,american ,libraries47 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,weather4 ,,and ,a ,,guide ,,to ,,its ,,changes4 ,,by ,t4 ,b4 ,,butler4 ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,company1 ,,nos4 #cdf #cdh ,,broadway4 #ahef4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahef1 by ,t4 ,b4 ,,butler1 ,in the ,clerks ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,district of ,connecticut4 ,,electrotyped ,,by ,,thomas ,b4 ,,smith1 #hb #hd ,beekman ,street4 ,,printed ,,by ,j4 ,f4 ,,trow1 #cgi ,broadway4 ,,introduction4 ,the atmospheric conditions and phenomena which constitute ,the ,weather are of surpassing interest4 ,now1 we rejoice in the genial air and warm rains of spring1 which clothe the earth with verdure2 in the alternating heat and showers of summer1 which insure the bountiful harvest2 in the milder1 ripening sunshine of autumn2 or the mantle of snow and the invigorating air of a moderate winter's-day4 ,now1 again1 we suffer from drenching rains and1 devastating floods1 or excessive and debilitating heat and parching drought1 or sudden and unseasonable frost1 or extreme cold4 ,and now1 death and destruction come upon us or our property1 at any season1 in the gale1 the hurricane1 or the tornado2 or a succession of sudden or peculiar changes blight our expected crops1 and plant in our systems the seeds of epidemic disease and death4 ,these1 and other normal conditions1 and varied changes1 and violent extremes1 potent for good or evil1 are continually alternating above and around us4 ,they affect our health and personal comfort1 and1 through those with whom we are connected1 our social and domestic enjoyments4 ,they influence our business prosperity directly1 or indirectly1 through our near or remote dependence upon others4 ,they limit our pleasures and amusements--they control the realities of to-day1 and the anticipations of to-morrow4 ,none can prudently disregard them2 few can withhold from them a constant attention4 ,scientific men1 and others1 devote to them daily hours of careful observation and registration4 ,devout ,christians regard them as the special agencies of an over-ruling ,providence4 ,the prudent1 fear their sudden1 or silent and mysterious changes2 the timid1 their awful manifestations of power2 and they are1 to each and all of us1 ever present objects of unfailing interest4 ,this interest finds constant expression in our intercourse with each other4 ,a recent ,english writer has said3 ,the germ of meteorology is1 as it were1 innate in the mind of every ,englishman--the weather is his first thought after every salutation4 ,in the qualified sense in which this was probably intended1 it is1 doubtless1 equally true of us4 ,indeed1 it is often not only a first thought after a salutation1 but a part of the salutation itself--an offspring of the same friendly feeling1 or a part of the same habit1 which dictates the salutation--an expression of sympathy in a subject of common and absorbing interest--a sorrowing or rejoicing with those who sorrow or rejoice in the frowns and smiles of an ever-changing1 ever-influential atmosphere4 ,if consistent with our purpose1 it would be exceedingly interesting to trace the varied forms of expression in use among different classes and callings1 and see how indicative they are of character and employment4 ,the sailor deals mainly with the winds of the hour1 and to him all the other phases of the weather are comparatively indifferent4 ,he speaks of airs1 and breezes1 and squalls1 and gales1 and hurricanes2 or of such appearances of the sky as prognosticate them4 ,the citizens1 whose lives are a succession of days1 deal in such adjectives as characterize the weather of the day1 according to their class1 or temperament1 or business2 and it is pleasant1 or fine1 or very pleasant or fine2 beautiful1 delightful1 splendid1 or glorious2 or unpleasant1 rainy1 stormy1 dismal1 dreadful or horrible4 ,the farmer deals with the weather of considerable periods2 with forward or backward seasons1 with cold snaps or hot spells1 and wet spells or dry spells4 ,and there are many intermediate varieties4 ,the acute observer will find much in them to instruct and amuse him1 and will probably be surprised to find how much they have to do with his first impressions of others4 ,but ,i have a more important object in view4 ,i propose to deal with ,the ,,philosophy of the ,weather--to examine the nature and operation of the arrangements from which the phenomena result2 to strip the subject1 if possible1 of some of the complication and mystery in which traditionary axioms and false theories continue to envelop it2 to endeavor to grasp its principles1 and unfold them in a plain1 concise1 and systematic manner1 to the comprehension of the many1 who are equal partners with the scientific in its practical1 if not in its philosophic interest2 and to deduce a few general rules by which its changes may be understood1 and1 ultimately1 to a considerable extent1 foreseen4 ,this is not an easy1 perhaps not a prudent undertaking4 ,nor is my position exactly that of a volunteer4 ,a few words seem necessary1 therefore1 by way of apology and explanation4 ,in the fall of #ahec1 in the evening of a fair autumnal day1 ,i started for ,hartford1 in the express train4 ,just above ,meriden1 an acquaintance sitting beside me1 who had been felicitating himself on the prospect of fine weather for a journey to the north1 called my attention to several small patches of scud--clouds he called them--to the eastward of us1 between us and the full clear moon1 which seemed to be enlarging and traveling south--and asked what they meant4 ,ah6 said ,i1 they are scud1 forming over the central and northern portions of ,connecticut1 induced and attracted by the influence of a storm which is passing from the westward to the eastward1 over the northern parts of ,new ,england1 and are traveling toward it in a southerly surface wind1 which we have run into4 ,they seem to go south1 because we are running north faster than they4 ,you see them at the eastward because they are forming successively as the storm and its influence passes in that direction1 and are most readily seen in the range of the moon2 but when we reach ,hartford you will see them in every direction1 more numerous and dense1 running north to underlie that storm4 ,i had seen such appearances too many times to be deceived4 ,it was so4 ,when we arrived at ,hartford they were visible in all directions1 running to the northward at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour4 ,in the space of forty minutes we had passed from a clear1 calm atmosphere 7and which still remained so71 into a cloudy1 damp air1 and brisk wind blowing in the same direction we were traveling1 and toward a heavy storm4 ,my friend passed on1 and met the southern edge of the rain at ,deerfield1 and had a most unpleasant journey during the forenoon of the next day4 ,taking the cars soon afterwards1 in the afternoon1 for the south1 ,i found him on his return4 ,shall ,i have fair weather now till ,i get home8 said he4 ,there are no indications of a storm here1 or at present1 ,i replied1 but we may observe them elsewhere1 and at nightfall4 ,he kept a sharp look-out1 and1 as we neared ,new ,haven1 discovered faint lines of cirrus cloud low down in the west1 extending in parallel bars1 contracting into threads1 up from the western horizon1 in an ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 direction toward the zenith4 ,now1 what is that8 said he4 ,the eastern outlying edge of a ,n4 ,e4 storm1 approaching from the ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 ,it is now raining from #aej to #bjj miles to the westward of the eastern extremity of those bars of cirrus-condensation2 perhaps more1 perhaps less2 and under those bars of condensation the wind is attracted1 and is blowing from the ,n4 ,e4 toward the body of the storm1 and where the condensation is sufficiently dense to drop rain4 ,that dense portion will reach here1 and it will rain from twelve to fifteen hours hence4 ,as we pass along the shore1 and run under that out-lying advance cirrus-condensation1 we shall see that the vessels in the ,sound have the wind from the ,n4 ,e41 freshening1 but we shall continue to have this light and scarcely-perceptible air from the northward for a time--the ,n4 ,e4 wind always setting in toward an approaching storm1 out on the ,sound1 much sooner than upon the land4 ,as we approached the storm1 and the storm us1 the evidence of denser condensation at the west1 and of wind from the east1 blowing toward it1 became more apparent4 ,the fore and aft vessels were running up ,sound with sheet out and boom off1 before a fresh ,n4 ,e4 breeze1 and my friend was astonished4 ,i must understand this1 said he2 how is it8 ,all very simple4 ,the page of nature spread out above us is intelligible to him who will attentively study it4 ,the laws which produce the impressions and changes upon that page1 are few and comprehensible4 ,although there is great variety1 even upon the limited portion which is bounded by our horizon1 there is also substantial uniformity2 and1 although the changes are always extensive1 often covering an area of one thousand miles or more1 and our vision can not extend in any direction more than from thirty to fifty1 yet those changes are always1 to a considerable extent1 intelligible1 and may often be foreseen4 ,has meteorology made such progress8 ,by no means4 ,it has1 indeed1 been raised to the dignity of a science1 and professorships endowed for its advancement4 ,some books have been written1 and many theories broached in relation to it2 and innumerable observations of the states of the barometer and thermometer1 of the clouds1 and the quantity of fallen rain1 and the direction and force of the wind--made and recorded simultaneously in different countries--have been published and compared2 and a great many important facts established1 and tables of 'means' constructed1 and just inferences drawn1 yet the few and simple arrangements upon which all the phenomena depend1 and their philosophy1 have not yet been clearly elicited or understood4 ,have not the ',american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science' arrived at some definite and sound conclusion upon the subject8 ,no2 it has been with them1 for many years1 an interesting subject for papers and debate4 ,some very valuable articles1 upon particular topics1 or branches of the subject1 have been read and published4 ,but the ,cyclonologists1 as they term themselves1 and who seem to think the great question is1 ',are storms whirlwinds8' appear with new editions and phases of their favorite views as regularly as the annual meeting recurs2 and1 though they have not convinced1 they seem to have silenced their opponents4 ,the only conclusion1 however1 judging from their debates1 to which the ,association appear to have come with any considerable unanimity1 is1 that they are yet without sufficient authentic observations and well-established facts1 to authorize the adoption of the ,huttonian1 ,daltonian1 ,gyratory1 or ,aspiratory1 or any of the other numerous theories which abound4 ,and they are right4 ,the subject is mystified by these theories and speculations of the study1 founded on barometrical and thermometrical records1 and the direction and force of the surface winds4 ,the qualities of heat were among the earlier discoveries of science1 and all the phenomena of the weather were forthwith attributed to its influence4 ,hastily-formed and erroneous views of its power1 and the manner of its action in particular localities1 and under particular circumstances1 have retained the credence accorded to them when first announced1 although subsequent discoveries have shown their fallacy2 some new theory of modification having been invented to reconcile the discrepancies as soon as they appeared4 ,perhaps it is not too much to say 7however it may seem to one not thoroughly acquainted with the subject1 who does not know that the primary and secondary modifying hypotheses found in ,kaemtz1 may be counted by hundreds7 that there is not remaining in any other science1 and possibly in all others1 an equal amount of false and absurd theory1 and of forced and unnatural grouping of admitted facts to sustain it1 as in meteorology as at present taught and received4 ,astronomy1 as a science1 is almost perfected--the nature1 and size1 and orbits1 of the distant worlds around us are known--while constant changes and alternating atmospheric conditions1 which all occur within less than six miles of us1 affecting all our important interests1 and obvious to our senses1 although much talked off1 and made the objects of many theories1 are but little understood4 ,how1 then1 did you acquire the information you seem to possess8 ,by studying 'the countenance of the sky1' for in no other way has such information ever been1 or can it ever be1 acquired4 ,by a long-continued1 daily1 and sometimes hourly observation of the clouds and currents of the atmosphere1 in connection with such reports of the then state of the weather elsewhere1 as have fallen under my notice1 and the effect of its changes upon the animal creation--for very much can be learned from them4 ,yonder flock of black ducks that sit on that inshore rock1 above the tide--the wildest and most suspicious of all their tribe--although the air is calm about them1 know well that a storm is at hand4 ,they probably both see and feel it4 ,as twilight approaches they will fly away inland1 forty or fifty miles perhaps1 and settle among the lilies or grass which surround some fresh-water pond1 certain of remaining while the storm lasts1 and for one day at least1 out of danger1 and undisturbed4 ,many a time1 in my boyhood1 have ,i heard1 in the stillness of evening1 the whistling of their wings1 as they swept up the ,connecticut valley1 to seek1 on the borders of the coves1 and in the creeks of the meadows1 a concealed and safe feeding-place during a coming storm4 ,and many a time in the autumn1 after they had all passed down for the season1 when the indications of an approaching storm were clearly visible at nightfall1 have ,i waited for them to return1 on the eastern margin of a bend in the cove1 on the eastern side of a creek1 to shoot them1 though invisible1 by shooting across the head of the wake1 which they made upon the water in alighting1 and from which the few remaining rays of twilight that came from the western sky were reflected4 ,but ,i am far from being singular in this4 ,that page is more extensively read than is generally supposed4 ,many plain1 unassuming men--farmers1 shipmasters1 and others within the circle of my acquaintance--know more1 practically1 of the weather than the most learned closet-theorist1 or the most indefatigable recorder of its changes4 ,every one1 by studying the page of nature above him1 as he would the page of any other science1 and testing1 by observation1 the numerous theories invented to account for the varied phenomena1 may learn much1 very much1 that will be useful and interesting to him1 and which he can never learn from books1 or instruments1 or theories alone4 ,well1 said my friend1 ,i am too far advanced in life1 as are many others1 to commence such observations1 and you must publish4 ,i demurred1 and he insisted4 ,it is difficult to spare the time2 and ,i can not neglect my profession1 ,i urged4 ,where there is a will there is a way1 he replied4 ,it is difficult to make one's self understood without many illustrations4 ,very well1 they are easily obtained4 ,but they cost money1 and it is said 'science will not pay its way' like fiction and humbug4 ,that1 said he1 is a libel--such science will4 ,every one is interested in the weather--all talk about it--and thousands would carefully observe it1 if they could be correctly guided in their observations4 ,i may get into unpleasant controversy4 ,suppose you do2 you can yield your position if wrong1 and maintain it if right1 and magna est veritas4 ,but ,i may be mistaken in some of the views to which it will be necessary to advert1 if ,i attempt to systematize the subject4 ,be it so--your mistakes may lead others to the discovery of the truth4 ,besides1 the weather is common property1 and every one has a right to theorize about it1 or to talk about it1 as they please--even to call a stormy day a pleasant one1 or make any other mistaken remark concerning it2 and every other person is entitled to a like latitude of reply4 ,and further1 said he1 with some emphasis1 no important observation1 in relation to a subject of such interest1 should be lost2 and1 if you have observed one new fact1 or drawn one new and just inference from those which have been observed by others2 and especially if1 from observation and reading1 you can deduce from the phenomena an intelligible1 observable1 general system1 it is not only your right1 but duty1 to make it known4 ,such a knowledge of the true system is greatly desired by every considerate man4 ,to my friend's last argument ,i was compelled to yield4 ,i could make no reply consistent with the great principles of fraternity1 which ,i shall ever recognize4 ,the promise was given4 ,my friend went on his way1 and ,i went to the daguerreotypist to procure a copy of the then appearance of the sky1 as the first step toward its fulfillment4 ,the fulfillment of that promise1 reader1 you will find in the following work4 ,it was commenced as an article for a magazine1 but it has grown on my hands to a volume4 ,justice could not well be done to the subject in less space4 ,it has been written during occasional and distant intervals of relaxation from professional avocations1 or during convalescence from sickness1 and it is1 for these reasons1 somewhat imperfect in style and arrangement4 ,but ,i have no time to rewrite4 ,there is much in it which will be old to those who read journals of science1 but new to those who do not4 ,there is more which will be new to all classes of readers1 and may1 perhaps1 be deemed heretical and revolutionary by conservative meteorologists2 yet ,i feel assured that the work is a step in the right direction--that it contains a substantially accurate exposition of the ,philosophy of the ,weather1 and valuable suggestions for the practical observer4 ,i have inserted my name in the title-page1 contrary to my original intention1 and at the suggestion of others2 for ,i have no scientific reputation which will aid the publisher to sell a copy4 ,nor do ,i desire to acquire such reputation4 ,it can never form any part of my capital in life4 ,nor has it influenced me at all in preparing the work4 ,i have aimed to fulfill a promise1 too hastily given1 perhaps--to put on record the observations ,i have made1 and the inferences ,i have drawn from those of others--to induce and assist further observations1 and1 if possible1 of a general and connected character--and to impress those who may read what ,i have written with the belief1 that they will derive a degree of pleasure from a daily familiarity with1 and intelligent understanding of1 the countenance of the sky1 not exceeded by that which any other science can afford them4 ,i have examined1 with entire freedom and fearlessness 7but ,i trust in a manner which will not be deemed censurable or in bad taste7 the theories and supposed erroneous views of others1 for1 in my judgment1 the advancement of the science requires it4 ,says ,sir ,george ,harvey1 in his able article on ,meteorology1 written for the ,encyclopaedia ,metropolitana3 ,it is humiliating to those who have been most occupied in cultivating the science of meteorology1 to see an agriculturist or a waterman1 who has neither instruments nor theory1 foretell the future changes of the weather many days before they happen1 with a precision which the philosopher1 aided by all the resources of science1 would be unable to attain4 ,the admissions contained in this paragraph1 in relation to the comparative uselessness of instruments and theories1 and the value of practical observation1 are both in a good measure true4 ,and the time has come1 or should speedily come1 when pride of opinion1 and esprit du corps1 among theorists and philosophers1 should neither be indulged in1 nor respected2 and when their theories should be freely discussed1 and rigidly tested by the observations of practical men4 ,such measure1 therefore1 as ,i have meted1 ,i invite in return4 ,let whatever ,i have advanced1 that is new1 or adopted that is old1 be as rigidly tested1 and as freely discussed4 ,let the errors1 if there be any--and doubtless there are--be detected and exposed4 ,let the ,,truth be sought by all2 and meteorology1 as a ,,practical ,,science1 advance to that full measure of perfection and usefulness1 of which it is unquestionably susceptible4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,heat and moisture are indispensable to the fertillity of the earth--,arrangements exist for their diffusion and distribution1 and all the phenomena of the weather result from their operation--,heat furnished or produced mainly by the direct action of the sun's rays--,manner in which it is diffused over the earth--,other causes operate besides the sun's rays--,the earth intensely heated in its interior--,heat derived from the great ,oceanic currents1 and the aerial currents which flow from the tropics to the poles1 and from magnetism and electricity--,water distributed by an atmospheric machinery as extensive as the globe--,evidences of this--,its distribution over the continents of ,north ,america--,explanation of it--,source from whence our supply of water is derived1 and from which our rivers return #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,our rivers return in the form of clouds1 and in storms and showers--,definition and character of storms--,differences in the character of the clouds which constitute them--,nomenclature of ,howard--,its imperfections--,new order of description--,low fog--,high fog--,storm fog--,storm scud--,n4 ,w4 scud--,cumulus-- ,stratus--,cirrus--,compounds of the two latter--recapitulation in tabular form #bd ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,our rivers do not return from the ,north ,atlantic--,all storms and showers move from the westward to the eastward--,seeming clouds seen moving from the eastward to the westward are scud--,they are incidents of the storm1 and not a necessary part of it--,the storm clouds are above them1 moving to the eastward--,occasions when this may be seen--,admitted facts prove it--,investigations prove it--,may be known from analogy--,from the fact that there is an aerial current pursuing the same course in which the storms originate--,character of this current--,its influence upon our country--,importance of a knowledge of its origin1 cause1 and the reciprocal action between it and the earth--,to this end necessary to go down to the chambers of the ,south #dc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the trade wind region--,its extent and arrangements--,its belt of daily rains and movable character--,the trade winds--,the extra tropical belt of rains--,connection between them and their annual movements--,the counter-trades--,their origin and situation--,one of them constitutes our aerial current--,it originates in the ,south ,atlantic as a surface-trade--,anomalies of the trade wind region--,dry seasons--,humboldt's description of them--,exist where the surface trades are situated--,the rainless countries-- ,concentrated counter-trade--,monsoons--,received theory in relation to them a fallacy--,cause of the great central phenomena-- ,calorific theory a fallacy--,land not hotter under the belt of rains1 nor sea materially so--,theory should be abandoned #eb ,,chapter ,v4 ,the agent1 magnetism--,its character and currents--,oxygen magnetic--,precipitation at the belt of rains occasioned by depolarization--,storms originate in this central belt1 and move toward the poles #hb ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,course and functions of the counter-trade--,ours come from the ,south ,atlantic--,reason why it can not come from the ,pacific-- ,mistake of ,mr4 ,redfield and ,lieutenant ,maury in regard to it-- ,all our storms originate in it--,proofs of this--,state of the weather1 whether hot or cold affected by it--,proofs of this--,all our surface winds are incidents of it1 and due to its conditions and attractions--,proofs of this--,character of the different winds--,anomalies of ,mr4 ,blodgett accounted for--,received theory in regard to sea and land breezes a mistaken one--,proofs of this--,peculiar character of the ,n4 ,w4 wind--,identity with the winter ,mexican northers--,character of the ,west ,india hurricanes-- ,of the thunder-gust--,of the tornado--,sundry particulars in relation to the latter--,due to currents of electricity-- ,proportions of winds in different localities--,examination of the work of ,professor ,coffin upon that subject--,examination of ,lieutenant ,maury's theory of the monsoons #ib ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,height of the counter-trade in different latitudes--,cause of the ,calms of ,cancer--,influence of mountains upon the counter-trade-- ,reports of ,herndon and ,gibbon--,focus of precipitation in the extra-tropical belt north of its southern line--,evidences of this--,the elevation of the counter-trade above the earth varies in the same latitude with the variations in the phenomena of the weather--,temperature of the counter-trade--,rain dust1 its origin and indications--,volcanic ashes--,how far they indicate its course of progression--,question whether there is an eastern progression of the body of the atmosphere above the machinery of distribution #agi ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,important to understand the precise character of the reciprocal action between the earth and the counter-trade--,connection between the width and movements of the belt of inter-tropical rains and the volume of the trades--,its peculiarities over ,africa1 the ,atlantic1 and ,south ,america--,the magnetic equator-- ,character of the storms which originate in the inter-tropical belt indicate local magnetic action--,supposed influence of volcanic action--,gulf ,stream changes its position--,this the result of magnetic action--,alternating contrasts of heat and cold1 and rain and drought--,dr4 ,webster's history of the weather--,spots upon the sun--,their character and influence--,cold or warm periods during the same decade1 and during different decades--,connection between the spots and magnetic disturbances and variations--,influence of the moon upon the weather--,no decisive inference to be drawn from these facts1 and a more critical examination necessary #bjd ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,examination of existing theories--,calorific theory the prevailing one--,lateral overflow of ,professor ,dove--,absurdity of his views in relation to them--,his theory of hurricanes--,its absurdity--,a new theory by ,mr4 ,dobson--,three theories advanced by meteorologists of this country--,professor ,espy's theory--,mr4 ,bassnett's theory--,mr4 ,redfield's theory--,extended examination of the latter--,his theory in relation to the fall of the barometer contradictory in its character--,philosophy of the barometric change--,no aid to be derived from these theories #bcb ,,chapter ,x4 ,further inquiry in relation to the reciprocal action between the earth and the counter-trade--,terrestrial magnetism1 and what we know of it--,its elements1 and their variations--,their connection with the variations of atmospheric condition--,magnetism acts through its connection with electricity--,character of the latter and its variations--,their connection with atmospheric conditions-- ,electricity as well as magnetism in excess over this country-- ,effects of it upon our climate--,closer consideration of the atmospheric phenomena--,their diurnal changes and connections compared with those of magnetism and electricity--,grouping of all the diurnal variations--,particular and separate examination of them--,classification of storms--,examination in detail of the several classes and the primary influence of the earth or counter-trade in relation to each #bhe ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,prognostics #cdj ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,weather4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,heat and moisture are indispensable to the fertility of the earth4 ,without suitable arrangements for their diffusion and distribution1 and within the limits of certain minima and maxima1 it would not have been habitable1 or the design of its ,creator perfected4 ,these arrangements therefore exist1 and while the earth remaineth seed time and harvest shall not cease4 ,few and simple in their character1 though necessarily somewhat complicated and irregular in their operation1 the ultimate result is always attained4 ,a beautiful system of compensations supplies the losses of every apparent irregularity in one section or crop1 by the abundance of others4 ,from the operation of these few1 simple1 connected1 and intelligible arrangements for the diffusion of heat and the distribution of moisture over the earth1 result all the phenomena which constitute the weather2 and by studying them1 and their operation1 we may acquire an accurate knowledge of its ,philosophy4 ,the necessary heat is furnished1 or produced1 mainly by the direct action of the sun's rays2 and the most obvious feature in the arrangements for its diffusion is that by which the sun is made to shine successively and alternately upon different portions of the earth4 ,nothing animate or organic could endure his burning rays1 if they shone continuously or vertically upon one point1 or could exist without their occasional presence4 ,hence the provision for a diurnal rotation1 to prevent the exposure of any portion of the globe to the action of those rays for twenty-four consecutive hours1 except for a limited period1 and at a considerable angle1 in the polar regions4 ,but the earth is spheroidal1 and a diurnal revolution would still leave that portion which lies under the equator too much1 and the other too little1 exposed to the action of the sun4 ,this is obviated by an annual revolution of the earth around the sun1 and an obliquity of its axis1 by reason of which the northern and southern portions are alternately and1 as far as the tropics vertically1 exposed to the sun2 and it is made to travel 7so to speak7 from tropic to tropic1 producing summer and winter1 and other important phenomena4 ,this obliquity and consequent change of exposure are in degree precisely what the wants of the earth would seem to require4 ,if it was greater1 the sun would travel further north and south1 but the alternate winters would be longer and more severe4 ,if it was less1 the end would not be as perfectly attained4 ,the direct action of the sun's rays upon the earth1 particularly those portions which lie north and south of the tropics1 is not the only source from which the supply of heat is derived4 ,although there is a general increase of heat in spring and summer when the sun travels north1 and of cold when he travels south in winter1 yet there are frequent irregularities attending both4 ,very sudden and great changes occur in each of them4 ,frost sometimes1 cool weather often1 occurs in midsummer1 and considerable heat and tornadoes in midwinter4 ,and ordinarily the maxima and minima of each month and1 indeed1 of each week are widely apart4 ,even in the polar regions1 in midwinter1 where the sun does not shine at all1 the same moderating changes with which we are conversant occur in degree4 ,an extract or two from the register found in ,dr4 ,kane's narrative of the ,grinnell ,expedition will illustrate this4 ,,january #ahea1 7,,latitude ,,about #gd deg41 ,,longitude ,,about #gj deg474 ,date4 ,wind4 ,force4 ,ther4 ,bar4 ,sky and ,weather4 ,jan4 #c calm -#bf4a #bi4fb blue sky1 m4 #d ,w4 gent breeze -#ba4c #bi4ec blue sky1 detached clouds1 m4 #e ,w4 by ,n4 gent breeze -#c4i #bi4ei blue sky1 m41 clouded over4 #f ,w4 by ,s4 light breeze -#j4h #bi4fg clouded over1 m41 snow4 #g ,w4 gent breeze -#ad4d #bi4if blue sky1 detached clouds1 m4 #h ,w4,s4,w4 light air -#ba4b #cj4ad blue sky1 m4 #bi ,w4,n4,w4 light air -#ah4i #cj4ai blue sky4 #cj ,,nw4 by ,w4 light air -#ac4e #cj4ag clouded over1 m4 #ca ,,nw4 by ,w4 gent breeze -#d4d #bi4ce clouded over1 snow4 ,feb4 #a ,w4 light breeze -#aa4g #bi4bg cloudy1 blue sky1 m4 #b ,w4 light air -#be4a #bi4fb blue sky1 detached clouds1 m4 ,these extracts are instructive4 ,it will be seen that on the #c;d of ,january1 when the sun had been absent some weeks1 it was calm1 the thermometer stood at #bf deg4 below zero 7the - or minus mark before the figures indicates that71 and the barometer at #bi4fb1 with blue sky1 somewhat misty or hazy--7the letter m4 standing for misty or hazy7--a state of the air which existed most of the time when it did not snow or rain1 and therefore is of no importance in this connection4 ,the next day the thermometer began to rise1 and the barometer to fall4 ,on the #eth it clouded over1 and the thermometer rose rapidly1 and on the #fth it had risen more than #be deg41 and snow fell4 ,on the #gth it cleared off1 the thermometer fell rapidly1 and the barometer rose4 ,on the #hth the thermometer had fallen to #ba deg4 below zero1 and the barometer had risen to #cj4ad4 ,another instance1 in all respects similar1 occurred the latter part of the month4 ,we shall see hereafter that these changes are precisely like those which occur with us1 and every where4 ,that1 as in the polar regions1 and whether the sun be present or absent1 or obscured by clouds1 and by night as well as by day1 the changes from warm to cold and from cold to warm are sudden and great1 and that the latter are connected with the fall of rain and snow--that every where in winter it moderates to storm4 ,many other instructive instances1 especially in relation to the great difference in the seasons in our own country1 and upon the same parallels elsewhere1 might be cited if it were necessary4 ,but they will more appropriately appear in the sequel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,in the above cut the isothermal lines are ,centigrade4 ,the zero of the ,centigrade thermometer is the freezing point of water1 or #cb deg4 of ,fahrenheit4 ,the boiling point of water is #ajj deg4 ,centigrade1 or #bab deg4 ,fahrenheit4 ,a degree of ,centigrade is equal to one degree and four-fifths1 ,fahrenheit4 ,the #j deg4 line of the cut1 therefore1 is #cb deg4 of ,fahrenheit--the line of #e deg4 above is #da deg4 ,fahrenheit--the line of #e deg4 below is #bc deg4 ,fahrenheit1 and so on4 ,the reader1 who is not familiar with the difference in the scale of the thermometer1 is desired to remember this2 for we shall make occasional extracts in which the temperature is given in the ,centigrade scale4 ,the cause of those irregularities1 especially in the same seasons of different years1 and when very great1 is often sought and supposed to be found in the presence or absence of spots on the sun1 ice floes and bergs in the ,atlantic1 etc41 etc4 ,but neither the spots1 nor ice1 nor other local causes produce them4 ,the cause will be found in the character of the arrangements we are considering1 and the irregular action of the power which controls them4 ,nor is the temperature of the northern hemisphere1 north of the tropics1 equal in the same latitudes4 ,very great diversities exist in the annual mean as well as the mean of the different seasons4 ,accurate observations at many points have enabled men of science to demonstrate this by drawing isothermal lines 7i4 e41 lines of equal average annual heat7 from point to point around the earth1 which show at a glance these differences4 ,the annexed cut is a polar projection of the isothermal lines of the northern hemisphere1 as far down as the tropic1 copied from ,kaemtz's ,meteorology4 ,the dotted lines show the parallels of latitude1 the dark lines the isothermal lines1 or lines of equal annual average temperature4 ,the reader is desired to observe how rarely they correspond with the parallels of latitude1 and how they fall below in a few instances1 and in others with great uniformity rise almost to the pole4 ,take1 for example1 the isothermal line of #j or zero--that is1 the line where the mean or average height of the thermometer for the year is at zero4 ,at ,behring's ,straits this line is a little below the ,arctic circle1 or the parallel of #ff4cj north latitude4 ,passing east over ,north ,america1 it descends into ,canada1 almost to ,lake ,superior1 and to about the #ejth parallel3 that is to say1 it is on an average during the year as cold on our continent at the #ejth parallel as it is near ,behring's ,straits at the #feth parallel4 ,passing east1 the line of zero rises again over the ,atlantic ,ocean until1 in the meridian of ,spitzbergen1 it reaches1 within the ,arctic circle1 up almost to the #geth parallel4 ,so1 too1 the isothermal of #e deg4 below zero1 which is below the #fjth parallel in ,siberia1 rises in the ,north ,sea1 above ,behring's ,straits1 to the parallel of #ge deg41 descending on the continent in ,north ,america to the #eeth parallel1 and rising again almost to the pole at ,spitzbergen1 to descend again in ,siberia1 while the isothermals of #aj deg4 and #ae deg4 below zero1 which in ,north ,america are but just above the latitude of #fj deg4 and #ge deg4 respectively1 ascend abruptly surrounding the magnetic pole1 and falling short of the geographical one4 ,let this projection of the lines of equal temperature1 and particularly the situation of the magnetic poles1 be studied well1 for we shall recur to it hereafter in illustration of many important portions of our subject4 ,it is apparent from these facts1 and were it necessary might be rendered still more so by referring to others1 that other causes operate in the distribution of heat over the earth besides the direct action of the sun's rays upon it4 ,doubtless very considerable allowance is to be made for the difference of seasons1 and difference during the same season upon the land and upon the ocean2 in mountainous countries and level ones4 ,but making every allowance for them1 the fact that other causes have a controlling influence in producing the deviations still remains most obvious4 ,neither the difference of temperature between the land and the ocean1 or land surfaces of unequal elevations1 will account for the elevation of the isothermal lines on different portions of the ocean1 or their extension around the magnetic poles4 ,returning to a consideration of the arrangements for the diffusion of heat1 we observe3 ,first1 that the earth itself is intensely heated in its interior4 ,this is inferred1 and justly1 from the fact that the thermometer is found to rise about one degree for every fifty-five feet of descent--whether in boring artesian wells1 exploring caves1 or sinking shafts in mines4 ,it is demonstrated1 also1 by the existence of hot springs and the action of volcanoes4 ,heat is supposed to be conducted from the center toward the surface every where1 but with difficulty and slowly4 ,it is also supposed to be conducted from the tropical regions toward the poles4 ,such is the opinion of ,humboldt4 7,cosmos1 vol4 i4 p4 #afg47 ,probably it reaches the surface and exerts an influence1 also1 upon the weather through the ocean1 and by heating it in its greatest depths4 ,little attention has been paid1 so far as ,i am informed1 to the question how far the ocean is thus heated in tropical latitudes4 ,doubtless a portion of the warmth of the ocean there is derived from that source1 and it has its influence in changing the temperature of the deep-seated cold polar currents of1 the great oceans4 ,perhaps it may yet be found that the icebergs are detached by it in the polar seas--the observations of ,dr4 ,kane point to such a result4 7,grinnell ,expedition1 p4 #aac1 and also chap4 #dh47 ,little need be said of the inconsiderable quantities of heat supposed to be derived by radiation from the stars1 the planets1 and from space4 ,if any such are derived they are too inconsiderable to be of importance in this inquiry4 ,heat is also carried1 and in quantities which exert very considerable influence upon the weather1 from the tropics to the poles by the great oceanic currents which flow unceasingly from one to the other4 ,the most important of these with which we are acquainted is the ,gulf ,stream of the ,atlantic4 ,gathering in the ,south ,atlantic1 and passing north through the ,caribbean ,sea and the ,gulf of ,mexico1 it issues out through the ,bahama ,channel1 and flows north along the eastern coast of the ,united ,states1 but some distance from it1 to ,newfoundland1 and from thence continuing to the north-east and spreading out over the surface of the ocean--a portion of it mingling with the waters of the ,north ,atlantic in passing--it flows up on the western coast of ,europe1 around the ,faroe ,islands1 and ,spitzbergen1 to the polar sea2 passing around ,greenland1 and perhaps through its ,fiords1 it descends again through the sounds and channels of the ,arctic regions into ,baffin's ,bay1 and through ,davis's ,straits1 burdened with the icebergs and floes of the polar waters1 to return again to the ,south ,atlantic4 ,for reasons which will appear in the sequel1 it has comparatively little influence upon the weather of the ,united ,states4 ,western ,europe1 however1 ,greenland1 the islands which lie in its course1 and the polar seas1 are most materially influenced4 ,although not the only cause1 it has very much to do with the remarkable elevation of the isothermal lines over the ,northern ,atlantic1 and upon ,western ,europe1 as seen upon the map4 ,a like oceanic current exists in the ,pacific ,ocean1 the influence of which may also be traced upon the map by the elevation of the isothermal lines at the northern extremity of that ocean1 and upon the north-west coast of ,north ,america4 ,a vast amount of heat is transported from the tropical to the temperate and frozen regions of the earth by these great oceanic currents4 ,another supply is derived from aerial currents which flow from the tropics toward the poles4 ,these currents exist every where over the entire surface of the earth1 but in more concentrated volumes along the great lines of no variation1 and greater magnetic intensity1 on the western side of the great oceans1 over the eastern portions of the two continents of ,north ,america and ,asia4 ,not1 as meteorological writers suppose1 in the upper portions of the atmosphere1 having risen in the trade-wind region and run off at the top toward the poles by force of gravity1 but near1 and sometimes in contact with the earth4 ,the influence of these aerial currents upon the temperature of the atmosphere1 and in producing the phenomena we are to consider1 is exceedingly important4 ,we shall have occasion to examine them with great care and minuteness under another head1 for upon them1 more than any other portion of the arrangements1 depend not only the diffusion of heat1 but also the distribution of moisture4 ,still another supply of heat1 during the sudden changes1 at least1 is produced by the action of terrestrial magnetism and electricity4 ,very great progress has been made within a short period1 in the investigation of the nature of these agents4 ,the identity1 or at least intimate association or connection of heat1 light1 electricity1 and magnetism1 always suspected1 has been in various ways1 and by a variety of experiments demonstrated4 ,the influence of magnetism if distinct from gravitation1 is second only to that2 and its agency in producing the phenomena we are considering is primary and controlling4 ,we will only1 in this connection1 ask the reader to note the situation of the north magnetic poles 7for there are two of them72 the manner in which the isothermal lines surround them2 the fact that they are poles of cold1 i4 e41 that it is colder there than even to the north of them4 ,we shall recur to this part of the subject again4 ,such1 briefly considered1 are the principal arrangements by which heat is diffused over the earth4 ,equally marked by infinite wisdom1 and equally interesting and important1 are the arrangements by which moisture is distributed4 ,doubtless the general belief is that this is a simple process2 that water evaporates and rises till it meets a colder stratum of atmosphere1 and then condenses and falls again2 or that1 according to the ,huttonian theory1 currents of air of different temperatures mingle and equalize their heat1 and the aggregate mass when equalized in temperature is cooler1 and therefore is unable to hold as much moisture in solution as the most heated portion had1 and the excess falls in rain4 ,but the process is by no means so simple1 nor is heat the sole or most powerful agent concerned in it4 ,currents of air do not mingle1 but stratify4 ,evaporation from the surface of any given portion of the earth outside of the tropics does not alone supply that portion with rain4 ,vast and wonderful1 coextensive with the globe itself1 and perfectly connected1 is the machinery by which that supply is furnished even to the most inconsiderable portion of its surface4 ,take your map of ,north ,america and note1 in this respect1 its peculiarities4 ,it extends from the ,isthmus of ,darien to the ,arctic regions1 and from the #feth to the #afjth meridian of west longitude from ,greenwich1 and has upon its surface a type of every climate in the world4 ,for the purpose of simplifying and illustrating the matter in hand1 let us divide it into five sections4 ,let the first section embrace ,central ,america and ,southern ,mexico1 south of #bh deg42 the second1 ,northern ,mexico and ,southern ,new ,mexico1 ,california1 etc41 between the parallels of #bh deg4 and #cb deg42 the third1 ,northern ,california1 ,utah1 ,southern ,oregon1 and ,western ,new ,mexico1 north of the parallel of #cb deg42 the fourth1 the entire continent north of #db deg42 and the fifth1 the eastern ,united ,states1 east of the meridian of #ajj deg44 ,these divisions are not intended to be entirely accurate in their separation1 but substantially so for the purpose of illustrating the differences which exist in each4 ,the accompanying diagram shows approximately1 by dotted lines1 the divisions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,now let us see in what a diverse manner1 and to what a different extent1 they are severally supplied with moisture4 ,central ,america and ,southern ,mexico lie within the tropics--their rains are tropical rains4 ,the season is divided into wet and dry1 as are the seasons of all tropical countries which are not rainless4 ,during the rainy season it rains a portion of nearly every day1 and during the dry season the sky is clear1 the air is pure1 and rain seldom falls4 ,all around the earth within the tropics1 over the land and over the sea1 there is a belt of almost daily rains1 varying in width1 north and south1 in different sections1 but averaging about five hundred miles4 ,this belt of daily rains is formed at and by the meeting of ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,e4 trades1 and travels north and south with them1 as they do with the sun1 encircling the globe4 ,by this narrow belt a portion of the earth's surface1 an average of some #ce deg4 of latitude1 is supplied with moisture4 ,wherever it is situated at any given period1 the tropical rainy season exists2 and when it is absent in its northern or southern transit1 the dry season prevails4 ,southern ,mexico is within the range of this moving belt1 and in its course to the northward with the sun1 in our summer from ,may to ,october1 it arrives over1 and covers that country with a rainy season4 ,when the sun returns to the south1 taking with it the trades and this belt of tropical rains1 that portion of ,mexico is without rain1 and dry1 and so continues until the rainy belt returns in the following year4 ,while the belt is over ,southern ,mexico it is nearly all precipitation1 and there is little evaporation2 while that belt is absent it is all evaporation1 with little or no rain4 ,surely this is not consistent with the prevailing belief of simple evaporation1 ascent to a colder stratum1 commingling1 and condensation1 and rain4 ,southern ,mexico at least is not supplied by mere evaporation from its surface1 and must therefore form an exception to that belief1 and to the ,huttonian theory4 ,but we shall recur again to the peculiarity of distribution within the tropics4 ,turn now for a brief space to ,northern ,mexico1 ,southern ,new ,mexico1 and ,southern ,california4 ,in ,northern ,mexico1 ,southern ,new ,mexico1 ,utah1 and ,california1 between the parallels of #bh deg4 and #cb deg41 and particularly west of the mountain ranges1 we find an almost rainless region1 sterile and worthless1 resembling that which is found upon nearly the same parallels of north latitude in ,northern ,africa1 ,egypt1 ,arabia1 ,beloochistan1 ,afghanistan1 and ,north-western ,india2 and in corresponding latitudes south of the ,equator1 in ,peru1 a portion of ,southern ,africa1 and the northern and middle portions of ,new ,holland4 ,why ,northern ,mexico and the other countries named are thus sterile and comparatively rainless1 we shall see hereafter1 when we examine critically the machinery of distribution as it operates within the tropics4 ,it is the fact that it is thus sterile and rainless to which we desire to call attention in this place4 ,mr4 ,bartlett thus describes it3 ,on leaving the head waters of the ,concho1 nature assumes a new aspect4 ,here shrubs and trees disappear1 except the thorny chaparral of the deserts2 the water-courses all cease1 nor does any stream intervene until the ,rio ,grande is reached1 three hundred and fifty miles distant1 except the muddy ,pecos1 which1 rising in the ,rocky ,mountains1 near ,santa ,fe1 crosses the great desert plain west of the ,llano ,estacado1 or ,staked ,plain4 ,from the ,rio ,grande to the waters of the ,pacific1 pursuing a westerly course along the #cb;d parallel1 near ,el ,paso ,del ,norte1 there is no stream of a higher grade than a small creek4 ,i know of none but the ,san ,pedro and the ,santa ,cruz--the latter but a rivulet1 losing itself in the sands near the ,gila--the other but a diminutive stream1 scarcely reaching that river4 ,at the head-waters of the ,concho1 therefore1 begins that great desert region1 which1 with no interruption save a limited valley or bottom-land along the ,rio ,grande1 and lesser ones near the small courses mentioned1 extends over a district embracing sixteen degrees of longitude1 or about a thousand miles1 and is wholly unfit for agriculture4 ,it is a desolate1 barren waste1 which can never be rendered useful for man or beast1 save for a public highway4--,bartlett's ,personal ,narrative1 vol4 i4 p4 #ach4 ,turning now to ,central and ,upper ,california1 and ,utah1 and ,southern ,oregon1 we find still another peculiarity4 ,like ,southern ,mexico1 they have a rainy and dry season1 but at a different period1 and for a different reason4 ,the dry season of ,california1 etc41 is the summer of the northern hemisphere1 and her rainy season the winter4 ,california is1 therefore1 dry when ,southern ,mexico is wet1 and vice versa4 ,the belt of rains which supplies ,california with moisture during her rainy seasons is the belt of extra-tropical rains1 which extends from the northern limit of the north-east trades to the poles1 encircling the earth4 ,the southern edge of this extra-tropical belt is carried up on the western coast of ,america1 and in that portion of the continent in summer1 when the sun and trades1 and the inter-tropical rainy belt travel to the north1 and uncover ,california1 etc41 leaving them without rain for a period of about six months4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,,in ,,summer4 ,as the sun1 with the trades1 travels south1 the southern edge of the belt of extra-tropical rain follows1 and covers ,california1 etc41 again extending gradually from the north to the south1 and thus their wet season returns4 ,the annexed diagrams by the shading will show the situation of the rainy belts which cover ,mexico1 ,utah1 ,new ,mexico1 and ,california in summer and winter1 and that the belts of rains are entirely distinct and different in character4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,,in ,,winter4 ,here again in this section of the continent1 as in ,mexico1 evaporation is going on for six months of the year1 and were it not for the return of the belt of rains from the north1 in the fall1 would go on for the entire year without precipitation2 and for the other six months precipitation is vastly in excess4 ,nor can this be reconciled with1 or explained by1 the ,huttonian or any other received theory of rain4 ,here again it is obvious that evaporation alone1 however great or long continued1 will not furnish the evaporating section with rain4 ,the northern portion of the continent lies beneath the zone of extra-tropical rains1 and north of the northern limit of the ,n4 ,e4 trades--is never uncovered from it1 and has no distinct rainy or dry season1 although more rain falls at certain periods1 and in certain localities1 than at others4 ,the climate of that part of ,oregon which lies upon the ,pacific1 and the character of its rains1 resemble those of ,north-western ,europe1 and will be further explained hereafter4 ,coming to the portion of the continent which we occupy1 the #eth section1 we find it different still--a most favored region4 ,portions of it--,eastern ,texas1 for instance--are upon the same parallels of latitude as the rainless regions of ,northern ,mexico1 etc4 ,eastern ,texas1 however1 is not rainless4 ,other portions are upon the same parallels as ,california1 etc41 yet have no distinct rainy and dry season4 ,we repeat1 this section is a most favored region--without a parallel upon any portion of the earth's surface1 except1 in degree1 in ,china and some other portions of ,eastern ,asia4 ,it is not only without a distinct rainy and dry season1 but it is watered by an average1 annually1 of more than forty inches of rain1 while ,europe1 although bounded on three sides by seas and oceans1 and apparently much more favorably situated1 receives annually an average of only about twenty-five--if we except ,norway1 and one or two other places1 where the fall is excessive4 ,the distribution of this supply of moisture over the ,united ,states is1 in other respects1 wonderful4 ,iowa1 in the interior of the continent1 far away from the great oceans1 on the east or west1 or the ,gulf of ,mexico on the south1 receives fifty inches2 some ten or fifteen inches more than fall upon the slope east of the ,alleghanies1 and contiguous to the great ,atlantic 7from which all our storms are1 erroneously1 supposed to be derived71 and the average over the entire great interior valley is about forty-five inches1 falling at all seasons of the year4 ,observe1 then1 by way of recapitulation3 ,southern ,mexico has a rainy season furnished by the belt of inter-tropical rains1 which travels up over it from the south in summer4 ,california has a rainy season1 which is furnished by the extra-tropical belt of rains1 which travels down from the north1 and covers it in winter4 ,northern ,mexico and the adjoining regions west of the #ajjth meridian are between the limits of the two1 and neither travels far enough to reach them1 except for brief and uncertain periods2 they are comparatively rainless2 while the eastern portion of the continent1 in all latitudes1 unlike the others1 is without a distinctly marked dry season1 or a rainless region1 and with the exception of occasional droughts1 is abundantly supplied with rain at all seasons of the year4 ,and now1 what is the explanation of all this8 ,what produces the extra-tropical belt of regular rains surrounding the earth1 north of the parallel of #cj deg4 north1 in some places1 and #ce deg4 in others1 extending to the pole1 with its southern edge traveling up ten or more degrees in summer1 leaving large portions of the earth subject to a dry season2 and back again in the winter to give them a rainy one8 ,what produces the narrow belt of inter-tropical rains1 encircling the earth2 traveling up and down every year over an average of #ce deg4 of latitude1 supplying every portion of it alternately with rain8 ,and what connects the two together over the eastern portion of ,north ,america1 so as to leave no distinctly marked wet and dry season1 and no rainless and sterile portion there8 ,are all these the result of simple evaporation1 ascent to a colder region1 condensation1 and descent again8 ,demonstrably not4 ,of the forty inches which fall annually upon the middle and eastern portions of the ,united ,states1 an average probably of one-half or twenty inches1 runs off by the rivers to the ocean1 or is carried away eastward by the westerly and north-westerly evaporating winds4 ,the same is true1 in degree1 of the rain which falls upon the other portions4 ,evaporation1 therefore1 could not keep up the supply4 ,from whence1 then1 does it come8 this twenty inches1 thus lost by the rivers and winds1 and with such wonderful regularity every year4 ,all the rivers run into the sea1 yet the sea is not full4 ,note the place whence the rivers come1 hither they return again4 ,but how is it that they thus return with such wonderful regularity1 in a narrow traveling belt of daily rains within the tropics1 and a movable belt of irregular rains without the tropics1 extending to the poles1 leaving a space on each side of the equator encircling the earth in like manner 7except at two points1 viz41 ,eastern ,asia and ,eastern ,north ,america71 from which they do not go1 and to which they do not return1 and which is almost entirely unfurnished with rain8 ,and all this without any relation1 whatever1 to the contiguity of the oceans8 ,obviously this is not the work of mere evaporation1 or of the accidental or irregular commingling of winds with different dew points1 or quantities of moisture in solution1 or accidental1 irregular changes of barometric pressure4 ,it is one vast1 wonderful1 connected1 and regular system--co-extensive with the globe--necessary to the return of moisture from the oceans upon the most inconsiderable portion of it1 and to the condensation of the local moisture of evaporation2 and by it the waters are returned from the oceans as regularly and bountifully upon the far interior of the great continents in the same latitudes1 as upon the isles which rest in their bosoms4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,before proceeding to an examination of this connected atmospheric machinery1 and an investigation of the particular ocean from which our rivers return1 it may be well to look at the form in which they appear to return1 that we may have a clear understanding of terms4 ,they seem to return in the form of clouds1 and in storms and showers1 although1 in truth1 they return in regular1 uniform1 ordinarily invisible currents1 and the storms and showers are but condensations in1 and discharges from portions of those currents1 aided by the local moisture of evaporation4 ,the term storms1 seems to be used by ,european meteorologists to denote what we term thunder showers or gusts1 and tornados2 while what we call storms are denominated by them regular rains4 ,as the terms are extensively in use in this country1 we must adhere to the meaning attached to them here rather than there4 ,storms with us1 then1 are regular rains of from six to forty-eight or more hours' continuance3 generally without lightning1 or thunder1 or gusts1 and usually with wind of more or less force1 from some easterly point4 ,they are called north-east storms1 or south-east storms1 according to the point from which the surface winds blow4 ,practically we shall find that this distinction is of some importance1 for the north-east storms are the longest1 lasting generally twenty-four hours1 or more1 while the south-east ones seldom1 if ever1 continue as long4 ,these storms extend over a considerable surface1 rarely less than one hundred miles in one direction or another1 and sometimes fifteen hundred1 or more4 ,distinct showers cover but a small surface1 sometimes not more than forty to one hundred rods1 as in the tornado1 and rarely more than ten miles4 ,belts of showers1 each new one forming a little more to the south1 often1 in summer1 pass across the country1 following each other in succession2 and these belts may be of considerable width1 say thirty to one hundred and fifty miles4 ,the clouds which constitute the storms and showers differ in appearance and character1 as well in the active as in the forming state4 ,clouds are of distinct characters1 alike1 substantially1 every where under like circumstances2 and a distinct nomenclature has been applied to them by ,dr4 ,howard1 of ,london4 ,he notes three kinds of primary clouds3 viz41 cirrus1 stratus1 and cumulus2 and inasmuch as the boundary line between them is not very distinct1 certain compounds of the three1 viz43 cirro-stratus1 cirro-cumulus1 and cumulo-stratus4 ,this nomenclature is every where received1 and portions of it are of great practical importance4 ,the three principal descriptions of cloud1 viz43 the cirrus1 the stratus1 and the cumulus1 we have very much as they have in ,europe1 and doubtless as they exist every where outside of the tropics4 ,the nimbus1 another cloud described by him1 is not distinct from the cumulus or stratus4 ,an isolated1 limited thunder-shower in a clear sky1 presents the appearance of a nimbus1 as shown in the cuts1 but the basis of it is a cumulus1 and it differs from an ordinary fair-weather cumulus merely in the dark and fringe-like appearance of the rain as it is falling from its lower surface1 and sometimes in the existence of a stratus above and in connection with it4 ,a similar form is often assumed by the peculiar clouds of the ,n4 ,w4 winds in ,march or ,november1 when they assume the form of squalls1 and drop flurries of snow4 ,the nimbus1 therefore1 is not a distinct cloud1 but an appearance which the cumulus1 stratus1 or cirro-stratus has in a stormy or showery state1 and does not deserve a distinct name4 ,it is but a cumulus1 or a stratus1 or cirro-stratus dissolving in snow or rain4 ,it is important that this term should be abandoned4 ,it tends to confuse and prevent a clear understanding of the difference in the character of the clouds1 and in relation to which precision is both difficult and desirable4 ,the figures on pages #bg and #bi1 show the different kinds of clouds as designated by ,howard4 ,they are copied from the engravings in the sixth edition of ,maury's ,sailing ,directions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,figure #e4 ,the cirrus is indicated by #a bird4 ,the cirro-cumulus by #b ,the cirro-stratus by #c ,the cumulo-stratus by #d ,figure #f4 ,the cirrus by #a ,the cumulus by #c ,the stratus by #b ,the nimbus by #d ,how far these representations correspond with the actual appearance of the different compound forms in ,england1 ,i can not say4 ,but although they convey a general idea1 they are not sufficiently accurate for practical illustration or observation here4 ,indeed ,howard himself has omitted from his last edition his plate of the clouds1 assigning as a reason1 that the real student will acquire his knowledge in a more solid manner by the observation of nature1 without the aid of drawings1 and that the more superficial are liable to be led into error by them4 ,the collection of forms in the cuts does not contain some very important ones1 and contains some which are not distinct forms2 but they may aid us somewhat in this inquiry1 and1 therefore1 ,i have copied them4 ,it is well1 also1 for the reader to have the generally received description before him4 ,but for the purpose of practical illustration hereafter1 and greater precision1 ,i shall follow a somewhat different order in describing them1 and introduce two forms of scud quite as important1 practically1 as any other4 ,first1 then1 commencing at the earth1 we have what may be properly termed fog1 or low fog4 ,this forms1 in still clear weather1 in the valleys1 and over the surface of the rivers and other bodies of water1 during the night1 and most frequently the latter part of it1 and is at its acme at sunrise1 or soon after1 limiting vision horizontally and perpendicularly1 and dissolving away during the forenoon4 ,it is rarely more than from two to four hundred feet in height at its upper surface1 and often much less1 and is composed of vesicular condensed vapor1 sometimes sufficiently dense to fall in mist1 and is doubtless in composition substantially what the clouds are in the other strata of the atmosphere1 as observed by us1 or passed through by aeronauts4 ,i have never seen it carried up to any considerable height into the other strata by any of the supposed ascending currents1 to form permanent clouds1 and shall have occasion to allude to the fact in another connection4 ,it disappears usually before mid-day1 and has1 when thus formed1 no connection with any clouds which furnish rain4 ,to this ,dr4 ,howard originally gave the name of stratus1 and so it is represented upon the cut2 but the latter term may be with greater propriety applied to the smooth uniform cloud in the superior strata from which the rain or snow is known to fall1 and ,i shall retain and so apply it4 ,the next in order1 ascending1 is high fog4 ,this is usually from one to two thousand feet in height at its lower surface4 ,it forms1 like low fog1 during the night and in still weather2 and is rarely1 if ever1 connected with clouds which furnish rain4 ,it breaks away and disappears between ten and twelve in the forenoon1 usually passing off to the eastward4 ,this fog is most commonly seen in summer and autumn1 particularly the latter1 and unless distinguished from cloud will deceive the weather-watcher4 ,it is readily distinguishable4 ,although often very dense1 obscuring the light of the sun as perfectly as the clouds of a north-east storm1 it differs from them4 ,it forms in still clear weather1 is present only in the morning1 is perfectly uniform1 and1 before its dissolution commences1 without breaks1 or light and shade1 or apparent motion1 and unaccompanied by scud or surface wind4 ,the storm clouds are never entirely uniform1 or without spots of light and shade1 by which their nature can be discerned1 and rarely1 when as dense as high fog1 without scud running under them and surface winds4 ,there is another fog still1 connected with rain storms1 but it does not often precede them2 occurring at all seasons1 but most commonly in connection with the warm ,s4 ,e4 thaws and rains of winter and spring2 and which usually comes on after the rain has commenced and continued for awhile1 and the easterly wind has abated2 occupying probably the entire space from the earth to the inferior surface of the rain clouds or stratus4 ,practically this does not require any further notice4 ,it is an incident of the storm4 ,when formed it remains while the storm clouds remain1 and passes off with them4 ,it is sometimes exceedingly dense in ,february and ,march1 when it accompanies a thaw1 and if there is a considerable depth of snow1 it has the credit of aiding essentially in its dissolution4 ,mingled with the smoke of ,london1 it produced there the memorable dark day of the #bdth of ,february1 #ahcb1 and at various other times has produced others of like character4 7,see ,howard's ,climate of ,london1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #cf1 #bjg1 #cjc47 ,these fogs have been so dense there that every kind of locomotion was dangerous1 even with lanterns1 at mid-day4 ,the next in order1 ascending1 are the storm scud1 which float in the north-east or easterly1 south-east or southerly wind1 before and during storms4 ,these1 as the reader will hereafter see1 are1 practically1 very important forms of cloud condensation--although they have found no place in any practical or scientific description given of the clouds1 and are not upon the cuts4 ,they are patches of foggy seeming clouds of all sizes1 more or less connected together by thin portions of similar condensation1 often passing to the westward1 south-westward1 north-westward1 or northward with great rapidity4 ,their average height is about half a mile1 but they often run much lower4 ,they are usually of an ashy gray color4 ,the annexed cut shows one phase of them1 from among many taken by daguerreotype4 ,the arrows pointing to the west show the scud distinguished from the smooth partially formed stratus above4 ,this view was taken a few hours prior to the setting in of a heavy ,s4 ,e4 rain storm4 ,it is a northerly view4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,at about the same height1 but in a different state of the atmosphere1 float the peculiar fair-weather clouds of the ,n4 ,w4 wind4 ,they usually form in a clear sky1 and pass with considerable rapidity to the ,s4 ,e4 ,sometimes they are quite large1 approaching the cumulus in form1 and white1 with dark under surfaces1 and at others1 in the month of ,november particularly1 are entirely dark1 and assume the character of squalls and drop flurries of snow2 and then resemble the nimbus of ,howard4 ,they assume at different times and in different seasons1 different shapes like those of the scud1 the cumulus1 or the stratus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,they form and float in the peculiar ,n4 ,w4 current which is usually a fair-weather wind1 and are never connected with storms4 ,in mild weather they are usually white1 and in cold weather sometimes very black1 and at all times differ in color from the ashy gray scud of the storm4 ,this variety is not represented upon the general cuts4 ,the annexed diagram shows one phase of them1 but they are readily observable at all seasons of the year1 when the ,n4 ,w4 wind is prevailing2 differing in appearance according to the season4 ,let these1 as well as the storm scud1 be carefully observed and studied by the reader1 and let no opportunity to familiarize himself with their appearance be lost4 ,a brief glance at each recurrence of easterly or north-westerly wind will suffice4 ,illustration3 ,,summer ,,cumuli4 ,the cumuli appear in isolated clouds of every size1 or in vast clouds composed of aggregated masses1 as the peculiar cloud of the thunder shower4 ,they form as low down as the scud or fair-weather cloud of the ,n4 ,w4 wind1 which1 for convenience1 ,i will call ,n4 ,w4 scud2 and often in violent showers1 and particularly in hail storms1 extend up as far as the density of the atmosphere will permit them to form4 ,professor ,espy thinks he has measured their tops at an altitude of ten miles4 ,others have estimated their height1 when most largely developed1 at twelve miles2 but it is very doubtful whether the atmosphere can contain the moisture necessary to form so dense a cloud at that elevation4 ,it is their immense height1 however1 whether it be six1 or eight1 or ten miles1 together with the sudden and violent electric action1 condensing suddenly all the moisture contained in the atmosphere within the space occupied by the cloud1 which produces such sudden and heavy falls of rain or hail4 ,as the rain drops or hail1 when formed at such an elevation1 in falling through the partially condensed vapor of the cloud must necessarily enlarge by accretion from the particles with which they come in contact1 and probably also by attraction1 their size when they reach the earth1 though frequently very considerable1 is not a matter of astonishment4 ,the cumulus is represented in the general plate with sufficient accuracy to show its peculiar character4 ,in summer1 when the air is calm1 the weather warm1 and no storm is approaching1 there is always1 in the day time1 a tendency to the formation of cumuli4 ,this tendency exhibits itself about ten o'clock in the forenoon1 and they gradually form and enlarge until about two in the afternoon2 and after that1 if they do not continue to enlarge and form showers1 they melt away and disappear before nightfall4 ,sometimes in ,july and ,august the atmosphere will be studded with them at mid-day1 floating about three-quarters of a mile from the earth 7in a level country71 gently and slowly away to the eastward4 ,at times it may seem as if they must coalesce and form showers1 yet they frequently do not1 but gradually melt away1 as before stated4 ,the cumulus is the principal cloud of the tropics1 and is not often seen with us except in summer1 or when our weather is tropical in character4 ,the engraving on the preceding page1 shows a phase of these fair-weather summer cumuli4 ,the last in order occupying 7with their compounds7 the higher portions of the atmosphere1 are the cirrus and stratus4 ,the cirrus is often the skeleton of the other1 and precedes it in formation4 ,these are the proper clouds of the storm1 in our sense of the term4 ,while1 however1 the cirrus remains a cirrus1 it furnishes no rain4 ,when it extends and expands1 and its threads widen and coalesce into cirro-stratus and stratus1 or it induces a layer of stratus below it1 the rain forms4 ,the following is ,dr4 ,howard's description of cirrus3 ,parallel1 flexuous or diverging fibers1 extensible by increase in any or in all directions4 ,clouds in this modification appear to have the least density1 the greatest elevation1 and the greatest variety of extent and direction4 ,they are the earliest appearance after serene weather4 ,they are first indicated by a few threads penciled1 as it were1 on the sky4 ,these increase in length1 and new ones are in the mean time added to them4 ,often the first-formed threads serve as stems to support numerous branches1 which in their turn1 give rise to others4 ,the illustrations in the general cut are imperfect1 and do not represent the delicate fibers of the cloud1 for it is a difficult cloud to daguerreotype or engrave1 but the representation is sufficiently accurate to give the reader a general idea of the different varieties1 and enable him to discover them readily by observation4 ,they are the most elevated forms1 always of a light color1 and often illuminated about sunset by the rays of the sun shining upon their inferior surface2 the sun1 however1 often illuminates1 in like manner1 the dense forms of cirro-stratus1 and the latter1 from their greater density1 are susceptible of a brighter and more vivid illumination4 ,the stratus is a smooth1 uniform cloud--the true rain cloud of the storm2 often forming without much cirrus above1 or connected with it4 ,it may be seen in its partially formed state in the bank in the west1 at nightfall1 or in the circle around the moon in the night4 ,when it becomes sufficiently condensed1 rain always falls from it1 but in moderation4 ,if there be large masses of scud running beneath it for its drops to fall through 7especially as is sometimes the case1 in two or more currents71 the rain may be very heavy4 ,but more of this hereafter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,the annexed cut shows the forming stratus1 light and thin1 passing to the east1 as indicated by the short arrows just before a storm1 while the scud beneath is running to the west4 ,it was copied from a daguerreotype view1 facing northwardly4 ,intermediate between the fibrous1 tufted1 cirrus1 and the smooth uniform stratus1 there is a variety of forms partaking more or less of the character of one or the other1 and termed cirro-stratus4 ,no single correct representation of cirro-stratus as a distinct cloud1 can be given--but several varieties will be hereafter alluded to1 under the head of prognostics4 ,several modifications are represented with tolerable accuracy upon the cuts4 ,the cirro-cumulus is a collection in patches of very small distinct heaps of white clouds2 they are called fleecy clouds1 from their resemblance to a collection of fleeces of wool1 and are imperfectly represented on the general cut4 ,they do not appear often1 and are usually fair-weather clouds4 ,this form has none of the characteristics of the cumulus1 and does not appear in the same stratum4 ,it was probably called cumulus because its small masses are distinct1 as are those of the ordinary cumulus4 ,it occurs in the same stratum as cirro-stratus1 and properly belongs to that modification4 ,i retain the name inasmuch as the cloud is of some practical importance4 ,the cumulo-stratus is seldom seen in our climate1 as it is represented in the cut4 ,stratus condensation above1 and in connection with cumulus condensation1 is not uncommon1 but that precise form is rare4 ,this1 too1 is practically of no consequence1 and ,i shall take no further notice of it4 ,recapitulating1 ,i give 7in a tabular form7 the three principal strata and their modifications1 located with sufficient accuracy for illustration4 ,the clouds which are found in an upper or lower portion of a stratum are so represented by the location of their names2 those which appear at all heights in the stratum1 with the names across4 ,the elevation is the average one--although there is no limit to the cirrus above1 except the absence of sufficient moisture4 ,it was seen by ,guy ,lussac1 and has been by other aeronauts1 at an elevation of five miles1 or more1 when too delicate to be visible below4 ---------------------------------------- -------- #c miles4 ,cirrus4 ,cirro-cumulus4 ,cirro-stratus4 ,primary ,cumulus extending up stratum4 in violent showers4 ,stratus4 ---------------------------------------- -------- #a-a_/b miles4 ,scud ,n4 ,w4 scud4 ,cumulus ,storm scud4 cumulus ,fair-weather ordinarily and stratum4 its base always4 ---------------------------------------- -------- #a_/b mile4 ,fog ,high fog4 ,storm fog4 stratum4 ,low fog at the surface of the earth4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,with the assistance of this table of elevations1 and a careful observation1 the reader can soon become familiar with the forms of clouds and their relative situations4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,having thus taken a brief view of the different clouds1 let us return to the inquiry1 from what ocean1 and by what machinery1 our rivers return4 ,not wholly or mainly from the ,north ,atlantic1 although it lies adjacent to us1 and they often seem to do so2 for1 first1 all storms1 showers1 and clouds1 which furnish1 independently1 any appreciable quantity of rain to the ,united ,states1 and even adjacent to the ,atlantic1 or indeed to the ,atlantic itself1 come from a westerly point1 and pass to the eastward4 ,this is a general1 uniform1 and invariable law1 although there is in different places1 and in the same place at different times1 some variation in their direction2 ranging in storms from ,w4 by ,s4 to ,s4 ,s4 ,w41 and in showers between ,s4 ,w4 and ,n4 ,w41 to the opposite easterly points of the compass2 the most general direction1 east of the ,alleghanies1 being from ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 to ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 ,but do we not see1 you inquire--at least those of us who live east of the ,alleghanies--that when it rains1 the wind is from the eastward2 and that the clouds follow the wind from the east to the west8 ,you do indeed1 generally1 in all considerable storms1 observe that the wind blows from some easterly point1 and that seeming clouds are blown by it to the westward2 but what you see1 and call clouds1 are not the clouds which furnish the rain4 ,far above the seeming clouds you notice1 directly over your head when it rains or snows1 are the rain or snow clouds1 dense and dark1 passing to the eastward1 how strong soever the wind may blow from the quarter to which they tend1 or any other quarter1 between you and them4 ,what you see below them are scud4 ,so the sailors call them1 and so ,i have termed them4 ,it is a dictionary name1 and a good one1 expressive of a distinction between them and clouds4 ,they are thin1 and the sun shines through them1 although with some difficulty1 when the rain clouds above are absent or broken4 ,this east wind and the scud are not the storm1 or essential parts of it4 ,storms occasionally exist1 particularly in ,april1 without either4 ,they are but incidents1 useful1 but not necessary incidents1 as all surface winds are4 ,if you could see a section of the storm1 you would see the rain cloud above1 moving to the east1 and the scud beneath running to the west1 as indicated by the arrows in the cut on page #dj4 ,opportunities frequently occur when these appearances may be seen4 ,storms are sometimes very long1 a thousand miles1 perhaps1 from ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 to ,e4 ,n4 ,e41 and not more than one to three hundred miles wide from ,s4 ,e4 to ,n4 ,w41 and their sides1 particularly the northern ones1 regular1 and without extensive partial condensation4 ,then the storm cloud above1 moving to the eastward1 and the scud running under to the westward1 may be seen as in the cut4 ,so they may be seen before1 at the commencement1 and at the conclusion of easterly storms1 in a majority of cases1 and the reader is desired to notice them particularly as opportunities occur4 ,the term running1 too1 is a very expressive one1 used by sailors as applicable to scud4 ,for while the forming or formed storm clouds may be moving moderately along1 at the rate of twelve to fifteen or twenty miles an hour1 from about ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 to ,e4 ,n4 ,e41 the scud may be running under them in a different direction--opposite1 or diagonal1 or both--at the rate of twenty1 fifty1 sixty1 and1 in hurricanes1 even ninety miles an hour4 ,you have doubtless seen these scud running from ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,w41 and without dropping any moisture1 a day or sometimes two days1 before the storm coming from the ,s4 ,w4 reached the place where you were2 and then1 sometimes the storm cloud slipped by to the southward1 and the expected storm at that point proved a dry northeaster4 ,sometimes the condensation1 although sufficiently dense to influence and attract the surface atmosphere1 and create an easterly wind and scud1 does not become sufficiently dense to drop rain1 and then1 too1 we have a dry northeaster1 which may melt away or increase to a storm after it has passed over us4 ,i have never seen1 except1 perhaps1 in a single instance1 one of these masses of scud1 however dense1 which had not a rain 7stratus7 cloud above it1 drop moisture enough to make the eaves run4 ,so you see it may be true1 and if you will examine carefully1 you may satisfy yourself that it is true1 that the storms all move from a westerly point to the eastward1 notwithstanding the wind under them is blowing1 and the scud under them are running to the westward4 ,there are many other methods by which the reader may determine this matter himself4 ,he may catch an opportunity for a view1 when there is a break in the stratus cloud above1 and the sun or moon1 no longer obscured by the storm cloud1 shines through the scud beneath4 ,then he may see they are moving in different directions4 ,the upper cloud1 if there be any of it left1 always to the eastward4 ,again1 we may see the storm approach from the westward1 as it often does1 before the wind commences to blow1 and the scud to run from the eastward2 particularly snow storms in winter1 and the gentle showers and storms of spring4 ,again1 thunder storms1 we know1 come from the westward1 and apparently against an east wind4 ,it is sometimes said they approach from the east1 but it is a mistake4 ,during thirty years attentive observation in different localities1 ,i have never seen an instance4 ,they sometimes form over us1 or just east of us1 or one may form at the east and another at the west1 and as they spread out in forming1 one may seem to be coming from the east1 or there may be an easterly current1 with dense flocculent scud at the under surface of the shower cloud running westward1 but they finally pass off to the eastward1 and never to the westward4 ,it is possible that a patch of scud may become sufficiently dense and electrified to make a shower1 but ,i have never observed one4 ,such an apparent instance may be found recorded in ,sillman's ,journal1 vol4 xxxix4 page #eg4 ,i have seen the scud assume a distinct cumulus form1 but never to become sufficiently dense to make a thunder shower4 ,thunder and lightning sometimes attend portions of regular storms in spring and autumn1 but the thunder is always heard first in the west1 and last in the east4 ,again1 there are admitted facts with which you are conversant1 which prove this proposition4 ,when it has been raining all day1 and just at night the storm has nearly all passed over to the eastward1 and the sun shines under the western edge of it1 and sets clear1 as it is termed--you say that it will be clear the next day4 ,why8 ,because the storm will not pass to the westward1 covering the sun and continuing1 how strong soever the wind may be from the east2 and because it is passing1 and will continue to pass off to the eastward1 leaving the sky clear4 ,the easterly wind will stop as soon as the storm clouds have passed1 and it will fall calm1 or the wind will come out from the westward4 ,so1 too1 when the clouds are dark in the west in the morning1 and the sun rises clear1 but goes into a cloud1 as it is expressed1 you say that it will rain4 ,and if the clouds are dense this generally proves true2 because there is a storm or shower approaching from the west1 and passing over to the east1 the western edge of whose advance condensation has met the sun in his coming1 and obscured him from your vision4 ,when1 too1 it has been storming1 and lights up in the ,n4 ,w4 you say it will clear off2 the ,n4 ,w4 wind will blow all the clouds away4 ,it is1 indeed1 generally true that when it so lights up it is about to clear off2 although it sometimes shuts down again1 in consequence of the approach of another storm from the westward1 following closely behind the one which is passing off4 ,it is a great mistake1 however1 to suppose the ,n4 ,w4 wind blows away the clouds4 ,watch the smooth stratus rain cloud at its lower edge1 where the clear sky is seen1 and you will see that it is moving on steadily to the ,n4 ,e41 in obedience to the laws of its current1 and will do so1 even when its retreating edge has passed up to the zenith1 and down to the ,s4 ,e4 ,the storm uncovers us from the ,n4 ,w4 by the contraction of its width1 or because it has a southern lateral extension and dissolution1 and not by being blown away by the ,n4 ,w4 wind2 although that wind1 by its peculiar fair-weather clouds1 may be1 perhaps1 observed beneath1 ready to follow its retreating edge4 ,again1 when it has been clear all day1 and the sun sets in a bank of cloud1 you say--it will rain to-morrow1 the sun did not set clear1 and unless that bank is a thunder cloud1 merely1 which will pass over or by you1 with or without rain1 before morning1 it is generally true that it will4 ,the bank will prove the eastern edge of an approaching storm4 ,from these generally admitted and understood facts1 you may know that storms pass from the west to the east4 ,this proposition is also proved by all the investigations of storms1 which have taken place since the settlement of this country4 ,storms of great severity attract particular attention1 and are said to back up against the wind1 because they are observed to commence storming first at the westward1 although the wind is from the eastward4 ,doubtless you recollect many such instances recorded in the newspapers4 ,no season occurs without such notices4 ,many storms have been investigated by ,mr4 ,redfield1 for the purpose of sustaining his theory4 ,many others by ,professor ,espy1 to sustain his4 ,one by ,professor ,loomis1 with great research and ability--and some by others1 accounts of all which have been published2 and every one yet investigated1 north of the parallel of #cj deg41 has been shown to pass from a westerly to an easterly point4 ,so1 too1 we may know it from analogy4 ,the laws of nature are uniform4 ,there is a great end to be accomplished1 viz43 the distribution of forty inches of water1 at regular intervals1 over a large extent of country4 ,the rivers are to return1 and the clouds are to drop fatness1 and seed time and harvest are not to cease4 ,it is to be done and is done1 by means of storms and showers1 and pursuant to general laws1 as immutable as the result4 ,most of these storms and showers1 it has been found1 and may be observed1 move from the westward to the eastward4 ,then we may know1 from analogy1 that they do so in obedience to a general1 uniform law2 and so ,i might say with confidence1 if our inquiry stopped here1 it will ever be found by those who may hereafter examine them4 ,but1 #b;d4 ,there is a current in the atmosphere1 all over the continent north of the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 but in great volume over the ,united ,states1 east of the meridian of #aje deg4 ,w4 from ,greenwich--varying in different seasons1 and upon different parallels1 and flowing near the earth1 when no surface wind interposes between them4 ,in the vicinity of ,new ,york1 the usual course of this current is from about ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 to ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 ,in the western and south-western portion of the ,united ,states1 it is1 doubtless1 more southerly--varying somewhat according to the season--and in other sections varies in obedience to the general law of its origin1 and progress4 ,i have observed its course in many places1 between the parallels of #ch deg4 and #dd deg4 ,n4 ,this current comes from the ,south ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,it is our portion of the aerial current1 which flows every where from the tropics toward the poles1 to which ,i have already alluded in connection with the distribution of heat4 ,it brings to us the twenty inches of rain which we lose by the rivers1 and by the westerly winds1 which carry off a portion of the local moisture of evaporation1 and its action precipitates the remaining portion of that moisture4 ,it spreads out over the face of our country1 with considerable1 but not entire uniformity4 ,all our great storms originate in it1 and all our showers originate in or are induced and controlled by it4 ,from the varied action1 inherent or induced1 of this current1 most of our meteorological phenomena1 whether of wet or dry1 or cold or warm weather1 result2 and a thorough knowledge of its origin1 cause1 and the reciprocal action between it and the earth1 is essential to a knowledge of the ,philosophy of the ,weather4 ,let us then go down to the chambers of the south1 to the inter-tropical regions1 of which we have said something in connection with a notice of ,southern ,mexico1 and see where1 and how this great aerial current originates4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,between the parallels of #ce deg4 north latitude1 and #ce deg4 south latitude--changing its location within this limit at different seasons of the year--encircling the earth1 and covering about one-half of its area--we find the trade-wind region4 ,in this region are the simple and uniform arrangements1 which extend every where1 and produce all the atmospheric phenomena4 ,in the center of it we find that movable belt of continual or daily rains1 and comparative calms1 particularly near its center1 about four hundred and fifty miles in width upon the ,atlantic1 and over ,africa1 and the eastern portions of the ,pacific1 and something more over ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies1 the western portion of the ,pacific and the ,indian ,ocean1 to which we have already alluded4 ,this belt of rains and calms follows the trades and sun1 in their transit north and south1 from one tropic to the other--its width and extension depending upon the volume of trade-winds existing on the sides of it4 ,its southern edge1 when the sun is at the southern solstice1 extends to #g deg4 south in the ,atlantic1 to #aj deg4 south in the ,indian ,ocean1 and still further1 probably1 over ,south ,america3 on this point ,i do not pretend to be accurate1 for accuracy is not essential4 ,when the sun is at the northern solstice the southern edge is carried up as far as #ab deg4 north1 over the ,atlantic1 and still further over the northern portions of ,south ,america1 the ,west ,indies1 and ,mexico4 ,it travels1 therefore1 from south to north1 over from twenty to forty degrees of latitude4 ,the presence of this belt of rains over any given portion of the inter-tropics1 gives that portion its rainy season1 and its absence1 as it moves to the north1 or the south1 gives the portion from which it has moved1 its dry season4 ,it passes in its transit twice each year over some portions of the country1 ,bogota1 for instance1 and two corresponding rainy and dry seasons result4 ,its presence1 and character1 and movements1 are as fixed and regular1 over from twenty-five to forty degrees of the earth's surface1 and all around it1 as the presence and movements of the sun over the same area4 ,at the northern edge of this movable belt of rain1 and extending in some places1 particularly in the ,pacific ,ocean1 north about #bj deg41 or about one thousand four hundred miles1 and in other places a less distance1 the ,n4 ,e4 trade winds prevail1 blowing toward and into it from ,n4 ,n4 ,e41 ,n4 ,e41 and ,e4 ,n4 ,e41 averaging about ,n4 ,e4 ,at the south line of this belt of rains1 extending south from twenty-five to thirty degrees1 or from sixteen hundred to two thousand miles1 the ,s4 ,e4 trades blow toward and into it1 from the ,s4 ,e41 ,s4 ,s4 ,e41 or ,e4 ,s4 ,e41 averaging about ,s4 ,e4 ,of course the northern limit of the ,n4 ,e4 trades travels north and south with the belt of rain1 toward which it blows2 and so the southern limit of the ,s4 ,e4 trades travel in like manner with the rainy belt1 or rather1 to speak with entire accuracy1 the belt of rain moves with the trades1 and the trades follow the verticality of the sun4 ,the following diagrams exhibit approximately1 and with sufficient accuracy for illustration1 the situations of the rainy belt and the trades1 when at their northern and southern limit1 as well as the manner in which it must give certain localities two rainy seasons each year1 in its transit north and south4 ,at the northern and southern limits of the trade-winds1 and extending from them to the poles1 are found the variable winds and irregular extra-tropical rains1 all over the earth1 which are shown by the shading on the maps4 ,this line of extra-tropical rains descends to the south1 following the retreating trades as they descend in our winter1 and recedes north before the trades when they return in spring and summer1 so that at the outer limit of the trades respectively1 toward the poles1 the line of extra-tropical rains will be found1 receding or following that limit1 as the trades pass up and down with the sun4 ,from the north pole to the northern limit of the ,n4 ,e4 trade-winds1 wherever found1 whether at #ch deg4 north latitude1 as in some places in summer when the sun is at the tropic of ,cancer2 or whether at #bj deg4 to #cj deg4 north latitude1 as in our winter1 when the sun is at the tropic of ,capricorn2 the extra-tropical rains prevail4 ,a state of things precisely similar exists between the south pole and the southern limit of the ,s4 ,e4 trades4 ,between this northern limit of the ,n4 ,e4 trades and the northern line of the inter-tropical belt of rains1 wherever situated 7with two exceptions1 to which we have alluded and shall allude again71 there is1 for the time being1 a dry season2 and a like dry season between the southern line of the belt of rains and the southern limit of the ,s4 ,e4 trades4 ,we have1 therefore1 extending around the earth1 a belt of daily tropical rains1 near the center1--two belts of drought which are mainly trade-wind surfaces1 one on each side of the central rainy belt1--extending to the outward limits of the trades and the line of extra-tropical rains2 and these rainy and dry belts1 moving up and down after the sun1 a distance of from twenty to forty degrees of latitude1 each year4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,,in ,,summer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,,in ,,winter4 ,such are the main phenomena1 at the surface1 in the trade-wind region4 ,ascending a step higher in the atmosphere1 we find1 above the surface-trades1 a counter-trade1 running1 not in the opposite direction1 but at right angles1 or nearly so4 ,the counter-trade which issues from the northern side of the rainy belt1 running to the ,n4 ,w4 or ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 and the counter trade which issues from the southern side1 running to the ,s4 ,w4 or ,w4 ,s4 ,w41 varying1 as the trades do in direction in different localities4 ,these counter-trades are continuations of the surface trades1 which1 ascending in their course1 have threaded their way through the opposite trade in the rainy belt1 and are continuing on at the same angle1 and in the same direction at which they blew upon the surface1 and in obedience to the same law4 ,this is apparent from several considerations4 #ast4 ,they issue at the same angle1 and over the top of the surface trades4 ,in the ,west ,indies and elsewhere1 this has been ascertained and proved by the course of the storms1 and the rotation of their surface winds1 and observation4 #b;d4 ,we can not suppose the ,n4 ,e4 trade to be reflected1 and turn back over itself at a right angle4 ,that would be impossible1 even if there were a wall of solid material there for it to blow against4 ,air is a peculiar fluid1 and it stratifies with astonishing ease4 ,he who supposes that a current of air put in motion can be turned aside by another current1 or by the atmosphere at rest1 or can be made to mingle1 is mistaken4 ,it will stratify1 and force itself onward through the adjacent and opposing atmosphere1 and in a right line4 ,i have observed some remarkable instances of this character4 #c;d4 ,the cause which operates to produce the surface trades1 still operates upon the current to carry it over into the other hemisphere2 a counter-trade1 as we shall see4 ,it is impossible1 therefore1 to believe that the surface-trades as they arrive at the belt of rains and calms1 turn at a right angle1 or at any angle1 and return3 and impossible to doubt that they pass through each other in this belt1 and out at the opposite side1 as upper currents1 at the same angle at which they entered4 ,of course the ,n4 ,e4 trade of the ,atlantic becomes the ,n4 ,e4 counter-trade of ,south ,america1 carrying their storms in a ,s4 ,w4 direction1 and the ,s4 ,e4 trade of the ,atlantic the ,s4 ,e4 counter-trade of the ,west ,indies1 carrying all their storms in a ,n4 ,w4 direction2 and what is true of them is true of the trade winds every where1 all over the globe1 over the land and over the sea4 ,doubtless here some one will say1 our upper current is a ,s4 ,w4 current4 ,true1 the ,s4 ,e4 trade which enters the belt of rains1 and issues out on the north1 a ,s4 ,e4 upper current or counter-trade1 keeps that course until it arrives at the northern limit of the surface trade1 when1 in obedience to another law1 which we shall notice1 it gradually decends near the surface1 curves to the eastward1 and becomes the ,s4 ,w4 current which passes over us4 ,and so we have the ,s4 ,e4 trade-wind of the ,south ,atlantic1 with its moisture1 warmth1 electricity1 and polarity1 over1 and perhaps sometimes around us1 dropping the electric rain which makes glad our fields2 giving us1 when not prevented by other conditions1 the balmy air of spring1 the ,indian summer of autumn1 and the mild mitigating changes of winter2 and thus1 our rivers1 which run into the sea1 return to us again4 ,but let us go back to the trade-wind region--the region of regularity and uniformity--and examine somewhat more attentively its features1 that we may more fully understand the character of this counter-trade4 ,here are #fj deg4 at least of the #ahj deg4 of the earth's surface1 and at its largest diameter1 covered in the course of the year1 and of their travels1 by the trade-winds at the surface1 the counter-trades above1 and the belt of rains and comparative calms1 formed by the action of the opposite trades1 as they thread their way through each other1 to assume the relation of counter-trades4 ,truly the magnitude1 simplicity1 and regularity of this machinery are most wonderful4 ,there are1 however1 some apparent anomalies which deserve attention4 ,here are most distinctly marked the rainy and dry seasons1 existing side by side4 ,here are the rainless portions of the earth1 already but briefly alluded to2 here the monsoons1 and another peculiarity1 viz43 the gathering of the counter-trades upon the western sides of the two great oceans1 into two aerial currents of greater volume1 analogous somewhat to the two gulf streams of those oceans4 ,let us examine these anomalies4 ,the rainy and dry seasons depend1 as we have seen1 upon the transit north and south of the rainy belt1 or belt of comparative calms4 ,wherever this belt may happen on any given day to be situated1 each side of it the trades prevail1 it is dry1 the earth is parched1 and vegetation withers4 ,these changes are graphically described by ,humboldt in his ,views of ,nature1 as they occur on the northern portions of ,south ,america1 as follows3 ,when1 beneath the vertical rays of the bright and cloudless sun of the tropics1 the parched sward crumbles into dust1 then the indurated soil cracks and bursts1 as if rent asunder by some mighty earthquake4 ,the hot and dusty earth forms a cloudy vail1 which shrouds the heavens from view1 and increases the stifling oppression of the atmosphere2 while the east wind 7i4 e4 trade-wind71 when it blows over the long heated soil1 instead of cooling1 adds to the burning glow4 ,gradually1 too1 the pools of water1 which had been protected from evaporation by the now seared foliage of the fan-palm1 disappear4 ,as in the icy north animals become torpid from cold1 so here the crocodile and the boa-constrictor lie wrapped in unbroken sleep1 deeply buried in the dried soil4 ,every where the drought announces death1 yet every where the thirsty wanderer is deluded by the phantom of a moving1 undulating1 watery surface1 created by the deceptive play of the reflected rays of light 7the mirage74 ,a narrow stratum separates the ground from the distant palm-trees1 which seem to hover aloft1 owing to the contact of currents of air having different degrees of heat1 and therefore of density4 ,shrouded in dark clouds of dust1 and tortured by hunger and burning thirst1 oxen and horses scour the plain1 the one belowing dismally1 the other with outstretched necks snuffing the wind1 in the endeavor to detect1 by the moisture in the air1 the vicinity of some pool of water not yet wholly evaporated4 ,even if the burning heat of day be succeeded by the cool freshness of the night1 here always of equal length1 the wearied ox and horse enjoy no repose4 ,huge bats now attack the animals during sleep1 and vampyre-like suck their blood2 or1 fastening on their backs1 raise festering wounds1 in which mosquitos1 hippobosces1 and a host of other stinging insects1 burrow and nestle4 ,such is the miserable existence of these poor animals1 when the heat of the sun has absorbed the waters from the surface of the earth4 ,when1 after a long drought1 the genial season of rain arrives1 the scene suddenly changes4 ,the deep azure of the hitherto cloudless sky assumes a lighter hue4 ,scarcely can the dark space in the constellation of the ,southern ,cross be distinguished at night4 ,the mild phosphorescence of the ,magellanic clouds fades away4 ,even the vertical stars of the constellations ,aquila and ,ophiuchus1 shine with a flickering and less planetary light4 ,like some distant mountain1 a single cloud is seen rising perpendicularly on the southern horizon4 ,misty vapors collect and gradually overspread the heavens1 while distant thunder proclaims the approach of the vivifying rain4 ,scarcely is the surface of the earth moistened1 before the teeming steppe becomes covered with ,killingiae1 with the many-panicled ,paspalum1 and a variety of grasses4 ,excited by the power of light1 the herbaceous ,mimosa unfolds its dormant1 drooping leaves1 hailing1 as it were1 the rising sun in chorus with the matin song of the birds1 and the opening flowers of aquatics4 ,horses and oxen1 buoyant with life and enjoyment1 roam over and crop the plains4 ,the luxuriant grass hides the beautiful and spotted jaguar1 who1 lurking in safe concealment1 and carefully measuring the extent of the leap1 darts1 like the ,asiatic tiger1 with a cat-like bound on his passing prey4 ,such is ,humboldt's description of the dry season on the ,orinoco1 and the return of the belt of rains from the south4 ,again1 within this trade-wind region are the rainless countries4 ,these are portions of the earth which the equatorial rainy belt does not ascend far enough north in summer to cover1 nor does the southern edge of the extra-tropical regular rains descend1 in winter1 far enough south to cover them1 and where1 of course1 rain seldom1 if ever1 falls4 ,such are the central parts of the ,desert of ,sahara1 ,egypt1 ,arabia1 portions of ,affghanistan1 ,beloochistan1 and the western parts of ,hindoostan1 to the north of the inter-tropical belt1 and a similar state of things exists south of the equator in parts of ,south ,america1 ,africa1 and ,new ,holland1 although upon a comparatively small surface4 ,again1 another anomaly is the gathering of the trade winds into greater volumes1 on the westerly side of the great oceans1 and the consequent carrying of the equatorial rainy belt up to the region of extra-tropical rains1 on the eastern side of the great continents of ,asia and ,north ,america1 and the peculiar liability of these aerial gulfs to hurricanes and typhoons4 ,such an aerial gulf gathers over the ,caribbean ,sea1 and the ,west ,indies4 ,passing across the ,gulf of ,mexico1 it enters over ,texas1 and ,louisiana1 and the other southern states2 its western edge passing north in autumn and winter1 on the eastern side of the highlands of ,western ,texas1 ,new ,mexico1 and the ,great ,desert2 curving1 as all counter-trades do1 to the eastward as soon as it passes the limit of the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 and spreading out over our favored country1 leaving the evidence of its pathway in the greater quantities of rain1 which fall annually upon its surface4 ,this gathering deprives a portion of the ,atlantic1 north of the tropics1 of its share of the counter trade1 and there1 as every where1 where the volume of counter-trade is small1 storms and gales are infrequent1 and of less force1 and comparative calms prevail4 ,that portion of the ,atlantic has long been known as the horse latitudes1 a name given to it by our ,yankee sailors1 because1 there1 in former times1 the old-fashioned1 low-decked1 flat-bottomed1 horse-carrying craft of ,new ,england1 bound for the ,west ,indies1 often floundered about in the calms and baffling winds1 until their animals perished for want of water1 and were thrown overboard4 ,lieutenant ,maury1 in his most praiseworthy and exceedingly useful investigation of ,the ,winds and ,currents of the ,ocean1 has defined the situation of these calms and baffling winds at different seasons--for they move up and down1 of course1 with the motion of the whole machinery--and enabled navigators to avoid them1 by running east before they attempt to make southing2 and very materially shortened the voyages to the equator4 ,a like gathering1 in volume1 of the ,s4 ,e4 trade1 on the western side of the ,pacific1 enters over ,asia1 and covers ,china and ,malaysia1 extending1 in its western course1 nearly as far as the western edge of ,hindoostan4 ,in this concentrated volume of counter-trade1 and owing to its concentrated action1 form and float the typhoons of the ,china ,sea1 and of the ,bay of ,bengal2 and to this anomalous aerial gulf stream1 the ,s4 ,e4 portions of ,asia1 from the western desert of ,hindoostan1 to the eastern portion of ,china1 north of the rainy belt1 owe their great supply of moisture and fertility1 and their peculiar climate4 ,the western line of this volume of counter-trade is marked by the eastern portion of the rainless region of ,beloochistan1 and the north-western deserts of ,india1 as the western edge of our concentrated volume of counter-trade1 is marked by the arid plains of northern ,mexico1 western ,texas1 and ,new ,mexico4 ,on the south of the equatorial rainy belt1 there is no corresponding aerial gulf of equal volume1 as there is no corresponding gulf stream of equal magnitude4 ,on the western side of the ,indian ,ocean we find a gathering of the ,n4 ,e4 trades from the ,bay of ,bengal and the ,indian ,ocean1 in which form and travel the hurricanes which prevail--traveling to the southward and westward--about the ,isle of ,france or ,mauritius2 and the lagullus oceanic current1 which runs down to the ,s4 ,w4 toward the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,but the extension of ,south ,america to the eastward1 under1 or just south of the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 does not permit the formation of such a concentrated volume on the western side of the ,atlantic1 nor is the strength or regularity of the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 on that ocean1 equal to those of the ,s4 ,e4 ,nor is the magnetic intensity on the eastern and middle portions of the ,pacific1 sufficient to produce such a concentration1 in large volume1 there4 ,the trades over that ocean1 therefore1 curve without concentration1 except a partial one1 over the western groups of ,polynesia1 which the ,asiatic line of magnetic intensity approaches and where hurricanes are sometimes found1 until we arrive near the eastern line of magnetic intensity1 on the eastern side of ,asia4 ,we shall1 hereafter1 have occasion to follow the anomalous concentrated volumes of the ,s4 ,e4 counter-trade1 of the northern tropic1 on the western side of the great oceans1 in explanation of some of the phenomena which we find north of the trade-wind region4 ,suffice it here to add1 that if it were not for the concentration of these counter-trades1 on the western side of the great oceans1 the rainless region between the parallels of #bj deg4 and #cj deg4 would encircle the earth2 and ,china and the ,eastern ,united ,states would have a distinctly marked rainy and dry season1 as have ,california1 the ,barbary ,states1 ,syria1 ,persia1 and other countries which lie north of the rainless region1 within the summer range of the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 but also within the winter descending range of the belt of extra-tropical rains4 ,another anomaly which we find in the trade-wind region1 is the monsoon4 ,there are several of them1 but they are found1 in the greatest strength and regularity1 in the ,indian ,ocean4 ,another1 defined by the investigations of ,maury1 is found on the west coast of ,africa1 extending out over the ,atlantic4 ,another prevails on the western coast of ,south and ,central ,america4 ,the etesian winds of the ,mediterranean are but the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 whose northern limit is carried up in summer1 by the transit of the connected machinery1 to the north1 over that sea4 ,the ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,e4 monsoons1 so called1 of the ,indian ,ocean1 are but the regular trades1 blowing when the belt of rains is absent1 as they do all over the globe4 ,the ,n4 ,w4 monsoon1 south of the equator1 in the vicinity of ,new ,holland2 the ,s4 ,w4 monsoon which blows from the ,arabian ,sea1 in upon ,hindoostan2 the ,s4 ,w4 monsoon of the ,atlantic1 south of the ,cape ,de ,verde ,islands2 and the variable west monsoon winds of the west coast of ,southern and ,central ,america1 and ,southern ,mexico 7known under several different names1 but chiefly by that of ,tapayaguas71 are all that deserve attention as such4 ,at first sight they appear to be anomalies1 but the facts declare their character with perfect certainty4 ,first1 they are not continuous1 like the trades1 but prevailing winds1 and are storm winds2 they always blow toward a region1 or portion of the ocean1 covered at the time by clouds and falling weather4 ,second1 they do not blow upon1 or toward1 heated surfaces of land or water--i4 e41 toward the dry and parched surfaces1 where the dry season prevails1 or from adjoining cold waters on to warm surfaces1 but toward the land or water situated under the rainy belt4 ,they are therefore incident storm winds1 7as our easterly winds are incident storm winds7 of the rain clouds of the tropics4 ,they blow in upon the land1 under the belt of rains1 while that belt with its daily cloud1 and inducing electric action1 is over it1 and follow that belt in its transit north and south4 ,they blow from the warm south polar current of the ,atlantic1 which flows ,n4 ,w4 from the coast of ,africa1 toward the inshore north polar current1 which is there flowing south1 but under the belt of rains4 ,in the ,indian ,ocean they blow from the center of that ocean1 and the ,arabian ,sea1 toward the belt which hangs over ,hindoostan1 from the ,s4 ,w42 and when the rainy belt travels south they still blow toward1 and under it1 from the ,indian ,ocean1 but of course from the ,n4 ,w4 ,the heated character of the waters of the ,indian ,ocean and ,arabian ,sea1 which receive no polar currents1 but heated waters from the ,persian ,gulf1 and from rivers which flow into the ,bay of ,bengal over the heated plains of a tropical country1 explain this4 ,so1 too1 the monsoon of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 does not blow north of the ,cape ,de ,verde ,islands1--where the heated surface of ,sahara1 burning with the rays of a vertical sun1 has a temperature sometimes ranging from one hundred and forty to one hundred and sixty degrees--but remains under the rainy belt1 drawn from the heated waters which flow up from the ,south ,atlantic1 and travels north as the rainy belt travels north in summer1 and south to the ,gulf of ,guinea1 as that travels south in winter4 ,the same is true of the ,pacific monsoon1 the ,tapayaguas1 the least marked of all1 which blows in during the rainy season upon the west coast of ,southern ,mexico1 and of ,southern and ,central ,america4 ,they are all incident rain or storm winds1 blowing in upon the land1 or on to a colder surface of different polarity1 during the rainy season2 and if it were possible to catch one of our north-easters1 in its passage over our country to the eastward1 and anchor it to the ,alleghanies1 paying out so to have it reach in part over the ,atlantic1 and keep it there in operation six months1 we should have a continual easterly wind under it2 a monsoon more strongly marked than the monsoons of the ,indian1 or ,atlantic ,oceans4 ,the received theory in relation to them is a fallacy4 ,recapitulating1 then1 all the phenomena1 we have1--,surface-trades1 blowing toward the center1 passing through each other1 and continuing on as upper or counter-trades2 a belt of rains1 with calms near the center1 formed by the trades where they meet and pass through each other1 which travels with them north and south following the sun2 two belts of drought1 following the belt of rains and the trades1 and followed by the extra-tropical line of rains1 as it travels with the trades and the rainy belt1 leaving a part of the earth which the equatorial rainy belt does not travel far enough north1 nor the extra-tropical line of rains far enough south to cover1 and which is consequently a rainless region2 the monsoons1 which are but incidents of the rainy belt1 and the gathered volumes of counter-trade1 on the west of the two great oceans1 which usurp the place of the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 carrying the rainy belt up to the region of extra-tropical rain1 and preventing the rainless region from encircling the earth4 ,upon what cause do these great central phenomena1 so vast1 so regular1 so wonderful1 depend8 ,what is the motive power of this connected atmospheric machinery1 whose action and influence extend over the entire globe8 ,heat1 heat1 say the text books1 the ,professors1 the votaries of meteorology4 ,all these phenomena are owing to the heat of the sun4 ,it heats the ocean and the earth--the air is thereby heated and rises1 the cold air rushes in from below1 then the ascended current rolls off each way at the top toward the pole1 acquiring a westerly motion from the rotation of the earth1 slipping away from under it1 and a different1 viz43 an easterly motion1 after reaching the latitude of #cj deg41 from the same rotation2 and all the winds and disturbances of the atmosphere are produced in the same way4 ,they are produced by the action of heated surfaces upon the adjacent atmosphere4 ,this is the great theory of meteorologists1 by which they attempt to account for the various atmospherical disturbances1 of both tropical and extra-tropical regions4 ,the whole theory is a fallacy--it will not stand the test of a careful examination4 ,the bases of the theory1 which are assumed to be facts1 are not so4 ,the agent has not the power claimed for it4 ,a heated surface1 alone1 never caused any considerable ascending current1 or if it did1 never produced a mile of wind4 ,i repeat it1 the theory and all incidental ones--the thousand explanatory and modifying theories1 and hypotheses--the whole system--is without foundation in fact1 and will not bear a critical examination4 ,let us see if this language is stronger than the facts will warrant4 ,the theory assumes that both the land and water1 under this central belt1 where the air is supposed to be rising are materially hotter than the land and ocean are on either side of it4 ,now1 how much hotter are the air and the land under the belt of rains and calms1 upon ,hindoostan1 or ,africa1 or ,south ,america1 where the former is supposed to be acquiring heat and expansion so rapidly1 and to be ascending1 than under1 and in the dry belts on either side8 ,none2 it is cooler by the thermometer--much cooler4 ,the central belt of rains in midsummer over ,africa1 extends up as far as #ag deg4 north latitude1 and perhaps further4 ,north of this line over the whole surface of the desert1 the ,barbary ,states1 a part of the ,mediterranean1 and some portion of ,italy1 the dry season extends1 and from the entire surface the ,n4 ,e4 trade blow into the central belt4#a ,over the desert they all pass4 ,now this desert is a sea of sand1 under a vertical sun1 intensely heated1 blistering the skin with which it comes in contact1 and often acquiring a temperature of #aej deg4 to #afj deg4 of ,fahrenheit4 ,under the central belt of rains neither the earth nor air exceed the temperature of #hd deg44 ,and yet the hot air of the desert does not ascend1 but blows into this cooler central belt2 and when it is felt as it blows off the western coast by the mariner1 or even in ,guinea1 when the belt of rains has gone south in winter1 as it often is as the harmattan1 it is suffocating and intolerable4 ,there1 then1 not only is it untrue1 that the land and the air over it under the rainy belt are hotter1 but it is true that intensely heated air blows horizontally from the ,desert of ,sahara4 ,nay1 as it will appear in the sequel1 this hottest of all surfaces not only can not have a vortex1 but it can not induce a monsoon1 and scarcely a sea breeze4 ,the same is true in a great degree of the surface1 and the air over it1 on either side of the supposed vortex of the rainy belt upon ,south ,america4 ,see the description of ,humboldt1 already given1 where the thermometer stood as high as #aae deg4 of ,fahrenheit in the shade1 while the ,n4 ,e4 winds1 the regular trades1 were blowing over the land4 ,and it is equally true of ,arabia1 and indeed of every portion of the earth4 ,there is not a spot upon the globe where the land and the air are cooler by the side of the central belt of rains1 than under it4 ,and the opposite is true every where upon the land4 ,how much hotter is the ocean and air under this supposed vortex8 ,but little hotter than they are on the side where the sun is not vertical1 and none on the other4 ,let us be a little more particular4 ,the temperature of the ,atlantic under the belt of rains in our winter1 and on the south of the belt at the latitude of #c deg4 south1 and down to #i deg4 or more south1 is #hb deg44 ,the air may range a degree1 or possibly two1 higher than the water at either point4 ,on the north this difference is from nothing at the meeting of the trades and belt of rains1 to about #d deg4 at their northern limit4 ,this is too trifling to be worth one moment's consideration4 ,it is less1 far less than the difference between the water and air of the ,gulf ,stream which runs along our coast1 and the adjoining waters and air over them4 ,while on the south side of the belt of rains the difference is actually against the theory--and the same state of things is reversed in summer1 when the sun is vertical at the north4 ,from the log of an intelligent shipmaster1 found in the wind and current charts of ,lieutenant ,maury1 ,i abridge the following1 which will illustrate this4 ,captain ,young in ,february1 found the ,n4 ,e4 trades at about #ag deg4 north latitude1 with the water at #ge deg4 and air at #gf deg41 trade-wind ,n4 ,e4 ,at #ab deg4 #af' the water was #ge deg4 the air #gf deg4 wind ,n4 ,e4 ,feb4 #bb;d4 #i deg4 #di' #gf-a_/b deg4 #gg deg4 ,n4 ,e4 #bc;d4 #g deg4 #ac' #gh deg4 #gh deg4 ,n4 ,e4 #bdth4 no obs4 #gi-a_/b deg4 #gi deg4 ,n4 ,e41 ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 rain4 #beth4 #c deg4 #aj' #ha deg4 #hc deg4 ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 rain4 #bfth4 no obs4 #hb deg4 #hb deg4 ,s4 ,e4 to ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 hazy1 rain sqs4 #bgth4 #b deg4 #bd' #hb deg4 #hb deg4 calm1 with rain4 #bhth4 no obs4 #hb deg4 #hb deg4 calm rain4 ,march #ast4 #j deg4 #bi' #hb deg4 #hb deg4 ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 sqs4 rain4 #b;d4 #a deg4 #bg' ,s4 ,l4 #hb deg4 #hb deg4 ,s4 ,e4 sqs4 rain4 #c;d4 #b deg4 #dd' #hb deg4 #hc deg4 ,s4 ,e4 ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 weather settled4 #dth4 #d deg4 #ag' #hb deg4 #hc deg4 ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 fair weather4 #eth4 #f deg4 #jh' #hb deg4 #hd deg4 ,s4 ,e4 fair wthr4 #fth4 #h deg4 #jh' #hb deg4 #hd deg4 ,s4 ,e4 ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 fair weather4 ,here the air was seven degrees colder at the extreme limit of the ,n4 ,e4 trades than in the center of the belt of rains1 as it is1 usually1 in mid-winter1 but not in summer4 ,on the other hand1 after he left the region of calms and rains1 where the water and air stood with almost entire uniformity at #hb deg41 on the #c;d of ,march1 and for three days thereafter1 during which he was in the ,s4 ,e4 trades with fair weather1 the water was the same as under the supposed vortex1 viz41 #hb deg41 and the air rose to #hc deg4 and #hd deg46 ,this is demonstration4 ,i also take from a letter of ,lieutenant ,walsh to ,lieutenant ,maury1 relative to the cruise of the ,taney the following1 showing the warmth of the ,gulf ,stream compared with the adjacent ocean4 ,we first crossed the ,gulf ,stream on the #cast of ,october2 we struck it in latitude #cg deg4 #bb'1 longitude #ga deg4 #bf' as indicated by the temperature of the water1 which was as follows3 #h ,a4,m4 water at surface #ff deg4 #i #gc deg4 #aj #gf deg4 #aa #gg deg4 #gg deg4 was the highest temperature found in crossing at this time4 ,re-crossing it in ,may1 in latitude #ce deg4 #cj'1 longitude #gb deg4 #ce'1 he found the water as follows3 #h ,a4,m4 water at surface #ga deg4 #h' #i #gc deg4 #aj #ge deg4 #e' #aa #gh deg4 #e' #ab ,m4 #gh deg4 #e' #gi deg4 being the highest temperature found4 ,the average difference between the temperature of the water of the ,gulf ,stream and the adjoining ocean1 at the line of division1 is about ten degrees1 increasing to more than twenty on approaching the coast1 and within one hundred miles--a far greater difference than is ever found on the winter side of the inter-tropical rainy belt4 ,it is not only not so1 then1 that the surface of the ocean is materially warmer under the belt of rains than the adjoining surface under the trades1 especially on the summer side1 but if it were so1 the trades would not be created thereby1 any more than upon the ,gulf ,stream4 ,and the opposite is true of the land where the line of calms1 and rains1 and drought meet1 all around the globe4 ,the fact assumed is therefore untrue4 ,the hottest surfaces1 even at the rainless portion1 where there is no vortex1 no storm1 and no wind but the continual uniform ,n4 ,e4 horizontal trade-wind1 never created1 by reason of the heat alone1 a mile of wind1 a storm or shower4 ,but1 again1 the belt of calms1 where the air is supposed to rise and create a suction which draws the trades on either side a distance of from one thousand to two thousand miles1 an average of three thousand miles in all1 at least1 is not itself1 on an average1 over five hundred miles in breadth from north to south4 ,what a wonder of meteorology is here6 ,with a breadth of five hundred miles1 the rising of the atmosphere is supposed to be so rapid and of such immense volume that it draws the surface atmosphere1 one thousand to fifteen hundred miles on one side and two thousand on the other1 with a uniform steady velocity of twenty miles per hour4 ,is this vast suction found by the unlucky mariner who may be drawn within the vortex8 ,not at all4 ,he finds no rapid suction there1 but horizontal currents1 not steady1 indeed1 like the trades1 and sometimes calms at the center1 but still the currents are there1 and1 except near the center1 there as squalls1 showers1 and baffling winds and as monsoons4 ,again1 is there at the mouth of this vortex1 or as you approach it1 an increased rapidity in the trade corresponding to the magnitude of its influence8 ,does the trade become a hurricane as it approaches the spot where it is to supply the place of that which has suddenly expanded by heat1 and been forced to rise1 boil over1 and run off at the top in turn8 ,not at all4 ,it blows gently1 even up to the very line of the rainy belt1 and becomes squally and baffling1 falls gradually calm near the center1 or changes to a monsoon4 ,but1 again1 the belt of rains is so far from being a belt of calms strictly1 that its monsoons in the ,indian1 ,atlantic1 and ,pacific ,oceans1 at times1 extend hundreds of miles out over the ocean4 ,that of the ,atlantic1 triangular1 with its base resting on ,africa1 according to ,lieutenant ,maury1 extends sometimes almost to the coast of ,south ,america1 a distance of one thousand miles1 and thus under the supposed ascending vortex4 ,where is the great uprising suction during the prevalence of this extensive surface horizontal monsoon beneath it8 ,manifestly it does not exist4 ,nay1 that monsoon is blowing from the warm current which sets up from the ,cape of ,good ,hope toward the ,caribbean ,sea1 and over the cold north polar current1 which runs down between the continent and the ,cape de ,verdes4 ,equally untrue is the presumption that the air rises over heated portions of the earth elsewhere1 and by reason of such heating4 ,perpendicular currents of the atmosphere are rarely seen1 never extensive1 or attaining any considerable altitude4 ,i have watched for them thirty years4 ,i have seen currents of air ascend1 with their moisture condensing as they ascended1 and unite with the under surface of a highly electrified cloud--the advance condensation of a thunder shower--but that cloud was moving horizontally at a distance of from one to two thousand feet above the surface of the earth1 and did not rise4 ,i have seen patches of scud rising from the surface during the intervals of a showery and highly electrified storm1 toward1 and uniting with1 the clouds above1 when very low1 as ,i have seen them approach and unite horizontally2 and doubtless there is a tendency upwards of the wind1 created and attracted by the summer shower1 as may be seen in the ascending dust before the rain1 but ,i have never been able to detect an ascending current1 except as induced and attracted by a cloud above moving horizontally1 in the hottest day or dryest time4 ,none of the clouds of our climate1 even when the earth is heated and parched by a two months' unbroken drought1 can be detected rising above the strata in which they form4 ,i have watched the cumuli at such periods when they filled the air1 and can assert that they never rise4 ,the atmosphere moves1 invariably1 in horizontal strata1 and the whole theory of ascending currents is fallacious4 ,but let us look still further at the tropical currents4 ,the true harmattan of north-western ,africa 7for the term is sometimes misapplied71 hot and blistering1 generated upon the sand of the desert--why does it blow from ,sahara horizontally1 on or over cooler surfaces1 following the belt of rains as a ,n4 ,e4 trade8 ,why does it not ascend8 ,the sirocco of north ,sahara1 the kamsin or chamsin of eastern ,sahara1 and the simoon of ,arabia1 which blow hot and suffocating from those deserts--why do they blow from heated surfaces and horizontally over cooler ones8 ,why do they not ascend8 ,arabia is surrounded on three sides by seas and gulfs1 from which evaporation is rapid4 ,her interior deserts are extensive and intensely hot--why are they rainless8 ,why do they not have a vortex1 a monsoon1 or even a shower8 ,because there is no such law or action as this theory supposes4 ,those winds blow horizontally in obedience to other laws1 and under the control of other and more powerful agents4 ,but further still1 what heating and ascending process is it that makes the variable winds north of the tropics8 that brings in the warm air and fog of the ,gulf ,stream upon our snow-clad coast1 in mid-winter1 to increase the ,january thaw8 ,nay1 what heating process is it that disturbs the calms of the polar regions with fresh breezes and gales1 sometimes of the force of #f1 when the sun does not shine1 the thermometer is from #bj deg4 to #dj deg4 below zero1 the earth and sea one frozen surface1 and the hardy explorer dressed in furs1 barely lives in his cabin covered by an embankment of snow1 and heated by a stove8 ,gentlemen1 meteorologists1 it will not do4 ,the theory is unsound2 the assumed facts do not exist4 ,the whole universe has not an agent1 organic or inorganic1 which can play such absurd and inconsistent pranks in the face of its ,creator1 as your various and complicated theories assign to caloric4 ,away with the theory and all its incidental and complicated and mystified hypotheses1 they rest like a pall upon the science2--away with the whole system1 and let us seek some agent whose power and adaptation correspond with the extent1 and simplicity1 and magnificence of the phenomena1 and1 in some degree1 with the power and wisdom of their ,author4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,one1 and the principal end attained by the power of the agent1 is the gathering of a volume of atmosphere from1 or near1 the surface of the land and sea1 so as to ensure its possession of all the moisture of evaporation which rises from the locality1 and the highest degree of temperature1 and from a space ranging from one to two thousand miles in width1 in one hemisphere1 and to carry it over into the other4 ,not over the top1 or upon the top1 of the whole mass of atmosphere situated in the opposite hemisphere--out of reach of all influences from the earth--but through it1 and curving gradually down near to1 and within influential distance of the surface of the earth1 soon after it passes the outward limit of its fellow trade2 and to continue the current onward1 leaving portions of it and its heat and moisture on the way1 but taking a considerable volume up and around the magnetic poles--it being impossible for the entire volume to be thus carried around the poles in consequence of the diminished circumference of the earth4 ,to this end it is obvious it must possess polarity4 ,another end to be attained is to combine the moisture of evaporation with the air1 so that the cold atmosphere through which1 or the earth over which it passes1 may not be continually condensing its moisture1 and thereby enveloping the earth in a perpetual mist2 but so that it may part with it at intervals1 making cloudy and clear days2 and part with it in portions1 so that a regular and necessary supply may be furnished to the entire hemisphere1 even up to the geographical poles4 ,is there such an agent8 ,there is1 precisely and perfectly adapted to the ends to be attained1 ever there and ever active1 and that agent is magnetism4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,the earth is a magnet4 ,it has its magnetic poles1 and they are distinct from its geographical ones2 and there are two in each hemisphere4 ,they are situated from #ag deg4 to #ai deg4 distant from the geographical poles2 and ours is not far from longitude #ig deg4 ,w4 from ,greenwich1 and #ga deg4 north latitude4 ,navigators have gone north and north-west of it1 and found its situation by the declination of the needle4 ,from these poles1 lines of magnetic intensity extend to the opposite and corresponding pole of the other hemisphere1 and upon or near those lines the needle points north without variation2 and toward these lines of no variation the needle every where1 on either side declines4 ,the foregoing diagram shows the situation of our magnetic pole and line of no variation1 the dip of the needle by the arrows1 and the magnetic equator4 ,recent discoveries have shown that the magnetic force is exerted in lines and currents2 that such currents1 as physical lines of force1 surround magnets1 and currents of electricity4 ,doubtless such lines of force exist around the earth and the magnetic poles4 ,there are also longitudinal lines of force existing and active1 between the poles1 and extending from one side of the center to the other1 occupying nearly one third of the magnet4 ,if you take a large needle thoroughly magnetized1 place it upon paper and drop filings of iron upon it1 they will become arranged about it in circular and perpendicular1 and also in longitudinal lines1 conforming to the currents4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,this experiment is illustrated in all our books on natural philosophy4 ,the foregoing diagram1 copied from ,olmstead's ,philosophy1 does not show as accurately as ,faraday's projection of the lines upon a globe-magnet the comparative distance from the poles of the needle1 at which the longitudinal currents commence and terminate1 and where the filings will not adhere to any considerable extent4 ,the lines shown upon the needle should bear the same proportion to its length as the trade-winds bear to that of the earth1 measured from pole to pole1 and if the needle had a globular form they would so appear4 ,these lines are made by currents arising from one side of the magnetic equator1 and passing over to the other4 ,doubtless1 just such currents rise1 and pass over upon the earth4 ,magnetic and electric currents carry the air with them4 ,this is well settled by experiment4 ,oxygen1 too1 is magnetic1 and capable both of receiving and retaining polarity and of combining with1 or attracting and retaining vapor1 and of course the moisture of evaporation4 ,here then we have a power existing1 capable of producing the result--precisely1 and with evident wisdom adapted to its production--ever present and active2 and no other known agent can4 ,is it not then the agent8 ,let us look a little further4 ,this result is affected by the action of the sun3 the trades with the central belts of rains travel north and south after it2 so does the sun affect the magnetic currents every where1 even the magnetic needle is daily affected by its action1 as it increases the intensity of the terrestrial magnetic currents1 and hence its well established diurnal oscillations4 ,again1 along the eastern lines of the continents which skirt the great oceans on the west1 run the northerly and southerly lines of no variation1 and of greatest magnetic intensity4 ,here are the trade currents gathered into a volume1 which curve and carry unusual fertility to ,south-eastern ,asia1 and ,north ,america1 and in those great aerial gulf streams we find the intense electric action which produces the typhoons of the former1 and the hurricanes of the latter4 ,it may still be said that these conditions and phenomena of the trade-wind region1 are not produced by magnetism or magneto-electricity1 but the objector can point to no other adequate power4 ,that it must be heat1 electricity1 or magnetism1 must be admitted4 ,there is no other power known4 ,heat demonstrably can not produce them4 ,magnetism or electricity therefore must1 and they are doubtless states or phases of the same power1 producing in their different states or phases the different results4 ,and even heat--atmospheric temperature1 is often1 if not always the result of their action4 ,in the present state of science1 it is enough for me that the magnetic longitudinal currents are there2 that they are lines of force and adequate2 that oxygen is magnetic1 and therefore the atmosphere must be affected by them--that so far as we can reason from analogy1 they ought to produce the effect upon the atmosphere which we find produced1 and until further light is thrown upon the subject ,i shall presume that they do4 ,every step we take hereafter in this investigation will confirm the presumption4 ,there is one peculiarity to be more particularly noticed before we leave the trade-wind region1 and we are now prepared to notice it4 ,the belt of rains1 formed by the currents of the two trades1 threading their way through each other--how are they produced8 ,why should the place where the currents thus pass through each other be a place of almost daily precipitation8 ,there is1 in fact1 no ascension1 except that which the currents have in their line of ascent to attain the elevation which the magnetic law of the current requires4 ,the trades have passed over an evaporating surface and are charged with moisture4 ,this moisture they hold in magneto-electric combination4 ,evaporation does not depend upon temperature4 ,ice and snow evaporate at all temperatures 7,howard1 vol4 #a1 p4 #hf74 ,so the cold ,n4 ,w4 wind1 full of positive electricity1 will lap up1 as it were1 the pools from the earth1 with astonishing quickness2 and when this electricity is deranging the action of the machinery and material of the manufacturer1 he allays it by a supply of moisture1 with which the electricity can combine4 ,nor does the air lose its moisture when below the freezing point4 ,in all parts of the atmosphere1 as at the surface of the earth in winter1 moisture is held in large quantities in the coldest and severest weather2 and it is not till it moderates1 and a perceptible electric change takes place1 that it is precipitated as rain or snow4 ,doubtless there is an exposure of considerable surfaces1 of opposite currents1 charged with opposite polarity1 and a constant depolarization where their surfaces meet4 ,may there not be a consequent dissolution of the electro-magnetic combination between the air and moisture1 or the excitation of that electric action which attends or produces like rains every where8 and hence the constant precipitation4 ,this is rendered probable1 by the fact that precipitation1 at the meeting of the trades1 takes place in level countries in the day-time1 between #aj ,a4 ,m4 and sunset1 in showers1 with thunder and lightning1 as with us in summer1 although among the mountains the rain sometimes falls in the night also4 ,the precipitation in the heat of the day is obviously induced by the action of the sun1 although it is by no means certain that the friction of the opposing surfaces does not assist in the operation4 ,i am well aware that the lines of magnetic force curve upward and carry the trades with them1 and that1 therefore1 precipitation by condensation from the mere cold of the upper stratum of the atmosphere is possible4 ,but1 there are three reasons why ,i do not believe such to be the fact4 #ast4 ,precipitation takes place in the day time mainly1 and in sudden1 isolated1 heavy showers and not in steady continuous rain4 ,nor is there condensation or continual mist at other hours of the day4 #b;d4 ,they occur at a time of day when the sun is affecting the magnetic currents most powerfully1 viz41 between ten o'clock ,a4 ,m4 and sunset1 and mainly at the time of greatest heat4 #c;d4 ,the counter-trades do not precipitate after they leave the rainy belt1 although at a great elevation1 until they reach the outward limits of the trades2 and they do precipitate again1 although they gradually descend nearer the earth1 as soon as they become subject to the action of the currents of an opposite magnetism4 ,their precipitation is partial too1 even then1 and they carry a portion of their moisture through an atmosphere of the coldest temperature up to the geographical poles4 ,a similar result attends the action of the sun in the extra-tropical regions4 ,cumuli commence forming in the counter-trade1 or at the line between that and the surface current1 at the same time of day that the diurnal motion of the magnetic needle commences1 or the rain clouds form in the tropics2 they continue to enlarge here as there1 till about the same hour of the day that the needle obtains its maximum diurnal variations2 and when the influence of the sun upon the needle ceases1 and it returns to its original status1 the cumuli disappear4 ,hail storms too1 it is said1 always1 or generally occur in the day time4 ,in like manner the sea-breezes and other fair-weather surface winds1 rise in the forenoon with the influence of the sun upon the magnetic currents and the needle1 and die away at nightfall when the influence ceases4 ,there are other electro-magnetic1 or to speak more correctly1 magneto-electric1 effects of the sun's action equally illustrative1 which tend to show that the precipitation at the passing of the trades1 is the result of their action upon each other1 aided by the sun1 to which we shall allude when we come to speak of the causes and character of the surface winds of the extra-tropical regions4 ,as1 however1 this takes place only1 or mainly1 where the threading surfaces meet1 it is but partial1 and the body of the respective polarized currents pursue their way unaffected1 toward the opposite magnetic pole--and there for the present we leave them4 ,storms sometimes originate in these currents1 when concentrated1 as in the ,west ,indies1 the ,china ,sea1 the ,bay of ,bengal1 and ,indian ,ocean1 while passing through the rainy belt1 and move with the current to the north-west if issuing on the north side of it1 and to the south-west if issuing on the south side of it1 until they respectively get beyond the extreme limits of the trades1 and then they curve to the eastward1 imbedded in and following their current4 ,the peculiar extension of the land to the east on the northern portions of ,south ,america1 prevents the gathering of an aerial gulf similar to the one which we have described to the north-west1 entering upon our division of the continent over the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,it is otherwise in the ,indian ,ocean1 and there the storms are found issuing from the rainy belt on the southern side1 sweeping over the ,mauritius and other islands of that ocean1 and often simultaneously with storms issuing on the north over the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,colonel ,reid mentions instances and gives a diagram4#b ,these storms in milder forms issue from the rain belt at other points1 and may issue any where1 but will always be found most extensive and most violent1 that is to say1 as hurricanes and typhoons1 in the concentrated volumes of counter-trade on the western side of the great oceans1 within a few hundred miles of the lines of magnetic intensity and no variation1 and when they form in the rainy belt they are highly electric4 ,most frequently1 however1 as we shall see1 they form in these currents after they have issued from the rainy belt1 and after they have passed the extreme limits of the trades and become subject to the circular and perpendicular magnetic currents which exist north and south of the longitudinal ones1 and which when seen upon the magnetic needle1 attract the filings and cause them to adhere--although but slight attraction or adhesion takes place where the longitudinal currents exist4 ,such1 then1 are the atmospheric arrangements and phenomena of the trade-wind region1 and the cause that produces them2 such is the character and cause of the enlarged volume of counter-trade1 which spreads out and blows over our country as permanently as the ,s4 ,e4 trades blow on the ,south ,atlantic and ,south ,america1 returning to us the rivers which had run from us to the sea4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,coming back now1 to a consideration of the course and functions of the counter-trade after it leaves the northern limit of the surface-trades1 we find it curves to the eastward and gradually assumes about an ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 course1 and becomes a ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 current where it crosses the line of no variation1 and continues on until it passes off over the ,atlantic2 and this course and curve is analogous to what may be found true of the counter-trades every where4 ,it is best illustrated by the course of all the storms 7in the ,american sense of the word1 as distinguished from thunder showers and other brief rains71 which have been traced north or south of the limits of the trades4 ,it was found by ,mr4 ,redfield in most of the storms investigated by him1 which originated within1 or north of the tropics4 ,doubtless it was the actual course of the others1 and that the investigation was imperfect4 ,all the great autumnal1 winter1 or spring storms which have traversed the whole or any considerable portion of the territory of the ,united ,states1 east of ,new ,mexico1 which have been investigated by ,professors ,espy1 ,loomis1 ,redfield1 or others1 have been found to follow this course4 ,a storm which passed over ,madeira1 appears from the investigations of ,colonel ,reid to have followed the same law of curvature4 ,and so1 doubtless1 did another which he has described as passing over the ,levant4 ,the storms which supply the winter rains of ,california and ,utah1 reach them by this law of curvature and progress1 after the northern limits of the trades have descended to the south with the sun1 so that the counter-trades of the ,pacific may descend to the surface and curve in upon them4 ,but the absence of a concentration of the counter-trade1 and its deficient action because of its passage over mountain ranges1 and their location so near the northern limit of the trades that their storms can not expand and become extensive1 as well as their weaker magnetic intensity1 prevent their storms from becoming violent1 and their supply of rain is not large and much of it falls in showers4 ,the same is true of the ,barbary ,states1 of ,syria1 and ,persia1 and of ,southern ,europe2 and indeed of all the countries of the globe which lie between the winter and summer extreme limits of the surface-trades1 and without the limits of the two concentrated counter-trades4 ,enough appears in the writings of the meteorologists of ,europe to show1 that their long continued rains1 which are analogous to our storms and are preceded by the formation of the true cirrus of the counter-trade1 follow the same great law of curvature and progress2 although the presence of the ,gulf ,stream with its mass of south polar waters on the western side of the ,british ,islands1 ,denmark1 and ,norway supplies them with showers1 and fogs1 and cumuli from the west and north-west1 and makes the mean of the surface winds of their storms somewhat variant from ours4 ,a like law reversed prevails in the southern hemisphere4 ,the storms of ,new ,holland and the ,indian ,ocean1 south of the limits of the trade1 curve to the eastward and travel about south-east1 their south-west being a clearing off wind as our north-west is1 and precisely similar in all its other characteristics1 where the relation of magnetic intensity is the same4 ,the storms of the ,pacific on the ,s4 ,w4 coast of ,south ,america1 in like manner travel to the ,s4 ,e41 flooding the western slopes of the mountain ranges with rain1 and aggravated by the intensity of the magnetic currents at the extremity of the continent in a high latitude1 meet the mariner in the face as he emerges from under the lee of the land and attempts to pass the ,horn4 ,it will ultimately be shown that the precipitation which takes place1 as the storms and counter-trades pass north and east in the northern hemisphere and south and east in the southern hemisphere1 is owing less to cold than increased magnetic intensity4 ,and all this is the result of one great uniform law1 existing every where1 varying in its phenomena only in consequence of the difference in volume1 and magneto-electric intensity of the portions of the counter-trade1 as of the surface-trade at different places1 and the different magnetic intensity of the local perpendicular and circular currents of the earth over which they pass1 at different periods and at different points4 ,mr4 ,redfield and ,lieutenant ,maury have assumed that our ,s4 ,w4 current comes from the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,aside from the adverse evidence which the investigations of the former in relation to the course of the ,west ,indian storms1 and their curving over the continent1 furnish to the contrary1 and that which has herein before been stated in relation to the law of curvature1 it is obvious they are mistaken1 for another and conclusive reason4 ,in order to reach us from the ,pacific in a direction from ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e41 it must pass the table lands and mountain ranges of ,mexico and ,new ,mexico1 and it would supply them bountifully1 even if it did not thereby leave us comparatively rainless and sterile4 ,every where currents passing from the ocean over mountain ranges part with a large share of their moisture4 ,thus the counter-trade which curves over the ,andes and over ,peru1 is deprived of its moisture and leaves the western coast rainless4 ,so in degree of the counter-trade which curves over the ,himalaya and ,kuenlon ,mountains1 and from there passes over the ,desert of ,cobi1 to the north and east--it is deprived by those elevated ranges of its moisture4 ,so the mountains on the south-western coast of ,south ,america are drenched with rain1 while ,patagonia1 which lies on the east of them is comparatively dry4 ,and so of every other country similarly situated4 ,now the mountain ranges and table lands of ,mexico are not thus supplied with moisture4 ,for the space of four months in ,southern and less in ,northern ,mexico1 and in summer1 and while the belt of the tropics is extended up over them1 they have rain and in daily showers which travel up from the south1 indicating the course of the counter-trade4 7,see ,bartlett's ,personal ,narrative1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhf47 ,at other seasons1 and while we are bountifully supplied1 they are dry4 ,in short1 there are no two portions of the earth that differ more widely in regard to their supply of moisture1 and all their climatic characteristics and relations4 ,it is therefore1 according to all analogy1 impossible that our counter-trade should come from the ,south ,pacific across the continent and below #ce deg41 and in this also those gentlemen are mistaken4 ,messrs4 ,espy and ,redfield recognizing the existence of a prevailing ,s4 ,w4 current1 but considering the surface-winds beneath it as the principal actors in producing the atmospherical conditions and changes1 have attributed no office to that current1 except that of giving direction and progression to our storms4 ,this is their great mistake4 ,it plays no such unimportant part in the philosophy of the weather1 as we have already incidentally seen1 and will proceed still further to consider4 ,all our storms originate in it4 ,this we may know from analogy4 ,where there is no counter-trade1 outside of the equatorial belt of rains1 and within influential distance of the earth1 there are neither storms nor rain4 ,so1 when1 as we have seen1 the concentration of the volume of northern counter-trade in the ,west ,indies1 gathered by the hauling of the ,s4 ,e4 trades more from the east1 as they approach the central belt1 diminishing the volume of the counter-trade over the ,north ,atlantic1 the calms and drought of the horse-latitudes are found4 ,and when the counter-trade is small in volume and weak in intensity1 by reason of the fact that the surface-trades from the opposite hemisphere which constitute it1 formed upon land where evaporation was small1 as upon ,southern ,africa and ,new ,holland1 or formed where the magnetic intensity was weak1 or passed over mountain ranges in their course1 the annual supply of rain1 the ranges of the barometer1 and the alternations of atmospheres conditions are remarkably less4 ,we have already seen where the rainless portions of the earth are1 and why they are so2 because those lying north of the northern limit of the equatorial rainy belt were yet too far south to be covered by the line of extra-tropical rains2 or in other words1 too far south to be uncovered by the surface ,n4 ,e4 trades and the longitudinal magnetic currents1 and to be covered by the counter-trades in contact1 or nearly so with the earth1 and influenced by the perpendicular north polar magnetic currents4 ,thus we have seen that the rains of ,southern ,mexico were summer rains1 due to the northern extension of the equatorial rainy belt2 those of ,california were winter rains1 due to the southern extension of the extra-tropical rains following the ,n4 ,e4 surface trades4 ,we have also briefly alluded to the fact that either side of the equatorial rainy belt1 evaporation is going on for months under a vertical sun1 without precipitation--unless it be from an occasional brief storm of great intensity which originates in that belt at the line of it1 and passing on in the counter-trade1 reverses1 for the time being1 by its concentrated and powerful action1 like a magnetic body introduced into the field of another magnet1 the surface-trades4 ,mere evaporation then1 does not produce the storm1 or shower1 or rain1 where most active in the dry torrid zone4 ,it may be said that those dry portions are1 for the time being 7as the rainless portions of the earth are continually71 within the operation of the surface-trades1 and that therefore the evaporated moisture is carried away by them toward the equatorial rainy belt4 ,precisely so2 but why carried away8 ,why should it not condense1 occasionally1 at least1 and drop the rain as it passes along1 if a great supply of moisture from excessive evaporation could furnish rain4 ,perhaps it may still be said it is going from a cold to a warm section4 ,this is not true1 as we have shown4 ,but1 it may be said that the rainless regions at any rate receive no moisture1 and therefore can not supply any by evaporation4 ,this would not meet the case1 as it would still be true that when the rainy belt has left a given spot1 the dry weather sets in with excessive evaporation1 and the north-east trades in summer1 blowing from the countries lying north of the rainless regions1 and which have been supplied during the interval by the extra-tropical rains1 and are loaded with evaporation1 are passing over the rainless regions on their way to enter the central belt4 ,so blow the ,n4 ,e4 trades from the ,mediterranean1 and the ,barbary ,states over the ,desert of ,sahara and into the rainy belt south of it2 but drop no moisture on their way1 because exposed to no magnetic currents of an opposite polarity4 ,but it is not true that all the rainless regions are without evaporation4 ,egypt is an exception4 ,the annual freshets of the ,nile saturate its central valley1 and vast reservoirs of water are saved from it and let out over its surface1 and it all evaporates1 but produces no rain4 ,and so are large quantities turned aside and scattered over the bottom lands of ,northern ,mexico1 and other countries1 during the dry season1 and their evaporation furnishes no rain4 ,hygrometers and dew points are of no consequence there--nor are they of any1 on either side of the rainy belt1 where six perpendicular feet of moisture is evaporated in six months4 ,again we have alluded to a strip of coast on the ,pacific west of the mountain ranges of ,south ,america1 lying partly in ,peru1 partly in ,bolivia1 and partly in ,northern ,chili1 which1 although long and narrow1 washed by the broad ,pacific ,ocean1 is without rain4 ,south ,america has no other wholly rainless region1 so far as is known4 ,a part of this region would lie between the equatorial belt of rain1 and the southern extra-tropical one1 and never be covered by either2 but the volume of ,n4 ,e4 trades from the ,atlantic1 although from the make of the land not concentrated to so great an extent as the volume of ,s4 ,e4 trade on the north1 and therefore not so liable to hurricanes and other violent storms1 is yet sufficiently so to carry the southern line of the equinoctial rainy belt down in winter to the summer line of extra-tropical rains1 and give a supply of rain to all the continent--leaving no strictly rainless region south of the equatorial rainy belt and east of the ,andes4 ,those mountains1 however1 present a barrier to its south-western progress which it doubtless passes to some extent1 but deprived of its moisture1 and unable to supply the rainless coast region of ,peru1 ,bolivia1 and ,northern ,chili4 ,there is1 therefore1 a portion of this rainless line of coast which is within the region of extra-tropical rains1 over which a portion of the ,n4 ,e4 trades of the ,atlantic1 as a counter-trade1 should or do1 curve1 and where there should therefore be extra-tropical rains4 ,it is washed by the ,pacific1 an evaporating surface1 and westerly and south-west breezes are drawn in from that ocean over it4 ,why then is it rainless8 ,the only reason which can be assigned why rain does not fall there is that the high mountain ranges of the ,andes intercept and perhaps in part divert the counter-trade1 and deprive that portion of it which passes them1 of its moisture1 by that reciprocal action of opposite polarities which takes place whenever and wherever the trade approaches so near the earth2 and it curves over the narrow line of coast with the feeble condensation1 and imperfect forms1 and varied coloring which mark so peculiarly the rainless clouds of that region4 7,see ,stewart's ,journal of a ,voyage to the ,sandwich ,islands1 page #gb47 ,again1 it is estimated1 and on reliable data1 that twelve perpendicular feet of water are annually evaporated from the surface of the ,red ,sea1 between ,nubia on one side1 and ,arabia on the other2 yet they are both rainless countries1 except so far as the inter-tropical belt of rains extends up on to a small portion of them4 ,the moisture of evaporation1 floated up from a surface covered by the surface-trade is invariably so combined as to remain uncondensed till it has passed south into the equatorial rainy belt1 and over to the opposite hemisphere1 and been exposed to the currents of an opposite magnetism4 ,again1 the ,n4 ,e4 trades extended up in summer over the ,mediterranean ,sea1 an evaporating surface1 blow over the ,barbary ,states in ,june and ,july1 but furnish no rain4 ,and so of the ,s4 ,e4 or ,n4 ,e4 trades which blow over ,brazil and other countries in the absence north or south of the tropical belt of rains4 ,it is obvious from these facts--and more like them might be cited--that mere evaporation1 however copious or long continued1 does not make the storm or shower in the locality where it takes place1 and without the existence and influential agency of a counter-trade2 and that reciprocal action1 whatever it may be1 that takes place between it and the earth4 ,again1 our own experience is conclusive of this4 ,we have no surface-trade north of #cj deg41 and yet a long drought and great evaporation may follow a wet spring4 ,belts of droughts and frequent rains occur every year in different portions of the country side by side1 and the dividing line follows the course of the counter-trade1 and is sometimes distinctly marked for weeks4 ,when a change occurs in the counter-trade1 whether from causes existing there or the influence of terrestrial magnetism 7in relation to which we shall inquire hereafter71 showers form or storms come on3 until it does they will not4 ,efforts at condensation will occasionally appear1 but they will be feeble and ineffectual1 and occasion a repetition of the axiom that all signs fail in a drought4 ,and we may know it from direct observation4 ,the first indications of a storm1 and of most if not all showers1 are observable in the counter-trade4 ,these indications1 so far as they are visible1 are of course to be looked for in the west2 although the direction and character of the surface-winds are often indicative of these changes when not visible at the west as we shall see4 ,the indications are those of condensation1 and vary very much in different seasons of the year4 ,it is not my purpose in this place to examine them particularly4 ,they will be alluded to hereafter under the head of prognostics4 ,suffice it now to say1 then1 that whether it be the long threads or lines of cirrus which occur in the trade in the winter after a period of severe cold1 following the interposition of a large volume of ,n4 ,w4 cold air and the elevation of the counter-trade2 or the forms of cirrus which occur at other times and other seasons2 or whether it be the ordinary bank at night-fall1 or the evening condensation which makes the circle around the moon1 or the morning cirro-stratus haze which gradually thickens1 passes over and obscures the sun1 all which may be followed by the easterly scud and winds3 they are alike condensation in the trade1 the advance or forming condensation of a storm or showers4 ,the state of the weather1 whether hot or cold1 is extensively affected by this trade current4 ,as we have already suggested1 the mere presence of the sun in its summer solstice1 or its absence in winter1 is not an adequate cause of all the sudden and various changes to which we are subject4 ,the state of the counter-trade1 which is always over1 or within influential distance of us1 and sometimes probably in contact with us--the nature of the surface-winds which it is at any given time creating and attracting around us1 and the electric condition of the surface-atmosphere induced by it1 or by the immediate action of the earth's magnetism1 produce those sudden changes which mark our climate4 ,when no intervening surface-winds elevate it above us1 and there is no storm or other condensation within influential distance1 it induces the gentle balmy ,s4 ,w4 wind of spring--the cooling ,s4 ,w4 wind of summer--the peculiar ,indian summer air of autumn1 or the comparatively moderate1 although cold1 open weather of winter4 ,if there be a partial tendency to condensation in it1 the cumuli form under the magnetic influence excited by the sunbeams from ten to three o'clock in the day1 and float gently away to the eastward1 disappearing before night-fall4 ,if the disposition to condensation is stronger1 whether inherent or induced by an increased local activity of terrestrial magnetism1 these cumuli will increase toward night-fall1 or earlier1 and terminate me showers2 and if it is in a highly electrical state1 the still oppressive sultriness which precedes the tornado1 and that devastating scourge may appear4 ,if this disposition to condensation becomes extensive1 cirri form and run into cirro-stratus1 or they extend1 coalesce1 and form stratus2 the surface-wind will be attracted under them1 the thermometer fall in summer or rise in winter1 and a storm begin4 ,intense action and sudden cold may exist in and under this counter-trade over the southern portion of the country1 while all is calm1 warm1 and balmy at the north4 ,heavy snow storms sometimes pass at the south when there are none at the north1 and a corresponding state of the weather follows4 ,if a large body of snow fall at the north1 the winter is cold1 regular1 and old fashioned2 if little snow falls at the north and more at the south1 the winter at the north is open and broken4 ,i have known the ice make several inches thick at ,baltimore and ,washington1 when none could be obtained for the ice-houses on the ,connecticut shore of ,long ,island ,sound4 ,in short1 although heat and cold are mainly dependent upon the altitude of the sun1 aided by the other arrangements we have alluded to1 yet the counter-trade1 and the reciprocal action which takes place between it and the earth1 are most powerful agents1 mitigating the rigors of winter1 bringing about the changes from cold to warm weather which the sun is too far south to produce4 ,and on the other hand1 by this reciprocal action1 producing the electrical phenomena1 the gusts1 the tornadoes1 the hail storms1 and the cool seasons of summer1 and the period of intense cold in winter4 ,all our surface-winds1 except the light1 peculiar ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 wind which is felt where the counter-trade is in contact with the earth1 and which is a part of it1 and perhaps the genuine ,n4 ,w4 wind which is very peculiar1 are incidents of the trade1 and are due to its conditions and attractions4 ,we have already said this was true of the easterly wind and scud of a storm--it is alike true of all4 ,the storm winds east of the ,alleghanies are usually1 though not always1 from the eastward4 ,they are sometimes from the southward1 as they doubtless are still more frequently in the interior of the continent4 ,there is occasionally a southerly afternoon wind1 followed by short rains in spring and fall1 or a succession of showers in summer1 which is rather a precedent wind than a storm wind2 blowing toward and under an advance portion of the storm at the north1 and hauling to the eastward when the rain sets in1 or to the westward when the showers reach us4 ,when there are no storms1 or showers1 or inducing electric action in the counter-trade1 within influential distance to disturb the surface atmosphere1 it is calm4 ,if a storm approaches1 or forms within inducing distance1 the surface atmosphere is affected and attracted toward the storm1 from one or more points1 and blows1 as we say1 toward and under it4 ,it commences blowing first nearest the storm1 and extends as the storm travels1 or becomes more intense and extends its inducing influence4 ,i have repeatedly noticed this in traveling on steamboats and railroads running toward or from1 and in several instances through a storm1 and telegraphic notices and other investigations prove it4 ,the point from which the surface atmosphere is attracted and blows1 depends very much upon the position of the storm in relation to bodies of water and the point of observation1 and its shape2 and the force with which it may blow will depend much upon its intensity4 ,let us take an instance or two by way of illustration of all these points2 and as ,i have given instances of summer in the introduction1 we will take those of winter4 ,it is ,january of an old fashioned winter2 the snow is about three feet deep in ,canada1 about one foot in ,southern ,new ,york1 and a few inches in ,philadelphia1 and so extends west to the ,alleghanies at least4 ,for several days the sky has been clear1 the thermometer rising in the day-time1 in the vicinity of ,new ,york to about #be deg4 ,fahrenheit1 falling at night to about #f deg41 with light airs from the ,n4 ,w4 during the middle and latter part of the day2 the counter-trade and the barometer both running high2 cold but pleasant1 steady1 winter weather4 ,there is a warm south-east rain and thaw coming1 as one or more such almost invariably occur in ,january4 ,how coming8 ,the sun is far south1 and shines aslant1 but through a pure and windless atmosphere2 he has tried for several days to melt the snow from the roof2 a few icicles are pendant from the eaves2 but the body of the snow is still there4 ,how can a thaw come8 not from the sun1 surely4 ,no1 indeed1 not from the action of the sun directly1 upon our country1 nor from the ,atlantic or the ,gulf ,stream which is off our coast4 ,but a portion of the current of counter-trade is coming1 heated by his rays and the warm water in the ,south ,atlantic1 in an intense magneto-electric state1 capable of inducing an electro-thermal change in the surface atmosphere which it approaches1 and of being reciprocally acted upon by the north polar terrestrial magnetism4 ,it is now over ,northern ,texas and ,western ,louisiana1 it will be here day after tomorrow4 ,the day passes as the day previous had passed2 the sleigh-bells jingle merrily in the evening2 the moon shines clear all night2 the storm is coming steadily on1 but its influence has not reached us1 and the morning and midday are like those which preceded it4 ,as nightfall approaches1 however1 the thermometer does not fall as rapidly as on the day previous2 the sun shines dimly and through lines of whitish cirrus cloud extending from the horizon at the west1 appearing darker as the sun descends and shines more horizontally through them--perhaps mainly in the ,n4 ,w4--and which extend up and over toward the ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 ,the air next the earth begins to feel raw2 it is changing1 not from warm to cold1 but electrically from positive to negative2 and dampening1 from a tendency to condensation by induction1 as we shall see--the same condensation which in warm weather may be seen on flagging stones1 and walls1 and vessels containing cold water4 ,the advance cirrus condensation of the storm is over us and affecting us2 the earth too is affecting the adjacent atmosphere by action extended from beneath the storm4 ,still there is no wind1 although sounds seem to be heard a little more distinctly from the east1 and so ends the day4 ,evening comes1 and the moon wades in a smooth bank of cirro-stratus haze1 with a very large circle around her2 the cirrus bands of haze have coalesced and formed a thin stratus4 ,the storm is coming steadily on1 its condensation is seen to be thicker as it approaches1 it is now raining from one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles to the west1 but we do not know it4 ,that it is about to storm all believe1 for all are conscious of a change4 ,the candle if extinguished will not relight as readily1 if at all1 on being blown2 there is a crackling almost too faint for snow in the fire2 the sun did not set clear2 the old rheumatic joints complain1 and the venerable corns ache4 ,morning comes1 and the storm is on4 ,the wind is blowing from the ,s4 ,e41 the scud are running rapidly from the same quarter to the ,n4 ,w41 the thermometer continues rising1 and it rains4 ,the storm has reached us and the thaw has commenced4 ,gradually1 as the densest portion of the storm cloud reaches us1 it darkens2 the scud are nearer the earth1 and run with more rapidity2 the rain falls more heavily and continuously1 and by the middle of the day a thick fog has enveloped the earth2 the wind is dying away1 and the trade itself1 with its southern tendency to fog1 has settled near us2 the barometer has fallen1 the thermometer is up to fifty degrees1 the water is running down the hills1 the snow is saturated with water and is disappearing under the influence of the fog1 the rain1 and the warm air4 ,evening comes2 the south-east wind and the rain have ceased2 the rain clouds have passed off to the eastward2 the fog has followed on and disappeared2 there is a light trade air from the ,s4 ,w42 the moon shines out1 and a few patches of stratus1 broken up into fragments and melting away1 are following on in the trade3 the storm is past4 ,hark6 to the tones of ,boreas as he bursts forth from the ,n4 ,w41 and rushing1 whistling1 howling1 dashes on between the trade and the earth1 following the storm4 ,now the barometer rises rapidly1 the thermometer falls1 and in an incredibly short time all is congealed1 and cold and wintery as before4 ,the cold ,n4 ,w4 wind has again interposed between the trade and the earth2 the trade is elevated a mile or more above it and is entirely free from its influence and from condensation2 the deep blue of a sky as pure as the spirit that made it is over us1 and steady winter reigns again4 ,it is obvious that there was nothing in the action of the sun upon our snow-clad country1 to induce the thaw or the storm4 ,it began1 continued1 approached1 and passed off to the ,n4 ,e4 in the counter-trade4 ,the ,s4 ,e4 wind which existed every where within its influence3 in the interior ,states1 ,missouri1 ,illinois1 ,indiana1 ,ohio1 ,michigan1 and in ,canada1 as well as upon the ,atlantic coast1 commencing in the former earlier than upon the last1 was the result of its induction and attraction4 ,of the ,n4 ,w4 wind that followed we shall speak hereafter4 ,if any one doubts whether this be a true sketch let him examine the investigation of a storm published by ,professor ,loomis1 or observe for himself hereafter4 ,if1 however1 the storm of ,professor ,loomis is referred to1 it should be remembered that his notes show the occurrence of a slight distinct snow storm at the ,n4 ,w4 stations one day in advance of the principal storm4 ,the latter appears first as rain at ,fort ,towson1 on the nineteenth1 moving north and curving to the east--its center passing near ,st4 ,louis1 and south of ,quebec1 and the whole storm enlarging as it advanced4 ,take another instance4 ,since the thaw it has not been quite as cold as before2 but the rain-soaked snow is hard and solid1 the ground1 where the snow was blown or worn off1 icy and slippery--the thermometer falls during the night to about #ab deg41 and rises to about #cj deg42 the sun makes no impression upon the snow2 the firmament is of the deepest blue1 the borealis at night vivid4 ,o1 for a storm of some kind1 to mitigate the still severe cold2 for the thaw has made us more sensitive1 and storm winds do blow warm in their season4 ,but patience1 it will come4 ,another day1 or two1 perhaps1 pass3 the sun rises as usual1 the thermometer has the same range still4 ,long cold snap1 we exclaim2 how long will it last8 ,a change is coming1 but this time it will snow4 ,about an hour or two after sunrise the cirrus threads are discoverable again in the west1 but now they are most numerous in the ,s4 ,w4 ,as the day passes on they thicken and advance toward the ,e4 ,n4 ,e41 the sun begins to be obscured1 the thermometer rises1 and it slowly moderates4 ,there is a snow storm approaching from the ,s4 ,w4 ,but the thermometer rises slowly2 it must get up to #bf deg4 or #bh deg4 before it can snow much4 ,i have known in one instance1 at ,norwalk1 a considerable fall of snow1 although much mingled with hail1 when the thermometer stood at #ac deg4 above zero1 and one1 a moderate fall1 some two inches1 with it at #bd deg41 but these were exceptions4 ,the snow range of the thermometer on the parallel of #da deg4 north latitude1 and south of it1 is from #bf deg4 to #cj deg4 above #j deg42 when colder or warmer it may snow to whiten the ground1 or perhaps barely cover it1 but usually rains or hails4 ,we have seen that in the polar regions1 according to ,dr4 ,kane1 it is about zero1 but the rise of the thermometer there1 previous to the snow1 was about the same as here1 i4 e41 from #ae deg4 to #be deg44 ,this fact is instructive4 ,since the foregoing was written1 and on the #gth of ,february1 #ahee1 a snow-storm of considerable length set in1 with the thermometer at #e deg41 and continued more than twenty-four hours1 the thermometer gradually rising4 ,the snow was very fine1 like that described by ,arctic voyagers as falling in extreme cold weather4 ,as the dense and darker portions of the storm approach1 and although the sun is obscured1 and the ground frozen1 it continues to moderate1 and at evening1 when the thermometer is up to #bh deg41 and the dense portion of the storm has reached us1 gently and in calmness the snow begins to fall4 ,perhaps a light air following the storm1 or the presence of the trade near the earth1 at first inclines the snow-flakes to the eastward4 ,this is frequently so at the commencement of snow storms4 ,ere long1 however1 the wind rises from the ,n4 ,e41 and the snow is driven against the windows1 rounded and hardened by the attrition of its flakes upon each other1 in their descent through the eddying and opposite currents4 ,the next day we rise to witness a heavy fall of snow1 perhaps1 and a continued driving ,n4 ,e4 storm1 in full blast2 the snow whirling and settling in drifts under the lee of every fence or building4 ,can it be1 you ask1 that this driving wind is but an incident of the storm8 the result of attraction1 while the storm clouds are sailing quietly and undisturbed on in the counter-trade above1 directly over the gale which is blowing below8 ,it is even so4 ,nor has it backed up1 as it is termed by those who have ascertained that it has commenced snowing first1 and cleared off first1 at a point west of them4 ,you saw1 or might have seen1 the cirro-stratus cloud passing to the ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 in the afternoon1 and until the snow-flakes filled the air1 and the clouds became invisible4 ,you may still see that the wind will die away before the storm breaks1 and come out gently from the ,s4 ,w41 unless it should back into the northward and westward1 and in either event you may see the last of the storm clouds1 as you did see1 or might have seen the first of them1 pass to the eastward4 ,toward night the wind dies away1 and the storm passes off abruptly1 or the sky becomes clear in the ,n4 ,w4 ,now you may see the smooth stratus storm cloud1 continuous1 or breaking up into fragments and passing off to the east1 even at the edge which borders the clear sky in the west or north-west1 to be followed that evening or the next day1 by the north-west wind and its peculiar fair-weather scud4 ,i have given these as instances illustrating the manner in which rain and snow storms originate the surface easterly winds in winter4 ,but it must not be supposed that they commence with precisely the same appearances in every case in winter2 much less in summer4 ,there is very great diversity in this respect1 in different seasons1 and in different storms during the same season4 ,a great many different and accurate descriptions might be given1 if time and space would permit1 which all would recognize as truthful4 ,very frequently in summer1 and sometimes in winter1 the wind will set in from the eastward1 and blow fresh toward a storm1 before the condensation in the trade1 which forms the eastern and approaching edge of the storm1 has assumed the form of a distinct cloud4 ,not unfrequently1 when it is calm next the surface1 a narrow stratum of easterly wind1 a half a mile or a mile above the earth1 may be seen with a continuous fog1 condensing1 but not in considerable patches like the usual scud1 running with great rapidity toward the storm4 ,such a stream of fog blew with great rapidity for thirty-six hours toward the storm which inundated ,virginia and ,pennsylvania1 in #aheb1 and carried away the ,potomac bridge at ,washington4 ,such a stream of fog was visible the evening before the great flood of #ahed1 which inundated ,connecticut1 and curried away so many railroad and other bridges4 ,i have also seen such a stream of fog running at about the same height1 when it was calm at the surface1 from the ,s4 ,w4 toward a violent storm which formed over central ,new ,england--and from the north toward a heavy storm passing south of us4 ,such strata form1 as far as ,i have been able to discover1 the middle current of storms which are accompanied with very heavy falls of rain4 ,these double currents are much more common than is supposed4 ,east of the ,alleghanies1 short and heavy rain storms1 which commence north-east1 hauling to the south and lighting up about mid-day after a very rainy forenoon1 frequently have a ,s4 ,e4 or ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 middle current of this character1 which involves the whole surface atmosphere when the storm has nearly passed1 and the ,n4 ,e4 wind dies away1 and the wind seems to haul to the ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 and ,s42 so that it is rather the prevalence of a different and coexisting current1 than a hauling of the same wind1 which marks the period of lighting up in the south4 ,sometimes the easterly wind will set in and blow a day or two before the border of the storm reaches us4 ,sometimes the storm is passing1 or will pass1 in its lateral southern extension1 south of us1 and the condensation in the trade extends over us sufficiently dense to induce an easterly current beneath it1 but not dense enough to drop rain1 and then we have a dry north-easter4 ,i can not1 within the limits ,i have prescribed1 allude to all the peculiarities attending the induction and attraction of an easterly wind1 by the storm in the counter-trade4 ,they are readily noticeable by the attentive and discriminating observer1 and their existence and cause is all with which ,i have to do at present4 ,winds from the north1 or any point from ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 to ,n4 ,n4 ,w41 are comparatively infrequent in the ,united ,states1 east of the ,alleghanies--though it is otherwise in the vicinity of the great lakes4 ,sometimes the wind backs1 as sailors term it1 during a ,n4 ,e4 storm1 from the ,n4 ,e4 through the ,n4 ,n4 ,e41 ,n41 and ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,w4 ,when this takes place1 it is toward the close of the storm4 ,occasionally1 though very rarely1 it continues to storm after the wind has passed the point of ,n4 ,n4 ,e41 and until it gets ,n4 ,w4 ,i have known a few instances in the course of thirty years1 and but a few4 ,they are exceptions--rare exceptions4 ,when the wind thus backs from the ,n4 ,e4 to the ,n4 ,w4 through the ,n41 you may be very certain that the body of the storm1 or at least the point of greatest intensity and greatest attraction1 is at the time passing to the southward of you4 ,this is most commonly the course of the wind when the storm extends far south and lasts several days1 and does not extend north far1 or if so1 with much intensity1 beyond the point of observation4 ,the change of the wind is explained by the situation of the focus of intensity and attraction1 to the south of the observer1 and its passage by on that side4 ,probably in locations further north and 7as ,i think ,i have observed7 south of the lakes1 it may be more frequent than upon the parallel of #dd deg4 east of the ,alleghanies 7which is as far north as ,i have observed71 inasmuch as the further north the locality1 the more likely storms and other disturbances in the counter-trade will be to pass to the southward of it4 ,between the ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,e4 the wind may blow from any point1 before and during storms1 and in a clear day in the morning1 as a light variable breeze1 or1 after mid-day1 toward approaching showers4 ,i have known it blow all day during a storm from due east2 to change back and forth between south-east and north-east1 and to blow for hours from any intermediate point--as different portions of the storm were of different intensity1 and exerted a more or less powerful inducing influence2 and doubtless this often takes place at sea4 ,it depends upon the situation of the focus of attraction of the storm1 its shape relative to the particular locality1 and with reference to the atmosphere east of it1 and peculiar local magnetic action2 or1 as is sometimes the case in low latitudes1 is owing to the fact that the storm is made up of many imperfectly connected showers1 which have different force1 and induce changeable and baffling winds4 ,the inducing and attracting influence of the approaching storm is exerted sooner1 and with most force1 upon the surface atmosphere1 over bodies of water like the ocean and the lakes4 ,thus1 the wind will set from the eastward toward an approaching storm out upon ,long ,island ,sound1 for hours before it is felt upon either shore2 and when all is calm in the evening on land1 and often before the moon forms a halo or circle in the milky condensation of the approaching storm1 or any sign of condensation is visible1 the breaking of the waves upon the shores may be heard4 ,doubtless this may be observed on the shores of the ,atlantic at other points4 ,this power of attracting the surface atmosphere from bodies of water like the ocean and the great lakes1 will account for two apparent anomalies1 mentioned by ,mr4 ,blodget in a valuable and instructive article read to the ,scientific ,convention1 in #ahec1 regarding the annual fall of rain over the ,united ,states4 ,first--the influence of mountains in extracting the water from the atmospheric currents which pass over them1 is well known and readily explainable4 ,mr4 ,blodget1 however1 found that the source of our rains1 whatever it might be1 when it reached the ,alleghanies1 was so far exhausted of its moisture that those mountains extracted less from it than fell to the westward1 by some five to ten inches annually2 and that the fall of rain upon them was less than upon the ,atlantic slope eastward of them1 to the ocean4 ,this does not accord with observation elsewhere1 but is easily explained4 ,as the storm approaches the ocean1 it attracts in under it the surface atmosphere of the ocean1 loaded with vapor1 condensing in the form of fog and scud1 as it becomes subject to the increasing influence of the storm4 ,although the scud and fog would not of itself make rain1 it aids materially in increasing the quantity of that which falls through it4 ,the drops1 by attraction and contact1 enlarge themselves as they pass through1 in the same manner as a drop of water will do in running down a pane of glass which is covered with moisture4 ,the small drop which starts from the upper portion of a fifteen-inch pane1 will sometimes more than double its size before it reaches the bottom4 ,it is by this power of attracting the surface atmosphere1 which contains the moisture of evaporation1 under it1 and inducing condensation in it1 that the moisture of evaporation which rarely rises very far in the atmosphere is made to fall again during storms and showers4 ,this attraction of a moist atmosphere from the ocean accounts for the excess of rain on the east of the ,alleghanies1 compared with its fall upon them4 ,so the great valley of the ,mississippi is comparatively level1 and less of its water runs off than of that which falls upon the ,alleghanies4 ,there is1 therefore1 more moisture of evaporation in the atmosphere of the former to be thus precipitated and add to the annual supply of rain upon that valley1 and it exceeds that which falls upon the ,alleghanies4 ,those mountains1 too1 are elevated but about #a1ejj feet above the table-lands at their base1 and exert little influence on the counter-trade4 ,if they1 were #f1jjj or #h1jjj feet high1 a different state of things would exist4 ,second--,mr4 ,blodget found the quantity of rain which fell in ,iowa1 and to the south and west of the lake region1 to be greater than fell over the lake region itself4 ,this is doubtless in part owing to the same cause4 ,the counter-trade1 in a stormy state1 attracts the surface atmosphere from the lake region1 with its evaporated moisture1 before it arrives over it1 and therefore more rain falls ,s4 ,w4 of the lake region than upon it4 ,this power of attracting the surface wind of the ocean in under it1 produces the heavy gales which affect our coast1 and which are rarely felt west of the ,alleghanies to any considerable degree2 and a storm coming from the ,w4 ,s4 ,w41 extending a thousand miles or more from ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 to ,n4 ,n4 ,w41 may have the wind set in violently at ,s4 ,e4 on the southern coast first1 and at later periods1 successively1 at points further north1 and thus induce the belief that the storm traveled from south to north4 ,mr4 ,redfield finding that some of the gales which he investigated1 particularly that of ,september #c;d1 #ahba1 did not extend far inland1 and commenced at later periods regularly1 at more northern points1 concluded that the gale traveled along the line of the coast to the northward4 ,in this1 and in relation to the storm of #ahba 7and perhaps some others71 he has been deceived4 ,my recollections of that storm are accurate and distinct4 ,but ,i shall recur to this again when ,i come to speak of his theory4 ,toward storms1 or belts of showers which would be storms if it were not summer and the tropical tendency to showers active in the trade1 which pass mainly to the north of us1 or commence north and pass over us1 condensing south while progressing east1 the wind may commence blowing before the body of the storm reaches us1 from any point between south by west and south east1 particularly in the summer season and in the afternoon4 ,when the rain in a storm of this character sets in1 in the night1 it will sometimes haul into the ,s4 ,e41 if the focus of attraction be situated north of us1 and so remain until just before the storm is to break4 ,there are1 however1 a class of southerly summer winds which deserve more particular notice4 ,for two or three months in the year--say from the middle of ,june to the #bjth of ,august--storms on the eastern part of the continent1 except in wet seasons1 are rare1 and most of our rain is derived from showers4 ,during these periods belts of drought are frequent1 sometimes in one locality1 and sometimes in another1 extending with considerable regularity from ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 to ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 in the course of the counter-trade1 while rain falls in frequent and almost daily showers to the northward or southward of them4 ,if the daily rains are at the north1 over the belt of drought1 ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 and ,s4 ,w4 by ,s4 winds blow1 sometimes with cumuli or scud1 during the middle of the day and afternoon1 to underlie the showery counter-trade on the north of the line of drought4 ,thus1 sometimes nearly every day for several days1 the evaporated moisture of the dry belt will be carried over to increase the store of those who have a sufficient supply without4 ,during the latter part of the afternoon the clouds in the west may look very much like a gathering shower1 but the attractions of the counter-trade fifty or one or two hundred miles to the north1 will absorb them all1 and at nightfall the wind will haul to the ,s4 ,w4 on a line with the counter-trade1 and die away4 ,if there be a drought on any given line of latitude1 and frequent showers or heavy rains at the south of it1 although there may not be a like surface-wind1 with cumuli and fog1 blowing from the north toward it1 yet a general1 gentle set of the atmosphere1 from the ,n4 ,n4 ,w41 or ,n4 ,w41 or other northerly point1 toward the belt of rains1 some distance above the earth1 will often be observable1 with a barometer continually depressed1 and perhaps a cool atmosphere4 ,during set fair weather1 when the attracting belt of rains is far north1 on the north shore of ,long ,island ,sound1 the wind1 like a sea breeze1 will set in gently from about ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 or ,s4 by ,e4 in the forenoon1 blowing a gentle breeze through the day1 and hauling to ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 on a line with the trade at nightfall1 and dying away4 ,during a drought ,i have known this to happen for seventeen successive days4 ,it is obvious to an attentive observer that this is the result of the influence of the sun in exciting the magnetic influence of the earth1 and producing a state of the trade not unlike that which induces the formation of cumuli1 and which attracts the surface atmosphere from the ,sound in over the land3 for the tendency to cumulus condensation precedes the breeze1 and the breeze is often wanting in the hottest days where no such tendency to the formation of cumuli exists4 ,the same is true of sea breezes elsewhere4 ,they do not blow in upon some of the hottest surfaces4 ,where they do exist1 they do not always blow1 but are wanting during the hottest days2 and careful observers have identified their appearance with the formation of cumuli1 or other condensation1 upon the hills inland4 ,they are not1 therefore1 the result of ascending currents of heated air4 ,the received theory regarding sea and land breezes is a mistaken one in another respect4 ,there is no such thing as a land wind corresponding in force to1 and the opposite of1 the sea breeze--occasioned by the comparative warmth of the ocean4 ,these breezes blow mainly within the trade-wind region4 ,of course they are either beneath the belt of rains or the adjoining trades4 ,they are said to be1 and doubtless are1 most active and strongly marked on lines of coast1 particularly the ,malabar coast1 and where the trade-winds are drawing usually from them4 ,in the day-time1 when the action of the sun increases the action of the magnetic currents upon the land1 or there are elevations inland which approach the counter-trade1 and especially if it is elevated near the coast1 as the ,malabar coast is by the ,ghauts1 the attraction of this atmosphere over it reverses the trade1 or inclines it in upon the land1 and it blows in obliquely or perpendicularly1 according to the relative trending of the coast and the direction of the surface-trade4 ,thus1 where islands are situated within the range of the trades1 the latter will be reversed during the day on the leeward side1 but continue to blow as land winds during the night4 ,so they are sometimes deflected in upon the land on the sides1 during the day1 and in like manner return to their course in the night4 ,so1 too1 the north-east trades of ,northern ,africa1 are occasionally 7though feebly where the coast is flat7 deflected during the day-time1 and blow in as ,n4 ,w4 winds4 ,upon the southern coast of ,africa the ,s4 ,e4 trade is deflected1 and blows in as a ,s4 ,w4 wind4 ,upon the south-western coast of ,north ,america1 the ,n4 ,e4 trades are deflected in like manner1 and so are the ,s4 ,e4 trades upon the western coast of ,south ,america4 ,where the coast mountain ranges are very elevated1 as upon the western coast of the ,american continent1 this attracting influence and consequent deflection extends to a considerable distance seaward1 and hence the westerly winds of ,california1 etc4 ,it must be understood that we are now speaking of the winds which blow within the range and during the existence of the trade-winds or the presence of the dry belt--for the trades are not always perceptible on the land4 ,captain ,fitzroy thus describes the sea breezes of the western coast of ,peru1 at #bc deg4 south latitude4 ,the tops of the hills on the coast of ,peru are frequently covered with heavy clouds4 ,the prevailing winds are from ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,w41 seldom stronger than a fresh breeze1 and often very slight4 ,sometimes during the summer1 for three or four successive days1 there is not a breath of wind1 the sky is beautifully clear1 with a nearly vertical sun4 ,on the days that a sea breeze sets in1 it generally commences about ten in the morning1 then light and variable1 but gradually increasing till one or two in the afternoon4 ,from that time a steady breeze prevails till near sunset1 when it begins to die away1 and soon after the sun is down there is a calm4 ,about eight or nine in the evening light winds come off the land1 and continue till sun-rise1 when it again becomes calm until the sea breeze sets in as before4 ,to illustrate this further1 ,i take the following letter from ,professor ,espy's ,philosophy of ,storms3 ,,clinton ,,hotel1 ,n4 ,y41 ,dec4 #bj1 #ahci4 ,,to ,,professor ,,espy1 ,,dear ,,sir1--,understanding you are desirous of collecting curious meteorological facts1 ,i take the liberty of communicating to you what ,i saw in the month of ,december1 #ahae1 at the ,island of ,owhyhee4 ,i lay at that island in the ,cavrico ,bay1#c in which ,captain ,cook was killed1 three weeks1 and every day during that time1 very soon after the sea breeze set in1 say about nine o'clock1 a cloud began to form round the lofty conical mountain in that island1 in the form of a ring1 as the wooden horizon surrounds the terrestrial artificial globe1 and it soon began to rain in torrents1 and continued through the day4 ,in the evening the sea breeze died away and the rain ceased1 and the cloud soon disappeared1 and it remained entirely clear till after the sea breeze set in next morning4 ,the land breeze prevailed during the night1 and was so cool as to render fires pleasant to the natives1 which ,i observed they constantly kindled in the evening4 ,i was particularly struck with the phenomena of the cloud surrounding the mountain1 when none was ever seen in any other part of the sky1 and none then till after the sea breeze set in1 in the morning1 which it did with wonderful regularity4 ,the mountain stood in bold relief1 and its top could always be seen from where the ship lay1 above the cloud1 even when it was the densest and blackest1 with the lightning flashing and the thunder rolling1 as it did every day4 ,i passed up through the cloud once1 and ,i know1 therefore1 how violently it rains1 especially at the lower side of the cloud4 ,this rain never extends beyond the base of the mountain2#d and all round the horizon there is eternally a cloudless sky4 ,the dews1 however1 are very heavy1 and there seems to be no suffering for want of rain4 ,that this state of things continues all the year1 ,i have no doubt1 from what an ,american1 by name ,sears1 who had spent four years there1 told me2 he had seen no change in regard to the rain4 ,,caleb ,,williams4 ,providence1 ,r4 ,i4 ,similar citations might be made to show that the sea breeze is induced by the same cause which forms the clouds over the land--that it is frequently wanting for three or four days under a vertical sun1 and that the land breeze blows gently and not with corresponding force where there is no surface trade1 or where it is deflected1 not reversed4 ,a succession of showers passing across the country to the north1 within one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles1 almost always produces a southerly wind to the southward of them4 ,there is more that is peculiar about these belts of showers4 ,although they consist of large highly-electrified cumuli1 there is a strong tendency to cirro-stratus condensation in the lower part of the trade over them2 and it is that condensation rather than the cumuli1 which attracts the surface atmosphere from the south4 ,they would be storms1 if the atmosphere had not a summer-tropical tendency to showers4 ,there is1 too1 a tendency in these belts to extend to the south1 and it is generally1 as far as ,i have observed1 the extension southerly of those belts1 by the formation of new showers which terminate the hot spells or heated terms of mid-summer4 ,the very oppressive and fatal one of the summer of #ahec1 was1 in character1 a type of all--although exceeding them in severity4 ,the first three or four days were calm1 hot1 and smoky--an appearance which attends all similar periods more or less1 refracting the red ray of the light1 and giving the sun a peculiar dry-weather1 red appearance4 7,this smoky haze is usually atmospheric1 and occasionally seen even in ,march1 although not unfrequently fires in the woods fill the air with actual smoke1 and very much increase it1 and when this is so1 the odor of the smoke is often perceptible47 ,then we began to have a fresh south-west by south breeze in the day-time1 hauling to the south-west1 and dying away at nightfall4 ,the next day1 the tendency to condensation and consequent belt of showers having extended further south and approached nearer to us1 the ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 wind blew fresher toward it1 and did not die away at nightfall4 ,during the evening the reflection of the lightning playing upon the tops of the thunder clouds1 just visible at the north 7heat-lightning1 it is termed1 because supposed to be unaccompanied by thunder1 but in reality lightning reflected from clouds at too great a distance for the thunder to be heard71 and the continuance of the southerly wind after nightfall1 gave sure evidence of the coming showers the next day1 and an end of the excessive heat for that time4 ,so ended both of those long-to-be-remembered heated terms of #ahec4 ,the same is probably true of the interior of the country every where4 ,lieutenant ,maury1 in the course of his investigations1 and in order to ascertain the direction of the winds in the ,mississippi valley during rain1 addressed a number of gentlemen1 and received their replies1 which are published with his wind and current charts4 ,several answered1 among other things1 that1 whenever the lightning appears to linger at the north at eventide1 rain almost invariably follows speedily2 not so in the south4 ,thus it frequently is with us4 ,if1 during a hot1 dry time1 of a few days continuance1 the lightning so lingers in the evening1 and the wind continues to blow fresh from the southward after nightfall1 showers will generally follow within forty-eight hours1 most commonly the next day1 and a cool ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 or ,n4 ,w4 wind with a favorable change ensue4 ,such1 at least1 has been the result of my observation for many years4 ,indeed this seems to be the general law in summer in the ,mississippi valley1 where the easterly winds are not so common as with us4 ,to illustrate this further1 ,i copy from a recent work by ,t4 ,bassnett1 entitled the ,mechanical ,theory of ,storms1 two short extracts1 showing the manner in which belts of showers extend southerly1 while progressing north-eastwardly1 at ,ottawa4 ,the first occurred in ,august1 #ahec2 the last1 ,december1 #aheb4 ,the first was a belt of showers2 the latter would have been in ,august1 but the lateness of the season changed its character somewhat1 though not entirely1 to a more regular rain1 especially toward the close4 ,,august #fth4--,very fine and clear all day3 wind from ,s4 ,w42 a light breeze2 #h ,p4,m4 frequent flashes of lightning in the northern sky2 #aj ,p4,m41 a low bank of dense clouds in north1 fringed with cirri1 visible during the flash of the lightning2 #ab ,p4,m41 same continues4 #gth4--very fine and clear morning2 wind ,s4 ,w4 moderate2 noon1 clouds accumulating in the northern half of the sky2 wind fresher1 ,s4 ,w42 #c ,p4,m41 a clap of thunder over head1 and black cumuli in west1 north1 and east2 #d ,p4,m41 much thunder and scattered showers2 six miles west rained very heavily2 #f ,p4,m41 the heavy clouds passing over to the south2 #aj ,p4,m41 clear again in north4 #hth4--,clear all day2 wind the same 7,s4 ,w472 a hazy bank visible all along on southern horizon4 ,,december #bast1 #aheb4--,wind ,n4 ,e41 fine weather4 #bb;d4--,thick1 hazy morning1 wind east1 much lighter in ,s4 ,e4 than in ,n4 ,w42 #h ,a4,m41 a clear arch in ,s4 ,e4 getting more to south2 noon1 very black in ,w4 ,n4 ,w42 above1 a broken layer of cirro-cumulus1 the sun visible sometimes through the waves2 wind around to ,s4 ,e41 and fresher2 getting thicker all day2 #aj ,p4,m41 wind south1 strong2 thunder1 lightning1 and heavy rain all night1 with strong squalls from south4 #bc;d4--,wind ,s4 ,w41 moderate1 drizzly day2 #aj ,p4,m41 wind west1 and getting clearer4 ,it is obvious that the showers at the north passed east on the evening of the #fth of ,august2 that new showers1 taking the same course1 originated in the north1 but more southerly next day1 with ,s4 ,w4 wind1 and that they passed east1 and others formed successively further south1 which passed over the place of observation late in the afternoon1 and that others formed south and passed east during the night and next day1 visible in a bank on the southern horizon4 ,later or earlier in the spring and autumn1 these brisk afternoon southerly winds continuing after nightfall1 indicate moderate rains from a rainy belt extending in a similar manner1 without the cumuli and thunder which attend those of mid-summer4 ,i shall recur to this class of showers and storms when we come to their classification4 ,light surface winds from south-west to west are not often storm-winds1 and are usually those which the trade near the earth draws after it4 ,sometimes the trade seems to draw the surface wind from the ,s4 ,w4 and ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 with considerable rapidity1 and some scud a little distance above the earth4 ,when this is so1 it will be found that a storm has passed to the north of us1 or a belt of rains is passing north1 which may or may not have sufficient southern extension to reach us4 ,when there have been heavy storms at the south in the spring1 especially if of snow1 the ,s4 ,w4 wind which the trade draws after it1 and which comes from the snowy or chilled surface1 is exceedingly raw--that is1 damp and chilly1 although not thermometrically very cold4 ,probably every one has noticed these raw ,s4 ,w4 winds of spring4 ,usually1 when storms and showers1 which have not a southern lateral extension1 pass off1 the trade is very near the earth1 and a light ,s4 ,w4 wind or calm follows for a longer or shorter period4 ,not unfrequently1 however1 our ,n4 ,e4 storms terminate with a ,s4 ,w4 wind1 shifting suddenly1 perhaps1 just at the close of the storm1 during what is sometimes called a clearing-off-shower1 or1 more frequently1 dying gradually away as a ,n4 ,e4 wind1 and coming out gently from the ,s4 ,w41 following the retreating cloud of the storm4 ,in such cases it is said to clear off warm4 ,with us the wind rarely blows from the west1 except while slowly hauling from some southerly point to the ,n4 ,w4 ,it is probably otherwise east of the lakes and in some other localities to the north-west4 ,occasionally1 and most frequently in ,march1 a ,w4 to ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 wind follows storms1 and blows with considerable severity1 with large irregular1 squally masses of scud1 and sometimes a gale4 ,such was the character of the dry gale which crossed the country1 particularly ,northern ,new ,york1 in ,march1 #ahed1 doing great damage4 ,these westerly winds are always accompanied by a continued depression of the barometer1 and peculiar1 foggy1 scuddy1 condensation1 and should be distinguished with care from the regular and peculiar ,n4 ,w4 wind1 as they may be1 by the continued depression of the barometer1 and the character of the scud4 ,they are doubtless magnetic storms4 ,the remaining surface wind1 the ,n4 ,w41 the genuine ,boreas of our climate1 the invariable fair-weather wind1 is one of great interest4 ,it is unique and peculiar4 ,it is not the left-hand wind of a rotary gale1 and has no immediate connection with the storm4 ,i have known it blow moderately1 fifteen successive days in winter2 rising about ten ,a4,m41 and dying away at nightfall4 ,occasionally1 but very rarely indeed1 a light wind exists from the ,n4 ,w4 during a storm1 owing probably to a focus of intensity in relation to some surface the storm covers1 like the focus which exhibits itself as a clearing-off shower near the close of a storm2 but the real fair-weather ,boreas is a different affair altogether4 ,let us observe with care its peculiarities2 they are instructive4 #ast4 ,it rarely blows with any considerable force beneath the trade while there are storm clouds1 or any considerable condensation in it4 ,it does not interfere with that reciprocal action which takes place between the trade and the earth1 during approaching or existing storms4 ,i have frequently seen it with its peculiar scud clouds in the ,n4 ,w41 waiting for the storm condensation of the trade to pass by1 that full of positive electricity it might commence its sports2 rushing and eddying along the surface1 licking up the warm1 south polar1 electric rain1 which stood in pools upon the ground1 or rose in steamy vapor from the surface1 and with its cool breath dry up the muddy roads as no degree of heat can dry them4 ,the annexed figure 7#ad7 shows the appearance of the northern edge of a stratus storm cloud1 passing off ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 at the close of the storm1 which was clearing off from the north-west4 ,it is from a daguerreotype view1 looking ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 taken at eight o'clock in the morning1 in the fall of the year4 ,near the horizon maybe seen the ,n4 ,w4 scud1 forming in the ,n4 ,w4 wind1 which is about to follow the retreating edge of the storm cloud4 ,figure #ae is from a daguerreotype view1 taken at eleven o'clock the same day1 when the storm cloud had passed off and its edge remained visible only south of the zenith1 and the north-east scud had risen up and covered the northern half of the sky1 and the wind was blowing a gale from that quarter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,another view was taken about two ,p4,m4 of the same day1 when the scud had a very dark1 gloomy appearance--as dark and gloomy as those of a ,mexican norther--too dark to represent by a cut4 ,not unfrequently in a moist summer season1 after a day of showers or rain1 which have had an extending formation or lateral extension from north to south1 it will commence blowing in the morning1 and encourage the hay-maker with the hope of fine weather4 ,but often before noon1 the milky stratus condensation above with cumuli below1 will appear in the trade2 the ,n4 ,w4 wind die away and variable airs from the east or south appear1 to be followed toward night by an enlargement of the cumuli and showers4 ,it rarely1 if ever1 blows fresh till the storm condensation of the trade has passed2 or continues to blow after that condensation reappears4 ,when it commences blowing after a storm1 and the northern edge of the storm is not over us1 we may frequently see the latter low down in the ,s4 ,e4 passing eastward4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,,north ,,view4 #b;d4 ,its scud are peculiar4 ,every one1 probably1 has noticed them4 ,they are distinct1 more or less disconnected1 irregular1 with every form between those of the easterly scud1 cumulus1 and stratus1 according to the season4 ,if large1 with dark under surfaces2 forming rapidly and as rapidly dissolving2 rarely dropping any rain1 sometimes dropping a flurry of snow1 in ,november or ,march1 oftener than at any other period2 sailing away to the ,s4 ,e41 and casting a traveling shadow as they pass on over the surface of the earth4 ,their electricity1 particularly when white1 is probably always positive1 as that of all whitish clouds is supposed to be4 #c;d4 ,it is emphatically a surface wind4 ,the incident storm winds1 the ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,e41 frequently commence blowing under the storm1 toward its point of greatest intensity1 up near the line of cirro-stratus condensation1 evidenced by the running scud2 or blow there with most rapidity1 and so continue for hours before the whole surface atmosphere from thence to the earth becomes involved in the movement2 and sometimes without being felt below at all4 ,not so with the ,n4 ,w4 wind2 it begins at the surface and blows there with more rapidity than above2 it seems to be attracted by the earth2 it interposes between the earth and the trade1 wedging the trade up and occupying its place4 ,it blows under at all seasons of the year1 but most readily and strongly from a surface of snow whose electricity is always positive4 ,hence it blows most strongly and continuously when snow has fallen at the north1 and prevails during winter very much in proportion to the extent and continuance of the covering of snow which invests the earth in that direction4 ,it follows after storms1 and particularly warm rains1 during the autumn1 winter1 and spring months1 which have a lateral southern extension4 ,whether it is increased by the snow from the surface from which it blows1 or is caused by the same magnetic action which causes the great fall of snow1 is a question we shall consider hereafter4 #dth4 ,it does not connect or mingle with the trade current in any way1 or change or divert the course of that current2 but interposes between it and the earth1 elevating the trade in proportion to its own volume1 above the influences of the earth 7when the trade becomes free from condensation1 and singularly1 clear72 and raising proportionately the barometer4 ,an experienced observer can frequently estimate1 with considerable accuracy1 the rise of the barometer1 by measuring with his eye1 7when the clouds will enable him to do so17 the depth of this interposed ,n4 ,w4 current4 ,the barometer rarely rises after a storm1 for twenty-four or forty-eight hours if the wind continues at any point from ,s4 ,w4 to ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 but always rapidly as soon as the genuine ,n4 ,w4 current with any considerable depth interposes and elevates the trade4 ,it will be obvious to every one1 ,i think1 certainly1 if they will hereafter study the subject and observe for themselves1 that the ,n4 ,w4 wind does not blow away the storm2 and that it follows after it1 blowing over the surface which is uncovered by the storm2 rarely1 if ever1 with any force when the body of the storm passed south of us2 and that it is a purely surface wind1 seemingly attracted by the peculiar magneto-electric state in which the surface of the earth is left1 compared with a snow-clad surface to the north1 by a recent storm1 or that peculiar state of the trade which is left by the action of the storm4 ,it seems to follow that magnetic wave which1 passing from north to south1 acts in its course upon the counter-trade1 producing the storm1 or belt of showers1 and giving them their southern lateral extension1 and will well repay future telegraphic investigation4 ,its electricity is intensely positive--that of the earth by the action of the storm as intensely negative4 #eth4 ,this ,n4 ,w4 wind occurs in all parts of the northern hemisphere1 so far as we have data to determine1 and its corresponding wind from the ,s4 ,w4 occurs in the southern hemisphere4 ,it is identical with a class of the northers of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 as a brief analysis of the character of the latter will show4 #ast4 ,the fall and winter norther is a dry wind without rain or falling weather--so is our ,n4 ,w4 wind4 #b;d4 ,it is preceded by a falling barometer2 ,s4 ,e4 scud and rain at the point where it blows1 or to the eastward of it4 ,so is ours when it blows a gale in the fall and spring months1 which bear the nearest resemblance in climatic character to the periods when the northers blow4 ,with this distinction1 however1 that our precedent rains either pass over us or to the southward1 the direction of storms being ,e4 ,n4 ,e42 their precedent storms passing over or to the eastward of them as they move more to the northward4 #c;d4 ,it is often preceded by a copious dew2 so is ours--such dews often following light fall rains in our climate1 and preceding ,n4 ,w4 wind4 #dth4 ,the most peculiar characteristic1 however1 is that the barometer rises rapidly and invariably while the norther prevails1 and very much in proportion to its violence4 ,the same is true of our genuine ,n4 ,w4 wind1 and is not true of any other wind on this continent which ,i have observed or read of4 #eth4 ,while they are thus alike in these respects1 they are unlike in no respect4 ,mr4 ,redfield has traced them in supposed connection with storms which continue from that vicinity across the ,united ,states to the ,e4 ,n4 ,e41 and endeavored to connect them with those storms1 as the left-hand winds of a rotary gale4 ,obviously1 ,i think1 they are identical with our ,n4 ,w4 winds which also follow1 indeed1 but are distinct from the storms4 ,there are a class of northers in the ,gulf of ,mexico--the ,nortes del ,muero ,colorado--sometimes occurring in the summer months1 beginning at ,n4 ,e41 veering about and settling at ,n4 ,n4 ,w41 and as they decline hauling round by the west to the southward4 ,these winds correspond precisely with the hurricane winds of the ,west ,indies1 and are doubtless the incident winds of a storm traveling thence to the ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 precisely as our ,n4 ,e4 or ,e4 ,n4 ,e gales are incident storm winds to the ,n4 ,e4 storms of our latitude4 ,in this connection we will look at the peculiarities of a ,west ,india hurricane4 ,it is not a little remarkable1 says ,mr4 ,espy1 speaking of the storms and hurricanes of the ,west ,indies1 that all these storms1 and all others which have been traced to the ,west ,indies1 traveled ,n4 ,w4 almost at right angles to the direction of the trade-wind in those latitudes1 but very nearly1 if not exactly1 in the direction of an upper current of the air known to exist there toward the ,n4 ,w4 ,substantially the same facts have been repeated by ,mr4 ,redfield1 and demonstrated by his able investigations1 both there and in the ,eastern ,pacific1 and are confirmed by the observations of ,edwards1 ,lawson1 and others1 while residents there4 ,it is a matter of surprise that gentlemen like ,messrs4 ,redfield and ,espy1 who have certainly displayed great ability in the investigations of meteorological phenomena1 should fail to recognize a more intimate relation between this upper current and the storms they were investigating1 and to detect the general laws which govern both4 ,the storms and hurricanes of the ,west ,indies are comparatively of small diameter1 and have little advance condensation4 ,when they pass on to the south-western portion of ,north ,america and curve to the ,n4 ,e41 as they frequently do1 they enlarge in front and at the sides1 and their advance condensation1 which is not dense enough to drop rain1 extends in some cases from one to three hundred miles2 and the storm itself1 by the time it reaches the ,alleghanies1 may extend one thousand to fifteen hundred miles1 and perhaps in certain magnetic states of the surface1 and occasionally1 may cover the entire portion of the continent1 from north to south4 ,such1 probably1 was very nearly the extension of the storm investigated by ,professor ,loomis4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 however1 at the commencement1 they vary from twenty to one hundred miles1 or possibly more1 in width4 ,first1 they are preceded by a hot1 sultry and oppressive atmosphere--as are electric storms every where--a peculiar electric state of the earth and adjacent air4 ,second1 the black clouds and lightning which indicate the approaching hurricane are seen to the ,s41 ,s4 ,e41 and ,e4 ,s4 ,e41 according to the season of the year1 as we see them at the westward4 ,during the rainy season1 and when the storm1 as is usual at that period1 is small1 and the ,s4 ,e4 trade blows more eastwardly1 the wind at the ,windward ,islands1 possibly1 may set in at the north1 and back round by the east as it progresses4 ,so ,colonel ,reid thinks it sometimes does1 at ,barbadoes4 ,but when the belt of rains is south1 and the hurricane comes from the south-east1 and is larger and more violent in its action1 and the north-east winds prevail1 the first effect is an increase of these trades4 ,soon1 however1 the wind hauls to the north and north-west1 in opposition to its course1 bearing the same relation to it that our east and north-east winds bear to storms in the ,united ,states2 and the wind hauls around during the passage of the storm to the west1 south-west1 and south-east1 and at the latter point it clears off4 ,mr4 ,edwards in his ,history of ,jamaica says--and as a resident1 his authority should be decisive as to this ,island--that all hurricanes begin from the north1 veer back to the ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 ,w41 and ,s4 ,s4 ,w41 and when they get around to the ,s4 ,e4 the foul weather breaks up4 ,doubtless the same is true of the class of northers of which we are speaking on the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,but with this class the barometer does not rise during the gale1 and in proportion to its length and violence4 ,with the other class of ,n4 ,w4 winds--the northers of winter--it does4 ,the following description of two winter northers1 copied from ,colonel ,reid's valuable work1 will illustrate what has been said4 ,precisely such changes from ,s4 ,e4 rains to ,n4 ,w4 winds1 with blue sky and detached dark clouds--fair-weather ,n4 ,w4 scud--occur every autumn in ,october and ,november1 and the falling of the thermometer and rising of the barometer1 after rain1 and a change of the wind1 are perfectly characteristic4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #ahdc4 ,wind4 ,force4,weather4 ,bar4,ther4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,jan4 #cj4 ,a4,m4 #d4 ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #b b4 c4 #bi4ij #gg ,off ,tampico4 ,noon4 ,south4 #e b4 c4 r4#bi4hf #gf ,lat4 #bc deg4 #da' ,n41 ,p4,m4 #h4 ,south4 #f b4 c4 r4#bi4hd #gf ,long4 #id deg4 #ej' ,w4 ,jan4 #ca4 ,a4,m4 #d4 ,s4 ,easterly4 #c b4 c4 #bi4ij #gd ,between #f and #aj ,a4,m41 wind was variable4 ,noon4 ,n4 by ,w4 #i c4 q4 w4#bi4if #gf ,norther commenced at #aj ,a4 ,m4 ,p4,m4 #h4 ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #i c4 #cj4ji #gc ,lat4 #bb deg4 #cf' ,n41 ,long4 #ie deg4 #dh' ,w4 ,feb4 #a4 ,a4,m4 #d4 ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #g c4 g4 #cj4bi #fc ,lat4 #bb deg4 #i' ,n41 ,long4 #id deg4 #ej' ,w4 ,noon4 ,westerly4 #f c4 #cj4cj #fg ,p4,m4 #h4 ,calm4 #j c4 #cj4bf #fg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,feb4 #ad4 ,a4,m4 #d4 ,s4 ,e4 #c b4 c4 r4#bi4ff #gc ,at ,sacraficios4 ,noon4 ,s4 ,w4 #d b4 c4 #bi4fb ,norther comc'd at #e4cj ,p4,m4 ,p4,m4 #h4 ,n4 ,w4 by ,n4 #aj c4 q4 u4#bi4gb #fe ,feb4 #ae4 ,a4,m4 #d4 ,n4 ,w4 by ,n4 #aj c4 q4 u4#cj4aj #fa ,gale moderated and again freshened about #h ,a4,m4 ,noon4 ,n4 ,w4 by ,n4 #aj c4 g4 q4#cj4ai #fa ,p4,m4 #h4 ,n4 ,w4 #d c4 g4 #cj4bj #fe ,feb4 #af4 ,a4,m4 #d4 ,n4 ,w4 #c q4 #cj4ah #fb ,p4,m4 #h4 ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #b c4 g4 #cj4ba #ff ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- b4 indicates blue sky--c4 detached clouds--r4 rain--v4 visibility of objects--q4 squalls--w4 wet dew--u4 ugly threatening appearance--g4 gloomy weather4 ,the exact counterpart of the first norther may be observed with us every fall4 ,on the #cjth ,january1 with a rising thermometer and falling barometer1 there was rain at midday4 ,the night following was moist--the next day1 about ten ,a4,m41 the wind came out ,n4 ,w41 with squalls and gloomy weather1 a falling thermometer1 and rising barometer4 ,the norther of ,feb4 #adth differed from the other only in regard to the time of the day when it commenced2 the order of events was the same4 ,the rain fell in the night--it cleared off early in the day1 and the norther followed in the afternoon4 ,this also is frequently the case with us1 as every one may observe4 ,this brief notice of the surface winds of our climate would be incomplete without a description of those of the thunder-gust and tornado4 ,the former is exceedingly simple4 ,the showers1 which are accompanied with much wind1 form suddenly in hot weather1 and have a considerable advance condensation 7frequently with obvious lateral internal action71 extending eastwardly from the line of smooth cloud from which the rain is falling1 or rather where the falling rain obscures the inequalities of the cloud4 ,the gust is never felt until the advancing condensation has passed over us1 when it takes the place of the gentle easterly breeze which previously set toward the shower4 ,the gust ceases as soon as the cloud has passed4 ,it is obviously the result of the inducing and attracting influence of the cloud upon the atmosphere near the surface of the earth as it passes over it4 ,let the reader watch attentively this advance condensation1 from its eastern edge to the line of smooth cloud and falling rain1 and he will understand at a glance this internal action of gust-clouds4 ,the whole phenomena are simple and intelligible4 ,a cloud approaching from a westerly point1 dark and irregular from its eastern edge to the line of falling rain1 where it appears smooth and of a light color2 wind from the east blowing gently toward it1 till the condensation is over us2 then the gust following the cloud2 then the rain1 and in a few minutes the cloud1 and wind1 and rain have passed on to the east1 and sunshine returns4 ,the tornado1 as it is termed when it occurs upon land1 spout1 if on the water1 is sometimes of a different character1 and as it undoubtedly had great influence in inducing the gyrating theory of ,mr4 ,redfield1 and the aspiratory theory of ,mr4 ,espy1 and has been cited by both in support of their respective theories1 it deserves a more particular notice4 ,there are several marked peculiarities attending it which determine its character4 #ast4 ,it occurs during a peculiarly sultry and electric state of the trade and surface atmosphere1 and at a time when thunder showers are prevailing in and around the locality1 and at every period of the year when such a state of the atmosphere exists4 ,one recently occurred in ,brandon1 ,ohio1 in midwinter4 #b;d4 ,there is always a cloud above1 but very near the earth1 between which and the earth the tornado forms and rages4 ,it is usually described as a black cloud1 ranging about #ajjj feet or less above the earth1 often with a whitish shaped cone projecting from it1 and forming a connection with the earth2 at intervals rising and breaking the connection1 and again descending and renewing it with devastating energy4 ,its width at the surface varies from forty to one hundred and eighty rods--the most usual width being from sixty to ninety rods4 ,sometimes when still wider1 they have more the character of thunder-gusts1 and are brightly luminous4 #c;d4 ,two motions are usually visible1 one ascending one near the earth and in the middle1 and a gyratory one around the other4 ,the latter is rarely felt1 or its effects observed1 near the earth4 ,occasionally1 and at intervals1 objects are thrown obliquely backward by it4 #dth4 ,it is composed1 at the surface of the earth1 of two lateral currents1 a northerly and southerly one1 varying in direction1 but normally at right angles in most cases1 although not always1 with its course of progression1 extending from the extreme limits of its track to the axis2 which currents are most distinctly defined toward the center1 and upward4 ,these currents prostrate trees1 or elevate and remove every thing in their way which is detached and movable4 ,there does not seem to be any current in advance of these lateral ones tending toward the tornado1 save in rare and excepted cases1 and then owing to the make of the ground or the irregular action of the currents2 nor any following1 except that made by the curving of the lateral currents toward the center of the spout as it moves on1 and perhaps a tendency of the air to follow and supply the place of that which has been carried upward and forward1 like that of water following the stern of a vessel4 ,the south current is always the strongest1 and often a little in advance of the other1 and covers the greatest area4 ,the proportion of the two currents to each other is much the same that the ,s4 ,e4 trades bear to the ,n4 ,e4 ,this excess in volume and strength of the southerly current will explain the irregularities in most cases1 and the fact that objects are so often taken up and carried from the south to the north side1 and so rarely from the north and carried south of the axis4 ,these irregularities are such as attend all violent forces1 and something can be found which will favor almost any theory2 but the two lateral currents appear always to be the principal actors1 except1 perhaps1 when it widens out and assumes more the character of a straightforward gust4 ,see a collection by ,professor ,loomis1 ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xliii4 p4 #bgh4 ,the following diagram is a section of the ,new ,haven tornado1 from ,professor ,olmstead's map accompanying his article in the ,american ,journal of ,science and ,art1 vol4 #cg4 p4 #cdj4 ,the manner in which the main currents flow is shown by their early and unresisted effect in a cornfield1 as represented by the dotted lines4 ,the direction in which the fragments of buildings were carried by the greater power of the southerly currents is shown also4 ,and so is this irregular action1 where a part of the southerly current broke through the northerly one1 and prostrated two or three trees backward on the north side of the axis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 #eth4 ,this cloud1 and its spout1 move generally with the course of the counter-trade in the locality--i4 e41 from some point between ,s4 ,w4 and ,w41 to the eastward1 but occasionally a little south of east1 deflected by the magnetic wave beneath the belt of showers4 #fth4 ,several exceedingly instructive particulars have been observed and recorded4 a4 ,no wind is felt outside of the track1 as those assert who have stood very near it1 and its effects show4 b4 ,the track is often as distinctly marked1 where it passed through a wood1 as if the grubbers had been there with their axes to open a path for a rail-road4 ,the branches of the trees1 projecting within its limits1 are found twisted and broken off1 or stripped of their leaves1 while not a leaf is disturbed at the distance of a foot or two on the opposite side of the tree1 and outside of the track4 c4 ,as the spout passes over water1 the latter seems to boil up and rise to meet it1 and flow up its trunk in a continued stream4 d4 ,as it passes over the land1 and over buildings1 fences1 and other movable things1 they appear to shoot up1 instantaneously1 as it were1 into the air1 and into fragments4 ,if buildings are not destroyed or removed1 the doors may be burst open on the leeward side1 and gable ends snatched out1 and roofs taken off on the same side1 while that portion of the building which is to the windward remains unaffected4 e4 ,articles of clothing1 and other light articles1 have been carried out of buildings through open doors1 or chimneys1 or holes made in the roofs1 and to a great distance1 without any opening being made for the air to blow in4 f4 ,if there be a discharge of electricity up the spout from the earth1 like that of lightning1 the intense action ceases for a time or entirely4 g4 ,vegetation in the track is often scorched and killed1 and so of the leaves on one side of a tree1 which is within the track1 while those on the other side1 and without the track remain unaffected4 7,espy's ,philosophy of ,storms1 #cei1 cited from ,peltier47 h4 ,the active agent whatever it is1 has been known to seize hold of a chain attached to a plow and draw the plow about1 turning the stiff sod for a considerable distance4 7,see ,loomis on the tornado at ,stow1 ,ohio1 ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xxxiii4 p4 #cfh47 i4 ,in passing over ponds1 the spout has taken up all the water and fish1 and scattered them in every direction1 and to a great distance4 j4 ,the barometer falls very little during the passage of the spout4 7,see the ,natchez hurricane of #ahbg1 ,espy page #ccg47 ,not more than it frequently does during gentle showers4 k4 ,persons have been taken up1 carried some distance1 and if not projected against some object in the way1 or some object against them1 have usually been set down gently and uninjured4 l4 ,buildings which stood upon posts1 with a free passage for the air under them1 although in the path of the tornado1 escaped undisturbed4 7,olmstead's account of the ,new ,haven tornado1 ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xxxvii4 p #cdj47 m4 ,a chisel taken from a chest of tools1 and stuck fast in the wall of the house4 7,ibid47 n4 ,fowls have had all their feathers stripped from them in an instant and run about naked but uninjured4#e o4 ,articles of furniture1 etc41 have been found torn in pieces by antagonistic forces4 p4 ,frames taken from looking-glasses without breaking the glass4 ,nails drawn from the roofs of houses without disturbing the tiles4 q4 ,hinges taken from doors--mud taken from the bed of a stream 7the water being first removed71 and let down on a house covering it completely--a farmer taken up from his wagon and carried thirty rods1 his horses carried an equal distance in another direction1 the harness stripped from them1 and the wagon carried off also1 one wheel not found at all4 7,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xxxvii4 p4 #ic47 ,pieces of timber1 boards1 and clapboard1 driven into the side of a hill1 as no force of powder could drive them1 etc41 etc4 ,now to my mind1 these circumstances indicate clearly1 that it is not wind1 i4 e41 mere currents of air1 which produces the effect1 but that a continuous current or stream of electricity from the earth to the cloud exists1 and carries with it from near the earth1 such articles as are movable3 ,that this stream collects from the northerly and southerly side upon the magnetic meridian1 in two currents with polarity1 which meet in their passage up at the center2 curving toward the center in the posterior part as the spout moves on1 when acting in a normal manner1 and making the law of curvature observed3 ,that no conceivable movement of the air alone in such limited spaces could produce such effects2 or if so1 that no agent but electricity could so move the air3 ,that the air in a building could not shoot the roof upward1 and into fragments2 much less could the air in a cellar by any conceivable force1 be made to elevate or shoot up the entire house1 and its inmates1 and contents--effects so totally unlike what takes place in gales1 hurricanes1 and typhoons3 ,that elastic free air never did nor could take hold of the plow chain1 and plow up the ground2 or scorch and kill the vegetation2 or twist the limbs from one side of a tree1 while the most delicate leaves on the other1 and within two or three feet1 remained unaffected and undisturbed2 or pick the chickens3 ,that even if the expansion of the air could produce these effects--if a sudden vacuum were produced--nothing but currents of electricity could produce the sudden vacuum1 by removing the air above4 ,it is well settled that atmospheric electricity can and does flow in currents with light1 by experiments in relation to the brush discharge1 etc4 ,that it may do so without light or disruptive discharge1 and in a stream1 or as it is termed1 by convection1 with the force and effect seen in the tornado1 is perfectly consistent with what we know of it--and it is1 ,i think clearly evinced that such is the character of the phenomena1 by the fact that a sudden powerful disruptive discharge1 with light1 up the spout1 produces an instantaneous partial or total suspension of its action2 to be renewed as the cloud passes over another and more highly charged portion of the earth's surface4 ,peltier gives instances where the spout has been entirely and instantaneously destroyed by such a sudden and powerful discharge of electricity2 marking the spot where it was so destroyed by a large hole in the earth1 from which the discharge issued4 ,and in fact these tornados are often steadily luminous1 and so much so1 when they occur in the night1 as to enable persons to read without difficulty4 ,the lateral inward and upward currents1 are accompanied1 after they meet and unite1 or seem to unite1 by gyratory or circular ones4 ,how are they produced8 ,this question can only be answered by analogy4 ,no permanent impressions are left by the circular currents1 except to a limited extent1 and in occasional instances2 and observation of them has been1 and must necessarily be limited and uncertain4 ,i have witnessed one or two on a moderate scale2 but owing to the suddenness of their passage1 and the confusion of the objects taken up1 it was difficult to determine what the circular currents were4 ,when the southerly current is much the strongest1 it appears sometimes to cross the axis1 and curve round the northerly one4 ,perhaps this may be all the curving that really takes place1 except at the posterior part of the axis1 for evidence of a curving on the south of the axis is rarely1 if ever seen4 ,assuming1 however1 that the main currents unite and form one from the earth to the cloud1 induced circular currents would be in perfect keeping with the known laws of electricity4 ,such currents1 and with magnetic properties1 are always induced by powerful currents of voltaic electricity passing through wires4 ,and doubtless in all cases powerful currents of electricity induce attendant circular currents4 ,this may account for the external gyration of the spout4 ,or it may be that the two lateral currents of air which attend the currents of electricity1 do not unite2 having opposite polarity1 but pass by and around each other1 in connection with the circular magnetic currents4 ,future observation and perhaps experimental research will determine this4 ,but it may not be accomplished by the present generation2 for the belief that tornados are mere whirlwinds1 produced by the action of the sun in heating the land1 is adhered to1 notwithstanding they cross the intense magnetic area of ,ohio in mid-winter1 and seems to be ineradicable4 ,the proportions of different winds vary in different localities4 ,for the benefit of those who are curious1 ,i copy a table from an able compilation by ,professor ,coffin1 published by the ,smithsonian ,institute1 showing the proportion of the winds at ,new ,haven 7the station nearest to me74 ,it will be noticed that during the year the ,n4 ,w4 winds blow the greatest number of days2 the ,s4 ,w4 next2 the ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,e4 less than either1 and about equal4 ,it may be observed that the two latter bear about the same proportion to the whole1 that our number of cloudy and stormy days1 averaging about ninety1 bear to the whole number of days in the year4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,course4 #ahjd4 #ahaa4 #ahab4 #ahac4 ,total4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,n4 #adc #aje #ij #aaa #ddi ,n4 ,e4 #ii #bjg #ach #ach #ehb ,e4 #cc #ah #bb #bc #if ,s4 ,e4 #aca #ajh #ace #aaj #dhd ,s4 #eh #fi #aac #hj #cbj ,s4 ,w4 #bbd #bee #aec #bfa #hic ,w4 #ha #fi #ajb #eg #cji ,n4 ,w4 #cbi #bfd #cde #cae #abec ---------------------------------------- -------- ,this work of ,mr4 ,coffin has been brought to my notice since the foregoing pages were written4 ,the facts embodied in it will be found to comport with what ,i have observed and stated4 ,in relation to the proportionate number of days in the year during which the wind blows from the different points of the compass at the several stations it is very full and able4 ,but it has cardinal defects4 ,it does not show the main currents of the atmosphere4 ,it treats the surface-winds1 which are incidental1 as principals4 ,the direction of the main currents is indeed shown frequently by the mean course of the surface winds1 but not uniformly or intelligibly4 ,nor does it distinguish between the fair weather and storm winds2 nor always between the trade winds during their northern transit1 and the variable winds north of the trade-wind region4 ,hence1 the deductions derived from it disclose no general system1 and sustain no theory1 although many very important facts appear4 ,some of these1 ,professor ,coffin found it difficult to reconcile with received theories1 or satisfactorily explain4 ,for instance1 he found the prevailing winds of the ,united ,states1 in ,louisiana and ,texas1 ,s4 and ,s4 ,e42 in western ,arkansas1 and ,missouri1 southerly1 and in ,iowa and ,wisconsin1 ,s4 ,w41 forming a curve1 and evidently connected together4 ,thus1 alluding to the winds west of the ,mississippi1 and between the parallels of #cf deg4 and #fj deg41 he says3 ,on the ,american continent1 west of the ,mississippi1 there appears to be more diversity in the mean direction of the wind1 yet here it is westerly at sixteen stations out of twenty1 from which observations have been obtained4 ,the most peculiar feature in this region1 is the line of southerly winds on the western borders of ,arkansas and ,missouri4 ,it seems to form a connecting link between the winds of this zone and the south-easterly ones that we find south of it2 and1 in some degree1 to favor an idea that has been advanced1 that there is a vast eddy1 extending from the western shore of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 to the eastern shore of the ,atlantic2 that the easterly trade-winds of the ,atlantic ,ocean1 when they strike the ,american continent1 veer northwardly1 and then ,n4 ,e41 and thus recross the ,atlantic1 and follow down the coast of ,portugal and ,africa1 till they complete the circuit4 ,this mean prevalence of the curving winds indicates the course of the western portion of the concentrated counter-trade1 of which we have so fully spoken1 and to which that portion owes its rains and fertility4 ,doubtless the curve would have been traced somewhat further west1 if observations had been obtained from more westerly stations4 ,the idea of an eddy1 to which ,professor ,coffin alludes1 is of course unsound2 that of a counter-trade1 most fully confirmed2 the curve corresponding with that of the regular rains and fertility as they are known to exist4 ,professor ,coffin is a believer in the generally-received theory of rarefaction1 as the cause of all winds4 ,his work is published by the ,smithsonian ,institution1 and the theory is1 so far forth1 nationalized4 ,but he found it very difficult to reconcile all the facts he obtained1 with the theory1 and1 possessing a truth-loving mind1 he frankly admits it4 ,alluding to the prevalence of ,n4 ,e4 winds off the coast of ,africa in the summer months1 as shown by certain numbered wind-roses1 he says3 ,nos4 #ha1 #hc1 #hf1 and #ia1 have caused me much perplexity4 ,the arrows for the warmer months evidently indicate a point of rarefaction situated to the south or south-west1 and yet all the observations from which they were computed were taken within a few hundred miles of the ,african coast and desert of ,sahara2 a region1 the annual range of whose temperature must be exceedingly great4 ,the only way in which ,i can account for a fact so astonishing1 is1 by supposing the deflecting forces at these numbers to be secondary to the influence which we see so strongly marked in ,nos4 #hh1 #hi1 and #ij4 ,let us1 then1 first devote our attention to these4 7,we have not space for the map of ,professor ,coffin1 nor is it necessary to insert it4 ,the numbers #ha1 #hc1 #hf1 and #ia1 refer to respective portions of the ,atlantic1 west of ,africa1 ,north of the ,cape de ,verdes1 of #e deg4 of latitude each1 where the ,n4 ,e4 trades are drawing off from the coast4 ,the ,nos4 #hh1 #hi1 and #ij refer to like portions below the ,cape de ,verde1 where the ,s4 ,w4 monsoons are found under the rainy belt2 and the explanation of the distinguished author is an attempt to account for the blowing of the trades from ,sahara1 by supposing them connected with the monsoons further south1 which seem to blow toward it47 ,the intense heat of the ,great ,desert rarefies the air exceedingly from ,june to ,october1 inclusive1 and hence the arrows of unparalleled length 7,plate ,,xii471 7showing the monsoon winds below the ,cape de ,verdes17 pointing toward it during those months1 the longest being longer than that which represents the most uniform of the trade-winds1 in the ratio of #ajd to #hi4 ,the influence of this rarefaction is sufficient to curve the powerful current of the trade-winds in the manner exhibited on ,plate ,,vii4 ,nos4 #hi and #ij1 and to produce the not less remarkable change in ,no4 #hh1 holding the current back and retarding it1 so that its progressive motion in the three months of ,july1 ,august1 and ,september united1 hardly exceeds that during any one of the colder months of the year4 ,but while this is so1 the trades on the western side of the ,atlantic are pursuing nearly their regular track1 being but slightly affected by these influences4 ,as a consequence1 the latter must leave1 as it were1 a partial vacuum behind them1 which is filled by air flowing in from the north-east and south-east4 ,this will account for the seeming anomaly of having a somewhat strong deflecting force directed toward mid-ocean1 in the hottest part of the year1 as in the numbers above referred to4 ,and yet it may be very naturally asked1 ,why does not the air from these parts supply the ,great ,desert directly1 instead of taking a circuitous route to supply the region that supplies it8 ,a question which1 ,i confess1 it seems difficult to answer4 7,the italicization in the foregoing extract is mine74 ,here the worthy professor finds a fact inconsistent with the theory of rarefaction--viz43 that the winds blow off shore1 and toward mid-ocean1 opposite ,sahara1 and he is perplexed and astonished4 ,the theory1 however1 must be maintained1 and one of those modifying hypotheses which have made meteorology such a complicated piece of patch-work1 must be invented2 some deflecting forces found4 ,there is the ,great ,desert1 bordering upon the ocean1 north of the ,cape de ,verde ,islands1 for a distance of six hundred miles1 widening as it extends inland1 whose temperature1 as he says1 must be exceedingly great2 and doubtless is so1 and yet the air1 instead of blowing in upon it in a hurricane1 is actually drawing off from it1 and blowing towards the ,s4 ,w41 where the water and air do not rise above #hd deg44 ,well may he be perplexed and astonished4 ,turning south1 however1 to the distance of five hundred miles or more1 he finds the ,s4 ,w4 monsoon winds1 which in those months blow under the belt of rains1 toward the land1 in the direction of1 but at a great distance from1 ,sahara4 ,it is an easy matter to suppose that they reach the ,great ,desert and supply its vortex of rarefaction1 inasmuch as they blow in a direction toward it1 and distance is no impediment to supposition4 ,then it is necessary to suppose that the ,s4 ,e4 and ,n4 ,e4 trades1 at the south-west1 draw so strongly to the westward as to create a partial vacuum to the ,s4 ,w4 of ,sahara1 which is filled by the winds which draw off shore1 and then we have the supply brought from the distance of five hundred miles or more1 by an ascending vortex1 which creates a vacuum1 and the air near the vortex taken away in another direction by a partial vacuum2 and so an ascending vortex1 which creates a vacuum is supplied from a distance1 and a partial vacuum at a distance is supplied by the air near the perfect vacuum4 ,such an idea of a supply by a circuitous route1 and secondary influence1 is not very philosophical1 to say the least1 and ,professor ,coffin feels it2 and to the question1 ,why is it so8 which1 he says1 may very naturally be asked1 he confesses there is no answer4 ,and there would be none1 even if his suppositions were based upon facts4 ,but other questions might be asked equally difficult to be answered1 viz43 #ast4 ,is there any rarefaction which can draw the trades to the west1 and in that particular locality1 in opposition to the supposed vortex of ,sahara1 by creating a partial vacuum8 #b;d4 ,are they in fact so drawn8 #c;d4 ,do the ,s4 ,w4 winds1 south of the ,cape de ,verdes1 and under the rainy belt1 which in the summer months extend up to these islands1 reach the desert at all8 ,these are pertinent questions1 and every one of them must be answered in the negative4 ,the hypothesis is without foundation1 and ,professor's ,coffin's perplexity and astonishment must remain1 until he abandons the theory of rarefaction entirely4 ,the winds which so perplex him are nothing but the regular ,n4 ,e4 trades1 made to originate on the coast and continent of ,africa1 in summer1 by the northern transit of the whole machinery4 ,they not only draw off from the desert coast1 but they blow over the desert itself on to the ocean1 and into the rainy belt upon the land1 as we have already seen1 and the supposed vortex of rarefaction does not exist4 ,that the monsoons do not reach the desert is demonstrated by the tables of ,professor ,coffin1 and to set it at rest we will make the necessary extracts4 ,commencing with the region from the equator to #e deg4 ,n41 and from #aj deg4 to #ee deg4 ,w4 longitude1 we have the observed winds in proportion1 as follows1 for ,july and ,august--the south-east trades prevailing1 inasmuch as the belt of rains is at this season situated further north4 ,,latitude #j deg4 ,,to #e deg41 ,,longitude ,,from ,,greenwich #aj deg4 ,,to #ee deg44 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,north4 #j #j ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #ed #aaa ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 #h #b ,s4 ,w4 #a #bi ,n4 ,e4 #f #b ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 #f #ai ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 #bg #af ,west4 #b #i ,east4 #ca #bj ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #a #f ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 #abj #if ,n4 ,w4 #a #j ,s4 ,e4 #baf #bgf ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #j #b ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 #bah #ddc ,calm4 #h #d ,south4 #fi #bgi --------------------------- ,total #gfh #a1cad ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,here1 it is evident that the ,s4 ,e4 trades are the prevailing winds1 but their course is variable4 ,ascending to the region between #e deg4 and #aj deg4 north latitude1 and #aj deg4 to #ee deg4 west longitude1 the northern part of which at this season is covered by the rainy belt2 we find the monsoon1 the ,s41 ,s4 ,s4 ,w41 and ,s4 ,w4 winds1 the prevailing ones in ,august1 although the winds are variable1 as usual under the rainy belt4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,north4 #ai #f ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #ahh #cfh ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 #bf #aa ,s4 ,w4 #fc #id ,n4 ,e4 #ajd #cb ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 #gc #ic ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 #cj #af ,west4 #cc #dh ,east4 #de #bi ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #cj #ah ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 #cf #dj ,n4 ,w4 #ba #i ,s4 ,e4 #ic #ec ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #ag #ac ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 #bbe #cjg ,calm4 #aji #gd ,south4 #bci #ead ------------------------- ,total #a1cea #a1gbe ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,ascending to the region of #aj deg4 to #ae deg4 north latitude1 and #ae deg4 to #de deg4 west longitude1 we find the winds exceedingly variable1 and the monsoons diminished remarkably4 ,if ,professor ,coffin's theory was correct1 they should increase as they approach the desert2 but they in fact1 diminish1 and the ,n4 ,e4 trades are found at the north portion4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,north4 #ag #ee ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #cj #ga ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 #fd #gd ,s4 ,w4 #cc #fc ,n4 ,e4 #aee #adi ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 #ai #dc ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 #ia #ga ,west4 #ab #be ,east4 #hc #fj ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #ag #ba ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 #be #bf ,n4 ,w4 #ac #bd ,s4 ,e4 #ag #bf ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #bd #ef ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 #ac #cc ,calm4 #fb #gh ,south4 #i #dd ------------------------- ,total #fhd #iai ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,ascending to the region between #ae deg4 and #bj deg4 north latitude1 and #ae deg4 to #de deg4 west longitude1 we get north of the belt of rains and lose the monsoons entirely although still below the desert2 and find the regular ,n4 ,e4 trades1 with less variable winds than are found in almost any other part of the ocean4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,north4 #ci #bj ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #j #e ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 #baj #ahe ,s4 ,w4 #j #e ,n4 ,e4 #aab #hg ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 #h #c ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 #aad #ajd ,west4 #j #a ,east4 #bj #cf ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #j #d ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 #ba #ag ,n4 ,w4 #c #d ,s4 ,e4 #j #b ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #c #ca ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 #b #aa ,calm #bj #h ,south4 #e #a ------------------------- ,total1 #eeg #ebf ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,ascending still further to the region between #bj deg4 and #be deg4 north latitude1 and #ae deg4 and #de deg4 west longitude1 which borders1 in part1 on the ,s4 ,w4 corner of the desert1 and we have not1 during the month of ,august1 a single wind between ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 and ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 which blows in upon the land2 and only twelve instances out of three hundred and ninety-four in this hottest month in the year1 and on the southern portion of the desert1 when the wind blows on shore from any quarter4 ,this is demonstration4 ,the monsoon winds are confined to the rainy belt2 they do not reach the desert1 nor does the desert attract the winds from the ocean1 or reverse1 hold back1 or disturb the trades4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,north4 #be #bj ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #c #j ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 #baj #aec ,s4 ,w4 #b #j ,n4 ,e4 #abi #gg ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 #ac #j ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 #aaj #hf ,west4 #j #j ,east4 #h #bj ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #j #c ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 #d #aa ,n4 ,w4 #b #a ,s4 ,e4 #j #c ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #e #h ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 #a #g ,calm4 #b #e ,south4 #a #j ------------------------- ,total1 #eae #cid ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,ascending once more1 to the region between the degrees of #be and #cj1 north latitude1 and #ae and #de1 west longitude1 we find it bounded east entirely on the center of the desert4 ,now here1 certainly1 there must be evidence of the truth of the rarefaction theory1 if any where on the face of the earth4 ,yet here1 in ,july and ,august1 we find the trades as regular as any where1 and not more variable winds than are found in the trades toward their northern limits every where1 and in ,august1 only forty out of four hundred and twenty-nine winds1 blowing directly or indirectly on shore4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ,course4 ,july4 ,august4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,north4 #cb #ai ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #i #f ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 #aee #abe ,s4 ,w4 #c #i ,n4 ,e4 #add #ce ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 #ac #ad ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 #adj #hi ,west4 #ab #c ,east4 #dh #eg ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #g #g ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 #ca #bc ,n4 ,w4 #aa #a ,s4 ,e4 #h #g ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #cf #f ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 #h #ab ,calm4 #ah #ab ,south4 #e #d ------------------------- ,total1 #fhj #dbi ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,it would seem to be impossible for any man to believe in the theory of rarefaction1 after an examination of these tables4 ,professor ,coffin discovers other anomalies1 for which he finds it difficult to account4 ,among these are the northerly tendency1 in the afternoon1 of the winds in ,ohio1 south of ,lake ,erie2 the winds of south-western ,asia1 which1 he says1 ,are so irregular as to defy all attempts to reduce them to system2 particularizing the ,n4 ,w4 at ,jerusalem1 the westerly at ,bagdad1 the ,n4 ,e4 at ,constantinople1 the northerly at ,trebizond1 etc41 etc4 ,jerusalem has the ,mediterranean at the ,n4 ,w41 ,bagdad has it at the west1 ,constantinople has the ,black ,sea at the ,n4 ,e41 ,trebizond ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 and ,n4 ,e41 and the counter-trade1 as it passes over them1 draws its storm-surface wind or sea-breeze1 from the quarter where evaporation is greatest1 and the atmosphere is most susceptible of electrical inductive influence4 ,precisely as it draws from the ocean and the eastward1 east of the ,alleghanies1 from the lake region1 west of the lakes1 and from the northward1 south of the lakes1 and from the westward1 east of them4 ,this law of attraction will explain1 too1 the mean prevalence of easterly winds north of the parallel of #fj deg41 at the stations named in his work4 ,great ,bear ,lake1 ,great ,slave ,lake1 and ,fort ,enterprise1 lie east of the ,rocky ,mountain range which interposes between them and the ,pacific1 and have ,hudson's ,bay and other large bodies of water on the east and north4 ,hence1 easterly winds prevail at these places4 ,at ,norway ,house1 on ,nelson's ,river1 near the north end of ,lake ,winnipeg1 a large body of water1 which stretches off to the south1 we find the south wind the prevalent one1 especially in ,december1 when the northern and north-eastern waters are frozen up1 and the ,n4 ,e4 largely present at all seasons of the year4 ,at ,new ,hernhut1 in winter1 when ,davis' ,straits are covered with floes1 the prevailing wind is east1 drawn from the warm1 open sea east of ,greenland1 where the ,gulf ,stream is evaporating4 ,but in ,june and ,july1 when evaporation is going on over ,davis' ,straits and ,baffin's ,bay1 the prevailing winds are west and south1 and the east winds fall off4 ,other stations are equally instructive1 but ,i must forbear4 ,in relation1 however1 to the easterly zone of wind1 of which ,professor ,coffin speaks1 it should be added that the counter-trade1 south of the magnetic pole1 in high latitudes1 pursues an easterly course1 is near the earth1 and attracts an opposite wind as it does on the east and north of the pole1 in localities where the surface atmosphere is not peculiarly susceptible to its influence1 and1 therefore1 the winds are mainly opposite to its course4 ,thus1 at ,melville ,island1 they are almost all westerly and north-westerly1 for there the remnant of the counter-trade is passing west around the magnetic pole4 ,these westerly and north-westerly winds are very light1 and like the gentle easterly breeze which sets toward the cumulus clouds and summer showers4 ,since most of this work was written1 ,i have procured1 and read with great pleasure1 ,lieutenant ,maury's ,geography of the ,sea4 ,it is a work of great interest1 and should be in the hands of every one4 ,the extent of ground covered1 however1 made it necessary for ,lieutenant ,maury to introduce much matter not derived from his own investigations4 ,in doing this1 he has taken received opinions1 and has thereby introduced much heresy4 ,the view he adopts in relation to the monsoons1 although the popular one with philosophers1 is of that character4 ,he says 7page #bbb73 ,monsoons are1 for the most part1 formed of trade-winds4 ,when a trade-wind is turned back1 or diverted1 by over-heated districts1 from its regular course at stated seasons of the year1 it is regarded as a monsoon4 ,thus1 the ,african monsoons of the ,atlantic1 the monsoons of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and the ,central ,american monsoons of the ,pacific1 are1 for the most part1 formed of the north-east trade-winds1 which are turned back to restore the equilibrium which the over-heated plains of ,africa1 ,utah1 ,texas1 and ,new ,mexico have disturbed4 ,when the monsoons prevail for five months at a time--for it takes about a month for them to change and become settled--then both they and the trade-winds1 of which they are formed1 are called monsoons4 ,again 7,sec4 #dgf-g73 ,the agents which produce monsoons reside on the land4 ,these winds are caused by the rarefaction of the air over large districts of country situated on the polar edge1 or near the polar edge1 of the trade-winds4 ,thus1 the monsoons of the ,indian ,ocean are caused by the intense heat which the rays of a cloudless sun produce1 during the summer time1 upon the ,desert of ,cobi and the burning plains of ,central ,asia4 ,when the sun is north of the equator1 the force of his rays1 beating down upon these wide and thirsty plains1 is such as to cause the vast superincumbent body of air to expand and ascend4 ,there is1 consequently1 a rush of air1 especially from toward the equator1 to restore the equilibrium2 and1 in this case1 the force which tends to draw the north-east trade-winds back becomes greater than the force which is acting to propel them forward4 ,consequently1 they obey the stronger power1 turn back1 and become the famous south-west monsoons of the ,indian ,ocean1 which blow from ,may to ,september inclusive4 ,of course1 the vast plains of ,asia are not brought up to monsoon heat per saltum1 or in a day4 ,they require time both to be heated up to this point and to be cooled down again4 ,hence1 there is a conflict for a few weeks about the change of the monsoon1 when neither the trade wind nor the monsoon force has fairly lost or gained the ascendency4 ,this debatable period amounts to about a month at each change4 ,so that the monsoons of the ,indian ,ocean prevail really for about five months each way1 viz43 from ,may to ,september1 from the south-west1 in obedience to the influence of the over-heated plains1 and from ,november to ,march inclusive from the north-east1 in obedience to the trade-wind force4 ,what the trade-wind force is1 ,lieutenant ,maury tells us in another paragraph1 viz43 ,calorific action of the sun and diurnal rotation of the earth--the received calorific theory4 ,i have already shown1 ,i think1 conclusively1 that there is no expansion and ascent in the supposed region of calms1 which induces1 or can induce1 the trades2 and that1 in point of fact1 the air on the land is cooler under the belt of rains4 ,but as ,lieutenant ,maury1 whose reputation is national1 adopts the theory1 ,i shall be pardoned for copying the following table1 showing the difference of temperature at two cities of ,india1 before1 after1 and while the belt of inter-tropical rains is over them4 ,it will be seen that the temperature is actually less when the belt is there1 viz41 in ,july and ,august1 than in ,april and ,may4 ,this should be conclusive upon that point4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,anjarakandy4 ,calcutta4 ,months4 --------------------------------------- ,rain4 ,temp4 ,rain4 ,temp4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,m4 ,m4 ,m4 ,m4 ,january1 #b1bf #bf deg41#e #j1j #ah deg41#d ,february1 #b1bf #bg deg41#g #fg1fh #ba deg41#e ,march1 #f1gg #bh deg41#d #bd1hb #be deg41#f ,april1 #bi1cc #bi deg41#h #acj1hd #bh deg41#e ,may1 #age1if #bh deg41#f #af1bd #bi deg41#g ,june1 #gid1je #bf deg41#f #ege1bd #bi deg41#c ,july1 #hjg1ei #be deg41#h #cch1ch #bh1 deg4#a ,august1 #egb1ih #bf deg41#j #caa1ca #bh deg41#c ,september1 #caa1ca #bf deg41#d #bed1ia #bh deg41#j ,october1 #aeg1ia #bf deg41#h #db1hf #bg deg41#b ,november1 #fe1db #bf deg41#i #bj1cj #bc deg41#j ,december1 #bi1cc #bf deg41#e #j1j #ai deg41#b ---------------------------------------- -------- ,year1 #biee1ad #bg deg41#b #aibh1gd #bf deg41#d ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,anjarakandy is on the ,malabar coast1 between #ab deg4 and #ac deg4 north latitude4 ,calcutta in an angle of the ,bay of ,bengal1 at #bb deg4 #cj' north latitude4 ,the former is in and near the focus of the monsoons1 and has a temperature in ,july 7when #ah inches of rain fall71 about as low as in ,december4 ,in the foregoing table from ,kaemptz1 the rain is in millimetres1 about twenty-five of which make an inch1 and the temperature is centigrade1 which may be raised to ,fahrenheit by adding four fifths of the quantity and also #cb deg4--thus1 if the height of the centigrade thermometer be #be deg41 add to this four fifths of #be deg41 which is #bj deg41 and also #cb deg41 the result is #gg deg44 ,twenty-five centigrade is therefore equal to seventy-seven ,fahrenheit4 ,lieutenant ,maury is not1 and should not be a theorist4 ,he occupies the position1 in some sort1 of a national investigator1 and1 of course1 of national instructor4 ,opinions which emanate from him1 or which are endorsed by him1 should be accurate4 ,sooner or later that which he has adopted in relation to the monsoons1 and some others1 must be abandoned4 ,in addition to what has already been said1 ,i wish to call his1 and the reader's attention1 to several other facts and considerations in relation to the monsoons1 and particularly those of ,india4 #ast4 ,the deserts of ,cobi and ,bucharia1 which constitute the burning plains of ,central ,asia1 north-east of the ,indian ,ocean1 lie between #ch deg4 and #de deg4 of north latitude1 and under the zone of extra-tropical rains4 ,they are not wholly rainless4 ,they partake of that saline character which affects so much of ,asia and the western part of this continent4 ,south of them1 running nearly east and west1 are the lofty ranges of the ,himmalaya and ,kuenlun ,mountains1 and the table lands of ,thibet4 ,to their saline character1 in part1 but mainly to the interposition of these mountain ranges1 depriving the counter-trade of moisture1 they owe their comparative sterility4 ,if bountifully supplied with rains1 this salt would doubtless ere this have been washed to the ocean1 as it has been from other countries1 once as salt as they4 ,but they have some rain1 and more or less vegetation1 and are not intensely hot4 ,they lie too far north1 and are too elevated4 ,their temperature is not materially different from that of the western1 and comparatively desert portions of our own country1 and they are utterly incapable of creating a monsoon at the ,indian ,ocean1 and especially from the long line of ,malabar coast1 where the south-west monsoons are found in most strength4 ,the sterile portions of ,utah1 ,new ,mexico1 and ,texas are alike incapable of such effect upon the atmosphere of ,central ,america and ,mexico4 ,these monsoons commence in ,may1 and prevail until ,october1 and the temperature of the air where they blow ranges with considerable regularity between #gf deg4 at night1 and #hd deg4 at mid-day1 on the ,malabar coast1 and a trifle lower in ,central ,america4 ,at ,fort ,fillmore1 ,el ,paso1 ,new ,mexico1 in latitude #cb deg4#jc1 the mean temperature for ,may is #fh deg4 ,june #gh deg41 #e' ,july #hj deg41 #a' ,august #hc deg41 #h' ,september #gg deg41 #i' ------- ,and for the whole period1 #gg deg41 #a' ,at ,santa ,fe1 ,new ,mexico1 the mean for ,may is #ff deg41 #i' ,june #gb deg41 #e' ,july #ge deg41 #c' ,august #gb deg41 #i' ,september #fb deg41 #c' ------- ,and for the whole period1 #fi deg41 #c' ,mean of the two united1 #gc deg41 #b' ,the mean of ,western ,texas is about #b deg4 higher than at ,fort ,fillmore1 and of ,utah not materially different2 and the mean of ,central ,asia between #ch deg4 and #de deg4 does not materially vary from them4 ,now1 it is perfectly evident that during ,may and ,september the temperature of ,central ,asia is far below that of the ,indian ,ocean and ,india1 and never materially exceeds it4 ,central ,asia is hot1 burning1 if you please1 compared with more elevated1 fertile1 or better watered territory in the same latitude1 and so it has been characterized2 but not so1 compared with the ,indian ,ocean1 or ,india1 where the sun is vertical4 ,during the greater part of the time1 therefore1 that the monsoons are in full blast1 ,utah1 ,texas1 and ,new ,mexico1 and ,cobi1 and the burning plains of ,asia1 are from #e deg4 to #aj deg4 colder than the temperature of the place where the monsoons are blowing4 ,would not such a fact be perfectly conclusive in any other science except theory-swathed meteorology8 #b;d4 ,the theory assumes that the heated air has an ascensive force1 which causes it to rise and create a vacuum1 and this vacuum1 by its suction1 draws in the adjoining air1 which immediately ascends4 ,the adjoining air1 drawn away from its locality1 leaves a vacuum1 and that is filled by another rush from the ,s4 ,w41 and so on1 till the ,indian ,ocean is reached1 and the monsoons are accounted for4 ,now1 look at the difficulties3 ,the highest temperature that can be assumed for the air over ,cobi1 at any time1 without disregarding facts and analogy1 is #ajj deg44 ,what is the ascensive power of an area of atmosphere of #ajj deg48 ,for this we have no problem or formula1 although problems and formulas abound in the science4 ,professor ,espy relied on heated air only to give the storm a start4 ,his main reliance was on the latent heat supposed to be given out during condensation1 for his ascensive storm power4 ,but over these burning plains there is1 according to the theory1 no storm or cloud1 or condensation on which that supposed reliance for expansion can be placed4 ,what1 then1 is the ascension force of air at #ajj deg48 ,we ought to know1 for we sometimes have it as high1 or within two or three degrees as high1 in all the eastern and middle ,states4 ,the monsoons blow at from twenty to twenty-five miles an hour1 and sometimes more4 ,is that the ascensive force of air at #ajj deg48 ,at #be miles an hour it would be #b1bjj feet2 at #bj miles1 #a1gfj feet2 and at #aj miles1 #hhj feet per minute4 ,does any man believe that either current exists8 ,why1 then1 do we not have our hats taken off1 or light objects carried up1 or have a monsoon1 or1 at least1 have the clouds running up1 when we have such elevated temperatures4 ,nothing of the kind occurs with us4 ,our hottest days are comparatively still days2 and ,i have seen the cumulus sailing gently to the east1 horizontally1 when the air was at #ih deg44 ,why should we be exempt8 ,is not our air the same and our heat the same8 ,again1 suppose we grant that the ascensive force is equal to #bj or even #aj miles an hour1 will not the adjoining air hold back somewhat to avoid leaving behind an entire vacuum8 or1 will it all voluntarily rush in1 and leave a new complete vacuum8 and1 if so1 why the preference of vacuums by the air1 and when1 where1 and why1 should the successive vacuums stop8 ,nay1 would not gravity fill the second vacuum from above1 rather than from the south-west side8 and will not the air incline to rush in1 to some or all these successive vacuums1 from some other side than south-west8 or1 have these deserts the power of selecting the quarter from which their vacuum shall be filled1 and of delegating it to succeeding vacuums8 ,would it not incline to rush in from the east and west where there are no elevations1 rather than from the ,s4 ,w4 and over the ,kuenlun ,mountains1 the intervening ridges and valleys of ,thibet1 the lofty ,himmalayas1 the extent of ,india1 and the ,ghaut ,mountains1 from three to four thousand feet high1 on its eastern coast8 ,would it not1 at least1 leak in a little1 and lessen the force with which the vacuums would draw from the far-off ,indian ,ocean1 so that the monsoon could not blow with equal force8 or1 if ,cobi and its fellow deserts must and can draw from an ocean1 why not from the head of the ,arabian ,sea1 or ,bay of ,bengal1 or the ,china ,sea1 which are nearer1 or from the ,japan ,sea1 which is still nearer1 or the ,yellow ,sea1 which is close by8 ,why draw only from under the central belt of rains8 ,nay1 what shall be done with ,professor ,dove8 ,in a recent article1 republished in the ,american ,journal of ,science and ,art1 for ,january1 #ahee1 he says3 ,a greatly diminished atmospheric pressure taking place in summer over the whole continent of ,asia must produce an influx from all surrounding parts2 and thus we have west winds in ,europe1 north winds in the ,icy ,sea1 east winds on the east coast of ,asia1 and south winds in ,india4 ,the monsoon itself becomes1 as we see1 in this point of view1 only a secondary phenomena4 ,this looks very like antagonism4 ,who shall we believe8 ,again1 suppose you get one atmosphere from the whole area1 raised up by the supposed ascensive force1 and at the rate of twenty-five1 twenty1 or even ten miles an hour1 and a new volume drawn in from the south-west1 and over the mountains3 will it not take a little time for that to heat up8 ,does it heat so fast as to keep up the ascensive force without intermission1 at twenty-five1 or twenty1 or ten miles the hour8 ,what says ,mr4 ,ericsson to this8 ,can he not arrange with a moderate lens1 to move his engine with the rays of the summer sun8 ,nay1 ,lieutenant ,maury says they can not heat up per saltum1 or in a day4 ,but according to a reasonable calculation1 they must heat up the air from #hj deg41 or less1 to #ajj deg41 at the rate of #b1jjj feet per minute4 ,heating #b1jjj feet in depth1 in the proportion of #bj deg4 per minute1 night and day1 for five months1 is per saltum in a minute1 and #a1ddj saltums per day6 ,and further still1 the ,indian ,ocean1 from which the monsoons are drawn to ,cobi and ,central ,asia to the ,n4 ,e41 is during those months covered by the belt of calms and rains1 as heretofore stated2 and the ,s4 ,e4 trades blowing into it are attributed to the suction created by the ascent of heated air there4 ,so1 then1 the monsoons are blowing away from under the rainy belt1 from #ejj to #ajjj miles1 to ,cobi and the burning plains of ,asia1 while the ascensive force of that belt is such as to draw the ,s4 ,e4 trades toward the very spot1 a distance of #a1bjj or #a1ejj miles1 at #bj miles an hour6 ,what must the ascensive force over ,cobi1 etc41 be1 if1 as a stronger power1 it can overcome an ascensive force over the ,indian ,ocean sufficient to draw the ,s4 ,e4 trades #a1ejj miles1 at #bj miles an hour2 and1 in addition to the force necessary to resist this central suction1 not only stop or hold back the ,n4 ,e4 trade1 but reverse it and draw it back1 at #bj miles an hour1 as a monsoon8 ,must it not be1 at least1 double that of the belt of calms1 or the great region of expansion1 as ,professor ,dove calls it8 ,now1 ,i am irresistibly tempted to ask whether a meteorological theory can be too absurd for credence1 and whether it would not be as well to endow the deserts with ribs and lungs1 and a proboscis long enough to reach the ,indian ,ocean1 and the necessary power of inspiration and expiration8 ,such a theory would avoid all difficulties1 conflict with no more analogies1 and1 in my judgment1 be as much entitled to credit as the one to which meteorologists adhere4 #c;d4 ,north of the ,malabar coast1 in the north-west of ,india1 lies an extensive desert4 ,west of that is ,beloochistan1 with its rainless deserts4 ,further west are the rainless deserts of ,arabia1 and these three1 including the ,persian deserts further north1 cover as much surface as the deserts of ,cobi and ,bucharia--have the sun vertical in part1 and nearly so over the entire surface--are more intensely hot1 and lie within one third of the distance which intervenes between that desert and the ,indian ,ocean off the ,malabar coast1 with an open sea and no mountains between4 ,now1 look at it4 ,the north-west desert of ,india1 and the rainless deserts of ,beloochistan and ,arabia reverse no trade and have no monsoon1 although the ,arabian ,sea heads right up among them4 ,they do not attract one from the ,indian ,ocean off the ,malabar coast1 although not more than one third of the distance off1 and without such mountains and table lands intervening as separate that coast from ,cobi4 ,it is said by ,lieutenant ,maury that the monsoons1 obey the stronger force4 ,but which is the stronger force8 ,cobi1 not wholly rainless1 lying north of #ce deg41 under the zone of extra-tropical rains1 with ,india and the ,ghauts1 the ,himmalaya ,mountains1 the table lands of ,thibet1 and the ,kuenlun ,mountains between8 or the deserts of ,india1 ,beloochistan1 and ,arabia1 wholly rainless1 and intensely hot1 near by1 and in open view4 ,there can be but one answer to this question4 ,nothing in the way of desert barrenness1 or elevated temperature1 unless it be those of ,sahara1 can exceed the deserts about the head of the ,arabian ,sea and ,persian ,gulf4 ,certainly those of ,cobi can not compare with them2 yet the trades blow steadily over them1 although more northerly there1 as every where1 near their northern limits1 especially on land4 ,says ,hopkins1 in his atmospheric changes3 ,if any one part of the broad expanse of the continent of ,asia could be heated so as to draw air from the ,arabian ,sea and the ,indian ,ocean during the summer1 it would be that part which lies between ,hindoostan and the ,lake of ,aral1 including the region between the ,valley of the ,oxus and ,persia1 and the land of this part1 unlike ,hindoostan1 is not screened from the sun by thick vapors4 ,but what says ,burnes respecting the winds of this part8 ,why1 that about the latter end of ,june1 though the thermometer was at #ajc deg4 in the day1 ',in this country a steady wind generally blows from the north4' ,and on the #bc;d of ,august1 after having passed the ,oxus--',the heat of the sand rose to #aej deg41 and that of the atmosphere exceeded #ajj deg41 but the wind blew steadily1 nor do ,i believe that it would be possible to traverse this tract in summer if it ceased to blow4 ,the steady manner in which it comes from one direction is remarkable in this inland country4' ,again--',the air itself was not disturbed but by the usual north wind that blows steadily in this desert4' ,and he has many other similar passages4 ,here there is a vast tract of country south of #ce deg4 which has a temperature often of #ajc deg41 and does not reverse the trade and create a monsoon4 ,how utterly unphilosophical1 then1 to attribute the monsoons to ,cobi because they obey the stronger force6 or to attribute them to it at all4 #dth4 ,the monsoons can not be traced from the ,malabar coast to ,cobi4 ,they do not exist on the south-west of ,cobi and near it1 where they should in greatest force1 and there is no connection1 in fact1 shown between them4 ,they do not often extend more than twenty-five miles inland1 or to the east of the ,ghauts4 ,there are no corresponding intervening monsoons crossing ,india to the mountains--none over the mountains and table lands--none under the northern lee of the mountains--nor1 in short1 on the whole track1 nor any ,s4 ,w4 winds except such as naturally belong to the action of the curving counter-trade4 ,finally1 the investigations of ,commodore ,wilkes on ,mauna ,loa1 a mountain upon ,hawaii1 more than #ac1jjj feet high1 and the observations of ,professor ,wise and other aeronauts are sufficient to put this whole matter of heated lands and ascent of the atmosphere as the cause of winds1 at rest4 ,commodore ,wilkes was encamped for about twenty days on ,pendulum ,peak1 in ,december and ,january #ahdj4 ,although not up to the elevation of the counter-trade in that latitude1 he was above the local clouds which form over the island during the day1 where the sea breezes blow in with as great strength as any where4 ,indeed1 he was on the top of the lofty conical mountain to which ,caleb ,williams alludes in the letter to ,professor ,espy ,i have quoted1 and above the spot where ,professor ,espy assumed that the clouds were rising with such force as to induce the strong sea breezes of that island4 ,during this time there were two snow-storms on ,mauna ,loa1 and they had the wind from the ,s4 ,w4 during the storm1 as might be expected1 looking at the situation of the mountain on the western side of the island4 ,these storms moved to the ,n4 ,w41 and were observed at the other islands in that direction as rain4 ,the local clouds lay over the island every day1 as they do over active volcanic islands which are very elevated1 although it was the dry season4 ,nothing like an ascent of the clouds or of the currents of air from the ocean was observed4 ,on the contrary1 the clouds formed before the sea breezes set in1 and the latter blew from the different sides of the island in under the clouds1 and outward again1 probably on the opposite side4 ,the whole interior of the island is elevated1 and its temperature low2 and there was no elevation of temperature on the high portions of the island over which the clouds formed1 and toward which the winds blew1 which could create an upward current4 ,during our stay on the summit1 we took much pleasure and interest in watching the various movements of the clouds2 this day in particular1 they attracted our attention2 the whole island beneath us was covered with a dense white mass1 in the center of which was the cloud of the volcano rising like an immense dome4 ,all was motionless until the hour arrived when the sea-breeze set in from the different sides of the island2 a motion was then seen in the clouds1 at the opposite extremities1 both of which seemed apparently moving toward the same center1 in undulations1 until they became quite compact1 and so contracted in space as to enable us to see a well defined horizon2 at the same time there was a wind from the mountain1 at right angles1 that was affecting the mass1 and drawing it asunder in the opposite direction4 ,the play of these masses was at times in circular orbits1 as they became influenced alternately by the different forces1 until the whole was passing to and from the center in every direction1 assuming every variety of form1 shape and motion4 ,on other days clouds would approach us from the ,s4 ,w4 when we had a strong ,n4 ,e4 trade-wind blowing1 coming up with cumulus front1 reaching the height of about eight thousand feet1 spreading horizontally1 and then dissipating4 ,at times they would be seen lying over the island in large horizontal sheets as white as the purest snow1 with a sky above of the deepest azure blue that fancy can depict4 ,i saw nothing in it approaching to blackness at any time4 7,exploring ,expedition1 vol iv4 p4 #aee74 ,here1 in the last paragraph1 we have the whole truth disclosed4 ,the ,n4 ,e4 trade was blowing on ,mauna ,loa1 #ac1jjj feet above the sea1 and the sea-breeze blew in on the leeward side1 its moisture condensing over the volcanic island1 but without rising up the mountain1 or through the surface-trade1 or above #h1jjj feet4 ,so1 too1 the celebrated aeronaut1 ,mr4 ,wise1 in the course of more than a hundred ascensions1 some during high wind1 and others during rain storms1 never met with an ascending current1 except in a single instance1 in the body of a hail-cloud1 and then there were descending currents also1 the usual intestine motion of hail-cloud with its opposite polarities4 ,i copy a description of his passage through the clouds of a rain-storm1 and his floating a long period above them2 and there was no ascending current which disturbed their horizontal repose or progression4 ,the double layer is not uncommon--condensation taking place at the connection of the upper and lower portions of the trades1 with the surrounding atmosphere2 or in the trade1 and by induction in the surface atmosphere at the same time4 ,such instances are frequently visible1 and if his ascensions had been undertaken at other times in stormy weather he would have seen more of them4 ,before ,i passed the limits of the borough1 a parachute1 containing an animal1 was dropped1 which descended fast and steady1 and1 just as it reached the earth1 my aerial ship entered a dense black body of clouds4 ,ten minutes were consumed in penetrating this dismal ocean of rainy vapor1 occasionally meeting with great chasms1 ravines1 and defiles1 of different shades of light and darkness4 ,when ,i emerged from this ocean of clouds1 a new and wonderfully magnificent scene greeted my eyes4 ,a faint sunshine shed its warmth and luster over the surface of this vast cloud sea4 ,the balloon rose more rapidly after it got above it4 ,viewing it from an elevation above the surface1 ,i discovered it to present the same shape of the earth beneath1 developing mountains and valleys1 corresponding to those on the earth's surface4 ,the profile of the cloud-surface was more depressed than that on the earth1 and1 in the distance of the cloud-valley a magnificent sight presented itself4 ,pyramids and castles1 rocks and reefs1 icebergs and ships1 towers and domes--every thing belonging to the grand and magnificent could be seen in this distant harbor2 the half-obscured sun shedding his mellow light upon it1 gave it a rich and dazzling luster4 ,they were really castles in the air1 formed of the clouds4 ,casting my eyes upward1 ,i was astonished in beholding another cloud-stratum1 far above the lower one2 it was what is commonly termed a mackerel sky1 the sun faintly shining through it4 ,the balloon seemed to be stationary2 the clouds above and below appeared to be quiescent2 the air castles1 in the distance1 stood to their places2 silence reigned supreme2 it was solemnly sublime4 ,solitary and alone in a mansion of the skies1 my very soul swelled with emotion2 ,i had no companion to pour out my feelings to4 ,great ,god1 what a scene of grandeur6 ,such were my thoughts2 a reverence for the works of nature1 an admiration indescribable4 ,the solemn grandeur--the very stillness that surrounded me--seemed to make a sound of praise4 ,this was a scene such that ,i never beheld one before or after exactly like it4 ,two perfect layers of clouds1 one not a mile above the earth2 the other1 about a mile higher2 and1 between the two1 a clear atmosphere1 in the midst of which the balloon stood quietly in space4 ,it was1 indeed1 a strange sight--a meteorological fact1 which we cannot possibly see or make ourselves acquainted with1 without soaring above the surface of the earth4 7,history and ,practice of ,aeronautics1 p4 #bji74 ,this is graphic4 ,perhaps in relation to the conformity of the upper surface of the inferior layer of clouds1 to the irregularities of the earth's surface1 he was misled during the enthusiasm of the moment4 ,he is certainly mistaken as to the possibility of observing these double layers from the earth2 ,i have seen them in hundreds of instances4 ,but in relation to the quiescence of the clouds for an hour1 and the entire absence of ascending currents1 he could not be mistaken4 ,and now1 in the absence of all direct proof to sustain the hypothesis1 that the heating of the land produces ascending currents1 and thereby the winds1 and especially the monsoons1 and in view of all the adverse evidence1 ,i put it to ,lieutenant ,maury1 and every sincere searcher after meteorological truth1 whether the theory should not be abandoned4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,the counter-trade of the northern hemisphere ranges at different heights in different latitudes1 in the same latitude at different seasons1 and also upon different days of the same season2 and1 like the line of perpetual snow1 has its greatest elevation in the tropics1 descending gradually to the surface of the ocean at the poles4 ,at the northern limit of the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 it does not1 ordinarily1 approach the earth sufficiently near for decided reciprocal action4 ,hence1 at that point1 storms do not often originate2 the winds are lighter and more variable1 and calms are more frequent than at any point1 except at the meeting and elevation of the trades1 or in the polar regions4 ,doubtless this state of things is increased by the feebler action of north polar magnetism1 and the irregular action of the longitudinal magnetic currents1 evinced by the irregular1 and often1 feeble action of the trades1 near their extreme limits4 ,they are not unfrequently wholly wanting1 near the northern limit1 for several days in succession1 and calms and baffling winds are found in their place--another effect of the irregular action of terrestrial magnetism1 consequent upon the ever-changing transit of central activity from south to north1 and from north to south4 ,upon the islands1 however1 and continents1 which have elevated mountain peaks and ridges1 especially if of volcanic origin and activity1 which approach more nearly the path of the counter-trade1 a different state of things exists4 ,there1 showers and gusts are frequent4 ,thus1 upon the ,sandwich ,island1 ,kauai1 the most northern one1 which is within the region of the ,n4 ,e4 trade during ten months of the year1 and upon its volcanic peaks and elevated table-lands1 and north-easterly from them1 over the district of ,waioli1 rain falls in abundance during the year1 while the coastlines upon other portions of the island can not be cultivated without irrigation4 7,see ,wilkes' ,exploring ,expedition1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #fa and #ga2 and ,american ,journal of ,science and ,art1 for ,may1 #ahdg74 ,a like state of things1 in degree1 may be found upon the ,canaries1 and the more elevated of the ,west ,india ,islands4 ,the ,cape de ,verdes are an exception1 and the ,christian world are quite often called upon for contributions of provisions1 to save the inhabitants of these islands from starvation4 ,they lie at the northern limit of the equatorial belt1 and for a period of two months only 7,july and ,august71 are supplied with rain4 ,if1 from any cause1 the belt does not move as far north as usual during any season1 unbroken drought and famine are sure to overtake them4 ,the islands contain some elevated peaks1 and are of volcanic origin1 but not of present volcanic activity1 and the counter-trades as they issue from the equatorial belt at their highest elevation1 are too far above them for reciprocal1 influential action4 ,if the islands could be placed #aj deg4 further north1 we should hear no more of drought or famine from them1 and their quantity of rain and fertility would be not only more permanent1 but much increased4 ,superadded to this1 is the fact1 that at that point the belt of rains precipitates feebly because the ,s4 ,e4 trade originates upon the southern part of the continent of ,africa1 and the ,n4 ,e4 mainly1 upon the desert and the ,barbary ,states--and both are sparingly supplied with moisture4 ,the same state of things is strikingly obvious upon continents wherever the mountains are sufficiently elevated1 even within the trade-wind region4 ,thus1 in ,south ,america1 the ,andean ranges are of great elevation1 and spurs and table-lands extend from them a considerable distance to the eastward4 ,there1 the ,s4 ,e4 and ,n4 ,e4 trades of the ,atlantic meet in very considerable volumes1 and not only is the equatorial belt much wider than upon the ,atlantic and ,pacific1 but the counter-trades are met upon the elevated peaks and mountain-ranges1 and showers and storms on their eastern slopes and summits are frequent during the dry season--down even to the extra-tropical belt4 ,i have already said that it was probable that the great elevation of the ,andes diverted and turned south a portion of the ,n4 ,e4 counter-trade which would otherwise pass over the western coast of ,peru4 ,the report of ,lieutenant ,herndon1 which has come to my notice since that was written1 states facts which strongly corroborate that opinion4 ,it seems that the trades and counter-trades actually bank up1 in their passage to the westward1 against those mountains1 and the true elevation of their eastern slopes can not be barometrically ascertained4 7,see report of the ,exploration of the ,amazon1 p4 #bfa74 ,lieutenant ,herndon says3 ,i was surprised to find the temperature of boiling water at ,egas to be but #bjh deg4 #b'1 the same within #b' of a degree that it was at a point one day's journey below ,tingo ,maria1 which village is several hundred miles above the last rapids of the ,huallaga river2 at ,santa ,cruz1 two days above the mouth of the ,huallaga1 it was #baa deg4 #b'2 at ,nauta1 three hundred and five miles below this1 it was #baa deg4 #c'2 at ,pebas1 one hundred and seventy miles below ,nauta1 #baa deg4 #a'4 ,i was so much surprised at these results that ,i had put the apparatus away1 thinking that its indications were valueless2 but ,i was still more surprised1 upon making the experiment at ,egas1 to find that the temperature of the boiling water had fallen #c deg4 below what it was at ,santa ,cruz1 thus giving to ,egas an altitude of fifteen hundred feet above that village1 which is situated more than a thousand miles up stream of it4 ,i continued my observations from ,egas downward1 and found a regular increase in the temperature of the boiling water until our arrival at ,para1 where it was #baa deg4 #e'4 ,from an after-investigation1 ,i am led to believe that the cause of this phenomenon arises from the fact that the trade-winds are dammed up by the ,andes1 and that the atmosphere in those parts is1 from this cause1 compressed1 and1 consequently1 heavier than it is further from the mountains1 though over a less elevated portion of the earth4 ,the discovery of this fact has led me to place little reliance in the indications of the barometer for elevation1 at the eastern foot of the ,andes4 ,it is reasonable1 however1 to suppose that this cause would no longer operate at ,egas1 nearly one thousand miles below the mouth of the ,huallaga4 ,the report of ,lieutenant ,gibbon1 is also exceedingly instructive4 ,separating from ,lieutenant ,herndon at ,tarma1 upon the ,andes1 he pursued a southern course1 along the eastern slopes of the chain from #aa deg4 #cj' south1 almost to #ah deg4 south1 at ,ohuro1 making a journey of about #g deg4 #cj' of latitude4 ,a considerable portion of this journey was over eastern and less elevated portions of the ,andes2 but little below1 however1 the line of perpetual snow4 ,here1 during the dry season1 he met with frequent showers and fogs from the eastward1 but left them as he descended into the plains upon the table-land4 ,there he found the dry season more distinctly marked2 but occasional irregularities were found upon the table-lands1 as every where upon corresponding elevations4 ,the ,s4 ,e4 trades1 however1 were there obvious1 during the dry season1 notwithstanding the irregularities4 ,the rainy season1 from ,december to ,may1 he spent at ,cochabamba1 and at its close he traveled north down the ,madeira and its tributaries1 to the ,amazon4 ,although scarcely consistent with my prescribed limits1 ,i can not forbear making a few extracts4 ,thus1 when on the mountains1 east of ,huanvelica1 in the ,n4 ,e4 counter-trade1 he says3 ,our course is to the eastward4 ,the snow-capped mountains are in sight to the west4 ,temperature of a spring #dh deg42 air #dd deg44 ,lightning flashes all around us2 as the wind whirls from north-east to south-west1 rain and snow-flakes become hail1 half the size of peas4 ,thunder roars and echoes through the mountains2 the mules hang their heads1 and travel slowly2 the thinly-clad aboriginal walks shivering as he drives the train ahead2 the dark cumulus cloud seems to wrap itself around us4 ,again1 at the ,bombam ,post-house1 in the focus of change from cirrus to cumulus1 and stratus1 and storm3 ,the winds are very gentle1 and curl the cirrus or hairy clouds in most graceful shapes about the hoary-headed ,andes1 in rich and delicate clusters2 when the peak is concealed1 all but the blue tinge below the snow1 we see a natural bridal vail4 ,an easterly wind lifts and turns them to dark1 cumulus clouds1 settled on the frosty crown1 like an old man's winter cap2 the physiognomical expression is that of anger4 ,the change is accompanied by thunder1 and seems to command all around to clothe themselves for storms4 ,the cold rain comes down in fine drops upon us2 the day grows darker1 and the clouds press close upon the earth4 ,during an excursion east of ,cuzco-- ,turning from the river1 we ascend a steep ridge of mountains--the eastern range at last4 ,a heavy mist wafts upward as the winds drive it against the side of the ,andes1 so that our view is shortened to a few hundred yards4 ,we hope the curtain will rise that we may view the productions of the tropical valley below2 but the mist thickens1 and the day gets dark with heavy1 heaped-up black clouds2 a rain-storm follows4 ,the grasses are thrifty1 and the top of the ridge covered with a thick sod4 ,by barometer1 we stand eleven thousand one hundred feet above the level of the sea4 ,in ,may following1 having spent the rainy season in ,cochabamba1 he travels north-- ,our route from ,tarma to ,oruro was south4 ,we traveled ahead of the sun4 ,in ,december1 when we arrived in ,cochabamba1 the sun had just passed us4 ,as soon as he did so1 the rains descended heavily on this side of the ridge2 it was impossible to proceed4 ,the roads were flooded1 the ravines impassable1 and the arrieros put off their journey until the dry season had commenced4 ,after the sun passed the zenith of ,cochabamba1 and had fairly moved the rain belt after him toward the north1 then we came out from under shelter1 and are now walking behind the rain belt in dry weather1 while the inhabitants are actively employed in tending their crops4 ,so on the north of the equatorial belt1 along the whole line of the ,andes1 up to the northern boundary of the desert valley of the ,gila1 rain falls on the high mountain-ranges1 owing to the contiguity of the counter-trade and the diversion of showers to the north1 along their eastern sides4 ,during the survey of the boundary line between ,mexico and ,california1 etc41 by the commission under ,mr4 ,bartlett1 it became necessary to find some spot where water and grass were abundant1 for the head quarters of the commission4 ,this was found1 and could only be found1 upon the ,mimbres ,mountains1 at an old abandoned ,spanish copper mine1 #g1jjj or #h1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 surrounded with peaks of still greater height4 ,these elevated ranges were within influential distance of the counter-trade1 and here snow fell in the winter1 from the extra-tropical belt1 and rain1 in showers1 in summer1 at the period of the most northerly extension of the tropical belt2 when fifteen miles off1 in the valley1 it was unbroken drought4 ,mr4 ,bartlett thus describes it in his ,personal ,narrative3 ,we reached this district on the #b;d of ,may4 ,vegetation was then forward1 though there had been no rain4 ,but it must be remembered that during the winter there is snow1 and hence a good deal of moisture in the earth when the spring opens4 ,the months of ,may and ,june were moderately warm4 ,on the third of ,july the first rain fell4 ,it then came in torrents1 accompanied by hail1 and lasted three or four hours4 ,many of our adobe houses were deluged with water1 and the mountain-sides exhibited cataracts in every direction4 ,the ,arroyo1 which passes through the village1 and which furnishes barely water enough for our party and the animals1 became so much swollen as to render it difficult to cross2 and1 by the time it had received the numerous mountain torrents1 which fall into it within a mile from our camp1 it became impassable for wagons1 or even mules4 ,the dry gullies became rapid streams1 five or six feet deep1 and sometimes fifty feet or more across4 ,on this day1 a party1 in coming to the copper mines1 from the plain below1 where there had been no rain1 found themselves suddenly in a region overflowing with water1 so that their progress was arrested1 and they were obliged to wait until the flood had subsided4 ,after this we had occasional showers1 during the months of ,july and ,august4 ,the location of this mountain station is near the thirty-third degree of north latitude1 while the northern limit of the equatorial belt1 nowhere1 except upon the mountain ranges and table-lands of ,mexico1 extends above #be deg44 ,there1 for the reason we have been considering1 it does extend further north during ,july and ,august1 in occasional showers1 and in the vicinity of ,mount ,picacho1 ,mr4 ,bartlett met one of its mountain thunder-storms on the #acth of ,july1 on his return south through ,mexico1 in latitude #cb deg41 in the following year4 7,personal ,narrative1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhe74 ,these showers originated in strata of counter-trade1 which had followed up along the eastern side of the mountains and not from strata which had crossed them and curved to the eastward1 as is shown by the course of progression of the showers4 ,let us look1 in this connection1 at a fact or two of great interest1 though not directly connected with the point in hand4 ,the southern limit of the extra-tropical belt in winter1 on the ,pacific coast of ,north ,america1 is in the vicinity of ,san ,diego1 at about #cb deg44 ,in summer1 that limit is carried up above ,astoria1 which is in latitude #df deg4 #aa'--;about #ad deg4--yet ,new ,mexico receives little if any rain in winter in the vicinity of ,albuquerque1 but does receive a limited supply of about seven inches in summer and autumn1 five and a half inches of which falls in ,june1 ,july1 and ,august4 ,albuquerque is in latitude #ce deg4 #ac'1 below the southern summer limit of the extra-tropical belt1 and north of the northern limit of the equatorial belt4 ,this anomaly is explained by the extension west over northern ,new ,mexico1 of the extreme western edge of our concentrated counter-trade1 by reason of its issuing further west from the equatorial belt in its northern extension in the summer months4 ,this western edge1 in curving to the east1 north-east of ,new ,mexico1 covers the north-western ,states1 ,iowa1 ,minnesota1 ,wisconsin1 etc41 and furnishes them that great excess of summer precipitation which is a peculiarity of their climate2 and its absence further east in winter1 and the very great elevation of the ,rocky ,mountains and other ranges over which their ordinary counter-trade of that season curves1 account for the absence of much precipitation and snow there1 or over the valley of the ,rio ,grande in ,new ,mexico1 in winter4 ,we may now see1 too1 why the western coast and the ,pacific region of the continent1 below #de deg41 are so deficient in moisture4 ,the ,s4 ,e4 trades1 which arise from the western portion of the south ,atlantic and the continent of ,south ,america1 which1 if it were not for the ,andes chain1 in their natural course1 after passing the equatorial belt1 would continue on to the north-west until they passed the limits of the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 and curve in upon the western portion of our continent below #de deg41 and supply it bountifully with rain1 are1 in part1 perhaps1 diverted along the eastern side of those mountains to swell the volume of our counter-trade1 and in part pass them1 almost exhausted of their supply of moisture by their contiguous reciprocal action4 ,hence1 too1 the deficiency of precipitation at the base of the ,andes1 on the western side1 and the peculiar and irregular character of the winds under the western lee of the ,andean range4 ,baffling airs and bands of calms prevail on this portion of the ,pacific1 except where the mountains fall off1 and then there is a westerly or south-westerly monsoon under the equatorial belt4 ,says ,lieutenant ,maury in his ,charts1 sixth edition1 p4 #gca3 ,the passage1 under canvass1 from ,panama to ,california1 as at present made1 is the most tedious1 uncertain1 and vexatious that is known to navigators4 ,my investigations have been carried far enough to show that at certain seasons of the year a vessel bound from ,panama to ,california1 must cross at least three1 at some seasons four1 such meetings of winds or bands of calms1 before she can enter the region of the ,n4 ,e4 trades4 ,hence the tedious passage4 ,such will ever be the state of things on this continent and upon the eastern ,pacific1 so long as the ,s4 ,e4 counter-trades are compelled to pass over the mountain chain of ,south and ,central ,america4 ,again1 if we examine carefully the belt or zone of extra-tropical rains1 we shall find that the focus of greatest precipitation is considerably north of its southern limit1 and that1 other things being equal1 this focus travels north in summer1 and gives to higher latitudes their needed summer rains4 ,this is very apparent upon the north-western portion of our continent1 as the following table will show3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,lat4 ,jan4,feb4,mar4,apr4,may4,june4 -------------------------------- ,san ,diego1 ,cal4 #cb deg4 #da' #j4c #a4g #a4a #j4i #j4e #j4j ,san ,francisco4 #cg deg4 #dh' #a4g #j4e #d4d #b4a #j4d #j4j ,cant41 ,far ,w41 ,cal4#ci deg4 #jb' #c4c #j4f #f4d #b4b #j4i #j4j ,astoria1 ,oregon4 #df deg4 #aa'bg4jaj4i #f4a #d4d #e4i #b4f ,puget's ,s'd1 ,ore4 #dg deg4 #jg'aa4h #c4i #d4g #d4a #j4h #j4f ,sitka1 ,russ4 ,am4 #eg deg4 #c' #b4e #i4f #c4e #c4c #a4i #e4i ---------------------------------------- ------------------- --------------------------------------- ,july4,aug4,sept4,oct4 ,nov4,dec4,year4 -------------------------------- #j4j #j4b #j4j #j4a #a4e #c4d #i4f #j4j #j4j #j4d #j4f #c4j #e4e #ah4h #j4j #j4j #j4c #j4a #c4e #d4f #ba4i #j4j #b4c #a4i #f4gac4b #f4b #hg4b #j4e #a4c #a4f #c4f #e4i #f4a #dd4h #c4g #aj4aad4h #ab4g #g4d #d4b #gi4e --------------------------------------- ,the figures are for inches and tenths of an inch of rain4 ,thus1 it will be seen that in ,january1 when the southern line is at ,san ,diego1 at the south line of ,california1 the focus of precipitation is over ,oregon2 and that in ,august and ,september when the southern line is carried up and over ,oregon1 the focus has traveled north to ,sitka1 and that it is always at least #aj deg4 north of the southern line of the belt upon that coast4 ,the increased quantities of rain which fall at the focus of precipitation there1 from ,oregon up1 are doubtless much enhanced by the equatorial oceanic current which flows over opposite that part of the continent4 ,a like effect1 precisely1 is produced in ,europe4 ,the quantity of rain which falls at ,bergen1 in ,norway1 being #hg-fa_/ajj inches per year1 more than three times the average for that continent4 ,the difference shown in the foregoing table1 between ,astoria and ,puget's ,sound1 is owing to the fact that the latter lies in the interior and within the coast range of mountains1 while ,astoria is situated at the mouth of the ,columbia ,river1 with an open view of the ocean4 ,a like comparative increase of precipitation in northern latitudes1 in summer1 is found every where varying according to the local influences which operate in the particular case4 ,thus1 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,there falls in ,winter4,spring4,summer4,aut'mn4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,burlington1 ,vt41 lat4 #dd deg4 #bj' #e4g #g4c #aa4d #i4h #cc4i ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 lat4 #db deg4 #ci' #h4c #i4h #ab4c #aj4c #dj4g ,minnesota1 ,iowa1 lat4 #da deg4 #bh' #g4c #ab4c #ag4d #aa4g #dh4h ,st4 ,peters'g1 ,russ41 lat4 #ei deg4 #ef' #c4hi #c4bj #e4gj #d4ga #ag4ea ,pekin1 ,china1 lat4 #dj deg4 4#ed #c4ce #ah4hj #b4bi #be4fh ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,pekin lies in the northern part of ,china1 and would have a much larger fall of rain from a concentrated counter-trade1 but for the numerous mountain-ranges which intersect its path in winter1 but over which it passes at a greater elevation during the summer--a peculiarity from which the eastern section of this country is most remarkably and happily free4 ,thus1 it is obvious that the focus of precipitation in the zone of extra tropical rains1 is some #h deg4 to #ab deg4 north of its southern line1 and travels with the whole machinery in its annual transit north and south4 ,it is a question of some difficulty1 perhaps1 whether this focus is increased by the increase of magnetic action at this point1 for both the line of descent of the counter-trade1 and the focus of magnetic action1 are carried up in a like manner1 and for a like cause1 and1 in all probability1 both concur in the result4 ,there is exceeding wisdom in this provision for the gradual subsidence of the counter-trade1 and gradual increase of magnetic intensity1 and consequent gradual precipitation4 ,on the ,european continent1 and over western ,asia1 there are #ej deg4 of latitude to be supplied with moisture by this polar belt of rains4 ,if the focus of precipitation was at its southern border1 the counter-trade would be deprived of its moisture at that point1 and little would reach the more northern portions of the globe which are to be supplied by it4 ,but the movement of the whole machinery carries up the southern line from the south boundaries of the ,barbary ,states on to the ,mediterranean and portions of southern ,europe1 and the focus of precipitation and of near approach of the counter-trade to the earth1 being situated far north of the southern line1 is carried up correspondingly1 while the combination of the moisture with the atmosphere by south polar magnetism and electricity1 and the gradual descent of the counter-trade1 enable it to resist1 to some extent1 the influence of north polar magnetism and cold1 and thus retain portions of its moisture for distribution in the polar regions4 ,the elevation of the counter-trade above the earth varies in the same latitude with the variations in the phenomena of the weather4 ,an attentive observation of the clouds of our climate will soon satisfy any one of this1 after he has become familiar with them1 so as to distinguish with certainty the clouds of the trade4 ,its range1 in this country1 is from #c1jjj feet1 or less1 to #ab1jjj feet above the earth1 and its depth with us probably1 from #f1jjj to #h1jjj feet4 ,gay-,lussac1 in his scientific experimental balloon ascension1 the first of that character ever made1 except an imperfect one just previous1 by himself and ,biot1 found it at about #ab1jjj feet over ,paris1 and about #d1jjj feet in depth4 ,it is detected by the thermometer when much elevated4 ,the atmosphere grows cool as it is ascended on mountains1 or by balloons4 ,the rate of cooling is ordinarily about #a deg4 of ,fahrenheit for every #cjj feet4 ,if it were not for the equatorial current1 this progressive decrease of temperature would doubtless be perfectly uniform4 ,of ,gay-,lussac's ascension1 on this point it was said3 ,at forty minutes after #i o'clock1 on the morning of the #aeth ,september1 #ahjd1 the scientific voyager ascended1 as before1 from the garden of the repository of models4 ,the barometer then stood at #cj4ff ,english inches1 the thermometer at #hb deg4 ,fahrenheit1 and the hygrometer at #eg-a_/b deg44 ,the sky was unclouded1 but misty4 ,during the whole of this gradual ascent1 he noticed1 at short intervals1 the state of the barometer1 the thermometer1 and the hygrometer4 ,of these observations1 amounting in all to twenty-one1 he has given a tabular view4 ,we regret1 however1 that he has neglected to mark the times at which they were made1 since the results appear to have been very materially modified by the progress of the day4 ,it would likewise have been desirable to have compared them with a register1 noted every half hour1 at the ,observatory4 ,from the surface of the earth to the height of #ab1abe feet1 the temperature of the atmosphere decreased regularly1 from #hb deg4 to #dg deg4 #c' by ,fahrenheit's scale2 but afterward it increased again1 and reached to #ec deg4 #f' at the altitude of #ad1jjj feet2 evidently owing to the influence of the warm currents of air which1 as the day advanced1 rose continually from the heated ground4 ,from that point the temperature diminished1 with only slight deviations from a perfect regularity4 ,at the height of #ah1fcf feet the thermometer subsided to #cb deg4 #i'1 on the verge of congelation2 but it sunk to #ad deg4 #i' at the enormous altitude of #bb1iab feet above ,paris1 or #bc1jdj feet above the level of the sea1 the utmost limit of the balloon's ascent4 ,the high range of the barometer indicated a very considerable elevation of the trade at the time ,gay-,lussac made his ascension4 ,i am not aware that it has since been found at so great an elevation1 in so high a latitude1 though it is undoubtedly elevated by the interposition of a large volume of ,n4 ,w4 air1 upon some occasions1 to nearly the same altitude with us4 ,in the extract in relation to the ascension of ,gay-,lussac1 we have another of the thousand hastily-adopted and absurd hypotheses connected with the caloric theory4 ,it is obviously and utterly impossible that in addition to the ordinary accumulation of heat at the surface of the earth as the day advanced--that is1 during the forenoon1 warm currents should ascend1 unobserved by ,gay-,lussac during an ascent of #ab1jjj feet--not affecting in the least so large an intervening body of the atmosphere or his thermometer1 and in such immense volumes as to increase the warmth of a stratum of #d1jjj feet in depth1 an average of #c deg4 of ,fahrenheit1 and to the extent of #f deg4 at the center4 ,very few balloon ascensions have been made with a view to scientific and accurate observation4 ,but other aeronauts have met the counter-trade at different altitudes1 and in both clear and stormy weather4 ,recently1 in #aheb1 four ascensions were made in ,england1 under the direction of the ,kew ,observatory ,committee1 of the ,british ,association4 ,i copy from the ,august number of the ,london1 ,edinburg1 and ,dublin ,magazine1 for #ahec1 the following condensed amount of the result3 ,the ascents took place on ,august #agth1 ,august #bfth1 ,october #bast1 and ,november #ajth1 #aheb1 from the ,vauxhall ,gardens1 with ,mr4 ,c4 ,green's large balloon4 ,the principal results of the observations may be briefly stated as follows3 ,each of the four series of observations shows that the progress of the temperature is not regular at all heights1 but that at a certain height 7varying on different days7 the regular diminution becomes arrested1 and for the space of about #b1jjj feet the temperature remains constant1 or even increases by a small amount4 ,it afterward resumes its downward course1 continuing1 for the most part1 to diminish regularly throughout the remainder of the height observed4 ,there is thus1 in the curves representing the progression of temperature with height1 an appearance of dislocation1 always in the same direction1 but varying in amount from #g deg4 to #ab deg44 ,in the first two series1 viz43 ,august #agth and #bfth1 this peculiar interruption of the progress of temperature is strikingly coincident with a large and rapid fall in the temperature of the dew-point4 ,the same is exhibited in a less marked manner on ,november #ajth4 ,on ,october #bast a dense cloud existed at a height of about #c1jjj feet2 the temperature decreased uniformly from the earth up to the lower surface of the cloud4 ,when a slight rise commenced1 the rise continuing through the cloud1 and to about #fjj feet above its upper surface1 when the regular descending progression was resumed4 ,at a short distance above the cloud1 the dew-point fell considerably1 but the rate of diminution of temperature does not appear to have been affected in this instance in the same manner as in the other series2 the phenomenon so strikingly shown in the other three cases being perhaps modified by the existence of moisture in a condensed or vesicular form4 ,it would appear1 on the whole1 that about the principal plane of condensation heat is developed in the atmosphere1 which has the effect of raising the temperature of the higher air above what it would have been had the rate of decrease continued uniformly from the earth upward4 ,these gentlemen do not adopt the absurd explanation of the ,french philosophers2 they account for the phenomenon by supposing heat to be developed at that particular part of the atmosphere2 but they are equally wide of the mark4 ,they found the excess of heat there to the extent of #g deg4 to #ab deg41 and on days when there was no condensation1 or other assignable cause for its development4 ,the temperature of the counter-trade partakes1 doubtless1 of the temperature of the adjoining strata at its upper and lower portion1 and has never been found much1 if any1 higher than #fj deg4 at the center4 ,nor could it be expected4 ,the trade1 in its upward curving course1 within the tropics1 attains a considerable altitude where the atmosphere is comparatively cold1 and necessarily loses a portion of its heat there1 and during its northern flow4 ,probably its central summer range1 in the latitude of ,paris1 is not far from #ee deg41 and with us #fj deg44 ,the contrast between the trade and the surrounding atmosphere1 in winter1 is much more striking1 and this has been observed particularly upon the ,brocken of the ,alps1 and in the polar regions4 ,in all seasons the temperature is higher on the ,brocken1 on a serene1 than on a cloudy day1 and1 in the month of ,january1 the serene days were warmer than at ,berlin4 7,kaemtz's ,meteorology1 by ,walker1 p4 #bag4--,note47 ,as the portion of the counter-trade1 which does not become depolarized--in diminished volume--progresses toward the polar regions1 it settles nearer the earth1 and within the ,arctic circle is found but little way above it4 ,thus1 in ,december1 #ahba1 ,parry1 at ,winter ,island1 in latitude #ff deg4 #aa'1 flew a kite1 with a thermometer attached1 to the height of #cgi feet1 and found that the temperature1 instead of falling #a-a_/d deg41 the usual ratio of decrease1 rose #c_/d of a degree4 ,the same thing was observed at ,spitzbergen1 in latitude #gg deg4 #cj' north1 and at ,bosekop1 latitude #fi deg4 #eh'1 by a scientific commission1 and by means of kites1 confined balloons1 and the ascent of elevations4 ,in winter the temperature goes on increasing with the height1 up to a certain limit1 which is variable1 according to the different atmospheric circumstances1 the influence of which is not yet very exactly known4 ,the hour of the day appears to be indifferent1 since there exists no thermometric diurnal variation in the strata of the surface4 ,the mean of thirty-six experiments1 made with kites1 or with captive balloons1 at ,bosekop1 latitude #fi deg4 #eh' north1 has given a mean rate of increase of #a deg4 #f' for the first hundred meters4#f ,beyond this limit1 and even beyond the first #fj or #hj meters1 the temperature again becomes decreasing1 at first very slowly1 but afterward the decrease is accelerated4 ,the observations that have been made on the flanks1 or on the summits1 of mountains1 during the same expeditions1 entirely confirm these results4 ,the cooling influence of a soil1 that radiates its own heat for several weeks1 without receiving any thing on the part of the sun1 in compensation of its losses1 the influence of counter-currents from above1 coming from the west and the south-west1 with a high temperature1 account for this anomaly1 which1 in winter1 represents the normal state of the most northern parts of the ,european continent4 7,walker's ,kaemtz1 p4 #eae4--,note47 ,mr4 ,walker is the only author1 so far as ,i know1 who has suspected the true cause of the phenomenon1 viz43 currents from above coming from the west and south-west1 with a high temperature2 but the caloric theory sticks like a burr1 and he adheres also to the idea that a snow-clad surface1 in the absence of the sun1 can aid1 by radiation1 in warming the atmosphere for a distance of several hundred yards above it1 increasing the warmth as the distance from the earth increases6 ,this contrast between the counter-trade and the adjacent atmosphere1 in winter1 in latitudes as low as that of the ,brocken1 is probably heightened by the increased warmth of the former1 at that season4 ,the ,s4 ,e4 trades then form under a vertical sun1 and the difference of temperature can not be less than from #f deg4 to #h deg44 ,not unfrequently in winter and spring the rain will fall with a temperature of #ej deg4 to #ee deg41 when the atmosphere near the earth is #aj deg4 or #bj deg4 or more1 below those points2 and it is frozen to every object upon which it falls4 ,the trade stratum1 from which it descends1 is not warmed by radiation or by ascending currents from a snow-clad surface1 and during a cloudy day2 nor by a development of heat at that particular altitude1 but it has brought its heat from the ,south ,atlantic1 and imparts it to the rain which forms within it4 ,there is every reason to believe that the counter-trade flows north in a regular descending plane1 not materially differing from that of the line of perpetual snow4 ,the descent of the latter is well ascertained to be from about #af1jjj feet at the equator1 to the surface at the poles4 ,the plane of the counter-trade is probably much the same1 varying over different localities1 from the varied action between it and the earth which we are considering2 and probably both correspond with the increase of magnetic intensity4 ,lieutenant ,maury1 in an able and original article upon the circulation of the atmosphere1 conceives the bands of comparative calms at the northern limits of the trades1 which he appropriately terms the ,calms of ,cancer1 to be nodes in the circulation of the atmosphere1 and that the upper or counter-trade here decends and becomes a surface wind from the ,s4 ,w41 as the ,n4 ,e4 trade is a surface wind2 and that an upper current from the poles approaches and descends at the same node1 to make the ,n4 ,e4 trade4 ,but it is evident he adopted that conclusion too hastily1 as he obviously did the conclusion that the calms of the horse latitudes were a type of all4 ,we have seen that the latter are increased by a diversion of the counter-trade1 and that they are avoided by making easting4 ,so it may be observed that our upper current is a ,s4 ,w4 current1 and no northerly upper current is visible1 or exists over the country1 however it may be in western ,europe and the ,north ,pacific1 on the west of the magnetic poles1 where cold1 dry northerly and north-easterly winds are found4 ,the origin and progress of storms withal demonstrates that no such node can exist4 ,two points have been made in relation to the course of the counter-trade in the tropics1 and are relied upon to show its progress there to the ,n4 ,e41 which deserve consideration4 ,in the first place1 it is well known that rain dust falls in considerable quantities on the western coast of ,africa1 particularly about the ,cape de ,verde ,islands1 and also upon the ,mediterranean and south-western ,europe1 where it is termed sirocco dust4 ,this dust1 says ,lieutenant ,maury1 when subjected to microscopic examination1 is found to consist of infusoria and organisms1 whose habitat 7place of abode7 is not ,africa1 but ,south ,america1 and in the ,s4 ,e4 trade-wind region of ,south ,america4 ,professor ,ehrenberg has examined specimens of sea dust1 from the ,cape de ,verdes and the regions thereabout1 from ,malta1 ,genoa1 ,lyons1 and the ,tyrol1 and he has found such a similarity among them as would not have been more striking had these specimens been all taken from the same pile4 ,south ,american forms he recognizes in all of them2 indeed1 they are the prevailing form in every specimen he has examined4 ,it may1 ,i think1 be now regarded as an established fact1 that there is a perpetual upper current of air from ,south ,america to north ,africa1 and that the volume of air in these upper currents1 which flows to the northward1 is nearly equal to the volume which flows to the southward with the ,n4 ,e4 trade-winds1 there can be no doubt1 etc4 ,now1 it is doubtless true that this dust is transported in a counter-trade1 and that such dust is found in ,south ,america1 and is taken up there by sand-spouts1 like those of the ocean in form and action4 ,both ,humboldt and ,gibbon have graphically described them4 ,yet ,i do not think the point well taken4 ,south-eastward of the ,cape de ,verdes1 where the surface-trades--which1 becoming counter-trades1 pass over these islands1 and1 recurving1 pass over the ,mediterranean and south-western ,europe--should originate1 there is a vast extent of unexplored continent in the same latitude as the portion of ,south ,america where the dust is found2 and the same dry seasons1 and the same spouts1 in all probability1 exist in both4 ,until it be shown that such forms have no habitat in central and southern and unexplored ,africa1 upon the same latitudes as in ,south ,america1 it may fairly be presumed that the dust is taken up there4 ,indeed1 the curve upon which this dust is found to fall1 in the greatest quantities1 is very remarkable1 and corresponds remarkably with the law of curvature of the counter-trade we have considered1 and with the progress of a storm upon that coast1 and over the ,mediterranean1 investigated by ,colonel ,reid4 7,see ,reid1 on ,storms and ,variable ,winds1 p4 #bgf47 ,this curve clearly indicates the origin of the dust in ,south ,africa4 ,the second point is1 that ashes from the volcanos of ,mexico and ,central ,america have fallen to the north-east of the place where they were ejected4 ,mr4 ,redfield has grouped these instances of volcanic eruption usually cited1 and ,i copy from him3 ,we learn from ,humboldt1 that in the great eruption of ,jorullo1 a volcano of southern ,mexico1 which is #b1ajj feet above the sea1 in latitude #ah deg4 #de'1 longitude #afa deg4 #cj'1 the roofs of the houses in ,queretaro1 more than #aej miles north1 #cg deg4 east from the volcano1 were covered with the volcanic dust4 ,in ,january1 #ahde1 an eruption took place in the volcano of ,cosiguina1 on the ,pacific coast of ,central ,america1 in latitude #ac deg4 north1 and having an elevation of #c1hjj feet1 the ashes from which fell on the island of ,jamaica1 distant #gcj miles north1 #fj deg4 east from the volcano4 ,the elevated currents by which volcanic ashes are thus transported are seldom or never of a transient or fortuitous character2 and these results1 therefore1 afford us one of the best indications of their general course4 ,thus1 the progress of the higher portion of the trade-wind was marked by the eruption of ,tuxtla1 latitude #ah deg4 #cj'1 longitude #ie deg41 which covered the houses in ,vera ,cruz with ashes1 at the distance of #hj miles north1 #ee deg4 west1 and also at ,perote1 #afj miles north1 #fj deg4 west4 ,the ashes from the volcano1 at ,st4 ,vincent1 which fell at ,barbadoes1 and east of that island1 in #ahab1 mark the course of a current from the westward1 which appears there at times1 in the region of clouds1 and may1 perhaps1 be connected with the permanent winds on the ,pacific coast of ,mexico4 ,as to one of the instances cited in the foregoing paragraph1 that of ,tuxtla1 it may be laid out of the case--the direction conforming substantially to the assumed course of the counter-trade at that point4 ,st4 ,vincent lies ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 or nearly so1 of ,barbadoes1 and a ,n4 ,w4 or westerly surface-wind1 prior to1 and during storms1 is common in the ,west ,indies as the ,n4 ,e4 is here--both alike1 blowing in opposition to the progressive course of the storm4 ,there is nothing strange or peculiar1 therefore1 respecting that instance1 or the existence of variable and especially ,s4 ,w4 currents1 between the trades1 with occasional partial condensation4 ,the falling of the ashes from ,cosiguina1 upon ,jamaica1 has long and often been cited1 as proof that in the ,west ,indies the prevailing upper currents run from the ,s4 ,w4 ,but it has been ascertained that1 during the same eruption1 ashes fell #gjj miles to the westward1 on the deck of the ,conway1 a vessel then upon the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,that case1 therefore1 does not prove the absence of the ,s4 ,e4 counter-trade at the time1 but only the presence of another1 and a different current above or below it--and it may have been either1 and transient4 ,so of the ,jorullo instance4 ,investigation would probably have shown that ashes fell to the ,n4 ,w41 and that they were carried ,n4 ,e4 by a transient ,s4 ,w4 wind produced by the existence of a storm to the eastward1 or one of those states of partial condensation of the counter-trade which often produce currents at greater distances without a storm4 ,not one of these cases disproves the existence of a ,s4 ,e4 counter-trade1 and the invariable ,n4 ,w4 progression of the storms of those latitudes demonstrates it4 ,occasional anomalous currents1 depending upon storm action at considerable distance1 are found in our atmosphere1 and doubtless are there also4 ,thus1 although the ,n4 ,w4 wind is almost invariably a surface wind1 ,i have1 in a few instances1 seen a ,n4 ,w4 set at a considerable elevation1 converging toward a peculiarly stormy state of atmosphere far south of us1 about the period of the spring equinox4 ,and so in one or two instances ,i think ,i have seen light cirro-stratus clouds above the counter-trade1 when it ran very low1 setting from the ,n4 ,e41 although the usual and almost invariable location of the ,n4 ,e4 wind is below the counter-trade and the stratus clouds of the storm4 ,aeronauts1 too1 have found these secondary currents beneath a serene and cloudless sky4 ,indeed1 the ,s4 ,e4 counter-trade doubtless often induces a thin secondary current of ,s4 ,w4 wind between itself and the surface-trade1 in the same manner that similar currents are induced with us1 and every where4 ,a question arises here of considerable interest1 which1 ,i confess1 ,i can not answer to my own satisfaction4 ,it is1 whether there be1 or not1 an eastern progression of the body of the atmosphere above the machinery of distribution4 ,i have thought there was1 and that in set fair weather ,i had seen a peculiar kind of cirro-cumulus cloud1 in patches1 the small cumuli very distinct and rounded1 moving due east1 which indicated such a current4 ,but ,i am not satisfied1 from my own observation1 that it is so1 nor is it easy to determine the question4 ,the moisture of evaporation rarely1 if ever1 ascends to any considerable elevation1 and the upper strata must be very dry4 ,hence1 condensation1 if it takes place1 is thin1 and perhaps often undiscernable4 ,investigations upon mountains prove little1 for the winds of the inferior strata rush up their sides and over them4 ,it is an open question1 and future observation may solve it4 ,the prevailing opinion seems to be that there is4 ,if the theory of ,oersted1 in relation to the circular currents of a magnet1 be true1 there should be such a progression produced by opposite secondary currents1 unless1 indeed1 it be also true that those currents are inoperative at so great a distance1 or their influence barely suffices to retain the attenuated atmosphere in its place4 ,perhaps the investigations of ,ampere conflict with it4 ,but it is worth while1 ,i think1 for philosophers to inquire whether the transverse position of the needle upon the wire is not the effect of the central longitudinal currents1 conforming to the circular currents of the wire1 and whether it is not owing to the production of the same currents in a globe by the circular currents of ,ampere1 that the globe is magnetized1 and the needles made to dip4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,it is exceedingly desirable1 in a practical point of view1 to understand the precise character of the reciprocal action which takes place between the earth and the counter-trade1 and produces the varied phenomena which mark our climate4 ,we have seen that the same laws1 other things being equal1 operate every where1 and that analogies may be sought in the character of those phenomena elsewhere1 under the same1 or different1 modifying circumstances4 ,looking1 therefore1 at the magneto-electric movable machinery as a whole1 and its influence upon the atmospheric circulation and conditions1 we find many facts which point to a primary action in the counter-trade1 and others that point as significantly to a primary local-inducing-action in the earth4 ,let us briefly review those to which we have alluded1 and advert to some others1 and see what solution of the question they will justify3 ,the belt of inter-tropical rains appears to be1 in width1 and amount of precipitation1 and annual travel north and south1 proportionate to the volume of trades which blow into it1 the quantity of moisture they contain1 and the elevation of the surface over which they meet4 ,south ,america is the most thoroughly-watered country within the tropics1 except1 perhaps1 portions of ,hindoostan1 ,burmah1 ,siam1 etc41 on south-eastern ,asia4 ,the contrast between both1 and ,africa1 as far as explored1 and as shown by its rivers1 is most obvious4 ,the ,amazon1 alone1 delivers more water to the ocean than all the rivers of ,africa4 ,of the width of the belt of rains over ,africa1 in the interior1 we know little4 ,its northern extension is less1 by from #g deg4 to #aj deg41 than the same belt over ,south ,america1 the ,west ,indies1 and ,mexico4 ,probably its southern is also4 ,upon ,south ,america1 the southern edge is carried down to ,cochabamba1 in latitude #ah deg41 and probably to #be deg41 to the northern edge of the coast-desert of ,peru1 while it is rarely1 if ever1 found over the ,atlantic below #g deg41 a difference of #ab deg4 to #bj deg44 ,over ,south ,america1 too1 the quantity of water which falls is also vastly in excess of that which falls upon the ,atlantic4 ,the main cause of these differences is obvious4 ,the ,n4 ,e4 counter-trades which blow over ,africa1 originate on a surface which is rainless1 as eastern ,sahara1 ,egypt1 ,arabia1 etc41 or subject to a dry season by the northern ascent of the southern line of the extra-tropical belt1 as the ,barbary ,states1 ,syria1 ,persia1 etc41 and their supply of moisture is necessarily scanty4 ,on the south1 the ,s4 ,e4 trades originate1 in part1 upon the eastern portion of southern ,africa1 and1 in part1 upon the ,indian ,ocean1 and from the latter source1 and a portion of the ,mediterranean1 doubtless most of the water which falls upon ,central ,africa1 is derived4 ,the ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,e4 trades which blow into the inter-tropical belt upon the eastern portion of the ,atlantic1 originate upon similar surfaces1 and with like effect4 ,thus1 the ,s4 ,e4 trades1 in summer1 are from the ,southern portion of ,africa1 and the ,n4 ,e41 in part1 from the ,mediterranean2 and1 in winter1 the ,n4 ,e4 from the deserts1 ,senegambia1 ,nigritia1 etc41 and the ,s4 ,e41 owing to the narrowing of the ,african continent1 mainly from the ,south ,atlantic and ,indian ,oceans4 ,going west1 the belt widens1 and its range increases until the ,andes are reached2 but under their lee1 on the western side1 a totally different state of things is found1 and the belt of the coast becomes broken and irregular1 as we have seen in the citation from ,maury4 ,the width1 extension1 and excessive precipitation of the belt1 over ,south ,america1 follow the same law4 ,the ,south ,atlantic widens out by the trending of the coast to the ,s4 ,w41 and furnishes a large area for the unobstructed formation and evaporative action of the ,s4 ,e4 trades4 ,so the trending of the coast to the ,n4 ,w41 from #e deg4 south to the northward1 opens a large area for a like formation and action of the ,n4 ,e4 trades4 ,no correspondingly favorable circumstances exist any where1 except1 perhaps1 around ,hindoostan1 and there the fall of rain is very excessive in some places1 as on the ,kassaya hills1 to the extent of #djj inches per annum4 ,in addition to this1 the magnetic line of no variation1 and of greater intensity1 which runs from our magnetic pole1 obliquely1 ,s4 ,s4 ,e41 to its opposite and corresponding pole in the southern hemisphere1 enters the ,atlantic on the coast of ,north ,carolina1 and traverses it1 and the eastern portion of ,south ,america1 through the whole trade-wind region4 ,the table-lands1 and slopes1 and high mountain peaks1 meet the trades successively1 as they go west1 and the latter wrench from them1 to an unusual extent1 their moisture2 depressing the line of perpetual snow1 by an increase of quantity on the eastern sides1 several thousand feet1 as it is for a like cause depressed on the southern side of the ,himmalayas4 ,on the eastern slopes and tops of the ,andes1 as we have seen1 and owing to their elevation1 falls the moisture which1 according to the working of the machinery1 and the law of curvature1 should bless the coast line of ,peru and northern ,chili1 the eastern ,pacific1 northern ,mexico1 ,california1 ,utah1 and ,new ,mexico2 and1 while the ,andes stand1 the curse of comparative aridity must rest upon them all4 ,southern ,chili1 and western ,patagonia are supplied by the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 which originate in the ,west ,indies1 the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and the ,caribbean ,sea1 and the ,pacific1 off ,central ,america1 in the neighborhood of the ,bay of ,panama4 ,but there1 again1 the same effect of elevation is seen4 ,the mountain slopes of southern ,chili and ,patagonia are abundantly supplied1 and their mountain ranges are drenched with rain1 while eastern ,patagonia and southern ,buenos ,ayres1 under their lee1 are comparatively dry4 ,so the ,s4 ,e4 trades1 which originate off the western coast of ,south ,america1 curve in upon1 and aided by the oceanic currents1 supply1 abundantly1 the ,n4 ,w4 coast of this continent1 north of ,california2 and there1 too1 the coast1 and its elevated ranges1 receive1 as we have seen1 a very large proportionate supply of their moisture4 ,substantially1 the same state of things1 as far as circumstances permit1 is reproduced upon ,malaysia1 ,hindoostan1 etc41 and the interposition of arid ,new ,holland upon the evaporating trade-surface may be distinctly traced upon south-western ,asia4 ,deserts abound there2 the ,caspian ,sea receives the drainage of a very large surface1 without an outlet2 their southern line of extra-tropical rains is carried up very far in summer1 and their dry season is intensely hot4 7,see an article in the ,american ,journal of ,science1 for ,july1 #ahdf1 by ,azariah ,smith47 ,another fact in this connection is worthy of a moment's consideration4 ,the magnetic equator1 as sought by the dipping needle1 is not coincident with the geographical one4 ,humboldt found it1 on the ,andes1 at #g deg4 #a' south1 and it has been found still lower in the ,atlantic4 ,over ,africa it rises above the geographical equator1 and descends again on the ,indian ,ocean4 ,about midway the ,pacific1 it becomes coincident with the equator of the earth again4 7,see diagram1 on page #hc47 ,perhaps it is not known1 with certainty1 why this is so4 ,the south pole may be situated nearer the geographical pole than the north one--but this is not believed to be so1 nor could it make the difference4 ,the greatest southern depression of the magnetic equator is found where the lines of greatest intensity1 and of no variation1 are found2 and at the more intense of these lines exists the greatest depression4 ,from this1 ,i think1 it may be inferred that the needle is affected by the greater magnetic intensity of the northern hemisphere1 to which it may yet appear the obliquity of the earth's axis is owing4 ,however this may be1 or whatever the cause1 no marked effect is produced upon the trades4 ,the ,s4 ,e4 trades1 by reason of the greater extent of ocean-surface on which they originate1 are every where the most extensive1 regular1 and forcible4 ,the south polar waters1 from which they rise1 are every where trenching upon1 and overriding1 the north polar ones2 and thus1 by a most beneficent provision1 the greater portion of the habitable surface is placed in the northern hemisphere1 and the principal portion of the southern is left open to an extensive1 active evaporative action1 which supplies the northern habitable surface with a large excess of the needed moisture4 ,the condensation1 and consequent precipitation1 which takes place at the passing of the trades1 as we have already said1 over the ocean and lowlands1 takes place mainly in the day-time4 ,upon the table-lands and mountain-ranges1 it often continues during the evening and night4 ,the morning1 and early part of the day1 however1 in tropical countries1 are generally fair at all elevations4 ,storms also originate in the equatorial belt1 and issuing forth in great volume and with great intensity of action1 find their way up even within the ,arctic circle4 ,those which pass over this continent1 or the northern ,atlantic1 generally originate in the ,west ,indies1 some of them over the ,caribbean ,sea1 some over the islands1 and some over the open ocean to the east of them2 and1 nearly all the most violent1 during the months of ,august1 ,september1 and ,october4 ,it would seem most probable that the primary action in such cases was in the trades themselves1 but it is by no means certain that such is the case4 ,this is the class of storms of which ,mr4 ,redfield has industriously investigated some twenty or more2 ,mr4 ,espy some1 and ,lieutenant ,porter two4 ,their course1 when very violent1 is often more directly north than that of storms1 however violent1 which originate north of the calms of ,cancer1 owing1 perhaps1 to their greater paramagnetic character4 ,this course ,i have myself observed1 in several instances1 about the period of the autumnal equinox--never1 however1 more southerly than from ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e41 on the parallel of #da deg41 except in three1 and1 perhaps1 four1 instances1 when it has been ,s4 ,w4 by ,s4 to ,n4 ,e4 by ,n4 ,i know of no class of storms in relation to which the evidence of primary action in the counter-trade is stronger than in those of the class which originate on the ocean east of the ,windward ,islands4 ,but it is not satisfactory as to them4 ,doubtless the conflict of polarities between the passing trades is sufficient to produce the showers and rains which are ordinarily found over the ocean and lowlands1 in the equatorial belt2 but it is doubtful whether it is sufficient to produce such extensive1 long-continued1 and violent action1 as that which characterizes the hurricane autumnal gales4 ,they occur1 too1 at the time when the whole machinery of distribution has reversed its course1 and is rapidly pursuing its journey south4 ,it is a period of great magnetic disturbance1 over both land and sea2 of more active gales and local-increased precipitation4 ,at the ,magnetic ,observatory of ,toronto1 ,canada ,west1 these disturbances are carefully and systematically observed1 and their maxima1 or periods of greatest disturbance occur in ,april and ,september4 7,see ,silliman's ,journal1 new series1 vol4 xvii4 p4 #ade47 ,the tendency to volcanic action is not as great at the autumnal1 as at the vernal equinox1 for the reason that most of the volcanic action of the western hemisphere develops itself now upon ,south rather than ,north ,america4 ,but both exist1 and are active1 and what are improperly termed equinoctial storms1 and gales1 and rains1 are proverbial during1 or just subsequent to1 both periods with us--as they are when the same change1 called the breaking up of the monsoons1 takes place in the line of magnetic intensity1 over southern and eastern ,asia4 ,a volume might be filled with extracts1 showing1 at least1 most remarkable coincidences between violent volcanic action and great atmospheric disturbance4 ,perhaps the increased fall of rain at and after the equinoxes1 in the northern hemisphere1 and in certain localities subject to volcanic activity1 is as strikingly illustrated by the register1 kept by ,mr4 ,johnson1 on the volcanic ,island of ,kauai1 one of the ,hawaiian group1 already alluded to1 as in any other case1 although it is by no means a singular one4 ,the greatest fall of rain1 in any month except ,april and ,october1 was eight inches4 ,in ,april1 the fall was fourteen inches1 in ,october1 eighteen inches4 ,neither the equatorial1 nor extra-tropical belt1 were over the island during those months2 but they were the ,n4 ,e4 trades1 and the result was owing solely to the interposition of high volcanic mountains1 in a state of disturbance1 into1 or near1 the strata of the counter-trade4 ,mr4 ,dobson1 in stating a theory to which we shall hereafter advert1 advances the following proposition3 #g4 ,cyclones 7hurricanes7 begin in the immediate neighborhood of active volcanoes4 ,the ,mauritius cyclones begin near ,java2 the ,west ,indian1 near the volcanic series of the ,caribbean ,islands2 those of the ,bay of ,bengal1 near the volcanic islands on its eastern shores2 the typhoons of the ,china ,sea1 near the ,philippine ,islands1 etc4 ,the peculiar stormy state of the atmosphere1 over the ,gulf ,stream1 to which ,i have alluded1 certainly affords no evidence of primary atmospheric action4 ,it is a body of south polar water1 pursuing its way under the guidance of magnetism--maintaining its polarity--arched somewhat like the roof of a house1 by the outward pressure of a cold north polar current which it has met to the east of the ,banks of ,newfoundland1 and forced to take an in-shore course to the southward1 and the bodies of water which the rivers discharge1 and a conflict with the north polar surface-winds which sweep over it1 and fogs1 and thunder1 and rain1 are a matter of course4 ,dr4 ,kane met a portion of this singular current in ,baffin's ,bay1 north of #ge deg41 which had preserved its characteristics and a considerable proportionate excess of heat1 although it probably had been around ,greenland1 or found its way to the west1 toward the magnetic pole1 through some of its northern fiords or straits4 7,grinnel ,expedition1 p4 #abj47 ,the investigations of ,lieutenant ,maury show1 that when the ,gulf ,stream turns to the eastward1 crossing the lines of declination at right angles1 as the counter-trades also seem to do in the same latitude1 it is carried up1 in summer1 several degrees to the north1 and descends again in winter--thus demonstrating its connection with the shifting magnetic machinery which controls alike the ocean1 the atmosphere1 and the temperature of the earth4#g ,there are other irregularities which deserve to be noticed1 in this connection1 although the analogical evidence they afford is far from being decisive4 ,i have already said that it was within my own observation1 that alternating lines of heat and cold1 as well as rain and drought1 existed frequently1 without regard to latitude1 following1 to some extent1 the course of the counter-trade4 ,such lines have been observed by others4 ,thus1 ,mr4 ,espy1 after describing a snow-storm1 which was followed by a very cold ,n4 ,w4 wind1 of several days' continuance1 says3 ,this cold air covered the whole country1 from ,michigan to the eastern coast of the ,united ,states1 till the beginning of the great storm of the #bfth ,january2 and1 what is worthy of particular notice is1 that the temperature began to increase first in the north and north-west4 ,on the morning of the #beth1 in the north-western parts of ,pennsylvania1 and northern parts of ,new ,york1 the thermometer had already risen in some places #cj deg41 and1 in others1 above #dj deg44 ,while in the ,s4 ,e4 corner of ,pennsylvania1 and in the ,s4 ,e4 corner of ,new ,york it had not begun to rise4 ,the wind also began to change from the north-west to south and south-east1 first in the north-west parts of ,pennsylvania and ,new ,york1 some time before it commenced in the south-east of those ,states2 and1 during the whole of the #beth1 the thermometer1 in the north of ,new ,york1 continued to rise1 though the wind was blowing from the southward1 where the thermometer was many degrees lower4 ,thus1 too1 ,mr4 ,redfield 7,american ,journal of ,science1 ,november1 #ahdf1 p4 #cbi73 ,on the contrary1 in times of the greatest depression of the thermometer1 in numerous instances1 the cold period has been found to have first taken effect in1 or near1 the tropical latitudes1 and the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and has thence been propagated toward the eastern portions of the ,united ,states1 in a manner corresponding to the observed progression of storms4 ,this was because the cold ,n4 ,w4 wind which followed storms began to follow them as the storms curved and passed to the ,n4 ,e4 ,they occur in ,europe also4 ,says ,kaemtz3 ,such contrasts are not uncommon in ,europe1 and1 in this respect1 the ,alps form a remarkable limit2 for they separate the climates of the north of ,europe from the ,mediterranean climates1 where the distribution of rain is not the same as in the center of ,europe4 ,hence the differences between the climates of the north and south of ,france4 ,if the winter is mild in the north1 the newspapers are filled with the lamentations of the ,italians and ,provencals at the severity of the cold4 ,these facts seem to indicate a primary action in the counter-trade4 ,probably in connection with one class of storms they do1 and with another do not4 ,i shall endeavor to show the distinction when ,i come to the classification of storms4 ,the difference of seasons in this country1 and over the entire northern hemisphere1 is often very great4 ,in a remarkable work of a remarkable man--,a ,brief ,history of ,epidemic and ,pestilential ,diseases1 by ,noah ,webster1 published in #agii1 #b vols4--a history of the weather for about two centuries--#afjj to #agii inclusive1 is given generally1 and then in a tabular form4 ,those who think that every considerable extreme which occurs exceeds any thing before known1 will do well to consult that work4 ,droughts are described1 where there was not a drop of rain for three or four months1 and cattle were fed upon the leaves of the trees4 ,winters1 so intensely cold that the thermometer fell to #bj deg4 below zero1 at ,brandywine2 or so mild that there was little frost1 and people upon ,connecticut ,river plowed their fields1 and the peach trees blossomed in ,pennsylvania in ,february4 ,these extremes generally existed in ,europe and ,america at the same time1 but occasionally they were opposite and alternate4 ,says ,mr4 ,webster1 in summing up the facts 7vol4 ii4 p4 #ab73 ,it is to be observed that in some cases a severe winter extends to both hemispheres1 sometimes to one only1 and in a few cases to a part of a hemisphere only4 ,thus in #afjg-h1 #afhc-d1 #agfb-c1 #agff-g1 #aggi-hj1 #aghc-d1 the severity extended to both hemispheres4 ,in #afdj-da1 #agci-dj1 and in other instances1 the severe winter in ,europe preceded1 by one year1 a similar winter in ,america4 ,in a few instances1 severe frost takes place in one hemisphere during a series of mild winters in the others2 but this is less common4 ,in general1 the severity happens in both hemispheres at once1 or in two winters1 in immediate succession2 and1 as far as this evidence has yet appeared1 this severity is closely attendant on volcanic discharges1 with very few exceptions4 ,it will be seen that ,dr4 ,webster 7,,ll4,d4 and not ,m4,d41 and therefore the remarkable character of the work7 attributes great influence to earthquakes and volcanic action4 ,probably he is correct in this4 ,the present active volcanic action of the western hemisphere is nearly all within the trade-wind region1 from ,mexico to ,peru inclusive4 ,the ,west ,india islands are of volcanic origin1 and the influence of volcanic action is not confined to a concussion of the earth1 or the eruption of mud and lava4 ,its connection with magnetic action1 and disturbance1 is unquestionable4 ,but whether they operate to increase or diminish the trades1 and the extent to which they induce violent electric action and storms within and without the tropics1 is a question which further observation must determine4 ,the ripples of the ocean1 compared by ,lieutenant ,banvard to that of a boiling cauldron1 or such as is formed by water being forced from under the gate of a mill-pond1 are met with in the vicinity of volcanic islands1 where hurricanes and water-spouts originate1 and have been observed to precede storms1 and be connected with a falling barometer4 ,but whether they are volcanic or magneto-electric1 it is difficult to determine4 ,dr4 ,webster remarks1 as the result of observation1 during the #agth century1 that earthquakes had a ,n4 ,w4 and ,s4 ,e4 progression in the ,united ,states1 and especially in ,new ,england4 ,in a recent article1 ,professor ,dana has examined1 with great ability1 the general and remarkable trending of coast lines1 groups of islands1 and ranges of mountains1 from ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,w4 and from ,n4 ,w4 to ,s4 ,e4 7,american ,journal of ,science1 ,may1 #ahdg47 ,the line of magnetic intensity1 which connects our magnetic pole with its opposite1 is now upon this continent nearly a ,n4 ,w4 and ,s4 ,e4 line1 and the pole is fast traveling to the west4 ,it may1 and probably will yet1 be established1 that there is an intimate connection between the cause of volcanic action within the earth1 to which the upheaval of the ,n4 ,w4 and ,s4 ,e41 and ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,w4 ranges were due1 and of magnetic action without1 and between both1 and the cause of the ,s4 ,e4 extension of our summer storms and belts of showers and barometric waves1 and the peculiar ,n4 ,w4 wind4 ,our limits do not permit us to pursue the subject4 ,much influence upon the weather has been attributed to the spots upon the sun4 ,these spots are supposed to be breaks or openings in the luminous atmosphere or photosphere of the sun1 through which its dark nucleus body is seen4 ,counselor ,schwabe1 of ,dessau1 has made them his study since #ahbf1 and has arrived at some singular results4 ,they seem to be numerous--in groups--and to appear periodically with minima and maxima of ten years4 ,as the result of his observations1 from #ahbf to #ahej1 he gives us the following table and remarks3 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,year4 ,groups4 ,days showing ,days of no spots4 ,observation4 ---------------------------------------- ---- #ahbf #aah #bb #bgg #ahbg #afa #b #bgc #ahbh #bbe #j #bhb #ahbi #aii #j #bdd #ahcj #aij #a #bag #ahca #adi #c #bci #ahcb #hd #di #bgj #ahcc #cc #aci #bfg #ahcd #ea #abj #bgc #ahce #agc #ah #bdd #ahcf #bgb #j #bjj #ahcg #ccc #j #afh #ahch #bhb #j #bjb #ahci #afb #j #bje #ahdj #aeb #c #bfc #ahda #ajb #ae #bhc #ahdb #fh #fd #cjg #ahdc #cd #adi #cab #ahdd #eb #aaa #cba #ahde #aad #bi #ccb #ahdf #aeg #a #cad #ahdg #beg #j #bgf #ahdh #ccj #j #bgh #ahdi #bch #j #bhe #ahej #ahf #b #cjh ---------------------------------------- ------- ,i observed large spots1 visible to the naked eye1 in almost all the years not characterized by the minimum2 the largest appeared in #ahbh1 #ahbi1 #ahca1 #ahcf1 #ahcg1 #ahch1 #ahci1 #ahdg1 #ahdh4 ,i regard all spots1 whose diameter exceeds #ej1 as large1 and it is only when of such a size that they begin to be visible to even the keenest unaided sight4 ,the spots are1 undoubtedly1 closely connected with the formation of faculae1 for ,i have often observed faculae1 or narben1 formed at the same points from whence the spots had disappeared1 while new solar spots were also developed within the faculae4 ,every spot is surrounded by a more or less bright1 luminous cloud4 ,i do not think that the spots exert any influence on the annual temperature4 ,i register the height of the barometer and thermometer three times in the course of each day1 but the annual mean numbers deduced from their observations have not hitherto indicated any appreciable connection between the temperature and the number of the spots4 ,nor1 indeed1 would any importance be due to the apparent indication of such a connection in individual cases1 unless the results were found to correspond with others derived from many different parts of the earth4 ,if the solar spots exert any slight influence on our atmosphere1 my tables would1 perhaps1 rather tend to show that the years which exhibit a larger number of spots had a smaller number of fine days than those exhibiting few spots4 ,these observations seem to show that the spots exert no influence upon the weather1 and to be satisfactory4 ,but1 perhaps1 they are not entirely so4 ,no effect would1 of course1 be expected from day to day1 and perhaps the annual mean may not be seriously disturbed1 and yet the spots may seriously affect the seasons4 ,popular tradition has fixed upon certain periods1 of #aj1 #bj1 and #dj years1 for the return of winters of unusual severity2 and the tables of ,mr4 ,webster1 and other facts1 show that it is not wholly without foundation4 ,if we1 and those we have cited1 are not mistaken in most of the views expressed1 the natural effect of a partial interception or failure of the sun's rays1 by or from the existence of the spots1 would be to decrease the exciting power of the solar rays upon terrestrial magnetism1 and1 as a consequence1 the volume of the trades and their amount of moisture4 ,this would increase the mean heat of the summer in the temperate zone--for the less the volume of trade1 the less precipitation and variable wind1 and succeeding polar waves of cooler air1 and the greater mean heat4 ,on the other hand1 the same cause1 and the feebler heating power of the sun's rays1 would make the winters more severe1 both from an absence of a portion of heat1 derived directly from the sun's rays1 and a less mitigating influence1 from the action of the trade1 by reason of its decreased volume4 ,so1 too1 the absence of spots1 and a more powerful influence from the solar rays1 may gradually carry the machinery further north in summer1 and further south in winter1 and thus make the seasons extreme without seriously disturbing the mean of the year4 ,and both these may occur in a more marked degree over our intense magnetic area than in ,europe4 ,i am satisfied that they do so occur4 ,that the partial failure of the sun's rays limits the transit of the machinery1 and the volume of the trades during the latter half of the decade1 and extends the transit and increases the volume during the first half1 producing an occasional severe summer drought and severe winter1 in the warmest portion of the decade4 ,and that the variations correspond with the difference in the character and number of the spots in different decades1 and hence the longer and shorter periods4 ,turning to the tables of ,dr4 ,webster1 we find that a general tendency to extreme seasons does seem to exist from the #fth to the #ajth year of every decade1 and especially of every alternate decade4 ,the periods of #agjg-h1 #agbh1 #agcg and #agci1 #agdi-ej1 #ageh-i1 #aggi-hj1 #agih-i1 are those in which the tendency was seen most decided4 ,these tables are very general4 ,the thermometer was not perfected till about #agjj1 and did not get into general use before #agej4 ,there were very few meteorological registers kept1 or accessible to ,dr4 ,webster4 ,hence he was obliged to resort to such other sources of information as were open to him1 and such statements as he found are not always entirely reliable4 ,the oldest inhabitant is apt to express himself very strongly respecting present extremes1 and fail somewhat in his recollection of those which have past4 ,still his tables afford general and obvious evidence of the regularity of those periodic conditions4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,a4 ,d4 ,summer4 ,winter4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #agja hot and dry 4444 #agjb hot and dry 4444 #agjc 4444 4444 #agjd dry ,europe 4444 #agje 4444 4444 #agjf hot1 dry ,europe 4444 #agjg very hot 4444 #agjh 4444 very severe #agji 4444 4444 #agaj 4444 4444 #agaa 4444 cold ,europe #agab wet ,england 4444 #agac wet ,england mild #agad dry and hot 4444 #agae dry 4444 #agaf very dry severe #agag 4444 severe #agah hot and wet 4444 #agai 4444 cold ,america #agbj dry ,europe 4444 #agba 4444 4444 #agbb cold1 wet 4444 #agbc 4444 cold #agbd wet ,england 4444 #agbe wet ,england 4444 #agbf 4444 4444 #agbg dry1 hot ,amer4 4444 #agbh hot ,amer4 severe ,europe #agbi 4444 4444 #agcj 4444 very cold ,eng4 #agca 4444 4444 #agcb 4444 severe ,amer4 #agcc dry ,eng4 4444 #agcd 4444 4444 #agce wet 4444 #agcf wet 4444 #agcg 4444 very severe ,am4 #agch 4444 4444 #agci wet ,england very severe ,eng4 #agdj 4444 very severe ,am4 #agda 4444 4444 #agdb 4444 severe ,syria #agdc hot 4444 #agdd 4444 4444 #agde 4444 4444 #agdf 4444 4444 #agdg hot and dry severe #agdh dry 4444 #agdi very dry 4444 #agej very hot very severe #agea wet ,england severe ,amer4 #ageb very hot ,amer4 4444 #agec 4444 severe #aged 4444 mild ,amer4 #agee 4444 severe ,europe #agef 4444 severe ,syria #ageg 4444 4444 #ageh hot 4444 #agei 4444 severe #agfj 4444 4444 #agfa very dry ,amer4 4444 #agfb very dry ,amer4 severe #agfc 4444 4444 #agfd hot ,europe 4444 #agfe hot ,europe severe ,europe #agff hot and dry ,eur4 very severe #agfg 4444 cold #agfh hot 4444 #agfi hot 4444 #aggj wet ,england 4444 #agga wet ,am4 ,eng4 cold ,europe #aggb hot ,america ,am41 great snow #aggc 4444 4444 #aggd 4444 severe ,europe #agge 4444 4444 #aggf hot severe ,europe #aggg 4444 4444 #aggh hot mild #aggi hot ,eng4 very severe #aghj 4444 4444 #agha 4444 4444 #aghb dry ,amer4 4444 #aghc hot very severe #aghd hot 4444 #aghe dry ,europe cold #aghf cool cold #aghg cool 4444 #aghh rainy ,amer4 cold #aghi cool spring1 hot summer severe ,eur41 mild ,amer4 #agij 4444 4444 #agia very hot ,am4 cold #agib 4444 4444 #agic hot1 dry ,am4 mild ,amer4 #agid 4444 severe ,europe #agie ,amer41 hot1 rainy 4444 #agif ,autumn very ,dry ,am4 cold ,amer4 #agig cool ,am4 severe ,amer4 #agih very hot long severe #agii very dry ,am4 ,amer4 ,eur4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,still more definite evidence is found in the meteorological tables of ,dr4 ,holyoke and ,dr4 ,hildreth1 and an account1 by ,dr4 ,hildreth1 of the seasons when the ,ohio ,river was closed or obstructed by ice1 found in ,silliman's ,journal1 new series1 vol4 xiii4 p4 #bch4 ,thus1 we have1 from the tables of ,dr4 ,holyoke1 the following annual means1 from #aghf to #ahbe1 inclusive4 ,i have arranged them in periods of five years4 ,it will be seen that there are three peculiarities observable4 ,first1 a marked difference between the first and second periods of the decade1 corresponding1 generally1 with the presence or absence of the spots4 ,second1 a difference in the mean of the decades which may well be supposed to correspond with the difference in the number or size of the spots since a like difference is observable in number and size1 and the time when they reached their maxima and minima1 in the table of ,schwabe4 ,and1 third1 there are occasional single cold years during the warm period1 and these correspond with what the tables of ,dr4 ,webster show for both the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,in relation to this1 it should be remembered that volcanic action is a frequent and powerful disturber of the regular action of terrestrial magnetism1 and that the extremes1 for that reason1 are frequently meridional or local and alternating2 and to that cause very great extremes1 and marked exceptions1 may be due1 notwithstanding the spots upon the sun may exert an influence in producing hot summers and cold winters toward the close of each decade4 ,thus1 to select an instance to illustrate this and explain an anomaly3 ,the coldest season during the whole period1 embraced in the following tables1 is that of #ahab4 ,this occurs during the decrease of spots1 and the warm half of the decade4 ,turning to the table of volcanic action1 and of earthquakes1 found in the ,report of the ,british ,association for #ahed1 we find that year was remarkable for earthquakes in the ,united ,states and ,south ,america4 ,in ,december1 #ahaa1 earthquakes commenced in the valley of the ,mississippi1 ,ohio1 and ,arkansas1 felt also at places in ,tennessee1 ,kentucky1 ,missouri1 ,indiana1 ,virginia1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 and ,florida1 though not so severely east of the ,alleghanies1 which continued until #ahac4 ,about the same time they commenced in ,caraccas1 and1 in ,march1 #ahab1 became severe over the greater portion of the northern section of ,south ,america1 and in the ,atlantic4 ,no such general and continued succession of earthquakes occurred during the other periods embraced in the tables1 and the mean of the following five years was very low1 embracing the memorable cold summer of #ahaf4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,cold ,period4 ,warm ,period4 ,cold ,period4 ,warm ,period4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #aghf #dh deg44#ec #agia #dh deg44#ifcagif #dh deg44#fghahja #ej deg44#dcb #aghg #dg deg44#hh #agib #dh deg44#dd #agig #dh deg44#aceahjb #ej deg44#gid #aghh #dg deg44#fgfagic #ej deg44#if #agih #di deg44#dgaahjc #ej deg44#bd #aghi #dg deg44#fh #agid #ej deg44#gfhagii #dh deg44#biaahjd #dh deg44#cbh #agij #df deg44#ec #agie #ej deg44#agcahjj #di deg44#ihiahje #ej deg44#gib ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,mean of period #dg deg44#fei,mean #di deg44#ija,mean #dh deg44#iaj,mean #ej deg44#aag ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ahjf #dg deg44#ihbahaa #ej deg44#gf #ahaf #dg deg44#aacahba #dh deg44#ae #ahjg #dh deg44#acbahab #de deg44#bh #ahag #df deg44#bggahbb #di deg44#ha #ahjh #di deg44#dheahac #dg deg44#gjbahah #dh deg44#jjiahbc #dg deg44#eh #ahji #dg deg44#ib #ahad #dh deg44#bgiahai #ej deg44#ge #ahbd #di deg44#be #ahaj #di deg44#jjaahae #dg deg44#fjgahbj #dh deg44#gj #ahbe #ej deg44#ii ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,mean #dh deg44#eje,mean #dg deg44#ibe,mean #dh deg44#afi,mean #di deg44#ae ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,the tables of ,dr4 ,hildreth1 from #ahbf to #ahed1 inclusive1 furnish1 generally1 evidence of a like character4 ,there are1 however1 an anomaly or two which will be observed4 ,from #ahbf to #ahcj1 the mean is high during the period when spots were at a maximum4 ,but that maximum embraced a much less number of spots than the two succeeding ones4 ,a contrast appears in the tables of ,dr4 ,hildreth1 during the early period1 for ,dr4 ,holyoke's register1 for #ahbg1 puts it below the mean1 but ,dr4 ,hildreth's one of the highest of the half century4 ,in #ahce commenced a period when the spots were much more numerous1 and from #ahce to #ahch1 inclusive1 the seasons were correspondingly below the mean4 ,from that period to #ahdd a gradual and slightly irregular rise took place1 excepting the year #ahdc1 when another cold year intervened4 ,the table of earthquakes1 published by the ,british ,association1 closes with #ahdb1 and ,i have not access to any others4 ,the occurrence of such cold years1 in the warm period1 at intervals during the two centuries previous1 and in #ahab1 and onward1 and evidently owing to increased volcanic action beneath the western portion of the northern hemisphere1 justifies the belief that the low temperature of #ahdc was owing to the same cause4 ,the following are the means from the tables of ,dr4 ,hildreth3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #ahbf #ed deg44#jjahca #ej deg44#hgahcf #ej deg44#jcahda #eb deg44#ahahdf #ec deg44#fd #ahbg #ed deg44#ibahcb #eb deg44#dbahcg #ea deg44#egahdb #eb deg44#hcahdg #eb deg44#jj #ahbh #ee deg44#bbahcc #ed deg44#efahch #ej deg44#fbahdc #ej deg44#ggahdh #eb deg44#ej #ahbi #eb deg44#chahcd #eb deg44#djahci #eb deg44#edahdd #ec deg44#beahdi #eb deg44#ji #ahcj #ed deg44#icahce #ej deg44#feahdj #eb deg44#ceahde #eb deg44#gcahej #ea deg44#dh ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,mean #ed deg44#bi,mean #eb deg44#ah,mean #ea deg44#eb,mean #eb deg44#ce,mean #eb deg44#cb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the observations of ,dr4 ,holyoke were made at ,salem1 ,massachusetts2 those of ,dr4 ,hildreth at ,marietta1 ,ohio4 ,the following1 in relation to the freezing of the ,ohio ,river1 is evidence of a different kind1 but shows the same general correspondence1 and particularly the mildness of the winters when there were few spots1 and their severity from #ahcf to #ahch1 inclusive1 when the spots were most numerous3 #ahbi4--,river open all winter--some floating ice4 #ahcj4--,river closed #bgth ,january4 #ahca4--;,floating ice--closed #bc;d ,january--opened #bjth ,february4 #ahcb4--;,closed in ,december1 which was a very cold month--opened ,january #h1 and remained open all winter4 #ahcc4--,open all winter4 #ahcd4--,open all winter4 #ahce4--;,closed ,january #f--opened the last of the month--cold4 #ahcf4--;,closed #bhth ,january--opened #beth ,february4 #ahcg4--;,closed from #hth ,december to #hth ,february4 ,cold year4 #ahch4--;,closed from #acth ,january to #acth ,march4 ,cold year4 #ahci4--;,closed from #fth ,december to #acth ,january4 #ahdj4--;,closed #bith ,december--opened #aeth ,january4 #ahda4--;,closed #c;d ,january--opened #hth do4 #ahdb4--,open all winter4 #ahdc4--;,closed #bhth ,november--opened #eth ,december--open all the rest of the winter4 #ahdd4--,open all winter4 #ahde4--,open all winter4 #ahdf4--;,closed #eth ,december--opened again a few days--closed again on the #bfth4 ,it is not stated how long it remained closed4 #ahdg4--,open all winter4 #ahdh4--,much floating ice1 but not closed--heavy rains and floods4 #ahdi4--;,floating ice in ,january1 but not closed4 #ahej4--;,floating ice1 but not closed4 #ahea4--,open all winter--a little ice4 7,december in the above table1 means ,december previous74 ,this is more reliable as to the winter season than the tables of annual means--although the evidence they afford1 making due allowance for the exceptions1 is very striking4 ,i shall return to this part of the subject again4 ,but there is other evidence of the influence of these spots4 ,their connection with the irregular magnetic disturbance of the earth has been distinctly traced4 ,colonel ,sabine1 ,president of the ,british ,association1 in his opening address1 ,september1 #aheb1 after reviewing the recent discoveries in magnetism1 says3-- ,it is not a little remarkable that this periodical magnetic variation is found to be identical in period1 and in epochs of maxima and minima1 with the periodical variation in the frequency and magnitude of the solar spots1 which ,m4 ,schwabe has established by twenty-six years of unremitting labor4 ,from a cosmical connection of this nature1 supposing it to be finally established1 it would follow that the decennial period1 which we measure by our magnetic instrument1 is1 in fact1 a solar period1 manifested to us1 also1 by the alternately increasing and decreasing frequency and magnitude of observations on the surface of the solar disc4 ,may we not have in these phenomena the indication of a cycle1 or period of secular change in the magnetism of the sun1 affecting visibly his gaseous atmosphere or photosphere1 and sensibly modifying the magnetic influence which he exercises on the surface of our earth8--,american ,journal of ,science1 new series1 vol4 xiv4 p4 #dch4 ,i think it may fairly be inferred1 that although these spots do not occasion the cold spells and hot spells1 and other transient peculiarities1 they do materially affect the mean temperature of the year1 and exert an obvious influence when at their maxima2 and there is a tendency to an increase of the heat and dryness of summer1 and the severity of winter1 at the periods named1 in our excessive climate1 and a well-established connection between the spots and magnetic disturbances and variations4 ,popular opinion has ever attributed to the moon a controlling effect upon the changes of the weather4 ,if it be dry1 a storm is expected when the moon changes2 or if it be wet1 dry weather4 ,such popular opinions are usually entitled to respect1 and founded in truth4 ,but every attempt to verify this opinion1 by careful observation and registration1 has failed4 ,weather-tables and lunar phases1 compared for nearly one hundred years1 show four hundred and ninety-one new or full moons attended by a change of the weather1 and five hundred and nine without4 ,the celebrated ,olbers1 after fifty years of careful observation and comparison1 decided against it4 ,so did the more celebrated ,arago1 at a more recent date--summing up the result of his observations by saying--,whatever the progress of the sciences1 never will observers1 who are trustworthy and careful of their reputation1 venture to foretell the state of the weather4 ,still1 the moon may influence the weather1 though she may not effect changes at her syzygies or quadratures1 and this subject should not be too summarily dismissed4 ,that the moon can not effect changes at the periods named seems philosophically obvious4 ,she changes1 for the whole earth1 within the period of twenty-four hours2 yet1 how varied the state of things on different portions of its surface4 ,the equatorial belts of trades1 and drought1 and rains1 cover from fifty to sixty degrees of its surface1 and know nothing of lunar disturbance4 ,the extra-tropical belt of rains and variable weather moves up in its season1 uncovering #aj deg41 or more1 of latitude1 and admitting the trades and a six months' drought over it1 as in ,california1 regardless of the moon4 ,under the zone of extra-tropical rains1 even upon the eastern part of the continent of ,north ,america1 dry spells and wet spells exist side by side2 the focus of precipitation is now in one parallel1 and now in another--storms exist here and fair weather there1 on the same continent at the same time2 and as the moon's rays in her northing pass round the northern hemisphere during the twenty-four hours1 they1 doubtless1 pass from ten to thirty or more storms1 of all characters and intensities1 moving in opposition to her orbit--and as many larger intervening areas of fair weather1 not one of which are indebted to her for their existence1 or take thought of her coming4 ,the storm1 which originates in the tropics1 pursues its curving way now ,n4 ,w41 then ,n4 ,e41 and again north1 to the ,arctic circle1 and1 perhaps1 around the magnetic pole1 over gulf1 and continent1 and ocean1 occupying one third the time of a lunation1 and two changes1 perhaps1 in its progress1 without any perceptible or conceivable influence from her4 ,yet every inhabitant of mother-earth1 influenced by coincidences remembered1 and uninfluenced by exceptions forgotten1 looks up within his limited horizon1 and devoutly expects from the agency of some phase of the moon1 a change for the special benefit of his dot upon the earth's surface4 ,upon how many of these countless dots is the moon at a particular phase1 or relative distance from the sun1 to change fair weather to foul1 or foul to fair8 ,upon none4 ,the storms keep on their way2--the wet spells1 and the dry spells1 the cold and the hot spells alternate in their time1 and though the moon turns toward them in passing1 her dark face1 her half face1 or her full orb 7the gifts of the sun1 which confer no power71 they do not heed her4 ,they are originated1 and are continued1 by a more potent agent4 ,they are the work of an atmospheric mechanism1 as ceaseless in its operation as time1 as regular as the seasons1 as extensive as the globe4 ,indeed1 it seems as if it was expressly designed by the ,creator that the moon should not interfere materially with this atmospheric machinery4 ,she is the nearest orb2 her influence would be controlling and continuous2 would follow her monthly path from south to north1 and with changes too violent1 and intervals too long2 and would interfere with the regular fundamental operation in the trade-wind region1 where she is vertical4 ,aside from the attraction of gravitation1 therefore1 she seems to have been so created as to be incapable of exerting any influence4 ,she is without an atmosphere2 the rays which she reflects are polarized1 and without chemical or magnetic power2 and1 if it be true that ,melloni has recently detected heat in them1 by the use of a lens three feet in diameter1 which could not previously be effected1 its quantity is exceedingly small1 and incapable of influence4 ,doubtless1 the attraction of her mass is felt upon the earth1 as the tides attest2 and upon the atmosphere as well as the ocean4 ,but the atmosphere is comparatively attenuated1 and exceedingly so at its upper surface4 ,her attraction1 therefore1 although felt1 is not influential4 ,she seemed1 to ,dr4 ,howard1 to produce in her northing and southing1 a lateral tide which the barometer disclosed1 but owing to the attenuated character of the atmosphere1 neither the sun nor moon create an easterly and westerly tide1 that is observable1 except with the most delicate instruments4 ,sabine is believed to have detected such a tide by the barometer1 at ,st4 ,helena1 of one four thousandth of an inch4 ,but even this infinitesimal influence may prove an error upon further investigation4 ,there is a diurnal variation of the barometer1 but it is not the result of her attraction1 for it is not later each day as are the tides1 exists in the deepest mines as well as upon the surface1 and is demonstrably connected with the group of diurnal changes produced by the action of the sun-light and heat upon the earth's magnetism4 ,can the lateral tide1 if there be one1 affect the weather8 for in the present state of science it seems entirely certain that the moon can exert an influence in no other way4 ,if the received idea of many1 perhaps most1 meteorologists1 on which all wheel barometers are constructed1 that a high barometer necessarily produces fair weather1 and a low one foul1 were true1 she certainly might do so4 ,but that idea can not be sustained1 and there is no known certain influence exerted by the moon upon the weather1 in relation to which we have any reliable practical data4 ,humboldt appears to have adopted the impression of ,sir ,w4 ,herschell1 that the moon aids in the dispersion of the clouds4 7,cosmos1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ejb47 ,but the tendency to such dispersion is always rapid during the latter part of the day and evening1 when there is no storm approaching1 and the full moon renders their dissolution visible1 and attracts attention to them4 ,the ,greenwich observations1 also1 carefully examined by ,professor ,loomis1 fail to confirm the impression of ,herschell and ,humboldt1 and those eminent philosophers are doubtless in this mistaken4 ,from this general and somewhat desultory view of the general facts1 which bear analogically upon the question1 no decisive inference can be drawn in relation to the seat of the primary influence which produces the atmospheric changes4 ,the preponderance is in favor of the magnetic1 or magneto-electric1 action of the earth4 ,we must come back to our own country and grapple with the question at home4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,before proceeding to do this1 however1 it may be well to look at some theories which have been advanced1 and to a greater or less extent adopted1 and at their bearing upon the question4 ,the calorific theory is at present the prevailing one in ,europe and in this country4 ,meteorologists there and here refer all atmospheric conditions and phenomena to the influence of heat4 ,the principal applications of that theory have been considered4 ,but within the last few years the elasticity and tension of the aqueous vapor of the atmosphere have received much attention1 as exerting an auxiliary or modifying influence4 ,professor ,dove1 of ,berlin1 who ranks perhaps as the most distinguished meteorologist of that continent1 attributes barometric variations to lateral overflows1 and1 in the upper regions1 resulting from the elevation of the atmosphere by expansion2 and in this view meteorologists of ,europe seem generally to acquiesce4 ,in an article sent to ,colonel ,sabine1 and recently republished in the ,american ,journal of ,science1 ,january1 #ahee1 in thus attempting to account for the annual variation of barometric pressure1 which occurs in ,europe and ,asia1 and1 indeed1 over the entire hemisphere4 ,he says3 ,from the combined action or the variations of aqueous vapor1 and of the dry air1 we derive immediately the periodical variations of the whole atmospheric pressure4 ,as the dry air and the aqueous vapor mixed with it1 press in common on the barometer1 so that the up-borne column of mercury consists of two parts1 one borne by the dry air1 the other by the aqueous vapor1 we may well understand that as with increasing temperature the air expands1 and by reason of its augmented volume rises higher1 and its upper portion overflows laterally1 etc4 ,and in another place he says3 ,from the magnitude of the variations in the northern hemisphere1 and the extent of the region over which it prevails1 we must infer that at the time of diminished pressure a lateral overflow probably takes place1 etc4 ,doubtless1 the mean pressure of the atmosphere1 in summer1 in the northern hemisphere1 is less than in winter1 in some localities1 and greater in others1 and it differs in different countries of equal temperature4 ,and this is all very intelligible4 ,the mean of the pressure for the month is made up by averaging all the elevations and depressions4 ,during a month1 showing a very low mean1 the barometer may1 at times1 attain its highest altitude1 if the depressions below the mean are great or more frequent4 ,the barometer is depressed during storms1 and ranges high during set fair weather4 ,ordinarily1 therefore1 the more stormy the season the more diminished the mean pressure2 and it is a mistake to look to an overflow to account for the fact4 ,the changes in the location of the atmospheric machinery1 and consequent change in the amount and severity of falling weather1 and the periodic frequency and character of storms1 and consequent periodic depressions and elevations of the barometer1 explain the annual mean variations1 as they do the other phenomena4 ,but it is perfectly consistent with the calorific theory to attempt to account for these differences by another of those ever-necessary modifications1 viz43 the different tension and elasticity of aqueous vapor in different countries of equal temperature2 and then to suppose an expansion of the whole body of the atmosphere and a lateral overflow from the place where the air is expanded1 on to some other1 where it is not2 and thus suppose all necessary currents in the upper regions1 setting hither and yon1 by the force of gravity alone4 ,and apparently he who is best at supposition becomes the most distinguished meteorologist4 ,perhaps ,i have already said all that ,i ought to be pardoned for saying1 in relation to the utter absurdity of attributing all meteorological phenomena to the agency of heat2 but when ,i find such views as those which that article contains1 emanating from so distinguished a man1 sanctioned by the ,president of the ,british ,association1 and copied into the leading journal of science in this country1 ,i can not forbear a further and a somewhat critical examination of them4 ,there is more error of supposition and less truth in it1 than in any other article regarding the science1 of equal length1 which has fallen under my notice4 ,what is the height of this expansion8 ,the moisture of evaporation ascends1 ordinarily1 but a few thousand feet4 ,the atmosphere grows regularly cooler1 from the earth to the trade1 and the increased warmth that is felt at the surface extends but little way4 ,currents of warm air do not ascend4 ,the strata maintain1 substantially1 their relative positions2 and this is a most beneficent provision4 ,in northern latitudes of the temperate zone1 all the warmth derived from a few hours' sunshine is needed at the surface2 and1 deplorable1 indeed1 would be our condition1 if the atmosphere1 as fast as warmed by the rays of the sun1 were to hasten up1 and the frigid strata descend in its place4 ,the earth would not be habitable4 ,all the warm air on its surface would be rising as soon as it became warmed1 and the cold air above be descending1 and enveloping us with the chilling strata which are ever floating within two or three miles above us4 ,no4 ,infinite wisdom has ordered it otherwise4 ,the laws of magnetism and of static-electric induction and attraction keep the strata in their places1 and preserve to us the warmth which the solar rays afford or produce4 ,the inhabitant of the valley1 in a high northern latitude1 in summer1 can plant1 and sow1 and reap1 at the base of the mountain whose summit penetrates the stratum of continual congelation1 and up its sides1 almost to the line of perpetual snow2 and1 as he looks upon the fruits of his labor1 and up to the snow-clad peak that towers above him1 can thank his ,maker for placing a warm equatorial current1 a perpetual barrier1 between the fertility and warmth which surround him1 and the cold destructive strata above2 and thank ,him for not creating such a state of things1 as certain meteorologists insist we shall believe ,he has created4 ,again1 where are the upper regions1 from which the lateral overflow takes place8 ,the atmosphere is differently estimated1 at from thirty to forty-five miles1 or more1 in height4 ,whatever its height may be1 it is exceedingly attenuated in its upper regions4 ,gay-,lussac marked the barometer at #ab-ie_/ajj inches at the height of #bc1jdj feet4 ,two thirds of the atmospheric density1 then1 is within five miles of the earth4 ,air1 too1 is compressible4 ,allowing for the latter and the attenuation1 how many miles in vertical depth1 of its upper regions1 must move from one portion to another1 to depress the barometer two inches--its range sometimes in twenty-four hours--or even half an inch8 ,let the computation be made1 and see how startling the proposition1 how utterly impossible that the theory can be true4 ,the distinguished ,professor1 in the paper referred to1 introduces his theory of the formation of hurricanes1 and we quote-- ,if we suppose the upper portions of the air ascending over ,asia and ,africa to flow off laterally1 and if this takes place suddenly1 it will check the course of the upper or counter-current above the trade-wind1 and force it to break into the lower current4 ,an east wind coming into a ,s4 ,w4 current must necessarily occasion a rotatory movement1 turning in the opposite direction to the hands of a watch4 ,a rotatory storm1 moving from ,s4 ,e4 to ,n4 ,w41 in the lower current or trade1 would1 in this view1 be the result of the encounter of two masses of air1 impelled toward each other at many places in succession1 the further cause of the rotation 7originating primarily in this manner7 being that described by me in detail in a memoir ',on the ,law of ,storms1' translated in the ',scientific ,memoirs1' vol4 iii4 art4 #g4 ,thus1 it happens that the ,west ,india hurricanes1 and the ,chinese typhoons occur near the lateral confines on either side of the great region of atmospheric expansion1 the typhoons being probably occasioned by the direct pressure of the air from the region of the trade-winds over the ,pacific1 into the more expanded air of the monsoon region1 and being distinct from the storms appropriately called by the ,portuguese 'temporales1' which accompany the out-burst of the monsoon when the direction of the wind is reversed4 ,the analogy between this1 and a theory of ,mr4 ,redfield's1 will be noticed further on4 ,but ,i remark1 in passing1 that there is not a fact or inference in this paragraph which will bear examination4 #a4 ,there is no such regular ,s4 ,w4 wind over the surface trade1 as he supposes4 ,doubtless1 there are1 occasionally1 secondary ,s4 ,w4 currents between the counter-trade and the surface one1 with partial condensation1 for much of both becomes depolarized by their reciprocal action and precipitation1 and these induced ,s4 ,w4 currents are sometimes so strong as to usurp the place of the surface-trade1 and become very violent in the latter part of hurricanes2 but such is not the usual course of the upper currents of the ,west ,indies1 as the progress of storms there1 and observation1 prove4 #b4 ,there can not be any periods of extensive and sudden expansion over ,africa4 ,if there is any place on the earth which has a more uniformly progressive temperature1 either way1 and is more free from sudden extremes1 or which is more arid and destitute of aqueous vapor1 and sudden aqueous expansions1 than another1 it is ,africa4 ,no such occasional sudden expansions are there possible4 #c4 ,winds do not1 and can not1 encounter4 ,they stratify upon each other4 ,they are produced by the action of opposite electricity1 and are connected together in their origin and action4 ,the atmosphere is never free from the regular and irregular currents1 however invisible for the want of condensation4 ,aeronauts find them in the most serene days4 ,they exist without encounter or tendency to rotation1 every where1 and at all times2 even over the head of the distinguished ,professor1 whether he sleeps or is awake4 ,we can all see them when there is condensation1 and it is rarely the case that there is not some degree of it in some of them4 #d4 ,that ,great region of expansion is a chimera4 ,it does not exist4 ,it is a region of lower temperature1 and of condensation1 instead of expansion of aqueous vapor4 ,the trade does not rise in it1 or the ,s4 ,w4 wind overflow from it4 ,see the table cited page #afe4 #e4 ,the hurricanes do not originate in the surface trades1 as he supposes4 ,they originate in the belt of rains1 the supposed region of expansion1 and issue out of it2 or in the counter-trade1 where volcanic elevations rise far into or above the surface trade4 #f4 ,this hypothesis can not be sustained upon his own principles4 ,the distance between ,africa and the ,west ,india ,islands1 where most of the hurricanes originate1 is from #b1ejj to #c1jjj miles4 ,these gales are small when they commence1 not ordinarily over one or two hundred miles in diameter1 and often less4 ,there are trades all the way over from ,africa1 and ,s4 ,w4 winds also1 if they exist1 as he supposes1 in the ,west ,indies4 ,how can it happen that this lateral overflow should pass without effect1 over #b1ejj miles of ,s4 ,w4 wind and trade1 and concentrating the overflow of a continent over one small and chosen spot of the ,west ,indies1 pitch down there1 and there only1 and crowd the ,s4 ,w4 wind into the trade below8 ,this is too much for sensible men to believe4 ,what does ,professor ,dove mean by the term impulsion1 as applied to the winds8 ,how are they impelled8 ,it is the fundamental idea of his calorific theory1 that they are drawn by the suction caused by a vacuum1 and the vacuum created by expansion and overflow above1 in obedience to the law of gravity2 that the ,s4 ,e4 trade is drawn to the great region of expansion1 and the ,s4 ,w4 runs from it as an overflow4 ,but if the ,s4 ,w4 is driven down into the plane and place of the surface-trades1 how does it continue to be impelled1 and why is it not then subject to the suction of the vacuum which draws the trade8 ,does that vacuum select its air1 and so attract the trade1 in preference to the depressed portion of the ,s4 ,w4 current1 that the former runs around the latter to get to the vacuum1 and the latter around the former to get away from it8 ,and does the trade1 when it has got around the ,s4 ,w4 current1 instead of going to the vacuum1 continue to gyrate1 and the ,s4 ,w4 current1 instead of pursuing its regular course1 gyrate also about the trade1 and both move off together1 regardless of the vacuum of the great region of expansion1 in a new direction to the ,n4 ,w41 in an independent1 self-sustaining1 cyclonic movement1 increasing in power and extent1 involving extended and increasing condensation1 producing the most violent electrical phenomena1 and thus continuing up1 even to the ,arctic circle8 ,yes1 says ,professor ,dove4 ,no1 say all fact1 all analogy1 and his own principles4 #g4 ,his theory relative to the typhoons is unintelligible4 ,if they originate near the lateral confines of the great region of atmospheric expansion1 they originate in the region of the trade-winds1 for the two are identical4 ,how the direct pressure of the air from the trade-wind over the ,pacific1 in the more expanded air of the monsoon region1 can occasion a typhoon upon any principles1 passes my comprehension4 ,if1 as ,lieutenant ,maury supposes1 the monsoons are reversed trades1 then the trade-wind and monsoon region are identical4 ,if the monsoons are found in the belt of rains1 then1 the trades1 upon ,professor ,dove's principles1 pass into the monsoon region by attraction or suction1 without pressure4 ,either way the theory is undeserving of consideration4 ,a new theory has recently been started by ,mr4 ,thomas ,dobson1 and1 although it is 7like all other efforts to get the upper strata down to produce condensation1 or those below up1 that they may be condensed71 without foundation1 his collection of facts is brief and interesting4 ,i copy his article from the ,london1 ,edinburgh1 and ,dublin ,phil4 ,mag41 for ,december1 #ahec4 ,it adds to the collection of facts in relation to the connection between volcanic action and storms for the seventeenth century1 made by ,dr4 ,webster3 ,the following appear to be the main facts which are available as a basis for a theory which shall comprehend all the meteors in question3 #ast4 ,the eruption of a submarine volcano has produced water-spouts4 ,during these bursts the most vivid flashes of lightning continually issued from the densest part of the volcano1 and the volumes of smoke rolled off in large masses of fleecy clouds1 gradually expanding themselves before the wind in a direction nearly horizontal1 and drawing up a quantity of water-spouts4--7,captain ,tilland's description of the upheaval of ,sabrina ,island in ,june1 #ahaa1 ,phil4 ,trans47 ,with this significant fact may be compared the following analogous ones3 ,in the ,aleutian ,archipelago a new island was formed in #agie4 ,it was first observed after a storm1 at a point in the sea from which a column of smoke had been seen to rise4--7,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology47 ,among the ,aleutian ,islands a new volcanic island appeared in the midst of a storm1 attended with flames and smoke4 ,after the sea was calm1 a boat was sent from ,unalaska with twenty ,russian hunters1 who landed on this island on ,june #ast1 #ahad4--7;,journal of ,science1 vol4 vii47 ,on ,july #bdth1 #ahdh1 a submarine eruption broke out between the mainland of ,orkney and the island of ,strousa4 ,amid thunder and lightning1 a very dense jet black cloud was seen to rise from the sea1 at a distance of five or six miles1 which traveled toward the north-east4 ,on passing over ,strousa1 the wind from a slight air became a hurricane1 and a thick1 well-defined belt of large hailstones was left on the island4 ,the barometer fell two inches4--7,transactions ,royal ,society1 ,edinburg1 vol4 ix47 #b;d4 ,hurricanes1 whirlwinds1 and hailstones accompany the paroxysms of volcanos4 #agcj4 ,a great volcanic eruption at ,lancerote ,island1 and a storm1 which was equally new and terrifying to the inhabitants1 as they had never known one in the country before4--7,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1 vol4 ii47 #aged4 ,in the ,philippine ,islands a terrible volcanic eruption destroyed the town of ,taal and several villages4 ,darkness1 hurricanes1 thunder1 lightning1 and earthquakes1 alternated in frightful succession4--7,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal47 ,in #ahje1 #ahaa1 #ahac1 and #ahcj1 during eruptions of ,etna1 caravans in the deserts of ,africa perished by violent whirlwinds4 ,in #ahjg1 while ,vesuvius was in eruption1 a whirlwind destroyed a caravan4--7,rev4 ,w4 ,b4 ,clarke in ,tasw4 ,journal47 #ahae1 ,java4 ,a tremendous eruption of ,tombow ,mountain4 ,between nine and ten ,p4,m41 ashes began to fall1 and soon after a violent whirlwind took up into the air the largest trees1 men1 horses1 cattle1 etc4--7,raffles' ,history of ,java47 #ahag1 ,dec4 ,vesuvius in eruption4 ,in the evening a hail storm1 accompanied with red sand4--7,journal of ,science1 vol4 v47 #ahbj1 ,banda4 ,a frightful volcanic eruption1 and in the evening an earthquake and a violent hurricane4--7,annales de ,chimie47 #ahbb1 ,oct4 ,eruption of ,vesuvius4 ,toward its close the volcanic thunder-storm produced an exceedingly violent and abundant fall of rain4--7,humboldt1 ,aspects of ,nature47 #ahdc1 ,jan4 ,etna in eruption4 ,violent hurricanes at ,genoa1 in the ,bay of ,biscay1 and in ,great ,britain4 #ahdc1 ,feb4 ,destructive earthquakes in the ,west ,indies1 a volcanic eruption at ,guadaloupe1 followed by hurricanes in the ,atlantic4 #ahdf1 ,june #bf4 ,volcano of ,white ,island1 ,new ,zealand1 in eruption4 ,heavy squalls of wind and hail2 it blew as hard as in a typhoon4--7,commodore ,hayes1 ,r4,n41 in ,naut4 ,mag41 #ahdg47 #ahdg1 ,march #bj4 ,volcanic eruption and earthquake in ,java2 and on the #bast of ,march1 and #c;d of ,april1 violent hurricanes4--7,java ,courant47 #ahea1 ,aug4 #e4 ,a frightful eruption of the long dormant volcano of the ,pelee ,mountain1 ,martinique4 ,aug4 #ag4 ,hurricane at ,st4 ,thomas1 etc42 earthquake at ,jamaica1 etc4 #aheb1 ,april #ad4 ,earthquake at ,hawaii1 and on the #aeth a great volcanic eruption4 ,on the #ahth a gale of unusual violence lasted thirty-six hours1 and did great damage4--7,the ,polynesian1 ,april #bb1 #aheb47 #c;d4 ,in volcanic regions1 earthquakes and hurricanes often occur almost simultaneously1 but in no certain order1 and without any volcanic eruption being observed4 ,in #agab1 #agbb1 #ahae1 and #ahea1 earthquakes and hurricanes occurred together at ,jamaica2 in #agfb at ,carthagena2 in #aghj at ,barbadoes2 in #ahaa at ,charleston2 in #ahdg at ,tobago2 in #ahcg and #ahdh at ,antigua2 in #ahai1 an awful storm at ,montreal1 rain of a dark inky color1 and a slight earthquake4 ,people conjectured that a volcano had broken out4 ,in #agff the great ,martinique hurricane1 a waterspout burst on ,mount ,pelee and overwhelmed the place4 ,same night1 an earthquake4 #ahdc1 ,oct4 #cj4 ,manilla4--,twenty four hours' rain and two heavy earthquakes4 #aj ,p4,m41 a severe hurricane4 #aheb1 ,sept4 #af4 ,manilla--,an earthquake destroyed a great part of the city2 many vessels wrecked by a great hurricane in the adjacent seas1 between the #ahth and #bfth of ,september4--7,singapore ,times47 #agca1 ,oct4 ,calcutta4--,furious hurricane and violent earthquake2 #cjj1jjj lives lost4 #afah1 ,may #bf4 ,bombay4--,hurricane and earthquakes2 #b1jjj lives lost4--7,madras ,lit4 ,tran41 #ahcg47 #ahjj4 ,ongole1 ,india1 and in #ahae1 at ,ceylon1 a hurricane and earthquake shocks4--7,piddington47 #acdh4 ,cyprus4--,an earthquake and a frightful hurricane4--7,hecker47 #ahai4 ,bagdad4--,an earthquake and a storm--an event quite unprecedented4 #ahbj1 ,dec4 ,zante4--,great earthquake and hurricane1 with manifestations of a submarine eruption4--7,edinburg ,phil4 ,journal47 #ahca1 ,dec4 ,navigator's ,islands4--,hurricane and earthquakes4--7,williams' ,missionary ,enterprise47 #ahdh1 ,oct41 ,nov4 ,new ,zealand4--,succession of earthquake shocks1 and several tempests4 #ahcf1 ,oct4 ,at ,valparaiso1 a destructive tempest and severe earthquakes4--7,nautical ,magazine1 #ahdh47 ,when an earthquake of excessive intensity occurs1 as at ,lisbon1 in #agee1 the volcanic craters1 which act as the safety-valves of the regions in which they are placed1 are supposed to be sealed up2 and it is a remarkable and highly-suggestive fact1 that no hurricane follows such an earthquake4 ,the number of instances of the concurrence of ordinary earthquakes and hurricanes might easily be increased1 but the preceding suffice to show the generality of their coincidence1 both as to time and place4 #dth4 ,the breaking of water-spouts on mountains sometimes accompanies hurricanes4 ,in #agff1 during the great ,martinique hurricane1 before cited4 #ahbf1 ,nov4 ,at ,teneriffe1 enormous and most destructive water-spouts fell on the culminating tops of the mountains1 and a furious cyclone raged around the island4 ,the same occurred in #ahab and in #ahcg4--7;,espy and ,grey's ,western ,australia47 #ahbi4 ,moray4--,floods and earthquakes1 preceded by water-spouts and a tremendous storm4--7,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,lander47 #ahbf1 ,june4 ,hurricanes1 accompanied by water-spouts and fall of avalanches1 in the ,white ,mountains4--7,silliman's ,american ,journal1 vol4 xv47 #eth4 ,the fall of an avalanche sometimes produces a hurricane4 #ahai1 ,dec4 ,a part 7#cfj1jjj1jjj cubic feet7 of the glacier fell from the ,weisshorn 7#i1jjj feet74 ,at the instant1 when the snow and ice struck the inferior mass of the glacier1 the pastor of the village of ,randa1 the sacristan1 and some other persons1 observed a light4 ,a frightful hurricane immediately succeeded4--7,edinburg ,philosophical ,journal1 #ahbj47 #fth4 ,water-spouts occur frequently near active volcanos4 ,this is well known with regard to the ,west ,indies and the ,mediterranean4 ,the following notices refer to the ,malay ,archipelago and the ,sandwich ,islands3 ,water-spouts are often seen in the seas and straits adjacent to ,singapore4 ,in ,oct41 #ahda1 ,i saw six in action1 attached to one cloud4 ,in ,august1 #ahch1 one passed over the harbor and town of ,singapore1 dismasting one ship1 sinking another1 and carrying off the corner of the roof of a house1 in its passage landward4--7,journal of ,indian ,archipelago47 #ahji4 ,an immense water-spout broke over the harbor of ,honolulu4 ,a few years before1 one broke on the north side of the island 7,oahu71 washed away a number of houses1 and drowned several inhabitants4--7,jarves' ,history of ,sandwich ,islands47 #gth4 ,cyclones begin in the immediate neighborhood of active volcanos4 ,the ,mauritius cyclones begin near ,java2 the ,west ,indian1 near the volcanic series of the ,caribbean ,islands2 those of the ,bay of ,bengal1 near the volcanic islands1 on its eastern shores2 the typhoons of the ,china ,sea1 near the ,philippine ,islands1 etc4 #hth4 ,within the tropics1 cyclones move toward the west2 and1 in middle latitudes1 cyclones and water-spouts move toward the ,n4 ,e41 in the northern hemisphere1 and toward the ,s4 ,e4 in the southern hemisphere4 #ith4 ,in the northern hemisphere1 cyclones rotate in a horizontal plane1 in the order ,n4 ,w41 ,s4 ,e42 and in the southern hemisphere1 in the order ,n4 ,e41 ,s4 ,w4 ,by applying the principles of electro-dynamics to the electricity of the atmosphere1 ,i shall endeavor to connect and explain the preceding well-defined facts4 ,the continuous observations of ,quetelet1 on the electricity of the atmosphere1 from #ahdd to #ahdi 7,literary ,journal1 ,february1 #ahej71 show that it is always positive1 and increases as the temperature diminishes4 ,it therefore increases rapidly with the height above the earth's surface4 ,we may1 consequently1 regard the upper and colder regions of the atmosphere as an immense reservoir of electric fluid enveloping the earth1 which is insulated by the intermediate spherical shell formed by the lower and denser atmosphere4 ,now1 whenever a vertical column of this atmosphere is suddenly displaced1 the surrounding aqueous vapor will be immediately condensed and aggregated1 and the cold rarefied air and moisture will form a vertical conductor for the descent of the electrical fluid4 ,this descent will take place down a spiral1 gyrating in the order ,n4 ,w41 ,s4 ,e41 in the northern hemisphere1 since the electric current is under the same influence as that of the south pole of a magnet2 and in the order ,n4 ,e41 ,s4 ,w41 in the southern hemisphere4 ,the air exterior to the conducting cylinder will partake of the violent revolving motion1 and a tornado or cyclone will be produced4 ,upon the foregoing facts ,i shall comment in another place4 ,three theories have been advanced by meteorologists of this country1 two of which profess to explain all the phenomena of the weather4 ,professor ,espy attributed the production of storms and rain to an ascending column of air1 rarefied by heat1 and the rarefaction increased by the latent heat of vapor given out during condensation1 and an inward tendency of the air1 from all directions1 toward the ascending vortex1 constituting the prevailing winds4 ,thus1 ,professor ,espy conceived1 and to some extent proved1 that the wind blew inward1 from all sides1 toward the center of a storm1 either as a circle1 or having a long central line1 and he conceived that it ascended in the middle1 and spread out above2 and that clouds1 rain1 hail1 and snow1 were formed by condensation consequent upon the expansion and cooling of the atmosphere1 as it attained an increased elevation4 ,this ascent was not1 in fact1 proved by ,professor ,espy1 has not been found by others1 and is not discoverable1 according to my observations4 ,the theory was ingenious1 founded on the theory of ,dalton1 that the vapor was maintained in the atmosphere by reason of a large quantity of latent heat1 which was given out when condensation took place4 ,this theory is also unsound4 ,no such elevation of temperature is found in clouds or fogs when they form near the earth1 however dense4 ,thus the two principal elements of ,professor ,espy's theory are found to be untrue1 and the theory untenable4 ,but it was sustained with great ability and research1 and the distinguished theorist deserves much for the discovery and record of important facts in relation to the weather4 ,aside from its theoretical views1 his book contains a great mass of valuable information1 and will well repay the cost of purchase and perusal4 ,another theory1 by ,mr4 ,bassnett1 is of recent date1 founded on the influence of the moon1 and the supposed creation of vortices in the ether above1 whose influence extends to the earth1 producing storms and other phenomena4 ,no one can peruse his book without conceding to him great ability and scientific attainment2 and if his theory was true1 the periods of fair and foul weather could be calculated with great mathematical certainty4 ,but it contains inherent and insuperable objections4 ,i will only add that all herein before contained is in direct opposition to it4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,redfield1 of ,new ,york1 as early as #ahca1 first advanced in this country the theory of gyration in storms1 and investigated their lines of progress on our coast and continent4 ,his theory is limited in its character1 and does not profess1 except indirectly1 to explain all1 or indeed any1 of the other phenomena of the weather4 ,as far as it goes1 however1 it is generally received in this country and ,europe1 and has been adopted by ,reed1 ,piddington1 and others1 who have written on the law of storms4 ,the position of ,mr4 ,redfield is honorable to himself and his country4 ,science and navigation are much indebted to him for his industry in the collection of facts4 ,nevertheless1 his theory is not in accordance with my observation1 and ,i deem it unsound4 ,although expressed disbelief of the theory has been characterized as an attack upon its author1 ,i propose1 with that respect which is due to him1 but with that freedom and independence which a search for truth warrants1 to examine it with some particularity4 ,it is a part of the subject1 and ,i can not avoid it4 ,when the theory was first announced1 ,i adopted it as probably true2 and being then engaged in a different profession1 which took me much into the open air by night and day1 ,i watched with renewed care the clouds and currents for evidence to confirm it4 ,i discovered none2 on the contrary1 ,i found much1 very much1 absolutely and utterly inconsistent with its truth4 ,the substance only of these observations will be adduced4 ,mr4 ,redfield admits that the progression of our storms in the vicinity of ,new ,york1 is from some point between ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 and ,w4 ,s4 ,w41 to some point between ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 and ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 ,according to my observation1 except perhaps in occasional autumnal gales1 they are not often1 if ever1 from ,s4 of ,s4 ,w41 and the great majority of them1 including1 ,i believe1 all ,n4 ,e4 storms1 are between ,s4 ,w4 and ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 ,now1 the card of ,mr4 ,redfield1 moving over any place from any point between ,s4 ,w4 and ,w4 ,s4 ,w41 calls for a ,s4 ,e4 wind at its axis1 an ,e4 wind at its north front1 and a ,s4 wind at its south front1 and does not call for a ,n4 ,e4 wind on its front at all1 except at the north extreme1 where it could not continue for any considerable period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,in relation to this1 ,i observe1 #ast4 ,about one-half of our ,n4 ,e4 storms1 including some of the most severe ones1 not only set in ,n4 ,e41 but continue in that quarter without veering at all1 during the entire period that the storm cloud is over us2 usually for twenty-four hours2 not unfrequently for forty-eight hours1 sometimes for seventy-two or more hours4 ,this every one can observe for himself1 and it can not1 of course1 be reconciled with his theory4 #b;d4 ,n4 ,e4 storms1 whether they set in from that quarter in the commencement1 or veer to it afterward1 when they do change round1 more frequently veer by the ,s4 to the ,s4 ,w4 in clearing off1 than back through the ,n4 into the ,n4 ,w4 ,the former1 in accordance with his theory1 they can not do1 as the reader can see by passing the left side of the card over his place of residence on the map from ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e4 #c;d4 ,n4 ,e4 storms often pass off without hauling by ,s4 or backing by ,n41 and with or without a clearing off shower1 the wind shifting and coming out suddenly at ,s4 ,w4 ,this they could not do in accordance with his theory1 as slipping the card will show4 #dth4 ,from ,june to ,february it is exceedingly uncommon for a ,n4 ,e4 storm to back into the ,n4 ,w4 ,they do so more frequently from ,february to ,may1 especially about the time of the vernal equinox and after2 and then1 because the focus of precipitation and storm intensity of the extra tropical zone of rains is ,s4 of #db deg4 east of the ,alleghanies4 ,his theory requires them to back by ,n4 into ,n4 ,w4 in all cases1 when they set in ,n4 ,e4 #eth4 ,when they do back from the ,n4 ,e4 into the ,n4 ,w41 it rarely indeed continues to storm after the wind leaves the point of ,n4 ,e4 by ,n41 and generally1 if it does continue stormy1 the wind is light1 and not a gale1 how violent soever the gale from the eastward may have been4 ,usually1 by the time the wind gets ,n4 ,w41 it has cleared off4 ,this1 ,mr4 ,redfield1 as we shall see1 evades by embracing the ,n4 ,w4 fair wind as a part of the same gale4 ,according to my observation1 therefore1 a very large proportion of the ,n4 ,e4 storms1 and they are a majority of the most violent ones of our climate east of the ,alleghanies1 do not commence1 continue1 or veer in accordance with his theory1 but the reverse2 and so long as this is so1 ,i can not receive his theory as true4 #fth4 ,s4 ,e4 storms do not always1 or indeed often1 conform to the requirements of his card4 ,when they set in violently at ,s4 ,e41 and continue so for hours without veering1 the axis of the storm should be over us1 and the wind should change suddenly to ,n4 ,w4 ,this did not occur in the storm of ,sept4 #c1 #ahba1 nor does it often1 if ever1 occur in the summer or early gales of the autumnal months4 ,in the later storms of autumn1 and as often in those which are very gentle as any1 and in the winter months when ,s4 ,e4 gales are rare1 it does sometimes so change after the storm cloud has passed4 ,but in the winter months1 as in the storm investigated by ,professor ,loomis1 the storms are frequently long from ,s4 ,e4 to ,n4 ,w41 and the ,s4 ,e4 wind blows nearly in coincidence with its long axis1 for a thousand or fifteen hundred miles1 till the barometric minimum is passed1 and the inducing and attracting force of this part of the storm cloud is spent1 and then the ,n4 ,w4 wind follows2 sometimes blowing in under the storm cloud1 turning the rain to snow2 but oftener following the storm within a few hours1 or the next day4 ,the storm of ,professor ,loomis1 when over ,texas1 was not probably more than four or five hundred miles in length4 ,as it curved more1 and passed north and east1 it extended laterally1 its center traveling with most rapidity1 and when it reached the eastern coast was about fifteen hundred miles long1 and not more than six hundred broad4 ,along the eastern part of that storm1 except when by its more rapid progress the front projected much further eastward over ,new ,england than its previously existing line1 the ,s4 ,e4 winds blew4 ,when it bulged out1 so to speak1 by reason of the increased progress of the center1 the wind veered to the ,n4 ,e4 ,the center of the storm passed near ,st4 ,louis and south of ,quebec1 as the fall of rain1 the bulging of the rapidly-moving center1 and the line of subsequent cold1 attest4 ,it is utterly impossible for any unbiased mind to look at the description of that storm1 and attribute to it a rotary character4 ,with all the data before him1 ,mr4 ,redfield himself has not attempted it directly4#h ,the ,september storm of #ahba was more violent in character than any which have since occurred4 ,my recollection of it is as distinct as if it occurred yesterday4 ,peculiar circumstances1 not important in this connection1 fixed my attention upon the weather during that day and night4 ,there were cirro-stratus clouds passing all day1 from about ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e41 thickening toward night with fresh ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 wind and flocculent scud1 such as ,i have since seen at the setting-in of ,s4 ,e4 autumnal gales4 ,in the evening the wind 7in the immediate neighborhood of ,hartford1 ,ct471 veered to ,s4 ,e41 the cloud floated low1 it became very dark1 and the wind blew a most violent gale4 ,the trees were falling about the house where ,i then resided1 the windows were burst in1 and ,i was up and observant4 ,when the cloud passed off to the east1 it was suddenly light1 and almost calm4 ,the western edge of the storm cloud was as perpendicular as a steep mountain side1 and was enormously elevated1 and very black4 ,i have sometimes seen the western side of a summer thunder cloud1 which had drawn a violent gust along beneath it1 as elevated and perpendicular1 but never a storm cloud4 ,no cloud of that depth1 or intensity as exhibited by its peculiar blackness1 ever floated or will float so near the earth1 without inducing a devastating current beneath4 ,after it had passed the ridges east of the ,connecticut valley1 its top could be seen for a long and unusual period over the elevated ranges4 ,now that storm was but an intense portion of an extensive stratus-rain cloud4 ,such portions frequently exist1 and ,mr4 ,redfield admits the fact4 ,another like portion1 in the same storm1 passed over ,norfolk1 ,virginia1 and the adjacent section1 where the wind was ,n4 ,e41 and veered round by ,n4 ,w4 to ,s4 ,w4 ,baltimore1 and some vessels at sea1 were between the two intense portions of the storm1 and were not affected by either4 ,its northern limit was bounded by a line1 drawn from some point not far north of ,trenton1 ,new ,jersey1 north-eastward1 and north of ,worcester1 ,massachusetts4 ,i was about forty miles south of its northern limit1 and north of its center4 ,during that day1 and the next1 there was wind from ,s4 ,w4 to ,s4 ,e41 inclusive1 including the gale1 and from no other quarter4 ,it did not at any time veer to the ,w4 or ,n4 ,w4 ,after the passage of the storm-cloud1 the wind was very light4 ,when this intense portion of the storm passed over the valley of the ,connecticut1 its longest axis was from ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 to ,n4 ,n4 ,w41 and the wind was ,s4 ,e4 the whole length of it4 ,in its passage from the longitude of ,trenton to ,boston1 there was ,n4 ,w4 wind at one point1 and but one1 and that was in the iron region1 at the ,n4 ,w4 corner of ,connecticut1 at the northern limit of the intense cloud1 and owing1 doubtless1 to some local cause4 ,the direction of the wind in that storm was in accordance with what is generally true of our storms4 ,the wind on the front of the storm depends upon its shape4 ,if the storm is long in proportion to its width 7and no other violent autumnal or winter storm has been investigated1 to my knowledge71 the wind blows axially1 or obliquely1 on its front4 ,thus1 if long from ,s4 ,e4 to ,n4 ,w41 the wind on its front will blow from the ,s4 ,e4 ,so1 if the storm is long from ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e41 and has a south-eastern lateral extension1 with an easterly progression1 the wind will blow axially in the center1 and obliquely at the edges4 ,instances might be multiplied1 but ,i refer to one of recent date and striking character4 ,all of us remember the drought of #ahed4 ,it ended in drenching rain on the #ith of ,september4 ,this rain fell from a belt1 half showery and half stormy in character1 which had a ,s4 ,e4 lateral extension4 ,the evening of the previous day there was some lightning visible at the north1 and the usual ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 afternoon wind continued fresh after nightfall4 ,the next day we had a brisk wind from the same quarter1 and1 after noon1 the clouds appeared to pile up in the far north1 seeming very elevated4 ,they continued to do so1 extending southerly during the afternoon1 with a high wind from ,s4 ,s4 ,w41 the cumulus clouds moving ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 ,at #e ,p4,m41 gentlemen who left ,new ,york at #c ,p4,m41 reported that a dispatch had been received from ,albany1 dated #a ,p4,m41 stating that it was raining very heavily there4 ,about #g ,p4,m41 the belt reached us1 and it rained heavily from that time till morning4 ,not far from #h ,p4,m41 and during the heaviest rain1 the wind shifted from the ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e41 and blew fresh and cold from that quarter during the night1 and till the belt had passed south1 and then from ,n4 ,e4 by ,n41 cool1 with heavy scud1 during the forenoon1 veering gradually to the ,n4 ,n4 ,e41 and dying away4 ,after the rain ceased1 the northern edge of the belt was distinctly visible in the ,s4 and ,s4 ,e41 its stratus-cloud moving ,e4 ,n4 ,e41 and its scud to the westward4 ,the front of that storm did not pass over us4 ,it was long and narrow4 ,the wind blew somewhat obliquely inward1 along its southern border1 to the eastward1 and1 in like manner1 to the westward1 on its northern border1 but from the ,n4 ,e4 axially along its central portions4 ,in the last instance1 the wind changed from ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e4 ,this1 too1 is impossible1 according to ,mr4 ,redfield's theory4 ,similar instances1 in summer1 and early autumn1 are not uncommon4 ,but ,i shall recur to this in connection with the different classes of storms4 ,again1 the manner in which these ,s4 ,e4 winds co-exist with the ,n4 ,e41 and become the prevailing wind1 toward the close of the storm1 is instructive1 and inconsistent with the theory of ,mr4 ,redfield4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 the first effect of the storm is to increase the ,n4 ,e4 trade2 the wind then becomes baffling1 but settles in the ,n4 ,w4 or ,n4 ,n4 ,w41 in direct opposition to the admitted progress of the storm4 ,at this point1 or at ,s4 ,w41 it blows with most force4 ,sometimes it veers gradually1 and sometimes falls calm1 and comes out from the ,s4 ,w41 blowing violently4 ,it ends by veering to the ,s4 ,e41 following gently the course of the storm4 ,thus1 ,mr4 ,edwards1 in the third volume of his ,history of ,jamaica1 as herein before cited1 all hurricanes begin from the north1 veer back to ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 ,w41 and ,s4 ,s4 ,w41 and when they get round to ,s4 ,e4 the foul weather breaks up4 ,a short1 sudden gale1 resembling those of our summer thunder-showers1 is sometimes met with from the ,s4 ,e42 but the violent hurricanes of any considerable continuance are1 in almost every case1 as just stated4 ,now1 there is1 in our latitudes1 an obvious law on the subject1 and it is this3--,if the storm is not disproportionately long1 northerly and southerly1 there is a general tendency to induce and attract a surface current1 in opposition to the course of the storm on its front1 and especially its north front4 ,at the same time1 there is a tendency to induce a lateral current on its side1 particularly the southerly side1 and sometimes its south front3 that the latter current is1 in the first part of the storm1 above the former2 in the middle and latter part1 it becomes the prevailing current at the surface1 and the wind changes accordingly1 with or without a calm--that this lateral change sometimes takes place on either side1 but usually occurs on the side where the water is warmest1 or there is1 for other and local reasons1 a greater susceptibility in the atmosphere to inductive and attractive influence4 ,thus1 our ,n4 ,e4 storms very frequently have a southerly current also1 drawn from the ocean1 south of us1 which forms the middle current1 and1 in the middle and latter part of it1 becomes the prevailing one4 ,i have seen more than a hundred such instances1 clearly and distinctly marked4 ,since ,i have been writing this chapter1 ,january #bith1 #ahee1 such an instance has occurred4 ,on ,sunday1 the #bhth1 the cirro-stratus were all day passing from the ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e41 and gradually thickening with light air from the ,e4 ,n4 ,e41 in the afternoon4 ,during the evening the wind set in violently from the ,n4 ,e41 with a deluging rain4 ,during the night1 and after a brief calm1 it changed suddenly to the southward1 and blew in like manner4 ,this morning the storm was gone1 and with it1 six inches of hard1 frozen icy snow2 the trade was clear1 with the exception of here and there a broken1 melting piece of stratus1 but scud were still running from the southward1 and the wind has been from the south1 veering to ,s4 ,w41 all day1 with sunshine4 ,as ,i have before remarked1 this middle current is always present1 in this locality1 in stratus storms1 when there is a heavy fall of rain or snow1 although1 when the latter happens1 the middle current is sometimes from the northward2 if it be from the southward1 it turns the snow first into very large flakes1 and then to rain in our part of the storm4 ,doubtless1 the same thing occurs every where4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 and especially over the ,leeward ,islands1 the middle current is most commonly from the stream of warm water which runs off to the westward into the ,caribbean ,sea2 as the ,s4 ,w4 moonsoon is from the same current below the ,cape de ,verdes4 ,the ,s4 ,w4 winds1 which come from those south polar waters1 in the ,west ,indies1 appear to be the most violent4 ,but it may be on either or both sides4 ,the hurricane cloud of the ,west ,indies moves confessedly ,n4 ,w4 in most instances1 and undoubtedly it does in all4 ,there is an immutable law that requires it4 ,the seeming exceptions are not such2 they are but instances imperfectly investigated4 ,now1 a circular storm moving ,n4 ,w4 can set in ,n4 ,w4 only on the left front1 and can not change to ,s4 ,w4 on that side of the axis4 ,nor can the wind blow at the axis from ,n4 ,w4 at all4 ,it should be ,n4 ,e4 in first half1 and ,s4 ,w4 in last half4 ,strange as it may seem1 the axis of a ,west ,india hurricane in conformity with ,mr4 ,redfield's theory1 and a ,n4 ,w4 progression1 has never been found1 with perhaps a single exception1 in any one of which ,i have seen a description4 ,on the west coast of ,europe1 the gale is commonly from the ,atlantic1 either following under the storm from the ,s4 ,w41 or blowing in diagonally from the ,w4 or ,n4 ,w42 the ,n4 ,e4 wind of western ,europe being a cold1 dry wind1 which there is reason to believe has been around the ,siberian pole and is returning1 as the cold northerly winds of the ,north ,pacific have around the ,north ,american magnetic pole4 ,if the ,n4 ,e4 winds always prevailed1 says ,kaemtz1 speaking of ,berlin1 even at a considerable height it would never rain4 ,this was based on an observation of showers1 and not fully reliable4 ,but the dry and cool character of the ,n4 ,e4 wind of western ,europe is unquestionable4 ,the ,s4 ,e4 wind is also a storm wind1 but owing to the character of the surface from which it is attracted1 it is not as violent as the westerly winds are4 ,such1 too1 is the general course and character of the side wind in the southern hemisphere4 ,there gales are less frequent1 the magnetic intensity is less1 the counter-trades are less2 it is not in the order of ,providence that as much rain shall fall there4 ,nevertheless1 gales occur1 although rarely1 if ever1 with equal violence4 ,about ,new ,holland1 where storms are pursuing a ,s4 ,e4 course1 they have the wind ,n4 ,e41 corresponding to our ,s4 ,e41 veering from thence1 by the north1 to the westward1 clearing off from ,s4 ,w41 with a rising barometer1 as ours do from ,n4 ,w4 ,in the ,bay of ,bengal1 the ,indian ,ocean1 and the ,arabian ,sea1 there is more irregularity4 ,but the law of progress and lateral winds can be distinctly traced as present and prevailing1 notwithstanding the irregularities4 ,our limits do not permit an analysis4 ,in the celebrated case of the ,charles ,heddle1 there was much evidence to show that she was driven across the front of the storm by one lateral wind1 and back by another4 7,diagram of ,colonel ,reid1 p4 #bjf47 ,the waters of the ,indian ,ocean are hot and confined4 ,storms there are often composed of detached masses1 move slower--sometimes not more than three or four miles an hour--and they curve over the ocean1 where it is hotter than in any similar latitude4 ,yet1 notwithstanding all peculiarities and irregularities1 the law we have been considering is probably the prevailing law there4 ,no man knows better the existence of these different currents than ,mr4 ,redfield4 ,doubtless it has escaped his attention that the upper of two1 after the passage of a considerable proportion of the storm1 becomes the lower1 and causes a seeming change of the same wind4 ,in a series of elaborate articles1 substantially reviewing the whole subject1 published in the ,american ,journal of ,science1 for #ahdf1 he says3 ,in nearly all great storms which are accompanied with rain1 there appear two distinct classes of clouds1 one of which1 comprising the storm scuds in the active portion of the gale1 has already been noticed4 ,above this is an extended stratum of stratus cloud1 which is found moving with the general or local current of the lower atmosphere which overlies the storm4 ,it covers not only the area of rain1 but often extends greatly beyond this limit1 over a part of the dry portion of the storm1 partly in a broken or detached state4 ,this stratus cloud is often concealed from view by the nimbus1 and scud clouds in the rainy portion of the storm1 but by careful observations1 may be sufficiently noticed to determine the general uniformity of its specific course1 and1 approximately1 its general elevation4 ,the more usual course of this extended cloud stratum1 in the ,united ,states1 is from some point in the horizon between ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 and ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 ,its course and velocity do not appear influenced in any perceptible degree by the activity or direction of the storm-wind which prevails beneath it4 ,on the posterior or dry side of the gale1 it often disappears before the arrival of the newly condensed cumuli and cumulo-stratus which not unfrequently float in the colder winds1 on this side of the gale4 ,the general height of the great stratus cloud which covers a storm1 in those parts of the ,united ,states which are near the ,atlantic1 can not differ greatly from one mile2 and perhaps is oftener below than above this elevation4 ,this estimate1 which is founded on much observation and comparison1 appears to comprise1 at the least1 the limit or thickness of the proper storm-wind1 which constitutes the revolving gale4 ,it is not supposed1 however1 that this disk-like stratum of revolving wind is of equal height or thickness throughout its extent1 nor that it always reaches near to the main canopy of stratus cloud4 ,it is probably higher in the more central portions of the gale than near its borders1 in the low latitudes1 than in the higher1 and may thin out entirely at the extremes1 except in those directions where it coincides with an ordinary current4 ,moreover1 in large portions of its area1 there may be1 and often is1 more than one storm-wind overlying another1 and severally pertaining to contiguous storms4 ,in the present case1 we see1 from the observations of ,professor ,snell and ,mr4 ,herrick1 at ,amherst1 ,massachusetts1 and at ,hamden1 ,maine 7#aae and #ace b471 that the true storm wind1 at those places1 was super-imposed on another wind2 and various facts and observations may be adduced to show that brisk winds1 of great horizontal extent1 are often limited1 vertically to a very thin sheet or stratum4 ,much of the foregoing is graphically described1 and unquestionably true4 ,but it may well be asked how he1 or others1 distinguish which of two or more currents 7for there are frequently three1 and sometimes four visible71 are the true currents of the storm1 and which interlopers from another storm8 ,is the true one always the upper one1 and why8 ,if the upper one1 why is the interloper at the surface noted and quoted to prove what a storm is8 ,how does he know what proportions of the winds he has recorded to show the revolving motion of gales1 were the true storm winds of the particular storm8 or1 that every one of them was not an interloping wind on which the true storm wind was superimposed8 ,these inquiries are pertinent1 for obviously1 unless some rule for distinguishing between the currents is given1 and there be evidence of direct observation to show that the surface wind1 whose direction is noted1 is the true wind of the storm1 and that the latter is not superimposed1 no reliance can be placed upon logs1 or newspaper accounts1 or registers4 ,there is another element besides direction1 viz43 superimposition1 a determination of which is essential to truth4 ,it will be difficult for ,mr4 ,redfield to say that a determination of that element has been made1 with certainty1 in a single storm he has investigated2 and in relation to the convergence of storms1 and blending1 and superimposition of their winds1 ,i think he is mistaken4 ,mr4 ,redfield is right in saying 7,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 ii41 new series1 p4 #cba7 that too much reliance may be placed upon mere observations of the surface winds in meteorological inquiries1 and yet they only have thus far been regarded1 and he has proved gyration in no other way4 ,i have frequently1 with a vane in sight1 asked intelligent men how the wind was1 and been amused and instructed by their inability to state it correctly4 ,mr4 ,redfield1 in his inquiries1 often found two reports of the weather at the same time1 from the same place1 materially different2 and ,i have known1 from my own observation1 newspapers and meteorological registers to be several points out of the way2 and this1 because the vanes are influenced by local elevations1 and change several points1 and very often2 because few know the exact points of the compass in their own localities1 and because entire accuracy has not been deemed essential4 ,for these reasons1 newspaper and telegraphic reports are not always reliable2 and therefore1 and because1 also1 storm-winds are easterly and fair winds westerly1 and the former veer from east around to west1 on one or both sides in many cases1 there are few storms which can not be represented as whirlwinds1 by a proper selection of reports1 a corresponding location of the center1 and an extension of the lines of supposed gyration1 so as to include the preceding winds1 the actual winds of the storm1 and the lateral1 and succeeding fair weather ones4 ,but1 again1 ,mr4 ,redfield is right in saying there is1 in such cases1 an extended stratum of stratus cloud1 and it is always present4 ,but why does he say this covers the storm8 ,is it distinct from it1 and if so1 what is it doing there8 ,what power placed it there1 and for what purpose8 ,has this extended stratum of cloud1 which forms the canopy of a vast chamber--five hundred to one thousand miles in diameter1 and less than two miles in vertical depth1 while the earth forms the floor--any agency in producing the whirl that is supposed to be going on within it1 and if so1 what8 ,has the earth any agency1 and if so1 what8 ,if neither the ceiling nor floor of the chamber have any agency in producing it1 what does8 ,are we to consider the storm-scud as possessing the power1 and as waltzing around the aerial chamber1 carrying the air with them in a hurricane-dance of devastation8 ,what1 in short1 is the power1 and how is it exerted8 ,to these questions1 ,mr4 ,redfield's essays furnish no comprehensive answer4 ,there is an intimation that the cause of storms will be1 at some future day1 developed4 ,one attempt1 and but one1 has thus far been made1 and that ,i quote entire3 ,we have seen that the two ,cuba storms1 as well as the ,mexican northers1 have appeared to come from the contiguous border of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,now1 are there any peculiarities in the winds and aerial currents of those regions1 which may serve to induce or support a leftwise rotation in extensive portions of the lower atmosphere1 while moving on1 or near the earth's surface8 ,i apprehend there are such peculiarities1 which have an extensive1 constant1 and powerful influence4 ,first1 we find on the eastern portion of the ,pacific1 from upper ,california to near the ,bay of ,panama1 an almost constant prevalence of north-westerly winds at the earth's surface4 ,next1 we have an equally constant wind from the southern and south-western quarter1 which1 having swept the western coast of ,south ,america1 extends across the equator to the vicinity of ,panama1 thus meeting1 and commonly over-sliding the above-mentioned westerly winds1 and tending to a deflection or rotation of the same1 from right to left4 ,as this influence may thus become extended to the ,caribbean or ,honduras ,sea1 we have1 next1 the upper or ,s4 ,e4 trade of this sea1 which is here frequently a surface-wind1 and must tend to aid and quicken the gyrative movement1 ascribed to the two previous winds2 and lastly we have the ,n4 ,e4 or lower trade1 from the tropic1 which1 coinciding with the northern front of the gyration1 serves still further to promote the revolving movement which may thus result from the partial coalescence of these great winds of ,central ,america1 and the contiguous seas4 ,thus1 while a great storm is1 in part1 on the ,pacific ,ocean1 its ,n4 ,e4 wind may be felt in great force on that side of the continent1 through the great gorges or depressions near the bays of ,papagayo or ,tehuantepec1 as noticed by ,humboldt1 ,captain ,basil ,hall1 and others1 the elevations which there separate the two seas being but inconsiderable2 and1 when the gyration is once perfected1 the whole mass will gradually assume the movement of the predominant current1 which is generally the higher one1 and will move off with it1 integrally1 as we see in the cases of the vortices1 which are successively found in particular portions of a stream1 where subject to disturbing influences4 ,the analogy between this and the theory of ,professor ,dove1 cited above1 and prior1 in point of time1 is obvious4 ,they are substantially alike in principle1 with different locations4 ,they differ also in this1 ,professor ,dove appears to think something more than over-sliding necessary1 and assigns the duty of crowding the upper current down in to the lower1 to make an encounter1 to a lateral overflow from ,africa4 ,mr4 ,redfield seems to think there may be a tendency to deflection when they over-slide each other4 ,they are both closet hypotheses1 the poetry of meteorology1 with something more than poetical license as to facts4 ,in the first place1 no such concurring winds exist in the same locality at the same time4 ,when the inter-tropical belt of rains is over ,central ,america and ,southern ,mexico1 a ,s4 ,w4 monsoon blows in under it1 but it usurps the place of all other surface winds2 and1 when the belt is absent1 that portion of the eastern ,pacific is most remarkably calm1 or is covered by the ,n4 ,e4 trades4 ,secondly1 the trade-winds every where pursue their appointed course without tendency to deflection by the meeting1 or over-sliding1 or breaking in1 or encounter1 of other winds4 ,the great laws of circulation do not admit of any such confusion4 ,and1 lastly1 no storm ever came over the eastern ,united ,states from that quarter4 ,the unchangeable laws of atmospheric circulation forbid it4 ,recent observations also have shown that the storms on the west coast of ,central ,america1 and the eastern ,pacific1 pursue a ,n4 ,w4 course1 precisely as in the ,west ,indies1 and every where over the surface-trades of the northern hemisphere4 ,indeed ,mr4 ,redfield himself has recently investigated several of them1 and admits their course to be north-westerly4 7,see ,american ,journal of ,science1 new series1 vol4 xviii4 p4 #aha47 ,but1 suppose the co-existence of the winds and the course of the storms admitted as claimed1 let us seek for clearer views4 ,what do these gentlemen mean8 ,do they intend to have us believe the air has inherent moving power1 and that the tendency of which they speak is an attribute of the winds1 and that when they thus meet1 and come into each other1 encounter1 or over-slide1 and become acquainted1 they wheel into a waltz1 and move off northward1 integrally1 with unceasing circular movement1 even until they arrive at the ,arctic circle8 ,or is it a mere mechanical effect of meeting1 coming into each other1 or over-sliding8 ,if the latter1 why a tendency to rotation from right to left8 ,the trade-winds1 at least1 are continuous1 unbroken sheets1 and not disconnected portions which meet and blow past each other1 and there is no warrant for placing them side and side1 and attributing to them any such mechanical effect1 and as little respecting the other winds4 ,outside of the fanciful hypothesis1 there are no facts to show such a tendency one way rather than the other2 and1 in accordance with the known facts regarding stratification of the currents of air1 no such tendency can exist4 ,but what power impels the winds1 which thus meet at these points8 ,if they be impelled1 is it consistent with the action of this power that the winds it has created and controls1 should thus assume an opposite tendency1 and whirl away to the north-eastward1 regardless of the power that originated and controls them8 ,what must this tendency be1 which thus occasionally not only diverts the winds from the usually regular course given them by their originating power1 but increases their action1 from gentle1 ordinary winds1 to hurricanes8 ,nay1 which gives them a new1 resistless gyratory and electric energy1 increasing as the new1 independent1 supposed cyclonic organization moves off1 integrally1 away from the home of its many fathers1 on a devastating journey towards the north pole8 ,and1 further1 if all this were true as to the ,west ,indies and ,central ,america1 what is to be said of the billions of other storms1 originating on a thousand other portions of the earth's surface1 and how are they to be accounted for1 inasmuch as such other meetings1 coming into each other1 and over-sliding1 and tendency to deflection1 is not assumed to exist8 ,these questions cannot be satisfactorily answered4 ,the distinguished theorists are mistaken4 ,the stratus-cloud does not over-lie or cover the storm4 ,,it ,,is ,,the ,,storm4 ,the winds beneath1 whether surface or superimposed1 are but its incidents1 due to its static induction and attraction4 ,their direction depends on the shape of the storm cloud1 and its course of progression1 and the susceptibility of the surface atmosphere in this direction or that1 to its inductive and attractive influence4 ,their force to its depth1 its contiguity to the earth1 and the intensity of its action2 and the scud1 are but patches of condensation1 occasioned by the same inductive action which affects and attracts the surface current in which they form4 ,another objection to ,mr4 ,redfield's theory of gyration is based upon the fact that in order to constitute his storm1 to get the gyration1 he has to include1 at least1 an equal amount1 generally a great deal more1 of fair weather4 ,the ,n4 ,w4 wind1 the posterior1 or dry side of the gale1 as he calls it 7in the foregoing extract71 is a fair weather wind4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to complete the supposed circle1 and it is pressed into the service4 ,the practical answer given to the question1 what are storms8 is1 they are cyclones1 part storm1 so called1 and part fair weather2 that is1 the stratus-cloud1 the scud1 the easterly wind1 and rain or snow of day before yesterday1 were the wet side1 or front part of the storm1 and the sunshine1 clear sky1 and ,n4 ,w4 wind of yesterday1 to-day1 and1 perhaps1 to-morrow1 are the posterior or dry side4 ,when a storm clears off from the ,n4 ,w4 it is not over1 it is1 perhaps1 just begun2 and1 inasmuch as it storms again1 very soon after the wind changes back from the ,n4 ,w4 to the southward1 in winter1 our weather then is pretty much all storms4 ,the statement of this claim seems so absurd that it may appear like injustice to make it4 ,but gyration can not be made out without it1 and it is evident in the extract quoted above2 in the claim that the winter northers of the ,mexican ,gulf are parts of passing storms2 and clearly and unequivocally advanced as a distinct proposition1 as follows3 #a4 ,the body of the gale usually comprises an area of rain or foul weather1 together with another1 and1 perhaps equal1 or greater1 area of fair or bright weather4 7,am4 ,jour4 of ,science1 vol4 xlii4 p4 #aad47 ,now1 in the first place1 we must distinguish between a storm and fair weather1 before we can tell what the former is1 and it is difficult to assent to a theory which explains what a ,s4 ,e4 storm of twelve hours' continuance is1 by including two or three days of succeeding ,n4 ,w4 fair weather wind1 as a part of it4 ,there is no proportionate relation as to time1 nor any relation as to qualities1 or the attending conditions of the atmosphere1 nor any conceivable connection1 except the hypothetical one of gyration1 between the two winds4 ,and1 in the second place1 it is true1 and ,mr4 ,redfield is well aware of the fact1 that winds often blow for many days from the ,n4 ,e41 ,s4 ,w41 or ,n4 ,w41 without any preceding or succeeding winds to which they have any discoverable relation4 ,if1 therefore1 truth would justify ,mr4 ,redfield in including the fair weather wind1 a difficulty would remain which his theory does not cover or explain4 ,no ,american1 except ,mr4 ,redfield1 has been able to discover satisfactory evidence of the gyration of storms1 by actual careful observation1 or a careful unbiased collation of the observation of others4 ,professor ,coffin is reported to have read to the ,scientific ,association1 at their ,buffalo meeting1 a paper1 confirmatory1 in part1 but ,i have not been able to see it4 ,the tracks of tornados have been searched as with candles4 ,when they have been narrow1 from forty to eighty rods1 their action has been substantially similar1 and1 although1 as we have herein before stated1 some irregularities have been found which were consistent with gyration--for irregularities attend the violent action of all forces1 and particularly the motion of electricity through the atmosphere1 as every one who has seen the zig-zag course of a flash of lightning knows--yet the evidence of two lateral inward currents1 or lines of force1 has predominated over all others4 ,in all cases1 where the path is narrow1 those lateral currents are the actors2 they constitute the tornado2 their irregularities of action produce the exceptions2 but the exceptions are neither numerous nor uniform1 and do not prove either the theory of ,mr4 ,espy or that of ,mr4 ,redfield4 ,the action is not that of moving air1 merely1 but of a power exceeding in force that of powder1 which nothing but electricity or magnetism can exert4 ,as the path widens1 the wind becomes more like the straight-line gust which follows beneath the ordinary severe thunder-showers4 ,his theory finds no substantial confirmation or support in the path of the tornado4 ,several storms were investigated by ,professor ,espy1 some of them the same which ,mr4 ,redfield had attempted to show were of a rotary character2 one or two by the ,franklin ,institute of ,philadelphia2 one by ,professor ,loomis1 already alluded to2 and recently1 two by ,lieutenant ,porter1 from logs returned to the ,national ,observatory4 ,none of these investigations confirm the theory of ,mr4 ,redfield4 ,indeed1 ,mr4 ,redfield himself has found it necessary to resort to suppositions of modifying causes to explain the evident inconsistencies4 ,it is assumed that the axis1 or center1 oscillates1 and describes a series of circles2 and thus1 one class of difficulties is avoided4 ,again1 it is assumed that simultaneous storms converge and blend upon the same field1 and another class of difficulties are surmounted4 ,and1 again1 inasmuch as it is notorious that violent gales are rarely if ever felt with equal violence around the area of a circle1 but from one or two points only1 it is assumed1 that the storm winds ascend1 superimpose1 and descend again1 when they return to the place of their first violent action1 etc4 ,the simple truth requires no such resort to modifying hypothesis4 ,still1 another objection is1 that the changes in the barometer1 which occur before1 during1 and after storms1 do not sustain the claims of ,mr4 ,redfield or the requirements of his theory4 ,the barometer sometimes rises before storms4 ,it generally commences falling about the time1 or soon after the storm sets in1 continues to fall during its progress1 and rises again1 sooner or later1 afterward4 ,this is the general rule4 ,on this subject ,mr4 ,redfield's claim is this3 ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,gale',s ,,rotation ,,on ,,the ,,barometer4--,the extraordinary fall of the mercury in the barometer1 which takes place in gales or tempests1 has attracted attention since the earliest use of this instrument by meteorologists4 ,but ,i am not aware that the principal cause of this depression had ever been pointed out1 previously to my first publication in this journal1 in ,april1 #ahca1 when ,i took the occasion to notice this result as being obviously due to the centrifugal force of the revolving motion found in the body of the storm4 ,since that period1 inquiries have been continued by meteorologists in regard to the periodical and other fluctuations of the barometer1 and the relations of these fluctuations to temperature and aqueous vapor4 ,but these incidental causes of variation1 in the atmospheric pressure1 prove to be of minor influence1 and we are left to the sufficient and only satisfactory solution of this marked phenomenon which is found in the centrifugal force of rotation4 ,the average pressure of the atmosphere1 at the surface of the ocean1 or in the interior of the country1 allowing for elevation1 is about equal to the weight of a column of quicksilver1 thirty inches in height2 hence the barometer is said to stand at about thirty inches at the level of the sea4 ,this is sufficiently accurate for the northern hemisphere1 north of the ,n4 ,e4 trades2 but the average is somewhat lower in the trades and in the southern hemisphere4 ,thus1 the average of sixteen months1 during which the ,grinnell expedition was absent1 was #cj4jh_/ajj4 ,from a large number of logs examined by ,lieutenant ,maury1 the mean elevation in the ,n4 ,e4 trades of the ,atlantic was #bi4ig_/ajj2 the ,s4 ,e4 trades of the ,atlantic1 #bi4ic_/ajj2 off ,cape ,horn1 #bi4bc_/ajj2 ,s4 ,e4 trades of the ,pacific1 #cj4je_/ajj2 ,n4 ,e4 trades of the ,pacific1 #bi4if_/ajj4 ,the height of the barometer off ,cape ,horn is not a fair index of the general elevation of the southern hemisphere1 inasmuch as it stands lower there than at the coast of ,patagonia and ,chili1 or at most1 if not all1 other stations in that hemisphere4 ,as the barometer is constantly oscillating up and down 7irrespective of its diurnal oscillation71 it has no known fair weather standard4 ,the point of #cj inches is taken only as it is a mean4 ,i have known it to commence storming when the barometer was at #cj4gj1 and not to fall before it cleared off1 below #cj4cj4 ,and ,i have known it to be below #cj for several days consecutively1 with fair weather4 ,in our climate there is no reliable fair weather standard for the barometer4 ,it falls below #cj without storming2 it rises far above1 and storms without falling below4 ,no reliance can be placed upon its elevation1 except by comparison2 but of that hereafter4 ,the general rule1 nevertheless1 is1 that it falls more or less during storms1 whatever its height1 and rises sooner or later1 more or less1 after they clear off4 ,the difference between its highest and lowest points is called its range4 ,the greatest range observed1 and recorded1 is about #c inches--from about #bh to #ca--;but this range is rare4 ,the range1 in the trade-wind region1 is comparatively small2 in this country it is greater than in ,europe2 and1 generally1 the range will be found greatest where the volume of counter-trade1 and magnetic intensity1 and the corresponding amount of precipitation1 and extremes of heat and cold are greatest4 ,one of the greatest ranges during one storm1 or two successive portions of a storm1 in this country1 which ,i have seen recorded1 occurred at ,boston1 in ,february1 #ahdb4 ,it was as follows--counting the hours as #bd1 and from midnight3 ,feb4 #ae44aj;h44#cj4cf4 #af44ac;h44#bh4dg fall of #a4hi in #bg hours4 #ag44ai;h44#cj4ci rise of #a4ib in #cj hours4 #ah44 #b;h44#cj4ci stationary #e hours4 #ai44 #b;h44#bi4df fall of #j4ic in #bd hours4 #bj44 #b;h44#cj4dc rise of #j4ig in #bd hours4 ,amount of oscillation1 #e4ga in #d days1 #aa hours4 ,these ranges were owing to the alternation of ,s4 ,e4 storms1 and ,n4 ,w4 winds4 ,taking the first range as a basis1 and allowing the height of the atmosphere to be #a1ajj feet for the first inch1 we have nearly #b1jjj feet displaced during one day1 if we look for the displacement near the earth1 or some #cj or #ce miles1 if we soar aloft in the upper regions to look for the lateral overflow of ,professor ,dove1 and about the same quantity restored the next4 ,this brings us to the inquiry1 how was it done8 ,it is perfectly idle to talk about difference of temperature or tension of vapor1 the ascent of warm air1 or descent of cold in a case like this2 or to say that they were occasioned by a lateral overflow of some thirty miles of its upper portion1 first this way and then that1 in such a brief space of time4 ,the change is equal to nearly #a_/ae of the weight of the whole atmosphere1 and the cause1 whatever it was1 existed within two or three miles of the earth4 ,mr4 ,redfield's explanation ,i give in his own words1 at length3 ,one of the most important deductions which may be drawn from the facts and explications which are now submitted1 is an explanation of the causes which produce the fall of the barometer on the approach of a storm4 ,this effect we ascribe to the centrifugal tendency or action which pertains to all revolving or rotary movements1 and which must operate with great energy and effect upon so extensive a mass of atmosphere as that which constitutes a storm4 ,let a cylindrical vessel1 of any considerable magnitude1 be partially filled with water1 and let the rotative motion be communicated to the fluid1 by passing a rod repeatedly through its mass1 in a circular course4 ,in conducting this experiment1 we shall find that the surface of the fluid immediately becomes depressed by the centrifugal action1 except on its exterior portions1 where1 owing merely to the resistance which is opposed by the sides of the vessel1 it will rise above its natural level1 the fluid exhibiting the character of a miniature vortex or whirlpool4 ,let this experiment be carefully repeated1 by passing the propelling rod around the exterior of the fluid mass1 in continued contact with the sides of the vessel1 thus producing the whole rotative impulse1 by an external force1 analagous to that which we suppose to influence the gyration of storms and hurricanes1 and we shall still find a corresponding result1 beautifully modified1 however1 by the quiescent properties of the fluid2 for1 instead of the deep and rapid vortex before exhibited1 we shall have a concave depression of the surface1 of great regularity3 and1 by the aid of a few suspended particles1 may discover the increased degree of rotation1 which becomes gradually imparted to the more central portions of the revolving fluid4 ,the last-mentioned result obviates the objection1 which1 at the first view1 might1 perhaps1 be considered as opposed to our main conclusion1 grounded on the supposed equability of rotation1 in both the interior and exterior portions of the revolving body1 like that which pertains to a wheel1 or other solid4 ,it is most obvious1 however1 that all fluid masses are1 in their gyrations1 subject to a different law1 as is exemplified in the foregoing experiment2 and this difference1 or departure from the law of solids1 is doubtless greater in aeriform fluids than in those of a denser character4 ,the whole experiment serves to demonstrate that such an active gyration as we have ascribed to storms1 and have proved1 as we deem1 to appertain to some1 at least1 of the more violent class2 must necessarily expand and spread out1 by its centrifugal action1 the stratum of atmosphere subject to its influence1 and which must1 consequently1 become flattened or depressed by this lateral movement1 particularly toward the vortex or center of the storm2 lessening thereby the weight of the incumbent fluid1 and producing a consequent fall of the mercury in the barometrical tube4 ,this effect must increase1 till the gravity of the circumjacent atmosphere1 superadded to that of the storm itself1 shall1 by its counteracting effect1 have produced an equilibrium in the two forces4 ,should there be no overlaying current in the higher regions1 moving in a direction different from that which contains the storm1 the rotative effect may1 perhaps1 be extended into the region of perpetual congelation1 till the medium becomes too rare to receive its influence4 ,but whatever may be the limit of this gyration1 its effect must be to depress the cold stratum of the upper atmosphere1 particularly toward the more central portions of the storm2 and1 by thus bringing it in contact with the humid stratum of the surface1 to produce a permanent and continuous stratum of clouds1 together with a copious supply of rain1 or a deposition of congelated vapor1 according to the state of the temperature prevailing in the lower region4 ,the italics in the foregoing extract are mine2 and1 in relation to it1 ,i observe3 #ast4 ,there is no cylindrical vessel around storms1 and air will not thus resist air4 ,confessedly1 such resistance is necessary4 ,let any one watch his cigar smoke1 and see how readily it moves on1 with little momentum4 ,let any one try the experiment of creating a whirl in the open air1 or in a room1 or box of paper1 or other material1 which can be suddenly removed1 with air colored by smoke4 ,i am exceedingly mistaken if he does not find the presence of a cylindrical vessel1 absolutely essential to prevent the instantaneous tangential escape of the air4 #b;d4 ,turn back to page #c and look at the fall of the barometer in the polar regions 7recorded in the extract from ,dr4 ,kane71 with scarcely any wind1 and as little variation in its direction1 and see how utterly ,mr4 ,redfield's theory fails to account for the phenomena4 #c;d4 ,if ,i understand ,mr4 ,redfield correctly1 he has abandoned the claim as originally made1 that the wind moves in circles1 expanding1 and spreading out by a lateral movement1 and now asserts that it blows spirally inward1 and elevates the air in the center4 ,i quote3 ,,vortical ,,inclination ,,of ,,the ,,storm ,,wind4--,by this is meant some degree of involution from a true circular course4 ,in the ,new ,england storm above referred to1 this convergence of the surface-winds appeared equal to an average of about #f deg4 from a circle4 ,in the present case1 such indication seems more or less apparent in the arrows on the storm figures of the several charts1 where the concentrical circle afford us means for a just comparison of the general course of wind which is approximately shown by the several observations4 ,perhaps we may estimate the average of the vorticose convergence1 as observed in the entire storm for three successive days1 at from #e deg4 to #aj deg4--out of the #ij deg4 which would be requisite for a congeries of centripetal or center-blowing winds4 ,this rough estimate of the degree of involution is founded only on a bird's-eye view of the plotted observations4 ,but1 however estimated1 this involution seems to afford a measure of the air and vapor which finds its way to a higher elevation by means of the vortical movement in the body of the storm4 ,if the elevation of the air at the borders of the storm1 and depression in the middle1 resulted from the outward tendency and lateral movement of the revolving air1 and from the centrifugal force1 as in the experiment with the water in a cylindrical vessel1 as stated in the first paragraph quoted1 an involution of from #e deg4 to #aj deg4 from the action of a centripetal force1 must carry the air inward1 and the barometer should stand highest in the middle of the storm4 ,the change is fatal to his theory4 ,the two are diametrically opposite in character and effect4 ,in one1 the superior strata would be brought down in the center by the lateral pressure outward2 in the other1 they would be elevated by the involution1 which affords a measure of the air and vapor which finds its way to a higher elevation1 etc4 ,it is perfectly obvious ,mr4 ,redfield has refuted his own hypothesis4 ,in doing this1 he is met by the other difficulty alluded to1 which he does not attempt to explain4 ,this gathering of the air inward1 spirally1 by a centripetal force1 if it took place1 not only would not depress1 but must elevate the barometer in the center1 above that of the adjoining atmosphere4 ,when he first attributed the depression of the barometer to a lateral movement and centrifugal force1 he supposed the superior strata descended into the depression1 and their frigidity occasioned the condensation1 and cloud1 and rain4 ,how he now proposes to account for the formation of cloud and rain during storms1 while the warm air of the inferior stratum finds its way to a higher elevation in the center of the storm1 he does not inform us1 and we must wait his time4 ,i have1 he says1 long held the proper inquiry to be1 what are storms8 and not1 how are storms produced8 as has been well expressed by another4 ,it is only when the former of these inquiries has been solved that we can enter advantageously upon the latter4 ,the former does not seem to be yet solved1 or the solution of the latter commenced4 ,mr4 ,redfield tells us 7page #bei1 and onward71 that there is an extended stratum of stratus-cloud1 which overlies the storm1 and that it does not differ greatly from one mile in height4 ,we are not told how the air1 which finds its way to a higher elevation during several days continuance of such a storm1 gets through the stratum4 ,if he is right it must do so1 and it would not answer to suppose a very small opening or gentle current through it1 to carry off all the air which works inward in a hurricane1 during several days continuance4 ,but he does not seem to recognize either the necessity or existence of any vent at all2 nor is there any2 and this fact is open to the observation of every school-boy in the country2 and it is equally open to his observation that when and where the barometer is most depressed1 the stratus storm-cloud is nearest the earth4 ,colonel ,reid has much to say about the storm's eye1 or treacherous center of a storm4 ,a careful analysis of the instances where the storm's eye is noticed will show that the term is applied1 in the northern hemisphere1 to that lighting up in the ,w4 or ,n4 ,w41 which is the commencement of the clearing-off process1 and attended with a shift of wind to the fair-weather quarter3 i4 e41 to ,w4 or ,n4 ,w4 ,just such an eye as is seen when the last of the storm cloud has passed so far to the east as to admit the rays of the sun under the western or north-western edge of it4 ,the same kind of storm's eye is described in the southern hemisphere1 except that the wind shifts to ,s4 ,w4 instead of ,n4 ,w41 that being the clearing-off wind there4 ,no instance of a storm's eye in the center of the extended stratum of stratus-cloud1 which overlies the storm1 can be found recorded1 to my knowledge2 and it is obvious that ,colonel ,reid adopts the view of ,mr4 ,redfield1 that the westerly and ,n4 ,w4 fair weather winds are a part of the storm4 ,so long as these gentlemen hold to that opinion they will never solve the question1 what are storms8 or reach the other1 how are storms produced8 ,notwithstanding1 ,mr4 ,redfield asserts1 or adopts the assertion1 that the inquiry should be1 ,what are storms8 not ,how are storms produced8 that inquiry should be a rational one1 and should not violate all analogy1 or call for an explanation which science can not rationally furnish4 ,mr4 ,redfield does not seem to have formed any just conception of the immeasurable power of a hurricane1 five hundred miles in diameter2 or of the nature of that rod which the ,almighty must insert in it1 to whirl it with such violent and long-continued force2 nor any just conception of the tendency of the whirling mass1 in the absence of his cylindrical vessel1 to fly off1 tangentially1 into the surrounding air2 or of the nature or power of the centripetal force necessary to hold the gyratory mass in its current1 and gather it in involute spirals toward a center4 ,nor has any other man who has witnessed1 or read of mountain-tossed waves2 of the largest ships blown down and engulfed2 of towns submerged1 and vessels carried far inland1 and left in cultivated fields1 by the subsidence of the sea2 of sturdy forests and strongly-built edifices prostrated2 or listened to the howling of the tempest1 and felt his own house rock beneath him1 been able to conceive of any known form of calorific or mechanical1 or other power1 acting from a comparatively small center1 which could hold such an immense irresistable mass of whirling air in a circle1 and gather it in toward the center in gradually contracting spirals4 ,i confess that1 to my mind1 it seems little less than a mockery of our intelligence for ,mr4 ,redfield1 or ,professor ,dove1 or any other man1 how distinguished soever he may be1 to tell us that all this is the result of a tendency to left-wise rotation of ordinary winds1 coming into each other1 or over-sliding1 or meeting1 or encountering1 on this front1 or that1 down in ,central ,america1 or in the ,west ,indies1 or the monsoon region2 or to talk of lateral overflows from mere gravity2 of the ascent of warm air1 or the descent of cold strata2 of the resistance of adjacent passive air1 or other mere atmospheric resistances in connection with such awful manifestations of power4 ,their explanations of these phenomena are not rational1 nor can they be believed by any rational man1 who will bestow upon them half an hour of comprehensive1 unbiased reflection4 ,waiving many minor points of great force1 for this notice of ,mr4 ,redfield's theory is already too much extended for my limits1 ,i am constrained to take issue with him on the fact1 and to assert1 unhesitatingly1 that in a majority of instances no such barometric curve exists4 ,doubtless the depression beneath the storm is found1 and exterior lateral elevations may also be had by extending the line into the usual fair weather elevation on each side1 as ,mr4 ,redfield is obliged to do1 to get his supposed circle of winds at all4 ,doubtless1 too1 the seamen sailing out of a storm1 on either side1 and approaching fair weather1 will have a rising barometer4 ,but from front to rear1 on the line of progression1 in tropical storms1 the curve does not exist on shore1 in this latitude1 oftener than in two1 or possibly three1 cases in ten2 and then only upon a single state of facts--that is1 when there is an interposition of ,n4 ,w4 wind2 and this1 at some seasons1 rarely occurs4 ,an elevation usually occurs before the storm1 on its front1 if it present an extensive easterly front1 as one of these classes does1 and a depression is left after it has passed off1 unless a considerable body of ,n4 ,w4 wind interposes1 as heretofore stated4 ,but when there is not such interposition of ,n4 ,w4 wind 7for ,w41 ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 or even ,n4 ,w4 by ,w4 will not suffice71 there is not an immediate rise of the barometer corresponding in rapidity and extent with the fall1 and frequently none during the first twenty-four hours of bright1 fair weather4 ,let the reader1 if he has access to a barometer1 note this fact1 for it is obvious and conclusive4 ,finally1 there are other atmospheric conditions to which the barometric changes are obviously due3 #ast4 ,the counter-trade is of a different volume1 at different times1 over the same locality1 and hence a difference in the normal elevations of the barometer4 #b;d4 ,it is at a different elevation1 at different times1 over the same locality4 ,it was so found by the investigations of the ,kew ,observatory ,committee referred to2 has been so found by other aeronauts1 and may readily be seen by a careful1 practiced observer4 ,it is highest1 with a high barometer1 in serene weather1 when a storm is not at hand2 and can sometimes be plainly seen to ascend when a considerable volume of ,n4 ,w4 wind is blowing in beneath1 and elevating1 simultaneously1 the trade and the barometer4 ,opportunities occur every year1 when the northern edge of the dissolving stratus-cloud is attenuated1 and the storm is clearing off in the ,n4 ,w41 with wind from that quarter1 and a rising barometer1 when its gradual elevation may be observed to correspond with the volume of that wind4 #c;d4 ,during storms1 with a low barometer1 the trade and the clouds run low4 ,this1 too1 is clearly observable1 especially when the stratus-cloud passes off abruptly1 very soon after the rain ceases4 ,in such cases the barometer will remain depressed for a considerable time1 unless another storm supervenes speedily1 or the wind sets in from the ,n4 ,w4 #dth4 ,the trade1 in a stormy state1 moves faster than when in a normal condition4 ,this is observable during the partial breaks which frequently occur in storms1 and at other times4 ,it is also inferable from the more rapid progress of the more intense center1 and other intense portions of storms1 and the consequent greater depression of the barometer1 under such centers or intense portions4 7,see the storm of ,professor ,loomis47 ,it is obvious1 also1 from the greater rapidity of progress attending the more intense and violent storms which all investigations discloses4 ,these simple facts explain all the phenomena3 #ast4 ,the trade stratum is a continuous unbroken sheet1 and its descent must displace a portion of the surface atmosphere4 ,a portion of it is impelled forward1 aiding in the precedent elevation of the barometer1 and a portion is attracted backward1 into the space from which a like portion had been previously attracted by the passing storm cloud1 forming the easterly wind4 #b;d4 ,the increased progress of the stormy portion of the counter-trade occasions an accumulation in front of the storm1 and an elevation of the barometer1 and tends also to increase the depression under the spot from which it moves4 ,the latter is1 to some extent1 counteracted by the thin sheets of surface wind which are drawn in under the stratus from the sides4 ,that which is drawn from the front in successive portions1 fills the space from which like portions had been drawn to the westward1 and left behind in a passive state by the passing storm4 ,thus1 the surface atmosphere of ,new ,england may pass under the entire width of a storm1 as a gale2 moving now in puffs with great violence1 as it passes beneath irregular and intense portions of the cloud1 and now moderately2 and be left1 in a passive state1 in ,kentucky1 occupying the space from which the atmosphere had been previously drawn by the same storm1 in like manner1 on to northern ,texas4 #c;d4 ,the nearer the stratus-cloud to the earth1 the greater the displacement of surface atmosphere1 the lower the barometer1 and1 ordinarily1 the more violent the wind4 ,first1 because the same intensity1 which1 by attraction1 brings the trade near the earth1 acts with greater force upon the surface atmosphere2 and1 secondly1 the storm winds1 which are often most rapid beneath the clouds and above the earth1 are likely to be felt with more violence at its surface1 where the stratus cloud runs low1 especially at sea4 ,i desire to commend all these facts1 in relation to the theory of ,mr4 ,redfield1 to the careful attention and observation of those who1 although believers in the theory1 are not wedded to it2 and who have a sincere desire to understand the phenomena which are continually1 and thus far1 mysteriously1 occurring within two or three miles of us1 while our knowledge of the distant worlds around us--the science of astronomy--seems almost perfect4 ,i will return to a further and a careful consideration of the nature of the reciprocal action between the earth and the counter-trade1 and the facts bearing upon the question1 in another chapter4 ,it is obvious that received theories can not aid us materially in the inquiry4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,we are yet ignorant of the true nature of magnetism4 ,we trace its lines1 as in the diagrams1 upon and around the magnet2 but we can only do this with soft iron1 or other substance1 in which magnetic action may be induced4 ,we know that these lines are currents1 or lines of force1 for that force produces sensible effects1 and we measure it by the movements of the needle4 ,we know that these lines may be deflected by other magnetic bodies1 and concentrated upon them4 ,we know that the earth1 and the smallest magnets1 exhibit properties in common4 ,the poles of the magnet are some distance from its extreme ends--so are those of the earth4 ,the intensity increases1 from the center1 or near it1 to the poles of the magnet1 as shown by its attraction2 and the same increase of magnetic intensity1 from the magnetic equator to the magnetic poles1 or near them1 is traced upon the earth4 ,we know that there are two lines1 or rather areas1 of greater intensity upon the globe4 ,one extending from the ,american magnetic pole1 south-eastwardly1 to a corresponding pole in the southern hemisphere2 and another1 the ,asiatic1 extending from the ,siberian pole to a corresponding southern one1 in like manner4 ,we know that1 from those lines or areas1 the intensity1 east and west1 on the same parallel of latitude1 decreases each way1 to about midway between them4 ,thus1 calling the intensity where ,humboldt found the magnetic equator over ,south ,america1 in #g deg4 #a' south latitude1 #a1 or unity--the least intensity known is1 4#gjf1 found at the magnetic equator1 over the ,south ,atlantic1 and at its most southern depression2 and it increases to #a4d in the ,west ,indies1 and to #b4jjii upon one or more points of the ,north ,american continent1 south of the magnetic pole1 and about the meridian of #ib deg44 ,that it is #a4hje1 at ,warren1 ,ohio1 in latitude #da deg4 #af'1 and longitude #gb deg4 #eg'1 and decreases to #a4ggd at ,new ,haven1 ,connecticut1 in latitude #da deg4 #ah'4 ,that it is but #a4cdh at ,paris1 nearly one third less than on the same latitude in some portions of this continent4 ,that the line of equal intensity1 or iso-dynamic line1 of #a-h_/aj1 is a closed curve of an oval shape1 extending somewhat below #dj deg41 in the longitude of ,cincinnati1 and reaches off nearly to ,bhering's ,straits1 on the west2 rising in a similar manner1 though not so abruptly1 on the east2 including the great northern lakes and a considerable part of ,hudson's ,bay4 ,while the iso-dynamic lines of #a-he_/ajj1 and #a-hge_/ajjj1 are smaller ovals1 included within the former4 ,such1 at least1 is the present belief from such investigations as have been made4 7,see an article by ,professor ,loomis1 ,american ,journal of ,science1 new series1 vol4 iv4 p4 #aib47 ,our subject demands a still closer examination of the elements of magnetism and its associated electricities1 and their influence upon climate and the atmosphere with a view to the solution of the questions in hand1 and we will pursue the inquiry in the present chapter4 ,waiving1 for the present1 any further notice of the fact that the counter-trades are concentrated over1 and contiguous to1 this area of intensity1 for the purpose of examining the magnetic phenomena independently1 and intending to return to a consideration of their connection with it1 we observe3--,that it is now well settled that the iso-geothermal lines1 or lines of equal terrestrial heat1 are coincident1 or nearly so1 with the lines of equal magnetic intensity4 ,the points where the magnetic intensity is at a minimum1 on the magnetic meridian1 are the warmest points of that meridian1 and those where it is most intense1 the coldest4 ,the magnetic elements of a place may be computed from its thermal ones4 ,the laws producing or governing the distribution of one1 have an intimate physical relation with those producing or governing the other4 ,professor ,norton ably sums up a discussion of the subject 7in the ,american ,journal of ,science for ,september1 #ahdg71 omitting the theoretic propositions1 as follows3 #a4 ,all the magnetic elements of any place on the earth may be deduced from the thermal elements of the same2 and all the great features of the distribution of the earth's magnetism may be theoretically derived from certain prominent features in the distribution of its heat4 #b4 ,of the magnetic elements1 the horizontal intensity is nearly proportional to the mean temperature1 as measured by ,fahrenheit's thermometer2 the vertical intensity is nearly proportional to the difference between the mean temperatures1 at two points situated at equal distances north and south of the place1 in a direction perpendicular to the iso-geothermal line2 and1 in general1 the direction of the needle is nearly at right angles to the iso-geothermal line1 while the precise course of the inflected line to which it is perpendicular may be deduced from ,brewster's formula for the temperature1 by differentiating and putting the differential equal to zero4 #c4 ,as a consequence1 the laws of the terrestrial distribution of the physical principles of magnetism and heat must be the same1 or nearly the same2 and these principles themselves must have1 toward one another1 the most intimate physical relations4 ,the magnetic elements1 of which ,professor ,norton speaks1 are the declination1 dip1 and horizontal and vertical forces or intensities4 ,i have said1 that toward the areas of greatest magnetic intensity1 the needle every where declines4 ,so as intensity increases1 from the magnetic equator toward the poles1 the needle1 when so suspended as to permit of the motion1 dips1 inclines downward1 and the dip is greatest1 on the same parallel1 where intensity is greatest4 ,to my mind1 the magnetic elements are very intelligible4 ,they are all attributable to attraction1 and attraction is greatest where intensity is greatest4 ,there is nothing in the earth or atmosphere to make the needle point northerly rather than in any other direction1 except magnetic intensity4 ,thus1 the greater intensity of magnetism near the northern and southern points of the globe1 attracts the corresponding ends of the needle in those directions4 ,and1 as magnetism increases in quantity or intensity1 and the poles are approached1 the attraction increases1 and the needle dips more and more1 till the focus of intensity and attraction is reached1 and then it becomes perpendicular4 ,so magnetism is unequally diffused1 meridionally1 in or over the earth1 and there are two equidistant areas where its quantity or intensity is greatest4 ,these exert a lateral attraction upon the needle2 it yields to this attraction1 and hence its declination4 ,if it is carried on to one area of intensity1 and to the center of it1 it will point to the northern focus of intensity or magnetic pole2 and1 if carried a trifle further west1 it will yield to an eastern attraction1 and point directly north4 ,if carried still further west1 its declination east will increase4 ,thus its normal direction is to the pole1 on the central focus of intensity1 and when it points directly north it is west of the central line of intensity4 ,and thus1 it seems to me1 all the magnetic elements may be resolved into the one element of attraction by excess of intensity or activity4 ,this impression is strengthened by the fact that the needle moves to the east in the morning1 when the solar rays increase magnetic activity in that direction1 and west again1 as their influence increases there4 ,now1 these elements--the declination and horizontal and vertical forces--all these periodical1 regular1 and irregular variations of magnetic activity1 are intimately connected with the variations of atmospheric condition3 ,first1 ,they show an increase of activity during certain hours of the day1 corresponding to1 and obviously connected with1 the diurnal atmospheric changes4 ,second1 ,they show an increase of activity during the northern transit of the atmospheric machinery--an annual variation4 ,third1 ,they show an increase in that activity during the latter portion of each decennial period1 conforming to the occurrence of solar spots4 ,and1 fourth1 ,irregular variations of activity1 corresponding with the irregular changes of atmospheric condition4 ,we will examine these results1 and in doing so1 take those of the element of declination--one answering for all4 ,the magnetic needle moves to the west in summer1 from about #h ,a4,m4 till about #b ,p4,m41 and the extent of its progress1 during that period1 constitutes the magnitude of its daily variation4 ,it is found that this variation differs in different months1 and that it is normally greatest in the summer months1 and least in the winter1 in the ratio of about two to one4 ,it is further found1 that in different years the maximum activity occurs in different months1 and that the years differ also1 and there is a distinctly marked decennial period1 corresponding most remarkably with the decennial maxima of recurring solar spots1 as observed by ,schwabe4 ,dr4 ,lamont1 of ,munich1 gives us the following table of magnitude of declination there1 for the ten years preceding #ahea1 which clearly exhibits this fact1 and also the greater intensity during the northern transit of the atmospheric machinery4 ,he says3 ,the magnitude of the variations of declination have a period of ten years4 ,for five years there is a uniform increase1 and during the following five years a uniform decrease in the variations4 ,with us the magnetic declination is a minimum at about eight o'clock in the morning1 and is greatest at two o'clock in the afternoon4 ,subtracting the declination at eight o'clock from that at two o'clock1 we obtain the magnitude of the diurnal motion4 ,from the hourly observations1 conducted in this observatory since the month of ,august1 #ahdj1 we ascertain the following to be the magnitude of the diurnal motion for each month separately4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,jan4 ,feb4 ,march4 ,april4 ,may4 ,june4 ,july4 ,aug4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #ahda #c4gb #e4ac #h4dc #aa4di #aa4dg #aa4di #aj4jg #i4hf #ahdb #c4fe #d4gd #h4cd #aj4cc #i4ca #i4gh #h4ch #i4jc #ahdc #c4hb #d4jh #f4hg #i4ga #i4bd #aj4ad #i4eg #aj4jh #ahdd #b4ha #c4dc #f4ie #i4ec #h4db #h4hh #h4ch #i4bh #ahde #b4bj #d4fi #h4bf #aa4ic #aj4hh #aj4gc #i4dd #aj4db #ahdf #c4cj #f4id #i4ec #ab4bg #ab4eh #aa4ba #aa4cg #aa4di #ahdg #c4cj #f4ce #i4he #ab4dc #aa4ha #aa4gf #aj4id #ab4hg #ahdh #f4eb #i4ja #aa4if #ad4ef #ad4bb #ac4hj #ad4fg #ae4dj #ahdi #g4bg #h4db #ad4jh #af4hf #ac4fg #ac4hf #ab4eg #aa4ed #ahej #e4ih #h4hd #ab4ae #ad4cb #ad4je #ac4ci #ab4ec #ab4fh ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 ,autmn ,spring ,year4 ,wint4 ,sum4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ #h4gh #f4hb #c4ga #b4hi #e4ab #aj4ec #g4hb #g4gb #g4je #c4hf #b4ha #e4jg #i4ji #g4jc #h4ha #f4hb #c4hb #b4gi #d4gj #i4ei #g4ae #h4bc #f4ed #c4id #b4ih #d4dd #h4gi #f4fa #h4hb #g4cd #d4di #h4cd #e4hi #aj4hg #h4ac #aj4ci #g4hb #e4ff #c4bb #f4jh #aa4be #h4ha #ab4jf #aa4ec #g4jf #d4gj #g4fc #aa4ih #i4ee #ad4jj #aj4cj #e4gh #c4ec #g4he #ad4dd #aa4je #aj4gi #i4ab #e4da #d4ji #h4jf #ac4ba #aj4fd #ab4fd #i4jd #f4bj #c4de #g4fa #ac4bg #aj4dd ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,the ,philadelphia and ,toronto observations disclose the same state of facts4 ,dr4 ,lamont1 also1 in his article1 gives us the following table of the magnitude of the variations derived from observations at ,gottingen3 -------------------- ,year4,mean of ,year4 -------------------- #ahce #i4eg #ahcf #ab4cd #ahcg #ab4bg #ahch #ab4gi #ahci #aa4jc #ahdj #i4ia #ahda #h4gj -------------------- ,a comparison of these tables1 and particularly the latter1 with ,schwabe's table of spots1 is interesting4 ,there is obviously a greater mean variation when the spots are most numerous4 ,comparing the two with the tables of ,hildreth1 in relation to the temperature1 from #ahcj to #ahdj1 there is1 to say the least1 a most remarkable coincidence4 ,and there are others equally remarkable4 ,there are also irregularities of action disclosed by all1 in different months of the different years1 and of the same year1 which are obviously connected with the difference of the seasons2 and there are constantly occurring irregularities and disturbances which correspond with the1 as constantly occurring1 irregular atmospheric phenomena4 ,a wide field is here opened for investigation and research4 ,i have not time or opportunity to pursue it4 ,enough appears1 so far as ,i have examined1 to confirm the belief that magnetism is actively concerned in the production of the varied changes1 as well as the normal conditions of the weather4 ,in what manner does it act8 ,an answer to this requires an extension of the inquiry4 ,the lines of magnetic force are every instant passing upward from the earth1 around and through us4 ,their connection with heat is unquestionable4 ,they are intimately associated1 also1 with another equally obvious and intensely active agent--electricity4 ,we speak of this as an independent1 imponderable1 elementary body1 but how little we yet know of it4 ,it is every where1 in every thing1 easily excited into action1 and then traceable to a certain1 but limited extent4 ,it is set in motion1 and becomes obvious to us1 by the chemical action of the acids and metals of a galvanic apparatus4 ,we separate it from the atmosphere by friction and excitation1 upon non-conductors1 as in the electric machine2 by the cleavage of crystals and other exciting operations4 ,we obtain it from magnets1 by the magneto-electric machine1 and from the lines of magnetic force which are ever passing into the atmosphere from the earth1 by intersecting them with a movable iron wire1 properly insulated4 ,from the current of magnetism which has passed through us from the earth1 electricity may thus be separated and collected over our heads4 ,we set it in motion1 and obtain it by heating different metals in connection1 or the same metal unequally2 and from certain animals--like the torpedo and the gymnotus--whose organization is such as to enable them to evolve it4 ,in all these cases1 and they constitute an epitome of the principal methods by which we obtain it in a distinct form1 it is made to flow in currents4 ,when thus obtained1 and imprisoned in non-conductors1 it may be discharged1 and with somewhat different effect1 as it is discharged in a mass1 disruptively1 as it is called1 as from the clouds in lightning1 or permitted to flow convectively1 in currents1 along the wires of a galvanic apparatus1 or in heated air1 as from the earth to a cloud in the tornado4 ,it is1 moreover1 capable of division into positive and negative1 and when concentrated or disturbed in one body1 it tends to create a similar disturbance or division in a contiguous mass4 ,to this action of electricity1 the term static induction is applied4 ,thus1 a positively electrified body induces a division of the electricity in a contiguous body1 if both are insulated or surrounded by a non-conducting medium2 the negative electricity of the contiguous body being attracted by1 and tending to pass to1 the positive of the adjoining body1 and the positive being repelled to the opposite side4 ,that1 in its turn1 if sufficiently powerful1 tends to disturb the electricity of its neighbor1 and attract away its negative electricity2 or1 if the body which contains it is free to move1 to attract that4 ,thus1 by the conflicting action of a positive atmosphere1 and a negative earth1 and perhaps counter-trade1 influenced by magnetism and the solar rays1 the currents and winds of the atmosphere are produced1 the atmosphere moving with exceeding ease and rapidity4 ,electricity1 excited into currents1 or obtained and discharged in either of the methods enumerated1 is identical in character1 and produces certain well-known effects3 #ast4 ,physiological4--,shocking and convulsing the animal system2 producing a peculiar sensation on the tongue1 and a flash before the eyes1 and in sufficient quantity destroying life4 #b;d4 ,magnetic4--,deflecting the needle1 and1 by a suitable arrangement of wire into helices1 conferring magnetic power1 or constituting magnets4 #c;d4 ,luminous4--,producing light--by a spark1 as it does in natural phenomena--by the glow1 the brush discharge1 the ball of flame1 the flash1 or the chain of lightning1 and probably the aurora4 #dth4 ,evolving heat4--,melting metallic substances by concentration1 with a great intensity of heat--as the wire of the galvanic apparatus1 and as is sometimes seen in the effects of lightning in fusing metals on persons stricken2 and setting combustibles on fire4 #eth4 ,attraction and repulsion4--,attraction1 when the currents flow parallel with each other1 or are of opposite natures1 and repelling when of like character4 #fth4 ,induction4--,inducing attendant circular or other secondary currents1 such as may be seen in the atmosphere during its most violent displays of active energy4 #gth4 ,capable of being dissipated by heated air1 or carried off by moisture1 although isolated by dry air1 of ordinary temperature1 which is a bad conductor4 ,now1 although magnetism can not be collected1 imprisoned1 or discharged1 like electricity1 or collected at all1 but by its adherence to some substance capable of magnetization1 it is obvious there is an intimate association1 at least1 between it and electricity4 ,they are never found alone4 ,all electricity will magnetize4 ,all magnetism will evolve electricity4 ,all currents of electricity have encircling currents of magnetism1 and all deflect the magnetic needle4 ,all magnetic currents give out to intersecting wires1 currents of electricity1 and all magnets induce them4 ,electricity1 therefore1 whether identical in substance with magnetism1 but differing in form1 or whether merely associated with it1 as is variously believed1 should be present with magnetism in greater quantity or intensity where magnetism is most intense1 and active1 and whenever present1 should be active and influential4 ,and so we find1 from observation1 the fact to be4 ,no inconsiderable effort has been made by the advocates of the caloric and mechanical theories1 to ignore the agency of electricity and of magnetism1 in the production of the varied meteorological phenomena4 ,but it will not do4 ,the phenomena1 grouped and analyzed1 disclose a potential-controlling1 magneto-electric agency1 and meteorology will advance rapidly to perfection1 as a simple1 intelligible1 and practical science1 as soon as that agency is admitted4 ,electricity is always perceptibly present in storms and showers within the tropics4 ,most of the rain1 from the tropical belt1 falls from thunder showers4 ,so hurricanes and typhoons1 and all tropical storms1 are confessedly1 and in proportion to their intensity1 highly electric4 ,this excess of quantity or activity of electricity1 exists in connection with the movable atmospheric machinery4 ,when it moves up north in summer1 and arrives at its highest point of northern transit1 storms are very uncommon1 and the tropical forms of cloud and showers1 with thunder and lightning1 prevail4 ,this is most obvious1 if not most influential1 where the magnetic intensity is greatest4 ,violent showers1 and gusts1 and tornadoes1 are more frequent in this country than in ,europe2 and over the area of greatest intensity1 as in ,ohio1 than at a distance on the extreme eastern or western coast4 ,and the same is true over the intense magnetic area of ,asia4 ,electricity1 too1 like magnetism1 has its diurnal1 and doubtless its annual and decennial variations1 and also its irregular ones1 and they are most obviously and intimately connected4 ,magnetism and electricity together1 constitute the aurora4 ,its culmination is in the magnetic meridian--it affects the telegraph wires--is connected with the irregular disturbances which affect the magnetic needle1 and does not exist in the limits of the trades1 although occasionally seen from thence1 when it passes south1 and near them4 ,the aurora sometimes extends south in waves1 as do the magneto-electric1 atmospheric1 periodical changes of cold and heat1 and storm1 and sunshine4 ,the aurora is connected with the formation of cloud1 and with a smoky atmosphere1 similar to that with which we are familiar in summer and autumn4 ,thus ,humboldt 7,cosmos1 vol4 i4 pp4 #aia1 #aib74 ,this connection of the polar light with the most delicate cirrus clouds1 deserves special attention1 because it shows that the electro-magnetic evolution of light is a part of a meteorological process4 ,terrestrial magnetism here manifests its influence on the atmosphere1 and on the condensation of aqueous vapor4 ,the fleecy clouds seen in ,iceland1 by ,thienemann1 and which he considered to be the northern light1 have been seen in recent times by ,franklin and ,richardson1 near the ,american north pole1 and by ,admiral ,wrangel on the ,siberian coast of the ,polar ,sea4 ,all remarked 'that the aurora flashed forth in the most vivid beams when masses of cirrus-strata were hovering in the upper regions of the air1 and when these were so thin that their presence could only be recognized by the formation of a halo round the moon4' ,these clouds sometimes range themselves1 even by day1 in a similar manner to the beams of the aurora1 and then disturb the course of the magnetic needle in the same manner as the latter4 ,on the morning after every distinct nocturnal aurora1 the same superimposed strata of clouds have still been observed that had previously been luminous4 ,the apparently converging polar zones 7streaks of clouds in the direction of the magnetic meridian71 which constantly occupied my attention during my journeys on the elevated plateaux of ,mexico1 and in northern ,asia1 belong1 probably1 to the same group of diurnal phenomena4 ,mr4 ,william ,stevenson gives us 7in the ,london1 ,edinburgh1 and ,dublin ,philosophical ,magazine for ,july1 #ahec7 an interesting article on the connection between aurora and clouds4 ,his observations on this most important branch of the subject trace a connection between the aurora and the formation of cloud1 and open up1 as he says1 a most interesting field for observation which promises to lead to very important results4 ,such observations point with great significance1 to the primary influence of the magneto-electricity of the earth4 ,to the difference in the magnetic intensity of the eastern portion of this continent1 compared with ,europe and our western coast1 very much of the difference of climate1 so far as temperature is involved1 may be attributed4 ,we have seen in what manner the iso-thermal lines surround these areas of intensity4 ,so the most excessive climate--that is1 the climate where the greatest extremes alternate1 other things being equal1 is upon or near the line or area of greatest magnetic intensity4 ,i say other things being equal1 because large bodies of water modify climates by equalizing the seasons--making the summers cooler and the winters warmer than the mean of the parallel4 ,thus1 our great interior lakes modify the climate in relation to temperature in their vicinity4 ,their summers are cooler and their winters warmer2 but westward of them the same line of equal summer temperature1 or iso-thermal line1 rises with considerable abruptness1 and the winter1 or iso-cheimal line of equal temperature1 falls in a similar manner4 ,thus1 the range of the thermometer1 from the highest elevation to the lowest depression1 for the year1 is very great1 while in the tropics the range is comparatively small4 ,from observations made at the military posts of the ,united ,states1 ,dr4 ,forrey deduced summer and winter lines of equal temperature1 starting from the vicinity of ,boston and running west1 which showed most remarkably the rise of the summer lines as intensity increased1 and the fall of the winter lines in like manner4 ,the influence of the lakes was also most obvious4 ,the elevation of the earth increases1 going west1 to about #gjj feet at the surface of the lakes1 and to nearly #d1jjj feet at the eastern base of the ,rocky ,mountains2 and1 although temperature does not decrease to as great a degree when the elevation above the level of the sea is gradual1 yet some allowance should doubtless be made for that elevation on this line4 ,when that allowance is made1 the ascent of the summer line1 to the north1 over the area of greatest intensity1 is strikingly apparent4 ,dr4 ,forrey also instituted a comparison between ,fort ,snelling1 where the climate is as excessive1 and the range of the thermometer as great1 as in any portion of the continent in the same latitude1 with ,key ,west1 and ,i copy his diagram4 ,it is very instructive1 showing the gradual mean rise of the temperature1 from ,january to ,december1 inclusive1 while the cross lines show the extremes of each month4 ,perhaps the most interesting part of it1 is the illustration of the monthly extremes1 and the contrast between them1 in the excessive climate of ,fort ,snelling1 and the tropical one of ,key ,west4 ,each is a type of the climate in which it is situated4 ,the annual range and monthly extremes are small in tropical countries1 and large in extra-tropical ones4 ,the extreme range1 or greatest elevation of heat1 contrary to what is generally supposed1 is greater at ,fort ,snelling than at ,key ,west4 ,but the climate of the latter is modified by the adjoining ocean4 ,i copy1 also1 a table 7p4 #cjd71 showing the range of the thermometer for the year1 and the maxima and minima1 during each month1 at several other places in this country1 and at ,london and ,rome1 for the purpose of showing the extent of the ranges compared with those places2 and also1 that these great changes in each month occur very uniformly all over the country1 and may always be expected1 and with considerable regularity4 ,they are incident to our climate4 ,i wish ,i could engrave the foregoing diagram1 and the following table1 upon the mind of every man1 woman1 and child in the country2 and under it1 in ever-visible letters1 these words of precaution3 ,,conform ,,to ,,the ,,peculiarities ,,of ,,your ,,climate1 ,,and ,,clothe ,,yourselves1 ,,at ,,all ,,times1 ,,in ,,accordance ,,with ,,the ,,alternations ,,of ,,the ,,weather4 ,if heeded1 they would save thousands1 every year1 from premature death4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,the effect of this difference of magnetic intensity upon the climate of ,europe is marked4 ,there1 the excessive summer heat1 which our greater magnetic intensity and larger volume of counter trade give us1 is unknown4 ,hence1 while we can grow ,indian corn 7which requires the excessive summer heat7 over all the ,eastern ,states1 up to #de deg41 and in some localities east of the lakes to #dg deg4 #cj'1 and to #ej deg4 west of them1 to the base of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and notwithstanding the increase of elevation1 they can not grow it except over a limited area1 and with limited success4 ,nor can they1 or the inhabitants of any other country except ,china1 grow profitably the kind of cotton which is so successfully grown in the ,southern ,states of the ,union4 ,nor can ,china do so to a considerable extent1 because of the mountainous character of the surface4 ,to a level and remarkably watered country1 greater magnetic and electric intensity1 and a greater volume of counter-trade1 we are1 and ever shall remain1 indebted1 for an almost exclusive monopoly in the growth of two of the most important staple productions of the earth4 ,on the other hand1 although the same magnetic intensity1 and its winter excess of positive electricity and cold1 make our winters extreme1 there are but few of the productions of temperate latitudes which we can not grow successfully1 and they are comparatively unimportant4 ,a ,fort ,vancouver1 ,oregon ,territory ,b ,fort ,brady1 outlet of ,lake ,sup4 ,c ,hancock ,barracks1 ,houlton1 ,me4 ,d ,fort ,armstrong1 ,rock ,island1 ,ill4 ,e ,west ,point1 ,new ,york ,f ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,g ,jefferson ,barracks1 near ,st4 ,louis ,h ,fort ,king1 interior of ,east ,florid4 ,i ,environs of ,london ,k ,rome1 ,italy ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,h ,i ,j ,k ,lat4 #de deg4 #df deg4 #df deg4 #da deg4 #da deg4 #ch deg4 #ch deg4 #bi deg4 #ea deg4 #da deg4 #cg' #ci' #aj' #bh' #bb' #ec' #bh' #ab' #ca' #ed' ,annual ,range4 #gh #aaj #aah #ajf #ia #hd #hi #gh #fg #fb ,jan4 ,min4 #ag -#ba -#bd -#aj -#a #ad #aj #cc #af #bi ,max4 #eh #dj #da #dh #ec #eg #fj #hc #di #eh ,feb4 ,min4 #cb -#bb -#aa -#f #b #af #aa #dc #ai #cc ,max4 #ee #dd #db #ef #ef #fb #gj #hd #ed #fj ,mar4 ,min4 #cb -#g -#a #ac #af #bh #ca #ci #bd #cg ,max4 #fj #ea #ed #gj #gb #gj #gf #hg #fj #fe ,apr4 ,min4 #cb #ah #bd #cc #dj #cf #ch #ed #bf #dd ,max4 #gj #fb #gd #gh #fb #gc #hc #ic #fi #gd ,may4 ,min4 #cb #cb #ha #dd #dg #ej #de #fd #cc #eb ,max4 #ge #gi #hc #hd #gb #he #hh #ig #gh #hj ,june4 ,min4 #de #da #ch #eg #eg #ei #ei #gc #ci #fj ,max4 #ie #hf #ij #hi #gi #ib #ie #aje #hj #hh ,july4 ,min4 #dj #ci #de #fb #fd #fd #ej #gc #da #fd ,max4 #ie #hd #ij #ie #hf #id #if #ajb #hc #ia ,aug4 ,min4 #dd #di #df #fj #fb #fc #ff #gb #db #fb ,max4 #ie #hd #he #ia #hg #ic #if #ajd #gi #ia ,sept4 ,min4 #dc #dj #cc #ea #ef #ea #ea #gj #cd #ee ,max4 #hh #ge #gh #hg #hc #hh #hh #ii #ge #he ,oct4 ,min4 #ej #bg #bd #hb #db #cc #ch #da #cj #df ,max4 #ff #gj #gb #gc #fi #gg #hj #ia #fh #gg ,nov4 ,min4 #cb #ae #d #bf #cf #bh #bg #cj #bb #ci ,max4 #eh #eh #fj #fd #fc #ff #fi #hb #ef #fg ,dec4 ,min4 #cb -#g -#d #ae #bj #ag #ad #cf #bj #ca ,max4 #ee #db #ec #fb #ef #fa #fd #gi #ec #fj ,this excess of magnetic intensity and electricity not only gives a peculiar character to our vegetation1 but also to our race1 our animals1 and every thing4 ,he who supposes that the restless activity and energy of the people of the ,united ,states is the result of habit1 or education1 or any fortuitous circumstances alone1 is mistaken4 ,let him watch the contrast in his own feelings during those occasional languid1 damp1 and sultry1 although not thermometrically1 hot days--which so much resemble the summer weather of ,england--with those days of bright1 bracing1 ,n4 ,w4 and ,s4 ,w4 air1 so much more frequent here1 and he will appreciate the difference4 ,that term bracing1 so much in use1 will express the effect of this peculiar weather4 ,it girds up the loins1 both of body and mind4 ,men and animals can work with more ease1 even in our peculiar extremes of heat1 than they can in ,england1 and fatten with less4 ,a similar difference in degree is found between our climate and that of the ,pacific portion of our country4 ,something is due to the difference in the volume and moisture of the counter-trades1 and something to the contiguity of the ,pacific ,ocean2 but to the difference in magneto-electric intensity1 the contrast is mainly due4 ,corn and cotton will be grown1 to some extent1 in the valleys west of the meridian of #aje deg41 but never as successfully as east of it4 ,the aurora is periodical1 like all the other atmospheric phenomena1 but its periodicity is not accurately ascertained4 ,it is believed to have occurred much oftener during the second quarter of this century1 than during the first4 ,it is known1 however1 to occur most frequently in the spring and fall2 and during those periods when the active and rapid transit of the atmospheric machinery produces the greatest degree of magnetic disturbance4 ,this identifies it with terrestrial magnetism4 ,dalton gives us the following table of observations1 arranged according to the months when they were seen4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,mar4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 7#a7 #ah #ah #bf #cb #ba #e #b #ba #bc #cf #ch #i 7#b7 #ba #ah #bc #ac #c #b #a #c #ce #bb #bb #ba 7#c7 #ba #bg #bb #ab #a #e #g #i #cd #ej #bf #ae 7#d7 #e #f #d #h #aj #g #f #ad #ad #ag #e #f 7#a7 contains those observed by him at ,kendall2 7#b7 are taken from another list2 7#c7 is ,,marian',s list of those observed before #agcb2 and 7#d71 those seen in the ,state of ,new ,york in #ahbh and #ahcj4 ,mr4 ,stevenson's table of those observed by him at ,dunse1 from #ahch to #ahdg1 inclusive1 is as follows3 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,mar4 ,apr4 ,may4 ,june4 ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 #cb #bj #ah #ah #c #j #b #ad #dc #cd #cj #bc ,observations in this country correspond substantially with the foregoing4 ,they are1 however1 seen here in the summer months more frequently than in ,europe4 ,see an article by ,mr4 ,herrick 7,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 #cc4 p4 #big74 ,in this1 also1 they conform to our greater magnetic intensity and more excessive climate4 ,the auroras appear to follow the polar belts of condensation and precipitation4 ,dalton considers them indications of fair weather4 ,they are often most brilliant just after a storm has passed1 but their continuance is no indication that another will not follow within the usual period4 ,the condensation with which the aurora is connected1 is not1 in my judgment1 often in the counter-trade1 or below it1 but above1 where feeble condensation has been seen by aeronauts when invisible at the surface of the earth4 ,neither the height of this condensation1 not that of the aurora1 have been satisfactorily ascertained4 ,the aurora of ,april #gth1 #ahdg1 was a favorable one for observation4 ,it was carefully and attentively watched by ,professor ,olmsted1 ,mr4 ,herrick1 ,dr4 ,ellsworth1 and others1 and they are intelligent and skillful observers4#i ,but the nature of the aurora forbids reliance on parallax1 or measurements founded on the time when1 any portion of the bow or arch rises in range of a particular star4 ,the bow or arch moves southwardly1 but the same rays or currents do not4 ,the wave of magnetic activity moves south1 and each successive current1 as it is reached by the impulse1 becomes luminous4 ,hence the observers1 when distant1 do not see1 at the same time1 or at different times1 the same rays4 ,the phenomenon is unquestionably magneto-electric4 ,electricity becomes luminous in a vacuum1 and ,de la ,rive1 by combining the electric currents with those of magnetism1 produced all the peculiarities of the aurora4 ,the magnetic currents1 passing from the earth1 have associated electric ones in connection1 and these1 in the upper attenuated atmosphere1 become luminous4 ,whether1 as ,de ,la ,rive supposes1 by combining with the positive electricity existing there1 or because the associated electric currents are then in excess1 not being intercepted by atmospheric vapor and returned to the earth in rain1 we can not know1 nor is it very important we should4 ,having thus taken a general view of the nature of magnetism and its associated electricities1 and their connection with the general and obvious peculiarities of climate1 let us approach more nearly the varied atmospheric phenomena1 resulting from variations of pressure1 temperature1 condensation1 and wind1 and give them a closer consideration4 ,they all have regularity and periodicity--they all occur in degree1 and in connection with magnetism and electricity1 during the twenty-four hours of every serene and normal summer's day4 ,grouped together1 in comparison with the changes in the activity and force of the magnetic elements1 their connection is clearly discernible4 ,the day may be said1 with truth1 to commence1 in some portion of the summer1 at #d ,a4,m4 ,the atmospheric does at all seasons4 ,at that hour the barometer is at its morning minimum4 ,it has1 as we have said1 a perceptible diurnal variation of two maxima and two minima4 ,its periods of depression are at #d ,a4,m41 and #d ,p4,m41 and of elevation at #aj ,a4,m41 and #aj ,p4,m4 ,the difference between the elevation and depression is considerable within the tropics1 where ,humboldt tells us the hour of the day can be known by the height of the barometer1 and it decreases toward the poles4 ,at #d ,a4,m4 it is then at one of its minima1 and rises till #aj o'clock4 ,at1 or about the same period1 and sometimes when the barometer is falling1 and previous thereto1 there is a tendency to fog in localities subject to that condensation4 ,this tendency is sometimes observed at the other barometric minimum1 late in the afternoon or early in the evening1 but less frequently4 ,the tendency to fog condensation is greatest in this country about the morning minimum4 ,it seems to be owing to the influence of the earth2 it is confined to the surface atmosphere1 and is apparently produced by the inductive agency of the negative electricity of the earth4 ,it disappears1 whether it be high or low fog1 about the time when the barometer attains its morning maximum1 or about #aj ,a4,m4 ,at about that period1 when there has been fog1 or earlier1 when there has not1 and sometimes as early as #h ,a4,m41 there is a tendency to trade condensation--cirrus in mid-winter1 and a cumulus in mid-summer1 and1 during the intermediate time1 a tendency to cirro-stratus1 partaking more or less of the character of one or the other1 according to the season4 ,temperature1 in summer1 commences its diurnal elevation about #d ,a4,m41 also1 and rises till about #b ,p4,m4 ,from that time it falls with very little variation till #d o'clock the next morning4 ,it has but one maximum and one minimum in the twenty-four hours4 ,as the morning barometric maximum approaches1 and the heat increases the magnetic activity1 condensation in the trade appears1 or induced condensation in the upper portion of the surface atmosphere1 that portion near the earth is affected and attracted--and the wind rises1 according to the locality1 the season1 and the activity of the condensation4 ,the tendency to blow increases with the tendency to trade and cumulus condensation1 and continues till toward night1 when it gradually dies away1 unless there be a storm approaching4 ,as the heat increases1 and stimulates magnetism into activity1 the magnetic needle commences moving to the west1 its regular diurnal variation1 and continues to do so until about #b ,p4,m41 when it commences returning to the east1 and so continues to return until #aj ,p4,m41 when it moves west again until #b ,a4,m41 and from thence to the east1 till #h ,a4,m4 ,similar variations also take place in the horizontal force1 as evinced by the action of the magnetometer needle1 and in the vertical force1 as shown by the oscillations4 ,so that it is evident that there are two maxima1 and two minima of magnetic activity every day1 shown by all the methods by which we measure magnetic action and force--more than double at the acme of northern summer transit over that of winter1 and proceeding pari passu1 with the other daily phenomena--evincing the same irregular action which the other phenomena evince4 ,still another phenomenon1 which has a daily change1 is electric tension1 or the increase or decrease in the tension of the positive or true atmospheric electricity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,the following table shows the mean two hourly tensions for three years1 at ,kew1 viz43 ,hours #ab ,p4,m4 #b ,a4,m4 #d ,a4,m4 #f ,a4,m4 #h ,a4,m4 #aj ,a4,m4 ,number of observations #fee #ghd #hjd #eff #a1jdg #a1jac ,tension #bb4f #bj4a #bj4e #cd4b #fh4b #hh4a ,hours #ab ,a4,m4 #b ,p4,m4 #d ,p4,m4 #f ,p4,m4 #h ,p4,m4 #aj ,p4,m4 ,number of observations #hdh #heh #hgh #hgd #hgh #a1jjg ,tension #ge4d #ga4e #fi4a #hd4h #ajb4d #ajd ,from this it will be seen that the tension of electricity is at a minimum at #d ,a4,m41 also1 that it rises till #aj1 falls till #d ,p4,m41 but not as rapidly1 rises till #aj1 falls again till #d ,a4,m41 or the close of the meteorological day--having two maxima and minima1 as have most of the phenomena thus far considered4 ,in order to see what the connections between these ever-present1 daily phenomena are1 and their connection with other phenomena1 and that we may understand their normal conditions1 ,i will trace them approximately in a diagram 7figure #ag47 ,the foregoing diagram of the daily phenomena of a summer's day1 when no disturbing causes are in operation1 no storm existing within influential distance1 and no unusual intensity or irregular action of any of the forces present1 affords a basis for considering the various phenomena of the weather in all its changes and conditions4 ,it is obvious that the other phenomena do not all depend upon temperature merely1 if indeed any of them do4 ,temperature has but one maximum and minimum1 and that is exceedingly regular1 and does not correspond with any other4 ,the barometer has two2 electric tension1 two2 magnetic activity1 two2 condensation1 two--one the formation of cloud1 and the other the formation of fog and dew2 wind1 one--resembling temperature in that respect1 but embracing a much less period4 ,fog forms at one barometric minimum1 and cloud at another4 ,fog forms at one period of the magnetic variation1 cloud at another4 ,the formation of cloud corresponds with the greatest intensity of magnetic action1 and its associate electricities4 ,but the oscillations of the barometer do not correspond with either4 ,and thus1 then1 we connect them3 ,,cause4 ,,effect4 ,,effect4 ,increase of magnetic,decrease of pressure4 ,increase of primary or magneto-electric condensation4 activity1 as shown ,of positive electric by declination and tension4 ,of wind4 increase of horizontal and ,of surface condensation1,of electrical disturbance vertical force4 i4 e41 fog and dew4 and phenomena in the trade and its vicinity4 ,this connection is equally obvious if the order is reversed--thus2 ,,cause4 ,,effect4 ,,effect4 ,decrease of magnetic,increase of pressure4 ,disappearance of primary or magneto-electric condensation4 activity4 ,of tension of atmospheric electricity4,of wind1 and ,of surface condensation1,of electric disturbance i4 e41 fog and dew4 in the trade and its vicinity4 ,if we examine still more particularly the different phenomena1 we shall find the same relative action of the forces carried into all the atmospheric conditions1 however violent4 #a4 ,the barometer falls when horizontal magnetic force1 and a tendency to cloud and wind1 increase2 and rises when they decrease4 ,this corresponds with the character of the irregular barometric oscillation4 ,barometric depressions accompany clouds and winds1 and are in proportion to them1 and are all greatest where magnetic force is greatest4 ,the barometer also rises as the magnetic energy decreases4 ,do the magnetic currents1 passing upward with increased force1 lift1 elevate the atmosphere8 ,how1 then1 are we to explain the increased range of the oscillations1 as the center of atmospheric machinery is reached1 where magnetism has least intensity1 and the perpendicular currents are less1 and attraction is less8 ,attraction is greatest where intensity is greatest1 and there the barometer stands highest1 and the diurnal range is least4 ,is it then the attraction of magnetism which produces the barometric oscillations8 ,if so1 how then can we explain the diurnal fall while magnetism is most active8 ,perhaps we have not yet arrived at such a knowledge of the nature of magnetism as is necessary to a correct answer of those questions4 ,faraday has taught us that the lines of magnetic force are close curves1 passing into the atmosphere1 and over to the opposite hemisphere1 and returning through the earth1 out on the opposite side in like manner1 and back again1 passing twice through the earth and twice through the atmosphere4 ,all we know of this is what the iron filings indicate1 and we do not know how much reliance to place upon the indications they give4 ,but if ,faraday is right1 the sun will1 twice each day1 intersect and stimulate into increased activity the same closed magnetic curve--once when it is coming out of the earth1 during our day1 when its influence will be the most active1 and once when it is returning on the opposite side of the earth2 and a second1 but feebler magnetic and electric maximum1 may be occasioned by its action on the opposite and returning closed curve of the same current4 ,however this may be1 it is exceedingly difficult to conceive1 of any adequate influence exerted by the tension of vapor4 ,so the mid-day barometric minimum may be caused by the attraction of the earth1 in a state of increased magnetic activity and intensity1 upon the counter-trade1 and its consequent approach or settling toward the earth4 ,observation1 as ,i have already said1 pointedly indicates such a state of things4 ,so the increased magnetic activity1 with or by its associate electricity1 acts upon the electricity of the counter-trade1 condensation takes place1 the electricity is disturbed in the surface-atmosphere1 by induction1 and its tension is changed4 ,opposite electrical conditions are induced in the surface strata1 and attraction takes place4 ,the air moves easily1 and thus the attractions originate the winds4 ,secondary currents are induced1 as in all other cases of electric activity1 and winds1 in different strata and directions1 occur1 with or without cumulus1 or scud condensation1 according to their activity1 and the proportion of moisture of evaporation they may contain4 ,i am well aware that the various received theories of meteorology attribute condensation to the action of cold1 mingling of colder strata1 etc4 ,but ,i think that view will have to be abandoned4 ,it assumes that moisture is evaporated and held in the atmosphere by latent heat1 which is given out during condensation1 and actually warms the surrounding atmosphere4 ,thus1 the ,kew ,committee undertook to explain the development of greater heat1 at the elevation where they1 in fact1 found the counter-trade4 ,but how unphilosophical to suppose a portion of the air or vapor contained in it1 can give out to another adjoining portion more heat than is necessary to produce an equilibrium4 ,this can1 indeed1 be done by experiment--but the experiment is made with currents of electricity4 ,how unphilosophical1 too1 to talk of latent heat in connection with evaporation1 at the lowest temperature known4 ,meteorologists must revise their opinions on the subject of condensation4 ,this latent heat has never been actually met with2 on the contrary1 the most sudden and complete condensations of the vapor of the atmosphere are attended by as sudden and extraordinary productions of cold1 and consequent hail1 and the connection between condensation and electricity is shown by too many facts to permit the old theory to stand4 ,fog never forms with the thermometer below #cb deg44 ,it is mainly a summer condensation1 especially high fog4 ,it has been attributed to the cooling effect of an atmosphere colder than the earth1 but it often occurs when the earth is the coldest1 and when the vapor1 as it rises1 is colder than the air1 and could not give out heat to a warmer medium4 7,see ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xliv4 p4 #dj47 ,again1 it is not mere condensation1 but a formation of globules or vesicles1 hollow1 and the air expanded in them1 by means of which they float like a soap bubble which contains the warm air of the breath4 ,is not every vesicle a model shower1 positively electrified on the outside1 negatively in the center1 or the reverse1 according to the strata1 with the air expanded in the middle by the excess of heat which negative electricity detains8 ,look at them1 as they attach themselves to the slender nap of the cloth you wear1 when passing through them1 and see how many of them it would require to form a large drop of rain4 ,the clouds are of a similar vesicular character1 and rain does not fall till the vesicles unite to form drops4 ,sudden and extreme cold is indeed produced in the hail-storm1 when1 above1 below1 and around it1 the temperature is unaffected4 ,testu1 ,wise1 and other aeronauts1 have so found it1 and the hail tells us it is so4 ,but it is idle to say it results from radiation4 ,all the phenomena of the sudden1 violent hail-storms are electric in an extraordinary degree4 ,the electricity is disturbed and separated--the associated heat continues with the negative1 and leaves the positive portion of the cloud1 and a corresponding reduction of temperature results4 ,so ,masson found in his eudiometrical analytical experiments the negative wire would heat to fusion1 while the positive was cold4 7,see ,london1 ,edinburgh1 and ,dublin ,journal of ,science for ,december1 #ahec47 ,this disturbed electricity is diffused over the vesicles4 ,listen to the thousand crackling sounds which initiate the clap of thunder1 and may be heard when the lightning strikes near you2 produced by the gathering of the lightning from as many points of the cloud where it was diffused1 to unite in one current and produce the clap or peal--and to the pouring of the rain1 which follows the union of the vesicles1 after the excess of repelling electricity is discharged4 ,no change of temperature is observed when fogs form1 except the ordinary change between night and day2 and it seems perfectly obvious1 in looking at all the phenomena1 that fogs form at a temperature of #gj deg4 or #ge deg41 in consequence of the electric influence of the earth upon the adjoining surface-atmosphere2 and1 when formed1 they withstand the most intense action of a summer sun1 till the time of day arrives for the barometric and electric tension to fall1 condensation to take place in the counter-trade above1 and wind to be induced4 ,who that has noticed the almost blistering force of the solar rays1 as they break through a section of high fog1 about #aj ,a4,m41 can forget them4 ,fogs form near the earth1 during the night1 when the atmosphere above is loaded with moisture many degrees colder1 and yet remains free from condensation4 ,on the other hand1 during the heat of the day1 and of the hottest days1 the heavy rains condense above--nay1 they frequently fall at a temperature of #ge deg4 to #hj deg41 in the tropics1 and of #ej deg4 to #ee deg4 in mid-winter here4 ,thus far1 an adherence to the opinion that condensation was simply a cooling process2 the driving out of its latent heat1 not merely to another body to make an equilibrium1 but getting rid of it by positive active radiation1 or in some other way1 so as to cool off and condense1 has involved the formation and classification of clouds in obscurity4 ,hopkins 7,atmospheric ,changes1 p4 #cca7 laments this1 but fettered by a false and imperfect theory1 in relation to the tension of vapor1 he falls into a similar error4 ,now1 there are1 as we have seen1 peculiar1 distinctly-marked varieties of cloud1 connected with peculiar and distinctly-marked conditions of the atmosphere1 irrespective of temperature4 ,none of the theories advanced1 account1 or profess to account for the differences in either4 ,no modification of the calorific theory will account for them4 ,they differ in shape1 in color1 in tendency to precipitation1 in line of progress1 and in electrical character4 ,the explanation of this is found in the fact1 that they form in distinct and different strata1 partake of the positive electric character of the one1 or the negative of the other2 or are secondary1 induced by the action of a primary condensation in a different stratum4 ,there is not any mingling of the different strata1 as has been supposed2 and many other facts than those to which we have alluded1 show that the formation of cloud is a magneto-electric process4 ,the observations of ,reid show that every violent shower cloud has the electricities disturbed1 and portions of it are positive1 and others negative4 ,howard gives us the following resume of ,reid's observations3 ,from an attentive examination of ,reid's observations ,i have been able to deduce the following general results3 #a4 ,the positive electricity1 common to fair weather1 often yields to a negative state before rain4 #b4 ,in general1 the rain that first falls1 after a depression of the barometer1 is ,,negative4 #c4 ,above forty cases of rain1 in one hundred1 give negative electricity2 although the state of the atmosphere is positive1 before and afterward4 #d4 ,positive rain1 in a positive atmosphere1 occurs more rarely3 perhaps fifteen times in one hundred4 #e4 ,snow and hail1 unmixed with rain1 are positive1 almost without exception4 #f4 ,nearly forty cases of rain1 in one hundred1 affected the apparatus with both kinds of electricity2 sometimes with an interval1 in which no rain fell2 and so1 that a positive shower was succeeded by a negative2 and1 vice versa2 at others1 the two kinds alternately took place during the same shower2 and1 it should seem1 with a space of non-electric rain between them4 ,howard attributes1 with great apparent probability1 the successive differences in the electrical character of the rain1 to the passage of different portions of the cloud1 having different polarity1 over the place of observation4 ,so positive hail1 and negative rain fall in parallel bands from the same cloud4 ,many such instances are on record4 ,it should be remembered that he is describing the phenomena in the showery climate of ,england4 ,but the most decisive1 perhaps1 as well as practically important evidence of the influence of magnetism1 or magneto-electricity1 in meteorological phenomena1 is derived from the action of storms4 ,my observation has been limited1 for my life has been1 and must be1 a practical one4 ,but1 subject to future1 and ,i hope speedy corroboration1 or correction1 by extensive systematic observation1 ,i think ,i may venture to divide all storms into four kinds3 #a4 ,those which come to us from the tropics1 and constitute the class investigated by ,mr4 ,redfield4 ,that these are of a magneto-electric character is evident4 ,they originate near the line of magnetic intensity1 over1 or in the vicinity of1 the volcanic islands of the tropics2 are largely accompanied by electrical phenomena2 extend laterally as they progress north2 induce and create a change of temperature in advance of them1 and do not abate until they pass off over the ,atlantic to the ,e4 or ,n4 ,e41 and perhaps not until they reach the ,arctic circle4 ,their extensive and continued action is not owing to any mere mechanical agency of the adjoining passive air1 or other supposed currents1 originated1 no man can tell how1 but they concentrate upon themselves the local magnetic currents as they pass over and intersect them1 and1 by their inductive action upon the surface-atmosphere1 in different directions1 attract it under them1 and within their more active influence4 ,here the action of the magnetic currents is probably the primary cause1 but the power of the storm to concentrate upon itself the new magnetic currents which it intersects as it enters each new1 successive field1 enables them to maintain and extend their action4 ,the following diagram illustrates the course and gradual enlargement of a mid-autumn tropical storm1 which induces a ,s4 ,e4 wind in front1 and occasions a thaw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 #b4 ,another class originate at the ,n4 ,w41 and extend gradually south easterly on the magnetic meridian4 ,these are most frequent in summer1 forming belts of showers1 but occur1 ,i believe1 at all seasons of the year4 ,they seem to be produced by magnetic waves passing south1 and are followed in autumn and winter1 and sometimes in summer1 by the peculiar ,n4 ,w4 wind and scud1 and a term of cooler weather4 ,thus1 it is believed that many1 perhaps all of the alternating terms of heat and cold1 are dependent on magnetic waves passing over the country in a similar manner1 with a greater or less belt of condensation between them1 and depending on peculiar magnetic action traveling in the same way4 ,the ,s4 ,e4 extension of showers and storms1 and the cooler changes of temperature which immediately follow them2 with light ,n4 ,w4 wind in mid-summer1 and with it fresher at earlier and later periods1 in the form of northers blowing violently1 according to the season1 are intimately connected1 and indicate such waves4 ,the indication is strengthened also by the frequent progress of auroras in like manner1 occurring usually after the belt of condensation has passed1 and frequently following it4 ,the clouds and currents of the atmosphere1 so far as ,i have been able to discover1 show no permanent current from the pole to the atmospheric equator1 compensating for the counter-trade2 and that compensation is furnished by the periodical but frequent atmospheric waves1 connected with the periodical changes of storm1 and cloud1 and sunshine1 which gradually extend from north to south1 in or near the magnetic meridian4 ,perhaps such compensating currents are found west of the magnetic poles1 as we have suggested1 and make the ,n4 ,e4 and northerly dry winds of ,western ,europe and the ,pacific2 but1 in the present state of our knowledge1 it is impossible to say that they are4 ,if it be so1 the compensation they furnish must be small2 for the volume of counter-trade which is not depolarized before it reaches the ,arctic circle1 and which passes round the magnetic pole1 must be very small4 ,a majority of our periodical changes1 during the northern transit1 and ,i believe at all seasons1 are of this character2 and1 ,i have reason to believe1 from observation1 in one or two cases1 that where belts of rains and showers begin1 over any locality in the ,united ,states1 they may assume this character4 ,i have been in ,saratoga when an easterly storm commenced south of that place2 the condensation and mackerel sky being visible at the south1 and no cloud formation or rain occurring there at the time1 and have traced it afterward as a belt which had a lateral extension south-eastward4 ,leaving that place immediately after a belt had passed south1 ,i have overtaken it by railroad1 and run into it again before arriving at ,new ,york2 and witnessed its subsequent extension south-eastwardly1 out over the ,atlantic4 ,i have witnessed the approach of such a belt in the spring1 at ,sandusky1 upon ,lake ,erie1 and its passage over to the ,s4 ,e41 followed by the ,n4 ,w4 wind1 as ,mr4 ,bassnett describes them at ,ottawa1 and run under the attenuated edge of the same belt1 on the same day1 on the way to ,pittsburg1 leaving the ,n4 ,w4 wind behind1 but finding it present again with clear sky on the following morning4 ,i have seen hundreds of them approach from the north1 and pass to ,s4 ,e41 out over the ,atlantic2 followed by the ,n4 ,w4 wind in spring and autumn4 ,this class of storms pass off toward1 and doubtless over the track1 of our ,european steamers and packets4 ,i know this1 for ,i witness it nearly every month in the year4 ,it is not a matter of speculation1 but of actual1 long-continued observation4 ,probably1 as one approaches the ,gulf ,stream1 and when over it1 its induced winds may be more violent4 ,it is time our navigators understood this2 and that all the gales of the ,north ,atlantic1 certainly1 are not rotary2 and do not approach from the ,s4 ,w4 in the same manner as the class investigated by ,mr4 ,redfield do4 ,where a fresh southerly or south-westerly wind is followed by any considerable cirro-stratus or stratus-condensation1 it is usually of this character4 ,the following diagram exhibits the peculiarities of this class of storms4 ,it is intended to represent the same storm or belt of showers1 on two successive days1 and1 of course1 its usual rate of southerly extension3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,this class of storms1 or belts of showers1 present the following succession of phenomena in summer3 #a4 ,still warm weather1 one or more days4 #b4 ,fresh southerly wind1 one or more days2 if more than one1 dying away at the ,s4 ,w41 at night-fall1 but continuing into the evening of the day before the belt of condensation arrives4 #c4 ,belt of condensation1 with or without rain or showers1 with the easterly wind blowing axially1 if the condensation is heavy and the belt wide2 westerly if the condensation is feeble or the belt narrow--the clouds moving about ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 #d4 ,cooler air1 light ,n4 ,w4 in summer1 heavy ,n4 ,w4 in autumn1 winter1 and spring4 ,and1 the next period-- #e4 ,still warm weather or light airs4 #f4 ,southerly wind1 fresh4 #g4 ,belt of condensation4 #h4 ,cool northerly wind4 ,and so on1 successively1 unless broken in upon by some other class4 ,sometimes these periods are exceedingly regular1 at other times the other classes prevail4 ,i have much reason to believe that this is the normal1 periodic provision for condensation of our portion of the northern hemisphere1 and probably of every other where rain falls regularly in the summer season1 and that the other classes are exceptions1 as the hurricanes are exceptions to the normal condition of the weather every where4 ,perhaps in some seasons1 during the northern transit1 the exceptions may equal the rule1 but ,i do not now remember such a season4 ,in other years nearly all the storms are of this character4 ,thus1 ,dr4 ,hildreth 7in ,silliman's ,journal for #ahbg71 speaking of the year #ahbf1 in a note to his register of that year1 says3 ,there have been1 this year1 an unusual number of winds from ,n4 or ,n4 ,w4 ,nearly every rain the past summer has been followed with winds from the northward1 when1 in many previous summers1 the wind continued to the southward after rain4 ,the immediate occurrence of northerly wind after the passage of the belt of condensation1 is a peculiar feature of this class of storms4 ,as this also will be new1 and is of great practical interest1 ,i shall be pardoned for referring to other evidence4 ,bermuda is in latitude #cb deg4 north4 ,in the summer season they are within the range of the ,calms of ,cancer1 as ,lieutenant ,maury terms them1 and not subject to storms4 ,from ,november to ,may1 inclusive1 they have successions of revolving wind4 ,colonel ,reid gave them much attention1 and studied them barometrically3 that is1 he studied the changes of the wind during the successive periodic depressions4 ,he found them revolving like ours1 and hence inferred the truth of the gyratory theory in relation to all winds4 ,but it is perfectly evident the same polar belts which pass over us reach them during the southern transit4 ,the precedent southerly wind1 the central condensation1 the appearance of lightning1 and the rotation of the wind by both the east and west1 but most frequently by west1 are the same4 ,in his chapter on observations at the ,bermudas1 he gives us many examples4 ,probably the existence of the ,gulf ,stream to the west and north has a modifying influence upon them1 and their action becomes less intense in that latitude1 but they are very similar4 ,i copy a record of the weather1 for a month1 which may be found on pages #beb1 #bec1 and #bed1 and a portion of his remarks3 ,the month of ,december1 #ahci1 presents a continual succession of revolving winds passing over the ,bermudas1 with scarcely an irregularity1 as regards the fall and rise of the barometer accompanying the veering of the wind4 ,one1 however1 occurred on the #ajth and #aath4 ,the ,s4 ,w4 wind abated1 and changed to ,w4 ,n4 ,w41 with the barometer still falling4 ,but in the column of remarks it is noted that there was lightning seen in the ,n4 and ,n4 ,w41 from #g ,p4,m41 during the night4 ,this irregularity may1 therefore1 have been occasioned by a gale passing over the banks of ,newfoundland1 influencing the direction of the wind at ,bermuda4 ,,revolving ,,winds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,date4 ,hour4 ,direction of ,wind's ,weather4 ,bar4,ther4 ,wind4 ,force4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ahci4 ,nov4 #cj ,midnight4 ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 #a b4 c4 #cj4jf #fe ,dec4 #a ,noon4 ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #c b4 c4 #cj4jg #ga #b ,s4 ,w4 #e g4 m4 q4 #bi4hf #gj #c ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #c g4 c4 #bi4gf #d ,s4 ,w4 #f g4 m4 r4 #bi4fb #fh #e ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #e p4 q4 #bi4ef #f ,n4 ,w4 #f p4 q4 99#bi4ee #g ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #e b4 c4 #bi4gh #gj ,midnight4 ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #c b4 c4 #bi4hi #fh #h ,noon4 ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #b b4 c4 #bi4hb #ga #i ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #e p4 q4 #bi4hd #gj #aj ,s4 ,w4 #b b4 c4 #bi4if #aa ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #f b4 c4 m4 99#bi4hh #fh #ab ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 b4 v4 #bi4ii #fi #ac ,n4 ,n4 by ,w4 b4 v4 #cj4ja #ff #ad ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 #e b4 c4 v4 #cj4jf #fd ,midnight4 ,n4 ,w4 #b b4 c4 p4 #cj4je #fc #ae ,noon4 ,s4 ,w4 by ,s4 #f g4 m4 r4 #bi4gb #fe ,p4,m4 #b ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #g m4 q4 r4 #bi4ib #fd #d ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 g4 m4 q4 r4 #bi4ee #f ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 q4 w4 99#bi4ec #h ,n4 ,w4 #f b4 c4 q4 #bi4ed #aj ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 b4 c4 #bi4ee #af ,noon4 ,n4 ,w4 #g b4 c4 m4 #bi4ec #fb #ag ,n4 ,w4 by ,n4 p4 q4 #bi4fg #fj #ah ,n4 ,w4 #f c4 q4 #bi4hf #ai ,n4 ,w4 by ,n4 #g m4 q4 r4 99#bi4gc #ei #bj ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 p4 q4 c4 #bi4hi #eh #ba ,n4 ,w4 by ,n4 #f c4 q4 #bi4if #ef ,midnight4 ,s4 ,w4 #a b4 c4 #bi4ie #ee #bb ,dawn4 ---- #j ,noon4 ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 #e g4 m4 #bi4hc #ef ,p4,m4 #d ,s4 #g g4 m4 #bi4gi #f ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 g4 m4 r4 #bi4fa #h ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 w4 r4 #bi4eb #aj ,s4 ,e4 m4 w4 r4 #bi4dh #bc ,noon4 ,s4 ,w4 #f b4 c4 m4 99#bi4dd #eg #bd ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 b4 m4 #bi4ga #ei #be ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #e b4 c4 #bi4hh #ef #bf ,n4 #c c4 #cj4ji #fb #bg ,s4 ,e4 #e c4 q4 r4 #cj4jg #fa #bh ,s4 ,w4 #f c4 q4 #bi4hh #ff ,midnight4 ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 b4 c4 #bi4gf #fe #bi ,noon4 ,s4 ,w4 #g c4 b4 99#bi4dh #fd #cj ,w4 ,n4 ,w4 #f b4 c4 q4 #bi4hc #ee #ca ,n4 ,w4 #e b4 c4 #cj4ab #eh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,remark printed in the ,register4 ,the changes of the wind during the ,december gales have been nearly the same in all3 i4 e41 commencing with a southerly wind at first1 the wind has veered by the west1 toward the north-west1 sometimes ending as far round as ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 ,these extracts show the passage of several successive belts1 each with the phenomena in regular order4 ,the first commences with blue sky and detached clouds1 barometer up1 thermometer down to #fe deg41 and nearly calm1 on the #cjth of ,november4 ,dec4 #a 7at noon74 ,wind freshens from ,s4 ,s4 ,w42 thermometer rises2 barometer still up4 ,dec4 #b4 ,barometer has fallen2 thermometer up2 wind increasing from ,s4 ,w41 with gloomy1 squally appearance4 ,dec4 #c4 ,wind ,s4 ,s4 ,w42 barometer slowly falling2 thermometer slightly4 ,dec4 #d4 ,wind fresh2 ,s4 ,w42 condensation and rain has reached them1 and it carries barometer and thermometer down4 ,dec4 #e4 ,wind shifting by the west1 and squally4 ,dec4 #f4 ,winds gets ,n4 ,w42 blows fresh2 barometer at its minimum1 probably at the time of the change of wind1 although the register does not show the precise time4 ,dec4 #g4 ,wind ,n4 ,n4 ,w42 blue sky and detached clouds 7,n4 ,w4 scud71 cleared off2 barometer elevated by the ,n4 ,w4 wind1 from #bi4ee to #bi4gh4 ,midnight3 blue sky2 detached clouds 7,n4 ,w4 scud probably72 barometer up to #bi4hi2 thermometer fallen1 from the cooler character of the northerly wind4 ,dec4 #h4 ,wind having lulled as a northerly wind has got round to ,s4 ,w4 again2 thermometer up2 barometer falling1 and another belt approaching1 and so on4 ,the first and last part of ,december show each two regular occurrences of substantially the same phenomena4 ,the middle is somewhat more irregular4 ,there were five distinctly-marked periods1 and one squally1 long-continued period1 with a slight tendency to condensation1 and a slight fall of barometer and rain on the #aith 7,n4 ,w4 squall probably71 but not sufficient to reverse the wind to the south4 ,in ,colonel ,reid's opinion there were five revolving gales which passed over ,bermuda during the month4 ,in my opinion1 there were five perfect polar waves of condensation1 and one imperfect one1 with as many successive southerly winds preceding the condensation1 with or without rain in the center1 followed by as many cold ,n4 ,w4 or ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 winds1 with squalls1 in the rear1 about five days apart4 7,see the 99 in the barometric column47 ,we are at issue4 ,let the question be determined by actual observation1 and not by speculation4 ,it is of fundamental and exceeding importance to the science4 ,now1 let us take a month in summer1 from the observations of ,mr4 ,bassnett1 at ,ottawa4 ,here the climate differs somewhat from that east of the ,alleghanies2 the magnetic intensity is greater1 and the action more violent and irregular4 ,that part of the country1 it should be remembered1 has a greater fall of rain in summer1 for reasons we have stated1 and those periodic revolutions are more frequent4 ,a brief abstract from a journal of the weather for one sidereal period of the moon1 in #ahec4 ,june #bast4 ,fine clear morning 7,s4 fresh73 noon very warm #hh deg42 #d ,p4,m41 plumous cirri in south2 ends clear4 #bb;d4 ,hazy morning 7,s4 very fresh7 arch of cirrus in west2 #b ,p4,m41 black in ,w4 ,n4 ,w42 #c ,p4,m41 overcast and rainy2 #d ,p4,m41 a heavy gust from south2 #d4cj ,p4,m41 blowing furiously 7,s4 by ,w472 #e ,p4,m41 tremendous squall1 uprooting trees and scattering chimneys2 #f ,p4,m41 more moderate 7,w474 #bc;d4 ,clearing up 7,n4 ,w472 #h ,a4,m41 quite clear2 #aa ,a4,m41 bands of mottled cirri pointing ,n4 ,e4 and ,s4 ,w41 ends cold 7,w4 ,n4 ,w472 the cirri seem to rotate from left to right1 or with the sun4 #bdth4 ,fine clear1 cool day1 begins and ends 7,n4 ,w474 #beth4 ,clear morning 7,n4 ,w4 light72 #b ,p4,m4 7,e471 calm2 tufts of tangled cirri in north1 intermixed with radiating streaks1 all passing eastward2 ends clear4 #bfth4 ,hazy morning 7,s4 ,e471 cloudy2 noon1 a heavy1 windy-looking bank in north 7,s4 fresh71 with dense cirrus fringe above1 on its upper edge2 clear in ,s4 #bgth4 ,clear1 warm 7,w472 bank in north2 noon bank covered all the northern sky1 and fresh breeze2 #aj ,p4,m41 a few flashes to the northward4 #bhth4 ,uniform dense cirro-stratus 7,s4 fresh72 noon showers all round2 #b ,p4,m41 a heavy squall of wind1 with thunder and rain 7,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,w472 #h ,p4,m41 a line of heavy cumuli in south2 #h4cj ,p4,m41 a very bright and high cumulus in ,s4 ,w41 protruding through a layer of dark stratus2 #h4ej ,p4,m41 the cloud bearing ,e4 by ,s41 with three rays of electric light4 #bith4 ,a stationary stratus over all 7,s4 ,w4 light72 clear at night1 but distant lightning in ,s4 #cjth4 ,stratus clouds 7,n4 ,e4 almost calm72 #h ,a4,m41 raining gently2 #c ,p4,m41 stratus passing off to ,s42 #h ,p4,m41 clear1 pleasant4 ,july #ast4 ,fine and clear2 #h ,a4,m41 cirrus in sheets1 curls1 wisps1 and gauzy wreaths1 with patches beneath of darker shade1 all nearly motionless2 close and warm 7,n4 ,e472 a long1 low bank of haze in ,s41 with one large cumulus in ,s4 ,w41 but very distant4 #b;d4 ,at #e ,a4,m41 overcast generally1 with hazy clouds and fog of prismatic shades1 chiefly greenish-yellow2 #g ,a4,m4 7,s4 ,s4 ,e4 freshening71 thick in ,w42 #h ,a4,m4 7,s4 fresh71 much cirrus1 thick and gloomy2 #i ,a4,m41 a clap of thunder1 and clouds hurrying to ,n42 a reddish haze all around2 at noon the margin of a line of yellowish-red cumuli just visible above a gloomy-looking bank of haze in ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 7,s4 very fresh72 warm1 #hf deg42 more cumuli in ,n4 ,w42 the whole line of cumuli ,n4 are separated from the clouds south by a clearer space4 ,these clouds are borne rapidly past the zenith1 but never get into the clear space--they seem to melt or to be turned off ,n4 ,e4 ,the cumuli in ,n4 and ,n4 ,w41 slowly spreading ,e4 and ,s42 #c ,p4,m41 the bank hidden by small cumuli2 #d ,p4,m41 very thick in north1 magnificent cumuli visible sometimes through the breaks1 and beyond them a dark1 watery back-ground 7,s4 strong72 #d4cj ,p4,m41 wind round to ,n4 ,w4 in a severe squall2 #e ,p4,m41 heavy rain1 with thunder1 etc4--all this time there is a bright sky in the south visible through the rain #ae deg4 high2 #g ,p4,m41 clearing 7,s4 ,w4 mod474 #c;d4 ,very fine and clear 7,n4 ,w472 noon1 a line of large cumuli in ,n41 and dark lines of stratus below1 the cumuli moving eastward2 #f ,p4,m41 their altitude #b deg4 #dj'4 ,velocity1 #a deg4 per minute2 #i ,p4,m41 much lightning in the bank north4 #dth4 #f ,a4,m41 a line of small cumulo-stratus1 extending east and west1 with a clear horizon north and south #aj deg4 high4 ,this band seems to have been thrown off by the central yesterday1 as it moves slowly south1 preserving its parallelism1 although the clouds composing it move eastward4 ,fine and cool all day 7,n4 ,w4 mod47--lightning in ,n4 #eth4 ,cloudy 7,n4 almost calm71 thick in ,e41 clear in ,w42 same all day4 #fth4 ,fine and clear 7,e4 light72 small cumuli at noon2 clear night4 #gth4 ,warm 7,s4 ,e4 light72 cirrus bank ,n4 ,w42 noon 7,s47 thickening in ,n42 #f ,p4,m41 hazy but fine2 #h ,p4,m41 lightning in ,n42 #aj ,p4,m41 the lightning shows a heavy line of cumuli along the northern horizon2 calm and very dark1 and incessant lightning in ,n4 #hth4 ,last night after midnight commencing raining1 slowly and steadily1 but leaving a line of lighter sky south2 much lightning all night1 but little thunder4 #hth4 #f ,a4,m41 very low scud 7#ejj feet high7 driving south1 still calm below 7,n4 light72 #aj ,a4,m41 clearing a little2 a bank north1 with cirrus spreading south2 same all day2 #i ,p4,m41 wind freshening 7,n4 stormy72 heavy cumuli visible in ,s42 #aj4cj ,p4,m41 quite clear1 but a dense watery haze obscuring the stars2 #ab ,p4,m41 again overcast2 much lightning in ,s4 and ,n4 ,w4 #ith4 ,last night 7#b ,a4,m4 of #ith7 squall from ,n4 ,w4 very black2 #d ,a4,m41 still raining and blowing hard1 the sky a perfect blaze1 but very few flashes reach the ground2 #g ,a4,m41 raining hard2 #h ,a4,m4 7,n4 ,w4 strong72 a constant roll of thunder2 noon 7,n4 ,e472 #b ,p4,m4 7,n472 #d ,p4,m41 clearing2 #h ,p4,m41 a line of heavy cumuli in ,s41 but clear in ,n4 ,w41 ,n41 and ,n4 ,e4 #ajth4 #c ,a4,m41 ,overcast1 and much lightning in south 7,n4 mod472 #g ,a4,m41 clear except in south2 #f ,p4,m4 7,e472 #aj ,p4,m41 lightning south2 #aa ,p4,m41 auroral rays long1 but faint1 converging to a point between ,epsilon ,virginis and ,denebola1 in west2 low down in west1 thick with haze2 on the north the rays converged to a point still lower2 lightning still visible in south4 ,this is an aurora in the west4 #aath4 ,fine1 clear morning 7,n4 ,e472 same all day2 no lightning visible to-night1 but a bank of clouds low down in south1 #b deg4 high1 and streaks of dark stratus below the upper margin4 #abth4 ,fine and clear 7,n4 ,e472 noon1 a well-defined arch in ,s4 ,w41 rising slowly2 the bank yellowish1 with prismatic shades of greenish-yellow on its borders4 ,this is the ,o4 ,a4 ,at #f ,p4,m41 the bank spreading to the northward4 ,at #i ,p4,m41 thick bank of haze in north1 with bright auroral margin2 one heavy pyramid of light passed through ,cassiopeia1 traveling westward #a-a_/b deg4 per minute4 ,this moves to the other side of the pole1 but not more inclined toward it than is due to prospective1 if the shaft is very long2 #aa4aj ,p4,m41 saw a mass of light more diffuse due east1 reaching to ,markab1 then on the prime vertical4 ,it appears evident this is seen in profile1 as it inclines downward at an angle of #aj deg4 or #ab deg4 from the perpendicular4 ,it does not seem very distant4 #ab ,p4,m41 the aurora still bright1 but the brightest part is now west of the pole1 before it was east4 #acth4 #f ,a4,m41 clear1 east and north2 bank of cirrus in ,n4 ,w41 i4 e41 from ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 to ,w4 by ,s42 irregular branches of cirrus clouds1 reaching almost to south-eastern horizon2 wind changed 7,s4 ,e4 fresh72 #h ,a4,m41 the sky a perfect picture2 heavy regular shafts of dense cirrus radiating all around1 and diverging from a thick nucleus in north-west1 the spaces between being of clear1 blue sky4 ,the shafts are rotating from north to south1 the nucleus advancing eastward4 ,at noon 7same day71 getting thicker 7,s4 ,e4 very fresh72 #f ,p4,m41 moon on meridian1 a prismatic gloom in south1 and very thick stratus of all shades2 #i ,p4,m41 very gloomy2 wind stronger 7,s4 ,e472 #aj ,p4,m41 very black in south1 and overcast generally4 #adth4 ,last night1 above #ab ,p4,m41 commenced raining2 #c ,a4,m41 rained steadily2 #g ,a4,m41 same weather2 #h4bj ,a4,m41 a line of low storm-cloud1 or scud1 showing very sharp and white on the dark back-ground all along the southern sky4 ,this line continues until noon1 about #aj deg4 at the highest1 showing the northern boundary of the storm to the southward2 #h ,p4,m41 same bank visible1 although in rapid motion eastward2 same time clear overhead1 with cirrus fringe pointing north from the bank2 much lightning in south 7,w4 fresh72 so ends4 #aeth4 ,last night a black squall from ,n4 ,w4 passed south without rain2 at #c ,a4,m41 clear above but1 very black in south 7calm below all the time72 #i ,a4,m41 the bank in south again throwing off rays of cirri in a well-defined arch1 whose vortex is south2 these pass east1 but continue to form and preserve their linear direction to the north2 no lightning in south to-night4 #afth4 ,clear all day1 without a stain1 and calm4 #agth4 ,fine and clear 7,n4 ,e4 light72 #f ,p4,m41 calm4 #ahth4 ,fair and cloudy 7,n4 ,e4 light72 #f ,p4,m41 calm4 #aith4 ,fine and clear 7,n4 fresh72 ,i4 ,v4 visible in ,s4 ,w4 #bjth4 #h ,a4,m41 bank in ,n4 ,w41 with beautiful cirrus radiations2 #aj ,a4,m41 getting thick1 with dense plates of cream-colored cirrus visible through the breaks2 gloomy looking all day 7,n4 ,e4 light74 ,the letters in a parenthesis signify the direction of the wind4 ,during this month there were three distinctly marked periods of belts of showers1 preceded by fresh or strong south wind1 and followed by the ,n4 ,w4 ,there was a period when a belt of less intense stratus1 without much wind1 occurred 7#bhth1 #bith1 and #cjth of ,june74 ,this was followed by a distinct belt of showers and fresh ,s4 wind1 on the #b;d of ,july1 and by the ,n4 ,w4 wind and clear weather1 on the #c;d4 ,during the rest of ,july it was more irregular1 with the exception of the #gth1 #hth1 and #ith1 when another belt and revolution occurred4 ,now1 these periods1 when distinctly marked1 exhibit the same succession of phenomena--viz41 elevation of temperature1 fresh southerly wind1 belt of condensation1 cumulus or stratus with cirrus running east1 but extending south1 followed by ,n4 ,w4 wind1 and clear1 cold air4 ,can any one believe they were successive rotary gales8 ,i wish1 in this connection1 to make a suggestion to ,lieutenant ,maury and others4 ,the descriptions of ,m4 ,bassnett1 although not perfect1 are very intelligible4 ,he describes things as they were1 and as they should be described4 ,he distinguishes the clouds1 and the scud1 and other appearances4 ,but ,colonel ,reid's descriptions are unmeaning and unintelligible4 ,g4 ,m4--,gloomy1 misty6 ,gloomy from what8 fog1 or stratus1 or a stratum of scud1 or what8 ,we can not know4 ,again1 ,c4 ,the table tells us this stands for detached clouds4 ,but of what kind8 ,cumulus1 broken stratus1 patches of cirro-cumulus or cirro-stratus1 or scud8 ,all these1 and indeed every kind of cloud or fog formation1 except low fog1 may exist in detached portions4 ,these abbreviations will not answer2 they do not describe the weather4 ,the clouds must be studied and described4 ,there is no difficulty in doing it4 ,sailors will learn them very soon after their teachers have2 and those who teach them should see to it that the logs contain terms of description which convey the meaning which may1 and ought to be1 conveyed4 ,the use of these indefinite terms can not be continued without culpability4 ,again1 the observations of seamen off our coast are in accordance with the progress of this class of storms on land1 and prove that they continue ,s4 ,e4 over the ,atlantic1 abating in action as they approach the tropics4 ,there is abundant evidence of this in the work of ,colonel ,reid1 and the charts of ,lieutenant ,maury1 but ,i can not devote further space to them4 ,the third class form in the counter-trade1 over some portion of the country1 from excessive volume or action of the counter-trade1 or local magnetic activity1 without coming from the tropics or being connected with a regular polar wave of magnetic disturbance4 ,the following diagram exhibits their form1 progress1 and accompanying induced winds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,the gentle rains of spring1 particularly ,april1 and the moderate and frequent snow-storms of winter1 are often of this character2 and so are the heavy rains1 which commence at the morning barometric minimum1 rain heavily through the forenoon1 and light up near mid-day in the south1 followed by gentle1 warm1 ,s4 ,w4 winds4 ,this class are more frequent in some years than others--probably the early years of the decade1 while polar storms are1 during the later ones4 ,it is this class which have violent easterly winds in front1 and on the south side1 with two or more currents1 and which ,mr4 ,redfield has also supposed to be cyclones4 ,the fourth class are isolated showers1 occurring over particular localities1 or belts of drought and showers alternating2 sometimes a general disposition to cloudy and showery weather for a longer or shorter interval over the whole country2 at others1 limited to particular localities in the course of the trade4 ,such a period occurred during the wheat harvest of #ahee4 ,this class ,i attribute to a general increased magnetic action1 but it may be induced by an increased volume1 or greater south polar magnetic intensity of the counter-trade1 exciting and concentrating the regular currents of the field1 and increasing their activity and energy4 ,these also often work off south gradually1 and are followed by a cold ,n4 ,w4 air for a day or two2 showing a tendency1 in the excited magnetism1 to pass as a wave toward the tropics4 ,the following diagram will give some idea of this class3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,there are sometimes very obvious local tendencies to precipitation over portions adjoining an area affected with drought1 as there are other magnetic irregularities over particular areas4 ,all these classes of storms are variant in intensity4 ,sometimes the general or local cloud-formation is weak1 and does not produce precipitation at all2 so of that which extends southerly4 ,probably the tropical storm are always sufficiently dense and active to precipitate4 ,their action is often violent over particular localities1 and hence the more frequent occurrence of the tornado over the more intense area of ,ohio1 and other portions of the west4 ,all violent local storms are doubtless owing to local magneto-electric activity4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,the reader who has attentively perused and considered the facts stated1 and the principles deduced1 in the preceding pages1 and is ready to make a practical application of them by careful observation1 will have little difficulty in understanding the varied atmospheric conditions2 and will soon be able to form a correct judgment of the immediate future of the weather1 so far as his limited horizon will permit4 ,but there are other facts and considerations1 not specifically alluded to1 which will materially aid him in his observations2 and there is a degree of philosophical truth in the proverbs and signs1 which ancient popular observation accumulated1 and poetry and tradition have preserved1 that meteorologists have been slow to discover or admit1 but which will be obvious upon examination1 and commend them to his attention4 ,the classical reader is doubtless familiar with that part of the first ,georgic of ,virgil1 which contains a description of the signs indicative of atmospheric changes4 ,much of it is beautifully poetic1 and1 if read in the light of a correct philosophy1 is equally truthful4 ,i copy from a creditable translation1 found in the first volume of ,howard's ,climate of ,london3 ,all that the genial year successive brings1 ,showers1 and the reign of heat1 and freezing gales1 ,appointed signs foreshow2 the ,sire of all ,decreed what signs the southern blast should bring1 ,decreed the omens of the varying moon3 ,that hinds1 observant of the approaching storm1 ,might tend their herds more near the sheltering stall4 ,,prognostics4--#ast4 ,of ,wind4 ,when storms are brooding--in the leeward gulf ,dash the swell'd waves2 the mighty mountains pour ,a harsh1 dull murmur2 far along the beach ,rolls the deep rushing roar2 the whispering grove ,betrays the gathering elemental strife4 ,scarce will the billows spare the curved keel2 ,for swift from open sea the cormorants sweep1 ,with clamorous croak2 the ocean-dwelling coot ,sports on the sand2 the hern her marshy haunts ,deserting1 soars the lofty clouds above2 ,and oft1 when gales impend1 the gliding star ,nightly descends athwart the spangled gloom1 ,and leaves its fire-wake glowing white behind4 ,light chaff and leaflets flitting fill the air1 ,and sportive feathers circle on the lake4 #b;d4 ,of ,rain4 ,but when grim ,boreas thunders2 when the ,east ,and black-winged ,west1 roll out the sonorous peal1 ,the teeming dikes o'erflow the wide champaign1 ,and seamen furl their dripping sails4 ,the shower1 ,forsooth1 ne'er took the traveler unawares6 ,the soaring cranes descried it in the vale1 ,and shunn'd its coming2 heifers gazed aloft1 ,with nostrils wide1 drinking the fragrant gale2 ,skimm'd the sagacious swallow round the lake1 ,and croaking frogs renew'd their old complaint4 ,oft1 too1 the ant1 from secret chambers1 bears ,her eggs--a cherished treasure--o'er the sand1 ,along the narrow track her steps have worn4 ,high vaults the thirsty bow2 in wide array ,the clamorous rooks from every pasture rise ,with serried wings4 ,the varied sea-fowl tribes1 ,and those that in ,caeyster's meadows seek1 ,amid the marshy pools1 their skulking prey1 ,fling the cool plenteous shower upon their wings1 ,crouch to the coming wave1 sail on its crest1 ,and idly wash their purity of plume4 ,the audacious crow1 with loud voice1 hails the rain ,a lonesome wanderer on the thirsty sand4 ,maidens that nightly toil the tangled fleece1 ,divine the coming tempest2 in the lamp ,crackles the oil2 the gathering wick grows dim4 #c;d4 ,of ,fair ,weather4 ,nor less1 by sure prognostics1 mayest thou learn 7,when rain prevails71 in prospect to behold ,warm suns1 and cloudless heavens1 around thee smile4 ,brightly the stars shine forth2 ,cynthia no more ,glimmers obnoxious to her brother's rays2 ,nor fleecy clouds float lightly through the sky4 ,the chosen birds of ,thetis1 halcyons1 now ,spread not their pinions on the sun-bright shore2 ,nor swine the bands unloose1 and toss the straw4 ,the clouds1 descending1 settle on the plain2 ,while owls forget to chant their evening song1 ,but watch the sunset from the topmost ridge4 ,the merlin swims the liquid sky1 sublime1 ,while for the purple lock the lark atones3 ,where she1 with light wing1 cleaves the yielding air1 ,her shrieking fell pursuer follows fierce-- ,the dreaded merlin2 where the merlin soars1 ,her fugitive swift pinion cleaves the air4 ,and now1 from throat compressed1 the rook emits1 ,treble or fourfold1 his clear1 piercing cry2 ,while oft amid their high and leafy roosts1 ,bursts the responsive note from all the clan1 ,thrill'd with unwonted rapture--oh6 'tis sweet1 ,when bright'ning hours allow1 to seek again ,their tiny offspring1 and their dulcet homes4 ,yet deem ,i not1 that heaven on them bestows ,foresight1 or mind above their lowly fate2 ,but rather when the changeful climate veers1 ,obsequious to the humor of the sky2 ,when the damp ,south condenses what was rare1 ,the dense relaxing--or the stringent ,north ,rolls back the genial showers1 and rules in turn1 ,the varying impulse fluctuates in their breast3 ,hence the full concert in the sprightly mead-- ,the bounding flock--the rook's exulting cry4 #dth4 ,the ,moon's ,aspects1 etc4 ,mark with attentive eye1 the rapid sun-- ,the varying moon that rolls its monthly round2 ,so shalt thou count1 not vainly1 on the morn2 ,so the bland aspect of the tranquil night ,will ne'er beguile thee with insidious calm4 ,when ,luna first her scatter'd fires recalls1 ,if with blunt horns she holds the dusky air1 ,seamen and swains predict th' abundant shower4 ,if rosy blushes tinge her maiden cheek1 ,wind will arise3 the golden ,phoebe still ,glows with the wind4 ,if 7mark the ominous hour67 ,the clear fourth night her lucid disk define1 ,that day1 and all that thence successive spring1 ,e'en to the finished month1 are calm and dry2 ,and grateful mariners redeem their vows ,to ,glaucus1 ,inoeus1 or the ,nereid nymph4 #eth4 ,the ,sun's ,aspects1 etc4 ,the sun1 too1 rising1 and at that still hour1 ,when sinks his tranquil beauty in the main1 ,will give thee tokens2 certain tokens all1 ,both those that morning brings1 and balmy eve4 ,when cloudy storms deform the rising orb1 ,or streaks of vapor in the midst bisect1 ,beware of showers1 for then the blasting ,south 7,foe to the groves1 to harvests1 and the flock71 ,urges1 with turbid pressure1 from above4 ,but when1 beneath the dawn1 red-fingered rays ,through the dense band of clouds diverging1 break1 ,when springs ,aurora1 pale1 from saffron couch1 ,ill does the leaf defend the mellowing grape2 ,leaps on the noisy roof the plenteous hail1 ,fearfully crackling4 ,nor forget to note1 ,when ,sol departs1 his mighty day-task done1 ,how varied hues oft wander on his brow2 ,azure betokens rain3 the fiery tint ,is ,eurus's herald2 if the ruddy blaze ,be dimm'd with spots1 then all will wildly rage ,with squalls and driving showers3 on that fell night1 ,none shall persuade me on the deep to urge ,my perilous course1 or quit the sheltering pier4 ,but if1 when day returns1 or when retires1 ,bright is the orb1 then fear no coming rain3 ,clear northern airs will fan the quiv'ring grove4 ,lastly1 the sun will teach th' observant eye ,what vesper's hour shall bring2 what clearing wind ,shall waft the clouds slow floating--what the ,south ,broods in his humid breast4 ,who dare belie ,the constant sun8 ,i copy also the following from ,howard3 ,dr4 ,jenner's signs of rain--an excuse for not accepting the invitation of a friend to make a country excursion4 ,the hollow winds begin to blow1 ,the clouds look black1 the glass is low1 ,the soot falls down1 the spaniels sleep1 ,and spiders from their cobwebs creep4 ,last night the sun went pale to bed1 ,the moon in halos hid her head1 ,the boding shepherd heaves a sigh1 ,for see6 a rainbow spans the sky4 ,the walls are damp1 the ditches smell2 ,closed is the pink-eyed pimpernel4 ,hark6 how the chairs and tables crack2 ,old ,betty's joints are on the rack4 ,loud quack the ducks1 the peacocks cry2 ,the distant hills are looking nigh4 ,how restless are the snorting swine6-- ,the busy flies disturb the kine4 ,low o'er the grass the swallow wings2 ,the cricket1 too1 how loud it sings6 ,puss1 on the hearth1 with velvet paws1 ,sits smoothing o'er her whisker'd jaws4 ,through the clear stream the fishes rise ,and nimbly catch the incautious flies2 ,the sheep were seen1 at early light1 ,cropping the meads with eager bite4 ,though ,june1 the air is cold and chill2 ,the mellow blackbird's voice is still2 ,the glow-worms1 numerous and bright1 ,illumed the dewy dell last night2 ,at dusk the squalid toad was seen1 ,hopping1 crawling1 o'er the green4 ,the frog has lost his yellow vest1 ,and in a dingy suit is dress'd4 ,the leech1 disturbed1 is newly risen ,quite to the summit of his prison4 ,the whirling wind the dust obey ,and in the rapid eddy plays4 ,my dog1 so altered in his taste1 ,quits mutton-bones1 on grass to feast2 ,and see yon rooks1 how odd their flight6 ,they imitate the gliding kite3 ,or seem precipitate to fall1 ,as if they felt the piercing ball4 ',twill surely rain2 ,i see1 with sorrow1 ,our jaunt must be put off to-morrow4 ,howard attributes the foregoing to ,jenner2 but ,hone1 in his ,every-,day ,book1 attributes it to ,darwin1 and gives it1 with several couplets1 not found in that attributed to ,jenner4 ,these ,i add from ,hone1 as follows3 ,her corns with shooting pains torment her-- ,and to her bed untimely send her4 ,that couplet is included by ,hone with what is said of ,aunt ,betty4 ,the smoke from chimneys right ascends1 ,then spreading back to earth it bends4 ,the wind unsteady veers around2 ,or1 settling in the south is found4 ,those are as philosophically accurate and valuable as any4 ,the tender colts on back do lie2 ,nor heed the traveler passing by4 ,in fiery red the sun doth rise1 ,then wades through clouds to mount the skies4 ,the first of those couplets is untrue4 ,it is doubtless alluded to as one of the acts of the animal creation1 indicating sleepiness and inaction1 which precede storms2 but colts do not lie on the back4 ,the other couplet is both true and important4 ,this collection entire1 whether written by ,darwin or ,jenner1 contains most of the signs which have been preserved1 and which are of much practical importance in our climate4 ,it is unquestionably true that appointed signs foreshow the weather1 to a great extent1 every where1 but with more certainty in the climate in which ,virgil wrote than in our variable and excessive one4 ,showers and freezing gales we can1 perhaps1 as well understand2 but the reign of heat1 by which he probably meant the dry period1 when the southern edge of the extra-tropical belt of rains is carried up to the north of them1 we do not experience4 ,something like it we did indeed have1 during the excessive northern transit1 in the summer of #ahed2 but it was an exception1 not the rule4 ,some of the most important of those signs from ,virgil and ,jenner ,i propose to allude to in detail2 but it is necessary to look2 in the first place1 to the character of the season and the month4 ,we have seen that the years differ during different periods of the same decade4 ,that they incline to be hot and irregular during the early part of it1 and cool1 regular1 and productive during the latter portion--subject1 however1 to occasional exceptions4 ,the latter half of the third decade of this century 7#ahbf to #ahcj1 inclusive7 was comparatively warm2 and1 in the latitude of #da deg41 was very unhealthy1 and so continued during the early part of the next1 over the hemisphere1 embracing the cholera seasons4 ,the spots upon the sun were much less numerous than usual1 during the latter half of the third decade4 ,thus the spots from #ahbf to #ahcj1 inclusive1 were #hgc #ahcf to #ahdj #abja #ahdf to #ahej #aafh and the size of those from #ahcf to #ahdj exceeded those of the other years4 ,the attentive observer will very soon be satisfied that the seasons have a character2 and those of every year differ in a greater or less degree from those of other years in the same decade1 and those of one decade not unfrequently from those of some other4 ,periodicity is stamped upon all of them1 and upon all resulting consequences4 ,like seasons come round1 and1 like productiveness or unproductiveness1 healthy or epidemic diatheses1 attend them4 ,we have seen that1 in relation to mean temperature1 there are such periodical diversities1 but they are more strongly marked in the character of storms1 and other successions of phenomena4 ,all signs fail in a drouth1 for then all attempts at condensation are partial1 imperfect1 and ineffectual4 ,it rains very easy1 it is said1 at other times1 and so it seems to do1 and with comparatively little condensation4 ,in the one case1 no great reliance can be placed upon indications which are entirely reliable in the other4 ,so all our storms clear off cold1 or1 all our storms clear off warm1 are equally common expressions--as the prevailing classes of storms give a character to the seasons4 ,it rains every ,sunday now1 is sometimes said1 and is often peculiarly true--the storm waves having just then a weekly or semi-weekly period1 and one falls upon ,sunday for several successive weeks2 and when it is so1 that coincidence is sure to be noticed and commented upon1 and the other perhaps disregarded4 ,if the seasons depended upon the northward and southward journey of the sun alone1 entire regularity might be expected--for we have no reason to believe that magnetism and electricity contain1 within themselves1 inherently1 any tendency to irregularity1 or periodicity2 and1 the sun being constant in his periods1 would be constant in his influence4 ,but he is inconstant and variable in his influence1 and it is apparently traceable to the existence of spots2 but ,i am not quite sure that it is occasioned by the observable spots alone4 ,grant that the intensity and power of his rays differ on the same day1 in different years1 and that difference may be attributable in part to causes which our telescopes can not discover4 ,but the differences in the seasons do not depend on the variability of the sun's influence alone4 ,this appears from the frequent meridional and latitudinal diversities and contrasts1 to which allusion has been made4 ,the sun can not be supposed to exert a less influence on a middle1 than a more northern latitude2 nor on one series of meridians1 than another4 ,there must1 therefore1 be another local and powerful disturbing cause1 varying the magnetic and electric activity and influence upon the trades1 as well in their incipiency as in their circuits1 and thus controlling the atmospheric conditions locally and in the opposite hemispheres4 ,that other disturbing cause is volcanic action4 ,we can conceive of none other1 and we can detect and trace the influence of that to a considerable extent4 ,unfortunately we know1 and can practically know1 comparatively little of it4 ,it has been busy with the earth since the creation1 and will continue to be so till1 possibly1 by a collision1 it shall burst into asteroids--its molten interior flowing out in seeming combustion--each fragment retaining its magnetic polarities entire1 and continuing on in an independent orbit in the heavens1 an asteroid1 or meteorite4 ,while1 therefore1 the agency of magnetism in itself may be regular1 and the transit of the sun is regular1 and seed-time and harvest shall not cease1 yet the sun is not regular in his influence1 and the magnetic agency is disturbed by another and irregular power4 ,and1 although we can trace the influence of both upon the seasons1 we can not measure that influence1 and from it reliably foretell the weather4 ,the discoveries of ,swabe1 and future ones1 relative to solar irregularities1 will assist us1 but1 till we understand better1 and to some extent anticipate1 the changes of volcanic action1 we shall not be able to understand or foresee all the differences in the seasons4 ,that time may come2 for progress is yet to be read in the front of meteorology1 and simultaneous practical observations made and interchanged at every important point on the globe4 ,nevertheless1 the seasons have a character--often a regular one--one class of storms prevailing over all others--one series of phenomena occurring to the exclusion of others--and we must regard it if we would arrive at intelligent estimates of their future condition4 ,the most difficult part to understand are the meridional contrasts4 ,last year we had one of the worst drouths which has occurred since the settlement of the country4 ,but while all the eastern portion of the ,united ,states was dry1 ,new ,mexico was unusually wet2 and the ,north-western ,states1 on the same curving line of the counter-trade1 were not affected by the drouth4 ,extract from a letter written by ,governor ,merriweather1 to ,mr4 ,bennett1 in answer to a circular1 published in the ,new ,york ,herald1 and dated ,,santa ,,fe1 ,,new ,,mexico1 ,oct4 #beth1 #ahed4 ,more rain has fallen during the last six months1 within this territory1 than ever was known to have fallen in the same length of time1 in this usually dry climate4 ,generally1 little or no crops have been produced without irrigation2 but this season some good crops have been produced without any artificial watering4 ,we have seen that there was an apparent connection between the remarkable volcanic action1 exerted beneath the western continents during the second decade of this century1 and the remarkable coldness of that decade4 ,and it is easy to see that the comparative absence of volcanic action from immediately beneath the ,old ,world1 and its presence in great excess beneath the ,new1 may disturb the regular action of terrestrial magnetism above it in the earth's-crust here1 and affect seasons1 diatheses1 and health unfavorably2 while from its absence they may be favorably affected there4 ,i have some general views in relation to this1 but they are necessarily speculative1 for the data are few1 and ,i reserve them4 ,i am1 however1 induced to believe that the transit of the atmospheric machinery is greater over some portions of the northern hemisphere1 in some seasons1 than others4 ,the most natural explanation of the unusual contrast between the drouth of the ,eastern ,states1 and the wet of the ,territories1 during the last summer1 is1 that the concentrated counter-trade was carried west1 by some irregular magnetic action in the ,south ,atlantic or ,west ,indies4 ,but there was much evidence that the northern extension of the atmospheric machinery was greater than usual4 ,the transit began early--it was evidently rapid2 the rains of ,may fell in ,april1 and the spring was wet2 summer set in earlier--all the appearances then were unusually tropical--the polar belts of condensation descended upon us1 but they were feeble1 as they doubtless become1 when they reach the tropics1 and did not precipitate2 the summer continued full twenty days later--no rain falling till about the #ajth of ,september4 ,the season throughout was excessive1 but otherwise regular4 ,spring came earlier2 summer commenced earlier and continued longer2 autumn held off later1 and cold weather1 when it came1 was uniform and severe4 ,this season the transit has seemed to be less than for several years4#aj ,the spring was backward2 the summer cool1 but exceedingly regular2 the autumn thus far without extremes1 and the whole year healthy and productive4 ,it is the normal period of the decade1 between the irregular heat of the first part1 and the irregular cold of the last2 and it has been normal in character1 and conformed beautifully to its location4 ,if the transit of #ahed was further north than the mean1 as it seemed to be over this country1 that of itself would convey the showers which follow up in the western portion of the concentrated trade1 on the east of the mountains of ,mexico1 and cause them to precipitate further north1 over ,new ,mexico1 and thus1 rather than from a diverted trade1 they may have derived their unusual supply of moisture during the summer of #ahed4 ,on this subject ,i can but conjecture1 and leave to future observation a discovery of the truth4 ,enough appears1 however1 to show the importance of taking the location of the year in the decade1 and even the character of the decade itself1 into the account4 ,but whatever the remote cause of the difference in the seasons1 the character of the seasons is directly influenced by the character of storms1 or periodic changes4 ,sometimes the tropical storms are most numerous2 at others the polar waves2 and at others the irregular local storms1 or general tendency to showers4 ,the seasons when the polar waves are most prevalent1 are the most regular1 healthy1 and productive4 ,those where the tropical tendency is greatest1 are irregular2 and so are those where the other classes predominate4 ,these differences in the character of the storms1 are but the varying forms in which magnetic action develops itself4 ,i have said that there was a decided tendency to cirrus without cumulus1 in mid-winter1 and cumulus without cirro-stratus or stratus1 in midsummer1 and during the intermediate time an intermediate tendency4 ,but there is a difference between spring and autumn4 ,dry westerly 7not ,n4 ,w47 gales prevail in ,march1 and ,n4 ,e4 storms in ,april and ,may1 but violent ,s4 ,e4 gales are not as common4 ,on the other hand1 the dry westerly gales of ,march are comparatively unknown in autumn1 and the violent1 tropical1 south-easters are then common4 ,snow-storms occur during the northern transit1 not unfrequently in ,april and ,may2 but they do not occur so near the acme of the northern transit on its return2 nor until it approaches very near its southern limit4 ,the quiet1 warm1 and genial air of ,april1 is reproduced in the ,indian summer of autumn1 but they present widely different appearances4 ,those1 and many other peculiarities of the seasons1 deserve the attentive consideration of every one who would become familiar with the weather and its prognostics4 ,these irregularities in the character of the seasons have doubtless always existed1 and always been the objects of popular observation4 ,there are some very old proverbs which show this4 ,i copy a few of the many1 which may be found in ,foster's collection4 ,mr4 ,graham ,hutchison does not seem to think any of those ancient proverbs worthy of notice4 ,but he misjudges4 ,they are the result of popular observation1 and many of them accord with the true philosophy of the weather4 ,irregular seasons are unhealthy1 and unreliable for productiveness4 ,when the southern transit was late1 or limited1 and the autumn ran into winter1 our ancestors feared the consequences in both particulars1 and expressed their fears1 and hopes also1 in proverbs4 ,thus1 ,a green winter ,makes a fat churchyard4 ,there is very great truth in this proverb4 ,again1 ,if the grass grows green in ,janiveer1 ,it will grow the worse for it all the year4 ,this is emphatically true1 for the season which commences irregularly will be likely to continue to be irregular in other respects4 ,another of the same tenor3 ,if ,janiveer ,calends be summerly gay1 ,it will be winterly weather till ,calends of ,may4 ,janiveer is an alteration of the ,french name for ,january1 and the proverb is very old4 ,so ,march should be normally dry and windy4 ,this1 too1 they understood1 and hence the strong proverb3 ,a bushel of ,march dust ,is worth a king's ransom4 ,and another3 ,march hack ham1 ,come in like a lion1 go out like a lamb4 ,so ,april and ,may should be cool and moist4 ,it is their normal condition in regular1 healthy1 and productive seasons4 ,the grass and grain require such conditions2 and the spring rains are needed to supply the excessive summer evaporation4 ,this1 too1 they well understood4 ,and hence the proverbs3 ,a cold ,april the barn will fill4 ,a cool ,may1 and a windy1 ,makes a full barn and a findy4 ,and-- ,april and ,may are the keys of the year4 ,this was not very favorable1 to be sure1 for corn2 but their consolation was found1 as we find it1 in the truth of another proverb3 ,look at your corn in ,may1 and you'll come sorrowing away2 ,look again in ,june1 and you'll come singing in another tune4 ,this difference in the character of the seasons occasioned the adoption of a great variety of ,almanac days2 and they are still very much regarded4 ,candlemas-day 7#b;d of ,february7 was one of them4 ,says ,hone1 in his ,every-,day ,book3 ,bishop ,hall1 in a sermon1 on ,candlemas-day1 remarks1 that 'it has been 7,i say not how true7 an old note1 that hath been wont to be set on this day1 that if it be clear and sunshiny1 it portends hard weather to come2 if cloudy and lowering1 a mild and gentle season ensuing4' ,to the same effect is one of ,ray's proverbs3 ,the hind had as lief see ,his wife on her bier1 ,as that ,candlemas-day ,should be pleasant and clear4 ,st4 ,paul's day1 or the #beth of ,january1 was another great ,almanac day1 and so the verse3 ,if ,saint ,paul's day be fair and clear1 ,it does betide a happy year2 ,but if it chance to snow or rain1 ,then will be dear all kinds of grain4 ,if clouds or mists do dark the sky1 ,great store of birds and beasts shall die2 ,and if the winds do fly aloft1 ,then war shall vex the kingdom oft4 ,st4 ,swithin's day was another of these ,almanac days4 ,gay said truly1 ,let no such vulgar tales debase thy mind2 ,nor ,paul1 nor ,swithin1 rule the clouds or wind4 ,yet ,almanac days are still in vogue to a considerable extent--such as the three first days of the year1 old style--the first three of the season--the last of the season--different days of the month--of the lunation1 etc41 etc4 ,and some still look to the breastbone of a goose1 in the fall1 to judge1 by its whiteness1 whether there is to be much snow during the ,winter1 etc4 ,these ,almanac days should all be abandoned2 they have no foundation in philosophy or truth4 ,there is one proverb1 however1 in relation to ,candlemas-day1 which the oldest inhabitant will remember1 and which it may be well to retain4 ,it has a practical application for the farmer1 and in relation to the length of the winter3 ,just half of your wood and half of your hay ,should be remaining on ,candlemas-day4 ,the months1 too1 have a character which must be remembered and regarded4 ,january is the coldest month of the year1 in most localities4 ,the atmospheric machinery reaches its extreme southern transit1 for the season1 during the month--usually about the middle4 ,it remains stationary a while--usually till after the #ajth of ,february4 ,one or more thaws1 resulting from tropical storms1 occur during the month1 in normal winters1 but they are of brief duration4 ,boreas follows close upon the retreating storm with his icy breath4 ,there is a remarkable uniformity in the progress of the depression of temperature1 to the extreme attained in this month1 over the entire hemisphere4 ,it differs in degree according to latitude and magnetic intensity2 but it progresses to that degree1 whatever it may be1 with as great uniformity in a southern as northern latitude4 ,the table1 copied from ,dr4 ,forrey1 discloses the fact1 and so does the following one1 taken from ,mr4 ,blodget's valuable paper1 published in the ,patent ,office ,report for #ahec3 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,mean ,,temperature ,,for ,,each ,,month ,,at ,,several ,,places1 ,,viz43 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,lat4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,march4,april4 ,may4 ,june4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,quebec1 ,canada ,e4 #df deg4 #di' #i4i #ab4h #bd4d #ch4g #eb4i #fc4g ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 #dj deg4 #db' #cj4b #cj4h #ch4e #di4a #ei4f #fi4a ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 #db deg4 #ci' #bd4e #bd4c #cd4h #dg4g #ei4h #fh4j ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 #db deg4 #de' #bf4a #be4h #cc4j #de4h #ef4b #fd4e ,baltimore1 ,md4 #ci deg4 #ag' #cc4a #cd4c #db4d #ec4j #fc4b #ga4f ,savannah1 ,ga4 #cb deg4 #je' #eb4f #ed4g #fj4j #fh4d #gd4h #gi4d ,key ,west1 ,fla4 #bd deg4 #cc' #gj4j #gj4g #gc4h #gf4c #hj4b #hb4a ,mobile1 ,ala4 #cj deg4 #dj' #ea4c #ec4g #ei4d #fg4a #gd4a #gg4h ,new ,orleans1 ,la4 #cj deg4 #jj' #ed4h #ed4e #fa4e #fg4f #gd4j #gh4f ,marietta1 ,ohio #ci deg4 #be' #cb4b #cd4a #db4f #ec4j #fa4h #fi4b ,san ,antonio1 ,tex4 #bi deg4 #be' #eb4g #eg4i #fe4e #fi4g #gf4d #hj4e ,san ,francisco1 ,cal4#cg deg4 #dh' #ej4a #ea4j #ec4h #eg4g #ee4i #eh4h ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,july4 ,aug4 ,sept4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 ------------------------------------ #ff4h #fe4e #ef4b #dd4a #ca4e #ag4c #gd4i #gc4c #fe4i #ed4c #dc4e #cc4i #gb4b #gj4c #fa4d #di4b #ci4d #bh4c #fi4g #fg4h #fj4a #dg4g #ch4b #bh4h #gf4f #gd4e #fg4g #ee4h #de4j #cg4h #ha4c #hj4f #gf4i #fg4b #eh4c #eb4b #hc4c #hc4e #hb4e #gi4a #ge4f #gb4h #gi4h #gi4d #gf4a #fe4g #eg4j #eb4h #hj4d #gi4f #gg4a #fi4a #eg4e #ef4b #gb4g #gj4i #fc4e #ea4h #db4f #cd4g #hb4c #hc4c #gi4i #gb4b #fb4b #eb4a #eg4i #fb4b #fa4f #fa4i #ef4b #ej4j ---------------------------------------- - ,snows during this month are much heavier1 and more frequent1 in some localities than others4 ,the reasons why this is so have been stated4 ,the mountainous portions of the country receive the heaviest falls4 ,they affect condensation somewhat1 and according to their elevation4 ,they intercept the flakes before they melt1 and retain them longer without change4 ,the thaws1 or tropical storms1 also sometimes have a current of cold air1 with snow setting under them on their northern and north-western border4 ,such was the case with that investigated by ,professor ,loomis4 ,january is without other marked peculiarities4 ,it shows1 of course1 those extremes of temperature found1 to a greater or less degree1 in all the months1 and differs1 as the others differ1 in different seasons4 ,normally1 in temperate latitudes1 it is a healthy month4 ,the digestive organs have recovered from that tendency to bilious diseases which characterizes the summer extreme northern transit1 and the tendency to diseases of the respiratory organs1 which characterizes the southern extreme and the commencement of its return1 is not often developed till ,february4 ,february1 in its normal condition until after the #ajth1 and about the middle1 is much like ,january4 ,often the first ten days of ,february are the coldest of the season4 ,the average of the month is a trifle higher1 in most localities1 as the tables show4 ,this results from the increasing warmth of the latter part of the month4 ,there are localities1 however1 where the entire month is as cold as ,january4 ,such 7as will appear from ,blodget's table7 are ,albany and ,rochester1 in the ,state of ,new ,york1 and ,new ,orleans1 in ,louisiana4 ,at most places the difference is slight1 either way4 ,south of the latitude of #dj deg4 heavy snows are more likely to occur in the last half of ,january and first half of ,february than earlier4 ,about the middle of the month we may expect thaws of more permanence in normal seasons4 ,they are followed1 as in ,january1 by ,n4 ,w4 wind and cold weather1 but it is not usually as severe4 ,many years since1 an observing old man said to me1 ,winter's back breaks about the middle of ,february4 ,and ,i have observed that there is usually a yielding of the extreme weather about that period4 ,here1 again1 it is interesting and instructive to look at the tables1 and see how regularly and uniformly the temperature rises in all latitudes1 at the same time2 as early and as rapidly at ,quebec as at ,new ,orleans or ,san ,antonio2 and subsequently rises with greatest rapidity where the descent was greatest4 ,the elevation of temperature does not progress northwardly1 a wave of heat accompanying the sun1 but is a magneto-electric change1 commencing about the same time over the whole country1 and indeed over the hemisphere4 ,march is a peculiar month--the month of what is termed1 and aptly termed1 unsettled weather4 ,it1 may come in like a lion1 or be variable at the outset4 ,the northern transit is fairly started1 and is progressing rapidly1 and there is great magnetic irritability4 ,a reference to the table of ,dr4 ,lamont will show that the declination has increased with great rapidity4 ,normally1 the early part is like the latter part of ,february1 and the latter part approaches the milder but still changeable weather of ,april4 ,its distinguishing feature is violent westerly wind4 ,not the regular ,n4 ,w4 only--although that is prevalent--but a peculiar westerly wind1 ranging from ,w4 by ,n4 to ,n4 ,w4 by ,w41 often blowing with hurricane violence4 ,this wind was alluded to on page #acj4 ,with the change and active transit to the north1 in ,february and in ,march1 comes the tendency to diseases of the respiratory organs--pneumonias and lung fevers--and this is the most dangerous period of the year for aged people4 ,april is a milder and more agreeable month4 ,during some period of it1 in normal seasons1 and at other times in ,march1 there is a warm1 quiet1 genial1 lamb-like spell1 exceedingly favorable for oat seeding4 ,when it comes1 advantage should be taken of it1 for long heavy ,n4 ,e4 storms are liable to occur1 and frequently with snow4 ,on the latitude of #da deg4 heavy snow-storms are not uncommon in ,april4 ,within the last fifteen years two such have occurred after the #ajth of the month4 ,april1 as we have seen1 should be cool and moist4 ,if dry1 the early crops are endangered by a spring drouth2 if very wet1 there is danger of an extreme northern transit1 and an early summer drouth4 ,it is emphatically true that ,april and ,may are the keys of the year4 ,its distinguishing peculiar feature is the gentle1 warm1 trade rains--,april showers--which1 in the absence of great magnetic irritability1 that current drops upon us4 ,there is great mean magnetic activity1 but it is not so irregularly excessive as in ,march4 ,may1 in our climate1 should be1 and normally is1 a wet month1 and a cool one1 considering the altitude of the sun4 ,the atmospheric machinery which the sun moves is1 however1 ordinarily about six weeks behind it--the latter reaching the tropic the #bjth of ,june1 and the former its farthest northern extension about six weeks later4 ,hence it is not a cause for alarm if ,may be wet and cool4 ,the great staples1 wheat1 grass1 and oats1 are benefited2 and corn1 according to the proverb1 will not be seriously retarded4 ,the movable belt of excessive magneto-electric action1 with its tropical electric rains1 so exciting to vegetation1 and its periods or terms of excessive heat1 is on its way north1 and sure to arrive in season1 and remain long enough to mature the corn4 ,there have been but two seasons in this century when corn did not mature in the latitude of #da deg44 ,one during the cold decade1 and the cold part of it1 between #ahae and #ahbj2 and the other1 during the cold half of the fourth decade1 between #ahce and #ahdj4 ,the distinguishing feature1 if there be one1 of ,may1 is its long1 and1 for the season1 cool storms4 ,these have1 in different localities1 different names4 ,in pastoral sections we hear of the sheep storms--those which effect the sheep severely when newly shorn--killing them or reducing them in flesh by their coldness and severity4 ,in relation to this too early shearing1 there is an old ,english proverb1 in ,forster's ,collection1 viz43 ,shear your sheep in ,may1 ,and you will shear them all away4 ,so there are others called ,quaker storms1 which occur about the time when that estimable sect hold their yearly meeting4 ,and there are other names given in different localities to these long spring storms4 ,but they are all mere coincidences--equinoctial and all4 ,notwithstanding the storms1 however1 the temperature rises at a mean4 ,the declination is often as great as in mid-summer4 ,the earth is growing warmer by the increase of magneto-electric action1 whatever the state of the atmosphere4 ,the yellow1 sickly blade of corn is extending its roots and preparing to jump when the atmosphere becomes hot1 as it is sure to do1 when the machinery attains a sufficient altitude1 how backward soever it may seem to be4 ,the farmer need not mourn over its backwardness1 unless the season is a very extraordinary one1 like those of #ahaf and #ahcf4 ,the storms ensure his hay1 wheat1 and oat crops2 the warming earth is at work with the roots of his corn1 and is filling with water1 and preparing for the hot and rapidly-evaporating suns of mid-summer4 ,the earth would grow warmer if every day was cloudy4 ,by the middle of ,june the atmospheric machinery approaches its northern acme1 the summer sets in1 and not unfrequently1 as extremely hot days occur during the latter part of the month1 as at any period of the summer4 ,but the heat is not so continuous1 or great1 at a mean4 ,from the middle of ,june to the latter part of ,august is summer in our climate1 and during that period from one to three or four terms of extreme heat occur1 continuing from one to five or six days1 and possibly more1 terminating finally in a belt of showers overlaid with more or less cirro-stratus condensation in the trade1 and controlled by the ,s4 ,e4 polar wave of magnetism1 and followed by a cool but gentle northerly wind4 ,during these heated terms1 a general showery disposition sometimes1 though rarely1 appears1 with isolated showers1 which bring no mitigation of the heat4 ,not until a southern extension of them appears1 followed by a ,n4 ,w4 air1 does the term change1 so far as ,i have observed4 ,by the #bjth of ,august1 in the latitude of #db deg41 an evident change of transit is observable1 by one who watches closely1 although the range of the thermometer in the day-time may not disclose it4 ,a greater tendency to cirrus-formation is visible4 ,the nights grow cooler in proportion to the days4 ,the swallows are departing1 or have departed2 the blackbirds1 too1 and the boblinks1 with their winter jackets on1 their plumage all changed to the same colors1 are flocking for the same purpose1 and hurrying away4 ,the pigeons begin to appear in flocks from the north1 and the first of the blue-winged teal and black duck are seen straggling down the rivers4 ,at this season1 and nearly coincident with the change1 the peculiar annual catarrhs return4 ,these are colds 7so called7 which at some period of the person's life were taken about or soon after the period of change1 and have returned every year1 at1 or near the same period4 ,they soon become habitual1 and no care or precaution will prevent them4 ,i know one gentleman who has had this annual cold in ,august for twenty-seven years1 with entire regularity2 and another who has had it nineteen years2 and many others for shorter periods4 ,i never knew one which had recurred for two or three years that could be afterward prevented1 or broken up4 ,very instructive are these annual catarrhs to those who think health worth preserving1 and in relation to the change of transit4 ,the change is felt over the entire hemisphere4 ,between the #bjth of ,august and the #ajth of ,september hurricanes originate in the tropics and pursue their curving and recurving way up over us2 or long north-easters commence in the interior and pass off to ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 on to the ,atlantic1 followed now in a more marked degree by the peculiar ,n4 ,w4 wind1 so common over the entire ,continent in autumn and winter4 ,by the #ajth of ,september the pigeons may be seen in flocks in the morning1 and just prior to the setting in of a brisk ,n4 ,w4 wind1 hurrying away southward with a sagacity that we scarcely appreciate1 to avoid the anticipated rigors of winter1 and to be followed soon by all the migratory feathered tribes that remain4 ,the nights grow cooler1 although the sun shines hot in the day-time1 and woe to the person1 unless with an iron constitution1 who disregards the change1 and exposes himself or herself without additional protection1 to its influence4 ,nature has taken care of those who depend upon her1 or upon instinct1 for protection4 ,the feathers of birds and water-fowl are full2 the hair and the fur are grown4 ,beasts and birds have been preparing for the change1 and are ready when it begins4 ,they know that the earth is changing4 ,the shifting machinery is fast carrying south that excess of negative electricity which has so much to do with giving it its summer heat4 ,they feel its absence1 even during the day1 and the contrast between that and the positively electrified northern atmosphere1 which now follows every retreating wave of condensation4 ,the musk-rat builds1 of long grass and weeds1 his floating nest in the pond1 that he may have a place to retire to1 when the rain fills it up and drives him from his burrow in its banks4 ,but man1 with all his intellect1 is too heedless of the change4 ,additional clothing is now as necessary to him as to animals1 but it is burdensome to him in the day time1 and therefore he will not wear it1 how much soever it would add to his comfort and safety during the night4 ,he stands with his thin summer soles upon the changed ground1 or sits in a current1 or in the night air1 less protected than the animals1 and dysentery or fever sends him to his long home4 ,he has intelligence1 but he lacks instinct4 ,he has time for the changes of dress which fashion may require1 but none for those which atmospherical changes demand4 ,fashion has attention in advance2 death none till at the door4 ,now the southern line of the extra-tropical belt of rains descends upon those who1 living between the areas of magnetic intensity1 have a dry season2 and the focus of precipitation in that belt descends every where4 ,winter no come till swamps full1 the ,indians told our fathers1 and there is truth in the remark2 although like other general truths respecting the weather1 it is not always so in our climate4 ,rains fall during the autumnal months1 as during the spring months1 and while the transit of the machinery is active and the evaporation is less4 ,and the magnetic comparative rest1 and the seed time and equable spell of ,april is reproduced in the ,indian summer of autumn4 ,the machinery gradually and irresistibly descends1 and with an excess of polar positive electricity1 comes snow2 ,boreas controls1 and winter sets in1 reaching its maximum of cold in ,january again4 ,remembering1 then1 the differences in the normal conditions of the seasons and months1 and the different characters that the winds1 and storms1 and clouds1 and other phenomena bear in them respectively1 let us now look at the signs of foul or fair weather not herein before fully stated1 upon which practical reliance may be placed4 ,in the first place1 we must look to the forming condensation4 ,there are many days when the atmosphere is without visible clouds1 but few when it is entirely without condensation4 ,such days are seen during the dry season in the trade-wind region2 and with us1 in mid-summer drouths1 which partake of this tropical character2 and when1 at any season1 but particularly in winter1 the ,n4 ,w4 wind in large volume has elevated the trade very high4 ,condensation is not necessarily in form of visible cloud4 ,it may be of that smoky character which sometimes attends mid-summer drouths1 giving the sun a blood-red appearance2 or it may be like that change from deep azure to a lighter hue1 obscuring the vision1 which ,humboldt describes as preceding the arrival of the inter-tropical belt of rains4 ,gay-,lussac1 and other aeronauts1 have seen a thin cloud stratum at the height of #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj feet1 not visible at the earth1 although some degree of mistiness and obscurity were observed4 ,at that elevation the clouds are thin1 and always white and positive4 ,some degree of turbidness is frequent2 it may occur1 as we have stated1 with ,n4 ,w4 wind1 but1 if it does1 the wind soon changes round to the southward4 ,this turbidness or mistiness1 where it exists1 and indicates rain1 does not disappear toward night1 as it should do if but the daily cloudiness which results from ordinary diurnal magnetic activity1 but becomes more obvious at nightfall2 and1 when hardly visible at mid-day1 or during the afternoon1 may then be observed1 obscuring in a degree1 the sun's rays2 and1 later in the evening1 forming a circle round the moon4 ,thus ,jenner-- ,last night the sun went pale to bed1 ,the moon in halos hid her head4 ,and so1 too1 ,virgil-- ,the sun1 too1 rising1 and at that still hour1 ,when sinks his tranquil beauty in the main1 ,will give thee tokens2 certain tokens all1 ,both those that morning brings1 and balmy eve4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when ,sol departs1 his mighty day-task done1 ,how varied hues oft wander on his brow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if the ruddy blaze ,be dimm'd with spots1 then all will wildly rage ,with squalls and driving showers3 on that fell night ,none shall persuade me on the deep to urge ,my perilous course1 or quit the sheltering pier4 ,but if1 when day returns1 or when retires1 ,bright is the orb1 then fear no coming rain3 ,clear northern airs will fan the quiv'ring grove4 ,lastly1 the sun will teach th' observant eye ,what vesper's hour shall bring2 what clearing wind ,shall waft the clouds slow floating--what the ,south ,broods in his humid breast4 ,who dare belie ,the constant sun8 ,more frequently this kind of condensation is sufficiently dense at night-fall to take shape1 and show a bank when the sun shines horizontally through a mass of it4 ,i am now speaking of storm condensation1 or that which indicates the approach of a storm4 ,thunder clouds at nightfall1 dark1 dense1 and isolated1 are1 of course1 to be distinguished4 ,those1 every one understands to indicate a shower1 and immediate succeeding fair weather4 ,the halos do not1 in cases of incipient storm condensation1 always appear4 ,the moon may not be present3 though1 in her absence1 ,i have seen them in the light of the primary planets2 or she may be in the eastern portion of the heavens4 ,when this is so1 and the condensation forms slowly1 there may be less appearance of it1 after the sun disappears1 than before1 although a storm is approaching1 and sure to be on by the middle of next day1 and perhaps with great violence4 ,when the failure of the light no longer reveals the denser condensation in the west1 the stars may shine1 as did the sun1 dimly but visibly1 through the partial and invisible condensation2 and one who did not notice the bank in the west1 at nightfall and before dark1 may be deceived by the seeming clearness of the evening4 ,thus ,virgil-- ,mark1 with attentive eye1 the rapid sun-- ,the varying moon that rolls its monthly round2 ,so shalt thou count1 not vainly1 on the morn2 ,so the bland aspect of the tranquil night ,will ne'er beguile thee with insidious calm4 ,all early condensation and indications derived from it1 must be looked for in the west4 ,from that quarter all storms come4 ,these indications at nightfall are of a varied character4 ,they may consist of primary condensation in the trade1 or of secondary condensation1 scud running north toward a storm1 the condensation of which has not yet visibly reached us1 but which will extend south and pass over us4 ,it may be a heavy bank1 or consist of narrow cirrus bands4 ,cirro-stratus cloud banks1 in the ,s4 ,w41 in the fall and winter1 of a foggy and uniform character1 are indicative of snow4 ,the body of the storm will pass south of us1 and a portion over us1 the wind be north of east1 and the snow will not be likely to turn to rain before it reaches the earth1 by reason of a southern middle current4 ,banks in the ,n4 ,w4 indicate rain at all seasons4 ,the storm is north of us1 working southerly1 and such storms rain on the southern border--in winter even--because they have the wind on that border from south of east4 ,it may1 indeed1 snow1 but if so1 probably in large flakes1 soon turning to rain4 ,there are other appearances at nightfall which deserve consideration4 ,a red sun1 with smoky air1 is indicative of continued dry weather1 a frequent appearance in dry terms1 lasting three or four days1 at least1 from the commencement4 ,so is a red appearance of the sky1 when there are no clouds1 indicative of a fair day following4 ,on this subject we have an allusion to the weather1 by our ,saviour while on earth1 which1 like all such allusions found in the ,bible1 is of remarkable philosophical accuracy4 ,it is found in ,matthew1 chapter xvi41 verses #b and #c3 ,he answered and said unto them1 ,when it is evening ye say1 ,it will be fair weather1 for the sky is red4 ,and in the morning1 ,it will be foul weather to-day1 for the sky is red and lowering4 ,o1 ye hypocrites1 ye can discern the face of the sky1 etc4 ,another allusion to the weather1 though not applicable to this point1 ,i will refer to in passing4 ,it is found in ,luke1 chapter xii41 verses #ed and #ee3 ,and he said also to the people1 ,when ye see a cloud rise out of the west straightway ye say1 ,there cometh a shower2 and so it is4 ,and when ye see the south wind blow1 ye say1 ,there will be heat2 and it cometh to pass4 ,this is all very true1 and might have been cited to show the universality of the phenomena4 ,but to return4 ,we have an old ,english proverb alluding to the same phenomena1 of great value and truth1 viz43 ,an evening red and a morning gray ,are sure signs of a fair day2 ,be the evening gray and the morning red1 ,put on your hat or you'll wet your head4 ,the sky is red if there be no condensation at the west to obscure the rays of the sun2 if there be1 it is gray1 or there is a bank or cloud1 and it is obscured4 ,so if there be no condensation over1 or to the east of us1 in the morning1 to reflect the rays of the sun1 the sky is gray2 if there be such condensation1 the sun is reflected from it1 and the sky is red4 ,such morning condensation is indicative of foul weather4 ,it is1 as we have said1 the eastern edge of an approaching storm1 on1 or under which1 the sun shines and illumines it4 ,thus1 at night1 it shines through a portion at the west1 which is situate between the sun and us1 making the sky gray3 but shines on1 or under1 a portion in the morning1 east of us1 but not far enough east to obscure the horizon1 and the rays of the rising sun are reflected from it4 ,in either case the red or gray appearance results from the relative situation of the sun and the eastern edge of an approaching storm4 ,the following couplet of ,darwin is an apt description of the morning appearance3 ,in fiery red the sun doth rise1 ,then wades through clouds to mount the skies4 ,the sun is often reflected in vivid colors1 from the under surface of clouds1 at sunset4 ,this is an indication of fair weather4 ,it is evident the sun shines through a clear atmosphere beyond the cloud1 or his rays would not reach and illume the lower surface of the cirro-stratus with such distinctness4 ,he sets clear1 as is said2 the clouds are passing off1 and there are none beyond4 ,it is this appearance1 in different forms1 when there happen to be patches of broken1 melting cirro-stratus above the horizon1 which makes the beautiful sunsets that attract attention4 ,so the sun is reflected1 in beautiful colors sometimes1 from the cumulus clouds which have passed over to the east4 ,the most beautiful and variegated ,i have ever seen1 were reflected from that imperfect cumulus condensation which takes place occasionally during long drouths--doubtless resembling that which is seen over ,peru1 hereinbefore alluded to1 as described by ,stewart4 ,it is not1 then1 the presence of cloud condensation at the west1 at nightfall1 which alone indicates foul weather2 but such condensation1 whatever its form1 as evinces that it is not the dissolving cloud of the day1 but the eastern1 approaching portion of a still denser portion beyond1 through1 or under which1 the sun can not shine clearly1 but which wholly or partially obscures it4 ,remembering this philosophy of the matter1 the observer will soon be able to detect the various forms of condensation which originate or exhibit themselves at nightfall1 and whether they indicate an approaching storm or not1 without a more explicit specification of them4 ,it is an important hour for observation2 ,let not the sun go down without attention4 ,when the condensation is obvious1 but thin1 at nightfall1 it may not1 as ,i have said1 be discernible in the evening4 ,but there are methods by which the incipient storm condensation may be detected4 ,the number of the stars visible1 and the distinctness with which they may be seen1 indicate the absence or presence of condensation and its density4 ,virgil1 alluding to the indications of fair weather1 says3 ,brightly the stars shine forth2 ,cynthia no more ,glimmers obnoxious to her brother's rays2 ,nor fleecy clouds float lightly through the sky4 ,the brightness of the stars and the clear appearance of the moon show the absence of condensation and the dissolution of the fleecy clouds at the close of the day is1 as we have seen1 always a fair-weather indication4 ,there is much true philosophy in the allusions of ,virgil to the moon4 ,thus-- ,when ,luna first her scatter'd fires recalls1 ,if with blunt horns she holds the dusky air1 ,seamen and swains predict th' abundant shower4 ,the horns1 or angles of the moon will1 of course1 appear distinct and sharp or indistinct and blunt1 in proportion to the amount of condensation in the atmosphere which impedes the passage of the light4 ,for the same reason1 when the moon is new1 her entire disk is visible when the atmosphere is very clear1 by reason1 as is supposed1 of light reflected from the earth to the moon and back to us4 ,this double reflection can only take place when the atmosphere is very clear4 ,hence1 ,virgil alludes to it1 and correctly1 as an indication of continued fair weather3 ,if 7mark the ominous hour67 ,the clear fourth night her lucid disk define1 ,that day1 and all that thence successive spring1 ,e'en to the finished month1 are calm and dry4 ,probably ,virgil alluded to a month of the summer trade-wind drouth which reaches up on ,southern ,italy4 ,but that appearance of the moon is occasionally seen here1 and the indication is1 in degree1 philosophically true4 ,it is somewhat more difficult to determine what will be the result of the condensation seen at the west in the morning1 and which is not so far east1 or of such a character1 as to reflect the rays of the sun2 for1 although always suspicious1 it is sometimes of a foggy character1 and disappears between eight and nine o'clock4 ,if it increases in density after ten o'clock1 or is of a dense cirro-stratus character1 rain may generally be expected4 ,if of a decided cirro-cumulus character1 it is certain to disappear4 ,cirro-cumulus is seen in small patches1 with small1 distinct1 and rounded masses1 in summer1 in the morning1 and sometime1 during the day1 after high fog has disappeared1 and at other times1 and is always1 when of that distinct character1 a fair weather indication4 ,i have seen it thus when the wind was blowing from the ,n4 ,e41 and the scud running toward a storm passing near1 but to the south of us1 when those who relied upon the existence of the wind and scud as evidences that we were to have the desired rain1 were deceived4 ,thus1 the couplet from an old almanac3 ,if woolly fleeces strew the heavenly way1 ,be sure no rain disturb the summer day4 ,when this morning condensation is not high fog1 and is dense and passing east with a wavy appearance1 it is very certain to rain4 ,jenner says3 ,the boding shepherd heaves a sigh1 ,for see1 a rainbow spans the sky4 ,an old almanac had the following verse3 ,a rainbow in the morning ,is the shepherd's warning2 ,a rainbow at night ,is the shepherd's delight4 ,so the proverb was originally made2 but as our ancestors were not shepherds1 and had a horror of ocean storms1 it was commonly quoted1 in this country1 in the following form3 ,a rainbow in the morning1 ,the sailors take warning1 etc4 ,rainbows are not reflected from clouds1 but falling rain1 and a morning rainbow at the west is1 of course1 evidence that it is actually raining there1 and will1 in all probability1 pass over us4 ,thunder in the morning1 rain before night1 is a common saying1 and a true one4 ,there is a belt of showers1 or showery period approaching1 of unusual intensity--for thunder showers in the morning are rare4 ,the afternoon is their most common period1 and they are very apt to appear then1 when the morning is showery4 ,of the different forms of cirrus and cirro-stratus1 which appear during the day1 and indicate approaching storms1 or of cumulus indicative of showers1 it is difficult to give an intelligible description without very many illustrations4 ,i have many daguerreotype views1 taken at different seasons of the year1 and at a time when different forms of cirrus and cirro-stratus condensation1 indicative of storms1 exhibited themselves4 ,they differ1 as ,i have said1 and it must be remembered1 very much at different seasons of the year1 and in different years1 and their delicate shades are taken with difficulty by the artist1 and reproduced with difficulty1 and only at considerable expense1 by the engraver2 and ,i have omitted them4 ,the time will come when a knowledge of their language will be sought for and read--when the countenance of the sky will be an object of intelligent interest to all whose business may be affected by the weather1 or who love to learn of nature4 ,but it is not yet4 ,this is the age of theory and speculation4 ,the time of actual1 practical1 connected observation and prognostication1 which may justify expensive illustration1 is yet to arrive4 ,the reader will find in the general plates representations of several kinds of cirri4 ,they are delicate1 always white1 more or less fibrous1 and form in the upper part of the trade or the adjoining atmosphere above it4 ,their character and elevation should be studied1 and the observer should be careful to distinguish which is the most elevated4 ,not unfrequently it may seem1 to a hasty observer1 that the cirrus is below the cirro-stratus or forming stratus4 ,but the genuine cirrus never is4 ,it forms near1 and above1 the point of congelation1 and is often composed of crystals of ice or snow4 ,if they fall1 they melt and evaporate1 when there is no storm1 before reaching the earth4 ,aeronauts have met with them and their crystals when there was no fall of moisture at the surface of the earth2 and the angles of reflection exhibited by halos and other optical phenomena which form in them1 enable us to detect their crystallization and the form of it4 ,they are produced by electric changes which condense the vapor1 and the coldness of the air at that elevation freezes it at the instant of its condensation4 ,congelation is crystallization1 and all crystallization is electric1 or magneto-electric4 ,the snow-flakes differ in form and size according to the suddenness of the condensation1 the amount of moisture condensed1 the polarity of the strata through which they pass1 and their consequent attraction and adhesion to each other4 ,the connection of electricity with these formations of cirri has frequently been admitted1 and it is perfectly obvious that the long fibrous bands1 shooting from horizon to horizon1 could not be formed by commingling of currents any more than the perfectly isolated1 distinct1 enlarging-outward cumulus hail-storm1 could be so formed4 ,cirri form at the line of meeting1 between the trade and the upper atmosphere1 and in one or the other1 or both1 very much according to the season1 and the suddenness with which storms are produced4 ,these often induce a layer of cirro-stratus or stratus at the lower line of the counter-trade1 and in the surface-atmosphere1 which precipitates2 and this operation is clearly discernible1 and very frequently1 before gentle rains4 ,condensation in the whole body of the trade is usually in the form of turbidness or mistiness1 a bank or incipient stratus1 without cirri4 ,it seems matter of astonishment that water should float so far condensed1 in strata where the air is so much lighter1 without being precipitated4 ,but electric attraction and repulsion between the different strata and the vesicles1 explain it4 ,in mid-winter1 the cirrus forms are prevalent and most distinct4 ,after severe cold weather1 when a storm approaches1 the cirri form in long1 narrow threads1 parallel to each other1 extending from about ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 to ,e4 ,n4 ,e41 gradually thickening and forming1 or inducing1 cirro-stratus and stratus1 and dropping snow4 ,this form is called the linear-cirrus4 ,the tufted1 and other fibrous forms1 are seen in patches also1 in great distinctness1 during these mid-winter days1 when the wind gets around to the southward1 and the weather is pleasant4 ,such days are called weather-breeders1 and their offspring the patches of cirrus1 which are to extend and compose1 or induce the storm1 and indeed are an advance part of it1 are then never absent4 ,a clear1 moderate day1 in a normal winter1 with wind from any southern point1 however light1 between the #ast of ,january and the middle of ,february1 without these patches of cirrus1 is very uncommon4 ,watch and see whether they tend to cirro-stratus1 or whether the wind gets around to the ,n4 ,w4 at nightfall1 and they disappear4 ,if the former1 a storm may be expected2 if the latter1 fair weather4 ,thus there are three peculiarities attending the forming cirrus of mid-winter 7#ast of ,january to #ajth of ,february73 long1 fibrous1 parallel bands in the morning 7linear cirrus71 gradually coalescing as the day advances1 after severe cold2 the comoid1 curled1 or tufted cirrus1 in curling bunches1 called mares'-tails1 and the transverse1 when the fibers are in bands or threads1 which are not parallel1 but cross each other at angles1 more or less acute4 ,the two former varieties are represented on ,figure #e1 page #bf1 indicated by one bird1 but the last form is a very prevalent one in our atmosphere4 ,various names have been given to different forms of cirro-stratus4 ,those represented in ,figure #e1 page #bf1 are the cymoid on the right1 the mottled on the left1 below the cirro-cumulus2 and the linear below that4 ,the form known as the mackerel sky is not represented there4 ,it consists of regular forms1 resembling the waves on the surface of the water when the wind blows a gentle breeze4 ,but the wavy form1 and of all sizes1 is very frequently assumed by cirro-stratus1 which is rapidly condensing1 and turning to stratus4 ,in the mackerel sky1 strictly so called1 the waves are small1 parallel1 nearly distinct and equi-distant1 and resembling the appearance of a school of mackerel1 swimming in the same direction1 one above another4 ,all wavy forms of cirro-stratus indicate a disposition to increased condensation and rain4 ,when the waves are very large and dense1 and cross obliquely1 or unite at one end1 rain is very certain to fall soon1 if the line of progress of the condensation is over the observer1 and the clouds are seen in the western or ,n4 ,w4 quarter of the sky4 ,but there are few forms which are not occasionally seen when no rain or snow falls4 ,the intensity of the electric action which produces them may not be sufficient to effect precipitation1 or they may be the attendant1 attenuated lateral condensation1 which frequently thins out a considerable distance from the dense1 precipitating portions of the storm4 ,if that denser portion is north of us1 the probabilities of rain are greater1 for there is always a probability that the storm may be of the character which is extended south1 by a polar wave4 ,the observer must watch the formation of cirri1 and the different forms of cirro-stratus and stratus1 and become familiar with their appearance4 ,it is not a difficult task4 ,with the aid of a few general directions he will soon be familiar with them3 #a4 ,get a correct idea of the different characters of the primary clouds4 ,the true fibrous cirrus--the different forms of cirro-stratus--the smooth1 uniform stratus--the cirro-cumulus1 which is nothing but a cirro-stratus1 separated into distinct masses by the repulsion of static electricity--and the cumulus1 too distinct ever to be mistaken4 ,there is no difficulty1 except with the varied forms of cirro-stratus4 ,it is useless to attempt to give1 or the observer to rely on1 names for these numerous forms1 without as numerous illustrations4 ,those in use are rarely applied correctly4 ,i have never met with ten persons who applied even the term mackerel sky to the same precise form of cirro-stratus4 ,in relation to all of them it is to be observed that polar belts of condensation1 and local appearances of considerable extent1 are often too feeble in action to precipitate1 even when the mackerel form is present2 and all may be the lateral attendants of passing storms4 ,therefore1 #b4 ,satisfy yourself whether the cirrus or cirro-stratus increases in density and tends to the formation1 or induction1 of stratus2 and whether it is isolated1 or an extension of the condensation of a storm1 and if the latter1 where that storm is4 ,the time will come when an intelligent use of the telegraph will do this for you4 #c4 ,look also to the character of the wind1 if there be any4 ,on this subject ,i have perhaps said all that is necessary in the preceding pages4 ,next to condensation1 the direction and character of the wind is the most valuable prognostic4 ,indeed it often tells us that a storm is approaching1 and the quarter from which it will come1 and its character1 before the condensation is visible4 #d4 ,see if there is any secondary condensation or scud4 ,these are sometimes seen running toward a storm1 when there are not distinct clouds visible in the western horizon1 at nightfall1 or in the evening1 as in the instance stated in the introduction1 and sometimes from the north-east1 as in cases heretofore so often stated4 ,but the easterly scud do not often form in winter1 until after the cirrus has passed into the form of cirro-stratus1 or has induced the latter forms in the inferior portion of the trade1 or the surface atmosphere4 ,the inductive effect of the primary condensation1 therefore1 is not always1 and especially in winter1 sufficient to create the easterly current and scud1 and it is often the case that the easterly wind is not felt1 or the scud seen1 in snow-storms1 until the snow has begun to fall1 and the first snow will fall with a ,s4 ,w4 air1 as ,i have heretofore stated4 ,but when the condensation has so far advanced toward stratus that the easterly wind and scud are obvious1 there is little or no doubt that rain or snow will fall speedily4 ,the occasional occurrence of easterly wind and scud1 without rain1 however--dry north-easters1 as ,i have termed them--in connection with storms passing south of us1 or condensation too feeble to precipitate1 should be remembered4 ,the long1 dry1 north-easterly winds of spring have been attributed to the icebergs1 but they are overlaid by feeble stratus or cirro-stratus condensation1 or are the result of attraction1 by a more southern precipitation4 ,the observer must be careful to distinguish between the various forms of ,n4 ,w4 scud and cirro-stratus1 which they sometimes resemble4 ,this he may do from the direction in which they move4 ,cirro-stratus always moves from some point between ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 and ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 to some point between ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 and ,e4 ,n4 ,e4 ,the various forms of ,n4 ,w4 scud move to the ,s4 ,e4 ,the ,march1 foggy scud1 from between ,w4 and ,n4 ,w41 rarely have any cirro-stratus above them1 but rather a peculiar turbid condensation4 ,the character of the primary condensation1 the direction and force of the wind1 and the direction of the secondary condensation or scud1 must be the main reliance of the observer4 ,but ,i must reiterate that they all differ in different kinds of storms1 in different seasons of the same year1 and the same seasons of different years2 and the observer must be careful to make due allowance for those differences4 ,there are1 however1 divers other secondary signs1 which1 although not alone to be relied upon1 will aid the observer1 if carefully studied1 when the character of the clouds1 and the pressure of easterly or southerly wind and scud1 are not decisive4 ,of these1 a large class are electrical4 ,the smoke descends the adjoining chimney-flues1 or outside of the chimney1 toward the ground4 ,thus1 ,darwin1 as quoted by ,hone3 ,the smoke from chimneys right ascends1 ,then1 spreading1 back to earth it bends4 ,smoke is electrified positively1 by the act of combustion2 the earth and the adjacent atmosphere1 when storms are gathering or approaching1 is negative4 ,hence the smoke spreads1 and is attracted downward by an opposite electricity4 ,on the other hand1 it is interesting to see1 at other times1 and when the difference in temperature is not material1 but the whole atmosphere is positive1 with what rapidity and compactness the smoke will ascend in a straight and elevated column from the chimney1 repelled by a similar electricity4 ,i am aware it is generally supposed the smoke descends because the air is lighter4 ,but it is a mistake4 ,i have seen it descend when the barometer was at #cj deg44#fj1 or 4#fj above the mean4 ,there is1 too1 a draught downward in chimneys1 in such cases when there is no smoke or fire in any of its flues4 ,thus ,jenner says3 ,the soot falls down2 whether he meant by this that there was an actual fall of soot other than what is occasioned by the rain falling in through the chimney top1 and disturbing the soot1 as sometimes happens1 ,i do not know4 ,it occurs rarely1 and is of very little practical importance4 ,but every housewife knows that chimneys1 which have been used in winter1 and are full of soot1 smell before storms4 ,the odor results from a downward draught and the dampness of the air4 ,so the smoke from one flue will descend another1 into some unused room1 on such occasions4 ,another class of these electrical signs are felt by those who are suffering from chronic diseases1 which have affected the nerves and made them sensitive4 ,thus ,jenner3 ,old ,betty's joints are on the rack4 ,and ,hone adds3 ,her corns with shooting pains torment her1 ,and to her bed untimely send her4 ,but ,old ,betty's rheumatism or corns are not alone in this4 ,those whose bones have been broken feel it4 ,all invalids feel it4 ,and1 indeed1 all observing healthy persons may1 and do1 although all are not distinctly conscious of it4 ,it is common for such to say1 ,i feel sleepy1 or ,i feel dull1 or1 ,it feels like snow1 or feels like rain1 and thus from their own feelings to be able to predict1 not only falling weather1 but its character1 whether snow or rain1 at a time when either may occur consistently with appearances4 ,this change is a change from the positive electricity which is so congenial to the active--bracing is the usual term--to negative and damp--for this change is accompanied by condensation1 as ,i believe all changes from positive to negative are4 ,certain it is1 if the atmosphere is highly charged with negative electricity1 condensation takes place2 if with positive1 evaporation4 ,perhaps it is a change of the associated electricity which accompanies magnetism1 and not of the free atmospheric electricity alone4 ,hence another phenomenon alluded to by ,jenner3 ,the walls are damp1 the ditches smell4 ,there are localities where this dampness is very obvious4 ,the celebrated ,william ,cobbett1 many years since1 when a farmer on ,long ,island1 observed and published the fact that the stones grew damp before a storm4 ,i know of flagging stones that usually grow damp two or three hours before rain1 especially in spring and fall1 and every step taken upon them is made visible by a corresponding increase of condensation4 ,the reverse of this takes place just before the close of storms4 ,flagging stones1 and walls under cover1 will frequently become dry before the rain ceases4 ,the negative electricity becomes less as the positive prevails1 although the clouds above are still dropping rain4 ,in the comparatively moist1 showery climate of ,england1 these changes from positive to negative alternate rapidly between successive showers2 but observations of electric phenomena1 or of clouds1 in that climate1 are not1 without qualification1 safe guides for us4 ,so the ditches smell1 particularly in the evening before a rain1 when the immediate surface-atmosphere is charged with negative electricity1 and the condensing moisture prevents the diffusion of the odors4 ,for the same reason the candle will not relight1 and there is crackling in the ashes or lamp4 ,thus1 again1 ,virgil3 ,maidens that nightly toil the tangled fleece ,divine the coming tempest2 in the lamp ,crackles the oil1 the gathering wick grows dim4 ,virgil did not live in our cold climate1 and knew nothing of the crackling in the fire1 or in the ashes or coals which remain after the wood is consumed4 ,the lamp exhibits it on a smaller scale1 and perhaps he had noticed it when in company with the maidens4 ,but it is sometimes noticeable even in the lamp or candle with us4 ,a small particle of moisture will produce it1 in a marked degree1 at any time4 ,in winter1 when the air is highly positive and cold1 the candle can be blown out1 and by another puff of the breath relighted1 with ease4 ,but when the electricity before a storm becomes negative1 and partial condensation takes place1 this can not be done4 ,this partial condensation before storms and showers shows itself upon vessels containing cold-water1 in summer4 ,it seems to be the received opinion1 that the condensation is evidence of a greater quantity of moisture in the atmosphere4 ,but this1 too1 is a mistake1 and hence the little reliance to be placed on hygrometers4 ,this partial condensation is sometimes visible4 ,when the sun shines clearly1 at the east or west1 through a small opening in the clouds1 the condensing vapor is shown by the streaks of sunlight1 just as the fine particles of dust are seen in a dark room1 when a few rays of sunlight are admitted through a small aperture4 ,this phenomenon is often observed1 and it is said of it--,it's a going to rain2 the sun is drawing water4 ,virgil alludes to this as seen in the east in the morning1 thus3 ,but when beneath the dawn red-fingered rays ,through the dense band of clouds diverging break1 99 99 99 99 99 ,ill does the leaf defend the mellowing grape2 ,leaps on the noisy roof the plenteous hail1 ,fearfully crackling4 ,it is well ascertained that storm-clouds of great intensity have polarity in the different portions1 and that in the less intense magneto-electrical climate of ,england isolated showers are often of this character--the polarity existing in rings4 ,showers are doubtless thus found with us4 ,mr4 ,wise got into one of them2 see his description 7,theory and ,practice of ,aeronautics page #bdj74 ,i have1 in another place1 alluded to the upward attraction of the dust beneath the advance condensation of a shower4 ,jenner alludes to it in the following lines3 ,the whirling winds the dust obeys1 ,and in the rapid eddy plays4 ,so ,virgil3 ,light chaff and leaflets1 flitting1 fill the air1 ,and sportive feathers circle on the lake4 ,all these are electrical4 ,in ,england1 where the action of such isolated clouds is less intense1 the different electricities in different portions of the cloud1 whose opposite and changing action produce all the phenomena1 the condensation1 the cold and congelation1 the currents1 etc41 have been accurately ascertained4 ,we can not get into the situation occupied by ,mr4 ,wise4 ,but every man may observe these intestine motions occasionally1 in the advance condensation of an isolated thunder-shower1 in front of1 but near the smooth line of falling rain4 ,they are more lateral than upward or downward1 and are often exceedingly rapid in movement4 ,i have said that hail has often been found to fall from particular and well-defined portions of a cloud1 and rain from the other portions1 the hail being positive1 and rain negative4 ,an instance of very striking character may be found in ,espy's ,philosophy of ,storms 7,introduction1 page xx47 ,doubtless in all cases thunder-showers1 which are isolated and distinct1 have opposite electricity in different portions1 to whose active agency all the phenomena are owing4 ,and the return of electricity to the earth in the rain explains the greater fertilizing effect of the latter compared ,with all artificial watering4 ,he was a true philosopher who attempted to stimulate vegetation by electricity4 ,sounds may sometimes aid the observer in doubtful cases in foretelling the weather4 ,the roar of the surf1 or breaking of the waves on the shore1 when great bodies of water are disturbed by a precedent storm-wind1 often heard before the wind is perceived on the land1 ,i have already alluded to4 ,and thus ,virgil3 ,when storms are brooding--in the leeward gulf ,dash the swelled waves2 the mighty mountains pour ,a harsh1 dull murmur2 far along the beach ,rolls the deep rushing roar4 ,the moaning or whistling of the wind all have noticed4 ,it is not uncommon to hear the expression1 ,the wind sounds like rain4 ,jenner says3 ,the hollow winds begin to blow4 ,and ,virgil3 ,the whispering grove ,betrays the gathering elemental strife4 ,this whispering is the motion of the leaves2 and they are often stirred by a peculiar motion which is not that of wind4 ,sometimes every leaf upon a tree may be seen vibrating with an upward and downward motion1 when there is not wind enough to stir a twig4 ,this interesting phenomenon is electrical4 ,trees1 and all vegetables1 confessedly discharge electricity1 and such discharges move the leaves1 when very active4 ,with us1 sounds can be heard more distinctly from the east or south1 before storms1 according to the character of the coming wind4 ,howard mentions an instance when he heard carriages five miles off4 ,steamboat paddles1 rail-road cars1 and other sounds1 are often heard a great distance4 ,the distance at which the now common steam-whistle is heard1 and the direction1 is not an unimportant auxiliary indication of the weather4 ,howard attributes these peculiar phenomena to the sounding board1 made by the stratum of cloud2 but sounds may be heard from the north-west1 when there is no condensation1 and the wind is from that quarter1 and also from the east when it is not cloudy2 and in a level country the village bells often tell the direction of the current of air just over our heads when we do not feel it at the surface4 ,the wind is undoubtedly moving in a rapid1 and perhaps invisible current1 not far above us4 ,if from the east or south1 it betokens rain2 if from the western quarter1 fair weather4 ,the conduct of the different animals furnish a considerable portion of the signs alluded to by ,virgil and ,jenner1 and are never unimportant auxiliary evidence of the approaching changes1 whether from dry to wet1 or wet to dry4 ,the observer will find1 in the conduct of our birds and animals1 especially those which are not domestic1 ample evidence of the truth of the descriptions of ,virgil4 ,he denies the animals and birds foresight1 but he does not seem to have observed that the swallow leaves for the south as soon as the autumnal change begins to be felt1 and in ,august2 nor the evident sagacity of other migratory birds4 ,they do not act from the varying impulse produced by an actual state of things1 but a knowledge or apprehension of those which are to come4 ,this is nothing more or less than foresight4 ,so foresight tends to prudence and skill1 and they exercise both1 and with reference to the future4 ,the goldfinch does not build her nest in the hole of the tree1 or in the crotch of the limb2 but hangs it with exquisite skill on the slender waving1 outward branch1 where no animal1 or larger bird1 or any depredator1 can be sustained4 ,she is not more timid than others2 why does she invariably thus build8 ,what makes her impulses differ from those of other birds1 and always in the same manner8 ,jenner1 too1 has grouped1 in admirably descriptive language1 many of the peculiarities exhibited by animals and birds before approaching storms1 some of which exhibit foresight1 and others not4 ,perhaps the rooster1 who keeps ceaseless watch over his harem1 is the most reliable weather-watcher we have4 ,in my earlier days1 when it was the practice to keep valuable birds of the kind much longer than it now is1 and they had opportunity to become experienced1 it was interesting to observe how closely they watched the weather4 ,i well remember a venerable chanticleer1 who1 perched on the tree among his hens1 would always foretell the coming storm of the morrow1 by sounding forth in the evening1 and often1 his defiant note4 ,such note in the evening was invariable evidence of foul weather4 ,and during the night1 their earlier and more frequent crowing is often indicative of it4 ,it is1 however1 in the earlier part of the day1 in doubtful cases1 that no inconsiderable reliance may be placed on their sagacity4 ,often1 when a storm is gathering in the forenoon1 they will announce it by an almost incessant crowing4 ,the habits of an experienced1 old-fashioned bird1 of this kind1 will well repay attention2 but ,i can not answer for the ,shanghai and other fancy breeds4 ,jenner says3 ,the leech disturbed1 is newly risen ,quite to the summit of his prison4 ,few have had1 or will have1 opportunities to observe this1 but it is strikingly true4 ,it is difficult to conceive how mere condensation1 from an increase of vapor in the atmosphere1 should be foreseen by the leech in his watery prison4 ,it is obvious1 ,i think1 there is an electric change which reaches him1 as it does the whole animal creation1 the once broken bones1 and the joints of ,aunt ,betty4 ,thus much of the philosophy of signs4 ,the barometer is a useful instrument1 in connection with observations of the other phenomena4 ,it is especially useful to the sailor1 as its indications relative to the winds are much the most certain4 ,but it is not1 alone1 to be relied upon4 ,this is well settled1 although the reasons for it have not been understood4 ,why it should rise sometimes before storms1 in opposition to the general rule--or fall at others without rain--or rise occasionally during the heaviest gales1 has been a mystery1 and impaired the confidence in its accuracy and usefulness even of the class of philosophers of whom ,sir ,george ,harvey spoke1 in the sentence quoted in the introduction4 ,but1 as ,i have already intimated1 it is all very intelligible4 ,i have said that the barometer has no fair weather standard--the mean of #cj inches at the level of the sea being an average of the fair weather elevations and the foul weather depressions4 ,its fair weather position1 it would seem1 must be above the mean1 therefore1 and as much above as its foul weather depressions are below4 ,but this is not precisely true4 ,its extreme fair weather range is #ca inches1 and it rarely reaches that2 while its lowest storm range is down to #bh1 and is the most often reached of the two4 ,my barometer stands about #dj feet above ordinary high-water mark4 ,it is not a wheel1 but an open1 scale barometer1 and a perfectly good one4 ,its most reliable fair weather standard is about #cj-cj_/ajj inches4 ,it is its most common summer1 set fair position1 but that position is often at other and different elevations1 at other periods of the year1 during fair weather4 ,the reader must observe for his own locality1 and satisfy himself what the most common set fair position for the barometer is1 at the different periods of the year1 where he resides4 ,when he has ascertained this1 he may apply the following principles to illustrate its exceptional action1 and in judging of the future of the weather3 #ast4 ,as to its rise before storms4--,supposing it to have been stationary1 at or about a set fair position1 for the period1 and for one or two or more days1 a very gradual and moderate rise is an indication of continued fair weather2 and a sudden and considerable rise is indicative of a storm4 ,if the sudden and considerable rise occurs in the latter part of spring1 summer1 or early autumn1 it indicates a storm of the first or third classes described in ,chapter ,x41 if in winter1 a storm of the first class only4 ,if the elevation is very sudden and considerable1 the storm will probably be severe4 ,the philosophy of this1 according to my present apprehension of it1 is1 that these storms present an extended easterly front--settle very near the earth--and have a rapid progress--thus accumulating the atmosphere somewhat1 in advance of them4 #b;d4 ,as to its fall before storms without previous rise4--,this is always very regular before the second class of storms1 or polar belts of showers and storms4 ,it is very fairly exemplified in the table from ,reid1 on page #cbi4 ,the barometer1 so far as ,i have opportunity to observe1 does not rise from a stationary position on the approach of this class of storms4 ,at the commencement of heated1 summer1 dry terms1 my barometer has most frequently ranged at about #cj4cj1 and gradually1 but slowly1 fallen below #cj inches before the belt of showers arrived1 and the term closed4 ,the fourth rule of ,dalton 7,meteorology1 page #ahc7 indicates a similar law in ,england4 ,it is as follows3 ,in summer1 after a long continuance of fair weather1 with the barometer high1 it generally falls gradually1 and for one1 two1 or more days1 before there is much appearance of rain4 ,if the fall be sudden and great for the season1 it will probably be followed by thunder4 #c;d4 ,it falls frequently and considerably without rain4--,this is owing to the fact that all regular1 periodic efforts at condensation do not result in rain4 ,the second1 third1 and fourth classes of storms described1 may not 7as we have said7 be sufficiently active to precipitate1 although the series of phenomena 7including the fall of the barometer7 may be1 in other respects1 perfect4 ,such an instance may be found in ,reid's table1 on page #cbi1 and on the #aath of the month4 ,but the fall in such cases is not as great1 unless the wind be violent4 #dth4 ,it rises during considerable gales4--,but these are of the kind so often alluded to--viz41 the ,n4 ,w41 in the northern hemisphere1 and the ,s4 ,w41 in the southern2 and the philosophy of it has been explained1 and is observable4 ,with these explanations1 the reader will be able to understand1 and practically apply1 the barometric changes1 in connection with the other phenomena1 in forming an opinion of the weather4 ,the thermometer is also an auxiliary4 ,it rises1 during the winter half of the year1 in the advance portion of the storm1 and falls when it passes off again2 and the reverse is true1 as we have seen1 when its range is very high in summer4 ,it is1 therefore1 to some extent1 a useful auxiliary1 although of minor importance4 ,the hygrometer is of less importance still4 ,it is not in general use as a practical guide to the changes of the weather1 and does not deserve to be4 ,a question1 which has been much mooted1 deserves a passing notice in this connection--viz41 whether our climate has gradually become ameliorated and milder on the eastern part of our continent1 since its settlement4 ,i have not space left for its discussion4 ,humboldt 7,aspects of ,nature1 page #ajc7 is of opinion that there has been no material change4 ,he says3 ,the statements so frequently advanced1 although unsupported by measurements1 that since the first ,european settlements in ,new ,england1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,virginia1 the destruction of many forests on both sides of the ,alleghanys1 has rendered the climate more equable--making the winters milder and the summers cooler--are now generally discredited4 ,no series of thermometric observations worthy of confidence extend further back1 in the ,united ,states1 than seventy-eight years4 ,we find1 from the ,philadelphia observations1 that from #agga to #ahbd1 the mean annual heat has hardly risen #b deg44#g ,fahrenheit--an increase that may fairly be ascribed to the extension of the town1 its greater population1 and to the numerous steam-engines4 ,this annual increase of temperature may also be owing to accident1 for in the same period ,i find that there was an increase of the mean winter temperature of #b deg4 ,fahrenheit2 but1 with this exception1 the seasons had all become somewhat warmer4 ,thirty-three years' observation1 at ,salem1 in ,massachusetts1 show scarcely any difference1 the mean of each one oscillating within #a deg4 of ,fahrenheit1 about the mean of the whole number2 and the winters of ,salem1 instead of having been rendered more mild1 as conjectured1 from the eradication of the forests1 have become colder1 by #d deg4 ,fahrenheit1 during the last thirty-three years4 ,the facts hereinbefore stated show that there is nothing like a regular amelioration2 that the seasons differ during the same decade1 and different decades4 ,the cold decade1 from #ahaa to #ahbj1 has not been reproduced4 ,but it may be1 and we know not how soon4 ,since that period there has certainly been a change--for even the cold period from #ahce to #ahdj did not equal that from #ahae to #ahbj1 nor indeed those of #agge to #aghj or #agie to #ahjj4 ,but as these variations1 so far as we are enabled to judge1 depend upon the varying influence of the sun's rays1 and of volcanic action1 it is impossible to say that equally cold periods will not return1 during the latter half of this century4 ,if the influence of the sun was constant1 and volcanic action regular1 two causes would tend to modify the seasons3 #ast4 ,the exposure of the surface to a more effective action of the solar rays1 by a removal of the forests1 and by drainage4 ,that such action would be more effective upon a surface thus uncovered and drained1 can not be doubted4 #b;d4 ,the movement of the area of magnetic intensity1 and the magnetic pole1 to the west4--,there is such a movement1 and its progress can be measured by the increase of declination on the east of it1 and its decrease on the west4 ,and the effect of it on climate is unquestionable4 ,in all probability it has had an influence upon ours2 and a removal of that area and pole still further west--#fj deg4 or #hj deg4--would change the location of the concentrated trade1 and the ,gulf ,stream1 and restore to ,greenland the fertility she once had1 and which the ,faroe ,islands now enjoy4 ,and1 on the other hand1 its removal as far east of its present position would again depopulate ,greenland1 and render it again inaccessible4 ,but ,i can not pursue this subject4 ,finally1 assistance may be derived from the occasional1 although imperfect1 accounts of the state of the weather elsewhere1 which the newspapers afford4 ,i have been much indebted to the ,associated ,press of ,new ,york for intelligence contained in their telegraphic reports4 ,occasionally they have been very full and instructive4 ,on this point1 however1 there is less of reality in the present than of hope in the future4 ,the time must come when the collection and dissemination of meteorological truth1 will be deemed an object of national importance1 and national duty4 ,population is increasing1 by immigration and propagation1 in a rapidly progressive ratio4 ,there has been great danger that it would outrun agricultural production4 ,a short crop this year would have been disastrous to our prosperity--and the danger was imminent4 ,every description of business1 and every financial circle1 felt that fever of anxiety it was so well calculated to induce4 ,the importance of extended agricultural production1 and the dependence of all classes upon its success1 are now in a greater measure appreciated2 and none can fail to see the value of a correct understanding of the weather to the agriculturist1 how short-sighted soever they may be1 in relation to its direct influence upon their own prosperity and happiness4 ,our country is1 physically1 a most favored one4 ,the facts disclosed or alluded to in this volume show that it is without a parallel on the face of the globe2 and our facilities for meteorological observation1 and the ascertainment and practical application of meteorological truth1 are equally pre-eminent4 ,the great extent and unbroken surface of the eastern portion of the continent2 its excessive supply of magnetism and atmospheric currents1 and the consequent marked character of the phenomena2 the existence and prospective increase of telegraph lines over most of its surface2 the homogeneous and energetic character of a population united1 upon so large a surface1 under one government2 the freedom of that government from debt1 and the excess of its revenue2 the possession of a ,national ,observatory1 with a competent philosopher at its head2 and a national institution1 liberally endowed1 and adapted to the collection and diffusion of practical and scientific intelligence1 give us an opportunity and a capacity for connected observation and investigation1 and an ability to profit by it1 that no other nation can boast4 ,we have1 too1 a just national pride4 ,our exploring ships have penetrated and made discoveries in both hemispheres1 and our travelers have visited successfully every clime2 and thus our national interests1 and obligations1 and pride1 demand an organization1 practical and permanent1 in relation to this subject1 and the time will come when we shall have it4 ,when that time comes--when the present limited horizon of each of us is practically extended over the entire country--and when the actual state of the weather over every part of it is known1 at the same time1 to the inhabitants of every other1 and every where read in the light of a correct philosophy1 prognostication will be comparatively simple and certain2 and ,a ,,progress will have been made1 productive of an amount of pecuniary1 intellectual1 and social benefit to the people1 which can not be overestimated4 ,may it come before the shadows of the night of death have gathered around us1 that we may have a more perfect view of that atmospheric machinery which distinguishes our planet from others1 and is1 with such infinite wisdom1 adapted to make it a fit habitation for man6 ,,the ,,end4 ,,appendix4 ,since this work was completed ,i have received a very valuable publication1 entitled1 the ,army ,meteorological ,register4 ,it is a compilation of the observations made by the officers of the medical department of the army1 at the military ,posts of the ,united ,states1 from #ahdc to #ahed inclusive1 prepared under the supervision of the ,surgeon-general1 and published by direction of the ,secretary of ,war4 ,to this1 there is appended a report or general review of the prominent features of ,american climatology1 so far as the basis afforded by the published observation of the army medical ,bureau would warrant positive deduction1 by ,mr4 ,lorin ,blodget1 a distinguished meteorologist1 accompanied by temperature and rain charts1 for each of the four seasons2--exhibiting the various local differences and peculiarities relative to temperature and precipitation in each4 ,these local differences and peculiarities and contrasts are deduced and delineated by ,mr4 ,blodget with much ability4 ,he was fettered1 however1 by the prevailing calorific theories1 and the unfortunate practice of grouping the phenomena into means for the seasons1 ,spring1 ,summer1 ,autumn1 and ,winter1 which grouping is arbitrary1 and comparatively uninstructive4 ,hence1 he failed to discover what the tables and summaries most clearly disclose--the principles and system unfolded in the foregoing work4 ,but the summaries of this register contain observations made at posts in ,western and ,southwestern ,texas1 in ,kansas and ,nebraska1 and in ,new ,mexico and ,california1 where there has been a dearth of such observations hitherto1 and enable me to demonstrate1 more conclusively1 and ,i think so that none can fail to understand it1 the truth of the philosophy ,i have endeavored to exhibit4 ,to do this1 ,i will take a year1--divide it into two seasons1 the periods of northern and southern transit1 the only natural and correct division--and note the phenomena in each1 as each progresses4 ,and ,i will take the year #ahed1 because that is the last year for which the record of observation is complete2 because it had marked peculiarities which are remembered2 and because ,i have alluded to those peculiarities1 and those allusions should be confirmed or disproved by the record4 ,unless ,i mistake exceedingly1 the confirmation will be found signal and convincing4 ,i have assumed1 pp4 #ahg1 #cea1 that the transits were greater in some seasons than others2 that the drought of #ahed was owing to an extreme northern transit1 or to an extension west of the concentrated counter-trade1 or both1 leaving us less supplied with moisture than usual4 ,in point of fact1 it appears from these observations that it resulted from both causes1 operating connectedly2 and the annals of ,science rarely furnish a more striking instance of analogical inference proved true by subsequent investigation4 ,commencing then with the commencement of the northern transit about the #ast of ,february1 we are enabled to trace the then location of our concentrated trade1 and its subsequent progress to the north till ,august1 and its influence upon temperature and precipitation4 ,and we can also trace the situation during the same period1 of the intervening drought1 and the inter-tropical belt of rains1 and the extension of the latter north over ,florida and the cotton-planting ,states4 ,on the #ast of ,february1 #ahed1 our counter-trade was somewhat more concentrated on its extreme winter curve1 over the ,southern ,states1 than usual4 ,its line of excess reached up from ,fort ,brooke1 on the peninsula of ,florida1 to the northwest1 a little east of ,pensacola on the gulf1 cutting ,mount ,vernon ,arsenal north of ,pensacola1 and extending thence north-westwardly on to ,eastern ,louisiana1 and curving thence and passing ,n4 ,e4 or ,e4 ,n4 ,e41 to the ,atlantic1 about the waters of the ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,it thinned out to the west over ,new ,orleans and ,baton ,rouge1 supplying them moderately1 but did not extend to the forts of ,texas on the west1 nor the posts in the ,indian ,territory at the ,n4 ,w4 ,it was east of ,fort ,towson1 which is the south-eastern one4 ,it did not reach ,st4 ,louis on the north1 nor extend north of the ,ohio ,river1 as will appear from the tables hereinafter given4 ,the following cut shows substantially its situation on the #ast of ,february4 ,illustration ,now1 during the month of ,january1 we find the following state of things4 ,under this concentrated trade1 the temperature was above the mean1 even if ,forts ,monroe and ,mc,henry on the ,atlantic are included2 but ,mr4 ,blodget discredits their returns1 and some others which do not conform to general results4 ,on the west and north of its curving line1 both precipitation and temperature were below the mean4 ,under the counter trade1 we have the following stations1 with their actual and mean temperature4 ,i have inserted the temperature for several subsequent months1 to show a depression in ,april4 ,,table ,i4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,,lat4 ,,lon4 ,,jan4 ,,feb4 ,,mar4 ,,april4 ,,may4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,fort ,moultrie #cb4de #gi4ea #ej4hc #ec4ji #fb4gb #fb4gf #gc4ce ,mean of #bh yrs4 #ej4cf #eb4da #eh4fh #fe4dd #gc4db ,fort ,pierce #bg4cj #hj4bj #fg4ia #fg4cc #gc4ja #ga4aj #gh4da ,mean of #e yrs4 #fb4ge #fd4db #fi4gg #gc4fc #gf4ib ,fort ,meade #bh4ja #hb4jj #fc4ge #fc4cc #gj4fd #fh4aj #gf4ca ,mean of #c yrs4 #eh4dj #fc4bc #fi4jb #fi4hi #gf4fi ,fort ,brooke #bh4jj #hb4bh #fb4id #fb4cf #gj4jf #gj4jg #gg4di ,mean of #be yrs4 #fa4ec #fc4ed #fg4gb #ga4hb #gf4fd ,fort ,myers #bf4ch #hb4jj #fg4ef #fg4ci #gc4gd #ga4jg #gi4ac ,mean of #d yrs4 #fc4ci #fg4ih #gb4ai #gc4hf #hj4ac ,key ,west #bd4cb #ha4dh #ga4ge #ga4ie #gf4ef #gc4hi #hj4hd ,mean of #ad yrs4 #ff4fh #fh4hh #gb4hh #ge4ch #gi4aj ,fort ,barrancas #cj4ah #hg4bg #ed4ga #ed4ef #fd4ih #fb4ic #ge4dj ,mean of #ag yrs4 #ec4fa #ee4eh #fa4hj #fh4ea #ge4de ,mt4 ,vernon ,ars'l #ca4ab #hh4jb #ea4eb #ec4ah #fe4bd #fb4cj #gd4fd ,mean of #ad yrs4 #ej4dd #ec4fi #fj4bf #ff4hg #gc4ib ,baton ,rouge #cj4bf #ia4ah #ec4dc #ef4dh #ff4bd #fd4fc #ge4aj ,mean of #bd yrs4 #ec4dg #ee4jb #fa4ic #fi4cj #ge4fj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ------------- ,,june4 ,,july4 ------------- #gh4ee #hb4jf #gi4ja #ha4gb #hb4ji #hd4af #gi4jb #hb4ej #gi4aj #hj4ag #gh4bd #gi4gf #hj4ea #ha4jh #gi4df #hj4gb #hb4ce #ha4ia #ha4be #hb4hg #hc4cd #hc4cj #ha4fc #hc4jj #ha4jj #hd4ee #hj4hj #hb4bf #gi4ag #gh4ij #gh4jc #gh4fb #hj4fa #hj4ji #hj4ef #ha4ha ------------- ,it will be seen that the temperature was above the mean in ,january at every post except ,baton ,rouge1 and there it was at the mean4 ,we shall see hereafter that ,baton ,rouge was near its western line4 ,under this trade during this month1 and at the same posts1 the fall of rain was as follows1 compared with the mean3-- ,,table ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,january4 ,,febr',y4 ,,march4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ahed4 ,mean4 #ahed4 ,mean4 #ahed4 ,mean4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,key ,west4 #a4gg #b4hf #b4ee #a4ch #j4ea #d4ba ,fort ,myers4 #a4ae #c4ij #d4gj #b4af #j4bj #d4fj ,brooke4 #c4hh #b4bj #f4hi #c4ja #b4dd #c4cg ,mead4 #a4cj #a4jg #b4ba #a4ja #a4he #a4fd ,pierce4 #c4ee #d4de #c4dj #b4gb #a4je #c4ja ,barrancas4 #c4de #c4hg #e4ee #d4ie #g4ba #e4hg ,mt4 ,vernon ,ars'l #aa4ja #f4hj #ab4hc #f4jd #f4bb #d4ei ,baton ,rouge4 #b4he #e4bf #e4ej #d4ia #f4ae #d4fh ,fort ,moultrie4 #c4hj #b4ci #b4hd #b4cc #j4be #d4jf ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,april4 ,,may4 ,,june4 ,,july4 #ahed4 ,mean4 #ahed4 ,mean4 ---------------------------------------- --- #b4ii #a4ee #c4ad #b4eh #d4ed #c4de #b4ge #c4ad #e4fe #c4cc #f4ge #i4gj #h4hb #a4ie #f4ba #c4bd #i4dd #ae4ec #c4ai #a4gh #aj4ea #e4cd #g4bd #h4ee #g4jj #c4he #e4gj #d4bg #f4fc #d4ig #j4ej #b4id #c4dg #d4je #c4ci #e4dc #a4if #d4ba #d4de #d4fb #f4gb #f4ac #c4eh #e4bb #h4je #e4ah #d4jj #f4ee #b4bj #a4ge #c4gj #d4jh #d4bj #e4fi ---------------------------------------- --- ,it will be observed that in ,february the counter-trade and extra-tropical belt had moved up from ,key ,west1 and a drought1 which sometimes intervenes between the concentrated counter-trade and the inter-tropical belt1 appeared there in ,february and ,march4 ,in ,april1 the inter-tropical belt appeared at that point1 and went on increasing till ,september4 ,as the counter-trade commenced moving north in ,february1 an increased precipitation above the mean commenced at all the more southern stations under the concentrated-trade--an earnest of that irregularity which followed1 and marked the season as the most excessive of the century4 ,in ,march1 the intervening drought appeared at the other posts on the peninsula1 and also at ,fort ,moultrie1 followed much more closely than usual1 by the inter-tropical belt of rains4 ,in ,april1 the drought appeared at ,fort ,barrancas and ,mount ,vernon ,arsenal 7the wave of precipitation having moved to the west71 and slightly in comparison at ,baton ,rouge4 ,if now we look at the condition of things1 west and north of the curving line of concentrated trade1 from ,fort ,brown1 at the mouth of the ,rio ,grande1 in ,south-western ,texas1 through that ,state1 the ,indian ,territory1 ,arkansas1 ,missouri1 ,kentucky1 and ,northern ,pennsylvania1 to the ,atlantic1 we find the thermometer every where in ,january below the mean4 ,the following table will show this1 and the precipitation for that month and ,february3-- ,,table ,,iii4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,january4 ,,february4 ,,march4 ---------------------------------------- ------- #ahed4 ,mean4 #ahed4 ,mean4 #ahed4 ,mean4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,western ,texas4 ,fort ,brown #ei4cd #fj4da #fb4de #fc4fc #ga4hg #fh4ie ,ewell #ej4dg #eb4ib #eh4ab #eg4fa #gj4cd #fg4jj ,inge #dg4bd #di4df #ef4jd #ee4ci #fg4ed #fb4fc ,indian ,territory4 ,fort ,towson4 #cf4cb #dc4ad #di4bi #de4ig #ei4ee #ec4dj ,forts ,gibson1 ,washita1 and ,arbuckle1 in much the same proportions4 ,arkansas4 ,fort ,smith4 #cc4ib #dj4ah #dg4ja #dc4hi #eg4ja #ea4eh ,missouri4 ,st4 ,louis ,arsenal4 #be4dg #ca4dd #cf4ff #cc4dc #df4aj #db4cj ,kentucky4 ,newport ,barracks4 #ca4ge #cd4jd #ci4fj #cf4id #df4gd #de4df ,pennsylvania4 ,allegheny ,arsenal4 #bi4jh #bi4be #cc4di #ca4af #dj4cf #ci4jb ,delaware4 ,fort ,delaware #cb4ch #cc4fg #cd4ef #ce4hd #dc4ah #db4ij ,new ,york ,harbor4 ,fort ,columbus4 #bh4ga #cj4ah #bh4ag #cj4dd #cf4ag #ch4bh ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,rain in ,january4 ,rain in ,february4 -------------------------------------- #j4de #a4ej #j4bb #b4hf #j4bj #b4ae #a4ja #b4jj #a4cg #b4je #j4fe #b4dj #c4bj #e4cj #b4bc #b4cc #b4cj #e4de #b4fj #d4jj -------------------------------------- ,we find1 also1 from this and table first1 that every where1 except at ,fort ,brown1 and upon the ,atlantic coast1 the temperature had risen above the mean in ,february4 ,the situation of the belt which supplied the western coast in winter1 and its excess of precipitation1 are also represented upon the cut4 ,the intervening area was not without counter-trade and precipitation--the latter1 of course1 greatest over the area of intensity--but they were comparatively less1 as the tables will show4 ,the following cut and table show the situation of the concentrated counter-trade in ,march4 ,illustration ,,table ,,iv4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,jan4,,febr4 ,,mar4 ,,apr4 ,,may4,,june4,,july4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,fort ,barrancas1 ,pensacola ,bay #c4de #e4ee #g4ba #j4ej #c4dg #c4ci #e4dc ,mean4 #c4hg #d4ie #e4hg #b4id #d4je #d4ff #f4hj ,baton ,rouge1 ,louisiana #b4he #e4ej #f4ae #c4eh #h4je #d4jj #f4ee ,mean4 #e4bf #d4ia #d4fh #e4bb #e4ah #e4eb #g4db ,fort ,towson1 ,indian ,territory #a4ja #b4jj #e4aj #b4bb,recr'd stops here4 ,mean4 #c4ac #b4ig #d4ch #e4cc ,fort ,gibson1 ,indian ,territory #j4cj #a4dc #g4hc #c4af #g4fg #b4hj #j4ba ,mean4 #a4cc #b4bf #b4ed #d4ai #d4fe #d4cj #b4ge ,fort ,smith1 ,arkansas #a4cg #b4je #g4je #f4ee #f4be #b4bf #a4jb ,mean4 #a4if #b4ag #b4ib #e4aj #d4df #d4gd #c4hb ,st4 ,louis ,arsenal #j4fe #b4dj #g4aj #d4cj #d4fe #b4bj #a4gj ,mean4 #a4ic #c4cg #c4hb #d4af #d4hh #f4id #j4jd ,newport ,barracks1 ,kentucky #c4bj #e4cj #h4aj #b4aj 7,no ,mean given47 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,we see from this table that its focus had extended west in ,florida over ,fort ,barrancas1 and over ,baton ,rouge in ,louisiana2 ,n4 ,w4 to ,forts ,towson and ,gibson in the ,indian ,territory1 and ,smith in ,arkansas2 north to ,st4 ,louis ,arsenal at ,st4 ,louis1 and to ,newport barracks in ,kentucky2 but it was spread over a larger surface east of the mountains4 ,its greatest progress for the month1 was a west and north-west progress4 ,in ,april1 we find it had progressed rapidly west and north-west1 and its position is shown by the following cut and table4 ,illustration ,,table ,v4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,jan4,,febr4 ,,mar4 ,,apr4 ,,may4,,june4,,july4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,fort ,riley1 ,kansas4 #j4jj #j4id #a4hf #d4ee #d4ce #a4aj #j4jj ,fort ,leavenworth1 ,kansas4 #j4jd #a4gh #a4cc #c4ce #e4ee #d4ej #j4ah ,mean #j4gb #a4ja #a4fa #b4gd #c4fb #e4hj #c4ae ,alleghany ,arsenal1 ,pittsburgh #b4bc #b4cc #b4hb #d4ba #b4bd #b4jf #a4de ,mean #b4ah #b4ag #b4gj #c4aj #c4eh #c4ef #b4ig ,fort ,columbus1 ,new ,york ,harbor #b4fj #d4jj #j4gj #h4hj #g4gj #b4bj #a4ij ,mean #b4gh #b4ib #c4dd #c4cc #d4gh #c4df #c4ag ,fort ,independence1 ,boston #b4ej #c4cf #b4ee #e4dj #d4bh #b4jj ,west ,point4 #c4eb #e4jd #b4haaj4ec #b4jj #a4fb ,mean #c4ej #c4dd #c4ga #d4ee #f4ah #d4gi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,we see1 too1 that both east and west of the mountains1 its focus of precipitation was one month in advance of the mean4 ,at all the stations where the greatest fall was in ,march1 it should have been in ,april1 and the fall at those points was greatly in excess of the usual quantity4 ,and the same was true of stations reached in ,april4 ,the concentrated trade1 instead of spreading out1 and precipitating over the whole south-eastern portion of the continent 7its normal condition71 was gathered into a wave of greater volume1 resulting in greater precipitation1 and was rapidly hastening its curve to the west over ,texas1 and to the north-west over the ,indian ,territory1 and northward on its usual curve to the north and east of them4 ,the observations for ,april disclose another singular and instructive condition4 ,the temperature1 that had every where been above the mean in ,march1 fell below it in ,april under the concentrated trade4 ,and snow fell on three days in some localities1 and four in others4 ,along the ,ohio ,river1 it fell to the depth of #h to #aj inches on the #agth1 and east of the mountains to a greater depth on the #ahth1 one day later4 ,it fell to the depth of #d inches at ,marietta on the #bith also4 ,dr4 ,hilldreth1 ,american ,journal of ,science for ,march1 #ahee1 says3-- ,it is a singular fact that the deepest snow1 #h inches1 fell on the #agth of ,april1 and at the head waters about ,pittsburg over a foot4 ,also1 on the #bith of the month1 at ,marietta1 #d inches1 a very rare occurrence4 ,this depression of the temperature was quite general1 but the fall of snow was local4 ,the latter was north of a line drawn from ,fort ,laramie1 at the base of the ,rocky ,mountains1 in an ,e4 ,s4 ,e4 direction--north of ,forts ,kearney and ,leavenworth1 and of ,st4 ,louis1 but south of ,newport barracks in ,kentucky1 and from thence to the ,atlantic4 ,snow fell at every station north of this line1 at no station south of it4 ,the depression of temperature1 however1 was experienced over the continent1 east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 under1 and south of1 the belt of precipitation4 ,now what occasioned this general depression of temperature1 and local fall of snow8 ,it will not do to say1 as perhaps some calorific theorist may be inclined to say1 because the concentrated trade had been carried up where it was cold1 a month too soon2 or that the sun had heated the land in advance of it1 and drawn it up4 ,for1 #ast1 it might be asked how1 if it was warm enough to draw it up1 could it be cold enough to make it snow2 or1 #b;d1 how happened it to start1 when1 as we have seen1 it was warmer than the mean under it1 and colder than the mean to the north and west of it1 when it commenced its journey8 ,but again1 it snowed at posts north of the line1 while the thermometer remained above the mean2 and the thermometer fell below the mean down to ,fort ,brown in south-western ,texas1 and at ,key ,west in the southern part of ,florida2 and what is more remarkable still1 at ,key ,west1 ,fort ,barrancas1 and every other south-eastern station1 except ,forts ,brooke and ,moultrie1 it not only fell below the mean of the month1 but below the actual temperature of ,march4 7,see ,table ,i47 ,at ,forts ,brooke and ,moultrie it did not rise above that temperature4 ,west of the ,rocky ,mountains the depression was not felt2 nor at stations north1 or north-west of the belt of precipitation4 ,it is obvious1 the calorific theory can furnish no rational explanation of this matter2 for the reason that1 whatever the cause1 it operated not only under1 but south1 and far south of the belt of precipitation4 ,it could not have been spots upon the sun1 or other general cause1 for then it would have operated in ,new ,mexico and ,california1 and at the north-western stations4 ,it operated most intensely in ,florida and the ,south-,eastern ,states1 which approach most nearly the volcanic areas of ,south ,america and the ,west ,indies4 ,i believe it to have been occasioned by volcanic action affecting the local magnetism of our intense area2 but it is a most important development1 and should be thoroughly investigated4 ,we may find in it the key to the mysterious1 but unquestionable1 influence of volcanic upon magnetic action2 and ,i hope the distinguished surgeon-general will cause the records of that month to be published in extenso4 ,in ,may and ,june1 the trade became more concentrated1 a perfectly developed belt from the ,rio ,grande to the ,lakes and ,british possessions1 and doubtless to the ,atlantic1 with every where a central focus of excessive precipitation1 gathering to itself in one vast wave the current that should have been spread out over the whole country2 and leaving every where on its eastern and southern borders1 down to the northern edge of the inter-tropical belt of rains--7which extended up to lines drawn from ,baton ,rouge to ,charleston7--a perfectly well developed and defined drought4 ,that drought will long be remembered4 ,the following cuts show1 approximately1 the location of the belt of precipitation and drought for those months1 and the table which follows will show their correctness4 ,the tables also show that this wave was occasionally a double1 or divided one--evinced by an intervening partial precipitation4 ,tables ,,iv41 ,v41 and ,,vi41 also show the commencement of the drought at the several stations1 as the wave moved to the west and north4 ,illustration3 ,,may4 ,illustration ,,table ,,vi4 ,,jan4 ,,febr4 ,,mar4 ,,apr4 ,,may4 ,,june4 ,,july4 ,,aug4 ,,sept4 ,fort ,brown #j4de #a4ej #a4ae #j4je #d4aj #g4fe #d4be #e4jj #aa4ca ,mean #a4fa #b4be #a4bj #j4ef #b4ba #d4ee #a4ie #b4gf #f4gc ,ringgold ,barracks #j4gj #a4fi #j4bb #j4jj #b4hc #aj4ih #d4jf #a4eh #c4jb ,mean #a4bd #a4ah #j4gb #a4jh #b4ji #c4dg #c4ah #a4ej #c4bb ,fort ,merrill #j4aa #a4ii #j4je #a4af #g4ff #d4gj #e4dd #c4ac #e4ja ,mean #j4bc #b4ji #j4ji #a4fb #c4dc #d4aj #f4ac #c4dj #d4fj ,fort ,duncan #j4je #j4fi #a4ej #j4jj #b4ec #f4hc #j4hc #j4ij #d4ha ,mean #j4bf #a4bg #a4cd #j4ga #a4ej #e4fc #c4ce #j4ic #c4bh ,fort ,inge #j4bj #b4ae #c4jj #j4ge #c4hh #b4ji #j4ig #a4fg #d4hj ,mean #j4fd #b4ba #a4gi #a4bf #c4ja #e4ch #c4ff #b4jb #b4ba ,fort ,mc,kavet #j4ja #j4gg #b4aj #j4bh #c4gb #j4ae #b4ia #j4jd #c4hf ,belknap #j4aa #a4aj #a4db #a4ge #d4ig #h4cc #j4jj #j4ge #a4ec ,massachusetts1 ,northern ,new ,mexico #c4ic #j4bd #b4ad #b4fa #a4ec ,fort ,kearney #j4bc #a4cc #a4hg #b4ef #d4ae #e4dj #c4ea #a4ah #d4fj ,mean #j4ej #j4dh #a4ee #b4fh #f4eg #d4cf #e4jg #b4fb #a4hc ,fort ,laramie #j4ah #j4dj #j4hj #c4ih #d4df #c4fg #c4bf #a4bg #a4fj ,mean #j4bg #j4ga #a4cg #a4ic #e4ci #b4ie #a4hc #j4ib #a4cc ,fort ,ridgley #a4bj #j4ja #a4ah #b4hc #f4hd #b4gj #b4di #b4bh #b4eh ,snelling #j4gb #j4jc #a4jc #b4ea #d4cj #c4ca #c4ib #a4ge #f4ee ,mean #j4gc #j4eb #a4cj #b4ad #c4ag #c4fc #d4aa #c4ah #c4cb ,fort ,ripley #j4fg #j4jc #j4gi #j4ig #d4cd #c4fh #j4fb #a4fi #d4dj ,mean #j4hf #j4cg #a4hj #a4db #c4ji #e4ae #e4bj #b4bg #d4ib ,fort ,mackinac #b4ei #a4bc #a4ef #a4jd #b4fe #f4ce #e4fg #d4bf #c4bb ,mean #a4be #j4hb #a4ad #a4ba #b4cb #b4ha #c4bj #b4hg #b4ig ,fort ,brady #b4di #a4ah #a4cd #b4ad #c4fa #a4bc #c4ba #c4hf #c4ah ,mean #a4hd #a4ac #a4cg #a4hc #b4bd #b4hc #c4gc #c4ci #d4cc ,fort ,niagara #a4fc #b4eb #a4hg #b4be #c4ij #a4ga #d4jh #a4eb #b4fa ,mean #b4be #a4hi #b4ab #b4bj #b4ee #c4bh #c4di #c4jd #c4ie ,but the belt of trade continued its progress to the west and north1 and during the months of ,july and ,august the drought extended in both directions1 reaching1 in ,august1 from ,mississippi1 ,alabama1 ,georgia1 and ,south ,carolina1 to the ,lakes1 and from the ,rocky ,mountains to the ,atlantic4 ,its position is shown by the following cut1 and the position of the belt of precipitation by the following table4 ,illustration ,,table ,,vii4 ,situation of the focus of ,precipitation in ,july and ,august4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,june4 ,,july4 ,,aug4 ,,sept4 ,,oct4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,new ,mexico4 ,fort ,thorne #j4jh #b4bc #f4ja #c4ej #j4jj ,albuquerque #j4bh #b4ej #a4ai #b4fg #a4cg ,santa ,fe #j4cb #d4aa #c4hf #d4jf #b4ej ,fort ,defiance #a4bd #c4id #e4bd #c4dg #j4fb ,yuma #j4jj #j4ja #b4cg #j4ag #j4cj ,san ,diego #j4jb #j4jg #a4ce #j4ac #j4ja ,fort ,snelling1 ,minnesota #c4ca #c4ib #a4ge #f4ce #a4bc ,brady #a4bc #c4ba #c4hf #c4ah #c4dj ,mackinac #f4ce #e4fg #d4bf #c4bb #b4bh ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,i have not space for all the comment which this exposition is calculated to induce4 ,the reader will not only find in it an explanation of the extraordinary character of the summer of #ahed1 but will see from the means1 that it was but an excessive development of an ,,annual ,,phenomenon1--,,the ,,progress ,,of ,a ,,concentrated ,,counter-,,trade4 ,it is not necessary to follow with particularity the return transit4 ,it required no great degree of sagacity to predict1 at the time1 that the drought would continue in the vicinity of ,new ,york till about the #ajth of ,september4 ,the return of the belt to that latitude1 was not to be expected before that time1 and the drought continued1 in fact1 until the #ith of ,september4 ,its return progress was slow1 and it was every where behind time4 ,the autumn was warm1 and so1 indeed1 were ,december and ,january1 west of the area of magnetic intensity1 although upon1 and east of it1 there was a depression in ,december4 ,the retreating but lingering edge of counter-trade1 with its excess of snow for the season1 caught the ,iron ,horse1 with its train and passengers1 upon the prairies of the west1 and laid its embargoing hands upon them4 ,few1 if any1 can have forgotten the thrilling accounts which reached us from that section1 of the sufferings endured by those who were thus embargoed for days and nights1 far from the comfortable habitations of their fellow men4 ,but the return transit1 though slow1 was extreme1 and ,february and ,march were exceedingly cold for the season4 ,the transit to the north1 again1 did not commence as early as usual1 and the spring was backward1 and the summer cool4 ,both were without irregularity1 and the season was productive4 ,the following table exhibits the temperature on a line of posts1 running north and south at the west1 during the winter months of #ahee1 and will illustrate what has been said4 ,,table ,,viii4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ahee4 ,,january ,,february4 ,,march4 ,,april4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,key ,west #fg4ah #fe4id #gj4bh #ge4ji ,mean #ff4eh #fh4hh #gb4hh #ge4ch ,fort ,snelling #ag4ji #ab4fb #be4cj #di4hf ,mean #ac4gf #ag4eg #ca4da #df4cd ,fort ,kearney #bc4ee #be4fi #cb4hf #ed4ci ,mean #ba4ad #bf4aa #cd4ej #dg4ac ,fort ,laramie #ce4he #bi4ja #cf4da #eb4id ,mean #ca4jc #cb4fj #cf4ha #dg4fj ,fort ,arbuckle #da4id #ci4hf #di4ji #fg4dc ,mean #ci4aj #dc4fi #ec4bb #fa4he ,fort ,belknap #de4ib #dd4di #ec4ji #gj4jj ,mean #db4hj #dg4dg #ef4ij #fe4gi ,fort ,chadbourne #dh4hi #de4hg #ef4fh #fh4ea ,mean #dd4bi #df4ge #eh4ja #fe4eb ,fort ,mc,kavitt #df4gd #dd4ea #ec4ff #fg4je ,mean #dd4ge #df4hg #eg4ci #ff4be ,fort ,merrill #ed4ea #ed4fe #fa4hb #gd4ej ,mean #ed4hb #eg4bj #fh4ff #gc4bg ,fort ,brown #fj4bc #fa4fj #ff4bd #gd4ih ,mean #fj4da #fc4fc #fh4ie #ge4je ,fort ,inge #eb4ba #ej4fc #fa4bb #gd4dh ,mean #di4df #ee4ci #fb4fc #fh4jb ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,the return transit to the south for this winter1 #ahee-f1 has been an extreme one4 ,it is too early yet 7,feb4 #ahth7 to write its history1 but the extreme southern transit is as obvious as the unusual severity of the cold4 ,the rains which usually fall upon the ,southern ,states are precipitated further south upon the ,west ,indies1 and threaten a deterioration of their sugar crop4 ,the snow1 and cold winds1 and ice1 of the middle latitudes1 are felt even in ,florida4 ,our sheet of counter-trade has been exceedingly thin1 and the barometer has ranged1 in fair weather1 much below the mean4 ,occasional1 and for a part of the time1 weekly periods of an increase of its volume1 with a corresponding elevation of the barometer1 and a consequent moderation of the intense cold1 and a storm1 have occurred4 ,but those periods have been few and brief4 ,no regular thaw has yet occurred4 ,from the #bfth of ,december to this date1 at ,norwalk1 there have been but two periods when the wind has blown from the south-west with sufficient force to stir the limbs of the trees4 ,there has been no wind from south of that point1 or east of north-east2 and even our storm-winds1 with one exception1 have been north of north-east--owing to the situation of the focus of precipitation far to the south of us--and there is reason to fear that a cold summer like those of #ahaf and #ahcf may follow4 ,if this extreme transit is owing to defect in the influence of the sun1 from spots1 or other causes1 such will probably be the result4 ,if from volcanic action at the south1 the influence of that action may cease1 and a rapid return transit1 and an ordinary season1 may follow4 ,believing in the laws of periodicity in relation to the weather and disease1 ,i planted an early kind of corn 7the ,dutton71 in #ahcf1 and had a crop when few around me succeeded4 ,we must watch this return transit1 with hope1 indeed1 but not without fear1 and be wise in time4 ,there is a mass of other evidence in these summaries which shows the truth of what ,i have written4 ,there is not a deduction of ,mr4 ,blodget which it will not explain4 ,the ascent of the summer lines of temperature to the west is explained by the diminution of magnetic intensity4 ,their descent in winter by the location and attractions of the concentrated trade4 ,the excess of precipitation in ,alabama and ,mississippi by the succession of summer and winter belts4 ,that of the interior of the ,atlantic slope in summer1 by the showers which fall upon the elevations2 and of the coast1 by the easterly storms and their attraction of the surface atmosphere of the ocean1 at other seasons4 ,but ,i cannot further particularize4 ,even the influence of the spots is clearly demonstrated by the observations at interior stations1 which were unaffected by contiguous oceans or elevations4 ,at ,forts ,washita1 ,gibson1 ,scott1 ,smith1 and others1 the years #ahdg and #ahdh were below the mean4 ,all that evidence1 and those deductions1 however1 ,i must pass by for want of space1 and take leave of the subject4 ,footnotes3 #a ,see the diagram for summer at page #ee4 #b ,law of ,storms1 p4 #db4 #c ,kearakakua ,bay 7called ,cavrico above71 is on the ,s4 ,w4 side of the island1 and the trade was reversed during the day by the cloud condensation inland4 #d ,lieutenant ,wilkes spent twenty days upon the top of this or an adjoining mountain1 and his observations there will be alluded to in another connection4 #e ,all attempts to produce this result by the sudden exhaustion of air about the chickens in receivers1 or shooting them from cannons1 have failed1 and no patent for a chicken-picker has been applied for4 #f ,a meter is #a yard1 and 4#jicf of a yard4 #g ,see his map1 accompanying the ,geography of the ,sea4 #h ,see ,am4 ,jour4 of ,science1 ,new ,series1 ,vol4 #ah4 p4 #ahg4 #i ,their estimate was #ajj to #abj miles4 #aj ,since the text was in type1 and1 as might have been anticipated1 we have intelligence confirmatory of this1 from the ,cape ,de ,verde ,islands4 ,the inter-tropical belt of rains has not moved as far north as the northern islands--they have had no rain--and the people are in a starving condition4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by italics4 ,punctuation has been corrected without note4 ,the following misprints have been corrected3 appearnces corrected to appearances 7page #dd7 ,faroday's corrected to ,faraday's 7page #hd7 gentleman corrected to gentlemen 7page #if7 two corrected to too 7page #aje7 surise corrected to sunrise 7page #aaa7 acion corrected to action 7page #afd7 ,stanta corrected to ,santa 7page #afg7 ,augugst corrected to ,august 7page #afg7 baloon's corrected to balloon's 7page #aib7 mannner corrected to manner 7page #bad7 #aaih corrected to #agih 7page #bba7 sevententh corrected to seventeenth 7page #bdj7 maner corrected to manner 7page #bed7 particulary corrected to particularly 7page #bef7 are are corrected to are 7page #bhh7 iso-theral corrected to iso-thermal 7page #bii7 the the corrected to the 7page #cfj7 phenonema corrected to phenomena 7page #djc7 calorifice corrected to calorific 7page #dji7 ,other than the corrections listed above1 inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been retained from the original4 ,tables throughout this text version have been adjusted for readability4