,,historic ,,highways ,,of ,,america ,,volume #ae ,illustration3 ,general ,roy ,stone 7,father of the good-roads movement in the ,united ,states7 ,,historic ,,highways ,,of ,,america ,,volume #ae ,the ,future of ,road-making in ,america ,a ,symposium ,,by ,,archer ,,butler ,,hulbert and others ,with ,illustrations ,illustration ,,the ,,arthur ,h4 ,,clark ,,company ,,cleveland1 ,,ohio #aije ,,copyright1 #aije ,,by ,,the ,,arthur ,h4 ,,clark ,,company ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,,contents ,,page ,,preface #aa ,i4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,road-,,making ,,in ,,america #ae ,,ii4 ,,government ,,cooperation ,,in ,,object-,,lesson ,,road ,,work #fg ,,iii4 ,,good ,,roads ,,for ,,farmers #ha ,,iv4 ,,the ,,selection ,,of ,,materials ,,for ,,macadam ,,roads #agj ,v4 ,,stone ,,roads ,,in ,,new ,,jersey #aij ,,illustrations ,i4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,general ,,roy ,,stone 7father of the good-roads movement in the ,united ,states7 ,frontispiece ,,ii4 ,a ,,good-,,roads ,,train #ei ,,iii4 ,,sample ,,steel ,,track ,,for ,,common ,,roads 7showing portrait of ,hon4 ,martin ,dodge7 #ff ,,iv4 ,,typical ,,macadam ,,road ,,near ,,bryn ,,mawr1 ,,pennsylvania #hc ,v4 ,a ,,study ,,in ,,grading #hi ,,vi4 ,,sand ,,clay ,,road ,,in ,,richland ,,county1 ,,south ,,carolina #aae ,,vii4 ,,gravel ,,road ,,near ,,soldiers' ,,home1 ,,district ,,of ,,columbia #abg ,,viii4 ,,oyster-,,shell ,,object-,,lesson ,,road #acg ,,ix4 ,,earth ,,and ,,macadam ,,roads #afh ,,preface ,the present volume on the ,future of ,road-making in ,america presents representative opinions1 from laymen and specialists1 on the subject of the road question as it stands today4 ,after the author's sketch of the question as a whole in its sociological as well as financial aspects1 there follows the ,hon4 ,martin ,dodge's paper on ,government ,cooperation in ,object-lesson ,road ,work4 ,the third chapter comprises a reprint of ,hon4 ,maurice ,o4 ,eldridge's careful article1 ,good ,roads for ,farmers1 revised by the author for this volume4 ,professor ,logan ,waller ,page's paper on ,the ,selection of ,materials for ,macadam ,roads composes chapter four1 and ,e4 ,g4 ,harrison's article on ,stone ,roads in ,new ,jersey concludes the book1 being specially valuable because of the advanced position ,new ,jersey has taken in the matter of road-building4 ,for illustrations to this volume the author is indebted to the ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries1 ,hon4 ,martin ,dodge1 ,director4 ,a4 ,b4 ,h4 ,,marietta1 ,,ohio1 ,may #ca1 #aijd4 ,the ,future of ,road-making in ,america ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,road-,,making ,,in ,,america ,in introducing the subject of the future of road-making in ,america1 it may first be observed that there is to be a future in road-building on this continent4 ,we have today probably the poorest roads of any civilized nation2 although1 considering the extent of our roads1 which cover perhaps a million and a half miles1 we of course have the best roads of any nation of similar age4 ,as we have elsewhere shown1 the era of railway building eclipsed the great era of road and canal building in the third and fourth decades of the old century1 and it is interesting to note that freight rates on ,american railways today are cheaper than on any railways in any other country of the world4 ,to move a ton of freight in ,england one hundred miles today1 you pay two dollars and thirty cents2 in ,germany1 two dollars2 in ,france1 one dollar and seventy-five cents2 in poor downtrodden ,russia1 one dollar and thirty cents4 ,but in ,america it costs on the average only seventy-two cents4 ,this is good1 but it does not by any means answer all the conditions2 the average ,american farm is located today--even with our vast network of railways--at least ten miles from a railroad station4 ,now railway building has about reached its limit so far as mileage is concerned in this country2 in the words of ,stuyvesant ,fish1 president of the ,illinois ,central ,railroad ,company1 we have in the ,united ,states generally1 a sufficiency of railroads4 ,thus the average farm is left a dozen miles from a railway1 and in all probability will be that far away a century from now4 ,and note3 seventy-five per cent of the commerce of the world starts for its destination on wagon roads1 and we pay annually in the ,united ,states six hundred million dollars freightage to get our produce over our highways from the farms to the railways4 ,let me restate these important facts3 the average ,american farm is ten miles from a railway2 the railways have about reached their limit of growth territorially2 and we pay six hundred million dollars every year to get the seventy-five per cent of our raw material and produce from our farms to our railways4 ,this is the main proposition of the good roads problem1 and the reason why the road question is to be one of the great questions of the next half century4 ,the question is1 ,how much can we save of this half a billion dollars1 at the least expenditure of money and in the most beneficial way8 ,in this problem1 as in many1 the most important phase is the one most difficult to study and most difficult to solve4 ,it is as complex as human life itself4 ,it is the question of good roads as they affect the social and moral life of our rural communities4 ,it is easy to talk of bad roads costing a half billion dollars a year--the answer should be that of ,hood's--,o ,god6 that bread should be so dear1 and flesh and blood so cheap4 ,you cannot count in terms of the stock exchange the cost to this land of poor roads2 for poor roads mean the decay of country living1 the abandonment of farms and farm-life1 poor schools1 poor churches1 and homes stricken with a social poverty that drives the young men and girls into the cities4 ,you cannot estimate the cost to this country1 in blood1 brain1 and muscle1 of the hideous system of public roads we have possessed in the decade passed4 ,look at any of our cities to the men who guide the swift rush of commercial1 social1 and religious affairs and you will find men whose birthplaces are not preparing another such generation of men for the work of the future4 ,for instance1 bad roads and good schools are incompatible4 ,the coming generation of strong men and strong women is crying out now for good roads4 ,there is a close and permanent relation1 said ,alabama's superintendent of education1 existing between good public roads and good public schools4 ,there can be no good country schools in the absence of good country roads4 ,let us be encouraged by this movement looking toward an improvement in road-building and road-working4 ,i see in it a better day for the boys and girls who must look to the country schools for citizenship4 ,i have been longing for years1 said ,president ,jesse of the ,university of ,missouri1 to stump the capital state1 if necessary1 in favor of the large consolidated schoolhouse rather than the single schoolhouses sitting at the crossroads4 ,but the wagons could not get two hundred yards in most of our counties4 ,therefore ,i have had to smother my zeal1 hold my tongue1 and wait for the consolidated schoolhouse until ,missouri wakes to the necessity of good roads4 ,then not only shall we have consolidated schoolhouses1 but also the principal of the school and his wife will live in the school building1 or in one close by4 ,the library and reading-room of the school will be the library and reading-room of the neighborhood4444 ,the main assembly room of the consolidated schoolhouse will be an assembly place for public lectures4444 ,i am in favor of free text-books1 but ,i tell you here and now that free text-books are a trifle compared with good roads and the consolidated schoolhouse4 ,it is found that school attendance in states where good roads abound is from twenty-five to fifty per cent greater than in states which have not good roads4 ,how long will it take for the consolidated schoolhouse and increased and regular attendance to be worth half a billion dollars to ,american men and women of the next generation8 ,this applies with equal pertinency to what ,i might call the consolidated church2 good roads make it possible for a larger proportion of country residents to enjoy the superior advantages of the splendid city churches2 in fact good roads have in certain instances been held guilty of destroying the little country church4 ,this could be true within only a small radius of the cities1 and the advantages to be gained outweigh1 ,i am sure1 the loss occasioned by the closing of small churches within a dozen miles of our large towns and cities--churches which1 in many cases1 have only occasional services and are a constant financial drain on the city churches4 ,farther out in the country1 good roads will make possible one strong1 healthy church where perhaps half a dozen weak organizations are made to lead a precarious existence because bad roads make large congregations impossible throughout the larger part of the year4 ,this also applies to city schools1 libraries1 hospitals1 museums1 and lyceums4 ,good roads will place these advantages within reach of millions of country people who now know little or nothing of them4 ,once beyond driving distance of the cities1 good roads will make it possible for thousands to reach the suburban railways and trolley lines4 ,who can estimate in mere dollars these advantages to the quality of ,american citizenship a century hence8 ,american farms are taxed by the government and pay one-half of the seven hundred million dollars it takes yearly to operate this government4 ,after receiving one-half1 what per cent does the government return to them8 ,only ten per cent4 ,ninety per cent goes to the direct or indirect benefit of those living in our cities4 ,where does the government build its fine buildings1 where does it spend its millions on rivers and harbors8 ,how much does it expend to ease this burden of six hundred millions which lies so largely on the farmers of ,america8 ,a few years ago a law was passed granting #ej1jjj to investigate a plan to deliver mail on rural delivery routes to our farmers and country residents4 ,the law was treated about as respectfully as the long-headed ,jesse ,hawley who wrote a series of articles advocating the building of the ,erie ,canal2 a certain paper printed a few of them1 but the editor sent the remainder back saying he could not use them--they were making his sheet an object of ridicule4 ,eighteen years later the canal was built and in the first year brought in a revenue of #dib1ffd4 ,so with the first ,rural ,free ,delivery appropriation--the postmaster general to whose hands that first #ej1jjj was entrusted for experimental purposes1 refused to try it and sent the money back to the treasury4 ,today the ,rural ,free ,delivery is an established fact1 of immeasurable benefit2 and if any of the appropriations for it are not expended it is not because they are being sent back to the treasury by scrupulous officials4 ,rural delivery routes diverge from our towns and cities and give the country people the advantages of a splendid post office system4 ,good roads to these cities would give them a score of advantages where now they have but this one4 ,like rural delivery it may seem impracticable1 but in a short space of time ,america will leap forward in the front rank of the nations in point of good highways4 ,an execrable road system1 besides bringing poor schools and poor churches1 has rendered impossible any genuine community of social interests among country people4 ,at the very season when the farm work is light and social intercourse feasible1 at that season the highways have been impassable4 ,to this and the poor schools and churches may be attributed the saddest and really most costly social revolution in ,america in the past quarter of a century4 ,the decline of country living must in the nature of things prove disastrously costly to any nation4 ,the roar of the cannon and the gleam of swords1 wrote that brilliant apostle of outdoor life1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,h4 ,murray1 is less significant than the destruction of ,new ,england homesteads1 the bricking up of ,new ,england fireplaces and the doing away with the ,new ,england well-sweep2 for these show a change in the nature of the circulation itself1 and prove that the action of the popular heart has been interrupted1 modified and become altogether different from what it was4 ,in the popular mind the benefits of country living are common only as a fad2 the boy who goes to college and returns to the farm again is one of a thousand4 ,who wants to be landlocked five months of the year1 without social advantages8 ,good roads1 in one generation1 would accomplish a social revolution throughout the ,united ,states that would greatly tend to better our condition and brighten the prospect of future strength4 ,president ,winston of the ,north ,carolina ,state ,college of ,agriculture said3 ,it might be demonstrated beyond a reasonable doubt that bad roads are unfavorable to matrimony and increase of population4 ,seven of the most stalwart lads and beautiful lasses of ,greece were sent each year to ,crete to be sacrificed to the ,minotaur2 bad roads in ,america send thousands of boys and girls into our cities to the ,minotaurs of evil because conditions in the country do not make for the social happiness for which they naturally yearn4 ,thus we may hint at the greater1 more serious1 phase of the road problem4 ,beside it1 the financial feature of the problem can have no place2 the farm has been too much to the ,american nation1 its product of boys and girls has been too eternally precious to the cause of liberty for which our nation stands1 to permit a system of highways on this continent which will make it a place where now in the twentieth century foreigners1 only1 can be happy4 ,the sociological side of the road question is of more moment today in this country1 so far as the health of our body politic in the future is concerned1 than nine-tenths of the questions most prominent in the two political platforms that come annually before the people4 ,william ,jennings ,bryan1 when addressing the ,good ,roads ,convention at ,st4 ,louis in #aijc1 said3 ,it is a well-known fact1 or a fact easily ascertained1 that the people in the country1 while paying their full share of county1 state1 and federal taxes1 receive as a rule only the general benefits of government1 while the people in the cities have1 in addition to the protection afforded by the ,government1 the advantage arising from the expenditure of public moneys in their midst4 ,the county seat of a county1 as a rule1 enjoys the refreshing influence of an expenditure of county money out of proportion to its population4 ,the capital of a state and the city where the state institutions are located1 likewise receive the benefit of an expenditure of public money out of proportion to their population4 ,when we come to consider the distribution of the moneys collected by the ,federal ,government1 we find that the cities1 even in a larger measure1 monopolize the incidental benefits that arise from the expenditure of public moneys4 ,the appropriations of the last session of ,congress amounted to #gec1dhd1jah1 divided as follows3 ,agriculture #e1igh1afj ,army #gh1ach1geb ,diplomatic and consular service #a1ifh1bej ,district of ,columbia #h1fdg1dig ,fortifications #g1ahh1daf ,indians #h1eab1iej ,legislative1 executive1 and judicial departments #bg1eie1ieh ,military ,academy #efc1bdh ,navy #ha1hgg1bia ,pensions #aci1hdg1fjj ,post ,office ,department #aec1dja1dji ,sundry ,civil #hb1gbb1iee ,deficiencies #ba1efa1egb ,permanent annual #acb1ehi1hbj ,miscellaneous #c1bej1jjj ,it will be seen that the appropriation for the ,department of ,agriculture was insignificant when compared with the total appropriations--less than one per cent4 ,the appropriations for the ,army and ,navy alone amounted to twenty-five times the sum appropriated for the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,an analysis of the expenditures of the ,federal ,government will show that an exceedingly small proportion of the money raised from all the people gets back to the farmers directly2 how much returns indirectly it is impossible to say1 but certain it is that the people who live in the cities receive by far the major part of the special benefits that come from the showering of public money upon the community4 ,the advantage obtained locally from government expenditures is so great that the contests for county seats and state capitals usually exceed in interest1 if not in bitterness1 the contests over political principles and policies4 ,so great is the desire to secure an appropriation of money for local purposes that many will excuse a ,congressman's vote on either side of any question if he can but secure the expenditure of a large amount of public money in his district4 ,i emphasize this because it is a fact to which no reference has been made4 ,the point is that the farmer not only pays his share of the taxes1 but more than his share1 yet very little of what he pays gets back to him4 ,people in the city pay not only less than their share1 as a rule1 but get back practically all of the benefits that come from the expenditure of the people's money4 ,let me show you what ,i mean when ,i say that the farmer pays more than his share4 ,the farmer has visible property1 and under any form of direct taxation visible property pays more than its share4 ,why8 ,because the man with visible property always pays4 ,if he has an acre of land the assessor can find it4 ,he can count the horses and cattle4444 ,the farmer has nothing that escapes taxation2 and1 in all direct taxation1 he not only pays on all he has1 but the farmer who has visible property has to pay a large part of the taxes that ought to be paid by the owners of invisible property1 who escape taxation4 ,i repeat1 therefore1 that the farmer not only pays more than his share of all direct taxation1 but that when you come to expend public moneys you do not spend them on the farms1 as a rule4 ,you spend them in the cities1 and give the incidental benefits to the people who live in the cities4 ,when indirect taxation is considered1 the farmer's share is even more1 because when you come to collect taxes through indirection and on consumption1 you make people pay not in proportion to what they have but in proportion to what they need1 and ,god has so made us that the farmer needs as much as anybody else1 even though he may not have as much with which to supply his needs as other people4 ,in our indirect taxation1 therefore1 for the support of the ,federal ,government1 the farmers pay even more out of proportion to their wealth and numbers4 ,we should remember also that when we collect taxes through consumption we make the farmer pay not only on that which is imported1 but upon much of that which is produced at home4 ,thus the farmer's burden is not measured by what the treasury receives1 but is frequently many times what the treasury receives4 ,thus under indirect taxation the burden upon the farmer is greater than it ought to be2 yet when you trace the expenditure of public moneys distributed by the ,federal ,government you find that even in a larger measure special benefits go to the great cities and not to the rural communities4 ,the improvement of the country roads can be justified also on the ground that the farmer1 the first and most important of the producers of wealth1 ought to be in position to hold his crop and market it at the most favorable opportunity1 whereas at present he is virtually under compulsion to sell it as soon as it is matured1 because the roads may become impassable at any time during the fall1 winter1 or spring4 ,instead of being his own warehouseman1 the farmer is compelled to employ middlemen1 and share with them the profits upon his labor4 ,i believe1 as a matter of justice to the farmer1 he ought to have roads that will enable him to keep his crop and take it to the market at the best time1 and not place him in a position where they can run down the price of what he has to sell during the months he must sell1 and then1 when he has disposed of it1 run the price up and give the speculator what the farmer ought to have4 ,the farmer has a right to insist upon roads that will enable him to go to town1 to church1 to the schoolhouse1 and to the homes of his neighbors1 as occasion may require2 and1 with the extension of rural mail delivery1 he has additional need for good roads in order that he may be kept in communication with the outside world1 for the mail routes follow the good roads4 ,a great deal has been said1 and properly so1 in regard to the influence of good roads upon education4 ,in the convention held at ,raleigh1 ,north ,carolina1 the account of which ,i had the pleasure of reading1 great emphasis was placed upon the fact that you can not have a school system such as you ought to have unless the roads are in condition for the children to go to school4 ,while we are building great libraries in the great cities we do not have libraries in the country2 and there ought to be a library in every community4 ,instead of laying upon the farmer the burden of buying his own books1 we ought to make it possible for the farmers to have the same opportunity as the people in the city to use books in common1 and thus economize on the expense of a library4 ,i agree with ,professor ,jesse in regard to the consolidation of schoolhouses in such a way as to give the child in the country the same advantages which the child in the city has4 ,we have our country schools1 but it is impossible in any community to have a well-graded school with only a few pupils1 unless you go to great expense4 ,in cities1 when a child gets through the graded school he can remain at home1 and1 without expense to himself or his parents1 go on through the high school4 ,but if the country boy or girl desires to go from the graded school to the high school1 as a rule it is necessary to go to the county seat and there board with some one2 so the expense to the country child is much greater than to the child in the city4 ,i was glad1 therefore1 to hear ,professor ,jesse speak of such a consolidation of schools as will give to the children in the country advantages equal to those enjoyed by the children of the city4 ,and as you study this subject1 you find it reaches out in every direction2 it touches us at every vital point4 ,what can be of more interest to us than the schooling of our children8 ,what can be of more interest to every parent than bringing the opportunity of educational instruction within the reach of every child8 ,it does not matter whether a man has children himself or not4444 ,every citizen of a community is interested in the intellectual life of that community4 ,sometimes ,i have heard people complain that they were overburdened with taxes for the education of other people's children4 ,my friends1 the man who has no children can not afford to live in a community where there are children growing up in ignorance2 the man with none has the same duty as the man with many1 barring the personal pride of the parent4 ,i say1 therefore1 that anything that contributes to the general diffusion of knowledge1 anything that makes more educated boys and girls throughout our country1 is a matter of intense interest to every citizen1 whether he be the father of a family or not2 whether he lives in the country or in the town4 ,and ought not the people have the opportunity to attend church8 ,i am coming to believe that what we need in this country1 even more than education of the intellect1 is the education of the moral side of our nature4 ,i believe1 with ,jefferson1 that the church and the state should be separate4 ,i believe in religious freedom1 and ,i would not have any man's conscience fettered by act of law2 but ,i do believe that the welfare of this nation demands that man's moral nature shall be educated in keeping with his brain and with his body4 ,in fact1 ,i have come to define civilization as the harmonious development of the body1 the mind1 and the heart4 ,we make a mistake if we believe that this nation can fulfil its high destiny and mission either with mere athletes or mere scholars4 ,we need the education of the moral sense2 and if these good roads will enable men1 women1 and children to go more frequently to church1 and there hear expounded the gospel and receive inspiration therefrom1 that alone is reason enough for good roads4 ,there is a broader view of this question1 however1 that deserves consideration4 ,the farm is1 and always has been1 conspicuous because of the physical development it produces1 the intellectual strength it furnishes1 and the morality it encourages4 ,the young people in the country find health and vigor in the open air and in the exercise which farm life gives2 they acquire habits of industry and economy2 their work gives them opportunity for thought and reflection2 their contact with nature teaches them reverence1 and their environment promotes good habits4 ,the farms supply our colleges with their best students and they also supply our cities with leaders in business and professional life4 ,in the country there is neither great wealth nor great poverty--'the rich and the poor meet together' and recognize that 'the ,lord is the father of them all4' ,there is a fellowship1 and1 to use the word in its broadest sense1 a democracy in the country that is much needed today to temper public opinion and protect the foundations of free government4 ,a larger percentage of the people in the country than in the city study public questions1 and a smaller percentage are either corrupt or are corrupted4 ,it is important1 therefore1 for the welfare of our government and for the advancement of our civilization that we make life upon the farm as attractive as possible4 ,statistics have shown the constant increase in the urban population and the constant decrease in the rural population from decade to decade4 ,without treading upon controversial ground or considering whether this trend has been increased by legislation hostile to the farm1 it will be admitted that the government is in duty bound to guard jealously the interests of the rural population1 and1 as far as it can1 make farm life inviting4 ,in the employment of modern conveniences the city has considerably outstripped the country1 and naturally so1 for in a densely populated community the people can by cooperation supply themselves with water1 light1 and rapid transit at much smaller cost than they can in a sparsely settled country4 ,but it is evident that during the last few years much has been done to increase the comforts of the farm4 ,in the first place1 the rural mail delivery has placed millions of farmers in daily communication with the world4 ,it has brought not only the letter but the newspaper to the door4 ,its promised enlargement and extension will make it possible for the wife to order from the village store and have her purchases delivered by the mail-carrier4 ,the telephone has also been a great boon to the farmer4 ,it lessens by one-half the time required to secure a physician in case of accident or illness--an invention which every mother can appreciate4 ,the extension of the electric-car line also deserves notice4 ,it is destined to extend the borders of the city and to increase the number of small farms at the expense of flats and tenement houses4 ,the suburban home will bring light and hope to millions of children4 ,but after all this1 there still remains a pressing need for better country roads4 ,as long as mud placed an embargo upon city traffic1 the farmer could bear his mud-made isolation with less complaint1 but with the improvement of city streets and with the establishment of parks and boulevards1 the farmer's just demands for better roads find increasing expression4 ,the late brilliant congressman1 ,hon4 ,thomas ,h4 ,tongue of ,oregon1 left on record a few paragraphs on the sociological effect of good roads that ought to be preserved3 ,good roads do not concern our pockets only4 ,they may become the instrumentalities for improved health1 increased happiness and pleasure1 for refining tastes1 strengthening1 broadening1 and elevating the character4 ,the toiler in the great city must have rest and recreation4 ,old and young1 and especially the young1 with character unformed1 must and will sweeten the daily labor with some pleasure4 ,it is not the hours of industry1 but the hours devoted to pleasure1 that furnish the devil his opportunity4 ,it is not while we are at work but while we are at play that temptations steal over the senses1 put conscience to sleep1 despoil manhood1 and destroy character4 ,healthful and innocent recreations and pleasure are national needs and national blessings4 ,they are among the most important instrumentalities of moral reform4 ,they are as essential to purity of mind and soul as to healthfulness of body4 ,out beyond the confines of the city1 with its dust and dirt and filth1 morally and physically1 these are to be found1 and good roads help to find them4 ,what peace and inspiration may come from flowers and music1 brooks and waterfalls6 ,how the mountains pointing heavenward1 yesterday battling with storms1 today bathed with sunshine1 bid you stand firm1 walk erect1 look upward1 cherish hope1 and for light and guidance to call upon the ,creator of all light and of all wisdom6 ,how such scenes as these kindle the imagination of the poet1 quicken and enlarge the conception of the artist1 fire the soul of the orator1 purify and elevate us all6 ,but if love of action rather than contemplation and reflection tempts you1 how the blood thrills and the spirits rise as one springs lightly into the saddle1 caresses the slender neck of an equine beauty1 grasps firmly the reins1 bids farewell to the impurities of the city1 and dashes into the hills and the valleys and the mountains to commune with nature and nature's ,god4 ,or what joy more exquisite than with pleasant companionship to dash along the smooth highway1 drawn by a noble ,american trotter8 ,what poor city scenes can so inspire poetic feeling1 can so increase the love of the beautiful1 can so elevate and broaden and strengthen the character1 and so inspire us with reverence for the great ,father of us all8 ,but for the full enjoyment of such pleasures good roads are indispensable4 ,another blessing to come with good roads will be the stimulus and encouragements to rural life1 farm life4 ,the present tendency of population to rush into the great cities makes neither for the health nor the character1 the intelligence nor the morals of the nation4 ,it has been said that no living man can trace his ancestry on both sides to four generations of city residents4 ,the brain and the brawn and the morals of the city are constantly replenished from the country4 ,the best home life is upon the farm1 and the most sacred thing in ,america is the ,american home4 ,it lies at the foundation of our institutions1 of our health1 of our character1 our prosperity1 our happiness1 here and hereafter4 ,the snares and pitfalls set for our feet are not near the home4 ,the pathways upon which stones are hardest and thorns sharpest are not those that lead to the sacred spot hallowed by a father's love and a mother's prayers4 ,the bravest and best of men1 the purest and holiest women1 are those who best love1 cherish1 and protect the home4 ,god guard well the ,american home1 and this done1 come all the powers of darkness and they shall not prevail against us4 ,fatherhood and motherhood are nowhere more sacred1 more holy1 or better beloved than upon the farm4 ,the ties of brotherhood and sisterhood are nowhere more sweet or tender4 ,the fair flower of patriotism there reaches its greatest perfection4 ,every battlefield that marks the world's progress1 the victory of liberty over tyranny or right over wrong1 has been deluged with the blood of farmers4 ,he evades neither the taxgatherer nor the recruiting officer4 ,he shirks the performance of no public duty4 ,in the hour of its greatest needs our country never called for help upon its stalwart yeomen when the cry was unheeded4 ,the sons and daughters of ,american farmers are filling the seminaries and colleges and universities of the land4 ,from the ,american farm home have gone in the past1 as they are going now1 leaders in literature1 the arts and sciences1 presidents of great universities1 the heads of great industrial enterprises1 governors of states1 and members of ,congress4 ,they have filled the benches of the supreme court1 the chairs of the cabinet1 and the greatest executive office in the civilized world4 ,our greatest jurist1 our greatest soldier1 our greatest orators1 ,webster and ,clay1 our three greatest presidents1 ,washington1 ,lincoln1 and ,mc,kinley1 were the product of rural homes4 ,the great presidents which ,virginia has given to the nation1 whose monuments are all around us1 whose remains rest in your midst1 whose fame is immortal1 drew life and inspiration from rural homes4 ,the typical ,american today is the ,american farmer4 ,the city life1 with its bustle and stir1 its hurry and rush1 its feverish anxiety for wealth1 position1 and rank in society1 its fretting over ceremonies and precedents1 is breaking down the health and intellect and the morals of its inhabitants4 ,these must be replenished from the rural home4 ,whatever shall tend to create a love for country life1 to decrease the rush for the city1 instil a desire to dwell in the society of nature1 will make for the health1 the happiness1 the refinement1 the moral and intellectual improvement of the people4 ,nothing will contribute more to this than the improvement of our common roads1 to facilitate the means of communication between one section of the country and the other1 and between all and the city4 99 99 99 99 99 ,turning now from the high plane of the social and moral effect of good roads1 let us look at the financial side of the question4 ,good roads pay well4 ,in urging good roads in ,virginia1 an official of the ,southern ,railway said that if good roads improved the value of lands only one dollar per acre1 the gain to the state by the improvement of all the roads would be twenty-five million dollars4 ,yet this is an inconceivably low estimate2 lands upon improved roads advance in value from four to twenty dollars per acre4 ,virginia could therefore expect a benefit from improved highways of at least one hundred million dollars--more than enough to improve her roads many times over4 ,indeed this matter of the increase in value of land occasioned by good roads can hardly be overestimated4 ,near all of our large towns and cities the land will advance until it is worth per foot what it was formerly worth per acre4 ,take ,mecklenburg ,county1 ,north ,carolina4 ,beginning in #ahhj to macadamize three or four miles of road a year with an annual fund of #aj1jjj1 the county now has over a hundred miles of splendid roads2 the county seat has increased in population from #e1jjj to #cj1jjj4 ,i know of a thirty-acre farm1 said ,president ,barringer of the ,university of ,virginia1 a native of that county1 that cost ten dollars an acre1 and forty-six dollars an acre has been refused for it1 and yet not a dollar has been put on it1 not even to fertilize it4 ,some of the farms five and six miles from town have quadrupled in value4 ,in ,alabama the same thing has been found true4 ,the result of building these roads1 said ,mayor ,drennen of ,birmingham1 is that the property adjoining them has more than doubled in value4 ,that wise financier1 ,d4 ,f4 ,francis1 ,president of the ,louisiana ,purchase ,exposition1 when suggesting that ,missouri would do well to bond herself for one hundred million to build good roads1 said3 ,the average increase in the value of the lands in ,missouri would be at least five dollars per acre4 ,taking ,president ,francis at his word1 the difference between the value of ,missouri before and after the era of good roads would buy up the four hundred and eighty-four state banks in ,missouri eleven times over4 ,what ,president ,francis estimates ,missouri would be worth with good roads over and above what her farms are now worth would buy all the goods that the city of ,st4 ,louis produces in a year4 ,in other words1 the estimated gain to ,missouri would be more than two hundred and twenty million dollars4 ,passing the increased value of lands1 look at the equally vital question of increased values of crops4 ,take first the crops that would be raised on lands not cultivated today but which would be cultivated in a day of good roads4 ,look at ,virginia1 where only one-third of the land is being cultivated2 the value of crops which it is certain would ultimately be raised on land that is now unproductive would amount to at least sixty million dollars4 ,the general passenger agent of the ,oregon ,railway and ,navigation ,company said recently that his lines were crying out for wheat to ship to ,china2 we have about reached the limit of our facilities2 twelve or fifteen miles is the only distance farmers can afford to haul their wheat to us4 ,make it possible for them to haul it double that distance and you will double the business of our railway4 ,and the business of local nature done by a railroad is a good criterion of the prosperity of the country in which it operates4 ,crops now raised on lands within reach of railways would of course be enhanced in value by good roads2 more loads could be taken at less cost2 weather interferences would not enter into the question4 ,but of more moment perhaps than anything else1 a vast amount of land thus placed within quick reach of our towns and cities would be given over to gardening for city markets1 a line of agriculture immensely profitable1 as city people well know4 ,the citizens of ,birmingham1 said the mayor of that city1 enjoy the benefits of fresh products raised on the farms along these improved roads4 ,the dairymen1 the truck farmers1 and others 444 are put in touch with our markets daily1 thereby receiving the benefits of any advance in farm products4 ,poor roads are like the interest on a debt1 and they are working against one all the time4 ,it is noticeable that when good roads are built1 farmers1 who are always conservative1 adjust themselves more readily to conditions4 ,they are in touch with the world and they feel more keenly its pulse1 much to their advantage4 ,too many farmers1 damned by bad roads1 are guilty of the faults of which ,birmingham's mayor accused ,alabama planters3 ,the farmers in this section1 he said1 are selling cotton today for less than seven cents per pound1 while they could have sold ,irish potatoes within the past few months at two dollars per bushel4 ,farmers over the entire country are held to be slow in taking advantage of their whole opportunities2 bad roads take the life out of them and out of their horses2 they think somewhat as they ride--desperately slow2 and they will not think faster until they ride faster4 ,it is said that a man riding on a heavy southern road saw a hat in the mud2 stopping to pick it up he was surprised to find a head of hair beneath it3 then a voice came out of the ground3 ,hold on1 boss1 don't take my hat2 ,i've got a powerful fine mule down here somewhere if ,i can ever get him out4 ,you can write and speak to farmers until doomsday about taking quick advantage of the exigencies of the markets that are dependent on them1 but if they have to hunt for their horses in a hog-wallow road all your talk will be in vain4 ,when we seriously face the question of how a fine system of highways is to be built in this country1 it is found to be a complex problem4 ,for about ten years now it has been seriously debated1 and these years have seen a large advance2 until now the problem has become almost national4 ,one great fundamental idea has been proposed and is now generally accepted by all who have paid the matter any attention1 and that is that those who live along our present roads cannot be expected to bear the entire cost of building good roads4 ,this may be said to be settled and need no debate4 ,practically all men are agreed that the rural population should not bear the entire expense of an improvement of which they1 however1 are to be the chief beneficiaries2 the state itself1 in all its parts1 benefits from the improved conditions which follow improved roads1 and should bear a portion of the expense4 ,do not think that city people escape the tax of bad roads4 ,in ,st4 ,louis four hundred thousand people consume five hundred tons of produce every day4 ,the cost of hauling this produce over bad roads averages twenty-five cents per mile and over good roads about ten cents per mile1 making a difference of fifteen cents per mile per ton4 ,for five hundred tons1 hauled from farms averaging ten miles distance1 this would be seven hundred and fifty dollars per day1 or a quarter of a million dollars a year--enough to build fifty miles of macadamized road a year4 ,the farmers shift as much as they can of their heavy tax on the city people--the consumer pays the freight4 ,everybody is concerned in the mud-tax of bad roads4 ,and so what is known as the state aid plan has become popular4 ,by this plan the state pays a fixed part of the cost of building roads out of the general fund raised by taxation of all the people and all the property in the state4 ,under these circumstances corporations1 railroads1 and the various representatives of the concentrated wealth of the cities all contribute to this fund4 ,the funds are expended in rural districts and are supplemented by money raised by local taxation4 ,the state of ,new ,york1 which has a good system1 pays one-half of the good roads fund2 each county pays thirty-five per cent1 and the township fifteen per cent4 ,pennsylvania has appropriated at one time six and a half millions as a good roads fund4 ,the new ,ohio law apportions the cost of new roads as follows3 ,the state pays twenty-five per cent1 the townships twenty-five per cent1 and the county fifty per cent4 ,of the twenty-five per cent paid by the townships fifteen per cent is to be paid by owners of abutting property and ten per cent by the township as a whole4 ,in ,new ,jersey1 which has a model system of road-building and many model roads1 the state pays a third1 the county a third1 and the property owners a third4 ,a more recent theory in ,american road-building which has been advanced is a plan of national aid4#a ,this is no new thing in ,america1 though it has been many years since the government has paid attention to roadways4 ,in the early days the wisest of our statesmen advocated large plans of internal improvement2 one great national road1 as we have seen1 was built by the ,war ,department from the ,potomac almost to the ,mississippi1 through ,wheeling1 ,columbus1 ,indianapolis and ,vandalia1 at a cost of over six million dollars4 ,and this famous national road was built1 in part1 upon an earlier pathway1 cut through ,ohio by ,ebenezer ,zane in #agif1 also at the order of ,congress1 and for which he received grants of land which formed the nucleus of the three thriving ,ohio cities1 ,zanesville1 ,lancaster1 and ,chillicothe4 ,the constitutionality of road-building by the government was questioned by some1 but that clause granting it the right to establish post-offices and post roads must1 in every view1 be a harmless power1 said ,james ,madison1 and may perhaps1 by judicious management1 become productive of great public conveniency4 ,nothing which tends to facilitate the intercourse between the states can be deemed unworthy of the public care4#b ,but the government was interested not only in building roads but in many other phases of public improvement2 it took stock in the ,chesapeake and ,ohio ,canal2 ,congress voted #cj1jjj to survey the ,chesapeake and ,ohio ,canal route1 and the work was done by government engineers4 ,when railways superseded highways1 the government was almost persuaded to complete the old ,national ,road with rails and ties instead of broken stone4 ,when the ,erie ,canal was proposed1 a vast scheme of government aid was favored by leading statesmen2#c the government has greatly assisted the western railways by gigantic grants of land worth one hundred and thirty-eight million dollars4 ,the vast funds of private capital that have been seeking investment in this country1 at first in turnpike1 plank1 and macadamized roads1 then in canals1 and later in railways1 has rendered government aid comparatively unnecessary4 ,in the last few years the only work of internal improvement aided by the government is the improvement of the rivers and harbors1 which for #aijd takes over fifty millions of revenue a year4 ,the sum of #acj1efe1dhe has been well spent on river and harbor improvement in the past seven years4 ,not only are the great rivers1 such as the ,ohio and ,mississippi1 improved1 but lesser streams4 ,a short time ago ,i made a journey of one hundred miles down the ,elk ,river in ,west ,virginia in a boat eleven inches deep and twelve feet long2 a channel all the way down had been made about two feet wide by picking out the stones2 the ,united ,states did this at an expense of fifteen hundred dollars4 ,the groceries and dry goods for thousands were poled up that river in dug-outs through that two-foot channel4 ,i doubt if a two-wheel vehicle could traverse the road which runs throughout that valley1 but ,i know a four-wheel vehicle could not4 ,the advocates of national aid urge the right to establish post roads2 ,i had an ancestor in the ,united ,states ,senate1 said ex-,senator ,butler of ,south ,carolina1 who refused to vote a dollar for the improvement of ,charleston ,harbor2 but almost the first act of my official life was to get an appropriation of two hundred and fifty thousand for that purpose4 ,there is as ample constitutional warrant for the improvement of public roads out of the ,united ,states ,treasury--as large as there is for the improvement of rivers and harbors1 or for the support of the agricultural colleges4 ,but few judicial opinions have been rendered on this subject4 ,in the case of ,dickey against the ,turnpike ,company1 the ,kentucky court of appeals decided that the power given to ,congress by the constitution to establish post roads enabled them to make1 repair1 keep open1 and improve post roads when they shall deem the exercise of the power expedient4 ,but in the exercise of the right of eminent domain on this subject the ,united ,states has no right to adopt and use roads1 bridges1 or ferries constructed and owned by states1 corporations1 and individuals without their consent or without making to the parties concerned just compensation4 ,if the ,united ,states elects to use such accommodations1 it stands upon the same footing and is subject to the same tolls and regulations as a private individual4 ,it has been asserted that ,jefferson was opposed to the appropriation of money for internal improvements1 but1 in #ahjh1 in writing to ,mr4 ,lieper1 he said1 ',give us peace until our revenues are liberated from debt1 444 and then during peace we may chequer our whole country with canals1 roads1 etc4' ,writing to ,j4 ,w4 ,eppes in #ahac he says1 ',the fondest wish of my heart ever was that the surplus portion of these taxes destined for the payment of the ,revolutionary debt should1 when that object is accomplished1 be continued by annual or biennial reenactments and applied in times of peace to the improvement of our country by canals1 roads1 and useful institutions4' ,congress has always claimed the power to lay out1 construct1 and improve post roads with the assent of the states through which they pass2 also1 to open1 construct1 and improve military roads on like terms2 and the right to cut canals through the several states with their consent for the purpose of promoting and securing internal commerce and for the safe and economical transportation of military stores in times of war4 ,the president has sometimes objected to the exercise of this constitutional right1 but ,congress has never denied it4 ,cooley1 the highest authority on constitutional law1 says3 ',every road within a ,state1 including railroads1 canals1 turnpikes1 and navigable streams1 existing or created within a ,state1 becomes a post-road1 whenever by law or by the action of the ,post-,office ,department provision is made for the transportation of the mail upon or over it4 ,many statesmen and jurists have contended that the power comprehends the laying out and construction of any roads which ,congress may deem proper and needful for the conveyance of the mails1 and keeping them repaired for the purpose4'#d ,it has been many years since the ,united ,states government was interested considerably in mail routes on the roadways of this country2 in the past half century the government has spent but one hundred thousand dollars for the improvement of mail roads4 ,the new era of rural delivery brings a return1 in one sense1 of the old stagecoach days4 ,a thousand country roads are now used daily by government mail-carriers1 but the government demands that the roads used be kept in good condition by the local authorities4 ,thus the situation is reversed2 instead of holding it to be the duty of the government to deliver mail in rural districts1 ,congress holds that the debt is on the other side and that1 in return for the boon of rural delivery1 the rural population must make good roads4 ,madison well saw that government improvement of roads as mail routes would be of great general benefit2 for in ,the ,federalist he adds that the power may perhaps by judicious management become productive of great public conveniency4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,good-,,roads ,,train ,the ,southern ,roadway's good-roads train1 ,october #bi1 #aija1 consisting of two coaches for officials and road experts and ten cars of road machinery2 for itinerary through ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina4 ,tennessee1 ,alabama1 and ,georgia ,one great work the government has done and is doing4 ,it has founded an ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries 7described elsewhere7 at ,washington1 and under the efficient management of ,hon4 ,martin ,dodge and ,maurice ,o4 ,eldridge a great work of education has been carried on--samples of good roads have been built1 good road trains have been sent out by the ,southern ,railway and the ,illinois ,central into the ,south1 a laboratory has been established at ,washington1 under the efficient charge of ,professor ,l4 ,w4 ,page1 for the testing of materials free of charge1 and a great deal of road information has been published and sent out4 ,the ,brownlow ,bill1 introduced into ,congress at the last session1 is the latest plan of national aid1 and is thus described by ,hon4 ,martin ,dodge of the ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries3 ,the bill provides for an appropriation of twenty million dollars4 ,this is to be used only in connection and cooperation with the various states or civil subdivisions of states that may make application to the ,general ,government for the purpose of securing its aid to build certain roads4 ,the application must be made for a specific road to be built1 and the state or county making the application must be ready to pay half of the cost1 according to the plans and specifications made by the ,general ,government4 ,in no case can any state or any number of counties within the state receive any greater proportion of the twenty million dollars than the population of the state bears to the population of the ,united ,states4 ,in other words1 all of the plans must originate in the community4 ,the bill does not provide that the ,united ,states shall go forward and say a road shall be built here or a road shall be built there4 ,the ,united ,states shall hold itself in readiness1 when requested to do so1 to cooperate with those who have selected a road they desire to build1 provided they are ready and willing to pay one-half the cost4 ,then1 if the road is a suitable one and is approved by the government authorities1 they go forward and build that road1 each contributing one-half of the expense4 ,in order to prevent the state losing jurisdiction of the road1 it is provided that it may go forward and build the road if it will accept the government engineer's estimate4 ,for instance1 if a state or county asks for ten miles of road1 the estimated cost of which is thirty thousand dollars1 and the state or county officials say they are willing to undertake the work for thirty thousand dollars1 the government authorizes them to go ahead and build that road according to specifications1 and when it is finished the government will pay the fifteen thousand dollars4 ,if the state or county does not wish to take the contract1 the ,general ,government will advertise and give it to the lowest bidder1 and will pay its contributory share and the other party will pay its contributory share4 ,it is no part of the essential principle involved in this national aid plan that the exact proportion should be fifty per cent on each side4 ,any other figure can be adopted4 ,some think ten per cent is sufficient2 some think thirty-three and one-third is the proper percentage2 others think twenty-five per cent only should be paid by the government1 twenty-five per cent by the state1 twenty-five per cent by the county1 and twenty-five per cent by the township4 ,the one idea that seems to be generally accepted is that the government should do something4 ,thus the interest in the great question is beginning to forge to the front2 through the ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries a great deal of information is being circulated touching all phases of the question4 ,there is a fine spirit of independence displayed by the leaders of the movement2 no one plan is over-urged2 the situation is such that the final concerted popular action will come from the real governing power--the people4 ,when they demand that the ,united ,states shall not have the poorest rural roads of any civilized and some uncivilized nations1 we as a nation will hasten into the fore front and finally lead the world in this vital department of civic life1 as we are leading it in so many other departments today4 ,illustration3 ,,sample ,,steel ,,track ,,for ,,common ,,roads ,on the driver's right is seated ,hon4 ,martin ,dodge1 since #ahih ,director of the ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries ,,footnotes3 #a ,see post1 pp4 #fh-hj4 #b ,the ,federalist1 p4 #aih4 #c ,historic ,highways of ,america1 vol4 xiv1 p4 #eg4 #d ,thomas ,m4 ,cooley1 ,constitutional ,law 7,boston1 #ahia71 pp4 #he-hf4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,government ,,cooperation ,,in ,,object-,,lesson ,,road ,,work#e ,in a government having a composite nature like that of the ,united ,states it is not always easy to determine just what share the ,general ,government1 the state government1 and the local government should respectively take in carrying out highway work1 though it is generally admitted that there should be cooperation among them all4 ,in the early history of the ,republic the ,national ,government itself laid out and partially completed a great national system of highways connecting the ,east with the ,west1 and the capital of the nation with its then most distant possessions4 ,fourteen million dollars in all was appropriated by acts of ,congress to be devoted to this purpose1 an amount almost equal to that paid for the ,louisiana ,purchase4 ,in other words1 it cost the government substantially as much to make that territory accessible as to purchase it2 and what is true of that territory in its larger sense is also true in a small way of nearly every tract of land that is opened up and used for the purposes of civilization2 that is to say1 it will cost as much to build up1 improve1 and maintain the roads of any given section of the country as the land in its primitive condition is worth2 and the same rule will apply in most cases after the land value has advanced considerably beyond that of its primitive condition4 ,it is a general rule that the suitable improvement of a highway within reasonable limitations will double the value of the land adjacent to it4 ,seven million dollars1 half of the total sum appropriated by acts of ,congress for the national road system1 was devoted to building the ,cumberland ,road from ,cumberland1 ,maryland1 to ,st4 ,louis1 ,missouri1 the most central point in the great ,louisiana ,purchase1 and seven hundred miles west of ,cumberland4 ,the total cost of this great road was wholly paid out of the ,united ,states ,treasury1 and though never fully completed on the western end1 it is the longest straight road ever built by any government4 ,it passes through the capitals of ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois1 and the cost per mile was1 approximately1 ten thousand dollars4 ,it furnishes the only important instance the country has ever had of the ,general ,government providing a highway at its own expense4 ,the plan1 however1 was never carried to completion1 and since its abandonment two generations ago1 the people of the different states have provided their own highways4 ,for the most part they have delegated their powers either to individuals1 companies1 or corporations to build toll roads1 or to the minor political subdivisions and municipalities to build free roads4 ,with the passing of the toll-road system1 the withdrawal of the ,general ,government from the field of actual road construction1 and the various state governments doing little or nothing1 the only remaining active agent occupying the entire great field is the local government in each community2 and while these various local governments have done and are still doing the best they can under the circumstances1 there is great need that their efforts should be supplemented1 their revenues enlarged1 and their skill in the art of road construction increased4 ,the skill of the local supervisor was sufficient in primitive times1 so long as his principal duties consisted in clearing the way of trees1 logs1 stumps1 and other obstructions1 and shaping the earth of which the roadbed was composed into a little better form than nature had left it2 and the resources at his command were sufficient so long as he was authorized to call on every able-bodied male citizen between twenty-one and forty-five years of age to do ten days' labor annually on the road1 especially when the only labor expected was that of dealing with the material found on the spot4 ,but with the changed conditions brought about by the more advanced state of civilization1 after the rights of way have been cleared of their obstructions and the earth roads graded into the form of turnpikes1 it became necessary to harden their surfaces with material which often must be brought from distant places4 ,in order to accomplish this1 expert skill is required in the selection of materials1 money instead of labor is required to pay for the cost of transportation1 and machinery must be substituted for the hand processes and primitive methods heretofore employed in order to crush the rock and distribute it in the most economical manner on the roadbed4 ,skill and machinery are also required to roll and consolidate the material so as to form a smooth1 hard surface and a homogeneous mass impervious to water4 ,the local road officer now not only finds himself deficient in skill and the proper kind of resources1 but he discovers in many cases that the number of persons subject to his call for road work has greatly diminished4 ,the great cities of the ,north have absorbed half of the population in all the states north of the ,ohio and east of the ,mississippi1 and those living in these great cities are not subject to the former duties of working the roads1 nor do they pay any compensation in money in lieu thereof4 ,so the statute labor has not only become unsuitable for the service to be performed1 but it is1 as stated1 greatly diminished4 ,in the former generations substantially all the people contributed to the construction of the highways under the statute labor system1 but at the present time not more than half the population is subject to this service1 and this1 too1 at a time when the need for highway improvement is greatest4 ,while the former ways and means are inadequate or inapplicable to present needs and conditions1 there are other means more suitable for the service1 and existing in ample proportion for every need4 ,the tollgate-keeper cannot be called upon to restore the ancient system of turnpikes and plank roads to be maintained by a tax upon vehicles passing over them1 but there can be provided a general fund in each county sufficient to build up free roads better than the toll roads and with a smaller burden of cost upon the people4 ,the statute labor in the rural districts cannot be depended upon1 because it is unsuitable to the service now required and spasmodic in its application1 when it should be perennial2 but this statute labor can be commuted to a money tax1 with no hardships upon the citizens and with great benefit to the highway system4 ,former inhabitants of the abandoned farms or the deserted villages cannot be followed to the great cities and the road tax which they formerly paid be collected from them again to improve the country roads2 but it can be provided that all the property owners in every city1 as well as in every county1 shall pay a money tax into a general fund1 which shall be devoted exclusively to the improvement of highways in the rural districts4 ,the state itself can maintain a general fund out of which a portion of the cost of every principal highway in the state shall be paid1 and by so doing all the people of the state will contribute to improving the highways1 as they once did in the early history of the nation1 when substantially all the wealth and population was distributed almost equally throughout the settled portions of the country4 ,having a general fund of money instead of statute labor1 it would be possible to introduce more scientific and more economical methods of construction with cooperation4 ,this cooperation1 formerly applied with good results to the primitive conditions1 but which has been partially lost by the diminution in the number and skill of the co-workers1 would be restored again in a great measure by drawing the money with which to improve the roads out of a general fund to which all had contributed4 ,in many countries the army has been used to advantage in time of peace in building up and maintaining the highways4 ,there is no army in this country for such a purpose1 but there is an army of prisoners in every state1 whose labor is so directed1 and has been so directed for generations past1 that it adds little or nothing to the common wealth4 ,the labor of these prisoners1 properly applied and directed1 would be of great benefit and improvement to the highways1 and would add greatly to the national wealth1 while at the same time it would lighten the pressure of competition with free labor by withdrawing the prison labor from the manufacture of commercial articles and applying it to work not now performed1 that is1 the building of highways or preparing material to be used therefor4 ,the ,general ,government1 having withdrawn from the field of road construction in #ahcb1 has since done little in that line until very recently4 ,eight years ago ,congress appropriated a small sum of money for the purpose of instituting a sort of inquiry into the prevailing condition of things pertaining to road matters4 ,this appropriation has been continued from year to year and increased during the last two years with a view of cooperating to a limited extent with other efforts in road construction4 ,the ,general ,government can perform certain duties pertaining to scientific road improvement better than any other agency4 ,scientific facts ascertained at one time by the ,general ,government will serve for the enlightenment of the people of all the states1 and with no more cost than would be required for each single state to make the investigation and ascertain the facts for itself4 ,with a view to securing scientific facts in reference to the value of road-building materials1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture has established at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 a mechanical and chemical laboratory for testing such material from all parts of the country4 ,professor ,l4 ,w4 ,page1 late of ,harvard ,university1 is in charge of this laboratory1 and has tested many samples of rock without charge to those having the test made4 ,there is1 however1 no test equal to the actual application of the material to the road itself4 ,with a view to making more extensive tests than could be done by laboratory work alone1 the ,director of the ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries has1 during the past two years1 cooperated with the local authorities in many different states in building short sections of object-lesson roads4 ,in this work it is intended not only to contribute something by way of cooperation on the part of the ,general ,government1 but also to secure cooperation on the part of as many different interests connected with the road question as possible4 ,the local community having the road built is most largely interested1 and is expected to furnish the common labor and domestic material4 ,the railroad companies generally cooperate1 because they are interested in having better roads to and from their railroad stations4 ,they therefore contribute by transporting free or at very low rates the machinery and such foreign material as is needed in the construction of the road4 ,the manufacturers of earth-handling and road-building machinery cooperate by furnishing all needed machinery for the most economical construction of the road1 and in many cases prison labor is used in preparing material which finally goes into the completed roadbed4 ,the contribution which the ,general ,government makes in this scheme of cooperation is both actually and relatively small1 but it is by means of this limited cooperation that it has been possible to produce a large number of object-lesson roads in different states4 ,these have proved very beneficial1 not only in showing the scientific side of the question1 but the economical side as well4 ,in the year #aijj object-lesson roads were built under the direction of the ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries near ,port ,huron1 ,saginaw1 and ,traverse ,city1 ,michigan2 ,springfield1 ,illinois2 and ,topeka1 ,kansas4 ,since that time the object-lesson roads so built have been extended and duplicated by the local authorities without further aid from the government4 ,the people are so well pleased with the results of these experiments that they are making preparations for additional extensions1 aggregating many miles4 ,during the year #aija sample object-lesson roads were built on a larger scale in cooperation with the ,illinois ,central1 ,lake ,shore1 and ,southern railroad companies1 and the ,national ,association for ,good ,roads in the states of ,louisiana1 ,mississippi1 ,tennessee1 ,kentucky1 ,illinois1 ,new ,york1 ,north ,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1 ,alabama1 and ,georgia4 ,in all of these cases the cooperation has been very hearty on the part of the state1 the county1 and the municipality in which the work has been done1 and the results have been very satisfactory and beneficial4 ,hon4 ,a4 ,h4 ,longino1 governor of ,mississippi1 in his speech made at the ,international ,good ,roads ,congress at ,buffalo1 ,september #ag1 #aija1 said3 ,my friends1 the importance of good roads seems to me to be so apparent1 so self-evident1 that the discussion thereof is but a discussion of truisms4 ,much as we appreciate railroads1 rivers1 and canals as means for transportation of the commerce of the country1 they are1 in my judgment1 of less importance to mankind1 to the masses of the people1 and to all classes of people1 than are good country roads4 ,i live in a section of the country where that important subject has found at the hands of the people apparently less appreciation and less effort toward improvement than in many others4 ,in behalf of the ,good ,roads ,association1 headed by ,colonel ,moore and ,mr4 ,richardson1 which recently met in the state of ,mississippi1 ,i want to say that more interest has been aroused by their efforts concerning this important subject among the people there than perhaps ever existed before in the history of the state4 ,by their work1 demonstrating what could be done by the methods which they employed1 and by their agitation of the question1 the people have become aroused as they never were before2 and since their departure from the state a large number of counties which were not already working under the contract system have provided for public highways1 worked by contract1 requiring the contractor to give a good and sufficient bond1 a bond broad enough in its provisions and large enough in amount to compel faithful service2 and ,mississippi is today starting out on a higher plane than ever before4 ,,footnotes3 #e ,by ,hon4 ,martin ,dodge1 ,director of the ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,good ,,roads ,,for ,,farmers#f ,poor roads constitute the greatest drawback to rural life1 and for the lack of good roads the farmers suffer more than any other class4 ,it is obviously unnecessary1 therefore1 to discuss here the benefits to be derived by them from improved roads4 ,suffice it to say1 that those localities where good roads have been built are becoming richer1 more prosperous1 and more thickly settled1 while those which do not possess these advantages in transportation are either at a standstill or are becoming poorer and more sparsely settled4 ,if these conditions continue1 fruitful farms may be abandoned and rich lands go to waste4 ,life on a farm often becomes1 as a result of bottomless roads1 isolated and barren of social enjoyments and pleasures1 and country people in some communities suffer such great disadvantage that ambition is checked1 energy weakened1 and industry paralyzed4 ,good roads1 like good streets1 make habitation along them most desirable2 they economize time and force in transportation of products1 reduce wear and tear on horses1 harness and vehicles1 and enhance the market value of real estate4 ,they raise the value of farm lands and farm products1 and tend to beautify the country through which they pass2 they facilitate rural mail delivery and are a potent aid to education1 religion1 and sociability4 ,charles ,sumner once said3 ,the road and the schoolmaster are the two most important agents in advancing civilization4 ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,macadam ,,road ,,near ,,bryn ,,mawr1 ,,pennsylvania ,the difference between good and bad roads is often equivalent to the difference between profit and loss4 ,good roads have a money value to farmers as well as a political and social value1 and leaving out convenience1 comfort1 social and refined influences which good roads always enhance1 and looking at them only from the almighty dollar side1 they are found to pay handsome dividends each year4 ,people generally are beginning to realize that road-building is a public matter1 and that the best interests of ,american agriculture and the ,american people as a whole demand the construction of good roads1 and that money wisely expended for this purpose is sure to return4 ,road-making is perfected by practice1 experience1 and labor4 ,soils and clays1 sand and ores1 gravels and rocks1 are transformed into beautiful roads1 streets1 and boulevards1 by methods which conform with their great varieties of characters and with nature's laws4 ,the art of road-building depends largely for its success upon being carried on in conformity with certain general principles4 ,it is necessary that roads should be hard1 smooth1 comparatively level1 and fit for use at all seasons of the year2 that they should be properly located1 or laid out on the ground1 so that their grades may be such that animate or inanimate power may be applied upon them to the best advantage and without great loss of energy2 that they should be properly constructed1 the ground well drained1 the roadbed graded1 shaped1 and rolled1 and that they should be surfaced with the best material procurable2 that they should be properly maintained or kept constantly in good repair4 ,all the important roads in the ,united ,states can be and doubtless will be macadamized or otherwise improved in the not distant future4 ,this expectation should govern their present location and treatment everywhere4 ,unless changes are made in the location of the roads in many parts of this country it would be worse than folly to macadamize them4 ,any costly resurfacing of the existing roads will fasten them where they are for generations1 says ,general ,stone4 ,the chief difficulty in this country is not with the surface1 but with the steep grades1 many of which are too long to be reduced by cutting and filling on the present lines1 and if this could be done it would cost more in many cases than relocating them4 ,many of our roads were originally laid out without any attention to general topography1 and in most cases followed the settler's path from cabin to cabin1 the pig trail1 or ran along the boundary lines of the farms regardless of grades or direction4 ,most of them remain today where they were located years ago1 and where untold labor1 expense1 and energy have been wasted in trying to haul over them and in endeavors to improve their deplorable condition4 ,the great error is made of continuing to follow these primitive paths with our public highways4 ,the right course is to call in an engineer and throw the road around the end or along the side of steep hills instead of continuing to go over them1 or to pull the road up on dry solid ground instead of splashing through the mud and water of the creek or swamp4 ,far more time and money have been wasted in trying to keep up a single mile of one of these pig-track surveys than it would take to build and keep in repair two miles of good road4 ,another and perhaps greater error is made by some persons in the ,west who continue to lay out their roads on section lines4 ,these sections are all square1 with sides running north1 south1 east1 and west4 ,a person wishing to cross the country in any other than these directions must necessarily do so in rectangular zigzags4 ,it also necessitates very often the crossing and recrossing of hills and valleys1 which might be avoided if the roads had been constructed on scientific principles4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,study ,,in ,,grading ,the old road had a grade of eight per cent2 by the improved route the grade is four per cent ,in the prairie state of ,iowa1 for example1 where roads are no worse than in many other states1 there is a greater number of roads having much steeper grades than are found in the mountainous republic of ,switzerland4 ,in ,maryland the old stagecoach road or turnpike running from ,washington to ,baltimore makes almost a bee line1 regardless of hills or valleys1 and the grades at places are as steep as ten or twelve per cent1 where by making little detours the road might have been made perfectly level1 or by running it up the hills less abruptly the grade might have been reduced to three or four per cent1 as is done in the hilly regions of many parts of this and other countries4 ,straight roads are the proper kind to have1 but in hilly countries their straightness should always be sacrificed to obtain a level surface so as to better accommodate the people who use them4 ,graceful and natural curves conforming to the lay of the land add beauty to the landscape1 besides enhancing the value of property4 ,not only do level1 curved roads add beauty to the landscape and make lands along them more valuable1 but the horse is able to utilize his full strength over them2 furthermore1 a horse can pull only four-fifths as much on a grade of two feet in one hundred feet1 and this gradually lessens until with a grade of ten feet in one hundred feet he can draw but one-fourth as much as he can on a level road4 ,all roads should therefore wind around hills or be cut through instead of running over them1 and in many cases the former can be done without greatly increasing the distance4 ,to illustrate1 if an apple or pear be cut in half and one of the halves placed on a flat surface1 it will be seen that the horizontal distance around from stem to blossom is no greater than the distance over between the same points4 ,the wilfulness of one or two private individuals sometimes becomes a barrier to traffic and commerce4 ,the great drawback to the laying out of roads on the principle referred to is that of the necessity1 in some cases1 of building them through the best lands1 the choicest pastures and orchards1 instead1 as they do now1 of cutting around the farm line or passing through old worn-out fields or over rocky knolls4 ,but if farmers wish people to know that they have good farms1 good cattle1 sheep1 or horses1 good grain1 fruit1 or vegetables1 they should let the roads go through the best parts of the farms4 ,the difference in length between a straight road and one which is slightly curved is less than one would imagine4 ,says ,sganzin3 ,if a road between two places ten miles apart were made to curve so that the eye could see no farther than a quarter of a mile of it at once1 its length would exceed that of a perfectly straight road between the same points by only about one hundred and fifty yards4 ,even if the distance around a hill be much greater1 it is often more economical to construct it that way than to go over and necessitate the expenditure of large amounts of money in reducing the grade1 or a waste of much valuable time and energy in transporting goods that way4 ,gillespie says that1 as a general rule1 the horizontal length of a road may be advantageously increased to avoid an ascent by at least twenty times the perpendicular height which is thus to be avoided--that is1 to escape a hill one hundred feet high it would be proper for the road to make such a circuit as would increase its length two thousand feet4 ,the mathematical axiom that a straight line is the shortest distance between two points is not1 therefore1 the best rule to follow in laying out a road2 better is the proverb that the longest way round is the shortest way home4 ,the grade is the most important factor to be considered in the location of roads4 ,the smoother the road surface1 the less the grade should be4 ,whether the road be constructed of earth1 stone1 or gravel1 steep grades should always be avoided if possible4 ,they become covered at times with coatings of ice or slippery soil1 making them very difficult to ascend with loaded vehicles1 as well as dangerous to descend4 ,they allow water to rush down at such a rate as to wash great gaps alongside or to carry the surfacing material away4 ,as the grade increases in steepness either the load has to be diminished in proportion or more horses or power attached4 ,from ,gillespie we find that if a horse can draw on a level one thousand pounds1 on a rise of-- #a foot in-- ,pounds #ajj feet he draws #ijj #ej feet #haj #dd feet #gej #dj feet #gbj #cj feet #fdj #be feet #edj #bd feet #ejj #bj feet #djj #aj feet #bej ,it is therefore seen that when the grades are #a foot in #dd feet1 or #abj feet to the mile1 a horse can draw only three-fourths as much as he can on a level2 where the grade is #a foot in #bd feet1 or #bbj feet to the mile1 he can draw only one-half as much1 and on a ten per cent grade1 or #ebj feet to the mile1 he is able to draw only one-fourth as much as on a level road4 ,as a chain is no stronger than its weakest link1 just so the greatest load which can be hauled over a road is the load which can be hauled through the deepest mud hole or up the steepest hill on that road4 ,the cost of haulage is1 therefore1 necessarily increased in proportion to the roughness of the surface or steepness of the grade4 ,it costs one and one-half times as much to haul over a road having a five per cent grade and three times as much over one having a ten per cent grade as on a level road4 ,as a perfectly level road can seldom be had1 it is well to know the steepest allowable grade4 ,if the hill be one of great length1 it is sometimes best to have the lowest part steepest1 upon which the horse is capable of exerting his full strength1 and to make the slope more gentle toward the summit1 to correspond with the continually decreasing strength of the fatigued animal4 ,so far as descent is concerned1 a road should not be so steep that the wagons and carriages cannot be drawn down it with perfect ease and safety4 ,sir ,henry ,parnell considered that when the grade was no greater than one foot in thirty-five feet1 vehicles could be drawn down it at a speed of twelve miles an hour with perfect safety4 ,gillespie says3 ,it has been ascertained that a horse can for a short time double his usual exertion2 also1 that on the best roads he exerts a pressure against his collar of about one thirty-fifth of the load4 ,if he can double his exertion for a time1 he can pull one thirty-fifth more1 and the slope which would force him to lift that proportion would be1 as seen from the above table1 one of one in thirty-five1 or about a three per cent grade4 ,on this slope1 however1 he would be compelled to double his ordinary exertion to draw a full load1 and it would therefore be the maximum grade4 ,mr4 ,isaac ,b4 ,potter1 an eminent authority upon roads1 says3 ,dirty water and watery dirt make bad going1 and mud is the greatest obstacle to the travel and traffic of the farmer4 ,mud is a mixture of dirt and water4 ,the dirt is always to be found in the roadway1 and the water1 which comes in rain1 snow1 and frost1 softens it2 horses and wagons and narrow wheel tires knead it and mix it1 and it soon gets into so bad a condition that a fairly loaded wagon cannot be hauled through it4 ,we cannot prevent the coming of this water1 and it only remains for us to get rid of it1 which can be speedily done if we go about it in the right way4 ,very few people know how great an amount of water falls upon the country road1 and it may surprise some of us to be told that on each mile of an ordinary country highway three rods wide within the ,united ,states there falls each year an average of twenty-seven thousand tons of water4 ,in the ordinary country dirt road the water seems to stick and stay as if there was no other place for it1 and this is only because we have never given it a fair opportunity to run out of the dirt and find its level in other places4 ,we cannot make a hard road out of soft mud1 and no amount of labor and machinery will make a good dirt road that will stay good unless some plan is adopted to get rid of the surplus water4 ,water is a heavy1 limpid fluid1 hard to confine and easy to let loose4 ,it is always seeking for a chance to run down a hill2 always trying to find its lowest level4 ,an essential feature of a good road is good drainage1 and the principles of good drainage remain substantially the same whether the road be constructed of earth1 gravel1 shells1 stones1 or asphalt4 ,the first demand of good drainage is to attend to the shape of road surface4 ,this must be crowned1 or rounded up toward the center1 so that there may be a fall from the center to the sides1 thus compelling the water to flow rapidly from the surface into the gutters which should be constructed on one or both sides1 and from there in turn be discharged into larger and more open channels4 ,furthermore1 it is necessary that no water be allowed to flow across a roadway2 culverts1 tile1 stone1 or box drains should be provided for that purpose4 ,in addition to being well covered and drained1 the surface should be kept as smooth as possible2 that is1 free from ruts1 wheel tracks1 holes1 or hollows4 ,if any of these exist1 instead of being thrown to the side the water is held back and is either evaporated by the sun or absorbed by the material of which the road is constructed4 ,in the latter case the material loses its solidity1 softens and yields to the impact of the horses' feet and the wheels of vehicles1 and1 like the water poured upon a grindstone1 so the water poured on a road surface which is not properly drained assists the grinding action of the wheels in rutting or completely destroying the surface4 ,when water is allowed to stand on a road the holes and ruts rapidly increase in number and size2 wagon after wagon sinks deeper and deeper1 until the road finally becomes utterly bad1 and sometimes impassable1 as frequently found in many parts of the country during the winter season4 ,road drainage is just as essential to a good road as farm drainage is to a good farm4 ,in fact1 the two go hand in hand1 and the better the one the better the other1 and vice versa4 ,there are thousands of miles of public roads in the ,united ,states which are practically impassable during some portion of the year on account of bad drainage1 while for the same reason thousands of acres of the richest meadow and swamp lands lie idle from year in to year out4 ,the wearing surface of a road must be in effect a roof2 that is1 the section in the middle should be the highest part and the traveled roadway should be made as impervious to water as possible1 so that it will flow freely and quickly into the gutters or ditches alongside4 ,the best shape for the cross section of a road has been found to be either a flat ellipse or one made up of two plane surfaces sloping uniformly from the middle to the sides and joined in the center by a small1 circular curve4 ,either of these sections may be used1 provided it is not too flat in the middle for good drainage or too steep at the gutters for safety4 ,the steepness of the slope from the center to the sides should depend upon the nature of the surface1 being greater or less according to its roughness or smoothness4 ,this slope ought to be greatest on earth roads1 perhaps as much in some cases as one foot in twenty feet after the surface has been thoroughly rolled or compacted by traffic4 ,this varies from about one in twenty to one in thirty on a macadam road1 to one in forty or one in sixty on the various classes of pavements1 and for asphalt sometimes as low as one in eighty4 ,where the road is constructed on a grade or hill the slope from the center to the sides should be slightly steeper than that on the level road4 ,the best cross section for roads on grades is the one made up from two plane surfaces sloping uniformly from the center to the sides4 ,this is done so as to avoid the danger of overturning near the side ditches1 which would necessarily be increased if the elliptical form were used4 ,the slope from the center to the sides must be steep enough to lead the water into the side ditches instead of allowing it to run down the middle of the road4 ,every wheel track on an inclined roadway becomes a channel for carrying down the water1 and unless the curvature is sufficient these tracks are quickly deepened into water courses which cut into and sometimes destroy the best improved road4 ,in order to prevent the washing out of earth roads on hills it sometimes becomes necessary to construct water breaks2 that is1 broad shallow ditches arranged so as to catch the surface water and carry it each way into the side ditches4 ,such ditches retard traffic to a certain extent1 and often result in overturning vehicles2 consequently they should never be used until all other means have failed to cause the water to flow into the side channels2 neither should they be allowed to cross the entire width of the road diagonally1 but should be constructed in the shape of the letter ,v4 ,this arrangement permits teams following the middle of the road to cross the ditch squarely and thus avoid the danger of overturning4 ,these ditches should not be deeper than is absolutely necessary to throw the water off the surface1 and the part in the center should be the shallowest4 ,unfortunately farmers and road masters have a fixed idea that one way to prevent hills1 long and short1 from washing is to heap upon them quantities of those original tumular obstructions known indifferently as thank-you-ma'ams1 breaks1 or hummocks1 and the number they can squeeze in upon a single hill is positively astonishing4 ,quoting ,mr4 ,isaac ,b4 ,potter3 ,side ditches are necessary because the thousands of tons of water which fall upon every mile of country road each year1 in the form of rain or snow1 should be carried away to some neighboring creek or other water channel as fast as the rain falls and the snow melts1 so as to prevent its forming mud and destroying the surface of the road4 ,when the ground is frozen and a heavy rain or sudden thaw occurs1 the side ditch is the only means of getting rid of the surface water2 for no matter how sandy or porous the soil may be1 when filled with frost it is practically water-tight1 and the water which falls or forms on the surface must either remain there or be carried away by surface ditches at the sides of the road4 ,a side ditch should have a gradually falling and even grade at the bottom1 and broad1 flaring sides to prevent the caving in of its banks4 ,it can be easily cleared of snow1 weeds1 and rubbish2 the water will run into it easily from each side1 and it is not dangerous to wagons and foot travelers4 ,it is therefore a much better ditch than the kind of ditch very often dug by erosion along the country roadside4 ,where the road is built on a grade some provision should be made to prevent the wash of the gutters into great1 deep gullies4 ,this can be done by paving the bottom and sides of the gutters with brick1 river rocks1 or field stone4 ,in order to make the flow in such side ditches as small as possible it is advisable to construct outlets into the adjacent fields or to lay underground pipes or tile drains with openings into the ditches at frequent intervals4 ,the size of side ditches should depend upon the character of the soil and the amount of water they are expected to carry4 ,if possible they should be located three feet from the edge of the traveled roadway1 so that if the latter is fourteen feet wide there will be twenty feet of clear space between ditches4 ,the bottom of the ditch may vary in width from three to twelve inches1 or even more1 as may be found necessary in order to carry the largest amount of water which is expected to flow through it at any one time4 ,sometimes the only ditches necessary to carry off the surface water are those made by the use of the road machines or road graders4 ,the blade of the machine may be set at any desired angle1 and when drawn along by horses1 cuts into the surface and moves the earth from the sides toward the center1 forming gutters alongside and distributing the earth uniformly over the traveled way4 ,such gutters are liable to become clogged by brush1 weeds1 and other debris1 or destroyed by passing wagons1 and it is therefore better1 when the space permits1 to have the side ditches above referred to1 even if the road be built with a road machine4 ,in order to have a good road it is just as necessary that water should not be allowed to attack the substructure from below as that it should not be permitted to percolate through it from above4 ,especially is the former provision essential in cold climates1 where1 if water is allowed to remain in the substructure1 the whole roadway is liable to become broken up and destroyed by frost and the wheels of vehicles4 ,therefore1 where the road runs through low wet lands or over certain kinds of clayey soils1 surface drainage is not all that is necessary4 ,common side drains catch surface water and surface water only4 ,isaac ,potter says3 ,many miles of road are on low1 flat lands and on springy soils1 and thousands of miles of prairie roads are1 for many weeks in the year1 laid on a wet subsoil4 ,in all such cases1 and1 indeed1 in every case where the nature of the ground is not such as to insure quick drainage1 the road may be vastly benefited by under drainage4 ,an under drain clears the soil of surplus water1 dries it1 warms it1 and makes impossible the formation of deep1 heavy1 frozen crusts1 which are found in every undrained road when the severe winter weather follows the heavy fall rains4 ,this crust causes nine-tenths of the difficulties of travel in the time of sudden or long-continued thaws4 ,roads constructed over wet undrained lands are always difficult to manage and expensive to maintain1 and they are liable to be broken up in wet weather or after frosts4 ,it will be much cheaper in the long run to go to the expense of making the drainage of the subjacent soil and substructure as perfect as possible4 ,there is scarcely an earth road in the ,united ,states which cannot be so improved by surface or subdrainage as to yield benefits to the farmers a hundred times greater in value than the cost of the drains themselves4 ,under drains are not expensive4 ,on the contrary1 they are cheap and easily made1 and if made in a substantial way and according to the rules of common sense a good under drain will last for ages4 ,use the best tools and materials you can get2 employ them as well as you know how1 and wait results with a clear conscience4 ,slim fagots of wood bound together and laid lengthwise at the bottom of a carefully graded drain ditch will answer fairly well if stone or drain tile cannot be had1 and will be of infinite benefit to a dirt road laid on springy soils4 ,subdrains should be carefully graded with a level at the bottom to a depth of about four feet1 and should have a continuous fall throughout their entire length of at least six inches for each one hundred feet in length4 ,if tile drains cannot be had1 large1 flat stones may be carefully placed so as to form a clear1 open passage at the bottom for the flow of the water4 ,the ditch should then be half filled with rough field stones1 and on these a layer of smaller stones or gravel and a layer of sod1 hay1 gravel1 cinders1 or straw1 or1 if none of these can be had1 of soil4 ,if field stones or drain tile cannot be procured1 satisfactory results may be attained by the use of logs and brush4 ,if there be springs in the soil which might destroy the stability of the road1 they should1 if possible1 be tapped and the water carried under or along the side until it can be turned away into some side channel4 ,such drains may be made of bundles of brush1 field stones1 brick1 or drain tiles4 ,they should be so protected by straw1 sod1 or brush as to prevent the soil from washing in and clogging them4 ,most of the roads in this country are of necessity constructed of earth1 while in a few of the richer and more enterprising communities the most important thoroughfares are surfaced with gravel1 shell1 stones1 or other materials4 ,unless some new system for the improvement of public roads is adopted1 the inability of rural communities to raise funds for this purpose will necessarily cause the construction of hard roads to be very gradual for some time to come4 ,until this new system is adopted the most important problem will be that of making the most of the roads which exist1 rather than building new ones of specially prepared materials4 ,the natural materials and the funds already available must be used with skill and judgment in order to secure the best results4 ,the location1 grades1 and drainage having been treated in the preceding pages1 the next and most important consideration is that of constructing and improving the various kinds of roads4 ,of earth roads1 as commonly built1 it suffices to say that their present conditions should not be tolerated in communities where there are any other materials with which to improve them4 ,earth is the poorest of all road materials1 aside from sand1 and earth roads require more attention than any other kind of roads1 and as a rule get less4 ,at best1 they possess so many defects that they should have all the attention and care of which their condition is susceptible4 ,with earth alone1 however1 a very passable road can be made1 provided the principles of location1 drainage1 and shape of surface1 together with that of keeping the surface as smooth and firm as possible by rolling1 be strictly adhered to4 ,in fact a good earth road is second to none for summer travel and superior to many of the so-called macadam or stone roads4 ,water is the great road destroyer1 and too much attention cannot be given to the surface and subdrainage of earth roads4 ,the material of which their surfaces are composed is more susceptible to the action of water and more easily destroyed by it than any other highway material4 ,drainage alone will often change a bad road into a good one1 while on the other hand the best road may be destroyed by the absence of good drains4 ,the same can be said of rolling1 which is a very important matter in attempting to build or maintain a satisfactory earth road4 ,if loose earth is dumped into the middle of the road and consolidated by traffic1 the action of the narrow-tired wheels cuts it or rolls it into uneven ruts and ridges1 which hold water1 and ultimately results1 if in the winter season1 in a sticky1 muddy surface1 or if it be in dry weather1 in covering the surface with several inches of dust4 ,if1 however1 the surface be prepared with a road machine and properly rolled with a heavy roller1 it can usually be made sufficiently firm and smooth to sustain the traffic without rutting1 and resist the penetrating action of the water4 ,every road is made smoother1 harder1 and better by rolling4 ,such rolling should be done in damp weather1 or if that is not possible1 the surface should be sprinkled if the character of the soil requires such aid for its proper consolidation4 ,in constructing new earth roads all stumps1 brush1 vegetable matter1 rocks1 and bowlders should be removed from the surface and the resulting holes filled in with suitable material1 carefully and thoroughly tamped or rolled1 before the road embankment is commenced4 ,no perishable material should be used in forming the permanent embankments4 ,where possible the longitudinal grade should be kept down to one foot in thirty feet1 and should under no circumstances exceed one in twenty1 while that from center to sides should be maintained at one foot in twenty feet4 ,wherever the subgrade soil is found unsuitable it should be removed and replaced with good material rolled to a bearing1 i4e41 so as to be smooth and compact4 ,the roadbed1 having been brought to the required grade and crown1 should be rolled several times to compact the surface4 ,all inequalities discovered during the rolling should be leveled up and rerolled4 ,on the prepared subgrade1 the earth should be spread1 harrowed if necessary1 and then rolled to a bearing by passing the unballasted road roller a number of times over every portion of the surface of the section4 ,in level countries and with narrow roads1 enough material may be excavated to raise the roadway above the subgrade in forming the side ditches by means of road machines4 ,if not1 the required earth should be obtained by widening the side excavations1 or from cuttings on the line of the new roadway1 or from pits close by1 elevating graders and modern dumping or spreading wagons being preferably used for this purpose4 ,when the earth is brought up to the final height1 it is again harrowed1 then trimmed by means of road levelers or road machines and ultimately rolled to a solid and smooth surface with road rollers gradually increased in weight by the addition of ballast4 ,no filling should be brought up in layers exceeding nine inches in depth4 ,during the rolling1 sprinkling should be attended to wherever the character of the soil requires such aid4 ,the cross section of the roadway must be maintained during the last rolling stage by the addition of earth as needed4 ,on clay soils a layer of sand1 gravel1 or ashes spread on the roadway will prevent the sticking of the clay to the roller4 ,as previously explained1 the finishing touches to the road surface should be given by a heavy roller4 ,before the earth road is opened to traffic1 deep and wide side ditches should be constructed1 with a fall throughout their entire length of at least one in one hundred and twenty4 ,they should be cleaned and left with the drain tiling connections1 if any1 in good working order4 ,clay soils1 as a rule1 absorb water quite freely and soften when saturated1 but water does not readily pass through them2 hence they are not easily subdrained4 ,when used alone1 clay is the least desirable of all road materials1 but roads constructed over clay soils may be treated with sand or small gravel1 from which a comparatively hard and compact mass is formed which is nearly impervious to water4 ,material of this character found in the natural state1 commonly known as hardpan1 makes1 when properly applied1 a very solid and durable surface4 ,in soil composed of a mixture of sand1 gravel1 and clay1 all that is necessary to make a good road of its kind is to crown the surface1 keep the ruts and hollows filled1 and the ditches open and free4 ,illustration3 ,sand ,clay ,road in ,richland ,county1 ,south ,carolina ,sand soil with nine inches of clay and two inches cover of sand ,roads are prone to wear in ruts1 and when hollows and ruts begin to make their appearance on the surface of an earth road great care should be used in selecting new material1 with which they should be immediately filled1 because a hole which could have been filled at first with a shovel full of material would soon need a cart full4 ,it should1 if possible1 be of a gravelly nature1 entirely free from vegetable earth1 muck1 or mold4 ,sod or turf should not be placed on the surface1 neither should the surface be renewed by throwing upon it the worn-out material from the gutters alongside4 ,the last injunction1 if rightly observed and the proper remedy applied1 would doubtless put an end to the deplorable condition of thousands of miles of earth roads in the ,united ,states4 ,a road-maker should not go to the other extreme and fill up ruts and holes with stone or large gravel4 ,in many cases it would be wiser to dump such material in the river4 ,these stones do not wear uniformly with the rest of the material1 but produce bumps and ridges1 and in nearly every case result in making two holes instead of one4 ,every hole or rut in a roadway1 if not tamped full of some good material like that of which the road is constructed1 will become filled with water1 and finally with mud and water1 and will be dug deeper and wider by each passing vehicle4 ,the work of maintaining earth roads will be much increased by lack of care in properly finishing the work4 ,the labor and money spent in rolling a newly-made road may save many times that amount of labor and money in making future repairs4 ,after the material has been placed it should not be left for the traffic to consolidate1 or for the rains to wash off into the ditches1 but should be carefully formed and surfaced1 and then1 if possible1 rolled4 ,the rolling not only consolidates the material1 but puts the roadbed in proper shape for travel immediately4 ,if there is anything more trying on man or beast than to travel over an unimproved road1 it must be to travel over one which has just been worked by the antiquated methods now in vogue in many of the states4 ,the traveled way should never be repaired by the use of plows or scoops4 ,the plow breaks up the compact surface which age and traffic have made tolerable4 ,earth roads can be rapidly repaired by a judicious use of road machines and road rollers4 ,the road machine places the material where it is most needed1 and the roller compacts and keeps it there4 ,the labor-saving machinery now manufactured for road-building is just as effectual and necessary as the modern mower1 self-binder1 and thrasher4 ,road graders and rollers are the modern inventions necessary to permanent and economical construction4 ,two men with two teams can build more road in one day with a grader and roller than fifty men can with picks and shovels1 and do it more uniformly and more thoroughly4 ,doubtless the best way to keep an earth road1 or any road1 for that matter1 in repair is by the use of wide tires on all wagons carrying heavy burdens4 ,water and narrow tires aid each other in destroying streets1 macadam1 gravel1 and earth roads4 ,narrow tires are also among the most destructive agents to the fields1 pastures1 and meadows of farms1 while on the other hand wide tires are road-makers2 they roll and harden the surface1 and every loaded wagon becomes in effect a road roller4 ,nothing so much tends to the improving of a road as the continued rolling of its surface4 ,tests recently made at the experiment stations in ,utah and ,missouri show that wide tires not only improve the surface of roads1 but that under ordinary circumstances less power is required to pull a wagon on which wide tires are used4 ,the introduction in recent years of a wide metallic tire which can be placed on any narrow-tired wheel at the cost of two dollars each1 has removed one very serious objection to the proposed substitution of broad tires for the narrow ones now in use4 ,repairs on earth roads should be attended to particularly in the spring of the year1 but the great mistake of letting all the repairs go until that time should rot be made4 ,the great want of the country road is daily care1 and the sooner we do away with the system of working out our road taxes1 and pay such taxes in money1 the sooner will it be possible to build improved roads and to hire experts to keep them constantly in good repair4 ,roads could then secure attention when such attention is most needed4 ,if they are repaired only annually or semiannually they are seldom in good condition but when they are given daily or weekly care they are almost always in good condition1 and1 moreover1 the second method costs far less than the first4 ,a portion of all levy tax money raised for road purposes should be used in buying improved road machinery1 and in constructing each year a few miles of improved stone or gravel roads4 ,the only exceptions to the instructions given on road drainage are found in the attempt to improve a sand road4 ,the more one improves the drainage of a sand road the more deplorable becomes its condition4 ,nothing will ruin one quicker than to dig a ditch on each side and drain all the water away4 ,the best way to make such a road firm is to keep it constantly damp4 ,very bushy or shady trees alongside such roads prevent the evaporation of water4 ,the usual way of mending roads which run over loose sandy soils is to cover the surface with tough clay or mix the clay and sand together4 ,this is quite an expensive treatment if the clay has to be transported a great distance1 but the expense may be reduced by improving only eight or ten feet or half of the roadway4 ,any strong1 fibrous substance1 and especially one which holds moisture1 such as the refuse of sugar cane or sorghum1 and even common straw1 flax1 or swamp grass1 will be useful4 ,spent tan is of some service1 and wood fiber in any form is excellent4 ,the best is the fibrous sawdust made in sawing shingles by those machines which cut lengthwise of the fiber into the side of the block4 ,sawdust is first spread on the road from eight to ten inches deep1 and this is covered with sand to protect the road against fire lighted from pipes or cigars carelessly thrown or emptied on the roadbed4 ,the sand also keeps the sawdust damp4 ,the dust and sand soon become hard and packed1 and the wheels of the heaviest wagons make but little impression upon the surface4 ,the roadbed appears to be almost as solid as a plank road1 but is much easier for the teams4 ,the road prepared in this manner will remain good for four or five years and will then require renewing in some parts4 ,the ordinary lumber sawdust would not be so good1 of course1 but if mixed with planer shavings might serve fairly well4 ,roads built of poles or logs laid across the roadway are called corduroy roads1 because of their corrugated or ribbed appearance4 ,like earth roads1 they should never be built where it is possible to secure any other good material2 but1 as is frequently the case in swampy1 timbered regions1 other material is unavailable1 and as the road would be absolutely impassable without them at certain seasons of the year1 it is well to know how to make them4 ,roads of this character should be fifteen or sixteen feet wide1 so as to enable wagons to pass each other4 ,logs are superior to poles for this purpose and should be used if possible4 ,the following in regard to the construction of corduroy roads is from ,gilmore's ,roads1 ,streets1 and ,pavements3 ,the logs are all cut the same length1 which should be that of the required width of the road1 and in laying them down such care in selection should be exercised as will give the smallest joints or openings between them4 ,in order to reduce as much as possible the resistance to draft and the violence of the repeated shocks to which vehicles are subjected upon these roads1 and also to render its surface practicable for draft animals1 it is customary to level up between the logs with smaller pieces of the same length but split to a triangular cross section4 ,these are inserted with edges downward in the open joints1 so as to bring their surface even with the upper sides of the large logs1 or as nearly so as practicable4 ,upon the bed thus prepared a layer of brushwood is put1 with a few inches in thickness1 with soil or turf on top to keep it in place4 ,this completes the road4 ,the logs are laid directly upon the natural surface of the soil1 those of the same or nearly of the same diameter being kept together1 and the top covering of soil is excavated from side ditches4 ,cross drains may usually be omitted in roads of this kind1 as the openings between the logs1 even when laid with utmost care1 will furnish more than ample water way for drainage from the ditch on the upper to that on the lower side of the road4 ,when the passage of a creek of considerable volume is to be provided for1 and in localities subject to freshets1 cross drains or culverts are made wherever necessary by the omission of two or more logs1 the openings being bridged with planks1 split rails1 or poles laid transversely to the axis of the road and resting on cross beams notched into the logs on either side4 ,the essential requirement of a good road is that it should be firm and unyielding at all times and in all kinds of weather1 so that its surface may be smooth and impervious to water4 ,earth roads at best fulfil none of these requirements1 unless they be covered with some artificial material4 ,on a well-made gravel road one horse can draw twice as large a load as he can on a well-made earth road4 ,on a hard smooth stone road one horse can pull as much as four horses will on a good earth road4 ,if larger loads can be hauled and better time made on good hard roads than on good earth ones1 the area and the number of people benefited are increased in direct proportion to the improvement of their surface4 ,moreover1 it is evident that a farm four or five miles from the market or shipping point located on or near a hard road is virtually nearer the market than one situated only two or three miles away1 but located on a soft and yielding road4 ,hard roads are divided here into three classes--gravel1 shell1 and stone4 ,although it is impracticable1 and in many cases impossible1 for communities to build good stone roads1 a surface of gravel may frequently be used to advantage1 giving far better results than could be attained by the use of earth alone4 ,where beds of good gravel are available this is the simplest1 cheapest1 and most effective method of improving country roads4 ,illustration3 ,,gravel ,,road ,,near ,,soldiers' ,,home1 ,,district ,,of ,,columbia ,in connection with the building and maintenance of gravel roads the most important matter to consider is that of selecting the proper material4 ,a small proportion of argillaceous sand1 clayey1 or earthy matter contained in some gravel enables it to pack readily and consolidate under traffic or the road roller4 ,seaside and river gravel1 which is composed usually of rounded1 waterworn pebbles1 is unfit for surfacing roads4 ,the small stones of which they are composed1 having no angular projections or sharp edges1 easily move or slide against each other1 and will not bind together1 and even when mixed with clay may turn freely1 causing the whole surface to be loose1 like materials in a shaken sieve4 ,inferior qualities of gravel can sometimes be used for foundations2 but where it becomes necessary to employ such material even for that purpose it is well to mix just enough sandy or clayey loam to bind it firmly together4 ,for the wearing surface or the top layer the pebbles should1 if possible1 be comparatively clean1 hard1 angular1 and tough1 so that they will readily consolidate and will not be easily pulverized by the impact of traffic1 into dust and mud4 ,they should be coarse1 varying in size from half an inch to an inch and one-half4 ,where blue gravel or hardpan and clean bank gravel are procurable1 a good road may be made by mixing the two together4 ,pit gravel or gravel dug from the earth as a rule contains too much earthy matter4 ,this may1 however1 be removed by sifting4 ,for this purpose two sieves are necessary1 through which the gravel should be thrown4 ,the meshes of one sieve should be one and one-half or two inches in diameter1 while the meshes of the other should be three-fourths of an inch4 ,all pebbles which will not go through the one and one-half inch meshes should be rejected or broken so that they will go through4 ,all material which sifts through the three-fourths inch meshes should be rejected for the road1 but may be used in making side paths4 ,the excellent road which can be built from materials prepared in this way is so far superior to the one made of the natural clayey material that the expense and trouble of sifting is many times repaid4 ,the best gravel for road-building stands perpendicular in the bank2 that is1 when the pit has been opened up the remainder stands compact and firm and cannot be dislodged except by use of the pick1 and when it gives way falls in great chunks or solid masses4 ,such material usually contains tough angular gravel with just enough cementing properties to enable it to readily pack and consolidate1 and requires no further treatment than to place it properly on the prepared roadbed4 ,some earth roads may be greatly improved by covering the surface with a layer of three or four inches of gravel1 and sometimes even a thinner layer may prove of very great benefit if kept in proper repair4 ,the subsoil of such roadway ought1 however1 to be well drained1 or of a light and porous nature4 ,roads constructed over clay soils require a layer of at least six inches of gravel4 ,the gravel must be deep enough to prevent the weight of traffic forcing the surface material into weak places in the clay beneath1 and also to prevent the surface water from percolating through and softening the clay and causing the whole roadway to be torn up4 ,owing to a lack of knowledge regarding construction1 indifference1 or carelessness in building or improving1 roads made of gravel are often very much worse than they ought to be4 ,some of them are made by simply dumping the material into ruts1 mud holes1 or gutter-like depressions1 or on unimproved foundation1 and are left thus for traffic to consolidate1 while others are made by covering the surface with inferior material without any attention being paid to the fundamental principles of drainage4 ,as a result of such thoughtless and haphazard methods the road usually becomes rougher and more completely covered with holes than before4 ,in constructing a gravel road the roadbed should first be brought to the proper grade4 ,ordinarily an excavation is then made to the depth of eight to ten inches1 varying in width with the requirements of traffic4 ,for a farm or farming community the width need not be greater than ten or twelve feet4 ,a roadway which is too wide is not only useless1 but the extra width is a positive damage4 ,any width beyond that needed for the traffic is not only a waste of money in constructing the road1 but is the cause of a never-ending expense in maintaining it4 ,the surface of the roadbed should preferably have a fall from the center to the sides the same as that to be given the finished road1 and should1 if possible1 be thoroughly rolled and consolidated until perfectly smooth and firm4 ,a layer1 not thicker than four inches1 of good gravel1 such as that recommended above1 should then be spread evenly over the prepared roadbed4 ,such material is usually carried upon a road in wheelbarrows or dump carts1 and then spread in even layers with rakes1 but the latest and best device for this purpose is a spreading cart4 ,if a roller cannot be had1 the road is thrown open to traffic until it becomes fairly well consolidated2 but it is impossible properly to consolidate materials by the movement of vehicles over the road1 and if this means is pursued constant watchfulness is necessary to prevent unequal wear and to keep the surface smooth and free from ruts4 ,the work may be hastened and facilitated by the use of a horse roller or light steam roller2 and of course far better results can be accomplished by this means4 ,if the gravel be too dry to consolidate easily it should be kept moist by sprinkling4 ,it should not1 however1 be made too wet1 as any earthy or clayey matter in the gravel is liable to be dissolved4 ,as soon as the first layer has been properly consolidated1 a second1 third1 and1 if necessary1 fourth layer1 each three or four inches in thickness1 is spread on and treated in the same manner1 until the road is built up to the required thickness and cross section4 ,the thickness in most cases need not be greater than ten or twelve inches1 and the fall from the center to the sides ought not to be greater than one foot in twenty feet1 or less than one in twenty-five4 ,the last or surface layer should be rolled until the wheels of heavily loaded vehicles passing over it make no visible impression4 ,if the top layer is deficient in binding material and will not properly consolidate1 a thin layer1 not exceeding one inch in thickness1 of sand or gravelly loam or clay1 should be evenly spread on and slightly sprinkled if in dry weather1 before the rolling is begun4 ,hardpan or stone screenings are much preferred for this purpose if they can be had4 ,the tendency of material to spread under the roller and work toward the sides can be resisted by rolling that portion nearest the gutters first4 ,to give the surface the required form and to secure uniform density1 it is necessary at times to employ men with rakes to fill any depressions which may form4 ,in order to maintain a gravel road in good condition1 it is well to keep piles of gravel alongside at frequent intervals1 so that the person who repairs the road can get the material without going too far for it4 ,as soon as ruts or holes appear on the surface some of this good fresh material should be added and tamped into position or kept raked smooth until properly consolidated4 ,if the surface needs replenishing or rounding up1 as is frequently the case with new roads after considerable wear1 the material should be applied in sections or patches1 raked and rolled until hard and smooth4 ,care must be taken that the water from higher places does not drain upon or run across the road4 ,the side ditches1 culverts1 and drains should be kept open and free from debris4 ,in many of the ,eastern and ,southern ,states road stones do not exist2 neither is it possible to secure good coarse gravel4 ,no such material can be secured except at such an expense for freight as to practically preclude its use for road-building4 ,oyster shells can be secured cheaply in most of these states1 and when applied directly upon sand or sandy soil1 eight or ten inches in thickness1 they form excellent roads for pleasure driving and light traffic4 ,shells wear much more rapidly than broken stone or gravel of good quality1 and consequently roads made of them require more constant attention to keep them in good order4 ,in most cases they should have an entirely new surface every three or four years4 ,when properly maintained they possess many of the qualities found in good stone or gravel roads1 and so far as beauty is concerned they cannot be surpassed4 ,the greatest obstacles to good stone road construction in most places in the ,united ,states are the existing methods of building and systems of management1 whereby millions of dollars are annually wasted in improper construction or in making trifling repairs on temporary structures4 ,illustration3 ,,oyster-,,shell ,,object-,,lesson ,,road ,in course of construction1 near ,mobile1 ,alabama ,the practice of using too soft1 too brittle1 or rotten material on roads cannot be too severely condemned4 ,some people seem to think that if a stone quarries easily1 breaks easily1 and packs readily1 it is the very best stone for road-building4 ,this practice1 together with that of placing the material on unimproved foundations and leaving it thus for traffic to consolidate1 has done a great deal to destroy the confidence of many people in stone roads4 ,there is no reason in the world why a road should not last for ages if it is built of good material and kept in proper repair4 ,if this is not done1 the money spent is more than wasted4 ,it is more economical1 as a rule1 to bring good materials a long distance by rail or water than to employ inferior ones procured close at hand4 ,the durability of roads depends largely upon the power of the materials of which they are composed to resist those natural and artificial forces which are constantly acting to destroy them4 ,the fragments of which they are constructed are liable to be attacked in cold climates by frost1 and in all climates by water and wind4 ,if composed of stone or gravel1 the particles are constantly grinding against each other and being exposed to the impact of the tires of vehicles and the feet of animals4 ,atmospheric agencies are also at work decomposing and disintegrating the material4 ,it is obviously necessary1 therefore1 that great care be exercised in selecting for the surfacing of roads those stones which are less liable to be destroyed or decomposed by these physical1 dynamical1 and chemical forces4 ,siliceous materials1 those composed of flint or quartz1 although hard1 are brittle and deficient in toughness4 ,granite is not desirable because it is composed of three materials of different natures1 viz41 quartz1 feldspar1 and mica1 the first of which is brittle1 the second liable to decompose rapidly1 and the third laminable or of a scaly or layerlike nature4 ,some granites which contain hornblende instead of feldspar are desirable4 ,the darker the variety the better4 ,gneiss1 which is composed of quartz1 feldspar1 and mica1 more or less distinctly slaty1 is inferior to granite4 ,mica-slate stones are altogether useless4 ,the argillaceous slates or clayey slates make a smooth surface1 but one which is easily destroyed when wet4 ,the sandstones are utterly useless for road-building4 ,the tougher limestones are very good1 but the softer ones1 though they bind and make a smooth surface very quickly1 are too weak for heavy loads2 they wear1 wash1 and blow away very rapidly4 ,the materials employed for surfacing roads should be both hard and tough1 and should possess by all means cementing and recementing qualities4 ,for the ,southern ,states1 where there are no frosts to contend with1 the best qualities of limestone are considered quite satisfactory so far as the cementing and recementing qualities are concerned2 but in most cases roads of this class of material do not stand the wear and tear of traffic like those built of trap rock1 and when exposed to the severe northern winters such material disintegrates very rapidly4 ,in fact1 trap rock1 nigger heads1 technically known as diabase1 and diorites1 are considered by most road engineers of long experience to be the very best stones for road-building4 ,trap rocks as a rule possess all the qualities most desired for road stones4 ,they are hard and tough1 and when properly broken to small sizes and rolled thoroughly1 cement and consolidate into a smooth1 hard crust which is impervious to water1 and the broken particles are so heavy that they are not readily broken or washed away4 ,unfortunately the most useful stones for road-building are the most difficult to prepare1 and as trap rocks are harder to break than any other stones they usually cost more4 ,the foundation or lower courses may be formed of some of the softer stones like gneiss or limestone1 but trap rock should be used for the wearing surface1 if possible1 even if it has to be brought from a distance4 ,as to the construction of macadam roads1 ,mr4 ,potter says3 ,in the construction of a macadam road in any given locality1 the question of economy generally compels us to use a material found near at hand1 and where a local quarry does not exist field stone and stone gathered from the beds of rivers and small streams may often be made to serve every purpose4 ,many of the stones and boulders thus obtained are of trap rock1 and in general it may be said that all hard field and river stones1 if broken to a proper size1 will make fairly good and sometimes very excellent road metal4 ,no elaborate test is required to determine the hardness of any given specimen4 ,a steel hammer in the hands of an intelligent workman will reveal in a general way the relative degree of toughness of two or more pieces of rock4 ,field and river stone offer an additional advantage in that they are quickly handled1 are generally of convenient size1 and are more readily broken either by hand or by machine than most varieties of rock which are quarried in the usual way4 ,it is a simple task to break stone for macadam roadways1 and by the aid of modern inventions it can be done cheaply and quickly4 ,hand-broken stone is fairly out of date and is rarely used in ,america where any considerable amount of work is to be undertaken4 ,stone may be broken by hand at different points along the roadside where repairs are needed from time to time1 but the extra cost of production by this method forbids its being carried on where extended work is undertaken4 ,hand-broken stone is generally more uniform in size1 more nearly cubical in shape1 and has sharper angles than that broken by machinery1 but the latter1 when properly assorted or screened1 has been found to meet every requirement4 ,a good crusher driven by eight horsepower will turn out from forty to eighty cubic yards of two-inch stone per day of ten hours1 and will cost from four hundred dollars upward1 according to quality4 ,some crushers are made either stationary1 semistationary1 or portable1 according to the needs of the purchaser1 and for country-road work it is sometimes very desirable to have a portable crusher to facilitate its easy transfer from one part of the township to another4 ,the same portable engine that is used in thrashing1 sawing wood1 and other operations requiring the use of steam power may be used in running a stone crusher1 but it is best to remember that a crusher will do its best and most economical work when run by a machine having a horsepower somewhat in excess of the power actually required4 ,as the stone comes from the breaker the pieces will be found to show a considerable variety in size1 and by many practical road-makers it is regarded as best that these sizes should be assorted and separated1 since each has its particular use4 ,to do this work by hand would be troublesome and expensive1 and screens are generally employed for that purpose4 ,screens are not absolutely necessary1 and many road-makers do not use them2 but they insure uniformity in size of pieces1 and uniformity means in many cases superior wear1 smoothness1 and economy4 ,most of the screens in common use today are of the rotary kind4 ,in operating they are generally so arranged that the product of the crusher falls directly into the rotary screen1 which revolves on an inclined axis and empties the separate pieces into small bins below the crusher4 ,a better form for many purposes includes a larger and more elaborate outfit1 in which the stone is carried by an elevator to the screen and by the screen emptied into separate bins according to the respective sizes4 ,from the bins it is easily loaded into wagons or spreading carts and hauled to any desired point along the line of the road4 ,the size to which stone should be broken depends upon the quality of the stone1 the amount of traffic to which the road will be subjected1 and to some extent upon the manner in which the stone is put in place4 ,if a hard1 tough stone is employed it may be broken into rough cubes or pieces of about one and a half inches in largest face dimensions1 and when broken to such a size the product of the crusher may generally be used to good advantage without the trouble of screening1 since dust 'tailings' and fine stuff do not accumulate in large quantities in the breaking of the tougher stone4 ,if only moderate traffic is to be provided for1 the harder limestones may be broken so the pieces will pass through a two-inch ring1 though sizes running from two and a quarter to two and a half inches will insure a more durable roadway1 and if a steam roller is used in compacting the metal it will be brought to a smooth surface without much trouble4 ,as a rule1 it may be said that to adhere closely to a size running from two and a quarter to two and a half inches in largest face dimensions1 and to use care in excluding too large a proportion of small stuff as well as all pieces of excessive size1 will insure a satisfactory and durable macadam road4 ,macadam insisted that no large stone should ever be employed in road-making1 and1 indeed1 most modern road builders practice his principle that small angular fragments are the cardinal requirements4 ,as a general rule it has been stated that no stone larger than a walnut should be used for the surfacing of roads4 ,stone roads are built in most cases according to the principles laid down by ,john ,l4 ,macadam1 while some are built by the methods advocated by ,telford4 ,the most important difference between these two principles of construction relates to the propriety or necessity of a paved foundation beneath the crust of broken stone4 ,telford advocated this principle1 while ,macadam strongly denied its advantages4 ,in building roads very few iron-clad rules can be laid down for universal application2 skill and judgment must be exercised in designing and building each road so that it will best meet the requirements of the place it is to occupy4 ,the relative value of the telford and macadam systems can most always be determined by the local circumstances1 conditions1 and necessities under which the road is to be built4 ,the former system seems to have the advantage in swampy1 wet places1 or where the soil is in strata varying in hardness1 or where the foundation is liable to get soft in spots4 ,under most other circumstances experienced road builders prefer the macadam construction1 not only because it is considered best1 but also because it is much cheaper4 ,the macadam road consists of a mass of angular fragments of rock deposited usually in layers upon the roadbed or prepared foundation and consolidated to a smooth1 hard surface produced by the passage of vehicles or by use of a road roller4 ,the thickness of this crust varies with the soil1 the nature of the stone used1 and the amount of traffic which the road is expected to have4 ,it should be so thick that the greatest load will not affect the foundation4 ,the weight usually comes upon a very small part of the surface1 but is spread over a large area of the foundation1 and the thicker the crust the more uniformly will the load be distributed over the foundation4 ,macadam earnestly advocated the principle that all artificial road-building depended wholly for its success upon the making and maintaining of a solid dry foundation and the covering of this foundation with a durable waterproof coating or roof of broken stone4 ,the foundation must be solid and firm2 if it be otherwise the crust is useless4 ,a road builder should always remember that without a durable foundation there is no durable road4 ,hundreds of miles of macadam roads are built in the ,united ,states each year on unimproved or unstable foundations and almost as many miles go to pieces for this same reason4 ,says ,macadam3 ,the stone is employed to form a secure1 smooth1 water-tight flooring1 over which vehicles may pass with safety and expedition at all seasons of the year4 ,its thickness should be regulated only by the quality of the material necessary to form such a flooring and not at all by any consideration as to its own independent power of bearing weight4444 ,the erroneous idea that the evils of an underdrained1 wet1 clayey soil can be remedied by a large quantity of materials has caused a large part of the costly and unsuccessful expenditures in making stone roads4 ,the evils from improper construction of stone roads are even greater than those resulting from the use of improper material4 ,macadam never intended that a heterogeneous conglomeration of stones and mud should be called a macadam road4 ,the mistake is often made of depositing broken stone on an old road without first preparing a suitable foundation4 ,the result1 in most cases1 is that the dirt and mud prevent the stone from packing and by the action of traffic ooze to the surface1 while the stones sink deeper and deeper1 leaving the road as bad as before4 ,another great mistake is often made of spreading large and small stones over a well-graded and well-drained foundation and leaving them thus for traffic to consolidate4 ,the surface of a road left in this manner is often kept in constant turmoil by the larger stones1 which work themselves to the surface and are knocked hither and thither by the wheels of vehicles and the feet of animals4 ,these plans of construction cannot be too severely condemned4 ,the roadbed should be first graded1 then carefully surface-drained4 ,the earth should then be excavated to the depth to which material is to be spread on and the foundation properly shaped and sloped each way from the center so as to discharge any water which may percolate through4 ,this curvature should conform to the curvature of the finished road4 ,a shouldering of firm earth or gravel should be left or made on each side to hold the material in place1 and should extend to the gutters at the same curvature as the finished road4 ,the foundation should then be rolled until hard and smooth4 ,upon this bed spread a layer of five or six inches of broken stone1 which stone should be free from any earthy mixture4 ,this layer should be thoroughly rolled until compact and firm4 ,stone may be hauled from the stone-crusher bins or from the stone piles in ordinary wheelbarrows or from wagons1 and should be distributed broadcast over the surface with shovels1 and all inequalities leveled up by the use of rakes4 ,if this method of spreading is employed1 grade stakes should be used so as to insure a uniformity of thickness4 ,after the stakes are driven the height of the layer is marked on their sides1 and if thought necessary a piece of stout cord is stretched from stake to stake1 showing the exact height to which the layer should be spread4 ,spreading carts have been recently invented which not only place the stone where it is needed without the use of shovels1 but spread it on in layers of any desired thickness and at the same time several inches wider than the carts themselves4 ,if the stones have been separated into two or three different sizes1 the largest size should compose the bottom layer1 the next size the second layer1 etc4 ,the surface of each course or layer should be thoroughly and repeatedly rolled and sprinkled until it becomes firm1 compact1 and smooth4 ,the first layer1 however1 should not be sprinkled1 as the water is liable to soften the foundation4 ,the rolling ought to be done along the side lines first1 gradually working toward the center as the job is being completed4 ,in rolling the last course it is well to begin by rolling first the shoulderings or the side roads if such exist4 ,a coat of three-quarter inch stone and screenings1 of sufficient thickness to make a smooth and uniform surface1 should compose the last course1 and1 like the other layers1 should be rolled until perfectly firm and smooth4 ,as a final test of perfection1 a small stone placed on the surface will be crushed before being driven into the material4 ,if none of the stones used be larger than will pass through a two-inch ring1 they can be spread on in layers as above described without separating them by screens4 ,water and binding material--stone screenings or good packing gravel--can be added if found necessary for proper consolidation4 ,earth or clay should never be used for a binding material4 ,enough water should be sprinkled on to wash in and fill all voids between the broken stones with binding material and to leave such material damp enough to insure a set4 ,if a road is built of tough1 hard stone1 and if the binding material has the same characteristics1 a steam roller is essential for speedy results4 ,a horse roller may be used to good advantage if the softer varieties of stone are employed4 ,for general purposes a roller weighing from eight to twelve tons is all that is necessary4 ,heavier weights are difficult to handle upon unimproved surfaces unless they be constructed like the ,addison roller1 the weight of which can be increased or lightened at will by filling the drum with water or drawing the water out4 ,this roller can be made to weigh as much as eight tons and1 like several other very excellent ones now on the market1 is provided with anti-friction roller bearings1 which lighten the draft considerably4 ,every stone road1 unless properly built with small stones and just enough binding material to fill the voids1 presents a honeycombed appearance4 ,in fact1 a measure containing two cubic feet of broken stone will hold in addition one cubic foot of water1 and a cubic yard of broken macadam will weigh just about one-half as much as a solid cubic yard of the same kind of stone4 ,isaac ,potter says3 ,to insure a solid roadway and to fill the large proportion of voids or interstices between the different pieces of broken stone1 some finer material must be introduced into the structure of the roadway1 and this material is usually called a binder1 or by some road-makers a 'filler4' ,there used to be much contention regarding the use of binding material in the making of a macadam road1 but it is now conceded by nearly all practical and experienced road-makers1 both in ,europe and ,america1 that the use of a binding material is essential to the proper construction of a good macadam road4 ,it adds to its solidity1 insures tightness by closing all of the spaces between the loose1 irregular stones1 and binds together the macadam crust in a way that gives it firmness1 elasticity1 and durability4 ,binding material to produce the best results should be equal in hardness and toughness with the road stone2 the best results are therefore obtained by using screenings or spalls from the broken stone used4 ,coarse sand and gravel can sometimes be used with impunity as a binder1 but the wisdom of using loam or clay is very much questioned4 ,when the latter material is used for a binder the road is apt to become very dusty in dry weather1 and sticky1 muddy1 and rutty in wet weather4 ,the character of the foundation should never take the place of proper drainage4 ,the advisability of underground or subdrainage should always be carefully considered where the road is liable to be attacked from beneath by water4 ,in most cases good subdrains will so dry the foundation out that the macadam construction can be resorted to4 ,sometimes1 however1 thorough drainage is difficult or doubtful1 and in such cases it is desirable to adopt some heavy construction like the telford2 and1 furthermore1 the difficulty of procuring perfectly solid and reliable roadbeds in many places is often overcome by the use of this system4 ,in making a telford road the surface for the foundation is prepared in the same manner as for a macadam road4 ,a layer of broken stone is then placed on the roadbed from five to eight inches in depth1 depending upon the thickness to be given the finished road4 ,as a rule this foundation should form about two-thirds of the total thickness of the material4 ,the stone used for the first layer may vary in thickness from two to four inches and in length from eight to twelve inches4 ,the thickness of the upper edges of the stones should not exceed four inches4 ,they are set by hand on their broadest edges lengthwise across the road1 breaking joints as much as possible4 ,all projecting points are then broken off and the interstices or cracks filled with stone chips1 and the whole structure wedged and consolidated into a solid and complete pavement4 ,upon this pavement layers of broken stones are spread and treated in the same way as for a macadam road4 ,stone roads should be frequently scraped1 so as to remove all dust and mud4 ,nothing destroys a stone road quicker than dust or mud4 ,the hand method of scraping with a hoe is considered best4 ,no matter how carefully adjusted the machinery built for this purpose may be1 it is liable to ravel a road by loosening some of the stones4 ,the gutters and surface drains should be kept open1 so that all water falling upon the road or on the adjacent ground may promptly flow away4 ,says ,spalding1 a road authority3 ,if the road metal be of soft material which wears easily1 it will require constant supervision and small repairs whenever a rut or depression may appear4 ,material of this kind binds readily with new material that may be added1 and may in this manner frequently be kept in good condition without great difficulty1 while if not attended to at once when wear begins to show it will very rapidly increase1 to the great detriment of the road4 ,in making repairs by this method the material is commonly placed a little at a time and compacted by passing vehicles4 ,the material used for this purpose should be the same as that of the road surface and not fine material1 which would soon reduce to powder under the loads which come upon it4 ,by careful attention to minute repairs in this manner a surface may be kept in good condition until it wears so thin as to require renewal4 ,in case the road be of harder material1 that will not so readily combine when a thin coating is added1 repairs may not be frequent1 as the surface will not wear so rapidly1 and immediate attention is not so important4 ,it is usually more satisfactory in this case to make more extensive repairs at one time1 as a larger quantity of material added at once may be more readily compacted to a uniform surface1 the repairs taking the form of an additional layer upon the road4 ,where the material of the road surface is very hard and durable1 a well-constructed road may wear quite evenly and require hardly any attention1 beyond ordinary small repairs1 until worn out4 ,it is now usually considered the best practice to leave such a road to itself until it wears very thin1 and then renew it by an entirely new layer of broken stone placed on the worn surface and without in any way disturbing that surface4 ,if a thin layer only of material is to be added at one time1 in order that it may unite firmly with the upper layer of the road1 it is usually necessary to break the bond of the surface material before placing the new layer1 either by picking it up by hand or by a steam roller with short spikes in its surface1 if such a machine is at hand4 ,care should be taken in doing this1 however1 that only the surface layer be loosened and that the solidity of the body of the road be not disturbed1 as might be the case if the spikes are too long4 ,in repairing roads the time-honored custom of waiting until the road has lost its shape or until the surface has become filled with holes or ruts should never be tolerated4 ,much good material is wasted by spreading a thick coat over such a road and leaving it thus for passing vehicles to consolidate4 ,the material necessary to replace defects in a road should be added when the necessities arise and should be of the best quality and the smallest possible quantity4 ,if properly laid in small patches the inconvenience to traffic will be scarcely perceptible4 ,if such repairs are made in damp weather1 as they ought to be1 little or no difficulty is experienced in getting a layer of stone to consolidate properly4 ,if mud fills the rut or hole to be repaired1 it should be carefully removed before the material is placed4 ,wide tires should be used on all heavy vehicles which traverse stone roads4 ,a four or five inch stone or gravel road will last longer without repair when wide tires are used than an eight or ten inch road of the same material on which narrow tires are used4 ,not only should brush and weeds be removed from the roadside1 but grass should be sown1 trees planted1 and a side path or walk be prepared for the use of pedestrians1 especially women and children1 going to and coming from church1 school1 and places of business and amusement4 ,country roads can be made far more useful and attractive than they usually are1 and this may be secured by the expenditure of only a small amount of labor and money4 ,although such improvements are not necessary1 they make the surroundings attractive and inviting and add to the value of property and the pleasure of the traveler4 ,if trees are planted alongside the road they should be far enough back to admit the wind and sun4 ,most strong growing trees are apt to extend their roots under the gutters and even beneath the roadway if they are planted too close to the roadside4 ,even if they be planted at a safe distance those varieties should be selected which send their roots downward rather than horizontally4 ,the most useful and beautiful tree corresponding with these requirements is the chestnut1 while certain varieties of the pear1 cherry1 and mulberry answer the same purpose4 ,where there is no danger of roots damaging the subdrainage or the substructure of the road1 some other favorite varieties would be elms1 rock maples1 horse-chestnuts1 beeches1 pines1 and cedars4 ,climate1 variety of species selected1 and good judgment will determine the distance between such trees4 ,elms should be thirty feet apart1 while the less spreading varieties need not be so far4 ,the trunks should be trimmed to a considerable height1 so as to admit the sun and air4 ,fruit trees are planted along the roadsides in ,germany and ,switzerland1 while mulberry trees may be seen along the roads in ,france1 serving the twofold purpose of food for silkworms and shade4 ,if some of our many varieties of useful1 fruitful1 and beautiful trees were planted along the roads in this country1 and if some means could be devised for protecting the product1 enough revenue could be derived therefrom to pay for the maintenance of the road along which they throw their grateful shade4 ,the improvement of country roads is chiefly an economical question1 relating principally to the waste of effort in hauling over bad roads1 the saving in money1 time1 and energy in hauling over good ones1 the initial cost of improving roads1 and the difference in the cost of maintaining good and bad ones4 ,it is not necessary to enlarge on this subject in order to convince the average reader that good roads reduce the resistance to traffic1 and consequently the cost of transportation of products and goods to and from farms and markets is reduced to a minimum4 ,the initial cost of a road depends upon the cost of materials1 labor1 machinery1 the width and depth to which the material is to be spread on1 and the method of construction4 ,all these things vary so much in the different states that it is impossible to name the exact amount for which a mile of a certain kind of road can be built4 ,the introduction in recent years of improved road-building machinery has enabled the authorities in some of the states to build improved stone and gravel roads quite cheaply4 ,first-class single-track stone roads1 nine feet wide1 have been built near ,canandaigua1 ,new ,york1 for #ijj to #a1jjj per mile4 ,many excellent gravel roads have been built in ,new ,jersey for #a1jjj to #a1cjj per mile4 ,the material of which they were constructed was placed on in two layers1 each being raked and thoroughly rolled1 and the whole mass consolidated to a thickness of eight inches4 ,in the same state macadam roads have been built1 for #b1jjj to #e1jjj per mile1 varying in width from nine to twenty feet and in thickness of material from four to twelve inches4 ,telford roads fourteen feet wide and ten to twelve inches thick have been built in ,new ,jersey for #d1jjj to #f1jjj per mile4 ,macadam roads have been built at ,bridgeport and ,fairfield1 ,connecticut1 eighteen to twenty feet wide1 for #c1jjj to #e1jjj per mile4 ,a telford road sixteen feet wide and twelve inches thick was built at ,fanwood1 ,new ,jersey1 for #i1ejj per mile4 ,macadam roads have been built in ,rhode ,island1 sixteen to twenty feet wide1 for #d1jjj to #e1jjj per mile4 ,massachusetts roads are costing all the way from #f1jjj to #be1jjj per mile4 ,a mile of broken stone road1 fifteen feet wide1 costs in the state of ,massachusetts about #e1gjj per mile1 while a mile of the same width and kind of road costs in the state of ,new ,jersey only #d1gjj4 ,this is due partly to the fact that the topography of ,massachusetts is somewhat rougher than that of ,new ,jersey1 necessitating the reduction of many steep grades and the building of expensive retaining walls and bridges1 and partly to the difference in methods of construction and the difference in prices of materials1 labor1 etc4 ,doubtless the state of ,new ,jersey is building more roads and better roads for less money per mile than any other state in the ,union4 ,its roads are now costing from twenty to seventy cents per square yard4 ,where the telford construction is used they sometimes cost as much as seventy-three cents per square yard4 ,the average cost of all classes of the roads of that state during the last season was about fifty cents per square yard4 ,the stone was1 as a rule1 spread on to a depth of nine inches1 which1 after rolling1 gave a depth of about eight inches4 ,at this rate a single-track road eight feet wide costs about #b1cdf per mile1 while a double-track road fourteen feet wide costs about #d1ajf per mile1 and one eighteen feet wide costs about #e1bhj per mile4 ,where the material is spread on so as to consolidate to a four-inch layer the eight-foot road will cost about #a1agc per mile1 the fourteen-foot road about #b1jec per mile1 while the one eighteen feet wide will cost about #b1fdj per mile4 ,illustration3 ,,earth ,,and ,,macadam ,,roads ,built by convict labor in ,mecklenburg ,county1 ,north ,carolina ,the total cost of maintaining roads in good order ranges1 on account of varying conditions1 between as wide limits almost as the initial cost of construction4 ,suffice it to say that all money spent on repairing earth roads becomes each year a total loss without materially improving their condition4 ,they are1 as a rule1 the most expensive roads that can be used1 while on the other hand stone roads1 if properly constructed of good material and kept in perfect condition1 are the most satisfactory1 the cheapest1 and most economical roads that can be constructed4 ,the road that will best suit the needs of the farmer1 in the first place1 must not be too costly2 and1 in the second place1 must be of the very best kind1 for farmers should be able to do their heavy hauling over them when their fields are too wet to work and their teams would otherwise be idle4 ,the best road for the farmer1 all things being considered1 is a solid1 well-built stone road1 so narrow as to be only a single track1 but having a firm earth road on one or both sides4 ,where the traffic is not very extensive the purposes of good roads are better served by narrow tracks than by wide ones1 while many of the objectionable features of wide tracks are removed1 the initial cost of construction is cut down one-half or more1 and the charges for repair reduced in proportion4 ,,footnotes3 #f ,by ,hon4 ,maurice ,o4 ,eldridge1 ,assistant ,director ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,selection ,,of ,,materials ,,for ,,macadam ,,roads#g ,no one rock can be said to be a universally excellent road material4 ,the climatic conditions vary so much in different localities1 and the volume and character of traffic vary so much on different roads1 that the properties necessary to meet all the requirements can be found in no one rock4 ,if the best macadam road be desired1 that material should be selected which best meets the conditions of the particular road for which it is intended4 ,the movement for better country roads which has received such an impetus from the bicycle organizations is still felt1 and is gaining force from the rapid introduction of horseless vehicles4 ,to this demand1 which comes in a large measure from the urban population1 is to be added that of the farmer1 who is wakening to the fact that good roads greatly increase the profits from his farm produce1 and thus materially better his condition2 and to the farmer1 indeed1 we must look for any real improvement in our country roads4 ,in considering the comparative values of different rocks for road-building1 it must be taken for granted in all cases that the road is properly laid out1 constructed1 and maintained4 ,for if this is not the case1 only inferior results can be expected1 no matter how good the material may be4 ,in most cases the selection of a material for road-making is determined more by its cheapness and convenience of location than by any properties it may possess4 ,but when we consider the number of roads all over our country which are bad from neglect and from obsolete methods of maintenance that would be much improved by the use of any rock1 this regard for economy is not to be entirely deprecated4 ,at the same time1 as a careless selection leads to costly and inferior results1 too much care cannot be used in selecting the proper material when good roads are desired at the lowest cost4 ,when macadam roads are first introduced into a district they are at worst so far superior to the old earth roads that the question is rarely asked1 whether1 if another material had been used1 better roads would not have been obtained1 and this at a smaller cost4 ,when mistakes are made they are not generally discovered until much time and money have been expended on inferior roads4 ,such errors can in a great measure be avoided if reasonable care is taken in the selection of a suitable material4 ,to select a material in a haphazard way1 without considering the needs of the particular road on which it is to be used1 is not unlike an ill person taking the nearest medicine at hand1 without reference to the nature of the malady or the properties of the drug4 ,if a road is bad1 the exact trouble must first be ascertained before the proper remedy can be applied4 ,if the surface of a macadam road continues to be too muddy or dusty after the necessary drainage precautions have been followed1 then the rock of which it is constructed lacks sufficient hardness or toughness to meet the traffic to which it is subjected4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the fine binding material of the surface is carried off by wind and rain and is not replaced by the wear of the coarser fragments1 the surface stones will soon loosen and allow water to make its way freely to the foundation and bring about the destruction of the road4 ,such conditions are brought about by an excess of hardness or toughness of the rock for the traffic4 ,under all conditions a rock of high cementing value is desirable2 for1 other things being equal1 such a rock better resists the wear of traffic and the action of wind and rain4 ,this subject1 however1 will be referred to again4 ,until comparatively recent years but little was known of the relative values of the different varieties of rock as road material1 and good results were obtained more by chance and general observation than through any special knowledge of the subject4 ,these conditions1 however1 do not obtain at present1 for the subject has received a great deal of careful study1 and a fairly accurate estimate can be made of the fitness of a rock for any conditions of climate and traffic4 ,in road-building the attempt should be made to get a perfectly smooth surface1 not too hard1 too slippery1 or too noisy1 and as free as possible from mud and dust1 and these results are to be attained and maintained as cheaply as possible4 ,such results1 however1 can only be had by selecting the material and methods of construction best suited to the conditions4 ,in selecting a road material it is well to consider the agencies of destruction to roads that have to be met4 ,among the most important are the wearing action of wheels and horses' feet1 frost1 rain1 and wind4 ,to find materials that can best withstand these agencies under all conditions is the great problem that confronts the road-builder4 ,before going further1 it will be well to consider some of the physical properties of rock which are important in road-building1 for the value of a road material is dependent in a large measure on the degree to which it possesses these properties4 ,there are many such properties that affect road-building1 but only three need be mentioned here4 ,they are hardness1 toughness1 and cementing or binding power4 ,by hardness is meant the power possessed by a rock to resist the wearing action caused by the abrasion of wheels and horses' feet4 ,toughness1 as understood by road-builders1 is the adhesion between the crystal and fine particles of a rock1 which gives it power to resist fracture when subjected to the blows of traffic4 ,this important property1 while distinct from hardness1 is yet intimately associated with it1 and can in a measure make up for a deficiency in hardness4 ,hardness1 for instance1 would be the resistance offered by a rock to the grinding of an emery wheel2 toughness1 the resistance to fracture when struck with a hammer4 ,cementing or binding power is the property possessed by the dust of a rock to act1 after wetting1 as a cement to the coarser fragments composing the road1 binding them together and forming a smooth1 impervious shell over the surface4 ,such a shell1 formed by a rock of high cementing value1 protects the underlying material from wear and acts as a cushion to the blows from horses' feet1 and at the same time resists the waste of material caused by wind and rain1 and preserves the foundation by shedding the surface water4 ,binding power is thus1 probably1 the most important property to be sought for in a road-building rock1 as its presence is always necessary for the best results4 ,the hardness and toughness of the binder surface more than of the rock itself represents the hardness and toughness of the road1 for if the weight of traffic is sufficient to destroy the bond of cementation of the surface1 the stones below are soon loosened and forced out of place4 ,when there is an absence of binding material1 which often occurs when the rock is too hard for the traffic to which it is subjected1 the road soon loosens or ravels4 ,experience shows that a rock possessing all three of the properties mentioned in a high degree does not under all conditions make a good road material2 on the contrary1 under certain conditions it may be altogether unsuitable4 ,as an illustration of this1 if a country road or city park way1 where only a light traffic prevails1 were built of a very hard and tough rock with a high cementing value1 neither the best1 nor1 if a softer rock were available1 would the cheapest results be obtained4 ,such a rock would so effectively resist the wear of a light traffic that the amount of fine dust worn off would be carried away by wind and rain faster than it would be supplied by wear4 ,consequently the binder supplied by wear would be insufficient1 and if not supplied from some other source the road would soon go to pieces4 ,the first cost of such a rock would in most instances be greater than that of a softer one and the necessary repairs resulting from its use would also be very expensive4 ,a very good illustration of this point is the first road built by the ,massachusetts ,highway ,commission4 ,this road is on the island of ,nantucket and was subjected to a very light traffic4 ,the commission desired to build the best possible road1 and consequently ordered a very hard and tough trap rock from ,salem1 considered then to be the best macadam rock in the state4 ,delivered on the road this rock cost #c4ej per ton1 the excessive price being due to the cost of transportation4 ,the road was in every way properly constructed1 and thoroughly rolled with a steam roller2 but in spite of every precaution it soon began to ravel1 and repeated rolling was only of temporary benefit1 for the rock was too hard and tough for the traffic4 ,subsequently1 when the road was resurfaced with limestone1 which was much softer than the trap1 it became excellent4 ,since then all roads built on the island have been constructed of native granite bowlders with good results1 and at a much lower cost4 ,if1 however1 this hard and tough rock1 which gave such poor results at ,nantucket1 were used on a road where the traffic was sufficient to wear off an ample supply of binder1 very much better results would be obtained than if a rock lacking both hardness and toughness were used2 for1 in the latter case1 the wear would be so great that ruts would be formed which would prevent rain water draining from the surface4 ,the water thus collecting on the surface would soon make its way to the foundation and destroy the road4 ,the dust in dry weather would also be excessive4 ,only two examples of the misuse of a road material have been given1 but1 as they represent extreme conditions1 it is easy to see the large number of intermediate mistakes that can be made1 for there are few rocks even of the same variety that possess the same physical properties in a like degree4 ,the climatic and physical conditions to which roads are subjected are equally varied4 ,the excellence of a road material may1 therefore1 be said to depend entirely on the conditions which it is intended to meet4 ,it may be well to mention a few other properties of rock that bear on road-building1 though they will not be discussed here4 ,there are some rocks1 such as limestones1 that are hygroscopic1 or possess the power of absorbing moisture from the air1 and in dry climates such rocks are distinctly valuable1 as the cementation of rock dust is in a large measure dependent for its full development on the presence of water4 ,the degree to which a rock absorbs water may also be important1 for in cold climates this to some extent determines the liability of a rock to fracture by freezing4 ,it is not so important1 however1 as the absorptive power of the road itself1 for if a road holds much water the destruction wrought by frost is very great4 ,this trouble is generally due to faulty construction rather than to the material4 ,the density or weight of a rock is also considered of importance1 as the heavier the rock the better it stays in place and the better it resists the action of wind and rain4 ,only a few of the properties of rock important to road builders have been considered1 but if these are borne in mind when a material is to be selected better results are sure to be obtained4 ,in selecting a road material the conditions to which it is to be subjected should first be considered4 ,these are principally the annual rainfall1 the average winter temperature1 the character of prevailing winds1 the grades1 and the volume and character of the traffic that is to pass over the road4 ,the climatic conditions are readily obtained from the ,weather ,bureau1 and a satisfactory record of the volume and character of the traffic can be made by any competent person living in view of the road4 ,in ,france the measuring of traffic has received a great deal of attention1 and a census is kept for all the national highways4 ,the traffic there is rated and reduced to units in the following manner3 ,a horse hauling a public vehicle or cart loaded with produce or merchandise is considered as the unit of traffic4 ,each horse hauling an empty cart or private carriage counts as one-half unit2 each horse1 cow1 or ox1 unharnessed1 and each saddle horse1 one-fifth unit2 each small animal 7sheep1 goat1 or hog71 one-thirtieth unit4 ,a record is made of the traffic every thirteenth day throughout the year1 and an average taken to determine its mean amount4 ,some such general method of classifying traffic in units is desirable1 as it permits the traffic of a road to be expressed in one number4 ,before this ,french method can be applied to the traffic of our country it will be necessary to modify considerably the mode of rating4 ,this1 however1 is a matter which can be studied and properly adjusted by the ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries4 ,it is most important to obtain a record of the average number of horses and vehicles and kind of vehicles that pass over an earth road in a day before the macadam road is built4 ,the small cost of such a record is trifling when compared with the cost of a macadam road 7from #d1jjj to #aj1jjj per mile for a fifteen-foot road71 in view of the fact that an error in the selection of material may cost a much larger sum of money4 ,after a record of the traffic is obtained1 if the road is to be built of crushed rock for the first time1 an allowance for an immediate increase in traffic amounting at least to ten or fifteen per cent had best be made1 for the improved road generally brings traffic from adjoining roads4 ,to simplify the matter somewhat1 the different classes of traffic to which roads are subjected may be divided into five groups1 which may be called city1 urban1 suburban1 highway1 and country road traffic1 respectively4 ,city traffic is a traffic so great that no macadam road can withstand it1 and is such as exists on the business streets of large cities4 ,for such a traffic stone and wood blocks1 asphalt1 brick1 or some such materials are necessary4 ,urban traffic is such as exists on city streets which are not subjected to continuous heavy teaming1 but which have to withstand very heavy wear1 and need the hardest and toughest macadam rock4 ,suburban traffic is such as is common in the suburbs of a city and the main streets of country towns4 ,highway traffic is a traffic equal to that of the main country roads4 ,country road traffic is a traffic equal to that of the less frequented country roads4 ,the city traffic will not be considered here4 ,for an urban traffic1 the hardest and toughest rock1 or in other words1 a rock of the highest wearing quality that can be found1 is best4 ,for a suburban traffic the best rock would be one of high toughness but of less hardness than one for urban traffic4 ,for highway traffic a rock of medium hardness and toughness is best4 ,for country road traffic it is best to use a comparatively soft rock of medium toughness4 ,in all cases high cementing value should be sought1 and especially if the locality is very wet or windy4 ,rocks belonging to the same species and having the same name1 such as traps1 granites1 quartzites1 etc41 vary almost as much in different localities in their physical road-building properties as they do from rocks of distinct species4 ,this variation is also true of the mineral composition of rocks of the same species1 as well as in the size and arrangement of their crystals4 ,it is impossible1 therefore1 to classify rocks for road-building by simply giving their specific names4 ,it can be said1 however1 that certain species of rock possess in common some road-building properties4 ,for instance1 the trap#h rocks as a class are hard and tough and usually have binding power1 and consequently stand heavy traffic well2 and for this reason they are frequently spoken of as the best rocks for road-building4 ,this1 however1 is not always true1 for numerous examples can be shown where trap rock having the above properties in the highest degree has failed to give good results on light traffic roads4 ,the reason trap rock has gained so much favor with road-builders is because a large majority of macadam roads in our country are built to stand an urban traffic1 and the traps stand such a traffic better than any other single class of rocks4 ,there are1 however1 other rocks that will stand an urban traffic perfectly well1 and there are traps that are not sufficiently hard and tough for a suburban or highway traffic4 ,the granites are generally brittle1 and many of them do not bind well1 but there are a great many which when used under proper conditions make excellent roads4 ,the felsites are usually very hard and brittle1 and many have excellent binding power1 some varieties being suitable for the heaviest macadam traffic4 ,limestones generally bind well1 are soft1 and frequently hygroscopic4 ,quartzites are almost always very hard1 brittle1 and have very low binding power4 ,the slates are usually soft1 brittle1 and lack binding power4 ,the above generalizations are of necessity vague1 and for practical purposes are of little value1 since rocks of the same variety occurring in different localities have very wide ranges of character4 ,it consequently happens in many cases1 particularly where there are a number of rocks to choose from1 that the difficulty of making the best selection is great1 and this difficulty is constantly increasing with the rapidly growing facilities of transportation and the increased range of choice which this permits4 ,on account of their desirable road properties some rocks are now shipped several hundred miles for use4 ,there are but two ways in which the value of a rock as a road material can be accurately determined4 ,one way1 and beyond all doubt the surest1 is to build sample roads of all the rocks available in a locality1 to measure the traffic and wear to which they are subjected1 and keep an accurate account of the cost both of construction and annual repairs for each4 ,by this method actual results are obtained1 but it has grave and obvious disadvantages4 ,it is very costly 7especially so when the results are negative71 and it requires so great a lapse of time before results are obtained that it cannot be considered a practical method when macadam roads are first being built in a locality4 ,further than this1 results thus obtained are not applicable to other roads and materials4 ,such a method1 while excellent in its results1 can only be adopted by communities which can afford the necessary time and money1 and is entirely inadequate for general use4 ,the other method is to make laboratory tests of the physical properties of available rocks in a locality1 study the conditions obtaining on the particular road that is to be built1 and then select the material that best suits the conditions4 ,this method has the advantages of giving speedy results and of being inexpensive1 and as far as the results of laboratory tests have been compared with the results of actual practice they have been found to agree4 ,laboratory tests on road materials were first adopted in ,france about thirty years ago1 and their usefulness has been thoroughly established4 ,the tests for rock there are to determine its degree of hardness1 resistance to abrasion1 and resistance to compression4 ,in #ahic the ,massachusetts ,highway ,commission established a laboratory at ,harvard ,university for testing road materials4 ,the ,french abrasion test was adopted1 and tests for determining the cementing power and toughness of rock were added4 ,since then similar laboratories have been established at ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 ,columbia ,university1 ,wisconsin ,geological ,survey1 ,cornell ,university1 and the ,university of ,california4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture has now established a road-material laboratory in the ,division of ,chemistry1 where any person residing in the ,united ,states may have road materials tested free by applying for instructions to the ,office of ,public ,road ,inquiries4 ,the laboratory is equipped with the apparatus necessary for carrying on such work1 and the ,department intends to carry on general investigations on roads4 ,part of the general plan will be to make tests on actual roads for the purpose of comparing the results with those obtained in the laboratory4 ,besides testing road materials for the public1 blank forms for recording traffic will be supplied by the department to any one intending to build a road4 ,when these forms are filled and returned to the laboratory1 together with the samples of materials available for building the road1 the traffic of the road will be rated in its proper group1 as described above2 each property of the materials will be tested and similarly rated according to its degree1 the climatic conditions will be considered1 and expert advice given as to the proper choice to be made4 ,,footnotes3 #g ,by ,logan ,waller ,page1 expert in charge of ,road ,material ,laboratory1 ,division of ,chemistry4 #h ,this term is derived from the ,swedish word trappa1 meaning steps1 and was originally applied to the crystallized basalts of the coast of ,sweden1 which much resemble steps in appearance4 ,as now used by road builders1 it embraces a large variety of igneous rocks1 chiefly those of fine crystalline structure and of dark-blue1 gray1 and green colors4 ,they are generally diabases1 diorites1 trachytes1 and basalts4--,,page4 ,,chapter ,v ,,stone ,,roads ,,in ,,new ,,jersey#i ,as ,new ,jersey contains a great variety of soils1 there are many conditions to be met with in road construction4 ,the northern part of the state is hilly1 where we have clay1 soft stone1 hard stones1 loose stones1 quicksand1 and marshes4 ,in the eastern part of the state1 particularly in the seashore sections1 the roads are at their worst in summer in consequence of loose1 dry sand1 which sometimes drifts like snow4 ,in west ,new ,jersey1 which comprises the southern end of the state1 there is much loose1 soft sand1 considerable clay1 marshes1 and low lands not easily drained4 ,in addition to the condition of the soil1 there is the economic condition to be considered4 ,in the vicinity of large towns or cities1 where there is heavy carting by reason of manufactories and produce marketing1 it is necessary to have heavy1 thick1 substantial roads1 while in more rural districts and along the seashore1 where the travel is principally by light carriages1 a lighter roadbed construction is preferred4 ,in rural districts1 where the roads are used for immediate neighborhood purposes1 an inexpensive road is desirable4 ,the main thoroughfares have to be constructed with a view to considerable increase of travel1 as farmers in the outlying districts who formerly devoted their time to grazing of stock1 raising of grain1 etc41 find it more profitable to change the mode of farming to that of truck raising1 fruit growing1 etc4 ,the road engineers of ,new ,jersey find that they cannot follow old paths and make their roads after one style or pattern4 ,technical engineering in road construction must yield to the practical1 common-sense plan of action4 ,an engineer with plenty of money and material at hand can construct a good road almost anywhere and meet any condition1 but with limited resources and a variety of physical conditions he has to cut the garment to suit the cloth4 ,we start out with this dilemma4 ,we must have better roads1 and our means for getting them being very limited1 if we cannot get them as good as we would like1 let us get them as good as we can4 ,let me give a practical illustration4 ,stone-road construction outside of turnpike corporations in ,west ,jersey was begun in the spring of #ahia4 ,i was called on by the township committee of ,chester ,township1 ,burlington ,county1 to construct some roads4 ,moorestown is a thriving town of about three thousand inhabitants in the center of the township4 ,the roads to be constructed1 with one exception1 ran out of the town to the township limits1 being from one-half to three miles in length4 ,the roads were generally for local purposes4 ,there were ten roads1 aggregating about eleven miles4 ,the bonding of the township was voted upon1 and it was necessary1 in order to carry the bonding project of #dj1jjj1 to have all these roads constructed of stone macadam4 ,the roads to be improved were determined on at a town meeting without consulting an engineer as to the cost1 etc41 so that the plain question submitted to me was1 ,can you construct eleven miles of stone road nine feet wide for #dj1jjj8 ,the conditions to be met were these3 ,there was no stone suitable for road-building nearer than from sixty to eighty miles2 cost of freight1 about seventy-five cents per ton2 the hauls from the railroad siding averaged about one and three-quarter miles2 price of teams in summer1 when farmers were busy1 about #c4ej per day4 ,in preparation for road construction there were several hills to be cut from one to three feet2 causeways and embankments to be made over wet and swampy ground4 ,for this latter work the property holders and others interested along the road agreed to furnish teams1 the township paying for laborers4 ,the next difficulty was the kind of a road to build4 ,as the width was fixed at nine feet as a part of the conditions for bonding1 there seemed only one way left to apply the economics--that was1 in the depth of the roads4 ,on the dry1 sandy soils ,i put the macadam six inches deep2 this depth was applied to about six miles of road4 ,on roads where the heaviest travel would come the roadbed was made eight inches deep4 ,on soils having springs and on embankments over causeways the depth was ten inches with stone foundation1 known as telford4 ,where springs existed1 they were cut off by underdrains4 ,it had been the practice of engineers in their specifications to call for the best trap rock for all the stone construction4 ,as this rock is hard to crush and difficult to be transported some seventy or eighty miles to this part of ,new ,jersey1 ,i found that in order to construct all of the road from this best material it would take more money than the bonds would provide2 so ,i had half of the depth which forms the foundation made of good dry sedimentary rock4 ,of course1 in this there is considerable slate1 but the breaking is not nearly so costly as the breaking of syenite or ,jersey trap rock1 and there was a saving of thirty per cent4 ,as the surface of the road had to take all the wear1 ,i required the best trap rock for this purpose4 ,since the construction of these roads in ,chester ,township1 roads are now built under the state-aid act by county officials and paid for as follows3 ,one-third by the state1 ten per cent by the adjoining property holders1 and the balance 7#ef-b_/c per cent7 by the county4 ,the roads constructed under this act are generally leading roads and those mostly traversed by heavy teams4 ,they are constructed similarly to those in ,chester ,township1 excepting that they are generally twelve feet wide and from ten to twelve inches deep4 ,many of them have a telford foundation1 which is now put down at about the same price as macadam1 and meets most of the conditions better than macadam4 ,the less expensive stone is used for foundations1 and the best and more costly for surface only4 ,in this way the cost of construction has been greatly reduced4 ,in regard to the width1 a road nine or ten feet wide has been found to be quite as serviceable as one of greater width1 unless it is made fourteen feet and over4 ,it is not claimed that a narrow road is just as good as a wide road1 but it has been found better to have the cost in length than in width in rural districts4 ,in and near towns1 where there is almost constant passing1 the road should not be less than from fourteen to twenty feet in width4 ,the difficulty in getting on and off the stone road where teams are passing is not so great as is supposed4 ,to meet this difficulty in the past1 on each side of the road the specifications require the contractor to make a shoulder of clay1 gravel1 or other hard earth2 this is never less than three feet and sometimes six to eight feet in width1 according to the kinds of soil the road is composed of and the liability of frequent meeting and passing4 ,in rural districts the top-dressing of these shoulders is taken from the side ditches2 grass sods are mixed in when found1 and in some cases grass seed is sown4 ,as the stone roadbed takes the travel the grass soon begins to grow1 receiving considerable fertilizing material from the washing of the road2 and when the sod is once formed the waste material from the wear of the road is lodged in the grass sod and the shoulder becomes hard and firm1 except when the frost is coming out4 ,another mode of building a rural road cheaply and still have room for passing without getting off the stone construction is to make the roadbed proper about ten feet wide1 ten or twelve inches deep2 then have wings of macadam on each side three feet wide and five or six inches deep4 ,in case ten feet is used the two wings would make the stone construction six feet wide4 ,if the road is made considerably higher in the center than the sides1 as it should be1 the travel1 particularly the loaded teams1 will keep in the center1 and the wings will only be used in passing and should last as long as the thicker part of the road4 ,the preparation of the road and making it suitable for the stone bed is one of the most important parts of road construction4 ,this1 once done properly1 is permanent4 ,wherever it is possible the hills should be cut and low places filled1 so that the maximum grade will not exceed five or six feet rise in one hundred feet2 where hills cannot be reduced to this grade without incurring too much expense1 the hill1 if possible1 should be avoided by relaying the road in another place4 ,wherever stone roads have been constructed it has been found that those using them for drawing heavy loads will increase the capacity of their wagons so as to carry three or four times the load formerly carried4 ,this can easily be done where the road has a maximum grade of not greater than five or six per cent1 as before stated2 but when the grade is greater than this the power to be expended on such loads upon such grades will exhaust and wear out the horses2 thus a supposed saving in heavy loading may prove to be a loss4 ,in the preparation of the road it is necessary to have the ditches wide and deep enough to carry all the water to the nearest natural water way4 ,these ditches should at all times be kept clear of weeds and trash1 so that the water will not be retained in pools4 ,bad roads often occur because this important matter is overlooked4 ,on hills the slope or side grade in construction from center of road to side ditches should be increased so as to exceed that of the longitudinal grade2 that is1 if the latter is1 say1 five per cent1 the slope to side should be at least six per cent and over4 ,where the road in rural districts is on rolling ground and hills do not exceed three or four per cent1 it is an unnecessary expense to cut the small ones1 but all short rises should be cut and small depressions filled4 ,a rolling road is not objectionable1 and besides there is no better roadbed for laying on metal than the hard crust formed by ordinary travel4 ,in putting on the metal1 particularly on narrow roads1 the roadbed should be set high2 it will soon get flat enough4 ,it is better to put the shouldering up to the stone than to dig a trench to put the stone in4 ,if the road after preparation is about level from side to side and the stone or metal construction is to be1 say1 ten inches deep1 the sides of the roadbed to receive the metal should be cut about three inches and placed on the side to help form the shoulder2 the rest of the shoulder1 when suitable1 being taken from the ditches and sides in forming the proper slope4 ,the foundation to receive the metal1 if the natural roadbed is not used and the bed is of soft earth1 should be rolled until it is hard and compact4 ,it should also conform to the same slope as the road when finished from center to sides4 ,if the bed or foundation is of soft sand rolling will be of little use4 ,in this case care must be taken to keep the bed as uniform as possible while the stone is being placed on the foundation4 ,when the road passes through villages and towns the grading should reduce the roadbed to a grade as nearly level as possible4 ,it must be borne in mind that the side ditches need not necessarily always conform to the center grade of the road4 ,when the center grade is level the side ditches should be graded to carry off the water4 ,in some cases ,i have found it necessary to run the grade for the side ditches in an opposite direction from the grade of the road4 ,this1 however1 does not often occur4 ,the main thing is to get the water off the road as soon as possible after it falls1 and then not allow it to remain in the ditches4 ,and just here the engineer will meet with many difficulties4 ,the landowners in rural districts are opposed to having the water from the roads let onto their lands1 and disputes often arise as to where the natural water way is located4 ,this should be determined by the people in the neighborhood1 or by the local authorities4 ,i have found in several cases1 where the water from side ditches was allowed to run on the land1 that the land was generally benefited by having the soil enriched by the fertilizing matter from the road4 ,after the roadbed has been thoroughly prepared1 if made of loam or clay1 it should be rolled and made as hard and compact as possible4 ,wherever a depression appears it should be filled up and made uniformly hard4 ,place upon it a light coat of loam or fine clay1 which will act as a binder4 ,if the roller used is not too heavy it may be rolled to advantage1 but the rolling of this course depends upon the character of the stones4 ,if the stones are cubical in form rolling is beneficial1 but if they are of shale and many of them thin and flat1 rolling has a tendency to bring the flat sides to the surface4 ,when this is the case the next course of fine stone for the surface will not firmly compact and unite with them4 ,when the foundation is of telford it is important that stones not too large should be used4 ,they should not exceed ten inches in length1 six inches on one side1 which is laid next to the earth1 and four inches on top1 the depth depending on the thickness of the road4 ,if the thickness of the finished road is eight inches1 the telford pavement should not exceed five inches2 if it is ten or more inches deep1 then the telford could be six inches4 ,it need in no case be greater than this1 as this is sufficient to form the base or foundation of the metal construction4 ,the surface of the telford pavement should be as uniform as possible1 all projecting points broken off1 and interstices filled in with small stone4 ,care should be taken to keep the stone set up perpendicular with the roadbed and set lengthwise across the road with joints broken4 ,this foundation should be well hammered down with sledge hammers and made hard and compact4 ,upon this feature greatly depends the smoothness of the surface of the road and uniform wear4 ,if put down compactly rolling is not necessary1 and if not put down solid rolling might do it damage in causing the large stones to lean and set on their edges instead of on the flat sides4 ,i refer to instances where the road is to be ten inches and over4 ,then put on a light coat or course of one and one-half inch stone1 with a light coat of binding1 and then put on the roller1 thus setting the finer stone well with the foundation and compacting the whole mass together4 ,after the macadam or telford foundation is well laid and compacted1 the surface or wearing stone is put on4 ,if the thickness of the road is great enough1 say twelve or fourteen inches1 this surface stone should be put on in courses1 say of three and four inches1 as may be required for the determined thickness of the road4 ,on each course there should be applied a binding1 but only sufficient to bind the metal together or fill up the small interstices4 ,it must be remembered that broken stone is used in order to form a compact mass4 ,the sides of the stone should come together and not be kept apart by what we call binding material2 therefore only such quantity should be used as will fill up the small interstices made by reason of the irregularity of the stone4 ,each course should be thoroughly rolled to get the metal as compact as possible4 ,when the stone construction is made to the required depth or thickness1 the whole surface should be subjected to a coat of screenings about one inch thick4 ,this must be kept damp by sprinkling1 and thoroughly rolled until the whole mass becomes consolidated and the surface smooth and uniform4 ,before the rolling is finished the shoulders should be made up and covered with gravel or other hard earth and dressed off to the side ditches4 ,when practicable these should have the same grade or slope as the stone construction4 ,this finish should also be rolled and made uniform1 so that1 in order that the water may pass off freely1 there will be no obstruction between the stone roadbed and side ditches4 ,to prevent washes and insure as much hardness as possible on roads in rural districts1 grass should be encouraged to grow so as to make a stiff sod4 ,for shouldering1 when the natural soil is of soft sand1 a stiff clay is desirable4 ,when the natural soil is of clay1 then gravel or coarse sand can be used1 covering the whole with the ditch scrapings or other fertilizing material1 where grass sod is desirable4 ,of course this is not desirable in villages and towns4 ,for binding1 what is called garden loam is the best4 ,when this cannot be found use any soft clay or earth free from clods or round stones4 ,it must be spread on very lightly and uniformly4 ,any good dry stone not liable to disintegrate can be used as metal for foundation for either telford or macadam construction4 ,for the surface it is necessary to have the best stone obtainable4 ,like the edge of a tool1 it does the service and must take the wear4 ,as in the tool it pays to have the best of steel1 so on the road1 which is subject to the wear and tear of steel horseshoes and heavy iron tires1 it is found the cheapest to have the best of stone4 ,it is difficult to describe the kind of stone that is best4 ,the best is generally syenite trap rock1 but this term does not give any definite idea4 ,the kind used in ,new ,jersey is called the general name of ,jersey trap rock4 ,it is a gray syenite1 and is found in great quantities in a range running from ,jersey ,city1 on the ,hudson ,river1 to a point on the ,delaware between ,trenton and ,lambertville4 ,there are quantities of good stone lying north of this ledge1 but none south of it4 ,the best is at or near ,jersey ,city4 ,the same kind of stone is found in the same ranges of hills in ,pennsylvania1 but in the general run it is not so good4 ,the liability to softness and disintegration increases after leaving the eastern part of ,new ,jersey1 and while good stone may be found1 the veins of poorer stone increase as we go south and west4 ,it is generally believed that the hardest stones are best for road purposes1 but this is not the case4 ,the hard quartz will crush under the wheels of a heavy load4 ,it is toughness in the stone that is necessary2 therefore a mixed stone1 like syenite1 is the best4 ,this wears smooth1 as the rough edges of the stone come in contact with the wheels4 ,it requires good judgment based on experience to determine the right kind of stone to take the constant wear of horseshoes and wagon tires4 ,if good roads are desired1 the work is not done when the road is completed and ready for travel4 ,there are many causes which make repairing necessary4 ,i will refer to only a few of them4 ,stone roads are liable to get out of order because of too much water or want of water2 also1 when the natural roadbed is soft and springy and has not been sufficiently drained2 when water is allowed to stand in ditches and form pools along the road1 and when the open winters give us a superabundance of wet4 ,before the road becomes thoroughly consolidated by travel it is liable to become soft and stones get loose and move under the wheels of the heavily loaded wagons4 ,in the earth foundation on which the stone bed rests the water finds the soft spots4 ,the wheels of the loaded teams form ruts1 and particularly where narrow tires are used4 ,the work of repair should begin as soon as defects appear1 for1 if neglected1 after every rain the depressions make little pools of water and hold it like a basin4 ,in every case this water softens the material1 and the wagon tires and horseshoes churn up the bottoms of the basins4 ,this is the beginning of the work of destruction4 ,if allowed to go on1 the road becomes rough1 and the wear and tear of the horses and wagons are increased4 ,stone roads out of repair1 like any common road in similar condition1 will be found expensive to those who use and maintain them4 ,the way to do is to look over a road after a rain1 when the depressions and basins will show themselves4 ,whenever one is large enough to receive a shovelful of broken stone1 scrape out the soft dirt and let it form a ring around the depression4 ,fill with broken stone to about an inch or two above the surface of the road4 ,the ring of dirt around will keep the stone above the surface in place1 and the passing wheels will work it on the broken stone and also act as a binder4 ,the whole will work down and become compact and even with the road surface4 ,the ruts are treated in the same way4 ,use one and one-half inch stone for this2 smaller stones will soon grind up and the hole appear again4 ,the second cause of the necessity for road repairs is want of water4 ,this occurs in summer during hot1 dry spells4 ,the surface stone unravels2 that is1 becomes loose where the horses travel4 ,this condition is more liable to be found on dry1 sandy soils1 and where the roadbed is subject to the direct rays of the sun1 and where the winds sweep off all the binding material from the surface4 ,in clay soil there is little or no trouble from unraveling4 ,the cause being found1 the remedy is applied in this way3 ,put on water with the sprinkler before all the binding material is blown off4 ,if the hot1 dry weather continues1 sprinkling should continue4 ,do this in the evening or late in the afternoon4 ,the next mode is to repair the road by placing the material back as it was originally4 ,the loose stones are placed in the depressions and good binding material--garden loam or fine clay--is put on1 then roll the whole repeatedly and dampen by sprinkling as needed until the whole surface becomes smooth and hard4 ,care must be taken that too much binding material is not used4 ,if too much is used it will injure the road in winter when there is an excess of water4 ,when a road has been neglected and allowed to become uneven and rough1 or is by constant use worn down to the foundation stones1 there should be a general repairing4 ,in the first place1 if it is the roughness and unevenness that is the only defect1 this may be remedied by the use of a large1 heavy roller with steel spikes in its rolling wheels4 ,this will puncture the surface so that an ordinary harrow will tear up the surface stones4 ,then take the spikes out of the roller wheels1 and1 with sprinkling and rolling1 the roadbed can be repaired and made like a new road4 ,but if the cause of the roughness is from wearing away of the stone1 so that the surface of the road is brought down to or near the foundation1 then the road needs resurfacing4 ,the mode of treatment is the same as in the other case4 ,in districts where there is stone suitable for road construction the county1 town1 township1 or other municipality1 proposing to construct stone roads1 should own a stone quarry and a stone crusher4 ,for grading and preparing the road for construction1 dressing up sides1 clearing out side ditches1 etc41 a good road machine is necessary4 ,for constructing roads and repairing them a roller is necessary1 the weight depending upon the kind of road constructed4 ,if the road is not wide a roller of from four to six tons is all the weight necessary4 ,the rolling should be continued until compactness is obtained4 ,for wide1 heavy roads a steam roller of fifteen tons can be used to advantage4 ,a sprinkling wagon completes the list that is necessary for the county or town or other municipality constructing its own roads4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,by ,e4 ,g4 ,harrison1 ,c4 ,e41 ,secretary ,new ,jersey ,road ,improvement ,association4 ,important ,historical ,publications ,,of ,the ,arthur ,h4 ,clark ,company 99 99 99 99 99 ,full descriptive circulars will be mailed on application ,the most important project ever undertaken in the line of ,philippine history in any language1 above all the ,english4--,new ,york ,evening ,post4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,philippine ,islands #adic-ahih 99 99 99 99 99 ,being the history of the ,philippines from their discovery to the present time 99 99 99 99 99 ,,explorations by early ,navigators1 descriptions of the ,islands and their ,peoples1 their ,history1 and records of the ,catholic ,missions1 as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts1 showing the political1 economic1 commercial1 and religious conditions of those ,islands from their earliest relations with ,european ,nations to the end of the nineteenth century4 99 99 99 99 99 ,translated1 and edited and annotated by ,e4 ,h4 ,,blair1 and ,j4 ,a4 ,,robertson1 with introduction and additional notes by ,e4 ,g4 ,,bourne4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with ,analytical ,index and ,illustrations4 ,limited edition1 fifty-five volumes1 large #hvo1 cloth1 uncut1 gilt top4 ,price1 #d4jj net per volume4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the almost total lack of acceptable material on ,philippine history in ,english gives this undertaking an immediate value4 --,,james ,a4 ,,le ,,roy in ,american ,historical ,review4 ,with our freshened interest in the ,far ,east1 ,american readers ought not to neglect the new possessions in that region which now fly the ,stars and ,stripes4 --,chicago ,evening ,post4 ,now at least there should be no difficulty for the ,american student to gain a clear view of the difficulties which both the ,spaniards and their successors have had to contend with in these islands1 when they have this work before them1 and have not1 as formerly1 to obtain information from obscure ,spanish sources1 in a language hitherto comparatively little studied in the ,united ,states1 444 welcome to all students of the ,far ,east4--,english ,historical ,review4 ,early ,western ,travels #agdh-ahdf 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,series ,,of ,,annotated ,,reprints of some of the best and rarest contemporary volumes of travel1 descriptive of the ,aborigines and ,social and ,economic ,conditions in the ,middle and ,far ,west1 during the ,period of ,early ,american ,settlement4 99 99 99 99 99 ,edited1 with ,historical1 ,geographical1 ,ethnological1 and ,bibliographical ,notes1 and ,introductions and ,index1 by ,reuben ,gold ,thwaites ,editor of ,the ,jesuit ,relations and ,allied ,documents1 ,wisconsin ,historical ,collections1 ,chronicles of ,border ,warfare1 ,hennepin's ,new ,discovery1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with facsimiles of the original title-pages1 maps1 portraits1 views1 etc4 #ca volumes1 large #hvo1 cloth1 uncut1 gilt tops4 ,price #d4jj net per volume 7except the ,maximilien ,atlas1 which is #ae4jj net74 ,limited edition2 each set numbered and signed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an ,elaborate ,analytical ,index to the ,whole ,almost all of the rare originals are without indexes4 ,in the present reprint series1 this immense mass of historical data will be made accessible through one exhaustive analytical index1 to occupy the concluding volume4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in many cases the records reproduced are so rare that this collection will be practically the only resource of the student of the original sources of our early history4 ,the printing and binding of the edition are handsome and at the same time so substantial that the documents reproduced may be said to have been rescued once for all time4--,public ,opinion4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved4 ,typographical errors corrected in the text3 ,page #db ben changed to been ,page #id surfaceing changed to surfacing ---------------------------------------- -------