,university of ,michigan ,digital ,libraries47 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited ,,london 4 ,,bombay 4 ,,calcutta 4 ,,madras ,,melbourne ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york 4 ,,boston 4 ,,chicago ,,dallas 4 ,,san ,,francisco ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,toronto ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,and ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,dead ,,by ,,sir ,,james ,,george ,,frazer1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,b4,a4 ,,fellow ,,of ,,trinity ,,college1 ,,cambridge ,,hon4 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,oxford2 ,,hon4 ,,litt4,d41 ,,cambridge ,,and ,,durham2 ,,hon4 ,,ll4,d41 ,,glasgow2 ,,doctor ,,honoris ,,causa ,,of ,,the ,,universities ,,of ,,paris ,,and ,,strasbourg ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,the ,,belief ,,among ,,the ,,polynesians ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,street1 ,,london #aibb ,,copyright ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,preface ,the first volume of this work1 which comprised the ,gifford ,lectures given by me at ,st4 ,andrews in the years #aiaa and #aiab1 dealt with the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead1 as these are found among the aborigines of ,australia1 the ,torres ,straits ,islands1 ,new ,guinea1 and ,melanesia4 ,in the present volume ,i take up the subject at the point at which ,i broke off1 and describe the corresponding belief and worship among the ,polynesians1 a people related to their neighbours the ,melanesians by language1 if not by blood4 ,the first chapter formed the theme of two lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution in #aiaf2 the other chapters have been written for lectures at ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 in #aiba and #aibb4 ,but in the book the lecture form has been discarded1 and the treatment of the subject is somewhat fuller than comports with the limits imposed by oral delivery4 ,should circumstances allow me to continue the work1 ,i propose in the next volume to treat of the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead among the ,micronesians and ,indonesians4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer4 ,,no4 #a ,,brick ,,court1 ,,temple1 ,,london1 #aith ,july #aibb4 ,,contents ,,pages ,,preface v ,,table ,,of ,,contents vii-ix ,,chap4 ,i4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,maoris #a-ea ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,polynesians #a-e ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand #e-aj ,sec4 #c4 ,the ,beliefs of the ,maoris concerning the ,souls of the ,living #aj-ai ,sec4 #d4 ,the ,beliefs of the ,maoris concerning the ,souls of the ,dead #ai-cg ,sec4 #e4 ,taboo among the ,maoris #cg-ej ,sec4 #f4 ,conclusion #ea ,,ii4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,tongans #eb-adg ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,tonga or ,friendly ,islands #eb-eg ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,tonga ,islanders1 their ,character1 ,mode of ,life1 and ,government #eg-fc ,sec4 #c4 ,the ,tongan ,religion3 its ,general ,principles #fd-fh ,sec4 #d4 ,the ,primary or ,non-human ,gods #fh-gc ,sec4 #e4 ,the ,temples of the ,gods #gc-gg ,sec4 #f4 ,priests and their ,inspiration #gg-gi ,sec4 #g4 ,the ,worship of the ,gods1 ,prayers1 and ,sacrifices #gi-hd ,sec4 #h4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,soul and its ,destiny after ,death #hd-ia ,sec4 #i4 ,the ,souls of the ,dead as ,gods #ia-ih ,sec4 #aj4 ,temples and ,tombs3 ,megalithic ,monuments #ii-acb ,sec4 #aa4 ,rites of ,burial and ,mourning #acb-adf ,sec4 #ab4 ,the ,ethical ,influence of ,tongan ,religion #adf-adg ,,iii4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,samoans #adh-bah ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,samoan ,islands #adh-aef ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,samoan ,islanders1 their character #aef-afc ,sec4 #c4 ,houses1 ,agriculture1 and ,industries #afc-afi ,sec4 #d4 ,rights of ,property #afi-aga ,sec4 #e4 ,government1 ,social ,ranks1 ,respect for ,chiefs #aga-aha ,sec4 #f4 ,religion3 ,gods of ,families1 ,villages1 and ,districts #aha-aib ,sec4 #g4 ,priests and ,temples #aib-bjj ,sec4 #h4 ,origin of the ,samoan ,gods of ,families1 ,villages1 and ,districts3 ,relation to ,totemism #bjj-bjb ,sec4 #i4 ,the ,high ,gods of ,samoa #bjb-bje ,sec4 #aj4 ,the ,samoan ,belief concerning the ,human ,soul3 ,funeral ,customs #bje-bac ,sec4 #aa4 ,the ,fate of the ,human ,soul after ,death #bac-bah ,,iv4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,hervey ,,islanders #bai-bde ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,hervey or ,cook ,islands #bai-bbj ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,islanders and their ,mode of ,life #bbj-bbc ,sec4 #c4 ,social ,life3 the ,sacred ,kings #bbc-bbe ,sec4 #d4 ,religion1 the ,gods1 ,traces of ,totemism #bbe-bbi ,sec4 #e4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,human ,soul #bbi-bca ,sec4 #f4 ,death and ,funeral ,rites #bca-bcg ,sec4 #g4 ,the ,fate of the ,human ,soul after ,death #bch-bde ,v4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,society ,,islanders #bdf-cbg ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,society ,islands #bdf-bdh ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,islanders and their ,mode of ,life #bdh-bef ,sec4 #c4 ,the ,religion of the ,society ,islanders #bef-bgh ,sec4 #d4 ,the ,temples and ,images of the ,gods #bgh-bia ,sec4 #e4 ,the ,sacrifices1 ,priests1 and ,sacred ,recorders #bia-bif ,sec4 #f4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,human ,soul #big-bii ,sec4 #g4 ,disease1 ,death1 and ,mourning #bii-cjh ,sec4 #h4 ,the ,disposal of the ,dead #cjh-cac ,sec4 #i4 ,the ,fate of the ,soul after ,death #cac-cba ,sec4 #aj4 ,the ,worship of the ,dead #cbb-cbg ,,vi4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,marquesans #cbh-cgd ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,marquesas ,islands #cbh-cca ,sec4 #b4 ,physical ,appearance of the ,natives #cca-ccc ,sec4 #c4 ,food1 ,weapons1 ,tools1 ,houses1 ,canoes1 ,fishing #ccc-ccg ,sec4 #d4 ,polyandry1 ,adoption1 ,exchange of ,names #ccg-cci ,sec4 #e4 ,amusements1 ,dancing-places1 ,banqueting-halls #cci-cdd ,sec4 #f4 ,social ,ranks1 ,taboo #cdd-cdg ,sec4 #g4 ,religion and ,mythology #cdh-ceb ,sec4 #h4 ,the ,soul1 ,death1 and ,funeral ,customs #ceb-cfc ,sec4 #i4 ,fate of the ,soul after ,death #cfc-cgd ,,vii4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,hawaiians #cge-dca ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,sandwich or ,hawaiian ,islands #cge-cgg ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,natives and their ,mode of ,life #cgg-chj ,sec4 #c4 ,houses1 ,mechanical ,arts #chj-chc ,sec4 #d4 ,government1 ,social ,ranks1 ,taboo #chc-cij ,sec4 #e4 ,religion1 the ,gods #cij-djd ,sec4 #f4 ,priests1 ,sorcerers1 ,diviners #djd-djf ,sec4 #g4 ,temples1 ,images1 ,human ,sacrifices #djf-dad ,sec4 #h4 ,festivals #dad-daf ,sec4 #i4 ,death and ,funeral ,rites #dag-dbg ,sec4 #aj4 ,fate of the ,soul after ,death #dbg-dca ,,index #dcc-ddg ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,maoris ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,polynesians ,the ,polynesians are the tall brown race of men who inhabit the widely scattered islands of the ,pacific1 from ,hawaii on the north to ,new ,zealand on the south1 and from ,tonga on the west to ,easter ,island on the east4#a ,down to the eighteenth century they remained practically unknown to ,europe2 the first navigator to bring back comparatively full and accurate information concerning them was our great ,english explorer1 ,captain ,james ,cook4 ,thus at the date of their discovery the natives were quite unaffected by ,european influence3 of our civilisation they knew nothing3 of ,christianity1 though it had existed in the world for nearly eighteen hundred years1 they had never heard3 they were totally ignorant of the metals1 and had made so little progress in the arts of life that in most of the islands pottery was unknown1#b and even so simple an invention as that of bows and arrows for use in war had not been thought of4#c ,hence their condition was of great interest to students of the early history of man1 since it presented to their observation the spectacle of a barbaric culture evolved from an immemorial past in complete independence of those material1 intellectual1 and moral forces which have moulded the character of modern ,european nations4 ,the lateness of their discovery may also be reckoned a fortunate circumstance for us as well as for them1 since it fell at a time when scientific curiosity was fully awakened among us1 and when scientific methods were sufficiently understood to allow us to study with profit a state of society which differed so widely from our own1 and which in an earlier and less enlightened age might have been contemplated only with aversion and disgust4 #a ,horatio ,hale1 ,the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 pp4 #d sqq41 #i sqq42 ,j4 ,deniker1 ,the ,races of ,man 7,london1 #aijj71 pp4 #ejj sqq4 #b ,j4 ,deniker1 ,the ,races of ,man 7,london1 #aijj71 pp4 #aed1 #eja2 ,british ,museum1 ,handbook to the ,ethnographical ,collections 7#aiaj71 p4 #adg4 #c ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages 7,london1 #ahji71 v4 #daf2 ,w4 ,mariner1 ,account of the ,natives of the ,tonga ,islands1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahah71 i4 #fg2 ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahcb-ahcf71 i4 #bbj2 ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahef71 p4 #bab2 ,j4 ,deniker1 ,the ,races of ,man1 p4 #eja4 ,in ,polynesia the bow was not a serious weapon2 it was found in some islands1 e4g4 in ,tahiti and ,tonga1 but was principally used for killing rats or in shooting matches 7,british ,museum1 ,handbook to the ,ethnographical ,collections1 p4 #aec74 ,as to the limited use of bows and arrows in ,polynesia1 see further ,e4 ,tregear1 ,the ,polynesian ,bow1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 i4 no4 #a 7,april #ahib71 pp4 #ef-ei2 ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers1 ,the ,history of ,melanesian ,society 7,cambridge1 #aiad71 ii4 #ddf sqq4 ,the question of the origin of the ,polynesian race is still unsettled1 but the balance both of evidence and of probability seems to incline in favour of the view that the people are descended from one of the yellow ,mongoloid races of ,south-,eastern ,asia1 who gradually spread eastward over the ,indian ,archipelago and intermingling to some extent with the black aboriginal inhabitants of the islands formed the lighter-tinted brown race which we call the ,polynesian4#d ,a strong argument in favour of this theory is drawn from the ,polynesian language1 which belongs essentially to the same family of speech as the ,melanesian and ,malay languages spoken by the peoples who occupy the islands that intervene between ,polynesia and the south-eastern extremity of the ,asiatic continent4#e ,the black ,melanesian race occupies the south-eastern portion of ,new ,guinea and the chain of islands which stretches in a great curve round the north-eastern coasts of ,new ,guinea and ,australia4 ,the brown ,malays1 with the kindred ,indonesians and a small admixture of negritoes1 inhabit the islands westward from ,new ,guinea to the ,malay ,peninsula4#f ,of the two kindred languages1 the ,polynesian and the ,melanesian1 the older in point of structure appears unquestionably to be the ,melanesian2 for it is richer both in sounds and in grammatical forms than the ,polynesian1 which may accordingly be regarded as its later and simplified descendant4#g #d ,compare 7,sir7 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,anthropology 7,london1 #ahha71 p4 #ajb2 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesian ,languages 7,oxford1 #ahhe71 pp4 #cc sqq42 ,s4 ,percy ,smith1 ,hawaiki1 the ,original ,home of the ,maori 7,christchurch1 etc41 ,new ,zealand1 #aiaj71 pp4 #he sqq42 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,the ,wanderings of ,peoples 7,cambridge1 #aiai71 pp4 #cd sqq42 ,a4 ,h4 ,keane1 ,man ,past and ,present1 revised by ,a4 ,hingston-,quiggin and ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon 7,cambridge1 #aibj71 p4 #eeb4 #e ,on the affinity of the ,polynesian1 ,melanesian1 and ,malay languages1 see ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesian ,languages 7,oxford1 #ahhe71 pp4 #aj sqq42 ,s4 ,h4 ,ray1 ,the ,polynesian ,language in ,melanesia1 ,anthropos1 xiv4-xv4 7#aiai-aibj71 pp4 #df sqq4 #f ,j4 ,deniker1 ,the ,races of ,man1 pp4 #dhb sqq4 #g ,reports of the ,cambridge ,anthropological ,expedition to ,torres ,straits1 vol4 iii4 ,linguistics1 by ,sydney ,h4 ,ray 7,cambridge1 #aijg71 p4 #ebh 7as to the relation of the ,polynesian to the ,melanesian language74 ,as to the poverty of the ,polynesian language in sounds and grammatical forms by comparison with the ,melanesian1 see ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesian ,languages1 p4 #aa4 ,but whereas the three peoples1 the ,polynesians1 the ,melanesians1 and the ,malays speak languages belonging to the same family1 their physical types are so different that it seems impossible to look on the brown straight-haired ,polynesians and ,malays as pure descendants of the swarthy frizzly-haired ,melanesians4 ,accordingly in the present state of our knowledge1 or rather ignorance1 the most reasonable hypothesis would appear to be that the ,melanesians1 who occupy a central position in the great ocean1 between the ,polynesians on the east and the ,malays on the west1 represent the original inhabitants of the islands1 while the ,polynesians and ,malays represent successive swarms of emigrants1 who hived off from the ,asiatic continent1 and making their way eastward over the islands partially displaced and partially blent with the aborigines1 modifying their own physical type in the process and exchanging their original language for that of the islanders1 which1 through their inability to assimilate it1 they acquired only in corrupt or degenerate forms4#h ,yet a serious difficulty meets us on this hypothesis4 ,for both the ,polynesians and the ,malays1 as we know them1 stand at a decidedly higher level of culture1 socially and intellectually1 than the ,melanesians1 and it is hard to understand why with this advantage they should have fallen into a position of linguistic subordination to them1 for as a rule it is the higher race which imposes its language on its inferiors1 not the lower race which succeeds in foisting its speech on its superiors4 #h ,this seems to be the hypothesis favoured by ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,codrington1 ,the ,melanesian ,languages1 pp4 #cc sqq4 ,compare ,j4 ,deniker1 ,the ,races of ,man1 p4 #eje4 ,on the other hand ,sir ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor says 7,anthropology1 pp4 #afc sq471 ,the parent language of this family may have belonged to ,asia1 for in the ,malay region the grammar is more complex1 and words are found like tasik sea and langit sky1 while in the distant islands of ,new ,zealand and ,hawaii these have come down to tai and lai1 as though the language became shrunk and formless as the race migrated further from home1 and sank into the barbaric life of ocean islanders4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers suggests that the ,polynesian language arose out of a pidgin ,indonesian 7,the ,history of ,melanesian ,society1 ii4 #ehd74 ,but these are intricate questions which await future investigation4 ,i cannot enter into them now1 but must confine myself to my immediate subject1 the beliefs of the ,polynesians concerning the human soul and the life after death4 ,in spite of their diffusion over a multitude of islands separated from each other by hundreds and even thousands of miles of ocean1 the ,polynesians are on the whole a remarkably homogeneous race in physical type1 language1 and forms of society and religion4 ,the differences of language between them are inconsiderable1 amounting to little more than some well-marked dialectical variations3 all dwell in settled homes and subsist partly by fishing partly by the fruits of the earth1 tilling the soil and gathering coconuts and bread-fruit from the trees3#i all are bold and expert mariners1 making long voyages in large well-built canoes3 all possess a copious and comparatively well developed mythology2 and all at the time of their discovery enjoyed1 or perhaps we should rather say suffered from1 a singular institution1 half social1 half religious1 which may be summed up in the single ,polynesian word taboo4 ,hence it would no doubt be possible to give a general account of the belief in human immortality which would hold good in outline for all the different branches of the ,polynesian race2 but such an account would necessarily be somewhat meagre1 inexact in detail1 and liable to many exceptions4 ,accordingly ,i shall not attempt it1 but shall describe the creed of each group of islanders separately4 ,as the beliefs of the various islanders on this momentous topic are characterised by a general similarity1 the method ,i have adopted will no doubt involve a certain sameness and repetition1 but for the serious student of comparative religion ,i hope that these disadvantages may be more than outweighed by the greater accuracy and fulness of detail which this mode of treating the subject renders possible4 #i ,j4 ,deniker1 ,the ,races of ,man1 p4 #eja4 ,on the apparent homogeneity of the ,polynesian race see ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers1 ,the ,history of ,melanesian ,society 7,cambridge1 #aiad71 ii4 #bhj1 who1 however1 argues 7ii4 #bhj sqq47 that the race has been formed by the fusion of two distinct peoples4 ,the principal groups of islands included in ,polynesia are ,new ,zealand1 the ,friendly or ,tonga ,islands1 the ,samoan or ,navigators ,islands1 the ,hervey or ,cook ,islands1 the ,society ,islands1 including ,tahiti1 the ,marquesas ,islands1 and ,hawaii or the ,sandwich ,islands4#aj ,all of them1 except ,new ,zealand1 are within the tropics2 and all of them1 except ,hawaii1 lie to the south of the equator4 ,i shall deal with them in the order ,i have mentioned1 beginning with ,new ,zealand4 #aj ,horatio ,hale1 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 pp4 #d sqq4 ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand ,the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand are not aborigines of the islands which they inhabit3 they possess long and apparently in the main trustworthy traditions of their migration to ,new ,zealand many generations ago4 ,the circumstances which led to the migration1 the names of the canoes in which it was accomplished1 the names and genealogies of the chiefs who conducted it1 are all recorded1 having been handed on by word of mouth from generation to generation1 till they were finally written down from the lips of the natives by ,english enquirers4#aa ,the place from which the ,maoris came is unanimously designated as ,hawaiki1 an island or group of islands lying far to the north or north-east of ,new ,zealand4 ,among ,english scholars there is some difference of opinion whether ,hawaiki is to be identified with ,hawaii1 that is1 the ,sandwich ,islands1 or with ,savaii1 one of the ,samoan or ,navigators ,islands1 since ,hawaii and ,savaii are both dialectical variations of the ,new ,zealander's pronunciation of ,hawaiki4#ab ,though ,hawaii is more than twice as far as ,savaii from ,new ,zealand1 being separated from it by almost the whole breadth of the tropics and a great stretch of ocean besides1 some good authorities have inclined to regard it as the original home of the ,maoris1 but the balance of opinion appears now to preponderate in favour of the view that ,savaii was the centre from which the ,polynesians dispersed all over the ,pacific4#ac ,however1 the question is one that hardly admits of a positive answer4 #aa ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahdc71 ii4 #he sqq42 ,horatio ,hale1 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 pp4 #adf sqq42 ,sir ,george ,grey1 ,polynesian ,mythology 7,london1 #ahee71 pp4 #abc sqq41 #acf sqq41 #afb sqq41 #bjb sqq42 ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahef71 pp4 #a sqq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4 #bf1 #bg1 #bhi sqq42 ,john ,white1 ,the ,ancient ,history of the ,maori1 his ,mythology and ,traditions 7,london1 #ahhg-ahhi71 ii4 #agf sqq42 ,elsdon ,best1 ,the ,peopling of ,new ,zealand1 ,man1 xiv4 7#aiad7 pp4 #gc-gf4 ,the number of generations which have elapsed since the migration to ,new ,zealand is variously estimated4 ,writing about the middle of the nineteenth century ,shortland reckoned the number at about eighteen2 ,mr4 ,elsdon ,best1 writing in #aiad1 variously calculated it at about twenty-eight or twenty-nine 7on p4 #gc7 and from eighteen to twenty-eight 7on p4 #gd74 #ab ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #cc4 #ac ,h4 ,hale1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,u4,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 pp4 #aai sq42 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahdc71 ii4 #he sqq42 ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #cc sqq42 ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahei71 i4 #eg sqq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #bf2 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary 7,wellington1 ,n4,z41 #ahia71 pp4 #ef sqq41 s4v4 ,hawaiki2 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,the ,wanderings of ,peoples 7,cambridge1 #aiai71 p4 #cf4 ,of these writers1 ,dieffenbach1 ,shortland1 and ,taylor decide in favour of ,hawaii2 ,thomson1 ,hale1 and ,haddon prefer ,savaii2 ,tregear seems to leave the question open1 pointing out that the inhabitants of those islands themselves believe in another ,hawaiki1 neither in ,samoa nor ,hawaii4 ,the ,maoris are not a pure-blooded ,polynesian race4 ,among them even at the present day two distinct racial types may be distinguished1 one of them the comparatively fair ,polynesian type with straight nose and good features1 the other the swarthy1 thick-lipped1 flat-nosed1 frizzly-haired ,melanesian type4 ,they have a tradition that on their arrival in ,new ,zealand they found the country in the possession of a dark-skinned folk of repulsive appearance1 tall1 spare1 and spindle-shanked1 with flat faces1 overhanging brows1 and noses of which little but the upturned nostrils could in some cases be discerned4 ,these savages wore little clothing and built no good houses1 nothing but rude shelters against the inclemency of the weather4 ,they were ignorant and treacherous1 and the ,maoris regarded them with dislike and contempt2 but their women looked with favour on the handsome ,maori men1 and a mixture of the two races was the result4 ,this tradition both explains and is confirmed by the two different racial types which still exist side by side or blent together among the ,maoris4 ,it seems1 therefore1 highly probable that before the advent of the ,maoris the ,north ,island of ,new ,zealand was occupied by a people of inferior culture belonging to the ,melanesian stock1 who may themselves have had a strain of ,polynesian blood in their veins and some ,polynesian words in their language4 ,this at least is suggested by some features in the ,maori traditions about them4 ,for these savages told the ,maoris that they were the descendants of the crews of three fishing canoes which had been driven to sea from their own land in past times1 and that their original home was a much warmer country than ,new ,zealand4 ,all these various indications may perhaps be reconciled by supposing that the dark predecessors of the ,maoris in ,new ,zealand were a ,melanesian people1 who had accidentally drifted from ,fiji1 the inhabitants of which have long been in contact with their ,polynesian neighbours on the east1 the ,tongans4#ad ,they received from the ,maoris the name of ,maruiwi1#ae and were perhaps of the same stock as the ,moriori of the ,chatham ,islands2 for two skulls of the ,moriori type have been found in an old deposit at ,wanganui1 near the south end of the ,north ,island of ,new ,zealand4#af #ad ,elsdon ,best1 ,the ,peopling of ,new ,zealand1 ,man1 xiv4 7#aiad7 pp4 #gc-gf4 ,the ,melanesian strain in the ,maoris was recognised by previous writers4 ,see ,j4 ,s4 ,polack1 ,manners and ,customs of the ,new ,zealanders 7,london1 #ahdj71 i4 #f1 ,the nation consists of two aboriginal and distinct races1 differing1 at an earlier period1 as much from each other as both are similarly removed in similitude from ,europeans4 ,a series of intermarriages for centuries has not even yet obliterated the marked difference that originally stamped the descendant of the now amalgamated races4 ,the first may be known by a dark-brown complexion1 well formed and prominent features1 erect muscular proportions1 and lank hair1 with a boldness in the gait of a warrior1 wholly differing from that of the second and inferior race1 who have a complexion brown-black1 hair inclining to the wool1 like the ,eastern ,african1 stature short1 and skin exceeding soft4 ,the writer rightly connects the latter people with the stock which we now call ,melanesian4 ,compare also ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #ac sqq41 who says 7p4 #ac71 ,the ,melanesian preceded the ,polynesian4444 ,the remains of this race are to be seen in every part of ,new ,zealand1 especially among the ,nga-ti-ka-hunu1 to which the derisive name of ,pokerekahu--,black ,kumara--is applied4 ,the ,maori traditions preserve both the names of the canoes which brought them to ,new ,zealand1 as well as of the chiefs who commanded them2 several of these records make mention of their having found this black race in occupation of the country on their arrival4 ,the blending of two distinct races1 a light-brown and a dark race1 among the ,maoris is clearly recognised by ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #h-aa4 ,the dark race1 he says 7pp4 #i sq471 has undoubtedly a different origin4 ,this is proved by their less regularly shaped cranium1 which is rather more compressed from the sides1 by their full and large features1 prominent cheek-bones1 full lips1 small ears1 curly and coarse1 although not woolly1 hair1 a much deeper colour of the skin1 and a short and rather ill-proportioned figure4 ,this race1 which is mixed in insensible gradations with the former1 is far less numerous2 it does not predominate in any one part of the island1 nor does it occupy any particular station in a tribe1 and there is no difference made between the two races amongst themselves2 but ,i must observe that ,i never met any man of consequence belonging to this race1 and that1 although free men1 they occupy the lower grades2 from this we may perhaps infer the relation in which they stood to the earliest native immigrants into the country1 although their traditions and legends are silent on the subject4 #ae ,elsdon ,best1 ,the ,peopling of ,new ,zealand1 ,man1 xiv4 7#aiad7 pp4 #gc sq4 #af 7,sir7 ,arthur ,keith1 ,moriori in ,new ,zealand1 ,man1 xiii4 7#aiac7 pp4 #aga sq4 ,at the time of their discovery the ,maoris had attained to a fair level of barbaric culture4 ,they lived in comfortable houses ornamented with carved work and with scrolls painted in red and white on the posts and beams4 ,their villages were fortified with earthworks1 palisades1 and trenches1 and surrounded by large gardens planted with sweet potatoes1 taro1 and melons4#ag ,they excel in tillage1 says ,captain ,cook1 as might naturally be expected1 where the person that sows is to eat the produce1 and where there is so little besides that can be eaten3 when we first came to ,tegadoo1 a district between ,poverty ,bay and ,east ,cape1 their crops were just covered1 and not yet begun to sprout2 the mould was as smooth as in a garden1 and every root had its small hillock1 ranged in a regular quincunx1 by lines1 which with the pegs were still remaining in the field4#ah ,they understood the arts of irrigating their gardens#ai and of manuring them so as to render the soil light and porous and therefore better suited for the growth of the sweet potato1 their favourite food4 ,for this purpose they used sand1 and in the ,waikatoo district1 where the root was formerly much cultivated1 deep excavations1 like the gravel pits of ,england1 may still be seen1 from which the natives extracted sand to fertilise their gardens4#bj ,moreover1 they cultivated various species of native flax and used the fibre for the manufacture of garments1 first scraping it and drying it in the sun1 then steeping it in water1 and afterwards beating it with wooden mallets4 ,thus prepared the flax was dyed black or reddish brown and woven into cloth with broad borders of neat and varied patterns4 ,the stronger and coarser fibres were made into string1 lines1 and cordage of all sorts4#ba ,the ,maoris also built large and magnificently adorned canoes1#bb in which they made long voyages2 for example1 they invaded and conquered the ,chatham ,islands1 which lie to the eastward across the open sea about five hundred miles distant from the nearest coast of ,new ,zealand4#bc ,in hunting they had little opportunity to shine1 for the simple reason that in their country there were no beasts to hunt except rats2#bd even birds they could not shoot1 because they had no bows and arrows to shoot them with1#be but they made some amends by catching them in ingeniously constructed snares4#bf ,they caught fish both with nets1 some of which were of enormous size1 and with hooks made of bone or shell4#bg ,they displayed great skill and infinite patience in fashioning1 sharpening1 and polishing their stone implements and weapons4#bh ,in council they were orators1 and in the battlefield warriors whose courage has merited the respect1 and whose military skill has won the admiration of the ,british troops opposed to them4#bi ,in short1 the ,maoris were and are one of the most highly gifted among the many uncivilised peoples which the ,english race1 in its expansion over the world1 has met and subdued4 ,it is therefore of peculiar interest to learn what conceptions they had formed of man's spiritual nature and his relations to the higher powers4 #ag ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,maoris1 p4 #bjb4 ,the elaborate system of fortification employed by the ,maoris1 of which the remains may be seen by thousands1 seems to have no exact parallel in ,polynesia4 ,see ,elsdon ,best1 ,the ,peopling of ,new ,zealand1 ,man1 xiv4 7#aiad7 p4 #ge4 ,these native forts or pas1 as they were called1 had often a double or even quadruple line of fence1 the innermost formed by great poles twenty or thirty feet high1 which were tightly woven together by the fibrous roots of a creeper4 ,they were built by preference on hills1 the sides of which were scarped and terraced to assist the defence4 ,some of them were very extensive and are said to have contained from one to two thousand inhabitants4 ,many of them were immensely strong and practically impregnable in the absence of artillery4 ,it is believed that the habit of fortifying their villages was characteristic of the older race whom the ,maoris1 on landing in ,new ,zealand1 found in occupation of the country4 ,see ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahce71 pp4 #abb sqq42 ,g4 ,f4 ,angas1 ,savage ,life and ,scenes in ,australia and ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahdg71 i4 #ccb sq42 ,elsdon ,best1 ,notes on the ,art of ,war as conducted by the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xii4 no4 #d 7,december #aijc71 pp4 #bjd sqq42 ,w4 ,h4 ,skinner1 ,the ,ancient ,fortified ,pa1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xx4 no4 #gh 7,june #aiaa71 pp4 #ga-gg4 #ah ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages 7,london1 #ahji71 ii4 #ej4 #ai ,the ruins of native irrigation works are to be found in ,new ,zealand as well as in other parts of ,polynesia 7,j4 ,deniker1 ,the ,races of ,man1 p4 #eja74 #bj ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #bjb sq4 #ba ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 ii4 #cj sq41 #dj sq42 ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahce71 pp4 #aeg sqq42 ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #bjd sqq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #e4 #bb ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 ii4 #dg sq42 ,w4 ,yate1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afa sqq4 #bc ,a4 ,shand1 ,the ,occupation of the ,chatham ,islands by the ,maoris in #ahce1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 i4 no4 #b 7,july #ahib71 pp4 #hc sqq4 #bd ,r4 ,taylor1 op4 cit4 p4 #dif2 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,australasia 7,london1 #aiac71 pp4 #ddb sq4 #be ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #bab2 ,elsdon ,best1 ,notes on the ,art of ,war as conducted by the ,maori of ,new ,zealand1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xi4 no4 #d 7,december #aijb71 p4 #bdj4 #bf ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #bab sqq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #ddb sq4 #bg ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #di sq42 ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #afj4 #bh ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 ii4 #di2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #d4 #bi ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #d4 ,the ,maoris delivered set speeches composed according to certain recognised laws of rhetoric1 and their oratory was distinguished by a native eloquence and grace4 ,see ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #ahf sqq4 ,sec4 #c4 ,the ,beliefs of the ,maoris concerning the ,souls of the ,living ,like most other peoples1 whether savage or civilised1 the ,maoris explained the mystery of life in man by the presence of an invisible spirit or soul1 which animates his body during life and quits it at death to survive the separation for a longer or shorter time either in this world or another4 ,but like many others who have sought to fathom this profound subject1 the ,maoris would seem to have experienced some difficulty in ascertaining the precise nature of the human soul4 ,when the natural man1 on the strength of his native faculties1 essays to explore these dark abysses and to put his vague thoughts into words1 he commonly compares his soul either to his breath or to his shadow and his reflection1 and not content with a simple comparison he is led1 by a natural confusion of thought1 to identify more or less closely the imperceptible entity which he calls his soul with one or both of these perceptible objects4 ,to this general rule the ,maori is apparently no exception4 ,he has two words which he specially uses to designate the human spirit or soul3 one is wairua1 the other is hau4#cj ,of these words1 wairua1 the more usual name1 is said to mean also a shadow1 an unsubstantial image1 a reflection1 as of a person's face from a polished surface2#ca and we may surmise that these were the original and proper meanings of the term4 ,similarly hau1 which is described as the vital essence or life principle in man1#cb appears primarily to mean wind1#cc from which we may infer that in its application to man it denotes properly the breath4 ,the idea of the soul as a breath appears in the explanation which was given to ,dumont d',urville of the ,maori form of salutation by rubbing noses together4 ,the ,french traveller was told that the real intention of this salute was to mingle the breath and thereby the souls of the persons who gave each other this token of friendship4 ,but as his informant was not a ,maori but a certain ,mr4 ,kendall1 the truth of the explanation remains doubtful1 though the ,frenchman believed that he obtained confirmation of it from his own observation and the testimony of a native4#cd ,on the other hand the comparison of the soul to a shadow comes out in the answer given by a ,maori to an ,englishman who had asked him why his people did not prevent their souls from passing away to the nether world4 ,the ,maori replied by pointing to the ,englishman's shadow on the wall and asking him whether he could catch it4#ce #cj ,elsdon ,best1 ,spiritual ,concepts of the ,maori1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 ix4 no4 #d 7,december #aijj71 pp4 #agg sqq41 #ahi sqq4 #ca ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #eia sq41 s4v4 wairua4 #cb ,elsdon ,best1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahi4 #cc ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #eb1 s4v4 hau2 ,elsdon ,best1 op4 cit4 p4 #aij4 #cd ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et a la recherche de la ,perouse1 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 ii4 #eeh sq4 #ce ,william ,brown1 ,new ,zealand and its ,aborigines 7,london1 #ahde71 p4 #ha4 ,thus far the ,maori conception of the soul does not perhaps differ very materially from the popular notion of it current among ourselves4 ,but we come now to a marked difference between the ,maori idea of the soul and our own4 ,for whereas the ,european commonly believes his soul to be fixed during life immovably in his body1 and only to depart from it once for all at death1 the soul of the ,maori is under no such narrow restrictions1 but is free to quit its bodily mansion at pleasure and to return to it without prejudice to the life and health of its owner4 ,for example1 the ,maori explains a dream by supposing that the soul of the sleeper has left his body behind and rambled away to places more or less distant1 where it converses with the spirits of other people1 whether alive or dead4 ,hence no well-bred ,maori would waken a sleeper suddenly by shaking him or calling out to him in a loud voice4 ,if he must rouse him1 he will do it gradually1 speaking to him at first in low tones and then raising his voice by degrees1 in order to give the truant soul fair warning and allow it to return at leisure4#cf ,believing in the power of the soul to wander far away and converse with other spiritual beings in sleep1 the ,maoris naturally paid great attention to dreams1 which they fancied were often sent them by the gods to warn them of coming events4 ,all dreams were supposed to have their special significance1 and the ,maoris had framed a fanciful system for interpreting them4 ,sometimes1 as with ourselves1 the interpretation went by contraries4 ,for example1 if a man dreamed that he saw a sick relative at the point of death1 it was a sign that the patient would soon recover2 but if1 on the contrary1 the sufferer appeared in perfect health1 it was an omen of his approaching end4 ,when a priest was in doubt as to the intentions of the higher powers1 he usually waited for his god to reveal his will in a dream1 and accepted the vagaries of his slumbering fancy as an infallible intimation of the divine pleasure4 ,spells were commonly recited in order to annul the effect of ill-omened dreams4#cg #cf ,elsdon ,best1 ,spiritual ,concepts of the ,maori1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 ix4 no4 #d 7,december #aijj71 pp4 #agg sq4 #cg ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #ccc-cce4 ,as to omens derived from dreams see ,elsdon ,best1 ,omens and ,superstitious ,beliefs of the ,maori1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 vii4 no4 #bg 7,september #ahih71 pp4 #abd sqq4 ,but the departure of the soul from the body in life was not always voluntary2 it might take place under the compulsion of a hostile sorcerer or magician4 ,in a ,maori legend called ,the curse of ,manaia we read that the priests next dug a long pit1 termed the pit of wrath1 into which by their enchantments they might bring the spirits of their enemies1 and hang them and destroy them there2 and when they had dug the pit1 muttering the necessary incantations1 they took large shells in their hands to scrape the spirits of their enemies into the pit with1 whilst they muttered enchantments2 and when they had done this1 they scraped the earth into the pit again to cover them up1 and beat down the earth with their hands1 and crossed the pit with enchanted cloths1 and wove baskets of flax-leaves to hold the spirits of the foes which they had thus destroyed1 and each of these acts they accompanied with the proper spells4#ch #ch ,sir ,george ,grey1 ,polynesian ,mythology 7,london1 #ahee71 pp4 #afh sq4 ,this mode of undoing an enemy by extracting and killing his soul was not with the ,maoris a mere legendary fiction2 it was practised in real life by their wizards4 ,for we are told that when a priest desired to slay a person by witchcraft1 he would often dig a hole in the ground1 and standing over it with a cord in his hand would let one end of the cord hang down into the hole4 ,he then recited an incantation which compelled the soul of the doomed man to swarm down the cord into the pit1 whereupon another potent spell chanted by the magician speedily put an end to the poor soul for good and all4#ci #ci ,elsdon ,best1 ,spiritual ,concepts of the ,maori1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 ix4 no4 #d 7,december #aijj71 p4 #ahg4 ,it seems obvious that spells of this sort may be used with great advantage in war1 for if you can only contrive to kill the souls of your foes1 their mere bodies will probably give you little or no trouble4 ,nor did this practical application of the magic art escape the sagacity of the ,maoris4 ,when they marched to attack an enemy's stronghold1 it was an ancient custom to halt and kindle a fire1 over which the priest recited certain spells to cause the souls of his adversaries to be drawn into the fire and there to perish miserably in the flames4 ,in theory the idea was admirable1 but unfortunately it did not always work out in practice4 ,for magic is a game at which two can play1 and it sometimes happened that the spells of the besieged proved more powerful than those of the besiegers and enabled the garrison to defy all the attempts of the enemy to filch their souls from their bodies4#dj ,but even when the assailants were obliged to retire discomfited1 they did not always lose heart1 the resources of the magic art were not yet exhausted4 ,on their return home the priest1 nothing daunted by a temporary discomfiture1 might betake himself again to his spells1 and by crooning his incantations over a garment or a weapon belonging to one of his party1 might dash in pieces the arms of the enemy and cause their souls to perish4 ,thus by his ghostly skill would he snatch victory from defeat1 and humble the pride of the insolent foe in the very moment of his imaginary triumph4#da ,one way in which he effected his purpose was to take a bag or basket containing some sacred food1 hold it to the fire1 and then opening the bag point the mouth of it in the direction of the enemy4 ,the simple recitation of a spell then sufficed to draw the souls of the adversaries into the bag1 after which nothing was easier for him than to destroy them utterly by means of the appropriate incantation4#db #dj ,elsdon ,best1 ,spiritual ,concepts of the ,maori1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 ix4 no4 #d 7,december #aijj71 p4 #aha4 #da ,elsdon ,best1 ,notes on the ,art of ,war as conducted by the ,maori of ,new ,zealand1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xi4 no4 #c 7,september #aijb71 p4 #ada4 #db ,elsdon ,best1 ,notes on the ,art of ,war as conducted by the ,maori of ,new ,zealand1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xii4 no4 #b 7,june #aijc71 p4 #gb4 ,but valuable as are these applications of magic to practical life1 the art1 like every good thing1 is liable to abuse2 and even where it is employed with the best intentions1 the forces which it controls are so powerful that in spite of all precautions an accident will sometimes happen4 ,for example1 in sickness the patient often had recourse to a priest1 who would lead him down to the nearest water1 whether a pool or a stream1 and there perform the magical rites necessary for the relief of his particular malady4 ,while the wizard was engaged in this beneficent task1 all the people in the village kept strictly indoors1 lest their souls should wander forth to the water-side and there colliding1 if ,i may be allowed the expression1 with the mystic forces of the priest's spells be damaged or even annihilated by the collision4#dc ,in such a case the fatal consequences were the result of a pure accident1 but sometimes they were intentional4 ,for this fell purpose a malignant wizard would dig a hole1 invoke the spirit of the man against whom he had a grudge1 and when the spirit appeared over the hole in the form of a light1 he would curse it1 and the man whose soul was cursed would be sure to die1 sooner or later2 nothing could save him4 ,the ,uriwera1 who dwelt dispersed among the forests and lonely hills of a wild mountainous region in the ,north ,island1 were reputed to be the greatest warlocks in all ,new ,zealand4 ,when they descended from their mountains to the coast1 the lowlanders scarcely dared refuse them anything for fear of incurring their displeasure4 ,it is said that in their magical rites they made a special use of the spittle of their destined victims2 hence all visitors to their country were careful to conceal their spittle lest they should give these wicked folk a handle against them4#dd ,another mode in which a ,maori wizard could obtain power over a man's soul was by working magic on the footprints of his intended victim4 ,the thing was done in this way4 ,suppose you are walking and leave your footprints behind you on the ground4 ,i come behind you1 take up the earth from your footprints1 and deposit it on the sacred whata puaroa1 that is1 a post or pillar set up in the holy place of a village and charged in a mysterious manner with the vitality both of the people and of the land4 ,having laid the earth from your footprints on the sacred post1 ,i next perform a ceremony of consecration over it1 and then bury it with a seed of sweet potato in the ground4 ,after that you are doomed4 ,you may consider yourself for all practical purposes not only dead but buried1 like the earth from your footprints4#de #dc ,elsdon ,best1 ,maori ,medical ,lore1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xiii4 no4 #d 7,december #aijd71 p4 #bbe4 #dd ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahdc71 ii4 #eh sq42 ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #aaf sq42 id41 ,maori ,religion and ,mythology 7,london1 #ahhb71 p4 #ca4 #de ,elsdon ,best1 ,spiritual ,concepts of the ,maori1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 ix4 no4 #d 7,december #aijj71 pp4 #aid sq41 #aif4 ,from some of the foregoing facts it seems to follow that the souls of the ,maoris are not1 so to say1 constitutionally immortal1 but that they are of a brittle and perishable nature1 and that in particular they are liable to be cut short in their career and totally exterminated by the insidious arts of magicians4 ,so frequently1 indeed1 did this happen in former days that the ,maoris of old apparently recognised no other cause of death1 but imagined that every man and woman would naturally live for ever1 if the thread of his or her life were not prematurely snipped by the abhorred shears of some witch or wizard4 ,hence after every death it was customary to hold an inquest in order to discover the wretch who had brought about the catastrophe by his enchantments2 a sage presided at the solemn enquiry1 and under his direction the culprit was detected1 hunted down1 and killed4#df #df ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #ea4 ,the ,maoris tell a story to explain how death first came into the world1 or at least how men were prevented from enjoying the boon of immortality4 ,the story runs as follows4 ,the great mythical hero of ,polynesia is ,maui1 a demigod or man of marvellous powers1 who lived in the early ages of the world1 and whose mighty deeds are the theme of tales of wonder told far and wide among the islands of the ,pacific4#dg ,in his childhood his mother prophesied that he should thereafter climb the threshold of his great ancestress ,hine-nui-te-po1 and that death should have no more dominion over men4 ,a happy prediction1 but alas6 never destined to be fulfilled1 for even the would-be saviour ,maui himself did not escape the doom of mortality4 ,the way in which he became subject to death was this4 ,his father took him to the water to be baptized1 for infant baptism was a regular part of ,maori ritual4#dh ,but when the baptism was over and the usual prayers had been offered for making the lad sacred and clean from all impurity1 his father bethought him that through haste or forgetfulness he had omitted some of the prayers and purifications of the baptismal service4 ,it was a fatal oversight1 and the anxious father was struck with consternation at the thought1 for too well he knew that the gods would punish the omission by causing his son ,maui to die4#di ,yet did his son make a brave attempt to rescue all men from the doom of death and to make them live for ever4 ,one day1 after he had performed many feats and returned to his father's house1 his father1 heavy at heart and overcome with a foreboding of evil1 said to him1 ,oh1 my son1 ,i have heard from your mother and others that you are very valiant1 and that you have succeeded in all feats that you have undertaken in your own country1 whether they were small or great2 but now that you have arrived in your father's country1 you will perhaps be overcome4 ,then ,maui asked his father1 ,what do you mean8 what things are there that ,i can be vanquished by8 ,and his father answered him1 ,by your great ancestress1 by ,hine-nui-te-po1 who1 if you look1 you may see flashing1 and1 as it were1 opening and shutting there1 where the horizon meets the sky4 ,and ,maui answered1 ,lay aside such idle thoughts1 and let us both fearlessly seek whether men are to die or live for ever4 ,and his father said1 ,my child1 there has been an ill omen for us2 when ,i was baptizing you1 ,i omitted a portion of the fitting prayers1 and that ,i know will be the cause of your perishing4 ,then ,maui asked his father1 ,what is my ancestress ,hine-nui-te-po like8 and he answered1 ,what you see yonder shining so brightly red are her eyes1 and her teeth are as sharp and hard as pieces of volcanic glass2 her body is like that of a man1 and as for the pupils of her eyes1 they are jasper2 and her hair is like the tangles of long sea-weed1 and her mouth is like that of a barracouta4 #dg ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #bcc sqq41 s4v4 ,maui2 ,horatio ,hale1 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 p4 #bc4 #dh ,j4 ,l4 ,nicholas1 ,narrative of a ,voyage to ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahag71 i4 #fa sq41 ,the ,new ,zealanders make it an invariable practice1 when a child is born among them1 to take it to the ,tohunga1 or priest1 who sprinkles it on the face with water1 from a certain leaf which he holds in his hand for that purpose2 and they believe that this ceremony is not only beneficial to the infant1 but that the neglect of it would be attended with the most baneful consequences4 ,in the latter case1 they consider the child as either doomed to immediate death1 or that1 if allowed to live1 it will grow up with a most perverse and wicked disposition4 ,before or after sprinkling the child with water the priest bestowed on the infant its name4 ,see ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahce71 pp4 #hb-hd2 ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahei71 i4 #aah sqq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4 #ahd sqq4 ,compare ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et a la recherche de la ,perouse1 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 ii4 #ddc sq4 7who says that the baptism was performed by women72 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahdc71 ii4 #bh-cj 7who1 in contradiction to all the other authorities1 says that the naming of the child was unconnected with its baptism74 #di ,sir ,george ,grey1 ,polynesian ,mythology 7,london1 #ahee71 p4 #cb4 ,now ,hine-nui-te-po was the ,great ,woman of ,night1 the ,goddess of ,death1 who dwelt in the nether world and dragged down men to herself4 ,but ,maui was not afraid1 for he had caught the great ,sun himself in a snare and beaten him and caused him to go so tardily as we now see him creeping across the sky with leaden steps and slow2 for of old the ,sun was wont to speed across the firmament like a young man rejoicing to run a race4 ,so forth fared the hero on his great enterprise to snatch the life of mortals from the very jaws of death4 ,and there came to him to bear him company the small robin1 and the large robin1 and the thrush1 and the yellow hammer1 and the pied fantail 7tiwakawaka1 ,rhipidura flabellifora71 and every kind of little bird2 and these all assembled together1 and they started with ,maui in the evening1 and arrived at the dwelling of ,hine-nui-te-po1 and found her fast asleep4 ,then ,maui addressed them all1 and said1 ,my little friends1 now if you see me creep into this old chieftainess1 do not laugh at what you see4 ,nay1 nay1 do not1 ,i pray you1 but when ,i have got altogether inside her1 and just as ,i am coming out of her mouth1 then you may shout with laughter if you please4 ,but his little friends were frightened at what they saw1 and they answered1 ,oh1 sir1 you will certainly be killed4 ,and he answered them again1 saying1 ,if you burst out laughing at me as soon as ,i get inside her1 you will wake her up1 and she will certainly kill me at once2 but if you do not laugh until ,i am quite inside her1 and am on the point of coming out of her mouth1 ,i shall live1 and ,hine-nui-te-po will die4 ,and his little friends answered1 ,go on then1 brave sir1 but pray take good care of yourself4 ,then the young hero started off1 and twisted the strings of his weapon tight round his wrist1 and went into the house1 and stripped off his clothes1 and the skin on his hips was as mottled and beautiful as the skin of a mackerel by reason of the tattoo marks cut on it with the chisel of ,uetongo1 and he entered the old chieftainess4 ,the little birds now screwed up their little mouths to keep back their laughter when they saw him disappearing into the body of the giantess2 their cheeks swelled up and grew purple1 and they almost choked with suppressed emotion4 ,at last the pied fantail could bear it no longer1 and he suddenly exploded with a loud guffaw4 ,that woke the old woman1 she opened her eyes1 and shut her jaws with a snap1 cutting the hero clean through the middle1 so that his legs dropped out of her mouth4 ,thus died ,maui1 but before he died he begat children1 and sons were born to him1 and some of his descendants are alive to this day4 ,that1 according to ,maori tradition1 is how death came into the world2 for if only ,maui had passed safely through the jaws of the ,goddess of ,death1 men would have died no more and death itself would have been destroyed4 ,thus the ,maoris set down human mortality at the door of the pied fantail1 since but for his unseasonable merriment we might all have lived for ever4#ej #ej ,sir ,george ,grey1 ,polynesian ,mythology1 pp4 #ef-eh2 ,john ,white1 ,the ,ancient ,history of the ,maori 7,wellington and ,london1 #ahhg-ahhi71 ii4 #ih1 #aje-ajg4 ,for another version of the myth1 told with some minor variations1 see ,s4 ,percy ,smith1 ,the ,lore of the ,whare-wananga1 ,part ,i4 7,new ,plymouth1 ,n4,z41 #aiac71 pp4 #ade sq41 #agf-agh4 ,for the identification of the bird tiwakawaka see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #eai1 s4v4 ,tiwaiwaka4 ,sec4 #d4 ,the ,beliefs of the ,maoris concerning the ,souls of the ,dead ,when a chief died1 a loud howl or wail announced the melancholy event1 and the neighbours flocked to the scene of death to testify their sorrow4 ,the wives and near relations1 especially the women1 of the deceased displayed their anguish by cutting their faces1 arms1 legs1 and breasts with flints or shells till the blood flowed down in streams2 it was not wiped off1 for the more the person of a mourner was covered with clotted gore1 the greater was esteemed his or her respect for the dead4 ,sometimes relatives would hack off joints of their fingers as a token of grief4 ,mourners likewise cut their hair1 the men generally contenting themselves with clipping or shaving it on one side only1 from the forehead to the neck4 ,the eyes of the dead were closed by the nearest relative2 and the body dressed in the finest mats1 decked with feathers1 and provided with weapons1 lay in state for a time4 ,after the first day a brother of the deceased used to beat the body with fresh flax gathered for the purpose2 this he did to drive away any evil thing that might be hovering about the corpse4 ,in the olden time one or more of the chief's wives would strangle themselves1 that their souls might accompany their dead lord and wait upon him in the other world1 and with the same intentions slaves were killed1 lest the great man should lack attendants in the spirit land4#ea #ea ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #ace sqq42 ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et a la recherche de la ,perouse1 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 ii4 #eda sq42 ,servant1 ,notice sur la ,nouvelle-,zelande1 ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xv4 7#ahdc7 p4 #be2 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #fb1 #aah2 ,w4 ,brown1 ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 pp4 #ae sqq42 ,g4 ,f4 ,angas1 ,savage ,life and ,scenes in ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 i4 #cca2 ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand1 i4 #ahe sqq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahgj71 pp4 #bag sq42 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xix4 7#ahij7 pp4 #ajd sq4 ,the body was kept for three days because1 we are told1 the soul was believed not to quit its mortal habitation till the third day4#eb ,the mode of disposing of the corpse differed in different districts and according to the rank of the deceased4 ,in some places a grave was dug in the house and the body buried in a sitting posture1 the legs being kept in that position by bandages or doubled up against the chest4 ,in the grave the dead man retained the fine garments in which he had been dressed together with the family ornaments of jade and shark's teeth4 ,with him also was usually interred his property1 especially the clothes which he had worn and everything else that had touched him during his last illness4 ,the weapons of a warrior were laid near him that he might be able to fight his battles in the spirit land4 ,in other places the corpse was laid in a box on a stage2 or two pieces of an old canoe were set upright in the earth1 and in the hollow between them the body was seated on a grating so as to allow the products of decomposition to drip through on the ground4 ,in other places again1 the corpse was laid in a sort of canoe-shaped coffin and deposited among the branches of a tree in a grove1 where it remained for several months4 ,this burial in the branches of a tree seems to have been usually adopted for the bodies of commoners2 the corpses of chiefs1 enclosed in coffins1 were placed in mausoleums1 carved and painted red1 which were raised on pillars4 ,whether buried in the earth or placed in a tree or on a stage1 the body was left until the flesh had so far decayed as to permit of the bones being easily detached2 there was no fixed time allowed for decomposition1 it might vary from three months to six months1 or even a year4 ,when decay was thought to have proceeded far enough1 the bones were dug up or taken down from the stage or tree and scraped2 the ornaments also were removed from the skeleton and worn by the relatives4 ,in the south1 where the custom was to bury the dead in the ground1 this disinterment took place four weeks after the burial2 the bones were then buried again1 but only to be dug up again after a longer interval1 it might be two years1 for the final ceremony4 ,when this took place1 all the friends and relatives of the dead were summoned to assist1 and a great feast was given3 the bones were scraped1 painted red1 decked with feathers1 and wrapped up in mats4 ,the precious bundle was then deposited in a small canoe or a miniature house elevated on a pole2 or it was carried to the top of some sacred tree and there left on a small stage4 ,sometimes the bones were concealed in a hollow tree in a secret place of the forest1 or hidden away in one of the numerous limestone caverns or in some lonely and inaccessible chasm among the rocks4 ,the motive for secret burial was a fear lest an enemy should get possession of the bones and profane them by making fish-hooks out of them or converting the skull into a baler for his canoe4 ,such a profanation was deemed a deadly insult to the surviving relatives4 ,after a burial the persons who had dressed or carried the corpse1 and all indeed who had had anything to do with it1 repaired to the nearest stream and plunged themselves several times over head in the water4#ec #eb ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 op4 cit4 ii4 #eda4 #ec ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 op4 cit4 ii4 #edc sq42 ,w4 ,yate1 op4 cit4 p4 #acg2 ,servant1 ,notice sur la ,nouvelle-,zelande1 ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xv4 7#ahdc7 p4 #be2 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #fb sqq42 ,g4 ,f4 ,angas1 ,savage ,life and ,scenes in ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 i4 #cca2 ,a4 ,s4 ,thomson1 ,the ,story of ,new ,zealand1 i4 #ahh2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #bah sqq42 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,the ,maori of ,new ,zealand1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xix4 7#ahij7 p4 #aje2 ,elsdon ,best1 ,cremation among the ,maori ,tribes of ,new ,zealand1 ,man1 xiv4 7#aiad7 p4 #aaj4 ,in some districts the removal of the bones from their temporary to their final resting-place was the occasion of a grand annual festival in which several neighbouring tribes took part4 ,the bones of all members of the tribes who had died within the year were taken down from the stages or trees where the bodies had been temporarily deposited4 ,the grave-clothes having been removed1 the mouldering remains were wrapped in new blankets and carried in procession1 attended by the crowd1 to a place where they were deposited on a carpet of leaves4 ,should any putrid flesh be found still adhering to the bones1 it was scraped off and buried on the spot4 ,a few old women1 dressed in their best1 oiled from head to foot1 and plastered with raddle1 received the skulls into their laps4 ,while they held them thus1 a funeral ode was sung and speeches1 loud and long1 were delivered4 ,then the bones were tied up1 decked with feathers of the gannet1 rolled up in blankets1 and carried to their last place of rest in a sacred grove1 where they were left1 securely fastened up and gaudily decorated with red and white4 ,having thus discharged their duty to the dead1 the living gave themselves up to festivity2 they ate and drank1 danced1 sang1 whistled1 wrestled1 quarrelled1 bought and sold4 ,this ,holy ,fair1 which went by the name of ,hahunga1 lasted several days4 ,at the end of it the mourners1 or revellers1 dispersed and returned to their homes1 laden with food which had been made ready for them by their hosts4#ed ,great importance was attached to the final disposal of the remains of the dead4 ,according to one account1 the soul of the dead man could not rest till his bones were laid in the sepulchre of his ancestors1 which was often a natural cave or grotto4 ,there they were deposited on a shelf or platform a few feet above the floor of the cavern4#ee #ed ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #acg-aci2 ,servant1 ,notice sur la ,nouvelle-,zelande1 ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xv4 7#ahdc7 pp4 #bf sq4 ,the name ,hahunga is doubtless connected with the verb hahu which means to exhume the bones of dead persons before depositing them in their final resting-place4 ,see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #db1 s4v4 hahu4 #ee ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 op4 cit4 ii4 #edc1 #ede4 ,not uncommonly the bones of the dead1 instead of being preserved1 were burned4#ef ,but cremation1 though not unusual1 seems never to have been a general custom with the ,maoris4 ,they resorted to it only in exceptional circumstances1 for example1 in order to stay the spread of disease1 or in cases where a tribe occupied open country and found no suitable place where to lay the bones of their dead after exhumation4 ,cremation for the latter reason is said to have been practised by the ,ngati-apa tribe in the ,rangatikikei ,district1 and also by the tribes who occupied the ,waimate ,plains4 ,an old earthwork fort near the present township of ,manaia was the scene of many cremations of the ,maori dead in former days4 ,again1 it was a common custom for a raiding party to cremate their dead in the enemy's country1 when there was no time to carry them home for the usual obsequies4 ,the intention of burning them was to prevent the enemy from eating the bodies and making fish-hooks out of the bones4 ,for a similar reason even the wounded1 whom they could not carry with them1 were sometimes thrown into great fires and burnt alive4 ,if the slain man was a chief1 only his body would be consumed in the flames2 his head would be cut off1 steamed1 cured1 and carried home1 to be wept over by his friends4 ,in the ,bay of ,plenty district the bodies of persons who died of a certain disease called ,kai uaua1 apparently consumption1 used to be burnt to prevent the spread of the malady1 and all the ashes were carefully buried4#eg #ef ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #bbj4 ,this was called tahunga1 burning1 a word no doubt derived from tahu1 to set on fire1 kindle4 ,see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #ddd1 s4v4 tahu4 #eg ,elsdon ,best1 ,cremation amongst the ,maori tribes of ,new ,zealand1 ,man1 xiv4 7#aiad7 pp4 #aaj sq4 ,often enough the heads of dead relatives were cut off1 dried1 and preserved by the family for many years in order to be occasionally brought forth and mourned over4 ,sometimes a widow would sleep with her husband's severed head at her side4 ,after a victory1 too1 it was customary to decapitate the slain foes and dry their heads1 which were then carried home and used as scarecrows or stuck on short stakes in the village1 where they were jeered at and reviled4 ,when the time came to plant the sweet potatoes1 and the priests recited their spells for the sake of the crops1 the dried heads were sometimes brought out and placed at the edge of the field1 for this was believed to promote the growth of the sweet potatoes4#eh ,apparently the spirits of the dead were thought able to quicken the fruits of the earth4 #eh ,elsdon ,best1 ,notes on the ,art of ,war as conducted by the ,maori of ,new ,zealand1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xii4 no4 #d 7,december #aijc71 pp4 #aie-aig4 ,compare ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #acj sqq42 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #ff4 ,at all events the ,maoris undoubtedly believed that the souls of the departed survive the death of their bodies for a longer or shorter time and in their disembodied state can influence the living for weal or woe4 ,the belief in the survival of the soul is strikingly manifested in their old custom of killing widows and slaves to serve dead chiefs in the other world4 ,it found expression in the more harmless custom of laying food beside a dead person or burying it with him in the grave2 but1 as usually happens in such cases1 the ghost only consumed the spiritual essence of the victuals1 considerately leaving the gross material substance to be despatched by the priest4#ei ,a dying ,maori1 unable to eat a loaf which a missionary had offered to him1 begged that it might be kept for his ghost1 who1 after his death1 would come and fortify himself with it for the journey to his long home4#fj ,at ,tanaraki the child of a chief was buried in its father's house1 grasping in each of its little fists a taro for consumption in the other world4 ,over the grave were laid boards1 and the family slept on them4 ,when they thought that the child's body was sufficiently decayed1 they dug it up1 scraped the bones1 and hung them in the verandah1 where from time to time the priest recited spells to assist the soul in its ascent to heaven4 ,every spell was supposed to raise the soul one stage nearer to the abode of bliss4 ,but the ascent was long and tedious1 for there were no less than ten heavens one above the other2 the tenth was believed to be the principal abode of the gods4 ,when the parents of the child who had been despatched to the happy land with taro in each hand were asked1 ,why taro1 if the little one is gone to heaven8 they answered that they were not quite sure whether it went up or down1 and therefore as an additional precaution they planted a seed of taro in the grave1 so that their offspring might find something to eat either above or below4#fa #ei ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 op4 cit4 ii4 #edb2 ,g4 ,f4 ,angas1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ga2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #bbj4 #fj ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 l4c4 #fa ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #bbj4 ,similar ceremonies were performed to facilitate the ascension of the souls of chiefs and priests4 ,before the body was taken to the place of burial1 it was laid out with its feet towards the north1 and all the blood-relations of the deceased1 men1 women1 and children1 assembled round it4 ,then the priest1 standing at the head of the corpse1 between the rows of the people1 chanted two incantations1 of which the second was supposed to assist the soul to ascend to heaven4 ,the priest next put a bulb of taro in the left hand of the corpse and chanted another incantation4 ,after that1 flaxen cords were tied with a slip-knot to a tassel of the mat in which the body was enshrouded1 and a cord was placed in the hand of each child1 boy and girl1 present at the ceremony4 ,when the priest had chanted one more incantation1 each child pulled the cord with a jerk1 to disconnect the soul from the body1 lest it should remain and afflict the relatives4#fb ,this last rite1 with the reason assigned for it1 is significant at once of the dread which the ,maoris felt for departed spirits1 and of the very materialistic conception which they entertained of the human soul1 since they appear to have imagined that it could be detached from the body by jerking at a cord4 #fb ,john ,white1 ,a ,chapter from ,maori ,mythology1 ,report of the ,third ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,christchurch1 ,new ,zealand1 in ,january #ahia1 pp4 #cfb sq4 ,the wish to raise the soul to heaven was perhaps the motive for another curious rite performed at the obsequies of a chief4 ,when the body had been buried1 the chief returned to the village2 but the men who had carried the body went to the nearest swamp1 and having caught a swamp-sparrow 7matata7 sent word to the priest1 who forthwith rejoined them4 ,each of the bearers was then provided with a stick to which certain of the feathers of the bird were tied4 ,then1 holding the sticks in their hands1 they sat on their heels in a row opposite the priest1 who stood facing the east with a stick similarly adorned in his left hand4 ,next he moved to the south end of the row of men and chanted1 and as he chanted he gradually raised his stick1 while at the same time all the bearers1 holding their sticks at arm's length1 gradually raised them and their bodies simultaneously1 keeping perfect time1 till the priest had concluded his chant1 when they all stood erect with outstretched arms4 ,after that the priest collected the sticks and threw them down in front of the mua1 which seems to have been a kind of altar4#fc ,we may surmise that the ceremony was intended to waft the soul of the dead chief upward1 the feathers of the bird being naturally fitted to facilitate its heavenward flight4 #fc ,john ,white1 ,a ,chapter from ,maori ,mythology1 op4 cit4 p4 #cfc4 ,as to the meaning of mua1 see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #bfg1 s4v4 mua4 ,at other times1 however1 with the inconsistency so common in such matters1 it appears to have been supposed that the soul set out on its far journey across the sea1 and steps were accordingly taken to equip it for the voyage4 ,thus we hear of a wahi tapu or sacred repository of the property of a deceased chief1 which contained1 among other things1 a little canoe with sail and paddles1 to serve as a ferry-boat for the spirit to enter in safety into the eternal abodes4 ,nevertheless in the same enclosure1 which was fenced with a double set of palings1 calabashes of food and water1 and a dish prepared from the pigeon1 were placed for the ghost to regale itself when visiting the spot2 and the heathen natives aver that at night the spirit comes and feeds from the sacred calabashes4#fd #fd ,g4 ,f4 ,angas1 ,savage ,life and ,scenes in ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #gj sq4 ,many people in the ,taranaki district thought that souls went neither up nor down1 but always stayed near their mouldering bodies4 ,hence the sacred grove in which their remains were buried was full of disembodied spirits2 and when a man died a violent death his soul wandered about disconsolate1 till a priest by his spells and enchantments had brought the poor ghost within the spiritual fold4#fe #fe ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #bbj sq4 ,when a chief was killed in battle and eaten by his foes1 as often happened1 his departed spirit entered the stones of the oven in which his body had been cooked1 and the stones retained their heat so long as the ghost was in them4 ,meanwhile his sorrowing friends at home recited their most potent spells to draw his soul out of the oven and back to the sacred grove 7wahi tapu7 the burial-place of his people2 for otherwise the soul could find no repose1 but must roam about for ever1 wreaking its spite on the living1 for all disembodied spirits were deemed malicious4 ,hence after a battle1 if people could not obtain the body of a slain friend1 they sought to procure at least some drops of his blood or shreds of his raiment1 that by crooning over them the appropriate spell they might draw home the vagrant spirit to his place of rest4 ,the burial-grounds were regarded with awe and fear1 for sometimes a restless ghost would break bounds and spread sickness among the inhabitants of the neighbourhood4 ,within their sacred precincts stood altars or stages for offerings to the gods1 and any living man who entered them did so at his peril4 ,for the same reason no one would set foot in a house where a dead man or woman had been buried4 ,hence in nearly every village half the houses stood empty and deserted1 falling into decay1 tenanted only by ghosts4 ,the living had constantly before their eyes the mansions of the dead4#ff #ff ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #bba4 ,the common belief of the ,maoris seems to have been that the souls of the dead pass away to a region of the underworld1 which was sometimes called ,po and sometimes ,reinga4 ,properly speaking1 ,po was night or the primaeval darkness out of which all forms of life and light were evolved or created2#fg and ,reinga was not so much the spirit land itself as the leaping-off place where the souls bade good-bye to earth and took their departure for the far country4 ,this leaping-off place was at the ,north ,cape1 the ,land's ,end of ,new ,zealand4 ,the cape terminates in a steep cliff with a sea-cave at its foot1 into which the tide rushes with a thunderous roar4 ,there the evil spirit ,wiro is thought to dwell1 lurking for his prey2 for he battens on such of the passing souls of the dead as he can get into his clutches4 ,on their passage to the ,north ,cape the ghosts stop by the way at two hills2 at the first1 which is called ,wai-hokimai1 they wail1 cut themselves1 and strip off their clothes2 at the second1 which is called ,wai-otioti1 they turn their backs on the land of the living and set their faces to the land of the dead4 ,arrived at the cape they pass outward over a long narrow ledge of rock and then leap down on a flat stone4 ,there they see a mass of sea-weed floating on the water1 its roots hidden in the depth1 its upper branches clinging to a pohutukawa tree4 ,when they perceive an opening in the sea-weed they dive and soon find themselves in the lower world4 ,but before they reach the abode of spirits they must cross a river by a plank2 the river is called ,waiorotane or the ,river of the ,water of ,life2 and sometimes the warden of the plank will not suffer the ghosts to pass the river1 but drives them back with friendly violence and bids them return to their friends on earth4 ,such souls come back to the bright world of light and life1 and tell their friends what they have seen and heard on the journey to that bourne from which so many travellers return no more4 ,hence when any one has recovered from a dangerous sickness or escaped some great peril1 they say of him that he has come back from the ,river of the ,water of ,life4 ,even if a soul has crossed that sombre stream1 he may still return to the land of the living1 if only he refuses to partake of the food set before him by the ghosts2 but should he taste of it1 he cannot come back4 ,they say that people living near the ,north ,cape can hear the spirits of the dead passing through the air on their way to the spirit land2 and in the old days1 when a battle had been fought and before the news of it could reach them by word of mouth1 the natives near the cape were made aware of what had happened by the rushing sound of a great multitude flitting by overhead in the darkness4#fh ,perhaps the sighing of the night-wind or the clangour of birds of passage winging their way out to sea may have contributed to create or foster these fancies4 #fg ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #cdb1 s4v4 ,po4 #fh ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #aej sqq42 id41 ,maori ,religion and ,mythology1 p4 #de2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #eb1 #bca2 ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #adj2 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #ff sq42 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xix4 7#ahij7 pp4 #aah sq42 id41 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #djg sq41 #eia1 s4vv4 ,reinga and ,waiora2 ,john ,white1 ,a ,chapter from ,maori ,mythology1 ,report of the ,third ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,christchurch1 ,new ,zealand1 in ,january #ahia1 pp4 #cfa sq4 ,on the day after a burial the priest used to perform a ceremony to facilitate the passage of the soul to its final rest4 ,for this purpose some men would go out in the morning and kill a small bird of the swamps called kokata and pluck up some reeds of a certain sort 7wiwi74 ,these they brought to the priest at the grave4 ,he asked them1 ,whence came ye8 ,they answered1 ,from the seeking1 from the searching4 ,he asked them again1 ,ah6 what have you got8 ah6 what have you gained8 ,then the men threw the bird and the reeds on the ground4 ,next the priest chose a stalk of grass or fern and put it near the grave in a direction pointing towards ,hawaiki1 the land far away from which the forefathers of the ,maoris came long ago4 ,another stalk of grass or fern was laid near the place of death1 and along these stalks the soul of the dead man travelled to rejoin his friends and kinsfolk who had gone before4#fi #fi ,e4 ,shortland1 ,maori ,religion and ,mythology1 p4 #dd4 ,such a stalk to aid the spirit on its passage was called a tiri4 ,compare ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #eag1 s4v4 ,tiri4 ,the ceremony described in the text resembles in some points the one which seems intended to raise the soul of the deceased to heaven4 ,see above1 p4 #be4 ,as might be anticipated1 the accounts which the ,maoris gave of the spirit world and of life in it were neither clear nor consistent4 ,according to one account1 while the heavens increase in beauty as they ascend one above the other1 the lower regions increase in darkness and horror as they descend1 each being darker and worse than the one above it1 till in the lowest of all complete darkness reigns4 ,there the souls1 deprived alike of light and food1 wasted away and ultimately ceased to exist2 or according to another account they assumed the shape of worms and in that guise returned to earth1 where they died a second death and so finally perished4 ,but it was only the souls of common folk which came to this melancholy end4 ,chiefs and priests were believed to be descended from the gods1 and at death their souls ascended to heaven1 there to live for ever4#gj #gj ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #bcb2 ,john ,white1 ,a ,chapter from ,maori ,mythology1 ,report of the ,third ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,christchurch1 ,new ,zealand1 in ,january #ahia1 pp4 #cfa sq4 ,other reports1 however1 paint the nether world in more cheerful colours4 ,we are told that the souls of the dead live there very much as people do on earth1 but all good things are more plentiful there than here4 ,the staple food of the ghosts is sweet potatoes1 and the quality of the potatoes appears to be remarkably fine2 for once a woman1 who had the good fortune to go to the spirit land and come back1 received from her dead father in the nether regions two roots of sweet potatoes of a most prodigious size4 ,these the ghost told her to take back to earth and plant for the benefit of his grandchild4 ,so she hurried away with them and arriving at the foot of the ,north ,cape had begun to clamber up the face of the cliff1 when two infant spirits overtook her and attempted to drag her back to dead land by tugging at her cloak4 ,to divert their attention she threw the two roots of sweet potato behind her1 and while the sprites were munching them she made good her escape up the cliff and succeeded in reaching home4 ,her friends were very glad to see her again1 but they always lamented that she had not brought back at least one of those gigantic roots of sweet potato1 since it would unquestionably have done much to improve the quality of sweet potatoes grown here on earth4#ga #ga ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #dh sq41 #fg1 #aah2 ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #aec sqq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #bcc sq4 ,but the spirits of the dead are by no means strictly confined to the lower world2 they can quit it from time to time and return to earth1 there to influence the actions and fortunes of the living and to communicate with them through the priest1 who can hear their voices4 ,they speak in whistling tones1 which even common folk can sometimes distinguish as they walk about in the dark4 ,often their communications are made to the priest or chief in dreams1 and he announces the glad or mournful tidings to other people in the morning4 ,any commands conveyed in this manner from the other world are1 or used to be1 implicitly obeyed and might decide the course to be pursued in the most important affairs of life4#gb ,in some tribes1 especially among the natives of ,wangunui1 it used to be customary to keep in the houses small carved images of wood1 each of them dedicated to an ancestor of the family1 who was believed occasionally to enter into the image in order to hold converse with his living descendants4#gc ,but even without the intervention of such images the priest could summon up the spirits of the dead and converse with them in the presence of the relatives or of strangers2 at these interviews1 which were held within doors and in the dark1 the voices of the ghosts1 or perhaps of the priestly ventriloquist1 were sometimes distinctly audible even to sceptical ,europeans4 ,nor was the art of necromancy confined to men2 for we read of an old woman who1 like the witch of ,endor1 professed to exercise this ghostly office1 and treated an ,english visitor to an exhibition of her powers4#gd #gb ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #fg1 #aah2 ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 ii4 #hc1 #hd4 #gc ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #hc4 #gd ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #hd sqq42 ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori 7,london1 #ahhd71 pp4 #abb sqq4 ,as to the belief in the reappearance of the dead among the living compare ,r4 ,a4 ,cruise1 ,journal of a ,ten ,months' ,residence in ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahbc71 p4 #ahf3 ,the belief in the reappearance of the dead is universal among the ,new ,zealanders3 they fancy they hear their deceased relatives speaking to them when the wind is high2 whenever they pass the place where a man has been murdered1 it is customary for each person to throw a stone upon it2 and the same practice is observed by all those who visit a cavern at the ,north ,cape1 through which the spirits of departed men are supposed to pass on their way to a future world4 ,the spirits of the dead were sometimes useful to the living1 for commonly enough they would appear to their kinsfolk in dreams and warn them of approaching foes or other dangers4 ,again1 they might be and were invoked by spells and enchantments to avenge a murder or even to slay an innocent person against whom the enchanter had a grudge4#ge ,but for the most part the ghosts were greatly dreaded as malicious demons who worked harm to man4#gf ,even the nearest and dearest relations were believed to have their natures radically changed by death and to hate those whom they had loved in life4#gg ,and so powerful were these malignant beings supposed to be that they were confused with the gods1 or rather the spirits of the dead became themselves gods to all intents and purposes1 and played a much more important part in the religious life of the ,maoris than the high primaeval deities1 the personifications of nature1 who figured in ,maori mythology and cosmogony4#gh ,the gods whom the ,maoris feared1 we are told1 were the spirits of the dead1 who were believed to be constantly watching over the living with jealous eyes1 lest they should neglect any part of the law relating to persons or things subject to the sacred restriction called taboo 7tapu74 ,these spirits1 however1 confined their care almost exclusively to persons among the living with whom they were connected by ties of relationship1 so that every tribe and every family had its own worshipful ancestral spirit or god1 whom members of the tribe or family invoked with appropriate prayers or spells 7karakias74 ,ancestral spirits who lived in the flesh before the ,maoris emigrated to ,new ,zealand were invoked by all the tribes in ,new ,zealand without distinction1 so far as their names and memories survived in tradition4 ,thus the worship of these remote ancestors constituted what may be called the national religion of the ,maoris as distinguished from the tribal and family religions1 which consisted in the worship of nearer and better remembered progenitors4 ,the great importance attached by the ,maoris to the worship of ancestors may account1 we are told1 for the care with which they preserved their genealogies2 since the names of ancestors often formed the groundwork of their religious formulas 7karakias71 and any error or even hesitation in repeating these prayers or incantations was deemed fatal to their efficacy4#gi ,ancestor worship1 or rather the deification of ancestors1 was essentially a ,maori cult4 ,it was a form of necrolatry1 or hero worship4 ,a man would placate the spirit of his father1 grandfather1 or ancestor1 and make offerings to the same1 that such spirit might protect his life principle1 warn him of approaching danger1 and give force or effectiveness to his rites and charms of black or white magic4#hj #ge ,elsdon ,best1 ,spiritual ,concepts of the ,maori1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 ix4 no4 #d 7,december #aijj71 p4 #ahb4 #gf ,elsdon ,best1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahd4 #gg ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #ajd4 #gh ,e4 ,shortland1 ,the ,southern ,districts of ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahea71 p4 #bid2 id41 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #hj1 #ha2 id41 ,maori ,religion and ,mythology1 pp4 #aj sq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #ajh1 ,maori gods are so mixed up with the spirits of ancestors1 whose worship entered largely into their religion1 that it is difficult to distinguish one from the other4 #gi ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #ha2 id41 ,maori ,religion and ,mythology1 p4 #aa4 ,as to the karakias1 which were prayers or invocations1 spells or incantations1 addressed to gods or ancestral spirits1 see ,e4 ,shortland1 ,maori ,religion and ,mythology1 pp4 #bh sqq42 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #abh1 s4v4 karakia4 ,apparently the karakia partook of the nature of a spell rather than of a prayer1 since it was believed to be so potent that the mere utterance of it compelled the gods to do the will of the person who recited the formula4 ,see ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #ahj sq43 ,the ,maori1 in his heathen state1 never undertook any work1 whether hunting1 fishing1 planting1 or war1 without first uttering a karakia2 he would not even take a journey without repeating a spell to secure his safety2 still he could not be said to pray1 for1 properly speaking1 they had no such thing as prayer4 ,as in war1 they armed themselves with the most formidable weapons they could procure1 and laid their plans with the greatest skill they possessed1 so to secure the fruition of their desires1 they used their most powerful means to compel the gods to be obedient to their wishes1 whether they sought for victory over their foes1 fruitful crops1 successful fishings1 or huntings1 they called in the aid of potent incantations2 when they planted their kumara sweet potatoes1 they sought to compel the god who presided over them to yield a good increase2 when they prepared their nets and their hooks1 they must force the ocean god to let his fish enter them2 as the kingdom of heaven suffers violence1 and the violent take it by storm1 so the heathen ,maori sought1 by spells and incantations1 to compel the gods to yield to their wishes2 they added sacrifices and offerings at the same time1 to appease as it were their anger1 for being thus constrained to do what they wished them4 ,their ancestors were addressed as powerful familiar friends2 they gave them offerings1 and if it can be said that any prayers were offered up1 it was to them they were made4 ,the word karakia1 which we use for prayer1 formerly meant a spell1 charm1 or incantation4 #hj ,elsdon ,best1 ,maori ,religion1 ,report of the ,twelfth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,brisbane1 #aiji1 p4 #dei4 ,the ancestral spirits who particularly watched over the fortunes of a tribe were the souls of its dead warriors and great men4 ,in war these powerful1 though invisible1 beings were thought to attend the army and direct its movements on the march by communicating advice or warning through some one or other of their nearest living kinsmen4 ,in battle they hovered over the combatants and inspired courage into the hearts of their own tribe4 ,hence when1 on the eve of battle1 any young man showed signs of the white feather1 recourse was immediately had to the family priest1 who repeated a charm1 invoking the aid of his friendly spirit2 for the sensation of fear was ascribed to the baneful influence of a hostile spirit4 ,if the friendly spirit prevailed1 and the craven spirit was expelled1 the young man would rush into the thickest of the fight and prove himself the bravest of the brave4#ha #ha ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #ha sq4 ,the interest taken by the spirits of the dead in mundane affairs seldom extended beyond the limits of the tribe to which they belonged4 ,hence a captive in war1 who was carried away and enslaved by another tribe1 ceased from that moment to be under the protection and care of any ancestral spirit or god4 ,for the ancestral spirits of his own tribe did not trouble themselves to follow him among a hostile tribe and hostile spirits1 and the ancestral spirits of the tribe whom he served as a slave would not deign to give him a thought4 ,hence being forsaken of god and left to their own devices1 slaves were relieved from many of the burdensome restrictions which the ,maori gods laid upon their worshippers2 they were therefore free to perform many menial offices1 particularly in regard to carrying and cooking food1 which no free ,maori could discharge without sinning against the sacred law of taboo and incurring the wrath of the ancestral spirits1 who for such a transgression might punish the sinner with sickness or death4#hb #hb ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #hb sq42 id41 ,the ,southern ,districts of ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #bif sq4 ,in addition to their deified ancestors1 who had lived as men of flesh and blood on earth1 the ,maoris believed in certain great primaeval deities1 who had existed before the human race came into being1 and whose doings were the theme of many mythical stories4 ,these mighty beings appear to have been personifications of the various forces or elements of nature1 such as the sky and the earth4 ,but though fancy wove round them a glistering web of myth and fable1 they were apparently believed to stand aloof in cold abstraction from human affairs and to take no interest in the present race of men4 ,the practical religion of the ,maori was concentrated on the souls of his deceased kinsfolk and forefathers3 neither in any existing superstition nor tradition1 purely such1 is there to be found internal evidence that an idea of ,god existed more exalted than that of the spirit of a dead ancestor4#hc #hc ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #hj4 ,compare id41 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #ha2 id41 ,the ,southern ,districts of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #bid2 id41 ,maori ,religion and ,mythology1 pp4 #aj sq4 ,in ,maori mythology ,rangi is the personification of the sky1 and ,papa of earth4 ,they were the primal parents1 and the other great gods were their offspring4 ,see ,elsdon ,best1 ,the ,maori ,genius for ,personification1 ,transactions of the ,new ,zealand ,institute1 liii4 7#aiba7 p4 #b4 ,among the great primordial deities who were worshipped by all tribes of ,new ,zealand may be mentioned ,tane1 ,tu1 ,tangaroa1 and ,rongo4 ,of the four1 ,tane was the origin and tutelary deity of forests and birds3 no tree might be felled and no bird caught till certain rites had been performed to placate him4 ,tu was the god of war4 ,tangaroa was the god of the ocean1 the origin and tutelary deity of fish4 ,rongo was the god of peace1 and presided over agriculture4 ,see ,elsdon ,best1 ,maori ,religion1 ,report of the ,twelfth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,brisbane1 #aiji1 p4 #deh4 ,the same four gods1 with names only dialectically different1 were1 as we shall see later on1 the principal deities of the ,sandwich ,islanders1 the most distant geographically from the ,maoris of all the ,polynesians4 ,the coincidence furnishes an example of the homogeneity of religion which prevailed among the various branches of the ,polynesian race4 ,the word which the ,maoris applied to a god1 whether a personification of nature or the spirit of a dead ancestor1 was atua4 ,the name is not confined to the ,maori language1 but is the common word for god throughout ,polynesia4#hd ,when the ,maoris attempt to define the nature of an atua1 they have recourse to the same comparisons with a shadow and with breath which appear to underlie their conception of the human soul4#he ,but though god is the nearest ,english equivalent of the word atua1 we must beware of assuming that the ,maori idea of godhead coincided with ours4 ,on this subject one of our best authorities tells us that the term god is really not applicable to the ,atua ,maori1 the so-called gods of the ,maoris4 ,for these beings1 he says1 were1 with few exceptions1 malignant demons1 to be feared and placated or conciliated1 but not worshipped4 ,their principal task seems to have been the inflicting upon mankind of diverse evils1 pains1 and penalties4 ,of the few good offices performed by them1 the warning of the people in regard to coming troubles1 seems to have been the most important4 ,the vast majority of the so-called gods of the ,maori were simply deified ancestors4#hf #hd ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #cj sq41 s4v4 ,atua4 #he ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et a la recherche de la ,perouse1 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 ii4 #eaf sq4 #hf ,elsdon ,best1 ,notes on the ,art of ,war as conducted by the ,maori of ,new ,zealand1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xi4 no4 #b 7,june #aijb74 pp4 #fc sq4 ,in order to illustrate the difference between the ,maori conception of deity and our own1 ,i will quote the words of another eminent authority on the native religion of the ,new ,zealanders4 ,he says1 ,before the mythology of the ,maori is further considered1 it will be necessary briefly to state what were the ideas of ,god entertained by the natives4 ,the word atua1 or spirit1 which is used for ,god1 formerly had various significations2 a plague or disease was also he atua1 or ,god2 a thief was an atua1 thus also a thievish dog was he kuri atua1 a god-like dog1 so also he tangata atua ki te muru1 a man equal to a god in stealing2 a child who pilfered was he tamaiti atua1 a divine child2 there were great spirits and small ones1 a man's spirit was an atua pore pore1 a little spirit1 but ,maru ,rongomai and other gods were ,atua nui1 great gods2 there were atua ika1 reptile or fish gods2 a great chief was called ,he ika1 a fish1 sea monster1 or reptile1 and was regarded as a malignant god in life1 and a still worse one after death2 there were likewise ,atua marau1 as the toroa1 albatross1 the ruru1 owl2 and karu karu1 the film which shades its eye from the light1 was also an atua2 male and female spirits presided over dreams1 and were regarded as atuas1 ,ko nga atua moe moea o te poko1 the gods of dreams2 ,tunui a rangi1 a male1 ,pare kewa1 a female deity1 both were prayed to as gods2 the atua kore and atua kiko kiko were inferior gods4 ,the ,atua ngarara or reptile gods were very abundant1 and were supposed to be the cause of all diseases and death1 being always ready to avail themselves of every opportunity of crawling down the throat during sleep1 and thus preying upon the lives of unfortunate creatures4 ,atuas or spirits of the deceased were thought to be able to revisit the earth and reveal to their friends the cause of their sickness4 ,everything that was evil or noxious was supposed especially to belong to the gods2 thus a species of euphorbium1 whose milk or juice is highly poisonous1 is called wai u atua1 the milk of the gods4#hg ,in fact1 in the accounts which the natives give of their gods and their exploits1 we have but a magnified history of their chiefs1 their wars1 murders1 and lusts1 with the addition of some supernatural powers2 they were cannibals2 influenced by like feelings and passions as men1 and were uniformly bad2 to them were ascribed all the evils incident to the human race2 each disease was supposed to be occasioned by a different god1 who resided in the part affected2 thus1 ,tonga1 the god who caused headache1 took up his abode in the forehead2 ,moko ,titi1 a lizard god1 was the source of all pains in the breast2 ,tu-tangata-kino was the god of the stomach2 ,titihai occasioned pains in the ankles and feet2 ,rongomai and ,tuparitapua were the gods of consumption1 and the wasting away of the legs and arms2 ,koro-kio-ewe presided over childbirth1 and did his worst to unfortunate females in that state4 ,in fact1 the entire human body appears to have been shared out amongst those evil beings1 who ruled over each part1 to afflict and pain the poor creatures who worshipped them4#hh #hg ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #acd sq4 #hh ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #acg4 ,anything1 indeed1 whether good or evil1 which excited the fear or wonder of the ,maoris would seem in the old days to have been dubbed by them an atua and invested with the attributes of divinity4 ,for example1 when a traveller in the early years of the nineteenth century showed his watch to some ,maoris1 the ticking struck them with such astonishment that they deemed it nothing less than the voice of a god2 and the watch itself1 being looked upon as a deity 7atua7 in person1 was treated by the whole of them with profound reverence4#hi ,other travellers have had similar experiences among the ,maoris1#ij and compasses and barometers have also been accorded divine honours by these ignorant savages4#ia #hi ,j4 ,l4 ,nicholas1 ,narrative of a ,voyage to ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahag71 i4 #bed4 #ij ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et a la recherche de la ,perouse1 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 ii4 #eaf4 #ia ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #aah4 ,sec4 #e4 ,taboo among the ,maoris ,but the most momentous practical consequence which flowed from their belief in the spirits of the dead was the enormous influence which that creed wielded in establishing and maintaining the system of taboo1 the most remarkable and characteristic institution in the life of the ,maoris and of the ,polynesians in general4 ,i shall first give some account of the taboo or tapu1 as the ,maoris called it1 and afterwards show how this extraordinary system of society and religion was directly based on a belief in the existence of ghosts and their mighty power over human destiny4 ,first1 then1 as to taboo or tapu itself4 ,this curious institution1 as ,i have said1 prevailed throughout all the widely scattered islands of ,polynesia1 but nowhere to a greater extent than in ,new ,zealand4 ,it pervaded the whole life of the natives1 affected their plans1 influenced their actions1 and in the absence of an efficient police provided a certain security both for their persons and their property4 ,sometimes it was used for political1 and sometimes for religious purposes2 sometimes it was the means of saving life1 and at other times it was the ostensible reason for taking life away4#ib ,it may be defined as a system of consecration which made any person1 place1 or thing sacred either permanently or for a limited time4#ic ,the effect of this consecration was to separate the sacred person or thing from all contact with common 7noa7#id persons and things3 it established a sort of quarantine for the protection not only of the sacred persons themselves1 but of common folk1 who were supposed to be injured or killed by mere contact with a tabooed person or object4 ,for the sanctity which the taboo conferred on people and things was conceived of as a sort of dangerous atmosphere1 charged with a spiritual electricity1 which discharged itself with serious and even fatal effect on all rash intruders4 ,a tabooed person might not be touched by any one1 so long as the taboo or state of consecration lasted2 he might not even put his own hand to his own head2 and he was most stringently forbidden to touch food with his hands4 ,hence he was either fed like a child by another1 who put the food into his mouth2 or he had to lap up his victuals like a dog from the ground1 with his hands held behind his back2 or lastly he might convey the nourishment by means of a fern stalk to his mouth4 ,when he wished to drink1 somebody else poured water into his mouth from a calabash without allowing the vessel to touch his lips2 for mere contact with the lips of the tabooed man would have rendered the vessel itself sacred or tabooed and therefore unfit for common use4 ,similarly1 when he desired to wash his hands1 water had to be poured on them from a distance by his attendant4 ,this state of consecration or defilement1 as we might be tempted rather to call it1 was incurred by any person who had touched either a young child or a corpse or had assisted at a funeral4 ,the taboo contracted by association with the dead was the strictest and most virulent of all4 ,it extended not only to the persons who had handled the corpse or paid the last offices of respect to the departed2 it applied to the place where the body was buried or the bones deposited4 ,so sacred1 indeed1 was deemed the spot where a chief had died that in the old days everything upon it was destroyed by fire4 ,hence in order to avoid the destruction of a house1 which a death in it would have entailed1 it was customary to remove a sick or dying man to a temporary shed just large enough to shelter him from the sun or screen him from the rain2 for if the man died in it1 the destruction of the wretched hovel was no great loss to the survivors4#ie ,a widow was tabooed and had to observe the aforesaid restrictions from the death of her husband until his bones had been scraped and deposited in their last resting-place2 and the same rule applied to a widower4#if ,these taboos were temporary and could be removed by a priest1 who performed certain rites and repeated certain spells 7karakias71 and thereby relieved the tabooed person from the state of sanctity or consecration under which he had laboured4 ,the performance of the ceremony put an end to the spiritual quarantine2 the man ceased to be sacred1 he became common 7noa7 once more1 and could mingle freely with his fellows4 ,one of the ceremonies of desecration1 as we may call it1 was to pass a consecrated piece of wood over the right shoulder of the tabooed person1 then round his loins1 and back again over the left shoulder1 after which the stick was broken in two and buried1 burned1 or cast into the sea4#ig ,again1 a temporary taboo was laid on all persons who were engaged in planting sweet potatoes1 or in sorting the seed1 or in digging and preparing the ground2 they might not leave the fields where they were at work nor undertake any other labour4 ,the fields themselves were sacred during these operations2 none but the persons who were tabooed for the purpose might set foot on the ground or pluck up the weeds which grow rankly round the roots of the vegetable4#ih ,similarly1 in their great fishing-expeditions to catch mackerel1 all concerned in making or mending the nets were under a taboo3 the ground where the nets were made was sacred1 and so was the river on the banks of which the work went on4 ,no man but the tabooed persons might walk over the land or pass up or down the river in a canoe3 no fire might be lighted within a prescribed distance3 no food might be dressed while the taboo lasted4 ,not till the net had been finished and wetted with the sacred water1 and the owner had caught and eaten a fish1 did these burdensome restrictions come to an end by the removal of the taboo4#ii ,once more1 the men who took part in a warlike expedition were under a severe taboo and had to observe very strictly the customs which that mysterious state of consecration rendered obligatory4#ajj ,even after their return home they were not allowed to enter their houses or to hold any direct communication with their families who had remained there1 till they had been rendered common 7noa7 by a ceremony of desecration4 ,before that ceremony took place1 the warriors were obliged to throw away the remains of the bodies of their foes on which1 as usual1 they had been feasting2 for being sacred food the flesh could only be touched by sacred or tabooed persons4 ,one woman only1 the wahine ariki1 as she was called1 that is the elder female of the elder branch of the stock from which the tribe traced their descent1 was permitted to touch the sanctified meat2 indeed1 in order to carry out the ritual of desecration in due form she was expected and required to swallow an ear of the first enemy killed in battle4#aja ,a warlike expedition might lay even people at home under a taboo2 for all who remained behind1 including old men1 women1 and slaves1 were often required to observe a rigid fast and to abstain from smoking till the return of the warriors4#ajb #ib ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #hd sq4 #ic ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #hd2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #afc4 #id ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #bfh sq41 s4v4 ,noa4 #ie ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #he sq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #afc1 #afd4 #if ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #dj4 #ig ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et a la recherche de la ,perouse1 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 iii4 #fhe2 ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #hf2 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #ajd sq42 ,servant1 ,notice sur la ,nouvelle-,zelande1 ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xv4 7#ahdc7 p4 #bc2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #aff sq42 ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 pp4 #ajd sqq4 ,the taboo could be got rid of more simply by the tabooed man touching his child or grandchild and taking food or drink from the child's hands4 ,but when that was done1 the taboo was transferred to the child1 who retained it for the rest of the day4 ,see ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aje4 #ih ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #he2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #afe sq42 ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 pp4 #ajc sq4 #ii ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #he4 #ajj ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 pp4 #if1 #aad sq4 #aja ,e4 ,shortland1 ,the ,southern ,districts of ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #fh sq4 #ajb ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 pp4 #aad sq4 ,but in contrast to the temporary taboos which affected common folk and debarred them for a time from familiar intercourse with their fellows1 a perpetual and very stringent taboo was laid on the persons and property of chiefs1 especially of those high hereditary chiefs who bore the title of ,ariki and were thought to be able at any time to hold visible converse with their dead ancestors4#ajc ,strictly speaking1 the ariki of a ,maori tribe is the senior male descendant of the elder branch of the tribe1 that is1 he is a descendant of the elder son of the elder son of each generation from the time of the original ancestor down to the present day4 ,as such1 he was of old regarded almost as a god1 inasmuch as he represented all that there was of m7ana and sacredness of his tribe4 ,that he should have been regarded in this light is not astonishing1 for the ,maoris believed he was something more than human1 in that he was the shrine of an hereditary ,atua1 the guardian spirit of the tribe1 and could therefore at any time communicate with the tribal gods4444 ,such a man was not only tapu in person but he made everything he touched so dangerously sacred as to be a source of terror to the tribe4 ,to smoke his pipe1 or drink from any vessel he had touched1 was death speedy and certain at the hands of the gods1 who avenge breaches of the tapu4#ajd ,the gods being no more than deceased chiefs1 the arikis were regarded as living ones1 and thus were not to be killed by inferior men1 but only by those who had more powerful atuas in them2 the victorious chief who had slain numbers1 swallowed their eyes1 and drunk their blood1 was supposed to have added the spirits of his victims to his own1 and thus increased his mana or power2 to keep up this idea1 and hinder the lower orders from trying whether it were possible to kill such corporeal and living gods1 was the grand work of the tapu4#aje ,the godhead of a chief was thought to reside in his eyes1 especially in his left eye2 that was why by swallowing the eye or eyes of a slain chief a living chief was believed to absorb the divine spirit of the dead man and thereby to strengthen his own divinity2 the more eyes he swallowed1 the greater god he became4#ajf #ajc ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #dj1 #aab sq41 #cef2 ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #ajd2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #adi1 #afd1 #bab sq42 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #bc sq41 s4v4 ,ariki4 ,the word ariki signifies properly the first-born or heir1 whether male or female1 of a family4 #ajd ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,e4 ,gudgeon1 ,maori ,religion1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xiv4 no4 #c 7,september #aije71 p4 #acj4 ,compare id41 ,the ,tipua-,kura and other ,manifestations of the ,spirit ,world1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xv4 no4 #eg 7,march #aijf71 p4 #ch4 #aje ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika a ,maui1 p4 #agc4 ,mana means authority1 especially divine authority or supernatural power4 ,see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #bjc1 s4v4 ,mana2 and for a full discussion of the conception see ,lieut4-,col4 ,w4 ,e4 ,gudgeon1 ,mana ,tangata1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xiv4 no4 #b 7,june #aije71 pp4 #di-ff4 ,mana plays a leading part in the ability of a leader1 or successes in war of celebrated warriors4 ,when a man frequently undertakes daring deeds1 which ought under ordinary circumstances to fail1 but none the less prove successful1 he is said to possess mana1 and thereafter is regarded as one peculiarly favoured by the gods1 and in such cases it is held that he can only be overcome by some act or default2 such as a disregard or neglect of some religious or warlike observance1 which has been shown by experience to be essential to success in war1 but which our warrior1 spoiled by a long career of good fortune1 had come to regard as necessary to ordinary mortals only and of but little consequence to men of mana 7,w4 ,e4 ,gudgeon1 op4 cit4 p4 #fb74 ,there were cases in which the mana of a man depended upon the facility with which he could communicate with the spirits of departed ancestors1 that is1 upon his capacity to enforce the aid and attendance of these minor deities4 ,to this end every man with any pretension to mana had a knowledge of certain forms of invocation by which he could summon the spirits of long departed heroes and ancestors1 but it must not be supposed that these invocations would necessarily have power in the mouths of all men1 for such was not the case4 ,the efficacy of a karakia or invocation depended in part on its method of delivery1 and in part on the mana of the man who used it 7,w4 ,e4 ,gudgeon1 op4 cit4 p4 #ej74 ,compare ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #agb1 #agc2 ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 p4 #ajj4 #ajf ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #adg1 #ceb4 ,the soul was thought to reside especially in the left eye2 accordingly it was the left eye of an enemy which was most commonly swallowed by a victorious chief who desired to increase his spiritual power4 ,see ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et a la recherche de la ,perouse1 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 ii4 #ebg2 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #aah1 #abh sq4 ,every such divine chief was under a permanent taboo2 he was as it were surrounded by an atmosphere of sanctity which attached to his person and never left him2 it was his birthright1 a part of himself of which he could not be divested1 and it was well understood and recognised by everybody at all times4 ,and the sanctity was not confined to his person1 it was an infection which extended or was communicated to all his movable property1 especially to his clothes1 weapons1 ornaments1 and tools1 indeed to everything which he touched4 ,even the petty chiefs and fighting men1 everybody indeed who could claim the title of rangatira or gentleman1 possessed in some degree this mysterious quality4#ajg ,however1 in young people of rank the sanctity which appertained to them by virtue of their birth was supposed to be only latent2 it did not develop or burst into full bloom till they had reached mature age and set up house on their own account4 ,hence noble boys and lads were under none of the irksome restrictions to which in their adult years they were afterwards bound to submit2 they mixed freely with the profane vulgar and did not even disdain to carry fuel or provisions on their backs1 a thing which no man of any standing could possibly do2 at all events1 if he did so demean himself1 the food was thereby rendered taboo and could accordingly be used by nobody but himself4 ,if he went into the shed used as a kitchen 7a thing1 however1 he would never think of doing except on some great emergency71 all the pots1 ovens1 food1 etc41 would be at once rendered useless--none of the cooks or inferior people could make use of them1 or partake of anything which had been cooked in them4 ,he might certainly light a little fire in his own house1 not for cooking1 as that never by any chance could be done in his house1 but for warmth2 but that1 or any other fire1 if he should have blown upon it with his breath in lighting it1 became at once tapu1 and could be used for no common or culinary purpose4 ,even to light a pipe at it would subject any inferior person1 or in many instances an equal1 to a terrible attack of the tapu morbus1 besides being a slight or affront to the dignity of the person himself4 ,i have seen two or three young men fairly wearing themselves out on a wet day and with bad apparatus trying to make fire to cook with1 by rubbing two sticks together1 when on a journey1 and at the same time there was a roaring fire close at hand at which several rangatira and myself were warming ourselves1 but it was tapu1 or sacred fire--one of the rangatira had made it from his own tinder-box1 and blown upon it in lighting it1 and as there was not another tinder-box amongst us1 fast we must1 though hungry as sharks1 till common culinary fire could be obtained4#ajh #ajg ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 p4 #id4 #ajh ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 p4 #ih4 ,the head of a chief was always and at all times deemed most sacred1 and in consequence he might not even touch it with his own hand2 if he chanced to commit the sacrilege1 he was obliged at once to apply his fingers to his sacred nose and to snuff up the odour of sanctity which they had abstracted1 thus restoring the holy effluvium to the place from which it had been taken4#aji ,for the same reason the cutting of a chief's hair was a most difficult and delicate operation4 ,while it lasted neither the great man himself nor the barber who operated on him was allowed to do anything or partake of any food except under the restrictions imposed on all sacred or tabooed persons2 to use the scissors or the shell1 with which the operation was performed1 for any other purpose or any other person would have been a terrible profanation of sacred things1 and would have rendered the rash sacrilegious wretch1 who had dared so to appropriate it1 liable to the severest punishment4 ,the severed hair was collected and buried or hung up on a tree1#aaj probably to put it out of the way of common folk1 who might have been struck dead by contact with the holy locks4 ,but apparently the dangers incident to hair-cutting were by no means confined to chiefs1 but extended to any one who was bold enough to submit his head to the barber's shears2 for one of the early writers on the ,maoris tells us that he who has had his hair cut is in the immediate charge of the ,atua2 he is removed from the contact and society of his family and his tribe2 he dare not touch his food himself2 it is put into his mouth by another person2 nor can he for some days resume his accustomed occupations1 or associate with his fellow-men4#aaa ,the hair of the first-born of a family in particular1 on account of his extreme sanctity1 might be cut by nobody but a priest2 and for many days after the operation had been performed the priestly barber was in a state of strict taboo4 ,he could do nothing for himself1 and might not go near anybody4 ,he might not touch food with his hands1 and no less than three persons were required to feed him4 ,one of them prepared the food at a safe distance1 took it to a certain place1 and retired2 a second came forward1 picked up the victuals1 carried them to another spot and left them2 finally1 a third1 venturing into the danger zone1 actually brought the food to the priest and put it into his mouth4#aab #aji ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #hg2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #afe4 #aaj ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #hg2 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #ajd4 #aaa ,richard ,a4 ,cruise1 ,journal of a ,ten ,months' ,residence in ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahbc71 pp4 #bhc sq4 ,compare ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et a la recherche de la ,perouse1 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 ii4 #ecc4 #aab ,elsdon ,best1 ,maori ,religion1 ,report of the ,twelfth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,brisbane1 #aiji1 p4 #dfc4 ,the atmosphere of taboo or sanctity which thus surrounded ,maori chiefs and gentlemen not only imposed many troublesome and inconvenient restraints on the men themselves1 it was also frequently a source of very real danger1 loss1 and annoyance to other people4 ,for example1 it was a rule that a chief should not blow on a fire with his mouth1 because his breath being sacred would communicate its sanctity to the fire1 and if a slave or a common man afterwards cooked food at the fire or merely took a brand from it1 the chief's holiness would cause that man's death4#aac ,again1 if the blood of a high chief flowed on anything1 though it were but a single drop1 it rendered the thing sacred to him1 so that it could be used by nobody else4 ,thus it once happened that a party of natives came in a fine new canoe to pay their respects to an eminent chief2 the great man stepped into the canoe1 and in doing so he chanced to strike a splinter into his foot1 which bled4 ,that sufficed to consecrate the canoe to him4 ,the owner at once leaped out1 drew the canoe ashore opposite to the chief's house and left it there4#aad ,again1 a ,maori gentleman1 visiting a missionary1 knocked his head against a beam in the house1 and his sacred blood was spilt4 ,the natives present thereupon told the missionary that in former times his house would after such an accident have belonged to his noble visitor4#aae ,even the cast garments of a chief had acquired1 by contact with his holy body1 so virulent a degree of sanctity that they would kill anybody else who might happen in ignorance to find and wear them4 ,on a journey1 when a chief found his blanket too heavy to carry1 he has been known to throw it very considerately down a precipice where nobody would be likely to light on it1 lest some future traveller should be struck dead by appropriating the sacred garment4 ,once a chief's lost tinder-box actually caused the death of several persons2 for having found it and used it to light their pipes1 they literally died of fright on learning the sacrilege which they had committed4#aaf ,such fatal effects consequent on the discovery of a breach of taboo were not uncommon among the ,maoris4 ,for instance1 a woman once ate some peaches which1 though she did not know it1 had been taken from a tabooed place4 ,as soon as she heard where the fruit had come from1 the basket which she was carrying dropped from her hands1 and she exclaimed in agony that the spirit 7atua7 of the chief whose sanctuary had thus been profaned would kill her4 ,that happened in the afternoon1 and next day by twelve o'clock she was dead4#aag ,again1 a slave1 a strong man in the prime of life1 once found the remains of a chief's dinner beside the road1 and being hungry ate it up without asking any questions4 ,no sooner1 however1 did he hear to whom the food had belonged than he was seized with the most extraordinary convulsions and cramps in the stomach1 which never ceased till he died about sundown the same day4 ,the ,english eyewitness who reports the case adds1 that any ,european freethinker who should have denied that the man was killed by the chief's taboo would have been listened to by the ,maoris with feelings of contempt for his ignorance and inability to understand plain and direct evidence4#aah #aac ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #afe4 #aad ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #aja2 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #afd sq4 #aae ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #afe4 #aaf ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 pp4 #afd sq4 #aag ,w4 ,brown1 ,new ,zealand and its ,aborigines 7,london1 #ahde71 p4 #gf4 #aah ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 pp4 #ie-ig4 ,in order that a thing should be consecrated or tabooed to the exclusive use and possession of a chief1 it was not necessary that his sacred blood should flow on it1 or that he should merely touch it2 he had only to call it his head1 or his back-bone1 or any other part of his body1 and at once the thing1 by a legal fiction1 became his and might be appropriated by nobody else under pain of violating the taboo which the chief had laid upon it4 ,for example1 when a chief desired to prevent a piece of ground from being cultivated by any one but himself1 he often resorted to the expedient of calling it his back-bone2 after that if any man dared to set foot on the land so consecrated1 the transgression was equivalent to a declaration of war4 ,in this simple and easy fashion a chief might acquire anything that took his fancy from an axe or a canoe to a landed estate1 and the rightful owner of the property dared not complain nor dispute the claim of his superior4#aai #aai ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 p4 #aaa2 ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 pp4 #acg sqq42 ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #afh4 ,nevertheless in daily life even ordinary people used the taboo to secure their property or to acquire for themselves what had hitherto been common to all4 ,for example1 if a man found a piece of drift timber1 he could make it his own by tying something to it or giving it a chop with his axe2 he thereby set his taboo on the log1 and as a general rule the taboo would be respected4 ,again1 with a simple piece of flax he might bar the door of his house or his store of food2 the contents of the house or store were thus rendered inviolable1 nobody would meddle with them4#abj #abj ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 p4 #aga4 ,it is easy to see that this form of taboo must have greatly contributed to create and confirm respect for the rights of private property4 ,the most valuable articles might1 we are told1 under ordinary circumstances be left to its protection in the absence of the owners for any length of time4#aba ,indeed so obvious and so useful is this function of taboo that one well-informed writer supposes the original purpose of the institution to have been no other than the preservation of private property2#abb and another observer1 after eulogising its beneficent effects1 declares that it was undoubtedly the ordinance of a wise legislator4#abc ,but to say this is greatly to overrate the wisdom and foresight of primitive man in general and of the ,polynesians in particular2 it implies a fundamental misconception of the real nature and history of taboo4 ,that curious institution was not the creation of a prudent and sagacious legislator1 who devised this system of checks and restrictions for the purpose of curbing the passions of a savage race and inducing them to submit to the salutary restraints of law and morality4 ,it was in its origin1 ,i believe1 simply a crude and barbarous form of superstition1 which1 like many other superstitions1 has accidentally led to good results that were never contemplated by its ignorant and foolish votaries4 ,it is thus that in the long history of mankind things which to a contemporary spectator might seem to be almost unmitigated evils turn out in the end to be fraught with incalculable good to humanity4 ,this experience1 often repeated1 enables students of the past to look forward1 even in the darkest hours1 with cheerful confidence to the future4 #aba ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 p4 #ig4 #abb ,old ,new ,zealand1 by a ,pakeha ,maori1 p4 #id4 #abc ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #ajj1 ,ridiculous as this custom of the tapu has appeared to some1 and as many of its applications really are1 it was1 notwithstanding1 a wholesome restraint1 and1 in many cases1 almost the only one that could have been imposed2 the heavy penalties attached to the violation of its laws serving in one tribe1 or in several not in actual hostility with each other1 as moral and legal commandments4 ,it was undoubtedly the ordinance of a wise legislator4 ,compare ,g4 ,f4 ,angas1 ,savage ,life and ,scenes in ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 i4 #ccj1 ,doubtless this law is the result of some wise regulation for the protection of property and individuals1 and it has in many things a beneficial influence amongst a people who have no written or regularly established code of laws of their own4 ,to the same effect another authority on the ,maoris observes3 ,the most politic and useful of all the superstitious institutions of the ,maori people is that which involves the rites of tapu4 ,it has always seemed to me that this institution1 with its far-reaching ramifications1 must have been the conception of a very gifted mind1 for1 as a governing factor1 it is very superior to the ,hindu institution of caste4 ,it must1 moreover1 have been initiated during a period of civilisation1 to which the ,polynesians have long been strangers1 but with which at one period of their history they were sufficiently familiar4 ,see ,lieut4-,colonel ,gudgeon1 ,the ,tipua-,kura and other ,manifestations of the ,spirit ,world1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xv4 no4 #eg 7,march #aijf71 p4 #di4 ,the particular superstition which lies at the root of taboo and has incidentally exercised a beneficent influence by inspiring a respect for law and morality appears to be a belief in the existence of ghosts and their power to affect the fortunes of the living for good or evil4 ,for the ultimate sanction of the taboo1 in other words1 that which engaged the people to observe its commandments1 was a firm persuasion that any breach of these commandments would surely and speedily be punished by an atua or ghost1 who would afflict the sinner with a painful malady till he died4 ,from youth upwards the ,maori was bred in the faith that the souls of his dead ancestors1 jealous of any infraction of the traditionary rites1 would commission some spirit of their kin to enter into the transgressor's body and prey on a vital part4 ,the visible signs of this hidden and mysterious process they fancied to be the various forms of disease4 ,the mildest ailments were thought to be caused by the spirits of those who had known the sufferer on earth1 and who accordingly were imagined to be more merciful and more reluctant to injure an old friend and relation4 ,on the other hand the most malignant forms of disease were attributed to the spirits of dead infants1 who having never learned to love their living friends1 would rend and devour the bowels of their nearest kin without compunction4 ,with these ideas as to the origin of disease the ,maoris naturally did not attempt to heal the sick through the curative properties of herbs and other drugs2 their remedies consisted not in medicine but in exorcism3 instead of a physician they sent for a priest1 who by his spells and incantations undertook to drive the dangerous sprite from the body of the patient and to appease the ancestral spirit1 whose wrath was believed to be the cause of all the mischief4 ,if the deity proved recalcitrant and obstinately declined to accept this notice to quit1 they did not hesitate to resort to the most threatening and outrageous language1 sometimes telling him that they would kill and eat him1 and at others that they would burn him to a cinder if he did not take himself off at once and allow the patient to recover4#abd ,curiously enough1 the spirit which preyed on the vitals of a sick man was supposed to assume the form of a lizard2 hence these animals1 especially a beautiful green species which the ,maoris called kakariki1 were regarded with fear and horror by the natives4#abe ,once when a ,maori of ,herculean thews and sinews was inadvertently shown some green lizards preserved in a bottle of spirits1 his massive frame shrank back as from a mortal wound1 and his face betrayed signs of extreme horror4 ,an aged chief in the room1 on learning what was the matter1 cried out1 ,i shall die6 ,i shall die6 and crawled away on hands and knees2 while the other man gallantly interposed himself as a bulwark between the fugitive and the green gods 7atuas7 in the bottle1 shifting his position adroitly so as to screen the chief till he was out of range of the deities4#abf ,an old man once assured a missionary very seriously that in attending to a sick person he had seen the god come out of the sufferer's mouth in the form of a lizard1 and that from the same moment the patient began to mend and was soon restored to perfect health4#abg #abd ,e4 ,shortland1 ,the ,southern ,districts of ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #cj sq41 #bid sq42 id41 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #aad sqq42 id41 ,maori ,religion and ,mythology1 #ca sq42 ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #ada sq4 ,most malignant and dangerous of all appear to have been thought the spirits of abortions or still-born infants4 ,see ,elsdon ,best1 ,the ,lore of the ,whare-,kohanga1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xv4 no4 #eg 7,march #aijf71 pp4 #ab-ae2 ,reise der ,oesterreichischen ,fregatte ,novara um die ,erde1 ,anthropologischer ,theil1 ,dritte ,abtheilung1 ,ethnographie1 bearbeitet von ,dr4 ,fr4 ,mueller 7,vienna1 #ahfh71 pp4 #ei sq4 ,even more dangerous than the spirits of dead infants were supposed to be the spirits of human germs1 which the ,maoris imagined to exist in the menstrual fluid4 ,see ,e4 ,shortland1 ,traditions and ,superstitions of the ,new ,zealanders1 pp4 #aae1 #bib2 id41 ,maori ,religion and ,mythology1 pp4 #ajg sq4 ,as to disease inflicted by ancestral spirits 7atuas7 for breaches of taboo1 see further ,j4 ,l4 ,nicholas1 ,narrative of a ,voyage to ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahag71 i4 #bgb sq41 ii4 #agf sq42 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #aje1 ,the breaking of the tapu1 if the crime does not become known1 is1 they believe1 punished by the ,atua1 who inflicts disease upon the criminal2 if discovered1 it is punished by him whom it regards1 and often becomes the cause of war4 #abe ,richard ,a4 ,cruise1 ,journal of a ,ten ,months' ,residence in ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahbc71 p4 #cbj2 ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et a la recherche de la ,perouse1 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 ii4 #eag2 ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 pp4 #ada sq42 ,e4 ,dieffenbach1 ,travels in ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #aag2 ,elsdon ,best1 ,maori ,medical ,lore1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 vol4 xiii4 no4 #d 7,december #aijd71 p4 #bbh4 ,as to the superstitious veneration of lizards among the peoples of the ,malay-,polynesian stock1 see ,g4 ,a4 ,wilken1 ,verspreide ,geschriften 7,the ,hague1 #aiab71 iv4 #abe sqq4 #abf ,g4 ,f4 ,angas1 ,savage ,life and ,scenes in ,australia and ,new ,zealand1 ii4 #fg4 #abg ,w4 ,yate1 ,an ,account of ,new ,zealand1 p4 #adb4 ,sec4 #f4 ,conclusion ,if now we attempt to sum up the effects which the belief in human immortality exercised on the life of the ,maoris we may perhaps conclude that these effects were partly good and partly evil4 ,on the one hand by ascribing to the chiefs the special protection of the powerful spirits of the dead1 it invested the governing class with a degree of authority to which on merely natural or rational grounds they could have laid no claim2 hence it tended to strengthen the respect for government and to ensure the maintenance of law and order4 ,moreover1 by lending a supernatural sanction to the rights of private property among all classes it further contributed to abolish one of the most fruitful sources of discord and crime in the community and thereby to foster economic progress1 which cannot exist without some measure of peace and security for life and possessions4 ,these were great gains1 and so far as the faith in immortality helped to win them for the ,maoris1 it certainly ameliorated their condition and furthered the cause of civilisation among them4 ,but on the other hand the belief in the essential malignancy of the spirits of the dead and in their great power to harm the living added a host of purely imaginary terrors to the real evils with which man's existence on earth is naturally and inevitably encompassed3 it imposed a regular system of needless and vexatious restrictions on social intercourse and the simplest acts of daily life2 and it erected an almost insuperable barrier to the growth of science1 and particularly of that beneficent branch of science which has for its object the alleviation of human suffering1 since by concentrating the whole attention of the people on a false and absurd theory of supernatural agency it diverted them from that fruitful investigation of natural causes which alone can strengthen and extend man's control over matter4 ,this was a heavy toll to pay for the advantages incidental to a belief in immortality2 and if we were asked to strike a balance between the good and the evil which that belief entailed on the ,maoris1 we might well hesitate to say to which side the scales of judgment should incline4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,tongans ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,tonga or ,friendly ,islands ,the ,tonga or ,friendly ,islands form an archipelago of about a hundred small islands situated in the ,south ,pacific1 between #ah deg4 and #bb deg4 ,south latitude and between #agc deg4 and #agf deg4 ,east longitude4 ,the archipelago falls into three groups of islands1 which lie roughly north and south of each other4 ,the southern is the ,tonga group1 the central is the ,haabai or ,haapai group1 and the northern is the ,vavau group4 ,in the southern group the principal islands are ,tongataboo and ,eua2 in the central group1 ,namuka and ,lifuka 7,lefooga72 in the northern group1 ,vavau4 ,the largest island of the archipelago1 ,tongataboo1 is about twenty-two miles long by eight miles wide2 next to it in importance are ,vavau and ,eua1 and there are seven or eight other islands not less than five miles in length4 ,the rest are mere islets4 ,most of the islands are surrounded by dangerous coral reefs1 and though the soil is deep and very fertile1 there is a great lack of flowing water2 running streams are almost unknown4 ,most of the islands consist of coral and are very low2 the highest point of ,tongataboo is only about sixty feet above the level of the sea4#a ,however1 some of the islands are lofty and of volcanic formation4 ,when ,captain ,cook visited the islands in #aggc and #aggg there was apparently only one active volcano in the archipelago2 it was situated in the small island of ,tufoa1 which lies to the west of ,namuka4 ,cook saw the island smoking at the distance of ten leagues1 and was told by the natives that it had never ceased smoking in their memory1 nor had they any tradition of its inactivity4#b ,in the hundred and fifty years which have elapsed since ,cook's time volcanic action has greatly increased in the archipelago4 ,a considerable eruption took place at ,tufoa in #ahhe3 the small but lofty island of ,kao 7#ejjj feet high7 has repeatedly been in eruption3 the once fertile and populous island of ,amargura1 or ,funua-lai1 in about #ah deg4 ,south latitude1 was suddenly devastated in #ahdf or #ahdg by a terrific eruption1 which reduced it to a huge mass of lava and burnt sand1 without a leaf or blade of grass of any kind4 ,warned by violent earthquakes1 which preceded the explosion1 the inhabitants escaped in time to ,vavau4 ,the roar of the volcano was heard one hundred and thirty miles off2 and an ,american ship sailed through a shower of ashes1 rolling like great volumes of smoke1 for forty miles4 ,for months afterwards the glare of the tremendous fires was visible night after night in the island of ,vavau1 situated forty miles away4#c ,another dreadful eruption occurred on the #bdth of ,june #ahec1 in ,niua ,fooeu1 an island about two hundred miles to the north-north-west of ,funua-lai4 ,the entire island seems to be the circular ridge of an ancient and vast volcano1 of which the crater is occupied by a lake of clear calm water4 ,on the occasion in question the earth was rent in the centre of a native village2 the flames of a new volcano burst forth from the fissure1 belching a sea of molten lava1 under which ten miles of country1 once covered with the richest verdure1 have been encased in solid rock1 averaging from eight to fifteen feet in thickness4 ,the lake boiled like a cauldron1 and long after the more powerful action of the volcano had ceased1 the waters of the lake were often rent by tongues of flame1 which shot up from them as well as from the clefts in the surrounding precipices4#d ,in the island of ,late1 lying to the west of ,vavau1 a new volcano broke out with great violence in #ahed2 the roar of the volcano was heard at ,lifuka1 fifty miles away2 the immense pillar of smoke was visible by day and the fire by night4 ,the central portion of one side of the mountain 7about #bejj feet high7 was completely blown out by the explosion4#e #a ,horatio ,hale1 ,u4,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 pp4 #d sq42 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 7,london1 #ahid7 pp4 #dig1 #dii4 ,as to the scarcity of running water1 see ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages 7,london1 #ahji71 iii4 #bjf1 v4 #chi4 ,he was told that there was a running stream on the high island of ,kao4 ,as to the soil of ,tongataboo1 see ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean 7,london1 #ahii71 p4 #bhj1 ,the soil is everywhere prolific1 and consists of a fine rich mould1 upon an average about fourteen or fifteen inches deep1 free from stones1 except near the beach1 where coral rocks appear above the surface4 ,beneath this mould is a red loam four or five inches thick2 next is a very strong blue clay in small quantities2 and in some places has been found a black earth1 which emits a very fragrant smell resembling bergamot1 but it soon evaporates when exposed to the air4 #b ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #bgg4 ,for descriptions of the volcano see ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahah71 i4 #bdj sq42 and especially ,thomas ,west1 ,ten ,years in ,south-,eastern ,polynesia 7,london1 #ahfe71 pp4 #hi sqq4 ,both these writers ascended the volcano4 #c ,thomas ,west1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gi sqq42 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 p4 #abj2 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 p4 #dig4 #d ,t4 ,west1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hb sqq42 ,george ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #d sq4 #e ,t4 ,west1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hh sq4 ,but not only have new volcanoes appeared or long extinct volcanoes resumed their activity within the last century in the existing islands1 new islands have been formed by volcanic action4 ,one such island1 emitting volumes of fire1 smoke1 and steam1 issued from the surface of the sea1 and was discovered by the missionary ship ,john ,wesley in ,august #aheg2 its appearance had been heralded some years before by a strange agitation of the sea and by fire and smoke ascending from the water4 ,this new volcanic island lies about midway between the two other volcanic islands of ,tufoa and ,late4#f ,a third new volcanic island seems to have been formed to the south of ,tufoa in #ahhf4g ,another new island was thrown up from the sea about the beginning of the twentieth century2 it was partly washed away again1 but has again materially increased in size4#h ,it is noteworthy that the volcanoes1 new or old1 all occur in a line running roughly north and south at a considerable distance to the west of1 but parallel to1 the main body of the ,tongan archipelago4 ,they clearly indicate the existence of submarine volcanic action on a great scale4 ,even in the coralline islands traces of volcanic agency have come to light in the shape of pumice-stones1 which have been dug out of the solid coral rock at considerable depths4#i ,in the lofty island of ,eua an extensive dyke of basalt is found inland underlying the coral formation4#aj #f ,t4 ,west1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ib-ic4 #g ,i infer this from the entry ,volcanic island1 #ahhf1 in ,mr4 ,guillemard's map of the ,pacific ,islands4 ,he does not mention it in the text 7,australasia1 ii4 p4 #dig74 #h ,george ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #f4 #i ,t4 ,west1 op4 cit4 p4 #id4 #aj ,george ,brown1 op4 cit4 p4 #d4 ,these facts lend some countenance to the view that the whole archipelago forms the summit or visible ridge of a long chain of submarine volcanoes1 and that the islands1 even those of coralline formation1 have been raised to their present level by volcanic action4#aa ,that very acute observer1 ,captain ,cook1 or one of the naturalists of the expedition1 noticed that in the highest parts of ,tongataboo1 which he estimated roughly at a hundred feet above sea-level1 he often met with the same coral rock1 which is found at the shore1 projecting above the surface1 and perforated and cut into all those inequalities which are usually seen in rocks that lie within the wash of the tide4#ab ,again1 on ascending the comparatively lofty island of ,eua1 ,captain ,cook observes3 ,we were now about two or three hundred feet above the level of the sea1 and yet1 even here1 the coral was perforated into all the holes and inequalities which usually diversify the surface of this substance within the reach of the tide4 ,indeed1 we found the same coral till we began to approach the summits of the highest hills2 and1 it was remarkable1 that these were chiefly composed of a yellowish1 soft1 sandy stone4#ac ,in the island of ,vavau it was remarked by ,captain ,waldegrave that the coral rock rises many feet above the present level of the sea1 and he adds3 ,the action of fire is visible on it1 and we saw several instances of its crystallisation4#ad #aa ,t4 ,west1 op4 cit4 #ie4 #ab ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #cdd4 #ac ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #cha4 #ad ,captain the ,hon4 ,w4 ,waldegrave1 ,r4,n41 ,extracts from a ,private ,journal1 ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 iii4 7#ahcc7 p4 #aic4 ,the view that even the coralline islands of the ,tongan archipelago have been elevated by volcanic agency is not necessarily inconsistent with ,darwin's theory that coral reefs are formed during periods of subsidence1 not of elevation2#ae for it is quite possible that1 after being raised ages ago by volcanic forces1 these islands may be now slowly subsiding1 and that it has been during the period of subsidence that they have become incrusted by coral reefs4 ,yet the occurrence of coral rocks1 bearing all the marks of marine action1 at considerable heights above the sea1 appears indubitably to prove that such a general subsidence has been in some places varied by at least a temporary elevation4 #ae ,charles ,darwin1 ,journal of ,researches1 etc41 during the ,voyage of the ,beagle 7,london1 #aiab71 pp4 #dga sqq42 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1 ,twelfth ,edition 7,london1 #ahge71 ii4 #fjb sqq42 ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley1 ,physiography 7,london1 #ahha71 pp4 #bef sqq4 ,in thus postulating elevation by volcanic action1 as well as subsidence1 to explain the formation of the ,tongan islands ,i am glad to have the support of a good observer1 the late ,rev4 ,dr4 ,george ,brown1 who spent the best years of his life in the ,pacific1 where his experience both of the larger and the smaller islands was varied and extensive4 ,he writes3 ,i have seen islands composed of true coralline limestone1 the cliffs of which rise so perpendicularly from the blue ocean that the natives have to ascend and descend by ladders in going from the ocean to the top1 or vice versa4 ,a large steamer can go so close to some of these cliffs that she could be moored alongside of them in calm weather4 ,it is not at all improbable1 ,i think1 that in these islands we have the two factors in the formation of islands1 viz4 subsidence1 during which these immense cliffs were formed1 and subsequent upheaval4 ,this is the only way1 ,i think1 in which we can account for these perpendicular cliffs in the midst of deep blue ocean4#af #af ,george ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ac sq4 ,i have dwelt at what may seem undue length on the volcanic phenomena of the ,tonga islands because the occurrence of such phenomena in savage lands has generally influenced the beliefs and customs of the natives1 quite apart from the possibility1 which should always be borne in mind1 that man first obtained fire from an active volcano4 ,but even if1 as has been suggested1 the ,tonga islands formed the starting-point from which the ,polynesian race spread over the islands of the ,pacific1#ag it seems very unlikely that the ,polynesians first learned the use of fire when they reached the ,tongan archipelago4 ,more probably they were acquainted1 not only with the use of fire1 but with the mode of making it long before they migrated from their original home in ,southern ,asia4 ,a people perfectly ignorant of that prime necessity could hardly have made their way across such wide stretches of sea and land4 ,but it is quite possible that the myth which the ,tongans1 in common with many other ,polynesians1 tell of the manner in which their ancestors procured their first fire1 was suggested to them by the spectacle of a volcano in eruption4 ,they say that the hero ,maui ,kijikiji1 the ,polynesian ,prometheus1 first procured fire for men by descending into the bowels of the earth and stealing it from his father1 ,maui ,atalanga1 who had kept it there jealously concealed4#ah #ag ,john ,crawfurd1 ,grammar and ,dictionary of the ,malay ,language 7,london1 #aheb71 ,preliminary ,dissertation1 p4 #bec1 quoted by ,thomas ,west1 ,ten ,years in ,south-,central ,polynesia1 pp4 #bdh sqq4 ,but the more usual view is that the starting-point of the dispersal of the ,polynesian race in the ,pacific was ,samoa4 #ah ,sarah ,s4 ,farmer1 ,tonga and the ,friendly ,islands 7,london1 #ahee71 pp4 #acd-acg2 ,le ,p4 ,reiter1 ,traditions ,tonguiennes1 ,anthropos1 xii4-xiii4 7#aiag-aiah71 pp4 #ajbf-ajdj2 ,e4 ,e4 ,collcott1 ,legends from ,tonga1 ,folk-lore1 xxxii4 7#aiba7 pp4 #de-dh4 ,miss ,farmer probably obtained the story from the ,rev4 ,john ,thomas1 who was a missionary in the islands for twenty-five years 7from #ahbf to #ahej74 ,she acknowledges her obligations to him for information on the religion of the natives 7p4 #abe74 ,for the period of ,mr4 ,thomas's residence in ,tonga1 see ,miss ,farmer's book1 p4 #afa4 ,the story is told in closely similar forms in many other islands of the ,pacific4 ,for some of the evidence see my edition of ,apollodorus1 ,the ,library1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cca sqq4 ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,tonga ,islanders1 their ,character1 ,mode of ,life1 and ,government ,physically the ,tonga islanders are fine specimens of the ,polynesian race and generally impress travellers very favourably4 ,captain ,cook1 the first to observe them closely1 describes them as very strong and well made1 some of them really handsome1 and many of them with truly ,european features and genuine ,roman noses4#ai ,at a later date ,commodore ,wilkes1 the commander of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 speaks of them as some of the finest specimens of the human race that can well be imagined1 surpassing in symmetry and grace those of all the other groups we had visited2 and farther on he says3 ,a larger proportion of fine-looking people is seldom to be seen1 in any portion of the globe2 they are a shade lighter than any of the other islanders2 their countenances are generally of the ,european cast2 they are tall and well made1 and their muscles are well developed4#bj ,still later1 in his account of the voyage of the ,challenger1 ,lord ,george ,campbell expressed himself even more warmly3 ,there are no people in the world1 he says1 who strike one at first so much as these ,friendly ,islanders4 ,their clear1 light1 copper-brown coloured skins1 yellow and curly hair1 good-humoured1 handsome faces1 their tout ensemble1 formed a novel and splendid picture of the genus homo2 and1 as far as physique and appearance go1 they gave one certainly an impression of being a superior race to ours4#ba ,a ,catholic missionary observes that the natives of ,tonga hardly differ from ,europeans in stature1 features1 and colour2 they are a little sallower1 which may be set down to the high temperature of the climate4 ,it is difficult to have a very fresh complexion with thirty degrees of heat1 ,reaumur1 as we have it during four or five months of the year4#bb ,in appearance the ,tonga islanders closely resemble the ,samoans1 their neighbours on the north2 some find them a little lighter1 but others somewhat darker in colour than the ,samoans4#bc ,according to the ,french explorer1 ,dumont d',urville1 who passed about a month in ,tongataboo in #ahbg1 the ,polynesian race in ,tonga exhibits less admixture with the swarthy ,melanesian race than in ,tahiti and ,new ,zealand1 there being far fewer individuals of stunted stature1 flat noses1 and frizzly hair among the ,tongans than among the other ,polynesians4#bd ,even among the ,tongans the physical superiority of the chiefs to the common people is said to be conspicuous2 they are taller1 comelier1 and lighter in colour than the lower orders4 ,some would explain the difference by a difference in upbringing1 noblemen being more carefully nursed1 better fed1 and less exposed to the sun than commoners2#be but it is possible that they come of a different and better stock4 #ai ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dja sq4 #bj ,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 iii4 #aj1 #be4 #ba ,quoted by ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 p4 #dhh4 #bb ,jerome ,grange1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xvii4 7#ahde7 p4 #h4 #bc ,horatio ,hale1 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology1 pp4 #aj sq42 ,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 iii4 #be2 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific1 pp4 #aaf1 #aee4 ,the naturalist ,j4 ,r4 ,forster thought the ,tongans darker than the ,tahitians4 ,see his ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #aggh71 p4 #bcd4 #bd ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage de la corvette ,astrolabe1 ,histoire du ,voyage1 iv4 7,paris1 #ahcb7 p4 #bbi4 #be ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aee sq42 ,sarah ,s4 ,farmer1 ,tonga and the ,friendly ,islands1 p4 #adj4 ,intellectually the ,tongans are reported to surpass all the other ,south ,sea islanders in their mental development1 showing great skill in the structure of their dwellings and the manufacture of their implements1 weapons1 and dress4#bf ,they are bold navigators1#bg and ,captain ,cook observes that nothing can be a more demonstrative evidence of their ingenuity than the construction and make of their canoes1 which1 in point of neatness and workmanship1 exceed everything of this kind we saw in this sea4#bh ,however1 the ,tongans appear to have acquired much of their skill in the art of building and rigging canoes through intercourse with the ,fijians1 their neighbours to the west1 who1 though their inferiors in seamanship and the spirit of marine adventure1 originally surpassed them in naval architecture4#bi ,indeed we are told that all the large ,tongan canoes are built in ,fiji1 because the ,tongan islands do not furnish any timber fit for the purpose4 ,hence a number of ,tongans are constantly employed in the windward or eastern islands of the ,fiji group building these large canoes1 a hundred feet or more in length1 a process which1 it is said1 lasts six or seven years4#cj ,the debt which in this respect the ,tongans owe to the ,fijians was necessarily unknown to ,captain ,cook1 since he never reached the ,fijian islands and knew of them only by report1 though he met and questioned a few ,fijians in ,tongataboo4#ca #bf ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 pp4 #dih sq4 #bg ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bfd4 #bh ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #aig4 #bi ,w4 ,mariner1 ,the ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bfc sqq4 #cj ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 op4 cit4 p4 #acb4 #ca ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #cif sq4 ,when ,captain ,cook visited the ,tonga islands he found the land almost everywhere in a high state of cultivation4 ,he says that cultivated roots and fruits being their principal support1 this requires their constant attention to agriculture1 which they pursue very diligently1 and seem to have brought almost to as great perfection as circumstances will permit4#cb ,the plants which they chiefly cultivated and which furnished them with their staple foods were yams and plantains4 ,these were disposed in plantations enclosed by neat fences of reeds about six feet high and intersected by good smooth roads or lanes1 which were shaded from the scorching sun by fruit-trees4#cc ,walking on one of these roads ,cook tells us1 ,i thought ,i was transported into the most fertile plains in ,europe4 ,there was not an inch of waste ground2 the roads occupied no more space than was absolutely necessary2 the fences did not take up above four inches each2 and even this was not wholly lost1 for in many places were planted some useful trees or plants4 ,it was everywhere the same2 change of place altered not the scene4 ,nature1 assisted by a little art1 nowhere appears in more splendour than at this isle4#cd ,interspersed among these plantations irregularly were bread-fruit trees and coco-nut palms1 of which the palms in particular1 raising their tufted heads in air above the sea of perpetual verdure1 formed a pleasing ornament of the landscape4#ce ,there were no towns or villages2 most of the houses were built in the plantations1 generally surrounded by trees or ornamental shrubs1 whose fragrancy perfumed the air4#cf #cb ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #daa sq4 #cc ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #ahd1 #aie1 v4 #bgd1 #caf1 #ceg1 #daf4 #cd ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #ahd4 #ce ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #bgd1 #ceg4 #cf ,id4 iii4 #aif4 ,when ,captain ,cook surveyed this rich and beautiful country1 the islands were and had long been at peace1 so that the natives were able to devote themselves without distraction to the labour of tilling the soil and providing in other ways for the necessities of life4 ,unhappily shortly after his visit to the islands wars broke out among the inhabitants and continued to rage more or less intermittently for many years4 ,even the introduction of ,christianity in the early part of the nineteenth century1 far from assuaging the strife1 only added bitterness to it by furnishing a fresh pretext for hostilities1 in which apparently the ,christians were sometimes the aggressors with the connivance or even the encouragement of the missionaries4#cg ,in consequence cultivation was neglected and large portions of land were allowed to lie waste4#ch #cg ,this is affirmed by the ,catholic missionary1 ,jerome ,grange 7,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xvii4 7#ahde7 pp4 #ae sqq471 and though he writes with a manifest prejudice against his rivals the ,protestant missionaries1 his evidence is confirmed by ,commodore ,wilkes1 the commander of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 who on his visit to ,tongataboo found the ,christians and heathens about to go to war with each other4 ,he attempted to make peace between them1 but in vain4 ,the heathen were ready to accept his overtures1 but it was evident that ,king ,george and his advisers1 and1 indeed1 the whole ,christian party1 seemed to be desirous of continuing the war1 either to force the heathen to become ,christians1 or to carry it on to extermination1 which the number of their warriors made them believe they had the power to effect4 ,i felt1 in addition1 that the missionaries were thwarting my exertions by permitting warlike preparations during the pending of the negotiations4 ,see ,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 iii4 #g sqq4 7my quotation is from p4 #af74 ,the story is told from the point of view of the ,protestant 7,wesleyan7 missionaries by ,miss ,s4 ,s4 ,farmer1 ,tonga and ,the ,friendly ,islands1 pp4 #bic sqq4 #ch ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprise in the ,south ,seas 7,london1 #ahch71 p4 #bfd2 ,charles ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #cb sq4 ,like all the ,polynesians the natives of ,tonga were ignorant of the metals1 and their only tools were made of stone1 bone1 shells1 shark's teeth1 and rough fish-skins4 ,they fashioned axes1 or rather adzes1 out of a smooth black stone1 which they procured from the volcanic island of ,tufoa2 they used shells as knives2 they constructed augers out of shark's teeth1 fixed on handles2 and they made rasps of the rough skin of a fish1 fastened on flat pieces of wood4 ,with such imperfect tools they built their canoes and houses1 reared the massive tombs of their kings2 and did all their other work4#ci ,the wonder is that with implements so imperfect they could accomplish so much and raise themselves to a comparatively high level among savages4 #ci ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #aii1 v4 #dad sq4 ,captain ,cook says that the only piece of iron he found among the ,tongans was a small broad awl1 which had been made of a nail4 ,but this nail they must have procured either from a former navigator1 perhaps ,tasman1 or from a wreck4 ,a feature of the ,tongan character in which the islanders evinced their superiority to most of the ,polynesians was their regard for women4 ,in most savage tribes which practise agriculture the labour of tilling the fields falls in great measure on the female sex1 but it was not so in ,tonga4 ,there the women never tilled the ground nor did any hard work1 though they occupied themselves with the manufacture of bark-cloth1 mats1 and other articles of domestic use4 ,natives of ,fiji1 ,samoa1 and ,hawaii1 who resided in ,tonga1 used to remark on the easy lives led by the ,tongan women1 and remonstrated with the men on the subject1 saying that as men underwent hardships and dangers in war and other masculine pursuits1 so women ought to be made to labour in the fields and to toil for their living4 ,but the ,tongan men said that it is not gnale fafine 7consistent with the feminine character7 to let them do hard work2 women ought only to do what is feminine3 who loves a masculine woman8 besides1 men are stronger1 and therefore it is but proper that they should do the hard labour4#dj #dj ,w4 ,mariner1 ,the ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bhg4 ,compare id4 ii4 #abd1 note 992 ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #daj sq4 ,further1 it is to the credit of the ,tongans that1 unlike many other ,polynesians1 they were not generally cannibals1 and indeed for the most part held in abhorrence the practice of eating human bodies4 ,still young warriors occasionally devoured the corpses of their enemies in imitation of the ,fijians1 imagining that in so doing they manifested a fierce1 warlike1 and manly spirit4 ,on one occasion1 returning from such a repast1 they were shunned by every one1 especially by the women1 who upbraided them1 saying1 ,away6 you are a man-eater4#da #da ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #aid2 compare id4 i4 #cag-cbj4 ,the government of the ,tongan islanders was eminently monarchical and aristocratic4 ,a strict subordination of ranks was established which has been aptly compared to the feudal system4 ,at the head of the social edifice were two chiefs who bore some resemblance to the ,emperor and the ,pope of mediaeval ,europe1 the one being the civil and military head of the ,state1 while the other embodied the supreme spiritual power4 ,nominally the spiritual chief1 called the ,tooitonga1 ranked above the civil chief or king1 who paid him formal homage2 but1 as usually happens in such cases1 the real government was in the hands of the secular rather than of the religious monarch4 ,the ,tooitonga was acknowledged to be descended from one of the chief gods2 he is spoken of by ,mariner1 our principal authority1 as a divine chief of the highest rank1 and he is said to have enjoyed divine honours4 ,the first-fruits of the year were offered to him1 and it was supposed that if this ceremony were neglected1 the vengeance of the gods would fall in a signal manner upon the people4 ,yet he had no power or authority in matters pertaining to the civil king4#db ,the existence of such a double kingship1 with a corresponding distribution of temporal and spiritual functions1 is not uncommon in more advanced societies2 its occurrence among a people so comparatively low in the scale of culture as the ,tongans is remarkable4 #db ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dbd sqq42 ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #gd sqq41 #acb sqq42 ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage de l',astrolabe1 ,histoire du ,voyage1 iv4 7,paris1 #ahcb7 pp4 #ij sq41 ,si tout etait suivant l'ordre legal a ,tonga-,tabou1 on verrait d'abord a la tete de la societe le toui-tonga qui est le veritable souverain nominal des iles ,tonga1 et qui jouit meme des honneurs divins4 ,below the two great chiefs or kings were many subordinate chiefs1 and below them again the social ranks descended in a succession of sharply marked gradations to the peasants1 who tilled the ground1 and whose lives and property were entirely at the mercy of the chiefs4#dc ,yet the social system as a whole seems to have worked well and smoothly4 ,it does not1 indeed1 appear1 says ,captain ,cook1 that any of the most civilised nations have ever exceeded this people1 in the great order observed on all occasions2 in ready compliance with the commands of their chiefs2 and in the harmony that subsists throughout all ranks1 and unites them1 as if they were all one man1 informed with1 and directed by1 the same principle4#dd ,according to the ,american ethnographer1 ,horatio ,hale1 the mass of the people in the ,tonga islands had no political rights1 and their condition in that respect was much inferior to that of commoners in the ,samoan islands1 since in ,tonga the government was much stronger and better organized1 as he puts it1 for the purpose of oppression4 ,on the other hand1 he admitted that government in ,tonga was milder than in ,tahiti1 and infinitely preferable to the debasing despotism which prevailed in ,hawaii or the ,sandwich ,islands4#de #dc ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dbd sq41 #dbi sq42 ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #hc sqq4 #dd ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dbf4 #de ,horatio ,hale1 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology1 p4 #cb4 ,sec4 #c4 ,the ,tongan ,religion3 its ,general ,principles ,for our knowledge of the religion and the social condition of the ,tongans before they came under ,european influence1 we are indebted chiefly to an ,english sailor1 ,william ,mariner1 who lived as a captive among them for about four years1 from #ahjf to #ahaj4df ,his account of the natives1 carefully elicited from him and published by a medical doctor1 ,mr4 ,john ,martin1 ,m4,d41 is one of the most valuable descriptions of a savage people which we possess4 ,mariner was a good observer and endowed with an excellent memory1 which enabled him to retain and record his experiences after his return to ,england4 ,he spoke the ,tongan language1 and he was a special favourite of the two ,tongan kings1 named ,finow1 who reigned successively in ,tonga during his residence in the islands4 ,the kings befriended and protected him1 so that he had the best opportunities for becoming acquainted with the customs and beliefs of the people4 ,his observations have been confirmed from independent sources1 and we have every reason to regard them as trustworthy4 ,so far as we can judge1 they are a simple record of facts1 unbiassed by theory or prejudice4 ,in the following notice of the ,tongan religion and doctrine of the human soul ,i shall draw chiefly on the evidence of ,mariner4 #df ,mariner was captured by the ,tongans on ,december #a1 #ahjf1 and he escaped from the islands in #ahaj1 apparently in ,november1 but the exact date of his escape is not given4 ,see ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #dc1 ii4 #ae sqq41 #fh1 #fi4 ,according to him1 the religion of the ,tonga islanders rests1 or rather used to rest1 on the following notions4#dg #dg ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #ig sqq4 ,they believed that there are hotooas1#dh gods1 or superior beings1 who have the power of dispensing good and evil to mankind1 according to their merit1 but of whose origin the ,tongans formed no idea1 rather supposing them to be eternal4 #dh ,the word is commonly spelled atua in the ,polynesian languages4 ,see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary 7,wellington1 ,n4,z4 #ahia71 pp4 #cj sq41 who gives otua as the ,tongan form4 ,they believed that there are other hotooas or gods1 who are the souls of all deceased nobles and matabooles1 that is1 the companions1 ministers1 and counsellors of the chiefs1 who form a sort of inferior nobility4#di ,the souls of all these dead men were held to possess a power of dispensing good and evil to mankind like the power of the superior gods1 but in a lesser degree4 #di ,as to the matabooles see ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #hd sqq4 ,they believed that there are besides several hotooa pow1 or mischievous gods1 who never dispense good1 but only petty evils and troubles1 not as a punishment1 but indiscriminately to anybody1 from a purely mischievous disposition4 ,they believed that all these superior beings1 although they may perhaps have had a beginning1 will have no end4 ,they believed that the world also is of uncertain origin1 having coexisted with the gods4 ,the sky1 which they regard as solid1 the heavenly bodies1 and the ocean were in being before the habitable earth4 ,the ,tonga islands were drawn up out of the depth of the sea by the god ,tangaloa one day when he was fishing with a line and a hook4 ,they believed that mankind1 according to a partial tradition1 came originally from ,bolotoo1 the chief residence of the gods1 a fabulous island situated to the north-west of the ,tongan archipelago4 ,the first men and women consisted of two brothers1 with their wives and attendants4 ,they were commanded by the god ,tangaloa to take up their abode in the ,tonga islands1 but of their origin or creation the ,tongans professed to know nothing4#ej #ej ,according to a later account1 on ,ata were born the first men1 three in number1 formed from a worm bred by a rotten plant1 whose seed was brought by ,tangaloa from heaven4 ,these three were afterwards provided by the ,maui with wives from the ,underworld4 ,see ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 ,notes on ,tongan ,religion1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 xxx4 7#aiba7 p4 #aed4 ,they believed that all human evil was inflicted by the gods upon mankind on account of some neglect of religious duty1 whether the neglect is the fault of the sufferers or of the chief whom they serve4 ,in like manner the ,tongans apparently referred all human good to the gods1 regarding it as a reward bestowed by the divine beings on men who punctually discharged the offices of religion4#ea #ea ,so apparently we must interpret ,mariner's brief statement and the contrary of good 7,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #ih74 ,they believed that nobles had souls1 which existed after death in ,bolotoo1 not according to their moral merit1 but according to their rank in this world2 these had power like that of the original gods1 but less in degree4 ,the matabooles1 or ministers of the nobles1 also went after death to ,bolotoo1 where they existed as matabooles1 or ministers of the gods1 but they had not1 like the gods and the souls of dead noblemen1 the power of inspiring the priests with superhuman knowledge4 ,some thought that the mooas1 who ranked next below the matabooles in the social hierarchy1 also went after death to ,bolotoo2 but this was a matter of great doubt4 ,as for the tooas or commoners1 who formed the lowest rung in the social ladder1 they had either no souls at all or only such as dissolved with the body after death1 which consequently ended their sentient existence4 ,they believed that the human soul during life is not an essence distinct from the body1 but only the more ethereal part of the corporeal frame1 and that the moment after death it exists in ,bolotoo with the form and likeness of the body which it had on earth4 ,they believed that the primitive gods and deceased nobles sometimes appear visibly to mankind to warn or to afford comfort and advice2 and that the primitive gods also sometimes come into the living bodies of lizards1 porpoises1 and a species of water snake1 hence these animals are much respected4 ,when the gods thus entered into the bodies of porpoises1 it was for the sake of safeguarding canoes or for other beneficent purposes4 ,they believed that the two personages in the ,tonga islands known by the titles of ,tooitonga and ,veachi were descendants in a right line from two chief gods1 and that all respect and veneration are therefore due to them4 ,they believed that some persons are favoured with the inspiration of the gods1 and that while the inspiration lasts the god actually exists in the body of the inspired person or priest1 who is then capable of prophesying4 ,they believe that human merit or virtue consists chiefly in paying respect to the gods1 nobles1 and aged persons2 in defending one's hereditary rights2 in honour1 justice1 patriotism1 friendship1 meekness1 modesty1 fidelity of married women1 parental and filial love1 observance of all religious ceremonies1 patience in suffering1 forbearance of temper1 and so on4 ,they believed that all rewards for virtue or punishments for vice happen to men in this world only1 and come immediately from the gods4 ,they believed that several acts which civilised nations regard as crimes are1 under certain circumstances1 matters of indifference4 ,such acts included the taking of revenge on an enemy and the killing of a servant who had given provocation1 or indeed the killing of anybody else1 always provided that the victim were not a very superior chief or noble4 ,further1 among indifferent acts was reckoned rape1 unless it were committed on a married woman or on one whom the offender was bound to respect on the score of her superior rank4 ,finally1 the list of venial offences included theft1 unless the stolen object were consecrated property2 for in that case the action became sacrilege and was1 as we shall see presently1 a very serious crime4 ,they believed that omens are the direct intimations of the future vouchsafed by the gods to men4 ,charms or superstitious ceremonies to bring evil upon any one are considered for the most part infallible1 as being generally effective means to dispose the gods to accord with the curse or evil wish of the malevolent invoker2 to perform these charms is considered cowardly and unmanly1 but does not constitute a crime4#eb ,one such charm consisted in hiding on a grave 7fytoca7 some portion of the wearing apparel of an inferior relation of the deceased4 ,the person whose garment was so hidden was believed to sicken and die4 ,an equally effectual way of working the charm and ensuring the death of the victim was to bury the garment in the house consecrated to the tutelary god of the family4 ,but when a grave was made use of for the malignant purpose1 it was thought essential that the deceased should be of a rank superior to that of the person against whom the charm was directed2 otherwise it was supposed that the charm would have no effect4#ec ,in either case the fatal result was clearly held to be brought about by the power of the ghost or of the god1 who used the garment as an instrument for putting the charm in operation4 ,these charms or superstitious ceremonies are what we should now call magical rites1 and they were apparently supposed to effect their purpose indirectly by constraining the gods to carry out the malevolent intention of the magician4 ,if ,i am right in so interpreting them1 we seem driven to conclude that in ,tonga magic was supposed to be ineffectual without the co-operation of the gods1 although its power to compel them was deemed for the most part irresistible4 ,even so its assumed dependence on the consent1 albeit the reluctant consent1 of the deities implies a certain decadence of magic and a growing predominance of religion4 ,moreover1 the moral reprehension of such practices for the injury of enemies is another sign that among the ,tongans magic was being relegated to that position of a black art which it generally occupies among more civilised peoples4 ,be that as it may1 certain it is that we hear extremely little about the practice of magic among the ,tongans4 #eb ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #aja4 #ec ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #dbd1 note 994 ,sec4 #d4 ,the ,primary or ,non-human ,gods ,such are1 or rather used to be1 the principal articles of the old ,tongan creed4 ,we may now examine some of them a little more at large4 ,but first we may observe that on this showing the ,tongans were an eminently religious people4 ,they traced all the good and ill in human affairs to the direct intervention of the gods1 who rewarded or punished mankind for their deeds in this life1 bestowing the reward or inflicting the punishment in the present world and not deferring either to a distant and more or less uncertain future in a world beyond the grave4 ,thus with the ,tongans the fear of the gods was a powerful incentive to lead a virtuous life2 morality was placed under the immediate guardianship of the deities4 ,it is true that according to their notions morality consisted largely in the performance of religious ceremonies1 but it was by no means limited to a simple observance of the prescribed rites2 for we have seen that their conception of a virtuous life included compliance with the dictates of justice1 modesty1 and friendship1 the fidelity of wives to their husbands1 the mutual affection of parents and children1 patience in suffering1 and other modes of conduct which we too should not hesitate to rank among the virtues4 ,when we consider the nature of the ,tongan gods1 we perceive that they are sharply discriminated into two classes1 namely1 the primitive and superior gods on the one side and the secondary and inferior gods on the other side4 ,the primitive and superior gods are those who have always been gods and whose origin and beginning are unknown2 the secondary and inferior gods are the souls of dead men1 who consequently have not always been gods1 because they were human beings before death elevated them to the rank of deities4 ,the distinction between these two classes of gods is highly important1 not merely for ,tongan religion in particular1 but for the history of religion in general4 ,for whatever we may think of ,euhemerism as a universal explanation of the gods1 there can be no doubt that in many lands the ranks of the celestial hierarchy have been largely recruited by the ghosts of men of flesh and blood4 ,but there appears to be a general tendency to allow the origin of the human gods to fall into the background and to confuse them with the true original deities1 who from the beginning have always been deities and nothing else4 ,the tendency may sometimes be accentuated by a deliberate desire to cast a veil over the humble birth and modest beginning of these now worshipful beings2 but probably the obliteration of the distinction between the two classes of divinities is usually a simple result of oblivion and the lapse of time4 ,once a man is dead1 his figure1 which bulked so large and so clear to his contemporaries1 begins to fade and melt away into something vague and indistinct1 until1 if he was a person of no importance1 he is totally forgotten2 or1 if he was one whose actions or thoughts deeply influenced his fellows for good or evil1 his memory lingers in after generations1 growing ever dimmer and it may be looming ever larger through the long vista of the ages1 as the evening mist appears to magnify the orb of the descending sun4 ,thus naturally and insensibly1 as time goes on1 our mortal nature fades or brightens into the immortal and divine4 ,as our subject is the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead1 we are not directly concerned with the original ,tongan deities who were believed never to have been men4 ,but since their functions and worship appear to have been in certain respects closely analogous to those of the inferior deities1 the souls of the dead1 some notice of them may not be out of place1 if it helps to a fuller understanding of what we may call the human gods4 ,besides1 we must always bear in mind that some at least of the so-called original gods may have been men1 whose history and humanity had been forgotten4 ,we can hardly doubt that the celestial hierarchy has often been recruited by the souls of the dead4 ,the original and superior gods1 ,mariner tells us1 were thought to be rather numerous1 perhaps about three hundred all told2 but the names of very few of them were known1 and even those few were familiar only to some of the chiefs and their ministers1 the matabooles2 for it may easily be supposed1 says ,mariner1 that1 where no written records are kept1 only those 7gods7 whose attributes particularly concern the affairs of this world should be much talked of2 as to the rest1 they are1 for the most part1 merely tutelar gods to particular private families1 and having nothing in their history at all interesting1 are scarcely known to anybody else4#ed #ed ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #ajd4 ,among these original and superior deities was ,tali-y-,toobo1 the patron god of the civil king and his family4 ,he was the god of war and was consequently always invoked in time of war by the king's family2 in time of peace prayers were sometimes offered to him for the general good of the nation as well as for the particular interest and welfare of the royal house4 ,he had no priest1 unless it was the king himself1 who was occasionally inspired by him2 but sometimes a whole reign would pass without the king being once favoured with the divine afflatus4#ee #ee ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #aje4 ,another god was ,tooi fooa ,bolotoo1 whose name means ,chief of all ,bolotoo4 ,from this it might be supposed that he was the greatest god in ,bolotoo1 the home of the gods and of the deified spirits of men2 but in fact he was regarded as inferior to the war god1 and the natives could give no explanation of his high-sounding title4 ,he was the god of rank in society1 and as such he was often invoked by the heads of great families on occasion of sickness or other trouble4 ,he had several priests1 whom he occasionally inspired4#ef #ef ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #aje sq4 ,another great god was ,toobo ,toty1 whose name signifies ,toobo the mariner4 ,he was the god of voyages1 and in that capacity was invoked by chiefs or anybody else at sea2 for his principal function was to preserve canoes from accidents4 ,without being himself the god of wind1 he had great influence with that deity1 and was thus enabled no doubt to save many who were in peril on the great deep4#eg #eg ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ajf sq4 ,another god was ,alo ,alo1 whose name means to fan4 ,he was the god of wind and weather1 rain1 harvest1 and vegetation in general4 ,when the weather was seasonable1 he was usually invoked about once a month to induce him to keep on his good behaviour2 but when the weather was unseasonable1 or the islands were swept by destructive storms of wind and rain1 the prayers to him were repeated daily4 ,but he was not supposed to wield the thunder and lightning1 of which1 indeed1 says ,mariner1 there is no god acknowledged among them1 as this phenomenon is never recollected to have done any mischief of consequence4#eh ,from this it would appear that where no harm was done1 the ,tongans found it needless to suppose the existence of a deity2 they discovered the hand of a god only in the working of evil2 fear was the mainspring of their religion4 ,in boisterous weather at sea ,alo ,alo was not invoked2 he had then to make room for the superior god1 ,toobo ,toty1 the protector of canoes1 who with other sea gods always received the homage of storm-tossed mariners4 ,however1 ,alo ,alo1 the weather god1 came to his own when the yams were approaching maturity in the early part of ,november4 ,for then offerings of yams1 coco-nuts1 and other vegetable products were offered to him in particular1 as well as to all the other gods in general1 for the purpose of ensuring a continuation of favourable weather and consequent fertility4 ,the offering was accompanied by prayers to ,alo ,alo and the other gods1 beseeching them to extend their bounty and make the land fruitful4 ,wrestling and boxing matches formed part of the ceremony1 which was repeated eight times at intervals of ten days4 ,the time for the rite was fixed by the priest of ,alo ,alo1 and a curious feature of the ceremony was the presence of a girl of noble family1 some seven or eight years old1 who represented the wife of ,alo ,alo and resided in his consecrated house during the eighty days that the festal season lasted4#ei #eh ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ajh4 #ei ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bje-bjh2 compare id4 #g1 note 991 #ajh4 ,another god named ,moooi was believed to support the earth on his prostrate body4 ,in person he was bigger than any other of the gods2 but he never inspired anybody1 and had no house dedicated to his service4 ,indeed1 it was supposed that this ,atlas of the ,pacific never budged from his painful and burdensome post beneath the earth4 ,only when he felt more than usually uneasy1 he tried to turn himself about under his heavy load2 and the movement was felt as an earthquake by the ,tongans1 who endeavoured to make him lie still by shouting and beating the ground with sticks4#fj ,similar attempts to stop an earthquake are common in many parts of the world4#fa #fj ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aab sq4 ,compare ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean 7,london1 #agii71 pp4 #bgg sq4 ,moooi is the ,polynesian god or hero whose name is usually spelled ,maui4 ,see ,horatio ,hale1 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology1 p4 #bc2 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #bcc sqq4 s4v4 ,maui4 #fa ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 i4 #aig sqq4 ,tangaloa was the god of artificers and the arts4 ,he had several priests1 who in ,mariner's time were all carpenters4 ,it was he who was said to have brought up the ,tonga islands from the bottom of the sea at the end of his fishing line2#fb though in some accounts of ,tongan tradition this feat is attributed to ,maui4#fc ,the very hook on which he hauled up the islands was said to be preserved in ,tonga down to about thirty years before ,mariner's time4 ,it was in the possession of the divine chief ,tooitonga2 but unfortunately1 his house catching fire1 the basket in which the precious hook was kept perished with its contents in the flames4 ,when ,mariner asked ,tooitonga what sort of hook it was1 the chief told him that it was made of tortoise-shell1 strengthened with a piece of whalebone1 and that it measured six or seven inches from the curve to the point where the line was attached1 and an inch and a half between the barb and the stem4 ,mariner objected that such a hook could hardly have been strong enough to support the whole weight of the ,tonga islands2 but the chief replied that it was a god's hook and therefore could not break4 ,the hole in the rock in which the divine hook caught on the memorable occasion was shown down to ,mariner's time in the island of ,hoonga4 ,it was an aperture about two feet square4#fd #fb ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #aji1 #aad sq42 ,horatio ,hale1 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology1 pp4 #bd sq4 #fc ,jerome ,grange1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xvii4 7#ahde7 p4 #aa2 ,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 iii4 #bc2 ,sarah ,s4 ,farmer1 ,tonga and the ,friendly ,islands1 p4 #acc4 ,according to this last writer it was only the low islands that were fished up by ,maui2 the high islands were thrown down from the sky by the god ,hikuleo4 #fd ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #bgb1 ii4 #aad sq4 ,the ,catholic missionary ,jerome ,grange was told that the hook in question existed down to his time 7#ahdc71 but that only the king might see it1 since it was certain death to anybody else to look on it4 ,see ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xvii4 7#ahde7 p4 #aa4 ,sec4 #e4 ,the ,temples of the ,gods ,some of the primitive gods had houses dedicated to them4 ,these sacred houses or temples1 as we may call them1 were built in the style of ordinary dwellings2 but generally more than ordinary care was taken both in constructing them and in keeping them in good order1 decorating their enclosures with flowers1 and so on4 ,about twenty of the gods had houses thus consecrated to them2 some of them had five or six houses1 some only one or two4 ,for example1 ,tali-y-,toobo1 the patron god of the royal family1 had four houses dedicated to him in the island of ,vavau1 two in the island of ,lefooga 7,lifuka71 and two or three others of smaller importance elsewhere4#fe ,another patron god of the royal family1 called ,alai ,valoo1 had a large consecrated enclosure in the island of ,ofoo2 he had also at least one priest and was very frequently consulted in behalf of sick persons4#ff #fe ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,island1 ii4 #ajd sq4 #ff ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii1 #ajg sq4 ,to desecrate any of these holy houses or enclosures was a most serious offence4 ,when ,mariner was in the islands it happened that two boys1 who had belonged to the crew of his ship1 were detected in the act of stealing a bale of bark-cloth from a consecrated house4 ,if they had been natives1 they would instantly have been punished with death2 but the chiefs1 taking into consideration the youth and inexperience of the offenders1 who were foreigners and ignorant of native customs1 decided that for that time the crime might be overlooked4 ,nevertheless1 to appease the anger of the god1 to whom the house was consecrated1 it was deemed necessary to address him humbly on the subject4 ,accordingly his priest1 followed by chiefs and their ministers 7matabooles71 all dressed in mats with leaves of the ifi tree#fg round their necks in token of humility and sorrow1 went in solemn procession to the house2 they sat down before it1 and the priest addressed the divinity to the following purport3 ,here you see the chiefs and matabooles that have come to thee1 hoping that thou wilt be merciful3 the boys are young1 and being foreigners1 are not so well acquainted with our customs1 and did not reflect upon the greatness of the crime3 we pray thee1 therefore1 not to punish the people for the sins of these thoughtless youths3 we have spared them1 and hope that thou wilt be merciful and spare us4 ,the priest then rose up1 and they all retired in the same way they had come4 ,the chiefs1 and particularly the king1 severely reprimanded the boys1 endeavouring to impress on their minds the enormity of their offence1 and assuring them that they owed their lives only to their presumed ignorance of the heinousness of the crime4#fh #fg ,the ifi tree1 of which the leaves were used by the ,tongans in many religious ceremonies1 is a species of chestnut 7,inocarpus edulis7 which grows in ,indonesia1 but is thought to be a native of ,america4 ,it is supposed that the ,polynesians brought the seeds of this tree with them into the ,pacific1 where it is said to be a cultivated plant4 ,see ,s4 ,percy ,smith1 ,hawaiki1 the ,original ,home of the ,maori 7,christchurch1 etc41 ,new ,zealand1 #aiaj71 p4 #adf4 ,to wear a wreath of the leaves round the neck1 and to sit with the head bowed down1 constituted the strongest possible expression of humility and entreaty4 ,see ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 ,notes on ,tongan ,religion1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 xxx4 7#aiba7 p4 #aei4 #fh ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #afc sq4 ,another case of sacrilege1 which occurred in ,mariner's time1 was attended with more tragic consequences4 ,he tells us that consecrated places might not be the scene of war1 and that it would be highly sacrilegious to attack an enemy or to spill his blood within their confines4 ,on one occasion1 while ,mariner was in the islands1 four men1 pursued by their enemies1 fled for refuge to a consecrated enclosure1 where they would have been perfectly safe4 ,one of them was in the act of scrambling over the reed fence1 and had got a leg over it1 when he was overtaken by a foe1 who struck him such a furious blow on the head that he fell dead within the hallowed ground4 ,conscience-stricken1 the slayer fled to his canoe1 followed by his men2 and on arriving at the fortress where the king was stationed he made a clean breast of his crime1 alleging in excuse that it had been committed in hot blood when he had lost all self-command4 ,the king immediately ordered kava to be taken to the priest of his own tutelary god1 that the divinity might be consulted as to what atonement was proper to be made for so heinous a sacrilege4 ,under the double inspiration of kava and the deity1 the priest made answer that it was necessary a child should be strangled to appease the anger of the gods4 ,the chiefs then held a consultation and determined to sacrifice the child of a high chief named ,toobo ,toa4 ,the child was about two years old and had been born to him by a female attendant4 ,on such occasions the child of a male chief by a female attendant was always chosen for the victim first1 because1 as a child of a chief1 he was a worthier victim1 and second1 because1 as a child of a female attendant1 he was not himself a chief2 for nobility being traced in the female line only those children were reckoned chiefs whose mothers were chieftainesses2 the rank of the father1 whether noble or not1 did not affect the rank of his offspring4 ,on this occasion the father of the child was present at the consultation and consented to the sacrifice4 ,the mother1 fearing the decision1 had concealed the child1 but it was found by one of the searchers1 who took it up in his arms1 while it smiled with delight at being noticed4 ,the mother tried to follow but was held back2 and on hearing her voice the child began to cry4 ,but on reaching the place of execution it was pleased and delighted with the bandage that was put round its neck to strangle it1 and looking up in the face of the executioner it smiled again4 ,such a sight1 we are told1 inspired pity in the breast of every one3 but veneration and fear of the gods was a sentiment superior to every other1 and its destroyer could not help exclaiming1 as he put on the fatal bandage1 ,o iaaoe chi vale6 7poor little innocent674 ,two men then tightened the cord by pulling at each end1 and the struggles of the innocent victim were soon over4 ,the little body was next placed upon a sort of hand-barrow1 supported on the shoulders of four men1 and carried in a procession of priests1 chiefs1 and matabooles1 all clothed as suppliants in mats and with wreaths of green leaves round their necks4 ,in this way it was conveyed to various houses dedicated to different gods1 before each of which it was placed on the ground1 all the company sitting behind it1 except one priest1 who sat beside it and prayed aloud to the god that he would be pleased to accept of this sacrifice as an atonement for the heinous sacrilege committed1 and that punishment might accordingly be withheld from the people4 ,when this had been done before all the consecrated houses in the fortress1 the body was given up to its relations1 to be buried in the usual manner4#fi #fi ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #baf-bai4 ,as to the rule that nobility descended only in the female line1 through mothers1 not through fathers1 see id4 ii4 #hd1 #ie sq42 ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage de l',astrolabe1 ,histoire du ,voyage1 iv4 #bci4 ,the consecration of a house or a piece of ground to a god was denoted by the native word taboo1 the general meaning of which was prohibited or forbidden4#gj ,it was firmly believed by the ,tongans in former days that if a man committed sacrilege or broke a taboo1 his liver or some other of his internal organs was liable to become enlarged and scirrhous1 that is1 indurated or knotty2 hence they often opened dead bodies out of curiosity1 to see whether the deceased had been sacrilegious in their lifetime4 ,as the ,tongans are particularly subject to scirrhous tumours1 it seems probable that many innocent persons were thus posthumously accused of sacrilege on the strength of a post-mortem examination into the state of their livers4#ga ,another disagreeable consequence of breaking a taboo was a peculiar liability to be bitten by sharks1 which thus might be said to act as ministers of justice4 ,as theft was included under the general head of breach of taboo1 a simple way of bringing the crime home to the thief in case of doubt was to cause the accused to go into the water where sharks were known to swarm2 if they bit him1 he was guilty2 if they did not1 he was innocent4#gb #gj ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bbj4 #ga ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #aid1 note 992 compare #dcd1 note 994 #gb ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bba4 ,sec4 #f4 ,priests and their ,inspiration ,priests were known by the title of fahe-gehe1 a term which means split off1 separate1 or distinct from1 and was applied to a man who has a peculiar sort of mind or soul1 different from that of ordinary men1 which disposed some god occasionally to inspire him4 ,such inspirations frequently happened1 and when the fit was on him the priest had the same reverence shown to him as if he were the god himself2 at these times even the king would retire to a respectful distance and sit down among the rest of the spectators1 because a god was believed to exist at that moment in the priest and to speak from his mouth4 ,but at other times a priest had no other respect paid to him than was due to him for his private rank in society4 ,priests generally belonged to the lower order of chiefs or to their ministers1 the matabooles2 but sometimes great chiefs were thus visited by the gods1 and the king himself has been inspired by ,tali-y-,toobo1 the chief of the gods4#gc ,the profession of priest was generally hereditary1 the eldest son of a priest becoming1 on his father's death1 a priest of the same god who had inspired his deceased parent4 ,in their uninspired moments the priests lived indiscriminately with the rest of the people and were treated with no special deference4#gd #gc ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #hj sq4 #gd ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 ii4 #acf-ach4 ,the ceremony of inspiration1 during which the priest was believed to be possessed by a god and to speak in his name1 was regularly accompanied or preceded by a feast1 at which the drinking of kava formed the principal feature4 ,the priest himself presided at the feast and the people gathered in a circle round him2 or1 to be more exact1 the people formed an ellipse1 of which the priest occupied the place of honour at one of the narrow ends2 while opposite him1 at the other extremity of the ellipse1 sat the man who was charged with the important duty of brewing the kava4 ,at such sessions the chiefs sat indiscriminately among the people on account of the sacredness of the occasion1 conceiving that such humble demeanour must be acceptable to the gods4 ,the actual process of inspiration was often witnessed by ,mariner1 and is described by him in his own words as follows3 ,as soon as they are all seated1 the priest is considered as inspired1 the god being supposed to exist within him from that moment4 ,he remains for a considerable time in silence1 with his hands clasped before him2 his eyes are cast down1 and he rests perfectly still4 ,during the time that the victuals are being shared out1 and the cava preparing1 the matabooles sometimes begin to consult him2 sometimes he answers them1 at other times not2 in either case he remains with his eyes cast down4 ,frequently he will not utter a word till the repast is finished1 and the cava too4 ,when he speaks1 he generally begins in a low and very altered tone of voice1 which gradually rises to nearly its natural pitch1 though sometimes a little above it4 ,all that he says is supposed to be the declaration of the god1 and he accordingly speaks in the first person as if he were the god4 ,all this is done generally without any apparent inward emotion or outward agitation2 but on some occasions his countenance becomes fierce1 and1 as it were1 inflamed1 and his whole frame agitated with inward feeling2 he is seized with an universal trembling2 the perspiration breaks out on his forehead1 and his lips1 turning black1 are convulsed2 at length1 tears start in floods from his eyes1 his breast heaves with great emotion1 and his utterance is choked4 ,these symptoms gradually subside4 ,before this paroxysm comes on1 and after it is over1 he often eats as much as four hungry men1 under other circumstances1 could devour4 ,the fit being now gone off1 he remains for some time calm1 and then takes up a club that is placed by him for the purpose1 turns it over and regards it attentively2 he then looks up earnestly1 now to the right1 now to the left1 and now again at the club2 afterwards he looks up again1 and about him in like manner1 and then again fixes his eyes upon his club1 and so on1 for several times3 at length he suddenly raises the club1 and1 after a moment's pause1 strikes the ground1 or the adjacent part of the house1 with considerable force3 immediately the god leaves him1 and he rises up and retires to the back of the ring among the people4#ge #ge ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #ii-aja4 ,compare ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 ,notes on ,tongan ,religion1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 xxx4 7#aiba7 pp4 #aee-aeg4 ,sec4 #g4 ,the ,worship of the ,gods1 ,prayers1 and ,sacrifices ,the worship offered to the gods consisted as usual of prayers and sacrifices4 ,prayers were put up to them1 sometimes in the fields1 and sometimes at their consecrated houses4 ,on ordinary occasions a simple offering consisted of a small piece of kava root deposited before a god's house4#gf ,but in the great emergencies of life the favour of the gods was sued with more precious offerings4 ,when the younger daughter of ,finow1 a girl of six or seven years1 was sick to death1 the dying princess was carried from her father's house into the sacred enclosure of ,tali-y-,toobo1 the patron god of the kings1 and there she remained for a fortnight4 ,almost every morning a hog was killed1 dressed1 and presented before the god's house to induce him to spare the life of the princess4 ,at the same time prayers were addressed to the deity for the recovery of the patient2 but as this particular god had no priest1 the prayers were offered by a minister 7mataboole71 sometimes by two or three in succession1 and they were repeated five1 six1 or seven times a day4 ,their general purport was as follows3 ,here thou seest assembled ,finow and his chiefs1 and the principal ministers 7matabooles7 of thy favoured land2 thou seest them humbled before thee4 ,we pray thee not to be merciless1 but to spare the life of the woman for the sake of her father1 who has always been attentive to every religious ceremony4 ,but if thy anger is justly excited by some crime or misdemeanour committed by any other of us who are here assembled1 we entreat thee to inflict on the guilty one the punishment which he merits1 and not to let loose thy vengeance on one who was born but as yesterday4 ,for our own parts1 why do we wish to live but for the sake of ,finow8 ,but if his family is afflicted1 we are all afflicted1 innocent as well as guilty4 ,how canst thou be merciless8 ,have regard for ,finow and spare the life of his daughter4 ,when despite of prayers and the sacrifices of pigs1 the girl grew daily worse instead of better1 she was removed to many other consecrated enclosures of other gods1 one after the other1 where the like fond prayers and fruitless offerings were presented in the vain hope of staving off the approach of death4#gg #gf ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bbd4 #gg ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #cej-cfj4 ,but more precious sacrifices than the blood of hogs were often laid at the feet of the angry gods4 ,when a relation of a superior rank was ill1 it was a very common practice for one or more of his or her inferior kinsfolk to have a little finger1 or a joint of a finger1 cut off as a sacrifice to induce the offended deity to spare the sick man or woman4 ,so common was the custom in the old days that there was scarcely a person living in the ,tonga islands who had not thus lost one or both of his little fingers1 or a considerable portion of both4 ,it does not appear that the operation was very painful4 ,mariner witnessed more than once little children quarrelling for the honour of having it performed on them4 ,the finger was laid flat upon a block of wood3 a knife1 axe1 or sharp stone was placed with the edge on the joint to be severed1 and a powerful blow with a hammer or heavy stone effected the amputation4 ,sometimes an affectionate relative would perform the operation on his or her own hand4 ,john ,williams questioned a girl of eighteen who had hacked off her own little finger with a sharp shell to induce the gods to spare her sick mother4 ,generally a joint was taken off at a time2 but some persons had smaller portions amputated to admit of the operation being often repeated in case they had many superior relations1 who might be sick and require the sacrifice4 ,when they had no more joints which they could conveniently spare1 they rubbed the stumps of the mutilated fingers till the blood streamed from the wounds2 then they would hold up the bleeding hands in hope of softening the heart of the angry god4#gh ,captain ,cook understood that the operation was performed for the benefit of the sufferers themselves to heal them in sickness1#gi and the same view was apparently taken by the ,french navigator ,labillardiere1#hj but in this they were probably mistaken2 neither of them had an accurate knowledge of the language1 and they may easily have misunderstood their informants4 ,perhaps the only person in the islands who was exempt from the necessity of occasionally submitting to the painful sacrifice was the divine chief ,tooitonga1 who1 as he ranked above everybody1 even above the king1 could have no superior relation for whom to amputate a finger-joint4 ,certainly we know that ,tooitonga had not1 like the rest of his countrymen1 to undergo the painful operations of tattooing and circumcision2 if he desired to be tattooed or circumcised1 he was obliged to go to other islands1 particularly to ,samoa1 for the purpose4#ha ,perhaps1 though this is not mentioned by our authorities1 it would have been deemed impious to shed his sacred blood in his native land4 #gh ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #dch sq41 ii4 #baj-bab2 ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #bci1 #bgh2 ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 pp4 #dgj sq42 ,jerome ,grange1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xvii4 7#ahde7 pp4 #ab1 #bf2 ,sarah ,s4 ,farmer1 ,tonga and the ,friendly ,islands1 p4 #abh4 #gi ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #bjd1 v4 #dba sq4 ,however1 in a footnote to the latter passage ,captain ,cook gives the correct explanation of the custom on the authority of ,captain ,king3 ,it is common for the inferior people to cut off a joint of their little finger1 on account of the sickness of the chiefs to whom they belong4 #hj ,labillardiere1 ,relation du ,voyage a la recherche de la ,perouse 7,paris1 #ahjj71 ii4 #aea4 #ha ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #gi1 #bfh4 ,but sacrifices to the gods for the recovery of the sick were not limited to the amputation of finger-joints4 ,not uncommonly children were strangled for this purpose4#hb ,thus when ,finow the king was grievously sick and seemed likely to die1 the prince1 his son1 and a young chief went out to procure one of the king's own children by a female attendant to sacrifice it as a vicarious offering to the gods1 that their anger might be appeased and the health of its father restored4 ,they found the child sleeping in its mother's lap in a neighbouring house2 they took it away by force1 and retiring with it behind an adjacent burial-ground 7fytoca7 they strangled it with a band of bark-cloth4 ,then they carried it before two consecrated houses and a grave1 at each place gabbling a short but appropriate prayer to the god1 that he would intercede with the other gods in behalf of the dying king1 and would accept of this sacrifice as an atonement for the sick man's crimes4#hc ,when1 not long afterwards1 the divine chief ,tooitonga1 in spite of his divinity1 fell sick and seemed like to die1 one or other of his young relations had a little finger cut off every day1 as a propitiatory offering to the gods for the sins of the saintly sufferer4 ,but these sacrifices remaining fruitless1 recourse was had to greater4 ,three or four children were strangled at different times1 and prayers were offered up by the priests at the consecrated houses and burial-grounds 7fytocas7 but all in vain4 ,the gods remained deaf to the prayers of the priests2 their hearts were not touched by the cutting off of fingers or the strangling of children2 and the illness of the sacred chief grew every day more alarming4 ,as a last resort and desperate remedy1 the emaciated body of the dying man was carried into the kitchen1 the people imagining that such an act of humility1 performed on behalf of the highest dignitary of the ,tonga islands1 would surely move the deities to compassion and induce them to spare a life so precious to his subjects4#hd ,the same curious remedy had shortly before been resorted to for the benefit of the dying or dead king1 ,finow the ,first3 his body was carried into the kitchen of the sacred chief1 the ,tooitonga1 and there placed over the hole in the ground where the fire was lighted to cook victuals3 this was thought to be acceptable to the gods1 as being a mark of extreme humiliation1 that the great chief of all the ,hapai islands and ,vavaoo1 should be laid where the meanest class of mankind1 the cooks1 were accustomed to operate4#he #hb ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bjh sq4 #hc ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #cff4 #hd ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #dch sq42 compare id4 ii4 #bad4 #he ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #cfg sq4 ,the custom of strangling the relations of a sick chief as a vicarious sacrifice to appease the anger of the deity and ensure the recovery of the patient was found in vogue by the first missionaries to ,tonga before the arrival of ,mariner4 ,when ,king ,moomooe lay very sick and his death was hourly expected1 one of his sons sent for a younger brother under pretence of wishing to cut off his little fingers as a sacrifice to save the life of their dying father4 ,the young man came1 whereupon his elder brother had him seized1 strangled1 and buried within a few yards of the house where the missionaries were living4 ,afterwards the fratricide came and mourned over his murdered brother by sitting on the grave with his elbows on his knees and covering his face with his hands4 ,in this posture he remained for a long time in silence1 and then departed very thoughtful4 ,his motive for thus mourning over the brother whom he had done to death is not mentioned by the missionaries and was probably not known to them4 ,we may conjecture that it was not so much remorse for his crime as fear of his brother's ghost1 who otherwise might have haunted him4#hf ,morality1 or at all events a semblance of it1 has often been thus reinforced by superstitious terrors4 #hf ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #bch-bdj4 ,in recording this incident the missionaries make use of an expression which seems to set the strangling of human beings for the recovery of sick relations in a somewhat different light4 ,they say that the prince of darkness has impressed the idea on them1 that the strength of the person strangled will be transferred into the sick1 and recover him4#hg ,on this theory the sacrifice acts1 so to say1 mechanically without the intervention of a deity2 the life of the victim is transfused into the body of the patient as a sort of tonic which strengthens and revives him4 ,such a rite is therefore magical rather than religious2 it depends for its efficacy on natural causes1 and not on the pity and help of the gods4 ,yet the missionaries1 who record this explanation of the custom1 elsewhere implicitly accept the religious interpretation of such rites as vicarious sacrifices2 for they say that among the superstitious notions of the natives concerning spirits was one that by strangling some relations of the chief when he is sick1 the deity will be appeased1 and he 7that is1 the sick chief7 will recover4#hh ,perhaps both explanations1 the religious and the magical1 were assigned by the ,tongans3 consistency of thought is as little characteristic of savage as of civilised man3 provided he attains his ends1 he recks little of the road by which he reaches them4 ,an ,english sailor named ,ambler1 who had resided for thirteen months in ,tonga before the arrival of the missionaries1 told them1 that when a great chief lay sick they often strangled their women1 to the number of three or four at a time4#hi ,such a sacrifice is more likely to have been religious than magical2 we may suppose that the victims were rather offered to the gods as substitutes for the chief than killed to recruit his failing strength by an infusion of their health and vigour4 ,a chief would probably have disdained the idea of drawing fresh energy from the bodies of women1 though he might be ready enough to believe that the gods would consent to accept their life as a proxy for his own4 ,it is true that elsewhere1 notably in ,uganda1 human beings have been killed to prolong the life of the king by directly transferring their strength to him2#ij but in such cases it would seem that the victims have invariably been men and not women4 #hg ,captain ,james ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdj4 #hh ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 p4 #beg4 #hi ,captain ,james ,wilson1 op4 cit41 p4 #bgh4 ,this ,ambler was a man of very indifferent1 not to say infamous1 character1 but he rendered the missionaries considerable service by instructing them in the ,tongan language1 which he spoke fluently4 ,see ,captain ,james ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ih1 #bdd sq4 #ij ,see ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 ,third ,edition1 ii4 #bai sqq4 ,sec4 #h4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,soul and its ,destiny after ,death ,thus far we have dealt with the primary or superior gods1 who were believed to have been always gods1 and about whose origin nothing was known4 ,we now pass to a consideration of the secondary or inferior gods1 whose origin was perfectly well known1 since they were all of them the souls of dead chiefs or nobles1 of whom some had died or been killed in recent years4 ,but before we take up the subject of their worship1 it will be well to say a few words on the ,tongan doctrine of the human soul1 since these secondary deities were avowedly neither more nor less than human souls raised to a higher power by death4 ,the ,tongans1 in their native state1 before the advent of ,europeans1 did not conceive of the soul as a purely immaterial essence1 that being a conception too refined for the thought of a savage4 ,they imagined it to be the finer or more aeriform part of the body which leaves it suddenly at the moment of death1 and which may be thought to stand in the same relation to the body as the perfume of a flower to its solid substance4 ,they had no proper word to express this fine ethereal part of man2 for the word loto1 though it might sometimes be used for that purpose1 yet rather means a man's disposition1 inclination1 passion1 or sentiment4 ,the soul was supposed to exist throughout the whole of the body1 but to be particularly present in the heart1 the pulsation of which they regarded as the strength and power of the soul4 ,they did not clearly distinguish between the life and the soul1 but said that the right auricle of the heart was the seat of life4 ,they took the liver to be the seat of courage1 and professed to have remarked1 on opening dead bodies1 that the largest livers belonged to the bravest men1 in which observation they were careful to make allowance for the enlargement of livers consequent on disease4#ia #ia ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #abg sq4 ,they acknowledged that the tooas or lower order of people had minds or souls2 but they firmly believed that these vulgar souls died with their bodies and consequently had no future existence4 ,in this aristocratic opinion the generality of the commoners acquiesced1 though some were vain enough to think that they had souls like their betters1 and that they would live hereafter in ,bolotoo4 ,but the orthodox ,tongan doctrine restricted immortality to chiefs and their ministers 7the matabooles72 at most1 by a stretch of charity1 it extended the privilege to the mooas or third estate2 but it held out no hope of salvation to tooas1 who formed the fourth and lowest rank of society4#ib #ib ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #dai1 ii4 #ii1 #abh sq4 ,mariner's account1 which ,i have followed1 of the sharp distinction which the ,tongans drew between the immortality of chiefs and the mortality of common people is confirmed by the testimony of other and independent observers4 ,according to ,captain ,cook1 while the souls of the chiefs went immediately after death to the island of ,boolootoo 7,bolotoo71 the souls of the lower sort of people underwent a sort of transmigration or were eaten by a bird called loata1 which walked upon their graves for that purpose4#ic ,the first missionaries1 who landed in ,tongataboo in #agig1 report that the natives believe the immortality of the soul1 which at death1 they say1 is immediately conveyed in a very large fast-sailing canoe to a distant country called ,doobludha1 which they describe as resembling the ,mahometan paradise4 ,they call the god of this region of pleasure ,higgolayo1 and esteem him as the greatest and most powerful of all others1 the rest being no better than servants to him4 ,this doctrine1 however1 is wholly confined to the chiefs1 for the tooas 7or lower order7 can give no account whatever2 as they reckon the enjoyments of ,doobludha above their capacity1 so they seem never to think of what may become of them after they have served the purposes of this life4#id ,one of these first missionaries was a certain ,george ,veeson1 who had been a bricklayer before he undertook to convert the heathen to ,christianity4 ,wearying1 however1 of missionary work1 he deserted his brethren and betook himself to the heathen1 among whom he lived as one of them1 adopting the native garb1 marrying native women1 and eagerly fighting in the wars of the natives among themselves4 ,in this way he acquired a considerable knowledge of the ,tongan language and customs1 of which he made some use in the account of his experiences which he published anonymously after his return to ,england4 ,speaking of ,tongan ideas concerning the immortality of the soul he says that he heard the chiefs speak much of ,bulotu 7,bolotoo74 ,into this region1 however1 they believed none were admitted but themselves4 ,the ,tuas1 or lower class1 having no hope of sharing such bliss1 seldom speculate upon a futurity1 which to them appears a subject lost in shadows1 clouds1 and darkness4#ie ,the missionaries reported to ,commodore ,wilkes that the spirits of all chiefs were supposed to go to ,bolotoo1 while the souls of poor people remained in this world to feed upon ants and lizards4#if ,with regard to the fate of the soul after death1 the ,tongans universally and positively believed in the existence of a great island1 lying at a considerable distance to the north-west1 which they considered to be the abode of their gods and of the souls of their dead nobles and their ministers 7the matabooles74 ,this island they supposed to be much larger than all their own islands put together1 and to be well stocked with all kinds of useful and ornamental plants1 always in a high state of perfection1 and always bearing the richest fruits and the most beautiful flowers according to their respective natures2 they thought that when these fruits or flowers were plucked1 others immediately took their place1 and that the whole atmosphere was filled with the most delightful fragrance that the imagination can conceive1 exhaled from these immortal plants4 ,the island1 too1 was well stocked with the most beautiful birds1 of all imaginable kinds1 as well as with abundance of hogs2 and all of these creatures were immortal1 except when they were killed to provide food for the gods4 ,but the moment a hog or a bird was killed1 another live hog or bird came into existence to supply its place1 just as happened with the fruits and flowers2 and this1 so far as they could ascertain1 was the only way in which plants and animals were propagated in ,bolotoo4 ,so far away was the happy island supposed to be that it was dangerous for living men to attempt to sail thither in their canoes2 indeed1 except by the express permission of the gods1 they could not find the island1 however near they might come to it4 ,they tell1 however1 of a ,tongan canoe which1 returning from ,fiji1 was driven by stress of weather to ,bolotoo4 ,the crew knew not the place1 and being in want of provisions and seeing the country to abound in all sorts of fruits1 they landed and proceeded to pluck some bread-fruit4 ,but to their unspeakable astonishment they could no more lay hold of the fruit than if it were a shadow2 they walked through the trunks of the trees and passed through the substance of the houses without feeling any shock or resistance4 ,at length they saw some of the gods1 who passed through the men's bodies as if they were empty space4 ,these gods recommended them to go away immediately1 as they had no proper food for them1 and they promised them a fair wind and a speedy passage4 ,so the men put to sea1 and sailing with the utmost speed they arrived at ,samoa1 where they stayed two or three days4 ,thence1 again sailing very fast1 they returned to ,tonga1 where in the course of a few days they all died1 not as a punishment for having been at ,bolotoo1 but as a natural consequence1 the air of that place1 as it were1 infecting mortal bodies with speedy death4 ,the gods who dwell in ,bolotoo have no canoes1 not requiring them2 for if they wish to be anywhere1 there they are the moment the wish is felt4#ig #ic ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dbc4 #id ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #bgh sq4 #ie ,quoted by ,miss ,sarah ,s4 ,farmer1 ,tonga and the ,friendly ,islands1 p4 #aca4 ,as to ,veeson1 see id4 pp4 #gh1 #he sqq4 ,the title of his book is given 7p4 #hg7 as ,authentic ,narrative of a ,four ,years' ,residence in ,tongataboo 7,london3 ,longman ,co41 #ahae74 ,i have not seen the book4 ,the man's name is given as ,vason by 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson in his ,diversions of a ,prime ,minister 7,edinburgh and ,london1 #ahid71 pp4 #cbf1 #cbg1 #cbi1 #cca2 but his real name seems to have been ,george ,veeson4 ,see ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #f1 #bcj4 #if ,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 iii4 #bb4 #ig ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #aja-ajc4 ,it is said that in order to people ,bolotoo the god ,hikuleo used to carry off the first-born sons of chiefs and other great men1 whom he transported to the island of the gods4 ,to such lengths did he go in this system of abduction that men on earth grew very uneasy4 ,their ranks became thinner and thinner4 ,how was all this to end8 ,at last the other gods were moved to compassion4 ,the two gods ,tangaloa and ,maui laid hold of brother ,hikuleo1 passed a strong chain round his waist and between his legs1 and then taking the chain by the ends they fastened one of them to the sky and the other to the earth4 ,thus trussed up1 the deity still made many attempts to snatch away first-born sons2 but all his efforts were thwarted and baffled by the chain1 for no sooner did he dart out in one direction1 than the chain pulled him back in another4 ,according to another1 or the same story1 the excursions of the deity were further limited by the length of his tail1 the end of which was tethered to the cave in which he resided2 and though the tail was long and allowed him a good deal of rope1 do what he would1 he could not break bounds or obtain more than a very partial view of what was going on in the rest of the world4#ih #ih ,sarah ,s4 ,farmer1 ,tonga and the ,friendly ,islands1 pp4 #acb sq4 ,as to ,hikuleo and his long tail1 see also ,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 iii4 #bc1 ,hikuleo is the god of spirits1 and is the third in order of time2 he dwells in a cave in the island4 ,bulotu is most remarkable for a long tail1 which prevents him from going farther from the cave in which he resides than its length will admit of4 ,here the god ,hikuleo appears to be confused with the island of ,bulotu 7,bulotoo7 in which he resided4 ,tradition wavers on the question whether ,hikuleo was a god or goddess1 but the general suffrage seems in favour of the female sex4 ,see ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 ,notes on ,tongan ,religion1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 xxx4 7#aiba7 pp4 #aeb1 #aec4 ,in this curious story we may perhaps detect a tradition of a time when among the ,tongans1 as among the ,semites1 religion or superstition demanded the sacrifice of all first-born sons1 a barbarous custom which has been practised by not a few peoples in various parts of the earth4#ii #ii ,as to a custom of putting the first-born to death1 see ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #agh sqq42 and for other reported instances of the custom1 see ,mrs4 ,james ,smith1 ,the ,booandik ,tribe of ,south ,australia 7,adelaide1 #ahhj71 pp4 #g sq42 ,c4 ,e4 ,fox1 ,social ,organisation in ,san ,cristoval1 ,solomon ,islands1 ,journal of the ,r4 ,anthropological ,institute1 xlix4 7#aiai7 p4 #ajj2 ,e4 ,o4 ,martin1 ,the ,gods of ,india 7,london and ,toronto1 #aiad71 p4 #bae2 ,n4 ,w4 ,thomas1 ,anthropological ,report on the ,ibo-speaking peoples of ,nigeria1 ,part i4 7,london1 #aiac7 p4 #ab4 ,compare ,e4 ,westermarck1 ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7,london1 #aijf71 i4 #deh sqq4 ,the human soul after its separation from the body at death was termed a hotooa or atua1 that is1 a god or spirit1 and was believed to exist in the shape of the body and to have the same propensities as in life1 but to be corrected by a more enlightened understanding1 by which it readily distinguished good from evil1 truth from falsehood1 and right from wrong4 ,the souls dwelt for ever in the happy regions of ,bolotoo1 where they bore the same names as in life and held the same rank among themselves as they had held during their mortal existence4 ,but their lot in ,bolotoo was in no way affected by the good or evil which they had done on earth2 for the ,tongans did not believe in a future state of retribution for deeds done in the body2 they thought that the gods punished crime in this present world1 without waiting to redress the balance of justice in the world to come4 ,as many of the nobles who passed at death to ,bolotoo had been warlike and turbulent in their life1 it might naturally be anticipated that they should continue to wage war on each other in the land beyond the grave2 but that was not so1 for by a merciful dispensation their understandings were so much enlightened1 or their tempers so much improved1 by their residence in ,bolotoo1 that any differences they might have between themselves1 or with the primitive gods1 they adjusted by temperate discussion without resort to violence2 though people in ,tonga sometimes heard an echo and caught a glimpse of these high debates in the rumble of thunder and the flash of lightning4#ajj ,in the blissful abode of ,bolotoo the souls of chiefs and nobles lived for ever1 being not subject to a second death1 and there they feasted upon all the favourite productions of their native country1 which grew also abundantly in the happy island4#aja #ajj ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #aaj sq41 #acj1 #aca1 #aci1 #adj4 #aja ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dbc4 ,a less cheerful picture1 however1 of the state of souls in the other world was painted for ,commodore ,wilkes by the missionaries who furnished him with information on the native religion of the ,tongans4 ,according to them1 the souls were forced to become the servants1 or rather slaves1 of the long-tailed deity ,hikuleo1 whose commands they had no choice but to execute4 ,his house and all things in it were even constructed of the souls of the dead2 and he went so far as to make fences out of them and bars to his gates1 an indignity which must have been deeply resented by the proud spirits of kings and nobles4#ajb ,how this gloomy picture of the fate of souls in ,bolotoo is to be reconciled with the bright descriptions of it which ,i have drawn from the pages of ,mariner and ,cook1 it is not easy to say4 ,apparently we must acquiesce in the discrepancy4 ,that savages should entertain inconsistent views on the life after death need not surprise us1 when we remember how little accurate information even civilised peoples possess on that momentous subject4 #ajb ,charles ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 iii4 #bc4 ,the writer here speaks of ,bulotu1 where he should have said ,hikuleo4 ,see above1 p4 #hi1 note#a4 ,sec4 #i4 ,the ,souls of the ,dead as ,gods ,we have seen that according to ,mariner1 our best authority on ,tongan religion1 the souls of dead nobles ranked as gods1 possessing all the powers and attributes of the primary or original deities1 though in an inferior degree4#ajc ,thus1 like the primary gods1 they had the power of returning to ,tonga to inspire priests1 relations1 or other people4#ajd ,for example1 the son of ,finow1 the ,king1 used to be inspired by the spirit of ,toogoo ,ahoo1 a former king of ,tonga1 who had been assassinated with the connivance of his successor1 ,finow4 ,one day ,mariner asked this young chief how he felt when he was visited by the spirit of the murdered monarch4 ,the chief replied that he could not well describe his feelings1 but the best he could say of it was1 that he felt himself all over in a glow of heat and quite restless and uncomfortable2 he did not feel his personal identity1 as it were1 but seemed to have a mind differing from his own natural mind1 his thoughts wandering upon strange and unusual topics1 though he remained perfectly sensible of surrounding objects4 ,when ,mariner asked him how he knew it was the spirit of ,toogoo ,ahoo who possessed him1 the chief answered impatiently1 ,there's a fool6 ,how can ,i tell you how ,i knew it8 ,i felt and knew it was so by a kind of consciousness2 my mind told me that it was ,toogoo ,ahoo4 ,similarly ,finow himself1 the father of this young man1 used occasionally to be inspired by the ghost of ,moomooi1 a former king of ,tonga4#aje #ajc ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tongan ,islands1 ii4 #ig1 #ii1 #ajc1 #aji sq4 ,see above1 pp4 #fd sq41 #ff4 #ajd ,w4 ,mariner1 ii4 #acj sq42 compare id4 pp4 #ii1 #ajc sq41 #aji sq4 #aje ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #ajd sq4 ,again1 the souls of dead nobles1 like gods1 had the power of appearing in dreams and visions to their relatives and others to admonish and warn them4 ,it was thought1 for example1 that ,finow the king was occasionally visited by a deceased son of his2 the ghost did not appear1 but announced his presence by whistling4 ,mariner once heard this whistling when he was with the king and some chiefs in a house at night2 it was dark1 and the sound appeared to come from the loft of the house4 ,in ,mariner's opinion the sound was produced by some trick of ,finow's1 but the natives believed it to be the voice of a spirit4#ajf ,once more1 when ,finow the king was himself dead1 a noble lady who mourned his death and generally slept on his grave1 communicated to his widow a dream which she had dreamed several nights at the graveyard4 ,she said that in her dream the late king appeared to her1 and1 with a countenance full of sorrow1 asked why there yet remained so many evil-designing persons in the islands2 for he declared that1 since he had been at ,bolotoo1 he had been disturbed by the plots of wicked men conspiring against his son2 therefore was he come to warn her of the danger4 ,finally1 he bade her set in order the pebbles on his grave1 and pay every attention to his burial-ground4 ,with that he vanished4#ajg ,in such dreams of the reappearance of the recent dead we may discover one source of the belief in the survival of the soul after death4 #ajf ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #aaj1 #acj sq4 #ajg ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #dbc sq4 ,but the gods appeared to mankind to warn1 comfort1 and advise1 not only in their own divine form but also in the form of animals4 ,thus the primitive gods1 according to ,mariner1 sometimes entered into the living bodies of lizards1 porpoises1 and a species of water snake4 ,hence these creatures were much respected4 ,the reason why gods entered into porpoises was to take care of canoes4 ,this power of assuming the form of living animals1 says ,mariner1 belonged only to the original gods1 and not to the deified souls of chiefs4#ajh ,in thus denying that the spirits of the dead were supposed sometimes to revisit the earth in animal shapes ,mariner was perhaps mistaken1 for a different view on the subject was apparently taken at a later time by ,miss ,farmer1 who had access to good sources of information4 ,she writes as follows3 ,bulotu 7,bolotoo7 was peopled with the spirits of departed chiefs and great persons of both sexes2 and it was to these chiefly that worship was paid and that sacrifices were offered4 ,these spirits in ,bulotu were supposed to act as intercessors with the supreme gods1 who were too highly exalted to be approached by men except in this way4 ,the spirits were in the habit of revisiting earth4 ,they would come in birds1 or in fish as their shrines4 ,the tropic-bird1 king-fisher1 and sea-gull1 the sea-eel1 shark1 whale1 and many other animals were considered sacred1 because they were favourite shrines of these spirit-gods4 ,the heathen never killed any of these creatures2 and if1 in sailing1 they chanced to find themselves in the neighbourhood of a whale1 they would offer scented oil or kava to him4 ,to some among the natives the cuttle-fish and the lizard were gods2 while others would lay offerings at the foot of certain trees1 with the idea of their being inhabited by spirits4 ,a rainbow or a shooting star would also command worship4#aji #ajh ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ii1 #aca4 #aji ,sarah ,s4 ,farmer1 ,tonga and the ,friendly ,islands1 pp4 #abf sq4 ,this account seems to imply that the spirits which took the form of these animals1 birds1 and fish were believed to be the souls of the dead returning from the spirit world to revisit their old homes on earth4 ,but even if we suppose that herein the writer was mistaken1 and that1 as ,mariner affirmed1 only the original and superior gods were deemed capable of incarnation in animal shape1 the account is still valuable and interesting because it calls attention to a side of ,tongan religion on which our principal authority1 ,mariner1 is almost silent4 ,that side comprises the worship of natural objects1 and especially of animals1 birds1 and fish1 regarded as embodiments of spirits1 whether gods or ghosts4 ,this worship of nature1 and particularly of animated nature1 was highly developed among the ,samoans2 it would be natural1 therefore1 to find the same system in vogue among their neighbours and near kinsmen the ,tongans1 though our authorities on ,tongan religion say little about it4 ,the system may with some appearance of probability be regarded as a relic of a former practice of totemism4#aaj #aaj ,see below1 pp4 #ahb sqq41 #bjj sqq4 ,in recent years a considerable amount of evidence bearing on the subject has been collected by ,mr4 ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot4 ,he distinguishes the national ,tongan gods from the gods of tribes1 clans1 and small groups of allied households2 such a group of households1 it appears1 formed the ordinary social unit4 ,indeed1 he tells us that there was nothing to prevent a man from setting up a tutelary deity of his own1 if he were so disposed2 he might adopt almost any object for the religious reverence of his household and himself4 ,thus there was a gradation in the divine hierarchy from gods of populous tribes down to deities the private possession of a very few4#aaa ,further1 ,mr4 ,collocot found that most of the gods had sacred animals or other natural objects associated with them1#aab and that the worshippers were generally forbidden to eat the sacred animals of their gods4 ,he concludes that in the period of which we have information totemism has given way to a more highly developed polytheism1 but there are indications that the development was by way of totemism4#aac ,among the facts which appear to support this conclusion we may note the following4 #aaa ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 ,notes on ,tongan ,religion1 ,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 xxx4 7#aiba7 pp4 #aed sq41 #aei4 #aab ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afj1 #afa4 #aac ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aei sq4 ,there was a great god called ,boolotoo ,katoa1 that is1 the whole of ,boolotoo 7,bolotoo71 who had the dog for his sacred animal2 while the deity was being worshipped1 a dog lay at the side of the priest4 ,this god had his principal shrine at ,boha in the eastern part of ,tongataboo3 the district was of old the centre of government and the residence of the ,tooitonga4#aad ,another god1 whose name was the ,king of the tribe or clan of ,fonua 7,tui-,haafakafonua71 had for his sacred animal a lizard1 and for the convenience of his departure1 and presumably arrival1 a tree or post was always provided for him to crawl along4 ,a handy post or tree-stump was a regular part of his temple furnishings4#aae ,another god1 whose name signifies ,proud ,boastfulness of the ,season 7,mofuta-ae-ta'u71 had for his sacred animal a great sea-eel1 which dwelt in an opening of the reef opposite the village4 ,this deity used to take it very ill if anybody appeared on the beach near his abode wearing a turban or whitened with lime2 and should a man rashly disregard the feelings of the divine eel in these respects1 it was believed that the deity would carry him off to his hole in the rock4#aaf ,another god1 named ,haele-feke1 used to manifest himself in the form of an octopus 7feke74 ,whenever an octopus appeared in a certain pool1 it was at once recognised as the god1 and the priestess immediately went and awaited him at the shrine1 which seems to have been a small raised platform4 ,thither the people presently resorted1 bringing bunches of coco-nuts and coco-nut leaves and earth4 ,the priestess thereupon spoke as in the person of the octopus1 and apparently imitated the creature1 presumably by sprawling in the ungainly manner of an octopus4 ,the worshippers of this deity abstained from eating the flesh of the octopus1 and even from approaching a place where other people were eating it4 ,if any of them transgressed the taboo1 he was afflicted with complete baldness4 ,should any of the worshippers find a dead octopus1 they buried it with all due ceremony in ,teekiu1 their principal village4#aag ,the rail bird 7kalae7 was worshipped by some people1 who used to tie bunches of the birds together and carry them about with them when they travelled2 and the priest had a bunch of the sacred birds tattooed as a badge on his throat4#aah ,the clan ,fainga'a had for its sacred animal the mullet2 and it is said that young mullets were tabooed to the men of the clan4#aai ,a family group in ,haapai had the owl for their sacred creature2 if an owl hooted near a house in the afternoon1 it was a sign that there was a pregnant woman in the household4#abj ,the god of ,uiha in ,haapai was the ,eel-in-the-,open-,sea 7,toke-i-,moana72 as usual1 the worshippers might not eat the flesh of eels or approach a place where an eel was being cooked4#aba ,the clan ,falefa worshipped two goddesses1 ,jiji and ,fainga'a1 whose sacred creature was the heron4 ,jiji was supposed to be incarnate in the dark-coloured heron1 and ,fainga'a in the light-coloured heron4 ,when a pair of herons1 one dark and the other light-coloured1 were seen flying together1 people said that it was the two goddesses ,jiji and ,fainga'a4#abb ,in the island of ,tofua there was a clan called the ,king of ,tofua 7,tui ,tofua71 which had the shark for its god2 members of the clan might not eat the flesh of sharks1 because they believed themselves to be related to the fish2 they said that long ago some of the clansmen leaped from a canoe into the sea and were turned into sharks4#abc ,another god who appeared in the form of a shark was ,taufa of the ,sea 7,taufa-tahi72 but in another aspect he was a god of the land 7,taufa-uta7 and a notable protector of gardens4 ,to secure his aid the husbandman had only to plait a coco-nut leaf in the likeness of a shark and to hang it up in his plantation2 a garden thus protected was under a taboo which no one would dare to violate4 ,a ,christian1 who ventured to thrust his hand in mockery into the maw of the sham shark1 had both his arms afterwards bitten off by a real shark4#abd ,other gods were recognised in the shape of flying-foxes1 shell-fish1 and little blue and green lizards4#abe ,we hear of two ,tongan gods who had black volcanic pebbles for their sacred objects1#abf and of one whose shrine was the tree called fehi1 the hard wood of which was commonly used for making spears and canoes4#abg ,the gods of ,niua ,fo'ou1 one of the most distant islands of the ,tongan group1 were three in number1 to wit1 the octopus1 pig's liver1 and a large lump of coral4 ,the worshippers of the two former deities might not eat the divine octopus and the divine pig's liver4#abh ,christianity itself appears not to have wholly extinguished the reverence of the natives for the sacred animals of their clans4 ,a much-respected native minister of the ,methodist ,church informed ,mr4 ,collocot that to this day he gets a headache if he eats the sacred animal of his clan1 though other people may partake of the creature1 not only with impunity1 but with relish4#abi #aad ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 p4 #afb4 #aae ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbg4 #aaf ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbg sq4 #aag ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bca sq4 #aah ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afa1 #bcc4 #aai ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 p4 #bcd4 #abj ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 p4 #bcd4 #aba ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bcd sq4 #abb ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 p4 #bcb4 #abc ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bch sq4 #abd ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbi4 #abe ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcc4 #abf ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bcj1 #bcc4 #abg ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 p4 #bcb4 #abh ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 p4 #bci4 #abi ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 p4 #afj4 ,thus the worship of natural objects1 and especially of animals1 fish1 and birds1 presents a close analogy to the ,samoan system1 as we shall see presently2#acj and it is not without significance that tradition points to ,samoa as the original home from which the ancestors of the ,tongans migrated to their present abode4#aca ,on the question of the nature of the divine beings who presented themselves to their worshippers in the form of animals1 the evidence collected by ,mr4 ,collocot seems to confirm the statement of ,mariner1 that only the primary or non-human gods were believed capable of thus becoming incarnate2 at least ,mr4 ,collocot gives no hint that the worshipful creatures were supposed to be tenanted by the souls of the human dead2 in other words1 there is nothing to show that the ,tongan worship of animals was based on a theory of transmigration4 #acj ,see below1 pp4 #aed sq4 #aca ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot1 op4 cit4 p4 #bci4 ,the statement of ,miss ,farmer1 which ,i have quoted1 that among the ,tongans the souls of the dead were the principal object of worship and received the most sacrifices1 is interesting and not improbable1 though it is not confirmed by ,mariner4 ,it may indeed1 perhaps1 be laid down as a general principle that the worship of the dead tends constantly to encroach on the worship of the high gods1 who are pushed ever farther into the background by the advent of their younger rivals4 ,it is natural enough that this should be so4 ,the affection which we feel for virtue1 the reverence and awe inspired by great talents and powerful characters1 persist long after the objects of our love and admiration have passed away from earth1 and we now render to their memories the homage which we paid1 or perhaps grudged1 to the men themselves in their lifetime4 ,for us they seem still to exist2 with their features1 their characteristic turns of thought and speech still fresh in our memories1 we can hardly bring ourselves to believe that they have utterly ceased to be1 that nothing of them remains but the lifeless dust which we have committed to the earth4 ,the heart still clings fondly to the hope1 if not to the belief1 that somewhere beyond our ken the loved and lost ones are joined to the kindred spirits who have gone before in that unknown land1 where1 in due time1 we shall meet them again4 ,and as with affection1 so with reverence and fear2 they also are powerful incentives to this instinctive belief in the continued existence of the dead4 ,the busy brain that explored the heights and depths of this mysterious universe--the glowing imagination that conjured up visions of beauty born1 as we fondly think1 for immortality--the aspiring soul and vaulting ambition that founded or overturned empires and shook the world--are they now no more than a few mouldering bones or a handful of ashes under their marble monuments8 ,the mind of most men revolts from a conclusion so derogatory to what they deem the dignity of human nature2 and so to satisfy at once the promptings of the imagination and the impulse of the heart1 men gradually elevate their dead to the rank of saints and heroes1 who in course of time may easily pass by an almost insensible transition to the supreme place of deities4 ,it is thus that1 almost as far back as we can trace the gropings of the human mind1 man has been perpetually creating gods in his own likeness4 ,in a pantheon thus constantly recruited by the accession of dead men1 the recruits tend to swamp the old deities by sheer force of numbers2 for whereas the muster-roll of the original gods is fixed and unchangeable1 the newcomers form a great host which is not only innumerable but perpetually on the increase1 for who can reckon up the tale of the departed or set bounds to the ravages of death8 ,indeed1 where the deification of the dead is carried to its logical limit1 a new god is born for every man that dies2 though in ,tonga against such an extreme expansion of the spiritual hierarchy1 and a constant overcrowding of ,bolotoo1 a solid barrier was interposed by the ,tongan doctrine which opened the gates of paradise only to noblemen4#acb #acb ,we have seen 7p4 #gj7 that according to ,mariner the number of the original gods was about three hundred2 but as to the deified noblemen he merely says that of these there must be a vast number 7,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #aji74 ,in his ,notes on ,tongan ,religion 7,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 xxx4 7#aiba7 p4 #aei7 ,mr4 ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot remarks3 ,the number of the gods1 moreover1 was liable to constant augmentation by the deification of the illustrious or well-beloved dead4 ,as a notable instance he cites the case of a certain chief named ,fakailoatonga1 a native of ,vavau1 who subdued or overran a large part of ,tongataboo4 ,he was a leper1 but for a long time did not know the true nature of his malady4 ,when he learned the truth1 he in disgust buried himself alive1 and after his death he was elevated to the godhead4 ,but in this deification1 if ,mariner is right1 there was nothing exceptional2 as a chief he became a god after death in the course of nature4 ,sec4 #aj4 ,temples and ,tombs3 ,megalithic ,monuments ,on the whole it seems reasonable to conclude that in ,tonga the distinction between the original superhuman deities and the new human gods tended to be obliterated in the minds of the people4 ,more and more1 we may suppose1 the deified spirits of dead men usurped the functions and assimilated themselves to the character of the ancient divinities4 ,yet between these two classes of worshipful beings ,mariner draws an important distinction which we must not overlook4 ,he says that these new human gods1 these souls of deified nobles1 have no houses dedicated to them1 but the proper places to invoke them are their graves1 which are considered sacred1 and are therefore as much respected as consecrated houses4#acc ,if this distinction is well founded1 the consecrated house or temple1 as we may call it1 of an original god was quite different from the grave at which a new god1 that is1 a dead man or woman1 was worshipped4 ,but in spite of the high authority of ,mariner it seems doubtful whether the distinction which he makes between the temples of the old gods and the tombs of the new ones was always recognised in practice1 and whether the two were not apt to be confounded in the minds even of the natives4 ,the temples of the gods1 as we have seen1 did not differ in shape and structure from the houses of men1 and similar houses1 as we shall see1 were also built on the graves of kings and chiefs and even of common people4 ,what was easier than to confuse the two classes of spirit-houses1 the houses of gods and the houses of dead kings or chiefs1 especially when the memory of these potentates had grown dim and their human personality had been forgotten8 ,certainly ,european observers have sometimes been in doubt as to whether places to which the natives paid religious reverence were temples or graves4 ,in view of this ambiguity ,i propose to examine some of the descriptions which have been given by eye-witnesses of the sacred structures and enclosure which might be interpreted either as temples or tombs4 ,the question has a double interest and importance1 first1 in its bearing on the theory1 enunciated by ,herbert ,spencer1 that temples are commonly1 if not universally1 derived from tombs1#acd and gods from dead men2 and secondly1 in its bearing on the question of the origin and meaning of megalithic monuments2 for not a few of the tombs of ,tongan kings and sacred chiefs are constructed in part of very large stones4 #acc ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #aaj #acd ,herbert ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 vol4 i 7,london1 #aijd7 pp4 #bdi sqq4 ,i will begin with the evidence of ,captain ,cook1 an excellent observer and faithful witness4 ,he paid two visits to the ,tonga islands1 a short one in #aggc1 and a longer one of between two and three months in #aggg4 ,speaking of his first visit to ,tongataboo in #aggc1 he writes as follows3 ,after sitting here some time1 and distributing some presents to those about us1 we signified our desire to see the country4 ,the chief immediately took the hint1 and conducted us along a lane that led to an open green1 on the one side of which was a house of worship built on a mount that had been raised by the hand of man1 about sixteen or eighteen feet above the common level4 ,it had an oblong figure1 and was inclosed by a wall or parapet of stone1 about three feet in height4 ,from this wall the mount rose with a gentle slope1 and was covered with a green turf4 ,on the top of it stood the house1 which had the same figure as the mount1 about twenty feet in length1 and fourteen or sixteen broad4 ,as soon as we came before the place1 every one seated himself on the green1 about fifty or sixty yards from the front of the house4 ,presently came three elderly men2 who seated themselves between us and it1 and began a speech1 which ,i understood to be a prayer1 it being wholly directed to the house4 ,this lasted about ten minutes2 and then the priests1 for such ,i took them to be1 came and sat down along with us1 when we made them presents of such things as were about us4 ,having then made signs to them that we wanted to view the premises1 my friend ,attago immediately got up1 and going with us1 without showing the least backwardness1 gave us full liberty to examine every part of it4 ,in the front were two stone steps leading to the top of the wall2 from this the ascent to the house was easy1 round which was a fine gravel walk4 ,the house was built1 in all respects1 like to their common dwelling-houses2 that is1 with posts and rafters2 and covered with palm thatch4 ,the eaves came down within about three feet of the ground1 which space was filled up with strong matting made of palm leaves1 as a wall4 ,the floor of the house was laid with fine gravel2 except in the middle1 where there was an oblong square of blue pebbles1 raised about six inches higher than the floor4 ,at one corner of the house stood an image rudely carved in wood1 and on one side lay another2 each about two feet in length4 ,i1 who had no intention to offend either them or their gods1 did not so much as touch them1 but asked ,attago1 as well as ,i could1 if they were ,eatuas1 or gods4 ,whether he understood me or no1 ,i cannot say2 but he immediately turned them over and over1 in as rough a manner as he would have done any other log of wood1 which convinced me that they were not there as representatives of the ,divinity4 ,i was curious to know if the dead were interred there1 and asked ,attago several questions relative thereto2 but ,i was not sure that he understood me2 at least ,i did not understand the answers he made1 well enough to satisfy my inquiries4 ,for the reader must know1 that at our first coming among these people1 we hardly could understand a word they said4 ,even my ,otaheitean youth1 and the man on board the ,adventure1 were equally at a loss3 but more of this by and by4 ,before we quitted the house we thought it necessary to make an offering at the altar4 ,accordingly we laid down upon the blue pebbles1 some medals1 nails1 and several other things2 which we had no sooner done than my friend ,attago took them up1 and put them in his pocket4 ,the stones with which the walls were made that inclosed this mount1 were some of them nine or ten feet by four1 and about six inches thick4 ,it is difficult to conceive how they can cut such stones out of the coral rocks4 ,this mount stood in a kind of grove open only on the side which fronted the high road1 and the green on which the people were seated4 ,at this green or open place1 was a junction of five roads1 two or three of which appeared to be very public ones4 ,the groves were composed of several sorts of trees4 ,among others was the ,etoa tree1 as it is called at ,otaheite1 of which are made clubs1 etc41 and a kind of low palm1 which is very common in the northern parts of ,new ,holland4 ,after we had done examining this place of worship1 which in their language is called a-fiat-tou-ca1 we desired to return4#ace #ace ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #ahb-ahd4 ,a little farther on1 still speaking of his first visit to ,tonga1 ,captain ,cook observes3 ,so little do we know of their religion1 that ,i hardly dare mention it4 ,the buildings called afiatoucas1 before mentioned1 are undoubtedly set apart for this purpose4 ,some of our gentlemen were of opinion1 that they were merely burying-places4 ,i can only say1 from my own knowledge1 that they are places to which particular persons directed set speeches1 which ,i understood to be prayers1 as hath been already related4 ,joining my opinion with that of others1 ,i was inclined to think that they are set apart to be both temples and burying-places1 as at ,otaheite1 or even in ,europe4 ,but ,i have no idea of the images being idols2 not only from what ,i saw myself1 but from ,mr4 ,wales's informing me that they set one of them up1 for him and others to shoot at4#acf #acf ,captain ,james ,cook1 op4 cit4 iii4 #bjf4 ,thus ,captain ,cook and his party were divided in opinion as to whether the house on the mound1 within its walled enclosure built of great stones1 was a temple or a tomb4 ,captain ,cook himself called it simply a house of worship and a place of worship1 but he inclined to the view that it was both a temple and a burying-place1 and in this opinion he was probably right4 ,the native name which he applied to it1 afiatouca1 means a burial-place2 for it is doubtless equivalent to fytoca1 a word which ,mariner explains to mean a burying-place1 including the grave1 the mount in which it is sunk1 and a sort of shed over it4#acg ,moreover1 the oblong square of blue pebbles1 which ,captain ,cook observed on the floor of the house on the mound1 and which he regarded as the altar1 speaks also in favour of the house being a tomb2 for ,mariner has described how the mourners brought white and black pebbles to the house which stood over the grave of ,king ,finow1 and how they strewed the inside of the house with the white ones1 and also the outside about the fytoca1 as a decoration to it3 the black pebbles they strewed only upon those white ones1 which covered the ground directly over the body1 to about the length and breadth of a man1 in the form of a very eccentric ellipse4 ,after this1 the house over the fytoca1 continues ,mariner1 was closed up at both ends with a reed fencing1 reaching from the eaves to the ground1 and1 at the front and back1 with a sort of basket-work1 made of the young branches of the cocoa-nut tree1 split and interwoven in a very curious and ornamental way1 to remain till the next burial1 when they are to be taken down1 and1 after the conclusion of the ceremony1 new ones are to be put up in like manner4#ach ,this description of the house over ,king ,finow's grave agrees so closely with ,captain ,cook's description of the house in the afiatouca1 that we may with much probability regard the latter as a tomb1 and suppose that the oblong square of blue pebbles1 which ,cook regarded as an altar and on which he laid down his offering1 marked the place of the body in the grave3 it was at once an altar and a tombstone4 #acg ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #add1 note 994 ,however1 in another passage 7i4 #cib1 note 997 ,mariner tells us that1 strictly speaking1 the word fytoca applied only to the mound with the grave in it1 and not to the house upon the mound2 for there were several fytocas that had no houses on them4 ,for other mentions of fytocas and notices of them by ,mariner1 see op4 cit4 i4 pp4 #chf1 note 991 #chg1 #chh1 #cib1 #cic1 #cid1 #cie1 #djb1 ii4 #bad-bah4 #ach ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #djb4 ,a little farther on 7p4 #dbd1 note 997 ,mariner remarks that mourners were accustomed to smooth the graves of their departed friends1 and cover them with black and white pebbles4 ,on his second and more prolonged visit to the ,tonga islands1 ,captain ,cook expressed1 with more confidence1 his opinion that the fiatookas1 as he calls them1 were at once burial-grounds and places of worship4 ,thus he says3 ,their morais or fiatookas 7for they are called by both names1 but mostly by the latter71 are1 as at ,otaheite1 and many other parts of the world1 burying-grounds and places of worship2 though some of them seemed to be only appropriated to the first purpose2 but these were small1 and1 in every other respect1 inferior to the others4#aci ,again1 in another passage he describes one of the more stately of these temple-tombs4 ,he says3 ,some of us1 accompanied by a few of the king's attendants1 and ,omai as our interpreter1 walked out to take a view of a fiatooka1 or burying-place1 which we had observed to be almost close by the house1 and was much more extensive1 and seemingly of more consequence1 than any we had seen at the other islands4 ,we were told1 that it belonged to the king4 ,it consisted of three pretty large houses1 situated upon a rising ground1 or rather just by the brink of it1 with a small one1 at some distance1 all ranged longitudinally4 ,the middle house of the three first1 was by much the largest1 and placed in a square1 twenty-four paces by twenty-eight1 raised about three feet4 ,the other houses were placed on little mounts1 raised artificially to the same height4 ,the floors of these houses1 as also the tops of the mounts round them1 were covered with loose1 fine pebbles1 and the whole was inclosed by large flat stones of hard coral rock1 properly hewn1 placed on their edges2 one of which stones measured twelve feet in length1 two in breadth1 and above one in thickness4 ,one of the houses1 contrary to what we had seen before1 was open on one side2 and within it were two rude1 wooden busts of men2 one near the entrance1 and the other farther in4 ,on inquiring of the natives1 who had followed us to the ground1 but durst not enter here1 ,what these images were intended for8 they made us as sensible as we could wish1 that they were merely memorials of some chiefs who had been buried there1 and not the representations of any deity4 ,such monuments1 it should seem1 are seldom raised2 for these had probably been erected several ages ago4 ,we were told1 that the dead had been buried in each of these houses2 but no marks of this appeared4 ,in one of them1 was the carved head of an ,otaheite canoe1 which had been driven ashore on their coast1 and deposited here4 ,at the foot of the rising ground was a large area1 or grass-plot1 with different trees planted about it2 amongst which were several of those called etoa1 very large4 ,these1 as they resemble the cypresses1 had a fine effect in such a place4 ,there was also a row of low palms near one of the houses1 and behind it a ditch1 in which lay a great number of old baskets4#adj #aci ,captain ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dbd4 #adj ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #cdb sq4 ,between the departure of ,cook and the arrival of ,mariner the first ,protestant missionaries were fortunate enough to witness the burial of a king of ,tonga1 by name ,moomooe4 ,their description of it and of the royal tomb entirely bears out the observations and conclusions of ,captain ,cook4 ,the fiatooka or burial-ground1 they tell us1 is situated on a spot of ground about four acres4 ,a mount rises with a gentle slope about seven feet1 and is about one hundred and twenty yards in circumference at the base2 upon the top stands a house neatly made1 which is about thirty feet long1 and half that in width4 ,the roof is thatched1 and the sides and ends left open4 ,in the middle of this house is the grave1 the sides1 ends1 and bottom of which are of coral stone1 with a cover of the same3 the floor of the house is of small stones4 ,the etoa and other trees grow round the fiatooka4#ada ,into this grave1 or rather stone vault1 the missionaries saw the king's body lowered4 ,the stone which covered the vault was eight feet long1 four feet broad1 and one foot thick4 ,this massive stone was first raised and held in suspense by means of two great ropes1 the ends of which were wound round two strong piles driven into the ground at the end of the house4 ,the ropes were held by about two hundred men1 who1 when the king's body had been deposited in the grave1 slowly lowered the great stone and covered the vault4#adb ,some years later ,mariner witnessed the funeral of another king of ,tonga1 ,finow the ,first2 and he similarly describes how the tomb was a large stone vault1 sunk about ten feet deep in the ground1 the covering stone of which was hoisted by the main strength of a hundred and fifty or two hundred men pulling at the two ends of a rope2 when the bodies of the king and his daughter had been laid side by side in the vault the massive stone was lowered by the men with a great shout4#adc ,the number of the men required to raise and lower these great stones gives us some idea of their weight4 #ada ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #bdj sq4 #adb ,captain ,james ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdd4 #adc ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #chg sq4 ,thus far we have been dealing only with the tombs of the civil kings of ,tonga4 ,but far more stately and massive are the tombs of the sacred kings or pontiffs1 the ,tooitongas1 which still exist and still excite the curiosity and admiration of ,european observers4 ,the ,tongan name for these tombs is langi1 which properly means sky1 also a band of singers2 but there appears to be no connexion between these different meanings of the word4#add ,the tombs are situated in ,tongataboo1 not far from ,mooa1 the old capital of the island4 ,they stand near the south-eastern shore of the lagoon1 which1 under the name of the ,mooa ,inlet1 penetrates deeply into the northern side of ,tongataboo4 ,beginning at the northern outskirts of the village of ,labaha1 they stretch inland for more than half a mile into the forest4#ade ,they are of various constructions and shapes4 ,some consist of a square enclosure1 on the level of the ground1 the boundary walls being formed of large stones2 while at each corner of the square two high stones1 rising above the wall1 are placed upright at right angles to each other and in a line with their respective sides4#adf ,but apparently the more usual and characteristic type of tomb has the form of a truncated pyramid or oblong platform raised in a series of steps or terraces1 which are built of massive blocks of coral4 ,the number of steps or terraces seems to vary from one to four according to the height of the monument4#adg ,it is much to be regretted that no one has yet counted and mapped out these tombs and recorded the names of their royal or divine occupants1 so far as they are remembered2 but a trace of the religious awe which once invested this hallowed ground still avails to keep it inviolate4 ,a proposal which ,sir ,basil ,thomson made to clear away the forest and preserve the tombs was very coldly received2 in the eyes of the natives1 professing ,christians as they are1 it probably savoured of sacrilege4 ,the ancient custom was to clear the ground about every new tomb1 and after the interment to suffer the tropical undergrowth to swallow it up for ever4 ,nowadays no holy pontiffs are borne to their last resting-place in these hallowed shades2 so the forest is never cleared1 and nature is left free to run wild4 ,in consequence the tombs are so overgrown and overshadowed that it is difficult to photograph them in the gloomy and tangled thicket4 ,great ifi trees#adh overhang them3 banyan-trees have sprouted on the terraces and thrust their roots into every crevice1 mantling the stones with a lacework of tendrils1 which year by year rend huge blocks asunder1 until the original form of the terrace is almost obliterated4 ,sir ,basil ,thomson followed the chain of tombs for about half a mile1 but on each occasion his guides told him that there were other smaller tombs farther inland4 ,the tombs increase in size and in importance as they near the shore of the lagoon1 and to seven or eight of the larger ones the names of the occupants can be assigned2 but the names of the sacred chiefs who sleep in the smaller tombs inland are quite forgotten4 ,some of them are mere enclosures of stones1 not squared1 but taken haphazard from the reef4#adi #add ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bac sq4 #ade 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #hf4 #adf ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #bhc sq4 #adg ,the tomb described and illustrated by the first missionaries had four massive and lofty steps1 each of them five and a half feet broad and four feet or three feet nine inches high4 ,see ,captain ,james ,wilson1 l4c41 with the plate facing p4 #bhd4 ,one such tomb1 rising in four tiers1 is ascribed traditionally to a female ,tooitonga1 whose name has been forgotten4 ,see 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #hh n4#b4 #adh ,the ,tahitian chestnut 7,inocarpus edulis72 see above1 p4 #gd1 note#b4 #adi 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,diversions of a ,prime ,minister 7,edinburgh and ,london1 #ahid71 pp4 #cgi sq42 id4 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #hf4 ,according to an earlier authority1 the ,tongans could name and point out the tombs of no less than thirty ,tooitongas4 ,see the letter of ,mr4 ,philip ,hervey1 quoted in ,proceedings of the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,london1 ,second ,series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gg4 ,the tombs were built in the lifetime of the sacred chiefs who were to lie in them1 and their size accordingly affords a certain measure of the power and influence of the great men interred in them4 ,among the largest is the tomb which goes by the name of ,telea1 though it is said to contain no body1 ,telea himself being buried in the tomb next to it4 ,we are told that1 dissatisfied with the first sepulchre that was built for him1 he replaced it by the other1 which is also of great size4 ,the most modern of the tombs is that of ,laufilitonga1 the last to bear the title of ,tooitonga4 ,he died a ,christian about #ahdj and was buried in the tomb of very inferior size which crowns the village cemetery4 ,the most ancient cannot be dated2 but that some are older than ,a4,d4 #aece may be inferred from the tradition that ,takalaua1 a ,tooitonga1 was assassinated about that time because he was a tyrant who compelled his people to drag great stones from ,liku1 at the back of the island1 to the burial ground at ,mooa2 the distance is about a mile and a half4#aej #aej 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #hf sq41 #hh n4#b4 ,as to the legend of the tyrant ,takalaua1 see id4 ,diversions of a ,prime ,minister1 pp4 #bid-cjb4 ,the first1 so far as ,i know1 to see and describe these remarkable tombs were the earliest missionaries to ,tonga about the end of the eighteenth century4 ,speaking of the burial ground at ,mooa1 where lay interred the divine chiefs whose title was ,tooitonga and whose family name was ,futtafaihe or ,fatafehi1 the missionaries observe that the fiatookas are remarkable4 ,there lie the ,futtafaihes for many generations1 some vast and ruinous1 which is the case with the largest2 the house on the top of it is fallen1 and the area and tomb itself overgrown with wood and weeds4#aea ,later on they had the advantage of being conducted over the august cemetery by the ,futtafaihe or ,tooitonga of the day in person1 who gave them some explanations concerning these sepulchres of his ancestors4 ,to quote their description1 they say that the tombs lie ranged in a line eastward from his house1 among a grove of trees1 and are many in number1 and of different constructions3 some1 in a square form1 were not in the least raised above the level of the common ground2 a row of large stones formed the sides1 and at each corner two high stones were placed upright at right angles to each other1 and in a line with their respective sides3 others were such as the brethren describe that of ,moomooe to be3 and a third sort were built square like the first2 the largest of which was at the base one hundred and fifty-six feet by one hundred and forty2 it had four steps from the bottom to the top1 that run quite round the pile3 one stone composed the height of each step1 a part of it being sunk in the ground2 and some of these stones in the wall of the lower are immensely large2 one1 which ,i measured1 was twenty-four feet by twelve1 and two feet thick2 these ,futtafaihe informed me were brought in double canoes from the island of ,lefooga4 ,they are coral stone1 and are hewn into a tolerably good shape1 both with respect to the straightness of their sides and flatness of their surfaces4 ,they are now so hardened by the weather1 that the great difficulty we had in breaking a specimen of one corner made it not easy to conjecture how the labour of hewing them at first had been effected2 as1 by the marks of antiquity which some of them bear1 they must have been built long before ,tasman showed the natives an iron tool4 ,besides the trees which grow on the top and sides of most of them1 there are the etooa1 and a variety of other trees about them2 and these1 together with the thousands of bats which hang on their branches1 all contribute to the awful solemnity of those sepulchral mansions of the ancient chiefs4 ,on our way back ,futtafaihe told us that all the fiatookas we had seen were built by his ancestors1 who also lay interred in them2 and as there appeared no reason to doubt the truth of this1 it proves that a supreme power in the government of the island must for many generations have been in the family of the ,futtafaihes3 for though there were many fiatookas in the island1 the brethren1 who had seen most of them1 said they were not to be compared to these for magnitude1 either in the pile or the stones which compose them4#aeb #aea ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 p4 #beb4 ,as to ,futtafaihe1 the ,tooitonga or divine chief of their time1 the missionaries remark 7l4c47 that ,futtafaihe is very superstitious1 and himself esteemed as an odooa or god4 ,here odooa is the ,polynesian word which is usually spelled atua4 ,mariner tells us 7,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #gf7 that the family name of the ,tooitonga was ,fatafehi1 which seems to be only another way of spelling ,futtafaihe1 the form adopted by the missionaries4 ,captain ,cook similarly gives ,futtafaihe as the family name of the sacred kings or ,tooitongas1 deriving the name from the ,god so called1 who is probably their tutelary patron1 and perhaps their common ancestor4 ,see ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dbe4 #aeb ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #bhc-bhe4 ,the description is accompanied by an engraved plate1 which illustrates the three types of tombs mentioned in the text4 ,in the foreground is the stepped pyramid1 a massive and lofty structure1 its flat top surmounted by a hut4 ,to the right1 in the distance1 is seen the square walled enclosure1 with high stones standing upright at the corners of the walls1 and with a hut enclosed in the middle of the square4 ,in the background appears a mound enclosed by a wall and surmounted by a hut4 ,thus a hut figures as an essential part in each type of tomb4 ,however1 ,mariner tells us that they have several fytocas which have no houses on them 7,tonga ,islands1 i4 #cib note 9974 ,top4 #c ft4 #i in4 #e-a_/b feet4 #c ft4 #i in4 #e-a_/b feet4 #c ft4 #i in4 #e-a_/b feet4 ,,profile ,,of ,,the ,,steps4 #d feet4 ,some thirty years later the tombs of the ,tooitongas were visited and described by the ,french explorer1 ,j4 ,dumont d',urville4 ,his description is worth quoting4 ,he says3 ,i directed my steps to the splendid fai-tokas of the ,fata-,fais4 ,as these monuments are essentially taboo1 in the absence of the ,tooi-tonga no one looks after their upkeep1 and they are now buried on every side among dark masses of trees and almost impenetrable thickets4 ,hence we had some difficulty in approaching them1 and it was impossible for us to get a single general view of the whole of these structures1 which must have a somewhat solemn effect when the ground is properly cleared4 ,for the most part these mausoleums have the form of great rectangular spaces surrounded by enormous blocks of stone1 of which some are as much as from fifteen to twenty feet long by six or eight broad and two feet thick4 ,the most sumptuous of these monuments have four or five rows of steps1 making up a total height of eighteen or twenty feet4 ,the interior is filled up with shingle and fragments of unhewn coral4 ,one of these fai-tokas1 which ,i measured1 was a hundred and eighty feet long by a hundred and twenty broad4 ,at one of the upper angles ,i observed a block of considerable size with a deep cutting in it4 ,i was told that it was the seat of the ,tooi-tonga-fafine#aec2 it was there that she sat to preside at the ceremony of the funeral of the ,tooi-tonga4 #aec ,the ,tooi-tonga-fafine 7or fefine7 was the ,tooitonga's sister and ranked above him4 ,her title means the lady ,tooi-tonga4 ,her dignity is very great4 ,she is treated as a kind of divinity4 ,her rank is too high to allow of her uniting herself in marriage with any mortal3 but it is not thought wrong or degrading for her to have a family1 and in case of the birth of a daughter the child becomes the ,tamaha4 ,this lady rises higher than her mother in rank1 and is nearer the gods4 ,every one approaches her with gifts and homage4 ,her grandfather will bring his offerings and sit down before her1 with all humility1 like any of the common people4 ,sick people come to her for cure 7,miss ,sarah ,s4 ,farmer1 ,tonga and the ,friendly ,islands1 p4 #ade1 apparently from the information of ,mr4 ,john ,thomas74 ,captain ,cook learned with surprise that ,poulaho1 the ,tooitonga of his time 7whom ,cook speaks of as the king7 acknowledged three women as his superiors4 ,on our inquiring1 who these extraordinary personages were1 whom they distinguish by the name and title of ,tammaha1 we were told that the late king1 ,poulaho's father1 had a sister of equal rank1 and elder than himself2 that she1 by a man who came from the island of ,feejee1 had a son and two daughters2 and that these three persons1 as well as their mother1 rank above ,futtafaihe the king4 ,we endeavoured1 in vain1 to trace the reason of this singular pre-eminence of the ,tammahas2 for we could learn nothing besides this account of their pedigree4 ,the mother and one of the daughters called ,tooeela-,kaipa1 live at ,vavaoo4 ,latoolibooloo1 the son1 and the other daughter1 whose name is ,moungoula-,kaipa1 reside at ,tongataboo4 ,the latter is the woman who is mentioned to have dined with me on the #bast of ,june4 ,this gave occasion to our discovering her superiority over the king1 who would not eat in her presence1 though she made no scruple to do so before him1 and received from him the customary obeisance1 by touching her foot4 ,see ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dcj sq4 ,some of these edifices were of an oval form1 but they were much smaller4 ,each of them was surmounted by a small hut1 which served as an oratory or house for the spirit of the dead2 most of them have been destroyed by the lapse of time1 and only traces of them are left scattered on the ground4 ,the enormous blocks of coral employed in the construction of these monuments have all been brought by sea from ,hifo to ,mooa4 ,they were got on the shore of the sea at ,hifo1 were hewn on the spot1 and were transported in great canoes2 then they were landed at ,mooa and drawn on rollers to the place of their destination4 ,these monuments are astonishing evidence of the patience which they must have demanded on the part of these islanders2 they were ocular testimony to me of the high degree of civilisation which the natives had reached4 ,man must have risen to ideas of a much higher order than those of a simple savage before he would take so great pains for the single object of consecrating the memory of his chiefs4 ,such tombs are no longer built in ,tongataboo3 people content themselves with simple mounds surrounded by a row of posts or even an ordinary palisade4 ,however1 ,singleton assured me that ,finow the ,younger had erected two great fai-tokas of stone in ,vavao1 one for the last ,tooitonga1 and one for his father4#aed #aed ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage de l',astrolabe1 ,histoire du ,voyage1 iv4 7,paris1 #ahcb7 pp4 #ajf-ajh4 ,singleton was an ,englishman1 one of the crew of the ,port-au-,prince1 the ship in which ,mariner sailed4 ,when ,dumont d',urville visited ,tonga1 ,singleton had lived as a native among the natives for twenty-three years2 he was married and had children1 and he hoped to end his days in ,tongataboo4 ,see ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bc sq4 ,the ,frenchman1 ,de ,sainson1 who accompanied ,dumont d',urville on his visit to ,tongataboo1 has also described the tombs of the ,tooitongas at ,mooa from personal observation4 ,i will quote his description3 ,it is in the heart of the forest that the ancient inhabitants of these countries1 who idolized their ,kings 7,tooi-tongas71 placed the tombs of that sacred race4 ,these monuments of a more enterprising age still astonish the beholder by their mass and their extent4 ,the fai-tokas1 as these burial-places are called1 are artificial eminences1 on the top of which1 in the form of a square1 are three or four crosses of great granitic blocks arranged as steps1 of which each block may be four or five feet high4 ,if there is only a single step on the top of the mound1 it is because only a single ,tooi-tonga sleeps there in the grave2 if the bones of a whole family are deposited in a common tomb1 three or four steps1 one above the other1 mark their union in death4 ,some of these monuments which contain only a single body are arranged in an oval4 ,i counted more than twelve of these immense structures1 and yet we left a great many aside4 ,i counted more than one stone between eight and fifteen feet long2 and ,i conceived a high idea of those men of ancient days who erected over the remains of their kings these imperishable mausoleums1 in an island based on coral1 where it would be difficult to find a stone of two feet square4 ,i imagined them to be very different from their effeminate descendants1 those men of old who went in their canoes more than a hundred and fifty leagues to look for the enormous blocks of which these tombs are built1 who cut them without the help of iron1 and succeeded1 by means unknown1 in planting them on these hillocks1 where by their own weight they are fixed for ever1 like the ,druidical monuments of ,brittany1 which one would say were dropped on earth rather by the magic of talismans than by the power of man4 ,the present inhabitants of ,tonga contemplate with a pious awe the fruit of the labours and patience of their forefathers1 without dreaming for a moment of imitating them in their noble enterprises4 ,a distant voyage affrights these degenerate scions of a hardy race1 and the great canoes which still survive1 sheltered under sheds very skilfully built1 are little more than the useless encumbrance of chiefs grown languid in the long peace which has infected the whole people with habits of indolence4 ,the most recent tombs consist of a small house enclosed on all sides1 built on a rising ground1 and shaded by a circle of mimosas1 a tree sacred to the dead4 ,most of the illustrious graves are clustered together at ,mafanga1 a large village of which the whole territory is sacred on account of the hallowed relics which it contains4 ,along with the corpse they bury at the depth of a few inches small wooden effigies representing persons of both sexes4 ,i had occasion to unearth a few of these little statues1 and ,i remarked in them an astonishing feeling for artistic design4#aee #aee ,extrait du ,journal de ,m4 de ,sainson1 in ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage de l',astrolabe1 ,histoire du ,voyage1 iv4 7,paris1 #ahcb7 pp4 #cfa sq4 ,some sixteen years later a ,catholic missionary1 living among the heathen population of ,tongataboo1 wrote thus3 ,nothing equals the care which they take in the burial of their dead4 ,as soon as a native has breathed his last1 the neighbours are informed1 and immediately all the women come to weep about the corpse4 ,here the men never weep4 ,the body is kept thus for a day or two1 during which they are busy building a tomb near the dwelling of the deceased's family4 ,the sepulchral house is neat1 built on an eminence1 surrounded by a pretty fence of choice bamboos2 the enclosure is planted with all kinds of odoriferous shrubs1 especially evergreens4 ,finally1 the monument is covered by a roof artistically constructed4 ,for the tombs of kings and the greatest chiefs they go to distant islands to find huge stones to crown the grave4 ,i have seen one twenty-four feet long by eight broad and at least eighteen inches thick4 ,one of these tombs was built by the natives of ,wallis ,island1 who brought the enormous blocks in immense canoes4 ,it is wonderful for these peoples4#aef #aef ,jerome ,grange1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xvii4 7#ahde7 pp4 #ab sq4 ,captain ,erskine1 who visited ,tongataboo in #ahdi1 says that near the landing-place at the village of ,holobeka1 off which we were lying1 we saw overshadowed with trees1 one of the faitokas1 or old burial-places of the country1 which1 although no longer 'tabu1' are still in some cases used as places of sepulture1 and very carefully kept4 ,this one was an oblong square platform a few feet high1 surrounded by a stone wall1 the interior being beautifully paved with coloured corals and gravel2 the house or temple1 which ,captain ,cook and others describe as occupying the centre1 having been1 ,i suppose1 removed4 ,i saw but one other of these monuments during our stay among the islands1 the largest of which stands on several rows of steps1 as described by all former visitors4#aeg #aeg ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 p4 #acj4 ,thomas ,west1 who lived as a missionary in the ,tongan islands from #ahdf to #ahee1 tells us that chiefs were usually interred in tombs1 constructed of blocks of sandstone1 cut from suitable localities by the seashore1 where1 at a little depth from the surface1 layers of hard and durable sandstone are found1 even on many of the coralline islands4 ,in several of the ancient burial-places1 similar stones1 arranged in terraces1 surround the whole enclosure4 ,some of these are of immense size1 and seem to indicate the possession1 on the part of former inhabitants1 either of greater energy than the present race1 or of better tools and appliances4 ,the burial-places of the ,tonguese are always surrounded by the most imposing foliage of the tropics1 and placed in sequestered spots4 ,a mound of earth is raised1 of dimensions varying with the necessities of the place2 and1 whenever a grave is opened within the limits of this mound1 it is always filled up with beautiful white sand1 and never contains more than one body4 ,no particle of clay or earthy mould is allowed to touch the remains of the dead4 ,the sand is brought in baskets by the chief mourners1 who sometimes sail or journey many miles to procure it2 and each person pours the contents into the grave until it is sufficiently filled up4 ,the top of the grave is1 afterwards1 carefully tended and decorated with black pebbles and red coral1 arranged in various devices1 which have a very pretty effect4 ,small houses are also placed over the tombs of the chiefs and gentry4#aeh #aeh ,thomas ,west1 ,ten ,years in ,south-,central ,polynesia 7,london1 #ahfe71 pp4 #bfh sq4 ,in more recent years the tombs of the ,tooitongas at ,mooa have been visited by ,sir ,basil ,thomson1 who has described and discussed them4#aei ,from an anonymous pamphlet called ,the ,wairarapa ,wilderness1 written by the passengers of the s4s4 ,wairarapa and published in #ahhd1 ,sir ,basil ,thomson quotes a passage containing a description of the tombs1 with measurements which1 he tells us1 are accurate as far as they go4 ,from it ,i will extract a few particulars4 ,the writers inform us that the tombs are built of blocks of coral which vary in length and thickness2 some of the largest they found to be from fifteen to eighteen feet long and from one and a half to two feet thick4 ,the largest measured by them is twenty-two feet long and two feet thick and stands between seven and eight feet above the ground4 ,this great stone1 now split in two1 is at the middle of the lowest step of one of the pyramidal tombs4 ,the height of the steps varies much in the different pyramids2 one step was found to be four feet high4 ,the breadth of each step is three feet or more3 it has been carefully levelled and covered with coral gravel4 ,the stones fit very closely and are very regular at top and bottom throughout the tiers4 ,the corners of one pyramid observed by the writers are formed of huge rectangular stones1 which seem to have been put in position before they were finally faced4 ,on the upper surface of the largest stone is a deep hollow about the size and shape of a large chestnut mortar4 ,sir ,basil ,thomson1 who has examined this hollow1 believes it to be a natural cavity which has been artificially smoothed by a workman4 ,he suggests that it may have been lined with leaves and used as a bowl for brewing kava at the funeral ceremonies4 ,on one mound the writers of the pamphlet remarked a large flat stone1 some five and a half feet square2 and in several of the tombs they noticed huge slabs of volcanic stone placed indiscriminately side by side with blocks of coral4 ,the writers measured the bases of three of the tombs and found them to be about two chains 7one hundred and thirty-two feet7 long by a chain and a half 7ninety-nine feet7 broad2 the base of a fourth was even larger4#afj #aei 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,diversions of a ,prime ,minister1 pp4 #cgi sq42 id4 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #hf-hh4 #afj 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #hg sq4 ,surveying these various accounts of the tombs of the ,tooitongas or sacred chiefs1 we may perhaps conclude that1 while the type of tomb varied in different cases1 the most characteristic1 and certainly the most remarkable1 type was that of a stepped or terraced pyramid built of such large blocks of stone as to merit the name of megalithic monuments4 ,so far as ,i have observed in the accounts given of them1 this type of tomb was reserved exclusively for the sacred chiefs1 the ,tooitongas1 whom the ,tongans regarded as divine and as direct descendants of the gods4 ,the civil kings1 so far as appears1 were not buried in these massive pyramids1 but merely in stone vaults sunk in the summits of grassy mounds4 ,it is natural1 with ,sir ,basil ,thomson1#afa to compare the pyramids of the ,tooitongas with the similar structures called morais or marais which are found in ,tahiti and the ,marquesas islands4 ,indeed1 the very name morai was sometimes applied to them by the ,tongans themselves1 though more usually they called them fiatookas1 which was simply the common word for burying-ground4#afb ,in ,tahiti and the ,marquesas islands these marais were in like manner truncated pyramids1 rising in a series of steps or tiers1 built of stones1 some of which were large1 but apparently not so large as in the corresponding ,tongan edifices2 for in describing one of the largest of the ,tahitian morais or marais ,cook mentions only one stone measuring as much as four feet seven inches in length by two feet four in breadth1 though he found several three and a half feet long by two and a half feet broad4 ,these dimensions can hardly compare with the size of the blocks in the tombs of the ,tooitongas1 some of which1 as we have seen1 measure fifteen1 eighteen1 and even twenty-two or twenty-four feet in length by eight or twelve feet in height4 ,these ,tahitian and ,marquesan pyramids are commonly described as temples1 and justly so1 because the gods were worshipped there and human sacrifices were offered on them4#afc ,but they were also1 like the similar structures in ,tonga1 used in certain cases for the burial of the dead1 or at all events for the preservation of their embalmed bodies4 ,captain ,cook seems even to have regarded the ,tahitian morais primarily as burying-grounds and only secondarily as places of worship4#afd ,in the island of ,huahine1 one of the ,society ,islands1 the sovereign chiefs were buried in a marai1 where they lay1 we are told1 in more than ,oriental state4#afe ,william ,ellis1 one of our best authorities on the religion of the ,tahitians1 tells us that the family1 district1 or royal maraes were the general depositories of the bones of the departed1 whose bodies had been embalmed1 and whose skulls were sometimes preserved in the dwelling of the survivors4 ,the marae or temple being sacred1 and the bodies being under the guardianship of the gods1 were in general considered secure when deposited there4 ,this was not1 however1 always the case2 and in times of war1 the victors sometimes not only despoiled the temples of the vanquished1 and bore away their idol1 but robbed the sacred enclosure of the bones of celebrated individuals4#aff ,moerenhout1 another good authority on the ,tahitian religion1 informs us that the marais which belonged to individuals often served as cemeteries and were only the more respected on that account2 but he says that in the public marais almost the only persons buried were the human victims offered in sacrifice1 and sometimes the priests1 who were laid face downwards in the grave1 for the curious reason that otherwise the gaze of the dead men would blight the trees and cause the fruit to fall to the ground4#afg #afa 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,diversions of a ,prime ,minister1 p4 #cgi4 #afb ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dbd4 ,elsewhere 7v4 #cfd7 he speaks of a morai or fiatooka2 and shortly afterwards1 referring to the same structure1 he mentions it as this morai1 or what ,i may as well call temple 7p4 #cfe74 ,as to the equivalence of the words morai and marai 7marae71 see ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 ,voyages aux ,iles du ,grand ,ocean 7,paris1 #ahcg71 i4 #dff2 and as to the significance of the word in its various dialectical forms1 see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #bac1 s4v4 malae4 #afc ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aeg sqq42 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #aghh71 pp4 #edc sqq42 ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #bjg sqq42 ,david ,porter1 ,journal of a ,cruise made to the ,pacific ,ocean 7,new ,york1 #ahbb71 ii4 #ch sq42 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels 7,london1 #ahca71 i4 #bdj-bdh1 #bfe sqq41 #bga1 #bgd1 #ebi sq41 ii4 #ac sq41 #ch sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahcb-ahcf71 i4 #cdj1 #dje2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 ,voyages aux ,iles du ,grand ,ocean1 i4 #dff-dgj2 ,g4 ,h4 von ,langsdorff1 ,reise um die ,welt 7,frankfurt am ,mayn1 #ahab71 i4 #aae1 #acd2 ,h4 ,melville1 ,typee 7,london1 ,n4,d471 pp4 #aff-afi 7,everyman's ,library72 ,matthias ,g----1 ,lettres sur les ,iles ,marquises 7,paris1 #ahdc71 pp4 #ed sq42 ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 ,die ,inseln des ,stillen ,oceans 7,leipzig1 #ahge-ahgf71 i4 #di1 ii4 #ahj1 #ahc sq42 ,g4 ,gerland1 in ,th4 ,waitz1 ,anthropologie1 vi 7,leipzig1 #ahgb7 pp4 #cgf sqq4 #afd ,capt4 ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aeg sq41 ,their name for such burying-grounds1 which are also places of worship1 is ,morai4 ,compare id41 i4 #bag1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbd1 vi4 #cg1 #da2 ,j4 ,turnbull1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #ahac71 p4 #aea1 the morais1 which serve the double purpose of places of worship and receptacles for the dead4 ,compare ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations1 p4 #ede1 ,to ornament the marais and to honour by it the gods and the decayed buried there1 the inhabitants plant several sorts of trees near them4 #afe ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #bga4 #aff ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #dje4 ,elsewhere 7p4 #dja71 speaking of the ,tahitian burial customs1 ,ellis observes that the skull was carefully kept in the family1 while the other bones1 etc41 were buried within the precincts of the family temple4 #afg ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dgj4 ,as to the ,tahitian custom of burying the dead in the marais1 see also ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 ,die ,inseln des ,stillen ,oceans1 ii4 #ahc sq41 according to whom only the bodies of persons of high rank were interred in these sanctuaries4 ,in the ,marquesas islands the morais appear to have been also used occasionally or even regularly as burial-places4 ,langsdorff1 one of our earliest authorities on these islands1 speaks of a morai simply as a place of burial4#afh ,he tells us that the mummified bodies of the dead were deposited on scaffolds in the morai or family burial-place1 and that the people of neighbouring but hostile districts used to try to steal each other's dead from the morais1 and deemed it a great triumph when they succeeded in the attempt4 ,to defeat such attempts1 when the inhabitants of a district expected to be attacked in force by their enemies1 they were wont to remove their dead from the morai and bury them in the neighbourhood4#afi ,again1 in their monograph on the ,marquesas islands1 the ,french writers ,vincendon-,dumoulin and ,desgraz recognise only the mortuary aspect of the morais4 ,they say3 ,the morais1 funeral monuments where the bodies are deposited1 are set up on a platform of stone1 which is the base of all ,nukahivan constructions4 ,they are to be found scattered in the whole extent of the valleys2 no particular condition seems to be required in the choice of the site4 ,near the shore of ,taiohae is the morai which contains the remains of a brother of the atepeiou ,patini1 an uncle of ,moana1 who died some years ago1 as they tell us4#agj #afh ,g4 ,h4 von ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #aae4 #afi ,g4 ,h4 von ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #acd4 #agj ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 ,iles ,marquises ou ,nouka-hiva 7,paris1 #ahdc71 p4 #bec4 ,thus to some extent1 in function as well as in form1 these pyramidical temples of ,tahiti and the ,marquesas islands corresponded to the megalithic monuments of the ,tooitongas or sacred chiefs of ,tonga2 in fact1 they were mausoleums as well as temples4 ,we are not at liberty to assume1 with one authority on the ,polynesians1 that they were mausoleums first and foremost1 and that they only developed into temples at a later time4#aga ,it is possible1 on the contrary1 that from the outset they were temples dedicated to the worship of the high gods1 and that the custom of depositing the dead in them was a later practice adopted for the sake of the protection which these holy places might be expected to afford against the efforts of enemies to carry off and desecrate the remains of the departed4 ,dr4 ,rivers propounded a theory that the custom of building these megalithic monuments in the form of pyramids was introduced into the ,pacific by a people who brought with them a secret worship of the sun1 and he apparently inclined to regard the monuments themselves as at least associated with that worship4#agb ,the theory can hardly apply to the megalithic monuments of the ,tooitongas in ,tongataboo2 for the evidence which ,i have adduced seems to render it certain that these monuments were erected primarily as tombs to receive the bodies of the sacred chiefs4 ,it is true that these tombs enjoyed a sacred character and were the scene of worship which justly entitles them to rank as temples2 but so far as they were temples1 they were devoted to the worship1 not of the sun1 but of the dead4 #aga ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 ,die ,inseln des ,stillen ,oceans1 ii4 #ahj4 #agb ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers1 ,sun-cult and ,megaliths in ,oceania1 ,american ,anthropologist1 ,n4,s4 xvii4 7#aiae7 pp4 #dca sqq4 ,thus our enquiry into the meaning and origin of these interesting monuments entirely confirms the view of the shrewd and observant ,captain ,cook that the fiatookas1 as the ,tongans called them1 were both places of burial and places of worship4 ,finally1 the evidence which ,i have cited appears to render it highly probable that these imposing monuments were built1 not by a prehistoric people1 predecessors of the ,tongans in the islands1 but by the ,tongans themselves2 for not only do the people affirm that the tombs were erected by their ancestors1 but they have definite traditions of some of the chiefs who built them1 and are buried in them2 and they still profess to remember some of the islands from which the huge stones were brought to ,tongataboo in great double canoes4 ,that the graves of the great chiefs were1 like temples1 regarded by the people with religious reverence appears plainly from a statement of ,mariner4 ,he tells us that a place called ,mafanga1 in the western part of ,tongataboo1 being a piece of land about half a mile square1 was consecrated ground4 ,in this spot1 he says1 are the graves where the greatest chiefs from time immemorial have been buried1 and the place is therefore considered sacred2 it would be a sacrilege to fight here1 and nobody can be prevented from landing3 if the most inveterate enemies meet upon this ground1 they must look upon each other as friends1 under penalty of the displeasure of the gods1 and consequently an untimely death1 or some great misfortune4 ,there are several of these consecrated places on different islands4#agc ,thus the reverence paid to the tombs of the chiefs was like the reverence paid to the consecrated houses and enclosures of the gods2 we have already seen what a sacrilege it was deemed to fight or to pursue an enemy within the consecrated enclosure of a god1#agd and we now learn that it was equally a sacrilege to fight within the ground that was hallowed by the graves of the chiefs4 #agc ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #hh4 #agd ,above1 pp4 #gd sqq4 ,mariner has described for us the worship paid by the king and his chiefs to one of the sacred graves at ,mafanga4 ,one morning ,finow the king1 accompanied by several of his chiefs and their ministers 7the matabooles71 landed at ,mafanga and immediately proceeded to his father's grave to perform a ceremony called toogi4 ,mariner attended the party and witnessed the ceremony4 ,all who went to participate in it assumed the attire of mourners or suppliants1 that is1 they wore mats instead of their usual dress and they had wreaths1 made of the leaves of the ifi tree1 round their necks4 ,they sat down before the grave1 and the king and all of them beat their cheeks with their fists for about half a minute without speaking a word4 ,one of the principal ministers 7matabooles7 then addressed the spirit of the king's father to the following effect3 ,behold the man 7meaning ,finow1 the king7 who has come to ,tonga to fight his enemies4 ,be pleased with him1 and grant him thy protection4 ,he comes to battle1 hoping he is not doing wrong4 ,he has always held ,tooitonga in the highest respect1 and has attended to all religious ceremonies with exactness4 ,one of the attendants then went to the king and received from him a piece of kava root1 which he laid down on the raised mount before the burial-place 7fytoka74 ,several others1 who had pieces of kava root in their bosoms1 went up to the grave in like manner and deposited them there4#age #age ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #hh sq4 ,thus the king prayed to the spirit of his dead father at his grave and made an offering at the tomb4 ,what more could he do to a god at his temple8 ,and in general we are told that when a great blessing was desired1 or a serious evil deprecated1 if the people wished to enjoy health or beget children1 to be successful at sea1 or victorious in war1 they would go to the burial grounds of their great chiefs1 clean them up thoroughly1 sprinkle the floor with sand1 and lay down their offerings4#agf ,when ,finow the king was dying1 his friends carried him on a bier1 not only to the temples of the great gods ,tali-y-,toobo and ,tooi-fooa-,bolotoo1 where prayers for his recovery were offered2 they bore him also to the grave of a chieftainess and invoked her spirit in like manner to pity and spare the expiring monarch4#agg ,apparently they thought that the ghost of the chieftainess was quite as able as the great gods to heal the sick and restore the dying4 #agf ,sarah ,s4 ,farmer1 ,tonga and the ,friendly ,islands1 p4 #abg4 #agg ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #cfg4 ,but on no occasion1 perhaps1 was the assimilation of dead men to gods so conspicuous as at the annual offering of first-fruits1 which seems to have been the most impressive of all the yearly rites observed by the ,tongans4 ,the ceremony was observed once a year just before the yams in general had arrived at a state of maturity2 the yams offered at it were of a kind which admitted of being planted sooner than the others1 and which consequently1 ripening earlier1 were the first-fruits of the yam season4 ,the object of the offering was to ensure the protection of the gods1 that their favour might be extended to the welfare of the nation generally1 and in particular to the productions of the earth1 of which in ,tonga yams are the most important4 ,at this solemn ceremony the new yams1 slung on poles1 were brought from distant islands1 carried in procession to the grave of the late ,tooitonga1 and deposited in front of it1 their bearers sitting down beside them4 ,thereupon one of the ministers 7matabooles7 of the living ,tooitonga arose1 advanced1 and sat down before the grave1 a little in front of the men who had brought the yams4 ,next he addressed the gods generally1 and afterwards particularly1 mentioning the late ,tooitonga and the names of several others4 ,in doing so he returned thanks for their divine bounty in favouring the land with the prospect of a good harvest1 and prayed that their beneficence might be continued in future4 ,in this harvest thanksgiving the spirit of the dead ,tooitonga seems to have ranked on an equality with the original or superhuman gods2 indeed1 in a sense he took precedence of them1 since the offerings were presented at his grave4 ,the first-fruits1 we are told1 were offered to the gods in the person of the divine chief ,tooitonga4#agh #agh ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #aif-bjb1 compare p4 #gh4 ,the ceremony was also witnessed1 though not understood1 by ,captain ,cook 7,voyages1 v4 #cfc sqq47 and by the first ,english missionaries 7,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #bfd sq474 ,on the whole we may conclude that1 however sharp a distinction was drawn in theory between the old gods1 who had always been gods1 and the new gods1 who had once been men1 the line which divided them in practice was wavering and blurred4 ,the dead men and women were fast rising1 if they had not already risen1 to an equality with the ancient deities4 ,we may even surmise that some of these old gods themselves were human beings1 whose original humanity was forgotten4 ,the tombs of the kings and sacred chiefs may be described as megalithic monuments in so far as immense stones were often employed in the construction either of the enclosing walls or of the high steps which led up to the summit of the mound where the grave was dug4 ,it is possible1 and indeed probable1 that great stones were similarly employed as ornaments or accessories of the consecrated houses or temples of the primary gods1 but of such an employment ,i have met with no express notice among our authorities4 ,so far as their descriptions allow us to judge1 these megalithic monuments of the ,tongans were purely sepulchral in character2 they were dedicated only to the worship of the dead4 ,but there exists at least one other remarkable megalithic monument in these islands of which the original meaning is quite uncertain1 and of which consequently we cannot confidently say that it was erected for the sake of honouring or propitiating the spirits of the departed4 ,the monument in question is situated near the eastern extremity of ,tongataboo1 at a distance of three or four hundred yards from the beach and facing towards the island of ,eua4 ,the land on which it stands was the private property of the ,tooitongas1 whose megalithic tombs are situated some eight or nine miles away to the west4 ,in the intervening country1 which is perfectly flat and partly covered with forest1 partly under cultivation1 there are said to be no other monuments or ruins4 ,it is remarkable that this imposing monument1 which naturally impresses the observer by its resemblance to the trilithons or gate-like structures of ,stonehenge1 should have apparently escaped the observation of ,europeans down to the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,it is not mentioned by ,cook and ,mariner1 nor even by those who1 like the first missionaries and ,dumont d',urville1 described in some detail the tombs of the ,tooitongas not many miles off4 ,perhaps the solitariness of the surrounding country may partly account for their ignorance and silence2 for there are said to be few inhabitants in this part of the island and none at all in the immediate neighbourhood of the monument4 ,it seems to have been first discovered by ,mr4 ,philip ,hervey of ,sydney in #ahej or #ahea1 but his description of it was not published for some ten years4 ,in ,august #aheb it was seen by ,dr4 ,charles ,forbes1 ,surgeon of ,h4,m4,s4 ,calliope1 and his description of it was published by the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,london in the following year4 ,in #ahfe it was seen and briefly described by ,mr4 ,foljambe of ,h4,m4,s4 ,curacoa4 ,some twenty years later the passengers of the s4s4 ,wairarapa1 on a yachting cruise from ,new ,zealand1 visited the spot and published an account of the structure4 ,still later ,sir ,basil ,thomson examined the monument and discussed its history4#agi #agi ,see the letter of ,dr4 ,charles ,forbes1 in ,archaeologia1 or ,miscellaneous ,tracts relating to ,antiquity1 xxxv4 7,london1 #ahec7 p4 #dif 7with a woodcut72 ,proceedings of the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,london ,first ,series1 iii4 #ai2 id4 ,second ,series1 i4 #bhg2 letter of ,philip ,hervey1 quoted by ,kenneth ,r4 ,h4 ,mackenzie1 in ,proceedings of the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,london1 ,second ,series1 ii4 #ge-gg2 ,julius ,l4 ,brenchley1 ,jottings during the ,cruise of ,h4,m4,s4 ,curacoa among the ,south ,sea ,islands in #ahfe 7,london1 #ahgc71 p4 #acb 7with a woodcut72 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,diversions of a ,prime ,minister 7,edinburgh and ,london1 #ahid71 pp4 #chj-chb 7with a woodcut on p4 #cic72 id4 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #ha-hd 7with a photograph74 ,views of the monument1 taken apparently from photographs1 have also been published by ,dr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard 7,australasia1 vol4 ii4 ,london1 #ahid1 p4 #eja71 ,dr4 ,george ,brown 7,melanesians and ,polynesians1 ,london1 #aiaj1 plate facing p4 #daj71 and by ,mr4 ,s4 ,percy ,smith 7,hawaiki1 ,third ,edition1 ,christchurch1 ,n4,z41 #aiaj1 pp4 #aeg sq474 ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers spoke as if there were several trilithons in ,tongataboo 7,history of ,melanesian ,society1 ii4 #dcj sq42 id4 ,sun-cult and ,megaliths in ,oceania1 ,american ,anthropologist1 ,n4,s4 xvii41 #aiae1 p4 #ddd72 but in this he seems to have been mistaken4 ,so far as ,i can gather1 there is only one of these remarkable monuments in ,tongataboo or indeed in the whole of the ,pacific4 ,the monument in question is a structure of the type known as a trilithon2 that is1 it is composed of three large stones1 of which two stand upright1 while the third rests horizontally on their tops4 ,all three stones are monoliths of hardened coral1 rough and much weathered on the surface1 and precisely similar to the coral of the neighbouring reefs4 ,indeed1 about halfway between the monument and the beach the coral rock is exposed in a hollow1 from which it seems probable that the great blocks were hewn and brought to their present situation4 ,the statement of ,mr4 ,brenchley1 that the stone of which the monument consists is not to be found elsewhere on the island1 is erroneous4 ,the uprights are quadrangular monoliths neatly squared4 ,no measurements of the stones appear to be on record1 but the two uprights are variously estimated to measure from fourteen to sixteen feet in height2 their breadth or depth from front to back is variously given as from eight to ten or even twelve feet2 but they seem to taper somewhat upwards1 for the estimate which assigns twelve feet for the depth of the uprights at their base1 mentions seven feet or probably more as their breadth at the top4 ,the thickness of the uprights seems to be four feet4 ,the space between them is variously stated at ten and twelve feet4 ,the cross-stone1 which rests on the two uprights1 is reported to measure twenty-four feet in length1 by four or five feet in depth1 and two feet in thickness4 ,each of the uprights is estimated by ,sir ,basil ,thomson to weigh not less than fifty tons4 ,the tops of both are deeply mortised to receive the cross-stone1 the ends of which are sunk into them instead of being laid flat on the top4 ,the cross-stone lies east and west1 so that the opening between the uprights faces north and south4 ,on the upper surface of the cross-stone1 and at about the middle of it1 is a cup-like hollow1 very carefully cut1 about the size of a coco-nut shell4 ,a large bowl of the same material is said to have formerly stood on the cross-stone1 but the statement is not made by an eyewitness and is probably mistaken4#ahj #ahj ,for the authorities1 see the preceding note4 ,the measurements1 to some extent discrepant1 are given by ,dr4 ,charles ,forbes1 ,mr4 ,philip ,hervey1 and the passengers of s4s4 ,wairarapa1 as reported by ,sir ,basil ,thomson ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 #hb sq471 who had unfortunately mislaid his own notes containing the measurements4 ,the statement that the monument was surmounted by a large bowl is made by ,mr4 ,brenchley1 in whose sketch of the structure the bowl figures4 ,but ,mr4 ,brenchley did not himself see the monument1 and nobody else appears to have seen the bowl4 ,i suspect that the report of the bowl may have originated in a hasty reading of ,mr4 ,hervey's statement that on the centre of it the cross-stone a small cava bowl is scooped out1 though in ,mr4 ,brenchley's account the bowl has seemingly increased in size4 ,similarly in his report the height of the uprights has grown to about thirty feet1 which appears to be just double of their real size4 ,perhaps ,mr4 ,brenchley's erroneous allegation as to the material of the monument similarly originated in a misunderstanding of ,mr4 ,hervey's statement that the material is the coral rock1 or coral rag which are formed of stone brought from ,wallis's ,island4 ,the name which the natives give to this megalithic monument is ,haamonga or ,ho ha ,mo-nga ,maui1 which is said to mean ,maui's burden4 ,the name is explained by a story that the god or hero ,maui brought the massive stones in a gigantic canoe from ,uea 7,wallis ,island71 where the great holes in the rock from which he quarried them may still be seen4 ,from the canoe he bore them on his back to the spot where they now stand4#aha ,this story can hardly be thought to throw much light on the origin of the monument2 for the natives are in the habit of referring the marvels which they do not understand to the action of the god or hero ,maui1 just as the ancient ,greeks fathered many natural wonders on the deified hero ,hercules4#ahb ,but from ,mateialona1 ,governor of ,haapai and cousin of the ,king of ,tonga1 ,sir ,basil ,thomson obtained a tradition of the origin of the stones which is at least free from the miraculous element and connects the monument with ,tongan history4 ,the account runs thus3 ,concerning the ,haamonga of ,maui1 they say forsooth that a ,tui ,tonga 7the sacred line of chiefs71 named ,tui-ta-tui1 erected it1 and that he was so named because it was a time of assassination4#ahc ,and they say that he had it built for him to sit upon during the ,faikava 7ceremony of brewing kava71 when the people sat round him in a circle1 and that the king so dreaded assassination that he had this lordly seat built for himself that he might sit out of the reach of his people4 ,and this1 they say1 is the origin of the present custom of the ,faikava1 it being now forbidden for any one to sit behind the king4 ,at such wassails the presiding chief sits at the apex of an oval4 ,to this tradition ,sir ,basil ,thomson adds3 ,mr4 ,shirley ,baker told me that he believed the ,haamonga to have been erected as a fakamanatu 7memorial7 to the son of some ,tui ,tonga1 a view that finds support in the fondness of ,tongan chiefs for originality in the burial ceremonies of their near relations--witness ,mariner's account of the funeral of ,finau's daughter--but on the other hand native traditions generally have a kernel of truth1 and the legend of ,tui-ta-tui and its consequences finds an analogy in our own custom of guarding against an assassin's dagger at the drinking of the loving cup4#ahd ,the tradition receives some confirmation from the bowl-like hollow on the upper surface of the cross-stone2 for the hollow might have served as the king's drinking-cup to hold his kava at the customary wassails4 ,indeed1 ,mr4 ,philip ,hervey1 the first to examine the monument1 describes the hollow in question as a small cava bowl2#ahe and after giving an account of the monument ,mr4 ,brenchley adds3 ,its history seems to be entirely unknown1 but it is very natural to suppose from its form that it was connected with some ancient kava ceremonies4#ahf #aha ,charles ,forbes1 in ,archaeologia1 xxxv4 #dif 7who gives ,ho ha ,mo-nga ,maui as the name of the stones72 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,diversions of a ,prime ,minister1 p4 #chb2 id41 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #ha 7who gives ,haamonga as the native name of the stones74 #ahb 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #ha4 ,maui is the great hero of ,polynesia1 known in nearly every group of islands1 generally regarded as a demigod or deified man1 but sometimes and in some places rising to the dignity of full godhead4 ,he appears1 says ,mr4 ,e4 ,tregear1 to unite the classical attributes of ,hercules and ,prometheus4 ,see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #bcc1 s4v4 ,maui4 #ahc ,tui-ta-tui1 lit4 ',king-strike-,king4' #ahd 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #hb4 #ahe ,proceedings of the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,london1 ,second ,series1 ii4 #gg4 #ahf ,julius ,l4 ,brenchley1 ,jottings during the ,cruise of ,h4,m4,s4 ,curacoa among the ,south ,sea ,islands in #ahfe 7,london1 #ahgc71 p4 #acb4 ,the tradition which connects the erection of the monument with the reign of a ,tooitonga named ,tui-ta-tui is further countenanced1 if not confirmed1 by a list of the ,tooitongas1 in which the name of ,tui-ta-tui occurs as the eleventh in descent from the great god ,tangaloa4#ahg ,this ,tui-ta-tui is believed to have reigned in the thirteenth or fourteenth century of our era4#ahh ,from the size and style of the masonry ,sir ,basil ,thomson is disposed to assign the monument to a later date4 ,he points out that for the quarrying and mortising of stones that weigh some fifty tons apiece the craft of stone-cutting must have been fully developed2 and from a comparison of the megalithic tombs of the ,tooitongas which can be approximately dated1 he infers that the craft of stone-cutting in ,tonga reached its culmination at the end of the seventeenth century1 though it was still practised down to the beginning of the nineteenth century2 for ,mariner tells us that in his time a professional class of masons was set apart for building the stone sepulchral vaults of chiefs4#ahi ,yet on the whole ,sir ,basil ,thomson concludes that when one is left to choose between a definite native tradition on the one hand and probability on the other for the assignment of a date1 ,i would prefer the tradition4 ,if the ,tongans had invented the story as a mere expression for antiquity they would not have pitched upon ,tui-ta-tui1 about whom nothing else is recorded1 in preference to ,takalaua1 ,kau-ulu-fonua-fekai1 or any of the kings who loom large in traditionary history4 ,whether the ,haamonga was built for a throne or for a memorial1 doubtless it is connected with the reign of ,tui-ta-tui1 who lived in the fourteenth century4#aij #ahg 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,diversions of a ,prime ,minister1 p4 #cie4 ,in this work the author prints a list of the ,tooitongas as given by ,mr4 ,e4 ,tregear on the authority of the ,rev4 ,j4 ,e4 ,moulton4 #ahh 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #hc2 ,s4 ,percy ,smith1 ,hawaiki1 p4 #aeh4 #ahi ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bff4 ,as to the size of the stones1 ,mariner says1 ,the stones used for this purpose are about a foot in thickness1 and are cut of the requisite dimensions1 out of the stratum found on the beaches of some of the islands4 #aij 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #hc sq4 ,as an alternative to the view that the hollow on the cross-stone was a kava bowl ,dr4 ,rivers suggests that it may have been destined to receive the skull and other bones of the dead1 so often preserved in ,polynesia4#aia ,the suggestion accords well with the opinion that the monument is a memorial of the dead1 and it might be supported by the ,samoan practice of severing a dead chief's head from his body and burying it separately1 to save it from being dug up and desecrated by enemies in time of war4#aib ,however1 ,dr4 ,rivers is careful to add that such a practice is not recorded in ,tonga and appears to be incompatible with the mode of sepulture which prevails there4 #aia ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers1 ,history of ,melanesian ,society1 ii4 #dca4 #aib ,see below1 p4 #bab4 ,in this connexion another megalithic monument of the ,tonga islands deserves to be considered1 though it appears to have been commonly overlooked4 ,it was observed by ,captain ,cook in the island of ,lefooga 7,lifuka74 ,he says3 ,near the south end of the island1 and on the west side1 we met with an artificial mount4 ,from the size of some trees that were growing upon it1 and from other appearances1 ,i guessed that it had been raised in remote times4 ,i judged it to be about forty feet high2 and the diameter of its summit measured fifty feet4 ,at the bottom of this mount stood a stone1 which must have been hewn out of coral rock4 ,it was four feet broad1 two and a half thick1 and fourteen high2 and we were told by the natives present1 that not above half its length appeared above ground4 ,they called it ,tangata ,arekee2#aic and said1 that it had been set up1 and the mount raised1 by some of their forefathers1 in memory of one of their kings2 but how long since1 they could not tell4#aid #aic ,tangata1 in their language1 is man2 ,arekee1 king4 #aid ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #bih sq4 ,to this description of the monument ,sir ,basil ,thomson has called attention2 he rightly classes it with the tombs of the chiefs4 ,see his ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #he4 ,when we remember that ,tongan kings were commonly buried in such mounds as ,captain ,cook here describes1 and further that these mounds were commonly enclosed or faced with great blocks of hewn stone1 we may be disposed to accept as reasonable and probable the explanation which the natives gave of this great monolith1 which1 if the reported measurements of it are correct1 must have been no less than twenty-eight feet high4 ,if it was indeed a memorial of a dead king1 it might be thought to strengthen the view that the great trilithon was also set up as a monument to a deceased monarch or ,tooitonga4 ,another possible explanation of the trilithon is1 as ,sir ,basil ,thomson points out1 that it served as a gateway to some sacred spot inland4 ,but against this view he observes that he examined the bush for some distance in the neighbourhood without finding any trace of ruins or stones of any kind4 ,he adds that the memory of sacred spots dies very hard in ,tonga1 and that the natives do not believe the trilithon to have been a gateway4#aie #aie 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #ha sq4 ,it is natural to compare the trilithon of ,tongataboo with the famous trilithons of ,stonehenge1 which it resembles in plan and to which it is comparable in size4 ,the resemblance struck ,dr4 ,charles ,forbes1 the first to publish a description of the monument based on personal observation4 ,he says3 ,the route we pursued led us over a country perfectly level1 with the exception of occasional mounds of earth1 apparently artificial1 and reminding one very much of the barrows of ,wilts and ,dorset1 which idea is still more strongly impressed upon the mind on coming in sight of the monument1 which bears a most striking resemblance to the larger gateway-looking stones at ,stonehenge4#aif ,but at the same time1 as ,dr4 ,forbes did not fail to note1 the ,tongan trilithon differs in some respects from those of ,stonehenge4 ,in the first place the interval 7ten or twelve feet7 between the uprights of the ,tongan trilithon appears to be much greater than the interval between the uprights of the trilithons at ,stonehenge4#aig ,in the second place1 the cross-stone of the ,tongan trilithon is mortised much more deeply into the uprights than are the cross-stones at ,stonehenge4 ,for whereas at ,stonehenge these cross-stones present the appearance of being laid flat on the top of the uprights1 the cross-stone of the ,tongan trilithon is sunk deeply into the uprights by means of mortises or grooves about two feet wide which are cut into the uprights1 so that the top of the cross-stone is nearly flush with their tops1 while its ends also are nearly flush with their outside surfaces4#aih #aif ,dr4 ,charles ,forbes1 in ,archaeologia1 xxxv4 p4 #dif4 #aig ,i have no measurements of these intervals1 but write from the impression of a recent visit to ,stonehenge4 #aih 7,sir7 ,basil ,thomson1 ,notes upon the ,antiquities of ,tonga1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 p4 #hb1 quoting the anonymous pamphlet ,the ,wairarapa ,wilderness4 ,as the origin and purpose of ,stonehenge are still unknown1 its massive trilithons can hardly be cited to explain the similar monument of ,tongataboo4 ,the rival theories which see in ,stonehenge a memorial of the dead and a temple of the sun#aii are equally applicable or inapplicable to the ,tongan monument4 ,in favour of the mortuary character of this solitary trilithon it might be urged that the ,tongans were long accustomed to erect megalithic monuments1 though of a different type1 at the tombs of their sacred kings1 which are situated not many miles away2 but against this view it may be argued that there are no traces of burial or graves in the immediate neighbourhood1 and that native tradition1 not lightly to be set aside1 assigns a different origin to the monument4 ,against the solar interpretation of the trilithon it may be alleged1 first1 that the monument faces north and south1 not east and west1 as it might be expected to do if it were a temple of the sun or a gateway leading into such a temple2 second1 that1 while a circle of trilithons1 as at ,stonehenge1 with an opening towards the sunrise may be plausibly interpreted as a temple of the sun1 such an interpretation cannot so readily be applied to a solitary trilithon facing north and south2 and1 third1 that no trace of sun-worship has been discovered in the ,tonga islands4 ,so far as ,i have observed1 the ,tongan pantheon is nowhere said to have included a sun-god1 and the ,tongans are nowhere reported to have paid any special respect to the sun4 ,savages in general1 it may be added1 appear to be very little addicted to sun-worship2 it is for the most part among peoples at a much higher level of culture1 such as the ancient ,egyptians1 ,babylonians1 and ,peruvians1 that solar worship becomes an important1 or even the predominant1 feature of the national faith4#bjj ,perhaps the impulse to it came rather from the meditations of priestly astronomers than from the random fancies of common men4 ,some depth of thought was needed to detect in the sun the source of all life on earth2 the immutable regularity of the great luminary's movements failed to rouse the interest or to excite the fear of the savage1 to whom the elements of the unusual1 the uncertain1 and the terrible are the principal incentives to wonder and awe1 and hence to reflexion4 ,we are all naturally more impressed by extraordinary than by ordinary events2 the fine edge of the mind is dulled by familiarity in the one case and whetted by curiosity in the other4 #aii ,lord ,avebury1 ,prehistoric ,times1 ,seventh ,edition 7,london1 #aiac71 pp4 #acb sqq42 ,sir ,norman ,lockyer1 ,stonehenge and other ,british ,stone ,monuments astronomically considered 7,london1 #aijf72 ,c4 ,schuchhardt1 ,stonehenge1 ,zeitschrift fuer ,ethnologie1 xlii4 7#aiaj71 pp4 #ifc-ifh2 id4 in ,zeitschrift fuer ,ethnologie1 xliii4 7#aiaa7 pp4 #afi-aga2 id41 in ,sitzungsberichte der koenigl4 preuss4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 #aiac1 pp4 #gei sqq4 7for the sepulchral interpretation72 ,w4 ,pastor1 ,stonehenge1 ,zeitschrift fuer ,ethnologie1 xliii4 7#aiaa7 pp4 #afc-7;for the solar interpretation74 #bjj ,adolph ,bastian observed that sun-worship1 which people used to go sniffing about to discover everywhere1 is found on the contrary only in very exceptional regions or on lofty table-lands of equatorial latitude4 ,see his book1 ,die ,voelker des ,oestlichen ,asien1 iv4 7,jena1 #ahfh7 p4 #age4 ,nobody1 probably1 has ever been better qualified than ,bastian to pronounce an opinion on such a subject2 for his knowledge of the varieties of human thought and religion1 acquired both by reading and travel1 was immense4 ,it is only to be regretted that through haste or negligence he too often gave out the fruits of his learning in a form which rendered it difficult to sift and almost impossible to digest them4 ,yet from his storehouse he brought forth a treasure1 of which we may say what ,macaulay said of the scholarship of ,parr1 that it was too often buried in the earth1 too often paraded with injudicious and inelegant ostentation1 but still precious1 massive1 and splendid4 ,bearing in mind the numerous other stone monuments scattered widely over the islands of the ,pacific1 from the ,carolines to ,easter ,island1 ,dr4 ,guillemard concludes that some race1 with a different1 if not a higher civilisation preceded the ,polynesian race in its present homes1 and to this earlier race he would apparently refer the erection of the trilithon in ,tongataboo4#bja ,he may be right4 ,yet when we consider1 first1 the native tradition of the setting up of the trilithon by one of the sacred kings of ,tonga2 second1 the practice of the ,tongans of building megalithic tombs for these same sacred kings2 and1 third1 the former existence in ,tonga of a professional class of masons whose business it was to construct stone vaults for the burial of chiefs1#bjb we may hesitate to resort to the hypothesis of an unknown people in order to explain the origin of a monument which the ,tongans1 as we know them1 appear to have been quite capable of building for themselves4 #bja ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 #ejj4 #bjb ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #bff4 ,sec4 #aa4 ,rites of ,burial and ,mourning ,the only mode of disposing of the dead which was practised in the ,tonga islands seems to have been burial in the earth4 ,so far as appears1 the corpse was not doubled up1 but laid at full length in the grave2 at all events ,i have met with no mention of burying a corpse in a contracted posture2 and ,captain ,cook says that when a person dies1 he is buried1 after being wrapped up in mats and cloth1 much after our manner4 ,he adds that1 while chiefs had the special burial-places called fiatookas appropriated to their use1 common people were interred in no particular spot4#bjc ,so far as ,i have observed1 none of our authorities speak of a practice of embalming the dead or of giving the bodies any particular direction in the grave4 #bjc ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #dba4 ,after a death the mourners testified their sorrow by dressing in old ragged mats and wearing green leaves of the ifi tree round their necks4 ,thus attired they would repair to the tomb1 where1 on entering the enclosure1 they would pull off the green twigs from their necks and throw them away2 then sitting down they would solemnly drink kava4#bjd ,further1 they accompanied their cries and ejaculations of grief and despair by inflicting on their own bodies many grievous wounds and injuries4 ,they burned circles and scars on their bodies1 beat their teeth with stones1 struck shark's teeth into their heads till the blood flowed in streams1 and thrust spears into the inner part of the thigh1 into their sides below the arm-pits1 and through the cheeks into the mouth4#bje ,women in wailing would cut off their fingers1 and slit their noses1 their ears1 and their cheeks4#bjf ,at the funerals of the kings especially the mourners indulged in frantic excesses of self-torture and mutilation4 ,of two such funerals we have the detailed descriptions of eye-witnesses who resided in the islands at a time when the natives were as yet practically unaffected by ,european influence4 ,king ,moomooe died in ,april #agig1 and the first missionaries to ,tonga witnessed and described his funeral4 ,they have told how1 when the corpse was being carried in procession to a temporary house near the royal burial-ground 7fiatooka71 it was preceded by relatives of the deceased in the usual mourning garb1 who cut their heads with shark's teeth till the blood streamed down their faces4 ,a few days later1 when the burial was to take place1 the missionaries found about four thousand people assembled at the mound where the body was to be interred4 ,in a few minutes they heard a great shouting and blowing of conch-shells1 and soon after there appeared about a hundred men1 armed with clubs and spears1 who1 rushing into the area1 began to cut and mangle themselves in a most dreadful manner4 ,many struck their heads such violent blows with their clubs that the sound could be heard thirty or forty yards off1 and they repeated them till the blood ran down in streams4 ,others1 who had spears1 thrust them through their thighs1 arms1 and cheeks1 all the while calling on the deceased in a most affecting manner4 ,a native of ,fiji1 who had been a servant of the late king1 appeared quite frantic2 he entered the area with fire in his hand1 and having previously oiled his hair1 he set it ablaze1 and ran about with it all on flame4 ,when they had satisfied or exhausted themselves with this manner of torment1 they sat down1 beat their faces with their fists1 and then retired4 ,a second party then inflicted on themselves the same cruelties4 ,a third party next entered1 shouting and blowing shells2 four of the foremost held stones1 which they used to knock out their teeth1 while those who blew the shells employed them as knives with which they hacked their heads in a shocking manner4 ,a man who had a spear pierced his arm with it just above the elbow1 and with it sticking fast in his flesh ran about the area for some time4 ,another1 who seemed to be a principal chief1 acted as if quite bereft of his senses2 he ran to every corner of the area1 and at each station beat his head with a club till the blood flowed down on his shoulders4 ,at this point the missionary1 unable to bear the sight of these self-inflicted tortures1 quitted the scene4 ,when his colleagues visited the place some hours later in the afternoon1 they found the natives of both sexes still at the dreadful work of cutting and mangling themselves4 ,in the course of these proceedings a party of mourners entered the area1 sixteen of whom had recently cut off their little fingers4 ,they were followed by another party with clubs and spears1 who battered and wounded themselves in the usual fashion1 and also disfigured their faces with coco-nut husks1 which they had fastened to the knuckles of both hands4 ,the missionaries noticed that the mourners who were either related to the dead king or had held office under him1 were the most cruel to themselves2 some of them thrust two1 three1 and even four spears into their arms1 and so danced round the area1 while others broke off the spear-heads in their flesh4#bjg #bjd ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #cde sq4 ,as to the mourning costume of mats and leaves1 see also ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 p4 #bdj2 ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #chj1 #cib1 #dca1 ii4 #bad sq4 #bje ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages v4 #dbj4 #bjf ,jerome ,grange1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xvii4 7#ahde7 p4 #ac4 #bjg ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #bdb-bdd4 ,similar scenes were witnessed some years later by ,mariner at the death and burial of ,finow1 another king of ,tonga2 and the ,englishman has described from personal observation how on this occasion the mourners cut and wounded their heads and bodies with clubs1 stones1 knives1 or sharp shells4 ,this they did on one or other of the malais#bjh or ceremonial grounds in the presence of many spectators1 vying apparently with each other in the effort to surpass the rest in this public manifestation of their sorrow for the death of the king and their respect for his memory4 ,as one ran out into the middle of the ground he would cry1 ,finow6 ,i know well your mind2 you have departed to ,bolotoo1 and left your people under suspicion that ,i1 or some of those about you1 were unfaithful2 but where is the proof of infidelity8 where is a single instance of disrespect8 ,then1 inflicting violent blows and deep cuts on his head with a club1 stone1 or knife1 he would again exclaim at intervals1 ,is this not a proof of my fidelity8 does this not evince loyalty and attachment to the memory of the departed warrior8 ,some more violent than others cut their heads to the skull with such heavy and repeated blows that they reeled and lost their reason for a time4#bji ,the king's successor1 ,finow the ,second1 not content with the usual instruments of torture1 employed a saw for the purpose1 striking his skull with the teeth so violently that he staggered for loss of blood2 but this he did1 not at the time of the burial and in presence of the multitude1 but some weeks later at a more private ceremony of mourning before the grave4#baj ,at the public ceremony the late king's fishermen varied the usual breaking of heads and slashing of bodies by a peculiar form of self-torment4 ,instead of clubs they appropriately carried the paddles of canoes1 with which they battered their heads in the orthodox style2 but besides every man of them had three arrows stuck through each cheek in a slanting direction1 so that1 while the points pierced through the cheeks into the mouth1 the other ends went over the shoulder and were kept in position by another arrow1 the point of which was tied to the ends of the arrows passing over one shoulder1 while the other end was tied to the ends of the other arrows which passed over the other shoulder4 ,thus each fisherman was decorated with a triangle of arrows1 of which the apex consisted of six arrow-heads in his mouth1 while the base dangled on his back4 ,with this remarkable equipment they walked round the grave1 beating their faces and heads with their paddles1 or pinching up the skin of the breast and sticking a spear right through it4#baa #bjh ,mariner defines a malai as a piece of ground1 generally before a large house1 or chief's grave1 where public ceremonies are principally held 7,tonga ,islands1 vol4 ii41 ,vocabulary s4v474 ,it is the same word as malae or marae1 noticed above1 p4 #aaf1 note#c4 #bji ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #cgi-chd4 #baj ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #ddj-ddb4 #baa ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #djd sq4 ,the grave of a chief's family was a vault paved with a single large stone1 while the four walls were formed each of a single block4 ,the vault was about eight feet long1 six feet broad1 and eight feet deep1 and was covered at the top by one large stone4#bab ,so heavy was this covering stone that1 as we have seen1 from a hundred and fifty to two hundred men were required to lift and lower it4#bac ,mariner estimated that the family vault in which ,king ,finow was interred was large enough to hold thirty bodies4 ,when the king's corpse was being deposited in it1 ,mariner saw two dry and perfectly preserved bodies lying in the vault1 together with the bones of several others2 and he was told by old men that the well-preserved bodies had been buried when they1 his informants1 were boys1 which must have been upwards of forty years before2 whereas the bodies of which nothing but the bones remained had been buried later4 ,the natives attributed the exceptional preservation of the two to the better constitution of their former owners2 ,mariner1 or more probably his editor1 ,dr4 ,martin1 preferred to suppose that the difference was due to the kind or duration of the disease which had carried them off4 ,apparently the natives did not suggest that the bodies had been embalmed1 which they would almost certainly have done if they had known of such a custom4#bad ,no sooner was the king's body deposited in the grave1 and the great stone lowered over it1 than certain ministers 7matabooles7 and warriors ran like men frantic round and round the burial-ground1 exclaiming1 ,alas6 how great is our loss6 ,finow6 you are departed2 witness this proof of our love and loyalty6 ,at the same time they cut and bruised their own heads with clubs1 knives1 and axes in the usual fashion4#bae ,afterwards the grave was filled up with earth and strewed with sand1 which a company of women and men had brought for the purpose in baskets from a place at the back of the island2 what remained of the sand was scattered over the sepulchral mound 7fytoca71 of which it was deemed a great embellishment4 ,the inside of the burial-ground was then spread with mats made of coco-nut leaves4#baf #bab ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #add note 994 #bac ,see above1 p4 #aje4 #bad ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #chh note 994 #bae ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #chh sq4 #baf ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #chi-cib4 ,meantime the company of mourners had been seated on the green before the burial-ground1 still wearing their mourning garb of mats1 with leaves of the ifi tree strung round their necks4 ,they now arose and went to their homes1 where they shaved their heads and burnt their cheeks with a lighted roll of bark-cloth1 by applying it once upon each cheek-bone2 next they rubbed the place with an astringent berry1 which caused it to bleed1 and afterwards they smeared the blood in a broad circle round the wound1 giving themselves a very ghastly appearance4 ,they repeated this friction with the berry every day1 making the wound bleed afresh2 and the men meanwhile neglected to shave and to oil themselves during the day1 though they indulged in these comforts at night4 ,having burnt their cheeks and shaved their heads1 they built for themselves small temporary huts1 where they lived during the time of mourning1 which lasted twenty days4#bag #bag ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #cib sq4 ,the women who had become tabooed1 that is1 in a state of ceremonial pollution1 by touching the king's dead body1 remained constantly within the burial-ground for the twenty days of mourning1 except when they retired to one of the temporary huts to eat1#bah or rather to be fed by others4 ,for it was a rule that no ordinary person1 man or woman1 could touch a dead chief without being tabooed1 that is ceremonially polluted1 for ten lunar months1 during which time he or she might not touch food with their own hands4 ,but for chiefs the period of pollution was limited to three1 four1 or five months1 according to the superiority of the dead chief4 ,only when the dead body which they had touched was that of the sacred chief1 the ,tooitonga1 they were all tabooed for ten months1 however high their rank2 for example1 the king's wife was tabooed for that length of time during the residence of ,mariner1 because she had touched the dead body of the ,tooitonga4 ,during the time that a person was tabooed1 he might not feed himself with his own hands1 but must be fed by somebody else3 he might not even use a toothpick himself1 but might guide another person's hand holding the toothpick4 ,if he was hungry and had no one to feed him1 he must go down on his hands and knees1 and pick up his victuals with his mouth2 and if he infringed any of these rules1 it was firmly expected that he would swell up and die4#bai ,captain ,cook observed this custom in operation at ,tongataboo4 ,on one of his walks he met with a party of women at supper1 and noticed that two of them were being fed by others4 ,on asking the reason1 he was answered taboo mattee1 that is1 ,death taboo4 ,it was explained to him that one of the women had washed the dead body of a chief two months before1 and that consequently she might not handle any food for five months4 ,the other had performed the same office for the corpse of another person of inferior rank1 and was now under the same restriction1 but not for so long a time4#bbj ,the tabooed women at ,finow's grave were supplied with food by the new king1 ,finow the ,second4 ,the food was brought and placed on the ground at some distance from the grave1 or else it was deposited before the temporary house to which the chief of the tabooed women retired to be fed4 ,with the provisions was also sent every day a supply of torches to light up the burial-ground by night4 ,the torches were held up by a woman of inferior rank1 who1 when she was tired1 was relieved in her office by another4 ,during the twenty days of mourning1 if any one passed the burial-ground1 he had to go at a slow pace1 with his head bowed down1 and his hands clasped before him2 and if he carried a burden1 he must lower it from his shoulder and carry it in his hands or on his bended arms2 but if he could not do so conveniently1 he had to make a circuit to avoid the grave4 #bah ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #cic4 #bai ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #ada note 994 #bbj ,captain ,james ,cook1 ,voyages1 v4 #ccf4 ,the writer does not translate the expression taboo mattee2 but mate is the regular ,tongan word for death or to die4 ,see ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ,vocabulary1 s4v4 ,mate4 ,compare ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #bbh1 s4v4 ,mate4 ,such were the regular observances at the death and burial of chiefs2 they were not peculiar to the obsequies of ,finow the king4#bba #bba ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #cid sq4 ,the twentieth day of mourning concluded the ceremonies in honour of the deceased monarch4 ,early in the morning all his relations1 together with the members of his household1 and also the women who were tabooed on account of having touched his dead body in the process of oiling and preparing it1 went to the back of the island to procure a quantity of flat pebbles1 principally white1 but a few black1 which they brought back in baskets to the grave4 ,there they strewed the inside of the house and the outside of the burial-ground 7fytoca7 with the white pebbles as a decoration2 the black pebbles they laid only on the top of those white ones which covered the ground directly over the body1 to about the length and breadth of a man1 in the form of a very eccentric ellipse4 ,after that1 the house on the burial mound was closed up at both ends with a reed fencing1 which reached from the eaves to the ground2 while at the front and the back the house was closed with a sort of basket-work1 made of the young branches of the coco-nut tree1 split and interwoven in a very curious and ornamental way4 ,these fences were to remain until the next burial1 when they would be taken down and1 after the conclusion of the ceremony1 replaced by new ones of similar pattern4 ,a large quantity of food and kava was now sent by the chiefs and the king to the public place 7malai7 in front of the burial mound1 and these provisions were served out among the people in the usual way4 ,the company then separated and repaired to their respective houses1 to prepare for the dances and the grand wrestling-match1 which were to conclude the funeral rites4#bbb #bbb ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 i4 #dja-djc4 ,during the intervals of the dances1 which followed1 several warriors and ministers 7matabooles7 ran before the grave1 cutting and bruising their heads with axes1 clubs1 and so forth as proofs of fidelity to their late chief1 the dead and buried ,king ,finow4 ,it was on this occasion that the deceased king's fishermen demonstrated their loyalty and attachment to his memory by the self-inflicted tortures which ,i have already described4#bbc ,when these exhibitions of cruelty were over1 the day's ceremonies1 which altogether lasted about six hours1 were terminated by a grand wrestling-match4 ,that being over1 the people dispersed to their respective houses or occupations1 and the obsequies of ,finow1 king of the ,tonga islands1 came to an end4#bbd #bbc ,above1 pp4 #ace sq4 #bbd ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #djc-dje4 ,the wrestling-match which wound up the funeral honours paid to the departed monarch would seem not to have been an isolated case of athletic sports held at this particular funeral4 ,apparently it was a general custom in ,tonga to conclude burial-rites with games of this kind4 ,at least we may infer as much from an expression made use of by the first missionaries to ,tongataboo4 ,they say that the chief of their district1 after taking to himself a wife in the morning went in the afternoon to finish the funeral ceremonies for his brother1 in celebrating the games usual on that occasion4#bbe ,the practice1 which is apt to seem to us incongruous1 of holding games at a funeral1 was observed by the ,greeks in antiquity and by not a few other peoples in modern times4#bbf #bbe ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 p4 #bfe4 #bbf ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,part ,,iii41 ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #ib sqq4 ,on the other hand the obsequies of the sacred or divine chief1 the ,tooitonga1 differed in certain remarkable particulars from the posthumous honours generally paid to chiefs4 ,it is true that his burial-place was of the same form as that of other chiefs1 and that the mode of his interment did not differ essentially from theirs1 except that it was customary to deposit some of his most valuable property with him in the grave1 including his beads1 whale's teeth1 fine ,samoan mats1 and other articles4 ,hence the family burying-place of the ,tooitongas in the island of ,tongataboo1 where the whole line of these pontiffs had been interred1 must have become very rich in the course of time2 for no native would dare to commit the sacrilege of stealing the treasures at the holy tomb4#bbg ,however1 the sacrifice of property to the dead seems not to have been1 as ,mariner supposed1 peculiar to the funeral of the ,tooitonga2 for at the burial of ,king ,moomooe1 in ,may #agig1 the first missionaries saw files of women and men bringing bags of valuable articles1 fine mats1 and bales of cloth1 which they deposited in the tomb expressly as a present for the dead4#bbh ,again1 the mourning costume worn for the ,tooitonga was the same as that for any chief1 consisting of ragged old mats on the body and leaves of the ifi tree round the neck2 but in the case of the ,tooitonga the time of mourning was extended to four months1 the mats being generally left off after three months1 while the leaves were still retained for another month2 and the female mourners remained within the burial-ground 7fytoca1 fiatooka7 for about two months1 instead of twenty days1 only retiring occasionally to temporary houses in the neighbourhood to eat or for other necessary purposes4#bbi #bbg ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bac sq4 #bbh ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 p4 #bdc4 #bbi ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bad sq4 ,one very remarkable peculiarity in the mourning for a ,tooitonga was that1 though he ranked above the king and all other chiefs1 the mourners strictly abstained from manifesting their grief by wounding their heads and cutting their bodies in the manner that was customary at the funerals of all other great men4 ,mariner was never able to learn the reason for this abstention4#bcj #bcj ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bac4 ,other peculiar features in the obsequies of a ,tooitonga were the following4 ,in the afternoon of the day of burial1 when the body of the ,tooitonga was already within the burial-ground1 almost every man1 woman1 and child1 all dressed in the usual mourning garb1 and all provided with torches1 used to sit down about eighty yards from the grave2 in the course of an hour a multitude of several thousands would thus assemble4 ,one of the female mourners would then come forth from the burial-ground and call out to the people1 saying1 ,arise ye1 and approach2 whereupon the people would get up1 and advancing about forty yards would again sit down4 ,two men behind the grave now began to blow conch-shells1 and six others1 with large lighted torches1 about six feet high1 advanced from behind the burial-ground1 descended the mound1 and walked in single file several times between the burial-ground and the people1 waving their flaming torches in the air4 ,after that they began to ascend the mound1 whereupon all the people rose up together and made a loud crashing noise by snapping their bolatas1 which were pieces of the stem of a banana tree used to receive the ashes falling from lighted torches4 ,having done so1 the people followed the torch-bearers in single file up the mound and walked in procession round about the tomb 7fytoca74 ,as they passed at the back of the tomb1 they all1 torch-bearers and people1 deposited their extinguished torches on the ground2 while the female mourners within thanked them for providing these things4 ,having thus marched round1 the people returned to their places and sat down4 ,thereupon the master of the ceremonies came forward and ordered them to divide themselves into parties according to their districts2 which being done he assigned to one party the duty of clearing away the bushes and grass from one side of the grave1 and to another party a similar task in regard to another side of the grave1 while a third party was charged to remove rubbish1 and so forth4 ,in this way the whole neighbourhood of the burial-ground was soon cleared1 and when this was done1 all the people returned to the temporary houses which1 as mourners1 they were bound to occupy4#bca #bca ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bae-bag4 ,soon after darkness had fallen1 certain persons stationed at the grave began again to sound the conches1 while others chanted a song1 or rather recitative1 partly in the ,samoan dialect1 partly in an unknown language1 of which the natives could give no account4 ,none of them understood the words1 nor could they explain how their forefathers came to learn them4 ,all that they knew was that the words had been handed down from father to son among the class of people whose business it was to direct burial ceremonies4 ,according to ,mariner1 some of the words were ,tongan1 and he thought that the language was probably an old or corrupt form of ,tongan1 though he could make no sense out of it4 ,such traditional repetition of a litany in an unknown tongue is not uncommon among savages2 it occurs1 for instance1 very frequently among some of the aboriginal tribes of ,australia1 where the chants or recitatives accompanying certain dances or ceremonies are often passed on from one tribe to another1 the members of which perform the borrowed dance or ceremony and repeat by rote the borrowed chants or recitatives without understanding a word of them4#bcb #bcb ,w4 ,e4 ,roth1 ,ethnological ,studies among the ,north-west-central ,queensland ,aborigines 7,brisbane and ,london1 #ahig71 pp4 #aag sq42 7,sir7 ,baldwin ,spencer and ,f4 ,j4 ,gillen1 ,northern ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #bcd1 #bce2 id41 ,native ,tribes of ,central ,australia 7,london1 #ahii71 p4 #bha note2 id41 ,across ,australia 7,london1 #aiab71 i4 #bdd4 ,while the conches were sounding and the voices of the singers broke the silence of night1 about sixty men assembled before the grave1 where they awaited further orders4 ,when the chanting was over1 and the notes of the conches had ceased to sound1 one of the women mourners came forward1 and sitting down outside the graveyard addressed the men thus3 ,men6 ye are gathered here to perform the duty imposed on you2 bear up1 and let not your exertions be wanting to accomplish the work4 ,with these words she retired into the burial-ground4 ,the men now approached the mound in the dark1 and1 in the words of ,mariner1 or his editor1 performed their devotions to ,cloacina1 after which they withdrew4 ,as soon as it was daylight the next morning1 the women of the first rank1 wives and daughters of the greatest chiefs1 assembled with their female attendants1 bringing baskets and shells wherewith to clear up the deposit of the preceding night2 and in this ceremonious act of humility no lady of the highest rank refused to take her part4 ,some of the mourners in the burial-ground generally came out to assist1 so that in a very little while the place was made perfectly clean4 ,this deposit was repeated the fourteen following nights1 and as punctually cleared away by sunrise every morning4 ,no persons but the agents were allowed to be witnesses of these extraordinary ceremonies2 at least it would have been considered highly indecorous and irreligious to pry upon them4 ,on the sixteenth day1 early in the morning1 the same women again assembled1 but now they were dressed in the finest bark-cloth and beautiful ,samoan mats1 decorated with ribbons and with wreaths of flowers round their necks2 they also brought new baskets1 ornamented with flowers1 and little brooms very tastefully made4 ,thus equipped1 they approached and acted as if they had the same task to perform as before1 pretending to clear up the dirt1 and to take it away in their baskets1 though there was no dirt to remove4 ,then they returned to the capital and resumed their mourning dress of mats and leaves4 ,such were the rites performed during the fifteen days2 every day the ceremony of the burning torches was also repeated4#bcc #bcc ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bag-bai4 ,for one month from the day of burial1 greater or less quantities of provisions were brought every day and shared out to the people4 ,on the first day the quantity supplied was prodigious2 but day by day the supply gradually diminished till on the last day it was reduced to very little4#bcd ,nevertheless the consumption or waste of food on such occasions was so great that to guard against a future dearth of provisions it was deemed necessary to lay a prohibition or taboo on the eating of hogs1 fowls1 and coco-nuts for a period of eight or ten months1 though two or three plantations were exempted from this rigorous embargo1 to the end that in the meantime hogs1 fowls1 and coco-nuts might be furnished for occasional religious rites1 and that the higher order of chiefs might be able to partake of these victuals4 ,at the end of the eight or ten months' fast the taboo was removed and permission to eat of the forbidden foods was granted by the king at a solemn ceremony4 ,immense quantities of yams having been collected and piled up in columns1 and some three or four hundred hogs having been killed1 the people assembled from all quarters at the king's malai or public place4 ,of the slaughtered hogs about twenty were deposited1 along with a large quantity of yams1 at the grave of the deceased ,tooitonga4 ,the rest of the provisions were shared out in definite proportions among the gods1 the king1 the divine chief 7the living ,tooitonga71 the inferior chiefs1 and the people1 so that every man in the island of ,tongataboo got at least a mouthful of pork and yam4 ,the ceremony concluded with dancing1 wrestling1 and other sports1 after which every person retired to his home with his portion of food to share it with his family4 ,the hogs and yams deposited at the dead ,tooitonga's grave were left lying till the pork stank and the yams were rotten1 whereupon the living ,tooitonga ordered that they should be distributed to all who chose to apply for a portion4 ,in strict law they belonged to the principal chiefs1 but as these persons were accustomed to feed on meat in a rather less advanced stage of decomposition they kindly waived their claims to the putrid pork and rotten yams in favour of the lower orders1 who were less nice in their eating4#bce #bcd ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 ii4 #bbj4 #bce ,w4 ,mariner1 ,tonga ,islands1 i4 #aab sq41 #abj-abf1 ii4 #bbj4 ,it was customary that the chief widow of the ,tooitonga should be strangled and interred with his dead body4#bcf ,but the practice of strangling a wife at her husband's funeral was not limited to the widows of the ,tooitongas4 ,a similar sacrifice seems to have been formerly offered at the obsequies of a king2 for at the funeral of ,king ,moomoeoe the first missionaries to ,tonga saw two of the king's widows being led away to be strangled4#bcg #bcf ,w4 ,mariner1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ace1 #bji sq41 #bad4 #bcg ,captain ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 p4 #bdj4 ,the funeral and mourning customs which we have passed in review serve to illustrate the ,tongan conceptions of the soul and of its survival after death4 ,the strangling of widows was probably intended here as elsewhere to despatch their spirits to attend their dead husbands in the spirit land2#bch and the deposition of valuable property in the grave can hardly have had1 at least in origin1 any other object than to ensure the comfort of the departed in the other world1 and incidentally1 perhaps1 to remove from him any temptation to return to his sorrowing friends in this world for the purpose of recovering the missing articles4 ,the self-inflicted wounds and bruises of the mourners were clearly intended to impress the ghost with the sincerity of their regret at his departure from this sublunary scene2 if any doubt could linger in our minds as to the intention of these extravagant proceedings1 it would be set at rest by the words with which1 as we have seen1 the mourners accompanied them1 calling on the dead man to witness their voluntary tortures and to judge for himself of the genuineness of their sorrow4 ,in this connexion it is to be borne in mind that all dead noblemen1 in the opinion of the ,tongans1 were at once promoted to the rank of deities2 so that it was in their power to visit any disrespect to their memory and any defalcation of their dues with the double terror of ghosts and of gods4 ,no wonder that the ,tongans sought to keep on good terms with such mighty beings by simulating1 when they did not feel1 a sense of the irreparable loss which the world had sustained by their dissolution4 #bch ,this was the reason assigned for the strangling of widows at their husband's funeral in ,fiji4 ,see ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 pp4 #dgh sq4 ,sec4 #ab4 ,the ,ethical ,influence of ,tongan ,religion ,surveyed as a whole1 the ,tongan religion presents a singular instance of a creed which restricted the hope of immortality to the nobly born and denied it to commoners4 ,according to the doctrine which it inculcated1 the aristocratic pre-eminence accorded to chiefs in this world was more than maintained by them in the next1 where they enjoyed a monopoly of immortality4 ,and not content with sojourning in the blissful regions of ,bolotoo1 their departed spirits often returned to earth to warn1 to direct1 to threaten their people1 either in dreams and visions of the night1 or by the mouth of the priests whom they inspired4 ,such beliefs involved in theory and to some extent in practice a subjection of the living to the dead1 of the seen and temporal to the unseen and eternal4 ,in favour of the creed it may at least be alleged that1 while it looked to spiritual powers1 whether ghosts or gods1 for the reward of virtue and the punishment of vice1 it did not appeal to another life to redress the balance of justice which had been disturbed in this one4 ,the ,tongan religion inculcated a belief that the good and the bad alike receive a recompense here on earth1 thus implicitly repudiating the unworthy notion that men can only be lured or driven into the narrow way of righteousness by the hope of heaven or the fear of hell4 ,so far the creed based morality on surer foundations than any faith which would rest the ultimate sanctions of conduct on the slippery ground of posthumous rewards and punishments4 ,in this respect1 if in no other1 we may compare the ,tongan religion to that of the ,hebrew prophets4 ,it has been rightly observed by ,renan that whereas ,european races in general have found in the assurance of a life to come ample compensation for the iniquities of this present life1 the ,hebrew prophets never appeal to rewards and punishments reserved for a future state of existence4 ,they were not content with the conception of a lame and laggard justice that limps far behind the sinner in this world and only overtakes him in the next4 ,according to them1 ,god's justice is swift and sure here on earth2 an unjust world was in their eyes a simple monstrosity4#bci ,so too1 apparently1 thought the ,tongans1 and some ,europeans may be inclined to agree with them4 #bci ,e4 ,renan1 ,histoire du peuple d',israel1 ii4 #eje4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,samoans ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,samoan ,islands ,about three hundred and fifty or four hundred miles nearly due north of ,tonga lies ,samoa1 a group of islands situated between #ac deg4 #cj' and #ad deg4 #cj' ,south latitude and between #afh deg4 and #agc deg4 ,west longitude4 ,the native name of the group is ,samoa1 which has this singularity1 that it is apparently the only name that designates a group of islands in the ,pacific2 native names for all the other groups are wanting1 though each particular island has its own individual name4 ,samoa is also known to ,europeans as the ,navigators' ,islands1 a name bestowed on them by the ,french explorer ,de ,bougainville1 who visited the group in #agfh4 ,the three most easterly islands were discovered in #agbb by ,jacob ,roggewein1 a ,dutch navigator1 but he appears not to have sighted the principal islands of the group1 which lie a good deal farther to the westward4 ,there is no record of any visit paid by a ,european vessel to the islands in the interval between the visits of ,roggewein and ,de ,bougainville4 ,the whole archipelago was not explored till #aghg1 when the ,french navigator ,la ,perouse determined the position of all the islands4#a #a ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 ii4 #aag2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa 7,london1 #ahig71 pp4 #ba sq42 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 7,london1 #ahid7 p4 #ejj2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians 7,london1 #aiaj71 pp4 #a1 #cfj4 ,the islands are disposed in a line running from west to east4 ,the most westerly1 ,savaii1 is also the largest1 measuring about forty miles in length4 ,next follow two small1 but important islands1 ,apolima and ,manona4 ,then about three miles to the east of ,manona comes ,upolu1 the second of the islands in size1 but the first in importance1 whether we regard population1 harbours1 or the extent of soil available for cultivation4 ,the channel which divides ,upolu from ,savaii is from fifteen to twenty miles broad4 ,about forty miles to the east1 or rather south-east1 of ,upolu lies the island of ,tutuila1 with the fine and almost landlocked harbour of ,pangopango4 ,it was in this island that the ,french navigator ,la ,perouse lost his second in command and twelve men in a fierce encounter with the natives4 ,the place where the fight took place is now known as ,massacre ,cove4#b ,some fifty miles to the east of ,tutuila is situated a group of three small islands1 ,tau1 ,ofu1 and ,olosenga1 which are collectively known as ,manua4 #b ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bg sq42 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ejj1 #ejd4 ,the islands are of volcanic formation and for the most part surrounded by coral reefs1 but the intervening seas are quite free from danger1 and the possession of good harbours renders ,samoa politically important4 ,viewed from the sea the islands are mountainous and for the most part wooded to the water's edge1 except where a stretch of fertile plain is interposed between the foot of the mountains and the sea4 ,the whole group presents to the voyager a succession of enchanting views as he sails along the coast4 ,the eye is delighted by the prospect of lofty and rugged mountains1 their tops sometimes lost in clouds1 their slopes mantled in the verdure of evergreen forests1 varied here and there by rich valleys1 by grey and lofty cliffs1 or by foaming waterfalls tumbling from heights of hundreds of feet and showing like silvery threads against the sombre green of the woods4 ,along the shore rocks of black lava alternate with white sands dazzling in the sunlight and fringed by groves of coco-nut palms1 their feathery tops waving and dancing in the breeze1 while the brilliant cobalt blue of the calm lagoon contrasts with the olive-green of the deep sea1 which breaks in a long line of seething foam on the barrier reef4 ,the scenery as a whole combines romantic grandeur with wild and rank luxuriance1 thus winning for ,samoa the reputation of being among the loveliest of the islands which stud like gems the bosom of the ,pacific4#c #c ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific 7,london1 #ahec71 p4 #aaj2 ,t4 ,h4 ,hood1 ,notes of a ,cruise in ,h4,m4,s4 ,fawn in the ,western ,pacific 7,edinburgh1 #ahfc71 p4 #dj2 ,j4 ,l4 ,brenchley1 ,jottings during the ,cruise of ,h4,m4,s4 ,curacoa among the ,south ,sea ,islands in #ahfe 7,london1 #ahgc71 pp4 #cg-ci1 #fa sq42 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 #ejb sq42 ,john ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bf sqq4 ,the island of ,upolu in particular is wooded from its summit to the water's edge1 where in some places the roots of the trees are washed by the surf1 while in many places clumps of mangrove trees spread out into the lagoon4 ,the forests are dense and more sombre even than those of ,brazil4 ,the lofty trees shoot up to a great height before sending out branches4 ,at their feet grow ferns of many sorts1 while climbing vines and other creepers mantle their trunks and sometimes even their tops4 ,but the gloom of the tropical forest is seldom or never relieved by flowers of brilliant tints2 the few flowers that bloom in them are of a white or greyish hue1 as if bleached for want of the sunbeams1 which are shut out by the thick umbrageous foliage overhead4#d #d ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #ca sq41 #eb sq4 ,very different from the aspect presented by this luxuriant vegetation is a great part of the interior of ,savaii1 the largest island of the group4 ,here the desolate and forbidding character of the landscape constantly reminds the traveller of the dreadful forces which slumber beneath his feet4 ,extinct volcanoes tower above him to heights of four and five thousand feet1 their steep and almost perpendicular sides formed of volcanic ashes and denuded of vegetation4 ,for miles around these gloomy peaks the ground presents nothing to the eye but black rocks1 scoriae1 and ashes2 the forlorn wayfarer seems to be traversing a furnace barely extinguished1 so visible are the traces of fire on the sharp-pointed stones among which he picks his painful way1 and which in their twisted and tormented forms seem still to preserve something of the movement of the once boiling flood of molten lava4 ,the whole country is a barren and waterless wilderness1 a solitude destitute alike of animal and of vegetable life1 alternately parched by the fierce rays of the tropical sun and deluged by hurricanes of torrential rain4 ,even the natives cannot traverse these dreary deserts2 a ,european who strayed into them was found1 after five or six days1 prostrate and almost dead on the ground4#e #e ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 pp4 #ga sq42 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 #ejb sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #cd2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #a sqq4 ,in ,samoa1 as in ,tonga1 volcanic activity has ominously increased within less than a hundred years4 ,near the island of ,olosenga1 in #ahff or #ahfg1 a submarine volcano suddenly burst out in eruption1 vomiting forth rocks and mud to a height1 as it was estimated1 of two thousand feet1 killing the fish and discolouring the sea for miles round4#f ,still later1 towards the end of #aije1 another volcano broke out in the bottom of a deep valley in the island of ,savaii1 and rose till it attained a height of about four thousand feet4 ,down at least to the year #aiaj this immense volcano was still in full action1 and had covered many miles of country under a bed of lava some ten or twelve feet thick1 while with the same river of molten matter it completely filled up the neighbouring lagoon and replaced the level shore by an iron-bound coast of volcanic cliffs4#g #f ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ejd2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #dc4 #g ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #c4 ,a remarkable instance of these volcanic cliffs is furnished by the little island of ,apolima between ,savaii and ,upolu4 ,the islet1 which is in fact the crater of an extinct volcano1 is only about a mile long by half to three-quarters of a mile in width4 ,on every side but one it presents to the sea a precipitous wall of basaltic rock some thousand feet high1 while the interior is scooped out in the likeness of a great cauldron4 ,only at one place is there a break in the cliffs where a landing can be effected1 and there the operation is difficult and dangerous even in fine weather4 ,in bad weather the island is completely isolated4 ,thus it forms a strong natural fortress1 which under the conditions of native warfare was almost impregnable4#h #h ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #cc sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #aga4 ,as might be expected from their volcanic formation1 the islands are subject to frequent and sometimes severe shocks of earthquake4 ,the veteran missionary1 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 has recorded that the shocks increased in number and violence during the last years of his residence in ,samoa4 ,the last of them was preceded by loud subterranean noises1 which lasted for hours1 to the great alarm of the natives4 ,at the north-west of ,upolu also1 ,mr4 ,stair used often to hear a muffled sound1 like the rumble of distant thunder1 proceeding apparently from the sea under the reef4 ,this curious noise always occurred on hot1 sultry days1 and seemed to strike a note of warning1 which filled natives and ,europeans alike with a sense of awe and insecurity4#i ,thus if1 beheld from some points of view1 the ,samoan islands appear an earthly paradise1 from others they present the aspect1 and emit the sounds1 of an inferno4 #i ,t4 ,h4 ,hood1 ,notes of a ,cruise in ,h4,m4,s4 ,fawn in the ,western ,pacific 7,edinburgh1 #ahfc71 p4 #ade2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 op4 cit4 pp4 #da sq4 ,and with all their natural beauty and charm the islands cannot be said to enjoy a healthy climate4 ,there is much bad weather1 particularly during the winter months1 when long and heavy rains1 attended at times with high winds and gales1 are frequent4 ,the air is more moist than in ,tahiti1 and the vegetation in consequence is more rank and luxuriant4 ,decaying rapidly under the ardent rays of a tropical sun1 it exhales a poisonous miasma4 ,but the heat1 oppressive and exhausting at times1 is nevertheless tempered by the sea and land breezes1 which blow daily1 alternating with intervals of calm between them4 ,besides these daily breezes the trade wind blows regularly from the east during the fine season1 when the sky is constantly blue and cloudless4 ,yet with all these alleviations the climate is enervating1 and a long residence in it is debilitating to the ,european frame4#aj ,nor are the natives exempt from the noxious effects of an atmosphere saturated with moisture and impregnated with the fumes of vegetable decay4 ,the open nature of their dwellings1 which were without walls1 exposed them to the heavy night dews and rendered them susceptible to diseases of the chest and lungs1 from which they suffered greatly2 consumption in its many forms1 coughs1 colds1 inflammation of the chest and lungs1 fevers1 rheumatism1 pleurisy1 diarrhoea1 lumbago1 diseases of the spine1 scrofula1 and many other ailments are enumerated among the disorders which afflicted them4 ,but the prevailing disease is elephantiasis1 a dreadful malady which attacks ,europeans and natives alike4 ,there are many cases of epilepsy1 and though idiots are rare1 lunatics are less infrequent4 ,hunchbacks are very common in both sexes1 and virulent ophthalmia is prevalent2 many persons lose the sight of one eye1 and some are totally blinded2 not less than a fifth part of the population is estimated to suffer from this malady4#aa ,curiously enough1 hunchbacks1 who are said to be very numerous on account of scrofula1 used to be looked on as special favourites of the spirits1 and many of them1 on growing to manhood1 were accordingly admitted to the priesthood4#ab #aj ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ii4 #aah2 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #gb 7who1 however1 affirms that the climate is not unhealthy72 ,t4 ,h4 ,hood1 ,notes of a ,cruise in ,h4,m4,s4 ,fawn in the ,western ,pacific 7,edinburgh1 #ahfc71 pp4 #add sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #af1 #ce sqq4 #aa ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ii4 #abd sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #afe sq41 #afi sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #ahj sqq4 #ab ,s4 ,ella1 ,samoa1 ,report of the ,fourth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,hobart1 ,tasmania1 in ,january #ahib1 p4 #fbb4 ,during the stormy season1 which lasts from ,december to ,april1 hurricanes sometimes occur1 and are greatly dreaded by the natives on account of the havoc which they spread both among the crops and the houses4 ,a steady rain1 the absence of the sun1 a deathlike stillness of the birds and domestic animals1 and above all the dark and lowering aspect of the sky1 are the premonitory symptoms of the coming calamity and inspire general consternation1 while the thunderous roar of the torrents and waterfalls in the mountains strike on the ear with redoubled distinctness in the prevailing silence which preludes the storm4 ,warned by these ominous signs1 the natives rush to secure their property from being swept away by the fury of the blast4 ,some hurry their canoes inland to places of comparative safety2 others pile trunks of banana-trees on the roofs of their houses or fasten down the roofs by hanging heavy stones over them2 while yet others bring rough poles1 hastily cut in the forest1 and set them up inside the houses as props against the rafters1 to prevent the roof from falling in4 ,sometimes these efforts are successful1 sometimes futile1 the hurricane sweeping everything before it in its mad career1 while the terrified natives behold the fruits of months of toil1 sometimes the growth of years1 laid waste in an hour4 ,on such occasions the shores have been seen flooded by the invading ocean1 houses carried clean away1 and a forest turned suddenly into a bare and treeless plain4 ,men have been forced to fling themselves flat on the ground and to dig their hands into the earth to save themselves from being whirled away and precipitated into the sea or a torrent4 ,in ,april #ahej the town of ,apia1 the capital of the islands1 was almost destroyed by one of these cyclones4 ,when the rage of the tornado is spent and calm has returned1 the shores of a harbour are apt to present a melancholy scene of ruin and desolation1 their shores strewn with the wrecks of gallant ships which lately rode there at anchor1 their pennons streaming to the wind4 ,so it happened in the harbour of ,apia on ,march #afth1 #ahhi4 ,before the tempest burst1 there were many ships of various nations anchored in the bay1 among them five or six ,american and ,german warships4 ,when it was over1 all were wrecked and their shattered fragments littered the reefs4 ,one vessel alone1 the ,british man-of-war1 ,calliope1 was saved by the courage and skill of the captain1 who1 seconded by the splendid seamanship of the crew1 forced his ship1 in the very teeth of the hurricane1 out into the open sea1 where he safely weathered the storm4#ac #ac ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ii4 #gb2 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #gb2 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 #ejd2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #ch-da4 ,a special interest attaches to ,samoa in so far as it is now commonly believed to be the original seat of the ,polynesian race in the ,pacific1 from which their ancestors gradually dispersed to the other islands of that vast ocean1 where their descendants are settled to this day4 ,polynesian traditions point to such a dispersal from ,samoa as a centre1 and they are confirmed by the name which the various branches of the race give to their old ancestral home4 ,the original form of that name appears to have been ,savaiki1 which through dialectical variations has been altered to ,hawaiki in ,new ,zealand1 to ,hawaii in the ,sandwich ,islands1 to ,havaii in ,tahiti1 to ,havaiki in the ,marquesas1 and to ,avaiki in ,rarotonga4 ,in the ,samoan dialect1 which of all the ,polynesian dialects alone retains the letter ,s1 the word presumably appears as ,savaii1 the name of the largest island of the group1 which accordingly may be regarded1 with some probability1 as the cradle-land of the ,polynesians in the ,pacific2 though native traditions indicate rather ,upolu or ,manua as the place from which the canoes started on their long and adventurous voyages4 ,on the other hand in favour of ,savaii it has been pointed out that the island holds a decided superiority over the other islands of the group in respect of canoe-building2 for it possesses extensive forests of hard and durable timber1 which is much sought after for the keels and other parts of vessels2 indeed1 the large sea-going canoes were generally1 if not always1 built on ,savaii1 and maritime expeditions appear sometimes to have started from its shores4#ad ,in proof that the ,samoans have long been settled in the islands which they now occupy1 it may be alleged that they appear to have no tradition of any other home from which their ancestors migrated to their present abode4 ,with the single exception of a large village called ,matautu in ,savaii1 the inhabitants of which claim that they came originally from ,fiji1 all the ,samoans consider themselves indigenous4#ae ,the ,samoans and ,tongans1 says ,mr4 ,s4 ,percy ,smith1 formed part of the first migration into the ,pacific1 and they have been there so long that they have forgotten their early history4 ,all the numerous legends as to their origin seem to express their own belief in their being autochthones1 created in the ,samoan ,islands4#af #ad ,horatio ,hale1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition 7,philadelphia1 #ahdf71 pp4 #aai sqq42 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific1 pp4 #ajb sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bga sqq4 7compare id4 p4 #cd as to the timber and canoe-building of ,savaii72 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #ceh1 #cga sq42 ,a4 ,c4 ,haddon1 ,the ,wanderings of ,peoples 7,cambridge1 #aiai71 p4 #cf2 ,a4 ,h4 ,keane1 ,man ,past and ,present 7,cambridge1 #aibj71 p4 #eeb4 ,that the ,samoan language1 alone of the ,polynesian dialects1 retains the ,s sound1 is affirmed by ,ch4 ,wilkes 7,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ii4 #abc74 ,in some of the islands the name of the ancient fatherland of the race 7,hawaiki1 etc47 has been applied or transferred to the spirit-land to which the souls of the dead are supposed to pass as their final abode4 ,see ,s4 ,percy ,smith1 ,hawaiki1 pp4 #df sqq42 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #ef sqq41 s4v4 ,hawaiki4 #ae ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #cfj sq4 ,as to the ,fijian colony in ,savaii1 compare ,t4 ,h4 ,hood1 ,notes of a ,cruise in ,h4,m4,s4 ,fawn in the ,western ,pacific 7,edinburgh1 #ahfc71 pp4 #aag sq4 #af ,s4 ,percy ,smith1 ,hawaiki1 pp4 #aad sq4 ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,samoan ,islanders1 their character ,in spite of the many diseases prevalent among them1 the ,samoans are commonly reckoned among the finest1 as well as the purest1 specimens of the ,polynesian race4 ,like the ,tongans1 whom they closely resemble1 they are generally tall and shapely1 with full rounded faces and limbs1 but without that grossness and laxity of fibre common in the ,tahitians4 ,the average height of the men is said to be five feet ten inches1 but some of them are over six feet with the thews and sinews of a ,hercules4 ,their features1 though not always regular1 are commonly pleasing2 and in particular the forehead is remarkable for its ample development1 which1 with the breadth between the eyes1 gives to the countenance an expression of nobleness and dignity4 ,some of the young men especially are models of manly beauty2 we read of one who1 having decked his hair with the flowers of the scarlet hibiscus1 might have sat for an ,antinous4 ,the women are comely enough1 but strikingly inferior to the men in point of personal beauty4 ,the prevailing colour is a light copper or olive brown1 but the shade varies a good deal1 deepening somewhat in fishermen and others who are much exposed to the sun2 but it never approaches the dark chocolate tint1 or ,vandyke brown1 of the ,melanesians4 ,their hair is usually black and wavy1 sometimes curly2 but hardly a vestige is to be seen among them of the crisped and woolly hair and dusky complexion of the ,melanesians1 their neighbours on the west4#ag #ag ,horatio ,hale1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 pp4 #aj sq42 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ii4 #abe sq42 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific1 pp4 #da1 #ea2 ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 ,die ,inseln des ,stillen ,oceans 7,leipzig1 #ahge-ahgf71 ii4 #aaj sq42 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #c2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #eh2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #ee sq4 ,the prepossessing appearance of the ,samoans on the whole does not belie their character4 ,they are reputed to be the most refined and civilised of all the native races of the ,pacific1 and this superiority is said to manifest itself in their social and domestic life4#ah ,the ,samoans1 we are told1 are a nation of gentlemen and contrast most favourably with the generality of the ,europeans who come among them4#ai ,they are said to carry their habits of cleanliness and decency to a higher point than the most fastidious of civilised nations2#bj and the ,samoan women appear to be honourably distinguished by their modest behaviour and fidelity in marriage1 qualities which contrast with the profligacy of their sex in other branches of the ,polynesian race4#ba ,equally honourable to the men are the respect and kindness which1 according to the testimony of observers1 they pay to their women1 whom they are said to regard as their equals4#bb ,the aged were treated with respect and never abandoned2 and strangers were always received in the best house and provided with food specially prepared for them4#bc ,infanticide1 which was carried to an appalling and almost incredible extent among some of the ,polynesians1#bd was unknown in ,samoa2 abortion1 indeed1 was not uncommon1 but once born children were affectionately cared for and never killed or exposed4#be ,wives and slaves were never put to death at a chief's burial1 that their souls might attend their dead lord to the spirit land#bf1 as was the practice in some of the other islands1 even in ,tonga4 ,again1 human sacrifices were not offered by the ,samoans to the gods within the time during which the islands have been under the observation of ,europeans2 but in some of the more remote traditions mention is made of such sacrifices offered to the sun4 ,thus it is said that in the mythical island of ,papatea1 somewhere away in the east1 the sun used to call for two victims every day1 one at his rising and another at his setting4 ,this lasted for eighty days4 ,at such a rate of consumption the population of the island was rapidly wasting away4 ,to escape the threatened doom1 a brother and sister1 named ,luama and ,ui1 fled from ,papatea to ,manua1 the most easterly of the ,samoan islands1 but they found to their consternation that there too1 the sun was demanding his daily victims4 ,every house had to supply a victim in succession1 and1 when all had yielded the tribute1 it came to the first house in turn to renew the sacrifice4 ,the victim was laid out on a pandanus tree1 and there the sun devoured him or her4 ,when the lot fell on ,luama1 his heroic sister ,ui insisted on taking his place1 and lying down1 she cried1 ,o cruel sun6 come and eat your victim1 we are all being devoured by you4 ,but the amorous sun fell in love with her and took her to wife1 at the same time putting an end to the human sacrifices4 ,another story affirms that the heroine was a daughter of the ,king of ,manua1 and that he yielded her up as an offering to the sun in order to end the sacrifices by making her the saviour of the people4#bg #ah ,s4 ,ella1 ,samoa1 ,report of the ,fourth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,hobart1 ,tasmania1 in ,january #ahib1 p4 #fcd4 #ai ,t4 ,h4 ,hood1 ,notes of a ,cruise in ,h4,m4,s4 ,fawn in the ,western ,pacific 7,edinburgh1 #ahfc71 pp4 #ei sq4 #bj ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 op4 cit4 p4 #aaj #ba ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 ii4 #abe2 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 op4 cit4 p4 #aaj #bb ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 ii4 #adh2 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #aef2 ,j4 ,l4 ,brenchley1 op4 cit4 p4 #gg2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fbh sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dc1 #daj4 #bc ,g4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 p4 #daj4 #bd ,for some evidence of the practice see ,john ,turnbull1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #ahac71 pp4 #cfc sq42 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,journal of a ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands 7,london1 #ahbh71 pp4 #bea sqq42 ,p4 ,dillon1 ,voyage in the ,south ,seas 7,london1 #ahbi71 ii4 #acd2 ,william ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahcb-ahcf71 i4 #bdh sqq42 ,j4 ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands 7,london1 #ahch71 pp4 #dgi-dhf4 ,according to ,stewart1 in those parts of ,hawaii to which the influence of the missionaries had not penetrated1 two-thirds of the infants born were murdered by their parents within the age of two years4 ,in ,tahiti three women1 questioned by ,mr4 ,williams1 acknowledged that they had killed twenty-one of their children between them4 ,another1 at the point of death1 confessed to him1 in an anguish of remorse1 that she had destroyed sixteen of her children4 #be ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #gi4 ,compare ,j4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 p4 #dgi2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fba2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #dg4 #bf ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bai4 #bg ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #bja sq4 ,compare ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bcj sq42 ,j4 ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 p4 #dga2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #baj4 ,the ,samoans1 when they became known to ,europe in the nineteenth century1 did not habitually indulge in cannibalism2 indeed1 according to ,john ,williams1 one of the earliest missionaries to the islands1 they spoke of the practice with great horror and detestation4#bh ,but we have the testimony of other early missionaries that in their wars they occasionally resorted to it as a climax of hatred and revenge1 devouring some portion of an enemy who had rendered himself peculiarly obnoxious by his cruelty or his provocations4 ,traditions1 too1 are on record of chiefs who habitually killed and devoured their fellow-creatures4 ,a form of submission which a conquered party used to adopt towards their conquerors has also been interpreted as a relic of an old custom of cannibalism4 ,representatives of the vanquished party used to bow down before the victors1 each holding in his hands a piece of firewood and a bundle of leaves1 such as are used in dressing a pig for the oven4 ,this was as much as to say1 ,kill us and cook us1 if you please4 ,criminals1 too1 were sometimes bound hand and foot1 slung on a pole1 and laid down before the persons they had injured1 like pigs about to be killed and cooked4 ,combining these and other indications we may surmise that cannibalism was formerly not infrequent among the ancestors of the ,samoans1 though among their descendants in the nineteenth century the practice had almost wholly died out4#bi ,it is further to the credit of the ,samoans that their public administration of justice was on the whole mild and humane4 ,torture was never employed to wring the truth from witnesses or the accused1 and there seems to be only a single case on record of capital punishment inflicted by judicial sentence4 ,at the same time private individuals were free to avenge the adultery of a wife or the murder of a kinsman by killing the culprit1 and no blame attached to them for so doing4 ,the penalties imposed by the sentence of a court or judicial assembly 7fono7 included fines1 banishment1 and the destruction of houses1 fruit-trees1 and domestic animals4 ,but a criminal might also be condemned by a court to suffer corporal punishment in one form or another4 ,he might1 for example1 be obliged to wound himself by beating his head and chest with a stone till the blood flowed freely2 if he seemed to spare himself1 he would be ordered by the assembled chiefs to strike harder1 and if he still faltered1 the prompt and unsparing application of a war club to his person effectually assisted the execution of the sentence4 ,again1 he might be condemned to bite a certain acrid and poisonous root 7called in the native language tevi7 which caused the mouth to swell and the culprit to suffer intense agony for a considerable time afterwards4 ,or he might have to throw up a spiny and poisonous fish into the air and to catch it in his naked hand as it fell2 the sharp-pointed spines entered into the flesh and inflicted acute pain and suffering4 ,or he might be suspended by hands and feet from a pole and in this attitude exposed to the broiling sun for many hours together2 or he might be hung by the feet1 head downward1 from the top of a tall coco-nut tree and left there to expiate his crime for a long time4 ,for certain offences the culprit was condemned to have his nose tattooed or his ears split4 ,in sentences of banishment the term of exile was never specified1 but when the sentence had been pronounced in full assembly1 and the offence was great1 the culprit might live in exile for years4 ,when the punishment consisted in the destruction of houses1 plantations1 and live stock1 it was immediately inflicted by the whole force of the district1 under the direction and superintendence of the leading men1 who had taken part in the assembly and passed the sentence4 ,a whole family might suffer in this way for the offence of one of its members1 and be driven into exile1 after witnessing the burning of their house1 the killing of their pigs1 and the barking of their breadfruit trees4#cj ,if such penalties seem to us in some cases needlessly severe1 they at least testify to a strong sense of public justice developed among the ,samoans1 who had thus advanced far enough to transfer1 in some measure1 the redress of wrongs to judicial assemblies instead of leaving it to the caprice of the injured individuals4 ,nevertheless the transference was but imperfect3 the administration of justice was loose and irregular3 for the most part every man was a law to himself1 and did what was right in his own eyes4 ,an aggrieved party would become his own judge1 jury1 and executioner4 ,the thirst for vengeance was slaked only by the blood of a victim4#ca #bh ,j4 ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 p4 #def4 #bi ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ajh-aaa2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #adi sq41 #bij2 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ci1 #aja sq42 ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences 7,london1 #ahff71 pp4 #abe sq42 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #afh2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bdj sq4 #cj ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #ia sqq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bhh-bia4 ,compare ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 pp4 #aai1 #abj4 #ca ,s4 ,ella1 ,samoa1 ,report of the ,fourth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,hobart1 ,tasmania1 in ,january #ahib1 p4 #fcc4 ,it is another sign of the intellectual enlightenment of the ,samoans that they rose apparently superior to that system of malignant magic1 which kept their neighbours the ,melanesians in lifelong bondage4 ,the experienced missionary1 ,dr4 ,george ,brown1 could not find in ,samoa any trace of the practice of that particular form of the black art with which he was familiar in ,new ,britain and other ,melanesian islands1 the practice of procuring some object which has belonged to an enemy or been touched by him1 and taking it to a sorcerer1 that he may perform over it a ceremony for the purpose of injuring the person from whom the object has been obtained4 ,the proceeding is one of the commonest forms of sympathetic magic1 but the ,samoans appear to have ignored or despised it4#cb ,again1 the silence of our authorities on the subject of amulets and talismans leaves us to infer that the ,samoans were equally indifferent to that branch of magic which seeks to ensure the safety and prosperity of the individual by attaching a miscellaneous collection of rubbish to his person1 a system of ensurance against evil and misfortune which has attained a prodigious development among some savages1 notably in ,africa1#cc and is very far from being unknown in ,europe at the present day4 ,again1 unlike most savages1 the ,samoans were close observers of the stars1 not only reckoning the time of night by the rising of particular stars1 but steering by them when they were out of sight of land4#cd #cb ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bde4 ,compare ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fch4 #cc ,see1 for example1 ,e4 ,w4 ,smith and ,a4 ,m4 ,dale1 ,the ,ila-speaking ,peoples of ,northern ,rhodesia 7,london1 #aibj71 i4 #beb sqq4 #cd ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #cdh4 ,against these amiable and enlightened traits in the ,samoan character must be set their cruelty in war4 ,if they opened hostilities with a great deal of formal politeness1 they conducted them with great ferocity4 ,no quarter was given to men in battle1 and captives were ruthlessly slaughtered4 ,women were sometimes spared for the use of their captors4 ,nor did death save the conquered from the insults and outrages of the insolent victors4 ,the slain on the battlefield were treated with great indignity4 ,their heads were cut off and carried in triumph to the village1 where they were piled up in a heap in the place of public assembly1 the head of the most important chief being given the place of honour on the top of the pile4 ,however1 they were not kept as trophies1 but after remaining for some hours exposed to public gaze were either claimed by the relatives or buried on the spot4 ,the headless trunks were given to children to drag about the village and to spear1 stone1 or mutilate at pleasure4#ce ,the first missionary to ,samoa was told in ,manua that the victors used to scalp their victims and present the scalps1 with kava1 either to the king or to the relatives of the slain in battle1 by whom these gory trophies were highly prized4 ,he mentions as an example the case of a young woman1 whose father had been killed4 ,a scalp of a foe having been brought to her1 she burnt it1 strewed the ashes on the fire with which she cooked her food1 and then devoured the meat with savage satisfaction4#cf ,but the climax of cruelty and horror was reached in a great war which the people of ,a'ana1 in ,upolu1 waged against a powerful combination of enemies4 ,after a brave resistance they were at last defeated1 and the surviving warriors1 together with the aged and infirm1 the women and children1 fled to the mountains1 where they endeavoured to hide themselves from their pursuers in the caves and the depths of the forest4 ,but they were hunted out and brought down to the seashore2 and an immense pit having been dug and filled with firewood1 they were all1 men1 women1 and children1 thrown into it and burnt alive4 ,the dreadful butchery went on for days4 ,four hundred victims are said to have perished4 ,the massacre was perpetrated at the moment when the first missionaries were landing in ,samoa4 ,from the opposite shore they beheld the mountains enveloped in the flames and smoke of the funeral pile4 ,the decisive battle had been fought that very morning4 ,for many years a great black circle of charcoal marked the scene and preserved the memory of the fatal transaction4#cg #ce ,j4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 p4 #def2 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aej sq42 ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 p4 #fa2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bdg sqq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #agj1 #agb sq4 ,dr4 ,brown here speaks as if captive women were regularly spared and married by the victors4 ,as to the elaborate civilities which passed between the vanguards of two hostile armies at their first meeting1 see ,dr4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aff sq4 #cf ,j4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 p4 #deh4 #cg ,j4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bhf sq41 #def2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bed-beh4 ,sec4 #c4 ,houses1 ,agriculture1 and ,industries ,like all the ,polynesians1 the ,samoans are not nomadic1 but live in settled villages4 ,the typical ,samoan house is commonly described as oval or elliptical1 though in fact it would seem to be of oblong shape with semicircular ends4 ,but many houses were circular in shape1 and with their conical thatched roofs resembled gigantic beehives4 ,from the ,tongans the ,samoans also borrowed the custom of building oblong quadrangular houses1 which were called afolau4 ,the best houses1 in particular those of important chiefs1 were built on raised platforms of stones about three feet high4 ,one of the circular houses would measure about thirty-five feet in diameter by a hundred in circumference4 ,two or three posts in the centre of the house1 some twenty feet high1 supported the roof1 the lower end of which rested on a series of short posts1 four or five feet high1 placed at intervals of about four feet all round the house4 ,the intervals between these posts were sometimes closed by thatch neatly tied to sticks1 which were planted upright in the ground and fastened to the eaves2 but more commonly1 it would seem1 the intervals between the posts were left open and only closed at night by blinds made of coco-nut leaves1 which could be let down or pulled up like ,venetian blinds4 ,during the day these blinds were drawn up1 so that there was a free current of air all through the house4 ,the roofs of the best houses were made of bread-fruit wood carefully thatched with leaves of the wild sugar-cane2 when well made1 the thatch might last seven years4 ,the circular roofs were so constructed that they could be lifted clean off the posts and removed anywhere1 either by land or on a raft of canoes4 ,the whole house could also be transported2 and as ,samoan houses were often bartered1 or given as presents1 or paid as fines1 it frequently happened that they were removed from place to place4 ,in the whole house there was not a single nail or spike3 all joints were made by exactly corresponding notches and secured by cinnet1 that is cordage made from the dried fibre of the coco-nut husk4 ,the timber of the best houses was the wood of the bread-fruit tree2 and1 if protected against damp1 it would last fifty years4 ,the floor of the house was composed of stones1 overlaid with fine gravel and sand4 ,in the centre of the floor was the fire-place1 a circular hollow two or three feet in diameter and a few inches deep1 lined with hardened clay4 ,it was not used for cooking1 but for the purpose of lighting up the house by night4 ,the cooking was never done in the house1 but always in the open air outside on an oven of hot stones4 ,an ordinary ,samoan house consisted of a single apartment1 which served as the common parlour1 dining-room1 and bedroom of the family4 ,but at night small tents made of bark-cloth were hung from the ridge-pole1 and under them the various members of the family slept separately1 the tents serving them at the same time as curtains to protect them against the mosquitoes4 ,formerly1 the houses of the principal chiefs were surrounded with two fences2 the outer of the two was formed of strong posts and had a narrow zigzag entrance1 several yards long1 leading to an opening in the inner fence1 which was made of reeds4 ,but with the advent of a more peaceful epoch these fortified enclosures for the most part disappeared4 ,houses constructed on the ,tongan model were often very substantially built3 a double row of posts and cross-beams supported the roof4 ,these houses were found better able to resist the high winds which prevail at one season of the year4#ch #ch ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit44 ii4 #ade sqq42 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 op4 cit4 pp4 #de-dg2 ,t4 ,h4 ,hood1 ,notes of a ,cruise in ,h4,m4,s4 ,fawn in the ,western ,pacific 7,edinburgh1 #ahfc71 p4 #cb2 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #ace2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #aeb sqq42 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fcd sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #aje sqq41 #aec sqq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bd sqq4 ,like the rest of the ,polynesians1 the ,samoans are an agricultural people1 and subsist mainly by the fruits of the earth1 though the lagoons and reefs furnish them with a large supply of fish and shell-fish1 of which they are very fond4 ,they all1 but especially persons of rank1 occasionally regaled themselves on pigs1 fowls1 and turtle4 ,but bread-fruit1 taro1 yams1 bananas1 and coco-nuts formed the staff of life in ,samoa4 ,as the soil is very rich and the hot1 damp climate is eminently favourable to the growth of vegetation1 food was always abundant1 and the natives could procure the necessaries and even the luxuries of life at the cost of very little labour2 if they tilled the soil1 it was rather to vary their diet than to wring a scanty subsistence from a niggardly nature4 ,coco-nut palms1 bread-fruit and chestnut trees1 and wild yams1 bananas1 and plantains abound throughout the islands1 and require little attention to make them yield an ample crop4 ,for about half the year the ,samoans have a plentiful supply of food from the bread-fruit trees3 during the other half they depend principally upon their taro plantations4 ,while the bread-fruit is in season1 every family lays up a quantity of the ripe fruit in a pit lined with leaves and covered with stones4 ,the fruit soon ferments and forms a soft mass1 which emits a very vile smell every time the pit is opened4 ,in this state it may be kept for years1 for the older and more rotten the fruit is1 the better the natives like it4 ,they bake it1 with the juice of the coco-nut1 into flat cakes1 which are eaten when the ripe fruit is out of season or when taro is scarce4 ,for taro is on the whole the staple food of the ,samoans2 it grows all the year round4 ,the water of the coco-nut furnishes a cool1 delicious1 slightly effervescing beverage1 which is peculiarly welcome to the hot and weary wayfarer far from any spring or rivulet4#ci #ci ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 ii4 #adg2 ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences 7,london1 #ahff71 pp4 #abf-abh2 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 pp4 #hg sq42 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #aje-ajg2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #ec-ee2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #acj sqq4 ,according to ,dr4 ,brown1 there are generally three crops of bread-fruit in the year1 one of them lasting about three months4 ,to obtain land for cultivation the ,samoans went into the forest and cut down the brushwood and creeping vines with small hatchets or large knives4 ,the large forest-trees they destroyed by chopping away the bark in a circle round the trunk and then kindling a fire of brushwood at the foot of the tree4 ,thus in the course of a few days a fair-sized piece of ground would be cleared1 nothing of the forest remaining but charred trunks and leafless branches4 ,then followed the planting4 ,the agricultural instruments employed were of the simplest pattern4 ,a dibble1 or pointed stick of hard wood1 was used to make the hole in which the plant was deposited4 ,this took the place of a plough1 and a branch served the purpose of a harrow4 ,sometimes the earth was dug and smoothed with the blade of a canoe paddle4 ,the labour of clearing and planting the ground was done by the men1 but the task of weeding it generally devolved on the women4 ,the first crop taken from a piece of land newly cleared in the forest was yams1 which require a peculiar culture and frequent change of site1 two successive crops being seldom obtained from the same land4 ,after the first crop of yams had been cleared off1 taro was planted several times in succession2 for this root does not1 like yams1 require a change of site4 ,however1 we are told that a second crop of taro grown on the same land was very inferior to the first1 and that as a rule the land was allowed to remain fallow until the trees growing on it were as thick as a man's arm1 when it was again cleared for cultivation4 ,in the wet season taro was planted on the high land from one to four miles inland from the village2 other kinds of taro were planted in the swamps1 and these were considered more succulent than the taro grown on the uplands4 ,the growing crops of taro were weeded at least twice a year4 ,the natives resorted to irrigation1 when they had the means2 and they often dug trenches to drain away the water from swampy ground4 ,yams also required attention2 for sticks had to be provided on which the plants could run4 ,the fruit ripens only once a year1 but it was stored up1 and with care would keep till the next season4 ,the natives found neither yams nor bread-fruit so nourishing as taro4#dj #dj ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #ahh2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fce2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #ed sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #acj sqq41 #cch sqq4 ,the degree of progress which any particular community has made in civilisation may be fairly gauged by the degree of subdivision of labour among its members2 for it is only by restricting his energies to a particular craft that a man can attain to any perfection in it4 ,judged by this standard the ,samoans had advanced some way on the road to civilisation1 since among them the division of labour was carried out to a considerable extent3 in their native state they had not a few separate trades or professions1 some of which may even be said to have developed the stability and organisation of trade guilds4 ,among them1 for example1 house-building1 canoe-building1 tattooing1 and the making of nets and fish-hooks were distinct crafts1 which1 though not strictly hereditary1 were usually confined to particular families4 ,thus by long practice and experience handed down from generation to generation a considerable degree of skill was acquired1 and a considerable degree of reputation accrued to the family4 ,every trade had its particular patron god and was governed by certain well-known rules4 ,the members formed1 indeed1 we are told1 a trade union which was remarkably effective4 ,thus they had rules which prescribed the time and proportions of payment to be made at different stages of the work1 and these rules were strictly observed and enforced by the workmen4 ,for example1 in the house-building trade1 it was a standing custom that after the sides and one end of a house were finished1 the principal part of the payment should be made4 ,if the carpenters were dissatisfied with the amount of payment1 they simply left off work and walked away1 leaving the house unfinished1 and no carpenter in the whole length and breadth of ,samoa would dare to finish it1 for it would have been as much as his business or even his life was worth to undertake the job4 ,anyone so foolhardy as thus to set the rules of the trade at defiance would have been attacked by the other workmen and robbed of his tools2 at the best he would receive a severe thrashing1 at the worst he might be killed4 ,a house might thus stand unfinished for months or even years4 ,sooner or later1 if he was to have a roof over his head1 the unfortunate owner had to yield to the trade union and agree to such terms as they might dictate4 ,if it happened that the house was almost finished before the fourth and final payment was made1 and the builder at that stage of the proceedings took offence1 he would remove a beam from the roof before retiring in dudgeon1 and no workman would dare to replace it4 ,the rules in the other trades1 such as canoe-building and tattooing1 were practically the same4 ,in canoe-building1 for example1 five separate payments were made to the builders at five stages of the work2 and if at any stage the workmen were dissatisfied with the pay1 they very unceremoniously abandoned the work until the employer apologised or came to terms4 ,no other party of workmen would have the temerity to finish the abandoned canoe upon pain of bringing down on their heads the wrath of the whole fraternity of canoe-builders2 any such rash offenders against the rules of the guild would be robbed of their tools1 expelled from their clan1 and prohibited from exercising their calling during the pleasure of the guild4 ,such strides had the ,samoans made in the direction of trade unionism4#da #da ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #aeg sqq41 #afb sqq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #ada sqq41 #ade sqq41 #aec sqq41 #aeg sqq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bfh1 #cje-cjh4 ,compare ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 ii4 #adc sqq42 ,violette1 op4 cit4 pp4 #acd sq42 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fce sq4 ,in addition to their household duties women engaged in special work of their own1 particularly in the manufacture of bark-cloths and of fine mats2 but among them there seems to have been no subdivision of labour and consequently no professional guilds4 ,in all families the making of bark-cloth and mats was carried on by the women indifferently1 though some no doubt excelled others in the skill of their handiwork4 ,the cloth was made from the bark of the paper-mulberry 7,morus papyrifera71 which was beaten out on boards with a grooved beetle4 ,the sound of these beetles ringing on the boards1 though not very musical1 was a familiar sound in a ,samoan village4 ,the fine mats1 on the manufacture of which the ,samoans particularly prided themselves1 were worn as dresses on ceremonial occasions4 ,they were made from the leaves of a large plant which the natives call lau ie2 the leaves closely resemble those of the pandanus1 but are larger4 ,these mats were of a straw or cream colour1 and were sometimes fringed with tufts of scarlet feathers of the paroquet4 ,they were thin and almost as flexible as calico4 ,many months1 sometimes even years1 were spent over the making of a single mat4 ,another kind of fine mat was made from the bark of a plant of the nettle tribe 7,hibiscus tiliaceus71 which grows wild over the islands4 ,mats of the latter sort were shaggy on one side1 and1 being bleached white1 resembled fleecy sheep-skins4 ,these fine mats1 especially those made from the leaves of the pandanus-like plant1 were considered by the ,samoans to be their most valuable property2 they were handed down as heirlooms from father to son1 and were so much coveted that wars were sometimes waged to obtain possession of them4 ,the pedigrees of the more famous mats1 particularly those fringed with red feathers1 were carefully kept1 and when they changed hands1 their history was related with solemn precision4 ,age enhanced their value2 and their tattered condition1 deemed a proof of antiquity1 rather added to than detracted from the estimation in which they were held4 ,the wealth of a family consisted of its mats2 with them it remunerated the services of carpenters1 boat-builders1 and tattooers4 ,the mats formed1 indeed1 a sort of currency or medium of exchange2 for while the ,samoans were not in general a trading people1 and there was little or no actual buying and selling among them1 there was nevertheless a considerable exchange of property on many occasions2 at marriage1 for example1 it was customary for the bride's family to give mats and bark-cloth as her dowry1 while the bridegroom's family provided a house1 canoes1 and other articles4 ,but though the fine mats were thus paid away or given in exchange1 they had no fixed negotiable value1 and thus did not serve the purpose of money4#db #db ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ii4 #adb sq42 ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific1 pp4 #aji sq42 ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #abi-acb2 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #ace2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #aai-aba2 ,s4 ,ella1 ,samoa1 ,report of the ,fourth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,hobart1 ,tasmania1 in ,january #ahib1 p4 #fcf2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #adc sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #cjd sq41 #cje1 #cae1 #dcd4 ,sec4 #d4 ,rights of ,property ,in ,samoa the rights of private property1 both personal and landed1 were fully recognised1 but with certain limitations4 ,the lands were owned alike by chiefs and by heads of families2 the laws regulating their possession were very definite4 ,in no case did the whole of the land belong to the chiefs4 ,every family owned portions of land not only in the village and adjoining gardens1 but far away in the unreclaimed forests of the interior4 ,the title1 which passed by inheritance1 generally vested in the family2 but the family was represented by the head1 who often claimed the right to dispose of it by sale or otherwise4 ,yet he dared not do anything without consulting all concerned2 were he to persist in thwarting the wishes of the rest1 they would take his title from him and give it to another4 ,sometimes1 however1 the title to landed property vested in individual owners4 ,the legitimate heir was the oldest surviving brother1 but occasionally he waived his right in favour of one of the sons4 ,women might hold land when the male side of a family was extinct4 ,the boundaries of land were well defined1 being marked by pathways1 natural limits1 such as a river1 or by trenches and stones half buried in the ground4 ,every inch of ground had its owner1 even to the tops of the mountains4 ,trespass by a neighbouring village would be resisted1 if necessary1 by force of arms4#dc #dc ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #agf sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #hc sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bhg sq41 #cad1 #cci4 ,in regard to personal property it may be said that1 like landed property1 it belonged rather to the family than to the individual2 for no ,samoan could refuse to give1 without an equivalent1 anything which any member of his family asked for4 ,in this way boats1 tools1 garments1 and so forth passed freely from hand to hand4 ,nay1 a man could enter the plantation of a relative and help himself to the fruit without asking the owner's leave2 such an appropriation was not considered to be stealing4 ,under this communistic system1 as it has been called1 accumulation of property was scarcely possible1 and industry was discouraged4 ,why should a diligent man toil when he knew that the fruit of his labour might all be consumed by lazy kinsfolk8 ,he might lay out a plantation of bananas1 and when they were full-grown1 bunch after bunch might be plucked and eaten by his less industrious relations1 until1 exasperated beyond endurance1 the unfortunate owner would cut down all the remaining trees4 ,no matter how hard a man worked1 he could not keep his earnings2 they all soon passed out of his hands into the common stock of the clan4 ,the system1 we are told1 ate like a canker-worm at the roots of individual and national progress4#dd #dd ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #afj sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bdg1 #bfb sq41 #dcd4 ,sec4 #e4 ,government1 ,social ,ranks1 ,respect for ,chiefs ,the native government of ,samoa was not1 like that of ,tonga1 a centralised despotism4 ,under the form of a monarchy and aristocracy the political constitution was fundamentally republican and indeed democratic4 ,the authority of the king and chiefs was limited and more or less nominal2 practically ,samoa consisted of a large number of petty independent and self-governing communities1 which sometimes combined for defence or common action in a sort of loose federation4#de #de ,j4 ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 p4 #ded2 ,h4 ,hale1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 p4 #bi2 ,t4 ,h4 ,hood1 ,notes of a ,cruise in ,h4,m4,s4 ,fawn in the ,western ,pacific 7,edinburgh1 #ahfc71 p4 #aah2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #agc2 ,s4 ,ella1 ,samoa1 ,report of the ,fourth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,hobart1 ,tasmania1 in ,january #ahib1 p4 #fca2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #hc sq41 #hi2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #ccc4 ,to a superficial observer the aristocratic cast of ,samoan society might at first sight seem very marked4 ,the social ranks were sharply divided from each other1 and the inferior orders paid great formal deference to their superiors4 ,at the head of all ranked the chiefs 7alii72 but even among them the ordinary chiefs were distinct from the sacred chiefs 7alii paia71 who enjoyed the highest honours4 ,these sacred chiefs preserved their pedigrees for twenty or more generations with as great care as the oldest and proudest families in ,europe1 and they possessed many feudal rights and privileges which were as well known and as fully acknowledged as are1 or were1 those of any lord of a manor in ,england4 ,the task of preserving a record of a chief's pedigrees was entrusted to his orator or spokesman1 who belonged to a lower social rank 7that of the tulafales74#df ,the influence of chiefs was supported by the belief that they possessed some magical or supernatural power1 by which they could enforce their decisions4#dg ,their persons were sacred or taboo4 ,they might not be touched by any one4 ,no one might sit beside them4 ,in the public assemblies a vacant place was left on each side of the seat of honour which they occupied4 ,some chiefs were so holy that they might not even be looked at by day4 ,their food might not be handed to them1 but was thrown to them1 and it was so sacred that no one might eat any of it which they had left over4#dh #df ,h4 ,hale1 op4 cit4 p4 #bh2 ,violette1 op4 cit4 p4 #afh2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #agc sqq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #fe sqq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bhc1 #dcj4 #dg ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #dca4 #dh ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bhj1 #bhc1 #bhe2 ,violette1 op4 cit4 p4 #afh 7as to chiefs too holy to be seen by day74 ,the sacredness attributed to many chiefs of high rank gave rise to observances which were irksome to their families and dependents1 since whatever they came in contact with required to undergo the ceremony of lulu'u1 or sprinkling with a particular kind of cocoanut-water 7niu-ui72 both to remove the sanctity supposed to be communicated to the article or place that had touched the chief1 and also to counteract the danger of speedy death1 which was believed to be imminent to any person who might touch the sacred chief1 or anything that he had touched2 so great was the mantle of sanctity thrown around these chiefs1 although unconnected with the priesthood4 ,thus the spot where such a chief had sat or slept was sprinkled with water immediately he had left it1 as were also the persons who had sat on either side of him when he received company1 as well as all the attendants who had waited upon him4 ,this remarkable custom was also observed on other occasions4 ,it was always used on the occasion of deposing a chief1 and depriving him of his ,ao1 or titles1 in which case the ceremony was performed by some of those who had either conferred the titles or had the power to do so4 ,in the case of ,o le ,tamafainga1 the usurper who was killed in ,a'ana in #ahbi1 his body was first sprinkled with cocoanut-water1 and his title of ,o le ,tuia'ana recalled from him1 before he was hewn in pieces4 ,the ceremony consisted of sprinkling the body with cocoanut-water1 and the officiating chief or ,tulafale saying1 ',give us back our ,ao1' by which means the title was recalled1 and the sacredness attaching to it was dispelled4 ,it was also used over persons newly tattooed1 and upon those who contaminated themselves by contact with a dead body4 ,in each of these cases the ceremony was carefully observed1 and reverently attended to1 as very dire consequences were considered certain to follow its omission4#di ,thus the sacredness of a chief was deemed dangerous to all persons with whom he might come1 whether directly or indirectly1 into contact2 it was apparently conceived as a sort of electric fluid which discharged itself1 it might be with fatal effect1 on whatever it touched4 ,and the sacredness of a chief was clearly classed with the uncleanness of a dead body1 since contact with a dead body involved the same dangerous consequences as contact with the sacred person of a chief and had to be remedied in precisely the same manner4 ,the two conceptions of holiness and uncleanness1 which to us seem opposite and even contradictory1 blend in the idea of taboo1 in which both are implicitly held as it were in solution4 ,it requires the analytic tendency of more advanced thought to distinguish the two conceptions1 to precipitate1 as it were1 the components of the solution in the testing-tube of the mind4 #di ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #abg sq4 ,compare ,violette1 op4 cit4 p4 #afh2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bca1 #bhj1 #bhe4 ,in this work ,dr4 ,brown remarks 7p4 #bca7 that there is no clear explanation of the custom of sprinkling coco-nut water as a purificatory rite4 ,but the explanation given by ,stair1 which ,i have quoted in the text1 is clear and satisfactory1 and elsewhere 7p4 #bhe7 ,dr4 ,brown implicitly adopts the same explanation1 where he says that the man who had served kava to a sacred chief sprinkled himself all over to wash away the sacredness 7paia74 ,the profound respect which the ,samoans entertained for their chiefs manifested itself in yet another fashion4 ,a special form of speech was adopted in addressing a chief1 in conversing in his presence1 or even in alluding to him in his absence4 ,thus there arose what is called a chiefs' language1 or polite diction1 which was used exclusively in speaking to or of a chief1 whether the speaker was a common man or a chief of lower rank4 ,but it was never used by a chief when he was speaking of himself4 ,persons of high rank1 in addressing others and alluding to themselves1 always employed ordinary language and sometimes the very lowest terms2 so that it was often amusing to listen to expressions of feigned humility uttered by a proud man1 who would have been indignant indeed if the same terms which he applied to himself had been applied to him by others4 ,thus1 for example1 the actions of sitting1 talking1 eating1 sleeping1 and dying were expressed by different terms according as the agent was a chief or a common man4 ,the ordinary word for a house was fale2 but a chief's house was called maota4 ,the common word for anger was ita2 the polite term was toasa4 ,to sleep in ordinary language was moe1 but in polite language it was tofa or toa4 ,to be sick in common speech was mai1 but in polite language it was ngasengase1 faatafa1 pulu pulusi4 ,to die was mate or pe 7said of animals71 or oti 7said of men72 but the courtly expressions for death were maliu 7gone71 folau 7gone on a voyage71 fale-lauasi1 ngasololo ao1 and a number of others4 ,the terms substituted in the court language sometimes had a meaning the very opposite of that borne by the corresponding terms in the ordinary language4 ,for example1 in the court language firewood was called polata1 which properly means the stem of the banana plant1 a wood that is incombustible4 ,if the use of an ordinary word in the presence of a chief were unavoidable1 it had to be prefaced by the apologetic phrase veaeane1 literally saving your presence1 every time the word was spoken4 ,nay1 the courtly language itself varied with the rank of the chief addressed or alluded to4 ,for example1 if you wished to say that a person had come1 you would say alu of a common man2 alala of a head of a household or landowner 7tulafale72 maliu of a petty chief2 susu of a chief of the second class2 and afiu of a chief of the highest rank4#ej ,the same respect which was shown in the use of words descriptive of a chief's actions or possessions was naturally extended to his own name1 when he belonged to the class of sacred chiefs4 ,if his name happened to be also the name of a common object1 it ceased to be used to designate the thing in question1 and a new word or phrase was substituted for it4 ,henceforth the old name of the object was dropped and might never again be pronounced in the chief's district nor indeed anywhere in his presence4 ,in one district1 for example1 the chief's name was ,flying-fox2 hence the ordinary word for flying-fox 7re'a7 was dropped1 and that species of bat was known as bird of heaven 7manu langi74#ea ,again1 when the chief of ,pango-pango1 in the island of ,tutuila1 was called ,maunga1 which means mountain1 that word might never be used in his presence1 and a courtly term was substituted for it4#eb ,this is only one instance of the ways in which the dialects of savages tend to vary from each other under the influence of superstition4 #ej ,h4 ,hale1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 pp4 #bh sq42 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #aij2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #fg sqq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #chj sq4 ,compare ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #age4 #ea ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bhj1 #cha4 #eb ,j4 ,e4 ,erskine1 ,journal of a ,cruise among the ,islands of the ,western ,pacific1 p4 #dd4 ,yet despite the extraordinary deference thus paid to chiefs in outward show1 the authority which they possessed was for the most part very limited2 indeed in the ordinary affairs of life the powers and privileges of a chief were little more than nominal1 and he moved about among the people and shared their everyday employments just like a common man4 ,thus1 for example1 he would go out with a fishing party1 work in his plantation1 help at building a house or a canoe1 and even lend a hand in cooking at a native oven4 ,so strong was the democratic spirit among the ,samoans4 ,the ordinary duties of a chief consisted in administering the law1 settling disputes1 punishing transgressors1 appointing feasts1 imposing taboos1 and leading his people in war4 ,it was in time of war that a chief's dignity and authority were at their highest1 but even then he could hardly maintain strict discipline4#ec ,however1 the influence of chiefs varied a good deal and depended in great measure on their personal character4 ,if besides his hereditary rank a chief was a man of energy and ability1 he might become practically supreme in his village or district4 ,some chiefs even used their power in a very tyrannical manner4#ed #ec ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #agd sq42 ,s4 ,ella1 ,samoa1 ,report of the ,fourth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,hobart1 ,tasmania1 in ,january #ahib1 pp4 #fca sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #gj2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bhf4 #ed ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #gj2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bhf4 ,but for the abuse of power by their nominal rulers the ,samoans had a remedy at hand4 ,when a chief rendered himself odious to his people by tyranny and oppression1 the householders or gentry 7tulafales7 and neighbouring chiefs would not uncommonly depose him and transfer his office to another2 in extreme cases they might banish him or even put him to death4 ,the place of banishment for exiled chiefs was the island of ,tutuila4 ,thither the fallen potentate was conveyed under custody in a canoe1 and on landing he was made to run the gauntlet between two rows of the inhabitants1 who belaboured him with sticks1 pelted him with stones1 or subjected him to other indignities4 ,he was lucky if he escaped with nothing worse than bruises1 for sometimes the injuries inflicted were severe or actually fatal4#ee ,chieftainship was hereditary in the male line1 but did not necessarily pass from father to son2 the usual heir would seem to have been the eldest surviving brother1 and next to him one of the sons4 ,but a dying chief might nominate his successor1 though the final decision rested with the heads of families4 ,failing a male heir1 a daughter might be appointed to1 or might assume1 the prerogative of chieftainship4#ef #ee ,j4 ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 p4 #ded2 ,h4 ,hale1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 p4 #bh2 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #aai2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #agg2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #ga sqq4 #ef ,violette1 op4 cit4 p4 #aai2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #agd2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fca2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bhb1 #bhf1 #dcj4 ,in addition to their hereditary nobility chiefs might be raised to higher rank by the possession of titles 7ao71 which were in the gift of certain ruling towns or villages4 ,when four or1 according to another account1 five of these titles were conferred upon a single chief1 he was called o le tupu1 or ,king of ,samoa4 ,but if the constituencies were not unanimous in their choice of a candidate1 the throne might remain vacant for long periods4 ,thus the monarchy of ,samoa was elective2 the king was chosen by a hereditary aristocracy1 and his powers were tempered by the rights and privileges of the nobility4 ,yet under the show of a limited monarchy the constitution was essentially a federal republic4#eg ,the ceremony of anointing a ,king of ,samoa in ancient times appears to have curiously resembled a similar solemnity in monarchical ,europe4 ,it took place in presence of a large assembly of chiefs and people4 ,a sacred stone was consecrated as a throne1 or rather stool1 on which the king stood1 while a priest1 who must also be a chief1 called upon the gods to behold and bless the king1 and pronounced denunciations against such as should fail to obey him4 ,he then poured scented oil from a native bottle over the head1 shoulders1 and body of the king1 and proclaimed his several titles and honours4#eh #eg ,violette1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aah sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #fe sqq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bhc4 ,compare ,h4 ,hale1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 p4 #bi4 #eh ,s4 ,ella1 ,samoa1 ,report of the ,fourth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,hobart1 ,tasmania1 in ,january #ahib1 p4 #fca4 ,next below the chiefs ranked an inferior order of nobility called tulafales or faipules1 who are variously described as householders1 councillors1 and secondary chiefs4 ,they formed a very powerful and influential class2 indeed we are told that they generally exercised greater authority than the chiefs1 and that the real control of districts often centred in their hands4 ,they usually owned large lands3 they were the principal advisers of the chiefs3 the orators were usually selected from their number3 the ao or titles of districts were always in their gift2 and they had the power1 which they did not scruple to use1 of deposing and banishing an unpopular chief4 ,sometimes a chief contrived to bring them into subjection to himself2 but as a rule they were a sturdy class1 who did not shrink from speaking out their minds to their social superiors1 often uttering very unpalatable truths and acting with great determination when the conduct of a chief incurred their displeasure4 ,in short1 they made laws1 levied fines1 and generally ruled the village4#ei #ei ,h4 ,hale1 op4 cit4 p4 #bh2 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aeb2 ,violette1 op4 cit4 p4 #aai2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fbi2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #gj sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bhe sq41 #bhg4 ,below the tulafales ranked the faleupolu or ,house of ,upolu1 and the tangata nuu or ,men of the ,land4 ,the former were considerable landowners and possessed much influence2 the latter were the humblest class1 bearing arms in time of war1 and cultivating the soil1 fishing1 and cooking in time of peace4 ,but they were far from being serfs2 most of them were eligible for the position of head of a family1 if1 when a vacancy occurred1 the choice of the family fell upon them4#fj ,for the title of head of a family was not hereditary4 ,a son might succeed his father in the dignity2 but the members of the family would sometimes pass over the son and confer the title on an uncle1 a cousin1 or even a perfect stranger1 if they desired to increase the numerical strength of the family4#fa #fj ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #gd sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #dcb4 #fa ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #agc4 ,the villages of the ,samoans were practically self-governing and independent communities1 though every village was more or less loosely federated with the other villages of its district4 ,each district or confederation of villages had its capital 7laumua7 or ruling town4 ,these federal capitals1 however1 possessed no absolute authority over the other villages of the district2 and though great respect was always shown to them1 the people of the district1 or even of a particular village1 would often dissent from the decisions of the capital and assert their independence of action4#fb ,of this independence a notable instance occurred when the ,catholic missionaries first settled in ,samoa4 ,under the influence of the ,protestant missionaries a federal assembly had passed a decree strictly forbidding the admission of ,roman ,catholics to the islands1 and threatening with war any community that should dare to harbour the obnoxious sect4 ,the better to enforce the decree1 prayers were publicly offered up in the chapels that ,god would be pleased to keep all ,papists out of ,samoa4 ,to these charitable petitions the deity seems to have turned a deaf ear2 for1 in spite of prayers and prohibitions1 two ,catholic priests and a lay brother landed and were hospitably received and effectually protected by the people of a village1 who paid no heed either to the remonstrances of the chiefs or to the thunders of the federal assembly4#fc #fb ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ahj2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #ccc4 #fc ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 pp4 #aai sq4 ,the population of a village might be from two to five hundred persons1 and there might be eight or ten villages in a district4 ,throughout the ,samoan islands there were in all eight of these separate districts4 ,the union of the villages in a district was voluntary2 they formed by common consent a petty state for their mutual protection4 ,when war was threatened by another district1 no single village acted alone2 the whole district1 or state1 assembled at their capital and held a special parliament to concert the measures to be taken4#fd ,the boundaries of the districts were well known and zealously guarded1 if necessary1 by force of arms against the aggression of a neighbouring state4 ,the wardenship of the marches was committed to the two nearest villages on either side1 the inhabitants of which were called ,boundary-,keepers4 ,between two such villages in former days mutual ill-feeling constantly existed and border feuds were frequent4#fe #fd ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #agc1 #ahj sq4 ,a third local division1 intermediate between the village and the district1 is mentioned by ,stair1 who calls it a settlement 7,old ,samoa1 p4 #hc72 but the other authorities whom ,i have consulted appear not to recognise such an intermediate division4 #fe ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #hc4 ,the form of government both of the village and of the district was parliamentary4 ,affairs were discussed and settled in a representative assembly 7fono71 composed of the leading men of each village or district4 ,these representatives included the chiefs1 together with the householders or landowners 7tulafales7 and the inferior gentry 7the faleupolu74 ,the more weighty affairs1 such as declaring war or making peace1 or any matters of importance which concerned the whole district1 were debated in the general parliament of the district1 while business of purely local interest was transacted in the parliament of the village4 ,it was the privilege of the capital to convene the district parliament1 to preside over its deliberations1 to settle disputed points1 to sum up the proceedings1 and to dismiss the assembly4 ,these meetings were usually conducted with much formality and decorum4 ,they were always held in the large public place 7malae or marae7 of the village or town4 ,it was an open green spot surrounded by a circle of trees and houses4 ,the centre was occupied by a large house which belonged to the chief and was set apart as a caravansary for the entertainment of strangers and visitors4 ,members of all the three orders which composed the parliament had the right to address it2 but the speaking was usually left to the householders or landowners 7tulafales74 ,each chief had generally attached to him one of that order who acted as his mouthpiece2 and in like manner each settlement retained the services of a member of the order1 who was the leading orator of the district4 ,decisions were reached not by voting but by general consent1 the discussion being prolonged until some conclusion1 satisfactory to the greater part of the members1 and particularly to the most influential1 was arrived at4 ,one of the principal prerogatives of the king seems to have been that of convoking a parliament2 though1 if he refused to do so1 when circumstances seemed to require it1 the assembly would undoubtedly have met without him4 ,the functions of these assemblies were judicial as well as legislative and deliberative4 ,offenders were arraigned before them and1 if found guilty1 were condemned and punished4#ff #ff ,h4 ,hale1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 p4 #bi2 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ii4 #aec sq42 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #aai2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #agg sqq41 #ahj sqq42 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fcb sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #hd sqq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bhf sq41 #bhh sqq4 ,it says much for the natural ability of the ,samoans that they should have attained to a level of culture so comparatively high with material resources so scanty and defective4 ,nature1 indeed1 supplied them with abundance of food and timber1 but she denied them the metals1 which were unknown in the islands until they were introduced from ,europe4 ,in their native state1 accordingly1 the ,samoans were still in the ,stone ,age1 their principal tools being stone axes and adzes1 made mainly from a close-grained basalt which is found in the island of ,tutuila4 ,of these axes the rougher were chipped1 but the finer were ground4 ,shells were used as cutting instruments and as punches to bore holes in planks2 and combs1 neatly carved out of bone1 were employed as instruments in tattooing4 ,a wooden dibble served them instead of a plough to turn up the earth4 ,the only skins they prepared were those of sharks and some other fish1 which they used as rasps for smoothing woodwork4 ,the art of pottery was unknown4#fg ,food was cooked in ovens of hot stones2#fh fire was kindled by the friction of wood1 the method adopted being what is called the stick-and-groove process4#fi #fg ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #cai2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #aeh2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #adf1 #adi1 #aed1 #aei4 ,as to the wooden dibbles1 see ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fce 7above1 p4 #aff74 #fh ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #aaa sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #acj4 #fi ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #abi4 ,we now pass to a consideration of the religion of these interesting people1 especially in regard to the human soul and its destiny after death4 ,sec4 #f4 ,religion3 ,gods of ,families1 ,villages1 and ,districts ,the first missionary to ,samoa1 ,john ,williams1 was struck by the contrast between the religion of the ,samoans and the religion of the other ,polynesian peoples whom he had studied4 ,the religious system of the ,samoans1 he says1 differs essentially from that which obtained at the ,tahitian1 ,society1 and other islands with which we are acquainted4 ,they have neither maraes1 nor temples1 nor altars1 nor offerings2 and1 consequently1 none of the barbarous and sanguinary rites observed at the other groups4 ,in consequence of this1 the ,samoans were considered an impious race1 and their impiety became proverbial with the people of ,rarotonga2 for1 when upbraiding a person who neglected the worship of the gods1 they would call him 'a godless ,samoan4' ,but1 although heathenism was presented to us by the ,samoans in a dress different from that in which we had been accustomed to see it1 having no altars stained with human blood1 no maraes strewed with the skulls and bones of its numerous victims1 no sacred groves devoted to rites of which brutality and sensuality were the most obvious features1 this people had 'lords many and gods many'2--their religious system was as obviously marked as any other with absurdity1 superstition1 and vice4#gj #gj ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 pp4 #dfe sq4 ,this account of the ,samoan religion1 written at a time when the islands were not yet fully opened up to ,europeans1 must be modified by the testimony of later writers1 in particular with regard to the alleged absence of temples and offerings2 but in its broad outlines it holds good1 in so far as the ,samoan ritual was honourably distinguished from that of many other islands in the ,pacific by its freedom from human sacrifice and from the gross and licentious practices which prevailed in other branches of the ,polynesian race4 ,the notion of the ,rarotongans that the ,samoans were a godless people has proved to be totally mistaken4 ,on closer acquaintance it was found that they lived under the influence of a host of imaginary deities who exercised their faith and demanded their obedience4 ,among these deities the most numerous and perhaps the most influential were the aitu1 which were the gods of individuals1 of families1 of towns or villages1 and of districts4#ga ,these gods were supposed to appear in some visible embodiment or incarnation1 and the particular thing1 or class of things1 in which his god was in the habit of appearing1 was to the ,samoan an object of veneration1 and he took great care never to injure it or treat it with contempt4 ,in the great majority of cases the thing in which the deity presented himself to his worshippers was a class of natural objects1 most commonly a species of animal1 bird1 or fish1 less frequently a tree or plant or an inanimate object1 such as a stone1 the rainbow1 or a meteor4 ,one man1 for example1 saw his god in the eel1 another in the shark1 another in the turtle1 another in the owl1 another in the lizard1 and so on throughout all the fish of the sea1 the birds1 the four-footed beasts1 and creeping things4 ,in some of the shell-fish1 such as the limpets on the rocks1 gods were supposed to be present4 ,it was not uncommon to see an intelligent chief muttering prayers to a fly1 an ant1 or a lizard1 which chanced to alight or crawl in his presence4 ,a man would eat freely of the incarnation of another man's god1 but would most scrupulously refrain from eating of the incarnation of his own particular god1 believing that death would be the consequence of such sacrilege4 ,the offended god was supposed to take up his abode in the body of the impious eater and to generate there the very thing which he had eaten1 till it caused his death4 ,for example1 if a man1 whose family god was incarnate in the prickly sea-urchin 7,echinus71 were to eat of a sea-urchin1 it was believed that a prickly sea-urchin would grow in his body and kill him4 ,if his family god were incarnate in the turtle1 and he was rash enough to eat a turtle1 the god would enter into him1 and his voice would be heard from within the sinner's body1 saying1 ,i am killing this man2 he ate my incarnation4 ,occasionally1 however1 the penalty exacted by the deity was less severe4 ,if1 for instance1 a man's god was in cockles1 and he ate one of these shell-fish1 a cockle would grow on his nose2 if he merely picked up a cockle on the shore and walked away with it1 the shell-fish would appear on some part of his person4 ,but in neither case1 apparently1 would the kindly cockle take the life of the offender4 ,it was not a bloodthirsty deity4 ,again1 a man whose god was in coco-nuts would never drink the refreshing beverage which other people were free to extract from the nuts4 ,but the worshipper who shrank from eating or drinking his god in the shape1 say1 of an octopus or of coco-nut water1 would often look on with indifference while other people partook of these his divinities4 ,he might pity their ignorance or envy their liberty1 but he would not seek to enlighten the one or to restrain the other4#gb ,indeed this indifference was sometimes carried to great lengths4 ,for example1 a man whose god was incarnate in the turtle1 though he would not himself dare to partake of turtle1 would have no scruple in helping a neighbour to cut up and cook a turtle2 but in doing so he took the precaution to tie a bandage over his mouth to prevent an embryo turtle from slipping down his throat and sealing his doom by growing up in his stomach4#gc ,sometimes the incarnate deity1 out of consideration perhaps for the weakness of the flesh1 would limit his presence to a portion of an animal1 it might be the left wing of a pigeon1 or the tail of a dog1 or the right leg of a pig4#gd ,the advantages of such a restriction to a worshipper are obvious4 ,a man1 for instance1 to whom it would have been death to eat the right leg of a pig1 might partake of a left leg of pork with safety and even with gusto4 ,and so with the rest of the divine menagery4 #ga ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences 7,london1 #ahff71 pp4 #ajf sqq42 ,t4 ,h4 ,hood1 ,notes of a ,cruise in ,h4,m4,s4 ,fawn in the ,western ,pacific1 p4 #ada2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #af sqq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #baa1 #bae sqq4 #gb ,j4 ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 p4 #dfh2 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ii4 #aca sq42 ,t4 ,h4 ,hood1 ,notes of a ,cruise in ,h4,m4,s4 ,fawn in the ,western ,pacific1 p4 #ada2 ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #ajf sqq42 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #aaa2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #af sqq41 #dj1 #ej sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #baa1 #baf sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #acg1 #bah4 ,the account of these deities given by ,dr4 ,g4 ,turner is by far the fullest and best4 #gc ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #fg sq4 #gd ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajg4 ,similarly some people had pig's heart for their god1 or the embodiment of their god1 and they scrupulously avoided eating pigs' hearts lest pigs' hearts should grow in their bodies and so cause their death4 ,see ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #gb4 ,however1 even if the worst had happened1 that is to say1 if the deity had been killed1 cooked and eaten1 the consequences were not necessarily fatal to his worshippers2 there were modes of redeeming the lives of the sinners and of expiating their sin4 ,suppose1 for example1 that the god of a household was the cuttle-fish1 and that some visitor to the house had1 either in ignorance or in bravado1 caught a cuttle-fish and cooked it1 or that a member of the family had been present where a cuttle-fish was eaten1 the family would meet in conclave to consult about the sacrilege1 and they would select one of their number1 whether a man or a woman1 to go and lie down in a cold oven and be covered over with leaves1 just as in the process of baking1 all to pretend that the person was being offered up as a burnt sacrifice to avert the wrath of the deity4 ,while this solemn pretence was being enacted1 the whole family would engage in prayer1 saying1 ,o bald-headed cuttle-fish1 forgive what has been done4 ,it was all the work of a stranger4 ,if they did not thus abase themselves before the divine cuttle-fish1 they believed that the god would visit them and cause a cuttle-fish to grow internally in their bodies and so be the death of some of them4#ge ,similar modes of appeasing the wrath of divine eels1 mullets1 stinging ray fish1 turtles1 wild pigeons1 and garden lizards were adopted with equal success4#gf #ge ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ca sq4 #gf ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ch1 #eh1 #ei1 #fi sq41 #gb4 ,apparently the ,samoans were even more concerned to defend their village gods or district gods against injury and insult than to guard the deities of simple individuals4 ,we are told that all the inhabitants of a district would thus unite for the protection of the local divinity4#gg ,for example1 it happened that in a village where the first native ,christian teachers settled one of them caught a sea-eel 7,muraena7 and cooked it1 and two of the village lads1 who were their servants1 ate some of the eel for their supper4 ,but the eel was the village god1 and when the villagers heard that the lads had eaten the god1 they administered a sound thrashing to the culprits1 and dragged them off to a cooking-house where they laid them down in the oven pit and covered them with leaves in the usual way1 as if the lads had been killed and were now to be cooked as a peace-offering to avert the wrath of the deity4#gh ,when ,john ,williams had caused some ,christian natives to kill a large sea-snake and dry it on the rocks to be preserved as a specimen1 the heathen fishermen of the island at sight of it raised a most terrific yell1 and1 seizing their clubs1 rushed upon the ,christian natives1 saying1 ,you have killed our god6 ,you have killed our god6 ,it was with difficulty that ,mr4 ,williams restrained their violence on condition that the reptile should be immediately carried back to the boat from which the missionary had landed4#gi ,the island in which this happened belonged to the ,tongan group1 but precisely the same incident might have occurred in ,samoa4 ,in some parts of ,upolu a goddess was believed to be incarnate in bats1 and if a neighbour chanced to kill one of these creatures1 the indignant worshippers of the bat might wage a war to avenge the insult to their deity4#hj ,if people who had the stinging ray fish for the incarnation of their god heard that their neighbours had caught a fish of that sort1 they would go and beg them to give it up and not to cook it4 ,a refusal to comply with the request would be followed by a fight4#ha #gg ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #baf sq4 #gh ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #eh4 #gi ,j4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfi4 #hj ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #eg4 #ha ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ge4 ,accordingly1 when the ,samoans were converted to ,christianity1 they gave the strongest proof of the genuineness of their conversion by killing and eating their animal gods4 ,thus when a chief named ,malietoa renounced heathenism1 he caused an eel to be publicly caught1 cooked1 and eaten by many persons who had hitherto regarded the eel as their god4 ,his own sons had a different sort of fish1 called anae1 for their private deity1 and to demonstrate their faith in the new religion they had a quantity of the fish caught1 cooked1 and served up in the presence of a large party of friends and relations4 ,there1 with trembling hearts1 they partook of the once sacred morsel2 but1 their fears getting the better of them1 they immediately retired from the feast and swallowed a powerful emetic1 lest the divine fish should lie heavy on their stomachs and devour their vitals4#hb ,as nothing particular happened after these daring innovations1 the people took heart of grace1 and concerted further plans for the destruction of their ancient deities4 ,among these was a certain ,papo1 who was nothing more or less than a piece of old rotten matting1 about three yards long and four inches wide2 but being a god of war and1 in that capacity1 always attached to the canoe of the leader when they went forth to battle1 he was regarded with great veneration by the people4 ,at the assembly convoked to decide on his fate1 the first proposal was to throw him into the fire4 ,but the idea was too shocking to the general sense of the community1 and by way of making death as little painful as possible to the deity1 they decided to take him out to sea in a canoe and there consign him to a watery grave4 ,even from this mitigated doom ,papo was rescued by the efforts of the missionaries1 and he now adorns a museum4#hc #hb ,j4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cgc sq4 #hc ,j4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 p4 #cge4 ,but even when the career of one of these animal gods was not prematurely cut short by being killed1 cooked1 and eaten1 he was still liable to die in the course of nature2 and when his dead body was discovered1 great was the sorrow of his worshippers4 ,if1 for example1 the god of a village was an owl1 and a dead owl was found lying beside a road or under a tree1 it would be reverently covered up with a white cloth by the person who discovered it1 and all the villagers would assemble round the dead god and burn their bodies with firebrands and beat their foreheads with stones till the blood flowed4 ,then the corpse of the feathered deity would be wrapped up and buried with as much care and ceremony as if it were a human body4 ,however1 that was not the death of the god4 ,he was supposed to be yet alive and incarnate in all the owls in existence4#hd #hd ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ba1 #bf1 #fj sq4 ,compare ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #aaj sq4 ,the offerings to these deities consisted chiefly of cooked food1#he which was apparently deemed as essential to the sustenance of gods as of men1 and that even when the gods were not animals but stones4 ,for example1 two oblong smooth stones1 which stood on a platform of loose stones near a village1 were regarded as the parents of the rain-god1 and when the people were making ready to go off to the woods for the favourite sport of pigeon-catching1 they used to lay offerings of cooked taro and fish on the stones1 accompanied by prayers for fine weather and no rain4 ,these stone gods were also believed to cause yams to grow2 hence in time of dearth a man would present them with a yam in hope of securing their favour4#hf #he ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #bj4 #hf ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #bd sq4 ,at the feasts the first cup of kava was dedicated to the god1 the presiding chief either pouring it out on the ground or waving it towards the sky4 ,afterwards all the chiefs drank from the same cup according to their rank2 then the food brought as an offering was divided and eaten there before the god4#hg ,even within the circle of the family it was customary to pour out on the ground a little kava as an offering to the family god before any one else drank of it4#hh #hg ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #bj2 ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #aba sqq4 #hh ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bbi4 ,annual feasts were held in honour of the gods1 and the season of the feast was often in ,may1 but sometimes in ,april or ,june4#hi ,in some cases the feasts were regulated by the appearance of the bird which was believed to be the incarnation of the god4 ,whenever the bird was seen1 the priest would say that the god had come1 and he would fix upon a day for the entertainment of the deity4#ij ,at these festivals all the people met in the place of public assembly1 where they had collected heaps of cooked food4 ,first1 they made their offerings to the god and prayed to him to avert calamity and grant prosperity2 then they feasted with and before their god1 and after that any strangers present might eat4 ,some of the festivals included games1 such as wrestling1 spear-throwing1 club exercises1 sham-fights1 and nocturnal dances2 and they lasted for days4#ia ,at one of these annual festivals held in the month of ,june1 the exercise with clubs assumed a serious and indeed sanguinary form4 ,all the people1 old and young1 men1 women1 and children1 took part in it1 and battered their scalps till the blood streamed down over their faces and bodies4 ,this proof of their devotion was supposed to be acceptable to the deity1 who1 gratified by the sight of their flowing blood1 would answer their prayers for health1 good crops1 and victory in war4#ib ,at the feast of the cockle god in ,may prayers were offered up to the divine shell-fish that he would be pleased to cure the coughs and other ailments usually prevalent at that season1 which in ,samoa forms the transition from the wet to the dry months4#ic ,at the festival of an owl god1 which fell about the month of ,april1 the offerings and prayers were particularly directed towards the removal of caterpillars from the plantations2 for these insects were believed to be the servants of the owl god1 who could send them as his ministers of vengeance to lay waste the fields and orchards of the impious4#id ,elsewhere the owl was a war god1 and at the beginning of the annual fish festivals the chiefs and people of the village assembled round the opening of the first oven and gave the first fish to the god4#ie ,a family1 who had the eel for their household god1 showed their gratitude to him for his kindness by presenting him with the first fruits of their taro plantation4#if ,another family believed their deity to be incarnate in centipedes2 and if a member of the family fell ill or was bitten by a centipede1 they would offer the divine reptile a fine mat and a fan1 with a prayer for the recovery of the patient4#ig ,the utility of a fine mat and a fan to a centipede is too obvious to be insisted on4 ,sometimes offerings were made to a god1 not to persuade him to come1 but to induce him to go away4 ,for example1 where gods or spirits were believed to voyage along the coast1 offerings of food were often set down on the beach as an inducement to the spirits to take the victuals and pass on without calling at that particular place4#ih #hi ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #bj1 #bf1 #bi1 #da1 #dd1 #dg1 #ec1 #eg4 #ij ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #bj sq4 #ia ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #bj1 #bf1 #bi2 ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 p4 #abc4 #ib ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #eg4 #ic ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #da4 #id ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #dg4 #ie ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #be sq4 #if ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #gj sq4 #ig ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #dg sq4 #ih ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bbi4 ,formal prayers were offered to the god by the head of a family1 and public prayer was put up when the men were setting out for war4 ,on such occasions they prayed that stones1 stumps of trees1 and other obstacles might be taken out of the way of the warriors1 and that their path might be wet with the blood of their foes4 ,all their prayers were for temporal benefits1 such as protection against enemies1 plenty of food1 and other desirable objects4 ,they attached great importance to confession of wrongdoing in times of danger1 but1 so far as appears1 they expressed no repentance1 promised no amendment1 and offered no prayer for forgiveness4 ,if1 for example1 a canoe1 crossing the channel between ,savaii and ,upolu1 were caught in a squall and seemed likely to be swamped1 the steersman would head the canoe to the wind1 and every man on board would make a clean breast of his sins4 ,one would say1 ,i stole a fowl at such and such a village4 ,another would confess an intrigue with a married woman somewhere else2 and so on4 ,when all had either confessed their guilt or declared their innocence1 the helmsman would put the helm about and scud before the wind1 in perfect confidence of bringing the canoe and crew safe to land4#ii #ii ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bbi sq4 ,when a god was believed to be incarnate in a species of birds or animals or fish1 omens were naturally drawn from the appearance and behaviour of the creatures4 ,this happened particularly in time of war1 when hopes and fears were rife among the people4 ,thus1 if their war god was an owl1 and the bird fluttered above the troops on the march1 the omen was good2 but if the owl flew away in the direction of the enemy1 it was an evil omen1 the god had deserted them and joined the foe2#ajj if it crossed the path of the warriors or flew back on them1 it was a warning to retreat4#aja ,so in places where the war-god was a rail-bird1 if the bird screeched and flew before the army1 the people marched confidently to battle2 but if it turned and flew back1 they hesitated4 ,if the plumage of the rail showed glossy red1 it was a sign to go to war2 but if the feathers were dark and dingy1 it was a warning to stay at home4 ,and if the bird were heard chattering or scolding1 as they called it1 at midnight1 it prognosticated an attack next day1 and they would at once send off the women and children to a place of safety4#ajb ,in like manner omens were drawn from the flight of herons1 kingfishers1 the ,porphyris ,samoensis1 and flying-foxes1 where these creatures were supposed to incarnate the war god4#ajc ,people who saw their war god in the lizard used to take omens from a lizard before they went forth to fight4 ,they watched the movements of a lizard in a bundle of spears4 ,if the creature ran about the outside of the bundle and the points of the spears1 the omen was favourable2 but if it crept into the bundle for concealment1 it was an evil sign4#ajd ,the inhabitants of several villages looked upon dogs1 especially white dogs1 as the incarnation of their war god2 accordingly if the dog wagged his tail1 barked1 and dashed ahead in sight of the enemy1 it was a good omen2 but if he retreated or howled1 their hearts failed them4#aje ,again1 where the cuttle-fish was the war god1 the movements of that fish at sea were anxiously observed in time of war4 ,if the fish swam inshore while the people were mustering for battle1 it augured victory2 but if it swam far away1 it portended defeat4#ajf #ajj ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #be sq4 #aja ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #fj4 #ajb ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #eb1 #fa1 #fe4 #ajc ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ce1 #ea1 #ed sq41 #fd4 #ajd ,g4 ,turner1 pp4 #df sq4 #aje ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #di4 #ajf ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #bi4 ,when a god was supposed to dwell in some inanimate object1 the art of divination was similarly employed to elicit a knowledge of the future from an observation of the object1 whatever it might be4 ,in several villages1 for example1 the people viewed a rainbow as the representative of their war god4 ,if1 when they were going to battle by land or sea1 a rainbow appeared in the sky right in front of them1 with the arch1 as it were1 straddling across the line of march or the course that the fleet was steering1 it was a warning to turn back4 ,but if the bow shone on the right or left of the army or of the fleet1 it meant that the god was marching with them1 and cheering on the advance4#ajg ,another village revered its god in the lightning4 ,when lightning flashed frequently in time of war1 it was believed that the god had come to help and direct his people4 ,a constant play of lightning over a particular spot was a warning that the enemy was lurking there in ambush4 ,a rapid succession of flashes in front meant that the foe was being driven back2 but if the lightning flashed from front to rear1 it was a signal to retreat4#ajh ,in one large village the war god resided in two teeth of the sperm whale1 which were kept in a cave and observed by a priest in time of war4 ,if the teeth were found lying east and west1 it was a good omen2 but if they lay north and south1 it prognosticated defeat4#aji ,in another place the war god was present in a bundle of shark's teeth1 and the people consulted the bundle before they went out to fight4 ,if the bundle felt heavy1 it foreboded ill2 but if it was light1 it was an omen of victory1 and the troops marched with hearts correspondingly light4#aaj #ajg ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ce2 compare p4 #dc4 #ajh ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ei sq4 #aji ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ce4 #aaj ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ee4 ,when the god was incarnate in a live creature1 it was an obvious advantage to ensure his constant presence and blessing by owning a specimen of his incarnation and feeding it4 ,hence some folk kept a tame god on their premises4 ,for instance1 some people possessed a war god in the shape of a pet owl2#aaa others had a divine pigeon1 which was carefully kept and fed by the different members of the family in turn4#aab ,yet others were so fortunate as to capture the thunder god and to keep him in durance1 which effectually prevented him from doing mischief4 ,having caught him1 they tied him up with pandanus leaves and frightened him by poking firebrands at him4 ,and lest1 as an old offender1 he should attempt to break prison and relapse into his former career of crime1 they filled a basket with pandanus leaves and charred firebrands and hung it up on a tree in terrorem1 to signify what he might expect to get if he took it into his head to strike houses again4#aac #aaa ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #be sq4 #aab ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #fd4 #aac ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #cd4 ,vegetable gods were much less plentiful than animal gods in ,samoa4 ,still they occurred4 ,thus1 the god of one family lived in a large tree 7,hernandia peltata72 hence no member of the family dared to pluck a leaf or break a branch of that tree4#aad ,the household deity of another family dwelt in a tree of a different sort 7,conanga odorata71 which has yellow and sweet-scented flowers4#aae ,in ,savaii the special abode of a village god called ,tuifiti or ,king of ,fiji was a grove of large and durable trees 7,afzelia bijuga74 ,no one dared to cut that timber4 ,it is said that a party of natives from another island once tried to fell one of these trees2 but blood flowed from the trunk1 and all the sacrilegious strangers fell ill and died4#aaf ,one family saw their god in the moon4 ,on the appearance of the new moon all the members of the family called out1 ,child of the moon1 you have come4 ,they assembled also1 presented offerings of food1 feasted together1 and joined in praying1 ,oh1 child of the moon6 ,keep far away disease and death4 ,and they also prayed to the moon before they set out on the war path4#aag ,but in ,samoa1 as in ,tonga1 there seems to be no record of a worship of the sun1 unless the stories of human sacrifices formerly offered to the great luminary be regarded as reminiscences of sun-worship4#aah #aad ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #gb4 #aae ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ga4 #aaf ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #fc4 #aag ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #fg4 #aah ,see above1 p4 #aeh4 ,sec4 #g4 ,priests and ,temples ,the father of a family acted as the priest of the household god4 ,he usually offered a short prayer at the evening meal1 begging the deity to guard them all from war1 sickness1 death1 and the payment of fines4 ,sometimes he would direct the family to hold a feast in honour of their god1 and on these occasions a cup of kava was poured out as a libation to the divinity4 ,such simple domestic rites were celebrated in the house1 where the whole family assembled2 for the gods were believed to be present with men in a spiritual and invisible form as well as in the material objects which were regarded as their visible embodiments4 ,often the deity spoke through the father or other members of the family1 telling them what to do in order to remove a present evil or avert a threatened one4#aai #aai ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ah4 ,for the offering of kava to the household god1 compare id4 p4 #ea4 ,but while every head of a family might thus act as a domestic priest and mouthpiece of the deity1 there was also a professional class of priests set apart for the public worship of the gods1 particularly of the war gods1 who in their nature did not differ essentially from the gods of families1 of villages1 and of districts1 being commonly embodied either in particular material objects or in classes of such objects1 especially in various species of birds1 animals1 and fish1 such as owls1 rails1 kingfishers1 dogs1 lizards1 flying-foxes1 and cuttle-fish4 ,sometimes the ruling chiefs acted as priests2 but in general some one man in a particular family claimed the dignity of the priesthood and professed to declare the will of the god4 ,his office was hereditary4 ,he fixed the days for the annual feasts in honour of the deity1 received the offerings1 and thanked the people for them4 ,he decided also whether the people might go to war4#abj ,the priests possessed great authority over the minds of the people1 and they often availed themselves of their influence to amass wealth4#aba ,the gods were supposed from time to time to take possession of the priests and to speak through their mouths1 answering enquiries and issuing commands4 ,thus consulted as an oracle the priest1 or the god through him1 might complain that the people had been slack in making offerings of food and property1 and he would threaten them with vengeance if they did not speedily bring an ample supply to the human representative of the deity4 ,at other times the god required a whole family to assemble and build him a large canoe or a house1 and such a command was always obeyed with alacrity and a humble apology tendered for past neglect4 ,the priests were also consulted oracularly for the healing of the sick1 the recovery of stolen property1 and the cursing of enemies4 ,thus they kept the people in constant fear by their threats and impoverished them by their exactions4#abb #abj ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #bj4 ,for a full account of the priesthood1 see ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bbj sqq4 ,as to the ,samoan war-gods1 see ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #bc1 #be sq41 #bg sq41 #bh1 #cb1 #cc1 #ce1 #db1 #df sq41 #dh1 #di1 #ea1 #eb1 #ed sq41 #ee1 #eg1 #fj1 #fa1 #fd1 #fe2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bae sq4 #aba ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #gj1 #bbb sq41 #bbe2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bbh1 #bdf sq4 #abb ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bbc-bbe2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bdf sq4 ,the outward signs of divine inspiration or possession were such as priests or prophets have manifested in many lands and ages as conclusive evidence of their being the vehicles of higher powers4 ,the approach or presence of the god was indicated by the priest beginning to gape1 yawn1 and clear his throat2 but soon his countenance changed1 his body underwent violent contortions1 and in loud1 unearthly tones1 which the trembling and awe-stricken hearers interpreted as the voice of an indwelling deity1 he delivered his message of exhortation or warning1 of menace1 or comfort1 or hope4#abc #abc ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 p4 #bbc2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bbh1 #bdf sq4 ,spirit-houses 7fale-aitu7 or temples were erected for some1 but not all1 of the class of deities 7aitu7 which we are now considering4 ,it was chiefly the war gods who were thus honoured4 ,such temples were built with the same materials and in the same style as the houses of men1 with nothing to distinguish them from ordinary dwellings1 except that they almost always stood on platforms of stones1 which varied in height and size with the respect felt for the particular deity4 ,they were usually situated on the principal public place or green 7malae7 of the village and surrounded by a low fence4 ,sometimes they were mere huts2 yet being viewed as the abode of gods they were held sacred and regarded with great veneration by the ,samoans in the olden time4 ,whatever emblems of deity were in possession of the village were always placed in these houses under the watchful care of keepers4#abd ,in one temple1 for instance1 might be seen a conch shell hung from the roof in a basket4 ,this shell the god was supposed to blow when he wished the people to go to war4 ,in another a cup made of the shell of a coco-nut was suspended from the roof1 and before it prayers were uttered and offerings presented4 ,the cup was also used in an ordeal for the detection of theft4 ,in a trial before chiefs the cup would be sent for1 and each of the suspected culprits would lay his hand on it and say1 ,with my hand on this cup1 may the god look upon me1 and send swift destruction1 if ,i took the thing which has been stolen4 ,they firmly believed that it would be death to touch the cup and tell a lie4#abe #abd ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bbf-bbh4 #abe ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ai4 ,the temples were always built by the united exertions of a whole family1 village1 or district4#abf ,for example1 when the inhabitants of a village whose god was the cuttle-fish erected a new temple to that deity1 every man1 woman1 and child in the village contributed something to it1 if it was only a stick or a reed of thatch4 ,while some of the villagers were drafted off to put up the house1 the rest engaged in a free fight1 which appears to have been considered as a necessary part of the proceedings4 ,on this occasion many old scores were settled1 and he who got most wounds was believed to have earned the special favour of the deity4 ,with the completion of the temple the fighting ended1 and ought not to be renewed for a year1 till the anniversary of the building of the temple came round1 when the worshippers were again at liberty to break each other's heads in honour of the divine cuttle-fish4#abg #abf ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bbg sq4 #abg ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #bi sq4 ,at one place in ,savaii there was a temple in which a priest constantly resided4 ,the sick used to be carried to him in the temple and there laid down with offerings of fine mats4 ,thereupon the priest stroked the diseased part1 and the patient was supposed to recover4#abh ,we hear of another temple in which fine mats were brought as offerings to the priests and stored up in large numbers among the temple treasures4 ,thus in time the temples might have amassed a considerable degree of wealth and might even1 if economic progress had not been arrested by ,european intervention1 have developed into banks4 ,however1 when the people were converted to ,christianity1 they destroyed this particular temple and dissipated the accumulated treasures in a single feast by way of celebrating their adhesion to the new faith4#abi ,where the bat was the local deity1 many bats used to flock about the temple in time of war4#acj ,where the kingfisher received the homage of the people as the god of war1 the old men of the village were wont to enter his temple in times of public emergency and address the kingfisher2 and people outside could hear the bird replying1 though1 singularly enough1 his voice was that of a man1 and not that of a bird4 ,but as usual the god was invisible4#aca ,in one place a temple of the great god ,tangaloa was called the ,house of the ,gods1 and it was carefully shut up all round1 the people thinking that1 if this precaution were not taken1 the gods would get out and in too easily and be all the more destructive4#acb ,such a temple might be considered rather as a prison than a house of the gods4 #abh ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #di4 #abi ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ee4 #acj ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ef sq4 #aca ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ed sq4 #acb ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ec4 ,to the rule that ,samoan temples were built of the same perishable materials as ordinary houses a single exception is known4 ,about ten miles inland from the harbour of ,apia1 in the island of ,upolu1 are the ruins of a temple1 of which the central and side posts and the rafters were all constructed of stone4 ,the ground plan seems to have resembled that of an ordinary ,samoan house of the best style1 forming an ellipse which measured fifty feet in one direction by forty feet in the other4 ,two central pillars appear to have supported the roof1 each fashioned of a single block of stone some thirteen feet high1 twelve inches thick one way and nine inches the other4 ,the rafters were in lengths of twelve feet and six feet1 by four inches square4 ,of the outside pillars1 which upheld the lower edge of the sloping roof1 eighteen were seen standing by ,pritchard1 who has described the ruins4 ,each pillar stood three feet high and measured nine inches thick in one way by six inches in the other4 ,each had a notch or shoulder on the inner side for supporting the roof4 ,pillars and rafters were quarried from an adjoining bluff1 distant only some fifty yards from the ruins4 ,some squared stones lying at the foot of the bluff seem to show that the temple was never completed4 ,the site of the ruins is a flat about three acres in area4 ,the natives call the ruins ,fale-o-le-,fe'e1 that is1 the ,house of the ,fe'e4 ,this ,fe'e was a famous war god of ,a'ana and ,faleata1 two native towns of ,upolu2 he was commonly incarnated in the cuttle-fish4 ,as the ,samoans were unacquainted with the art of cutting stones1 and had no tools suitable for the work1 they thought that this temple1 with its columns and rafters of squared stone1 must have been built by the gods1 and they explained its unfinished state by alleging that the divine builders had quarrelled among themselves before they had brought the work to completion4#acc #acc ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #aai-aba2 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 p4 #aab2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ca2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #bbh2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bbj4 ,for the sake of completeness ,i will mention another stone monument1 of more imposing dimensions1 which has been discovered in ,samoa1 though its origin and meaning are unknown4 ,it stands on a tableland in the high mountainous interior of ,upolu and appears to be not altogether easy of access4 ,the discoverer1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,b4 ,sterndale1 reached it by clambering up from what he describes as a broad and dangerous ravine4 ,in making his way to the tableland he passed through a gap which from a distance he had supposed to be a natural fissure in the rocks2 but on arriving at it he discovered1 to his surprise1 that the gap was in fact a great fosse formed by the hand of man1 being excavated in some places and built up at others1 while on one side1 next to the rise of the hill1 it was further heightened by a parapet wall4 ,when1 passing through the fosse1 he issued upon the tableland1 which is a level space of some twenty acres in extent1 he perceived the monument1 a truncated conical structure or ,heidenmauer of such huge dimensions as must have required the labour of a great multitude to construct4 ,so little did ,i expect1 he says1 in this neighbourhood to meet with any example of human architecture1 and so rudely monstrous was the appearance of this cyclopean building1 that from its peculiar form1 and from the vegetation with which it was overgrown1 ,i might have passed it by1 supposing it to have been a volcanic hillock1 had not my attention been attracted by the stonework of the fosse4 ,i hastened to ascend it4 ,it was about twenty feet high by one hundred in diameter4 ,it was circular with straight perpendicular8 sides2 the lower tiers of stone were very large1 they were lava blocks1 some of which would weigh at least a ton1 which must have been rolled or moved on skids to their present places4 ,they were laid in courses2 and in two places near the top seemed to have been entrances to the inside1 as in one appeared a low cave choked with rocks and tree roots4 ,if there had been chambers within1 they were probably narrow and still existing1 as there was no sign of depression on the crown of the work1 which was flat and covered with flat stones1 among which grew both trees and shrubs4 ,it is likely that it was not in itself intended as a place of defence1 but rather as a base or platform upon which some building of importance1 perhaps of timber1 had been erected1 no doubt in the centre of a village1 as many foundations of a few feet high were near it4 ,the fosse1 when unbroken1 and its inner wall entire1 was probably crossed by a foot-bridge1 to be withdrawn on the approach of an enemy2 and the little gap1 by which ,i had entered1 closed1 so that this must have been a place of great security4 ,the ,samoan natives1 as far as ,i have been able to learn1 have no tradition of what people inhabited this mountain fastness4#acd #acd ,h4 ,b4 ,sterndale1 quoted by ,r4 ,a4 ,sterndale1 ,asiatic ,architecture in ,polynesia1 ,the ,asiatic ,quarterly ,review1 x4 7,july-,october #ahij7 pp4 #cdg-cej4 ,the writer of this article reports the discoveries of his brother1 ,mr4 ,handley ,bathurst ,sterndale4 ,on an adjoining tableland1 approached by a steep and narrow ridge1 ,mr4 ,sterndale saw a great number of cairns of stone1 apparently graves1 disposed in rows among huge trees1 the roots of which had overturned and destroyed very many of the cairns4 ,here1 within the numerous trunks of a great spreading banyan tree1 ,mr4 ,sterndale found what he calls an inner chamber1 or cell1 about ten feet square1 the floor being paved with flat stones and the walls built of enormous blocks of the same material1 while the roof was composed of the twisted trunks of the banyan tree1 which had grown into a solid arch and1 festooned by creepers1 excluded even the faint glimmer of twilight that dimly illuminated the surrounding forest4 ,disturbed by a light which the traveller struck to explore the gloomy interior1 bats fluttered about his head4 ,in the centre of the chamber he discovered a cairn1 or rather cromlech1 about four feet high1 which was formed of several stones arranged in a triangle1 with a great flat slab on the top4 ,on the flat slab lay a large conch shell1 white with age1 and encrusted with moss and dead animalculae4 ,the chamber or cell1 enclosed by the trunks of the banyan-tree1 might have been inaccessible1 if it were not that1 under the pressure of the tree-trunks1 several of the great slabs composing the wall had been displaced1 leaving a passage4#ace #ace ,h4 ,b4 ,sterndale1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cea sq4 ,what were these remarkable monuments8 ,mr4 ,sterndale believed the stone chamber to be the tomb of some man of authority in ancient days1 the antiquity of the structure being vouched for by the great banyan-tree which had so completely overgrown it4 ,this view is likely enough1 and is confirmed by the large number of cairns about it1 which appear to be sepulchral4 ,but what was the massive circular monument or platform1 built of huge blocks of lava laid in tiers8 ,from ,mr4 ,sterndale's description it would seem that the structure closely resembled the tombs of the sacred kings of ,tonga1 though these tombs are oblong instead of circular4 ,but they often supported a house or hut of wood and thatch2 and ,mr4 ,sterndale may well be right in supposing that the circular ,samoan monument in like manner served as a platform to support a wooden building4 ,in this connexion we must not forget that the typical ,samoan house was circular or oval in contrast to the typical ,tongan house1 which was oblong4 ,the openings1 which seemed to lead into the interior of the monument1 may have given access to the sepulchral chamber where the bodies of the dead were deposited4 ,slight as are these indications1 they apparently point to the use of the monument as a tomb4 ,there is nothing1 except perhaps its circular shape1 to suggest that it was a temple of the sun4 ,as no such stone buildings have been erected by the ,samoans during the time they have been under ,european observation1 it may be1 as ,mr4 ,sterndale supposed1 that all the ruins described by him were the work of a people who inhabited the islands before the arrival of the existing race4#acf #acf ,h4 ,b4 ,sterndale1 op4 cit4 p4 #ceb4 ,sec4 #h4 ,origin of the ,samoan ,gods of ,families1 ,villages1 and ,districts3 ,relation to ,totemism ,if we ask1 ,what was the origin of the peculiar ,samoan worship of animals and other natural objects8 the most probable answer seems to be that it has been developed out of totemism4 ,the system is not simple totemism1 for in totemism the animals1 plants1 and other natural objects are not worshipped1 that is1 they do not receive offerings nor are approached with prayers2 in short1 they are not gods1 but are regarded as the kinsfolk of the men and women who have them for totems4 ,further1 the local distribution of the revered objects in ,samoa1 according to villages and districts1 differs from the characteristic distribution of totems1 which is not by place but by social groups or clans1 the members of which are usually more or less intermixed with each other in every district4 ,it is true that in ,samoa we hear of family or household gods as well as of gods of villages and districts1 and these family gods1 in so far as they consist of species of animals and plants which the worshippers are forbidden to kill or eat1 present a close analogy to totems4 ,but it is to be observed that these family gods were1 so to say1 in a state of unstable equilibrium1 it being always uncertain whether a man would inherit his father's or his mother's god or would be assigned a god differing from both of them4 ,this uncertainty arose from the manner of determining a man's god at birth4 ,when a woman was in travail1 the help of several gods was invoked1 one after the other1 to assist the birth2 and the god who happened to be invoked at the moment when the child saw the light1 was his god for life4 ,as a rule1 the god of the father's family was prayed to first2 so that generally1 perhaps1 a man inherited the god of his father4 ,but if the birth was tedious and difficult1 the god of the mother's family was next invoked4 ,when the child was born1 the mother would call out1 ,to whom were you praying8 and the god prayed to just before was carefully remembered1 and his incarnation duly acknowledged throughout the future life of the child4#acg ,such a mode of selecting a divine patron is totally different from the mode whereby1 under pure totemism1 a person obtains his totem2 for his totem is automatically determined for him at birth1 being1 in the vast majority of cases1 inherited either from his father or from his mother1 without any possibility of variation or selection4 ,lastly1 the ,samoan system differs from most1 though not all1 systems of totemism1 in that it is quite independent of exogamy2 in other words1 there is no rule forbidding people who revere the same god to marry each other4 #acg ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ag1 #gh sq4 ,thus1 while the ,samoan worship of certain classes of natural objects1 especially species of animals1 is certainly not pure totemism1 it presents points of analogy to that system1 and might easily1 we may suppose1 have been developed out of it1 the feeling of kinship for totemic animals and plants having been slowly transformed and sublimated into a religious reverence for the creatures and a belief in their divinity2 while at the same time the clans1 which were originally intermixed1 gradually sorted out from each other and settled down in separate villages and districts4 ,this gradual segregation of the clans may have been facilitated by a change from maternal to paternal descent of the totem2 for when a man transmits his totem to his offspring1 his descendants in the male line tend naturally to expand into a local group in which the totem remains constant from generation to generation instead of alternating with each successive generation1 as necessarily happens when a man's children take their totem not from him but from their mother4 ,that the ,samoan worship of aitu was developed in some such way out of simple totemism appears to have been the view of ,dr4 ,george ,brown1 one of our best authorities on ,samoan society and religion2 for he speaks without reserve of the revered objects as totems4#ach ,a similar derivation of the ,samoan aitu was favoured by ,dr4 ,rivers1 who1 during a visit to ,samoa1 found some evidence confirmatory of this conclusion4#aci #ach ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #acg1 #bah1 #ccd4 #aci ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers1 ,totemism in ,polynesia and ,melanesia1 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxix4 7#aiji7 pp4 #aei sq4 ,sec4 #i4 ,the ,high ,gods of ,samoa ,but besides these totemic gods of ,samoa1 as we may term them1 which were restricted in the circle of their worshippers to particular families1 villages1 or districts1 there were certain superior deities who were worshipped by all the people in common and might accordingly be called the national divinities of ,samoa2 indeed the worship of some of them was not confined to ,samoa1 but was shared by the inhabitants of other groups of islands in ,polynesia4 ,these high gods were considered the progenitors of the inferior deities1 and were believed to have formed the earth and its inhabitants4 ,they themselves dwelt in heaven1 in the sea1 on the earth1 or under the earth2 but they were invisible and did not appear to their worshippers in the form of animals or plants4 ,they had no temples and no priests1 and were not invoked like their descendants4#adj #adj ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #aaa sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #baa sq4 ,among these high gods the chief was ,tangaloa1 or1 as he was sometimes called1 ,tangaloa-langi1 that is1 ,tangaloa of the ,skies4 ,he was always spoken of as the principal god1 the creator of the world and progenitor of the other gods and of mankind4#ada ,it is said that after existing somewhere in space he made the heavens as an abode for himself1 and that wishing to have also a place under the heavens he created this lower world 7,lalolangi1 that is1 ,under the heavens74 ,according to one account1 he formed the islands of ,savaii and ,upolu by rolling down two stones from the sky2 but according to another story he fished them up from the depths of the sea on a fishing-hook4 ,next he made the ,fee or cuttle-fish1 and told it to go down under the earth2 hence the lower regions of sea or land are called ,sa he fee or sacred to the cuttle-fish4 ,in its turn the cuttle-fish brought forth all kinds of rocks1 including the great one on which we live4#adb ,another myth relates how ,tangaloa sent down his son or daughter in the likeness of a bird called turi1 a species of plover or snipe 7,charadrius fulvus74 ,she flew about1 but could find no resting-place1 for as yet there was nothing but ocean2 the earth had not been created or raised above the sea4 ,so she returned to her father in heaven and reported her fruitless search2 and at last he gave her some earth and a creeping plant4 ,these she took down with her on her next visit to earth2 and after a time the leaves of the plant withered and produced swarms of worms or maggots1 which gradually developed into men and women4 ,the plant which thus by its corruption gave birth to the human species was the convolvulus4 ,according to another version of the myth1 it was in reply to the complaint of his daughter or son that the sky-god ,tangaloa fished up the first islands from the bottom of the sea4#adc #ada ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #bab4 #adb ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #g4 #adc ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #g sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bab-bad4 ,the bird turi or tuli is spoken of by ,turner as the daughter1 but by ,stair as the son1 of ,tangaloa4 ,according to ,turner1 the bird is a species of snipe2 according to ,stair1 a species of plover4 ,as to ,tangaloa and the stories told about him1 compare ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 pp4 #dfi sq42 ,h4 ,hale1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 p4 #bb2 ,violette1 ,notes d'un ,missionnaire sur l'archipel de ,samoa1 ,les ,missions ,catholiques1 iii4 7#ahgj7 pp4 #aaa sq42 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #dfc1 s4v4 ,tangaroa4 ,another of the national gods of ,samoa was ,mafuie1 who was supposed to dwell in the subterranean regions and to cause earthquakes by shaking the pillar on which the earth reposes4 ,in a tussle with the hero ,ti'iti'i1 who descended to the lower world to rob ,mafuie of his fire1 the earthquake god lost one of his arms1 and the ,samoans considered this as a very fortunate circumstance2 for otherwise they said that1 if ,mafuie had had two arms1 he would have shaken the world to pieces4#add ,it is said that during a shock of earthquake the natives used to rush from their houses1 throw themselves upon the ground1 gnaw the grass1 and shriek in the most frantic manner to ,mafuie to desist1 lest he should shake the earth to bits4#ade #add ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,narrative of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ii4 #aca2 ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #aab1 #aad sqq42 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #bji-baa2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bch sq4 #ade ,j4 ,williams1 op4 cit4 p4 #cgi4 ,it seems to be doubtful whether among the ,samoan gods are to be numbered the souls of deceased ancestors4 ,certainly the evidence for the practice of a worship of the dead is far less full and clear in ,samoa than in ,tonga4 ,on this subject ,dr4 ,george ,brown writes as follows3 ,traces of ancestor worship are few and indistinct4 ,the word tupua is supposed by some to mean the deified spirits of chiefs1 and to mean that they constituted a separate order from the atua1 who were the original gods4 ,the word itself is the name of a stone1 supposed to be a petrified man1 and is also generally used as the name of any image having some sacred significance1 and as representing the body into which the deified spirit was changed4 ,what appears certain is that ancestor worship had amongst the ,samoans gradually given place to the worship of a superior order of supernatural beings not immediately connected with men1 but having many human passions and modes of action and life4 ,there are1 however1 some cases which seem to point to ancestor worship in olden days1 as in the case of the town of ,matautu1 which is said to have been settled by a colony from ,fiji4 ,their principal deity was called ,tuifiti1 the ,king of ,fiji4 ,he was considered to be the head of that family1 and a grove of trees1 ifilele 7the green-heart of ,india71 was sacred to him and could not be cut or injured in any way4#adf ,this god was supposed to be incarnate in a man who walked about1 but he was never visible to the people of the place1 though curiously enough he could be seen by strangers4#adg #adf ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bbc4 ,see also above1 p4 #aib4 #adg ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #fb sq4 ,the town or village of ,matautu is in the island of ,savaii4 ,according to ,g4 ,turner1 the sacred tree of ,tuifiti was the ,afzelia bijuga4 ,however1 another experienced missionary1 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 who knew ,samoa a good many years before ,dr4 ,brown arrived in it1 speaks apparently without hesitation of the tupua as being the deified spirits of chiefs1 who were also supposed to dwell in ,pulotu1 where they became posts in the house or temple of the gods4 ,many beautiful emblems1 he says1 were chosen to represent the immortality of these deified spirits2 among them were some of the heavenly bodies1 including the ,pleiades and the planet ,jupiter1 also the rainbow1 the marine rainbow1 and many more4 ,he adds that the embalmed bodies of some chiefs were worshipped under the significant title of sun-dried gods2 and that people prayed and poured libations of kava at the graves of deceased relatives4#adh #adh ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #baj sq41 #bae4 ,sec4 #aj4 ,the ,samoan ,belief concerning the ,human ,soul3 ,funeral ,customs ,whether the ,samoans practised the worship of the dead in a developed form or not1 they certainly possessed the elements out of which the worship might under favourable circumstances be evolved4 ,these elements are a belief in the survival of the human soul after death1 and a fear of disembodied spirits or ghosts4 ,the ,samoans believed that every man is animated by a soul1 which departs from the body temporarily in faints and dreams and permanently at death4 ,the soul of the dreamer1 they thought1 really visited the places which he saw in his dream4 ,at death it departed to the subterranean world of the dead which the ,samoans called ,pulotu1 a name which clearly differs only dialectically from the ,tongan ,bolotoo or ,bulotu4 ,some people professed to see the parting soul when it had quitted its mortal body and was about to take flight to the nether region4 ,it was always of the same shape as the body4 ,such apparitions at the moment of death were much dreaded1 and people tried to drive them away by shouting and firing guns4 ,the word for soul is anganga1 which is a reduplicated form of anga1 a verb meaning to go or to come4 ,thus apparently the ,samoans did not1 like many people1 identify the soul with the shadow2 for in ,samoan the word for shadow is ata4#adi #adi ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #h1 #af2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #bbj2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bah sq42 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #bf1 s4v4 ,ata4 ,however1 they seem to have in a dim way associated a man's soul with his shadow4 ,this appears from a remarkable custom which they observed in the case of the unburied dead4 ,the ,samoans were much concerned for the lot of these unfortunates and stood in great dread of their ghosts4 ,they believed that the spirits of those who had not received the rites of burial wandered about wretched and forlorn and haunted their relatives everywhere by day and night1 crying in doleful tones1 ,oh1 how cold6 oh1 how cold6 ,hence when the body of a dead kinsman was lost because he had been drowned at sea or slain on a battlefield1 some of his relatives would go down to the seashore or away to the battlefield where their friend had perished2 and there spreading out a cloth on the ground they would pray to some god of the family1 saying1 ,oh1 be kind to us2 let us obtain without difficulty the spirit of the young man6 ,after that the first thing that lighted on the cloth was supposed to be the spirit of the dead4 ,it might be a butterfly1 a grasshopper1 an ant1 a spider1 or a lizard2 whatever it might be1 it was carefully wrapt up and taken to the family1 who buried the bundle with all due ceremony1 as if it contained the body of their departed friend4 ,thus the unquiet spirit was believed to find rest4 ,now the insect1 or whatever it happened to be1 which thus acted as proxy at the burial was supposed to be the ata or shadow of the deceased4 ,the same word ata served to express likeness2 a photographer1 for example1 is called pue-ata1 shadow-catcher4 ,the ,samoans do not appear to have associated the soul with the breath4#aej #aej ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #agj sq41 #bah sq42 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #aej sq42 ,s4 ,ella1 ,samoa1 ,report of the ,fourth ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 held at ,hobart1 ,tasmania1 in ,january #ahib1 pp4 #fda sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #ahd4 ,according to ,brown and ,stair the ceremony described in the text was observed when a man had died a violent death1 even when the relatives were in possession of the body1 and in that case the insect1 or whatever it might be1 was buried with the corpse4 ,i have followed ,turner and ,ella in supposing that the ceremony was only observed when the corpse could not be found4 ,as to the fear of the spirits of the unburied dead1 see also ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #eh sq41 #aea4 ,they attributed disease and death to the anger of a god1 to the agency of an evil spirit1 or to the ghost of a dead relative who had entered into the body of the sufferer4 ,epilepsy1 delirium1 and mania were always thus explained by the entrance into the patient of a god or demon4 ,the ,samoan remedy for all such ailments was not medicine but exorcism4 ,sometimes a near relative of the sick person would go round the house brandishing a spear and striking the walls to drive away the spirit that was causing the sickness4#aea ,hence when a member of a family fell seriously ill1 his friends did not send for a doctor1 but repaired to the high priest of the village to enquire of him the cause of the sickness1 to learn why the family god 7aitu7 was angry with them1 and to implore his mercy and forgiveness4 ,often the priest took advantage of their anxiety to demand a valuable piece of property1 such as a canoe or a parcel of ground1 as the best means of propitiating the angry deity and so ensuring the recovery of the patient4 ,with all these demands the anxious and unsuspecting relatives readily complied4 ,but if the priest happened not to want anything in particular at the time1 he would probably tell the messengers to gather the family about the bed of the sufferer and there confess their sins4 ,the command was implicitly obeyed1 and every member of the family assembled and made a clean breast of his or her misdeeds1 especially of any curse which he or she might have called down either on the family generally or on the invalid in particular4 ,curiously enough1 the curse of a sister was peculiarly dreaded2 hence in such cases the sister of the sick man was closely questioned as to whether she had cursed him and thus caused his illness2 if so1 she was entreated to remove the curse1 that he might recover4 ,moved by these pleadings1 she might take some coco-nut water in her mouth and spurt it out towards or upon the body of the sufferer4 ,by this action she either removed the curse or declared her innocence2 a similar ceremony might be performed by any other member of the family who was suspected of having cursed the sick man4#aeb #aea ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fci1 #fdc2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bbc sq41 #djb4 #aeb ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #adf sq42 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #adj sq42 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fci2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #ahj sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bbc sq41 #dja4 ,when an illness seemed likely to prove fatal1 messengers were despatched to friends at a distance that they might come and bid farewell to the dying man4 ,every one who came to visit the sufferer in his last moments brought a present of a fine mat or other valuable piece of property as a token of regard1 and to defray the cost of the illness and funeral4 ,the best of the mats would be laid on the body of the dying man that he might have the comfort of seeing them before he closed his eyes for ever4 ,dr4 ,george ,brown thought that the spirits of the mats thus laid on the body of the dying chief were supposed to accompany his soul to the other world4 ,it is possible that their spirits did so1 but it is certain that their material substance did not2 for after the funeral all the mats and other valuables so presented were distributed among the mourners and friends assembled on the occasion1 so that every one who had brought a gift took away something in return on his departure4#aec #aec ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adg1 #aej sq42 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #ada sq41 #adf2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fci2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #ahj2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bbj1 #dja1 #dje sq4 ,if the dying man happened to be a chief1 numbers crowded round him to receive a parting look or word1 while in front of the house might be seen men and women wildly beating their heads and bodies with great stones1 thus inflicting on themselves ghastly wounds1 from which the blood poured as an offering of affection and sympathy to their departing friend or lord4 ,it was hoped that1 pleased and propitiated by the sight of their devotion1 the angry god might yet stay his hand and spare the chief to his people4 ,above all the tumult and uproar would rise the voice of one who prayed aloud for the life then trembling in the balance4 ,but if the prayer seemed likely to prove ineffectual1 it was exchanged for threats and upbraiding4 ,o thou shameless spirit1 the voice would now be heard exclaiming1 could ,i but grasp you1 ,i would smash your skull to pieces6 ,come here and let us fight together4 ,don't conceal yourself1 but show yourself like a man1 and let us fight1 if you are angry4#aed #aed ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #aha sq4 ,immediately after death1 all the mats on the floor of the house were thrown outside1 and the thatched sides of the house were either torn down or knocked in with clubs2 while the relatives and assembled crowds wrought themselves up to frenzy1 uttering loud shrieks1 rending their garments1 tearing out their hair by handfuls1 burning their bodies with firebrands1 beating their faces and heads with clubs and stones1 or gashing themselves with shells and shark's teeth1 till the blood ran freely down4 ,this they called an offering of blood for the dead4 ,in their fury some of the mourners fell on the canoes and houses1 breaking them up and tearing them down1 felling the bread-fruit trees1 and devastating the plantations of yams and taro4#aee #aee ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 p4 #adh2 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #add2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fdj2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #ahb2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #dja sq4 ,as decomposition is rapid in the hot moist climate of ,samoa1 it was customary to bury commoners a few hours after death4 ,the body was laid out on a mat1 anointed with scented oil1 and the face tinged with turmeric1 to soften the cadaverous look4 ,it was then wound up in several folds of native cloth and the chin propped up1 the head and face being left uncovered1 while for some hours longer the body was surrounded by weeping relatives1 who kept constant watch over it1 so long as it remained in the house4 ,these watchers were always women1 and none of them might quit her post under any pretext till she was relieved by another4 ,a fire was kept burning brightly in the house all the time4 ,if the deceased had died of a complaint which had previously carried off other members of the family1 they would probably open the body to search for the disease4 ,any inflamed substance which they happened to find they would take away and burn1 thinking thus to prevent any other member of the family from being similarly afflicted4 ,such a custom betrays an incipient sense of death from natural1 instead of supernatural1 causes1 and must have contributed to diffuse a knowledge of human anatomy4#aef #aef ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #adh sq42 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #add sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 #ahb2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #djb4 ,so long as a corpse remained in the house no food might be eaten under the roof2 the family had their meals outside or in another house4 ,those who had attended to the deceased or handled the corpse were taboo3 they might not feed themselves or touch food with their hands4 ,for days they were fed by others as if they were helpless infants4 ,baldness and the loss of teeth were supposed to be the punishment inflicted by the household god for a breach of the rule4 ,many people fasted at such times1 eating nothing during the day1 but taking a meal in the evening4 ,the fifth day was a day of purification4 ,the tabooed persons then washed their faces and hands with hot water and were clean2 after that they were free to eat at the usual time and in the usual manner4#aeg #aeg ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #ade2 ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 op4 cit4 p4 #adi2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fdj2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #ahb2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #djb4 ,the ordinary mode of disposing of the dead was by interment either in a stone vault or in a shallow grave4 ,but occasionally other modes were adopted1 such as embalming1 putting the corpse in a canoe and setting it adrift on the sea1 or exposing it on a stage erected in the forest1 where it was left to decay1 the bones being afterwards collected and buried4 ,upon the death of a chief his body was generally deposited in a family vault1 the sides and bottom of which were lined with large slabs of sandstone or basalt1 while another large slab of the same material formed the roof4 ,such vaults were sometimes large and massive4 ,the stones used in their construction were found in various parts of the islands4 ,commoners were buried in shallow graves4#aeh #aeh ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #agh sq4 ,ordinary people were usually buried the day after they died4 ,as many friends as could be present attended the funeral4 ,every one brought a present1 but on the day after the funeral all these presents1 like those which had previously been made to the dying man1 were distributed again1 so that none went empty-handed away4 ,the corpse was generally buried without a coffin2 but chiefs were laid in hollow logs or canoes4 ,however1 even the bodies of common people were sometimes interred in rude coffins similarly constructed4 ,there were no common burying-grounds2 all preferred to bury their dead on their own land4 ,often the grave was dug close to the house4 ,the body was laid in it with the head to the east and the feet to the west4 ,when it had been thus committed to its last resting-place1 a near relative of the deceased1 a sister1 if one survived1 seated herself at the grave1 and waving a white cloth over the corpse1 began an address to the dead4 ,compassion to you1 she said1 go with goodwill1 and without bearing malice towards us4 ,take with you all our diseases1 and leave us life4 ,then pointing to the west1 she exclaimed1 ,misery there6 ,next pointing to the east1 she cried1 ,prosperity there6 ,lastly1 pointing to the grave1 she said1 ,misery there2 but leave happiness with us6 ,with the body they deposited in the grave several things which had been used by the deceased during his illness1 such as his clothing1 his drinking-cup1 and his bamboo pillow4 ,the wooden pickaxes and coco-nut shells employed as shovels in digging the grave were also carefully buried with the corpse4 ,it was not1 we are told1 because the people believed these things to be of use to the dead2 but because it was supposed that1 if they were left and handled by others1 further disease and death would be the consequence4 ,valuable mats and other articles of property were sometimes buried with the corpse1 and the grave of a warrior was surrounded with spears stuck upright in the ground4 ,graves were sometimes enclosed with stones and strewn with sand or crumbled coral4#aei #aei ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #aej sq42 ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #adf sq42 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fdj sq42 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #agi sq41 #ahb sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #djc4 ,the obsequies of a chief of high rank were more elaborate4 ,the body was kept unburied for days until his clansfolk had assembled from various parts of the islands and paraded the body1 shoulder high1 through the village1 chanting a melancholy dirge4#afj ,the mourning and ceremonies lasted from ten to fifteen days4 ,all that time the house of death was watched night and day by men appointed for the purpose4 ,after the burial1 and until the days of mourning were ended1 the daytime was generally spent in boxing and wrestling matches1 and sham-fights1 while the nights were occupied with dancing and practising a kind of buffoonery1 which was customary at these seasons of mourning for the dead4 ,the performance was called ,o le tau-pinga4 ,the performers amused themselves by making a variety of ludicrous faces and grimaces at each other1 to see who could excite the other to laugh first4 ,thus they whiled away the hours of night till the days of mourning were expired4#afa ,so long as the funeral ceremonies and feasts lasted no work might be done in the village1 and no strangers might approach it4 ,the neighbouring lagoon and reefs were taboo3 no canoe might pass over the lagoon anywhere near the village1 and no man might fish in it or on the reef4#afb ,for a chief or man of distinction fires were kept burning day and night in a line from the house to the grave2 these fires were maintained for ten days after the funeral4 ,the reason assigned for this custom1 according to ,ella1 was to keep away evil spirits4 ,even common people observed a similar custom4 ,after burial they kept a fire blazing in the house all night1 and they were careful to clear the intervening ground so that a stream of light went forth from the house to the grave4 ,the account which the ,samoans gave of the custom1 according to ,turner1 was that it was merely a light burning in honour of the departed1 and a mark of their tender regard for him4 ,dr4 ,george ,brown believed that the original motive for the custom was to warm the ghost1 and probably at the same time to protect the mourners against dangerous spirits4#afc #afj ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #adf #afa ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #ahc sq4 #afb ,w4 ,t4 ,pritchard1 ,polynesian ,reminiscences1 pp4 #adi sq42 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fdb2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #djc sq4 #afc ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #adi2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fdj sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #djb4 ,the head was deemed a very sacred part1 and in olden days the bodies of chiefs were often buried near their houses until decomposition had set in1 when the head was cut off and interred in some family burying-place inland1 to save it from insult in time of war4 ,this interment of the head was accompanied with feasts1 dances1 and sham-fights4 ,the skull was borne to the appointed place on a kind of stage1 attended by a troop of armed men4 ,with these sham-fights ,dr4 ,george ,brown1 who records the custom1 compares the sham-fights which used to take place among the ,melanesians of the ,duke of ,york ,island when the body of a chief was laid on a high platform in front of his house1 one company of warriors striving to deposit the corpse on the platform1 while their adversaries attempted to prevent them from doing so4#afd ,the meaning of these curious sham-fights is obscure4 ,perhaps the attacking party represented a band of evil spirits1 who endeavoured to snatch away the chief's body1 but were defeated in the nefarious attempt4 #afd ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #chh sq41 #djd sq4 ,one or two families of chiefs in the island of ,upolu used to practise a rude kind of embalming4 ,the work was done exclusively by women4 ,the viscera having been removed and buried1 the women anointed the body daily with a mixture of oil and aromatic juices4 ,to let the fluids escape1 they punctured the body all over with fine needles4 ,finally1 wads of native cloth1 saturated with oil or resinous gums1 were inserted in the abdomen1 the apertures were closed up1 and the body wrapt in native cloth4 ,the face1 hands1 and feet were left exposed1 and were repeatedly anointed with oil1 mixed with turmeric powder1 to give a fresh and life-like appearance to the mummy4 ,the whole process lasted about two months4 ,on its completion the mummy was placed in a house built specially for the purpose1 where1 loosely covered with a sheet of native cloth1 it rested on a raised platform4 ,strangers were freely admitted to see it4 ,four of these mummies1 laid out in a house1 were to be seen down to about the year #ahfd4 ,they were the bodies of a chief1 his wife1 and two sons4 ,dr4 ,george ,turner judged that they must have been embalmed upwards of thirty years1 and although they had been exposed all that time1 they were in a remarkably good state of preservation4 ,the people assigned no particular reason for the practice1 further than that it sprang from an affectionate desire to keep the bodies of their departed friends with them1 as if they were still alive4#afe #afe ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #adh sq42 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fda2 ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #ahd sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #dje4 ,sec4 #aa4 ,the ,fate of the ,human ,soul after ,death ,with regard to the fate of human souls after death the ,samoans appear to have believed in their immortality1 or at all events in their indefinite survival4 ,on this subject ,dr4 ,brown observes3 ,all souls survived after death1 and so far as ,i know they had no idea of their dying a second death or being destroyed4 ,i do not think that a ,samoan could give any reason for his belief that the soul does not perish with the body1 but he certainly does believe this1 and ,i never heard any one question the fact4#aff ,thus1 according to ,dr4 ,brown the ,samoans1 unlike the ,tongans1 drew no invidious distinction between the souls of noblemen and the souls of commoners1 but liberally opened the doors of immortality to gentle and simple alike4 ,so far1 they carried their republican or democratic spirit into the world beyond the grave4 #aff ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bbj sq4 ,however1 according to the ,american ethnologist1 ,horatio ,hale1 some of the ,samoans agreed with the ,tongans in taking an aristocratic view of the destiny of souls after death2 and as he had good opportunities for acquainting himself with the ,samoan religion during the prolonged stay of the ,american ,exploring ,expedition at ,samoa in #ahci1 when the islands were as yet but little affected by ,european influence1 ,i will quote his account4 ,he says3 ,all believe in the existence of a large island1 situated far to the north-west called ,pulotu1 which is the residence of the gods4 ,some suppose that while the souls of the common people perish with their bodies1 those of the chiefs are received into this island1 which is described as a terrestrial elysium1 and become there inferior divinities4 ,others hold 7according to ,mr4 ,heath7 that the spirits of the departed live and work in a dark subterraneous abode1 and are eaten by the gods4 ,a third1 and very common opinion is1 that the souls of all who die on an island1 make their way to the western extremity1 where they plunge into the sea2 but what then becomes of them is not stated4 ,the rock from which they leap1 in the island of ,upolu1 was pointed out to us2 the natives term it ',fatu-asofia1' which was rendered the 'jumping-off stone4'#afg #afg ,h4 ,hale1 ,ethnography and ,philology of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 p4 #bg4 ,of these various opinions described by ,hale the third would seem to have been by far the most prevalent4 ,it was commonly believed that the disembodied spirit retained the exact resemblance of its former self1 by which we are probably to understand the exact resemblance of its former body4 ,immediately on quitting its earthly tabernacle it began its solitary journey to ,fafa1 which was the subterranean abode of the dead1 lying somewhere to the west of ,savaii1 the most westerly island of the group4 ,thus1 if a man died in ,manua1 the most easterly of the islands1 his soul would journey to the western end of that island1 then dive into the sea and swim across to ,tutuila4 ,there it would walk along the beach to the extreme westerly point of the island1 when it would again plunge into the sea and swim across to the next island1 and so on to the most westerly cape of ,savaii1 where it finally dived into the ocean and pursued its way to the mysterious ,fafa4#afh #afh ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bah sq4 ,compare ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #beg2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fdc sq4 ,at the western end of ,savaii1 near the village of ,falealupo1 there are two circular openings among the rocks1 not far from the beach4 ,down these two openings the souls of the dead were supposed to go on their passage to the spirit-world4 ,the souls of chiefs went down the larger of the openings1 and the souls of common people went down the smaller4 ,near the spot stood a coco-nut tree1 and if a passing soul chanced to collide with it1 the soul could not proceed farther1 but returned to its body4 ,when a man recovered from a deep swoon1 his friends supposed that his soul had been arrested in its progress to the other world by knocking against the coco-nut tree1 and they rejoiced1 saying1 ,he has come back from the tree of the ,watcher1 for that was the name by which the coco-nut tree was known4 ,so firmly did the people of the neighbourhood believe in the passage of the souls near their houses1 that at night they kept down the blinds to exclude the ghosts4#afi ,the jumping-off stone at the west end of ,upolu was also dreaded on account of the passing ghosts4 ,the place is a narrow rocky cape4 ,the ,samoans were much astonished when a ,christian native boldly built himself a house on the haunted spot4#agj ,according to one account1 the souls of the dead had not to make their way through the chain of islands by the slow process of walking and swimming1 but were at once transported to the western end of ,savaii by a band of spirits1 who hovered over the house of the dying man1 and catching up his parting spirit conveyed it in a straight course westward4#aga #afi ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #beg sq42 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fdc sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bba4 #agj ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 p4 #bai4 #aga ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #beg2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fdc4 ,the place down which the spirits of the dead were supposed to descend to the nether world was called by a native name 7,luao71 which means hollow pit4 ,may you go rumbling down the hollow pit was a common form of cursing4 ,at the bottom of the pit was a running stream which floated the spirits away to ,pulotu4 ,all alike1 the handsome and the ugly1 old and young1 chiefs and commoners1 drifted pell-mell on the current in a dazed1 semi-conscious state1 till they came to ,pulotu4 ,there they bathed in the ,water of ,life and recovered all their old life and vigour4 ,infirmity of every kind fled away2 even the aged became young again4 ,the underworld of ,pulotu was conceived on the model of our upper world4 ,there1 as here1 were heavens and earth and sea1 fruits and flowers2 there the souls of the dead planted and fished and cooked2 there they married and were given in marriage1 all after the manner of life on earth4#agb #agb ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #beh sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bbb4 ,however1 it appears that according to a widespread belief the world of the dead was sharply discriminated into two regions1 to wit1 an ,elysium or place of bliss called ,pulotu1 and a ,tartarus or place of woe named ,sa-le-,fe'e4 ,the title for admission to one or other of these places was not moral worth but social rank1 chiefs going to ,elysium and commoners to ,tartarus4 ,the idea of the superiority of the chiefs to the common people was thus perpetuated in the land of the dead4#agc ,the king of the lower regions was a certain ,saveasiuleo1 that is1 ,savea of the ,echo4 ,he reclined in a house in the company of the chiefs who gathered round him3 the upper part of his body was human1 the lower part was like that of a fish and stretched away into the sea4 ,this royal house of assembly was supported by the erect bodies of chiefs1 who had been of high rank on earth1 and who1 before they died1 anticipated with pride the honour they were to enjoy by serving as pillars in the temple of the ,king of ,pulotu4#agd #agc ,j4 ,b4 ,stair1 ,old ,samoa1 pp4 #bag sq42 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bba4 ,on the question whether the ,samoans held a doctrine of moral retribution after death1 ,dr4 ,brown observes3 ,i do not remember any statement to the effect that the conduct of a man in this life affected his state after death4 ,they certainly believe this now1 but whether they did so prior to the introduction of ,christianity ,i cannot definitely say4 ,i am inclined1 however1 to believe that they did not believe that conduct in this life affected them in the future 7,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bfa sq474 ,elsewhere1 however1 ,dr4 ,brown seems to express a contrary opinion4 ,he says3 ,it was generally understood that the conditions of men in this life1 even amongst the common people1 had an effect on their future conditions4 ,a good man in ,samoa generally meant a liberal man1 one who was generous and hospitable2 whilst a bad man was one who was mean1 selfish1 and greedy about food 7op4 cit4 p4 #bbb74 #agd ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #bei sq42 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fdd4 ,but the souls of the dead were not permanently confined to the lower world4 ,they could return to the land of the living by night to hold converse with members of their families1 to warn and instruct them in dreams1 and to foretell the future4 ,they could cause disease and death by entering into the bodies of their enemies and even of their friends1 and they produced nightmare by sitting on the chests of sleepers4 ,they haunted some houses and especially burying-grounds4 ,their apparitions were visible to the living and were greatly dreaded2 people tried to drive them away by shouts1 noises1 and the firing of guns4 ,but the ghosts had to return to the nether world at daybreak4 ,it was because they feared the spirits of the dead that the ,samoans took such great pains to propitiate dying people with presents2 this they did above all to persons whom they had injured1 because they had most reason to dread the anger of their ghosts4#age ,however1 the souls of the departed were also thought of in a more amiable light2 they could help as well as harm mankind4 ,hence prayers were commonly offered at the grave of a parent1 a brother1 or a chief4 ,the suppliant1 for example1 might pray for health in sickness2 or1 if he were of a malignant turn1 he might implore the ghost to compass the death of some person at whom he bore a grudge4 ,thus we are told that a woman prayed for the death of her brother1 and he died accordingly4#agf ,in such beliefs and practices we have1 as ,i have already observed1 the essential elements of a regular worship of the dead4 ,whether the ,samoans were on the way to evolve such a religion or1 as ,dr4 ,george ,brown preferred to suppose1#agg had left it behind them and made some progress towards a higher faith1 we hardly possess the means of determining4 #age ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #bei2 ,s4 ,ella1 op4 cit4 p4 #fdd2 ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bai1 #bba1 #bbb4 #agf ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 p4 #aea4 #agg ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 pp4 #bde1 #bhb4 ,but while the ,samoans thought that the dead return to earth to make or mar the living1 they did not believe that the spirits come back to be born again in the form of men or animals or to occupy inanimate bodies2 in other words they had no belief in the transmigration of souls4#agh ,the absence of such a belief is significant in view of ,dr4 ,rivers's suggestion that ,melanesian totemism may have been evolved out of a doctrine of metempsychosis1 human souls being supposed to pass at death into their totem animals or plants4#agi ,we have seen that the ,samoan system of family1 village1 and district gods bears strong marks of having been developed out of totemism2 and if their totemism had in turn been developed out of a doctrine of transmigration1 we should expect to find among them a belief that the souls of the dead appeared in the shape of the animals1 plants1 or other natural objects which were regarded as the embodiments of their family1 village1 or district gods4 ,but of such a belief there is seemingly no trace4 ,it appears1 therefore1 unlikely that ,samoan totemism was based on a doctrine of transmigration4 ,similarly we have seen reason to think that the ,tongan worship of animals may have sprung from totemism1 though according to the best authorities that worship was not connected with a theory of metempsychosis4#ahj ,taken together1 the ,samoan and the ,tongan systems seem to show that1 if totemism ever flourished among the ,polynesians1 it had not its roots in a worship of the dead4 #agh ,g4 ,brown1 ,melanesians and ,polynesians1 p4 #bba1 ,they had no belief in the transmigration of souls either into animals1 inert bodies1 or into different human bodies4 #agi ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers1 ,the ,history of ,melanesian ,society1 ii4 #ceh sqq4 #ahj ,see above1 pp4 #ib sqq4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,hervey ,,islanders ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,hervey or ,cook ,islands ,the ,hervey or ,cook ,archipelago is a scattered group of nine small islands situated in the ,south ,pacific about seven hundred miles south-east of ,samoa4 ,the islands are either volcanic or coralline1 and approach to them is impeded by dangerous reefs and the absence of harbours4#a ,the two principal islands are ,rarotonga and ,mangaia1 the most southerly of the group4 ,of these the larger1 ,rarotonga1 has a circumference of about thirty miles4 ,it is a vast mass of volcanic mountains1 rising peak above peak1 to a height of between four and five thousand feet above the sea2 but from the foot of the mountains a stretch of flat land1 covered with rich alluvial soil1 extends for one or two miles to the coast1 which is formed by a fringing reef of live coral4 ,the whole island is mantled in luxuriant tropical verdure4 ,it is difficult1 we are told1 to exaggerate the strange forms of beauty which everywhere meet the eye in this lovely island3 gigantic and fantastic columns of rock draped with vines2 deep valleys lying in the shadow of overhanging mountains2 primaeval forest with its many shades of green2 immense chestnut trees1 laden with fragrant blossoms2 miles of bread-fruit groves1 intermingled with coco-nut palms2 and nearer the beach plantains1 bananas1 sweet potatoes1 and lastly1 growing to the water's edge1 graceful iron-wood trees with hair-like leaves drooping like tresses1 all contribute to the variety and charm of the scenery4#b #a ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 7,london1 #ahid7 p4 #eji4 #b ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles 7,london1 ,n4,d471 p4 #aa4 ,compare ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands 7,london1 #ahch71 pp4 #af1 #agd-agf4 ,according to ,dr4 ,guillemard 7loc4 cit471 the height of ,rarotonga is #bijj feet2 according to ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 our principal authority on the island1 it is #dejj feet4 ,very different is the aspect of ,mangaia4 ,it is a complete coral island rising from deep water as a ring of live coral2 there is no lagoon4 ,a few hundred yards inland from the rugged beach there rises gradually a second or inner ring of dead coral1 which towards the interior falls away perpendicularly1 thus surrounding the island like a cyclopean wall4 ,this belt or bulwark of dead coral is from one to two miles wide4 ,to cross it is like walking on spear-points3 to slip and fall on it may entail ghastly wounds4 ,the streams of water from the interior find their way through it to the sea by subterranean channels4 ,imbedded in the highest parts of this inland reef of coral are many sea-shells of existing species1 and it is honeycombed with many extensive caves1 which were formerly used as dwellings1 cemeteries1 places of refuge1 or storehouses4 ,scores of them are filled with desiccated human bodies4 ,so vast are they that it is dangerous to venture alone into their recesses2 the forlorn wanderer might never emerge from them again4 ,some of them are said to penetrate far under the bed of the ocean4 ,in these caverns stalactite and stalagmite abound1 forming thick and fast-growing layers of limestone rock4 ,the largest and most famous of the caves is known as the ,labyrinth 7,tuatini74 ,the interior of the island is formed of dark volcanic rock and red clay1 descending in low hills from a flat-topped centre1 called the ,crown of ,mangaia4 ,the summit is not more than six hundred and fifty feet above the level of the sea4#c #c ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles4 pp4 #g sq42 id41 ,from ,darkness to ,light in ,polynesia 7,london1 #ahid71 pp4 #f sq42 ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder 7,berlin1 #aijj71 pp4 #bga sqq41 #bgd sqq4 7as to the caverns74 ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,islanders and their ,mode of ,life ,though the natives speak a ,polynesian language closely akin to the ,samoan and have legends of their migration from ,samoa1 they appear not to be pure ,polynesians4 ,they say that they found black people on ,rarotonga2 and their more pronounced features1 more wavy hair1 darker complexion1 and more energetic character seem to indicate an admixture of ,melanesian blood4 ,in ,mangaia1 indeed1 this type is said to predominate1 the natives of that island being characterised by dusky brown skin1 wavy or frizzly hair1 and ample beards3 their features1 too1 are more prominent than those of the ,rarotongans1 and their manners are wilder4#d ,cannibalism prevailed in most of the islands of the group down to the conversion of the natives to ,christianity1 which took place between #ahbc and #ahcd1 when1 with the exception of a few pagans in ,mangaia1 there did not remain a single idolater1 or vestige of idolatry1 in any one of the islands4 ,however1 many years afterwards old men1 who had partaken of cannibal feasts1 assured a missionary that human flesh was far superior to pork4#e #d ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 #eji4 ,compare ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder1 pp4 #beg sq41 #bfi4 ,the latter writer remarks on the great variety of types among the natives of these islands4 ,in ,mangaia he found the people darker than in ,rarotonga1 undersized1 sturdy1 with thick lips1 noses broad and sunken at the bridge1 which gave them a somewhat wild appearance4 ,as to the tradition of an emigration of the ,hervey ,islanders from ,samoa1 see ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 pp4 #bc sqq4 ,the ,mangaians themselves trace their origin to ,avaiki1 or nether world2 but ,avaiki1 ,hawai'i1 and ,savai'i1 are but slightly different forms of one word4 ,the s of the ,samoan dialect is invariably dropped in the ,hervey ,group dialects1 whilst a k is substituted for the break at the end4 ,no native of these days doubts that by ,avaiki his ancestors really intended ,savai'i1 the largest island of the ,samoan ,group4 ,in ,polynesia1 to sail west is to go down2 to sail east is to go up4 ,to sail from ,samoa to ,mangaia would be 'to come up1' or1 to translate their vernacular closely1 'to climb up4' ,in their songs and myths are many references to 'the hosts of ,ukupolu1' undoubtedly the ,upolu of ,samoa 7,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 op4 cit4 p4 #be74 ,compare id41 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific 7,london1 #ahgf71 pp4 #aff sq4 #e ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 pp4 #ac sq42 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 ,report of the ,second ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science held at ,melbourne1 #ahij1 p4 #cbd4 ,as to the date of the introduction of ,christianity into the ,hervey ,islands1 see ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 pp4 #dia sq4 ,in the larger islands the natives cultivated the soil diligently even before their contact with ,europeans4 ,the missionary ,john ,williams1 who discovered ,rarotonga in #ahbc1 found the island in a high state of cultivation4 ,rows of superb chestnut trees 7inocarpus71 planted at equal distances1 stretched from the base of the mountains to the sea1 while the spaces between the rows1 some half a mile wide1 were divided into taro patches1 each about half an acre in extent1 carefully banked up and capable of being irrigated at pleasure4 ,on the tops of the banks grew fine bread-fruit trees placed at equal intervals1 their stately foliage presenting a pleasing contrast to the pea-green leaves of the ordinary taro and the dark colour of the giant taro 7kape7 in the beds and on the sloping banks beneath4#f ,in ,rarotonga bread-fruit and plantains are the staple food2 in ,mangaia it is taro4 ,on the atolls the coco-nut palm flourishes1 but no planting can be done1 as the soil consists of sand and gravel thrown up by the sea on the ever-growing coral4 ,the inhabitants of the atolls live contentedly on coco-nuts and fish2 they are expert fishermen1 having little else to do4 ,but fresh fish are also eaten in large quantities on most of the islands4#g ,in some of the islands the planting was done by the women1 but in others1 including ,rarotonga1 the taro was both planted and brought home by the men4 ,women cooked the food in ovens of hot stones sunk in holes1 and they made cloth from the bark of the paper-mulberry1 which they stripped from the tree1 steeped in water1 and beat out with square mallets of iron-wood4 ,but garments were made also from the inner bark of the banyan and bread-fruit trees4#h ,in the old days the native houses were flimsy quadrangular huts constructed of reeds and thatched with plaited leaflets of the coco-nut palm1 which were very pervious to rain2 but the temples and large houses of chiefs were thatched with pandanus leaves4 ,the doors were always sliding2 the threshold was made of a single block of timber1 tastefully carved4 ,there was a sacred and a common entrance4#i ,like all the ,polynesians1 the ,hervey ,islanders before their discovery were ignorant of the metals4 ,when in a wrecked vessel they found a bag of ,californian gold1 they thought it was something good to eat and proceeded to cook the nuggets in order to make them juicy and tender4#aj #f ,john ,williams1 op4 cit4 pp4 #age sq4 #g ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 pp4 #ab1 #ae2 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 ,report of the ,second ,meeting of the ,australasian ,association for the ,advancement of ,science held at ,melbourne1 #ahij1 p4 #ccf4 #h ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 pp4 #ccb sq41 #cch4 #i ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 p4 #af2 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 pp4 #cce sq4 #aj ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 p4 #af4 ,sec4 #c4 ,social ,life3 the ,sacred ,kings ,the people were divided into tribes or clans1 each tracing descent in the male line from a common ancestor1 and each possessing its own lands1 which were inalienable4 ,exogamy1 we are told1 was the universal rule in the olden time2 but when a tribe was split up in war1 the defeated portion was treated as an alien tribe4 ,polygamy was very common1 and was not restricted to chiefs4 ,a man often had two or three sisters to wife at the same time4 ,distant cousins sometimes1 though rarely1 married each other2 but in such cases they had to belong to the same generation2 that is1 they must be descended in the same degree1 fourth1 fifth1 or even more remote1 from the common ancestor4 ,if misfortune or disease overtook couples linked even by so distant a relationship1 the elders would declare that it was brought upon them by the anger of the clan-god4 ,it was the duty of parents to teach their growing children whom they might lawfully marry1 but their choice was extremely limited4 ,children as a rule belonged to the tribe or clan of their father1 unless they were adopted into another4 ,however1 parents had it at their option to assign a child at birth either to the tribe of its father or to the tribe of its mother2 this they did by pronouncing over the infant the name either of the father's or of the mother's god4 ,commonly the father had the preference2 but occasionally1 when the father's tribe was one from which human victims for sacrifice were regularly drawn1 the mother would seek to save the child's life by having the name of her tribal god pronounced over it and so adopting it into her own tribe4#aa ,circumcision in an imperfect form was practised in the ,hervey ,islands from time immemorial4 ,it was usually performed on a youth about the age of sixteen4 ,the operation was indispensable to marriage4 ,no woman would knowingly marry an uncircumcised husband4 ,the greatest insult that could be offered to a man was to accuse him of being uncircumcised4 ,the rite is said to have been invented by the god ,rongo in order to seduce the beautiful wife of his brother ,tangaroa1 and he enjoined the observance of circumcision upon his worshippers4#ab ,in ,rarotonga it was customary to mould a child's head into a high shape by pressing the forehead and the back of the head between slabs of soft wood4 ,this practice did not obtain on ,mangaia nor1 apparently1 on any other island of the ,hervey ,group4#ac #aa ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 pp4 #cbc1 #ccj1 #cca1 #ccc4 #ab ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 pp4 #cbg-cbi4 ,in the operation the prepuce was slit longitudinally1 and the divided pieces were drawn underneath and twisted1 so as in time to form a small knot under the urethra4 ,as to the ceremony of assigning a child either to its father's or to its mother's tribe1 see ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific 7,london1 #ahgf71 pp4 #cf sq4 #ac ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cbf4 ,in ,rarotonga four ranks of society were recognised4 ,these were the ariki1 or king2 the mataiapo1 or governors of districts2 the rangatira1 or landowners2 and the unga1 or tenants4 ,a man was accounted great according to the number of his kaingas or farms1 which contained from one to five acres4 ,these were let to tenants1 who1 like vassals under the feudal system1 obeyed the orders of their superior1 assisted him in erecting his house1 in building his canoe1 in making fishing-nets1 and in other occupations1 besides bringing him a certain portion of the produce of his lands4#ad #ad ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 pp4 #ahc sq4 ,the kings were sacred men1 being regarded as priests and mouthpieces of the great tutelary divinities4#ae ,in ,mangaia they were the priests or mouthpieces of the great god ,rongo4 ,so sacred were their royal persons that no part of their body might be tattooed3 they might not take part in dances or in actual warfare4 ,peace could not be proclaimed nor blood spilt lawfully without the consent of the king speaking in the name of the god ,rongo4 ,quite distinct from1 and subordinate to1 the sacred king was the lord of ,mangaia1 a warrior chief who gained his lordship by a decisive victory4 ,he represented the civil power1 while the king represented the spiritual power2 but while the office of the king was hereditary1 the office of the civil lord was not4 ,it sometimes happened that the civil lord was at enmity with the king of his day4 ,in that case the king would refuse to complete the ceremonies necessary for his formal investiture2 life would remain unsafe2 the soil could not be cultivated1 and famine soon ensued4 ,this state of turbulence and misery might last for years1 till the obnoxious chief had been in his turn despatched1 and a more agreeable successor appointed4#af ,thus the sacred king and the civil lord corresponded to the ,tooitonga or sacred chief and the civil king of ,tonga4#ag #ae ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cce4 #af ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #bic4 #ag ,see above1 pp4 #fb sq4 ,sec4 #d4 ,religion1 the ,gods1 ,traces of ,totemism ,yet though the king of ,mangaia ranked above the civil or temporal lord1 it devolved on that lord to install a new king in office by formally seating him on the sacred sandstone 7te kea inamoa7 in the sanctuary or sacred grove 7marae7#ah of ,rongo on the sea-shore facing the setting sun4 ,the ceremony took place in presence of the leading under-chiefs4 ,the special duty of the king was by offering rhythmical and very ancient prayers to ,great ,rongo to keep away evil-minded spirits who might otherwise injure the island4 ,for this end the principal king 7te ariki pa uta7 lived in the interior of the island in the sacred and fertile district of ,keia4 ,his prayers were thought to avert evil spirits coming from the east4 ,on the barren sea-shore at ,o-rongo 7the seat of the temple or grove of ,rongo7 lived the secondary king 7te ariki pa tai71 who warded off bad spirits coming from the west4 ,besides this primary ghostly function1 many other important duties devolved upon these royal personages4 ,the secondary or shore king was not infrequently a natural son of the great inland king4 ,by virtue of their office all kings were high priests of ,rongo1 the tutelary god of ,mangaia4#ai #ah ,in the ,hervey ,islands a marae seems to have been a sacred grove4 ,so it is described by ,w4 ,w4 ,gill 7,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #ad71 who adds in a note3 ,these maraes were planted with callophylla inophylla1 etc41 etc41 which1 untouched by the hand of man from generation to generation1 threw a sacred gloom over the mysteries of idol-worship4 ,the trees were accounted sacred1 not for their own sake1 but on account of the place where they grew4 #ai ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,from ,darkness to ,light in ,polynesia1 pp4 #cad sq4 ,as to the installation of the priestly king by the temporal lord1 see also id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 pp4 #cci sq4 ,but ,rongo was not peculiar to the ,hervey ,islands4 ,he was a great ,polynesian deity worshipped in almost every part of the ,pacific1 and though his attributes differed greatly in different places1 a universal reverence was paid to him4 ,in the ,hervey ,islands1 he and his twin brother ,tangaroa were deemed the children of ,vatea1 the eldest of the primary gods1 a being half man and half fish1 whose eyes are the sun and the moon4 ,the wife of this monstrous deity and mother of the divine twins was ,papa1 whose name signifies ,foundation and who was supposed to be a daughter of ,timatekore or ,nothing-more4 ,the twin ,tangaroa1 another great ,polynesian deity1 was specially honoured in ,rarotonga and ,aitutaki1 another of the ,hervey ,islands4#bj ,the famous ,polynesian hero ,maui was also well known in the ,hervey ,islands1 where people told how he had brought up the first fire to men from the under world1 having there wrested it from the fire-god ,mauike2#ba how he raised the sky--a solid vault of blue stone--to its present height1 for of old the sky almost touched the earth1 so that people could not walk upright2#bb and finally how he caught the great sun-god ,ra himself in six nooses made of strong coco-nut fibre1 so that the motions of the orb of day1 which before had been extremely irregular1 have been most orderly ever since4#bc #bj ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #c sqq42 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 pp4 #cdh sq4 ,as to ,rongo and ,tangaroa1 see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary 7,wellington1 ,n4,z41 #ahia71 pp4 #dbd sq41 #dfc sq41 svv4 ,rongo and ,tangaroa4 #ba ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #ea-eh4 #bb ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #eh-fj4 #bc ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #fa-fc4 ,but besides the divine or heroic figures of more or less anthropomorphic type1 which the ,hervey ,islanders recognised in common with the rest of the ,polynesians1 we may distinguish in their mythology traces of that other and probably older stage of thought in which the objects of religious reverence are rather animals than men or beings modelled in the image of man4 ,we have seen that this early stage of religion was well preserved in ,samoa down to the time when the islands fell under the observation of ,europeans1 and that it was probably a relic of totemism1#bd which at an earlier period may perhaps have prevailed generally among the ancestors of the ,polynesians4 ,in the ,hervey ,islands there was a god called ,tonga-iti1 who appeared visibly in the form of black and white spotted lizards4#be ,another deity named ,tiaio took possession of the body of the large white shark1 the terror of these islanders1 and he had a small sacred grove 7marae7 set apart for his worship4 ,it is said that this shark-god was a former king of ,mangaia1 who in the pride of his heart had defiled the sacred district of ,keia1 the favourite haunt of the gods1 by wearing some beautiful scarlet hibiscus flowers in his ears4 ,now anything red was forbidden in that part of the island as being offensive to the gods2 and even the beating of bark-cloth was prohibited there1 lest the repose of the gods should be disturbed by the noise4 ,hence an angry priest knocked the proud and impious king on the head1 and the blood of the slain monarch flowed into a neighbouring stream1 where it was drunk by a great fresh-water eel4 ,so the spirit of the dead king entered into the eel1 but subsequently1 pursuing its way to the sea1 the spirit forsook the eel and took possession of the shark4#bf ,nevertheless he continued occasionally to appear to his worshippers in the form of an eel2 for we are told that in the old heathen days1 if a huge eel were caught in a net1 it would have been regarded as the god ,tiaio himself come on a visit1 and that it would accordingly have been allowed to return to the water unmolested4#bg ,it is quite possible that this derivation of the eel-god or shark-god from a former king of ,mangaia may be historically correct2 for we are told that many of the deities worshipped in the ,hervey ,group and other islands of the eastern ,pacific were canonised priests1 kings1 and warriors1 whose spirits were supposed to enter into various birds1 fish1 reptiles1 insects1 etc41 etc4 ,strangely enough1 they were regarded as being1 in no respect1 inferior to the original deities4#bh ,among the creatures in which gods1 and especially the spirits of deified men1 were believed permanently to reside or to be incarnate were reckoned sharks1 sword-fish1 eels1 the octopus1 yellow and black spotted lizards1 as well as several kinds of birds and insects4#bi ,in ,rarotonga the cuttle-fish was the special deity of the reigning family down to the subversion of paganism4#cj ,in ,mangaia the tribe of ,teipe1 whose members were liable to serve as victims in human sacrifices1 worshipped the centipede3 there was a shrine of the centipede god at ,vaiau on the eastern side of ,mangaia4#ca ,again1 two gods1 ,tekuraaki and ,utakea1 were supposed to be incarnate in the woodpecker4#cb ,a comprehensive designation for divinities of all kinds was the heavenly family 7te anau tuarangi72 and this celestial race included rats1 lizards1 beetles1 eels1 sharks1 and several kinds of birds4 ,it was supposed that the heavenly family had taken up their abode in these creatures4#cc ,nay1 even inanimate objects1 such as the triton-shell1 sandstone1 bits of basalt1 cinnet1 and trees were believed to be thus tenanted by gods4#cd ,the god ,tane-kio1 for example1 was thought to be enshrined in the planets ,venus and ,jupiter1 and also1 curiously enough1 in cinnet work4#ce ,again1 each tribe had its own sacred bird1 which was supposed to be sent by a god to warn the people of impending danger4#cf ,in these superstitions it is possible that we have relics of totemism4 #bd ,see above1 pp4 #ahb sqq41 #bjj sqq4 #be ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #aj sq4 #ai4 ,another god called ,turanga1 who was worshipped at ,aumoana1 was also supposed to be incarnate in white and black spotted lizards4 ,see id41 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 p4 #if4 #bf ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #bi sq4 #bg ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #gi sq4 #bh ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdi4 #bi ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdg4 ,yet in the same passage the writer affirms that there is no trace in the ,eastern ,pacific of the doctrine of transmigration of human souls1 although the spirits of the dead are fabled to have assumed1 temporarily1 and for a specific purpose1 the form of an insect1 bird1 fish1 or cloud4 #cj ,id41 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 p4 #bhi4 #ca ,id41 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 pp4 #if1 #cjh1 #cji4 #cb ,id41 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 p4 #if4 #cc ,id41 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #cd sq4 #cd ,id41 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #cb4 #ce ,id41 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 p4 #if4 #cf ,id41 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #ce2 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdi4 ,originally1 it is said1 the gods spoke to men through the small land birds1 but the utterances of these creatures proved too indistinct to guide the actions of mankind4 ,hence to meet this emergency an order of priests was set apart1 the gods actually taking up their abode1 for the time being1 in their sacred persons4 ,hence priests were significantly named god-boxes 7pia-atua7 a title which was generally abbreviated to gods1 because they were believed to be living embodiments of the divinities4 ,when a priest was consulted1 he drank a bowl of kava 7,piper methysticum71 and falling into convulsions gave the oracular response in language intelligible only to the initiated4 ,the oracle so delivered1 from which there was no appeal1 was thought to have been inspired by the god1 who had entered into the priest for the purpose4#cg #cg ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #ce2 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdi4 ,sec4 #e4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,human ,soul ,like other ,polynesians1 the ,hervey ,islanders believed that human beings are animated by a vital principle or soul1 which survives the death of the body for a longer or shorter time4 ,indeed1 they held that nobody dies a strictly natural death except as an effect of extreme old age4 ,nineteen out of twenty deaths were believed to be caused either by the anger of the gods or by the incantations of the praying people or sorcerers4#ch ,hence1 when a person fell ill1 it was customary to consult a priest in order to discover the nature of the sin which had drawn down on the sufferer the wrath of the deity or the enmity of the sorcerer4#ci ,but besides its final departure at death1 the soul was thought to quit the body temporarily on other occasions4 ,in sleep it was supposed to leave the sleeper and travel over the island1 holding converse with the dead1 and even visiting the spirit-world4 ,it was thus that the islanders1 like so many other savages1 explained the phenomena of dreams4 ,we are told that some of the most important events in their national history were determined by dreams4#dj ,again1 they explained sneezing as the return of the soul to the body after a temporary absence4 ,hence in ,rarotonga1 when a person sneezes1 the bystanders exclaim1 as though addressing his spirit1 ,ha6 you have come back6#da #ch ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdb4 ,compare id41 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #ce4 #ci ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #ce2 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cci2 id41 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 p4 #gj4 #dj ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdg4 #da ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #agg4 ,how exactly the ,hervey ,islanders pictured to themselves the nature of the human soul1 appears not to be recorded4 ,probably their notions on this obscure subject did not differ greatly from those of the natives of ,pukapuka or ,danger ,island1 a lonely island situated some hundreds of miles to the north-west of the ,hervey ,group4 ,these savages apparently conceived the soul as a small material substance that varied in size with the dimensions of the body which it inhabited4 ,for the sacred men or sorcerers of that island used to set traps to catch the souls of people1 and the traps consisted of loops of coco-nut fibre1 which differed in size according as the soul to be caught in one of them was fat or thin1 or perhaps according as it was the soul of a child or that of an adult4 ,two of these soul-traps were presented to ,mr4 ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 the first white missionary to land in ,danger ,island4 ,the loops or rings were arranged in pairs on each side of two cords1 one of which was twenty-eight feet long and the other fourteen4 ,the mode of setting the traps was this4 ,if a person was very sick or had given offence to a sorcerer1 the offended wizard or priest would hang a soul-trap by night from a branch of a tree overhanging the house of the sufferer or of the person against whom he bore a grudge2 then sitting down beside the snare he would pretend to watch for the flight of the victim's spirit4 ,if the family enquired the sin for which the soul-trap had been set1 the holy man would probably allege some ceremonial fault committed by the sick man against the gods4 ,if an insect or small bird chanced to fly through one of the loops1 the priest would allege that the man's soul was caught in the mesh1 and that there was no hope for it but that the wretch must die4 ,in that case the demon ,vaerua1 who presided over the spirit-world1 was believed to hurry off the poor soul to the nether world1 there to feast upon it4 ,the news that ,so-and-so had lost his soul would then spread through the island1 and great would be the lamentation4 ,the friends of the unhappy man would seek to propitiate the sorcerer by large presents of food1 begging him to intercede with the dread ,vaerua for the restoration of the lost soul4 ,sometimes the intercessions were successful1 and the patient recovered2 but at other times the priest reported that his prayers were of no avail1 and that ,vaerua could not be induced to send back the soul to re-inhabit the body4 ,the melancholy tidings acted like a sentence of death4 ,the patient gave up all hope and soon pined away through sheer distress at the thought of his soul caught in the trap4#db #db ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 pp4 #ahj-ahc2 id41 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #aga4 ,sec4 #f4 ,death and ,funeral ,rites ,the moment a sick person expired1 his near relatives cut off their hair1 blackened their faces1 and slashed their bodies with shark's teeth1 so that the blood might stream down2 in ,rarotonga it was customary also to knock out some of the front teeth in token of sorrow4 ,during the days of mourning people wore only native cloth1 dyed red in the sap of the candle-nut tree and then dipped in the black mud of a taro-patch4 ,the very foul smell of these garments is said to have been symbolical of the putrescent state of the corpse2#dc perhaps at the same time1 though we are not told so1 it helped to keep the ghost at arm's length4 #dc ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #aha2 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdd4 ,that the mourners were not anxious to detain the departed spirit appears from a custom observed by the ,rarotongans and described by the discoverer of the island1 ,john ,williams4 ,he tells us that in order to secure the admission of a departed spirit to future joys1 the corpse was dressed in the best attire the relatives could provide1 the head was wreathed with flowers1 and other decorations were added4 ,a pig was then baked whole and placed on the body of the deceased1 surrounded by a pile of vegetable food4 ,after that1 supposing the departed to have been a son1 the father would thus address the corpse3 ,my son1 when you were alive ,i treated you with kindness1 and when you were taken ill ,i did my best to restore you to health2 and now you are dead1 there is your momoe o1 or property of admission4 ,go1 my son1 and with that gain an entrance into the palace of ,tiki1#dd and do not come to this world again to disturb and alarm us4 ,the whole would then be buried2 and1 if they received no intimation to the contrary within a few days of the interment1 the relatives believed that the pig and the rest of the victuals had obtained for the deceased an entrance to the abode of bliss4 ,if1 however1 a cricket was heard to chirp in the house1 it was deemed an ill omen1 and they would immediately break into loud laments1 saying1 for example1 ,oh1 our brother6 his spirit has not entered the paradise2 he is suffering from hunger2 he is shivering with cold6 ,forthwith the grave would be opened and the offering repeated4 ,this usually effected the purpose4#de #dd ,the name of the god of the ,rarotongan paradise4 #de ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 pp4 #dgg sq4 ,in ,rarotonga the provisions which were buried with the dead person as an offering to ,tiki sometimes consisted of the head and kidneys of a hog1 a split coco-nut1 and a root of kava2 in the island of ,aitutaki it was usual to place at the pit of the stomach of the corpse the kernel of a coco-nut1 and a piece of sugar-cane2 in ,mangaia the extremity of a coco-nut frond served the same purpose of propitiating ,tiki and ensuring the entrance of the ghost into paradise4#df #df ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #agj sq4 ,the bodies of the dead were anointed with scented oil1 carefully wrapt up in a number of cloths1 and so committed to their last resting-place4 ,they were never disembowelled for the purpose of embalming1 but some were desiccated by being kept for about a month and daily anointed with coco-nut oil4 ,a few were buried in the earth within the precincts of a sacred grove 7marae72 but by far the greater number were hidden in caves which were regarded as the private property of certain families4 ,the bodies of warriors were in general carefully concealed by their friends1 lest foes should find and burn them in revenge4 ,if a body were buried in the earth1 it was always laid face downwards1 with chin and knees meeting1 and the limbs well secured with coco-nut fibre4 ,a thin covering of earth was spread over the corpse1 and large heavy stones were piled on the grave4 ,the intention1 we are informed1 was to render it impossible for the dead to rise up and injure the living4 ,the head of the corpse was always turned to the rising sun4 ,it was customary to bury with the dead some article of value3 a woman would have her cloth-mallet laid by her side1 while a man would enjoin his friends to bury with him a favourite stone adze or a beautiful white shell 7,ovula ovum1 ,linn47 which he had worn in the dance4 ,such articles were never afterwards touched by the living4 ,many people were buried in easily accessible caves1 that their relatives might visit the mouldering remains from time to time4 ,on such visits the corpse might be again exposed to the sun1 anointed afresh with oil1 and wrapt in new cloth4 ,but as the sorrow of the survivors abated1 these visits became less and less frequent1 and finally ceased4#dg #dg ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 pp4 #gb-gf2 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdc4 ,a death in a family was the signal for a change of names among the near relatives of the deceased4 ,the greatest ingenuity was exercised in devising new appellations4 ,sometimes these names were most offensive to good taste4 ,this custom of changing names after the death of a relative has survived the conversion of the natives to ,christianity2#dh probably it originated in a desire to avoid the unwelcome attentions of the ghost1 who might be thought to be attracted by the sound of the familiar names4#di #dh ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 pp4 #gh sq42 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdd4 #di ,see ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,part ,,ii41 ,taboo and the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #cef sqq4 ,as soon as the corpse was committed to its last resting-place1 the mourners selected five old coco-nuts1 opened them one after the other1 and poured the water on the ground4 ,these nuts were then wrapt up in leaves and native cloth and thrown towards the grave2 or1 if the corpse had been let down by cords into the deep chasm called ,auraka1 the nuts and other food would be cast down successively upon it4 ,calling loudly each time the name of the departed1 they said1 ,here is thy food2 eat it4 ,when the fifth nut and the accompanying pudding were thrown down1 the mourners cried1 ,farewell6 we come back no more to thee4#ej #ej ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #ahg2 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdd4 ,immediately after a decease a remarkable custom was observed in ,mangaia4 ,a messenger was despatched to bear the tidings round the island4 ,on reaching the boundary of each district1 he paused to give the war-shout peculiar to the people of the district1 adding1 ,so-and-so is dead4 ,thereupon near relatives would start off at once for the house of the deceased1 each carrying a present of native cloth4 ,most of the athletic young men of the entire island on the day following united in a series of sham-fights called ta i te mauri or slaying the ghosts4 ,the district where the corpse lay represented the mauri or ghosts4 ,the young men belonging to it early in the morning arrayed themselves as if for battle1 and1 well armed1 started off for the adjoining district1 where the young men were drawn up in battle array under the name of aka-oa or friends4 ,having performed the war-dance1 the two parties rushed together1 clashing their spears and wooden swords1 as though fighting in good earnest4 ,the sufferers in this bloodless conflict were supposed to be malignant spirits1 who would thus be deterred from doing further mischief to mortals4 ,after the mock battle the combatants united1 and1 being collectively called mauri or ghosts1 passed on to the third district4 ,throughout the day their leader carried the sacred iku kikau1 or coco-nut leaf1 at the pit of his stomach1 like a dead man4 ,arrived at the third village1 they found the younger men ready for the friendly conflict and bearing the name of aka-oa or friends4 ,the battle of the ghosts was fought over again1 and then with swelling numbers they passed on to the fourth1 fifth1 and sixth districts1 in every one of them fighting and thrashing the ghosts afresh4 ,repairing at last with united forces to the place where the corpse was laid out in state1 the brave ghost-killers were there entertained at a feast1 after which all1 except the near relatives1 returned to their various homes at nightfall4 ,so similar to actual warfare was this custom of fighting the ghosts that it went by the name of a younger brother of war4#ea ,apparently every death was attributed to the action of ghosts who had carried off the soul of the departed brother or sister2 and in order to prevent a repetition of the catastrophe it was deemed necessary to repel or even to slay the ghostly assailants by force of arms4 #ea ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #bfh sq4 ,the mourning ceremonies lasted from ten to fifteen days according to the rank and age of the deceased4 ,during the whole period no beating of bark for the manufacture of the native cloth was permitted in the district where the death had occurred4 ,a woman who wished to beat out her bark-cloth must go to another part of the island4 ,this rule is said to have been dictated by a fear of offending the female demon ,mueu1 who introduced the beating of bark-cloth into the world1 but who herself beats out cloth of a very different texture2 for her cloth-flail is the stroke of death4#eb #eb ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #ahb4 ,some months after the decease of a person of note funeral games called eva were performed in honour of the departed4 ,these ceremonies invariably took place by day4 ,they were of four sorts4 ,first1 there was the eva tapara1 or funeral dirge4 ,in this the mourners appeared with blackened faces1 shaved heads1 streaming blood1 and stinking garments4 ,this1 we are told1 was a most repulsive exhibition4#ec #ec ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #bga4 ,second1 there was the eva puruki or war dirge4 ,in this the people arrayed themselves in two columns facing each other1 both sides armed with spears made of a brittle kind of wood instead of the fatal iron-wood 7,casuarina equasitifolia71 out of which the spears used in real warfare were made4 ,the performance began with an animated conversation between the leaders of the two squadrons of supposed enemies as to the grounds for war4 ,when this was concluded1 the person most nearly related to the deceased began the history of the heroic deeds of the clan by slowly chanting the introductory words4 ,at the appointed pause both companies took up the strain and chanted it vigorously together1 the mighty chorus being accompanied by the clash of spears and all the evolutions of war4 ,then followed a momentary pause1 after which a new story would be introduced by the musical voice of the chief mourner1 to be caught up and recited in full chorus by both companies as before4 ,these war-dirges were most carefully elaborated1 and they embodied the only histories of the past known to these islanders4#ed #ed ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #bgb4 ,third1 there was the eva toki or axe dirge4 ,in this ceremony the performers1 armed with mimic axes of iron-wood instead of stone1 used to cleave the cruel earth which had swallowed up the dead2 and as they smote the ground1 with tears streaming down their cheeks1 they expressed a vain wish that so they might open up a passage through which the spirit of the departed might return4 ,this axe-dirge was appropriate to artisans only1 who enjoyed great consideration because their skill was believed to be a gift of the gods4#ee #ee ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #bgb sq4 ,fourth1 there was the eva ta or crashing dirge4 ,in this ceremony two supposed armies were arrayed against each other as in the war dirge1 but differed from it both in the style of composition and in the weapons employed1 the combatants being armed with flat spears or wooden swords4 ,in the dialogue or songs the death of their friends was explained by the anger of the gods1 for which reasons were assigned4 ,these performances generally concluded with a sort of comedy1 the nature of which has not been described4#ef #ef ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #bgc4 ,sometimes1 instead of these funeral games or ceremonies1 a grand tribal gathering was held for the sake of reciting songs in honour of the illustrious dead4 ,such an assembly met in a large house built for the purpose and well lighted with torches1 for the doleful concert always took place at night4 ,as many as sixty songs might be prepared for the occasion and mournfully chanted to the accompanying drone of the great wooden drum4 ,every adult male relative was bound to recite a song2 if he could not compose one himself1 he had to pay a more gifted person to furnish him with the appropriate words4 ,some of the songs or ballads of a touching nature were much admired and long remembered4 ,several months were needed for the preparation of such a performance or death-talk1 as it was called4 ,not only had the songs to be composed and the dresses made1 but a liberal supply of food had to be provided for the guests4#eg #eg ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #bfi-bga2 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cde4 ,in general all mourning ceremonies were over within a year of the death4 ,but we hear of a chief of the island of ,atiu who mourned for seven years for an only child1 living all that time in a hut near the grave1 and allowing his hair and nails to grow1 and his body to remain unwashed4 ,he was the wonder of all the islanders4#eh #eh ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cde4 ,among the caverns in which1 in the island of ,mangaia1 the dead used to be deposited1 two are particularly famous4 ,one of them1 at ,tamarua1 is the chasm called ,raupa or leafy entrance on account of the dense growth of hibiscus which formerly surrounded this supposed entrance to the shades4 ,it was the ancient burial-place of the ,tongan tribe1 the descendants of a band of ,tongans1 who had landed in ,mangaia and settled there4 ,the chasm is a hundred and fifty feet deep and has two openings1 the smaller of which was used only for chiefs and priests4 ,the other famous sepulchral cavern1 called ,auraka1 is situated on the western side of the island4 ,it was the grand depository of the dead of the ruling families1 who claimed to be descended from the great god ,rongo4 ,this chasm is not nearly so deep as ,raupa1 but1 like it1 has two entrances2 the one sacred and the other profane2 the former was reserved for the bodies of the nobility1 the latter for the bodies of commoners4 ,besides these ceremonial entrances there are many natural openings into the vast subterranean cave1 for the rock is everywhere perforated4 ,it is possible by torchlight to explore the gloomy recesses of the cavern1 which in some places contracts to the narrowest dimensions1 while in others it expands till the roof is almost lost to sight4 ,hundreds of well-preserved mummies may be seen lying in rows1 some on ledges of stalactite1 others on wooden platforms4 ,mr4 ,gill1 who thrice visited the cave1 judged that some of the bodies were over fifty years old4 ,the whole neighbourhood of the great cavern was deemed sacred to wandering disembodied spirits1 who were believed to come up at midnight and exhibit the ghastly wounds by which they had met their fate4#ei #ei ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,life in the ,southern ,isles1 pp4 #ga sq4 ,as to the settlement of a ,tongan colony in ,mangaia1 see id41 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #bhg sq4 ,in native tradition the colonists were spoken of as ,tongans sailing through the skies 7,tongaiti-akareva-moana74 ,their leader was the first high-priest of the god ,turanga4 ,sec4 #g4 ,the ,fate of the ,human ,soul after ,death ,the home of the departed spirits was believed to be a vast subterranean region called ,avaiki4 ,the natives of ,mangaia believed that this mysterious region was situated directly under their island4 ,as the dead were usually thrown down the deepest chasms1 it was not unnatural for their friends to imagine the earth to be hollow1 and the entrance to this vast nether world to be down one of these pits4 ,no one can wonder at this who knows that the outer portion of ,mangaia is a honeycomb1 the rock being pierced in every direction with winding caves and frightful chasms4 ,it is asserted that the ,mission premises at ,oneroa are built over one of these great caverns1 which extends so far towards the sea that the beating of the surf can be distinctly heard1 whilst the water1 purified from its saline particles1 continually drips from the stony roof4 ,the inland opening into the infernal regions was believed to be the great cavern of ,auraka1 in which1 as we have just seen1 so many of the dead were deposited4#fj #fj ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #aeb-aed4 ,however1 ,avaiki was not the home of the ghosts alone2 it was tenanted also by the gods1 both the greater and the lesser1 with their dependants4 ,there they married1 and multiplied1 and quarrelled1 just like mortals4 ,there they planted1 cooked1 fished1 and inhabited dwellings of exactly the same sort as exist on earth4 ,their food was no better than that of mortals4 ,there might be seen birds1 fish1 and rats1 likewise the mantis1 centipedes1 and beetles4 ,there the coco-nut palm1 the pandanus1 and the myrtle flourished1 and yams grew in abundance4 ,the gods committed murder and adultery2 they got drunk2 they lied2 they stole4 ,the arts and crafts were also practised by the deities1 who indeed taught them to mankind4 ,the visible world1 in short1 was but a gross copy of the spiritual and invisible world4 ,if fire burns1 it is because latent flame was hidden in wood by the god ,mauike in ,hades4 ,if the axe cleaves1 it is because the fairy of the axe is present unseen in the blade4 ,if the ironwood club kills its man1 it is because a fierce demon from ,tonga lives in the weapon4#fa #fa ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #aed4 ,the old high-road to the spirit-land used to start from a place called ,aremauku1 on a cliff overhanging the western ocean4 ,by this road a regular communication was formerly kept up with the infernal regions4 ,it was by this route1 for example1 that the hero ,maui descended in ancient days to the home of the fire-god ,mauike and brought up fire for the use of men4 ,however1 the denizens of spirit-land in time grew very troublesome by constantly coming up and afflicting mankind with disease and death2 they also created a dearth by stealing people's food1 and they even ravished their wives4 ,to put an end to these perpetual annoyances a brave and beautiful woman1 ,tiki by name1 rolled herself alive down into the gloomy chasm which led to the infernal world4 ,the yawning abyss closed on her1 and there has been no thoroughfare ever since4 ,the spirits have not been able to come up from ,avaiki by that road1 and the souls of the dead have been equally unable to go down by it2 they are now obliged to descend by a different route4#fb #fb ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #aed sq4 ,after their departure from the body the spirits of the dead wandered disconsolately along the seashore1 picking their steps painfully among the sharp spikes of the coral and stumbling over the bindweed and thick vines which caught their feet4 ,the fragrant smell of the heliotrope1 which grows luxuriantly among these barren and rugged rocks1 afforded them a little relief1 and they wore a red creeper1 like a turban1 round their heads2 the rest of their costume was a miscellaneous collection of weeds which they had picked up in the course of their wanderings4 ,twice a year1 at the summer and winter solstices1 they mustered to follow the setting sun down into the under world4 ,they gathered at the two points of the island which face towards the rising of the sun at these two seasons of the year4 ,at the summer solstice1 in ,january1 he seems to rise out of the sea opposite to ,ana-,kura1 that is1 the ,red ,cave1 so called because it receives the red rays of the morning4 ,it was there that by far the greater number of the ghosts gathered for their last sad journey with the sun3 they all belonged to the southern half of the island4 ,the other point of ghostly muster was called ,karanga-iti or the ,little ,welcome2 it faced towards the rising of the sun at the winter solstice in ,june1 and it was there that the ghosts born in the northern half of the island assembled4 ,thus many months might elapse between a death and the final departure of the soul from the land of the living4 ,the weary interval was spent by the spirits in dancing and revisiting their old homes4 ,as a rule they were well disposed to their living relatives1 but the ghost of a mother would often grow vindictive when she saw her pet child ill-treated by its stepmother4 ,sometimes1 weary of wandering1 the poor ghosts huddled together in the ,red ,cave1 waiting for the midsummer sun and listening to the monotonous moan of the great rollers1 which break there eternally4#fc #fc ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #aee-aeg4 ,the exact moment of departure was fixed by the leader of the band4 ,as the time drew near1 messengers were despatched to call in the stray ghosts who might be lingering near their ancient haunts4 ,tearfully they gathered at the ,red ,cave or on a grassy lawn above it1 out of reach of the foam and the billows4 ,all kept their eyes on the spot of the horizon where the sun was expected to appear4 ,at the first streak of dawn the whole band took their departure to meet the rising orb of day4 ,that done1 they followed in his train as nearly as might be1 flitting behind or beneath him across the rolling waters or the rocks and stones of the coast1 till towards the close of day they all mustered at ,vairo-rongo1 the ,sacred ,stream of ,rongo1 facing towards the setting sun4 ,the spot is so named from a little rivulet which there rushes out of the stones at the sacred grove 7marae7 of ,rongo3 none but priests and kings might bathe there in days of old4 ,at the moment when the sun sank beneath the horizon1 the entire band of ghosts followed him along the golden track of light across the shimmering sea and descended in his train to the nether world1 but not like him to reappear on the morrow4#fd #fd ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #aeg sq4 ,there were three such points of departure for the spirit-land in ,mangaia1 all facing the setting sun4 ,each of them was known as a ,reinga vaerua or leaping-place of souls4 ,one of them was at ,oneroa1 where a rocky bluff stands out by itself like a giant looking towards the west4 ,to it a band of souls from the great cavern of ,auraka used to go in mournful procession1 and from it they leaped one by one to a second and much smaller block of stone resting on the inner edge of the reef2 thence they passed to the outer brink of the reef1 on which the surf beats ceaselessly1 and from which at sunset they flitted over the ocean to sink with the great luminary into the land of the dead4 ,such appears to have been the general notion of the people concerning the departure of human souls at death in ,mangaia4 ,similar ideas prevailed in the other islands of the group1 in all of which the leaping-place of souls was regularly situated on the western coast of the island4#fe #fe ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #aei sq4 ,the teaching of the priests added many particulars to this general account of the journey of the soul to the nether world4 ,according to them the souls of the dying1 before life was quite extinct1 left their bodies and travelled towards the edge of the cliff at ,araia1 near the sacred grove 7marae7 of ,rongo1 which faced westward4 ,but if on its way to this fatal bourne the soul of the dying chanced to meet a friendly spirit who cried to it1 ,go back and live1 the departing soul would joyfully return to its forsaken body1 and the sick man or woman would revive4 ,this was the native explanation of fainting4 ,but if no friendly spirit intervened to save the passing soul1 it pursued its way to the edge of the cliff4 ,on its arrival a great wave of the sea washed the base of the crag1 and a gigantic bua tree 7,beslaria laurifolia71 covered with fragrant blossoms1 sprang up from ,avaiki to receive the ghost4 ,the tree had as many branches as there were principal gods in ,mangaia1 and every ghost had to perch on the particular branch allotted to members of his or her tribe2 the worshippers of the great gods1 such as ,motoro and ,tane1 had separate boughs provided for their accommodation2 while the worshippers of the lesser deities huddled together on a single big branch4#ff #ff ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #afj sq42 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdf4 ,no sooner had the ghost perched on the place appointed for him than down plumped the tree with him into the nether world4 ,looking down to see where he was going1 what was the horror of the ghost to perceive a great net spread by ,akaanga and his assistants to catch him at the foot of the tree6 ,into this fatal net the doomed spirit inevitably fell to sink in a lake of fresh water and there to wriggle like a fish for a time4 ,at last the net was pulled up with the ghost in it1 who1 half-drowned1 was now ushered trembling into the presence of the grim hag ,miru1 generally known as the ,ruddy1 because her face reflected the glowing heat of the ever-burning oven in which she cooked her ghostly victims4 ,at first1 however1 she fed1 and perhaps fattened1 them on a diet of black beetles1 red earth-worms1 crabs1 and small blackbirds4 ,thus refreshed1 they had next to drain bowls of strong kava brewed by the fair hands of the hag's four lovely daughters4 ,reduced to a state of insensibility by the intoxicating beverage1 the ghosts were then borne off without a struggle to the oven and cooked4 ,on the substance of these hapless victims ,miru and her son and her peerless daughters regularly subsisted4 ,the leavings of the meal were thrown to the servants4 ,such was the fate of all who died what we should call a natural death1 and therefore of all cowards1 women1 and children4 ,they were annihilated4#fg #fg ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #afa sq42 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 pp4 #cdf sq4 ,not so with warriors who fell fighting on the field of battle4 ,for a time1 indeed1 their souls wandered about among the rocks and trees where their bodies were thrown1 the ghastly wounds by which they met their fate being still visible4 ,the plaintive chirping of a certain cricket1 rarely seen but heard continually at night1 was believed to be the voice of the slain warriors sorrowfully calling to their friends4 ,at last the first who fell would gather his brother ghosts at a place a little beyond ,araia1 on the edge of the cliff and facing the sunset4 ,there they would linger for a time4 ,but suddenly a mountain sprang up at their feet1 and they ascended it over the spears and clubs which had given them their mortal wounds4 ,arrived at the summit they leaped up into the blue expanse1 thus becoming the peculiar clouds of the winter or dry season4 ,during the rainy season they could mount up to the warriors' paradise in the sky4 ,in ,june1 the first month of winter1 the atmosphere was pervaded by these ghosts1 to whom the chilliness of death still clung4 ,for days together their thronging shapes hid the sun1 dimming the sky and spreading among men the heaviness and oppression of spirits which are characteristic of the season4 ,but with the early days of ,august1 when the coral-tree puts forth its blood-red blossoms and the sky grows mottled with light fleecy clouds1 the ghosts of the brave prepare to take flight for heaven4 ,soon the sky is cloudless1 the weather bright and warm4 ,the ghosts have fled away1 and the living resume their wonted avocations in quiet and comfort4#fh #fh ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #afb sq4 ,in their celestial home the spirits of the slain are immortal4 ,there1 in memory of their deeds on earth1 they dance their old war dances over again1 decked with gay flowers--the white gardenia1 the yellow bua1 the golden fruit of the pandanus1 and the dark crimson1 bell-like blossom of the native laurel1 intertwined with myrtle2 and from their blissful heights they look down with pity and disgust on the wretched souls in ,avaiki entangled in the fatal net and besmeared with filth4 ,for the spirits of the slain in battle are strong and vigorous1 their bodies never having been wasted by disease2 whereas the spirits of those who die a natural death are excessively feeble and weak1 like their bodies at the moment of dissolution4 ,the natural result of such beliefs was to breed an utter contempt for a violent death1 nay even a desire to seek it4 ,many stories are told of aged warriors1 scarcely able to hold a spear1 who have insisted on being led to the battlefield in the hope of finding a soldier's death and gaining a soldier's paradise4#fi #fi ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #afc sq4 ,beliefs of the same general character concerning the fate of the dead prevailed in other islands of the ,hervey ,group4 ,thus in ,rarotonga the great meeting-place of the ghosts was at ,tuoro1 facing the sunset4 ,there at a stately tree1 called the ,weeping ,laurel1 the disembodied spirits used to bewail their hard fate4 ,if no pitying spirit sent him back to life1 the ghost had to scramble up a branch of an ancient bua tree which grew on the spot4 ,should the bough break under his weight1 the ghost was precipitated into the net which ,muru had spread out for him in a natural circular hollow of the rock4 ,a lively ghost might break the meshes of the net and escape for a while1 but passing on to the outer edge of the reef1 in the hope of traversing the ocean1 he inevitably fell into another net artfully concealed by ,akaanga4 ,from this second net escape was impossible4 ,the demons drew the captive ghosts out of the nets1 and ruthlessly dashing out their brains on the sharp coral they carried off the shattered victims in triumph to devour them in the lower world4 ,ghosts from ,ngatangiia ascended the noble mountain range which stretches across the island1 dipping into the sea at ,tuoro4 ,inexpressibly weary and sad was this journey over a road which foot of living wight had never trod4 ,the departed spirits of this tribe met at a great iron-wood tree1 of which some branches were green and others dead4 ,the souls that trod on the green branches came back to life2 but the souls that crawled on to the dead boughs were at once caught in the net either of ,muru or of ,akaanga4#gj #gj ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 pp4 #afi sq42 id41 ,mangaia 7,hervey ,islands71 op4 cit4 p4 #cdf4 ,in ,rarotonga1 as in ,mangaia1 the lot of warriors who died in battle was much happier than that of the poor wretches who had the misfortune to die quietly in bed or to be otherwise ignominiously snuffed out4 ,the gallant ghosts were said to join ,tiki1 who in ,rarotonga appears to have been a dead warrior1 whereas in ,mangaia1 as we saw1 ,tiki was a dead woman4 ,in the ,rarotongan ,hades1 which also went by the name of ,avaiki1 this ,tiki sat at the threshold of a very long house built with walls of reeds1 and surrounded by shrubs and flowers of fadeless bloom and never-failing perfume4 ,each ghost on his arrival had to make an offering to the warder ,tiki1 who1 thus propitiated1 admitted him to the house4 ,there1 sitting at their ease1 eating1 drinking1 dancing1 or sleeping1 the brave of past ages dwelt in unwithering beauty and perpetual youth2 there they welcomed newcomers1 and there they told the story of their heroic exploits on earth and fought their old battles over again4 ,but ghosts who had nothing to give to ,tiki were compelled to stay outside in rain and darkness for ever1 shivering with cold and hunger1 watching with envious eyes the joyous revels of the inmates1 and racked with the vain desire of being admitted to share them4#ga #ga ,w4 ,w4 ,gill1 ,myths and ,songs from the ,south ,pacific1 p4 #agj2 ,john ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 pp4 #dgf sq4 ,such beliefs in the survival of the soul after death may have nerved the warrior with fresh courage in battle2 but they can have contributed but little to the happiness and consolation of ordinary people1 who could apparently look forward to nothing better in the life hereafter than being cooked and eaten by a hideous hag4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,society ,,islanders ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,society ,islands ,the ,society ,islands are a large and scattered archipelago in the ,south ,pacific1 situated within #af deg4 and #ah deg4 of ,south latitude1 and between #adh deg4 and #aee deg4 of ,west longitude4 ,they lie some three hundred miles from the ,hervey or ,cook ,islands1 from which they are separated by the open sea4 ,the islands form a chain nearly two hundred miles in length1 extending from north-west to south-east1 and fall into two groups1 an eastern and a western1 which1 on account of the prevailing wind1 are known respectively as the ,windward and ,leeward ,islands4 ,the ,windward or eastern group includes ,eimeo or ,mooerea in the west1 ,maitea in the east1 and ,tahiti1 the principal island of the whole archipelago1 in the centre4 ,in the ,leeward or western group the chief islands are ,huahine1 ,raiatea1 ,tahaa1 and ,borabora4 ,the islands appear to have been first discovered by the ,spanish navigator ,fernandez de ,quiros in #afjf or #afjg1 but after him they were lost sight of till #agfg1 when they were rediscovered by ,wallis4 ,a few years later they were repeatedly visited by ,captain ,cook1 who gave the first full and accurate description of the islands and their inhabitants4#a #a ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #f sq42 ,a4 v4 ,huegel1 ,tahiti1 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,ninth ,edition1 xxiii4 #bb1 #bd2 ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 ,die ,inseln des ,stillen ,oceans1 ii4 #aea sqq42 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 #eaj4 ,as to ,wallis's discovery of the islands see ,j4 ,hawkesworth1 ,voyages1 i4 7,london1 #aggc7 pp4 #dcc sqq42 ,r4 ,kerr1 ,general ,history and ,collection of ,voyages and ,travels1 xii4 7,edinburgh1 #ahad7 pp4 #afd sqq4 ,the islands1 with the exception of a few flat lagoon islands1 are of volcanic formation1 high and mountainous1 consisting for the most part of a central peak or peaks of bold and striking outline1 which descend in steep ridges towards the sea1 sometimes reaching the coast1 but oftener leaving a broad stretch of flat and very fertile land between their last slopes and the beach4 ,between the ridges lie deep and beautiful valleys1 watered by winding streams and teeming with luxuriant vegetation4 ,the rocks of which the islands consist are all igneous1 chiefly trachyte1 dolerite1 basalt1 and lava4 ,they are considered by geologists to present perhaps the most wonderful and instructive example of volcanic rocks to be seen on the globe4 ,yet1 though the islands are judged to be of comparatively recent formation1 there are no traces of volcanic action in them at the present time4 ,the craters have disappeared3 hot springs do not exist2 and earthquakes are rare4#b #b ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #aa sqq42 ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aeb sq42 ,a4 v4 ,huegel1 op4 cit4 p4 #bb2 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 op4 cit4 p4 #eac4 ,the ,society ,islands1 and ,tahiti in particular1 are famous for the beauty of their natural scenery2 indeed1 by general consent they appear to rank as the fairest islands in the ,pacific4 ,travellers vie with each other in praise of their enchanting loveliness4 ,tahiti1 the largest island of the group1 may be taken as typical of them all4 ,it consists of two almost circular islands united by a very low and narrow neck of land3 the northern and larger island is known as ,tahiti the ,great 7,tahiti nui71 the southern and smaller island is known as ,tahiti the ,little 7,tahiti iti74 ,in the centre of each island the mountains rise in craggy peaks1 sometimes in the shape of pyramids or sugar-loaves1 their rocky sides clothed with every variety of verdure1 and enlivened here and there by cataracts falling from lofty cliffs1 while the shore is washed by the white-crested waves of the ,pacific breaking in foam on the coral reefs or dashing in spray on the beach4 ,the scene is especially striking when beheld for the first time from the sea at sunrise on a fine morning4 ,then the happy combination of land and water1 of precipices and plains1 of umbrageous trees drooping their pendent boughs over the sea1 and distant mountains shown in sublime outline and richest hues1 all blended in the harmony of nature1 produces in the beholder sensations of admiration and delight4 ,the inland scenery is of a different character1 but not less impressive4 ,there the prospect is occasionally extensive1 but more frequently circumscribed4 ,there is1 however1 a startling boldness in the towering piles of basalt1 often heaped in picturesque confusion near the source or margin of some crystal stream that flows in silence at their base1 or plashes purling over the rocks that obstruct its bed2 and there is the wildness of romance about the deep and lonely glens1 from which the mountains rise like the steep sides of a natural amphitheatre till they seem to support the clouds that rest upon their summits4 ,in the character of the teeming vegetation1 too1 from the verdant moss that drapes the rocks to the rich foliage of the bread-fruit tree1 the luxuriance of the pandanus1 and the waving plumes of the coconut palm1 all nurtured by a prolific soil and matured by the genial heat of a tropical climate1 there is enough to arrest the attention and to strike the imagination of the wanderer1 who1 in the unbroken silence that reigns in these pleasing solitudes1 may easily fancy himself astray in fairyland and treading enchanted ground4#c #c ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #ad-ah4 ,compare ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #agb sqq42 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #aggg71 i4 #bec sq42 ,j4 ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #cba sqq42 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels 7,london1 #ahca71 i4 #eh sq41 #ajh sqq41 #acf sqq41 #bjf sq41 #bcd sq41 #caf sq41 #eee sq41 ii4 #ea-ec1 #ei-fa2 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eaa sqq4 ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aeb sq42 ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder 7,berlin1 #aijj71 pp4 #bi sqq4 ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,islanders and their ,mode of ,life ,the islanders are1 or were at the date of their discovery by ,europeans1 fine specimens of the ,polynesian race1 being tall1 well-proportioned1 and robust4 ,captain ,cook described them as of the largest size of ,europeans4 ,their complexion varies from olive to bronze and reddish-brown1 frequently presenting a hue intermediate between the yellow of the ,malay and the copper-colour of the ,american ,indians4 ,the hair is shining black or dark brown1 usually straight1 but often soft and curly2 never lank and wiry like that of the ,american ,indians1 and only in rare cases woolly or frizzly like that of the ,papuans4 ,the men have beards1 which they used to wear in a variety of fashions1 always1 however1 plucking out the greater part4 ,the shape of the face is comely1 and the facial angle is often as perpendicular as in ,europeans4 ,the cheek-bones are not high2 the nose is either straight or aquiline1 often accompanied by a fulness about the nostrils2 it is seldom flat1 though it was formerly the practice of mothers and nurses to press the nostrils of the female children1 a broad flat nose being by many regarded as a beauty4 ,the mouth in general is well formed1 though the lips are sometimes large and protuberant1 yet never so much as to resemble the lips of negroes2 the chin is usually prominent4 ,the general aspect of the face very seldom presents any likeness to the ,tartar or ,mongolian cast of countenance2 while the profile frequently bears a most striking resemblance to that of ,europeans4 ,a roundness and fulness of figure1 not usually extending to corpulency1 is characteristic of the race1 especially of the women4 ,in general physique they resemble the ,sandwich ,islanders and ,tonga ,islanders2 according to ,ellis1 they are more robust than the ,marquesans1 but inferior in size and strength to the ,maoris4#d #d ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #age sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #gi sqq42 ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aga2 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 op4 cit4 pp4 #eac sq4 ,their diet is chiefly vegetable2 when ,captain ,cook visited the islands1 the only tame animals were hogs1 dogs1 and poultry4 ,bread-fruit1 taro1 yams1 bananas1 and coconuts are their staple food2 the bread-fruit in particular has been called their staff of life4 ,taro and yams are carefully cultivated by the natives1 and they also grow the sweet potato as an article of food1 though to a less extent than the other two roots2 in quality the sweet potato of ,tahiti is far inferior to that of the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,the sea affords a great variety of fish and shell-fish1 which the natives catch and eat2 nothing that the sea produces is said to come amiss to them4 ,hogs and dogs were in olden times the only quadrupeds whose flesh was eaten by the ,tahitians2 but for the most part they rarely tasted meat1 subsisting almost exclusively on a diet of fruit1 vegetables1 and fish4#e #e ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #ahe sq4 vi4 #aci sqq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cf sqq41 #gj sqq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 ,voyages aux ,iles du ,grand ,ocean 7,paris1 #ahcg71 ii4 #ic sqq42 ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aga sq4 ,the common houses were of an oblong shape1 usually from eighteen to twenty-four feet in length1 by eleven feet in width1 the long sides being parallel to each other1 but the two ends commonly rounded1 especially in the houses of chiefs4 ,the thatched roofs were supported on three parallel rows of wooden posts1 and there being no outer walls and no partitions1 the wind blew freely through them4 ,the floor was covered with mats1 forming a single cushion1 on which the people sat by day and slept at night4 ,in some houses there was a single stool appropriated to the use of the master of the family2 otherwise an ordinary dwelling contained little or no furniture except a few small blocks of wood1 hollowed out on the upper surface so as to form head-rests or pillows4 ,the houses served chiefly as dormitories and as shelters in rain3 the people took their meals in the open air4 ,chiefs1 however1 often owned houses of much larger dimensions1 which were built and maintained for them at the common expense of the district4 ,some of these chiefly dwellings were two hundred feet long1 thirty feet broad1 and twenty feet high under the ridge2 one of them1 belonging to the king1 measured three hundred and seventy feet in length4 ,we read of houses which could contain two or three thousand people2#f and of one particular house in ,tahiti we are informed that it was no less than three hundred and ninety-seven feet long by forty-eight feet broad1 and that the roof was supported in the middle by twenty wooden pillars1 each twenty-one feet high1 while the sides or eaves of the roof rested on one hundred and twenty-four pillars1 each ten feet high4 ,a wooden wall or fence enclosed the whole4 ,this great house was used for the celebration of feasts1 which sometimes lasted for days together1 and at which nearly all the hogs in the island were consumed4#g #f ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aha sqq42 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cda sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #agj sqq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 ii4 #hd sqq4 ,as to the wooden head-rests see ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #ahh sq4 #g ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bac sq4 ,like all the ,polynesians down to the date of their discovery by ,europeans1 the inhabitants of the ,society ,islands were totally ignorant of the use and even of the existence of the metals1 and they had to employ substitutes1 chiefly stone and bone1 for the manufacture of their tools and weapons4 ,of their tools ,captain ,cook gives the following account3 ,they have an adze of stone2 a chisel1 or gouge1 of bone1 generally that of a man's arm between the wrist and elbow2 a rasp of coral2 and the skin of a sting-ray1 with coral sand1 as a filer or polisher4 ,this is a complete catalogue of their tools1 and with these they build houses1 construct canoes1 hew stone1 and fell1 cleave1 carve1 and polish timber4 ,the stone which makes the blade of their adzes is a kind of basaltes1 of a blackish or grey colour1 not very hard1 but of considerable toughness3 they are of different sizes2 some1 that are intended for felling1 weigh from six to eight pounds2 others1 that are used for carving1 not more than so many ounces2 but it is necessary to sharpen both almost every minute2 for which purpose1 a stone and a cocoa-nut shell full of water are always at hand4 ,their greatest exploit1 to which these tools are less equal than to any other1 is felling a tree2 this requires many hands1 and the constant labour of several days4#h ,the earliest missionaries expressed their astonishment that with such simple tools the natives could carve so neatly and finish so smoothly2 our most ingenious workmen1 they declared1 could not excel them4#i #h ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bjd sq4 #i ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #djj4 ,the principal manufacture of the ,society ,islanders was the making of the cloth which they used for their garments4 ,the material for the cloth was furnished by the bark of several trees1 including the paper-mulberry1 the bread-fruit tree1 and a species of wild fig-tree4 ,having been stripped from the tree and soaked in water1 the bark was spread out on a beam and beaten with heavy wooden mallets1 till it was reduced to the proper degree of thinness and flexibility4 ,the finest and most valuable kind of cloth was made chiefly1 and sometimes entirely1 from the bark of the paper-mulberry and was bleached pure white4 ,but vegetable dyes were also commonly employed to stain the cloth with a variety of hues arranged in patterns4 ,the favourite colours were a brilliant scarlet and a bright yellow2 ,captain ,cook described the scarlet as exceedingly beautiful1 brighter and more delicate than any we have in ,europe2 it was produced by a mixture of the juices of two vegetables1 the fruit of a species of fig and the leaves of the ,cordia sebastina or etou tree4 ,the patterns were in this bright scarlet on a yellow ground2 formerly they were altogether devoid of uniformity or regularity1 yet exhibited a considerable degree of taste4 ,the bales of bark-cloth were sometimes as much as two hundred yards long by four yards wide2 the whole bale was in a single piece1 being composed of narrow strips joined together by being beaten with grooved mallets4 ,a chief's wealth was sometimes estimated by the number of bales which he possessed2 the more valuable sort1 covered with matting or cloth of an inferior sort1 were generally hung from the roof of his house4 ,the manufacture of cloth was chiefly in the hands of women2 indeed it was one of their most usual employments4 ,even women of high rank did not disdain this form of industry2 the wives and daughters of chiefs took a pride in manufacturing cloth of a superior quality1 excelling that produced by common women in the elegance of the patterns or the brilliance of the dyes4 ,every family had a little house where the females laboured at the making of cloth2 but in addition every district had a sort of public factory1 consisting of a spacious house where immense quantities of cloth were produced on the occasion of festivals1 the visits of great chiefs1 or other solemnities4 ,in such a factory the women would often assemble to the number of two or three hundred1 and the monotonous din of their hammers falling on the bark was almost deafening2 it began early in the morning1 only to cease at night4 ,yet heard at a distance in some lonely valley the sound was not disagreeable1 telling as it did of industry and peace4#aj #aj ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aif sqq42 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #aggg71 i4 #bgf sq42 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #chi-cib2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #agi sqq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aab sqq4 ,among the other articles manufactured by the ,society ,islanders before the advent of ,europeans were fine mats1 baskets of many different patterns1 ropes1 lines1 and fishing-tackle1 including nets1 hooks1 and harpoons made of cane and pointed with hard wood4 ,in every expedient for taking fish they are said to have been exceedingly ingenious4#aa ,they made bows and arrows1 with which1 as an amusement1 they shot against each other1 not at a mark1 but to see who could shoot farthest4 ,like the rest of the ,polynesians1 they never used these weapons in war4#ab #aa ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bjb sq4 #ab ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cfh2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bag-bbj2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 ii4 #adh-aej4 ,society among these islanders was divided into three ranks2 first the royal family and nobility 7hui arii72 second1 the landed proprietors1 or gentry and farmers 7bue raatira72 and third1 the common people 7manahune74 ,of these1 the landed gentry and farmers were the most numerous and influential class1 constituting at all times the great body of the people and the strength of the nation1 as well as of the army4 ,the petty farmers owned from twenty to a hundred acres4 ,some of the great landowners possessed many hundreds of acres1 and being surrounded by retainers they constituted the aristocracy of the country and imposed a restraint upon the king1 who1 without their co-operation1 could carry but few of his measures4 ,they also frequently acted as priests in their family temples4 ,the common people comprised slaves and servants4 ,the slaves were captives taken in war4 ,their treatment was in general mild1 and if peace continued1 they often regained their freedom and were allowed to return to their own country4#ac #ac ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit44 iii4 #id-ih4 ,compare ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bbe sq4 ,the government of the ,society ,islands1 like that of ,hawaii1 was at least in form an arbitrary monarchy4 ,the supreme authority was vested in the king and was hereditary in his family4 ,it partook of a sacred character1 for in these islands government was closely interwoven with religion2 the king sometimes personated the god and received the homage and prayers of the worshippers2 at other times he officiated as high-priest and transmitted the vows and petitions of the people to the superior deities4 ,the genealogy of the reigning family was usually traced back to the first ages of the world3 in some of the islands the kings were believed to be descended from the gods3 their persons were always sacred1 and their families constituted the highest rank recognised by the people4#ad #ad ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iii4 #ic sq4 ,indeed1 everything in the least degree connected with the king or queen--the cloth they wore1 the houses in which they dwelt1 the canoes in which they voyaged1 the men who carried them when they journeyed by land--became sacred and could not be converted to common use4 ,the very sounds in the language which composed their names could no longer be appropriated to ordinary significations4 ,if on the accession of a king any words in the language were found to resemble his name1 they were abolished and changed for others2 and if any man were bold enough to continue to use them1 not only he but all his relations were immediately put to death2 and the same severity was exercised on any who should dare to apply the sacred name to an animal4 ,thus in process of time the original names of most common objects in the language underwent considerable alterations4 ,no one might touch the body of the king or queen2 nay1 any person who should so much as stand over them1 or pass his hand over their heads1 was liable to pay for the sacrilege with the forfeiture of his life4 ,the very ground on which the king or queen even accidentally trod became sacred2 and any house belonging to a private person which they entered must for ever be vacated by the owner and either set apart for the use of the royal personages or burnt down with every part of its furniture4 ,hence it was a general rule that the king and queen never entered any dwellings except such as were specially dedicated to their use1 and never trod on the ground in any part of the island but their own hereditary districts4 ,in journeying they were always carried on men's shoulders4#ae #ae ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #aee sq42 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cbi2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iii4 #aja sq4 ,the inauguration of a king consisted in girding him with a sacred girdle 7maro ura7 of red1 or red and yellow1 feathers1 which not only raised him to the highest earthly station1 but identified him with the gods4 ,the red feathers were taken from the images of the gods and interwoven with feathers of other colours4 ,a human victim was sacrificed when they began to make the girdle1 and another was sacrificed when it was finished2 sometimes others were slaughtered at intermediate stages1 one for each fresh piece added to the girdle4 ,the blood of the victims was supposed to consecrate the belt4#af #af ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iii4 #ajh sqq4 ,compare ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cbg sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bb sq42 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 #ebf sq41 ii4 #ef4 ,another singular ceremony observed at the installation of a king was this4 ,the king advanced into the sea and bathed there4 ,thither he was followed by the priest of ,oro bearing a branch plucked from a sacred tree that grew within the precincts of the temple4 ,while the king was bathing1 the priest struck him on the back with the holy bough1 at the same time invoking the great god ,taaoroa4 ,this ceremony was designed to purify the monarch from any defilement or guilt he might previously have contracted4 ,see ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iii4 #aaj4 ,the deification of kings in their lifetime would seem not to have been confined to ,tahiti1 but to have prevailed in the other islands of the ,society ,archipelago4 ,we hear particularly of the divinity of the kings of ,raiatea4 ,in that island a place called ,opoa is said to have been the metropolis of idolatry for all the ,south ,pacific ,islands within a compass of five hundred miles4 ,hither1 from every shore1 human victims1 already slain1 were sent to be offered on the altar of the war-god ,oro1 whose principal image was there worshipped4 ,there1 too1 was the residence of the kings of the island1 who1 beside the prerogatives of royalty1 enjoyed divine honours1 and were in fact living idols among the dead ones1 being deified at the time of their accession to political supremacy here4 ,in the latter character1 we presume1 it was1 that these sovereigns 7who always took the name of ,tamatoa7 were wont to receive presents from the kings and chiefs of adjacent and distant islands1 whose gods were all considered tributary to the ,oro of ,raiatea1 and their princes owing homage to its monarch1 who was ,oro's hereditary high-priest1 as well as an independent divinity himself4#ag ,of one particular monarch of this line1 ,tamatoa by name1 we read that he had been enrolled among the gods1 and that as one of the divinities of his subjects1 therefore1 the king was worshipped1 consulted as an oracle1 and had sacrifices and prayers offered to him4#ah #ag ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 #ebi sq4 #ah ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ebd4 ,in the succession to the throne the law of primogeniture prevailed1 and in accordance with a singular usage1 which was invariably observed1 the king regularly abdicated on the birth of his first son and became a subject of his infant offspring4 ,the child was at once proclaimed the sovereign of the people3 the royal title was conferred on him2 and his own father was the first to do him homage by saluting his feet and declaring him king4 ,the public herald was despatched round the island with the flag of the infant monarch3 in every district he unfurled the banner and proclaimed the accession of the youthful sovereign4 ,the insignia of royalty and the homage of the people were at once transferred from the father to the child3 the royal domains and other sources of revenue were appropriated to the maintenance of the household of the infant ruler2 and the father paid him all the marks of reverence and submission which he had hitherto exacted from the people4 ,however1 during the minority of his son the former king appears to have filled the office of regent4 ,this remarkable rule of succession was not limited to the royal house1 but prevailed also in noble families3 no sooner did a baron's wife give birth to a child than the baron was reduced to the rank of a private man1 though he continued to administer the estate for the benefit of the infant1 to whom all the outward marks of honour were now transferred4#ai #ai ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bbe sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iii4 #ii sq4 ,compare ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahj sq41 #cbg1 #ccj1 #ccc2 ,j4 ,turnbull1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #ahac71 pp4 #acd1 #acg1 #ahh sq41 #cdd2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ac sq4 ,sec4 #c4 ,the ,religion of the ,society ,islanders ,if religion consists essentially in a fear of gods1 the natives of the ,society ,islands were a very religious people1 for they believed in a multitude of gods and stood in constant dread of them4 ,whatever attention1 says ,ellis1 the ,tahitians paid to their occupations or amusements1 and whatever energies have been devoted to the prosecution of their barbarous wars1 the claims of all were regarded as inferior to those of their religion4 ,on this every other was dependent1 while each was alike made subservient to its support4#bj ,no people in the world1 in ancient or modern times1 appear to have been more superstitious than the ,south ,sea ,islanders1 or to have been more entirely under the influence of dread from imaginary demons1 or supernatural beings4 ,they had not only their major1 but their minor demons1 or spirits1 and all the minute ramifications of idolatry4#ba ,religious rites were connected with almost every act of their lives4 ,an ubu or prayer was offered before they ate their food1 when they tilled their ground1 planted their gardens1 built their houses1 launched their canoes1 cast their nets1 and commenced or concluded a journey4 ,the first fish taken periodically on their shores1 together with a number of kinds regarded as sacred1 were conveyed to the altar4 ,the first-fruits of their orchards and gardens were also taumaha1 or offered1 with a portion of their live-stock1 which consisted of pigs1 dogs1 and fowls1 as it was supposed death would be inflicted on the owner or the occupant of the land1 from which the god should not receive such acknowledgment4#bb #bj ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cba2 compare ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dag4 #ba ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cfa4 #bb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cej4 ,different gods were worshipped in different islands1 and even in different parts of the same island1#bc and if a deity failed to answer the expectations of his worshippers1 they did not scruple to change him for another4 ,in ,captain ,cook's time the people of ,tiaraboo 7,tairaboo71 the southern peninsula of ,tahiti1 discarded their two old divinities and adopted in their place ,oraa1 the god of the island of ,bolabola 7,borabora71 apparently because the people of ,bolabola had lately been victorious in war2 and as1 after this change of deity1 they themselves proved very successful in their operations against their enemies1 they imputed the success entirely to their new god1 who1 they literally said1 fought their battles4#bd ,again1 when the prayers and offerings for the recovery of a sick chief were unavailing1 the god was regarded as inexorable1 and was usually banished from the temple1 and his image destroyed4#be #bc ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #adh1 #afj2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #aggh71 p4 #eci4 #bd ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #adh sq4 #be ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #cej4 ,the pantheon and mythology of the ,society ,islands were of the usual ,polynesian type2 some of their chief gods were recognised and worshipped under the same names1 with dialectical differences1 in other islands of the ,pacific4 ,in the beginning they say that all things were in a state of chaos or darkness1 from which the principal deities1 including ,taaroa1 ,oro1 and ,tane1 at last emerged4 ,hence these high gods were said to be born of ,night or the primaeval darkness 7,po74 ,among them all the first place in time and dignity was generally assigned to ,taaroa1 who appears in other parts of ,polynesia as ,tanaroa1 ,tangaroa1 ,tagaloa1 and so on4 ,by some he was spoken of as the progenitor of the other gods and as the creator of the heavens1 the earth1 and sea1 as well as of men1 beasts1 birds1 and fishes2 but others were of opinion that the land or the world had existed before the gods4 ,oro1 the great national god of ,tahiti1 ,raiatea1 and other islands1 was believed to be a son of ,taaroa4#bf ,to these three great gods1 ,oro1 ,tane1 and ,taaroa1 the people sacrificed in great emergencies1 when the deities were thought to be angry4 ,at such times the wrath of the god was revealed to a priest1 who1 wrapt up like a ball in a bundle of cloth1 spoke in a sharp1 shrill1 squeaky voice1 saying1 ,i am angry2 bring me hogs1 kill a man1 and my anger will be appeased4#bg #bf ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbb sqq4 ,compare ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #eci sqq42 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 ii4 #adi sqq42 ,j4 ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #cdc sqq42 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 #ebc 7as to ,taaroa72 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 ,voyages aux ,iles du ,grand ,ocean1 i4 #daf sqq41 #dcf sqq41 #ddb sq4 ,as to ,taaoroa and his counterparts in ,polynesian mythology1 see ,h4 ,hale1 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,ethnography and ,philology1 p4 #bb2 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #dfc sq41 s4v4 ,tangaroa4 #bg ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afg sq4 ,oro is sometimes described as the war-god4#bh ,the great seat of his worship was at ,opoa in the island of ,raiatea3 his principal image was worshipped there with the most bloody and detestable rites2 and thither human victims1 ready slain1 were sent from every shore to be offered on his altar4#bi ,sometimes1 instead of the bodies of the slain1 only their jaw-bones were sent to decorate the temple of ,oro at ,opoa2 long strings of these relics might be seen hanging about the sacred edifice4#cj ,in the small island of ,tahaa1 off ,raiatea1 there was a temple 7marae7 dedicated to ,oro and his two daughters4 ,it belonged to the king and was upheld for the convenience of finding a pretext to get rid1 from time to time1 of obnoxious persons1 of both sexes2 the men slain by assassination1 or in war1 being presented to the male idol1 and the women to his female progeny1 who were held to be as cruelly delighted with blood as their parent4 ,but the human sacrifices brought hither were not allowed to remain and infect the atmosphere4 ,when they had lain upon the altar till they became offensive1 the carcases were transported to ,oro's metropolitan temple at ,opoa1 in ,raiatea1 which was the common ,golgotha of his victims4#ca #bh ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #aad1 #ebi4 #bi ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ebi4 #cj ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ad4 ,in a long house in the southern part of ,tahiti1 ,captain ,cook saw1 at one end of it1 a semicircular board1 from which hung fifteen human jaw-bones1 apparently fresh2 not one of them wanted a tooth4 ,he was told that they had been carried away as trophies1 the people here carrying away the jaw-bones of their enemies1 as the ,indians of ,north ,america do the scalps4 ,see ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aeb1 #afj4 #ca ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #edi4 ,oro was said to have instituted the notorious ,society of the ,areois1 a licentious fraternity of strolling players and mountebanks1 who roamed about in troupes from island to island1 everywhere entertaining the populace by their shows1 which comprised recitations1 songs1 dramatic performances1 wrestling matches1 and especially dances1 which were often of a lascivious character4#cb ,these exhibitions1 which were witnessed by crowds and appear to have been the most popular amusement of the islanders1 were given in large1 substantial1 sometimes highly ornamented1 houses1 which were erected chiefly for the purpose of lodging these itinerant performers1 and providing them with suitable places for their performances4#cc ,the first missionaries describe how1 in a long native house where they lodged for the night1 they saw the ,areois men and women dancing and singing till near midnight3 so great were their numbers that they made the house appear like a village4#cd ,sometimes1 apparently1 the performances took place in front of the house1 the musicians1 singers1 and reciters occupying a sort of stage1 while the actors or dancers performed on a place marked out for them on the ground or on the floor4#ce ,the subject of their songs or recitations was often a legend of the gods1 or of some distinguished member of the ,society1 which was chanted or recited by the performers in chorus seated in a circle on the ground1 while the leader stood in the centre and introduced the recitation with a sort of prologue1 accompanied by antic gestures and attitudes4#cf ,in these recitals the tales often turned on romantic and diverting episodes in the lives of ancestors or of deities4 ,many of these were very long1 and regularly composed1 so as to be repeated verbatim1 or with such illustrations only as the wit or fancy of the narrator might have the skill to introduce4 ,their captain on public occasions1 was placed cross-legged on a stool seven feet high1 with a fan in his hand1 in the midst of the circle of laughing or admiring auditors1 whom he delighted with his drollery1 or transported with his grimaces1 being1 in fact1 the merry-andrew of the corps1 who1 like a wise fool1 well knew how to turn his folly to the best account4#cg #cb ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aic-aie2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #daa-dad2 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 ii4 #abh-ace2 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ef1 #eg1 #ei1 #fe sq41 #aec1 #aed1 #agd1 #aid sq41 #bji1 #cca1 #cce2 ,j4 ,turnbull1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #ahac71 p4 #cfd2 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbf-cbh2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bbi-bdg2 ,waitz-,gerland1 ,anthropologie1 vi4 #cfc-cfi4 #cc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcf sq4 #cd ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #bji4 #ce ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 ii4 #acc sq4 #cf ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bce4 #cg ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbg sq4 ,the ,society of the ,areois was wealthy and highly esteemed2 members were drawn from all social ranks and greatly prided themselves on belonging to it4#ch ,indeed1 they were regarded as a sort of superhuman beings1 closely allied to the gods1 and were treated with a corresponding degree of veneration by many of the vulgar and ignorant4#ci ,they were divided into seven ranks or classes1 the members of which were distinguished from each other by their tattoo marks2 the greater the amount of the tattooing1 the higher the rank of the person4#dj ,admission to the ,society was attended by a variety of ceremonies2 a protracted noviciate followed1 and it was only by progressive advancement that any were promoted to the higher dignities4 ,it was imagined that those who became ,areois were prompted or inspired by the gods to take this step4 ,a candidate for admission1 therefore1 repaired to one of the public exhibitions in that apparent state of frenzy which is commonly supposed to indicate divine inspiration4 ,his face was dyed scarlet2 his hair was perfumed and adorned with flowers1 and he wore a girdle of yellow plantain leaves4 ,thus arrayed1 he rushed through the crowd assembled round the house in which the actors or dancers were performing1 and1 leaping into the circle1 joined with seeming frantic wildness in the dance or pantomime4 ,if the ,society approved of him1 they appointed him to wait as a servant on the principal ,areois1 and after a period of probation he might be inducted into the ,society as a full-fledged member4 ,at his induction1 which took place in a great assembly of the body1 the candidate received a new name1 by which he was thenceforth known in the ,society4#da ,when a member was advanced from a lower to a higher grade1 the ceremony was performed at a public festival which all the members of the ,society in the island were expected to attend4 ,the candidate was then taken to a temple1 where he was solemnly anointed with fragrant oil on the forehead1 and offered a pig to the god4#db #ch ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bci1 #bde2 ,g4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 ii4 #acj2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 pp4 #daa sq4 #ci ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bci1 #bdd2 ,j4 ,turnbull1 op4 cit4 p4 #cfd2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dib4 #dj ,g4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 ii4 #abh sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bch2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dia4 #da ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bci sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dia sqq4 #db ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bda sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dic sq4 ,when a member of the ,society died his body was conveyed by the ,areois to the grand temple1 where the bones of the kings were deposited4 ,there the priest of ,oro1 standing over the corpse1 offered a long prayer to his god4 ,this prayer1 and the ceremonies accompanying it1 were designed to divest the body of all the sacred and mysterious influence which the deceased was thought to have received from the god at the moment when1 in the presence of the idol1 the perfumed oil had been sprinkled on him1 and he had been raised to the order or rank in which he died4 ,by this act they supposed that the sacred influence was restored to ,oro1 by whom it had been imparted4 ,the body was then buried1 like that of a common man1 within the precincts of the temple1 in which the mortal remains of chiefs were interred4#dc ,but if for any reason the corpse were buried in unconsecrated ground1 the ghost would appear to a survivor next day and remonstrate with him1 saying1 ,you have buried me in common earth1 and so long as ,i lie there1 ,i cannot go to heaven4 ,you must bury me with ceremonies1 and in holy ground4 ,after that the corpse was disinterred1 and having been doubled up by tying the arms to the shoulders and the knees to the trunk1 it was buried in a sitting posture in a hole so shallow that the earth barely covered the head4 ,this was esteemed the most honourable form of sepulture1 and was principally confined to personages of high rank4#dd #dc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdd sq4 #dd ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #bgc sq4 ,the ,areoi ,society comprised women as well as men1#de but the accounts given of the proportion of the sexes and their relations to each other are conflicting4 ,according to one account1 the male members outnumbered the women as five to one4#df ,the first missionaries reported that the ,areois were said to have each two or three wives1 whom they exchanged with each other4#dg ,according to ,cook1 every woman was common to every man#dh2 and ,turnbull affirmed that the community of women was the very principle of their union4#di ,on the other hand1 the naturalist ,george ,forster1 who accompanied ,captain ,cook1 observes3 ,we have been told a wanton tale of promiscuous embraces1 where every woman is common to every man3 but when we enquired for a confirmation of this story from the natives1 we were soon convinced that it must1 like many others1 be considered as the groundless invention of a traveller's gay fancy4#ej ,again1 ,ellis observes that1 although addicted to every kind of licentiousness themselves1 each ,areoi had his own wife1 who was also a member of the ,society2 and so jealous were they in this respect1 that improper conduct towards the wife of one of their own number1 was sometimes punished with death4#ea ,yet the same writer speaks of the mysteries of iniquity1 and acts of more than bestial degradation to which the ,areois were at times addicted2 and he says that in some of their meetings1 they appear to have placed their invention on the rack1 to discover the worst pollutions of which it was possible for man to be guilty1 and to have striven to outdo each other in the most revolting practices4#eb #de ,g4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 ii4 #abh4 #df ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbf4 #dg ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #agd4 #dh ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aic sq4 #di ,j4 ,turnbull1 ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #cfd4 #ej ,g4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 ii4 #acb4 #ea ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bci4 #eb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdc4 ,it was a rule of the ,society that no member should have any children2 hence the first injunction given to a new member was to murder his offspring4 ,any infant that might afterwards be born to him was strangled at birth4#ec ,if a woman spared her child and could induce a man to father it1 both the man and the woman1 being deemed by this act to have appropriated each other1 are ejected from the community1 and forfeit all claim to the privileges and pleasures of ,arreoy for the future2 the woman from that time being distinguished by the term whannow-now1 'bearer of children1' which is here a term of reproach4#ed ,the pretext alleged by the ,areois for this cruel practice was that1 on the institution of the ,society by the god ,oro1 the first two members1 ,orotetefa and ,urutetefa1 brothers of the god1 had been celibate and childless1 and that therefore the members of the ,society were bound to imitate them by being also without offspring4#ee #ec ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aid2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations1 pp4 #dac sq42 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage1 ii4 #abi sq42 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aed sq41 #agd1 #aid sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcj sq41 #bcc1 #bdj4 ,moerenhout says that when a chief was an ,areoi1 his first-born son was spared1 but all the rest were sacrificed2 but immediately afterwards he adds1 with apparent inconsistency1 that the first 7by which he seems to mean the principal7 ,areois only killed their first sons and all their daughters2 the other male infants were spared4 ,see ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #die1 #dif4 ,these statements1 so far as ,i have observed1 are not confirmed by other writers4 #ed ,j4 ,cook1 i4 #aid4 #ee ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcj sq41 #bcb sq4 ,in the constant repetition of their often obscene exhibitions the ,areois passed their lives1 sailing from island to island or strolling from one chief's house to that of another1 where they renewed the same round of dances1 wrestlings1 and pantomimic performances4#ef ,but the labour and drudgery of dancing and performing for the amusement of the spectators devolved chiefly on the lowest members of the ,society1 who were the principal actors in all their shows1 while the higher orders1 though they plastered themselves with charcoal and stained themselves scarlet like their humbler brethren1 were generally careful not to contribute to the public hilarity by any exhausting efforts of their own4 ,thus they led a life of dissipation and luxurious indolence4#eg #ef ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcf1 #bcg4 #eg ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bch1 #bda4 ,they seem to have moved about in great troupes4 ,as many as seventy canoes1 with more than seven hundred of these vagabonds on board1 have been seen steering from island to island4#eh ,the approach of such a fleet to the shore with drums beating1 flutes playing1 and streamers floating on the wind1 was a picturesque sight1 and as the canoes neared the land the dancers might be seen jigging it on stages erected on board1 while the voices of the singers mingled with the roll of the drums1 the shrill music of the flutes1 and the roar of the surf on the beach in a confused but not unmelodious babel of sound4#ei #eh ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations1 p4 #dab2 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage1 ii4 #abh4 #ei ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcf sq4 ,compare ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 ii4 #acb sq4 ,according to the latter writer there were traditions of as many as a hundred and fifty canoes sailing at once1 each one seldom containing less than thirty or forty1 and sometimes a hundred persons4 ,on landing in an island their first business was to take a small sucking-pig to the temple and present it to the god as a thank-offering to him for having brought them safe to shore4 ,this1 we are told1 was the only sacrifice ever offered in token of gratitude by any of the ,south ,sea ,islanders to their imaginary divinities4#fj ,while they were everywhere welcomed by the vulgar for the merriment they carried with them1 and were everywhere countenanced and liberally entertained by the kings and chiefs1 who found them convenient tools of fraud and oppression1 they were not received with equal enthusiasm by the farmers1 who had to furnish them with provisions1 and who durst not refuse them anything1 however unreasonable and extortionate their demands4 ,for the ,areois lived on the fat of the land4 ,when they alighted1 like a swarm of locusts1 on a rich district1 they would send out their henchmen to scour the neighbourhood and plunder the miserable inhabitants2 and when they moved on to their next halting-place1 the gardens which they left behind them often presented a scene of desolation and ruin4#fa ,such havoc1 indeed1 did they spread by their feastings and carousings on even a short visit of a few days1 that in some parts of ,tahiti the natives were compelled to abandon the fertile lowlands and retreat up the mountains1 submitting to the trouble of clambering up almost inaccessible slopes and cultivating a less fruitful soil rather than expose much of the produce of their labour to the ravages of these privileged robbers4#fb #fj ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbf sq4 #fa ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcg sq42 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbf-cbh4 ,compare ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #agd1 ,wherever they go they exercise power to seize what they want from the inhabitants4 ,they smite their hand on their breast and say ',harre1 give1' whenever they covet any thing1 and none dares deny them4 ,they never work2 live by plunder2 yet are highly respected1 as none but persons of rank are admitted among them4 ,this last statement1 however1 is contradicted by ,ellis1 who says 7op4 cit4 i4 #bci7 that the fraternity was not confined to any particular rank or grade in society1 but was composed of individuals from every class4 #fb ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #aig4 ,not the least of the privileges1 real or imaginary1 enjoyed by the ,areois was that after death their spirits were believed to pass without difficulty to that paradise of delights to which otherwise none but the noble and wealthy could hope to attain4#fc #fc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bde sq41 #cig2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dcd sq4 ,in spite of the profligate life which the ,areoi led and their addiction to a round of frivolous amusements and entertainments1 it seems likely that the ,society was originally founded for some serious purpose1 though the accounts which have come down to us hardly enable us to determine1 or even to conjecture with a fair degree of probability1 what that purpose was4 ,that its aim was religious might be inferred on general grounds1 and is confirmed by the close relation in which the ,society stood to the national god ,oro4 ,not only is ,oro said to have founded the ,society1 but before a troop of ,areois set out on their peregrinations they were obliged to kill many pigs in sacrifice to him and to offer large quantities of plantains1 bananas1 and other fruits on his altars4 ,moreover1 temporary shrines were erected in their canoes for the worship of ,oro's two divine brothers1 ,orotetefa and ,urutetefa1 who were traditionally said to have been the first members of the ,society and were regarded as its tutelary deities4 ,in these shrines the principal symbols were a stone for each of the brothers taken from ,oro's temple1 and a few red feathers from the inside of his sacred image4 ,into these symbols the gods were supposed to enter when the priest pronounced a short prayer immediately before the sailing of the fleet4#fd #fd ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcd4 ,we might be better able to understand the purpose and the functions of the ,areoi ,society if we were acquainted with the nature and meaning which the natives ascribed to the god ,oro1 the reputed founder of the ,society2 but on this subject our authorities shed little light4 ,he is described as the war-god#fe and as the great national idol of ,raiatea1 ,tahiti1 ,eimeo1 and some of the other islands1 and he was said to be a son of the creator ,taaroa1 who at first dwelt alone up aloft1 but who afterwards1 with the help of his daughter ,hina1 created the heavens1 the earth1 and the sea4#ff ,by ,european writers ,oro has been variously interpreted as a god of the dead or of the sun2 and accordingly the ,society of the ,areois has been variously explained as devoted either to a cult of the ,lord of the ,dead for the sake of securing eternal happiness in a world beyond the grave1 or to a worship of the sun-god2 but the grounds alleged for either interpretation appear to be extremely slight4#fg #fe ,above1 p4 #beh4 #ff ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbd1 #cbe4 #fg ,gerland takes the former view1 ,moerenhout the latter4 ,see ,waitz-,gerland1 ,anthropologie1 vi4 #cfh sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dhd4 ,the only evidence adduced by ,moerenhout for his interpretation of ,oro as a sun-god is a statement that in the ,marquesas ,islands the ,areois suspended their performances and went into retreat from ,april or ,may till the vernal equinox 7which in the southern hemisphere falls in ,september71 and that during their retreat they assumed the style of mourners and bewailed the absence or death of their god1 whom they called ,mahoui4 ,this ,mahoui is accordingly taken by ,moerenhout to be the sun and equated to ,oro1 the god of the ,areois in the ,society ,islands4 ,but ,mahoui seems to be no other than the well-known ,polynesian hero ,maui1 who can hardly have been the sun 7see below1 p4 #bhf note#e72 and ,moerenhout's statement as to the annual period of mourning observed by the ,areois in the ,marquesas ,islands is not1 so far as ,i know1 confirmed by any other writer1 and must1 therefore1 be regarded as open to doubt4 ,his statement and his interpretation of ,oro and ,mahoui were accepted by ,dr4 ,rivers1 who made them the basis of his far-reaching theory of a secret worship of the sun introduced into the ,pacific by immigrants from a far northern country1 who also built the megalithic monuments of ,polynesia and ,micronesia4 ,see ,w4 ,h4 ,r4 ,rivers1 ,sun-cult and ,megaliths in ,polynesia1 ,american ,anthropologist1 xvii4 ,july-,september #aiae1 pp4 #dca sqq4 ,in proof of the supposed connexion between these megalithic monuments and a worship of the sun1 ,dr4 ,rivers says 7p4 #ddj7 that the ,areois held their celebrations in an enclosure called marae or marai1 at one end of which was situated a pyramidical structure with steps leading to a platform on which were placed the images of the gods during the religious celebrations of the people4 ,but if by their celebrations ,dr4 ,rivers means the ordinary dramatic1 musical1 and athletic performances of the ,areois1 he seems to be in error2 for it appears to be certain that these exhibitions were regularly given1 not at the maraes1 but in or before large houses built or specially set apart for the purpose4 ,see above1 pp4 #bei sq4 ,perhaps a faint gleam of light may fall on the mystery of the ,areois from an examination of their traditionary first members and guardian deities1 the two divine brothers1 ,orotetefai and ,urutetefai4 ,the similarity of the names of the brothers suggests that they may have been twins2 for it is a common custom to bestow either the same or a similar name on each of a pair of twins in order to indicate their close relationship to each other4#fh ,if they were twins1 there are some grounds for thinking that they were ,heavenly ,twins2 for their father or creator1 ,taaroa1 seems certainly to have been a sky-god1 and their mother1 ,hina1 is by some authorities regarded as the moon2 moreover1 the two brothers are said to have first descended from the sky to the earth on a rainbow4#fi ,if the twinship of the divine brothers could be made out1 it might perhaps explain some of the peculiar features of the ,areoi ,society4 ,for example1 their remarkable custom of not allowing any of their offspring to live2 for it has been a common custom in many parts of the world to put twins to death4#gj ,further1 the superhuman rank accorded to the ,areois becomes more intelligible on this hypothesis4 ,for among many savage peoples twins are credited with the possession of powers superior to those of ordinary humanity2 in particular1 they are thought to be able to influence the weather for good or evil1 as by causing rain or drought and the wind to blow or be still4#ga ,among the ,baronga of ,south-,eastern ,africa the supposed relation of twins to the sky is very clearly marked4 ,they call the mother of twins by a name which means ,heaven 7,tilo71 and consistently they style the twins themselves ,children of ,heaven 7,bana ba ,tilo74#gb ,the mother is even said to have made ,heaven1 to have carried ,heaven1 and to have ascended to ,heaven4#gc ,the connexion which is believed to exist between her and the twins on the one side and the sky on the other is brought out plainly in the customs which the ,baronga observe for the purpose of procuring rain in time of drought4 ,thus they will take a mother of twins1 put her in a hole1 and pour on her water which they have drawn from all the wells1 till the hole is half full1 and the water comes up to her breast4 ,this is thought to make the rain fall4#gd ,or again1 in order to get rain1 the women will strip themselves naked except for a girdle and head-dress of grass1 and thus attired will go in procession1 headed by a mother of twins1 and pour water on the graves of twins4 ,and if the body of a twin has been buried in dry ground1 they will dig it up and bury it again near a river2 for the grave of a twin1 in their opinion1 should always be wet4 ,thus they hope to draw down rain on the thirsty ground4#ge ,again1 when a thunderstorm is raging and lightning threatens to strike a village1 the ,baronga will say to a twin1 ,help us6 you are a ,child of ,heaven6 ,you can therefore cope with ,heaven2 it will hear you when you speak4 ,so the child goes out of the hut and prays to ,heaven as follows3 ,go away6 ,do not annoy us6 ,we are afraid4 ,go and roar far away4 ,when the thunderstorm is over1 the child is thanked for its services4 ,the mother of twins is also supposed to be able to help in the same way1 for has she not1 as the natives express it1 ascended to ,heaven8 ,they say that she can speak with ,heaven1 and that she is at it or in it4#gf ,among the ,kpelle1 a negro tribe of ,liberia1 twins are regarded as born magicians1 and as such are treated with respect1 and people sometimes make them presents in order to ensure their goodwill2 in doing so they are careful never to make a present to the one twin without the other1 and the twin who was born last gets his present first1 for he is regarded as the first-born4 ,twins are thought by the ,kpelle to do wonders2 they even say that a twin surpasses every medicine-man4#gg ,among the ,fan or ,fang1 a tribe of the ,cameroons in ,west ,africa1 there is a curious superstition that a twin ought not to see a rainbow4 ,should he by accident have caught sight of one1 he must shave his eyebrows and dye the place of the one black and the place of the other red4#gh ,this superstition seems to imply a special relation between twins and the sky1 and it reminds us of the ,tahitian tradition that the two divine brothers1 the first members of the ,areoi ,society1 descended to earth on a rainbow4#gi #fh ,j4 ,rendel ,harris1 ,the ,dioscuri in the ,christian ,legends 7,london1 #aijc71 pp4 #a sqq4 id41 ,the ,cult of the ,heavenly ,twins 7,cambridge1 #aijf71 pp4 #eh sqq42 id41 ,boanerges 7,cambridge1 #aiac71 pp4 #bia sqq4 #fi ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcj1 #bcb4 ,ellis does not admit that ,orotetefa and ,urutetefa were1 strictly speaking1 the sons of ,oro4 ,he writes3 ,according to the traditions of the people1 ,taaroa created1 and1 by means of ,hina1 brought forth when full grown ,orotetefa and ,urutetefa4 ,they were not his sons2 oriori is the term employed by the people1 which seems to mean create 7op4 cit4 i4 #bcj74 ,with regard to ,hina 7,heena71 interpreted as the moon1 or the goddess of the moon1 see ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations1 p4 #edi2 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage1 ii4 #aeb2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit44 i4 #dbh sq41 #deh1 #dgb2 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #fi4 s4v4 ,hina1 ,hina is by far the best known of all ,polynesian legendary personages4 ,in the more easterly islands she is a goddess1 and is almost certainly the ,moon-goddess4 ,similarly ,mr4 ,e4 ,e4 ,v4 ,collocot observes that ,hina is generally regarded as the ,moon-goddess1 and this view was spontaneously put forward by a ,tongan2 in conversation with me 7,journal of the ,polynesian ,society1 xxx4 7#aiba7 p4 #bch74 #gj ,abundant evidence of the custom is produced by ,dr4 ,rendel ,harris in his learned works1 ,the ,cult of the ,heavenly ,twins and ,boanerges4 #ga ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,part ,i41 ,the ,magic ,art and the ,evolution of ,kings1 i4 #bfb sqq4 #gb ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 ,les ,ba-ronga 7,neuchatel1 #ahih71 p4 #dab2 id41 ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe 7,neuchatel1 #aiab-aiac71 ii4 #cid4 #gc ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe1 ii4 #cih4 #gd ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe1 ii4 #cii4 #ge ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 ,les ,ba-ronga1 pp4 #dag sq42 id41 ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe1 ii4 #bif4 #gf ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe1 ii4 #cii sq4 #gg ,d4 ,westermann1 ,die ,kpelle1 ein ,negerstamm in ,liberia 7,goettingen1 #aiba71 pp4 #fh1 #bab1 #cee4 ,the ,bambara1 another tribe of ,west ,africa1 similarly regard the last-born of twins as the elder of the two4 ,see ,jos4 ,henry1 ,les ,bambara 7,muenster i4 ,w41 #aiaj71 p4 #ih4 ,so1 too1 with the ,mossi of the ,sudan4 ,see ,e4 ,mangin1 ,les ,mossi1 ,anthropos1 x4-xi4 7#aiae-aiaf7 p4 #aib4 #gh ,l4 ,martrou1 ,les ',eki' des ,fang1 ,anthropos1 i4 7#aijf7 p4 #gea2 ,h4 ,trilles1 ,le ,totemisme chez les ,fan 7,muenster i4 ,w41 #aiab71 p4 #eic4 ,compare ,h4 ,a4 ,junod1 ,life of a ,south ,african ,tribe1 ii4 #djj1 note#a1 who reports the same superstition among the ,fan on the testimony of his wife1 who was for years a missionary in the tribe4 #gi ,above1 p4 #bfg4 ,another notion about twins which may possibly help to throw light on some of the practices of the ,areoi ,society1 is that they or their parents or both are endowed with a fertilising or prolific virtue1 which enables them to multiply animals or plants and thereby to increase the food supply4 ,thus1 for example1 some tribes of ,northern ,rhodesia keep pigeons in their villages1 and in erecting a pigeon-cote they take care that the first stakes are driven in by a woman who has borne twins1 in order1 they say1 that the pigeons may multiply4#hj ,some ,bantu tribes of this region ascribe a similar virtue to both the father and the mother of twins4 ,they think that such parents exert a beneficial or prolific influence at laying the foundations of pigeon-cotes1 chicken-houses1 goat-pens1 or any other building used for the purposes of breeding2 a certain woman who had borne twins thrice was lately in great request at these functions4#ha ,the ,zulus think that all goats belonging to a twin bring forth young in couples4#hb #hj ,c4 ,gouldsbury and ,h4 ,sheane1 ,the ,great ,plateau of ,northern ,nigeria 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #cjg sq4 #ha ,d4 ,campbell1 ,in the ,heart of ,bantuland 7,london1 #aibb71 p4 #aee4 #hb ,dudley ,kidd1 ,savage ,childhood 7,london1 #aijf71 p4 #di4 ,in the ,central ,district of ,busoga1 ,central ,africa1 when a woman has given birth to twins1 the people of her clan do not sow any seed until the twins have been brought to the field4 ,a pot of cooked grain is set before the children with a cake of sesame and all the seed that is to be sown4 ,the food is eaten by the assembled people1 and afterwards the field is sown in presence of the twins2 the plot is then said to be the field of the twins4 ,the mother of twins must sow her seed before any person of the clan will sow his or hers4#hc ,these customs seem clearly to imply a belief that twins and their mother possess a special power of fertilising the seed4 ,among the ,baganda of ,central ,africa twins were supposed to be sent by ,mukasa1 the great god whose blessing on the crops and on the people was ensured at an annual festival4 ,the twins were thought to be under the protection of the god1 and they bore his name1 the boys being called ,mukasa and the girls ,namukasa4 ,and a series of customs observed by the parents of twins among the ,baganda indicates in the plainest manner a belief that they were endowed with a fertilising virtue which extended1 not only to the crops and the cattle1 but also to human beings4 ,thus the parents of twins were supposed to make people fruitful by sprinkling them with a mixture of water and clay from pots1 of which each of the parents had one4 ,again1 some time after the birth the parents used to make a round of visits to relations and friends1 taking the twins with them4 ,at every house they danced1 the father wearing a crown made from a certain creeper1 and the mother wearing a girdle of the same material4 ,at these dances offerings were made to the twins4 ,these dances were most popular because the people believed that thereby they obtained a special blessing from the god ,mukasa1 who favoured the parents of twins1 and through them dispensed blessing wherever they went4 ,the persons whom the twins and their parents honoured with a visit thought that1 not only they themselves would be blessed and given children1 but that their herds and crops also would be multiplied4 ,a ceremony performed by the father and mother of twins over a flower of the plantain indicated in the plainest1 if the grossest1 fashion the belief of the ,baganda that parents of twins could magically fertilise the plantains which form the staple food of the people4 ,no wonder1 then1 that among them a mother of twins is deemed a source of blessing to the whole community1 and that for some time after the birth both she and the father were sacred and wore a distinctive dress to prevent any one from touching them4 ,the father1 in particular1 could do what he liked1 because he was under the protection of the god2 for example1 he was free to enter anybody's garden and to take the produce at will4 ,special drums1 too1 were made for the parents1 one for the father and one for the mother2 and for some time after the birth these were beaten continually both by day and by night4#hd #hc ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,the ,northern ,bantu 7,cambridge1 #aiae71 p4 #bce4 #hd ,j4 ,roscoe1 ,further ,notes on the ,manners and ,customs of the ,baganda1 ,journal of the ,anthropological ,institute1 xxxii4 7#aijb7 pp4 #cb-cd1 #hj2 id41 ,the ,baganda 7,london1 #aiaa71 pp4 #fd-gb4 ,these two accounts to some extent supplement each other4 ,i have drawn on both4 ,as to the annual festival of the god ,mukasa1 see id41 ,the ,baganda1 pp4 #bih sq4 ,among the ,hos of ,togo1 in ,west ,africa1 in like manner1 special drums are beaten for the parents of twins1 and the parents dance publicly to the music in the main street of the village1 after going nine times round it4 ,some days later the parents go the round of all the ,ho towns1 everywhere executing the same dance to the same music at noon2 but should one of the twins have died in the meantime1 the parents dance at night4 ,it is believed that1 if the customary rites were not performed at the birth of twins1 the parents of the twins would be crippled4 ,curiously enough1 the drums1 to the music of which the parents dance1 may not be beaten by any one without special reason2 and no one else may dance to their music except such as have slain either a man or a leopard4 ,among these people the birth of twins is the occasion of very great rejoicing4 ,they say that the road which the mother of twins goes is better than the road which the rich man goes4#he ,the saying suggests that the ,hos1 like the ,baganda1 regard a mother of twins as diffusing fertility wherever she goes2 and1 on the analogy of the dances of parents of twins among the ,baganda1 we may conjecture that in like manner among the ,hos the parents of twins are supposed to confer the blessing of fruitfulness on all the towns where they dance4 #he ,j4 ,spieth1 ,die ,ewe-,staemme 7,berlin1 #aijf71 pp4 #bjb-bjf4 ,among the ,barundi of ,east ,africa the birth of twins is celebrated with rites1 songs1 and ritual dances1 which last for days and even for weeks4 ,as soon as the news spreads1 the neighbours1 friends1 and relations flock to the house to sing1 bringing with them presents for the parents or offerings to the spirits4 ,the amount of provisions thus accumulated is enormous1 but the parents of the twins benefit little by it2 the great bulk disappears as by magic among the self-invited guests4 ,festivity1 dancing1 and singing are now the order of the day4 ,dancers1 male and female1 their faces painted red and white or yellow1 dance like furies in a circle for hours together1 singing ritual hymns at the top of their voices1 while an old sorceress besprinkles the troop with lustral water4 ,it is commonly believed that if these rites were omitted1 the twins and their parents would die4 ,at the birth of twins it is customary to buy two black sheep or lambs and to dedicate them to the twins1 one to each4 ,these sheep are then left at liberty to run about as they like by day and night1 and to enter the fields and browse at will4 ,if one of them dies it is replaced by another4 ,the animals are described as the guardians of the children1 the receptacle or symbol of their spirits1 in short1 as their fetish4#hf ,to some extent1 they are analogous to the pig which an ,areoi used to offer to the god at the ceremony of his consecration2 for1 though sometimes the animal was killed1 at other times it was liberated1 and1 being regarded as sacred or belonging to the god to whom it had been offered1 was allowed to range the district uncontrolled till it died4#hg ,among the ,baluba1 a tribe of the ,belgian ,congo1 there is great joy at the birth of twins1 and special ceremonies are observed on the occasion4 ,the twins are invariably named ,kyunga and ,kahya1 after the spirits of two ancient kings1 and to these spirits the twins are consecrated4 ,after being washed and decorated they are placed side by side in a winnowing-basket and carried by the women of the family in procession through the village1 headed by the proud father4 ,dancing and singing they go to the ash-heap of the village4 ,there they all rub themselves with ashes and perform another dance4 ,after that1 still led by the father of the twins1 they go to the houses of the chief people1 and in front of each house the father dances1 while the women beat time with their hands4 ,wherever the procession halts1 the householder is expected to come and admire the twins1 to compliment the father1 and to deposit a small present in the winnowing-basket4#hh ,among the ,herero of ,south-,west ,africa the parents of twins are looked on as sacred1 and for a time they may not speak to any one1 and no one may speak to them4 ,but after the lapse of some days the family goes the round of the village1 visiting three or four huts every day4 ,the father of the twins sits down on the right side of the hut1 and the inmates make him offerings of beads1 oxen1 and so forth4 ,when he has thus gone the round of the village1 he repairs to the neighbouring villages1 where the same ceremonies are repeated4 ,it is often a year before he returns to his own village1 and when he does so he brings back with him a great quantity of offerings4 ,henceforth the father of the twins enjoys all the privileges of a priestly chief2 he may sacrifice at the holy fire1 and he may represent and even succeed the chief in the office of priest for the village4 ,the twins themselves are eligible for the same office4 ,if a chief dies a natural death1 he is succeeded in his priestly function by his twin son2 whereas the chieftainship passes to the chief's legal heir1 who is properly the son of his eldest sister1 and who thenceforth assumes the name of the twin4 ,a twin is bound by no taboo2 he may eat of all flesh offered in sacrifice2 he may drink of the milk of every holy cow1 just like the chief and the priest themselves4#hi #hf ,j4 ,m4 ,m4 van der ,burgt1 ,dictionnaire ,francais-,kirundi 7,bois-le-,duc1 #aijc71 pp4 #cbd sq42 ,h4 ,meyer1 ,die ,barundi 7,leipzig1 #aiaf71 pp4 #aaj sq4 #hg ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #bdb4 #hh ,colle1 ,les ,baluba 7,brussels1 #aiac71 i4 #bec-bee4 #hi ,j4 ,irle1 ,die ,herero 7,guetersloh1 #aijf71 pp4 #if-ii4 ,in these cases we are not told that twins and their parents are supposed to be endowed with a power of multiplying the herds and generally of increasing the supply of food by the prolific influence which they diffuse about them2 but the analogy of the customs and beliefs of the ,baganda concerning the birth of twins renders the supposition probable4 ,at least on this hypothesis we can readily understand the round of visits which the parents1 or one of them1 pay to the surrounding towns or villages1 and the presents which are made to them4 ,if they indeed possess a power of imparting fertility and abundance wherever they go1 it is obviously in everybody's interest to be visited by them1 and clearly1 on the same supposition1 it is everybody's duty to make some return to them for the wonderful benefits which they have conferred4 ,similarly we may perhaps suppose that the rounds which the ,areois went from island to island1 dancing1 singing1 and playing their tricks wherever they stopped1 were believed to quicken the fruits of the earth1 and possibly also to multiply the pigs and the fish4 ,on that assumption1 the unlimited right which these vagabonds enjoyed of appropriating and consuming the produce of the gardens was probably accorded to them as a natural and proper remuneration for the inestimable services which their mere presence was believed to render to the crops4 ,the sexual excesses1 in which they appear to have indulged1 would also be intelligible1 if it was imagined that1 on the principle of sympathetic magic1 such indulgences actually promoted the multiplication and growth of plants and animals4 ,but this explanation of the extravagant rites observed by the ,areois1 and of the quaint beliefs entertained concerning them1 is offered only as an hypothesis for what it is worth4 ,it may be worth while noting that among the ,kpelle1 a tribe of ,liberia in ,west ,africa1 there is reported to exist a ,secret ,society of ,twins1#ij but whether it bears any resemblance to the ,society of the ,areois ,i do not know4 #ij ,d4 ,westermann1 ,die ,kpelle1 ein ,negerstamm in ,liberia 7,goettingen1 #aiba71 p4 #bbh4 ,a familiar figure of the ,polynesian pantheon1 who meets us in the mythology of the ,society ,islanders1 was the famous god or hero ,maui4 ,many stories of his exploits were told in the islands4 ,it is said that originally the sky lay flat upon the face of the earth and ocean1 being held down by the legs of a huge cuttle-fish4 ,but ,maui dived into the sea1 and1 grappling with the monster1 utterly dismembered him2 whereupon the sky flew up and expanded into the beautiful blue vault which we now see above us1 with the noonday sun for the keystone of the arch4#ia ,again1 the natives told how1 one day1 sitting in his canoe1 ,maui let down his line with a hook at the end of it and fished up the earth1 which had hitherto lain at the bottom of the sea4#ib ,also he is said to have held the sun with ropes to prevent him from going too fast4#ic ,for it happened that ,maui was hard at work1 building a temple1 when he perceived that the day was declining and that the night would overtake him before he had accomplished his task2 so hastily twining some ropes of coco-nut fibre1 he laid hold of the sun's rays and tethered them by the ropes to a tree1 so that the sun could not stir till ,maui had finished the task he was at4#id ,further1 ,maui is said to have invented the mode of kindling fire by rubbing the point of one stick in the groove of another1#ie which was the way in which the ,society ,islanders regularly made fire4#if ,maui was also supposed to be the cause of earthquakes4#ig ,in ,tahiti a curious image of ,maui was seen and described by ,captain ,cook4 ,it was the figure of a man1 constructed of basket-work1 rudely made1 but not ill-designed2 it was something more than seven feet high1 and rather too bulky in proportion to its height4 ,the wicker skeleton was completely covered with feathers1 which were white where the skin was to appear1 and black in the parts which it is their custom to paint or stain1 and upon the head1 where there was to be a representation of hair3 upon the head also were four protuberances1 three in front and one behind1 which we should have called horns1 but which the ,indians dignified with the name of ,tate ,ete1 little men4 ,the image was called ,manioe1 and was said to be the only one in ,otaheite4 ,they attempted to give us an explanation of its use and design1 but we had not then acquired enough of their language to understand them4 ,we learnt1 however1 afterwards that it was a representation of ,mauwe1 one of their ,eatuas1 or gods of the second class4#ih #ia ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ebf4 #ib ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #ddi sq4 #ic ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #afg4 #id ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 ii4 #dj sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 ii4 #agj sq4 #ie ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ebf4 #if ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ada2 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #ceg2 ,j4 ,turnbull1 ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #cdi2 ,wallis1 in ,r4 ,kerr's ,general ,history and ,collection of ,voyages and ,travels1 xii4 #bab2 id41 in ,j4 ,hawkesworth's ,voyages1 i4 7,london1 #aggc7 p4 #dhc4 #ig ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations1 p4 #edj2 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 ii4 #aea4 ,these writers spell his name ,o-,maouwe and ,o-mauwee4 #ih ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aef sq4 ,besides the high primaeval deities1 born of the ,night1 the ,society ,islanders believed in a host of inferior divinities1 many of whom were said to have been created by ,taaroa1 the supreme god4 ,thus1 between the high gods and the deities of particular places or of particular professions1 there was a class of intermediate deities1 who were not supposed to have existed from the beginning or to have been born of ,night4 ,their origin was veiled in obscurity1 but they were often described as having been renowned men1 who1 after death1 were deified by their descendants4 ,they all received the homage of the people1 and on all public occasions were acknowledged among the gods4#ii ,again1 there were many gods of the sea1 among whom the principal seem to have been ,tuaraatai and ,ruahatu4 ,these were generally called shark gods 7atua mao71 not that the shark was itself deemed a god1 but that it was supposed to be employed by the marine gods as their minister of vengeance4 ,it was only the large blue shark which was believed to act in this capacity2 and it is said that these voracious creatures always spared a shipwrecked priest1 even when they devoured his companions2 nay1 they would recognise a priest on board any canoe1 come at his call1 and retire at his bidding4 ,a priest of one of these shark gods told ,mr4 ,ellis that he or his father had been carried on the back of a shark from ,raiatea to ,huahine1 a distance of twenty miles4 ,other gods were thought to preside over the fisheries1 and to direct the shoals of fish to the coasts4 ,their aid was invoked by fishermen before they launched their canoes and while they were busy at sea4 ,but these marine deities were not supposed by the people to be of equal antiquity with the great primordial gods1 born of the ,night 7atua fauau po74#ajj ,again1 there were gods of the air1 who were sometimes worshipped under the figure of birds4 ,the chief of these aerial deities were thought to be a brother and sister1 who dwelt near the great rock1 which is the foundation of the world4 ,there they imprisoned the stormy winds1 but sent them forth from time to time to punish such as neglected the worship of the gods4 ,in tempests their compassion was besought by mariners tossed on the sea or by their friends on shore4#aja ,to the minds of the islanders there were also gods of hill and dale1 of precipice and ravine4 ,by their rude mythology each lovely island was made a sort of fairy-land1 and the spells of enchantment were thrown over its varied scenes4444 ,the mountain's summit1 and the fleecy mists that hang upon its brows--the rocky defile--the foaming cataract--and the lonely dell--were all regarded as the abode or resort of these invisible beings4#ajb #ii ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbf sq4 ,as to the inferior gods1 see also ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dea sqq4 #ajj ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbg-cbi4 #aja ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbi sq4 ,as to the worship of birds1 ,captain ,cook says3 ,this island ,tahiti indeed1 and the rest that lie near it1 have a particular bird1 some a heron and others a king's fisher1 to which they pay a peculiar regard1 and concerning which they have some superstitious notions with respect to good and bad fortune1 as we have of the swallow and robin-redbreast1 giving them the name of eatua1 and by no means killing or molesting them2 yet they never address a petition to them1 or approach them with any act of adoration4 ,see ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bbd4 #ajb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbi sq41 #cca4 ,the general name for god in the ,society ,islands1 as throughout ,polynesia1 was atua4#ajc ,the word was also applied1 in the expression oramatuas or oromatuas1 to the spirits of departed relatives1 who were also worshipped and ranked among the deities4#ajd ,to these we shall return presently2 meantime it may not be out of place to give some notice of the worship of the other gods1 since in the religion of the ,society ,islanders1 as of other branches of the ,polynesian race1 it was closely interwoven with the worship of the dead4 #ajc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #ccc sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #ddj sqq42 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #cj sq41 s4v4 atua4 ,captain ,cook and the first missionaries spelled the word eatua or eatooa4 ,see ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bba1 vi4 #adi2 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdc4 #ajd ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbd sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #ded sq4 ,sec4 #d4 ,the ,temples and ,images of the ,gods ,the sacred place dedicated to religious worship was called a morai1 or1 as it is also spelled1 a marai or marae1 which may be translated temple1 though all such places were uncovered and open to the sky4 ,the national temples1 where the principal idols were deposited1 consisted of large walled enclosures1 some of which contained smaller inner courts4 ,the form was frequently that of a square or a parallelogram1 with sides forty or fifty feet long4 ,the area was paved with flat stones1 and two sides of it were enclosed by a high stone wall1 while the front was protected by a low fence1 and within rose in steps or terraces a solid pyramidical structure built of stone1 which usually formed one of the narrow sides of the area1 either at the western or at the eastern end4 ,these pyramids1 which were always truncated so as to form a narrow platform or ridge on their upper surface1 were the most striking and characteristic feature of the morais2 indeed the name morai or marae appears to have been sometimes confined1 at least by ,european observers1 to the pyramid4 ,in front of the pyramid the images were kept and the altars fixed4 ,the houses of the priests and of the keepers of the idols were erected within the enclosure4#aje ,of these interesting monuments1 which seemed destined to last for ages1 only a few insignificant ruins survive2 the rest have been destroyed1 chiefly at the instigation of the missionaries4#ajf #aje ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #cci sqq4 ,compare ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aeg sqq41 #bag1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbb1 vi4 #cg1 sq41 #da2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #edc sqq42 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 i4 #bfg1 ii4 #ach sq42 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bjg sq41 #baa sq42 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfg sq41 #bga1 #bhj sqq41 #edi1 ii4 #ac sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dff-dgj2 ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder1 pp4 #aaa sqq42 ,s4 and ,k4 ,routledge1 ,notes on some ,archaeological ,remains in the ,society and ,austral ,islands1 ,journal of the ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 li4 7#aiba7 #dch sqq4 ,according to ,j4 ,r4 ,forster 7l4c471 the marais 7morais1 maraes7 consist of a very large pile of stones1 generally in the shape of an ,egyptian pyramid1 with large steps2 sometimes this pyramid makes one of the sides of an area1 walled in with square stones and paved with flat stones3 the pyramid is not solid1 but the inside is filled with smaller fragments of coral stones4 #ajf ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder1 p4 #ace4 ,this writer has given us a survey and description of some of the principal remains which existed at the end of the nineteenth century 7pp4 #aaa-adh74 ,the ruins of two maraes in the island of ,moorea are described by ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,routledge 7l4c474 ,in one of them the pyramid stood at the western end of the enclosure1 and in the other at the eastern end4 ,some of the pyramids erected within these sacred enclosures were of great size4 ,in ,tahiti an enormous one was seen and described by ,captain ,cook as well as by later observers4 ,it was of oblong shape and measured two hundred and sixty-seven feet in length by eighty-seven feet in width4 ,it rose in a series of eleven steps or terraces1 each four feet high1 so that the total height of the structure was forty-four feet4 ,each step was formed of a single course of white coral stone1 neatly squared and polished4 ,the steps on the long sides were broader than those at the ends1 so that at the top it terminated1 not in an oblong of the same figure as the base1 but in a ridge like the roof of a house4 ,the interior of the pyramid was solid1 being filled up with round pebbles which1 from the regularity of their figure1 seemed to have been wrought4 ,some of the coral stones were very large2 one of them was three and a half feet long by two and a half feet wide4 ,the foundation of the pyramid was built not of coral1 but of what ,captain ,cook called rock1 by which he probably meant a volcanic stone4 ,these foundation stones were also squared2 one of them measured four feet seven inches by two feet four inches4 ,such a structure1 says ,captain ,cook1 raised without the assistance of iron tools to shape the stones1 or mortar to join them1 struck us with astonishment3 it seemed to be as compact and firm as it could have been made by any workman in ,europe1 except that the steps which range along its greatest length are not perfectly strait1 but sink in a kind of hollow in the middle1 so that the whole surface1 from end to end1 is not a right line1 but a curve4 ,all the stones1 both rock and coral1 must have been brought from a distance1 for there was no quarry in the neighbourhood4 ,the squaring of these blocks with stone tools must1 as ,captain ,cook observes1 have been a work of incredible labour2 but the polishing of them could have been effected more easily by means of the sharp coral sand1 which is found everywhere on the seashore in great abundance4 ,on the top of the pyramid1 and about the middle1 stood the wooden image of a bird2 and near it lay the image of a fish carved in stone4 ,this great pyramid formed part of one side of a spacious area1 nearly square1 which measured three hundred and sixty feet by three hundred and fifty-four1 and was walled in with stone as well as paved with flat stones in its whole extent4 ,notwithstanding the pavement1 several trees were growing within the sacred enclosure4 ,about a hundred yards to the west was another paved area or court1 in which were several small stages raised on wooden pillars about seven feet high4 ,these stages the natives called ewattas4 ,captain ,cook judged them rightly to be altars1 observing that they supported what appeared to be offerings in the shape of provisions of all sorts1 as well as whole hogs and many skulls of hogs and dogs4#ajg #ajg ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aeg-aei4 ,the great pyramid was afterwards visited and described by the first missionaries4 ,their measurements confirm1 while slightly exceeding1 those of ,captain ,cook4 ,they speak1 however1 of ten steps instead of eleven1 and say that the lowest step was six feet high and the rest about five4 ,see ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bjg sq41 with the plate4 ,the pyramids within the sacred enclosure were not usually so large or so lofty4 ,in the island of ,huahine the pyramid of the chief god ,tani or ,tane was a hundred and twenty-four feet long by sixteen feet broad1 and it had only two steps or stories4 ,the lower step or story was about ten feet high and faced with blocks of coral1 set on their edges3 some of these blocks were as high as the step itself4 ,the upper step or story was similarly faced with coral1 but was not more than three feet high4 ,the interior of both stories was filled with earth4 ,in the centre of the principal front stood the god's bed1 a stone platform twenty-four feet long by thirteen feet wide1 but only eighteen inches high4 ,the style and masonry of this pyramid1 as well as its dimensions1 appear to have been very inferior to those of the great one in ,tahiti4 ,the blocks were apparently unhewn and unpolished1 the angles ill formed1 and the walls not straight4 ,venerable and magnificent trees overshadowed the sanctuary4 ,one of them measured fifteen yards in girth above the roots4 ,it is said that the god often wished to fly away1 but that his long tail always caught in the boughs of this giant tree and dragged him down to earth again4#ajh #ajh ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfe sq4 ,these sacred pyramids were erected in any place1 and at any time1 when the priests required1 by the slavish people4 ,on such occasions the former overlooked the latter at their work1 and denounced the most terrible judgments upon those who were remiss at it4 ,the poor wretches were thus compelled to finish their tasks 7burthensome as they often were1 in heaving blocks from the sea1 dragging them ashore1 and heaping them one upon another7 without eating1 which would have desecrated the intended sanctuary4 ,to restrain the gnawings of hunger they bound girdles of bark round their bodies1 tightening the ligatures from time to time1 as their stomachs shrank with emptiness4 ,and1 when the drudgery was done1 it was not uncommon for the remorseless priests to seize one of the miserable builders and sacrifice him to the idol of the place4#aji #aji ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ac sq4 ,temples of this sort were found scattered over the islands in every situation--on hill-tops1 on jutting headlands1 and in the recesses of groves4#aaj ,they varied greatly in size3 some were small and built in the rudest manner1 mere squares of ill-shapen and ill-piled stones4 ,in the island of ,borabora the missionaries found not less than two hundred and twenty of these structures crowded within an area only ten miles in circumference4#aaa ,the trees that grew within the sacred enclosure were sacred4 ,they comprised particularly the tall cypress-like casuarina and the broader-leaved and more exuberant callophyllum1 thespesia1 and cardia4 ,their interlacing boughs formed a thick umbrageous covert1 which often excluded the rays of the sun2 and the contrast between the bright glare of a tropical day outside and the sombre gloom in the depths of the grove1 combined with the sight of the gnarled trunks and twisted boughs of the aged trees1 and the sighing of the wind in the branches1 to strike a religious horror into the mind of the beholder4#aab ,the ground which surrounded the temples 7morais7 was sacred and afforded a sanctuary for criminals4 ,thither they fled on any apprehension of danger1 especially when many human sacrifices were expected1 and thence they might not be torn by violence1 though they were sometimes seduced from their asylum by guile4#aac #aaj ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cda4 #aaa ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ac4 #aab ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cda sq4 #aac ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cea4 ,these remarkable sanctuaries were at once temples for the worship of the gods and burial-places for the human dead4 ,on this combination of functions ,i have already adduced some evidence2#aad but as the point is important1 ,i will cite further testimonies as to the custom of burying the dead in these enclosures4 #aad ,above1 pp4 #aaf sqq4 ,thus ,captain ,cook writes3 ,i must more explicitly observe that there are two places in which the dead are deposited3 one a kind of shed1 where the flesh is suffered to putrefy2 the other an enclosure1 with erections of stones1 where the bones are afterwards buried4 ,the sheds are called tupapow1 and the enclosures morai4 ,the morais are also places of worship4#aae ,again1 after describing how a dead body used to be placed in the temporary house or shed 7tupapow7 and left there to decay for five moons1 ,captain ,cook tells us that what remains of the body is taken down from the bier1 and the bones1 having been scraped and washed very clean1 are buried1 according to the rank of the person1 either within or without a morai3 if the deceased was an earee or chief1 his skull is not buried with the rest of the bones1 but is wrapped up in fine cloth1 and put in a kind of box made for that purpose1 which is also placed in the morai4 ,this coffer is called ewharre no te orometua1 the house of a teacher or master4#aaf #aae ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bag4 #aaf ,j4 ,cook1 op4 cit4 i4 #bai4 ,again1 after describing the human sacrifice which he witnessed at the great morai at ,attahooroo1 in ,tahiti1 ,captain ,cook proceeds as follows3 ,the morai 7which1 undoubtedly1 is a place of worship1 sacrifice1 and burial at the same time71 where the sacrifice was now offered1 is that where the supreme chief of the whole island is always buried1 and is appropriated to his family1 and some of the principal people4 ,it differs little from the common ones1 except in extent4 ,its principal part is a large oblong pile of stones1 lying loosely upon each other1 about twelve or fourteen feet high1 contracted toward the top1 with a square area on each side1 loosely paved with pebble stones1 under which the bones of the chiefs are buried4444 ,the human sacrifices are buried under different parts of the pavement4#aag #aag ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #cg4 ,again1 ,captain ,cook tells us that after a battle the victors used to collect all the dead that had fallen into their hands and bring them to the morai1 where1 with much ceremony1 they dug a hole and buried all the bodies in it as so many offerings to the gods2 but the skulls of the slain were never afterwards taken up4 ,their own great chiefs who fell in battle were treated in a different manner4 ,captain ,cook was informed that the bodies of the late king and two chiefs1 who were slain in battle1 were brought to the morai at ,attahooroo4 ,there the priests cut out the bowels of the corpses before the great altar1 and the bodies were afterwards buried at three different spots in the great pile of stones which formed the most conspicuous feature of the morai4 ,common men who perished in the same battle were all buried in a single hole at the foot of the pile4 ,the spots where the bodies of the king and chiefs reposed were pointed out to ,captain ,cook and his companions4#aah #aah ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #dj sq4 ,again1 in the island of ,tahiti1 the naturalist ,george ,forster1 who accompanied ,captain ,cook1 saw a stone building1 in form of the frustum of a pyramid1 constructed in terraces or steps1 and measuring about twenty yards in length at the base4 ,this the native said was a burying-place and place of worship1 marai1 and distinguished it by the name of marai no-,aheatua1 the burying-place of ,aheatua1 the present king of ,tiarroboo4#aai #aai ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 i4 #bfg4 ,again1 in the island of ,huahine1 the missionaries ,tyerman and ,bennet saw a pagan marae hard by1 where the sovereigns of ,huahine were buried--and where1 indeed1 they lay in more than oriental state1 each one resting in his bed1 at the foot of the ,sacred ,mountain1 beneath the umbrage of the magnificent aoa tree1 and near the beach for ever washed by waters that roll round the world4444 ,the great marae itself was dedicated to ,tani1 the father of the gods here2 but the whole ground adjacent was marked with the vestiges of smaller maraes--private places for worship and family interment--while this was the capital of the island and the headquarters of royalty and idolatry4#abj ,a little later1 speaking of the same sacred place1 the missionaries observe1 ,the first marae that we visited was the sepulchral one of the kings of ,huahine1 for many generations4 ,it was an oblong inclosure1 forty-five feet long by twenty broad1 fenced with a strong stone wall4 ,here the bodies of the deceased1 according to the manner of the country1 being bound up1 with the arms doubled to their shoulders1 the legs bent under their thighs and both forced upwards against the abdomen1 were let down1 without coffins1 into a hole prepared for their reception1 and just deep enough to allow the earth to cover their heads4#aba #abj ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #bga4 #aba ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #bhj4 ,one of our best authorities on these islands1 ,william ,ellis1 speaks of the maraes 7morais71 whether they belonged to private families1 to districts1 or to the kings1 as being the general depositories of the bones of the departed1 whose bodies had been embalmed2 and as a motive for the practice he alleges the sanctity which attached to these places1 and which might naturally be supposed to guard the graves against impious and malicious violation4#abb ,however1 the first missionaries say of the islanders that they bury none in the morai1 but those offered in sacrifice1 or slain in battle1 or the children of chiefs which have been strangled at the birth--an act of atrocious inhumanity too common4#abc ,according to ,moerenhout1 the marais 7morais7 belonging to private families were often used as cemeteries2 but in the public marais none but the human victims1 and sometimes the priests1 were interred4#abd ,thus there is to some extent a conflict of testimony between our authorities on the subject of burial in the temples4 ,but the evidence which ,i have adduced seems to render it probable that many at least of the morais served as burial-grounds for kings and chiefs of high degree1 and even for common men who had fallen fighting in the service of their country4 #abb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #dje4 ,see above1 pp4 #aag sq4 #abc ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cfd4 #abd ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dgj4 ,in more recent years the ,german traveller1 ,arthur ,baessler1 who examined and described the existing ruins of these sacred edifices1 denied that the maraes 7morais7 were places of burial1 while he allowed that they were places of worship4#abe ,he distinguished a marae from an ahu1 admitting at the same time that they closely resembled each other1 both in their structure and in the ritual celebrated at them4#abf ,according to him1 a marae was a sort of domestic chapel1 the possession of which constituted the most distinctive mark of a noble family4 ,every chief1 high or low1 had one of them and took rank according to its antiquity4#abg ,it was an oblong area1 open to the sky and enclosed by walls on three sides and by a pyramid on the fourth3 walls and pyramid alike were built of blocks of stone or coral4#abh ,the ahu1 on the other hand1 was a monument erected to the memory of a distinguished chief1 whose mortal remains were deposited in it4 ,but apart from the grave which it contained1 the ahu1 according to ,baessler1 hardly differed from a marae1 though it was mostly larger3 it was a great walled enclosure with a pyramid1 altars1 and houses of the priests4 ,and the ritual celebrated in the ahu resembled the ritual performed in the marae3 there1 too1 the faithful assembled to pray1 and there the priests recited the same liturgy4#abi ,thus both the form and1 to some extent at least1 the function of the two types of sanctuary presented a close similarity4 ,the islanders themselves1 it appears1 do not always clearly distinguish them at the present day4#acj ,and the single distinction on which ,baessler insisted1 that the dead were buried in the ahu but not in the marae1 seems not to hold good universally1 even on ,baessler's own showing4 ,for he admits that1 if ever a chief was buried in his own marae1 it must have been in most exceptional cases1 but probably statements to that effect rest only on a confusion of the marae with the ahu2 such a practice would also run counter to the habits of the natives1 who sought the most secret places for their dead1 and certainly concealed the heads in caves difficult of access and unknown to others4 ,on the other hand1 the maraes of humbler families may more frequently1 if not as a rule1 have served as places of burial4#aca ,and even in regard to the holiest marae1 dedicated to the great god ,oro1 in the island of ,raiatea1#acb ,baessler himself cites a tradition1 apparently well authenticated1 that a great number of warriors slain in battle were buried in it4#acc ,the argument that the people buried their dead1 or at all events their skulls1 only in remote caves among the mountains seems untenable2 for according to the evidence of earlier writers the practice of concealing the bones or the skulls of the dead in caves was generally1 if not always1 a precaution adopted in time of war1 to prevent these sacred relics from falling into the hands of invaders2 the regular custom seems to have been to bury the bones in or near the marae and to keep the skulls either there or in the house4#acd ,on the whole1 then1 it is perhaps safer to follow earlier and1 from the nature of the case1 better-informed writers in neglecting the distinction which ,baessler drew between a marae 7morai7 and an ahu4 ,in any case we have ,baessler's testimony that an ahu was at once a place of burial and a place of worship4 ,there seems to be no evidence that any of these sacred edifices1 whether maraes or ahus1 were associated with a worship of the sun4 ,on the other hand1 it is certain that some at least of them were dedicated1 partly or chiefly1 to a cult of the dead1 which formed a very important element in the religion of the ,society ,islanders1 whereas there is little or nothing to show that they adored either the sun1 or any other of the heavenly bodies1 with the possible exception of the moon4#ace ,this did not1 however1 prevent them from entertaining absurd notions concerning these great luminaries4 ,at an eclipse they imagined that the moon or the sun was being swallowed by some god whom they had offended2 and on such occasions they repaired to the temple and offered prayers and liberal presents to the deity for the purpose of inducing him to disgorge the luminary4#acf #abe ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder1 pp4 #aaf sq41 #abg sq41 #add sq4 #abf ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #acj1 #aca4 #abg ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 p4 #aai4 #abh ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aag sq4 #abi ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #acj sq4 #acj ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 p4 #adj4 #aca ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 p4 #abg4 #acb ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abd1 #ada4 #acc ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abg sq41 #add sq4 #acd ,see below1 p4 #caa4 #ace ,ellis says1 ,i am not aware that they rendered divine homage either to the sun or moon 7,polynesian ,researches1 iii4 #aga74 ,speaking of the ,areois1 ,moerenhout says that it seems to me clear that though they did not adore directly the sun and the other stars1 nevertheless their worship was little else than sabeism or the adoration of the visible and animated universe 7op4 cit4 i4 #ejc74 ,he interpreted both ,oro and ,maui or ,mahoui 7as he spells the name7 as the sun-god 7op4 cit4 i4 #dhd1 #ejb1 #ejc1 #efj sq472 but these interpretations appear to be his own guesses1 unsupported by any statement of the natives4 ,maui was the great ,polynesian hero1 one of whose most famous exploits was catching the sun in a snare and compelling him to move more slowly 7,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #bcd sqq41 s4v4 ,maui2 see above1 p4 #bge72 but this story1 far from favouring the identification of ,maui with the sun1 seems fatal to it4 ,according to ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 the great god ,taroa 7,taaroa7 was thought to have created the sun and to dwell in it 7,observations1 p4 #edj72 but even if this statement is correct1 it hardly implies a worship of the sun4 ,with regard to the moon1 the same writer tells us 7l4c47 that it was supposed to be procreated by a goddess named ,o-,heena1 who presides in the black cloud which appears in this luminary2 and the statement is repeated by his son1 ,george ,forster1 who adds3 ,the women sing a short couplet1 which seems to be an act of adoration paid to that divinity ,o-,heena1 perhaps because they suppose her to have some influence upon their physical oeconomy4444 ',the cloud within the moon1 that cloud ,i love' 7,voyage round the ,world1 ii4 #aeb74 ,this so far seems to imply a reverence for the moon2 and there are some grounds for thinking that ,o-,heena or ,hina 7as the name is usually spelt7 was in ,eastern ,polynesia a moon-goddess4 ,see above1 p4 #bfg1 note#b4 #acf ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cca sq41 iii4 #aga4 ,according to another account1 the sun and moon in eclipse were supposed to be in the act of copulation4 ,see ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdf4 ,temples such as have been described were erected on all important occasions1 such as a war1 a decisive victory1 or the installation of a great chief or king of a whole island4 ,in these latter cases the natives boasted that the number of persons present was so great that1 if each of them only brought a single stone1 the amount of stones thus collected would have sufficed to build their largest temples and pyramids4#acg ,one of the occasions when it became necessary to build new temples was when the old ones had been overthrown by enemies in war4 ,after such a desecration it was customary to perform a ceremony for the purpose of purifying the land from the defilement which it had incurred through the devastations of the foe1 who had1 perhaps1 demolished the temples1 destroyed or mutilated the idols1 and burned with fire the curiously carved pieces of wood which marked the sacred places of interment and represented the spirits of the dead 7tiis74 ,before the rite of purification was performed the temples were rebuilt1 new altars reared1 new images placed within the sacred precincts1 and new wooden effigies set up near the graves4 ,at the close of the rites in the new temples1 the worshippers repaired to the seashore1 where the chief priest offered a short prayer and the people dragged a net of coco-nut leaves through a shallow part of the sea1 usually detaching small pieces of coral1 which they brought ashore4 ,these were called fish and were delivered to the priest1 who conveyed them to the temple and deposited them on the altar1 offering at the same time a prayer to induce the gods to cleanse the land from pollution1 that it might be as pure as the coral fresh from the sea4 ,it was now thought safe to abide on the soil and to eat of its produce1 whereas if the ceremony had not been performed1 death would have been1 in the opinion of the people1 the consequence of partaking of fruits grown on the defiled land4#ach #acg ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dfh4 #ach ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cdh sq4 ,the temples were sacred4 ,when a man approached one of them to worship or to bring his offering to the altar1 he bared his body to the waist in sign of reverence and humility4#aci ,women in general might not enter a temple1 but when their presence was indispensable for certain ceremonies1 the ground was covered with cloth1 on which they walked1 lest they should defile the holy place with their feet4#adj ,for example1 some six weeks or two months after the birth of a child the father and mother took the child to a temple1 where they both offered their blood to the gods by cutting their heads with shark's teeth and allowing the blood to drip on leaves1 which they laid on the altar4 ,on this occasion the husband spread a cloth on the floor of the temple for his wife to tread upon1 for she might not step on the ground or the pavement4#ada ,similarly at marriage bride and bridegroom visited the family temple 7marae1 morai71 where the skulls of their ancestors were brought out and placed before them2 but a large white cloth had to be spread out on the pavement for the bride to walk upon4 ,sometimes at these marriage rites the female relatives cut their faces and brows with shark's teeth1 caught the flowing blood on cloth1 and deposited the cloth1 sprinkled with the mingled blood of the mothers of the married pair1 at the feet of the bride4#adb ,at other times the mother of the bride gashed her own person cruelly with a shark's tooth1 and having filled a coco-nut basin with the blood which flowed from her wounds1 she presented it to the bridegroom1 who immediately threw it from him4#adc ,while certain festivals were being celebrated at the temples the exclusion of women from them was still more rigid4 ,thus in the island of ,huahine1 during the celebration of the great annual festival1 at which all the idols of the island were brought from their various shrines to the principal temple to be clothed with new dresses and ornaments1 no woman was allowed to approach any of the sacred edifices under pain of death1 which was instantly inflicted by whoever witnessed the sacrilege4 ,even if the wives and children of the priests themselves came within a certain distance1 while some particular services were going on1 they were murdered on the spot by their husbands and fathers with the utmost ferocity4#add #aci ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bbd2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #edg2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dfi4 ,elsewhere 7vi4 #adi7 ,captain ,cook mentions that the baring of the body on the approach to a temple was especially incumbent on women1 who otherwise had to make a considerable circuit to avoid the sacred edifice4 #adj ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dfi sq42 ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder1 pp4 #abf sq4 #ada ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #ecf sq4 #adb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bga sq4 #adc ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #eeh4 #add ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfg sq4 ,some of these sacred edifices are still impressive in their ruins and deserve the name of megalithic monuments4 ,thus the temple 7marae1 morai7 of ,oro at ,opoa1 which was the holiest temple in the island of ,raiatea and perhaps in the ,society ,islands generally1#ade is about a hundred and thirty-eight feet long by twenty-six feet broad4 ,it is enclosed by a wall of gigantic coral blocks standing side by side to a height of about six feet seven inches4 ,the blocks have been hewn from the inner reef2 the outer surfaces were smoothed1 the inner left rough4 ,one of the blocks stands over eleven feet high1 without reckoning the part concealed by the soil2 it is twelve feet wide1 by two and a half feet thick4 ,another block is about ten feet long by eight feet broad and one foot thick4#adf ,in the ruined temple of ,tainuu1 situated in the district of ,tevaitoa1 one block is about eleven and a half feet high by eleven feet wide1 with a thickness varying from twenty inches to two and a half feet4#adg #ade ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder1 pp4 #abd1 #ada2 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ebi sq4 #adf ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 p4 #adb4 #adg ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 p4 #adf4 ,the idols or images of the gods were usually made of wood1 but sometimes of stone4 ,some were rudely carved in human shape2 others were rough unpolished logs1 wrapped in many folds of cloth or covered with a matting of coco-nut fibre4#adh ,the image of the god ,oro was a straight log of casuarina wood1 six feet long1 uncarved1 but decorated with feathers4 ,on the other hand ,taaroa1 the supreme deity of ,polynesia1 was represented by a rudely carved human figure about four feet high1 with a number of little images studding his body to indicate the multitude of gods that had proceeded from him as creator4 ,the body of the god was hollow1 and when it was taken from the temple1 where it had been worshipped for many generations1 it was found to contain a number of small idols in the cavity4 ,it is supposed that these petty gods had been placed there by their worshippers and owners that they might absorb some of the supernatural powers of the greater divinity before being removed to the places where they were to commence deities on their own account4#adi ,with a similar intention it was customary to fill the inside of the hollow images with red feathers in order that the plumes might be impregnated with the divine influence and might afterwards diffuse it for the benefit of the owner of the feathers1 who had placed them in the image for that purpose4 ,the red feathers1 plucked from a small bird which is found in many of the islands1 thus became an ordinary medium for communicating and extending supernatural powers1 not only in the ,society ,islands1 but throughout ,polynesia4 ,the beautiful long tail-feathers of the tropic or man-of-war bird were used for the same purpose4 ,the gods were supposed to be very fond of these feathers and ready to impart their blessed essence to them4 ,hence people brought the feathers to the priest and received from him in exchange two or three which had been sanctified in the stomach of the deity2 on extracting them from that receptacle1 the priest prayed to the god that he would continue to inhabit the red feathers even when they were detached from his divine person4#aej ,the feathers thus consecrated were themselves regarded as in some sense divine and were called gods 7atuas1 oromatuas72 the people had great confidence in their sovereign virtue1 and on occasions of danger they sought them out1 believing that the mere presence of the feathers would afford them adequate protection4 ,for example1 when they were threatened by a storm at sea1 they would hold out the feathers to the menacing clouds and command them to depart4#aea #adh ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #ccg sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dga4 ,according to ,ellis1 the wooden images were made from the durable timber of the aito or casuarina tree1 and the stone images were mostly rude uncarved angular columns of basalt1 of various sizes1 though some were of calcareous or siliceous stone4 ,some stone images1 however1 were rudely carved in human form4 ,see ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder1 pp4 #abh sq4 #adi ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #ced4 #aej ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cch sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dga sqq4 #aea ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dgc sq4 ,sec4 #e4 ,the ,sacrifices1 ,priests1 and ,sacred ,recorders ,the offerings presented to the gods included every kind of valuable property1 such as birds1 fish1 beasts1 the fruits of the earth and the choicest native manufactures4 ,the fruits and other eatables were generally1 but not always1 dressed4 ,portions of the fowls1 pigs1 or fish1 cooked with sacred fire in the temple1 were presented to the deity2 the remainder furnished a banquet for the priests and other sacred persons1 who were privileged to eat of the sacrifices4 ,the portions appropriated to the gods were placed on the altar and left there till they decayed4 ,in the public temples the great altars were wooden stages1 some eight or ten feet high1 supported on a number of wooden posts1 which were sometimes curiously carved and polished4 ,but there were also smaller altars in the temples2 some of them were like round tables1 resting on a single post4 ,domestic altars and such as were erected near the bodies of dead friends were small square structures of wicker-work4 ,in sacrificing pigs they were very anxious not to break a bone or disfigure the animal4 ,hence they used to strangle the animal or bleed it to death4#aeb #aeb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cdd sq4 ,human victims were sacrificed on many occasions1 as in time of war1 at great national festivals1 during the illness of their rulers1 and at the building of a temple4 ,william ,ellis was told that the foundations of some of their sacred edifices were laid in human sacrifices1 and that at least the central pillar1 which supported the roof of one of the sacred houses at ,maeva1 had been planted on the body of a man4 ,the victims were either captives taken in war or persons who had rendered themselves obnoxious to the chiefs or the priests4 ,in the technical language of the priests they were called fish4 ,when once a man had been chosen for sacrifice1 the family to which he belonged was regarded as taboo or devoted to the altar1 and when another victim was wanted1 he was more frequently taken from that family than from any other4 ,similarly1 a district which had once furnished victims was thenceforth devoted4 ,hence1 at the approach of ceremonies which were usually accompanied by human sacrifices1 the members of certain families and the inhabitants of certain districts used to flee to the mountains and hide in caves till the ceremony was over4 ,but the doomed man was seldom apprised of his fate beforehand4 ,a sudden blow with a club or a stone on the nape of the neck was the usual way of despatching him1 lest the body should be mangled or a bone broken4 ,if the blow had only stunned him1 he was soon killed1 and the corpse1 placed in a long basket of coco-nut leaves1 was carried to the temple and offered to the god by being set before the idol4 ,in dedicating it the priest took out one of the eyes and handed it on a leaf to the king1 who made as if he would swallow it1 but passed it on to a priest or attendant4 ,after the ceremony the body1 still wrapt in coco-nut leaves1 was often deposited on the branches of a neighbouring tree1 where it remained some time4 ,finally1 the bones were taken down and buried under the pavement of the temple 7marae74#aec #aec ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cde-cdh4 ,compare ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #afh sqq4 vi4 #bh-da2 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cej sq42 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #edi1 ii4 #ch sq4 ,in the family1 according to patriarchal usage1 the father was the priest1 but the priests of the national temples formed a distinct class2 their office was hereditary4 ,the high priesthood was often held by a member of the royal family1 and sometimes the king himself acted as the national priest4 ,the duties of the priests were to recite prayers1 to present offerings1 and to sacrifice victims4 ,their prayers1 usually uttered in shrill1 chanting tones1 were often exceedingly long and full of repetitions4#aed ,they had plenty of employment1 being called in to officiate on all occasions1 whether at birth or at death1 at feasts or in sickness2 for they were the physicians as well as the clergy of the country4 ,they professed to possess extraordinary powers1 such as to promote conception or to effect abortion1 to cause or to heal disease1 to pray the evil spirit into food1 and even to kill men outright4 ,hence they were greatly feared4#aee ,of the little knowledge that existed in the islands the priests are reported to have possessed the largest share1 but it consisted chiefly in an acquaintance with the names and ranks of the various subordinate deities 7atuas72 however1 according to ,captain ,cook1 they excelled the rest of the people in their knowledge of navigation and astronomy3 indeed1 the very name for priest 7tahowa7 signified nothing more than a man of knowledge4#aef ,in the island of ,huahine the priest whose duty it was to carry the image of the god ,tani 7,tane7 was a personage of such superhuman sanctity that everything which he touched became sacred2 he was1 therefore1 not suffered to marry1 as the honour of being his wife was too much for any mortal woman4 ,but this was not all2 he would himself be so defiled by such a connection that he would be disqualified for his office1 and must immediately resign it2 nay1 if he did not repent1 and return with a great peace-offering to ,tani's house1 he might expect to be first struck blind1 and afterwards strangled in his sleep4 ,he was not allowed to climb a cocoa tree1 because1 if he did1 it would be so hallowed that nobody else durst afterwards ascend it4#aeg #aed ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cdb sq4 ,compare ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #ede sqq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dgd sqq4 #aee ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdh4 #aef ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bbc4 #aeg ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #bgi4 ,one of the most important functions of the priests was to act as mouthpieces of the gods4 ,in the discharge of this duty they were believed to be inspired and possessed by the deity1 who spoke through them to the people4 ,when the time came for them to consult the god1 they assumed an odd fantastic dress1 enriched with red and black feathers1 to which the deity was so partial1 that when the priests approached him in this array1 he descended to earth at their call in one of the sacred birds that frequented the temples 7morais7 and fed on the sacrifices4 ,as soon as the bird lighted on the sacred edifice1 the god left the fowl and entered into the priest4 ,the holy man1 thus inspired1 now stretched himself1 yawned1 and rubbed his arms1 legs1 and body1 which began to be inflated1 as if the skin of the abdomen would burst2 the eyes of the seer were thrown into various contortions1 now staring wide1 now half-shut and sinking into stupor1 while at other times the whole frame was convulsed and appeared to have undergone a sudden and surprising change4 ,the voice sank to a low pitch1 and grew squeaky and broken2 but at times it would suddenly rise to an astonishing height4 ,the words uttered by the possessed man were regarded as oracular1 and nothing that he asked for the god or for himself in this state was ever refused him4 ,of all this the priest himself affected to be entirely unaware1 but a colleague was regularly at hand to record the divine message and the divine requirements1 which were often very large4 ,when the deity took his departure from the priest1 he did so with such convulsions and violence as to leave the man lying motionless and exhausted on the ground1 and the oracle was so timed that this happened at the very moment when the sacred bird1 the vehicle of the god1 flew away from the temple4 ,on coming to himself the priest uttered a loud shriek and seemed to wake as from a profound sleep1 unconscious of everything that had passed4#aeh ,sometimes1 however1 the priest continued to be possessed by the deity for two or three days2 at such times he wore a piece of native cloth1 of a peculiar sort1 round one arm as a sign of his inspiration4 ,his acts during this period were deemed to be those of the god2 hence the greatest attention was paid to his expressions and to the whole of his deportment4 ,indeed1 so long as the fit of inspiration lasted he was called a god 7atua72 but when it was over1 he resumed his ordinary title of priest4#aei #aeh ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cdi sq4 #aei ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cgc-cge4 ,we are told that in his fine frenzy the priest often rolled on the earth1 foaming at the mouth1 as if labouring under the influence of the divinity1 by whom he was possessed1 and1 in shrill cries1 and violent and often indistinct sounds1 revealed the will of the god4#afj ,it would probably be a mistake to assume that on such occasions the frantic behaviour was deliberately assumed and the wild whirling words were consciously uttered for the purpose of deceiving the people2 in short1 that the whole performance was a mere piece of acting1 a bare-faced imposture4 ,it is far more likely that1 bred from childhood to believe in the reality of divine inspiration1 the priest often sincerely imagined himself to be possessed by a deity1 and that1 under the excitement which such an imagination was calculated to produce1 he honestly mistook his own thick-coming fancies for a revelation from the gods4 ,a chief1 who had formerly been a prophet of the god ,oro1 assured the missionaries that although he sometimes feigned his fits of inspiration1 to deceive the credulous multitude1 yet1 at other times1 they came upon him involuntarily and irresistibly4 ,something seemed to rush through his whole frame1 and overpower his spirit1 in a manner which he could not describe4 ,then he frothed at the mouth1 gnashed his teeth1 and distorted his limbs with such violence that it required five or six strong men to hold him4 ,at these times his words were deemed oracles1 and whatever he advised respecting state affairs1 or other matters1 was implicitly observed by king and chiefs4#afa ,thus on the ravings of these crazy fanatics or deliberate impostors often hung the issues of life or death1 of war or peace4#afb ,it appears to have been especially the priests of ,oro who laid claim to inspiration and contrived to shape the destinies of their country through the powerful sway which they exercised over the mind of the king4 ,in their fits of fanatical frenzy1 while they delivered their oracles1 they insisted on the sovereign's implicit compliance with their mandates1 denouncing the most dreadful judgments on him if he should prove refractory4#afc #afj ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cgc sq4 #afa ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #abd4 #afb ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #aad sq4 #afc ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #aba4 ,apart from the priests there was a class of men whose business it was to preserve and hand down to their successors the lists of the gods1 the liturgical prayers1 and the sacred traditions4 ,as these liturgies and legends were often very lengthy and couched in a metaphorical and obscure language1 a prodigious memory and long practice were indispensable for their preservation and transmission among a people to whom the art of writing was unknown4 ,since the slightest mistake in the recitation of a liturgy was deemed the worst of omens and necessitated the suspension of the religious service1 however costly and important the service might be1 the sacred recorders1 as we may call them1 were obliged1 for the sake of their credit1 to practise continually the recitation of the prayers1 legends1 and traditions of which they were the depositories4 ,to aid them in their task they made use of bundles of little sticks of different sizes1 one of which they drew from a bundle at the conclusion of each prayer4 ,it was their duty on solemn occasions to recite these liturgies or sacred poems while they paced slowly by night round the temples 7morais7 and other holy places2 hence they went by the name of harepo1 which means ,walkers by night4 ,we are told that if at these times they made a mistake in a single word or hesitated for a moment1 they stopped and returned home2 and if the subject of their prayers chanced to be some enterprise in which they desired to enlist the favour of the gods1 such a mistake or hesitation was enough to cause the undertaking to be abandoned irretrievably1 since success in it was believed to be impossible4 ,nothing1 it is said1 could be more astonishing than the memory displayed by these men1 while they recited1 word for word1 and for nights together1 the ancient traditions of which the mutilated and mangled remains would demand the assiduous study of several years4 ,the office of sacred recorder 7harepo7 was hereditary in the male line2 the sons were trained in the duties from their earliest years1 but only such as were endowed with an excellent memory could satisfy the requirements of the profession4 ,they believed that a good memory was a gift of the gods4#afd #afd ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #ejd-ejg4 ,sec4 #f4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,human ,soul ,of the ,society ,islanders we are informed that they believe every man to have a separate being within him1 named tee1 which acts in consequence of the impression of the senses1 and combines ideas into thoughts4 ,this being1 which we would call the soul1 exists after death1 and lodges in the wooden images which are placed round the burying-places1 and which are called by the same name1 tee4#afe ,when they were asked in what part of the body the soul resides1 they always answered that it was seated in the belly or in the bowels 7,i roto te obou74 ,they would not admit that the brain could be the seat of thought or the heart of the affections2 and in support of their opinion they alleged the agitation of the bowels in strong emotion1 such as fear and desire4#aff ,hence1 too1 they called thoughts by a phrase which signifies words in the belly 7parou no te oboo74#afg #afe ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 ii4 #aea sq4 ,compare ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #ecd sq41 #edb sq41 where the word for soul is given as ,e-teehee or ,teehee4 #aff ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dca4 #afg ,g4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aea note 994 ,but the ,society ,islanders did not regard the possession of a soul as a privilege peculiar to humanity4 ,according to ,captain ,cook1 they maintain that not only all other animals1 but trees1 fruit1 and even stones1 have souls1 which at death1 or upon being consumed or broken1 ascend to the divinity1 with whom they first mix1 and afterwards pass into the mansion allotted to each4#afh ,their word for soul was varoua1 according to ,moerenhout1 who adds that1 ,it appears that they accorded this varoua 7spirit1 soul7 not only to man1 but even in addition to the animals1 to plants1 to everything that vegetates1 grows or moves on the earth4#afi #afh ,j4 ,cook1 op4 cit4 vi4 #aea4 #afi ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dcj4 ,they thought that the soul of man could be separated for a time from the body during life without causing immediate death4 ,thus1 like many other peoples1 they explained dreams by the supposed absence of the soul during slumber4 ,we are told that they put great confidence in dreams1 and suppose in sleep the soul leaves the body under the care of the guardian angel1 and moves at large through the regions of spirits4 ,thus they say1 ,my soul was such a night in such a place1 and saw such a spirit4 ,when a person dies1 they say his soul is fled away1 harre po1 gone to night4#agj ,but they also believed that a man's soul or spirit could be conjured out of his body by magic art or demoniacal agency4 ,thus1 when people had been robbed1 they would sometimes call in the help of a priest to ascertain the thief4 ,in such a case the priest1 after offering prayers to his demon1 would direct them to dig a hole in the floor of the house and to fill it with water2 then1 taking a young plantain in his hand1 he would stand over the hole and pray to the god1 whom he invoked1 and who1 if he were propitious1 was supposed to conduct the spirit of the thief to the house and to place it over the water4 ,the image of the spirit1 which they believed to resemble the person of the man1 was1 according to their account1 reflected in the water and perceived by the priest1 who was thus able to identify the thief1 alleging that the god had shown him the reflection of the culprit in the water4#aga ,from this it appears that in the opinion of the ,society ,islanders1 as of many other peoples1 a man's soul or spirit is a faithful image of his body4#agb #agj ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdf4 ,in the ,polynesian languages po is the word both for night and for the shades1 the primaeval darkness from which all forms of life were evolved1 and to which the souls of the dead return4 ,see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #cdb1 s4v4 po4 #aga ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #cgh sq4 #agb ,compare ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cif1 ,what their precise ideas of a spirit were1 it is not easy to ascertain4 ,they appear1 however1 to have imagined the shape or form resembled that of the human body1 in which they sometimes appeared in dreams to the survivors4 ,they believed that in the pangs of death the soul keeps fluttering about the lips1 and that1 when all is over1 it ascends and mixes with or1 as they expressed it1 is eaten by the deity4#agc ,when one of their sacred recorders 7harepo71 who had been famous in his life for his knowledge of the ancient traditions1 was at the point of death1 it was customary for his son and successor to place his mouth over the mouth of the dying man1 as if to inhale the parting soul at the moment of quitting the body2 for in this way he was supposed to inherit the lore of his father4 ,the natives1 it is said1 were convinced that these sages owed their learning to this expedient1 though none the less they studied day and night to perfect themselves in their profession4#agd #agc ,j4 ,cook1 op4 cit4 vi4 #aej4 #agd ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #ejg4 ,sec4 #g4 ,disease1 ,death1 and ,mourning ,every disease was supposed to be the result of direct supernatural agency1 and to be inflicted by the gods for some crime committed against the law of taboo of which the sufferer had been guilty2 or it might have been brought upon him by an enemy1 who had compassed his destruction by means of an offering4 ,they explained death in like manner3 according to them1 it was invariably caused by the direct influence of the gods4#age ,they acknowledged1 indeed1 that they possessed poisons which1 taken with food1 produced convulsions and death1 but these effects they traced to the anger of the gods1 who employed the drugs as their material agents or secondary causes4 ,even when a man was killed in battle1 they still saw in his death the hand of a god1 who had actually entered into the weapon that inflicted the fatal blow4#agf #age ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cie2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dcc1 #ech sqq4 #agf ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cie sq4 ,the gods who were thus supposed to afflict human life with sickness and disease and to bring it to an untimely termination in death were not always nor perhaps usually the high primaeval deities2 often they were the souls of the dead1 who ranked among the domestic divinities 7oromatuas74 ,and1 like the ,maoris1#agg the natives of the ,society ,islands are said to have stood in particular fear of the souls of dead infants1 who1 angered at their mother for their too early death1 took their revenge by sending sickness on the surviving members of the family4 ,hence when a woman was ill-treated by her husband1 she would often threaten to insult the ghost of a dead baby2 and this threat1 with the deplorable consequences which it was calculated to entail1 seldom failed to bring the husband to a better frame of mind2 or if he happened to prove recalcitrant1 the other members of the family1 who might be involved in the calamity1 would intercede and restore peace in the household4 ,thus we are told that among these islanders the fear of the dead supplied in some measure the place of natural affection and tenderness in softening and humanising the general manners4#agh #agg ,see above1 p4 #di4 #agh ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #ech sq4 ,disease and death were also attributed to the malignant charms of sorcerers1 who1 hired by an enemy of the sufferer1 procured for the purpose the clipped hair or the spittle of their intended victim1 the flowers or garment he had worn1 or any object which had touched his person4 ,but the real agents who were thought to give effect to the charms were the minor deities1 whom the sorcerer employed to accomplish his nefarious ends4 ,for this purpose he put the hair or other personal refuse of the victim in a bag along with the images and symbols of the petty divinities1 and buried the bag and its contents in a hole which he had dug in the ground4 ,there he left it until1 applying his ear to the hole1 he could hear the soul of the sufferer whimpering down below1 which proved that the charm was taking effect4 ,if the intended victim got wind of these machinations1 it was always in his power to render them abortive1 either by sacrificing to the gods or by sending a present to the sorcerer1 who thus was feed by both sides at the same time4#agi #agi ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #eci-eda4 ,compare ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cfc sqq4 ,however1 most cases of sickness apparently were set down not to the wiles of sorcerers1 but to the displeasure of the deified spirits of the dead4#ahj ,on this point the evidence of the early missionaries is explicit4 ,speaking of the ,society ,islanders1 they say that they regard the spirits of their ancestors1 male and female1 as exalted into eatooas atuas1 deities1 and their favour to be secured by prayers and offerings4 ,every sickness and untoward accident they esteem as the hand of judgment for some offence committed2 and therefore1 if they have injured any person1 they send their peace-offering1 and make the matter up3 and if sick1 send for the priest to offer up prayers and sacrifices to pacify the offended eatooa2 giving anything the priests ask1 as being very reluctant to die4#aha ,as it is their fixed opinion1 that no disease affects them but as a punishment inflicted by their eatooa atua for some offence1 and never brought on themselves by intemperance or imprudence1 they trust more to the prayers of their priests than to any medicine4#ahb #ahj ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #edc4 #aha ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cde4 #ahb ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #djd4 ,they imagined that at death the soul 7varua7 was drawn out of the head by a god or spirit 7atua7 as a sword is drawn out of its scabbard1 and that the spirits of the dead often waited to catch it at the moment when it issued from the body4 ,sometimes the dying man would fancy that he saw the spirits lurking for him at the foot of the bed1 and would cry out in terror1 ,they are waiting for my spirit4 ,guard it6 ,preserve it from them6#ahc #ahc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cif4 ,when the last struggle was over1 a priest or diviner 7tahua tutera7 was called in to ascertain the cause of death4 ,for this purpose he entered his canoe and paddled slowly along on the sea1 near the house in which the dead body was lying1 in order to watch the passage of the departing spirit2 for they thought that it would fly towards him with the emblem of the cause through which the person had died4 ,if he had been cursed by the gods1 the spirit would appear with a flame1 fire being the agent employed in the incantations of the sorcerers1 who had presumably drawn down the curse upon the deceased4 ,if some enemy had bribed the gods to kill him1 the spirit would come with a red feather1 as a sign that evil spirits had entered into his food4 ,after a short time the diviner returned to the house1 announced the cause of death to the survivors1 and received his fee1 the amount of which was regulated by the circumstances of the family4 ,after that a priest was employed to perform ceremonies and recite prayers for the purpose of averting destruction from the surviving members of the family2 but the nature of the ceremonies has not been recorded4#ahd #ahd ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cih sq4 ,when it was manifest that death was approaching1 the relatives and friends1 who had gathered round the sufferer1 broke into loud lamentations and other demonstrations of sorrow1 which redoubled in violence as soon as the spirit had departed4 ,then they not only wailed in the loudest and most affecting tone1 but tore out their hair1 rent their garments1 and cut themselves with shark's teeth or knives in a shocking manner4 ,the instrument usually employed was a small cane1 about four inches long1 with five or six teeth fixed into it on opposite sides4 ,struck forcibly into the head1 these instruments wounded it like a lancet1 so that the blood poured down in copious streams4 ,every woman at marriage provided herself with one of these implements and used it unsparingly on herself on the occasion of a death in the family4 ,some people1 not content with this instrument of torture1 provided themselves with a sort of mallet armed with two or three rows of shark's teeth2 and with this formidable weapon1 on the demise of a relative or friend1 they hammered themselves unmercifully1 striking their skulls1 temples1 cheeks1 and breast1 till the blood flowed profusely from the wounds4 ,at the same time they uttered the most deafening and agonising cries2 and what with their frantic gestures1 the distortion of their countenances1 their torn and dishevelled hair1 and the mingled tears and blood that trickled down their bodies1 they presented altogether a horrible spectacle4 ,this self-inflicted cruelty was practised chiefly by women1 but not by them alone2 for the men on these occasions committed the like enormities1 and not only cut themselves1 but came armed with clubs and other deadly weapons1 which they sometimes plied freely on the bodies of other people4 ,these dismal scenes began with the nearest relatives of the deceased1 but they were not confined to them4 ,no sooner did the tidings spread1 and the sound of wailing was heard throughout the neighbourhood1 than friends and kinsfolk flocked to the spot and joined in the demonstrations of real or affected sorrow4 ,the pageant of woe reached its climax when the deceased was a king or a principal chief4 ,it was then1 above all1 that the tenants and retainers came armed with bludgeons and stones1 with which they fought each other till some of them were wounded or slain2 while others operated on themselves by tearing their hair and lacerating their bodies in the usual manner till their bodies were bedabbled with blood4 ,after the introduction of firearms into the islands1 these lethal weapons lent variety and noise to the combats1 as well as adding to the number of the slain4 ,at the death of a person of distinction these exhibitions of frenzied sorrow sometimes lasted two or three days in succession1 or even longer4#ahe ,on such occasions a body of armed men1 composed of friends and allies1 used to arrive from a neighbouring district and request to be allowed access to the body of the chief1 in order that they might mourn for him in due form4 ,the request was always refused by the bodyguards1 who kept the last vigil over their departed lord2 and in consequence a fight ensued in which several warriors were generally wounded or killed4 ,yet it was only a sham fight1 which seems to have always ended in a victory for the mourners who had come from a distance2 and when it was over1 victors and vanquished regularly united in performing the usual sanguinary rites of mourning4 ,in all the islands wrestling matches1 combats1 and assaults-at-arms were ordinary features of the obsequies of chiefs4#ahf #ahe ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #djg-dji2 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #ceb2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #edf sq4 #ahf ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #eea sq4 ,the blood which women in the paroxysms of grief drew from their bodies1 and the tears which flowed from their eyes1 were received on pieces of cloth1 which were then thrown upon or under the bier as oblations to the dead4#ahg ,sometimes for this purpose a woman would wear a short apron1 which she held up with one hand1 while she cut herself with the other1 till the apron was soaked in blood4 ,afterwards she would dry it in the sun and present it to the bereaved family1 who kept it as a token of the estimation in which the departed had been held4#ahh ,some of the younger mourners used also to cut off their hair and throw it under the bier with the other offerings4#ahi ,when the deceased was a child1 the parents1 in addition to other tokens of grief1 used to cut their hair short on one part of their heads1 leaving the rest long2 sometimes they shaved a square patch on the forehead2 sometimes they left the hair on the forehead and cut off all the rest2 at other times they removed all the hair but a lock over one or both ears2 or again they would clip close one half of the head1 while on the other half the tresses were suffered to grow long2 and these signs of mourning might be continued for two or three years4#aij #ahg ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #ace1 #bah2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #efj4 #ahh ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #daj4 #ahi ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bah2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #efj4 #aij ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ceb sq4 ,captain ,cook tells us that the custom observed by mourners of offering their own blood1 tears1 and hair to their departed relative or friend is founded upon a notion that the soul of the deceased1 which they believe to exist in a separate state1 is hovering about the place where the body is deposited3 that it observes the actions of the survivors1 and is gratified by such testimonies of their affection and grief4#aia ,this explanation1 in perfect harmony with the vigilance1 vanity1 and jealousy commonly ascribed to ghosts1 is in all probability correct4 ,yet it deserves to be noticed that the custom of voluntarily hacking the body with shark's teeth to the effusion of blood was singularly enough practised by the ,society ,islanders on occasions of joy as well as of sorrow4 ,when a husband or a son returned to his family after a season of absence or exposure to danger1 his arrival was greeted1 not only with the cordial welcome and the warm embrace1 but with loud wailing1 while the happy wife or mother cut her body with shark's teeth1 and the gladder she was the more she gashed herself4#aib ,similarly many savage peoples weep over long-absent friends1 or even over strangers1 as a polite form of greeting in which genuine sorrow can hardly be supposed to play a part4#aic ,it is difficult to see how such observances can be based on superstition2 apparently the emotion of joy may express itself in very different ways in different races4 #aia ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bah sq4 #aib ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #daj2 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aif1 #cfb4 #aic ,see ,folk-lore in the ,old ,testament1 ii4 #hb sqq4 ,the natives stood in great fear of the spirits of the dead1 which were supposed to haunt the places of their former abode and to visit the habitations of men1 but seldom on errands of mercy or benevolence4 ,they woke the survivors from their slumbers by squeaking noises to upbraid them with their past wickedness or to reproach them with the neglect of some ceremony1 for which the ghosts were compelled to suffer4 ,thus the people imagined that they lived in a world of spirits1 which surrounded them night and day1 watching every action of their lives and ready to revenge the smallest slight or the least disobedience to their injunctions1 as these were proclaimed to the living by the priests4 ,convulsions and hysterics1 for example1 were ascribed to the action of spirits1 which seized the sufferer1 scratched his face1 tore his hair1 or otherwise maltreated him4#aid #aid ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #djf4 ,this fear of the spirits of the dead induced the ,society ,islanders to resort to some peculiar ceremonies for the protection of the living against the ghosts of persons who had recently died4 ,one of these quaint rites was performed by a priest1 who went by the name of the corpse-praying priest 7tahua bure tiapa-pau74 ,when the corpse had been placed on a platform or bier in a temporary house1 this priest ordered a hole to be dug in the earth or floor1 near the foot of the platform1 and over this hole he prayed to the god by whom the spirit of the deceased had been summoned to its long home4 ,the purport of the prayer was that all the dead man's sins1 and especially that for which his soul had been called to the region of ,night 7po71 should be deposited in that hole1 that they should not attach in any degree to the survivors1 and that the anger of the god might be appeased4 ,the priest next addressed the corpse1 usually saying1 ,with you let the guilt now remain4 ,the pillar or post of the corpse1 as it was called1 was then planted in the hole1 earth was thrown over the guilt of the departed1 and the hole filled up4 ,after that1 the priest proceeded to the side of the corpse1 and taking some small slips of plantain leaf-stalk he fixed two or three of them under each arm1 placed a few on the breast1 and then1 addressing the dead body1 said1 ,there are your family1 there is your child1 there is your wife1 there is your father1 and there is your mother4 ,be satisfied yonder 7that is1 in the world of spirits74 ,look not towards those who are left in this world4 ,the concluding parts of the ceremony were designed to impart contentment to the deceased1 and to prevent his spirit from repairing to the places of his former resort1 and so distressing the survivors4 ,this was considered a most important ceremony1 being a kind of mass for the dead and necessary as well for the peace of the living as for the quiet of the departed4 ,it was seldom omitted by any who could pay the priest his usual fees1 which for this service generally took the form of pigs and cloth1 in proportion to the rank or possessions of the family4#aie #aie ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #dja-djc4 ,compare ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #eeb4 ,soon after the decease of a chief or person of distinction1 another singular ceremony1 called a heva1 was performed by the relatives or dependants1 who personated the ghost of the departed4 ,the principal actor in the procession was a priest or kinsman who wore a curious dress and an imposing head-ornament called a parae4 ,a cap or turban of thick native cloth was fitted close to the head2 in front were two broad mother-of-pearl shells that covered the face like a mask1 with only a small aperture through which the wearer could look in order to find his way4 ,above the mask were fixed a number of long1 white1 red-tipped feathers of the tropic bird1 diverging like rays and forming a radiant circle2 while beneath the mask was a thin yet strong board curved like a crescent1 from which hung a sort of network of small pieces of brilliant mother-of-pearl1 finely polished and strung together on threads4 ,the depth of this network varied according to the taste or means of the family1 but it was generally nine inches or a foot1 and might consist of ten to fifteen or twenty perfectly straight and parallel rows4 ,the labour of making this mother-of-pearl pendant must have been immense2 for many hundred pieces of the shell had to be cut1 ground down to the requisite thinness1 polished and perforated1 without the use of iron tools1 before a single line could be fixed upon the head-dress4 ,fringed with feathers1 the pendant formed a kind of ornamental breastplate or stomacher4 ,attached to it was a garment composed of alternate stripes of black and yellow cloth1 which enveloped the body and reached sometimes to the loins1 to the knees1 or even to the ankles4#aif ,on his back the masker wore an ample cloak or mantle of network covered with glossy pigeon's feathers of a bluish colour4 ,the costume appears to have been intended as a disguise to prevent the spectators from recognising the wearer2 for ,george ,forster1 who has given us an elaborate description of it1 observes that an ample hood of alternate parallel stripes of brown1 yellow1 and white cloth descends from the turban to cover the neck and shoulders1 in order that as little as possible of the human figure may appear4#aig #aif ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #dab sq4 ,compare ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #ace sq41 #ach1 #bai2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #edg-edi4 #aig ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 ii4 #gd4 ,for the full description of the garb1 see id41 ii4 #ga-ge2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #dej-dec4 ,in this strange garb the chief mummer1 who was usually the nearest relation of the deceased1 carried in one hand a formidable weapon1 consisting of a staff about five feet long1 one end of which was rounded to serve as a handle1 while the other end broadened out into a sort of scythe1 of which the inner or concave side was armed with a row of large strong shark's teeth fixed in the wood4 ,in the other hand he bore a kind of clapper formed of two pearl-oyster shells1 beautifully polished4 ,thus attired and equipped1 he led a procession either from the house of the deceased1 or1 according to another account1 from a valley to which1 as if under a paroxysm of grief1 the party had retired at the death of the person for whom the ceremony was performed2 and as he walked along he continued to rattle or jingle the shells against each other to give notice of his approach4 ,with him walked a number of men and boys1 naked except for a girdle1 armed with cudgels1 their faces and bodies painted black1 red1 and white with charcoal and coloured earths4 ,in this impressive style the mummers marched through the district1 the people everywhere fleeing in terror at the sight of them1 and even deserting the houses at their approach4 ,for whenever the leader caught sight of any one1 he ran at him1 and if he overtook the fugitive1 belaboured him with his sharp-toothed club1 to the grievous mauling of the unfortunate wretch2 while1 not to be behind their leader1 the assistants plied their bludgeons on the bodies of all and sundry who chanced to fall into their hands4 ,at such times safety was only to be found in the king's temple1 which served on this as on other occasions as a sort of sanctuary or place of refuge4 ,having thus scoured the country1 the mummers marched several times round the platform where the body was exposed1 after which they bathed in a river and resumed their customary apparel4 ,this performance was repeated at intervals for five moons1 but less and less frequently as the end of the time approached4 ,the longer it lasted1 the greater was the honour supposed to be done to the dead4 ,the relatives took it in turn to assume the fantastic dress and discharge the office of leader4 ,throughout the ceremonies the performers appeared and acted as if they were deranged4 ,they were supposed to be inspired by1 or at all events to represent1 the spirit of the deceased1 to revenge any injury he might have received1 or to punish those who had not shown due respect to his remains4#aih ,hence we may infer that the whole of this quaint masquerade was designed to appease the anger of the ghost1 and so to protect the survivors by preventing him from returning to take vengeance on them for any wrongs or slights he might have suffered at their hands4 #aih ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #ach sq41 #bai2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #efj sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #dac sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #edi sq4 ,according to ,ellis1 the mummers were supposed to be inspired by the spirit of the deceased2 according to ,moerenhout1 they were not inspired by1 but merely represented1 the ghost4 ,the difference between spiritual representation and inspiration is somewhat fine2 too fine perhaps to be apprehended by ,tahitian intelligence4 ,forster says that the procession started from the house of the deceased1 ,ellis that it started from a valley4 ,the same fear of the returning ghost is clearly expressed in a prayer which the natives used to address to a dead relative at burial4 ,they put blossoms of bread-fruit and leaves of the edible fern under the arms of the corpse1 and as they did so1 they prayed1 saying1 ,you go to the ,po ,night1 the ,world of ,shades1 plant bread-fruit there1 and be food for the gods2 but do not come and strangle us1 and we will feed your swine and cultivate your lands4#aii #aii ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 #cbb4 ,sec4 #h4 ,the ,disposal of the ,dead ,the heat of the climate1 by hastening the decomposition of dead bodies1 rendered it necessary that corpses should be speedily removed or treated so as to preserve them for a time from decay4 ,as such treatment was generally too costly for the poor and even the middle ranks of society1 families belonging to these classes were usually obliged to inter their dead on the first or second day after the decease4 ,during the short intervening period the body1 resting on a bed of fragrant green leaves1 was placed on a sort of bier covered with white cloth and decorated with wreaths and garlands of sweet-smelling flowers4 ,round it sat the relatives1 giving vent to their grief in loud and continued lamentations1 and often cutting their temples1 faces1 and breasts with shark's teeth1 till they were covered with blood from their self-inflicted wounds4 ,the bodies were frequently committed to the grave in deep silence2 but sometimes a father would deliver a pathetic oration at the funeral of his son4#bjj ,the grave was generally shallow and the corpse was deposited in a bent posture1 with the hands tied to the knees or to the legs4#bja #bjj ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cii sq4 #bja ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #eec sq4 ,but in the families of chiefs the custom was to submit the bodies of the dead to a sort of embalming and to preserve them above ground for a time4#bjb ,the ,tahitians had a tradition of a rude or unpolished period in their history1 when the bodies of the dead were allowed to remain in the houses in which they lived1 and which were still occupied by the survivors4 ,a kind of stage or altar was erected in the dwelling1 and on it the corpse was deposited4 ,but in a later and more polished age1 which lasted till the advent of ,europeans1 the practice was introduced of building separate houses or sheds for the lodgment of corpses4#bjc #bjb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #djj4 #bjc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #djd4 ,these houses or sheds 7tupapows7 were small temporary buildings1 often neatly constructed4 ,the thatched roof rested on wooden pillars1 which were seldom more than six feet high4 ,the body was laid on a bier or platform raised on posts about three feet from the ground4 ,this bier was movable1 for the purpose of being drawn out1 and of exposing the body to the rays of the sun4 ,the body was usually clothed or covered with cloth1 and for a long time it was carefully rubbed with aromatic oils once a day4 ,the size of these charnel-houses varied with the rank of the persons whose bodies they contained2 the better sort were enclosed by railings4 ,those which were allotted to people of the lower class just sufficed to cover the bier1 and were not railed in4 ,the largest seen by ,captain ,cook was eleven yards long4 ,such houses were ornamented according to the taste and abilities of the surviving kindred1 who never failed to lay a profusion of good cloth about the body1 and sometimes almost covered the outside of the house4#bjd #bjd ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #ic sq41 #ace1 #bag1 #bah2 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hd1 #bab sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #djd2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #edg4 ,but before the corpse was deposited in one of these temporary structures1 it was shrouded in cloth and carried on a bier to the sea-shore1 where it was set down on the beach at the water's edge4 ,there a priest1 who accompanied the procession1 renewed the prayers which he had offered over the body both at the house and on its passage to the shore4 ,further1 he took up water in his hands and sprinkled it towards the corpse1 but not upon it4 ,these prayers and sprinklings he repeated several times1 and between the repetitions the body was carried back some forty or fifty yards from the sea1 only to be brought back again to the water's edge4 ,while these ceremonies were being performed1 the temporary house or shed was being prepared1 in which the corpse was to remain until the flesh had wholly wasted from the bones4 ,thither it was then carried from the beach and laid upon the bier4#bje #bje ,j4 ,cook1 op4 cit4 i4 #bag sq4 ,compare ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #eei4 ,the practice of embalming appears to have been long familiar to the natives of the ,society ,islands4 ,the methods employed by them were simple4 ,sometimes the juices were merely squeezed out of the corpse1 which was then exposed to the sun and anointed with fragrant oils4 ,at other times1 and apparently more usually1 the bowels1 entrails1 and brains were extracted1 and the cavities filled with cloth soaked in perfumed oils1 which were also injected into other parts of the body4 ,scented oils were also rubbed over the outside daily3 every day the corpse was exposed to the sun in a sitting posture3 every night it was laid out horizontally and often turned over1 that it might not remain long on the same side4 ,by these means1 combined with the heat of the sun and the dryness of the atmosphere1 the process of desiccation was effected in the course of a few weeks3 the muscular parts and the eyes shrivelled up2 and the wizened body resembled a skeleton covered with parchment or oilcloth4 ,thus reduced to a mummy1 it was clothed and fixed in a sitting attitude3 a small altar was erected before it2 and offerings of fruit1 food1 and flowers were daily presented by the relatives or by the priest who was appointed to attend to it4 ,for if the deceased was a chief of high rank or great renown1 a priest or other person was set apart to wait upon the corpse and to present food to its mouth at different hours of the day4 ,they supposed that the soul still hovered over the mouldering remains and was pleased by such marks of attention4 ,hence during the exposure of the body in the temporary house the mourners would sometimes renew their lamentations there1 and1 wounding themselves with shark's teeth1 wipe off the blood on a cloth1 and deposit the bloody rag beside the mummy as a proof of their affection4 ,in this state the desiccated body was preserved for many months till the flesh had completely decayed2 ,ellis was of opinion that the best-preserved of these mummies could not be kept for more than twelve months4 ,the bones were then scraped1 washed1 and buried within the precincts of the family temple 7morai71 if the deceased was a chief2 but if he was a commoner1 they were interred outside of the holy ground4 ,however1 the skull was not buried with the bones2 it was carefully wrapt in fine cloth and kept in a box by the family1 it might be for several generations4 ,sometimes the box containing the skull was deposited at the temple1 but often it was hung from the roof of the house4#bjf ,at marriage the skulls of ancestors were sometimes brought out and set before the bride and bridegroom in order1 apparently1 to place the newly wedded pair under the guardianship of the ancestral spirits who had once animated these relics of mortality4#bjg ,in time of war victorious enemies would sometimes despoil the temples of the vanquished and carry off the bones of famous men interred in them2 these they would then subject to the utmost indignity by converting them into chisels1 borers1 or fish-hooks4 ,to prevent this sacrilege the relations of the dead conveyed the bones of their chiefs1 and even the bodies of persons who had lately died1 to the mountains and hid them in caverns among the most inaccessible rocks and lofty precipices of these wild solitudes4#bjh ,where the mountains advance to the coast1 many of these caves exist in the face of cliffs overhanging the sea2 for the most part they are situated in places which ,europeans can reach only with the help of ropes and ladders1 though the natives1 it is said1 can clamber up the steepest crags with ease4 ,few even of the islanders know the situation of the caverns1 and fewer still will consent to act as guides to the curious stranger who may wish to explore their recesses2 for the fear of the ghosts1 who are supposed to haunt these ancient depositories of the dead1 is yet deeply rooted in the native mind4 ,moreover1 the mouths of the caves are generally so low and overgrown with shrubs and creepers that they may easily be overlooked by an observer standing in front of them4 ,some of the grottos are said to be still full of skulls1 or were so down to the end of the nineteenth century4#bji ,the mummies as well as the bones were liable to be captured by an invader1 and were esteemed trophies not less glorious than foemen slain in battle4 ,hence during an invasion the mummies were generally the first things to be carried off for safety to the mountains4#baj #bjf ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #ic sq41 #ace sq41 #bah1 #bai1 vi4 #dg sq42 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #efa sq42 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bab sq41 #cfc sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #djj sq41 #djd sq41 #dje sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #eed4 #bjg ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bgb1 who observes that the survivors considered the spirits of the proprietors of these skulls as the guardian spirits of the family4 #bjh ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #dje4 #bji ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder 7,berlin1 #aijj71 pp4 #cg sq41 #ha sq41 #hc4 #baj ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cfd4 ,a dangerous pollution was supposed to be contracted by all who had handled a corpse4 ,hence the persons employed in embalming a body were carefully shunned by every one else so long as the process lasted1 because the guilt of the crime for which the deceased had died was supposed to attach in some degree to such as touched his mortal remains4 ,the embalmers did not feed themselves1 lest the food1 defiled by the touch of their polluted hands1 should cause their death2 so they were fed by others4#baa ,this state of uncleanness lasted for a month1 during which the tabooed persons were forbidden to handle food as well as to put it into their own mouths4#bab #baa ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #djc4 #bab ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cfc4 ,again1 when the ceremony of depositing the sins of the deceased in a hole#bac was over1 all who had touched the body or the garments of the deceased1 which were buried or destroyed1 fled precipitately into the sea to cleanse themselves from the pollution which they had incurred by contact with the corpse2 and they cast into the sea the garments they had worn while they were engaged in the work4 ,having bathed1 they gathered a few pieces of coral from the bottom of the sea1 and returning with them to the house1 addressed the dead body1 saying1 ,with you may the pollution be4 ,with these words they threw down the pieces of coral on the top of the hole that had been dug to receive all the objects defiled by their connexion with the deceased4#bad #bac ,see above1 p4 #cje4 #bad ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #djc4 ,when a person had died of an infectious disorder1 the priests entreated him to bury the disease with him in the grave and not to inflict it upon other people1 when he revisited them as a ghost4 ,they also threw a plantain into the grave1 and either buried with him or burned all his utensils1 that nobody might be infected by them4#bae #bae ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cfd4 ,sec4 #i4 ,the ,fate of the ,soul after ,death ,the natives of the ,society ,islands believed in the immortality of the human soul1 or at all events in its separate existence after death#baf2 they thought that no person perishes or becomes extinct4#bag ,on its departure from the body the spirit1 now called a tee1 teehee1 or tii1 was supposed to linger near its old habitation1 whether the mouldering remains exposed on the bier1 or the bones buried in the earth1 or the skull kept in its box4 ,in this state the spirits were believed to lodge in small wooden images1 seldom more than eighteen inches high1 which were placed round about the burial-ground4#bah ,these images are variously said to have borne the same name 7tee1 teehee7 as the spirits which inhabited them1#bai or to have been called by a different name 7unus7#bbj4 ,specimens of these images were seen by ,george ,forster in ,tahiti4 ,he says that round about the marai 7morai7 of ,aheatua1 at that time ,king of ,tiarroboo1 were placed perpendicularly1 or nearly so1 fifteen slender pieces of wood1 some about eighteen feet long1 in which six or eight diminutive human figures of a rude unnatural shape were carved1 standing above each other1 male or female promiscuously1 yet so that the uppermost was always a male4 ,all these figures faced the sea1 and perfectly resembled some which are carved on the sterns of their canoes1 and which they call e-tee4#bba ,to the same effect ,george ,forster's father1 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 observes that near the marais are twenty or thirty single pieces of wood fixed into the ground1 carved all over on one side with figures about eighteen inches long1 rudely representing a man and a woman alternately1 so that often more than fifteen or twenty figures may be counted on one piece of wood1 called by them ,teehee4#bbb ,but the souls of the dead1 though they inhabited chiefly the wooden figures erected at the temples or burial-grounds 7marais1 morais71 were by no means confined to them1 and were dreaded by the natives1 who believed that during the night these unquiet spirits crept into people's houses and ate the heart and entrails of the sleepers1 thus causing their death4#bbc #baf ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #bbb1 vi4 #aej4 #bag ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cde4 #bah ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #eeb1 #eec2 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 ii4 #aea sq4 #bai ,j4 ,r4 ,forster and ,g4 ,forster1 ll4cc4 #bbj ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #cdh1 the unus1 or curiously carved pieces of wood marking the sacred places of interment1 and emblematical of tiis or spirits4 #bba ,g4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfg4 ,compare ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dfa1 ,les images des ,tiis etaient placees aux extremites des marais et gardaient l'enceinte des terres sacrees4 #bbb ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 pp4 #edd sq4 ,in the southern peninsula of ,tahiti1 both on the coast and inland1 ,captain ,cook saw many sepulchral buildings1 and he described them as decorated with many carved boards1 which were set upright1 and on the top of which were various figures of birds and men3 on one in particular there was the representation of a cock1 which was painted red and yellow1 to imitate the feathers of that animal1 and rude images of men were1 in some of them1 placed one upon the head of another4 ,see ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 i4 #aej sq4 ,these carved boards were no doubt of the same sort as the tees or teehees described by the two ,forsters4 ,no other writer seems to mention the figures of birds carved on them4 #bbc ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 p4 #edc4 ,however1 the ,society ,islanders appear to have been by no means consistent in the views which they held concerning the fate of the soul after death4 ,like many other people1 they seem to have wavered between a belief that the souls of the dead lingered invisible near their old homes and the belief that the disembodied spirits went away to a distant land1 where all human souls1 which have departed this life1 met and dwelt together4 ,or perhaps it might be more correct to say1 that instead of wavering between these two inconsistent beliefs1 they held them both firmly without perceiving their inconsistency4 ,at all events these islanders believed that either at death or at some time after it their souls departed to a distant place called po or ,night1 the common abode of gods and of departed spirits4#bbd ,thither the soul was conducted by other spirits1 and on its arrival it was eaten by the gods1 not all at once1 but by degrees4 ,they imagined that the souls of ancestors or relatives1 who ranked among the gods1 scraped the different parts of the newly arrived spirit with a kind of serrated shell at different times1 after which they ate and digested it4 ,if the soul underwent this process of being eaten and digested three separate times1 it became a deified or imperishable spirit and might visit the world and inspire living folk4#bbe ,according to one account1 the soul was cooked whole in an earth-oven1 as pigs are baked on earth1 and was then placed in a basket of coco-nut leaves before being served up to the god whom the deceased had worshipped in life4 ,by this cannibal divinity he was now eaten up2 after which1 through some inexplicable process1 the dead and devoured man emanated from the body of the god1 and became immortal4#bbf ,in the island of ,raiatea the great god ,oro was supposed to use a scallop-shell to scrape the flesh from the bones of newly deceased bodies1 previous to their being converted into pure spirits by being devoured by him1 and afterwards transformed by passing through the laboratory of his cannibal stomach4#bbg ,this process of being devoured by a god was not conceived of as a punishment inflicted on wicked people after death2 for good and bad souls had alike to submit to it4 ,rather1 ,captain ,cook tells us1 the natives considered this coalition with the deity as a kind of purification necessary to be undergone before they enter a state of bliss4 ,for1 according to their doctrine1 if a man refrain from all connexion with women some months before death1 he passes immediately into his eternal mansion1 without such a previous union2 as if already1 by this abstinence1 he were pure enough to be exempted from the general lot4#bbh ,a slightly different account of this process of spiritual purification is given by the first missionaries to ,tahiti4 ,they say that when the spirit departs from the body1 they have a notion it is swallowed by the eatooa 7atua7 bird1 who frequents their burying-places and morais1 and passes through him in order to be purified1 and be united to the deity4 ,and such are afterwards employed by him to attend other human beings and to inflict punishment1 or remove sickness1 as shall be deemed requisite4#bbi #bbd ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cif4 ,compare ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdf2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dca2 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ccj4 #bbe ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cif sq42 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dcc4 #bbf ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 #bgc2 compare ib4 pp4 #ccj sq4 #bbg ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #eba sq4 #bbh ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #aej4 #bbi ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cde sq4 ,in spite of the purification which the souls of the dead underwent by passing through the body of a god or of a divine bird1 they were believed to be not wholly divested of the passions which had actuated them in life on earth4 ,if the souls of former enemies met in the world beyond the grave1 they renewed their battles1 but apparently to no purpose1 since they were accounted invulnerable in this invisible state4 ,again1 when the soul of a dead wife arrived in the spirit land1 it was known to the soul of her dead husband1 if he had gone before1 and the two renewed their acquaintance in a spacious house1 called tourooa1 where the souls of the deceased assembled to recreate themselves with the gods4 ,after that the pair retired to the separate abode of the husband1 where they remained for ever and had offspring1 which1 however1 was entirely spiritual2 for they were neither married nor were their embraces supposed to be like those of corporeal beings4#bcj #bcj ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #aej sq4 ,in general the situation of po or the land of the dead seems to have been left vague and indefinite by the ,society ,islanders2 apparently they did not1 like the ,western ,polynesians1 imagine it to be in some far western isle1 to reach which the souls of the departed had to cross a wide expanse of sea4#bca ,however1 the natives of ,raiatea had very definite ideas on this mysterious subject4 ,they thought that po was situated in a mysterious and unexplored cavern at the top of the highest mountain in the island4 ,this cavern1 perhaps the crater of a volcano1 was said to communicate1 by subterranean passages1 with a cave on the coast1 the opening of which is so small that a child of two years could hardly creep into it4 ,here an evil spirit 7varu iino7 was said to lurk and1 pouncing out on careless passers-by1 to drag them into the darkest recesses of his den and devour them4 ,after the conversion of the natives to ,christianity the missionaries were shown the spot4 ,near it were the ruins of a temple of the war god1 where multitudes of the corpses of warriors slain in battle had been either buried or left to rot on the ground4 ,the missionaries saw many mouldering fragments of skeletons4 ,not far off a cape jutted into the sea1 up the lofty and precipitous face of which the souls of the dead were said to climb on their way to their long home in the cavern at the top of the mountain4 ,a native informant assured the missionaries that he had often seen them scaling the dizzy crag1 both men and women4#bcb #bca ,see above1 pp4 #hg sq41 #bad sqq41 #bch sqq4 #bcb ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ecg sq4 ,in the island of ,borabora the fate even of kings after death was believed to be a melancholy one4 ,their souls were converted into a piece of furniture resembling an ,english hat-stand2 only in ,borabora the corresponding utensil was the branch of a tree with the lateral forks cut short1 on which bonnets1 garments1 baskets1 and so forth were suspended4 ,the natives very naturally concluded that in the other world a similar stand was wanted for the convenience of the ghosts1 to hang their hats and coats on4 ,kings who shrank from the prospect of being converted into a hat-stand after death made interest with the priest to save them from such a degradation4 ,so when a king who had been great and powerful in life saw his end approaching1 he would send to the priests the most costly presents1 such as four or five of the largest and fattest hogs1 as many of the best canoes1 and any rare and valuable ,european article which he happened to possess4 ,in return the priests prayed for him daily at the temples till he died2 and afterwards his dead body was brought to one of these sacred edifices and kept upright there for several days and nights1 during which yet larger gifts were sent by his relatives1 and the most expensive sacrifices offered to the idols4 ,the decaying corpse was then removed1 placed on a canoe1 and rowed out on the lagoon as far as an opening in the reef1 only to be brought back again in like manner2 while all the time the priests recited their prayers and performed their lugubrious ceremonies over it on the water as well as on the land4 ,finally1 the mouldering remains were laid out to rot on a platform in one of the usual charnel-houses4#bcc #bcc ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #cca sq4 ,conversion into a hat-stand was not1 perhaps1 the worst that could happen to the soul of a ,society ,islander after death4 ,in the island of ,raiatea there is a lake surrounded by trees1 the tops of which appear curiously flat4 ,on this verdant platform the spirits of the newly departed were said to dance and feast together until1 at a subsequent stage of their existence1 they were converted into cockroaches4#bcd ,the souls of infants killed at birth were supposed to return in the bodies of grasshoppers4#bce #bcd ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #ebb4 #bce ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dee4 ,but the ,society ,islanders were far from thinking that the souls of the dead herded together indiscriminately in the other world4 ,they imagined that the spirits were discriminated and assigned to abodes of different degrees of happiness or misery1 not according to their virtues or vices in this life1 but according to the rank which they had occupied in society1 one receptacle of superior attractions being occupied by the souls of chiefs and other principal people1 while another of an inferior sort sufficed to lodge the souls of the lower orders4 ,for they did not suppose that their good or bad actions in this life affected in the least their lot in the life hereafter1 or that the deities took account of any such distinction4 ,thus their religion exerted no influence on their morality4#bcf ,happiness and misery in the world beyond the grave1 we are told1 were the destiny of individuals1 altogether irrespective of their moral character and virtuous conduct4 ,the only crimes that were visited by the displeasure of their deities were the neglect of some rite or ceremony1 or the failing to furnish required offerings4#bcg #bcf ,j4 ,cook1 i4 #bbb4 ,compare id41 vi4 #aej2 ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made on a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #eec sqq4 #bcg ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cig4 ,compare ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dcc4 ,the ,society ,islanders1 especially the natives of the ,leeward ,islands1 believed that some of the souls of the dead were destined to enjoy a kind of heaven or paradise1 which they called ,rohutu noanoa1 sweet-scented ,rohutu4 ,this blissful region was supposed to be near a lofty and stupendous mountain in the island of ,raiatea1 not far from the harbour ,hamaniino4 ,the mountain went by the name of ,temehani unauna1 splendid or glorious ,temehani4 ,it was probably the same with the lofty mountain on whose summit popular fancy placed the po or common abode of the dead4#bch ,but the paradise was invisible to mortal eyes1 being situated in the regions of the air 7reva74 ,the country was described as most lovely and enchanting in appearance1 adorned with flowers of every shape and hue1 and perfumed with odours of every fragrance4 ,the air was pure and salubrious4 ,every sort of delight was to be enjoyed there2 while rich viands and delicious fruits were supplied in abundance for the celebration of sumptuous festivals4 ,handsome youths and women thronged the place4 ,but these honours and pleasures were only for the privileged orders--the chiefs and the members of the society of the ,areois--for only they could afford to pay the heavy charges which the priests exacted for a passport to paradise2 common folk seldom or never dreamed of attempting to procure for their relatives admission to the abode of bliss4 ,even apart from the expense of getting to heaven1 it is probable that the sharp distinction kept up between chiefs and commoners here on earth would be expected to be maintained hereafter1 and to exclude every person of the humbler sort from the society of his betters in the future life4#bci ,the other less exclusive1 and no doubt less expensive1 place for departed spirits1 in contrast to sweet-scented ,rohutu1 went by the significant name of foul-scented ,rohutu2 but over the nature of the substances which earned for it this unsavoury appellation our missionary authority preferred to draw a veil4#bdj #bch ,see above1 p4 #cag4 #bci ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #bde sq41 #cig2 ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #dcd sq4 #bdj ,j4 ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 p4 #dgf4 ,according to one account1 the souls of the dead were supposed to gather in the sun1 where they feasted with the god ,maouwe or ,o-,mauwee 7,maui7 on bread-fruit and the flesh of pigs or dogs1 and drank never-ending draughts of kava4#bda #bda ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #eec2 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 ii4 #aea4 ,but wherever the souls of the dead were imagined to dwell1 we may infer that they were credited with the power of returning to earth for a longer or shorter time to benefit or injure the living4 ,for we have seen that sickness and death were commonly ascribed to the action of these spirits1#bdb which seems to imply that they revisited this sublunary world on their errands of mischief4 ,accordingly1 whenever the natives approached by night one of the charnel-houses in which dead bodies were exposed1 they were startled in the same manner that many of our ignorant and superstitious people are with the apprehension of ghosts1 and at the sight of a churchyard4 ,again1 the souls of the departed were sometimes thought to communicate with their friends in dreams and to announce to them things that should afterwards come to pass1 thus enabling the dreamer to foretell the future4 ,foreknowledge thus acquired1 however1 was confined to particular persons1 and such favoured dreamers enjoyed a reputation little inferior to that of the inspired priests4 ,one of them prophesied to ,captain ,cook on the strength of a communication vouchsafed to him by the soul of his deceased father in a dream2 but the event proved that the ghost was out in his reckoning by five days4#bdc #bdb ,see above1 pp4 #bii sqq4 #bdc ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #aeb4 ,the fear of ghosts in the minds of the ,society ,islanders has long survived their conversion to ,christianity2 indeed1 we are informed that it is as rampant as ever4 ,no ordinary native would dare to visit one of the lonely caves where the mouldering bones or skulls of his forefathers were deposited for safety in days of old4#bdd ,at one point on the western coast of ,tahiti1 where the mountains advance in precipices close to the sea1 the road which skirts their base is a place of fear to the natives4 ,for in these precipices are caves full of skulls1 and the ghosts who reside in the caverns are reported sometimes to weary of their own society and to come down to the road for company1 where in a sportive vein they play all sorts of tricks on passers-by4 ,not so long ago three ,tahitians were riding home at dusk from ,papeete1 where they had been drinking rum4 ,just at the pass under the cliff they were surprised by ghosts1 who threw them into the ditch at the side of the road4 ,so great is the dread which the natives entertain of apparitions at this spot that the ,government has been compelled to divert the road1 so that it no longer skirts the foot of the haunted mountain1 but gives it a wide berth1 and runs in a long sweep by the edge of the sea4#bde #bdd ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder1 p4 #cg4 #bde ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hc sq4 ,again1 at another point on the west coast of ,tahiti1 where mighty mountains1 a glorious sea1 and little coral islands with their groves of palms1 offer a view of enchanting beauty1 there is said to be a cave containing the skulls of chiefs in a jutting cliff half-way up the mountain4 ,the cave was in charge of an old man in whose family the office of guardian was hereditary4 ,it had been entrusted to him by his father on his deathbed1 and the son had kept the secret faithfully ever since4 ,in vain did a traveller seek to persuade the old man to guide him to the cave2 in vain did the chief himself beg of him to reveal the grotto which concealed the mouldering relics of his forefathers4 ,the guardian was obdurate2 he believed that the world was not wide enough to hold two men who knew the holy place4 ,he assured the traveller that nobody could reach the cave without the help of the ghosts1 so perpendicular and so smooth was the face of the cliff that led up to it4 ,when he himself wished to make his way to it1 his custom was to go to the foot of the crag and pray1 till the spirits came and wafted him lightly up and down again2 otherwise it would have been a sheer impossibility for him to ascend and descend4#bdf #bdf ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ha sq4 ,sec4 #aj4 ,the ,worship of the ,dead ,the belief in the existence of the spirits of the dead1 and in their power to help or harm the living1 naturally led the ,society ,islanders1 like so many other peoples of the world1 to propitiate these powerful beings1 to sue their favour1 or to appease their anger by prayer and sacrifice1 in short1 to worship them4 ,on this subject the first missionaries to these islanders tell us that1 in addition to the greater gods1 for general worship they have an inferior race1 a kind of dii penates4 ,each family has its tee or guardian spirit3 he is supposed to be one of their departed relatives1 who1 for his superior excellences1 has been exalted into an eatooa 7atua74 ,they suppose this spirit can inflict sickness or remove it1 and preserve them from a malignant deity who also bears the name tee1 and is always employed in mischief4#bdg ,every family has its tee1 or guardian spirit1 whom they set up1 and worship at the morai4#bdh ,they regard the spirits of their ancestors1 male and female1 as exalted into eatooas 7atuas7 and their favour to be secured by prayers and offerings4 ,every sickness and untoward accident they esteem as the hand of judgment for some offence committed4#bdi ,as for the mischievous spirit who bore the same name as the worshipful spirit of a dead ancestor1 the missionaries say that the evil demon named ,tee has no power but upon earth2 and this he exercises by getting into them with their food1 and causing madness or other diseases2 but these they imagine their tutelar saints1 if propitious1 can prevent or remove4#bej #bdg ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdd4 #bdh ,t4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cdc4 #bdi ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 p4 #cde4 ,the general name for deity1 in all its ramifications1 is eatooa 7id4 p4 #cdc74 #bej ,j4 ,wilson1 p4 #cdf4 ,we may suspect that the missionaries were mistaken in thus sharply distinguishing between an evil demon and a tutelar saint1 both of whom went by the same name 7tee74 ,probably the evil demon and the tutelar saint were alike supposed to be souls of dead persons1 with this difference between them1 that whereas the one had been good and beneficent in his life1 the other had been bad and maleficent2 for it is a common belief that the dead retain in the other world the character and disposition which they manifested on earth1 and that accordingly as disembodied spirits they may benefit or injure their surviving relatives4#bea ,thus according to his character and behaviour in this present state of existence a person's ghost may naturally develop either into a god or into a devil4 #bea ,in confirmation of my conjecture that the missionaries mistook a general name 7tee1 otherwise spelled tii7 for the name of a particular demon1 ,i may point out that the naturalist ,j4 ,r4 ,forster before them seems to have fallen into precisely the same mistake with regard to another general name for departed spirits 7oramatuas or oromatuas74 ,thus he writes3 ,besides these divinities of the second class1 there are others of a still inferior rank1 and though called ,eatooas1 are no more than what the ,greek or ,roman mythologists would have called ,genii1 or ,dii minorum gentium3 one of them1 called ,orometooa1 is of a malignant disposition1 resides chiefly near the ,marais and ,toopapous 7places of burial7 and in or near the boxes1 or little chests1 including the heads of their deceased friends1 each of which1 on that account1 is called ,te-wharre no te ,orometooa1 the house of the evil genius ,orometooa1 ,the people at ,taheitee are of opinion1 that if their priests invoke this evil genius1 he will kill1 by a sudden death1 the person on whom they intend to bring down the vengeance of this divinity4 ,see ,j4 ,r4 ,forster1 ,observations made during a ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #eda sq4 ,in this passage we can hardly doubt that this evil genius1 ,orometooa1 is simply the oramatuas or oromatuas1 the spirits of the dead1 by means of whom sorcerers were supposed to injure or destroy any one at whom they or their employers had a grudge4 ,see above1 p4 #bii1 and below1 pp4 #cbc sqq4 ,it is to be feared that in the case of ,tahitian ghosts the course of spiritual evolution was rather in the direction of devilry than of deity4 ,at least this conclusion seems forced on us by the account which ,william ,ellis1 perhaps our best authority on ,tahitian religion1 gives of the character of these worshipful beings4 ,i will reproduce it in his own words4 ,the objects of worship among the ,tahitians1 next to the atua or gods1 were the oramatuas tiis or spirits4 ,these were supposed to reside in the po1 or world of night1 and were never invoked but by wizards or sorcerers1 who implored their aid for the destruction of an enemy1 or the injury of some person whom they were hired to destroy4 ,they were considered a different order of beings from the gods1 a kind of intermediate class between them and the human race1 though in their prayers all the attributes of the gods were ascribed to them4 ,the oramatuas were the spirits of departed fathers1 mothers1 brothers1 sisters1 children1 etc4 ,the natives were greatly afraid of them1 and presented offerings to avoid being cursed or destroyed1 when they were employed by the sorcerers4 ,they seem to have been regarded as a sort of demons4 ,in the ,leeward ,islands1 the chief oramatuas were spirits of departed warriors1 who had distinguished themselves by ferocity and murder1 attributes of character usually supposed to belong to these evil genii4 ,each celebrated tii was honoured with an image1 through which it was supposed his influence was exerted4 ,the spirits of the reigning chiefs were united to this class1 and the skulls of deceased rulers1 kept with the images1 were honoured with the same worship4 ,some idea of what was regarded as their ruling passion1 may be inferred from the fearful apprehensions constantly entertained by all classes4 ,they were supposed to be exceedingly irritable and cruel1 avenging with death the slightest insult or neglect1 and were kept within the precincts of the temple4 ,in the marae of ,tane at ,maeva1 the ruins of their abode were still standing when ,i last visited the place4 ,it was a house built upon a number of large strong poles1 which raised the floor ten or twelve feet from the ground4 ,they were thus elevated1 to keep them out of the way of men1 as it was imagined they were constantly strangling1 or otherwise destroying1 the chiefs and people4 ,to prevent this1 they were also treated with great respect2 men were appointed constantly to attend them1 and to keep them wrapped in the choicest kinds of cloth1 to take them out whenever there was a pae atua1 or general exhibition of the gods2 to anoint them frequently with fragrant oil2 and to sleep in the house with them at night4 ,all this was done1 to keep them pacified4 ,and though the office of calming the angry spirits was honourable1 it was regarded as dangerous1 for if1 during the night or at any other time1 these keepers were guilty of the least impropriety1 it was supposed the spirits of the images1 or the skulls1 would hurl them headlong from their high abodes1 and break their necks in the fall4#beb #beb ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches4 i4 #ccd-ccf4 ,the difference in power and dignity between the great national gods 7atuas7 and the spirits of deceased relations 7oramatuas tiis7 might be measured by the size of their images2 for whereas the images of the gods were six or eight feet long1 those of the spirits were not more than so many inches4#bec ,but while these malignant and irritable spirits--the souls of dead fathers1 mothers1 brothers1 sisters1 and children--resided generally either in their little images or in their skulls1 they were not strictly confined to these material vehicles2 they resorted occasionally to the shells from the seashore1 especially to a beautiful kind of murex1 the ,murex ramoces4 ,these shells were kept by the sorcerers1 and the peculiar singing or humming sound that may be heard when the valve is applied to the ear was imagined to proceed from the demon in the shell4#bed #bec ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #ccg4 #bed ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cfc4 ,it was these malignant and dangerous demons whom the sorcerer employed as his agents to execute his fell purposes4 ,but to effect them he had to secure something connected with the body of his intended victim1 it might be the parings of his nails1 a lock of his hair1 his spittle or other bodily secretions1 or else a portion of the food which he was about to eat4 ,over this material substance1 whatever it was1 the sorcerer recited his incantations and performed his magical rites either in his own house or in his private temple 7marae74 ,the result was believed to be that the demon entered into the substance1 and through it passed into the body of the man at whom the enchanter aimed his elfish darts4 ,the wretched sufferer experienced the acutest agonies2 his distortions were frightful to witness2 his eyes seemed starting from his head2 he foamed at the mouth2 he lay writhing in anguish on the ground2 in short1 to adopt the native expression1 he was torn by the evil spirit4 ,yet his case was not hopeless2 the demon could be mollified by a bribe1 or defeated by the intervention of a more powerful demon4 ,hence1 when any one was believed to be suffering from the incantations of a sorcerer1 if he or his friends were rich enough they engaged another sorcerer for a fee to counteract the spells of the first and so to restore the health of the invalid4 ,it was generally supposed that the efforts of the second sorcerer would be crowned with success if only the demon whom he employed were equally powerful with that at the command of his rival1 and if the presents which he received for his professional services were more valuable4 ,in order to avoid the danger of being thus bewitched through the refuse of their persons1 the ,tahitians used scrupulously to burn or bury their shorn hair1 lest it should fall into the hands of enchanters4#bee #bee ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cfc-cgj4 ,it is possible that some even of the great national gods were no more than ghosts of dead men1 whose human origin was forgotten4 ,there is some reason for supposing that this was true of ,hiro1 the god of thieves4 ,on the one hand1 this deity was reputed to be the son of the great god ,oro2#bef and when a mother desired her child to grow up a clever thief1 she repaired to a temple1 where the priest1 on receipt of the requisite offerings1 caught the spirit of the god in a snare and infused it into the infant1 thus ensuring the future proficiency of the infant in the arts of theft and robbery4#beg ,yet1 in spite of these claims to divinity1 there are some grounds for thinking that ,hiro was himself originally no better than a thief and a robber4 ,he is said to have been a native of ,raiatea1 from whose sacrilegious fingers not even the temples and altars of the gods were safe4 ,his skull was shown in a large temple of his own construction in that island down to the early years of the nineteenth century4 ,his hair1 too1 was stuffed into the image of his reputed father1 the god ,oro1 and perished when that image was committed to the flames by the early converts to ,christianity4#beh #bef ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iii4 #aab1 #abe4 #beg ,j4 ,williams1 ,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprises in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 pp4 #dff sq4 #beh ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #bed sq4 ,as to ,hiro1 the god of thieves1 see also ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #ddg-ddi4 ,once a year the ,society ,islanders celebrated a festival accompanied by rites1 of which one has been compared to the ,roman ,catholic custom of performing a mass for the benefit of souls in purgatory4 ,the festival was called the ripening of the year1 and the time for its observance was determined by the blossoming of reeds4 ,it was regularly observed in the island of ,huahine1 and vast multitudes assembled to take part in it4 ,as a rule1 only men engaged in the pagan festivals1 but at this particular one women and children were also present1 though they were not allowed to enter the sacred enclosure4 ,the celebration was regarded as a kind of annual acknowledgment made to the gods4 ,prayers were offered at the temple1 and a sumptuous banquet formed part of the festival4 ,at the close of the festival every one returned to his home1 or to his family temple 7marae71 there to offer special prayers for the spirits of departed relatives1 that they might be liberated from the po1 or state of ,night1 and might either ascend to paradise 7sweet-scented ,rohutu7 or return to this world by entering into the body of one of its inhabitants4 ,but they did not suppose1 according to the generally received doctrine of transmigration1 that the spirits who entered the body of some dweller upon earth1 would permanently remain there1 but only come and inspire the person to declare future events1 or execute any other commission from the supernatural beings on whom they imagined they were constantly dependent4#bei #bei ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #cea sq4 ,compare ,j4 ,a4 ,moerenhout1 op4 cit4 i4 #ejb note#a1 #ebc4 ,hence we learn that the spirits of the dead as well as the gods were believed to be capable of inspiring men and revealing to them the future4 ,in this1 as in other respects1 the dead were assimilated to deities4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,marquesans ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,marquesas ,islands ,the ,marquesas are an archipelago of eleven or twelve chief islands in the ,south ,pacific1 situated about nine hundred miles to the north-east of ,tahiti4 ,they fall into two groups1 which together stretch in a direction from north-west to south-east1 from #h deg4 to #aa deg4 of ,south latitude4 ,the south-eastern group1 of which ,hivaoa 7,dominica7 is the largest island1 was discovered by the ,spanish ,admiral ,alvaro ,mendana de ,neyra in #aeie1 but1 so far as appears1 it was not again visited by ,europeans until #aggd1 when ,captain ,cook touched at the islands on his second voyage4 ,curiously enough1 the north-westerly group1 of which ,nukahiva is the largest and most important island1 remained unknown until #agia1 when it was discovered by the ,american ,captain ,ingraham1 who named the group the ,washington ,islands4 ,about a month later1 in ,june #agia1 the ,french navigator ,marchand visited the same islands1 and in #agig the first missionary1 ,william ,crook1 was landed from the missionary ship ,duff4 ,the whole archipelago is now known as the ,marquesas1 a name which the ,spanish ,admiral ,mendana bestowed on the islands discovered by him in honour of the ,marquess de ,canete1 ,viceroy of ,peru1 by whose order the voyage had been undertaken4#a #a ,captain ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #bgd sqq42 ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 ii4 #e sqq42 ,c4 ,p4 ,claret ,fleurieu1 ,voyage round the ,world performed by ,e4 ,marchand 7,london1 #ahja71 i4 #bg sqq41 #ee sqq42 ,j4 ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 lxxiii4 sqq41 #abg sqq42 ,a4 ,j4 von ,krusenstern1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #ahac71 i4 #acf2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 ,iles ,marquises ou ,nouka-hiva 7,paris1 #ahdc71 pp4 #a sqq41 #ab sq42 ,le ,p4 ,mathias ,g----1 ,lettres sur les ,iles ,marquises 7,paris1 #ahdc71 pp4 #g sqq42 ,p4 ,e4 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 ,l',archipel des ,iles ,marquises 7,paris1 #ahgg71 pp4 #a sqq42 ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 ,die ,inseln des ,stillen ,oceans1 ii4 #bce sq42 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 #ebb4 ,the islands are of volcanic formation1 lofty and mountainous4 ,the interior consists generally of a range of mountains some three thousand feet high1 from which a series of spurs descend steeply to the coast1 terminating for the most part in tremendous cliffs1 at the foot of which the great rollers break in foam2 for with a single exception there are no coral reefs1 and a ship can sail in deep water within a cable's length of the rocks4 ,viewed at a distance from the sea1 the aspect of the islands is somewhat stern and forbidding4 ,bare mountains1 jagged peaks1 sometimes lost in the clouds1 and an iron-bound coast of black and beetling crags1 buffeted eternally by the surf1 make up a gloomy picture2 but a nearer view discloses verdant valleys nestling between the ridges which radiate from the central mountains4 ,these valleys are watered by mountain streams and clothed with dense tropical vegetation1 their luxuriant green offering an agreeable contrast to the bareness and aridity of the frowning precipices and sharp peaks which soar above them4 ,cascades tumbling from high cliffs into the depths of the glens add to the beauty and charm of the scenery4 ,so steep and precipitous are the ridges which divide these smiling vales from each other that the ascent and descent are in many places both difficult and dangerous even for the natives2 ,european mountaineers need to have stout limbs and steady heads to accomplish them in safety4 ,hence in former days each valley contained a separate tribe1 which was commonly in a state of permanent hostility towards its neighbours across the mountain barriers4#b ,of these tribes the most famous were the warlike and dreaded ,taipiis or ,typees1 who occupied a beautiful valley at the eastern end of ,nukahiva1 and in their mountain fastness deemed themselves inaccessible to their enemies4 ,however1 in the early part of the nineteenth century an ,american naval officer1 ,captain ,david ,porter1 succeeded1 not without great difficulty1 in carrying havoc and devastation into these sylvan scenes4#c ,later in the century a runaway ,american sailor1 ,hermann ,melville1 spent more than four months as a captive in the tribe1 and published an agreeable narrative of his captivity2 but never having mastered the language1 he was not able to give much exact information concerning the customs and beliefs of the natives4#d ,as there is no maritime plain interposed between the mountains and the shore1 the only way of passing from one valley to another is either to go by sea or to clamber over the intervening ridges4 ,it would be materially impossible1 we are told1 unless at enormous and ruinous cost1 to make a road or even a mule-path round any of the ,marquesas ,islands1 as has been done in ,tahiti4#e #b ,as to the formation and scenery of the islands1 see ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #aaj2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,visit to the ,south ,seas 7,london1 #ahcb71 i4 #aic sqq42 ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 ,narrative of a ,whaling ,voyage round the ,globe 7,london1 #ahdj71 i4 #bii sqq42 ,h4 ,melville1 ,typee1 pp4 #h sq41 #ag sq41 and passim 7,everyman's ,library72 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ach sq42 ,p4 ,e4 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hd sq42 ,clavel1 ,les ,marquisiens 7,paris1 #ahhe7 pp4 #a sq42 ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bcf sq42 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ebb sq42 ,a4 ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder 7,berlin1 #aijj71 pp4 #aib sq41 #bbj sqq4 ,as to the extreme difficulty of scaling the mountains and precipices to pass from one valley to another1 see particularly ,m4 ,radiguet1 ,les ,derniers ,sauvages 7,paris1 #ahhb71 pp4 #aja sq41 note4 #c ,captain ,david ,porter1 ,journal of a ,cruise made to the ,pacific ,ocean1 ,second ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahbb71 ii4 #hf sqq4 #d ,h4 ,melville1 ,typee 7,london1 ,everyman's ,library1 no date74 ,the first edition of this book was published in #ahdf4 ,melville's residence among the ,taipiis 7,typees7 fell in the year #ahda4 #e ,p4 ,e4 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 p4 #he4 ,despite their situation in the heart of the tropics1 the ,marquesas enjoy an extremely healthy climate subject to none of the inconveniences usually incidental to countries in the same latitude2 endemic and epidemic diseases are alike unknown4 ,european soldiers can work in the sun without accident and without exhaustion4#f ,the climate has been described as an eternal spring1 without winter or even autumn2 though a perpetual succession of ripe fruits may seem to lend an autumnal air to the landscape1 which yet is never chilled by hoar frosts or saddened by the sight of bare boughs and fallen leaves4#g ,even in the hottest days a cool wind blows from the sea1 and at night there is a breeze from the land4 ,rain falls during some months of the year1 especially from ,may or ,june to ,august or ,september2 but on the whole there is little variation in the seasons2#h the ,marquesan year has been described as one long tropical month of ,june just melting into ,july4#i ,yet we are told that the northern islands sometimes suffer from droughts which may last for years2 at such times vegetation languishes1 till a fresh cloud-burst restores the verdure of the trees and grass as by magic4#aj ,it is then1 too1 that the cascades everywhere enliven the landscape by the glitter and roar of their tumbling waters1 which1 after dropping from the height1 flow rapidly down their steep beds into the sea4#aa #f ,m4 ,radiguet1 ,les ,derniers ,sauvages 7,paris1 #ahhb71 pp4 #cjd sq42 ,p4 ,e4 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 p4 #eg4 #g ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #id4 #h ,p4 ,e4 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 p4 #eg4 ,compare ,m4 ,radiguet1 ,les ,derniers ,sauvages1 pp4 #cjd sq4 #i ,h4 ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #bbj4 #aj ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbb sq4 #aa ,m4 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #cjd4 ,sec4 #b4 ,physical ,appearance of the ,natives ,observers are generally agreed that from the purely physical point of view the ,marquesan islanders are1 or used to be1 the noblest specimens of the ,polynesian race4 ,captain ,cook remarked that the inhabitants of these islands collectively are1 without exception1 the finest race of people in this sea4 ,for fine shape and regular features1 they perhaps surpass all other nations4#ab ,to the same effect the naturalist ,george ,forster1 who accompanied ,captain ,cook1 gives his impression of a crowd of ,marquesan men1 among whom were no women4 ,he says3 ,they were tall1 and extremely well limbed2 not one of them unwieldy or corpulent like a ,taheitian1 nor meagre and shrivelled like a native of ,easter ,island4 ,the punctuation 7by which he meant the tattooing7 which almost entirely covered the men of a middle age1 made it difficult to distinguish their elegance of form2 but among the youths1 who were not yet marked or tattooed1 it was easy to discover beauties singularly striking1 and often without a blemish1 such as demanded the admiration of all beholders4 ,many of them might be placed near the famous models of antiquity1 and would not suffer in the comparison3 ,qualis aut ,nireus fuit1 aut aquosa ,raptus ab ,ida4 ,,hor4 ,the natural colour of these youths was not quite so dark as that of the common people in the ,society ,isles2 but the men appeared to be infinitely blacker1 on account of the punctures which covered their whole body1 from head to foot4 ,these punctures were disposed with the utmost regularity2 so that the marks on each leg1 arm1 and cheek1 and on the corresponding muscles1 were exactly similar4 ,they never assumed the determinate form of an animal or plant1 but consisted of a variety of blotches1 spirals1 bars1 chequers1 and lines1 which had a most motley appearance4#ac #ab ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #bhd4 #ac ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world1 ii4 #ad sq4 ,compare ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #aeb sq42 ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #ahad71 p4 #he2 ,g4 ,h4 von ,langsdorff1 ,reise um die ,welt 7,frankfurt am ,mayn1 #ahab71 i4 #ib sqq42 ,fleurieu1 op4 cit4 i4 #if sqq42 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #baf sqq42 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 p4 #ci4 ,similarly1 speaking of the ,taipiis or ,typees1 ,melville observes1 ,in beauty of form they surpassed anything ,i had ever seen4 ,not a single instance of natural deformity was observable in all the throng attending the revels4 ,occasionally ,i noticed among the men the scars of wounds they had received in battle2 and sometimes1 though very seldom1 the loss of a finger1 an eye1 or an arm1 attributable to the same cause4 ,with these exceptions1 every individual appeared free from those blemishes which sometimes mar the effect of an otherwise perfect form4 ,but their physical excellence did not merely consist in an exemption from these evils2 nearly every individual of their number might have been taken for a sculptor's model4#ad ,as to their stature1 the same writer affirms that the men1 in almost every instance1 are of lofty stature1 scarcely ever less than six feet4#ae ,similarly ,captain ,porter tell us that they are far above the common stature of the human race1 seldom less than five feet eleven inches1 but most commonly six feet two or three inches1 and every way proportioned4 ,their faces are remarkably handsome1 with keen1 piercing eyes2 teeth white1 and more beautiful than ivory2 countenances open and expressive1 which reflect every emotion of their souls2 limbs which might serve as models for a statuary1 and strength and activity proportioned to their appearance4#af ,another observer remarks of them that the natives bear the palm for personal beauty from most other of the ,polynesian tribes4 ,the men are tall and muscular1 though rather slightly framed2 their deportment is graceful and independent2 their features are handsome1 and partake more of the ,european regularity of profile than is usual with ,polynesian islanders4#ag ,the nose is straight or aquiline1 sometimes short or slightly flattened1 but never ill-shaped3 the mouth is never large nor the lips thick3 the forehead is rather low and somewhat retreating4#ah ,the hair is almost always straight or wavy2 men or women with frizzly hair are very seldom seen1 especially in the north-western group4 ,the colour of the skin1 where it is not darkened by tattooing1 is a clear brown1 resembling the bronzed appearance acquired by ,europeans through exposure to a tropical sun4#ai ,the women are both absolutely and relatively shorter than the men2 indeed ,melville describes them as uncommonly diminutive4 ,their complexion is lighter2 in the parts of the body which are seldom exposed to the sun they are even said to appear as white as ,european women4 ,their features are good1 but rather pretty than beautiful2 their hands and feet are very shapely4 ,unlike the men1 who are1 or used to be1 tattooed from head to foot1 the women were tattooed very little1 and that chiefly on the lips4#bj ,they took pains to whiten their skin by avoiding exposure to the sun and by washing themselves with the juice of a small native vine1#ba or by smearing themselves with a cosmetic in which the yellow of the turmeric root predominated4#bb #ad ,h4 ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #aid4 #ae ,h4 ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #aie4 #af ,david ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #eh sq4 #ag ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cjd4 #ah ,m4 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #afi4 #ai ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 p4 #ci4 #bj ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ci sq42 ,h4 ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #aie4 #ba ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,visit to the ,south ,seas1 i4 #bca sq41 who speaks highly of the beauty of the women4 ,but the general opinion appears to be that the ,marquesan women are much less handsome than the men4 ,see ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #id-if2 ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ei4 #bb ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cjh sq4 ,sec4 #c4 ,food1 ,weapons1 ,tools1 ,houses1 ,canoes1 ,fishing ,the ,marquesans subsist chiefly on a vegetable diet4 ,their staple food is the bread-fruit1 and their national dish is a paste called popoi1 which is prepared from bread-fruit after it has been subjected to a process of fermentation4 ,fish is also a common article of diet2 the natives usually eat it raw1 even when it is rotten and stinking4 ,they keep pigs1 but seldom kill them except for a festival or at the reception of a stranger4 ,hence pork is not a regular or common article of diet with them2 and apart from it they hardly taste flesh4 ,other sorts of food1 such as bananas1 taro1 and sugar-cane1 are entirely subsidiary to the great staples1 bread-fruit and fish4 ,the natives do not readily accustom themselves to a ,european diet2 indeed when the experiment has been made of feeding them exclusively in our manner1 they have wasted away and only recovered their health when they were allowed to return to their usual nourishment4 ,their ordinary beverage was water1 but they were also addicted to the drinking of kava1 which was extracted from the root of the ,piper methysticum in the usual fashion4#bc ,drawing their sustenance chiefly from the bread-fruit tree1 the ,marquesans paid little attention to the cultivation of the soil2 however1 they grew a certain amount of taro1 sweet potatoes1 and sugar-cane2 and they had plantations of the paper-mulberry1#bd the bark of which was manufactured by the women into cloth in the ordinary way4 ,but the bark of other trees was also employed for the same purpose4 ,since the natives were able to procure ,european stuffs1 the indigenous manufacture of bark-cloth has much declined4#be ,hence agriculture engaged the men very little2 fishing1 though it was part of their business1 they are said to have neglected2 the only work of consequence they did was to build their houses and manufacture their arms1 but these employments occupied them only occasionally4#bf #bc ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #db-dd2 ,clavel1 ,les ,marquisiens1 pp4 #c sqq4 ,compare ,g4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bg sq42 ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #ajf-ajh2 ,fleurieu1 op4 cit4 i4 #aae sq42 ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ej-ee2 ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #caf sq42 ,h4 ,melville1 ,typee1 pp4 #abj-abd1 #agi2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgg sq42 ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ach sq41 #add sq42 ,a4 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bjh-baa4 ,as to the preparation and drinking of kava among the ,marquesans1 see also ,m4 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fd-ff4 #bd ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #afd2 ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ec2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bac sq42 ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cde 7who says that the only root the natives cultivate for food is the sweet potato72 ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adh1 #adi2 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #ah4 #be ,fleurieu1 op4 cit4 i4 #abb sq42 ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aaf2 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #ccg sq42 ,melville1 ,typee1 pp4 #aeh-afj1 #baj2 ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #acg sq42 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ec sq42 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 #ee sq42 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 #ai4 #bf ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #afd4 ,the weapons of the warriors were clubs1 spears1 and slings4 ,the slings were made of coco-nut fibre1 and the natives were very expert in the use of them4 ,bows and arrows were unknown4#bg ,like the rest of the ,polynesians1 the ,marquesans were totally ignorant of the metals until they acquired them from ,europeans4 ,their tools were made of stone1 bone1 and shell4 ,thus they employed a pointed stone to bore holes with1 and an axe of black1 hard stone for cutting4 ,the axe-head was shaped like an elongated wedge or mortise-chisel1 and was fastened to the haft by coco-nut fibre4 ,some of these axes weighed as much as twenty-five pounds4 ,the natives also used sharp-edged or toothed shells as cutting implements1 and borers made of pointed bones2 while rough fish-skins served them as polishers4#bh ,like the rest of the ,polynesians1 they kindled fire by the method known as the stick-and-groove1 that is1 by rubbing the sharp point of one stick against the flat surface of another1 so as to form a groove in it and1 by continued friction1 to elicit smoke and a glow1 which1 with the help of dry leaves1 is nursed into a flame4 ,contrary to the usage of some peoples1 the ,marquesans employed the same kind of wood for both the fire-sticks1 either a species of hibiscus 7,hibiscus tiliaceus7 or a species of poplar 7,thespesia populnea72 for this purpose they split a branch in two1 lengthwise1 and used the two pieces as the fire-sticks4 ,in former days these fire-sticks were regularly kept in every native house4#bi #bg ,fleurieu1 op4 cit4 i4 #aah sq42 ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #afb2 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 p4 #hh2 ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #aeb 7bows and arrows unknown72 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bhb sq4 #bh ,fleurieu1 op4 cit4 i4 #aba2 ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #afb4 #bi ,h4 ,melville1 ,typee1 pp4 #aah sq42 ,clavel1 ,les ,marquisiens1 pp4 #aa sq4 ,compare ,g4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 ii4 #bj2 ,d4 ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aaf2 ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #adc4 ,the ,marquesan houses are regularly built on stone platforms1 oblong or square in shape1 and raised above the ground to heights varying from one to four1 eight1 or even ten feet4 ,the higher platforms are approached from the ground by ladders or notched poles4 ,the houses1 constructed of timber and bamboo1 are oblong in shape1 and comprise a high back wall1 generally inclined forward at an angle1 from which the thatched roof slopes down steeply to a low front wall1 while two short walls close the house at either end4 ,the door is in the middle of the front wall1 and is so low that it is necessary to stoop in entering4 ,sometimes the fronts of the houses are entirely open except for the low pillars which support the roof4 ,the interior of the house forms a single chamber undivided by partitions4 ,two trunks of coco-nut palms extend parallel to each other along the whole length of the floor at an interval of four or five feet2 the innermost log1 a foot or two distant from the back wall1 forms a pillow on which the heads of the sleepers rest1 while the other supports their feet or legs4 ,the space between the two logs is paved with stone1 and spread with mats4 ,in the single apartment the whole family live and sleep4 ,such at least were the domestic arrangements in the old days4 ,the size of the houses naturally varies4 ,some of them measure eighty feet by forty1 others only twenty-five feet by ten1 or even less4#cj #cj ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #bhe sq42 ,g4 ,forster1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ba1 #bd2 ,j4 ,wilson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aca1 #acd sq42 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 p4 #hd2 ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #aei2 ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #aji-aaa2 ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ci sq42 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bji-baa1 #bab1 #bfg sq42 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cjb sq42 ,melville1 ,typee1 pp4 #ha-hc2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bgd-bgf2 ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abb-abi2 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cf-ch2 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dd sq42 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ae sq42 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bjj-bjh4 ,the platforms on which the houses are built consist often of large blocks of stone neatly and regularly laid without mortar or cement1 in a style which would do no discredit to ,european masons4#ca ,sometimes the stones are described as enormous blocks of rock1#cb some of which would require ten or twelve men to carry or roll them4#cc ,water-worn boulders1 washed down from the mountains in the bed of torrents1 were especially chosen for the purpose4#cd #ca ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #aji sq4 #cb ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #abi4 #cc ,langsdorff1 l4c4 #cd ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #ae4 ,sometimes1 though far less commonly1 ,marquesan houses were raised above the ground on posts from eight or ten to sixteen feet high4 ,such houses were lightly built of wood and thatched2 the floor was an open work of split bamboos4 ,sometimes these raised dwellings resembled the ordinary ,marquesan house in structure2 at other times they were quadrangular1 with perpendicular walls and an ordinary roof4 ,they were approached by ladders and resembled the habitations in use among the ,malay tribes of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,no dwellings of this type have been noticed in ,nukahiva1 the principal island of the archipelago2 but they have been seen and described in ,tauata 7,santa ,christina7 and ,hivaoa 7,dominica74#ce #ce ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cjc sq42 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bjg sq4 ,the ,marquesans built canoes of various sizes1 the smaller for fishing1 the larger for war4 ,these latter might be from forty to fifty feet long4 ,they were fitted with outriggers4 ,the prow had an ornamental projection rudely carved to represent the head of an animal4 ,sometimes the prows of war canoes were decorated with the skulls of slaughtered enemies4 ,but in general the ,marquesans appear to have been inferior to the other ,south ,sea islanders in the arts of canoe-building and navigation4#cf ,this inferiority may perhaps have been partly due to the absence of those lagoons which1 formed by coral reefs1 elsewhere enabled the natives to acquire confidence and skill in sailing on smooth and sheltered waters4 ,the same cause may also1 perhaps1 explain why fishing was comparatively little practised by the ,marquesans4 ,we are told that as an occupation it was despised by such as owned a piece of land of any extent1 and that only the poorer class of people1 who depended on the sea for a livelihood1 addicted themselves to it4 ,they caught fish by means both of nets and of lines with hooks neatly made of mother-of-pearl2 also they stupefied the fish by a certain mashed root1 which the fisherman distributed in the water by diving1 and then caught the fish as they rose to the surface4#cg #cf ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #bhg2 ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #afc sq42 ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #aej2 ,porter1 op4 cit41 ii4 #ab-ad2 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cch2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bhj-bhb4 #cg ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #afc4 ,sec4 #d4 ,polyandry1 ,adoption1 ,exchange of ,names ,the social life of the ,marquesan islanders presented some peculiar features4 ,thus they are said to have practised the rare custom of polyandry4 ,on this subject ,stewart observes3 ,we have yet met with no instance1 in any rank of society1 of a male with two wives1 but are informed that for one woman to have two husbands is a universal habit4 ,some favourite in the father's household or retinue at an early period becomes the husband of the daughter1 who still remains under the paternal roof till contracted in marriage to a second individual1 on which she removes with her first husband to his habitation1 and both herself and original companion are supported by him4#ch ,melville describes the custom in substantially the same way1 and adds1 ,no man has more than one wife1 and no wife of mature years has less than two husbands1--sometimes she has three1 but such instances are not frequent4 ,he seems to have attributed the practice to a scarcity of women2 for he tells us that the males considerably outnumber the females4#ci ,the same view was taken at a later date by ,dr4 ,clavel1 who observes3 ,in the islands where the women are in a minority we may to this day observe tolerably numerous cases of polyandry4 ,thus at ,ua-,una ,i met some women who had each two husbands1 almost always one of them young and the other old4 ,such households of three are not worse than the rest and never give rise to intestine dissensions4#dj ,according to ,radiguet1 the right of having more husbands than one was not general and hardly belonged to any but chieftainesses1#da but this limitation is denied by a good authority4#db ,the ,russian navigator ,lisiansky1 who visited the ,marquesas in #ahjd1 seems to have supposed that the custom was restricted to wealthy families4 ,he says3 ,in rich families1 every woman has two husbands2 of whom one may be called the assistant husband4 ,this last1 when the other is at home1 is nothing more than the head servant of the house2 but1 in case of absence1 exercises all the rights of matrimony1 and is also obliged to attend his lady wherever she goes4 ,it happens sometimes1 that the subordinate partner is chosen after marriage2 but in general two men present themselves to the same woman1 who1 if she approves their addresses1 appoints one for the real husband1 and the other as his auxiliary3 the auxiliary is generally poor1 but handsome and well-made4#dc #ch ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #cag4 #ci ,melville1 ,typee1 pp4 #bjc sq4 #dj ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #fj4 #da ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 #agc4 #db ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #aaa4 #dc ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 p4 #hc4 ,as to polyandry in the ,marquesas1 see further ,e4 ,westermarck1 ,history of ,human ,marriage1 ,fifth ,edition 7,london1 #aiba71 iii4 #adf sqq4 ,another peculiar habit of the ,marquesans was to give away their children to be adopted by other people soon after their birth4 ,when a woman was pregnant1 she and her husband would discuss to whom they should give the child that was about to be born4 ,they received offers from neighbours1 and often knocked down the infant to the highest bidder2 for the adopting parents regularly made presents to the child's family1 consisting of cloth1 tools1 and pigs1 according to the fortune of the contracting parties4 ,after birth the child remained with its mother for some months till it was weaned1 upon which it was sent away to its parents by adoption1 who might inhabit a different district and even a different island4 ,it is said to have been exceptional for parents to bring up their own offspring4#dd #dd ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ai sq42 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ef1 #fa sq4 ,another mode by which the ,marquesans created artificial relationships was the exchange of names4 ,such an exchange was equivalent to a ratification of amity and good-will between the persons1 who thereby acquired a claim to mutual protection and the enjoyment of each other's property and even of their wives1 if they happened to be married men4 ,the custom was not limited to the natives2 they readily exchanged names with ,europeans and granted them the privileges which flowed from the pact4 ,it is even said that some natives gave their own names to animals1 which thenceforth became sacred for them and for the rest of the tribe4 ,this led to so many inconveniences that the priests had to forbid the practice of exchanging names with animals4#de #de ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #af sq41 #aeh sq42 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fa sq4 ,sec4 #e4 ,amusements1 ,dancing-places1 ,banqueting-halls ,a favourite amusement of the islanders was racing or combating on stilts4 ,a stilt was composed of two pieces1 a pole of light wood which the runner held in his hand1 and a step or foot-rest of hard wood1 on which he planted one of his feet4 ,the step or foot-rest was often adorned with human figures curiously carved1 which are said to have represented gods4 ,the races or combats took place on the paved areas which were to be seen in most villages1 and which formed the scene of public entertainments4 ,in these contests each runner or combatant tried to get in the way of his adversary1 and1 balancing himself on one stilt1 to strike his rival with the other1 so as to bring him to the ground amid the laughter and jeers of the spectators4 ,it has sometimes been supposed that the use of stilts in the ,marquesas originated in the practical purpose of enabling people to cross a stream without wetting their feet4 ,but the supposition is highly improbable4 ,for1 on the one hand1 the streams in the islands are mere rivulets1 which dry up for the greater part of the year2 and1 on the other hand1 the natives are almost amphibious1 often spending whole days in the water1 and swimming for hours without fatigue4 ,hence it is absurd to imagine that they invented stilts simply to keep their feet dry at crossing a shallow stream4#df #df ,fleurieu1 op4 cit4 i4 #aai sq41 #abd2 ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #adf2 ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #abd-abf2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhd2 ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #if4 ,as for the ability of the natives to swim in the sea for hours without fatigue1 compare ,j4 ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 p4 #abi4 ,but perhaps the most popular recreation of the ,marquesans was dancing and singing1 which formed a leading feature of their festivals4 ,every inhabited district had its dancing-place1 a sort of public square1 where places were set apart for the use of the performers1 the musicians1 and the spectators4 ,these have been described by the missionary1 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 from personal observation4 ,he says1 ,our walk terminated at what may be called the theatre or opera house of the settlement1 a large rectangular platform of stone pavement1 surrounded by low terraces also laid with stone2 the first designed for the public exhibitions of the song and the dance1 and the last for the accommodation of the spectators who assemble to witness the performance4 ,entertainments of this kind are the most fashionable and favourite amusements at the ,washington and the ,marquesan groups4 ,every inhabited district has its ,tahua1 or public square of this kind2 some of them so extensive1 it is said1 as to be capable of accommodating ten thousand people4#dg ,again1 speaking of another of these dancing-places1 the same writer observes1 ,this ,tahua1 or theatre1 is a structure altogether superior to that visited by us yesterday1 and so massive and well built as to be capable of enduring for ages4 ,it is a regular oblong square1 about sixty feet in length and forty broad4 ,the outer wall consists of immense stones1 or slabs of rock1 three feet high1 and many of them four or six feet long1 joined closely together and hewn with a regularity and neatness truly astonishing1 in view of the rude implements by which it must have been accomplished4 ,on a level with the top of this outer wall1 a pavement of large flat stones1 several feet in width1 extends entirely round1 forming seats for the chiefs1 warriors1 and other persons of distinction1 and singers performing the recitatives and choruses accompanying the dance4 ,within this1 and some inches lower1 is another pavement still wider1 having large flat-topped stones fixed in it at regular intervals of six or eight feet1 used as seats by the beaters on the drums1 and other rude instruments of music1 and immediately within this again1 an unpaved area1 some twenty feet long by twelve broad1 constituting the stage on which the dancers exhibit their skill4#dh #dg ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bad sq4 #dh ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcc sq4 ,compare ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bfe sq4 ,some of these dancing-places appear to have been much larger than those seen by ,stewart4 ,according to ,langsdorff they were sometimes not less than a hundred fathoms in length1 and the great smooth pavement consisted of blocks of stone1 several feet broad1 laid so neatly and so close together that you might have imagined it to be the work of ,european master-masons4#di ,radiguet describes one such dancing-place as a rectangular area eighty metres 7about two hundred and sixty feet7 long by thirty metres 7about one hundred feet7 broad1 and surrounded by a terrace paved with stone1 on which the spectators were seated4#ej #di ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #ach4 #ej ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #aie4 ,the festivals 7koikas7 celebrated at these places were either periodical or occasional4 ,among the periodical perhaps the most important was that held at the ingathering of the bread-fruit harvest in ,february and ,march4 ,among the occasional were those held after a successful fishing1 at the ratification of peace1 and after the death of a priest or chief1 who had been raised to the rank of a deity4 ,a messenger decked in all the native finery repaired to the surrounding villages inviting the inhabitants to attend the festival4 ,immense numbers of hogs were killed and huge troughs filled with bread-fruit were provided by the hosts for the banquet4 ,the festivals were attended not only by the people of the particular valley in which they were held1 but by the inhabitants of other valleys and even of other islands2 for so long as a festival lasted1 a special taboo forbade the natives to harm the strangers in their midst4 ,a general truce was observed2 members of hostile tribes came to share the pleasures of the festival with the foes whom they had recently fought1 and whom they would fight again in a few days4#ea ,yet such visitors were careful to observe certain precautions3 they never came unarmed1 and they always kept together on one side of the festival ground1 in order that they might rally the more easily for mutual defence1 if they should be suddenly attacked4#eb #ea ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcf sq42 ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cah2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bfd sq42 ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fi sqq42 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aib sq4 #eb ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #ach4 ,the performers who sang and danced at these festivals for the entertainment of the public were called ,hokis or ,kaioas3 they are described as a sort of wandering troubadours or minstrels1 who went from tribe to tribe1 seeking their fortune4 ,they took great care of their persons1 which they artificially whitened4 ,at once poets1 musicians1 and dancers1 they nevertheless did not enjoy the public esteem2 on the contrary1 their effeminate habits incurred the contempt of a people who had small taste for the fine arts4#ec ,thus these wandering minstrels and mountebanks would seem to have corresponded to the ,areois of the ,society ,islands4#ed ,the dances were accompanied by the beating of drums and the songs of a chorus1 it might be of a hundred and fifty singers1 who sat on the upper platform along with the chiefs and warriors4 ,sometimes in the intervals between the dances a choir of women1 seated on an adjoining and elevated platform1 would chant in dull monotonous tones1 clapping their hands loudly in unison with their song4 ,the subjects of the songs were various and were often furnished by some passing event1 such as the arrival of a ship or any less novel incident4 ,not unfrequently1 like ballads in our own country1 the songs caught the popular fancy and became fashionable1 being sung in private by all classes of society4 ,so passionately addicted were the ,marquesans to these entertainments that they undertook the longest and most fatiguing journeys from all parts of the island in order to be present at them1 carrying their food and suffering great hardships by the way2 they even came in their crazy canoes1 at the hazard of their lives1 from other islands1 and accepted the risk of being knocked on the head at one of the brawls with which such gatherings usually ended4#ee #ec ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bca4 ,compare ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcg1 who calls the performers ,kaioi4 #ed ,see above1 pp4 #bei sqq4 #ee ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bcd1 #bcf1 #bcg4 ,closely connected with the festivals were the banqueting-halls1 as they may be called4 ,these were houses1 or rather sheds1 thatched with leaves and open in front1 where the lower end of the sloping roof was supported on short wooden pillars1 of which the upper parts were rudely carved in the likeness of the god ,tiki1 thus forming a sort of ,caryatids4 ,these sheds varied in length from thirty to sixty and even two hundred feet in length4 ,they stood on quadrangular stone platforms of the usual type1 ranging from three or four to six1 eight1 twelve1 and even fifteen feet in height4 ,the blocks of stone put together to form the platforms were sometimes enormous1 many of them measuring eight feet long by four feet thick and wide2 and they were hewn and polished into such perfect form as to excite the wonder of the ,european beholder1 who reflected with astonishment on the vast labour requisite to bring these huge rocks from the sea and to chisel them into shape without the help of iron tools4 ,access to the platforms was afforded by sloping trunks of trees notched into steps4 ,in these open sheds the men feasted and prayed4 ,before each repast it was customary to offer to the deity a small portion of food wrapt in leaves4 ,sometimes the priests would thrust the morsels into the mouths of ,tiki's grotesque images4 ,no woman might enter these banqueting-halls or mount the platforms on which they stood4 ,the place was strictly tabooed to them1 and the taboo was signified in the usual way by long pennants of white cloth attached to the posts of the house4#ef #ef ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ch sq42 ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cag sq42 ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ed-ef2 ,melville1 ,typee pp4 #ic-ie4 ,of these writers it is ,porter who gives the dimensions of some of the blocks of stone composing the platforms and expresses his amazement at the labour involved in their construction4 ,he concludes his description as follows 7ii4 #ci73 ,when we count the immense numbers of such places1 which are everywhere to be met with1 our astonishment is raised to the highest1 that a people in a state of nature1 unassisted by any of those artificial means1 which so much assist and facilitate the labour of the civilized man1 could have conceived and executed a work1 which1 to every beholder1 must appear stupendous4 ,these piles are raised with views to magnificence alone2 there does not appear to be the slightest utility attending them3 the houses situated on them are unoccupied1 except during the period of feasting1 and they appear to belong to a public1 without the whole efforts of which they could not have been raised1 and with every exertion that could possibly have been made1 years must have been requisite for the completion of them4 ,of one of these structures seen by him in the anterior of ,nukahiva1 ,stewart observes1 ,the stones1 bearing marks of antiquity that threw the air of an old family mansion around the whole1 were regularly hewn and joined with the greatest nicety1 many which ,i measured being from four to six feet in length1 nearly as wide1 and two or more deep 7,visit to the ,south ,seas1 i4 #bfg sq474 ,sec4 #f4 ,social ,ranks1 ,taboo ,socially the ,marquesans were divided into chiefs or nobles and commoners2 but the chiefs seem to have possessed very little authority1 and to have received few outward marks of deference and respect4 ,a monarchical government in any proper sense of the word was unknown4#eg ,the power of the chiefs1 such as it was1 rested mainly on their superior wealth1 particularly on their landed property2 for the larger their estates1 the greater the number of the tenants whose services they could command4 ,hence the government has been called aristocratic and compared to the feudal system4#eh ,in a fruitful season the chiefs had a right to a fourth part of the produce1 and in other seasons a share according to circumstances4 ,their dignity was hereditary4#ei ,there was no general government of the archipelago as a whole4 ,each island was quite independent of all the rest2 and in every island there were several independent tribes1 which were generally at war with each other4#fj #eg ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #afe2 ,langsdorff1 i4 #aab sq42 ,fleurieu1 op4 cit4 i4 #acb-acd2 ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #fd2 ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #aii2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbe2 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bd sq4 #eh ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 #aja sq4 #ei ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 p4 #hj4 #fj ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gi sq42 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #fb4 ,a powerful instrument in the hands of the nobles was the taboo or tapu1 which1 though it seems to have been originally a religious institution1#fa was turned to political and economic account by the chiefs and priests acting in conjunction4 ,one of our best authorities on the ,marquesans describes the institution as a tool of despotism for the gratification of the passions and caprices of such as could wield it4#fb ,but this is a somewhat one-sided and imperfect view to take of its scope4 ,there is no doubt1 as other good authorities on the ,marquesans have pointed out1 that in the absence of a strong government which could maintain order and protect life and property1 the taboo to a great extent served the purposes which in more civilised society are fulfilled by laws4#fc ,the taboo was a sacred interdiction1 a breach of which was believed of itself to entail disastrous consequences on the transgressor4 ,the interdiction might be either public or private4 ,to give examples of public interdictions1 when the quantity of breadfruit1 on which the people depended for their subsistence1 was from any cause seriously diminished in a district1 the chief had the right to impose a taboo on bread-fruit trees for twenty months1 during which no one might gather the fruit4 ,this close time allowed the trees to recover their strength and fertility4 ,similarly1 if fish were scarce1 the chief might pronounce a taboo on the neighbouring bay1 or a part of it1 in order to allow the fish to multiply undisturbed and replenish the sea in the neighbourhood of human habitations4 ,again1 in the prospect of a great festival1 a chief might lay an interdict on pigs for two or three years in advance1 in order that1 when the time came1 there might be plenty of pork for the multitude at the banquet4 ,similarly1 when the paper-mulberry1 from which the ,marquesans made their bark-cloth1 threatened to give out1 the chief might lay the trees under an interdict for five years1 at the end of which the crop was sure to be magnificent4#fd ,in these and similar cases the taboo was of public utility by ensuring a proper supply of the necessaries of life4 ,however1 its imposition was not always guided by rational considerations1 and hence it sometimes failed of its purpose4 ,for example1 so long as the bread-fruit was unripe1 almost all kinds of fish were taboo and therefore might not be eaten1 and this interdiction1 instead of alleviating1 tended naturally to aggravate the scarcity of food4 ,the reason for the taboo was a curious superstition that if any one were to eat fish while the bread-fruit was unripe1 the fruit would fall from the trees4#fe #fa ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dg sq42 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bei4 #fb ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #aec4 #fc ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #beh sq42 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fe sq4 #fd ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ce sq4 ,compare ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #aee4 #fe ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #aah4 ,but the taboo also served a useful purpose by ensuring respect for private property1 which is a fundamental condition of social prosperity4 ,the priests only1 we are told1 can impose a general taboo1 but every individual has a right to pronounce one upon his own property3 this is done by declaring1 if his wish be to preserve a breadfruit1 or a cocoa tree1 a house or a plantation1 from robbery and destruction1 that the spirit of his father or of some king1 or indeed of any other person1 reposes in this tree1 or house1 which then bears the name of the person1 and nobody ventures to attack it4 ,if any one is so irreligious as to break through a taboo1 and should be convicted of it1 he is called kikino2 and the kikinos are always the first to be devoured by the enemy1 at least they believe it to be so1 nor is it impossible that the priests should so arrange matters as that this really happens4#ff ,again1 if a man's pig had been stolen1 and he suspected who had done the deed1 he would lay a taboo on the swine or other property of the thief by giving his own name1 or the name of somebody else1 to the animals or the trees or whatever it might be4 ,after that1 in the opinion of the people1 the property so named was bewitched or haunted by the spirit of the person1 whether alive or dead1 whose name it bore2 and this belief sometimes sufficed to compel the thief to abandon his possessions and to settle elsewhere4#fg ,a wreath of leaves or a strip of white cloth attached to a house1 a canoe1 a fruit-tree1 or other piece of property1 was the symbol of taboo1 and in ordinary circumstances was enough to protect it4#fh #ff ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #agb4 ,in this quotation ,i have altered the spelling tahbu into taboo4 #fg ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #aaf4 #fh ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #aeg2 ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #bcj2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bfd4 ,but the taboo was an instrument which could be used capriciously to thwart1 as well as to further1 the course of justice4 ,thus we read how1 under the ,french government of the islands1 a wife set out for the police-office to complain of the ill-treatment to which she had been subjected by her husband4 ,but scarcely had she put her foot outside the door1 when her husband1 aware of her intention and determined to frustrate it1 called out after her1 ,the road from here to the police-office is your father4 ,on hearing that1 the woman at once stopped short1 for under no circumstances would she dare to trample on the author of her being4 ,on the contrary1 she immediately roasted two little pigs and carried them to the tomb of her father as an offering to appease his ghost1 which might reasonably be supposed to fret at the mere thought of being trodden under foot by his own daughter4#fi ,this instructive example shows how closely the taboo was associated with the fear and worship of the dead2 by bestowing the name of a dead person on a thing you rendered the thing inviolate1 since thereby you placed it under the immediate protection of the ghost4 #fi ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #fh4 ,among the multitude of taboos which were religiously observed by the ,marquesans it is perhaps possible to detect a trace of totemism4 ,thus the sting ray fish was taboo to the tribe of ,houmis4 ,not only would they not eat the fish1 but they fled in horror if it were even shown to them4 ,their horror was explained by a tradition that once on a time a great chief of the tribe had been out fishing with his people1 when a gigantic sting ray upset their canoes and gobbled them all up4#gj ,this aversion to eating and even looking at a certain species of animal1 together with a traditionary explanation based on an incident in the past history of the tribe1 is very characteristic of totemism4 #gj ,clavel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fg sq4 ,sec4 #g4 ,religion and ,mythology ,the consideration of taboo introduces us to the subject of religion2 for1 on the one hand1 the foregoing evidence tends to establish a connexion between the institution of taboo and the doctrine of the human soul1 and on the other hand some of our best authorities on the ,marquesans have stated that the taboo was believed to be an expression of the will of the gods conveyed to the people through the mouth of a priest4#ga ,the definition may be accepted1 if under gods we include the spirits of the dead1 who were worshipped by the ,marquesans and lent their sanction1 as we have just seen1 to the taboo4 #ga ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #beh2 ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #dh2 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #aec2 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #fe4 ,the ,marquesan term for a god was the usual ,polynesian word atua or1 as it is sometimes spelled1 etua4 ,but their notion of divinity1 as commonly happens1 was vague4 ,one of the earliest writers on their religion1 the ,russian navigator ,krusenstern1 informs us that a confused notion of a higher being1 whom they call ,etua1 does indeed exist among them1 but of these there are several kinds2 the spirit of a priest1 of a king1 or of any of his relations1 being an etua4 ,they likewise consider all ,europeans as such2 for as their ideas do not extend beyond their own horizon1 they are firmly convinced that their ships come from the clouds2 and they imagine that thunder is occasioned by the cannonading of vessels which float in the atmosphere1 on which account they entertain a great dread of artillery4#gb ,the atuas or deities of the ,marquesans1 we are told by another writer1 are numerous and vary in their character and powers4 ,besides those having dominion respectively1 as is supposed1 over the different elements and their most striking phenomena1 there are atuas of the mountain and of the forest1 of the sea-side and of the interior1 atuas of peace and of war1 of the song and of the dance1 and of all the occupations and amusements of life4 ,it is supposed by them that many of the departed spirits of men also become atuas3 and thus the multiplicity of their gods is such1 that almost every sound in nature1 from the roaring of the tempest in the mountains and the bursting of a thunderbolt in the clouds1 to the sighing of a breeze through the cocoa-nut tops and the chirping of an insect in the grass or in the thatch of their huts1 is interpreted into the movements of a god4#gc #gb ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #aga4 #gc ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdc sq4 ,compare ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bdj2 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bah sq4 ,but the ,marquesans1 not content with deifying some men after death1 deified others in their lifetime4 ,amongst them there is1 or rather used to be1 a class of living men who claim the title and attributes of the ,deity2 not through a professed inspiration or possession by a supernatural influence or power1 but in their own right of godship as those who control the elements1 impart fruitfulness to the productions of the earth or smite them with blasting and sterility1 and who exercise the prerogatives of the ,deity in scattering disease and wielding the shafts of death4 ,they are few in number1 not more than one or two at farthest on an island1 and live in a seclusion and mysticism somewhat in unison with their blasphemous pretensions4 ,there is none at present in the near vicinity of ,taiohae1#gd though the former abode of such an individual is pointed out at the foot of a bold cliff1 high in the mountains4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,crook gives the following account of an ,atua1 at the island of ,tahuata1 in the ,windward or ,marquesan group1 while he resided there temporarily in #agig1 as a missionary from the ,london ,missionary ,society3 ',he is now of great age1 and has lived from early life at ,hanateiteina1 in a large house surrounded by an enclosure called the ,a4 ,in the house is an altar1 and from the beams within and upon the trees around it are human carcasses1 suspended with their heads downward and scalped4 ,no one enters the premises but his servant1 except when human sacrifices are offered4 ,of these1 more are offered to him than to any other of their gods1 and he frequently seats himself on an elevated scaffold in front of his house and calls for two or three at a time4 ,he is invoked in all parts of the island1 and offerings everywhere are made to him and sent to ,hanateiteina4'#ge ,similarly a ,catholic missionary tells us that in the island of ,nukahiva he was personally acquainted with two living human deities1 a priest and a priestess1 both of whom1 it was said1 had the right to demand the sacrifice of human victims to themselves4 ,he adds1 however1 that they did not abuse the right1 and that nobody in the world appeared more affable and polite than these divinities2 he even entertained hopes of one day baptizing the priest4#gf ,of the reverence in which the priestly class in general was held by the people1 ,captain ,porter remarks that their priests are their oracles2 they are considered but little inferior to their gods2 to some they are greatly superior1 and after their death they rank with the chief divinity4#gg #gd ,the principal harbour of ,nukahiva4 #ge ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op cit4 i4 #bdd sq4 ,compare ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbf1 #bdj sq4 ,the missionary ,william ,crook was landed in the ,marquesas from the missionary ship ,duff in #agig4 ,see ,j4 ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 pp4 #aca sqq4 #gf ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #de4 #gg ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aad4 ,little seems to be recorded of the theology and mythology of the ,marquesans2 but among their myths was the widespread ,polynesian story of the origin of fire4 ,of old1 it was said1 fire used to be jealously guarded by ,mahoike in the infernal regions4 ,hearing of its utility1 ,maui descended into the nether world to steal some of the element2 but he failed to elude the vigilance of its guardian and was obliged to resort to force to extort the boon from him4 ,in the struggle which ensued ,mahoike lost an arm and a leg1 and to save his remaining limbs he consented to give fire to the victorious ,maui4 ,at the same time he offered to rub it on ,maui's leg2 but ,maui was too cunning to agree to that1 for he knew that in that case the fire which he took to earth would not be sacred4 ,finally1 ,mahoike rubbed the fire on ,maui's head1 and said to him1 ,go back to the place you came from and touch with your forehead all the trees except the keika3 all the trees will yield you fire4#gh #gh ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbc sq4 ,for the names of the ,marquesan deities1 among whom ,tiki appears to have been the most famous1 and for some myths concerning them1 see ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dj sqq42 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bba sqq42 ,amable1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xix4 7#ahdg7 pp4 #bc sq42 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bg sqq4 ,in the ,marquesas there was a class of men called tauas1 who were supposed to possess an hereditary gift of inspiration and to become deities after their death4 ,they could cause a god to dwell within them4 ,often at night they might be heard conversing with the divinity in their bodies1 the deity crying out in a shrill voice1 while the man answered him in his own ordinary voice4 ,sometimes they would make a rustling noise with their fingers in the leaves1 and say that they had been miraculously taken through the thatch of the house and brought back again by the door4 ,in their fits of inspiration they became convulsed and glared fiercely with their eyes2 then1 with their hands quivering violently1 they would run about1 while they prophesied death to their enemies in squeaky tones1 or demanded human victims for the god by whom they were possessed4 ,with the function of prophecy they combined the office of physician or rather of exorciser4 ,for every internal disorder was believed to be inflicted by some god1 who had taken possession of the sufferer's person2 and the tauas1 or high priests1 as we may call them1 were called in to heal the patient by ridding him of the divinity who had entered into him4 ,this they commonly did by feeling for the mischievous deity till they found him1 when they smothered him between the palms of their hands4#gi ,sometimes the good physician would converse with the spirit whom he had thus caught between his hands1 and would elicit from him in conversation the cause of the sickness1 which usually consisted in some breach of taboo1 such as a theft of bread-fruit or coco-nuts from a sacred tree4 ,at the same time the affable spirit would reveal to the physician the penalty which the sick man must pay in order to expiate his crime and thereby ensure his recovery4 ,a sacrifice of pigs would appear to have been usually deemed indispensable for the patient's complete convalescence2 the animals were conveyed to a temple and there consumed by the priests for the benefit of the sufferer4#hj ,the tauas or high priests were supposed to become gods after death2 when one of them departed this life1 it was essential for his deification that human victims should be sacrificed4 ,the number of victims varied with the rank of the new deity2 it was never less than seven1 but oftener ten4 ,each victim was sacrificed for the sake of a particular part of the deity's body1 as for his head1 or his eyes1 or his hair4 ,to procure the necessary tale of victims1 predatory expeditions were undertaken against the tribes in neighbouring valleys4#ha #gi ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bde sq42 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbg sq4 #hj ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #acf4 ,the writer's language seems to imply that the spirit whom the priestly physician caught in his hands and interrogated was the patient's own soul4 #ha ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #de2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bdg2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbh sq4 ,sec4 #h4 ,the ,soul1 ,death1 and ,funeral ,customs ,like most savages1 the ,marquesans thought that they possessed souls which could quit their bodies and wander far away in dreams4 ,thus a young girl once related how1 the night before1 she had sailed in a splendid canoe to ,tiburones1 a mythical paradise to the west of ,nukahiva2 there she had seen beautiful things such as do not exist here on earth4 ,there1 said she1 the trees are very tall1 and the people very handsome2 there they sing songs to music sweeter than ours4 ,ah6 when shall ,i be able to return to ,tiburones8 ,on another occasion a woman's soul appeared to a priest to inform him that she had committed the heinous crime of eating a fowl1 but that she would expiate the sacrilege by an early death4 ,the ,french authorities summoned both the priest and the woman to the bar of justice4 ,there the priest stuck to it that he had received the revelation1 and the woman expressed her regret for the escapade of which her soul had been guilty without her knowledge4 ,it was necessary to reassure her on the subject of her soul's rash act and melancholy prediction1 otherwise she might have fulfilled the prophecy by refusing food and dying outright4#hb #hb ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bch sq4 ,at death the soul was supposed to depart from the body by the mouth or the nose2 hence in order to delay its departure and so to prolong the life of its owner1 affectionate relatives used to stop his mouth and nostrils1 thus accelerating the event which they wished to retard4#hc #hc ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #bde2 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #dd1 note#a4 ,compare ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #aae4 ,the ,marquesans have1 or used to have1 a sovereign contempt for death1 and do not fear its approach4 ,when a native felt that he must die1 he took it calmly and ordered his coffin1 which he caused to be brought to the house while he was still in life4 ,the coffin is hollowed out of a single log and resembles a canoe4 ,if the sick man after all recovered1 the coffin was kept in a corner of the house till it was wanted4 ,no attempt was made to hide it or to disguise its purpose4 ,should a stranger ask1 ,what is that8 he would be told1 ,it is ,so-and-so's coffin2 though ,so-and-so might be present and within hearing4#hd ,nevertheless1 when it was clear that a serious illness was about to terminate fatally1 and that all the efforts of the priestly physician or sorcerer to avert the inevitable end were fruitless1 the house would be filled by wailing women1 who danced naked round the mat of the dying man1 cutting themselves with sharp stones or shark's teeth as in a frenzy1 and uttering the most piercing lamentations4 ,this lasted till the moment of death1 when all united in a terrific and prolonged howl4#he ,similar demonstrations of sorrow were continued or renewed after the decease4 ,if the departed was a married man and his widow survived him1 she would bruise her flesh with a stone1 scratch it with her nails1 and cut her forehead1 cheeks1 and breast with shark's teeth or splinters of bamboo till the blood trickled down4#hf ,captain ,porter saw a woman with deep wounds still unhealed1 which she had inflicted on her neck1 breast1 and arms for the loss of her husband1 who had been devoured by a shark4#hg ,after the death1 too1 the widow would place herself in front of the corpse1 and three or four girls would surround her2 whereupon they would all engage in a lascivious dance1 with outstretched arms1 tripping in cadence to the accompaniment of a funeral hymn or lamentation1 which was chanted by a choir in honour of the dead4 ,after executing the dance1 which would seem to have been intended to attract the attention of the deceased and recall his wandering spirit1 they would stoop over the corpse1 and cry1 ,he has not stirred6 ,he stirs not4 ,alas6 alas6 he is no more4 ,it was only after they had thus practised their seductions in vain on the dead man that the widow gave way to her frantic outburst of sorrow by mauling herself with a sort of saw4#hh ,this funeral dance a widow was apparently expected to renew in public at every festival for months after the death4 ,at a festival1 which he called the ,feast of ,calabashes1 ,melville saw four or five old women1 stark naked1 holding themselves erect and leaping stiffly into the air1 with their arms pressed close to their sides1 like sticks bobbing up and down in water4 ,they preserved the utmost gravity of countenance1 and continued their strange movements without a single moment's cessation1 though they did not appear to attract the observation of the crowd around them4 ,the ,american was told that these dancing or leaping figures were bereaved widows1 whose partners had been slain in battle many moons previously2 and who1 at every festival1 gave public evidence in this manner of their calamities4#hi ,when the deceased was a chief1 the lamentations and the dances went on day and night for some time4 ,a priestess or sorceress1 in festal costume1 led the choir of female mourners and vaunted the exploits of the dead warrior1 recalling his mighty deeds and the incidents of his life4 ,the dances were accompanied by the music of drums4 ,the crowd of spectators1 in their best array1 ate and drank to repletion1 and1 flushed with liquor1 abandoned themselves to excesses which transformed the mortuary chamber1 lit up at night by smoky torches1 into a scene of low debauchery4 ,from time to time remarks of a gross nature were addressed to the dead man on the helpless condition to which he was reduced2 and now and then the women would slash their faces and breasts with splinters of bamboo in the usual fashion4 ,the orgy went on till the provisions were completely exhausted1 which might not be for a considerable time1 since hecatombs of pigs were sometimes slaughtered for the purpose of celebrating the obsequies of a chief in a manner worthy of his rank4#ij #hd ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aad4 sq42 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 p4 #eh4 ,compare ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bfj sqq4 #he ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfc2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bdi sq4 #hf ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhd2 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #ci4 #hg ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aba4 #hh ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bhc sq4 ,another writer mentions that at the moment of death it was customary for a number of matrons to strip themselves naked and execute obscene dances at the door of the house1 crying out at the pitch of their voices1 ,father6 father6 ,see ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #aaf4 #hi ,melville1 ,typee1 pp4 #ahj1 #bja4 #ij ,clavel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dc sq4 ,the soul of the dead was believed not to abandon the corpse definitely for two days after the death4 ,in the interval it was thought to haunt the house1 watching the conduct of the survivors1 and ready to act as a friend or a foe according as the mourners behaved towards the deceased and his remains4 ,hence1 to keep the ghost in good humour it was customary to offer him food1 in the shape of breadfruit paste and other dainties1 which were wrapped up in leaves1 hung on the edge of the coffin1 and frequently renewed4#ia ,on the third night after the death a priest1 stepping out on the terrace in front of the house1 implored the wandering soul of the deceased to depart2 and by way of enforcing the request a band of men1 armed with spears and other lethal weapons1 went about in the outer darkness1 beating the bushes and stabbing the thatched roofs of the houses in order to drive the lingering ghost away4 ,if1 roused by the clamour1 the dogs began to bark1 the priest would say1 ,the soul is departing4#ib #ia ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #df4 #ib ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bhd sq4 ,from the moment of death till the priests had completed the litany or songs chanted on such occasions1 all the assembled people fasted1 no one touched the provisions collected for the funeral feast1 and no fire might be kindled within sight of the house4#ic ,the litany consisted in the mumbling of a long speech in an unintelligible language accompanied by the constant beating of drums4#id ,among the victuals provided for the funeral feast special importance appears to have been attached to the head of a pig1 which was cut off and attached to the bier4#ie ,we are told that the professed intention was thereby to propitiate the gods1 and obtain for the deceased a safe and peaceable passage through the lower regions4 ,but1 in point of fact the priest took possession of the pig's head and devoured it secretly1 leaving only a small piece of it under a stone4#if #ic ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfe2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bea4 #id ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #acc4 #ie ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhe4 #if ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #agc4 ,compare ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #acc2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfe2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bea4 ,when death had taken place1 the body was washed1 neatly dressed in garments of new cloth1 and laid on a bier constructed of bamboos or of spears and other warlike weapons1 fastened together with wicker-work and spread with mats4#ig ,if the deceased was a chief and a warrior1 his body would be arrayed in his finest ornaments1 and his club1 plumed helmet1 necklaces of whale's teeth1 and skulls of the enemies he had killed1 would be laid beside him4 ,thus exposed1 the corpse might be kept for weeks in the house1 where1 in spite of the stench1 the family continued to eat1 drink1 and sleep beside it4 ,sometimes1 however1 and perhaps more usually1 the body was transferred to a small house or shed adjoining the dwelling of the deceased1 where it received the necessary attentions4 ,finally1 it was removed to a little hut or shed1 where the bier was supported on posts under a thatched roof4 ,to be buried in the earth was a mark of ignominy reserved at most for a young girl of the lowest rank who had died childless4 ,beside the corpse food was hung for the use of the ghost1 it might be fish1 roast pork1 or coco-nuts1 and there it was allowed to remain till it rotted and fell to the ground2 none but children would be greedy or impious enough to partake of the sacred victuals1 and that only in the greatest secrecy4 ,often the house in which the death had taken place was tabooed and abandoned after the remains had been deposited in their last home4#ih #ig ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #agb sq42 ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #acc2 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 p4 #ha2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfd4 #ih ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aaf sq4 ,as to the decoration of the corpse1 see ,clavel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dc sq4 ,as to the temporary house or shed in which the body was kept for some time after death1 compare ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfd1 #bff2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bej4 ,as for the custom of keeping the body for months in the ordinary house1 surrounded by the family1 see ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #bhf4 ,as to the practice of hanging food beside the body1 even after its removal to its last place of rest1 see ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage au ,pole ,sud et dans l',oceanie1 ,histoire du ,voyage1 iv4 7,paris1 #ahdb71 p4 #cc2 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #df4 ,the bodies of the dead were regularly subjected to a kind of embalmment1 which had the effect of preserving them for a longer or shorter time4 ,as soon as decomposition appeared imminent1 the corpse was stripped of its ornaments and placed in the usual canoe-shaped coffin1 the trunk being propped up so as to facilitate the work of the embalmers4 ,the task of embalming was entrusted to women1 relations of the deceased1 who rubbed the body daily with coco-nut oil and perfumes4 ,they had no intercourse with the rest of the family1 and took their meals apart without ever washing their hands4 ,according to one account1 the anointment was performed by night1 while during the day the body was exposed to the sun on the stone platform of the house4 ,the products of decomposition were carefully received in vessels and carried away to the place of sepulture2 and the corpse was gradually eviscerated through the rectum4 ,the friction was continued until the desiccated body was reduced to the state of a mummy1 though sometimes1 in spite of all precautions1 it crumbled into dust4 ,if the operation was successful1 the mummy1 wrapt in many bandages1 was covered by a second canoe attached to the first1 and was then placed on a scaffold in a morai or sanctuary specially consecrated to it4 ,but sometimes the mummy was fastened up to the roof or wall of the house wherein the person had died2 and it might be kept there even for years4 ,when it was deposited in a morai1 no woman was allowed to approach it under pain of death4#ii ,sometimes the head was detached from the body and kept in the house1 where it was treated with respect4 ,sometimes it was carried away and hidden in some almost inaccessible cave in the mountains or beside the sea4 ,this was done as a precaution to save the skulls from falling into the hands of enemies1 who were eager to bear them off as trophies4#ajj #ii ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #agc2 ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #acc sq42 ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #bjf2 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bhf sq42 ,clavel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dd sq4 ,in a house in ,nukahiva the missionary ,stewart saw a canoe-shaped coffin containing the remains of a man who had died many years before4 ,it was raised on a bier of framework1 at a height of two or three feet above the ground4 ,stewart adds1 ,the dead bodies of all persons of high distinction are preserved in their houses for a long period in this way4 ,see ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bei4 #ajj ,clavel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #de sq42 ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bcc sq4 ,each family had its own morai or burial-place1 where the mouldering bones or mummies were finally deposited and left to decay4#aja ,such family cemeteries were scattered about the valleys2 the choice of a site seems to have been determined by no special rule4#ajb ,the morai or burial-place of ordinary people was near their houses1 and not far from it was a taboo-house1 where the men feasted on the flesh of pigs4#ajc ,but the cemeteries of chiefs were situated in the interior of the valleys1 often so deeply imbedded in dense foliage that it was not easy to find them without the guidance of a native4#ajd ,similarly we are told that the cemeteries 7morais7 of priests lay quite apart from all dwellings4#aje #aja ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #abg1 #agc2 ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #aae1 #acd4 ,other writers on the ,marquesas in like manner speak of a morai simply as a place of burial4 ,see ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aad 7the gods at the burying-place1 or morai1 for so it is called by them72 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #eb 7un morai 7sepulchre7 en ruine72 ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #afh 7the 'morais' or burying-grounds74 ,so1 too1 the term was understood by the ,french navigator1 ,j4 ,dumont d',urville4 ,see his ,voyage au ,pole ,sud1 ,histoire du ,voyage1 iv4 7,paris1 #ahdb71 pp4 #bg1 #cc4 #ajb ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bec4 #ajc ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #aae4 ,according to ,krusenstern 7op4 cit4 i4 #abg71 the morais in general lie a good way inland upon hills4 #ajd ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 ,narrative of a ,whaling ,voyage1 i4 #cbi4 #aje ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #aae4 ,the ordinary form of a ,marquesan morai or burial-place seems to have been a thatched shed erected on a square or oblong platform of stones1 exactly resembling the stone platforms on which the ,marquesan houses were regularly built4 ,thus ,vincendon-,dumoulin and ,desgraz say that the morais1 funeral monuments where the bodies are deposited1 are erected on a stone platform1 the base of all ,nukahivan edifices4#ajf ,again1 describing what he calls a picturesque morai1 ,radiguet observes1 ,four posts1 erected on a platform1 supported a small plank covered with a roof of leaves4 ,under this roof could be seen the remains of a skeleton1 perhaps that of the daughter-in-law of the neighbouring house4444 ,at the two ends of the platform two upright stones1 about ten feet high1 and resembling the ,breton menhirs1 formed an exceptional ornament to this morai1 which the bushes were in course of invading and the storms of demolishing4#ajg ,again1 ,stewart describes as follows what he calls a depository of the dead3 ,it stands in the midst of a beautiful clump of trees1 and consists of a platform of heavy stone work1 twenty feet or more square and four or five high1 surmounted in the centre by eight or ten posts arranged in the shape of a grave1 and supporting at a height of six or seven feet a long and narrow roof of thatch4 ,close beneath this was the body enclosed in a coffin4#ajh ,again1 in the island of ,tahuata 7,santa ,christina71 ,bennett describes a chief's burial-place as follows3 ,a low but extensive stone platform1 beneath the shade of a venerable fau-tree1 marks the more consecrated ground2 and on this is erected a wooden hut1 containing an elevated trough1 shaped as a canoe1 and holding the perfect skeleton of the late chief4 ,in front of the sepulchre are two hideous wooden idols1 and several bundles of coco-nut leaves4#aji ,the shed1 which was erected on the stone platform1 and under which the body rested on a bier1 seems to have consisted for the most part simply of a thatched roof supported on wooden posts4#aaj ,sometimes1 however1 instead of a simple shed1 open on all sides1 a small house resembling the ordinary houses of the natives appears to have been erected for the reception of the corpse or mummy4 ,thus in the island of ,tahuata 7,santa ,christina7 ,bennett describes a burial-place as follows3 ,the most picturesque mausoleum we noticed was that which contained the corpse of one of ,eutiti's children4 ,it was placed on the summit of an isolated hill1 rising from the bosom of a well-wooded savannah1 and was covered entirely with the leaves of the fan-palm4 ,the posterior1 or tallest wall1 was twelve feet high1 the anterior was low1 closed by a mat1 and decorated with six wooden pillars1 covered with stained cinnet and white cloth4 ,strips of tapa bark-cloth1 fixed to a wand1 fluttered on the roof1 to denote that the spot was tabooed2 and for the same purpose1 a row of globular stones1 each the size of a football1 and whitened with coral lime1 occupied the top of a low but broad stone wall which encircled the building4 ,the interior contained nothing but the bier on which the corpse was laid4#aaa ,from the sketch which ,bennett gives of this particular mausoleum1 as he calls it1 we gather that the sepulchral hut containing the body was not raised on a stone platform1 but built on the flat4 #ajf ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bec4 #ajg ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #ib4 ,one of these stones was said to have been erected by the ,french navigator1 ,captain ,marchand1 and to have formerly borne an inscription recording his taking possession of the island4 ,hence it would be unsafe to draw any conclusion from the supposed antiquity of these two tall upright stones4 #ajh ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 i4 #bfj4 #aji ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbi4 #aaj ,compare ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage au ,pole ,sud1 ,histoire du ,voyage1 iv4 #cc1 ,sous un hangar se trouvent quelques supports formant1 a #b metres au-dessus du sol1 une estrade sur laquelle est depose le toui-papao4 ,c'est le nom que les naturels donnent au cadavre enveloppe d'herbes et de tapa 7etoffes de papyrus faites dans le pays74 ,on n'apercoit du corps ainsi habille que les extremites des doigts des pieds et des mains4 #aaa ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cca4 ,there seems to be no evidence that the stone platforms on which the sepulchral sheds or huts of the ,marquesans were erected ever took the shape of stepped or terraced pyramids like the massive stone pyramids of ,tahiti and ,tonga4 ,so far as the mortuary platforms of the ,marquesans are described1 they appear to have been quadrangular piles of stone1 with upright sides1 not stepped or terraced4 ,megalithic monuments in the form of stepped or terraced pyramids seem to have been very rare in the ,marquesas ,islands2 indeed1 it is doubtful whether they existed at all4 ,with regard to the island of ,tahuata 7,santa ,christina71 it is positively affirmed by ,bennett that none of the valleys contain any morais or other buildings devoted to religious purposes1 nor any public idols2#aab and by morais he probably means stepped pyramids like those of ,tahiti and ,tonga4 ,however1 in the valley of ,taipii 7,typee71 in ,nukahiva1 a megalithic monument1 built in terraces1 was seen by ,melville in #ahdb4 ,he describes it as follows3 #aab ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #cbb4 ,one day in returning from this spring by a circuitous path1 ,i came upon a scene which reminded me of ,stonehenge and the architectural labours of the ,druids4 ,at the base of one of the mountains1 and surrounded on all sides by dense groves1 a series of vast terraces of stone rises1 step by step1 for a considerable distance up the hillside4 ,these terraces cannot be less than one hundred yards in length and twenty in width4 ,their magnitude1 however1 is less striking than the immense size of the blocks composing them4 ,some of the stones1 of an oblong shape1 are from ten to fifteen feet in length1 and five or six feet thick4 ,their sides are quite smooth1 but though square1 and of pretty regular formation1 they bear no mark of the chisel4 ,they are laid together without cement1 and here and there show gaps between4 ,the topmost terrace and the lower one are somewhat peculiar in their construction4 ,they have both a quadrangular depression in the centre1 leaving the rest of the terrace elevated several feet above it4 ,in the intervals of the stones immense trees have taken root1 and their broad boughs1 stretching far over and interlacing together1 support a canopy almost impenetrable to the sun4 ,overgrowing the greater part of them1 and climbing from one to another1 is a wilderness of vines1 in whose sinewy embrace many of the stones lie half-hidden1 while in some places a thick growth of bushes entirely covers them4 ,there is a wild pathway which obliquely crosses two of these terraces1 and so profound is the shade1 so dense the vegetation1 that a stranger to the place might pass along it without being aware of their existence4 ,these structures bear every indication of a very high antiquity1 and ,kory-,kory1 who was my authority in all matters of scientific research1 gave me to understand that they were coeval with the creation of the world2 that the great gods themselves were the builders2 and that they would endure until time shall be no more4 ,kory-,kory's prompt explanation1 and his attributing the work to a divine origin1 at once convinced me that neither he nor the rest of his countrymen knew anything about them4#aac ,melville was accordingly disposed to attribute the erection of these remarkable terraces to an extinct and forgotten race4#aad ,the hypothesis is all the more probable because the monument appears to have been entirely abandoned and unused by the natives during the time when they have been known to ,europeans4 ,but it is doubtful whether the edifice was a pyramid2 all that ,melville's somewhat vague description implies is that it consisted of a series of terraces built one above the other on the hillside4 #aac ,melville1 ,typee1 pp4 #aff sq4 #aad ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #afg4 ,according to some accounts the remains of the dead1 instead of being deposited in sheds or huts erected on stone platforms1 were buried in the platforms themselves4 ,thus1 according to ,william ,crook1 the first missionary to the ,marquesans1 they have a morai in each district1 where the dead are buried beneath a pavement of large stones4#aae ,similarly1 in ,nukahiva two or three large quadrangular platforms 7pi-pis71 heavily flagged1 enclosed with regular stone walls and almost hidden by the interlacing branches of enormous trees1 were pointed out as burial-places to ,melville1 and he was told that the bodies were deposited in rude vaults beneath the flagging1 and were suffered to remain there without being disinterred4 ,although nothing could be more strange and gloomy than the aspect of these places1 where the lofty trees threw their dark shadows over rude blocks of stone1 a stranger looking at them would have discerned none of the ordinary evidences of a place of sepulture4#aaf ,to the same effect1 perhaps1 ,porter observes that1 when the flesh is mouldered from the bones1 they are1 as ,i have been informed1 carefully cleansed3 some are kept for relics1 and some are deposited in the morais4#aag ,again1 ,krusenstern says that twelve months after the death the corpse is broken into pieces1 and the bones are packed in a small box made of the wood of the bread-fruit tree1 and carried to the morai or burial place1 where no woman is allowed to approach under pain of death4#aah ,however1 these statements do not necessarily imply that the bones were buried under the stones of the platform at the morai4 #aae ,quoted by ,j4 ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean1 p4 #add4 #aaf ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #bje4 #aag ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #abc4 #aah ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #agc4 ,but whether deposited on biers or buried under the pavement1 the remains of the dead were liable to be carried off in time of war by foes1 who regarded such an exploit as a great deed of heroism4 ,hence when an invasion of the enemy in force was expected1 the custom was to remove the bodies from the morai and bury them elsewhere4#aai ,the heads of enemies killed in battle were invariably kept and hung up as trophies of victory in the house of the conqueror4 ,they seem to have been smoked in order to preserve them better4#abj ,it is said that they were used as cups to drink kava out of4#aba #aai ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #acd4 #abj ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #bjf4 #aba ,clavel1 op4 cit4 p4 #dg4 ,after ten months or a year the obsequies were concluded by another funeral feast1 which might last from eight to thirty days according to the rank of the deceased and the opulence of his family4 ,at the same time offerings of food were presented afresh at the tomb1 and the decorations were renewed1 consisting of branches and leaves and strips of white bark-cloth1 which waved like flags at the end of little white wands4 ,at these anniversary feasts1 to which1 if the deceased was a man of quality1 only chiefs were in many cases admitted1 great quantities of pigs were consumed4#abb ,the intention of the feast is said to have been to thank the gods for having permitted the dead person to arrive safely in the other world4#abc #abb ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aag sq4 #abc ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #agc4 ,sec4 #i4 ,fate of the ,soul after ,death ,the souls of the dead were supposed to depart either to an upper or to a lower world1 either to heaven or to a subterranean region called ,havaiki4 ,the particular destination of a soul after death was determined1 not by moral considerations1 not by the virtue or vice of the deceased1 but by the rank he had occupied in this life3 people of quality went to the upper world1 and common people went to the lower1 to ,havaiki4#abd ,according to a more precise account1 heaven was inhabited by deities of the highest order1 by women who had died in childbed1 by warriors who had fallen on the field of battle1 by suicides1 and especially by the aristocratic class of the chiefs4 ,this celestial region was supposed to be a happy land1 abounding in bread-fruit paste 7popoi71 pork1 and fish1 and offering the companionship of the most beautiful women imaginable4 ,there the bread-fruit trees dropped their ripe fruit every moment to the ground1 and the supply of coco-nuts and bananas never failed4 ,there the souls reposed on mats much finer than those of ,nukahiva2 and every day they bathed in rivers of coco-nut oil4 ,in that happy land there were plenty of plumes and feathers1 and boars'-tusks1 and sperm-whale teeth far better than even white men can boast of4 ,the nether world1 on the other hand1 was peopled with deities of the second class and by ordinary human beings1 who had no pretensions to gentility4 ,but it was not a place of misery much less of punishment or torture2 on the contrary1 we are told that both the upper and the lower regions were happier than the earth which the living inhabit4#abe ,the approach to the lower world1 curiously enough1 was by sea4 ,the soul sailed away in a coffin shaped like a canoe 7pahaa74 ,when it came near the channel which divides the island ,tahuata from the island ,hivaoa1 it was met by two deities or two opposing influences1 one of which tried to push the soul into a narrow strait between ,tahuata and a certain rock in the sea1 while the other deity or influence endeavoured to contrive that the soul should keep the broad channel between the rock and ,hivaoa4 ,the souls that were thrust into the narrow strait were killed2 whereas such as kept the open channel were conducted safe by a merciful god to their destination4#abf #abd ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #dd4 #abe ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbj2 ,melville1 ,typee1 p4 #ahe4 ,compare ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #dj4 #abf ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbj sq4 ,sometimes the land of the dead was identified with a happy island or islands called ,tiburones lying somewhere in the ocean to the west of ,nukahiva4 ,not uncommonly natives of the ,marquesas sailed away in great double canoes to seek and find these happy isles1 but were never heard of again4 ,on one occasion1 for example1 forty men in the island of ,ua-pu1 who had revolted against their chief and been defeated1 embarked secretly by night and put to sea1 hoping to discover the ,fortunate ,islands1 where they would be beyond the reach of their offended lord1 and where they might pass the remainder of their days in liberty and bliss4 ,what became of them is unknown1 for they were seen and heard of no more in their native island4#abg #abg ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ea sq42 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bch note1 #bci1 #bfi1 #bgj2 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bch sq42 ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bcd sq4 ,but even the souls that went to heaven were supposed to stand in need of a canoe in order to reach the place of bliss4 ,on this point ,porter writes3 ,i endeavoured to ascertain whether they had an idea of a future state of rewards and punishments1 and the nature of their heaven4 ,as respects the latter article1 they believed it to be an island1 somewhere in the sky1 abounding with everything desirable2 that those killed in war and carried off by their friends1 go there1 provided they are furnished with a canoe and provisions2 but that those who are carried off by the enemy1 never reach it1 unless a sufficient number of the enemy can be obtained to paddle his canoe there4 ,for this reason they were so anxious to procure a crew for their priest1 who was killed and carried off by the ,happahs4 ,they have neither rewards nor punishments in this world1 and ,i could not learn that they expected any in the next4#abh #abh ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aac4 ,in the valley of ,taipii 7,typee71 in the island of ,nukahiva1 ,captain ,porter visited the chief place of religious ceremony4 ,it was a platform of the usual sort situated in a fine grove at the foot of a steep mountain4 ,on the platform was an idol of hard stone1 rudely representing a deity in human shape of about life size and in a squatting posture4 ,arranged on either side of this idol1 as well as in front and rear1 were several other images of about the same size and of the same model1 but better carved out of bread-fruit wood4 ,the place was decorated with streamers of white cloth4 ,a few paces from the grave were four fine war canoes1 furnished with outriggers1 and decorated with human hair1 coral shells1 and many white streamers4 ,in the stern of each canoe was the effigy of a man with a paddle1 steering1 in full dress1 decked with plumes1 ear-rings1 and all the usual ornaments4 ,on enquiring of the natives1 ,captain ,porter was informed that the dignified effigy seated in the stern of the most splendid canoe represented a priest who had been killed not long before by their enemies the ,happahs4 ,in the bottom of the priest's canoe ,captain ,porter found the putrefying bodies of two ,taipiis 7,typees7 whom he and his men had recently killed in battle2 and lying about the canoe he saw many other human carcasses1 with the flesh still on them4 ,the other canoes1 he was told1 belonged to different warriors who had been killed or had died not long since4 ,i asked them1 continues ,captain ,porter1 why they had placed their effigies in the canoes1 and also why they put the bodies of the dead ,typees in that of the priest8 ,they told me 7as ,wilson interpreted7 that they were going to heaven1 and that it was impossible to get there without canoes4 ,the canoe of the priest being large1 he was unable to manage it himself1 nor was it right that he should1 he being now a god4 ,they had1 therefore1 placed in it the bodies of the ,happas and ,typees1 which had been killed since his death1 to paddle him to the place of his destination2 but he had not been able yet to start1 for the want of a full crew1 as it would require ten to paddle her1 and as yet they had only procured eight4 ,they told me also that the taboo1 laid in consequence of his death1 would continue until he had started on his voyage1 which he would not be able to do until they had killed two more of their enemies1 and by this means completed the crew4 ,i inquired if he took any sea stock with him4 ,they told me he did1 and pointing to some red hogs in an enclosure1 said that they were intended for him1 as well as a quantity of bread-fruit1 coco-nuts1 etc41 which would be collected from the trees in the grove4 ,i inquired if he had far to go2 they replied1 no3 and pointing to a small square stone enclosure1 informed me that was their heaven1 that he was to go there4 ,this place was tabooed1 they told me1 for every one except their priests4#abi #abi ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #aji-aaa4 ,a similar1 or the same1 effigy of a dead chief seated in his canoe was seen by ,melville in the same valley 7,typee1 pp4 #ahc sq474 ,he says that the canoe was about seven feet in length2 of a rich1 dark-coloured wood1 handsomely carved1 and adorned in many places with variegated bindings of stained sinnate cinnet1 into which were ingeniously wrought a number of sparkling sea-shells1 and a belt of the same shells ran all round it4 ,the body of the figure--of whatever material it might have been made--was effectually concealed in a heavy robe of brown tappa bark-cloth1 revealing only the hands and head2 the latter skilfully carved in wood1 and surmounted by a superb arch of plumes4 ,but it was deemed necessary to provide a dead priest or chief with human victims for other purposes than to paddle his canoe to heaven4 ,when a great chief died1 two commoners were sometimes sacrificed for the purpose of escorting him to the abode of bliss2 one of them carried the chief's girdle1 and the other bore the head of the pig that had been slaughtered for the funeral feast4 ,the head was intended as a present to the warden of the infernal regions1 who1 if he did not get this perquisite1 would revile and stone the ghost1 and shut the door in his face4#acj ,the number of human victims sacrificed at the death of a priest varied with the respect and fear which he had inspired in his lifetime2#aca a common number seems to have been three4#acb #acj ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #afc4 #aca ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 p4 #bbh4 #acb ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i1 #agj4 ,the runaway ,english sailor1 ,roberts1 who had long resided in the islands1 assured the ,russian explorer ,lisiansky that1 on the death of a priest1 three men must be sacrificed2 two of whom are hung up in the burying-ground1 while the third is cut to pieces1 and eaten by visitors2 all but the head1 which is placed upon one of the idols4 ,when the flesh of the first two are wasted away1 the bones that remain are burnt4 ,the custom of the country requires1 that the men destined for sacrifice should belong to some neighbouring nation1 and accordingly they are generally stolen4 ,this occasions a war of six1 and sometimes of twelve1 months3 its duration1 however1 depends upon the nearest relation of the deceased priest2 who1 as soon as he is acquainted with his death1 retires to a place of taboo2 and till he chooses to come out1 the blood of the two parties does not cease to flow4 ,during his retirement1 he is furnished with everything he may require1 human flesh not excepted4#acc #acc ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #ha sq4 ,a curious mode of preparing a dead man to appear to advantage before the gods in the other world was to flay his corpse4 ,a ,catholic missionary tells us that when a dead body began to swell up1 in consequence of internal putrefaction1 it was customary to flay it and to preserve the skin as a precious relic in the family treasury1 where the eye of a profane stranger could never fall on it4#acd ,the reason for observing the custom is not mentioned by this missionary1 but it is explained by another missionary1 ,father ,amable4 ,it happened that the king or head chief of the island of ,tahuata died1 and that his body was brought to the house of the queen on the bay where ,father ,amable resided4 ,for thirty days she kept the corpse in the house and occupied herself with skinning it with her fingers4 ,questioned by the missionary as to her reasons for this strange procedure1 she answered that her husband's body must be without spot or stain1 in order that the great goddess ,upu might give him leave to dwell in her land and to bathe in her lake4 ,for this deity rules over a sort of submarine ,eden1 planted with all sorts of excellent fruits and beautified by the calm waters of an azure lake4 ,the natives of ,tahuata believe that the souls of all who die in the archipelago assemble on the top of a high mountain called ,kiukiu4 ,when a great multitude of souls is there gathered together1 the sea opens and the souls fall plump down into the paradise of the goddess ,upu4 ,however1 not all of them are permitted to enter the happy land and to enjoy the pleasures which it offers4 ,only such are admitted as have owned in their lifetime many servants and many pigs and have not been wicked4 ,further1 none may enter in who bear on their body any marks of tattooing4#ace ,hence the reason for flaying dead bodies seems to have been to efface1 by removing the skin1 the tattooed marks which would have acted as a fatal bar to the entrance of the ghost into paradise4 ,as to the souls of slaves and the poor1 in the opinion of the natives of ,tahuata they go to a gloomy land1 which is never illumined by the sun1 and where there is nothing but muddy water to drink4#acf ,nevertheless the people would seem to have believed that the souls of the dead lingered for a time beside their mouldering bodies before they took their departure for the far country4 ,in this belief they sacrificed to them pigs1 some baked1 and some alive4 ,the baked pigs they put in a hollow log and hung from the roof of the hut1 and they said that a god named ,mapuhanui1 who in the beginning had bestowed pigs on men1 used to come and feast on the carcasses in company with the ghost4 ,but when they offered live pigs1 they tethered the animals to the hut in which the dead body lay1 and they fed them till the flesh dropped from the skeleton2 after that they allowed the pigs to die of hunger4#acg ,perhaps1 like some other peoples1 they imagined that the ghost hovered about his remains so long as the flesh adhered to the bones1 but that when even that faint semblance of life had vanished he went away and had no further occasion for pigs1 whether alive or dead4 #acd ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #aaf4 #ace ,lettre du ,r4 ,p4 ,amable1 in ,annales de la ,propagation de la ,foi1 xix4 7#ahdg7 pp4 #bb sq41 #bd4 #acf ,lettre du ,r4 ,p4 ,amable1 op4 cit4 p4 #bd4 #acg ,lettre du ,r4 ,p4 ,amable1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bc sq4 ,however1 the souls of the dead were not supposed to be permanently confined to the other world4 ,after a long sojourn in it1 all alike1 whatever the region they inhabited in their disembodied state1 could return to earth and be born again4#ach ,indeed1 according to the natives of ,nukahiva1 the interval between death and reincarnation was not unduly long2 for every one here is persuaded1 that the soul of a grandfather is transmitted by ,nature into the body of his grandchildren2 and that1 if an unfruitful wife were to place herself under the corpse of her deceased grandfather1 she would be sure to become pregnant4#aci ,occasionally the soul of a dead person might even inhabit the body of an animal4 ,once when a whale was stranded on one of the islands1 a priestess declared that it was the soul of a certain priest1 which would wander until eight human victims were sacrificed to the gods4 ,in vain her son would have substituted turtles for human beings2 the people would not hear of it2 the prescribed victims were captured from a neighbouring tribe and put to death in order to lay the ghost of the whale1 or rather of the priest who had animated the whale's body4#adj #ach ,lettre du ,r4 ,p4 ,amable1 op4 cit4 p4 #bd4 #aci ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 p4 #hi4 #adj ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afa sq4 ,but the souls of the dead were also believed to return from the spirit land for other purposes than to be born again in the flesh4 ,they might come as ghosts to haunt and torment the living1 and as such they were greatly dreaded by the people4#ada ,the first watch of the night was the hour when they were supposed especially to come on errands of mischief4#adb ,particularly dreaded were the ghosts of high priests and great chiefs1 who retained in their spiritual form the passions and the rancours which they had nursed in life1 and who returned in ghostly shape to earth to meddle with the affairs of the living1 and to punish even trivial offences4 ,to guard against these dangerous intrusions1 the intervention of a priest or priestess was deemed indispensable2 it was his or her business to counteract a spell cast on a family1 or to heal a sickness inflicted on an individual by one of these ghostly vagrants4#adc ,such was the fear of wandering ghosts that no ,marquesan would dare to stir a step abroad at night without the light of a torch2 for well he knew that evil spirits lurked beside the path to knock down and throttle any rash wayfarer who should dare to leave his footsteps unillumined4#add ,indeed1 we are told that1 of all beliefs in the minds of the natives1 the belief in ghosts was the most deeply rooted4 ,it is impossible to express the dread which they felt of spectres and apparitions2 nobody was exempt from it4 ,but it was only at night that these phantoms were to be feared4 ,though they remained invisible1 they revealed themselves to the terror-stricken wanderer by sound and touch2 the least noise heard in the darkness disclosed their presence2 the least contact with them was a sentence of death1 sudden or slow1 but sure4 ,hence1 if a man was obliged to go out after sunset1 he would always take somebody with him to bear him company1 even if he had to wake a comrade for the purpose4 ,among the women the fear of ghosts was yet greater1 many of them would not stir abroad on a moonless night even in company4 ,in passing by a burial-ground or a solitary tomb1 people used to throw food towards it for the purpose of appeasing the ghost1 who otherwise would have attacked them4#ade #ada ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #dj4 #adb ,mathias ,g----1 op4 cit4 p4 #baj4 #adc ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbd sq4 #add ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbg1 #bdj4 #ade ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ca sq4 ,this deep-seated fear of the dead has survived the conversion1 real or nominal1 of the ,marquesans to ,christianity4 ,no native would even now venture into a cave where the remains of the dead have been deposited1 not though the greatest treasures were to be found there1 for such spots are believed to be constantly haunted by the ghosts of the departed4 ,nobody1 it is said1 would live in a house in which somebody has died2 every such dwelling is immediately burnt down4 ,hence1 when a person is grievously sick1 a little primitive hut is erected beside the house1 and he is carried out to die in it1 and when he is dead1 the hut is in like manner destroyed with fire4#adf ,a woman will sometimes commit suicide in order that her ghost may haunt and torment her unfaithful husband4#adg #adf ,baessler1 op4 cit4 p4 #bcd4 #adg ,baessler1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aic sq4 ,on the other hand1 ghosts in the olden time had also their utility1 for they could be summoned up by a priest or priestess to give information on various subjects1 such as the issue of an illness4 ,on these occasions the wizard would hold a conversation with the spirit1 whose voice could be heard by the listeners1 though his or her shape1 as usual1 was invisible in the darkness4 ,sceptics thought that such communications were made by means of ventriloquism1 and indeed a priestess1 who had professed to evoke the soul of a dead chieftainess1 solemnly maintained that she could make the voice of anybody1 whether dead or alive1 to speak from her stomach4#adh #adh ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbg-bch4 ,in such beliefs and customs are contained as in germ the whole theory and practice of the worship of the dead4 ,,note4--,we possess no thorough account of the native ,marquesan society and religion as these existed before they were transformed by ,european influence4 ,some of the writers who have described the islanders and their customs spent only a few days or at most a few weeks among them4 ,captain ,cook was at the ,marquesas only five days1 from the #fth to the #aath of ,april #aggd4adi ,the ,french explorer ,marchand spent eight days in the islands from the #acth to the #bast of ,june #agia4aej ,the ,russian explorers ,krusenstern and ,lisiansky were with their two ships1 the ,nadeshda and ,neva1 at ,nukahiva for ten days1 from the #gth to the #agth of ,may #ahjd2 along with them was the naturalist ,langsdorff1 who wrote an independent account of the voyage4#aea ,but though their stay was short1 they had the advantage of meeting with two ,europeans1 an ,englishman named ,e4 ,roberts1 and a ,frenchman named ,jean 7or ,joseph7 ,baptiste ,cabri1 who had lived long in the islands and spoke the native language4 ,these men acted as interpreters to the ,russians and supplied them with most of the information which they give in their books concerning the customs and beliefs of the ,marquesans4 ,roberts told them that he had been seven years in ,nukahiva and two years previously in ,santa ,christina 7,tau-ata72 that he had been put ashore on the latter island out of an ,english merchant ship1 the crew of which had mutinied against their captain and could not prevail upon him to join their party2 and that in ,nukahiva he had lately married a relation of the king's1 by which he acquired great consideration1 so that it would be easy for him to be of assistance to them4 ,at the same time he earnestly warned them against the ,frenchman1 who had also resided for some years in ,nukahiva1 but whose character he painted in very dark colours4 ,the two ,russian captains1 ,krusenstern and ,lisiansky1 accordingly put their trust in ,roberts and drew most of their information concerning the natives from him4 ,on the other hand their naturalist1 ,langsdorff1 made most use of the ,frenchman4 ,he admitted1 indeed1 that the ,englishman was a man of better character1 greater natural intelligence1 and much higher education2 but on the other hand he tells us that the ,frenchman had been longer in the island and possessed a more thorough mastery of the language and a greater intimacy with the natives1 among whom he had lived as a savage among savages so long that he had almost forgotten his own native tongue4 ,but ,langsdorff took care to question both these men and only accepted as true statements in which they agreed with each other1 and to this agreement he naturally attached the greater weight because his two informants were bitterly hostile to each other and therefore were unlikely to unite in deceiving him4#aeb ,on the whole1 then1 the account which ,langsdorff gives of ,marquesan society and religion is perhaps more trustworthy as well as fuller than that of his two compatriots and companions1 ,krusenstern and ,lisiansky4 #adi ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 iii4 #bgd-bha2 compare ,g4 ,forster1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #aggg71 ii4 #e sqq4 #aej ,c4 ,p4 ,claret ,fleurieu1 ,voyage round the ,world performed during the years #agij1 #agia1 and #agib by ,etienne ,marchand 7,london1 #ahja71 i4 #ca1 #ea4 ,marchand's brief account is supplemented from other sources by his editor ,fleurieu 7op4 cit4 i4 #ee sqq474 #aea ,a4 ,j4 von ,krusenstern1 ,voyage round the ,world in the years #ahjc1 #ahjd1 #ahje1 and #ahjf 7,london1 #ahac71 i4 #ajh sq41 #acc sqq42 ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,london1 #ahad71 pp4 #fb1 #ie2 ,g4 ,h4 von ,langsdorff1 ,bemerkungen auf einer ,reise um die ,welt in den ,jahren #ahjc bis #ahjg 7,frankfurt am ,main1 #ahab71 i4 #ge1 #afa4 #aeb ,krusenstern1 op4 cit4 i4 #aaj-aab2 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 p4 #gi2 ,langsdorff1 op4 cit4 i4 #gg1 #hc-he4 ,as to the subsequent history of ,roberts and ,cabri1 see ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 ,iles ,marquises ou ,nouka-hiva 7,paris1 #ahdc71 pp4 #cef-cei4 ,captain ,david ,porter of the ,united ,states ,navy was with his ship the ,essex at ,nukahiva from ,october #bdth till ,december #ith1 #ahac4aec ,a great part of his time was spent on shore and in close contact with the natives1 and though he did not learn the language1 he was able to employ as an interpreter an ,englishman named ,wilson1 who had lived for many years in the islands1 spoke the language of the natives with the same facility as his own1 and had become a ,marquesan in every respect except in colour4 ,he proved indispensable to the ,american as an organ of communication with the people2 and much of the information which ,porter gives concerning the customs of the ,marquesans was derived by him from this man4#aed #aec ,captain ,david ,porter1 ,journal of a ,cruise made to the ,pacific ,ocean in the ,united ,states frigate ,essex in the years #ahab1 #ahac1 and #ahad1 ,second ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahbb71 ii4 #e1 #ada4 #aed ,d4 ,porter1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ag sq4 ,the ,american naval chaplain1 the ,rev4 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 paid about a fortnight's visit to ,nukahiva1 from ,july #bgth to ,august #acth1 #ahbi1 while his ship1 the ,vincennes1 was anchored at the island4 ,but he received much information from the ,rev4 ,w4 ,p4 ,crook1 who spent nearly two years 7#agig and #agih7 in the ,marquesas1 having been the first missionary landed in the islands by the missionary ship ,duff4 ,during his residence in the islands ,mr4 ,crook kept a journal1 which he allowed ,mr4 ,stewart to consult4 ,the contents of the journal corroborated ,mr4 ,stewart's own observations as to the inhabitants1 and the account which he gives of the religion of the islanders is based mainly on the information derived from ,mr4 ,crook#aee and is therefore valuable2 for at the time when ,mr4 ,crook landed in the ,marquesas the customs and beliefs of the islanders were still practically unaffected by contact with ,europeans4 #aee ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,visit to the ,south ,seas 7,london1 #ahcb71 i4 pp4 x sq41 #aic1 #cca4 ,the writer speaks 7p4 #cca7 of his stay of a fortnight at the ,washington ,islands4 ,mr4 ,crook first landed in the island of ,santa ,christina 7,tau-ata7 on ,june #fth1 #agig4 ,see ,james ,wilson1 ,missionary ,voyage to the ,southern ,pacific ,ocean 7,london1 #agii71 pp4 #abi sqq4 ,as to his subsequent history in the islands1 see ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 ,iles ,marquises ou ,nouka-hiva1 pp4 #ce-dj4 ,the surgeon ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 on a whaling voyage spent a few days in ,santa ,christina 7,tau-ata71 from ,february #bhth to ,march #dth1 #ahce2 and his descriptions of what he saw are good so far as they go2 but naturally he could collect but little accurate information as to the habits and ideas of the people in so short a time4#aef #aef ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 ,narrative of a ,whaling ,voyage round the ,globe from the year #ahcc to #ahcf 7,london1 #ahdj71 i #bif1 #cdf4 ,one of the early ,catholic missionaries to the ,marquesas1 ,father ,mathias ,g----1 spent two years in the islands and has given us1 in a series of letters1 an account of the native customs and beliefs1 which1 though far from complete or systematic1 is based on personal observation and is among the best that we possess4#aeg #aeg ,le ,p4 ,mathias ,g----1 ,lettres sur les ,iles ,marquises 7,paris1 #ahdc74 ,the writer is not explicit as to the dates of his residence in the ,marquesas2 but he tells us that he spent two years in habitual intercourse with the natives 7p4 #di71 and from other allusions which he makes in his narrative 7pp4 #bh sq47 it would seem that the years were #ahci and #ahdj4 ,the first ,catholic missionaries landed in #ahch 7ib4 p4 #bb71 and others in #ahci 7ib4 pp4 #bc sq474 ,among the latter were ,fathers ,garcia and ,guilmard 7ib4 p4 #bd74 ,father ,g----may have been one of them4 ,hermann ,melville lived among the ,taipiis 7,typees7 in ,nukahiva for more than four months1#aeh and wrote a lively narrative of his experiences4 ,his personal observations are valuable1 but as he did not master the native language1 he was not able to throw much light on the inner life of the people1 and in particular on their religious ideas4 #aeh ,h4 ,melville1 ,typee 7,london1 ,everyman's ,library71 p4 #bed4 ,on the #ast of ,may1 #ahdb1 the ,marquesas ,islands were taken possession of for ,france by the ,french ,admiral1 ,du ,petit-,thouars2#aei and next year1 to satisfy the interest of the ,french public in their new possession1 a comprehensive work on the islands and their inhabitants was published by ,,mm4 ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz4#afj ,the authors had visited the islands with the expedition of the ,french navigator1 ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 in his ships the ,astrolabe and the ,zelee4 ,but as the expedition stayed only about a week at ,nukahiva1 from ,august #bfth to ,september #crd1 #ahch1afa the writers had little opportunity of making personal observations4 ,their work is mainly a careful compilation from earlier sources1 and as such it is a useful and trustworthy summary of what was known about the archipelago and its inhabitants down to the date of publication4 #aei ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aai sqq4 #afj ,vincendon-,dumoulin et ,c4 ,desgraz1 ,iles ,marquises ou ,nouka-hiva 7,paris1 #ahdc74 #afa ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage au ,pole ,sud et dans l',oceanie1 ,histoire du ,voyage1 iv4 7,paris1 #ahdb71 pp4 #e1 #di4 ,max ,radiguet1 one of the members of the expedition to the ,marquesas under ,admiral ,du ,petit-,thouars1 passed a considerable time in the islands and wrote a graphic account of his experiences1 which contains some valuable information as to the natives1 their customs1 religion1 and mythology4#afb ,in the part which concerns the mythology he was assisted by an officer of artillery1 ,m4 ,rohr1 who had lived for several years in ,nukahiva and was familiar with the language and customs of the people4#afc #afb ,max ,radiguet1 ,les ,derniers ,sauvages1 ,nouvelle ,edition 7,paris1 #ahhb74 ,the author does not inform us as to the exact length of his stay in the islands4 #afc ,m4 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #bba note4 ,in #ahgg a good general account of the archipelago and its inhabitants was published at ,paris4 ,the author was a naval lieutenant1 ,p4 ,e4 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 who having lived in the islands in the official capacity of ,resident for about six years 7from #ahfh to #ahgd7 had ample time and opportunity for obtaining accurate information on the subject4#afd ,his work1 though somewhat slight1 is valuable so far as it goes2 but it does not tell us much about the native religion1 which in his time had probably lost a good deal of its original character through the influence of the missionaries and of civilisation4#afe #afd ,p4 ,e4 ,eyriaud des ,vergnes1 ,l',archipel des ,iles ,marquises 7,paris1 #ahgg74 #afe ,some years previously a naval lieutenant1 ,m4 ,jouan1 who had been in command of the ,french military post at ,nukahiva1 published in the ,revue ,coloniale 7#aheg-aheh7 some notes on the ,marquesas1 which are said to contain some useful information on the archipelago4 ,see ,m4 ,radiguet1 op4 cit4 p4 #caj note4 ,i have not seen the work of ,m4 ,jouan2 but according to ,radiguet it shows that in the twelve years and more which had elapsed since the ,french occupation of the islands the presence of ,french missionaries and of a ,french garrison had done little to civilise the natives4 ,some years later1 in #ahha and #ahhb1 a ,french naval doctor1 ,clavel by name1 passed six months in the ,marquesas4 ,during his stay he made personal observations and collected information on the natives4 ,these he subsequently published in a little work1 which contains much of value2#aff but when he wrote almost all the natives had been nominally converted to ,christianity and their ancient religion was practically extinct4#afg #aff ,les ,marquisiens1 par ,m4 le ,docteur ,clavel 7,paris1 #ahhe74 #afg ,clavel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fh-ga4 ,towards the end of the nineteenth century the ,german traveller ,arthur ,baessler paid a short visit to the ,marquesas4 ,in his book of travel in the ,south ,sea he has given us descriptions of the islands and the people as he saw them1 including some account of the scanty remains of their stone monuments and images4#afh #afh ,arthur ,baessler1 ,neue ,suedsee-,bilder 7,berlin1 #aijj71 pp4 #ahi-bdb4 ,the writer omits to mention the date of his visit to the islands1 and the length of his stay in them4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,among ,,the ,,hawaiians ,sec4 #a4 ,the ,sandwich or ,hawaiian ,islands ,the ,sandwich or ,hawaiian ,islands form an archipelago lying in the ,north ,pacific ,ocean just within the northern tropic4 ,they stretch in a direction from north-west to south-east for more than four hundred miles and include eight inhabited islands1 of which the most important are ,hawaii1 ,maui1 ,oahu1 and ,kauai4 ,of these ,hawaii is by far the largest2 indeed it is the largest island in ,polynesia with the exception of ,new ,zealand4 ,the islands are all mountainous and of volcanic formation4 ,in ,hawaii two of the mountains are between #ac1jjj and #ad1jjj feet in height1 and two of them are active volcanoes2 one of them1 named ,kilauea1 possesses the greatest active crater in the world1 a huge cauldron of seething lava1 which presents a spectacle of awe-inspiring grandeur when seen on a moonless night4 ,the other and much loftier volcano1 ,mauna ,loa1 was the scene of a terrific eruption in #ahgg and of another in #ahha4 ,craters1 large and small1 hot springs1 and other evidences of volcanic activity1 abound throughout the archipelago4 ,one of the craters on the island of ,maui is said to be no less than fifteen miles in circumference and about two thousand feet deep4 ,the islands appear to have been known to the ,spaniards as early as the sixteenth century2 but they were rediscovered in #aggh by ,captain ,cook1 who was afterwards killed in a fight with the natives in ,hawaii4#a #a ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iv4 #d sqq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 ,history of the ,hawaiian or ,sandwich ,islands 7,london1 #ahdc71 pp4 #a sqq42 ,j4 ,remy1 ,histoire de l',archipel ,havaiien 7,paris and ,leipzig1 #ahfb71 pp4 vii sqq42 ,c4 ,e4 ,meinicke1 ,die ,inseln des ,stillen ,oceans1 ii4 #bga sqq42 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,ninth ,edition1 xi4 #ebh sqq42 ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,hawaiischen ,inseln 7,berlin1 #ahid71 pp4 #a sqq42 ,f4 ,h4 ,h4 ,guillemard1 ,australasia1 ii4 #ecc sqq4 ,viewed from the sea the islands are apt to present an appearance of barrenness and desolation4 ,the mountains descend into the sea in precipices often hundreds of feet high3 their summits are capped with snow or lost in mist and clouds2 and their sides1 green and studded with clumps of trees in some places1 but black1 scorched and bare in others1 are rent into ravines1 down which in the rainy seasons cataracts rush roaring to the sea4 ,with the changes of sunshine and shadow the landscape as a whole strikes the beholder now as in the highest degree horrid1 dismal1 and dreary1 now as wildly beautiful and romantic with a sort of stern and sombre magnificence4#b ,inland1 however1 in many places the summits of the ridges crowned with forests of perpetual verdure1 the slopes covered with flowering shrubs or lofty trees1 the rocks mantled in creepers1 the waterfalls dropping from stupendous cliffs1 and the distant prospects of snowy peaks1 bold romantic headlands1 and blue seas1 all arched by a summer sky of the deepest azure1 combine to make up pictures of fairy-like and enchanting loveliness4#c #b ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #id2 ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iv4 #cd1 #cgi2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 ,fifth ,edition 7,boston1 #ahci71 pp4 #fi sqq41 #adj2 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 #cff1 #cia2 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 ,new ,edition 7,new ,york1 #ahea71 iii4 #cgc4 #c ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ac sq42 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bac sqq41 #bbi sqq42 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #dbf sqq42 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 xiv sq42 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iii4 #cij sq42 ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 ,narrative of a ,whaling ,voyage round the ,globe 7,london1 #ahdj71 i4 #aih sqq4 ,the vale of ,anuanu1 which runs up into the mountains from the plain of ,honululu in the island of ,oahu1 is especially famed for its natural beauty4 ,the climate naturally varies with the height above the sea4 ,on the coasts1 though warm1 it is remarkably equable1 and perhaps no country in the world enjoys a finer or healthier climate than some parts of ,hawaii and ,maui4 ,on the mountains all varieties of climate are to be found1 from the tropical heat of the lowlands to the arctic cold of the two great peaks of ,hawaii1 ,mauna ,kea and ,mauna ,loa with their perpetual snows1 which are not1 however1 always visible from the sea or from the foot of these giants4 ,in the lowlands frost is unknown4 ,the fresh breezes1 which blow from the sea during the day and from the mountains at night1 temper the heat of the sun1 and render the evenings delicious2 nothing can surpass the splendour and clearness of the moonlight4 ,rain falls more abundantly on the windward or eastern side of the islands than on the leeward or western side4 ,thus at ,hilo1 on the eastern side of ,hawaii1 it rains almost every day1 whereas in ,kena1 on the western side1 rain hardly ever falls1 and along the coast not a single water-course is to be seen for many miles4 ,in general it may be said that the archipelago suffers from drought and hence occasionally from dearth4#d #d ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 xvi sqq4 ,compare ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #ii sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ba sq42 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bhc sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ab sqq42 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 #ith edition1 xi4 #ecj4 ,sec4 #b4 ,the ,natives and their ,mode of ,life ,the natives of the ,sandwich ,islands are typical ,polynesians4 ,in general they are rather above the middle stature1 well formed1 with fine muscular limbs1 open countenances1 and features frequently resembling those of ,europeans4 ,the forehead is usually well developed1 the lips thick1 and the nostrils full1 without any flatness or spreading of the nose4 ,the complexion is tawny or olive in hue1 but sometimes reddish brown4 ,the hair is black or brown and occasionally fair or rather ruddy in colour1 in texture it is strong1 smooth1 and sometimes curly4 ,the gait is graceful and even stately4 ,but in these islands1 as in other parts of ,polynesia1 there is a conspicuous difference between the chiefs and the commoners1 the superiority being altogether on the side of the chiefs4 ,the nobles of the land1 says ,stewart1 are so strongly marked by their external appearance1 as at all times to be easily distinguishable from the common people4 ,they seem1 indeed1 in size and stature to be almost a distinct race4 ,they are all large in their frame1 and often excessively corpulent1 while the common people are scarce of the ordinary height of ,europeans1 and of a thin rather than full habit4#e ,and the difference between the two ranks is as obvious in their walk and general deportment as in their stature and size1 the nobles bearing themselves with a natural dignity and grace which are wanting in their social inferiors4 ,yet there seems to be no reason to suppose that they belong to a different race from the commoners2 the greater care taken of them in childhood1 their better living1 sexual selection1 and the influence of heredity appear sufficient to account for their physical superiority4 ,the women are well built and beautiful as ancient statues with a sweet and engaging expression of countenance4 ,yet on the whole the ,hawaiians are judged to be physically inferior both to the ,tahitians and to the ,marquesans2 according to ,captain ,king1 they are rather darker than the ,tahitians1 and not altogether so handsome a people4 ,on the other hand they are said to be more intelligent than either the ,tahitians or the ,marquesans4 ,captain ,king describes them as of a mild and affectionate disposition1 equally remote from the extreme levity and fickleness of the ,tahitians1 and from the distant gravity and reserve of the ,tongans4#f ,they practised tattooing much less than many other ,polynesians1 but their faces1 hands1 arms1 and the forepart of their bodies were often tattooed with a variety of patterns4#g #e ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 p4 #ajd4 #f ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #aab sq41 #aae sq42 ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #abc sq42 ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 ,deuxieme partie 7,paris1 #ahci71 p4 #egj2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bc2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 pp4 #ajd1 #ajf2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gg sqq42 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 xxxvii sq42 ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #bji4 ,the last of these writers speaks in unfavourable terms of the personal appearance of the women1 whom he found less handsome than the men and very inferior to the women of the ,society ,islands4 #g ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #bac sq41 vii4 #aba2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bc4 ,the staple food of the ,hawaiians consists of taro 7kalo71 sweet potatoes1 and fish1 but above all of taro4 ,that root 7,arum or ,caladium esculentum7 is to the ,hawaiians what bread-fruit is to the ,tahitians1 and its cultivation is their most important agricultural industry4 ,it is grown wherever there is water or a marsh1 and it is even planted on some arid heights in the island of ,hawaii1 where it yields excellent crops4 ,artificial irrigation was practised and even regulated by law or custom in the old days2 for it was a rule that water should be conducted over every plantation twice a week in general1 and once a week during the dry season4 ,the bread-fruit tree is not so common1 and its fruit not so much prized1 as in the ,marquesas and ,tahiti4 ,the natives grew sweet potatoes even before the arrival of ,europeans4 ,yams are found wild1 but are hardly eaten except in times of scarcity4 ,there are several sorts of bananas2 the fruit for the most part is better cooked than raw4 ,in the old days the cooking was done in the ordinary native ovens1 consisting of holes in the ground lined with stones which were heated with fire4 ,after being baked in an oven the roots of the taro are mashed and diluted with water so as to form a paste or pudding called poe or poi1 which is sometimes eaten sweet but is more generally put aside till it has fermented1 in which condition it is preferred by the natives4 ,it is a highly nutritious substance1 and though some ,europeans complain of the sourness of taro pudding1 others find it not unpalatable4 ,fish used to be generally eaten raw1 seasoned with brine or sea-water4 ,but they also commonly salt their fish1 not for the sake of preserving it for a season of scarcity1 but because they prefer the taste4 ,they construct artificial fish-ponds1 into which they let young fish from the sea1 principally the fry of the grey mullet1 of which the chiefs are particularly fond4 ,every chief has1 or used to have1 his own fish-pond4 ,the natives are very skilful fishermen4 ,in the old days they made a great variety of fish-hooks out of mother-of-pearl and tortoise shell as well as out of bone1 and these they dragged by means of lines behind their canoes1 and so caught bonettas1 dolphins1 and albicores4 ,they took prodigious numbers of flying fish in nets4 ,at the time when the islands were discovered by ,captain ,cook1 the natives possessed pigs and dogs4 ,the flesh of both of these animals was eaten1 but only by persons of higher rank4 ,fowls were also bred and eaten1 but they were not very common1 and their flesh was not very much esteemed4 ,the sugar-cane was indigenous in the islands1 and the people ate it as a fruit2 along with bananas and plantains it occupied a considerable portion of every plantation4 ,captain ,cook found the natives skilful husbandmen1 but thought that with a more extensive system of agriculture1 the islands could have supported three times the number of the existing inhabitants4#h ,he remarked that the chiefs were much addicted to the drinking of kava1 and he attributed some of the cutaneous and other diseases from which they suffered to an immoderate use of what he calls the pernicious drug4#i #h ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #bae sq41 #bai1 #bbd sq41 vii4 #abf sq42 ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #abf2 ,archibald ,campbell1 ,voyage round the ,world 7,edinburgh1 #ahaf71 pp4 #afa-fc1 #ahb sq41 #aid-aig2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #fa1 #bae sq41 #dbj 7as to irrigation72 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 pp4 #aaa-aac2 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #dab1 #dbf1 #dbh1 #dcj1 #dgb2 ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,neue ,reise um die ,welt 7,weimar1 #ahcj71 ii4 #if2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fh sq42 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 xxiv sq41 xliii2 ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 ,narrative of a ,whaling ,voyage round the ,world1 i4 #bac sqq4 ,as to the system of irrigating the taro fields1 see especially ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,voyage of ,discovery into the ,south ,sea and ,beering's ,straits 7,london1 #ahba71 i4 #cdj sq4 #i ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #aac sq4 ,sec4 #c4 ,houses1 ,mechanical ,arts ,captain ,king observed that in some respects the natives of the ,sandwich ,islands approached nearer in their manners and customs to the ,maoris of ,new ,zealand than to their less distant neighbours of the ,society and ,friendly ,islands1 the ,tahitians and the ,tongans4 ,in nothing1 he says1 is this more observable than in their method of living together in small towns or villages1 containing from about one hundred to two hundred houses1 built pretty close together1 without any order1 and with a winding path leading through them4 ,they were generally flanked towards the sea with loose detached walls1 intended for shelter and defence4#aj ,the shape of the houses was very simple4 ,they were oblong with very high thatched roofs1 so that externally they resembled the top of hay-stacks or rather barns with the thatched roof sloping down steeply to two very low sides1 and with gable ends to match4 ,the entrance1 placed indifferently in one of the sides or ends1 was an oblong hole1 so low that one had rather to creep than walk in1 and often shut by a board of planks fastened together1 which served as a door4 ,no light entered the house but by this opening1 for there were no windows4 ,internally every house consisted of a single room without partitions4 ,in spite of the extreme simplicity of their structure1 the houses were kept very clean2 the floors were covered with a large quantity of dried grass1 over which they spread mats to sit and sleep upon4 ,at one end stood a kind of bench about three feet high1 on which were kept the household utensils4 ,these consisted merely of a few wooden bowls and trenchers1 together with gourd-shells1 serving either as bottles or baskets4 ,the houses varied in size with the wealth or rank of the owners4 ,those of the poor were mere hovels1 which resembled the sties and kennels of pigs and dogs rather than the abodes of men4 ,the houses of the chiefs were generally large and commodious by comparison1 some forty to sixty feet long by twenty or thirty feet broad1 and eighteen or twenty feet high at the peak of the roof4 ,chiefs had always a separate eating-house1 and even people of the lower ranks had one such house to every six or seven families for the men4 ,the women were forbidden to eat in company with the men and even to enter the eating-house during the meals2 they ate in the same houses in which they slept4 ,the houses of the chiefs were enclosed in large yards1 and sometimes stood on stone platforms1 which rendered them more comfortable4#aa #aj ,j4 ,cook1 vii4 #abe4 #aa ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #bad sq42 ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #abg2 ,a4 ,campbell1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #ahj-ahb2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 p4 #ajg2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cbj-cbb2 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #cga sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fg sq4 ,in the mechanical arts the ,hawaiians displayed a considerable degree of ingenuity and skill4 ,while the men built the houses and canoes and fashioned wooden dishes and bowls1 the women undertook the manufacture of bark-cloth 7kapa7 and mats4 ,bark-cloth was made in the usual way from the bark of the paper-mulberry1 which was beaten out with grooved mallets4 ,the cloth was dyed a variety of colours1 and patterns at once intricate and elegant were stamped on it and stained in different tints4 ,the mats were woven or braided by hand without the use of any frame or instrument4 ,the materials were rushes or palm-leaves2 the mats made of palm-leaves were much the more durable and therefore the more valuable4 ,the coarser and plainer were spread on the floor to sleep on2 the finer were of white colour with red stripes1 rhombuses1 and other figures interwoven on one side4 ,among the most curious specimens of native carving were the wooden bowls in which the chiefs drank kava4 ,they were perfectly round1 beautifully polished1 and supported on three or four small human figures in various attitudes4 ,these figures were accurately proportioned and neatly finished2 even the anatomy of the muscles strained to support the weight were well expressed4 ,the fishing-hooks made by the men1 especially the large hooks made to catch shark1 are described by ,captain ,cook as really astonishing for their strength and neatness2 he found them on trial much superior to his own4#ab #ab ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #bah sq41 vii4 #acc-ace2 ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #faa sq42 ,a4 ,campbell1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #aib-aie2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #aji-aac2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 pp4 #aad-aaf2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ff sq4 ,the mechanical skill of these people was all the more remarkable because of the extreme rudeness and simplicity of the tools with which they worked4 ,their chief implement was an adze made of a black or clay-coloured volcanic stone and polished by constant friction with pumice-stone in water4 ,they had also small instruments made each of a single shark's tooth1 some of which were fixed to the forepart of a dog's jawbone and others to a thin wooden handle of the same shape4 ,these served as knives1 and pieces of coral were used as files4 ,captain ,cook found the natives in possession of two iron tools1 one of them a piece of iron hoop1 and the other an edge-tool1 perhaps the point of a broadsword4 ,these they could only have procured from a ,european vessel or from a wreck drifted on their coast4 ,no mines of any kind are known to exist in the islands4#ac #ac ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #bbj-bbd2 ,a4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #aih2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cbb2 ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,neue ,reise um die ,welt1 ii4 #ig 7as to the kava bowls72 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #ff4 ,as to the absence of mines in the ,hawaiian ,islands1 see ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 p4 xvi4 ,their weapons of war included spears1 javelins1 daggers1 and clubs1 all of them made of wood4 ,they also slung stones with deadly effect4 ,but they had no defensive armour2 for the war-cloaks and wicker-work helmets1 surmounted with lofty crests and decked with the tail feathers of the tropic bird1 while they heightened the imposing and martial appearance of the wearers1 must have proved rather encumbrances than protections4 ,captain ,cook found the natives in possession of bows and arrows1 but from their scarcity and the slenderness of their make he inferred that the ,hawaiians1 like other ,polynesians1 never used them in battle4#ad #ad ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #bbg sq41 vii4 #acf sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #aef sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ef sq4 ,sec4 #d4 ,government1 ,social ,ranks1 ,taboo ,the government of the ,hawaiian ,islands was an absolute monarchy or despotism2 all rights of power and property vested in the king1 whose will and power alone were law1 though in important matters he was to a certain extent guided by the opinion of the chiefs in council4 ,the rank of the king and the chiefs was hereditary1 descending from father to son2 but the appointment to all offices of authority and dignity was made by the king alone4 ,nevertheless posts of honour1 influence1 and emolument often continued in the same family for many generations4 ,nor were hereditary rank and authority confined to men2 they were inherited also by women4 ,according to tradition1 several of the islands had been once or twice under the government of a queen4 ,the king was supported by an annual tribute paid by all the islands at different periods according to his directions4 ,it comprised both the natural produce of the country and manufactured articles4 ,but besides the regular tribute the king was at liberty to levy any additional tax he might please1 and even to seize and appropriate any personal possessions of a chief or other subject4 ,not infrequently the whole crop of a plantation was thus carried off by his retainers without the least apology or compensation4#ae ,however1 the government of the whole ,hawaiian archipelago by a single monarch was a comparatively modern innovation4 ,down to nearly the end of the eighteenth century the different islands were independent of each other and governed by separate kings1 who were often at war one with the other2 indeed there were sometimes several independent kingdoms within the same island4 ,but towards the close of the eighteenth century an energetic and able king of ,hawaii1 by name ,kamehameha 7,tamehameha71 succeeded in extending his sway by conquest over the whole archipelago1 and at his death in #ahai he bequeathed the undivided monarchy to his successors4#af #ae ,u4 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aaf sq42 ,a4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afi sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #daa sq42 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 p4 #ajb2 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #chj2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cj sqq4 ,according to ,jarves 7op4 cit4 p4 #cc71 ,rank was hereditary1 and descended chiefly from the females1 who frequently held the reins of government in their own right4 ,this custom originated in the great license existing between the sexes2 no child1 with certainty1 being able to designate his father1 while no mistake could be made in regard to the mother4 #af ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 p4 #aja2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #cj2 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 lxi sq42 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 #ith ,edition1 xi4 #ebh4 ,the whole body of chiefs fell into three classes or ranks4 ,the first included the royal family and all who were intimately connected with it4 ,the second included such as held hereditary offices of power or governorships of islands1 after the time when the whole archipelago was united in a single kingdom4 ,the third class embraced the rulers of districts1 the headmen of villages1 and all inferior chiefs4 ,the members of the first two classes were usually called high chiefs2 they were few in number and closely related both by blood and marriage4 ,the members of the third class were known as small or low chiefs4 ,they were by far the most numerous body of chiefs in any island1 and were generally called haku aina or landowners1 though strictly speaking the king was acknowledged in every island as the supreme lord and proprietor of the soil by hereditary right or the law of conquest4 ,when ,kamehameha had subdued the greater part of the islands1 he distributed them among his favourite chiefs and warriors on condition of their rendering him not only military service1 but a certain proportion of the produce of their lands4 ,in this he appears to have followed the ancient practice invariably observed on the conquest of an island4#ag ,for from the earliest periods of ,hawaiian history1 the tenure of lands has been1 in most respects1 feudal4 ,the origin of the fiefs was the same as in the northern nations of ,europe4 ,any chieftain who could collect a sufficient number of followers to conquer a district1 or an island1 and had succeeded in his object1 proceeded to divide the spoils1 or 'cut up the land1' as the natives termed it4 ,the king1 or principal chief1 made his choice from the best of the lands4 ,afterwards the remaining part of the conquered territory was distributed among the leaders1 and these again subdivided their shares to others1 who became vassals1 owing fealty to the sovereigns of the fee4 ,the king placed some of his own particular servants on his portion as his agents1 to superintend the cultivation4 ,the original occupants who were on the land1 usually remained under their new conqueror1 and by them the lands were cultivated1 and rent or taxes paid4#ah #ag ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 op4 cit4 p4 #ig2 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #dab sq41 #dad2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #cc4 ,compare ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #acg sqq4 #ah ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cd4 ,below the chiefs or nobles were the commoners1 who included small farmers1 fishermen1 mechanics1 such as house-builders and canoe-builders1 musicians and dancers1 in short1 all the labouring classes1 whether they worked for a chief or farmer or cultivated patches of land for their own benefit4#ai ,according to one account1 the common people are generally considered as attached to the soil1 and are transferred with the land from one chief to another4#bj ,but this statement is contradicted by an earlier and perhaps better-informed writer1 who spent some thirteen months in ,oahu1 while the islands were still independent and before the conversion of the people to ,christianity4 ,he tells us that commoners were not slaves nor attached to the soil1 but at liberty to change masters when they thought proper4#ba ,on this subject ,captain ,king observes3 ,how far the property of the lower class is secured against the rapacity and despotism of the great chiefs1 ,i cannot say1 but it should seem that it is sufficiently protected against private theft1 or mutual depredation2 for not only their plantations1 which are spread over the whole country1 but also their houses1 their hogs1 and their cloth1 were left unguarded1 without the smallest apprehensions4 ,i have already remarked1 that they not only separate their possessions by walls in the plain country1 but that1 in the woods likewise1 wherever the horse-plantains grow1 they make use of small white flags in the same manner1 and for the same purpose of discriminating property1 as they do bunches of leaves at ,otaheite4 ,all which circumstances1 if they do not amount to proofs1 are strong indications that the power of the chiefs1 where property is concerned1 is not arbitrary1 but at least so far circumscribed and ascertained1 as to make it worth the while for the inferior orders to cultivate the soil1 and to occupy their possessions distinct from each other4#bb ,yet on the other hand we are told by later writers that in fact1 the condition of the common people is that of slaves2 they hold nothing which may not be taken from them by the strong hand of arbitrary power1 whether exercised by the sovereign or a petty chief4 ,on one occasion the writers saw nearly two thousand persons1 laden with faggots of sandal-wood1 coming down from the mountains to deposit their burdens in the royal store-houses1 and then departing to their homes1 weary with their unpaid labours1 yet without a murmur at their bondage4#bc ,when at last1 through contact with civilisation1 they had learned to utter their grievances1 they complained that the people was crushed by the numerous forced labours and contributions of every sort exacted from them by the chiefs4 ,it was1 indeed1 very hard to furnish the chiefs1 on every requisition1 with pigs1 food1 and all the good things which the folk possessed1 and to see the great despoiling the humble4 ,in truth1 the people worked for the chiefs incessantly1 they performed every kind of painful task1 and they paid the chiefs all the taxes which it pleased them to demand4#bd #ai ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #dac4 #bj ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #dag4 ,compare ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #cd4 #ba ,a4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #afi4 ,as to the length of ,campbell's residence in ,wahoo 7,oahu71 see id41 p4 #aec note4 ,the date of his residence was #ahji-ahaj4 ,compare ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,voyage of ,discovery into the ,south ,sea and ,beering's ,straits 7,london1 #ahba71 iii4 #bdf3 ,the people are almost subject to the arbitrary will of the lord1 but there are no slaves or vassals 7glebae adscripti74 ,the peasant and the labourer may go wherever they please4 ,the man is free1 he may be killed1 but not sold and not detained4 #bb ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #ada sq4 #bc ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #dae4 #bd ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 p4 #afg4 ,certainly commoners were bound to pay great outward marks of deference to their social superiors1 the chiefs1 or nobles4 ,indeed1 the respect almost amounted to adoration1 for they were on no occasion allowed to touch their persons1 but prostrated themselves before them1 and might not enter their houses without first receiving permission4#be ,above all1 the system of taboo or kapu1 as it was called in the ,hawaiian dialect1#bf oppressed the common people and tended to keep them in a state of abject subjection to the nobles2 for the prescriptions of the system were numerous and vexatious1 and the penalty for breaches of them was death4 ,if the shadow of a subject fell on a chief1 the subject was put to death2 if he robed himself in the cloth or assumed the girdle of a chief1 he was put to death2 if he climbed on the wall of a chief's courtyard1 he was put to death2 if he stood upright instead of prostrating himself when a vessel of water was brought for the chief to wash with or his garments to wear1 he was put to death2 if he stepped on the shadow of a chief's house with his head smeared with white clay1 or decked with a garland of flowers1 or merely wetted with water1 he was put to death2 if he slept with his wife on a taboo day1 he was put to death2 if he made a noise during public prayers1 he was put to death2 if a woman ate pig1 or coco-nuts1 or bananas1 or lobster1 or the fish called ulua1 she was put to death2 if she went in a canoe on a taboo day1 she was put to death2 if husband and wife ate together1 they were both put to death4#bg #be ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #dac2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cc sq4 ,compare ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #acg4 #bf ,in the ,hawaiian dialect the ordinary ,polynesian ,t is pronounced ,k1 and the ,tongan ,b is pronounced ,p4 ,hence the ,tongan taboo becomes in ,hawaiian kapoo 7kapu74 ,see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 xxiii4 #bg ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aei1 #afa1 #afg4 ,in ,hawaii1 as in other parts of ,polynesia1 the taboo formed an important and essential part both of the religious and of the political system1 of which it was at once a strong support and a powerful instrument4 ,the proper sense of the word taboo 7in ,hawaiian kapu7 is sacred4 ,this did not1 however1 imply any moral quality2 it expressed rather a connexion with the gods1 or a separation from ordinary purposes1 and exclusive appropriation to persons or things considered sacred2 sometimes it meant devoted as by a vow4 ,chiefs who traced their genealogy to the gods were called arii taboo1 chiefs sacred2 a temple was a wahi taboo1 place sacred2 the rule which prohibited women from eating with men1 and from eating1 except on special occasions1 any fruits or animals ever offered in sacrifice to the gods1 while it allowed the men to partake of them1 was called ai taboo1 eating sacred4 ,the opposite of kapu was noa1 which means general or common2 for example1 ai noa signifies eating generally or having food in common4 ,although it was employed for civil as well as sacred purposes1 the taboo was essentially a religious ceremony and could be imposed only by the priests4 ,a religious motive was always assigned for laying it on1 though it was often done at the instance of the civil authorities2 and persons called kiaimoku1 island keepers1 a kind of police officers1 were always appointed by the king to see that the taboo was strictly observed4#bh #bh ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #che sqq4 ,compare ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #eig4 ,the application of the restriction implied by taboo was either general or particular1 either permanent or occasional4 ,to take examples of permanent taboos1 the idols and temples1 the persons and names of the king and other members of the royal family1 the persons of priests1 canoes belonging to the gods1 the houses1 clothes1 and mats of the king and priests1 and the heads of men who were the devotees of any particular idol1 were always taboo or sacred4 ,the flesh of hogs1 fowls1 turtles1 and several sorts of fish1 coco-nuts1 and almost everything offered in sacrifice were taboo or consecrated to the use of the gods and the men2 hence women were1 except in cases of particular indulgence1 forbidden to partake of them4 ,particular places1 such as those frequented by the king for bathing1 were also permanently taboo4 ,as examples of temporary taboos may be mentioned those which were imposed on an island or district for a certain time1 during which no canoe or person was allowed to approach it4 ,particular fruits1 animals1 and the fish of certain places were occasionally taboo for several months1 during which neither men nor women might eat them4#bi ,the predecessor of ,kamehameha1 king of ,hawaii1 was taboo to such a degree that he was not allowed to be seen by day4 ,he only showed himself in the night3 if any person had but accidentally seen him by daylight he was immediately put to death2 a sacred law1 the fulfilment of which nothing could prevent4#cj #bi ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #chg4 #cj ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,voyage of ,discovery into the ,south ,sea and ,beering's ,straits 7,london1 #ahba71 iii4 #bdg4 ,the seasons generally kept taboo were on the approach of some great religious ceremony1 immediately before going to war1 and during the sickness of chiefs4 ,their duration was various1 and much longer in ancient than in modern times4 ,tradition tells of a taboo which lasted thirty years1 during which men might not trim their beards and were subject to other restrictions4 ,another was kept for five years4 ,before the reign of ,kamehameha forty days was the usual period2 but in his time the period was shortened to ten or five days1 or even to a single day4 ,the taboo seasons might be either common or strict4 ,during a common taboo the men were only required to abstain from their usual avocations1 and to attend morning and evening prayers at the temple4 ,but during a strict taboo every fire and light in the district or island must be extinguished2 no canoe might be launched2 no person might bathe or even appear out of doors1 unless his attendance was required at the temple2 no dog might bark1 no pig grunt1 and no cock crow2 for if any of these things were to happen the taboo would be broken and fail to accomplish its object4 ,to prevent this disaster the mouths of dogs and pigs were tied up1 and fowls were put under a calabash1 or a cloth was fastened over their eyes4#ca #ca ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #chg sq4 ,the prohibitions of the taboo were strictly enforced2 every breach of them was punished with death1 unless the delinquent had powerful friends among the priests or chiefs1 who could save him4 ,the culprits were generally offered in sacrifice1 being either strangled or clubbed at the temple2 according to one account1 they were burnt4#cb #cb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #chi4 ,as to the taboo in ,hawaii1 see also ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #adf sq42 ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #eig2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 pp4 #ca sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ej-eb2 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 xxxviii sq41 #aei sqq4 ,the system seems to have been found at last too burdensome to be borne even by the king1 who under it was forbidden to touch his food with his own hands1 and had to submit to having it put into his mouth by another person1 as if he were an infant4#cc ,whatever his motive1 ,liholiho1 son of ,kamehameha1 had hardly succeeded his father on the throne of ,hawaii when he abolished the system of taboo and the national religion at a single blow4 ,this remarkable reformation took place in ,november #ahai4 ,when the first ,christian missionaries arrived from ,america1 some months later1 ,march #cjth1 #ahbj1 they were astonished to learn of a peaceful revolution1 which had so opportunely prepared the way for their own teaching4#cd #cc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #chh4 #cd ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #fjc2 ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,neue ,reise um die ,welt1 ii4 #aji sqq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cj1 #abf sqq41 #acg1 #bjd1 #cab2 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 pp4 #ca1 #cb sq42 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #cgh sq41 #cig sq41 #ddb sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aig sq41 #bja2 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 lxv1 #acc sqq42 ,h4 ,bingham1 ,residence of ,twenty-one ,years in the ,sandwich ,islands 7,hartford1 #ahdi71 pp4 #fi sqq4 ,king ,kamehameha the ,first died #hth ,may #ahai4 ,sec4 #e4 ,religion1 the ,gods ,of the native ,hawaiian religion1 as it existed before the advent of ,europeans and the conversion of the people to ,christianity1 we possess no adequate account4 ,the defect is probably due in great measure to the readiness with which the islanders relinquished their old faith and adopted the new one4 ,the transition seems to have been effected with great ease and comparatively little opposition2 hence when the missionaries settled in the islands a few months after the formal abolition of the ancient religion1 paganism was already almost a thing of the past1 and the ,christian teachers were either unable or perhaps unwilling to record in detail the beliefs and rites which they regarded as false and pernicious4 ,be that as it may1 we possess no such comparatively full and accurate records of the old ,hawaiian religion1 as we possess1 for example1 of the old pagan religion of the ,tongans and the ,samoans1 who clung much more pertinaciously to the creed of their fathers than their more enlightened or more fickle kinsfolk in the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,hence we are obliged to content ourselves with some more or less meagre and fragmentary notices of the ancient ,hawaiian system of religious belief and practice4 ,but as the ,hawaiians are1 or were1 pure-blooded ,polynesians1 we may assume with a fair degree of probability that in its broad lines their religious system conformed to the ordinary ,polynesian type4 ,on this subject ,captain ,king1 the colleague and successor of ,captain ,cook in his last voyage1 observes as follows3 ,the religion of these people resembles1 in most of its principal features1 that of the ,society and ,friendly ,islands4 ,their ,morais1 their ,whattas1 their idols1 their sacrifices1 and their sacred songs1 all of which they have in common with each other1 are convincing proofs that their religious notions are derived from the same source4 ,in the length and number of their ceremonies this branch indeed far exceeds the rest2 and though in all these countries there is a certain class of men to whose care the performance of their religious rites is committed1 yet we had never met with a regular society of priests1 till we discovered the cloisters of ,kakooa in ,karakakooa ,bay in the island of ,hawaii4 ,the head of this order was called ,orono2 a title which we imagined to imply something highly sacred1 and which1 in the person of ,omeeah1 was honoured almost to adoration4444 ,it has been mentioned that the title of ,orono1 with all its honours1 was given to ,captain ,cook2 and it is also certain that they regarded us generally as a race of people superior to themselves2 and used often to say that great ,eatooa atuas1 spirits dwelled in our country4 ,the little image1 which we have before described as the favourite idol on the ,morai in ,karakakooa ,bay1 they called ,koonooraekaiee1 and said it was ,terreeoboo's god1 and that he also resided amongst us4 ,there are found an infinite variety of these images both on the ,morais1 and within and without their houses1 to which they give different names2 but it soon became obvious to us in how little estimation they were held1 from their frequent expressions of contempt of them1 and from their even offering them to sale for trifles4 ,at the same time there seldom failed to be some one particular figure in favour1 to which1 whilst this preference lasted1 all their adoration was addressed4 ,this consisted in arraying it in red cloth1 beating their drums1 and singing hymns before it1 laying bunches of red feathers1 and different sorts of vegetables1 at its feet1 and exposing a pig or a dog to rot on the whatta that stood near it4 ,in a bay to the southward of ,karakakooa1 a party of our gentlemen were conducted to a large house1 in which they found the black figure of a man1 resting on his fingers and toes1 with his head inclined backward1 the limbs well formed and exactly proportioned1 and the whole beautifully polished4 ,this figure the natives call ,maee2 and round it were placed thirteen others of rude and distorted shapes1 which they said were the ,eatooas spirits of several deceased chiefs1 whose names they recounted4 ,the place was full of whattas1 on which lay the remains of their offerings4 ,they likewise give a place in their houses to many ludicrous and some obscene idols1 like the ,priapus of the ancients4#ce #ce ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #adb-add4 ,the general ,hawaiian name for god was akua1 corresponding to the more usual ,polynesian form atua4#cf ,the four principal ,hawaiian deities were ,ku1 ,kane1 ,kanaloa1 and ,lono4#cg ,their names are only dialectically different forms of ,tu1 ,tane1 ,tangaroa or ,tagaloa1 and ,rongo1 four of the greatest ,polynesian gods4#ch ,of these deities it is said that ,ku1 ,kane1 and ,lono formed the original ,hawaiian triad or trinity1 who were worshipped as a unity under the name of ,ku-kau-akahi1 the one established4#ci ,the meaning or essence of the three persons of the trinity is said to be ,stability 7,ku71 ,light 7,tane71 and ,sound 7,lono74#dj ,these gods1 we are told1 created the three heavens as their dwelling-place1 then the earth1 sun1 moon1 and stars1 then1 the host of angels and ministers4 ,kanaloa 7,tangaroa71 who represented the spirit of evil1 was a later introduction into the ,hawaiian theology2 he it was who led the rebellion of spirits1 although ,milu is in other traditions credited with this bad pre-eminence4#da ,we read that when the trinity were at work on the task of creating the first man1 the bad spirit ,kanaloa1 out of rivalry1 also made an image1 but he could not endow it with life4 ,so1 in a rage1 he cried to ,kane1 ,i will take your man1 he shall die6 ,and that1 it is said1 was the origin of death4 ,the reason why the spirits1 under the leadership of ,kanaloa1 rebelled was that they had been denied the sacrifice of kava4 ,for their rebellion they were thrust down to the lowest depth of ,darkness or ,night 7,po74#db #cf ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 p4 xxxix2 ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #cj1 s4v4 ,atua4 #cg ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 p4 xxxix2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #dj2 ,h4 ,t4 ,cheever1 ,life in the ,sandwich ,islands 7,london1 #ahea71 p4 #aa2 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die heilige ,sage der ,polynesier 7,leipzig1 #ahha71 p4 #aca2 id41 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien 7,berlin1 #ahhc71 p4 #bbe2 ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,hawaiischen ,inseln1 pp4 #ig sq4 #ch ,e4 ,tregear1 op4 cit4 #dbe1 #dfa1 #dfd1 #edj1 s4vv4 ,rongo1 ,tane1 ,tangaroa1 ,tu4 #ci ,e4 ,tregear1 op4 cit4 p4 #dbe1 s4v4 ,rongo4 #dj ,e4 ,tregear1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dfa1 #edj1 s4vv4 ,tane1 ,tu4 #da ,e4 ,tregear1 op4 cit4 p4 #edj1 s4v4 ,tu4 #db ,e4 ,tregear1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfd1 s4v4 ,tangaroa4 ,according to another account1 the evil spirit was not ,kanaloa1 but ,ku2 ,kanaloa was a younger brother of ,kane1 and helped him in his beneficent labours4 ,see ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,hawaiischen ,inseln1 pp4 #ig sq4 ,this latter version agrees with the view of ,kane and ,kanaloa as divine twins4 ,see below1 pp4 #cid sq4 ,a fuller account of these momentous transactions presents a close1 perhaps a suspicious1 resemblance to the ,biblical narrative of the same events4 ,it runs as follows3 ,according to ancient ,hawaiian traditions1 there existed in the chaos three mighty gods1 ,kane1 ,ku1 and ,lono4 ,by their common action light was brought into the chaos4 ,then the gods created three heavenly spheres1 in which they dwelt1 and last of all the earth1 sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,out of their spittle they thereupon created a host of angels1 who had to render service to the three original deities4 ,last of all came the creation of man4 ,his body was fashioned out of red earth1 and his head out of white clay1 and ,kane1 the highest of the gods1 breathed into this ,hawaiian ,adam the breath of life4 ,out of one of his ribs the ,hawaiian ,eve was created4 ,the newly formed pair1 by name ,kumuhonua and ,keolakuhonua1 were placed in a beautiful paradise called ,paliuli1 which was watered by the three rivers of life1 and planted with many fine trees1 among them the sacred bread-fruit tree4 ,the mightiest of the angels1 ,kanaloa1 the ,hawaiian ,lucifer1 desired that the newly created human pair should worship him1 which was forbidden by ,god the ,father1 ,kane4 ,after vain attempts to create a new man devoted to himself1 ,kanaloa1 out of desire for vengeance1 resolved to ruin the first human pair created by the gods4 ,in the likeness of a great lizard he crept into ,paradise and seduced the two inhabitants of the same into committing sin1 whereupon they were driven out of ,paradise by a powerful bird sent by ,kane4 ,then follow1 as in the ,bible1 the legends of the ,hawaiian ,cain 7,laka7 and the ,hawaiian ,noah 7,nuu71 by whom the ancestors of the ,hawaiian people are said to have been saved from the universal flood4#dc ,the story of the creation of the first woman out of a rib of the first man appears to have been widespread in ,polynesia1 for it is reported also from ,tahiti1#dd ,fakaofo or ,bowditch ,island1#de and ,new ,zealand4#df #dc ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,hawaiischen ,inseln1 p4 #ig4 #dd ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 i4 #aaj sq42 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #cab sq4 #de ,g4 ,turner1 ,samoa1 pp4 #bfg sq4 #df ,j4 ,l4 ,nicholas1 ,narrative of a ,voyage to ,new ,zealand 7,london1 #ahag71 i4 #ei4 ,compare ,folk-lore in the ,old ,testament1 i4 #i sq4 ,of the three persons in the ,hawaiian trinity1 ,kane 7,tane7 is said to have been the principal4 ,he was especially associated with light2 in a fragment of an ancient liturgy he is called ,heaven-father 7,lani-makua7 and in a very ancient chant he is identified with the ,creator4 ,when after the great flood the ,hawaiian ,noah1 who is called ,nuu1 left his vessel1 he offered up sacrifice to the moon1 saying1 ,you are doubtless a transformation of ,tane4 ,but the deity was angry at this worship of a material object2 nevertheless1 when ,nuu expressed his contrition1 the rainbow was left as a pledge of forgiveness4#dg #dg ,e4 ,tregear1 op4 cit4 p4 #dfa1 s4v4 ,tane4 ,according to one account1 the two great gods ,kane and ,kanaloa were twins4 ,in ,hawaii twins are regarded as superior to ordinary mortals both in mind and body2 hence it was natural to conceive of a pair of divine twins1 like the ,dioscuri in ,greek mythology4 ,and1 like the ,dioscuri1 the divine ,hawaiian twins sometimes appeared together to their worshippers as helpers in time of need4 ,thus1 in a season of dearth1 when people were dying of hunger1 a poor fisher lad in the island of ,lanai set up a tiny hut on the sea-shore1 and there day by day he offered a little from the scanty store of fish which his family had caught2 and as he did so he prayed1 saying1 ,here1 ,o god1 is fish for thee4 ,one day1 as he sat there1 racked with unsatisfied yearning for the divine assistance1 two men came walking that way and rested at the hut2 and1 taking them to be weary wanderers1 the fisher lad willingly gave them what little food he had left over4 ,they slept there that night1 and next day1 when they were departing1 they revealed themselves to him as the two gods ,kane and ,kanaloa1 and they told him that his prayer had been heard1 and that salvation would follow4 ,sure enough1 plenty soon returned to the land1 and on the spot where the little hut had stood1 a stone temple was built in stately terraces4#dh ,again1 we hear how when drought had lasted long in the island of ,oahu1 and death stared the farmers in the face for lack of water1 the gods ,kane and ,kanaloa appeared in the likeness of two young men and showed them a spring1 which was afterwards consecrated to the divine twins4#di ,once more1 it is said that1 when the two deities were in ,oahu1 it chanced that they could find no water with which to moisten their dry food4 ,then at ,kane's direction ,kanaloa struck a stone with his spear1 and from the stone there sprang a fountain1 which bears the name of ,kane to this day1 and still it rises and sinks on the day of the moon which is sacred to that divinity4#ej #dh ,a4 ,bastian1 ,die heilige ,sage der ,polynesier1 pp4 #aca1 #acb4 #di ,a4 ,bastian1 op4 cit4 pp4 #acb sq4 #ej ,a4 ,bastian1 op4 cit4 p4 #acc4 ,as to the divine twins in ,hawaii1 see also id41 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 p4 #bdc4 ,the god ,lono was1 as we have seen1 no other than the great ,polynesian deity ,rongo1 the two names being the same word in dialectically different forms4 ,he was one of the most popular gods of ,hawaii2#ea the seasons and other natural phenomena were associated with him1 and prayers for rain were particularly addressed to him4#eb ,according to one account1 he was an uncreated1 self-existent deity2#ec but according to another account he was an ancient king of ,hawaii1 who rashly killed his wife on a suspicion of infidelity1 and then1 full of remorse1 carried her lifeless body to a temple and made a great wail over it4 ,thereafter he travelled through ,hawaii in a state of frenzy1 boxing and wrestling with every one whom he met4 ,the people in astonishment said1 ,is ,lono entirely mad8 ,he replied1 ,i am frantic with my great love4 ,having instituted games to commemorate his wife's death1 he embarked in a triangular canoe for a foreign land4 ,before he departed1 he prophesied1 saying1 ,i will return in after times1 on an island bearing coco-nut trees1 swine1 and dogs4 ,after his departure he was deified by his countrymen1 and annual games of boxing and wrestling were instituted in his honour4#ed ,when ,captain ,cook arrived in ,hawaii1 the natives took him to be their god ,lono returned according to his prophecy4 ,the priests threw a sacred red mantle on his shoulders and did him reverence1 prostrating themselves before him2 they pronounced long discourses with extreme volubility1 by way of prayer and worship4 ,they offered him pigs and food and clothes1 and everything that they offered to the gods4 ,when he landed1 most of the inhabitants fled before him1 full of fear1 and those who remained prostrated themselves in adoration4 ,they led him to a temple1 and there they worshipped him4 ,but afterwards in a brawl1 when they saw his blood flowing and heard his groans1 they said1 ,no1 this is not ,rono1 and one of them struck him1 so that he died4 ,but even after his death1 some of them still thought that he was ,rono1 and that he would come again4 ,so they looked on some of his bones1 to wit his ribs and his breastbone1 as sacred2 they put them in a little basket covered all over with red feathers1 and they deposited it in a temple dedicated to ,rono4 ,there religious homage was paid to the bones1 and thence they were carried every year in procession to several other temples1 or borne by the priests round the island1 to collect the offerings of the faithful for the support of the worship of the god ,rono4#ee #ea ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #da4 #eb ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,hawaiischen ,inseln1 p4 #ih4 #ec ,e4 ,tregear1 op4 cit4 p4 #dbe1 s4v4 ,rongo4 #ed ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ace2 ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,neue ,reise um die ,welt 7,weimar1 #ahcj71 ii4 #hh sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #da sq42 ,h4 ,bingham1 ,residence of ,twenty-one ,years in the ,sandwich ,islands 7,hartford1 #ahdi71 p4 #cb2 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 p4 #bdf4 #ee ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #acd-acf2 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #cgf2 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bi-cg2 ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,neue ,reise um die ,welt1 ii4 #ih sq4 ,the great ,polynesian god or hero ,maui was known in ,hawaii1 where the stories told of him resembled those current in other parts of the ,pacific4 ,he is said to have dragged up the islands on his fishing-hook from the depths of the ocean1 and to have brought men their first fire4#ef ,one day1 when his wife was making bark-cloth and had not time to finish it before night1 ,maui laid his hand on the sun and prevented it from going down till the work was completed4#eg #ef ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 #bcf1 s4v4 ,maui2 ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,haiwaiischen ,inseln1 p4 #ih4 #eg ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #dcc2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #bf4 ,the national war-god of ,hawaii was named ,tairi 7,kaili74 ,in the evening he used to be seen flitting about near his temple in the form of a sort of luminous vapour1 like a flame or the tail of a comet4 ,a similar appearance is also occasionally seen in the ,society ,islands1 where the terrified natives formerly identified it with their god ,tane1 and supposed that the meteor was the deity flying from temple to temple or seeking whom he might destroy4#eh ,the image of the war-god ,tairi used to be carried to battle by the priest1 who held it aloft above the ranks4 ,it was four or five feet high2 the upper part was of wicker-work1 covered with red feathers2 the face grinned hideously2 the mouth displayed triple rows of dog's or shark's teeth2 the eyes gleamed with mother of pearl2 and the head was crowned with a helmet crested with long tresses of human hair4 ,in the battle the priest used to distort his face into a variety of frightful grimaces and to utter appalling yells1 which were supposed to proceed from the god whom he bore or attended4 ,but the national war-god was not the only deity whose image was borne to battle4 ,other chiefs of rank had their war-gods carried near them by their priests2 and if the king or chief was killed or taken1 the god himself was usually captured also4 ,the presence of their deities inspired the warriors with courage2 for they imagined the divine influence to be essential to victory4#ei ,the diviners were consulted immediately before a battle4 ,they slew the victims1 and noticed the face of the heavens1 the passage of clouds over the sun1 and the appearance of a rainbow4 ,if the omens were favourable1 the image of the principal war-god was brought out in front of the whole army and placed near the king4 ,the priest then prayed to the gods1 beseeching them to prove themselves stronger than the gods of the enemy in the ensuing engagement1 and promising them hecatombs of victims in the event of victory4 ,the bodies of foes slain in the battle were dragged to the king or priest1 who offered them as victims to his gods4#fj #eh ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #aai4 #ei ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #aeh sq4 #fj ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #aeg sq41 #aei4 ,the gods of ,hawaii fell into two classes1 according as they were believed to have been primaeval deities born of ,night 7,po71 or the souls of men who had been deified after death4 ,for it was believed to be possible to detain the soul of a beloved or honoured person at death by keeping his clothes or his bones2 and the soul could thereafter be invoked and could speak through the mouth of the person into whom it had entered4 ,both classes of deities1 the primaeval and the human1 were credited with the power of making people ill4#fa ,one way of obtaining a guardian deity for a family was to take the body of a still-born child and throw it into the sea or bury it in the earth2 in the former case the embryo was supposed to turn into a shark1 in the latter case into a grasshopper4 ,when it was deemed necessary to obtain the help of a deity 7akua7 for a special purpose1 such as success in fishing or in canoe-building1 the divine spirit could be conjured into an image 7kii71 and could thereafter appear in a dream to his worshipper and reveal to him what food he desired to have dedicated to him1 and what accordingly the worshipper must abstain from eating4 ,often the god showed himself to the dreamer in the shape of a stone or other object2 and on awakening the man was bound to procure the object1 whatever it was1 and to honour it with prayer and sacrifice1 in order to ensure the protection of the deity4 ,prayers addressed to private gods were usually the property of the owner1 who was commonly also their author2 whereas prayers addressed to a public god1 such as ,kane1 had to be learned from a priest or other adept4#fb #fa ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 pp4 #bfi sq4 #fb ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 pp4 #bga sq4 ,among the deities who had once been men would seem to have been the god of medicine1 the ,hawaiian ,aesculapius4 ,it is said that many generations ago a certain man named ,koreamoku received all medicinal herbs from the gods1 who also taught him the use of them4 ,after his death he was deified1 and a wooden image of him was placed in a large temple at ,kairua1 to which offerings of hogs1 fish1 and coco-nuts were frequently presented4 ,oronopuha and ,makanuiairomo1 two friends and disciples of ,koreamoku1 continued to practise the healing art after the death of their master1 and they too were deified after death1 particularly because they were often successful in driving away the evil spirits which afflicted the people and threatened them with death4 ,to these deified men the priests addressed their prayers when they administered medicine to the sick4#fc #fc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cce sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #ga4 ,of all the deities of ,hawaii the most dreaded was ,pele1 the goddess of the volcanic fire1 whose home was in the great and ever active volcano of ,kilauea4 ,there she dwelt with the other members of her family1 brothers and sisters4 ,they were all said to have come to ,hawaii from a foreign country called ,tahiti after the great deluge had subsided4 ,the cones which rise like islands from the vast sea of boiling lava1 vomiting columns of smoke or pyramids of flame1 were the houses where these volcanic deities lived and amused themselves by playing at draughts3 the crackling of the flames and the roaring of the furnaces were the music of their dance2 and the red flaming surge was the surf wherein they sported1 swimming on the rolling fiery waves4#fd ,the filaments of volcanic glass1 of a dark olive colour and as fine as human hair1 some straight1 some crimped or frizzled1 which are to be seen abundantly on the sides of the crater1 and on the plain for miles round1 are called by the natives ,pele's hair2 in some places they lie so thick as to resemble cobwebs covering the surface of the ground4#fe ,near the crater grow bushes bearing clusters of red and yellow berries resembling large currants2 of these the natives formerly would never eat till they had thrown some of the clusters into the thickest of the smoke and vapour as an offering to the goddess of the volcano4#ff ,vast numbers of hogs1 some alive1 others cooked1 used to be cast into the craters when they were in action or when they threatened an eruption2 and when they boiled over1 the animals were flung into the rolling torrent of lava to appease the gods and arrest the progress of the fiery stream4 ,for the whole island had to pay tribute to the gods of the volcano and to furnish provisions for the support of their ministers2 and whenever the chiefs or people failed to send the proper offerings or incurred the displeasure of the dreadful beings by insulting them or their ministers1 or by breaking the taboos which had to be observed in the vicinity of the craters1 the angry deities would spout lava from the mountain or march by subterranean passages to the abode of the culprits and overwhelm them under a flood of molten matter4 ,and if the fishermen did not offer them enough fish1 they would rush down1 kill the fish with fire1 and1 filling up the shoals1 destroy the fishing-grounds entirely4#fg ,people who passed by the volcano of ,kilauea often presented locks of hair to ,pele by throwing them into the crater with an appropriate address to the deity4#fh ,on one occasion1 when a river of lava threatened destruction to the people of the neighbourhood1 and the sacrifice of many hogs1 cast alive into the stream1 had not availed to stay its devastating course1 ,king ,kamehameha cut off some of his own sacred locks and threw them into the torrent1 with the result that in a day or two the lava ceased to flow4#fi ,in the pleasant and verdant valley of ,kaua there used to be a temple of the goddess1 where the inhabitants of ,hamakua1 a district of ,hawaii1 formerly celebrated an annual festival designed to propitiate the dread divinity and to secure their country from earthquakes and floods of lava4 ,on such occasions large offerings of hogs1 dogs1 and fruit were made1 and the priests performed certain rites4#gj ,worshippers of ,pele also threw some of the bones of their dead into the volcano1 in the belief that the spirits of the deceased would then be admitted to the society of the volcanic deities1 and that their influence would preserve the survivors from the ravages of volcanic fire4#ga ,nevertheless the apprehensions uniformly entertained by the natives of the fearful consequences of ,pele's anger prevented them from paying very frequent visits to the vicinity of the volcano2 and when on their inland journeys they had occasion to approach the mountain1 they were scrupulously attentive to every injunction of her priests1 and regarded with a degree of superstitious veneration and awe the appalling spectacle which the crater1 with its sea of molten and flaming lava1 presented to their eyes4#gb ,they even requested strangers not to dig or scratch the sand in its neighbourhood for fear of displeasing the goddess and provoking her to manifest her displeasure by an eruption4#gc #fd ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bcg1 #bdf-bdi2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #db sq4 #fe ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cfc sq42 ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iv4 #abi4 #ff ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bcd-bcf4 #fg ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bej4 #fh ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cej4 #fi ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ei4 sq4 #gj ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cej4 #ga ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cfa4 #gb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bge4 #gc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bci4 ,the service of ,pele was regularly cared for by an hereditary steward 7kahu7 and an hereditary priestess4 ,the duty of the steward was to provide the materials for the public sacrifices1 including the food and raiment for the goddess2 it was for him to furnish the hogs and fowls1 to cultivate the taro1 sweet potatoes1 and sugar-cane which were to serve her for nourishment1 to tend the plants from which her garments were to be made1 and to have all things in readiness for the offerings at the appointed seasons4 ,of the plantations sacred to this use1 one was on the sea-shore1 and another in the broken ground within the precincts of the crater2 and the steward with his family resided sometimes in the one place and sometimes in the other4 ,when the time came for offering the sacrifice1 the priestess descended into the depths of the volcano1 and there approaching as near as possible to the spot where the fire burned most furiously1 she cast into it her gifts1 saying1 ,here1 ,pele1 is food for you1 and here is cloth1 whereby she mentioned each article as she flung it into the flames4#gd ,sometimes the priestess claimed to be inspired by ,pele and even to be the goddess in person4 ,one of the priestesses1 in an interview with the missionary ,william ,ellis1 assumed a haughty air and declared1 ,i am ,pele2 ,i shall never die2 and those who follow me1 when they die1 if part of their bones be taken to ,kilauea1 will live with me in the bright fires there4 ,in a song she gave a long account of the deeds and honours of the goddess1 who1 she said1 dwelt in the volcano and had come in former times from the land beyond the sky4 ,this song she chanted or recited in a rapid and vociferous manner1 accompanied by extravagant gestures1 working herself up to a state of excitement in which she appeared to lose all self-command4 ,she also claimed to be able to heal the sick through the indwelling spirit of the goddess4#ge ,but the goddess was served also by priests4 ,we read of one such who offered prayers to her and assured the people that thereafter she would do them no harm4#gf #gd ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,a ,visit to the ,south ,seas 7,london1 #ahcb71 ii4 #ajd4 #ge ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cji-caa4 ,for other interviews with priestesses of the goddess see id41 iv4 #bge sq42 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,visit to the ,south ,seas1 ii4 #ajj-ajc4 #gf ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cgh4 ,the ,hawaiians also paid religious reverence to certain birds1 fish1 and animals4 ,in a village ,captain ,king saw two tame ravens which the people told him were eatooas 7atuas1 akuas71 that is1 gods or spirits1 cautioning him at the same time not to hurt or offend them4#gg ,the native authors of a work on the history of ,hawaii1 speaking of the ancient religion of their people1 tell us that birds served some as idols2 if it was a fowl1 the fowl was taboo for the worshippers1 and the same for all the birds which were deified4 ,the idol of another was a four-footed animal1 and if it was a pig1 the pig was taboo for him4 ,so with all the animals who became gods4 ,another had a stone for his idol2 it became taboo1 and he could not sit upon the stone4 ,the idol of another was a fish1 and if it was a shark1 the shark was taboo for him4 ,so with all the fish1 and so they deified all things in earth and heaven1 and all the bones of men4#gh ,further1 the same writers observe that the trees were idols for the people and for the chiefs4 ,if a man had for his idol the ohia tree1 the ohia was taboo for him2 if the bread-fruit tree was the idol of another1 the bread-fruit tree was taboo for him4 ,the taboo existed likewise for all the trees out of which men had made divine images1 and it was the same also for food4 ,if taro was a person's idol1 taro was taboo for him4 ,it was the same for all the eatables of which they had made gods4#gi ,this deification of birds1 fish1 animals1 plants1 and inanimate objects resembles the ,samoan system and may1 like it1 be a relic of totemism4#hj ,among the living creatures to which they thus accorded divine honours were lizards1 rats1 and owls4#ha #gg ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #add4 #gh ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 p4 #afe4 #gi ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 #afc1 #afe4 #hj ,see above1 pp4 #ahb sqq41 #bjj sqq4 #ha ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #eid4 ,among the deified fishes it would seem that the shark held a foremost place4 ,on almost every cape jutting out into the sea1 a temple used to be built for the worship of the shark4 ,the first fish of each kind1 taken by the fishermen1 were always carried to the temple and offered to the god1 who was supposed to have driven them towards the shore4#hb ,when the king or the priests imagined that the shark wanted food1 they sallied forth with their attendants1 one of whom carried a rope with a running noose4 ,on coming to a group or crowd of people1 they threw the rope among them1 and whoever happened to be taken in the snare1 whether man1 woman1 or child1 was strangled on the spot1 the body cut in pieces1 and flung into the sea1 to be bolted by the ravenous monsters4#hc ,fishermen sometimes wrapped their dead in red native cloth1 and threw them into the sea to be devoured by the sharks4 ,they thought that the soul of the deceased would animate the shark which had eaten his body1 and that the sharks would therefore spare the survivors in the event of a mishap at sea4#hd ,it was especially stillborn children that were thus disposed of4 ,the worshipper of the shark would lay the body of the infant on a mat1 and having placed beside it two roots of taro1 one of kava1 and a piece of sugar-cane1 he would recite some prayers1 and then throw the whole bundle into the sea1 fully persuaded that by means of this offering the transmigration of the soul of the child into the body of a shark would be effected1 and that thenceforth the formidable monster would be ready to spare such members of the family as might afterwards be exposed to his attack4 ,in the temples dedicated to sharks there were priests who1 at sunrise and sunset1 addressed their prayers to the image which represented the shark2 and they rubbed themselves constantly with water and salt1 which1 drying on their skin1 made it appear covered with scales4 ,they also dressed in red cloth1 uttered piercing yells1 and leaped over the wall of the sacred enclosure2 moreover they persuaded the islanders that they knew the exact moment when the children that had been thrown into the sea were transformed into sharks1 and for this discovery they were rewarded by the happy parents with liberal presents of little pigs1 roots of kava1 coco-nuts1 and so forth4#he ,the priests also professed to be inspired by sharks and in that condition to foretell future events4 ,many people accepted these professions in good faith and contributed to support the professors by their offerings4#hf #hb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ij2 compare id41 pp4 #abi sq4 #hc ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #dbb sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #de4 #hd ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cfa4 #he ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #eie sq4 #hf ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 ii4 #fe4 ,from the foregoing account it appears that some at least of the worshipful sharks were supposed to be animated by the souls of the dead4 ,whether the worship of other sacred animals in ,hawaii was in like manner combined with a theory of transmigration1 there seems to be no evidence to decide4 ,we have seen that a similar doubt rests on the worship of animals in ,tonga4#hg #hg ,see above1 pp4 #ib sqq4 ,sec4 #f4 ,priests1 ,sorcerers1 ,diviners ,the priesthood formed a numerous and powerful body4 ,their office was hereditary4 ,they owned much property in people and lands1 which were heavily taxed for their support4 ,each chief had his family priest1 who followed him to battle1 carried his war-god1 and superintended all the sacred rites of his household4 ,the priests took rank from their gods and chiefs4 ,the keeper of the national war-god1 who was immediately attached to the person of the king1 was the high priest4#hh ,in the inner court of the great temple dedicated to ,tairi1 the war-god1 stood a lofty frame of wicker-work1 in shape something like an obelisk1 hollow within and measuring four or five feet square at the base4 ,within this framework the priest stood and gave oracles in the name of the god1 whenever the king came to consult the deity on any matter of importance1 such as a declaration of war or the conclusion of peace2 for the war-god was also the king's oracle4 ,the oracular answer1 given by the priest in a distinct and audible voice1 was afterwards reported by the king1 publicly proclaimed1 and generally acted upon4#hi ,when the villages failed to pay their tribute punctually to the king1 he used to send forth a priest bearing the image of the great god ,rono1 who scoured the country of the defaulters for twenty-three days and obliged them to pay double tribute4 ,the priest who bore the image was strictly tabooed2 during his peregrination he might not touch anything with his hands2 his food had to be put into his mouth either by the chiefs of the villages where he halted or by the king himself1 who accompanied him4#ij #hh ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #dh4 #hi ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ig4 #ij ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #eif4 ,distinct from the regular priests were the diviners or sorcerers who formed a sort of lower priesthood or clergy4 ,their services were employed for various purposes1 such as to discover the cause of illness or to detect a thief4 ,the people generally believed that all deaths1 which were not due to acts of violence1 were wrought either by the action of a deity or by the incantations of a sorcerer4 ,hence in cases of protracted illness the aid of one of these inferior clergy was almost invariably sought by all who could procure a dog and a fowl for the necessary sacrifice to the god1 and a piece or two of cloth as a fee for the priest4 ,but the offerings to the god and the fees to the priest naturally varied with the rank or wealth of the sufferer4 ,after sacrificing the victims the priest lay down to sleep1 and if his prayers were answered1 he was usually able to inform the invalid of the cause of his illness1 which had been revealed to him in a dream4 ,but the same men1 who could thus heal the sick by ascertaining and removing the cause of sickness1 were supposed to possess the power of praying or enchanting people to death by the recitation of spells or incantations4 ,the prayers or incantations which they employed for these beneficent or maleficent purposes varied with the individual3 every practitioner had his own formulas1 the knowledge of which he carefully confined to his own family2 and he who was thought to have most influence with his god was most frequently employed by the people and derived the greatest emoluments from his profession4#ia ,of this class of men the most dreaded were those who invoked the god ,uli as their patron deity4 ,their special business was to kill people by their spells1 which they recited secretly1 and for the most part by night2 but to render these effectual it was necessary for them to obtain some of the personal refuse of their victim1 such as his spittle1 the parings of his nails1 or the clippings of his hair1 which they buried or burned with the appropriate incantations4#ib ,hence the king of ,hawaii was constantly attended by a servant carrying a spittoon in which he collected the royal saliva to prevent it from being used by the king's enemies for his injury or destruction4#ic ,ordinary chiefs seem to have adopted the same precaution2 a confidential servant deposited their spittle carefully in a portable spittoon and buried it every morning4#id #ia ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bic-bie4 ,compare ,u4 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abj sq42 ,a4 ,campbell1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #aga sqq42 ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 pp4 #bjb sq42 ,tyerman and ,bennett1 op4 cit4 i4 #dad2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #cf sq41 #ga sq42 ,a4 ,marcuse1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ajc-aje4 #ib ,a4 ,marcuse1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajd4 #ic ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,voyage of ,discovery into the ,south ,sea and ,beering's ,straits 7,london1 #ahba71 i4 #cac4 #id ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 i4 #cfe4 ,a form of divination or magic was employed to detect a thief4 ,the person who had suffered the loss used to apply to a priest1 to whom he presented a pig and told his story4 ,thereupon the priest kindled a fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together1 and having taken three nuts he broke the shells and threw one of the kernels into the fire1 saying1 ,kill or shoot the fellow4 ,if the thief did not appear before the nut was consumed in the flames1 the priest repeated the ceremony with the other two nuts4 ,such was the fear inspired by this rite that the culprit seldom failed to come forward and acknowledge his guilt4 ,but if he persisted in concealing his crime1 the king would cause proclamation to be made throughout the island that so-and-so had been robbed1 and that the robber or robbers had been prayed to death4 ,so firm was the belief of the people in the power of these prayers1 that the criminal1 on hearing the proclamation1 would pine away1 refuse food1 and fall a victim to his own credulity4#ie #ie ,a4 ,campbell1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #aga-agc4 ,sec4 #g4 ,temples1 ,images1 ,human ,sacrifices ,of the ,hawaiian temples1 as they existed before the abolition of the native religion1 we seem to possess no good and clear description4 ,when ,captain ,cook first visited ,hawaii and was sailing along the coast1 he noticed from the ship at every village one or more elevated white objects1 like pyramids or rather obelisks2 one of them he judged to be fifty feet high4 ,on landing to examine it1 he could not reach it on account of an intervening pool of water4 ,however1 he visited another structure of the same sort in a more accessible situation1 and found that it stood in what he calls a burying-ground or morai closely resembling those which he had seen in other ,polynesian islands and especially in ,tahiti4 ,this particular morai was an oblong space1 of considerable extent1 surrounded by a wall of stone1 about four feet high4 ,the area enclosed was loosely paved with smaller stones2 and at one end of it stood the pyramid or obelisk1 measuring about four feet square at the base and about twenty feet high4 ,the four sides were composed1 not of stones1 but of small poles interwoven with twigs and branches1 thus forming an indifferent wicker-work1 hollow or open within from bottom to top4 ,it seemed to be in a rather ruinous state1 but enough remained to show that it had been originally covered with the light grey cloth to which the natives attached a religious significance4 ,it was no doubt with similar cloth that the white pyramids or obelisks were covered which ,captain ,cook beheld in the distance from the deck of his ship4 ,beside the particular pyramid which he examined ,captain ,cook found a sacrificial stage or altar with plantains laid upon it4 ,the pyramids or obelisks which he thus saw and described were presumably the structures in which the priests concealed themselves when they gave oracles in the name of the god4 ,on the farther side of the area of the morai of which ,captain ,cook has given us a description stood a house or shed about ten feet high1 forty feet long1 and ten broad in the middle1 but tapering somewhat towards the ends4 ,the entrance into it was at the middle of the side1 which was in the morai4 ,on the farther side of the house1 opposite the entrance1 stood two wooden images1 each cut out of a single piece1 with pedestals1 in all about three feet high1 not badly designed nor executed4 ,they were said to represent goddesses 7eatooa no veheina74 ,on the head of one of them was a carved helmet1 and on the other a cylindrical cap like the head-dress worn at ,tahiti4 ,in the middle of the house1 and before the two images1 was an oblong space1 enclosed by a low edging of stone and covered with shreds of the same grey cloth which draped the pyramid or obelisk4 ,within this enclosure seven chiefs lay buried2 and outside the house1 just on one side of the entrance1 were two small square spaces in which a man and a hog were buried respectively1 after being killed and sacrificed to the divinity4 ,at a little distance from these1 and near the middle of the morai1 were three more of these square enclosed places1 in which three chiefs had been interred4 ,in front of their graves was an oblong enclosed space in which1 as ,captain ,cook was told1 three human victims were buried1 each of them having been sacrificed at the funeral of one of the three chiefs4 ,within the area of the morai or burying-ground1 as ,captain ,cook calls it1 were planted trees of various kinds4 ,similar sanctuaries appeared to ,captain ,cook to abound in the island2 the particular one described by him he believed to be among the least considerable1 being far less conspicuous than several others which he had seen in sailing along the coast4#if #if ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vi4 #ahc-ahg4 ,the cloth-covered pyramid or obelisk was called a henananoo 7ib4 p4 #ahg74 ,from his description we may infer that the temples 7morais7 observed by him did not contain stone pyramids like those which formed such prominent features in the ,tahitian sanctuaries and in the burial grounds of the ,tooitongas in ,tongataboo2 for the pyramids1 or rather obelisks1 of wicker-work seen by ,captain ,cook in the ,hawaiian sanctuaries were obviously structures of a wholly different kind4 ,but there seem to be some grounds for thinking that stone pyramids1 built in steps or terraces1 did occur in some of the ,hawaiian temples4 ,thus ,captain ,king saw a morai1 as he calls it1 which consisted of a square solid pile of stones about forty yards long1 twenty broad1 and fourteen feet8 in height4 ,the top was flat and well paved1 and surrounded by a wooden rail1 on which were fixed the skulls of captives who had been sacrificed on the death of chiefs4 ,the ascent to the top of the pile was easy1 but whether it was a staircase or an inclined plane is not mentioned by ,captain ,king4 ,at one end of the temple or sacred enclosure was an irregular kind of scaffold supported on poles more than twenty feet high1 at the foot of which were twelve images ranged in a semicircle with a sacrificial table or altar in front of them4 ,on the scaffold ,captain ,cook was made to stand1 and there1 swathed in red cloth1 he received the adoration of the natives1 who offered him a hog and chanted a long litany in his honour4#ig #ig ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #e-g4 ,when ,kamehameha was busy conquering the archipelago in the last years of the eighteenth century1 he built a great temple 7heiau7 for his war-god ,tairi in the island of ,hawaii4 ,some thirty years later the ruined temple was visited and described by the missionary ,william ,ellis4 ,he says3 ,its shape is an irregular parallelogram1 #bbd feet long1 and #ajj wide4 ,the walls1 though built of loose stones1 were solid and compact4 ,at both ends1 and on the side next the mountains1 they were twenty feet high1 twelve feet thick at the bottom1 but narrowed in gradually towards the top1 where a course of smooth stones1 six feet wide1 formed a pleasant walk4 ,the walls next the sea were not more than seven or eight feet high1 and were proportionally wide4 ,the entrance to the temple is by a narrow passage between two high walls4444 ,the upper terrace within the area was spacious1 and much better finished than the lower ones4 ,it was paved with flat smooth stones1 brought from a distance4 ,at the south end was a kind of inner court1 which might be called the sanctum sanctorum of the temple1 where the principal idol used to stand1 surrounded by a number of images of inferior deities4444 ,on the outside1 near the entrance to the inner court1 was the place of the rere 7altar7 on which human and other sacrifices were offered4 ,the remains of one of the pillars that supported it were pointed out by the natives1 and the pavement around was strewed with bones of men and animals1 the mouldering remains of those numerous offerings once presented there4 ,about the centre of the terrace was the spot where the king's sacred house stood1 in which he resided during the season of strict tabu1 and at the north end1 the place occupied by the houses of priests1 who1 with the exception of the king1 were the only persons permitted to dwell within the sacred enclosures4 ,holes were seen on the walls1 all around this1 as well as the lower terraces1 where wooden idols of varied size and shape formerly stood1 casting their hideous stare in every direction4#ih #ih ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #if-ih4 ,compare ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #de sq4 ,from this somewhat indistinct description we gather that the temple was a large oblong area enclosed by high stone walls and open to the sky1 and that at some place within the enclosure there rose a structure in a series of terraces1 of which the uppermost was paved with flat stones and supported the king's house1 while the houses of the priests stood in another part of the sacred enclosure4 ,if this interpretation is correct1 we may infer that the temple resembled a ,tahitian morai1 which was a walled enclosure enclosing a sort of stepped and truncated pyramid built of stone4#ii ,the inference is confirmed by the language used by ,captain ,king in speaking of the temple which he describes1 for he calls it a morai1#ajj and the same term is applied to the sacred edifices in ,hawaii by other voyagers4#aja #ii ,see above1 pp4 #bgh sqq4 #ajj ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #e4 #aja ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,neue ,reise um die ,welt1 ii4 #hi sq42 ,a4 ,campbell1 ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #age4 ,another ruined temple 7heiau7 seen by ,ellis in ,hawaii1 is described by him as built of immense blocks of lava1 and measuring a hundred and fifty feet long by seventy feet wide4 ,at the north end was a smaller enclosure1 sixty feet long and ten wide1 partitioned off by a high wall1 with but one narrow entrance4 ,the places where the idols formerly stood were apparent1 though the idols had been removed4 ,the spot where the altar had been erected could be distinctly traced2 it was a mound of earth1 paved with smooth stones1 and surrounded by a firm curb of lava4 ,the adjacent ground was strewn with bones of the ancient offerings4#ajb ,another temple 7heiau71 in good preservation1 visited by ,ellis1 measured no less than two hundred and seventy feet in one direction by two hundred and ten in another4 ,the walls were thick and solid2 on the top of them the stones were piled in a series of small spires4 ,the temple was said to have been built by a queen of ,hawaii about eleven generations back4#ajc ,once more in one of the puhonuas or cities of refuge1 which in ,hawaii afforded an inviolable sanctuary to fugitives1 ,ellis saw another temple 7heiau71 which he describes as a compact pile of stones1 laid up in a solid mass1 #abf feet by #fe1 and ten feet high4 ,many fragments of rock1 or pieces of lava1 of two or more tons each1 were seen in several parts of the wall1 raised at least six feet from the ground4 ,ellis was told that the city of refuge1 of which this temple formed part1 had been built for ,keave1 who reigned in ,hawaii about two hundred and fifty years before the time when the missionary was writing4#ajd ,from his descriptions we may infer that some at least of the ,hawaiian temples deserved to rank among megalithic structures1 and that the natives had definite traditions of the kings or queens by whom the temples had been built4 #ajb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #aaf4 #ajc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #aag sq4 #ajd ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #afi4 ,in the island of ,oahu a temple 7heiau7 visited by the missionary ,stewart was forty yards long by twenty yards broad4 ,the walls1 of dark stone1 were perfectly regular and well built1 about six feet high1 three feet wide at the level of the ground1 and two feet wide at the top4 ,it was enclosed only on three sides1 the oblong area formed by the walls being open on the west2 from that side there was a descent by three regular terraces or very broad steps4#aje ,this brief account confirms the inference which ,i have drawn from the more detailed description of ,ellis1 as to the terraced structure of some ,hawaiian temples4 #aje ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 pp4 #bbf sq4 ,in the mountains of ,hawaii1 at a height of about five thousand feet above the sea1 ,commodore ,wilkes saw the ruins of an ancient temple of the god ,kaili 7,tairi71 round about which stood eight small pyramids built of compact blocks of lava laid without cement4 ,these pyramids were said to have been erected at the command of ,umi1 an ancient king1 to commemorate his conquests4 ,they seem to have measured each some ten or twelve feet square4 ,the temple which they surrounded was about ninety-two feet long by seventy-two feet wide2 the outer walls were about seven feet high and as many thick4 ,internally the edifice was divided by partition walls three feet high4 ,the building was said to have been formerly covered with idols1 of which no traces remained at the time of ,wilkes's visit4#ajf #ajf ,ch4 ,wilkes1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ii sq41 with the plate4 ,often1 apparently1 a ,hawaiian temple consisted of little more than a walled or palisaded enclosure containing a number of rudely carved images and a place of sacrifice in the form of a platform raised on poles4 ,such a temple is described by the ,russian navigator ,lisiansky4 ,the images in it were grouped and arranged so as to form a sort of semicircle4 ,the chief priest of the temple informed the ,russians that the fifteen statues wrapped in cloth represented the gods of war2 the two to the right of the place of sacrifice1 the gods of spring2 those on the opposite side1 the guardians of autumn2 and that the altar was dedicated to the god of joy1 before which the islanders dance and sing on festivals appointed by their religion4 ,with regard to the temples in general1 ,lisiansky observes that they were by no means calculated to excite in the mind of a stranger religious veneration4 ,they are suffered to remain in so neglected and filthy a condition1 that1 were it not for the statues1 they might be taken rather for hog-sties than places of worship4#ajg #ajg ,u4 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aje-ajg4 ,he says 7p4 #ajf7 that the temple was called by the natives ,heavoo1 not ,morai1 as some navigators have said4 ,the word ,heavoo is probably identical with the word heiau1 which other writers give as the ,hawaiian name for a temple4 ,as to the form of the temples see also ,a4 ,campbell1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #age sq43 ,their ,morais1 or places of worship1 consist of one large house or temple1 with some smaller ones round it1 in which are the images of their inferior gods4 ,the tabooed or consecrated precincts are marked out by four square posts1 which stand thirty or forty yards from the building4 ,in the inside of the principal house there is a screen or curtain of white cloth1 hung across one end within which the image of ,etooah atua1 akua is placed4 ,remy 7op4 cit4 p4 xl7 describes the ,hawaiian temples as simple enclosures of stones1 roofless1 where the religious ceremonies were performed4 ,the images of the gods were usually carved of wood4 ,when a new idol was to be made1 a royal and priestly procession went forth1 with great ceremony1 to the destined tree1 where the king himself1 with a stone axe1 struck the first blow at the root4 ,after the tree was felled1 a man or a hog was killed and buried on the spot where it had grown4#ajh ,sometimes1 apparently1 the direction to carve an idol out of a particular tree was given by a god in a dream4 ,there is a tradition that once when the woodmen were felling such a tree with their stone axes1 the chips flew out and killed two of them2 whereupon the other woodmen covered their faces with masks1 and cut down the tree with their daggers4#aji ,another famous idol was said to be made of wood so poisonous1 that if chips of it were steeped in water1 and anybody drank of the water1 he would die in less than twenty-four hours4#aaj ,the ,hawaiians seem to have made their idols hideous on purpose to inspire terror4#aaa ,the features of some of the images were violently distorted1 their mouths set with a double row of the fangs of dogs1 their eyes made of large pearl oysters with black nuts in the middle2 some had long pieces of carved wood1 shaped like inverted cones1 rising from the top of their heads2#aab some had tongues of a monstrous size1 others had no tongues at all2 some had mouths that reached from ear to ear2 the heads of some were a great deal larger than their bodies4#aac ,some of the idols were stones4 ,in the island of ,hawaii there is a pebbly beach from which pebbles used to be carried away to be deified or to represent deities4 ,they were generally taken in couples1 a male and a female1 and having been wrapt up very carefully together in a piece of native cloth1 they were conveyed to a temple 7heiau71 where ceremonies of consecration or deification were performed over them4#aad #ajh ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #dej4 #aji ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ib sq4 #aaj ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ia4 #aaa ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,hawaiischen ,inseln1 p4 #aja4 #aab ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #f1 #ae2 compare ,a4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #gf4 #aac ,u4 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajg4 #aad ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #bab sq4 ,the human sacrifice offered at the making of an idol was intended to impart strength to the image4#aae ,but human sacrifices were offered on many other occasions1 such as on the approach of war1 on the death of a chief1 and so forth4 ,there is a tradition that ,umi1 a famous king of ,hawaii1 once offered eighty men to his god as a thank-offering for victory4 ,the victims were generally prisoners of war1 but in default of captives any men who had broken taboos or rendered themselves obnoxious to the chiefs were sacrificed4 ,it does not appear that they were slain in the presence of the idol or within the temple1 but either on the outside or where they were first taken2 in all cases an attempt seems to have been made to preserve the body entire or as little mangled as possible4 ,generally the victims were despatched by a blow on the head with a club or stone2 sometimes1 however1 they were stabbed4 ,having been stripped naked1 the bodies were carried into the temple and laid in a row1 with their faces downwards1 on the altar immediately before the idol4 ,the priest thereupon1 in a kind of prayer1 offered them to the gods2 and if hogs were sacrificed at the same time1 they were afterwards piled on the human bodies and left there to rot and putrefy together4#aaf #aae ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 p4 #afa4 #aaf ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #aej-aeb2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dg sq42 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 xl sq4 ,compare ,u4 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aba sq42 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #dbc sq4 ,when a new temple was about to be dedicated1 some of the people used to flee into the mountains to escape being sacrificed4 ,the last human sacrifices are said to have been offered in #ahjg1 when the queen of the islands was seriously ill4#aag ,whenever war was in contemplation1 the diviners used to sacrifice animals1 generally hogs and fowls1 and to draw omens from the manner in which they expired1 from the appearance of their entrails1 and from other signs4 ,sometimes1 when the animal was slain1 they disembowelled it1 took out the spleen1 and1 holding it in their hands1 offered their prayers4 ,but if the contemplated expedition was of any importance or the danger was imminent1 human sacrifices were offered to ensure the co-operation of the war-gods in the destruction of their enemies4#aah #aag ,a4 ,marcuse1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajc4 #aah ,w4 ,ellis1 iv4 #aej sq4 ,sec4 #h4 ,festivals ,in every lunar month the people celebrated four festivals4 ,the festival of the new moon lasted three nights and two days2 the three others lasted two nights and one day4 ,these nights and days were taboo or sacred3 men who took part in the festivals might not speak to a woman under pain of death1 and all the people were forbidden to sail the sea1 to fish1 to make bark-cloth1 and to play games4#aai ,besides these monthly festivals there was one called ,macahity1 which lasted for a whole month and seems to have celebrated the end of the old year4 ,it fell in ,november1 and has been compared by ,lisiansky to our festival of ,christmas4 ,he tells us that it continues a whole month1 during which the people amuse themselves with dances1 plays1 and sham-fights of every kind4 ,the king must open this festival wherever he is4 ,on this occasion1 his majesty dresses himself in his richest cloak and helmet1 and is paddled in a canoe along the shore1 followed sometimes by many of his subjects4 ,he embarks early1 and must finish his excursion at sun-rise4 ,the strongest and most expert of the warriors is chosen to receive him on his landing4 ,this warrior watches the royal canoe along the beach2 and as soon as the king lands1 and has thrown off his cloak1 he darts his spear at him1 from a distance of about thirty paces1 and the king must either catch the spear in his hand1 or suffer from it3 there is no jesting in the business4 ,having caught it1 he carries it under his arm1 with the sharp end downwards1 into the temple or heavoo4 ,on his entrance1 the assembled multitude begin their sham-fights1 and immediately the air is obscured by clouds of spears1 made for the occasion with blunted ends4 ,hamamea the king1 ,kamehameha has been frequently advised to abolish this ridiculous ceremony1 in which he risks his life every year2 but to no effect4 ,his answer always is1 that he is as able to catch a spear1 as any one on the island is to throw it at him4 ,during the ,macahity1 all punishments are remitted throughout the country2 and no person can leave the place in which he commences these holidays1 let the affair requiring his absence be ever so important4#abj ,the ceremony of throwing a spear at the king during the festival of ,macahity has been described also by the ,scotch sailor ,archibald ,campbell1 who may have witnessed it4 ,he says3 ,the king remains in the morai for the whole period2 before entering it1 a singular ceremony takes place4 ,he is obliged to stand till three spears are darted at him3 he must catch the first with his hand1 and with it ward off the other two4 ,this is not a mere formality4 ,the spear is thrown with the utmost force2 and should the king lose his life1 there is no help for it4#aba ,this curious rite may perhaps have been a relic of an old custom which obliged the king to submit once a year to the ordeal of battle1 in order to prove his fitness for a renewed tenure of office1 death being the penalty of defeat and the kingdom the reward of victory in the combat4#abb ,during the continuance of the festival the priests were employed in collecting the taxes1 which were paid by the chiefs in proportion to the extent of their territories2 these taxes consisted of mats1 feathers1 and the produce of the country4 ,the people celebrated the festival by dancing1 wrestling1 and other amusements4#abc ,the victor in the boxing matches and martial evolutions was crowned and treated as king of the festival1 which was held in honour of the god ,rono4#abd #aai ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #eie4 ,compare ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #aah4 ,according to the latter writer1 there were no taboos 7festivals7 in the eleventh month4 #abj ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #aah sq4 ,from ,a4 ,campbell1 ,voyage round the ,world1 p4 #agh1 we learn that the festival fell in ,november1 and from a brief native notice we may gather that the ,new ,year celebration was the festival of ,macahity4 ,see ,j4 ,remy1 ,histoire de l',archipel ,havaiien1 pp4 #afg1 #afi1 a la celebration de la nouvelle annee1 les citoyens1 les chefs1 les femmes1 les enfants se livraient a des boxes furieuses1 et plusieurs recevaient dans ces jeux des blessures tres graves4 #aba ,a4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 p4 #agi4 #abb ,compare ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,part ,,iii4 ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #aag sq4 #abc ,a4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 pp4 #agh sq4 #abd ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,neue ,reise um die ,welt1 ii4 #hh sq4 ,no one might go to war during the ,new ,year festival2 all the people had to repair to the temples 7morais74 ,three kinds of idols were worshipped at this season2 the principal of them1 called ,kekou-,aroha1 was carried round the island by a priest2 everything that he could seize with his left hand he had the right to appropriate1 whether it was dogs1 pigs1 vegetables1 or what not2 and any person on whom he in like manner laid a hand was bound to assist him in carrying or leading to the temple the tribute or booty he had thus taken possession of4#abe #abe ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #eif4 ,of the rigour with which the laws of taboo were enforced during one of these festivals we may gather an idea from a statement of the ,russian navigator von ,kotzebue4 ,he says3 ,as ,kareimoku's guests1 we were present at the celebration of a ,tabu pori1 which lasted from the setting of the sun to sunrise on the third day4 ,it is already known what degree of sanctity is imparted to him who joins in this communion with the gods during the time4 ,should he accidentally touch a woman1 she must be instantly put to death4 ,should he enter a woman's house1 the flames must immediately consume it4#abf #abf ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,voyage of ,discovery into the ,south ,sea and ,beering's ,straits1 iii4 #bdh sq4 ,compare ,a4 von ,chamisso1 ,reise um die ,welt 7,leipzig1 #ahcf71 ii4 #cab4 ,sec4#i4 ,death and ,funeral ,rites ,the ,hawaiians explained life as usual by the hypothesis of a soul 7uhane71 which animated the whole body1 but had its seat especially in the sockets of the eyes1 and above all in the lachrymal gland4 ,during sleep the soul quits the body1 wanders away1 and sees the places and things which appear to it in dreams2 usually it returns in time to resume its functions in the body without endangering the health of the sleeper4 ,occasionally1 however1 it happens that in its rambles it loses its way through falling in with a ghost or spectre1 who frightens it2 but even then it may be brought back with the help of a familiar spirit despatched to seek out and guide home the wanderer4 ,when a man falls sick1 his soul begins to feel ill at ease in his body1 and if the sickness proves fatal1 the soul quits him never to return4#abg ,according to another account1 the ,hawaiians held that every man had two souls in his body1 of which one never left him in life1 while the other went forth from time to time in dreams or ecstasy1 but only to return to its corporeal tabernacle4 ,sometimes a diviner would warn a man that he had seen his dream-soul roaming about1 and that perhaps it might never come back1 because a certain deity was angry with him4 ,upon that the terrified owner of the soul would naturally engage the diviner to recover his spiritual property by propitiating the angry deity with a valuable offering4#abh #abg ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 pp4 #bgb sq4 #abh ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #ci note2 ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,hawaiischen ,inseln1 p4 #aje4 ,sickness was commonly explained by the presence in the sufferer of an evil spirit1 who must be exorcised if the patient was to be restored to health4 ,for this purpose the services of a priest 7kahuna7 were engaged1 who by the recitation of a suitable incantation invited or compelled the demon to declare through the mouth of the sick man why he had entered into him1 and on what terms he would consent to take his departure4 ,sometimes1 the demon was induced to perch on the head or shoulders of one of the bystanders1 and from that coign of vantage to answer the interrogatory of the priest4 ,but at other times he burrowed so deep into the patient's body and held his tongue so obstinately1 that the priest had no alternative but to prick the sick man's body with bamboo needles and to drop water into his eyes in order to drive out the evil spirit4#abi #abi ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 p4 #bfi4 ,when all remedies had proved vain and death had followed1 the bodies of common people were buried in a crouching position4 ,the upper part of the body was raised2 the face was bent forwards to meet the knees2 the hands were put under the hams and passed up between the knees2 then head1 hands1 and knees were bound together with cinnet or cord4 ,afterwards the corpse was wrapt up in a coarse mat and interred on the first or second day after death4 ,but the corpses of chiefs and priests were not thus doubled up2 they were laid out straight1 wrapt up in many folds of native cloth1 and buried in that posture4 ,priests were generally committed to the earth within the precincts of the temple in which they had officiated4 ,a pile of stones or a circle of high poles marked their grave4 ,but it was only the bodies of priests or of persons of some importance that were thus interred4 ,for ordinary people natural graves were preferred1 where suitable places could be found1 such as caves in the face of cliffs or large subterranean grottos4 ,sometimes the inhabitants of a village deposited their dead in one great cavern1 but generally each family had a distinct sepulchral cave4 ,their artificial graves were either simple pits dug in the earth or large enclosures1 which might be surrounded with high stone walls so as to resemble the ordinary temples 7heiaus74 ,occasionally they buried their dead in sequestered spots near their dwellings1 but often in their gardens1 and sometimes in their houses4 ,the graves were not deep1 and the bodies were usually placed in them in a sitting posture4#acj ,a rude method of embalming by means of the flower of the sugar-cane was often practised1 whereby the entrails and brains were extracted and the body desiccated4#aca ,when the dead was interred in the dwelling1 the house was not uncommonly shut up and deserted1 the survivors seeking for themselves a new habitation4#acb ,the custom no doubt sprang from a fear of the ghosts1 which were supposed to linger about their final resting-places and to injure such as came within their reach2 hence their apparitions were much dreaded4 ,for the same reason burials were conducted in a private manner and by night4 ,if people were seen carrying a dead body past a house1 the inmates would abuse or even stone them for not taking it some other way2 for they imagined that the ghost would ply to and fro between the grave and his old home along the path by which his corpse had been carried4#acc ,sometimes1 apparently1 to prevent the ghost from straying1 his grave was enclosed by a sort of fence composed of long poles stuck in the ground at intervals of three or four inches and fastened together at the top4 ,at all events ,ellis saw a priest's tomb thus enclosed1 and he received this explanation of the fence from some people2 though others merely said that it was a custom so to inter persons of consequence4#acd ,nightmare was believed to be caused by a ghost attempting to strangle the dreamer2 under the influence of this belief a strong man has been seen to run shrieking down the street1 tugging with both hands at his throat to tear the incubus away1 till he reached the door of a neighbour's house and1 bursting in1 fell fainting on the floor4 ,he thought that the ghost of a chief1 who had died the day before1 had a grip on his throat and was trying to throttle him4#ace ,sometimes1 however1 affection for the dead sufficed to overcome the fear of the ghost1 and the mouldering bones were carried about as relics by relations and friends4#acf ,when the ,scotch sailor ,archibald ,campbell was in the islands in the early years of the nineteenth century1 his patroness the queen kept by her the bones of her father wrapt up in a piece of cloth4 ,whenever she slept in her own house1 the bones were placed by her side2 in her absence they were set on a feather-bed which she had received from the captain of a ship1 and which she used only for this purpose4 ,on being asked by the ,scotchman why she observed this singular custom1 she replied that it was because she loved her father so dearly4#acg ,more usually1 however1 the bones of a beloved chief were carefully hidden to prevent his enemies from finding them and making arrow-heads out of them1 with which to hunt rats1 or otherwise profaning them4 ,hence there was a proverb to the effect that the bones of bad chiefs were not concealed4 ,when the great ,king ,kamehameha died in #ahai1 his bones were hidden and disappeared completely in some secret cave4#ach #acj ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cei sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gc sq4 #aca ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #gc2 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 p4 xlvii4 #acb ,tyerman and ,bennet1 op4 cit4 i4 #dbi4 #acc ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cfj sq42 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #gd2 ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,hawaiischen ,inslen1 p4 #aji4 #acd ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #abi4 #ace ,h4 ,t4 ,cheever1 ,life in the ,sandwich ,islands 7,london1 #ahea71 pp4 #aa sq41 quoting ,sheldon ,dibble1 ,history of the ,sandwich ,islands1 p4 #ii4 #acf ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,neue ,reise um die ,welt1 ii4 #ih2 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 p4 #bfa4 #acg ,a4 ,campbell1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #bjf sq4 #ach ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 p4 #aec4 ,the death of a king or great chief in former days was the occasion for the observance of some singular ceremonies and customs4 ,the grief1 real or pretended1 of the people found expression in many extravagant forms4 ,men and women knocked out some of their front teeth with stones2 but the custom seems to have been observed even more extensively by men than by women4 ,the kinsmen or friends of the deceased chief set the example1 and their retainers were obliged to imitate them4 ,sometimes a man broke out his own tooth with a stone1 but more usually the service was rendered him by another1 who fixed one end of a stick against the tooth and hammered the stick with a stone till the tooth broke off4 ,if the men deferred the operation1 the women would perform it on them in their sleep4 ,more than one tooth was seldom sacrificed at one time2 but as the mutilation was repeated at the decease of every chief of rank or authority1 few men of mature years were to be seen with a whole set of teeth1 and many lost all their front teeth both in the upper and the lower jaw4 ,another mutilation practised at such times was to cut one or both ears1 but it seems to have been comparatively rare4 ,much commoner was the custom of burning circles or semi-circles on the face or breast by means of strips of burning bark4 ,the mourners also polled their hair in various ways4 ,sometimes they made bald a small round piece on the crown of the head1 like the tonsure of ,catholic priests2 sometimes they shaved or cropped close the whole head except round the edge1 where a short fringe was left to hang down2 sometimes they made their heads quite bald on one side and allowed the hair to remain long on the other2 occasionally they cut out a patch in the shape of a horse-shoe either at the back of the head or above the forehead2 sometimes they shore a number of curved furrows from ear to ear or from the forehead to the neck4 ,when a chief who had lost a relative or friend had his own hair cut after any particular pattern1 his followers and dependants usually cropped their hair in the same style4 ,not to clip or shave the hair in mourning was regarded as disrespectful to the dead1 but the particular manner of cutting it was left to the taste of the individual4#aci ,some people in their frenzy knocked out their eyes with clubs and stones and cut as well as burned their flesh4#adj ,another peculiar badge of mourning1 adopted principally by the chiefs1 was a black spot or line tattooed on the tongue4 ,the painful operation was performed by puncturing the tongue with sharp fish-bones dipped in colouring matter4#ada ,but though these personal mutilations were popular and almost universal on the decease of chiefs1 they appear not to have been practised by the common people among themselves4 ,thus a wife did not knock out her teeth on the death of her husband1 and a son did not thus express his grief for the loss of his parents1 nor they for the death of a child4#adb #aci ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #age sqq41 #aha4 ,compare ,u4 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 p4 #abc2 ,a4 ,campbell1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adb sq42 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 p4 xlvii4 #adj ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 p4 #aff2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #fe sq4 #ada ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #agg1 #ahj sq4 #adb ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #ahj4 ,similar extravagances in the expression of grief were commonly exhibited by mourners1 as we have seen1 in other parts of ,polynesia2 but in ,hawaii the rites observed at the death of a king or high chief were in so far peculiar that they assumed the character of a ,saturnalia or orgy of unbridled lust and crime4 ,on this subject the ,russian navigator ,lisiansky1 who visited the islands while the ancient system of superstition was still in full vogue1 reports as follows3 ,on the death of the king1 a scene of horror takes place that is hardly credible4 ,twelve men are sacrificed2 and shortly after the whole island abandons itself for a month to the utmost disorder and licentiousness4 ,during this period1 both sexes go entirely naked1 and men cohabit with women without any distinction3 the woman who should dare to make resistance1 would be considered as violating the laws of the country4 ,the same licentiousness is observed on the death of a noble2 but it does not extend beyond the domains of the deceased1 and is of a much shorter duration1 not continuing1 as ,mr4 ,young informed me1 more than a few days1 though attempts are made by the youth of the party to prolong the period4 ,those who are put to death on the demise of the king1 or any great personage1 are such as have offered themselves for the purpose during the life of their master2 and they are in consequence considered and treated by him as his best friends1 since they have sworn to live and die with him4 ,when ,i reflect upon the horrid nature of this ceremony1 ,i hardly know how to credit its existence amongst a race of men so mild and good as these islanders in general appear to be2 but ,mr4 ,young1 whose veracity ,i had no reason to doubt1 assured me of the fact4#adc #adc ,u4 ,lisiansky1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #abb sq4 ,this ,john ,young1 who gave ,lisiansky information as to the customs and religion of the ,hawaiians1 was an ,englishman who had resided in the islands for many years at the time of the ,russian navigator's visit in #ahjd4 ,originally a sailor1 born at ,liverpool1 he had been compulsorily detained by the natives when he landed from his ship in ,hawaii in ,march #agij4 ,but from the first he received the kindest treatment from the king1 ,kamehameha1 whose full confidence and high esteem he enjoyed and deserved4 ,the king gave him a fine estate and appointed him to several responsible offices2 in particular ,young was governor of ,hawaii for no less than nine years during the king's absence4 ,he married a native woman of rank1 by whom he had six children4 ,while he remained warmly attached to his native country and rendered essential services to ,english vessels touching at the islands1 he remained a voluntary exile for forty-five years in ,hawaii1 where he died at the patriarchal age of ninety-two in ,december #ahce4 ,during this long period he enjoyed the favour of the kings1 chiefs1 and people1 and was highly respected and esteemed for his intelligence and good offices by ,european voyagers to the islands4#add ,thus he had the best opportunities for acquainting himself with the customs and beliefs of the natives1 and it is much to be regretted that of the ample store of knowledge which he thus acquired nothing remains but a few scattered notices recorded by travellers to whom he had verbally communicated them4 #add ,g4 ,vancouver1 ,voyage of ,discovery to the ,north ,pacific ,ocean and round the ,world 7,london1 #agih71 ii4 #ace sq42 ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iv4 #if2 ,tyerman and ,bennet1 ,journal of ,voyages and ,travels1 i4 #cgg sq42 ,f4 ,d4 ,bennett1 ,narrative of a ,whaling ,voyage1 i4 #bch sq4 ,in #ahji1 some five years after ,lisiansky's visit to ,hawaii1 the ,scotch sailor ,archibald ,campbell witnessed one of these ,saturnalia held on the occasion of the death of the king's brother4 ,he says3 ,the public mourning that took place on this occasion was of so extraordinary a nature that had ,i not been an eye-witness1 ,i could not have given credit to it4 ,the natives cut out their hair1 and went about completely naked4 ,many of them1 particularly the women1 disfigured themselves1 by knocking out their front teeth1 and branding their faces with red-hot stones1 and the small end of calabashes1 which they held burning to their faces till a circular mark was produced2 whilst1 at the same time1 a general1 ,i believe ,i may say an universal1 public prostitution of the women took place4 ,the queens1 and the widow of the deceased1 were alone exempted4 ,when the captain of a ship that lay in the harbour remonstrated with the king upon these disgraceful scenes1 he answered1 that such was the law1 and he could not prevent them4#ade #ade ,a4 ,campbell1 ,voyage round the ,world1 pp4 #adb sq4 ,to these enormities the ,french navigator ,l4 de ,freycinet bore similar testimony a few years later4 ,he says3 ,the despair which is affected after the loss of royal personages or great nobles presents also a remarkable resemblance to what takes place under similar circumstances among the inhabitants of the ,marianne ,islands4 ,when we landed in ,owhyhi ,hawaii1 signs of sorrow everywhere presented themselves to our eyes and witnessed to the excesses that had been committed at the recent death of ,tamehameha4 ,at such a crisis anarchy displays all its horrors3 the laws and the rules of taboo are broken without shame3 the prohibited foods are devoured without scruple1 chiefly by the women3 the rights of property are ignored2 force becomes the supreme law3 the voice of chiefs is powerless3 old enmities are avenged by blood or pillage3 in a word1 incredible scenes of disorder1 of cruelty1 and of lust are everywhere renewed under the stimulus of impunity4 ,calm does not begin to reign again until the heir is definitely invested with the royal power4 ,such is the mode in which the common people1 freed for the moment from all restraint1 express the grief which they are supposed to feel at the death of their sovereign4#adf #adf ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #fjb4 ,the early missionaries to ,hawaii also testified to the disorders which prevailed on these occasions1 though they seem not to have witnessed them4 ,from their accounts we gather that at such times the rights of property were as little respected as the chastity of women4 ,on such an occasion1 says ,stewart1 every restraint was cast off1 and all were in the habit of following the impulse of any and every wild passion that might seize them4 ,rights of person or of property were no longer regarded2 and he who had the greatest muscular powers committed whatever depredation he chose1 and injured any one he thought proper4 ,even the chiefs lost their ordinary pre-eminence1 and could exert no influence of restraint on the excesses of their subjects4 ,it was the time of redressing private wrongs1 by committing violence on the property and person of an enemy2 and everything that any one possessed was liable to be taken from him4 ,their grief was expressed by the most shocking personal outrages1 not only by tearing off their clothes entirely1 but by knocking out their eyes and teeth with clubs and stones1 and pulling out their hair1 and by burning and cutting their flesh2 while drunkenness1 riot1 and every species of debauchery continued to be indulged in for days after the death of the deceased4#adg ,to the same effect ,ellis writes that as soon as the chief had expired1 the whole neighbourhood exhibited a scene of confusion1 wickedness1 and cruelty1 seldom witnessed even in the most barbarous society4 ,the people ran to and fro without their clothes1 appearing and acting more like demons than human beings2 every vice was practised1 and almost every species of crime perpetrated4 ,houses were burnt1 property plundered1 even murder sometimes committed1 and the gratification of every base and savage feeling sought without restraint4 ,injuries or accidents1 long forgotten perhaps by the offending party1 were now revenged with unrelenting cruelty4#adh ,according to ,jarves1 the early historian of ,hawaii1 on these occasions no women were exempt from violation except the widows of the deceased4#adi #adg ,c4 ,s4 ,stewart1 ,residence in the ,sandwich ,islands1 pp4 #afe sq4 #adh ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iv4 #agg4 #adi ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 ,history of the ,hawaiian or ,sandwich ,islands1 p4 #ff4 ,compare ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 p4 xlvii4 ,such outbursts of passion1 released from all restraints of custom or law1 are not unknown elsewhere on the occasion of a death4 ,among the ,ba-ila of ,northern ,rhodesia it is customary at funerals for the women to sing lewd songs4 ,under ordinary circumstances it would be reckoned taboo for women to utter such things in the presence of men2 but at funerals all restraints are removed4 ,people do as they like4 ,grass may be plucked out of the thatched roofs2 the fields may be robbed of the growing corn2 all passions are let loose2 and no complaint for damage1 theft1 or adultery can be made4 ,this last item used to be the case2 nowadays fines are claimed4#aej #aej ,e4 ,w4 ,smith and ,a4 ,m4 ,dale1 ,the ,ila-speaking ,peoples of ,northern ,rhodesia 7,london1 #aibj71 ii4 #aac sq4 ,the number of human victims sacrificed at the death of a chief varied with his rank4 ,for a king of ,hawaii the general number would seem to have been ten or twelve4#aea ,but when ,king ,kamehameha died in #ahai1 the priest declared somewhat differently the custom in regard to human sacrifice on such an occasion4 ,when the corpse had been removed from the king's own dwelling to a consecrated house for the performance of the proper rites1 a sacred hog was baked and offered to it by the priest2 for the dead king was now deemed to be a god4 ,then addressing the chiefs and the new king1 the priest spoke as follows3 ,i will now make known to you the rules to be observed respecting persons to be sacrificed on the burial of his body4 ,if you obtain one man before the corpse is removed1 one will be sufficient2 but after it leaves this house four will be required4 ,if delayed until we carry the corpse to the grave1 there must be ten2 but after it is deposited in the grave1 there must be fifteen4 ,to-morrow morning there will be a tabu1 and if the sacrifice be delayed until that time1 forty men must die4 ,however1 on this occasion1 no human blood was shed1 but three hundred dogs were sacrificed4#aeb ,the victims who were killed at the death of the king1 princes1 and distinguished chiefs1 and were buried with their remains1 belonged to the lowest class of society4 ,in certain families the obligation of dying with the different members of such or such a noble house was hereditary1 so that at the birth of a child it was known at whose death he must be sacrificed4 ,the victims knew their destiny1 and their lot seems to have had no terror for them4#aec #aea ,j4 ,cook1 ,voyages1 vii4 #ade2 ,u4 ,lisiansky1 op4 cit4 p4 #abb4 #aeb ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahi1 #aij4 ,compare ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abe1 #abg2 ,h4 ,bingham1 ,residence of ,twenty-one ,years in the ,sandwich ,islands1 p4 #ga4 #aec ,o4 von ,kotzebue1 ,voyage of ,discovery into the ,south ,sea and ,beering's ,straits 7,london1 #ahba71 iii4 #bdg4 ,at ,honaunau1 in the island of ,hawaii1 there was a sort of mausoleum in which the bones of dead kings and princes were deposited4 ,for some reason it was spared in the general destruction of pagan monuments which took place in #ahai1 and it was still almost intact when the missionary ,ellis visited and described it a few years later4 ,it was a compact building1 twenty-four feet long by sixteen feet wide1 built of the most durable timber1 and thatched with leaves4 ,it stood on a bed of lava jutting out into the sea1 and was surrounded by a strong fence1 leaving a paved area in front and at the two ends4 ,several rudely carved male and female images of wood were placed on the outside of the enclosure1 some on low pedestals under the shade of a tree1 others on high posts planted on the jutting rocks which overhung the edge of the water4 ,a number of effigies stood on the fence at unequal distances all around2 but the principal assemblage of idols was at the south-east end of the enclosed space1 where twelve of them stood in a semicircle on a crescent-shaped basement of stone raised about two feet above the pavement4 ,some of them rested on small pedestals1 others on pillars eight or ten feet high4 ,the principal idol1 distinguished by the variety and superiority of the carving on its body and especially on its head1 stood in the middle1 the others on either side of it1 as if perpetual guardians of 'the mighty dead' reposing in the house adjoining4#aed #aed ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iv4 #afd sq4 ,when a death had taken place1 the house in which it occurred1 was deemed defiled1 and continued in that state until after the burial4 ,but if the deceased was a chief1 the whole land was polluted1 and the heirs sought a residence in another part of the country1 until the corpse was dissected and the bones tied in a bundle2 for when that was done the season of defilement terminated4 ,hence on the death of ,king ,kamehameha1 his son and successor1 ,liholiho1 had to retire for a time to another district4#aee #aee ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #aia2 ,h4 ,bingham1 ,residence of ,twenty-one ,years in the ,sandwich ,islands1 pp4 #ga sq42 ,j4 ,remy1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abg1 #abi4 ,sec4 #aj4 ,fate of the ,soul after ,death ,the ,hawaiians in general believed that the human soul exists after death1 but their notions on the subject were1 as usual1 vague1 confused1 and contradictory4 ,some said that all the souls of the departed went to the ,po1 or place of night1 and were there annihilated or eaten by the gods4#aef ,according to another account1 the souls of the dead that had no claim to divinity fluttered about their old homes till the moment arrived when they became the food of the gods4 ,it is not certain1 adds de ,freycinet1 that they recognised the immortality of the soul in the case of persons of the lowest class4#aeg ,others said that some souls went to the regions of ,akea 7,wakea7 and ,miru 7,milu71 two ancient kings of ,hawaii4 ,of these two1 ,akea was reported to have been the first king of the island4 ,when he died1 he descended into the nether world and there founded a kingdom4 ,his successor on the throne of ,hawaii1 by name ,miru or ,milu1 also descended into the underworld at death1 and shared the government of the infernal realm with his predecessor ,akea4 ,their land is a place of darkness1 their food1 lizards and butterflies4 ,but there are streams of water of which they drink1 and wide-spreading trees under which they recline4#aeh ,milu is described as the ,hawaiian ,pluto1 the lord of the lower world to whose dominions departed spirits go4 ,his abode was in the west1 hence the ghosts of such as died on the eastern shore of an island always had to cross to the western shore before they could set out for their final place of rest in the spirit land4 ,some said that ,milu had his dwelling under the ocean1 and that he was the prince of wicked spirits4#aei ,however1 according to some accounts1 the two ancient kings1 ,milu and ,akea1 ruled over separate regions in the spirit land1 which were tabooed to each other1 so that nobody could pass from the one to the other4 ,akea or ,wakea dwelt in the upper region1 and there the souls of chiefs dwelt with him2 whereas ,milu occupied the muddy lower region1 and there the souls of common folk abode with him4 ,in the upper region all was peaceful and orderly1 and there persons who had faithfully complied with the precepts of religion in life were received after death4 ,on the other hand the lower region1 ruled over by ,milu1 was noisy and disorderly2 evil spirits played their pranks there1 and the souls of the dead subsisted on lizards and butterflies4#afj ,when persons recovered from a death-like swoon1 it was supposed that their souls had gone to the underworld and been sent back to earth by ,milu4 ,the best account of the spirit land was given by one who had spent eight days in it1 and on returning to life reported to his family what he had seen4 ,according to his observations1 the spirit land is flat and fruitful1 it is tolerably well lighted1 and everything grows there spontaneously1 so that1 contrary to some reports1 the palace of ,milu is a really delightful place4 ,milu himself is not married to any one particular wife2 but from time to time he chooses for his consorts the most beautiful of the female ghosts when they arrive in deadland1 and the women thus honoured are naturally taboo for the male ghosts4 ,all souls live there in exactly the same state in which they quitted their bodies4 ,the souls of those who died young1 especially of those who fell in battle1 are hale and strong2 whereas the souls of those who perished of disease are sickly and weak1 and weak1 too1 are the souls of such as died in old age4#afa #aef ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cfe sq4 #aeg ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #eid4 #aeh ,w4 ,ellis1 op4 cit4 iv4 #cff2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jarves1 op4 cit4 p4 #ch2 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 p4 #bfb4 ,ellis gives ,miru as the form of the name1 but the correct ,hawaiian form is ,milu2 for in the ,hawaiian dialect the ordinary ,polynesian ,r is replaced by ,l4 ,see ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 p4 xxiii4 ,in ,new ,zealand and ,mangaia the name ,miru was given to the goddess of hell or of the dead4 ,see ,e4 ,tregear1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bdc1 #bdd1 s4v4 ,miru4 #aei ,e4 ,tregear1 ,maori-,polynesian ,comparative ,dictionary1 pp4 #bdc sq41 s4v4 ,miru4 #afj ,h4 ,t4 ,cheever1 ,life in the ,sandwich ,islands 7,london1 #ahea71 p4 #ab2 ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 pp4 #bfd sqq42 ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,hawaiischen ,inseln1 p4 #ii4 #afa ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 p4 #bfd4 ,there were three places in the islands from which the ghosts took their departure for the other world4 ,one was at the northern extremity of the island of ,hawaii2 one was at the western end of ,maui2 and one was at the southern point of ,oahu4#afb ,according to one account1 the ghosts on their passage to ,milu's subterranean realm went westward in the direction of the setting sun1 and either leaped from a rock into the sea or vanished into a hole in the ground4#afc #afb ,h4 ,t4 ,cheever1 ,life in the ,sandwich ,islands1 p4 #ab2 ,a4 ,marcuse1 ,die ,hawaiischen ,inseln1 p4 #ii4 #afc ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 p4 #bfe4 ,but before bidding a last farewell to earth1 the soul of the deceased was believed to linger for a time in the neighbourhood of the grave or of the house4 ,it had now become an akua or divine spirit1 but during its stay on earth it was dreaded as an akua-lapu or terrifying spirit1 because it appeared to the living as a spectre or ghost4 ,in time1 however1 it grew weaker and weaker and gradually disappeared altogether1 like the other spirits 7akuas74 ,by that time it had found a guide to show it the way to ,milu's realm1 from which there is no return4 ,sometimes1 however1 the guardian god of a family would oppose the passage of a soul to the other world1 and send it back to life1 so that the seemingly dead man recovered4#afd ,it is said to have been a firmly established belief that the dead appeared to the living and communicated with them in dreams4#afe ,the priests in particular were favoured with such messages from the other world4#aff #afd ,a4 ,bastian1 op4 cit4 p4 #bff4 #afe ,l4 de ,freycinet1 ,voyage autour du ,monde1 ,historique1 ii4 #eid4 #aff ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iv4 #cfg4 ,a legend tells how a certain chief of ,hawaii1 sorrowing for the death of his wife1 applied to a priest1 who furnished him with a god called ,kane-i-kou-alii 7,god of ,chiefs71 to guide him to the nether world of ,milu1 whither his beloved spouse had departed4 ,journeying together1 the god and the man came to the end of the world1 where grew a tree1 which split open and allowed them to glide down into the depths4 ,there the god hid behind a rock and allowed the chief to go on alone1 but first he rubbed stinking oil over the chief's body4 ,on arriving at ,milu's palace the chief found the whole court full of spirits engaged in such noisy and tumultuous sports1 that he could steal in among them unobserved1 all the more because the nearest spirits mistook him for a ghost newly arrived with the stench of his dead body still on him1 so that they turned away from him in disgust and made uncomplimentary remarks on his unsavoury condition4 ,when they had played all sorts of games1 the chief suggested that1 as a new form of sport1 they should all take out their eyes and throw them in a heap4 ,the suggestion was accepted1 and every one hastened to comply with it4 ,but the chief took care to mark where the eyes of ,milu fell1 and snatching them up he hid them in the coco-nut beaker which he carried with him4 ,as all the spirits were now blind1 it was easy for the chief to make his way to the neighbouring realm of ,akea or ,wakea1 which was tabooed to the spirits that swarmed in ,milu's kingdom and might not be entered by them4 ,however1 after long negotiations1 ,milu was allowed to recover his eyes1 on condition that the soul of the chief's wife should be sent back to earth and reunited to her body1 which was happily accomplished4#afg #afg ,a4 ,bastian1 ,inselgruppen in ,oceanien1 pp4 #bfe sq4 ,the ,hawaiians were not without some notion of a general resurrection of the dead4 ,when the missionary ,william ,ellis was conversing with some of the natives on that subject1 they said that they had heard of it before from a native priest named ,kapihe1 who had lived at their village in the time of ,king ,kamehameha4 ,the priest told the king that at his death he would see his ancestors1 and that hereafter all the kings1 chiefs1 and people of ,hawaii would live again4 ,when ,ellis asked them how this would be effected1 and with what circumstances it would be attended1 whether they would live again in ,hawaii or in ,miru 7,milu71 the ,hades of the ,sandwich ,islands1 they replied that there were two gods1 who conducted the departed spirits of their chiefs to some place in the heavens1 where the souls of kings and chiefs sometimes dwelt1 and that afterwards the two divine conductors returned with the royal and princely souls to earth1 where they accompanied the movements and watched over the destinies of their survivors4 ,the name of one of these gods was ,kaonohiokala1 which means the eyeball of the sun2 and the name of the other was ,kuahairo4 ,now ,kapihe was priest to the latter god1 and professed to have received a revelation1 in accordance with which he informed ,king ,kamehameha that1 when the monarch should depart this life1 the god ,kuahairo would carry his spirit to the sky and afterwards accompany it back to earth again1 whereupon his body would be restored to life and youth2 that he would have his wives again and resume his government in ,hawaii2 that at the same time the existing generation would see and know their parents and ancestors1 and that all the people who had died would rise again from the dead4#afh ,it is to be feared1 however1 that the priest was a deceiver2 for ,king ,kamehameha has not yet come to life again1 and up to the present time the general resurrection has not taken place in ,hawaii4 #afh ,w4 ,ellis1 ,polynesian ,researches1 iv4 #add sq4 ,that must conclude what ,i have to say about the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead in ,polynesia1 ,the notions which the ,polynesians entertained on this subject cannot but strike a civilised ,european as childish1 while the customs which they based on them must appear to him in great part foolish1 even where they were not barbarous and cruel4 ,how far such childish notions and foolish customs tend to confirm or to refute the widespread1 almost universal1 belief in the survival of the human soul after death1 is a question which ,i must leave my readers to answer for themselves4 ,,note ,,taboo ,,amoung ,,the ,,maoris ,the power which ,maori chiefs possessed of imposing1 or at all events of enforcing1 a taboo seems not to have been quite so absolute as might perhaps be inferred from the statement in the text4#a ,we are told that the power of the taboo mainly depended on the influence of the person who imposed it4 ,if it were put on by a great chief1 it would not be broken1 but a powerful man often violated the taboo of an inferior4 ,a chief1 for example1 would frequently lay one of these sacred interdicts on a road or a river1 and then nobody would dare to go by either1 unless he felt himself strong enough to set the chief's taboo at defiance4 ,the duration of the taboo was arbitrary1 and depended on the will of the person who imposed it4 ,similarly with the extent to which the prohibition applied3 sometimes it was limited to a particular object1 sometimes it embraced many3 sometimes it was laid on a single spot1 at other times it covered a whole district4#b #a ,above1 p4 #dg4 #b ,r4 ,taylor1 ,te ,ika ,a ,maui1 or ,new ,zealand and its ,inhabitants1 ,second ,edition 7,london1 #ahgj71 p4 #afh4 ,compare ,j4 ,dumont d',urville1 ,voyage autour du ,monde et a la recherche de la ,perouse1 ,histoire du ,voyage 7,paris1 #ahcb-ahcc71 ii4 #ecj4 ,to render a place taboo a chief had only to tie one of his old garments to a pole and stick it up on the spot which he proposed to make sacred1 while at the same time he declared that the prohibited area was part of his own body1 such as his backbone1 or that it bore the name of one of his ancestors4 ,in the latter case all the persons descended from that particular ancestor were in duty bound to rally to the defence of the chief's taboo1 and the more distant the ancestor1 and the more numerous his descendants1 the greater the number of the champions thus pledged to the support of the family honour4 ,hence the longer a man's pedigree1 the better chance he stood of maintaining his taboo against all comers1 for the larger was the troop of adherents whom he enlisted in its defence4 ,thus chiefs1 with family trees which reached backward to the gods1 were in a far better position to make good their arbitrary interdicts than mere ordinary mortals1 who hardly remembered their grandfathers4 ,in this as in other respects the taboo was essentially an aristocratic institution4#c #c ,r4 ,taylor1 op4 cit4 p4 #afi4 ,,index ,abortions1 spirits of1 dreaded1 #di n4#a ,adam1 the ,hawaiian1 #cic ,adoption among the ,marquesans1 #cci ,aesculapius1 the ,hawaiian1 #cih ,afiatouca1 burial-place1 #ajb1 #ajc ,agriculture of ,maoris1 #h sq42 of the ,tongans1 #ei sq42 ,samoan1 #afd sqq42 of the ,hervey ,islanders1 #bba sq42 of the ,society ,islanders1 #bdi2 of the ,hawaiians1 #cgh sq4 ,air1 gods of the1 #bgg ,aitu1 ,samoan gods embodied in visible objects1 animals1 birds1 etc41 #ahb1 #bja1 #bjg ,akaanga1 a god1 spreads a net to catch ghosts1 #bdb1 #bdd ,akea 7,wakea71 king of the nether world1 #dbg1 #dbh1 #dcj ,akua1 god1 in the ,hawaiian dialect1 equivalent to atua1 #cib1 #cih ,akuas1 spirits1 #dbi ,alai ,valoo1 a ,tongan god1 #gd ,alo ,alo1 a ,tongan god1 #ga sq4 ,altars in the ,society ,islands1 #bia ,amable1 ,father1 ,catholic missionary1 #cfg ,ambler1 ,english sailor1 #hd ,amusements of the ,marquesans1 #cci sqq4 ,ancestors worshipped by ,maoris1 #cb sqq42 skulls of1 brought out at marriages1 #bhh1 #caa ,ancestral spirits watch over the living1 #cc2 do not follow their kinsfolk among strangers1 #cd2 cause disease1 #di2 worshipped by ,society ,islanders1 #cjj1 #cae2 guardians of newly wedded pairs1 #caa ,angas1 ,g4 ,f41 #dh n4#a ,animals1 gods in form of1 #ff1 #ib sqq41 #ahb sqq42 deified spirits of men resident in1 #bbg sq42 worshipped in ,hawaii1 #dja sqq4 ,anointing a king of ,samoa1 #agg ,anuanu1 vale of1 #cgf n4#b ,ao1 titles of chiefs in ,samoa1 #agb sq4 ,apolima1 ,samoan island1 #adi1 #aea ,apparitions dreaded1 #bje1 #bag ,araia1 #bda1 #bdb ,aremauku1 starting-place for spirit-land1 #bci ,areois1 ,society of the1 #bei sqq4 ,arii taboo1 sacred chiefs1 #chg ,ariki1 sacred chief1 #da2 king1 #bbd ,astronomy of priests1 #bic ,atua1 the ,polynesian word for god or spirit1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg1 #da1 #db1 #dd1 #df1 #fd n4#c1 #hi1 #bgg1 #cbb1 #cbc1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,compare akua1 eatooa1 etua ,atuas1 consecrated feathers called1 #bia2 inspired priests called1 #bid2 great national gods1 distinguished from oramatuas tiis1 the spirits of dead relatives1 #cbd ,auraka1 a burial cavern1 #bcc1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bda ,avaiki1 subterranean region1 home of the dead1 #bch1 #bci1 #bda1 #bdc1 #bdd ,axes or adzes of stone1 #fa1 #ahj1 #bcc1 #bea1 #cce1 #chb ,ba-ila1 their licence at funerals1 #dbe ,baessler1 ,a41 #bba n4#a1 #bgi n4#a1 #bhe1 #bhf1 #cgd ,baganda1 superstition as to twins among the1 #bgj sq4 ,baldness as penalty of impiety1 #ie2 the penalty of breach of taboo1 #bji sq4 ,baluba1 of the ,congo1 customs as to twins among the1 #bgc ,banishment of chiefs in ,samoa1 #agf ,banqueting-halls of the ,marquesans1 #cdc sq4 ,baptism among the ,maoris1 #af ,bark-cloth1 manufacture of1 #fa1 #afh1 #bbb1 #bea sq41 #ccd1 #cha2 not made in time of mourning1 #bcd sq4 ,baronga1 of ,s4,e4 ,africa1 their superstitions concerning twins1 #bfh sq4 ,barundi1 of ,e4 ,africa1 customs as to twins among the1 #bgb sq4 ,bastian1 ,adolf1 on sun-worship1 #aca n4 ,bathing after burial1 #ba2 of king at installation1 #bee n4#a2 after contact with a corpse1 #cac ,bats1 goddess incarnate in1 #ahe2 local deity1 #aif ,bay of ,plenty1 #bc ,bennett1 ,f4 ,d41 #ccb sq41 #cei1 #cfj1 #cgb ,best1 ,elsdon1 #f n41 #cc1 #ce ,birds1 gods incarnate in1 #ahg sq42 sacred1 #bbh2 small land birds formerly oracular1 #bbh2 gods in the form of1 #bgg1 #bid2 worshipped in ,hawaii1 #djb ,birth1 a man's god determined at1 #bjj sq41 #bbc2 ceremonies after a1 #bhh ,blackened faces in mourning1 #bca1 #bce ,blood of chief sacred1 #de sq42 human1 acceptable offering to deity1 #ahh2 offered to the dead1 #bji2 of relatives offered to bride at marriage1 #bhi2 of bride's mother offered to bridegroom1 #bhi2 of mourners offered to the dead1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #caa ,bolotoo 7,boolotoo1 ,bulotu71 fabulous island1 residence of ,tongan gods and of noble dead1 #fe1 #ff1 #he1 #hf1 #hg1 #hh1 #hi sq41 #ib1 #ic1 #ih1 #ace ,bones of ,captain ,cook worshipped1 #cif ---- of dead dug up1 #ba2 painted red1 #ba2 concealed1 #ba2 profaned1 #ba2 festival at removal of1 #bb2 burned1 #bc2 of sacrificial victims not broken1 #bia2 of famous men carried off by enemies1 #caa2 thrown into volcano1 #djj2 carried about by relatives1 #dai sq42 hidden to prevent profanation1 #dbj ---- of dead chiefs buried in temples 7morais71 #caa2 hidden in caves1 #cab1 #dbj ,boolotoo ,katoa1 a ,tongan god1 #id ,borabora1 one of the ,society ,islands1 #bdf1 #bha1 #cag ,bows and arrows1 unknown to ,maoris1 #aj2 used by the ,society ,islanders as an amusement1 #beb sq42 unknown to the ,marquesans1 #cce2 found among the ,hawaiians1 #chc ,boxing-matches in mourning1 #baa ,branch plucked from sacred trees1 #bee n4#a ,bread-fruit the staple food of the ,society ,islanders1 #bdi2 of the ,rarotongans1 #bbb2 and of the ,marquesans1 #ccc1 #ccd ,breath of chief sacred1 #de ,brenchley1 ,j4 ,l41 #abd1 #abe n4#a ,brown1 ,dr4 ,george1 #ef1 #afa1 #agc n4#a1 #bja1 #bjd1 #bjf n4#a1 #bab1 #bac1 #bad1 #baf n4#b1 #bah ,buffoonery in mourning for the dead1 #baa ,burial1 ,maori modes of1 #bj sq42 in house1 #bj1 #bg2 on a stage1 #bj1 #ba2 on a tree1 #bj sq42 secret1 #ba2 and mourning1 rites of1 in ,tonga1 #acb sqq42 by night1 #dai ,burial customs in ,samoa1 #bji sqq42 in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bca sqq42 in the ,society ,islands1 #cjh sqq42 in the ,marquesas1 #cef sqq42 in the ,hawaiian ,islands1 #dah sqq4 ---- ground dreaded1 #bg ---- places 7morais7 of the ,marquesans1 #ceg sq4 ,burying the sins of the dead1 #cje ,busoga1 superstition as to twins in1 #bgj ,cabri1 ,j4 ,baptiste1 #cga ,cain1 the ,hawaiian1 #cic ,campbell1 ,a41 #che1 #dab n4#a1 #dae1 #dai1 #dbc ,cannibalism1 #bf1 #fb1 #aeh sq42 in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bba ,canoe-shaped coffins1 #bj1 #cec1 #cef1 #cfc ,canoes1 ,maori1 #i2 ,tongan1 #ei2 ,marquesan1 #ccg2 provided for the dead to enable them to reach the spirit land1 #cfd sqq4 ,caterpillars1 servants of owl-god1 #ahh ,caves1 bones or bodies of dead deposited in1 #bb1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcg1 #cab1 #cbj sq41 #ceg1 #dah ,centipedes1 family god in1 #ahh sq42 worshipped in ,mangaia1 #bbh ,ceremonies1 magical1 of ,maoris1 #ac sq42 observed at death1 #ai sqq42 to facilitate passage of soul to other world1 #bd sqq41 #bi2 magical1 of ,tongans1 #fg sq42 observed for unburied dead1 #bje sq42 of mourning in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bcd sqq42 at the inauguration of a king1 #bed sq41 #bee n4#a2 over dead ,areoi1 #bfa2 after childbirth1 #bhh2 at marriage1 #bhh sq42 for the protection of the living against ghosts1 #cje sqq4 ,see ,rites ,ceremony of anointing a king of ,samoa1 #agg2 performed by parents of twins to fertilise plantains1 #bga ,chiefs descended from the gods1 #bi2 their souls immortal1 #bi2 tabooed1 #da sqq42 physical superiority of1 #eh sq41 #cgg sq42 ,samoan1 #aga sqq42 deified1 #bjd2 embalmed1 #bje2 in the ,marquesas1 #cdd2 in ,hawaii1 #chd sq4 ,chiefs' language in ,samoa1 #agc sqq4 ,chieftainship hereditary in ,samoa1 #agf ,children sacrificed1 #ge sq41 #ha sq4 ,christianity in ,tonga ,islands1 #fj ,circumcision1 in the ,tonga ,islands1 #ha2 in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bbc sq42 invented by god ,rongo1 #bbd ,civil lords and sacred kings in ,mangaia1 #bbd sq4 ,clans1 gods of1 in animals or other natural objects1 #id1 #ie sq4 ,clavel1 ,dr41 #cch1 #cgd ,cockles1 god in1 #ahc2 prayers to cockle-god1 #ahh ,coco-nuts1 god in1 #ahc2 offered to the dead1 #bcc ,coffins shaped like canoes1 #bj1 #cec1 #cef1 #cfc ,collocot1 ,e4 ,e4 ,v41 #fe n4#b1 #ic1 #id1 #if1 #ig1 #ih n4#a1 #bfg n4#b ,comedies acted in mourning1 #bcf ,commoners1 the question of their souls1 #ff1 #he ,communistic system in ,samoa1 #agj sq4 ,confession of sins1 #ahi ,cook1 ,captain ,james1 #a1 #i1 #ec1 #ee1 #eg1 #ei1 #fj1 #fa n4#b1 #fc1 #ha1 #hf1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aaa n41 #aag1 #abc1 #abh1 #abi1 #acb1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bea1 #beg1 #beh n4#e1 #bfb1 #bge1 #bgg n4#b and #d1 #bgi1 #bhj1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bic1 #big1 #cjd1 #caj1 #cad n4#c1 #cae1 #cba1 #cbh1 #cca1 #cga1 #cge1 #cgi1 #chb1 #chc1 #cia1 #cie sq41 #djf1 #djg1 #djh ---- or ,hervey ,islands1 #bai sq4 ,cooking in ovens of hot stones1 #bbb1 #cgi ,coral reefs1 their formation1 #ee sq4 ,corpses1 sent adrift on the sea or exposed on stages1 #baj2 broken in pieces1 #cfb2 flayed1 #cfg sq4 ,courage seated in liver1 #he ,cousin marriage1 #bbc ,creation1 ,hawaiian tradition of the1 #cic ,cremation among the ,maoris1 #bc ,crickets1 omens from1 #bca ,crimes1 ,tongan ideas about1 #fg ,crook1 ,william ,p41 first missionary to the ,marquesas1 #cbh1 #cdi1 #cfa1 #cgb ,cruise1 ,r4 ,a41 #ca n4#b ,curse of ,manaia1 #ab ,curses1 ,maori1 #ae2 ,tongan1 #fg2 of sisters specially dreaded1 #bjg ,customs observed at the birth of twins1 #bfh sqq4 ,see ,burial customs1 ,ceremonies1 ,rites ,cuttings in mourning for the dead1 #ai1 #bjh sq41 #bca1 #cjb1 #cji1 #caa1 #cec2 in ,tonga1 #acc sqq42 intention of the1 #ade sq4 ,cuttle-fish1 household god in1 #ahd2 omens from1 #aij2 temple of1 #aie2 myth of the1 #bjb sq42 a god in ,mangaia1#bbh2 myth of ,maui and the1 #bge ,dances at the birth of twins1 #bgj sqq42 funeral1 #aci1 #cec sq42 of widow1 #cec1 #ced ,dancing among the ,marquesans1 #cdj sq4 ---- -places of the ,marquesans1 #cdj sq4 ,danger ,island1 #bcj ,darwin1 ,charles1 on coral reefs1 #ee ,de ,sainson1 #aab ,d',urville1 ,j4 ,dumont1 #aa1 #eh1 #aaj1 #abc1 #ceg n4#c1 #cei n4#c1 #cgc ,dead1 disposal of the bodies of the 7,maori71 #bj sqq42 buried in sitting posture1 #bj2 spirits of1 appear in dreams1 #ca1 #ia sq42 spirits of the dead become gods1 #ca2 taboo entailed by contact with the1 #ci1acg sq42 buried in morais1 #aag sqq41 #bhb sqq41 #caa2 worship of the1 in ,samoa1 #bjd sq42 blood offered to the1 #bji2 buried with head to the east1 #baj2 buried with the head to the rising sun1 #bcb2 songs sung in honour of the1 #bcf2 buried in sitting posture1 #bfb2 images of spirits of the1 #bhg sq41 #cac sq41 #cbd sq42 blood of mourners offered to the1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #caa2 fear of the spirits of the1 #cjd sq42 disposal of the1 in the ,society ,islands1 #cjh sqq42 souls of the1 in images1 #cac sq42 worship of the1 in the ,society ,islands1 #cbb sqq42 assimilated to deities1 #cbg2 disposal of the1 among the ,marquesans1 #cef sqq42 in the ,hawaiian ,islands1 #dah sqq42 evocation of the1 #cgj sq42 buried in crouching posture1 #dah4 ,see ,ghosts ---- men deified1 #bgf ,death1 ,maori notion as to the cause of1 #af2 stories as to the origin of1 #af sqq41 #cib2 ,maori goddess of1 #ah2 fate of the soul after1 #bd sqq41 #he sqq41 #bac sqq41 #bch sqq41 #cac sqq41 #cfc sqq41 #dbg sqq42 the second1 #bi2 theories of the ,society ,islanders concerning1 #bii sqq42 ,marquesan contempt for1 #ceb sq42 ,hawaiian beliefs and customs concerning1#dag sqq4 ,deaths caused by the anger of the gods or by sorcery1 #bbi2 traced to the agency of gods or sorcerers1 #dje ,decadence of magic1 #fh ,deification of ancestors1 #cc1 #ce2 of kings in their lifetime1 #bee2 of dead men1 #bgf2 of men after death1 #cea sq41 #cig2 of animals1 #djb ,deified kings1 priests1 and warriors1 #bbg ---- men1 #bgf1 #cdi2 the spirits of1resident in animals1 #bbh ---- spirits of chiefs1 #bjd ,deities1 primaeval1 personifications of nature1 #cb1 #cd ,deity1 ,maori conception of1 #ce sq4 ,democratic spirit of ,samoans1 #aga1 #age ,desgraz1 ,c41 #aah1 #ceh1 #cgc ,despotism in ,hawaii1 #fc ,dieffenbach1 ,e41 #f n4#b1 #h n41 #dh n4#a ,diet of the ,samoans1 #afd sq42 of the ,hervey ,islanders1 #bbb2 of the ,society ,islanders1 #bdi2 of the ,marquesans1 #ccc sq42 of the ,hawaiians1 #cgh sq4 ,dirges in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bce sq4 ,disease1 caused by souls of ancestors1 #di2 and death ascribed to agency of gods1 spirits1 or ghosts1 #bjf sq41 #bag2 theories of the ,society ,islanders concerning1 #bii sqq42 of the ,marquesans concerning1 #cbe4 ,see ,sickness ,disorders1 internal1 supposed to be caused by entrance of a god into the patient1 #cea ,district gods1 #ahb1 #ahe ,divination1 in ,samoa1 #aij sq42 to detect thieves1 #bih1 #djf2 to ascertain the cause of death1 #cja ,diviners consulted before battle1 #cig1 #dad2 ,hawaiian1 #djd sq41 #dad1 #dag ,division of labour among the ,samoans1 #aff sqq4 ,dogs1 sacred1 #id2 omens from1 #aij2 eaten1 #cgi2 sacrificed1 #dje1 #dbf ,doobludha1 land of dead1 #hf ,dramatic performances of the ,areois1 #bei sq41 #bfc1 #bff n4#d ,dreamers held in repute1 #cbj ,dreams1 ,maori theories of1 #ab2 souls of the dead appear in1 #ca1 #ia sq42 ,samoan theory of1 #bje2 ideas of the ,hervey ,islanders concerning1 #bbi2 ideas of the ,society ,islanders concerning1 #big sq42 souls of the dead communicate with the living in1 #cbj1 #dbi2 ,marquesan ideas about1 #ceb2 revelations to priests in1 #dje1 #dbi2 ,hawaiian ideas about1 #dag ,drums1 special1 beaten after the birth of twins1 #bga2 accompanying dances1 #cdb1 #ced ,du ,petit-,thouars1 #cgc ,duke of ,york ,island1 #bab ,earth cleft with axes1 as a mourning rite1 #bce sq42 fished up from the sea by ,maui1 #bge ,earthquakes1 ,tongan theory of1 #gb2 caused by ,maui1 #bge ,eatooas1 gods1 spirits of the dead1 #bgg n4#d1 #cjj1 #cbb1 #cia1 #cib1 #djb4 ,see ,atua ,eclipses1 superstitions as to1 #bhg ,eel-god1 #bbg ,eels sacred1 #ie1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #ahe ,eimeo or ,mooerea1 one of the ,society ,islands1 #bdf1 #bff ,ella1 ,s41 #bjf n4#a1 #bab ,ellis1 ,william1 #aag1 #aah n4#a1 #bdg1 #bdi1 #bef sq41 #bfb1 #bfe n41 #bfg n4#b1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bhd1 #bhf n4#e1 #bij n4#c1 #bib1 #bie1 #bih n4#b1 #cjh n4#a1 #caa1 #cad n4#a1 #cae1 #cai1 #cbc1 #cbg1 #dja1 #dji1 #daj1 #daa1 #dai1 #dbd1 #dbf1 #dcj1 #dca ,embalmment of the dead1 #aag1 #bje2 in ,samoa1 #baj1 #bac2 in the ,society ,islands1 #cji1 #caj sqq42 in the ,marquesas1 #cef sq42 in ,hawaii1 #dah ,erskine1 ,j4 ,e41 #aad ,ethical influence of the ,tongan religion1 #adf sq4 ,etua1 a god1 #cdh4 ,compare ,atua ,eua1 one of ,tonga ,islands1 #eb1 #abc ,euhemerism1 #fi ,eve1 the ,hawaiian1 #cic ,evocation of the dead1 #cgj sq4 ,exogamy1 ,samoan religious system independent of1 #bja2 in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bbc ,exorcisers1 #cea ,exorcism practised for the healing of the sick1 #bjf sq41 #dag sq4 ,expiation for sacrilege1 #gd sqq42 for eating sacred animal1 #ahd1 #ahe ,eye1 spirit or soul thought to reside in1 #db1 #dag2 of human victim presented to king1 #bib ,fafa1 subterranean abode of the dead1 #bae ,fakaofo or ,bowditch ,island1 #cid ,family gods embodied in visible objects1 #ahb sqq42 analogous to totems1 #bjj ,fan or ,fang1 of ,west ,africa1 their superstition about a twin1 #bfi ,farmer1 ,sarah ,s41 #eg n4#a1 #fa n41 #ib1 #ig1 #aaa n4 ,fasting after a death1 #baj1 #cee ,fate of the soul after death1 #bac sqq41 #bch sqq41 #cac sqq41 #cfc sqq41 #dbg sqq4 ,fear of the dead1 its humanising influence1 #cjj2 of ghosts1 #cfi sq41 #dai4 ,see ,ghosts ,feast of ,calabashes1 #ced ,feasts1 funeral1 #add1 #cee1 #cfb sq41 #cff2 annual1 in honour of the gods1 #ahg sq4 ,see ,festivals ,feathers1 sacred red1 #bed2 gods conjured into1 #bfe2 placed in images of the gods1 #bij sq42 called gods1 #bia ,female line1 nobility traced in1 #ge ,ferry-boat for souls of dead1 #bf ,fertilising virtue attributed to twins1 #bfi sqq4 ,festival1 great annual1 #bhi2 called the ripening of the year1 #cbf sq4 ,festivals1 of the ,samoans1 #ahh2 of the ,marquesans1 #cda sq42 ,hawaiian1 #dad sqq4 ,see ,feasts ,fiatooka1 place of burial and of worship1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aji1 #aaf1 #abj1 #acb1 #acc ,fijian influence in ,tonga1 #ei ,fingers mutilated in mourning1 #ai2 sacrificed1 #hj sq4 ,finow1 king of ,tonga1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb1 #ia1 #ib1 #ajc1 #aje1 #abj1 #aba1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #aci1 #adj2 obsequies of1 #ace sqq4 ,finow the ,second1 king of ,fiji1 #ace ,fire1 ,polynesian knowledge of1 #ef sq42 kindled by friction of wood1 #aha2 robbed by ,ti'iti'i from ,mafuie1 #bjc2 kept up in house after a death1 #bji1 #bab2 first brought to men by ,maui1 #bbf1 #bci2 hidden in wood by ,mauike1 #bch2 stick and groove method of kindling1 invented by ,maui1 #bge1 #cce2 stolen by ,maui1 #cej2 first given to men by ,maui1 #cif ,fires not kindled near house of death1 #cee2 extinguished during periods of strict taboo1 #chi ,first-born sons1 sacrifice of1 #hi ,first-fruits1 offerings of1 in ,tonga1 #abb2 in the ,society ,islands1 #beg2 of taro presented to eel-god1 #ahh ,fish1 sacrifices of1 #beg1 #bia2 human victims called fish1 #bib2 worshipped1 #djb2 offered to shark god1 #djb ---- hooks made out of bones of dead1 #ba1 #bc1 #caa sq4 ,fishing1 modes of1 #beb1 #ccg1 #cgi ,flax cultivated by ,maoris1 #i ,flaying the dead1 custom of1 #cfg sq4 ,flood1 tradition of a great1 #cic1 #cid ,flying-foxes1 gods in1 #if2 incarnations of war-god1 omens from1 #aij ,fono1 representative assembly1 parliament1 #aei1 #agi ,food buried with the dead1 #bd1 #bcb2 not to be touched by tabooed person with his hands1 #ch1 #dd1 #de1 #acg1 #ach1 #bji1 #cab2 not eaten in a house so long as a corpse is in it1 #bji2 offered at tomb1 #cfb ,footprints in magic1 #ae ,forbes1 ,dr4 ,charles1 #ab ,forster1 ,george1 #bfb1 #bhc1 #bhg n41 #cig1 #cad1 #cca ,forster1 ,j4 ,r41 #aag n4#a1 #bgh n4#a1 #bhg n41 #cad1 #cbc n4#a ,foundation sacrifices1 #bib ,fowls bred and eaten1 #cgi ,freycinet1 ,l4 de1 #dbc1 #dbg ,friendly ,islands4 ,see ,tonga ,funeral dances1 #aci1 #cec sq42 feasts1 #add1 #cee1 #cfb sq41 #cff ---- games in ,tonga1 #adj1 #add2 in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bce sq4 ---- rites in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bca sqq4 ,futtafaihe or ,fatafehi1 family name of the ,tuitongas1 #ajh1 #aji ,fytoca1 grave1 burial-place1 #fg1 #hb1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #acg1 #aci1 #ada ,g----1 ,father ,mathias1 #cgc ,games1 funeral1 in honour of the dead1 #adj1 #add1 #bce2 athletic1 at religious festivals1 #ahh ,garment1 evil magic wrought through1 #fg ,gerland1 ,g41 #bff n4#d ,ghost personated by priest or kinsman1 #cjf sqq4 ,ghosts1 fear of1 #bg1 #ca1 #cjd sq41 #cbj sq41 #cfi sq41 #dai sq42 their passage to nether world1 #bg sq42 live on sweet potatoes1 #cj2 slaying the1 #bcd2 journeying with the sun1 #bci sqq42 caught in nets1 #bdb1 #bdd2 eaten by ,miru1 #bdb2 driven away by force of arms1 #cee2 food offered to1 #cee1 #cef ,gill1 ,w4 ,w41 #bba n4#a1 #bbe n4#a1 #bbg1 #bbh n4#a1 #bcg1 #bch ,girdle1 sacred1 of kings1 #bed ,god1 patron1 determined at birth1 #bjj sq41 #bbc ,god-boxes1 inspired priests1 #bbh sq4 ,godless1 the ,samoans called1 #aha sq4 ,gods1 chiefs and priests descended from the1 #bi2 confused with spirits of the dead1 #ca2 the great ,polynesian1 #ce n42 of the ,maoris1 #cf sq42 of the ,tongans1 #fd sqq42 souls of dead men as1 #fd sq41 #ff1 #fi1 #gj1 #hd1 #ia2 men descended from1 #ff2 omens sent by1 #fg2 in form of animals1 #ff1 #ib sqq41 #ahb sqq42 the primary or non-human1 of ,tonga1 #fh sqq42 national and tribal1 of ,tonga1 #ic sq42 temples of1 in ,tonga1 #gc sqq41 #ii sqq42 worship of1 #gi sqq42 annual feasts in honour of1 #ahg sq42 tame1 #aia2 vegetable1 #aib2 totemic1 #bjb2 high gods1 #bjb sqq42 the life of the1 #bch2 punished1 #beg2 born of ,night 7,po71 #beh1 #bgg2 of the sea1 #bgf sq42 of the air1 #bgg2 worship of the gods in the ,society ,islands1 #bgg sqq42 the causes of disease and death1 #bii1 #cea2 ,hawaiian1 two classes of1 #cig ,government1 monarchical and aristocratic1 of the ,tongans1 #fb sq42 democratic1 of ,samoans1 #aga sqq42 of the ,society ,islands1 #bec2 in the ,marquesas1 #cdd sq42 in the ,hawaiian ,islands1 #chc sq4 ,grandfather1 soul of1 reborn in grandchild1 #cfh sq4 ,grange1 ,jerome1 #fj n4#e1 #aac sq4 ,grasshoppers1 souls of dead children in1 #cah ,graves1 sacred1 #ii2 in relation to temples1 #ii sqq42 of ,tongan kings1 #ajc1 #aje2 prayers at1 #aba1 #bag2 of great chiefs religiously revered1 #abj2 enclosed with stones1 #baa2 in ,society ,islands1 #cji2 in ,hawaii1 #dah4 ,see ,tombs ,guardian deity1 how obtained1 #cih ,gudgeon1 ,w4 ,e41 #da1 #db n4#a1 #dh n4#a ,guillemard1 ,f4 ,h4 ,h41 #acb ,haamonga1 megalithic monument in ,tonga1 #abe1 #abf ,haapai 7,haabai71 one of the ,tonga ,islands1 #eb1 #ie1 #abf ,haddon1 ,a4 ,c41 #f n4#b ,hahunga1 ,maori festival1 #bb ,hair cut in mourning1 #ai1 #cjc sq41 #dbjsq42 ceremonies at cutting the1 #dd sq42 used in evil magic1 #cjj1 #cbe1 #dje2 offered by mourners to the dead1 #cjc1 #cjd2 sacrificed to volcano1 #djj ,hale1 ,horatio1 #f n4#b1 #fc1 #bad ,hands tabooed1 #ch1 #de1 #acg1 #ach1 #bji1 #cab1 #djd ,happahs 7,happas71 a tribe of ,marquesans1 #cfd1 #cfe ,harepo1 sacred recorder1 #bif1 #bih ,harris1 ,j4 ,rendel1 #bfg n4#a ,havaiki1 subterranean region of the dead1 #cfc4 ,compare ,avaiki ,hawaii1 #cge1 #cgf1 #cgh1 #cid1 #djj1 #djf1 #dji1 #daj1 #daa1 #dac1 #dbf1 #dbi ,hawaiian or ,sandwich ,islands1 #cge sqq4 ,hawaiians or ,sandwich ,islanders1 #cgg sqq4 ,hawaiki1 original home of ,maoris1 #e sq41 #bi1 #aee ,head1 sanctity of the1 #dd1 #bab1 #chh ,heads of dead dried and preserved1 #bc sq42 of chiefs cut off and buried separately1 #bab2 of children moulded1 #bbd2 of pigs attached to biers1 #cee2 of slain enemies kept as trophies1 #cfb ,heart the special seat of the soul1 #he ,heaven1 ascent of souls to1 #bd sqq41 #bi ,heavenly family1 gods incarnate in animals1 #bbh ,hebrew prophets1 ,renan on the1 #adg ,heiau1 temple1 #dji1 #daj1 #daa1 #dab n4#a1 #dah ,herero1 of ,s4,w4 ,africa1 customs as to twins among the1 #bgc sq4 ,herons sacred1 #ie2 omens from1 #aij2 superstition about1 #bgg n4#b ,hervey1 ,philip1 #abc1 #abe n4#a1 #abg ,hervey or ,cook ,islands1 #bai sq4 ,hervey ,islanders1 #bbj sqq4 ,heva1 ceremony observed after a death1 #cjf ,higgolayo1 god of the dead1 #hf ,hikuleo1 god of the dead1 #hh sq41 #ij ,hina 7,o-,heena71 a goddess1 perhaps of the moon1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bhg ,hine-nui-te-po1 the ,maori goddess of death1 #ag sq4 ,hiro1 god of thieves1 #cbf ,hivaoa 7,dominica71 one of the ,marquesas ,islands1 #cbh1 #ccg1 #cfd ,hogs1 sacrificed1 #gi2 to volcano1 #cii4 ,see ,pigs ,holiness and uncleanness blent in taboo1 #agc ,honolulu1 #cgf n4#b ,hos of ,togo1 customs as to twins among the1 #bga sq4 ,hotooas 7atuas71 gods1 #fd ,houmis1 a tribe of ,marquesans1 #cdg ,house1 dead buried in1 #bj1 #bg1 #dah2 dying people removed from the1 #ci2 abandoned after a death1 #cef ,houses1 ,maori1 #h2 ,samoan1 #afc sq42 in the ,society ,islands1 #bej2 of the ,marquesans1 #cce sqq42 of the ,hawaiians1 #chj sq4 ,huahine1 one of the ,society ,islands1 #aag1 #bdf1 #bhj1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #bhi1 #bic1 #cbf ,human sacrifices at burials1 #bd2 to the sun1 tradition of1 #aeh2 not offered by ,samoans1 #aeh2 at making king's girdle1 #bed2 offered to ,oro1 #beh sq42 in the ,society ,islands1 #bia sq42 offered to living men1 #cdi sq42 at deification of men1 #cea sq42 at the death of chiefs and priests1 #cfe sqq41 #dba sq42 to sharks1 #djb sq42 in ,hawaii1 #dac sq41 #dba sq41 #dbe sq4 ,hunchbacks thought to be favourites of spirits1 #aec ,hurricanes in ,samoa1 #aec sq4 ,idols1 ,hawaiian1 #dab sq4 ,see ,images ,ifi tree1 #gd1 #aba1 #acc1 #acg ,image of basket-work1 #bge sq42 wooden1 of deified man1 #cih ,images of the gods1 #bij1 #cia sq42 in which the souls of the dead were supposed to lodge1 #bhg sq41 #cac sq41 #cbd sq42 carried to battle1 #cig2 spirits conjured into1 #cih2 of the gods1 ,hawaiian1 #daa sqq4 ,immortality1 belief in1 its effect on the ,maoris1 #ea2 restricted to chiefs and their ministers1 #he2 of the human soul1 #cac4 ,see ,soul ,incantations1 ,maori1 #ac sqq42 of sorcerers1 #cbe2 ,hawaiian1 #dje1 #dag ,incarnation of gods in animals1 #ahb sqq4 ,inconsistency of savage thought1 #hd1 #ij sq4 ,indonesians1 #c ,infanticide1 in ,polynesia1 #aeg2 among the ,areois1 #bfc ,infants1 souls of dead1 cause disease1 #di1 #bii ,inspiration by drinking kava1 #ge1 #gg sqq42 by souls of dead1 #ia2 of ,samoan priests1 #aid2 of priests1 in the ,society ,islands1 #bic sqq42 of men by deities1 #cea ,inspired men1 #cej sqq4 ,iron in ,tonga1 #fa n4#b ---- tools among the ,hawaiians1 #chb ,irrigation practised by ,maoris1 #i2 artificial1 in ,hawaii1 #cgh sq4 ,jarves1 ,j4 ,j41 #chc n4#b1 #dbe ,jaw-bones of human victims hung in temple1 #beh ,jumping-off stone of souls of the dead1 #bad1 #bae4 ,see ,leaping-off place ,jupiter1 the planet1 emblem of deified chiefs1 #bjd2 the shrine of a god1 #bbh ,justice1 administration of1 in ,samoa1 #aei sq4 ,kahuna1 priest1 #dag ,kaili4 ,see ,tairi ,kamehameha 7,tamehameha71 king of ,hawaii1 #chd1 #chh1 #chi1 #djj1 #dji1 #dae1 #dbj1 #dbb1 #dbe1 #dbg1 #dcj1 #dca ,kanaloa1 a great ,hawaiian deity1 #cib1 #cic1 #cid1 #cie ,kane1 a great ,hawaiian deity1 #cib1 #cic1 #cid1 #cie1 #cih ,kaonohiokala1 eye-ball of the sun1 a ,hawaiian god1 #dca ,kapihe1 a priest1 #dcj1 #dca ,kapu1 taboo1 in ,hawaiian dialect1 #chg ,karakakooa ,bay in ,hawaii1 #cia ,karakias1 prayers or spells 7,maori71 #cb1 #ci ,kauai1 one of the ,sandwich ,islands1 #cge ,kava as source of inspiration1 #ge1 #gh1 #bbi2 offered to the gods1 #gi1 #ahg2 offered to whales1 #ic2 offered at graves1 #aba1 #bje2 drunk by the ,marquesans1 #ccd2 by the ,hawaiians1 #chj ,keolakuhonua1 the first woman1 #cic ,kilauea1 volcano in ,hawaii1 #cge1 #cii1 #dja ,king1 ,captain1 #cgh1 #cgi1 #che sq41 #cia1 #djb1 #djh1 #daj ,king1 of ,samoa1 #agf sq42 customs observed on the death of a king in ,hawaii1 #dbj sqq4 ,king of ,fiji1 a ,samoan family god1 #aib ,kingfisher sacred1 #ic2 superstition about1 #bgg n4#b ,kingfishers1 incarnations of war-god1 omens from1 #aij2 gods of families1 villages1 or districts1 embodied in1 #aic2 consulted oracularly1 #aif ,kings1 two1 in ,tonga1 one civil1 the other religious1 #fb sq42 the priests or mouthpieces of a god1 #bbd2 sacred1 in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bbd sq42 primary and secondary1 in ,mangaia1 #bbe2 as gods or descended from gods in the ,society ,islands1 #bec sq42 as high-priests1 #bec1 #bee2 in ,hawaii1 #chc sq4 ,kingship1 double1 #fc ,kitchen1 dying chief carried into the1 #hb ,koreamoku1 a deified man1 #cih ,kotzebue1 ,o4 von1 #che n4#d1 #chh sq41 #daf ,kpelle1 of ,liberia1 their superstitions about twins1 #bfi1 #bgd ,krusenstern1 ,a4 ,j4 von1 #cdf1 #cdh1 #cfb1 #cga1 #cgb ,ku1 a great ,hawaiian deity1 #cib1 #cic ,kuahairo1 a ,hawaiian god1 #dca ,kumuhonua1 the first man1 #cic ,la ,perouse1 #adi ,labillardiere1 #ha ,langsdorff1 ,g4 ,h4 von1 #aah1 #cda1 #cea n4#b1 #cga1 #cgb ,language1 ,polynesian1 #b2 special form of1 used in speaking of chiefs1 #agc sqq4 ,leaping-off place for souls of dead1 #bg1 #bda4 ,see ,jumping-off stone ,leeward ,islands1 #bdf1 #cai ,lifuka 7,lefooga71 one of the ,tonga ,islands1 #eb1 #gc1 #aji ,lightning1 omens from1 #aia ,lipolipo1 king of ,hawaii1 #chi sq41 #dbg ,lisiansky1 ,u41 #cch1 #cff sq41 #cfh sq41 #cga1 #cgb1 #daa1 #dab1 #dad1 #dba1 #dbb1 #dbc ,litany chanted after a death1 #cee ,liturgies1 in the ,society ,islands1 #bif ,liturgy1 ancient ,hawaiian1 #cid ,liver1 the seat of courage1 #he2 a disease of1 attributed to breach of taboo1 #gf sq42 of pig a god1 #ih ,lizard1 the tempter in the form of a1 #cic ,lizards feared as causes of disease1 #ej2 gods in1 #ff1 #ib1 #id1 #if1 #ahb1 #bbg1 #bbh2 omens from1 #aij ,lono 7,rono71 a great ,hawaiian deity1 the equivalent of ,rongo1 #cib1 #cic1 #cie2 ,captain ,cook identified with1 #cif ,lord of ,mangaia1 #bbd ,lucifer1 the ,hawaiian1 #cic ,macahity1 a ,hawaiian festival1 #dad sqq4 ,mafanga1 burial-place of chiefs in ,tongataboo1 #abj1 #aba ,mafuie1 god of earthquakes1 #bjc ,magic1 among the ,maoris1 #ac sqq42 among the ,tongans1 #fh2 black1 not practised in ,samoa1 #afa2 in the ,society ,islands1 #cjj1 #cbe sq42 in ,hawaii1 #dje sq4 ,see ,sorcerers ,magicians 7,maori71 #ac sqq4 ,mahoike1 god of the infernal regions1 original possessor of fire1 #cej ,mahoui1 a god1 apparently identical with ,maui1 #bff n4#d1 #bhf n4#e ,maitea1 one of the ,society ,islands1 #bdf ,malays1 how related to the ,polynesians1 #b sqq4 ,man1 the creation of1 #cic ,mana1 #db ,manaia1 #ac1 #bc ,mangaia1 one of the ,hervey ,islands1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bbh1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bdd ,manona1 ,samoan island1 #adi ,manua1 group of ,samoan islands1 #adi1 #aee1 #aeh1 #afb1 #bae ,maoris1 #e sqq42 their culture1 #h sqq42 beliefs concerning the souls of the living1 #aj sqq42 beliefs concerning the souls of the dead1 #ai sqq42 their notion as to the cause of death1 #af2 their story of the origin of death1 #af sqq42 mourning1 #ai sq42 disposal of the dead1 #bj sqq42 their conception of deity1 #ce sq42 taboo among the1 #cg sqq41 #dcb ,mapuhanui1 a ,marquesan god1 #cfh ,marae4 ,see ,morai ,marae1 a sacred grove1 #bbe n4#c1 #bdj1 #bda ,marai4 ,see ,morai ,marchand1 ,captain ,e41 #ceh n4#f1 #cga ,marcuse1 ,a41 #cic ,mariner1 ,william1 #fb1 #fd1 #fg1 #gj1 #ga1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gh sq41 #hj1 #hb1 #hc1 #hf1 #ij1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 #ig1 #ih n41 #ii1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #aaj n4#a1 #abg1 #ace1 #acf1 #ach1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc ,marquesan islanders1 #cca sqq4 ,marquesas ,islands1 #cbh sqq42 morais 7marais7 in the1 #aaf sqq4 ,marriage rites1 #bhh sq41 #caa ,martin1 ,john1 #fd ,maruiwi1 primitive inhabitants of ,new ,zealand1 #h ,mask worn by an actor personifying a ghost1 #cjf ,masons in ,tonga1 #abg ,matabooles1 minister of ,tongan nobles1 #fe1 #ff1 #gd1 #he1 #gf1 #gg1 #gi1 #he1 #hg1 #aba1 #acf1 #aci ,mateialona1 ,governor of ,haapai1 #abf ,mats1 fine ,samoan1 #afh sq42 ,hawaiian1 #cha sq4 ,maui1 mythical ,polynesian hero1 #bff n4#d2 his contest with the goddess of death1 #af sqq42 said to have drawn up the ,tongan ,islands on a fish-hook1 #gb2 puts god ,hikuleo in durance1 #hh2 said to have brought great stones from ,uea1 #abe2 a kind of ,polynesian ,hercules1 #abf2 brought fire to men1 #bbf1 #bci2 his exploits1 #bge1 #bhg n41 #cif2 his image1 #bge sq42 steals fire from ,mahoike1 #cej ---- one of the ,sandwich ,islands1 #cge1 #dbi ---- ,atalanga1 mythical first owner of fire1 #eg ---- ,kijikiji1 the ,polynesian ,prometheus1 #eg ,mauike1 the fire-god1 #bbf1 #bch1 #bci ,mauna ,kea1 mountain in ,hawaii1 #cgf ---- ,loa1 volcano in ,hawaii1 #cge1 #cgf ,mausoleum of the kings of ,hawaii1 #dbf ,medicine1 the ,hawaiian god of1 #cih ,megalithic monuments of the ,tooitongas1 #aai2 in the ,pacific1 ,dr4 ,rivers's theory as to1 #aai2 of the ,tongans1 #abc2 in ,lefooga 7,lifuka71 #abh sq42 their supposed relation to sun-worship1 #bff n4#d2 in the ,marquesas1 #cfj sq4 ,megalithic tombs1 #aai1 #abc1 #acb ,meinicke1 ,c4 ,e41 #aah n4#b ,melanesian blood1 admixture of1 in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bba ---- type1 #f2 population of ,new ,zealand1 #f sq4 ---- totemism1 #bah ,melanesians1 now related to ,polynesians1 #b sq42 magic among the1 #afa2 sham-fights at funerals among the1 #bab ,melville1 ,hermann1 #ccj1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #cch1 #ced1 #ceg n4#c1 #cfj sq41 #cfa sq41 #cgc ,men deified in their lifetime1 #cdi2 deified after death1 #cea sq41 #cig ,metals unknown to the ,polynesians1 #fa1 #bbb1 #bej1 #cce ,metempsychosis1 theory that ,melanesian totemism has been developed out of1 #bah ,milu 7,miru71 king of the nether world1 #dbg1 #dbh1 #dbi1 #dcj4 ,see ,miru ----1 a rebel spirit1 #cib ,minstrels1 wandering1 in the ,marquesas1 #cdb ,miru1 king of the nether world1 #dbg2 goddess of hell or of the dead1 #dbh n4#a2 the ,hades of the ,sandwich ,islanders1 #dca4 ,see ,milu ----1 an infernal hag1 devours ghosts1 #bdb ,moerenhout1 ,j4 ,a41 #aah1 #bfc n4#b1 #bfd n4#c1 #bff n4#d1 #bhd1 #bhf n4#e1 #big1 #cjh n4#a ,monarchy1 absolute1 in ,hawaii1 #chc ,mooa1 old capital of ,tongataboo1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aab ,mooas1 middle-class in ,tonga1 #ff1 #he ,moomooe 7,moomooi71 king of ,tonga1 #hc1 #ia1 #ajh1 #acc1 #ada1 #ade ,moon1 family god in1 #aib2 tradition of sacrifice to the1 #cid2 festival of the new1 #dad ,moon-goddess1 #bfg1 #bhg n4 ,mo'ooi 7,maui71 ,tongan god1 #gb ,morai 7marai1 marae71 burial-place1 temple1 #ajc1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah1 #aai2 dead buried in1 #aag sqq41 #bhb sqq42 in the ,society ,islands1 #bgh sqq4 ,morais1 bones of dead chiefs buried in1 #caa2 burial-places1 #ceg sq41 #cfa sq42 mummies deposited in1 #ceg2 in ,hawaii1 #cia1 #djf sqq42 dead chiefs buried in1 #djg sq4 ,morality reinforced by superstitious terrors1 #hc2 not influenced by religion1 #cah ,mortality of souls of commoners1 #ff1 #he ,motoro1 a great god in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bda ,mourning for death of divine owl1 #ahf sq4 ---- customs of ,maoris1 #ai sq42 in ,tonga1 #acb sqq42 in ,samoa1 #bjh sq42 in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bca2 among the ,society ,islands1 #cja sqq42 of the ,marquesans1 #cec sqq42 in ,hawaii1 #dbj sqq4 ,mouth and nostrils of dying stopped to prevent the escape of the soul1 #ceb ,mueu1 a female demon of death1 #bce ,mukasa1 great god of the ,baganda1 #bgj ,mullets sacred1 #ie1 #ahd ,mummies kept in the house or deposited in a morai1 #ceg ,muru1 a god1 spreads a net to catch ghosts1 #bdd ,mythology of the ,society ,islanders1 #beg sq41 #bgg2 of the ,marquesans1 #cdh sqq4 ,nails1 parings of1 used in evil magic1 #cbe1 #dje ,names of relatives changed after a death1 #bcc2 of kings sacred1 #bed2 new1 given at admission to the ,society of the ,areois1 #bfa2 exchange of1 #cci ,namuka1 one of the ,tonga ,islands1 #eb ,nature1 personifications of1 #cb1 #cd2 worship of1 #ic ,necromancy among the ,maoris1 #cj sq4 ,negritoes1 #c ,net to catch ghosts1 #bdb1 #bdd ,new ,zealand1 the ,maoris of1 #e sqq42 ,melanesian population of1 #f sq4 ,neyra1 ,alvaro ,mendana de1 #cbh ,ngati-apa1 a ,maori tribe1 #bc ,nicholas1 ,j4 ,l41 #af n4#c ,night1 or the primaeval darkness 7,po71 #beh1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #bih n4#a1 #cje1 #cae1 #cbc1 #cic1 #cig1 #dbg2 burials by1 #dai ,nightmare caused by a ghost1 #dai ,noa1 common1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj2 general1 as opposed to taboo1 sacred1 #chh ,noah1 the ,hawaiian1 #cic1 #cid ,nobility traced in female line in ,tonga1 #ge ,nobles1 souls of dead1 as gods1 #fd1 #ff1 #hd1 #ia ,north ,cape of ,new ,zealand1 place of departure for souls of the dead1 #bg1 #bh1 #cj ,nukahiva1 one of the ,marquesas ,islands1 #cbh1 #ccg1 #cej1 #ceb1 #cfj1 #cfa1 #cfd1 #cfh1 #cga1 #cgb ,nuu1 the ,hawaiian ,noah1 #cic1 #cid ,o-,heena1 a goddess1 #bhg n4 ,see ,hina ,o-rongo1 in ,mangaia1 #bbe ,oahu1 one of the ,sandwich ,islands1 #cge1 #cgf n4#b1 #che1 #cie1 #daa1 #dbi ,obsequies of kings and chiefs in ,tonga1 #acc sqq42 of the ,tooitongas1 #adj sqq42 of ,samoan chiefs1 #baa sq42 of chiefs1 in the ,society ,islands1 #cjc ,octopus1 god in1 #ie1 #if1 #ahc ,offerings to gods1 #gi2 to ,samoan deities1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi2 to priests1 #aie2 to the dead1 #caa2 of food at tombs1 #cfb2 to volcanic goddess1 #dja4 ,see ,sacrifices ,omens sent by gods1 #fg2 from sacred birds1 animals1 or fish1 #ahi sq42 from sacrificial victims1 clouds1 and rainbow1 #cig1 #dad ,opoa1 metropolis of idolatry in the ,society ,islands1 #bee1 #beh1 #bei1 #bhi ,oracles delivered by priests1 #bie2 given by priests in the name of gods1 #djd ,oramatuas or oromatuas1 worshipful spirits of departed relatives1 #bgg1 #bii1 #cbc sq42 sacred feathers called1 #bia ,origin of ,samoan gods of families1 villages1 and districts1 #bjj sqq4 ,oro1 war-god in the ,society ,islands1 #bee1 #bee n4#a1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bfc1 #bfe1 #bff1 #bhi1 #bie1 #cae1 #cbf ,orono1 head of a priestly order in ,hawaii1 #cia ,orotetefa1 patron deity of the ,areoi ,society1 #bfc1 #bfe1 #bfg ,ovens1 souls of dead in1 #bf sq42 of hot stones1 #bbb1 #cgi ,owl god1 festival of1 #ahh2 kept tame1 #aia ,owls sacred1 #ie1 #ahb2 mourning for dead1 #ahf sq42 omens from1 #aij ,pantheon recruited by dead men1 #ih ,papa1 goddess of earth1 #cd n4#b2 wife of ,vatea1 #bbf ,papatea1 mythical island1 #aeh ,papo1 ,samoan war-god1 #ahf ,paradise of the ,society ,islanders1 #cai1 #cbg ,parliamentary form of government in ,samoa1 #agi sq4 ,pas1 ,maori forts1 #h n4#c ,pele1 goddess of the volcano ,kilauea in ,hawaii1 #cii sqq4 ,personifications of nature1 #cb1 #cd2 of ghost by an actor1 #cjf ,pied fantail in ,maori story of origin of death1 #ah sq4 ,pigeons1 divine1 #ahd2 kept tame1 #aia ,pigs' liver a god1 #if ,pigs offered to the dead1 #bca2 sacrificed1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bia2 for recovery of sick1 #cea2 to the dead1 #cfh4 ,see ,hogs ,planets1 the shrine of a god1 #bbh ,pleiades1 emblems of deified chiefs1 #bjd ,po1 region of departed souls 7,maori71 #bg ,po1 ,night or the primaeval darkness1 the abode of the gods and of the dead1 #beh1 #bgg1 #bih n4#a1 #cje1 #cjh1 #cae1 #caf1 #cag1 #cbc1 #cic1 #cig1 #dbg ,pollution caused by death1 #cab sq41 #dbg ,polack1 ,j4 ,s41 #g n4#a ,polyandry among the ,marquesans1 #ccg sq4 ,polygamy in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bbc ,polynesians1 #a sqq42 their origin and language1 #b sqq42 mode of life1 #d2 dispersal from ,savaii 7,hawaiki71 #f1 #aed sq42 or from ,tonga1 #ef2 their knowledge of fire1 #ef sq42 ignorant of metals1 #fa1 #bej ,polytheism developed out of totemism1 #id ,porpoises1 gods in1 #ff1 #ib ,porter1 ,captain ,david1 #ccj1 #ccb1 #cdd n4#a1 #cej1 #cec1 #ceg n4#c1 #cfb1 #cfd sq41 #cgb ,pottery unknown to the ,samoans1 #aha ,prayers to the gods1 #gi2 to the dead1 #aba2 to animal gods1 #ahb2 for temporal benefits1 #ahi2 before going to war1 #ahi2 for the dying1 #bjh2 offered to souls of dead relatives at their graves1 #bag2 rhythmical and ancient1 #bbe2 offered to kings1 #bee2 of the ,society ,islanders1 #beg2 for the recovery of the sick1 #beg1 #cih2 to ,oro1 #bfa2 liturgical1 #bie sq42 over the dead1 #caj2 for the dead1 #cah2 at temples1 #cbg2 before battle1 #cig ,praying people1 sorcerers1 #bbi ,presents brought to dying people1 #bjg sq4 ,priestess claiming to personify goddess1 #dja ,priests practise enchantments1 #ac sq42 descended from the gods1 #bi2 their souls immortal1 #bi2 summon up spirits of dead1 #ca2 ,tongan1 their inspiration1 #gg sqq42 ,samoan1 #aib sq42 inspired1 #aid2 consulted as to cause of sickness1 #bjg2 inspired1 called god-boxes1 #bbh sq42 speaking in name of gods1 #beh1 #bic sqq42 of shark gods1 #bgf2 in the ,society ,islands1 #bib sqq42 inspired by sharks1 #djc2 ,hawaiian1 #djd ,property buried with the dead1 #bj1 #adj sq41 #baa1 #bcb sq42 private1 in relation to taboo1 #dg sq42 rights of1 in ,samoa1 #afi sqq4 ,prostitution1 general1 of women at the death of a great chief1 #dbc ,pukapuka1 ,danger ,island1 #bcj ,pulotu1 ,samoan name for abode of the dead and of the gods1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bad1 #baf1 #bag4 ,compare ,bolotoo ,punishments in ,samoa1 #aei sq4 ,purification of king at installation1 #bee n4#a2 of land after defilement1 #bhg sq42 after contact with the dead1 #baj1 #cac2 of the souls of the dead1 #caf ,pyramidal tombs1 #aae ,pyramidical temples of ,tahiti and the ,marquesas1 #aai ,pyramids1 stepped or terraced1 #aaf1 #aag1 #bgh sqq42 of stone1 stepped or terraced1 in ,hawaii1 #djh sqq4 ,quiros1 ,fernandez de1 #bdf ,ra1 the sun-god1 caught by ,maui in nooses1 #bbf ,radiguet1 ,m41 #cch1 #cda1 #ceg n4#a1 #ceh1 #cgc ,raiatea1 one of the ,society ,islands1 #bdf1 #bee1 #beh1 #bei1 #bff1 #bhi1 #cae1 #cag1 #cah1 #cai ,rail-bird sacred1 #ie2 omens from1 #aij ,rainbow worshipped1 #ic1 #ahb2 omens from1 #aia1 #cig2 emblem of deified chiefs1 #bjd sq42 superstitions about1 #bfg1 #bfi ,rangatira1 gentleman1 #dc1 #dd2 landowners1 #bbd ,rangi1 god of sky1 #cd n4#b ,rarotonga1 one of the ,hervey ,islands1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bcb1 #bdc1 #bdd ,raupa1 a burial cave1 #bcg ,recorders1 sacred1 #bie sq41 #bih ,red1 bones of dead painted1 #ba2 tabooed1 #bbg2 feathers regarded as divine1 #bij sq4 ---- ,cave1 #bci1 #bdj ,reincarnation of the dead1 #cfh sq4 ,reinga1 leaping-off place of souls 7,maori71 #bg ,religion of ,maoris concentrated on worship of dead kinsfolk1 #cd2 homogeneity of ,polynesian1 #ce n42 the ,tongan1 #fd sqq42 ethical influence of the ,tongan1 #adf sq42 of the ,samoans1 #aha sqq42 of the ,hervey ,islanders1 #bbe sqq42 early stage of1 #bbf2 of the ,society ,islanders1 #bef sqq42 without influence on morality1 #cah2 of the ,marquesans1 #cdh sqq42 of the ,hawaiians1 #cij sqq4 ,remy1 ,j41 #dab n4#a1 #dae n4#a ,renan1 ,ernest1 on the ,hebrew prophets1 #adg ,respect for chiefs in ,samoa1 #aga sqq4 ,resurrection of the dead1 ,hawaiian notions about the1 #dcj sq4 ,rewards1 posthumous1 no belief in1 #fg1 #adf ,rhodesia1 ,northern1 belief as to mother of twins in1 #bfi ,rib of the first man1 the first woman created out of the1 #cic sq4 ,rites1 of burial and mourning in ,tonga1 #acb sqq42 funeral1 in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bca sqq42 religious1 of the ,society ,islanders1 #beg2 of purification1 #bhh4 ,see ,ceremonies ,river of the ,water of ,life 7,maori71 #bh2 in the nether world1 #baf ,rivers1 ,w4 ,h4 ,r41 #d n4#a1 #aai1 #abd n4#a1 #abh1 #bjb1 #bah1 #bff n4#d ,roberts1 ,e41 #cga ,rohutu1 the abode of the dead1 #cai sq41 #cbg ,rongo1 god of peace and agriculture1 #ce n42 a great ,polynesian god1 #bbd1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #cib1 #cie2 his sacred stream and grove1 #bdj1 #bda2 god1 inventor of circumcision1 #bbd ,rono1 a great ,hawaiian god1 #djd1 #daf4 ,see ,lono ,roscoe1 ,j41 #bga ,routledge1 ,s4 and ,k41 #bgi n4#a ,ruahatu1 a sea-god1 #bgf ,sa-le-,fe'e1 the ,samoan ,tartarus1 #baf ,sacredness of chiefs1 #agb sqq4 ,sacrifice of children1 #ge sq41 #ha sq42 of hogs1 #gi2 of fingers1 #hj2 of first-born sons1 #hi2 as magical1 #hc2 of pigs to the dead1 #cfh2 of hogs to volcano1 #cii ,sacrifices in the ,society ,islands1 #bia sq42 of pigs for the recovery of the sick1 #cea4 ,see ,human sacrifices ,sacrilege1 #fg2 its expiation1 #gd sqq41 #ahc sqq4 ,samoa1 general name for the group of islands1 #adh2 original seat of ,polynesian race1 #aed ,samoan ,islands1 #adh sqq42 volcanic activity in1 #aea sq42 climate1 #aeb sqq4 ---- ,islanders1 their appearance and character1 #aef sqq42 houses1 agriculture1 and industries1 #afc sqq42 rights of property1 #afi sqq42 government1 #aga sqq42 religion1 #aha sqq4 ---- worship of natural objects1 #ic1 #if sq42 of animals and other natural objects developed out of totemism1 #bjj sqq41 #bah ,sanctity of kings in the ,society ,islands1 #bec sq42 of priest of ,tani 7,tane71 #bic ,sanctuaries for criminals1 #bhb ,sandwich or ,hawaiian ,islands1 #cge sqq4 ,sandwich ,islanders1 #cgg sqq42 their four chief gods1 #ce n4 ,saturnalia at the death of a king or high chief in ,hawaii1 #dba sqq4 ,savage thought inconsistent1 #hd1 #ij sq4 ,savages not addicted to sun-worship1 #aca ,savaii1 one of the ,samoan islands1 centre of ,polynesian dispersion1 #f1 #adh sq41 #aej sq41 #aed sq41 #aib1 #aie1 #bjb1 #bae ,saveasiuleo1 the king of the lower regions1 #baf sq4 ,scalps of slain foes taken1 #afb ,sea1 gods of the1 #bgf sq4 ---- eels sacred1 #ic1 #id1 #ahe ---- gull sacred1 #ic ---- -snake as god1 #ahe ---- -urchin1 family god in1 #ahc ,second death1 #bi ,secret burial1 #ba ,semites sacrifice first-born sons1 #hi ,serfdom1 alleged1 in ,hawaii1 #che ,shadow1 soul associated with1 #bje sq4 ,sham fights at obsequies of ,samoan chiefs1 #baa1 #bab2 at ,melanesian funerals1 #bab2 after a death1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcf1 #cjc ,shark-gods1 #bbg1 #bgf ,shark's teeth1 omens from1 #aia ,sharks as ministers of justice1 #gg2 gods in1 #if1 #ahb2 sacred1 #ic2 still-born children turned into1 #cih1 #djc2 worshipped in ,hawaii1 #djb sqq4 ,shells 7,murex namoces7 in which the souls of the dead were supposed to lodge1 #cbe ,shortland1 ,e41 #f n4#b ,sick people carried to temple1 #aie ,sickness supposed to be caused by evil spirits1 #dag4 ,see ,disease ,sinnet tenanted by a god1 #bbh ,sins of the dead buried in a hole1 #cje ,sisters1 curses of1 specially dreaded1 #bjg ,skins of the dead preserved as relics1 #cfg ,skulls of dead kept in houses1 #aah2 of ancestors kept in temple or house1 #bhh1 #caa2 of dead rulers worshipped1 #cbd2 of dead hidden in caves1 #ceg ,sky raised by ,maui1 #bbf1 #bge ,slaves killed to accompany their dead lords1 #bd2 in the ,society ,islands1 #bec ,slaying the ghosts1 #bcd ,smith1 ,e4 ,w4 and ,dale1 ,a4 ,m41 #dbe ----1 ,s4 ,percy1 #aee ,snakes1 water1 gods in1 #ff1 #ib ,sneezing1 ,hervey ,islanders' theory of1 #bbi ,social ranks in ,samoa1 #aga sqq42 in ,rarotonga1 #bbd2 in the ,society ,islands1 #bec2 among the ,marquesans1 #cdd2 in ,hawaii1 #chc sqq4 ,society ,islanders1 #bdh sqq4 ,society ,islands1 #bdf sqq4 ,songs in honour of the dead1 #bcf4 ,see ,dirges ,sorcerers 7,maori71 #ac sqq42 disease and death ascribed to arts of1 #cjj1 #cbe sq42 ,hawaiian1 #dje4 ,see ,magic ,soul1 ,maori ideas concerning the1 #aj sqq42 as shadow1 #aa2 as breath1 #aa2 departure of soul from body1 #ab sqq42 its fate after death1 #bd sqq41 #ff1 #hf sqq41 #bac sqq41 #bch sqq41 #cac sq41 #dbg sqq42 survival of1 #bd2 ascent to heaven1 #bd sqq41 #bi2 ,tongan theory of1 #ff1 #hd sqq42 ,samoan belief concerning the1 #bje sq42 associated with shadow1 #bje sq42 of the same shape as body1 #bje2 belief of the ,society ,islanders concerning the1 #big sqq42 beliefs of the ,hervey ,islanders concerning the1 #bbi sqq42 beliefs of the ,marquesans concerning the1 #ceb2 ,hawaiian beliefs concerning the1 #dag ,souls of commoners mortal1 #bi2 souls of chiefs and priests immortal1 #bi2 of the dead appear in dreams1 #ca1 #ia sq42 of ancestors cause disease1 #di2 of dead infants cause disease1 #di1 #bii2 of dead nobles as gods1 #fd sq41 #ff1 #hd1 #ia2 of dead men as gods1 #fd1 #ff1 #fi1 #he1 #ia1 #cea sq41 #cig2 of ,tongan commoners mortal1 #ff1 #he2 caught in traps1 #bcj sq42 leaping-place of1 #bg1 #bda2 ascribed to animals1 trees1 and stones1 #big2 of the dead eaten by the gods1 #cae1 #dbg2 of children supposed to transmigrate into sharks1 #djc ,spells 7,maori71 #ac sqq4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 his theory that temples are derived from tombs1 #ajj ,spirit world1 ,maori ideas of1 #bi sq4 ,spirits of the dead become gods1 #ca sq42 threatened1 #bjh4 ,see ,gods1 ,souls ,spittle used in magic1 #ae1 #cjj1 #cbe1 #dje2 collected to prevent its use in magic1 #dje sq4 ,stair1 ,j4 ,b41 #aeb1 #agc n4#a1 #bjc n4#b1 #bjf n4#a ,star1 shooting1 worshipped1 #ic ,stars observed by the ,samoans1 #afa ,sterndale1 ,h4 ,b41 #aig1 #aih1 #aii ,stewart1 ,c4 ,s41 #aeg n4#g1 #ccg sq41 #cdj sq41 #cdd n4#a1 #cdh sq41 #cdi sq41 #ceh1 #cgb1 #cgg1 #dbd ,stick-and-groove mode of kindling fire1 #aha ,stilts1 racing or combating on1 #cci sq4 ,stinging ray fish1 divine1 #ahd1 #ahe2 taboo to some ,marquesans1 #cdg ,stone-cutting in ,tonga1 craft of1 #abg ,stone monuments in ,samoa1 #aig sqq4 ,stone temple1 ruins of1 in ,samoa1 #aif sq4 ,stone tools and weapons1 #aj1 #fa1 #ahj1 #bej sq41 #cce1 #chb2 in ,tonga1 #fa2 in ,samoa1 #ahj ,stonehenge1 trilithons at1 #abc1 #abi1 #acj ,stones worshipped1 #ahb1 #ahg2 piled on graves to prevent the dead from rising1 #bcb ,succession of eldest sons at their birth1 #bee sq4 ,sugar-cane cultivated1 #cgi ,suicides1 their fate after death1 #cfc ,sun1 supposed secret worship of the1 in the ,pacific1 #aai2 ,stonehenge supposed by some to be a temple of the1 #acj2 ,tongans not worshippers of the1 #aca2 tradition of human sacrifices to1 #aeh2 not worshipped in ,samoa1 #aib2 ghosts journeying with the1 #bci sqq42 caught and stopped by ,maui1 #bge1 #bhg n41 #cif2 not worshipped by the ,society ,islanders1 #bhf2 souls of the dead gather in the1 #cbj ,sun god caught by ,maui1 #bbf2 supposed worship of1 #bff1 #bhf n4#e ,sun worship1 savages not addicted to1 #aca ,sun-dried gods1 title applied to embalmed bodies of chiefs1 #bje ,superstitious terrors reinforce morality1 #hc ,taaroa 7,taroa71 a great god1 #bee n4#a1 #beh1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bgf1 #bhg n42 supreme god of ,polynesia1 #bij4 ,compare ,tanaroa1 ,tangaloa1 ,tangaroa ,taboo 7tapu7 among the ,maoris1 #cb1 #cd1 #cg sqq41 #dcb2 contracted by contact with the dead1 #ci1 #bji2 of sacred chiefs1 #da sqq42 its effect in confirming the rights of private property1 #dg sq42 ultimate sanction of1 #di2 supposed effects of breaking a1 #gf sq42 consequent on touching a dead body1 #acg sq42 comprises ideas of holiness and uncleanness1 #agc2 signified by white cloth1 #cdd2 in the ,marquesas1 #cde sqq42 a definition of1 #cdh2 in ,hawaii1 #chg sqq42 breaches of1 punished with death1 #chi2 abolished in ,hawaii1 #chi sq42 rigour of1 #daf2 an aristocratic institution1 #dcb ,tabooed priest1 #djd ,taboos imposed by chiefs1 #age1 #dcb ,tahaa1 one of the ,society ,islands1 #bdf1 #beh ,tahiti1 #bdf1 #bdg1 #bee1 #bff1 #bgi1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #cad1 #cba2 morais in1 #aaf sqq41 #bgi sqq4 ,tahowa1 priest1 #bic ,tahuata 7,santa ,christina71 one of the ,marquesas1 #cdi1 #cei1 #cfj1 #cfd1 #cfg ,taipii 7,typee71 valley of1 in ,nukahiva1 #cfj1 #cfe ,taipiis or ,typees1 a tribe of ,nukahiva1 #ccj1 #ccb1 #cfe1 #cgc ,tairi 7,kaili71 the national war-god of ,hawaii1 #cif1 #cig1 #djd1 #daa ,takalaua1 a ,tooitonga1 #ajh ,tali-y-,toobo1 ,tongan god of royal family1 #gj1 #gc1 #gg1 #gi1 #aba ,tame gods1 #aia ,tamehameha1 king of ,hawaii1 #chd1 #dbc4 ,see ,kamehameha ,tanaroa1 ,tangaroa1 ,tagaloa1 ,taaroa1 dialectically different names of a great ,polynesian god1 #beh1 #cib ,tane 7,tani71 a great ,polynesian god1 #ce n41 #bda1 #beh1 #bhj1 #bhd1 #bic1 #cib1 #cid1 #cig ,tane-kio1 a god1 enshrined in the planets ,venus and ,jupiter1 #bbh ,tangaloa1 god1 drew up ,tonga ,islands on a fishing-hook1 #fe1 #gb sq42 god of artificers1 #gb2 puts god ,hikuleo in durance1 #hh2 ancestor of ,tui-ta-tui1 #abg2 temple of1 #aif2 principal god of ,samoans1 the creator1 #bjb sq42 said to have fished up the islands1 #bjb1 #bjc ,tangaroa1 god of ocean1 #ce n42 a great god1 brother of ,rongo1 #bbf ,tapu4 ,see ,taboo ,taro the staple food of the ,samoans1 #afe2 of the ,mangaians1 #bbb2 and of the ,hawaiians1 #cgh ,tattooing1 not applied to the ,tooitonga1 #ha2 nor to the sacred kings of ,mangaia1 #bbd2 as a punishment in ,samoa1 #afj2 of the ,marquesan islanders1 #cca sq42 marks of1 removed from corpse1 #cfh2 of the ,hawaiians1 #cgh2 of the tongue in mourning1 #dba ,tauas1 inspired men1 #cej sq4 ,tauata 7,santa ,christina71 one of the ,marquesas ,islands1 #ccg ,taylor1 ,r41 #g n4#a1 #cb n4#a1 n4#b1 #cf1 #db ,tee1 teehee1 tii1 spirit of the dead1 guardian spirit1 #cac1 #cbb1 #cbc n4#a ,teeth1 loss of1 penalty for breach of taboo1 #bji sq42 knocked out in mourning1 #bca1 #dbj1 #dbc1 #dbd ,tekuraaki1 a god1 incarnate in the woodpecker1 #bbh ,temple1 dead ,areois buried in1 #bfa2 bones of human victims buried in1 #bib2 bones of dead chiefs buried in1 #caa ,temples of the gods in ,tonga1 #gc sqq41 #ii sqq42 and graves1 question of1 #ii sqq42 and tombs1 #ii sqq42 ,samoan1 #aid sqq42 in the ,society ,islands1 #bgh sqq42 dedicated to sharks1 #djb1 #djc2 ,hawaiian1 #djf sqq4 ,theft1 ordeal for detection of1 #gg ,thieves1 ,hiro the god of1 #cbf2 divination to detect1 #djf ,thunder and lightning1 no ,tongan god of1 #ga2 ,tongan idea concerning1 #ij ,thunder-god kept in captivity1 #aia sq4 ,thomas1 ,rev4 ,john1 #eg n4#a1 #aaa n4 ,thomson1 ,a4 ,s41 #f n4#b ,thomson1 ,sir ,basil1 #hg n4#a1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi ,tiaio1 a god of the ,hervey ,islanders1 #bbg ,tiaraboo 7,tiarroboo1 ,tairaboo71 the southern peninsula of ,tahiti1 #beg1 #bhc ,tiburones1 a mythical paradise1 #ceb1 #cfd ,ti'iti'i1 hero1 robs ,mafuie of fire1 #bjc ,tii1 a worshipful spirit of the dead1 #cbd4 ,compare ,tee ,tiki1 the god of the dead1 #bca1 #bcb ----1 a heroine1 #bci2 warder of the land of the dead1 #bdd sq4 ----1 a ,marquesan god1 #cdc1 #cej n4#d ,timatekore1 a god of the ,hervey ,islanders1 #bbf ,tofua1 ,tongan island1 #if ,togo1 in ,west ,africa1 #bga ,tohunga1 ,maori priest1 #af n4#c ,tombs1 megalithic1 of the ,tooitongas1 #ii sqq41 #aje sqq41 #aai1 #abc1 #acb2 and temples1 #ii sqq4 ,tonga or ,friendly ,islands1 #eb sqq4 ---- ,islanders1 #eg sqq42 their religion1 #fd sqq42 their national and tribal gods1 #ic sq4 ,tongataboo1 #eb1 #hf1 #id1 #ajf1 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac1 #aad1 #aai1 #abj1 #abc ,tonga-iti1 a god in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bbg ,tooas 7tuas71 ,tongan commoners1 #ff1 #he1 #hf1 #hg ,toobo ,toty1 a ,tongan god1 #ga ,toogoo ,ahoo1 king of ,tonga1 #ha ,tooi fooa ,bolotoo1 a ,tongan god1 #gj sq4 ,tooitonga1 sacred chief or king of ,tonga1 #fb1 #ff1 #gc1 #ha1 #hb1 #id1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc1 #abf1 #abg1 #add1 #ade2 tombs of the ,tooitongas1 #aje sqq42 obsequies of the1 #adj sqq4 ,tooi-tonga-fafine1 sister of the ,tooitonga1 #aaj ,totemic gods of ,samoa1 #bjb ,totemism1 ,tongan polytheism developed out of1 #id2 ,samoan worship of animals developed out of1 #bjj sqq41 #bah2 theory that it has been developed out of metempsychosis1 #bah2 relics of1 in the ,hervey ,islands1 #bbg sq42 traces of1 among the ,marquesans1 #cdg2 relics of1 in ,hawaii1 #djb ,trade guilds among the ,samoans1 #afg sq4 ,transmigration of souls not believed in by the ,samoans1 #bah2 of souls of children into sharks1 #djc ,traps set for souls1 #bcj ,tree1 family god in1 #aib2 on which ghosts perch1 #bda ,trees1 dead deposited on1 #bj sq42 tenanted by gods1 #bbh2 sacred1 #bha sq42 worshipped1 #djb ,tregear1 ,e41 #f n4#b1 #abf n4#b1 #cib ,tribes or clans among the ,hervey ,islanders1 #bbc ,trilithon in ,tongataboo1 #abc sqq4 ,trilithons at ,stonehenge1 #abc1 #abi1 #acj ,trinity1 the ,hawaiian1 #cib ,triton-shell1 god in1 #bbh ,tropic-bird sacred1 #ic ,tu1 ,maori war-god1 #ce n42 a great ,polynesian deity1 #cib ,tuaraatai1 a sea god in the ,society ,islands1 #bgf ,tufoa1 volcanic island1 #ec ,tui-ta-tui1 a ,tooitonga1 #abg1 #abh ,tulafales1 householders or gentry in ,samoa1 #agf1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahj ,tuoro1 in ,rarotonga1 the meeting-place of ghosts1 #bdc1 #bdd ,turnbull1 ,j41 #bfb ,turner1 ,dr4 ,george1 #ahc n4#a1 #bjc n4#b1 #bjf n4#a1 #bab1 #bac ,turtles1 family god in1 #ahc sq4 ,tutuila1 ,samoan island1 #adi1 #age1 #agf1 #ahj1 #bae ,twins1 divine1 #bbf2 heavenly1 #bfg2 customs and superstitions concerning1 #bfg sqq42 thought able to influence the weather1 #bfg sq42 fertilising power ascribed to1 #bfi sqq42 divine ,hawaiian1 #cid ,tyerman and ,bennet1 #bfj1 #bha1 #bhc1 #bie1 #cae1 #chf ,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 #c n4#c ,typee4 ,see ,taipii ,typees or ,taipiis1 a tribe of ,nukahiva1 #ccj1 #ccb #cfe1 #cge ,uea 7,wallis ,island71 #abe ,uganda1 human sacrifice in1 #hd ,uhane1 soul1 #dag ,ui1 a heroine1 beloved by the sun1 #aeh ,uli1 a ,hawaiian god1 #dje ,umi1 king of ,hawaii1 #daa1 #dac ,unburied dead1 ,samoan ceremonies for1 #bje sq4 ,uncleanness1 and holiness blent in taboo1 #agc2 caused by contact with a corpse1 #cab sq41 #dbg ,underworld1 home of the souls of the dead1 #bg ,upolu1 ,samoan island1 #adi1 #aeb1 #aee1 #afb1 #ahe1 #aif1 #bjb1 #bad1 #bae ,upu1 a ,marquesan goddess of the dead1 #cfg1 #cfh ,uriwera1 a ,maori people1 #ae ,urutetefa1 patron deity of the ,areoi ,society1 #bfc1 #bfe1 #bfg ,utakea1 a god incarnate in the woodpecker1 #bbh ,vatea1 a primary god1 #bbf ,vavau1 a ,tongan island1 #eb1 #ec1 #gc ,veachi1 sacred personage in ,tonga1 #ff ,veeson1 ,george1 #hf ,vegetable gods in ,samoa1 #aib ,ventriloquism1 #cgj ,venus1 the planet1 the shrine of a god1 #bbh ,vergnes1 ,p4 ,e4 ,eyriaud des1 #cgd ,village gods1 #ahb1 #ahe ,villages1 ,samoan1 self-governing1 #agh sq4 ,vincendon-,dumoulin1 #aah1 #ceh1 #cgc ,virtue1 ,tongan ideas of1 #ff sq41 #adf sq4 ,volcanic activity in ,tonga ,islands1 #ec sqq42 in ,samoa1 #aea2 in ,hawaii1 #cge ,volcano1 goddess of1 in ,hawaii1 #cii sqq42 offerings to1 #cii sq4 ,wahi taboo1 sacred place1 temple1 #chg sq4 ,wahine ariki1 #dj ,waimate ,plains in ,new ,zealand1 #bc ,wakea4 ,see ,akea ,wallis ,island 7,uea71 #abe ,wallis rediscovers ,society ,islands1 #bdf ,war gods1 ,samoan1 #ahf1 #ahh1 #ahi sq4 ,war-gods1 images of1 carried to battle1 #cig ,warriors tabooed1 #dj sq4 ,warriors1 fate of souls of dead1 #bdb sq41 #bdd sq4 ,water of ,life1 ,river of the1 #bh2 in the nether world1 #baf ,weaving practised by ,maoris1 #i ,west1 ,thomas1 #aad ,whale1 soul of dead priest in a1 #cfi ,whales worshipped1 #ic ,whattas1 altars1 #cia1 #cib ,white cloth as mark of taboo1 #cdd2 flags as marks of property1 #chf ,widowers tabooed1 #ci ,widows killed to accompany their dead husbands1 #bd2 tabooed1 #ci2 strangled and buried with their husbands1 #ade2 dances of1 #cec1 #ced ,wilkes1 ,charles 7,commodore71 #eg1 #fa n41 #hg1 #hi n4#a1 #ij1 #aee n4#a1 #chd sq41 #daa ,williams1 ,john1 #hj1 #aeg n4#g1 #aeh1 #aha1 #ahe1 #bba1 #bca ,wilson1 ,james1 #bfd n4#e ,winds imprisoned by two gods1 #bgg ,windward ,islands1 #bdf ,wiro1 evil spirit1 #bg ,woman1 the first1 created out of a rib of the first man1 #cic sq4 ,women well treated by ,tongans1 #fa sq42 well treated by the ,samoans1 #aeg2 excluded from temples1 #bhh sq42 forbidden to eat with men1 #cha2 forbidden to partake of sacrifices1 #chh ,woodpecker1 gods incarnate in the1 #bbh ,worms1 souls of the dead in the shape of1 #bi ,worship of ancestors among the ,maoris1 #cb sqq42 of the ,tongan gods1 #gi sqq42 of nature1 #ic2 of the dead tends to encroach on the worship of the high gods1 #ig sq42 of animals and other natural objects in ,samoa1 #ahb sqq41 #bjj sqq42 of the dead in ,samoa1 #bjd sq42 of the dead1 elements of the1 #bje2 of the sun1 supposed1 #bff1 #bhf n4#e2 of the dead in the ,society ,islands1 #cbb sqq42 of animals in ,hawaii1 #dja sqq4 ,see ,religion ,wrestling matches as funeral rite1 #adj1 #add1 #baa2 at obsequies of chiefs1 #cjc ---- and boxing matches at obsequies of ,samoan chiefs1 #baa2 in honour of ,lono 7,rono71 #cie1 #daf ,yam festival in ,tonga1 #ga sq4 ,yams1 new1 offered at grave1 #abb ,young1 ,john1 #dbb sq4 ,zulu superstition as to twins1 #bgj ,,the ,,end ,printed in ,great ,britain by ,r4 ,r4 ,,clark1 ,,limited1 ,edinburgh4 ,,works ,,by ,,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,immortality ,,and ,,the ,,worship ,,of ,,the ,,dead ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,the ,,belief ,,among ,,the ,,aborigines ,,of ,,australia1 ,,the ,,torres ,,straits ,,islands1 ,,new ,,guinea1 ,,and ,,melanesia4 ,,the ,,gifford ,,lectures1 ,,st4 ,,andrews1 #aiaa-aiab4 #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,mr4 ,,edward ,,clodd in the ,,daily ,,chronicle4--',if a man die1 shall he live again8' is a question asked chiliads before ,job put it1 and the generations of mankind repeat it4 ,in this profoundly interesting volume1 ,professor ,frazer1 out of the treasury of his knowledge1 and with consummate art of attractive presentment1 gives the answers devised by the ,lower ,races4 ,,folk-,,lore4--,it displays all the best qualities1 both in respect of style and matter1 that characterise ,dr4 ,frazer's former works4 ,,new ,,statesman4--,dr4 ,frazer does not profess to explain the ultimate source of religion1 but only to attempt to follow the steps of its growth among the races of men4 ,it is his aim to set before us a continent of facts known1 or partly known1 to the anthropologists1 not a solution of the mystery of the ,universe4 ,that aim he has achieved with masterly success and lucidity4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,crawley in ,,nature4--,the analysis of belief and practice among the aborigines of ,australia1 the ,torres ,straits1 ,new ,guinea1 and ,melanesia1 which occupies nearly #djj pages of this volume1 is a masterly performance4 ,,guardian4--,the bare facts which ,dr4 ,frazer sets before us are of an absorbing interest4444 ,the ,biblical student may gain much from the perusal of ,dr4 ,frazer's work4 ,,observer4--,the importance of the work which ,dr4 ,frazer has undertaken cannot be overrated4 ,his study of religion is a contribution to human knowledge of such quality that the country to which he belongs may well be proud of him4444 ,dr4 ,frazer has arranged the mass of detail from which he has had to draw with a skill and judgment which in the work of another man would be surprising2 and he tells each story with the point and clarity of an artist1 so that1 apart from the book's high mission1 it could be read as a storehouse of good tales4 ,his comments1 moreover1 are always brief and decisive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,golden ,,bough ,a ,,study ,,in ,,magic ,,and ,,religion ,third ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 #hvo4 ,part ,i4 ,,the ,,magic ,,art ,,and ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,kings4 ,two volumes4 #bes4 net4 ,,ii4 ,,taboo ,,and ,,the ,,perils ,,of ,,the ,,soul4 ,one volume4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,dying ,,god4 ,one volume4 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,iv4 ,,adonis1 ,,attis1 ,,osiris4 ,two volumes4 #bes4 net4 ,v4 ,,spirits ,,of ,,the ,,corn ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,wild4 ,two volumes4 #bes4 net4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,scapegoat4 ,one volume1 #abs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,vii4 ,,balder ,,the ,,beautiful3 ,,the ,,fire-,,festivals ,,of ,,europe ,,and ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,soul4 ,two volumes4 #bes4 net4 ,vol4 ,,xii4 ,,bibliography ,,and ,,general ,,index4 #bes4 net4 ,,times4--,the book is a great book1 in just the sense in which the work of ,darwin1 ,zola1 or ,balzac is great4 ,it has explored and mapped out a new world4 ,but it combines artistry with science4 ,not only does it describe the greater part of the magical and religious beliefs and practices of the lower races and peasant peoples of the world1 with a scientific precision and completeness superior to those of the encyclopaedic biologist2 it also narrates1 with greater truth and vividness than has ever been essayed1 the tragi-comedy of human superstition4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,crawley in ,,nature4--,this new edition is something more than a mere enlargement4 ,it is a new book1 or a series of books2 yet it is the same ',golden ,bough4' ,the reader will find it full of good things1 new and old4 ,he will also realise that ',the ,golden ,bough' is a great book1 one of the great books of our time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,golden ,,bough3 ,a ,,study ,,in ,,magic ,,and ,,religion4 ,abridged ,edition4 ,with ,frontispiece4 #hvo4 #ahs4 net4 ,this abridgment has been prepared in response to numerous requests that the work should be issued in a more compendious form4 ,while the book has been greatly reduced in bulk1 by omission of all the notes and occasional condensation in the text1 all the main principles of the complete work are retained1 together with a sufficient amount of evidence to illustrate them clearly4 ,nothing has been added1 and no change has been made in the author's views4 ,it is hoped that in this abridged form the book may prove welcome to students and general readers who cannot afford to buy and read the complete edition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,folk-,,lore ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,testament4 ,studies in ,comparative ,religion1 ,legend1 and ,law4 ,three vols4 #hvo4 #cgs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,times4--,the idea of illustrating the ,old ,testament by analogies drawn from the myths1 customs1 and superstitions of various primitive peoples is not1 of course1 a new one 444 but no one has hitherto published anything to be compared with the vast and varied store of information which ,sir ,james ,frazer now places before us4444 ,his book is a mine of instructive facts for which all future students of the subject will be grateful4 ,,nature4--,these three volumes should be the household companion of every religious teacher1 nay1 of every one who cares or dares to see what that latest daughter of science1 folk-lore1 has to say about the cherished beliefs from the ,old ,testament1 absorbed in infancy1 and rarely visualised differently in later life4 ,,spectator4--,we may say at once that ,sir ,james ,frazer's new work is profoundly interesting1 and that it throws a flood of light on many familiar episodes and references4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,totemism ,,and ,,exogamy4 ,a ,treatise on ,certain ,early ,forms of ,superstition and ,society4 ,with ,maps4 ,four vols4 #hvo4 #ejs4 net4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,crawley in ,,nature4--,that portion of the book which is concerned with totemism 7if we may express our own belief at the risk of offending ,prof4 ,frazer's characteristic modesty7 is actually ',the ,complete ,history of ,totemism1 its ,practice and its ,theory1 its ,origin and its ,end4'444 ,nearly two thousand pages are occupied with an ethnographical survey of totemism1 an invaluable compilation4 ,the maps1 including that of the distribution of totemic peoples1 are a new and useful feature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,magical ,,origin ,,of ,,kings4 7,formerly published as ,lectures on the ,early ,history of the ,kingship47 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,athenaeum4--,it is the effect of a good book not only to teach1 but also to stimulate and to suggest1 and we think this the best and highest quality1 and one that will recommend these lectures to all intelligent readers1 as well as to the learned4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,psyche',s ,,task4 ,a ,discourse concerning the ,influence of ,superstition on the ,growth of ,institutions4 ,second ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,to which is added ,the ,scope of ,social ,anthropology4 #hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,outlook4--,whether we disagree or agree with ,dr4 ,frazer's general conclusions1 he has provided us with a veritable storehouse of correlated facts1 for which1 and for the learning that has gone to their collection1 and for the intellectual brilliance that has gone to their arrangement1 we can never be sufficiently grateful4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pausanias',s ,,description ,,of ,,greece4 ,translated with a ,commentary1 ,illustrations1 and ,maps4 ,second ,edition4 ,six vols4 #hvo4 #abfs4 net4 ,,athenaeum4--,all these writings in many languages ,mr4 ,eraser has read and digested with extraordinary care1 so that his book will be for years the book of reference on such matters1 not only in ,england1 but in ,france and ,germany4 ,it is a perfect thesaurus of ,greek topography1 archaeology1 and art4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,studies ,,in ,,greek ,,scenery1 ,,legend ,,and ,,history4 ,selected from ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer',s ,commentary on ,pausanias4 ,globe #hvo4 #es4 net4 ,,guardian4--,here we have material which every one who has visited ,greece1 or purposes to visit it1 most certainly should read and enjoy4444 ,we cannot imagine a more excellent book for the educated visitor to ,greece4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sir ,,roger ,,de ,,coverley1 ,,and ,,other ,,literary ,,pieces4 ,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,,daily ,,telegraph4--,these various studies1 biographical1 fantastic1 and romantic1 are the fine flower of scholarship and taste1 touched continually by the golden light of imagination1 and full of that interpretative sympathy which is half-sister to creation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,letters ,,of ,,william ,,cowper4 ,chosen and ,edited1 with a ,memoir and a few ,notes1 by ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer4 ,two vols4 ,globe #hvo4 l#js4 net4 ,eversley ,series4 ,mr4 ,,clement ,,shorter in the ,,daily ,,chronicle4--,the introductory ,memoir1 of some eighty pages in length1 is a valuable addition to the many appraisements of ,cowper that these later years have seen4444 ,dr4 ,frazer has given us two volumes that are an unqualified joy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,essays ,,of ,,joseph ,,addison4 ,chosen and ,edited1 with a ,preface and a few ,notes1 by ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,frazer4 ,two vols4 ,globe #hvo4 #ajs4 net4 ,eversley ,series4 ,,nation4--,sir ,james ,frazer1 who writes a ,preface1 quite in the ,addison manner1 has done his work of selection as only a scholar of his breadth and distinction could achieve4 ,,london3 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,passages in italics are surrounded by underscores4 #b4 ,images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest paragraph break4 #c4 ,footnotes have been renumbered and moved to the end of the paragraph in which they are referenced4 #d4 ,the original text has certain words which use oe ligature which is indicated by oe within this text4 #e4 ,there are certain letters with diacritical marks in the original text which are indicated in this e-text version using3 a letter a with macron above o letter o with macron above 7a letter a with breve #f4 ,in the original text1 the words lulu'u1 ,a'ana and ,tuia'ana use single high-reversed-#i quotation mark which has been replaced by plain single quotation mark in this e-text version4 #g4 ,other than the corrections listed above1 printer's inconsistencies in spelling1 punctuation1 hyphenation1 and ligature usage have been retained4