,transcrib]'s ,notes ,?is text is d]iv$ f a copy 9 ! ,ave ,m>ia ,univ]sity libr>y1 catalog numb] ,b #aga 4,s#h ,end ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,a ,,critical ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,greek ,,philosophy ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,limit$ ,,london - ,,bombay - ,,calcutta - ,,madras ,,melb\rne ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york - ,,bo/on - ,,*icago ,,dallas - ,,san ,,francisco ,,! ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,( ,,canada1 ,ltd ,,toronto ,a ,,critical ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,greek ,,philosophy ,,by ,w4 ,t4 ,,/ace ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,limit$ ,,/4 ,,m>t9',s ,,/reet1 ,,london #aibj ,,copyright ,,glasg[3 ,,pr9t$ ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,by ,,rob]t ,,maclehose ,,& ,,co4 ,,ltd4 v ,,preface ,?is book conta9s ! sub/ance1 & = ! mo/ "p ! words1 ( a c\rse ( public lectures deliv]$ dur+ ! fir/ ?ree mon?s ( #aiai4 ,! orig9al division into lectures has be5 dropp$1 ! matt] be+ m conv5i5tly r$ivid$ into *apt]s4 ,! audi5ce to :om ! lectures 7 deliv]$ 0 compos$ ( memb]s ( ! g5]al public1 & n only ( /ud5ts4 ,= ! mo/ "p !y possess$ no previ\s k ( philosophy4 ,h5ce ?is book1 l ! orig9al lectures1 assumes no previ\s special k1 ?\gh x assumes1 ( c\rse1 a /ate ( g5]al education 9 ! read]4 ,te*nical philosophical t]ms are c>efully expla9$ :5 fir/ introduc$2 & a special ef=t has be5 made to put philosophical ideas 9 ! cle>e/ way possible4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t _m ( ! pr(\nde/ z well z ! mo/ difficult ( human conceptions are to be f\nd 9 ,greek philosophy4 ,su* ideas are difficult 9 !mselves1 h[ev] cle>ly express$4 ,no am\nt ( explanation c ev] r5d] !m any?+ b difficult to ! unsophi/icat$ m9d1 & any?+ 9 ! nature ( philosophy made easy is only to be expect$ f quacks & *>latans4 ,greek philosophy is n1 ev5 n[1 antiquat$4 ,x is n f ! po9t ( view ( an antiqu>y or hi/orian vi t its treasures are valuable4 ,we are deal+ "h ) liv+ ?+s1 & n ) m]e dead ?+s--n ) ! dry bones & debris ( a bygone age4 ,& ,i h tri$ to lecture & write = liv+ p1 & n = m]e fossil-grubb]s4 ,if ,i did n believe t !re is to be f\nd "h1 9 ,greek philosophy1 at lea/ a measure ( ! tru?1 ! tru? t does n gr[ old1 ,i w\ld n wa/e five m9utes ( my life ^u x4 ,we d n1 says a popul> mod]n writ]1 ,footnote #a br+ ! "y m9d up aga9/ ! few broad elem5tal que/ions t are ! que/ions ( metaphysics 4444 ,we d n make x discuss1 correct x1 elucidate x4 ,t 0 ! way ( ! ,greeks1 & we wor%ip t div9e p f> too mu* to adopt _! way4 ,no1 we lecture to our "y p ab\t n philosophy b philosoph]s1 we put !m ?r\gh book aft] book1 tell+ h[ o!r p h discuss$ ^! que/ions4 ,we avoid ! que/ions ( metaphysics1 b we deliv] semi-dige/$ half views ( ! discussions (1 & answ]s to ^! que/ions made by m5 ( all sorts & qualities1 9 v>i\s remote languages & "u conditions q diff]5t f our own4 4 4 4 ,x is z if we began tea*+ ari?metic by long lectures ^u ! orig9 ( ! ,roman num]als1 & !n w5t on to ! lives & motives ( ! ,arab ma!maticians 9 ,spa91 or />t$ ) ,rog] ,bacon 9 *emi/ry1 or ,sir ,ri*>d ,ow5 9 comp>ative anatomy 4444 ,x is "t ! educational p[]s began to realise t ! que/ions ( metaphysics1 ! elem5ts ( philosophy1 are1 "h & n[ to be done afre% 9 ea* m9d 4444 ,:at is want$ is philosophy1 & n a %all[ smatt]+ ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy 444 vii ,! prop] way to discuss metaphysics1 l ! prop] way to discuss ma!matics or *emi/ry1 is to discuss ! accumulat$ & dige/$ product ( human ?\ght 9 su* matt]s4 ,footnote #a3 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells 9 ,fir/ & ,la/ ,?+s4 ,plausible words ^!1 c]ta9 to seem conclusive to ! mob1 not)/&+ t = "o elem5t ( tru? !y conta9 n9e ( untru?6 ,! elem5ts ( tru? are t our educational sy/em unw>rantably leaves unus$ ! p[]ful weapon ( oral discussion--s =cibly wield$ by ! ,greeks--& develops book k at ! exp5se ( orig9al ?\ght4 ,?\gh ev5 "h x mu/ be rememb]$1 z reg>ds ! ,greeks1 7#a7 t if !y /udi$ ! hi/ory ( philosophy b little1 x 0 because !re 0 !n b little hi/ory ( philosophy to /udy1 & 7#b7 t if anyone imag9es t ! great ,greek ?9k]s did n fully ma/] ! ?\ght ( _! pr$ecessors be=e con/ruct+ _! own sy/ems1 he is griev\sly mi/ak51 & 7#c7 t 9 "s cases ! ov]-reliance on oral discussion--! opposite fault to ours--l$ to intellectual di%one/y1 quibbl+1 o/5tation1 disreg>d ( tru?1 %all[ness1 & abs5ce ( all pr9ciple2 ?is 0 ! case ) ! ,sophi/s4 ,z to ! comp>isons betwe5 ari?metic & philosophy1 *emi/ry & philosophy1 etc41 !y re/ :olly ^u a false p>allel1 & involve a total failure to compreh5d ! nature ( philosophic tru?1 & its fundam5tal diff]5ce f ari?metical1 *emical1 or physical tru?4 ,if ,erato/h5es ?\ght ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? to be s mu*1 :]eas x has n[ be5 discov]$ to be s mu*1 !n ! lat] correct view simply cancels & r5d]s nugatory ! old] view4 viii ,! "o is correct1 ! o!r incorrect4 ,we c ignore & =get ! incorrect view altoge!r4 ,b ! developm5t ( philosophy proce$s on q o!r pr9ciples4 ,philosophical tru? is no sum 9 ari?metic to be tott$ up s t ! answ] is ?us =mally & f9ally correct or incorrect4 ,r1 ! philosophical tru? unfolds itself1 factor by factor1 9 "t1 9 ! successive sy/ems ( philosophy1 & x is only 9 ! complete s]ies t ! complete tru? is to be f\nd4 ,! sy/em ( ,ari/otle does n simply cancel & refute t ( ,plato4 ,sp9oza does n simply aboli% ,desc>tes4 ,ari/otle completes ,plato1 z 8 necess>y complem5t4 ,sp9oza does ! same = ,desc>tes4 ,& s x is always4 ,! calculation ( ,erato/h5es is simply wrong1 & s we c af=d to =get x4 ,b ! sy/ems ( ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,sp9oza1 ,leibniz1 etc41 are all alike factors ( ! tru?4 ,!y are z true n[ z !y 7 9 _! own times1 ?\gh !y are n1 & nev] 71 ! :ole tru?4 ,& !re=e x is t !y are n simply wrong1 done )1 f9i%$1 end$1 & t we _c af=d to =get !m4 ,:e!r x is n possible to br+ ! _m lights to a s+le focus1 to weld ! v>i\s factors ( ! tru? into a s+le organic :ole or sy/em1 :i* %\ld ?us be ! total result to date1 is ano!r "q4 ,only "o su* attempt has ev] be5 made1 b no "o w pret5d t x is possible to und]/& x )\t a ?or\gh k ( all previ\s sy/ems1 a k1 9 fact1 ( ! sep>ate factors ( ! tru? be=e !y are ?us comb9$ into a total result4 ,besides1 t attempt1 too1 is n[ "p ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy6 ,h5ce any philosophical ?9k+ :i* is n f\nd$ ix ^u a ?or\gh /udy ( ! sy/ems ( ! pa/ w necess>ily be %all[ & wor?less4 ,& ! notions t we c disp5se ) ?is /udy1 & d ev]y?+ out ( our own heads1 t ev]yone is to be 8 own philosoph]1 & is compet5t to con/ruct 8 own sy/em 9 8 own way--su* ideas are utt]ly empty & holl[4 ,( ^! tru?s1 inde$1 we see a notable example 9 :at ! writ] j quot$ /yles 8 metaphysic4 ,?is s-call$ metaphysic is :olly bas$ ^u ! assumption t k & its object exi/1 ea* on its own acc\nt1 ext]nal to "o ano!r1 ! "o "h1 ! o!r !re ov] aga9/ x1 & t k is an in/rum5t :i* 9 ?is ext]nal mann] takes hold ( its object & makes x its own4 ,! v mom5t ! ^w in/rum5t is us$ "h1 all ! re/1 includ+ ! invalidity ( k1 foll[s z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,su* assumption !n--t k is an in/rum5t--our writ] makes1 :olly uncritically1 & )\t a %ad[ ( "r4 ,he gives no sign t x has ev] ev5 occurr$ to him t ?is is an assumption1 t x ne$s any enquiry1 or t x is possible = anyone to ?9k o!rwise4 ,yet anyone :o w take ! tr\ble1 n m]ely sup]ficially to dip into ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 b ?or\ghly to submit himself to its discipl9e1 w at lea/ le>n t ?is is an assumption1 a v d\btful assumption1 too1 :i* no "o n[ has ! "r to foi/ ^u ! public )\t discussion z if x 7 an axiomatic tru?4 ,he might ev5 le>n t x is a false assumption4 ,& he w note1 z an om9\s sign1 t ! subjectivism :i* p]meates & directs ! :ole c\rse ( ,mr4 ,wells's ?9k+ is id5tical 9 "* ) t x subjectivism :i* 0 ! ess5tial feature ( ! decay & d[nfall ( ! ,greek philosophic _s1 & 0 ! cause ( its f9al ru9 & dissolution4 ,i w\ld c\nsel ! "y1 !re=e1 to pay no att5tion to plausible & %all[ words su* z ^? quot$1 b1 be=e =m+ _! own philosophic op9ions1 mo/ ?or\ghly & e>ne/ly to /udy & ma/] ! hi/ory ( pa/ philosophies1 fir/ ! ,greek & !n ! mod]n4 ,t ?is _c be done m]ely by read+ a mod]n resume ( t hi/ory1 b only by /udy+ ! great ?9k]s 9 _! own works1 is true4 ,b philosophical education mu/ beg91 & ! function ( su* books z ?is1 is1 n to complete x1 b to beg9 x2 & to obta9 fir/ ( all a g5]al view ( :at mu/ aft]w>ds be /udi$ 9 detail is no bad way ( beg9n+4 ,moreov]1 ! /udy ( ! developm5t & hi/orical connexions ( ! v>i\s philosophies1 :i* is n f\nd 9 ! orig9al writ+s !mselves1 w always provide a "w = hi/ories ( philosophy to d4 ,two omissions 9 ?is book require1 p]haps1 a ^w ( explanation4 ,fir/ly1 9 deal+ ) ,plato's politics ,i h reli$ on ! ,republic1 & said no?+ ( ! ,laws4 ,?is w\ld n be p]missible 9 a hi/ory ( political !ories1 nor ev5 9 a hi/ory ( philosophy :i* laid any special emphasis on politics4 ,b1 f my po9t ( view1 politics lie on ! extreme out] m>g9 ( philosophy1 s t a m sl5d] treatm5t ( ! subject is p]missible4 ,moreov]1 ! ,republic1 :e!r writt5 e>ly or late1 expresses1 9 my op9ion1 ! views ( ,plato1 & n ^? ( ,socrates1 & x /ill rema9s ! out/&+1 typical1 & *>act]i/ic xi expression ( ! ,platonic political ideal1 h[ev] mu* t ideal _h aft]w>ds to be modifi$ by practical consid]ations4 ,secondly1 ,i h n ev5 m5tion$ ! view1 n[ held by "s1 t ! !ory ( ,ideas is really ! "w ( ,socrates1 & n ( ,plato1 & t ,plato's own philosophy consi/$ 9 "s sort ( esot]ic numb]-!ory1 comb9$ ) !i/ic & o!r doctr9es4 ,i c only say t ?is !ory1 z exp\nd$ = example by ,pr(essor ,burnet1 does n comm5d itself to me1 t1 9 fact1 ,i d n believe x1 b t1 x be+ impossible to discuss x adequately 9 a book ( ?is k9d1 ,i h ?\ght t1 r ?an discuss x inadequately1 x 7 bett] to leave x alone altoge!r4 ,moreov]1 x /&s on a totally diff]5t foot+ f1 say1 ,pr(essor ,burnet's int]pretation ( ,p>m5ides1 :i* ,i h discuss$4 ,t conc]n$ ! int]pretation ( ! true mean+ ( a philosophy4 ,?is m]ely conc]ns ! "q :o 0 ! au?or ( a philosophy4 ,t 0 a "q ( pr9ciple1 ?is m]ely ( p]sonalities4 ,t 0 ( importance to ! philosoph]1 ?is m]ely to ! hi/orian & antiqu>y4 ,x is l ! ,bacon-,%akespe>e "q1 :i* no lov] ( drama1 z su*1 ne$ conc]n himself ) at all4 ,no d\bt ! ,plato-,socrates "q is ( int]e/ to antiqu>ians1 b aft] all1 fundam5tally1 x does n matt] :o is to h ! cr$it ( ! !ory ( ,ideas1 ! only ess5tial ?+ = u be+ to und]/& t !ory1 & rightly to appreh5d its value z a factor ( ! tru?4 ,?is book is prim>ily conc]n$ ) philosophical ideas1 _! tru?1 mean+1 & significance1 & n ) ! rights & wrongs ( antiqu>ian disputes4 ,x does inde$ purport to xii be a hi/ory1 z well z a discussion ( philosophic conceptions4 ,b ?is only means t x takes up philosophical ideas 9 _! hi/orical sequ5ce & connexions1 & x does ?is only because ! conceptions ( evolution 9 philosophy1 ( ! onw>d m>* ( ?\ght to a det]m9$ goal2 ( its gradual & /eady rise to ! supreme heights ( idealism1 its subsequ5t decl9e1 & ultimate collapse1 are n only pr(\ndly impressive z hi/orical ph5om5a1 b are ( vital importance to a true conception ( philosophy itself4 ,7 x n = ?is1 ,mr4 ,wells w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 be "r1 & ,i = "o %\ld ab&on treatm5t 9 hi/orical ord] altoge!r4 ,la/ly1 ,i may rem>k t ! description ( ?is book z a critical hi/ory means t x is1 or attempts to be critical1 n ( dates1 texts1 read+s1 & ! l1 b ( philosophical conceptions4 ,i owe a debt ( ?anks to ,mr4 ,f4 ,l4 ,woodw>d1 ,m4,a41 late pr9cipal ( ,mah9da ,college1 ,galle1 ,ceylon1 = assi/+ me 9 ! compilation ( ! index ( names1 & 9 sundry o!r matt]s4 ,w4,t4,s4 ,janu>y1 #aibj4 xiii ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,& ,,developm5t ,,( ,,greek ,,philosophy #a ,,ii4 ,,! ,,ionics4 ,,?ales4 ,,anaxim&]4 ,,anaxim5es4 ,,o!r ,,ionic ,,?9k]s #bj ,,iii4 ,,! ,,py?agoreans #ca ,,iv4 ,,! ,,eleatics4 ,,x5ophanes4 ,,p>m5ides4 ,,z5o4 ,,critical ,,rem>ks ,,on ,,eleaticism #dj ,v4 ,,h]acleitus #gb ,,vi4 ,,emp$ocles #ha ,,vii4 ,,! ,,atomi/s #hf ,,viii4 ,,anaxagoras #id ,,ix4 ,,! ,,sophi/s #ajf ,x4 ,,socrates #abg ,,xi4 ,,! ,,semi-,,socratics4 ,,! ,,cynics4 ,,! ,,cyr5aics4 ,,! ,,meg>ics #aee ,,xii4 ,,plato #afd 7i47 ,life & writ+s #afe 7ii47 ,! !ory ( k #agg 7iii47 ,dialectic1 or ! !ory ( ,ideas #ahc 7iv47 ,physics1 or ! !ory ( exi/5ce #bjg 7a7 ,! doctr9e ( ! _w #bjg 7b7 ,! doctr9e ( ! human s\l #baa xiv 7v47 ,e?ics #bag 7a7 ,( ! individual #bag 7b7 ,! ,/ate #bbe 7vi47 ,views ^u art #bbi 7vii47 ,critical e/imate ( ,plato's philosophy #bcd ,,xiii4 ,,ari/otle3 7i47 ,life1 ,writ+s1 & g5]al "* ( 8 "w #bdi 7ii47 ,logic #bfj 7iii47 ,metaphysics #bfa 7iv47 ,physics1 or ! philosophy ( nature #bhh 7v47 ,e?ics3 7a7 ,! individual #cad 7b7 ,! ,/ate #cbj 7vi47 ,ae/hetics1 or ! !ory ( art #cbe 7vii47 ,critical e/imate ( ,ari/otle's philosophy #cca ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,g5]al ,,"* ,,( ,,po/-,,ari/otelian ,,philosophy #cci ,,xv4 ,,! ,,/oics4 ,,logic4 ,,physics4 ,,e?ics #cdd ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,epicureans4 ,,physics4 ,,e?ics #ced ,,xvii4 ,,! ,,sceptics4 ,,pyrrho4 ,,! ,,new ,,academy4 ,,lat] ,,scepticism #cfa ,,xviii4 ,,transition ,,to ,,neo-,,platonism #cfh ,,xix4 ,,! ,,neo-,,platoni/s #cgb ,,index ,,( ,,subjects #cgh ,,index ,,( ,,names #chb #a ,a ,,critical ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,greek ,,philosophy ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,,! ,,orig9s ,,& ,,developm5t ,,( ,,greek ,,philosophy ,x is natural t1 at ! comm5cem5t ( any /udy1 "o %\ld be expect$ to say :at ! subject-matt] ( t /udy is4 ,botany is ! k ( plants1 a/ronomy ( ! heav5ly bodies1 geology ( ! rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! special sph]e ( philosophy8 ,:at is philosophy ab\t8 ,n[ x is n z easy to give a concise def9ition ( philosophy1 z x is ( ! o!r sci5ces4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! cont5t ( philosophy has diff]$ consid]ably 9 diff]5t p]iods ( hi/ory4 ,9 g5]al ! t5d5cy has be5 to n>r[ d[n ! scope ( ! subject z k advanc$1 to exclude f philosophy :at 0 =m]ly includ$ 9 x4 ,?us 9 ! "t ( ,plato1 physics & a/ronomy 7 includ$ z p>ts ( philosophy1 :]eas n[ !y con/itute sep>ate sci5ces4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n an insurm\ntable difficulty4 ,:at *iefly militates aga9/ ! ef=t to frame a def9ition is t ! precise cont5t ( philosophy is diff]5tly view$ by diff]5t s*ools ( ?\ght4 ,?us a def9ition ( #b philosophy :i* a foll[] ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c] might frame w\ld be unacceptable to an ,hegelian1 & ! ,hegelian def9ition w\ld be reject$ by ! ,sp5c]ian4 ,if we 7 to include 9 our def9ition "s su* phrase z ! k ( ! ,absolute1 :ile ?is might suit "s philosoph]s1 o!rs w\ld d5y t !re is any ,absolute at all4 ,ano!r s*ool w\ld say t !re may be an ,absolute1 b t x is unkn[able1 s t philosophy _c be ! k ( x4 ,yet ano!r s*ool w\ld tell u t1 :e!r !re is or is n an ,absolute1 :e!r x is or is n kn[able1 ! k ( x is 9 any case useless1 & ought n to be s\ght4 ,h5ce no def9ition ( philosophy c be appreciat$ )\t "s k ( ! special t5ets ( ! v>i\s s*ools4 ,9 a ^w1 ! prop] place to give a def9ition is n at ! beg9n+ ( ! /udy ( philosophy1 b at ! end ( x4 ,!n1 ) all views be=e u1 we might be able to decide ! "q4 ,i %all make no attempt1 !re=e1 to place be=e y a precise def9ition4 ,b p]haps ! same purpose w be s]v$1 if ,i pick out "s ( ! lead+ traits ( philosophy1 :i* s]ve to di/+ui% x f o!r bran*es ( k1 & illu/rate !m by enum]at+--b )\t any attempt at complet5ess--"s ( ! *ief problems :i* philosoph]s h usually attempt$ to solve4 ,& fir/ly1 philosophy is di/+ui%$ f o!r bran*es ( k by ! fact t1 :]eas ^! ea* take "s p>ticul> portion ( ! univ]se = _! /udy1 philosophy does n specialize 9 ?is way1 b deals ) ! univ]se z a :ole4 ,! univ]se is "o1 & ideal k ( x w\ld be "o2 b ! pr9ciples ( specialization & division ( #c lab\r apply "h z else:]e1 & s a/ronomy takes = its subject t portion ( ! univ]se :i* we call ! heav5ly bodies1 botany specializes 9 plant life1 psy*ology 9 ! facts ( ! m9d1 & s on4 ,b philosophy does n deal ) ?is or t p>ticul> sph]e ( be+1 b ) be+ z su*4 ,x seeks to see ! univ]se z a s+le co-ord9at$ sy/em ( ?+s4 ,x might be describ$ z ! sci5ce ( ?+s 9 g5]al4 ,! _w 9 its mo/ univ]sal aspects is its subject4 ,all sci5ces t5d to g5]alize1 to r$uce multitudes ( p>ticul> facts to s+le g5]al laws4 ,philosophy c>ries ?is process to its highe/ limit4 ,x g5]alizes to ! utmo/4 ,x seeks to view ! entire univ]se 9 ! light ( ! fewe/ possible g5]al pr9ciples1 9 ! light1 if possible1 ( a s+le ultimate pr9ciple4 ,x is a consequ5ce ( ?is t ! special sci5ces take _! subject matt]1 & mu* ( _! cont5ts1 = grant$1 :]eas philosophy seeks to trace ev]y?+ back to its ultimate gr\nds4 ,x may be ?\ght t ?is description ( ! sci5ces is incorrect4 ,is n ! ess5tial maxim ( mod]n sci5ce to assume no?+1 to take no?+ = grant$1 to ass]t no?+ )\t demon/ration1 to prove all8 ,?is is no d\bt true )9 c]ta9 limits1 b beyond ^? limits x does n hold good4 ,all ! sci5ces take q = grant$ c]ta9 pr9ciples & facts :i* are1 = !m1 ultimate4 ,to inve/igate ^! is ! portion ( ! philosoph]1 & philosophy ?us takes up ! ?read ( k :]e ! sci5ces drop x4 ,x beg9s :]e !y end4 ,x inve/igates :at !y take z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,let u consid] "s examples ( ?is4 ,! sci5ce ( geometry deals ) ! laws ( space4 ,b x takes #d space j z x f9ds x 9 common exp]i5ce4 ,x takes space = grant$4 ,no geometrician asks :at space is4 ,?is1 !n1 w be a problem = philosophy4 ,moreov]1 geometry is f\nd$ ^u c]ta9 fundam5tal propositions :i*1 x ass]ts1 be+ self-evid5t1 require no inve/igation4 ,^! are call$ axioms4 ,t two /raight l9es _c enclose a space1 & t equals be+ add$ to equals ! results are equal1 are common examples4 ,into ! gr\nd ( ^! axioms ! geometrician does n enquire4 ,t is ! bus9ess ( philosophy4 ,n t philosoph]s affect to d\bt ! tru? ( ^! axioms4 ,b surely x is a v /range ?+1 & a fact q wor?y ( /udy1 t !re are "s /atem5ts ( :i* we feel t we mu/ give ! mo/ labori\s pro(s1 & o!rs 9 ! case ( :i* we feel no su* necessity4 ,h[ is x t "s propositions c be self-evid5t & o!rs mu/ be prov$8 ,:at is ! gr\nd ( ?is di/9ction8 ,& :5 "o comes to ?9k ( x1 x is a v extraord9>y prop]ty ( m9d t x %\ld be able to make ! mo/ univ]sal & unconditional /atem5ts ab\t ?+s1 )\t a jot ( evid5ce or pro(4 ,:5 we say t two /raight l9es _c enclose a space1 we d n mean m]ely t ?is has be5 f\nd true 9 reg>d to all ! p>ticul> pairs ( /raight l9es ) :i* we h tri$ ! exp]im5t4 ,we mean t x nev] c be & nev] has be5 o!rwise4 ,we mean t a million million ye>s ago two /raight l9es did n enclose a space1 & t x w be ! same a million million ye>s h5ce1 & t x is j z true on ^? />s1 if !re are any1 :i* are invisible ev5 to ! greate/ telescopes4 ,b we h no exp]i5ce ( :at w #e happ5 a million million ye>s h5ce1 or ( :at c take place among ^? remote />s4 ,& yet we ass]t1 ) absolute confid5ce1 t our axiom is & mu/ be equally true ev]y:]e & at all times4 ,moreov]1 we d n f\nd ?is on probabilities ga!r$ f exp]i5ce4 ,nobody w\ld make exp]im5ts or use telescopes to prove su* axioms4 ,h[ is x t !y are ?us self-evid5t1 t ! m9d c make ^! def9ite & f>-rea*+ ass]tions )\t any evid5ce at all8 ,geometricians d n consid] ^! que/ions4 ,!y take ! facts = grant$4 ,to solve ^! problems is = philosophy4 ,aga91 ! physical sci5ces take ! exi/5ce ( matt] = grant$4 ,b philosophy asks :at matt] is4 ,at fir/ sight x might appe> t ?is "q is "o = ! physici/ & n ! philosoph]4 ,= ! problem ( ! con/itution ( matt] is a well-kn[n physical problem4 ,b a little consid]ation w %[ t ?is is q a diff]5t "q f ! "o ! philosoph] prop\nds4 ,= ev5 if x be %[n t all matt] is e!r1 or electricity1 or vortex-atoms1 or o!r su*1 ?is does n help u 9 our special problem4 ,= ^! !ories1 ev5 if prov$1 only tea* u t ! diff]5t k9ds ( matt] are =ms ( "s "o physical exi/5ce4 ,b :at we want to "k is :at physical exi/5ce itself is4 ,to prove t "o k9d ( matt] is really ano!r k9d ( matt] does n tell u :at is ! ess5tial nature ( matt]4 ,t1 !re=e1 is a problem1 n ( sci5ce1 b ( philosophy4 ,9 ! same way1 all ! sci5ces take ! exi/5ce ( ! univ]se = grant$4 ,b philosophy seeks to "k :y x is t !re is a univ]se at all4 ,is x #f true1 = example1 t !re is "s s+le ultimate reality :i* produces all ?+s8 ,& if s1 :at sort ( a reality is x8 ,is x matt]1 or m9d1 or some?+ diff]5t f bo?8 ,is x good or evil8 ,& if x is good1 h[ is x t !re is evil 9 ! _w8 ,moreov] e sci5ce1 except ! purely ma!matical sci5ces1 assumes ! tru? ( ! law ( causation4 ,e /ud5t ( logic kn[s t ?is is ! ultimate canon ( ! sci5ces1 ! f\ndation ( !m all4 ,if we did n believe 9 ! tru? ( ! law ( causation1 namely1 t ev]y?+ :i* has a beg9n+ has a cause1 & t 9 ! same circum/ances ! same ?+s inv>iably happ51 all ! sci5ces w\ld at once crumble to du/4 ,9 e sci5tific inve/igation1 ?is tru? is assum$4 ,if we ask ! zoologi/ h[ he kn[s t all camels are h]bivor\s1 he w no d\bt po9t 9 ! fir/ in/ance to exp]i5ce4 ,! habits ( _m ?\s&s ( camels h be5 obs]v$4 ,b ?is only proves t ^? p>ticul> camels are h]bivor\s4 ,h[ ab\t ! millions t h nev] be5 obs]v$ at all8 ,he c only appeal to ! law ( causation4 ,! camel's /ructure is su* t x _c dige/ meat4 ,x is a case ( cause & effect4 ,h[ d we "k t wat] always freezes at #j deg4 c5tigrade 7neglect+ que/ions ( pressure1 etc478 ,h[ d we "k t ?is is true at ^? regions ( ! e>? :]e no "o has ev] be5 to see8 ,only because we believe t 9 ! same circum/ances ! same ?+ always happ5s1 t l causes always produce l effects4 ,b h[ d we "k ! tru? ( ?is law ( causation itself8 ,sci5ce does n consid] ! "q4 ,x traces its ass]tions back to ?is law1 b goes no #g fur!r4 ,its fundam5tal canon x takes = grant$4 ,! gr\nds ( causation1 :y x is true1 & h[ we "k x is true1 are1 !re=e1 philosophical que/ions4 ,"o may be tempt$ to enquire :e!r _m ( ^! que/ions1 especially ^? connect$ ) ! ultimate reality1 d n transc5d human faculties altoge!r1 & :e!r we _h n bett] conf9e our enquiries to matt]s t are n too high = u4 ,"o may "q :e!r x is possible = f9ite m9ds to compreh5d ! inf9ite4 ,n[ x is v "r t su* que/ions %\ld be ask$1 & x is ess5tial t a correct answ] %\ld be f\nd4 ,b1 = ! pres5t1 !re is no?+ to say ab\t ! matt]1 except t ^! que/ions !mselves con/itute "o ( ! mo/ important problems ( philosophy1 ?\gh x is "o :i*1 z a matt] ( fact1 has sc>cely be5 consid]$ 9 full until mod]n times4 ,! ,greeks did n raise ! "q4 ,footnote #b ,& z ?is is itself "o ( ! problems ( philosophy1 x w be well to />t ) an op5 m9d4 ,! "q _c be decid$ (fh&1 b mu/ be ?or\ghly inve/igat$4 ,t ! f9ite m9d ( man _c und]/& ! inf9ite is "o ( ^? popul> dogmatic ass]tions1 :i* are bruit$ ab\t f m\? to m\?1 z if !y 7 self-evid5t1 & s come to tyrannize ov] m5's m9ds4 ,b = ! mo/ "p ^? :o make ?is /atem5t h nev] ?or\ghly sift$ ! gr\nds ( x1 b simply take x z some?+ univ]sally admitt$1 & tr\ble no fur!r ab\t x4 ,b at ! v lea/ we %\ld fir/ "k exactly :at #h we mean by su* t]ms z m9d1 f9ite1 & inf9ite4 ,& we %all n f9d t our difficulties end ev5 !re4 ,footnote #b3 ,! reason+ ( ! ,sceptics & o!rs no d\bt involv$ ?is "q4 ,b !y did n consid] x 9 its peculi> mod]n =m4 ,philosophy1 !n1 deals ) ! univ]se z a :ole2 & x seeks to take no?+ = grant$4 ,a ?ird *>act]i/ic may be not$ z especially important1 ?\gh "h no d\bt we are tr5*+ ^u matt]s ^u :i* !re is no su* univ]sal agreem5t4 ,philosophy is ess5tially an attempt to rise f s5su\s to pure1 t is1 non-s5u\s1 ?\ght4 ,?is requires "s explanation4 ,we are consci\s1 s to speak1 ( two diff]5t worlds1 ! ext]nal physical _w & ! int]nal m5tal _w4 ,if we look outw>ds we are aw>e ( ! =m]1 if we turn our gaze inw>ds ^u our own m9ds we become aw>e ( ! latt]4 ,x may appe> incorrect to say t ! ext]nal _w is purely physical1 = x includes o!r m9ds4 ,i am aw>e ( y\r m9d1 & ?is is1 to me1 "p ( ! _w :i* is ext]nal to me4 ,b ,i am n n[ speak+ ( :at we "k by inf]5ce1 b only ( :at we directly p]ceive4 ,i _c directly p]ceive y\r m9d1 b only y\r physical body4 ,9 ! la/ resort x w be f\nd t ,i am aw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( y\r m9d only by inf]5ce f p]ceiv$ physical facts1 su* z ! movem5ts ( y\r body & ! s\nds t issue f y\r lips4 ,! only m9d :i* ,i c imm$iately p]ceive is my own4 ,!re is !n a physical _w ext]nal to u1 & an int]nal m5tal _w4 ,:i* ( ^! w naturally be reg>d$ z ! mo/ real8 ,m5 w reg>d z ! mo/ real t :i* is ! mo/ famili>1 t :i* !y came fir/ into #i contact )1 & h mo/ exp]i5ce (4 ,& ?is is unque/ionably ! ext]nal mat]ial _w4 ,:5 a *ild is born1 x turns its eyes to ! light1 :i* is an ext]nal physical ?+4 ,gradually x gets to "k diff]5t objects 9 ! room4 ,x comes to "k its "m1 b its "m is1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 a physical object1 a body4 ,x is only long aft]w>ds t its "m becomes = ! *ild a m9d or a s\l4 ,9 g5]al1 all our e>lie/ exp]i5ces are ( ! mat]ial _w4 ,we come to "k ( ! m5tal _w only by introspection1 & ! habit ( introspection comes 9 y\? or manhood only1 & to _m p x h>dly comes at all4 ,9 all ^? e>ly impressionable ye>s1 !re=e1 :5 our mo/ durable ideas ( ! univ]se are =m$1 we are conc]n$ almo/ exclusively ) ! mat]ial _w4 ,! m5tal _w ) :i* we are mu* less famili> consequ5tly t5ds to appe> to all ( u some?+ comp>atively unreal1 a _w ( %ad[s4 ,! b5t ( our m9ds becomes mat]iali/ic4 ,:at ,i h said ( ! individual is equally true ( ! race4 ,primitive man does n brood ov] ! facts ( 8 own m9d4 ,necessity compels him to devote mo/ ( 8 life to ! acquisition ( food1 & to w>d+ (f ! dang]s :i* cont9ually ?reat5 him f o!r physical objects4 ,& ev5 among ourselves1 ! majority ( m5 h to sp5d mo/ ( _! "t ^u consid]+ v>i\s aspects ( ?+s ext]nal to !m4 ,by ! individual tra9+ ( ea* man1 & by long h]$it>y habit1 !n1 x comes ab\t t m5 t5d to reg>d ! physical _w z m real ?an ! m5tal4 #aj ,abundant evid5ces ( ?is are to be f\nd 9 ! /ructure ( human language4 ,we seek to expla9 :at is /range by means ( :at is well-kn[n4 ,we try to express ! unfamili> 9 t]ms ( ! famili>4 ,we %all f9d t language always seeks to express ! m5tal by ! analogy ( ! physical4 ,we speak ( a man z a cle> ?9k]4 ,cle> is an attribute ( physical objects4 ,wat] is cle> if x has no extrane\s matt] 9 x4 ,we say t a man's ideas are lum9\s1 ?us tak+ a metaphor f physical light4 ,we talk ( hav+ an idea at ! back ( ! m9d4 ,at ! back (8 ,has ! m9d got a front & a back8 ,we are ?9k+ ( x z if x 7 a physical ?+ 9 space4 ,we speak ( m5tal habits ( att5tion4 ,att5tion means /ret*+ or turn+ ! m9d 9 a special direction4 ,we reflect4 ,reflection means b5d+ our ?\ghts back ^u !mselves4 ,b1 lit]ally speak+1 only physical objects c be /ret*$1 turn$1 & b5t4 ,:5ev] we wi% to express some?+ m5tal we d x by a physical analogy4 ,we talk ( x 9 t]ms ( physical ?+s4 ,?is %[s h[ deep-root$ our mat]ialism is4 ,if ! m5tal _w 7 m famili> & real to u ?an ! mat]ial1 language w\ld h be5 con/ruct$ on ! opposite pr9ciple4 ,! e>lie/ words ( language w\ld h express$ m5tal facts1 & we %\ld aft]w>ds h tri$ to express physical ?+s by means ( m5tal analogies4 ,9 ! ,ea/ "o commonly he>s ,ori5tal idealism contra/$ ) ,we/]n mat]ialism4 ,su* phrases may possess a c]ta9 relative tru?4 ,b if !y mean t !re is 9 ! ,ea/1 or any:]e else 9 ! _w1 #aa a race ( m5 :o are naturally ideali/s1 !y are nons5se4 ,mat]ialism is +ra9$ 9 all m54 ,we1 ,ea/]ns or ,we/]ns1 are born mat]iali/s4 ,h5ce :5 we try to ?9k ( objects :i* are commonly reg>d$ z non-mat]ial1 su* z ,god or ! s\l1 x requires cont9ual ef=t1 a trem5d\s /ruggle1 to avoid pictur+ !m z mat]ial ?+s4 ,x goes utt]ly aga9/ ! gra94 ,p]haps hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s ( h]$it>y mat]ialism are aga9/ u4 ,! popul> idea ( gho/s w illu/rate ?is4 ,^? :o believe 9 gho/s1 ,i suppose1 reg>d !m z "s sort ( disembodi$ s\ls4 ,! pictures ( gho/s 9 magaz9es %[ !m z if compos$ ( matt]1 b matt] ( "s ?9 k9d1 su* z vap\r4 ,c]ta9 ,indian sy/ems ( ?\ght1 :i* are by way ( reg>d+ !mselves z ideali/ic1 nev]!less tea* t ?\ght or m9d is an extremely subtle k9d ( matt]1 f> subtl] ?an any ev] dealt ) by ! physici/ & *emi/4 ,?is is v int]e/+1 because x %[s t ! au?ors ( su* ideas feel vaguely t x is wrong to ?9k ( ?\ght z if x 7 matt]1 b be+ unable to ?9k ( x 9 any o!r way1 ow+ to man's +ra9$ mat]ialism1 !y seek to palliate _! s9 by mak+ x ?9 matt]4 ,( c\rse ?is is j z absurd z ! excuse made by ! "m ( an illegitimate *ild1 t x 0 a v small "o4 ,?is ?9 matt] is j z mat]ial z lead or brass4 ,& su* sy/ems are purely mat]iali/ic4 ,b !y illu/rate ! extraord9>y difficulty t ! ord9>y m9d exp]i5ces 9 attempt+ to rise f s5su\s to non-s5su\s ?9k+4 ,!y illu/rate ! +ra9$ mat]ialism ( man4 ,?is natural human mat]ialism is also ! cause #ab ( my/icism & symbolism4 ,a symbolic ?\ght necess>ily conta9s two t]ms1 ! symbol & ! reality :i* x symbolizes4 ,! symbol is always a s5su\s or mat]ial object1 or ! m5tal image ( su* an object1 & ! reality is always some?+ non-s5su\s4 ,because ! human m9d f9ds x su* an incr$ible /ruggle to ?9k non-s5su\sly1 x seeks to help itself by symbols4 ,x takes a mat]ial ?+ & makes x /& = ! non-mat]ial ?+ :i* x is too weak to grasp4 ,?us we talk ( ,god z ! light ( lights4 ,no d\bt ?is is a v natural expression ( ! religi\s consci\sness1 & x has its mean+4 ,b x is n ! nak$ tru?4 ,light is a physical exi/5ce1 & ,god is no m light ?an he is heat or electricity4 ,p talk ( symbolism z if x 7 a v high & exalt$ ?+4 ,!y say1 ,:at a wond]ful piece ( symbolism6 ,b1 9 tru? symbolism is ! m>k ( an infirm m9d4 ,x is ! measure ( our weakness & n ( our /r5g?4 ,its root is 9 mat]ialism1 & x is produc$ & propagat$ by ^? :o are unable to rise above a mat]iali/ic level4 ,n[ philosophy is ess5tially ! attempt to get beyond ?is sort ( symbolic & my/ical ?9k+1 to get at ! nak$ tru?1 to grasp :at lies beh9d ! symbol z x is 9 itself4 ,^! inf]ior modes ( ?\ght are a help to ^? :o are !mselves bel[ _! level1 b are a h9drance to ^? :o seek to rea* ! highe/ level ( tru?4 ,x is (t5 said t philosophy is a v difficult & ab/ruse subject4 ,its difficulty lies almo/ :olly 9 ! /ruggle to ?9k non-s5su\sly4 ,:5ev] we #ac come to any?+ 9 philosophy t seems beyond u1 we %all g5]ally f9d t ! root ( ! tr\ble is t we are try+ to ?9k non-s5su\s objects 9 a s5su\s way1 t is1 we are try+ to =m m5tal pictures & images ( !m1 = all m5tal pictures are compos$ ( s5su\s mat]ials1 & h5ce no su* picture is adequate = a pure ?\ght4 ,x is impossible to exagg]ate ?is difficulty4 ,ev5 ! greate/ philosoph]s h succumb$ to x4 ,we %all con/antly h to po9t out t :5 a great ?9k]1 su* z ,p>m5ides or ,plato1 fails1 & beg9s to fl\nd] 9 difficulties1 ! reason usually is t1 ?\gh = a "t he has atta9$ to pure ?\ght1 he has sunk back exhau/$ into s5su\s ?9k+1 & has attempt$ to =m m5tal pictures ( :at is beyond ! p[] ( any su* picture to repres5t1 & s has fall5 into contradictions4 ,we mu/ keep ?is con/antly 9 m9d 9 ! /udy ( philosophy4 ,9 mod]n times philosophy is v>i\sly divid$1 z into metaphysics1 :i* is ! !ory ( reality1 e?ics1 ! !ory ( ! good1 & ae/hetics1 ! !ory ( ! beautiful4 ,mod]n divisions d n1 h[ev]1 altoge!r fit 9 ) ,greek philosophy1 & x is bett] to let ! natural divisions develop !mselves z we g on1 ?an to attempt to =ce our mat]ial into ^! m\lds4 ,if1 n[1 we look r\nd ! _w & ask2 9 :at c\ntries & :at ages ! k9d ( ?\ght we h describ$ has atta9$ a high degree ( developm5t1 we %all f9d su* a developm5t only 9 anci5t ,greece & 9 mod]n ,europe4 ,!re 7 great civilizations 9 ,egypt1 ,*9a1 ,assyria1 & s on4 ,!y produc$ art & religion1 b no philosophy to speak (4 ,ev5 #ad anci5t ,rome add$ no?+ to ! _w's philosophical k4 ,its s-call$ philosoph]s1 ,m>cus ,aurelius1 ,s5eca1 ,epictetus1 ,lucretius1 produc$ no ess5tially new pr9ciple4 ,!y 7 m]ely disciples ( ,greek ,s*ools1 ^: writ+s may be full ( int]e/ & ( noble feel+1 b ^: ess5tial ?\ghts conta9$ no?+ n already develop$ by ! ,greeks4 ,! case ( ,india is m d\btful4 ,op9ions may diff] z to :e!r ,india ev] _h any philosophy4 ,! ,upani%ads conta9 religio-philosophical ?9k+ ( a k9d4 ,& lat] we h ! six s-call$ s*ools ( philosophy4 ,! reasons :y ?is ,indian ?\ght is n usually includ$ 9 hi/ories ( philosophy are z foll[s4 ,fir/ly1 philosophy 9 ,india has nev] sep>at$ itself f religi\s & practical ne$s4 ,! ideal ( k = its own sake is r>ely to be f\nd4 ,k is desir$ m]ely z a means t[>ds salvation4 ,philosophy & sci5ce1 said ,ari/otle1 h _! roots 9 wond]1--! desire to "k & und]/& = ! sole sake ( kn[+ & und]/&+4 ,b ! roots ( ,indian ?\ght lie 9 ! anxiety ( ! individual to escape f ! ills & calamities ( exi/5ce4 ,?is is n ! sci5tific1 b ! practical _s4 ,x gives bir? to religions1 b n to philosophies4 ,( c\rse x is a mi/ake to imag9e t philosophy & religion are totally sep>ate & h no community4 ,!y are 9 fact fundam5tally ak94 ,b !y are also di/9ct4 ,p]haps ! true/ view is t !y are id5tical 9 sub/ance1 b diff]5t 9 =m4 ,! sub/ance ( bo? is ! absolute reality & ! relation ( all ?+s1 includ+ m51 to t reality4 ,b :]eas philosophy pres5ts ?is subject-matt] sci5tifically1 9 #ae ! =m ( pure ?\ght1 religion gives x 9 ! =m ( s5su\s pictures1 my?s1 images1 & symbols4 ,& ?is gives u ! second reason :y ,indian ?\ght is m prop]ly class$ z religi\s ?an philosophical4 ,x seldom or nev] rises f s5su\s to pure ?\ght4 ,x is poetical r ?an sci5tific4 ,x is cont5t ) symbols & metaphors 9 place ( rational explanations1 & all ?is is a m>k ( ! religi\s1 r ?an ! philosophical1 pres5tation ( ! tru?4 ,= example1 ! ma9 ?\ght ( ! ,upani%ads is t ! entire univ]se is d]iv$ f a s+le1 *angeless1 et]nal1 inf9ite1 be+1 call$ ,brahman or ,p>amatman4 ,:5 we come to ! crucial "q h[ ! univ]se arises out ( ?is be+1 we f9d su* passages z ?is3--,z ! col\rs 9 ! flame or ! r$-hot iron proce$ !refrom a ?\s&-fold1 s d all be+s proce$ f ! ,un*angeable1 & return aga9 to x4 ,or aga91 ,z ! web issues f ! spid]1 z little sp>ks proce$ f fire1 s f ! "o s\l proce$ all liv+ animals1 all worlds1 all ! gods & all be+s4 ,!re are ?\s&s ( su* passages 9 ! ,upani%ads4 ,b obvi\sly ^! nei!r expla9 nor attempt to expla9 any?+4 ,!y are no?+ b holl[ metaphors4 ,!y are poetic r ?an sci5tific4 ,!y may satisfy ! imag9ation & ! religi\s feel+s1 b n ! rational und]/&+4 ,or :5 aga9 ,kri%na1 9 ! ,bhagavat-,gita1 describes himself z ! moon among ! lun> mansions1 ! sun among ! />s1 ,m]u among ! high-peak$ m\nta9s1 x is cle> t we are m]ely pil+ s5su\s image ^u s5su\s image )\t any fur!r und]/&+ ( :at ! nature ( ! absolute be+ 9 its own self is4 #af ,! moon1 ! sun1 ,m]u1 are physical s5se-objects4 ,& ?is is totally s5su\s ?9k+1 :]eas ! aim ( philosophy is to rise to pure ?\ght4 ,9 su* passages we are /ill on ! level ( symbolism1 & philosophy only beg9s :5 symbolism has be5 surpass$4 ,no d\bt x is possible to take ! l9e t man's ?\ght is n capable ( grasp+ ! inf9ite z x is 9 itself1 & c only fall back ^u symbols4 ,b t is ano!r "q1 & at any rate1 :e!r x is or is n possible to rise f s5su\s to pure ?\ght1 philosophy is ess5tially ! attempt to d s4 ,la/ly1 ,indian ?\ght is usually exclud$ f ! hi/ory ( philosophy because1 :atev] its "*1 x lies outside ! ma9 /ream ( human developm5t4 ,x has be5 cut (f by geographical & o!r b>ri]s4 ,consequ5tly1 :atev] its value 9 itself1 x has ex]t$ little influ5ce ^u philosophy 9 g5]al4 ,! claim is sometimes put =w>d by ,ori5tals !mselves t ,greek philosophy came f ,india1 & if ?is 7 true1 x w\ld greatly affect ! /atem5t made 9 ! la/ p>agraph4 ,b x is n true4 ,x us$ to be believ$ t ,greek philosophy came f ! ,ea/1 b ?is meant ,egypt4 ,& ev5 ?is !ory is n[ ab&on$4 ,greek culture1 especially ma!matics & a/ronomy1 ow$ mu* to ,egypt4 ,b ,greece did n owe its philosophy to t s\rce4 ,! view t x did 0 propagat$ by ,alex&rian prie/s & o!rs1 ^: sole motive 01 t to repres5t ! triumphs ( ,greek philosophy z borr[$ f ,egypt1 flatt]$ _! national vanity4 ,x 0 a great ?+1 :]ev] !y f\nd any?+ good1 to say1 ?is mu/ h come f u4 ,a precisely simil> motive lies beh9d ! #ag ,ori5tal claim t ,greek philosophy came f ,india4 ,!re is n a scrap ( evid5ce = x1 & x re/s entirely ^u ! suppos$ resemblance betwe5 ! two4 ,b ?is resemblance is 9 fact my?ical4 ,! :ole "* ( ,greek philosophy is ,european & unori5tal to ! back-bone4 ,! doctr9e ( re-inc>nation is usually appeal$ to4 ,?is *>act]i/ically ,indian doctr9e 0 held by ! ,py?agoreans1 f :om x pass$ to ,emp$ocles & ,plato4 ,! ,py?agoreans got x f ! ,orphic sect1 to :om q possibly x came indirectly f ,india1 al?\gh ev5 ?is is by no means c]ta91 & is 9 fact highly d\btful4 ,b ev5 if ?is be true1 x proves no?+4 ,re-inc>nation is ( little importance 9 ,greek philosophy4 ,ev5 9 ,plato1 :o makes mu* ( x1 x is q uness5tial to ! fundam5tal ideas ( 8 philosophy1 & is only artificially connect$ ) !m4 ,& ! influ5ce ( ?is doctr9e ^u ,plato's philosophy 0 ?or\ghly bad4 ,x 0 l>gely responsible = lead+ him into ! ma9 error ( 8 philosophy1 :i* x requir$ an ,ari/otle to correct4 ,all ?is w be evid5t :5 we come to consid] ! sy/ems ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,! orig9 ( ,greek philosophy is n to be f\nd 9 ,india1 or ,egypt1 or 9 any c\ntry outside ,greece4 ,! ,greeks !mselves 7 solely responsible = x4 ,x is n z if hi/ory traces back _! ?\ght only to a po9t at :i* x 0 already highly develop$1 & _c expla9 its beg9n+s4 ,we "k its hi/ory f ! "t1 s to speak1 :5 x 0 9 ! cradle4 ,9 ! next two *apt]s we %all see t ! fir/ ,greek attempts at philosophis+ 7 s mu* ! beg9n+s ( a beg9n]1 7 s v crude & un=m$1 t x is #ah m]e p]v]sity to suppose t !y c\ld n make ^! simple ef=ts = !mselves4 ,f ^? crude beg9n+s we c trace ! :ole developm5t 9 detail up to its culm9ation 9 ,ari/otle1 & beyond4 ,s !re is no ne$ to assume =eign influ5ce at any po9t4 ,greek philosophy beg9s 9 ! six? c5tury be=e ,*ri/4 ,x beg9s :5 m5 = ! fir/ "t attempt$ to give a sci5tific reply to ! "q1 :at is ! explanation ( ! _w8 ,be=e ?is era we h1 ( c\rse1 ! my?ologies1 cosmogonies1 & !ologies ( ! poets4 ,b !y conta9 no attempt at a naturali/ic explanation ( ?+s4 ,!y belong to ! sph]es ( poetry & religion1 n to philosophy4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$1 :5 we speak ( ! philosophy ( ,greece1 t we ref] only to ! ma9l& ( :at is n[ call$ ,greece4 ,v e>ly 9 hi/ory1 ,greeks ( ! ma9l& migrat$ to ! isl&s ( ! ,aegean1 to ,sicily1 to ! ,s\? ( ,italy1 to ! coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or1 & else:]e1 & f\nd$ fl\ri%+ colonies4 ,! ,greece ( philosophy includes all ^! places4 ,x is to be ?\ght ( r racially ?an t]ritorially4 ,x is ! philosophy ( ! m5 ( ,greek race1 :]ev] !y happ5$ to be situat$4 ,& 9 fact ! fir/ p]iod ( ,greek philosophy deals exclusively ) ! ?\ghts ( ^! colonial ,greeks4 ,x 0 n till j be=e ! "t ( ,socrates t philosophy 0 transplant$ to ! ma9l&4 ,greek philosophy falls naturally into ?ree p]iods4 ,! fir/ may be r\ghly describ$ z pre-,socratic philosophy1 ?\gh x does n include ! ,sophi/s :o 7 bo? ! contempor>ies & ! pr$ecessors ( ,socrates4 ,?is p]iod is ! rise ( ,greek philosophy4 #ai ,secondly1 ! p]iod f ! ,sophi/s to ,ari/otle1 :i* includes ,socrates & ,plato1 is ! maturity ( ,greek philosophy1 ! actual z5i? & culm9ation ( :i* is und\bt$ly ! sy/em ( ,ari/otle4 ,la/ly1 ! p]iod ( po/-,ari/otelian philosophy con/itutes ! decl9e & fall ( ! national ?\ght4 ,^! are n m]ely arbitr>y divisions4 ,ea* p]iod has its own special *>act]s1 :i* w be describ$ 9 ! sequel4 ,a few words mu/ be said ( ! s\rces ( our k ( pre-,socratic philosophy4 ,if we want to "k :at ,plato & ,ari/otle ?\ght ab\t any matt]1 we h only to consult _! works4 ,b ! works ( ! e>li] philosoph]s h n come d[n to u1 except 9 fragm5ts1 & sev]al ( !m nev] committ$ _! op9ions to writ+4 ,our k ( _! doctr9es is ! result ( ! labori\s sift+ by s*ol>s ( su* mat]ials z are available4 ,luckily ! mat]ial has be5 pl5tiful4 ,x may be divid$ into ?ree classes4 ,fir/ come ! fragm5ts ( ! orig9al writ+s ( ! philosoph]s !mselves4 ,^! are 9 _m cases long & important1 9 o!r cases scanty4 ,secondly1 !re are ! ref]5ces 9 ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,( ^! by f> ! mo/ important are to be f\nd 9 ! fir/ book ( ,ari/otle's ,metaphysics1 :i* is a hi/ory ( philosophy up to 8 own "t1 & is ! fir/ attempt on record to write a hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,?irdly1 !re is an enorm\s mass ( ref]5ces1 "s valuable1 "s wor?less1 conta9$ 9 ! works ( lat]1 b /ill anci5t1 writ]s4 #bj ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,ionics4 ,! e>lie/ ,greek philosoph]s belong to :at 9 aft] times came to be call$ ! ,ionic s*ool4 ,! "n 0 d]iv$ f ! fact t ! ?ree *ief repres5tatives ( ?is s*ool1 ,?ales1 ,anaxim&]1 & ,anaxim5es1 7 all m5 ( ,ionia1 t is to say1 ! coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or4 ,?ales ,z ! f\nd] ( ! e>lie/ s*ool 9 hi/ory1 ,?ales ( ,miletus is g5]ally acc\nt$ ! f\nd] & fa!r ( all philosophy4 ,he 0 born ab\t #fbd ,b4,c4 & di$ ab\t #eej ,b4,c4 ,^! dates are approximate1 & x %\ld be und]/ood t ! same ?+ is true ( ne>ly all ! dates ( ! e>ly philosoph]s4 ,diff]5t s*ol>s v>y1 sometimes z mu* z t5 ye>s1 9 ! dates !y give4 ,we %all n ent] into ^! que/ions at all1 because !y are ( no importance4 ,& ?r\gh\t ^! lectures x %\ld be und]/ood t ! dates giv5 are approximate4 ,?ales1 at any rate1 0 a contempor>y ( ,solon & ,croesus4 ,he 0 fam\s 9 antiquity = 8 ma!matical & a/ronomical le>n+1 & also = 8 practical sagacity & wisdom4 ,he is includ$ 9 #ba all ! acc\nts ( ! ,sev5 ,sages4 ,! /ory ( ! ,sev5 ,sages is unhi/orical1 b ! fact t ! li/s ( _! names diff] consid]ably z giv5 by diff]5t writ]s1 :]eas ! "n ( ,?ales appe>s 9 all1 %[s ) :at v5]ation he 0 anci5tly reg>d$4 ,an eclipse ( ! sun occurr$ 9 #ehe ,b4,c41 & ,?ales is alleg$ to h pr$ict$ x1 :i* 0 a feat = ! a/ronomy ( ^? times4 ,& he mu/ h be5 a great eng9e]1 = he caus$ a div]sion ( ! riv] ,halys1 :5 ,croesus & 8 army 7 unable to cross x4 ,no?+ else is kn[n ( 8 life1 ?\gh !re 7 _m apocryphal /ories4 ,no writ+s by ,?ales 7 extant ev5 9 ! "t ( ,ari/otle1 & x is believ$ t he wrote no?+4 ,8 philosophy1 if we c call x by t "n1 consi/$1 s f> z we "k1 ( two propositions4 ,fir/ly1 t ! pr9ciple ( all ?+s is wat]1 t all comes f wat]1 & to wat] all returns4 ,& secondly1 t ! e>? is a flat disc :i* floats ^u wat]4 ,! fir/1 :i* is ! *ief proposition1 means t wat] is ! "o primal k9d ( exi/5ce & t ev]y?+ else 9 ! univ]se is m]ely a modification ( wat]4 ,two que/ions w naturally occur to u4 ,:y did ,?ales *oose wat] z ! fir/ pr9ciple8 ,& by :at process does wat]1 9 8 op9ion1 come to be *ang$ into o!r ?+s2 h[ 0 ! univ]se =m$ out ( wat]8 ,we _c answ] ei!r ( ^! que/ions ) c]ta9ty4 ,ari/otle says t ,?ales probably d]iv$ 8 op9ion f obs]v+ t ! nutrim5t ( all ?+s is moi/1 & t ev5 actual heat is g5]at$ !refrom1 & t animal life is su/a9$ by wat]1 444 & f ! fact t ! se$s ( all ?+s possess #bb a moi/ nature1 & t wat] is a fir/ pr9ciple ( all ?+s t are humid4 ,?is is v likely ! true explanation4 ,b x w be not$ t ev5 ,ari/otle uses ! ^w probably1 & s gives 8 /atem5t m]ely z a conjecture4 ,h[1 9 ! op9ion ( ,?ales1 ! univ]se arose out ( wat]1 is ev5 m unc]ta94 ,mo/ likely he nev] ask$ himself ! "q1 & gave no explanation4 ,at any rate no?+ is kn[n on ! po9t4 ,?is be+ ! sum & sub/ance ( ! tea*+ ( ,?ales1 we may naturally ask :y1 on acc\nt ( su* a crude & undevelop$ idea1 he %\ld be giv5 ! title ( ! fa!r ( philosophy4 ,:y %\ld philosophy be said to beg9 "h 9 p>ticul>8 ,n[1 ! significance ( ,?ales is n t 8 wat]-philosophy has any value 9 itself1 b t ?is 0 ! fir/ record$ attempt to expla9 ! univ]se on naturali/ic & sci5tific pr9ciples1 )\t ! aid ( my?s & an?ropomorphic gods4 ,moreov]1 ,?ales prop\nd$ ! problem1 & det]m9$ ! direction & "*1 ( all pre-,socratic philosophy4 ,! fundam5tal ?\ght ( t p]iod 01 t "u ! multiplicity ( ! _w !re mu/ be a s+le ultimate pr9ciple4 ,! problem ( all philosoph]s f ,?ales to ,anaxagoras 01 :at is ! nature ( t fir/ pr9ciple f :i* all ?+s h issu$8 ,_! sy/ems are all attempts to answ] ?is "q1 & may be classifi$ accord+ to _! diff]5t replies4 ,?us ,?ales ass]t$ t ! ultimate reality is wat]1 ,anaxim&] indef9ite matt]1 ,anaxim5es air1 ! ,py?agoreans numb]1 ! ,eleatics ,be+1 ,h]acleitus fire1 ,emp$ocles ! f\r elem5ts1 ,democritus atoms1 & s on4 ,! fir/ p]iod is ?us #bc ess5tially cosmological 9 "*1 & x 0 ,?ales :o det]m9$ ! "*4 ,8 importance is t he 0 ! fir/ to prop\nd ! "q1 n t he gave any rational reply to x4 ,we saw 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 t man is naturally a mat]iali/1 & t philosophy is ! movem5t f s5su\s to non-s5su\s ?\ght4 ,z we %\ld expect1 !n1 philosophy beg9s 9 mat]ialism4 ,! fir/ answ] to ! "q1 :at ! ultimate reality is1 places ! nature ( t reality 9 a s5su\s object1 wat]4 ,! o!r memb]s ( ! ,ionic s*ool1 ,anaxim&]1 & ,anaxim5es1 are also mat]iali/s4 ,& f _! "t onw>ds we c trace ! gradual rise ( ?\ght1 ) occasional breaks & relapses1 f ?is s5sualism ( ! ,ionics1 ?r\gh ! semi-s5su\s idealism ( ! ,eleatics1 to ! highe/ po9t ( pure non-s5su\s ?\ght1 ! idealism ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,x is important to keep 9 m9d1 !n1 t ! hi/ory ( philosophy is n a m]e *aotic hot*-pot* ( op9ions & !ories1 succe$+ ea* o!r )\t connection or ord]4 ,x is a logical & hi/orical evolution1 ea* /ep 9 :i* is det]m9$ by ! la/1 & advances beyond ! la/ t[>ds a def9ite goal4 ,! goal1 ( c\rse1 is visible to u1 b 0 n visible to ! e>ly ?9k]s !mselves4 ,s9ce man beg9s by look+ outw>ds ^u ! ext]nal _w & n inw>ds ^u 8 own self1 ?is fact too det]m9es ! "* ( ! fir/ p]iod ( ,greek philosophy4 ,x conc]ns itself solely ) nature1 ) ! ext]nal _w1 & only ) man z a "p ( nature4 ,x dem&s an explanation ( nature4 ,& ?is is ! same z say+ t x is cosmological4 ,! #bd problems ( man1 ( life1 ( human de/9y1 ( e?ics1 are treat$ by x scantily1 or n at all4 ,x is n till ! "t ( ! ,sophi/s t ! ,greek _s turns inw>ds ^u itself & beg9s to consid] ^! problems1 & ) ! em]g5ce ( t po9t ( view we h pass$ f ! fir/ to ! second p]iod ( ,greek philosophy4 ,because ! ,ionic philosoph]s 7 all mat]iali/s !y are also sometimes call$ ,hylici/s1 f ! ,greek hule :i* means matt]4 ,anaxim&] ,! next philosoph] ( ! ,ionic s*ool is ,anaxim&]4 ,he 0 an exce$+ly orig9al & audaci\s ?9k]4 ,he 0 probably born ab\t #faa ,b4,c4 & di$ ab\t #edg4 ,he 0 an inhabitant ( ,miletus1 & is said to h be5 a disciple ( ,?ales4 ,x w be se51 ?us1 t he 0 a y\ng] contempor>y ( ,?ales4 ,he 0 born at ! "t t ,?ales 0 fl\ri%+1 & 0 ab\t a g5]ation y\ng]4 ,he 0 ! fir/ ,greek to write a philosophic treatise1 :i* h[ev] has be5 un=tunately lo/4 ,he 0 em95t = 8 a/ronomical & geographical k1 & 9 ?is connection 0 ! fir/ to con/ruct a map4 ,details ( 8 life are n kn[n4 ,n[ ,?ales _h made ! ultimate pr9ciple ( ! univ]se1 wat]4 ,anaxim&] agrees ) ,?ales t ! ultimate pr9ciple ( ?+s is mat]ial1 b he does n "n x wat]1 does n 9 fact believe t x is any p>ticul> k9d ( matt]4 ,x is r a =mless1 indef9ite1 & absolutely featureless matt] 9 g5]al4 #be ,matt]1 z we "k x1 is always "s p>ticul> k9d ( matt]4 ,x mu/ be iron1 brass1 wat]1 air1 or o!r su*4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! diff]5t k9ds ( matt] is qualitative1 t is to say1 we "k t air is air because x has ! qualities ( air & diff]s f iron because iron has ! qualities ( iron1 & s on4 ,! primeval matt] ( ,anaxim&] is j matt] n yet sund]$ into ! diff]5t k9ds ( matt]4 ,x is !re=e =mless & *>act]less4 ,& z x is ?us indet]m9ate 9 quality1 s x is illimitable 9 quantity4 ,anaxim&] believ$ t ?is matt] /ret*es out to inf9ity ?r\gh space4 ,! reason he gave = ?is op9ion 01 t if !re 7 a limit$ am\nt ( matt] x w\ld long ago h be5 us$ up 9 ! creation & de/ruction ( ! innum]able worlds4 ,h5ce he call$ x ! b\ndless4 ,9 reg>d to ^! innum]able worlds1 ! traditional op9ion ab\t ,anaxim&] 0 t he believ$ ^! worlds to succe$ ea* o!r 9 "t1 & t fir/ a _w 0 creat$1 develop$1 & 0 de/roy$1 !n ano!r _w arose1 0 develop$ & de/roy$1 & t ?is p]iodic revolution ( worlds w5t on = ev]4 ,pr(essor ,burnet1 h[ev]1 is ( op9ion t ! innum]able worlds ( ,anaxim&] 7 n necess>ily successive b r simultane\sly exi/+ worlds4 ,accord+ to ?is view !re may be any numb] ( worlds exi/+ at ! same "t4 ,b1 ev5 s1 x is /ill true t ^! worlds 7 n ev]la/+1 b began1 develop$ & decay$1 giv+ place 9 due "t to o!r worlds4 ,h[1 n[1 h ^! v>i\s worlds be5 =m$ out ( ! =mless1 indef9ite1 indet]m9ate matt] ( #bf ,anaxim&]8 ,on ?is "q ,anaxim&] is vague & has no?+ v def9ite to put =w>d4 ,indet]m9ate matt] by a vaguely conceiv$ process sep>ates itself into ! hot & ! cold4 ,! cold is moi/ or damp4 ,?is cold & moi/ matt] becomes ! e>?1 9 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,! hot matt] collects into a sph]e ( fire surr\nd+ ! e>?4 ,! e>? 9 ! c5tre 0 orig9ally fluid4 ,! heat ( ! surr\nd+ sph]e caus$ ! wat]s ( ! e>? progressively to evaporate giv+ rise to ! envelope ( air :i* surr\nds ! e>?4 ,= ! e>ly ,greeks reg>d$ ! air & vap\r z ! same ?+4 ,z ?is air or vap\r exp&$ "u ! action ( heat x bur/ ! outside hot sph]e ( fire into a s]ies ( enorm\s :eel-%ap$ husks1 resembl+ c>t :eels1 :i* encircle ! e>?4 ,y may naturally ask h[ x is t if ^! are compos$ ( fire we d n see !m cont9ually gl[+4 ,anaxim&]'s answ] 0 t ^! :eel-%ap$ husks are encru/$ ) ?ick1 opaque vap\r1 :i* conceals ! inn] fire f our view4 ,b !re are ap]tures1 or pipe-l holes 9 ! vap\r-cru/1 & ?r\gh ^! ! fire gleams1 caus+ ! appe>ance ( ! sun1 />s1 & moon4 ,y w note t ! moon 01 on ?is !ory1 consid]$ to be fi]y1 & n1 z we n[ "k x to be1 a cold surface reflect+ ! sun's light4 ,!re 7 ?ree ( ^! c>t :eels2 ! fir/ 0 t ( ! sun1 fur!/ away f ! e>?1 ne>] to u 0 t ( ! moon1 & close/ ( all 0 t ( ! fix$ />s4 ,! :eel-%ap$ husks conta9+ ! heav5ly bodies are revolv$ r\nd ! e>? by means ( curr5ts ( air4 ,! e>? 9 ! c5tre 0 believ$ by #bg ,anaxim&] to be n sph]ical b cyl9drical4 ,m5 live on ! top end ( ?is pill> or cyl9d]4 ,anaxim&] also develop$ a /rik+ !ory ab\t ! orig9 & evolution ( liv+ be+s4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ! e>? 0 fluid & 9 ! gradual dry+ up by evaporation ( ?is fluid1 liv+ be+s 7 produc$ f ! heat & moi/ure4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance ^! be+s 7 ( a l[ ord]4 ,!y gradually evolv$ into successively high] & high] organisms by means ( adaptation to _! environm5t4 ,man 0 9 ! fir/ in/ance a fi% liv+ 9 ! wat]4 ,! gradual dry+ up left p>ts ( ! e>? high & dry1 & m>9e animals migrat$ to ! l&1 & _! f9s by adaptation became memb]s fitt$ = movem5t on l&4 ,! resemblance ( ?is primitive !ory to mod]n !ories ( evolution is rem>kable4 ,x is easy to exagg]ate its importance1 b x is at any rate cle> t ,anaxim&] _h1 by a happy guess1 hit ^u ! c5tral idea ( adaptation ( species to _! environm5t4 ,! tea*+ ( ,anaxim&] exhibits a m>k$ advance beyond ! position ( ,?ales4 ,?ales _h taught t ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ?+s is wat]4 ,! =mless matt] ( ,anaxim&] is1 philosophically1 an advance on ?is1 %[+ ! op]ation ( ?\ght & ab/raction4 ,secondly1 ,anaxim&] _h def9itely attempt$ to apply ?is idea1 & to d]ive f x ! exi/5t _w4 ,?ales _h left ! "q h[ ! primal wat] develop$ into a _w1 entirely unansw]$4 ,anaxim5es ,l ! two previ\s ?9k]s ,anaxim5es 0 an inhabitant ( ,miletus4 ,he 0 born ab\t #ehh ,b4,c4 & #bh di$ ab\t #ebd4 ,he wrote a treatise ( :i* a small fragm5t /ill rema9s4 ,he agre$ ) ,?ales & ,anaxim&] t ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ! univ]se is mat]ial4 ,) ,?ales too1 he look$ ^u x z a p>ticul> k9d ( matt]1 n indet]m9ate matt] z taught by ,anaxim&]4 ,?ales _h decl>$ x to be wat]4 ,anaxim5es nam$ air z fir/ pr9ciple4 ,?is air1 l ! matt] ( ,anaxim&]1 /ret*es illimitably ?r\gh space4 ,air is con/antly 9 motion & has ! p[] ( motion inh]5t 9 x & ?is motion br\ght ab\t ! developm5t ( ! univ]se f air4 ,z op]at+ process ( ?is developm5t ,anaxim5es nam$ ! two opposite processes ( 7#a7 ,r>efaction1 7#b7 ,cond5sation4 ,r>efaction is ! same ?+ z heat or gr[+ hot1 & cond5sation is id5tifi$ ) gr[+ cold4 ,! air by r>efaction becomes fire1 & fire borne al(t ^u ! air becomes ! />s4 ,by ! opposite process ( cond5sation1 air fir/ becomes cl\ds &1 by fur!r degrees ( cond5sation1 becomes successively wat]1 e>?1 & rocks4 ,! _w resolves aga9 9 ! c\rse ( "t into ! primal air4 ,anaxim5es1 l ,anaxim&]1 held ! !ory ( innum]able worlds1 & ^! worlds are1 accord+ to ! traditional view1 successive4 ,b "h aga9 ,pr(essor ,burnet consid]s t ! innum]able worlds may h be5 co-exi/5t z well z successive4 ,anaxim5es consid]$ ! e>? to be a flat disc float+ ^u air4 ,! orig9 ( ! air !ory ( ,anaxim5es seems to h be5 sugge/$ to him by ! fact t air 9 ! =m ( brea? is ! pr9ciple ( life4 ,! tea*+ ( ,anaxim5es seems at fir/ sight to be #bi a fall+ (f f ! position ( ,anaxim&]1 because he goes back to ! position ( ,?ales 9 fav\r ( a det]m9ate matt] z fir/ pr9ciple4 ,b 9 "o respect at lea/ !re is "h an advance ^u ,anaxim&]4 ,! latt] _h be5 vague z to h[ =mless matt] diff]5tiates itself into ! _w ( objects4 ,anaxim5es names ! def9ite processes ( r>efaction & cond5sation4 ,if y believe1 z ^! e>ly physici/s did1 t e diff]5t k9d ( matt] is ultimately "o k9d ( matt]1 ! problem ( ! diff]5tiation ( ! qualities ( ! exi/5t elem5ts arises4 ,= example1 if ?is pap] is really compos$ ( air1 h[ d we acc\nt = its col\r1 its h>dness1 texture1 etc4 ,ei!r ^! qualities mu/ be orig9ally 9 ! primal air1 or n4 ,if ! qualities exi/$ 9 x !n x 0 n really "o homog5e\s matt] l air1 b mu/ h be5 simply a mixture ( diff]5t k9ds ( matt]4 ,if n1 h[ d ^! prop]ties arise8 ,h[ c ?is air :i* has n 9 x ! qualities ( ?+s we see1 develop !m8 ,! simple/ way ( gett+ out ( ! difficulty is to f\nd quality ^u quantity1 & to expla9 ! =m] by ! am\nt or quantity1 m or less1 ( matt] exi/5t 9 ! same volume4 ,?is is precisely :at is meant by r>efaction & cond5sation4 ,cond5sation w\ld result 9 compress+ m matt] into ! same volume4 ,r>efaction w\ld give rise to ! opposite process4 ,great compression ( air1 a great am\nt ( x 9 a small space1 might acc\nt = ! qualities1 say1 ( e>? & /ones1 = example1 _! heav9ess1 h>dness1 col\r1 etc4 ,h5ce ,anaxim5es 0 to "s ext5t a m logical & def9ite ?9k] ?an ,anaxim&]1 b _c #cj comp>e ) him 9 audacity & orig9ality ( ?\ght4 ,o!r ,ionic ,?9k]s ,we h n[ consid]$ ! ?ree *ief ?9k]s ( ! ,ionic ,s*ool4 ,o!rs !re 71 b !y add$ no?+ new to ! tea*+ ( ^! ?ree4 ,!y foll[$ ei!r ,?ales or ,anaxim5es 9 /at+ ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ! _w ei!r z wat] or z air4 ,hippo1 = example1 foll[$ ,?ales1 & = him ! _w is compos$ ( wat]1 ,idaeus agre$ ) ,anaxim5es t x is d]iv$ f air4 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia is *iefly rem>kable = ! fact t he liv$ at a v mu* lat] date4 ,he 0 a contempor>y ( ,anaxagoras1 & oppos$ to ! m develop$ tea*+s ( t philosoph] ! crude mat]ialism ( ! ,ionic ,s*ool4 ,air 0 by him consid]$ to be ! gr\nd ( all ?+s4 #ca ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,py?agoreans ,n mu* is kn[n ( ! life ( ,py?agoras4 ,?ree s-call$ biographies h come d[n to u f antiquity1 b !y 7 writt5 hundr$s ( ye>s aft] ! ev5t1 & are fill$ ) a tissue ( extravagant fancies1 & ) /ories ( miracles & wond]s work$ by ,py?agoras4 ,all sorts ( fanta/ic leg5ds seem to h ga!r$ v e>ly ar\nd 8 life1 obscur+ f u ! actual hi/orical details4 ,a few def9ite facts1 h[ev]1 are kn[n4 ,he 0 born some:]e betwe5 #ehj & #egj ,b4,c4 at ,samos1 & ab\t middle age he migrat$ to ,crotona 9 ,s\? ,italy4 ,accord+ to leg5d1 be=e he arriv$ 9 ,s\? ,italy he _h travell$ ext5sively 9 ,egypt & o!r c\ntries ( ! ,ea/4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no hi/orical evid5ce ( ?is4 ,!re is no?+ 9 itself improbable 9 ! belief t ,py?agoras made ^! travels1 b x _c be accept$ z prov$ = lack ( evid5ce4 ,! leg5d is really f\nd$ simply ^u ! ori5tal flav\r ( 8 doctr9es4 ,9 middle age he arriv$ 9 ,s\? ,italy & settl$ at ,crotona4 ,!re he f\nd$ ! ,py?agorean ,society & liv$ = _m ye>s at ! head ( x4 ,8 lat] life1 ! date & mann] ( 8 dea?1 are n c]ta9ly kn[n4 ,n[ x is important to note t ! ,py?agorean #cb ,society 0 n prim>ily a s*ool ( philosophy at all4 ,x 0 really a religi\s & moral ,ord]1 a ,society ( religi\s re=m]s4 ,! ,py?agoreans 7 closely associat$ ) ! ,orphic ,sect1 & took f x ! belief 9 ! transmigration ( s\ls1 includ+ transmigration ( human s\ls into animals4 ,!y also taught ! doctr9e ( ! :eel ( ?+s1 & ! necessity ( obta9+ release f x1 by :i* "o c\ld escape f ! we>y r\nd ( re9c>nate lives4 ,?us !y %>$ ) ! ,orphic religi\s ,sect ! pr9ciple ( re9c>nation4 ,! ,orphic ,sect believ$ t release f ! :eel ( life 0 to be obta9$ by religi\s c]emonial & ritual4 ,! ,py?agoreans _h a simil> ritual1 b !y add$ to ?is ! belief t intellectual pursuits1 ! cultivation ( sci5ce & philosophy1 &1 9 g5]al1 ! intellectual contemplation ( ! ultimate ?+s ( ! univ]se w\ld be ( great help t[>ds ! release ( ! s\l4 ,f ?is arose ! t5d5cy to develop sci5ce & philosophy4 ,gradually _! philosophy atta9$ a semi-indep5d5ce f _! religi\s rites :i* ju/ifies u 9 reg>d+ x def9itely z philosophy4 ,! ,py?agorean e?ical views 7 rigor\s & ascetic 9 "*4 ,!y insi/$ ^u ! utmo/ purity ( life 9 ! memb]s ( ! ,ord]4 ,ab/95ce f fle% 0 insi/$ ^u1 al?\gh ?is 0 app>5tly a late developm5t4 ,we "k t ,py?agoras himself 0 n a total ab/a9] f fle%4 ,!y =bade ! eat+ ( beans4 ,!y wore a g>b peculi> to !mselves4 ,! body1 !y taught1 is ! prison or tomb ( ! s\l4 ,!y ?\ght t "o mu/ n attempt to obta9 release by suicide1 because man is ! #cc prop]ty ( ,god1 ! *attel ( ,god4 ,!y 7 n politicians 9 ! mod]n s5se1 b _! proc$ure 9 practice am\nt$ to ! greate/ possible int]f]5ce 9 politics4 ,x appe>s t ! ,py?agoreans attempt$ to impose _! ord9ances ^u ! ord9>y citiz5s ( ,crotona4 ,!y aim$ at ! sup]session ( ! ,/ate by _! own ,ord] & !y did actually capture ! gov]nm5t ( ,crotona = a %ort p]iod4 ,?is l$ to attacks on ! ,ord]1 & ! p]secution ( its memb]s4 ,:5 ! pla9 citiz5 ( ,crotona 0 told n to eat beans1 & t "u no circum/ances c\ld he eat 8 own dog1 ?is 0 too mu*4 ,a g5]al p]secution occurr$4 ,! meet+ place ( ! ,py?agoreans 0 burnt to ! gr\nd1 ! ,society 0 scatt]$1 & its memb]s kill$ or driv5 away4 ,?is occurr$ betwe5 ! ye>s #ddj & #dcj ,b4,c4 ,"s ye>s lat] ! ,society reviv$ & cont9u$ its activities1 b we d n he> mu* ( x aft] ! f\r? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,x 0 l>gely a my/ical society4 ,! ,py?agoreans develop$ _! own ritual1 c]emonial & my/]ies4 ,?is love ( my/]y1 & _! g5]al "* z miracle-mong]s1 l>gely acc\nt = ! leg5ds :i* grew up ar\nd ! life ( ,py?agoras himself4 ,_! sci5tific activities 7 also consid]able4 ,!y en=c$ moral self-control4 ,!y cultivat$ ! arts & crafts1 gymna/ics1 music1 m$ic9e1 & ma!matics4 ,! developm5t ( ma!matics 9 e>ly ,greece 0 l>gely ! "w ( ! ,py?agoreans4 ,py?agoras is said to h discov]$ ! #dg? ,proposition ( ,euclid1 & to h sacrific$ an ox 9 hon\r !re(4 ,& !re is good reason to believe t practically ! :ole ( ! sub/ance ( ! ,fir/ ,book ( ,euclid is ! "w ( ,py?agoras4 #cd ,turn+ n[ to _! philosophical tea*+1 ! fir/ ?+ t we h to und]/& is t we _c speak ( ! philosophy ( ,py?agoras1 b only ( ! philosophy ( ! ,py?agoreans4 ,= x is n kn[n :at %>e ,py?agoras _h 9 ?is philosophy or :at %>e 0 contribut$ by 8 successors4 ,n[ we recognize objects 9 ! univ]se by means ( _! qualities4 ,b ! majority ( ^! qualities are n univ]sal 9 _! scope2 "s ?+s possess "s qualities2 o!rs possess o!rs4 ,a leaf1 = example1 is gre51 b n all ?+s are gre54 ,"s ?+s h no col\r at all4 ,! same is true ( ta/es & smells4 ,"s ?+s are sweet2 "s bitt]4 ,b !re is "o quality 9 ?+s :i* is absolutely univ]sal 9 its scope1 :i* applies to ev]y?+ 9 ! univ]se--corporeal or incorporeal4 ,all ?+s are num]able1 & c be c\nt$4 ,moreov]1 x is impossible to conceive a univ]se 9 :i* numb] is n to be f\nd4 ,y c\ld easily imag9e a univ]se 9 :i* !re is no col\r1 or no sweet ta/e1 or a univ]se 9 :i* no?+ possesses weight4 ,b y _c imag9e a univ]se 9 :i* !re is no numb]4 ,?is is an inconceivable ?\ght4 ,^u ^! gr\nds we %\ld be ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t numb] is an extremely important aspect ( ?+s1 & =ms a fundam5tal pad ( ! framework ( ! _w4 ,& x is ^u ?is aspect ( ?+s t ! ,py?agoreans laid emphasis4 ,!y drew att5tion to proportion1 ord]1 & h>mony z ! dom9ant notes ( ! univ]se4 ,n[ :5 we exam9e ! ideas ( proportion1 ord]1 & h>mony1 we %all see t !y are closely connect$ ) numb]4 ,proportion1 = example1 mu/ necess>ily #ce be expressible by ! relation ( "o numb] to ano!r4 ,simil>ly ord] is measurable by numb]s4 ,:5 we say t ! ranks ( a regim5t exhibit ord]1 we mean t !y are arrang$ 9 su* a way t ! soldi]s /& at c]ta9 regul> di/ances f ea* o!r1 & ^! di/ances are measurable by numb]s ( feet or in*es4 ,la/ly1 consid] ! idea ( h>mony4 ,if1 9 mod]n times1 we 7 to say t ! univ]se is a h>moni\s :ole1 we %\ld und]/& t we are m]ely us+ a metaphor f music4 ,b ! ,py?agoreans liv$ 9 an age :5 m5 7 n practis$ 9 ?\ght1 & !y confus$ cosmical h>mony ) musical h>mony4 ,!y ?\ght t ! two ?+s 7 ! same4 ,n[ musical h>mony is f\nd$ ^u numb]s1 & ! ,py?agoreans 7 ! fir/ to discov] ?is4 ,! diff]5ce ( notes is due to ! diff]5t numb]s ( vibrations ( ! s\nd+ in/rum5t4 ,! musical int]vals are likewise bas$ ^u num]ical proportions4 ,s t s9ce1 = ! ,py?agoreans1 ! univ]se is a musical h>mony1 x foll[s t ! ess5tial "* ( ! univ]se is numb]4 ,! /udy ( ma!matics confirm$ ! ,py?agoreans 9 ?is idea4 ,ari?metic is ! sci5ce ( numb]s1 & all o!r ma!matical sci5ces are ultimately r$ucible to numb]s4 ,= in/ance1 9 geometry1 angles are measur$ by ! numb] ( degrees4 ,n[1 z already po9t$ out1 consid]+ all ^! facts1 we might well be ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ t numb] is a v important aspect ( ! univ]se1 & is fundam5tal 9 x4 ,b ! ,py?agoreans w5t mu* fur!r ?an ?is4 ,!y drew :at seems to u ! extraord9>y conclusion t ! _w is made ( #cf numb]s4 ,at ?is po9t1 !n1 we rea* ! he>t ( ! ,py?agorean philosophy4 ,j z ,?ales _h said t ! ultimate reality1 ! fir/ pr9ciple ( :i* ?+s are compos$1 is wat]1 s n[ ! ,py?agoreans tea* t ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ?+s is numb]4 ,numb] is ! _w-gr\nd1 ! /uff out ( :i* ! univ]se is made4 ,9 ! detail$ application ( ?is pr9ciple to ! _w ( ?+s we h a conglom]ation ( extraord9>y fancies & extravagances4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 all numb]s arise out ( ! unit4 ,?is is ! prime numb]1 e o!r numb] be+ simply s _m units4 ,! unit !n is ! fir/ 9 ! ord] ( ?+s 9 ! univ]se4 ,aga91 numb]s are divid$ into odd & ev54 ,! univ]se1 said ! ,py?agoreans1 is compos$ ( pairs ( opposites & contradictories1 & ! fundam5tal "* ( ^! opposites is t !y are compos$ ( ! odd & ev54 ,! odd & ev51 moreov]1 !y id5tifi$ ) ! limit$ & ! unlimit$ respectively4 ,h[ ?is id5tification 0 made seems some:at d\btful4 ,b x is cle>ly connect$ ) ! !ory ( bip>tition4 ,an ev5 numb] c be divid$ by two & !re=e x does n set a limit to bip>tition4 ,h5ce x is unlimit$4 ,an odd numb] _c be divid$ by two1 & !re=e x sets a limit to bip>tition4 ,! limit$ & ! unlimit$ become !re=e ! ultimate pr9ciples ( ! univ]se4 ,! ,limit is id5tifi$ ) ! unit1 & ?is aga9 ) ! c5tral fire ( ! univ]se4 ,! ,limit is fir/ =m$ & proce$s to draw m & m ( ! unlimit$ t[>ds itself1 & to limit x4 ,becom+ limit$1 x becomes a def9ite some?+1 a ?+4 ,s ! =mation ( ! #cg _w ( ?+s proce$s4 ,! ,py?agoreans drew up a li/ ( t5 opposites ( :i* ! univ]se is compos$4 ,!y are 7#a7 ,limit$ & unlimit$1 7#b7 odd & ev51 7#c7 "o & _m1 7#d7 "r & left1 7#e7 mascul9e & fem99e1 7#f7 re/ & motion1 7#g7 /raight & crook$1 7#h7 light & d>kness1 7#i7 good & evil1 7#aj7 squ>e & oblong4 ,) ! fur!r developm5t ( ! numb]-!ory ,py?agoreanism becomes entirely arbitr>y & )\t pr9ciple4 ,we he>1 = example1 t #a is ! po9t1 #b is ! l9e1 #c is ! plane1 #d is ! solid1 #e physical qualities1 #f animation1 #g intellig5ce1 heal?1 love1 wisdom4 ,!re is no pr9ciple 9 all ?is4 ,id5tification ( ! diff]5t numb]s ) diff]5t ?+s c only be left to ! :im & fancy ( ! individual4 ,! ,py?agoreans disagre$ among !mselves z to :at numb] is to be assign$ to :at ?+4 ,= example1 ju/ice1 !y said1 is t :i* returns equal = equal4 ,if ,i d a man an injury1 ju/ice orda9s t injury %\ld be done to me1 ?us giv+ equal = equal4 ,ju/ice mu/1 !re=e1 be a numb] :i* returns equal = equal4 ,n[ ! only numb]s :i* d ?is are squ>e numb]s4 ,f\r equals two into two1 & s returns equal = equal4 ,f\r1 !n1 mu/ be ju/ice4 ,b n9e is equally ! squ>e ( ?ree4 ,h5ce o!r ,py?agoreans id5tifi$ ju/ice ) n9e4 ,accord+ to ,philolaus1 "o ( ! mo/ prom95t ,py?agoreans1 ! quality ( matt] dep5ds ^u ! numb] ( sides ( its smalle/ p>ticles4 ,( ! five regul> solids1 ?ree 7 kn[n to ! ,py?agoreans4 ,t matt] ^: smalle/ p>ticles are regul> tetrah$ra1 said ,philolaus1 is fire4 ,simil>ly e>? is compos$ #ch ( cubes1 & ! univ]se is id5tifi$ ) ! dodecah$ron4 ,?is idea 0 develop$ fur!r by ,plato 9 ! ,timaeus1 :]e we f9d all ! five regul> solids br\ght into ! !ory4 ,! c5tral fire1 already m5tion$ z id5tifi$ ) ! unit1 is a *>act]i/ic doctr9e ( ! ,py?agoreans4 ,up to ?is "t x _h be5 believ$ t ! e>? is ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 & t ev]y?+ revolves r\nd x4 ,b ) ! ,py?agoreans ! e>? revolves r\nd ! c5tral fire4 ,"o feels incl9$ at once to id5tify ?is ) ! sun4 ,b ?is is n correct4 ,! sun1 l ! e>?1 revolves r\nd ! c5tral fire4 ,we d n see ! c5tral fire because t side ( ! e>? on :i* we live is p]petually turn$ away f x4 ,?is involves ! !ory t ! e>? revolves r\nd ! c5tral fire 9 ! same p]iod t x takes to rotate ^u its axis4 ,! ,py?agoreans 7 ! fir/ to see t ! e>? is itself "o ( ! planets1 & to %ake !mselves free f ! geoc5tric hypo!sis4 ,r\nd ! c5tral fire1 sometimes my/ically call$ ! ,he>? ( ! ,univ]se1 revolve t5 bodies4 ,fir/ is ! c\nt]-e>?1 a non-exi/5t body inv5t$ by ! ,py?agoreans1 next comes ! e>?1 !n ! sun1 ! moon1 ! five planets1 & la/ly ! heav5 ( ! fix$ />s4 ,?is curi\s sy/em might h borne fruit 9 a/ronomy4 ,t x did n d s 0 l>gely due to ! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle1 :o disc\nt5anc$ ! !ory1 & insi/$ t ! e>? is ! c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,b 9 ! end ! ,py?agorean view won ! day4 ,we "k t ,cop]nicus d]iv$ ! sugge/ion ( 8 helioc5tric hypo!sis f ! ,py?agoreans4 #ci ,! ,py?agoreans also taught ,! ,great ,ye>1 probably a p]iod ( #aj1jjj ye>s1 9 :i* ! _w comes into be+ & passes away1 go+ 9 ea* su* p]iod ?r\gh ! same evolution d[n to ! smalle/ details4 ,!re is little to be said by way ( criticism ( ! ,py?agorean sy/em4 ,x is entirely crude philosophy4 ,! application ( ! numb] !ory issues 9 a b>r5 & futile ari?metical my/icism4 ,hegel's words 9 ?is connection are in/ructive3-- ,we may c]ta9ly1 he says1 feel ourselves prompt$ to associate ! mo/ g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ?\ght ) ! fir/ numb]s3 say+ "o is ! simple & imm$iate1 two is diff]5ce & m$iation1 & ?ree ! unity ( bo? ^!4 ,su* associations h[ev] are purely ext]nal2 !re is no?+ 9 ! m]e numb]s to make !m express ^! def9ite ?\ghts4 ,) e /ep 9 ?is me?od1 ! m arbitr>y gr[s ! association ( def9ite numb]s ) def9ite ?\ghts 444 ,to atta*1 z d "s secret societies ( mod]n times1 importance to all sorts ( numb]s & figures is1 to "s ext5t an innoc5t amusem5t1 b x is also a sign ( defici5cy ( intellectual res\rce4 ,^! numb]s1 x is said1 conceal a pr(\nd mean+1 & sugge/ a deal to ?9k ab\t4 ,b ! po9t 9 philosophy is n :at y may ?9k b :at y d ?9k2 & ! g5u9e air ( ?\ght is to be s\ght 9 ?\ght itself & n 9 arbitr>ily select$ symbols4 ,footnote #c ,footnote #c3 ,hegel's ,small] ,logic1 translat$ by ,wallace1 second edition1 page #aih4 #dj ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,eleatics ,! ,eleatics are s call$ because ! seat ( _! s*ool 0 at ,elea1 a t[n 9 ,s\? ,italy1 & ,p>m5ides & ,z5o1 ! two *ief repres5tatives ( ! s*ool1 7 bo? citiz5s ( ,elea4 ,s f> we h be5 deal+ ) crude sy/ems ( ?\ght 9 :i* only ! g]ms ( philosophic ?9k+ c be dimly disc]n$4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 ) ! ,eleatics we /ep out def9itely = ! fir/ "t ^u ! plat=m ( philosophy4 ,eleaticism is ! fir/ true philosophy4 ,9 x !re em]ges ! fir/ factor ( ! tru?1 h[ev] poor1 meagre1 & inadequate4 ,= philosophy is n1 z _m p]sons suppose1 simply a collection ( freak speculations1 :i* we may /udy 9 hi/orical ord]1 b at ! end ( :i*1 ,god alone kn[s :i* we ought to believe4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! hi/ory ( philosophy pres5ts a def9ite l9e ( evolution4 ,! tru? unfolds itself gradually 9 "t4 ,x5ophanes ,! reput$ f\nd] ( ! ,eleatic ,s*ool 0 ,x5ophanes4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 d\btful :e!r ,x5ophanes ev] w5t to ,elea4 ,moreov]1 he belongs m prop]ly #da to ! hi/ory ( religion ?an to ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,! real creator ( ! ,eleatic ,s*ool 0 ,p>m5ides4 ,b ,p>m5ides seiz$ ^u c]ta9 g]ms ( ?\ght lat5t 9 ,x5ophanes & transmut$ !m into philosophic pr9ciples4 ,we h1 !re=e1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to say some?+ ( ,x5ophanes4 ,he 0 born ab\t ! ye> #egf ,b4,c41 at ,colophon 9 ,ionia4 ,8 long life 0 sp5t 9 w&]+ up & d[n ! cities ( ,hellas1 z a poet & m9/rel1 s++ songs at banquets & fe/ivals4 ,:e!r1 z sometimes /at$2 he f9ally settl$ at ,elea is a matt] ( d\bt1 b we "k def9itely t at ! advanc$ age ( n9ety-two he 0 /ill w&]+ ab\t ,greece4 ,8 philosophy1 su* z x is1 is express$ 9 poems4 ,he did n1 h[ev]1 write philosophical poems1 b r elegies & satires ^u v>i\s subjects1 only incid5tally express+ 8 religi\s views !re94 ,fragm5ts ( ^! poems h come d[n to u4 ,x5ophanes is ! orig9ator ( ! qu>rel betwe5 philosophy & religion4 ,he attack$ ! popul> religi\s notions ( ! ,greeks ) a view to f\nd+ a pur] & nobl] conception ( ,deity4 ,popul> ,greek religion consi/$ ( a belief 9 a numb] ( gods :o 7 conceiv$ v mu* z 9 ! =m ( human be+s4 ,x5ophanes attacks ?is conception ( ,god z possess+ human =m4 ,x is absurd1 he says1 to suppose t ! gods w&] ab\t f place to place1 z repres5t$ 9 ! ,greek leg5ds4 ,x is absurd to suppose t ! gods _h a beg9n+4 ,x is disgraceful to impute to !m /ories ( fraud1 adult]y1 !ft & deceit4 ,& ,x5ophanes inveighs aga9/ ,hom] & ,hesiod = dissem9at+ ^! degrad+ conceptions #db ( ! ,deity4 ,he argues1 too1 aga9/ ! poly!i/ic notion ( a plurality ( gods4 ,t :i* is div9e c only be "o4 ,!re c only be "o be/4 ,!re=e1 ,god is to be conceiv$ z "o4 ,& ?is ,god is comp>able to mortals nei!r 9 bodily =m nor und]/&+4 ,he is all eye1 all e>1 all ?\ght4 ,x is he :o1 )\t tr\ble1 by 8 ?\ght gov]ns all ?+s4 ,b x w\ld be a mi/ake to suppose t ,x5ophanes ?\ght ( ?is ,god z a be+ ext]nal to ! _w1 gov]n+ x f ! outside1 z a g5]al gov]ns 8 soldi]s4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,x5ophanes id5tifi$ ,god ) ! _w4 ,! _w is ,god1 a s5ti5t be+1 ?\gh )\t organs ( s5se4 ,look+ out into ! wide heav5s1 he said1 ,! ,"o is ,god4 ,footnote #d ,! ?\ght ( ,x5ophanes is !re=e m prop]ly describ$ z pan!ism ?an z mono!ism4 ,god is un*angeable1 immutable1 undivid$1 unmov$1 passionless1 undi/urb$4 ,x5ophanes appe>s1 ?us1 r z a religi\s re=m] ?an z a philosoph]4 ,nev]!less1 inasmu* z he 0 ! fir/ to enunciate ! proposition ,all is "o1 he takes 8 place 9 philosophy4 ,x 0 ^u ?is ?\ght t ,p>m5ides built ! f\ndations ( ! ,eleatic philosophy4 ,footnote #d3 ,ari/otle1 ,metaphysics1 ,book ,i4 *apt] v4 ,c]ta9 o!r op9ions ( ,x5ophanes h be5 pres]v$4 ,he obs]v$ fossils1 & f\nd %ells inl&1 & ! =ms ( fi% & sea-we$ emb$d$ 9 ! rocks 9 ! qu>ries ( ,syracuse & else:]e4 ,f ^! he conclud$ t ! e>? _h ris5 out ( ! sea & w\ld aga9 p>tially s9k into x4 ,!n ! human race w\ld be de/roy$4 ,b ! e>? w\ld aga9 rise f ! sea & ! human race w\ld aga9 #dc be r5ew$4 ,he believ$ t ! sun & />s 7 burn+ masses ( vap\r4 ,! sun1 he ?\ght1 does n revolve r\nd ! e>?4 ,x goes on 9 a /raight l9e1 & disappe>s 9 ! remote di/ance 9 ! ev5+4 ,x is n ! same sun :i* rises ! next morn+4 ,e day a new sun is =m$ out ( ! vap\rs ( ! sea4 ,?is idea is connect$ ) 8 g5]al attitude t[>ds ! popul> religion4 ,8 motive 0 to %[ t ! sun & />s are n div9e be+s1 b l o!r be+s1 ephem]al4 ,x5ophanes also ridicul$ ! ,py?agoreans1 especially _! doctr9e ( re-inc>nation4 ,p>m5ides ,p>m5ides 0 born ab\t #ead ,b4,c4 at ,elea4 ,n mu* is kn[n ( 8 life4 ,he 0 9 8 e>ly y\? a ,py?agorean1 b recant$ t philosophy & =mulat$ a philosophy ( 8 own4 ,he 0 greatly rev]$ 9 antiquity bo? = ! dep? ( 8 intellect1 & ! sublimity & nobility ( 8 "*4 ,plato ref]s to him always ) rev]5ce4 ,8 philosophy is compris$ 9 a philosophic didactic poem :i* is divid$ into two p>ts4 ,! fir/ "p exp\nds 8 own philosophy & is call$ ! way ( tru?4 ,! second "p describes ! false op9ions curr5t 9 8 day & is call$ ! way ( op9ion4 ,! reflection ( ,p>m5ides takes its rise f obs]vation ( ! transitor9ess & *angeabl5ess ( ?+s4 ,! _w1 z we "k x1 is a _w ( *ange & mutation4 ,all ?+s arise & pass away4 ,no?+ is p]man5t1 no?+ /&s4 ,"o mom5t x is1 ano!r mom5t x is n4 ,x is z true to say ( #dd any?+1 t x is n1 z t x is4 ,! tru? ( ?+s _c lie "h1 = no k ( t :i* is con/antly *ang+ is possible4 ,h5ce ! ?\ght ( ,p>m5ides becomes ! ef=t to f9d ! et]nal amid ! %ift+1 ! abid+ & ev]la/+ amid ! *ange & mutation ( ?+s4 ,& !re arises 9 ?is way ! anti!sis betwe5 ,be+ & n-be+4 ,! absolutely real is ,be+4 ,n-be+ is ! unreal4 ,n-be+ is n at all4 ,& ?is n-be+ he id5tifies ) becom+1 ) ! _w ( %ift+ & *ang+ ?+s1 ! _w :i* is kn[n to u by ! s5ses4 ,! _w ( s5se is unreal1 illusory1 a m]e appe>ance4 ,x is n-be+4 ,only ,be+ truly is4 ,z ,?ales designat$ wat] ! "o reality1 z ! ,py?agoreans nam$ numb]1 s n[ = ,p>m5ides ! sole reality1 ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ?+s1 is ,be+1 :olly unmix$ ) n-be+1 :olly exclud5t ( all becom+4 ,! "* ( ,be+ he describes1 = ! mo/ "p1 9 a s]ies ( negatives4 ,!re is 9 x no *ange1 x is absolutely unbecome & imp]i%able4 ,x has nei!r beg9n+ nor end1 nei!r aris+ nor pass+ away4 ,if ,be+ began1 x mu/ h aris5 ei!r f ,be+ or f n-be+4 ,b = ,be+ to arise out ( ,be+1 t is n a beg9n+1 & = ,be+ to arise out ( n-be+ is impossible1 s9ce !re is !n no reason :y x %\ld arise lat] r ?an soon]4 ,be+ _c come out ( n-be+1 nor some?+ out ( no?+4 ,ex nihilo nihil fit4 ,?is is ! fundam5tal ?\ght ( ,p>m5ides4 ,moreov]1 we _c say ( ,be+ t x 01 t x is1 t x w be4 ,!re is = x no pa/1 no pres5t1 & no future4 ,x is r et]nally & timelessly pres5t4 ,x is undivid$ & indivisible4 ,= any?+ to be divid$ #de x mu/ be divid$ by some?+ o!r ?an itself4 ,b !re is no?+ o!r ?an ,be+2 !re is no n-be+4 ,!re=e !re is no?+ by :i* ,be+ c be divid$4 ,h5ce x is indivisible4 ,x is unmov$ & undi/urb$1 = motion & di/urbance are =ms ( becom+1 & all becom+ is exclud$ f ,be+4 ,x is absolutely self-id5tical4 ,x does n arise f any?+ o!r ?an itself4 ,x does n pass into any?+ o!r ?an itself4 ,x has its :ole be+ 9 itself4 ,x does n dep5d ^u any?+ else = its be+ & reality4 ,x does n pass ov] into o!rness2 x rema9s1 /eadfa/1 & abid+ 9 itself4 ,( positive "* ,be+ has no?+4 ,its sole "* is simply its be+4 ,x _c be said t x is ?is or t2 x _c be said t x has ?is or t quality1 t x is "h or !re1 !n or n[4 ,x simply is4 ,its only quality is1 s to speak1 isness4 ,b 9 ,p>m5ides !re em]ges = ! fir/ "t a di/9ction ( fundam5tal importance 9 philosophy1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ,s5se & ,reason4 ,! _w ( falsity & appe>ance1 ( becom+1 ( n-be+1 ?is is1 says ,p>m5ides1 ! _w :i* is pres5t$ to u by ! s5ses4 ,true & v]itable ,be+ is kn[n to u only by reason1 by ?\ght4 ,! s5ses !re=e1 are1 = ,p>m5ides1 ! s\rces ( all illusion & error4 ,tru? lies only 9 reason4 ,?is is exce$+ly important1 because ?is1 t tru? lies 9 reason & n 9 ! _w ( s5se1 is ! fundam5tal position ( idealism4 ,! doctr9e ( ,be+1 j describ$1 occupies ! fir/ "p ( ! poem ( ,p>m5ides4 ,! second "p is ! way ( false op9ion4 ,b :e!r ,p>m5ides is "h simply giv+ an acc\nt ( ! false philosophies #df ( 8 day1 7& 9 do+ ?is !re does n seem mu* po9t17 or :e!r he 01 ) total inconsi/5cy1 attempt+1 9 a cosmological !ory ( 8 own1 to expla9 ! orig9 ( t _w ( appe>ance & illusion1 ^: v be+ he has1 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! poem1 d5i$--?is does n seem to be cle>4 ,! !ory "h prop\nd$1 at any rate1 is t ! s5se-_w is compos$ ( ! two opposites1 ! hot & ! cold1 or light & d>kness4 ,! m hot !re is1 ! m life1 ! m reality2 ! m cold1 ! m unreality & dea?4 ,:at position1 n[1 are we to assign to ,p>m5ides 9 philosophy8 ,h[ are we to *>act]ize 8 sy/em8 ,su* writ]s z ,hegel1 ,erdmann1 & ,s*wegl]1 h always int]pret$ 8 philosophy 9 an ideali/ic s5se4 ,pr(essor ,burnet1 h[ev]1 takes ! opposite view4 ,to quote 8 own words3 ,p>m5ides is n1 z "s h said1 ! fa!r ( idealism4 ,on ! contr>y1 all mat]ialism dep5ds ^u 8 view4 ,footnote #e ,n[ if we _c say :e!r ,p>m5ides 0 a mat]iali/ or an ideali/1 we _c be said to und]/& mu* ab\t 8 philosophy4 ,! "q is !re=e ( c>d9al importance4 ,let u see1 9 ! fir/ place1 ^u :at gr\nds ! mat]iali/ic int]pretation ( ,p>m5ides is bas$4 ,x is bas$ ^u a fact :i* ,i h s f> n m5tion$1 leav+ x = explanation at ?is mom5t4 ,p>m5ides said t ,be+1 :i* is = him ! ultimate reality1 occupies space1 is f9ite1 & is sph]ical or globe-%ap$4 ,n[ t :i* occupies space1 & has %ape1 is matt]4 ,! ultimate reality ( ?+s1 !re=e1 is conceiv$ by ,p>m5ides z mat]ial1 & ?is1 ( c\rse1 is ! #dg c>d9al !sis ( mat]ialism4 ,?is int]pretation ( ,p>m5ides is fur!r emphasiz$ 9 ! disagreem5t betwe5 himself & ,melissus1 z to :e!r ,be+ is f9ite or inf9ite4 ,melissus 0 a y\ng] adh]5t ( ! ,eleatic ,s*ool1 ^: *ief int]e/ lies 9 8 views on ?is "q4 ,8 philosophical position 9 g5]al is ! same z t ( ,p>m5ides4 ,b on ?is po9t !y diff]$4 ,p>m5ides ass]t$ t ,be+ is globe-%ap$1 & !re=e f9ite4 ,n[ x 0 an ess5tial "p ( ! doctr9e ( ,p>m5ides t empty space is non-exi/5t4 ,empty space is an exi/5t non-exi/5ce4 ,?is is self-contradictory1 & = ,p>m5ides1 !re=e1 empty space is simply n-be+4 ,!re are1 = example1 no int]/ices1 or empty spaces betwe5 ! p>ticles ( matt]4 ,be+ is ! full1 t is1 full space ) no mixture ( empty space 9 x4 ,n[ ,melissus agre$ ) ,p>m5ides t !re is no su* ?+ z empty space2 & he po9t$ out1 t if ,be+ is globe-%ap$1 x mu/ be b\nd$ on ! outside by empty space4 ,& z ?is is impossible1 x _c be true t ,be+ is globe-%ap$1 or f9ite1 b mu/1 on ! contr>y1 ext5d illimitably ?r\gh space4 ,?is makes x q cle> t ,p>m5ides1 ,melissus1 & ! ,eleatics g5]ally1 did reg>d ,be+ z1 9 "s s5se1 mat]ial4 ,footnote #e3 ,e>ly ,greek ,philosophy1 *ap4 iv4 ,sec4 #hi4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 let u turn to ! o!r side ( ! picture4 ,:at gr\nd is !re = reg>d+ ,p>m5ides z an ideali/8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we may say t 8 ultimate pr9ciple1 ,be+1 :atev] he may h ?\ght ( x1 is n 9 fact mat]ial1 b is ess5tially an ab/ract ?\ght1 a concept4 ,be+ is n "h1 x is n !re4 ,x is n 9 any place or "t4 ,x is n to be f\nd by ! s5ses4 ,x is to be f\nd only 9 reason4 #dh ,we =m ! idea ( ,be+ by ! process ( ab/raction4 ,= example1 we see ?is desk4 ,our entire k ( ! desk consi/s 9 our k ( its qualities4 ,x is squ>e1 br[n1 h>d1 od\rless1 etc4 ,n[ suppose we successively /rip (f ^! qualities 9 ?\ght--its col\r1 its size1 its %ape4 ,we %all ultimately be left ) no?+ at all except its m]e be+4 ,we c no long] say ( x t x is h>d1 squ>e1 etc4 ,we c only say x is4 ,z ,p>m5ides said1 ,be+ is n divisible1 movable2 x is n "h nor !re1 !n nor n[4 ,x simply is4 ,?is is ! ,eleatic notion ( ,be+1 & x is a pure concept4 ,x may be comp>$ to su* an idea z :it5ess4 ,we _c see :it5ess4 ,we see :ite ?+s1 b n :it5ess itself4 ,:at1 !n1 is :it5ess8 ,x is a concept1 t is to say1 n a p>ticul> ?+1 b a g5]al idea1 :i* we =m by ab/raction1 by consid]+ ! quality :i* all :ite ?+s h 9 common1 & neglect+ ! qualities 9 :i* !y diff]4 ,j s1 if we consid] ! common "* ( all objects 9 ! univ]se1 & neglect _! diff]5ces1 we %all f9d t :at !y all h 9 common is simply be+4 ,be+ !n is a g5]al idea1 or concept4 ,x is a ?\ght1 & n a ?+4 ,p>m5ides1 !re=e1 actually plac$ ! absolute reality ( ?+s 9 an idea1 9 a ?\ght1 ?\gh he may h conceiv$ x 9 a mat]ial & s5su\s way4 ,n[ ! c>d9al !sis ( idealism is precisely ?is1 t ! absolute reality1 ( :i* ! _w is a manife/ation1 consi/s 9 ?\ght1 9 concepts4 ,p>m5ides1 on ?is view1 0 an ideali/4 ,moreov]1 ,p>m5ides has cle>ly made ! di/9ction betwe5 s5se & reason4 ,true ,be+ is n kn[n to #di ! s5ses1 b only to reason1 & ?is di/9ction is an ess5tial feature ( all idealism4 ,mat]ialism is precisely ! view t reality is to be f\nd 9 ! _w ( s5se4 ,b ! proposition ( ,p>m5ides is ! exact opposite ( ?is1 namely1 t reality is to be f\nd only 9 reason4 ,aga91 !re beg9s to appe> = ! fir/ "t 9 ,p>m5ides ! di/9ction betwe5 reality & appe>ance4 ,p>m5ides1 ( c\rse1 w\ld n h us$ ^! t]ms1 :i* h be5 adopt$ 9 mod]n times4 ,b ! ?\ght :i* !y express is unmi/akably !re4 ,?is outw>d _w1 ! _w ( s5se1 he proclaims to be illusion & appe>ance4 ,reality is some?+ :i* lies beh9d1 & is invisible to ! s5ses4 ,n[ ! v ess5ce ( mat]ialism is t ?is mat]ial _w1 ?is _w ( s5se1 is ! real _w4 ,idealism is ! doctr9e t ! s5se-_w is an appe>ance4 ,h[ !n c ,p>m5ides be call$ a mat]iali/8 ,h[ are we to reconcile ^! two conflict+ views ( ,p>m5ides8 ,i ?9k ! tru? is t ^! two contradictories lie side by side 9 ,p>m5ides unreconcil$1 & /ill mutually contradict+ ea* o!r4 ,p>m5ides himself did n see ! contradiction4 ,if we emphasize ! "o side1 !n ,p>m5ides 0 a mat]iali/4 ,if we emphasize ! o!r side1 !n he is to be int]pret$ z an ideali/4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 9 ! hi/ory ( ,greek philosophy1 bo? ^! sides ( ,p>m5ides 7 successively emphasiz$4 ,he became ! fa!r bo? ( mat]ialism & ( idealism4 ,8 imm$iate successors1 ,emp$ocles & ,democritus1 seiz$ ^u ! mat]iali/ic aspect ( 8 ?\ght1 & develop$ x4 ,! ess5tial ?\ght ( ,p>m5ides 0 t ,be+ _c arise f n-be+1 & t ,be+ nei!r #ej arises nor passes away4 ,if we apply ?is idea to matt] we get :at 9 mod]n times is call$ ! doctr9e ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]4 ,matt] has no beg9n+ & no end4 ,! app>5t aris+ & pass+ away ( ?+s is simply ! aggregation & sep>ation ( p>ticles ( matt] :i*1 9 !mselves1 are inde/ructible4 ,?is is precisely ! position ( ,democritus4 ,& 8 doctr9e1 !re=e1 is a mat]iali/ic r5d]+ ( ! ma9 ?\ght ( ,p>m5ides t ,be+ _c arise f n-be+ or pass into n-be+4 ,x 0 n till ! "t ( ,plato t ! ideali/ic aspect ( ! ,p>m5idean doctr9e 0 develop$4 ,x 0 ! g5ius ( ,plato :i* seiz$ ^u ! g]ms ( idealism 9 ,p>m5ides & develop$ !m4 ,plato 0 deeply influ5c$ by ,p>m5ides4 ,8 ma9 doctr9e 0 t ! reality ( ! _w is to be f\nd 9 ?\ght1 9 concepts1 9 :at is call$ ! ,idea4 ,& he id5tifi$ ! ,idea ) ! ,be+ ( ,p>m5ides4 ,b /ill1 x may be ask$1 :i* is ! true view ( ,p>m5ides8 ,:i* is ! hi/orical ,p>m5ides8 ,0 n ,plato 9 int]pret+ him ideali/ically read+ 8 own ?\ght into ,p>m5ides8 ,are n we1 if we int]pret him z an ideali/1 read+ into him lat] ideas8 ,9 "o s5se ?is is p]fectly true4 ,x is cle> f :at ,p>m5ides himself said t he reg>d$ ! ultimate reality ( ?+s z mat]ial4 ,x w\ld be a complete mi/ake to attribute to him a fully develop$ & consi/5t sy/em ( idealism4 ,if y _h told ,p>m5ides t he 0 an ideali/1 he w\ld n h und]/ood y4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 mat]ialism & idealism 0 n !n develop$4 ,if y _h told him1 moreov]1 t ,be+ is a concept1 he w\ld n h und]/ood #ea y1 because ! !ory ( concepts 0 n develop$ until ! "t ( ,socrates & ,plato4 ,n[ x is ! function ( hi/orical criticism to insi/ ^u ?is1 to see t lat] ?\ght is n attribut$ to ,p>m5ides4 ,b if ?is is ! function ( hi/orical s*ol>%ip1 x is equally ! function ( philosophic insight to seize ^u ! g]ms ( a high] ?\ght amid ! confus$ ?9k+ ( ,p>m5ides1 to see :at he 0 grop+ =1 to see cle>ly :at he saw only vaguely & dimly1 to make explicit :at 9 him 0 m]ely implicit1 to exhibit ! true inw>dness ( 8 tea*+1 to sep>ate :at is valuable & ess5tial 9 x f :at is wor?less & accid5tal4 ,& ,i say t 9 ?is s5se ! true & ess5tial mean+ ( ,p>m5ides is 8 idealism4 ,i said 9 ! fir/ *apt] t philosophy is ! movem5t f s5su\s to non-s5su\s ?\ght4 ,i said t x is only ) ! utmo/ difficulty t ?is movem5t occurs4 ,& ,i said t ev5 ! greate/ philosoph]s h sometimes fail$ h]e94 ,9 ,p>m5ides we h ! fir/ example ( ?is4 ,he began by prop\nd+ ! tru? t ,be+ is ! ess5tial reality1 & ,be+1 z we saw1 is a concept4 ,b ,p>m5ides 0 a pione]4 ,he trod ^u unbrok5 gr\nd4 ,he _h n beh9d him1 z we h1 a long l9e ( ideali/ic ?9k]s to guide him4 ,s he c\ld n ma9ta9 ?is fir/ non-s5su\s ?\ght4 ,he c\ld n resi/ ! temptation to frame = himself a m5tal image1 a picture1 ( ,be+4 ,n[ all m5tal images & pictures are fram$ out ( mat]ials suppli$ to u by ! s5ses4 ,h5ce x comes ab\t t ,p>m5ides pictur$ ,be+ z a globe-%ap$ some?+ occupy+ space4 ,b ?is is n ! tru? ( ,p>m5ides4 ,?is is simply 8 failure to realise #eb & und]/& 8 own pr9ciple1 & to ?9k 8 own ?\ght4 ,x is true t 8 imm$iate successors1 ,emp$ocles & ,democritus1 seiz$ ^u ?is1 & built _! philosophies ^u x4 ,b 9 do+ s !y 7 build+ ^u ! d>kness ( ,p>m5ides1 ^u 8 dimness ( vision1 ^u 8 inability to grapple ) 8 own idea4 ,x 0 ,plato :o built ^u ! light ( ,p>m5ides4 ,z5o ,! ?ird & la/ important ?9k] ( ! ,eleatic ,s*ool is ,z5o :o1 l ,p>m5ides1 0 a man ( ,elea4 ,8 bir? is plac$ ab\t #dhi ,b4,c4 ,he compos$ a prose treatise 9 :i* he develop$ 8 philosophy4 ,z5o's contribution to ,eleaticism is1 9 a s5se1 entirely negative4 ,he did n add any?+ positive to ! tea*+s ( ,p>m5ides4 ,he supports ,p>m5ides 9 ! doctr9e ( ,be+4 ,b x is n ! conclusions ( ,z5o t are novel1 x is r ! reasons :i* he gave = !m4 ,9 attempt+ to support ! ,p>m5idean doctr9e f a new po9t ( view he develop$ c]ta9 ideas ab\t ! ultimate "* ( space & "t :i* h s9ce be5 ( ! utmo/ importance 9 philosophy4 ,p>m5ides _h taught t ! _w ( s5se is illusory & false4 ,! ess5tials ( t _w are two-- multiplicity & *ange4 ,true ,be+ is absolutely "o2 !re is 9 x no plurality or multiplicity4 ,be+1 moreov]1 is absolutely /atic & un*angeable4 ,!re is 9 x no motion4 ,multiplicity & motion are ! two *>act]i/ics ( ! false _w ( s5se4 ,aga9/ multiplicity & motion1 !re=e1 ,z5o direct$ 8 #ec argum5ts1 & attempt$ indirectly to support ! conclusions ( ,p>m5ides by %[+ t multiplicity & motion are impossible4 ,he attempt$ to =ce multiplicity & motion to refute !mselves by %[+ t1 if we assume !m z real1 contradictory propositions foll[ f t assumption4 ,two propositions :i* contradict ea* o!r _c bo? be true4 ,!re=e ! assumptions f :i* bo? foll[1 namely1 multiplicity & motion1 _c be real ?+s4 ,z5o's argum5ts aga9/ multiplicity4 7#a7 ,if ! _m is1 x mu/ be bo? inf9itely small & inf9itely l>ge4 ,! _m mu/ be inf9itely small4 ,= x is compos$ ( units4 ,?is is :at we mean by say+ t x is _m4 ,x is _m p>ts or units4 ,^! units mu/ be indivisible4 ,= if !y are fur!r divisible1 !n !y are n units4 ,s9ce !y are indivisible !y c h no magnitude1 = t :i* has magnitude is divisible4 ,! _m1 !re=e1 is compos$ ( units :i* h no magnitude4 ,b if none ( ! p>ts ( ! _m h magnitude1 ! _m z a :ole has none4 ,!re=e1 ! _m is inf9itely small4 ,b ! _m mu/ also be inf9itely l>ge4 ,= ! _m has magnitude1 & z su*1 is divisible into p>ts4 ,^! p>ts /ill h magnitude1 & are !re=e fur!r divisible4 ,h[ev] f> we proce$ ) ! division ! p>ts /ill h magnitude & are /ill divisible4 ,h5ce ! _m is divisible ad inf9itum4 ,x mu/ !re=e be compos$ ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts1 ea* hav+ magnitude4 ,b ! smalle/ magnitude1 multipli$ by inf9ity1 becomes an inf9ite magnitude4 ,!re=e ! _m is inf9itely l>ge4 7#b7 ,! #ed _m mu/ be1 9 numb]1 bo? limit$ & unlimit$4 ,x mu/ be limit$ because x is j z _m z x is1 no m1 no less4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a def9ite numb]4 ,b a def9ite numb] is a f9ite or limit$ numb]4 ,b ! _m mu/ be also unlimit$ 9 numb]4 ,= x is inf9itely divisible1 or compos$ ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts4 ,z5o's argum5ts aga9/ motion4 7#a7 ,9 ord] to travel a di/ance1 a body mu/ fir/ travel half ! di/ance4 ,!re rema9s half left = x /ill to travel4 ,x mu/ !n travel half ! rema9+ di/ance4 ,!re is /ill a rema9d]4 ,?is progress proce$s inf9itely1 b !re is always a rema9d] untravell$4 ,!re=e1 x is impossible = a body to travel f "o po9t to ano!r4 ,x c nev] arrive4 7#b7 ,a*illes & ! tortoise run a race4 ,if ! tortoise is giv5 a />t1 ,a*illes c nev] cat* x up4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 he mu/ run to ! po9t f :i* ! tortoise />t$4 ,:5 he gets !re1 ! tortoise w h gone to a po9t fur!r on4 ,a*illes mu/ !n run to t po9t1 & f9ds !n t ! tortoise has rea*$ a ?ird po9t4 ,?is w g on = ev]1 ! di/ance betwe5 !m cont9ually dim9i%+1 b nev] be+ :olly wip$ out4 ,a*illes w nev] cat* up ! tortoise4 7#c7 ,?is is ! /ory ( ! fly+ arr[4 ,an object _c be 9 two places at ! same "t4 ,!re=e1 at any p>ticul> mom5t 9 its flight ! arr[ is 9 "o place & n 9 two4 ,b to be 9 "o place is to be at re/4 ,!re=e 9 ea* & e mom5t ( its flight x is at re/4 ,x is ?us at re/ ?r\gh\t4 ,motion is impossible4 #ee ,?is type ( argum5t is1 9 mod]n times1 call$ ant9omy4 ,an ant9omy is a pro( t1 s9ce two contradictory propositions equally foll[ f a giv5 assumption1 t assumption mu/ be false4 ,z5o is also call$ by ,ari/otle ! inv5tor ( dialectic4 ,dialectic orig9ally meant simply discussion1 b x has come to be a te*nical t]m 9 philosophy1 & is us$ = t type ( reason+ :i* seeks to develop ! tru? by mak+ ! false refute & contradict itself4 ,! conception ( dialectic is especially important 9 ,z5o1 ,plato1 ,kant1 & ,hegel4 ,all ! argum5ts :i* ,z5o uses aga9/ multiplicity & motion are 9 reality m]ely v>iations ( "o argum5t4 ,t argum5t is z foll[s4 ,x applies equally to space1 to "t1 or to any?+ :i* c be quantitatively measur$4 ,= simplicity we w consid] x only 9 its spatial significance4 ,any quantity ( space1 say ! space enclos$ )9 a circle1 mu/ ei!r be compos$ ( ultimate indivisible units1 or x mu/ be divisible ad inf9itum4 ,if x is compos$ ( indivisible units1 ^! mu/ h magnitude1 & we are fac$ ) ! contradiction ( a magnitude :i* _c be divid$4 ,if x is divisible ad inf9itum1 we are fac$ ) ! contradiction ( suppos+ t an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts c be add$ up & make a f9ite sum-total4 ,x is ?us a great mi/ake to suppose t ,z5o's /ories ( ,a*illes & ! tortoise1 & ( ! fly+ arr[1 are m]ely *ildi% puzzles4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,z5o 0 ! fir/1 by means ( ^! /ories1 to br+ to light ! ess5tial contradictions :i* lie 9 our ideas ( space & "t1 & ?us to set an important problem = all subsequ5t philosophy4 #ef ,all ,z5o's argum5ts are bas$ ^u ! "o argum5t describ$ above1 :i* may be call$ ! ant9omy ( inf9ite divisibility4 ,= example1 ! /ory ( ! fly+ arr[4 ,at any mom5t ( its flight1 says ,z5o1 x mu/ be 9 "o place1 because x _c be 9 two places at ! same mom5t4 ,?is dep5ds ^u ! view ( "t z be+ inf9itely divisible4 ,x is only 9 an inf9itesimal mom5t1 an absolute mom5t hav+ no duration1 t ! arr[ is at re/4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! only ant9omy :i* we f9d 9 our conceptions ( space & "t4 ,e ma!matician is acqua9t$ ) ! contradictions imman5t 9 our ideas ( inf9ity4 ,= example1 ! famili> proposition t p>allel /raight l9es meet at inf9ity1 is a contradiction4 ,aga91 a decreas+ geometrical progression c be add$ up to inf9ity1 ! inf9ite numb] ( its t]ms add+ up 9 ! sum-total to a f9ite numb]4 ,! idea ( inf9ite space itself is a contradiction4 ,y c say ( x exactly :at ,z5o said ( ! _m4 ,!re mu/ be 9 exi/5ce z mu* space z !re is1 no m4 ,b ?is means t !re mu/ be a def9ite & limit$ am\nt ( space4 ,!re=e space is f9ite4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is impossible to conceive a limit to space4 ,beyond ! limit !re mu/ be m space4 ,!re=e space is inf9ite4 ,z5o himself gave expression to ?is ant9omy 9 ! =m ( an argum5t :i* ,i h n s f> m5tion$4 ,he said t ev]y?+ :i* exi/s is 9 space4 ,space itself exi/s1 !re=e space mu/ be 9 space4 ,t space mu/ be 9 ano!r space & s ad inf9itum4 ,?is ( c\rse is m]ely a qua9t way ( say+ t to conceive a limit to space is impossible4 ,b to return to ! ant9omy ( inf9ite divisibility1 #eg on :i* mo/ ( ,z5o's argum5ts re/1 y w p]haps expect me to say some?+ ( ! diff]5t solutions :i* h be5 (f]$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we mu/ n =get ,z5o's own solution4 ,he did n prop\nd ?is contradiction = its own sake1 b to support ! !sis ( ,p>m5ides4 ,8 solution is t z multiplicity & motion conta9 ^! contradictions1 !re=e multiplicity & motion _c be real4 ,!re=e1 !re is1 z ,p>m5ides said1 only "o ,be+1 ) no multiplicity 9 x1 & exclud5t ( all motion & becom+4 ,! solution giv5 by ,kant 9 mod]n times is ess5tially simil>4 ,accord+ to ,kant1 ^! contradictions are imman5t 9 our conceptions ( space & "t1 & s9ce "t & space involve ^! contradictions x foll[s t !y are n real be+s1 b appe>ances1 m]e ph5om5a4 ,space & "t d n belong to ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves1 b r to our way ( look+ at ?+s4 ,!y are =ms ( our p]ception4 ,x is our m9ds :i* impose space & "t ^u objects1 & n objects :i* impose space & "t ^u our m9ds4 ,fur!r1 ,kant drew f ^! contradictions ! conclusion t to compreh5d ! inf9ite is beyond ! capacity ( human reason4 ,he attempt$ to %[ t1 :]ev] we try to ?9k ! inf9ite1 :e!r ! inf9itely l>ge or ! inf9itely small1 we fall into irreconcilable contradictions4 ,!re=e1 he conclud$ t human faculties are incapable ( appreh5d+ inf9ity4 ,z might be expect$1 _m ?9k]s h attempt$ to solve ! problem by d5y+ "o or o!r side ( ! contradiction1 by say+ t "o or o!r side does n foll[ f ! premises1 t "o is true & ! o!r false4 ,david ,hume1 = example1 #eh d5i$ ! inf9ite divisibility ( space & "t1 & decl>$ t !y are compos$ ( indivisible units hav+ magnitude4 ,b ! difficulty t x is impossible to conceive ( units hav+ magnitude :i* are yet indivisible is n satisfactorily expla9$ by ,hume4 ,& 9 g5]al1 x seems t any solution :i* is to be satisfactory mu/ someh[ make room = bo? sides ( ! contradiction4 ,x w n d to d5y "o side or ! o!r1 to say t "o is false & ! o!r true4 ,a true solution is only possible by ris+ above ! level ( ! two antagoni/ic pr9ciples & tak+ !m bo? up to ! level ( a high] conception1 9 :i* bo? opposites are reconcil$4 ,?is 0 ! proc$ure foll[$ by ,hegel 9 8 solution ( ! problem4 ,un=tunately 8 solution _c be fully und]/ood )\t "s k ( 8 g5]al philosophical pr9ciples1 on :i* x :olly dep5ds4 ,i w1 h[ev]1 try to make x z pla9 z possible4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,hegel did n g out ( 8 way to solve ^! ant9omies4 ,!y appe> z m]e incid5ts 9 ! developm5t ( 8 ?\ght4 ,he did n reg>d !m z isolat$ cases ( contradiction :i* occur 9 ?\ght1 z exceptions to a g5]al rule1 :i* !re=e ne$ special explanation4 ,on ! contr>y1 he reg>d$ !m1 n z exceptions to1 b z examples (1 ! ess5tial "* ( reason4 ,all ?\ght1 all reason1 = ,hegel1 conta9s imman5t contradictions :i* x fir/ posits & !n reconciles 9 a high] unity1 & ?is p>ticul> contradiction ( inf9ite divisibility is reconcil$ 9 ! high] notion ( quantity4 ,! notion ( quantity conta9s two factors1 namely ! "o & ! _m4 ,quantity means precisely a _m 9 #ei "o1 or a "o 9 _m4 ,if1 = example1 we consid] a quantity ( any?+1 say a heap ( :eat1 ?is is1 9 ! fir/ place1 "o2 x is "o :ole4 ,secondly1 x is _m2 = x is compos$ ( _m p>ts4 ,z "o x is cont9u\s2 z _m x is discrete4 ,n[ ! true notion ( quantity is n "o1 ap>t f _m1 nor _m ap>t f "o4 ,x is ! syn!sis ( bo?4 ,x is a _m 9 "o4 ,! ant9omy we are consid]+ arises f consid]+ "o side ( ! tru? 9 a false ab/raction f ! o!r4 ,to conceive unity z n be+ 9 itself multiplicity1 or multiplicity z n be+ unity1 is a false ab/raction4 ,! ?\ght ( ! "o involves ! ?\ght ( ! _m1 & ! ?\ght ( ! _m involves ! ?\ght ( ! "o4 ,y _c h a _m )\t a "o1 any m ?an y c h "o end ( a /ick )\t ! o!r4 ,n[1 if we consid] any?+ :i* is quantitatively measur$1 su* z a /raight l9e1 we may consid] x1 9 ! fir/ place1 z "o4 ,9 t case x is a cont9u\s indivisible unit4 ,next we may reg>d x z _m1 9 :i* case x falls into p>ts4 ,n[ ea* ( ^! p>ts may aga9 be reg>d$ z "o1 & z su* is an indivisible unit2 & aga9 ea* "p may be reg>d$ z _m1 9 :i* case x falls into fur!r p>ts2 & ?is alt]nat+ process may g on = ev]4 ,?is is ! view ( ! matt] :i* gives rise to ! contradictions we h be5 consid]+4 ,b x is a false view4 ,x involves ! false ab/raction ( fir/ reg>d+ ! _m z some?+ t has reality ap>t f ! "o1 & !n reg>d+ ! "o z some?+ t has reality ap>t f ! _m4 ,if y p]si/ 9 say+ t ! l9e is simply "o & n _m1 !n !re arises ! !ory ( indivisible units4 ,if y #fj p]si/ 9 say+ x is simply _m & n "o1 !n x is divisible ad inf9itum4 ,b ! tru? is t x is nei!r simply _m nor simply "o2 x is a _m 9 "o1 t is1 x is a quantity4 ,bo? sides ( ! contradiction are1 !re=e1 9 "o s5se true1 = ea* is a factor ( ! tru?4 ,b bo? sides are also false1 if & 9 s f> z1 ea* sets itself up z ! :ole tru?4 ,critical ,rem>ks on ,eleaticism4 ,! consid]ation ( ! mean+ ( ,z5o's doctr9e w give u an insight into ! ess5tials ( ! position ( ! ,eleatics4 ,z5o said t motion & multiplicity are n real4 ,n[ :at does ?is mean8 ,did ,z5o mean to say t :5 he walk$ ab\t ! /reets ( ,elea1 x 0 n true t he walk$ ab\t8 ,did he mean t x 0 n a fact t he mov$ f place to place8 ,:5 ,i move my arms1 did he mean t ,i am n mov+ my arms1 b t !y really rema9 at re/ all ! "t8 ,if s1 we might ju/ly conclude t ?is philosophy is a m]e craze ( speculation run mad1 or else a joke4 ,b ?is is n :at is meant4 ,! ,eleatic position is t ?\gh ! _w ( s5se1 ( :i* multiplicity & motion are ess5tial features1 may exi/1 yet t outw>d _w is n ! true ,be+4 ,!y d n d5y t ! _w exi/s4 ,!y d n d5y t motion exi/s or t multiplicity exi/s4 ,^! ?+s no sane man c d5y4 ,! exi/5ce ( motion & multiplicity is1 z ,hegel says1 z s5su\sly c]ta9 z ! exi/5ce ( elephants4 ,z5o1 !n1 does n d5y ! exi/5ce ( ! _w4 ,:at he d5ies is ! tru? ( exi/5ce4 ,:at he means is3 c]ta9ly !re is motion & multiplicity2 c]ta9ly ! _w is "h1 is pres5t to our s5ses1 b x is n ! true _w4 ,x is #fa n reality4 ,x is m]e appe>ance1 illusion1 an outw>d %[ & %am1 a holl[ mask :i* hides ! real be+ ( ?+s4 ,y may ask :at is meant by ?is di/9ction betwe5 appe>ance & reality4 ,is n ev5 an appe>ance real8 ,x appe>s4 ,x exi/s4 ,ev5 a delusion exi/s1 & is !re=e a real ?+4 ,s is n ! di/9ction betwe5 appe>ance & reality itself mean+less8 ,n[ all ?is is p]fectly true1 b x does n compreh5d q :at is meant by ! di/9ction4 ,:at is meant is t ! objects ar\nd u h exi/5ce1 b n self-exi/5ce1 n self-sub/antiality4 ,t is to say1 _! be+ is n 9 !mselves1 _! exi/5ce is n gr\nd$ 9 !mselves b is gr\nd$ 9 ano!r1 & fl[s f t o!r4 ,!y exi/1 b !y are n indep5d5t exi/5ces4 ,!y are r be+s ^: be+ fl[s into !m f ano!r1 :i* itself is self-exi/5t & self-sub/antial4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 m]e appe>ances ( t o!r1 :i* is ! reality4 ,( c\rse ! ,eleatics did n speak ( appe>ance & reality 9 ^! t]ms4 ,b ?is is :at !y 7 grop+ =1 & dimly saw4 ,if we n[ look back ^u ! road on :i* we h travell$ f ! beg9n+ ( ,greek philosophy1 we %all be able to *>act]ize ! direction 9 :i* we h be5 mov+4 ,! e>lie/ ,greek philosoph]s1 ! ,ionics1 prop\nd$ ! "q1 :at is ! ultimate pr9ciple ( ?+s8 & answ]$ x by decl>+ t ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ?+s is matt]4 ,! second ,greek ,s*ool1 ! ,py?agoreans1 answ]$ ! same "q by decl>+ numb]s to be ! fir/ pr9ciple4 ,! ?ird s*ool1 ! ,eleatics1 answ]$ ! "q by ass]t+ t ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ?+s is ,be+4 #fb ,n[ ! univ]se1 z we "k x1 is bo? quantitative & qualitative4 ,quantity & quality are *>act]i/ics ( e s5se-object4 ,^! are n1 inde$1 ! only *>act]i/ics ( ! _w1 b !y are ! only *>act]i/ics :i* h s f> come to light4 ,n[ ! position ( ! ,ionics 0 t ! ultimate reality is bo? quantitative & qualitative1 t is to say1 x is matt]1 = matt] is j :at has bo? quantity & quality4 ,! ,py?agoreans ab/ract$ f ! quality ( ?+s4 ,!y /ripp$ (f ! qualitative aspect f ?+s1 & 7 accord+ly left ) only quantity z ultimate reality4 ,quantity is ! same z numb]4 ,h5ce ! ,py?agorean position t ! _w is made ( numb]s4 ,! ,eleatic philosophy1 proce$+ "o /ep fur!r 9 ! same direction1 ab/ract$ f quantity z well z quality4 ,:]eas ! ,py?agoreans _h d5i$ ! qualitative aspect ( ?+s1 leav+ !mselves only ) ! quantitative1 ! ,eleatics d5i$ bo? quantity & quality1 = 9 d5y+ multiplicity !y d5i$ quantity4 ,!re=e !y are left ) ! total ab/raction ( m]e ,be+ :i* has 9 x nei!r divid$ness 7quantity71 nor positive "* 7quality74 ,! rise f ! ,ionic to ! ,eleatic philosophy is !re=e ess5tially a rise f s5su\s to pure ?9k+4 ,! ,eleatic ,be+ is a pure ab/ract ?\ght4 ,! position ( ! ,py?agoreans on ! o!r h& is t ( semi-s5su\s ?\ght4 ,!y =m ! /epp+-/one f ! ,ionics to ! ,eleatics4 ,n[ let u consid] :at ( wor? !re is 9 ?is ,eleatic pr9ciple1 & :at its defects are4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is necess>y = u to und]/& t ! ,eleatic philosophy is ! fir/ monism4 ,a moni/ic philosophy #fc is a philosophy :i* attempts to expla9 ! entire univ]se f "o s+le pr9ciple4 ,! opposite ( monism is !re=e pluralism1 :i* is t k9d ( philosophy :i* seeks to expla9 ! univ]se f _m ultimate & equally und]iv$ pr9ciples4 ,b m p>ticul>ly & m frequ5tly we speak ( ! opposite ( monism z be+ dualism1 t is to say1 ! position t !re are two ultimate pr9ciples ( explanation4 ,if1 = example1 we say t all ! good 9 ! univ]se arises f "o s\rce :i* is good1 & t all ! evil arises f ano!r s\rce :i* is evil1 & t ^! s\rces ( good & evil _c be subord9at$ "o to ! o!r1 & t "o does n arise out ( ! o!r1 b bo? are co-ord9ate & equally primeval & indep5d5t1 t position w\ld be a dualism4 ,all philosophy1 :i* is wor?y ( ! "n1 seeks1 9 "s s5se1 a moni/ic explanation ( ! univ]se1 & :5 we f9d t a sy/em ( philosophy breaks d[n & fails1 !n we may ne>ly always be sure its defect w reveal itself z an unreconcil$ dualism4 ,su* a philosophy w beg9 ) a moni/ic pr9ciple1 & w attempt to d]ive or d$uce ! entire univ]se f x1 b some:]e or o!r x comes across some?+ 9 ! _w :i* x _c br+ "u t pr9ciple4 ,!n x is left ) two equally ultimate exi/5ces1 nei!r ( :i* c be d]iv$ f ! o!r4 ,?us x breaks out into dualism4 ,n[ ! se>* = a moni/ic explanation ( ?+s is a univ]sal t5d5cy ( human ?\ght4 ,:]ev] we look 9 ! _w ( ?\ght1 we f9d t ?is moni/ic t5d5cy appe>s4 ,i h already said t x appe>s ?r\gh\t ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,x reveals itself1 #fd too1 v cle>ly 9 ! hi/ory ( religion4 ,religion beg9s 9 poly!ism1 ! belief 9 _m gods4 ,f t x passes on to mono!ism1 ! belief 9 "o ,god1 :o is ! sole au?or & creator ( ! univ]se4 ,9 ,h9du ?\ght we f9d ! same ?+4 ,h9du ?\ght is bas$ ^u ! pr9ciple t ,all is "o4 ,ev]y?+ 9 ! _w is d]iv$ f "o ultimate be+1 ,brahman4 ,b n only is ?is moni/ic t5d5cy traceable 9 religion & philosophy2 x is also traceable 9 sci5ce4 ,! progress ( sci5tific explanation is ess5tially a progress t[>ds monism4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! explanation ( isolat$ facts consi/s always 9 assign+ causes = !m4 ,suppose !re is a /range noise 9 y\r room at night4 ,y say x is expla9$ :5 y f9d t x is due to ! fall+ ( a book or ! scuttl+ ( a rat across ! floor4 ,! noise is ?us expla9$ by assign+ a cause = x4 ,b ?is simply means t y h robb$ x ( its isolat$ & exceptional position1 & r$uc$ x to ! position ( an example ( a g5]al law4 ,:5 ! wat] freezes 9 y\r jug1 y say t ! cause ( ?is is ! cold4 ,x is an example ( ! law t :5ev] ! cold rea*es a c]ta9 degree1 !n1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 wat] solidifies4 ,b to assign causes 9 ?is way is n really to expla9 any?+4 ,x does n give any reason = an ev5t happ5+4 ,y _c see any reason :y wat] %\ld solidify 9 ! cold4 ,x m]ely tells u t ! ev5t is n exceptional1 b is an example ( :at always happ5s4 ,x r$uces ! isolat$ ev5t to a case ( a g5]al law1 :i* expla9s1 n m]ely ?is "o ev5t1 b possibly millions ( ev5ts4 ,x is n m]ely t cold solidifies ! wat] 9 y\r jug4 #fe ,x equally solidifies ! wat] 9 ev]ybody's jug4 ,! same law expla9s all ^!1 & likewise expla9s iceb]gs & ! pol> caps on ! e>? & ! planet ,m>s4 ,9 fact sci5tific explanation means ! r$uction ( millions ( facts to "o pr9ciple4 ,b sci5ce does n /op "h4 ,x seeks fur!r to expla9 ! laws !mselves1 & its me?od is to r$uce ! _m laws to "o high] & m g5]al law4 ,a famili> example ( ?is is ! explanation ( ,kepl]'s laws ( ! planet>y motions4 ,kepl] laid d[n ?ree su* laws4 ,! fir/ 0 t planets move 9 elliptical orbits ) ! sun 9 "o focus4 ,! second 0 t planets describe equal areas 9 equal times4 ,! ?ird 0 a r m complicat$ law4 ,kepl] knew ^! laws f obs]vation1 b he c\ld n expla9 !m4 ,!y 7 expla9$ by ,newton's discov]y ( ! law ( gravitation4 ,newton prov$ t ,kepl]'s ?ree laws c\ld be ma!matically d$uc$ f ! law ( gravitation4 ,9 t way ,kepl]'s laws 7 expla9$1 & n only ,kepl]'s laws1 b _m o!r a/ronomical laws & facts4 ,?us ! explanation ( ! _m isolat$ facts consi/s 9 _! r$uction to ! "o law1 & ! explanation ( ! _m laws consi/s 9 _! r$uction to ! "o m g5]al law4 ,z k advances1 ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se come to be expla9$ by few] & few]1 & wid] & wid]1 g5]al pr9ciples4 ,obvi\sly ! ultimate goal w\ld be ! explanation ( all ?+s by "o pr9ciple4 ,i d n mean to say t sci5tific m5 h ?is end consci\sly 9 view4 ,b ! po9t is t ! moni/ic t5d5cy is !re4 ,:at is meant by ! explanation is ! r$uction ( all ?+s to "o pr9ciple4 #ff ,9 philosophy1 9 religion1 & 9 sci5ce1 !n1 we f9d ?is moni/ic t5d5cy ( ?\ght4 ,b x might be ask$ h[ we "k t ?is univ]sal t5d5cy is "r8 ,h[ d we "k t x is n m]ely a univ]sal error8 ,is !re no logical or philosophical basis = ! belief t ! ultimate explanation ( ?+s mu/ be "o8 ,n[ ?is is a subject :i* takes u f> afield f ,greek philosophy4 ,! philosophical basis ( monism 0 nev] ?\ght out till ! "t ( ,sp9oza4 ,s we _c g into x at l5g? "h4 ,b1 q %ortly1 ! "q is--,is !re any reason = believ+ t ! ultimate explanation ( ?+s mu/ be "o8 ,n[ if we are to expla9 ! univ]se1 two conditions mu/ be fulfill$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ultimate reality by :i* we attempt to expla9 ev]y?+ mu/ expla9 all ! o!r ?+s 9 ! _w4 ,x mu/ be possible to d$uce ! :ole _w f x4 ,secondly1 ! fir/ pr9ciple mu/ expla9 itself4 ,x _c be a pr9ciple :i* itself /ill requires explanation by some?+ else4 ,if x is itself n self-explanatory1 b is an ultimate my/]y1 !n ev5 if we succe$ 9 d$uc+ ! univ]se f x1 no?+ is !reby expla9$4 ,?is1 = example1 is precisely ! defect ( mat]ialism4 ,ev5 if we suppose x prov$ t all ?+s1 includ+ m9d1 arise f matt]1 yet ! objection rema9s t ?is expla9s no?+ at all1 = matt] is n a self-explanatory exi/5ce4 ,x is an un9telligible my/]y4 ,& to r$uce ! univ]se to an ultimate my/]y is n to expla9 x4 ,aga92 "s p ?9k t ! _w is to be expla9$ by :at !y call a fir/ cause4 ,b :y %\ld any cause be ! fir/8 ,:y %\ld we /op any:]e 9 ! *a9 ( causes8 ,e cause is #fg necess>ily ! effect ( a prior cause4 ,! *ild1 :o is told t ,god made ! _w1 & :o inquires :o1 9 t case1 made ,god1 is ask+ a highly s5sible "q4 ,or suppose1 9 trac+ back ! *a9 ( causes1 we come ^u "o :i* we h reason to say is really ! fir/1 is any?+ expla9$ !reby8 ,/ill we are left ) an ultimate my/]y4 ,:atev] ! pr9ciple ( explanation is1 x _c be a pr9ciple ( ?is k9d4 ,x mu/ be a pr9ciple :i* expla9s itself1 & does n lead to some?+ fur!r1 su* z ano!r cause4 ,9 o!r words1 x mu/ be a pr9ciple :i* has its :ole be+ 9 itself1 :i* does n = its complet5ess ref] u to any?+ beyond itself4 ,x mu/ be some?+ fully compreh5d$ 9 itself1 )\t ref]5ce to any?+ outside x4 ,t is to say1 x mu/ be :at we call self-det]m9$ or absolute4 ,n[ any absolute pr9ciple mu/ necess>ily be "o4 ,suppose t x 7 two4 ,suppose y attempt to expla9 ! _w by two pr9ciples1 ,x & ,y1 ea* ( :i* is ultimate1 nei!r be+ d]iv$ f ! o!r4 ,!n :at relation does ,x be> to ,y8 ,we _c fully compreh5d ,x )\t kn[+ its relation to ,y4 ,"p ( ! "* & be+ ( ,x is con/itut$ by its relation to ,y4 ,"p ( ,x's "* has to be expla9$ by ,y4 ,b t is n to be self-expla9$4 ,x is to be expla9$ by some?+ n itself4 ,!re=e1 ! ultimate explanation ( ?+s mu/ be "o4 ,! ,eleatics1 !n1 7 p]fectly correct 9 say+ t all is "o1 & t ! ultimate pr9ciple ( ! univ]se1 ,be+1 is "o4 ,b if we exam9e ! way 9 :i* !y c>ri$ out _! monism1 we %all see t x broke d[n 9 a hopeless dualism4 ,h[ did !y #fh expla9 ! exi/5ce ( ! _w8 ,!y prop\nd$ ! pr9ciple ( ,be+1 z ! ultimate reality4 ,h[ !n did !y d]ive ! actual _w f t pr9ciple8 ,! answ] is t !y nei!r d]iv$ x nor made any attempt to d]ive x4 ,in/ead ( d$uc+ ! _w f _! fir/ pr9ciple1 !y simply d5i$ ! reality ( ! _w altoge!r4 ,!y attempt$ to solve ! problem by d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( ! problem4 ,! _w1 !y said1 is simply n-be+4 ,x is an illusion4 ,n[ c]ta9ly x is a great ?+ to "k :i* is ! true _w1 & :i* ! false1 b aft] all ?is is n an explanation4 ,to call ! _w an illusion is n to expla9 x4 ,if ! _w is reality1 !n ! problem ( philosophy is1 h[ does t reality arise8 ,if ! _w is illusion1 !n ! problem is1 h[ does t illusion arise8 ,call x illusion1 if y l4 ,b ?is is n expla9+ x4 ,x is simply call+ x names4 ,?is is ! defect1 too1 ( ,indian philosophy 9 :i* ! _w is said to be ,maya--delusion4 ,h5ce 9 ! ,eleatic philosophy !re are two worlds br\ght face to face1 ly+ side by side ( ea* o!r1 unreconcil$--! _w ( ,be+1 :i* is ! true _w1 & ! _w ( facts1 :i* is illusion4 ,al?\gh ! ,eleatics d5y ! s5se-_w1 & call x illusion1 yet ( ?is illusion !y _c rid !mselves4 ,9 "s s5se or o!r1 ?is _w is "h1 is pres5t4 ,x comes back ^u our s5ses1 & dem&s explanation4 ,call x illusion1 b x /ill /&s beside ! true _w1 & dem&s t x be d$uc$ f t4 ,s t ! ,eleatics h two pr9ciples1 ! false _w & ! true _w1 simply ly+ side by side1 )\t any connect+ l9k betwe5 !m1 )\t any?+ to #fi %[ h[ ! "o arises f ! o!r4 ,x is an utt]ly irreconcilable dualism4 ,x is easy to see :y ! ,eleatic philosophy broke d[n 9 ?is dualism4 ,x is due to ! b>r5ness ( _! fir/ pr9ciple itself4 ,be+1 !y say1 has 9 x no becom+4 ,all pr9ciple ( motion is expressly exclud$ f x4 ,likewise !y d5y to x any multiplicity4 ,x is simply "o1 )\t any _m 9 x4 ,if y expressly exclude multiplicity & becom+ f y\r fir/ pr9ciple1 !n y c nev] get multiplicity & becom+ out ( x4 ,y _c get out ( x any?+ t is n 9 x4 ,if y say absolutely !re is no multiplicity 9 ! ,absolute1 !n x is impossible to expla9 h[ multiplicity comes into ?is _w4 ,x is exactly ! same 9 reg>d to ! "q ( quality4 ,pure ,be+ is )\t quality4 ,x is m]e isness4 ,x is an utt]ly featureless1 *>act]less ,be+1 p]fectly empty & ab/ract4 ,h[ !n c ! quality ( ?+s issue f x8 ,h[ c all ! ri*es & v>iety ( ! _w come out ( ?is empt9ess8 ,! ,eleatics are l juggl]s :o try to make y believe t !y get rabbits1 gu9ea-pigs1 pieces ( /r+1 pap]1 & ribbon1 out ( an entirely empty top-hat4 ,"o c see h[ utt]ly b>r5 & empty ?is pr9ciple is1 if "o translates x into figurative language1 t is to say1 into ! language ( religion4 ,! ,eleatic pr9ciple w\ld correspond to a religion 9 :i* we said t ,god is1 b beyond ! fact t ,he is1 ,he has absolutely no "*4 ,b surely ?is is a :olly b>r5 & meagre conception ( ! ,deity4 ,9 ! ,*ri/ian religion we are accu/om$ to he> su* expressions z1 n only t ,god is1 b t ,god is ,love1 ,god is ,p[]1 #gj ,god is ,goodness1 ,god is ,wisdom4 ,n[ objection may c]ta9ly be tak5 to ^! pr$icates & epi!ts on ! gr\nd t !y are m]ely figurative & an?ropomorphic4 ,9 fact1 !y exhibit ! t5d5cy to ?9k non-s5su\s objects s5su\sly4 ,^! pr$icates are m]ely pick$ up f ! f9ite _w & appli$ haphaz>d to ,god1 = :om !y are entirely inadequate4 ,b at lea/ ^! expressions tea* u1 t out ( m]e empt9ess no?+ c come2 t ! _w _c arise out ( some?+ :i* is l[] & poor] ?an itself4 ,"h 9 ! _w we f9d 9 a c]ta9 measure1 love1 wisdom1 excell5ce1 p[]4 ,^! ?+s _c spr+ f a s\rce :i* is s poor t x conta9s no?+ b isness4 ,! less c arise out ( ! great]1 b n ! great] out ( ! less4 ,we may contra/ ,eleaticism n only ) ,*ri/ianity1 b ev5 ) popul> mod]n agno/icism4 ,accord+ to ?is1 ! ,absolute is unkn[able4 ,b :at ! agno/ic means is t human reason is inadequate to grasp ! greatness ( ! ultimate be+4 ,b ! ,eleatic pr9ciple is1 n t 9 say+ ,god is ,love1 ,p[]1 ,wisdom1 we are say+ too little ab\t ,god1 & t our ideas are inadequate to express ! fullness ( ,8 be+1 b on ! contr>y1 t !y express too high an idea = ,god1 ( :om no?+ c be said except ,he is1 because !re is absolutely no?+ m to say4 ,?is conception ( ,god is ! conception ( an absolutely empty be+4 ,monism1 ,i said1 is a necess>y idea 9 philosophy4 ,! ,absolute mu/ be "o4 ,b an utt]ly ab/ract monism is impossible4 ,if ! ,absolute is simply "o1 :olly exclud5t ( all process & multiplicity1 out ( su* an ab/raction ! process & multiplicity ( ! #ga _w _c issue4 ,! ,absolute is n simply "o1 or simply _m4 ,x mu/ be a _m 9 "o1 z correctly set =? 9 ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity4 ,religion moves f an ab/ract poly!ism 7,god is _m7 to an ab/ract mono!ism 7,god is "o2 ,judaism1 ,h9duism & ,islam74 ,b x does n /op !re4 ,x rightly passes on to a concrete mono!ism 7,god is _m 9 "o2 ,*ri/ianity74 ,!re are two popul> misconceptions reg>d+ ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity4 ,! fir/ mi/ake is t ( popul> rationalism1 ! second is t ( popul> !ology4 ,popul> rationalism ass]ts t ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity is contr>y to reason4 ,popul> !ology ass]ts t x is a my/]y :i* transc5ds reason4 ,b ! tru? is t x nei!r contradicts nor transc5ds reason4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is 9 itself ! highe/ manife/ation ( reason4 ,:at is really a my/]y1 :at really contradicts reason1 is to suppose t ,god1 ! ,absolute1 is simply "o )\t any multiplicity4 ,?is contradiction results 9 ! fatal dualism :i* broke out 9 ,eleaticism1 & has brok5 out 9 e o!r sy/em ( ?\ght1 su* z t ( ! ,h9dus or t ( ,sp9oza1 :i* beg9s ) ! conception ( ! ,absolute z a pure "o1 totally exclusive ( ! _m4 #gb ,,*apt] ,v ,,h]acleitus ,h]acleitus 0 born ab\t #ece ,b4,c41 & is believ$ to h liv$ to ! age ( sixty4 ,?is places 8 dea? at #dge ,b4,c4 ,he 0 ?us subsequ5t to ,x5ophanes1 contempor>y ) ,p>m5ides1 & old] ?an ,z5o4 ,9 hi/orical ord] ( "t1 !re=e1 he runs p>allel to ! ,eleatics4 ,h]acleitus 0 a man ( ,ephesus 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,he 0 an ari/ocrat1 desc5dant ( a noble ,ephesian family1 & occupi$ 9 ,ephesus ! nom9al position ( basileus1 or ,k+4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 m]ely meant t he 0 ! ,*ief ,prie/ ( ! local bran* ( ! ,eleus9ian my/]ies1 & ?is position he resign$ 9 fav\r ( 8 bro!r4 ,he appe>s to h be5 a man ( a some:at alo(1 solit>y1 & scornful nature4 ,he look$ d[n1 n only ^u ! common h]d1 b ev5 ^u ! great m5 ( 8 own race4 ,he m5tions ,x5ophanes & ,py?agoras 9 t]ms ( obloquy4 ,hom]1 he ?9ks1 %\ld be tak5 out & :ipp$4 ,hesiod he consid]s to be ! tea*] ( ! common h]d1 "o ) !m1 a man1 he says1 :o does n ev5 "k day & night4 ,^u ! common h]d ( mortals he looks d[n ) inf9ite scorn4 ,"s ( 8 say+s rem9d u n a little ( ,s*op5hau] 9 _! pung5cy & %>pness4 ,asses pref] /raw to #gc gold4 ,dogs b>k at ev]yone !y d n "k4 ,_m ( 8 say+s1 h[ev]1 are memorable & tr5*ant epitomes ( practical wisdom4 ,man's "* is 8 fate4 ,physicians :o cut1 burn1 /ab & rack ! sick1 dem& a fee = do+ x1 :i* !y d n des]ve to get4 ,f 8 alo( & ari/ocratic /&po9t he laun*$ =? d5unciations aga9/ ! democracy ( ,ephesus4 ,h]acleitus embodi$ 8 philosophical ?\ghts 9 a prose treatise1 :i* 0 well-kn[n at ! "t ( ,socrates1 b ( :i* only fragm5ts h come d[n to u4 ,8 /yle soon became prov]bial = its difficulty & obscurity1 & he ga9$ ! nickname ( ,h]acleitus ! ,d>k1 or ! ,obscure4 ,socrates said ( 8 "w t :at he und]/ood ( x 0 excell5t1 :at n1 he believ$ 0 equally s1 b t ! book requir$ a t\gh swimm]4 ,he has ev5 be5 accus$ ( int5tional obscurity4 ,b !re does n seem to be any f\ndation = ?is *>ge4 ,! fact is t if he takes no great tr\ble to expla9 8 ?\ghts1 nei!r does he take any tr\ble to conceal !m4 ,he does n write = fools4 ,8 attitude appe>s to be t if 8 read]s und]/& him1 well2 if n1 s mu* ! worse = 8 read]s4 ,he wa/es no "t 9 elaborat+ & expla9+ 8 ?\ght1 b embodies x 9 %ort1 t]se1 pi?y1 & pregnant say+s4 ,8 philosophical pr9ciple is ! direct anti!sis ( ,eleaticism4 ,! ,eleatics _h taught t only ,be+ is1 & ,becom+ is n at all4 ,all *ange1 all ,becom+ is m]e illusion4 ,= ,h]acleitus1 on ! contr>y1 only ,becom+ is1 & ,be+1 p]man5ce1 id5tity1 ^! are no?+ b illusion4 ,all ?+s sublun>y are #gd p]petually *ang+1 pass+ ov] into new =ms & new %apes4 ,no?+ /&s1 no?+ holds fa/1 no?+ rema9s :at x is4 ,into ! same riv]1 he says1 we g d[n1 & we d n g d[n2 = into ! same riv] no man c ent] twice2 ev] x fl[s 9 & fl[s out4 ,n only does he d5y all absolute p]man5ce1 b ev5 a relative p]man5ce ( ?+s is decl>$ to be illusory4 ,we all "k t ev]y?+ has its t]m1 t all ?+s arise & pass away1 f ! insects :o live an h\r to ! et]nal hills4 ,yet we commonly attribute to ^! ?+s at lea/ a relative p]man5ce1 a %ort] or long] cont9uance 9 ! same /ate4 ,b ev5 ?is ,h]acleitus w n all[4 ,no?+ is ev] ! same1 no?+ rema9s id5tical f "o consecutive mom5t to ano!r4 ,! appe>ance ( relative p]man5ce is an illusion1 l t :i* makes u ?9k t a wave pass+ ov] ! surface ( ! wat] rema9s all ! "t ! same id5tical wave4 ,"h1 z we "k1 ! wat] ( :i* ! wave is compos$ *anges f mom5t to mom5t1 only ! =m rema9+ ! same4 ,precisely s1 = ,h]acleitus1 ! p]man5t appe>ance ( ?+s results f ! infl[ & outfl[ 9 !m ( equival5t quantities ( sub/ance4 ,all is flux4 ,x is n1 = example1 ! same sun :i* sets to-day & rises to-morr[4 ,x is a new sun4 ,= ! fire ( ! sun burns itself out & is repl5i%$ f ! vap\rs ( ! sea4 ,n only d ?+s *ange f mom5t to mom5t4 ,ev5 9 "o & ! same mom5t !y are & are n ! same4 ,x is n m]ely t a ?+ fir/ is1 & !n a mom5t aft]w>ds1 is n4 ,x bo? is & is n at ! same "t4 ,! at-onc5ess ( is & is n #ge is ! mean+ ( ,becom+4 ,we %all und]/& ?is bett] if we contra/ x ) ! ,eleatic pr9ciple4 ,! ,eleatics describ$ all ?+s "u two concepts1 ,be+ & n-be+4 ,be+ has1 = !m1 all tru?1 all reality4 ,n-be+ is :olly false & illusory4 ,= ,h]acleitus bo? ,be+ & n-be+ are equally real4 ,! "o is z true z ! o!r4 ,bo? are true1 = bo? are id5tical4 ,becom+ is ! id5tity ( ,be+ & n-be+4 ,= ,becom+ has only two =ms1 namely1 ! aris+ ( ?+s & _! pass+ away1 _! beg9n+ & _! end1 _! orig9ation & _! decease4 ,p]haps y may ?9k t ?is is n correct1 t !re are o!r =ms ( *ange besides orig9ation & decease4 ,a man is born4 ,t is 8 orig9ation4 ,he dies4 ,t is 8 decease4 ,betwe5 8 bir? & 8 dea? !re are int]m$iate *anges4 ,he gr[s l>g]1 gr[s old]1 gr[s wis] or m fooli%1 8 hair turns grey4 ,s also ! leaf ( a tree does n m]ely come into be+ & pass out ( be+4 ,x *anges 9 %ape1 =m1 col\r4 ,f light gre5 x becomes d>k gre51 & f d>k gre51 yell[4 ,b !re is aft] all no?+ 9 all ?is except orig9ation & decease1 n ( ! ?+ itself1 b ( its qualities4 ,! *ange f gre5 to yell[ is ! decease ( gre5 col\r1 ! orig9ation ( yell[ col\r4 ,orig9ation is ! passage ( n-be+ into ,be+4 ,decease is ! passage ( ,be+ into n-be+4 ,becom+1 !n1 has 9 x only ! two factors ( ,be+ & n-be+1 & x means ! pass+ ( "o into ! o!r4 ,b ?is passage does n mean1 = ,h]acleitus1 t at "o mom5t !re is ,be+1 & at ! next mom5t n-be+4 ,x means t ,be+ & n-be+ are 9 ev]y?+ at "o & ! same "t4 ,be+ is #gf n-be+4 ,be+ has n-be+ 9 x4 ,take z an example ! problem ( life & dea?4 ,ord9>ily we ?9k t dea? is due to ext]nal causes1 su* z accid5t or disease4 ,we consid] t :ile life la/s1 x is :at x is1 & rema9s :at x is1 namely life1 unmix$ ) dea?1 & t x goes on be+ life until some?+ comes f outside1 z x 71 9 ! %ape ( ext]nal causes1 & puts an end to x4 ,y may h read ,met*nik(f's book ,! ,nature ( ,man4 ,9 ! c\rse ( t book he develops ?is idea4 ,dea?1 he says1 is always due to ext]nal causes4 ,!re=e1 if we c\ld remove ! causes1 we c\ld conqu] dea?4 ,! causes ( dea? are mo/ly disease & accid5t1 = ev5 old age is disease4 ,!re is no reason :y sci5ce %\ld n advance s f> z to elim9ate disease & accid5t f life4 ,9 t case life might be made immortal1 or at any rate1 indef9itely prolong$4 ,n[ ?is is f\nd$ ^u a confusion ( ideas4 ,no d\bt dea? is always due to ext]nal causes4 ,e ev5t 9 ! _w is det]m9$1 & :olly det]m9$1 by causes4 ,! law ( causation admits ( no exception :atev]4 ,!re=e x is p]fectly true t 9 e case ( dea? causes prec$e x4 ,b1 z ,i expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ,footnote #f to give ! cause is n to give any reason = an ev5t4 ,causation is nev] a pr9ciple ( explanation ( any?+4 ,x tells u t ! ph5om5on ,a is inv>iably & unconditionally foll[$ by ! ph5om5on ,b1 & we call ,a ! cause ( ,b4 ,b ?is only means t :5ev] ,b happ5s1 x happ5s 9 a c]ta9 regul> ord] & succession ( ev5ts4 ,b x does n tell u :y ,b happ5s at all4 ,! reason ( a ?+ is to be #gg di/+ui%$ f its cause4 ,! reason :y a man dies is n to be f\nd 9 ! causes :i* br+ ab\t 8 dea?4 ,! reason r is t life has ! g]m ( dea? already 9 x1 t life is already dea? pot5tially1 t ,be+ has n-be+ 9 x4 ,! causation ( dea? is m]ely ! me*anism1 by ! in/rum5tality ( :i*1 ?r\gh "o set ( causes or ano!r1 ! inevitable end is br\ght ab\t4 ,footnote #f3 ,page #fd4 ,n only is ,be+1 = ,h]acleitus1 id5tical ) n-be+1 b ev]y?+ 9 ! univ]se has 9 x its own opposite4 ,e exi/5t ?+ is a h>mony ( opposite t5sions4 ,a h>mony conta9s necess>ily two opposite pr9ciples :i*1 9 spite ( _! opposition1 reveal an und]ly+ unity4 ,t x is by virtue ( ?is pr9ciple t ev]y?+ 9 ! univ]se exi/s1 is ! tea*+ ( ,h]acleitus4 ,all ?+s conta9 _! own opposites )9 !m4 ,9 ! /ruggle & antagonism betwe5 ho/ile pr9ciples consi/s _! life1 _! be+1 _! v exi/5ce4 ,at ! he>t ( ?+s is conflict4 ,if !re 7 no conflict 9 a ?+1 x w\ld cease to exi/4 ,?is idea is express$ by ,h]acleitus 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,/rife1 he says1 is ! fa!r ( all ?+s4 ,! "o1 sund]+ f itself1 coalesces ) itself1 l ! h>mony ( ! b[ & ! lyre4 ,god is day & night1 summ] & w9t]1 w> & peace1 satiety & hung]4 ,jo9 toge!r :ole & un:ole1 congru\s & incongru\s1 accordant & discordant1 !n comes f "o all & f all "o4 ,9 ?is s5se1 too1 he c5sures ,hom] = hav+ pray$ t /rife might cease f among gods & m54 ,if su* a pray] 7 grant$1 ! univ]se itself w\ld pass away4 #gh ,side by side ) ?is metaphysic1 ,h]acleitus lays d[n a !ory ( physics4 ,all ?+s are compos$ ( fire4 ,?is _w1 he says1 nei!r "o ( ! gods nor ( ! human race has made2 b x is1 x 01 & ev] %all be1 an et]nally liv+ fire4 ,all comes f fire1 & to fire all returns4 ,all ?+s are ex*ang$ = fire & fire = all1 z w>es = gold & gold = w>es4 ,?us !re is only "o ultimate k9d ( matt]1 fire1 & all o!r =ms ( matt] are m]ely modifications & v>iations ( fire4 ,x is cle> = :at reason ,h]acleitus enunciat$ ?is pr9ciple4 ,x is an exact physical p>allel to ! metaphysical pr9ciple ( ,becom+4 ,fire is ! mo/ mutable ( ! elem5ts4 ,x does n rema9 ! same f "o mom5t to ano!r4 ,x is cont9ually tak+ up matt] 9 ! =m ( fuel1 & giv+ (f equival5t matt] 9 ! =m ( smoke & vap\r4 ,! primal fire1 accord+ to ,h]acleitus1 transmutes itself into air1 air into wat]1 & wat] into e>?4 ,?is he calls ! d[nw>d pa?4 ,to x corresponds ! upw>d pa?1 ! transmutation ( e>? into wat]1 wat] to air1 & air to fire4 ,all trans=mation takes place 9 ?is regul> ord]1 & !re=e1 says ,h]acleitus1 ! upw>d & ! d[nw>d pa? are "o4 ,fire is fur!r specially id5tifi$ ) life & reason4 ,x is ! rational elem5t 9 ?+s4 ,! m fire !re is1 ! m life1 ! m movem5t4 ,! m d>k & heavy mat]ials !re are1 ! m dea?1 cold1 & n-be+4 ,! s\l1 accord+ly1 is fire1 & l all o!r fires x cont9ually burns itself out & ne$s repl5i%m5t4 ,?is x obta9s1 ?r\gh ! s5ses & ! brea?1 f ! common life & reason ( ! #gi _w1 t is1 f ! surr\nd+ & all-p]vad+ fire4 ,9 ?is we live & move & h our be+4 ,no man has a sep>ate s\l ( 8 own4 ,x is m]ely "p ( ! "o univ]sal s\l-fire4 ,h5ce if communication ) ?is is cut (f1 man becomes irrational & f9ally dies4 ,sleep is ! half-way h\se to dea?4 ,9 sleep ! passages ( ! s5ses are /opp$ up1 & ! out] fire rea*es u only ?r\gh brea?4 ,h5ce 9 sleep we become irrational & s5seless1 turn+ aside f ! common life ( ! _w1 ea* to a private _w ( 8 own4 ,h]acleitus taught also ! doctr9e ( p]iodic _w-cycles4 ,! _w =ms itself out ( fire1 & by conflagration passes back to ! primitive fire4 ,9 8 religi\s op9ions ,h]acleitus 0 sceptical4 ,b he does n1 l ,x5ophanes1 direct 8 attacks aga9/ ! c5tral ideas ( religion1 & ! doctr9e ( ! gods4 ,he attacks mo/ly ! outw>d obs]vances & =ms 9 :i* ! religi\s _s manife/s itself4 ,he inveighs aga9/ ! wor%ip ( images1 & urges ! uselessness ( blood sacrifice4 ,) ! ,eleatics he di/+ui%es betwe5 s5se & reason1 & places tru? 9 rational cognition4 ,! illusion ( p]man5ce he ascribes to ! s5ses4 ,x is by reason t we rise to ! k ( ! law ( ,becom+4 ,9 ! compreh5sion ( ?is law lies ! duty ( man1 & ! only road to happ9ess4 ,und]/&+ ?is1 man becomes resign$ & cont5t$4 ,he sees t evil is ! necess>y c\nt]p>t ( good1 & pa9 ! necess>y c\nt]p>t ( pleasure1 & t bo? toge!r are necess>y to =m ! h>mony ( ! _w4 ,good & evil are pr9ciples on ! /ruggle #hj betwe5 :i* ! v exi/5ce ( ?+s dep5ds4 ,evil1 too1 is necess>y1 has its place 9 ! _w4 ,to see ?is is to put oneself above pitiful & futile /ruggles aga9/ ! supreme law ( ! univ]se4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,emp$ocles ,emp$ocles 0 a man ( ,agrig5tum 9 ,sicily4 ,! dates ( 8 bir? & dea? are plac$ ab\t #die & #dce ,b4,c4 respectively4 ,l ,py?agoras1 he possess$ a p[]ful & magnetic p]sonality4 ,h5ce all k9ds ( leg5ds quickly grew up & wove !mselves r\nd 8 life & dea?4 ,he 0 cr$it$ ) ! p]=mance ( miracles1 & romantic /ories 7 circulat$ ab\t 8 dea?4 ,a man ( mu* p]suasive eloqu5ce he rais$ himself to ! lead]%ip ( ! ,agrig5t9e democracy1 until he 0 driv5 out into exile4 ,! philosophy ( ,emp$ocles is eclectic 9 "*4 ,greek philosophy _h n[ develop$ a v>iety ( conflict+ pr9ciples1 & ! task ( ,emp$ocles is to reconcile ^!1 & to weld !m toge!r 9 a new sy/em1 conta9+ h[ev] no new ?\ght ( its own4 ,9 speak+ ( ,p>m5ides1 ,i po9t$ out t 8 tea*+ may be int]pret$ ei!r 9 an ideali/ic or a mat]iali/ic s5se1 & t ^! two aspects ( ?\ght lie side by side 9 ,p>m5ides1 & t x is possible to emphasize ei!r ! "o or ! o!r4 ,emp$ocles seizes ^u ! mat]iali/ic side4 ,! ess5tial ?\ght ( ,p>m5ides 0 t ,be+ _c pass into n-be+1 nor n-be+ into ,be+4 ,:atev] is1 rema9s = ev] :at x is4 #hb ,if we take t 9 a purely mat]ial context1 :at x means is t matt] has nei!r beg9n+ nor end1 is uncreat$ & inde/ructible4 ,& ?is is ! fir/ basic pr9ciple ( ,emp$ocles4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,h]acleitus _h %[n t becom+ & *ange _c be d5i$4 ,?is is ! second basic pr9ciple ( ,emp$ocles4 ,t !re is no absolute becom+1 no creation1 & utt] de/ruction ( ?+s1 & yet t ?+s d someh[ arise & pass away1 ?is mu/ be expla9$1 ^! contradictory ideas mu/ be reconcil$4 ,n[ if we ass]t t matt] is uncreat$ & inde/ructible1 & yet t ?+s arise & pass away1 !re is only "o way ( expla9+ ?is4 ,we mu/ suppose t objects1 z :oles beg9 & cease to be1 b t ! mat]ial p>ticles ( :i* !y are compos$ are uncreat$ & inde/ructible4 ,?is ?\ght n[ =ms ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ,emp$ocles1 & ( 8 successors1 ,anaxagoras1 & ! ,atomi/s4 ,n[ ! ,ionic philosoph]s _h taught t all ?+s are compos$ ( "s "o ultimate matt]4 ,?ales believ$ x to be wat]1 ,anaxim5es air4 ,?is necess>ily involv$ t ! ultimate k9d ( matt] mu/ be capable ( trans=mation into o!r k9ds ( matt]4 ,if x is wat]1 !n wat] mu/ be capable ( turn+ into brass1 wood1 iron1 air1 or :atev] o!r k9d ( matt] exi/s4 ,& ! same ?+ applies to ! air ( ,anaxim5es4 ,p>m5ides1 h[ev]1 _h taught t :atev] is1 rema9s always ! same1 no *ange or trans=mation be+ possible4 ,emp$ocles "h too foll[s ,p>m5ides1 & int]prets 8 doctr9e 9 8 own way4 ,"o k9d ( matt]1 he ?9ks1 c nev] *ange into ano!r k9d ( matt]2 fire nev] becomes #hc wat]1 nor does e>? ev] become air4 ,?is leads ,emp$ocles at once to a doctr9e ( elem5ts4 ,! ^w elem5ts1 inde$1 is ( lat] inv5tion1 & ,emp$ocles speaks ( ! elem5ts z ! roots ( all4 ,!re are f\r elem5ts1 e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat]4 ,emp$ocles 0 !re=e ! orig9ator ( ! famili> classification ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,all o!r k9ds ( matt] are to be expla9$ z mixtures1 9 v>i\s proportions1 ( ^! f\r4 ,?us all orig9ation & decease1 z well z ! diff]5tial qualities ( c]ta9 k9ds ( matt]1 are n[ expla9$ by ! mix+ & unmix+ ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,all becom+ is simply composition & decomposition4 ,b ! com+ toge!r & sep>ation ( ! elem5ts involves ! movem5t ( p>ticles1 & to expla9 ?is !re mu/ exi/ "s mov+ =ce4 ,! ,ionic philosoph]s _h assum$ t matt] has ! p[] or =ce requir$ = movem5t imman5t 9 itself4 ,! air ( ,anaxim5es1 ( its own inh]5t p[]1 trans=ms itself into o!r k9ds ( matt]4 ,?is doctr9e ,emp$ocles rejects4 ,matt] is = him absolutely dead & lifeless1 )\t any pr9ciple ( motion 9 itself4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 only "o rema9+ possibility4 ,=ces act+ ^u matt] f ! outside mu/ be assum$4 ,& z ! two ess5tial processes ( ! _w1 mix+ & unmix+1 are opposite 9 "*1 s !re mu/ be two opposite =ces4 ,^! he calls by ! names ,love & ,hate1 or ,h>mony & ,discord4 ,?\gh ^! t]ms may h an ideali/ic s\nd1 ,emp$ocles conceives !m z entirely physical & mat]ial =ces4 ,b he id5tifies ! attractions & repulsions ( human be+s1 :i* we call love & hate1 ) ! univ]sally op]at+ =ces ( ! mat]ial _w4 ,human love & #hd hate are b ! manife/ations 9 u ( ! me*anical =ces ( attraction & repulsion at "w 9 ! _w at l>ge4 ,emp$ocles taught ! doctr9e ( p]iodic _w-cycles4 ,! _w-process is1 !re=e1 prop]ly speak+1 circul>1 & has nei!r beg9n+ nor end4 ,b 9 describ+ ?is process "o mu/ beg9 some:]e4 ,we w beg91 !n1 ) ! sphairos 7sph]e74 ,9 ! primeval sph]e ! f\r elem5ts are completely mix$1 & int]p5etrate ea* o!r completely4 ,wat] is n sep>at$ (f f air1 nor air f e>?4 ,all are *aotically mix$ toge!r4 ,9 any portion ( ! sph]e !re mu/ be an equal quantity ( e>?1 air1 fire & wat]4 ,! elem5ts are ?us 9 union1 & ! sole =ce op]ative )9 ! sph]e is ,love or ,h>mony4 ,h5ce ! sph]e is call$ a bless$ god4 ,hate1 h[ev]1 exi/s all r\nd ! outside ( ! sph]e4 ,hate gradually p5etrates f ! circumf]5ce t[>ds ! c5tre & introduces ! process ( sep>ation & disunion ( ! elem5ts4 ,?is process cont9ues till1 l com+ toge!r ) l1 ! elem5ts are :olly sep>at$4 ,all ! wat] is toge!r2 all ! fire is toge!r1 & s on4 ,:5 ?is process ( dis9tegration is complete1 ,hate is supreme & ,love is entirely driv5 out4 ,b ,love aga9 beg9s to p5etrate matt]1 to cause union & mixture ( ! elem5ts1 & f9ally br+s ! _w back to ! /ate ( ! orig9al sph]e4 ,!n ! same process beg9s aga94 ,at :at position 9 ?is circul> movem5t is our pres5t _w to be plac$8 ,! answ] is t x is nei!r 9 ! complete union ( ! sph]e1 nor is x completely dis9tegrat$4 ,x is half-way betwe5 ! sph]e & ! /age ( total #he dis9tegration4 ,x is proce$+ f ! =m] t[>ds ! lat]1 & ,hate is gradually ga9+ ! upp] h&4 ,9 ! =mation ( ! pres5t _w f ! sph]e ! fir/ elem5t to be sep>at$ (f 0 air1 next fire1 !n ! e>?4 ,wat] is squeez$ out ( ! e>? by ! rapidity ( its rotation4 ,! sky is compos$ ( two halves4 ,"o is ( fire1 & ?is is ! day4 ,! o!r is d>k matt] ) masses ( fire scatt]$ ab\t 9 x1 & ?is is ! night4 ,emp$ocles believ$ 9 ! transmigration ( s\ls4 ,he also put =w>d a !ory ( s5se-p]ception1 ! ess5tial ( :i* is t l p]ceives l4 ,! fire 9 u p]ceives ext]nal fire1 & s ) ! o!r elem5ts4 ,sight is caus$ by efflu5ces ( ! fire & wat] ( ! eyes meet+ simil> efflu5ces f ext]nal objects4 #hf ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,atomi/s ,! f\nd] ( ! ,atomi/ philosophy 0 ,leucippus4 ,practically no?+ is kn[n ( 8 life4 ,! date ( 8 bir?1 ! date ( 8 dea?1 & 8 place ( resid5ce1 are alike unkn[n1 b x is believ$ t he 0 a contempor>y ( ,emp$ocles & ,anaxagoras4 ,democritus 0 a citiz5 ( ,abd]a 9 ,?race4 ,he 0 a man ( ! wide/ le>n+1 z le>n+ 0 und]/ood 9 8 day4 ,a passion = k & ! possession ( adequate means = ! purpose1 det]m9$ him to und]take ext5sive travels 9 ord] to acquire ! wisdom & k ( o!r nations4 ,he travell$ l>gely 9 ,egypt1 also probably 9 ,babylonia4 ,! date ( 8 dea? is unkn[n1 b he c]ta9ly liv$ to a great age1 e/imat$ at f n9ety to "o hundr$ ye>s4 ,exactly :at 7 ! respective contributions ( ,leucippus & ,democritus to ! ,atomi/ philosophy1 is also a matt] ( d\bt4 ,b x is believ$ t all ! ess5tials ( ?is philosophy 7 ! "w ( ,leucippus1 & t ,democritus appli$ & ext5d$ !m1 work$ out details1 & made ! !ory fam\s4 ,n[ we saw t ! philosophy ( ,emp$ocles 0 bas$ ^u an attempt to reconcile ! doctr9e ( ,p>m5ides ) ! doctr9e ( ,h]acleitus4 ,! #hg fundam5tal ?\ght ( ,emp$ocles 0 t !re is no absolute becom+ 9 ! /rict s5se1 no passage ( ,be+ into n-be+ or n-be+ into ,be+4 ,yet ! objects ( ! s5ses d1 9 "s way1 arise & pass away1 & ! only me?od by :i* ?is is capable ( explanation is to suppose t objects1 z :ole objects1 come to be & cease to be1 b t ! mat]ial p>ticles ( :i* !y are compos$ are et]nally exi/5t4 ,b ! detail$ developm5t :i* ,emp$ocles gave to ?is pr9ciple 0 by no means satisfactory4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 if we hold t all objects are compos$ ( p>ts1 & t all becom+ is due to ! mix+ & unmix+ ( pre-exi/5t matt]1 we mu/ h a !ory ( p>ticles4 ,& we d he> vaguely ( physical p>ticles 9 ! doctr9e ( ,emp$ocles1 b no def9ition is giv5 ( _! nature1 & no cle> conception is =m$ ( _! "*4 ,secondly1 ! mov+ =ces ( ,emp$ocles1 ,love & ,hate1 are fanciful & my?ological4 ,la/ly1 ?\gh !re are 9 ,emp$ocles traces ( ! doctr9e t ! qualities ( ?+s dep5d on ! position & arrangem5t ( _! p>ticles1 ?is idea is n consi/5tly develop$4 ,= ,emp$ocles !re are only f\r ultimate k9ds ( matt]1 qualitatively di/+ui%$4 ,! diff]5tial qualities ( all o!r k9ds ( matt] mu/1 !re=e1 be due to ! mix+ ( ^! f\r elem5ts4 ,?us ! qualities ( ! f\r elem5ts are ultimate & und]iv$1 b all o!r qualities mu/ be f\nd$ ^u ! position & arrangem5t ( p>ticles ( ! f\r elem5ts4 ,?is is ! beg9n+ ( ! me*anical explanation ( quality4 ,b to develop ?is !ory fully & consi/5tly1 x %\ld be %[n1 n m]ely t "s qualities are ultimate & "s #hh d]iv$ f position & arrangem5t ( p>ticles1 b t all quality :atev] is f\nd$ ^u position & arrangem5t4 ,all becom+ is expla9$ by ,emp$ocles z ! result ( motion ( mat]ial p>ticles4 ,to br+ ?is me*anical philosophy to its logical conclusion1 all qualitativ5ess ( ?+s mu/ be expla9$ 9 ! same way4 ,h5ce x 0 impossible t ! philosophy ( me*anism & mat]ialism %\ld /& /ill 9 ! position 9 :i* ,emp$ocles left x4 ,x _h to advance to ! position ( ,atomism4 ,! ,atomi/s1 !re=e1 ma9ta9 ! ess5tial position ( ,emp$ocles1 aft] elim9at+ ! inconsi/5cies :i* we h j not$4 ,! philosophy ( ,emp$ocles is !re=e to be consid]$ z m]ely transitional 9 "*4 ,fir/1 ! ,atomi/s develop$ ! !ory ( p>ticles4 ,accord+ to ,leucippus & ,democritus1 if matt] 7 divid$ f> en\gh1 we %\ld ultimately come to indivisible units4 ,^! indivisible units are call$ atoms1 & atoms are !re=e ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( matt]4 ,!y are inf9ite 9 numb]1 & are too small to be p]ceptible to ! s5ses4 ,emp$ocles _h assum$ f\r diff]5t k9ds ( matt]4 ,b1 = ! ,atomi/s1 !re is only "o k9d4 ,all ! atoms are compos$ ( exactly ! same k9d ( matt]4 ,) c]ta9 exceptions1 :i* ,i w m5tion 9 a mom5t1 !y possess no quality4 ,!y are entirely non-qualitative1 ! only diff]5ces betwe5 !m be+ diff]5ces ( quantity4 ,!y diff] 9 size1 "s be+ l>g]1 "s small]4 ,& !y likewise diff] 9 %ape4 ,s9ce ! ultimate p>ticles ( ?+s ?us possess no quality1 all ! actual qualities ( objects mu/ be due to ! #hi arrangem5t & position ( ! atoms4 ,?is is ! logical developm5t ( ! t5tative me*anism ( ,emp$ocles4 ,i said t ! atoms possess no qualities4 ,!y mu/1 h[ev]1 be admitt$ to possess ! quality ( solidity1 or imp5etrability1 s9ce !y are def9$ z be+ indivisible4 ,moreov] x is a "q :e!r ! atoms ( ,democritus & ,leucippus 7 ?\ght to possess weight1 or :e!r ! weight ( objects is to be expla9$1 l o!r qualities1 by ! position & movem5t ( ! atoms4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! ,epicureans ( a lat] date consid]$ ! atoms to h weight4 ,! ,epicureans took ov] ! atomism ( ,democritus & ,leucippus1 ) few modifications1 & made x ! basis ( _! own tea*+4 ,!y ascrib$ weight to ! atoms1 & ! only "q is :e!r ?is 0 a modification introduc$ by !m1 or :e!r x 0 "p ( ! orig9al doctr9e ( ,democritus & ,leucippus4 ,! atoms are b\nd$1 & sep>at$ (f f ea* o!r4 ,!re=e1 !y mu/ be sep>at$ by some?+1 & ?is some?+ c only be empty space4 ,moreov]1 s9ce all becom+ & all qualitativ5ess ( ?+s are to be expla9$ by ! mix+ & unmix+ ( atoms1 & s9ce ?is involves movem5t ( ! atoms1 = ?is reason also empty space mu/ be assum$ to exi/1 = no?+ c move unless x has empty space to move 94 ,h5ce !re are two ultimate realities1 atoms & empty space4 ,^! correspond respectively to ! ,be+ & n-be+ ( ! ,eleatics4 ,b :]eas ! latt] d5i$ any reality to n-be+1 ! ,atomi/s affirm t n-be+1 t is1 empty space1 is j z real z be+4 ,n-be+ also exi/s4 ,be+1 said #ij ,democritus1 is by no?+ m real ?an no?+4 ,! atoms be+ non-qualitative1 !y diff] 9 no respect f empty space1 except t !y are full4 ,h5ce atoms & ! void are also call$ ! pl5um & ! vacuum4 ,h[1 n[1 is ! movem5t ( ! atoms br\ght ab\t8 ,s9ce all becom+ is due to ! sep>ation & aggregation ( atoms1 a mov+ =ce is requir$4 ,:at is ?is mov+ =ce8 ,?is dep5ds ^u ! "q :e!r atoms h weight4 ,if we assume t !y h weight1 !n ! orig9 ( ! _w1 & ! motion ( atoms1 becomes cle>4 ,9 ! sy/em ( ! ,epicureans ! orig9al movem5t ( ! atoms is due to _! weight1 :i* causes !m to fall p]petually d[nw>ds ?r\gh inf9ite space4 ,( c\rse ! ,atomi/s _h no true ideas ( gravitation1 nor did !y und]/& t !re is no absolute up & d[n4 ,! l>ge atoms are heavi] ?an ! small]4 ,! matt] ( :i* !y are compos$ is always ! same4 ,!re=e1 volume = volume1 !y weigh ! same4 ,_! weight is ?us proportional to _! size1 & if "o atom is twice z l>ge z ano!r1 x w also be twice z heavy4 ,"h ! ,atomi/s made ano!r mi/ake1 9 suppos+ t heavi] ?+s fall 9 a vacuum m quickly ?an light ?+s4 ,!y fall1 z a matt] ( fact1 ) ! same spe$4 ,b accord+ to ! ,atomi/s1 ! heavi] atoms1 fall+ fa/]1 /rike aga9/ ! light]1 & pu% !m to "o side & upw>ds4 ,?r\gh ?is g5]al concussion ( atoms a vortex is =m$1 9 :i* l atoms come toge!r ) l4 ,f ! aggregation ( atoms worlds are creat$4 ,z space is inf9ite & ! atoms g on fall+ et]nally1 !re mu/ h be5 innum]able worlds ( :i* our _w is only "o4 #ia ,:5 ! aggregat$ atoms fall ap>t aga91 ?is p>ticul> _w w cease to exi/4 ,b all ?is dep5ds ^u ! !ory t ! atoms h weight4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,burnet1 h[ev]1 ! weight ( atoms is a lat] addition ( ! ,epicureans4 ,if t is s1 x is v difficult to say h[ ! e>ly ,atomi/s1 ,leucippus & ,democritus1 expla9$ ! orig9al motion4 ,:at 0 _! mov+ =ce1 if x 0 n weight8 ,if ! atoms h no weight1 _! orig9al movem5t _c h be5 a fall4 ,x is safe/ to say1 says ,pr(essor ,burnet1 t x is simply a confus$ motion ?is way & t4 ,footnote #g ,probably ?is is a v safe ?+ to say1 because x means no?+ 9 p>ticul>4 ,motion itself _c be confus$4 ,x is only our ideas ( motion :i* c be confus$4 ,if ?is !ory is correct1 !n1 we c only say t ! ,atomi/s _h no def9ite solution ( ! problem ( ! orig9 ( motion & ! "* ( ! mov+ =ce4 ,!y app>5tly saw no necessity = explanation1 :i* seems unlikely 9 view ( ! fact t ,emp$ocles _h already se5 ! necessity ( solv+ ! problem1 & giv5 a def9ite1 if unsatisfactory1 solution1 9 8 !ory ( ,love & ,hate4 ,?is rem>k w\ld apply to ,democritus1 if n to ,leucippus4 ,footnote #g3 ,e>ly ,greek ,philosophy1 *ap4 ix4 ,sec4 #agi4 ,! ,atomi/s also spoke ( all movem5t be+ "u ! =ce ( necessity4 ,anaxagoras 0 at ?is "t tea*+ t all motion ( ?+s is produc$ by a _w-intellig5ce1 or reason4 ,democritus expressly opposes to ?is ! doctr9e ( necessity4 ,!re is no reason or intellig5ce 9 ! _w4 ,on ! contr>y1 all ph5om5a & all becom+ are completely det]m9$ by bl9d me*anical causes4 ,9 ?is connection !re arises #ib among ! ,atomi/s a polemic aga9/ ! popul> gods & ! popul> religion4 ,belief 9 gods ,democritus expla9s z be+ due to fe> ( great t]re/rial & a/ronomical ph5om5a1 su* z volcanoes1 e>?quakes1 comets1 & meteors4 ,b some:at inconsi/5tly ) ?is1 ,democritus believ$ t ! air is inhabit$ by be+s resembl+ m51 b l>g] & ( long] life1 & expla9$ belief 9 ! gods z be+ due to projection f ^! ( images ( !mselves compos$ ( atoms :i* imp+e ^u human s5ses1 & produce ! ideas ( gods4 ,diff]5t k9ds ( matt] mu/ be expla9$1 9 any atomic !ory1 by ! %ape1 size1 & position ( ! atoms ( :i* !y are compos$4 ,?us ! ,atomi/s taught t fire is compos$ ( smoo? r\nd atoms4 ,! s\l is also compos$ ( smoo? r\nd atoms1 & is an exceptionally pure & ref9$ fire4 ,at dea? ! s\l atoms are scatt]$1 & h5ce !re is1 ( c\rse1 no "q ( a future life4 ,democritus also put =w>d a !ory ( p]ception1 accord+ to :i* objects project into space images ( !mselves compos$ ( atoms4 ,^! images /rike aga9/ ! s5ses4 ,l atoms are p]ceiv$ by l4 ,?\ght is true :5 ! s\l is equable 9 temp]ature4 ,! s5sible qualities ( ?+s1 su* z smell1 ta/e1 col\r1 d n exi/ 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 b m]ely express ! mann] 9 :i* !y affect our s5ses1 & are !re=e relative to u4 ,a numb] ( ! e?ical maxims ( ,democritus h come d[n to u4 ,b !y are n bas$ 9 any way ^u ! ,atomic !ory1 & _c be d$uc$ f x4 ,h5ce !y h no sci5tific f\ndation b are m]ely deta*$ say+s1 epitomiz+ ! exp]i5ce #ic & worldly wisdom ( ,democritus4 ,t "o %\ld enjoy oneself z mu* & vex oneself z little z possible seems to h be5 8 pr9cipal idea4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n to be int]pret$ 9 any l[1 degrad$1 or s5sual way4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,democritus says t ! happ9ess ( man does n dep5d on mat]ial possessions1 b ^u ! /ate ( ! s\l4 ,he praises equanimity & *e]fulness1 & ^! are be/ atta9$1 he ?9ks1 by mod]ation & simplicity4 #id ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,anaxagoras ,anaxagoras 0 born at ,clazom5ae 9 ,asia ,m9or ab\t #ejj ,b4,c4 ,he 0 a man ( noble family1 & possess$ consid]able prop]ty4 ,he neglect$ 8 prop]ty 9 ! se>* = k & 9 ! pursuit ( sci5ce & philosophy4 ,leav+ 8 home at ,clazom5ae1 he settl$ d[n 9 ,a!ns4 ,we h n he>d s f> any?+ ( ,a!ns 9 ! hi/ory ( ,greek ,philosophy4 ,x 0 ,anaxagoras :o transplant$ philosophy to ,a!ns1 :i* f 8 "t =w>d became ! *ief c5tre ( ,greek ?\ght4 ,at ,a!ns1 ,anaxagoras came into contact ) all ! fam\s m5 ( ! "t4 ,he 0 an intimate fri5d ( ,p]icles1 ! /atesman1 & ( ,euripides1 ! poet4 ,b 8 fri5d%ip ) ,p]icles co/ him de>4 ,!re 0 a /rong political faction oppos$ to ,p]icles4 ,s f> z we "k ,anaxagoras nev] m$dl$ 9 politics1 b he 0 a fri5d ( ! /atesman ,p]icles1 & t 0 q en\gh4 ,! enemies ( ,p]icles det]m9$ to tea* ,anaxagoras a lesson1 & a *>ge ( a!ism & blasphemy 0 accord+ly br\ght aga9/ him4 ,! p>ticul>s ( ! *>ge 7 t ,anaxagoras said t ! sun 0 a r$-hot /one1 & t ! moon 0 made ( e>?4 ,?is 0 q true1 z t is exactly :at ,anaxagoras did say ( ! sun & ! moon4 ,b ! ,greeks #ie reg>d$ ! heav5ly bodies z gods2 ev5 ,plato & ,ari/otle ?\ght t ! />s 7 div9e be+s4 ,to call ! sun a r$-hot /one1 & to say t ! moon 0 made ( e>?1 0 !re=e blasphemy accord+ to ,greek ideas4 ,anaxagoras 0 *>g$1 tri$1 & condemn$4 ,! details ( ! trial1 & ( :at foll[$1 are n kn[n ) accuracy4 ,b x appe>s t ,anaxagoras escap$1 probably ) ! help ( ,p]icles1 & f ,a!ns w5t back to 8 native c\ntry 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,he settl$ at ,lampsacus1 & di$ !re at ! age ( #gb4 ,he 0 ! au?or ( a treatise 9 :i* he wrote d[n 8 philosophical ideas4 ,?is treatise 0 well-kn[n at ! "t ( ,socrates1 b only fragm5ts n[ rema94 ,! f\ndation ( ! philosophy ( ,anaxagoras is ! same z t ( ,emp$ocles & ! ,atomi/s4 ,he d5i$ any absolute becom+ 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! pass+ ( be+ into n-be+ & n-be+ into be+4 ,matt] is uncreat$ & inde/ructible1 & all becom+ mu/ be acc\nt$ = by ! mix+ & unmix+ ( its compon5t p>ts4 ,?is pr9ciple ,anaxagoras himself express$ ) great cle>ness1 9 a fragm5t ( 8 treatise :i* has come d[n to u4 ,! ,greeks1 he says1 errone\sly assume orig9ation & de/ruction1 = no?+ orig9ates & no?+ is de/roy$4 ,all is only mix$ & unmix$ out ( pre-exi/5t ?+s1 & x 7 m correct to call ! "o process composition & ! o!r process decomposition4 ,! ,atomi/s _h assum$ ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( ?+s to be atoms compos$ ( ! same k9d ( matt]4 ,emp$ocles _h believ$ 9 f\r ultimate & und]iv$ k9ds ( matt]4 ,) nei!r ( ^! does ,anaxagoras agree4 ,= him1 all ! diff]5t k9ds ( #if matt] are equally ultimate & und]iv$1 t is to say1 su* ?+s z gold1 bone1 hair1 e>?1 wat]1 wood1 etc41 are ultimate k9ds ( matt]1 :i* d n arise f any?+ else1 & d n pass ov] into "o ano!r4 ,he also disagrees ) ! conception ( ! ,atomi/s t if matt] is divid$ f> en\gh1 ultimate & indivisible p>ticles w be rea*$4 ,accord+ to ,anaxagoras matt] is inf9itely divisible4 ,9 ! beg9n+ all ^! k9ds ( matt] 7 mix$ toge!r 9 a *aotic mass4 ,! mass /ret*es inf9itely ?r\gh\t space4 ,! diff]5t k9ds ( matt] :olly int]m+le & int]p5etrate ea* o!r4 ,! process ( _w-=mation is br\ght ab\t by ! unmix+ ( ! conglom]ation ( all k9ds ( matt]1 & ! br++ toge!r ( l matt] ) l4 ,?us ! gold p>ticles sep>at+ out ( ! mass come toge!r1 & =m gold2 ! wood p>ticles come toge!r & =m wood1 & s on4 ,b z matt] is inf9itely divisible & ! orig9al mix+ ( ! elem5ts 0 complete1 !y 71 s to speak1 mix$ to an inf9ite ext5t4 ,!re=e ! process ( unmix+ w\ld take inf9ite "t1 is n[ go+ on1 & w always g on4 ,ev5 9 ! pure/ elem5t !re is /ill a c]ta9 admixture ( p>ticles ( o!r k9ds ( matt]4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z pure gold4 ,gold is m]ely matt] 9 :i* ! gold p>ticles pr$om9ate4 ,z ) ,emp$ocles & ! ,atomi/s1 a mov+ =ce is requir$ to expla9 ! _w-process ( unmix+4 ,:at1 9 ! philosophy ( ,anaxagoras1 is ?is =ce8 ,n[ up to ! pres5t po9t ! philosophy ( ,anaxagoras does n rise above ! previ\s philosophies ( ,emp$ocles & ! ,atomi/s4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 cle>ness #ig & logical consi/5cy1 x falls consid]ably bel[ ! tea*+ ( ! latt]4 ,b x is j "h1 on ! "q ( ! mov+ =ce1 t ,anaxagoras becomes = ! fir/ "t :olly orig9al1 & introduces a pr9ciple peculi> to himself1 a pr9ciple1 moreov]1 :i* is entirely new 9 philosophy4 ,emp$ocles _h tak5 z 8 mov+ =ces1 ,love & ,hate1 my?ical & fanciful on ! "o h&1 & yet purely physical on ! o!r4 ,! =ces ( ! ,atomi/s 7 also completely mat]ial4 ,b ,anaxagoras conceives ! mov+ =ce z :olly non-physical & incorporeal4 ,x is call$ ,n\s1 t is1 m9d or intellig5ce4 ,x is intellig5ce :i* produces ! movem5t 9 ?+s :i* br+s ab\t ! =mation ( ! _w4 ,:at 0 x1 n[1 :i* l$ ,anaxagoras to ! doctr9e ( a _w-gov]n+ intellig5ce8 ,x seems t he 0 /ruck ) ! app>5t design1 ord]1 beauty & h>mony ( ! univ]se4 ,^! ?+s1 he ?\ght1 c\ld n be acc\nt$ = by bl9d =ces4 ,! _w is app>5tly a rationally gov]n$ _w4 ,x moves t[>ds def9ite ends4 ,nature %[s pl5tiful examples ( ! adaptation ( means to ends4 ,!re appe>s to be plan & purpose 9 ! _w4 ,! ,atomi/s _h assum$ no?+ b matt] & physical =ce4 ,h[ c design1 ord]1 h>mony & beauty be br\ght ab\t by bl9d =ces act+ ^u *aotic matt]8 ,bl9d =ces act+ ^u a *aos w\ld produce motion & *ange4 ,b ! *ange w\ld be mean+less & purposeless4 ,!y c\ld n produce a rationally ord]$ cosmos4 ,"o *aos w\ld succe$ ano!r *aos ad inf9itum4 ,t alone :i* c produce law & ord] is intellig5ce4 ,!re mu/ !re=e be a _w-controll+ ,n\s4 #ih ,:at is ! "* ( ! ,n\s1 accord+ to ,anaxagoras8 ,is x1 9 ! fir/ place1 really conceiv$ z purely non-mat]ial & incorporeal8 ,ari/otle1 :o 0 9 a position to "k m ( ! matt] ?an any mod]n s*ol>1 cle>ly implies 9 8 criticism t ! ,n\s ( ,anaxagoras is an incorporeal pr9ciple1 & he has be5 foll[$ 9 ?is by ! majority ( ! be/ mod]n writ]s1 su* z ,zell] & ,erdmann4 ,b ! opposite view has be5 ma9ta9$1 by ,grote1 = example1 & m rec5tly by ,pr(essor ,burnet1 :o ?9ks t ,anaxagoras conceiv$ ! ,n\s z a mat]ial & physical =ce4 ,footnote #h ,z ! matt] is ( fundam5tal importance1 ,i w m5tion ! *ief argum5ts ^u :i* ,pr(essor ,burnet re/s 8 case4 ,9 ! fir/ place ,anaxagoras describ$ ! ,n\s z ! ?9ne/ & pure/ ( all ?+s4 ,he also said t x 0 unmix$1 t x _h 9 x no mixture ( any?+ besides itself4 ,pr(essor ,burnet argues t su* words z ?9 & unmix$ w\ld be mean+less 9 connection ) an incorporeal pr9ciple4 ,only mat]ial ?+s c prop]ly be describ$ z ?91 pure1 & unmix$4 ,secondly1 ,pr(essor ,burnet ?9ks t x is q c]ta9 t ! ,n\s occupies space1 = ,anaxagoras speaks ( great] & small] portions ( x4 ,great] & small] are spatial relations4 ,h5ce ! ,n\s occupies space1 & t :i* occupies space is mat]ial4 ,b surely ^! are v inconclusive argum5ts4 ,9 ! fir/ place z reg>ds ! use ( ! words ?9 & unmix$4 ,x is true t ^! t]ms express prim>ily physical qualities4 ,b1 z ,i po9t$ out 9 #ii ! fir/ *apt]1 almo/ all words by :i* we seek to express incorporeal ideas h orig9ally a physical signification4 ,& if ,anaxagoras is to be call$ a mat]iali/ because he describ$ ! ,n\s z ?91 !n we mu/ also plead guilty to mat]ialism if we say t ! ?\ght ( ,plato is lum9\s1 or t ! m9d ( ,ari/otle is cle>4 ,! fact is t all philosophy lab\rs "u ! difficulty ( hav+ to express non-s5su\s ?\ght 9 language :i* has be5 evolv$ = ! purpose ( express+ s5su\s ideas4 ,!re is no philosophy 9 ! _w1 ev5 up to ! pres5t day1 9 :i* expressions c\ld n be f\nd 9 pl5ty :i* are bas$ ^u ! use ( physical analogies to express entirely non-physical ideas4 ,!n z reg>ds ! ,n\s occupy+ space1 x is n true t great] & small] are necess>ily spatial relations4 ,!y are also qualitative relations ( degree4 ,i say t ! m9d ( ,plato is great] ?an ! m9d ( ,callias4 ,am ,i to be call$ a mat]iali/8 ,am ,i to be suppos$ to mean t ,plato's m9d occupies m space ?an t ( ,callias8 ,& x is c]ta9ly 9 ?is way t ,anaxagoras uses ! t]ms4 ,all ,n\s1 he says1 is alike1 bo? ! great] & ! small]4 ,he means !reby t ! _w-=m+ m9d 7! great]7 is id5tical 9 "* ) ! m9d ( man 7! small]74 ,= ,anaxagoras x is ! "o ,n\s :i* animates all liv+ be+s1 m51 animals1 & ev5 plants4 ,^! diff]5t ord]s ( be+s are animat$ by ! same ,n\s b 9 diff]5t degrees1 t ( man be+ ! greate/4 ,b ?is does n mean t ! ,n\s 9 man occupies m space ?an ! ,n\s 9 a plant4 ,b ev5 if ,anaxagoras did conceive ! ,n\s z spatial1 x does n foll[ t he #ajj reg>d$ x z mat]ial4 ,! doctr9e ( ! non-spatiality ( m9d is a mod]n doctr9e1 nev] fully develop$ till ! "t ( ,desc>tes4 ,& to say t ,anaxagoras did n realize t m9d is non-spatial is m]ely to say t he liv$ be=e ! "t ( ,desc>tes4 ,no d\bt x w\ld foll[ f ?is t ! incorporeality ( m9d is vaguely & indi/9ctly conceiv$ by ,anaxagoras1 t ! anti!sis betwe5 matt] & m9d is n s %>ply drawn by him z x is by u4 ,b /ill ! anti!sis is conceiv$1 & !re=e x is correct to say t ! ,n\s ( ,anaxagoras is an incorporeal pr9ciple4 ,! :ole po9t ( ?is introduction ( ! ,n\s into ! philosophy ( ,anaxagoras is because he c\ld n expla9 ! design & ord] ( ! univ]se on a purely physical basis4 ,footnote #h3 ,e>ly ,greek ,philosophy1 *ap4 vi4 ,sec4 #acb4 ,! next *>act]i/ic ( ,n\s is t x is to be ?\ght ( z ess5tially ! gr\nd ( motion4 ,x is because he _c 9 any o!r way expla9 purposive motion t ,anaxagoras introduces m9d into 8 o!rwise mat]iali/ic sy/em4 ,m9d plays ! "p ( ! mov+ =ce :i* expla9s ! _w-process ( unmix+4 ,z ! gr\nd ( motion1 ! ,n\s is itself unmov$2 = if !re 7 any motion 9 x we %\ld h to seek = ! gr\nd ( ?is motion 9 some?+ else outside x4 ,t :i* is ! cause ( all motion1 _c itself be mov$4 ,next1 ! ,n\s is absolutely pure & unmix$ ) any?+ else4 ,x exi/s ap>t1 by itself1 :olly 9 itself1 & = itself4 ,9 contra/ to matt]1 x is uncomp\nd$ & simple4 ,x is ?is :i* gives x omnipot5ce1 complete p[] ov] ev]y?+1 because !re is no mixture ( matt] 9 x to limit x1 to clog & h9d] its activities4 ,we mod]ns are #aja incl9$ to ask ! "q :e!r ! ,n\s is p]sonal4 ,is x1 = example1 a p]sonal be+ l ! ,god ( ! ,*ri/ians8 ,?is is a "q :i* x is almo/ impossible to answ]4 ,anaxagoras c]ta9ly nev] consid]$ x4 ,accord+ to ,zell]1 ! ,greeks _h an imp]fect & undevelop$ conception ( p]sonality4 ,ev5 9 ,plato we f9d ! same difficulty4 ,! anti!sis betwe5 ,god z a p]sonal & z an imp]sonal be+1 is a :olly mod]n idea4 ,no ,greek ev] discuss$ x4 ,to come n[ to ! "q ( ! activity ( ! ,n\s & its function 9 ! philosophy ( ,anaxagoras1 we mu/ note t x is ess5tially a _w-=m+1 & n a _w-creat+1 intellig5ce4 ,! ,n\s & matt] exi/ side by side f et]nity4 ,x does n create matt]1 b only arranges x4 ,all ?+s 7 toge!r1 says ,anaxagoras1 inf9itely num]\s1 inf9itely little2 !n came ! ,n\s & set !m 9 ord]4 ,9 ?is ,anaxagoras %[$ a s\nd logical s5se4 ,he bas$ 8 idea ( ! exi/5ce ( ,n\s ^u ! design :i* exhibits itself 9 ! _w4 ,9 mod]n times ! exi/5ce ( design 9 ! _w has be5 made ! f\ndation ( an argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 :i* is kn[n z ! teleological argum5t4 ,! ^w teleology means ! view ( ?+s z adapt+ means t[>ds purposive ends4 ,to see intellig5t design 9 ! univ]se is to view ! univ]se teleologically4 ,& ! teleological argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god ass]ts t1 z !re is evid5ce ( purpose 9 nature1 ?is mu/ be due to an intellig5t cause4 ,b1 z a matt] ( fact1 tak5 by itself1 teleology _c possibly be made ! basis ( an argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( a _w-creat+ intellig5ce1 b only = ! exi/5ce ( a _w-design+ #ajb intellig5ce4 ,if y f9d 9 ! des]t ! ru9s ( anci5t cities & temples1 y are entitl$ to conclude !refrom1 t !re exi/$ a m9d :i* design$ ^! cities & build+s1 & :i* arrang$ matt] 9 t purposive way1 b y are n entitl$ to conclude t ! m9d :i* design$ ! cities also creat$ ! matt] out ( :i* !y 7 made4 ,anaxagoras 01 !re=e1 9 t s5se q "r4 ,teleology is n evid5ce ( a _w-creat+ m9d1 & if we are to prove t1 we mu/ h rec\rse to o!r l9es ( reason+4 ,9 ! beg9n+1 !n1 !re 0 a *aotic mixture ( diff]5t k9ds ( matt]4 ,! ,n\s produc$ a vortex at "o po9t 9 ! middle ( ?is mass4 ,?is vortex spread itself outw>ds 9 ! mass ( matt]1 l r+s caus$ by ! fall ( a /one 9 wat]4 ,x goes on = ev] & cont9ually draws m & m matt] out ( ! inf9ite mass into itself4 ,! movem5t1 !re=e1 is nev]-end+4 ,x causes l k9ds ( matt] to come toge!r ) l1 gold to gold1 wood to wood1 wat] to wat]1 & s on4 ,x is to be not$1 !re=e1 t ! action ( ! ,n\s is app>5tly conf9$ to ! fir/ movem5t4 ,x acts only at ! "o c5tral po9t1 & e subsequ5t movem5t is caus$ by ! vortex itself1 :i* draws 9 m & m ( ! surr\nd+ matt] into itself4 ,fir/ are sep>at$ out ! w>m1 dry1 & light p>ticles1 & ^! =m ! ae!r or upp] air4 ,next come ! cold1 moi/1 d>k1 & d5se p>ticles :i* =m ! l[] air4 ,rotation takes ! latt] t[>ds ! c5tre1 & out ( ?is ! e>? is =m$4 ,! e>?1 z ) ,anaxim5es1 is a flat disc1 borne ^u ! air4 ,! heav5ly bodies consi/ ( #ajc masses ( /one :i* h be5 torn f ! e>? by ! =ce ( its rotation1 & be+ project$ outw>ds become inc&esc5t ?r\gh ! rapidity ( _! movem5t4 ,! moon is made ( e>? & reflects ! light ( ! sun4 ,anaxagoras 0 ?us ! fir/ to give ! true cause ( ! moon's light4 ,he 0 also ! fir/ to discov] ! true !ory ( eclipses1 s9ce he taught t ! sol> eclipse is due to ! int]v5tion ( ! moon betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?1 & t lun> eclipses arise f ! %ad[ ( ! e>? fall+ ^u ! moon4 ,he believ$ t !re are o!r worlds besides our own ) _! own suns & moons4 ,^! worlds are inhabit$4 ,! sun1 accord+ to ,anaxagoras1 is _m times z l>ge z ! ,peloponnese4 ,! orig9 ( life ^u ! e>? is acc\nt$ = by g]ms :i* exi/$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 & :i* 7 br\ght d[n into ! t]re/rial slime by ra9 wat]1 & !re fructifi$4 ,anaxagoras's !ory ( p]ception is ! opposite ( ! !ories ( ,emp$ocles & ! ,atomi/s4 ,p]ception takes place by unlike matt] meet+ unlike4 ,anaxagoras owes 8 importance 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy to ! !ory ( ! ,n\s4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ "t t a def9ite di/9ction _h be5 made betwe5 ! corporeal & incorporeal4 ,anaxagoras is ! la/ philosoph] ( ! fir/ p]iod ( ,greek philosophy4 ,9 ! second *apt]1 ,footnote #i ,i obs]v$ t ?is fir/ p]iod is *>act]iz$ by ! fact t 9 x ! ,greek m9d looks only outw>d ^u ! ext]nal _w4 ,x attempts to expla9 ! op]ations ( nature4 ,x _h n yet le>n$ to look inw>d ^u itself4 ,b ! transition to ! introspective /udy ( m9d is f\nd 9 ! ,n\s ( #ajd ,anaxagoras4 ,m9d is n[ br\ght to ! =e z a problem = philosophy4 ,to f9d reason1 intellig5ce1 m9d1 9 all ?+s1 9 ! ,/ate1 9 ! individual1 9 ext]nal nature1 ?is is ! *>act]i/ic ( ! second p]iod ( ,greek philosophy4 ,to h =mulat$ ! anti!sis betwe5 m9d & matt] is ! mo/ important "w ( ,anaxagoras4 ,footnote #i3 ,pages #bc-d4 ,secondly1 x is to ! cr$it ( ,anaxagoras t he 0 ! fir/ to introduce ! idea ( teleology into philosophy4 ,! sy/em ( ! ,atomi/s =m$ ! logical completion ( ! me*anical !ory ( ! _w4 ,! !ory ( me*anism seeks to expla9 all ?+s by causes4 ,b1 z we saw1 causation c expla9 no?+4 ,! me*anism ( ! _w %[s u by :at means ev5ts are br\ght ab\t1 b x does n expla9 :y !y are br\ght ab\t at all4 ,t c only be expla9$ by %[+ ! reason = ?+s1 by exhibit+ all process z a means t[>ds rational ends4 ,to look to ! beg9n+ 7cause7 ( ?+s = _! explanation is ! !ory ( me*anism4 ,to look to _! ends = explanation ( !m is teleology4 ,anaxagoras 0 ! fir/ to h dimly se5 ?is4 ,& = ?is reason ,ari/otle praises him1 &1 contra/+ him ) ! me*ani/s1 ,leucippus & ,democritus1 says t he appe>s l a sob] man among va9 babbl]s4 ,! new pr9ciple :i* he ?us introduc$ into philosophy 0 develop$1 & =m$ ! c5tral idea ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,to h realiz$ ! tw9 anti!ses ( matt] & m9d1 ( me*anism & teleology1 is ! glory ( ,anaxagoras4 ,b x is j "h1 9 ! developm5t ( ^! two ideas1 t ! defects ( 8 sy/em make _! appe>ance4 ,fir/ly1 he s sep>at$ matt] & m9d t #aje 8 philosophy ends 9 %e] dualism4 ,he assumes ! ,n\s & matt] z exi/+ f ! beg9n+1 side by side1 z equally ultimate & und]iv$ pr9ciples4 ,a moni/ic mat]ialism w\ld h d]iv$ ! ,n\s f matt]1 & a moni/ic idealism w\ld h d]iv$ matt] f ! ,n\s4 ,b ,anaxagoras does nei!r4 ,ea* is left1 9 8 !ory1 an inexplicable ultimate my/]y4 ,8 philosophy is1 !re=e1 an irreconcilable dualism4 ,secondly1 8 teleology turns out 9 ! end to be only a new !ory ( me*anism4 ,! only reason :i* induces him to introduce ! ,n\s into ! _w1 is because he _c o!rwise expla9 ! orig9 ( movem5t4 ,x is only ! fir/ movem5t ( ?+s1 ! =mation ( ! vortex1 :i* he expla9s by m9d4 ,all subsequ5t process is expla9$ by ! action ( ! vortex itself1 :i* draws ! surr\nd+ matt] into itself4 ,! ,n\s is ?us no?+ b ano!r piece ( me*anism to acc\nt = ! fir/ impulse to motion4 ,he reg>ds ! ,n\s simply z a fir/ cause1 & ?us ! *>act]i/ic ( all me*anism1 to look back to fir/ causes1 to ! beg9n+1 r ?an to ! end ( ?+s = _! explanation1 appe>s "h4 ,ari/otle1 z usual1 puts ! matt] 9 a nut%ell4 ,anaxagoras1 he says1 uses m9d z a deus ex ma*9a to acc\nt = ! =mation ( ! _w1 & :5ev] he is at a loss to expla9 :y any?+ necess>ily is1 he drags x 9 by =ce4 ,b 9 o!r cases he assigns z a cause = ?+s any?+ else 9 pref]5ce to m9d4 ,footnote #aj ,footnote #aj2 ,ari/otle1 ,metaphysics1 book i1 *ap4 iv4 #ajf ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,sophi/s ,! fir/ p]iod ( ,greek philosophy closes ) ,anaxagoras4 ,8 doctr9e ( ! _w-=m+ intellig5ce introduc$ a new pr9ciple into philosophy1 ! pr9ciple ( ! anti!sis betwe5 corporeal matt] & incorporeal m9d1 & !re=e1 by implication1 ! anti!sis betwe5 nature & man4 ,& if ! fir/ p]iod ( philosophy has = its problem ! orig9 ( ! _w1 & ! explanation ( ! be+ & becom+ ( nature1 ! second p]iod ( philosophy op5s1 9 ! ,sophi/s1 ) ! problem ( ! position ( man 9 ! univ]se4 ,! tea*+ ( ! e>li] philosoph]s 0 exclusively cosmological1 t ( ! ,sophi/s exclusively humani/ic4 ,lat] 9 ?is second p]iod1 ^! two modes ( ?\ght come toge!r & fructify "o ano!r4 ,! problem ( ! m9d & ! problem ( nature are subord9at$ z factors ( ! great1 univ]sal1 all-embrac+1 _w-sy/ems ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,x is n possible to und]/& ! activities & tea*+ ( ! ,sophi/s )\t "s k ( ! religi\s1 political1 & social conditions ( ! "t4 ,aft] long /ruggles betwe5 ! p & ! nobles1 democracy _h almo/ ev]y:]e triumph$4 ,b 9 ,greece democracy did n mean :at we n[ mean by #ajg t ^w4 ,x did n mean repres5tative in/itutions1 gov]nm5t by ! p ?r\gh _! elect$ deputies4 ,anci5t ,greece 0 nev] a s+le nation "u a s+le gov]nm5t4 ,e city1 almo/ e hamlet1 0 an indep5d5t ,/ate1 gov]n$ only by its own laws4 ,"s ( ^! ,/ates 7 s small t !y compris$ m]ely a h&ful ( citiz5s4 ,all 7 s small t all ! citiz5s c\ld meet toge!r 9 "o place1 & !mselves 9 p]son enact ! laws & transact public bus9ess4 ,!re 0 no necessity = repres5tation4 ,consequ5tly 9 ,greece e citiz5 0 himself a politician & a legislator4 ,9 ^! circum/ances1 p>tisan feel+ ran to extravagant l5g?s4 ,m5 =got ! int]e/s ( ! ,/ate 9 ! int]e/s ( p>ty1 & ?is end$ 9 m5 =gett+ ! int]e/s ( _! p>ty 9 _! own int]e/s4 ,gre$1 ambition1 grabb+1 selfi%ness1 unre/rict$ egotism1 unbridl$ av>ice1 became ! dom9ant notes ( ! political life ( ! "t4 ,h& 9 h& ) ! rise ( democracy w5t ! decay ( religion4 ,belief 9 ! gods 0 almo/ ev]y:]e discr$it$4 ,?is 0 p>tly due to ! moral wor?lessness ( ! ,greek religion itself4 ,any action1 h[ev] sc&al\s or disgraceful1 c\ld be ju/ifi$ by ! examples ( ! gods !mselves z relat$ by ! poets & my?olog]s ( ,greece4 ,b1 9 great] measure1 ! collapse ( religion 0 due to t advance ( sci5ce & philosophy :i* we h be5 consid]+ 9 ^! lectures4 ,! univ]sal t5d5cy ( t philosophy 0 to f9d natural causes = :at _h hi!rto be5 ascrib$ to ! action ( ! div9e p[]s1 & ?is c\ld n b h an und]m9+ effect ^u popul> #ajh belief4 ,ne>ly all ! philosoph]s _h be5 secretly1 & _m ( !m op5ly1 antagoni/ic to ! p's religion4 ,! attack 0 begun by ,x5ophanes2 ,h]acleitus c>ri$ x on2 & la/ly ,democritus _h attempt$ to expla9 belief 9 ! gods z be+ caus$ by fe> ( gigantic t]re/rial & a/ronomical ph5om5a4 ,no educat$ man any long] believ$ 9 div9ation1 auguries1 & miracles4 ,a wave ( rationalism & scepticism pass$ ov] ! ,greek p4 ,! age became "o ( negative1 critical1 & de/ructive ?\ght4 ,democracy _h und]m9$ ! old ari/ocratic in/itutions ( ! ,/ate1 & sci5ce _h und]m9$ religi\s or?odoxy4 ,) ! d[nfall ( ^! two pill>s ( ?+s e/abli%$1 all else w5t too4 ,all morality1 all cu/om1 all au?ority1 all tradition1 7 criticis$ & reject$4 ,:at 0 reg>d$ ) awe & pi\s v5]ation by _! =e-fa!rs ! mod]n ,greeks n[ look$ ^u z fit subjects = je/ & mock]y4 ,e re/ra9t ( cu/om1 law1 or morality1 0 res5t$ z an unw>rantable re/riction ^u ! natural impulses ( man4 ,:at alone rema9$ :5 ^! 7 ?ru/ aside 7 ! lu/1 av>ice1 & self-w ( ! individual4 ,! tea*+ ( ! ,sophi/s 0 m]ely a translation into !oretical propositions ( ^! practical t5d5cies ( ! p]iod4 ,! ,sophi/s 7 ! *ildr5 ( _! "t1 & ! int]pret]s ( _! age4 ,_! philosophical tea*+s 7 simply ! cry/allization ( ! impulses :i* gov]n$ ! life ( ! p into ab/ract pr9ciples & maxims4 ,:o & :at 7 ! ,sophi/s8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y 7 n a s*ool ( philosoph]s4 ,!y are n to be comp>$1 = example1 ) ! ,py?agoreans or #aji ,eleatics4 ,!y _h n1 z a s*ool has1 any sy/em ( philosophy held 9 common by !m all4 ,none ( !m con/ruct$ sy/ems ( ?\ght4 ,!y _h 9 common only c]ta9 loose t5d5cies ( ?\ght4 ,nor 7 !y1 z we und]/& ! memb]s ( a s*ool to be1 9 any close p]sonal association ) "o ano!r4 ,!y 7 a pr(essional class r ?an a s*ool1 & z su* !y 7 scatt]$ ov] ,greece1 & n\ri%$ among !mselves ! usual pr(essional rivalries4 ,!y 7 pr(essional tea*]s & educators4 ,! rise ( ! ,sophi/s 0 due to ! gr[+ dem& = popul> education1 :i* 0 p>tly a g5u9e dem& = light & k1 b 0 mo/ly a desire = su* spuri\s le>n+ z w\ld lead to worldly1 & especially political1 success4 ,! triumph ( democracy _h br\ght x ab\t t political c>e]s 7 n[ op5 to ! masses :o _h hi!rto be5 :olly %ut out f !m4 ,any man c\ld rise to ! highe/ positions 9 ! ,/ate1 if he 7 end[$ ) clev]ness1 ready spee*1 :]eby to sway ! passions ( ! mob1 & a suffici5t equipm5t 9 ! way ( education4 ,h5ce ! dem& arose = su* an education z w\ld enable ! ord9>y man to c>ve out a political c>e] = himself4 ,x 0 ?is dem& :i* ! ,sophi/s und]took to satisfy4 ,!y w&]$ ab\t ,greece f place to place1 !y gave lectures1 !y took pupils1 !y ent]$ into disputations4 ,= ^! s]vices !y exact$ l>ge fees4 ,!y 7 ! fir/ 9 ,greece to take fees = ! tea*+ ( wisdom4 ,!re 0 no?+ disgraceful 9 ?is 9 itself1 b x _h nev] be5 cu/om>y4 ,! wise m5 ( ,greece _h nev] accept$ any paym5t = _! wisdom4 ,socrates1 :o nev] accept$ any paym5t1 #aaj b gave 8 wisdom freely to all :o s\ght x1 some:at pr\dly contra/$ himself ) ! ,sophi/s 9 ?is respect4 ,! ,sophi/s 7 n1 te*nically speak+1 philosoph]s4 ,!y did n specialise 9 ! problems ( philosophy4 ,_! t5d5cies 7 purely practical4 ,!y taught any subject :atev] = ! tea*+ ( :i* !re 0 a popul> dem&4 ,= example1 ,protagoras und]took to imp>t to 8 pupils ! pr9ciples ( success z a politician or z a private citiz54 ,gorgias taught rhetoric & politics1 ,prodicus gramm> & etymology1 ,hippias hi/ory1 ma!matics & physics4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is practical t5d5cy ( ! ,sophi/s we he> ( no attempts among !m to solve ! problem ( ! orig9 ( nature1 or ! "* ( ! ultimate reality4 ,! ,sophi/s h be5 describ$ z tea*]s ( virtue1 & ! description is correct1 provid$ t ! ^w virtue is und]/ood 9 its ,greek s5se1 :i* did n re/rict x to morality alone4 ,= ! ,greeks1 x meant ! capacity ( a p]son successfully to p]=m 8 functions 9 ! ,/ate4 ,?us ! virtue ( a me*anic is to und]/& ma*9]y1 ! virtue ( a physician to cure ! sick1 ! virtue ( a horse tra9] ! ability to tra9 horses4 ,! ,sophi/s und]took to tra9 m5 to virtue 9 ?is s5se1 to make !m successful citiz5s & memb]s ( ! ,/ate4 ,b ! mo/ popul> c>e] = a ,greek ( ability at ! "t 0 ! political1 :i* (f]$ ! attraction ( high positions 9 ! ,/ate4 ,& = ?is c>e] :at 0 above all necess>y 0 eloqu5ce1 or if t 7 unatta9able1 at lea/ ready spee*1 ! ability to argue1 to meet e po9t z x arose1 if n ) s\nd #aaa reason+1 !n ) quick rep>tee4 ,h5ce ! ,sophi/s v l>gely conc5trat$ _! en]gies ^u ! tea*+ ( rhetoric4 ,9 itself ?is 0 good4 ,!y 7 ! fir/ to direct att5tion to ! sci5ce ( rhetoric1 ( :i* !y may be consid]$ ! f\nd]s4 ,b _! rhetoric also _h its bad side1 :i* inde$1 soon became its only side4 ,! aims ( ! "y politicians :om !y tra9$ 71 n to seek out ! tru? = its own sake1 b m]ely to p]suade ! multitude ( :atev] !y wi%$ !m to believe4 ,consequ5tly ! ,sophi/s1 l lawy]s1 n c>+ = ! tru? ( ! matt]1 und]took to provide a /ock ( argum5ts on any subject1 or to prove any proposition4 ,!y boa/$ ( _! ability to make ! worse appe> ! bett] reason1 to prove t black is :ite4 ,"s ( !m1 l ,gorgias1 ass]t$ t x 0 n necess>y to h any k ( a subject to give satisfactory replies z reg>ds x4 ,& ,gorgias o/5tati\sly und]took to answ] any "q on any subject in/antly & )\t consid]ation4 ,to atta9 ^! ends m]e quibbl+1 & ! scor+ ( v]bal po9ts1 7 employ$4 ,h5ce our ^w sophi/ry4 ,! ,sophi/s1 9 ?is way1 endeav\r$ to entangle1 entrap1 & confuse _! oppon5ts1 & ev51 if ?is 7 n possible1 to beat !m d[n by m]e viol5ce & noise4 ,!y s\ght also to dazzle by means ( /range or fl[]y metaphors1 by unusual figures ( spee*1 by epigrams & p>adoxes1 & 9 g5]al by be+ clev] & sm>t1 r ?an e>ne/ & tru?ful4 ,:5 a man is "y he is (t5 dazzl$ by brilliance & clev]ness1 by p>adox & epigram1 b z he gr[s old] he le>ns to disc\nt ^! ?+s & to c>e *iefly = ! sub/ance & #aab tru? ( :at is said4 ,& ! ,greeks 7 a "y p4 ,!y lov$ clev] say+s4 ,& ?is x is :i* acc\nts = ! tol]ation :i* !y ext5d$ ev5 to ! mo/ pat5t absurdities ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,! mod]n "q :e!r a man has ceas$ beat+ 8 wife is n m *ildi% ?an _m ( ! rhetorical devices ( ! ,sophi/s1 & is inde$ *>act]i/ic ( ! me?ods ( ! m extravagant among !m4 ,! e>lie/ kn[n ,sophi/ is ,protagoras4 ,he 0 born at ,abd]a1 ab\t #dhj ,b4,c4 ,he w&]$ up & d[n ,greece1 & settl$ = "s "t at ,a!ns4 ,at ,a!ns1 h[ev]1 he 0 *>g$ ) impiety & a!ism4 ,?is 0 on acc\nt ( a book writt5 by him on ! subject ( ! gods1 :i* began ) ! words1 ,z = ! gods1 ,i am unable to say :e!r !y exi/ or :e!r !y d n exi/4 ,! book 0 publicly burnt1 & ,protagoras _h to fly f ,a!ns4 ,he fl$ to ,sicily1 b 0 dr[n$ on ! way ab\t ! ye> #daj ,b4,c4 ,protagoras 0 ! au?or ( ! fam\s say+1 ,man is ! measure ( all ?+s2 ( :at is1 t x is2 ( :at is n1 t x is n4 ,n[ ?is say+ puts 9 a nut%ell1 s to speak1 ! :ole tea*+ ( ,protagoras4 ,&1 inde$1 x conta9s 9 g]m ! entire ?\ght ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,x is well1 !re=e1 t we %\ld fully und]/& exactly :at x means4 ,! e>li] ,greek philosoph]s _h made a cle> di/9ction betwe5 s5se & ?\ght1 betwe5 p]ception & reason1 & _h believ$ t ! tru? is to be f\nd1 n by ! s5ses1 b by reason4 ,! ,eleatics _h be5 ! fir/ to emphasize ?is di/9ction4 ,! ultimate reality ( #aac ?+s1 !y said1 is pure ,be+1 :i* is kn[n only ?r\gh reason2 x is ! s5ses :i* delude u ) a %[ ( becom+4 ,h]acleitus _h likewise affirm$ t ! tru?1 :i* 01 = him1 ! law ( becom+1 is kn[n by ?\ght1 & t x is ! s5ses :i* delude u ) a %[ ( p]man5ce4 ,ev5 ,democritus believ$ t true be+1 t is1 mat]ial atoms1 are s small t ! s5ses _c p]ceive !m1 & only reason is aw>e ( _! exi/5ce4 ,n[ ! tea*+ ( ,protagoras really re/s fundam5tally ^u ! d5y+ & confus+ ( ?is di/9ction4 ,if we are to see ?is1 we mu/ fir/ ( all und]/& t reason is ! univ]sal1 s5sation ! p>ticul>1 elem5t 9 man4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 reason is communicable1 s5sation incommunicable4 ,my s5sations & feel+s are p]sonal to myself1 & _c be imp>t$ to o!r p4 ,= example1 no "o c communicate ! s5sation ( r$ness to a col\r-bl9d man1 :o has n already exp]i5c$ x4 ,b a ?\ght1 or rational idea1 c be communicat$ to any rational be+4 ,n[ suppose ! "q is :e!r ! angles at ! base ( an isosceles triangle are equal4 ,we may approa* ! problem 9 two ways4 ,we may appeal ei!r to ! s5ses or to reason4 ,if we appeal to ! s5ses1 "o man w come =w>d & say t to him ! angles look equal4 ,ano!r man w say t "o angle looks bigg] ?an ! o!r1 & s on4 ,b if1 l ,euclid1 we appeal to reason1 !n x c be prov$ t ! two angles are equal1 & !re is no room left = m]e p]sonal impressions1 because reason is a law univ]sally valid & b9d+ ^u all m54 ,my s5sations are private & peculi> to myself4 ,!y b9d no "o b myself4 ,my #aad impressions ab\t ! triangle are n a law to anyone except myself4 ,b my reason ,i %>e ) all o!r rational be+s4 ,x is n a law = me m]ely1 b = all4 ,x is "o & ! same reason 9 me & 9 o!r m54 ,reason1 !re=e1 is ! univ]sal1 s5sation ! p>ticul>1 elem5t 9 man4 ,n[ x is practically ?is di/9ction t ,protagoras d5i$4 ,man1 he said1 is ! measure ( all ?+s4 ,by man he did n mean mank9d at l>ge4 ,he meant ! individual man4 ,& by measure ( all ?+s he meant ! /&>d ( ! tru? ( all ?+s4 ,ea* individual man is ! /&>d ( :at is true to himself4 ,!re is no tru? except ! s5sations & impressions ( ea* man4 ,:at seems true to me is true = me4 ,:at seems true to y is true = y4 ,we commonly di/+ui% betwe5 subjective impressions & objective tru?4 ,! words subjective & objective are con/antly recurr+ ?r\gh\t ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 & z ?is is ! fir/ "t ,i use !m1 ,i w expla9 !m "h4 ,9 e act ( ?\ght !re mu/ necess>ily be two t]ms4 ,i am n[ look+ at ?is desk & ?9k+ ( ?is desk4 ,!re is ! ,i :i* ?9ks1 & !re is ! desk :i* is ?\ght4 ,i am ! subject ( ! ?\ght1 ! desk is ! object ( ! ?\ght4 ,9 g5]al1 ! subject is t :i* ?9ks1 & ! object is t :i* is ?\ght4 ,subjective is t :i* app]ta9s to ! subject1 & objective is t :i* app]ta9s to ! object4 ,s ! mean+ ( ! di/9ction betwe5 subjective impressions & ! objective tru? is cle>4 ,my p]sonal impression may be t ! e>? is flat1 b ! objective tru? is t ! #aae e>? is r\nd4 ,travell+ ?r\gh a des]t1 ,i may be subject to a mirage1 & ?9k t !re is wat] 9 front ( me4 ,t is my subjective impression4 ,! objective tru? is t !re is no?+ b s&4 ,! objective tru? is some?+ :i* has an exi/5ce ( its own1 indep5d5t ( me4 ,x does n matt] :at ,i ?9k1 or :at y ?9k1 :at ,i want1 or :at y want2 ! tru? is :at x is4 ,we mu/ con=m ourselves to ! tru?4 ,tru? w n con=m itself to our p]sonal incl9ations1 wi%es1 or impressions4 ,! tea*+ ( ,protagoras practically am\nt$ to a d5ial ( ?is4 ,:at x meant 0 t !re is no objective tru?1 no tru? indep5d5t ( ! individual subject4 ,:atev] seems to ! individual true is true = t individual4 ,?us tru? is id5tifi$ ) subjective s5sations & impressions4 ,to d5y ! di/9ction betwe5 objective tru? & subjective impression is ! same z to d5y ! di/9ction betwe5 reason & s5se4 ,to my s5ses ! e>? seems flat4 ,x looks flat to ! eye4 ,x is only ?r\gh reason t ,i "k ! objective tru? t ! _w is r\nd4 ,reason1 !re=e1 is ! only possible /&>d ( objective tru?4 ,if y d5y ! rational elem5t its prop] "p1 x foll[s t y w be left a helpless prey to div]se p]sonal impressions4 ,! impressions yield$ by ! s5ses diff] 9 diff]5t p4 ,"o man sees a ?+ 9 "o way1 ano!r sees x 9 ano!r4 ,if1 !re=e1 :at seems to me true is true = me1 & :at seems to y true is true = y1 & if our impressions diff]1 x w foll[ t two contradictory propositions mu/ bo? be true4 ,protagoras cle>ly und]/ood ?is1 #aaf & did n fl9* f ! conclusion4 ,he taught t all op9ions are true1 t error is impossible1 & t1 :atev] proposition is put =w>d1 x is always possible to oppose to x a contradictory proposition ) equally good argum5ts & ) equal tru?4 ,9 reality1 ! result ( ?is proc$ure is to rob ! di/9ction betwe5 tru? & falsehood ( all mean+4 ,x makes no diff]5ce :e!r we say t all op9ions are true1 or :e!r we say t all are false4 ,! words tru? & falsehood1 9 su* context1 h no mean+4 ,to say t :atev] ,i feel is ! tru? = me means only t :at ,i feel ,i feel4 ,to call ?is tru? = me1 adds no?+ to ! mean+4 ,protagoras seems to h be5 l$ to ^! doctr9es p>tly by obs]v+ ! diff]5t acc\nts ( ! same object :i* ! s5se-organs yield to diff]5t p1 & ev5 to ! same p]son at diff]5t times4 ,if k dep5ds ^u ^! impressions1 ! tru? ab\t ! object _c be asc]ta9$4 ,he 0 also influ5c$ by ! tea*+ ( ,h]acleitus4 ,h]acleitus _h taught t all p]man5ce is illusion4 ,ev]y?+ is a p]petual becom+2 all ?+s fl[4 ,:at is at ?is mom5t1 at ! next mom5t is n4 ,ev5 at "o & ! same mom5t1 ,h]acleitus believ$1 a ?+ is & is n4 ,if x is true to say t x is1 x is equally true t x is n4 ,& ?is is1 9 effect1 ! tea*+ ( ,protagoras4 ,! ,protagorean philosophy ?us am\nts to a decl>ation t k is impossible4 ,if !re is no objective tru?1 !re _c be any k ( x4 ,! impossibility ( k is also ! /&po9t ( ,gorgias4 ,! title ( 8 book is *>act]i/ic ( #aag ! ,sophi/ical love ( p>adox4 ,x 0 call$ ,on ,nature1 or ! non-exi/5t4 ,9 ?is book he attempt$ to prove ?ree propositions1 7#a7 t no?+ exi/s3 7#b7 t if any?+ exi/s1 x _c be kn[n3 7#c7 t if x c be kn[n1 ! k ( x _c be communicat$4 ,= pro( ( ! fir/ proposition1 no?+ exi/s1 ,gorgias atta*$ himself to ! s*ool ( ! ,eleatics1 especially to ,z5o4 ,z5o _h taught t 9 all multiplicity & motion1 t is to say1 9 all exi/5ce1 !re are irreconcilable contradictions4 ,z5o 0 9 no s5se a sceptic4 ,he did n seek = contradictions 9 ?+s = ! sake ( ! contradictions1 b 9 ord] to support ! positive !sis ( ,p>m5ides1 t only be+ is1 & t becom+ is n at all4 ,z5o1 !re=e1 is to be reg>d$ z a con/ructive1 & n m]ely z a de/ructive1 ?9k]4 ,b x is obvi\s t by emphasiz+ only ! negative elem5t 9 8 philosophy1 x is possible to use 8 ant9omies z p[]ful weapons 9 ! cause ( scepticism & nihilism4 ,& x 0 9 ?is way t ,gorgias made use ( ! dialectic ( ,z5o4 ,s9ce all exi/5ce is self-contradictory1 x foll[s t no?+ exi/s4 ,he also made use ( ! fam\s argum5t ( ,p>m5ides reg>d+ ! orig9 ( be+4 ,if any?+ is1 said ,gorgias1 x mu/ h _h a beg9n+4 ,its be+ mu/ h aris5 ei!r f be+1 or f n-be+4 ,if x arose f be+1 !re is no beg9n+4 ,if x arose f n-be+1 ?is is impossible1 s9ce some?+ _c arise out ( no?+4 ,!re=e no?+ exi/s4 ,! second proposition ( ,gorgias1 t if any?+ exi/s x _c be kn[n1 is "p & p>cel ( ! :ole ,sophi/ic t5d5cy ( ?\ght1 :i* id5tifies k #aah ) s5se-p]ception1 & ignores ! rational elem5t4 ,s9ce s5se-impressions diff] 9 diff]5t p1 & ev5 9 ! same p]son1 ! object z x is 9 itself _c be kn[n4 ,! ?ird proposition foll[s f ! same id5tification ( k ) s5sation1 s9ce s5sation is :at _c be communicat$4 ,! lat] ,sophi/s w5t mu* fur!r ?an ,protagoras & ,gorgias4 ,x 0 _! "w to apply ! tea*+ ( ,protagoras to ! sph]es ( politics & morals4 ,if !re is no objective tru?1 & if :at seems true to ea* individual is = him ! tru?1 s also1 !re c be no objective moral code1 & :at seems "r to ea* man is "r = him4 ,if we are to h any?+ wor? call+ morality1 x is cle> t x mu/ be a law = all1 & n m]ely a law = "s4 ,x mu/ be valid =1 & b9d+ ^u1 all m54 ,x mu/1 !re=e1 be f\nd$ ^u t :i* is univ]sal 9 man1 t is to say1 8 reason4 ,to f\nd x ^u s5se-impressions & feel+s is to f\nd x ^u %ift+ quicks&s4 ,my feel+s & s5sations are b9d+ ^u no man b myself1 & !re=e a univ]sally valid law _c be f\nd$ ^u !m4 ,yet ! ,sophi/s id5tifi$ morality ) ! feel+s ( ! individual4 ,:atev] ,i ?9k "r is "r = me4 ,:atev] y ?9k "r is "r = y4 ,:atev] ea* man1 9 8 irrational self-w1 *ooses to d1 t is1 = him1 legitimate4 ,^! conclusions 7 drawn by ,polus1 ,?rasyma*us1 & ,critias4 ,n[ if !re is1 9 ?is way1 no su* ?+ z objective "r1 x foll[s t ! laws ( ! ,/ate c be f\nd$ ^u no?+ except =ce1 cu/om1 & conv5tion4 ,we (t5 speak ( j laws1 & good laws4 ,b to speak 9 t way involves ! exi/5ce ( an objective #aai /&>d ( goodness & ju/ice1 ) :i* we c comp>e ! law1 & see :e!r x agrees ) t /&>d or n4 ,to ! ,sophi/s1 :o d5i$ any su* /&>d1 x 0 m]e nons5se to speak ( j & good laws4 ,no law is 9 itself good or j1 because !re is no su* ?+ z goodness or ju/ice4 ,or if !y us$ su* a ^w z ju/ice1 !y def9$ x z mean+ ! "r ( ! /rong]2 or ! "r ( ! majority4 ,polus & ,?rasyma*us1 consequ5tly1 drew ! conclusion t ! laws ( ! ,/ate 7 inv5tions ( ! weak1 :o 7 cunn+ en\gh1 by means ( ?is /ratagem1 to control ! /rong1 & rob !m ( ! natural fruits ( _! /r5g?4 ,! law ( =ce is ! only law :i* nature recognizes4 ,if a man1 !re=e1 is p[]ful en\gh to defy ! law ) impunity1 he has a p]fect "r to d s4 ,! ,sophi/s 7 ?us ! fir/1 b n ! la/1 to prea* ! doctr9e t might is "r4 ,&1 9 simil> ve91 ,critias expla9$ popul> belief 9 ! gods z ! inv5tion ( "s crafty /atesman = controll+ ! mob ?r\gh fe>4 ,n[ x is obvi\s t ! :ole t5d5cy ( ?is sophi/ical tea*+ is de/ructive & anti-social4 ,x is de/ructive ( religion1 ( morality1 ( ! f\ndations ( ! ,/ate1 & ( all e/abli%$ in/itutions4 ,& we c n[ see t ! doctr9es ( ! ,sophi/s 71 9 fact1 simply ! cry/allization into ab/ract ?\ght ( ! practical t5d5cies ( ! age4 ,! p 9 practice1 ! ,sophi/s 9 !ory1 decri$ & trod "u foot ! re/rictions ( law1 au?ority1 & cu/om1 leav+ no?+ b ! deification ( ! individual 9 8 crude self-w & egotism4 ,x 0 9 fact an age ( aufkla]ung1 :i* means enlight5m5t or #abj illum9ation4 ,su* p]iods ( illum9ation1 x seems1 recur p]iodically 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght1 & 9 ! hi/ory ( civilization4 ,?is is ! fir/1 b n ! la/1 su* p]iod ) :i* ! hi/ory ( philosophy deals4 ,?is is ! ,greek illum9ation4 ,su* p]iods pres5t c]ta9 *>act]i/ic features4 ,!y foll[1 z a rule1 ^u an era ( con/ructive ?\ght4 ,9 ! pres5t in/ance ! ,greek illum9ation foll[$ closely ^u ! heels ( ! great developm5t ( sci5ce & philosophy f ,?ales to ,anaxagoras4 ,9 su* a con/ructive p]iod ! great ?9k]s br+ to bir? new pr9ciples1 :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 filt] d[n to ! masses ( ! p & cause popul>1 if %all[1 sci5ce1 & a wide-spread culture4 ,popul> education becomes a feature ( ! "t4 ,! new ideas1 f]m5t+ among ! p1 break up old prejudices & e/abli%$ ideas1 & ?us ?\ght1 at fir/ con/ructive1 becomes1 among ! masses1 de/ructive 9 "*4 ,h5ce ! popul> ?\ght1 9 a p]iod ( enlight5m5t1 issues 9 d5ial1 scepticism1 & disbelief4 ,x is m]ely negative 9 its activities & results4 ,au?ority1 tradition1 & cu/om are :olly or p>tially de/roy$4 ,& s9ce au?ority1 tradition1 & cu/om are ! cem5t ( ! social /ructure1 !re results a g5]al dissolution ( t /ructure into its compon5t individuals4 ,all emphasis is n[ laid on ! individual4 ,?\ght becomes egoc5tric4 ,individualism is ! dom9ant note4 ,extreme subjectivity is ! pr9ciple ( ! age4 ,all ^! features make _! appe>ance 9 ! ,greek aufkla]ung4 ,! ,sophi/ical doctr9e t ! tru? is :at ,i ?9k1 ! good :at ,i *oose to d1 is ! extreme application ( ! subjective & egoc5tric pr9ciples4 #aba ,! e>ly eighte5? c5tury 9 ,engl& & ,france 0 likewise a p]iod ( enlight5m5t1 & ! era f :i* we are n[1 p]haps1 j em]g+1 be>s _m ( ! *>act]i/ics ( aufkla]ung4 ,x is sceptical & de/ructive4 ,all e/abli%$ in/itutions1 m>riage1 ! family1 ! /ate1 ! law1 come 9 = mu* de/ructive criticism4 ,x foll[$ imm$iately ^u ! close ( a great p]iod ( con/ructive ?\ght1 ! sci5tific developm5t ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,& la/ly1 ! age has produc$ its own ,protagorean philosophy1 :i* x calls pragmatism4 ,if pragmatism is n egoc5tric1 x is at lea/ an?ropoc5tric4 ,tru? is no long] ?\ght ( z an objective reality1 to :i* mank9d mu/ con=m4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! tru? mu/ con=m itself to mank9d4 ,:atev] x is useful to believe1 :atev] belief works 9 practice1 is decl>$ to be true4 ,b s9ce :at works 9 "o age & c\ntry does n "w 9 ano!r1 s9ce :at x is useful to believe to-day w be useless to-morr[1 x foll[s t !re is no objective tru? indep5d5t ( mank9d at all4 ,tru? is n n[ def9$ z dep5d5t on ! s5sations ( man1 z x 0 ) ,protagoras1 b z dep5d5t on ! volition ( man4 ,9 ei!r case x is n ! univ]sal 9 man1 8 reason1 :i* is made ! basis ( tru? & morals1 b ! subjective1 individual1 p>ticul> elem5t 9 him4 ,we mu/ n =get ! _m m]its ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,individually1 !y 7 (t5 e/imable m54 ,no?+ is kn[n aga9/ ! "* ( ,protagoras1 & ,prodicus 0 prov]bial = 8 wisdom & ! g5u9e probity & uprightness ( 8 pr9ciples4 ,moreov] ! ,sophi/s contribut$ mu* to ! advance ( le>n+4 #abb ,!y 7 ! fir/ to direct att5tion to ! /udy ( words1 s5t5ces1 /yle1 prosody1 & rhy?m4 ,!y 7 ! f\nd]s ( ! sci5ce ( rhetoric4 ,!y spread education & culture f> & wide 9 ,greece1 !y gave a great impulse to ! /udy ( e?ical ideas1 :i* made possible ! tea*+ ( ,socrates1 & !y /irr$ up a f]m5t ( ideas )\t :i* ! great p]iod ( ,plato & ,ari/otle c\ld nev] h se5 ! light4 ,b1 f ! philosophical po9t ( view1 _! m]it is = ! fir/ "t to h br\ght into g5]al recognition ! "r ( ! subject4 ,= !re is1 aft] all1 mu* reason 9 ^! attacks made by ! ,sophi/s ^u au?ority1 ^u e/abli%$ ?+s1 ^u tradition1 cu/om & dogma4 ,man1 z a rational be+1 ought n to be tyranniz$ ov] by au?ority1 dogma1 & tradition4 ,he _c be subject$1 ?us viol5tly1 to ! imposition ( beliefs f an ext]nal s\rce4 ,no man has ! "r to say to me1 y %all ?9k ?is1 or y %all ?9k t4 ,i1 z a rational be+1 h ! "r to use my reason1 & judge = myself4 ,if a man w\ld conv9ce me1 he mu/ n appeal to =ce1 b to reason4 ,9 do+ s1 he is n impos+ 8 op9ions ext]nally ^u me2 he is educ+ 8 op9ions f ! int]nal s\rces ( my own ?\ght2 he is %[+ me t 8 op9ions are 9 reality my own op9ions1 if ,i only knew x4 ,b ! mi/ake ( ! ,sophi/s 0 t1 9 ?us recogniz+ ! "r ( ! subject1 !y :olly ignor$ & =got ! "r ( ! object4 ,= ! tru? has objective exi/5ce1 & is :at x is1 :e!r ,i ?9k x or n4 ,_! mi/ake 0 t ?\gh !y rightly saw t = tru? & morality to be valid = me1 !y mu/ be ass5t$ to by1 & develop$ out (1 #abc me myself1 n impos$ f ! outside1 yet !y laid ! emphasis on my m]ely accid5tal & p>ticul> *>act]i/ics1 my impulses1 feel+s1 & s5sations1 & made ^! ! s\rce ( tru? & morality1 in/ead ( emphasiz+ z ! s\rce ( tru? & "r ! univ]sal "p ( me1 my reason4 ,man is ! measure ( all ?+s2 c]ta9ly1 b man z a rational be+1 n man z a bundle ( p>ticul> s5sations1 subjective impressions1 impulses1 irrational prejudices1 self-w1 m]e ecc5tricities1 oddities1 foibles1 & fancies4 ,good examples ( ! "r & wrong pr9ciples ( ! ,sophi/s are to be f\nd 9 mod]n ,prote/antism & mod]n democracy4 ,prote/antism1 x is (t5 said1 is f\nd$ ^u ! "r ( private judgm5t1 & ?is is simply ! "r ( ! subject1 ! "r ( ! individual to ex]cise 8 own reason4 ,b if ?is is int]pret$ to mean t ea* individual is entitl$ to set up 8 m]e :ims & fancies z ! law 9 religi\s matt]s1 !n we h ! bad sort ( ,prote/antism4 ,aga91 democracy is simply political prote/antism1 & democratic ideas are ! direct (fspr+ ( ! prote/ant ,re=mation4 ,! democratic pr9ciple is t no rational be+ c be ask$ to obey a law to :i* 8 own reason has n ass5t$4 ,b ! law mu/ be f\nd$ ^u reason1 ^u ! univ]sal 9 man4 ,i1 z an individual1 z a m]e ego1 h no rights :atev]4 ,x is only z a rational be+1 z a pot5tially univ]sal be+1 z a memb] ( ! commonweal? ( reason1 t ,i h any rights1 t ,i c claim to legislate = myself & o!rs4 ,b if ea* individual's caprici\s self-w1 8 m]e :ims & fancies1 are erect$ into a law1 !n democracy turns into an>*ism & bol%evism4 #abd ,x is a great mi/ake to suppose t ! doctr9es ( ! ,sophi/s are m]ely antiquat$ ideas1 dead & fossiliz$ ?\ghts1 ( int]e/ only to hi/orians1 b ( no importance to u4 ,on ! contr>y1 mod]n popul> ?\ght positively reeks ) ! ideas & t5d5cies ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,x is (t5 said t a man ought to h /rong convictions1 & "s p ev5 g s f> z to say t x does n mu* matt] :at a man believes1 s long z :at he believes he believes /rongly & firmly4 ,n[ c]ta9ly x is q true t a man ) /rong convictions is m int]e/+ ?an a man )\t any op9ions4 ,! =m] is at lea/ a =ce 9 ! _w1 :ile ! latt] is col\rless & ineffectual4 ,b to put exclusive emphasis on ! m]e fact ( hav+ convictions is wrong4 ,aft] all1 ! f9al te/ ( wor? mu/ be :e!r ! man's convictions are true or false4 ,!re mu/ be an objective /&>d ( tru?1 & to =get ?is1 to talk ( ! m]e fact ( hav+ /rong op9ions z 9 itself a m]it1 is to fall into ! error ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,ano!r common say+ is t ev]yone has a "r to 8 own op9ions4 ,?is is q true1 & x m]ely expresses ! "r ( ! subject to use 8 own reason4 ,b x is sometimes int]pret$ 9 a diff]5t way4 ,if a man holds a totally irrational op9ion1 & if e weapon is beat5 out ( 8 h&s1 if he is driv5 f e position he takes up--s t !re is no?+ left = him to d1 except to admit t he is wrong1 su* a man w sometimes take refuge 9 ! say+1 t1 aft] all1 argue z y may1 he has a "r to 8 own op9ion4 ,b we _c all[ ! claim4 ,no man has a "r to wrong op9ions4 ,!re _c be any "r #abe 9 wrong op9ions4 ,y h no "r to an op9ion unless x is f\nd$ ^u t :i* is univ]sal 9 man1 8 reason4 ,y _c claim ?is "r on behalf ( y\r subjective impressions1 & irrational :ims4 ,to d s is to make ! mi/ake ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,! t5d5cies ( ! m %all[ type ( mod]n rationalism exhibit a simil> ,sophi/ical ?\ght4 ,x is po9t$ out t moral ideas v>y v mu* 9 diff]5t c\ntries & ages1 t 9 ,japan1 = example1 pro/itution is condon$1 & t 9 anci5t ,egypt ince/ 0 n condemn$4 ,n[ x is important to "k ^! facts4 ,!y %\ld s]ve z a w>n+ to u aga9/ dogmatic n>r[-m9d$ness 9 moral matt]s4 ,b "s p draw f ^! facts ! conclusion t !re is no univ]sally valid & objectively real moral law4 ,! conclusion does n foll[ f ! premises1 & ! conclusion is false4 ,p's op9ions diff]1 n only on moral que/ions1 b ^u e subject "u ! sun4 ,because m51 a few hundr$ ye>s ago1 believ$ t ! e>? 0 flat1 :]eas n[ we believe x is r\nd1 x does n foll[ t x has 9 reality no %ape at all1 t !re is no objective tru? 9 ! matt]4 ,& because m5's op9ions diff]1 9 diff]5t ages & c\ntries1 z to :at ! true moral law is1 x does n foll[ t !re is no objective moral law4 ,we w take z our la/ example ! curr5t talk ab\t ! importance ( develop+ "o's p]sonality4 ,a man1 x is said1 %\ld be himself1 & ! expression ( 8 own individuality mu/ be 8 lead+ idea4 ,n[ c]ta9ly x is good to be oneself 9 ! s5se t x is hypocritical to pret5d to be :at "o is n4 ,moreov]1 x is no d\bt true t ea* man has c]ta9 special #abf gifts1 :i* he ought to develop1 s t all1 9 _! div]se ways1 may contribute z mu* z possible to ! spiritual & mat]ial weal? ( ! _w4 ,b ?is ideal ( individuality (t5 leads to false developm5ts1 z we see 9 ! sph]es ( art & ( education4 ,su* a man z ,osc> ,wilde1 ^: p]sonality is ess5tially evil1 def5ds 8 arti/ic pr9ciples on ! gr\nd t he mu/ ne$s express 8 p]sonality1 t art is no?+ b su* p]sonal expression1 & t x is subject to no /&>d save ! individuality ( ! arti/4 ,"s writ]s on education1 among !m ,mr4 ,b]n>d ,%aw1 :o has _m po9ts 9 common ) ! ,sophi/s1 tell u t to attempt to m\ld ! "* ( a *ild by discipl9e1 is to s9 aga9/ its p]sonality1 & t ! *ild %\ld be all[$ to develop its individuality un*eck$ 9 its own way4 ,b aga9/ ?is we h to prote/ t to make ! cultivation ( individuality an end 9 itself1 & to put exclusive emphasis on ?is1 is wrong4 ,! cultivation ( an individuality is n 9 itself a good ?+2 x is n a good ?+ if ! individuality be a wor?less "o4 ,if a *ild exhibits savage or selfi% t5d5cies1 x mu/ be subject$ to discipl9e1 & x is ridicul\s to make a feti% ( its p]sonality to su* an ext5t z to all[ x to develop z x likes4 ,9 a simil> way1 ! ideal ( individuality is (t5 int]pret$ to mean t ! cultivation ( ! m]e ecc5tricities & oddities ( ! individual is some?+ good4 ,b ! p]sonal peculi>ities ( a man are j :at is wor?less ab\t him4 ,t alone :i* entitles him to ! sacr$ rights ( a p]son is 8 rational & univ]sal nature4 #abg ,,*apt] ,x ,,socrates ,amid ! de/ruction ( all ideals ( tru? & morality1 :i* 0 br\ght ab\t by ! ,sophi/s1 !re appe>$ 9 ,a!ns ! figure ( ,socrates1 :o 0 de/9$ to re/ore ord] out ( *aos1 & to introduce sanity into ! disord]$ intellectual life ( ! "t4 ,socrates 0 born ab\t #dgj ,b4,c4 9 ,a!ns4 ,8 fa!r 0 a sculptor1 8 "m a midwife4 ,v little is kn[n ( 8 e>ly ye>s & education1 except t he took up 8 fa!r's occupation z a sculptor4 ,9 lat] ye>s "s /atues us$ to be %[n at ! ,acropolis 9 ,a!ns1 :i* 7 said to be ! "w ( ,socrates4 ,b comp>atively e>ly 9 life he des]t$ 8 pr(ession 9 ord] to devote himself to :at he consid]$ 8 mission 9 life1 philosophy4 ,he sp5t 8 entire life 9 ,a!ns1 nev] dep>t+ f x1 save = %ort p]iods on ?ree occasions1 :5 he s]v$ 9 milit>y exp$itions 9 ! ,a!nian army4 ,= f tw5ty to ?irty ye>s he lab\r$ at 8 philosophical mission 9 ,a!ns1 until1 9 8 sev5tie? ye>1 he 0 *>g$ ) d5y+ ! national gods1 introduc+ new gods ( 8 own1 & corrupt+ ! ,a!nian y\?4 ,on ^! *>ges he 0 condemn$ to dea? & execut$4 #abh ,! p]sonal appe>ance ( ,socrates 0 grotesque4 ,he 0 %ort1 ?ick-set1 & ugly4 ,z he grew old] he became bald2 8 nose 0 broad1 flat1 & turn$ up2 he walk$ ) a peculi> gait1 & _h a trick ( roll+ 8 eyes4 ,8 clo!s 7 old & poor4 ,he c>$ little or no?+ = ext]nal appe>ances4 ,socrates believ$ t he 0 guid$ 9 all 8 actions by a sup]natural voice1 :i* he call$ 8 daemon4 ,?is voice1 he ?\ght1 gave him premonitions ( ! good or evil consequ5ces ( 8 propos$ actions1 & no?+ w\ld induce him to disobey its injunctions4 ,socrates con/ruct$ no philosophy1 t is to say1 no sy/em ( philosophy4 ,he 0 ! au?or ( philosophical t5d5cies1 & ( a philosophic me?od4 ,he nev] committ$ 8 op9ions to writ+4 ,8 me?od ( philosophiz+ 0 purely conv]sational4 ,x 0 8 habit to g d[n e day to ! m>ket place 9 ,a!ns1 or to any o!r spot :]e p ga!r$1 & !re to engage 9 conv]sation ) anyone :o 0 ready to talk to him ab\t ! deep problems ( life & dea?4 ,ri* or poor1 "y or old1 fri5d or /rang]1 :oev] came1 & w\ld att5d1 c\ld li/5 freely to ! talk ( ,socrates4 ,he took no fees1 z ! ,sophi/s did1 & rema9$ always a poor man4 ,he did n1 l ! ,sophi/s1 deliv] long spee*es1 tirades1 & monologues4 ,he nev] monopolis$ ! conv]sation1 & frequ5tly x 0 ! o!r p>ty :o did mo/ ( ! talk+1 ,socrates only int]pos+ que/ions & comm5ts1 & yet rema9+ always ma/] ( ! conv]sation1 & direct+ x into fruitful *annels4 ,! conv]sation proce$$ *iefly by ! me?od ( "q & answ]1 ,socrates by acute que/ions educ+1 br++ to bir?1 #abi ! ?\ghts ( 8 p>tn]1 correct+1 refut+1 or develop+ !m4 ,9 c>ry+ on ?is daily "w1 ,socrates und\bt$ly reg>d$ himself z engag$ ^u a mission 9 "s way sup]naturally impos$ ^u him by ,god4 ,( ! orig9 ( ?is mission we h an acc\nt 9 ! ,apology ( ,plato1 :o puts into ! m\? ( ,socrates ! foll[+ words3--,*airephon 4444 made a pilgrimage to ,delphi & _h ! audacity to ask ?is "q f ! oracle 4444 ,he actually ask$ if !re 0 any man wis] ?an ,i4 ,& ! prie/ess answ]$1 ,no 4444 ,:5 ,i he>d ! answ]1 ,i ask$ myself3 ,:at c ! god mean8 :at c he be h9t+8 ,= c]ta9ly ,i h nev] ?\ght myself wise 9 any?+1 great or small4 ,:at c he mean !n1 :5 he ass]ts t ,i am ! wise/ ( m58 ,he _c lie1 ( c\rse3 t w\ld be impossible = him4 ,& = a long :ile ,i 0 at a loss to ?9k :at he c\ld mean4 ,at la/1 aft] mu* ?\ght1 ,i />t$ on "s su* c\rse z ?is4 ,i betook myself to "o ( ! m5 :o seem$ wise1 ?9k+ t !re1 if any:]e1 ,i %\ld refute ! utt]ance1 & c\ld say to ! oracle3 ',?is man is wis] ?an ,i1 & y said ,i 0 ! wise/4' ,n[ :5 ,i look$ into ! man--!re is no ne$ to give 8 "n--x 0 "o ( our citiz5s1 m5 ( ,a!ns1 ) :om ,i _h an exp]i5ce ( ?is k9d--:5 we talk$ toge!r ,i ?\ght1 ',?is man seems wise to _m m51 & above all to himself1 b he is n s'2 & !n ,i tri$ to %[ t he ?\ght he 0 wise1 b he 0 n4 ,!n he got angry ) me & s did _m :o he>d u1 b ,i w5t away & ?\ght to myself1 ',well1 at any rate ,i am wis] ?an ?is man3 probably nei!r ( #acj u kn[s any?+ ( beauty or ( good1 b he ?9ks he kn[s some?+ :5 he kn[s no?+1 & ,i1 if ,i "k no?+1 at lea/ nev] suppose t ,i d4 ,s x looks z ?\gh ,i really 7 a little wis] ?an he1 j 9 s f> z ,i d n imag9e myself to "k ?+s ab\t :i* ,i "k no?+ at all4' ,aft] t ,i w5t to ano!r man :o seem$ to be wis] /ill1 & ,i _h exactly ! same exp]i5ce1 & !n he got angry ) me too1 & s did _m m4 ,?us ,i w5t r\nd !m all1 "o aft] ! o!r1 aw>e ( :at 0 happ5+ & sorry = x1 & afraid t !y 7 gett+ to hate me4 ,9 ?is passage we c see1 too1 ! suppos$ orig9 ( ano!r peculi> ,socratic feature1 ! ,socratic irony4 ,9 any discussion1 ,socrates w\ld1 z a rule1 pr(ess himself to be totally ignorant ( ! matt] 9 h&1 & only anxi\s to le>n ! wisdom possess$ by 8 int]locutor4 ,?is pr(ess$ ignorance 0 n affectation4 ,he 0 g5u9ely impress$ ) ! notion t n only he1 b all o!r m51 live = ! mo/ "p 9 ignorance ( ! ?+s t are ! mo/ important to be kn[n1 ! nature ( goodness1 beauty1 & tru?4 ,he believ$ t ! self-/yl$ k ( ! wise 01 = ! mo/ "p1 no?+ b pret5ti\s ignorance4 ,nev]!less1 he us$ ?is pr(ession ( ignorance z a weapon ( (f5ce1 & x became 9 8 h&s a p[]ful rhetorical in/rum5t1 :i* he us$ ) specially tell+ effect aga9/ ^? :o1 puff$ up ) _! own importance & wisdom1 pret5d$ to k :i* !y did n possess4 ,su* holl[ pret5ce ( k met ) uncompromis+ exposure at ! h&s ( ,socrates4 ,) su* p]sons he w\ld op5 ! #aca conv]sation ) a confession ( 8 own ignorance & an expression ( 8 desire to le>n ! wisdom1 :i*1 he knew1 !y possess$4 ,9 _! eag]ness to %[ (f _! k1 !y w\ld1 p]haps1 ru% into ! brea* ) "s v positive ass]tion4 ,socrates w\ld express himself z delight$ ) ?is1 b w\ld add t !re 7 "o or two ?+s ab\t x :i* he did n fully und]/&1 & he w\ld proce$1 ) a few dext]\s que/ions1 to expose ! holl[ness1 ! %all[ness1 or ! ignorance ( ! answ]s4 ,x 0 *iefly ! "y m5 ( ,a!ns :o ga!r$ r\nd ,socrates1 :o 0 = !m a c5tre ( intellectual activity & a f\nta9 ( inspiration4 ,x 0 ?is fact :i* aft]w>ds =m$ ! basis ( ! *>ge t he corrupt$ ! y\?4 ,he 0 a man ( ! noble/ "* & ( ! simple/ life4 ,accept+ no fees1 he acquir$ no weal?4 ,poor1 c>+ no?+ = worldly goods1 :olly indep5d5t ( ! ord9>y ne$s & desires ( m51 he devot$ himself exclusively to ! acquisition ( t :i*1 9 8 eyes1 alone _h value1 wisdom & virtue4 ,he 0 end[$ ) ! utmo/ p[]s ( physical endurance & moral /r5g?4 ,:5 he s]v$ ) ! army 9 ! ,peloponnesian w>1 he a/oni%$ 8 fell[-soldi]s by 8 brav]y1 & 8 *e]ful endurance ( e h>d%ip4 ,on two occasions1 at consid]able risk to himself1 he sav$ ! lives ( 8 companions4 ,at ! battle ( ,delium x is said t ,socrates 0 ! only man :o kept 8 head 9 ! r\t ( ! ,a!nians4 ,he 0 an excell5t companion1 & ?\gh simple 9 8 habits1 & indep5d5t ( all mat]ial pleasures1 nev] made a feti% ( ?is indep5d5ce1 nor all[$ x to deg5]ate into a h>% asceticism1 #acb ,?us1 he ne$$ no w9e1 b yet1 if occasion call$ = x1 he n only drank1 b c\ld dr9k m ?an any o!r man )\t turn+ a hair4 ,9 ! ,banquet ( ,plato1 ,socrates is depict$ sitt+ all night long dr9k+ & talk+ philosophy ) 8 fri5ds4 ,"o by "o ! gue/s succumb$1 leav+ only ,socrates & two o!rs1 & at la/1 z ! dawn broke1 ^! two also fell asleep4 ,b ,socrates got up1 wa%$ himself1 & w5t d[n to ! m>ket place to beg9 8 daily "w4 ,9 8 sev5tie? ye> he 0 tri$ on ?ree *>ges3 7#a7 = d5y+ ! national gods1 7#b7 = sett+ up new gods ( 8 own1 7#c7 = corrupt+ ! y\?4 ,all ^! *>ges 7 entirely baseless4 ,! fir/ might well h be5 br\ght aga9/ almo/ any ( ! e>li] ,greek ?9k]s ) "s ju/ice4 ,mo/ ( !m disbeliev$ 9 ! national religion2 _m ( !m op5ly d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,socrates1 almo/ alone1 _h refra9$ f any su* attitude4 ,on ! contr>y1 he always enjo9$ v5]ation t[>ds ! gods1 & urg$ 8 he>]s1 9 :atev] city !y might be1 to hon\r ! gods accord+ to ! cu/om ( t city4 ,accord+ to ,x5ophon1 h[ev]1 he di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! _m gods & ! "o creator ( ! univ]se1 :o controls1 guides1 & gu>ds ov] ! lives ( m54 ,! second *>ge appe>s to h be5 bas$ ^u ! claim ( ,socrates to be guid$ by a sup]natural inn] voice1 b :atev] we may ?9k ( ?is claim1 x c h>dly con/itute good gr\nd = a *>ge ( introduc+ new gods4 ,! ?ird *>ge1 t ( corrupt+ ! y\?1 0 equally baseless1 ?\gh ! fact t ,alcibiades1 :o _h be5 a fav\rite pupil ( ,socrates1 aft]w>ds turn$ traitor to ,a!ns1 & #acc l$1 moreov]1 a dissolute & unpr9cipl$ life1 no d\bt prejudic$ ! philosoph] 9 ! eyes ( ! ,a!nians4 ,b ,socrates 0 n responsible = ! misde$s ( ,alcibiades1 & 8 g5]al influ5ce ^u ! ,a!nian y\? 0 ! v opposite ( corrupt+4 ,:at !n 7 ! real reasons = ^! accusations8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re is no d\bt t ,socrates _h made _m p]sonal enemies4 ,9 8 daily disputations he _h n sp>$ ev5 ! mo/ p[]ful m5 9 ,a!ns1 b _h ru?lessly laid b>e ! ignorance ( ^? :o pret5d$ to be wise4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no reason to believe t ! ?ree m5 :o actually laid ! *>ges1 ,melitus1 ,lycon1 & ,anytus1 did s out ( any p]sonal animosity4 ,b !y 7 m5 ( /raw1 put =w>d by m p[]ful p]sons :o rema9$ beh9d ! sc5es4 ,9 ! second place1 ,socrates _h r5d]$ himself obnoxi\s to ! ,a!nian democracy4 ,he 0 no ari/ocrat 9 feel+1 nor 0 he a support] ( ! ve/$ int]e/s & privileges ( ! few4 ,b he c\ld n accommodate himself to ! mob-rule :i* !n w5t by ! "n ( democracy4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ! ,/ate1 he believ$1 %\ld be 9 ! h&s ( ! wise1 ! j1 & ! good1 ^? compet5t & tra9$ to gov]n1 & ^! are necess>ily ! few4 ,he himself _h tak5 no "p 9 ! political life ( ! "t1 pref]r+ to guide by 8 influ5ce & advice ! "y m5 on :om "s day ! duties ( ! ,/ate w\ld devolve4 ,on two occasions only did he take an active "p 9 politics1 & on bo? occasions 8 conduct gave great (f5ce4 ,bo? ^! incid5ts are rec\nt$ 9 a passage 9 ,plato's ,apology1 :i* ,i w quote4 ,! #acd fir/ incid5t ref]s to ! aft]ma? ( ! battle ( ,arg9usae4 ,! ,a!nian fleet _h ga9$ a victory "h1 b lo/ tw5ty-five %ips ( w>1 & ! :ole ( ! crews ( ^! %ips 7 dr[n$4 ,?is 0 attribut$ to ! c>elessness ( ! g5]als1 & !re 0 great indignation 9 ,a!ns1 ^u _! return :i!r ! g5]als 7 put ^u _! trial4 ,accord+ to ! law ( ,a!ns ea* accus$ _h to be giv5 a sep>ate trial1 b 9 _! eag]ness to h ! g5]als condemn$1 ! judges 9 ?is in/ance decid$ to try !m all 9 a body4 ,y "k1 m5 ( ,a!ns1 says ,socrates 9 ! ,apology1 t ,i h nev] held any o!r (fice 9 ! ,/ate1 b ,i did s]ve on ! ,c\ncil4 ,& x happ5$ t my tribe1 ,antio*is1 _h ! ,presid5cy at ! "t y decid$ to try ! t5 g5]als :o _h n tak5 up ! dead aft] ! fight at sea4 ,y decid$ to try !m 9 "o body1 contr>y to law1 z y all felt aft]w>ds4 ,on t occasion ,i 0 ! only "o ( ! ,presid5ts :o oppos$ y1 & told y n to break ! law2 & ,i gave my vote aga9/ y2 & :5 ! orators 7 ready to impea* & arre/ me1 & y enc\rag$ !m & hoot$ me1 ,i ?\ght !n t ,i ought to take all ! risks on ! side ( law & ju/ice1 r ?an side ) y1 :5 y\r decisions 7 unju/1 ?r\gh fe> ( imprisonm5t or dea?4 ,t 0 :ile ! city 0 /ill "u ! democracy4 ,:5 ! olig>*y came into p[]1 ! ,?irty1 9 _! turn1 summon$ me ) f\r o!rs to ! ,rotunda1 & comm&$ u to fet* ,leon ( ,salamis f t isl&1 9 ord] to put him to dea?3 ! sort ( comm&s !y (t5 gave to _m o!rs1 anxi\s z !y 7 to incrim9ate all !y c\ld4 ,& on t occasion #ace ,i %[$ n by words only1 t = dea?1 to put x bluntly1 ,i did n c>e "o /raw--b ,i did c>e1 & to ! full1 ab\t do+ :at 0 wick$ & unju/4 ,i 0 n t]rifi$ !n into do+ wrong by t gov]nm5t 9 all its p[]2 :5 we left ! ,rotunda1 ! o!r f\r w5t (f to ,salamis & br\ght ,leon back1 b ,i w5t home4 ,& probably ,i %\ld h be5 put to dea? = x1 if ! gov]nm5t _h n be5 ov]?r[n soon aft]w>ds4 ,b !re 0 a ?ird1 & great] reason1 = ! condemnation ( ,socrates4 ,^! *>ges 7 br\ght aga9/ him because ! popul> m9d confus$ him ) ! ,sophi/s4 ,?is 0 entirely absurd1 because ,socrates 9 no respect resembl$ ! ,sophi/s1 ei!r 9 ! mann] ( 8 life or 9 ! t5d5cy ( 8 ?\ght1 :i* 0 :olly anti-sophi/ical4 ,b t su* a confusion did exi/ 9 ! popul> m9d is cle>ly prov$ by ,! ,cl\ds ( ,ari/ophanes4 ,ari/ophanes 0 a reaction>y 9 ?\ght & politics1 &1 hat+ ! ,sophi/s z ! repres5tatives ( mod]nism1 he lampoon$ !m 9 8 com$y1 ,! ,cl\ds4 ,socrates appe>s 9 ! play z ! c5tral "*1 & ! *ief ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,?is 0 entirely unju/1 b x af=ds evid5ce ( ! fact t ,socrates 0 commonly mi/ak5 = a ,sophi/ by ! ,a!nians4 ,ari/ophanes w\ld n h v5tur$ to introduce su* a delusion into 8 play1 _h 8 audi5ce n %>$ 9 x4 ,n[ at ?is "t a wave ( reaction 0 pass+ ov] ,a!ns1 & !re 0 great indignation aga9/ ! ,sophi/s1 :o 7 rightly suppos$ to be ov]turn+ all ideals ( tru? & goodness4 ,socrates fell a victim to ! ang] ( ! populace aga9/ ! ,sophi/s4 #acf ,at ! trial ,socrates conduct$ himself ) dignity & confid5ce4 ,x 0 usual 9 ^? days = an accus$ p]son to weep & lam5t1 to flatt] ! judges1 to seek indulg5ce by grovell+ & fawn+1 to appeal = pity by p>ad+ 8 wife & *ildr5 9 ! c\rt4 ,socrates refus$ to d any ( ^! ?+s1 consid]+ !m unmanly4 ,8 def5ce 01 inde$1 n s mu* a def5ce ( himself z an arraignm5t ( 8 judges1 ! p ( ,a!ns1 = _! corruption & vice4 ,?is attitude ( ,socrates c]ta9ly br\ght ab\t 8 condemnation4 ,!re is e reason to believe t if he _h adopt$ a grovell+1 ev5 a conciliatory tone1 he w\ld h be5 acquitt$4 ,z x 01 he 0 f\nd guilty by a b>e majority4 ,! law enact$ t1 :5 ! *>ge 0 prov$1 ^? :o _h br\ght ! accusation %\ld fir/ propose ! p5alty :i* !y ?\ght fitt+2 !n ! accus$ himself %\ld propose an alt]native p5alty4 ,x 0 = ! judges to decide :i* ( ! two %\ld be inflict$4 ,! accus]s ( ,socrates propos$ ! dea?-p5alty4 ,"h aga9 ,socrates might h escap$ by propos+ at once "s petty puni%m5t4 ,?is w\ld h satisfi$ ! p1 :o 7 only anxi\s to score (f ! tr\blesome philosoph] & p$ant4 ,b ,socrates pr\dly affirm$ t1 z he 0 guilty ( no crime1 he des]v$ no puni%m5t4 ,to propose a p5alty w\ld be to admit 8 guilt4 ,f> f be+ a guilty p]son1 he consid]$ himself 9 ! light ( a public b5efactor1 & z su*1 if he 7 to get 8 des]ts1 he propos$ t he %\ld be publicly hon\r$ by be+ giv5 a seat at ! ,presid5t's table4 ,nev]!less1 z ! law =c$ him to propose a p5alty1 he w\ld1 )\t prejudice to 8 #acg plea ( innoc5ce1 sugge/ a f9e ( ?irty m9as4 ,?is conduct s exasp]at$ ! judges t he 0 n[ condemn$ to dea? by a l>ge majority1 ab\t eighty ( ^? :o _h previ\sly vot$ = 8 acquittal n[ vot+ = 8 execution4 ,?irty days elaps$ be=e he 0 execut$1 & ^! days 7 sp5t 9 prison4 ,8 fri5ds1 :o _h free access to him1 urg$ him to escape4 ,^! ?+s 7 possible 9 ,a!ns4 ,anaxagoras _h app>5tly escap$ ) ! help ( ,p]icles4 ,a little silv] 9 ! h&s ( ! jailgu>ds w\ld probably h settl$ ! matt]4 ,socrates c\ld fly to ,!ssaly1 :]e ! law c\ld n rea* him1 z ,anaxagoras _h fl$ to ,ionia4 ,b ,socrates /eadily refus$1 say+ t to flee f dea? 0 c[>dly1 & t "o ought to obey ! laws4 ,! law _h decre$ 8 dea?1 & he mu/ obey4 ,aft] ?irty days1 !re=e1 ! poison cup 0 br\ght to him1 & he drank x )\t fl9*+4 ,"h is ,plato's acc\nt ( ! dea? ( ,socrates1 :i* ,i quote f ! ,pha$o4 ,9 detail x _c be consid]$ hi/orical1 b we may well believe t ! ma9 incid5ts z well z ! picture x gives u ( ! be>+ & demean\r ( ! philosoph] 9 8 la/ mom5ts1 are accurate repres5tations ( ! facts4 ,he rose & w5t into a *amb] to ba!1 & ,crito foll[$ him1 b he direct$ u to wait = him4 ,we wait$1 !re=e1 conv]s+ among ourselves ab\t :at _h be5 said1 & consid]+ x aga91 & sometimes speak+ ab\t our calamity1 h[ sev]e x w\ld be to u1 s9c]ely ?9k+ t1 l ^? :o are depriv$ ( a fa!r1 we %\ld pass ! re/ ( our lives z orphans4 ,:5 he _h ba!d & 8 #ach *ildr5 7 br\ght to him1 = he _h two little sons & "o gr[n up1 & ! wom5 belong+ to 8 family 7 come1 hav+ conv]s$ ) !m 9 ! pres5ce ( ,crito1 & giv5 !m su* injunctions z he wi%$1 he direct$ ! wom5 & *ildr5 to g away1 & !n return$ to u4 ,& x 0 n[ ne> sunset2 = he sp5t a consid]able "t )94 ,b :5 he came f ba?+ he sat d[n & did n speak mu* aft]w>ds3 !n ! (fic] ( ! ,elev5 came 9 & /&+ ne> him said1 ',socrates1 ,i %all n h to f9d t fault ) y t ,i d ) ! o!rs1 t !y are angry ) me1 & curse me1 :51 by ord] ( ! ar*ons1 ,i bid !m dr9k ! poison4 ,b y1 on all o!r occasions dur+ ! "t y h be5 "h1 ,i h f\nd to be ! mo/ noble1 meek & excell5t man ( all t ev] came into ?is place2 &1 !re=e1 ,i am n[ well conv9c$ t y w n be angry ) me4 ,n[1 !n1 = y "k :at ,i came to ann\nce to y1 f>ewell1 & endeav\r to be> :at is inevitable z easily z possible4' ,& at ! same "t1 bur/+ into te>s1 he turn$ away & )drew4 ,& ,socrates1 look+ aft] him1 said1 ',& ?\ too1 f>ewell1 we w d z y direct4' ,at ! same "t1 turn+ to u he said ',h[ c\rte\s ! man is2 dur+ ! :ole "t ,i h be5 "h he has visit$ me1 & conv]s$ ) me sometimes1 & prov$ ! wor?ie/ ( m52 & h[ g5]\sly he weeps = me4 ,b come1 ,crito1 let u obey him & let "s "o br+ ! poison1 if x is ready p\nd$1 b if n let ! man p\nd x4' ,!n ,crito said1 ',b ,i ?9k1 ,socrates1 t ! sun is /ill on ! m\nta9s1 & has n yet set4 ,besides1 #aci ,i "k t o!rs h drunk ! poison v late1 aft] x _h be5 ann\nc$ to !m1 & h supp$ & drunk freely1 & "s ev5 h enjoy$ ! objects ( _! love4 ,d n ha/5 !m1 = !re is yet "t4' ,^u ?is ,socrates repli$1 ',^! m5 :om y m5tion1 ,crito1 d ^! ?+s ) good reason1 = !y ?9k !y %all ga9 by s do+1 & ,i too ) good reason1 %all n d s2 = ,i ?9k ,i %all ga9 no?+ by dr9k+ a little lat]1 except to become ridicul\s to myself1 9 be+ s fond ( life1 & sp>+ ( x :5 none any long] rema9s4 ,g !n1' he said1 'obey1 & d n resi/4' ,crito hav+ he>d ?is1 nodd$ to ! boy t /ood ne>4 ,& ! boy hav+ gone out1 & /ay$ = "s "t1 came1 br++ ) him ! man t 0 to adm9i/] ! poison1 :o br\ght x ready p\nd$ 9 a cup4 ,& ,socrates1 on see+ ! man1 said1 ',well1 my good fri5d1 z y are skill$ 9 ^! matt]s1 :at mu/ ,i d8' ',no?+ else1' he repli$1 '?an :5 y h drunk x walk ab\t1 until !re is a heav9ess 9 y\r legs1 !n lie d[n2 ?us x w d its purpose4' ,& at ! same "t he held out ! cup to ,socrates4 ,& he hav+ receiv$ x v *e]fully1 ,e*ecrates1 nei!r trembl+1 nor *ang+ at all 9 col\r or c\nt5ance1 b1 z he 0 wont1 look+ /eadfa/ly at ! man1 said1 ':at say y ( ?is potion1 ) respect to mak+ a libation to anyone1 is x lawful or n8' ',we only p\nd s mu*1 ,socrates1' he said1 'z we ?9k suffici5t to dr9k4' ',i und]/& y1' he said1 'b x is c]ta9ly bo? lawful & "r to pray to ! gods t my dep>ture h5ce ?i!r may be happy2 :i* !re=e ,i pray1 & s #adj may x be4' ,& z he said ?is he drank x (f readily & calmly4 ,?us f>1 mo/ ( u 7 ) difficulty able to re/ra9 ourselves f weep+1 b :5 we saw him dr9k+1 & hav+ f9i%$ ! draught1 we c\ld d s no long]2 b 9 spite ( myself ! te>s came 9 full torr5t1 s t1 cov]+ my face1 ,i wept = myself1 = ,i did n weep = him1 b = my own =tune1 9 be+ depriv$ ( su* a fri5d4 ,b ,crito1 ev5 be=e me1 :5 he c\ld n re/ra9 8 te>s1 _h ris5 up4 ,b ,apollodorus ev5 be=e ?is _h n ceas$ weep+1 & !n1 bur/+ into an agony ( grief1 weep+ & lam5t+1 he pi]c$ ! he>t ( ev]yone pres5t1 except ,socrates himself4 ,b he said4 ',:at are y do+1 my admirable fri5ds8 ,i inde$1 = ?is reason *iefly1 s5t away ! wom51 t !y might n commit any folly ( ?is k9d4 ,= ,i h he>d t x is "r to die ) good om5s4 ,be quiet1 !re=e1 & be> up4' ,:5 we he>d ?is we 7 a%am$1 & re/ra9$ our te>s4 ,b he1 hav+ walk$ ab\t1 :5 he said t 8 legs 7 gr[+ heavy1 lay d[n on 8 back2 = ! man s direct$ him4 ,& at ! same "t he :o gave him ! poison1 tak+ hold ( him1 aft] a %ort int]val exam9$ 8 feet & legs2 & !n hav+ press$ 8 foot h>d1 he ask$ if he felt x2 he said t he did n4 ,& aft] ?is he press$ 8 ?ighs2 & ?us go+ high] he %[$ u t he 0 gr[+ cold & /iff4 ,!n ,socrates t\*$ himself1 & said t :5 ! poison rea*$ 8 he>t he %\ld !n dep>t4 ,b n[ ! p>ts ar\nd ! l[] belly 7 almo/ cold2 :5 uncov]+ himself1 = he _h be5 cov]$ ov]1 he said2 & !y 7 8 #ada la/ words4 ',crito1 we owe a cock to ,a,esculapius2 pay x1 !re=e1 & d n neglect x4' ',x %all be done1' said ,crito1 'b consid] :e!r y h any?+ else to say4' ,to ?is "q he gave no reply2 b %ortly aft] he gave a convulsive movem5t1 & ! man cov]$ him1 & 8 eyes 7 fix$1 & ,crito1 p]ceiv+ x1 clos$ 8 m\? & eyes4 ,?is1 ,e*ecrates1 0 ! end ( our fri5d1 a man1 z we may say1 ! be/ ( all ( 8 "t t we h kn[n1 & moreov]1 ! mo/ wise & j4 ,our k ( ! tea*+ ( ,socrates is d]iv$ *iefly f two s\rces1 ,plato & ,x5ophon1 = ! peculi>ities ( ea* ( :om all[ances mu/ be made4 ,plato 9 8 dialogues makes ,socrates ! m\?piece ( 8 own tea*+1 consequ5tly ! majority ( ! t5ets to :i* ,socrates is made to give expression are purely ,platonic doctr9es ( :i* ! hi/orical ,socrates c\ld nev] ev5 h dream$4 ,x might1 !re=e1 seem at fir/ sight t !re is no possibility ( asc]ta9+ f ,plato's dialogues any tru/wor?y acc\nt ( ! ideas ( ,socrates4 ,b on clos] inspection ?is does n turn out to be correct1 because ! e>li] dialogues ( ,plato 7 writt5 be=e he _h develop$ 8 own philosophy1 & :5 he 01 to all int5ts & purposes1 simply a disciple ( ,socrates1 b5t only ^u giv+ ! be/ expression to ! ,socratic doctr9e4 ,ev5 9 ^! ,socratic dialogues1 h[ev]1 we h :at is no d\bt an idealiz$ portrait ( ,socrates4 ,plato makes no pret5ce ( be+ m]ely a biograph] or hi/orian4 ,! incid5ts & conv]sation1 al?\gh !y are no d\bt frequ5tly f\nd$ ^u facts1 are1 9 ! #adb ma91 imag9>y4 ,all we c say is t !y conta9 ! gi/ & sub/ance ( ! philosophy ( ,socrates4 ,! o!r s\rce1 ,x5ophon1 also has 8 peculi>ities4 ,if ,plato 0 an idealiz+ philosoph]1 ,x5ophon 0 a prosaic & matt] ( fact man ( affairs4 ,he 0 a pla91 hone/ soldi]4 ,he _h no great insight into any philosophy1 ,socratic or o!rwise4 ,he 0 n atta*$ to ,socrates prim>ily z a philosoph]1 b z an admir] ( 8 "* & p]sonality4 ,if ,plato puts ! tea*+ ( ,socrates too high1 ,x5ophon puts x too l[4 ,b1 9 spite ( ?is1 ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia conta9s a mass ( valuable in=mation bo? ab\t ! life & ! philosophical ideas ( ,socrates4 ,! ,socratic tea*+ is ess5tially e?ical 9 "*4 ,9 ?is alone did ,socrates be> any resemblance to ! ,sophi/s4 ,x 0 ! ,sophi/s :o _h introduc$ into ,greek philosophy ! problem ( man1 & ( ! duties ( man4 ,& to ^! problems ,socrates also turns 8 exclusive att5tion4 ,he bru%es aside all que/ions z to ! orig9 ( ! _w1 or ! nature ( ! ultimate reality1 ( :i* we h he>d s mu* 9 ! philosophies ( ! e>li] ?9k]s4 ,socrates op5ly deprecat$ su* speculations & consid]$ all su* k comp>atively wor?less z aga9/ e?ical k1 ! k ( man4 ,ma!matics1 physics1 & a/ronomy1 he ?\ght1 7 n valuable =ms ( k4 ,he said t he nev] w5t = walks outside ! city1 because !re is no?+ to be le>nt f fields & trees4 ,nev]!less ! e?ical tea*+ ( ,socrates 0 f\nd$ ^u a !ory ( k1 :i* is q simple1 b extremely important4 ,! ,sophi/s _h f\nd$ k ^u p]ception1 ) ! result #adc t all objective /&>ds ( tru? _h be5 de/roy$4 ,x 0 ! "w ( ,socrates to f\nd k ^u reason1 & !reby to re/ore to tru? its objectivity4 ,briefly1 ! !ory ( ,socrates may be summ>iz$ by say+ t he taught t all k is k ?r\gh concepts4 ,:at is a concept8 ,:5 we are directly consci\s ( ! pres5ce ( any p>ticul> ?+1 a man1 a tree1 a h\se1 or a />1 su* consci\sness is call$ p]ception4 ,:51 %utt+ our eyes1 we frame a m5tal picture ( su* an object1 su* consci\sness is call$ an image or repres5tation4 ,su* m5tal images are1 l p]ceptions1 always ideas ( p>ticul> individual objects4 ,b besides ^! ideas ( individual objects1 :e!r ?r\gh s5se-p]ception or imag9ation1 we h also g5]al ideas1 t is to say1 n ideas ( any p>ticul> ?+1 b ideas ( :ole classes ( ?+s4 ,if ,i say ,socrates is mortal1 ,i am ?9k+ ( ! individual1 ,socrates4 ,b if ,i say ,man is mortal1 ,i am ?9k+1 n ( any p>ticul> man1 b ( ! class ( m5 9 g5]al4 ,su* an idea is call$ a g5]al idea1 or a concept4 ,all class-names1 su* z man1 tree1 h\se1 riv]1 animal1 horse1 be+1 :i* /&1 n = "o ?+1 b = a multitude ( ?+s1 repres5t concepts4 ,we =m ^! g5]al ideas by includ+ 9 !m all ! qualities :i* ! :ole class ( objects has 9 common1 & exclud+ f !m all ! qualities 9 :i* !y diff]1 t is to say1 ! qualities :i* "s ( ! objects possess1 b o!rs d n4 ,= example1 ,i _c include ! quality :it5ess 9 my g5]al idea ( horses1 because1 ?\gh "s horses are :ite1 o!rs are n4 ,b ,i c include ! quality v]tebrate because all horses agree 9 be+ v]tebrate4 ,?us a #add concept is =m$ by br++ toge!r ! ideas 9 :i* all ! memb]s ( a class ( objects agree ) "o ano!r1 & neglect+ ! ideas 9 :i* !y diff]4 ,n[ reason is ! faculty ( concepts4 ,?is may n1 at fir/ sight1 be obvi\s4 ,reason1 x might be object$1 is ! faculty ( argu+1 ( draw+ conclusions f premises4 ,b a little consid]ation w %[ u t1 ?\gh ?is is s1 yet all reason+ is employ$ ^u concepts4 ,all reason+ is ei!r d$uctive or inductive4 ,induction consi/s 9 ! =mulation ( g5]al pr9ciples f p>ticul> cases4 ,a g5]al pr9ciple is always a /atem5t made1 n ab\t a p>ticul> ?+1 b ab\t a :ole class ( ?+s1 t is1 ab\t a concept4 ,concepts are =m$ inductively by comp>+ num]\s examples ( a class4 ,d$uctive reason+ is always ! opposite process ( apply+ g5]al pr9ciples to p>ticul> cases4 ,if we argue t ,socrates mu/ be mortal because all m5 are s1 ! "q is :e!r ,socrates is a man1 t is to say1 :e!r ! concept1 man1 is prop]ly appli$ to ! p>ticul> object call$ ,socrates4 ,?us inductive reason+ is conc]n$ ) ! =mation ( concepts1 d$uctive reason+ ) ! application ( !m4 ,socrates1 9 plac+ all k 9 concepts1 0 ?us mak+ reason ! organ ( k4 ,?is 0 9 direct opposition to ! pr9ciple ( ! ,sophi/s1 :o plac$ all k 9 s5se-p]ception4 ,n[ s9ce reason is ! univ]sal elem5t 9 man1 x foll[s t ,socrates1 9 id5tify+ k ) concepts1 0 re/or+ ! belief 9 an objective tru?1 valid = all m51 & b9d+ ^u all m51 & 0 de/roy+ ! ,sophi/ic tea*+ t ! tru? is :atev] ea* #ade individual *ooses to ?9k x is4 ,we %all see ?is m cle>ly if we reflect t a concept is ! same ?+ z a def9ition4 ,if we wi% to def9e any ^w1 = example1 ! ^w man1 we mu/ include 9 our def9ition only ! qualities :i* all m5 h 9 common4 ,we _c1 = example1 def9e man z a :ite-sk9n$ animal1 because all m5 are n :ite-sk9n$4 ,simil>ly we _c include ,engli%-speak+ 9 our def9ition1 because1 ?\gh "s m5 speak ,engli%1 o!rs d n4 ,b we might include su* a quality z two-legg$1 because two-legg$ is a quality common to all human be+s1 except m]e ab]rations & di/ortions ( ! normal type4 ,?us a def9ition is =m$ 9 ! same way z a concept1 namely1 by includ+ ! common qualities ( a class ( objects1 & exclud+ ! qualities 9 :i* ! memb]s ( ! class diff]4 ,a def9ition1 9 fact1 is m]ely ! expression ( a concept 9 words4 ,n[ by ! process ( fix+ def9itions we obta9 objective /&>ds ( tru?4 ,if1 = example1 we fix ! def9ition ( a triangle1 !n we c comp>e any geometrical figure ) x1 & say :e!r x is a triangle or n4 ,x is no long] op5 to anyone to decl>e t :atev] he *ooses to call a triangle is a triangle4 ,simil>ly1 if we fix ^u a def9ition ( ! ^w man1 we c !n comp>e any object ) t def9ition1 & say :e!r x is a man or n4 ,aga91 if we c decide :at ! prop] concept ( virtue is1 !n ! "q :e!r any p>ticul> act is virtu\s c only be decid$ by comp>+ t act ) ! concept1 & see+ if !y agree4 ,! ,sophi/ c no long] say1 :atev] seems to me "r1 is "r = me4 ,:atev] ,i *oose to d is virtu\s = me4 ,8 act mu/ be judg$1 n by #adf 8 subjective impressions1 b by ! concept or def9ition1 :i* is ?us an objective /&>d ( tru?1 indep5d5t ( ! individual4 ,?is1 !n1 0 ! !ory ( k prop\nd$ by ,socrates4 ,k1 he said1 is n ! same ?+ z ! s5sations ( ! individual1 :i* w\ld mean t ea* individual c "n z ! tru? :atev] he pleases4 ,k means k ( ?+s z !y objectively are1 indep5d5tly ( ! individual1 & su* k is k ( ! concepts ( ?+s4 ,!re=e ! philosophiz+ ( ,socrates consi/$ almo/ exclusively 9 try+ to frame prop] concepts4 ,he w5t ab\t enquir+1 ,:at is virtue8 ,:at is prud5ce8 ,:at is temp]ance8--mean+ !reby :at are ! true concepts or def9itions ( ^! ?+s8 ,9 ?is way he attempt$ to f9d a basis = believ+ 9 an objectively real tru? & an objectively real moral law4 ,8 me?od ( =m+ concepts 0 by induction4 ,he w\ld take common examples ( actions :i* are univ]sally admitt$ to be prud5t1 & w\ld attempt to f9d ! quality :i* !y all h 9 common1 & by virtue ( :i* !y are all class$ toge!r1 & s =m ! concept ( prud5ce4 ,!n he w\ld br+ up fre% examples1 & see :e!r !y agre$ ) ! concept s =m$4 ,if n1 ! concept might h to be correct$ 9 ! light ( ! new examples4 ,b ! ,socratic !ory ( k 0 n a !ory put =w>d = its own sake1 b = practical ends4 ,socrates always made !ory subs]vi5t to practice4 ,he want$ to "k :at ! concept ( virtue is1 only 9 ord] to practise virtue 9 life4 ,& ?is br+s u to ! c5tral po9t ( ! e?ical tea*+ ( ,socrates1 #adg :i* 0 ! id5tification ( virtue ) k4 ,socrates believ$ t a man _c act rightly1 unless he fir/ kn[s :at is "r1 unless1 9 fact1 he kn[s ! concept ( "r4 ,moral action is ?us f\nd$ ^u k1 & mu/ spr+ f x4 ,b n only did ,socrates ?9k t if a man has n k1 he _c d "r4 ,he also put =w>d ! mu* m d\btful ass]tion t if a man possesses k1 he _c d wrong4 ,all wrong-do+ arises f ignorance4 ,if a man only kn[s :at is "r1 he mu/ & w infallibly d :at is "r4 ,all m5 seek ! good1 b m5 diff] z to :at ! good is4 ,no man1 said ,socrates1 int5tionally does wrong4 ,he does wrong1 because he does n "k ! true concept ( "r1 & be+ ignorant1 ?9ks t :at he is do+ is good4 ,if a man int5tionally does wrong1 said ,socrates aga91 he is bett] ?an a man :o does s un9t5tionally4 ,= ! =m] has 9 him ! ess5tial condition ( goodness1 k ( :at goodness is1 b ! latt]1 lack+ t k1 is hopeless4 ,ari/otle1 9 comm5t+ ^u ?is :ole doctr9e1 obs]v$ t ,socrates _h ignor$ or =gott5 ! irrational p>ts ( ! s\l4 ,socrates imag9$ t ev]ybody's actions are gov]n$ solely by reason1 & t !re=e if only !y reason$ aright1 !y mu/ d "r4 ,he =got t ! majority ( m5's actions are gov]n$ by passions & emotions1 ! irrational p>ts ( ! s\l4 ,ari/otle's criticism ( ,socrates is unansw]able4 ,all exp]i5ce %[s t m5 d delib]ately d wrong1 t1 kn[+ well :at is "r1 !y nev]!less d wrong4 ,b x is easy to see :y ,socrates made ?is mi/ake2 he 0 argu+ only f #adh 8 own case4 ,socrates really does appe> to h be5 above human weakness4 ,he 0 n guid$ by passions1 b by reason1 & x foll[$ z ! night foll[s ! day1 t if ,socrates knew :at 0 "r1 he did x4 ,he 0 unable to und]/& h[ m51 kn[+ ! "r1 c\ld yet d ! wrong4 ,if !y are vici\s1 he ?\ght1 x mu/ be because !y d n "k :at is "r4 ,! criticism ( ,ari/otle is ?us ju/ifi$4 ,yet = all t1 ! !ory ( ,socrates is n to be too quickly bru%$ aside4 ,!re is m tru? 9 x ?an appe>s at fir/ sight4 ,we say t a man believes "o ?+ & does ano!r4 ,yet x is a matt] ( "q :at a man really believes1 & :at is ! te/ ( 8 belief4 ,m5 g to *ur* e ,sunday1 & !re repeat =mulas & pray]s1 ( :i* ! ma9 idea is t all e>?ly ri*es are wor?less 9 comp>ison ) spiritual treasures4 ,su* m51 if ask$1 might tell u t !y believe ?is to be true4 ,!y believe t !y believe x4 ,& yet 9 actual life1 p]haps1 !y seek only = e>?ly ri*es1 & behave z if !y ?\ght ^! ! supreme good4 ,:at d su* m5 really believe8 ,d !y believe z !y speak1 or z !y act8 ,is x n at lea/ arguable t !y are really pursu+ :at !y believe to be good1 & t1 if !y 7 g5u9ely conv9c$ ( ! sup]iority ( spiritual treasures1 !y w\ld seek !m1 & n mat]ial ri*es8 ,?is at lea/ is :at ,socrates ?\ght4 ,all m5 seek ! good1 b ! _m d n "k :at ! good is4 ,!re is c]ta9ly tru? 9 ?is 9 _m cases1 ?\gh 9 o!rs !re c be no d\bt t m5 d delib]ately :at !y "k to be evil4 ,!re are two o!r *>act]i/ic ,socratic propositions #adi :i* fl[ f ! same g5]al idea1 t virtue is id5tical ) k4 ,! fir/ is1 t virtue c be taught4 ,we d n ord9>ily ?9k t virtue c be taught l ari?metic4 ,we ?9k t virtue dep5ds ^u a numb] ( factors1 prom95t among :i* are ! inborn disposition ( a man1 h]$ity1 environm5t1 modifi$ to "s ext5t by education1 practice1 & habit4 ,! consequ5ce is t a man's "* does n *ange v mu* z he gr[s old]4 ,by con/ant practice1 by cont9ual self-control1 a man may1 to "s ext5t1 make himself bett]1 b on ! :ole1 :at he is he rema9s4 ,! leop>d1 we say1 does n *ange 8 spots4 ,b z1 = ,socrates1 ! sole condition ( virtue is k1 & z k is j :at c be imp>t$ by tea*+1 x foll[$ t virtue mu/ be tea*able4 ,! only difficulty is to f9d ! tea*]1 to f9d "s "o :o kn[s ! concept ( virtue4 ,:at ! concept ( virtue is--t is1 ?\ght ,socrates1 ! preci\s piece ( k1 :i* no philosoph] has ev] discov]$1 & :i*1 if x 7 only discov]$1 c\ld at once be imp>t$ by tea*+1 :]eupon m5 w\ld at once become virtu\s4 ,! o!r ,socraticism is t virtue is "o4 ,we talk ( _m virtues1 temp]ance1 prud5ce1 =esight1 b5evol5ce1 k9dness1 etc4 ,socrates believ$ t all ^! p>ticul> virtues fl[$ f ! "o s\rce1 k4 ,!re=e k itself1 t is to say1 wisdom1 is ! sole virtue1 & ?is includes all ! o!rs4 ,?is completes ! exposition ( ! positive tea*+ ( ,socrates4 ,x only rema9s = u to consid] :at position ,socrates holds 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,!re are two sides ( ! ,socratic tea*+4 ,9 ! fir/ #aej place1 !re is ! doctr9e ( k1 t all k is ?r\gh concepts4 ,?is is ! sci5tific side ( ! philosophy ( ,socrates4 ,secondly1 !re is 8 e?ical tea*+4 ,n[ ! ess5tial & important side ( ,socrates is und\bt$ly ! sci5tific !ory ( concepts4 ,x is ?is :i* gives him 8 position 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,8 e?ical ideas1 sugge/ive z !y 71 7 yet all ta9t$ ) ! fallacy t m5 are gov]n$ only by reason4 ,h5ce !y h ex]cis$ no great influ5ce on ! hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,b ! !ory ( concepts work$ a revolution 9 philosophy4 ,^u a developm5t ( x is f\nd$ ! :ole ( ,plato's philosophy1 &1 ?r\gh ,plato1 ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle1 &1 inde$1 all subsequ5t idealism4 ,! imm$iate effect ( ?is !ory1 h[ev]1 0 ! de/ruction ( ! tea*+ ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,! ,sophi/s taught ! doctr9e t tru? is s5se-p]ception1 & z ! p]ceptions ( diff]5t individuals diff] 9 reg>d to ! same object1 x foll[$ t tru? became a matt] ( ta/e ) ! individual4 ,?is und]m9$ all belief 9 tru? z an objective reality1 &1 by simil> reason+1 fai? 9 ! objectivity ( ! moral law 0 also de/roy$4 ,! ess5tial position ( ,socrates is t ( a re/or] ( fai?4 ,8 greatness lay 9 ! fact t he saw t ! only way to combat ! disa/r\s results ( ! ,sophi/ic tea*+ 0 to refute ! fundam5tal assumption f :i* all t tea*+ fl[$1 ! assumption1 namely1 t k is p]ception4 ,aga9/ ?is1 !re=e1 ,socrates oppos$ ! doctr9e t k is ?r\gh concepts4 ,to base k ^u concepts is to base x ^u ! univ]sality ( reason1 & !re=e to re/ore x f ! #aea position ( a subjective seem+ to t ( an objective reality4 ,b ?\gh ,socrates is ?us a re/or] ( fai?1 we mu/ n imag9e t 8 ?\ght is !re=e a m]e retrogression to ! intellectual condition ( pre-,sophi/ic times4 ,x 01 on ! contr>y1 an advance beyond ! ,sophi/s4 ,we h "h1 9 fact1 an example ( :at is ! normal developm5t ( all ?\ght1 :e!r 9 ! individual or ! race4 ,! movem5t ( ?\ght exhibits ?ree /ages4 ,! fir/ /age is positive belief1 n f\nd$ ^u reason2 x is m]ely conv5tional belief4 ,at ! second /age ?\ght becomes de/ructive & sceptical4 ,x d5ies :at 0 affirm$ 9 ! previ\s /age4 ,! ?ird /age is ! re/oration ( positive belief n[ f\nd$ ^u ! concept1 ^u reason1 & n m]ely ^u cu/om4 ,be=e ! "t ( ! ,sophi/s1 m5 took x = grant$ t tru? & goodness are objective realities2 nobody specially affirm$ x1 because nobody d5i$ x4 ,x seem$ obvi\s4 ,x 01 ?us1 n believ$ on rational gr\nds1 b ?r\gh cu/om & habit4 ,?is1 ! fir/ /age ( ?\ght1 we may call ! era ( simple fai?4 ,:5 ! ,sophi/s came ^u ! sc5e1 !y br\ght reason & ?\ght to be> ^u :at _h hi!rto be5 accept$ z a matt] ( c\rse1 namely law1 cu/om1 & au?ority4 ,! fir/ encroa*m5t ( reason ^u simple fai? is always de/ructive1 & h5ce ! ,sophi/s und]m9$ all ideals ( goodness & tru?4 ,socrates is ! re/or] ( ^! ideals1 b ) him !y are no long] ! ideals ( simple fai?2 !y are ! ideals ( reason4 ,!y are bas$ ^u reason4 ,socrates sub/itut$ compreh5d+ belief = un9tellig5t ass5t4 ,we may contra/ him1 9 ?is #aeb respect1 ) ,ari/ophanes4 ,ari/ophanes1 ! cons]vative1 ! believ] 9 ! good old times1 saw1 z cle>ly z ,socrates1 ! disa/r\s effects work$ by ! ,sophi/s ^u public morals4 ,b ! rem$y he propos$ 0 a viol5t return to ! good old times4 ,s9ce x 0 ?\ght :i* work$ ^! ill effects1 ?\ght mu/ be suppress$4 ,we mu/ g back to simple fai?4 ,b simple fai?1 once de/roy$ by ?\ght1 nev] returns ei!r to ! individual1 or to ! race4 ,?is c no m happ5 ?an a man c aga9 become a *ild4 ,!re is only "o rem$y = ! ills ( ?\ght1 & t is1 m ?\ght4 ,if ?\ght1 9 its fir/ inroads1 leads1 z x always does1 to scepticism & d5ial1 ! only c\rse is1 n to suppress ?\ght1 b to f\nd fai? ^u x4 ,?is 0 ! me?od ( ,socrates1 & x is ! me?od1 too1 ( all great spirits4 ,!y are n fright5$ ( %ad[s4 ,!y h fai? 9 reason4 ,if reason leads !m into ! d>kness1 !y d n scuttle back 9 fright4 ,!y advance till ! light comes aga94 ,!y are false tea*]s :o c\nsel u to give no he$ to ! prompt+s ( reason1 if reason br+s d\bt into our beliefs4 ,?\ght _c be ?us suppress$4 ,reason has rights ^u u z rational be+s4 ,we _c g back4 ,we mu/ g on1 & make our beliefs rational4 ,we mu/ f\nd !m ^u ! concept1 z ,socrates did4 ,socrates did n d5y ! pr9ciple ( ! ,sophi/s t all in/itutions1 all ideals1 all exi/+ & e/abli%$ ?+s mu/ ju/ify !mselves be=e ! tribunal ( reason4 ,he accept$ ?is )\t "q4 ,he took up ! *all5ge ( ?\ght1 & won ! battle ( reason 9 8 day4 ,! ,sophi/s br\ght to light ! pr9ciple ( subjectivity1 ! pr9ciple t ! tru? mu/ be my tru?1 #aec & ! "r my "r4 ,!y mu/ be ! products ( my own ?9k+1 n /&>ds =cibly impos$ ^u me f )\t4 ,b ! mi/ake ( ! ,sophi/s 0 to imag9e t ! tru? mu/ be m9e1 m]ely 9 my capacity z a p]cipi5t creature ( s5se1 :i* means t ,i h a private tru? ( my own4 ,socrates correct$ ?is by admitt+ t ! tru? mu/ be my tru?1 b m9e 9 my capacity z a rational be+1 :i* means1 s9ce reason is ! univ]sal1 t x is n my private tru?1 b univ]sal tru? :i* is %>$ by & valid = all rational be+s4 ,tru? is ?us e/abli%$ z be+ n m]e subjective appe>ance1 b objective reality1 indep5d5t ( ! s5sations1 :ims1 & self-w ( ! individual4 ,! :ole p]iod ( ,socrates & ! ,sophi/s is full ( in/ruction4 ,its ess5tial lesson is t to d5y ! supremacy ( reason1 to set up any o!r process ( consci\sness above reason1 mu/ inevitably end 9 scepticism & ! d5ial ( ! objectivity ( tru? & morality4 ,_m !osophi/s & o!rs1 at ! pres5t day1 tea* ! doctr9e ( :at !y call intuition4 ,! supreme k9d ( religi\s k1 !y ?9k1 is to be rea*$ by intuition1 :i* is conceiv$ z some?+ high] ?an reason4 ,b ?is is simply to make ! mi/ake ( ,protagoras ov] aga94 ,x is true t ?is s-call$ intuition is n m]ely s5se-p]ception1 z 0 ! case ) ,protagoras4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a =m ( imm$iate spiritual p]ception4 ,x is imm$iate appreh5sion ( ! object z be+ pres5t to me1 z hav+ !r5ess4 ,x is !re=e ( ! nature ( p]ception4 ,x is spiritual & sup]-s5su\s1 z oppos$ to mat]ial & s5su\s1 p]ception4 ,b x makes no diff]5ce at all :e!r p]ception is s5su\s #aed or sup]-s5su\s4 ,to place ! tru? 9 any sort ( p]ception is1 9 pr9ciple1 to d z ,protagoras did1 to yield oneself up a helpless prey to ! subjective impressions ( ! individual4 ,i intuit "o ?+2 ano!r man intuits ! opposite4 ,:at ,i intuit mu/ be true = me1 :at he intuits true = him4 ,= we h d5i$ reason1 we h plac$ x bel[ intuition1 & h !reby disc>d$ t :i* alone c subject ! v>y+ impressions ( ea* individual to ! rule ( a univ]sal & objective /&>d4 ,! logical conclusion is t1 s9ce ea* man's intuition is true = him1 !re is no su* ?+ z an objective tru?4 ,nor c !re be su* a ?+1 9 ^! circum/ances1 z an objective goodness4 ,?us ! !ory mu/ end 9 total scepticism & d>kness4 ,! fact t !osophi/s d n1 z a matt] ( fact1 draw ^! sceptical conclusions1 simply means t !y are n z cle>-head$ & logical z ,protagoras 04 #aee ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,semi-,,socratics ,^u ! dea? ( ,socrates !re ensu$ a ph5om5on :i* is n infrequ5t 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,a great & _m-sid$ p]sonality comb9es 9 himself _m conflict+ t5d5cies & ideas4 ,let u take an example1 n1 h[ev]1 f ! sph]e ( intellect1 b f ! sph]e ( practical life4 ,we (t5 say t x is difficult to reconcile m]cy & ju/ice4 ,among ! _m small p]sonalities1 "o man foll[s only ! ideal ( m]cy1 & z 8 m]cy has n 9 x ! /]n /uff ( ju/ice1 x deg5]ates into mawki%ness & s5tim5tal humanit>ianism4 ,ano!r man foll[s only ! ideal ( ju/ice1 =gett+ m]cy1 & he becomes h>% & unsympa!tic4 ,x takes a great] man1 a l>g] p]sonality1 h>moni\sly to comb9e ! two4 ,& z x is 9 ! sph]e ( practical life1 s x is 9 ! ar5a ( ?\ght & philosophy4 ,a great ?9k] is n he :o seizes ^u a s+le aspect ( ! tru?1 & pu%es t to its extreme limit1 b ! man :o comb9es1 9 "o _m-sid$ sy/em1 all ! v>y+ & conflict+ sides ( tru?4 ,by emphasiz+ "o ?\ght1 by be+ obsess$ by a s+le idea & pu%+ x to its logical conclusion1 reg>dless ( ! o!r aspects ( ! tru?1 "o may inde$ a*ieve a consid]able local & #aef tempor>y reputation2 because su* a proc$ure (t5 leads to /rik+ p>adoxes1 to /range & seem+ly uncommon conclusions4 ,! reputations ( su* m5 z ,nietzs*e1 ,b]n>d ,%aw1 ,osc> ,wilde1 are made *iefly 9 ?is way4 ,b ^u ! dea? ( a great all-embrac+ p]sonality1 j because 8 ?\ght is a comb9ation ( s _m div]g5t tru?s1 we (t5 f9d t x splits up into its compon5t p>ts1 ea* ( :i* gives rise to a "o-sid$ s*ool ( ?\ght4 ,! disciples1 be+ small] m51 are n able to grasp ! great man's ?\ght 9 its :ol5ess & _m-sid$ness4 ,ea* disciple seizes ^u t portion ( 8 ma/]'s tea*+ :i* has mo/ 9 common ) 8 own temp]am5t1 & proce$s to erect ?is "o incomplete idea into a philosophy1 treat+ ! "p z if x 7 ! :ole4 ,?is is exactly :at happ5$ aft] ! dea? ( ,socrates4 ,only "o man among 8 disciples 0 able to grasp ! :ole ( 8 tea*+1 & und]/& ! :ole ( 8 p]sonality1 & t 0 ,plato4 ,among ! less] m5 :o 7 ! foll[]s & p]sonal fri5ds ( ,socrates1 !re 7 ?ree :o f\nd$ s*ools ( philosophy1 ea* p>tial & "o-sid$1 b ea* claim+ to be ! expon5t ( ! true ,socraticism4 ,anti/h5es f\nd$ ! ,cynic s*ool1 ,ari/ippus ! ,cyr5aic1 & ,euclid ! ,meg>ic4 ,n[1 ( ! two aspects ( ! ,socratic philosophy1 ! !ory ( concepts1 & ! e?ical !ory1 x is easy = u1 look+ back ^u hi/ory1 to see :i* x 0 t influ5c$ ! hi/ory ( ?\ght mo/1 & :i*1 !re=e1 0 ! mo/ important4 ,b ! m5 ( 8 own "t c\ld n see ?is4 ,:at !y fa/5$ ^u 0 ! obvi\s aspect ( ,socrates1 8 e?ics1 & above all ! e?ical tea*+ :i* 0 express$1 n s #aeg mu* 9 ab/ract ideas1 z 9 ! life & p]sonality ( ! ma/]4 ,bo? ?is life & ?is tea*+ might be summ$ up 9 ! ?\ght t virtue is ! sole end ( life1 t1 z aga9/ virtue1 all else 9 ! _w1 com=t1 ri*es1 le>n+1 is comp>atively wor?less4 ,x is ?is1 !n1 t virtue is ! sole end ( life1 :i* =ms ! po9t ( agreem5t betwe5 all ! ?ree semi-,socratic s*ools4 ,we h n[ to see ^u :at po9ts !y div]ge f "o ano!r4 ,if virtue is ! sole end ( life1 :at precisely is virtue8 ,socrates _h giv5 no cle> answ] to ?is "q4 ,! only def9ition he _h giv5 0 t virtue is k1 b ^u exam9ation x turns out t ?is is n a def9ition at all4 ,virtue is k1 b k ( :at8 ,x is n k ( a/ronomy1 ( ma!matics1 or ( physics4 ,x is e?ical k1 t is to say1 k ( virtue4 ,to def9e virtue z ! k ( virtue is to ?9k 9 a circle1 & gets u no fur!r 9 ! enquiry :at virtue is4 ,b ,socrates1 z a matt] ( fact1 did n ?9k 9 a circle4 ,he did n mean t virtue is k1 al?\gh 8 doctr9e is (t51 some:at mislead+ly1 /at$ 9 t =m4 ,:at he meant 0--q a diff]5t ?+--t virtue dep5ds ^u k4 ,x is ! fir/ condition ( virtue4 ,! pr9ciple1 accurately /at$1 is1 n t virtue is ! k ( virtue1 :i* is ?9k+ 9 a circle1 b t virtue dep5ds ^u ! k ( virtue1 :i* is q /raight ?9k+4 ,only if y "k :at virtue is c y be virtu\s4 ,h5ce we h n "h any def9ition ( virtue1 or any attempt to def9e x4 ,we are /ill left ) ! "q1 :at is virtue8 unansw]$4 #aeh ,no d\bt ?is 0 due 9 "p to ! unme?odical & unsy/ematic mann] 9 :i* ,socrates develop$ 8 ?\ght1 & ?is1 9 its turn1 0 due to 8 conv]sational /yle ( philosophiz+4 ,= x is n possible to develop sy/ematic ?9k+ 9 ! c\rse ( casual conv]sations4 ,b 9 "p1 too1 x 0 due to ! v univ]sality ( ! man's g5ius4 ,he 0 broad en\gh to realize t x is n possible to tie d[n virtue 9 any s+le n>r[ =mula1 :i* %all s]ve z a practical receipt = action 9 all ! inf9itely v>i\s circum/ances ( life4 ,s t1 9 spite ( ! fact t 8 :ole pr9ciple lay 9 ! me?od ( def9itions1 ,socrates1 9 fact1 left 8 foll[]s )\t any def9ition ( ! supreme concept ( 8 philosophy1 virtue4 ,x 0 ^u ?is po9t1 !re=e1 t ! foll[]s ( ,socrates disagre$4 ,!y all agre$ t virtue is ! sole end ( life1 b !y develop$ diff]5t ideas z to :at sort ( life is 9 fact virtu\s4 ,! ,cynics4 ,anti/h5es1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,cynic ,s*ool1 repeat$ ! famili> propositions t virtue is f\nd$ ^u k1 is tea*able1 & is "o4 ,b :at ar\s$ ! admiration ( ,anti/h5es 0 n ,socrates1 ! man ( intellect1 ! man ( sci5ce1 ! philosoph]1 b ,socrates1 ! man ( indep5d5t "*1 :o foll[$ 8 own notions ( "r ) complete indiff]5ce to ! op9ions ( o!rs4 ,?is indep5d5ce 0 9 fact m]ely a by-product ( ! ,socratic life4 ,socrates _h be5 indep5d5t ( all e>?ly goods & possessions1 c>+ nei!r = ri*es nor = applause1 only because 8 he>t 0 set ^u a great] treasure1 ! acquisition ( wisdom4 ,m]e indep5d5ce & indiff]5ce to ! #aei op9ions ( o!rs 7 n = him ends 9 !mselves4 ,he did n make feti%es ( !m4 ,b ! ,cynics int]pret$ 8 tea*+ to mean t ! indep5d5ce ( e>?ly pleasures & possessions is 9 itself ! end & object ( life4 ,?is1 9 fact1 0 _! def9ition ( virtue1 complete r5unciation ( ev]y?+ t1 = ord9>y m51 makes life wor? liv+1 absolute asceticism1 & rigor\s self-mortification4 ,socrates1 aga91 ?9k+ t ! only k ( supreme value is e?ical k1 _h exhibit$ a t5d5cy to disp>age o!r k9ds ( k4 ,?is trait ! ,cynics exagg]at$ into a contempt = all art & le>n+ s great z frequ5tly to am\nt to ignorance & boori%ness4 ,virtue is suffici5t = happ9ess1 said ,anti/h5es1 & = virtue no?+ is requisite b ! /r5g? ( a ,socrates2 x is a matt] ( action1 & does n require _m words1 or mu* le>n+4 ,! ,cynic ideal ( virtue is ?us purely negative2 x is ! abs5ce ( all desire1 fre$om f all wants1 complete indep5d5ce ( all possessions4 ,_m ( !m refus$ to own h\ses or any dwell+ place1 & w&]$ ab\t z vagrants & begg>s4 ,diog5es1 = ! same reason1 liv$ 9 a tub4 ,socrates1 foll[+ s+le-he>t$ly :at he knew to be good1 c>$ no?+ :at ! vulg> said4 ,b ?is indiff]5ce to ! op9ion ( o!rs 01 l 8 indep5d5ce ( possessions1 n an end 9 itself4 ,he did n int]pret x to mean t he 0 wantonly to (f5d public op9ion4 ,b ! ,cynics1 to %[ _! indiff]5ce1 fl\t$ public op9ion1 & gave frequ5t & disgu/+ exhibitions ( indec5cy4 ,virtue1 = ! ,cynics1 is alone good4 ,vice is ! only evil4 ,no?+ else 9 ! _w is ei!r good or bad4 #afj ,ev]y?+ else is indiff]5t4 ,prop]ty1 pleasure1 weal?1 fre$om1 com=t1 ev5 life itself1 are n to be reg>d$ z goods4 ,pov]ty1 mis]y1 illness1 slav]y1 & dea? itself1 are n to be reg>d$ z evils4 ,x is no bett] to be a freeman ?an a slave1 = if ! slave h virtue1 he is 9 himself free1 & a born rul]4 ,suicide is n a crime1 & a man may de/roy 8 life1 n h[ev] to escape f mis]y & pa9 7= ^! are n ills71 b to %[ t = him life is indiff]5t4 ,& z ! l9e betwe5 virtue & vice is absolutely def9ite1 s is ! di/9ction betwe5 ! wise man & ! fool4 ,all m5 are divid$ into ^! two classes4 ,!re is no middle t]m betwe5 !m4 ,virtue be+ "o & indivisible1 ei!r a man possesses x :ole or does n possess x at all4 ,9 ! =m] case he is a wise man1 9 ! latt] case a fool4 ,! wise man possesses all virtue1 all k1 all wisdom1 all happ9ess1 all p]fection4 ,! fool possesses all evil1 all mis]y1 all imp]fection4 ,! ,cyr5aics4 ,= ! ,cyr5aics1 too1 virtue is1 at lea/ =mally1 ! sole object ( life4 ,x is only =mally1 h[ev]1 because !y give to virtue a def9ition :i* robb$ x ( all mean+4 ,socrates _h n infrequ5tly recomm5d$ virtue on acc\nt ( ! advantages :i* x br+s4 ,virtue1 he said1 is ! sole pa? to happ9ess1 & he _h n refra9$ f hold+ out happ9ess z a motive = virtue4 ,?is did n mean1 h[ev]1 t he did n recognize a man's duty to d ! "r = its own sake1 & n = ! sake ( ! advantage x br+s4 ,hone/y1 we say1 is ! be/ policy1 #afa b we d n mean !reby to d5y t x is ! duty ( m5 to be hone/ ev5 if x is n1 9 "s p>ticul> case1 ! be/ policy4 ,socrates1 h[ev]1 _h n be5 v cle> ^u ^! po9ts1 & _h be5 unable to f9d any def9ite basis = morality1 o!r ?an t ( happ9ess4 ,x 0 ?is side ( 8 tea*+ :i* ,ari/ippus n[ press$ to its logical conclusions1 reg>dless ( all o!r claims4 ,d\btless virtue is ! sole end ( life1 b ! sole end ( virtue is "o's own advantage1 t is to say1 pleasure4 ,"o may z well say at once t ! sole end ( life is pleasure4 ,! influ5ce ( ,protagoras & ! ,sophi/s also play$ its "p 9 m\ld+ ! ?\ght ( ,ari/ippus4 ,protagoras _h d5i$ ! objectivity ( tru?1 & ! lat] ,sophi/s _h appli$ ! same !ory to morals4 ,ea* man is a law unto himself4 ,!re is no moral code b9d+ ^u ! individual aga9/ 8 own wi%es4 ,ari/ippus comb9$ ?is ) 8 doctr9e ( pleasure4 ,pleasure be+ ! sole end ( life1 no moral law ext]nally impos$ c invalidate its absolute claims4 ,no?+ is wick$1 no?+ evil1 provid$ only x satisfies ! individual's ?ir/ = pleasure4 ,:e!r su* a philosophy w lead1 9 practice1 to ! complete degradation ( its devotees1 dep5ds *iefly ^u :at sort ( pleasure !y h 9 m9d4 ,if ref9$ & intellectual pleasures are meant1 !re is no reason :y a comp>atively good life %\ld n result4 ,if bodily pleasures are int5d$1 ! results are n likely to be noble4 ,! ,cyr5aics by no means :olly ignor$ ! pleasures ( ! m9d1 b !y po9t$ out t feel+s ( bodily pleasure are m pot5t & int5se1 & x 0 ^u ^!1 !re=e1 t !y *iefly #afb conc5trat$ _! att5tion4 ,nev]!less !y 7 sav$ f ! l[e/ abysses ( s5suality & be/iality by _! doctr9e t1 9 ! pursuit ( pleasure1 ! wise man mu/ ex]cise prud5ce4 ,completely unre/ra9$ pursuit ( pleasure leads 9 fact to pa9 & disa/]4 ,pa9 is t :i* has to be avoid$4 ,!re=e ! wise man w rema9 always ma/] ( himself1 w control 8 desires1 & po/pone a m urg5t to a less urg5t desire1 if !reby 9 ! end m pleasure & less pa9 w accrue to him4 ,! ,cyr5aic ideal ( ! wise man is ! man ( ! _w1 b5t inde$ solely ^u pleasure1 re/ra9$ by no sup]/iti\s scruples1 yet pursu+ 8 end ) prud5ce1 =esight1 & intellig5ce4 ,su* pr9ciples w\ld1 ( c\rse1 admit ( v>i\s int]pretations1 accord+ to ! temp]am5t ( ! individual4 ,we may notice two examples4 ,annic]is1 ! ,cyr5aic1 believ$ inde$ t pleasure is ! sole end1 b set su* /ore ^u ! pleasures t arise f fri5d%ip & family affection1 t he admitt$ t ! wise man %\ld be ready to sacrifice himself = 8 fri5ds or family--a gleam ( light 9 ! moral d>kness4 ,hegesias1 a pessimi/1 consid]$ t positive enjoym5t is impossible ( atta9m5t4 ,9 practice ! sole end ( life :i* c be realiz$ is ! avoidance ( pa94 ,! ,meg>ics4 ,euclid ( ,meg>a 0 ! f\nd] ( ?is s*ool4 ,8 pr9ciple 0 a comb9ation ( ,socraticism ) ,eleaticism4 ,virtue is k1 b k ( :at8 ,x is "h t ! ,eleatic influ5ce became visible4 ,) ,p>m5ides1 ! ,meg>ics believ$ 9 ! ,"o ,absolute ,be+4 ,all multiplicity1 all motion1 are illusory4 #afc ! _w ( s5se has 9 x no true reality4 ,only ,be+ is4 ,if virtue is k1 !re=e1 x c only be ! k ( ?is ,be+4 ,if ! ess5tial concept ( ,socrates 0 ! ,good & ! ess5tial concept ( ,p>m5ides ,be+1 ,euclid n[ comb9$ ! two4 ,! ,good is id5tifi$ ) ,be+4 ,be+1 ! ,"o1 ,god1 ! ,good1 div9ity1 are m]ely diff]5t names = "o & ! same ?+4 ,becom+1 ! _m1 ,evil1 are ! names ( its opposite1 n-be+1 ,multiplicity is ?us id5tifi$ ) evil1 & bo? are decl>$ illusory4 ,evil has no real exi/5ce4 ,! ,good alone truly is4 ,! v>i\s virtues1 z b5evol5ce1 temp]ance1 prud5ce1 are m]ely diff]5t names = ! "o virtue1 k ( ,be+4 ,z5o1 ! ,eleatic1 _h %[n t multiplicity & motion are n only unreal b ev5 impossible1 s9ce !y are self-contradictory4 ,! ,meg>ics appropriat$ ?is idea1 toge!r ) ! dialectic ( ,z5o1 & conclud$ t s9ce n-be+ is impossible1 ,be+ includes all possibility4 ,:atev] is possible is also actual4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z a possible some?+1 :i* yet does n exi/4 ,z ! ,cynics f\nd virtue 9 r5unciation & negative indep5d5ce1 ! ,cyr5aics 9 ! h$oni/ic pursuit ( pleasure1 s ! ,meg>ics f9d x 9 ! life ( philosophic contemplation1 ! k ( ,be+4 #afd ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,plato ,none ( ! pr$ecessors ( ,plato _h con/ruct$ a sy/em ( philosophy4 ,:at !y _h produc$1 & 9 great abundance1 7 isolat$ philosophical ideas1 !ories1 h9ts1 & sugge/ions4 ,plato 0 ! fir/ p]son 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w to produce a great all-embrac+ sy/em ( philosophy1 :i* has its ramifications 9 all dep>tm5ts ( ?\ght & reality4 ,9 do+ ?is1 ,plato laid all previ\s ?\ght "u contribution4 ,he ga!r$ ! entire h>ve/ ( ,greek philosophy4 ,all t 0 be/ 9 ! ,py?agoreans1 ! ,eleatics1 ,h]acleitus1 & ,socrates1 reappe>s1 transfigur$ 9 ! sy/em ( ,plato4 ,b x is n to be imag9$1 on ?is acc\nt1 t ,plato 0 a m]e eclectic1 or a plagi>i/1 :o took ! be/ ?\ghts ( o!rs1 & work$ !m into "s sort ( a pat*-"w philosophy ( 8 own4 ,he 01 on ! contr>y1 9 ! highe/ degree an orig9al ?9k]4 ,b l all great sy/ems ( ?\ght1 t ( ,plato gr[s out ( ! ?\ght ( previ\s ?9k]s4 ,he does inde$ appropriate ! ideas ( ,h]acleitus1 ,p>m5ides1 & ,socrates4 ,b he does n leave !m z he f9ds !m4 ,he takes !m z ! g]ms ( a new developm5t4 ,!y are ! f\ndations1 bel[ gr\nd1 ^u :i* he builds ! palace ( philosophy4 ,9 8 h&s1 all previ\s ?\ght becomes #afe transfigur$ "u ! light ( a new & orig9al pr9ciple4 #a4 ,life & ,writ+s4 ,! exact date ( ! bir? ( ,plato is a matt] ( d\bt4 ,b ! date usually giv51 #dbi-g ,b4,c4 _c be f> wrong4 ,he came ( an ari/ocratic ,a!nian family1 & 0 possess$ ( suffici5t weal? to enable him to comm& t leisure :i* 0 ess5tial = a life devot$ to philosophy4 ,8 y\? co9cid$ ) ! mo/ disa/r\s p]iod ( ,a!nian hi/ory4 ,aft] a bitt] /ruggle1 :i* la/$ ov] a qu>t] ( a c5tury1 ! ,peloponnesian w> end$ 9 ! complete d[nfall ( ,a!ns z a political p[]4 ,& ! int]nal affairs ( ! ,/ate 7 9 no less confusion ?an ! ext]nal4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 a triumphant democracy _h develop$ into mob-rule4 ,!n at ! close ( ! ,peloponnesian w>1 ! ari/ocratic p>ty aga9 came into p[] ) ! ,?irty ,tyrants1 among :om 7 "s ( ,plato's own relatives4 ,b ! ari/ocratic p>ty1 s f> f improv+ affairs1 plung$ at once into a reign ( blood%$1 t]ror1 & oppression4 ,^! facts h an important be>+ ^u ! hi/ory ( ,plato's life4 ,if he ev] possess$ any desire to adopt a political c>e]1 ! actual condition ( ,a!nian affairs mu/ h qu5*$ x4 ,an ari/ocrat1 bo? 9 ?\ght & by bir?1 he c\ld n accommodate himself to ! rule ( ! mob4 ,& if he ev] imag9$ t ! return ( ! ari/ocracy to p[] w\ld improve matt]s1 he mu/ h be5 bitt]ly disillusion$ by ! proce$+s ( ! ,?irty ,tyrants4 ,disgu/$ alike ) ! democracy & ! ari/ocracy he seems to h retir$ into seclusion4 ,he nev] once1 ?r\gh\t 8 long life1 appe>$ z a #aff speak] 9 ! popul> assembly4 ,he reg>d$ ! ,a!nian con/itution z pa/ help4 ,n mu* is kn[n ( ! philosoph]'s y\?4 ,he compos$ poems4 ,he 0 giv5 ! be/ education t an ,a!nian citiz5 ( ^? days c\ld obta94 ,8 tea*]1 ,cratylus1 0 a foll[] ( ,h]acleitus1 & ,plato no d\bt le>n$ f him ! doctr9es ( t philosoph]4 ,x is improbable t he all[$ himself to rema9 unacqua9t$ ) ! disputations ( ! ,sophi/s1 _m ( :om 7 8 own contempor>ies4 ,he probably read ! book ( ,anaxagoras1 :i* 0 easily obta9able 9 ,a!ns at ! "t4 ,b on all ^! po9ts we h no c]ta9 in=mation4 ,:at we d "k is t ! decisive ev5t 9 8 y\?1 & inde$ 9 8 life1 0 8 association ) ,socrates4 ,= ! la/ eight ye>s ( ! life ( ,socrates1 ,plato 0 8 fri5d & 8 fai?ful disciple4 ,! tea*+ & p]sonality ( ! ma/] con/itut$ ! supreme intellectual impulse ( 8 life1 & ! inspiration ( 8 entire ?\ght4 ,& ! devotion & e/eem :i* he felt = ,socrates1 s f> f wan+ z ! ye>s w5t by1 seem1 on ! contr>y1 to h gr[n cont9ually /rong]4 ,= x is precisely 9 ! late/ dialogues ( 8 long life t "s ( ! mo/ *>m+ & admir+ portraits ( ,socrates are to be f\nd4 ,socrates became = him ! patt]n & exempl> ( ! true philosoph]4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,socrates a second p]iod op5s 9 ! life ( ,plato1 ! p]iod ( 8 travels4 ,he migrat$ fir/ to ,meg>a1 :]e 8 fri5d & fell[-disciple ,euclid 0 !n f\nd+ ! ,meg>ic s*ool4 ,! ,meg>ic philosophy 0 a comb9ation ( ! ?\ght ( ,socrates ) t ( ! ,eleatics4 ,& x 0 no d\bt "h1 at #afg ,meg>a1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,euclid1 t ,plato =m$ 8 deep] acqua9tance ) ! tea*+ ( ,p>m5ides1 :i* ex]cis$ an all-important influ5ce ^u 8 own philosophy4 ,f ,meg>a he travell$ to ,cyr5e1 ,egypt1 ,italy1 & ,sicily4 ,9 ,italy he came 9 contact ) ! ,py?agoreans4 ,& to ! effects ( ?is j\rney may be attribut$ ! /rong ,py?agorean elem5ts :i* p]meate 8 ?\ght4 ,9 ,sicily he att5d$ ! c\rt ( ,dionysius ! ,eld]1 tyrant ( ,syracuse4 ,b "h 8 conduct seems to h giv5 grave (f5ce4 ,dionysius 0 s ang]$ by 8 moraliz+s & philosophical diatribes t he put ,plato up to auction 9 ! slave m>ket4 ,plato n>r[ly escap$ ! fate ( slav]y1 b 0 ransom$ by ,annic]is1 ! ,cyr5aic4 ,he !n return$ to ,a!ns1 8 travels hav+ occupi$ a p]iod ( ab\t t5 ye>s4 ,) ! return ( ,plato to ,a!ns we ent] ^u ! ?ird & la/ p]iod ( 8 life4 ,) ! exception ( two j\rneys to be m5tion$ %ortly1 he nev] aga9 left ,a!ns4 ,he n[ appe>$ = ! fir/ "t z a pr(essional tea*] & philosoph]4 ,he *ose = ! sc5e ( 8 activities a gymnasium1 call$ ! ,academy4 ,"h he gradually collect$ r\nd him a circle ( pupils & disciples4 ,= ! re/ ( 8 life1 a p]iod ( ab\t =ty ye>s1 he occupi$ himself 9 lit]>y activity1 & 9 ! managem5t ( ! s*ool :i* he _h f\nd$4 ,8 mann] ( life 0 9 /rong contra/ to t ( ,socrates4 ,only 9 "o respect did he resemble 8 ma/]4 ,he took no fees = 8 tea*+4 ,o!rwise ! lives ( ! two great m5 be> no resemblance to ea* o!r4 ,socrates _h gone out into ! highways & byways 9 se>* ( wisdom4 ,he _h wrangl$ 9 #afh ! m>ket-place ) all com]s4 ,plato )drew himself into ! seclusion ( a s*ool1 protect$ f ! hubbub ( ! _w by a r+ ( fai?ful disciples4 ,x 0 n to be expect$ t a man ( ,plato's ref9em5t1 culture1 & ari/ocratic feel+s1 %\ld appreciate1 z ,socrates1 ! man ( ! p1 _h done1 ! r\gh-&-tumble life ( ! ,a!nian m>ket-place4 ,nor 0 x desirable = ! advancem5t ( philosophy t x %\ld be s4 ,! ,socratic philosophy _h suff]$ f ! ,socratic mann] ( life4 ,x 0 unme?odical & in*oate4 ,sy/ematic ?\ght is n born ( disputes at ! /reet corn]4 ,= ! developm5t ( a great _w-sy/em1 su* z t ( ,plato1 labori\s /udy & quiet seclusion 7 ess5tial4 ,?is p]iod ( ,plato's ma/]%ip 0 brok5 only by two j\rneys to ,sicily1 bo? und]tak5 ) political objects4 ,plato knew well t ! p]fect ,/ate1 z depict$ 9 8 ,republic1 0 n capable ( realization 9 ! ,greece ( 8 own "t4 ,nev]!less1 he took 8 political philosophy v s]i\sly4 ,?\gh ! p]fect republic 0 an unatta9able ideal1 yet1 he ?\ght1 any real re=m ( ! ,/ate mu/ at lea/ proce$ 9 ! direction ( t ideal4 ,"o ( ! ess5tial pr9ciples ( ! ,republic 0 t ! rul]s mu/ also be philosoph]s4 ,n till philosoph] & rul] 7 comb9$ 9 "o & ! same p]son c\ld ! ,/ate be gov]n$ ^u true pr9ciples4 ,n[1 9 ! ye> #cfh ,b4,c41 ,dionysius ! ,eld] di$1 & ,dionysius ! y\ng] became tyrant ( ,syracuse4 ,dionysius despat*$ an invitation to ,plato to att5d 8 c\rt & give him ! b5efit ( 8 advice4 ,"h 0 an opportunity to exp]im5t4 ,plato c\ld tra9 & educate a #afi philosoph]-k+4 ,he accept$ ! invitation4 ,b ! exp$ition end$ disa/r\sly4 ,dionysius receiv$ him ) en?usiasm1 & int]e/$ himself 9 ! philosophical disc\rses ( 8 tea*]4 ,b he 0 "y1 impetu\s1 hot-head$1 & )\t g5u9e philosophic b5t4 ,8 fir/ int]e/ gave place to we>9ess & irritation4 ,plato left ,syracuse a disappo9t$ man2 & return$ to ,a!ns4 ,nev]!less1 aft] ! lapse ( a few ye>s1 ,dionysius aga9 invit$ him to ,syracuse1 & aga9 he accept$ ! invitation4 ,b ! second j\rney end$ 9 disa/] l ! fir/1 & ,plato 0 ev5 9 dang] ( 8 life1 b 0 rescu$ by ! int]v5tion ( ! ,py?agoreans4 ,he return$ to ,a!ns 9 8 sev5tie? ye>1 & liv$ till 8 dea? 9 ! seclusion ( 8 s*ool1 nev] aga9 attempt+ to int]v5e 9 practical politics4 ,= m ?an ano!r decade he dwelt & taught 9 ,a!ns4 ,8 life 0 s]5e1 quiet1 & happy4 ,he di$ peacefully at ! age ( eighty-two4 ,plato's writ+s take ! =m ( dialogues4 ,9 ! majority ( ^!1 ! *ief "p is tak5 by ,socrates1 into ^: m\? ,plato puts ! exposition ( 8 own philosophy4 ,9 a few1 z = example ! ,p>m5ides1 o!r speak]s enunciate ! ,platonic tea*+1 b ev5 9 ^! ,socrates always plays an important role4 ,plato 0 n only a philosoph]1 b a consummate lit]>y arti/4 ,! dialogues are g5u9ely dramatic1 enliv5$ by incid5t1 hum\r1 & life-l *>act]ization4 ,n only is ! portrait ( ,socrates drawn ) lov+ affection1 b ev5 ! m9or *>act]s are fle% & blood4 ,a mo/ important elem5t ( ,plato's /yle is 8 use ( my?s4 ,he does n always expla9 8 mean+ 9 #agj ! =m ( direct sci5tific exposition4 ,he frequ5tly tea*es by allegories1 fables1 & /ories1 all ( :i* may be includ$ "u ! "o g5]al appellation ( ,platonic my?s4 ,^! are (t5 ( great lit]>y beauty1 b 9 spite ( ?is !y involve grave disadvantages4 ,plato slips s easily f sci5tific exposition into my?1 t x is (t5 no easy matt] to decide :e!r 8 /atem5ts are meant lit]ally or allegorically4 ,moreov]1 ! my?s usually signify a defect 9 8 ?\ght itself4 ,! fact is t ! comb9ation ( poet & philosoph] 9 "o man is an exce$+ly dang]\s comb9ation4 ,i h expla9$ be=e t ! object ( philosophy is1 n m]ely to feel ! tru?1 z ! poet & my/ic feel x1 b intellectually to compreh5d x1 n m]ely to give u a s]ies ( pictures & metaphors1 b a reason$ explanation ( ?+s ^u sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,:5 a man1 :o is at once a poet & a philosoph]1 _c rationally expla9 a ?+1 x is a t]rible temptation to him to sub/itute poetic metaphors = ! explanation :i* is lack+4 ,we saw1 = example1 t ! writ]s ( ! ,upani%ads1 :o believ$ t ! :ole _w issues =? f ! "o1 absolute1 imp]i%able1 be+1 :i* !y call$ ,brahman1 be+ unable to expla9 :y ! ,"o ?us diff]5tiates itself into ! _m1 took refuge 9 metaphors4 ,z ! sp>ks f ! sub/antial fire1 s1 !y say1 d all f9ite be+s issue =? f ! ,"o4 ,b ?is expla9s no?+1 & ! aim ( ! philosoph] is n ?us vaguely to feel1 b rationally to und]/&4 ,n[ ?is is n m]ely my view ( ! functions ( philosophy4 ,x is emphatically ,plato's own view4 ,9 fact ,plato 0 ! orig9ator ( x4 ,he is p]petually insi/+ t #aga no?+ save full rational compreh5sion des]ves ! names ( k & philosophy4 ,no writ] has ev] us$ su* contemptu\s language z ,plato us$ ( ! m]e my/ic & poet1 :o says wise & beautiful ?+s1 )\t 9 ! lea/ und]/&+ :y !y are wise & beautiful4 ,no man has =m$ su* a l[ e/imate ( ! functions ( ! poet & my/ic4 ,plato is1 9 !ory at lea/1 ! pr9ce ( rationali/s & intellectuali/s4 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 he mu/ be convict$ ( ! v fault he s sev]ely c5sur$ 9 o!rs4 ,?is1 9 fact1 is ! explanation ( mo/ ( ! ,platonic my?s4 ,:]ev] ,plato is unable to expla9 any?+1 he cov]s up ! gap 9 8 sy/em ) a my?4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly noticeable1 = example1 9 ! ,timaeus4 ,plato hav+1 9 o!r dialogues1 develop$ 8 !ory ( ! nature ( ! ultimate reality1 arrives1 9 ! ,timaeus1 at ! problem h[ ! actual _w is to be expla9$ f t ultimate reality4 ,at ?is po9t1 z we %all see1 ,plato's sy/em breaks d[n4 ,8 acc\nt ( ! absolute reality is defective1 & 9 consequ5ce1 x af=ds no pr9ciple :]eby ! actual univ]se c be expla9$4 ,9 ! ,timaeus1 !re=e1 in/ead ( a reason$ explanation1 he gives u a s]ies ( :olly fanciful my?s ab\t ! orig9 ( ! _w4 ,:]ev] we f9d my?s 9 ,plato's dialogues1 we may suspect t we h arriv$ at "o ( ! weak po9ts ( ! sy/em4 ,if we are to /udy ,plato intellig5tly1 x is ess5tial t we %\ld cease to reg>d ! dialogues z if !y 7 all produc$ en bloc f a s+le phase ( _! au?or's m9d4 ,8 lit]>y activity ext5d$ ov] a p]iod ( n less ?an fifty ye>s4 ,dur+ t "t1 he did n /& /ill4 ,8 ?\ght1 & 8 mode ( #agb expression1 7 con/antly develop+4 ,if we are to und]/& ,plato1 we mu/ obta9 "s clue to enable u to trace ?is developm5t4 ,& ?is means t we mu/ "k some?+ ( ! ord] 9 :i* ! dialogues 7 writt54 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 !y h n come d[n to u dat$ & numb]$4 ,x is a matt] ( s*ol>%ip & criticism to d$uce ! p]iod at :i* any dialogue 0 writt5 f int]nal evid5ces4 ,_m m9or po9ts are /ill undecid$1 z well z a few que/ions ( importance1 su* z ! date ( ! ,pha$rus1 ,footnote #aa :i* "s critics place q e>ly & "s v late 9 ,plato's life4 ,neglect+ ^! po9ts1 h[ev]1 we may say 9 g5]al t unanimity has be5 rea*$1 & t we n[ "k en\gh to be able to trace ! ma9 l9es ( developm5t4 ,footnote #aa3 ,! same rem>k applies to ! ,symposium1 ! ,republic1 & ! ,!aetetus4 ,! dialogues fall into ?ree ma9 gr\ps1 :i* correspond r\ghly to ! ?ree p]iods ( ,plato's life4 ,^? ( ! e>lie/ gr\p 7 writt5 ab\t ! "t ( ! dea? ( ,socrates1 & be=e ! au?or's j\rney to ,meg>a4 ,"s ( !m may h be5 writt5 be=e ! dea? ( ,socrates4 ,?is gr\p includes ! ,hippias ,m9or1 ! ,lysis1 ! ,*>mides1 ! ,la*es1 ! ,eu?yphro1 ! ,apology1 ! ,crito1 & ! ,protagoras4 ,! ,protagoras is ! longe/1 ! mo/ complex 9 ?\ght1 & ! mo/ develop$4 ,x is probably ! late/1 & =ms ! bridge to ! second gr\p4 ,all ^! e>ly dialogues are %ort & simple1 & are /ill1 z reg>ds _! ?\ght1 entirely "u ! influ5ce ( ,socrates4 ,plato has n z yet develop$ #agc any philosophy ( 8 own4 ,he prop\nds ! philosophy ( ,socrates almo/ unalt]$4 ,ev5 s1 h[ev]1 he is no m]e plagi>i/4 ,!re are ?r\gh\t ^! dialogues evid5ces ( fre%ness & orig9ality1 b ^! qualities exhibit !mselves r 9 ! lit]>y =m ?an 9 ! philosophical sub/ance4 ,we f9d "h all ! famili> ,socratic propositions1 t virtue is k1 is "o1 is tea*able2 t all m5 seek ! good1 b t m5 diff] z to :at ! good is2 t a man :o does wrong delib]ately is bett] ?an a man :o does x un9t5tionally2 & s on4 ,moreov]1 j z ,socrates _h occupi$ himself 9 attempt+ to fix ! concepts ( ! virtues1 ask+ :at is prud5ce81 :at is temp]ance81 & ! l1 s 9 _m ( ^! dialogues ,plato pursues simil> inquiries4 ,! ,lysis discusses ! concept ( fri5d%ip1 ! ,*>mides ( temp]ance1 ! ,la*es ( brav]y4 ,on ! :ole1 ! philosophical sub/ance ( ^! e>ly writ+s is ?9 & meagre4 ,!re is a prepond]ance ( incid5t & mu* biographical detail reg>d+ ,socrates4 ,!re is m art ?an matt]4 ,consequ5tly1 f a purely lit]>y po9t ( view1 ^! are among ! mo/ *>m+ ( ,plato's dialogues1 & _m ( !m1 su* z ! ,apology & ! ,crito1 are especially popul> ) ^? :o c>e = ,plato r z an arti/ ?an z a philosoph]4 ,! second gr\p ( dialogues is g5]ally connect$ ) ! p]iod ( ,plato's travels4 ,9 addition to ! influ5ce ( ,socrates1 we h n[ ! influ5ce ( ! ,eleatics1 :i* naturally connects ^! dialogues ) ! p]iod ( ! philosoph]'s soj\rn at ,meg>a4 ,b x is 9 ^! dialogues1 too1 t ,plato = ! fir/ "t #agd develops 8 own special philosophical !sis4 ,?is is 9 fact 8 great con/ructive p]iod4 ,! c5tral & gov]n+ pr9ciple ( 8 philosophy is ! !ory ( ,ideas4 ,all else h+es on ?is1 & is dom9at$ by ?is4 ,9 a s5se1 8 :ole philosophy is no?+ b ! !ory ( ,ideas & :at dep5ds ^u x4 ,x is 9 ?is second p]iod t ! !ory ( ,ideas is f\nd$ & develop$1 & its relation%ip to ! ,eleatic philosophy ( ,be+ discuss$4 ,we h "h ! spectacle ( ,plato's mo/ orig9al ?\ghts 9 ! pangs ( *ildbir?4 ,he is n[ at grips ) ! c5tral problems ( philosophy4 ,he is int5t ^u ! ?\ght itself1 & c>es little = ! ornam5ts ( /yle4 ,he is /ruggl+ to f9d expression = ideas newly-=m$ 9 8 m9d1 ( :i* he is n yet completely ma/]1 & :i* he _c manipulate ) ease4 ,consequ5tly1 ! lit]>y graces ( ! fir/ p]iod rec$e into ! backgr\nd4 ,!re is little incid5t1 & no hum\r4 ,!re is no?+ b close reason+1 h>d & labori\s discussion4 ,! tw9 dialogues1 ,gorgias & ,!aetetus are probably ! e>lie/ ( ?is gr\p4 ,!y result 9 no?+ v def9ite1 & are *iefly negative 9 "*4 ,plato is "h engag$ m]ely 9 a prep>atory cle>+ ( ! gr\nd4 ,! ,gorgias discusses & refutes ! ,sophi/ic id5tification ( virtue & pleasure1 & attempts to %[1 z aga9/ x1 t ! good mu/ be some?+ objectively exi/5t1 & indep5d5t ( ! pleasure ( ! individual4 ,! ,!aetetus1 simil>ly1 %[s t tru? is n1 z ! ,sophi/s ?\ght1 m]ely ! subjective impression ( ! individual1 b is some?+ objectively true 9 itself4 ,! o!r #age dialogues ( ! gr\p are ! ,sophi/1 ! ,/atesman1 & ! ,p>m5ides4 ,! ,sophi/ discusses ,be+ & n-be+1 & _! relation%ip to ! !ory ( ,ideas4 ,! ,p>m5ides inquires :e!r ! absolute reality is to be reg>d$1 9 ! mann] ( ! ,eleatics1 z an ab/ract ,"o4 ,x gives u1 !re=e1 ,plato's conception ( ! relation ( 8 own philosophy to ,eleaticism4 ,! dialogues ( ! ?ird gr\p are ! "w ( ,plato's maturity4 ,he has n[ completely ma/]$ 8 ?\ght1 & turns x ) ease 9 all directions4 ,h5ce ! /yle returns to ! lucidity & purity ( ! fir/ p]iod4 ,if ! fir/ p]iod 0 m>k$ *iefly by lit]>y grace1 ! second by dep? ( ?\ght1 ! ?ird p]iod comb9es bo?4 ,! p]fect sub/ance is n[ m\ld$ 9 ! p]fect =m4 ,b a peculi>ity ( all ! dialogues ( ?is p]iod is t !y take x = grant$ t ! !ory ( ,ideas is already e/abli%$ & famili> to ! read]4 ,!y proce$ to apply x to all dep>tm5ts ( ?\ght4 ,! second p]iod 0 conc]n$ ) ! =mulation & pro( ( ! !ory ( ,ideas1 ! ?ird p]iod und]takes its sy/ematic application4 ,?us ! ,symposium1 :i* has = its subject ! metaphysic ( love1 attempts to connect man's feel+ = beauty ) ! intellectual k ( ! ,ideas4 ,! ,philebus applies ! !ory ( ,ideas to ! sph]e ( e?ics1 ! ,timaeus to ! sph]e ( physics1 & ! ,republic to ! sph]e ( politics4 ,! ,pha$o f\nds ! doctr9e ( ! immortality ( ! s\l ^u ! !ory ( ,ideas4 ,! ,pha$rus is probably to be gr\p$ ) ! ,symposium4 ,! beauty1 grace1 & lucidity ( ! /yle1 & ! fact t x assumes ?r\gh\t t #agf ! !ory ( ,ideas is a ?+ e/abli%$1 lead u to ! belief t x belongs to ! p]iod ( ,plato's maturity4 ,zell]'s !ory t x 0 writt5 at ! beg9n+ ( ! second p]iod1 & is !n (f]$ to ! read] z a sort ( sweetmeat to induce him to ent] ^u ! labori\s task ( read+ ! ,sophi/1 ! ,/atesman1 & ! ,p>m5ides1 seems to be f>-fet*$ & unnecess>y4 ,footnote #ab ,footnote #ab3 ,zell]'s ,plato & ! ,old] ,academy1 *ap4 iii4 ,if ! second is ! great con/ructive p]iod ( ,plato's life1 ! ?ird may be describ$ z 8 sy/ematic & syn!tic p]iod4 ,e "p ( 8 philosophy is "h l9k$ up ) e o!r "p4 ,all ! details ( ! sy/em are se5 to fl[ f ! "o c5tral pr9ciple ( 8 ?\ght1 ! !ory ( ,ideas4 ,e sph]e ( k & be+ is 9 turn exhibit$ 9 ! light ( t pr9ciple1 is p]meat$ & p5etrat$ by x4 ,! plan = exp\nd+ ,plato :i* fir/ sugge/s itself is to g ?r\gh ! dialogues1 "o by "o1 & extract ! doctr9e ( ea* successively4 ,b ?is sugge/ion has to be giv5 up z soon z x is m5tion$4 ,= al?\gh ! philosophy ( ,plato is 9 itself a sy/ematic & coh]5t body ( ?\ght1 he did n express x 9 a sy/ematic way4 ,on ! contr>y1 he scatt]s 8 ideas 9 all directions4 ,he ?r[s !m out at r&om 9 any ord]4 ,:at logically comes fir/ (t5 appe>s la/4 ,x may be f\nd at ! end ( a dialogue1 & ! next /ep 9 reason+ may make its appe>ance at ! beg9n+1 or ev5 9 a totally diff]5t dialogue4 ,if1 !re=e1 we are to get any connect$ view ( ! sy/em1 we mu/ ab&on ,plato's own ord] ( exposition1 & piece ! ?\ght toge!r = ourselves4 ,we mu/ beg9 #agg ) :at logically comes fir/1 :]ev] we may f9d x1 & proce$ ) ! exposition 9 ! same mann]4 ,a simil> difficulty att5ds ! "q ( ! division ( ,plato's philosophy4 ,he himself has giv5 u no s+le & c]ta9 pr9ciple ( division4 ,b ! pr9ciple usually adopt$ divides 8 philosophy into ,dialectic1 ,physics1 & ,e?ics4 ,dialectic1 or ! !ory ( ,ideas1 is ,plato's doctr9e ( ! nature ( ! absolute reality4 ,physics is ! !ory ( ph5om5al exi/5ce 9 space & "t1 & includes !re=e ! doctr9e ( ! s\l & its migrations1 s9ce ^! are happ5+s 9 "t4 ,e?ics includes politics1 ! !ory ( ! duty ( man z a citiz51 z well z ! e?ics ( ! individual4 ,c]ta9 portions ( ! sy/em1 ! doctr9e ( ,eros1 = example1 d n fall v naturally into any ( ^! divisions4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ?\gh "s dialogues are mix$ z to _! subject matt]1 o!rs1 & ^? ! mo/ important1 fall almo/ exclusively into "o or o!r division4 ,= example1 ! ,timaeus1 ! ,pha$o1 & ! ,pha$rus1 are physical4 ,! ,philebus1 ! ,gorgias1 & ! ,republic1 are e?ical4 ,! ,!aetetus1 ! ,sophi/1 & ! ,p>m5ides1 are dialectical4 #b4 ,! ,!ory ( ,k4 ,! !ory ( ,ideas is itself bas$ ^u ! !ory ( k4 ,:at is k8 ,:at is tru?8 ,plato op5s ! discussion by tell+ u fir/ :at k & tru? are n4 ,8 object "h is ! refutation ( false !ories4 ,^! mu/ be dispos$ ( to cle> ! gr\nd prep>atory to positive exposition4 ,! fir/ su* false !ory :i* he attacks is t k #agh is p]ception4 ,to refute ?is is ! ma9 object ( ! ,!aetetus4 ,8 argum5ts may be summ>iz$ z foll[s3-- 7#a7 ,t k is p]ception is ! !ory ( ,protagoras & ! ,sophi/s1 & we h se5 to :at results x leads4 ,:at x am\nts to is t :at appe>s to ea* individual true is true = t individual4 ,b ?is is at any rate false 9 its application to our judgm5t ( future ev5ts4 ,! frequ5t mi/akes :i* m5 make ab\t ! future %[ ?is4 ,x may appe> to me t ,i %all be ,*ief ,ju/ice next ye>4 ,b in/ead ( t1 ,i f9d myself1 p]haps1 9 prison4 ,9 g5]al1 :at appe>s to ea* individual to be ! tru? ab\t ! future frequ5tly does n turn out s 9 ! ev5t4 7#b7 ,p]ception yields contradictory impressions4 ,! same object appe>s l>ge :5 ne>1 small :5 remov$ to a di/ance4 ,comp>$ ) "s ?+s x is light1 ) o!rs heavy4 ,9 "o light x is :ite1 9 ano!r gre51 & 9 ! d>k x has no col\r at all4 ,look$ at f "o angle ?is piece ( pap] seems squ>e1 f ano!r x appe>s to be a rhombus4 ,:i* ( all ^! impressions is true8 ,to "k :i* is true1 we mu/ be able to ex]cise a *oice among ^! v>y+ impressions1 to pref] "o to ano!r1 to discrim9ate1 to accept ?is & reject t4 ,b if k is p]ception1 !n we h no "r to give "o p]ception pref]5ce ov] ano!r4 ,= all p]ceptions are k4 ,all are true4 7#c7 ,?is doctr9e r5d]s all tea*+1 all discussion1 pro(1 or dispro(1 impossible4 ,s9ce all p]ceptions are equally true1 ! *ild's p]ceptions mu/ be j z mu* ! tru? z ^? ( 8 tea*]s4 ,8 tea*]s1 #agi !re=e1 c tea* him no?+4 ,z to discussion & pro(1 ! v fact t two p dispute ab\t any?+ implies t !y believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( an objective tru?4 ,_! impressions1 if !y contradict ea* o!r1 _c bo? be true4 ,= if s1 !re is no?+ to dispute ab\t4 ,?us all pro( & refutation are r5d]$ futile by ! !ory ( ,protagoras4 7#d7 ,if p]ception is tru?1 man is ! measure ( all ?+s1 9 8 "* z a p]cipi5t be+4 ,b s9ce animals are also p]cipi5t be+s1 ! l[e/ brute mu/ be1 equally ) man1 ! measure ( all ?+s4 7#e7 ,! !ory ( ,protagoras contradicts itself4 ,= ,protagoras admits t :at appe>s to me true is true4 ,if1 !re=e1 x appe>s to me true t ! doctr9e ( ,protagoras is false1 ,protagoras himself mu/ admit t x is false4 7#f7 ,x de/roys ! objectivity ( tru?1 & r5d]s ! di/9ction betwe5 tru? & falsehood :olly mean+less4 ,! same ?+ is true & false at ! same "t1 true = y & false = me4 ,h5ce x makes no diff]5ce at all :e!r we say t a proposition is true1 or :e!r we say t x is false4 ,bo? /atem5ts mean ! same ?+1 t is to say1 nei!r ( !m means any?+4 ,to say t :atev] ,i p]ceive is true = me m]ely gives a new "n to my p]ception1 b does n add any value to x4 7#g7 ,9 all p]ception !re are elem5ts :i* are n contribut$ by ! s5ses4 ,suppose ,i say1 ,?is piece ( pap] is :ite4 ,?is1 we might ?9k1 is a pure judgm5t ( p]ception4 ,no?+ is /at$ except :at ,i p]ceive by means ( my s5ses4 ,b on consid]ation x turns out t ?is is n correct4 ,fir/ ( all ,i mu/ #ahj ?9k ?is piece ( pap]4 ,:y d ,i call x pap]8 ,my do+ s means t ,i h classifi$ x4 ,i h m5tally comp>$ x ) o!r pieces ( pap]1 & decid$ t x is ( a class ) !m4 ,my ?\ght1 !n1 involves comp>ison & classification4 ,! object is a comp\nd s5sation ( :it5ess1 squ>5ess1 etc4 ,i c only recognise x z a piece ( pap] by id5tify+ ^! s5sations1 :i* ,i h n[1 ) s5sations receiv$ f o!r simil> objects 9 ! pa/4 ,& n only mu/ ,i recognize ! sam5ess ( ! s5sations1 b ,i mu/ recognize _! diff]5ce f o!r s5sations4 ,i mu/ n conf\nd ! s5sations ,i receive f pap] ) ^? :i* ,i receive f a piece ( wood4 ,bo? id5tities & diff]5ces ( s5sations mu/ be kn[n be=e ,i c say ?is piece ( pap]4 ,! same is true :5 ,i g on to say t x is :ite4 ,?is is only possible by classify+ x ) o!r :ite objects1 & diff]5tiat+ x f objects ( o!r col\rs4 ,b ! s5ses !mselves _c p]=m ^! acts ( comp>ison & contra/4 ,ea* s5sation is1 s to speak1 an isolat$ dot4 ,x _c g beyond itself to comp>e itself ) o!rs4 ,?is op]ation mu/ be p]=m$ by my m9d1 :i* acts z a co-ord9at+ c5tral au?ority1 receiv+ ! isolat$ s5sations1 comb9+1 comp>+1 & contra/+ !m4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly noticeable 9 cases :]e we comp>e s5sations ( "o s5se ) ^? ( ano!r4 ,feel+ a ball ) my f+]s1 ,i say x feels r\nd4 ,look+ at x ) my eyes1 ,i say x looks r\nd4 ,b ! feel is q a diff]5t s5sation f ! look4 ,yet ,i use ! same ^w1 r\nd1 to describe bo?4 ,& ?is %[s t ,i h id5tifi$ ! two s5sations4 ,?is #aha _c be done by ! s5ses !mselves4 ,= my eyes _c feel1 & my f+]s _c see4 ,x mu/ be ! m9d itself1 /&+ above ! s5ses1 :i* p]=ms ! id5tification4 ,?us ! ideas ( id5tity & diff]5ce are n yield$ to me by my s5ses4 ,! intellect itself introduces !m into ?+s4 ,yet !y are involv$ 9 all k1 = !y are involv$ ev5 9 ! simple/ acts ( k1 su* z ! proposition1 ,?is is :ite4 ,k1 !re=e1 _c consi/ simply ( s5se-impressions1 z ,protagoras ?\ght1 = ev5 ! simple/ propositions conta9 m ?an s5sation4 ,if k is n ! same z p]ception1 nei!r is x1 on ! o!r h&1 ! same z op9ion4 ,t k is op9ion is ! second false !ory t ,plato seeks to refute4 ,wrong op9ion is cle>ly n k4 ,b ev5 "r op9ion _c be call$ k4 ,if ,i say1 )\t any gr\nds = ! /atem5t1 t !re w be a ?und]/orm next ,ea/] ,sunday1 x may *ance t my /atem5t turns out to be correct4 ,b x _c be said t1 9 mak+ ?is bl9d guess1 ,i _h any k1 al?\gh1 z x turn$ out1 ,i _h "r op9ion4 ,"r op9ion may also be gr\nd$1 n on m]e guess-"w1 b on some?+ :i*1 ?\gh bett]1 is /ill n true und]/&+4 ,we (t5 feel intuitively1 or in/9ctively1 t some?+ is true1 ?\gh we _c give any def9ite gr\nds = our belief4 ,! belief may be q correct1 b x is n1 accord+ to ,plato1 k4 ,x is only "r op9ion4 ,to possess k1 "o mu/ n only "k t a ?+ is s1 b :y x is s4 ,"o mu/ "k ! reasons4 ,k mu/ be full & complete und]/&+1 rational compreh5sion1 & n m]e in/9ctive belief4 #ahb ,x mu/ be gr\nd$ on reason1 & n on fai?4 ,"r op9ion may be produc$ by p]suasion & sophi/ry1 by ! arts ( ! orator & rhetorician4 ,k c only be produc$ by reason4 ,"r op9ion may equally be remov$ by ! false arts ( rhetoric1 & is !re=e un/able & unc]ta94 ,b true k _c be ?us %ak54 ,he :o truly kn[s & und]/&s _c be robb$ ( 8 k by ! glam\r ( words4 ,op9ion1 la/ly1 may be true or false4 ,k c only be true4 ,^! false !ories be+ refut$1 we c n[ pass to ! positive side ( ! !ory ( k4 ,if k is nei!r p]ception nor op9ion1 :at is x8 ,plato adopts1 )\t alt]ation1 ! ,socratic doctr9e t all k is k ?r\gh concepts4 ,?is1 z ,i expla9$ 9 ! lecture on ,socrates1 gets rid ( ! objectionable results ( ! ,sophi/ic id5tification ( k ) p]ception4 ,a concept1 be+ ! same ?+ z a def9ition1 is some?+ fix$ & p]man5t1 n liable to mutation accord+ to ! subjective impressions ( ! individual4 ,x gives u objective tru?4 ,?is also agrees ) ,plato's view ( op9ion4 ,k is n op9ion1 f\nd$ on in/9ct or intuition4 ,k is f\nd$ on reason4 ,?is is ! same z say+ t x is f\nd$ ^u concepts1 s9ce reason is ! faculty ( concepts4 ,b if ,plato1 9 answ]+ ! "q1 ,:at is k8 foll[s implicitly ! tea*+ ( ,socrates1 he yet builds ^u ?is tea*+ a new & :olly un-,socratic metaphysic ( 8 own4 ,! ,socratic !ory ( k he n[ conv]ts into a !ory ( ! nature ( reality4 ,?is is ! subject-matt] ( ,dialectic4 #ahc #c4 ,dialectic1 or ! ,!ory ( ,ideas4 ,! concept _h be5 = ,socrates m]ely a rule ( ?\ght4 ,def9itions1 l guide-rails1 keep ?\ght ^u ! /raight pa?2 we comp>e any act ) ! def9ition ( virtue 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :e!r x is virtu\s4 ,b :at 0 = ,socrates m]ely regulative ( ?\ght1 ,plato n[ trans=ms into a metaphysical sub/ance4 ,8 !ory ( ,ideas is ! !ory ( ! objectivity ( concepts4 ,t ! concept is n m]ely an idea 9 ! m9d1 b some?+ :i* has a reality ( its own1 outside & indep5d5t ( ! m9d--?is is ! ess5ce ( ! philosophy ( ,plato4 ,h[ did ,plato arrive at ?is doctr9e8 ,x is f\nd$ ^u ! view t tru? means ! correspond5ce ( "o's ideas ) ! facts ( exi/5ce4 ,if ,i see a lake ( wat]1 & if !re really is su* a lake1 !n my idea is true4 ,b if !re is no lake1 !n my idea is false4 ,x is an halluc9ation4 ,tru?1 accord+ to ?is view1 means t ! ?\ght 9 my m9d is a copy ( some?+ outside my m9d4 ,falsehood consi/s 9 hav+ an idea :i* is n a copy ( any?+ :i* really exi/s4 ,k1 ( c\rse1 means k ( ! tru?4 ,& :5 ,i say t a ?\ght 9 my m9d is k1 ,i mu/ !re=e mean t ?is ?\ght is a copy ( some?+ t exi/s4 ,b we h already se5 t k is ! k ( concepts4 ,& if a concept is true k1 x c only be true 9 virtue ( ! fact t x corresponds to an objective reality4 ,!re mu/1 !re=e1 be g5]al ideas or concepts1 outside my m9d4 ,x 7 a contradiction to suppose1 on ! "o h&1 t ! concept is true k1 & on ! o!r1 t x corresponds to no?+ ext]nal #ahd to u4 ,?is w\ld be l say+ t my idea ( ! lake ( wat] is a true idea1 b t no su* lake really exi/s4 ,! concept 9 my m9d mu/ be a copy ( ! concept outside x4 ,n[ if k by concepts is true1 our exp]i5ces ?r\gh s5sation mu/ be false4 ,our s5ses make u aw>e ( _m individual horses4 ,our intellect gives u ! concept ( ! horse 9 g5]al4 ,if ! latt] is ! sole tru?1 ! =m] mu/ be false4 ,& ?is c only mean t ! objects ( s5sation h no true reality4 ,:at has reality is ! concept2 :at has no reality is ! individual ?+ :i* is p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses4 ,?is & t p>ticul> horse h no true be+4 ,reality belongs only to ! idea ( ! horse 9 g5]al4 ,let u approa* ?is !ory f a some:at diff]5t direction4 ,suppose ,i ask y ! "q1 ,:at is beauty8 ,y po9t to a rose1 & say1 ,"h is beauty4 ,& y say ! same ( a woman's face1 a piece ( woodl& sc5]y1 & a cle> moonlight night4 ,b ,i answ] t ?is is n :at ,i want to "k4 ,i did n ask :at ?+s are beautiful1 b :at is beauty4 ,i did n ask = _m ?+s1 b = "o ?+1 namely1 beauty4 ,if beauty is a rose1 x _c be moonlight1 because a rose & moonlight are q diff]5t ?+s4 ,by beauty we mean1 n _m ?+s1 b "o4 ,?is is prov$ by ! fact t we use only "o ^w = x4 ,& :at ,i want to "k is :at ?is "o beauty is1 :i* is di/9ct f all beautiful objects4 ,p]haps y w say t !re is no su* ?+ z beauty ap>t f beautiful objects1 & t1 ?\gh we use "o ^w1 yet ?is is only a mann] ( #ahe spee*1 & t !re are 9 reality _m beauties1 ea* resid+ 9 a beautiful object4 ,9 t case1 ,i obs]ve t1 ?\gh ! _m beauties are all diff]5t1 yet1 s9ce y use ! "o ^w to describe !m all1 y evid5tly ?9k t !y are simil> to ea* o!r4 ,h[ d y "k t !y are simil>8 ,y\r eyes _c in=m y ( ?is simil>ity1 because x involves comp>ison1 & we h already se5 t comp>ison is an act ( ! m9d1 & n ( ! s5ses4 ,y mu/ !re=e h an idea ( beauty 9 y\r m9d1 ) :i* y comp>e ! v>i\s beautiful objects & s recognise !m z all resembl+ y\r idea ( beauty1 & !re=e z resembl+ ea* o!r4 ,s t !re is at any rate an idea ( "o beauty 9 y\r m9d4 ,ei!r ?is idea corresponds to some?+ outside y1 or x does n4 ,9 ! latt] case1 y\r idea ( beauty is a m]e inv5tion1 a figm5t ( y\r own bra94 ,if s1 !n1 9 judg+ ext]nal objects by y\r subjective idea1 & 9 mak+ x ! /&>d ( :e!r !y are beautiful or n1 y are back aga9 at ! position ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,y are mak+ y\rself & ! fancies ( y\r individual bra9 ! /&>d ( ext]nal tru?4 ,!re=e1 ! only alt]native is to believe t !re is n only an idea ( beauty 9 y\r m9d1 b t !re is su* a ?+ z ! "o beauty itself1 ( :i* y\r idea is a copy4 ,?is beauty exi/s outside ! m9d1 & x is some?+ di/9ct f all beautiful objects4 ,:at has be5 said ( beauty may equally be said ( ju/ice1 or ( goodness1 or ( :it5ess1 or ( heav9ess4 ,!re are _m j acts1 b only "o ju/ice1 s9ce we use "o ^w = x4 ,?is ju/ice mu/ be a real ?+1 di/9ct f all p>ticul> j acts4 ,our ideas ( ju/ice #ahf are copies ( x4 ,s also !re are _m :ite objects1 b also ! "o :it5ess4 ,( ! above examples1 sev]al are v exalt$ moral ideas1 su* z beauty1 ju/ice1 & goodness4 ,b ! case ( :it5ess w s]ve to %[ t ! !ory attributes reality n only to exalt$ ideas1 b to o!rs also4 ,9 fact1 we might q well sub/itute evil = goodness1 & all ! same argum5ts w\ld apply4 ,or we might take a corporeal object su* z ! horse1 & ask :at horse means4 ,x does n mean ! _m individual horses1 = s9ce "o ^w is us$ x mu/ mean "o ?+1 :i* is relat$ to individual horses1 j z :it5ess is relat$ to individual :ite ?+s4 ,x means ! univ]sal horse1 ! idea ( ! horse 9 g5]al1 & ?is1 j z mu* z goodness or beauty1 mu/ be some?+ objectively real4 ,n[ beauty1 ju/ice1 goodness1 :it5ess1 ! horse 9 g5]al1 are all concepts4 ,! idea ( beauty is =m$ by includ+ :at is common to all beautiful objects1 & exclud+ ^? po9ts 9 :i* !y diff]4 ,& ?is1 z we h se51 is j :at is meant by a concept4 ,plato's !ory1 !re=e1 is t concepts are objective realities4 ,& he gives to ^! objective concepts ! te*nical "n ,ideas4 ,?is is 8 answ] to ! *ief "q ( philosophy1 namely1 :at1 amid all ! appe>ances & unrealities ( ?+s1 is t absolute & ultimate reality1 f :i* all else is to be expla9$8 ,x consi/s1 = ,plato1 9 ,ideas4 ,let u see next :at ! *>act]i/ics ( ! ,ideas are4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y are sub/ances4 ,sub/ance is a te*nical t]m 9 philosophy1 b its philosophical mean+ is m]ely a m consi/5t developm5t ( its #ahg popul> mean+4 ,9 common talk1 we g5]ally apply ! ^w sub/ance to mat]ial ?+s su* z iron1 brass1 wood1 or wat]4 ,& we say t ^! sub/ances possess qualities4 ,= example1 h>dness & %99ess are qualities ( ! sub/ance iron4 ,! qualities _c exi/ ap>t f ! sub/ances4 ,!y d n exi/ on _! own acc\nt1 b are dep5d5t on ! sub/ance4 ,! %99ess _c exi/ by itself4 ,!re mu/ be a %9y some?+4 ,b1 accord+ to popul> ideas1 ?\gh ! qualities are n indep5d5t ( ! sub/ance1 ! sub/ance is indep5d5t ( ! qualities4 ,! qualities d]ive _! reality f ! sub/ance4 ,b ! sub/ance has reality 9 itself4 ,! philosophical use ( ! t]m sub/ance is simply a m consi/5t application ( ?is idea4 ,sub/ance means1 = ! philosoph]1 t :i* has its :ole be+ 9 itself1 ^: reality does n fl[ into x f any?+ else1 b :i* is ! s\rce ( its own reality4 ,x is self-caus$1 & self-det]m9$4 ,x is ! gr\nd ( o!r ?+s1 b itself has no gr\nd except itself4 ,= example1 if we believe ! popul> ,*ri/ian idea t ,god creat$ ! _w1 b is ,himself an ultimate & uncreat$ be+1 !n1 s9ce ! _w dep5ds = its exi/5ce ^u ,god1 b ,god's exi/5ce dep5ds only ^u ,himself1 ,god is a sub/ance & ! _w is n4 ,9 ?is s5se ! ^w is correctly us$ 9 ! ,cre$ :]e x speaks ( ,god z ?ree p]sons1 b "o sub/ance4 ,aga91 if1 ) ! ,ideali/s1 we ?9k t m9d is a self-exi/5t reality1 & t matt] owes its exi/5ce to m9d1 !n 9 t case matt] is n sub/ance1 b m9d is4 ,9 ?is te*nical s5se ! ,ideas are sub/ances4 ,!y are absolute & ultimate realities4 #ahh ,_! :ole be+ is 9 !mselves4 ,!y dep5d on no?+1 b all ?+s dep5d on !m4 ,!y are ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ! univ]se4 ,secondly1 ! ,ideas are univ]sal4 ,an ,idea is n any p>ticul> ?+4 ,! ,idea ( ! horse is n ?is or t horse4 ,x is ! g5]al concept ( all horses4 ,x is ! univ]sal horse4 ,= ?is reason ! ,ideas are1 9 mod]n times1 (t5 call$ univ]sals4 ,?irdly1 ! ,ideas are n ?+s1 b ?\ghts4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z ! horse-9-g5]al4 ,if !re 71 we %\ld be able to f9d x some:]e1 & x w\ld !n be a p>ticul> ?+ in/ead ( a univ]sal4 ,b 9 say+ t ! ,ideas are ?\ghts1 !re are two mi/akes to be c>efully avoid$4 ,! fir/ is to suppose t !y are ! ?\ghts ( a p]son1 t !y are y\r ?\ghts or my ?\ghts4 ,! second is to suppose t !y are ?\ghts 9 ! m9d ( ,god4 ,bo? ^! views are wrong4 ,x w\ld be absurd to suppose t our ?\ghts c be ! cause ( ! univ]se4 ,our concepts are inde$ copies ( ! ,ideas1 b to confuse !m ) ! ,ideas !mselves is1 = ,plato1 z absurd z to confuse our idea ( a m\nta9 ) ! m\nta9 itself4 ,nor are !y ! ?\ghts ( ,god4 ,!y are inde$ sometimes spok5 ( z ! ,ideas 9 ! div9e m9d4 ,b ?is is only a figurative expression4 ,we c1 if we l1 talk ( ! sum ( all ! ,ideas z con/itut+ ! div9e m9d4 ,b ?is means no?+ 9 p>ticul>1 & is only a poetical phrase4 ,bo? ^! mi/akes are due to ! fact t we f9d x difficult to conceive ( ?\ghts )\t a ?9k]4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is j :at ,plato meant4 ,!y are n subjective ideas1 t is1 ! ideas 9 a p>ticul> & exi/5t #ahi m9d4 ,!y are objective ,ideas1 ?\ghts :i* h reality on _! own acc\nt1 indep5d5tly ( any m9d4 ,f\r?ly1 ea* ,idea is a unity4 ,x is ! "o amid ! _m4 ,! ,idea ( man is "o1 al?\gh individual m5 are _m4 ,!re _c be m ?an "o ,idea = ea* class ( objects4 ,if !re 7 sev]al ,ideas ( ju/ice1 we %\ld h to seek = ! common elem5t among !m1 & ?is common elem5t w\ld itself con/itute ! "o ,idea ( ju/ice4 ,fif?ly1 ! ,ideas are immutable & imp]i%able4 ,a concept is ! same z a def9ition4 ,& ! :ole po9t 9 a def9ition is t x %\ld always be ! same4 ,! object ( a def9ition is to comp>e individual ?+s ) x1 & to see :e!r !y agree ) x or n4 ,b if ! def9ition ( a triangle diff]$ f day to day1 x w\ld be useless1 s9ce we c\ld nev] say :e!r any p>ticul> figure 7 a triangle or n1 j z ! /&>d y>d 9 ! ,t[] ( ,london w\ld be useless if x *ang$ 9 l5g?1 & 7 twice z long to-day z x 0 ye/]day4 ,a def9ition is ?us some?+ absolutely p]man5t1 & a def9ition is only ! expression 9 words ( ! nature ( an ,idea4 ,consequ5tly ! ,ideas _c *ange4 ,! _m beautiful objects arise & pass away1 b ! "o ,beauty nei!r beg9s nor ends4 ,x is et]nal1 un*angeable1 & imp]i%able4 ,! _m beautiful ?+s are b ! fleet+ expressions ( ! "o et]nal beauty4 ,! def9ition ( man w\ld rema9 ! same1 ev5 if all m5 7 de/roy$4 ,! ,idea ( man is et]nal1 & rema9s unt\*$ by ! bir?1 old age1 decay1 & dea?1 ( individual m54 ,six?ly1 ! ,ideas are ! ,ess5ces ( all ?+s4 ,! def9ition gives u :at is ess5tial to a ?+4 ,if we #aij def9e man z a rational animal1 ?is means t reason is ( ! ess5ce ( man4 ,! fact t ?is man has a turn$-up nose1 & t man r$ hair1 are accid5tal facts1 n ess5tial to _! humanity4 ,we d n include !m 9 ! def9ition ( man4 ,sev5?ly1 ea* ,idea is1 9 its own k9d1 an absolute p]fection1 & its p]fection is ! same z its reality4 ,! p]fect man is ! "o univ]sal type-man1 t is1 ! ,idea ( man1 & all individual m5 deviate m or less f ?is p]fect type4 ,9 s f> z !y fall %ort ( x1 !y are imp]fect & unreal4 ,eigh?ly1 ! ,ideas are outside space & "t4 ,t !y are outside space is obvi\s4 ,if !y 7 9 space1 !y w\ld h to be 9 "s p>ticul> place4 ,we ought to be able to f9d !m some:]e4 ,a telescope or microscope might reveal !m4 ,& ?is w\ld mean t !y are individual & p>ticul> ?+s1 & n univ]sals at all4 ,!y are also outside "t4 ,= !y are un*angeable & et]nal2 & ?is does n mean t !y are ! same at all times4 ,if t 7 s1 _! immutability w\ld be a matt] ( exp]i5ce1 & n ( reason4 ,we %\ld1 s to speak1 h to look at !m f "t to "t to see t !y _h n really *ang$4 ,b _! immutability is n a matt] ( exp]i5ce1 b is kn[n to ?\ght4 ,x is n m]ely t !y are always ! same 9 "t1 b t "t is irrelevant to !m4 ,!y are timeless4 ,9 ! ,timaeus et]nity is di/+ui%$ f inf9ite "t4 ,! latt] is describ$ z a m]e copy ( et]nity4 ,n9?ly1 ! ,ideas are rational1 t is to say1 !y are appreh5d$ ?r\gh reason4 ,! f9d+ ( ! common elem5t 9 ! manifold is ! "w ( inductive #aia reason1 & ?r\gh ?is alone is k ( ! ,ideas possible4 ,?is %\ld be not$ by ^? p]sons :o imag9e t ,plato 0 "s sort ( b5evol5t my/ic4 ,! imp]i%able ,"o1 ! absolute reality1 is appreh5d$1 n by intuition1 or 9 any k9d ( my/ic ec/asy1 b only by rational cognition & labori\s ?\ght4 ,la/ly1 t[>ds ! end ( 8 life1 ,plato id5tifi$ ! ,ideas ) ! ,py?agorean numb]s4 ,we "k ?is f ,ari/otle1 b x is n m5tion$ 9 ! dialogues ( ,plato himself4 ,x appe>s to h be5 a !ory adopt$ 9 old age1 & set =? 9 ! lectures :i* ,ari/otle att5d$4 ,x is a retrograde /ep1 & t5ds to degrade ! great & lucid idealism ( ,plato into a ma!matical my/icism4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 o!r respects1 ! influ5ce ( ! ,py?agoreans ^u ,plato 0 h>mful4 ,x results f ?is :ole !ory ( ,ideas t !re are two s\rces ( human exp]i5ce1 s5se-p]ception & reason4 ,s5se-p]ception has = its object ! _w ( s5se2 reason has = its object ! ,ideas4 ,! _w ( s5se has all ! opposite *>act]i/ics to ! ,ideas4 ,! ,ideas are absolute reality1 absolute ,be+4 ,objects ( s5se are absolute unreality1 n-be+1 except 9 s f> z ! ,ideas are 9 !m4 ,:atev] reality !y h !y owe to ! ,ideas4 ,!re is 9 ,plato's sy/em a pr9ciple ( absolute n-be+ :i* we %all consid] :5 we come to deal ) 8 ,physics4 ,objects ( s5se p>ticipate bo? 9 ! ,ideas & 9 ?is n-be+4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 half way betwe5 ,be+ & n-be+4 ,!y are half real4 ,ideas1 aga91 are univ]sal2 ?+s ( s5se are always p>ticul> & individual4 ,! ,idea is "o1 ! s5se-object is always #aib a multiplicity4 ,ideas are outside space & "t1 ?+s ( s5se are bo? temporal & spatial4 ,! ,idea is et]nal & immutable2 s5se-objects are *angeable & 9 p]petual flux4 ,z reg>ds ! la/ po9t1 ,plato adopts ! view ( ,h]acleitus t !re is an absolute ,becom+1 & he id5tifies x ) ! _w ( s5se1 :i* conta9s no?+ /able & p]man5t1 b is a con/ant fl[4 ,! ,idea always is1 & nev] becomes2 ! ?+ ( s5se always becomes1 & nev] is4 ,x is = ?is reason t1 9 ! op9ion ( ,plato1 no k ( ! _w ( s5se is possible1 = "o c h no k ( t :i* *anges f mom5t to mom5t4 ,k is only possible if its subject /&s fix$ be=e ! m9d1 is p]man5t & *angeless4 ,! only k1 !n1 is k ( ! ,ideas4 ,?is may seem1 at fir/ sight1 a v s+ul> doctr9e4 ,t !re c be no k ( s5se-objects w\ld1 x might seem to u mod]ns1 involve ! d5ial t mod]n physical sci5ce1 ) all its exactitude & accumulat$ k1 is k at all4 ,& surely1 ?\gh all e>?ly ?+s arise & pass away1 _m ( !m la/ long en\gh to admit ( k4 ,surely ! m\nta9s are suffici5tly p]man5t to all[ u to "k some?+ ( !m4 ,!y h relative1 ?\gh n absolute1 p]man5ce4 ,?is criticism is p>tly ju/ifi$4 ,plato did und]e/imate ! value ( physical k4 ,b = ! mo/ "p1 ! criticism is a misund]/&+4 ,by ! _w ( s5se ,plato means b>e s5sation ) no rational elem5t 9 x4 ,n[ physical sci5ce has n su* crude s5sation = its object4 ,its objects are rationaliz$ s5sations4 #aic ,if1 9 ,plato's mann]1 we ?9k only ( pure s5sation1 !n x is true t x is no?+ b a con/ant flux )\t /ability2 & k ( x is impossible4 ,! m\nta9s are comp>atively p]man5t4 ,b our s5sation ( ! m\nta9s is p]petually *ang+4 ,e *ange ( light1 e cl\d t passes ov] ! sun1 *anges ! col\rs & ! %ades4 ,e "t we move f "o situation to ano!r1 ! m\nta9 appe>s a diff]5t %ape4 ,! p]man5ce ( ! m\nta9 itself is due to ! fact t all ^! v>y+ s5sations are id5tifi$ z s5sations ( "o & ! same object4 ,! idea ( id5tity is involv$ "h1 & x is1 z x 71 a ?read ^u :i* ^! fleet+ s5sations are /rung4 ,b ! idea ( id5tity _c be obta9$ f ! s5ses4 ,x is introduc$ into ?+s by reason4 ,h5ce k ( ?is p]man5t m\nta9 is only possible ?r\gh ! ex]cise ( reason4 ,9 ,plato's language1 all we c "k ( ! m\nta9 is ! ,ideas 9 :i* x p>ticipates4 ,to rev]t to a previ\s example1 ev5 ! k ?is pap] is :ite involves ! activity ( intellect1 & is impossible ?r\gh s5sation alone4 ,b>e s5sation is a fl[1 ( :i* no k is possible4 ,ari/otle obs]ves t ,plato's !ory ( ,ideas has ?ree s\rces1 ! tea*+s ( ! ,eleatics1 ( ,h]acleitus1 & ( ,socrates4 ,f ,h]acleitus1 ,plato took ! notion ( a sph]e ( ,becom+1 & x appe>s 9 8 sy/em z ! _w ( s5se4 ,f ! ,eleatics he took ! idea ( a sph]e ( absolute ,be+4 ,f ,socrates he took ! doctr9e ( concepts1 & proce$$ to id5tify ! ,eleatic ,be+ ) ! ,socratic concepts4 ,?is gives him 8 !ory ( ,ideas4 #aid ,s5se objects1 s f> z !y are kn[able1 t is s f> z !y are m ?an b>e s5sations1 are s only because ! ,idea resides 9 !m4 ,& ?is yields ! clue to ,plato's tea*+ reg>d+ ! relation ( s5se objects to ! ,ideas4 ,! ,ideas are1 9 ! fir/ place ! cause1 t is to say1 ! gr\nd 7n ! me*anical cause7 ( s5se-objects4 ,! ,ideas are ! absolute reality by :i* individual ?+s mu/ be expla9$4 ,! be+ ( ?+s fl[s into !m f ! ,ideas4 ,!y are copies1 imitations1 ( ! ,ideas4 ,9 s f> z !y resemble ! ,idea1 !y are real2 9 s f> z !y diff] f x1 !y are unreal4 ,9 g5]al1 s5se objects are1 9 ,plato's op9ion1 only v dim1 poor & imp]fect copies ( ! ,ideas4 ,!y are m]e %ad[s1 & half-realities4 ,ano!r expression frequ5tly us$ by ,plato to express ?is relation%ip is t ( p>ticipation4 ,?+s p>ticipate 9 ! ,ideas4 ,:ite objects p>ticipate 9 ! "o :it5ess1 beautiful objects1 9 ! "o beauty4 ,9 ?is way beauty itself is ! cause or explanation ( beautiful objects1 & s ( all o!r ,ideas4 ,! ,ideas are ?us bo? transc5d5t & imman5t2 imman5t 9 s f> z !y reside 9 ! ?+s ( s5se1 transc5d5t inasmu* z !y h a reality ( _! own ap>t f ! objects ( s5se :i* p>ticipate 9 !m4 ,! ,idea ( man w\ld /ill be real ev5 if all m5 7 de/roy$1 & x 0 real be=e any man exi/$1 if !re ev] 0 su* a "t4 ,= ! ,ideas1 be+ timeless1 _c be real n[ & n !n4 ,( :at k9ds ( ?+s are !re ,ideas8 ,t !re are moral ,ideas1 su* z ,ju/ice1 ,goodness1 & ,beauty1 ,ideas ( corporeal ?+s1 su* z horse1 man1 tree1 />1 riv]1 & ,ideas ( qualities1 su* z :it5ess1 heav9ess1 #aie sweetness1 we h already se54 ,b !re are ,ideas n only ( natural corporeal objects1 b likewise ( manufactur$ articles2 !re are ,ideas ( b$s1 tables1 clo!s4 ,& !re are ,ideas n only ( exalt$ moral entities1 su* z ,beauty & ,ju/ice4 ,!re are also ! ,ideal ,ugl9ess1 & ! ,ideal ,inju/ice4 ,!re are ev5 ,ideas ( ! positively nauseat+1 su* z hair1 fil?1 & dirt4 ,?is is ass]t$ 9 ! ,p>m5ides4 ,9 t dialogue ,plato's tea*+ is put into ! m\? ( ,p>m5ides4 ,he que/ions ! "y ,socrates :e!r !re are ,ideas ( hair1 fil?1 & dirt4 ,socrates d5ies t !re c be ,ideas ( su* base ?+s4 ,b ,p>m5ides corrects him1 & tells him t1 :5 he has atta9$ ! highe/ philosophy1 he w no long] despise su* ?+s4 ,moreov]1 ^! ,ideas ( base ?+s are j z mu* p]fection 9 _! k9d z ,beauty & ,goodness are 9 !irs4 ,9 g5]al1 ! pr9ciple is t !re mu/ be an ,idea :]ev] a concept c be =m$2 t is1 :]ev] !re is a class ( _m ?+s call$ by "o "n4 ,we saw1 9 treat+ ( ! ,eleatics1 t = !m ! absolute ,be+ conta9$ no n-be+1 & ! absolute ,"o no multiplicity4 ,& x 0 j because !y d5i$ all n-be+ & multiplicity ( ! absolute reality t !y 7 unable to expla9 ! _w ( exi/5ce1 & 7 =c$ to d5y x altoge!r4 ,! same problem arises = ,plato4 ,is ,be+ absolutely exclud5t ( n-be+8 ,is ! ,absolute an ab/ract ,"o1 utt]ly exclusive ( ! _m8 ,is 8 philosophy a pure monism8 ,is x a pluralism8 ,or is x a comb9ation ( ! two8 ,^! que/ions are discuss$ 9 ! ,sophi/ & ! ,p>m5ides4 #aif ,plato inve/igates ! relations ( ! ,"o & ! _m1 ,be+ & n-be+1 q 9 ! ab/ract4 ,he decides ! pr9ciples involv$1 & leaves x to ! read] to apply !m to ! !ory ( ,ideas4 ,:e!r ! ,absolute is "o or _m1 ,be+ or n-be+1 c be decid$ indep5d5tly ( any p>ticul> !ory ( ! nature ( ! ,absolute1 & !re=e indep5d5tly ( ,plato's own !ory1 :i* 0 t ! ,absolute consi/s ( ,ideas4 ,plato does n accept ! ,eleatic ab/raction4 ,! ,"o _c be simply "o1 = e unity mu/ necess>ily be a multiplicity4 ,! _m & ! ,"o are correlative ideas :i* involve ea* o!r4 ,nei!r is ?9kable )\t ! o!r4 ,a ,"o :i* is n _m is z absurd an ab/raction z a :ole :i* has no p>ts4 ,= ! ,"o c only be def9$ z t :i* is n _m1 & ! _m c only be def9$ z ! n-"o4 ,! ,"o is un?9kable except z /&+ out aga9/ a backgr\nd ( ! _m4 ,! idea ( ! ,"o !re=e involves ! idea ( ! _m1 & _c be ?\ght )\t x4 ,moreov]1 an ab/ract ,"o is un?9kable & unkn[able1 because all ?\ght & k consi/ 9 apply+ pr$icates to subjects1 & all pr$ication involves ! duality ( its subject4 ,consid] ! simple/ affirmation t c be made ab\t ! ,"o1 namely1 ,! ,"o is4 ,"h we h two ?+s1 ! ,"o1 & is1 t is to say1 be+4 ,! proposition means t ! ,"o is ,be+4 ,h5ce ! ,"o is two4 ,fir/ly1 x is itself1 ,"o4 ,secondly1 x is ,be+1 & ! proposition affirms t ^! two ?+s are "o4 ,simil>ly ) any o!r pr$icate we apply to ! ,"o4 ,:atev] we say ( x involves its duality4 ,?us we f9d t all sy/ems ( ?\ght :i* #aig po/ulate an ab/ract unity z ultimate reality1 su* z ,eleaticism1 ,h9duism1 & ! sy/em ( ,sp9oza1 attempt to avoid ! difficulty by say+ no?+ positive ab\t ! ,"o4 ,!y apply to x only negative pr$icates1 :i* tell u n :at x is1 b :at x is n4 ,?us ! ,h9dus speak ( ,brahman z =mless1 immutable1 imp]i%able1 unmov$1 uncreat$4 ,b ?is1 ( c\rse1 is a futile exp$i5t4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ev5 a negative pr$icate involves ! duality ( ! subject4 ,&1 9 ! second place1 a negative pr$icate is always1 by implication1 a positive "o4 ,y _c h a negative )\t a positive4 ,to d5y "o ?+ is to affirm its opposite4 ,to d5y motion ( ! ,"o1 by call+ x ! unmov$1 is to affirm re/ ( x4 ,?us a ,"o :i* is n also a _m is un?9kable4 ,simil>ly1 ! idea ( ! _m is inconceivable )\t ! idea ( ! ,"o4 ,= ! _m is _m ones4 ,h5ce ! ,"o & ! _m _c be sep>at$ 9 ! ,eleatic mann]4 ,e unity mu/ be a unity ( ! _m4 ,& e _m is ipso facto a unity1 s9ce we ?9k ! _m 9 "o idea1 &1 if we did n1 we %\ld n ev5 "k t x is a _m4 ,! ,absolute mu/ !re=e be nei!r an ab/ract ,"o1 nor an ab/ract _m4 ,x mu/ be a _m 9 "o4 ,simil>ly1 ,be+ _c totally exclude n-be+4 ,!y are1 j z mu* z ! ,"o & ! _m1 correlatives1 :i* mutually involve ea* o!r4 ,! be+ ( any?+ is ! n-be+ ( its opposite4 ,! be+ ( light is ! n-be+ ( d>kness4 ,all be+1 !re=e1 has n-be+ 9 x4 ,let u apply ^! pr9ciples to ! !ory ( ,ideas4 ,! absolute reality1 ! _w ( ,ideas1 is _m1 s9ce #aih !re are _m ,ideas1 b x is "o1 because ! ,ideas are n isolat$ units1 b memb]s ( a s+le organiz$ sy/em4 ,!re is1 9 fact1 a hi]>*y ( ,ideas4 ,j z ! "o ,idea presides ov] _m individual ?+s ( :i* x is ! common elem5t1 s "o high] ,idea presides ov] _m l[] ,ideas1 & is ! common elem5t 9 !m4 ,& ov] ?is high] ,idea1 toge!r ) _m o!rs1 a /ill high] ,idea w rule4 ,= example1 ! ,ideas ( :it5ess1 r$ness1 blu5ess1 are all subsum$ "u ! "o ,idea ( col\r4 ,! ,ideas ( sweetness & bitt]ness come "u ! "o ,idea ( ta/e4 ,b ! ,ideas ( col\r & ta/e !mselves /& "u ! /ill high] ,idea ( quality4 ,9 ?is way1 ! ,ideas =m1 z x 71 a pyramid1 & to ?is pyramid !re mu/ be an apex4 ,!re mu/ be "o highe/ ,idea1 :i* is supreme ov] all ! o!rs4 ,?is ,idea w be ! "o f9al & absolutely real ,be+ :i* is ! ultimate gr\nd1 ( itself1 ( ! o!r ,ideas1 & ( ! entire univ]se4 ,?is ,idea is1 ,plato tells u1 ! ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,we h se5 t ! _w ( ,ideas is _m1 & we n[ see t x is "o4 ,= x is "o s+le sy/em culm9at+ 9 "o supreme ,idea1 :i* is ! highe/ expression ( its unity4 ,moreov]1 ea* sep>ate ,idea is1 9 ! same way1 a _m 9 "o4 ,x is "o 9 reg>d to itself4 ,t is to say1 if we ignore its relations to o!r ,ideas1 x is1 9 itself1 s+le4 ,b z x has also _m relations to o!r ,ideas1 x is1 9 ?is way1 a multiplicity4 ,e ,idea is likewise a ,be+ :i* conta9s n-be+4 ,= ea* ,idea comb9es ) "s ,ideas & n ) o!rs4 ,?us ! ,idea ( corporeal body comb9es bo? ) ! ,idea ( re/ & t ( motion4 #aii ,b ! ,ideas ( re/ & motion w n comb9e ) ea* o!r4 ,! ,idea ( re/1 !re=e1 is ,be+ 9 reg>d to itself1 n-be+ 9 reg>d to ! ,idea ( motion1 = ! be+ ( re/ is ! n-be+ ( motion4 ,all ,ideas are ,be+ 9 reg>d to !mselves1 & n-be+ 9 reg>d to all ^? o!r ,ideas ) :i* !y d n comb9e4 ,9 ?is way !re arises a sci5ce ( ,ideas :i* is call$ dialectic4 ,?is ^w is sometimes us$ z id5tical ) ! phrase1 !ory ( ,ideas4 ,b x is also us$1 9 a n>r[] s5se1 to mean ! sci5ce :i* has to d ) ! k ( :i* ,ideas w comb9e & :i* n4 ,dialectic is ! correct jo9+ & disjo9+ ( ,ideas4 ,x is ! k ( ! relations ( all ! ,ideas to ea* o!r4 ,! atta9m5t ( ?is k is1 9 ,plato's op9ion1 ! *ief problem ( philosophy4 ,to "k all ! ,ideas1 ea* 9 itself & 9 its relations to o!r ,ideas1 is ! supreme task4 ,?is involves two /eps4 ,! fir/ is ! =mation ( concepts4 ,its object is to "k ea* ,idea sep>ately1 & its proc$ure is by inductive reason to f9d ! common elem5t 9 :i* ! _m individual objects p>ticipate4 ,! second /ep consi/s 9 ! k ( ! int]-relation ( ,ideas1 & involves ! two processes ( classification & division4 ,classification & division bo? h = _! object to arrange ! l[] ,ideas "u ! prop] high] ,ideas1 b !y d ?is 9 opposite ways4 ,"o may beg9 ) ! l[] ,ideas1 su* z r$ness1 :it5ess1 etc41 & range !m "u _! high] ,idea1 t ( col\r4 ,?is is classification4 ,or "o may beg9 ) ! high] ,idea1 col\r1 & divide x into ! l[] ,ideas1 r$1 :ite1 #bjj etc4 ,classification proce$s f bel[ upw>ds4 ,division proce$s f above d[nw>ds4 ,mo/ ( ! examples ( division :i* ,plato gives are divisions by di*otomy4 ,we may ei!r divide col\r /raight away into r$1 blue1 :ite1 etc42 or we may divide ea* class into two sub-classes4 ,?us col\r w be divid$ into r$ & n-r$1 n-r$ into :ite & n-:ite1 n-:ite into blue & n-blue1 & s on4 ,?is latt] process is division by di*otomy1 & ,plato pref]s x because1 ?\gh x is t$i\s1 x is v exhau/ive & sy/ematic4 ,plato's actual p]=mance ( ! supreme task ( dialectic1 ! classification & arrangem5t ( all ,ideas1 is n great4 ,he has made no attempt to complete x4 ,all he has done is to give u num]\s examples4 ,& ?is is1 9 reality1 all t c be expect$1 = ! numb] ( ,ideas is obvi\sly inf9ite1 & !re=e ! task ( arrang+ !m _c be complet$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o important defect 9 ! dialectic1 :i* ,plato ought c]ta9ly to h rem$i$4 ,! supreme ,idea1 he tells u1 is ! ,good4 ,?is1 z be+ ! ultimate reality1 is ! gr\nd ( all o!r ,ideas4 ,plato ought !re=e to h d]iv$ all o!r ,ideas f x1 b ?is he has n done4 ,he m]ely ass]ts1 9 a m or less dogmatic way1 t ! ,idea ( ! ,good is ! highe/1 b does no?+ to connect x ) ! o!r ,ideas4 ,x is easy to see1 h[ev]1 :y he made ?is ass]tion4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a necess>y logical outcome ( 8 sy/em4 ,= e ,idea is p]fection 9 its k9d4 ,all ! ,ideas h p]fection 9 common4 ,& j z ! "o beauty is ! ,idea :i* presides ov] all beautiful ?+s1 s ! "o p]fection mu/ be ! supreme ,idea :i* presides #bja ov] all ! p]fect ,ideas4 ,! supreme ,idea1 !re=e1 mu/ be p]fection itself1 t is to say1 ! ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,on ! o!r h& x might1 ) equal =ce1 be argu$ t s9ce all ! ,ideas are sub/ances1 !re=e ! highe/ ,idea is ! ,idea ( sub/ance4 ,all t c be said is t ,plato has left ^! matt]s 9 obscurity1 & has m]ely ass]t$ t ! highe/ ,idea is ! ,good4 ,consid]ation ( ! ,idea ( ! ,good leads u naturally to enquire h[ f> ,plato's sy/em is teleological 9 "*4 ,a little consid]ation w %[ t x is out & out teleological4 ,we c see ?is bo? by /udy+ ! _m l[] ,ideas1 & ! "o supreme ,idea4 ,ea* ,idea is p]fection ( its k9d4 ,& ea* ,idea is ! gr\nd ( ! exi/5ce ( ! individual objects :i* come "u x4 ,?us ! explanation ( :ite objects is ! p]fect :it5ess1 ( beautiful objects ! p]fect beauty4 ,or we may take z our example ! ,idea ( ! ,/ate :i* ,plato describes 9 ! ,republic4 ,! ord9>y view is t ,plato 0 describ+ a ,/ate :i* 0 ! inv5tion ( 8 own fancy1 & is !re=e to be reg>d$ z entirely unreal4 ,?is is completely to misund]/& ,plato4 ,s f> 0 he f ?9k+ ! ideal ,/ate unreal1 t he reg>d$ x1 on ! contr>y1 z ! only real ,/ate4 ,all exi/5t ,/ates1 su* z ! ,a!nian or ! ,sp>tan1 are unreal 9 s f> z !y diff] f ! ideal ,/ate4 ,& moreov]1 ?is "o reality1 ! ideal ,/ate1 is ! gr\nd ( ! exi/5ce ( all actual ,/ates4 ,!y owe _! exi/5ce to its reality4 ,_! exi/5ce c only be expla9$ by x4 ,n[ s9ce ! ideal ,/ate is n yet rea*$ 9 fact1 b is ! p]fect ,/ate t[>ds :i* all actual ,/ates t5d1 x is cle> t we h "h #bjb a teleological pr9ciple4 ,! real explanation ( ! ,/ate is n to be f\nd 9 its beg9n+s 9 hi/ory1 9 an orig9al contract1 or 9 biological necessities1 b 9 its end1 ! f9al or p]fect ,/ate4 ,or1 if we pref] to put x s2 ! true beg9n+ is ! end4 ,! end mu/ be 9 ! beg9n+1 pot5tially & ideally1 o!rwise x c\ld nev] beg93 ,x is ! same ) all o!r ?+s4 ,man is expla9$ by ! ideal man1 ! p]fect man2 :ite ?+s by ! p]fect :it5ess1 & s on4 ,ev]y?+ is expla9$ by its end1 & n by its beg9n+4 ,?+s are n expla9$ by me*anical causes1 b by reasons4 ,& ! teleology ( ,plato culm9ates 9 ! ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,t ,idea is ! f9al explanation ( all o!r ,ideas1 & ( ! entire univ]se4 ,& to place ! f9al gr\nd ( all ?+s 9 p]fection itself means t ! univ]se arises out ( t p]fect end t[>ds :i* all ?+s move4 ,ano!r matt] :i* requires elucidation "h is ! place :i* ! conception ( ,god holds 9 ,plato's sy/em4 ,he frequ5tly uses ! ^w ,god bo? 9 ! s+ul> & ! plural1 & seems to slip ) rem>kable ease f ! mono!i/ic to ! poly!i/ic mann] ( speak+4 ,9 addition to ! _m gods1 we h frequ5t ref]5ce to ! "o supreme ,creator1 controll]1 & rul] ( ! _w1 :o is fur!r conceiv$ z a ,be+ provid5tially wat*+ ov] ! lives ( m54 ,b 9 :at relation does ?is supreme ,god /& to ! ,ideas1 & especially to ! ,idea ( ! ,good8 ,if ,god is sep>ate f ! highe/ ,idea1 !n1 z ,zell] po9ts out1 ,footnote #ac only ?ree relations are possible1 all ( :i* are #bjc equally objectionable4 ,fir/ly1 ,god may be ! cause or gr\nd ( ! ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,b ?is de/roys ! sub/antiality ( ! ,idea1 & inde$1 de/roys ,plato's :ole sy/em4 ,! v ess5ce ( 8 philosophy is t ! ,idea is ! ultimate reality1 :i* is self-exi/5t1 & owes its be+ to no?+ else4 ,b ?is !ory makes x a m]e creature ( ,god1 dep5d5t on ,him = its exi/5ce4 ,secondly1 ,god may owe ,8 be+ to ! ,idea4 ,! ,idea may be ! gr\nd ( ,god's exi/5ce z x is ! gr\nd ( all else 9 ! univ]se4 ,b ?is !ory does viol5ce to ! idea ( ,god1 turn+ ,him into a m]e d]ivative exi/5ce1 &1 9 fact1 into an appe>ance4 ,?irdly1 ,god & ! ,idea may be co-ord9ate 9 ! sy/em z equally primordial indep5d5t ultimate realities4 ,b ?is means t ,plato has giv5 two mutually inconsi/5t acc\nts ( ! ultimate reality1 or1 if n1 t 8 sy/em is a hopeless dualism4 ,z none ( ^! !ories c be ma9ta9$1 x mu/ be suppos$ t ,god is id5tical ) ! ,idea ( ! ,good1 & we f9d c]ta9 expressions 9 ! ,philebus :i* seem cle>ly to ass]t ?is4 ,b 9 t case ,god is n a p]sonal ,god at all1 s9ce ! ,idea is n a p]son4 ,! ^w ,god1 if us$ 9 ?is way1 is m]ely a figurative t]m = ! ,idea4 ,& ?is is ! mo/ probable !ory1 if we reflect t !re is 9 fact no room = a p]sonal ,god 9 a sy/em :i* places all reality 9 ! ,idea1 & t to introduce su* a conception ?reat5s to break up ! :ole sy/em4 ,plato probably f\nd x useful to take ! popul> conceptions ab\t ! p]sonality ( ,god or ! gods & use !m1 9 my?ical fa%ion1 to express 8 ,ideas4 ,^? p>ts ( ,plato :i* speak ( ,god1 & ! gov]nance ( ,god1 #bjd are to be int]pret$ on ! same pr9ciples z ! o!r ,platonic my?s4 ,footnote #ac3 ,plato & ! ,old] ,academy1 *ap4 vi4 ,be=e clos+ our discussion ( dialectic1 x may be well to consid] :at place x occupies 9 ! life ( man1 & :at importance is atta*$ to x4 ,"h ,plato's answ] is emphatic4 ,dialectic is ! cr[n ( k1 & k is ! cr[n ( life4 ,all o!r spiritual activities h value only 9 s f> z !y lead up to ! k ( ! ,idea4 ,all o!r subjects ( intellectual /udy are m]ely prep>atory to ! /udy ( philosophy4 ,! special sci5ces h no value 9 !mselves1 b !y h value inasmu* z _! def9itions & classifications =m a prep>ation = ! k ( ,ideas4 ,ma!matics is important because x is a /epp+-/one f ! _w ( s5se to ! ,ideas4 ,its objects1 namely1 numb]s & geometrical figures1 resemble ! ,ideas 9 s f> z !y are immutable1 & !y resemble s5se-objects 9 s f> z !y are 9 space or "t4 ,9 ! educational curriculum ( ,plato1 philosophy comes la/4 ,n ev]yone may /udy x4 ,& none may /udy x till he has be5 ?r\gh all ! prep>atory /ages ( education1 :i* =m a rigor\s discipl9e ( ! m9d be=e x f9ally ent]s ^u dialectic4 ,?us all k ends 9 dialectic1 & t life has n atta9$ its end :i* falls %ort ( philosophy4 ,p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ illu/ration ( ! subord9ation ( all spiritual activities to philosophy is to be f\nd 9 ! doctr9e ( ,eros1 or ,love4 ,! phrase platonic love is on ! lips ( _m1 b1 z a rule1 some?+ v diff]5t f ,plato's own doctr9e is meant4 ,accord+ to him1 love is always conc]n$ ) beauty1 & 8 tea*+ on ! subject is exp\nd$ #bje *iefly 9 ! ,symposium1 ,he believ$ t be=e bir? ! s\l dwelt disembodi$ 9 ! pure contemplation ( ! _w ( ,ideas4 ,s9k+ d[n into a body1 becom+ imm]s$ 9 ! _w ( s5se1 x =gets ! ,ideas4 ,! sight ( a beautiful object rem9ds x ( t "o ,idea ( beauty ( :i* ! object is a copy4 ,?is acc\nts = ! my/ic rapture1 ! emotion1 ! joy1 ) :i* we greet ! sight ( ! beautiful4 ,s9ce ,plato _h expressly decl>$ t !re are ,ideas ( ! ugly z well z ( ! beautiful1 t !re are ,ideas1 = example1 ( hair1 fil?1 & dirt1 & s9ce ^! ,ideas are j z div9e & p]fect z ! ,idea ( ! beautiful1 we ought1 on ?is !ory1 to greet ! ugly1 ! fil?y1 & ! nauseat+1 ) a ravi%m5t ( joy simil> to t :i* we exp]i5ce 9 ! pres5ce ( beauty4 ,:y ?is is n ! case ,plato omitt$ to expla94 ,h[ev]1 hav+ le>n$ to love ! "o beautiful object1 ! s\l passes on to ! love ( o!rs4 ,!n x p]ceives t x is ! same beauty :i* reveals itself 9 all ^!4 ,x passes f ! love ( beautiful =ms to ! love ( beautiful s\ls1 & f t to ! love ( beautiful sci5ces4 ,x ceases to be atta*$ to ! _m objects1 z su*1 t is to say1 to ! s5su\s envelopes ( ! ,idea ( beauty4 ,love passes into ! k ( ! ,idea ( beauty itself1 & f ?is to ! k ( ! _w ( ,ideas 9 g5]al4 ,x passes 9 fact into philosophy4 ,9 ?is developm5t !re are two po9ts :i* we _c fail to note4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 emotional love is expla9$ z be+ simply ! bl9d grop+ ( reason t[>ds ! ,idea4 ,x is reason :i* has n yet recogniz$ itself z su*4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 9 ! #bjf guise ( feel+4 ,secondly1 ! lat] progress ( ! s\l's love is simply ! gradual recognition ( itself by reason4 ,:5 ! s\l p]ceives t ! beauty 9 all objects is ! same1 t x is ! common elem5t amid ! _m1 ?is is no?+ b ! process ( inductive reason+4 ,& ?is developm5t ends at la/ 9 ! complete rational cognition ( ! _w ( ,ideas1 9 a ^w1 philosophy4 ,love is b an in/9ctive reason4 ,! animal has no feel+ ( ! beautiful1 j because x has no reason4 ,love ( ! beautiful is f\nd$ ^u ! nature ( man1 n z a p]cipi5t or feel+ be+1 b z a rational be+4 ,& x mu/ end 9 ! complete recognition ( reason by itself1 n 9 ! feel+ & intuition1 b 9 ! rational compreh5sion1 ( ! ,idea4 ,"o c imag9e :at ,plato's answ] w\ld be to ! sort ( vulg>ians & phili/9es :o want to "k :at ! use ( philosophy is1 & 9 :at way x is practical4 ,to answ] su* a "q is = ,plato impossible1 because ! "q itself is illegitimate4 ,= a ?+ to h a use involves t x is a means t[>ds an end4 ,fire has use1 because x may be made a means t[>ds ! cook+ ( food4 ,money is useful1 because x is a means to ! acquisition ( goods4 ,t :i* is an end 9 itself1 & n a means t[>ds any fur!r end1 _c possibly h any use4 ,to sugge/ t philosophy ought to h use is1 !re=e1 to put ! c>t be=e ! horse1 to inv]t ! :ole scale ( values4 ,x sugge/s t philosophy is a means t[>ds "s fur!r end1 in/ead ( be+ ! absolute end to :i* all o!r ?+s are means4 ,philosophy is n = any?+4 ,ev]y?+ else is = x4 ,&1 if ?is seems an exagg]at$ or unpractical view1 we may at lea/ #bjg rememb] t ?is is ! view tak5 by ! religi\s consci\sness ( man4 ,religion makes ! supreme end ( life ! k (1 & communion )1 ,god4 ,god is = religion :at ! ,idea is = philosophy4 ,god is a figurative "n = ! ,idea4 ,to place ! end ( life 9 ! k ( ! ,absolute1 or ! ,idea1 is !re=e ! tea*+ bo? ( philosophy & religion4 #d4 ,physics1 or ! ,!ory ( ,exi/5ce4 ,dialectic is ! !ory ( reality1 physics ! !ory ( exi/5ce1 dialectic ( t :i* lies beh9d ?+s z _! gr\nd1 physics ( ! ?+s :i* are ?us gr\nd$4 ,t is to say1 physics is conc]n$ ) ph5om5a & appe>ances1 ?+s :i* exi/ 9 space & "t1 z oppos$ to ! timeless & non-spatial ,ideas4 ,?+s ( ?is k9d are bo? corporeal & incorporeal4 ,physics falls !re=e into two p>ts1 ! doctr9e ( ! outw>d corporeality1 ! _w1 ) its incorporeal ess5ce1 ! ,_w-,s\l1 & ! doctr9e ( ! incorporeal s\l ( man4 7a7 ,! ,doctr9e ( ! ,_w4 ,if1 9 ! dialectic1 ,plato has giv5 an acc\nt ( ! nature ( ! fir/ pr9ciple & gr\nd ( all ?+s1 ! problem n[ arises ( expla9+ h[ ! actual univ]se ( ?+s arises out ( t gr\nd1 h[ x is d]iv$ f ! fir/ pr9ciple4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ,ideas be+ ! absolute reality1 h[ does ! _w ( s5se1 &1 9 g5]al1 ! exi/5t univ]se1 arise out ( ! ,ideas8 ,fac$ ) ?is problem1 ! sy/em ( ,plato broke d[n4 ,! ?+s ( s5se are1 we are told1 copies or imitations ( ! ,ideas4 #bjh ,!y p>ticipate 9 ! ,ideas4 ,s f>1 s good4 ,b :y %\ld !re be any copies ( ! ,ideas8 ,:y %\ld ! ,ideas give rise to copies ( !mselves1 & h[ is ! production ( ^! copies effect$8 ,to ^! que/ions ,plato has no answ]1 & he !re=e has rec\rse to ! use ( my?s4 ,poetic description "h takes ! place ( sci5tific explanation4 ,?is poetic description ( ! orig9 ( ! _w is to be f\nd 9 ! ,timaeus4 ,we h se5 t ! ,ideas are absolute ,be+1 & t ?+s ( s5se are half real & half unreal4 ,!y are p>tly real because !y p>ticipate 9 ,be+4 ,!y are p>tly unreal because !y p>ticipate 9 n-be+4 ,!re mu/ be1 !re=e1 a pr9ciple ( absolute n-be+4 ,?is1 9 ,plato's op9ion1 is matt]4 ,?+s ( s5se are copies ( ! ,ideas fa%ion$ out (1 or /amp$ ^u1 matt]4 ,b ,plato does n und]/& by matt] :at we1 9 mod]n times1 und]/& by x4 ,matt]1 9 our s5se1 is always "s p>ticul> k9d ( matt]4 ,x is brass1 or wood1 or iron1 or /one4 ,x is matt] :i* has det]m9ate "* & quality4 ,b ! possession ( specific "* means t x is matt] ) ! copy ( ,ideas already /amp$ ^u x4 ,s9ce iron exi/s 9 great quantities 9 ! _w1 & !re is a common elem5t 9 all ! v>i\s pieces ( iron1 by virtue ( :i* all are class$ toge!r1 !re mu/ be a concept ( iron4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 an ,idea ( iron 9 ! _w ( ,ideas4 ,& ! iron :i* we f9d 9 ! e>? mu/ be matt] :i* is already =m$ into a copy ( ?is ,idea4 ,x p>ticipates 9 ! ,idea ( iron4 ,! same rem>ks apply to any o!r p>ticul> k9d ( matt]4 ,9 fact1 all =m1 all ! specific *>act]s & #bji features ( matt]1 z we "k x1 are due to ! op]ation ( ! ,ideas4 ,h5ce matt] z x is 9 itself1 be=e ! image ( ! ,ideas is /amp$ ^u x1 mu/ be absolutely )\t quality1 featureless1 =mless4 ,b to be absolutely )\t any quality is to be simply no?+ at all4 ,?is matt] is1 !re=e1 z ,plato says1 absolute n-be+4 ,zell] conjectures1 probably rightly1 t :at ,plato meant 0 simply empty space4 ,footnote #ad ,empty space is an exi/5t n-be+1 & x is totally indet]m9ate & =mless4 ,x accords ) ?is view t ,plato adopt$ ! ,py?agorean t5et t ! diff]5tial qualities ( mat]ial sub/ances are due to _! smalle/ p>ticles be+ regul> geometrical figures limit$ out ( ! unlimit$1 t is1 out ( space4 ,?us e>? is compos$ ( cubes4 ,t is to say1 empty space :5 b\nd into cubes 7! limit+ ( ! unlimit$7 becomes e>?4 ,! smalle/ p>ticles ( fire are tetrah$ra1 ( air octah$ra1 ( wat] icosah$ra4 ,footnote #ad3 ,plato & ! ,old] ,academy1 *ap4 vii4 ,we h1 !n1 on ! "o h&1 ! _w ( ,ideas1 on ! o!r1 matt]1 an absolutely =mless1 *aotic1 mass4 ,by impress+ ! images ( ! ,ideas ^u ?is mass1 ?+s arise1 t is to say1 ! specific objects ( s5se4 ,!y ?us p>ticipate bo? 9 ,be+ & 9 n-be+4 ,b h[ is ?is mix+ ( ,be+ & n-be+ br\ght ab\t8 ,h[ d ! ,ideas come to h _! images /amp$ ^u matt]8 ,x is at ?is po9t t we ent] ^u ! region ( my?4 ,up to ?is po9t ,plato is c]ta9ly to be tak5 lit]ally4 ,he ( c\rse believ$ 9 ! reality ( ! _w ( ,ideas1 & he no d\bt also believ$ 9 8 pr9ciple ( matt]4 ,& he ?\ght t ! objects ( s5se are to be #baj expla9$ z copies ( ! ,ideas impress$ ^u matt]4 ,b n[1 ) ! problem h[ ?is copy+ is br\ght ab\t1 ,plato leaves ! me?od ( sci5tific explanation beh9d4 ,if ! ,ideas are ! absolute gr\nd ( all ?+s1 !n ! copy+ process mu/ be done by ! ,ideas !mselves4 ,!y mu/ !mselves be made ! pr9ciples = ! production ( ?+s4 ,b ?is is1 = ,plato1 impossible4 ,= production involves *ange4 ,if ! ,ideas produce ?+s out ( !mselves1 ! ,ideas mu/ 9 ! process und]go *ange4 ,b ,plato has decl>$ !m to be absolutely un*angeable1 & to be ?us immutable is to be /]ile4 ,h5ce ! ,ideas h )9 !mselves no pr9ciple = ! production ( ?+s1 & ! sci5tific explanation ( ?+s by ?is means becomes impossible4 ,h5ce !re is no?+ = x b to h rec\rse to my?4 ,plato c only imag9e t ?+s are produc$ by a _w-=m]1 or design]1 :o1 l a human arti/1 fa%ions ! pla/ic matt] into images ( ! ,ideas4 ,god1 ! ,creator1 ! _w-design]1 f9ds beside him1 on ! "o h&1 ! ,ideas1 on ! o!r1 =mless matt]4 ,fir/1 he creates ! ,_w-,s\l4 ,?is is incorporeal1 b occupies space4 ,he spreads x out l a huge net 9 empty space4 ,he bisects x1 & b5ds ! two halves into an inn] & an out] circle1 ^! circles be+ de/9$ to become ! sph]es ( ! planets & ! />s respectively4 ,he takes matt] & b9ds x into ! f\r elem5ts1 & ^! elem5ts he builds into ! empty framework ( ! ,_w-,s\l4 ,:5 ?is is done1 ! creation ( ! univ]se is complete4 ,! re/ ( ! ,timaeus is occupi$ ) ! details ( ,plato's ideas ( a/ronomy & physical #baa sci5ce4 ,^! are mo/ly wor?less & t$i\s1 & we ne$ n pursue !m "h4 ,b we may m5tion t ,plato1 ( c\rse1 reg>d$ ! e>? z ! c5tre ( ! _w4 ,! />s1 :i* are div9e be+s1 revolve ar\nd x4 ,!y necess>ily move 9 circles1 because ! circle is ! p]fect figure4 ,! />s1 be+ div9e1 are gov]n$ solely by reason1 & _! movem5t mu/ !re=e be circul>1 because a circul> motion is ! motion ( reason4 ,! above acc\nt ( ! orig9 ( ! _w is m]ely my?1 & ,plato kn[s t x is my?4 ,:at he app>5tly did believe 91 h[ev]1 0 ! exi/5ce ( ! ,_w-,s\l1 & a few words ^u ?is subject are necess>y4 ,! s\l1 9 ,plato's sy/em1 is ! m$iator betwe5 ! _w ( ,ideas & ! _w ( s5se4 ,l ! =m]1 x is incorporeal & immortal4 ,l ! latt]1 x occupies space4 ,plato ?\ght t !re mu/ be a s\l 9 ! _w to acc\nt = ! rational behavi\r ( ?+s1 & to expla9 motion4 ,! reason :i* gov]ns & directs ! _w dwells 9 ! ,_w-,s\l4 ,& ! ,_w-,s\l is ! cause ( motion 9 ! out] univ]se1 j z ! human s\l is ! cause ( ! motions ( ! human body4 ,! cosmos is a liv+ be+4 7b7 ,! ,doctr9e ( ! ,human ,s\l4 ,! human s\l is simil> 9 k9d to ! ,_w-,s\l4 ,x is ! cause ( ! body's movem5ts1 & 9 x ! human reason dwells4 ,x has aff9ities bo? ) ! _w ( ,ideas & ! _w ( s5se4 ,x is divid$ into two p>ts1 ( :i* "o "p is aga9 subdivid$ into two4 ,! highe/ "p is reason1 :i* is #bab t "p ( ! s\l :i* appreh5ds ! ,ideas4 ,x is simple & indivisible4 ,n[ all de/ruction ( ?+s means ! sund]+ ( _! p>ts4 ,b ! rational "p ( ! s\l1 be+ simple1 has no p>ts4 ,!re=e x is inde/ructible & immortal4 ,! irrational "p ( ! s\l is mortal1 & is subdivid$ into a noble & an ignoble half4 ,to ! noble half belong c\rage1 love ( hon\r1 & 9 g5]al ! nobl] emotions4 ,to ! ignoble portion belong ! s5su\s appetites4 ,! noble half has a c]ta9 aff9ity ) reason1 9 t x has an in/9ct = :at is noble & great4 ,nev]!less1 ?is is m]e in/9ct1 & is n rational4 ,! seat ( reason is ! head1 ( ! noble half ( ! l[] s\l1 ! brea/1 ( ! ignoble half1 ! l[] "p ( ! body4 ,man alone possesses ! ?ree p>ts ( ! s\l4 ,animals possess ! two l[] p>ts1 plants only ! appetitive s\l4 ,:at di/+ui%es man f ! l[] ord]s ( creation is ?us t he alone possesses reason4 ,plato connects ! doctr9e ( ! immortality ( ! rational s\l ) ! !ory ( ,ideas by means ( ! doctr9es ( recollection & transmigration4 ,accord+ to ! =m] doctr9e1 all k is recollection ( :at 0 exp]i5c$ by ! s\l 9 its disembodi$ /ate be=e bir?4 ,x mu/ c>efully be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! ^w k is "h us$ 9 ! special & re/rict$ s5se ( ,plato4 ,n ev]y?+ t we %\ld call k is recollection4 ,! s5su\s elem5t 9 my p]ception t ?is pap] is :ite is n recollection1 s9ce1 z be+ m]ely s5su\s1 x is n1 9 ,plato's op9ion1 to be call$ k4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 he conf9es ! t]m #bac to rational k1 t is to say1 k ( ! ,ideas1 ?\gh x is d\btful :e!r he is :olly consi/5t ) himself 9 ! matt]1 especially 9 reg>d to ma!matical k4 ,x mu/ also be not$ t ?is doctr9e has no?+ 9 common ) ! ,ori5tal doctr9e ( ! memory ( our pa/ lives ^u ! e>?4 ,an example ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! ,buddhi/ ,jatakas1 :]e ! ,buddha relates f memory _m ?+s t happ5$ to him 9 ! body 9 8 previ\s bir?s4 ,plato's doctr9e is q diff]5t4 ,x ref]s only to recollection ( ! exp]i5ces ( ! s\l 9 its disembodi$ /ate 9 ! _w ( ,ideas4 ,! reasons assign$ by ,plato = believ+ 9 ?is doctr9e may be r$uc$ to two4 ,fir/ly1 k ( ! ,ideas _c be d]iv$ f ! s5ses1 because ! ,idea is nev] pure 9 its s5su\s manife/ation1 b always mix$4 ,! "o beauty1 = example1 is only f\nd 9 exp]i5ce mix$ ) ! ugly4 ,! second reason is m /rik+4 ,&1 if ! doctr9e ( recollection is itself fanta/ic1 ?is1 ! *ief reason ^u :i* ,plato bases x1 is int]e/+ & important4 ,he po9t$ out t ma!matical k seems to be innate 9 ! m9d4 ,x is nei!r imp>t$ to u by in/ruction1 nor is x ga9$ f exp]i5ce4 ,plato1 9 fact1 came )9 an ace ( discov]+ :at1 9 mod]n times1 is call$ ! di/9ction betwe5 necess>y & cont+5t k1 a di/9ction :i* 0 made by ,kant ! basis ( mo/ f>-rea*+ developm5ts 9 philosophy4 ,! "* ( necessity atta*es to rational k1 b n to s5su\s4 ,to expla9 ?is di/9ction1 we may take z our example ( rational k su* a proposition z t two #bad & two make f\r4 ,?is does n mean m]ely t1 z a matt] ( fact1 e two objects & e o!r two objects1 ) :i* we h tri$ ! exp]im5t1 make f\r4 ,x is n m]ely a fact1 x is a necessity4 ,x is n m]ely t two & two d make f\r1 b t !y mu/ make f\r4 ,x is inconceivable t !y %\ld n4 ,we h n got to g & see :e!r1 9 ea* new case1 !y d s4 ,we "k be=eh& t !y w1 because !y mu/4 ,x is q o!rwise ) su* a proposition z1 gold is yell[4 ,!re is no necessity ab\t x4 ,x is m]ely a fact4 ,= all anybody c see to ! contr>y x might j z well be blue4 ,!re is no?+ inconceivable ab\t its be+ blue1 z !re is ab\t two & two mak+ five4 ,( c\rse1 t gold is yell[ is no d\bt a me*anical necessity1 t is1 x is det]m9$ by causes1 & 9 t s5se c\ld n be o!rwise4 ,b x is n a logical necessity4 ,x is n a logical contradiction to imag9e blue gold1 z x w\ld be to imag9e two & two mak+ five4 ,any o!r proposition 9 ma!matics possesses ! same necessity4 ,t ! angles at ! base ( an isosceles triangle are equal is a necess>y proposition4 ,x c\ld n be o!rwise )\t contradiction4 ,its opposite is un?9kable4 ,b t ,socrates is /&+ is n a necess>y tru?4 ,he might j z well be sitt+4 ,s9ce a ma!matical proposition is necess>ily true1 its tru? is kn[n )\t v]ification by exp]i5ce4 ,hav+ prov$ ! proposition ab\t ! isosceles triangle1 we d n g ab\t measur+ ! angles ( triangul> objects to make sure !re is no exception4 ,we "k x )\t any exp]i5ce at all4 ,& if we #bae 7 suffici5tly clev]1 we might ev5 evolve ma!matical k out ( ! res\rces ( our own m9ds1 )\t its be+ told u by any tea*]4 ,t ,caes> 0 /abb$ by ,brutus is a fact :i* no am\nt ( clev]ness c\ld ev] reveal to me4 ,?is in=mation ,i c only get by be+ told x4 ,b t ! base angles ( an isosceles triangle are equal ,i c\ld discov] by m]ely ?9k+ ab\t x4 ,! proposition ab\t ,brutus is n a necess>y proposition4 ,x might be o!rwise4 ,& !re=e ,i mu/ be told :e!r x is true or n4 ,b ! proposition ab\t ! isosceles triangle is necess>y1 & !re=e ,i c see t x mu/ be true )\t be+ told4 ,n[ ,plato did n cle>ly make ?is di/9ction betwe5 necess>y & non-necess>y k4 ,b :at he did p]ceive 0 t ma!matical k c be kn[n )\t ei!r exp]i5ce or in/ruction4 ,kant aft]w>ds gave a less fanta/ic explanation ( ^! facts4 ,b ,plato conclud$ t su* k mu/ be already pres5t 9 ! m9d at bir?4 ,x mu/ be recollect$ f a previ\s exi/5ce4 ,x might be answ]$ t1 ?\gh ?is k9d ( k is n ga9$ f ! exp]i5ce ( ! s5ses1 x may be ga9$ f tea*+4 ,x may be imp>t$ by ano!r m9d4 ,we h to tea* *ildr5 ma!matics1 :i* we %\ld n h to d if x 7 already 9 _! m9ds4 ,b ,plato's answ] is t :5 ! tea*] expla9s a geometrical !orem to ! *ild1 directly ! *ild und]/&s :at is meant1 he ass5ts4 ,he sees x = himself4 ,b if ! tea*] expla9s t ,lisbon is on ! ,tagus1 ! *ild _c see t ?is is true = himself4 ,he mu/ ei!r believe ! ^w #baf ( ! tea*]1 or he mu/ g & see4 ,9 ?is case1 !re=e1 ! k is really imp>t$ f "o m9d to ano!r4 ,! tea*] transf]s to ! *ild k :i* ! *ild does n possess4 ,b ! ma!matical !orem is already pres5t 9 ! *ild's m9d1 & ! process ( tea*+ m]ely consi/s 9 mak+ him see :at he already pot5tially kn[s4 ,he has only to look into 8 own m9d to f9d x4 ,?is is :at we mean by say+ t ! *ild sees x = himself4 ,9 ! ,m5o ,plato attempts to give an exp]im5tal pro( ( ! doctr9e ( recollection4 ,socrates is repres5t$ z talk+ to a slave-boy1 :o admitt$ly has no education 9 ma!matics1 & b>ely kn[s :at a squ>e is4 ,by d9t ( skilful que/ion+ ,socrates elicits f ! boy's m9d a !orem ab\t ! prop]ties ( ! squ>e4 ,! po9t ( ! argum5t is t ,socrates tells him no?+ at all4 ,he imp>ts no in=mation4 ,he only asks que/ions4 ,! boy's k ( ! !orem1 !re=e1 is n due to ! tea*+ ( ,socrates1 nor is x due to exp]i5ce4 ,x c only be recollection4 ,b if k is recollection1 x may be ask$1 :y is x t we d n rememb] at once8 ,:y is ! t$i\s process ( education 9 ma!matics necess>y8 ,because ! s\l1 desc5d+ f ! _w ( ,ideas into ! body1 has its k dull$ & almo/ blott$ out by its imm]sion 9 ! s5su\s4 ,x has =gott51 or x has only ! dimme/ & fa9te/ recollection4 ,x has to be rem9d$1 & x takes a great ef=t to br+ ! half-lo/ ideas back to ! m9d4 ,?is process ( be+ rem9d$ is education4 ,) ?is1 ( c\rse1 is connect$ ! doctr9e ( #bag transmigration1 :i* ,plato took1 no d\bt1 f ! ,py?agoreans4 ,mo/ ( ! details ( ,plato's doctr9e ( transmigration are m]e my?4 ,plato does n mean !m s]i\sly1 z is %[n by ! fact t he gives q diff]5t & inconsi/5t acc\nts ( ^! details 9 diff]5t dialogues4 ,:at1 9 all probability1 he did believe1 h[ev]1 may be summ>iz$ z foll[s4 ,! s\l is pre-exi/5t z well z immortal4 ,its natural home is ! _w ( ,ideas1 :]e at fir/ x exi/$1 )\t a body1 9 ! pure & blissful contemplation ( ,ideas4 ,b because x has aff9ities ) ! _w ( s5se1 x s9ks d[n into a body4 ,aft] dea?1 if a man has liv$ a good life1 & especially if he has cultivat$ ! k ( ,ideas1 philosophy1 ! s\l returns to its blissful abode 9 ! _w ( ,ideas1 till1 aft] a long p]iod x aga9 returns to e>? 9 a body4 ,^? :o d evil suff] aft] dea? sev]e p5alties1 & are !n re9c>nat$ 9 ! body ( "s be+ l[] ?an !mselves4 ,a man may become a woman4 ,m5 may ev51 if _! lives h be5 utt]ly s5sual1 pass into ! bodies ( animals4 #e4 ,e?ics 7a7 ,! ,e?ics ( ! ,individual ,j z ,plato's !ory ( k beg9s ) a negative portion1 design$ to refute false !ories ( :at tru? is1 s does 8 !ory ( morals beg9 ) a negative portion1 int5d$ to refute false !ories ( :at virtue is4 ,^! two negative dep>tm5ts ( ,plato's philosophy correspond 9 e way4 ,z he 0 !n engag$ 9 %[+ t k is n p]ception1 z ,protagoras ?\ght1 s he n[ urges t #bah virtue is n ! same z pleasure4 ,& z k is n m]e "r op9ion1 nei!r is virtue m]e "r action4 ,! propositions t k is p]ception1 & t virtue is pleasure1 are inde$ only ! same pr9ciple appli$ to diff]5t sph]es ( ?\ght4 ,= ! ,sophi/s :atev] appe>$ true to ! individual 0 true = t individual4 ,?is is ! same z say+ t k is p]ception4 ,= ! ,sophi/s1 aga91 :atev] appe>$ "r to ! individual 0 "r = t individual4 ,?is is ! same z say+ t x is "r = ea* man to d :atev] he pleases4 ,virtue is def9$ z ! pleasure ( ! individual4 ,?is consequ5ce ( ! ,sophi/ic pr9ciples 0 drawn bo? by _m ( ! ,sophi/s !mselves1 & lat] by ! ,cyr5aics4 ,z ^! two propositions are ?us 9 fact only "o pr9ciple1 :at ,plato has said 9 refutation ( ! =m] provides also 8 refutation ( ! latt]4 ,! !ory t virtue is pleasure has ! same de/ructive influ5ce ^u morals z ! !ory t k is p]ception _h ^u tru?4 ,we may ?us %ortly summ>ize ,plato's argum5ts4 7#a7 ,z ! ,sophi/ic !ory ( tru? de/roys ! objectivity ( tru?1 s ! doctr9e t virtue is ! pleasure ( ! individual de/roys ! objectivity ( ! good4 ,no?+ is good 9 itself4 ,?+s are only good = me or = y4 ,!re results an absolute moral relativity1 9 :i* ! idea ( an objective /&>d ( goodness totally disappe>s4 7#b7 ,?is !ory de/roys ! di/9ction betwe5 good & evil4 ,s9ce ! good is :atev] ! individual pleases1 & s9ce ! pleasure ( "o individual is ! #bai displeasure ( ano!r1 ! same ?+ is bo? good & evil at ! same "t1 good = "o p]son & evil = ano!r4 ,good & evil are !re=e n di/9ct4 ,!y are ! same4 7#c7 ,pleasure is ! satisfaction ( our desires4 ,desires are m]ely feel+s4 ,?is !ory1 !re=e1 f\nds morality ^u feel+4 ,b an objective morality _c be f\nd$ ^u :at is peculi> to individuals4 ,if ! moral code is to be a law b9d+ ^u all m51 x c only be f\nd$ ^u t :i* is common to all m51 ! univ]sal reason4 7#d7 ,! end ( moral activity mu/ fall )91 & n outside1 ! moral act itself4 ,morality mu/ h an intr9sic1 n a m]ely extr9sic1 value4 ,we mu/ n d "r = ! sake ( some?+ else4 ,we mu/ d "r because x is "r1 & ?us make virtue an end 9 itself4 ,b ! ,sophi/ic !ory places ! end ( morality outside morality4 ,we are to d "r1 n = its own sake1 b = ! sake ( pleasure4 ,morality is ?us n an end 9 itself1 b m]ely a means t[>ds a fur!r end4 ,virtue1 !re=e1 is n pleasure1 any m ?an k is p]ception4 ,likewise1 j z k is n "r op9ion1 s virtue is n "r action4 ,"r op9ion may be held ^u wrong gr\nds1 & "r action may be p]=m$ on wrong gr\nds4 ,= true virtue we mu/ n only "k :at is "r1 b :y x is "r4 ,true virtue is ?us "r action proce$+ f a rational compreh5sion ( true values4 ,h5ce !re arises 9 ,plato's philosophy a di/9ction betwe5 philosophic virtue & cu/om>y virtue4 ,philosophic virtue is f\nd$ ^u reason1 & und]/&s ! #bbj pr9ciple on :i* x acts4 ,x is1 9 fact1 action gov]n$ by pr9ciples4 ,cu/om>y virtue is "r action proce$+ f any o!r gr\nds1 su* z cu/om1 habit1 tradition1 good impulses1 b5evol5t feel+s1 in/9ctive goodness4 ,m5 d "r m]ely because o!r p d x1 because x is cu/om>y1 & !y d x )\t und]/&+ ! reasons = x4 ,?is is ! virtue ( ! ord9>y hone/ citiz51 ! respectable p]son4 ,x is ! virtue ( bees & ants1 :o act z if rationally1 b )\t any und]/&+ ( :at !y are do+4 ,& ,plato obs]ves--no d\bt ) an int5tional spice ( hum\r--t su* p may 9 ! next life f9d !mselves born z bees & ants4 ,plato d5ies philosophic virtue n only to ! masses ( m51 b ev5 to ! be/ /atesm5 & politicians ( ,greece4 ,z true virtue is virtue :i* kn[s at :at x is aim+1 ! k ( ! nature ( ! highe/ aim becomes ! *ief "q ( e?ics4 ,:at is ! end ( moral activity8 ,n[ we h j se5 t t end mu/ fall )91 & n outside1 ! moral act4 ,! end ( goodness is ! good4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! good8 ,:at is ! supreme good1 ! summum bonum8 ,a note ( w>n+ is necess>y be=e we ent] ^u ! details ( ?is problem4 ,plato frequ5tly speaks ( all moral activity aim+ at1 & end+ 91 happ9ess4 ,) mod]n phrases r++ 9 our e>s1 we might easily suppose ?is to mean t ,plato is a utilit>ian4 ,! utilit>ianism ( ,b5?am & ,mill is di/+ui%$ by ! fact t x places ! end ( morality 9 happ9ess4 ,yet ,plato 0 n a utilit>ian1 & w\ld unhesitat+ly h condemn$ ! !ory ( ,mill4 ,he #bba w\ld h f\nd x id5tical 9 pr9ciple ) ! ,sophi/ic doctr9e t pleasure is ! end ( virtue4 ,! only diff]5ce is t1 :]eas ! ,sophi/s id5tifi$ virtue ) ! pleasure ( ! individual1 ,mill makes x ! pleasure ( ! community4 ,t act is "r :i* leads to ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]4 ,9 practice1 ( c\rse1 ?is makes a trem5d\s diff]5ce4 ,b ! pr9ciple is equally objectionable because1 l ! ,sophi/ic !ory1 x f\nds morality ^u m]e feel+1 in/ead ( ^u reason1 & because x places ! end ( morality outside morality itself4 ,yet ! =mula ( ,mill1 t ! end ( morals is happ9ess1 seems ! same z ,plato's =mula4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce8 ,! fact is t :at ,mill calls happ9ess ,plato w\ld h call$ pleasure4 ,pleasure is ! satisfaction ( "o's desires1 :e!r !y are noble or ignoble4 ,!n :at is happ9ess8 ,x c only be def9$ z ! g5]al h>moni\s well-be+ ( life4 ,only t man is happy ^: s\l is 9 ! /ate x ought to be 91 only 9 fact ! j1 ! good1 & ! moral man4 ,happ9ess has no?+ to d ) pleasure4 ,if y c\ld conceive an absolutely j & upright man1 :o 0 yet weigh$ d[n ) e possible mis]y & disa/]1 9 ^: life pleasure _h no "p1 su* a man w\ld /ill be absolutely happy4 ,happ9ess is1 !re=e1 9 ,plato1 m]ely ano!r "n = ! summum bonum4 ,9 say+ t ! summum bonum is happ9ess1 ,plato is n tell+ u any?+ ab\t x4 ,he is m]ely giv+ x a new "n4 ,& we are /ill left to enquire3 :at is ! summum bonum8 :at is happ9ess8 ,plato's answ]1 z inde$ 8 :ole e?ics1 is b #bbb an application ( ! !ory ( ,ideas4 ,b "h we c di/+ui% two diff]5t &1 to "s ext5t1 inconsi/5t /ra9s ( ?\ght1 :i* exi/ side by side 9 ,plato1 & p]petually /ruggle = ! ma/]y4 ,bo? views dep5d ^u ! !ory ( ,ideas4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ,idea1 9 ,plato's philosophy1 is ! sole reality4 ,! object ( s5se is unreal1 & m]ely clogs & dims ! s\l's vision ( ! ,ideas4 ,matt] is t :i* ob/ructs ! free activity ( ! ,idea4 ,s5se-objects hide ! ,idea f our view4 ,!re=e ! _w ( s5se is :olly evil4 ,true virtue mu/ consi/ 9 fly+ f ! _w ( s5se1 9 retir+ f ! affairs ( ! _w1 & ev5 f ! beauty ( ! s5ses1 into ! calm ( philosophic contemplation4 ,& if ?is 7 all1 philosophy1 ! k ( ! ,ideas1 w\ld be ! sole con/itu5t ( ! summum bonum4 ,b x is possible to reg>d s5se-objects 9 ano!r light4 ,!y are1 aft] all1 copies ( ! ,ideas4 ,!y are !re=e a manife/ation & revelation ( ! ideal _w4 ,h5ce ,plato is compell$ by ?is ?\ght to all[ a c]ta9 value to ! _w ( s5se1 its affairs1 & its beauty4 ,! result ( ?is inconsi/5cy is1 at any rate1 t ,plato rema9s broad & human4 ,he does n1 on ! "o h&1 prea* a purely selfi% retirem5t into philosophy1 or a n>r[ ascetic ideal4 ,he does n1 on ! o!r h&1 adopt a l[ utilit>ian view ( life1 all[+ value only to t :i* is practical4 ,he rema9s true to ! ,greek ideal ( life z a h>moni\s play ( all ! faculties1 9 :i* no "o "p ( man is ov]-develop$ at ! exp5se ( ! o!rs4 ,! result is t ,plato's summum bonum is n a s+le #bbc end4 ,x is a comp\nd consi/+ ( f\r p>ts4 ,fir/1 & *ief ( all1 is ! k ( ! ,ideas z !y are 9 !mselves1 philosophy4 ,secondly1 ! contemplation ( ! ,ideas z !y reveal !mselves 9 ! _w ( s5se1 ! love & appreciation ( all t is beautiful1 ord]$1 & h>moni\s4 ,?irdly1 ! cultivation ( ! special sci5ces & arts4 ,& f\r?ly1 indulg5ce 9 pure1 ref9$1 & innoc5t pleasures ( ! s5ses1 exclud+1 ( c\rse1 :atev] is base & evil4 ,plato _h also a specific doctr9e ( virtue4 ,z already /at$1 he di/+ui%$ betwe5 philosophic & cu/om>y virtue1 & atta*$ absolute value only to ! =m]4 ,he does n1 h[ev]1 d5y a relative value to cu/om>y virtue1 inasmu* z x is a means t[>ds true virtue4 ,plato saw t man _c rise at "o b\nd to ! p9nacles ( rational virtue4 ,he mu/ ne$s pass ?r\gh ! prep>atory /age ( cu/om>y virtue4 ,9 ! man 9 :om reason is n yet awak5$1 good habits & cu/oms mu/ be implant$1 9 ord] t1 :5 reason comes1 x may f9d ! gr\nd ready prep>$4 ,socrates _h taught t virtue is "o4 ,& ,plato 9 8 e>li] writ+s adopt$ ?is view4 ,b lat] on he came to see t e faculty ( man has its place & its function1 & ! due p]=mance ( its function is a virtue4 ,he did n1 h[ev]1 surr5d] ! unity ( virtue altoge!r1 b believ$ t its unity is compatible ) its plurality4 ,!re are f\r c>d9al virtues4 ,?ree ( ^! correspond to ! ?ree p>ts ( ! s\l1 & ! f\r? is ! unity ( ! o!rs4 ,! virtue ( reason is wisdom1 ( ! noble half ( #bbd ! mortal s\l c\rage1 ( ! ignoble appetites1 temp]ance or self-control1 9 :i* ! passions all[ !mselves to be gov]n$ by reason4 ,! f\r? virtue1 ju/ice1 arises f ! o!rs4 ,ju/ice means proportion & h>mony1 & accrues to ! s\l :5 all ?ree p>ts p]=m _! functions & co-op]ate ) ea* o!r4 ,foll[+ ,zell]1 we may add to ?is acc\nt ( ! virtues "s ( ,plato's views ^u ! details ( life4 ,& fir/1 8 op9ion ( wom5 & m>riage4 ,"h ,plato does n rise above ! level ( ord9>y ,greek morals4 ,he has no?+ specially orig9al to say1 b reflects ! op9ions ( 8 age4 ,wom5 he reg>ds z ess5tially inf]ior to m54 ,moreov]1 ! mod]n view ( woman z ! complem5t ( man1 z possess+ ^? special virtues ( womanl9ess1 :i* a man lacks1 is q ali5 to ,plato4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 m5 & wom5 is1 9 8 view1 n "o ( k9d b only ( degree4 ,! only specific diff]5ce betwe5 ! sexes is ! physical diff]5ce4 ,spiritually !y are q ! same1 except t woman is inf]ior4 ,h5ce ,plato w\ld n exclude wom5 f ! same education :i* man receives4 ,he w\ld educate !m 9 exactly ! same way1 b ?is involves ! imposition ^u !m ( ! same burd5s4 ,ev5 milit>y duties are n outside ! sph]e ( wom54 ,8 views ( m>riage fl[ f ! same pr9ciple4 ,s9ce woman is n ! complem5t ( man1 %e is 9 no special s5se fitt$ to be 8 companion4 ,h5ce ! ideal ( spiritual companion%ip is abs5t f ,plato's view ( m>riage1 ! sole object ( :i*1 9 8 op9ion1 is ! propagation ( *ildr54 ,! natural companion #bbe ( a man is n a woman1 b ano!r man4 ,! ideal ( fri5d%ip1 !re=e1 takes ! place ( ! spiritual ideal ( m>riage 9 ,plato &1 inde$1 among ! anci5ts g5]ally4 ,slav]y is n d5\nc$ by ,plato4 ,he takes no tr\ble to ju/ify x1 because he ?9ks x s obvi\sly "r t x ne$s no ju/ification4 ,all t c be said to 8 cr$it is t he dem&s humane & j1 ?\gh firm & uns5tim5tal1 treatm5t ( slaves4 ,if 9 ^! respects ,plato nev] transc5ds ! ,greek view ( life1 9 "o matt] at lea/ he does s4 ,! common view ( 8 "t 0 t "o ought to d good to "o's fri5ds & evil to "o's enemies4 ,?is ,plato expressly repudiates4 ,x c nev] be good1 he ?9ks1 to d evil4 ,"o %\ld r d good to "o's enemies1 & s conv]t !m into fri5ds4 ,to return good = evil is no less a ,platonic ?an a ,*ri/ian maxim4 7b7 ,! ,/ate4 ,we pass f ! e?ics ( individual life to ! e?ics ( ! community4 ,plato's ,republic is n an attempt to pa9t an imag9>y & unreal p]fection4 ,its object is to f\nd politics on ! !ory ( ,ideas by depict+ ! ,idea ( ! ,/ate4 ,?is ,/ate is1 !re=e1 n unreal1 b ! only real ,/ate1 & its reality is ! gr\nd ( ! exi/5ce ( all actually exi/5t ,/ates4 ,we c trace "h1 too1 ! same two /ra9s ( ?\ght z we f\nd 9 consid]+ ! e?ics ( ! individual4 ,on ! "o h&1 s9ce ! ,idea alone is real1 ! exi/5t _w a m]e illusion1 ! s]vice ( ! #bbf ,/ate _c be ! ideal life = a rational be+4 ,complete retirem5t f ! _w into ! sph]e ( ,ideas is a f> nobl] end1 & ! aims ( ! ord9>y politician are1 9 comp>ison1 wor?less baubles4 ,?\gh only ! philosoph] is compet5t to rule1 yet he w n und]take ! bus9ess ( ! ,/ate1 except "u compulsion4 ,9 ! political ,/ates1 z !y exi/ 9 ! _w1 ! philosoph] dwells ) 8 body1 b 8 s\l is a /rang]1 ignorant ( _! /&>ds1 unmov$ by _! ambitions4 ,b ! opposite /ra9 ( ?\ght is upp]mo/ :5 we are told t x is1 aft] all1 only 9 ! ,/ate1 only 9 8 capacity z a citiz5 & a social be+ t ! individual c atta9 p]fection4 ,x is only possible to reconcile ^! views 9 "o way4 ,if ! ideals ( ! ,/ate & ( philosophy seem inconsi/5t1 !y mu/ be br\ght toge!r by adapt+ ! ,/ate to philosophy4 ,we mu/ h a ,/ate f\nd$ ^u philosophy & reason4 ,!n only c ! philosoph] dwell 9 x ) 8 s\l z well z ) 8 body4 ,!n only c ei!r ! individual or ! ,/ate rea* p]fection4 ,to f\nd ! ,/ate ^u reason is ! keynote ( ,plato's politics4 ,& ?is gives u1 too1 ! clue to ! problem1 :at is ! end ( ! ,/ate8 ,:y %\ld !re be a ,/ate at all8 ,?is does n mean1 h[ has ! ,/ate aris5 9 hi/ory8 ,we are n 9 se>* ( ! cause1 b ( ! reason1 or end1 ( ! ,/ate4 ,! end ( all life is wisdom1 virtue1 & k4 ,! unassi/$ individual _c rea* ^! ends4 ,x is only by ! ,/ate t !y c be br\ght d[n f heav5 to e>?4 ,! end ( ! ,/ate is ?us ! virtue & happ9ess 7n pleasure7 ( ! citiz5s4 ,& s9ce ?is is only possible #bbg ?r\gh education1 ! ,/ate's prim>y function is educational4 ,s9ce ! ,/ate is to be f\nd$ ^u reason1 its laws mu/ be rational1 & rational laws c only be made by rational m51 philosoph]s4 ,! rul]s mu/ be philosoph]s4 ,& s9ce ! philosoph]s are few1 we mu/ h an ari/ocracy1 n ( bir?1 or ( weal?1 b ( intellect4 ,! fir/ op]ative pr9ciple ( ! ,/ate is reason1 ! second is =ce4 ,= x is n to be expect$ t ! irrational masses w will+ly submit to rational laws4 ,!y mu/ be compell$4 ,& s9ce ! "w ( ! _w mu/ g on1 ! ?ird op]ative pr9ciple w be lab\r4 ,plato believ$ 9 ! pr9ciple ( division ( lab\r4 ,only he c excel at any occupation ^: life is devot$ to x4 ,h5ce to ! ?ree op]ative pr9ciples correspond ?ree classes1 ca/es1 or pr(essions4 ,reason is embodi$ 9 ! philosoph]-rul]s1 =ce 9 ! w>riors1 lab\r 9 ! masses4 ,?is division ( ! functions ( ! ,/ate is bas$ ^u ! ?reefold division ( ! s\l4 ,to ! rational s\l correspond ! philosoph]-rul]s1 to ! nobl] half ( ! mortal s\l ! w>riors1 to ! appetitive s\l ! masses4 ,consequ5tly ! f\r c>d9al virtues belong to ! ,/ate ?r\gh ! function+ ( ! ?ree classes4 ,! virtue ( ! philosoph]-rul]s is wisdom1 ( ! w>riors c\rage1 ( ! masses1 temp]ance4 ,! h>moni\s co-op]ation ( all ?ree produces ju/ice4 ,! rul]s mu/ n cease to be philosoph]s4 ,mo/ ( _! "t mu/ be sp5t 9 ! /udy ( ! ,ideas1 philosophy1 & only a portion 9 ! affairs ( gov]nm5t4 ,?is is r5d]$ possible by ! sy/em ( tak+ turns4 ,^? :o are n at any p>ticul> "t #bbh engag$ ^u gov]nm5t retire into ?\ght4 ,! duty ( ! w>riors is ! protection ( ! ,/ate1 bo? aga9/ its ext]nal enemies1 & aga9/ ! irrational impulses ( ! masses ( its own citiz5s4 ,normally1 ! latt] w be _! *ief duty1 ! en=cem5t ( ! decrees ( ! philosoph]-rul]s ^u ! masses4 ,! masses w engage !mselves 9 trade1 comm]ce1 & agriculture4 ,bo? ! o!r ranks are prohibit$ f soil+ _! f+]s ) trade or agriculture1 ^u :i* ,plato1 z a ,greek ari/ocrat1 look$ d[n ) unb\nd$ contempt4 ,to :at rank a citiz5 belongs is n det]m9$ by bir?1 nor by individual *oice4 ,no individual c *oose 8 own pr(ession4 ,?is w be det]m9$ by ! (fic]s ( ! ,/ate1 :o w base _! decision1 h[ev]1 ^u ! disposition & capabilities ( ! individual4 ,z !y h also to decide ! numb]s requir$ = ea* rank1 ! magi/rates also control ! bir? ( *ildr54 ,p>5ts _c h *ildr5 :5 !y wi%4 ,! sanction ( ! ,/ate is requir$4 ,s9ce ! end ( ! ,/ate is ! virtue ( ! citiz5s1 ?is involves ! de/ruction ( :atev] is evil & ! enc\ragem5t ( :atev] is good4 ,to compass ! de/ruction ( evil1 ! *ildr5 ( bad p>5ts1 or (fspr+ n sanction$ by ! ,/ate1 w be de/roy$4 ,weak & sickly *ildr5 w also n be all[$ to live4 ,! positive enc\ragem5t ( good involves ! education ( ! citiz5s by ! ,/ate4 ,*ildr5 f _! e>lie/ ye>s d n belong to _! p>5ts1 b to ! ,/ate4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 at once remov$ f ! cu/ody ( _! p>5ts1 & transf]r$ to ,/ate nurs]ies4 ,s9ce ! p>5ts are to h no #bbi prop]ty nor int]e/ 9 !m1 /r+5t means are adopt$ to see t1 aft] removal to ! public nurs]ies1 p>5ts %all nev] aga9 be able to recognize _! own *ildr54 ,all ! details ( ! educational curriculum are decre$ by ! ,/ate4 ,poetry1 = example1 is only all[$ 9 an emasculat$ =m4 ,( ! ?ree k9ds1 epic1 dramatic1 & lyric1 ! two =m] are bani%$ f ! ,/ate altoge!r1 because1 9 ! base example ( ! immorality ( ! gods1 :i* !y depict1 !y are p[]ful in/rum5ts 9 ! propagation ( evil4 ,only lyric poetry is all[$1 & t "u /rict sup]vision4 ,! subject1 ! =m1 ev5 ! metre1 w be prescrib$ by ! prop] au?orities4 ,poetry is n recogniz$ z valuable 9 itself1 b only z an educative moral influ5ce4 ,all poems1 !re=e1 mu/ /rictly inculcate virtue4 ,x is1 9 ,plato's op9ion1 intol]able t ! individual %\ld h any int]e/ ap>t f ! int]e/s ( ! ,/ate4 ,private int]e/s cla% ) ^? ( ! community1 & mu/ !re=e be aboli%$4 ,! individual c possess no prop]ty ei!r 9 mat]ial ?+s1 or 9 ! memb]s ( 8 family4 ,?is involves ! community ( goods1 community ( wives1 & ! ,/ate own]%ip ( *ildr5 f _! bir?4 #f4 ,views ^u ,art4 ,9 mod]n times ae/hetics is recogniz$ z a sep>ate division ( philosophy4 ,?is 0 n ! case 9 ,plato's "t1 & yet 8 op9ions ^u art _c be fitt$ into ei!r dialectic1 physics1 or e?ics4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y _c be ignor$1 & !re is no?+ = x1 !re=e1 b to treat !m z a sort ( app5dix #bcj to 8 philosophy4 ,plato has no sy/ematic !ory ( art1 b only scatt]$ op9ions1 ! mo/ important ( :i* w n[ be m5tion$4 ,mo/ mod]n !ories ( art are bas$ ^u ! view t art is an end 9 itself1 t ! beautiful has1 z su*1 absolute value1 & n value m]ely z a means to "s fur!r end4 ,^u su* a view1 art is recogniz$ z autonom\s )9 its own sph]e1 gov]n$ only by its own laws1 judg$ only by its own /&>ds4 ,x _c be judg$1 z ,tol/oi w\ld h u believe1 by ! /&>d ( morals4 ,! beautiful is n a means to ! good4 ,!y may be inde$1 ultimately id5tical1 b _! id5tity _c be recogniz$ till _! diff]5ce has be5 admitt$4 ,nor c "o be subord9at$ to ! o!r4 ,n[ ?is view ( art f9ds no place at all 9 ,plato's ?\ght4 ,art is1 = him1 absolutely subs]vi5t bo? to morals & to philosophy4 ,t x subs]ves morality we see f ! ,republic1 :]e only t poetry is all[$ :i* inculcates virtue1 & only because x inculcates virtue4 ,x is no suffici5t ju/ification ( a poem to plead t x is beautiful4 ,beautiful or n1 if x does n subs]ve ! ends ( morality1 x is =bidd54 ,h5ce too ! prepo/]\s notion t its ex]cise is to be controll$1 ev5 9 details1 by ! ,/ate4 ,t ?is w\ld mean ! utt] de/ruction ( art ei!r did n occur to ,plato1 or if x did1 did n det] him4 ,if poetry _c exi/ "u ! yoke ( morality1 x mu/ n be all[$ to exi/ at all4 ,t art is m]ely a means to philosophy is ev5 m evid5t4 ,! end ( all education is ! k ( ! ,ideas1 & e o!r subject1 sci5ce1 ma!matics1 art1 is introduc$ into ! #bca educational curriculum solely z a prep>ation = t end4 ,!y h no value 9 !mselves4 ,?is is obvi\s f ! tea*+ ( ! ,republic1 & x is ev5 m evid5t 9 ! ,symposium1 :]e ! love ( beautiful objects is made to end1 n 9 itself1 b 9 philosophy4 ,plato's l[ e/imate ( art appe>s also 9 8 !ory ( art z imitation1 & 8 contemptu\s ref]5ces to ! nature ( arti/ic g5ius4 ,z to ! fir/1 art is1 to him1 only imitation4 ,x is ! copy ( an object ( ! s5ses1 & ?is aga9 is only a copy ( an ,idea4 ,h5ce a "w ( art is only a copy ( a copy4 ,plato did n recognise ! creativ5ess ( art4 ,?is view is c]ta9ly false4 ,if ! aims ( art 7 m]ely to imitate1 a photograph w\ld be ! be/ picture1 s9ce x is ! mo/ accurate copy ( its object4 ,:at ,plato fail$ to see 0 t ! arti/ does n copy 8 object1 b idealizes x4 ,& ?is means t he does n see ! object simply z an object1 b z ! revelation ( an ,idea4 ,he does n see ! ph5om5on ) ! eyes ( o!r m51 b p5etrates ! s5su\s envelope & exhibits ! ,idea %9+ ?r\gh ! veils ( s5se4 ,! second po9t is ,plato's e/imate ( arti/ic g5ius4 ,! arti/ does n "w by reason1 b by inspiration4 ,he does n1 or he %\ld n1 create ! beautiful by means ( rules1 or by ! application ( pr9ciples4 ,x is only aft] ! "w ( art is creat$ t ! critic discov]s rules 9 x4 ,?is does n mean t ! discov]y ( rules is false1 b t ! arti/ foll[s !m unconsci\sly & in/9ctively4 ,if1 = example1 we believe ,ari/otle's dictum t ! object ( trag$y #bcb is to purge ! he>t by t]ror & pity1 we d n mean t ! trag$ian delib]ately sets out to accompli% t end4 ,he does s )\t kn[+ or int5d+ x4 ,& ?is k9d ( in/9ctive impulse we call ! inspiration ( ! arti/4 ,n[ ,plato fully recognizes ^! facts4 ,b f> f consid]+ inspiration some?+ exalt$1 he ?9ks x1 on ! contr>y1 comp>atively l[ & contemptible1 j because x is n rational4 ,he calls x div9e madness1 div9e inde$1 because ! arti/ produces beautiful ?+s1 b madness because he himself does n "k h[ or :y he has done x4 ,! poet says v wise & beautiful ?+s1 b he does n "k :y !y are wise & beautiful4 ,he m]ely feels1 & does n und]/& any?+4 ,8 inspiration1 !re=e1 is n on ! level ( k1 b only ( "r op9ion1 :i* kn[s :at is true1 b does n "k :y4 ,plato's views ( art are ?us n satisfactory4 ,he is d\btless "r 9 plac+ inspiration bel[ reason1 & art bel[ philosophy4 ,!y d /& to ea* o!r 9 ! relation ( high] & l[]4 ,n t su* a "q c be decid$ by m]e p]sonal pref]5ces4 ,! usual discussions :e!r art or philosophy is bett]1 :e!r emotion or reason is high]1 are po9tless & insipid1 because ! disputants m]ely exalt _! p]sonal peculi>ities4 ,! man ( arti/ic temp]am5t naturally pref]s art1 & says x is ! highe/4 ,! philosoph] exalts philosophy above art1 m]ely because x is 8 pet hobby4 ,?is k9d ( discussion is futile4 ,! matt] mu/ be decid$ ^u "s pr9ciple4 ,& ! pr9ciple is q cle>4 ,bo? art & philosophy h ! same object1 ! #bcc appreh5sion ( ! ,absolute1 or ! ,idea4 ,philosophy appreh5ds x z x is 9 itself1 t is to say1 z ?\ght4 ,art appreh5ds x 9 a m]ely s5su\s =m4 ,philosophy appreh5ds x 9 its tru?1 art 9 a comp>atively untrue way4 ,philosophy1 !re=e1 is ! high]4 ,b :ile any true philosophy ( art mu/ recognize ?is1 x mu/ n int]pret x to mean t art is to be made m]ely a means t[>ds philosophy4 ,x mu/ someh[ f9d room = ! recognition ( ! tru? t art is an end 9 itself1 & x is 9 ?is t ,plato fails4 ,ari/otle1 :o _h no sp>k ( arti/ic capacity 9 8 composition1 ^: own writ+s are ! sev]e/ ( sci5tific treatises1 did f> great] ju/ice to art ?an ,plato1 & prop\nd$ a f> m satisfactory !ory4 ,plato1 himself a great arti/1 is utt]ly unju/ to art4 ,p>adoxical z x may appe>1 ! v reason :y ,ari/otle c\ld be j to art 0 t he 0 no arti/4 ,be+ solely a philosoph]1 8 own writ+s are sci5tific & in>ti/ic4 ,?is enables him to recognize art z a sep>ate sph]e1 & !re=e z hav+ its own rights4 ,plato c\ld n keep ! two sep>ate4 ,8 dialogues are bo? works ( art & ( philosophy4 ,we h se5 already t ?is fact ex]cis$ an evil influ5ce on 8 philosophy1 s9ce x made him sub/itute poetic my?s = sci5tific explanation4 ,n[ we see t x ex]cis$ an equally evil influ5ce on 8 views ( art4 ,z a philosoph]-arti/ 8 own practice is to use lit]>y art solely z a means t[>ds ! expression ( philosophical ideas4 ,& ?is col\rs 8 :ole view ( art4 ,x is1 to him1 no?+ b a means t[>ds philosophy4 ,& ?is is ! tap-root ( 8 entire view ( ! subject4 #bcd #g4 ,critical ,e/imate ( ,plato's ,philosophy1 ,if we are to =m a j e/imate ( ! value ( ,plato's philosophy1 we mu/ n fritt] away our criticism on ! m9or po9ts1 ! ext]nal details1 ! m]e outworks ( ! sy/em4 ,we mu/ get at ! he>t & gov]n+ c5tre ( x all4 ,amid ! mass ( ?\ght :i* ,plato has develop$1 9 all dep>tm5ts ( speculation1 t :i* /&s out z ! c5tral !sis ( ! :ole sy/em is ! !ory ( ,ideas4 ,all else is b d$uction f ?is4 ,8 physics1 8 e?ics1 8 politics1 8 views ^u art1 all fl[ f ?is "o gov]n+ !ory4 ,x is "h !n t we mu/ look1 alike = ! m]its & ! defects ( ,plato's sy/em4 ,! !ory ( ,ideas is n a some?+ sprung sudd5ly ^u ! _w out ( ,plato's bra94 ,x has its roots 9 ! pa/4 ,x is1 z ,ari/otle %[$1 ! outcome ( ,eleatic1 ,h]acleitean1 & ,socratic det]m9ations4 ,fundam5tally1 h[ev]1 x gr[s out ( ! di/9ction betwe5 s5se & reason1 :i* _h be5 ! common prop]ty ( ,greek ?9k]s s9ce ! "t ( ,p>m5ides4 ,p>m5ides 0 ! fir/ to emphasize ?is di/9ction1 & to tea* t ! tru? is to be f\nd by reason1 ! _w ( s5se be+ illusory4 ,h]acleitus1 & ev5 ,democritus1 7 pron\nc$ adh]5ts ( reason1 z aga9/ s5se4 ,! crisis came ) ! ,sophi/s1 :o attempt$ to oblit]ate ! di/9ction altoge!r1 & to f9d all k 9 s5sation1 ?us call+ =? ! opposition ( ,socrates & ,plato4 ,z aga9/ !m ,socrates po9t$ out t all k is ?r\gh concepts1 reason3 & ,plato add$ to ?is t ! concept is n a m]e rule ( ?\ght b a metaphysical reality4 ,?is 0 ! sub/ance ( ! !ory ( ,ideas4 #bce ,e philosophy :i* makes a sy/ematic attempt to solve ! riddle ( ! univ]se necess>ily beg9s ) a !ory ( ! nature ( t absolute & ultimate reality f :i* ! univ]se is d]iv$4 ,?is absolute reality we w call simply ! ,absolute4 ,plato's !ory is t ! ,absolute consi/s ( concepts4 ,to say t ! ,absolute is reason1 is ?\ght1 is concepts1 is ! univ]sal--^! are m]ely f\r diff]5t expressions ( ! same !ory4 ,n[ ?is proposition1 t ! ,absolute is reason1 is ! fundam5tal !sis ( all idealism4 ,s9ce ,plato's "t !re h be5 sev]al great ideali/ic sy/ems ( philosophy4 ,t ! ,absolute is reason is ! c5tral tea*+ ( !m all4 ,plato1 !re=e1 is ! f\nd] & initiator ( all idealism4 ,x is ?is t gives him 8 great place 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,t ! ,absolute is univ]sal ?\ght1 ?is is :at ,plato has contribut$ to ! philosophical speculation ( ! _w4 ,?is is 8 cr[n+ m]it4 ,b we mu/ g some:at m into details4 ,we mu/ see h[ f> he appli$ ?is pr9ciple successfully to ! unravelm5t ( ! great problems ( philosophy4 ,9 lectur+ ^u ! ,eleatics1 ,i said t any successful philosophy mu/ satisfy at lea/ two conditions4 ,x mu/ give su* an acc\nt ( ! ,absolute1 t ! ,absolute is %[n z capable ( expla9+ ! _w4 ,x mu/ be possible to d$uce ! actual _w ( facts f ! fir/ pr9ciple4 ,secondly1 n only mu/ ?is fir/ pr9ciple expla9 ! _w2 x mu/ also expla9 itself4 ,x mu/ be really ultimate1 t is1 we mu/ n1 9 ord] to und]/& x1 h to ref] to any?+ beyond & outside x4 ,if we h to d s !n our ultimate is n an ultimate at all2 our fir/ pr9ciple #bcf is n fir/4 ,t ?+ by means ( :i* we expla9 x mu/ itself be ! ultimate reality4 ,& besides be+ ultimate1 our pr9ciple mu/ be :olly intelligible4 ,x mu/ n be a m]e ultimate my/]y2 = to r$uce ! :ole _w to an ultimate my/]y is cle>ly n to expla9 x4 ,our fir/ pr9ciple mu/1 9 a ^w1 be self-explanatory4 ,let u apply ?is two-fold te/ to ,plato's sy/em4 ,let u see1 fir/ly1 :e!r ! pr9ciple ( ,ideas expla9s ! _w1 & secondly1 :e!r x expla9s itself4 ,does x expla9 ! _w8 ,is ! actual exi/5ce ( ?+s1 horses1 trees1 />s1 m51 expla9$ by x8 ,:at1 9 ! fir/ place1 is ! relation betwe5 ?+s & ! ,ideas8 ,?+s1 says ,plato1 are copies1 or imitations ( ! ,ideas4 ,!y p>ticipate 9 ! ,ideas4 ,! ,ideas are ar*etypal ( ?+s4 ,n[ all ^! phrases are m]e poetic metaphors4 ,!y d n really tell u h[ ?+s are relat$ to ,ideas4 ,b suppose we ignore ?is1 & assume1 = ! sake ( argum5t1 t we und]/& :at is meant by p>ticipation & t ?+s are1 9 ! lit]al s5se1 copies ( ,ideas4 ,! "q /ill rema9s1 :y d su* copies exi/1 h[ d !y arise8 ,n[1 if ?is problem is to be solv$1 x is n en\gh to %[1 m]ely z a fact1 t1 by "s my/]i\s act1 copies ( ,ideas come into exi/5ce4 ,!re mu/ be a reason = x1 & ?is reason x is ! bus9ess ( philosophy to expla94 ,?is reason1 too1 mu/ exi/ 9 ! nature ( ! ,ideas !mselves1 & n outside !m4 ,!re mu/ be1 9 ! v nature ( ! ,ideas1 "s inn] necessity :i* =ces !m to reproduce !mselves 9 ?+s4 ,?is is :at we #bcg mean by say+ t ! ,ideas are a suffici5t explanation ( ! exi/5ce ( ?+s4 ,b !re is 9 ,plato's ,ideas no su* necessity4 ,! ,ideas are def9$ z be+ ! sole reality4 ,!y h already all reality 9 !mselves4 ,!y are self-suffici5t4 ,!y lack no?+4 ,x is n necess>y = !m fur!r to realize _! be+ 9 ! concrete manife/ation ( ?+s1 because !y1 z :olly real1 ne$ no realization4 ,:y1 !n1 %\ld !y n rema9 = ev] simply z !y are8 ,:y %\ld !y g out ( !mselves into ?+s8 ,:y %\ld !y n rema9 9 !mselves & by !mselves8 ,:y %\ld !y ne$ to reproduce !mselves 9 objects8 ,!re are1 we "k1 :ite objects 9 ! univ]se4 ,_! exi/5ce1 we are told1 is expla9$ by ! ,idea ( :it5ess8 ,b :y %\ld ! ,idea ( :it5ess produce :ite ?+s8 ,x is itself ! p]fect :it5ess4 ,:y %\ld x /ir itself8 ,:y %\ld x n rema9 by itself1 ap>t1 /]ile1 9 ! _w ( ,ideas1 = all et]nity8 ,we _c see4 ,!re is 9 ! ,ideas no necessity urg+ !m t[>ds reproduction ( !mselves1 & ?is means t !y possess no pr9ciple = ! explanation ( ?+s4 ,nev]!less ,plato has to make "s attempt to meet ! difficulty4 ,& z ! ,ideas are !mselves impot5t to produce ?+s1 ,plato1 unable to solve ! problem by reason1 attempts to solve x by viol5ce4 ,he drags 9 ! notion ( ,god f n[h]e 9 p>ticul>1 & uses him z a deus ex ma*9a4 ,god fa%ions matt] into ! images ( ,ideas4 ,! v fact t ,plato is =c$ to introduce a creator %[s t1 9 ! ,ideas !mselves1 !re is no gr\nd ( explanation4 ,?+s ought to be expla9$ by ! ,ideas !mselves1 #bch b z !y are incapable ( expla9+ any?+1 ,god is call$ ^u to d _! "w = !m4 ,?us ,plato1 fac$ ) ! problem ( exi/5ce1 practically des]ts 8 !ory ( ,ideas1 & falls back ^u a crude !ism4 ,or if we say t ! t]m ,god is n to be tak5 lit]ally1 & t ,plato uses x m]ely z a figurative t]m = ! ,idea ( ,good1 !n ?is saves ,plato f ! *>ge ( introduc+ a !ism altoge!r inconsi/5t ) 8 philosophy1 b x br+s u back to ! old difficulty4 ,= 9 ?is case1 ! exi/5ce ( ?+s mu/ be expla9$ by means ( ! ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,b ?is ,idea is j z impot5t z ! o!r ,ideas4 ,9 ?is connection1 too1 ! dualism ( ,plato's sy/em becomes evid5t4 ,if ev]y?+ is gr\nd$ 9 ! "o ultimate reality1 ! ,ideas1 !n ! entire univ]se mu/ be clasp$ toge!r 9 a sy/em1 all p>ts ( :i* fl[ out ( ! ,ideas4 ,if !re exi/s 9 ! univ]se any?+ :i* /&s alo( f ?is sy/em1 rema9s isolat$1 & _c be r$uc$ to a manife/ation ( ! ,ideas1 !n ! philosophy has fail$ to expla9 ! _w1 & we h be=e u a confess$ dualism4 ,n[ n only has ,plato to drag 9 ,god = ! explanation ( ?+s1 he has also to drag 9 matt]4 ,god takes matt] & =ms x into copies ( ! ,ideas4 ,b :at is ?is matt]1 & :]e does x spr+ f8 ,cle>ly1 if ! sole reality is ! ,ideas1 matt]1 l all else1 mu/ be gr\nd$ 9 ! ,ideas4 ,b ?is is n ! case 9 ,plato's sy/em4 ,matt] appe>s z a pr9ciple q indep5d5t ( ! ,ideas4 ,z its be+ is self-d]iv$ & orig9al1 x mu/ be itself a sub/ance4 ,b ?is is j :at ,plato d5ies1 call+ x absolute #bci n-be+4 ,yet s9ce x has n its s\rce 9 ! ,ideas or 9 any?+ outside itself1 we mu/ say t ?\gh ,plato calls x absolute n-be+1 x is 9 fact an absolute be+4 ,! ,ideas & matt] /& face to face 9 ,plato's sy/em nei!r d]iv$ f ! o!r1 equally ultimate co-ord9ate1 absolute realities4 ,?is is %e] dualism4 ,! s\rce ( ?is dualism is to be f\nd 9 ! absolute sep>ation :i* ,plato makes betwe5 s5se & reason4 ,he places ! _w ( s5se on "o side1 ! _w ( reason on ! o!r1 z ?+s radically diff]5t & oppos$4 ,h5ce x is impossible = him ev] to bridge ! gulf t he has himself creat$ betwe5 !m4 ,we may expect ! dualism ( a philosophy :i* builds ^u su* premises to break out at num]\s po9ts 9 ! sy/em4 ,& s inde$ x does4 ,x exhibits itself z ! dualism ( ,ideas & matt]1 ( ! s5se-_w & ! ?\ght-_w1 ( body & s\l4 ,n1 ( c\rse1 t x is n q "r to recognize ! di/9ction betwe5 s5se & reason4 ,any g5u9e philosophy mu/ recognize t4 ,& no d\bt too x is "r to place tru? & reality on ! side ( reason r ?an s5se4 ,b al?\gh s5se & reason are di/9ct1 !y mu/ also be id5tical4 ,!y mu/ be div]g5t /reams fl[+ f "o s\rce4 ,& ?is means t a philosophy :i* consid]s ! absolute reality to be reason mu/ exhibit s5se z a l[] =m ( reason4 ,because ,plato fails to see ! id5tity ( s5se & reason1 z well z _! diff]5ce1 8 philosophy becomes a cont9ual fruitless ef=t to ov]rea* ! dualism ?us g5]at$4 ,?us ! answ] to our fir/ "q1 :e!r ! !ory ( ,ideas expla9s ! _w ( ?+s1 mu/ be #bdj answ]$ 9 ! negative4 ,let u pass on to ! second te/4 ,is ! pr9ciple ( ,ideas a self-explanatory pr9ciple8 ,su* a pr9ciple mu/ be und]/ood purely out ( itself4 ,x mu/ n be a pr9ciple1 l t ( ! mat]iali/1 :i* m]ely r$uces ! :ole univ]se to an ultimate my/]i\s fact4 ,= ev5 if x be %[n t ! reason ( ev]y?+ is matt]1 x is /ill op5 to u to ask :at ! reason ( matt] is4 ,we _c see any reason :y matt] %\ld exi/4 ,x is a m]e fact1 :i* dogmatically =ces itself ^u our consci\sness )\t giv+ any reason = itself4 ,our pr9ciple mu/ be su* t we _c ask a fur!r reason ( x4 ,x mu/ be its own reason1 & s 9 itself satisfy ! dem& = a f9al explanation4 ,n[ !re is only "o su* pr9ciple 9 ! _w1 namely1 reason itself4 ,y c ask ! reason ( ev]y?+ else 9 ! _w4 ,y c ask ! reason ( ! sun1 ! moon1 />s1 ! s\l1 ,god1 or ! devil4 ,b y _c ask ! reason ( reason1 because reason is its own reason4 ,let u put ! same ?\ght 9 ano!r way4 ,:5 we dem& ! explanation ( any?+1 :at d we mean by explanation8 ,:at is x we want8 ,d we n mean t ! ?+ appe>s to u irrational1 & we want x %[n t x is rational8 ,:5 ?is is done1 we say x is expla9$4 ,?9k1 = example1 ( :at is call$ ! problem ( evil4 ,p (t5 talk ( x z ! problem ( ! orig9 ( evil1 z if :at we want to "k is1 h[ evil began4 ,b ev5 if we knew ?is1 x w\ld n expla9 any?+4 ,suppose t evil began because someone ate an apple4 ,does ?is make ! matt] any cle>]8 ,d we feel t all our difficulties ab\t ! exi/5ce ( evil are solv$8 ,no4 ,?is is #bda n :at we want to "k4 ,! difficulty is t evil appe>s to u some?+ irrational4 ,! problem c only be solv$ by %[+ u t someh[1 9 spite ( appe>ances1 x is rational t evil %\ld exi/4 ,%[ u ?is1 & evil is expla9$4 ,explanation ( a ?+1 !n1 means %[+ t ! ?+ is rational4 ,n[ we c ask t ev]y?+ else 9 ! _w %\ld be %[n to be rational4 ,b we _c dem& t ! philosoph] %all %[ t reason is rational4 ,?is is absurd4 ,reason is :at is already absolutely rational4 ,x is :at expla9s itself4 ,x is its own reason4 ,x is a self-explanatory pr9ciple4 ,?is1 !n1 mu/ be ! pr9ciple ( :i* we are 9 se>*4 ,! ,absolute1 we said1 mu/ be a self-explanatory pr9ciple1 & !re is only "o su*1 namely1 reason4 ,! ,absolute1 !re=e1 is reason4 ,x 0 ! greatness & glory ( ,plato to h se5 ?is1 & !reby to h become ! f\nd] ( all true philosophy4 ,= to say t ! ,absolute is concepts is ! same z say+ x is reason4 ,x might seem1 !n1 t ,plato has satisfi$ ! second canon ( criticism4 ,he takes z fir/ pr9ciple a self-explanatory reality4 ,b we _c q s quickly jump to ?is conclusion4 ,aft] all1 ! m]e ^w reason is n a key :i* w unlock to u ! doors ( ! univ]se4 ,some?+ m is necess>y ?an ! m]e ^w4 ,we mu/1 9 fact1 be told :at reason is4 ,n[ !re are two s5ses 9 :i* we might ask ! "q1 :at reason is1 "o ( :i* is legitimate1 ! o!r illegitimate4 ,x is illegitimate to ask :at reason is1 9 ! s5se ( ask+ t x %all be expla9$ to u 9 t]ms ( some?+ else1 :i* is n reason4 ,?is w\ld be #bdb to give up our belief t reason is its own reason4 ,x w\ld be to seek ! reason ( reason 9 some?+ :i* is n reason4 ,x w\ld be to admit t reason1 9 itself1 is n rational4 ,& ?is is absurd4 ,b x is legitimate to ask1 :at reason is1 mean+ !reby1 :at is ! cont5t ( reason4 ,! cont5t ( reason1 we h se51 is concepts4 ,b :at concepts8 ,h[ are we to "k :e!r any p>ticul> concept is "p ( ! sy/em ( reason or n8 ,only1 x is evid5t1 by asc]ta9+ :e!r x is a rational concept4 ,if a concept is :olly rational1 !n x is a "p ( reason4 ,if n1 n4 ,:at we ne$1 !n1 is a detail$ acc\nt ( all ! concepts :i* reason conta9s1 & a pro( t ea* ( ^! concepts is really rational4 ,x is obvi\s t only 9 ?is way c we make a satisfactory beg9n+ 9 philosophy4 ,be=e we c %[ t reason expla9s1 t is1 rationalizes ! _w1 we mu/ surely fir/ %[ t reason itself is rational1 or r1 to be m accurate1 t our conception ( reason is rational4 ,!re mu/ n be any m]e inexplicable facts1 any my/]ies1 any d>k places1 9 our notion ( reason4 ,x mu/ be p5etrat$ ?r\gh & ?r\gh by ! light ( reason4 ,x mu/ be absolutely transp>5t1 cry/all9e4 ,h[ c we hope to expla9 ! _w1 if our v fir/ pr9ciple itself conta9s irrationalities8 ,ea* concept !n mu/ prove itself rational4 ,& ?is means t x mu/ be a necess>y concept4 ,a necess>y proposition1 we saw1 is "o1 su* z t two & two equal f\r1 ! opposite ( :i* is un?9kable4 ,s = ,plato's ,ideas to be really necess>y x ought to be logically impossible = u to d5y _! #bdc reality4 ,x ought to be impossible to ?9k ! _w at all )\t ^! concepts4 ,to attempt to d5y !m ought to be %[n to be self-contradictory4 ,!y ought to be s necess>ily involv$ 9 reason t ?\ght )\t !m becomes impossible4 ,cle>ly ?is is ! same z say+ t ! ,ideas mu/ n be m]e ultimate inexplicable facts4 ,( su* a fact we ass]t m]ely t x is s1 b we _c see any reason = x4 ,to see a reason = x is ! same z see+ its necessity1 see+ n m]ely t x is s1 b t x mu/ be s4 ,n[ ,plato's ,ideas are n ( ?is necess>y k9d4 ,!re is1 we are told1 an ,idea ( :it5ess4 ,b :y %\ld !re be su* an ,idea8 ,x is a m]e fact4 ,x is n a necessity4 ,we c ?9k ! _w q well )\t ! ,idea ( :it5ess4 ,! _w1 s f> z we c see1 c\ld get on p]fectly well )\t ei!r :ite objects or ! ,idea ( :it5ess4 ,to d5y its reality leads to no self-contradictions4 ,put x 9 ano!r way4 ,!re are c]ta9ly :ite objects 9 ! _w4 ,we dem& t ^!1 among o!r ?+s1 be expla9$4 ,plato tells u1 by way ( explanation1 t !re are :ite objects because !re is an ,idea ( :it5ess4 ,b 9 t case :y is !re an ,idea ( :it5ess8 ,we _c see4 ,!re is no reason4 ,!re is no necessity 9 ?is4 ,! same ?+ applies to all ! o!r ,ideas4 ,!y are n rational concepts4 ,!y are n a "p ( ! sy/em ( reason4 ,b at ?is po9t1 p]haps1 a glimm] ( hope dawns ^u u4 ,we ask ! reason = ^! ,ideas4 ,has n ,plato ass]t$ t ! ultimate reason & gr\nd ( all ! l[] ,ideas w be f\nd 9 ! supreme ,idea ( #bdd ! ,good8 ,n[ if ?is is s1 x means t ! l[] ,ideas mu/ f9d _! necessity 9 ! highe/ ,idea4 ,if we c\ld see t ! ,idea ( ! ,good necess>ily involves ! o!r ,ideas1 !n ^! o!r ,ideas w\ld be really expla9$4 ,9 o!r words1 we ought to be able to d$uce all ! o!r ,ideas f ?is "o ,idea4 ,x ought to be possible to %[ t1 grant$ ! ,idea ( ! ,good1 all ! o!r ,ideas necess>ily foll[1 t to assume ! ,good & d5y ! o!r ,ideas w\ld be self-contradictory & un?9kable4 ,!re are examples 9 ,plato ( ! k9d ( d$uction we require4 ,= example1 9 ! ,p>m5ides he %[$ t ! ,idea ( ! "o necess>ily involves ! ,idea ( ! _m1 & vice v]sa4 ,y _c ?9k ! "o )\t also ?9k+ ! _m4 ,?is means t ! _m is d$uc$ f ! "o1 & ! "o f ! _m4 ,j 9 ! same way1 we ought to be able to d$uce ! ,idea ( :it5ess f ! ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,b ?is is cle>ly n possible4 ,y may analyse ! ,good z long z y l1 y may turn x 9 e conceivable direction1 b y _c get :it5ess out ( x4 ,! two ,ideas d n involve ea* o!r4 ,!y are ?9kable ap>t4 ,x is q possible to ?9k ! ,good )\t ?9k+ :it5ess4 ,& x is ! same ) all ! o!r ,ideas4 ,none ( !m c be d$uc$ f ! ,good4 ,& ! reason ( ?is is v obvi\s4 ,j z ! l[] ,ideas conta9 only :at is common among ! ?+s ( a class1 & exclude _! diff]5ces1 s ! high] ,ideas include :at is common to ! ,ideas t come "u !m1 b exclude :at is n common4 ,= example1 ! ,idea ( col\r conta9s :at :ite1 blue1 r$1 & gre51 h 9 common4 ,b all col\rs #bde h n :it5ess 9 common4 ,gre51 = example1 is n :ite4 ,h5ce ! ,idea ( col\r excludes ! ,idea ( :it5ess1 & x likewise excludes all ! ,ideas ( ! o!r p>ticul> col\rs4 ,s too ! highe/ ,idea ( all conta9s only :at all ! ,ideas agree 91 b all ! re/ falls outside x4 ,?us ! ,idea ( :it5ess is p]fect 9 its k9d4 ,& z all ,ideas are likewise p]fect1 ! highe/ ,idea is t 9 :i* !y all agree1 namely1 p]fection itself4 ,b ?is means t ! p]fection ( ! ,idea ( :it5ess is conta9$ 9 ! supreme ,idea1 b its specific "* 9 :i* x diff]s f o!r ,ideas is exclud$4 ,its specific "* is j its :it5ess4 ,?us ! p]fection ( :it5ess is conta9$ 9 ! ,good1 b its :it5ess is n4 ,consequ5tly x is impossible to d$uce :it5ess f ! ,good1 because ! ,good does n conta9 :it5ess4 ,y _c get out ( x :at is n 9 x4 ,:5 ,plato d$uc$ ! _m f ! "o1 he did s only by %[+ t ! ,"o conta9s ! _m4 ,he _c d$uce :it5ess f goodness1 because goodness does n conta9 :it5ess4 ,! l[] ,ideas ?us h n ! "* ( necessity4 ,!y are m]e facts4 ,& ! hope t we %all f9d _! necessity 9 ! supreme ,idea fails4 ,b suppose we waive ?is4 ,suppose we grant t !re mu/ be an ,idea ( :it5ess1 because !re is an ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,!n :y is !re an ,idea ( ! ,good8 ,:at is ! necessity ( t8 ,we _c see any necessity 9 x4 ,:at we said ( ! o!r ,ideas applies ) equal =ce to ! highe/ ,idea4 ,! ,good may be a necess>y ,idea1 b ,plato has n %[n x4 ,?us1 ?\gh ,plato nam$ reason z ! ,absolute1 #bdf & ?\gh reason is a self-explanatory pr9ciple1 8 acc\nt ( ! detail$ cont5t ( reason is s unsatisfactory t none ( ! concepts :i* he includes 9 x are really %[n to be rational4 ,8 philosophy breaks d[n ^u ! second te/ z x did ^u ! fir/4 ,he has nei!r expla9$ ! _w f ! ,ideas1 nor has he made ! ,ideas expla9 !mselves4 ,!re is "o o!r defect 9 ,plato's sy/em :i* is ( capital importance4 ,!re runs ?r\gh\t x a confusion betwe5 ! notions ( reality & exi/5ce4 ,to di/+ui% betwe5 exi/5ce & reality is an ess5tial feature ( all idealism4 ,ev5 if we g back to ! dim idealism ( ! ,eleatics1 we %all see ?is4 ,z5o1 we saw1 d5i$ motion1 multiplicity1 & ! _w ( s5se4 ,b he did n d5y ! exi/5ce ( ! _w4 ,t is an impossibility4 ,ev5 if ! _w is delusion1 ! delusion exi/s4 ,:at he d5i$ 0 ! reality ( exi/5ce4 ,b if reality is n exi/5ce1 :at is x8 ,x is ,be+1 repli$ ! ,eleatics4 ,b ,be+ does n exi/4 ,:atev] exi/s is ?is or t p>ticul> sort ( be+4 ,be+ itself is n any:]e to be f\nd4 ,?us ! ,eleatics fir/ d5i$ t exi/5ce is reality1 & !n t reality exi/s4 ,!y did n !mselves draw ?is conclusion1 b x is involv$ 9 _! :ole position4 ,) a fully develop$ idealism1 l ,plato's1 ?is ought to be /ill cle>]4 ,&1 9 a s5se1 x is4 ,! individual horse is n real4 ,b x c]ta9ly exi/s4 ,! univ]sal horse is real4 ,b x does n exi/4 ,b1 ^u ?is la/ po9t1 ,plato wav]$ & fell4 ,he _c resi/ ! temptation to ?9k ( ! absolute reality z exi/+4 ,& consequ5tly ! ,ideas are #bdg n m]ely ?\ght z ! real univ]sal 9 ! _w1 b z hav+ a sep>ate exi/5ce 9 a _w ( _! own4 ,plato mu/ h realis$ :at is1 9 tru?1 involv$ 9 8 :ole position1 t ! absolute reality has no exi/5ce4 ,= he tells u t x is ! univ]sal1 & n any p>ticul> individual ?+4 ,b ev]y?+ t exi/s is an individual ?+4 ,aga91 he tells u t ! ,idea is outside "t4 ,b :atev] exi/s mu/ exi/ at "s "t4 ,"h !n ?is c5tral ideali/ic ?\ght seems well fix$ 9 ,plato's m9d4 ,b :5 he goes on to speak ( recollection & re9c>nation1 :5 he tells u t ! s\l be=e bir? dwelt ap>t 9 ! _w ( ,ideas1 to :i* aft] dea? x may hope to return1 x is cle> t ,plato has =gott5 8 own philosophy1 t he is n[ ?9k+ ( ! ,ideas z individual exi/5ces 9 a _w ( _! own4 ,?is is a _w ( ,ideas hav+ a sep>ate exi/5ce & place ( its own4 ,x is n ?is _w4 ,x is a _w beyond4 ,?us ! ,platonic philosophy :i* began on a high level ( ideali/ic ?9k+1 proclaim+ ! sole reality ( ! univ]sal1 ends by turn+ ! univ]sal itself into no?+ b an exi/5t p>ticul>4 ,x is ! old old /ory ( try+ to =m m5tal pictures ( t :i* no picture is adequate to compreh5d4 ,s9ce all pictures are =m$ out ( s5su\s mat]ials1 & s9ce we c =m no picture ( any?+ t is n an individual ?+1 to =m a picture ( ! univ]sal necess>ily means ?9k+ ( x z j :at x is n1 an individual4 ,s ,plato commits ! greate/ s9 t c be ascrib$ to a philosoph]4 ,he treats ?\ght z a ?+4 ,to sum up4 ,plato is ! great f\nd] ( idealism1 ! initiator ( all subsequ5t tru?s 9 philosophy4 #bdh ,b1 z always ) pione]s1 8 idealism is crude4 ,x _c expla9 ! _w2 x _c expla9 itself4 ,x _c ev5 keep true to its own pr9ciples1 because1 hav+ = ! fir/ "t 9 hi/ory def9itely enunciat$ ! tru? t reality is ! univ]sal1 x /raightway =gets its own cre$ & plunges back into a p>ticul>ism :i* reg>ds ! ,ideas z exi/5t individuals4 ,x 0 ^! defects :i* ,ari/otle set himself to rectify 9 a pur] idealism1 %orn ( ,plato's impurities4 #bdi ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,ari/otle #a4 ,life1 ,writ+s1 & g5]al "* ( 8 ,"w4 ,ari/otle 0 born 9 #chd ,b4,c4 at ,/agirus1 a ,grecian colony & seaport on ! coa/ ( ,?race4 ,8 fa!r ,ni*oma*us 0 c\rt physician to ,k+ ,amyntas ( ,mac$onia1 & f ?is began ,ari/otle's long association ) ! ,mac$onian ,c\rt1 :i* consid]ably influ5c$ 8 life & de/9ies4 ,:ile he 0 /ill a boy 8 fa!r di$1 & he 0 s5t by 8 gu>dian1 ,prox5us1 to ,a!ns1 ! intellectual c5tre ( ! _w1 to complete 8 education4 ,he 0 !n ag$ sev5te54 ,he jo9$ ! ,academy & /udi$ "u ,plato1 att5d+ ! latt]'s lectures = a p]iod ( tw5ty ye>s4 ,9 subsequ5t times1 ,ari/otle's detractors1 anxi\s to vilify 8 "*1 accus$ him ( +ratitude to 8 ma/]1 ,plato4 ,x 0 said t ,plato's old age _h be5 embitt]$ by diss5sions 9 ! s*ool caus$ by ! facti\s _s ( ,ari/otle4 ,t !re is no gr\nd = atta*+ any blame to ,ari/otle = ! tr\bles ( ,plato1 :i* ei!r did n exi/ or h be5 grossly exagg]at$1 is evid5t bo? f ! facts )9 our k & f ! ref]5ce to ,plato 9 ,ari/otle's works4 ,x is n likely t1 _h ,ari/otle r5d]$ himself g5u9ely objectionable1 he c\ld h rema9$ = tw5ty ye>s 9 #bej ! ,academy1 & only left x ^u ! dea? ( ,plato4 ,moreov]1 al?\gh ,ari/otle 9 8 works attacks ! tea*+ ( ,plato ) unsp>+ vig\r1 !re is n[h]e to be f\nd 9 ^! attacks any sugge/ion ( acrimony or p]sonal ranc\r4 ,on ! contr>y1 he ref]s to himself z ! fri5d ( ,plato1 b a great] fri5d ( ! tru?4 ,! fact1 9 all probability1 is t a man ( su* indep5d5t & orig9al m9d z ,ari/otle did n accord to ,plato ! k9d ( bl9d adoration & h]o-wor%ip :i* he may h receiv$ f ! inf]ior intellects 9 ! s*ool4 ,z is s (t5 ! case ) "y m5 ( m>k$ ability1 ! brilliant /ud5t may h suff]$ f ! impati5ce & self-ass]tion ( y\?4 ,!re 0 c]ta9ly no?+ worse4 ,:ile at ! ,academy ,ari/otle exhibit$ an unflagg+ _s & unwe>i$ zeal 9 ! pursuit ( k 9 all its =ms1 a _s :i* gave rise to nick-names & anecdotes1 :i* probably conta9$ z mu* tru?1 or z little1 z mo/ ( ! anecdotes :i* ga!r r\nd rem>kable *>act]s4 ,"o ( ^! /ories 0 t he us$ a me*anical contrivance to wake him up :5ev] sleep ?reat5$ to put an end to 8 h\rs ( /udy4 ,9 #cdg ,b4,c4 ,plato di$1 & 8 nephew ,speusippus 0 *os5 z head ( ! ,academy4 ,ari/otle left ,a!ns ) 8 fell[-/ud5t ,x5ocrates1 & toge!r !y repair$ to ! c\rt ( ,h]meias1 ,k+ ( ,at>neus1 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,h]meias1 a man ( l[ orig91 b ( high in/9cts & advanc$ education1 _h himself att5d$ ! lectures ( ,plato1 & receiv$ ! two "y philosoph]s z welcome gue/s4 ,ari/otle /ay$ ?ree ye>s at ,at>neus1 &1 :ile !re1 m>ri$ #bea ,py?ias1 ! niece ( ! ,k+4 ,9 lat] life he 0 m>ri$ a second "t to "o ,h]pyllis1 :o bore him a son1 ,ni*oma*us4 ,at ! end ( ?ree ye>s ,h]meias fell a victim to ! trea*]y ( ! ,p]sians1 & ,ari/otle w5t to ,mytil5e4 ,"h he rema9$ = sev]al ye>s till he receiv$ an invitation f ,philip ( ,mac$onia to become ! tutor ( ! "y ,alex&]1 aft]w>ds conqu]or ( ! _w1 !n ag$ ?irte54 ,ari/otle obey$ ! summons1 & = ab\t five ye>s sup]9t5d$ ! education ( ,alex&]4 ,bo? ,philip & ,alex&] appe> to h paid ,ari/otle high hon\r1 & !re 7 /ories t he 0 suppli$ by ! ,mac$onian c\rt1 n only ) funds = ! prosecution ( le>n+1 b ev5 ) ?\s&s ( slaves = ! collection ( specim5s4 ,^! /ories are probably false & c]ta9ly exagg]at$4 ,b !re is no d\bt t1 9 8 sci5tific & philosophical enquiries1 he 0 back$ by ! influ5ce ( ! c\rt1 & c\ld ev5 p]haps h look$ to t qu>t] = supplies1 _h x ev] be5 necess>y4 ,^u ! dea? ( ,philip1 ,alex&] succe$$ to ! k+%ip4 ,! p]iod ( 8 /udies 0 n[ ov]1 & he began to make prep>ations = 8 subsequ5t conque/s4 ,ari/otle's "w be+ f9i%$1 he return$ to ,a!ns1 :i* he _h n visit$ s9ce ! dea? ( ,plato4 ,he f\nd ! ,platonic s*ool fl\ri%+ "u ,x5ocrates1 & ,platonism ! dom9ant philosophy ( ,a!ns4 ,he !reupon set up 8 own s*ool at a place call$ ! ,lyceum4 ,x 0 9 connection ) ?is t 8 foll[]s became kn[n1 9 aft] ye>s1 z ! p]ipatetics1 a "n :i* arose f ,ari/otle's habit ( walk+ ab\t z he disc\rs$4 ,! p]iod ( #beb 8 resid5ce 9 ,a!ns la/$ ?irte5 ye>s1 dur+ :i* "t he 0 occupi$ 9 ! lead]%ip ( 8 s*ool & 9 lit]>y lab\rs4 ,?is appe>s to h be5 ! mo/ fruitful p]iod ( 8 life4 ,!re is no d\bt t all 8 mo/ important writ+s 7 compos$ at ?is "t4 ,b at ! end ( ?is p]iod 8 =tunes *ang$4 ,9 ,b4,c4 #cbc ,alex&] ! ,great di$ sudd5ly at ,babylon 9 ! mid/ ( 8 triumphs4 ,! ,a!nian ,gov]nm5t 0 9 ! h&s ( a pro-,mac$onian p>ty4 ,^u ! dea? ( ,alex&] ?is p>ty 0 ov]?r[n1 & a g5]al reaction occurr$ aga9/ ev]y?+ ,mac$onian4 ,alex&] _h be5 reg>d$ 9 ,greece mu* z ,napoleon 0 reg>d$ 9 ,europe a c5tury ago4 ,he _h insult$ ! free ,greek cities4 ,he _h ev5 sack$ ! city ( ,!bes4 ,! :ole ( ,greece liv$ 9 p]petual t]ror ( invasion4 ,n[ t ?is fe> 0 remov$ by 8 dea?1 !re 0 a g5]al outbur/ ( feel+ aga9/ ,mac$onia4 ,an anti-,mac$onian p>ty came into p[]4 ,n[ ,ari/otle _h always be5 reg>d$ z a repres5tative & protege ( ! ,mac$onian c\rt1 al?\gh1 z a matt] ( fact1 he _h rec5tly fall5 out ( fav\r ) ! autocratic ,alex&]4 ,a *>ge ( impiety 0 trump$ up aga9/ him4 ,to escape prosecution he fl$ to ,*alcis 9 ,euboea1 9 ord] t1 z he said1 ! ,a!nians might n h ano!r opportunity ( s9n+ aga9/ philosophy z !y _h already done 9 ! p]son ( ,socrates4 ,he p]haps int5d$ to return to ,a!ns z soon z ! /orm _h bl[n ov]4 ,b 9 ! fir/ ye> ( 8 resid5ce at ,*alcis he 0 ov]tak5 by a sudd5 illness1 & di$ at ! age ( sixty-?ree1 9 ,b4,c4 #cbb4 #bec ,ari/otle is said to h compos$ "s f\r hundr$ books4 ,our a/oni%m5t at ?is productivity dim9i%es some:at :5 we rememb] t :at is "h call$ a book is mu* ! same z :at we %\ld call a *apt] 9 a mod]n treatise4 ,m ?an ?ree-qu>t]s ( ^! writ+s h be5 lo/4 ,b1 by good =tune1 :at rema9s to u is und\bt$ly by f> ! mo/ important "p1 & we h pres]v$ 9 x a fairly complete acc\nt ( ! :ole ,ari/otelian sy/em 9 all its dep>tm5ts4 ,ne>ly all ! writ+s1 h[ev]1 h come d[n to u 9 a mutilat$ /ate4 ,?is is especially ! case ) ! ,metaphysics4 ,?is treatise is unf9i%$1 & x 0 probably left unf9i%$ by its au?or at 8 dea?4 ,b ap>t f ?is1 sev]al ( ! books ( ! ,metaphysics are und\bt$ly spuri\s4 ,o!rs app>5tly come 9 ! wrong ord]4 ,we end "o book 9 ! middle ( a discussion1 & :5 we beg9 ! next we f9d ourselves 9 ! middle ( an entirely diff]5t subject4 ,!re are frequ5t repetitions1 & p>ts ( x read z if !y 7 m]e lecture notes4 ,!re are _m int]polations4 ,! same *>act]i/ics are to be obs]v$ 9 ,ari/otle's o!r writ+s1 ?\gh 9 a less degree4 ,x seems probable t !y 7 n int5d$1 9 _! pres5t /ate1 = publication4 ,f9al revision & f9i%+ t\*es are lack+4 ,9 spite ( ^! defects1 ! writ+s are volum9\s & cle> en\gh to enable u to trace out ! :ole ( ! ma9 positions ( ,ari/otle's ?\ght4 ,we saw1 9 ! case ( ,plato1 t1 z 8 lit]>y activity la/$ ov] a p]iod ( half a c5tury1 dur+ :i* 8 philosophy 0 9 con/ant developm5t1 x became important to trace ?is developm5t 9 ! #bed ord] ( 8 ,dialogues4 ,! same ?+ is n true 9 ! case ( ,ari/otle4 ,! :ole ( 8 writ+s1 or r ^? t h come d[n to u1 seem to h be5 writt5 dur+ 8 la/ ?irte5 ye>s1 :ile he 0 at ,a!ns1 t is to say1 aft] he _h pass$ 8 fiftie? ye>4 ,8 sy/em 0 !n complete1 mature1 & fully develop$4 ,! "q ( ! ord] 9 :i* !y 7 writt5 has no great importance4 ,! result ( critical inve/igations1 h[ev]1 is to %[ t he probably began ) ! v>i\s works ^u logic1 compos$ next ! treatises ^u physical sci5ce1 next ! e?ical & political books1 & la/ly ! ,metaphysics1 :i* he left unf9i%$4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t ,ari/otle 0 n only a philosoph] 9 ! mod]n re/rict$ s5se ( t t]m4 ,he 0 a man ( univ]sal le>n+4 ,!re is no bran* ( k :i* did n receive 8 att5tion1 & ^u :i* he 0 n ! greate/ exp]t ( 8 "t1 except p]haps ma!matics4 ,s f> 0 he f be+ only an ab/ract philosoph]1 t 8 natural ta/es seem to h la9 r 9 ! field ( physical sci5ce ?an ( ab/ract ?\ght4 ,b 8 design seems to h be5 to "w ov] ! entire field ( k1 ?or\ghly to ov]haul ! sci5ces already 9 exi/5ce1 reject+ :at seem$ false 9 ! "w ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & inv>iably add+ to ! residue valuable developm5ts & sugge/ions ( 8 own4 ,:]e !re 0 no sci5ce already 9 exi/5ce1 8 plan involv$ ! f\ndation ( new sci5ces :]ev] necess>y1 & he ?us became ! f\nd] ( at lea/ two sci5ces1 ,logic & ,zoology4 ,he ?us atta9$ to a pre-em95ce 9 all bran*es #bee ( k :i* w\ld be impossible = a s+le man 9 mod]n times4 ,8 works include treatises ^u ,logic & ,metaphysics1 ^u ,e?ics1 ,politics1 & ,art4 ,he wrote a treatise ^u ! pr9ciples ( ,rhetoric1 ano!r ^u ,a/ronomy1 "u ! title ,on ! ,heav5s1 ano!r ^u ,meteorology4 ,sev]al ( 8 treatises deal ) ! biology ( animal life1 9 :i* he 0 int5sely int]e/$4 ,!y include books entitl$ ,on ! ,p>ts ( ,animals1 ,on ! ,movem5ts ( ,animals1 ,on ! ,orig9 ( ,animals1 z well z 8 great treatise1 ,rese>*es on ,animals1 :i* conta9s an enorm\s mass ( facts collect$ f e possible s\rce4 ,x is true t a l>ge proportion ( ^! facts h turn$ out to be fictions1 b ?is 0 inevitable 9 ! infancy ( sci5ce4 ,x has be5 calculat$ t ,ari/otle %[s himself acqua9t$ ) ab\t five hundr$ diff]5t species ( liv+ be+s1 ?\gh !y are n1 ( c\rse1 classifi$ by him 9 ! mod]n way4 ,) ^! books ^u animals he f\nd$ ! sci5ce ( ,zoology1 = no "o be=e 8 day _h made any special /udy ( ! subject4 ,x has be5 said t ev]yone has ei!r an ,ari/otelian or a ,platonic type ( m9d4 ,z ?is implies t ,ari/otle & ,plato are opposites1 x is consid]ably less ?an a half tru?4 ,no g5u9e und]/&+ ( ,ari/otle c endorse ! op9ion t 8 philosophical sy/em 0 ! opposite ( ,plato's4 ,x w\ld be tru] to say t ,ari/otle 0 ! greate/ ( all ,platoni/s1 s9ce 8 sy/em is /ill f\nd$ ^u ! ,idea1 & is an attempt to f\nd an idealism free f ! defects ( ,plato's sy/em4 ,x is 9 fact a developm5t ( ,platonism4 ,:at is ! cause !n ( ! popul> notion t #bef ,ari/otle 0 ! opposite ( ,plato8 ,n[ ! fact is t !y 7 opposites 9 _m important respects4 ,b !re 0 a fundam5tal agreem5t betwe5 !m :i* lies deep] ?an ! diff]5ces4 ,! diff]5ces are l>gely sup]ficial1 ! agreem5t is deep-seat$4 ,h5ce x is ! diff]5ces t are mo/ obvi\s1 & x 0 ! diff]5ces1 too1 :i* 7 mo/ obvi\s to ,ari/otle himself4 ,! popul> op9ion arises l>gely f ! fact t ,ari/otle nev] loses an opportunity ( attack+ ! ,platonic !ory ( ,ideas4 ,he is cont9ually at pa9s to emphasize ! diff]5ce betwe5 himself & ,plato1 b says no?+ ( ! agreem5t4 ,b no man is a judge ( 8 own deep] relations to 8 pr$ecessors & contempor>ies4 ,x is only 9 aft] ye>s1 :5 ! hubbub ( controv]sy has settl$ d[n into ! sil5ce ( ! pa/1 t ! hi/orian c see ! true p]spective1 & c p5etrate ! relations ( ea* great man to ! "t 9 :i* he liv$4 ,plato 0 ! f\nd] ( idealism1 & 8 idealism 0 9 _m respects crude & unt5able4 ,x 0 ! special mission ( ,ari/otle to cle> away ^! crudities1 & s develop ,platonism into a t5able philosophy4 ,& x 0 natural t he %\ld emphasize ! crudities1 :i* he _h to fight s h>d to ov]come1 r ?an t sub/ratum ( tru? :i* ,plato _h already develop$1 & :i* !re=e requir$ no special treatm5t at 8 h&s4 ,x 0 ! diff]5ces betwe5 himself & 8 pr$ecessor :i* 7 mo/ obvi\s to him1 & x 0 inevitable t he %\ld adopt a ?or\ghly polemical attitude t[>ds 8 ma/]4 ,b if ! agreem5t 0 m deep-seat$ ?an ! diff]5ces1 & lay 9 ! recognition ( ! ,idea z ! #beg absolute f\ndation ( ! _w1 ! diff]5ces 7 none ! less v /rik+4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,ari/otle lov$ facts4 ,:at he want$ 0 always def9ite sci5tific k4 ,plato1 on ! o!r h&1 _h no love ( facts & no gift = physical enquiries4 ,& :at disgu/$ ,ari/otle ab\t ! sy/em ( ,plato 0 ! contempt :i* x p\r$ ^u ! _w ( s5se4 ,to depreciate objects ( s5se1 & to proclaim ! k ( !m valueless1 0 a fundam5tal *>act]i/ic ( all ,plato's ?9k+4 ,b ! _w ( s5se is ! _w ( facts1 & ,ari/otle 0 deeply int]e/$ 9 facts4 ,no matt] 9 :at bran* ( k1 any fact 0 receiv$ by ,ari/otle ) en?usiasm4 ,to ,plato x appe>$ ( no int]e/ :at ! habits ( "s obscure animal might be4 ,t alone :i* %\ld be pursu$ is ! k ( ! ,idea4 ,& he w5t s f> z to d5y t k ( ! s5se-_w c\ld prop]ly be describ$ z k at all4 ,b ! habits ( animals appe>$ to ,ari/otle a matt] wor?y ( inve/igation = its own sake4 ,francis ,bacon 9 8 ,novum ,organum has _m contemptu\s ref]5ces to ,ari/otle4 ,& ! gi/ ( !m all is t ,ari/otle _h no reg>d = facts1 b !oriz$ a priori out ( 8 head1 & t in/ead ( pati5tly inve/igat+ ! facts ( nature1 he decid$1 ^u s-call$ rational gr\nds1 :at nature ought to d1 & squ>$ ! facts ) 8 !ories4 ,x 0 natural = ,bacon to be unju/ to him4 ,he1 ) ! o!r ?9k]s ( 8 "t1 0 engag$ ^u an uphill fight aga9/ s*ola/icism1 !n dom9ant1 :i* claim$ to repres5t ! true tea*+ ( ,ari/otle4 ,& x 0 true t ! s*oolm5 !oriz$ a priori1 #beh & ignor$ facts1 or1 :at 0 worse1 appeal$ to ! writ+s ( ,ari/otle to decide que/ions ( fact :i* %\ld h be5 decid$ by an appeal to nature4 ,& ,bacon n unnaturally conf\nd$ ,ari/otle ) ^! mod]n ,ari/otelians1 & attribut$ to him ! faults t 7 really !irs4 ,b no man 0 ev] ke5] on facts ?an ,ari/otle z is prov$ by 8 treatises ^u animals1 :i* conta9 evid5ces ( a/oni%+ pati5ce & labori\s "w 9 ! collection ( facts4 ,x is true1 h[ev]1 t ev5 9 ! doma9 ( facts1 ,ari/otle1 l all ! anci5ts1 0 guilty ( introduc+ a priori reason+s :5 !y 7 q out ( place4 ,?us he does n scruple to argue t ! />s mu/ move 9 circles because ! circle is ! p]fect figure4 ,& num]\s simil> in/ances c\ld be quot$4 ,b x 0 inevitable t1 ) sci5ce 9 its swaddl+ clo!s1 )\t ! aid ( any in/rum5ts1 or ( any body ( previ\sly asc]ta9$ tru?s1 ,ari/otle %\ld fall into ^! sn>es4 ,he well und]/ood ! fundam5tal necessity ( all natural sci5ces = a labori\s inve/igation ( facts1 b1 :5 ?is 0 impossible1 he us$ ! only means 9 8 p[]1 8 reason4 ,secondly1 9 spite ( ,plato's rationalism1 he _h all[$ to my?s & poetry a l>ge %>e 9 ! developm5t ( 8 ?\ghts1 & _h ev5 exhibit$ a di/9ct t5d5cy t[>ds my/icism4 ,"h aga9 :at ,ari/otle want$ 0 def9ite k4 ,x pa9$ him to see poetic metaphors sub/itut$ = rational explanation4 ,& ?is acc\nts = ! ?ird ma9 diff]5ce betwe5 ,plato & ,ari/otle1 ! m>k$ contra/ 9 _! prose /yles4 ,plato 0 a ma/]-arti/ 9 words4 ,ari/otle c>$ no?+ = ! ornam5ts & beauties ( /yle4 #bei ,he h>%ly excludes !m f 8 "w4 ,:at alone he is int5t ^u is ! mean+1 ! tru? t ! words express4 ,he is too mu* 9 e>ne/ ) philosophy to lose himself 9 a haze ( beautiful words1 or to be put (f ) metaphors in/ead ( reasons4 ,8 /yle is ev5 h>%1 abrupt1 & ugly4 ,b :at x loses 9 beauty x ga9s 9 cle>ness ( conception4 ,= e ?\ght or %ade ( ?\ght :i* x is desir$ to express !re is an accurate t]m4 ,if no t]m 9 common use w express ! ?\ght1 ,ari/otle co9s "o4 ,h5ce he is "o ( ! greate/ t]m9ologi/s t ev] liv$4 ,he adapt$ or inv5t$ an enorm\s numb] ( t]ms4 ,he may be n unju/ly reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( philosophical language1 z ! inv5tor ( a vocabul>y ( te*nical t]ms4 ,_m ( ! t]ms us$ to ?is day to express man's mo/ ab/ract ?\ghts1 7 inv5t$ or introduc$ by ,ari/otle4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ,ari/otle wrote 9 a rigidly sci5tific /yle because he _h no ae/hetic s5se4 ,! v contr>y is ! case4 ,8 treatise on art %[s him by f> ! be/ critic ( ! anci5t _w1 & 9 8 appreciation & e/imation ( ! beautiful he f> excels ,plato4 ,b he saw t art & sci5ce h ea* _! own sph]e1 & t x is fatal to confuse ! two4 ,no?+ is s damag+ to art z to be made ! m]e vehicle ( reason+4 ,no?+ is s damag+ to philosophy z to all[ itself to be gov]n$ by poetry4 ,if we want beauty1 we mu/ foll[ ! pa? ( art4 ,b if we desire tru?1 we mu/ /ick close to reason4 ,ari/otle's sy/em falls mo/ easily into ! fivefold division ( logic1 metaphysics1 physics1 e?ics1 & ae/hetics4 #bfj #b4 ,logic4 ,n mu* ne$ be said "u ?is head1 because :oev] kn[s ! common logic ( ! text-books kn[s ! logic ( ,ari/otle4 ,( ! two bran*es ( reason+1 d$uctive & inductive1 ,ari/otle cle>ly recognizes ! latt]4 ,& _m ( 8 obs]vations ^u induction are acute & p5etrat+4 ,b he has n r$uc$ induction to a sci5ce4 ,he has n laid b>e ! fundam5tal canons ( inductive ?\ght4 ,?is 0 a "w n p]=m$ until comp>atively mod]n times4 ,8 "n !re=e is m especially associat$ ) d$uctive logic1 ( :i* he 0 ! f\nd]4 ,he n only f\nd$ ! sci5ce1 b practically complet$ x4 ,:at we n[ "k z =mal logic1 :at is to ?is day conta9$ 9 all text-books1 taught 9 all s*ools & univ]sities1 is1 9 all its ess5tials1 no?+ m ?an ! logic ( ,ari/otle4 ,8 writ+s ^u ! subject include ! treatm5t ( ! well-kn[n laws ( ?\ght1 ! doctr9e ( ! t5 categories1 ! five pr$icables1 ! doctr9es ( t]ms1 ( propositions1 ( syllogisms1 & ( ! r$uction ( ! o!r figures to ! fir/ figure ( ! syllogism4 ,& ^! heads might well =m ! li/ ( cont5ts ( a mod]n "w on =mal logic4 ,9 only two respects has any advance be5 made ^u ,ari/otle by subsequ5t logicians4 ,! f\r? figure ( ! syllogism is n recogniz$ by ,ari/otle2 & he dealt only ) categorical syllogisms1 & does n treat conditional syllogisms4 ,b :e!r or n ! f\r? figure ( ! syllogism has any value is /ill a matt] op5 to dispute4 ,& ?\gh ! doctr9e ( conditional syllogisms is important1 x is n ess5tial1 because all conditional syllogisms c be r$uc$ to categorical #bfa syllogisms4 ,! categorical syllogism is ! fundam5tal type ( reason+1 to :i* e o!r =m ( d$uction c be r$uc$4 ,z = ! re/ ( ! huge treatises on =mal logic :i* "s mod]ns h produc$1 ! suppos$ additions are no?+ b we>isome1 endless1 useless1 nauseat+1 academic di/9ctions & ref9em5ts1 :i* are mu* bett] =gott5 ?an rememb]$4 ,ari/otle's logic conta9s !re=e all t is ess5tial to ! subject4 ,! only gr\nd on :i* x c be attack$ is its :olly empirical proc$ure4 ,b t is ano!r /ory4 ,z a collection1 arrangem5t1 & analysis ( ! facts ( reason1 x is to all int5ts & purposes f9ality a*iev$ at "o /roke4 #c4 ,metaphysics4 ,! treatise n[ kn[n z ! ,metaphysics ( ,ari/otle did n orig9ally be> t "n4 ,ari/otle's "n = ?is subject is fir/ philosophy1 by :i* he means ! k ( ! fir/1 highe/1 or mo/ g5]al pr9ciples ( ! univ]se4 ,all o!r bran*es ( k are subord9ate to ?is sci5ce1 n because !y are inf]ior 9 value1 b because !y are l[] 9 logical sequ5ce z deal+ ) pr9ciples less univ]sal 9 _! scope4 ,?us all ! special sci5ces deal ) "o or ano!r p>ticul> sph]e ( be+1 b ! fir/ philosophy has = its subject be+ z su*1 be+ s f> =? z x is be+4 ,x /udies1 n ! *>act]i/ics ( ?is or t k9d ( be+1 b ! pr9ciples :i* are equally true ( all be+4 ,! laws ( ,zoology apply only to animals1 b ! pr9ciples ( ! fir/ philosophy apply to ev]y?+4 ,! "n metaphysics came into use only half a c5tury ,b4,c41 :5 #bfb ,&ronicus publi%$ a complete edition ( ,ari/otle's kn[n works4 ,9 ?is edition ! treatise on fir/ philosophy 0 plac$ aft] ! physics1 & metaphysics signifies simply aft] physics4 ,! d]ivation ( ! ^w ?us appe>s to be m]ely accid5tal & adv5titi\s4 ,:e!r x 0 also 9 any way int5d$ to signify t ! subject is beyond physics1 t is1 deals ) :at transc5ds physical exi/5ce1 seems d\btful4 ,ari/otle's metaphysical !ory gr[s naturally out ( 8 polemic aga9/ ,plato's !ory ( ,ideas1 because 8 own sy/em 0 9 effect simply an attempt to ov]come ! defects :i* he f\nd 9 ,plato4 ,! ma9 heads ( ?is polemic are ! foll[+3-- 7#a7 ,plato's ,ideas d n expla9 ! exi/5ce ( ?+s4 ,to expla9 :y ! _w is "h is aft] all ! ma9 problem ( philosophy1 & ,plato's !ory fails to d ?is4 ,ev5 admitt+ t1 say1 ! ,idea ( :it5ess exi/s1 we _c see h[ x produces :ite objects4 7#b7 ,plato has n expla9$ ! relation ( ,ideas to ?+s4 ,?+s1 we are told1 are copies ( ,ideas1 & p>ticipate 9 !m4 ,b h[ are we to und]/& ?is p>ticipation8 ,9 us+ su* phrases1 says ,ari/otle1 ,plato is giv+ no real acc\nt ( ! relation%ip1 b is m]ely utt]+ poetic metaphors4 7#c7 ,ev5 if ! exi/5ce ( ?+s is expla9$ by ! ,ideas1 _! motion is n4 ,suppose t ! ,idea ( :it5ess produces :ite ?+s1 ! ,idea ( beauty beautiful ?+s1 & s on1 yet1 s9ce ! ,ideas !mselves are immutable & motionless1 s w be ! _w :i* is _! copy4 ,?us ! univ]se w\ld be #bfc absolutely /atic1 l ,col]idge's pa9t$ %ip ^u a pa9t$ ocean4 ,b ! _w1 on ! contr>y1 is a _w ( *ange1 motion1 life1 becom+4 ,plato makes no attempt to expla9 ! unceas+ becom+ ( ?+s4 ,ev5 if ! ,idea ( :it5ess expla9s :ite objects1 yet :y d ^! objects arise1 develop1 decay1 & cease to exi/8 ,to expla9 ?is !re mu/ be "s pr9ciple ( motion 9 ! ,ideas !mselves4 ,b !re is n4 ,!y are immovable & lifeless4 7#d7 ,! _w consi/s ( a multitude ( ?+s1 & x is ! bus9ess ( philosophy to expla9 :y !y exi/4 ,by way ( explanation ,plato m]ely assumes ! exi/5ce ( ano!r multitude ( ?+s1 ! ,ideas4 ,b ! only effect ( ?is is to d\ble ! numb] ( ?+s to be expla9$4 ,h[ does x help ?us to duplicate ev]y?+8 ,& ,ari/otle lik5s ,plato to a man :o1 be+ unable to c\nt ) a small numb]1 fancies t1 if he d\bles ! numb]1 he w f9d x easi] to c\nt4 7#e7 ,! ,ideas are suppos$ to be non-s5su\s1 b !y are1 9 fact1 s5su\s4 ,plato ?\ght t a non-s5su\s pr9ciple mu/ be s\ght 9 ord] to expla9 ! _w ( s5se4 ,b n be+ able to f9d any su* pr9ciple1 he m]ely took ! objects ( s5se ov] aga9 & call$ !m non-s5su\s4 ,b !re is1 9 fact1 no diff]5ce betwe5 ! horse & ! ,idea ( ! horse1 betwe5 ! man & ! ,idea ( ! man1 except a useless & mean+less 9-itself or 9-g5]al atta*$ to ea* object ( s5se to make x appe> some?+ diff]5t4 ,! ,ideas are no?+ b hypo/atiz$ ?+s ( s5se1 & ,ari/otle lik5s !m to ! an?ropomorphic gods ( ! popul> religion4 ,z #bfd ^!1 he says1 are no?+ b deifi$ m51 s ! ,ideas are no?+ b et]naliz$ ?+s ( nature4 ,?+s are said to be copies ( ,ideas1 b 9 fact ! ,ideas are only copies ( ?+s4 7#f7 ,next comes ! argum5t ( ! ?ird man1 s call$ by ,ari/otle f ! illu/ration by :i* he expla9$ x4 ,ideas are assum$ 9 ord] to expla9 :at is common to _m objects4 ,:]ev] !re is a common elem5t !re mu/ be an ,idea4 ,?us !re is a common elem5t 9 all m51 & !re=e !re is an ,idea ( man4 ,b !re is also an elem5t common to ! individual man & to ! ,idea ( man4 ,!re mu/1 !re=e1 be a fur!r ,idea1 ! ?ird man1 to expla9 ?is4 ,& betwe5 ?is fur!r ,idea & ! individual man !re mu/ be yet ano!r ,idea to expla9 :at !y h 9 common1 & s on ad inf9itum4 7#g7 ,b by f> ! mo/ important ( all ,ari/otle's objections to ! ideal !ory1 & t :i*1 to all int5ts & purposes1 sums up all ! o!rs1 is t x assumes t ,ideas are ! ess5ces ( ?+s1 & yet places ^? ess5ces outside ! ?+s !mselves4 ,! ess5ce ( a ?+ mu/ be 9 x1 & n outside x4 ,b ,plato sep>at$ ,ideas f ?+s1 & plac$ ! ,ideas away some:]e 9 a my/]i\s _w ( _! own4 ,! ,idea1 z ! univ]sal1 c only exi/ 9 ! p>ticul>4 ,possibly ! reality 9 all horses is ! univ]sal horse1 b ! univ]sal horse is n some?+ t exi/s by itself & indep5d5tly ( individual horses4 ,h5ce ,plato 0 l$ into ! absurdity ( talk+ z if1 besides ! individual horses we "k1 !re is some:]e ano!r individual call$ ! horse-9-g5]al1 or z if besides :ite objects !re is a ?+ call$ #bfe :it5ess4 ,& ?is is 9 fact ! supreme self-contradiction ( ! !ory ( ,ideas1 t x beg9s by say+ t ! univ]sal is real1 & ! p>ticul> unreal1 b ends by degrad+ ! univ]sal aga9 into a p>ticul>4 ,?is is ! same ?+ z say+ t ,plato's mi/ake lay 9 fir/ 7rightly7 see+ t exi/5ce is n reality1 b !n 7wrongly7 go+ on to imag9e t ! reality is an exi/5ce4 ,out ( ?is la/ objection gr[s ,ari/otle's own philosophy1 ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( :i* is t ! univ]sal is inde$ ! absolute reality1 b t x is a univ]sal :i* exi/s only 9 ! p>ticul>4 ,:at is reality8 ,:at is sub/ance8 ,?is is ! fir/ "q = ! metaphysician4 ,n[ sub/ance is :at has an indep5d5t exi/5ce ( its own2 x is t ^: be+ does n fl[ into x f any s\rce outside itself4 ,consequ5tly1 sub/ance is :at is nev] a pr$icate2 x is t to :i* all pr$icates are appli$4 ,?us 9 ! proposition1 ,gold is heavy1 gold is ! subject1 or sub/ance1 & heavy is its pr$icate4 ,! heav9ess is dep5d5t = its exi/5ce on ! gold1 & x is !re=e ! latt]1 & n ! =m]1 t is ! sub/ance4 ,n[1 keep+ ?is 9 m9d1 are univ]sals1 z ,plato ass]ts1 sub/ances8 ,no2 because ! univ]sal is m]ely a common pr$icate :i* atta*es to _m objects ( a class4 ,?us ! concept ( man is m]ely :at is common to all m54 ,x is ! same ?+ z ! pr$icate humanness4 ,b humanness _c exi/ ap>t f human be+s1 any m ?an heav9ess ap>t f ! heavy object4 ,univ]sals1 !n1 are n sub/ances4 ,b nei!r are p>ticul>s sub/ances4 ,= !re is no su* ?+ z t :i* is absolutely #bff p>ticul> & isolat$4 ,if humanness does n exi/ ap>t f m51 nei!r d m5 exi/ ap>t f humanness4 ,take away f a man :at he has 9 common ) o!r m51 & :at he has 9 common ) o!r objects1 & y w f9d t1 hav+ /ripp$ him ( all 8 qualities1 !re is absolutely no?+ left4 ,we say gold is heavy1 yell[1 malleable1 etc4 ,n[ ! heav9ess1 ! yell[ness1 & ! o!r qualities1 _c exi/ ap>t f ! gold4 ,b x is equally true t ! gold _c exi/ ap>t f its qualities4 ,/rip (f all its qualities 9 ?\ght1 & !n ask y\rself :at ! gold itself is ap>t f its qualities4 ,y w f9d t y\r m9d is a total blank4 ,9 tak+ away ! qualities y h tak5 away ! gold itself4 ,! gold c only be ?\ght ?r\gh its qualities4 ,x only exi/s ?r\gh its qualities4 ,! gold1 !re=e1 j z mu* dep5ds on ! qualities = its exi/5ce z ! qualities dep5d ^u ! gold4 ,h5ce nei!r ( !m1 consid]$ ap>t f ! o!r1 is sub/ance4 ,b ! qualities are ! univ]sal elem5t 9 ! gold1 ! gold )\t ! qualities is ! absolutely p>ticul> & isolat$4 ,=1 fir/1 ! yell[ness is a quality :i* ?is gold has 9 common ) t gold1 & is !re=e a univ]sal1 & s ) all ! qualities4 ,ev5 if a p>ticul> piece ( gold has a quality possess$ by no o!r gold1 x is yet possess$ by "s o!r object 9 ! univ]se1 or x w\ld be unkn[able4 ,e quality is consequ5tly a univ]sal4 ,secondly1 ! gold )\t its qualities is ! absolutely p>ticul>4 ,=1 be+ /ripp$ ( all qualities1 x is /ripp$ ( :atev] x has 9 common ) o!r ?+s2 x is /ripp$ ( :atev] univ]sality x has1 & x rema9s an absolute p>ticul>4 ,h5ce ! #bfg univ]sal is n sub/ance1 nor is ! p>ticul>4 ,= nei!r ( !m c exi/ )\t ! o!r4 ,sub/ance mu/ be a comp\nd ( ! two2 x mu/ be ! univ]sal 9 ! p>ticul>4 ,& ?is means t t alone :i* is sub/ance is ! individual object1 = example1 ! gold ) all its qualities atta*$ to x4 ,x is usually believ$ t ,ari/otle contradict$ himself 9 z mu* z he fir/ /ates1 z above1 t ! individual object1 ! comp\nd ( univ]sal & p>ticul>1 is sub/ance1 b lat] on all[s a sup]ior reality to ! univ]sal1 or =m z he calls x1 & 9 effect tea*es1 l ,plato1 t ! univ]sal is :at alone is absolutely real1 t is1 t ! univ]sal is sub/ance4 ,i d n agree t !re is any real inconsi/5cy 9 ,ari/otle4 ,or r1 ! inconsi/5cy is "o ( words & n ( ?\ght4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t1 :5ev] ,ari/otle says t ! individual1 & n ! univ]sal1 is sub/ance1 he is ?9k+ ( ,plato4 ,:at he means to d5y is t ! univ]sal c exi/ on its own acc\nt1 z ,plato ?\ght4 ,nev]!less he agrees ) ,plato t ! univ]sal is ! real4 ,:5 he says t ! univ]sal is n sub/ance he means1 z aga9/ ,plato1 t x is n exi/5t4 ,:at alone exi/s is ! individual ?+1 ! comp\nd ( univ]sal & p>ticul>4 ,:5 he says1 or implies1 t ! univ]sal is sub/ance1 he means t1 ?\gh x is n exi/5t1 x is real4 ,8 words are contradictory1 b 8 mean+ is n4 ,he has n express$ himself z cle>ly z he %\ld2 t is all4 ,! fur!r developm5t ( ,ari/otle's metaphysics dep5ds ^u 8 doctr9e ( causation4 ,by causation "h1 h[ev]1 is meant a v mu* wid] conception #bfh ?an :at is und]/ood by t t]m 9 mod]n times4 ,i h 9 previ\s lectures attempt$ to make cle> ! di/9ction betwe5 causes & reasons4 ,! cause ( a ?+ does n give any reason = x1 & !re=e does n expla9 x4 ,! cause is m]ely ! me*anism by :i* a reason produces its consequ5ce4 ,dea? is caus$ by accid5t or disease1 b ^! causes expla9 no?+ z to :y dea? %\ld be 9 ! _w at all4 ,n[ if we accept ?is di/9ction1 we may say t ,ari/otle's conception ( causation includes bo? :at we h call$ causes & reasons4 ,:atev] is necess>y1 :e!r facts or pr9ciples1 :e!r causes or reasons1 fully to und]/& ! exi/5ce ( a ?+1 or ! happ5+ ( an ev5t1 is includ$ 9 ! ,ari/otelian notion ( causation4 ,tak+ causation 9 ?is wide s5se1 ,ari/otle f9ds t !re are f\r k9ds ( causes1 ! mat]ial1 ! effici5t1 ! =mal1 & ! f9al cause4 ,^! are n alt]native causes2 x is n meant t1 to expla9 any?+1 "o or o!r ( ! f\r mu/ be pres5t4 ,9 e case ( ! exi/5ce or production ( a ?+ all f\r causes op]ate simultane\sly4 ,moreov] ! same f\r causes are to be f\nd bo? 9 human & 9 cosmic production1 9 ! mak+ ( manufactur$ articles by man & 9 ! production ( ?+s by nature4 ,!y are m cle>ly & easily se51 h[ev]1 9 human production1 f :i* sph]e1 !re=e1 we select our example4 ,! mat]ial cause ( a ?+ is ! matt] ( :i* x is compos$4 ,x is ! raw mat]ial :i* becomes ! ?+4 ,= example1 9 ! mak+ ( a bronze /atue ( ,h]mes1 ! bronze is ! mat]ial cause ( ! /atue4 ,?is example might lead "o to suppose #bfi t ,ari/otle means by mat]ial cause :at we call matt]1 physical sub/ance1 su* z brass1 iron1 or wood4 ,z we %all see lat]1 ?is is n necess>ily ! case1 ?\gh x is s 9 ! pres5t in/ance4 ,! effici5t cause is always def9$ by ,ari/otle z ! cause ( motion4 ,x is ! en]gy or mov+ =ce requir$ to br+ ab\t *ange4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t by motion ,ari/otle means n m]ely *ange ( place b *ange ( any sort4 ,! alt]ation ( a leaf f gre5 to yell[ is j z mu* motion1 9 8 s5se1 z ! fall+ ( a /one4 ,! effici5t cause1 !n1 is ! cause ( all *ange4 ,9 ! example tak51 :at causes ! bronze to become a /atue1 :at produces ?is *ange1 is ! sculptor4 ,he is1 !re=e1 ! effici5t cause ( ! /atue4 ,! =mal cause ,ari/otle def9es z ! sub/ance & ess5ce ( ! ?+4 ,n[ ! ess5ce ( a ?+ is giv5 9 its def9ition4 ,b ! def9ition is ! explication ( ! concept4 ,!re=e ! =mal cause is ! concept1 or1 z ,plato w\ld call x1 ! ,idea ( ! ?+4 ,plato's ,ideas ?us reappe> 9 ,ari/otle z =mal causes4 ,! f9al cause is ! end1 purpose1 or aim1 t[>ds :i* ! movem5t is direct$4 ,:5 a /atue is be+ produc$1 ! end ( ?is activity1 :at ! sculptor aims at1 is ! complet$ /atue itself4 ,& ! f9al cause ( a ?+ 9 g5]al is ! ?+ itself1 ! complet$ be+ ( ! object4 ,we c see at once h[ mu* wid] ?is conception ( causation is ?an ! mod]n conception4 ,if we take ,mill's def9ition ( a cause z ! be/ expression ( mod]n sci5tific ideas1 we f9d t he def9es a cause z ! inv>iable & unconditional antec$5t ( a ph5om5on4 ,?is cuts out f9al causes at once4 ,= #bgj ! f9al cause is ! end1 & is n an antec$5t 9 "t4 ,x also does n include =mal causes4 ,= we d n n[ ?9k ( ! concept ( a ?+ z be+ "p ( its cause4 ,?is leaves u ) only mat]ial & effici5t causes1 & ^! correspond r\ghly to ! mod]n notions ( matt] & en]gy4 ,ev5 ! effici5t causes ( ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 appe> on fur!r consid]ation1 to be exclud$ f ! mod]n idea ( causation4 ,=1 ?\gh ! effici5t cause is ! en]gy :i* produces motion1 mod]n sci5ce reg>ds x z purely me*anical en]gy1 :]eas ,ari/otle ?9ks ( x1 z we %all see1 z an ideal =ce1 op]at+ n f ! beg9n+ b f ! end4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t1 9 say+ t ! mod]n idea ( causation excludes =mal & f9al causes1 we mean t ,ari/otle is wrong 9 add+ !m1 or t ! mod]n idea is bett] ?an ,ari/otle's4 ,x is n a "q ( bett] & worse at all4 ,mod]n sci5ce does n 9 any way d5y ! reality ( =mal & f9al causes4 ,x m]ely consid]s !m to be outside its sph]e4 ,x is no bus9ess ( sci5ce :e!r !y exi/ or n4 ,z k advances1 diff]5tiation & division ( lab\r occur4 ,sci5ce takes z its prov9ce me*anical causes1 & leaves =mal & f9al causes to ! philosoph] to explicate4 ,?us1 = example1 =mal causes are n consid]$ by sci5ce because !y are n1 9 ! mod]n s5se1 causes at all4 ,!y are :at we h call$ reasons4 ,if we are to expla9 ! exi/5ce ( an object 9 ! univ]se x may be necess>y to introduce =mal causes1 concepts1 to %[ :y ! ?+ exi/s1 to %[ 9 fact its reasons4 ,b sci5ce makes no attempt to expla9 ! exi/5ce ( objects4 ,x takes _! #bga exi/5ce = grant$1 & seeks to trace _! hi/ory & _! relations to ea* o!r4 ,!re=e x does n require =mal causes4 ,x seeks to "w out ! me*anical view ( ! univ]se1 & !re=e consid]s only me*anical causes4 ,b ,ari/otle's !ory1 z be+ philosophy r ?an sci5ce1 includes bo? ! pr9ciples ( me*anism & teleology4 ,x 0 n ,ari/otle's habit to prop\nd 8 !ories z if !y 7 some?+ absolutely new1 sprung = ! fir/ "t out ( 8 own bra94 ,9 attack+ any problem1 8 cu/om 0 to beg9 by enum]at+ curr5t & pa/ op9ions1 to criticise !m1 to reject :at 0 valueless 9 !m1 to reta9 ! residue ( tru?1 & to add to x 8 own sugge/ions & orig9al ideas4 ,! resultant ( ?is process 0 8 own !ory1 :i* he ?us repres5t$1 n z absolutely new1 b z a developm5t ( ! views ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,?is c\rse he foll[s also 9 ! pres5t in/ance4 ,! fir/ book ( ! ,metaphysics is a hi/ory ( all previ\s philosophy1 f ,?ales to ,plato1 und]tak5 ) ! object ( inve/igat+ h[ f> ! f\r causes _h be5 recogniz$ by 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! mat]ial cause1 he says1 _h be5 recogniz$ f ! fir/4 ,! ,ionics believ$ 9 ?is & no o!r cause4 ,!y s\ght to expla9 ev]y?+ by matt]1 ?\gh !y diff]$ among !mselves z to ! nature ( ! mat]ial cause1 ,?ales describ+ x z wat]1 ,anaxim5es z air4 ,lat] philosoph]s also gave diff]5t acc\nts ( x1 ,h]acleitus ?9k+ x 0 fire1 ,emp$ocles ! f\r elem5ts1 ,anaxagoras an indef9ite numb] ( k9ds ( matt]4 ,b ! po9t is t !y all recogniz$ ! necessity = a mat]ial cause ( "s sort to expla9 ! univ]se4 #bgb ,! e>lie/ ?9k]s1 !n1 ! ,ionics1 assum$ only ?is "o cause4 ,b z ?\ght advanc$1 says ,ari/otle1 & o!r philosoph]s came ^u ! sc5e1 ! ?+ itself guid$ !m4 ,x 0 se5 t a second cause 0 necess>y to expla9 ! motion & becom+ ( ?+s4 ,= matt] itself does n produce its motion4 ,wood is n ! cause ( its becom+ a b$1 nor is brass ! cause ( its becom+ a /atue4 ,h5ce arose ! idea ( ! effici5t cause4 ,! ,eleatics did n recognize x1 = !y d5i$ motion1 & = !m1 !re=e1 no cause ( motion c\ld be assum$4 ,b ,p>m5ides1 ,ari/otle ?9ks1 wav]$ on ?is po9t1 someh[ all[+ vaguely ! exi/5ce ( a second cause1 :i* he d5om9at$ ! hot & ! cold4 ,! ref]5ce is1 ( c\rse1 to ! second "p ( ! poem ( ,p>m5ides4 ,o!r philosoph]s cle>ly assum$ an effici5t cause1 = !y ?\ght t "o elem5t1 = example1 fire1 is m active1 t is1 m productive ( motion1 ?an o!rs4 ,emp$ocles c]ta9ly atta9$ to ! idea ( an effici5t cause1 = he nam$ z mov+ =ces1 h>mony & discord1 love & hate4 ,anaxagoras also1 us$ ,n\s z a mov+ =ce4 ,=mal causes _h1 p]haps1 be5 recogniz$ by ! ,py?agoreans1 = numb]s are =ms4 ,b !y /raightway degrad$ ! =mal cause to ! level ( a mat]ial cause by decl>+ t numb] is ! /uff or matt] ( :i* ?+s are made4 ,plato alone cle>ly saw ! necessity = ! =mal cause1 = =mal causes are1 z we h se51 ! same z ,plato's ,ideas4 ,b ,plato's philosophy conta9s only two ( ! f\r causes1 namely ! mat]ial & ! =mal1 = ,plato made all ?+s out ( matt] & ! ,ideas4 ,s9ce ! ,ideas h 9 !m #bgc no pr9ciple ( motion1 ,plato's sy/em conta9s no effici5t cause4 ,z = f9al causes1 ,plato _h inde$ ! vague idea t ev]y?+ is = ! sake ( ! ,good1 b he makes no use ( ?is conception & does n develop x4 ,f9al causes 7 introduc$ into philosophy by ,anaxagoras1 ^: doctr9e ( ! _w =m+ m9d 0 assum$ to expla9 ! design & purpose :i* ! univ]se exhibits4 ,b z 8 sy/em develop$ he =got ab\t ?is1 & us$ ! ,n\s m]ely z a piece ( me*anism to expla9 motion1 ?us lett+ x s9k into no?+ m ?an an effici5t cause4 ,9 ! result1 ,ari/otle f9ds t all f\r causes h be5 recogniz$ 9 great] or less] degrees by 8 pr$ecessors1 & ?is1 9 8 op9ion1 greatly re9=ces 8 own doctr9e4 ,b :]eas mat]ial & effici5t causes h be5 cle>ly und]/ood1 8 pr$ecessors _h only vaguely =e%ad[$ & dimly p]ceiv$ ! value ( =mal & f9al causes4 ,! next /ep 9 ,ari/otle's metaphysics is to r$uce ^! f\r pr9ciples to two1 :i* he calls matt] & =m4 ,?is r$uction takes place by %[+ t =mal cause1 effici5t cause1 & f9al cause1 all melt into ! s+le conception ( =m4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! =mal cause & ! f9al cause are ! same4 ,= ! =mal cause is ! ess5ce1 ! concept1 ! ,idea1 ( ! ?+4 ,n[ ! f9al cause1 or ! end1 is simply ! realisation ( ! ,idea ( ! ?+ 9 actuality4 ,:at ! ?+ aims at is ! def9ite expression ( its =m4 ,x ?us aims at its =m4 ,its end1 f9al cause1 is ?us ! same z its =mal cause4 ,secondly1 ! effici5t cause is ! same z ! f9al cause4 ,= ! effici5t cause is ! cause ( becom+4 ,! f9al cause is ! end ( #bgd ! becom+1 x is :at x becomes4 ,&1 9 ,ari/otle's op9ion1 :at causes ! becom+ is j t x aims at ! end4 ,! /riv+ ( all ?+s is t[>ds ! end1 & exi/s because ( ! end4 ,! end is ?us itself ! cause ( becom+ or motion4 ,t is to say1 ! f9al cause is ! real effici5t cause4 ,we may see ?is bett] by an example4 ,! end or f9al cause ( ! acorn is ! oak4 ,& x is ! oak :i* is ! cause ( ! acorn's gr[?1 :i* consi/s ess5tially 9 a movem5t by :i* ! acorn is drawn t[>ds its end1 ! oak4 ,we may see ?is ev5 m def9itely 9 ! case ( human productions1 because "h ! /riv+ t[>ds an end is consci\s1 :]eas 9 nature x is unconsci\s or in/9ctive4 ,! effici5t cause ( ! /atue is ! sculptor4 ,x is he t moves ! brass4 ,b :at moves ! sculptor1 & causes him to act ^u ! brass1 is ! idea ( ! complet$ /atue 9 8 m9d4 ,! idea ( ! end1 ! f9al cause1 is ?us ! real ultimate cause ( ! movem5t4 ,only1 9 ! case ( human production1 ! idea ( ! end is actually pres5t 9 ! sculptor's m9d z a motive4 ,9 nature !re is no m9d 9 :i* ! end is consci\s ( itself1 b nev]!less nature moves t[>ds ! end1 & ! end is ! cause ( ! movem5t4 ,?us ! ?ree causes nam$ all melt into a s+le notion1 :i* ,ari/otle calls ! =m ( ! ?+4 ,& ?is leaves only ! mat]ial cause unr$uc$ to any o!r4 ,s we are left ) ! s+le anti!sis ( matt] & =m4 ,n[ z matt] & =m are ! fundam5tal categories ( ,ari/otle's philosophy1 by means ( :i* he seeks to expla9 ! entire univ]se1 x is ess5tial t we %\ld ?or\ghly und]/& _! *>act]i/ics4 #bge ,fir/ ( all1 matt] & =m are insep>able4 ,we ?9k ( !m z sep>ate 9 ord] to und]/& !m cle>ly4 ,& ?is is q "r1 because !y are opposite pr9ciples1 & !re=e !y are sep>able 9 ?\ght4 ,b !y are nev] sep>able 9 fact4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z =m )\t matt]1 or matt] )\t =m4 ,e exi/5t ?+1 t is1 e individual object1 is a comp\nd ( matt] & =m4 ,we may comp>e !m 9 ?is respect to ! mat]ial & ! %ape ( a ?+1 ?\gh we mu/ be c>eful n to ?9k t =m is m]ely %ape4 ,geometry consid]s %apes z if !y exi/$ by !mselves4 ,b1 9 fact1 we "k t !re are no su* ?+s z squ>es1 circles1 & triangles4 ,!re are only squ>e objects1 circul> objects1 etc4 ,& z !re are no %apes )\t objects1 s !re are no objects )\t %apes4 ,we talk ( ?+s be+ %apeless1 b ?is only means t _! %ape is irregul> or unusual4 ,"s %ape an object mu/ h4 ,yet1 ?\gh %ape & matt] are insep>able 9 fact1 !y are opposite pr9ciples1 & are sep>able 9 ?\ght4 ,geometry is q "r to treat %apes z if !y exi/$ by !mselves1 b x is nev]!less deal+ ) m]e ab/ractions4 ,j 9 ! same way1 matt] & =m are nev] ap>t1 & to ?9k ( =m by itself or matt] by itself is a m]e ab/raction4 ,no su* ?+ exi/s4 ,9 fact1 to imag9e t =ms c exi/ by !mselves 0 j ! mi/ake ( :i*1 z we h se51 ,ari/otle accuses ,plato4 ,= ! =m is ! ,idea1 & ,plato imag9$ t ,ideas exi/ 9 a _w ( _! own4 ,f ?is1 too1 we c see t ! =m is ! univ]sal1 ! matt] ! p>ticul>4 ,= ! =m is ! ,idea1 & ! ,idea is ! univ]sal4 ,to say t =m & #bgf matt] _c exi/ ap>t is ?us ! same z say+ t ! univ]sal only exi/s 9 ! p>ticul>1 :i*1 z we h se51 is ! fundam5tal note ( ,ari/otle's philosophy4 ,b if we ?us id5tify matt] ) ! p>ticul> elem5t 9 ?+s1 we mu/ be c>eful t we d n confuse ! p>ticul> ) ! individual4 ,we (t5 use ^! two words z practically synonym\s1 & !re is no h>m 9 ?is1 b "h we mu/ be c>eful to sep>ate !m4 ,= e individual is1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 a comp\nd ( matt] & =m1 ( ! p>ticul> & ! univ]sal4 ,& :5 we say t matt] is ! p>ticul>1 we mean1 n t x is su* a comp\nd1 b t x is ! absolutely p>ticul> :i* has no univ]sal 9 x4 ,b ! absolutely p>ticul> & isolat$ does n exi/4 ,a piece ( gold1 = in/ance1 only exi/s by virtue ( its prop]ties1 yell[ness1 heav9ess1 etc41 & ^! qualities are j :at x has 9 common ) o!r ?+s4 ,s t ! p>ticul>1 z su*1 has no exi/5ce1 b ?is is only ! same z say+1 :at we h already said1 t matt] has no exi/5ce ap>t f =m4 ,a v natural mi/ake w\ld be to suppose t by matt] ,ari/otle meant ! same z we d1 namely1 physical sub/ance1 su* z wood or iron1 & t by =m he meant simply %ape4 ,n[ al?\gh !re is a k9%ip 9 ! ideas1 ^! two pairs ( ideas are f> f id5tical4 ,let u beg9 ) matt]4 ,our ord9>y idea ( matt] z physical sub/ance is an absolute conception4 ,t is to say1 a ?+ :i* we call mat]ial is absolutely1 once & = all1 matt]4 ,x is n mat]ial f "o po9t ( view1 & immat]ial f ano!r4 ,9 e possible relation x is1 & #bgg rema9s1 matt]4 ,nor does x 9 process ( "t cease to be matt]4 ,brass nev] becomes any?+ b matt]4 ,no d\bt !re are 9 nature *anges ( "o sort ( matt] into ano!r1 = example1 radium into helium4 ,& = all we "k1 brass may become lead4 ,b ev5 s1 x does n cease to be matt]4 ,b ,ari/otle's conception ( matt] is a relative conception4 ,matt] & =m are fluid4 ,!y fl[ into "o ano!r4 ,! same ?+1 f "o po9t ( view1 is matt]1 f ano!r1 =m4 ,9 all *ange1 matt] is t :i* becomes1 t ^u :i* ! *ange is wr\ght4 ,t is =m t[>ds :i* ! *ange op]ates4 ,:at becomes is matt]4 ,:at x becomes is =m4 ,?us wood is matt] if consid]$ 9 relation to ! b$4 ,= x is :at becomes ! b$4 ,b wood is =m if consid]$ 9 relation to ! gr[+ plant4 ,= x is :at ! plant becomes4 ,! oak is ! =m ( ! acorn1 b x is ! matt] ( ! oak furniture4 ,t matt] & =m are relative t]ms %[s1 too1 t ! =m _c be m]ely ! %ape4 ,= :at is =m 9 "o aspect is matt] 9 ano!r4 ,b %ape is nev] any?+ b %ape4 ,no d\bt ! %ape is "p ( ! =m1 = ! =m 9 fact includes all ! qualities ( ! ?+4 ,b ! %ape is q an unimportant "p ( ! =m4 ,= =m includes organization1 ! relation ( "p to "p1 & ! subord9ation ( all p>ts to ! :ole4 ,! =m is ! sum ( ! int]nal & ext]nal relations1 ! ideal framework1 s to speak1 into :i* ! ?+ is m\ld$4 ,=m also includes function4 ,= x includes ! f9al cause4 ,n[ ! function ( a ?+ is j :at ! ?+ is =4 ,& :at x is = is ! same z its end1 or f9al cause4 #bgh ,!re=e function is includ$ 9 =m4 ,= example1 ! function ( a h&1 its p[] ( gripp+1 is "p ( its =m4 ,& !re=e1 if x loses its function by be+ cut (f f ! arm1 x likewise loses its =m4 ,ev5 ! dead h&1 ( c\rse1 has "s =m1 = e individual object is a comp\nd ( matt] & =m4 ,b x has lo/ ! highe/ "p ( its =m1 & relatively to ! liv+ h& x is m]e matt]1 al?\gh1 relatively to ! fle% & bones ( :i* x is compos$1 x is /ill =m4 ,cle>ly1 !n1 =m is n m]ely %ape4 ,= ! h& cut (f does n lose its %ape4 ,! =m includes all ! qualities ( ! ?+4 ,! matt] is :at has ! qualities4 ,= ! qualities are all univ]sals4 ,a piece ( gold is yell[1 & ?is means simply t x has ?is 9 common ) o!r pieces ( gold1 & o!r yell[ objects4 ,to say t any?+ has a quality is imm$iately to place x 9 a class4 ,& :at ! class has 9 common is a univ]sal4 ,a ?+ )\t qualities _c exi/1 nor qualities )\t a ?+4 ,& ?is is ! same z say+ t =m & matt] _c exi/ sep>ately4 ,! matt]1 !n1 is ! absolutely =mless4 ,x is ! sub/ratum :i* und]lies ev]y?+4 ,x has1 9 itself1 no "*4 ,x is absolutely featureless1 indef9ite1 )\t any quality4 ,:atev] gives a ?+ def9it5ess1 "*1 quality1 :atev] makes x a ?is or t1 is its =m4 ,consequ5tly1 !re are no diff]5ces )9 matt]4 ,"o ?+ c only diff] f ano!r by hav+ diff]5t qualities4 ,& z matt] has no qualities1 x has no diff]5ce4 ,& ?is 9 itself %[s t ! ,ari/otelian notion ( matt] is n ! same z our notion ( physical sub/ance4 ,=1 accord+ #bgi to our mod]n usage1 "o k9d ( matt] diff]s f ano!r1 z brass f iron4 ,b ?is is a diff]5ce ( quality1 & = ,ari/otle all quality is "p ( ! =m4 ,s 9 8 view ! diff]5ce ( brass f iron is n a diff]5ce ( matt]1 b a diff]5ce ( =m4 ,consequ5tly1 matt] may become any?+1 accord+ to ! =m impress$ ^u x4 ,x is ?us ! possibility ( ev]y?+1 ?\gh x is actually no?+4 ,x only becomes some?+ by ! acquisition ( =m4 ,& ?is leads directly to a mo/ important ,ari/otelian anti!sis1 t betwe5 pot5tiality & actuality4 ,pot5tiality is ! same z matt]1 actuality z =m4 ,= matt] is pot5tially ev]y?+4 ,x may become ev]y?+4 ,x is n actually any?+4 ,x is a m]e pot5tiality1 or capacity ( becom+ some?+4 ,b :atev] gives x def9it5ess z a ?is or t1 :atev] makes x an actual ?+1 is its =m4 ,?us ! actuality ( a ?+ is simply its =m4 ,ari/otle claims1 by means ( ! anti!sis ( pot5tiality & actuality1 to h solv$ ! anci5t problem ( becom+1 a riddle1 prop\nd$ by ! ,eleatics1 :i* _h nev] ceas$ to tr\ble ,greek ?9k]s4 ,h[ is becom+ possible8 ,= be+ to pass into be+ is n becom+1 = x involves no *ange1 & = n-be+ to pass into be+ is impossible1 s9ce some?+ _c come out ( no?+4 ,= ,ari/otle1 ! %>p l9e drawn betwe5 n-be+ & be+ does n exi/4 ,= ^! absolute t]ms he sub/itutes ! relative t]ms pot5tiality & actuality1 :i* %ade (f into ea* o!r4 ,pot5tiality 9 8 philosophy takes ! place ( n-be+ 9 previ\s sy/ems4 ,x solves ! riddle because x is n an absolute n-be+4 ,x is #bhj n-be+ inasmu* z x is actually no?+1 b x is be+ because x is pot5tial be+4 ,becom+1 !re=e1 does n involve ! impossible leap f no?+ to some?+4 ,x involves ! transition f pot5tial to actual be+4 ,all *ange1 all motion1 is ?us ! passage ( pot5tiality into actuality1 ( matt] into =m4 ,s9ce matt] is 9 itself no?+1 a b>e unrealis$ capacity1 :ile =m is actuality1 ! complet$ & p]fect$ be+1 x foll[s t =m is some?+ high] ?an matt]4 ,b matt] is :at becomes =m4 ,9 ord] ( "t1 !re=e1 matt] is e>li]1 =m lat]4 ,b 9 ord] ( ?\ght1 & 9 reality1 x is o!rwise4 ,= :5 we say t matt] is ! pot5tiality ( :at x is to become1 ?is implies t :at x is to become is already pres5t 9 x ideally & pot5tially1 ?\gh n actually4 ,! end1 !re=e1 is already pres5t 9 ! beg9n+4 ,! oak is 9 ! acorn1 ideally1 o!rwise ! oak c\ld nev] come out ( x4 ,& s9ce all becom+ is t[>ds ! end1 & w\ld n take place b = ! end1 ! end is ! op]ative pr9ciple & true cause ( becom+4 ,motion is produc$ n by a me*anical propulsive =ce1 pu%+ f beh9d1 s to speak1 b by an ideal attractive =ce1 draw+ ! ?+ t[>ds its end1 z a piece ( iron is drawn to ! magnet4 ,x is ! end itself :i* ex]ts ?is =ce4 ,&1 !re=e1 ! end mu/ be pres5t at ! beg9n+1 = if x 7 n pres5t x c\ld ex]t no =ce4 ,nay1 m4 ,x is n only pres5t 9 ! beg9n+1 x is ant]ior to x4 ,= ! end is ! cause ( ! motion1 & ! cause is logically prior to its consequ5ce4 ,! end1 or ! pr9ciple ( =m1 is ?us ! absolute fir/ 9 ?\ght & reality1 ?\gh x may be ! la/ 9 "t4 ,if1 !n1 #bha we ask :at1 = ,ari/otle1 is t ultimate reality1 t fir/ pr9ciple1 f :i* ! entire univ]se fl[s1 ! answ] is1 ! end1 ! pr9ciple ( =m4 ,& z =m is ! univ]sal1 ! ,idea1 we see t 8 fundam5tal !sis is ! same z ,plato's4 ,x is ! "o !sis ( all idealism1 namely1 t ?\ght1 ! univ]sal1 reason1 is ! absolute be+1 ! f\ndation ( ! _w4 ,:]e he diff]s f ,plato is 9 d5y+ t =m has any exi/5ce ap>t f ! matt] 9 :i* x exhibits itself4 ,n[ all ?is may /rike ! unsophi/icat$ z v /range4 ,t ! absolute be+ :5ce ! univ]se fl[s %\ld be describ$ z t :i* lies at ! end ( ! developm5t ( ! univ]se1 & t philosophy %\ld proce$ to ju/ify ?is by ass]t+ t ! end is really prior to ! beg9n+1 ?is is s f> remov$ f ! common man's mode ( ?\ght1 t x may appe> m]e p>adox4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 nei!r /range nor p>adoxical4 ,x is ess5tially s\nd & true1 & x seems /range to ! ord9>y man only because x p5etrates s mu* deep] into ?+s ?an he c4 ,?is ?\ght is1 9 fact1 ess5tial to a develop$ idealism1 & till x is grasp$ no advance c be made 9 philosophy4 ,:e!r x is und]/ood is1 inde$1 a good te/ ( :e!r a man has any tal5t = philosophy or n4 ,! fact is t all philosophies ( ?is sort reg>d "t z unreal1 z an appe>ance4 ,?is be+ s1 ! relation ( ! absolute be+1 or ,god1 to ! _w _c be a relation ( "t at all4 ,! common man's idea is t1 if !re is a fir/ pr9ciple or ,god at all1 ,he mu/ h exi/$ be=e ! _w began1 & !n1 someh[1 p]haps billions ( ye>s ago1 some?+ happ5$ z a #bhb result ( :i* ! _w came into be+4 ,! ,absolute is ?us conceiv$ z ! cause1 ! _w z ! effect1 & ! cause always prec$es its effect 9 "t4 ,or if1 on ! o!r h&1 we ?9k t ! _w nev] _h a beg9n+1 ! ord9>y man's ?\ght w\ld lead him to believe t1 9 t case1 x is no long] necess>y to assume a fir/ pr9ciple at all4 ,b if "t is a m]e appe>ance1 ?is :ole way ( look+ at ?+s mu/ be wrong4 ,god is n relat$ to ! _w z cause to effect4 ,x is n a relation ( "t at all4 ,x is a logical relation4 ,god is r ! logical premise1 ( :i* ! _w is ! conclusion1 s t1 ,god grant$1 ! _w foll[s necess>ily1 j z1 ! premises grant$1 ! conclusion foll[s4 ,?is is ! reason :y1 9 discuss+ ,plato1 we said t x mu/ be possible to d$uce ! _w f 8 fir/ pr9ciple4 ,if ! ,absolute 7 m]ely ! cause ( ! _w 9 "t1 x w\ld n expla9 ! _w1 =1 z ,i h s (t5 po9t$ out1 causes expla9 no?+4 ,b if ! _w be d$ucible f ! ,absolute1 ! _w is expla9$1 a reason1 n a cause1 is giv5 = x1 j z ! premises con/itute ! reason = ! conclusion4 ,n[ ! conclusion ( a syllogism foll[s f ! premises1 t is1 ! premises come fir/1 ! conclusion second4 ,b ! premise only comes fir/ 9 ?\ght1 n 9 "t4 ,x is a logical succession1 n a "t-succession4 ,j 9 ! same way1 ! ,absolute1 or 9 ,ari/otle's language1 ! =m1 is logically fir/1 b is n fir/ 9 ord] ( "t4 ,& ?\gh x is ! end1 x is 9 ?\ght ! absolute beg9n+1 & is ?us ! f\ndation ( ! _w1 ! fir/ pr9ciple f :i* ! _w fl[s4 ,! objection may be1 tak5 t if ! relation ( ! #bhc ,absolute to ! _w is n a "t-relation1 !n x c no m be ! end ?an ! beg9n+4 ,?is objection is1 z we %all see1 a misund]/&+ ( ,ari/otle's philosophy4 ,al?\gh ?+s 9 "t /rive t[>ds ! end1 yet ! absolute end is n 9 "t at all1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! end is nev] rea*$4 ,its relation to ! _w z end is j z mu* a logical1 & n a "t-relation1 z its relation to ! _w z beg9n+ or absolute prius4 ,z f> z "t is conc]n$1 ! univ]se is )\t beg9n+ or end4 ,z ! _w-process is a cont9ual elevation ( matt] into high] & high] =ms1 !re results ! conception t ! univ]se exhibits a cont9u\s scale ( be+4 ,t is high] 9 ! scale 9 :i* =m pr$om9ates1 t l[] 9 :i* matt] outweighs =m4 ,at ! bottom ( ! scale w be absolutely =mless matt]1 at ! top1 absolutely matt]less =m4 ,bo? ^! extremes1 h[ev]1 are ab/ractions4 ,nei!r ( !m exi/s1 because matt] & =m _c be sep>at$4 ,:atev] exi/s comes some:]e betwe5 ! two1 & ! univ]se ?us exhibits a process ( cont9u\s gradations4 ,motion & *ange are produc$ by ! ef=t to pass f ! l[] to ! high] "u ! attractive =ce ( ! end4 ,t :i* comes at ! top ( ! scale1 absolute =m1 is call$ by ,ari/otle1 ,god4 ,& ! def9itions ( ,god's "* foll[ f ?is z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,fir/1 s9ce =m is actuality1 ,god alone is absolutely actual4 ,he alone is real4 ,all exi/5t ?+s are m or less unreal4 ,! high] 9 ! scale are ! m real1 z possess+ m =m4 ,! scale ( be+ is ?us also a scale ( reality1 %ad+ (f ?r\gh inf9ite gradations #bhd f ! absolutely real1 ,god1 to ! absolutely unreal1 =mless matt]4 ,secondly1 s9ce ! pr9ciple ( =m conta9s ! =mal1 ! f9al1 & ! effici5t causes1 ,god is all ^!4 ,z =mal cause1 ,he is ! ,idea4 ,he is ess5tially ?\ght1 reason4 ,z f9al cause1 ,he is ! absolute end4 ,he is t to :i* all be+s /rive4 ,ea* be+ has no d\bt its own end 9 itself4 ,b z absolute end1 ,god includes all l[] ends4 ,& z ! end ( ea* ?+ is ! complet$ p]fection ( ! ?+1 s1 z absolute end1 ,god is absolute p]fection4 ,la/ly1 z effici5t cause1 ,god is ! ultimate cause ( all motion & becom+4 ,he is ! fir/ mov]4 ,z su*1 ,he is ,himself unmov$4 ,t ! fir/ mov] %\ld be itself unmov$ is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ,ari/otle's conception ( x z end & =m4 ,= motion is ! transition ( a ?+ t[>ds its end4 ,! absolute end c h no end beyond x1 & !re=e _c be mov$4 ,likewise motion is ! passage ( matt] into =m4 ,absolute =m _c pass into any high] =m1 & is !re=e unmov$4 ,b ! argum5t :i* ,ari/otle himself m frequ5tly uses to e/abli% ! immovability ( ! fir/ mov] is t1 unless we s conceive x1 no cause ( motion appe>s4 ,! mov+ object is mov$ p]haps by ano!r mov+ object4 ,! motion ( ! latt] dem&s a fur!r cause4 ,if ?is fur!r cause is itself mov+1 we mu/ aga9 ask = ! cause ( its motion4 ,if ?is process goes on = ev]1 !n motion is unexpla9$1 & no real cause ( x has be5 %[n4 ,! real & ultimate cause mu/ !re=e be unmov$4 ,?is la/ argum5t s\nds z if ,ari/otle is n[ ?9k+ 9 t]ms ( me*anism4 ,x s\nds z if he meant t #bhe ! fir/ mov] is some?+ at ! beg9n+ ( "t1 :i*1 s to speak1 gave ?+s a pu% to />t !m (f4 ,?is is n :at ,ari/otle means4 ,= ! true effici5t cause is ! f9al cause4 ,& ,god is ! fir/ mov] only 9 ,8 "* z absolute end4 ,z f> z "t is conc]n$1 nei!r ! univ]se1 nor ! motion 9 x1 ev] _h any beg9n+4 ,e me*anical cause has its cause 9 turn1 & s ad inf9itum4 ,god is n a fir/ cause1 9 our s5se1 t is1 a fir/ me*anical cause :i* exi/$ be=e ! _w1 & creat$ x4 ,he is a teleological cause work+ f ! end4 ,b z su*1 ,he is logically prior to all beg9n+1 & s is ! fir/ mov]4 ,& j z ! univ]se has no beg9n+ 9 "t1 s x has no end 9 "t4 ,x w g on = ev]4 ,its end is absolute =m1 b ?is c nev] be rea*$1 because if x 71 ?is w\ld mean t absolute =m w\ld exi/1 :]eas we h se5 t =m _c exi/ ap>t f matt]4 ,god is ?\ght4 ,b ! ?\ght ( :at8 ,z absolute =m1 he is n ! =m ( matt]1 b ! =m ( =m4 ,8 matt]1 s to speak1 is =m4 ,=m1 z ! univ]sal1 is ?\ght4 ,& ?is gives u ,ari/otle's fam\s def9ition ( ,god z ! ?\ght ( ?\ght4 ,he ?9ks only 8 own self4 ,he is at once ! subject & ! object ( 8 ?\ght4 ,z mortal m5 ?9k mat]ial ?+s1 z ,i n[ ?9k ! pap] on :i* ,i write1 s ,god ?9ks ?\ght4 ,9 m mod]n t]ms1 he is self-consci\sness1 ! absolute subject-object4 ,t ,god %\ld ?9k any?+ o!r ?an ?\ght is inconceivable1 because ! end ( all o!r ?\ght is outside ! ?\ght itself4 ,if ,i ?9k ?is pap]1 ! end ( my ?\ght1 ! pap]1 is outside me4 ,b ! ?\ght ( #bhf ,god1 z ! absolute end1 _c h any end outside itself4 ,7 ,god to ?9k any?+ else ?an ?\ght1 he w\ld be det]m9$ by t :i* is n himself4 ,by way ( fur!r expression ( ! same idea1 ,ari/otle passes into figurative language4 ,god1 he says1 lives 9 et]nal bless$ness1 & 8 bless$ness consi/s 9 ! ev]la/+ contemplation ( 8 own p]fection4 ,a mod]n w naturally ask :e!r ,ari/otle's ,god is p]sonal4 ,x does n d to be v dogmatic ^u ! po9t4 ,ari/otle1 l ,plato1 nev] discusses ! "q4 ,no ,greek ev] did4 ,x is a mod]n "q4 ,:at we h to d1 !n1 is to take ! evid5ce on bo? sides4 ,! case = p]sonality is t ! language ,ari/otle uses implies x4 ,! v ^w ,god1 us$ in/ead ( ! ,absolute1 or =m1 conveys ! idea ( p]sonality4 ,& :5 he goes on to speak ( ,god liv+ 9 et]nal bless$ness1 ^! words1 if tak5 lit]ally1 c mean no?+ except t ,god is a consci\s p]son4 ,if we say t ?is language is m]ely figurative1 x may be repli$ t ,ari/otle on pr9ciple objects to figurative language1 t he frequ5tly c5sures ,plato = us+ x1 t :at he dem&s & sets out to supply is exact1 lit]al1 sci5tific t]m9ology1 & t he is n likely to h brok5 8 own canons ( philosophic expression by us+ m]ely poetical phrases4 ,to see ! o!r side ( ! case1 we mu/ fir/ ask :at p]sonality means4 ,n[ )\t ent]+ into an intricate discussion ( ?is mo/ elusive idea1 we may answ] t p]sonality at any rate implies an individual & exi/5t consci\sness4 ,b1 9 ! fir/ place1 ,god is absolute =m1 & =m is ! univ]sal4 ,:at is univ]sal1 ) no p>ticul> 9 x1 _c be an individual4 #bhg ,god1 !re=e1 _c be individual4 ,secondly1 =m )\t matt] _c exi/4 ,& z ,god is =m )\t matt]1 he _c be call$ exi/5t1 ?\gh he is absolutely real4 ,god1 !re=e1 is nei!r exi/5t nor individual4 ,& ?is means t he is n a p]son4 ,to degrade ! real to ! level ( ! exi/5t1 to conv]t ! univ]sal into ! individual1 is exactly ! fault = :i* ,ari/otle blames ,plato4 ,x is exactly ! fault :i* x 0 ! :ole object ( 8 philosophy to rem$y4 ,if he ?\ght t ,god is a p]son1 he committ$ ! same fault himself 9 an aggravat$ =m4 ,we h1 !n1 two hypo!ses1 bo? ( :i* involve t ,ari/otle 0 guilty ( "s inconsi/5cy4 ,if ,god is n a p]son1 !n ,ari/otle's language is figurative1 & 8 use ( su* language is inconsi/5t ) 8 root$ objection to its use4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is1 aft] all1 m]ely an inconsi/5cy ( language1 & n ( ?\ght4 ,x does n mean t ,ari/otle really contradict$ himself4 ,x m]ely means t1 ?\gh he set himself to express 8 philosophy 9 te*nical sci5tific t]ms1 & to exclude figurative language1 yet he f\nd himself compell$ 9 a few passages to make use ( x4 ,!re are "s metaphysical ideas s ab/ract1 s ab/ruse1 t x is almo/ impossible to express !m at all )\t ! use ( figures ( spee*4 ,language 0 made by common m5 = common purposes1 & ?is fact (t5 =ces ! philosoph] to use t]ms :i* he kn[s only figure =? 8 mean+ )\t accurately express+ x4 ,p]haps e philosophy 9 ! _w f9ds itself sometimes "u ?is necessity1 &1 if ,ari/otle did s1 & 0 !reby te*nically inconsi/5t ) himself1 x is no wond]1 & involves no s]i\s blame ^u him4 #bhh ,b ! o!r hypo!sis1 t ,god is a p]son1 means t ,ari/otle committ$ a contradiction1 n m]ely 9 words1 b 9 ?\ght1 & n m]ely z reg>ds "s unimportant detail1 b z reg>ds ! c5tral !sis ( 8 sy/em4 ,x means t he /ultifi$ himself by mak+ 8 conception ( ,god absolutely contradict ! ess5tials ( 8 sy/em4 ,= :at is ! :ole ( ,ari/otle's philosophy1 put 9 a nut%ell8 ,x is t ! ,absolute is ! univ]sal1 b t ! univ]sal does n exi/ ap>t f ! p>ticul>4 ,plato suppli$ ! ?\ght ( ! fir/ clause ( ! s5t5ce4 ,ari/otle add$ ! la/ clause1 & x is ! ess5tial ( 8 philosophy4 ,to ass]t t ,god1 ! absolute =m1 exi/s z an individual1 is flatly to contradict ?is4 ,x is n likely t ,ari/otle %\ld h contradict$ himself 9 s vital a matt]1 & 9 a mann] :i* simply means t 8 sy/em falls to ! gr\nd l a h\se ( c>ds4 ,my conclusion1 !n1 is t x 0 n ,ari/otle's int5tion t :at he calls ,god %\ld be reg>d$ z a p]son4 ,god is ?\ght1 b n subjective ?\ght4 ,he is n ?\ght exi/5t 9 a m9d1 b objective ?\ght1 real on its own acc\nt1 ap>t f any m9d :i* ?9ks x1 l ,plato's ,ideas4 ,b ,plato's mi/ake 0 to suppose t because ?\ght is real & objective1 x mu/ exi/4 ,ari/otle avoids ?is error4 ,! absolute ?\ght is ! absolutely real4 ,b x does n exi/4 ,) ! concept ( ,god ! metaphysics ( ,ari/otle closes4 #d4 ,physics1 or ! ,philosophy ( ,nature4 ,! exi/5t univ]se is a scale ( be+ ly+ betwe5 ! two extremes ( =mless matt] & matt]less =m4 ,b ?is mu/ n be m]ely ass]t$1 z a g5]al #bhi pr9ciple4 ,x mu/ be c>ri$ out 9 detail4 ,! passage ( matt] into =m mu/ be %[n 9 its v>i\s /ages 9 ! _w ( nature4 ,to d ?is is ! object ( ,ari/otle's ,physics1 or philosophy ( nature4 ,if nature is to be und]/ood1 we mu/ keep 9 m9d c]ta9 g5]al po9ts ( view4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 s9ce =m includes end1 ! entire _w-process1 z passage ( matt] into =m1 is ess5tially movem5t t[>ds ends4 ,ev]y?+ 9 nature has its end & function4 ,no?+ is purposeless4 ,nature seeks ev]y:]e to atta9 ! be/ possible4 ,ev]y:]e we f9d evid5ces ( design & ( rational plan4 ,ari/otle's philosophy ( nature is ess5tially teleological4 ,?is does n1 h[ev]1 exclude ! pr9ciple ( me*anism1 & to inve/igate me*anical causes is "p ( ! duty ( sci5ce4 ,b me*anical causes turn out 9 ! end to be teleological1 because ! true effici5t cause is ! f9al cause4 ,b if no?+ 9 nature is aimless or useless1 ?is is n to be int]pret$ 9 a n>r[ an?ropoc5tric _s4 ,x does n mean t ev]y?+ exi/s = ! use ( man1 t ! sun 0 creat$ to give him light by day1 ! moon by night1 & t plants & animals exi/ only = 8 food4 ,x is true t1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 ev]y?+ else sublun>y is = man4 ,= man is ! highe/ 9 ! scale ( be+s 9 ?is t]re/rial sph]e1 & !re=e z ! high] end1 he includes all l[] ends4 ,b ?is does n exclude ! fact t l[] be+s h ea* its own end4 ,!y exi/ = !mselves & n = u4 ,ano!r mi/ake :i* we mu/ avoid is to suppose t ! design 9 nature means t nature is consci\s ( h] designs1 or1 on ! o!r h&1 t !re is any #bij exi/5t consci\sness outside ! _w :i* gov]ns & controls x4 ,! latt] supposition is exclud$ by ! fact t ,god is n an exi/5t consci\s p]son1 ! =m] by its own inh]5t absurdity4 ,! only be+ ^u ?is e>? :o is consci\s ( 8 ends is man4 ,su* animals z bees & ants appe> to "w rationally1 & _! activities are cle>ly gov]n$ by design4 ,b x is n to be suppos$ t !y are reason+ be+s4 ,!y atta9 _! ends in/9ctively4 ,& :5 we come to inorganic matt]1 we f9d t ev5 "h its movem5ts are purposive1 b no "o c\ld suppose !m delib]ate & consci\s4 ,^! manifold activities ( l[] nature are inde$ ! "w ( reason1 b n ( an exi/5t or self-consci\s reason4 ,& ?is means t in/9ct1 & ev5 me*anical =ces su* z gravitation are1 9 _! ess5ce1 reason4 ,x is n t !y are creat$ by reason1 b t !y are reason1 exhibit+ itself 9 l[] =ms4 ,9 comm5t+ ^u ,plato's dualism ( s5se & reason1 ,i rem>k$ t any true philosophy1 ?\gh recogniz+ ! di/9ction betwe5 s5se & reason1 mu/ yet f9d room = _! id5tity1 & mu/ %[ t s5se is b a l[] =m ( reason4 ,?is idea ,ari/otle ?or\ghly und]/ood1 & s\ght to %[1 n m]ely t s5se is reason1 b ev5 t ! activities ( inorganic matt]1 su* z gravitation1 are s4 ,9 ! result1 nature1 ?\gh work+ ?r\gh reason1 is n consci\s ( ! fact1 does s bl9dly & in/9ctively1 & is comp>$ to a creative arti/1 :o =ms beautiful objects by in/9ct1 or1 z we %\ld say1 by inspiration1 )\t sett+ be=e 8 m9d ! end to be atta9$ or ! rules to be obs]v$ 9 ord] to atta9 x4 #bia ,9 ! process ( nature1 x is always =m :i* impels1 matt] :i* ret>ds & ob/ructs4 ,! entire _w-movem5t is ! ef=t ( =m to m\ld matt]1 b1 j because matt] has 9 itself a p[] ( resi/ance1 ?is ef=t does n always succe$4 ,?is is ! reason :y =m _c exi/ )\t matt]1 because x c nev] :olly ov]come ! clogg+ activity ( matt]1 & !re=e matt] c nev] be :olly m\ld$ into =m4 ,& ?is expla9s1 too1 ! occasional occurr5ce 9 nature ( freaks1 mon/rosities1 abortions1 & unnatural bir?s4 ,9 ^! ! =m has fail$ to m\ld ! matt]4 ,nature has fail$ to atta9 h] ends4 ,sci5ce1 !re=e1 %\ld /udy ! normal & natural r ?an ! abnormal & mon/r\s4 ,= x is 9 ! normal t ! ends ( nature are to be se51 & ?r\gh !m alone nature c be und]/ood4 ,ari/otle is fond ( us+ ! words natural & unnatural1 b he uses !m always ) ?is special mean+4 ,t is natural :i* atta9s its end1 t 9 :i* ! =m successfully ma/]s ! matt]4 ,no doctr9e ( physics c ignore ! fundam5tal notions ( motion1 space1 & "t4 ,ari/otle1 !re=e1 f9ds x necess>y to consid] ^!4 ,motion is ! passage ( matt] into =m1 & x is ( f\r k9ds4 ,! fir/ is motion :i* affects ! sub/ance ( a ?+1 orig9ation & decease4 ,secondly1 *ange ( quality4 ,?irdly1 *ange ( quantity1 increase & decrease4 ,f\r?ly1 locomotion1 *ange ( place4 ,( ^!1 ! la/ is ! mo/ fundam5tal & important4 ,ari/otle rejects ! def9ition ( space z ! void4 ,empty space is an impossibility4 ,h5ce1 too1 he disagrees ) ! view ( ,plato & ! ,py?agoreans t #bib ! elem5ts are compos$ ( geometrical figures4 ,& connect$ ) ?is is 8 repudiation ( ! me*anical hypo!sis t all quality is f\nd$ ^u quantity1 or ^u composition & decomposition4 ,quality has a real exi/5ce ( its own4 ,he rejects1 also1 ! view t space is a physical ?+4 ,if ?is 7 true1 !re w\ld be two bodies occupy+ ! same place at ! same "t1 namely ! object & ! space x fills4 ,h5ce !re is no?+ = x b to conceive space z limit4 ,space is1 !re=e1 def9$ z ! limit ( ! surr\nd+ body t[>ds :at is surr\nd$4 ,z we %all see lat]1 9 ano!r connexion1 ,ari/otle did n reg>d space z inf9ite4 ,"t is def9$ z ! measure ( motion 9 reg>d to :at is e>li] & lat]4 ,x ?us dep5ds = its exi/5ce ^u motion4 ,if !re 7 no *ange 9 ! univ]se1 !re w\ld be no "t4 ,& s9ce x is ! measur+ or c\nt+ ( motion1 x also dep5ds = its exi/5ce ^u a c\nt+ m9d4 ,if !re 7 no m9d to c\nt1 !re c\ld be no "t4 ,?is pres5ts difficulties to u1 if we conceive t !re 0 a "t :5 consci\s be+s did n exi/4 ,b ?is difficulty is non-exi/5t = ,ari/otle1 :o believ$ t m5 & animals h exi/$ f all et]nity4 ,! ess5tials ( "t1 !re=e1 are two3 *ange & consci\sness4 ,"t is ! succession ( ?\ghts4 ,if we object t ! def9ition is bad because succession already involves "t1 !re is d\btless no answ] possible4 ,z to ! inf9ite divisibility ( space & "t1 & ! riddles propos$ !reupon by ,z5o1 ,ari/otle is ( op9ion t space & "t are pot5tially divisible #bic ad inf9itum1 b are n actually s divid$4 ,!re is no?+ to prev5t u f go+ on = ev] ) ! process ( division1 b space & "t are n giv5 9 exp]i5ce z inf9itely divid$4 ,aft] ^! prelim9>ies1 we c pass on to consid] ! ma9 subject ( physics1 ! scale ( be+4 ,we %\ld notice1 9 ! fir/ place1 t x is also a scale ( values4 ,:at is high] 9 ! scale ( be+ is ( m wor?1 because ! pr9ciple ( =m is m advanc$ 9 x4 ,x con/itutes also a !ory ( developm5t1 a philosophy ( evolution4 ,! l[] develops into ! high]4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 s develop 9 "t4 ,t ! l[] =m passes 9 due "t into a high] =m is a discov]y ( mod]n times4 ,su* a conception 0 impossible = ,ari/otle4 ,= him1 g5us & species are et]nal4 ,!y h nei!r beg9n+ nor end4 ,individual m5 are born & die1 b ! species man nev] dies1 & has always exi/$ ^u ! e>?4 ,! same is true ( plants & animals4 ,& s9ce man has always exi/$1 he _c h evolv$ 9 "t f a l[] be+4 ,!re is no room "h = ,d>w9ism4 ,9 :at s5se1 !n1 is ?is a !ory ( developm5t or evolution8 ,! process involv$ is n a "t-process1 x is a logical process1 & ! developm5t is a logical developm5t4 ,! l[] always conta9s ! high] pot5tially4 ,! man is 9 ! ape ideally4 ,! high]1 aga91 conta9s ! l[] actually4 ,! man is all t ! ape is1 & m also4 ,:at is m]ely implicit 9 ! l[] =m is explicit 9 ! high]4 ,! =m :i* is dimly se5 /ruggl+ to light 9 ! l[]1 has realiz$ itself 9 ! high]4 ,! high] is ! same ?+ z ! l[]1 b x is ! same ?+ 9 a m #bid evolv$ /ate4 ,! high] presupposes ! l[] & re/s ^u x z f\ndation4 ,! high] is ! =m ( :i* ! l[] is ! matt]4 ,x actually is :at ! l[] is /ruggl+ to become4 ,h5ce ! entire univ]se is "o cont9u\s *a94 ,x is a process2 n a "t-process1 b an et]nal process4 ,! "o ultimate reality1 ,god1 reason1 absolute =m1 et]nally exhibits itself 9 e /age ( its developm5t4 ,all ! /ages1 !re=e1 mu/ exi/ = ev] side by side4 ,n[ ! =m ( a ?+ is its organization4 ,h5ce to be high] 9 ! scale means to be m organiz$4 ,! fir/ di/9ction1 !re=e1 ) :i* nature pres5ts u is betwe5 ! organic & ! inorganic4 ,ari/otle 0 ! discov]] ( ! idea ( organism1 z he 0 also ! inv5tor ( ! ^w4 ,at ! bottom ( ! scale ( be+1 !re=e1 is inorganic matt]4 ,inorganic matt] is ! ne>e/ exi/5t ?+ to absolutely =mless matt]1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 does n exi/4 ,9 ! inorganic _w matt] prepond]ates to su* an ext5t z almo/ to ov]:elm =m1 & we c only expect to see ! univ]sal exhibit+ itself 9 x 9 a vague & dim way4 ,:at1 !n1 is its =m8 ,& ?is is ! same z ask+ :at its function1 end1 or ess5tial activity is4 ,! end ( inorganic matt] is m]ely ext]nal to x4 ,=m has n truly ent]$ into x at all1 & rema9s outside x4 ,h5ce ! activity ( inorganic matt] c only be to move 9 space t[>ds its ext]nal end4 ,?is is ! explanation ( :at we1 9 mod]n times1 call gravitation4 ,b1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 e elem5t has its peculi> & natural motion2 its end is conceiv$ m]ely spatially1 & its activity is to move t[>ds its prop] place1 &1 hav+ ?us rea*$ its end1 x re/s4 ,! natural #bie movem5t ( fire is up4 ,we may call ?is a pr9ciple ( levitation1 z oppos$ to gravitation4 ,ari/otle has be5 ! subject ( *eap criticism on acc\nt ( 8 frequ5t use ( ! words natural & unnatural4 ,footnote #ae ,x is said t he 0 satisfi$ to expla9 ! op]ations ( nature by simply labell+ !m natural4 ,if y ask a q un$ucat$ p]son :y heavy bodies fall1 he may q possibly reply1 ,oh6 naturally !y fall4 ,?is simply means t ! man has nev] ?\ght ab\t ! matt] at all1 & ?9ks :atev] is absolutely famili> to him is natural & ne$s no explanation4 ,x is l ! fem99e argum5t t a ?+ is s1 because x is4 ,x is assum$ t ,ari/otle 0 guilty ( a l futility4 ,?is is n ! case4 ,8 use ( ! ^w natural does n indicate lack ( ?\ght4 ,!re is a ?\ght1 an idea1 "h4 ,no d\bt he 0 q wrong 9 _m ( 8 facts4 ,?us !re is no su* pr9ciple z levitation 9 ! univ]se4 ,b !re is a pr9ciple ( gravitation1 & :5 he expla9s ?is by say+ x is natural = e>? to move d[nw>ds1 he means1 n t ! fact is famili>1 b t ! pr9ciple ( =m1 or ! _w-reason1 c only exhibit itself "h s dimly z to give rise to a comp>atively aimless & purposeless movem5t 9 a /raight l9e4 ,n absolutely purposeless1 h[ev]1 because no?+ 9 ! _w is su*1 & ! purpose "h is simply ! movem5t ( matt] t[>ds its end4 ,?is may or may n be a true explanation ( gravity4 ,b has anybody s9ce ev] expla9$ x bett]8 ,footnote #ae3 ,see1 e4g4 ,sir ,alex&] ,grant's ,ari/otle 9 ! ,anci5t ,classics = ,engli% ,read]s ,s]ies 7,blackwood71 pages #aai-aba4 ,?is gives u1 too1 ! clue to ! di/9ction betwe5 #bif ! inorganic & ! organic4 ,if inorganic matt] is :at has its end outside itself1 organic matt] w be :at has its end )9 itself4 ,?is is ! ess5tial "* ( an organism1 t its end is int]nal to x4 ,x is an inw>d self-develop+ pr9ciple4 ,its function1 !re=e1 c only be ! actualisation1 ! self-realization ( ?is inw>d end4 ,:]eas1 !re=e1 inorganic matt] has no activity except spatial movem5t1 organic matt] has = its activity gr[?1 & ?is gr[? is n ! m]e me*anical addition ( extrane\s matt]1 z we add a p\nd ( tea to a p\nd ( tea4 ,x is true gr[? f )94 ,x is ! mak+ outw>d ( :at is inw>d4 ,x is ! mak+ explicit ( :at is implicit4 ,x is ! mak+ actual ( :at is pot5tial 9 ! embryo organism4 ,! l[e/ 9 ! scale ( be+ is ?us inorganic matt]1 & above x comes organic matt]1 9 :i* ! pr9ciple ( =m becomes real & def9ite z ! inw>d organization ( ! ?+4 ,?is inw>d organization is ! life1 or :at we call ! s\l1 ( ! organism4 ,ev5 ! human s\l is no?+ b ! organization ( ! body4 ,x /&s to ! body 9 ! relation ( =m to matt]4 ,) organism1 !n1 we rea* ! idea ( liv+ s\l4 ,b ?is liv+ s\l w itself h l[] & high] grades ( be+1 ! high] be+ a high] realization ( ! pr9ciple ( =m4 ,z ! ess5tial ( organism is self-realization1 ?is w express itself fir/ z self-pres]vation4 ,self-pres]vation means fir/ ! pres]vation ( ! individual1 & ?is gives ! function ( nutrition4 ,secondly1 x means pres]vation ( ! species1 & ?is gives ! function ( propagation4 ,! l[e/ grade 9 ! organic k+dom w1 !re=e1 be #big ^? organisms ^: sole functions are to n\ri% !mselves1 gr[1 & propagate _! k9d4 ,^! are plants4 ,& we may sum up ?is by say+ t plants possess ! nutritive s\l4 ,ari/otle int5d$ to write a treatise ^u plants1 :i* int5tion1 h[ev]1 he nev] c>ri$ out4 ,all t we h f him on plants is scatt]$ ref]5ces 9 8 o!r books4 ,_h ! promis$ treatise be5 =?com+1 we _c d\bt :at its plan w\ld h be54 ,ari/otle w\ld h %[n1 z he did 9 ! case ( animals1 t !re are high] & l[] grades ( organism )9 ! plant k+dom1 & he w\ld h attempt$ to trace ! developm5t 9 detail ?r\gh all ! !n kn[n species ( plants4 ,next above plants 9 ! scale ( be+ come animals4 ,s9ce ! high] always conta9s ! l[]1 b exhibits a fur!r realization ( =m peculi> to itself1 animals %>e ) plants ! functions ( nutrition & propagation4 ,:at is peculi> to !m1 ! po9t 9 :i* !y rise above plants1 is ! possession ( s5sation4 ,s5se-p]ception is !re=e ! special function ( animals1 & !y possess1 !re=e1 ! nutritive & ! s5sitive s\ls4 ,) s5sation come pleasure & pa91 = pleasure is a pleasant s5sation1 & pa9 ! opposite4 ,h5ce arises ! impulse to seek ! pleasant & avoid ! pa9ful4 ,?is c only be a*iev$ by ! p[] ( movem5t4 ,mo/ animals1 accord+ly1 h ! p[] ( locomotion1 :i* is n possess$ by plants1 because !y d n require x1 s9ce !y are n s5sitive to pleasure & pa94 ,9 8 books ^u animals ,ari/otle attempts to c>ry out ! pr9ciple ( developm5t 9 detail1 %[+ :at are ! high]1 & :at ! l[]1 animal organisms4 ,?is he connects ) ! #bih me?ods ( propagation employ$ by diff]5t animals4 ,sex-g5]ation is ! m>k ( a high] organism ?an p>!nog5esis4 ,! scale ( be+ proce$s f animals to man4 ,! human organism1 ( c\rse1 conta9s ! pr9ciples ( all l[] organisms4 ,man n\ri%es himself1 gr[s1 propagates 8 k9d1 moves ab\t1 & is end[$ ) s5se-p]ception4 ,b he mu/ h 9 addition 8 own special function1 :i* con/itutes 8 advance beyond ! animals4 ,?is is reason4 ,reason is ! ess5tial1 ! prop] end & activity ( man4 ,8 s\l is nutritive1 s5sitive1 & rational4 ,9 man1 !re=e1 ! _w-reason :i* c\ld only appe> 9 inorganic matt] z gravitation & levitation1 9 plants z nutrition1 9 animals z s5sation1 appe>s at la/ 9 its own prop] =m1 z :at x ess5tially is1 reason4 ,! _w-reason1 s long /ruggl+ t[>ds ! light1 has rea*$ x1 has become actual1 has become exi/5t1 9 man4 ,! _w-process has atta9$ its proximate end4 ,)9 human consci\sness !re are l[] & high] grades1 & ,ari/otle has tak5 great pa9s to trace ^! f ! bottom to ! top4 ,^! /ages ( consci\sness are :at are ord9>ily call$ faculties4 ,b ,ari/otle notes t x is nons5se to talk1 z ,plato did1 ( ! p>ts ( ! s\l4 ,! s\l1 be+ a s+le indivisible be+1 has no p>ts4 ,!y are diff]5t aspects ( ! activity ( "o & ! same be+2 diff]5t /ages ( its developm5t4 ,!y c no m be sep>at$ ?an ! convex & concave aspects ( a curve4 ,! l[e/ faculty1 if we mu/ use t ^w1 is s5se-p]ception4 ,n[ :at we p]ceive 9 a ?+ is its qualities4 ,p]ception tells u t a piece ( gold is #bii heavy1 yell[1 etc4 ,! und]ly+ sub/ratum :i* supports ! qualities _c be p]ceiv$4 ,?is means t ! matt] is unkn[able1 ! =m kn[able1 = ! qualities are "p ( ! =m4 ,s5se-p]ception1 !re=e1 takes place :5 ! object /amps its =m ^u ! s\l4 ,?is is important = :at x implies r ?an :at x /ates4 ,x %[s ! ?or\ghly ideali/ic tr5d ( ,ari/otle's ?\ght4 ,= if ! =m is :at is kn[able 9 a ?+1 ! m =m !re is1 ! m kn[able x w be4 ,absolute =m1 ,god1 w be ! absolutely kn[able4 ,t ! ,absolute is :at alone is completely kn[able1 intelligible1 & compreh5sible1 & ! f9ite & mat]ial comp>atively unkn[able1 is a po9t ( view ess5tial to idealism1 & /&s 9 m>k$ contra/ to ! popul> idea ( rationalism t ! ,absolute is unkn[able1 & matt] kn[able4 ,= idealism1 ! ,absolute is reason1 ?\ght4 ,:at c be m ?or\ghly intelligible ?an reason8 ,:at c ?\ght und]/&1 if n ?\ght8 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is n /at$ by ,ari/otle4 ,b x is impli$ 9 8 !ory ( s5se-p]ception4 ,next 9 ! scale above ! s5ses comes ! common s5se4 ,?is has no?+ to d ) :at we und]/& by t phrase 9 e-day language4 ,x means ! c5tral s5sation-ganglion 9 :i* isolat$ s5sations meet1 are comb9$1 & =m a unity ( exp]i5ce4 ,we saw1 9 consid]+ ,plato1 t ! simple/ k9d ( k1 su* z1 ?is pap] is :ite1 involves1 n only isolat$ s5sations1 b _! comp>ison & contra/4 ,b>e s5sations w\ld n ev5 make objects4 ,= e object is a comb9$ bundle ( s5sations4 ,:at ?us comb9es ! v>i\s s5sations1 & 9 #cjj p>ticul> ^? receiv$ f diff]5t s5se-organs1 :at comp>es & contra/s !m1 & turns !m f a bl9d m$ley ( phantasms into a def9ite exp]i5ce1 a s+le cosmos1 is ! common s5se4 ,its organ is ! he>t4 ,above ! common s5se is ! faculty ( imag9ation4 ,by ?is ,ari/otle means1 n ! creative imag9ation ( ! arti/1 b ! p[]1 :i* ev]yone possesses1 ( =m+ m5tal images & pictures4 ,?is is due to ! excitation 9 ! s5se-organ cont9u+ aft] ! object has ceas$ to affect x4 ,! next faculty is memory4 ,?is is ! same z imag9ation1 except t !re is comb9$ ) ! image a recognition ( x z a copy ( a pa/ s5se-impression4 ,recollection1 aga91 is high] ?an memory4 ,memory images drift purposelessly ?r\gh ! m9d4 ,recollection is ! delib]ate evok+ ( memory-images4 ,f recollection we pass to ! specifically human faculty ( reason4 ,b reason itself has two grades4 ,! l[] is call$ passive reason1 ! high] active reason4 ,! m9d has ! p[] ( ?\ght be=e x actually ?9ks4 ,?is lat5t capacity is passive reason4 ,! m9d is "h l a smoo? piece ( wax :i* has ! p[] to receive writ+1 b has n receiv$ x4 ,! positive activity ( ?\ght itself is active reason4 ,! comp>ison ) wax mu/ n mislead u into suppos+ t ! s\l only receives its impressions f s5sation4 ,x is pure ?\ght :i* writes ^u ! wax4 ,n[ ! sum ( ! faculties 9 g5]al we call ! s\l4 ,& ! s\l1 we saw1 is simply ! organization #cja or =m1 ( ! body4 ,z =m is insep>able f matt]1 ! s\l _c exi/ )\t ! body4 ,x is ! function ( ! body4 ,x is to ! body :at sight is to ! eye4 ,& 9 ! same s5se ,ari/otle d5ies ! doctr9e ( ,py?agoras & ,plato t ! s\l re9c>nates itself 9 new bodies1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! bodies ( animals4 ,:at is ! function ( "o ?+ _c become ! function ( ano!r4 ,exactly :at ! s\l is to ! body ! music ( ! flute is to ! flute itself4 ,x is ! =m ( :i* ! flute is ! matt]4 ,x is1 to speak metaphorically1 ! s\l ( ! flute4 ,& y might z well talk1 says ,ari/otle1 ( ! art ( flute-play+ becom+ re9c>nate 9 ! blacksmi?'s anvil1 z ( ! s\l pass+ into ano!r body4 ,?is w\ld seem also to preclude any doctr9e ( immortality4 ,= ! function p]i%es ) ! ?+4 ,we %all return to t po9t 9 a mom5t4 ,b we may note1 mean:ile1 t ,ari/otle's !ory ( ! s\l is n only a great advance ^u ,plato's1 b is a great advance ^u popul> ?9k+ ( ! pres5t day4 ,! ord9>y view ( ! s\l1 :i* 0 ,plato's view1 is t ! s\l is a sort ( ?+4 ,no d\bt x is non-mat]ial & sup]s5su\s4 ,b /ill x is a ?+2 x c be put into a body & tak5 out ( x1 z w9e c be put into or tak5 out ( a bottle4 ,! connection betwe5 body & s\l is ?us purely me*anical4 ,!y are atta*$ to ea* o!r by no necess>y bond1 b r by =ce4 ,!y h1 9 _! own natures1 no connexion ) ea* o!r1 & x is difficult to see :y ! s\l ev] ent]$ a body1 if x is 9 its nature some?+ q sep>ate4 ,b ,ari/otle's view is t ! s\l1 z =m ( ! body1 is n sep>able f x4 ,y _c h #cjb a s\l )\t a body4 ,! connection betwe5 !m is n me*anical1 b organic4 ,! s\l is n a ?+ :i* comes into ! body & goes out ( x4 ,x is n a ?+ at all4 ,x is a function4 ,b to ?is doctr9e ,ari/otle makes an exception 9 fav\r ( ! active reason4 ,all ! l[] faculties p]i% ) ! body1 includ+ ! passive reason4 ,active reason is imp]i%able & et]nal4 ,x has nei!r beg9n+ nor end4 ,x comes into ! body f )\t1 & dep>ts f x at dea?4 ,god be+ absolute reason1 man's reason comes f ,god1 & returns to him1 aft] ! body ceases to function4 ,b be=e we hail ?is z a doctr9e ( p]sonal immortality1 we _h be/ reflect4 ,all ! l[] faculties p]i% at dea?1 & ?is includes memory4 ,n[ memory is an ess5tial ( p]sonality4 ,)\t memory our exp]i5ces w\ld be a succession ( isolat$ s5sations1 ) no connect+ l9k4 ,:at connects my la/ ) my pres5t exp]i5ce is t my la/ exp]i5ce 0 m9e4 ,to be m9e x mu/ be rememb]$4 ,memory is ! /r+ ^u :i* isolat$ exp]i5ces are /rung toge!r1 & :i* makes !m into t unity ,i call myself1 my p]sonality4 ,if memory p]i%es1 !re c be no p]sonal life4 ,& x mu/ be rememb]$ t ,ari/otle does n mean m]ely t1 9 t future life--if we p]si/ 9 call+ x su*--! memory ( ?is life is oblit]at$4 ,he means t 9 ! future life itself reason has no memory ( itself f mom5t to mom5t4 ,we _c be dogmatic ab\t :at ,ari/otle himself ?\ght4 ,he seems to avoid ! "q4 ,he probably %rank f di/urb+ popul> beliefs on ! subject4 ,we h1 at any rate1 no def9ite pron\ncem5t f #cjc him4 ,all we c say is t 8 doctr9e does n provide ! mat]ial = belief 9 p]sonal immortality4 ,x expressly removes ! mat]ial 9 t x d5ies ! p]si/5ce ( memory4 ,moreov]1 if ,ari/otle really ?\ght t reason is a ?+1 :i* goes 9 & out ( ! body1 an exception1 9 ! lit]al s5se1 to 8 g5]al doctr9e ( s\l1 all we c say is t he und]goes a sudd5 drop 9 ! philosophic scale4 ,hav+ prop\nd$ s advanc$ a !ory1 he s9ks back to ! crude view ( ,plato4 ,& z ?is is n likely1 ! mo/ probable explanation is t he is "h speak+ figuratively1 p]haps ) ! int5tion ( propitiat+ ! religi\s & avoid+ any rude di/urbance ( popul> belief4 ,if s1 ! /atem5ts t active reason is immortal1 comes f ,god1 & returns to ,god1 mean simply t ! _w-reason is et]nal1 & t man's reason is ! actualization ( ?is et]nal reason1 & 9 t s5se comes f ,god & returns to ,him4 ,we may add1 too1 t s9ce ,god1 ?\gh real1 is n to be reg>d$ z an exi/5t individual1 our return to ,him _c be ?\ght z a cont9uation ( individual exi/5ce4 ,p]sonal immortality is inconsi/5t ) ! fundam5tals ( ,ari/otle's sy/em4 ,we ought n to suppose t he contradict$ himself 9 ?is way4 ,yet if ,ari/otle us$ language :i* seems to imply p]sonal immortality1 ?is is nei!r mean+less nor di%one/4 ,x is z true = him z = o!rs t ! s\l is et]nal4 ,b et]nal does n mean ev]la/+ 9 "t4 ,x means timeless4 ,& reason1 ev5 our reason1 is timeless4 ,! s\l has et]nity 9 x4 ,x is et]nity 9 an h\r4 ,& x is ?is :i* puts ! diff]5ce betwe5 man & ! brutes4 #cjd ,we h trac$ ! scale ( be+ f inorganic matt]1 ?r\gh plants & animals1 to man4 ,:at !n8 ,:at is ! next /ep8 ,or does ! scale /op !re8 ,n[ !re is a sort ( break 9 ,ari/otle's sy/em at ?is po9t1 :i* has l$ _m to say t man is ! top ( ! scale4 ,! re/ ( ,ari/otle's physics deal ) :at is outside our e>?1 su* z ! />s & planets4 ,& !y deal ) !m q z if !y 7 a diff]5t subject1 hav+ little or no?+ to d ) ! t]re/rial scale ( be+ :i* we h be5 consid]+4 ,b "h we mu/ n =get two facts4 ,! fir/ is t ,ari/otle's writ+s h come d[n to u mutilat$1 & 9 _m cases unf9i%$4 ,! second is t ,ari/otle _h a curi\s habit ( writ+ sep>ate monographs on diff]5t p>ts ( 8 sy/em1 & omitt+ to po9t out any connexion betwe5 !m1 al?\gh su* a connexion und\bt$ly exi/s4 ,n[ al?\gh ,ari/otle himself does n say x1 !re are sev]al good reasons = ?9k+ t ! true int]pretation ( 8 mean+ is t ! scale ( be+ does n /op at man1 t !re is no gap 9 ! *a9 "h1 b t x proce$s f man ?r\gh planets & />s--:i* ,ari/otle1 l ,plato1 reg>d$ z div9e be+s--"r up to ,god himself4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?is is requir$ by ! logic ( 8 sy/em4 ,! scale has =mless matt] at ! bottom & matt]less =m at ! top4 ,x %\ld proce$ direct f "o to ! o!r4 ,x is ess5tial to 8 philosophy t ! univ]se is a s+le cont9u\s *a94 ,!re is no place = su* a hiatus betwe5 man & ! high] be+s4 ,secondly1 x is n z if t]re/rial life =m$ a scale1 & cele/ial be+s 7 all on a p>1 hav+ among !mselves no #cje scale ( high] & l[]4 ,?is is n ! case4 ,! heav5ly bodies h grades among !mselves4 ,! high] are relat$ to ! l[] z =m to matt]4 ,?us />s are high] ?an planets4 ,s t if we suppose t evolution /ops at man1 :at we h is a gap 9 ! middle1 a scale bel[ x1 & a scale above x4 ,x is l a bridge ov] a %eet ( wat]1 ! two ends ( :i* are intact1 b :i* is brok5 d[n 9 ! middle4 ,! natural completion ( ?is s*eme involves ! fill+ up ( ! gap4 ,?irdly1 we h ano!r v important piece ( evid5ce4 ,) 8 valuable idea ( evolution ,ari/otle comb9$ ano!r v curi\s1 & no d\bt1 absurd1 !ory4 ,?is 0 t 9 ! scale ( ! univ]se ! l[e/ exi/5ce is to be f\nd 9 ! middle1 ! highe/ at ! p]iph]y1 & t 9 g5]al ! high] is always outside ! l[]1 s t ! spatial univ]se is a sy/em ( conc5tric sph]es1 ! out] sph]e be+ relat$ to ! inn] sph]e z high] to l[]1 z =m to matt]4 ,at ! c5tre ( ! sph]ical univ]se is our e>?4 ,e>?1 z ! l[e/ elem5t1 is 9 ! middle4 ,!n comes a lay] ( wat]1 !n ( air1 !n ( fire4 ,among ! heav5ly bodies !re are fifty-six sph]es4 ,! />s are outside ! planets & are !re=e high] be+s4 ,& 9 con=mity ) ?is s*eme1 ! supreme be+1 ,god1 is outside ! out]mo/ sph]e4 ,n[ x is obvi\s t1 9 ?is s*eme1 ! passage f ! c5tre ( ! e>? to ! />s =ms a spatial cont9uity1 & x is impossible to resi/ ! conclusion t x also =ms a logical cont9uity1 t is1 t !re is no break 9 ! *a9 ( evolution4 ,not+ t ?is is n :at ,ari/otle 9 s _m words says1 b t x is our int]pretation ( 8 #cjf int5tion1 :i* is almo/ c]ta9ly correct1 we conclude t man is n ! top ( ! scale4 ,next to him come ! heav5ly bodies4 ,! planets include ! sun & ! moon1 :i*1 revolve r\nd ! e>? 9 a direction opposite to t ( ! />s4 ,next 9 ! scale come ! />s4 ,we ne$ n g into details ( ! fifty-six sph]es4 ,! />s & planets are div9e be+s4 ,b ?is is only a comp>ative t]m4 ,man1 z ! possessor ( reason1 is also div9e1 b ! heav5ly bodies inf9itely m s4 ,& ?is means t !y are m rational ?an man1 & s high] 9 ! scale4 ,!y live an absolutely bless$ & p]fect life4 ,!y are immortal & et]nal1 because !y are ! supreme self-realization ( ! et]nal reason4 ,x is only ^u ?is e>? t dea? & corruption occur1 a circum/ance :i* has no d\bt emphasiz$ t view ( ,ari/otle's philosophy :i* holds ! gap betwe5 man & ! />s to be a real "o4 ,! heav5ly bodies are n compos$ ( ! f\r elem5ts1 b ( a fif?1 a qu9tess5ce1 :i* is call$ e!r4 ,l all elem5ts x mu/ h its natural motion4 ,& z x is ! f9e/ & mo/ p]fect1 its motion mu/ be p]fect4 ,& x mu/ be an et]nal motion1 because ! />s are et]nal be+s4 ,x _c be motion 9 a /raight l9e1 because t nev] comes to an end1 & s is nev] p]fect4 ,circul> motion alone is p]fect4 ,& x is et]nal because its end & its beg9n+ are "o4 ,h5ce ! natural motion ( e!r is circul>1 & ! />s move 9 p]fect circles4 ,leav+ ! />s beh9d1 we rea* ! summit ( ! long ladd] f matt] to =m4 ,?is is ! absolute =m1 ,god4 ,z =mless matt] is n an exi/5t ?+1 nor is matt]less =m4 ,god1 !re=e1 is n 9 ! #cjg _w ( space & "t at all4 ,b x is "o ( ! curiosities ( ?\ght t ,ari/otle nev]!less gives him a place outside ! out]mo/ sph]e4 ,:at is outside ! sph]e is1 !re=e1 n space4 ,all space & "t are inside ?is globul> univ]se4 ,space is !re=e f9ite4 ,& ,god mu/ be outside ! out]mo/ sph]e because he is ! highe/ be+1 & ! high] always comes outside ! l[]4 ,we h n[ describ$ ! entire scale ( evolution4 ,look+ back ^u x1 we c see its inn] significance4 ,! ,absolute is reason1 matt]less =m4 ,ev]y?+ 9 ! _w1 !re=e1 is1 9 its ess5ce1 reason4 ,if we wi% to "k ! ess5tial nature ev5 ( ?is clod ( e>?1 ! answ] is t x is reason1 al?\gh ?is view is n consi/5tly develop$ by ,ari/otle1 s9ce he all[s t matt] is a sep>ate pr9ciple :i* _c be r$uc$ to =m4 ,! :ole univ]sal process ( ?+s is no?+ b ! /ruggle ( reason to express itself1 to actualize itself1 to become exi/5t 9 ! _w4 ,?is x def9itely does1 = ! fir/ "t proximately 9 man1 & completely 9 ! />s4 ,x c only express itself 9 l[] be+s z s5sation 7animals71 z nutrition 7plants71 or z gravitation & its opposite 7inorganic matt]74 ,! value ( ,ari/otle's !ory ( evolution is imm5se4 ,x is n ! details t signify4 ,! application ( ! pr9ciple 9 ! _w ( matt] & life c\ld n be c>ri$ out satisfactorily 9 ! !n /ate ( physical sci5ce4 ,x c\ld n be c>ri$ out ) p]fection ev5 n[4 ,omnisci5ce alone c\ld give f9ality to su* a s*eme4 ,b x is ! pr9ciple itself :i* matt]s4 ,& t x is "o ( ! mo/ valuable conceptions 9 #cjh philosophy w p]haps be m evid5t if we comp>e x1 fir/ly1 ) mod]n sci5tific !ories ( evolution & secondly1 ) c]ta9 aspects ( ,h9du pan!ism4 ,:at has ,ari/otle 9 common ) su* a writ] a ,h]b]t ,sp5c]8 ,accord+ to ,sp5c]1 evolution is a movem5t f ! indef9ite1 incoh]5t1 & homog5e\s1 to ! def9ite1 coh]5t1 & het]og5e\s4 ,ari/otle has all ?is1 ?\gh 8 words are diff]5t4 ,he calls x a movem5t f matt] to =m4 ,=m he describes z :atev] gives def9it5ess to a ?+4 ,matt] is ! indef9ite sub/rate1 =m gives x def9it5ess4 ,h5ce = him too ! high] be+ is m def9ite because x has m =m4 ,t matt] is ! homog5e\s1 =m ! het]og5e\s1 foll[s f ?is4 ,we saw t !re are 9 matt] itself no diff]5ces1 because !re are no qualities4 ,& ?is is ! same z say+ x is homog5e\s4 ,het]og5eity1 t is1 diff]5tiation1 is introduc$ by =m4 ,coh]5ce is ! same ?+ z organization4 ,ari/otle has himself def9$ ! =m ( a ?+ z its organization4 ,= him1 z = ,sp5c]1 ! high] be+ is simply t :i* is m organiz$4 ,e !ory ( evolution dep5ds fundam5tally ^u ! idea ( organism4 ,ari/otle inv5t$ ! idea & ! ^w4 ,sp5c] c>ri$ x no fur!r1 ?\gh ! m advanc$ physical k ( 8 day enabl$ him to illu/rate x m copi\sly4 ,b ( c\rse ! great diff]5ce betwe5 ,ari/otle & ! mod]ns1 is t ! =m] did n guess1 :at ! latt] h discov]$1 namely t evolution is n only a logical developm5t1 b is a fact 9 "t4 ,ari/otle knew :at 0 meant by ! high] & l[] organism z well z ,d>w91 b he did n "k1 t ! latt] #cji actually turns into ! =m] 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s4 ,b ?is1 ?\gh ! mo/ obvi\s1 is n really ! mo/ important diff]5ce betwe5 ,sp5c] & ,ari/otle4 ,! real diff]5ce is t ,ari/otle p5etrat$ f> m deeply into ! philosophy ( evolution ?an mod]n sci5ce does2 t1 9 fact1 mod]n sci5ce has no philosophy ( evolution at all4 ,= ! fundam5tal problem "h is1 if we speak ( high] & l[] be+s1 :at rational gr\nd h we = call+ !m high] & l[]8 ,t ! l[] passes 9 "t into ! high] is no d\bt a v int]e/+ fact to discov]1 b x dw9dles into insignificance beside ! problem j indicat$1 because1 on ! solution ( t problem x dep5ds :e!r ! univ]se is to be reg>d$ z futile1 mean+less1 & irrational1 or :e!r we are to see 9 x ord]1 plan1 & purpose4 ,is ,sp5c]'s doctr9e a !ory ( developm5t at all8 ,or is x n r simply a !ory ( *ange8 ,some?+ resembl+ an ape becomes a man4 ,is !re developm5t "h1 t is1 is x a movem5t f some?+ really l[] to some?+ really high]8 ,or is x m]ely *ange f "o indiff]5t ?+ to ano!r8 ,is !re improvem5t1 or only diff]5ce8 ,9 ! latt] case1 x makes n ! slighte/ diff]5ce :e!r ! ape becomes man1 or man becomes an ape4 ,! "o is z good z ! o!r4 ,9 ei!r case1 x is m]ely a *ange f ,twe$l$um to ,twe$l$ee4 ,! *ange is mean+less1 & has no significance4 ,! mod]n doctr9e ( evolution c only r5d] ! _w m intelligible1 c only develop into a philosophy ( evolution1 by %[+ t !re is evolution & n m]ely *ange1 & ?is x c only d by #caj giv+ a rational basis = ! belief t "s =ms ( exi/5ce are high] ?an o!rs4 ,to put ! matt] bluntly1 :y is a man high] ?an a horse1 or a horse ?an a sponge8 ,answ] t1 & y h a philosophy ( evolution4 ,fail to answ] x1 & y h none4 ,n[ ! man 9 ! /reet w say t man is high] ?an ! horse1 because he n m]ely eats grass1 b ?9ks1 delib]ates1 possesses art1 sci5ce1 religion1 morality4 ,ask him :y ^! ?+s are high] ?an eat+ grass1 & he has no answ]4 ,f him1 !n1 we turn to ,sp5c]1 & !re we f9d a sort ( answ]4 ,man is high] because he is m organiz$4 ,b :y is x bett] to be m organiz$8 ,sci5ce1 z su*1 has no answ]4 ,if press$ 9 ?is way1 sci5ce may ( c\rse turn r\nd & say3 !re is 9 ! reality ( ?+s no high] & no l[]2 :at ,i mean by high] & l[] is simply m & less organiz$2 high] & l[] are m]e metaphors2 !y are ! human way ( look+ at ?+s2 we naturally call high] :at is ne>e/ ourselves2 b f ! absolute po9t ( view !re is no high] & l[]4 ,b ?is is to r$uce ! univ]se to a madh\se4 ,x means t !re is no purpose1 no reason1 9 any?+ t happ5s4 ,! univ]se1 9 ?is case1 is irrational4 ,no explanation ( x is possible4 ,philosophy is futile1 & n only philosophy1 b morality & ev]y?+ else4 ,if !re is really no high] & l[]1 !re is no bett] & no worse4 ,x is j z good to be a murd]] z to be a sa9t4 ,evil is ! same z good4 ,in/ead ( /riv+ to be sa9ts1 /atesm51 philosoph]s1 we may z well g & play m>bles1 because all ^! values ( high] & l[] are m]e delusions1 ! human way ( look+ at ?+s4 #caa ,sp5c] !n has no answ] to ! "q :y x is bett] to be m organiz$4 ,s we turn at la/ to ,ari/otle4 ,he has an answ]4 ,he sees t x is mean+less to talk ( developm5t1 advance1 high] & l[]1 except 9 relation to an end4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z advance unless x is an advance t[>ds some?+4 ,a body mov+ purposelessly 9 a /raight l9e ?r\gh inf9ite space does n advance4 ,x might z well be "h z a mile h5ce4 ,9 ei!r case x is no ne>] to any?+4 ,b if x is mov+ t[>ds a def9ite po9t1 we c call ?is advance4 ,e mile x moves x gets ne>] to its end4 ,s1 if we are to h a philosophy ( evolution1 x mu/ be teleological4 ,if nature is n advanc+ t[>ds an end1 !re is no ne>] & fur!r1 no high] & l[]1 no developm5t4 ,:at !n is ! end8 ,x is ! actualization ( reason1 says ,ari/otle4 ,! primal be+ is et]nal reason1 b ?is is n exi/5t4 ,x mu/ come to exi/4 ,x fir/ enunciates itself vaguely z gravitation4 ,b ?is is f> (f f its end1 :i* is ! exi/5ce ( reason1 z su*1 9 ! _w4 ,x comes ne>] 9 plants & animals4 ,x is proximately rea*$ 9 man1 = man is ! exi/5t reason4 ,b !re is no "q ( ! univ]se com+ to a /op1 :5 x rea*es its end--7! usual objection to teleology74 ,= ! absolute end1 absolute =m1 c nev] be rea*$4 ,! high] is ?us ! m rational1 ! l[] ! less rational4 ,n[ if we try to g on ask+1 :y is x bett] to be m rational8 we f9d we _c ask su* a "q4 ,! ^w :y means t we want a reason4 ,& our "q is absurd because we are ask+ a reason = reason4 ,:y is x bett] to be rational means simply1 h[ is reason rational4 ,to #cab d\bt x is a self-contradiction4 ,or1 to put ! same ?+ 9 ano!r way1 reason is ! ,absolute4 ,& to ask :y x is bett] to be rational is to dem& t ! ultimate %\ld be express$ 9 t]ms ( some?+ beyond x4 ,h5ce mod]n sci5ce has no philosophy ( evolution1 :]eas ,ari/otle has4 ,footnote #af ,footnote #af3 ,see ,h4 ,s4 ,macran's ,hegel's ,doctr9e ( ,=mal ,logic 7,cl>5don ,press71 ,introduction1 section on ! ,conception ( ,evolution1 to :i* ,i am mu* indebt$ 9 ! above p>agraphs4 ,! ma9 idea ( pan!ism is t ev]y?+ is ,god4 ,! clod ( e>? is div9e because x is a manife/ation ( ,deity4 ,n[ ?is idea is all v well1 & is 9 fact ess5tial to philosophy4 ,we f9d x 9 ,ari/otle himself1 s9ce ! entire _w is1 = him1 ! actualization ( reason1 & reason is ,god4 ,b ?is is also a v dang]\s idea1 if n supplem5t$ by a rationally gr\nd$ scale ( values4 ,no d\bt ev]y?+ is1 9 a s5se1 ,god4 ,b if we leave x at ?is1 x w\ld foll[ t1 s9ce ev]y?+ is equally div9e1 !re is no high] & l[]4 ,if ! clod ( e>?1 l ! sa9tlie/ man1 is ,god1 & !re is no m to say ( ! matt]1 !n h[ is ! sa9t high] ?an ! clod ( e>?8 ,:y %\ld "o ev] /ruggle t[>ds high] ?+s1 :5 9 reality all are equally high8 ,:y avoid evil1 :5 evil is z mu* a manife/ation ( ,god z good8 ,m]e pan!ism mu/ necess>ily end 9 ?is calamit\s view4 ,& ^! deplorable effects expla9 ! fact t ,h9duism1 ) all its high ?9k+1 f9ds room = ! wor%ip ( c[s & snakes1 &1 ) all its und\bt$ moral elevation1 yet all[s into its fold ! grosse/ abom9ations4 ,bo? ^! features are due to ! pan!i/ic plac+ ( all ?+s on a p> z equally #cac div9e4 ,n ( c\rse t ,h9duism has n a sort ( doctr9e ( evolution1 a belief 9 a high] & l[]4 ,z ev]yone kn[s1 x admits ! belief t 9 successive inc>nations ! s\l may m\nt high] & high] till x p]haps rejo9s ! common s\rce ( all ?+s4 ,!re is probably no race ( man s savage t x does n in/9ctively feel t !re is a high] & l[]1 a bett] & worse1 9 ?+s4 ,b ! po9t is t1 al?\gh ,h9duism has its scale ( values1 & its doctr9e ( developm5t1 x has no rational f\ndation = ^!1 & ?\gh x has ! idea ( high] & l[]1 yet1 because ?is is )\t f\ndation1 x lets x slip1 x nev] grips ! idea1 & s easily slides into ! view t all is equally div9e4 ,! ?\ght t all is ,god1 & ! ?\ght t !re are high] & l[] be+s1 are1 on ! surface1 oppos$ & inconsi/5t !ories4 ,yet bo? are necess>y1 & x is ! bus9ess ( philosophy to f9d a reconciliation4 ,?is ,ari/otle does1 b ,h9duism fails to d4 ,x ass]ts bo?1 b fails to br+ !m to unity4 ,n[ x ass]ts "o view1 & aga9 at ano!r "t x ass]ts ! o!r4 ,& ?is1 ( c\rse1 is connect$ ) ! g5]al defect ( ori5tal ?9k+1 its vagu5ess4 ,ev]y?+ is se51 b se5 9 a haze1 9 :i* all ?+s appe> "o1 9 :i* %apes fl[ into ano!r1 9 :i* no?+ has an outl9e1 9 :i* ev5 vital di/9ctions are oblit]at$4 ,h5ce x is t1 ?\gh ori5tal ?\ght conta9s1 9 "o way or ano!r1 practically all philosophical ideas1 x grips none1 & c hold no?+ fa/4 ,x seizes its object1 b its flabby grasp relaxes & slips (f4 ,h9duism1 l mod]n sci5ce1 has its doctr9e ( evolution4 ,b x has no philosophy ( evolution4 #cad #e4 ,e?ics4 7a7 ,! ,individual4 ,a /rong note ( practical mod]ation p]vades ! e?ics ( ,ari/otle4 ,:ile ,plato's e?ical tea*+ transc5d$ ! ord9>y limits ( human life1 & s lo/ itself 9 ideal ,utopias1 ,ari/otle1 on ! o!r h&1 sits d[n to make practical sugge/ions3 ,he wi%es to enquire :at ! good is1 b by ?is he means1 n "s ideal good impossible ( atta9m5t ^u ?is e>?1 b r t good :i*1 9 all ! circum/ances 9 :i* m5 f9d !mselves1 ought to be realizable4 ,! e?ical !ories ( ,plato & ,ari/otle are ?us *>act]i/ic ( ! two m54 ,plato despis$ ! _w ( s5se1 & s\ght to so> altoge!r beyond ! common life ( ! s5ses4 ,ari/otle1 ) 8 love ( facts & ( ! concrete1 keeps close )9 ! b\nds ( actual human exp]i5ce4 ,! fir/ "q = e?ics is ! nature ( ! summum bonum4 ,we desire "o ?+ = ! sake ( a second1 we desire t = ! sake ( a ?ird4 ,b if ?is s]ies ( means & ends goes on ad inf9itum1 !n all desire & all action are futile & purposeless4 ,!re mu/ be "s "o ?+ :i* we desire1 n = ! sake ( any?+ else1 b on its own acc\nt4 ,:at is ?is end 9 itself1 ?is summum bonum1 at :i* all human activity ultimately aims4 ,ev]ybody1 says ,ari/otle1 is agre$ ab\t ! "n ( ?is end4 ,x is happ9ess4 ,:at all m5 seek1 :at is ! motive ( all _! actions1 t :i* !y desire = ! sake ( itself & no?+ beyond1 is happ9ess4 ,b ?\gh all agree z to ! "n1 beyond t !re is no agreem5t4 ,philosoph]s1 #cae no less ?an ! vulg>1 diff] z to :at ?is ^w happ9ess means4 ,"s say x is a life ( pleasure4 ,o!rs say x consi/s 9 ! r5unciation ( pleasures4 ,"s recomm5d "o life1 "s ano!r4 ,we mu/ repeat "h ! w>n+ :i* 0 f\nd necess>y 9 ! case ( ,plato1 :o also call$ ! summum bonum happ9ess4 ,ari/otle's doctr9e is no m to be confus$ ) mod]n utilit>ianism ?an is ,plato's4 ,moral activity is usually accompani$ by a subjective feel+ ( enjoym5t4 ,9 mod]n times ! ^w happ9ess connotes ! feel+ ( enjoym5t4 ,b = ! ,greeks x 0 ! moral activity :i* ! ^w signifi$4 ,= ,ari/otle an action is n good because x yields enjoym5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 x yields enjoym5t because x is good4 ,! utilit>ian doctr9e is t ! enjoym5t is ! gr\nd ( ! moral value4 ,b1 = ,ari/otle1 ! enjoym5t is ! consequ5ce ( ! moral value4 ,h5ce :5 he tells u t ! highe/ good is happ9ess1 he is giv+ u no in=mation reg>d+ its nature1 b m]ely apply+ a new "n to x4 ,we h /ill to enquire :at ! nature ( ! good is4 ,z he himself says1 ev]yone agrees ^u ! "n1 b ! real "q is :at ?is "n connotes4 ,ari/otle's solution ( ?is problem foll[s f ! g5]al pr9ciples ( 8 philosophy4 ,we h se5 t1 ?r\gh\t nature1 e be+ has its prop] end1 & ! atta9m5t ( ?is end is its special function4 ,h5ce ! good = ea* be+ mu/ be ! adequate p]=mance ( its special function4 ,! good = man w n consi/ 9 ! pleasure ( ! s5ses4 ,s5sation is ! special function ( animals1 b n ( man4 ,man's special function is reason4 ,h5ce ! prop] #caf activity ( reason is ! summum bonum1 ! good = man4 ,morality consi/s 9 ! life ( reason4 ,b :at precisely t means we h /ill to see4 ,man is n only a reason+ animal4 ,z ! high] be+1 he conta9s )9 himself ! faculties ( ! l[] be+s also4 ,l plants he is appetitive1 l animals1 s5sitive4 ,! passions & appetites are an organic "p ( 8 nature4 ,h5ce virtue w be ( two k9ds4 ,! highe/ virtues w be f\nd 9 ! life ( reason1 & ! life ( ?\ght1 philosophy4 ,^! intellectual virtues are call$ by ,ari/otle dianoetic4 ,secondly1 ! e?ical virtues prop] w consi/ 9 ! submission ( ! passions & appetites to ! control ( reason4 ,! dianoetic virtues are ! high]1 because 9 !m man's special function alone is 9 op]ation1 & also because ! ?9k+ man mo/ resembles ,god1 ^: life is a life ( pure ?\ght4 ,happ9ess1 !re=e1 consi/s 9 ! comb9ation ( dianoetic & e?ical virtues4 ,!y alone are ( absolute value to man4 ,yet1 ?\gh he places happ9ess 9 virtue1 ,ari/otle1 9 8 broad & practical way1 does n ov]look ! fact t ext]nal goods & circum/ances h a pr(\nd influ5ce ^u happ9ess1 & _c be ignor$1 z ! ,cynics attempt$ to ignore !m4 ,n t ,ari/otle reg>ds ext]nals z hav+ any value 9 !mselves4 ,:at alone is good 9 itself1 is an end 9 itself1 is virtue4 ,b ext]nal goods help a man 9 8 que/ ( virtue4 ,pov]ty1 sickness1 & mis=tune1 on ! o!r h&1 h9d] 8 ef=ts4 ,!re=e1 ?\gh ext]nals are n goods 9 !mselves1 !y may be a means t[>ds ! good4 ,h5ce !y are n to be despis$ & reject$4 ,ri*es1 fri5ds1 heal?1 #cag good =tune1 are n happ9ess4 ,b !y are negative conditions ( x4 ,) !m happ9ess is )9 our grasp4 ,)\t !m its atta9m5t is difficult4 ,!y w be valu$ accord+ly4 ,ari/otle says little 9 detail ( ! dianoetic virtues4 ,& we may turn at once to ! ma9 subject ( 8 moral sy/em1 ! e?ical virtues4 ,^! consi/ 9 ! gov]nance ( ! passions by reason4 ,socrates 0 wrong 9 suppos+ t virtue is purely intellectual1 t no?+ save k is ne$$ = x1 & t if a man ?9ks "r he mu/ ne$s d "r4 ,he =got ! exi/5ce ( ! passions1 :i* are n easily controll$4 ,a man may reason p]fectly1 8 reason may po9t him to ! "r pa?1 b 8 passions may get ! upp] h& & lead him out ( x4 ,h[ !n is reason to ga9 control ov] ! appetites8 ,only by practice4 ,x is only by cont9ual ef=t1 by ! con/ant ex]cise ( self-control1 t ! unruly passions c be tam$4 ,once br\ght "u ! yoke1 _! control becomes habit4 ,ari/otle lays ! utmo/ emphasis on ! importance ( habit 9 morality4 ,x is only by cultivat+ good habits t a man becomes good4 ,n[ if virtue consi/s 9 ! control ( ! appetites by reason1 x ?us conta9s two con/itu5ts1 reason & appetite4 ,bo? mu/ be pres5t4 ,!re mu/ be passions1 if !y are to be controll$4 ,h5ce ! ascetic ideal ( root+ out ! passions altoge!r is fundam5tally wrong4 ,x ov]looks ! fact t ! high] =m does n exclude ! l[]--t 7 contr>y to ! conception ( evolution--x includes & transc5ds x4 ,x =gets t ! passions are an organic "p ( man1 & t to de/roy !m is to d injury to 8 #cah nature by de/roy+ "o ( its ess5tial memb]s4 ,! passions & appetites are1 9 fact1 ! matt] ( virtue1 reason its =m1 & ! mi/ake ( asceticism is t x de/roys ! matt] ( virtue1 & supposes t ! =m c subsi/ by itself4 ,virtue means t ! appetites mu/ be br\ght "u control1 n t !y mu/ be eradicat$4 ,h5ce !re are two extremes to be avoid$4 ,x is extreme1 on ! "o h&1 to attempt to uproot ! passions2 & x is extreme1 on ! o!r1 to all[ !m to run riot4 ,virtue means mod]ation4 ,x consi/s 9 hitt+ ! happy mean z reg>ds ! passions1 9 n all[+ !m to get ! upp] h& ( reason1 & yet 9 n be+ q passionless & apa!tic4 ,f ?is foll[s ! fam\s ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( virtue z ! mean betwe5 two extremes4 ,e virtue lies betwe5 two vices1 :i* are ! excess & defect ( appetite respectively4 ,:at is ! crit]ion "h8 ,:o is to judge8 ,h[ are we to "k :at is ! prop] mean 9 any matt]8 ,ma!matical analogies w n help u4 ,x is n a case ( draw+ a /raight l9e f "o extreme to ! o!r1 & f9d+ ! middle po9t by bisection4 ,& ,ari/otle refuses to lay d[n any rule ( ?umb 9 ! matt]4 ,!re is no gold5 rule by virtue ( :i* we c tell :]e ! prop] mean is4 ,x all dep5ds on circum/ances1 & on ! p]son involv$4 ,:at is ! prop] mean 9 "o case is n ! prop] mean 9 ano!r4 ,:at is mod]ate = "o man is immod]ate = 8 neighb\r4 ,h5ce ! matt] mu/ be left to ! good judgm5t ( ! individual4 ,a sort ( f9e tact1 good s5se1 is requir$ to "k ! mean1 :i* ,ari/otle calls insight4 ,?is insight is bo? ! cause & ! #cai effect ( virtue4 ,x is ! cause1 because he :o has x kn[s :at he ought to d4 ,x is ! effect1 because x is only develop$ by practice4 ,virtue r5d]s virtue easy4 ,ea* "t a man1 by use ( 8 insight1 rightly decides ^u ! mean1 x becomes easi] = him to discrim9ate next "t4 ,ari/otle attempts no sy/ematic classification ( ! virtues1 z ,plato _h done4 ,?is sort ( s*ematism is contr>y to ! practical "* ( 8 ?\ght4 ,he sees t life is f> too complex to be treat$ 9 ?is way4 ,! prop] mean is diff]5t 9 e diff]5t case1 & !re=e !re are z _m virtues z !re are circum/ances 9 life4 ,8 li/ ( virtues1 !re=e1 is n int5d$ to be exhau/ive4 ,x is m]ely illu/rative4 ,?\gh ! numb] ( virtues is inf9ite1 !re are c]ta9 well-recogniz$ k9ds ( good action1 :i* are ( su* con/ant importance 9 life t !y h receiv$ names4 ,by ! example ( "s ( ^! virtues ,ari/otle illu/rates 8 doctr9e ( ! mean4 ,= in/ance1 c\rage is ! mean betwe5 c[>dice & ra%ness4 ,t is to say1 c[>dice is ! defect ( boldness1 ra%ness ! excess1 c\rage ! reasonable m$ium4 ,munific5ce is ! mean betwe5 pett9ess & vulg> pr(usion1 good temp] betwe5 spiritlessness & irascibility1 polit5ess betwe5 rud5ess & obsequi\sness1 mode/y betwe5 %amelessness & ba%fulness1 temp]ance betwe5 ins5sibility & intemp]ance4 ,ju/ice h>dly comes into ! s*eme2 x is r a virtue ( ! ,/ate ?an ( ! individual1 & x has be5 ?\ght by "s t ! book devot$ to x 9 ! ,e?ics has be5 misplac$4 ,ju/ice is ( two k9ds1 di/ributive & corrective4 ,its fundam5tal idea #cbj is ! assignm5t ( advantages & disadvantages accord+ to m]it4 ,di/ributive ju/ice assigns hon\rs & rew>ds accord+ to ! wor? ( ! individuals involv$4 ,corrective ju/ice has to d ) puni%m5t4 ,if a man improp]ly obta9s an advantage1 ?+s mu/ be equaliz$ by ! imposition on him ( a correspond+ disadvantage4 ,ju/ice1 h[ev]1 is a g5]al pr9ciple1 & no g5]al pr9ciple is equal to ! complexity ( life4 ,special cases _c be =ese51 ,! necess>y adju/m5t ( human relations aris+ f ?is cause is equity4 ,ari/otle is a pron\nc$ support] ( ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,he c5sures ,socrates because ! latt]'s !ory ( virtue practically am\nts to a d5ial ( fre$om4 ,accord+ to ,socrates1 :oev] ?9ks "r mu/ necess>ily d "r4 ,b ?is is equival5t to d5y+ a man's p[] to *oose evil4 ,& if he _c *oose evil1 he _c *oose good4 ,= ! "r-?9k+ man does n d "r volunt>ily1 b necess>ily4 ,ari/otle believ$1 on ! contr>y1 t man has ! *oice ( good & evil4 ,! doctr9e ( ,socrates makes all actions involunt>y4 ,b 9 ,ari/otle's op9ion only actions p]=m$ "u =cible compulsion are involunt>y4 ,ari/otle did n1 h[ev]1 consid] ! special difficulties 9 ! !ory ( free w :i* 9 mod]n times h made x "o ( ! mo/ ?orny ( all philosophical problems4 ,h5ce 8 treatm5t ( ! subject is n ( great value to u4 7b7 ,! ,/ate4 ,politics is n a sep>ate subject f ,e?ics4 ,x is m]ely ano!r division ( ! same subject4 ,& #cba ?is1 n m]ely because politics is ! e?ics ( ! ,/ate z aga9/ ! individual1 b because ! morality ( ! individual really f9ds its end 9 ! ,/ate1 & is impossible )\t x4 ,ari/otle agrees ) ,plato t ! object ( ! ,/ate is ! virtue & happ9ess ( ! citiz5s1 :i* are impossible except 9 ! ,/ate4 ,= man is a political animal by nature1 z is prov$ by 8 possession ( spee*1 :i* w\ld be useless to any save a social be+4 ,& ! phrase by nature means ! same "h z else:]e 9 ,ari/otle4 ,x means t ! ,/ate is ! end ( ! individual1 & t activity 9 ! ,/ate is "p ( man's ess5tial function4 ,! ,/ate1 9 fact1 is ! =m1 ! individual1 ! matt]4 ,! ,/ate provides bo? an education 9 virtue & ! necess>y opportunities = its ex]cise4 ,)\t x man w\ld n be man at all4 ,he w\ld be a savage animal4 ,! hi/orical orig9 ( ! ,/ate ,ari/otle f9ds 9 ! family4 ,at fir/ !re is ! individual4 ,! individual gets himself a mate1 & ! family arises4 ,! family1 9 ,ari/otle's op9ion1 includes ! slaves3 =1 l ,plato1 he sees no wrong 9 ! in/itution ( slav]y4 ,a numb] ( families1 jo9+ toge!r1 develop into a village community1 & a numb] ( village communities into a polis 7city71 or ,/ate4 ,beyond ! city1 ( c\rse1 ! ,greek idea ( ! ,/ate did n ext5d4 ,su* !n is ! hi/orical orig9 ( ! ,/ate4 ,b x is ( capital importance to und]/& t1 9 ,ari/otle's op9ion1 ?is "q ( hi/orical orig9 has no?+ on e>? to d ) ! f> m important "q :at ! ,/ate ess5tially is4 ,x is no m]e me*anical aggregate ( families & village communities1 #cbb ,! nature ( ! ,/ate is n expla9$ 9 ?is way4 ,= ?\gh ! family is prior to ! ,/ate 9 ord] ( "t1 ! ,/ate is prior to ! family & to ! individual 9 ord] ( ?\ght1 & 9 reality4 ,= ! ,/ate is ! end1 & ! end is always prior to t ( :i* x is ! end4 ,! /ate z =m is prior to ! family z matt]1 & 9 ! same way ! family is prior to ! individual4 ,& z ! explanation ( ?+s is only possible by teleology1 x is ! end :i* expla9s ! beg9n+1 x is ! ,/ate :i* expla9s ! family1 & n vice v]sa4 ,! true nature ( ! ,/ate1 !re=e1 is n t x is a me*anical sum ( individuals1 z a heap ( s& is ! sum ( its gra9s4 ,! ,/ate is a real organism1 & ! connexion ( "p to "p is n me*anical1 b organic4 ,! ,/ate has a life ( its own4 ,& its memb]s also h _! own lives1 :i* are includ$ 9 ! high] life ( ! ,/ate4 ,all ! p>ts ( an organism are !mselves organisms4 ,& z ! di/9ction betwe5 organic & inorganic is t ! =m] has its end 9 itself1 :ile ! latt] has its end ext]nal to x1 ?is means t ! ,/ate is an end 9 itself1 t ! individual is an end 9 himself1 & t ! =m] end includes ! latt]4 ,or we may express ! same ?\ght o!rwise by say+ t1 9 ! ,/ate1 bo? ! :ole & ! p>ts are to be reg>d$ z real1 bo? hav+ _! own lives &1 9 _! "* z ends1 _! own rights4 ,consequ5tly1 !re are two k9ds ( views ( ! nature ( ! ,/ate1 :i* are1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 fundam5tally errone\s4 ,! fir/ is ! k9d ( view :i* dep5ds ^u ass]t+ ! reality ( ! p>ts1 b d5y+ ! reality ( ! :ole1 or1 :at is ! same #cbc ?+1 all[+ t ! individual is an end 9 himself1 b d5y+ t ! ,/ate z a :ole is su* an end or has a sep>ate life ( its own4 ,! second k9d ( false view is ( ! opposite k9d1 & consi/s 9 all[+ reality only to ! :ole ,/ate1 & d5y+ ! reality ( its p>ts1 ! individuals4 ,! op9ions t ! ,/ate is m]ely a me*anical aggregate ( individuals1 t x is =m$ by ! comb9ation ( individuals or families = ! sake ( mutual protection & b5efit1 & t x exi/s only = ^! purposes1 are examples ( ! fir/ k9d4 ,su* views subord9ate ! ,/ate to ! individual4 ,! ,/ate is treat$ z an ext]nal contrivance = secur+ ! life1 ! prop]ty1 or ! conv5i5ce ( ! individual4 ,! ,/ate exi/s solely = ! sake ( ! individual1 & is n 9 itself an end4 ,! individual alone is real1 ! ,/ate unreal1 because x is only a collection ( individuals4 ,^! views =get t ! ,/ate is an organism1 & !y =get all t ?is implies4 ,ari/otle w\ld h condemn$1 on ^! gr\nds1 ! social contract !ory s popul> 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 & likewise ! view ( mod]n individualism t ! ,/ate exi/s solely to ensure t ! lib]ty ( ! individual is curtail$ only by ! "r ( o!r individuals to ! same lib]ty4 ,! opposite k9d ( false view is illu/rat$ by ! ideal ,/ate ( ,plato4 ,z ! views we h j discuss$ d5y ! reality ( ! :ole1 ,plato's view1 on ! contr>y1 d5ies ! reality ( ! p>ts4 ,= him ! individual is no?+1 ! ,/ate ev]y?+4 ,! individual is absolutely sacrific$ to ! ,/ate4 ,he exi/s only = ! ,/ate1 & ?us ,plato makes ! mi/ake ( sett+ up ! ,/ate z sole end & d5y+ t ! #cbd individual is an end 9 himself4 ,plato imag9$ t ! ,/ate is a homog5e\s unity1 9 :i* its p>ts totally disappe>4 ,b ! true view is t ! ,/ate1 z an organism1 is a unity :i* conta9s het]og5eity4 ,x is coh]5t1 yet het]og5e\s4 ,& ,plato makes ! same mi/ake 9 8 view ( ! family z 9 8 view ( ! individual4 ,! family1 ,ari/otle ?9ks1 is1 l ! individual1 a real "p ( ! social :ole4 ,x is an organism )9 an organism4 ,z su*1 x is an end 9 itself1 has absolute rights1 & _c be oblit]at$4 ,b ,plato expressly propos$ to aboli% ! family 9 fav\r ( ! ,/ate1 & by sugge/+ community ( wives & ! education ( *ildr5 9 ,/ate nurs]ies f ! ye> ( _! bir?1 /ruck a deadly bl[ at an ess5tial "p ( ! ,/ate organization4 ,ari/otle ?us supports ! in/itution ( family1 n on s5tim5tal1 b ^u philosophic gr\nds4 ,ari/otle gives no exhau/ive classification ( diff]5t k9ds ( ,/ate1 because =ms ( gov]nm5t may be z v>i\s z ! circum/ances :i* give rise to !m4 ,8 classification is int5d$ to include only out/&+ types4 ,he f9ds t !re are six su* types1 ( :i* ?ree are good4 ,! o!r ?ree are bad1 because !y are corruptions ( ! good types4 ,^! are 7#a7 ,mon>*y1 ! rule ( "o man by virtue ( 8 be+ s sup]ior 9 wisdom to all 8 fell[s t he naturally rules !m4 ,! corruption ( ,mon>*y is 7#b7 ,tyranny1 ! rule ( "o man f\nd$ n on wisdom & capacity1 b ^u =ce4 ,! second good =m is 7#c7 ,ari/ocracy1 ! rule ( ! wis] & bett] few1 ( :i* ! corrupt =m is 7#d7 ,olig>*y1 ! rule ( ! ri* & p[]ful few4 7#e7 ,con/itutional ,republic or ,timocracy arises #cbe :]e all ! citiz5s are ( fairly equal capacity1 i4e41 :]e no /&-out individual or class exi/s1 s t all or mo/ take a %>e 9 ! gov]nm5t4 ,! correspond+ corrupt =m is 7#f7 ,democracy1 :i*1 ?\gh x is ! rule ( ! _m1 is m especially *>act]iz$ z be+ ! rule ( ! poor4 ,unlike ,plato1 ,ari/otle depicts no ideal ,/ate4 ,no s+le ,/ate1 he ?9ks1 is 9 itself ! be/4 ,ev]y?+ mu/ dep5d ^u ! circum/ances4 ,:at is ! be/ ,/ate 9 "o age & c\nty w n be ! be/ 9 ano!r4 ,moreov]1 x is useless to discuss ,utopian con/itutions4 ,:at alone int]e/s ! sane & balanc$ m9d ( ,ari/otle is ! k9d ( con/itution :i* we may hope actually to realize4 ,( ! ?ree good =ms ( gov]nm5t he consid]s t mon>*y is !oretically ! be/4 ,! rule ( a s+le p]fectly wise & j man w\ld be bett] ?an any o!r4 ,b x has to be giv5 up z impracticable1 because su* p]fect individuals d n exi/4 ,& x is only among primitive peoples t we f9d ! h]o1 ! man ^: moral /ature s completely exalts him above 8 fell[s t he rules z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,! next be/ ,/ate is ari/ocracy4 ,& la/1 9 ,ari/otle's op9ion1 comes con/itutional republic1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 p]haps ! ,/ate be/ suit$ to ! special ne$s & level ( developm5t ( ! ,greek city-/ates4 #f4 ,ae/hetics1 or ! ,!ory ( ,art4 ,plato _h no sy/ematic philosophy ( ,art1 & 8 views _h to be collect$ f scatt]$ ref]5ces4 ,ari/otle likewise has sc>cely a sy/em1 ?\gh 8 op9ions are m connect$1 & ?\gh he devot$ a special tretise1 ! ,poetics1 to ! subject4 ,& ?is #cbf book1 :i* has come d[n to u 9 a fragm5t>y condition1 deals exclusively ) poetry1 & ev5 9 poetry only ! drama is consid]$ 9 detail4 ,:at we h f ,ari/otle on ! subject ( ae/hetics may be divid$ r\ghly into two classes1 fir/ly1 reflections on ! nature & significance ( art 9 g5]al1 &1 secondly1 a m detail$ application ( ^! pr9ciples to ! art ( poetry4 ,we %all deal ) ^! two classes ( op9ions 9 t ord]4 ,9 ord] to "k :at art is1 we mu/ fir/ "k :at x is n4 ,x mu/ be di/+ui%$ f k9dr$ activities4 ,& fir/ly1 x is di/+ui%$ f morality 9 t morality is conc]n$ ) action1 art ) production4 ,morality consi/s 9 ! activity itself1 art 9 t :i* ! activity produces4 ,h5ce ! /ate ( m9d ( ! actor1 8 motives1 feel+s1 etc41 are important 9 morality1 = !y are "p ( ! act itself4 ,b !y are n important 9 art1 ! only ess5tial be+ t ! "w ( art %\ld turn out well1 h[ev] x has be5 produc$4 ,secondly1 art is di/+ui%$ f ! activity ( nature1 :i* x 9 _m respects resembles4 ,organic be+s reproduce _! own k9d1 &1 9 ! fact t x is conc]n$ ) production1 g5]ation resembles art4 ,b 9 g5]ation1 ! liv+ be+ produces only itself4 ,! plant produces a plant1 man begets man4 ,b ! arti/ produces some?+ q o!r ?an himself1 a poem1 a picture1 a /atue4 ,art is ( two k9ds1 accord+ z x aims at complet+ ! "w ( nature1 or at creat+ some?+ new1 an imag9>y _w ( its own :i* is a copy ( ! real _w4 ,9 ! =m] case1 we get su* arts z t ( #cbg m$ic9e4 ,:]e nature has fail$ to produce a heal?y body1 ! physician helps nature out1 & completes ! "w t %e has begun4 ,9 ! latt] case1 we get :at are1 9 mod]n times1 call$ ! f9e arts4 ,^! ,ari/otle calls ! imitative arts4 ,we saw t ,plato reg>d$ all art z imitative1 & t su* a view is ess5tially unsatisfactory4 ,n[ ,ari/otle uses ! same ^w1 :i* he p]haps borr[$ f ,plato1 b 8 mean+ is n ! same z ,plato's1 nor does he fall into ! same mi/akes4 ,t 9 call+ art imitative he has n 9 m9d ! ?\ght t x has = its aim m]ely ! fai?ful copy+ ( natural objects is prov$ by ! fact t he m5tions music z ! mo/ imitative ( ! arts1 :]eas music is1 9 fact1 9 ?is s5se1 ! lea/ imitative ( all4 ,! pa9t] may conceivably be reg>d$ z imitat+ trees1 riv]s1 or m51 b ! musician = ! mo/ "p produces :at is unlike any?+ 9 nature4 ,:at ,ari/otle means is t ! arti/ copies1 n ! s5su\s object1 b :at ,plato w\ld call ! ,idea4 ,art is ?us n1 9 ,plato's contemptu\s phrase1 a copy ( a copy4 ,x is a copy ( ! orig9al4 ,its object is n ?is or t p>ticul> ?+1 b ! univ]sal :i* manife/s itself 9 ! p>ticul>4 ,art idealizes nature1 t is1 sees ! ,idea 9 x4 ,x reg>ds ! individual ?+1 n z an individual1 b 9 its univ]sal aspects1 z ! fleet+ embodim5t ( an et]nal ?\ght4 ,h5ce x is t ! sculptor depicts n ! individual man1 b r ! type-man1 ! p]fection ( 8 k9d4 ,h5ce too1 9 mod]n times1 ! portrait pa9t] is n conc]n$ to pa9t a fai?ful image ( 8 model1 b takes ! model m]ely z a sugge/ion1 & seizes ^u t ess5tial & et]nal #cbh ess5ce1 t ideal ?\ght1 or univ]sal1 :i* he sees %9+ ?r\gh ! s5su\s mat]ials 9 :i* x is imprison$4 ,8 task is to free x f ?is imprisonm5t4 ,! common man sees only ! p>ticul> object4 ,! arti/ sees ! univ]sal 9 ! p>ticul>4 ,e individual ?+ is a comp\nd ( matt] & =m1 ( p>ticul> & univ]sal4 ,! function ( art is to exhibit ! univ]sal 9 x4 ,h5ce poetry is tru]1 m philosophical1 ?an hi/ory4 ,= hi/ory deals only ) ! p>ticul> z ! p>ticul>4 ,x tells u only ( ! fact1 ( :at has happ5$4 ,its tru? is m]e correctness1 accuracy4 ,x has n 9 x1 z art has1 ! liv+ & et]nal tru?4 ,x does n deal ) ! ,idea4 ,x yields u only ! k ( some?+ t1 hav+ happ5$1 hav+ gone by1 is f9i%$4 ,its object is transi5t & p]i%able4 ,x conc]ns only ! endless it]ation ( mean+less ev5ts4 ,b ! object ( art is t inn] ess5ce ( objects & ev5ts1 :i* p]i%es n1 & ( :i* ! objects & ev5ts are ! m]e ext]nal drap]y4 ,if !re=e we w\ld arrange philosophy1 art1 & hi/ory1 9 ord] ( _! ess5tial nobility & tru?1 we %\ld place philosophy fir/1 because its object is ! univ]sal z x is 9 itself1 ! pure univ]sal4 ,we %\ld place art second1 because its object is ! univ]sal 9 ! p>ticul>1 & hi/ory la/1 because x deals only ) ! p>ticul> z su*4 ,yet because ea* ?+ 9 ! _w has its own prop] function1 & errs if x seeks to p]=m ! functions ( some?+ else1 h5ce1 9 ,ari/otle's op9ion1 art mu/ n attempt to emulate philosophy4 ,x mu/ n deal ) ! ab/ract univ]sal4 ,! poet mu/ n use 8 v]ses z a vehicle ( ab/ract ?\ght4 ,8 prop] #cbi sph]e is ! univ]sal z x manife/s itself 9 ! p>ticul>1 n ! univ]sal z x is 9 itself4 ,ari/otle1 = ?is reason1 c5sures didactic poetry4 ,su* a poem z t ( ,emp$ocles1 :o unfold$ 8 philosophical sy/em 9 metre1 is n1 9 fact1 poetry at all4 ,x is v]sifi$ philosophy4 ,art is ?us l[] ?an philosophy4 ,! absolute reality1 ! inn] ess5ce ( ! _w1 is ?\ght1 reason1 ! univ]sal4 ,to contemplate ?is reality is ! object alike ( philosophy & ( art4 ,b art sees ! ,absolute n 9 its f9al tru?1 b wrapp$ up 9 a s5su\s drap]y4 ,philosophy sees ! ,absolute z x is 9 itself1 9 its own nature1 9 its full tru?2 x sees x z :at x ess5tially is1 ?\ght4 ,philosophy1 !re=e1 is ! p]fect tru?4 ,b ?is does n mean t art is to be sup]s$$ & done away )4 ,because philosophy is high] ?an art1 x does n foll[ t a man %\ld suppress ! arti/ 9 himself 9 ord] to rise to philosophy4 ,= an ess5tial ?\ght ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy is t1 9 ! scale ( be+s1 ev5 ! l[] =m is an end 9 itself1 & has absolute rights4 ,! high] activities presuppose ! l[]1 & re/ ^u !m4 ,! high] includes ! l[]1 & ! l[]1 z an organic "p ( its be+1 _c be eradicat$ )\t injury to ! :ole4 ,to suppress art 9 fav\r ( philosophy w\ld be a mi/ake precisely p>allel to ! moral error ( asceticism4 ,9 treat+ ( ,ari/otle's e?ics we saw t1 al?\gh ! activity ( reason is held 9 highe/ e/eem1 ! attempt to uproot ! passions 0 c5sur$ z errone\s4 ,s "h1 ?\gh philosophy is ! cr[n ( man's spiritual activity1 art has its rights1 & is an absolute end 9 itself1 a po9t :i* ,plato fail$ to see4 ,9 ! human organism1 ! head is ! #ccj *ief ( ! memb]s4 ,b "o does n cut (f ! h& because x is n ! head4 ,com+ n[ to ,ari/otle's special treatm5t ( ! art ( poetry1 we may note t he conc5trates 8 att5tion almo/ exclusively ^u ! drama4 ,x does n matt] :e!r ! plot ( a drama is hi/orical or fictiti\s4 ,= ! object ( art1 ! exhibition ( ! univ]sal1 is j z well atta9$ 9 an imag9>y z 9 a real s]ies ( ev5ts4 ,its aim is n correctness1 b tru?1 n facts1 b ! ,idea4 ,drama is ( two k9ds1 trag$y & com$y4 ,trag$y exhibits ! nobl] specim5s ( humanity1 com$y ! worse4 ,?is rem>k %\ld be c>efully und]/ood4 ,x does n mean t ! h]o ( a trag$y is necess>ily a good man 9 ! ord9>y s5se4 ,he may ev5 be a wick$ man4 ,b ! po9t is t1 9 "s s5se1 he mu/ be a great p]sonality4 ,he _c be an insignificant p]son4 ,he _c be a non5tity4 ,be he good or bad1 he mu/ be conceiv$ 9 ! gr& mann]4 ,milton's ,satan is n good1 b he is great1 & w\ld be a fit subject = a trag$y4 ,! s\ndness ( ,ari/otle's ?\ght "h is v notewor?y4 ,:at is mean & sordid c nev] =m ! basis ( trag$y4 ,mod]n newspap]s h done _! be/ to debau* ?is ^w trag$y4 ,"s wret*$ noteless human be+ is cru%$ to dea? by a tra91 & ! newspap]s head _! p>agraph ,fe>ful ,trag$y at ,peckham ,rye4 ,n[ su* an incid5t may be sad1 x may be dreadful1 x may be horrible1 b x is n tragic4 ,trag$y no d\bt deals ) suff]+4 ,b !re is no?+ great & ennobl+ ab\t ?is suff]+1 & trag$y is conc]n$ ) ! suff]+s ( greatness4 ,9 ! same way1 ,ari/otle does n mean t ! comic #cca h]o is necess>ily a wick$ man1 b t he is1 on ! :ole1 a poor creature1 an insignificant be+4 ,he may be v wor?y1 b !re is some?+ l[ & ignoble ab\t him :i* makes u laugh4 ,trag$y br+s ab\t a purification ( ! s\l ?r\gh pity & t]ror4 ,mean1 sordid1 or dreadful ?+s d n ennoble u4 ,b ! repres5tation ( truly great & tragic suff]+s ar\ses 9 ! behold] pity & t]ror :i* purge 8 _s1 & r5d] x s]5e & pure4 ,?is is ! ?\ght ( a great & p5etrat+ critic4 ,! !ory ( c]ta9 s*ol>s1 bas$ ^u etymological gr\nds1 t x means t ! s\l is purg$1 n ?r\gh1 b ( pity & t]ror1 t by means ( a di>rhoea ( ^! unpleasant emotions we get rid ( !m & are left happy1 is ! ?\ght ( m5 ^: s*ol>%ip may be great1 b ^: und]/&+ ( art is limit$4 ,su* a !ory w\ld r$uce ,ari/otle's great & illum9at+ criticism to ! mean+less babble ( a phili/9e4 #g4 ,critical ,e/imate ( ,ari/otle's ,philosophy4 ,x is n necess>y to sp5d s mu* "t ^u criticis+ ,ari/otle z we sp5t ^u do+ ! same = ,plato1 & t = two reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,plato ) 8 obvi\s greatness ab\nd$ 9 defects :i* _h to be po9t$ out1 :]eas we h b little adv]se criticism = ,ari/otle4 ,secondly1 ,ari/otle's ma9 defect is a dualism almo/ id5tical ) t ( ,plato1 & :at has be5 said ( ! "o ne$ only be %ortly appli$ to ! o!r4 ,at bottom ,ari/otle's philosophy is ! same z ,plato's1 ) "s ( ! ma9 defects & crudities remov$4 ,plato 0 ! f\nd] ( ! philosophy ( ! ,idea4 #ccb ,b 9 8 h&s1 idealism 0 clogg$ ) uness5tials1 & ov]gr[n ) excresc5ces4 ,8 crude !ory ( ! s\l z a ?+ me*anically =c$ 9 & out ( ! body1 8 doctr9es ( re9c>nation & recollection1 ! belief t ?is ?+ ! s\l c travel to "s place f> away :]e x w see ^? ?+s ! ,ideas1 & above all1 :at is ! root ( all ^!1 ! confusion betwe5 reality & exi/5ce1 ) its consequ5t degradation ( ! univ]sal to a m]e p>ticul>--^! 7 ! uness5tials ) :i* ,plato connect$ 8 ess5tial idealism4 ,to take ! pure !ory ( ,ideas--albeit n "u t "n--to purge x ( ^! encumbrances & to ca/ !m ^u ! rubbi% heap1 to cleanse ,plato's gold ( its dross1 ?is 0 ! task ( ,ari/otle4 ,?\ght1 ! univ]sal1 ! ,idea1 =m--call x :at y w--?is is ! ultimate reality1 ! f\ndation ( ! _w1 ! absolute prius ( all ?+s4 ,s ?\ght bo? ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,b :]eas ,plato began to draw m5tal pictures ( ! univ]sal1 to imag9e t x exi/$ ap>t 9 a _w ( its own1 & s might be exp]i5c$ by ! vision ( ! w&]+ s\l1 ,ari/otle saw t ?is 0 to treat ?\ght z if x 7 a ?+1 to turn x into a m]e p>ticul> aga94 ,he saw t ! univ]sal1 ?\gh x is ! real1 has no exi/5ce 9 a _w ( its own1 b only 9 ?is _w1 only z a =mative pr9ciple ( p>ticul> ?+s4 ,?is is ! key-note ( 8 philosophy4 ,ari/otle regi/]s1 !re=e1 an enorm\s advance ^u ,plato4 ,8 sy/em is ! p]fect$ & complet$ ,greek idealism4 ,x is ! highe/ po9t rea*$ 9 ! philosophy ( ,greece4 ,! fl[] ( all previ\s ?\ght1 ! ess5ce & pure di/illation ( ! ,greek philosophic _s1 ! ga!r+ #ccc up ( all t is good 9 8 pr$ecessors & ! rejection ( all t is faulty & wor?less--su* is ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle4 ,x 0 n possible = ! ,greek _s to advance fur!r4 ,fur!r developm5t c\ld be only decay4 ,& s1 9 fact1 x turn$ out to be4 ,ari/otle des]ves1 too1 ! cr$it ( hav+ produc$ ! only philosophy ( evolution :i* ! _w has ev] se51 ) ! exception ( t ( ,hegel2 & ,hegel 0 enabl$ to f\nd a new] !ory ( evolution only by foll[+ l>gely 9 ! foot/eps ( ,ari/otle4 ,?is 0 p]haps ,ari/otle's mo/ orig9al contribution to ?\ght4 ,yet ! factors ( ! problem1 ?\gh n its solution1 he took f 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! problem ( becom+ _h tortur$ ,greek ?\ght f ! e>lie/ ages4 ,! philosophy ( ,h]acleitus1 9 :i* x 0 mo/ prom95t1 _h fail$ to solve x4 ,h]acleitus & 8 successors rack$ _! bra9s to discov] h[ becom+ c\ld be possible4 ,b ev5 if !y _h solv$ ?is m9or problem1 ! great] "q /ill rema9$ 9 ! backgr\nd1 :at does ?is becom+ mean8 ,becom+ = !m 0 only mean+less *ange4 ,x 0 n developm5t4 ,! _w-process 0 an endless /ream ( futile & purposeless ev5ts1 a tale1 told by an idiot1 full ( s\nd & fury1 signify+ no?+4 ,ari/otle n m]ely ask$ himself h[ becom+ is possible4 ,he %[$ t becom+ has a mean+1 t x signifies some?+1 t ! _w-process is a rationally ord]$ developm5t t[>ds a rational end4 ,b1 ?\gh ,ari/otle's philosophy is ! highe/ pres5tation ( ! tru? 9 anci5t times1 x _c be accept$ z any?+ f9al & faultless4 ,d\btless no philosophy c ev] atta9 to f9ality4 ,let u apply our #ccd two-fold te/4 ,does 8 pr9ciple expla9 ! _w1 & does x expla9 itself8 ,fir/1 does x expla9 ! _w8 ,! cause ( ,plato's failure "h 0 ! dualism 9 8 sy/em betwe5 s5se & ?\ght1 betwe5 matt] & ! ,ideas4 ,x 0 impossible to d]ive ! _w f ! ,ideas1 because !y 7 absolutely sep>at$ f ! _w4 ,! gulf 0 s great t x c\ld nev] be bridg$4 ,matt] & ,idea lay ap>t1 & c\ld nev] be br\ght toge!r4 ,n[ ,ari/otle saw ?is dualism 9 ,plato1 & attempt$ to surm\nt x4 ,! univ]sal & ! p>ticul>1 he said1 d n ?us lie ap>t1 9 diff]5t worlds4 ,! ,idea is n a ?+ "h1 & matt] a ?+ !re1 s t ^! two incomm5surables h to be someh[ me*anically & viol5tly =c$ toge!r to =m a _w4 ,univ]sal & p>ticul>1 matt] & =m1 are insep>able4 ,! connexion betwe5 !m is n me*anical1 b organic4 ,! dualism ( ,plato is ?us admitt$ & refut$4 ,b is x really surm\nt$8 ,! answ] mu/ be 9 ! negative4 ,x is n en\gh by a t\r de =ce to br+ matt] & =m toge!r1 to ass]t t !y are insep>able1 :ile !y rema9 all ! "t1 9 pr9ciple1 sep>ate entities4 ,if ! ,absolute is =m1 matt] ought to be d$uc$ f =m1 %[n to be m]ely a projection & manife/ation ( x4 ,x mu/ be %[n t =m n only m\lds matt] b produces x4 ,if we ass]t t ! "o primal reality is =m1 !n cle>ly we mu/ prove t all else 9 ! _w1 includ+ matt]1 arises out ( t prime be+4 ,ei!r matt] arises out ( =m or x does n4 ,if x does1 ?is aris+ mu/ be exhibit$4 ,if x does n1 !n =m is n ! sole ultimate reality1 = matt] is equally an ultimate1 und]ivative1 #cce primordial sub/ance4 ,9 t case1 we ?us h two equally real ultimate be+s1 ea* und]iv$ f ! o!r1 exi/+ side by side f all et]nity4 ,?is is dualism1 & ?is is ! defect ( ,ari/otle4 ,n only does he n d]ive matt] f =m1 b he obvi\sly sees no necessity = do+ s4 ,he w\ld probably h prote/$ aga9/ any attempt to d s1 =1 :5 he id5tifies ! =mal1 f9al1 & effici5t causes ) ea* o!r1 leav+ out ! mat]ial cause1 ?is is equival5t to an ass]tion t matt] _c be r$uc$ to =m4 ,?us 8 dualism is delib]ate & p]si/5t4 ,! _w1 says ,ari/otle1 is compos$ ( matt] & =m4 ,:]e does ?is matt] come f8 ,z x does n1 9 8 sy/em1 arise out ( =m1 we c only conclude t its be+ is :olly 9 itself1 i4e41 t x is a sub/ance1 an absolute reality4 ,& ?is is utt]ly inconsi/5t ) ,ari/otle's ass]tion t x is 9 itself no?+ b a m]e pot5tiality4 ,?us1 9 ! la/ resort1 ?is dualism ( s5se & ?\ght1 ( matt] & ,idea1 ( unlimit$ & limit+1 :i* runs1 ! little rift )9 ! lute1 ?r\gh all ,greek philosophy1 is n resolv$4 ,! _w is n expla9$1 because x is n d]iv$ f a s+le pr9ciple4 ,if =m be ! ,absolute1 ! :ole _w mu/ fl[ out ( x4 ,9 ,ari/otle's sy/em1 x does n4 ,secondly1 is ! pr9ciple ( =m self-explanatory8 ,"h1 aga91 we mu/ answ] negatively4 ,mo/ ( :at 0 said ( ,plato "u ?is head applies equally to ,ari/otle4 ,plato ass]t$ t ! ,absolute is reason1 & x 0 !re=e incumb5t on him to %[ t 8 acc\nt ( reason 0 truly rational4 ,he fail$ to d s4 ,ari/otle ass]ts ! same ?+1 = =m is only #ccf ano!r ^w = reason4 ,h5ce he mu/ %[ u t ?is =m is a rational pr9ciple1 & ?is means t he mu/ %[ u t x is necess>y4 ,b he fails to d s4 ,h[ is =m a necess>y & self-det]m9+ pr9ciple8 ,:y %\ld !re be su* a pr9ciple z =m8 ,we _c see any necessity4 ,x is a m]e fact4 ,x is no?+ b an ultimate my/]y4 ,x is s1 & t is an end ( x4 ,b :y x %\ld be s1 we _c see4 ,nor c we see :y !re %\ld be any ( ! p>ticul> k9ds ( =m t !re are4 ,to expla9 ?is1 ,ari/otle ought to h %[n t ! =ms con/itute a sy/ematic unity1 t !y c be d$uc$ "o f ano!r1 j z we saw t ,plato ought to h d$uc$ all ! ,ideas f "o ano!r4 ,?us ,ari/otle ass]ts t ! =m ( plants is nutrition1 ( animals s5sation1 & t ! "o passes into ! o!r4 ,b ev5 if ?is ass]tion be true1 x is a m]e fact4 ,he ought n m]ely to h ass]t$ ?is1 b to h d$uc$ s5sation f nutrition4 ,in/ead ( be+ cont5t to allege t1 z a fact1 nutrition passes into s5sation1 he ought to h %[n t x mu/ pass into s5sation1 t ! passage f "o to ! o!r is a logical necessity4 ,o!rwise1 we _c see ! reason :y ?is *ange occurs4 ,t is to say1 ! *ange is n expla9$4 ,consid] ! effects ( ?is omission ^u ! !ory ( evolution4 ,we are told t ! _w-process moves t[>ds an end1 & t ?is end is ! self-realization ( reason1 & t x is proximately atta9$ 9 man1 because man is a reason+ be+4 ,s f> ?is is q intelligible4 ,b ?is implies t ea* /ep 9 evolution is high] ?an ! la/ because x approa*es ne>] to #ccg ! end ( ! _w-process4 ,& z t end is ! realization ( reason1 ?is is equival5t to say+ t ea* /ep is high] ?an ! la/ because x is m rational4 ,b h[ is s5sation m rational ?an nutrition8 ,:y %\ld x n be ! o!r way ab\t8 ,nutrition passes ?r\gh s5sation into human reason4 ,b :y %\ld n s5sation pass ?r\gh nutrition into human reason8 ,:y %\ld n ! ord] be rev]s$8 ,we _c expla94 ,& su* an admission is absolutely fatal to any philosophy ( evolution4 ,! :ole object ( su* a philosophy is to make x cle> to u :y ! high] =m is high]1 & :y ! l[] is l[]3 :y1 = example1 nutrition mu/1 z l[]1 come fir/1 & s5sation second1 & n vice v]sa4 ,if we c see no reason :y ! ord] %\ld n be rev]s$1 ?is simply means t our philosophy ( evolution has fail$ 9 its ma9 po9t4 ,x means t we _c see any real diff]5ce betwe5 l[] & high]1 & t !re=e we h m]ely *ange )\t developm5t1 s9ce x is indiff]5t :e!r ,a passes into ,b1 or ,b into ,a4 ,! only way 9 :i* ,ari/otle c\ld h surm\nt$ ^! difficulties w\ld h be5 to prove t s5sation is a developm5t ( reason :i* goes beyond nutrition4 ,& he c\ld only d ?is by %[+ t s5sation logically arises out ( nutrition4 ,= a logical developm5t is ! same z a rational developm5t4 ,he ought to h logically d$uc$ s5sation f nutrition1 & s ) all ! o!r =ms4 ,z x is1 all t c be said is t ,ari/otle 0 ! f\nd] ( a philosophy ( evolution because he saw t evolution implies movem5t t[>ds an end1 & because he attempt$ to po9t out ! diff]5t /ages 9 ! atta9m5t ( t end1 #cch b t he fail$ rationally to develop ! doctr9e /age by /age4 ,z nei!r ! pr9ciple ( =m 9 g5]al 0 %[n to be necess>y1 nor 7 ! p>ticul> =ms d$uc$ f ea* o!r1 we h to conclude t ,ari/otle l ,plato1 nam$ a self-explanatory pr9ciple1 reason or =m1 z ultimate pr9ciple ( ?+s1 b fail$ to %[ 9 detail t x is self-explanatory4 ,yet1 9 spite ^! defects1 ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle is "o ( ! greate/ philosophies t ! _w has ev] se51 or is ev] likely to see4 ,if x does n solve all problems1 x does r5d] ! _w m intelligible to u ?an x 0 be=e4 #cci ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,! ,,g5]al ,,"* ,,( ,,po/-,,ari/otelian ,,philosophy ,! re/ ( ! /ory ( ,greek philosophy is soon told1 = x is ! /ory ( decay4 ,! po/-,ari/otelian is ! lea/ in/ructive ( ! ?ree p]iods ( ,greek ?\ght1 & ,i %all del9eate only its ma9 outl9es4 ,! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! decay ( ?\ght :i* set 9 aft] ,ari/otle are intimately connect$ ) ! political1 social1 & moral ev5ts ( ! "t4 ,al?\gh ! huge empire ( ,alex&] _h brok5 up at ! conqu]or's dea?1 ?is fact _h 9 no way help$ ! ,greek ,/ates to ?r[ (f ! yoke ( _! oppressors4 ,) ! s+le exception ( ,sp>ta1 :i* /ubbornly held out1 !y _h become1 = all int5ts & purposes1 subject to ! dom9ion ( ,mac$onia4 ,& ! dea? ( ,alex&] did n alt] ?is fact4 ,x 0 n m]ely t rude might _h ov]:elm$ a beautiful & delicate civilization4 ,t civilization itself 0 decay+4 ,! ,greeks _h ceas$ to be a great & free p4 ,_! vitality 0 ebb+4 ,_h x n be5 "o conqu]or x w\ld h be5 ano!r4 ,!y 7 gr[+ old4 ,!y _h to give way be=e y\ng] & /urdi] races4 ,x 0 n s _m ye>s n[ be=e ,greece1 pass+ f "o ali5 yoke to ano!r1 0 to become no m ?an a ,roman prov9ce4 #cdj ,philosophy is n some?+ t subsi/s indep5d5tly ( ! gr[? & decay ( ! _s ( man4 ,x goes h& 9 h& ) political1 social1 religi\s1 & arti/ic developm5t4 ,political organization1 art1 religion1 sci5ce1 & philosophy1 are b diff]5t =ms 9 :i* ! life ( a p expresses itself4 ,! inn]mo/ sub/ance ( ! national life is f\nd 9 ! national philosophy1 & ! hi/ory ( philosophy is ! k]nel ( ! hi/ory ( nations4 ,x 0 b natural1 !n1 t f ! "t ( ,alex&] onw>ds ,greek philosophy %\ld exhibit symptoms ( decay4 ,! ess5tial m>k ( ! decay ( ,greek ?\ght 0 ! int5se subjectivism :i* is a feature ( all ! po/-,ari/otelian s*ools4 ,n "o ( !m is int]e/$ 9 ! solution ( ! _w-problem = its own sake4 ,! pure sci5tific _s1 ! desire = k = its own sake1 is gone4 ,t curiosity1 t wond]1 ( :i* ,ari/otle speaks z ! inspir+ _s ( philosophy1 is dead4 ,! motive p[] ( philosophy is no long] ! dis9t]e/$ pursuit ( tru?1 b only ! desire ( ! individual to escape f ! ills ( life4 ,philosophy only int]e/s m5 9 s f> z x affects _! lives4 ,x becomes an?ropoc5tric & egoc5tric4 ,ev]y?+ pivots on ! individual subject1 8 de/9y1 8 fate1 ! welf>e ( 8 s\l4 ,religion has long s9ce become corrupt$ & wor?less1 & philosophy is n[ expect$ to d ! "w ( religion1 & to be a hav5 ( refuge f ! /orms ( life4 ,h5ce x becomes ess5tially practical4 ,be=e ev]y?+ else x is e?ical4 ,all o!r dep>tm5ts ( ?\ght are n[ subord9at$ to e?ics4 ,x is n z 9 ! days ( ! /r5g? & y\? ( ! ,greek _s1 :5 ,x5ophanes or #cda ,anaxagoras look$ out into ! heav5s1 & naively wond]$ :at ! sun & ! />s 71 & h[ ! _w arose4 ,m5's ?\ght no long] turns outw>d t[>d ! />s1 b only inw>d ^u !mselves4 ,x is n ! riddle ( ! univ]se1 b ! riddle ( human life1 :i* makes !m pond]4 ,?is subjectivism has z its necess>y consequ5ces1 "o-sid$ness1 abs5ce ( orig9ality1 & f9ally complete scepticism4 ,s9ce m5 are no long] int]e/$ 9 ! wid] problems ( ! univ]se1 b only 9 ! comp>atively petty problems ( human life1 _! outlook becomes exclusively e?ical1 n>r[1 & "o-sid$4 ,he :o _c =get 8 own self1 _c m]ge & lose himself 9 ! univ]se1 b looks at all ?+s only z !y affect himself1 does n give bir? to great & univ]sal ?\ghts4 ,he becomes self-c5tr$1 & makes ! univ]se revolve r\nd him4 ,h5ce we no long] h n[ great1 univ]sal1 all-embrac+ sy/ems1 l ^? ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,metaphysics1 physics1 logic1 are n /udi$ = _! own sakes1 b only z prep>ations = e?ics4 ,n>r[ness1 h[ev]1 is always comp5sat$ by int5sity1 :i* 9 ! end becomes fanaticism4 ,h5ce ! int5se e>ne/ness & almo/ miracul\s heights ( fanatical asceticism1 to :i* ! ,/oics atta9$4 ,& an unbalanc$ & "o-sid$ philosophy leads to extremes4 ,su* a philosophy1 obsess$ by a s+le idea1 unre/ra9$ by any consid]ation = o!r & equally important factors ( tru?1 reg>dless ( all o!r claims1 pu%es its idea pig-head$ly to its logical extreme4 ,su* a proc$ure results 9 p>adoxes & extravagances4 ,h5ce ! ,/oics1 if !y made duty _! wat*word1 mu/ ne$s conceive x 9 #cdb ! mo/ extreme opposition to all natural impulses1 ) a /]nness unhe>d ( 9 any previ\s e?ical doctr9e save t ( ! ,cynics4 ,h5ce ! ,sceptics1 if !y light$ on ! ?\ght t k is difficult ( atta9m5t1 mu/ ne$s ru% to ! extreme conclusion t any k is utt]ly impossible4 ,h5ce ! ,neo-,platoni/s mu/ ne$s cap all ^! t5d5cies by mak+ out a drunk5 fr5zy ( ! s\l to be ! true organ ( philosophy1 & by introduc+ into speculation all ! fanta/ic p>aph]nalia ( sorc]y1 demons1 & demi-gods4 ,abs5ce ( sanity & balance1 !n1 are *>act]i/ics ( ! la/ p]iod ( ,greek philosophy4 ,! s]5ity & calm ( ,plato & ,ari/otle are gone1 & 9 _! place we h turgidity & extravagance4 ,lack ( orig9ality is a second consequ5ce ( ! subjectivism ( ! age4 ,s9ce metaphysics1 physics1 & logic are n cultivat$1 except 9 a purely practical int]e/1 !y d n fl\ri%4 ,in/ead ( advanc+ 9 ^! ar5as ( ?\ght1 ! philosophies ( ! age g backw>ds4 ,old] sy/ems1 long discr$it$1 are reviv$1 & _! dead bones triumphantly p>ad$ abroad4 ,! ,/oics return to ,h]acleitus = _! physics1 ,epicurus resurrects ! atomism ( ,democritus4 ,ev5 9 e?ics1 on :i* !y conc5trate all _! ?\ght1 ^! po/-,ari/otelian sy/ems h no?+ ess5tially new to say4 ,/oicism borr[s its pr9cipal ideas f ! ,cynics1 ,epicureanism f ! ,cyr5aics4 ,! po/-,ari/otelians re>range old ?\ghts 9 a new ord]4 ,!y take up ! ideas ( ! pa/ & exagg]ate ?is or t aspect ( !m4 ,!y twi/ & turn !m 9 all directions1 & squeeze !m dry = a drop ( new life4 #cdc ,b 9 ! end no?+ new ev5tuates4 ,greek ?\ght is f9i%$1 & !re is no?+ new to be got out ( x1 torture x h[ !y w4 ,f ! fir/ ,/oic to ! la/ ,neo-,platoni/1 !re is no ess5tially new pr9ciple add$ to philosophy1 unless we c\nt z su* ! sad & jad$ ideas :i* ! ,neo-,platoni/s introduc$ f ! ,ea/4 ,la/ly1 subjectivism ends naturally 9 scepticism1 ! d5ial ( all k1 ! rejection ( all philosophy4 ,we h already se51 9 ! ,sophi/s1 ! ph5om5on ( subjectivism lead+ to scepticism4 ,! ,sophi/s made ! individual subject ! measure ( tru? & morals1 & 9 ! end ?is meant ! d5ial ( tru? & morality altoge!r4 ,s x is n[4 ,! subjectivism ( ! ,/oics & ,epicureans is foll[$ by ! scepticism ( ,pyrrho & 8 successors4 ,) !m1 z ) ! ,sophi/s1 no?+ is true or good 9 itself1 b only op9ion makes x s4 #cdd ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,! ,,/oics ,z5o ( ,cyprus1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,/oic ,s*ool1 a ,greek ( ,pho5ician desc5t1 0 born ab\t #cdb ,b4,c41 & di$ 9 #bgj4 ,he is said to h foll[$ philosophy2 because he lo/ all 8 prop]ty 9 a %ip-wreck--a motive *>act]i/ic ( ! age4 ,he came to ,a!ns1 & le>n$ philosophy "u ,crates ! ,cynic1 ,/ilpo ! ,meg>ic1 & ,polemo ! ,academic4 ,ab\t #cjj ,b4,c4 he f\nd$ 8 s*ool at ! ,/oa ,poecile 7_m-col\r$ portico7 :5ce ! "n ,/oic4 ,he di$ by 8 own h&4 ,he 0 foll[$ by ,clean!s1 & !n by ,*rysippus1 z lead]s ( ! s*ool4 ,*rysippus 0 a man ( imm5se productivity & labori\s s*ol>%ip4 ,he compos$ ov] sev5 hundr$ books1 b all are lo/4 ,?\gh n ! f\nd]1 he 0 ! *ief pill> ( ,/oicism4 ,! s*ool attract$ _m adh]5ts1 & fl\ri%$ = _m c5turies1 n only 9 ,greece1 b lat] 9 ,rome1 :]e ! mo/ ?\ghtful writ]s1 su* z ,m>cus ,aurelius1 ,s5eca1 & ,epictetus1 c\nt$ !mselves among its foll[]s4 ,we "k little = c]ta9 z to :at %>e p>ticul> ,/oics1 ,z5o1 ,clean!s1 or ,*rysippus1 _h 9 ! =mation ( ! doctr9es ( ! s*ool4 ,b aft] ,*rysippus ! ma9 l9es ( ! doctr9e 7 complete4 #cde ,we %all deal1 !re=e1 ) ,/oicism z a :ole1 & n ) ! special tea*+ ( p>ticul> ,/oics4 ,! sy/em is divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 ,logic1 ,physics1 & ,e?ics1 ( :i* ! fir/ two are entirely subs]vi5t to ! la/4 ,/oicism is ess5tially a sy/em ( e?ics :i*1 h[ev]1 is guid$ by a logic z !ory ( me?od1 & re/s ^u physics z f\ndation4 ,logic4 ,we may pass ov] ! =mal logic ( ! ,/oics1 :i* is1 9 all ess5tials1 ! logic ( ,ari/otle4 ,to ?is1 h[ev]1 !y add$ a !ory1 peculi> to !mselves1 ( ! orig9 ( k & ! crit]ion ( tru?4 ,all k1 !y said1 ent]s ! m9d ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,! m9d is a tabula rasa1 ^u :i* s5se-impressions are inscrib$4 ,x may h a c]ta9 activity ( its own1 b ?is activity is conf9$ exclusively to mat]ials suppli$ by ! physical organs ( s5se4 ,?is !ory /&s1 ( c\rse1 9 %e] opposition to ! idealism ( ,plato1 = :om ! m9d alone 0 ! s\rce ( k1 ! s5ses be+ ! s\rces ( all illusion & error4 ,! ,/oics d5i$ ! metaphysical reality ( concepts4 ,concepts are m]ely ideas 9 ! m9d1 ab/ract$ f p>ticul>s1 & h no reality outside consci\sness4 ,s9ce all k is a k ( s5se-objects1 tru? is simply ! correspond5ce ( our impressions to ?+s4 ,h[ are we to "k :e!r our ideas are correct copies ( ?+s8 ,h[ di/+ui% betwe5 reality & imag9ation1 dreams1 or illusions8 ,:at is ! crit]ion ( tru?8 ,x _c lie 9 concepts1 s9ce ^! are ( our own mak+4 ,no?+ is true save #cdf s5se-impressions1 & !re=e ! crit]ion ( tru? mu/ lie 9 s5sation itself4 ,x _c be 9 ?\ght1 b mu/ be 9 feel+4 ,real objects1 said ! ,/oics1 produce 9 u an int5se feel+1 or conviction1 ( _! reality4 ,! /r5g? & vividness ( ! image di/+ui% ^! real p]ceptions f a dream or fancy4 ,h5ce ! sole crit]ion ( tru? is ?is /rik+ conviction1 :]eby ! real =ces itself ^u our consci\sness1 & w n be d5i$4 ,! relapse into complete subjectivity w "h be not$4 ,!re is no univ]sally gr\nd$ crit]ion ( tru?4 ,x is bas$1 n on reason1 b on feel+4 ,all dep5ds on ! subjective convictions ( ! individual4 ,physics4 ,! fundam5tal proposition ( ! ,/oic physics is t no?+ incorporeal exi/s4 ,?is mat]ialism coh]es ) ! s5sationalism ( _! doctr9e ( k4 ,plato plac$ k 9 ?\ght1 & reality1 !re=e1 9 ! ,idea4 ,! ,/oics1 h[ev]1 place k 9 physical s5sation1 & reality1 !re=e1 9 :at is kn[n by ! s5ses1 matt]4 ,all ?+s1 !y said1 ev5 ! s\l1 ev5 ,god himself1 are mat]ial & no?+ m ?an mat]ial4 ,?is belief !y bas$ ^u two ma9 consid]ations4 ,fir/ly1 ! unity ( ! _w dem&s x4 ,! _w is "o1 & mu/ issue f "o pr9ciple4 ,we mu/ h a monism4 ,! idealism ( ,plato & ,ari/otle _h resolv$ itself into a futile /ruggle aga9/ ! dualism ( matt] & ?\ght4 ,s9ce ! gulf _c be bridg$ f ! side ( ! ,idea1 we mu/ take our /& on matt]1 & r$uce m9d to x4 ,secondly1 body & s\l1 ,god & #cdg ! _w1 are pairs :i* act & react ^u "o ano!r4 ,! body1 = example1 produces ?\ghts 7s5se-impressions7 9 ! s\l1 ! s\l produces movem5ts 9 ! body4 ,?is w\ld be impossible if bo? 7 n ( ! same sub/ance4 ,! corporeal _c act on ! incorporeal1 nor ! incorporeal on ! corporeal4 ,!re is no po9t ( contact4 ,h5ce all mu/ be equally corporeal4 ,all ?+s be+ mat]ial1 :at is ! orig9al k9d ( matt]1 or /uff1 out ( :i* ! _w is made8 ,! ,/oics turn$ to ,h]acleitus = an answ]4 ,fire is ! primordial k9d ( be+1 & all ?+s are compos$ ( fire4 ,) ?is mat]ialism ! ,/oics comb9$ pan!ism4 ,! primal fire is ,god4 ,god is relat$ to ! _w exactly z ! s\l to ! body4 ,! human s\l is likewise fire1 & comes f ! div9e fire4 ,x p]meates & p5etrates ! entire body1 &1 9 ord] t its int]p5etration might be reg>d$ z complete1 ! ,/oics d5i$ ! imp5etrability ( matt]4 ,j z ! s\l-fire p]meates ! :ole body1 s ,god1 ! primal fire1 p]vades ! entire _w4 ,he is ! s\l ( ! _w4 ,! _w is ,8 body4 ,b 9 spite ( ?is mat]ialism1 ! ,/oics av]r$ t ,god is absolute reason4 ,?is is n a return to idealism4 ,x does n imply ! incorporeality ( ,god4 ,= reason1 l all else1 is mat]ial4 ,x means simply t ! div9e fire is a rational elem5t4 ,s9ce ,god is reason1 x foll[s t ! _w is gov]n$ by reason1 & ?is means two ?+s4 ,x means1 fir/ly1 t !re is purpose 9 ! _w1 & !re=e1 ord]1 h>mony1 beauty1 & design4 ,secondly1 s9ce reason is law z oppos$ to ! lawless1 x means t ! univ]se is #cdh subject to ! absolute sway ( law1 is gov]n$ by ! rigor\s necessity ( cause & effect4 ,h5ce ! individual is n free4 ,!re c be no true fre$om ( ! w 9 a _w gov]n$ by necessity4 ,we may1 )\t h>m1 say t we *oose to d ?is or t1 t our acts are volunt>y4 ,b su* phrases m]ely mean t we ass5t to :at we d4 ,:at we d is none ! less gov]n$ by causes1 & !re=e by necessity4 ,! _w-process is circul>4 ,god *anges ! fi]y sub/ance ( himself fir/ into air1 !n wat]1 !n e>?4 ,s ! _w arises4 ,b x w be end$ by a conflagration 9 :i* all ?+s w return into ! primal fire4 ,!reaft]1 at a pre-orda9$ "t1 ,god w aga9 transmute himself into a _w4 ,x foll[s f ! law ( necessity t ! c\rse tak5 by ?is second1 & e subsequ5t1 _w1 w be id5tical 9 e way ) ! c\rse tak5 by ! fir/ _w4 ,! process goes on = ev]1 & no?+ new ev] happ5s4 ,! hi/ory ( ea* successive _w is ! same z t ( all ! o!rs d[n to ! m9ute/ details4 ,! human s\l is "p ( ! div9e fire1 & proce$s into man f ,god4 ,h5ce x is a rational s\l1 & ?is is a po9t ( c>d9al importance 9 connexion ) ! ,/oic e?ics4 ,b ! s\l ( ea* individual does n come direct f ,god4 ,! div9e fire 0 brea!d into ! fir/ man1 & !reaft] passes f p>5t to *ild 9 ! act ( procreation4 ,aft] dea?1 all s\ls1 accord+ to "s1 b only ! s\ls ( ! good1 accord+ to o!rs1 cont9ue 9 individual exi/5ce until ! g5]al conflagration 9 :i* !y1 & all else1 return to ,god4 #cdi ,e?ics4 ,! ,/oic e?ical tea*+ is bas$ ^u two pr9ciples already develop$ 9 _! physics2 fir/1 t ! univ]se is gov]n$ by absolute law1 :i* admits ( no exceptions2 & second1 t ! ess5tial nature ( man is reason4 ,bo? are summ$ up 9 ! fam\s ,/oic maxim1 ,live accord+ to nature4 ,= ?is maxim has two aspects4 ,x means1 9 ! fir/ place1 t m5 %\ld con=m !mselves to nature 9 ! wid] s5se1 t is1 to ! laws ( ! univ]se1 & secondly1 t !y %\ld con=m _! actions to nature 9 ! n>r[] s5se1 to _! own ess5tial nature1 reason4 ,^! two expressions mean1 = ! ,/oics1 ! same ?+4 ,= ! univ]se is gov]n$ n only by law1 b by ! law ( reason1 & man 9 foll[+ 8 own rational nature is ipso facto con=m+ himself to ! laws ( ! l>g] _w4 ,9 a s5se1 ( c\rse1 !re is no possibility ( man's disobey+ ! laws ( nature1 = he1 l all else 9 ! _w1 acts ( necessity4 ,& x might be ask$1 :at is ! use ( exhort+ a man to obey ! laws ( ! univ]se1 :51 z "p ( ! great me*anism ( ! _w1 he _c by any possibility d any?+ else8 ,x is n to be suppos$ t a g5u9e solution ( ?is difficulty is to be f\nd 9 ,/oic philosophy4 ,!y urg$1 h[ev]1 t1 ?\gh man w 9 any case d z ! necessity ( ! _w compels him1 x is giv5 to him alone1 n m]ely to obey ! law1 b to ass5t to 8 own ob$i5ce1 to foll[ ! law consci\sly & delib]ately1 z only a rational be+ c4 ,virtue1 !n1 is ! life accord+ to reason4 ,morality is simply rational action4 ,x is ! univ]sal reason :i* is to gov]n our lives1 n ! caprice & self-w #cej ( ! individual4 ,! wise man consci\sly subord9ates 8 life to ! life ( ! :ole univ]se1 & recognises himself z m]ely a cog 9 ! great ma*9e4 ,n[ ! def9ition ( morality z ! life accord+ to reason is n a pr9ciple peculi> to ! ,/oics4 ,bo? ,plato & ,ari/otle taught ! same4 ,9 fact1 z we h already se51 to f\nd morality ^u reason1 & n ^u ! p>ticul> foibles1 feel+s1 or intuitions1 ( ! individual self1 is ! basis ( e g5u9e e?ic4 ,b :at 0 peculi> to ! ,/oics 0 ! n>r[ & "o-sid$ int]pretation :i* !y gave to ?is pr9ciple4 ,ari/otle _h taught t ! ess5tial nature ( man is reason1 & t morality consi/s 9 foll[+ ?is1 8 ess5tial nature4 ,b he recogniz$ t ! passions & appetites h _! place 9 ! human organism4 ,he did n dem& _! suppression1 b m]ely _! control by reason4 ,b ! ,/oics look$ ^u ! passions z ess5tially irrational1 & dem&$ _! complete extirpation4 ,!y envisag$ life z a battle aga9/ ! passions1 9 :i* ! latt] _h to be completely annihilat$4 ,h5ce _! e?ical views end 9 a rigor\s & unbalanc$ asceticism4 ,ari/otle1 9 8 broad & mod]ate way1 ?\gh he believ$ virtue alone to possess intr9sic value1 yet all[$ to ext]nal goods & circum/ances a place 9 ! s*eme ( life4 ,! ,/oics ass]t$ t virtue alone is good1 vice alone evil1 & t all else is absolutely indiff]5t4 ,pov]ty1 sickness1 pa91 & dea?1 are n evils4 ,ri*es1 heal?1 pleasure1 & life1 are n goods4 ,a man may commit suicide1 = 9 de/roy+ 8 life he de/roys no?+ ( value4 ,above all1 pleasure is n a good4 ,"o ought n to seek pleasure4 ,virtue is #cea ! only happ9ess4 ,& man mu/ be virtu\s1 n = ! sake ( pleasure1 b = ! sake ( duty4 ,& s9ce virtue alone is good1 vice alone evil1 !re foll[$ ! fur!r p>adox t all virtues are equally good1 & all vices equally evil4 ,!re are no degrees4 ,virtue is f\nd$ ^u reason1 & s ^u k4 ,h5ce ! importance ( sci5ce1 physics1 logic1 :i* are valu$ n = !mselves1 b because !y are ! f\ndations ( morality4 ,! prime virtue1 & ! root ( all o!r virtues1 is !re=e wisdom4 ,! wise man is synonym\s ) ! good man4 ,f ! root-virtue1 wisdom1 spr+ ! f\r c>d9al virtues1 insight1 brav]y1 self-control1 ju/ice4 ,b s9ce all virtues h "o root1 he :o possesses wisdom possesses all virtue1 he :o lacks x lacks all4 ,a man is ei!r :olly virtu\s1 or :olly vici\s4 ,! _w is divid$ into wise m5 & fools1 ! =m] p]fectly good1 ! latt] absolutely evil4 ,!re is no?+ betwe5 ! two4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z a gradual transition f "o to ! o!r4 ,conv]sion mu/ be in/antane\s4 ,! wise man is p]fect1 has all happ9ess1 fre$om1 ri*es1 beauty4 ,he alone is ! p]fect k+1 /atesman1 poet1 prophet1 orator1 critic1 physician4 ,! fool has all vice1 all mis]y1 all ugl9ess1 all pov]ty4 ,& e man is "o or ! o!r4 ,ask$ :]e su* a wise man 0 to be f\nd1 ! ,/oics po9t$ d\btfully at ,socrates & ,diog5es ! ,cynic4 ,! numb] ( ! wise1 !y ?\ght1 is small1 & is cont9ually gr[+ small]4 ,! _w1 :i* !y pa9t$ 9 ! blacke/ col\rs z a sea ( vice & mis]y1 gr[s /eadily worse4 ,9 all ?is we easily recognize ! features ( a resuscitat$ ,cynicism4 ,b ! ,/oics modifi$ & s(t5$ #ceb ! h>% outl9es ( ,cynicism1 & r\nd$ (f its angles4 ,to d ?is meant inconsi/5cy4 ,x meant t !y fir/ laid d[n h>% pr9ciples1 & !n proce$$ to tone !m d[n1 to expla9 !m away1 to admit exceptions4 ,su* inconsi/5cy ! ,/oics accept$ ) _! habitual *e]fulness4 ,?is process ( ton+ d[n _! fir/ h>% utt]ances took place ma9ly 9 ?ree ways4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y modifi$ _! pr9ciple ( ! complete extirpation ( ! passions4 ,s9ce ?is is impossible1 &1 if possible1 c\ld only lead to immovable inactivity1 !y admitt$ t ! wise man might exhibit c]ta9 mild & rational emotions1 & t ! roots ( ! passions might be f\nd 9 him1 ?\gh he nev] all[$ !m to gr[4 ,9 ! second place1 !y modifi$ _! pr9ciple t all else1 save virtue & vice1 is indiff]5t4 ,su* a view is unreal1 & out ( accord ) life4 ,h5ce ! ,/oics1 ) a ma/]ly disreg>d ( consi/5cy1 /uck to ! pr9ciple1 & yet decl>$ t among ?+s indiff]5t "s are pref]able to o!rs4 ,if ! wise man has ! *oice betwe5 heal? & sickness1 he w *oose ! =m]4 ,indiff]5t ?+s 7 divid$ into ?ree classes1 ^? to be pref]r$1 ^? to be avoid$1 & ^? :i* are absolutely indiff]5t4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 ! ,/oics ton$ d[n ! pr9ciple t m5 are ei!r :olly good1 or :olly evil4 ,! fam\s h]oes & /atesm5 ( hi/ory1 ?\gh fools1 are yet pollut$ ) ! common vices ( mank9d less ?an o!rs4 ,moreov]1 :at 7 ! ,/oics to say ab\t !mselves8 ,7 !y wise m5 or fools8 ,!y hesitat$ to claim p]fection1 to put !mselves on a level ) ,socrates & ,diog5es4 ,yet !y c\ld n br+ !mselves to admit t !re 0 #cec no diff]5ce betwe5 !mselves & ! common h]d4 ,!y 7 pr(ici5ts1 &1 if n absolutely wise1 approximat$ to wisdom4 ,if ! ,/oics 7 ?us m]ely less consi/5t ,cynics1 & orig9at$ no?+ 9 ! doctr9es ( physics & e?ics s f> consid]$1 yet ( "o idea at lea/ !y c claim to be ! inv5tors4 ,?is 0 ! idea ( cosmopolitanism4 ,?is !y d$uc$ f two gr\nds4 ,fir/ly1 ! univ]se is "o1 proce$s f "o ,god1 is ord]$ by "o law1 & =ms "o sy/em4 ,secondly1 h[ev] mu* m5 may diff] 9 uness5tials1 !y %>e _! ess5tial nature1 _! reason1 9 common4 ,h5ce all m5 are ( "o /ock1 z rational be+s1 & %\ld =m "o ,/ate4 ,! division ( mank9d into w>r+ ,/ates is irrational & absurd4 ,! wise man is n a citiz5 ( ?is or t ,/ate4 ,he is a citiz5 ( ! _w4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 only an application ( pr9ciples already ass]t$4 ,! ,/oics produc$ no ess5tially new ?\ght1 9 physics1 or 9 e?ics4 ,_! entire /ock ( ideas is b a new comb9ation ( ideas already develop$ by _! pr$ecessors4 ,!y 7 n>r[1 extreme1 ov]-rigor\s1 & "o-sid$4 ,_! tru?s are all half-tru?s4 ,& !y reg>d$ philosophy too subjectively4 ,:at alone int]e/$ !m 0 ! "q1 h[ am ,i to live8 ,yet 9 spite ( ^! defects1 !re is und\bt$ly some?+ gr& & noble ab\t _! zeal = duty1 _! exaltation above all t is petty & paltry1 _! uncompromis+ contempt = all l[] ends4 ,_! m]it1 says ,s*wegl]1 0 t 9 an age ( ru9 !y held fa/ by ! moral idea4 #ced ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! ,,epicureans ,epicurus 0 born at ,samos 9 #cdb ,b4,c4 ,he f\nd$ 8 s*ool a ye> or two be=e ,z5o f\nd$ ! ,/oa1 s t ! two s*ools f ! fir/ ran p>allel 9 "t4 ,! s*ool ( ,epicurus la/$ ov] six c5turies4 ,epicurus e>ly became acqua9t$ ) ! atomism ( ,democritus1 b 8 le>n+ 9 e>li] sy/ems ( philosophy does n appe> to h be5 ext5sive4 ,he 0 a man ( e/imable life & "*4 ,he f\nd$ 8 s*ool 9 #cjf ,b4,c4 ,! ,epicurean philosophy 0 bo? f\nd$ & complet$ by him4 ,no subsequ5t ,epicurean to any appreciable ext5t add$ to or alt]$ ! doctr9es laid d[n by ! f\nd]4 ,! ,epicurean sy/em is ev5 m purely practical 9 t5d5cy ?an ! ,/oic4 ,9 spite ( ! fact t ,/oicism subord9ates logic & physics to e?ics1 yet ! dilig5ce & c>e :i* ! ,/oics be/[$ ^u su* doctr9es z ^? ( ! crit]ion ( tru?1 ! nature ( ! _w1 ! s\l1 & s on1 af=d evid5ce ( a g5u9e1 if subord9ate1 int]e/ 9 ^! subjects4 ,epicurus likewise divid$ 8 sy/em into logic 7:i* he call$ canonic71 physics1 & e?ics1 yet ! two =m] bran*es ( ?\ght are pursu$ ) an obvi\s c>elessness & abs5ce ( int]e/4 ,x is evid5t t le>n$ #cee discussions bor$ ,epicurus4 ,8 sy/em is amiable & %all[4 ,k = its own sake is n desir$4 ,ma!matics1 he said1 are useless1 because !y h no connexion ) life4 ,! logic1 or canonic1 we may pass ov] completely1 z possess+ no elem5ts ( int]e/1 & come at once to ! physics4 ,physics4 ,physics int]e/s ,epicurus only f "o po9t ( view--its p[] to bani% sup]/iti\s fe> f ! m9ds ( m54 ,all sup]natural religion1 he ?\ght1 op]ates = ! mo/ "p ^u mank9d by means ( fe>4 ,m5 are afraid ( ! gods1 afraid ( retribution1 afraid ( dea? because ( ! /ories ( :at comes aft] dea?4 ,?is incessant fe> & anxiety is "o ( ! *ief causes ( ! unhapp9ess ( m54 ,de/roy x1 & we h at lea/ got rid ( ! prime h9drance to human happ9ess4 ,we c only d ?is by means ( a suitable doctr9e ( physics4 ,:at is necess>y is to be able to reg>d ! _w z a piece ( me*anism1 gov]n$ solely by natural causes1 )\t any int]f]5ce by sup]natural be+s1 9 :i* man is free to f9d 8 happ9ess h[ & :5 he w1 )\t be+ fright5$ by ! bogeys ( popul> religion4 ,= ?\gh ! _w is rul$ me*anically1 man1 ?\ght ,epicurus 9 opposition to ! ,/oics1 possesses free w1 & ! problem ( philosophy is to asc]ta9 h[ he c be/ use ?is gift 9 a _w o!rwise me*anically gov]n$4 ,:at he requir$1 !re=e1 0 a purely me*anical philosophy4 ,to inv5t su* a philosophy = himself 0 a task n suit$ to 8 indol5ce1 & = :i* he c\ld n pret5d to possess ! necess>y #cef qualifications4 ,!re=e he se>*$ ! pa/1 & soon f\nd :at he want$ 9 ! atomism ( ,democritus4 ,?is1 z an entirely me*anical philosophy1 p]fectly suit$ 8 ends1 & ! pragmatic _s 9 :i* he *ose 8 beliefs1 n on any ab/ract gr\nds ( _! objective tru?1 b on ! basis ( 8 subjective ne$s & p]sonal wi%es1 w be not$4 ,x is a sign ( ! times4 ,:5 tru? comes to be reg>d$ z some?+ t m5 may con/ruct 9 accordance ) _! real or imag9$ ne$s1 & n 9 accordance ) any objective /&>d1 we are well advanc$ ^u ! d[nw>d pa? ( decay4 ,epicurus1 !re=e1 adopt$ ! atomism ( ,democritus en bloc1 or ) trifl+ modifications4 ,all ?+s are compos$ ( atoms & ! void4 ,atoms diff] only 9 %ape & weight1 n 9 quality4 ,!y fall et]nally ?r\gh ! void4 ,by virtue ( free w1 !y deviate inf9itesimally f ! p]p5dicul> 9 _! fall1 & s cla% aga9/ "o ano!r4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is an inv5tion ( ,epicurus1 & =m$ no "p ( ! doctr9e ( ,democritus4 ,x might be expect$ ( ,epicurus t 8 modifications w\ld n be improvem5ts4 ,9 ! pres5t case1 ! attribution ( free w to ! atoms adv]sely affects ! logical consi/5cy ( ! me*anical !ory4 ,f ! collision ( atoms arises a :irl+ movem5t out ( :i* ! _w em]ges4 ,n only ! _w1 b all individual ph5om5a1 are to be expla9$ me*anically4 ,teleology is rigor\sly exclud$4 ,9 any p>ticul> case1 h[ev]1 ,epicurus is n int]e/$ to "k :at p>ticul> causes det]m9e a ph5om5on4 ,x is en\gh = him to be sure t x is :olly det]m9$ by me*anical causes1 & t sup]natural ag5cies are exclud$4 #ceg ,! s\l be+ compos$ ( atoms :i* are scatt]$ at dea?1 a future life is n to be ?\ght (4 ,b ?is is to be reg>d$ z ! greate/ bless+4 ,x frees u f ! fe> ( dea?1 & ! fe> ( a h]eaft]4 ,dea? is n an evil4 ,= if dea? is1 we are n2 if we are1 dea? is n4 ,:5 dea? comes we %all n feel x1 = is x n ! end ( all feel+ & consci\sness8 ,& !re is no reason to fe> n[ :at we "k t we %all n feel :5 x comes4 ,hav+ ?us dispos$ ( ! fe> ( retribution 9 a future life1 ,epicurus proce$s to dispose ( ! fe> ( ! int]f]5ce ( ! gods 9 ?is life4 ,"o might h expect$ t ,epicurus w\ld = ?is purpose h embrac$ a!ism4 ,b he does n d5y ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,on ! contr>y1 he believ$ t !re are innum]able gods4 ,!y h ! =m ( m51 because t is ! mo/ beautiful ( all =ms4 ,!y h di/9ctions 9 sex4 ,!y eat1 dr9k1 & talk ,greek4 ,_! bodies are compos$ ( a sub/ance l light4 ,b ?\gh ,epicurus all[s !m to exi/1 he is c>eful to dis>m !m1 & to rob !m ( _! fe>s4 ,!y live 9 ! int]/ell> spaces1 an immortal1 calm1 & bless$ exi/5ce4 ,!y d n int]v5e 9 ! affairs ( ! _w1 because !y are p]fectly happy4 ,:y %\ld !y burd5 !mselves ) ! control ( t :i* n[ise conc]ns !m8 ,!irs is ! beatitude ( a :olly untr\bl$ joy4 ,immortal are !y1 clo!d ) p[]s1 ,n to be com=t$ at all1 ,lords ov] all ! fruitless h\rs1 ,too great to appease1 too high to appal1 ,too f> to call4 ,footnote #ag ,footnote #ag3 ,a4 ,c4 ,sw9burne's ,felise4 #ceh ,man1 !re=e1 fre$ f ! fe> ( dea? & ! fe> ( ! gods1 has no duty save to live z happily z he c dur+ 8 brief space ^u e>?4 ,we c quit ! realm ( physics ) a light he>t1 & turn to :at alone truly matt]s1 e?ics1 ! consid]ation ( h[ man ought to conduct 8 life4 ,e?ics4 ,if ! ,/oics 7 ! intellectual successors ( ! ,cynics1 ! ,epicureans be> ! same relation to ! ,cyr5aics4 ,l ,ari/ippus1 !y f\nd$ morality ^u pleasure1 b !y diff] because !y develop$ a pur] & nobl] conception ( pleasure ?an ! ,cyr5aics _h kn[n4 ,pleasure alone is an end 9 itself4 ,x is ! only good4 ,pa9 is ! only evil4 ,morality1 !re=e1 is an activity :i* yields pleasure4 ,virtue has no value on its own acc\nt1 b d]ives its value f ! pleasure :i* accompanies x4 ,?is is ! only f\ndation :i* ,epicurus c\ld f9d1 or desir$ to f9d1 = moral activity4 ,?is is 8 only e?ical pr9ciple4 ,! re/ ( ! ,epicurean e?ics consi/s 9 ! int]pretation ( ! idea ( pleasure4 ,&1 fir/ly1 by pleasure ,epicurus did n mean1 z ! ,cyr5aics did1 m]ely ! pleasure ( ! mom5t1 :e!r physical or m5tal4 ,he meant ! pleasure t endures ?r\gh\t a lifetime1 a happy life4 ,h5ce we are n to all[ ourselves to be enslav$ by any p>ticul> pleasure or desire4 ,we mu/ ma/] our appetites4 ,we mu/ (t5 =ego a pleasure if x leads 9 ! end to great] pa94 ,we mu/ be ready to und]go pa9 = ! sake ( a great] pleasure to come4 ,& x 0 j = ?is reason1 secondly1 t ! #cei ,epicureans reg>d$ spiritual & m5tal pleasures z f> m important ?an ^? ( ! body4 ,= ! body feels pleasure & pa9 only :ile !y la/4 ,! body has 9 itself nei!r memory nor =e-k4 ,x is ! m9d :i* rememb]s & =esees4 ,& by f> ! mo/ pot5t pleasures & pa9s are ^? ( remembrance & anticipation4 ,a physical pleasure is a pleasure to ! body only n[4 ,b ! anticipation ( a future pa9 is m5tal anxiety1 ! remembrance ( a pa/ joy is a pres5t delight4 ,h5ce :at is to be aim$ at above all is a calm untr\bl$ m9d1 = ! pleasures ( ! body are ephem]al1 ^? ( ! _s endur+4 ,! ,epicureans1 l ! ,/oics1 prea*$ ! necessity ( sup]iority to bodily pa9s & ext]nal circum/ances4 ,s a man mu/ n dep5d = 8 happ9ess ^u ext]nals2 he mu/ h 8 bless$ness 9 8 own self4 ,! wise man c be happy ev5 9 bodily torm5t1 = 9 ! inn] tranquillity ( 8 s\l he possesses a happ9ess :i* f> outweighs any bodily pa94 ,yet innoc5t pleasures ( s5se are nei!r =bidd51 nor to be despis$4 ,! wise man w enjoy :atev] he c )\t h>m4 ,( all m5tal pleasures ! ,epicureans laid1 p]haps1 mo/ /ress ^u fri5d%ip4 ,! s*ool 0 n m]ely a collection ( fell[-philosoph]s1 b above all a society ( fri5ds4 ,?irdly1 ! ,epicurean ideal ( pleasure t5d$ r t[>ds a negative ?an a positive conception ( x4 ,x 0 n ! /ate ( enjoym5t t !y aim$ at1 mu* less ! excitem5t ( ! feel+s4 ,n ! fev]i% pleasures ( ! _w con/itut$ _! ideal4 ,!y aim$ r at a negative abs5ce ( pa91 at tranquillity1 quiet calm1 repose ( _s1 undi/urb$ by fe>s & #cfj anxieties4 ,z s (t5 ) m5 ^: ideal is pleasure1 _! view ( ! _w 0 t+$ ) a g5tle & ev5 luxuri\s pessimism4 ,positive happ9ess is beyond ! rea* ( mortals4 ,all t man c hope = is to avoid pa91 & to live 9 quiet cont5tm5t4 ,f\r?ly1 pleasure does n consi/ 9 ! multiplication ( ne$s & _! subsequ5t satisfaction4 ,! multiplication ( wants only r5d]s x m difficult to satisfy !m4 ,x complicates life )\t add+ to happ9ess4 ,we %\ld h z few ne$s z possible4 ,epicurus himself liv$ a simple life1 & advis$ 8 foll[]s to d ! same4 ,! wise man1 he said1 liv+ on bread & wat]1 c\ld vie ) ,zeus himself 9 happ9ess4 ,simplicity1 *e]fulness1 mod]ation1 temp]ance1 are ! be/ means to happ9ess4 ,! majority ( human wants1 & ! example ( ! ?ir/ = fame is quot$1 are entirely unnecess>y & useless4 ,la/ly1 ! ,epicurean ideal1 ?\gh conta9+ no possibility ( an exalt$ nobility1 0 yet by no means entirely selfi%4 ,a k9dly1 b5evol5t temp] appe>$ 9 ^! m54 ,x is pleasant]1 !y said1 to d a k9dness ?an to receive "o4 ,!re is little ( ! /]n /uff ( h]oes1 b !re is mu* t is g5tle & lovable1 9 ! amiable moraliz+s ( ^! butt]fly-philosoph]s4 #cfa ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,! ,,sceptics ,scepticism is a semi-te*nical t]m 9 philosophy1 & means ! doctr9e :i* d\bts or d5ies ! possibility ( k4 ,x is ?us de/ructive ( philosophy1 s9ce philosophy purports to be a =m ( k4 ,scepticism appe>s & reappe>s at int]vals 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,we h already met ) x among ! ,sophi/s4 ,:5 ,gorgias said t1 if any?+ exi/s1 x _c be kn[n1 ?is 0 a direct expression ( ! sceptical _s4 ,& ! ,protagorean ,man is ! measure ( all ?+s am\nts to ! same ?+1 = x implies t man c only "k ?+s z !y appe> to him1 & n z !y are 9 !mselves4 ,9 mod]n times ! mo/ not$ sceptic 0 ,david ,hume1 :o attempt$ to %[ t ! mo/ fundam5tal categories ( ?\ght1 su* z sub/ance & causality1 are illusory1 & !reby to und]m9e ! fabric ( k4 ,subjectivism usually ends 9 scepticism4 ,= k is ! relation ( subject & object1 & to lay exclusive emphasis ^u "o ( its t]ms1 ! subject1 ignor+ ! object1 leads to ! d5ial ( ! reality ( ev]y?+ except t :i* appe>s to ! subject4 ,?is 0 s ) ! ,sophi/s4 ,& n[ we h ! reappe>ance ( a simil> #cfb ph5om5on4 ,! ,sceptics1 ( :om we are ab\t to treat1 made _! appe>ance at ab\t ! same "t z ! ,/oics & ,epicureans4 ,! subjective t5d5cies ( ^! latt] s*ools f9d _! logical conclusion 9 ! ,sceptics4 ,scepticism makes its appe>ance usually1 b n always1 :5 ! spiritual =ces ( a race are 9 decay4 ,:5 its spiritual & intellectual impulses are sp5t1 ! _s flags1 gr[s we>y1 loses confid5ce1 beg9s to d\bt its p[] ( f9d+ tru?2 & ! despair ( tru? is scepticism4 ,pyrrho4 ,! fir/ to introduce a ?or\gh-go+ scepticism among ! ,greeks 0 ,pyrrho4 ,he 0 born ab\t #cfj ,b4,c41 & 0 orig9ally a pa9t]4 ,he took "p 9 ! ,indian exp$ition ( ,alex&] ! ,great4 ,he left no writ+s1 & we owe our k ( 8 ?\ghts *iefly to 8 disciple ,timon ( ,phlius4 ,8 philosophy1 9 common ) all po/-,ari/otelian sy/ems1 is purely practical 9 its outlook4 ,scepticism1 ! d5ial ( k1 is n posit$ on acc\nt ( its speculative int]e/1 b only because ,pyrrho sees 9 x ! road to happ9ess1 & ! escape f ! calamities ( life4 ,! prop] c\rse ( ! sage1 said ,pyrrho1 is to ask himself ?ree que/ions4 ,fir/ly1 he mu/ ask :at ?+s are & h[ !y are con/itut$2 secondly1 h[ we are relat$ to ^! ?+s2 ?irdly1 :at ought to be our attitude t[>ds !m4 ,z to :at ?+s are1 we c only answ] t we "k no?+4 ,we only "k h[ ?+s appe> to u1 b ( _! inn] sub/ance we are ignorant4 ,! same ?+ appe>s diff]5tly to diff]5t p1 & !re=e x is #cfc impossible to "k :i* op9ion is "r4 ,! div]sity ( op9ion among ! wise1 z well z among ! vulg>1 proves ?is4 ,to e ass]tion ! contradictory ass]tion c be oppos$ ) equally good gr\nds1 & :atev] my op9ion1 ! contr>y op9ion is believ$ by somebody else :o is q z clev] & compet5t to judge z ,i am4 ,op9ion we may h1 b c]ta9ty & k are impossible4 ,h5ce our attitude to ?+s 7! ?ird "q71 ought to be complete susp5se ( judgm5t4 ,we c be c]ta9 ( no?+1 n ev5 ( ! mo/ trivial ass]tions4 ,!re=e we ought nev] to make any positive /atem5ts on any subject4 ,& ! ,pyrrhoni/s 7 c>eful to import an elem5t ( d\bt ev5 into ! mo/ trifl+ ass]tions :i* !y might make 9 ! c\rse ( _! daily life4 ,!y did n say1 x is s1 b x seems s1 or x appe>s s to me4 ,e obs]vation w\ld be prefix$ ) a p]haps1 or x may be4 ,?is abs5ce ( c]ta9ty applies z mu* to practical z to !oretical matt]s4 ,no?+ is 9 itself true or false4 ,x only appe>s s4 ,9 ! same way1 no?+ is 9 itself good or evil4 ,x is only op9ion1 cu/om1 law1 :i* makes x s4 ,:5 ! sage realizes ?is1 he w cease to pref] "o c\rse ( action to ano!r1 & ! result w be apa?y1 at>axia4 ,all action is ! result ( pref]5ce1 & pref]5ce is ! belief t "o ?+ is bett] ?an ano!r4 ,if ,i g to ! nor?1 x is because1 = "o reason or ano!r1 ,i believe t x is bett] ?an go+ to ! s\?4 ,suppress ?is belief1 le>n t ! "o is n 9 reality bett] ?an ! o!r1 b only appe>s s1 & "o w\ld g 9 no direction at all4 ,complete suppression ( op9ion w\ld mean complete #cfd suppression ( action1 & x 0 at ?is t ,pyrrho aim$4 ,to h no op9ions 0 ! sceptical maxim1 because 9 practice x meant apa?y1 total quietism4 ,all action is f\nd$ on belief1 & all belief is delusion1 h5ce ! abs5ce ( all activity is ! ideal ( ! sage4 ,9 ?is apa?y he w r5\nce all desires1 = desire is ! op9ion t "o ?+ is bett] ?an ano!r4 ,he w live 9 complete repose1 9 undi/urb$ tranquillity ( s\l1 free f all delusions4 ,unhapp9ess is ! result ( n atta9+ :at "o desires1 or ( los+ x :5 atta9$4 ,! wise man1 be+ free f desires1 is free f unhapp9ess4 ,he kn[s t1 ?\gh m5 /ruggle & fight = :at !y desire1 va9ly suppos+ "s ?+s bett] ?an o!rs1 su* activity is b a futile /ruggle ab\t no?+1 = all ?+s are equally indiff]5t1 & no?+ matt]s4 ,betwe5 heal? & sickness1 life & dea?1 diff]5ce !re is none4 ,yet 9 s f> z ! sage is compell$ to act1 he w foll[ probability1 op9ion1 cu/om1 & law1 b )\t any belief 9 ! ess5tial validity or tru? ( ^! crit]ia4 ,! ,new ,academy4 ,! scepticism f\nd$ by ,pyrrho soon became ext9ct1 b an ess5tially simil> doctr9e began to be taught 9 ! s*ool ( ,plato4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,plato1 ! ,academy cont9u$1 "u v>i\s lead]s1 to foll[ 9 ! pa? m>k$ out by ! f\nd]4 ,b1 "u ! lead]%ip ( ,arcesilaus1 scepticism 0 introduc$ into ! s*ool1 & f t "t1 !re=e1 x is usually kn[n z ! ,new ,academy1 = ?\gh its hi/orical cont9uity z a s*ool 0 n brok51 its ess5tial "* und]w5t *ange4 ,:at especially #cfe *>act]iz$ ! ,new ,academy 0 its fi]ce opposition to ! ,/oics1 :om its memb]s attack$ z ! *ief dogmati/s ( ! "t4 ,dogmatism1 = u1 usually means mak+ ass]tions )\t prop] gr\nds4 ,b s9ce scepticism reg>ds all ass]tions z equally ill-gr\nd$1 ! hold+ ( any positive op9ion :atev] is by x reg>d$ z dogmatism4 ,! ,/oics 7 ! mo/ p[]ful1 influ5tial1 & =ceful ( all ^? :o at t "t held any positive philosophical op9ions4 ,h5ce !y 7 s+l$ out = attack by ! ,new ,academy z ! greate/ ( dogmati/s4 ,arcesilaus attack$ especially _! doctr9e ( ! crit]ion ( tru?4 ,! /rik+ conviction :i*1 accord+ to ! ,/oics1 accompanies tru?1 equally accompanies error4 ,!re is no crit]ion ( tru?1 ei!r 9 s5se or 9 reason4 ,i am c]ta9 ( no?+1 said ,arcesilaus2 ,i am n ev5 c]ta9 t ,i am c]ta9 ( no?+4 ,b ! ,academics did n draw f _! scepticism1 z ,pyrrho _h done1 ! full logical conclusion z reg>ds action4 ,m51 !y ?\ght1 mu/ act4 ,&1 al?\gh c]ta9ty & k are impossible1 probability is a suffici5t guide = action4 ,c>neades is usually consid]$ ! greate/ ( ! ,academic ,sceptics4 ,yet he add$ no?+ ess5tially new to _! conclusions4 ,he appe>s1 h[ev]1 to h be5 a man ( s+ul>ly acute & p[]ful m9d1 ^: de/ructive criticism act$ l a batt]+-ram n only ^u ,/oicism1 b ^u all e/abli%$ philosophies4 ,z examples ( 8 ?\ghts may be m5tion$ ! two foll[+4 ,fir/ly1 no?+ c ev] be prov$4 ,= ! conclusion mu/ be prov$ by premises1 :i* 9 turn require pro(1 & s ad inf9itum4 ,secondly1 #cff x is impossible to "k :e!r our ideas ( an object are true1 i4e41 :e!r !y resemble ! object1 because we _c comp>e our idea ) ! object itself4 ,to d s w\ld involve gett+ outside our own m9ds4 ,we "k no?+ ( ! object except our idea ( x1 & !re=e we _c comp>e ! orig9al & ! copy1 s9ce we c see only ! copy4 ,lat] ,scepticism4 ,aft] a p]iod ( oblit]ation1 ,scepticism aga9 reviv$ 9 ! ,academy4 ,( ?is la/ phase ( ,greek scepticism1 ,a5esidemus1 a contempor>y ( ,cic]o1 is ! e>lie/ example1 & lat] we h ! well-kn[n names ( ,simplicius & ,sextus ,empiricus4 ,! di/9ctive "* ( lat] scepticism is its return to ! position ( ,pyrrho4 ,! ,new ,academy1 9 its eag]ness to ov]?r[ ! ,/oic dogmatism1 _h fall5 into a dogmatism ( its own4 ,if ! ,/oics dogmatically ass]t$1 ! ,academics equally dogmatically d5i$4 ,b wisdom lies nei!r 9 ass]tion nor d5ial1 b 9 d\bt4 ,h5ce ! lat] ,sceptics return$ to ! attitude ( complete susp5se ( judgm5t4 ,moreov]1 ! ,academics _h all[$ ! possibility ( probable k4 ,& ev5 ?is is n[ reg>d$ z dogmatism4 ,a5esidemus 0 ! au?or ( ! t5 well-kn[n argum5ts to %[ ! impossibility ( k4 ,!y conta9 9 reality1 n t51 b only two or ?ree di/9ct ideas1 sev]al be+ m]ely diff]5t expressions ( ! same l9e ( reason+4 ,!y are z foll[s4 7#a7 ,! feel+s & p]ceptions ( all liv+ be+s diff]4 7#b7 ,m5 h physical & m5tal diff]5ces1 :i* make ?+s appe> diff]5t to !m4 7#c7 ,! diff]5t s5ses give diff]5t #cfg impressions ( ?+s4 7#d7 ,our p]ceptions dep5d on our physical & intellectual conditions at ! "t ( p]ception4 7#e7 ,?+s appe> diff]5t 9 diff]5t positions1 & at diff]5t di/ances4 7#f7 ,p]ception is nev] direct1 b always ?r\gh a m$ium4 ,= example1 we see ?+s ?r\gh ! air4 7#g7 ,?+s appe> diff]5t accord+ to v>iations 9 _! quantity1 col\r1 motion1 & temp]ature4 7#h7 ,a ?+ impresses u diff]5tly :5 x is famili> & :5 x is unfamili>4 7#i7 ,all suppos$ k is pr$ication4 ,all pr$icates give u only ! relation ( ?+s to o!r ?+s or to ourselves2 !y nev] tell u :at ! ?+ 9 itself is4 7#aj7 ,! op9ions & cu/oms ( m5 are diff]5t 9 diff]5t c\ntries4 #cfh ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,transition ,,to ,,neo-,,platonism ,x has be5 d\bt$ :e!r ,neo-,platonism ought to be includ$ 9 ,greek philosophy at all1 & ,erdmann1 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 places x 9 ! m$ieval division4 ,=1 fir/ly1 an int]val ( no less ?an five c5turies sep>ates ! f\ndation ( ,neo-,platonism f ! f\ndation ( ! prec$+ ,greek s*ools1 ! ,/oic1 ! ,epicurean1 & ! ,sceptic4 ,h[ long a p]iod ?is is w be se5 if we rememb] t ! entire developm5t ( ,greek ?\ght f ,?ales to ! ,sceptics occupi$ only ab\t ?ree c5turies4 ,plot9us1 ! real f\nd] ( ,neo-,platonism1 0 born 9 #bje ,a4,d41 s t x is1 z f> z hi/orical "t is conc]n$1 a product ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,secondly1 its "* is l>gely un-,greek & un-,european4 ,! ,greek elem5ts are l>gely swamp$ by ori5tal my/icism4 ,its seat 0 n 9 ,greece1 b at ,alex&ria1 :i* 0 n a ,greek1 b a cosmopolitan1 city4 ,m5 ( all races met "h1 &1 9 p>ticul>1 x 0 "h t ,ea/ & ,we/ jo9$ h&s1 & ! fusion ( ?\ght :i* result$ 0 ,neo-,platonism4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 x seems wrong to include ! ?\ght ( ,plot9us & 8 successors 9 m$ieval philosophy4 ,! :ole "* ( :at is usually call$ m$ieval philosophy 0 det]m9$ by its gr[? ^u a di/9ctively ,*ri/ian soil4 ,x 0 #cfi ,*ri/ian philosophy4 ,x 0 ! product ( ! new era :i* ,*ri/ianity _h sub/itut$ = paganism4 ,neo-,platonism1 on ! o!r h&1 is n only un*ri/ian1 b ev5 anti-*ri/ian4 ,! only ,*ri/ian influ5ce to be detect$ 9 x is t ( opposition4 ,x is a survival ( ! pagan _s 9 ,*ri/ian times4 ,9 x ! old pagan _s /ruggles desp]ately aga9/ its y\ng] antagoni/1 & f9ally succumbs4 ,9 x we see ! la/ gasp & f9al expiry ( ! anci5t culture ( ! ,greeks4 ,s f> z x is n ,asiatic 9 its elem5ts1 x draws its inspiration :olly f ! philosophies ( ! pa/1 f ! ?\ght & culture ( ,greece4 ,on ! :ole1 !re=e1 x is prop]ly classifi$ z ! la/ s*ool ( ,greek philosophy4 ,! long int]val ( "t :i* elaps$ betwe5 ! rise ( ! prec$+ ,greek s*ools1 ^: hi/ory we h trac$1 & ! f\ndation ( ,neo-,platonism1 0 fill$ up by ! cont9u$ exi/5ce1 9 m or less fossiliz$ =m1 ( ! ma9 ,greek s*ools1 ! ,academic1 ! ,p]ipatetic1 ! ,/oic1 & ! ,epicurean1 scatt]$ & h>ri$ at times by ! inroads ( scepticism4 ,x w\ld be we>isome to foll[ 9 detail ! developm5t 9 ^! s*ools1 & ! m or less trifl+ disputes ( :i* x consi/s4 ,no new ?\ght1 no orig9al pr9ciple1 sup]v5$4 ,x is suffici5t to say t1 z "t w5t on1 ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! s*ools became s(t5$1 & _! agreem5ts became m prom95t4 ,z intellectual vig\r wanes1 !re is always ! t5d5cy to =get diff]5ces1 to re/1 z ! ori5tals d1 9 ! good-natur$ & com=table delusion t all religions & all philosophies really mean mu* ! same ?+4 ,h5ce eclecticism became *>act]i/ic ( ! s*ools4 #cgj ,!y did n keep !mselves di/9ct4 ,we f9d ,/oic doctr9es taught by ,academics1 ,academic doctr9es by ,/oics4 ,only ! ,epicureans kept _! race pure1 & /ood alo( f ! g5]al eclecticism ( ! "t4 ,c]ta9 o!r t5d5cies also made _! appe>ance4 ,!re 0 a recrudesc5ce ( ,py?agoreanism1 ) its att5dant symbolism & my/icism4 ,!re grew up a t5d5cy to exalt ! conception ( ,god s high above ! _w1 to wid5 s greatly ! gulf :i* divides !m1 t x 0 felt t !re c\ld be no community betwe5 ! two1 t ,god c\ld n act ^u matt]1 nor matt] ^u ,god4 ,su* int]action w\ld contam9ate ! purity ( ! ,absolute4 ,h5ce all k9ds ( be+s 7 inv5t$1 demons1 spirits1 & angels1 int5d$ to fill up ! gap1 & to act z int]m$i>ies betwe5 ,god & ! _w4 ,z an example ( ^! latt] t5d5cies1 & z precursor ( ,neo-,platonism prop]1 ,philo ! ,jew des]ves a brief m5tion4 ,he liv$ at ,alex&ria betwe5 #cj ,b4,c4 & #ej ,a4,d4 ,a /aun* uphold] ( ! religion & scriptures ( ! ,hebrew race1 he believ$ 9 ! v]bal inspiration ( ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,b he 0 le>n$ 9 ,greek /udies1 & ?\ght t ,greek philosophy 0 a dimm] revelation ( ^? tru?s :i* 7 m p]fectly manife/$ 9 ! sacr$ books ( 8 own race4 ,& j z ,egyptian prie/s1 out ( national vanity1 made out t ,greek philosophy came f ,egypt1 j z ori5tals n[ pret5d t x came f ,india1 s ,philo decl>$ t ! orig9 ( all t 0 great 9 ,greek philosophy 0 to be f\nd 9 ,judea4 ,plato & ,ari/otle1 he 0 c]ta91 7 foll[]s ( ,moses1 us$ ! ,old ,te/am5t1 & ga9$ _! wisdom !refrom6 #cga ,philo's own ideas 7 gov]n$ by ! attempt to fuse ,jewi% !ology & ,greek philosophy into a homog5e\s sy/em4 ,x 0 ,philo1 !re=e1 :o 0 l>gely responsible = contam9at+ ! pure cle> air ( ,greek ?\ght ) ! en]vat+ fogs ( ori5tal my/icism4 ,philo taught t ,god1 z ! absolutely inf9ite1 mu/ be elevat$ completely above all t is f9ite4 ,no "n1 no ?\ght1 c correspond to ! inf9ity ( ,god4 ,he is ! un?9kable & ! ineffable1 & ,8 nature is beyond ! rea* ( reason4 ,! human s\l rea*es up to ,god1 n ?r\gh ?\ght1 b by means ( a my/ical inn] illum9ation & revelation t transc5ds ?\ght4 ,god _c act directly ^u ! _w1 = ?is w\ld involve ,8 defilem5t by matt] & ! limitation ( ,8 inf9ity4 ,!re are !re=e int]m$iate spiritual be+s1 :o1 z ! m9i/]s ( ,god1 creat$ & control ! _w4 ,all ^! int]m$i>ies are includ$ 9 ! ,logos1 :i* is ! rational ?\ght :i* gov]ns ! _w4 ,! relation ( ,god to ! ,logos1 & ( ! ,logos to ! _w1 is "o ( progressive emanation4 ,cle>ly ! idea ( emanation is a m]e metaphor :i* expla9s no?+1 & ?is becomes m evid5t :5 ,philo comp>es ! emanations to rays ( light issu+ f an effulg5t c5tre & gr[+ less & less bright z !y radiate outw>ds4 ,:5 we he> ?is1 we "k 9 :at direction we are mov+4 ,?is has ! *>act]i/ic r+ ( ,asiatic pseudo-philosophy4 ,x rem9ds u =cibly ( ! ,upani%ads4 ,we are pass+ out ( ! realm ( ?\ght1 reason1 & philosophy1 into ! dream-&-%ad[-l& ( ori5tal my/icism1 :]e ! heavy sc5ts ( beautiful poison fl[]s drug ! intellect & oblit]ate ?\ght 9 a blissful & languor\s repose4 #cgb ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,! ,,neo-,,platoni/s ,! ^w ,neo-,platonism is a misnom]4 ,x does n /& = a g5u9e revival ( ,platonism4 ,! ,neo-,platoni/s 7 no d\bt ! (fspr+ ( ,plato1 b !y 7 ! illegitimate (fspr+4 ,! true greatness ( ,plato lay 9 8 rationali/ic idealism2 8 defects 7 mo/ly connect$ ) 8 t5d5cy to my? & my/icism4 ,! ,neo-,platoni/s hail$ 8 defects z ! true & inn] secret ( 8 doctr9e1 develop$ !m out ( all recognition1 & comb9$ !m ) ! hazy dream-philosophies ( ! ,ea/4 ,! reput$ f\nd] 0 ,ammonius ,saccas1 b we may pass him ov] & come at once to 8 disciple ,plot9us1 :o 0 ! fir/ to develop ,neo-,platonism into a sy/em1 0 ! greate/ ( all its expon5ts1 & may be reg>d$ z its real f\nd]4 ,he 0 born 9 #bje ,a4,d4 at ,lycopolis 9 ,egypt1 w5t to ,rome 9 #bde1 f\nd$ 8 ,s*ool !re1 & rema9$ at ! head ( x till 8 dea? 9 #bgj4 ,he left ext5sive writ+s :i* h be5 pres]v$4 ,plato _h %[n t ! idea ( ! ,"o1 exclusive ( all multiplicity1 0 an impossible ab/raction4 ,ev5 to say ! ,"o is1 involves ! duality ( ! ,"o4 ,! ,absolute ,be+ c be no ab/ract unity1 b only a unity 9 multiplicity4 ,plot9us beg9s by ignor+ ?is #cgc supremely important philosophical pr9ciple4 ,he falls back ^u ! l[] level ( ori5tal monism4 ,god1 he ?9ks1 is absolutely ,"o4 ,he is ! unity :i* lies beyond all multiplicity4 ,!re is 9 him no plurality1 no movem5t1 no di/9ction4 ,?\ght involves ! di/9ction betwe5 object & subject2 !re=e ! ,"o is above & beyond ?\ght4 ,nor is ! ,"o describable 9 t]ms ( volition or activity4 ,= volition involves ! di/9ction betwe5 ! will] & ! will$1 activity betwe5 ! actor & t ^u :i* he acts4 ,god1 !re=e1 is nei!r ?\ght1 nor volition1 nor activity4 ,he is beyond all ?\ght & all be+4 ,z absolutely inf9ite1 ,he is also absolutely indet]m9ate4 ,all pr$icates limit _! subject1 & h5ce no?+ c be pr$icat$ ( ! ,"o4 ,he is un?9kable1 = all ?\ght limits & conf9es t :i* is ?\ght4 ,he is ! ineffable & inconceivable4 ,! sole pr$icates :i* ,plot9us applies to ,him are ! ,"o & ! ,good4 ,he sees1 h[ev]1 t ^! pr$icates1 z mu* z any o!rs1 limit ! inf9ite4 ,he reg>ds !m1 !re=e1 n z lit]ally express+ ! nature ( ! inf9ite1 b z figuratively %ad[+ x =?4 ,!y are appli$ by analogy only4 ,we c1 9 tru?1 "k no?+ ( ! ,"o1 except t x is4 ,n[ x is impossible to d]ive ! _w f a fir/ pr9ciple ( ?is k9d4 ,z be+ utt]ly exalt$ above ! _w1 ,god _c ent] into ! _w4 ,z absolutely inf9ite1 ,he c nev] limit ,himself to become f9ite1 & s give rise to ! _w ( objects4 ,z absolutely ,"o1 ! _m c nev] issue out ( ,him4 ,! ,"o _c create ! _w1 = creation is an activity1 & ! ,"o is immutable & excludes all #cgd activity4 ,z ! inf9ite fir/ pr9ciple ( all ?+s1 ! ,"o mu/ be reg>d$ z 9 "s s5se ! s\rce ( all be+4 ,& yet h[ x c give rise to be+ is inconceivable1 s9ce any su* act de/roys its unity & inf9ity4 ,we saw once = all1 9 ! case ( ! ,eleatics1 t x is fatal to def9e ! ,absolute z unity exclusive ( all multiplicity1 z immutable ess5ce exclusive ( all process1 & t if we d s we cut (f all hope ( %[+ h[ ! _w has issu$ f ! ,absolute4 ,x is j ! same ) ,plot9us4 ,!re is 9 8 sy/em ! absolute contradiction t ! ,"o is reg>d$1 on ! "o h&1 z s\rce ( ! _w1 & on ! o!r z s exalt$ above ! _w t all relation%ip to ! _w is impossible4 ,we come1 !re=e1 to a complete deadlock at ?is po9t4 ,we c get no fur!r4 ,we c f9d no way to pass f ,god to ! _w4 ,we are involv$ 9 a hopeless1 logical contradiction4 ,b ,plot9us 0 a my/ic1 & logical absurdities d n tr\ble my/ics4 ,be+ unable to expla9 h[ ! _w c possibly arise out ( ! vacuum ( ! ,"o1 he has rec\rse1 9 ! ori5tal /yle1 to poetry & metaphors4 ,god1 by reason ( ,8 sup]-p]fection1 ov]fl[s ,himself1 & ?is ov]fl[ becomes ! _w4 ,he s5ds =? a beam f ,himself4 ,z flame emits light1 z sn[ cold1 s d all l[] be+s issue f ! ,"o4 ,?us1 )\t solv+ ! difficulty1 ,plot9us deftly smo!rs x 9 fl[]y phrases1 & quietly passes on 8 way4 ,! fir/ emanation f ! ,"o is call$ ! ,n\s4 ,?is ,n\s is ?\ght1 m9d1 reason4 ,we h se5 t ,plato reg>d$ ! ,absolute itself z ?\ght4 ,= ,plot9us1 h[ev]1 ?\ght is d]ivative4 ,! ,"o is beyond ?\ght1 & ?\ght issues =? f ! ,"o #cge z fir/ emanation4 ,! ,n\s is n discursive ?\ght1 h[ev]4 ,x is n 9 "t4 ,x is imm$iate appreh5sion1 or intuition4 ,its object is tw(old4 ,fir/ly1 x ?9ks ! ,"o1 ?\gh its ?\ght !re( is necess>ily inadequate4 ,secondly1 x ?9ks itself4 ,x is ! ?\ght ( ?\ght1 l ,ari/otle's ,god4 ,x corresponds to ,plato's _w ( ,ideas4 ,! ,ideas ( all ?+s exi/ 9 ! ,n\s1 & n only ! ,ideas ( classes1 b ( e individual ?+4 ,f ! ,n\s1 z second emanation1 proce$s ! _w-s\l4 ,?is is1 9 ,erdmann's phrase1 a sort ( fad$-out copy ( ! ,n\s1 & x is outside "t1 incorporeal1 & indivisible4 ,x works rationally1 b yet is n consci\s4 ,x has a two-fold aspect1 incl9+ upw>ds to ! ,n\s on ! "o h&1 & d[nw>ds to ! _w ( nature on ! o!r4 ,x produces out ( itself ! individual s\ls :i* inhabit ! _w4 ,! idea ( emanation is ess5tially a poetical metaphor1 & n a rational concept4 ,x is conceiv$ poetically by ,plot9us z resembl+ light :i* radiates f a bright c5tre1 & gr[s dimm] z x passes outw>ds1 till x %ades (f at la/ into total d>kness4 ,?is total d>kness is matt]4 ,matt]1 z negation ( light1 z ! limit ( be+1 is 9 itself n-be+4 ,?us ! crucial difficulty ( all ,greek philosophy1 ! problem ( ! :5ce ( matt]1 ! dualism ( matt] & ?\ght1 :i* we h se5 ,plato & ,ari/otle /ruggl+ 9 va9 to subjugate1 is loosely & lightly slurr$ ov] by ,plot9us ) poetic metaphors & roseate phrases4 ,matt] ,plot9us consid]s to be ! gr\nd ( plurality & ! cause ( all evil4 ,h5ce ! object ( life c #cgf only be1 z ) ,plato1 to escape f ! mat]ial _w ( ! s5ses4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ?is process ( lib]ation is ka?>sis1 purification1 ! free+ ( oneself f ! dom9ion ( ! body & ! s5ses4 ,?is includes all ! ord9>y e?ical virtues4 ,! second /ep is ?\ght1 reason1 & philosophy4 ,9 ! ?ird /age ! s\l rises above ?\ght to an intuition ( ! ,n\s4 ,b all ^! are m]ely prep>atory = ! supreme & f9al /age ( exaltation into ! ,absolute ,"o1 by means ( trance1 rapture1 ec/asy4 ,"h all ?\ght is transc5d$1 & ! s\l passes into a /ate ( unconsci\s swoon1 dur+ :i* x is my/ically unit$ ) ,god4 ,x is n a ?\ght ( ,god1 x is n ev5 t ! s\l sees ,god1 = all su* consci\s activities involve ! sep>ation ( ! subject f its object4 ,9 ! ec/asy all su* disunion & sep>ation are annihilat$4 ,! s\l does n look ^u ,god f ! outside4 ,x becomes "o ) ,god4 ,x is ,god4 ,su* my/ical raptures c1 9 ! nature ( ! case1 only be mom5t>y1 & ! s\l s9ks back exhau/$ to ! levels ( ord9>y consci\sness4 ,plot9us claim$ to h be5 exalt$ 9 ?is div9e ec/asy sev]al times dur+ 8 life4 ,aft] ,plot9us ,neo-,platonism cont9ues ) modifications 9 8 successors1 ,porphyry1 ,iamblicus1 ,syrianus1 ,proclus1 & o!rs4 ,! ess5tial "* ( ,neo-,platonism comes out 9 its !ory ( ! my/ical exaltation ( ! subject to ,god4 ,x is ! extremity ( subjectivism1 ! =c+ ( ! individual subject to ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 to ! position ( ! ,absolute ,be+4 ,& x foll[s naturally ^u ! heels ( ,scepticism4 ,9 ! ,sceptics all fai? 9 ! p[] ( ?\ght & reason _h f9ally di$ out4 ,!y #cgg took z _! wat*word ! utt] impot5ce ( reason to rea* ! tru?4 ,f ?is x 0 b a /ep to ! position t1 if we _c atta9 tru? by ! natural means ( ?\ght1 we w d s by a miracle4 ,if ord9>y consci\sness w n suffice1 we w pass beyond ord9>y consci\sness altoge!r4 ,neo-,platonism is f\nd$ ^u despair1 ! despair ( reason4 ,x is ! la/ frantic /ruggle ( ! ,greek _s to rea*1 by desp]ate means1 by =ce1 ! po9t :i* x felt x _h fail$ to rea* by reason4 ,x seeks to take ! ,absolute by /orm4 ,x feels t :]e sobriety has fail$1 ! viol5ce ( spiritual intoxication may succe$4 ,x 0 natural t philosophy %\ld end "h4 ,= philosophy is f\nd$ ^u reason4 ,x is ! ef=t to compreh5d1 to und]/&1 to grasp ! reality ( ?+s intellectually4 ,!re=e x _c admit any?+ high] ?an reason4 ,to exalt intuition1 ec/asy1 or rapture1 above ?\ght--?is is dea? to philosophy4 ,philosophy 9 mak+ su* an admission1 lets out its own life-blood1 :i* is ?\ght4 ,9 ,neo-,platonism1 !re=e1 anci5t philosophy commits suicide4 ,?is is ! end4 ,! place ( philosophy is tak5 h5ce=? by religion4 ,*ri/ianity triumphs1 & sweeps away all indep5d5t ?\ght f its pa?4 ,!re is no m philosophy n[ till a new _s ( enquiry & wond] is brea!d into man at ! ,r5aissance & ! ,re=mation4 ,!n ! new era beg9s1 & gives bir? to a new philosophic impulse1 "u ! influ5ce ( :i* we are /ill liv+4 ,b to rea* t new era ( philosophy1 ! human _s _h fir/ to pass ?r\gh ! arid wa/es ( ,s*ola/icism4 ,,subject ,,index ,a ,abortions1 #bia4 ,absolute1 ,!2 z _m 9 "o1 #gj-ga1 #aig2 z reason1 #bdj-a1 #cjg2 z kn[able1 #bii2 z =m1 #cjg4 ,actuality1 #bgi4 ,air1 z fir/ pr9ciple1 #bh4 ,ant9omy1 #ed4 ,appe>ance1 #fa4 ,ari/ocracy1 #cbd4 ,asceticism1 defect (1 #cag4 ,at>axia1 #cfc4 ,atoms1 #hh et seq1 #cef4 ,aufkla]ung1 #aai-abj4 ,b ,becom+2 ,p>m5ides on1 #dd2 ,h]acleitus on1 #gc2 ,emp$ocles on1 #hb2 ,plato on1 #aib2 ,ari/otle on1 #bgi-bhj ,be+2 ,p>m5ides on1 #dd et seq2 ,plato on1 #aia1 #aig4 ,c ,causation1 #f-g2 z explanation1 #fd2 ,ari/otle's doctr9e (1 #bfg-gc4 ,classification1 #aii4 ,com$y1 #ccj-a4 ,concepts2 def9$1 #adc2 id5tifi$ ) def9itions1 #ade2 ,socrates's doctr9e (1 #adc-f2 objectivity (1 #ahc2 ,/oics on1 #cde4 ,cond5sation1 #bh4 ,contract1 ! social1 #cbc4 ,cosmopolitanism1 #cec4 ,c\nt]-e>?1 #ch4 ,crit]ion1 ,! ,/oic1 #cde-f4 ,d ,d>w9ism1 #bic4 ,dea?1 problem (1 #gf-g4 ,democracy1 #abc1 #cbe4 ,dialectic1 #ee1 #ahc1 #aii1 #bjd4 ,di*otomy1 #bjj4 ,division1 #aii4 ,dualism2 def9$1 #fc2 ( ,eleatics1 #fh-gj2 ( ,anaxagoras1 #aje2 ( ,plato1 #bch2 ( ,ari/otle1 #ccd-e4 ,e ,eclipses1 #ajc4 ,ec/asy1 #cgf-g4 ,effici5t cause1 #bfi2 id5tifi$ ) f9al cause1 #bgc-d4 ,elem5ts1 ,! ,f\r1 #hc4 ,emanation1 #cga1 #cgd-e4 ,empty ,space1 #dg1 #hi1 #bia-b ,eros1 #bjd4 ,evolution2 ,anaxim&] &1 #bg2 ,ari/otle's doctr9e (1 #bic-i1 #cjg-ab1 #ccc1 #ccf-g2 ,sp5c]'s doctr9e (1 #cjh et seq4 #cgi ,evil1 problem (1 #bdj-a4 ,explanation1 sci5tific1 #fd-e4 ,ext]nal goods1 value (1 #aei1 #ca-f1 #cej1 #cei4 ,f ,fai?1 age (1 #aea4 ,family1 ,!2 ,ari/otle on1 #cbd4 ,f9al cause1 #bfi2 id5tifi$ ) =mal cause1 #bgc4 ,fire1 z fir/ pr9ciple1 #gh1 #cdg4 ,fir/ ,cause1 #ff4 ,fir/ ,mov]1 #bhd-e4 ,=m1 ,ari/otle's doctr9e (1 #bfg1 #bgd-h4 ,=mal cause1 #bfi2 id5tifi$ ) f9al cause1 #bgc4 ,free ,w1 #cbj1 #cdh1 #cee4 ,fri5d%ip1 #bbe1 #cei4 ,g ,g5ius1 arti/ic1 #bca4 ,geoc5tric hypo!sis1 #ch1 #baa1 #cje4 ,geometry1 #c-e1 #bge4 ,god2 ,x5ophanes on1 #da-b2 ,socrates on1 #acb2 ,plato on1 #bjb-d2 ,ari/otle on1 #bhc-h2 z fir/ mov]1 #bhd-e2 z ?\ght ( ?\ght1 #bhe-f2 relation (1 to ! _w1 #bhb2 ,plot9us on1 #cgc4 ,gods1 ,!2 ,democritus on1 #ib2 ,protagoras on1 #aab2 ,socrates on1 #acb2 ,epicurus on1 #ceg4 ,good1 ,! ,idea (1 #aih1 #bjj-a1 #bdd2 z ,god1 #bjc4 ,gravitation1 #bid-e4 ,h ,habit1 #g4 ,happ9ess2 ,anti/h5es on1 #aei2 ,plato on1 #bbj-a2 ,ari/otle on1 #cad-ae2 ,/oics on1 #cea2 ,epicurus on1 #ceh1 #cfa2 di/+ui%$ f pleasure1 #bba4 ,heav5ly bodies1 ,!2 ,anaxim&] on1 #bf2 ,py?agoreans on1 #ch2 ,x5ophanes on1 #dc2 ,anaxagoras on1 #ajc2 ,plato on1 #baa2 ,ari/otle on1 #cje-f4 ,helioc5tric hypo!sis1 #ch4 ,h9duism1 #ga1 #aig1 #cjh1 #cab-ac4 ,i ,idealism2 ( ,p>m5ides1 #dg et seq2 ess5tials (1 #dh1 #di1 #bce2 ,plato z f\nd] (1 #bce4 ,ideas1 ,!ory (1 #agd1 #ahc-bjg2 ,ari/otle on1 #bfb-e4 ,imag9ation1 #cjj4 ,immortality2 ,atomi/s on1 #ib2 ,plato on1 #age1 #bab2 ,ari/otle on1 #cjb-c2 ,epicurus on1 #ceg4 ,indian ,?\ght1 #ad-af2 see also ,h9duism4 ,individualism1 #cbc4 ,induction1 #add1 #adf1 #aij1 #bjf1 #bfj4 ,inf9ite divisibility2 ,z5o on1 #ef2 ,anaxagoras on1 #if2 ,ari/otle on1 #bib-c2 ,hume on1 #eg-h2 ,kant on1 #eg2 ,hegel on1 #eh-fj4 ,inorganic matt]1 #bid-f4 ,insight1 moral1 #cah4 ,intuition1 #aec1 #cge1 #cgg4 ,irony1 ( ,socrates1 #acj4 ,j ,judaism1 #ga4 ,ju/ice2 ,py?agoreans on1 #cg2 ,plato on1 #bbd2 ,ari/otle on1 #cai-bj4 #chj ,k ,k2 ( ! ,inf9ite1 #g-h2 ( ! ,absolute1 #bii2 ?r\gh concepts1 #adf1 #ahb2 ,plato on1 #agg-hb2 z recollection1 #bab-ag2 necess>y k1 #bac-ae4 ,l ,life2 ,ari/otle's doctr9e (1 #bif4 ,limit1 ,!1 #cf4 ,love1 ,platonic1 #bjd-f4 ,m ,m>riage1 #bbd4 ,mat]ial cause1 #bfh4 ,mat]ialism2 orig9 (1 #i-aa2 ( ,ionics1 #bc2 defect (1 #ff4 ,matt]2 inde/ructibility (1 #ej2 ,platonic1 #bjh2 ,ari/otle's doctr9e (1 #bge-i2 ,plot9us on1 #cge4 ,me*anical !ories1 #hh4 ,memory1 #cjj4 ,mon>*y1 #cbd4 ,monism1 #fb-g4 ,mon/rosities1#bil4 ,morality2 f\nd$ on reason1 #aah4 ,motion2 ,z5o on1 #ed2 ,ari/otle on1 #bil4 ,multiplicity2 ,z5o on1 #ec4 ,my/icism1 #ab1 #aga1 #cga1 #cgb1 #cgd1 #cgf4 ,my?s1 ( ,plato1 #agj-ga1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #baa4 ,n ,necess>y ,k1 #bac-ae2 necess>y concepts1 #bdb4 ,non-s5su\s ?\ght1 #h-ac4 ,n-be+1 #dd1 #ge1 #gf1 #gg1 #hi1 #aia1 #bjh1 #bgi1 #bhj4 ,n\s2 ( ,anaxagoras1 #ig-aje2 ( ,plot9us1 #cge4 ,numb]s1 z fir/ pr9ciple1 #cf4 ,o ,object1 ! "r ( !1 #abb4 ,objectivity2 def9$1 #aac2 ( concepts1 #ahc4 ,olig>*y1 #cbd4 ,op9ion1 #aha-b4 ,organic matt]1 organism1 #bid-f4 ,p ,pan!ism1 #cab4 ,p>ticipation1 #aid1 #bcf4 ,p]sonality1 #bhf4 ,pleasure1 #afa-b1 #bah-ai1 #cej1 #ceh2 di/+ui%$ f happ9ess1 #bba4 ,pot5tiality1 #bgi4 ,pragmatism1 #aba4 ,prote/antism1 #abc4 ,q ,quality1 me*anical explanation (1 #hg-h4 ,r ,r>efaction1 #bh4 ,reality2 di/+ui%$ f appe>ance1 #fa2 di/+ui%$ f exi/5ce1 #fj-a1 #bdf-g4 ,reason2 di/+ui%$ f s5se1 #de1 #gi1 #aab1 #aac1 #aae1 #bci1 #bij2 di/+ui%$ f cause1 #fd1 #gf2 z univ]sal1 #aac2 z concepts1 #add2 supremacy (1 #aec-d2 z basis ( love1 #bje-f2 z ,absolute1 #bdj-a2 passive & active1 #cjj2 z basis ( morals1 #aah1 #cag1 #cdi-ej4 #cha ,recollection2 k z1 #bab-ag2 ,ari/otle on1 #cjj4 ,re9c>nation2 see ,transmigration4 ,religion2 relation to philosophy1 #ad-ae1 #bjg2 ,x5ophanes on1 #da-b2 ,h]acleitus on1 #gi2 ,democritus on1 #ib2 decay ( ,greek1 #ajg-h4 ,rhetoric1 #aaa1 #abb4 ,s ,scepticism1 #cdc1 #cfa4 ,s5sation2 p>ticul>ism (1 #aac2 di/+ui%$ f reason1 #de1 #gi1 #aab1 #aac1 #aae1 #bci1 #bij4 ,slav]y1 #bbe1 #cba4 ,s\l2 ,h]acleitus on1 #gh-i2 ,atomi/s on1 #ib2 ,plato on1 #baa-ag2 ,ari/otle on1 #bif et seq2 ,/oics on1 #cdh2 ,epicureans on1 #ceg4 ,space1 #c-d1 #ef2 see also ,empty space4 ,sph]e1 ( ,emp$ocles1 #hd4 ,/ate1 ,!2 ,sophi/s on1 #aai2 ,plato's1 #bja-b1 #bbe-bi2 ,ari/otle on1 #cbj-e4 ,subject1 ! "r ( !1 #abb1 #aeb4 ,subjectivism1 ,preface1 #cdj-c1 #cfa1 #cgf4 ,subjectivity1 def9$1 #aac4 ,sub/ance2 def9$1 #ahf-g2 ,ideas z1 #ahf-h2 ,ari/otle's doctr9e ( #bfe-g4 ,suicide1 #afj1 #cej4 ,summum ,bonum1 #bbb1 #cad4 ,symbolism1 #ab4 ,t ,teleology2 def9$1#aja2 ( ,anaxagoras1 #ajd1 #aje2 ( ,plato1 #bja-b2 ( ,ari/otle1 #bhi4 ,!osophi/s1 #aec-d4 ,"t1 #bhb1 #bib4 ,timocracy1 #cbd4 ,trag$y1 #ccj-a4 ,transmigration1 #ag1 #cb1 #he1 #bab1 #bag1 #cja4 ,tyranny1 #cbd4 ,u ,univ]sals1 #ahh4 ,utilit>ianism1 #bbj-ba1 #cae4 ,v ,virtue2 z k1 #adg1 #aeg2 tea*able1 #adi2 unity (1 #adi1 #bbc1 #cea2 z sole good1 #aei-fj1 #cej2 relation to pleasure1 #afa1 #bah-ai2 cu/om>y & philosophic1 #bbj2 dianoetic1 #caf1 #cag2 z ! mean1 #cag4 ,void1 ,!1 #ij4 ,vortex1 #ij1 #ajb4 ,w ,wat]1 z fir/ pr9ciple1 #ba4 ,wise ,man1 ,!2 ( ! ,cynics1 #afj2 ( ! ,cyr5aics1 #afb2 ( ! ,/oics1 #cea4 ,wom51 /atus (1 #bbd4 ,_w-,s\l1 ,!1 #baj1 #baa1 #cge4 #chb ,,index ,,( ,,names ,a ,abd]a1 #hf1 #aab4 ,academy1 ,!1 #afg1 #bdi1 #bej2 ,! ,new1 #cfd-f4 ,aegean1 ,!1 #ah4 ,a5esidemus1 #cff-g4 ,a,esculapius1 #ada4 ,agrig5tum1 #ha4 ,alcibiades1 #acb1 #acc4 ,alex&] ! ,great1 #bea1 #beb1 #cci1 #cdj1 #cfb4 ,alex&ria1 #cfh1 #cgj4 ,ammonius ,saccas1 #cgb4 ,amyntas1 #bdi4 ,anaxagoras1 #bb1 #cj1 #hb1 #hf1 #ia1 #id-aje1 #ajf1 #abj1 #acg1 #aff1 #bga1 #bgb1 #bgc1 #cdj ,anaxim&]1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd-g1 #bh1 #bi4 ,anaxim5es1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc1 #bg-cj1 #hb1 #hc1 #ajb1 #bga4 ,&ronicus1 #bfb4 ,annic]is1 #afb1 #afg4 ,antio*is1 #acd4 ,anti/h5es1 #aef1 #aeh1 #aei4 ,anytus1 #acc4 ,appolonia1 #cj4 ,apollodorus1 #adj4 ,apology1 ,!1 #abi1 #acc1 #acd1 #agb1 #agc4 ,arcesilaus1 #cfd1 #cfe4 ,arg9usae1 #acd4 ,ari/ippus1 #aef1 #afa1 #ceh4 ,ari/ophanes1 #ace1 #aeb4 ,ari/otle1 #ad1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1bc1 #ch1 #db 7footnote71 #ee1 #ie1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajf1 #abb1 #adh1 #aej1 #aia1 #aic1 #bca1 #bcc1 #bdh1 #bdi-cch1 #cci1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cde1 #cdf1 #cej1 #cgj2 on ,?ales1 #ba-b2 on ,anaxagoras1 #ajd1 #aje2 on ,socrates1 #adg1cag1cbj2 on ,plato1 #aic1 #bfb-e1 #cbc-d4 ,asia ,m9or1 #ah1 #bj1 #gb1 #id1 #ie1 #bej4 ,assyria1 #ac4 ,at>neus1 #bej4 ,a!ns1 #id1 #ie1 #aab1 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 #aca1 #acc1 #acd1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg1 #afi1 #bdi1 #bej1 #bea1 #beb1 #bed1 #cdd4 ,atomi/s1 ,!1 #hb1 #hf-ic1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,aurelius1 ,m>cus1 #ad1 #cdd4 ,b ,babylon1 #beb4 ,babylonia1 #hf4 ,bacon1 ,francis1 #beg-h4 ,banquet1 ,!1 #acb4 ,see also ,symposium1 ,!4 ,b5?am1 #bbj4 ,bhagavat ,gita1 ,!1 #ae4 ,brahman1 #ae1 #fd1 #agj1 #aig4 ,buddha1 ,!1 #bac4 ,burnet ,pr(41 ,preface1 #be1 #bh1 #df1 #ia1 #ih4 #chc ,c ,c>neades1 #cfe4 ,*airephon1 #abi4 ,*alcis1 #beb4 ,*>mides1 ,!1 #agb1 #agc4 ,*9a1 #ac4 ,*ri/ianity1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga1 #aja1 #cfi1 #cgg4 ,*rysippus1 #cdd4 ,cic]o1 #cff4 ,clazom5ae1 #id4 ,clean!s1 #cdd4 ,cl\ds1 ,!1 ( ,ari/ophanes1 #ace4 ,col]idge1 ,s4 ,t41 #bfc4 ,colophon1 #da4 ,cop]nicus1 #ch4 ,crates1 #cdd4 ,cratylus1 #aff4 ,critias1 #aah4 ,crito1 #acg1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj1 #ada4 ,crito1 ,!1 #agb1 #agc4 ,croesus1 #bj1 #ba4 ,crotona1 #ca1 #cc4 ,cynics1 ,!1 #aef1 #aeh-fj1 #afc1 #caf1 #cdb1 #cea1 #cec1 #ceh4 ,cyprus1 #cdd4 ,cyr5aics1 ,!1 #aef1 #afj-b1 #afc1 #bah1 #cdb1 #ceh4 ,cyr5e1 #afg4 ,d ,d>w91 #cjh4 ,delium1 #aca4 ,delphi1 #abi4 ,democritus1 #bb1 #di1 #ej1 #eb1 #hf1 #ic1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #aab1 #bcd1 #cdb1 #ced1 #cef4 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia1 #cj4 ,diog5es ! ,cynic1 #aei1 #cea1 #ceb4 ,dionysius ! ,eld]1 #afg1 #afh4 ,dionysius ! ,y\ng]1 #afh1 #afi4 ,e ,e*e*rates1 #aci1 #ada4 ,egypt1 #ac1 #af1 #ag1 #ca1 #hf1 #abe1 #afg1 #cgb4 ,elea1 #dj1 #da1 #dc1 #eb1 #fj4 ,eleatics1 ,!1 #bb1 #bc1 #dj-ga1 #gb1 #gc1 #ge1 #gi1 #hi1 #aji1 #aab1 #aag1 #afb1 #afd1 #aff1 #agc1 #agd1 #age1 #aic1 #aie1 #aif1 #aig1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bdf1 #bgb1 #bgi1 #cgd4 ,eleus9ian my/]ies1 #gb4 ,emp$ocles1 #ag1 #bb1 #di1 #eb1 #ha-e1 #hf1 #hg-h1 #hi1 #ie1 #if1 #ig1 #ajc1 #bga1 #bgb1 #cbi4 ,empiricus1 ,sextus1 #cff4 ,engl&1 #aba4 ,ephesus1 #gb1 #gc4 ,epictetus1 #ad1 #cdd4 ,epicureans1 ,!1 #hi1 #ij1 #ia1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #ced-fj1 #cfb1 #cfh1 #cfi4 ,epicurus1 #cdb1 #cde-fj4 ,erdmann1 #df1 #ih1 #cfh1 #cge4 ,e?ics1 ,!1 ( ,ari/otle1 #cai4 ,euboea1 #beb4 ,euclid1 ! geometrician1 #cc1 #aac4 ,euclid ( ,meg>a1 #aef1 #afb-c1 #aff1 #afg4 ,euripides1 #id4 ,eu?yphro1 ,!1 #agb4 ,f ,france1 #aba4 ,g ,gorgias1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aaf-ah1 #cfa4 ,gorgias1 ,!1 #agd1 #agg4 ,grant1 ,sir ,a41 #bie 7footnote74 ,greece1 #ac1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #cc1 #da1 #ajg1 #aji1 #aab1 #abb1 #afh1 #bbj1 #beb1 #cci1 #cdd1 #cfh4 ,grote1 #ih4 #chd ,h ,halys1 #ba4 ,hegel1 #ch1 #df1 #ee1 #eh-fj1 #cab 7footnote71 #ccc4 ,hegesias1 #afb4 ,hellas1 #da4 ,h]acleitus1 #bb1 #gb-hj1 #hb1 #hf1 #ajh1 #aab1 #aaf1 #afd1 #aff1 #aib1 #aic1 #bcd1 #bga1 #ccc1 #cdb1 #cdg4 ,h]meias1 #bej4 ,h]pyllis1 #bea4 ,hesiod1 #da1 #gb1 #gg4 ,hippias1 #aaj4 ,hippias ,m9or1 ,!1 #agb4 ,hippo1 #cj4 ,hom]1 #da1 #gb4 ,hume1 ,david1 #eg1 #eh1 #cfa4 ,hylici/s1 ,!1 #bd4 ,i ,iamblicus1 #cgf4 ,idaeus1 #cj4 ,india1 #ad1 #af1 #ag4 ,ionia1 #bj1 #da1 #acg4 ,ionics1 ,!1 #bj-cj1 #fa1 #fb1 #hb1 #hc1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,islam1 #ga4 ,italy1 #ah1 #ca1 #dj1 #afg4 ,j ,japan1 #abe4 ,jatakas1 ,!1 #bac4 ,judaea1 #cgj4 ,k ,kant1 #ee1 #eg1 #bac1 #bae4 ,kepl]1 #fe4 ,kri%na1 #ae4 ,l ,la*es1 ,!1 #agb1 #agc4 ,lampsacus1 #ie4 ,leon1 #acd-e4 ,leucippus1 #hf1 #hh1 #hi1 #ia1 #ajd4 ,london1 #ahi4 ,lucretius1 #ad4 ,lyceum1 ,!1 #bea4 ,lycon1 #acc4 ,lycopolis1 #cgb4 ,lysis1 ,!1 #agb1 #agc4 ,m ,mac$onia1 #bdi1 #beb1 #cci4 ,macran1 ,h4 ,s41 #cab 7footnote74 ,meg>a1 #aff1 #afg1 #agb1 #agc4 ,meg>ics1 ,!1 #aef1 #afb-c4 ,melissus1 #df4 ,melitus1 #acc4 ,memorabilia1 ,!1 #adb4 ,m5o1 ,!1 #baf4 ,m]u1 #ae1 #af4 ,metaphysics1 ,!1 ( ,ari/otle1 #ai1 #db1 #aje1 #bec1 #bed1 #bfa1 #bga4 ,met*nik(f1 #gf4 ,miletus1 #bj1 #bd1 #bg4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 #bbj1 #bba1 #bfi4 ,milton1 #ccj4 ,moses1 #cgj4 ,mytil5e1 #bea4 ,n ,napoleon1 #beb4 ,neo-,platoni/s1 ,!1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cfh1 #cfi1 #cgb-cgg4 ,newton1 #fe4 ,ni*oma*us1 #bdi1 #bea ,nietzs*e1 #aef4 ,o ,orphics1 ,!1 #ag1 #cb4 ,p ,p>amatman1 #ae4 ,p>m5ides1 #ac1dj1da1 #db1 #dc1 #eb1 #ec1 #eg1 #gb1 #ha1 #hb1 #hf1 #aag1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #afg1 #bcd4 ,p>m5ides1 ,!1 #afi1 #age1 #agf1 #agg1 #aie1 #bdd4 ,peloponnese1 ,!1 #ajc4 #che ,peloponnesian ,w>1 ,!1 #aca1 #afe4 ,p]icles1 #id1 #ie1 #acg4 ,p]ipatetics1 ,!1 #bea1 #cfi4 ,p]sians1 ,!1 #bea4 ,pha$o1 ,!1 #acg1 #age1 #agg4 ,pha$rus1 ,!1 #agb1 #age1 #agg4 ,philebus1 ,!1 #age1 #bjc4 ,philip ( ,mac$onia1 #bea4 ,philo ! 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