commonly belong to trees and shrubs of countries in which growth is suspended during winter4 ,the scaly coverings protect the tender young parts beneath1 not so much by keeping out the cold1 which of course would penetrate the bud in time1 as by shielding the interior from the effects of sudden changes4 ,there are all gradations between these and #eb4 ,naked ,buds1 in which these scales are inconspicuous or wanting1 as in most herbs1 at least above ground1 and most tropical trees and shrubs4 ,but nearly related plants of the same climate may differ widely in this respect4 ,rhododendrons have strong and scaly winter-buds2 while in ,kalmia they are naked4 ,one species of ,viburnum1 the ,hobble-bush1 has completely naked buds1 what would be a pair of scales developing into the first leaves in spring2 while another 7the ,snowball7 has conspicuous scaly buds4 #ec4 ,vigor of ,vegetation from strong buds4 ,large and strong buds1 like those of the ,horse-chestnut1 ,hickory1 and the like1 contain several leaves1 or pairs of leaves1 ready formed1 folded and packed away in small compass1 just as the seed-leaves of a strong embryo are packed away in the seed3 they may even contain all the blossoms of the ensuing season1 plainly visible as small buds4 ,and the stems upon which these buds rest are filled with abundant nourishment1 which was deposited the summer before in the wood or in the bark4 ,under the surface of the soil1 or on it covered with the fallen leaves of autumn1 similar strong buds of our perennial herbs may be found2 while beneath are thick roots1 rootstocks1 or tubers1 charged with a great store of nourishment for their use4 ,this explains how it is that vegetation from such buds shoots forth so vigorously in the spring of the year1 and clothes the bare and lately frozen surface of the soil1 as well as the naked boughs of trees1 very promptly with a covering of fresh green1 and often with brilliant blossoms4 ,everything was prepared1 and even formed1 beforehand3 the short joints of stem in the bud have only to lengthen1 and to separate the leaves from each other so that they may unfold and grow4 ,only a small part of the vegetation of the season comes directly from the seed1 and none of the earliest vernal vegetation4 ,this is all from buds which have lived through the winter4 #ed4 ,the ,arrangement of ,branches1 being that of axillary buds1 answers to that of the leaves4 ,now leaves principally are either opposite or alternate4 ,leaves are opposite when there are two from the same joint of stem1 as in ,maples 7,fig4 #bj71 the two being on opposite sides of the stem2 and so the axillary buds and branches are opposite1 as in ,fig4 #ge4 ,leaves are alternate when there is only one from each joint of stem1 as in the ,oak1 ,lime-tree1 ,poplar1 ,button-wood 7,fig4 #gd71 ,morning-,glory 7,fig4 #de1--not counting the seed-leaves1 which of course are opposite1 there being a pair of them72 also in ,indian ,corn 7,fig4 #gj71 and ,iris 7,fig4 #ei74 ,consequently the axillary buds are also alternate1 as in ,hickory 7,fig4 #gc72 and the branches they form alternate1--making a different kind of spray from the other mode1 one branch shooting on one side of the stem and the next on some other4 ,for in the alternate arrangement no leaf is on the same side of the stem as the one next above or next below it4 #ee4 ,but the symmetry of branches 7unlike that of the leaves7 is rarely complete4 ,this is due to several causes1 and most commonly to the #ef4 ,non-development of buds4 ,it never happens that all the buds grow4 ,if they did1 there might be as many branches in any year as there were leaves the year before4 ,and of those which do begin to grow1 a large portion perish1 sooner or later1 for want of nourishment1 or for want of light1 or because those which first begin to grow have an advantage1 which they are apt to keep1 taking to themselves the nourishment of the stem1 and starving the weaker buds4 ,in the ,horse-chestnut 7,fig4 #gb71 ,hickory 7,fig4 #gc71 ,magnolia1 and most other trees with large scaly buds1 the terminal bud is the strongest1 and has the advantage in growth2 and next in strength are the upper axillary buds3 while the former continues the shoot of the last year1 some of the latter give rise to branches1 and the rest fail to grow4 ,in the ,lilac also 7,fig4 #ge71 the uppermost axillary buds are stronger than the lower2 but the terminal bud rarely appears at all2 in its place the uppermost pair of axillary buds grow1 and so each stem branches every year into two1--making a repeatedly two-forked ramification1 as in ,fig4 #gf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,shoot of ,lilac1 with winter buds2 the two uppermost axillary ones strong2 the terminal not developed4 #gf4 ,forking ramification of ,lilac2 reduced in size4 #eg4 ,latent ,buds4 ,axillary buds that do not grow at the proper season1 and especially those which make no appearance externally1 may long remain latent1 and at length upon a favorable occasion start into growth1 so forming branches apparently out of place as they are out of time4 ,the new shoots seen springing directly out of large stems may sometimes originate from such latent buds1 which have preserved their life for years4 ,but commonly these arise from #eh4 ,adventitious ,buds4 ,these are buds which certain shrubs and trees produce anywhere on the surface of the wood1 especially where it has been injured4 ,they give rise to the slender twigs which often feather the sides of great branches of our ,american ,elms4 ,they sometimes form on the root1 which naturally is destitute of buds2 they are even found upon some leaves2 and they are sure to appear on the trunks and roots of ,willows1 ,poplars1 and ,chestnuts1 when these are wounded or mutilated4 ,indeed ,osier-,willows are pollarded1 or cut off1 from time to time1 by the cultivator1 for the purpose of producing a crop of slender adventitious twigs1 suitable for basket-work4 ,such branches1 being altogether irregular1 of course interfere with the natural symmetry of the tree4 ,another cause of irregularity1 in certain trees and shrubs1 is the formation of what are called ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,tartarean ,honeysuckle1 with three accessory buds in each axil4 #ei4 ,accessory or ,supernumerary ,buds4 ,there are cases where two1 three1 or more buds spring from the axil of a leaf1 instead of the single one which is ordinarily found there4 ,sometimes they are placed one over the other1 as in the ,aristolochia or ,pipe-,vine1 and in the ,tartarean ,honeysuckle 7,fig4 #gg72 also in the ,honey-,locust1 and in the ,walnut and ,butternut 7,fig4 #gh71 where the upper supernumerary bud is a good way out of the axil and above the others4 ,and this is here stronger than the others1 and grows into a branch which is considerably out of the axil1 while the lower and smaller ones commonly do not grow at all4 ,in other cases three buds stand side by side in the axil1 as in the ,hawthorn1 and the ,red ,maple 7,fig4 #gi47 ,if these were all to grow into branches1 they would stifle each other4 ,but some of them are commonly flower-buds3 in the ,red ,maple1 only the middle one is a leaf-bud1 and it does not grow until after those on each side of it have expanded the blossoms they contain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,butternut branch1 with accessory buds1 the uppermost above the axil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,red-,maple branch1 with accessory buds placed side by side4 ,the annular lines toward the base in this and in ,fig4 #gb are scars of the bud-scales1 and indicate the place of the winter-bud of the preceding year4 #fj4 ,sorts of ,buds4 ,it may be useful to enumerate the kinds of buds which have been described or mentioned4 ,they are ,terminal1 when they occupy the summit of 7or terminate7 a stem1 ,lateral1 when they are borne on the side of a stem2 of which the regular kind is the ,axillary1 situated in the axil of a leaf4 ,these are ,accessory or ,supernumerary1 when they are in addition to the normal solitary bud2 and these are ,collateral1 when side by side2 ,superposed1 when one above another2 ,extra-axillary1 when they appear above the axil1 as some do when superposed1 and as occasionally is the case when single4 ,naked buds2 those which have no protecting scales4 ,scaly buds2 those which have protecting scales1 which are altered leaves or bases of leaves4 ,leaf-buds1 contain or give rise to leaves1 and develop into a leafy shoot4 ,flower-buds1 contain or consist of blossoms1 and no leaves4 ,mixed buds1 contain both leaves and blossoms4 #fa4 ,definite annual ,growth from winter buds is marked in most of the shoots from strong buds1 such as those of the ,horse-chestnut and ,hickory 7,fig4 #gb1 #gc74 ,such a bud generally contains1 already formed in miniature1 all or a great part of the leaves and joints of stem it is to produce1 makes its whole growth in length in the course of a few weeks1 or sometimes even in a few days1 and then forms and ripens its buds for the next year's similar growth4 #fb4 ,indefinite annual ,growth1 on the other hand1 is well marked in such trees or shrubs as the ,honey-,locust1 ,sumac1 and in sterile shoots of the ,rose1 ,blackberry1 and ,raspberry4 ,that is1 these shoots are apt to grow all summer long1 until stopped by the frosts of autumn or some other cause4 ,consequently they form and ripen no terminal bud protected by scales1 and the upper axillary buds are produced so late in the season that they have no time to mature1 nor has their wood time to solidify and ripen4 ,such stems therefore commonly die back from the top in winter1 or at least all their upper buds are small and feeble2 so the growth of the succeeding year takes place mainly from the lower axillary buds1 which are more mature4 #fc4 ,deliquescent and ,excurrent ,growth4 ,in the former case1 and wherever axillary buds take the lead1 there is1 of course1 no single main stem1 continued year after year in a direct line1 but the trunk is soon lost in the branches4 ,trees so formed commonly have rounded or spreading tops4 ,of such trees with deliquescent stems1--that is1 with the trunk dissolved1 as it were1 into the successively divided branches1--the common ,american ,elm 7,fig4 #hj7 is a good illustration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,an ,american ,elm1 with ,spruce-trees1 and on the left ,arbor ,vitae4 #fd4 ,on the other hand1 the main stem of ,firs and ,spruces1 unless destroyed by some injury1 is carried on in a direct line throughout the whole growth of the tree1 by the development year after year of a terminal bud3 this forms a single1 uninterrupted shaft1--an excurrent trunk1 which cannot be confounded with the branches that proceed from it4 ,of such spiry or spire-shaped trees1 the ,firs or ,spruces are characteristic and familiar examples4 ,there are all gradations between the two modes4 ,section ,v4 ,,roots4 #fe4 ,it is a property of stems to produce roots4 ,stems do not spring from roots in ordinary cases1 as is generally thought1 but roots from stems4 ,when perennial herbs arise from the ground1 as they do at spring-time1 they rise from subterranean stems4 #ff4 ,the ,primary ,root is a downward growth from the root-end of the caulicle1 that is1 of the initial stem of the embryo 7,fig4 #e-g1 #ha74 ,if it goes on to grow it makes a main or tap-root1 as in ,fig4 #cg1 etc4 ,some plants keep this main root throughout their whole life1 and send off only small side branches2 as in the ,carrot and ,radish3 and in various trees1 like the ,oak1 it takes the lead of the side-branches for several years1 unless accidentally injured1 as a strong tap-root4 ,but commonly the main root divides off very soon1 and is lost in the branches4 ,multiple primary roots now and then occur1 as in the seedling of ,pumpkin 7,fig4 #bg71 where a cluster is formed even at the first1 from the root-end of the caulicle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,seedling ,maple1 of the natural size2 the root well supplied with root hairs1 here large enough to be seen by the naked eye4 #hb4 ,lower end of this root1 magnified1 the root seen just as root-hairs are beginning to form a little behind the tip4 #fg4 ,secondary ,roots are those which arise from other parts of the stem4 ,any part of the stem may produce them1 but they most readily come from the nodes4 ,as a general rule they naturally spring1 or may be made to spring1 from almost any young stem1 when placed in favorable circumstances1--that is1 when placed in the soil1 or otherwise supplied with moisture and screened from the light4 ,for the special tendency of the root is to avoid the light1 seek moisture1 and therefore to bury itself in the soil4 ,propagation by division1 which is so common and so very important in cultivation1 depends upon the proclivity of stems to strike root4 ,stems or branches which remain under ground give out roots as freely as roots themselves give off branches4 ,stems which creep on the ground most commonly root at the joints2 so will most branches when bent to the ground1 as in propagation by layering2 and propagation by cuttings equally depends upon the tendency of the cut end of a shoot to produce roots4 ,thus1 a piece of a plant which has stem and leaves1 either developed or in the bud1 may be made to produce roots1 and so become an independent plant4 #fh4 ,contrast between ,stem and ,root4 ,stems are ascending axes2 roots are descending axes4 ,stems grow by the successive development of internodes 7#ac71 one after another1 each leaf-bearing at its summit 7or node72 so that it is of the essential nature of a stem to bear leaves4 ,roots bear no leaves1 are not distinguishable into nodes and internodes1 but grow on continuously from the lower end4 ,they commonly branch freely1 but not from any fixed points nor in definite order4 #fi4 ,although roots generally do not give rise to stems1 and therefore do not propagate the plant1 exceptions are not uncommon4 ,for as stems may produce adventitious buds1 so also may roots4 ,the roots of the ,sweet ,potato among herbs1 and of the ,osage ,orange among trees freely produce adventitious buds1 developing into leafy shoots2 and so these plants are propagated by root-cuttings4 ,but most growths of subterranean origin which pass for roots are forms of stems1 the common ,potato for example4 #gj4 ,roots of ordinary kinds and uses may be roughly classed into fibrous and fleshy4 #ga4 ,fibrous ,roots1 such as those of ,indian ,corn 7,fig4 #gj71 of most annuals1 and of many perennials1 serve only for absorption3 these are slender or thread-like4 ,fine roots of this kind1 and the fine branches which most roots send out are called ,,rootlets4 #gb4 ,the whole surface of a root absorbs moisture from the soil while fresh and new2 and the newer roots and rootlets are1 the more freely do they imbibe4 ,accordingly1 as long as the plant grows above ground1 and expands fresh foliage1 from which moisture largely escapes into the air1 so long it continues to extend and multiply its roots in the soil beneath1 renewing and increasing the fresh surface for absorbing moisture1 in proportion to the demand from above4 ,and when growth ceases above ground1 and the leaves die and fall1 or no longer act1 then the roots generally stop growing1 and their soft and tender tips harden4 ,from this period1 therefore1 until growth begins anew the next spring1 is the best time for transplanting2 especially for trees and shrubs4 #gc4 ,the absorbing surface of young roots is much increased by the formation1 near their tips1 of ,,root-,,hairs 7,fig4 #ha1 #hb71 which are delicate tubular outgrowths from the surface1 through the delicate walls of which moisture is promptly imbibed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc-he4 ,forms of tap-root4 #gd4 ,fleshy ,roots are those in which the root becomes a storehouse of nourishment4 ,typical roots of this kind are those of such biennials as the turnip and carrot2 in which the food created in the first season's vegetation is accumulated1 to be expended the next season in a vigorous growth and a rapid development of flowers1 fruit1 and seed4 ,by the time the seed is matured the exhausted root dies1 and with it the whole plant4 #ge4 ,fleshy roots may be single or multiple4 ,the single root of the commoner biennials is the primary root1 or tap-root1 which begins to thicken in the seedling4 ,names are given to its shapes1 such as ,conical1 when it thickens most at the crown1 or where it joins the stem1 and tapers regularly downwards to a point1 as in the ,parsnip and ,carrot 7,fig4 #hd72 ,turnip-shaped or napiform1 when greatly thickened above1 but abruptly becoming slender below2 as the ,turnip 7,fig4 #hc72 and ,spindle-shaped1 or ,fusiform1 when thickest in the middle and tapering to both ends2 as the common ,radish 7,fig4 #he74 #gf4 ,these examples are of primary roots4 ,it will be seen that turnips1 carrots1 and the like1 are not pure root throughout2 for the caulicle1 from the lower end of which the root grew1 partakes of the thickening1 perhaps also some joints of stem above3 so the bud-bearing and growing top is stem4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,sweet-,potato plant forming thickened roots4 ,some in the middle are just beginning to thicken2 one at the left has grown more2 one at the right is still larger4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,fascicled fusiform roots of a ,dahlia3 a1 a1 buds on base of stem4 #gg4 ,a fine example of secondary roots 7#fg71 some of which remain fibrous for absorption1 while a few thicken and store up food for the next season's growth1 is furnished by the ,sweet ,potato 7,fig4 #hf74 ,as stated above1 these are used for propagation by cuttings2 for any part will produce adventitious buds and shoots4 ,the ,dahlia produces fascicled 7i4 e4 clustered7 fusiform roots of the same kind1 at the base of the stem 7,fig4 #hg73 but these1 like most roots1 do not produce adventitious buds4 ,the buds by which ,dahlias are propagated belong to the surviving base of the stem above4 #gh4 ,anomalous ,roots1 as they may be called1 are those which subserve other uses than absorption1 food-storing1 and fixing the plant to the soil4 ,aerial ,roots1 i4 e4 those that strike from stems in the open air1 are common in moist and warm climates1 as in the ,mangrove which reaches the coast of ,florida1 the ,banyan1 and1 less strikingly1 in some herbaceous plants1 such as ,sugar ,cane1 and even in ,indian ,corn4 ,such roots reach the ground at length1 or tend to do so4 ,aerial ,rootlets are abundantly produced by many climbing plants1 such as the ,ivy1 ,poison ,ivy1 ,trumpet ,creeper1 etc41 springing from the side of stems1 which they fasten to trunks of trees1 walls1 or other supports4 ,these are used by the plant for climbing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,epiphytes of ,florida and ,georgia1 viz41 ,epidendrum conopseum1 a small ,orchid1 and ,tillandsia usneoides1 the so-called ,long ,moss or ,black ,moss1 which is no moss1 but a flowering plant1 also ,t4 recurvata2 on a bough of ,live ,oak4 #gi4 ,epiphytes1 or ,air-,plants 7,fig4 #hh71 are called by the former name because commonly growing upon the trunks or limbs of other plants2 by the latter because1 having no connection with the soil1 they must derive their sustenance from the air only4 ,they have aerial roots1 which do not reach the ground1 but are used to fix the plant to the surface upon which the plant grows3 they also take a part in absorbing moisture from the air4 #hj4 ,parasitic ,plants1 of which there are various kinds1 strike their roots1 or what answer to roots1 into the tissue of foster plants1 or form attachments with their surface1 so as to prey upon their juices4 ,of this sort is the ,mistletoe1 the seed of which germinates on the bough where it falls or is left by birds2 and the forming root penetrates the bark and engrafts itself into the wood1 to which it becomes united as firmly as a natural branch to its parent stem2 and indeed the parasite lives just as if it were a branch of the tree it grows and feeds on4 ,a most common parasitic herb is the ,dodder2 which abounds in low grounds in summer1 and coils its long and slender1 leafless1 yellowish stems--resembling tangled threads of yarn--round and round the stalks of other plants2 wherever they touch piercing the bark with minute and very short rootlets in the form of suckers1 which draw out the nourishing juices of the plants laid hold of4 ,other parasitic plants1 like the ,beech-drops and ,pine-sap1 fasten their roots under ground upon the roots of neighboring plants1 and rob them of their juices4 #ha4 ,some plants are partly parasitic2 while most of their roots act in the ordinary way1 others make suckers at their tips which grow fast to the roots of other plants and rob them of nourishment4 ,some of our species of ,gerardia do this 7,fig4 #hi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,roots of ,yellow ,gerardia1 some attached to and feeding on the root of a ,blueberry-bush4 #hb4 ,there are phanerogamous plants1 like ,monotropa or ,indian ,pipe1 the roots of which feed mainly on decaying vegetable matter in the soil4 ,these are ,,saprophytes1 and they imitate ,mushrooms and other ,fungi in their mode of life4 #hc4 ,duration of ,roots1 etc4 ,roots are said to be either annual1 biennial1 or perennial4 ,as respects the first and second1 these terms may be applied either to the root or to the plant4 #hd4 ,annuals1 as the name denotes1 live for only one year1 generally for only a part of the year4 ,they are of course herbs2 they spring from the seed1 blossom1 mature their fruit and seed1 and then die1 root and all4 ,annuals of our temperate climates with severe winters start from the seed in spring1 and perish at or before autumn4 ,where the winter is a moist and growing season and the summer is dry1 winter annuals prevail2 their seeds germinate under autumn or winter rains1 grow more or less during winter1 blossom1 fructify1 and perish in the following spring or summer4 ,annuals are fibrous-rooted4 #he4 ,biennials1 of which the ,turnip1 ,beet1 and ,carrot are familiar examples1 grow the first season without blossoming1 usually thicken their roots1 laying up in them a stock of nourishment1 are quiescent during the winter1 but shoot vigorously1 blossom1 and seed the next spring or summer1 mainly at the expense of the food stored up1 and then die completely4 ,annuals and biennials flower only once2 hence they have been called ,monocarpic 7that is1 once-fruiting7 plants4 #hf4 ,perennials live and blossom year after year4 ,a perennial herb1 in a temperate or cooler climate1 usually dies down to the ground at the end of the season's growth4 ,but subterranean portions of stem1 charged with buds1 survive to renew the development4 ,shrubs and trees are of course perennial2 even the stems and branches above ground live on and grow year after year4 #hg4 ,there are all gradations between annuals and biennials1 and between these and perennials1 as also between herbs and shrubs2 and the distinction between shrubs and trees is quite arbitrary4 ,there are perennial herbs and even shrubs of warm climates which are annuals when raised in a climate which has a winter1--being destroyed by frost4 ,the ,castor-oil plant is an example4 ,there are perennial herbs of which only small portions survive1 as off-shoots1 or1 in the ,potato1 as tubers1 etc4 ,section ,,vi4 ,,stems4 #hh4 ,the ,stem is the axis of the plant1 the part which bears all the other organs4 ,branches are secondary stems1 that is1 stems growing out of stems4 ,the stem at the very beginning produces roots1 in most plants a single root from the base of the embryo-stem1 or caulicle4 ,as this root becomes a descending axis1 so the stem1 which grows in the opposite direction is called the ascending axis4 ,rising out of the soil1 the stem bears leaves2 and leaf-bearing is the particular characteristic of the stem4 ,but there are forms of stems that remain underground1 or make a part of their growth there4 ,these do not bear leaves1 in the common sense2 yet they bear rudiments of leaves1 or what answers to leaves1 although not in the form of foliage4 ,the so-called stemless or acaulescent plants are those which bear no obvious stem 7caulis7 above ground1 but only flower-stalks1 and the like4 #hi4 ,stems above ground1 through differences in duration1 texture1 and size1 form herbs1 shrubs1 trees1 etc41 or in other terms are ,herbaceous1 dying down to the ground every year1 or after blossoming4 ,suffrutescent1 slightly woody below1 there surviving from year to year4 ,suffruticose or ,frutescent1 when low stems are decidedly woody below1 but herbaceous above4 ,fruticose or ,shrubby1 woody1 living from year to year1 and of considerable size1--not1 however1 more than three or four times the height of a man4 ,arborescent1 when tree-like in appearance or mode of growth1 or approaching a tree in size4 ,arboreous1 when forming a proper tree-trunk4 #ij4 ,as to direction taken in growing1 stems may1 instead of growing upright or erect1 be ,diffuse1 that is1 loosely spreading in all directions4 ,declined1 when turned or bending over to one side4 ,decumbent1 reclining on the ground1 as if too weak to stand4 ,assurgent or ,ascending1 rising obliquely upwards4 ,procumbent or ,prostrate1 lying flat on the ground from the first4 ,creeping or ,repent1 prostrate on or just beneath the ground1 and striking root1 as does the ,white ,clover1 the ,partridge-berry1 etc4 ,climbing or ,scandent1 ascending by clinging to other objects for support1 whether by tendrils1 as do the ,pea1 ,grape-,vine1 and ,passion-flower and ,virginia ,creeper 7,fig4 #ib1 #ic72 by their twisting leaf-stalks1 as the ,virgin's ,bower2 or by rootlets1 like the ,ivy1 ,poison ,ivy1 and ,trumpet ,creeper4 ,twining or ,voluble1 when coiling spirally around other stems or supports2 like the ,morning-,glory 7,fig4 #ij7 and the ,hop4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,twining or voluble stem of ,morning-,glory4 #ia4 ,certain kinds of stems or branches1 appropriated to special uses1 have received distinct substantive names2 such as the following3 #ib4 ,a ,culm1 or straw-stem1 such as that of ,grasses and ,sedges4 #ic4 ,a ,caudex is the old name for such a peculiar trunk as a ,palm-stem2 it is also used for an upright and thick rootstock4 #id4 ,a ,sucker is a branch rising from stems under ground4 ,such are produced abundantly by the ,rose1 ,raspberry1 and other plants said to multiply by the root4 ,if we uncover them1 we see at once the great difference between these subterranean branches and real roots4 ,they are only creeping branches under ground4 ,remarking how the upright shoots from these branches become separate plants1 simply by the dying off of the connecting under-ground stems1 the gardener expedites the result by cutting them through with his spade4 ,that is1 he propagates the plant by division4 #ie4 ,a ,stolon is a branch from above ground1 which reclines or becomes prostrate and strikes root 7usually from the nodes7 wherever it rests on the soil4 ,thence it may send up a vigorous shoot1 which has roots of its own1 and becomes an independent plant when the connecting part dies1 as it does after a while4 ,the ,currant and the ,gooseberry naturally multiply in this way1 as well as by suckers 7which are the same thing1 only the connecting part is concealed under ground74 ,stolons must have suggested the operation of layering by bending down and covering with soil branches which do not naturally make stolons2 and after they have taken root1 as they almost always will1 the gardener cuts through the connecting stem1 and so converts a rooting branch into a separate plant4 #if4 ,an ,offset is a short stolon1 or sucker1 with a crown of leaves at the end1 as in the ,houseleek 7,fig4 #ia71 which propagates abundantly in this way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,houseleek 7,sempervivum71 with offsets4 #ig4 ,a ,runner1 of which the ,strawberry presents the most familiar and characteristic example1 is a long and slender1 tendril-like stolon1 or branch from next the ground1 destitute of conspicuous leaves4 ,each runner of the ,strawberry1 after having grown to its full length1 strikes root from the tip1 which fixes it to the ground1 then forms a bud there1 which develops into a tuft of leaves1 and so gives rise to a new plant1 which sends out new runners to act in the same way4 ,in this manner a single ,strawberry plant will spread over a large space1 or produce a great number of plants1 in the course of the summer1 all connected at first by the slender runners2 but these die in the following winter1 if not before1 and leave the plants as so many separate individuals4 #ih4 ,tendrils are branches of a very slender sort1 like runners1 not destined like them for propagation1 and therefore always destitute of buds or leaves1 being intended only for climbing4 ,simple tendrils are such as those of ,passion-flowers 7,fig4 #ib74 ,compound or branching tendrils are borne by the ,cucumber and ,pumpkin1 by the ,grape-,vine1 ,virginia ,creeper1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,a small ,passion-flower 7,passiflora sicyoides71 showing the tendrils4 #ii4 ,a tendril commonly grows straight and outstretched until it reaches some neighboring support1 such as a stem1 when its apex hooks around it to secure a hold2 then the whole tendril shortens itself by coiling up spirally1 and so draws the shoot of the growing plant nearer to the supporting object4 ,but the tendrils of the ,virginia ,creeper 7,ampelopsis1 ,fig4 #ic71 as also the shorter ones of the ,japanese species1 effect the object differently1 namely1 by expanding the tips of the tendrils into a flat disk1 with an adhesive face4 ,this is applied to the supporting object1 and it adheres firmly2 then a shortening of the tendril and its branches by coiling brings up the growing shoot close to the support4 ,this is an adaptation for climbing mural rocks or walls1 or the trunks of trees1 to which ordinary tendrils are unable to cling4 ,the ,ivy and ,poison ,ivy attain the same result by means of aerial rootlets 7#gh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,piece of the stem of ,virginia ,creeper1 bearing a leaf and a tendril4 #id4 ,tips of a tendril1 about the natural size1 showing the disks by which they hold fast to walls1 etc4 #ajj4 ,some tendrils are leaves or parts of leaves1 as those of the ,pea 7,fig4 #ce74 ,the nature of the tendril is known by its position4 ,a tendril from the axil of a leaf1 like that of ,passion-flowers 7,fig4 #ib7 is of course a stem1 i4 e4 a branch4 ,so is one which terminates a stem1 as in the ,grape-,vine4 #aja4 ,spines or ,thorns 7,fig4 #ie1 #if7 are commonly stunted and hardened branches or tips of stems or branches1 as are those of ,hawthorn1 ,honey-,locust1 etc4 ,in the ,pear and ,sloe all gradations occur between spines and spine-like 7spinescent7 branches4 ,spines may be reduced and indurated leaves2 as in the ,barberry1 where their nature is revealed by their situation1 underneath an axillary bud4 ,but prickles1 such as those of ,blackberry and ,roses1 are only excrescences of the bark1 and not branches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,a branching thorn of ,honey-,locust1 being an indurated leafless branch developed from an accessory bud far above the axil3 at the cut portion below1 three other buds 7a7 are concealed under the petiole4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,spine of ,cockspur ,thorn1 developed from an axillary bud1 as the leaf-scar below witnesses3 an accessory leaf-bud is seen at its base4 #ajb4 ,equally strange forms of stems are characteristic of the ,cactus family 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,these may be better understood by comparison with #ajc4 ,subterranean ,stems and ,branches4 ,these are very numerous and various2 but they are commonly overlooked1 or else are confounded with roots4 ,from their situation they are out of ordinary sight2 but they will well repay examination4 ,for the vegetation that is carried on under ground is hardly less varied or important than that above ground4 ,all their forms may be referred to four principal kinds3 namely1 the ,rhizoma 7,rhizome7 or ,rootstock1 the ,tuber1 the ,corm or solid bulb1 and the true ,bulb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,rootstocks1 or creeping subterranean branches1 of the ,peppermint4 #ajd4 ,the ,rootstock1 or ,rhizoma1 in its simplest form1 is merely a creeping stem or branch growing beneath the surface of the soil1 or partly covered by it4 ,of this kind are the so-called creeping1 running1 or scaly roots1 such as those by which the ,mint 7,fig4 #ig71 the ,couch-grass1 or ,quick-grass1 and many other plants1 spread so rapidly and widely1--by the root1 as it is said4 ,that these are really stems1 and not roots1 is evident from the way in which they grow2 from their consisting of a succession of joints2 and from the leaves which they bear on each node1 in the form of small scales1 just like the lowest ones on the upright stem next the ground4 ,they also produce buds in the axils of these scales1 showing the scales to be leaves2 whereas real roots bear neither leaves nor axillary buds4 ,placed as they are in the damp and dark soil1 such stems naturally produce roots1 just as the creeping stem does where it lies on the surface of the ground4 #aje4 ,it is easy to see why plants with these running rootstocks take such rapid and wide possession of the soil1 and why they are so hard to get rid of4 ,they are always perennials2 the subterranean shoots live over the first winter1 if not longer1 and are provided with vigorous buds at every joint4 ,some of these buds grow in spring into upright stems1 bearing foliage1 to elaborate nourishment1 and at length produce blossoms for reproduction by seed2 while many others1 fed by nourishment supplied from above1 form a new generation of subterranean shoots2 and this is repeated over and over in the course of the season or in succeeding years4 ,meanwhile1 as the subterranean shoots increase in number1 the older ones1 connecting the successive growths1 die off year by year1 liberating the already rooted side-branches as so many separate plants2 and so on indefinitely4 ,cutting these running rootstocks into pieces1 therefore1 by the hoe or the plough1 far from destroying the plant1 only accelerates the propagation2 it converts one many-branched plant into a great number of separate individuals4 ,cutting into pieces only multiplies the pest2 for each piece 7,fig4 #ih7 is already a plantlet1 with its roots and with a bud in the axil of its scale-like leaf 7either latent or apparent71 and with prepared nourishment enough to develop this bud into a leafy stem2 and so a single plant is all the more speedily converted into a multitude4 ,whereas1 when the subterranean parts are only roots1 cutting away the stem completely destroys the plant1 except in the rather rare cases where the root freely produces adventitious buds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,a piece of the running rootstock of the ,peppermint1 with its node or joint1 and an axillary bud ready to grow4 #ajf4 ,rootstocks are more commonly thickened by the storing up of considerable nourishing matter in their tissue4 ,the common species of ,iris 7,fig4 #afd7 in the gardens have stout rootstocks1 which are only partly covered by the soil1 and which bear foliage-leaves instead of mere scales1 closely covering the upper part1 while the lower produces roots4 ,as the leaves die1 year by year1 and decay1 a scar left in the form of a ring marks the place where each leaf was attached1 that is1 marks so many nodes1 separated by very short internodes4 #ajg4 ,some rootstocks are marked with large round scars of a different sort1 like those of the ,solomon's ,seal 7,fig4 #ii71 which gave this name to the plant1 from their looking somewhat like the impression of a seal upon wax4 ,here the rootstock sends up every spring an herbaceous stalk or stem1 which bears the foliage and flowers1 and dies in autumn4 ,the seal is the circular scar left by the death and separation of the base of the stout stalk from the living rootstock4 ,as but one of these is formed each year1 they mark the limits of a year's growth4 ,the bud at the end of the rootstock in the figure 7which was taken in summer7 will grow the next spring into the stalk of the season1 which1 dying in autumn1 will leave a similar scar1 while another bud will be formed farther on1 crowning the ever-advancing summit or growing end of the stem4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,rootstock of ,solomon's ,seal1 with the bottom of the stalk of the season1 and the bud for the next year's growth4 #ajh4 ,as each year's growth of stem makes its own roots1 it soon becomes independent of the older parts4 ,and after a certain age1 a portion annually dies off behind1 about as fast as it increases at the growing end1 death following life with equal and certain step1 with only a narrow interval4 ,in vigorous plants of ,solomon's ,seal or ,iris1 the living rootstock is several inches or a foot in length2 while in the short rootstock of ,trillium or ,birthroot 7,fig4 #ajj7 life is reduced to a narrower span4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,the very short rootstock and strong terminal bud of a ,trillium or ,birthroot4 #aji4 ,an upright or short rootstock1 like this of ,trillium1 is commonly called a ,,caudex 7#ic72 or when more shortened and thickened it would become a corm4 #aaj4 ,a ,tuber may be understood to be a portion of a rootstock thickened1 and with buds 7eyes7 on the sides4 ,of course1 there are all gradations between a tuber and a rootstock4 ,helianthus tuberosus1 the so-called ,jerusalem ,artichoke 7,fig4 #aja71 and the common ,potato1 are typical and familiar examples of the tuber4 ,the stalks by which the tubers are attached to the parent stem are at once seen to be different from the roots1 both in appearance and manner of growth4 ,the scales on the tubers are the rudiments of leaves2 the eyes are the buds in their axils4 ,the ,potato-plant has three forms of branches3 #a4 ,those that bear ordinary leaves expanded in the air1 to digest what they gather from it and what the roots gather from the soil1 and convert it into nourishment4 #b4 ,after a while a second set of branches at the summit of the plant bear flowers1 which form fruit and seed out of a portion of the nourishment which the leaves have prepared4 #c4 ,but a larger part of this nourishment1 while in a liquid state1 is carried down the stem1 into a third sort of branches under ground1 and accumulated in the form of starch at their extremities1 which become tubers1 or depositories of prepared solid food1--just as in the ,turnip1 ,carrot1 and ,dahlia 7,fig4 #hc-hg71 it is deposited in the root4 ,the use of the store of food is obvious enough4 ,in the autumn the whole plant dies1 except the seeds 7if it formed them7 and the tubers2 and the latter are left disconnected in the ground4 ,just as that small portion of nourishing matter which is deposited in the seed feeds the embryo when it germinates1 so the much larger portion deposited in the tuber nourishes its buds1 or eyes1 when they likewise grow1 the next spring1 into new plants4 ,and the great supply enables them to shoot with a greater vigor at the beginning1 and to produce a greater amount of vegetation than the seedling plant could do in the same space of time2 which vegetation in turn may prepare and store up1 in the course of a few weeks or months1 the largest quantity of solid nourishing material1 in a form most available for food4 ,taking advantage of this1 man has transported the ,potato from the cool ,andes of ,chili to other cool climates1 and makes it yield him a copious supply of food1 especially important in countries where the season is too short1 or the summer's heat too little1 for profitably cultivating the principal grain-plants4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,tubers of ,helianthus tuberosus1 called artichokes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,bulblet-like tubers1 such as are occasionally formed on the stem of a ,potato-plant above ground4 #aaa4 ,the ,corm or ,solid ,bulb1 like that of ,cyclamen 7,fig4 #ajc71 and of ,indian ,turnip 7,fig4 #ajd71 is a very short and thick fleshy subterranean stem1 often broader than high4 ,it sends off roots from its lower end1 or rather face1 leaves and stalks from its upper4 ,the corm of ,cyclamen goes on to enlarge and to produce a succession of flowers and leaves year after year4 ,that of ,indian ,turnip is formed one year and is consumed the next4 ,fig4 #ajd represents it in early summer1 having below the corm of last year1 from which the roots have fallen4 ,it is partly consumed by the growth of the stem for the season1 and the corm of the year is forming at base of the stem above the line of roots4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,corm of ,cyclamen1 much reduced in size3 roots from lower face1 leaf-stalks and flower-stalks from the upper4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,corm of ,indian ,turnip 7,arisaema74 #aab4 ,the corm of ,crocus 7,fig4 #aje1 #ajf71 like that of its relative ,gladiolus1 is also reproduced annually1 the new ones forming upon the summit and sides of the old4 ,such a corm is like a tuber in budding from the sides1 i4 e4 from the axils of leaves2 but these leaves1 instead of being small scales1 are the sheathing bases of foliage-leaves which covered the surface4 ,it resembles a true bulb in having these sheaths or broad scales2 but in the corm or solid bulb1 this solid part or stem makes up the principal bulk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,corm of a ,crocus1 the investing sheaths or dead leaf-bases stripped off4 ,the faint cross-lines represent the scars1 where the leaves were attached1 i4 e4 the nodes3 the spaces between are the internodes4 ,the exhausted corm of the previous year is underneath2 forming ones for next year on the summit and sides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,section of the same4 #aac4 ,the ,bulb1 strictly so-called1 is a stem like a reduced corm as to its solid part 7or plate72 while the main body consists of thickened scales1 which are leaves or leaf-bases4 ,these are like bud-scales2 so that in fact a bulb is a bud with fleshy scales on an exceedingly short stem4 ,compare a ,white ,lily bulb 7,fig4 #ajg7 with the strong scaly buds of the ,hickory and ,horse-chestnut 7,fig4 #gb and #gc71 and the resemblance will appear4 ,in corms1 as in tubers and rootstocks1 the store of food for future growth is deposited in the stem2 while in the bulb1 the greater part is deposited in the bases of the leaves1 changing them into thick scales1 which closely overlap or enclose one another4 #aad4 ,a ,scaly ,bulb 7like that of the ,lily1 ,fig4 #ajg1 #ajh7 is one in which the scales are thick but comparatively narrow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,bulb of a wild ,lily4 #ajh4 ,the same divided lengthwise1 showing two forming buds of the next generation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,a ground leaf of ,white ,lily1 its base 7cut across7 thickened into a bulb-scale4 ,this plainly shows that bulb-scales are leaves4 #aae4 ,a ,tunicated or ,coated ,bulb is one in which the scales enwrap each other1 forming concentric coats or layers1 as in ,hyacinth and ,onion4 #aaf4 ,bulblets are very small bulbs growing out of larger ones2 or small bulbs produced above ground on some plants1 as in the axils of the leaves of the bulbiferous ,lilies of the gardens 7,fig4 #aaj71 and often in the flower-clusters of the ,leek and ,onion4 ,they are plainly buds with thickened scales4 ,they never grow into branches1 but detach themselves when full grown1 fall to the ground1 and take root there to form new plants4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,bulblets in the axils of leaves of a ,tiger ,lily4 #aag4 ,consolidated ,vegetation4 ,an ordinary herb1 shrub1 or tree is evidently constructed on the plan developing an extensive surface4 ,in fleshy rootstocks1 tubers1 corms1 and bulbs1 the more enduring portion of the plant is concentrated1 and reduced for the time of struggle 7as against drought1 heat1 or cold7 to a small amount of exposed surface1 and this mostly sheltered in the soil4 ,there are many similar consolidated forms which are not subterranean4 ,thus plants like the ,houseleek 7,fig4 #ia7 imitate a bulb4 ,among ,cactuses the columnar species of ,cereus 7,fig4 #aaa1 b71 may be likened to rootstocks4 ,a green rind serves the purpose of foliage2 but the surface is as nothing compared with an ordinary leafy plant of the same bulk4 ,compare1 for instance1 the largest ,cactus known1 the ,giant ,cereus of the ,gila ,river 7,fig4 #aaa1 in the background71 which rises to the height of fifty or sixty feet1 with a common leafy tree of the same height1 such as that in ,fig4 #hi1 and estimate how vastly greater1 even without the foliage1 the surface of the latter is than that of the former4 ,compare1 in the same view1 an ,opuntia or ,prickly-,pear ,cactus1 its stem and branches formed of a succession of thick and flattened joints 7,fig4 #aaa1 a71 which may be likened to tubers1 or an ,epiphyllum 7d71 having short and flat joints1 with an ordinary leafy shrub or herb of equal size4 ,and finally1 in ,melon-,cactuses1 ,echinocactus 7c71 or other globose forms 7which may be likened to permanent corms71 with their globular or bulb-like shapes1 we have plants in the compactest shape2 their spherical figure being such as to expose the least possible amount of substance to the air4 ,these are adaptations to climates which are very dry1 either throughout or for a part of the year4 ,similarly1 bulbous and corm-bearing plants1 and the like1 are examples of a form of vegetation which in the growing season may expand a large surface to the air and light1 while during the period of rest the living vegetable is reduced to a globe1 or solid form of the least possible surface2 and this protected by its outer coats of dead and dry scales1 as well as by its situation under ground4 ,such are also adapted to a season of drought4 ,they largely belong to countries which have a long hot season of little or no rain1 when1 their stalks and foliage above and their roots beneath early perishing1 the plants rest securely in their compact bulbs1 filled with nourishment and retaining their moisture with great tenacity1 until the rainy season comes round4 ,then they shoot forth leaves and flowers with wonderful rapidity1 and what was perhaps a desert of arid sand becomes green with foliage and gay with blossoms1 almost in a day4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,section ,,vii4 ,,leaves4 #aah4 ,,stems bear leaves1 at definite points 7nodes1 #ac72 and these are produced in a great variety of forms1 and subserve various uses4 ,the commonest kind of leaf1 which therefore may be taken as the type or pattern1 is an expanded green body1 by means of which the plant exposes to the air and light the matters which it imbibes1 exhales certain portions1 and assimilates the residue into vegetable matter for its nourishment and growth4 #aai4 ,but the fact is already familiar 7#aj-cj7 that leaves occur under other forms and serve for other uses1--for the storage of food already assimilated1 as in thickened seed-leaves and bulb-scales2 for covering1 as in bud-scales2 and still other uses are to be pointed out4 ,indeed1 sometimes they are of no service to the plant1 being reduced to mere scales or rudiments1 such as those on the rootstocks of ,peppermint 7,fig4 #ig7 or the tubers of ,jerusalem ,artichoke 7,fig4 #aja74 ,these may be said to be of service only to the botanist1 in explaining to him the plan upon which a plant is constructed4 #abj4 ,accordingly1 just as a rootstock1 or a tuber1 or a tendril is a kind of stem1 so a bud-scale1 or a bulb-scale1 or a cotyledon1 or a petal of a flower1 is a kind of leaf4 ,even in respect to ordinary leaves1 it is natural to use the word either in a wider or in a narrower sense2 as when in one sense we say that a leaf consists of blade and petiole or leaf-stalk1 and in another sense say that a leaf is petioled1 or that the leaf of ,hepatica is three-lobed4 ,the connection should make it plain whether by leaf we mean leaf-blade only1 or the blade with any other parts it may have4 ,and the student will readily understand that by leaf in its largest or morphological sense1 the botanist means the organ which occupies the place of a leaf1 whatever be its form or its function4 ,sec4 #a4 ,,leaves ,,as ,,foliage4 #aba4 ,this is tautological2 for foliage is simply leaves3 but it is very convenient to speak of typical leaves1 or those which serve the plant for assimilation1 as foliage-leaves1 or ordinary leaves4 ,these may first be considered4 #abb4 ,the ,parts of a ,leaf4 ,the ordinary leaf1 complete in its parts1 consists of blade1 foot-stalk1 or petiole1 and a pair of stipules4 #abc4 ,first the ,,blade or ,,lamina1 which is the essential part of ordinary leaves1 that is1 of such as serve the purpose of foliage4 ,in structure it consists of a softer part1 the green pulp1 called parenchyma1 which is traversed and supported by a fibrous frame1 the parts of which are called ribs or veins1 on account of a certain likeness in arrangement to the veins of animals4 ,the whole surface is covered by a transparent skin1 the ,epidermis1 not unlike that which covers the surface of all fresh shoots4 #abd4 ,note that the leaf-blade expands horizontally1--that is1 normally presents its faces one to the sky1 the other to the ground1 or when the leaf is erect the upper face looks toward the stem that bears it1 the lower face away from it4 ,whenever this is not the case there is something to be explained4 #abe4 ,the framework consists of wood1--a fibrous and tough material which runs from the stem through the leaf-stalk1 when there is one1 in the form of parallel threads or bundles of fibres2 and in the blade these spread out in a horizontal direction1 to form the ribs and veins of the leaf4 ,the stout main branches of the framework are called the ,ribs4 ,when there is only one1 as in ,fig4 #aab1 #aad1 or a middle one decidedly larger than the rest1 it is called the ,midrib4 ,the smaller divisions are termed ,veins2 and their still smaller subdivisions1 ,veinlets4 ,the latter subdivide again and again1 until they become so fine that they are invisible to the naked eye4 ,the fibres of which they are composed are hollow2 forming tubes by which the sap is brought into the leaves and carried to every part4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,leaf of the ,quince3 b1 blade2 p1 petiole2 st1 stipules4 #abf4 ,venation is the name of the mode of veining1 that is1 of the way in which the veins are distributed in the blade4 ,this is of two principal kinds2 namely1 the parallel-veined1 and the netted-veined4 #abg4 ,in ,netted-veined 7also called ,reticulated7 leaves1 the veins branch off from the main rib or ribs1 divide into finer and finer veinlets1 and the branches unite with each other to form meshes of network4 ,that is1 they anastomose1 as anatomists say of the veins and arteries of the body4 ,the ,quince-leaf1 in ,fig4 #aab1 shows this kind of veining in a leaf with a single rib4 ,the ,maple1 ,basswood1 ,plane or ,buttonwood 7,fig4 #gd7 show it in leaves of several ribs4 #abh4 ,in parallel-veined leaves1 the whole framework consists of slender ribs or veins1 which run parallel with each other1 or nearly so1 from the base to the point of the leaf1--not dividing and subdividing1 nor forming meshes1 except by minute cross-veinlets4 ,the leaf of any grass1 or that of the ,lily of the ,valley 7,fig4 #aac7 will furnish a good illustration4 ,such parallel veins ,linnaeus called ,nerves1 and parallel-veined leaves are still commonly called nerved leaves1 while those of the other kind are said to be veined1--terms which it is convenient to use1 although these nerves and veins are all the same thing1 and have no likeness to the nerves and little to the veins of animals4 #abi4 ,netted-veined leaves belong to plants which have a pair of seed-leaves or cotyledons1 such as the ,maple 7,fig4 #bj1 #bd71 ,beech 7,fig4 #cc71 and the like2 while parallel-veined or nerved leaves belong to plants with one cotyledon or true seed-leaf2 such as the ,iris 7,fig4 #ei71 and ,indian ,corn 7,fig4 #gj74 ,so that a mere glance at the leaves generally tells what the structure of the embryo is1 and refers the plant to one or the other of these two grand classes1--which is a great convenience4 ,for when plants differ from each other in some one important respect1 they usually differ correspondingly in other respects also4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,a 7parallel-veined7 leaf of the ,lily of the ,valley4 #aad4 ,one of the ,calla ,lily4 #acj4 ,parallel-veined leaves are of two sorts1--one kind1 and the commonest1 having the ribs or nerves all running from the base to the point of the leaf1 as in the examples already given2 while in another kind they run from a midrib to the margin1 as in the common ,pickerel-weed of our ponds1 in the ,banana1 in ,calla 7,fig4 #aad71 and many similar plants of warm climates4 #aca4 ,netted-veined leaves are also of two sorts1 as in the examples already referred to4 ,in one case the veins all rise from a single rib 7the midrib71 as in ,fig4 #aab1 #aaf-abg4 ,such leaves are called ,feather-veined or ,penni-veined1 i4 e4 ,pinnately-veined2 both terms meaning the same thing1 namely1 that the veins are arranged on the sides of the rib like the plume of a feather on each side of the shaft4 #acb4 ,in the other case 7as in ,fig4 #gd1 #abi-acb71 the veins branch off from three1 five1 seven1 or nine ribs1 which spread from the top of the leaf-stalk1 and run through the blade like the toes of a web-footed bird4 ,hence these are said to be ,palmately or ,digitately veined1 or 7since the ribs diverge like rays from a centre7 ,radiate-veined4 #acc4 ,since the general outline of leaves accords with the framework or skeleton1 it is plain that feather-veined 7or penni-veined7 leaves will incline to elongated shapes1 or at least to be longer than broad2 while in radiate-veined leaves more rounded forms are to be expected4 ,a glance at the following figures shows this4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae-abj4 ,a series of shapes of feather-veined leaves4 #acd4 ,forms of ,leaves as to ,general ,outline4 ,it is necessary to give names to the principal shapes1 and to define them rather precisely1 since they afford easy marks for distinguishing species4 ,the same terms are used for all other flattened parts as well1 such as petals2 so that they make up a great part of the descriptive language of ,botany4 ,it will be a good exercise for young students to look up leaves answering to these names and definitions4 ,beginning with the narrower and proceeding to the broadest forms1 a leaf is said to be ,linear 7,fig4 #aae71 when narrow1 several times longer than wide1 and of the same breadth throughout4 ,lanceolate1 or ,lance-shaped1 when conspicuously longer than wide1 and tapering upwards 7,fig4 #aaf71 or both upwards and downwards4 ,oblong 7,fig4 #aag71 when nearly twice or thrice as long as broad4 ,elliptical 7,fig4 #aah7 is oblong with a flowing outline1 the two ends alike in width4 ,oval is the same as broadly elliptical1 or elliptical with the breadth considerably more than half the length4 ,ovate 7,fig4 #aai71 when the outline is like a section of a hen's egg lengthwise1 the broader end downward4 ,orbicular1 or ,rotund 7,fig4 #acb71 circular in outline1 or nearly so4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba1 oblanceolate2 #abb1 spatulate2 #abc1 obovate2 and #abd1 wedge-shaped1 feather-veined1 leaves4 #ace4 ,a leaf which tapers toward the base instead of toward the apex may be ,oblanceolate 7,fig4 #aba7 when of the lance-shaped form1 only more tapering toward the base than in the opposite direction4 ,spatulate 7,fig4 #abb7 when more rounded above1 but tapering thence to a narrow base1 like an old-fashioned spatula4 ,obovate 7,fig4 #abc7 or inversely ovate1 that is1 ovate with the narrower end down4 ,cuneate or ,cuneiform1 that is1 ,wedge-shaped 7,fig4 #abd71 broad above and tapering by nearly straight lines to an acute angle at the base4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe1 sagittate2 #abf1 auriculate2 and #abg1 halberd-shaped or hastate leaves4 #acf4 ,as to the ,base1 its shape characterizes several forms1 such as ,cordate or ,heart-shaped 7,fig4 #abj1 #abi71 when a leaf of an ovate form1 or something like it1 has the outline of its rounded base turned in 7forming a notch or sinus7 where the stalk is attached4 ,reniform1 or ,kidney-shaped 7,fig4 #aca71 like the last1 only rounder and broader than long4 ,auriculate1 or ,eared1 having a pair of small and blunt projections1 or ears1 at the base1 as in one species of ,magnolia 7,fig4 #abf74 ,sagittate1 or arrow-shaped1 where such ears are acute and turned downwards1 while the main body of the blade tapers upwards to a point1 as in the common ,sagittaria or ,arrow-head1 and in the ,arrow-leaved ,polygonum 7,fig4 #abe74 ,hastate1 or ,halberd-shaped1 when such lobes at the base point outwards1 giving the shape of the halberd of the olden time1 as in another ,polygonum 7,fig4 #abg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh-acb4 ,various forms of radiate-veined leaves4 ,peltate1 or ,shield-shaped 7,fig4 #acb71 is the name applied to a curious modification of the leaf1 commonly of a rounded form1 where the footstalk is attached to the lower surface1 instead of the base1 and therefore is naturally likened to a shield borne by the outstretched arm4 ,the common ,watershield1 the ,nelumbium1 and the ,white ,water-lily1 and also the ,mandrake1 exhibit this sort of leaf4 ,on comparing the shield-shaped leaf of the common ,marsh ,pennywort 7,fig4 #acb7 with that of another common species 7,fig4 #acj71 it is at once seen that a shield-shaped leaf is like a kidney-shaped 7,fig4 #acj1 #aca7 or other rounded leaf1 with the margins at the base brought together and united4 #acg4 ,as to the ,apex1 the following terms express the principal variations3-- ,acuminate1 ,pointed1 or ,taper-pointed1 when the summit is more or less prolonged into a narrowed or tapering point2 as in ,fig4 #acc4 ,acute1 ending in an acute angle or not prolonged point2 ,fig4 #acd4 ,obtuse1 with a blunt or rounded apex2 as in ,fig4 #ace1 etc4 ,truncate1 with the end as if cut off square2 as in ,fig4 #acf4 ,retuse1 with rounded summit slightly indented1 forming a very shallow notch1 as in ,fig4 #acg4 ,emarginate1 or ,notched1 indented at the end more decidedly2 as in ,fig4 #ach4 ,obcordate1 that is1 inversely heart-shaped1 where an obovate leaf is more deeply notched at the end 7,fig4 #aci71 as in ,white ,clover and ,wood-sorrel2 so as to resemble a cordate leaf inverted4 ,cuspidate1 tipped with a sharp and rigid point2 as in ,fig4 #adj4 ,mucronate1 abruptly tipped with a small and short point1 like a mere projection of the midrib2 as in ,fig4 #ada4 ,aristate1 ,awn-pointed1 and ,bristle-pointed1 are terms used when this mucronate point is extended into a longer bristle-form or slender appendage4 ,the first six of these terms can be applied to the lower as well as to the upper end of a leaf or other organ4 ,the others belong to the apex only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc-ada4 ,forms of the apex of leaves4 #ach4 ,as to degree and nature of ,division1 there is first of all the difference between ,simple ,leaves1 those in which the blade is of one piece1 however much it may be cut up1 and ,compound ,leaves1 those in which the blade consists of two or more separate pieces1 upon a common leaf-stalk or support4 ,yet between these two kinds every intermediate gradation is to be met with4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb-adg4 ,kinds of margin of leaves4 #aci4 ,as to ,particular ,outlines of ,simple ,leaves 7and the same applies to their separate parts71 they are ,entire1 when their general outline is completely filled out1 so that the margin is an even line1 without teeth or notches4 ,serrate1 or ,saw-toothed1 when the margin only is cut into sharp teeth1 like those of a saw1 and pointing forwards2 as in ,fig4 #adb4 ,dentate1 or ,toothed1 when such teeth point outwards1 instead of forwards2 as in ,fig4 #adc4 ,crenate1 or ,scalloped1 when the teeth are broad and rounded2 as in ,fig4 #add4 ,repand1 ,undulate1 or ,wavy1 when the margin of the leaf forms a wavy line1 bending slightly inwards and outwards in succession2 as in ,fig4 #ade4 ,sinuate1 when the margin is more strongly sinuous or turned inwards and outwards2 as in ,fig4 #adf4 ,incised1 ,cut1 or ,jagged1 when the margin is cut into sharp1 deep1 and irregular teeth or incisions2 as in ,fig4 #adg4 ,lobed1 when deeply cut4 ,then the pieces are in a general way called ,,lobes4 ,the number of the lobes is briefly expressed by the phrase two-lobed1 three-lobed1 five-lobed1 many-lobed1 etc41 as the case may be4 #adj4 ,when the depth and character of the lobing needs to be more particularly specified1 the following terms are employed1 viz43-- ,lobed1 in a special sense1 when the incisions do not extend deeper than about half-way between the margin and the centre of the blade1 if so far1 and are more or less rounded2 as in the leaves of the ,post-,oak1 ,fig4 #adh1 and the ,hepatica1 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,cleft1 when the incisions extend half way down or more1 and especially when they are sharp2 as in ,fig4 #adi1 #aec4 ,and the phrases two-cleft1 or1 in the ,latin form1 bifid1 three-cleft or trifid1 four-cleft or quadrifid1 five-cleft or quinquefid1 etc41 or many-cleft1 in the ,latin form1 multifid1--express the number of the ,segments1 or portions4 ,parted1 when the incisions are still deeper1 but yet do not quite reach to the midrib or the base of the blade2 as in ,fig4 #aej1 #aed4 ,and the terms two-parted1 three-parted1 etc41 express the number of such divisions4 ,divided1 when the incisions extend quite to the midrib1 as in the lower part of ,fig4 #aea1 or to the leaf-stalk1 as in ,fig4 #aee2 which really makes the leaf compound4 ,here1 using the ,latin form1 the leaf is said to be bisected1 trisected 7,fig4 #aee71 etc41 according to the number of the divisions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh1 pinnately lobed2 #adi1 pinnately cleft2 #aej1 pinnately parted2 #aea1 pinnately divided1 leaves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb1 palmately three-lobed2 #aec1 palmately three-cleft2 #aed1 palmately three-parted2 #aee1 palmately three-divided or trisected1 leaves4 #ada4 ,the ,mode of ,lobing or ,division corresponds to that of the veining1 whether pinnately veined or palmately veined4 ,in the former the notches or incisions1 or sinuses1 coming between the principal veins or ribs are directed toward the midrib3 in the latter they are directed toward the apex of the petiole2 as the figures show4 #adb4 ,so degree and mode of division may be tersely expressed in brief phrases4 ,thus1 in the four upper figures of pinnately veined leaves1 the first is said to be pinnately lobed 7in the special sense71 the second pinnately cleft 7or pinnatifid in ,latin form71 the third pinnately parted1 the fourth pinnately divided1 or pinnatisected4 #adc4 ,correspondingly in the lower row1 of palmately veined leaves1 the first is palmately lobed1 the second palmately cleft1 the third palmately parted1 the fourth palmately divided4 ,or1 in other language of the same meaning 7but now less commonly employed71 they are said to be digitately lobed1 cleft1 parted1 or divided4 #add4 ,the number of the divisions or lobes may come into the phrase4 ,thus in the four last named figures the leaves are respectively palmately three-lobed1 three-cleft 7or trifid71 three-parted1 three-divided1 or better 7in ,latin form71 trisected4 ,and so for higher numbers1 as five-lobed1 five-cleft1 etc41 up to many-lobed1 many-cleft or multifid1 etc4 ,the same mode of expression may be used for pinnately lobed leaves1 as pinnately #g-lobed1 -cleft1 -parted1 etc4 #ade4 ,the divisions1 lobes1 etc41 may themselves be entire 7without teeth or notches71 or serrate1 or otherwise toothed or incised2 or lobed1 cleft1 parted1 etc43 in the latter cases making twice pinnatifid1 twice palmately or pinnately lobed1 parted1 or divided leaves1 etc4 ,from these illustrations one will perceive how the botanist1 in two or three words1 may describe any one of the almost endlessly diversified shapes of leaves1 so as to give a clear and definite idea of it4 #adf4 ,compound ,leaves4 ,a compound leaf is one which has its blade in entirely separate parts1 each usually with a stalklet of its own2 and the stalklet is often jointed 7or articulated7 with the main leaf-stalk1 just as this is jointed with the stem4 ,when this is the case1 there is no doubt that the leaf is compound4 ,but when the pieces have no stalklets1 and are not jointed with the main leaf-stalk1 it may be considered either as a divided simple leaf1 or a compound leaf1 according to the circumstances4 ,this is a matter of names where all intermediate forms may be expected4 #adg4 ,while the pieces or projecting parts of a simple leaf-blade are called ,lobes1 or in deeply cut leaves1 etc41 ,segments1 or ,divisions1 the separate pieces or blades of a compound leaf are called ,,leaflets4 #adh4 ,compound leaves are of two principal kinds1 namely1 the ,pinnate and the ,palmate2 answering to the two modes of veining in reticulated leaves1 and to the two sorts of lobed or divided leaves 7#ada74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef-aeh4 ,pinnate leaves1 the first with an odd leaflet 7odd-pinnate72 the second with a tendril in place of uppermost leaflets2 the third abruptly pinnate1 or of even pairs4 #adi4 ,pinnate leaves are those in which the leaflets are arranged on the sides of a main leaf-stalk2 as in ,fig4 #aef-aeh4 ,they answer to the feather-veined 7i4 e4 pinnately-veined7 simple leaf2 as will be seen at once on comparing the forms4 ,the leaflets of the former answer to the lobes or divisions of the latter2 and the continuation of the petiole1 along which the leaflets are arranged1 answers to the midrib of the simple leaf4 #aej4 ,three sorts of pinnate leaves are here given4 ,fig4 #aef is pinnate with an odd or end leaflet1 as in the ,common ,locust and the ,ash4 ,fig4 #aeg is pinnate with a tendril at the end1 in place of the odd leaflet1 as in the ,vetches and the ,pea4 ,fig4 #aeh is evenly or abruptly pinnate1 as in the ,honey-,locust4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,palmate 7or digitate7 leaf of five leaflets1 of the ,sweet ,buckeye4 #aea4 ,palmate 7also named ,digitate7 leaves are those in which the leaflets are all borne on the tip of the leaf-stalk1 as in the ,lupine1 the ,common ,clover1 the ,virginia ,creeper 7,fig4 #ic71 and the ,horse-chestnut and ,buckeye 7,fig4 #aei74 ,they evidently answer to the radiate-veined or palmately-veined simple leaf4 ,that is1 the ,clover-leaf of three leaflets is the same as a palmately three-ribbed leaf cut into three separate leaflets4 ,and such a simple five-lobed leaf as that of the ,sugar ,maple1 if more cut1 so as to separate the parts1 would produce a palmate leaf of five leaflets1 like that of the ,horse-chestnut or ,buckeye4 #aeb4 ,either sort of compound leaf may have any number of leaflets2 yet palmate leaves cannot well have a great many1 since they are all crowded together on the end of the main leaf-stalk4 ,some ,lupines have nine or eleven2 the ,horse-chestnut has seven1 the ,sweet ,buckeye more commonly five1 the ,clover three4 ,a pinnate leaf often has only seven or five leaflets1 or only three1 as in ,beans of the genus ,phaseolus1 etc42 in some rarer cases only two2 in the ,orange and ,lemon and also in the common ,barberry there is only one6 ,the joint at the place where the leaflet is united with the petiole distinguishes this last case from a simple leaf4 ,in other species of these genera the lateral leaflets also are present4 #aec4 ,the leaflets of a compound leaf may be either entire 7as in ,fig4 #abf-abh71 or serrate1 or lobed1 cleft1 parted1 etc42 in fact1 may present all the variations of simple leaves1 and the same terms equally apply to them4 #aed4 ,when the division is carried so far as to separate what would be one leaflet into two1 three1 or several1 the leaf becomes doubly or twice compound1 either pinnately or palmately1 as the case may be4 ,for example1 while the clustered leaves of the ,honey-,locust are simply pinnate1 that is1 once pinnate1 those on new shoots are bipinnate1 or twice pinnate1 as in ,fig4 #afj4 ,when these leaflets are again divided in the same way1 the leaf becomes thrice pinnate1 or tripinnate1 as in many ,acacias4 ,the first divisions are called ,pinnae2 the others1 ,pinnules2 and the last1 or little blades themselves1 ,leaflets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afj4 ,a twice-pinnate 7abruptly7 leaf of the ,honey-,locust4 #aee4 ,so the palmate leaf1 if again compounded in the same way1 becomes twice palmate1 or1 as we say when the divisions are in threes1 twice ternate 7in ,latin form biternate72 if a third time compounded1 thrice ternate or triternate4 ,but if the division goes still further1 or if the degree is variable1 we simply say that the leaf is decompound2 either palmately or pinnately decompound1 as the case may be4 ,thus1 ,fig4 #afa represents a four times ternately compound 7in other words a ternately decompound7 leaf of a common ,meadow ,rue4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4 ,ternately decompound leaf of ,meadow ,rue4 #aef4 ,when the botanist1 in describing leaves1 wishes to express the number of the leaflets1 he may use terms like these3-- ,unifoliolate1 for a compound leaf of a single leaflet2 from the ,latin unum1 one1 and foliolum1 leaflet4 ,bifoliolate1 of two leaflets1 from the ,latin bis1 twice1 and foliolum1 leaflet4 ,trifoliolate 7or ternate71 of three leaflets1 as the ,clover2 and so on4 ,palmately bifoliolate1 trifoliolate1 quadrifoliolate1 plurifoliolate 7of several leaflets71 etc43 or else ,pinnately bi-1 tri-1 quadri-1 or plurifoliolate 7that is1 of two1 three1 four1 five1 or several leaflets71 as the case may be3 these are terse ways of denoting in single phrases both the number of leaflets and the kind of compounding4 #aeg4 ,of foliage-leaves having certain peculiarities in structure1 the following may be noted3-- #aeh4 ,perfoliate ,leaves4 ,in these the stem that bears them seems to run through the blade of the leaf1 more or less above its base4 ,a common ,bellwort 7,uvularia perfoliata1 ,fig4 #afb7 is a familiar illustration4 ,the lower and earlier leaves show it distinctly4 ,later1 the plant is apt to produce some leaves merely clasping the stem by the sessile and heart-shaped base1 and the latest may be merely sessile4 ,so the series explains the peculiarity3 in the formation of the leaf the bases1 meeting around the stem1 grow together there4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,a summer branch of ,uvularia perfoliata2 lower leaves perfoliate1 upper cordate-clasping1 uppermost simply sessile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afc4 ,branch of a ,honeysuckle1 with connate-perfoliate leaves4 #aei4 ,connate-perfoliate4 ,such are the upper leaves of true ,honeysuckles4 ,here 7,fig4 #afc7 of the opposite and sessile leaves1 some pairs1 especially the uppermost1 in the course of their formation unite around the stem1 which thus seems to run through the disk formed by their union4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,rootstock and equitant leaves of ,iris4 #afe4 ,a section across the cluster of leaves at the bottom1 showing the equitation4 #afj4 ,equitant ,leaves4 ,while ordinary leaves spread horizontally1 and present one face to the sky and the other to the earth1 there are some that present their tip to the sky1 and their faces right and left to the horizon4 ,among these are the equitant leaves of the ,iris or ,flower-de-,luce4 ,inspection shows that each leaf was formed as if folded together lengthwise1 so that what would be the upper surface is within1 and all grown together1 except next the bottom1 where each leaf covers the next younger one4 ,it was from their straddling over each other1 like a man on horseback 7as is seen in the cross-section1 ,fig4 #afe71 that ,linnaeus1 with his lively fancy1 called these ,equitant leaves4 #afa4 ,leaves with no distinction of ,petiole and ,blade4 ,the leaves of ,iris just mentioned show one form of this4 ,the flat but narrow leaves of ,jonquils1 ,daffodils1 and the cylindrical leaf of ,onions are other instances4 ,needle-shaped leaves1 like those of the ,pine1 ,larch1 and ,spruce1 and the awl-shaped as well as the scale-shaped leaves of ,junipers1 ,red ,cedar1 and ,arbor-,vitae 7,fig4 #aff71 are examples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4 ,branch of ,arbor-,vitae1 with awl-shaped and scale-shaped leaves4 #afb4 ,phyllodia4 ,sometimes an expanded petiole takes the place of the blade2 as in numerous ,new ,holland ,acacias1 some of which are now common in greenhouses4 ,such counterfeit blades are called phyllodia1--meaning leaf-like bodies4 ,they may be known from true blades by their standing edgewise1 their margins being directed upwards and downwards2 while in true blades the faces look upwards and downwards2 excepting in equitant leaves1 as already explained4 #afc4 ,falsely ,vertical ,leaves4 ,these are apparent exceptions to the rule1 the blade standing edgewise instead of flatwise to the stem2 but this position comes by a twist of the stalk or the base of the blade4 ,such leaves present the two faces about equally to the light4 ,the ,compass-plant 7,silphium laciniatum7 is an example4 ,so also the leaves of ,boltonia1 of ,wild ,lettuce1 and of a vast number of ,australian ,myrtaceous shrubs and trees1 which much resemble the phyllodia of the ,acacias of the same country4 ,they are familiar in ,callistemon1 the ,bottle-brush ,flower1 and in ,eucalyptus4 ,but in the latter the leaves of the young tree have the normal structure and position4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4 ,the ambiguous leaf8 7cladophyllum7 of ,myrsiphyllum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4 ,same of ,ruscus1 or ,butcher's ,broom4 #afd4 ,cladophylla1 meaning branch-leaves4 ,the foliage of ,ruscus 7the ,butcher's ,broom of ,europe7 and of ,myrsiphyllum of ,south ,africa 7cultivated for decoration under the false name of ,smilax7 is peculiar and puzzling4 ,if these blades 7,fig4 #afg1 #afh7 are really leaves1 they are most anomalous in occupying the axil of another leaf1 reduced to a little scale4 ,yet they have an upper and lower face1 as leaves should1 although they soon twist1 so as to stand more or less edgewise4 ,if they are branches which have assumed exactly the form and office of leaves1 they are equally extraordinary in not making any further development4 ,but in ,ruscus1 flowers are borne on one face1 in the axil of a little scale3 and this would seem to settle that they are branches4 ,in ,asparagus just the same things as to position are thread-shaped and branch-like4 ,sec4 #b4 ,,leaves ,,of ,,special ,,conformation ,,and ,,use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,a young ,agave ,americana1 or ,century-plant2 fleshy-leaved4 #afe4 ,leaves for ,storage4 ,a leaf may at the same time serve both ordinary and special uses4 ,thus in those leaves of ,lilies1 such as the common ,white ,lily1 which spring from the bulb1 the upper and green part serves for foliage and elaborates nourishment1 while the thickened portion or bud-scale beneath serves for the storage of this nourishment4 ,the thread-shaped leaf of the ,onion fulfils the same office1 and the nourishing matter it prepares is deposited in its sheathing base1 forming one of the concentric layers of the onion4 ,when these layers1 so thick and succulent1 have given up their store to the growing parts within1 they are left as thin and dry husks4 ,in a ,houseleek1 an ,aloe or an ,agave1 the green color of the surface of the fleshy leaf indicates that it is doing the work of foliage2 the deeper-seated white portion within is the storehouse of the nourishment which the green surface has elaborated4 ,so1 also1 the seed-leaves or cotyledons are commonly used for storage4 ,some1 as in one of the ,maples1 the ,pea1 ,horse-chestnut1 ,oak1 etc41 are for nothing else4 ,others1 as in ,beech and in our common ,beans1 give faint indications of service as foliage also1 chiefly in vain4 ,still others1 as in the ,pumpkin and ,flax1 having served for storage1 develop into the first efficient foliage4 ,compare #aa1 #bb-cj1 and the accompanying figures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4 ,series of bud-scales and foliage-leaves from a developing bud of the ,low ,sweet ,buckeye 7,a,esculus parviflora71 showing nearly complete gradation1 from a scale to a compound leaf of five leaflets2 and that the scales answer to reduced petioles4 #aff4 ,leaves as ,bud-,scales serve to protect the forming parts within4 ,having fulfilled this purpose they commonly fall off when the shoot develops and foliage-leaves appear4 ,occasionally1 as in ,fig4 #agj1 there is a transition of bud-scales to leaves1 which reveals the nature of the former4 ,the ,lilac also shows a gradation from bud-scale to simple leaf4 ,in ,cornus florida 7the ,flowering ,dogwood71 the four bud-scales which through the winter protect the head of forming flowers remain until blossoming1 and then the base of each grows out into a large and very showy petal-like leaf2 the original dry scale is apparent in the notch at the apex4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4 ,shoot of common ,barberry1 showing transition of foliage-leaves to spines4 #afg4 ,leaves as ,spines occur in several plants4 ,a familiar instance is that of the common ,barberry 7,fig4 #aga74 ,in almost any summer shoot1 most of the gradations may be seen between the ordinary leaves1 with sharp bristly teeth1 and leaves which are reduced to a branching spine or thorn4 ,the fact that the spines of the ,barberry produce a leaf-bud in their axil also proves them to be leaves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4 ,leaves of ,solanum jasminoides1 the petiole adapted for climbing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,leaf of ,lathyrus ,aphaca1 consisting of a pair of stipules and a tendril4 #afh4 ,leaves for ,climbing are various in adaptation4 ,true foliage-leaves serve this purpose2 as in ,gloriosa1 where the attenuated tip of a simple leaf 7otherwise like that of a ,lily7 hooks around a supporting object2 or in ,solanum jasminoides of the gardens 7,fig4 #agb71 and in ,maurandia1 etc41 where the leaf-stalk coils round and clings to a support2 or in the compound leaves of ,clematis and of ,adlumia1 in which both the leaflets and their stalks hook or coil around the support4 #afi4 ,or in a compound leaf1 as in the ,pea and most ,vetches1 and in ,cobaea1 while the lower leaflets serve for foliage1 some of the uppermost are developed as tendrils for climbing 7,fig4 #afg74 ,in the common ,pea this is so with all but one or two pairs of leaflets4 #agj4 ,in one ,european ,vetch1 the leaflets are wanting and the whole petiole is a tendril1 while the stipules become the only foliage 7,fig4 #agc74 #aga4 ,leaves as ,pitchers1 or hollow tubes1 are familiar in the common ,pitcher-plant or ,side-saddle ,flower 7,sarracenia1 ,fig4 #agd7 of our bogs4 ,these pitchers are generally half full of water1 in which flies and other insects are drowned1 often in such numbers as to make a rich manure for the plant4 ,more curious are some of the southern species of ,sarracenia1 which seem to be specially adapted to the capture and destruction of flies and other insects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4 ,leaf of ,sarracenia purpurea1 entire1 and another with the upper part cut off4 #agb4 ,the leaf of ,nepenthes 7,fig4 #age7 combines three structures and uses4 ,the expanded part below is foliage3 this tapers into a tendril for climbing2 and this bears a pitcher with a lid4 ,insects are caught1 and perhaps digested1 in the pitcher4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4 ,leaf of ,nepenthes2 foliage1 tendril1 and pitcher combined4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agf4 ,leaves of ,dionaea2 the trap in one of them open1 in the others closed4 #agc4 ,leaves as ,fly-traps4 ,insects are caught in another way1 and more expertly1 by the most extraordinary of all the plants of this country1 the ,dionaea or ,venus's ,fly-trap1 which grows in the sandy bogs around ,wilmington1 ,north ,carolina4 ,here 7,fig4 #agf7 each leaf bears at its summit an appendage which opens and shuts1 in shape something like a steel-trap1 and operating much like one4 ,for when open1 no sooner does a fly alight on its surface1 and brush against any one of the two or three bristles that grow there1 than the trap suddenly closes1 capturing the intruder4 ,if the fly escapes1 the trap soon slowly opens1 and is ready for another capture4 ,when retained1 the insect is after a time moistened by a secretion from minute glands of the inner surface1 and is digested4 ,in the various species of ,drosera or ,sundew1 insects are caught by sticking fast to very viscid glands at the tip of strong bristles1 aided by adjacent gland-tipped bristles which bend slowly toward the captive4 ,the use of such adaptations and operations may be explained in another place4 ,sec4 #c4 ,,stipules4 #agd4 ,a leaf complete in its parts consists of blade1 leaf-stalk or petiole1 and a pair of stipules4 ,but most leaves have either fugacious or minute stipules or none at all2 many have no petiole 7the blade being sessile or stalkless72 some have no clear distinction of blade and petiole2 and many of these1 such as those of the ,onion and all phyllodia 7#aff71 consist of petiole only4 #age4 ,the base of the petiole is apt to be broadened and flattened1 sometimes into thin margins1 sometimes into a sheath which embraces the stem at the point of attachment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agg4 ,leaf of ,red ,clover3 st1 stipules1 adhering to the base of p1 the petiole2 b1 blade of three leaflets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,part of stem and leaf of ,prince's-,feather 7,polygonum orientale7 with the united sheathing stipules forming a sheath or ocrea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,terminal winter bud of ,magnolia ,umbrella1 natural size4 #ahj4 ,outermost bud-scale 7pair of stipules7 detached4 #agf4 ,stipules are such appendages1 either wholly or partly separated from the petiole4 ,when quite separate they are said to be free1 as in ,fig4 #aab4 ,when attached to the base of the petiole1 as in the ,rose and in ,clover 7,fig4 #agg71 they are adnate4 ,when the two stipules unite and sheathe the stem above the insertion1 as in ,polygonum 7,fig4 #agh71 this sheath is called an ,ocrea from its likeness to a greave or leggin4 #agg4 ,in ,grasses1 when the sheathing base of the leaf may answer to petiole1 the summit of the sheath commonly projects as a thin and short membrane1 like an ocrea3 this is called a ,,ligula or ,,ligule4 #agh4 ,when stipules are green and leaf-like they act as so much foliage4 ,in the ,pea they make up no small part of the actual foliage4 ,in a related plant 7,lathyrus ,aphaca1 ,fig4 #agc71 they make the whole of it1 the remainder of the leaf being tendril4 #agi4 ,in many trees the stipules are the bud-scales1 as in the ,beech1 and very conspicuously in the ,fig-tree1 ,tulip-tree1 and ,magnolia 7,fig4 #agi74 ,these fall off as the leaves unfold4 #ahj4 ,the stipules are spines or prickles in ,locust and several other ,leguminous trees and shrubs2 they are tendrils in ,smilax or ,greenbrier4 ,sec4 #d4 ,,the ,,arrangement ,,of ,,leaves4 #aha4 ,phyllotaxy1 meaning leaf-arrangement1 is the study of the position of leaves1 or parts answering to leaves1 upon the stem4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,alternate leaves1 in ,linden1 ,lime-tree1 or ,basswood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,opposite leaves1 in ,red ,maple4 #ahb4 ,the technical name for the attachment of leaves to the stem is the insertion4 ,leaves 7as already noticed1 #ed7 are inserted in three modes4 ,they are ,alternate 7,fig4 #aha71 that is1 one after another1 or in other words1 with only a single leaf to each node2 ,opposite 7,fig4 #ahb71 when there is a pair to each node1 the two leaves in this case being always on opposite sides of the stem2 ,whorled or ,verticillate 7,fig4 #ahc7 when there are more than two leaves on a node1 in which case they divide the circle equally between them1 forming a ,verticel or whorl4 ,when there are three leaves in the whorl1 the leaves are one third of the circumference apart2 when four1 one quarter1 and so on4 ,so the plan of opposite leaves1 which is very common1 is merely that of whorled leaves1 with the fewest leaves to the whorl1 namely1 two4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,whorled leaves of ,galium4 #ahc4 ,in both modes and in all their modifications1 the arrangement is such as to distribute the leaves systematically and in a way to give them a good exposure to the light4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,a piece of stem of ,larch with two clusters 7fascicles7 of numerous leaves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,piece of a branch of ,pitch ,pine1 with three leaves in a fascicle or bundle1 in the axil of a thin scale which answers to a primary leaf4 ,the bundle is surrounded at the base by a short sheath1 formed of the delicate scales of the axillary bud4 #ahd4 ,no two or more leaves ever grow from the same point4 ,the so-called ,fascicled or ,clustered leaves are the leaves of a branch the nodes of which are very close1 just as they are in the bud1 so keeping the leaves in a cluster4 ,this is evident in the ,larch 7,fig4 #ahd71 in which examination shows each cluster to be made up of numerous leaves crowded on a spur or short axis4 ,in spring there are only such clusters2 but in summer some of them lengthen into ordinary shoots with scattered alternate leaves4 ,so1 likewise1 each cluster of two or three needle-shaped leaves in ,pitch ,pines 7as in ,fig4 #ahe71 or of five leaves in ,white ,pine1 answers to a similar extremely short branch1 springing from the axil of a thin and slender scale1 which represents a leaf of the main shoot4 ,for ,pines produce two kinds of leaves1--#a4 primary1 the proper leaves of the shoots1 not as foliage1 but in the shape of delicate scales in spring1 which soon fall away2 and #b4 secondary1 the fascicled leaves1 from buds in the axils of the former1 and these form the actual foliage4 #ahe4 ,phyllotaxy of ,alternate ,leaves4 ,alternate leaves are distributed along the stem in an order which is uniform for each species4 ,the arrangement in all its modifications is said to be spiral1 because1 if we draw a line from the insertion 7i4 e4 the point of attachment7 of one leaf to that of the next1 and so on1 this line will wind spirally around the stem as it rises1 and in the same species will always bear the same number of leaves for each turn round the stem4 ,that is1 any two successive leaves will always be separated from each other by an equal portion of the circumference of the stem4 ,the distance in height between any two leaves may vary greatly1 even on the same shoot1 for that depends upon the length of the internodes1 or spaces between the leaves2 but the distance as measured around the circumference 7in other words1 the ,angular ,divergence1 or angle formed by any two successive leaves7 is uniformly the same4 #ahf4 ,two-ranked4 ,the greatest possible divergence is1 of course1 where the second leaf stands on exactly the opposite side of the stem from the first1 the third on the side opposite the second1 and therefore over the first1 and the fourth over the second4 ,this brings all the leaves into two ranks1 one on one side of the stem and one on the other1 and is therefore called the ,two-ranked arrangement4 ,it occurs in all ,grasses1--in ,indian ,corn1 for instance2 also1 in the ,basswood 7,fig4 #aha74 ,this is the simplest of all arrangements1 and the one which most widely distributes successive leaves1 but which therefore gives the fewest vertical ranks4 ,next is the #ahg4 ,three-ranked arrangement1--that of all ,sedges1 and of ,white ,hellebore4 ,here the second leaf is placed one third of the way round the stem1 the third leaf two thirds of the way round1 the fourth leaf accordingly directly over the first1 the fifth over the second1 and so on4 ,that is1 three leaves occur in each turn round the stem1 and they are separated from each other by one third of the circumference4 7,fig4 #ahf1 #ahg47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,two-ranked arrangement1 shown in a piece of the stalk of a ,sedge1 with the leaves cut off above their bases2 the leaves are numbered in order1 from #a to #f4 #ahg4 ,diagram or cross-section of the same1 in one plane2 the leaves similarly numbered2 showing two cycles of three4 #ahh4 ,five-ranked is the next in the series1 and the most common4 ,it is seen in the ,apple 7,fig4 #ahh71 ,cherry1 ,poplar1 and the greater number of trees and shrubs4 ,in this case the line traced from leaf to leaf will pass twice round the stem before it reaches a leaf situated directly over any below 7,fig4 #ahi74 ,here the sixth leaf is over the first2 the leaves stand in five perpendicular ranks1 with equal angular distance from each other2 and this distance between any two successive leaves is just two fifths of the circumference of the stem4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,shoot with its leaves #e-ranked1 the sixth leaf over the first2 as in the ,apple-tree4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,diagram of this arrangement1 with a spiral line drawn from the attachment of one leaf to the next1 and so on2 the parts on the side turned from the eye are fainter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,a ground-plan of the same2 the section of the leaves similarly numbered2 a dotted line drawn from the edge of one leaf to that of the next marks out the spiral4 #ahi4 ,the five-ranked arrangement is expressed by the fraction #b_/e4 ,this fraction denotes the divergence of the successive leaves1 i4 e4 the angle they form with each other3 the numerator also expresses the number of turns made round the stem by the spiral line in completing one cycle or set of leaves1 namely1 two2 and the denominator gives the number of leaves in each cycle1 or the number of perpendicular ranks1 namely1 five4 ,in the same way the fraction #a_/b stands for the two-ranked mode1 and #a_/c for the three-ranked3 and so these different sorts are expressed by the series of fractions #a_/b1 #a_/c1 #b_/e4 ,other cases follow in the same numerical progression1 the next being the #aij4 ,eight-ranked arrangement4 ,in this the ninth leaf stands over the first1 and three turns are made around the stem to reach it2 so it is expressed by the fraction #c_/h4 ,this is seen in the ,holly1 and in the common ,plantain4 ,then comes the #aia4 ,thirteen-ranked arrangement1 in which the fourteenth leaf is over the first1 after five turns around the stem4 ,the common ,houseleek 7,fig4 #aia7 is a good example4 #aib4 ,the series so far1 then1 is #a_/b1 #a_/c1 #b_/e1 #c_/h1 #e_/ac2 the numerator and the denominator of each fraction being those of the two next preceding ones added together4 ,at this rate the next higher should be #h_/ba1 then #ac_/cd1 and so on2 and in fact just such cases are met with1 and 7commonly7 no others4 ,these higher sorts are found in the ,pine ,family1 both in the leaves and the cones and in many other plants with small and crowded leaves4 ,but in those the number of the ranks1 or of leaves in each cycle1 can only rarely be made out by direct inspection4 ,they may be indirectly ascertained1 however1 by studying the secondary spirals1 as they are called1 which usually become conspicuous1 at least two series of them1 one turning to the right and one to the left1 as shown in ,fig4 #aia4 ,for an account of the way in which the character of the phyllotaxy may be deduced from the secondary spirals1 see ,structural ,botany1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aia4 ,a young plant of the ,houseleek1 with the leaves 7not yet expanded7 numbered1 and exhibiting the #ac-ranked arrangement2 and showing secondary spirals4 #aic4 ,phyllotaxy of ,opposite and whorled ,leaves4 ,this is simple and comparatively uniform4 ,the leaves of each pair or whorl are placed over the intervals between those of the preceding1 and therefore under the intervals of the pair or whorl next above4 ,the whorls or pairs alternate or cross each other1 usually at right angles1 that is1 they decussate4 ,opposite leaves1 that is1 whorls of two leaves only1 are far commoner than whorls of three or four or more members4 ,this arrangement in successive decussating pairs gives an advantageous distribution on the stem in four vertical ranks4 ,whorls of three give six vertical ranks1 and so on4 ,note that in descriptive botany leaves in whorls of two are simply called opposite leaves2 and that the term verticillate or whorled1 is employed only for cases of more than two1 unless the latter number is specified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4 ,opposite leaves of ,euonymus1 or ,spindle-tree1 showing the successive pairs crossing each other at right angles4 #aid4 ,vernation or ,praefoliation1 the disposition of the leaf-blades in the bud1 comprises two things2 #ast1 the way in which each separate leaf is folded1 coiled1 or packed up in the bud2 and #b;d1 the arrangement of the leaves in the bud with respect to one another4 ,the latter of course depends very much upon the phyllotaxy1 i4 e4 the position and order of the leaves upon the stem4 ,the same terms are used for it as for the arrangement of the leaves of the flower in the flower-bud4 ,see1 therefore1 ,a,estivation1 or ,praefloration4 #aie4 ,as to each leaf separately1 it is sometimes straight and open in vernation1 but more commonly it is either bent1 folded1 or rolled up4 ,when the upper part is bent down upon the lower1 as the young blade in the ,tulip-tree is bent upon the leaf-stalk1 it is said to be ,inflexed or ,reclined in vernation4 ,when folded by the midrib so that the two halves are placed face to face1 it is ,conduplicate 7,fig4 #aic71 as in the ,magnolia1 the ,cherry1 and the ,oak4 ,when folded back and forth like the plaits of a fan1 it is ,plicate or ,plaited 7,fig4 #aid71 as in the ,maple and ,currant4 ,if rolled1 it may be so either from the tip downwards1 as in ,ferns and the ,sundew 7,fig4 #aig71 when in unrolling it resembles the head of a crosier1 and is said to be ,circinate2 or it may be rolled up parallel with the axis1 either from one edge into a coil1 when it is ,convolute 7,fig4 #aie71 as in the ,apricot and ,plum2 or rolled from both edges towards the midrib1--sometimes inwards1 when it is ,involute 7,fig4 #aih71 as in the ,violet and ,water-,lily2 sometimes outwards1 when it is ,revolute 7,fig4 #aif71 in the ,rosemary and ,azalea4 ,the figures are diagrams1 representing sections through the leaf1 in the way they were represented by ,linnaeus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4 #aid4 #aie4 #aif4 #aig4 #aih4 ,section ,,viii4 ,,flowers4 #aif4 ,flowers are for the production of seed 7#af74 ,stems and branches1 which for a time put forth leaves for vegetation1 may at length put forth flowers for reproduction4 ,sec4 #a4 ,,position ,,and ,,arrangement ,,of ,,flowers1 ,,or ,,inflorescence4 #aig4 ,flower-buds appear just where leaf-buds appear2 that is1 they are either terminal or axillary 7#dg-di74 ,morphologically1 flowers answer to shoots or branches1 and their parts to leaves4 #aih4 ,in the same species the flowers are usually from axillary buds only1 or from terminal buds only2 but in some they are both axillary and terminal4 #aii4 ,inflorescence1 which is the name used by ,linnaeus to signify mode of flower-arrangement1 is accordingly of three classes3 namely1 ,indeterminate1 when the flowers are in the axils of leaves1 that is1 are from axillary buds2 ,determinate1 when they are from terminal buds1 and so terminate a stem or branch2 and ,mixed1 when these two are combined4 #bjj4 ,indeterminate ,inflorescence 7likewise1 and for the same reason1 called indefinite inflorescence7 is so named because1 as the flowers all come from axillary buds1 the terminal bud may keep on growing and prolong the stem indefinitely4 ,this is so in ,moneywort 7,fig4 #aii74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4 ,piece of a flowering-stem of ,moneywort 7,lysimachia nummularia17 with single flowers successively produced in the axils of the leaves1 from below upwards1 as the stem grows on4 #bja4 ,when flowers thus arise singly from the axils of ordinary leaves1 they are axillary and solitary1 not collected into flower-clusters4 #bjb4 ,but when several or many flowers are produced near each other1 the accompanying leaves are apt to be of smaller size1 or of different shape or character3 then they are called ,,bracts1 and the flowers thus brought together form a cluster4 ,the kinds of flower-clusters of the indeterminate class have received distinct names1 according to their form and disposition4 ,they are principally ,raceme1 ,corymb1 ,umbel1 ,spike1 ,head1 ,spadix1 ,catkin1 and ,panicle4 #bjc4 ,in defining these it will be necessary to use some of the following terms of descriptive botany which relate to inflorescence4 ,if a flower is stalkless1 i4 e4 sits directly in the axil or other support1 it is said to be sessile4 ,if raised on a naked stalk of its own 7as in ,fig4 #aii7 it is pedunculate1 and the stalk is a ,,peduncle4 #bjd4 ,a peduncle on which a flower-cluster is raised is a ,common peduncle4 ,that which supports each separate flower of the cluster is a ,partial peduncle1 and is generally called a ,,pedicel4 ,the portion of the general stalk along which flowers are disposed is called the ,axis of inflorescence1 or1 when covered with sessile flowers1 the ,rhachis 7back-bone71 and sometimes the ,receptacle4 ,the leaves of a flower-cluster generally are termed ,,bracts4 ,but when bracts of different orders are to be distinguished1 those on the common peduncle or axis1 and which have a flower in their axil1 keep the name of bracts2 and those on the pedicels or partial flower-stalks1 if any1 that of ,,bractlets or ,bracteoles4 ,the former is the preferable ,english name4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,a raceme1 with a general peduncle 7p71 pedicels 7p'71 bracts 7b71 and bractlets 7b'74 ,plainly the bracts here answer to the leaves in ,fig4 #aii4 #bje4 ,a ,raceme 7,fig4 #bjj7 is that form of flower-cluster in which the flowers1 each on their own foot-stalk or pedicel1 are arranged along the sides of a common stalk or axis of inflorescence2 as in the ,lily of the ,valley1 ,currant1 ,barberry1 one section of ,cherry1 etc4 ,each flower comes from the axil of a small leaf1 or bract1 which1 however1 is often so small that it might escape notice1 and even sometimes 7as in the ,mustard ,family7 disappears altogether4 ,the lowest blossoms of a raceme are of course the oldest1 and therefore open first1 and the order of blossoming is ascending from the bottom to the top4 ,the summit1 never being stopped by a terminal flower1 may go on to grow1 and often does so 7as in the common ,shepherd's ,purse71 producing lateral flowers one after another for many weeks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4 ,a raceme4 #bjb4 ,a corymb4 #bjc4 ,an umbel4 #bjf4 ,a ,corymb 7,fig4 #bjb7 is the same as a raceme1 except that it is flat and broad1 either convex1 or level-topped4 ,that is1 a raceme becomes a corymb by lengthening the lower pedicels while the uppermost remain shorter4 ,the axis of a corymb is short in proportion to the lower pedicels4 ,by extreme shortening of the axis the corymb may be converted into #bjg4 ,an ,umbel 7,fig4 #bjc7 as in the ,milkweed1 a sort of flower-cluster where the pedicels all spring apparently from the same point1 from the top of the peduncle1 so as to resemble1 when spreading1 the rays of an umbrella2 whence the name4 ,here the pedicels are sometimes called the ,rays of the umbel4 ,and the bracts1 when brought in this way into a cluster or circle1 form what is called an ,,involucre4 #bjh4 ,the corymb and the umbel being more or less level-topped1 bringing the flowers into a horizontal plane or a convex form1 the ascending order of development appears as ,centripetal4 ,that is1 the flowering proceeds from the margin or circumference regularly towards the centre2 the lower flowers of the former answering to the outer ones of the latter4 #bji4 ,in these three kinds of flower-clusters1 the flowers are raised on conspicuous pedicels 7#bjd7 or stalks of their own4 ,the shortening of these pedicels1 so as to render the flowers sessile or nearly so1 converts a raceme into a ,spike1 and a corymb or an umbel into a ,head4 #baj4 ,a ,spike is a flower cluster with a more or less lengthened axis1 along which the flowers are sessile or nearly so2 as in the ,plantain 7,fig4 #bjd74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,spike of the common ,plantain or ,ribwort4 #baa4 ,a ,head 7,capitulum7 is a round or roundish cluster of flowers1 which are sessile on a very short axis or receptacle1 as in the ,button-ball1 ,button-bush 7,fig4 #bje71 and ,red ,clover4 ,it is just what a spike would become if its axis were shortened2 or an umbel1 if its pedicels were all shortened until the flowers became sessile4 ,the head of the ,button-bush is naked2 but that of the ,thistle1 of the ,dandelion1 and the like1 is surrounded by empty bracts1 which form an ,involucre4 ,two particular forms of the spike and the head have received particular names1 namely1 the ,spadix and the ,catkin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4 ,head of the ,button-bush 7,cephalanthus74 #bab4 ,a ,spadix is a fleshy spike or head1 with small and often imperfect flowers1 as in the ,calla1 ,indian ,turnip1 7,fig4 #bjf71 ,sweet ,flag1 etc4 ,it is commonly surrounded or embraced by a peculiar enveloping leaf1 called a ,,spathe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,spadix and spathe of the ,indian ,turnip2 the latter cut through below4 #bac4 ,a ,catkin1 or ,ament1 is the name given to the scaly sort of spike of the ,birch 7,fig4 #bjg7 and ,alder1 the ,willow and ,poplar1 and one sort of flower-clusters of the ,oak1 ,hickory1 and the like1--the so-called ,amentaceous trees4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,catkin1 or ,ament1 of ,birch4 #bad4 ,compound flower-clusters of these kinds are not uncommon4 ,when the stalks which in the simple umbel are the pedicels of single flowers themselves branch into an umbel1 a ,compound ,umbel is formed4 ,this is the inflorescence of ,caraway 7,fig4 #bjh71 ,parsnip1 and almost all of the great family of ,umbelliferous 7umbel-bearing7 plants4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,compound ,umbel of ,caraway4 #bae4 ,the secondary or partial umbels of a compound umbel are ,,umbellets4 ,when the umbellets are subtended by an involucre1 this secondary involucre is called an ,,involucel4 #baf4 ,a ,compound raceme is a cluster of racemes racemosely arranged1 as in ,smilacina racemosa4 ,a compound corymb is a corymb some branches of which branch again in the same way1 as in ,mountain ,ash4 ,a compound spike is a spicately disposed cluster of spikes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4 ,diagram of a simple panicle4 #bag4 ,a ,panicle1 such as that of ,oats and many ,grasses1 is a compound flower-cluster of a more or less open sort which branches with apparent irregularity1 neither into corymbs nor racemes4 ,fig4 #bji represents the simplest panicle4 ,it is1 as it were1 a raceme of which some of the pedicels have branched so as to bear a few flowers on pedicels of their own1 while others remain simple4 ,a compound panicle is one that branches in this way again and again4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,diagram of an opposite-leaved plant1 with a single terminal flower4 #baa4 ,same1 with a cyme of three flowers2 a1 the first flower1 of the main axis2 b b1 those of branches4 #bab4 ,same1 with flowers also of the third order1 c c4 #bah4 ,determinate ,inflorescence is that in which the flowers are from terminal buds4 ,the simplest case is that of a solitary terminal flower1 as in ,fig4 #baj4 ,this stops the growth of the stem2 for its terminal bud1 becoming a blossom1 can no more lengthen in the manner of a leaf-bud4 ,any further growth must be from axillary buds developing into branches4 ,if such branches are leafy shoots1 at length terminated by single blossoms1 the inflorescence still consists of solitary flowers at the summit of stem and branches4 ,but if the flowering branches bear only bracts in place of ordinary leaves1 the result is the kind of flower-cluster called #bai4 ,a ,cyme4 ,this is commonly a flat-topped or convex flower-cluster1 like a corymb1 only the blossoms are from terminal buds4 ,fig4 #baa illustrates the simplest cyme in a plant with opposite leaves1 namely1 with three flowers4 ,the middle flower1 a1 terminates the stem2 the two others1 b b1 terminate branches1 one from the axil of each of the uppermost leaves2 and being later than the middle one1 the flowering proceeds from the centre outwards1 or is ,centrifugal4 ,this is the opposite of the indeterminate mode1 or that where all the flower-buds are axillary4 ,if flowering branches appear from the axils below1 the lower ones are the later1 so that the order of blossoming continues centrifugal or1 which is the same thing1 descending1 as in ,fig4 #bac1 making a sort of reversed raceme or false raceme1--a kind of cluster which is to the true raceme just what the flat cyme is to the corymb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4 ,diagram of a simple cyme in which the axis lengthens1 so as to take the form of a raceme4 #bbj4 ,wherever there are bracts or leaves1 buds may be produced from their axils and appear as flowers4 ,fig4 #bab represents the case where the branches1 b b1 of ,fig4 #baa1 each with a pair of small leaves or bracts about their middle1 have branched again1 and produced the branchlets and flowers c c1 on each side4 ,it is the continued repetition of this which forms the full or compound cyme1 such as that of the ,laurestinus1 ,hobble-bush1 ,dogwood1 and ,hydrangea 7,fig4 #bad74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4 ,compound cyme of ,hydrangea arborescens1 with neutral enlarged flowers round the circumference4 #bba4 ,a ,fascicle 7meaning a bundle71 like that of the ,sweet ,william and ,lychnis of the gardens1 is only a cyme with the flowers much crowded4 #bbb4 ,a ,glomerule is a cyme still more compacted1 so as to imitate a head4 ,it may be known from a true head by the flowers not expanding centripetally1 that is1 not from the circumference towards the centre4 #bbc4 ,the illustrations of determinate or cymose inflorescence have been taken from plants with opposite leaves1 which give rise to the most regular cymes4 ,but the ,rose1 ,cinquefoil1 ,buttercup1 etc41 with alternate leaves1 furnish also good examples of cymose inflorescence4 #bbd4 ,a ,cymule 7or diminutive cyme7 is either a reduced small cyme of few flowers1 or a branch of a compound cyme1 i4 e4 a partial cyme4 #bbe4 ,scorpioid or ,helicoid ,cymes1 of various sorts1 are forms of determinate inflorescence 7often puzzling to the student7 in which one half of the ramification fails to appear4 ,so that they may be called incomplete cymes4 ,the commoner forms may be understood by comparing a complete cyme1 like that of ,fig4 #bae with ,fig4 #baf1 the diagram of a cyme of an opposite-leaved plant1 having a series of terminal flowers and the axis continued by the development of a branch in the axil of only one of the leaves at each node4 ,the dotted lines on the left indicate the place of the wanting branches1 which if present would convert this scorpioid cyme into the complete one of ,fig4 #bae4 ,fig4 #bag is a diagram of similar inflorescence with alternate leaves4 ,both are kinds of false racemes 7#bai74 ,when the bracts are also wanting in such cases1 as in many ,borragineous plants1 the true nature of the inflorescence is very much disguised4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4 ,a complete forking cyme of an ,arenaria1 or ,chickweed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4 ,diagram of a scorpioid cyme1 with opposite leaves or bracts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4 ,diagram of analogous scorpioid cyme1 with alternate leaves or bracts4 #bbf4 ,these distinctions between determinate and indeterminate inflorescence1 between corymbs and cymes1 and between the true and the false raceme and spike1 were not recognized by botanists much more than half a century ago1 and even now are not always attended to in descriptions4 ,it is still usual and convenient to describe rounded or flat-topped and open ramification as corymbose1 even when essentially cymose2 also to call the reversed or false racemes or spikes by these 7strictly incorrect7 names4 #bbg4 ,mixed ,inflorescence is that in which the two plans are mixed or combined in compound clusters4 ,a mixed panicle is one in which1 while the primary ramification is of the indeterminate order1 the secondary or ultimate is wholly or partly of the determinate order4 ,a contracted or elongated inflorescence of this sort is called a ,,thyrsus4 ,lilac and ,horse-chestnut afford common examples of mixed inflorescence of this sort4 ,when loose and open such flower-clusters are called by the general name of ,panicles4 ,the heads of ,compositae are centripetal2 but the branches or peduncles which bear the heads are usually of centrifugal order4 ,sec4 #b4 ,,parts ,,or ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,flower4 #bbh4 ,these were simply indicated in ,section ,,ii4 #af4 ,some parts are necessary to seed-bearing2 these are ,essential ,organs1 namely1 the ,stamens and ,pistils4 ,others serve for protection or for attraction1 often for both4 ,such are the leaves of the ,flower1 or the ,floral ,envelopes4 #bbi4 ,the ,floral ,envelopes1 taken together1 are sometimes called the ,,perianth1 also ,perigone1 in ,latin form ,perigonium4 ,in a flower which possesses its full number of organs1 the floral envelopes are of two kinds1 namely1 an outer circle1 the ,,calyx1 and an inner1 the ,,corolla4 #bcj4 ,the ,calyx is commonly a circle of green or greenish leaves1 but not always4 ,it may be the most brightly colored part of the blossom4 ,each calyx-leaf or piece is called a ,,sepal4 #bca4 ,the ,corolla is the inner circle of floral envelopes or flower-leaves1 usually of delicate texture and colored1 that is1 of some other color than green4 ,each corolla-leaf is called a ,,petal4 #bcb4 ,there are flowers in abundance which consist wholly of floral envelopes4 ,such are the so-called full double flowers1 of which the choicer roses and camellias of the cultivator are familiar examples4 ,in them1 under the gardener's care and selection1 petals have taken the place of both stamens and pistils4 ,these are monstrous or unnatural flowers1 incapable of producing seed1 and subservient only to human gratification4 ,their common name of double flowers is not a sensible one3 except that it is fixed by custom1 it were better to translate their ,latin name1 flores pleni1 and call them full flowers1 meaning full of leaves4 #bcc4 ,moreover1 certain plants regularly produce neutral flowers1 consisting of floral envelopes only4 ,in ,fig4 #bad1 some are seen around the margin of the cyme in ,hydrangea4 ,they are likewise familiar in the ,hobble-bush and in ,wild-,cranberry tree1 ,viburnum ,oxycoccus2 where they form an attractive setting to the cluster of small and comparatively inconspicuous perfect flowers which they adorn4 ,in the ,guelder ,rose1 or ,snow-ball of ornamental cultivation1 all or most of the blossoms of this same shrub are transformed into neutral flowers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4 ,a flos plenus1 namely1 a full double flower of ,rose4 #bcd4 ,the ,essential ,organs are likewise of two kinds1 placed one above or within the other2 namely1 first1 the ,,stamens or fertilizing organs1 and second1 the ,,pistils1 which are to be fertilized and bear the seeds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4 ,a stamen3 a1 filament2 b1 anther1 discharging pollen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,a pistil2 with ovary1 a1 half cut away1 to show the contained ovules2 b1 style2 c1 stigma4 #bce4 ,a ,stamen consists of two parts1 namely1 the ,,filament or stalk 7,fig4 #bai a71 and the ,,anther 7b74 ,the latter is the only essential part4 ,it is a case1 commonly with two lobes or cells1 each opening lengthwise by a slit1 at the proper time1 and discharging a powder or dust-like substance1 usually of a yellow color4 ,this powder is the ,,pollen1 or fertilizing matter1 to produce which is the office of the stamen4 #bcf4 ,a ,pistil 7,fig4 #bbj1 #bba7 when complete1 has three parts2 ,,ovary1 ,,style1 and ,,stigma4 ,the ,ovary1 at base1 is the hollow portion1 which contains one or more ,,ovules or rudimentary seeds4 ,the ,style is the tapering portion above3 the ,stigma is a portion of the style1 usually its tip1 with moist naked surface1 upon which grains of pollen may lodge and adhere1 and thence make a growth which extends down to the ovules4 ,when there is no style then the stigma occupies the tip of the ovary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,model of a simple pistil1 with ovary cut across and slightly opened ventrally1 to show the ovules and their attachment4 #bcg4 ,the ,torus or ,receptacle is the end of the flower-stalk1 or the portion of axis or stem out of which the several organs of the flower grow1 upon which they are borne 7,fig4 #bbc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,flower of ,sedum ternatum1 a ,stonecrop4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,parts of same1 two of each kind1 separated and displayed2 the torus or receptacle in the centre2 a1 a sepal2 b1 a petal2 c1 a stamen2 d1 a pistil4 #bch4 ,the parts of the flower are thus disposed on the receptacle or axis essentially as are leaves upon a very short stem2 first the sepals1 or outer floral leaves2 then the petals or inner floral leaves2 then the stamens2 lastly1 at summit or centre1 the pistils1 when there are two or more of them1 or the single pistil1 when only one4 ,fig4 #bbc shows the organs displayed1 two of each kind1 of such a simple and symmetrical flower as that of a ,sedum or ,stonecrop1 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,sec4 #c4 ,,plan ,,of ,,flower4 #bci4 ,all flowers are formed upon one general plan1 but with almost infinite variations1 and many disguises4 ,this common plan is best understood by taking for a type1 or standard for comparison1 some perfect1 complete1 regular1 and symmetrical blossom1 and one as simple as such a blossom could well be4 ,flowers are said to be ,perfect 7hermaphrodite71 when provided with both kinds of essential organs1 i4 e4 with both stamens and pistils4 ,complete1 when1 besides1 they have the two sets of floral envelopes1 namely1 calyx and corolla4 ,such are completely furnished with all that belongs to a flower4 ,regular1 when all the parts of each set are alike in shape and size4 ,symmetrical1 when there is an equal number of parts in each set or circle of organs4 #bdj4 ,flax-flowers were taken for a pattern in ,section ,,ii4 #af4 ,but in them the five pistils have their ovaries as it were consolidated into one body4 ,sedum1 ,fig4 #bbb1 has the pistils and all the other parts free from such combination4 ,the flower is perfect1 complete1 regular1 and symmetrical1 but is not quite as simple as it might be2 for there are twice as many stamens as there are of the other organs4 ,crassula1 a relative of ,sedum1 cultivated in the conservatories for winter blossoming 7,fig4 #bbd7 is simpler1 being isostemonous1 or with just as many stamens as petals or sepals1 while ,sedum is diplostemonous1 having double that number3 it has1 indeed1 two sets of stamens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,flower of a ,crassula4 #bbe4 ,diagram or ground-plan of same4 #bda4 ,numerical ,plan4 ,a certain number either runs through the flower or is discernible in some of its parts4 ,this number is most commonly either five or three1 not very rarely four1 occasionally two4 ,thus the ground-plan of the flowers thus far used for illustration is five4 ,that of ,trillium 7,fig4 #bbf1 #bbg7 is three1 as it likewise is as really1 if not as plainly1 in ,tulips and ,lilies1 ,crocus1 ,iris1 and all that class of blossoms4 ,in some ,sedums all the flowers are in fours4 ,in others the first flowers are on the plan of five1 the rest mostly on the plan of four1 that is1 with four sepals1 four petals1 eight stamens 7i4 e4 twice four71 and four pistils4 ,whatever the ground number may be1 it runs through the whole in symmetrical blossoms4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,flower of a ,trillium2 its parts in threes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,diagram of flower of ,trillium4 ,in this1 as in all such diagrams of cross-section of blossoms1 the parts of the outer circle represent the calyx2 the next1 corolla2 within1 stamens 7here in two circles of three each1 and the cross-section is through the anthers72 in the centre1 section of three ovaries joined into a compound one of three cells4 #bdb4 ,alternation of the successive ,circles4 ,in these flowers the parts of the successive circles alternate2 and such is the rule4 ,that is1 the petals stand over the intervals between the sepals2 the stamens1 when of the same number1 stand over the intervals between the petals2 or when twice as many1 as in the ,trillium1 the outer set alternates with the petals1 and the inner set1 alternating with the other1 of course stands before the petals2 and the pistils alternate with these4 ,this is just as it should be on the theory that the circles of the blossom answer to whorls of leaves1 which alternate in this way4 ,while in such flowers the circles are to be regarded as whorls1 in others they are rather to be regarded as condensed spirals of alternate leaves4 ,but1 however this may be1 in the mind of a morphological botanist1 #bdc4 ,flowers are altered ,branches1 and their parts1 therefore1 altered leaves4 ,that is1 certain buds1 which might have grown and lengthened into a leafy branch1 do1 under other circumstances and to accomplish other purposes1 develop into blossoms4 ,in these the axis remains short1 nearly as it is in the bud2 the leaves therefore remain close together in sets or circles2 the outer ones1 those of the calyx1 generally partake more or less of the character of foliage2 the next set are more delicate1 and form the corolla1 while the rest1 the stamens and pistils1 appear under forms very different from those of ordinary leaves1 and are concerned in the production of seed4 ,this view gives to ,botany an interest which one who merely notices the shape and counts the parts of blossoms1 without understanding their plan1 has no conception of4 #bdd4 ,that flowers answer to branches may be shown1 first1 from their position4 ,as explained in the section on ,inflorescence1 flowers arise from the same places as branches1 and from no other2 flower-buds1 like leaf-buds1 appear either on the summit of a stem1 that is1 as a terminal bud1 or in the axil of a leaf1 as an axillary bud4 ,and1 as the plan of a symmetrical flower shows1 the arrangement of the parts on their axis or receptacle is that of leaves upon the stem4 #bde4 ,that the sepals and petals are of the nature of leaves is evident from their appearance2 they are commonly called the leaves of the flower4 ,the calyx is most generally green in color1 and foliaceous 7leaf-like7 in texture4 ,and though the corolla is rarely green1 yet neither are proper leaves always green4 ,in our wild ,painted-cup1 and in some scarlet ,sages1 common in gardens1 the leaves just under the flowers are of the brightest red or scarlet1 often much brighter-colored than the corolla itself4 ,and sometimes 7as in many ,cactuses1 and in ,carolina ,allspice7 there is such a regular gradation from the last leaves of the plant 7bracts or bractlets7 into the leaves of the calyx1 that it is impossible to say where the one ends and the other begins4 ,if sepals are leaves1 so also are petals2 for there is no clearly fixed limit between them4 ,not only in the ,carolina ,allspice and ,cactus 7,fig4 #bbi71 but in the ,water-,lily 7,fig4 #bbh7 and in a variety of flowers with more than one row of petals1 there is such a complete transition between calyx and corolla that no one can surely tell how many of the leaves belong to the one and how many to the other4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,series of sepals1 petals1 and stamens of ,white ,water-,lily1 showing the transitions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,a ,cactus blossom4 #bdf4 ,that stamens are of the same general nature as petals1 and therefore a modification of leaves1 is shown by the gradual transitions that occur between the one and the other in many blossoms2 especially in cultivated flowers1 such as ,roses and ,camellias1 when they begin to double1 that is1 to change their stamens into petals4 ,some wild and natural flowers show the same interesting transitions4 ,the ,carolina ,allspice and the ,white ,water-,lily exhibit complete gradations not only between sepals and petals1 but between petals and stamens4 ,the sepals of our ,water-,lily are green outside1 but white and petal-like on the inside2 the petals1 in many rows1 gradually grow narrower towards the centre of the flower2 some of these are tipped with a trace of a yellow anther1 but still are petals2 the next are more contracted and stamen-like1 but with a flat petal-like filament2 and a further narrowing of this completes the genuine stamen4 #bdg4 ,pistils and stamens now and then change into each other in some ,willows2 pistils often turn into petals in cultivated flowers2 and in the ,double ,cherry they are occasionally replaced by small green leaves4 ,sometimes a whole blossom changes into a cluster of green leaves1 as in the green roses occasionally noticed in gardens1 and sometimes it degenerates into a leafy branch4 ,so the botanist regards pistils also as answering to leaves2 that is1 to single leaves when simple and separate1 to a whorl of leaves when conjoined4 ,sec4 #d4 ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,type4 #bdh4 ,the ,deviations1 as they may be called1 from the assumed type or pattern of flower are most various and extensive4 ,the differences between one species and another of the same genus are comparatively insignificant2 those between different genera are more striking2 those between different families and classes of plants more and more profound4 ,they represent different adaptations to conditions or modes of life1 some of which have obvious or probable utilities1 although others are beyond particular explanation4 ,the principal modifications may be conveniently classified4 ,first those which in place of perfect 7otherwise called hermaphrodite or bisexual7 flowers1 give origin to #bdi4 ,unisexual1 or ,separated1 or ,diclinous ,flowers1 imperfect flowers1 as they have been called in contradistinction to perfect flowers2 but that term is too ambiguous4 ,in these some flowers want the stamens1 while others want the pistils4 ,taking hermaphrodite flowers as the pattern1 it is natural to say that the missing organs are suppressed4 ,this expression is justified by the very numerous cases in which the missing parts are abortive1 that is1 are represented by rudiments or vestiges1 which serve to exemplify the plan1 although useless as to office4 ,unisexual flowers are ,monoecious 7or ,monoicous1 i4 e4 of one household71 when flowers of both sorts or sexes are produced by the same individual plant1 as in the ,ricinus or ,castor-oil ,plant1 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,dioecious 7or ,dioicous1 i4 e4 of separate households71 when the two kinds are borne on different plants2 as in ,willows1 ,poplars1 ,hemp1 and ,moonseed1 ,fig4 #bca1 #bcb4 ,polygamous1 when the flowers are some of them perfect1 and some staminate or pistillate only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,unisexual flowers of ,castor-oil plant3 s1 staminate flower2 p1 pistillate flower4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bca1 staminate1 and #bcb1 pistillate flower of ,moonseed4 #bej4 ,a blossom having stamens and no pistil is a ,staminate or ,male flower4 ,sometimes it is called a ,sterile flower1 not appropriately1 for other flowers may equally be sterile4 ,one having pistil but no stamens is a ,pistillate or ,female flower4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,flower of ,anemone ,pennsylvanica2 apetalous1 hermaphrodite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4 ,flower of ,saururus or ,lizard's-tail2 naked1 but hermaphrodite4 #bea4 ,incomplete ,flowers are so named in contradistinction to complete3 they want either one or both of the floral envelopes4 ,those of ,fig4 #bcj are incomplete1 having calyx but no corolla4 ,so is the flower of ,anemone 7,fig4 #bcc71 although its calyx is colored like a corolla4 ,the flowers of ,saururus or ,lizard's-tail1 although perfect1 have neither calyx nor corolla 7,fig4 #bcd74 ,incomplete flowers1 accordingly1 are ,naked or ,achlamydeous1 destitute of both floral envelopes1 as in ,fig4 #bcd1 or ,apetalous1 when wanting only the corolla4 ,the case of corolla present and calyx wholly wanting is extremely rare1 although there are seeming instances4 ,in fact1 a single or simple perianth is taken to be a calyx1 unless the absence or abortion of a calyx can be made evident4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4 ,flower of ,mustard4 #bcf4 ,its stamens and pistil separate and enlarged4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,flower of a ,violet4 #bch4 ,its calyx and corolla displayed3 the five smaller parts are the sepals2 the five intervening larger ones are the petals4 #beb4 ,in contradistinction to regular and symmetrical1 very many flowers are ,irregular1 that is1 with the members of some or all of the floral circles unequal or dissimilar1 and ,unsymmetrical1 that is1 when the circles of the flower or some of them differ in the number of their members4 7,symmetrical and unsymmetrical are used in a different sense in some recent books1 but the older use should be adhered to74 ,want of numerical symmetry and irregularity commonly go together2 and both are common4 ,indeed1 few flowers are entirely symmetrical beyond calyx1 corolla1 and perhaps stamens2 and probably no irregular blossoms are quite symmetrical4 #bec4 ,irregular and ,unsymmetrical ,flowers may therefore be illustrated together1 beginning with cases which are comparatively free from other complications4 ,the blossom of ,mustard1 and of all the very natural family which it represents 7,fig4 #bce1 #bcf71 is regular but unsymmetrical in the stamens4 ,there are four equal sepals1 four equal petals2 but six stamens1 and only two members in the pistil1 which for the present may be left out of view4 ,the want of symmetry is in the stamens4 ,these are in two circles1 an outer and an inner4 ,the outer circle consists of two stamens only2 the inner has its proper number of four4 ,the flower of ,violet1 which is on the plan of five1 is symmetrical in calyx1 corolla1 and stamens1 inasmuch as each of these circles consists of five members2 but it is conspicuously irregular in the corolla1 one of the petals being very different from the rest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4 ,flower of a ,larkspur4 #bdj4 ,its calyx and corolla displayed2 the five larger parts are the sepals2 the four smaller1 of two shapes1 are the petals2 the place of the fifth petal is vacant4 #bda4 ,diagram of the same2 the place for the missing petal marked by a dotted line4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4 ,flower of a ,monkshood4 #bdc4 ,its parts displayed2 five sepals1 the upper forming the hood2 the two lateral alike1 broad and flat2 the two lower small4 ,the two pieces under the hood represent the corolla1 reduced to two odd-shaped petals2 in centre the numerous stamens and three pistils4 #bdd4 ,diagram of the calyx and corolla2 the three dotted lines in the place of missing petals4 #bed4 ,the flowers of ,larkspur1 and of ,monkshood or ,aconite1 which are nearly related1 are both strikingly irregular in calyx and corolla1 and considerably unsymmetrical4 ,in ,larkspur 7,fig4 #bci-bda7 the irregular calyx consists of five sepals1 one of which1 larger than the rest1 is prolonged behind into a large sac or spur2 but the corolla is of only four petals 7of two shapes71--the fifth1 needed to complete the symmetry1 being left out4 ,and the ,monkshood 7,fig4 #bdb-bdd7 has five very dissimilar sepals1 and a corolla of only two very small and curiously-shaped petals1--the three needed to make up the symmetry being left out4 ,the stamens in both are out of symmetry with the ground-plan1 being numerous4 ,so are the pistils1 which are usually diminished to three1 sometimes to two or to one4 #bee4 ,flowers with ,multiplication of ,parts are very common4 ,the stamens are indefinitely numerous in ,larkspur and in ,monkshood 7,fig4 #bdb1 #bdc71 while the pistils are fewer than the ground-plan suggests4 ,most ,cactus-flowers have all the organs much increased in number 7,fig4 #bbi71 and so of the ,water-,lily4 ,in ,anemone 7,fig4 #bcc7 the stamens and pistils are multiplied while the petals are left out4 ,in ,buttercups or ,crowfoot1 while the sepals and petals conform to the ground-plan of five1 both stamens and pistils are indefinitely multiplied 7,fig4 #bde74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4 ,flower of ,ranunculus bulbosus1 or ,buttercup1 in section4 #bef4 ,flowers modified by ,union of ,parts1 so that these parts more or less lose the appearance of separate leaves or other organs growing out of the end of the stem or receptacle1 are extremely common4 ,there are two kinds of such union1 namely3-- ,coalescence of parts of the same circle by their contiguous margins2 and ,adnation1 or the union of adjacent circles or unlike parts4 #beg4 ,coalescence is not rare in leaves1 as in the upper pairs of ,honeysuckles1 ,fig4 #afc4 ,it may all the more be expected in the crowded circles or whorls of flower-leaves4 ,datura or ,stramonium 7,fig4 #bdf7 shows this coalescence both in calyx and corolla1 the five sepals and the five petals being thus united to near their tips1 each into a tube or long and narrow cup4 ,these unions make needful the following terms3-- ,gamopetalous1 said of a corolla the petals of which are thus coalescent into one body1 whether only at base or higher4 ,the union may extend to the very summit1 as in ,morning ,glory and the like 7,fig4 #bdg71 so that the number of petals in it may not be apparent4 ,the old name for this was ,monopetalous1 but that means one-petalled2 while gamopetalous means petals united1 and therefore is the proper term4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,flower of ,datura ,stramonium2 gamosepalous and gamopetalous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,funnelform corolla of a common ,morning ,glory1 detached from its polysepalous calyx4 ,polypetalous is the counterpart term1 to denote a corolla of distinct1 that is1 separate petals4 ,as it means many petalled1 it is not the best possible name1 but it is the old one and in almost universal use4 ,gamosepalous applies to the calyx when the sepals are in this way united4 ,polysepalous1 to the calyx when of separate sepals or calyx-leaves4 #beh4 ,degree of union or of separation in descriptive botany is expressed in the same way as is the lobing of leaves 7#aci74 ,see ,fig4 #bdi-bec1 and the explanations4 #bei4 ,a corolla when gamopetalous commonly shows a distinction 7well marked in ,fig4 #bdi-bea7 between a contracted tubular portion below1 the ,,tube1 and the spreading part above1 the ,,border or ,,limb4 ,the junction between tube and limb1 or a more or less enlarged upper portion of the tube between the two1 is the ,,throat4 ,the same is true of the calyx4 #bfj4 ,some names are given to particular forms of the gamopetalous corolla1 applicable also to a gamosepalous calyx1 such as ,wheel-shaped1 or ,rotate2 when spreading out at once1 without a tube or with a very short one1 something in the shape of a wheel or of its diverging spokes1 ,fig4 #beb1 #bec4 ,salver-shaped1 or ,salver-form2 when a flat-spreading border is raised on a narrow tube1 from which it diverges at right angles1 like the salver represented in old pictures1 with a slender handle beneath1 ,fig4 #bdi-bea1 #bee4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,polypetalous corolla of ,soapwort1 of five petals with long claws or stalk-like bases4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,flower of ,standing ,cypress 7,gilia coronopifolia72 gamopetalous3 the tube answering to the long claws in #bdh1 except that they are coalescent3 the limb or border 7the spreading part above7 is five-parted1 that is1 the petals not there united except at very base4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bej4 ,flower of ,cypress-vine 7,ipomoea ,quamoclit72 like preceding1 but limb five-lobed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4 ,flower of ,ipomoea coccinea2 limb almost entire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #beb4 ,wheel-shaped or rotate and five-parted corolla of ,bittersweet1 ,solanum ,dulcamara4 #bec4 ,wheel-shaped and five-lobed corolla of ,potato4 ,bell-shaped1 or ,campanulate2 where a short and broad tube widens upward1 in the shape of a bell1 as in ,fig4 #bed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bed4 ,flower of a ,campanula or ,harebell1 with a campanulate or bell-shaped corolla2 #bee1 of a ,phlox1 with salver-shaped corolla2 #bef1 of ,dead ,nettle 7,lamium71 with labiate ringent 7or gaping7 corolla2 #beg1 of ,snapdragon1 with labiate personate corolla2 #beh1 of ,toad-,flax1 with a similar corolla spurred at the base4 ,funnel-shaped1 or ,funnelform2 gradually spreading at the summit of a tube which is narrow below1 in the shape of a funnel or tunnel1 as in the corolla of the common ,morning ,glory 7,fig4 #bdg7 and of the ,stramonium 7,fig4 #bdf74 ,tubular2 when prolonged into a tube1 with little or no spreading at the border1 as in the corolla of the ,trumpet ,honeysuckle1 the calyx of ,stramonium 7,fig4 #bdf71 etc4 #bfa4 ,although sepals and petals are usually all blade or lamina 7#abc71 like a sessile leaf1 yet they may have a contracted and stalk-like base1 answering to petiole4 ,this is called its ,,claw1 in ,latin ,unguis4 ,unguiculate petals are universal and strongly marked in the ,pink tribe1 as in ,soapwort 7,fig4 #bdh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4 ,unguiculate 7clawed7 petal of a ,silene2 with a two-parted crown4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfj4 ,a small ,passion-flower1 with crown of slender threads4 #bfb4 ,such petals1 and various others1 may have an outgrowth of the inner face into an appendage or fringe1 as in ,soapwort1 and in ,silene 7,fig4 #bei71 where it is at the junction of claw and blade4 ,this is called a ,,crown1 or ,corona4 ,in ,passion-flowers 7,fig4 #bfj7 the crown consists of numerous threads on the base of each petal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,front view of a papilionaceous corolla4 #bfb4 ,the parts of the same1 displayed3 s1 ,standard1 or ,vexillum2 w1 ,wings1 or ,alae2 k1 ,keel1 or ,carina4 #bfc4 ,irregular ,flowers may be polypetalous1 or nearly so1 as in the papilionaceous corolla2 but most of them are irregular through coalescence1 which often much disguises the numerical symmetry also4 ,as affecting the corolla the following forms have received particular names3 #bfd4 ,papilionaceous ,corolla1 ,fig4 #bfa1 #bfb4 ,this is polypetalous1 except that two of the petals cohere1 usually but slightly4 ,it belongs only to the ,leguminous or ,pulse family4 ,the name means butterfly-like2 but the likeness is hardly obvious4 ,the names of the five petals of the papilionaceous corolla are curiously incongruous4 ,they are1 ,the ,,standard or ,banner 7,vexillum71 the large upper petal which is external in the bud and wrapped around the others4 ,the ,,wings 7,alae71 the pair of side petals1 of quite different shape from the standard4 ,the ,,keel 7,carina71 the two lower and usually smallest petals2 these are lightly coalescent into a body which bears some likeness1 not to the keel1 but to the prow of a boat2 and this encloses the stamens and pistil4 ,a ,pea-blossom is a typical example2 the present illustration is from a species of ,locust1 ,robinia hispida4 #bfe4 ,labiate ,corolla 7,fig4 #bef-beh71 which would more properly have been called ,bilabiate1 that is1 two-lipped4 ,this is a common form of gamopetalous corolla2 and the calyx is often bilabiate also4 ,these flowers are all on the plan of five2 and the irregularity in the corolla is owing to unequal union of the petals as well as to diversity of form4 ,the two petals of the upper or posterior side of the flower unite with each other higher up than with the lateral petals 7in ,fig4 #bef1 quite to the top71 forming the ,upper lip3 the lateral and the lower similarly unite to form the ,lower lip4 ,the single notch which is generally found at the summit of the upper lip1 and the two notches of the lower lip1 or in other words the two lobes of the upper and the three of the lower lip1 reveal the real composition4 ,so also does the alternation of these five parts with those of the calyx outside4 ,when the calyx is also bilabiate1 as in the ,sage1 this alternation gives three lobes or sepals to the upper and two to the lower lip4 ,two forms of the labiate corolla have been designated1 viz43-- ,ringent or ,gaping1 when the orifice is wide open1 as in ,fig4 #bef4 ,personate or ,masked1 when a protuberance or intrusion of the base of the lower lip 7called a ,palate7 projects over or closes the orifice1 as in ,snapdragon and ,toad-,flax1 ,fig4 #beg1 #beh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,corolla of a purple ,gerardia laid open1 showing the four stamens2 the cross shows where the fifth stamen would be1 if present4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd4 ,corolla1 laid open1 and stamens of ,pentstemon grandiflorus1 with a sterile filament in the place of the fifth stamen1 and representing it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,corolla of ,catalpa laid open1 displaying two good stamens and three abortive ones or vestiges4 #bff4 ,there are all gradations between labiate and regular corollas4 ,in those of ,gerardia1 of some species of ,pentstemon1 and of ,catalpa 7,fig4 #bfc-bfe71 the labiate character is slight1 but is manifest on close inspection4 ,in almost all such flowers the plan of five1 which is obvious or ascertainable in the calyx and corolla1 is obscured in the stamens by the abortion or suppression of one or three of their number4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bff4 ,two flower-heads of ,chiccory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4 ,one of them half cut away1 better showing some of the flowers4 #bfg4 ,ligulate ,corolla4 ,the ligulate or ,strap-shaped corolla mainly belongs to the family of ,compositae1 in which numerous small flowers are gathered into a head1 within an involucre that imitates a calyx4 ,it is best exemplified in the ,dandelion and in ,chiccory 7,fig4 #bff74 ,each one of these straps or ,ligules1 looking like so many petals1 is the corolla of a distinct flower3 the base is a short tube1 which opens out into the ligule3 the five minute teeth at the end indicate the number of constituent petals4 ,so this is a kind of gamopetalous corolla1 which is open along one side nearly to the base1 and outspread4 ,the nature of such a corolla 7and of the stamens also1 to be explained in the next section7 is illustrated by the flower of a ,lobelia1 ,fig4 #bhe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfh4 ,head of flowers of a ,coreopsis1 divided lengthwise4 #bfh4 ,in ,asters1 ,daisies1 ,sunflower1 ,coreopsis 7,fig4 #bfh71 and the like1 only the marginal 7or ,ray7 corollas are ligulate2 the rest 7those of the ,disk7 are regularly gamopetalous1 tubular1 and five-lobed at summit2 but they are small and individually inconspicuous1 only the ray-flowers making a show4 ,in fact1 those of ,coreopsis and of ,sunflower are simply for show1 these ray-flowers being not only sterile1 but neutral1 that is1 having neither stamens nor pistil4 ,but in ,asters1 ,daisies1 ,golden-rods1 and the like1 these ray-flowers are pistillate and fertile1 serving therefore for seed-bearing as well as for show4 ,let it not be supposed that the show is useless4 ,see ,section ,,xiii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,a slice of the preceding more enlarged1 with one tubular perfect flower 7a7 left standing on the receptacle1 with its bractlet or chaff 7b71 one ligulate and neutral ray-flower 7cc7 and part of another2 dd1 section of bracts or leaves of the involucre4 #bfi4 ,adnation1 or ,consolidation1 is the union of the members of parts belonging to different circles of the flower 7#bef74 ,it is of course understood that in this 7as likewise in coalescence7 the parts are not formed and then conjoined1 but are produced in union4 ,they are born united1 as the term adnate implies4 ,to illustrate this kind of union1 take the accompanying series of flowers 7,fig4 #bgj-bgd71 shown in vertical section4 ,in the first1 ,fig4 #bgj1 ,flax-flower1 there is no adnation2 sepals1 petals1 and stamens1 are free as well as distinct1 being separately borne on the receptacle1 one circle within or above the next2 only the five pistils have their ovaries coalescent4 ,in ,fig4 #bga1 a ,cherry-flower1 the petals and stamens are borne on the throat of the calyx-tube2 that is1 the sepals are coalescent into a cup1 and the petals and stamens are adnate to the inner face of this2 in other words1 the sepals1 petals1 and stamens are all consolidated up to a certain height4 ,in ,fig4 #bgb1 a ,purslane-flower1 the same parts are adnate to or consolidated with the ovary up to its middle4 ,in ,fig4 #bgc1 a ,hawthorn-flower1 the consolidation has extended over the whole ovary2 and petals and stamens are adnate to the calyx still further4 ,in ,fig4 #bgd1 a ,cranberry-blossom1 it is the same except that all the parts are free at the same height2 all seem to arise from the top of the ovary4 #bgj4 ,in botanical description1 to express tersely such differences in the relation of these organs to the pistil1 they are said to be ,hypogynous 7i4 e4 under the pistil7 when they are all free1 that is1 not adnate to pistil nor connate with each other1 as in ,fig4 #bgj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4 ,flax-flower in section2 the parts all free1--hypogynous4 ,perigynous 7around the pistil7 when connate with each other1 that is1 when petals and stamens are inserted or borne on the calyx1 whether as in ,cherry-flowers 7,fig4 #bga7 they are free from the pistil1 or as in ,purslane and ,hawthorn 7,fig4 #bgb1 #bgc7 they are also adnate below to the ovary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bga4 ,cherry-flower in section2 petals and stamens adnate to tube of calyx1--perigynous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,purslane-flower in section2 calyx1 petals1 stamens1 all adnate to lower half of ovary1--perigynous4 ,epigynous 7on the ovary7 when so adnate that all these parts appear to arise from the very summit of the ovary1 as in ,fig4 #bgd4 ,the last two terms are not very definitely distinguished4 #bga4 ,another and a simpler form of expression is to describe parts of the flower as being ,free1 when not united with or inserted upon other parts4 ,distinct1 when parts of the same kind are not united4 ,this term is the counterpart of coalescent1 as free is the counterpart of adnate4 ,many writers use the term free indiscriminately for both2 but it is better to distinguish them4 ,connate is a term common for either not free or not distinct1 that is1 for parts united congenitally1 whether of same or of different kinds4 ,adnate1 as properly used1 relates to the union of dissimilar parts4 #bgb4 ,in still another form of expression1 the terms superior and inferior have been much used in the sense of above and below4 ,superior is said of the ovary of ,flax-flower1 ,cherry1 etc41 because above the other parts2 it is equivalent to ovary free4 ,or it is said of the calyx1 etc41 when above the ovary1 as in ,fig4 #bgc-bge4 ,inferior1 when applied to the ovary1 means the same as calyx adnate2 when applied to the floral envelopes1 it means that they are free4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,hawthorn-blossom in section2 parts adnate to whole face of ovary1 and with each other beyond2 another grade of perigynous4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgd4 ,cranberry-blossom in section2 parts epigynous4 #bgc4 ,position of ,flower or of its ,parts4 ,the terms superior and inferior1 or upper and lower1 are also used to indicate the relative position of the parts of a flower in reference to the axis of inflorescence4 ,an axillary flower stands between the bract or leaf which subtends it and the axis or stem which bears this bract or leaf4 ,this is represented in sectional diagrams 7as in ,fig4 #bge1 #bgf7 by a transverse line for the bract1 and a small circle for the axis of inflorescence4 ,now the side of the blossom which faces the bract is the ,anterior1 or ,inferior1 or ,lower side2 while the side next the axis is the ,posterior1 or ,superior1 or ,upper side of the flower4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bge4 ,diagram of papilionaceous flower 7,robinia1 ,fig4 #bfa71 with bract below2 axis of inflorescence above4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgf4 ,diagram of ,violet-flower2 showing the relation of parts to bract and axis4 #bgd4 ,so1 in the labiate corolla 7,fig4 #bef-beh71 the lip which is composed of three of the five petals is the anterior1 or inferior1 or lower lip2 the other is the posterior1 or superior1 or upper lip4 #bge4 ,in ,violets 7,fig4 #bch1 #bgf71 the odd sepal is posterior 7next the axis72 the odd petal is therefore anterior1 or next the subtending leaf4 ,in the papilionaceous flower 7,fig4 #bfa1 and diagram1 ,fig4 #bge71 the odd sepal is anterior1 and so two sepals are posterior2 consequently1 by the alternation1 the odd petal 7the standard7 is posterior or upper1 and the two petals forming the keel are anterior or lower4 ,sec4 #e4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,parts ,,in ,,the ,,bud4 #bgf4 ,a,estivation was the fanciful name given by ,linnaeus to denote the disposition of the parts1 especially the leaves of the flower1 before ,anthesis1 i4 e4 before the blossom opens4 ,praefloration1 a better term1 is sometimes used4 ,this is of importance in distinguishing different families or genera of plants1 being generally uniform in each4 ,the aestivation is best seen by making a slice across the flower-bud2 and it may be expressed in diagrams1 as in the accompanying figures4 #bgg4 ,the pieces of the calyx or the corolla either overlap each other in the bud1 or they do not4 ,when they do not overlap1 the aestivation is ,valvate1 when the pieces meet each other by their abrupt edges1 without any infolding or overlapping2 as the calyx of the ,linden or ,basswood 7,fig4 #bgg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,diagram of a flower of ,linden1 showing the calyx valvate and corolla imbricate in the bud1 etc4 ,induplicate1 which is valvate with the margins of each piece projecting inwards1 as in the calyx of a common ,virgin's-bower1 ,fig4 #bgh1 or ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgh4 ,valvate-induplicate aestivation of calyx of common ,virgin's-bower4 ,involute1 which is the same but the margins rolled inward1 as in most of the large-flowered species of ,clematis1 ,fig4 #bgi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgi4 ,valvate-involute aestivation of same in ,vine-bower1 ,clematis ,vitialla4 ,reduplicate1 a rarer modification of valvate1 is similar but with margins projecting outward4 ,open1 the parts not touching in the bud1 as the calyx of ,mignonette4 #bgh4 ,when the pieces overlap in the bud1 it is in one of two ways2 either every piece has one edge in and one edge out1 or some pieces are wholly outside and others wholly inside4 ,in the first case the aestivation is ,convolute1 also named ,contorted or ,twisted1 as in ,fig4 #bhj1 a cross-section of a corolla very strongly thus convolute or rolled up together1 and in the corolla of a ,flax-flower 7,fig4 #bha71 where the petals only moderately overlap in this way4 ,here one edge of every petal covers the next before it1 while its other edge is covered by the next behind it4 ,the other mode is the ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhj4 ,convolute aestivation1 as in the corolla-lobes of ,oleander4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bha4 ,diagram of a ,flax-flower2 calyx imbricated and corolla convolute in the bud4 ,imbricate or ,imbricated1 in which the outer parts cover or overlap the inner so as to break joints1 like tiles or shingles on a roof2 whence the name4 ,when the parts are three1 the first or outermost is wholly external1 the third wholly internal1 the second has one margin covered by the first while the other overlaps the third or innermost piece3 this is the arrangement of alternate three-ranked leaves 7#ahg74 ,when there are five pieces1 as in the corolla of ,fig4 #bbe1 and calyx of ,fig4 #bha1 as also of ,fig4 #bda1 #bgf1 two are external1 two are internal1 and one 7the third in the spiral7 has one edge covered by the outermost1 while its other edge covers the innermost2 which is just the five-ranked arrangement of alternate leaves 7#ahh74 ,when the pieces are four1 two are outer and two are inner2 which answers to the arrangement of opposite leaves4 #bgi4 ,the imbricate and the convolute modes sometimes vary one into the other1 especially in the corolla4 #bhj4 ,in a gamopetalous corolla or gamosepalous calyx1 the shape of the tube in the bud may sometimes be noticeable4 ,it may be ,plicate or ,plaited1 that is1 folded lengthwise2 and the plaits may either be turned outwards1 forming projecting ridges1 as in the corolla of ,campanula2 or turned inwards1 as in that of ,gentian ,belladonna2 or ,supervolute1 when the plaits are convolutely wrapped round each other1 as in the corolla of ,morning ,glory and of ,stramonium1 ,fig4 #bhb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhb4 ,upper part of corolla of ,datura ,stramonium in the bud2 and below a section showing the convolution of the plaits4 ,section ,,ix4 ,,stamens ,,in ,,particular4 #bha4 ,androecium is a technical name for the staminate system of a flower 7that is1 for the stamens taken together71 which it is sometimes convenient to use4 ,the preceding section has dealt with modifications of the flower pertaining mainly to calyx and corolla4 ,those relating to the stamens are now to be indicated4 ,first as to #bhb4 ,insertion1 or place of attachment4 ,the stamens usually go with the petals4 ,not rarely they are at base ,epipetalous1 that is1 inserted on 7or adnate to7 the corolla1 as in ,fig4 #bhc4 ,when free from the corolla1 they may be ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,corolla of ,morning ,glory laid open1 to show the five stamens inserted on it1 near the base4 ,hypogynous1 inserted on the receptacle under the pistil or gynoecium4 ,perigynous1 inserted on the calyx1 that is1 with the lower part of filament adnate to the calyx-tube4 ,epigynous1 borne apparently on the top of the ovary2 all which is explained in ,fig4 #bgj-bgd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,style of a ,lady's ,slipper 7,cypripedium71 and stamens united with it2 a1 a1 the anthers of the two good stamens2 st1 an abortive stamen1 what should be its anther changed into a petal-like body2 stig1 the stigma4 ,gynandrous is another term relating to insertion of rarer occurrence1 that is1 where the stamens are inserted on 7in other words1 adnate to7 the style1 as in ,lady's ,slipper 7,fig4 #bhd71 and in the ,orchis family generally4 #bhc4 ,in ,relation to each ,other1 stamens are more commonly ,distinct1 that is1 without any union with each other4 ,but when united1 the following technical terms of long use indicate their modes of mutual connection3-- ,monadelphous 7from two ,greek words1 meaning in one brotherhood71 when united by their filaments into one set1 usually into a ring or cup below1 or into a tube1 as in the ,mallow ,family 7,fig4 #bhf71 the ,passion-flower 7,fig4 #bfj71 the ,lupine 7,fig4 #bhg71 and in ,lobelia 7,fig4 #bhe74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhe4 ,flower of ,lobelia cardinalis1 ,cardinal flower2 corolla making approach to the ligulate form2 filaments 7st7 monadelphous1 and anthers 7a7 syngenesious4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,flower of a ,mallow1 with calyx and corolla cut away2 showing monadelphous stamens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhg4 ,monadelphous stamens of ,lupine4 #bhh4 ,diadelphous stamens 7#i and #a7 of a ,pea-blossom4 ,diadelphous 7meaning in two brotherhoods71 when united by the filaments into two sets1 as in the ,pea and most of its near relatives 7,fig4 #bhh71 usually nine in one set1 and one in the other4 ,triadelphous 7three brotherhoods71 when the filaments are united in three sets or clusters1 as in most species of ,hypericum4 ,pentadelphous 7five brotherhoods71 when in five sets1 as in some species of ,hypericum and in ,american ,linden 7,fig4 #bgg1 #bhi74 ,polyadelphous 7many or several brotherhoods7 is the term generally employed when these sets are several1 or even more than two1 and the particular number is left unspecified4 ,these terms all relate to the filaments4 ,syngenesious is the term to denote that stamens have their anthers united1 coalescent into a ring or tube2 as in ,lobelia 7,fig4 #bhe71 in ,violets1 and in all of the great family of ,compositae4 #bhd4 ,their ,number in a flower is commonly expressed directly1 but sometimes adjectively1 by a series of terms which were the name of classes in the ,linnaean artificial system1 of which the following names1 as also the preceding1 are a survival3-- ,monandrous1 i4 e4 solitary-stamened1 when the flower has only one stamen1 ,diandrous1 when it has two stamens only1 ,triandrous1 when it has three stamens1 ,tetrandrous1 when it has four stamens1 ,pentandrous1 when it has five stamens1 ,hexandrous1 when with six stamens1 and so on to ,polyandrous1 when it has many stamens1 or more than a dozen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bhi4 ,one of the five stamen-clusters of the flower of ,american ,linden1 with accompanying scale4 ,the five clusters are shown in section in the diagram of this flower1 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bij4 ,five syngenesious stamens of a ,coreopsis4 #bia4 ,same1 with tube laid open and displayed4 #bhe4 ,for which terms1 see the ,glossary4 ,they are all ,greek numerals prefixed to -andria 7from the ,greek71 which ,linnaeus used for androecium1 and are made into an ,english adjective1 -androus4 ,two other terms1 of same origin1 designate particular cases of number 7four or six7 in connection with unequal length4 ,namely1 the stamens are ,didynamous1 when1 being only four1 they form two pairs1 one pair longer than the other1 as in the ,trumpet ,creeper1 in ,gerardia 7,fig4 #bfc71 etc4 ,tetradynamous1 when1 being only six1 four of them surpass the other two1 as in the ,mustard-flower and all the ,cruciferous family1 ,fig4 #bce4 #bhf4 ,the ,filament is a kind of stalk to the anther1 commonly slender or thread-like3 it is to the anther nearly what the petiole is to the blade of a leaf4 ,therefore it is not an essential part4 ,as a leaf may be without a stalk1 so the anther may be ,sessile1 or without a filament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bib4 ,stamen of ,isopyrum1 with innate anther4 #bic4 ,of ,tulip-tree1 with adnate 7and extrorse7 anther4 #bid4 ,of ,evening ,primrose1 with versatile anther4 #bhg4 ,the ,anther is the essential part of the stamen4 ,it is a sort of case1 filled with a fine powder1 the ,pollen1 which serves to fertilize the pistil1 so that it may perfect seeds4 ,the anther is said to be ,innate 7as in ,fig4 #bib71 when it is attached by its base to the very apex of the filament1 turning neither inward nor outward2 ,adnate 7as in ,fig4 #bic71 when attached as it were by one face1 usually for its whole length1 to the side of a continuation of the filament2 and ,versatile 7as in ,fig4 #bid71 when fixed by or near its middle only to the very point of the filament1 so as to swing loosely1 as in the ,lily1 in ,grasses1 etc4 ,versatile or adnate anthers are ,introrse1 or ,incumbent1 when facing inward1 that is1 toward the centre of the flower1 as in ,magnolia1 ,water-,lily1 etc4 ,extrorse1 when facing outwardly1 as in the ,tulip-tree4 #bhh4 ,rarely does a stamen bear any resemblance to a leaf1 or even to a petal or flower-leaf4 ,nevertheless1 the botanist's idea of a stamen is that it answers to a leaf developed in a peculiar form and for a special purpose4 ,in the filament he sees the stalk of the leaf2 in the anther1 the blade4 ,the blade of a leaf consists of two similar sides2 so the anther consists of two ,,lobes or ,,cells1 one answering to the left1 the other to the right1 side of the blade4 ,the two lobes are often connected by a prolongation of the filament1 which answers to the midrib of a leaf2 this is called the ,,connective4 ,this is conspicuous in ,fig4 #bib1 where the connective is so broad that it separates the two cells of the anther to some distance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bie4 ,diagram of the lower part of an anther1 cut across above1 and the upper part of a leaf1 to show how the one answers to the other2 the filament to petiole1 the connective to midrib2 the two cells to the right and left halves of the blade4 #bhi4 ,a simple conception of the morphological relation of an anther to a leaf is given in ,fig4 #bie1 an ideal figure1 the lower part representing a stamen with the top of its anther cut away2 the upper1 the corresponding upper part of a leaf4 #bij4 ,so anthers are generally two-celled4 ,but as the pollen begins to form in two parts of each cell 7the anterior and the posterior71 sometimes these two strata are not confluent1 and the anther even at maturity may be four-celled1 as in ,moonseed 7,fig4 #bif72 or rather1 in that case 7the word cell being used for each lateral half of the organ71 it is two-celled1 but the cells bilocellate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bif4 ,stamen of ,moonseed1 with anther cut across2 this #d-;celled1 or rather #d-locellate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #big4 ,stamen of ,pentstemon pubescens2 the two anther-cells diverging1 and almost confluent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bih4 ,stamen of ,mallow2 the anther supposed to answer to that of ,fig4 #big1 but the cells completely confluent into one4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bii4 ,stamen of ,globe ,amaranth2 very short filament bearing a single anther-cell2 it is open from top to bottom1 showing the pollen within4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjj-cje4 ,stamens of several plants of the ,labiate or ,mint ,family4 ,fig4 #cjj4 ,of a ,monarda3 the two anther-cells with bases divergent so that they are transverse to the filament1 and their contiguous tips confluent1 so as to form one cell opening by a continuous line4 ,fig4 #cja4 ,of a ,calamintha3 the broad connective separating the two cells4 ,fig4 #cjb4 ,of a ,sage 7,salvia ,texana72 with long and slender connective resembling forks of the filament1 one bearing a good anther-cell2 the other an abortive or poor one4 ,fig4 #cjc4 ,another ,sage 7,s4 coccinea71 with connective longer and more thread-shaped1 the lower fork having its anther-cell wholly wanting4 ,fig4 #cjd4 ,of a ,white ,sage1 ,audibertia grandiflora2 the lower fork of connective a mere vestige4 ,fig4 #cje4 ,of another ,white ,sage 7,a4 stachyoides71 the lower fork of connective suppressed4 #bia4 ,but anthers may become one-celled1 and that either by confluence or by suppression4 #bib4 ,by confluence1 when the two cells run together into one1 as they nearly do in most species of ,pentstemon 7,fig4 #big71 more so in ,monarda 7,fig4 #cjj71 and completely in the ,mallow 7,fig4 #bih7 and all the ,mallow family4 #bic4 ,by suppression in certain cases the anther may be reduced to one cell or halved4 ,in ,globe ,amaranth 7,fig4 #bii7 there is a single cell without vestige of any other4 ,different species of ,sage and of the ,white ,sages of ,california show various grades of abortion of one of the anther-cells1 along with a singular lengthening of the connective 7,fig4 #cjb-cje74 #bid4 ,the splitting open of an anther for the discharge of its pollen is termed its ,dehiscence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjf4 ,stamen with the usual dehiscence of anther down the side of each cell4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjg4 ,stamen of ,pyrola2 cells opening by a terminal hole4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cjh4 ,stamen of ,barberry2 cells of anther each opening by an uplifted valve4 #bie4 ,as the figures show1 this is commonly by a line along the whole length of each cell1 either lateral or1 when the anthers are extrorse1 often along the outer face1 and when introrse1 along the inner face of each cell4 ,sometimes the opening is only by a chink1 hole1 or pore at the top1 as in the ,azalea1 ,pyrola 7,fig4 #cjg71 etc42 sometimes a part of the face separates as a sort of trap-door 7or valve71 hinged at the top1 and opening to allow the escape of the pollen1 as in the ,sassafras1 ,spice-bush1 and ,barberry 7,fig4 #cjh74 #bif4 ,pollen4 ,this is the powdery matter1 commonly of a yellow color1 which fills the cells of the anther1 and is discharged during blossoming1 after which the stamens generally fall or wither away4 ,under the microscope it is found to consist of grains1 usually round or oval1 and all alike in the same species1 but very different in different plants4 ,so that the plant may sometimes be recognized from the pollen alone4 ,several forms are shown in the accompanying figures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cji4 ,magnified pollen of a ,lily1 smooth and oval2 #caj1 of ,echinocystis1 grooved lengthwise2 #caa1 of ,sicyos1 with bristly points and smooth bands2 #cab1 of ,musk ,plant 7,mimulus71 with spiral grooves2 #cac1 of ,succory1 twelve-sided and dotted4 #big4 ,an ordinary pollen-grain has two coats2 the outer coat thickish1 but weak1 and frequently adorned with lines or bands1 or studded with points2 the inner coat is extremely thin and delicate1 but extensible1 and its cavity when fresh contains a thickish protoplasmic fluid1 often rendered turbid by an immense number of minute particles that float in it4 ,as the pollen matures this fluid usually dries up1 but the protoplasm does not lose its vitality4 ,when the grain is wetted it absorbs water1 swells up1 and is apt to burst1 discharging the contents4 ,but when weak syrup is used it absorbs this slowly1 and the tough inner coat will sometimes break through the outer and begin a kind of growth1 like that which takes place when the pollen is placed upon the stigma4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cad4 ,magnified pollen of ,hibiscus and other ,mallow-plants1 beset with prickly projections2 #cae1 of ,circaea1 with angles bearing little lobes2 #caf1 of ,evening ,primrose1 the three lobes as large as the central body2 #cag1 of ,kalmia1 four grains united1 as in most of the ,heath family2 #cah1 of ,pine1 as it were of three grains or cells united2 the lateral empty and light4 #bih4 ,some pollen-grains are1 as it were1 lobed 7as in ,fig4 #cae1 #caf71 or formed of four grains united 7as in the ,heath family1 ,fig4 #cag73 that of ,pine 7,fig4 #cah7 has a large rounded and empty bladder-like expansion upon each side4 ,this renders such pollen very buoyant1 and capable of being transported to a great distance by the wind4 #bii4 ,in species of ,acacia simple grains lightly cohere into globular pellets4 ,in ,milkweeds and in most ,orchids all the pollen of an anther-cell is compacted or coherent into one mass1 called a ,pollen-mass1 or ,,pollinium1 plural ,,pollinia4 7,fig4 #cai-cbb47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cai4 ,pollen1 a pair of pollinia of a ,milkweed1 ,asclepias1 attached by stalks to a gland2 moderately magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbj4 ,pollinium of an ,orchis 7,habenaria71 with its stalk attached to a sticky gland2 magnified4 #cba4 ,some of the packets or partial pollinia1 of which ,fig4 #cbj is made up1 more magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbb4 ,one of the partial pollinia1 torn up at top to show the grains 7which are each composed of four71 and highly magnified4 ,section ,x4 ,,pistils ,,in ,,particular4 ,sec4 #a4 ,,angiospermous ,,or ,,ordinary ,,gynoecium4 #cjj4 ,gynoecium is the technical name for the pistil or pistils of a flower taken collectively1 or for whatever stands in place of these4 ,the various modifications of the gynoecium and the terms which relate to them require particular attention4 #cja4 ,the ,,pistil1 when only one1 occupies the centre of the flower2 when there are two pistils1 they stand facing each other in the centre of the flower2 when several1 they commonly form a ring or circle2 and when very numerous1 they are generally crowded in rows or spirals on the surface of a more or less enlarged or elongated receptacle4 ,their number gives rise to certain terms1 the counterpart of those used for stamens 7#bhd71 which are survivals of the names of orders in the ,linnaean artificial system4 ,the names were coined by prefixing ,greek numerals to -gynia used for gynoecium1 and changed into adjectives in the form of -gynous4 ,that is1 a flower is ,monogynous1 when it has a single pistil1 whether that be simple or compound2 ,digynous1 when it has only two pistils2 ,trigynous1 when with three2 ,tetragynous1 with four2 ,pentagynous1 with five2 ,hexagynous1 with six2 and so on to ,polygynous1 with many pistils4 #cjb4 ,the ,parts of a ,complete ,pistil1 as already twice explained 7#af1 #bcf71 are the ,,ovary1 the ,,style1 and the ,,stigma4 ,the ovary is one essential part3 it contains the rudiments of seeds1 called ,,ovules4 ,the stigma at the summit is also essential3 it receives the pollen1 which fertilizes the ovules in order that they may become seeds4 ,but the style1 commonly a tapering or slender column borne on the summit of the ovary1 and bearing the stigma on its apex or its side1 is no more necessary to a pistil than the filament is to the stamen4 ,accordingly1 there is no style in many pistils3 in these the stigma is sessile1 that is1 rests directly on the ovary 7as in ,fig4 #cbf74 ,the stigma is very various in shape and appearance1 being sometimes a little knob 7as in the ,cherry1 ,fig4 #bga71 sometimes a point or small surface of bare tissue 7as in ,fig4 #cbg-ccj71 and sometimes a longitudinal crest or line 7as in ,fig4 #cbd1 #cda-cdc71 or it may occupy the whole length of the style1 as in ,fig4 #cca4 #cjc4 ,the word ,pistil 7,latin1 ,pistillum7 means a pestle4 ,it came into use in the first place for such flowers as those of ,crown ,imperial1 or ,lily1 in which the pistil in the centre was likened to the pestle1 and the perianth around it to the mortar1 of the apothecary4 #cjd4 ,a pistil is either simple or compound4 ,it is simple when it answers to a single flower-leaf1 compound when it answers to two or three1 or a fuller circle of such leaves conjoined4 #cje4 ,carpels4 ,it is convenient to have a name for each flower-leaf of the gynoecium2 so it is called a ,carpel1 in ,latin ,carpellum or ,carpidium4 ,a simple pistil is a carpel4 ,each component flower-leaf of a compound pistil is likewise a carpel4 ,when a flower has two or more pistils1 these of course are simple pistils1 that is1 separate carpels or pistil-leaves4 ,there may be only a single simple pistil to the flower1 as in a ,pea or ,cherry blossom 7,fig4 #bga72 there may be two such1 as in many ,saxifrages2 or many1 as in the ,strawberry4 ,more commonly the single pistil in the centre of a blossom is a compound one4 ,then there is seldom much difficulty in ascertaining the number of carpels or pistil-leaves that compose it4 #cjf4 ,the ,simple ,pistil1 viewed morphologically1 answers to a leaf-blade with margins incurved and united where they meet1 so forming a closed case or pod 7the ovary71 and bearing ovules at the suture or junction of these margins3 a tapering upper portion with margins similarly inrolled1 is supposed to form the style2 and these same margins1 exposed at the tip or for a portion of the length1 become the stigma4 ,compare1 under this view1 the three accompanying figures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbc4 ,an inrolled small leaf1 such as in double-flowered ,cherry blossoms is often seen to occupy the place of a pistil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbd4 ,a simple pistil 7of ,isopyrum71 with ovary cut across2 the inner 7ventral7 face turned toward the eye3 the ovules seem to be borne on the ventral suture1 answering to leaf-margins3 the stigma above seen also to answer to leaf-margins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbe4 ,pod or simple pistil of ,caltha or ,marsh-,marigold1 which has opened1 and shed its seeds4 #cjg4 ,so a simple pistil should have a one-celled ovary1 only one line of attachment for the ovules1 a single style1 and a single stigma4 ,certain variations from this normal condition which sometimes occur do not invalidate this morphological conception4 ,for instance1 the stigma may become two-lobed or two-ridged1 because it consists of two leaf-margins1 as ,fig4 #cbd shows2 it may become #b-locellate by the turning or growing inward of one of the sutures1 so as to divide the cavity4 #cjh4 ,there are two or three terms which primarily relate to the parts of a simple pistil or carpel1 and are thence carried on to the compound pistil1 viz43-- ,,ventral ,,suture1 the line which answers to the united margins of the carpel-leaf1 therefore naturally called a suture or seam1 and the ventral or inner one1 because in the circle of carpel-leaves it looks inward or to the centre of the flower4 ,,dorsal ,,suture is the line down the back of the carpel1 answering to the midrib of the leaf1--not a seam therefore2 but at maturity many fruits1 such as pea-pods1 open by this dorsal as well as by the ventral line4 ,,placenta1 a name given to the surface1 whatever it be1 which bears the ovules and seeds4 ,the name may be needless when the ovules grow directly on the ventral suture1 or from its top or bottom2 but when there are many ovules there is usually some expansion of an ovule-bearing or seed-bearing surface2 as is seen in our ,mandrake or ,podophyllum1 ,fig4 #cbf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbf4 ,simple pistil of ,podophyllum1 cut across1 showing ovules borne on placenta4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbg4 ,pistil of a ,saxifrage1 of two simple carpels or pistil-leaves1 united at the base only1 cut across both above and below4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbh4 ,compound #c-;carpellary pistil of common ,st4 ,john's-wort1 cut across3 the three styles separate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cbi4 ,the same of shrubby ,st4 ,john's-wort2 the three styles as well as ovaries here united into one4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccj4 ,compound #c-;carpellary pistil of ,tradescantia or ,spiderwort2 the three stigmas as well as styles and ovary completely coalescent into one4 #cji4 ,a ,compound ,pistil is a combination of two1 three1 or a greater number of pistil-leaves or carpels in a circle1 united into one body1 at least by their ovaries4 ,the annexed figures should make it clear4 ,a series of ,saxifrages might be selected the gynoecium of which would show every gradation between two simple pistils1 or separate carpels1 and their complete coalescence into one compound and two-celled ovary4 ,even when the constituent styles and stigmas are completely coalescent into one1 the nature of the combination is usually revealed by some external lines or grooves1 or 7as in ,fig4 #cbh-ccj7 by the internal partitions1 or the number of the placentae4 ,the simplest case of compound pistil is that #caj4 ,with two or more ,cells and ,axile ,placentae1 namely1 with as many cells as there are carpels1 that have united to compose the organ4 ,such a pistil is just what would be formed if the simple pistils 7two1 three1 or five in a circle1 as the case may be71 like those of a ,paeony or ,stonecrop 7,fig4 #bbd1 #bbe71 pressed together in the centre of the flower1 were to cohere by their contiguous parts4 ,in such a case the placentae are naturally axile1 or all brought together in the axis or centre2 and the ovary has as many ,,dissepiments1 or internal ,partitions1 as there are carpels in its composition4 ,for these are the contiguous and coalescent walls or sides of the component carpels4 ,when such pistils ripen into pods1 they often separate along these lines into their elementary carpels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cca1 #ccb4 ,pistil of a ,sandwort1 with vertical and transverse section of the ovary3 free central placenta4 #caa4 ,one-celled1 with free ,central ,placenta4 ,the commoner case is that of ,purslane 7,fig4 #bgb7 and of the ,pink and ,chickweed families 7,fig4 #cca1 #ccb74 ,this is explained by supposing that the partitions 7such as those of ,fig4 #cbi7 have early vanished or have been suppressed4 ,indeed1 traces of them may often be detected in ,pinks4 ,on the other hand1 it is equally supposable that in the ,primula family the free central is derived from parietal placentation by the carpels bearing ovules only at base1 and forming a consolidated common placenta in the axis4 ,mitella and ,dionaea help out this conception4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccc4 ,plan of a one-celled ovary of three carpel-leaves1 with parietal placentae1 cut across below1 where it is complete2 the upper part showing the top of the three leaves it is composed of1 approaching1 but not united4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccd4 ,cross section of the ovary of ,frost weed 7,helianthemum71 with three parietal placentae1 bearing ovules4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cce4 ,cross section of an ovary of ,hypericum graveolens1 the three large placentae meeting in the centre1 so as to form a three-celled ovary4 #ccf4 ,same in fruit1 the placentae now separate and rounded4 #cab4 ,one-celled1 with ,parietal ,placentae4 ,in this not uncommon case it is conceived that the two or three or more carpel-leaves of such a compound pistil coalesce by their adjacent edges1 just as sepal-leaves do to form a gamosepalous calyx1 or petals to form a gamopetalous corolla1 and as is shown in the diagram1 ,fig4 #ccc1 and in an actual cross-section1 ,fig4 #ccd4 ,here each carpel is an open leaf1 or with some introflexion1 bearing ovules along its margins2 and each placenta consists of the contiguous margins of two pistil-leaves grown together4 ,there is every gradation between this and the three-celled ovary with the placentae in the axis1 even in the same genus1 sometimes even in different stages in the same pistil 7,fig4 #cce1 #ccf74 ,sec4 #b4 ,,gymnospermous ,,gynoecium4 #cac4 ,the ordinary pistil has a closed ovary1 and accordingly the pollen can act upon the contained ovules only indirectly1 through the stigma4 ,this is expressed in a term of ,greek derivation1 viz43-- ,angiospermous1 meaning that the seeds are borne in a sac or closed vessel4 ,the counterpart term is ,gymnospermous1 meaning naked-seeded4 ,this kind of pistil1 or gynoecium1 the simplest of all1 yet the most peculiar1 characterizes the ,pine family and its relatives4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ccg4 ,a pistil1 that is1 a scale of the cone1 of a ,larch1 at the time of flowering2 inside view1 showing its pair of naked ovules4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cch4 ,branchlet of the ,american ,arbor-,vitae1 considerably larger than in nature1 terminated by its pistillate flowers1 each consisting of a single scale 7an open pistil71 together forming a small cone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cci4 ,one of the scales or carpels of the last1 removed and more enlarged1 the inside exposed to view1 showing a pair of ovules on its base4 #cad4 ,while the ordinary simple pistil is conceived by the botanist to be a leaf rolled together into a closed pod 7#cjf71 those of the ,pine1 ,larch 7,fig4 #ccg71 ,cedar1 and ,arbor-,vitae 7,fig4 #cch1 #cci7 are open leaves1 in the form of scales1 each bearing two or more ovules on the inner face1 next the base4 ,at the time of blossoming1 these pistil-leaves of the young cone diverge1 and the pollen1 so abundantly shed from the staminate blossoms1 falls directly upon the exposed ovules4 ,afterward the scales close over each other until the seeds are ripe4 ,then they separate that the seeds may be shed4 ,as the pollen acts directly on the ovules1 such pistil 7or organ acting as pistil7 has no stigma4 #cae4 ,in the ,yew1 and in ,torreya and ,gingko1 the gynoecium is reduced to extremest simplicity1 that is1 to a naked ovule1 without any visible carpel4 #caf4 ,in ,cycas the large naked ovules are borne on the margins or lobes of an obvious open leaf4 ,all ,,gymnospermous plants have other peculiarities1 also distinguishing them1 as a class1 from ,,angiospermous plants4 ,section ,,xi4 ,,ovules4 #cag4 ,ovule 7from the ,latin1 meaning a little egg7 is the technical name of that which in the flower answers to and becomes the seed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdj4 ,a cluster of ovules1 pendulous on their funicles4 #cah4 ,ovules are naked in gymnospermous plants 7as just described71 in all others they are enclosed in the ovary4 ,they may be produced along the whole length of the cell or cells of the ovary1 and then they are apt to be numerous1 or only from some part of it1 generally the top or the bottom4 ,in this case they are usually few or single 7solitary1 as in ,fig4 #cda-cdc74 ,they may be sessile1 i4 e4 without stalk1 or they may be attached by a distinct stalk1 the ,,funicle or ,,funiculus 7,fig4 #cdj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cda4 ,section of the ovary of a ,buttercup1 lengthwise1 showing its ascending ovule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdb4 ,section of the ovary of ,buckwheat1 showing the erect ovule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdc4 ,section of the ovary of ,anemone1 showing its suspended ovule4 #cai4 ,considered as to then position and direction in the ovary1 they are ,horizontal1 when they are neither turned upward nor downward1 as in ,podophyllum 7,fig4 #cbf71 ,ascending1 when rising obliquely upwards1 usually from the side of the cell1 not from its very base1 as in the ,buttercup 7,fig4 #cda71 and the ,purslane 7,fig4 #bgb71 ,erect1 when rising upright from the very base of the cell1 as in the ,buckwheat 7,fig4 #cdb71 ,pendulous1 when hanging from the side or from near the top1 as in the ,flax 7,fig4 #bgj71 and ,suspended1 when hanging perpendicularly from the very summit of the cell1 as in the ,anemone 7,fig4 #cdc74 ,all these terms equally apply to seeds4 #cbj4 ,in structure an ovule is a pulpy mass of tissue1 usually with one or two coats or coverings4 ,the following parts are to be noted1 viz4-- ,,kernel or ,,nucleus1 the body of the ovule4 ,in the ,mistletoe and some related plants1 there is only this nucleus1 the coats being wanting4 ,,teguments1 or coats1 sometimes only one1 more commonly two4 ,when two1 one has been called ,,primine1 the other ,,secundine4 ,it will serve all purposes to call them simply outer and inner ovule coats4 ,,orifice1 or ,,foramen1 an opening through the coats at the organic apex of the ovule4 ,in the seed it is ,micropyle4 ,,chalaza1 the place where the coats and the kernel of the ovule blend4 ,,hilum1 the place of junction of the funiculus with the body of the ovule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdd4 ,orthotropous ovule of ,buckwheat3 c1 hilum and chalaza2 f1 orifice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cde4 ,campylotropous ovule of a ,chickweed3 c1 hilum and chalaza2 f1 orifice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdf4 ,amphitropous ovule of ,mallow3 f1 orifice2 h1 hilum2 r1 rhaphe2 c1 chalaza4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdg4 ,anatropous ovule of a ,violet1 the parts lettered as in the last4 #cba4 ,the ,kinds of ,ovules4 ,the ovules in their growth develop in three or four different ways and thereby are distinguished into ,orthotropous or ,straight1 those which develop without curving or turning1 as in ,fig4 #cdd4 ,the chalaza is at the insertion or base1 the foramen or orifice is at the apex4 ,this is the simplest1 but the least common kind of ovule4 ,campylotropous or ,incurved1 in which1 by the greater growth of one side1 the ovule curves into a kidney-shaped outline1 so bringing the orifice down close to the base or chalaza2 as in ,fig4 #cde4 ,amphitropous or ,half ,inverted1 ,fig4 #cdf4 ,here the forming ovule1 instead of curving perceptibly1 keeps its axis nearly straight1 and1 as it grows1 turns round upon its base so far as to become transverse to its funiculus1 and adnate to its upper part for some distance4 ,therefore in this case the attachment of the funiculus or stalk is about the middle1 the chalaza is at one end1 the orifice at the other4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cdh-cej4 ,three early stages in the growth of ovule of a ,magnolia1 showing the forming outer and inner coats which even in the later figure have not yet completely enclosed the nucleus2 #cea1 further advanced1 and #ceb1 completely anatropous ovule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cec4 ,longitudinal section1 and #ced1 transverse section of #ceb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cee4 ,same as #cec1 enlarged showing the parts in section3 a1 outer coat2 b1 inner coat2 c1 nucleus2 d1 rhaphe4 ,anatropous or ,inverted1 as in ,fig4 #cdg1 the commonest kind1 so called because in its growth it has as it were turned over upon its stalk1 to which it has continued adnate4 ,the organic base1 or chalaza1 thus becomes the apparent summit1 and the orifice is at the base1 by the side of the hilum or place of attachment4 ,the adnate portion of the funiculus1 which appears as a ridge or cord extending from the hilum to the chalaza1 and which distinguishes this kind of ovule1 is called the ,,rhaphe4 ,the amphitropous ovule 7,fig4 #cdf7 has a short or incomplete rhaphe4 #cbb4 ,fig4 #cdh-ceb show the stages through which an ovule becomes anatropous in the course of its growth4 ,the annexed two figures are sections of such an ovule at maturity2 and ,fig4 #cee is ,fig4 #cec enlarged1 with the parts lettered4 ,section ,,xii4 ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,receptacle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cef4 ,longitudinal section of flower of ,silene ,pennsylvanica1 showing stipe between calyx and corolla4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceg4 ,flower of a ,cleome of the section ,gynandropsis1 showing broadened receptacle to bear petals1 lengthened stipe below the stamens1 and another between these and pistil4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ceh4 ,pistil of ,geranium or ,cranesbill4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cei4 ,the same1 ripe1 with the five carpels splitting away from the long beak 7carpophore71 and hanging from its top by their recurving styles4 #cbc4 ,the ,torus or ,receptacle of the flower 7#bcg1 ,fig4 #bbc7 is the portion which belongs to the stem or axis4 ,in all preceding illustrations it is small and short4 ,but it sometimes lengthens1 sometimes thickens or variously enlarges1 and takes on various forms4 ,some of these have received special names1 very few of which are in common use4 ,a lengthened portion of the receptacle is called ,a ,,stipe4 ,this name1 which means simply a trunk or stalk1 is used in botany for various stalks1 even for the leaf-stalk in ,ferns4 ,it is also applied to the stalk or petiole of a carpel1 in the rare cases when there is any1 as in ,goldthread4 ,then it is technically distinguished as a ,,thecaphore4 ,when there is a stalk1 or lengthened internode of receptacle1 directly under a compound pistil1 as in ,stanleya and some other ,cruciferae1 it is called a ,,gynophore4 ,when the stalk is developed below the stamens1 as in most species of ,silene 7,fig4 #cef71 it has been called an ,,anthophore or ,,gonophore4 ,in ,fig4 #ceg the torus is dilated above the calyx where it bears the petals1 then there is a long internode 7gonophore7 between it and the stamens2 then a shorter one 7gynophore7 between these and the pistil4 #cbd4 ,a ,carpophore is a prolongation of receptacle or axis between the carpels and bearing them4 ,umbelliferous plants and ,geranium 7,fig4 #ceh1 #cei7 afford characteristic examples4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfj4 ,longitudinal section of a young strawberry1 enlarged4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfa4 ,similar section of a young ,rose-hip4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfb4 ,enlarged and top-shaped receptacle of ,nelumbium1 at maturity4 #cbe4 ,flowers with very numerous simple pistils generally have the receptacle enlarged so as to give them room2 sometimes becoming broad and flat1 as in the ,flowering ,raspberry1 sometimes elongated1 as in the ,blackberry1 the ,magnolia1 etc4 ,it is the receptacle in the ,strawberry 7,fig4 #cfj71 much enlarged and pulpy when ripe1 which forms the eatable part of the fruit1 and bears the small seed-like pistils on its surface4 ,in the ,rose 7,fig4 #cfa71 instead of being convex or conical1 the receptacle is deeply concave1 or urn-shaped4 ,indeed1 a ,rose-hip may be likened to a strawberry turned inside out1 like the finger of a glove reversed1 and the whole covered by the adherent tube of the calyx4 ,the calyx remains beneath in the strawberry4 #cbf4 ,in ,nelumbium1 of the ,water-,lily family1 the singular and greatly enlarged receptacle is shaped like a top1 and bears the small pistils immersed in separate cavities of its flat upper surface 7,fig4 #cfb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfc4 ,hypogynous disk in ,orange4 #cbg4 ,a ,disk is an enlarged low receptacle or an outgrowth from it1 hypogynous when underneath the pistil1 as in ,rue and the ,orange 7,fig4 #cfc71 and perigynous when adnate to calyx-tube 7as in ,buckthorn1 ,fig4 #cfd1 #cfe71 and ,cherry 7,fig4 #bga71 or to both calyx-tube and ovary1 as in ,hawthorn 7,fig4 #bgc74 ,a flattened hypogynous disk1 underlying the ovary or ovaries1 and from which they fall away at maturity1 is sometimes called a ,,gynobase1 as in the ,rue family4 ,in some ,borragineous flowers1 such as ,houndstongue1 the gynobase runs up in the centre between the carpels into a carpophore4 ,the so-called epigynous disk 7or ,,stylopodium7 crowning the summit of the ovary in flowers of ,umbelliferae1 etc41 cannot be said to belong to the receptacle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfd4 ,flower of a ,buckthorn showing a conspicuous perigynous disk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfe4 ,vertical section of same flower4 ,section ,,xiii4 ,,fertilization4 #cbh4 ,the end of the flower is attained when the ovules become seeds4 ,a flower remains for a certain time 7longer or shorter according to the species7 in anthesis1 that is1 in the proper state for the fulfilment of this end4 ,during anthesis1 the ovules have to be fertilized by the pollen2 or at least some pollen has to reach the stigma1 or in gymnospermy the ovule itself1 and to set up the peculiar growth upon its moist and permeable tissue1 which has for result the production of an embryo in the ovules4 ,by this the ovules are said to be fertilized4 ,the first step is pollination1 or1 so to say1 the sowing of the proper pollen upon the stigma1 where it is to germinate4 ,sec4 #a4 ,,adaptations ,,for ,,pollination ,,of ,,the ,,stigma4 #cbi4 ,these various and ever-interesting adaptations and processes are illustrated in the ,botanical ,text ,book1 ,structural ,botany1 chap4 ,,vi4 sect4 iv41 also in a brief and simple way in ,botany for ,young ,people1 ,how ,plants ,behave4 ,so mere outlines only are given here4 #ccj4 ,sometimes the application of pollen to the stigma is left to chance1 as in dioecious wind-fertilized flowers2 sometimes it is rendered very sure1 as in flowers that are fertilized in the bud2 sometimes the pollen is prevented from reaching the stigma of the same flower1 although placed very near to it1 but then there are always arrangements for its transference to the stigma of some other blossom of the kind4 ,it is among these last that the most exquisite adaptations are met with4 #cca4 ,accordingly1 some flowers are particularly adapted to close or self-fertilization2 others to cross fertilization2 some for either1 according to circumstances4 ,close ,fertilization occurs when the pollen reaches and acts upon a stigma of the very same flower 7this is also called self-fertilization71 or1 less closely1 upon other blossoms of the same cluster or the same individual plant4 ,cross ,fertilization occurs when ovules are fertilized by pollen of other individuals of the same species4 ,hybridization occurs when ovules are fertilized by pollen of some other 7necessarily some nearly related7 species4 #ccb4 ,close ,fertilization would seem to be the natural result in ordinary hermaphrodite flowers2 but it is by no means so in all of them4 ,more commonly the arrangements are such that it takes place only after some opportunity for cross fertilization has been afforded4 ,but close fertilization is inevitable in what are called ,cleistogamous ,flowers1 that is1 in those which are fertilized in the flower-bud1 while still unopened4 ,most flowers of this kind1 indeed1 never open at all2 but the closed floral coverings are forced off by the growth of the precociously fertilized pistil4 ,common examples of this are found in the earlier blossoms of ,specularia perfoliata1 in the later ones of most ,violets1 especially the stemless species1 in our wild ,jewel weeds or ,impatiens1 in the subterranean shoots of ,amphicarpaea4 ,every plant which produces these cleistogamous or bud-fertilized flowers bears also more conspicuous and open flowers1 usually of bright colors4 ,the latter very commonly fail to set seed1 but the former are prolific4 #ccc4 ,cross ,fertilization is naturally provided for in dioecious plants 7#bdi71 is much favored in monoecious plants 7#bdi71 and hardly less so in dichogamous and in heterogonous flowers 7#cch74 ,cross fertilization depends upon the transportation of pollen2 and the two principal agents of conveyance are winds and insects4 ,most flowers are in their whole structure adapted either to the one or to the other4 #ccd4 ,wind-fertilizable or ,anemophilous flowers are more commonly dioecious or monoecious1 as in ,pines and all coniferous trees1 ,oaks1 and ,birches1 and ,sedges2 yet sometimes hermaphrodite1 as in ,plantains and most ,grasses2 they produce a superabundance of very light pollen1 adapted to be wind-borne2 and they offer neither nectar to feed winged insects1 nor fragrance nor bright colors to attract them4 #cce4 ,insect-fertilizable or ,entomophilous flowers are those which are sought by insects1 for pollen or for nectar1 or for both4 ,through their visits pollen is conveyed from one flower and from one plant to another4 ,insects are attracted to such blossoms by their bright colors1 or their fragrance1 or by the nectar 7the material of honey7 there provided for them4 ,while supplying their own needs1 they carry pollen from anthers to stigmas and from plant to plant1 thus bringing about a certain amount of cross fertilization4 ,willows and some other dioecious flowers are so fertilized1 chiefly by bees4 ,but most insect-visited flowers have the stamens and pistils associated either in the same or in contiguous blossoms4 ,even when in the same blossom1 anthers and stigmas are very commonly so situated that under insect-visitation1 some pollen is more likely to be deposited upon other than upon own stigmas1 so giving a chance for cross as well as for close fertilization4 ,on the other hand1 numerous flowers1 of very various kinds1 have their parts so arranged that they must almost necessarily be cross-fertilized or be barren1 and are therefore dependent upon the aid of insects4 ,this aid is secured by different exquisite adaptations and contrivances1 which would need a volume for full illustration4 ,indeed1 there is a good number of volumes devoted to this subject4#a #ccf4 ,some of the adaptations which favor or ensure cross fertilization are peculiar to the particular kind of blossom4 ,orchids1 ,milkweeds1 ,kalmia1 ,iris1 and papilionaceous flowers each have their own special contrivances1 quite different for each4 #ccg4 ,irregular flowers 7#bec7 and especially irregular corollas are usually adaptations to insect-visitation4 ,so are all ,nectaries1 whether hollow spurs1 sacs1 or other concavities in which nectar is secreted1 and all nectariferous glands4 #cch4 ,moreover1 there are two arrangements for cross fertilization common to hermaphrodite flowers in various different families of plants1 which have received special names1 ,dichogamy and ,heterogony4 #cci4 ,dichogamy is the commoner case4 ,flowers are dichogamous when the anthers discharge their pollen either before or after the stigmas of that flower are in a condition to receive it4 ,such flowers are ,proterandrous1 when the anthers are earlier than the stigmas1 as in ,gentians1 ,campanula1 ,epilobium1 etc4 ,proterogynous1 when the stigmas are mature and moistened for the reception of pollen1 before the anthers of that blossom are ready to supply it1 and are withered before that pollen can be supplied4 ,plantains or ,ribworts 7mostly wind-fertilized7 are strikingly proterogynous3 so is ,amorpha1 our ,papaws1 ,scrophularia1 and in a less degree the blossom of ,pears1 ,hawthorns1 and ,horse-chestnut4 #cdj4 ,in ,sabbatia1 the large-flowered species of ,epilobium1 and strikingly in ,clerodendron1 the dichogamy is supplemented and perfected by movements of the stamens and style1 one or both1 adjusted to make sure of cross fertilization4 #cda4 ,heterogony4 ,this is the case in which hermaphrodite and fertile flowers of two sorts are produced on different individuals of the same species2 one sort having higher anthers and lower stigmas1 the other having higher stigmas and lower anthers4 ,thus reciprocally disposed1 a visiting insect carries pollen from the high anthers of the one to the high stigma of the other1 and from the low anthers of the one to the low stigma of the other4 ,these plants are practically as if dioecious1 with the advantage that both kinds are fruitful4 ,houstonia and ,mitchella1 or ,partridge-berry1 are excellent and familiar examples4 ,these are cases of ,heterogone ,dimorphism1 the relative lengths being only short and long reciprocally4 ,heterogone ,trimorphism1 in which there is a mid-length as well as a long and a short set of stamens and style2 occurs in ,lythrum ,salicaria and some species of ,oxalis4 #cdb4 ,there must be some essential advantage in cross fertilization or cross breeding4 ,otherwise all these various1 elaborate1 and exquisitely adjusted adaptations would be aimless4 ,doubtless the advantage is the same as that which is realized in all the higher animals by the distinction of sexes4 ,sec4 #b4 ,,action ,,of ,,pollen1 ,,and ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,embryo4 #cdc4 ,pollen-growth4 ,a grain of pollen may be justly likened to one of the simple bodies 7spores7 which answer for seeds in ,cryptogamous plants4 ,like one of these1 it is capable of germination4 ,when deposited upon the moist surface of the stigma 7or in some cases even when at a certain distance7 it grows from some point1 its living inner coat breaking through the inert outer coat1 and protruding in the form of a delicate tube4 ,this as it lengthens penetrates the loose tissue of the stigma and of a loose conducting tissue in the style1 feeds upon the nourishing liquid matter there provided1 reaches the cavity of the ovary1 enters the orifice of an ovule1 and attaches its extremity to a sac1 or the lining of a definite cavity1 in the ovule1 called the ,embryo-,sac4 #cdd4 ,origination of the ,embryo4 ,a globule of living matter in the embryo-sac is formed1 and is in some way placed in close proximity to the apex of the pollen tube2 it probably absorbs the contents of the latter2 it then sets up a special growth1 and the ,embryo 7#h-aj7 or rudimentary plantlet in the seed is the result4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,beginning with one by ,c4 ,c4 ,sprengel in #agic1 and again in our day with ,darwin1 ,on the ,various ,contrivances by which ,orchids are fertilized by ,insects1 and in succeeding works4 ,section ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,fruit4 #cde4 ,its ,nature4 ,the ovary matures into the ,fruit4 ,in the strictest sense the fruit is the seed-vessel1 technically named the ,,pericarp4 ,but practically it may include other parts organically connected with the pericarp4 ,especially the calyx1 or a part of it1 is often incorporated with the ovary1 so as to be undistinguishably a portion of the pericarp1 and it even forms along with the receptacle the whole bulk of such edible fruits as apples and pears4 ,the receptacle is an obvious part in blackberries1 and is the whole edible portion in the strawberry4 #cdf4 ,also a cluster of distinct carpels may1 in ripening1 be consolidated or compacted1 so as practically to be taken for one fruit4 ,such are raspberries1 blackberries1 the ,magnolia fruit1 etc4 ,moreover1 the ripened product of many flowers may be compacted or grown together so as to form a single compound fruit4 #cdg4 ,its kinds have therefore to be distinguished4 ,also various names of common use in descriptive botany have to be mentioned and defined4 #cdh4 ,in respect to composition1 accordingly1 fruits may be classified into ,simple1 those which result from the ripening of a single pistil1 and consist only of the matured ovary1 either by itself1 as in a cherry1 or with calyx-tube completely incorporated with it1 as in a gooseberry or cranberry4 ,aggregate1 when a cluster of carpels of the same flower are crowded into a mass2 as in raspberries and blackberries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cff4 ,forming fruit 7capsule7 of ,gaultheria1 with calyx thickening around its base4 #cfg4 ,section of same mature1 the berry-like calyx nearly enclosing the capsule4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfh4 ,section of a part of a strawberry4 ,compare with ,fig4 #cfj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cfi4 ,similar section of part of a blackberry4 #cgj4 ,one of its component simple fruits 7drupe7 in section1 showing the pulp1 stone1 and contained seed2 more enlarged4 ,compare with ,fig4 #cge4 ,accessory or ,anthocarpous1 when the surroundings or supports of the pistil make up a part of the mass2 as does the loose calyx changed into a fleshy and berry-like envelope of our ,wintergreen 7,gaultheria1 ,fig4 #cff1 #cfg7 and ,buffalo-berry1 which are otherwise simple fruits4 ,in an aggregate fruit such as the strawberry the great mass is receptacle 7,fig4 #cfj1 #cfh72 and in the blackberry 7,fig4 #cfi7 the juicy receptacle forms the central part of the savory mass4 ,multiple or ,collective1 when formed from several flowers consolidated into one mass1 of which the common receptacle or axis of inflorescence1 the floral envelopes1 and even the bracts1 etc41 make a part4 ,a mulberry 7,fig4 #djh1 which superficially much resembles a blackberry7 is of this multiple sort4 ,a pine-apple is another example4 #cdi4 ,in respect to texture or consistence1 fruits may be distinguished into three kinds1 viz4-- ,fleshy ,fruits1 those which are more or less soft and juicy throughout2 ,stone ,fruits1 or ,drupaceous1 the outer part fleshy like a berry1 the inner hard or stony1 like a nut2 and ,dry ,fruits1 those which have no flesh or pulp4 #cej4 ,in reference to the way of disseminating the contained seed1 fruits are said to be ,indehiscent when they do not open at maturity4 ,fleshy fruits and stone fruits are of course indehiscent4 ,the seed becomes free only through decay or by being fed upon by animals4 ,those which escape digestion are thus disseminated by the latter4 ,of dry fruits many are indehiscent2 and these are variously arranged to be transported by animals4 ,some burst irregularly2 many are ,dehiscent1 that is1 they split open regularly along certain lines1 and discharge the seeds4 ,a dehiscent fruit almost always contains many or several seeds1 or at least more than one seed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cga4 ,leafy shoot and berry 7cut across7 of the larger ,cranberry1 ,vaccinium macrocarpon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgb1 #cgc4 ,pepo of ,gourd1 in section4 #cgc4 ,one carpel of same in diagram4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgd4 ,longitudinal and transverse sections of a pear 7pome74 #cea4 ,the principal kinds of fruit which have received substantive names and are of common use in descriptive botany are the following4 ,of fleshy fruits the leading kind is #ceb4 ,the ,berry1 such as the gooseberry and currant1 the blueberry and cranberry 7,fig4 #cga71 the tomato1 and the grape4 ,here the whole flesh is soft throughout4 ,the orange is a berry with a leathery rind4 #cec4 ,the ,pepo1 or ,gourd-fruit1 is a hard-rinded berry1 belonging to the ,gourd family1 such as the pumpkin1 squash1 cucumber1 and melon1 ,fig4 #cgb1 #cgc4 #ced4 ,the ,pome is a name applied to the apple1 pear 7,fig4 #cgd71 and quince2 fleshy fruits1 like a berry1 but the principal thickness is calyx1 only the papery pods arranged like a star in the core really belonging to the carpels4 ,the fruit of the ,hawthorn is a drupaceous pome1 something between pome and drupe4 #cee4 ,of fruits which are externally fleshy and internally hard the leading kind is #cef4 ,the ,drupe1 or ,stone-fruit2 of which the cherry1 plum1 and peach 7,fig4 #cge7 are familiar examples4 ,in this the outer part of the thickness of the pericarp becomes fleshy1 or softens like a berry1 while the inner hardens1 like a nut4 ,from the way in which the pistil is constructed1 it is evident that the fleshy part here answers to the lower1 and the stone to the upper face of the component leaf4 ,the layers or concentric portions of a drupe1 or of any pericarp which is thus separable1 are named1 when thus distinguishable into three portions1-- ,epicarp1 the external layer1 often the mere skin of the fruit1 ,mesocarp1 the middle layer1 which is commonly the fleshy part1 and ,endocarp1 the innermost layer1 the stone4 ,but more commonly only two portions of a drupe are distinguished1 and are named1 the outer one ,sarcocarp or ,exocarp1 for the flesh1 the first name referring to the fleshy character1 the second to its being an external layer2 and ,putamen or ,endocarp1 the ,stone1 within4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cge4 ,longitudinal section of a peach1 showing flesh1 stone1 and seed4 #ceg4 ,the typical or true drupe is of a single carpel4 ,but1 not to multiply technical names1 this name is extended to all such fruits when fleshy without and stony within1 although of compound pistil1--even to those having several or separable stones1 such as the fruit of ,holly4 ,these stones in such drupes1 or drupaceous fruits1 are called ,pyrenae1 or ,nucules1 or simply ,nutlets of the drupe4 #ceh4 ,of ,dry fruits1 there is a greater diversity of kinds having distinct names4 ,the indehiscent sorts are commonly one-seeded4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgf4 ,akene of a ,buttercup4 #cgg4 ,the same1 divided lengthwise1 to show the contained seed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgh4 ,akene of ,virgin's-bower1 retaining the feathered style1 which aids in dissemination4 #cei4 ,the ,akene or ,achenium is a small1 dry and indehiscent one-seeded fruit1 often so seed-like in appearance that it is popularly taken for a naked seed4 ,the fruit of the ,buttercup or ,crowfoot is a good example1 ,fig4 #cgf1 #cgg4 ,its nature1 as a ripened pistil 7in this case a simple carpel71 is apparent by its bearing the remains of a style or stigma1 or a scar from which this has fallen4 ,it may retain the style and use it in various ways for dissemination 7,fig4 #cgh74 #cfj4 ,the fruit of ,compositae 7though not of a single carpel7 is also an akene4 ,in this case the pericarp is invested by an adherent calyx-tube2 the limb of which1 when it has any1 is called the ,,pappus4 ,this name was first given to the down like that of the ,thistle1 but is applied to all forms under which the limb of the calyx of the compound flower appears4 ,in ,lettuce1 ,dandelion 7,fig4 #chd71 and the like1 the achenium as it matures tapers upwards into a slender beak1 like a stalk to the pappus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cgi4 ,akene of ,mayweed 7no pappus74 #chj4 ,that of ,succory 7its pappus a shallow cup74 #cha4 ,of ,sunflower 7pappus of two deciduous scales74 #chb4 ,of ,sneezeweed 7,helenium71 with its pappus of five scales4 #chc4 ,of ,sow-,thistle1 with its pappus of delicate downy hairs4 #chd4 ,of the ,dandelion1 its pappus raised on a long beak4 #cfa4 ,a ,cremocarp 7,fig4 #che71 a name given to the fruit of ,umbelliferae1 consists as it were of a pair of akenes united completely in the blossom1 but splitting apart when ripe into the two closed carpels4 ,each of these is a ,mericarp or ,hemicarp1 names seldom used4 #cfb4 ,a ,utricle is the same as an akene1 but with a thin and bladdery loose pericarp2 like that of the ,goosefoot or ,pigweed 7,fig4 #chf74 ,when ripe it may burst open irregularly to discharge the seed2 or it may open by a circular line all round1 the upper part falling off like a lid2 as in the ,amaranth 7,fig4 #chg74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #che4 ,fruit 7cremocarp7 of ,osmorrhiza2 the two akene-like ripe carpels separating at maturity from a slender axis or carpophore4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chf4 ,utricle of the common ,pigweed 7,chenopodium album74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chg4 ,utricle 7pyxis7 of ,amaranth1 opening all round 7circumscissile74 #cfc4 ,a ,caryopsis1 or ,grain1 is like an akene with the seed adhering to the thin pericarp throughout1 so that fruit and seed are incorporated into one body2 as in wheat1 ,indian corn1 and other kinds of grain4 #cfd4 ,a ,nut is a dry and indehiscent fruit1 commonly one-celled and one-seeded1 with a hard1 crustaceous1 or bony wall1 such as the cocoa-nut1 hazelnut1 chestnut1 and the acorn 7,fig4 #cg1 #chh47 ,here the involucre1 in the form of a cup at the base1 is called the ,,cupule4 ,in the ,chestnut the cupule forms the bur2 in the ,hazel1 a leafy husk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chh4 ,nut 7acorn7 of the ,oak1 with its cup or cupule4 #cfe4 ,a ,samara1 or ,key-fruit1 is either a nut or an akene1 or any other indehiscent fruit1 furnished with a wing1 like that of ,ash 7,fig4 #chi71 and ,elm 7,fig4 #cij74 ,the ,maple-fruit is a pair of keys 7,fig4 #cia74 #cff4 ,dehiscent ,fruits1 or ,pods1 are of two classes1 viz41 those of a simple pistil or carpel1 and those of a compound pistil4 ,two common sorts of the first are named as follows3-- #cfg4 ,the ,follicle is a fruit of a simple carpel1 which dehisces down one side only1 i4 e4 by the inner or ventral suture4 ,the fruits of ,marsh ,marigold 7,fig4 #cib71 ,paeony1 ,larkspur1 and ,milkweed are of this kind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #chi4 ,samara or key of the ,white ,ash1 winged at end4 #cij4 ,samara of the ,american ,elm1 winged all round4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cia4 ,pair of samaras of ,sugar ,maple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cib4 ,follicle of ,marsh ,marigold 7,caltha palustris74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cic4 ,legume of a ,sweet ,pea1 opened4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cid4 ,loment or jointed legume of a ,tick-,trefoil 7,desmodium74 #cfh4 ,the ,legume or true ,pod1 such as the peapod 7,fig4 #cic71 and the fruit of the ,leguminous or ,pulse family generally1 is one which opens along the dorsal as well as the ventral suture4 ,the two pieces into which it splits are called ,,valves4 ,a ,,loment is a legume which is constricted between the seeds1 and at length breaks up crosswise into distinct joints1 as in ,fig4 #cid4 #cfi4 ,the pods or dehiscent fruits belonging to a compound ovary have several technical names3 but they all may be regarded as kinds of #cgj4 ,the ,capsule1 the dry and dehiscent fruit of any compound pistil4 ,the capsule may discharge its seeds through chinks or pores1 as in the ,poppy1 or burst irregularly in some part1 as in ,lobelia and the ,snapdragon2 but commonly it splits open 7or is dehiscent7 lengthwise into regular pieces1 called ,,valves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cie4 ,capsule of ,iris1 with loculicidal dehiscence2 below1 cut across4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cif4 ,pod of a ,marsh ,st4 ,john's-wort1 with septicidal dehiscence4 #cga4 ,regular ,dehiscence in a capsule takes place in two ways1 which are best illustrated in pods of two or three cells4 ,it is either ,loculicidal1 or1 splitting directly into the loculi or cells1 that is1 down the back 7or the dorsal suture7 of each cell or carpel1 as in ,iris 7,fig4 #cie72 or ,septicidal1 that is1 splitting through the partitions or septa1 as in ,st4 ,john's-wort 7,fig4 #cif71 ,rhododendron1 etc4 ,this divides the capsule into its component carpels1 which then open by their ventral suture4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cig1 #cih4 ,diagrams of the two modes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cii4 ,diagram of septifragal dehiscence of the loculicidal type4 #djj4 ,same of the septicidal or marginicidal type4 #cgb4 ,in loculicidal dehiscence the valves naturally bear the partitions on their middle2 in the septicidal1 half the thickness of a partition is borne on the margin of each valve4 ,see the annexed diagrams4 ,a variation of either mode occurs when the valves break away from the partitions1 these remaining attached in the axis of the fruit4 ,this is called ,septifragal dehiscence4 ,one form is seen in the ,morning-,glory 7,fig4 #djj74 #cgc4 ,the capsules of ,rue1 ,spurge1 and some others1 are both loculicidal and septicidal1 and so split into half-carpellary valves or pieces4 #cgd4 ,the ,silique 7,fig4 #dja7 is the technical name of the peculiar pod of the ,mustard family2 which is two-celled by a false partition stretched across between two parietal placentae4 ,it generally opens by two valves from below upward1 and the placentae with the partition are left behind when the valves fall off4 #cge4 ,a ,silicle or ,pouch is only a short and broad silique1 like that of the ,shepherd's ,purse1 ,fig4 #djb1 #djc4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dja4 ,silique of a ,cadamine or ,spring ,cress4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djb4 ,silicle of ,shepherd's ,purse4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djc4 ,same1 with one valve removed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djd4 ,pyxis of ,purslane1 the lid detaching4 #cgf4 ,the ,pyxis is a pod which opens by a circular horizontal line1 the upper part forming a lid1 as in ,purslane 7,fig4 #djd71 the ,plantain1 ,henbane1 etc4 ,in these the dehiscence extends all round1 or is circumscissile4 ,so it does in ,amaranth 7,fig4 #chg71 forming a one-seeded utricular pyxis4 ,in ,jeffersonia1 the line does not separate quite round1 but leaves a portion for a hinge to the lid4 #cgg4 ,of ,multiple or ,collective ,fruits1 which are properly masses of fruits aggregated into one body 7as is seen in the ,mulberry 7,fig4 #djh71 ,pine-apple1 etc471 there are two kinds with special names and of peculiar structure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dje4 ,a fig-fruit when young4 #djf4 ,same in section4 #djg4 ,magnified portion1 a slice1 showing some of the flowers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #djh4 ,a mulberry4 #dji4 ,one of the grains younger1 enlarged2 seen to be a pistillate flower with calyx becoming fleshy4 #daj4 ,same1 with fleshy calyx cut across4 #cgh4 ,the ,syconium or ,fig-fruit 7,fig4 #dje1 #djf7 is a fleshy axis or summit of stem1 hollowed out1 and lined within by a multitude of minute flowers1 the whole becoming pulpy1 and in the common fig1 luscious4 #cgi4 ,the ,strobile or ,cone 7,fig4 #daa71 is the peculiar multiple fruit of ,pines1 ,cypresses1 and the like2 hence named ,coniferae1 viz4 cone-bearing plants4 ,as already shown 7#cac71 these cones are open pistils1 mostly in the form of flat scales1 regularly overlying each other1 and pressed together in a spike or head4 ,each scale bears one or two naked seeds on its inner face4 ,when ripe and dry1 the scales turn back or diverge1 and in the ,pine the seed peels off and falls1 generally carrying with it a wing1 a part of the lining of the scale1 which facilitates the dispersion of the seeds by the wind 7,fig4 #dab1 #dac74 ,in ,arbor-,vitae1 the scales of the small cone are few1 and not very unlike the leaves4 ,in ,cypress they are very thick at the top and narrow at the base1 so as to make a peculiar sort of closed cone4 ,in ,juniper and ,red ,cedar1 the few scales of the very small cone become fleshy1 and ripen into a fruit which closely resembles a berry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #daa4 ,cone of a common ,pitch ,pine4 #dab4 ,inside view of a separated scale or open carpel2 one seed in place3 #dac1 the other seed4 ,section ,,xv4 ,,the ,,seed4 #chj4 ,seeds are the final product of the flower1 to which all its parts and offices are subservient4 ,like the ovule from which it originates1 a seed consists of coats and kernel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dad4 ,seed of a ,linden or ,basswood cut through lengthwise1 and magnified1 the parts lettered3 a1 the hilum or scar2 b1 the outer coat2 c1 the inner2 d1 the albumen2 e1 the embryo4 #cha4 ,the ,seed-coats are commonly two 7#cbj71 the outer and the inner4 ,fig4 #dad shows the two1 in a seed cut through lengthwise4 ,the outer coat is often hard or crustaceous1 whence it is called the ,testa1 or shell of the seed2 the inner is almost always thin and delicate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dae4 ,a winged seed of the ,trumpet-,creeper4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #daf4 ,one of ,catalpa1 the kernel cut to show the embryo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dag4 ,seed of ,milkweed1 with a ,coma or tuft of long silky hairs at one end4 #chb4 ,the shape and the markings1 so various in different seeds1 depend mostly on the outer coat4 ,sometimes this fits the kernel closely2 sometimes it is expanded into a wing1 as in the ,trumpet-,creeper 7,fig4 #dae71 and occasionally this wing is cut up into shreds or tufts1 as in the ,catalpa 7,fig4 #daf72 or instead of a wing it may bear a ,coma1 or tuft of long and soft hairs1 as in the ,milkweed or ,silkweed 7,fig4 #dag74 ,the use of wings1 or downy tufts is to render the seeds buoyant for dispersion by the winds4 ,this is clear1 not only from their evident adaptation to this purpose1 but also from the fact that winged and tufted seeds are found only in fruits that split open at maturity1 never in those that remain closed4 ,the coat of some seeds is beset with long hairs or wool4 ,cotton1 one of the most important vegetable products1 since it forms the principal clothing of the larger part of the human race1 consists of the long and woolly hairs which thickly cover the whole surface of the seed4 ,there are also crests or other appendages of various sorts on certain seeds4 ,a few seeds have an additional1 but more or less incomplete covering1 outside of the real seed-coats called an #chc4 ,aril1 or ,arillus4 ,the loose and transparent bag which encloses the seed of the ,white ,water-,lily 7,fig4 #dah7 is of this kind4 ,so is the mace of the nutmeg2 and also the scarlet pulp around the seeds of the ,waxwork 7,celastrus7 and ,strawberry-bush 7,euonymus74 ,the aril is a growth from the extremity of the seed-stalk1 or from the placenta when there is no seed-stalk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dah4 ,seed of ,white ,water ,lily1 enclosed in its aril4 #chd4 ,a short and thickish appendage at or close to the hilum in certain seeds is called a ,,caruncle or ,,strophiole 7,fig4 #dai74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dai4 ,seed of ,ricinus or ,castor oil plant1 with caruncle4 #che4 ,the various terms which define the position or direction of the ovule 7erect1 ascending1 etc47 apply equally to the seed3 so also the terms anatropous1 orthotropous1 campylotropous1 etc41 as already defined 7#cbj1 #cba71 and such terms as ,,hilum1 or ,scar left where the seed-stalk or funiculus falls away1 or where the seed was attached directly to the placenta when there is no seed-stalk4 ,,rhaphe1 the line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the chalaza in anatropous and amphitropous seeds4 ,,chalaza1 the place where the seed-coats and the kernel or nucleus are organically connected1--at the hilum in orthotropous and campylotropous seeds1 at the extremity of the rhaphe or tip of the seed in other kinds4 ,,micropyle1 answering to the ,foramen or orifice of the ovule4 ,compare the accompanying figures and those of the ovules1 ,fig4 #cda-cee4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbj4 ,seed of a ,violet 7anatropous73 a1 hilum2 b1 rhaphe2 c1 chalaza4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dba4 ,seed of a ,larkspur 7also anatropous72 the parts lettered as in the last4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbb4 ,the same1 cut through lengthwise3 a1 the hilum2 c1 chalaza2 d1 outer seed coat2 e1 inner seed-coat2 f1 the albumen2 g1 the minute embryo4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbc4 ,seed of a ,st4 ,john's-wort1 divided lengthwise2 here the whole kernel is embryo4 #chf4 ,the ,kernel1 or ,nucleus1 is the whole body of the seed within the coats4 ,in many seeds the kernel is all ,embryo2 in others a large part of it is the ,albumen4 ,for example1 in ,fig4 #dbc1 it is wholly embryo2 in ,fig4 #dbb1 all but the small speck 7g7 is albumen4 #chg4 ,the ,albumen or ,endosperm of the seed is sufficiently characterized and its office explained in ,sect4 ,,iii41 #ca-ce4 #chh4 ,the ,embryo or ,germ1 which is the rudimentary plantlet and the final result of blossoming1 and its development in germination have been extensively illustrated in ,sections ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 ,its essential parts are the ,radicle and the ,cotyledons4 #chi4 ,its ,radicle or ,caulicle 7the former is the term long and generally used in botanical descriptions1 but the latter is the more correct one1 for it is the initial stem1 which merely gives origin to the root71 as to its position in the seed1 always points to and lies near the micropyle4 ,in relation to the pericarp it is ,superior1 when it points to the apex of the fruit or cell1 and ,inferior1 when it points to its base1 or downward4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbd4 ,embryo of ,calycanthus2 upper part cut away1 to show the convolute cotyledons4 #cij4 ,the ,cotyledons have already been illustrated as respects their number1--giving the important distinction of ,dicotyledonous1 ,polycotyledonous and ,monocotyledonous embryos 7#cf-dc71--;also as regards their thickness1 whether foliaceous or fleshy2 and some of the very various shapes and adaptations to the seed have been figured4 ,they may be straight1 or folded1 or rolled up4 ,in the latter case the cotyledons may be rolled up as it were from one margin1 as in ,calycanthus 7,fig4 #dbd71 or from apex to base in a flat spiral1 or they may be both folded 7plicate7 and rolled up 7convolute71 as in ,sugar ,maple 7,fig4 #aa47 ,in one very natural family1 the ,cruciferae1 two different modes prevail in the way the two cotyledons are brought round against the radicle4 ,in one series they are ,accumbent1 that is1 the edges of the flat cotyledons lie against the radicle1 as in ,fig4 #dbe1 #dbf4 ,in another they are ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbe4 ,seed of ,bitter ,cress1 ,barbarea1 cut across to show the accumbent cotyledons4 #dbf4 ,embryo of same1 whole4 ,incumbent1 or with the plane of the cotyledons brought up in the opposite direction1 so that the back of one of them lies against the radicle1 as shown in ,fig4 #dbg1 #dbh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbg4 ,seed of a ,sisymbrium1 cut across to show the incumbent cotyledons4 #dbh4 ,embryo of the same1 detached whole4 #cia4 ,as to the situation of the embryo with respect to the albumen of the seed1 when this is present in any quantity1 the embryo may be ,axile1 that is occupying the axis or centre1 either for most of its length1 as in ,violet 7,fig4 #dbi71 ,barberry 7,fig4 #dh71 and ,pine 7,fig4 #ef72 and in these it is straight4 ,but it may be variously curved or coiled in the albumen1 as in ,helianthemum 7,fig4 #dcj71 in a ,potato-seed 7,fig4 #ej71 or ,onion-seed 7,fig4 #fj71 and ,linden 7,fig4 #dad72 or it may be coiled around the outside of the albumen1 partly or into a circle1 as in ,chickweed 7,fig4 #dca1 #dcb7 and in ,mirabilis 7,fig4 #eb74 ,the latter mode prevails in ,campylotropous seeds4 ,in the cereal grains1 such as ,indian ,corn 7,fig4 #fg7 and ,rice 7,fig4 #dcj;a71 and in all other ,grasses1 the embryo is straight and applied to the outside of the abundant albumen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dbi4 ,section of seed of ,violet2 anatropous with straight axile embryo in the albumen4 #dcj4 ,section of seed of ,rock ,rose1 ,helianthemum ,canadense2 orthotropous1 with curved embryo in the albumen4 #dcj;a4 ,section of a grain of ,rice1 lengthwise1 showing the embryo outside the albumen1 which forms the principal bulk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dca4 ,seed of a ,chickweed1 campylotropous4 #dcb4 ,section of same1 showing slender embryo coiled around the outside of the albumen of the kernel4 #cib4 ,the matured seed1 with embryo ready to germinate and reproduce the kind1 completes the cycle of the vegetable life in a phanerogamous plant1 the account of which began with the seed and seedling4 ,section ,,xvi4 ,,vegetable ,,life ,,and ,,work4 #cic4 ,the following simple outlines of the anatomy and physiology of plants 7#c7 are added to the preceding structural part for the better preparation of students in descriptive and systematic botany2 also to give to all learners some general idea of the life1 growth1 intimate structure1 and action of the beings which compose so large a part of organic nature4 ,those who would extend and verify the facts and principles here outlined will use the ,physiological ,botany of the ,botanical ,text ,book1 by ,professor ,goodale1 or some similar book4 ,sec4 #a4 ,,anatomical ,,structure ,,and ,,growth4 #cid4 ,growth is the increase of a living thing in size and substance4 ,it appears so natural that plants and animals should grow1 that one rarely thinks of it as requiring explanation4 ,it seems enough to say that a thing is so because it grew so4 ,growth from the seed1 the germination and development of an embryo into a plantlet1 and at length into a mature plant 7as illustrated in ,sections ,,ii4 and ,,iii471 can be followed by ordinary observation4 ,but the embryo is already a miniature plantlet1 sometimes with hardly any visible distinction of parts1 but often one which has already made very considerable growth in the seed4 ,to investigate the formation and growth of the embryo itself requires well-trained eyes and hands1 and the expert use of a good compound microscope4 ,so this is beyond the reach of a beginner4 #cie4 ,moreover1 although observation may show that a seedling1 weighing only two or three grains1 may double its bulk and weight every week of its early growth1 and may in time produce a huge amount of vegetable matter1 it is still to be asked what this vegetable matter is1 where it came from1 and by what means plants are able to increase and accumulate it1 and build it up into the fabric of herbs and shrubs and lofty trees4 #cif4 ,protoplasm4 ,all this fabric was built up under life1 but only a small portion of it is at any one time alive4 ,as growth proceeds1 life is passed on from the old to the new parts1 much as it has passed on from parent to offspring1 from generation to generation in unbroken continuity4 ,protoplasm is the common name of that plant-stuff in which life essentially resides4 ,all growth depends upon it2 for it has the peculiar power of growing and multiplying and building up a living structure1--the animal no less than the vegetable structure1 for it is essentially the same in both4 ,indeed1 all the animal protoplasm comes primarily from the vegetable1 which has the prerogative of producing it2 and the protoplasm of plants furnishes all that portion of the food of animals which forms their flesh and living fabric4 #cig4 ,the very simplest plants 7if such may specifically be called plants rather than animals1 or one may say1 the simplest living things7 are mere particles1 or pellets1 or threads1 or even indefinite masses of protoplasm of vague form1 which possess powers of motion or of changing their shape1 of imbibing water1 air1 and even other matters1 and of assimilating these into plant-stuff for their own growth and multiplication4 ,their growth is increase in substance by incorporation of that which they take in and assimilate4 ,their multiplication is by spontaneous division of their substance or body into two or more1 each capable of continuing the process4 #cih4 ,the embryo of a phanerogamous plant at its beginning 7#cdd7 is essentially such a globule of protoplasm1 which soon constricts itself into two and more such globules1 which hold together inseparably in a row2 then the last of the row divides without separation in the two other planes1 to form a compound mass1 each grain or globule of which goes on to double itself as it grows2 and the definite shaping of this still increasing mass builds up the embryo into its form4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dcc-dcf4 ,figures to illustrate the earlier stages in the formation of an embryo2 a single mass of protoplasm 7,fig4 #dcc7 dividing into two1 three1 and then into more incipient cells1 which by continued multiplication build up an embryo4 #cii4 ,cell-walls4 ,while this growth was going on1 each grain of the forming structure formed and clothed itself with a coat1 thin and transparent1 of something different from protoplasm1--something which hardly and only transiently1 if at all1 partakes of the life and action4 ,the protoplasm forms the living organism2 the coat is a kind of protective covering or shell4 ,the protoplasm1 like the flesh of animals which it gives rise to1 is composed of four chemical elements3 ,carbon1 ,hydrogen1 ,oxygen1 and ,nitrogen4 ,the coating is of the nature of wood 7is1 indeed1 that which makes wood71 and has only the three elements1 ,carbon1 ,hydrogen1 and ,oxygen1 in its composition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dcg4 ,magnified view of some of a simple fresh water ,alga1 the ,tetraspora lubrica1 each sphere of which may answer to an individual plant4 #djj4 ,although the forming structure of an embryo in the fertilized ovule is very minute and difficult to see1 there are many simple plants of lowest grade1 abounding in pools of water1 which more readily show the earlier stages or simplest states of plant-growth4 ,one of these1 which is common in early spring1 requires only moderate magnifying power to bring to view what is shown in ,fig4 #dcg4 ,in a slimy mass which holds all loosely together1 little spheres of green vegetable matter are seen1 assembled in fours1 and these fours themselves in clusters of fours4 ,a transient inspection shows1 what prolonged watching would confirm1 that each sphere divides first in one plane1 then in the other1 to make four1 soon acquiring the size of the original1 and so on1 producing successive groups of fours4 ,these pellets each form on their surface a transparent wall1 like that just described4 ,the delicate wall is for some time capable of expansive growth1 but is from the first much firmer than the protoplasm within2 through it the latter imbibes surrounding moisture1 which becomes a watery sap1 occupying vacuities in the protoplasmic mass which enlarge or run together as the periphery increases and distends4 ,when full grown the protoplasm may become a mere lining to the wall1 or some of it central1 as a nucleus1 this usually connected with the wall-lining by delicate threads of the same substance4 ,so1 when full grown1 the wall with its lining--a vesicle1 containing liquid or some solid matters and in age mostly air--naturally came to be named a ,cell4 ,but the name was suggested by1 and first used only for1 cells in combination or built up into a fabric1 much as a wall is built of bricks1 that is1 into a #dja4 ,cellular ,structure or ,tissue4 ,suppose numerous cells like those of ,fig4 #dcg to be heaped up like a pile of cannon-balls1 and as they grew1 to be compacted together while soft and yielding2 they would flatten where they touched1 and each sphere1 being touched by twelve surrounding ones would become twelve-sided4 ,fig4 #dch would represent one of them4 ,suppose the contiguous faces to be united into one wall or partition between adjacent cavities1 and a cellular structure would be formed1 like that shown in ,fig4 #dci4 ,roots1 stems1 leaves1 and the whole of phanerogamous plants are a fabric of countless numbers of such cells4 ,no such exact regularity in size and shape is ever actually found2 but a nearly truthful magnified view of a small portion of a slice of the flower-stalk of a ,calla ,lily 7,fig4 #ddj7 shows a fairly corresponding structure2 except that1 owing to the great air-spaces of the interior1 the fabric may be likened rather to a stack of chimneys than to a solid fabric4 ,in young and partly transparent parts one may discern the cellular structure by looking down directly on the surface1 as of a forming root4 7,fig4 #hb1 #dda1 #ddb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dch4 ,diagram of a vegetable cell1 such as it would be if when spherical it were equally pressed by similar surrounding cells in a heap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dci4 ,ideal construction of cellular tissue so formed1 in section4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ddj4 ,magnified view of a portion of a transverse slice of stem of ,calla ,lily4 ,the great spaces are tubular air-channels built up by the cells4 #djb4 ,the substance of which cell-walls are mainly composed is called ,,cellulose4 ,it is essentially the same in the stem of a delicate leaf or petal and in the wood of an ,oak1 except that in the latter the walls are much thickened and the calibre small4 ,the protoplasm of each living cell appears to be completely shut up and isolated in its shell of cellulose2 but microscopic investigation has brought to view1 in many cases1 minute threads of protoplasm which here and there traverse the cell-wall through minute pores1 thus connecting the living portion of one cell with that of adjacent cells4 7,see ,fig4 #ddg1 c47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dda4 ,much magnified small portion of young root of a seedling ,maple 7such as of ,fig4 #hb72 and #ddb1 a few cells of same more magnified4 ,the prolongations from the back of some of the cells are root hairs4 #djc4 ,the hairs of plants are cells formed on the surface2 either elongated single cells 7like the root-hairs of ,fig4 #dda1 #ddb71 or a row of shorter cells4 ,cotton fibres are long and simple cells growing from the surface of the seed4 #djd4 ,the size of the cells of which common plants are made up varies from about the thirtieth to the thousandth of an inch in diameter4 ,an ordinary size of short or roundish cells is from #a_/cjj to #a_/ejj of an inch2 so that there may generally be from #bg to #abe millions of cells in the compass of a cubic inch6 #dje4 ,some parts are built up as a compact structure2 in others cells are arranged so as to build up regular air-channels1 as in the stems of aquatic and other water-loving plants 7,fig4 #ddj71 or to leave irregular spaces1 as in the lower part of most leaves1 where the cells only here and there come into close contact 7,fig4 #ddc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ddc4 ,magnified section through the thickness of a leaf of ,florida ,star-,anise4 #djf4 ,all such soft cellular tissue1 like this of leaves1 that of pith1 and of the green bark1 is called ,,parenchyma1 while fibrous and woody parts are composed of ,,prosenchyma1 that is1 of peculiarly transformed #djg4 ,strengthening ,cells4 ,common cellular tissue1 which makes up the whole structure of all very young plants1 and the whole of ,mosses and other vegetables of the lowest grade1 even when full grown1 is too tender or too brittle to give needful strength and toughness for plants which are to rise to any considerable height and support themselves4 ,in these needful strength is imparted1 and the conveyance of sap through the plant is facilitated1 by the change1 as they are formed1 of some cells into thicker-walled and tougher tubes1 and by the running together of some of these1 or the prolongation of others1 into hollow fibres or tubes of various size4 ,two sorts of such transformed cells go together1 and essentially form the #djh4 ,wood4 ,this is found in all common herbs1 as well as in shrubs and trees1 but the former have much less of it in proportion to the softer cellular tissue4 ,it is formed very early in the growth of the root1 stem1 and leaves1--traces of it appearing in large embryos even while yet in the seed4 ,those cells that lengthen1 and at the same time thicken their walls form the proper ,,woody ,,fibre or ,,wood-,,cells2 those of larger size and thinner walls1 which are thickened only in certain parts so as to have peculiar markings1 and which often are seen to be made up of a row of cylindrical cells1 with the partitions between absorbed or broken away1 are called ,,ducts1 or sometimes ,,vessels4 ,there are all gradations between wood-cells and ducts1 and between both these and common cells4 ,but in most plants the three kinds are fairly distinct4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ddd4 ,magnified wood-cells of the bark 7bast-cells7 of ,basswood1 one and part of another4 #dde4 ,some wood cells from the wood 7and below part of a duct72 and #ddf1 a detached wood-cell of the same2 equally magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ddg4 ,some wood cells from ,buttonwood1 ,platanus1 highly magnified1 a whole cell and lower end of another on the left2 a cell cut half away lengthwise1 and half of another on the right2 some pores or pits 7a7 seen on the left2 while b b mark sections through these on the cut surface4 ,when living and young the protoplasm extends into these and by minuter perforations connects across them4 ,in age the pits become open passages1 facilitating the passage of sap and air4 #dji4 ,the proper cellular tissue1 or parenchyma1 is the ground-work of root1 stem1 and leaves2 this is traversed1 chiefly lengthwise1 by the strengthening and conducting tissue1 wood-cells and duct-cells1 in the form of bundles or threads1 which1 in the stems and stalks of herbs are fewer and comparatively scattered1 but in shrubs and trees so numerous and crowded that in the stems and all permanent parts they make a solid mass of wood4 ,they extend into and ramify in the leaves1 spreading out in a horizontal plane1 as the framework of ribs and veins1 which supports the softer cellular portion or parenchyma4 #daj4 ,wood-,cells1 or ,woody ,fibres1 consist of tubes1 commonly between one and two thousandths1 but in ,pine-wood sometimes two or three hundredths1 of an inch in diameter4 ,those from the tough bark of the ,basswood1 shown in ,fig4 #ddd1 are only the fifteen-hundredth of an inch wide4 ,those of ,buttonwood 7,fig4 #ddg7 are larger1 and are here highly magnified besides4 ,the figures show the way wood-cells are commonly put together1 namely1 with their tapering ends overlapping each other1--spliced together1 as it were1--thus giving more strength and toughness4 ,in hard woods1 such as ,hickory and ,oak1 the walls of these tubes are very thick1 as well as dense2 while in soft woods1 such as ,white ,pine and ,basswood1 they are thinner4 #daa4 ,wood-cells in the bark are generally longer1 finer1 and tougher than those of the proper wood1 and appear more like fibres4 ,for example1 ,fig4 #ddf represents a cell of the wood of ,basswood of average length1 and ,fig4 #ddd one 7and part of another7 of the fibrous bark1 both drawn to the same scale4 ,as these long cells form the principal part of fibrous bark1 or bast1 they are named ,bast-cells or ,bast-fibres4 ,these give the great toughness and flexibility to the inner bark of ,basswood 7i4 e4 ,bast-wood7 and of ,leatherwood2 and they furnish the invaluable fibres of flax and hemp2 the proper wood of their stems being tender1 brittle1 and destroyed by the processes which separate for use the tough and slender bast-cells4 ,in ,leatherwood 7,dirca7 the bast-cells are remarkably slender4 ,a view of one1 if magnified on the scale of ,fig4 #ddd1 would be a foot and a half long4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ddh4 ,magnified bit of a pine shaving1 taken parallel with the silver grain4 #ddi4 ,separate whole wood-cell1 more magnified4 #dej4 ,same1 still more magnified2 both sections represented3 a1 disks in section1 b1 in face4 #dab4 ,the wood-cells of ,pines1 and more or less of all other ,coniferous trees1 have on two of their sides very peculiar disk-shaped markings 7,fig4 #ddh-dej7 by which that kind of wood is recognizable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dea1 #deb4 ,a large and a smaller dotted duct from ,grape-,vine4 #dac4 ,ducts1 also called ,,vessels1 are mostly larger than wood-cells3 indeed1 some of them1 as in ,red ,oak1 have calibre large enough to be discerned on a cross section by the naked eye4 ,they make the visible porosity of such kinds of wood4 ,this is particularly the case with ,dotted ducts 7,fig4 #dea1 #deb71 the surface of which appears as if riddled with round or oval pores4 ,such ducts are commonly made up of a row of large cells more or less confluent into a tube4 ,scalariform ducts 7,fig4 #deh1 #dei71 common in ,ferns1 and generally angled by mutual pressure in the bundles1 have transversely elongated thin places1 parallel with each other1 giving a ladder-like appearance1 whence the name4 ,annular ducts 7,fig4 #deg7 are marked with cross lines or rings1 which are thickened portions of the cell-wall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dec1 #ded4 ,spiral ducts which uncoil into a single thread4 #dee4 ,spiral duct which tears up as a band4 #def4 ,an annular duct1 with variations above4 #deg4 ,loose spiral duct passing into annular4 #deh4 ,scalariform ducts of a ,fern2 part of a bundle1 prismatic by pressure4 #dei4 ,one torn into a band4 ,spiral ducts or vessels 7,fig4 #dec-dee7 have thin walls1 strengthened by a spiral fibre adherent within4 ,this is as delicate and as strong as spider-web3 when uncoiled by pulling apart1 it tears up and annihilates the cell-wall4 ,the uncoiled threads are seen by gently pulling apart many leaves1 such as those of ,amaryllis1 or the stalk of a ,strawberry leaflet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dfj4 ,milk ,vessels of ,dandelion1 with cells of the common cellular tissue4 #dfa4 ,others from the same older and gorged with milky juice4 ,all highly magnified4 ,laticiferous ducts1 ,vessels of the ,latex1 or ,milk-vessels are peculiar branching tubes which hold latex or milky juice in certain plants4 ,it is very difficult to see them1 and more so to make out their nature4 ,they are peculiar in branching and inosculating1 so as to make a net-work of tubes1 running in among the cellular tissue2 and they are very small1 except when gorged and old 7,fig4 #dfj1 #dfa74 ,sec4 #b4 ,,cell-,,contents4 #dad4 ,the living contents of young and active cells are mainly protoplasm with water or watery sap which this has imbibed4 ,old and effete cells are often empty of solid matter1 containing only water with whatever may be dissolved in it1 or air1 according to the time and circumstances4 ,all the various products which plants in general elaborate1 or which particular plants specially elaborate1 out of the common food which they derive from the soil and the air1 are contained in the cells1 and in the cells they are produced4 #dae4 ,sap is a general name for the principal liquid contents1--,crude sap1 for that which the plant takes in1 ,elaborated sap for what it has digested or assimilated4 ,they must be undistinguishably mixed in the cells4 #daf4 ,among the solid matters into which cells convert some of their elaborated sap two are general and most important4 ,these are ,chlorophyll and ,starch4 #dag4 ,chlorophyll 7meaning leaf-green7 is what gives the green color to herbage4 ,it consists of soft grains of rather complex nature1 partly wax-like1 partly protoplasmic4 ,these abound in the cells of all common leaves and the green rind of plants1 wherever exposed to the light4 ,the green color is seen through the transparent skin of the leaf and the walls of the containing cells4 ,chlorophyll is essential to ordinary assimilation in plants3 by its means1 under the influence of sunlight1 the plant converts crude sap into vegetable matter4 #dah4 ,far the largest part of all vegetable matter produced is that which goes to build up the plant's fabric or cellular structure1 either directly or indirectly4 ,there is no one good name for this most important product of vegetation4 ,in its final state of cell-walls1 the permanent fabric of herb and shrub and tree1 it is called ,cellulose 7#djh73 in its most soluble form it is ,sugar of one or another kind2 in a less soluble form it is ,dextrine1 a kind of liquefied starch3 in the form of solid grains stored up in the cells it is ,starch4 ,by a series of slight chemical changes 7mainly a variation in the water entering into the composition71 one of these forms is converted into another4 #dai4 ,starch 7,farina or ,fecula7 is the form in which this common plant material is1 as it were1 laid by for future use4 ,it consists of solid grains1 somewhat different in form in different plants1 in size varying from #a_/cjj to #a_/djjj of an inch1 partly translucent when wet1 and of a pearly lustre4 ,from the concentric lines1 which commonly appear under the microscope1 the grains seem to be made up of layer over layer4 ,when loose they are commonly oval1 as in potato-starch 7,fig4 #dfb73 when much compacted the grains may become angular 7,fig4 #dfc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dfb4 ,some magnified starch-grains1 in two cells of a potato4 #dfc4 ,some cells of the albumen or floury part of ,indian ,corn1 filled with starch-grains4 #dbj4 ,the starch in a potato was produced in the foliage4 ,in the soluble form of dextrine1 or that of sugar1 it was conveyed through the cells of the herbage and stalks to a subterranean shoot1 and there stored up in the tuber4 ,when the potato sprouts1 the starch in the vicinity of developing buds or eyes is changed back again1 first into mucilaginous dextrine1 then into sugar1 dissolved in the sap1 and in this form it is made to flow to the growing parts1 where it is laid down into cellulose or cell-wall4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dfd4 ,four cells from dried ,onion-peel1 each holding a crystal of different shape1 one of them twinned4 #dfe4 ,some cells from stalk of ,rhubarb-plant1 three containing chlorophyll2 two 7one torn across7 with rhaphides4 #dff4 ,rhaphides in a cell1 from ,arisaema1 with small cells surrounding4 #dfg4 ,prismatic crystals from the bark of ,hickory4 #dfh4 ,glomerate crystal in a cell1 from ,beet-root4 #dfi4 ,a few cells of ,locust-bark1 a crystal in each4 #dgj4 ,a detached cell1 with rhaphides being forced out1 as happens when put in water4 #dba4 ,besides these cell-contents which are in obvious and essential relation to nutrition1 there are others the use of which is problematical4 ,of such the commonest are #dbb4 ,crystals4 ,these when slender or needle-shaped are called ,,rhaphides4 ,they are of inorganic matter1 usually of oxalate or phosphate or sulphate of lime4 ,some1 at least of the latter1 may be direct crystallizations of what is taken in dissolved in the water absorbed1 but others must be the result of some elaboration in the plant4 ,some plants have hardly any2 others abound in them1 especially in the foliage and bark4 ,in ,locust-bark almost every cell holds a crystal2 so that in a square inch not thicker than writing-paper there may be over a million and a half of them4 ,when needle-shaped 7rhaphides71 as in stalks of ,calla-,lily1 ,rhubarb1 or ,four-o'clock1 they are usually packed in sheaf-like bundles4 7,fig4 #dfe1 #dff47 ,sec4 #c4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,roots ,,and ,,stems4 #dbc4 ,this is so nearly the same that an account of the internal structure of stems may serve for the root also4 #dbd4 ,at the beginning1 either in the embryo or in an incipient shoot from a bud1 the whole stem is of tender cellular tissue or parenchyma4 ,but wood 7consisting of wood-cells and ducts or vessels7 begins to be formed in the earliest growth2 and is from the first arranged in two ways1 making two general kinds of wood4 ,the difference is obvious even in herbs1 but is more conspicuous in the enduring stems of shrubs and trees4 #dbe4 ,on one or the other of these two types the stems of all phanerogamous plants are constructed4 ,in one1 the wood is made up of separate threads1 scattered here and there throughout the whole diameter of the stem4 ,in the other1 the wood is all collected to form a layer 7in a slice across the stem appearing as a ring7 between a central cellular part which has none in it1 the ,pith1 and an outer cellular part1 the ,bark4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dga4 ,diagram of structure of ,palm or ,yucca4 #dgb4 ,structure of a ,corn stalk1 in transverse and longitudinal section4 #dgc4 ,same of a small ,palm stem4 ,the dots on the cross sections represent cut ends of the woody bundles or threads4 #dbf4 ,an ,asparagus-shoot and a ,corn-stalk for herbs1 and a rattan for a woody kind1 represent the first kind4 ,to it belong all plants with monocotyledonous embryo 7#dj74 ,a ,bean-stalk and the stem of any common shrub or tree represent the second2 and to it belong all plants with dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous embryo4 ,the first has been called1 not very properly1 ,endogenous1 which means inside-growing2 the second1 properly enough1 ,exogenous1 or outside-growing4 #dbg4 ,endogenous ,stems1 those of ,monocotyls 7#dj71 attain their greatest size and most characteristic development in ,palms and ,dragon-trees1 therefore chiefly in warm climates1 although the ,palmetto and some ,yuccas become trees along the southern borders of the ,united ,states4 ,in such stems the woody bundles are more numerous and crowded toward the circumference1 and so the harder wood is outside2 while in an exogenous stem the oldest and hardest wood is toward the centre4 ,an endogenous stem has no clear distinction of pith1 bark1 and wood1 concentrically arranged1 no silver grain1 no annual layers1 no bark that peels off clean from the wood4 ,yet old stems of ,yuccas and the like1 that continue to increase in diameter1 do form a sort of layers and a kind of scaly bark when old4 ,yuccas show well the curving of the woody bundles 7,fig4 #dga7 which below taper out and are lost at the rind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dgd4 ,short piece of stem of ,flax1 magnified1 showing the bark1 wood1 and pith in a cross section4 #dbh4 ,exogenous ,stems1 those of ,dicotyls 7#cg71 or of plants coming from dicotyledonous and also polycotyledonous embryos1 have a structure which is familiar in the wood of our ordinary trees and shrubs4 ,it is the same in an herbaceous shoot 7such as a ,flax-stem1 ,fig4 #dgd7 as in a ,maple-stem of the first year's growth1 except that the woody layer is commonly thinner or perhaps reduced to a circle of bundles4 ,it was so in the tree-stem at the beginning4 ,the wood all forms in a cylinder1--in cross section a ring--around a central cellular part1 dividing the cellular core within1 the pith1 from a cellular bark without4 ,as the wood-bundles increase in number and in size1 they press upon each other and become wedge-shaped in the cross section2 and they continue to grow from the outside1 next the bark1 so that they become very thin wedges or plates4 ,between the plates or wedges are very thin plates 7in cross section lines7 of much compressed cellular tissue1 which connect the pith with the bark4 ,the plan of a one-year-old woody stem of this kind is exhibited in the figures1 which are essentially diagrams4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dge4 ,diagram of a cross section of a very young exogenous stem1 showing six woody bundles or wedges4 #dgf4 ,same later1 with wedges increased to twelve4 #dgg4 ,still later1 the wedges filling the space1 separated only by the thin lines1 or medullary rays1 running from pith to bark4 #dbi4 ,when such a stem grows on from year to year1 it adds annually a layer of wood outside the preceding one1 between that and the bark4 ,this is exogenous growth1 or outside-growing1 as the name denotes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dgh4 ,piece of a stem of ,soft ,maple1 of a year old1 cut crosswise and lengthwise4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dgi4 ,a portion of the same1 magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dhj4 ,a small piece of the same1 taken from one side1 reaching from the bark to the pith1 and highly magnified3 a1 a small bit of the pith2 b1 spiral ducts of what is called the medullary sheath2 c1 the wood2 d1 d1 dotted ducts in the wood2 e1 e1 annular ducts2 f1 the liber or inner bark2 g1 the green bark2 h1 the corky layer2 i1 the skin1 or epidermis2 j1 one of the medullary rays1 or plates of silver grain1 seen on the cross-section4 #dcj4 ,some new bark is formed every year1 as well as new wood1 the former inside1 as the latter is outside of that of the year preceding4 ,the ring or zone of tender forming tissue between the bark and the wood has been called the ,cambium ,layer4 ,cambium is an old name of the physiologists for nutritive juice4 ,and this thin layer is so gorged with rich nutritive sap when spring growth is renewed1 that the bark then seems to be loose from the wood and a layer of viscid sap 7or cambium7 to be poured out between the two4 ,but there is all the while a connection of the bark and the wood by delicate cells1 rapidly multiplying and growing4 #dca4 ,the ,bark of a year-old stem consists of three parts1 more or less distinct1 namely1--beginning next the wood1-- #a4 ,the ,,liber or ,,fibrous ,,bark1 the ,inner ,bark4 ,this contains some wood-cells1 or their equivalent1 commonly in the form of bast or bast-cells 7#daa1 ,fig4 #ddd71 such as those of ,basswood or ,linden1 and among herbs those of flax and hemp1 which are spun and woven or made into cordage4 ,it also contains cells which are named sieve-cells1 on account of numerous slits and pores in their walls1 by which the protoplasm of contiguous cells communicates4 ,in woody stems1 whenever a new layer of wood is formed1 some new liber or inner bark is also formed outside of it4 #b4 ,the ,,green ,,bark or ,middle ,bark4 ,this consists of cellular tissue only1 and contains the same green matter 7chlorophyll1 #dag7 as the leaves4 ,in woody stems1 before the season's growth is completed1 it becomes covered by #c4 ,the ,,corky ,,layer or ,outer ,bark1 the cells of which contain no chlorophyll1 and are of the nature of cork4 ,common cork is the thick corky layer of the bark of the ,cork-,oak of ,spain4 ,it is this which gives to the stems or twigs of shrubs and trees the aspect and the color peculiar to each1--light gray in the ,ash1 purple in the ,red ,maple1 red in several ,dogwoods1 etc4 #d4 ,the ,,epidermis1 or skin of the plant1 consisting of a layer of thick-sided empty cells1 which may be considered to be the outermost layer1 or in most herbaceous stems the only layer1 of cork-cells4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dha4 ,magnified view of surface of a bit of young ,maple wood from which the bark has been torn away1 showing the wood-cells and the bark-ends of medullary rays4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dhb4 ,section in the opposite direction1 from bark 7on the left7 to beginning of pith 7on the right71 and a medullary ray extending from one to the other4 #dcb4 ,the green layer of bark seldom grows much after the first season4 ,sometimes the corky layer grows and forms new layers1 inside of the old1 for years1 as in the ,cork-,oak1 the ,sweet ,gum-tree1 and the ,white and the ,paper ,birch4 ,but it all dies after a while2 and the continual enlargement of the wood within finally stretches it more than it can bear1 and sooner or later cracks and rends it1 while the weather acts powerfully upon its surface2 so the older bark perishes and falls away piecemeal year by year4 #dcc4 ,so on old trunks only the inner bark remains4 ,this is renewed every year from within and so kept alive1 while the older and outer layers die1 are fissured and rent by the distending trunk1 weathered and worn1 and thrown off in fragments1--in some trees slowly1 so that the bark of old trunks may acquire great thickness2 in others1 more rapidly4 ,in ,honeysuckles and ,grape-,vines1 the layers of liber loosen and die when only a year or two old4 ,the annual layers of liber are sometimes as distinct as those of the wood1 but often not so4 #dcd4 ,the ,wood of an exogenous trunk1 having the old growths covered by the new1 remains nearly unchanged in age1 except from decay4 ,wherever there is an annual suspension and renewal of growth1 as in temperate climates1 the annual growths are more or less distinctly marked1 in the form of concentric rings on the cross section1 so that the age of the tree may be known by counting them4 ,over twelve hundred layers have been counted on the stumps of ,sequoias in ,california1 and it is probable that some trees now living antedate the ,christian era4 #dce4 ,the reason why the annual growths are distinguishable is1 that the wood formed at the beginning of the season is more or less different in the size or character of the cells from that of the close4 ,in ,oak1 ,chestnut1 etc41 the first wood of the season abounds in dotted ducts1 the calibre of which is many times greater than that of the proper wood-cells4 #dcf4 ,sap-wood1 or ,alburnum4 ,this is the newer wood1 living or recently alive1 and taking part in the conveyance of sap4 ,sooner or later1 each layer1 as it becomes more and more deeply covered by the newer ones and farther from the region of growth1 is converted into #dcg4 ,heart-wood1 or ,duramen4 ,this is drier1 harder1 more solid1 and much more durable as timber1 than sap-wood4 ,it is generally of a different color1 and it exhibits in different species the hue peculiar to each1 such as reddish in ,red-,cedar1 brown in ,black-,walnut1 black in ,ebony1 etc4 ,the change of sap-wood into heart-wood results from the thickening of the walls of the wood-cells by the deposition of hard matter1 lining the tubes and diminishing their calibre2 and by the deposition of a vegetable coloring-matter peculiar to each species4 ,the heart-wood1 being no longer a living part1 may decay1 and often does so1 without the least injury to the tree1 except by diminishing the strength of the trunk1 and so rendering it more liable to be overthrown4 #dch4 ,the ,living ,parts of a ,tree1 of the exogenous kind1 are only these3 first1 the rootlets at one extremity2 second1 the buds and leaves of the season at the other2 and third1 a zone consisting of the newest wood and the newest bark1 connecting the rootlets with the buds or leaves1 however widely separated these may be1--in the tallest trees from two to four hundred feet apart4 ,and these parts of the tree are all renewed every year4 ,no wonder1 therefore1 that trees may live so long1 since they annually reproduce everything that is essential to their life and growth1 and since only a very small part of their bulk is alive at once4 ,the tree survives1 but nothing now living has been so long4 ,in it1 as elsewhere1 life is a transitory thing1 ever abandoning the old1 and renewed in the young4 ,sec4 #d4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,leaves4 #dci4 ,the wood in leaves is the framework of ribs1 veins1 and veinlets 7#abe71 serving not only to strengthen them1 but also to bring in the sap1 and to distribute it throughout every part4 ,the cellular portion is the green pulp1 and is nearly the same as the green layer of the bark4 ,so that the leaf may properly enough be regarded as a sort of expansion of the fibrous and green layers of the bark4 ,it has no proper corky layer2 but the whole is covered by a transparent skin or epidermis1 resembling that of the stem4 #ddj4 ,the cells of the leaf are of various forms1 rarely so compact as to form a close cellular tissue1 usually loosely arranged1 at least in the lower part1 so as to give copious intervening spaces or air passages1 communicating throughout the whole interior 7,fig4 #ddc1 #dhc74 ,the green color is given by the chlorophyll 7#dag71 seen through the very transparent walls of the cells and through the translucent epidermis of the leaf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dhc4 ,magnified section of a leaf of ,white ,lily1 to exhibit the cellular structure1 both of upper and lower stratum1 the air-passages of the lower1 and the epidermis or skin1 in section1 also a little of that of the lower face1 with some of its stomates4 #dda4 ,in ordinary leaves1 having an upper and under surface1 the green cells form two distinct strata1 of different arrangement4 ,those of the upper stratum are oblong or cylindrical1 and stand endwise to the surface of the leaf1 usually close together1 leaving hardly any vacant spaces2 those of the lower are commonly irregular in shape1 most of them with their longer diameter parallel to the face of the leaf1 and are very loosely arranged1 leaving many and wide air-chambers4 ,the green color of the lower is therefore diluted1 and paler than that of the upper face of the leaf4 ,the upper part of the leaf is so constructed as to bear the direct action of the sunshine2 the lower so as to afford freer circulation of air1 and to facilitate transpiration4 ,it communicates more directly than the upper with the external air by means of ,stomates4 #ddb4 ,the ,epidermis or skin of leaves and all young shoots is best seen in the foliage4 ,it may readily be stripped off from the surface of a ,lily-leaf1 and still more so from more fleshy and soft leaves1 such as those of ,houseleek4 ,the epidermis is usually composed of a single layer1 occasionally of two or three layers1 of empty cells1 mostly of irregular outline4 ,the sinuous lines which traverse it1 and may be discerned under low powers of the microscope 7,fig4 #dhg71 are the boundaries of the epidermal cells4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dhd4 ,small portion of epidermis of the lower face of a ,white-,lily leaf1 with stomata4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dhe4 ,one of these1 more magnified1 in the closed state4 #dhf4 ,another stoma1 open4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dhg4 ,small portion of epidermis of the ,garden ,balsam1 highly magnified1 showing very sinuous-walled cells1 and three stomata4 #ddc4 ,breathing-pores1 or ,stomates1 ,stomata 7singular1 a ,stoma1--literally1 a mouth7 are openings through the epidermis into the air-chambers or intercellular passages1 always between and guarded by a pair of thin-walled guardian cells4 ,although most abundant in leaves1 especially on their lower face 7that which is screened from direct sunlight71 they are found on most other green parts4 ,they establish a direct communication between the external air and that in the loose interior of the leaf4 ,their guardian cells or lips1 which are soft and delicate1 like those of the green pulp within1 by their greater or less turgidity open or close the orifice as the moisture or dryness varies4 #ddd4 ,in the ,white ,lily the stomata are so remarkably large that they may be seen by a simple microscope of moderate power1 and may be discerned even by a good hand lens4 ,there are about #fj1jjj of them to the square inch of the epidermis of the lower face of this ,lily-leaf1 and only about #cjjj to the same space on the upper face4 ,it is computed that an average leaf of an ,apple-tree has on its lower face about #ajj1jjj of these mouths4 ,sec4 #e4 ,,plant ,,food ,,and ,,assimilation4 #dde4 ,only plants are capable of originating organizable matter1 or the materials which compose the structure of vegetables and animals4 ,the essential and peculiar work of plants is to take up portions of earth and air 7water belonging to both7 upon which animals cannot live at all1 and to convert them into something organizable2 that is1 into something that1 under life1 may be built up into vegetable and animal structures4 ,all the food of animals is produced by plants4 ,animals live upon vegetables1 directly or at second hand1 the carnivorous upon the herbivorous2 and vegetables live upon earth and air1 immediately or at second hand4 #ddf4 ,the ,food of plants1 then1 primarily1 is earth and air4 ,this is evident enough from the way in which they live4 ,many plants will flourish in pure sand or powdered chalk1 or on the bare face of a rock or wall1 watered merely with rain4 ,and almost any plant may be made to grow from the seed in moist sand1 and increase its weight many times1 even if it will not come to perfection4 ,many naturally live suspended from the branches of trees high in the air1 and nourished by it alone1 never having any connection with the soil2 and some which naturally grow on the ground1 like the ,live-forever of the gardens1 when pulled up by the roots and hung in the air will often flourish the whole summer long4 #ddg4 ,it is true that fast-growing plants1 or those which produce much vegetable matter in one season 7especially in such concentrated form as to be useful as food for man or the higher animals7 will come to maturity only in an enriched soil4 ,but what is a rich soil8 ,one which contains decomposing vegetable matter1 or some decomposing animal matter2 that is1 in either case1 some decomposing organic matter formerly produced by plants4 ,aided by this1 grain-bearing and other important vegetables will grow more rapidly and vigorously1 and make a greater amount of nourishing matter1 than they could if left to do the whole work at once from the beginning4 ,so that in these cases also all the organic or organizable matter was made by plants1 and made out of earth and air4 ,far the larger and most essential part was air and water4 #ddh4 ,two kinds of material are taken in and used by plants2 of which the first1 although more or less essential to perfect plant-growth1 are in a certain sense subsidiary1 if not accidental1 viz43-- ,earthy constituents1 those which are left in the form of ashes when a leaf or a stick of wood is burned in the open air4 ,these consist of some potash 7or soda in a marine plant71 some silex 7the same as flint71 and a little lime1 alumine1 or magnesia1 iron or manganese1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 etc41--some or all of these in variable and usually minute proportions4 ,they are such materials as happen to be dissolved1 in small quantity1 in the water taken up by the roots2 and when that is consumed by the plant1 or flies off pure 7as it largely does7 by exhalation1 the earthy matter is left behind in the cells1--just as it is left incrusting the sides of a teakettle in which much hard water has been boiled4 ,naturally1 therefore1 there is more earthy matter 7i4 e4 more ashes7 in the leaves than in any other part 7sometimes as much as seven per cent1 when the wood contains only two per cent72 because it is through the leaves that most of the water escapes from the plant4 ,some of this earthy matter incrusts the cell-walls1 some goes to form crystals or rhaphides1 which abound in many plants 7#dbb71 some enters into certain special vegetable products1 and some appears to be necessary to the well-being of the higher orders of plants1 although forming no necessary part of the proper vegetable structure4 ,the essential constituents of the organic fabric are those which are dissipated into air and vapor in complete burning4 ,they make up from #hh to #ii per cent of the leaf or stem1 and essentially the whole both of the cellulose of the walls and the protoplasm of the contents4 ,burning gives these materials of the plant's structure back to the air1 mainly in the same condition in which the plant took them1 the same condition which is reached more slowly in natural decay4 ,the chemical elements of the cell-walls 7or cellulose1 #djb71 as also of starch1 sugar1 and all that class of organizable cell-material1 are carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen 7#cii74 ,the same1 with nitrogen1 are the constituents of protoplasm1 or the truly vital part of vegetation4 #ddi4 ,these chemical elements out of which organic matters are composed are supplied to the plant by water1 carbonic acid1 and some combinations of nitrogen4 ,water1 far more largely than anything else1 is imbibed by the roots2 also more or less by the foliage in the form of vapor4 ,water consists of oxygen and hydrogen2 and cellulose or plant-wall1 starch1 sugar1 etc41 however different in their qualities1 agree in containing these two elements in the same relative proportions as in water4 ,carbonic acid gas 7,carbon dioxide7 is one of the components of the atmosphere1--a small one1 ordinarily only about #a_/bejj of its bulk1--sufficient for the supply of vegetation1 but not enough to be injurious to animals1 as it would be if accumulated4 ,every current or breeze of air brings to the leaves expanded in it a succession of fresh atoms of carbonic acid1 which it absorbs through its multitudinous breathing-pores4 ,this gas is also taken up by water4 ,so it is brought to the ground by rain1 and is absorbed by the roots of plants1 either as dissolved in the water they imbibe1 or in the form of gas in the interstices of the soil4 ,manured ground1 that is1 soil containing decomposing vegetable or animal matters1 is constantly giving out this gas into the interstices of the soil1 whence the roots of the growing crop absorb it4 ,carbonic acid thus supplied1 primarily from the air1 is the source of the carbon which forms much the largest part of the substance of every plant4 ,the proportion of carbon may be roughly estimated by charring some wood or foliage2 that is1 by heating it out of contact with the air1 so as to decompose and drive off all the other constituents of the fabric1 leaving the large bulk of charcoal or carbon behind4 ,nitrogen1 the remaining plant-element1 is a gas which makes up more than two thirds of the atmosphere1 is brought into the foliage and also to the roots 7being moderately soluble in water7 in the same ways as is carbonic acid4 ,the nitrogen which1 mixed with oxygen1 a little carbonic acid1 and vapor of water1 constitutes the air we breathe1 is the source of this fourth plant-element4 ,but it is very doubtful if ordinary plants can use any nitrogen gas directly as food2 that is1 if they can directly cause it to combine with the other elements so as to form protoplasm4 ,but when combined with hydrogen 7forming ammonia71 or when combined with oxygen 7nitric acid and nitrates7 plants appropriate it with avidity4 ,and several natural processes are going on in which nitrogen of the air is so combined and supplied to the soil in forms directly available to the plant4 ,the most efficient is nitrification1 the formation of nitre 7nitrate of potash7 in the soil1 especially in all fertile soils1 through the action of a bacterial ferment4 #dej4 ,assimilation in plants is the conversion of these inorganic substances--essentially1 water1 carbonic acid1 and some form of combined or combinable nitrogen--into vegetable matter4 ,this most dilute food the living plant concentrates and assimilates to itself4 ,only plants are capable of converting these mineral into organizable matters2 and this all-important work is done by them 7so far as all ordinary vegetation is concerned7 only #dea4 ,under the light of the sun1 acting upon green parts or foliage1 that is1 upon the chlorophyll1 or upon what answers to chlorophyll1 which these parts contain4 ,the sun in some way supplies a power which enables the living plant to originate these peculiar chemical combinations1--to organize matter into forms which are alone capable of being endowed with life4 ,the proof of this proposition is simple2 and it shows at the same time1 in the simplest way1 what a plant does with the water and carbonic acid it consumes4 ,namely1 #ast1 it is only in sunshine or bright daylight that the green parts of plants give out oxygen gas1--then they regularly do so2 and #b;d1 the giving out of this oxygen gas is required to render the chemical composition of water and carbonic acid the same as that of cellulose1 that is1 of the plant's permanent fabric4 ,this shows why plants spread out so large a surface of foliage4 ,leaves are so many workshops1 full of machinery worked by sun-power4 ,the emission of oxygen gas from any sun-lit foliage is seen by placing some of this under water1 or by using an aquatic plant1 by collecting the air bubbles which rise1 and by noting that a taper burns brighter in this air4 ,or a leafy plant in a glass globe may be supplied with a certain small percentage of carbonic acid gas1 and after proper exposure to sunshine1 the air on being tested will be found to contain less carbonic acid and just so much the more oxygen gas4 #deb4 ,now if the plant is making cellulose or any equivalent substance1--that is1 is making the very materials of its fabric and growth1 as must generally be the case1--all this oxygen gas given off by the leaves comes from the decomposition of carbonic acid taken in by the plant4 ,for cellulose1 and also starch1 dextrine1 sugar1 and the like are composed of carbon along with oxygen and hydrogen in just the proportions to form water4 ,and the carbonic acid and water taken in1 less the oxygen which the carbon brought with it as carbonic acid1 and which is given off from the foliage in sunshine1 just represents the manufactured article1 cellulose4 #dec4 ,it comes to the same if the first product of assimilation is sugar1 or dextrine which is a sort of soluble starch1 or starch itself4 ,and in the plant all these forms are readily changed into one another4 ,in the tiny seedling1 as fast as this assimilated matter is formed it is used in growth1 that is1 in the formation of cell-walls4 ,after a time some or much of the product may be accumulated in store for future growth1 as in the root of the turnip1 or the tuber of the potato1 or the seed of corn or pulse4 ,this store is mainly in the form of starch4 ,when growth begins anew1 this starch is turned into dextrine or into sugar1 in liquid form1 and used to nourish and build up the germinating embryo or the new shoot1 where it is at length converted into cellulose and used to build up plant-structure4 #ded4 ,but that which builds plant-fabric is not the cellular structure itself2 the work is done by the living protoplasm which dwells within the walls4 ,this also has to take and to assimilate its proper food1 for its own maintenance and growth4 ,protoplasm assimilates1 along with the other three elements1 the nitrogen of the plant's food4 ,this comes primarily from the vast stock in the atmosphere1 but mainly through the earth1 where it is accumulated through various processes in a fertile soil1--mainly1 so far as concerns crops1 from the decomposition of former vegetables and animals4 ,this protoplasm1 which is formed at the same time as the simpler cellulose1 is essentially the same as the flesh of animals1 and the source of it4 ,it is the common basis of vegetable and of animal life4 #dee4 ,so plant-assimilation produces all the food and fabric of animals4 ,starch1 sugar1 the oils 7which are1 as it were1 these farinaceous matters more deoxidated71 chlorophyll1 and the like1 and even cellulose itself1 form the food of herbivorous animals and much of the food of man4 ,when digested they enter into the blood1 undergo various transformations1 and are at length decomposed into carbonic acid and water1 and exhaled from the lungs in respiration1--in other words1 are given back to the air by the animal as the very same materials which the plant took from the air as its food1--are given back to the air in the same form that they would have taken if the vegetable matter had been left to decay where it grew1 or if it had been set on fire and burned2 and with the same result1 too1 as to the heat1--the heat in this case producing and maintaining the proper temperature of the animal4 #def4 ,the protoplasm and other products containing nitrogen 7gluten1 legumine1 etc471 and which are most accumulated in grains and seeds 7for the nourishment of their embryos when they germinate71 compose the most nutritious vegetable food consumed by animals2 they form their proper flesh and sinews1 while the earthy constituents of the plant form the earthy matter of the bones1 etc4 ,at length decomposed1 in the secretions and excretions1 these nitrogenous constituents are through successive changes finally resolved into mineral matter1 into carbonic acid1 water1 and ammonia or some nitrates1--into exactly or essentially the same materials which the plants took up and assimilated4 ,animals depend upon vegetables absolutely and directly for their subsistence2 also indirectly1 because #deg4 ,plants purify the air for animals4 ,in the very process by which they create food they take from the air carbonic acid gas1 injurious to animal respiration1 which is continually poured into it by the breathing of all animals1 by all decay1 by the burning of fuel and all other ordinary combustion2 and they restore an equal bulk of life-sustaining oxygen needful for the respiration of animals1--needful1 also1 in a certain measure1 for plants in any work they do4 ,for in plants1 as well as in animals1 work is done at a certain cost4 ,sec4 #f4 ,,plant ,,work ,,and ,,movement4 #deh4 ,as the organic basis and truly living material of plants is identical with that of animals1 so is the life at bottom essentially the same2 but in animals something is added at every rise from the lowest to highest organisms4 ,action and work in living beings require movement4 #dei4 ,living things move2 those not living are only moved4 ,plants move as truly as do animals4 ,the latter1 nourished as they are upon organized food1 which has been prepared for them by plants1 and is found only here and there1 must needs have the power of going after it1 of collecting it1 or at least of taking it in2 which requires them to make spontaneous movements4 ,but ordinary plants1 with their wide-spread surface1 always in contact with the earth and air on which they feed1--the latter everywhere the same1 and the former very much so1--might be thought to have no need of movement4 ,ordinary plants1 indeed1 have no locomotion2 some float1 but most are rooted to the spot where they grew4 ,yet probably all of them execute various movements which must be as truly self-caused as are those of the lower grades of animals1--movements which are overlooked only because too slow to be directly observed4 ,nevertheless1 the motion of the hour-hand and of the minute-hand of a watch is not less real than that of the second-hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dhh4 ,two individuals of an ,oscillaria1 magnified4 #dfj4 ,locomotion4 ,moreover1 many microscopic plants living in water are seen to move freely1 if not briskly1 under the microscope2 and so likewise do more conspicuous aquatic plants in their embryo-like or seedling state4 ,even at maturity1 species of ,oscillaria 7such as in ,fig4 #dhh1 minute worm-shaped plants of fresh waters1 taking this name from their oscillating motions7 freely execute three different kinds of movement1 the very delicate investing coat of cellulose not impeding the action of the living protoplasm within4 ,even when this coat is firmer and hardened with a siliceous deposit1 such crescent-shaped or boat-shaped one-celled plants as ,closterium or ,naricula are able in some way to move along from place to place in the water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dhi4 ,a few cells of a leaf of ,naias flexilis1 highly magnified3 the arrows indicate the courses of the circulating currents4 #dfa4 ,movements in ,cells1 or ,cell-circulation1 sometimes called ,cyclosis1 has been detected in so many plants1 especially in comparatively transparent aquatic plants and in hairs on the surface of land plants 7where it is easiest to observe71 that it may be inferred to take place in all cells during the most active part of their life4 ,this motion is commonly a streaming movement of threads of protoplasm1 carrying along solid granules by which the action may be observed and the rate measured1 or in some cases it is a rotation of the whole protoplasmic contents of the cell4 ,a comparatively low magnifying power will show it in the cells of ,nitella and ,chara 7which are cryptogamous plants72 and under a moderate power it is well seen in the ,tape ,grass of fresh water1 ,vallisneria1 and in ,naias flexilis 7,fig4 #dhi74 ,minute particles and larger greenish globules are seen to be carried along1 as if in a current1 around the cell1 passing up one side1 across the end1 down the other and across the bottom1 completing the circuit sometimes within a minute or less when well warmed4 ,to see it well in the cell1 which like a string of beads form the hairs on the stamens of ,spiderwort1 a high magnifying power is needed4 #dfb4 ,transference of ,liquid from ,cell to ,cell1 and so from place to place in the plant1 the absorption of water by the rootlets1 and the exhalation of the greater part of it from the foliage1--these and similar operations are governed by the physical laws which regulate the diffusion of fluids1 but are controlled by the action of living protoplasm4 ,equally under vital control are the various chemical transformations which attend assimilation and growth1 and which involve not only molecular movements but conveyance4 ,growth itself1 which is the formation and shaping of new parts1 implies the direction of internal activities to definite ends4 #dfc4 ,movements of ,organs4 ,the living protoplasm1 in all but the lowest grade of plants1 is enclosed and to common appearance isolated in separate cells1 the walls of which can only in their earliest state be said to be alive4 ,still plants are able to cause the protoplasm of adjacent cells to act in concert1 and by their combined action to effect movements in roots1 stems1 or leaves1 some of them very slow and gradual1 some manifest and striking4 ,such movements are brought about through individually minute changes in the form or tension in the protoplasm of the innumerable cells which make up the structure of the organ4 ,some of the slower movements are effected during growth1 and may be explained by inequality of growth on the two sides of the bending organ4 ,but the more rapid changes of position1 and some of the slow ones1 cannot be so explained4 #dfd4 ,root-movements4 ,in its growth a root turns or bends away from the light and toward the centre of the earth1 so that in lengthening it buries itself in the soil where it is to live and act4 ,every one must have observed this in the germination of seeds4 ,careful observations have shown that the tip of a growing root also makes little sweeps or short movements from side to side4 ,by this means it more readily insinuates itself into yielding portions of the soil4 ,the root-tips will also turn toward moisture1 and so secure the most favorable positions in the soil4 #dfe4 ,stem-movements4 ,the root end of the caulicle or first joint of stem 7that below the cotyledons7 acts like the root1 in turning downward in germination 7making a complete bend to do so if it happens to point upward as the seed lies in the ground71 while the other end turns or points skyward4 ,these opposite positions are taken in complete darkness as readily as in the light1 in dryness as much as in moisture3 therefore1 so far as these movements are physical1 the two portions of the same internode appear to be oppositely affected by gravitation or other influences4 #dff4 ,rising into the air1 the stem and green shoots generally1 while young and pliable1 bend or direct themselves toward the light1 or toward the stronger light when unequally illuminated2 while roots turn toward the darkness4 #dfg4 ,many growing stems have also a movement of ,nutation1 that is1 of nodding successively in different directions4 ,this is brought about by a temporary increase of turgidity of the cells along one side1 thus bowing the stem over to the opposite side2 and this line of turgescence travels round the shoot continually1 from right to left or from left to right according to the species3 thus the shoot bends to all points of the compass in succession4 ,commonly this nutation is slight or hardly observable4 ,it is most marked in #dfh4 ,twining ,stems 7,fig4 #ij74 ,the growing upper end of such stems1 as is familiar in the ,hop1 ,pole ,beans1 and ,morning-,glory1 turns over in an inclined or horizontal direction1 thus stretching out to reach a neighboring support1 and by the continual change in the direction of the nodding1 sweeps the whole circle1 the sweeps being the longer as the stem lengthens4 ,when it strikes against a support1 such as a stem or branch of a neighboring plant1 the motion is arrested at the contact1 but continues at the growing apex beyond1 and this apex is thus made to wind spirally around the supporting body4 #dfi4 ,leaf-movements are all but universal4 ,the presentation by most leaves of their upper surface to the light1 from whatever direction that may come1 is an instance2 for when turned upside down they twist or bend round on the stalk to recover this normal position4 ,leaves1 and the leaflets of compound leaves1 change this position at nightfall1 or when the light is withdrawn2 they then take what is called their sleeping posture1 resuming the diurnal position when daylight returns4 ,this is very striking in ,locust-trees1 in the ,sensitive ,plant 7,fig4 #dij71 and in ,woodsorrel4 ,young seedlings droop or close their leaves at night in plants which are not thus affected in the adult foliage4 ,all this is thought to be a protection against the cold by nocturnal radiation4 #dgj4 ,various plants climb by a coiling movement of their leaves or their leaf-stalks4 ,familiar examples are seen in ,clematis1 ,maurandia1 ,tropaeolum1 and in a ,solanum which is much cultivated in greenhouses 7,fig4 #agb74 ,in the latter1 and in other woody plants which climb in this way1 the petioles thicken and harden after they have grasped their support1 thus securing a very firm hold4 #dga4 ,tendril movements4 ,tendrils are either leaves or stems 7#ih1 #afh71 specially developed for climbing purposes4 ,cobaea is a good example of partial transformation2 some of the leaflets are normal1 some of the same leaf are little tendrils1 and some intermediate in character4 ,the ,passion-flowers give good examples of simple stem-tendrils 7,fig4 #ib72 ,grape-,vines1 of branched ones4 ,most tendrils make revolving sweeps1 like those of twining stems4 ,those of some ,passion-flowers1 in sultry weather1 are apt to move fast enough for the movement actually to be seen for a part of the circuit1 as plainly as that of the second-hand of a watch4 ,two herbaceous species1 ,passiflora gracilis and ,p4 sicyoides 7the first an annual1 the second a strong-rooted perennial of the easiest cultivation71 are admirable for illustration both of revolving movements and of sensitive coiling4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dij4 ,piece of stem of ,sensitive ,plant 7,mimosa pudica71 with two leaves1 the lower open1 the upper in the closed state4 #dgb4 ,movements under ,irritation4 ,the most familiar case is that of the ,sensitive ,plant 7,fig4 #dij74 ,the leaves suddenly take their nocturnal position when roughly touched or when shocked by a jar4 ,the leaflets close in pairs1 the four outspread partial petioles come closer together1 and the common petiole is depressed4 ,the seat of the movements is at the base of the leaf-stalk and stalklets4 ,schrankia1 a near relative of the ,sensitive ,plant1 acts in the same way1 but is slower4 ,these are not anomalous actions1 but only extreme manifestations of a faculty more or less common in foliage4 ,in ,locust and ,honey-,locusts for example1 repeated jars will slowly produce similar effects4 #dgc4 ,leaf-stalks and tendrils are adapted to their uses in climbing by a similar sensitiveness4 ,the coiling of the leaf-stalk is in response to a kind of irritation produced by contact with the supporting body4 ,this may be shown by gentle rubbing or prolonged pressure upon the upper face of the leaf-stalk1 which is soon followed by a curvature4 ,tendrils are still more sensitive to contact or light friction4 ,this causes the free end of the tendril to coil round the support1 and the sensitiveness1 propagated downward along the tendril1 causes that side of it to become less turgescent or the opposite side more so1 thus throwing the tendril into coils4 ,this shortening draws the plant up to the support4 ,tendrils which have not laid hold will at length commonly coil spontaneously1 in a simple coil1 from the free apex downward4 ,in ,sicyos1 ,echinocystis1 and the above mentioned ,passion-flowers 7#dga71 the tendril is so sensitive1 under a high summer temperature1 that it will curve and coil promptly after one or two light strokes by the hand4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dia4 ,portion of stem and leaves of ,telegraph-plant 7,desmodium gyrans71 almost of natural size4 #dgd4 ,among spontaneous movements the most singular are those of ,desmodium gyrans of ,india1 sometimes called ,telegraph-plant1 which is cultivated on account of this action4 ,of its three leaflets1 the larger 7terminal7 one moves only by drooping at nightfall and rising with the dawn4 ,but its two small lateral leaflets1 when in a congenial high temperature1 by day and by night move upward and downward in a succession of jerks1 stopping occasionally1 as if to recover from exhaustion4 ,in most plant-movements some obviously useful purpose is subserved3 this of ,desmodium gyrans is a riddle4 #dge4 ,movements in ,flowers are very various4 ,the most remarkable are in some way connected with fertilization 7,sect4 ,,xiii474 ,some occur under irritation3 the stamens of ,barberry start forward when touched at the base inside3 those of many polyandrous flowers 7of ,sparmannia very strikingly7 spread outwardly when lightly brushed3 the two lips or lobes of the stigma in ,mimulus close after a touch4 ,some are automatic and are connected with dichogamy 7#cci73 the style of ,sabbatia and of large-flowered species of ,epilobium bends over strongly to one side or turns downward when the blossom opens1 but slowly erects itself a day or two later4 #dgf4 ,extraordinary ,movements connected with ,capture of ,insects4 ,the most striking cases are those of ,drosera and ,dionaea2 for an account of which see ,how ,plants ,behave1 and ,goodale's ,physiological ,botany4 #dgg4 ,the upper face of the leaves of the common species of ,drosera1 or ,sundew1 is beset with stout bristles1 having a glandular tip4 ,this tip secretes a drop of a clear but very viscid liquid1 which glistens like a dew-drop in the sun2 whence the popular name4 ,when a fly or other small insect1 attracted by the liquid1 alights upon the leaf1 the viscid drops are so tenacious that they hold it fast4 ,in struggling it only becomes more completely entangled4 ,now the neighboring bristles1 which have not been touched1 slowly bend inward from all sides toward the captured insect1 and bring their sticky apex against its body1 thus increasing the number of bonds4 ,moreover1 the blade of the leaf commonly aids in the capture by becoming concave1 its sides or edges turning inward1 which brings still more of the gland-tipped bristles into contact with the captive's body4 ,the insect perishes2 the clear liquid disappears1 apparently by absorption into the tissue of the leaf4 ,it is thought that the absorbed secretion takes with it some of the juices of the insect or the products of its decomposition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dib4 ,plant of ,dionaea muscipula1 or ,venus's ,fly-trap1 reduced in size4 #dgh4 ,dionaea muscipula1 the most remarkable vegetable fly-trap 7,fig4 #agf1 #dib71 is related to the ,sundews1 and has a more special and active apparatus for fly-catching1 formed of the summit of the leaf4 ,the two halves of this rounded body move as if they were hinged upon the midrib2 their edges are fringed with spiny but not glandular bristles1 which interlock when the organ closes4 ,upon the face are two or three short and delicate bristles1 which are sensitive4 ,they do not themselves move when touched1 but they propagate the sensitiveness to the organ itself1 causing it to close with a quick movement4 ,in a fresh and vigorous leaf1 under a high summer temperature1 and when the trap lies widely open1 a touch of any one of the minute bristles on the face1 by the finger or any extraneous body1 springs the trap 7so to say71 and it closes suddenly2 but after an hour or so it opens again4 ,when a fly or other small insect alights on the trap1 it closes in the same manner1 and so quickly that the intercrossing marginal bristles obstruct the egress of the insect1 unless it be a small one and not worth taking4 ,afterwards and more slowly it completely closes1 and presses down upon the prey2 then some hidden glands pour out a glairy liquid1 which dissolves out the juices of the insect's body2 next all is re-absorbed into the plant1 and the trap opens to repeat the operation4 ,but the same leaf perhaps never captures more than two or three insects4 ,it ages instead1 becomes more rigid and motionless1 or decays away4 #dgi4 ,that some few plants should thus take animal food will appear less surprising when it is considered that hosts of plants of the lower grade1 known as ,fungi1 moulds1 rusts1 ferments1 ,bacteria1 etc41 live upon animal or other organized matter1 either decaying or living4 ,that plants should execute movements in order to accomplish the ends of their existence is less surprising now when it is known that the living substance of plants and animals is essentially the same2 that the beings of both kingdoms partake of a common life1 to which1 as they rise in the scale1 other and higher endowments are successively superadded4 #dhj4 ,work uses up material and energy in plants as well as in animals4 ,the latter live and work by the consumption and decomposition of that which plants have assimilated into organizable matter through an energy derived from the sun1 and which is1 so to say1 stored up in the assimilated products4 ,in every internal action1 as well as in every movement and exertion1 some portion of this assimilated matter is transformed and of its stored energy expended4 ,the steam-engine is an organism for converting the sun's radiant energy1 stored up by plants in the fuel1 into mechanical work4 ,an animal is an engine fed by vegetable fuel in the same or other forms1 from the same source1 by the decomposition of which it also does mechanical work4 ,the plant is the producer of food and accumulator of solar energy or force4 ,but the plant1 like the animal1 is a consumer whenever and by so much as it does any work except its great work of assimilation4 ,every internal change and movement1 every transformation1 such as that of starch into sugar and of sugar into cell-walls1 as well as every movement of parts which becomes externally visible1 is done at the expense of a certain amount of its assimilated matter and of its stored energy2 that is1 by the decomposition or combustion of sugar or some such product into carbonic acid and water1 which is given back to the air1 just as in the animal it is given back to the air in respiration4 ,so the respiration of plants is as real and as essential as that of animals4 ,but what plants consume or decompose in their life and action is of insignificant amount in comparison with what they compose4 ,section ,,xvii4 ,,cryptogamous ,,or ,,flowerless ,,plants4 #dha4 ,even the beginner in botany should have some general idea of what cryptogamous plants are1 and what are the obvious distinctions of the principal families4 ,although the lower grades are difficult1 and need special books and good microscopes for their study1 the higher orders1 such as ,ferns1 may be determined almost as readily as phanerogamous plants4 #dhb4 ,linnaeus gave to this lower grade of plants the name of ,cryptogamia1 thereby indicating that their organs answering to stamens and pistils1 if they had any1 were recondite and unknown4 ,there is no valid reason why this long-familiar name should not be kept up1 along with the counterpart one of ,phanerogamia 7#f71 although organs analogous to stamens and pistil1 or rather to pollen and ovule1 have been discovered in all the higher and most of the lower grades of this series of plants4 ,so also the ,english synonymous name of ,flowerless ,plants is both good and convenient3 for they have not flowers in the proper sense4 ,the essentials of flowers are stamens and pistils1 giving rise to seeds1 and the essential of a seed is an embryo 7#h74 ,cryptogamous or ,flowerless plants are propagated by ,,spores2 and a spore is not an embryo-plantlet1 but mostly a single plant-cell 7#cii74 #dhc4 ,vascular ,cryptogams1 which compose the higher orders of this series of plants1 have stems and 7usually7 leaves1 constructed upon the general plan of ordinary plants2 that is1 they have wood 7wood-cells and vessels1 #djh7 in the stem and leaves1 in the latter as a frame work of veins4 ,but the lower grades1 having only the more elementary cellular structure1 are called ,cellular ,cryptogams4 ,far the larger number of the former are ,ferns3 wherefore that class has been called #dhd4 ,pteridophyta1 ,pteridophytes in ,english form1 meaning ,fern-plants1--that is1 ,ferns and their relatives4 ,they are mainly ,horsetails1 ,ferns1 ,club-,mosses1 and various aquatics which have been called ,hydropterides1 i4 e4 ,water-,ferns4 #dhe4 ,horsetails1 ,equisetaceae1 is the name of a family which consists only 7among now-living plants7 of ,equisetum1 the botanical name of ,horsetail and ,scouring ,rush4 ,they have hollow stems1 with partitions at the nodes2 the leaves consist only of a whorl of scales at each node1 these coalescent into a sheath3 from the axils of these leaf-scales1 in many species1 branches grow out1 which are similar to the stem but on a much smaller scale1 close-jointed1 and with the tips of the leaves more apparent4 ,at the apex of the stem appears the fructification1 as it is called for lack of a better term1 in the form of a short spike or head4 ,this consists of a good number of stalked shields1 bearing on their inner or under face several wedge-shaped spore-cases4 ,the spore-cases when they ripen open down the inner side and discharge a great number of green spores of a size large enough to be well seen by a hand-glass4 ,the spores are aided in their discharge and dissemination by four club-shaped threads attached to one part of them4 ,these are hygrometric3 when moist they are rolled up over the spore2 when dry they straighten1 and exhibit lively movements1 closing over the spore when breathed upon1 and unrolling promptly a moment after as they dry4 7,see ,fig4 #dic-dih47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dic4 ,upper part of a stem of a ,horsetail1 ,equisetum sylvaticum4 #did4 ,part of the head or spike of spore-cases1 with some of the latter taken off4 #die4 ,view 7more enlarged7 of under side of the shield-shaped body1 bearing a circle of spore-cases4 #dif4 ,one of the latter detached and more magnified4 #dig4 ,a spore with the attached arms moistened4 #dih4 ,same when dry1 the arms extended4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dii4 ,a ,tree-,fern1 ,dicksonia arborescens1 with a young one near its base4 ,in front a common herbaceous ,fern 7,polypodium vulgare7 with its creeping stem or rootstock4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ejj4 ,a section of the trunk of a ,tree-,fern4 #dhf4 ,ferns1 or ,filices1 a most attractive family of plants1 are very numerous and varied4 ,in warm and equable climates some rise into forest-trees1 with habit of ,palms2 but most of them are perennial herbs4 ,the wood of a ,fern-trunk is very different1 however1 from that of a palm1 or of any exogenous stem either4 ,a section is represented in ,fig4 #ejj4 ,the curved plates of wood each terminate upward in a leaf-stalk4 ,the subterranean trunk or stem of any strong-growing herbaceous ,fern shows a similar structure4 ,most ,ferns are circinate in the bud2 that is1 are rolled up in the manner shown in ,fig4 #aig4 ,uncoiling as they grow1 they have some likeness to a crosier4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eja4 ,the ,walking-,fern1 ,camptosorus1 reduced in size1 showing its fruit-dots on the veins approximated in pairs4 #ejb4 ,a small piece 7pinnule7 of a ,shield-,fern3 a row of fruit-dots on each side of the midrib1 each covered by its kidney-shaped indusium4 #ejc4 ,a spore-case from the latter1 just bursting by the partial straightening of the incomplete ring2 well magnified4 #ejd4 ,three of the spores of #eji1 more magnified4 #eje4 ,schizaea pusilla1 a very small and simple-leaved ,fern1 drawn nearly of natural size4 #ejf4 ,one of the lobes of its fruit-bearing portion1 magnified1 bearing two rows of spore-cases4 #ejg4 ,spore-case of the latter1 detached1 opening lengthwise4 #ejh4 ,adder-tongue1 ,ophioglossum2 spore-cases in a kind of spike3 a1 a portion of the fruiting part1 about natural size2 showing two rows of the firm spore-cases1 which open transversely into two valves4 #dhg4 ,the fructification of ,ferns is borne on the back or under side of the leaves4 ,the early botanists thought this such a peculiarity that they always called a ,fern-leaf a ,,frond1 and its petiole a ,,stipe4 ,usage continues these terms1 although they are superfluous4 ,the fruit of ,ferns consists of ,,spore-,,cases1 technically ,,sporangia1 which grow out of the veins of the leaf4 ,sometimes these are distributed over the whole lower surface of the leaf or frond1 or over the whole surface when there are no proper leaf-blades to the frond1 but all is reduced to stalks4 ,commonly the spore-cases occupy only detached spots or lines1 each of which is called a ,,sorus1 or in ,english merely a ,fruit-dot4 ,in many ,ferns these fruit-dots are naked2 in others they are produced under a scale-like bit of membrane1 called an ,,indusium4 ,in ,maidenhair-,ferns a little lobe of the leaf is folded back over each fruit-dot1 to serve as its shield or indusium4 ,in the true ,brake or ,bracken 7,pteris7 the whole edge of the fruit-bearing part of the leaf is folded back over it like a hem4 #dhh4 ,the form and structure of the spore-cases can be made out with a common hand magnifying glass4 ,the commonest kind 7shown in ,fig4 #ejc7 has a stalk formed of a row of jointed cells1 and is itself composed of a layer of thin-walled cells1 but is incompletely surrounded by a border of thicker-walled cells1 forming the ,,ring4 ,this extends from the stalk up one side of the spore-case1 round its summit1 descends on the other side1 but there gradually vanishes4 ,in ripening and drying the shrinking of the cells of the ring on the outer side causes it to straighten2 in doing so it tears the spore-case open on the weaker side and discharges the minute spores that fill it1 commonly with a jerk which scatters them to the wind4 ,another kind of spore-case 7,fig4 #ejg7 is stalkless1 and has its ring-cells forming a kind of cap at the top3 at maturity it splits from top to bottom by a regular dehiscence4 ,a third kind is of firm texture and opens across into two valves1 like a clam-shell 7,fig4 #ejh;a73 this kind makes an approach to the next family4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eji4 ,a young prothallus of a ,maiden-hair1 moderately enlarged1 and an older one with the first fern-leaf developed from near the notch4 #eaj4 ,middle portion of the young one1 much magnified1 showing below1 partly among the rootlets1 the antheridia or fertilizing organs1 and above1 near the notch1 three pistillidia to be fertilized4 #dhi4 ,the spores germinate on moistened ground4 ,in a conservatory they may be found germinating on a damp wall or on the edges of a well-watered flower-pot4 ,instead of directly forming a fern-plantlet1 the spore grows first into a body which closely resembles a small ,liverwort4 ,this is named a ,,prothallus 7,fig4 #eji73 from some point of this a bud appears to originate1 which produces the first fern-leaf1 soon followed by a second and third1 and so the stem and leaves of the plant are set up4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eaa4 ,lycopodium ,carolinianum1 of nearly natural size4 #eab4 ,inside view of one of the bracts and spore-case1 magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eac4 ,open #d-valved spore-case of a ,selaginella1 and its four large spores 7macrospores71 magnified4 #ead4 ,macrospores of another ,selaginella4 #eae4 ,same separated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eaf4 ,plant of ,isoetes4 #eag4 ,base of a leaf and contained sporocarp filled with microspores cut across1 magnified4 #eah4 ,same divided lengthwise1 equally magnified2 some microspores seen at the left4 #eai4 ,section of a spore-case containing macrospores1 equally magnified2 at the right three macrospores more magnified4 #dij4 ,investigation of this prothallus under the microscope resulted in the discovery of a wholly unsuspected kind of fertilization1 taking place at this germinating stage of the plant4 ,on the under side of the prothallus two kinds of organs appear 7,fig4 #eaj74 ,one may be likened to an open and depressed ovule1 with a single cell at bottom answering to nucleus2 the other1 to an anther2 but instead of pollen1 it discharges corkscrew-shaped microscopic filaments1 which bear some cilia of extreme tenuity1 by the rapid vibration of which the filaments move freely over a wet surface4 ,these filaments travel over the surface of the prothallus1 and even to other prothalli 7for there are natural hybrid ,ferns71 reach and enter the ovule-like cavities1 and fertilize the cell4 ,this thereupon sets up a growth1 forms a vegetable bud1 and so develops the new plant4 #dia4 ,an essentially similar process of fertilization has been discovered in the preceding and the following families of ,pteridophytes2 but it is mostly subterranean and very difficult to observe4 #dib4 ,club-,mosses or ,lycopodiums4 ,some of the common kinds1 called ,ground ,pine1 are familiar1 being largely used for ,christmas wreaths and other decoration4 ,they are low evergreens1 some creeping1 all with considerable wood in their stems3 this thickly beset with small leaves4 ,in the axils of some of these leaves1 or more commonly1 in the axils of peculiar leaves changed into bracts 7as in ,fig4 #eaa1 #eab7 spore-cases appear1 as roundish or kidney-shaped bodies1 of firm texture1 opening round the top into two valves1 and discharging a great quantity of a very fine yellow powder1 the spores4 #dic4 ,the ,selaginellas have been separated from ,lycopodium1 which they much resemble1 because they produce two kinds of spores1 in separate spore-cases4 ,one kind 7,,microspores7 is just that of ,lycopodium2 the other consists of only four large spores 7,,macrospores71 in a spore-case which usually breaks in pieces at maturity 7,fig4 #eac-eae74 #did4 ,the ,quillworts1 ,isoetes 7,fig4 #eaf-eai71 are very unlike ,club ,mosses in aspect1 but have been associated with them4 ,they look more like ,rushes1 and live in water1 or partly out of it4 ,a very short stem1 like a corm1 bears a cluster of roots underneath2 above it is covered by the broad bases of a cluster of awl-shaped or thread-shaped leaves4 ,the spore-cases are immersed in the bases of the leaves4 ,the outer leaf-bases contain numerous macrospores2 the inner are filled with innumerable microspores4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ebj4 ,plant of ,marsilia quadrifoliata1 reduced in size2 at the right a pair of sporocarps of about natural size4 #die4 ,the ,pillworts 7,marsilia and ,pilularia7 are low aquatics1 which bear globular or pill-shaped fruit 7,,sporocarps7 on the lower part of their leaf-stalks or on their slender creeping stems4 ,the leaves of the commoner species of ,marsilia might be taken for four-leaved ,clover4 7,see ,fig4 #ebj47 ,the sporocarps are usually raised on a short stalk4 ,within they are divided lengthwise by a partition1 and then crosswise by several partitions4 ,these partitions bear numerous delicate sacs or spore-cases of two kinds1 intermixed4 ,the larger ones contain each a large spore1 or macrospore2 the smaller contain numerous microspores1 immersed in mucilage4 ,at maturity the fruit bursts or splits open at top1 and the two kinds of spores are discharged4 ,the large ones in germination produce a small prothallus2 upon which the contents of the microspores act in the same way as in ,ferns1 and with a similar result4 #dif4 ,azolla is a little floating plant1 looking like a small ,liverwort or ,moss4 ,its branches are covered with minute and scale-shaped leaves4 ,on the under side of the branches are found egg-shaped thin-walled sporocarps of two kinds4 ,the small ones open across and discharge microspores2 the larger burst irregularly1 and bring to view globose spore-cases1 attached to the bottom of the sporocarp by a slender stalk4 ,these delicate spore-cases burst and set free about four macrospores1 which are fertilized at germination1 in the manner of the ,pillworts and ,quillworts4 7,see ,fig4 #eba-ebf47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eba4 ,small plant of ,azolla ,caroliniana4 #ebb4 ,portion magnified1 showing the two kinds of sporocarp2 the small ones contain microspores4 #ebc represents one more magnified4 #ebd4 ,the larger sporocarp more magnified4 #ebe4 ,same more magnified and burst open1 showing stalked spore-cases4 #ebf4 ,two of the latter highly magnified2 one of them bursting shows four contained macrospores2 between the two1 three of these spores highly magnified4 #dig4 ,cellular ,cryptogams 7#dhc7 are so called because composed1 even in their higher forms1 of cellular tissue only1 without proper wood-cells or vessels4 ,many of the lower kinds are mere plates1 or ribbons1 or simple rows of cells1 or even single cells4 ,but their highest orders follow the plan of ,ferns and phanerogamous plants in having stem and leaves for their upward growth1 and commonly roots1 or at least rootlets1 to attach them to the soil1 or to trunks1 or to other bodies on which they grow4 ,plants of this grade are chiefly ,mosses4 ,so as a whole they take the name of #dih4 ,bryophyta1 ,bryophytes in ,english form1 ,bryum being the ,greek name of a ,moss4 ,these plants are of two principal kinds3 true ,mosses 7,musci1 which is their ,latin name in the plural72 and ,hepatic ,mosses1 or ,liverworts 7,hepaticae74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ebg4 ,single plant of ,physcomitrium pyriforme1 magnified4 #ebh4 ,top of a leaf1 cut across2 it consists of a single layer of cells4 #dii4 ,mosses or ,musci4 ,the pale ,peat-mosses 7species of ,sphagnum1 the principal component of sphagnous bogs7 and the strong-growing ,hair-cap ,moss 7,polytrichum7 are among the larger and commoner representatives of this numerous family2 while ,fountain ,moss 7,fontinalis7 in running water sometimes attains the length of a yard or more4 ,on the other hand1 some are barely individually distinguishable to the naked eye4 ,fig4 #ebg represents a common little ,moss1 enlarged to about twelve times its natural size2 and by its side is part of a leaf1 much magnified1 showing that it is composed of cellular tissue 7parenchyma-cells7 only4 ,the leaves of ,mosses are always simple1 distinct1 and sessile on the stem4 ,the fructification is an urn-shaped spore-case1 in this as in most cases raised on a slender stalk4 ,the spore-case loosely bears on its summit a thin and pointed cap1 like a candle-extinguisher1 called a ,calyptra4 ,detaching this1 it is found that the spore-case is like a pyxis 7#cgf71 that is1 the top at maturity comes off as a lid 7,operculum72 and that the interior is filled with a green powder1 the spores1 which are discharged through the open mouth4 ,in most ,mosses there is a fringe of one or two rows of teeth or membrane around this mouth or orifice1 the ,peristome4 ,when moist the peristome closes hygrometrically over the orifice more or less2 when drier the teeth or processes commonly bend outward or recurve2 and then the spores more readily escape4 ,in ,hair-cap ,moss a membrane is stretched quite across the mouth1 like a drum-head1 retaining the spores until this wears away4 ,see ,figures #ebg-eda for details4 #ejj4 ,fertilization in ,mosses is by the analogues of stamens and pistils1 which are hidden in the axils of leaves1 or in the cluster of leaves at the end of the stem4 ,the analogue of the anther 7,antheridium7 is a cellular sac1 which in bursting discharges innumerable delicate cells floating in a mucilaginous liquid2 each of these bursts and sets free a vibratile self-moving thread4 ,these threads1 one or more1 reach the orifice of the pistil-shaped body1 the ,pistillidium1 and act upon a particular cell at its base within4 ,this cell in its growth develops into the spore-case and its stalk 7when there is any71 carrying on its summit the wall of the pistillidium1 which becomes the calyptra4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ebi4 ,mnium cuspidatum1 smaller than nature4 #ecj4 ,its calyptra1 detached1 enlarged4 #eca4 ,its spore-case1 with top of stalk1 magnified1 the lid 7#ecb7 being detached1 the outer peristome appears4 #ecc4 ,part of a cellular ring 7annulus7 which was under the lid1 outside of the peristome1 more magnified4 #ecd4 ,some of the outer and of the inner peristome 7consisting of jointed teeth7 much magnified4 #ece4 ,antheridia and a pistillidium 7the so-called flower7 at end of a stem of same plant1 the leaves torn away 7,symbol for ,male1 antheridia1 ,symbol for ,female1 pistillidium71 magnified4 #ecf4 ,a bursting antheridium1 and some of the accompanying jointed threads1 highly magnified4 #ecg4 ,summit of an open spore-case of a ,moss1 which has a peristome of #af pairs of teeth4 #ech4 ,the double peristome of a ,hypnum4 #eci-eda4 ,spore-case1 detached calyptra1 and top of more enlarged spore-case and detached lid1 of ,physcomitrium pyriforme 7,fig4 #ebg73 orifice shows that there is no peristome4 #eja4 ,liverworts or ,hepatic ,mosses 7,hepaticae7 in some kinds resemble true ,mosses1 having distinct stem and leaves1 although their leaves occasionally run together2 while in others there is no distinction of stem and leaf1 but the whole plant is a leaf-like body1 which produces rootlets on the lower face and its fructification on the upper4 ,those of the moss-like kind 7sometimes called ,scale-,mosses7 have their tender spore-cases splitting into four valves2 and with their spores are intermixed some slender spiral and very hygrometric threads 7called ,elaters7 which are thought to aid in the dispersion of the spores4 7,fig4 #edb-edd47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #edb4 ,fructification of a ,jungermannia1 magnified2 its cellular spore-stalk1 surrounded at base by some of the leaves1 at summit the #d-valved spore-case opening1 discharging spores and elaters4 #edc4 ,two elaters and some spores from the same1 highly magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #edd4 ,one of the frondose ,liverworts1 ,steetzia1 otherwise like a ,jungermannia2 the spore-case not yet protruded from its sheath4 #ejb4 ,marchantia1 the commonest and largest of the true ,liverworts1 forms large green plates or fronds on damp and shady ground1 and sends up from some part of the upper face a stout stalk1 ending in a several-lobed umbrella-shaped body1 under the lobes of which hang several thin-walled spore-cases1 which burst open and discharge spores and elaters4 ,riccia natans 7,fig4 #ede7 consists of wedge-shaped or heart-shaped fronds1 which float free in pools of still water4 ,the under face bears copious rootlets2 in the substance of the upper face are the spore-cases1 their pointed tips merely projecting3 there they burst open1 and discharge their spores4 ,these are comparatively few and large1 and are in fours2 so they are very like the macrospores of ,pillworts or ,quillworts4 #ejc4 ,thallophyta1 or ,thallophytes in ,english form4 ,this is the name for the lower class of ,cellular ,cryptogams1--plants in which there is no marked distinction into root1 stem1 and leaves4 ,roots in any proper sense they never have1 as organs for absorbing1 although some of the larger ,seaweeds 7such as the ,sea ,colander1 ,fig4 #eec7 have them as holdfasts4 ,instead of axis and foliage1 there is a stratum of frond1 in such plants commonly called a ,,thallus 7by a strained use of a ,greek and ,latin word which means a green shoot or bough71 which may have any kind of form1 leaf-like1 stem-like1 branchy1 extended to a flat plate1 or gathered into a sphere1 or drawn out into threads1 or reduced to a single row of cells1 or even reduced to single cells4 ,indeed1 ,thallophytes are so multifarious1 so numerous in kinds1 so protean in their stages and transformations1 so recondite in their fructification1 and many so microscopic in size1 either of the plant itself or its essential organs1 that they have to be elaborately described in separate books and made subjects of special study4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ede1 #edf4 ,two plants of ,riccia natans1 about natural size4 #edg4 ,magnified section of a part of the frond1 showing two immersed spore-cases1 and one emptied space4 #edh4 ,magnified section of a spore-case with some spores4 #edi4 ,magnified spore-case torn out1 and spores2 one figure of the spores united2 the other of the four separated4 #ejd4 ,nevertheless1 it may be well to try to give some general idea of what ,algae and ,lichens and ,fungi are4 ,linnaeus had them all under the orders of ,algae and ,fungi4 ,afterwards the ,lichens were separated2 but of late it has been made most probable that a ,lichen consists of an ,alga and a ,fungus conjoined4 ,at least it must be so in some of the ambiguous forms4 ,botanists are in the way of bringing out new classifications of the ,thallophytes1 as they come to understand their structure and relations better4 ,here1 it need only be said that #eje4 ,lichens live in the air1 that is1 on the ground1 or on rocks1 trunks1 walls1 and the like1 and grow when moistened by rains4 ,they assimilate air1 water1 and some earthy matter1 just as do ordinary plants4 ,algae1 or ,seaweeds1 live in water1 and live the same kind of life as do ordinary plants4 ,fungi1 whatever medium they inhabit1 live as animals do1 upon organic matter1--upon what other plants have assimilated1 or upon the products of their decay4 ,true as these general distinctions are1 it is no less true that these orders run together in their lowest forms2 and that ,algae and ,fungi may be traced down into forms so low and simple that no clear line can be drawn between them2 and even into forms of which it is uncertain whether they should be called plants or animals4 ,it is as well to say that they are not high enough in rank to be distinctively either the one or the other4 ,on the other hand there is a peculiar group of plants1 which in simplicity of composition resemble the simpler ,algae1 while in fructification and in the arrangements of their simple cells into stem and branches they seem to be of a higher order1 viz43-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eej4 ,branch of a ,chara1 about natural size4 #eea4 ,a fruiting portion1 magnified1 showing the structure2 a sporocarp1 and an antheridium4 #eeb4 ,outlines of a portion of the stem in section1 showing the central cell and the outer or cortical cells4 #ejf4 ,characeae4 ,these are aquatic herbs1 of considerable size1 abounding in ponds4 ,the simpler kinds 7,nitella7 have the stem formed of a single row of tubular cells1 and at the nodes1 or junction of the cells1 a whorl of similar branches4 ,chara 7,fig4 #eej-eeb7 is the same1 except that the cells which make up the stem and the principal branches are strengthened by a coating of many smaller tubular cells1 applied to the surface of the main or central cell4 ,the fructification consists of a globular sporocarp of considerable size1 which is spirally enwrapped by tubular cells twisted around it3 by the side of this is a smaller and globular antheridium4 ,the latter breaks up into eight shield-shaped pieces1 with an internal stalk1 and bearing long and ribbon shaped filaments1 which consist of a row of delicate cells1 each of which discharges a free-moving microscopic thread 7the analogue of the pollen or pollen-tube71 nearly in the manner of ,ferns and ,mosses4 ,one of these threads reaches and fertilizes a cell at the apex of the nucleus or solid body of the sporocarp4 ,this subsequently germinates and forms a new individual4 #ejg4 ,algae or ,seaweeds4 ,the proper ,seaweeds may be studied by the aid of ,professor ,farlow's ,marine ,algae of ,new ,england2 the fresh-water species1 by ,prof4 ,h4 ,c4 ,woods's ,fresh-water ,algae of ,north ,america1 a larger and less accessible volume4 ,a few common forms are here very briefly mentioned and illustrated1 to give an idea of the family4 ,but they are of almost endless diversity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eec4 ,agarum ,turneri1 ,sea ,colander 7so called from the perforations with which the frond1 as it grows1 becomes riddled72 very much reduced in size4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eed4 ,upper end of a ,rockweed1 ,fucus vesiculosus1 reduced half or more1 b1 the fructification4 #ejh4 ,the common ,rockweed 7,fucus vesiculosus1 ,fig4 #eed1 abounding between high and low water mark on the coast71 the rarer ,sea ,colander 7,agarum ,turneri1 ,fig4 #eec71 and ,laminaria1 of which the larger forms are called ,devil's ,aprons1 are good representatives of the olive green or brownish ,seaweeds4 ,they are attached either by a disk-like base or by root-like holdfasts to the rocks or stones on which they grow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eee4 ,magnified section through a fertile conceptacle of ,rockweed1 showing the large spores in the midst of threads of cells4 #eef4 ,similar section of a sterile conceptacle1 containing slender antheridia4 ,from ,farlow's ,marine ,algae of ,new ,england4 #eji4 ,the hollow and inflated places in the ,fucus vesiculosus or ,rockweed 7,fig4 #eed7 are air-bladders for buoyancy4 ,the fructification forms in the substance of the tips of the frond3 the rough dots mark the places where the conceptacles open4 ,the spores and the fertilizing cells are in different plants4 ,sections of the two kinds of conceptacles are given in ,fig4 #eee and #eef4 ,the contents of the conceptacles are discharged through a small orifice which in each figure is at the margin of the page4 ,the large spores are formed eight together in a mother-cell4 ,the minute motile filaments of the antheridia fertilize the large spores after injection into the water3 and then the latter promptly acquire a cell-wall and germinate4 #eaj4 ,the ,florideae or ,rose-red series of marine ,algae 7which1 however1 are sometimes green or brownish7 are the most attractive to amateurs4 ,the delicate ,porphyra or ,laver is in some countries eaten as a delicacy1 and the cartilaginous ,chondrus crispus has been largely used for jelly4 ,besides their conceptacles1 which contain true spores 7,fig4 #efj71 they mostly have a fructification in ,tetraspores1 that is1 of spores originating in fours 7,fig4 #eei74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eeg4 ,small plant of ,chondrus crispus1 or ,carrageen ,moss1 reduced in size1 in fruit2 the spots represent the fructification1 consisting of numerous tetraspores in bunches in the substance of the plant4 #eeh4 ,section through the thickness of one of the lobes1 magnified1 passing through two of the imbedded fruit-clusters4 #eei4 ,two of its tetraspores 7spores in fours71 highly magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #efj4 ,section through a conceptacle of ,delesseria ,leprieurei1 much magnified1 showing the spores1 which are single specialized cells1 two or three in a row4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #efa4 ,a piece of the rose-red ,delesseria ,leprieurei1 double natural size4 #efb4 ,a piece cut out and much magnified1 showing that it is composed of a layer of cells4 #efc4 ,a few of the cells more highly magnified3 the cells are gelatinous and thick-walled4 #eaa4 ,the ,grass-green ,algae sometimes form broad membranous fronds1 such as those of the common ,ulva of the sea-shore1 but most of them form mere threads1 either simple or branched4 ,to this division belong almost all the ,fresh-water ,algae1 such as those which constitute the silky threads or green slime of running streams or standing pools1 and which were all called ,confervas before their immense diversity was known4 ,some are formed of a single row of cells1 developed each from the end of another4 ,others branch1 the top of one cell producing more than one new one 7,fig4 #efd74 ,others1 of a kind which is very common in fresh water1 simple threads made of a line of cells1 have the chlorophyll and protoplasm of each cell arranged in spiral lines or bands4 ,they form spores in a peculiar way1 which gives to this family the designation of conjugating ,algae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #efd4 ,the growing end of a branching ,conferva 7,cladophora glomerata71 much magnified2 showing how1 by a kind of budding growth1 a new cell is formed by a cross partition separating the newer tip from the older part below2 also1 how the branches arise4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #efe4 ,two magnified individuals of a ,spirogyra1 forming spores by conjugation2 a completed spore at base3 above1 successive stages of the conjugation are represented4 #eab4 ,at a certain time two parallel threads approach each other more closely2 contiguous parts of a cell of each thread bulge or grow out1 and unite when they meet2 the cell-wall partitions between them are absorbed so as to open a free communication2 the spiral band of green matter in both cells breaks up2 the whole of that of one cell passes over into the other2 and of the united contents a large green spore is formed4 ,soon the old cells decay1 and the spore set free is ready to germinate4 ,fig4 #efe represents several stages of the conjugating process1 which1 however1 would never be found all together like this in one pair of threads4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eff4 ,closterium acutum1 a common ,desmid1 moderately magnified4 ,it is a single firm-walled cell1 filled with green protoplasmic matter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #efg4 ,more magnified view of three stages of the conjugation of a pair of the same4 #eac4 ,desmids and ,diatomes1 which are microscopic one-celled plants of the same class1 conjugate in the same way1 as is shown in a ,closterium by ,fig4 #eff1 #efg4 ,here the whole living contents of two individuals are incorporated into one spore1 for a fresh start4 ,a reproduction which costs the life of two individuals to make a single new one would be fatal to the species if there were not a provision for multiplication by the prompt division of the new-formed individual into two1 and these again into two1 and so on in geometrical ratio4 ,and the costly process would be meaningless if there were not some real advantage in such a fresh start1 that is1 in sexes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #efh4 ,early stage of a species of ,botrydium1 a globose cell4 #efi1 #egj4 ,stages of growth4 #ega4 ,full-grown plant1 extended and ramified below in a root-like way4 #egb4 ,a ,vaucheria2 single cell grown on into a much-branched thread2 the end of some branches enlarging1 and the green contents in one 7a7 there condensed into a spore4 #egc4 ,more magnified view of a1 and the mature spore escaping4 #egd4 ,bryopsis plumosa2 apex of a stem with its branchlets2 all the extension of one cell4 ,variously magnified4 #ead4 ,there are other ,algae of the grass-green series which consist of single cells1 but which by continued growth form plants of considerable size4 ,three kinds of these are represented in ,fig4 #efh-egd4 #eae4 ,lichens1 ,latin ,lichenes1 are to be studied in the works of the late ,professor ,tuckerman1 but a popular exposition is greatly needed4 ,the subjoined illustrations 7,fig4 #ege-ehj7 may simply indicate what some of the commoner forms are like4 ,the cup1 or shield-shaped spot1 or knob1 which bears the fructification is named the ,apothecium4 ,this is mainly composed of slender sacs 7,asci71 having thread-shaped cells intermixed2 and each ascus contains few or several spores1 which are commonly double or treble4 ,most ,lichens are flat expansions of grayish hue2 some of them foliaceous in texture1 but never of bright green color2 more are crustaceous2 some are wholly pulverulent and nearly formless4 ,but in several the vegetation lengthens into an axis 7as in ,fig4 #ehj71 or imitates stem and branches or threads1 as in the ,reindeer-,moss on the ground in our northern woods1 and the ,usnea hanging from the boughs of old trees overhead4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ege4 ,a stone on which various ,lichens are growing1 such as 7passing from left to right7 a ,parmelia1 a ,sticta1 and on the right1 ,lecidia geographica1 so called from its patches resembling the outline of islands or continents as depicted upon maps4 #egf4 ,piece of thallus of ,parmelia conspersa1 with section through an apothecium4 #egg4 ,section of a smaller apothecium1 enlarged4 #egh4 ,two asci of same1 and contained spores1 and accompanying filaments2 more magnified4 #egi4 ,piece of thallus of a ,sticta1 with section1 showing the immersed apothecia2 the small openings of these dot the surface4 #ehj4 ,cladonia coccinea2 the fructification is in the scarlet knobs1 which surround the cups4 #eaf4 ,fungi4 ,for this immense and greatly diversified class1 it must here suffice to indicate the parts of a ,mushroom1 a ,sphaeria1 and of one or two common ,moulds4 ,the true vegetation of common ,fungi consists of slender cells which form what is called a ,mycelium4 ,these filamentous cells lengthen and branch1 growing by the absorption through their whole surface of the decaying1 or organizable1 or living matter which they feed upon4 ,in a ,mushroom 7,agaricus71 a knobby mass is at length formed1 which develops into a stout stalk 7,stipe71 bearing the cap 7,pileus73 the under side of the cap is covered by the ,hymenium1 in this genus consisting of radiating plates1 the gills or ,lamellae2 and these bear the powdery spores in immense numbers4 ,under the microscope1 the gills are found to be studded with projecting cells1 each of which1 at the top1 produces four stalked spores4 ,these form the powder which collects on a sheet of paper upon which a mature ,mushroom is allowed to rest for a day or two4 7,fig4 #eha-ehf47 #eag4 ,the esculent ,morel1 also ,sphaeria 7,fig4 #ehe1 #ehf71 and many other ,fungi bear their spores in sacs 7asci7 exactly in the manner of ,lichens 7#eae74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eha4 ,agaricus campestris1 the common edible ,mushroom4 #ehb4 ,section of cap and stalk4 #ehc4 ,minute portion of a section of a gill1 showing some spore-bearing cells1 much magnified4 #ehd4 ,one of these1 with its four spores1 more magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ehe4 ,sphaeria rosella4 #ehf4 ,two of the asci and contained double spores1 quite like those of a ,lichen2 much magnified4 #eah4 ,of the ,moulds1 one of the commoner is the ,bread-,mould 7,fig4 #ehg74 ,in fruiting it sends up a slender stalk1 which bears a globular sac2 this bursts at maturity and discharges innumerable spores4 ,the blue ,cheese-,mould 7,fig4 #ehh7 bears a cluster of branches at top1 each of which is a row of naked spores1 like a string of beads1 all breaking apart at maturity4 ,botrytis 7,fig4 #ehi71 the fruiting stalk of which branches1 and each branch is tipped with a spore1 is one of the many moulds which live and feed upon the juices of other plants or of animals1 and are often very destructive4 ,the extremely numerous kinds of smut1 rust1 mildew1 the ferments1 bacteria1 and the like1 many of them very destructive to other vegetable and to animal life1 are also low forms of the class of ,fungi4#a ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ehg4 ,ascophora1 the ,bread-,mould4 #ehh4 ,aspergillus glaucus1 the mould of cheese1 but common on mouldy vegetables4 #ehi4 ,a species of ,botrytis4 ,all magnified4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the ,introduction to ,cryptogamous ,botany1 or third volume of ,the ,botanical ,text ,book1 now in preparation by the author's colleague1 ,professor ,farlow1 will be the proper guide in the study of the ,flowerless ,plants1 especially of the ,algae and ,fungi4 ,,section ,,xviii4 ,,classification ,,and ,,nomenclature4 #eai4 ,classification1 in botany1 is the consideration of plants in respect to their kinds and relationships4 ,some system of ,nomenclature1 or naming1 is necessary for fixing and expressing botanical knowledge so as to make it available4 ,the vast multiplicity of plants and the various degrees of their relationship imperatively require order and system1 not only as to names for designating the kinds of plants1 but also as to terms for defining their differences4 ,nomenclature is concerned with the names of plants4 ,terminology supplies names of organs or parts1 and terms to designate their differences4 ,sec4 #a4 ,,kinds ,,and ,,relationship4 #ebj4 ,plants and animals have two great peculiarities3 #ast1 they form themselves2 and #b;d1 they multiply themselves4 ,they reproduce their kind in a continued succession of #eba4 ,individuals4 ,mineral things occur as masses1 which are divisible into smaller and still smaller ones without alteration of properties4 ,but organic things 7vegetables and animals7 exist as individual beings4 ,each owes its existence to a parent1 and produces similar individuals in its turn4 ,so each individual is a link of a chain2 and to this chain the natural-historian applies the name of #ebb4 ,species4 ,all the descendants from the same stock therefore compose one species4 ,and it was from our observing that the several sorts of plants or animals steadily reproduce themselves1 or1 in other words1 keep up a succession of similar individuals1 that the idea of species originated4 ,there are few species1 however1 in which man has actually observed the succession for many generations4 ,it could seldom be proved that all the ,white ,pine trees or ,white ,oaks of any forest came from the same stock4 ,but observation having familiarized us with the general fact that individuals proceeding from the same stock are essentially alike1 we infer from their close resemblance that these similar individuals belong to the same species4 ,that is1 we infer it when the individuals are as much like each other as those are which we know1 or confidently suppose1 to have sprung from the same stock4 #ebc4 ,identity in species is inferred from close similarity in all essential respects1 or whenever the differences1 however considerable1 are not known or reasonably supposed to have been originated in the course of time under changed conditions4 ,no two individuals are exactly alike2 a tendency to variation pervades all living things4 ,in cultivation1 where variations are looked after and cared for1 very striking differences come to light2 and if in wild nature they are less common or less conspicuous1 it is partly because they are uncared for4 ,when such variant forms are pretty well marked they are called #ebd4 ,varieties4 ,the ,white ,oak1 for example1 presents two or three varieties in the shape of the leaves1 although they may be all alike upon each particular tree4 ,the question often arises1 and it is often hard to answer1 whether the difference in a particular case is that of a variety1 or is specific4 ,if the former1 it may commonly be proved by finding such intermediate degrees of difference in various individuals as to show that no clear distinction can be drawn between them2 or else by observing the variety to vary back again in some of its offspring4 ,the sorts of ,apples1 ,pears1 ,potatoes1 and the like1 show that differences which are permanent in the individual1 and continue unchanged through a long series of generations when propagated by division 7as by offsets1 cuttings1 grafts1 bulbs1 tubers1 etc471 are not likely to be reproduced by seed4 ,still they sometimes are so1 and perhaps always tend in that direction4 ,for the fundamental law in organic nature is that offspring shall be like parent4 ,,races are such strongly marked varieties1 capable of coming true to seed4 ,the different sorts of ,wheat1 ,maize1 ,peas1 ,radishes1 etc41 are familiar examples4 ,by selecting those individuals of a species which have developed or inherited any desirable peculiarity1 keeping them from mingling with their less promising brethren1 and selecting again the most promising plants raised from their seeds1 the cultivator may in a few generations render almost any variety transmissible by seed1 so long as it is cared for and kept apart4 ,in fact1 this is the way the cultivated domesticated races1 so useful to man1 have been fixed and preserved4 ,races1 in fact1 can hardly1 if at all1 be said to exist independently of man4 ,but man does not really produce them4 ,such peculiarities--often surprising enough--now and then originate1 we know not how 7the plant sports1 as the gardeners say72 they are only preserved1 propagated1 and generally further developed1 by the cultivator's skilful care4 ,if left alone1 they are likely to dwindle and perish1 or else revert to the original form of the species4 ,vegetable races are commonly annuals1 which can be kept up only by seed1 or herbs of which a succession of generations can be had every year or two1 and so the education by selection be completed without great lapse of time4 ,but all fruit-trees could probably be fixed into races in an equal number of generations4 ,,bud-,,varieties are those which spring from buds instead of seed4 ,they are uncommon to any marked extent4 ,they are sometimes called ,sports1 but this name is equally applied to variations among seedlings4 ,,cross-,,breeds1 strictly so-called1 are the variations which come from cross-fertilizing one variety of a species with another4 ,,hybrids are the varieties1 if they may be so called1--which come from the crossing of species 7#cca74 ,only nearly related species can be hybridized2 and the resulting progeny is usually self-sterile1 but not always4 ,hybrid plants1 however1 may often be fertilized and made prolific by the pollen of one or the other parent4 ,this produces another kind of cross-breeds4 #ebe4 ,species are the units in classification4 ,varieties1 although of utmost importance in cultivation and of considerable consequence in the flora of any country1 are of less botanical significance4 ,for they are apt to be indefinite and to shade off one form into another4 ,but species1 the botanist expects to be distinct4 ,indeed1 the practical difference to the botanist between species and varieties is the definite limitation of the one and the indefiniteness of the other4 ,the botanist's determination is partly a matter of observation1 partly of judgment4 #ebf4 ,in an enlarged view1 varieties may be incipient species2 and nearly related species probably came from a common stock in earlier times4 ,for there is every reason to believe that existing vegetation came from the more or less changed vegetation of a preceding geological era4 ,however that may be1 species are regarded as permanent and essentially unchanged in their succession of individuals through the actual ages4 #ebg4 ,there are1 at nearly the lowest computation1 as many as one hundred thousand species of phanerogamous plants1 and the cryptogamous species are thought to be still more numerous4 ,they are all connected by resemblances or relationships1 near and remote1 which show that they are all parts of one system1 realizations in nature1 as we may affirm1 of the conception of ,one ,mind4 ,as we survey them1 they do not form a single and connected chain1 stretching from the lowest to the highest organized species1 although there obviously are lower and higher grades4 ,but the species throughout group themselves1 as it were1 into clusters or constellations1 and these into still more comprehensive clusters1 and so on1 with gaps between4 ,it is this clustering which is the ground of the recognition of kinds of species1 that is1 of groups of species of successive grades or degree of generality2 such as that of similar species into ,genera1 of genera into ,families or ,orders1 of orders into ,classes4 ,in classification the sequence1 proceeding from higher or more general to lower or special1 is always ,,class1 ,,order1 ,,genus1 ,,species1 ,,variety 7if need be74 #ebh4 ,genera 7in the singular1 ,genus7 are assemblages of closely related species1 in which the essential parts are all constructed on the same particular type or plan4 ,white ,oak1 ,red ,oak1 ,scarlet ,oak1 ,live ,oak1 etc41 are so many species of the ,oak genus 7,latin1 ,quercus74 ,the ,chestnuts compose another genus2 the ,beeches another4 ,the ,apple1 ,pear1 and ,crab are species of one genus1 the ,quince represents another1 the various species of ,hawthorn a third4 ,in the animal kingdom the common cat1 the wild-cat1 the panther1 the tiger1 the leopard1 and the lion are species of the cat kind or genus2 while the dog1 the jackal1 the different species of wolf1 and the foxes1 compose another genus4 ,some genera are represented by a vast number of species1 others by few1 very many by only one known species4 ,for the genus may be as perfectly represented in one species as in several1 although1 if this were the case throughout1 genera and species would of course be identical4 ,the ,beech genus and the ,chestnut genus would be just as distinct from the ,oak genus even if but one ,beech and ,chestnut were known2 as indeed was once the case4 #ebi4 ,orders are groups of genera that resemble each other2 that is1 they are to genera what genera are to species4 ,as familiar illustrations1 the ,oak1 ,chestnut1 and ,beech genera1 along with the ,hazel genus and the ,hornbeams1 all belong to one order4 ,the ,birches and the ,alders make another2 the ,poplars and ,willows1 another2 the ,walnuts 7with the ,butternut7 and the ,hickories1 still another4 ,the ,apple genus1 the ,quince and the ,hawthorns1 along with the ,plums and ,cherries and the ,peach1 the ,raspberry with the ,blackberry1 the ,strawberry1 the ,rose1 belong to a large order1 which takes its name from the ,rose4 ,most botanists use the names ,order and ,family synonymously2 the latter more popularly1 as the ,rose ,family1 the former more technically1 as ,order ,rosaceae4 #ecj4 ,but when the two are distinguished1 as is common in zoology1 ,family is of lower grade than ,order4 #eca4 ,classes are still more comprehensive assemblages1 or great groups4 ,thus1 in modern botany1 the ,dicotyledonous plants compose one class1 the ,monocotyledonous plants another 7#cf-dj74 #ecb4 ,these four grades1 ,class1 ,order1 ,genus1 ,species1 are of universal use4 ,variety comes in upon occasion4 ,for1 although a species may have no recognized varieties1 a genus implies at least one species belonging to it2 every genus is of some order1 and every order of some class4 #ecc4 ,but these grades by no means exhaust the resources of classification1 nor suffice for the elucidation of all the distinctions which botanists recognize4 ,in the first place1 a higher grade than that of class is needful for the most comprehensive of divisions1 that of all plants into the two ,series of ,phanerogamous and ,cryptogamous 7#f72 and in natural history there are the two ,kingdoms or ,realms1 the ,vegetable and the ,animal4 #ecd4 ,moreover1 the stages of the scaffolding have been variously extended1 as required1 by the recognition of assemblages lower than class but higher than order1 viz4 ,subclass and ,cohort2 or lower than order1 a ,suborder2 or between this and genus1 a ,tribe2 or between this and tribe1 a ,subtribe2 or between genus and species1 a ,subgenus2 and by some a species has been divided into ,subspecies1 and a variety into ,subvarieties4 ,last of all are ,individuals4 ,suffice it to remember that the following are the principal grades in classification1 with the proper sequence2 also that only those here printed in small capitals are fundamental and universal in botany3-- ,,series1 ,,class1 ,subclass1 ,cohort1 ,,order1 or ,,family1 ,suborder1 ,tribe1 ,subtribe1 ,,genus1 ,subgenus or ,section1 ,,species1 ,variety4 ,sec4 #b4 ,,names1 ,,terms1 ,,and ,,characters4 #ece4 ,the name of a plant is the name of its genus followed by that of the species4 ,the name of the genus answers to the surname 7or family name72 that of the species to the baptismal name of a person4 ,thus ,quercus is the name of the ,oak genus2 ,quercus alba1 that of the ,white ,oak1 ,q4 rubra1 that of ,red ,oak1 ,q4 nigra1 that of the ,black-,jack1 etc4 ,botanical names being ,latin or ,latinized1 the adjective name of the species comes after that of the genus4 #ecf4 ,names of ,genera are of one word1 a substantive4 ,the older ones are mostly classical ,latin1 or ,greek adopted into ,latin2 such as ,quercus for the ,oak genus1 ,fagus for the ,beech1 ,corylus1 the ,hazel1 and the like4 ,but as more genera became known1 botanists had new names to make or borrow4 ,many are named from some appearance or property of the flowers1 leaves1 or other parts of the plant4 ,to take a few examples from the early pages of the ,manual of the ,botany of the ,northern ,united ,states1--the genus ,hepatica comes from the shape of the leaf1 resembling that of the liver4 ,myosurus means mouse-tail4 ,delphinium is from delphin1 a dolphin1 and alludes to the shape of the flower1 which was thought to resemble the classical figures of the dolphin4 ,xanthorrhiza is from two ,greek words meaning yellow-root1 the common name of the plant4 ,cimicifuga is formed of two ,latin words meaning to drive away bugs1 i4 e4 ,bugbane1 the ,siberian species being used to keep away such vermin4 ,sanguinaria1 the ,bloodroot1 is named from the blood-like color of its juice4 ,other genera are dedicated to distinguished botanists or promoters of science1 and bear their names3 such are ,magnolia1 which commemorates the early ,french botanist1 ,magnol2 and ,jeffersonia1 named after ,president ,jefferson1 who sent the first exploring expedition over the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,others bear the name of the discoverer of the plant2 as1 ,sarracenia1 dedicated to ,dr4 ,sarrazin1 of ,quebec1 who was one of the first to send the common ,pitcher-plant to the botanists of ,europe2 and ,claytonia1 first made known by the early ,virginian botanist ,clayton4 #ecg4 ,names of ,species4 ,the name of a species is also a single word1 appended to that of the genus4 ,it is commonly an adjective1 and therefore agrees with the generic name in case1 gender1 etc4 ,sometimes it relates to the country the species inhabits2 as1 ,claytonia ,virginica1 first made known from ,virginia2 ,sanguinaria ,canadensis1 from ,canada1 etc4 ,more commonly it denotes some obvious or characteristic trait of the species2 as1 for example1 in ,sarracenia1 our northern species is named purpurea1 from the purple blossoms1 while a more southern one is named flava1 because its petals are yellow2 the species of ,jeffersonia is called diphylla1 meaning two-leaved1 because its leaf is divided into two leaflets4 ,some species are named after the discoverer1 or in compliment to a botanist who has made them known2 as1 ,magnolia ,fraseri1 named after the botanist ,fraser1 one of the first to find this species2 and ,sarracenia ,drummondii1 for a ,pitcher-plant found by ,mr4 ,drummond in ,florida4 ,such personal specific names are of course written with a capital initial letter4 ,occasionally some old substantive name is used for the species2 as ,magnolia ,umbrella1 the ,umbrella tree1 and ,ranunculus ,flammula4 ,these are also written with a capital initial1 and need not accord with the generic name in gender4 ,geographical specific names1 such as ,canadensis1 ,caroliniana1 ,americana1 in the later usage are by some written without a capital initial1 but the older usage is better1 or at least more accordant with ,english orthography4 #ech4 ,varietal ,names1 when any are required1 are made on the plan of specific names1 and follow these1 with the prefix var4 ,ranunculus ,flammula1 var4 reptans1 the creeping variety3 ,r4 abortivus1 var4 micranthus1 the small-flowered variety of the species4 #eci4 ,in recording the name of a plant it is usual to append the name1 or an abbreviation of the name1 of the botanist who first published it2 and in a flora or other systematic work1 this reference to the source of the name is completed by a further citation of the name of the book1 the volume and page where it was first published4 ,so ,ranunculus acris1 ,l41 means that this ,buttercup was first so named and described by ,linnaeus2 ,r4 multifidus1 ,pursh1 that this species was so named and published by ,pursh4 ,the suffix is no part of the name1 but is an abbreviated reference1 to be added or omitted as convenience or definiteness may require4 ,the authority for a generic name is similarly recorded4 ,thus1 ,ranunculus1 ,l41 means that the genus was so named by ,linnaeus2 ,myosurus1 ,dill41 that the ,mouse-tail was established as a genus under this name by ,dillenius2 ,caulophyllum1 ,michx41 that the ,blue ,cohosh was published under this name by ,michaux4 ,the full reference in the last-named instance would be1 in ,flora ,boreali-,americana1 first volume1 #bjeth page1--in the customary abbreviation1 ,michx4 ,fl4 i4 #bje4 #edj4 ,names of ,orders are given in the plural number1 and are commonly formed by prolonging the name of a genus of the group taken as a representative of it4 ,for example1 the order of which the ,buttercup or ,crowfoot genus1 ,ranunculus1 is the representative1 takes from it the name of ,ranunculaceae2 meaning ,plantae ,ranunculaceae when written out in full1 that is1 ,ranunculaceous ,plants4 ,some old descriptive names of orders are kept up1 such as ,cruciferae for the order to which ,cress and ,mustard belong1 from the cruciform appearance of their expanded corolla1 and ,umbelliferae1 from the flowers being in umbels4 #eda4 ,names of ,tribes1 also of suborders1 subtribes1 and the like1 are plurals of the name of the typical genus1 less prolonged1 usually in eae1 ineae1 ideae1 etc4 ,thus the proper ,buttercup tribe is ,ranunculeae1 of the ,clematis tribe1 ,clematideae4 ,while the ,rose family is ,rosaceae1 the special ,rose tribe is ,roseae4 #edb4 ,names of ,classes1 etc4 ,for these see the following synopsis of the actual classification adopted1 p4 #ahc4 #edc4 ,so a plant is named in two words1 the generic and the specific names1 to which may be added a third1 that of the variety1 upon occasion4 ,the generic name is peculiar3 obviously it must not be used twice over in botany4 ,the specific name must not be used twice over in the same genus1 but is free for any other genus4 ,a ,quercus alba1 or ,white ,oak1 is no hindrance to ,betula alba1 or ,white ,birch2 and so of other names4 #edd4 ,characters and ,descriptions4 ,plants are characterized by a terse statement1 in botanical terms1 of their peculiarities or distinguishing marks4 ,the character of the order should include nothing which is common to the whole class it belongs to2 that of the genus1 nothing which is common to the order2 that of the species nothing which is shared with all other species of the genus2 and so of other divisions4 ,descriptions may enter into complete details of the whole structure4 #ede4 ,terminology1 also called ,glossology1 is nomenclature applied to organs or parts1 and their forms or modifications4 ,each organ or special part has a substantive name of its own3 shapes and other modifications of an organ or part are designated by adjective terms1 or1 when the forms are peculiar1 substantive names are given to them4 ,by the correct use of such botanical terms1 and by proper subordination of the characters under the order1 genus1 species1 etc41 plants may be described and determined with much precision4 ,the classical language of botany is ,latin4 ,while modern languages have their own names and terms1 these usually lack the precision of the ,latin or ,latinized botanical terminology4 ,fortunately1 this ,latinized terminology has been largely adopted and incorporated into the ,english technical language of botany1 thus securing precision4 ,and these terms are largely the basis of specific names of plants4 #edf4 ,a glossary or vocabulary of the principal botanical terms used in phanerogamous and vascular cryptogamous botany is appended to this volume1 to which the student may refer1 as occasion arises4 ,sec4 #c4 ,,system4 #edg4 ,two systems of classification used to be recognized in botany1--the artificial and the natural2 but only the latter is now thought to deserve the name of a system4 #edh4 ,artificial classifications have for object merely the ascertaining of the name and place of a plant4 ,they do not attempt to express relationships1 but serve as a kind of dictionary4 ,they distribute the genera and species according to some one peculiarity or set of peculiarities 7just as a dictionary distributes words according to their first letters71 disregarding all other considerations4 ,at present an artificial classification in botany is needed only as a key to the natural orders1--as an aid in referring an unknown plant to its proper family2 and such keys are still very needful1 at least for the beginner4 ,formerly1 when the orders themselves were not clearly made out1 an artificial classification was required to lead the student down to the genus4 ,two such classifications were long in vogue3 ,first1 that of ,tournefort1 founded mainly on the leaves of the flower1 the calyx and corolla3 this was the prevalent system throughout the first half of the eighteenth century2 but it has long since gone by4 ,it was succeeded by the well-known #edi4 ,artificial ,system of ,linnaeus1 which was founded on the stamens and pistils4 ,it consists of twenty-four classes1 and of a variable number of orders2 the classes founded mainly on the number and disposition of the stamens2 the orders partly upon the number of styles or stigmas1 partly upon other considerations4 ,useful and popular as this system was down to a time within the memory of still surviving botanists1 it is now completely obsolete4 ,but the tradition of it survives in the names of its classes1 ,monandria1 ,diandria1 ,triandria1 etc41 which are familiar in terminology in the adjective terms monandrous1 diandrous1 triandrous1 etc4 7#bhd72 also of the orders1 ,monogynia1 ,digynia1 ,trigynia1 etc41 preserved in the form of monogynous1 digynous1 trigynous1 etc4 7#cja72 and in the name ,cryptogamia1 that of the #bdth class1 which is continued for the lower series in the natural classification4 #eej4 ,natural ,system4 ,a genuine system of botany consists of the orders or families1 duly arranged under their classes1 and having the tribes1 the genera1 and the species arranged in them according to their relationships4 ,this1 when properly carried out1 is the ,natural ,system2 because it is intended to express1 as well as possible1 the various degrees of relationship among plants1 as presented in nature2 that is1 to rank those species and those genera1 etc41 next to each other in the classification which are really most alike in all respects1 or1 in other words1 which are constructed most nearly on the same particular plan4 #eea4 ,there can be only one natural system of botany1 if by this term is meant the plan according to which the vegetable creation was called into being1 with all its grades and diversities among the species1 as well of past as of the present time4 ,but there may be many natural systems1 if we mean the attempts of men to interpret and express that plan1--systems which will vary with advancing knowledge1 and with the judgment and skill of different botanists4 ,these must all be very imperfect1 bear the impress of individual minds1 and be shaped by the current philosophy of the age4 ,but the endeavor always is to make the classification answer to ,nature1 as far as any system can which has to be expressed in a definite and serial arrangement4 #eeb4 ,so1 although the classes1 orders1 genera1 etc41 are natural1 or as natural as the systematist can make them1 their grouping or order of arrangement in a book1 must necessarily be in great measure artificial4 ,indeed1 it is quite impossible to arrange the orders1 or even the few classes1 in a single series1 and yet have each group stand next to its nearest relatives on both sides4 #eec4 ,especially it should be understood that1 although phanerogamous plants are of higher grade than cryptogamous1 and angiospermous or ordinary phanerogamous higher than the gymnospermous1 yet there is no culmination in the vegetable kingdom1 nor any highest or lowest order of phanerogamous plants4 #eed4 ,the particular system most largely used at present in the classification of the orders is essentially the following3-- ,,series ,i4 ,,phanerogamia3 ,,phanerogamous ,,or ,,flowering ,,plants4 ,,class ,i4 ,,dicotyledones ,,angiospermeae1 called for shortness in ,english1 ,,dicotyledons or ,,dicotyls4 ,ovules in a closed ovary4 ,embryo dicotyledonous4 ,stem with exogenous plan of growth4 ,leaves reticulate-veined1 ,artificial ,division ,i4 ,,polypetalae1 with petals mostly present and distinct4 ,orders about #hj in number1 ,ranunculaceae to ,cornaceae4 ,artificial ,division ,,ii4 ,,gamopetalae1 with gamopetalous corolla4 ,orders about #de1 ,caprifoliaceae to ,plantaginaceae4 ,artificial ,division ,,iii4 ,,apetalae or ,,incompletae1 with perianth1 when present1 of calyx only4 ,orders about #ce in number1 from ,nyctaginaceae to ,salicaceae4 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,dicotyledones ,,gymnospermeae1 in ,english ,,gymnosperms4 ,no ovary or pericarp1 but ovules and seeds naked1 and no proper calyx nor corolla4 ,embryo dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous4 ,stem with exogenous plan of growth4 ,leaves mostly parallel-veined4 ,consists of order ,gnetaceae1 which strictly connects with ,angiospermous ,dicotyls1 of ,coniferae1 and of ,cycadaceae4 ,,class ,,iii4 ,,monocotyledones1 in ,english ,,monocotyledons or ,,monocotyls4 ,angiospermous4 ,embryo monocotyledonous4 ,stem with endogenous plan of growth4 ,leaves mostly parallel-veined4 ,division ,i4 ,,petaloideae4 ,perianth complete1 having the equivalent of both calyx and corolla1 and all the inner series corolline4 ,about #ah orders4 ,division ,,ii4 ,,calycinae4 ,perianth complete 7in two series7 but not corolline1 mostly thickish or glumaceous4 ,chiefly two orders1 ,juncaceae1 the true ,rushes1 and ,palmae1 ,palms4 ,division ,,iii4 ,,spadiciflorae or ,,nudiflorae4 ,perianth none1 or rudimentary and incomplete3 inflorescence spadiceous4 ,of five orders1 ,typhaceae and ,aroideae the principal4 ,division ,,iv4 ,,glumaceae4 ,perianth none1 or very rudimentary3 glumaceous bracts to the flowers4 ,orders mainly ,cyperaceae and ,gramineae4 ,,series ,,ii4 ,,cryptogamia3 ,,cryptogamous ,,or ,,flowerless ,,plants4 ,,class ,i4 ,,pteridophyta1 ,,pteridophytes 7#dhd74 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,bryophyta1 ,,bryophytes 7#dih74 ,,class ,,iii4 ,,thallophyta1 ,,thallophytes 7#ejc74 ,,section ,,xix4 ,,botanical ,,work4 #eee4 ,some hints and brief instructions for the collection1 examination1 and preservation of specimens are added4 ,they are especially intended for the assistance of those who have not the advantage of a teacher4 ,they apply to phanerogamous plants and ,ferns only1 and to systematic botany4#a ,sec4 #a4 ,,collection1 ,,or ,,herborization4 #eef4 ,as much as possible1 plants should be examined in the living state1 or when freshly gathered4 ,but dried specimens should be prepared for more leisurely examination and for comparison4 ,to the working botanist good dried specimens are indispensable4 #eeg4 ,botanical ,specimens1 to be complete1 should have root or rootstock1 stem1 leaves1 flowers1 both open and in bud1 and fruit4 ,sometimes these may all be obtained at one gathering2 more commonly two or three gatherings at different times are requisite1 especially for trees and shrubs4 #eeh4 ,in ,herborizing1 a good knife and a narrow and strong trowel are needed2 but a very strong knife will serve instead of a trowel or small pick for digging out bulbs1 tubers1 and the like4 ,to carry the specimens1 either the tin box 7vasculum7 or a portfolio1 or both are required4 ,the tin box is best for the collection of specimens to be used fresh1 as in the class-room2 also for very thick or fleshy plants4 ,the portfolio is indispensable for long expeditions1 and is best for specimens which are to be preserved in the herbarium4 #eei4 ,the ,vasculum1 or ,botanical ,collecting-box1 is made of tin1 in shape like a candle-box1 only flatter1 or the smaller sizes like an ,english sandwich-case2 the lid opening for nearly the whole length of one side of the box4 ,any portable tin box of convenient size1 and capable of holding specimens a foot or fifteen inches long1 will answer the purpose4 ,the box should shut close1 so that the specimens may not wilt3 then it will keep leafy branches and most flowers perfectly fresh for a day or two1 especially if slightly moistened4 ,they should not be wet4 #efj4 ,the ,portfolio is best made of two pieces of solid binder's-board1 covered with enamel cloth1 which also forms the back1 and fastened by straps and buckles4 ,it may be from a foot to twenty inches long1 from nine to eleven or twelve inches wide4 ,it should contain a needful quantity of smooth but strong and pliable paper 7thin so-called ,manilla paper is best71 either fastened at the back as in a book1 or loose in folded sheets when not very many specimens are required4 ,as soon as gathered1 the specimens should be separately laid between the leaves or in the folded sheets1 and kept under moderate pressure in the closed portfolio4 #efa4 ,of small herbs1 especially annuals1 the whole plant1 root and all1 should be taken for a specimen4 ,of larger ones branches will suffice1 with some leaves from near the root4 ,enough of the root or subterranean part of the plant should be collected to show whether it is an annual1 a biennial1 or a perennial4 ,thick roots1 bulbs1 tubers1 or branches of specimens intended to be pressed should be thinned with a knife1 or cut into slices4 ,keep the specimens within the length of fifteen or sixteen inches1 by folding1 or when that cannot be done1 by cutting into lengths4 #efb4 ,for ,drying ,specimens a good supply of soft and unsized paper is wanted2 and some convenient means of applying considerable pressure4 ,to make good dried botanical specimens1 dry them as rapidly as possible between many thicknesses of sun-dried paper to absorb their moisture1 under as much pressure as can be given without crushing the more delicate parts4 ,this pressure may be had by a botanical press1 of which various forms have been contrived2 or by weights placed upon a board1--from forty to eighty or a hundred pounds1 according to the quantity of specimens drying at the time4 ,for use while travelling1 a good portable press may be made of thick binders' boards for the sides1 and the pressure may be applied by strong straps with buckles4 ,still better1 on some accounts1 are portable presses made of wire network1 which allow the dampness to escape by evaporation between the meshes4 ,for herborization in a small way1 a light wire-press may be taken into the field and made to serve also as a portfolio4 #efc4 ,it is well to have two kinds of paper1 namely1 driers of bibulous paper1 stitched into pads 7or the pads may be of thick carpet-paper1 cut to size7 and thin smooth paper1 folded once2 the specimens to be laid into the fold1 either when gathered or on returning from the excursion4 ,these sheets are to hold the specimens until they are quite dry4 ,every day1 or at first even twice a day1 the specimens1 left undisturbed in their sheets1 are to be shifted into fire-dried or sun-dried fresh driers1 and the pressure renewed1 while the moist sheets are spread out to dry1 so as to take their turn again at the next shifting4 ,this course must be continued until the specimens are no longer moist to the touch4 ,good and comely specimens are either made or spoiled within the first twenty-four or thirty-six hours4 ,after that1 when plenty of driers are used1 it may not be necessary to change them so frequently4 #efd4 ,succulent plants1 which long refuse to part with life and moisture1 and ,spruces and some other evergreens which are apt to cast off their leaves1 may be plunged for a moment into boiling water1 all but the flowers4 ,delicate flowers may be encased in thin tissue paper when put into the press4 ,thick parts1 like the heads of ,sunflowers and ,thistles1 may be cut in two or into slices4 #efe4 ,dried specimens may be packed in bundles1 either in folded paper or upon single half-sheets4 ,it is better that such paper should not be bibulous4 ,the packages should be well wrapped or kept in close cases4 #eff4 ,poisoning is necessary if specimens are to be permanently preserved from the depredation of insects4 ,the usual application is an almost saturated solution of corrosive sublimate in #ie per cent alcohol1 freely applied with a large and soft brush1 or the specimens dipped into some of the solution poured into a large and flat dish2 the wetted specimens to be transferred for a short time to driers4 ,sec4 #b4 ,,herbarium4 #efg4 ,the botanist's collection of dried specimens1 ticketed with their names1 place1 and time of collection1 and systematically arranged under their genera1 orders1 etc41 forms a ,hortus ,siccus or ,herbarium4 ,it comprises not only the specimens which the proprietor has himself collected1 but those which he acquires through friendly exchanges1 or in other ways4 ,the specimens of an herbarium may be kept in folded sheets of paper2 or they may be fastened on half-sheets of thick and white paper1 either by gummed slips1 or by glue applied to the specimens themselves4 ,the former is best for private and small herbaria2 the latter for large ones which are much turned over4 ,each sheet should be appropriated to one species2 two or more different plants should never be attached to the same sheet4 ,the generic and specific name of the plant should be added to the lower right-hand corner1 either written on the sheet1 or on a ticket pasted down2 and the time of collection1 the locality1 the color of the flowers1 and any other information which the specimens themselves do not afford1 should be duly recorded upon the sheet or the ticket4 ,the sheets of the herbarium should all be of exactly the same dimensions4 ,the herbarium of ,linnaeus is on paper of the common foolscap size1 about eleven inches long and seven wide4 ,this is too small4 ,sixteen and three eighths inches by eleven and a half inches is an approved size4 #efh4 ,the sheets containing the species of each genus are to be placed in genus-covers1 made of a full sheet of thick paper 7such as the strongest ,manilla-hemp paper71 to be when folded of the same dimensions as the species-sheet but slightly wider3 the name of the genus is to be written on one of the lower corners4 ,these are to be arranged under the orders to which they belong1 and the whole kept in closed cases or cabinets1 either laid flat in compartments1 like pigeon-holes1 or else placed in thick portfolios1 arranged like folio volumes4 ,all should be kept1 as much as practicable1 in dust-proof and insect-proof cases or boxes4 #efi4 ,fruits1 tubers1 and other hard parts1 too thick for the herbarium1 may be kept in pasteboard or light wooden boxes1 in a collection apart4 ,small loose fruits1 seeds1 detached flowers1 and the like may be conveniently preserved in paper capsules or envelopes1 attached to the herbarium-sheets4 ,sec4 #c4 ,,investigation ,,and ,,determination ,,of ,,plants4 #egj4 ,the ,implements required are a hand magnifying glass1 a pocket lens of an inch or two focus1 or a glass of two lenses1 one of the lower and the other of the higher power2 and a sharp penknife for dissection4 ,with these and reasonable perseverance the structure of the flowers and fructification of most phanerogamous plants and ,ferns can be made out4 ,but for ease and comfort1 as well as for certainty and right training1 the student should have some kind of simple stage microscope1 and under this make all dissections of small parts4 ,without it the student will be apt to fall into the bad habit of guessing where he ought to ascertain4 #ega4 ,the simple microscope may be reduced to a good lens or doublet1 of an inch focus1 mounted over a glass stage1 so that it can be moved up and down and also sidewise1 and with 7or without7 a little mirror underneath4 ,a better one would have one or two additional lenses 7say of half and of a quarter inch focus71 a pretty large stage1 on the glass of which several small objects can be placed and conveniently brought under the lens2 and its height or that of the lens should be adjustable by a rack-work2 also a swivel-mounted little mirror beneath1 which is needed for minute objects to be viewed by transmitted light4 #egb4 ,for dissecting and displaying small parts on the stage of the microscope1 besides a thin-bladed knife1 the only tools needed are a good stock of common needles of various sizes1 mounted in handles1 and one or more saddler's-needles1 which1 being triangular1 may be ground to sharp edges convenient for dissection4 ,also a pair of delicate-pointed forceps2 those with curved points used by the dentist are most convenient4 ,a cup of clean water is indispensable1 with which to moisten or wet1 or in which occasionally to float delicate parts4 ,small flowers1 buds1 fruits1 and seeds of dried specimens can be dissected quite as well as fresh ones4 ,they have only to be soaked in warm or boiling water4 #egc4 ,the compound microscope is rarely necessary except in cryptogamic botany and vegetable anatomy2 but it is very useful and convenient1 especially for the examination of pollen4 ,to the advanced botanist it is a necessity1 to all students of botany an aid and delight4 #egd4 ,analysis4 ,a few directions and hints may be given4 ,the most important is this3 ,in studying an unknown plant1 make a complete examination of all its parts1 and form a clear idea of its floral structure and that of its fruit1 from pericarp down to the embryo1 or as far as the materials in hand allow1 before taking a step toward finding out its name and relationship by means of the keys or other helps which the ,manuals and ,floras provide4 ,if it is the name merely that is wanted1 the shorter way is to ask some one who already knows it4 ,to verify the points of structure one by one as they happen to occur in an artificial key1 without any preparatory investigation1 is a usual but is not the best nor the surest way4 ,it is well to make drawings or outline sketches of the smaller parts1 and especially diagrams of the plan of the flower1 such as those of ,fig4 #bbe1 #bbg1 #bda1 #bdd1 #bge-bgg4 ,for these1 cross sections of the flower-bud or flower are to be made3 and longitudinal sections1 such as ,fig4 #bgj-bgd1 are equally important4 ,the dissection even of small seeds is not difficult after some practice4 ,commonly they need to be soaked or boiled4 #ege4 ,the right appreciation of characters and terms used in description needs practice and calls for judgment4 ,plants do not grow exactly by rule and plummet1 and measurements must be taken loosely4 ,difference of soil and situation are responded to by considerable variations1 and other divergences occur which cannot be accounted for by the surroundings1 nor be anticipated in general descriptions4 ,annuals may be very depauperate in dry soils or seasons1 or very large when particularly well nourished4 ,warm and arid situations promote1 and wet ones are apt to diminish pubescence4 ,salt water causes increased succulence4 ,the color of flowers is apt to be lighter in shade1 and brighter in open and elevated situations4 ,a color or hue not normal to the species now and then occurs1 which nothing in the conditions will account for4 ,a white-flowered variation of any other colored blossom may always be expected2 this1 though it may be notable1 no more indicates a distinct variety of the species than an albino would a variety of the human species4 ,the numerical plan is subject to variation in some flowers2 those on the plan of five may now and then vary to four or to six4 ,variations of the outline or lobing of leaves are so familiar that they do not much mislead4 ,only wider and longer observation suffices to prevent or correct mistakes in botanical study4 ,but the weighing of evidence and the balancing of probabilities1 no less than the use of the well-ordered and logical system of classification1 give as excellent training to the judgment as the search for the facts themselves does to the observing powers4 ,sec4 #d4 ,,signs ,,and ,,abbreviations4 #egf4 ,for a full account of these1 whether of former or actual use1 see ,structural ,botany of the ,botanical ,text ,book1 pp4 #cfg1 #cib1 as also for the principles which govern the accentuation of names4 ,it is needful here to explain only those used in the ,manuals and ,floras of this country1 for which the present volume is an introduction and companion4 ,they are not numerous4 #egg4 ,in arranging the species1 at least those of a large genus1 the divisions are denoted and graduated as follows3 ,the sign ,sec4 is prefixed to sections of the highest rank3 these sections when they have names affixed to them 7as ,prunus ,sec4 ,cerasus7 may be called subgenera4 ,when the divisions of a genus are not of such importance1 or when divisions are made under the subgenus itself1 the most comprehensive ones are marked by asterisks1 99 for the first1 99 99 for the second1 and so on4 ,subdivisions are marked with a prefixed 2 those under this head with 2 and those under this with 1 if there be so many grades4 ,a similar notation is followed in the synopsis of the genera of an order4 #egh4 ,the interrogation point is used in botany to indicate doubt4 ,thus ,clematis crispa1 ,l48 expresses a doubt whether the plant in question is really the ,clematis crispa of ,linnaeus4 ,clematis8 polypetala expresses a doubt whether the plant so named is really a ,clematis4 ,on the other hand the exclamation point 767 is used to denote certainty whenever there is special need to affirm this4 #egi4 ,for size or height1 the common signs of degrees1 minutes1 and seconds1 have been used1 thus1 #a deg41 #b'1 #c1 stand respectively for a foot1 two inches1 and three lines or twelfths of an inch4 ,a better way1 when such brevity is needed1 is to write #a;ft4 #b;in4 #cl4 #ehj4 ,signs for duration used by ,linnaeus were ,symbol for ,sun for an annual1 ,symbol for ,mars for a biennial1 ,symbol for ,jupiter for a perennial herb1 ,symbol like numeral #e without the top bar for a shrub or tree4 ,de,candolle brought in ,symbol for ,sun for a plant that died after once flowering1 ,symbol with numeral #a in a circle if annual1 ,symbol with numeral #b in a circle if biennial4 #eha4 ,to indicate sexes1 ,symbol for ,male means staminate or male plant or blossom2 ,symbol for ,female1 pistillate or female2 ,symbol like that for ,mercury1 but with two inverted breve accents over it1 perfect or hermaphrodite4 #ehb4 ,to save room it is not uncommon to use ,symbol for infinity in place of many2 thus1 ,stamens ,symbol for infinity1 for stamens indefinitely numerous3 ,symbol for infinity flora for pluriflora or many-flowered4 ,still more common is the form ,stamens #e-bj1 or ,calyx #d-e-parted1 for stamens from five to twenty1 calyx four-parted or five-parted1 and the like4 ,such abbreviations hardly need explanation4 #ehc4 ,the same may be said of such abbreviations as ,cal4 for calyx1 ,cor4 for corolla1 ,pet4 for petals1 ,st4 for stamens1 ,pist4 for pistil1 ,hab4 for habitat1 meaning place of growth1 ,herb4 for herbarium1 ,hort4 for garden4 ,also l4 c41 loco citato1 which avoids repetition of volume and page4 #ehd4 ,structural ,botany has six pages of abbreviations of the names of botanists1 mostly of botanical authors4 ,as they are not of much consequence to the beginner1 while the more advanced botanist will know the names in full1 or know where to find them1 only a selection is here appended4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,for fuller directions in many particulars1 see ,structural ,botany1 pp4 #cgj-cgd4 ,,abbreviations ,,of ,,the ,,names ,,of ,,botanists4 ,adans4 ,adanson4 ,ait4 ,aiton4 ,all4 ,allioni4 ,andr4 ,andrews4 ,arn4 ,arnott4 ,aub4 ,aublet4 ,bartr4 ,bartram4 ,beauv4 ,palisot de ,beauvois4 ,benth4 ,bentham4 ,bernh4 ,bernhardi4 ,bigel4 ,jacob ,bigelow4 ,bong4 ,bongard4 ,bonpl4 ,bonpland4 ,br4 or ,r4 ,br4 ,robert ,brown4 ,cass4 ,cassini4 ,cav4 ,cavanilles4 ,cham4 ,chamisso4 ,chapm4 ,chapman4 ,chois4 ,choisy4 ,clayt4 ,clayton4 ,curt4 ,curtis4 ,curt4 7,m4 ,a47 ,m4 ,a4 ,curtis4 ,darl4 ,darlington4 ,,dc4 ,de,candolle4 ,de,cand4 ,a4 ,,dc4 ,alphonse ,de,candolle4 ,desc4 ,descourtilz4 ,desf4 ,desfontaines4 ,desv4 ,desvaux4 ,dill4 ,dillenius4 ,dougl4 ,douglas4 ,duham4 ,duhamel4 ,dun4 ,dunal4 ,eat4 ,eaton 7,amos7 or ,d4 ,c4 ,ehrh4 ,ehrhart4 ,ell4 ,elliott4 ,endl4 ,endlicher4 ,engelm4 ,engelmann4 ,engl4 ,engler4 ,fisch4 ,fischer4 ,froel4 ,froelich4 ,gaertn4 ,gaertner4 ,gaud4 ,gaudin4 ,gaudich4 ,gaudichaud4 ,ging4 ,gingins4 ,gmel4 ,gmelin4 ,good4 ,goodenough4 ,grev4 ,greville4 ,griseb4 ,grisebach4 ,gron4 ,gronovius4 ,gronov4 ,hall4 ,haller4 ,hartm4 ,hartmann4 ,hartw4 ,hartweg4 ,harv4 ,harvey4 ,haw4 ,haworth4 ,hegelm4 ,hegelmaier4 ,hemsl4 ,hemsley4 ,herb4 ,herbert4 ,hoffm4 ,hoffmann4 ,hoffmans4 ,hoffmansegg4 ,hook4 ,hooker4 ,hook4 f4 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker4 ,hornem4 ,hornemann4 ,huds4 ,hudson4 ,humb4 ,humboldt4 ,,hbk4 ,humboldt1 ,bonpland1 and ,kunth4 ,jacq4 ,jacquin4 ,jacq4 f4 ,j4 ,f4 ,jacquin4 ,juss4 ,jussieu4 ,a4 ,juss4 ,adrien de ,jussieu4 ,kit4 ,kitaibel4 ,l4 or ,linn4 ,linnaeus4 ,labill4 ,labillardiere4 ,lag4 ,lagasca4 ,lam4 ,lamarck4 ,ledeb4 ,ledebour4 ,lehm4 ,lehmann4 ,lesq4 ,lesquereux4 ,less4 ,lessing4 ,lestib4 ,lestibudois4 ,l',her4 ,l',heritier4 ,lindb4 ,lindberg4 ,lindh4 ,lindheimer4 ,lindl4 ,lindley4 ,lodd4 ,loddiges4 ,loud4 ,loudon4 ,m4 ,bieb4 ,marschall von ,bieberstein4 ,marsh4 ,marshall 7,humphrey74 ,mart4 ,martius4 ,mast4 ,masters4 ,maxim4 ,maximowicz4 ,meisn4 ,meisner or ,meissn4 ,meissner4 ,michx4 or ,mx4 ,michaux4 ,michx4 f4 ,f4 ,a4 ,michaux4 ,mill4 ,miller4 ,miq4 ,miquel4 ,mitch4 ,mitchell4 ,moc4 ,mocino4 ,moq4 ,moquin-,tandon4 ,moric4 ,moricand4 ,moris4 ,morison4 ,muell4 ,arg4 ,j4 ,mueller4 ,muell4 7,f47 ,ferdinand ,mueller4 ,muhl4 ,muhlenberg4 ,murr4 ,murray4 ,naud4 ,naudin4 ,neck4 ,necker4 ,nees ,nees von ,esenbeck4 ,n4 ab ,e4 ,nutt4 ,nuttall4 ,oed4 ,oeder4 ,ort4 ,ortega4 ,p4 de ,beauv4 ,palisot de ,beauvois4 ,pall4 ,pallas4 ,parl4 ,parlatore4 ,pav4 ,pavon4 ,pers4 ,persoon4 ,planch4 ,planchon4 ,pluk4 ,plukenet4 ,plum4 ,plumier4 ,poir4 ,poiret4 ,radlk4 ,radlkofer4 ,raf4 ,rafinesque4 ,red4 ,redoute4 ,reichenb4 ,reichenbach4 ,rich4 ,l4 ,c4 ,richard4 ,rich4 f4 or ,a4 ,achille ,richard4 ,richards4 ,richardson4 ,ridd4 ,riddell4 ,roem4 ,schult4 ,roemer ,schultes4 ,rottb4 ,rottboell4 ,rupr4 ,ruprecht4 ,st4 ,hil4 ,saint-,hilaire4 ,salisb4 ,salisbury4 ,schk4 ,schkuhr4 ,schlecht4 ,schlechtendal4 ,schrad4 ,schrader4 ,schreb4 ,schreber4 ,schwein4 ,schweinitz4 ,scop4 ,scopoli4 ,spreng4 ,sprengel4 ,sternb4 ,sternberg4 ,steud4 ,steudel4 ,sull4 ,sullivant4 ,thunb4 ,thunberg4 ,torr4 ,torrey4 ,tourn4 ,tournefort4 ,trautv4 ,trautvetter4 ,trin4 ,trinius4 ,tuck4 ,tuckerman4 ,vaill4 ,vaillant4 ,vent4 ,ventenat4 ,vill4 ,villars4 ,wahl4 ,wahlenberg4 ,walds4 ,waldstein4 ,wall4 ,wallich4 ,wallr4 ,wallroth4 ,walp4 ,walpers4 ,walt4 ,walter4 ,wang4 ,wangenheim4 ,wats4 ,sereno ,watson1 unless other initials are given4 ,wedd4 ,weddell4 ,wendl4 ,wendland4 ,wiks4 ,wikstrom4 ,willd4 ,willdenow4 ,wulf4 ,wulfen4 ,zucc4 ,zuccarini4 ,zuccag4 ,zuccagini4 ,,glossary ,,and ,,index1 ,,or ,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,terms ,,in ,,descriptive ,,botany1 ,,combined ,,with ,,an ,,index4 ,for the convenience of unclassical students1 the commoner ,latin and ,greek words 7or their equivalents in ,english form7 which enter into the composition of botanical names1 as well as of technical terms1 are added to this ,glossary4 ,the numbers refer to pages4 ,a1 at the beginning of words of ,greek derivation1 commonly signifies a negative1 or the absence of something2 as apetalous1 without petals2 aphyllous1 leafless1 c4 ,in words beginning with a vowel1 the prefix is an2 as anantherous1 destitute of anther4 ,abnormal1 contrary to the usual or the natural structure4 ,aboriginal1 original in the strictest sense2 same as indigenous4 ,abortive1 imperfectly formed1 or rudimentary4 ,abortion1 the imperfect formation or the non-formation of some part4 ,abrupt1 suddenly terminating2 as1 for instance1 ,abruptly pinnate1 pinnate without an odd leaflet at the end1 #eh4 ,acantho-1 spiny4 ,acaulescent 7acaulis71 apparently stemless2 the proper stem1 bearing the leaves and flowers1 being very short or subterranean4 ,accessory1 something additional2 as ,accessory buds1 #cj1 #ca2 ,accessory fruits1 #aah4 ,accrescent1 growing larger after flowering4 ,accrete1 grown to4 ,accumbent1 lying against a thing4 ,the cotyledons are accumbent when they lie with their edges against the radicle1 #abh4 ,acephalous1 headless4 ,acerose1 needle-shaped1 as the leaves of ,pines4 ,acetabuliform1 saucer-shaped4 ,achaenium1 or ,achenium 7plural achenia71 a one-seeded1 seed-like fruit1 #abj4 ,achlamydeous 7flower71 without floral envelopes1 #hf4 ,acicular1 needle-shaped2 more slender than acerose4 ,acinaciform1 scimitar-shaped1 like some bean-pods4 ,acines1 the separate grains of a fruit1 such as the raspberry4 ,acorn1 the nut of the ,oak1 #abb4 ,acotyledonous1 destitute of cotyledons or seed-leaves4 ,acrogenous1 growing from the apex1 as the stems of ,ferns and ,mosses4 ,acrogens1 or ,acrogenous ,plants1 a name for the vascular cryptogamous plants1 #aef4 ,aculeate1 armed with prickles1 i4 e4 aculei2 as the ,rose and ,brier4 ,aculeolate1 armed with small prickles1 or slightly prickly4 ,acuminate1 taper-pointed1 #ed4 ,acute1 merely sharp-pointed1 or ending in a point less than a right angle1 #ed4 ,adelphous 7stamens71 joined in a fraternity 7adelphia72 see monadelphous1 c4 ,aden1 ,greek for gland4 ,so ,adenophorous1 gland-bearing4 ,adherent1 sticking to1 or more commonly1 growing fast to another body4 ,adnate1 literally1 growing fast to1 born adherent1 #ie4 ,the anther is adnate when fixed by its whole length to the filament or its prolongation1 #aja4 ,adnation1 the state of being adnate1 #id4 ,adpressed or appressed1 brought into contact with1 but not united4 ,adscendent1 ascendent1 or ascending1 rising gradually upwards1 #ci4 ,adsurgent1 or assurgent1 same as ascending1 #ci4 ,adventitious1 out of the proper or usual place2 e4 g4 ,adventitious buds1 #cj4 ,adventive1 applied to foreign plants accidentally or sparingly introduced into a country1 but hardly to be called naturalized4 ,a,equilateral1 equal-sided2 opposed to oblique4 ,aerial roots1 c41 #cf4 ,a,eruginous1 verdigris-colored4 ,a,estival1 produced in summer4 ,a,estivation1 the arrangement of parts in a flower-bud1 #ig4 ,agamous1 sexless4 ,aggregate fruits1 #aah4 ,agrestis1 growing in fields4 ,air-cells or ,air-passages1 spaces in the tissue of leaves and some stems1 #aca4 ,air-,plants1 #cf4 ,akene or ,akenium1 #abj4 ,ala 7plural1 alae71 a wing2 the side-petals of a papilionaceous corolla1 #ib4 ,alabastrum1 a flower-bud4 ,alar1 situated in the forks of a stem4 ,alate1 winged4 ,albescent1 whitish1 or turning white4 ,albus1 ,latin for white4 ,albumen of the seed1 nourishing matter stored up with the embryo1 #ba1 #abg4 ,albumen1 a vegetable product1 of four elements4 ,albuminous 7seeds71 furnished with albumen1 #ba4 ,alburnum1 young wood1 sap-wood1 #adb4 ,alliaceous1 with odor of garlic4 ,allogamous1 close fertilization4 ,alpestrine1 subalpine4 ,alpine1 belonging to high mountains above the limit of forests4 ,alternate 7leaves71 one after another1 #bi1 #fg4 ,petals are alternate with the sepals1 or stamens with the petals1 when they stand over the intervals between them1 #hb4 ,alveolate1 honeycomb-like4 ,ament1 the scaly spike of trees like the ,birch and ,willow1 #ge4 ,amentaceous1 catkin-like1 or catkin-bearing4 ,amorphous1 shapeless1 without any definite form4 ,amphicarpous1 producing two kinds of fruit4 ,amphigastrium 7plural1 amphigastria71 a peculiar stipule-like leaf of ,liverworts4 ,amphitropous ovules or seeds1 #aaa4 ,amphora1 a pitcher-shaped organ4 ,amplectant1 embracing4 ,amplexicaul 7leaves71 clasping the stem by the base4 ,ampullaceous1 swelling out like a bottle or bladder 7ampulla74 ,amylaceous1 ,amyloid1 composed of starch 7amylum71 or starch-like4 ,anandrous1 without stamens4 ,anantherous1 without anthers4 ,ananthous1 destitute of flowers2 flowerless4 ,anastomosing1 forming a net-work 7anastomosis71 as the veins of leaves1 #ej4 ,anatropous ovules or seeds1 #aaa4 ,ancipital 7anceps71 two-edged4 ,androecium1 a name for the stamens taken together1 #ih4 ,andro-dioecious1 flowers staminate on one plant1 perfect on another4 ,androgynous1 having both staminate and pistillate flowers in the same cluster4 ,androphore1 a column of united stamens1 as in a ,mallow4 ,androus1 or ,ander1 andra1 andrum1 ,greek in compounds for male1 or stamens4 ,anemophilous1 wind-loving1 said of wind-fertilizable flowers1 #aac4 ,anfractuose1 bent hither and thither as the anthers of the ,squash1 c4 ,angiospermae1 ,angiospermous1 with seeds formed in an ovary or pericarp1 #aji4 ,angular divergence of leaves1 #fi4 ,anisos1 unequal4 ,anisomerous1 parts unequal in number4 ,anisopetalous1 with unequal petals4 ,anisophyllous1 the leaves unequal in the pairs4 ,annual 7plant71 flowering and fruiting the year it is raised from the seed1 and then dying1 #cg4 ,annular1 in the form of a ring1 or forming a circle4 ,annulate1 marked by rings2 or furnished with an ,annulus1 or ring1 like that of the spore-case of most ,ferns4 ,in ,mosses it is a ring of cells placed between the mouth of the spore-case and the lid in many species4 ,annotinous1 yearly1 or in yearly growths4 ,anterior1 in the blossom1 is the part next the bract1 i4 e4 external2 while the posterior side is that next the axis of inflorescence4 ,thus1 in the ,pea1 c41 the keel is anterior1 and the standard posterior1 #if4 ,anthela1 an open paniculate cyme4 ,anther1 the essential part of the stamen1 which contains the pollen1 #ad1 #hj1 #aja4 ,antheridium 7plural antheridia71 the organ in ,cryptogams which answers to the anther of ,flowering ,plants1 #aej4 ,antheriferous1 anther-bearing4 ,anthesis1 the period or the act of the expansion of a flower4 ,anthocarpus 7fruits71 #aah4 ,anthophore1 a stipe between calyx and corolla1 #aac4 ,anthos1 ,greek for flower2 in composition1 ,monanthous1 one-flowered1 c4 ,anticous1 same as anterior4 ,antrorse1 directed upwards or forwards4 ,apetalous1 destitute of petals1 #hf4 ,aphyllous1 leafless4 ,apical1 belonging to the apex or point4 ,apiculate1 pointleted2 tipped with a small point4 ,apocarpous 7pistils71 when the several pistils of the same flower are separate4 ,apophysis1 any irregular swelling2 the enlargement at the base of the spore-case of the ,umbrella-,moss4 ,apothecium1 the fructification of ,lichens1 #aga4 ,appendage1 any superadded part4 ,appendiculate1 provided with appendages4 ,appressed1 close pressed to the stem1 c4 ,apricus1 growing in dry and sunny places4 ,apterous1 wingless4 ,aquatic 7,aquatilis71 living or growing in water2 applied to plants whether growing under water1 or with all but the base raised out of it4 ,arachnoid1 ,araneose1 cobwebby2 clothed with1 or consisting of1 soft downy fibres4 ,arboreous1 ,arborescent1 tree-like1 in size or form1 #ci4 ,arboretum1 a collection of trees4 ,archegonium 7plural archegonia71 the organ in ,mosses1 c41 which is analogous to the pistil of ,flowering ,plants4 ,arcuate1 bent or curved like a bow4 ,arenose 7,arenarius71 growing in sand4 ,areolate1 marked out into little spaces or areolae4 ,argenteous1 or ,argentate1 silvery-like4 ,argillose1 growing in clay4 ,argos1 ,greek for pure white2 ,argophyllous or ,argyrophyllous1 white-leaved1 c4 ,argutus1 acutely dentate4 ,arillate 7seeds7 furnished with an aril4 ,arilliform1 aril-like4 ,arillus1 or ,aril1 a fleshy growth from base of a seed1 #abf4 ,aristate1 awned1 i4 e4 furnished with an arista1 like the beard of ,barley1 c41 #ed4 ,aristulate1 diminutive of the last2 short-awned4 ,arrect1 brought into upright position4 ,arrow-shaped or ,arrow-headed1 same as sagittate1 #ec4 ,articulated1 jointed2 furnished with joints or articulations1 where it separates or inclines to do so4 ,articulated leaves1 #eg4 ,artificial ,classification1 #aha4 ,ascending 7stems1 c471 #ci2 7seeds or ovules71 #aaj4 ,ascidium1 a pitcher-shaped body1 like leaves of ,sarracenia4 ,ascus 7asci71 a sac1 the spore-case of ,lichens and some ,fungi4 ,aspergilliform1 shaped like the brush used to sprinkle holy water2 as the stigmas of many ,grasses4 ,asperous1 rough to touch4 ,assimilation1 #add1 #adg4 ,assurgent1 same as ascending1 #ci4 ,atropous or ,atropal 7ovules71 same as orthotropous4 ,aurantiacous1 orange-colored4 ,aureous1 golden4 ,auriculate1 furnished with auricles or ear-like appendages1 #ec4 ,autogamy1 self-fertilization1 #aae4 ,awl-shaped1 sharp-pointed from a broader base1 #fa4 ,awn1 the bristle or beard of ,barley1 ,oats1 c42 or any similar appendage4 ,awned or ,awn-pointed1 furnished with an awn or long bristle-shaped tip1 #ed4 ,axil1 the angle on the upper side between a leaf and the stem1 #ac4 ,axile1 belonging to the axis1 or occupying the axis4 ,axillary 7buds1 c471 occurring in an axil1 #bg4 ,axis1 the central line of any body2 the organ round which others are attached2 the root and stem4 ,ascending and ,descending ,axis1 #ch4 ,baccate1 berried1 berry-like1 of a pulpy nature like a berry 7bacca74 ,badius1 chestnut-colored4 ,banner1 see ,standard1 #ib4 ,barbate1 bearded2 bearing tufts1 spots1 or lines of hairs4 ,barbed1 furnished with a barb or double hook2 as the apex of the bristle on the fruit of ,echinospermum 7,stickseed71 c4 ,barbellate1 said of the bristles of the pappus of some ,compositae when beset with short1 stiff hairs1 longer than when denticulate1 but shorter than when plumose4 ,barbellulate1 diminutive of barbellate4 ,bark1 the covering of a stem outside of the wood1 #ach1 #adj4 ,basal1 belonging or attached to the ,base1 that extremity of any organ by which it is attached to its support4 ,basifixed1 attached by its base4 ,bast1 ,bast-fibres1 #acd4 ,beaked1 ending in a prolonged narrow tip4 ,bearded1 see barbate4 ,beard is sometimes used for awn1 more commonly for long or stiff hairs of any sort4 ,bell-shaped1 of the shape of a bell1 as the corolla of ,harebell1 #ij4 ,berry1 a fruit pulpy or juicy throughout1 as a grape1 #aai4 ,bi- 7or ,bis71 in compound words1 twice2 as ,biarticulate1 twice-jointed1 or two-jointed2 separating into two pieces4 ,biauriculate1 having two ears1 as the leaf in fig4 #abf4 ,bicallose1 having two callosities or harder spots4 ,bicarinate1 two-keeled4 ,bicipital 7,biceps71 two-headed2 dividing into two parts4 ,biconjugate1 twice paired1 as when a petiole forks twice4 ,bidentate1 having two teeth 7not twice or doubly dentate74 ,biennial1 of two years' continuance2 springing from the seed one season1 flowering and dying the next1 #ch4 ,bifarious1 two-ranked2 arranged in two rows4 ,bifid1 two-cleft to about the middle4 ,bifoliolate1 a compound leaf of two leaflets1 #ei4 ,bifurcate1 twice forked2 or more commonly1 forked into two branches4 ,bijugate1 bearing two pairs 7of leaflets1 c474 ,bilabiate1 two-lipped1 as the corolla of ,labiatae4 ,bilamellate1 of two plates 7lamellae71 as the stigma of ,mimulus4 ,bilobed1 the same as two-lobed4 ,bilocellate1 when a cell is divided into two locelli4 ,bilocular1 two-celled2 as most anthers1 the pod of ,foxglove1 c4 ,binary1 in twos4 ,binate1 in couples1 two together4 ,bipartite1 the ,latin form of two-parted4 ,binodal1 of two nodes4 ,binomial1 of two words1 as the name of genus and species taken together1 #ahj4 ,bipalmate1 twice palmately divided4 ,biparous1 bearing two4 ,bipinnate 7leaf71 twice pinnate1 #eh4 ,bipinnatifid1 twice pinnatifid1 #eg4 ,bipinnatisect1 twice pinnately divided4 ,biplicate1 twice folded together4 ,biserial1 or ,biseriate1 occupying two rows1 one within the other4 ,biserrate1 doubly serrate1 as when the teeth of a leaf are themselves serrate4 ,bisexual1 having both stamens and pistil4 ,biternate1 twice ternate2 i4 e4 principal divisions three1 each bearing three leaflets1 #ei4 ,bladdery1 thin and inflated4 ,blade of a leaf1 its expanded portion1 #di4 ,bloom1 the whitish powder on some fruits1 leaves1 c4 ,boat-shaped1 concave within and keeled without1 in shape like a small boat4 ,border of corolla1 c41 #hi4 ,brachiate1 with opposite branches at right angles to each other4 ,brachy-1 short1 as ,brachycarpous1 short-fruited1 c4 ,bract 7,bractea71 the leaf of an inflorescence4 ,specially1 the bract is the small leaf or scale from the axil of which a flower or its pedicel proceeds1 #gc4 ,bracteate1 furnished with bracts4 ,bracteolate1 furnished with bractlets4 ,bracteose1 with numerous or conspicuous bracts4 ,bractlet 7,bracteola71 or ,bracteole1 is a bract seated on the pedicel or flower-stalk1 #gc4 ,branch1 ,branching1 #bg4 ,breathing-pores1 #add4 ,bristles1 stiff1 sharp hairs1 or any very slender bodies of similar appearance4 ,bristly1 beset with bristles4 ,bristle-pointed1 #ed4 ,brunneous1 brown4 ,brush-shaped1 see aspergilliform4 ,bryology1 that part of botany which relates to ,mosses4 ,bryophyta1 ,bryophytes1 #afc4 ,bud1 a branch in its earliest or undeveloped state1 #bg4 ,bud-scales1 #fc4 ,bulb1 a leaf-bud with fleshy scales1 usually subterranean1 #df4 ,bulbils1 diminutive bulbs4 ,bulbiferous1 bearing or producing bulbs4 ,bulbose or bulbous1 bulb-like in shape1 c4 ,bulblets1 small bulbs1 borne above ground1 #df4 ,bulb-scales1 #df4 ,bullate1 appearing as if blistered or bladdery 7from bulla1 a bubble74 ,byssaceous1 composed of fine flax-like threads4 ,caducous1 dropping off very early1 compared with other parts2 as the calyx in the ,poppy1 falling when the flower opens4 ,caeruleous1 blue4 ,caerulescent1 becoming bluish4 ,caespitose1 or ,cespitose1 growing in turf-like patches or tufts4 ,calathiform1 cup-shaped4 ,calcarate1 furnished with a spur 7calcar71 #hf1 #hg4 ,calceolate or ,calceiform1 slipper-shaped1 like one petal of the ,lady's ,slipper4 ,callose1 hardened2 or furnished with callosities or thickened spots4 ,calvous1 bald or naked of hairs4 ,calyciflorus1 when petals and stamens are adnate to calyx4 ,calycine1 belonging to the calyx4 ,calyculate1 furnished with an outer accessory calyx 7calyculus7 or set of bracts looking like a calyx1 as in true ,pinks4 ,calyptra1 the hood or veil of the capsule of a ,moss1 #afc4 ,calyptrate1 having a calyptra4 ,calyptriform1 shaped like a calyptra or candle-extinguisher4 ,calyx1 the outer set of the floral envelopes or leaves of the flower1 #ad1 #gi4 ,cambium1 ,cambium-layer1 #adj4 ,campanulate1 bell-shaped1 #ij4 ,campylotropous1 or ,campylotropal1 curved ovules and seeds1 #aaa4 ,campylospermous1 applied to fruits of ,umbelliferae when the seed is curved in at the edges1 forming a groove down the inner face2 as in ,sweet ,cicely4 ,canaliculate1 channelled1 or with a deep longitudinal groove4 ,cancellate1 latticed1 resembling lattice-work4 ,candidus1 ,latin for pure white4 ,canescent1 grayish-white2 hoary1 usually because the surface is covered with fine white hairs4 ,incanous is whiter still4 ,canous1 whitened with pubescence2 see incanous4 ,capillaceous1 ,capillary1 hair-like in shape2 as fine as hair or slender bristles4 ,capitate1 having a globular apex1 like the head on a pin4 ,capitellate1 diminutive of capitate4 ,capitulum1 a close rounded dense cluster or head of sessile flowers1 #gd4 ,capreolate1 bearing tendrils 7from capreolus1 a tendril74 ,capsule1 a dry dehiscent seed-vessel of a compound pistil1 #abb4 ,capsular1 relating to1 or like a capsule4 ,capture of insects1 #aed4 ,carina1 a keel2 the two anterior petals of a papilionaceous flower1 #ib4 ,carinate1 keeled1 furnished with a sharp ridge or projection on the lower side4 ,cariopsis1 or ,caryopsis1 the one-seeded fruit or grain of ,grasses1 #aba4 ,carneous1 flesh-colored2 pale red4 ,carnose1 fleshy in texture4 ,carpel1 or ,carpidium1 a simple pistil or a pistil-leaf1 #ajf4 ,carpellary1 pertaining to a carpel4 ,carpology1 that department of botany which relates to fruits4 ,carpophore1 the stalk or support of a pistil extending between its carpels1 #aac4 ,carpos1 ,greek for fruit4 ,cartilaginous1 or ,cartilagineous1 firm and tough in texture1 like cartilage4 ,caruncle1 an excrescence at the scar of some seeds1 #abf4 ,carunculate1 furnished with a caruncle4 ,caryophyllaceous1 pink-like3 applied to a corolla of #e long-clawed petals4 ,cassideous1 helmet-shaped4 ,cassus1 empty and sterile4 ,catenate1 or ,catenulate1 end to end as in a chain4 ,catkin1 see ,ament1 #ge4 ,caudate1 tailed1 or tail-pointed4 ,caudex1 a sort of trunk1 such as that of ,palms2 an upright rootstock1 #ci1 #dd4 ,caudicle1 the stalk of a pollen-mass1 c4 ,caulescent1 having an obvious stem1 #cf4 ,caulicle1 a little stem1 or rudimentary stem 7of a seedling71 #aa1 #abg4 ,cauline1 of or belonging to a stem1 #cf4 ,caulis1 ,latin name of stem4 ,caulocarpic1 equivalent to perennial4 ,caulome1 the cauline parts of a plant4 ,cell 7diminutive1 ,cellule71 the cavity of an anther1 ovary1 c42 one of the anatomical elements1 #aca4 ,cellular ,cryptogams1 #afb4 ,cellular tissue1 #aca4 ,cellulose1 #aca4 ,cell-walls1 #acj4 ,centrifugal 7inflorescence71 produced or expanding in succession from the centre outwards1 #gg4 ,centripetal1 the opposite of centrifugal1 #gd4 ,cephala1 ,greek for head4 ,in compounds1 ,monocephalous1 with one head1 ,microcephalous1 small-headed1 c4 ,cereal1 belonging to corn1 or corn-plants4 ,cernuous1 nodding2 the summit more or less inclining4 ,chaeta1 ,greek for bristle4 ,chaff1 small membranous scales or bracts on the receptacle of ,compositae2 the glumes1 c41 of grasses4 ,chaffy1 furnished with chaff1 or of the texture of chaff4 ,chalaza1 that part of the ovule where all the parts grow together1 #aaj1 #abf4 ,channelled1 hollowed out like a gutter2 same as canaliculate4 ,character1 a phrase expressing the essential marks of a species1 genus1 c41 #aha4 ,chartaceous1 of the texture of paper or parchment4 ,chloros1 ,greek for green1 whence ,chloranthous1 green-flowered2 ,chlorocarpous1 green-fruited1 c4 ,chlorophyll1 leaf green1 #acf4 ,chlorosis1 a condition in which naturally colored parts turn green4 ,choripetalous1 same as polypetalous4 ,chorisis1 separation of the normally united parts1 or where two or more parts take the place of one4 ,chromule1 coloring matter in plants1 especially when not green1 or when liquid4 ,chrysos1 ,greek for golden yellow1 whence ,chrysanthous1 yellow-flowered1 c4 ,cicatrix1 the scar left by the fall of a leaf or other organ4 ,ciliate1 beset on the margin with a fringe of cilia1 i4 e4 of hairs or bristles1 like the eyelashes fringing the eyelids1 whence the name4 ,cinereous1 or ,cineraceous1 ash-grayish2 of the color of ashes4 ,circinate1 rolled inwards from the top1 #gb4 ,circumscissile1 or ,circumcissile1 divided by a circular line round the sides1 as the pods of ,purslane1 ,plantain1 c41 #abd4 ,circumscription1 general outline4 ,cirrhiferous1 or ,cirrhose1 furnished with a tendril 7,latin1 ,cirrhus72 as the ,grape-vine4 ,cirrhose also means resembling or coiling like tendrils1 as the leaf-stalks of ,virgin's-bower4 ,more properly ,cirrus and ,cirrose4 ,citreous1 lemon-yellow4 ,clados1 ,greek for branch4 ,cladophylla1 #fd4 ,class1 #agh1 #ahc4 ,classification1 #age1 #ahc4 ,clathrate1 latticed2 same as cancellate4 ,clavate1 club-shaped2 slender below and thickened upwards4 ,clavellate1 diminutive of clavate4 ,claviculate1 having ,claviculae1 or little tendrils or hooks4 ,claw1 the narrow or stalk-like base of some petals1 as of ,pinks1 #ia4 ,cleistogamous 7,cleistogamy71 fertilized in closed bud1 #aae4 ,cleft1 cut into lobes1 #ee4 ,close fertilization1 #aae4 ,climbing1 rising by clinging to other objects1 #ci1 #aea4 ,club shaped1 see clavate4 ,clustered1 leaves1 flowers1 c41 aggregated or collected into a bunch4 ,clypeate1 buckler-shaped4 ,coadunate1 same as connate1 i4 e4 united4 ,coalescent1 growing together4 ,coalescence1 #hh4 ,coarctate1 contracted or brought close together4 ,coated1 having an integument1 or covered in layers4 ,coated bulb1 #df4 ,cobwebby1 same as arachnoid2 bearing hairs like cobwebs or gossamer4 ,coccineous1 scarlet-red4 ,coccus 7plural cocci71 anciently a berry2 now mostly used to denote the separable carpels or nutlets of a dry fruit4 ,cochleariform1 spoon-shaped4 ,cochleate1 coiled or shaped like a snail-shell4 ,coelospermous1 applied to those fruits of ,umbelliferae which have the seed hollowed on the inner face1 by incurving of top and bottom2 as in ,coriander4 ,coherent1 usually the same as connate4 ,cohort1 name sometimes used for groups between order and class1 #agh4 ,coleorhiza1 a root-sheath4 ,collateral1 side by side4 ,collective fruits1 #aah4 ,collum or ,collar1 the neck or junction of stem and root4 ,colored1 parts of a plant which are other-colored than green4 ,columella1 the axis to which the carpels of a compound pistil are often attached1 as in ,geranium 7#aab71 or which is left when a pod opens1 as in ,azalea4 ,column1 the united stamens1 as in ,mallow1 or the stamens and pistils united into one body1 as in the ,orchis family4 ,columnar1 shaped like a column or pillar4 ,coma1 a tuft of any sort 7literally1 a head of hair71 #abe4 ,comose1 tufted2 bearing a tuft of hairs1 as the seeds of ,milkweed1 #abf4 ,commissure1 the line of junction of two carpels1 as in the fruit of ,umbelliferae4 ,complanate1 flattened4 ,compound leaf1 #ed1 #eg4 ,compound pistil1 #ajg4 ,compound umbel1 #ge1 c4 ,complete 7flower71 #ha4 ,complicate1 folded upon itself4 ,compressed1 flattened on opposite sides4 ,conceptacle1 #afh4 ,concinnous1 neat4 ,concolor1 all of one color4 ,conchiform1 shell- or half-shell-shaped4 ,conduplicate1 folded upon itself lengthwise1 #ga4 ,cone1 the fruit of the ,pine family1 #abd4 ,coniferous1 cone-bearing4 ,confertus1 much crowded4 ,conferruminate1 stuck together1 as the cotyledons in a horse-chestnut4 ,confluent1 blended together2 or the same as coherent4 ,conformed1 similar to another thing it is associated with or compared to2 or closely fitted to it1 as the skin to the kernel of a seed4 ,congested1 ,conglomerate1 crowded together4 ,conglomerate1 crowded into a glomerule4 ,conjugate1 coupled2 in single pairs4 ,conjugation1 #agj4 ,connate1 united or grown together from the first formation1 #if4 ,connate-perfoliate1 when a pair of leaves are connate round a stem1 #fj4 ,connective1 ,connectivum1 the part of the anther connecting its two cells1 #aja4 ,connivent1 converging1 or brought close together4 ,consolidation 7floral71 #id4 ,consolidated forms of vegetation1 #dg4 ,contents of cells1 #acf4 ,continuous1 the reverse of interrupted or articulated4 ,contorted1 twisted together4 ,contorted aestivation1 same as convolute1 #ig4 ,contortuplicate1 twisted back upon itself4 ,contracted1 either narrowed or shortened4 ,contrary1 turned in opposite direction to the ordinary4 ,convolute1 rolled up lengthwise1 as the leaves of the ,plum in vernation1 #gb4 ,in aestivation1 same as contorted1 #ig4 ,cordate1 heart-shaped1 #ec4 ,coriaceous1 resembling leather in texture4 ,corky1 of the texture of cork4 ,corky layer of bark1 #ada4 ,corm1 a solid bulb1 like that of ,crocus1 #de4 ,corneous1 of the consistence or appearance of horn4 ,corniculate1 furnished with a small horn or spur4 ,cornute1 horned2 bearing a horn-like projection or appendage4 ,corolla1 the leaves of the flower within the calyx1 #ad1 #gi4 ,corollaceous1 ,corolline1 like or belonging to a corolla4 ,corona1 a coronet or crown2 an appendage at the top of the claw of some petals1 #ia4 ,coronate1 crowned2 furnished with a crown4 ,cortex1 bark4 ,cortical1 belonging to the bark 7cortex74 ,corticate1 coated with bark or bark-like covering4 ,corymb1 a flat or convex indeterminate flower-cluster1 #gd4 ,corymbiferous1 bearing corymbs4 ,corymbose1 in corymbs1 approaching the form of a corymb1 or branched in that way4 ,costa1 a rib2 the midrib of a leaf1 c4 ,costate1 ribbed4 ,cotyledons1 the proper leaves of the embryo1 #aa1 #abg4 ,crateriform1 goblet-shaped or deep saucer-shaped4 ,creeping 7stems71 growing flat on or beneath the ground and rooting1 #ci4 ,cremocarp1 a half-fruit1 or one of the two carpels of ,umbelliferae1 #aba4 ,crenate1 or ,crenelled1 the edge scalloped into rounded teeth1 #ee4 ,crenulate1 minutely or slightly crenate4 ,crested1 or ,cristate1 bearing any elevated appendage like a crest4 ,cretaceous1 chalky or chalk-like4 ,cribrose1 or cribriform1 pierced like a sieve with small apertures4 ,crinite1 bearing long hairs4 ,crispate1 curled or crispy4 ,croceous1 saffron-color1 deep reddish-yellow4 ,cross-breeds1 the progeny of interbred varieties1 #agf4 ,cross fertilization1 #aae4 ,crown1 see corona4 ,crowned1 see coronate4 ,cruciate1 or ,cruciform1 cross-shaped4 ,cruciform ,corolla1 #hf4 ,crustaceous1 hard and brittle in texture2 crust-like4 ,cryptogamous ,plants1 ,cryptogams1 #aj1 #aef4 ,cryptos1 concealed1 as ,cryptopetalous1 with concealed petals1 c4 ,crystals in plants1 #acg4 ,cucullate1 hooded1 or hood-shaped1 rolled up like a cornet of paper1 or a hood 7cucullus71 as the spathe of ,indian ,turnip1 #ge4 ,culm1 a straw2 the stem of ,grasses and ,sedges1 #ci4 ,cultrate1 shaped like a trowel or broad knife4 ,cuneate1 ,cuneiform1 wedge-shaped1 #ec4 ,cup-shaped1 same as cyathiform or near it4 ,cupule1 a little cup2 the cup to the acorn of the ,oak1 #abb4 ,cupular1 or ,cupulate1 provided with a cupule4 ,cupuliferous1 cupule-bearing4 ,curviveined1 with curved ribs or veins4 ,curviserial1 in oblique or spiral ranks4 ,cushion1 the enlargement at the insertion or base of a petiole4 ,cuspidate1 tipped with a sharp and stiff point or cusp1 #ed4 ,cut1 same as incised1 or applied generally to any sharp and deep division1 #ee4 ,cuticle1 the skin of plants1 or more strictly its external pellicle4 ,cyaneous1 bright blue4 ,cyathiform1 in the shape of a cup1 or particularly of a wine-glass4 ,cycle1 one complete turn of a spire1 or a circle1 #gj4 ,cyclical1 rolled up circularly1 or coiled into a complete circle4 ,cyclosis1 circulation in closed cells1 #adi4 ,cylindraceous1 approaching to the ,cylindrical form1 terete and not tapering4 ,cymbaeform1 or ,cymbiform1 same as boat-shaped4 ,cyme1 a cluster of centrifugal inflorescence1 #gg4 ,cymose1 furnished with cymes1 or like a cyme4 ,cymule1 a partial or diminutive cyme1 #gg4 ,deca- 7in words of ,greek derivation71 ten2 as ,decagynous1 with #aj pistils or styles1 ,decamerous1 of #aj parts1 ,decandrous1 with #aj stamens1 c4 ,deciduous1 falling off1 or subject to fall2 said of leaves which fall in autumn1 and of a calyx and corolla which fall before the fruit forms4 ,declinate1 declined1 turned to one side1 or downwards4 ,decompound1 several times compounded or divided1 #ei4 ,decumbent1 reclined on the ground1 the summit tending to rise1 #ci4 ,decurrent 7leaves71 prolonged on the stem beneath the insertion1 as in ,thistles4 ,decussate1 arranged in pairs which successively cross each other1 #ga4 ,deduplication1 same as chorisis4 ,definite1 when of a uniform number1 and not above twelve or so4 ,definite ,inflorescence1 #gb4 ,deflexed1 bent downwards4 ,deflorate1 past the flowering state1 as an anther after it has discharged its pollen4 ,dehiscence1 the regular splitting open of capsule or anther1 #ajc1 #aai4 ,dehiscent1 opening by regular dehiscence1 #aai1 #abc4 ,deliquescent1 branching off so that the stem is lost in the branches1 #cb4 ,deltoid1 of a triangular shape1 like the ,greek capital ,delta4 ,demersed1 growing below the surface of water4 ,dendroid1 ,dendritic1 tree-like in form or appearance4 ,dendron1 ,greek for tree4 ,deni1 ten together4 ,dens1 ,latin for tooth4 ,dentate1 toothed1 #ee4 ,denticulate1 furnished with denticulations1 or little teeth4 ,depauperate1 impoverished or starved1 and so below the natural size4 ,depressed1 flattened or as if pressed down from above4 ,derma1 ,greek for skin4 ,descending1 tending gradually downwards4 ,descending axis1 the root4 ,desmos1 ,greek for things connected or bound together4 ,determinate ,inflorescence1 #gb4 ,dextrorse1 turned to the right hand4 ,di- ,dis 7in ,greek compounds7 two1 as ,diadelphous 7stamens71 united by their filaments in two sets1 #ii4 ,diagnosis1 a short distinguishing character or descriptive phrase4 ,dialypetalous1 same as polypetalous4 ,diandrous1 having two stamens1 c4 ,diaphanous1 transparent or translucent4 ,dicarpellary1 of two carpels4 ,dichlamydeous 7flower71 having both calyx and corolla4 ,dichogamous1 ,dichogamy1 #aaf4 ,dichotomous1 two-forked4 ,diclinous1 having the stamens in one flower1 the pistils in another1 #he4 ,dicoccous 7fruit71 splitting into two cocci or closed carpels4 ,dicotyls1 #bc4 ,dicotyledonous 7embryo71 having a pair of cotyledons1 #bc4 ,dicotyledonous ,plants1 #bc1 #ahb4 ,didymous1 twin4 ,didynamous 7stamens71 having four stamens in two pairs1 #ajj4 ,diffuse1 spreading widely and irregularly4 ,digitate 7fingered71 where the leaflets of a compound leaf are all borne on the apex of the petiole1 #eh4 ,digynous 7flower71 having two pistils or styles1 #aje4 ,dimerous1 made up of two parts1 or its organs in twos4 ,dimidiate1 halved2 as where a leaf or leaflet has only one side developed4 ,dimorphism1 #aag4 ,dimorphous1 ,dimorphic1 of two forms1 #aag4 ,dioecious1 or ,dioicous1 with stamens and pistils on different plants1 #he4 ,dipetalous1 of two petals4 ,diphyllous1 two-leaved4 ,dipterous1 two-winged4 ,diplo-1 ,greek for double1 as ,diplostemonous1 with two sets of stamens4 ,disciform or ,disk-shaped1 flat and circular1 like a disk or quoit4 ,discoidal1 or ,discoid1 belonging to or like a disk4 ,discolor1 of two different colors or hues4 ,discrete1 separate1 opposite of concrete4 ,disepalous1 of two sepals4 ,disk1 the face of any flat body2 the central part of a head of flowers1 like the ,sunflower1 or ,coreopsis1 as opposed to the ray or margin2 a fleshy expansion of the receptacle of a flower1 #aac4 ,disk-flowers1 those of the disk in ,compositae4 ,dissected1 cut deeply into many lobes or divisions4 ,dissepiments1 the partitions of a compound ovary or a fruit1 #ajh4 ,dissilient1 bursting in pieces4 ,distichous1 two-ranked4 ,distinct1 uncombined with each other1 #ie4 ,dithecous1 of two thecae or anther-cells4 ,divaricate1 straddling2 very widely divergent4 ,divided 7leaves1 c471 cut into divisions down to the base or midrib1 #ee4 ,dodeca1 ,greek for twelve2 as ,dodecagynous1 with twelve pistils or styles1 ,dodecandrous1 with twelve stamens4 ,dodrans1 span-long4 ,dolabriform1 axe-shaped4 ,dorsal1 pertaining to the back 7dorsum7 of an organ4 ,dorsal ,suture1 #ajf4 ,dotted ,ducts1 #adh4 ,double ,flowers1 where the petals are multiplied unduly1 #gi4 ,downy1 clothed with a coat of soft and short hairs4 ,drupaceous1 like or pertaining to a drupe4 ,drupe1 a stone-fruit1 #abj4 ,drupelet or ,drupel1 a little drupe4 ,ducts1 the so-called vessels of plants1 #acd4 ,dumose1 bushy1 or relating to bushes4 ,duramen1 the heart-wood1 #adb4 ,dwarf1 remarkably low in stature4 ,e-1 as a prefix of ,latin compound words1 means destitute of2 as ecostate1 without a rib or midrib2 exalbuminous1 without albumen1 c4 ,eared1 see auriculate1 #ec4 ,ebracteate1 destitute of bracts4 ,ebracteolate1 destitute of bractlets4 ,eburneous1 ivory-white4 ,echinate1 armed with prickles 7like a hedgehog74 ,echinulate1 a diminutive of it4 ,edentate1 toothless4 ,effete1 past bearing1 c42 said of anthers which have discharged their pollen4 ,effuse1 very loosely branched and spreading4 ,eglandulose1 destitute of glands4 ,elaters1 threads mixed with the spores of ,liverworts1 #afe4 ,ellipsoidal1 approaching an elliptical figure4 ,elliptical1 oval or oblong1 with the ends regularly rounded1 #eb4 ,emarginate1 notched at the summit1 #ed4 ,embryo1 the rudimentary plantlet in a seed1 #aa1 #abg4 ,embryonal1 belonging or relating to the embryo4 ,embryo-sac1 #aag4 ,emersed1 raised out of water4 ,endecagynous1 with eleven pistils or styles4 ,endecandrous1 with eleven stamens4 ,endemic1 peculiar to the country geographically4 ,endocarp1 the inner layer of a pericarp or fruit1 #abj4 ,endochrome1 the coloring matter of ,algae and the like4 ,endogenous ,stems1 #ach4 ,endogenous plants1 an old name for monocotyledons4 ,endopleura1 inner seed-coat4 ,endorhizal1 radicle or root sheathed in germination4 ,endosperm1 the albumen of a seed1 #ba4 ,endostome1 the orifice in the inner coat of an ovule4 ,ennea-1 nine4 ,enneagynous1 with nine petals or styles4 ,enneandrous1 nine-stamened4 ,ensate1 ,ensiform1 sword-shaped4 ,entire1 the margins not at all toothed1 notched1 or divided1 but even1 #ee4 ,entomophilous1 said of flowers frequented and fertilized by insects1 #aac4 ,ephemeral1 lasting for a day or less1 as the corolla of ,purslane1 c4 ,epi-1 ,greek for upon4 ,epicalyx1 such an involucel as that of ,malvaceae4 ,epicarp1 the outermost layer of a fruit1 #abj4 ,epidermal1 relating to the ,epidermis1 or skin of a plant1 #ej1 #ada1 #adc4 ,epigaeous1 growing on the earth1 or close to the ground4 ,epigynous1 upon the ovary1 #ie1 #ii4 ,epipetalous1 borne on the petals or the corolla1 #ii4 ,epiphyllous1 borne on a leaf4 ,epiphyte1 a plant growing on another plant1 but not nourished by it1 #cf4 ,epiphytic or ,epiphytal1 relating to ,epiphytes4 ,epipterous1 winged at top4 ,episperm1 the skin or coat of a seed1 especially the outer coat4 ,equal1 alike in number or length4 ,equally pinnate1 same as abruptly pinnate1 #eg4 ,equitant 7riding straddle71 #fj4 ,erion1 ,greek for wool4 ,erianthous1 woolly-flowered4 ,eriophorous1 wool-bearing1 c4 ,erose1 eroded1 as if gnawed4 ,erostrate1 not beaked4 ,erythros1 ,greek for red4 ,erythrocarpous1 red-fruited1 c4 ,essential ,organs of the flower1 #hj4 ,estivation1 see aestivation4 ,etiolated1 blanched by excluding the light1 as the stalks of ,celery4 ,eu1 ,greek prefix1 meaning very1 or much4 ,evergreen1 holding the leaves over winter and until new ones appear1 or longer4 ,ex1 ,latin prefix2 privative in place of e when next letter is a vowel4 ,so ,exalate1 wingless2 ,exalbuminous 7seed71 without albumen1 #ba4 ,excurrent1 running out1 as when a midrib projects beyond the apex of a leaf1 or a trunk is continued to the very top of a tree1 #cb4 ,exiguous1 puny4 ,exilis1 lank or meagre4 ,eximius1 distinguished for size or beauty4 ,exo-1 in ,greek compounds1 outward1 as in ,exocarp1 outer layer of a pericarp1 #abj4 ,exogenous1 outward growing4 ,exogenous stems1 #aci4 ,exorhizal1 radicle in germination not sheathed4 ,exostome1 the orifice in the outer coat of the ovule4 ,explanate1 spread or flattened out4 ,exserted1 protruding out of1 as the stamens out of the corolla4 ,exstipulate1 destitute of stipules4 ,extine1 outer coat of a pollen-grain4 ,extra-axillary1 said of a branch or bud somewhat out of the axil1 #ca4 ,extrorse1 turned outwards2 the anther is extrorse when fastened to the filament on the side next the pistil1 and opening on the outer side1 #aja4 ,falcate1 scythe-shaped2 a flat body curved1 its edges parallel4 ,false ,racemes1 #gh4 ,family1 in botany same as ,order1 #agg4 ,farina1 meal or starchy matter1 #acf4 ,farinaceous1 mealy in texture4 ,farinose1 covered with a mealy powder4 ,fasciate1 banded2 also applied to monstrous stems which grow flat4 ,fascicle1 a close cluster1 #gg4 ,fascicled1 ,fasciculated1 growing in a bundle or tuft1 as the leaves of ,larch1 #fh1 and roots of ,peony1 #ce4 ,fastigiate1 close1 parallel1 and upright1 as the branches of ,lombardy ,poplar4 ,faux 7plural1 fauces71 the throat of a calyx1 corolla1 c41 #hi4 ,faveolate1 ,favose1 honeycombed2 same as alveolate4 ,feather-veined1 with veins of a leaf all springing from the sides of a midrib1 #ea4 ,fecula or ,faecula1 starch1 #acf4 ,female flower or plant1 one bearing pistils only4 ,fenestrate1 pierced with one or more large holes1 like windows4 ,ferrugineous1 or ,ferruginous1 resembling iron-rust2 red-grayish4 ,fertile1 fruit-bearing1 or capable of it2 also said of anthers producing good pollen4 ,fertilization1 the process by which pollen causes the embryo to be formed1 #aad4 ,fibre 7woody71 #acc4 ,fibrous1 containing much fibre1 or composed of fibres4 ,fibrillose1 formed of small fibres1 or ,fibrillae4 ,fibro-vascular bundle or tissue1 formed of fibres and vessels4 ,fiddle-shaped1 obovate with a deep recess on each side4 ,fidus1 ,latin suffix for cleft1 as ,bifid1 two-cleft4 ,filament1 the stalk of a stamen1 #ad1 #hj1 #aja2 also any slender thread-shaped body4 ,filamentose1 or ,filamentous1 bearing or formed of slender threads4 ,filiform1 thread-shaped2 long1 slender1 and cylindrical4 ,fimbriate1 fringed2 furnished with fringes 7fimbriae74 ,fimbrillate1 ,fimbrilliferous1 bearing small fimbriae1 i4 e4 fimbrillae4 ,fissiparous1 multiplying by division of one body into two4 ,fissus1 ,latin for split or divided4 ,fistular1 or ,fistulose1 hollow and cylindrical1 as the leaves of the ,onion4 ,flabelliform1 or ,flabellate1 fan-shaped4 ,flagellate1 or ,flagelliform1 long1 narrow1 and flexible1 like the thong of a whip2 or like the runners 7flagellae7 of the ,strawberry4 ,flavescent1 yellowish1 or turning yellow4 ,flavus1 ,latin for yellow4 ,fleshy1 composed of firm pulp or flesh4 ,flexuose1 or ,flexuous1 bending in opposite directions1 in a zigzag way4 ,floating1 swimming on the surface of water4 ,floccose1 composed of or bearing tufts of woolly or long and soft hairs4 ,flora 7the goddess of flowers71 the plants of a country or district1 taken together1 or a work systematically describing them1 #i4 ,floral ,envelopes1 or ,flower-leaves1 #gi4 ,floret1 a diminutive flower1 one of a mass or cluster4 ,floribund1 abundantly floriferous4 ,florula1 the flora of a small district4 ,flos1 floris1 ,latin for flower4 ,flosculus1 diminutive1 same as floret4 ,flower1 the whole organs of reproduction of ,phaenogamous plants1 #ad1 #gb4 ,flower-bud1 an unopened flower4 ,flowering ,plants1 #aj1 #aef4 ,flowerless ,plants1 #aj1 #aef4 ,fly-trap leaves1 #fe4 ,fluitans1 ,latin for floating4 ,fluviatile1 belonging to a river or stream4 ,foliaceous1 belonging to1 or of the texture or nature of1 a leaf 7folium74 ,foliate1 provided with leaves4 ,latin prefixes denote the number of leaves1 as bifoliate1 trifoliate1 c4 ,foliose1 leafy2 abounding in leaves4 ,foliolate1 relating to or bearing leaflets 7foliola72 trifoliolate1 with three leaflets1 c4 ,folium 7plural1 folia71 ,latin for leaf4 ,follicle1 a simple pod1 opening down the inner suture1 #abb4 ,follicular1 resembling or belonging to a follicle4 ,food of ,plants1 #add4 ,foot-stalk1 either petiole or peduncle1 #di4 ,foramen1 a hole or orifice1 as that of the ovule1 #aaj4 ,foraminose1 ,foraminulose1 pierced with holes4 ,forked1 branched in two or three or more4 ,fornicate1 bearing fornices4 ,fornix1 little arched scales in the throat of some corollas1 as of ,comfrey4 ,foveate1 deeply pitted4 ,foveolate1 diminutive of foveate4 ,free1 not united with any other parts of a different sort1 #ie4 ,fringed1 the margin beset with slender appendages1 bristles1 c4 ,frond1 what answers to leaves in ,ferns1 c41 #aeg2 or to the stem and leaves fused into one1 as in ,liverwort4 ,frondescence1 the bursting into leaf4 ,frondose1 frond-bearing2 like a frond1 or sometimes used for leafy4 ,fructification1 the state or result of fruiting4 ,fructus1 ,latin for fruit4 ,fruit1 the matured ovary and all it contains or is connected with1 #aag4 ,fruit-dots in ,ferns2 see ,sorus4 ,frustulose1 consisting of a chain of similar pieces1 or ,frustules4 ,frutescent1 somewhat shrubby2 becoming a shrub 7,frutex71 #ci4 ,fruticulose1 like a small shrub1 or ,fruticulus4 ,fruticose1 shrubby1 #ci4 ,fugacious1 soon falling off or perishing4 ,fulcrate1 having accessory organs or fulcra1 i4 e4 props4 ,fulvous1 tawny2 dull yellow with gray4 ,fungus1 ,fungi1 #agb4 ,funicle1 ,funiculus1 the stalk of a seed or ovule1 #aaj4 ,funnelform1 or funnel-shaped1 expanding gradually upwards into an open mouth1 like a funnel or tunnel1 #ij4 ,furcate1 forked4 ,furfuraceous1 covered with bran-like fine scurf4 ,furrowed1 marked by longitudinal channels or grooves4 ,fuscous1 deep gray-brown4 ,fusiform1 spindle-shaped1 #cf4 ,galbalus1 the fleshy or at length woody cone of ,juniper and ,cypress4 ,galea1 a helmet-shaped body1 as the upper sepal of the ,monkshood1 #hg4 ,galeate1 shaped like a helmet4 ,gamopetalous1 of united petals1 #hi4 ,gamophyllous1 formed of united leaves4 ,gamosepalous1 formed of united sepals1 #hi4 ,geminate1 twin2 in pairs4 ,gemma1 ,latin for a bud4 ,gemmation1 the state of budding2 budding growth4 ,gemmule1 a small bud2 the plumule1 #ac4 ,genera1 plural of genus4 ,geniculate1 bent abruptly1 like a knee 7genu71 as many stems4 ,generic ,names1 #agi4 ,genus1 a kind of a rank above species1 #agg4 ,germ1 a growing point2 a young bud2 sometimes the same as embryo1 #abg4 ,germen1 the old name for ovary4 ,germination1 the development of a plantlet from the seed1 #ab4 ,gerontogaeous1 inhabiting the ,old ,world4 ,gibbous1 more tumid at one place or on one side than the other4 ,gilvous1 dirty reddish-yellow4 ,glabrate1 becoming glabrous with age1 or almost glabrous4 ,glabrous1 smooth1 in the sense of having no hairs1 bristles1 or other pubescence4 ,gladiate1 sword-shaped1 as the leaves of ,iris4 ,glands1 small cellular organs which secrete oily or aromatic or other products2 they are sometimes sunk in the leaves or rind1 as in the ,orange1 ,prickly ,ash1 c42 sometimes on the surface as small projections2 sometimes raised on hairs or bristles 7glandular hairs1 c471 as in the ,sweetbrier and ,sundew4 ,the name is also given to any small swellings1 c41 whether they secrete anything or not2 so that the word is loosely used4 ,glandular1 ,glandulose1 furnished with glands1 or gland-like4 ,glans 7,gland71 the acorn or mast of ,oak and similar fruits4 ,glareose1 growing in gravel4 ,glaucescent1 slightly glaucous1 or bluish-gray4 ,glaucous1 covered with a bloom1 viz4 with a fine white powder of wax that rubs off1 like that on a fresh plum1 or a cabbage-leaf4 ,globose1 spherical in form1 or nearly so4 ,globular1 nearly globose4 ,glochidiate1 or ,glochideous1 7bristles7 barbed2 tipped with barbs1 or with a double hooked point4 ,glomerate1 closely aggregated into a dense cluster4 ,glomerule1 a dense head-like cluster1 #gg4 ,glossology1 the department of botany in which technical terms are explained4 ,glumaceous1 glume-like1 or glume-bearing4 ,glume2 ,glumes are the husks or floral coverings of ,grasses1 or1 particularly1 the outer husks or bracts of each spikelet4 ,glumelles1 the inner husks of ,grasses4 ,gonophore1 a stipe below stamens1 #aac4 ,gossypine1 cottony1 flocculent4 ,gracilis1 ,latin for slender4 ,grain1 see ,caryopsis1 #aba4 ,gramineous1 grass-like4 ,granular1 composed of grains4 ,granule1 a small grain4 ,graveolent1 heavy-scented4 ,griseous1 gray or bluish-gray4 ,growth1 #abi4 ,grumous1 or ,grumose1 formed of coarse clustered grains4 ,guttate1 spotted1 as if by drops of something colored4 ,gymnos1 ,greek for naked1 as ,gymnocarpous1 naked-fruited4 ,gymnospermous1 naked-seeded1 #aji4 ,gymnospermous gynoecium1 #aji4 ,gymnospermae1 or ,gymnospermous ,plants1 #ahc4 ,gynandrous1 with stamens borne on1 i4 e4 united with1 the pistil1 #ii4 ,gynoecium1 a name for the pistils of a flower taken altogether1 #aje4 ,gynobase1 a depressed receptacle or support of the pistil or carpels1 #aad4 ,gynophore1 a stalk raising a pistil above the stamens1 #aac4 ,gynostegium1 a sheath around pistils1 of whatever nature4 ,gynostemium1 name of the column in ,orchids1 c41 consisting of style and stigma with stamens combined4 ,gyrate1 coiled or moving circularly4 ,gyrose1 strongly bent to and fro4 ,habit1 the general aspect of a plant1 or its mode of growth4 ,habitat1 the situation or country in which a plant grows in a wild state4 ,hairs1 hair-like growths on the surface of plants4 ,hairy1 beset with hairs1 especially longish ones4 ,halberd-shaped1 see hastate1 #ec4 ,halved1 when appearing as if one half of the body were cut away4 ,hamate1 or ,hamose1 hooked2 the end of a slender body bent round4 ,hamulose1 bearing a small hook2 a diminutive of the last4 ,haplo-1 in ,greek compounds1 single2 as ,haplostemonous1 having only one series of stamens4 ,hastate1 or ,hastile1 shaped like a halberd2 furnished with a spreading lobe on each side at the base1 #ec4 ,head1 capitulum1 a form of inflorescence1 #gd4 ,heart-shaped1 of the shape of a heart as painted on cards1 #ec4 ,heart-wood1 the older or matured wood of exogenous trees1 #adb4 ,helicoid1 coiled like a helix or snail-shell1 #gg4 ,helmet1 the upper sepal of ,monkshood is so called4 ,helvolous1 grayish-yellow4 ,hemi- in compounds from the ,greek1 half2 e4 g4 ,hemispherical1 c4 ,hemicarp1 half-fruit1 one carpel of an ,umbelliferous plant1 #aba4 ,hemitropous 7ovule or seed71 nearly same as amphitropous1 #abc4 ,hepta- 7in words of ,greek origin71 seven2 as ,heptagynous1 with seven pistils or styles4 ,heptamerous1 its parts in sevens4 ,heptandrous1 having seven stamens4 ,herb1 plant not woody1 at least above ground4 ,herbaceous1 of the texture of an herb2 not woody1 #ci4 ,herbarium1 the botanist's arranged collection of dried plants1 #ahf4 ,herborization1 #ahd4 ,hermaphrodite 7flower71 having stamens and pistils in the same blossom1 #ha4 ,hesperidium1 orange-fruit1 a hard-rinded berry4 ,hetero-1 in ,greek compounds1 means of two or more sorts1 as ,heterocarpous1 bearing fruit of two kinds or shapes4 ,heterogamous1 bearing two or more sorts of flowers in one cluster4 ,heterogony1 ,heterogone1 or ,heterogonous1 with stamens and pistil reciprocally of two sorts1 #aaf4 ,heterostyled is same4 ,heteromorphous1 of two or more shapes4 ,heterophyllous1 with two sorts of leaves4 ,heterotropous 7ovule71 the same as amphitropous1 #abc4 ,hexa- 7in ,greek compounds71 six2 as ,hexagonal1 six-angled4 ,hexagynous1 with six pistils or styles4 ,hexamerous1 its parts in sixes4 ,hexandrous1 with six stamens4 ,hexapterous1 six-winged4 ,hibernaculum1 a winter bud4 ,hiemal1 relating to winter4 ,hilar1 belonging to the hilum4 ,hilum1 the scar of the seed2 its place of attachment1 #aaj1 #abf4 ,hippocrepiform1 horseshoe-shaped4 ,hirsute1 clothed with stiffish or beard-like hairs4 ,hirtellous1 minutely hirsute4 ,hispid1 bristly1 beset with stiff hairs4 ,hispidulous1 diminutive of hispid4 ,histology1 #i4 ,hoary1 grayish-white2 see canescent1 c4 ,holosericeous1 all over sericeous or silky4 ,homo-1 in ,greek compounds1 all alike or of one sort4 ,homodromous1 running in one direction4 ,homogamous1 a head or cluster with flowers all of one kind4 ,homogeneous1 uniform in nature2 all of one kind4 ,homogone1 or ,homogonous1 counterpart of ,heterogone or ,homostyled4 ,homologous1 of same type2 thus petals and sepals are the homologues of leaves4 ,homomallous 7leaves1 c471 originating all round an axis1 but all bent or curved to one side4 ,homorphous1 all of one shape4 ,homotropous 7embryo71 curved with the seed2 curved only one way4 ,hood1 same as helmet or galea4 ,hooded1 hood-shaped2 see cucullate4 ,hooked1 same as hamate4 ,horn1 a spur or some similar appendage4 ,horny1 of the texture of horn4 ,hortensis1 pertaining to the garden4 ,hortus ,siccus1 an herbarium1 or collection of dried plants1 #ahf4 ,humifuse1 ,humistrate1 spread over the surface of the ground4 ,humilis1 low in stature4 ,hyaline1 transparent1 or partly so4 ,hybrid1 a cross-breed between two allied species1 #agf4 ,hydrophytes1 water-plants4 ,hyemal1 see hiemal4 ,hymenium of a ,mushroom1 #agb4 ,hypanthium1 a hollow flower-receptacle1 such as that of ,rose4 ,hypo-1 ,greek prefix for under1 or underneath4 ,hypocotyle1 or ,hypocotyl1 part of stem below the cotyledons1 #aa4 ,hypocrateriform1 properly ,hypocraterimorphous1 salver-shaped4 ,hypogaean1 or ,hypogaeous1 produced under ground1 #ai4 ,hypogynous1 inserted under the pistil1 #ie1 #ii4 ,hysteranthous1 with the blossoms developed earlier than the leaves4 ,icosandrous1 having #bj 7or #ab or more7 stamens inserted on the calyx4 ,imberbis1 ,latin for beardless4 ,imbricate1 ,imbricated1 ,imbricative1 overlapping one another1 like tiles or shingles on a roof1 as the bud-scales of ,horse-chestnut and ,hickory1 #bg4 ,in aestivation1 where some leaves of the calyx or corolla are overlapped on both sides by others1 #ih4 ,immarginate1 destitute of a rim or border4 ,immersed1 growing wholly under water4 ,impari-pinnate1 pinnate with a single leaflet at the apex1 #eg4 ,imperfect flowers1 wanting either stamens or pistils1 #he4 ,inaequilateral1 unequal-sided1 as the leaf of a ,begonia4 ,inane1 empty1 said of an anther which produces no pollen1 c4 ,inappendiculate1 not appendaged4 ,incanous1 ,incanescent1 hoary with soft white pubescence4 ,incarnate1 flesh-colored4 ,incised1 cut rather deeply and irregularly1 #eh4 ,included1 enclosed2 when the part in question does not project beyond another4 ,incomplete ,flower1 wanting calyx or corolla1 #hf4 ,incrassated1 thickened4 ,incubous1 with tip of one leaf lying flat over the base of the next above4 ,incumbent1 leaning or resting upon2 the cotyledons are incumbent when the back of one of them lies against the radicle1 #abh2 the anthers are incumbent when turned or looking inwards4 ,incurved1 gradually curving inwards4 ,indefinite1 not uniform in number1 or too numerous to mention 7over #ab74 ,indefinite or ,indeterminate ,inflorescence1 #gb4 ,indehiscent1 not splitting open2 i4 e4 not dehiscent1 #aai4 ,indigenous1 native to the country4 ,individuals1 #age4 ,indumentum1 any hairy coating or pubescence4 ,induplicate1 with the edges turned inwards1 #ig4 ,induviate1 clothed with old and withered parts or induviae4 ,indusium1 the shield or covering of a fruit-dot of a ,fern1 #aei4 ,inermis1 ,latin for unarmed1 not prickly4 ,inferior1 growing below some other organ1 #if4 ,infertile1 not producing seed1 or pollen1 as the case may be4 ,inflated1 turgid and bladdery4 ,inflexed1 bent inwards4 ,inflorescence1 the arrangement of flowers on the stem1 #gb4 ,infra-axillary1 situated beneath the axil4 ,infundibuliform or ,infundibular1 funnel-shaped1 #ij4 ,innate 7anther71 attached by its base to the very apex of the filament1 #aja4 ,innovation1 a young shoot1 or new growth4 ,insertion1 the place or the mode of attachment of an organ to its support1 #ie1 #ii4 ,integer1 entire1 not lobed4 ,integerrimus1 quite entire1 not serrate4 ,intercellular ,passages or ,spaces1 #aca1 #adc4 ,interfoliaceous1 between the leaves of a pair or whorl4 ,internode1 the part of a stem between two nodes1 #ac4 ,interpetiolar1 between petioles4 ,interruptedly pinnate1 pinnate with small leaflets intermixed with larger4 ,intine1 inner coat of a pollen grain4 ,intrafoliaceous 7stipules1 c471 placed between the leaf or petiole and the stem4 ,introrse1 turned or facing inwards2 i4 e4 towards the axis of the flower1 #aja4 ,intruse1 as it were pushed inwards4 ,inversed or ,inverted1 where the apex is in the direction opposite to that of the organ it is compared with4 ,involucel1 a partial or small involucre1 #gf4 ,involucellate1 furnished with an involucel4 ,involucrate1 furnished with an involucre4 ,involucre1 a whorl or set of bracts around a flower1 umbel1 or head1 c41 #gd1 #ge4 ,involute1 in vernation1 #gb2 rolled inwards from the edges1 #ig4 ,irregular ,flowers1 #hf1 #ia4 ,isos1 ,greek for equal in number4 ,isomerous1 the same number in the successive circles or sets4 ,isostemonous1 the stamens equal in number to the sepals or petals4 ,jointed1 separate or separable at one or more places into pieces1 #fd1 c4 ,jugum 7plural ,juga71 ,latin for a pair1 as of leaflets1--thus ,unijugate1 of a single pair2 ,bijugate1 of two pairs1 c4 ,julaceus1 like a catkin or ,julus4 ,keel1 a projecting ridge on a surface1 like the keel of a boat2 the two anterior petals of a papilionaceous corolla1 #ib4 ,keeled1 furnished with a keel or sharp longitudinal ridge4 ,kermesine1 ,carmine-red4 ,kernel of the ovule and seed1 #aaj4 ,key1 or ,key-fruit1 a ,samara1 #abb4 ,kidney-shaped1 resembling the outline of a kidney1 #ec4 ,labellum1 the odd petal in the ,orchis ,family4 ,labiate1 same as bilabiate or two-lipped1 #ib4 ,labiatiflorous1 having flowers with bilabiate corolla4 ,labium 7plural1 ,labia71 ,latin for lip4 ,lacerate1 with margin appearing as if torn4 ,laciniate1 slashed2 cut into deep narrow lobes or ,laciniae4 ,lactescent1 producing milky juice1 as does the ,milkweed1 c4 ,lacteus1 ,latin for milk-white4 ,lacunose1 full of holes or gaps4 ,lacustrine1 belonging to lakes4 ,laevigate1 smooth as if polished4 ,latin1 ,laevis1 smooth1 as opposed to rough4 ,lageniform1 gourd-shaped4 ,lagopous1 ,latin1 hare-footed2 densely clothed with long soft hairs4 ,lamellar or ,lamellate1 consisting of flat plates1 ,lamellae4 ,lamina1 a plate or blade1 the blade of a leaf1 c41 #di4 ,lanate1 ,lanose1 woolly2 clothed with long and soft entangled hairs4 ,lanceolate1 lance-shaped1 #eb4 ,lanuginous1 cottony or woolly4 ,latent buds1 concealed or undeveloped buds1 #cj4 ,lateral1 belonging to the side4 ,latex1 the milky juice1 c41 of plants1 #ace4 ,lax 7,laxus71 loose in texture1 or sparse2 the opposite of crowded4 ,leaf1 #di4 ,leaf-buds1 #ca4 ,leaflet1 one of the divisions or blades of a compound leaf1 #eg4 ,leaf-like1 same as foliaceous4 ,leathery1 of about the consistence of leather2 coriaceous4 ,legume1 a simple pod which dehisces in two pieces1 like that of the ,pea1 #abb4 ,leguminous1 belonging to legumes1 or to the ,leguminous ,family4 ,lenticular1 lens-shaped2 i4 e4 flattish and convex on both sides4 ,lappaceous1 bur-like4 ,lasio1 ,greek for woolly or hairy1 as ,lasianthus1 woolly-flowered4 ,lateritious1 brick-colored4 ,laticiferous1 containing latex1 #ace4 ,latus1 ,latin for broad1 as ,latifolius1 broad-leaved4 ,leaf-scar1 ,leaf-stalk1 petiole4 ,lenticels1 lenticular dots on young bark4 ,lentiginose1 as if freckled4 ,lepal1 a made-up word for a staminode4 ,lepis1 ,greek for a scale1 whence ,lepidote1 leprous2 covered with scurfy scales4 ,leptos1 ,greek for slender2 so ,leptophyllous1 slender-leaved4 ,leukos1 ,greek for white2 whence ,leucanthous1 white-flowered1 c4 ,liber1 the inner bark of ,exogenous stems1 #adj4 ,lid1 see operculum4 ,ligneous1 or ,lignose1 woody in texture4 ,ligulate1 furnished with a ligule1 #ic4 ,ligule1 ,ligula1 the strap-shaped corolla in many ,compositae1 #ic2 the membranous appendage at the summit of the leaf-sheaths of most ,grasses1 #fg4 ,limb1 the border of a corolla1 c41 #hi4 ,limbate1 bordered 7,latin1 ,limbus1 a border74 ,line1 the twelfth of an inch2 or ,french lines1 the tenth4 ,linear1 narrow and flat1 the margins parallel1 #eb4 ,lineate1 marked with parallel lines4 ,lineolate1 marked with minute lines4 ,lingulate1 ,linguiform1 tongue-shaped4 ,lip1 the principal lobes of a bilabiate corolla or calyx1 #ib4 ,litoral or ,littoral1 belonging to the shore4 ,livid1 pale lead-colored4 ,lobe1 any projection or division 7especially a rounded one7 of a leaf1 c4 ,lobed or ,lobate1 cut into lobes1 #ee1 #ef2 ,lobulate1 into small lobes4 ,locellate1 having ,locelli1 i4 e4 compartments in a cell3 thus an anther-cell is often bilocellate4 ,loculament1 same as loculus4 ,locular1 relating to the cell or compartment 7,loculus7 of an ovary1 c4 ,loculicidal 7dehiscence71 splitting down through the back of each cell1 #abc4 ,locusta1 a name for the spikelet of ,grasses4 ,lodicule1 one of the scales answering to perianth-leaves in ,grass-flowers4 ,loment1 a pod which separates transversely into joints1 #abb4 ,lomentaceous1 pertaining to or resembling a loment4 ,lorate1 thong-shaped4 ,lunate1 crescent-shaped4 ,lunulate1 diminutive of lunate4 ,lupuline1 like hops4 ,lusus1 ,latin for a sport or abnormal variation4 ,luteolus1 yellowish2 diminutive of ,luteus1 ,latin for yellow4 ,lutescent1 verging to yellow4 ,lyrate1 lyre-shaped2 a pinnatifid leaf of an obovate or spatulate outline1 the end-lobe large and roundish1 and the lower lobes small1 as in fig4 #adi4 ,macros1 ,greek for long1 sometimes also used for large3 thus ,macrophyllous1 long or large-leaved1 c4 ,macrospore1 the large kind of spore1 when there are two kinds1 #afj1 #afa4 ,maculate1 spotted or blotched4 ,male 7flowers or plants71 having stamens but no pistil4 ,mammose1 breast-shaped4 ,marcescent1 withering without falling off4 ,marginal1 belonging to margin4 ,marginate1 margined with an edge different from the rest4 ,marginicidal dehiscence1 #abc4 ,maritime1 belonging to sea-coasts4 ,marmorate1 marbled4 ,mas41 ,masc41 ,masculine1 male4 ,masked1 see personate4 ,mealy1 see farinaceous4 ,median1 ,medial1 belonging to the middle4 ,medifixed1 attached by the middle4 ,medullary1 belonging to1 or of the nature of1 pith 7,medulla72 pithy4 ,medullary ,rays1 the silver-grain of wood1 #adj1 #ada4 ,medullary ,sheath1 a set of ducts just around the pith1 #adj4 ,meiostemonous1 having fewer stamens than petals4 ,membranaceous or ,membranous1 of the texture of membrane2 thin and soft4 ,meniscoid1 crescent-shaped4 ,mericarp1 one carpel of the fruit of an ,umbelliferous plant1 #aba4 ,merismatic1 separating into parts by the formation of partitions across4 ,merous1 from the ,greek for part2 used with numeral prefix to denote the number of pieces in a set or circle3 as ,monomerous1 of only one1 ,dimerous1 with two1 ,trimerous1 with three parts 7sepals1 petals1 stamens1 c47 in each circle4 ,mesocarp1 the middle part of a pericarp1 when that is distinguishable into three layers1 #abj4 ,mesophloeum1 the middle or green bark4 ,micropyle1 the closed orifice of the seed1 #aaj1 #abf4 ,microspore1 the smaller kind of spore when there are two kinds1 #afa4 ,midrib1 the middle or main rib of a leaf1 #ej4 ,milk-vessels1 #ace4 ,miniate1 vermilion-colored4 ,mitriform1 mitre-shaped3 in the form of a peaked cap1 or one cleft at the top4 ,moniliform1 necklace-shaped2 a cylindrical body contracted at intervals4 ,monocarpic 7duration71 flowering and seeding but once1 #ch4 ,monochlamydeous1 having only one floral envelope4 ,monocotyledonous 7embryo71 with only one cotyledon1 #bd4 ,monocotyledonous ,plants1 #bd4 ,monocotyls1 #bd4 ,monoecious1 or ,monoicous 7flower71 having stamens or pistils only1 #he4 ,monogynous 7flower71 having only one pistil1 or one style1 #aje4 ,monopetalous 7flower71 with the corolla of one piece1 #hi4 ,monophyllous1 one-leaved1 or of one piece4 ,monos1 ,greek for solitary or only one2 thus ,monadelphous1 stamens united by their filaments into one set1 #ii2 ,monandrous 7flower71 having only one stamen1 #ajj4 ,monosepalous1 a calyx of one piece2 i4 e4 with the sepals united into one body4 ,monospermous1 one-seeded4 ,monstrosity1 an unnatural deviation from the usual structure or form4 ,morphology1 ,morphological ,botany1 #i2 the department of botany which treats of the forms which an organ may assume4 ,moschate1 ,musk-like in odor4 ,movements1 #adi4 ,mucronate1 tipped with an abrupt short point 7,mucro71 #ed4 ,mucronulate1 tipped with a minute abrupt point2 a diminutive of the last4 ,multi-1 in composition1 many2 as ,multangular1 many-angled2 ,multicipital1 many-headed1 c42 ,multifarious1 in many rows or ranks2 ,multifid1 many-cleft2 ,multilocular1 many-celled2 ,multiserial1 in many rows4 ,multiple ,fruits1 #aah1 #abd4 ,muricate1 beset with short and hard or prickly points4 ,muriform1 wall-like2 resembling courses of bricks in a wall4 ,muticous1 pointless1 blunt1 unarmed4 ,mycelium1 the spawn of ,fungi2 i4 e4 the filaments from which ,mushrooms1 c41 originate1 #agb4 ,naked1 wanting some usual covering1 as achlamydeous flowers1 #hf2 gymnospermous seeds1 #aji1 #abe1 c4 ,names in botany1 #agi4 ,nanus1 ,latin for dwarf4 ,napiform1 turnip-shaped1 #ce4 ,natural ,system1 #ahb4 ,naturalized1 introduced from a foreign country1 and flourishing wild4 ,navicular1 boat-shaped1 like the glumes of most ,grasses4 ,necklace-shaped1 looking like a string of beads2 see moniliform4 ,nectar1 the sweet secretion in flowers from which bees make honey1 c4 ,nectariferous1 honey-bearing2 or having a nectary4 ,nectary1 the old name for petals and other parts of the flower when of unusual shape1 especially when honey-bearing4 ,so the hollow spur-shaped petals of ,columbine were called nectaries2 also the curious long-clawed petals of ,monkshood1 #hg1 c4 ,needle-shaped1 long1 slender1 and rigid1 like the leaves of ,pines4 ,nemorose or ,nemoral1 inhabiting groves4 ,nerve1 a name for the ribs or veins of leaves when simple and parallel1 #ej4 ,nerved1 furnished with nerves1 or simple and parallel ribs or veins1 #ej4 ,nervose1 conspicuously nerved4 ,nervulose1 minutely nervose4 ,netted-veined1 furnished with branching veins forming network1 #ej1 #ea4 ,neuter1 ,neutral1 sexless4 ,neutral flower1 #gi4 ,niger1 ,latin for black4 ,nigricans1 ,latin for verging to black4 ,nitid1 shining4 ,nival1 living in or near snow4 ,niveus1 snow-white4 ,nodding1 bending so that the summit hangs downward4 ,node1 a knot2 the joints of a stem1 or the part whence a leaf or a pair of leaves springs1 #ac4 ,nodose1 knotty or knobby4 ,nodulose1 furnished with little knobs or knots4 ,nomenclature1 #age1 #agi4 ,normal1 according to rule1 natural4 ,notate1 marked with spots or lines of a different color4 ,nucamentaceous1 relating to or resembling a small nut4 ,nuciform1 nut-shaped or nut-like4 ,nucleus1 the kernel of an ovule 7#aaj7 or seed 7#abg7 of a cell4 ,nucule1 same as nutlet4 ,nude1 7,latin1 ,nudus71 naked4 ,so ,nudicaulis1 naked-stemmed1 c4 ,nut1 ,latin ,nux1 a hard1 mostly one-seeded indehiscent fruit2 as a chestnut1 butternut1 acorn1 #aba4 ,nutant1 nodding4 ,nutlet1 a little nut2 or the stone of a drupe4 ,ob- 7meaning over against71 when prefixed to words signifies inversion2 as1 ,obcompressed1 flattened the opposite of the usual way2 ,obcordate1 heart-shaped1 with the broad and notched end at the apex instead of the base1 #ed2 ,oblanceolate1 lance-shaped with the tapering point downwards1 #eb4 ,oblique1 applied to leaves1 c41 means unequal-sided4 ,oblong1 from two to four times as long as broad1 #eb4 ,obovate1 inversely ovate1 the broad end upward1 #ec4 ,obovoid1 solid obovate4 ,obtuse1 blunt or round at the end1 #ed4 ,obverse1 same as inverse4 ,obvolute 7in the bud71 when the margins of one piece or leaf alternately overlap those of the opposite one4 ,ocellate1 with a circular colored patch1 like an eye4 ,ochroleucous1 yellowish-white2 dull cream-color4 ,ocreate1 furnished with ,ocreae 7boots71 or stipules in the form of sheaths1 #fg4 ,octo-1 ,latin for eight1 enters into the composition of ,octagynous1 with eight pistils or styles2 ,octamerous1 its parts in eights2 ,octandrous1 with eight stamens1 c4 ,oculate1 with eye-shaped marking4 ,officinal1 used in medicine1 therefore kept in the shops4 ,offset1 short branches next the ground which take root1 #dj4 ,oides1 termination1 from the ,greek1 to denote likeness2 so ,dianthoides1 ,pink-like4 ,oleraceous1 esculent1 as a pot-herb4 ,oligos1 ,greek for few2 thus ,oliganthous1 few-flowered1 c4 ,olivaceous1 olive-green4 ,oophoridium1 a name for spore-case containing macrospores4 ,opaque1 applied to a surface1 means dull1 not shining4 ,operculate1 furnished with a lid 7,operculum71 as the spore-case of ,mosses1 #afc4 ,opposite1 said of leaves and branches when on opposite sides of the stem from each other 7i4 e4 in pairs71 #bi1 #fh4 ,stamens are opposite the petals1 c41 when they stand before them4 ,oppositifolius1 situated opposite a leaf4 ,orbicular1 ,orbiculate1 circular in outline1 or nearly so1 #eb4 ,order1 group below class1 #agh4 ,ordinal names1 #ahj4 ,organ1 any member of the plant1 as a leaf1 a stamen1 c4 ,organography1 study of organs1 #i4 ,organogenesis1 that of the development of organs4 ,orgyalis1 of the height of a man4 ,orthos1 ,greek for straight2 thus1 ,orthocarpous1 with straight fruit2 ,orthostichous1 straight-ranked4 ,orthotropous 7ovule or seed71 #aaa4 ,osseous1 of a bony texture4 ,outgrowths1 growths from the surface of a leaf1 petal1 c4 ,oval1 broadly elliptical1 #eb4 ,ovary1 that part of the pistil containing the ovules or future seeds1 #ad1 #hj1 #aje4 ,ovate1 shaped like an egg1 with the broader end downwards2 or1 in plain surfaces1 such as leaves1 like the section of an egg lengthwise1 #eb4 ,ovoid1 ovate or oval in a solid form4 ,ovule1 the body which is destined to become a seed1 #ad1 #hj1 #aje1 #aaj4 ,ovuliferous1 ovule-bearing4 ,palate1 a projection of the lower lip of a labiate corolla into the throat1 as in ,snapdragon1 c4 ,palea 7plural paleae71 chaff2 the inner husks of ,grasses2 the chaff or bracts on the receptacle of many ,compositae1 as ,coreopsis1 and ,sunflower4 ,paleaceous1 furnished with chaff1 or chaffy in texture4 ,paleolate1 having ,paleolae or paleae of a second order1 or narrow paleae4 ,palet1 ,english term for palea4 ,palmate1 when leaflets or the divisions of a leaf all spread from the apex of the petiole1 like the hand with the outspread fingers1 #eg1 #eh4 ,palmately 7veined1 lobed1 c471 in a palmate manner1 #ea1 #ef4 ,palmatifid1 -lobed1 -sect1 palmately cleft1 or lobed1 or divided4 ,paludose1 inhabiting marshes4 ,palustrine1 same4 ,panduriform1 or ,pandurate1 fiddle-shaped 7which see74 ,panicle1 an open and branched cluster1 #ha4 ,panicled1 ,paniculate1 arranged in panicles1 or like a panicle4 ,pannose1 covered with a felt of woolly hairs4 ,papery1 of about the consistence of letter-paper4 ,papilionaceous1 butterfly-shaped2 applied to such a corolla as that of the ,pea1 #ia4 ,papilla 7plural papillae71 little nipple-shaped protuberances4 ,papillate1 ,papillose1 covered with papillae4 ,pappus1 thistle-down4 ,the down crowning the achenium of the ,thistle1 ,groundsel1 c41 and whatever in ,compositae answers to calyx1 whether hairs1 teeth1 or scales1 #aba4 ,papyraceous1 like parchment in texture4 ,parallel-veined or nerved 7leaves71 #ej4 ,paraphyses1 jointed filaments mixed with the antheridia of ,mosses4 ,parasitic1 living as a parasite1 i4 e4 on another plant or animal1 #cg4 ,parenchemytous1 composed of parenchyma4 ,parenchyma1 soft cellular tissue of plants1 like the green pulp of leaves1 #acb4 ,parietal 7placentae1 c471 attached to the walls 7parietes7 of the ovary4 ,paripinnate1 pinnate with an even number of leaflets4 ,parted1 separated or cleft into parts almost to the base1 #ee4 ,parthenogenesis1 producing seed without fertilization4 ,partial involucre1 same as an involucel2 partial petiole1 a division of a main leaf-stalk or the stalk of a leaflet2 partial peduncle1 a branch of a peduncle2 partial umbel1 an umbellet1 #gf4 ,partition1 a segment of a parted leaf2 or an internal wall in an ovary1 anther1 c4 ,patelliform1 disk-shaped1 like the patella or kneepan4 ,patent1 spreading1 open4 ,patulous1 moderately spreading4 ,pauci-1 in composition1 few2 as pauciflorous1 few-flowered1 c4 ,pear-shaped1 solid obovate1 the shape of a pear4 ,pectinate1 pinnatifid or pinnately divided into narrow and close divisions1 like the teeth of a comb4 ,pedate1 like a bird's foot2 palmate or palmately cleft1 with the side divisions again cleft1 as in ,viola pedata1 c4 ,pedicel1 the stalk of each particular flower of a cluster1 #gc4 ,pedicellate1 ,pedicelled1 borne on a pedicel4 ,pedalis1 ,latin for a foot high or long4 ,peduncle1 a flower-stalk1 whether of a single flower or of a flower-cluster1 #gc4 ,peduncled1 ,pedunculate1 furnished with a peduncle4 ,peloria1 an abnormal return to regularity and symmetry in an irregular flower2 commonest in ,snapdragon4 ,peltate1 shield-shaped2 said of a leaf1 whatever its shape1 when the petiole is attached to the lower side1 somewhere within the margin1 #ec4 ,pelviform1 basin-shaped4 ,pendent1 hanging4 ,pendulous1 somewhat hanging or drooping4 ,penicillate1 ,penicilliform1 tipped with a tuft of fine hairs1 like a painter's pencil2 as the stigmas of some ,grasses4 ,pennate1 same as pinnate4 ,penninerved and ,penniveined1 pinnately veined1 #ea4 ,penta- 7in words of ,greek composition71 five2 as ,pentadelphous1 #ii2 ,pentagynous1 with five pistils or styles2 ,pentamerous1 with its parts in fives1 or on the plan of five2 ,pentandrous1 having five stamens1 #aab2 ,pentastichous1 in five ranks1 c4 ,pepo1 a fruit like the ,melon and ,cucumber1 #aai4 ,perennial1 lasting from year to year1 #ch4 ,perfect 7flower71 having both stamens and pistils1 #ha4 ,perfoliate1 passing through the leaf1 in appearance1 #fj4 ,perforate1 pierced with holes1 or with transparent dots resembling holes1 as an ,orange-leaf4 ,peri-1 ,greek for around2 from which are such terms as ,perianth1 the leaves of the flower collectively1 #gi4 ,pericarp1 the ripened ovary2 the walls of the fruit1 #aag4 ,pericarpic1 belonging to the pericarp4 ,perigonium1 ,perigone1 same as perianth4 ,perigynium1 bodies around the pistil2 applied to the closed cup or bottle-shaped body 7of bracts7 which encloses the ovary of ,sedges1 and to the bristles1 little scales1 c41 of the flowers of some other ,cyperaceae4 ,perigynous1 the petals and stamens borne on the calyx1 #ie1 #ii4 ,peripheric1 around the outside1 or periphery1 of any organ4 ,perisperm1 a name for the albumen of a seed4 ,peristome1 the fringe of teeth to the spore-case of ,mosses1 #afc4 ,persistent1 remaining beyond the period when such parts commonly fall1 as the leaves of evergreens1 and the calyx of such flowers as persist during the growth of the fruit4 ,personate1 masked2 a bilabiate corolla with a palate in the throat1 #ib4 ,pertuse1 perforated with a hole or slit4 ,perulate1 having scales 7,perulae71 such as bud-scales4 ,pes1 pedis1 ,latin for the foot or support1 whence ,longipes1 long-stalked1 c4 ,petal1 a leaf of the corolla1 #ad1 #gi4 ,petalody1 metamorphosis of stamens1 c41 into petals4 ,petaloid1 ,petaline1 petal-like2 resembling or colored like petals4 ,petiole1 a footstalk of a leaf2 a leaf-stalk1 #di4 ,petioled1 ,petiolate1 furnished with a petiole4 ,petiolulate1 said of a leaflet when raised on its own partial leaf-stalk4 ,petraeus1 ,latin for growing on rocks4 ,phalanx1 phalanges1 bundles of stamens4 ,phaenogamous1 or ,phanerogamous1 plants bearing flowers and producing seeds2 same as ,flowering ,plants4 ,phaenogams1 ,phanerogams1 #aj4 ,phloeum1 ,greek name for bark1 whence ,endophloeum1 inner bark1 c4 ,phoeniceous1 deep red verging to scarlet4 ,phycology1 the botany of ,algae4 ,phyllocladia1 branches assuming the form and function of leaves4 ,phyllodium 7plural1 phyllodia71 a leaf where the seeming blade is a dilated petiole1 as in ,new ,holland ,acacias1 #fa4 ,phyllome1 foliar parts1 those answering to leaves in their nature4 ,phyllon 7plural1 phylla71 ,greek for leaf and leaves2 used in many compound terms and names4 ,phyllotaxis1 or ,phyllotaxy1 the arrangement of leaves on the stem1 #fg4 ,physiological ,botany1 #i4 ,phytography1 relates to characterizing and describing plants4 ,phyton1 or ,phytomer1 a name used to designate the pieces which by their repetition make up a plant1 theoretically1 viz4 a joint of stem with its leaf or pair of leaves4 ,pileus of a mushroom1 #agb4 ,piliferous1 bearing a slender bristle or hair 7pilum71 or beset with hairs4 ,pilose1 hairy2 clothed with soft slender hairs4 ,pinna1 a primary division with its leaflets of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf4 ,pinnule1 a secondary division of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf1 #ff4 ,pinnate 7leaf71 when leaflets are arranged along the sides of a common petiole1 #eg4 ,pinnately lobed1 cleft1 parted1 divided1 veined1 #ef4 ,pinnatifid1 ,pinnatisect1 same as pinnately cleft and pinnately parted1 #ef4 ,pisiform1 pea-shaped4 ,pistil1 the seed-bearing organ of the flower1 #ad1 #hj1 #aje4 ,pistillate1 having a pistil1 #he4 ,pistillidium1 the body which in ,mosses answers to the pistil1 #aei1 #afd4 ,pitchers1 #fd4 ,pith1 the cellular centre of an exogenous stem1 #ach4 ,placenta1 the surface or part of the ovary to which the ovules are attached1 #ajg4 ,placentiform1 nearly same as quoit-shaped4 ,plaited 7in the bud71 or ,plicate1 folded1 #gb1 #ih4 ,platy-1 ,greek for broad1 in compounds1 such as ,platyphyllous1 broad-leaved1 c4 ,pleio-1 ,greek for full or abounding1 used in compounds1 such as ,pleiopetalous1 of many petals1 c4 ,plumbeus1 lead-colored4 ,plumose1 feathery2 when any slender body 7such as a bristle of a pappus or a style7 is beset with hairs along its sides1 like the plume of a feather4 ,plumule1 the bud or first shoot of a germinating plantlet above the cotyledons1 #ac4 ,pluri-1 in composition1 many or several2 as ,plurifoliolate1 with several leaflets4 ,pod1 specially a legume1 #abb2 also may be applied to any sort of capsule4 ,podium1 a footstalk or stipe1 used only in ,greek compounds1 as 7suffixed7 ,leptopodus1 slender-stalked1 or 7prefixed7 ,podocephalus1 with a stalked head1 and in ,podosperm1 a seed stalk or funiculus4 ,pogon1 ,greek for beard1 comes into various compounds4 ,pointless1 destitute of any pointed tip1 such as a mucro1 awn1 acumination1 c4 ,pollen1 the fertilizing powder contained in the anther1 #ad1 #hj1 #ajc4 ,pollen-growth1 #aag4 ,polleniferous1 pollen-bearing4 ,pollen-mass1 ,pollinium1 the united mass of pollen1 #ajd1 as in ,milkweed and ,orchis4 ,pollicaris1 ,latin for an inch long4 ,pollination1 the application of pollen to the stigma1 #aad4 ,poly-1 in compound words of ,greek origin1 same as multi- in those of ,latin origin viz4 many1 as ,polyadelphous1 stamens united by their filaments into several bundles1 #ajj4 ,polyandrous1 with numerous stamens 7inserted on the receptacle71 #ajj4 ,polycarpic1 term used by ,de,candolle in the sense of perennial4 ,polycotyledonous1 having many 7more than two7 cotyledons1 as ,pines1 #bc4 ,polygamous1 having some perfect and some unisexual flowers1 #he4 ,polygonal1 many-angled4 ,polygynous1 with many pistils or styles1 #aje4 ,polymerous1 formed of many parts of each set4 ,polymorphous1 of several or varying forms4 ,polypetalous1 when the petals are distinct or separate 7whether few or many71 #hi4 ,polyphyllous1 many-leaved2 formed of several distinct pieces4 ,polysepalous1 same as the last when applied to the calyx1 #hi4 ,polyspermous1 many-seeded4 ,pome1 the apple1 pear1 and similar fleshy fruits1 #aai4 ,pomiferous1 pome-bearing4 ,porrect1 outstretched4 ,posterior side or portion of a flower 7when axillary7 is that toward the axis1 #if4 ,pouch1 the silicle or short pod1 as of ,shepherd's ,purse1 #abc4 ,praecocious 7,latin1 praecox71 unusually early in development4 ,praefloration1 same as aestivation1 #ig4 ,praefoliation1 same as vernation1 #ga4 ,praemorse1 ending abruptly1 as if bitten off4 ,pratensis1 ,latin for growing in meadows4 ,prickles1 sharp elevations of the bark1 coming off with it1 as of the ,rose4 ,prickly1 bearing prickles1 or sharp projections like them4 ,primine1 the outer coat of the covering of the ovule1 #aaj4 ,primordial1 earliest formed2 primordial leaves are the first after the cotyledons4 ,prismatic1 prism-shaped2 having three or more angles bounding flat sides4 ,procerous1 tall1 or tall and slim4 ,process1 any projection from the surface or edge of a body4 ,procumbent1 trailing on the ground1 #ci4 ,procurrent1 running through but not projecting4 ,produced1 extended or projecting2 the upper sepal of a ,larkspur is produced above into a spur1 #hg4 ,proliferous 7literally1 bearing offspring71 where a new branch rises from an older one1 or one head or cluster of flowers out of another4 ,propaculum or ,propagulum1 a shoot for propagation4 ,prosenchyma1 a tissue of wood-cells4 ,prostrate1 lying flat on the ground1 #ci4 ,protandrous or ,proterandrous1 the anthers first maturing1 #aaf4 ,proteranthous1 flowering before leafing4 ,proterogynous or ,protogynous1 the stigmas first to mature1 #aaf4 ,prothallium or ,prothallus1 #afj4 ,protoplasm1 the soft nitrogenous lining or contents1 or living part1 of cells1 #abi4 ,protos1 ,greek for first2 in various compounds4 ,pruinose1 ,pruinate1 frosted2 covered with a powder like hoar-frost4 ,pseudo-1 ,greek for false4 ,pseudo-bulb1 the aerial corms of epiphytic ,orchids1 c4 ,psilos1 ,greek for bare or naked1 used in many compounds4 ,pteridophyta1 ,pteridophytes1 #aef4 ,pteris1 ,greek for wing1 and general name for ,fern1 enters into many compounds4 ,puberulent1 covered with fine and short or almost imperceptible down4 ,pubescent1 hairy or downy1 especially with fine and soft hairs or pubescence4 ,pulverulent or ,pulveraceous1 as if dusted with fine powder4 ,pulvinate1 cushioned1 or shaped like a cushion4 ,pumilus1 low or little4 ,punctate1 dotted1 either with minute holes or what look as such4 ,puncticulate1 minutely punctate4 ,pungent1 prickly-tipped4 ,puniceous1 carmine-red4 ,purpureus1 originally red or crimson1 more used for duller or bluish-red4 ,pusillus1 weak and small1 tiny4 ,putamen1 the stone of a drupe1 or the shell of a nut1 #abj4 ,pygmaeus1 ,latin for dwarf4 ,pyramidal1 shaped like a pyramid4 ,pyrene1 ,pyrena1 a seed-like nutlet or stone of a small drupe4 ,pyriform1 pear-shaped4 ,pyxidate1 furnished with a lid4 ,pyxis1 ,pyxidium1 a pod opening round horizontally by a lid1 #abd4 ,quadri-1 in words of ,latin origin1 four2 as ,quadrangular1 four-angled2 ,quadrifoliate1 four-leaved2 ,quadrifid1 four-cleft4 ,quaternate in fours4 ,quinate1 in fives4 ,quinque1 five4 ,quincuncial1 in a quincunx2 when the parts in aestivation are five1 two of them outside1 two inside1 and one half out and half in4 ,quintuple1 five-fold4 ,race1 a marked variety which may be perpetuated from seed1 #agf4 ,raceme1 a flower-cluster1 with one-flowered pedicels arranged along the sides of a general peduncle1 #gc4 ,racemose1 bearing racemes1 or raceme-like4 ,rachis1 see rhachis4 ,radial1 belonging to the ray4 ,radiate1 or ,radiant1 furnished with ray-flowers1 #id4 ,radiate-veined1 #eb4 ,radical1 belonging to the root1 or apparently coming from the root4 ,radicant1 rooting1 taking root on or above the ground4 ,radicels1 little roots or rootlets4 ,radicle1 the stem part of the embryo1 the lower end of which forms the root1 #aa1 #abg4 ,rameal1 belonging to a branch4 ,ramose1 full of branches 7rami74 ,ramentaceous1 beset with thin chaffy scales 7,ramenta71 as the stalks of many ,ferns4 ,ramification1 branching1 #bg4 ,ramulose1 full of branchlets 7ramuli74 ,raphe1 see rhaphe4 ,ray1 parts diverging from a centre1 the marginal flowers of a head 7as of ,coreopsis1 #id71 or cluster1 as of ,hydrangea 7#gh71 when different from the rest1 especially when ligulate and diverging 7like rays or sunbeams72 also the branches of an umbel1 #gd4 ,ray-flowers1 #id4 ,receptacle1 the axis or support of a flower1 #ha1 #aab2 also the common axis or support of a head of flowers1 #gc4 ,reclined1 turned or curved downwards2 nearly recumbent4 ,rectinerved1 with straight nerves or veins4 ,recurved1 curved outwards or backwards4 ,reduplicate 7in aestivation71 valvate with the margins turned outwards1 #ig4 ,reflexed1 bent outwards or backwards4 ,refracted1 bent suddenly1 so as to appear broken at the bend4 ,regular1 all the parts similar in shape1 #hb4 ,reniform1 kidney-shaped1 #ec4 ,repand1 wavy-margined1 #ee4 ,repent1 creeping1 i4 e4 prostrate and rooting underneath4 ,replum1 the frame of some pods 7as of ,prickly ,poppy and ,cress71 persistent after the valves fall away4 ,reptant1 same as repent4 ,resupinate1 inverted1 or appearing as if upside down1 or reversed4 ,reticulated1 the veins forming network1 #ej4 ,retiform1 in network4 ,retinerved1 reticulate-veined4 ,retroflexed1 bent backwards2 same as reflexed4 ,retuse1 blunted2 the apex not only obtuse but somewhat indented1 #ed4 ,revolute1 rolled backwards1 as the margins of many leaves1 #gb4 ,rhachis 7the backbone71 the axis of a spike or other body1 #gc4 ,rhaphe1 the continuation of the seed-stalk along the side of an anatropous ovule or seed1 #aab1 #abf4 ,rhaphides1 crystals1 especially needle-shaped ones1 in the tissues of plants1 #acg4 ,rhizanthous1 flowering from the root4 ,rhizoma1 ,rhizome1 a rootstock1 #db-dd4 ,rhombic1 in the shape of a rhomb4 ,rhomboidal1 approaching that shape4 ,rib1 the principal piece1 or one of the principal pieces of the framework of a leaf1 or any similar elevated line along a body1 #di1 #ej4 ,rimose1 having chinks or cracks4 ,ring1 an elastic band on the spore-cases of ,ferns1 #aei4 ,ringent1 grinning2 gaping open1 #ib4 ,riparious1 on river-banks4 ,rivalis1 ,latin for growing along brooks2 or ,rivularis1 in rivulets4 ,root1 #cc4 ,root-hairs1 #ce4 ,rootlets1 small roots1 or root-branches1 #cc4 ,rootstock1 root-like trunks or portions of stems on or under ground1 #db4 ,roridus1 dewy4 ,rosaceous1 arranged like the petals of a rose4 ,rostellate1 bearing a small beak 7,rostellum74 ,rostrate1 bearing a beak 7,rostrum7 or a prolonged appendage4 ,rosulate1 in a rosette or cluster of spreading leaves4 ,rotate1 wheel-shaped1 #hi4 ,rotund1 rounded or roundish in outline4 ,ruber1 ,latin for red in general4 ,rubescent1 ,rubicund1 reddish or blushing4 ,rudimentary1 imperfectly developed1 or in an early state of development4 ,rufous1 ,rufescent1 brownish-red or reddish-brown4 ,rugose1 wrinkled2 roughened with wrinkles4 ,ruminated 7albumen71 penetrated with irregular channels or portions1 as a nutmeg1 looking as if chewed4 ,runcinate1 coarsely saw-toothed or cut1 the pointed teeth turned towards the base of the leaf1 as the leaf of a ,dandelion4 ,runner1 a slender and prostrate branch1 rooting at the end1 or at the joints1 #dj4 ,sabulose1 growing in sand4 ,sac1 any closed membrane1 or a deep purse-shaped cavity4 ,saccate1 sac-shaped4 ,sagittate1 arrowhead-shaped1 #ec4 ,salsuginous1 growing in brackish soil4 ,salver-shaped1 or ,salver-form1 with a border spreading at right angles to a slender tube1 #hi4 ,samara1 a wing-fruit1 or key1 #abb4 ,samaroid1 like a samara or key-fruit4 ,sap1 the juices of plants generally1 #acf4 ,sapwood1 #adb4 ,saprophytes1 #cg4 ,sarcocarp1 the fleshy part of a stone-fruit1 #abj4 ,sarmentaceous1 ,sarmentose1 bearing long and flexible twigs 7,sarments71 either spreading or procumbent4 ,saw-toothed1 see serrate1 #ee4 ,scabrous1 rough or harsh to the touch4 ,scalariform1 with cross-bands1 resembling the steps of a ladder1 #acd4 ,scales1 of buds1 #bh2 of bulbs1 c41 #df4 ,scalloped1 same as crenate1 #ee4 ,scaly1 furnished with scales1 or scale-like in texture4 ,scandent1 climbing1 #ci4 ,scape1 a peduncle rising from the ground or near it1 as in many ,violets4 ,scapiform1 scape-like4 ,scapigerous1 scape-bearing4 ,scar of the seed1 #abf4 ,leaf-scars1 #bg1 #bh4 ,scarious or ,scariose1 thin1 dry1 and membranous4 ,scion1 a shoot or slip used for grafting4 ,scleros1 ,greek for hard1 hence ,sclerocarpous1 hard-fruited4 ,scobiform1 resembling sawdust4 ,scorpioid or ,scorpioidal1 curved or circinate at the end1 #gg4 ,scrobiculate1 pitted2 excavated into shallow pits4 ,scurf1 ,scurfiness1 minute scales on the surface of many leaves1 as of ,goosefoot4 ,scutate1 ,scutiform1 buckler-shaped4 ,scutellate1 or ,scutelliform1 saucer-shaped or platter-shaped4 ,secund1 one-sided2 i4 e4 where flowers1 leaves1 c41 are all turned to one side4 ,secundine1 the inner coat of the ovule1 #aaj4 ,seed1 #abe4 ,seed-leaves1 see cotyledons4 ,seed-vessel1 #abg4 ,segment1 a subdivision or lobe of any cleft body4 ,segregate1 separated from each other4 ,semi-1 in compound words of ,latin origin1 half2 as ,semi-adherent1 as the calyx or ovary of ,purslane2 ,semicordate1 half-heart-shaped2 ,semilunar1 like a half-moon2 ,semiovate1 half-ovate1 c4 ,seminal1 relating to the seed 7,semen74 ,seminiferous1 seed-bearing4 ,sempervirent1 evergreen4 ,sensitiveness in plants1 #adi1 #aeb4 ,senary1 in sixes4 ,sepal1 a leaf or division of the calyx1 #ad1 #gi4 ,sepaloid1 sepal-like4 ,sepaline1 relating to the sepals4 ,separated ,flowers1 those having stamens or pistils only1 #he4 ,septate1 divided by partitions4 ,septenate1 with parts in sevens4 ,septicidal1 where dehiscence is through the partitions1 #abc4 ,septiferous1 bearing the partition4 ,septifragal1 where the valves in dehiscence break away from the partitions1 #abc4 ,septum 7plural septa71 a partition or dissepiment4 ,serial1 or ,seriate1 in rows2 as biserial1 in two rows1 c4 ,sericeous1 silky2 clothed with satiny pubescence4 ,serotinous1 late in the season4 ,serrate1 the margin cut into teeth 7,serratures7 pointing forwards1 #ee4 ,serrulate1 same as the last1 but with fine teeth4 ,sessile1 sitting2 without any stalk4 ,sesqui-1 ,latin for one and a half2 so ,sesquipedalis1 a foot and a half long4 ,seta1 a bristle1 or a slender body or appendage resembling a bristle4 ,setaceous1 bristle-like4 ,setiform1 bristle-shaped4 ,setigerous1 bearing bristles4 ,setose1 beset with bristles or bristly hairs4 ,setula1 a diminutive bristle4 ,setulose1 provided with such4 ,sex1 six4 ,sexangular1 six-angled4 ,sexfarious1 six-faced4 ,sheath1 the base of such leaves as those of ,grasses1 which are ,sheathing1 wrapped round the stem4 ,shield-shaped1 same as scutate1 or as peltate1 #ec4 ,shrub1 ,shrubby1 #ci4 ,sieve-cells1 #adj4 ,sigmoid1 curved in two directions1 like the letter ,s1 or the ,greek sigma4 ,silicle1 a pouch1 or short pod of the ,cress ,family1 #abc4 ,siliculose1 bearing a silicle1 or a fruit resembling it4 ,silique1 capsule of the ,cress ,family1 #abc4 ,siliquose1 bearing siliques or pods which resemble siliques4 ,silky1 glossy with a coat of fine and soft1 close-pressed1 straight hairs4 ,silver-grain1 the medullary rays of wood1 #aci4 ,silvery1 shining white or bluish-gray1 usually from a silky pubescence4 ,simple1 of one piece2 opposed to compound4 ,sinistrorse1 turned to the left4 ,sinuate1 with margin alternately bowed inwards and outwards1 #ee4 ,sinus1 a recess or bay2 the re-entering angle between two lobes or projections4 ,sleep of ,plants 7so called71 #aea4 ,smooth1 properly speaking not rough1 but often used for glabrous1 i4 e4 not pubescent4 ,soboliferous1 bearing shoots 7,soboles7 from near the ground4 ,solitary1 single2 not associated with others4 ,sordid1 dull or dirty in hue4 ,sorediate1 bearing patches on the surface4 ,sorosis1 name of a multiple fruit1 like a pine-apple4 ,sorus1 a fruit-dot of ,ferns1 #aei4 ,spadiceous1 chestnut-colored4 ,also spadix-bearing4 ,spadix1 a fleshy spike of flowers1 #ge4 ,span1 the distance between the tip of the thumb and of little finger outstretched1 six or seven inches4 ,spathaceous1 resembling or furnished with a ,spathe1 a bract which inwraps an inflorescence1 #ge4 ,spatulate1 or ,spathulate1 shaped like a spatula1 #eb4 ,species1 #age4 ,specific ,names1 #agi4 ,specimens1 #ahd4 ,spermaphore1 or ,spermophore1 one of the names of the placenta4 ,spermum1 ,latin form of ,greek word for seed2 much used in composition4 ,spica1 ,latin for spike2 hence ,spicate1 in a spike1 ,spiciform1 in shape resembling a spike4 ,spike1 an inflorescence like a raceme1 only the flowers are sessile1 #gd4 ,spikelet1 a small or a secondary spike2 the inflorescence of ,grasses4 ,spine1 #da1 #fd4 ,spindle-shaped1 tapering to each end1 like a radish1 #cf4 ,spinescent1 tipped by or degenerating into a thorn4 ,spinose1 or ,spiniferous1 thorny4 ,spiral ,vessels or ducts1 #ace4 ,spithameous1 span-high4 ,spora1 ,greek name for seed1 used in compound words4 ,sporadic1 widely dispersed4 ,sporangium1 a spore-case in ,ferns1 c41 #aeh4 ,spore1 a body resulting from the fructification of ,cryptogamous plants1 in them the analogue of a seed4 ,spore-case 7,sporangium71 #aeh4 ,sporocarp1 #afb4 ,sport1 a newly appeared variation1 #agf4 ,sporule1 same as a spore1 or a small spore4 ,spumescent1 appearing like froth4 ,spur1 any projecting appendage of the flower1 looking like a spur but hollow1 as that of ,larkspur1 fig4 #bci4 ,squamate1 ,squamose1 or ,squamaceous1 furnished with scales 7squamae74 ,squamellate1 or ,squamulose1 furnished with little scales 7,squamellae1 or ,squamulae74 ,squamiform1 shaped like a scale4 ,squarrose1 where scales1 leaves1 or any appendages spread widely from the axis on which they are thickly set4 ,squarrulose1 diminutive of squarrose2 slightly squarrose4 ,stachys1 ,greek for spike4 ,stalk1 the stem1 petiole1 peduncle1 c41 as the case may be4 ,stamen1 #ad1 #hj1 #ih4 ,staminate1 furnished with stamens1 #hf4 ,stamineal1 relating to the stamens4 ,staminodium1 an abortive stamen1 or other body in place of a stamem4 ,standard1 the upper petal of a papilionaceous corolla1 #ib4 ,starch1 #acf1 #afc4 ,station1 the particular kind of situation in which a plant naturally occurs4 ,stellate1 ,stellular1 starry or star-like2 where several similar parts spread out from a common centre1 like a star4 ,stem1 #ci4 ,stemlet1 diminutive stem4 ,stemless1 destitute or apparently destitute of stem4 ,stenos1 ,greek for narrow2 hence ,stenophyllous1 narrow-leaved1 c4 ,sterile1 barren or imperfect4 ,stigma1 the part of the pistil which receives the pollen1 #ad1 #hj1 #aje4 ,stigmatic1 or ,stigmatose1 belonging to the stigma4 ,stipe 7,latin ,stipes71 the stalk of a pistil1 c41 when it has any1 #aab2 also of a ,fern1 #aeh1 and of a ,mushroom1 #agb4 ,stipel1 a stipule of a leaflet1 as of the ,bean1 c4 ,stipellate1 furnished with stipels1 as in the ,bean tribe4 ,stipitate1 furnished with a stipe4 ,stipulaceous1 belonging to stipules4 ,stipulate1 furnished with stipules4 ,stipules1 the appendages on each side of the base of certain leaves1 #ff4 ,stirps 7plural1 stirpes71 ,latin for race4 ,stock1 used for race or source4 ,also for any root-like base from which the herb grows up4 ,stole1 or ,stolon1 a trailing or reclined and rooting shoot1 #dj4 ,stoloniferous1 producing stolons4 ,stomate 7,latin ,stoma1 plural ,stomata71 the breathing-pores of leaves1 #add4 ,stone-fruit1 #aai4 ,storage-leaves1 #fb4 ,stramineous1 straw-like1 or straw-colored4 ,strap-shaped1 long1 flat1 and narrow4 ,striate1 or ,striated1 marked with slender longitudinal grooves or stripes4 ,strict1 close and narrow2 straight and narrow4 ,strigillose1 ,strigose1 beset with stout and appressed1 stiff or rigid bristles4 ,strobilaceous1 relating to or resembling a ,strobile1 a multiple fruit in the form of a cone or head1 #abd4 ,strombuliform1 twisted1 like a spiral shell4 ,strophiole1 same as caruncle1 #abf4 ,strophiolate1 furnished with a strophiole4 ,struma1 a wen2 a swelling or protuberance of any organ4 ,strumose1 bearing a struma4 ,stupose1 like tow4 ,style1 a stalk between ovary and stigma1 #ad1 #hj1 #aje4 ,styliferous1 ,stylose1 bearing styles or conspicuous ones4 ,stylopodium1 an epigynous disk1 or an enlargement at the base of the style4 ,sub-1 as a prefix1 about1 nearly1 somewhat2 as ,subcordate1 slightly cordate2 ,subserrate1 slightly serrate2 ,subaxillary1 just beneath the axil1 c4 ,subclass1 ,suborder1 ,subtribe1 #agh4 ,suberose1 corky or cork-like in texture4 ,subulate1 awl-shaped2 tapering from a broadish or thickish base to a sharp point4 ,succise1 as if cut off at lower end4 ,succubous1 when crowded leaves are each covered by base of next above4 ,suckers1 shoots from subterranean branches1 #ci4 ,suffrutescent1 slightly shrubby or woody at the base only1 #ci4 ,suffruticose1 rather more than suffrutescent1 #cg1 #ci4 ,sulcate1 grooved longitudinally with deep furrows4 ,superior1 above1 #if2 sometimes equivalent to posterior1 #if4 ,supernumerary ,buds1 #cj1 #ca4 ,supervolute1 plaited and convolute in bud1 #ig4 ,supine1 lying flat1 with face upward4 ,supra-axillary1 borne above the axil1 as some buds1 #ca4 ,supra-decompound1 many times compounded or divided4 ,surculose1 producing suckers 7,surculi7 or shoots resembling them4 ,suspended1 hanging down4 ,suspended ovules or seeds hang from the very summit of the cell which contains them4 ,sutural1 belonging or relating to a suture4 ,suture1 the line of junction of contiguous parts grown together1 #ajf4 ,sword-shaped1 applied to narrow leaves1 with acute parallel edges1 tapering above4 ,syconium1 the fig-fruit1 #abd4 ,sylvestrine1 growing in woods4 ,symmetrical ,flower1 similar in the number of parts of each set1 #hb4 ,sympetalous1 same as gamopetalous4 ,sympode1 ,sympodium1 a stem composed of a series of superposed branches in such a way as to imitate a simple axis1 as in ,grape-vine4 ,synantherous or ,syngenesious1 where stamens are united by their anthers1 #ajj4 ,syncarpous 7fruit or pistil71 composed of several carpels consolidated into one4 ,synonym1 an equivalent superseded name4 ,synsepalous1 same as gamosepalous4 ,system 7artificial and natural71 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,systematic ,botany1 the study of plants after their kinds1 #i4 ,tabescent1 wasting or shrivelling4 ,tail1 any long and slender prolongation of an organ4 ,taper-pointed1 same as acuminate1 #ed4 ,tap-root1 a root with a stout tapering body1 #cb-ce4 ,tawny1 dull yellowish1 with a tinge of brown4 ,taxonomy1 the part of botany which treats of classification4 ,tegmen1 a name for the inner seed-coat4 ,tendril1 a thread-shaped organ used for climbing1 #dj4 ,terete1 long and round2 same as cylindrical1 only it may taper4 ,terminal1 borne at1 or belonging to1 the extremity or summit4 ,terminology treats of technical terms2 same as ,glossology1 #aha4 ,ternate1 ,ternately1 in threes4 ,tessellate1 in checker-work4 ,testa1 the outer 7and usually the harder7 coat or shell of the seed1 #abe4 ,testaceous1 the color of unglazed pottery4 ,tetra- 7in words of ,greek composition71 four2 as1 ,tetracoccous1 of four cocci4 ,tetradynamous1 where a flower has six stamens1 two shorter than the four1 #aja4 ,tetragonal1 four-angled4 ,tetragynous1 with four pistils or styles4 ,tetramerous1 with its parts or sets in fours4 ,tetrandrous1 with four stamens1 #ajj4 ,tetraspore1 a quadruple spore1 #afi4 ,thalamaflorous1 with petals and stamens inserted on the torus or ,thalamus4 ,thallophyta1 ,thallophytes1 #afe4 ,thallus1 a stratum1 in place of stem and leaves1 #afe4 ,theca1 a case2 the cells or lobes of the anther4 ,thecaphore1 the stipe of a carpel1 #aac4 ,thorn1 an indurated pointed branch1 #da1 #db4 ,thread-shaped1 slender and round or roundish1 like a thread4 ,throat1 the opening or gorge of a monopetalous corolla1 c41 where the border and the tube join1 and a little below1 #hi4 ,thyrse or ,thyrsus1 a compact and pyramidal panicle of cymes or cymules1 #gi4 ,tomentose1 clothed with matted woolly hairs 7tomentum74 ,tongue-shaped1 long and flat1 but thickish and blunt4 ,toothed1 furnished with teeth or short projections of any sort on the margin2 used especially when these are sharp1 like saw-teeth1 and do not point forwards1 #ee4 ,top-shaped1 shaped like a top1 or a cone with apex downwards4 ,torose1 ,torulose1 knobby2 where a cylindrical body is swollen at intervals4 ,torus1 the receptacle of the flower1 #ha1 #aab4 ,trachea1 a spiral duct4 ,trachys1 ,greek for rough2 used in compounds1 as1 ,trachyspermous1 rough-seeded4 ,transverse1 across1 standing right and left instead of fore and aft4 ,tri- 7in composition71 three2 as1 ,triadelphous1 stamens united by their filaments into three bundles1 #ii4 ,triandrous1 where the flower has three stamens1 #aab4 ,tribe1 #agh4 ,trichome1 of the nature of hair or pubescence4 ,trichotomous1 three-forked4 ,tricoccous1 of three cocci or roundish carpels4 ,tricolor1 having three colors4 ,tricostate1 having three ribs4 ,tricuspidate1 three-pointed4 ,tridentate1 three-toothed4 ,triennial1 lasting for three years4 ,trifarious1 in three vertical rows2 looking three ways4 ,trifid1 three-cleft1 #ef4 ,trifoliate1 three-leaved4 ,trifoliolate1 of three leaflets4 ,trifurcate1 three-forked4 ,trigonous1 three-angled1 or triangular4 ,trigynous1 with three pistils or styles1 #aaf4 ,trijugate1 in three pairs 7jugi74 ,trilobed or ,trilobate1 three-lobed1 #ee4 ,trilocular1 three-celled1 as the pistils or pods in fig4 #cbh-ccj4 ,trimerous1 with its parts in threes4 ,trimorphism1 #aag4 ,trimorphic or ,trimorphous1 in three forms4 ,trinervate1 three-nerved1 or with three slender ribs4 ,trioecious1 where there are three sorts of flowers on the same or different individuals1 as in ,red ,maple4 ,a form of ,polygamous4 ,tripartible1 separable into three pieces4 ,tripartite1 three-parted1 #ee4 ,tripetalous1 having three petals4 ,triphyllous1 three-leaved2 composed of three pieces4 ,tripinnate1 thrice pinnate1 #ei4 ,tripinnatifid1 thrice pinnately cleft1 #eg4 ,triple-ribbed1 ,triple-nerved1 c41 where a midrib branches into three1 near the base of the leaf4 ,triquetrous1 sharply three-angled2 and especially with the sides concave1 like a bayonet4 ,triserial1 or ,triseriate1 in three rows1 under each other4 ,tristichous1 in three longitudinal or perpendicular ranks4 ,tristigmatic1 or ,tristigmatose1 having three stigmas4 ,trisulcate1 three-grooved4 ,triternate1 three times ternate1 #ei4 ,trivial ,name1 the specific name4 ,trochlear1 pulley-shaped4 ,trumpet-shaped1 tubular2 enlarged at or towards the summit4 ,truncate1 as if cut off at the top4 ,trunk1 the main stem or general body of a stem or tree4 ,tube 7of corolla1 c471 #hi4 ,tuber1 a thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch1 provided with eyes 7buds7 on the sides1 #dd4 ,tubercle1 a small excrescence4 ,tubercled1 or ,tuberculate1 bearing excrescences or pimples4 ,tubaeform1 trumpet-shaped4 ,tuberous1 resembling a tuber4 ,tuberiferous1 bearing tubers4 ,tubular1 hollow and of an elongated form2 hollowed like a pipe1 #ia4 ,tubuliflorous1 bearing only tubular flowers4 ,tunicate1 coated2 invested with layers1 as an onion1 #df4 ,turbinate1 top-shaped4 ,turio 7plural turiones71 strong young shoots or suckers springing out of the ground2 as ,asparagus-shoots4 ,turnip-shaped1 broader than high1 abruptly narrowed below1 #ce4 ,twining1 ascending by coiling round a support1 #ci4 ,type1 the ideal pattern1 #aj4 ,typical1 well exemplifying the characteristics of a species1 genus1 c4 ,uliginose1 growing in swamps4 ,umbel1 the umbrella-like form of inflorescence1 #gd4 ,umbellate1 in umbels4 ,umbelliferous1 bearing umbels4 ,umbellet 7umbellula71 a secondary or partial umbel1 #gf4 ,umbilicate1 depressed in the centre1 like the ends of an apple2 with a navel4 ,umbonate1 bossed2 furnished with a low1 rounded projection like a boss 7umbo74 ,umbraculiform1 umbrella-shaped4 ,unarmed1 destitute of spines1 prickles1 and the like4 ,uncial1 an inch 7uncia7 in length4 ,uncinate1 or ,uncate1 hook-shaped2 hooked over at the end4 ,under-shrub1 partially shrubby1 or a very low shrub4 ,undulate or ,undate1 wavy1 or wavy-margined1 #ee4 ,unequally pinnate1 pinnate with an odd number of leaflets1 #fe4 ,unguiculate1 furnished with a claw 7unguis71 #ia4 ,uni-1 in compound words1 one2 as ,unicellular1 one-celled4 ,uniflorous1 one-flowered4 ,unifoliate1 one-leaved4 ,unifoliolate1 of one leaflet1 #ei4 ,unijugate1 of one pair4 ,unilabiate1 one-lipped4 ,unilateral1 one-sided4 ,unilocular1 one-celled4 ,uniovulate1 having only one ovule4 ,uniserial1 in one horizontal row4 ,unisexual1 having stamens or pistils only1 #he4 ,univalved1 a pod of only one piece after dehiscence4 ,unsymmetrical ,flowers1 #hf4 ,urceolate1 urn-shaped4 ,utricle1 a small thin-walled1 one-seeded fruit1 as of ,goosefoot1 #aba4 ,utricular1 like a small bladder4 ,vaginate1 sheathed1 surrounded by a sheath 7vagina74 ,valve1 one of the pieces 7or doors7 into which a dehiscent pod1 or any similar body1 splits1 #abb1 #abc4 ,valvate1 ,valvular1 opening by valves4 ,valvate1 in aestivation1 #ig4 ,variety1 #agf4 ,vascular1 containing vessels1 or consisting of vessels or ducts1 #acd4 ,vascular ,cryptogams1 #aef4 ,vaulted1 arched2 same as fornicate4 ,vegetable ,life1 c41 #abh4 ,vegetable anatomy1 #abi4 ,veins1 the small ribs or branches of the framework of leaves1 c41 #di1 #ej4 ,veined1 ,veiny1 furnished with evident veins4 ,veinless1 destitute of veins4 ,veinlets1 the smaller ramifications of veins1 #ej4 ,velate1 furnished with a veil4 ,velutinous1 velvety to the touch4 ,venation1 the veining of leaves1 c41 #ej4 ,venenate1 poisonous4 ,venose1 veiny2 furnished with conspicuous veins4 ,ventral1 belonging to that side of a simple pistil1 or other organ1 which looks towards the axis or centre of the flower2 the opposite of dorsal2 as the ,ventral ,suture1 #ajf4 ,ventricose1 inflated or swelled out on one side4 ,venulose1 furnished with veinlets4 ,vermicular1 worm-like1 shaped like worms4 ,vernal1 belonging to spring4 ,vernation1 the arrangement of the leaves in the bud1 #ga4 ,vernicose1 the surface appearing as if varnished4 ,verrucose1 warty2 beset with little projections like warts4 ,versatile1 attached by one point1 so that it may swing to and fro1 #aja4 ,vertex1 same as apex4 ,vertical1 upright1 perpendicular to the horizon1 lengthwise4 ,verticil1 a whorl1 #fh4 ,verticillate1 whorled1 #fh4 ,verticillaster1 a false whorl1 formed of a pair of opposite cymes4 ,vesicular1 bladdery4 ,vespertine1 appearing or expanding at evening4 ,vessels1 ducts1 c41 #acd4 ,vexillary1 ,vexillar1 relating to the ,vexillum1 the standard of a papilionaceous flower1 #ib4 ,villose1 shaggy with long and soft hairs 7,villosity74 ,vimineous1 producing slender twigs1 such as those used for wicker-work4 ,vine1 in the ,american use1 any trailing or climbing stem2 as a ,grape-vine4 ,virescent1 ,viridescent1 greenish2 turning green4 ,virgate1 wand-shape2 as a long1 straight1 and slender twig4 ,viscous1 ,viscid1 having a glutinous surface4 ,vitta 7plural vittae71 the oil-tubes of the fruit of ,umbelliferae4 ,vitelline1 yellow1 of the hue of yolk of egg4 ,viviparous1 sprouting or germinating while attached to the parent plant4 ,voluble1 twining2 as the stem of ,hops and ,beans1 #ci4 ,volute1 rolled up in any way4 ,wavy1 the surface or margin alternately convex and concave1 #ee4 ,waxy1 resembling beeswax in texture or appearance4 ,wedge-shaped1 broad above1 tapering by straight lines to a narrow base1 #ec4 ,wheel-shaped1 #hi4 ,whorl1 an arrangement of leaves1 c41 in circles around the stem4 ,whorled1 arranged in whorls1 #fh4 ,wing1 any membranous expansion4 ,wings of papilionaceous flowers1 #ib4 ,winged1 furnished with a wing2 as the fruit of ,ash and ,elm1 fig4 #cjj1 #cja4 ,wood1 #acc1 #adb4 ,woody1 of the texture or consisting of wood4 ,woody ,fibre1 or ,wood-,cells1 #acd4 ,woolly1 clothed with long and entangled soft hairs4 ,work in plants1 #adi1 #aee4 ,xanthos1 ,greek for yellow1 used in compounds2 as ,xanthocarpus1 yellow-fruited4 ,zygomorphous1 said of a flower which can be bisected only in one plane into similar halves4 ,transcriber's ,notes4 ,in the ,latin-#a text version1 the oe-ligature was simply replaced by the two separate characters4 ,other non-,latin-#a symbols were replaced by ,symbol 4441 where the ellipsis was replaced by an explanation of the symbol4 ,the occurrence of the ,greek delta character in the glossary for ,deltoid was replaced by ,delta4 ,spelling variants where it wasn't possible to determine the author's intent were left as is4 ,these include3 backbone and back-bone2 ,buttonwood and ,button-wood2 cross section and cross-section2 footstalk and foot-stalk2 network and net-work2 ,paeony and ,peony2 peapod and pea-pod1 plus plurals2 penniveined and penni-veined1 plus capitalized versions2 ,sapwood and ,sap-wood2 ,snowball and ,snow-ball2 ,verticil and ,verticel2 ,woodsorrel and ,wood-sorrel4 ,changed ,venation to ,vernation on page vi3 ,vernation or ,praefoliation4 ,changed ,isoetes to ,isoetes on page viii3 ,quillworts 7,isoetes74 ,changed liquifies to liquefies on page #ba3 as it liquefies4 ,changed frame-work to framework on page #eb3 the framework or skeleton4 ,changed leafstalk to leaf-stalk in three places3 the caption to figure #gd2 on page #ga3 bent upon the leaf-stalk2 in the index entry for ,petiolulate4 ,changed ,honey ,locust to ,honey-,locust in the caption to figure #ie3 branching thorn of ,honey-,locust4 ,page #dg has a reference to ,fig4 #hi1 which does not seem to follow from the text4 ,fig4 #hj would make more sense1 but the original was not changed4 ,removed extra comma before closing parenthesis on page #ea3 the ,maple 7,fig4 #bj1 #bd74 ,changed ,linnaeus to ,linnaeus on page #ej3 ,linnaeus called ,nerves4 ,changed ,sugar-,maple to ,sugar ,maple on page #eh3 that of the ,sugar ,maple4 ,changed quadrifoliate to quadrifoliolate on page #ei3 trifoliolate1 quadrifoliolate1 plurifoliolate4 ,the reference to ,fig4 #afg on page #fd is probably intended to refer to ,fig4 #aeg1 but was not changed4 ,the caption to figure #ahf says that this is a two-ranked arrangement4 ,although it's clear from the text and figure that this is actually a three-ranked arrangement1 the original text was preserved4 ,changed colon to semi-colon in the caption to figure #bai3 a1 filament2 b1 anther4 ,changed comma to period after ,fig4 #bed in its caption4 ,changed ,funnel-form to ,funnelform on page #ij3 ,funnel-shaped1 or ,funnelform4 ,inserted closing parenthesis in caption to figure #cjd3 ,of a ,sage 7,salvia ,texana74 ,changed ,butter cup to ,buttercup on page #abj3 fruit of the ,buttercup4 ,changed carpophorse to carpophore on page #aba3 a slender axis or carpophore4 ,changed cocoanut to cocoa-nut on page #abb3 such as the cocoa-nut4 ,changed ,sepifragal to ,septifragal on page #abc3 ,septifragal dehiscence4 ,inserted missing text 7,fig4 on page #abh3 ,rice 7,fig4 #dcj;a74 ,perhaps the reference to unit #djh on page #acf should be to unit #djb2 but it was not changed4 ,changed ,white-,pine to ,white ,pine on page #adh3 ,white ,pine and ,basswood4 ,changed discovary to discovery on page #afj3 discovery of a wholly unsuspected kind4 ,changed sporo-carps to sporocarps in the caption to figure #ebj4 ,changed semi-colon to period after microspores in the caption to figure #ebb4 ,changed ,lepreiurei to ,leprieurei in the caption to figure #efa4 ,changed ,sun-flowers to ,sunflowers on page #ahg3 ,sunflowers and ,thistles4 ,changed symbol for ,earth to symbol for ,male on page #ahi in unit #eha3 ,to indicate sexes1 ,symbol for ,male means staminate4 ,preserved the order of the index entries1 even though they aren't strictly alphabetical4 ,removed extra comma after ,amphitropous in its index entry4 ,the index references for ,anemophilous and ,entomophilous should probably be #aae1 rather than #aac1 but were not changed4 ,the index reference for ,antheridium should probably be #aei1 rather than #aej1 but was not changed4 ,changed short-fluited to short-fruited in the index entry for ,brachy-4 ,the index references for ,caulescent and ,cauline should probably be #ch1 rather than #cf1 but were not changed4 ,the index reference for ,cladophylla should probably be #fa1 rather than #fd1 but was not changed4 ,the index reference for ,dotted ,ducts should probably be #acd1 rather than #adh1 but was not changed4 ,changed trifoliate to trifoliolate in the index entry for ,foliolate4 ,changed #f to #ac in the index entry for ,gemmule4 ,the index references for ,hemitropous and ,heterotropous should probably be #aaa1 rather than #abc1 but were not changed4 ,the index reference for ,hortus ,siccus was changed from #bja to #ahf4 ,the index reference for ,incised should probably be #ee1 rather than #eh1 but was not changed4 ,the index reference for ,jointed is #fd1 and was not changed even though it does not seem to make sense4 ,better candidates include #eg and #abb4 ,the index references for ,laticiferous and ,milk-vessels were changed from #ach to #ace4 ,changed the last index reference for ,ligule from #eg to #fg2 also the reference for ,ocreate4 ,changed comma to semi-colon after #hf in the index entry for ,naked4 ,the index reference for ,panicle should probably be #gf1 rather than #ha1 but was not changed4 ,the index references for ,pentandrous and ,triandrous should probably be #ajj1 rather than #aab1 but were not changed4 ,changed leaf stalk to leaf-stalk in its index entry1 as well as the index entry for ,petiole4 ,the index reference for ,pinnule should probably be #ei1 rather than #ff1 but was not changed4 ,the index reference for ,seed-vessel should probably be #aag1 rather than #abg1 but was not changed4 ,the second index reference for ,starch is #afc1 and was not changed even though it does not seem to make sense4 ,changed one to on in the index entry for ,stipules3 appendages on each side4 ,the index reference to page #cg for ,suffruticose doesn't seem to make sense1 but was left as is4 ,the index reference for ,trigynous should probably be #aje1 rather than #aaf1 but was not changed4 ,the index reference for ,unequally ,pinnate should probably be #eh1 rather than #fe1 but was not changed4