,,agricultural ,,& ,,biological ,,publications ,,*>les ,v4 ,,pip]1 ,,consult+ ,,editor ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,plant ,,life ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co4 ,inc4 ,,publi%]s ,,( ,,books ,,= ,coal ,age ,electrical ,railway ,j\rnal ,electrical ,_w ,eng9e]+ ,news-,record ,am]ican ,ma*9i/ ,+5i]ia ,int]nacional ,eng9e]+ ,m9+ ,j\rnal ,p[] ,*emical ,metallurgical ,eng9e]+ ,electrical ,m]*&is+ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,! ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,plant ,,life ,,by ,,roscoe ,w4 ,,?at*]1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,,agr4 ,,dean ,,( ,,! ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,agriculture ,,& ,,director ,,( ,,! ,,agricultural ,,exp]im5t ,,/ations4 ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,m9nesota 7,,=m]ly ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,plant ,,*emi/ry4 ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,m9nesota7 ,,fir/ ,,edition ,,second ,,impression ,,mcgraw-,,hill ,,book ,,company1 ,,inc4 ,,new ,,york3 #cgj ,,sev5? ,,av5ue ,,london3 #f #h ,,b\v]ie ,,/41 ,e4 ,c4 #d #aiba ,,copyright #aiba2 ,,by ,,! ,mc,g,r,a,w-,,hill ,,book ,,company1 ,,inc4 ,,preface ,! au?or has _h 9 m9d a two-fold purpose 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is book4 ,fir/1 x is hop$ t x may s]ve z a text or ref]5ce book = collegiate /ud5ts ( plant sci5ce :o are seek+ a prop] f\ndation ^u :i* to build a sci5tific k ( h[ plants gr[4 ,! late ,dr4 ,*>les ,e4 ,bessey1 to :om ,i owe ! beg9n+ ( my int]e/ 9 plant life1 once said to me3 ,! tr\ble ) our pres5t k ( plant sci5ce is t we h _h v few *emi/s :o knew any botany1 & no botani/s :o knew any *emi/ry4 ,?is may h be5 a slightly exagg]at$ /atem5t1 ev5 :5 x 0 made1 sev]al ye>s ago4 ,b x indicat$ a v cle> recognition by ?is em95t /ud5t ( plants ( ! ne$ = a bett] k ( ! *emi/ry ( plant cell activities z a prop] f\ndation = a satisfactory k ( ! c\rse & results ( plant protoplasmic activities4 ,x is hop$ t ! pres5t "w may contribute some?+ t[>d ?is desir$ end4 ,second1 ! purpose ( ! writ] w n h be5 fully accompli%$ unless ! book %all s]ve also z a /imulus to fur!r /udy 9 a fasc9at+ field4 ,ev5 ! mo/ casual p]usal ( _m ( its *apt]s _c fail to make cle> h[ incomplete is our pres5t k ( ! *emical *anges by :i* ! plant cell p]=ms _m ( ! processes :i* result 9 ! production ( s _m sub/ances :i* are vital to ! com=t & pleasure ( human life4 ,/udies ( ! *emi/ry ( animal life h result$ 9 _m discov]ies ( utmo/ importance to human life & heal?4 ,x requires no great /ret* ( ! imag9ation to conceive t simil> /udies ( plant life might result 9 simil> or ev5 great] b5efit to human life1 or society1 s9ce x is ^u ! results ( plant gr[? t we are dep5d5t = mo/ ( our food1 clo?+1 & fuel1 z well z = _m ( ! luxuries ( life4 ,! mat]ial pres5t$ 9 ! book has be5 develop$ f a s]ies ( lecture-notes :i* 0 us$ 9 connection ) a c\rse 9 ,phyto-*emi/ry :i* 0 (f]$ = sev]al ye>s to ! /ud5ts ( ! ,plant ,sci5ce ,gr\p ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,m9nesota4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( ^! notes1 ext5sive use 0 made ( ! mat]ial pres5t$ 9 su* g5]al ref]5ce works z ,abd]hald5's ,bio*emis*e ,h&lexicon & ,h&bu* d] ,bio*emis*5 ,arbeitsme?od51 ,opp5heim]'s ,h&bu* d] ,bio*emie des ,m5s*5 und d] ,ti]e1 ,czapek's ,bio*emie d] ,pflanz51 ,rohmann's ,bio*emie1 ,frankel's ,descriptive ,bio*emie1 & ,dynamis*e ,bio*emie1 ,eul]'s ,pflanz5*emie1 & ,haas & ,hill's ,*emi/ry ( ,plant ,products2 z well z ( ! mo/ excell5t s]ies ( ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 edit$ by ,plimm]1 sev]al numb]s ( :i* appe>$ 9 pr9t prior to & dur+ ! p]iod cov]$ by ! prep>ation ( ^! lectures4 ,frequ5t use 0 made also ( ! _m special treatises on individual gr\ps ( comp\nds :i* are m5tion$ 9 ! li/s ( ref]5ces app5d$ to ea* *apt]1 z well z ( articles :i* appe>$ f "t to "t 9 v>i\s sci5tific j\rnals4 ,h5ce1 no claim is made ( orig9ality = ! /atem5ts pres5t$ h]e91 except 9 an insignificant numb] ( /udies ( enzyme action1 & ( ! possible physiological functions ( c]ta9 specific comp\nds4 ,! only contributions :i* ! writ] has felt qualifi$ to make to ?is g5]al subject are ^? ( an int5se p]sonal int]e/ 9 ! *emi/ry ( plant processes & a viewpo9t ) ref]5ce to ! relation ( *emical processes to vital ph5om5a :i* w be app>5t z ! v>i\s subjects are pres5t$4 ,! text has be5 prep>$ ^u ! assumption t ! /ud5ts :o w use x w h _h "s previ\s tra9+ 9 elem5t>y inorganic & organic *emi/ry4 ,a sy/ematic laboratory c\rse 9 organic prep>ations1 su* z is requir$ ( /ud5ts :o are prep>+ to become pr(essional *emi/s1 is n at all a necess>y requisite to ! und]/&+ ( ! *emi/ry ( ! diff]5t gr\ps ( plant comp\nds z "h pres5t$2 b x is assum$ t ! /ud5t w h _h su* previ\s tra9+ z is n[ commonly giv5 9 a "o-ye> collegiate c\rse 9 ,g5]al ,*emi/ry1 or a ye>'s "w 9 g5]al inorganic *emi/ry foll[$ by a brief c\rse 9 ,types ( ,c>bon ,comp\nds or ,elem5ts ( ,organic ,*emi/ry1 su* z is usually requir$ ( /ud5ts :o are prep>+ = advanc$ "w 9 agricultural sci5ce1 9 animal or human nutrition1 etc4 ,an attempt has be5 made to arrange ! mat]ial 9 su* a way z to proce$ f simpl] *emical pr9ciples & sub/ances to ^? ( m complex /ructures4 ,?is results 9 an arrangem5t ( ! gr\ps to be /udi$ 9 an ord] :i* is q diff]5t ?an _! biological significance might sugge/4 ,x is believ$1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! end a m sy/ematic und]/&+ & a m ord]ly proc$ure is obta9$ 9 ?is way ?an w\ld result f ! treatm5t ( ! gr\ps 9 ! ord] ( _! relative biological importance4 ,,cont5ts ,,introduction ,,page ,developm5t ( biological sci5ce2 *>act]i/ics ( protoplasm2 plant & animal life1 simil>ities & diff]5ces2 protoplasmic activity ess5tially *emical *anges2 objects ( /udy ( ! *emi/ry ( plant life xiii-xvi ,,*apt] ,i--,,plant ,,nutri5ts ,def9itions2 ! plant food elem5ts2 available & unavailable =ms2 ! value ( ! diff]5t soil elem5ts z plant foods2 functions ( ! diff]5t plant food elem5ts 9 plant gr[?2 inorganic plant tox9s & /imulants2 ref]5ces #a-ae ,,*apt] ,,ii--,,organic ,,compon5ts ,,( ,,plants ,plants z syn!tic ag5ts2 types ( *anges involv$ 9 plant gr[?2 gr\ps ( organic comp\nds f\nd 9 plants2 physiological use & biological significance def9$2 physiological uses ( organic gr\ps #af-bj ,,*apt] ,,iii--,,photosyn!sis ,def9itions2 physiological /eps 9 photosyn!sis2 =maldehyde1 ! simple/ c>bohydrate /ructure2 ! cond5sation ( =maldehyde into sug>s2 !ories conc]n+ photosyn!sis2 ! production ( />*es & sug>s2 ref]5ces #ba-bi ,,*apt] ,,iv--,,c>bohydrates ,importance1 nom5clature1 & classification2 gr\ps ( c>bohydrates2 isom]ic =ms ( monosac*>ides2 *emical con/itution ( monosac*>ides2 *>act]i/ic reactions ( hexoses2 ! occurr5ce & prop]ties ( monosac*>ides2 disac*>ides2 trisac*>ides2 tetrasac*>ides2 ! relation ( molecul> configuration to bio*emical prop]ties2 polysac*>ides1 dextrosans1 levulosans1 mannosans1 & galactosans2 physiological uses & biological significance ( c>bohydrates2 ref]5ces #cj-ff ,,*apt] ,v--,,gums1 ,,pect9s1 ,,& ,,celluloses ,relation to c>bohydrates2 gr\ps2 ! natural gums & p5tosans2 mucilages2 pect9s2 celluloses2 physiological uses ( celluloses2 ref]5ces #fg-ge ,,*apt] ,,vi--,,glucosides ,def9ition2 g5]al /ructure2 hydrolysis ( ! natural glucosides2 g5]al prop]ties2 ! ph5ol glucosides2 ! alcohol glucosides2 ! aldehyde glucosides2 ! oxycum>9 glucosides2 ! cyanophoric glucosides2 ! mu/>d-oil glucosides2 ! pigm5t glucosides2 ! digitalis glucosides2 ! sapon9s2 physiological uses2 biological significance2 ref]5ces #gf-ic ,,*apt] ,,vii--,,tann9s ,g5]al prop]ties2 occurr5ce2 *emical con/itution2 classes2 "s common tann9s2 physiological uses2 biological significance ( tann9s 9 fruits2 ref]5ces #id-aja ,,*apt] ,,viii--,,pigm5ts ,types & classes2 ! *lorophylls1 *emical con/itution1 simil>ity ( *lorophyll & hmoglob91 prop]ties ( ! *lorophylls2 ! c>ot9oids1 c>ot91 xan?ophyll1 lycop]sic91 & fucoxan?92 phyco]y?r9 & phycoph92 ! an?ocyans2 ! an?oxan?9s2 ! production ( ornam5tal pigm5ts 9 fl[]s1 etc42 ! functions ( pigm5ts2 ref]5ces #ajb-abc ,,*apt] ,,ix--,,organic ,,acids1 ,,acid ,,salts1 ,,& ,,e/]s ,*emical con/itution2 "s common organic acids2 physiological uses ( organic acids2 biological significance ( fruit acids & e/]s #abd-abh ,,*apt] ,x--,,fats ,,& ,,oils1 ,,waxes1 ,,& ,,lipoids ,g5]al composition2 fats & oils1 occurr5ce1 *emical con/itution1 acids :i* occur 9 natural fats1 alcohols :i* occur 9 natural fats1 hydrolysis & syn!sis ( fats1 extraction ( oils f plant tissues1 id5tification ( fats & oils1 physiological use2 ! waxes2 ! lipoids1 leci?91 o!r plant phosphatides1 plant c]ebrosides1 physiological uses ( lipoids2 ref]5ces #abi-ade ,,*apt] ,,xi--,,ess5tial ,,oils ,,& ,,res9s ,def9itions1 classes1 occurr5ce2 ! ess5tial oils2 ! res9s2 physiological uses & biological significance ( ess5tial oils2 ref]5ces #adf-aej ,,*apt] ,,xii--,,! ,,vegetable ,,bases ,composition & gr\ps2 ! plant am9es2 alkaloids2 ! pur9e bases2 ! pyrimid9es2 ! nucleic acids1 composition & uses2 ref]5ces #aea-afc ,,*apt] ,,xiii--,,prote9s ,importance2 g5]al composition2 am9o-acids & peptid units2 individual am9o-acids2 composition ( ! plant prote9s2 g5]al prop]ties ( prote9s2 classification2 diff]5ces betwe5 plant & animal prote9s2 extraction ( prote9s f plant tissues2 syn!sis 9 plants2 physiological uses2 ref]5ces #afd-ahj ,,*apt] ,,xiv--,,enzymes ,reaction velocities2 enzymes z cataly/s2 g5]al prop]ties2 extracellul> & intracellul> enzymes2 *emical nature2 nom5clature & classification2 occurr5ce & prep>ation2 g5]al & individual enzymes2 nature ( enzyme action2 accel]ators & inhibitors2 co5zymes & anti5zymes2 zymog5s2 physiological uses2 fur!r /udies ne$$2 ref]5ces #aha-bja ,,*apt] ,,xv--,,! ,,colloidal ,,condition ,colloids & cry/alloids2 ! colloidal condition a disp]sion ph5om5on2 nom5clature & classification2 conditions necess>y to ! =mation ( sols2 gel-=mation2 g5]al prop]ties ( colloidal solutions2 susp5soids & emulsoids2 adsorption2 catalysis affect$ by ! colloidal condition2 indu/rial applications ( colloidal ph5om5a2 natural colloidal ph5om5a2 ref]5ces #bjb-bbj ,,*apt] ,,xvi--,,! ,,physical ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,protoplasm ,het]og5e\s /ructure ( protoplasm2 protoplasm a colloidal gel2 wat]2 salts2 osmotic pressure2 surface b\nd>y ph5om5a2 electrical ph5om5a2 acidity & alkal9ity2 summ>y2 vital ph5om5a z *emical & physical *anges2 ref]5ces #bba-bch ,,*apt] ,,xvii--,,hormones1 ,,auximones1 ,,vitam9es1 ,,& ,,tox9s ,ext]nal & int]nal /imulants2 hormones2 vitam9es2 auximones1 tox9s #bci-bdh ,,*apt] ,,xviii--,,adaptations ,g5]al discussion2 adaptations1 accommodations1 & adju/m5ts2 *romatic adaptations2 morphological adaptations2 accommodations2 conclud+ /atem5ts #bdi-beh ,,index #bei-bfh ,,introduction ,! hi/ory ( biological sci5ce %[s t ! conceptions :i* m5 h held conc]n+ ! nature ( plant & animal gr[? h und]gone a s]ies ( revolution>y *anges z ! te*nique (1 & facilities =1 sci5tific /udy h develop$ & improv$4 ,= a long "t1 x 0 ?\ght t life processes 7 ess5tially diff]5t 9 "* ?an ^? :i* take place 9 inanimate matt]1 & t ! physical sci5ces _h no?+ to d ) liv+ *anges4 ,!n1 too1 e>li] /ud5ts _h only vague notions ( ! actual /ructure ( a liv+ organism4 ,beg9n+ ) ! e>lie/ idea t a plant or an animal exi/s z a unit organism1 to be /udi$ z su*1 biological sci5ce progress$1 fir/ to ! recognition & /udy ( ! individual organs :i* are conta9$ )9 ! organism2 !n to ! tissues :i* make up ^! organs2 !n 7) ! com+ into use ( ! microscope z an aid to ^! inve/igations7 to ! cells ( :i* ! tissues are compos$2 !n to ! protoplasm :i* con/itutes ! cell cont5ts2 & f9ally to ! doctr9e ( organic evolution z ! explanation ( ! g5ealogy ( plants & animals1 & ! /udy ( ! relation ( ! pr9ciples ( ! physical sci5ces to ! evolution>y process4 ,! ultimate mat]ial into :i* organisms are resolv$ by ?is process ( biological analysis is ! cell protoplasm4 ,b protoplasm is itself made up ( a complex sy/em ( def9ite *emical comp\nds1 :i* react & int]act accord+ to ! laws ( physical sci5ce4 ,h5ce1 any /udy ( ! *emi/ry ( plant gr[? is ess5tially a /udy ( ! *emical & physical *anges :i* take place 9 ! cell protoplasm4 ,protoplasm diff]s f non-liv+ matt] 9 ?ree respects4 ,^! are 7#a7 its *emical composition2 7#b7 its p[] ( wa/e & repair & ( gr[?2 & 7#c7 its reproductive p[]4 ,f ! /&po9t ( *emical composition1 protoplasm is ! mo/ complex mat]ial 9 ! univ]se4 ,x n only conta9s a great] v>iety ( *emical elem5ts1 unit$ into molecules ( enorm\s size & complexity1 b also a great] v>iety ( def9ite *emical comp\nds ?an exi/ 9 any o!r kn[n mixture1 ei!r m9]al or organic 9 type4 ,"o ( ! fir/ problems 9 ! /udy ( protoplasm is1 !re=e1 to br+ ?is great v>iety ( complex comp\nds into "s ord]ly classification & to become famili> ) _! compositions & prop]ties4 ,aga91 liv+ matt] is cont9ually und]go+ a process ( break+ d[n z a result ( its en]getic activities & ( simultane\sly mak+ good ?is loss by ! manufacture ( new protoplasm out ( simple food mat]ials4 ,x also has ! p[] ( gr[? by ! production ( surplus protoplasm :i* fills new cells1 :i* 9 turn produce new tissues & s increase ! size & weight ( individual organs & ( ! organism z a :ole4 ,h5ce1 a second field ( /udy includes ! *emical *anges :]eby new protoplasm & new tissue-build+ mat]ial are elaborat$4 ,f9ally1 liv+ mat]ial n only repairs its own wa/e & produces new mat]ial ( l "* to x1 b x also produces new masses ( liv+ matt]1 :i* :5 deta*$ f ! p>5t mass1 ev5tually beg9 a sep>ate exi/5ce & gr[?4 ,fur!rmore1 ! plant organism has acquir$1 by ! process ( evolution1 ! ability n only to produce an embryo = a successive g5]ation b also to /ore up1 9 ! tissues adjac5t to x1 res]ve food mat]ial = ! use ( ! "y se$l+ until x %all h develop$ ! ability to absorb & make use ( its own ext]nal s\rces ( food mat]ial4 ,s t1 f9ally1 e /udy ( plant *emi/ry mu/ take into consid]ation ! /or$ food mat]ial & ! g]m9ative process :]eby ?is becomes available to ! new organism ( ! next g5]ation4 ,also1 ! *emi/ry ( f]tilization ( ! ovum1 s t a new embryo w be produc$1 & ! o!r /imuli :i* s]ve to induce ! gr[? ph5om5a1 mu/ be br\ght "u obs]vation & /udy4 ,a fur!r /ep 9 ! developm5t ( biological sci5ce has be5 to sep>ate ! /udy ( liv+ ?+s into ! two sci5ces ( botany & zoology4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! *emi/ry ( ! processes involv$ ?is segregation is un=tunate4 ,x has result$ 9 ! devotion ( mo/ ( ! /udy :i* has be5 giv5 to life processes & liv+ ?+s to animal *emi/ry1 or physiological *emi/ry4 ,z a consequ5ce1 bio*emi/ry1 :i* deals ) ! liv+ processes ( bo? plants & animals1 is yet 9 its infancy2 :ile phyto*emi/ry is almo/ a new sci5ce1 yet its relation to ! /udy ( plants c sc>cely be less vital ?an is t ( physiological *emi/ry to /udies ( animal life4 ,! common conception t plant life & animal life are anti!tical or complem5t>y to ea* o!r has mu* to ju/ify x4 ,animals brea! 9 oxyg5 & exhale c>bon dioxide2 :ile plants use ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air z a "p ( ! raw mat]ial = photosyn!sis & exhale oxyg54 ,plants absorb simple gases & m9]al comp\nds z raw food mat]ials & build ^! up into complex c>bohydrates1 prote9s1 fats1 etc42 :ile animals use ^! complex comp\nds ( plant orig9 z food1 trans=m+ p>ts ( !m into v>i\s o!r =ms ( /ructural mat]ial1 b 9 ! end break+ !m d[n aga9 into ! simple gases & m9]al comp\nds1 :i* are expell$ f ! body ?r\gh ! excretory organs4 ,?us x w\ld seem t ! /udy ( ! *emi/ry ( plant life & ( animal life mu/ necess>ily deal ) opposite types ( ph5om5a4 ,b "o _c advance f> into ! /udy ( ! bio*emi/ry ( plants & animals be=e he discov]s m>k$ simil>ities 9 ! *emical pr9ciples involv$4 ,_m ( ! comp\nds are id5tical 9 /ructure1 und]go simil> *anges1 & are act$ ^u by simil> cataly/s4 ,plant cells exhibit respiratory activities1 us+ oxyg5 & giv+ (f c>bon dioxide1 9 exactly ! same way t animal organisms d4 ,! con/ructive photosyn!tic processes ( gre5 plants are regulat$ & controll$ by a pigm5t1 *lorophyll1 :i* is almo/ id5tical ) ! blood pigm5t1 hmat91 :i* regulates ! vital activities 9 ! animal organism1 diff]+ f ! latt] only 9 ! m9]al elem5t :i* l9ks ! *>act]i/ic /ructural units toge!r 9 ! molecule4 ,_m o!r po9ts ( simil>ity 9 ! *emi/ry ( ! life processes ( plants & animals w become app>5t z ! /udy progresses4 ,x is suffici5t n[ to call att5tion to ! fact t ^! vital processes1 9 ei!r plants or animals1 are ess5tially *emical 9 "*1 & subject to /udy by ! usual me?ods ( bio*emical inve/igations4 ,! protoplasm ( ! cell is ! laboratory 9 :i* all ! *anges :i* con/itute ! vital activities ( ! plant take place4 ,all ( ! processes :i* con/itute ^! activities--assimilation1 translocation1 metabolism1 & respiration--involve def9ite *emical *anges4 ,9 s f> z x is possible to /udy ea* ( ^! activities indep5d5tly ( ! o!rs1 !y h be5 f\nd to obey ! ord9>y laws ( *emical reactions4 ,?us1 ! effect ( ! v>iations 9 int5sity ( light ^u photosyn!sis causes increase 9 ! rate ( ?is activity :i* may be repres5t$ by ! ord9>y responses ( reaction velocities to ext]nal /imuli4 ,simil>ly1 ! effect ( rises 9 temp]ature ^u ! rate ( assimilation & ^u respiration are precisely ! same z _! effect ^u ! velocity ( any ord9>y *emical reaction4 ,)9 c]ta9 def9ite ranges ( temp]ature1 ! same /atem5t holds true ) ref]5ce to ! rate ( gr[? ( ! plant1 al?\gh ! range ( temp]ature )9 :i* protoplasm lives & ma9ta9s its delicate adju/m5t to ! f\r vital processes ( life is limit$2 beyond a c]ta9 po9t1 fur!r rise 9 temp]ature does n produce m gr[? b r ?r[s ! protoplasmic adju/m5t out ( balance & gr[? ei!r sl[s up m>k$ly or /ops altoge!r4 ,h5ce1 we may say t ! me?ods by :i* ! plant ma*9e 7protoplasm7 accompli%es its results are ess5tially & def9itely *emical 9 "* & may be /udi$ purely f ! /&po9t ( *emical reactions1 b ! ma9t5ance ( ! ma*9e itself 9 prop] work+ ord] is a vital ph5om5on :i* is l>gely dep5d5t ^u ! ext]nal environm5tal conditions "u :i* ! plant exi/s4 ,a /udy ( ! ph5om5a result+ f ! colloidal condition ( matt] is ?r[+ a flood ( light ^u ! me*anism by :i* protoplasm accompli%es its control ( vital activities4 ,b we are1 z yet1 a long way f a complete und]/&+ ( h[ colloidal protoplasm acquires & ma9ta9s its unique ability ( self-regulation ( ! conditions necess>y to pres]ve its colloidal prop]ties & ( h[ x elaborates ! enzymes :i* control ! velocity ( ! *emical reactions :i* take place )9 ! protoplasm itself & :i* con/itute ! v>i\s processes ( vital activity4 ,! object ( ?is /udy ( ! *emi/ry ( plant gr[? is to acquire a k ( ! con/itution ( ! comp\nds involv$ & ( ! conditions "u :i* !y w und]go ! *emical *anges :i*1 tak5 all toge!r1 con/itute ! vital processes ( cell protoplasm4 ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,plant ,,life ,,*apt] ,i ,,plant ,,nutri5ts ,!re is "s confusion 9 ! use ( ! t]ms nutri5t1 plant food1 etc41 z appli$ to ! nutrition & gr[? ( plants4 ,/rictly speak+1 ^! t]ms ought probably to be limit$ 9 _! application to ! organiz$ comp\nds )9 ! plant :i* x uses z s\rces ( en]gy & ( metabolizable mat]ial = ! developm5t ( new cells & organs dur+ its gr[?4 ,botani/s q commonly use ! t]ms 9 ?is way4 ,b /ud5ts ( ! problems involv$ 9 ! relation ( soil elem5ts to ! gr[? ( plants1 includ+ su* practical que/ions z are involv$ 9 ! ma9t5ance ( soil productivity & ! use ( comm]cial f]tiliz]s = ! gr[+ ( economic plants1 or crops1 are accu/om$ to use ! t]ms plant foods1 or m9]al nutri5ts1 to designate ! *emical elem5ts & simple gase\s comp\nds :i* are suppli$ to ! plant z ! raw mat]ial f :i* its food & tissue-build+ mat]ials are syn!tiz$4 ,common usage limits ^! t]ms to ! soil elem5ts2 b !re is no logical reason = segregat+ ! raw mat]ials d]iv$ f ! soil f ^? d]iv$ f ! atmosph]e4 ,! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ^! raw mat]ials = plant syn!ses & ! organic comp\nds :i* are produc$ )9 ! plants & us$ by !m1 & by animals1 z food1 is t ! =m] are inorganic & c furni% only mat]ials b no en]gy to ! organism2 :ile ! latt] are organic & supply bo? mat]ials & pot5tial en]gy4 ,x w\ld probably be ! be/ practice to conf9e ! use ( ! ^w food to mat]ials ( ! latt] type1 & sev]al attempts h be5 made to limit its use 9 ?is way & to apply "s su* t]m z intake to ! simple raw mat]ials :i* are tak5 into ! organism & utiliz$ by x 9 its syn!tic processes4 ,b ! cu/om ( us+ ! words food1 or nutri5t1 to repres5t any?+ t is tak5 into ! organism & 9 any way utiliz$ by x = its n\ri%m5t has be5 foll[$ s long & ! new] t]ms are !mselves s subject to criticism t !y h n yet g5]ally supplant$ ! loosely us$ ^w food4 ,if su* use is p]mitt$1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y to recognize t only ! gre5 p>ts ( gre5 plants c use ?is inorganic food1 & t ! colorless plants mu/ h organic food4 ,to avoid ?is confusion1 ! sugge/ion has rec5tly be5 made t all ( ! intake ( plants & animals %all be consid]$ z food1 b t ^? =ms :i* supply bo? mat]ials & pot5tial en]gy to ! organism %all be designat$ z syn]gic foods1 :ile ^? :i* conta9 no pot5tial en]gy %all be kn[n z an]gic foods4 ,on ?is basis1 practically all ( ! food ( animals1 except+ ! m9]al salts & wat]1 & all ( ! organic comp\nds :i* are syn!tiz$ by plants & lat] us$ by !m = fur!r metabolic *anges1 are syn]gic foods2 :ile practically all ( ! intake ( gre5 plants is an]gic food4 ,x is ) ! latt] type ( food mat]ials t ?is *apt] is to deal2 :ile ! foll[+ & all subsequ5t *apt]s deal ) ! organic comp\nds :i* are syn!tiz$ by plants & conta9 pot5tial en]gy & are1 !re=e1 capable ( use z syn]gic food by ei!r ! plants !mselves or by animals4 ,x w be und]/ood1 !re=e1 t 9 ?is *apt] ! ^w food is us$ to mean ! an]gic food mat]ials :i* are tak5 into & us$ by gre5 plants z ! raw mat]ials = ! syn!sis ( organic comp\nds1 ) ! aid ( sol> en]gy1 or t ( previ\sly produc$ syn]gic foods4 ,9 all lat] *apt]s1 ! t]m food w be us$ to mean ! organic comp\nds :i* s]ve z ! syn]gic food = ! gre5 p>ts ( gre5 plants & z ! sole supply ( nutri5t mat]ial = ! colorless p>ts ( gre5 plants & = p>asitic or saprophytic =ms 7see page #af74 ,,plant ,,food ,,elem5ts ,! raw mat]ials f :i* ! food & tissue-build+ comp\nds ( plants are syn!tiz$ include c>bon dioxide1 oxyg51 wat]1 nitrog51 phosphorus1 sulfur1 potassium1 calcium1 magnesium1 & iron4 ,! two gases fir/ m5tion$ are d]iv$ directly f ! air1 ?r\gh ! respiratory organs ( ! plant4 ,wat] is tak5 into ! plant *iefly f ! soil1 ?r\gh its fibr\s roots4 ,all ! o!r elem5ts 9 ! li/ are tak5 f ! soil1 nitrog5 be+ d]iv$ f decay+ organic matt] 7! orig9al s\rce ( ! nitrog5 is1 h[ev]1 ! atmosph]e1 f :i* ! initial supply ( nitrog5 is obta9$ by direct assimilation by c]ta9 bact]ia & p]haps o!r l[ =ms ( plant life71 & ! rema9+ ones f ! m9]al comp\nds ( ! soil4 ,c>bon dioxide & oxyg51 be+ d]iv$ f ! air1 are always available to ! leaves & /ems ( gr[+ plants 9 unlimit$ supply2 b ! supply available to a se$ :5 g]m9at+ 9 ! soil1 or to ! roots ( a gr[+ f>m crop1 may sometimes become inadequate1 especially 9 soils ( a v compact texture1 or wat]-logg$ soils4 ,9 su* cases1 ! defici5cy ( ^! gase\s food elem5ts may become a limit+ factor 9 plant gr[?4 ,wat] is (t5 a limit+ factor 9 plant gr[?4 ,exp]im5ts :i* h be5 repeat$ _m times & "u widely v>y+ conditions %[ t :5 wat] is suppli$ to a plant 9 v>y+ am\nts1 by increas+ ! p]c5tage ( wat] 9 ! soil 9 :i* ! plant is gr[+ by regul> increm5ts up to ! saturation po9t1 ! gr[? ( ! plant1 or yield ( ! crop1 increases up to a c]ta9 po9t & !n falls (f because ! excess ( wat] r$uces ! supply ( air :i* is available to ! plant roots4 ,h5ce1 abundance ( wat] is1 9 g5]al1 a mo/ ess5tial factor 9 plant gr[?4 ,"u normal conditions ( air & moi/ure supply1 h[ev]1 ! plant food elem5ts :i* may be consid]$ to be ! limit+ factors 9 ! nutrition & gr[? ( plants are ! *emical elem5ts m5tion$ 9 ! li/ above4 ,,available ,,& ,,unavailable ,,=ms ,! plant food mat]ials :i* are tak5 f ! soil by a gr[+ plant mu/ ent] x by osmosis ?r\gh ! semi-p]meable membranes :i* con/itute ! epid]mis ( ! root-hairs1 & circulate ?r\gh ! plant ei!r c>ri$ 9 solution 9 ! sap or by osmosis f cell to cell4 ,h5ce1 !y mu/ be 9 wat]-soluble =m be=e !y c be utiliz$ by plants4 ,obvi\sly1 !re=e1 only ^? comp\nds ( ^! elem5ts 9 ! soil :i* are soluble 9 ! soil wat] are available z plant food4 ,! great] proportion ( ! soil elem5ts are pres5t !re 9 ! =m ( comp\nds :i* are s slightly soluble 9 wat] z to be unavailable to plants4 ,! processes by :i* ^! practically insoluble comp\nds become gradually *ang$ into soluble =ms are *iefly ! wea!r+ action ( air & wat] 7p>ticul>ly if ! latt] conta9s c>bonic acid7 & ! action ( ! organic acids result+ f decay+ animal or vegetable matt] or secret$ by liv+ plants4 ,,! ,,value ,,( ,,! ,,soil ,,elem5ts ,,z ,,plant ,,food ,analyses ( ! tissues ( plants %[ t !y conta9 all ( ! elem5ts t are to be f\nd 9 ! soil on :i* !y grew4 ,any ( ^! elem5ts :i* are pres5t 9 ! soil 9 soluble =m are c>ri$ into ! plants ) ! soil wat] 9 :i* !y are dissolv$1 :e!r !y are ne$$ by ! plant = its nutrition or n4 ,b 9 ! case ( ^? elem5ts :i* are n tak5 out ( ! sap to be us$ by ! plant cells 9 _! activities1 ! total am\nt tak5 f ! soil is mu* less ?an is t ( ! elem5ts :i* are us$ 9 ! syn!tic processes ( ! plant4 ,h5ce1 mu* l>g] proportions ( "s elem5ts ?an ( o!rs are tak5 f ! soil by plants4 ,! proportions ( ! diff]5t elem5ts :i* are us$ by plants z raw mat]ials = ! manufacture ( ! products ne$$ = _! gr[? v>ies ) ! diff]5t species2 b a c]ta9 am\nt ( ea* ( ! s-call$ ess5tial elem5ts 7see bel[7 is necess>y to e plant1 because ea* su* elem5t has a def9ite rle :i* x p]=ms 9 ! plant's gr[?4 ,a plant _c gr[ to maturity unless a suffici5t supply ( ea* ess5tial elem5t comes to x f ! soil4 ,f ! /&po9t ( _! relative value z raw mat]ials = plant food1 ! elem5ts :i* are pres5t 9 ! soil may be divid$ into ?ree classes2 namely1 ! non-ess5tial1 ! ess5tial & abundant1 & ! critical elem5ts4 ,! fir/ class includes silicon1 alum9ium1 sodium1 manganese1 & c]ta9 o!r r>] elem5ts :i* sometimes are f\nd 9 soils ( "s special type1 or unusual orig94 ,^! elem5ts seem to h no rle to play 9 ! nutrition ( plants2 al?\gh silicon is always pres5t 9 plant a% & sodium salts are f\nd 9 small quantities 9 all p>ts ( practically all plants4 ,ne>ly all species ( plants c be gr[n to full maturity 9 ! entire abs5ce ( ^! elem5ts f _! culture m$ium4 ,occasional exceptions to ?is /atem5t 9 ! case ( special types ( plants are kn[n1 & are ( int]e/ 9 special /udies ( plant adaptations1 b ne$ n be consid]$ "h4 ,! second gr\p includes iron1 calcium1 magnesium1 &1 g5]ally1 sulfur4 ,all ( ^! elem5ts are ess5tial = plant gr[?1 b are usually pres5t 9 ! soil 9 ample quantities to insure a suffici5t supply 9 available =m = all plant ne$s4 ,rec5t inve/igations h %[n1 h[ev]1 t !re are _m soils 9 :i* sulfur is pres5t 9 su* limit$ quantities t _m agricultural crops1 :5 gr[n on ^! soils1 respond favorably to ! application ( sulfur-conta9+ f]tiliz]s4 ,9 su* cases1 sulfur is a critical elem5t4 ,! critical elem5ts are ^? :i* are ess5tial to ! gr[? ( all plants & :i* are pres5t 9 mo/ soils 9 relatively small proportions & any "o may1 !re=e1 be ! limit+ factor 9 plant gr[? s f> z plant food is conc]n$4 ,^! are nitrog51 phosphorus1 potassium1 & 7possibly7 sulfur4 ,r,,le ,,( ,,plant ,,food ,,elem5ts ,,9 ,,plant ,,gr[? ,! use :i* a plant makes ( ! elem5ts :i* come to x f ! soil has be5 /udi$ ) great p]si/5cy & c>e by _m plant physiologi/s & *emi/s4 ,_m ( ! reactions :i* take place 9 a plant cell are extremely complicat$1 & ! relation ( ! diff]5t *emical elem5ts to ^! is n easily asc]ta9$4 ,x is probable t ! same elem5t may play a some:at diff]5t rle 9 diff]5t species ( plants1 9 diff]5t organs ( ! same plant1 or at diff]5t /ages ( ! plant's developm5t4 ,b ! usual & mo/ important (fices ( ea* elem5t are n[ fairly well und]/ood1 & are briefly summ>iz$ 9 ! foll[+ p>agraphs4 ,x %\ld be und]/ood t a ?or\gh & detail$ discussion ( ^! matt]s1 su* z w\ld be includ$ 9 an advanc$ /udy ( plant nutrition1 w\ld reveal o!r functions ?an ^? :i* are pres5t$ "h & w\ld require a m c>eful & m exact me?od ( /atem5t ?an is suitable "h4 ,h[ev]1 ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ! utilization ( soil elem5ts by plants = _! nutrition & gr[? may be fairly well und]/ood f ! foll[+ /atem5ts4 ,nitrog5 is a con/itu5t ( all prote9s 7see ,*apt] ,,xiii74 ,prote9s are app>5tly ! active *emical compon5ts ( protoplasm4 ,s9ce x is 9 ! protoplasm ( ! gre5 portions1 usually foliage1 ( plants t ! photosyn!sis ( c>bohydrates & ! syn!sis ( mo/1 or all1 ( ! o!r tissue-build+ mat]ials & res]ve food sub/ances ( ! plant takes place1 ! importance ( nitrog5 z a plant food c h>dly be ov]-emphasiz$4 ,nitrog5 />vation produces m>k$ *anges 9 ! gr[? ( a plant4 ,leaves are /unt$ 9 gr[? & a m>k$ yell[+ ( ! entire foliage takes place2 9 fact1 ! :ole plant takes on a /unt$ or />v$ appe>ance4 ,abundance ( nitrog51 on ! o!r h&1 produces a rank gr[? ( foliage ( a deep ri* color & a luxuriant developm5t ( tissue1 & ret>ds ! rip5+ process4 ,9 ! e>ly /ages ( gr[?1 ! nitrog5 is pres5t mo/ l>gely 9 ! leaves2 b :5 ! se$s develop1 rapid translocation ( prote9 mat]ial into ! se$s takes place1 until f9ally a l>ge proportion ( ! total supply is deposit$ 9 !m4 ,nitrates are ! normal =m ( nitrog5 9 ! soil :i* is available to plants4 ,dur+ g]m9ation & e>ly gr[?1 ! "y se$l+ uses am9o-acids1 etc41 d]iv$ f ! prote9s /or$ 9 ! se$1 z its s\rce ( nitrog52 & exp]im5ts h %[n t simil> =ms ( soluble organic nitrog5 comp\nds c be successfully f$ to ! se$l+ z an ext]nal food supply4 ,soluble ammonium salts c be utiliz$ z s\rces ( nitrog5 by mo/ plants dur+ lat] p]iods ( gr[?1 p>ticul>ly by ! legumes4 ,b = mo/1 if n all1 ( ! common f>m crops ^: possibilities 9 ^! respects h be5 /udi$1 x has be5 f\nd t a unit ( nitrog5 tak5 up z a nitrate is v mu* m effective 9 promot+ gr[?1 etc41 ?an is ! same unit ( nitrog5 9 ! =m ( ammonium salts4 ,:ile ! prote9s are f9ally /or$ up l>gely 9 ! se$s1 or o!r /orage organs1 !y are actively at "w dur+ ! gr[+ p]iod 9 ! cells ( ! foliage p>ts ( ! plant4 ,h5ce1 ! popul> /atem5t t nitrog5 makes foliage is a fairly accurate expression ( its rle4 ,inord9ate production ( /raw 9 c]eal crops & ( leaves 9 root crops (t5 results f lib]al supplies ( available nitrog5 9 ! soil e>ly 9 ! gr[+ season4 ,if ! crops develop to normal maturity1 ?is excessive foliage gr[? has no h>mful results1 z ! surplus mat]ial :i* has be5 elaborat$ is prop]ly translocat$ into ! desir$ /orage organs2 b1 un=tunately1 ! ret>d+ effect ( ! surplus nitrog5 supply ^u ! date ( matur+ ( ! crop is (t5 associat$ ) premature rip5+ ( ! plants f o!r causes1 ) ! consequ5ce t too l>ge a proportion ( ! valuable food mat]ial is left 9 ! refuse foliage mat]ial ( ! crop4 ,crops :i* are gr[n solely = _! leaves1 su* z hay crops1 lettuce1 cabbage1 etc41 pr(it greatly by abundant supplies ( available nitrog52 al?\gh :5 foliage gr[? is /imulat$ 9 ?is way ! tissue is likely to be ?9-wall$ & s(t r ?an firm & solid4 ,phosphorus is likewise an extremely important elem5t 9 plant nutrition4 ,b phosphorus />vation produces no su* /rik+ visible effects ^u ! gr[? ( ! plant z does lack ( nitrog54 ,abundance ( available phosphorus e>ly 9 ! plant's life greatly /imulates root gr[?1 & lat] on x und\bt$ly ha/5s ! rip5+ process2 h5ce1 ?is elem5t seems to act z ! exact anti!sis ( nitrog54 ,! rle ( phosphorus1 or ( phosphates1 9 ! physiological processes ( ! cell seems to be difficult to discov]4 ,! elem5t itself is a con/itu5t ( "s prote9 complexes & ( ! leci?9-l bodies 7see page #ada7 :i* are suppos$ by "s inve/igators to play an important "p 9 det]m9+ ! rate ( *emical *anges :i* take place 9 ! cell & ! movem5t ( mat]ials into & out ( x4 ,x is an ess5tial con/itu5t ( ! nucleus1 & a meag] supply ( phosphorus ret>ds1 or inhibits1 mitotic cell-division4 ,photosyn!sis ( sug>s & ! cond5s+ ( ^! into />* or cellulose takes place 9 plants 9 ! abs5ce ( available phosphorus2 b ! *ange ( ^! insoluble c>bohydrates back aga9 into soluble & available sug> foods does n4 ,phosphorus is tak5 f ! soil by plants 9 ! =m ( phosphates4 ,mu* /udy has be5 giv5 to ! problem ( ! prop] supply ( available soil phosphates = economic crop production4 ,any discussion ( soil f]tility & f]tilization :i* did n devote l>ge att5tion to ! conditions "u :i* phosphates become available z plant food w\ld be :olly inadequate2 b su* a discussion w\ld be out ( place "h4 ,! f9al result ( an ample supply ( phosphates 9 ha/5+ ! rip5+ process & /imulat+ se$ production1 z contra/$ ) t ( an ov]-supply ( nitrog51 has l$ to ! popul> /atem5t t phosphates make se$s4 ,?is /atem5t1 :ile n /rictly accurate1 is a fairly good summ>y ( ! comb9$ results ( ! rle ( phosphorus 9 ! plant economy4 ,l>ge am\nts ( phosphorus are /or$ 9 ! se$s4 ,! two facts t l>ge am\nts ( ^! comp\nds are ?us available to ! "y se$l+ & t relatively l>ge proportions ( phosphates are tak5 f ! soil by ! plant dur+ its e>ly /ages ( gr[? are und\bt$ly connect$ ) ! ne$ = rapid cell-division at ^! p]iods 9 ! plant's life4 ,potassium4--,! popul> expression t pota% makes sug>s & />* is a surpris+ly accurate description ( ! rle ( ?is elem5t 9 plant metabolism4 ,ei!r ! photosyn!sis ( />*1 or ! *anges necess>y to its translocation 7x is n yet c]ta9 :i*7 is s dep5d5t ^u ! pres5ce ( potassium 9 ! cell sap t ! :ole process /ops at once if an insuffici5t supply is pres5t4 ,! production & /orage ( sug>1 or />*1 9 su* root crops z beets1 potatoes1 etc41 dim9i%es 9 direct proportion ) a decreas+ supply ( potassium z plant food4 ,! gra9s ( ! c]eal crops become %runk5 z a result ( potassium />vation2 & are plump & well fill$ ) />* 9 ! endosp]m :5 suffici5t potassium is available = ! crop's ne$s4 ,! g5]al tone & vigor ( gr[? ( ! plant is l>gely dep5d5t ^u an ample potassium supply2 pota%-hungry plants1 l ^? :i* h be5 weak5$ by any o!r unfavorable conditions1 h be5 f\nd to be m susceptible to injury by disease1 ?an ^? :i* are well n\ri%$ ) ?is food elem5t4 ,b potassium-/>vation does n produce any pa?ological condition ( ! cell cont5ts2 its abs5ce simply prev5ts ! possibility ( ! developm5t ( ! necess>y c>bohydrates = vigor\s gr[?4 ,!re is no kn[n diff]5ce 9 ! availability1 or effectiv5ess1 ( potassium f ! diff]5t =ms ( comp\nds conta9+ x :i* may be pres5t 9 ! soil4 ,app>5tly1 ! only ess5tial is t ! comp\nd %all be soluble s t x c be absorb$ into ! plant ?r\gh ! root-hairs4 ,( c\rse1 ! acid radical to :i* ! basic potassium ion is atta*$ may1 9 itself1 h "s b5eficial or delet]i\s influ5ce :i* gives to ! comp\nd z a :ole "s important effect 9 "o case1 :i* might n foll[ 9 ! case ( ano!r type ( comp\nd2 b ! relative effici5cy z plant food ( a giv5 unit ( potassium seems to be ! same reg>dless ( ! nature ( ! comp\nd 9 :i* x is pres5t4 ,calcium is an ess5tial plant food elem5t b its physiological use has n yet be5 def9itely e/abli%$4 ,x seems to /imulate root-developm5t1 & c]ta9ly gives vigor & tone to ! :ole plant4 ,x is commonly believ$ t calcium is 9 "s way connect$ ) ! developm5t ( cell-wall mat]ial4 ,x has be5 report$ t ! /ems ( grasses & c]eal plants become /iff] 9 ! pres5ce ( ample calcium1 b ?is may be due to great] turgidity r ?an to /r5g!n$ cell-walls4 ,calcium rema9s 9 ! leaves or /em z ! plant rip5s1 b x is n cle> t ?is has any?+ to d ) ! /iffness or weakness ( ! /em1 or /raw1 ( ! plant4 ,exp]im5ts ) alg h %[n t 9 ! abs5ce ( calcium salts mitotic cell division takes place1 %[+ t ! nucleus functions prop]ly1 b ! =mation ( ! new transv]se cell-wall is ret>d$4 ,?is is ! only direct evid5ce t has be5 report$ t calcium has any connection ) cell-wall =mation4 ,c]ta9 species ( plants1 notably _m legumes1 require su* l>ge am\nts ( calcium salts = _! gr[? z to give to !m ! popul> appellation ( lime-lov+ plants4 ,o!r plants1 kn[n z calciphiles1 :ile n actually %[+ abnormally l>ge p]c5tages ( calcium 9 _! a%1 fl\ri% be/ on soils ri* 9 lime4 ,on ! o!r h&1 c]ta9 o!r species1 kn[n z calcifuges1 w n gr[ on soils :i* are ev5 mod]ately ri* 9 lime2 9 :at respect ^! diff] 9 _! vital processes f o!rs :i* dem& l>ge am\nts ( calcium1 or ^? :i* fl\ri% on soils ri* 9 lime1 has n be5 det]m9$1 h[ev]4 ,! b5eficial effect ( alkal9e calcium comp\nds 9 ! soil1 9 correct+ injuri\s acidity1 9 improv+ ! texture ( clay soils1 & 9 promot+ ! prop] conditions = bact]ial gr[?1 is well kn[n2 b ?is has no direct connection ) ! rle ( calcium z plant food4 ,fur!rmore1 calcium salts 9 ! soil h a p[]ful influ5ce 9 ov]com+ ! h>mful1 or toxic1 effects ( excessive am\nts ( soluble salts ( magnesium1 sodium1 or potassium1 9 ! s-call$ alkali soils 7i4e41 ^? :i* conta9 excessive am\nts ( wat]-soluble salts74 ,! probable explanation = ?is fact is po9t$ out 9 a lat] p>agraph ( ?is *apt] 7see page #ad72 b ?is prop]ty ( calcium probably has no connection ) its physiological uses z plant food4 ,magnesium1 l phosphorus1 is f9ally /or$ up mo/ly 9 ! se$s1 n rema9+ 9 ! leaves & /ems1 z d calcium & potassium4 ,?is fact1 toge!r ) o!r evid5ce obta9$ f exp]im5ts 9 gr[+ plants 9 culture solutions conta9+ v>y+ am\nts ( ?is elem5t1 has l$ c]ta9 inve/igators to ! conclusion t ! rle ( magnesium is to aid 9 ! transport ( phosphorus1 p>ticul>ly f old] to m rapidly gr[+ p>ts ( ! plant4 ,m rec5t inve/igations h %[n1 h[ev]1 t magnesium has o!r rles :i* are probably m specific & m important ?an ?is "o4 ,x is n[ kn[n t magnesium is a def9ite con/itu5t ( ! *lorophyll molecule s]v+1 z w be %[n 7see ,*apt] ,,viii71 z ! means ( l9kage betwe5 its ess5tial compon5t organic gr\ps4 ,because ( ?is fact1 magnesium-/>vation produces etiolat$ plants1 :i* _c function normally4 ,fur!r1 magnesium seems to be necess>y = ! =mation ( fats1 app>5tly /&+ 9 a simil> relation to fat-=mation to t ( potassium to c>bohydrate-=mation4 ,?is view is support$ by ! obs]vations t :5 alg are gr[n 9 magnesium-free solutions !y conta9 no fat globules & t oily se$s are ri*] 9 magnesium ?an are ^? :i* /ore up />* z _! res]ve food mat]ial4 ,obs]v]s ( ! second ( ^! ph5om5a h fail$ to note1 h[ev]1 t oily se$s are likewise ri*] 9 phosphorus ?an are />*y ones1 & t ! pres5ce ( l>g] proportions ( magnesium 9 su* se$s may1 p]haps1 be relat$ to phosphorus-translocation r ?an to fat-=mation4 ,:atev] relation magnesium may h to fat-=mation1 or to ! translocation ( phosphorus1 x is evid5t t ^! are rles q ap>t f its use z a con/itu5t elem5t 9 *lorophyll4 ,z yet1 no explanation ( h[ x aids 9 ^! o!r syn!tic processes has be5 advanc$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 an excess ( soluble magnesium salts 9 ! soil produces def9ite toxic effects ^u plants1 magnesium comp\nds be+ kn[n to be among ! mo/ de/ructive ( ! alkali soil salts4 ,calcium salts are rem>kably effici5t 9 ov]com+ ^! h>mful effects ( magnesium salts4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 a l>ge am\nt ( exp]im5tal /udy has be5 giv5 to ! "q ( ! calcium-magnesium ratio 9 plants4 ,num]\s analyses ( plant a%es h e/abli%$ ! fact t !re is a fairly def9ite ratio ( ?is k9d1 :i* ratio1 h[ev]1 v>ies ) ! species ( plant & is n correlat$ ) ! ratio ( ^! elem5ts pres5t 9 ! soil on :i* ! plant gr[s1 z 0 =m]ly believ$4 ,c]eal plants1 z a rule1 conta9 approximately twice z mu* lime z magnesia2 :ile leafy plants 7tobacco1 cabbage1 etc47 usually conta9 ab\t f\r times z mu* calcium oxide z magnesium oxide4 ,iron is ess5tial to *lorophyll-=mation4 ,x is n a con/itu5t ( ! *lorophyll molecule1 z is magnesium2 b 9 ! abs5ce ( iron f ! culture solution1 a plant fails to produce *lorophyll & a gre5 plant :i* is depriv$ ( a supply ( iron rapidly becomes etiolat$4 ,! way 9 :i* iron is relat$ to *lorophyll-=mation is n kn[n4 ,iron is tak5 f ! soil by plants 9 ! smalle/ proportions ( any ( ! ess5tial elem5ts4 ,only soluble f]ric comp\nds seem to s]ve z a suitable s\rce ( supply ( ! elem5t2 f]r\s comp\nds be+ usually highly toxic to plants4 ,sulfur is an ess5tial elem5t ( plant food4 ,! am\nts requir$ by plants 7 suppos$1 until rec5tly1 to be relatively small4 ,?is 0 due to ! fact t e>li] /udies took acc\nt only ( ! sulfur :i*1 on analysis1 appe>$ z sulfates 9 ! a%4 ,improv$ me?ods ( analysis1 :i* insure t ! sulfur :i* is pres5t 9 ! plant tissue 9 organic comb9ations is oxidiz$ "u su* conditions t x is n lo/ by volatilization dur+ ! combu/ion ( ! mat]ial1 h %[n t ! total sulfur :i* is pres5t 9 _m plants approa*es ! quantity ( phosphorus :i* is pres5t 9 ! same tissue4 ,fur!rmore1 rec5t field & pot exp]im5ts h %[n t at lea/ a consid]able "p ( ! b5eficial effects ( _m f]tiliz]s1 :i* has previ\sly be5 attribut$ to ! calcium1 potassium1 or phosphorus :i* !y conta91 is actually due to ! sulfur pres5t z sulfates 9 ! f]tiliz]s us$4 ,sulfur occurs 9 ! organic comp\nds ( plants1 associat$ ) phosphorus4 ,x seems probable t its physiological uses are simil> to ^? ( ! latt] elem5t2 b !re is z yet no exp]im5tal evid5ce to e/abli% its exact rle 9 ! economy ( plant gr[?4 ,x appe>s to be ne$$ 9 l>ge/ proportion by plants :i* conta9 high p]c5tages ( nitrog5 9 _! foliage1 su* z ! legumes4 ,!re is "s evid5ce t sulfur has a p>ticul> rle 9 promot+ ! gr[? ( bact]ia1 & x may be t ! p]c5tages ( total sulfur :i* are f\nd 9 ! tissues ( legumes are due to ! pres5ce ( ! symbiotic nitrog5-ga!r+ bact]ia 9 ! nodules on ! roots ( ^! plants4 ,?is po9t has n yet be5 inve/igat$1 h[ev]4 ,sodium is probably n ess5tial to plant gr[?1 al?\gh x is pres5t 9 small proportions 9 ! a% f practically all plants4 ,9 cases ( insuffici5t supply ( potassium1 sodium c app>5tly p]=m at lea/ a "p ( ! rle ( ! =m] elem5t2 b ?is seems n to be a normal relation%ip or use4 ,*lor9e is f\nd 9 small am\nts 9 ! sap & 9 ! a% ( ne>ly all plants4 ,h[ev]1 x does n appe> to be ess5tial to ! gr[? ( a plant1 except possibly 9 ! case ( c]ta9 species1 su* z asp>agus1 buck:eat1 &1 p]haps1 turnips & "s o!r root crops4 ,:e!r ! b5efit :i* ^! crops d]ive f ! application ( common salt to ! soil 9 :i* !y are gr[+ is due to ! direct food value ( ei!r ! *lor9e1 or ! sodium1 or to "s indirect effect1 is n yet kn[n4 ,! pres5ce ( *lor9e 9 ! sap ( plants is und\bt$ly due to ! inevitable absorption ( soluble *lorides f ! soil & app>5tly has no connection ) ! nutritional ne$s ( ! plant4 ,silicon is always consid]$ z a non-ess5tial elem5t1 al?\gh x occurs 9 su* l>ge proportions 9 "s plants z to indicate t x _c be :olly useless4 ,x accumulates 9 ! /ems ( plants1 *iefly 9 ! cell-wall1 & has sometimes be5 suppos$ to aid 9 giv+ /iffness to ! /ems4 ,b l>ge numb]s ( analyses h fail$ to %[ any direct correlation betwe5 ! /iffness ( /raw ( c]eal plants & ! p]c5tage ( silicon :i* !y conta94 ,fur!r1 plants w gr[ to full maturity & ) erect /ems :5 no silicon is pres5t 9 ! m9]al nutri5ts :i* are furni%$ to !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 c]ta9 exp]im5ts appe> to indicate t silicon c p]=m "s ( ! functions ( phosphorus1 if soluble silicates are suppli$ to phosphorus-/>v$ plants4 ,b "u normal conditions ( plant nutrition1 x seems to h no su* function4 ,,inorganic ,,plant ,,tox9s ,,& ,,/imulants ,mu* /udy has be5 giv5 dur+ rec5t ye>s to ! "q ( ! suppos$ poison\s1 or toxic1 effects ^u plants ( v>i\s soil con/itu5ts4 ,!re seems to be no d\bt t c]ta9 organic comp\nds :i* are injuri\s to plant life are (t5 pres5t 9 ! soil1 ei!r z ! normal excretions ( plant roots or z products ( ! decomposition ( prec$+ plant gr[?s4 ,a consid]ation ( ^! suppos$ly toxic organic sub/ances w\ld be out ( place 9 ?is discussion ( m9]al soil nutri5ts4 ,b !re seems to be no d\bt t !re may also be m9]al sub/ances 9 ! soil :i* may sometimes ex]t delet]i\s influ5ces ^u plant gr[?4 ,9 fact1 mo/ metallic salts1 except ^? ( ! few metals :i* are requir$ = plant nutrition1 appe> to be toxic to plants4 ,! exact nature ( ! physiological effects :i* are produc$ by ^! m9]al tox9s is n cle>ly und]/ood2 inde$1 x is probably diff]5t 9 ! case ( diff]5t metals4 ,fur!r1 x is c]ta9 t bo? ! /imulat+ & ! toxic effect ( metallic comp\nds ^u l[ =ms ( plants is q diff]5t f ! effects ( ! same sub/ances ^u ! m complex tissues ( high] plants1 a fact :i* is utiliz$ to advantage 9 ! application ( fungicides = ! control ( p>asitic gr[?s on common f>m crops4 ,among ! elem5ts ^: physiological effects ^u high] plants1 su* z ! c]eal crops1 etc41 :5 _! soluble comp\nds are pres5t 9 ! soil1 h be5 c>efully /udi$1 !re are ?ree fairly di/9ct types ( injuri\s m9]al elem5ts4 ,! fir/ ( ^!1 repres5t$ by copp]1 z9c1 & ars5ic1 app>5tly ex]t _! toxic effect reg>dless ( ! proportion 9 :i* !y are pres5t 9 ! nutri5t solution :i* is pres5t$ to ! plant2 al?\gh ! degree ( injury v>ies ) ! am\nt ( injuri\s sub/ance pres5t1 ( c\rse4 ,! second type1 ( :i* boron & manganese are repres5tatives1 app>5tly ex]ts a def9ite /imulat+ effect ^u plants :5 suppli$ to !m 9 conc5trations bel[ c]ta9 cle>ly def9$ limits2 b are toxic 9 conc5trations above ^!4 ,! ?ird includes _m soluble salts ( magnesium1 sodium1 potassium1 etc41 :i* :ile ei!r innocu\s or else def9ite s\rces ( ess5tial plant foods :5 9 l[] conc5trations1 become highly toxic1 or corrosive1 :5 pres5t 9 ! soil solution 9 conc5trations above ! limits ( tol]ation ( individual plants = ^! soluble salts4 ,! tol]ance %[n by ! diff]5t species ( plants t[>d ^! soluble salts 7! s-call$ alkali 9 soils7 v>ies widely2 inde$1 !re seems to be consid]able v>iation 9 ! resi/ance ( diff]5t individual plants ( ! same species to injury f ?is cause4 ,) ref]5ce to ! toxic effect ( ! ?ird type ( sub/ances1 i4e41 ! common soluble salts1 x is kn[n t s+le salts ( potassium1 magnesium1 sodium1 or calcium1 9 c]ta9 conc5trations1 are toxic to plants1 :ile mixtures ( ! same salts 9 ! same conc5trations are n4 ,?us1 solutions ( sodium *loride1 magnesium sulfate1 potassium *loride1 & calcium *loride :i*1 :5 us$ s+ly1 kill$ plants ^: roots 7 imm]s$ 9 !m = only a few m9utes1 =m$ :5 mix$ toge!r a nutri5t solution 9 :i* ! same plants grew normally4 ,! rem>kable rem$ial effect ( calcium salts 9 ov]com+ ! injuri\s effects ( o!r soluble salts has already be5 m5tion$4 ,"o explanation ( ^! relation%ips betwe5 m9]al soil con/itu5ts & ! liv+ plant is t ! life ph5om5a dep5d ^u a balanc$ adju/m5t betwe5 ! comp\nds ( ^! diff]5t m9]al elem5ts ) ! prote9s 7produc+ ! s-call$ metal proteids7 :i* con/itute ! active mat]ial ( ! cell protoplasm4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 any excess or defici5cy ( any "o or m ( ^! elem5ts 9 ! plant juices :i* surr\nd a giv5 cell w1 ( c\rse1 cause an int]*ange ) ! m9]al compon5ts ( ! suppos$ metal proteids :i* upsets ! assum$ ess5tial balance betwe5 !m1 ) disa/r\s results4 ,a m rec5t1 & mu* m satisfactory1 explanation ( ! antagonism betwe5 m9]al elem5ts 9 _! toxic effects ^u plants1 :i* has bo? !oretical & exp]im5tal confirmation1 is t s+le salts di/urb ! colloidal condition 7see ,*apt] ,,xv7 ( ! protoplasm ( ! plant cells 9 su* a way z to de/roy its p]meability to nutri5t sub/ances1 :ile mixtures ( salts re/ore ! prop] /ate ( colloidal disp]sion & p]mit ! normal function+ ( ! protoplasm4 ,x is app>5t f ! above brief discussions t ! rle ( ! diff]5t soil elem5ts z plant food1 & _! relations to ! complex processes :i* con/itute plant gr[?1 af=d an int]e/+ & promis+ field = fur!r /udy4 ,ref]5ces ,,br5*ley1 ,,w9ifr$ ,e4--,inorganic ,plant ,poisons & ,/imulants1 #ajf pages1 #ah figs41 ,cambridge1 #aiad4 ,,hall1 ,a4 ,d4--,f]tiliz]s & ,manures1 #chd pages1 #g plates1 ,london1 #aiji4 ,,hall1 ,a4 ,d4--,! ,book ( ! ,ro?am/$ ,exp]im5ts1 #bid pages1 #di figs41 #h plates1 ,london1 #aije4 ,,hopk9s1 ,c4 ,g4--,soil ,f]tility & ,p]man5t ,agriculture1 #fec pages1 ,*icago1 #aiaj4 ,,hilg>d1 ,e4 ,w4--,soils1 #eic pages1 #hi figs41 ,new ,york1 #aijf4 ,,loew1 ,o4--,! ,physiological ,rle ( ,m9]al ,nutri5ts1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,bureau ( ,plant ,indu/ry1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #de1 #gj pages1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 #aijc4 ,,russell1 ,e4 ,j4--,soil ,conditions & ,plant ,gr[?1 #bdc pages1 #ac figs41 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiag4 7#c;d ed47 ,,:itney1 ,m4--,a ,/udy ( ,crop ,yields & ,soil ,composition 9 ,relation to ,soil ,productivity1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,bureau ( ,soils1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #eg1 #abg pages1 #bd figs41 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 #aiji4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,organic ,,compon5ts ,,( ,,plants ,f ! /&po9t ( _! ability to syn!tize syn]gic foods 7see page #b7 f inorganic raw mat]ials1 plants may be divid$ into two types2 namely1 ! autotrophic1 or self-n\ri%+1 plants1 & ! het]otrophic plants4 ,/rictly speak+1 only ^? plants ^: e cell conta9s *lorophyll are entirely self-n\ri%+2 & "s p>ts1 or organs1 ( almo/ any autotrophic plant are dep5d5t ^u ! active gre5 cells ( o!r p>ts ( ! plant = _! syn]gic food4 ,fur!rmore1 if ! t]m is us$ 9 a v wide s5se1 gre5 plants are m ?an self-n\ri%+1 !y really n\ri% all liv+ ?+s4 ,b ! g5]al significance ( ! t]m autotrophic plants is app>5t4 ,het]otrophic plants mu/1 ( necessity1 get food1 ei!r directly or indirectly1 f "s o!r plant :i* c syn!tize syn]gic foods or1 9 a few cases1 f animal organic matt]4 ,if !y d ?is by fe$+ ^u ! organic comp\nds ( o!r liv+ organisms1 !y are kn[n z p>asites2 :ile if !y secure _! organic food f ! tissues or debris ( dead organisms1 !y are call$ saprophytes4 ,! het]otrophic plants are *iefly ! bact]ia & fungi2 al?\gh a few se$-plants are devoid ( *lorophyll or h nutritive habits simil> to ^? ( ! non-gre5 plants1 & a few species are semi-p>asitic or semi-saprophytic4 ,x is obvi\s t ! metabolic processes ( ! autotrophic plants are v diff]5t f ^? ( ! het]otrophic type ( plants4 ,^! diff]5ces con/itute a mo/ int]e/+ field ( /udy = plant physiologi/s4 ,b ! nature ( ! *emical comp\nds !mselves & ( ! *emical *anges involv$ 9 _! trans=mations is n radically diff]5t 9 ! two types ( plants1 ! ess5tial diff]5ce be+ 9 ! prepond]ance ( "o k9d ( activities1 or *emical reactions1 ov] ano!r 9 br++ ab\t ! metabolic processes :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ea* p>ticul> species4 ,h5ce1 x does n seem necess>y1 or desirable1 9 ?is /udy ( ! *emi/ry ( plant gr[?1 to pres5t z detail$ a consid]ation ( ! diff]5ces 9 metabolic activity ( ! diff]5t types ( plants z complete accuracy ( /atem5t 9 all cases might dem&4 ,we w1 in/ead1 discuss ! organic *emical compon5ts ( plant tissues & ! reactions :i* !y und]go1 us+ ! m common type ( autotrophic plants z ! illu/rative mat]ial 9 mo/ cases4 ,h5ce1 x w be und]/ood t 9 all ! foll[+ discussions ( plant activities1 except :]e specific exceptions are def9itely m5tion$1 x is ! gre51 or autotrophic1 plants to :i* ref]5ce is made 9 ea* case4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! sum total ( its activities1 a gre5 plant is ess5tially an absorb] ( sol> en]gy & a syn!tiz] ( organic sub/ances4 ,ea* individual autotrophic plant takes up c]ta9 am\nts ( ! an]gic foods :i* are discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] & manufactures f !m a great v>iety ( complex organic comp\nds1 us+ ! en]gy ( ! sun's rays1 absorb$ by *lorophyll1 z ! s\rce = ! en]gy necess>y to accompli% ^! syn!tic reactions4 ,! ultimate object ( ^! processes is to produce se$s1 ea* conta9+ an embryo & a suffici5t supply ( food = ! "y plant ( ! next g5]ation to use until x has develop$ its own syn!tic organs2 or 79 ! case ( p]5nials7 to /ore up res]ve food mat]ials ) :i* to />t (f new gr[? aft] a p]iod ( re/ & (t5 ( defoliation4 ,to be sure1 animals & m5 (t5 int]f]e ) ! completion ( ! life cycle ( ! plant1 & utilize ! se$s or /or$ food mat]ial = _! own nutrition1 b ?is is a biological relation :i* has no influ5ce ^u ! nature ( ! plant's own activities4 ,s9ce all ( ^! syn!tic reactions mu/ g on at ord9>y temp]atures1 active catalyz]s are necess>y4 ,^! ! plant provides 9 ! =m ( enzymes 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv7 :i* are always pres5t 9 active plant protoplasm4 ,prop] conditions = rapid *emical action are fur!r assur$ by ! colloidal nature 7see ,*apt] ,,xv7 ( ! protoplasm itself4 ,,types ,,( ,,*emical ,,*anges ,,involv$ ,,9 ,,plant ,,gr[? ,! :ole cycle ( *emical *anges :i* is involv$ 9 plant gr[? repres5ts ! net result ( two opposite processes2 ! fir/ ( ^! is a con/ructive "o :i* has at lea/ ?ree diff]5t phases3 namely1 a syn!sis ( complex organic comp\nds1 ! translocation ( ?is syn!tiz$ mat]ial to ! c5t]s ( gr[?1 & ! build+ up ( ?is food mat]ial into tissues or res]ve supplies2 & ! second is a de/ructive process ( respiration :]eby c>bohydrate mat]ial is brok5 d[n1 pot5tial en]gy is releas$1 & c>bon dioxide is excret$4 ,! syn!tic processes :i* take place 9 plants are ( two types2 namely1 photosyn!sis1 9 :i* sug>s are produc$1 & ano!r1 :i* has no specific "n1 :]eby prote9s are elaborat$4 ,! translocation ( ! syn!tiz$ mat]ial involves ! *ange ( insoluble comp\nds into soluble ones1 effect$ by ! aid ( enzymes4 ,= /orage purposes1 ! soluble =ms are usually1 ?\gh n always1 cond5s$ aga9 into m complex =ms1 ^! latt] *anges requir+ mu* less en]gy ?an d ! orig9al syn!ses f raw mat]ials4 ,! de/ructive process1 respiration1 is *>act]i/ic ( all liv+ matt]1 ei!r plant or animal organisms4 ,x takes place cont9u\sly ?r\gh\t ! :ole life ( a plant4 ,dur+ rapid gr[? x is ov]%ad[$ by ! results ( ! syn!tic process1 b dur+ ! rip5+ p]iod 9 :i* ! se$ is matur$1 & dur+ ! g]m9ation ( ! se$ itself1 gr[? is practically at a /&/ill & ! respiratory1 de/ructive action pr$om9ates1 s t ! plant actually loses weight4 ,,gr\ps ,,( ,,organic ,,comp\nds ,,f\nd ,,9 ,,plants ,z a result ( _! v>i\s syn!tic & metabolic activities1 a great v>iety ( organic comp\nds is produc$ by plants4 ,c]ta9 types ( ^! comp\nds1 su* z ! c>bohydrates & prote9s1 are necess>y to all plants & are elaborat$ by all species ( autotrophic plants4 ,o!r types ( comp\nds are produc$ by _m1 b n all1 species ( plants2 :ile /ill o!rs are f\nd 9 only a few species4 ,x is fairly easy to classify all ( ^! comp\nds into a few1 well-def9$ gr\ps1 bas$ ^u simil>ity ( *emical composition4 ,^! gr\ps are kn[n1 respectively1 z ! c>bohydrates & _! d]ivatives1 ! glucosides & tann9s2 ! fats & waxes2 ! ess5tial oils & res9s2 organic acids & _! salts2 ! prote9s2 ! vegetable bases & alkaloids2 & ! pigm5ts4 ,a consid]ation ( ^! gr\ps ( comp\nds1 z !y are syn!tiz$ by plants1 con/itutes ! major portion ( ! /udy ( ! *emi/ry ( plant life z pres5t$ 9 ?is book4 ,foll[+ ! discussion ( ! comp\nds !mselves1 ! *apt]s deal+ ) enzymes1 ) ! colloidal nature ( protoplasm1 & ) ! suppos$ accessory /imulat+ ag5cies1 aim to %[ h[ ! manufactur+ ma*9e kn[n z ! plant cell accompli%es its rem>kable results1 s f> z ! process is n[ und]/ood4 ,,physiological ,,uses ,,& ,,biological ,,significance ,9 connection ) ! discussion ( ea* ( ! above-m5tion$ gr\ps ( organic compon5ts ( plants1 an attempt w be made to po9t out :at significance ^! p>ticul> comp\nds h 9 ! plant's life & gr[?4 ,c]ta9 t]ms w be us$ to designate diff]5t rles1 :i* x is probably necess>y to def9e4 ,!re may be two possible explanations (1 or reasons =1 ! pres5ce ( any giv5 type ( comp\nd 9 ! tissues ( any p>ticul> species ( plant4 ,fir/1 x may be suppos$ t ?is p>ticul> type ( comp\nds is elaborat$ by ! plant to satisfy its own physiological ne$s1 or = ! purpose ( /or+ x up 9 ! se$s z syn]gic food = ! gr[? ( ! embryo1 9 ord] to reproduce ! species4 ,= ?is rle ( ! v>i\s organic food mat]ials1 etc41 we w employ ! t]m physiological use4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is (t5 conceivable t c]ta9 types ( comp\nds1 :i* h prop]ties t make !m m>k$ly attractive 7or repell5t7 z a food = animals & m51 or :i* are /rongly antiseptic 9 "*1 or :i* h "s o!r def9ite relation%ip to o!r liv+ organisms1 h _h mu* to d ) ! survival ( ! p>ticul> species :i* elaborates !m1 9 ! competitive /ruggle = exi/5ce2 or h be5 develop$ 9 ! plant by ! evolution>y process ( natural selection4 ,= ?is relation ( ! comp\nd to ! plant's vital ne$s1 we w use ! t]m biological significance4 ,su* a segregation ( ! rles :i* ! diff]5t comp\nds play 9 ! plant's economy may be m or less arbitr>y 9 _m cases2 b x w be cle> t :5 physiological uses are discuss$1 ref]5ce is be+ made to ! plant's own int]nal ne$s2 :ile ! phrase biological significance w be und]/ood to ref] to ! relation ( ! plant to o!r liv+ organisms4 ,,physiological ,,uses ,,( ,,! ,,organic ,,compon5t ,,gr\ps ,f ! /&po9t ( ! rle :i* ea* plays 9 ! plant economy1 ! sev]al gr\ps ( organic comp\nds may be r\ghly divid$ into ?ree classes4 ,^! are3 7a7 ! framework mat]ials1 includ+ gums1 pect9s1 & celluloses2 7b7 syn]gic foods1 includ+ c>bohydrates1 fats1 & prote9s2 & 7c7 ! secretions1 includ+ ! glucosides1 volatile oils1 alkaloids1 pigm5ts1 & enzymes4 ,! framework mat]ial1 z ! "n indicates1 con/itutes ! cell-wall & o!r skeleton sub/ances ( ! plant4 ,x is made up ( c>bohydrate complexes1 produc$ by ! cell protoplasm f ! simpl] c>bohydrates4 ,! syn]gic foods1 or res]ve foods z !y are sometimes call$1 produc$ by ! excess ( syn!tiz$ mat]ial ov] t ne$$ = ! imm$iate use ( ! plant1 are accumulat$ ei!r 9 ! v>i\s /orage organs1 to be available = future use by ! plant itself or by its vegetative (fspr+1 or 9 ! se$1 to be available to ! "y se$l+ ( ! next g5]ation4 ,prote9s n only s]ve z res]ve food mat]ials b also make up ! body ( ! liv+ organism itself4 ,c>bohydrates & fats s]ve z syn]gic & res]ve foods4 ,! secretions may be produc$ ei!r 9 ord9>y cells & f\nd 9 _! vacuoles1 or 9 special secretory cells & /or$ 9 cavities 9 ! secret+ gl&s 7z 9 ! leaves ( m9ts1 sk9 ( oranges1 etc471 or 9 special ducts 7z 9 p9es1 milkwe$s1 etc47 or on ! epid]mis 7z ! bloom ( plums1 cabbages1 etc41 ! res9\s coat+ ( _m leaves1 etc474 ,z a g5]al rule1 ! glucosides1 pigm5ts1 & enzymes are ! products ( unspecializ$ cells & h "s def9ite connection ) ! metabolic processes ( ! plant2 :ile ! volatile oils & ! alkaloids are usually secret$ by special cells & h no kn[n rle 9 metabolism4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,photosyn!sis ,photosyn!sis is ! process :]eby *lorophyll-conta9+ plants1 9 ! pres5ce ( sunlight1 syn!tize organic comp\nds f wat] & c>bon dioxide4 ,! end-product ( photosyn!sis is always a c>bohydrate4 ,*emical comp\nds belong+ to o!r gr\ps1 m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 are syn!tiz$ by plants f ! c>bohydrates & simple raw mat]ials2 b 9 su* cases ! en]gy us$ is n sol> en]gy & ! process is n photosyn!sis4 ,"u ! ord9>y conditions ( temp]ature1 moi/ure supply1 etc41 necess>y to plant gr[?1 photosyn!sis w take place if ! ?ree ess5tial factors1 *lorophyll1 light1 & c>bon dioxide are available4 ,,physiological ,,/eps ,,9 ,,photosyn!sis ,!re are five successive & mutually dep5d5t /eps 9 ! process ( photosyn!sis1 z foll[s3 7#a7 ,!re mu/ be a gas ex*ange betwe5 ! plant tissue & ! surr\nd+ air1 by means ( :i* ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air may rea* ! protoplasm ( ! *lorophyll-conta9+ cells4 7#b7 ,radiant en]gy mu/ be absorb$1 normally t ( sunlight1 al?\gh photosyn!sis c be br\ght ab\t by ! en]gy f c]ta9 =ms ( artificial light4 7#c7 ,c>bon dioxide & wat] mu/ be decompos$ by ! en]gy ?us absorb$1 & ! nasc5t gases ?us produc$ comb9$ into "s syn!tic organic comp\nd1 ) a resultant /orage ( pot5tial en]gy4 7#d7 ,?is fir/ organic syn?ate mu/ be cond5s$ into "s c>bohydrate suitable = translocation & /orage z res]ve food4 7#e7 ,! oxyg51 :i* is a by-product f ! decomposition ( ! wat] & c>bon dioxide & ! resultant syn!tic process1 mu/ be return$ to ! air by a gas ex*ange4 ,( ! five /eps 9 ?is process1 ! fir/ two & ! la/ are ess5tially purely physical ph5om5a1 ! *emical *anges involv$ be+ ^? ( ! ?ird & f\r? /eps4 ,h5ce1 x is only ^! two p>ts ( ! process :i* ne$ be tak5 into acc\nt 9 a consid]ation ( ! *emi/ry ( photosyn!sis4 ,,=maldehyde1 ,,! ,,simple/ ,,c>bohydrate ,,/ructure ,! simple/ c>bohydrates kn[n to occur commonly 9 plant tissues are ! hexoses 7see ,*apt] ,,iv7 hav+ ! =mula ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f1 :i* is j six times t ( =maldehyde1 ,,*#b,o4 ,also1 x is kn[n t =maldehyde easily1 & ev5 spontane\sly1 polym]izes into m complex =ms hav+ ! g5]al =mula 7,,*#b,o7n2 trioxyme?yl5e1 ,c#c;,h#f,o#c1 be+ a well-kn[n example4 ,fur!r1 bo? trioxyme?yl5e & =maldehyde itself c easily be cond5s$ into hexoses1 by simple treatm5t ) lime wat] z a catalytic ag5t4 ,h5ce1 x is commonly believ$ t =maldehyde is ! fir/ syn!tic product result+ f photosyn!sis1 t ?is is imm$iately cond5s$ into hexose sug>s1 & t ^! 9 turn are unit$ into ! m complex c>bohydrate gr\ps :i* are commonly f\nd 9 plants 7see ,*apt] ,,iv74 ,!re is consid]able exp]im5tal confirmation ( ! s\ndness ( ?is view4 ,! :ole photosyn!tic process takes place 9 *lorophyll-conta9+ plant tissues ) a/oni%+ rapidity1 sug>s1 & ev5 />*1 appe>+ 9 ! tissues almo/ imm$iately aft] _! exposure to light 9 ! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide4 ,h5ce1 any int]m$iate product1 su* z =maldehyde1 is pres5t 9 ! cell = only v brief p]iods & 9 v small am\nts4 ,b small am\nts ( =maldehyde c (t5 be detect$ 9 fre% gre5 plant tissues &1 z w be po9t$ out bel[1 ! :ole process ( photosyn!sis1 proce$+ ?r\gh =maldehyde z an int]m$iate product1 c be successfully duplicat$ 9 vitro 9 ! laboratory4 ,assum+1 !n1 t =maldehyde is ! fir/ photosyn!tic product 9 ! process ( ! production ( c>bohydrates f wat] & c>bon dioxide1 ! simple empirical equation = ?is trans=mation w\ld be ,h#b,o ,,co#b ,,*#b,o ,o#b4 ,x is app>5t1 h[ev]1 t ! process is n s simple z ?is hypo!tical reaction w\ld indicate1 z wat] & c>bon dioxide c h>dly be conceiv$ to react toge!r 9 any su* simple way z ?is4 ,v>i\s !ories z to ! exact nature ( ! /eps ?r\gh :i* ! *emical comb9ations proce$ h be5 advanc$4 ,a discussion ( ! exp]im5tal evid5ce ^u :i* ^! are bas$ & ( ! conclusions :i* seem to be ju/ifi$ f ^! exp]im5tal /udies is pres5t$ bel[4 ,! only value :i* may be atta*$ to ! empirical equation j pres5t$ is t x does accurately repres5t ! facts t a volume ( oxyg51 equal to t ( ! c>bon dioxide consum$ 9 ! process1 is lib]at$ & t =maldehyde is ! syn!tical product ( ! reactions involv$4 ,x %\ld be not$1 9 ?is connection1 t =maldehyde is a p[]ful plant poison & t few1 if any1 plant tissues c )/& ! toxic effect ( ?is sub/ance :5 x is pres5t 9 any consid]able conc5tration4 ,h5ce1 x is necess>y to ?is :ole conception ( ! relation ( =maldehyde to ! photosyn!tic process1 to assume t1 h[ev] rapidly ! =maldehyde may be produc$ 9 ! cell1 x is imm$iately conv]t$ into h>mless c>bohydrate =ms4 ,,! ,,cond5sation ,,( ,,=maldehyde ,,into ,,sug>s ,z has be5 m5tion$1 x is easily possible to cause ei!r =maldehyde1 or trioxyme?yl5e1 to cond5se into ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f1 us+ milk ( lime z a cataly/4 ,( c\rse1 no su* condition z ?is prevails 9 ! plant cell1 & ! me*anics ( ! protoplasmic process may be altoge!r diff]5t f ^? ( ! artificial syn!ses4 ,fur!rmore1 ! hexose produc$ by ! artificial cond5sation ( ^! simpl] comp\nds is1 9 e case1 a non-optically active comp\nd1 :ile all natural sug>s are optically active 7see ,*apt] ,,iv74 ,emil ,fis*] has succe$$1 h[ev]1 by a long & r\nd-ab\t process :i* ne$ n be discuss$ 9 detail "h1 9 conv]t+ ! artificial hexose into glucose & fructose1 ! optically-active sug>s :i* occur naturally 9 plant tissues4 ,! cond5sation ( =maldehyde directly into glucose & fructose 9 ! plant cell is br\ght ab\t by "s process ! nature ( :i* is n yet und]/ood4 ,probably syn!tic enzymes 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv71 ^: nature & action h n yet be5 discov]$1 come into play4 ,x is a notewor?y fact1 h[ev]1 t ! me*anics ( ?is app>5tly simple *emical *ange1 ^u :i* ! :ole nutrition ( ! plant dep5ds1 & :i* furni%es ! :ole animal k+dom1 includ+ ! human race1 ) s l>ge a proportion ( its food supplies1 is z yet :olly unkn[n4 ,x is ! common practice to repres5t ! :ole results ( ! photosyn!tic action by ! empirical equation #f;,h#b,o #f;,,co#b ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f #f,o#b2 b "h aga9 ! only value to be atta*$ to su* an algebraic expression is t x accurately repres5ts ! gase\s ex*ange ( c>bon dioxide & oxyg5 involv$ 9 ! process4 ,c]ta9ly1 x ?r[s no light ^u ! nature ( ! process itself4 ,,!ories ,,conc]n+ ,,photosyn!sis ,! _m !ories :i* h be5 advanc$ conc]n+ ! nature ( ! *emical *anges :i* are involv$ 9 photosyn!sis h s]v$ z ! basis = mu* exp]im5tal /udy ( ! problem4 ,! foll[+ brief summ>y w s]ve to po9t out ! g5]al tr5d ( ^! inve/igations & ! pres5t /ate ( k conc]n+ ! *emi/ry ( photosyn!sis4 ,von ,baey]1 9 #ahgj1 advanc$ ! hypo!sis t ! fir/ /ep 9 ! process is ! break+ d[n ( c>bon dioxide into c>bon monoxide & oxyg5 & ( wat] into hydrog5 & oxyg52 t ! c>bon monoxide & hydrog5 !n unite to produce =maldehyde1 :i* is imm$iately polym]iz$ to =m a hexose4 ,^! !oretical *anges may be repres5t$ by ! foll[+ equations3 ,,co#b ,,co ,o #a4 ,h#b,o ,h#b ,o #b4 ,h#b ,,co ,,*#b,o #c4 #f7;,,*#b,o7 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,9 ! inve/igations & discussions ( ?is hypo!sis1 x has be5 asc]ta9$3 fir/1 t c>bon monoxide has nev] be5 f\nd 9 ! free =m 9 plant tissues2 second1 t :5 ,tropaeolum plants 7 surr\nd$ ) an atmosph]e 9 :i* !re 0 no c>bon dioxide1 b :i* conta9$ suffici5t c>bon monoxide to give a conc5tration ( ?is gas 9 ! cell-sap equival5t to t 9 :i* ,,co#b is normally pres5t1 ! plants grew normally & app>5tly elaborat$ />*2 ?ird1 o!r & m ext5sive exp]im5ts indicat$1 h[ev]1 t gre5 plants 9 g5]al _c make use ( c>bon monoxide gas = photosyn!sis1 al?\gh ?is does n prove t von ,baey]'s idea t ,,co is a /ep 9 ! process is necess>ily errone\s2 & f9ally x 0 %[n t c>bon monoxide1 9 suffici5t conc5tration to produce ! results ) ,tropaeolum m5tion$ above1 usually acts z a p[]ful an/hetic t[>ds mo/ o!r plants4 ,:ile ^! consid]ations d n positively prove t von ,baey]'s hypo!sis is incorrect1 !y r5d] x s improbable t x has g5]ally be5 ab&on$ 9 favor ( o!rs :i* are describ$ bel[4 ,erl5mey]1 ev5 be=e ! exp]im5tal "w m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph _h be5 report$1 sugge/$ t in/ead ( assum+ a sep>ate break+ d[n ( ! c>bon dioxide & wat]1 x is easi] to conceive t !y are unit$ 9 ! cell-sap into c>bonic acid & t ?is is r$uc$ by ! *lorophyll-conta9+ protoplasm into =mic acid & !n to =maldehyde1 z indicat$ by ! foll[+ equations3 #a4 ,h#b;,,co#c ,h#b;,,co#b ,o #b4 ,h#b;,,co#b ,,*#b,o ,o ,l von ,baey]'s hypo!sis1 ?is assumes t =maldehyde & oxyg5 are ! fir/ products ( photosyn!sis4 ,proce$+ ^u ?is assumption1 _m inve/igators h /udi$ ! "q z to :e!r =maldehyde actually is pres5t 9 gre5 leaves4 ,sev]al work]s h report$ successful id5tification ( =maldehyde 9 ! di/illate f gre5 leaves2 :ile o!rs h criticiz$ ^! results & h ma9ta9$ t =maldehyde c likewise be obta9$ by di/ill+ decoctions ( dry hay1 etc41 9 :i* ! photosyn!tic process c\ld n possibly be conceiv$ to be at "w4 ,o!r inve/igators1 notably ,ba* & ,palacci1 report$ t !y _h succe$$ 9 artificially produc+ =maldehyde f wat] & c>bon dioxide1 9 ! pres5ce ( a suitable catalyz] or s5sitiz]4 ,eul]1 h[ev]1 lat] %[$ conclusively t "u ! conditions describ$ by ^! inve/igators1 =maldehyde c be obta9$ ev5 if no c>bon dioxide is pres5t1 be+ app>5tly produc$ by ! action ( wat] ^u ! organic s5sitiz] :i* 0 us$4 ,^! conflict+ reports l$ ,u%] & ,prie/ley1 9 a s]ies ( /udies report$ betwe5 #aijf & #aiaa1 to submit ! :ole matt] to a critical review4 ,briefly1 ^! inve/igators %[$ t ! photolysis ( c>bon dioxide & wat] results 9 ! =mation ( =maldehyde & hydrog5 p]oxide1 z repres5t$ by ! equation ,,co#b #c;,h#b,o ,,*#b,o #b;,h#b,o#b4 ,! =maldehyde is !n cond5s$ by ! protoplasm into sug>s1 :ile ! hydrog5 p]oxide is decompos$1 by an enzyme 9 ! plant cell1 into wat] & oxyg54 ,if ! =maldehyde is n us$ up rapidly en\gh by ! protoplasm1 x kills ! enzyme & ! undecompos$ hydrog5 p]oxide de/roys ! *lorophyll1 :i* /ops ! :ole photosyn!tic process4 ,u%] & ,prie/ley 7 able to cause ! photolysis ( c>bon dioxide & wat] into =maldehyde outside ( a gre5 plant1 9 ! pres5ce ( a suitable catalyz+ ag5t :i* cont9ually de/roys ! hydrog5 p]oxide z fa/ z x is =m$2 to %[ ! actual blea*+ effect ( an excess ( hydrog5 p]oxide 9 plant tissues :i* _h be5 treat$ 9 su* a way z to prev5t ! enzyme f decompos+ x2 &1 f9ally1 to demon/rate ! cond5sation ( =maldehyde into />* by ! action ( protoplasm :i* conta9$ no *lorophyll4 ,9 ! meantime1 ,f5ton1 9 #aijg1 f\nd t 9 ! pres5ce ( magnesium z a cataly/ 7x w be %[n 9 ,*apt] ,,viii t magnesium is a con/itu5t ( ! *lorophyll molecule7 =maldehyde may be obta9$ f a solution ( c>bon dioxide 9 wat]1 especially if weak bases are pres5t4 ,fur!r1 ,u%] & ,prie/ley's lat] results %[$ t radium emanations1 act+ ^u a solution ( c>bon dioxide 9 wat]1 produce hydrog5 p]oxide & =maldehyde1 & ! latt] polym]izes b n up to ! po9t repres5t$ by ! hexose sug>s2 also1 t ! ultra-violet rays f a m]cury vapor lamp are v effective 9 br++ ab\t ! production ( hydrog5 p]oxide & =maldehyde f a saturat$ aque\s solution ( c>bon dioxide1 ! reaction tak+ place ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( any s5sitiz]1 b mu* m readily if "s optical or *emical s5sitiz] is pres5t4 ,f9ally1 ^! inve/igators 7 able to duplicate all _! results1 us+ gre5 plant tissues1 & to %[ t ! temp]ature *anges :i* take place 9 a film ( *lorophyll :5 x is expos$ to an atmosph]e ( moi/ c>bon dioxide 9 ! sunlight are su* z w\ld be requir$ by ! =mation ( =maldehyde & hydrog5 p]oxide f c>bonic acid4 ,m rec5tly1 ,ew>t has %[$ t =maldehyde c comb9e *emically ) *lorophyll2 f :i* fact1 ,s*ryv] d$uces ! !ory t if = any reason ! cond5sation ( =maldehyde into c>bohydrates by ! cell protoplasm does n proce$ z rapidly z ! =maldehyde is produc$ by photosyn!sis1 ! excess ( ! latt] ent]s into comb9ation ) ! *lorophyll1 & t if cond5sation into sug> uses up all ! free =maldehyde :i* is pres5t 9 ! active protoplasm1 ! comp\nd ( =maldehyde ) *lorophyll is brok5 d[n sett+ free an additional supply = fur!r sug> manufacture4 ,accord+ to ?is conception !re are1 9 ! *lorophyll-be>+ protoplasm1 n only ! ag5cies = ! production ( =maldehyde f c>bon dioxide & wat] & = ! cond5sation ( ?is into c>bohydrates1 b also a *emical me*anism by means ( :i* ! am\nt ( free =maldehyde 9 ! react+ mass may be regulat$ s t at no "t w x rea* ! conc5tration :i* w\ld be injuri\s to ! cell protoplasm or fall bel[ ! prop] proportions = sug>-=mation4 ,?is explanation af=ds a satisfactory solution ( ! difficulty :i* =m]ly confront$ ! /ud5ts ( photosyn!sis1 namely1 ! fact t free =maldehyde is p[]fully toxic to cell protoplasm4 ,)\t "s su* conception1 x 0 difficult to imag9e h[ ! pres5ce ( =maldehyde 9 ! cell cont5ts1 ev5 z a transitory int]m$iate product1 c\ld be o!rwise ?an injuri\s4 ,z a result ( ^! /udies1 ! nature ( ! *emical *anges :i* result 9 ! production ( =maldehyde z ! fir/ product ( photosyn!sis1 ) ! lib]ation ( a volume ( oxyg5 equal to t ( ! c>bon dioxide consum$1 seems to be fairly well e/abli%$4 ,,! ,,production ,,( ,,sug>s ,,& ,,/>*es ,! next /ep 9 ! process1 ! conv]sion ( =maldehyde into sug>s & />*es1 is n necess>ily a photosyn!tic "o1 z x c be br\ght ab\t by protoplasm :i* conta9s no *lorophyll or o!r en]gy-absorb+ pigm5t4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a *>act]i/ic syn!tic activity ( liv+ protoplasm4 ,!re is little def9ite k z to h[ ! cell protoplasm accompli%es ?is important task4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out1 ! polym]ization ( =maldehyde into a sug>-l hexose1 kn[n z acrose1 c be easily accompli%$ by ord9>y laboratory reactions1 & acrose c be conv]t$ into glucose or fructose by a long & difficult s]ies ( trans=mations4 ,b su* processes z are employ$ 9 ! laboratory to accompli% ^! artificial syn!sis ( optically-active sug>s f =maldehyde c h no relation :atev] to ! me?ods ( cond5sation :i* are us$ by cell protoplasm 9 its easy1 almo/ in/antane\s1 & ne>ly cont9u\s accompli%m5t ( ?is trans=mation4 ,fur!rmore1 ^! simple hexoses are by no means ! f9al products ( cell syn!sis1 ev5 ( c>bohydrates alone4 ,9 _m plants1 />* appe>s z ! f9al1 if n ! fir/1 product ( =maldehyde cond5sation4 ,at lea/1 ! trans=mation ( ! simple sug>s1 :i* may be suppos$ to be ! fir/ products1 into />* is effect$ s ne>ly in/antane\sly t x is impossible to detect measurable quantities ( ^! sug>s 9 ! photosyn!tically active cells ( su* plants4 ,o!r species ( plants always %[ consid]able quantities ( simple sug>s 9 ! vegetative tissues1 & "s ev5 /ore up _! res]ve c>bohydrate food mat]ial 9 ! =m ( glucose or sucrose4 ,attempts h be5 made to associate ! type ( c>bohydrate =m$ 9 cell syn!sis ) ! botanical families to :i* ! plants belong1 b ) no v great success4 ,= ea* individual species1 h[ev]1 ! =m ( c>bohydrate produc$ is always ! same1 at lea/ "u normal conditions ( gr[?4 ,= example1 ! sug> beet always /ores up sucrose 9 its roots1 al?\gh "u abnormal conditions consid]able quantities ( raff9ose are develop$4 ,simil>ly1 potatoes always /ore up />*1 b ) abnormally l[ temp]atures consid]able quantities ( ?is may be conv]t$ into sug>1 :i* becomes />* aga9 ) ! return to normal conditions4 ,:ile x is impossible1 ) our pres5t k1 to ev5 guess at ! me*anism by :i* protoplasm cond5ses =maldehyde into sug>s & ^!1 9 turn1 into m complex c>bohydrates1 ! /ructure & relation%ips to ea* o!r ( ! f9al products ( photosyn!sis are well kn[n1 & are discuss$ at l5g? 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,ref]5ces ,,b>nes1 ,c4 ,r4--,physiology 7,"p ,,ii ( ,c\lt]1 ,b>nes & ,c[les' ,textbook ( ,botany71 #ahg pages1 #ah figs41 ,*icago1 #aiaj4 ,,ganong1 ,w4 ,f4--,plant ,physiology1 #bfe pages1 #fe figs41 ,new ,york1 #aijh 7#b;d ed474 ,,jo/1 ,l41 trans4 by ,,gibson1 ,r4 ,j4 ,h4--,plant ,physiology1 #efd pages1 #agb figs41 ,ox=d1 #aijg4 ,,m>*lewski1 ,l4--,die ,*emie des ,*lorophylls1 #ahg pages1 #e figs41 #g plates1 ,b]l91 #aiji4 ,,p>k91 ,,john4--,! ,c>bohydrates ( ! ,foliage ,leaf ( ! ,sn[drop 7,galan?us nivalis ,l47 & _! ,be>+ on ! ,fir/ ,sug> ( ,photosyn!sis1 9 ,bio*emical ,j\rnal1 ,vol4 #f1 pages #a to #dg1 #aiab4 ,,pfeff]1 ,w41 trans4 by ,,ew>t1 ,a4 ,j4--,physiology ( ,plants4 ,vol4 ,i1 #fcb pages1 #gj figs41 ,ox=d1 #aijj4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,c>bohydrates ,^! sub/ances comprise an exce$+ly important gr\p ( comp\nds1 ! memb]s ( :i* con/itute ! major proportion ( ! dry matt] ( plants4 ,! "n c>bohydrate indicates ! fact t ^! comp\nds conta9 only c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg51 ! la/ two elem5ts usually be+ pres5t 9 ! same proportions z 9 wat]4 ,z a rule1 natural c>bohydrates conta9 six1 or "s multiple ( six1 c>bon atoms & ! same numb] ( oxyg5 atoms less "o = ea* additional gr\p ( six c>bons above ! fir/ "o2 e4g41 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f1 ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa1 ,c#ah;,h#cb,o#af1 etc4 ,c>bohydrates are class$ z op5-*a9 comp\nds1 t is1 !y may be reg>d$ z d]ivatives ( ! aliphatic hydroc>bons4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! *>act]i/ic gr\ps :i* !y conta91 !y are aldehyde-alcohols4 ,9 common ) _m o!r polyatomic op5-*a9 alcohols1 !y g5]ally possess a *>act]i/ic sweet1 or mildly sweeti%1 ta/e4 ,9 ! case ( ! m complex & less soluble =ms1 ?is sweeti% ta/e is sc>cely noticeable & ^! comp\nds are commonly call$ ! />*es1 z contra/$ ) ! m soluble & sweet] =ms1 kn[n z sug>s4 ,! *>act]i/ic end+ ose is add$ to ! names ( ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p4 ,z sy/ematic names1 ! ,lat9 num]al indicat+ ! numb] ( c>bon atoms 9 ! molecule is comb9$ ) ?is end+2 e4g41 ,c#e;,h#aj,o#e1 p5tose1 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f1 hexose1 etc4 ,9 rec5t ye>s1 z a matt] ( sci5tific int]e/1 _m sug>like sub/ances :i* conta9 f two to n9e c>bon atoms comb9$ ) ! prop] numb] ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 atoms to be equival5t to ! same numb] ( molecules ( wat] 9 ea* case1 h be5 artificially prep>$ 9 ! laboratory & designat$ z dioses1 trioses1 tetroses1 p5toses1 hexoses1 heptoses1 octoses1 & nonoses1 respectively4 ,sub/ances correspond+ 9 composition & prop]ties ) ! artificial tetroses & "o or two d]ivatives ( heptoses are occasionally f\nd 9 plant tissues1 & a consid]able numb] ( p5toses & _! cond5sation products are common con/itu5ts ( plant gums1 etc42 b ! great majority ( ! natural c>bohydrates are hexoses & _! d]ivatives4 ,,gr\ps ,,( ,,c>bohydrates ,s9ce ! simpl] c>bohydrates are sug>s1 i4e41 !y possess ! *>act]i/ic sweet ta/e1 ! "n sac*>ide is us$ z a basis = ! classification ( ! entire gr\p4 ,! simple/ natural sug>s1 ! hexoses1 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f1 are kn[n z mono-sac*>ides4 ,! gr\p ( next great] complexity1 ^? :i* h ! =mula ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa & may be reg>d$ z d]iv$ f ! comb9ation ( two molecules ( a hexose ) ! dropp+ out ( "o molecule ( wat] at ! po9t ( union1 are kn[n z di-sac*>ides4 ,comp\nds hav+ ! =mula ,c#ah;,h#cb,o#af 7i4e41 ?ree molecules ( ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f m9us two molecules ( ,h#b,o7 are tri-sac*>ides2 & ! /ill m complex gr\ps1 hav+ ! g5]al =mula 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7n1 are call$ ! poly-sac*>ides4 ,! mono-1 di-1 & tri-sac*>ides are g5]ally easily soluble 9 wat]1 h a m or less pron\nc$ly sweet ta/e1 & are kn[n z ! sug>s2 :ile ! polysac*>ides are g5]ally insoluble 9 wat] & ( a neutral ta/e1 & are call$ />*es4 ,z w be se5 lat]1 !re are _m natural plant c>bohydrates belong+ to ea* ( ^! gr\ps4 ,9 addition to ^! sac*>ide gr\ps1 !re are o!r types1 or gr\ps1 ( comp\nds :i* resemble ! true c>bohydrates 9 _! *emical composition & prop]ties & are (t5 consid]$ z a "p ( ?is g5]al gr\p4 ,^! are ! p5toses1 ,c#e;,h#aj,o#e1 & _! cond5sation products1 ! p5tosans 7,c#e;,h#h,o#d7n1 & _! me?yl d]ivatives1 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#e2 c]ta9 polyhydric alcohols hav+ ! =mula ,c#f;,h#h7,,oh7#f2 pectose & its d]ivatives1 pect9 & pectic acid2 & lignose sub/ances ( complex composition4 ,x is d\btful :e!r ^! comp\nds are actual products ( photosyn!sis 9 plants1 or h ! same physiological uses z ! c>bohydrates & x has seem$ wise to consid] !m 9 a sep>ate & lat] *apt]4 ,,isom]ic ,,=ms ,,( ,,monosac*>ides ,f\r sug>s hav+ ! =mula ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f1 namely1 glucose1 fructose1 mannose1 & galactose1 occur v commonly & widely di/ribut$ 9 plants4 ,9 addition to ^!1 ?irte5 o!rs hav+ ! same p]c5tage composition h be5 artificially prep>$1 :ile sev5 additional =ms are !oretically possible4 ,9 o!r words1 tw5ty-f\r diff]5t comp\nds1 all hav+ ! same empirical =mula & simil> sug>-l prop]ties are !oretically possible4 ,9 ord] to arrive at a conception ( ?is multiplicity ( isom]ic =ms1 x is necess>y to und]/& ! two types ( isom]ism :i* are involv$4 ,"o ( ^! is /ructural isom]ism1 & ! o!r is space- or /]eo-isom]ism4 ,/ructural ,isom]ism4--,?is ref]s to an actual diff]5ce 9 ! *>act]i/ic gr\ps :i* are pres5t 9 ! molecule4 ,z has be5 said1 all c>bohydrates1 f ! /&po9t ( ! *>act]i/ic gr\ps :i* !y conta91 are aldehyde-alcohols4 ,! hexoses all conta9 five alcoholic gr\ps & "o prim>y aldehyde1 or "o second>y aldehyde 7ketone71 gr\p4 ,if ! aldehyde oxyg5 is atta*$ to ! c>bon atom :i* is at ! end ( ! six-memb]$ *a91 ! /ructural arrangem5t is t ( an aldehyde1 ,c,o & ! sug> is ( ! type kn[n ,h z aldoses2 :]eas1 if ! oxyg5 is atta*$ to any o!r c>bon 9 ! *a91 ! ketone arrangem5t1 ,c,o results & ! sug> is a ketose4 ,?is diff]5ce is illu/rat$ 9 ! ,fis*] op5-*a9 =mulas = glucose 7an aldose7 & fructose 7a ketose7 z foll[s3 ,glucose ,fructose ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*oh ,,*oh ,,*oh ,,*oh ,,*oh ,,*oh ,,*oh ,c,o ,,*o ,,*#b,,oh ,/]eo-isom]ism1 or space isom]ism1 z its "n indicates1 dep5ds ^u ! diff]5t arrangem5t ( ! atoms or gr\ps 9 ! molecule 9 space1 & n ^u any diff]5ce 9 ! "* ( ! con/itu5t gr\ps4 ,?is possibility dep5ds ^u ! exi/5ce 9 ! molecule ( ! sub/ance 9 "q ( "o or m asymmetric c>bon atoms & manife/s itself 9 diff]5ces 9 ! optical activity ( ! comp\nd4#a ,?us1 9 ! =mula = glucose %[n above !re appe> f\r asymmetric c>bon atoms1 namely1 ^? ( ! f\r second>y alcohol gr\ps 79 ! t]m9al1 or prim>y alcohol1 gr\p1 c>bon is unit$ to hydrog5 by two bonds1 & 9 ! aldehyde gr\p x is unit$ to oxyg5 by two bonds74 ,simil>ly1 fructose conta9s ?ree asymmetric c>bon atoms4 ,z an example ( h[ ! pres5ce ( ^! asymmetric c>bon atoms results 9 ! possibility ( _m diff]5t space relation%ips1 ! foll[+ graphic illu/rations ( ! suppos$ diff]5ces betwe5 dextro-glucose & levo-glucose1 & betwe5 dextro- & levo-galactose1 may be cit$4#b d-glucose l-glucose d-galactose l-galactose ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c--,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,*o ,,*o ,,*o ,,*o ,comp>isons ( ! above =mulas w %[ t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! =mulas = d- & l-glucose lies 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! ,h atoms & ! ,,oh gr\ps ar\nd ! two asymmetric c>bon atoms next ! aldehyde end ( ! *a92 :ile ! d- & l-galactoses diff] 9 t ?is arrangem5t is 9 ! rev]se ord] ar\nd all f\r ( ! asymmetric c>bons4 ,by simil> v>iations 9 ! gr\p+ ar\nd ! f\r asymmetric atoms1 x is possible to produce ! sixte5 diff]5t space arrangem5ts %[n on page #cg = ! gr\ps ( an aldohexose4 ,sug>s correspond+ to f\rte5 ( ^! diff]5t =ms h be5 discov]$1 ?ree ( :i* are ( common occurr5ce 9 plants1 ei!r z s+le mono-sac*>ides or z con/itu5t gr\ps 9 ! m complex c>bohydrates2 ! rema9+ two =ms h only !oretical int]e/4 ,simil>ly1 = a ketohexose1 :i* conta9s ?ree asymmetric c>bon atoms1 !re are eight possible arrangem5ts4 ,?ree sug>s ( ?is type are kn[n1 only "o 7fructose7 be+ common 9 plants2 ! o!rs are ( only !oretical int]e/4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,x is assum$ t ! read]1 or /ud5t1 is famili> ) ! !oretical & exp]im5tal evid5ce 9 support ( ! exi/5ce ( ! s-call$ asymmetric c>bon atom & its relation to ! effect ( ! comp\nd :i* conta9s x1 :5 9 solution1 9 rotat+ ! plane ( pol>iz$ light4 ,= purposes ( review1 or ( /udy ( ?is mo/ int]e/+ & important ph5om5on1 ! read] is ref]r$ to any /&>d text-book on ,organic ,*emi/ry4 #b ,att5tion %\ld be call$1 at ?is po9t1 to ! fact t su* =mulas z ^! _c possibly accurately repres5t ! actual arrangem5t ( ! con/itu5t gr\ps ( a c>bohydrate molecule ar\nd an asymmetric c>bon atom4 ,! limitations ( a plane-surface =mula prev5t any illu/ration ( ! ?ree-dim5sion relation%ips 9 space4 ,fur!rmore1 !re are c]ta9 facts 9 connection ) ! birotation ph5om5on & ! relation ( ! molecul> configuration to bio*emical prop]ties 7:i* see7 t _c be expla9$ on ! basis ( ! op5-*a9 arrangem5t repres5t$ by ! ,fis*] =mulas us$ "h4 ,a clos$-r+ arrangem5t1 %[+ ! aldehyde oxyg5 z l9k$ by its two bonds to ! fir/ & ! f\r? c>bon atoms ( ! *a91 ?us =m+ a clos$-r+ ( f\r c>bon & "o oxyg5 atoms1 in/ead ( be+ atta*$ by bo? bonds to a s+le c>bon atom1 z 9 ! above =mulas1 is und\bt$ly a m ne>ly accurate repres5tation ( ! actual l9kage 9 ! molecule ?an are ! op5-*a9 =mulas us$ above4 ,! diff]5ces 9 conception embodi$ by ^! two types ( =mulas may be %[n by ! foll[+ =mulas = glucose3 ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*oh ,,*oh ,,*oh ,,*-,,*oh ------,o------- ,,*oh ,o or ,,*#b,,oh,,*oh,,*,,*oh,,*oh,,*oh ,,*oh ,,*-,,*oh ,,*o ,,oh ,fis*]'s ,clos$-r+ =mulas =mula ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ! clos$-r+ =mula !re are five asymmetric c>bon atoms1 & ! asymmetry ( ! t]m9al "o =ms ! basis = ! explanation ( ! exi/5ce ( ! s-call$ alpha & beta modification ( d-glucose 7see page #df74 ,h[ev]1 ! ord9>y aldehyde reactions ( ! sug>s are m cle>ly indicat$ by ! op5-*a9 =mula4 ,"s inve/igators are incl9$ to be t sug>s actually exi/ 9 ! op5-*a9 arrangem5t :5 9 aque\s solution1 & 9 ! clos$-r+ arrangem5t :5 9 alcoholic solution4 ,! clos$-r+ =mulas w be us$ 9 ?is text 9 ! discussions ( ! birotation ph5om5a & ( bio*emical prop]ties1 b = ! explanations ( ! /]eo-isom]ic =ms & simil> ph5om5a1 ! op5-*a9 =mulas are j z useful 9 convey+ an idea ( ! possibilities ( diff]5t space relation%ips1 & are s mu* simpl] 9 appe>ance & 9 me*anical prep>ation1 t x seems desirable to use ^! r ?an ! m accurate clos$-r+ =mulas4 ,,*emical ,,con/itution ,,( ,,monosac*>ides ,! t]m monosac*>ides1 z commonly us$1 ref]s to hexoses4 ,x applies equally well1 h[ev]1 to any o!r sug>-l sub/ance :i* ei!r occurs naturally or results f ! decomposition ( m complex c>bohydrates1 & :i* _c be fur!r brok5 d[n )\t de/roy+ its *>act]i/ic aldehyde-alcohol gr\ps & sug>-l prop]ties4 ,all su* monosac*>ides1 be+ alcohol-aldehydes1 c easily be r$uc$ to ! correspond+ polyatomic alcohols1 conta9+ ! same numb] ( c>bon atoms z ! orig9al monosac*>ides1 ea* ) "o ,,oh gr\p atta*$ to x4 ,all aldose monosac*>ides are conv]t$1 by g5tle oxidation1 into ! correspond+ monobasic acid1 hav+ a ,,cooh gr\p 9 ! place ( ! orig9al ,,*o gr\p4 ,fur!r oxidation ei!r *anges ! alcoholic gr\ps into ,,cooh gr\ps1 produc+ polybasic acids1 or breaks up ! *a94 ,:5 ketose monosac*>ides are submitt$ to simil> oxidation processes1 !y are brok5 d[n into %ort] *a9 comp\nds4 ,! v>i\s monosac*>ides :i* h ?us f> be5 f\nd z con/itu5ts ( plant tissues1 or z p>ts ( o!r m complex comp\nds :i* occur 9 plants1 are %[n 9 ! foll[+ table3 ,trioses 7,c#c;,h#f,o#c7 ,tetroses 7,c#d;,h#h,o#d7 ,aldose--,glyc]ic aldehyde1 ,aldoses--d- & l-,ery?rose1 or glyc]ose l-,?reose ,ketose--,dioxyacetone ,p5toses 7,c#e;,h#aj,o#e7 ,me?yl ,p5toses 7,c#f;,h#ab,o#e7 ,aldoses--d- & l-,arab9ose ,aldoses--,rhamnose d- & l-,xylose ,fucose l-,ribose ,rhodeose l-,lyxose ,*9ovose ,hexoses 7,c#f;,h#ab,o#f7 ,mannitol s]ies ,dulcitol s]ies ,aldoses--d- & l-,glucose d- & l-,galactose d- & l-,mannose d- & l-,talose d- & l-,gulose d- & l-,idose d-,altrose d-,allose ,ketoses-- d-,fructose d-,tagatose d-,sorbose ,heptoses ,octoses ,nonoses 7,c#g;,h#ad,o#g7 7,c#h;,h#af,o#h7 7,c#i;,h#ah,o#i7 ,glucoheptose ,gluco-octose ,glucononose ,mannoheptose ,manno-octose ,mannononose ,galactoheptose ,galacto-octose ,p]suelose ,s$oheptose ,! hexoses are by f> ! mo/ important gr\p ( monosac*>ides4 ,!y are und\bt$ly ! fir/ products ( photosyn!sis1 & all ! o!r c>bohydrates may be consid]$ to be d]iv$ f !m by cond5sation4 ,because ( _! bio*emical significance & _! imm5se importance z ! fundam5tal sub/ances = all plant & animal en]gy-produc+ mat]ials1 ! foll[+ detail$ /udies ( _! *emical composition & molecul> configuration are fully w>rant$4 ,t all ! hexoses conta9 five alcoholic gr\ps is prov$ by ! exp]im5tal evid5ce t ea* "o =ms a p5ta-e/]1 by unit+ ) five acid radicals1 :5 treat$ ) m9]al or organic acids "u prop] conditions4 ,?us1 glucose p5ta-acetate1 p5ta-nitrate1 p5ta-b5zoate1 etc41 h all be5 prep>$4 ,! pres5ce ( ! aldehyde gr\p is prov$ by ! fact t all aldohexoses h be5 conv]t$1 by g5tle oxidation1 into p5taoxy-monobasic acids1 & ! ketohexoses brok5 d[n into %ort] *a9 comp\nds by simil> g5tle oxidations2 ^! reactions be+ *>act]i/ic ( comp\nds conta9+ an aldehyde & a ketone gr\p respectively4 ,?is exp]im5tal evid5ce e/abli%es ! nature ( ! *>act]i/ic gr\ps 9 ! molecule1 9 ea* case4 ,! molecul> configurations illu/rat$ 9 ! foll[+ table are ^? sugge/$ by ,emil ,fis*]1 z a result ( 8 exhau/ive /udies ( ! *emical con/itution ( ! v>i\s c>bohydrates4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 no ?\ght t ! pr9t$ =mulas "h pres5t$ accurately repres5t ! actual relation%ips 9 space ( ! diff]5t gr\ps2 b !re is fairly conclusive evid5ce t ! v>iations 9 special gr\p+s 9 ! diff]5t sug>s are prop]ly ref]able to ! p>ticul> asymmetric c>bon atoms z indicat$ 9 ! sev]al =mulas z pres5t$4 #a4 ,aldohexoses ( ! mannitol s]ies3 d-,glucose l-,glucose d-,mannose l-,mannose ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,*o ,,*o ,,*o ,,*o d-,gulose l-,gulose d-,idose l-,idose ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,*o ,,*o ,,*o ,,*o d-,altrose l-,altrose d-,allose l-,allose 7unkn[n7 7unkn[n7 ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,*o ,,*o ,,*o ,,*o #b4 ,aldohexoses ( ! dulcitol s]ies3 d-,galactose l-,galactose d-,talose l-,talose ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,,*o ,,*o ,,*o ,,*o #c4 ,ketohexoses3 d-,fructose d-,sorbose d-,tagatose ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,c,o ,c,o ,c,o ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,ref]5ce w be made 9 subsequ5t p>agraphs to ! probable *emical con/itution ( ! monosac*>ides o!r ?an hexoses2 b ! above discussion ( ! /ructure ( ! hexoses w s]ve z a suffici5t introduction to ! /udy ( ! composition ( ! common c>bohydrates4 ,,*>act]i/ic ,,reactions ,,( ,,hexoses ,specific ,rotatory ,p[]4--,all soluble c>bohydrates1 s9ce !y conta9 asymmetric c>bon atoms1 ) ! consequ5t l>g] gr\ps on "o side ( ! molecule ?an ! o!r1 rotate ! plane ( pol>iz$ light :5 x passes ?r\gh a solution ( ! c>bohydrate 9 "q4 ,! am\nt ( ! rotation dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! c>bohydrate1 ! conc5tration ( ! solution1 & ! l5g? ( ! column ( solution ?r\gh :i* ! ray ( pol>iz$ light passes4 ,b ! same def9ite am\nt ( ! same sug>1 dissolv$ 9 ! same volume ( wat]1 & plac$ 9 a tube ( ! same l5g?1 w always cause ! same angul> deviation1 or rotation1 ( ! plane 9 :i* ! pol>iz$ light :i* passes ?r\gh x is vibrat$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! same numb] ( molecules ( ! optically active sub/ance 9 solution w always produce ! same rotatory effect4 ,?is is call$ ! specific rotatory p[] ( ! sub/ance 9 "q4 ,x is express$ z ! numb] ( degrees ( angul> deviation ( ! plane ( pol>iz$ light caus$ by a column ( ! solution exactly #bjj mm4 9 l5g?1 ! conc5tration ( ! solution be+ #ajj grams ( sub/ance 9 #ajj cc4 at a temp]ature ( #bj ,c4 ,actual det]m9ations ( specific rotatory p[] are usually made ) solutions m dilute ?an ?is /&>d1 & ! obs]v$ deviation multipli$ by ! prop] factor to det]m9e ! effect :i* w\ld be produc$ by ! solution ( /&>d conc5tration4 ,if ! direction ( ! deviation is to ! "r 7i4e41 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! h&s ( ! clock move7 x is spok5 ( z dextro rotation & is indicat$ by ! sign 1 or ! lett] d2 :ile if 9 ! opposite direction1 x is call$ levo rotation & indicat$ by ! sign -1 or ! lett] l4 ,= example1 ! specific rotation ( ord9>y glucose is #eb4g2 ( fructose1 -#ib2 ( sucrose1 #ff4e4 ,r$uc+ ,action4--,all ( ! hexose sug>s are active r$uc+ ag5ts4 ,?is is because ( ! aldehyde gr\p :i* !y conta94 ,_m ( ! common heavy metals1 :5 9 alkal9e solutions1 are /rongly r$uc$ :5 boil$ ) solutions ( ! hexose sug>s4 ,alkal9e copp] solutions yield a precipitate ( r$ cupr\s oxide2 ammoniacal silv] solutions give silv] mirrors2 alkal9e solutions ( m]cury salts are r$uc$ to metallic m]cury1 etc4 ,any sug> :i* conta9s a pot5tially active aldehyde gr\p w exhibit ?is r$uc+ effect & is kn[n z a r$uc+ sug>4 ,9 "s ( ! di- & tri-sac*>ides1 ! l9kage ( ! hexose compon5ts toge!r is ?r\gh ! aldehyde gr\p1 9 su* a way t x loses its r$uc+ effect2 su* sug>s are kn[n z non-r$uc+4 ,advantage is tak5 ( ?is prop]ty = bo? ! detection & quantitative det]m9ation ( ! r$uc+ sug>s4 ,a /&>d alkal9e copp] solution ( def9ite /r5g?1 kn[n z ,fehl+'s solution1 is add$ to ! solution ( ! sug> to be te/$ & ! mixture boil$1 :5 ! *>act]i/ic brick-r$ precipitate appe>s4 ,if c]ta9 /&>d conditions ( volume ( solutions us$1 l5g? ( "t ( boil+1 etc41 are obs]v$1 ! quantity ( cupr\s oxide precipitat$ be>s a def9ite ratio to ! am\nt ( sug> :i* is pres5t1 s t if ! precipitate be filt]$ (f & weigh$ "u prop] conditions1 ! weight ( sug> pres5t 9 ! orig9al solution c be calculat$4 ,! prop] conditions = c>ry+ on su* a det]m9ation & tables %[+ ! am\nts ( ! v>i\s r$uc+ sug>s :i* correspond to ! weight ( cupr\s oxide f\nd1 are giv5 9 all /&>d text-books deal+ ) ! analysis ( organic comp\nds4 ,f]m5tability4--,! common hexoses are all easily f]m5t$ by yea/1 =m+ alcohol & c>bon dioxide1 accord+ to ! equation ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f #b;,c#b;,h#e,,oh #b;,,co#b4 ,! importance & bio*emical significance ( ?is reaction w be consid]$ 9 detail 9 connection ) ! discussions ( ! relation ( molecul> configuration to bio*emical prop]ties 7see page #ef7 & ! nature ( enzyme action 7see page #aid74 ,=mation ( ,hydrazones & ,osazones4--,ano!r prop]ty ( ! hexoses :i* is due to ! pres5ce ( an aldehyde gr\p 9 ! molecule1 is t ( =m+ addition products ) ph5yl hydraz9e1 kn[n z hydrazones & osazones4 ,= example1 glucose reacts ) ph5yl hydraz9e 9 acetic acid solution1 9 two /ages4 ,! fir/1 :i* takes place ev5 9 a cold solution may be repres5t$ by ! equation ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f;,c#f;,h#e,,nh,,nh#b ,c#f;,h#ab,o#e3,n,,nh,c#f;,h#e ,glucose ,ph5yl-hydraz9e ,glucose-hydrazone ,h#b,o4 ,! /ructural relation%ips involv$ may be repres5t$ z foll[s3 ,,*o ,h#b,n,,nh ,,*,n-------,,nh _/ _/ 7,,*oh7#d 7,,*oh7#d ,,*#b,,oh _/ ,,*#b,,oh _/ ,! hydrazones ( ! common sug>s1 ) ! exception ( ! "o f mannose1 are colorless comp\nds1 easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,h5ce1 !y d n s]ve = ! sep>ation or id5tification ( ! individual sug>s4 ,b if ! solution 9 :i* !y are =m$ conta9s an excess ( ph5yl hydraz9e & is heat$ to ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat] = "s "t1 ! alcoholic gr\p next to ! aldehyde gr\p 7! t]m9al alcohol gr\p 9 ketoses7 is fir/ oxidiz$ to an aldehyde & !n a second molecule ( ph5yl hydraz9e is add$ on1 z illu/rat$ above1 =m+ a di-addition-product1 kn[n z an osazone4 ,! osazones are g5]ally m or less soluble 9 hot wat]1 b on cool+ !y cry/allize out 9 yell[ cry/all9e masses ea* ) def9ite melt+ po9t & cry/all9e =m4 ,all sug>s :i* h active aldehyde gr\ps 9 ! molecule =m osazones4 ,^! af=d excell5t means ( id5tification ( unkn[n sug>s1 or ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 sug>s ( diff]5t orig9 & type4 ,glucose1 mannose1 & fructose all =m id5tical osazones4 ,?is is because ! /ructure ( ^! ?ree sug>s is id5tical except = ! arrangem5t )9 ! two gr\ps at ! aldehyde end ( ! molecule 7see =mulas on page #dd74 ,s9ce x is to ^! two gr\ps t ! ph5yl hydraz9e residue atta*es itself1 x foll[s t ! result+ osazones mu/ be id5tical 9 /ructure & prop]ties4 ,all o!r r$uc+ sug>s yield osazones ( diff]5t physical prop]ties4 ,:5 an osazone is decompos$ by boil+ ) /rong acids1 ! ph5yl hydraz9e gr\ps break (f1 leav+ a comp\nd conta9+ bo? an aldehyde & a ketone gr\p4 ,su* comp\nds are kn[n z osones4 ,! osones f glucose1 mannose1 & fructose are id5tical4 ,by c>efully controll$ r$uction1 ei!r "o ( ! ,c,o gr\ps ( ! osone may be *ang$ to an alcoholic gr\p1 produc+ !reby "o ( ! orig9al sug>s aga94 ,h5ce1 x is possible to />t ) "o ( ^! sug>s1 conv]t x into ! osone & !n r$uce ?is to ano!r sug>1 !reby accompli%+ ! trans=mation ( "o sug> into ano!r isom]ic sug>4 ,=mation ( ,glucosides4--,by treatm5t ) a consid]able v>iety ( diff]5t types ( comp\nds1 "u prop] conditions1 x is possible to replace "o ( ! hydrog5 atoms ( ! t]m9al alcoholic gr\p ( ! hexose sug>s ) ! *>act]i/ic gr\p ( ! o!r sub/ance1 =m+ comp\nds kn[n1 respectively1 z glucosides1 fructosides1 galactosides1 etc4 ,! /ructural relation ( me?yl glucoside to glucose1 = example1 may be illu/rat$ z foll[s3 ,glucose 7,c#f;,h#ab,o#f7 ,me?yl ,glucoside 7,c#g;,h#ad,o#f7 ,,*o ,,*o 7,,*oh7#d 7,,*oh7#d ,,*#b,,oh ,,*oh ,,*#c ,a g5]al =mula = glucosides is ,r7,,*oh7#e;,,*o2 & ! ,r may repres5t a great v>iety ( diff]5t organic radicals 7see ! *apt]s deal+ ) ,glucosides & ) ,tann9s74 ,:5 ! glucosides are hydrolyz$1 !y yield glucose & ! hydroxyl comp\nd ( ! radical ) :i* x is unit$4 ,all ! /atem5ts :i* h be5 made ) ref]5ce to glucosides1 apply equally well ) ref]5ce to fructosides1 galactosides1 mannosides1 etc4 ,x is possible1 by v>i\s laboratory processes1 to replace additional hydrog5 atoms 9 ! glucose molecule ) ! same or o!r organic radicals1 ?us produc+ glucosides conta9+ two or m ,r gr\ps2 b mo/ ( ! natural glucosides conta9 only "o o!r *>act]i/ic gr\p4 ,oxidations4--,:5 ! hexoses are oxidiz$ !y give rise to ?ree diff]5t types ( acids1 dep5d+ ^u ! conditions ( ! oxidation & ! k9d ( oxidiz+ ag5t us$4 ,) glucose1 = example1 ! relation%ips involv$ may be illu/rat$ z foll[s3 ,,*o ,,cooh ,,*o ,,cooh 7,,*oh7#d 7,,*oh7#d 7,,*oh7#d 7,,*oh7#d ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,cooh ,,cooh ,glucose ,gluconic acid ,glucuronic acid ,sac*>ic acid ,an important prop]ty ( ! acids ( ! gluconic type is t :5 heat$ ) pyrid9e or qu9ol9e to #acj-aej !y und]go a molecul> re>rangem5t :]eby ! acid correspond+ to an isom]ic sug> is produc$4 ,= example1 gluconic acid1 "u ^! conditions1 becomes mannonic acid1 :i* c be r$uc$ to mannose4 ,! process is rev]sible2 mannose c be conv]t$ to mannonic acid1 !nce to gluconic acid1 !nce to glucose4 ,simil>ly1 galactonic acid c be conv]t$ into talonic acid1 & ?is to talose1 & ?is process is rev]sible4 ,^! facts af=d ano!r means ( conv]sion ( "o sug> into ano!r4 ,f ! /&po9t ( physiological processes1 glucuronic acid is ! mo/ int]e/+ & important oxidation product ( glucose4 ,x is (t5 f\nd 9 ! ur9e ( animals1 z ! result ( ! p>tial oxidation ( glucose 9 ! animal tissues4 ,normally1 glucose is oxidiz$ 9 ! body to its f9al oxidation products1 c>bon dioxide & wat]4 ,b :5 _m difficultly oxidizable sub/ances1 su* z *loral1 camphor1 turp5t9e oil1 anil9e1 etc41 are introduc$ into ! body1 ! organism has ! p[] ( comb9+ ^! ) glucose to =m glucosides4 ,^! s-call$ pair$ comp\nds are !n oxidiz$ to ! correspond+ glucuronic acid d]ivatives & elim9at$ f ! body 9 ! ur9e4 ,no ph5om5on simil> to ?is occurs 9 plants1 h[ev]1 & glucuronic acid has nev] be5 f\nd 9 plant tissues4 ,syn!sis & ,degradation ( ,hexoses4--,monosac*>ides ( any desir$ numb] ( c>bon atoms c be produc$ f aldoses hav+ "o less c>bon atoms1 by way ( ! famili> nitrile reaction4 ,aldoses1 l all o!r aldehydes1 comb9e directly ) hydrocyanic acid1 =m+ comp\nds kn[n z nitriles1 :i* conta9 "o m c>bon atom ?an 0 pres5t 9 ! orig9al aldehyde2 ! cyanog5 gr\p c easily be conv]t$ into a ,,cooh gr\p2 & ?is1 9 turn1 r$uc$ to an aldehyde1 ?us produc+ an aldose ) "o m c>bon atom ?an 0 pres5t 9 ! initial sug>4 ,^! *anges may be illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ equations3 7#a7 ,,*o ,,hcn ,,*oh,,cn ,,cn 7,,*oh7#c 7,,*oh7#c or 7,,*oh7#d ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,aldop5tose ,nitrile 7#b7 ,,cn ,h#b,o ,,cooh ,,nh#c 7,,*oh7#d 7,,*oh7#d ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,nitrile ,acid 7#c7 ,,cooh - ,o ,,*o 7,,*oh7#d 7,,*oh7#d ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,acid ,aldohexose ,x is possible1 by ?is process1 to advance /ep by /ep f =maldehyde to high] sug>s1 ,emil ,fis*] & 8 /ud5ts hav+ c>ri$ ! process z f> z ! production ( glucodecose 7,c#aj;,h#bj,o#aj74 ,x usually happ5s1 h[ev]1 t two /]eo-isom]s result f ! /ep-up by way ( ! nitrile reaction2 ?us1 arab9ose yields a mixture ( glucose & mannose1 glucose yields glucoheptose & mannoheptose1 etc4 ,! rev]se process1 or ! s-call$ degradation ( a sug> into ano!r conta9+ few] c>bon atoms1 may be readily accompli%$ 9 ei!r "o or two ways4 ,9 ,wohl's process1 ! aldehyde gr\p ( ! sug> is fir/ conv]t$ into an oxime1 by treatm5t ) hydroxylam9e2 ! oxime1 on be+ heat$ ) conc5trat$ sodium hydroxide solution1 splits (f wat] & becomes ! correspond+ nitrile2 ?is1 on fur!r heat+1 splits (f ,,hcn & yields an aldose hav+ "o less c>bon atom ?an ! orig9al sug>4 ,?is process is ! exact rev]se ( ! nitrile syn!sis1 describ$ above4 ,! second me?od ( degradation1 sugge/$ by ,ruff1 makes use ( ,f5ton's me?od ( oxidiz+ aldehyde sug>s to ! correspond+ monobasic acid1 us+ hydrog5 p]oxide & f]r\s sulfate z ! oxidiz+ mixture2 ! aldonic acid ?us =m$ is !n conv]t$ into its calcium salt1 :i*1 :5 fur!r oxidiz$1 splits (f its c>boxyl gr\p & "o ( ! hydrog5s ( ! adjac5t alcoholic gr\p1 leav+ an aldose hav+ "o less c>bon atom ?an ! orig9al aldose sug>4 ,enolic ,=ms4--,a f9al av5ue = ! int]conv]sion ( glucose1 mannose1 & fructose into "o ano!r1 is ?r\gh ! spontane\s trans=mations :i* ^! und]go :5 dissolv$ 9 wat] conta9+ sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide4 ,?is *ange is due to ! conv]sion ( ! sug>1 9 ! alkal9e solution1 into an enol1 :i* is id5tical = all ?ree sug>s1 & :i* may subsequ5tly be reconv]t$ into any "o ( ! ?ree isom]ic hexoses4 ,! relation%ips involv$ are illu/rat$ 9 ! foll[+ =mulas3 ,,*o ,,*o ,,*#b,,oh ,,*oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,c,o ,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,glucose ,mannose ,fructose ,enolic ,=m ,! prec$+ te*nical discussion ( ! *emical con/itution & reactions ( ! hexoses has be5 pres5t$1 n because x has any direct connection ) ! occurr5ce or functions ( ^! comp\nds 9 plant tissues1 b = ! purpose ( giv+ to ! /ud5t a graphic conception ( ! /ructure & prop]ties ( ^! simple c>bohydrates1 z a basis = ! und]/&+ ( ! nature1 prop]ties1 possible *emical reactions1 syn!ses1 etc41 ( ! m complex types ( c>bohydrates1 :i*1 along ) ^! simple monosac*>ides1 con/itute ! mo/ important s+le gr\p ( organic compon5ts ( plants4 ,,! ,,occurr5ce ,,& ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,monosac*>ides ,only two monosac*>ides occur z su* 9 plants4 ,^! are glucose & fructose4 ,all ! o!r hexoses1 ^: /ructure is %[n on pages #cg & #ch1 occur 9 plants only z con/itu5ts ( ! m complex sac*>ides1 9 glucoside-=mations1 or z ! correspond+ polyatomic alcohols4 ,! aldo-hexoses :i* occur mo/ commonly 9 plants1 ei!r free or 9 comb9ation1 are d-glucose1 d-mannose1 & d-galactose2 :ile d-fructose & d-sorbose are ! common keto-hexoses4 ,glucose 7(t5 call$ also dextrose1 fruit sug>1 or grape sug>7 occurs widely di/ribut$ 9 plants1 mo/ commonly 9 ! juices ( rip5+ fruits1 :]e x is usually associat$ ) fructose & sucrose1 ! two hexoses be+ easily d]iv$ f sucrose by hydrolysis4 ,glucose is also produc$ by ! hydrolysis ( _m ( ! m complex c>bohydrates1 by ! action ei!r ( enzymes or ( dilute acids2 lactose1 maltose1 raff9ose1 />*1 & cellulose1 z well z _m glucosides all yield+ glucose z "o ( ! products ( _! hydrolysis4 ,9 all su* cases1 x is d-glucose :i* is obta9$4 ,glucose is a cry/all9e solid 7al?\gh x does n =m su* %>ply def9$ cry/als z does sucrose1 or granulat$ sug>71 :i* is easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,x usually appe>s on ! m>ket 9 ! =m ( ?ick syrups1 :i* are produc$ comm]cially by ! hydrolysis ( />* ) dilute sulfuric acid1 removal ( ! acid aft] ! hydrolysis is complete1 & evaporation ( ! result+ solution to ! desir$ syrupy consi/5cy4 7,s9ce corn />* is commonly us$ z ! raw mat]ial = ?is process1 ^! syrups are (t5 spok5 ( z corn syrup47 ,! sweetness ( glucose is ab\t ?ree-fif?s t ( ord9>y cane sug>4 ,glucose exhibits all ! prop]ties ( hexoses :i* h be5 describ$ 9 g5]al t]ms above4 ,x is a r$uc+-sug>1 & is easily f]m5t$4 ,! specific rotatory p[] ( d-glucose is #eb4g4 ,b :5 glucose is dissolv$ 9 wat]1 x exhibits 9 a m>k$ degree ! ph5om5on kn[n z mut>otation2 t is1 fre%ly made solutions exhibit a c]ta9 def9ite rotatory p[]1 b ?is *anges rapidly until x f9ally rea*es ano!r def9ite specific rotation4 ,9 o!r words1 glucose is birotatory1 or possesses two di/9ct specific rotatory p[]s1 & ! *ang+ rotation effect 9 aque\s solutions is due to ! *ange f "o =m to ! o!r4 ,:5 dissolv$ 9 alcohol1 x does n exhibit ?is *ange 9 rotatory p[]4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ?is ph5om5on1 x is necess>y to assume t !re are two modifications ( d-glucose1 :i* h be5 designat$ respectively z ! alpha & beta =ms4 ,! possibility ( ! exi/5ce ( ^! two =ms is expla9$ by ! assumption ( ! clos$-r+ arrangem5t ( ! glucose molecule1 z indicat$ 9 ! foll[+ =mulas :i* repres5t ! two possible isom]ic arrangem5ts3 ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh _/ _/ _/ _/ ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,o ,o ,,ho-,c-,h _/ ,,ho-,c-,h _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,c-,h ,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh alpha-,glucose beta-,glucose ,x is assum$ t ! alpha modification 7) its specific rotatory p[] ( #aje7 is ! normal =m = cry/all9e glucose1 b t :5 dissolv$ 9 wat] x is *ang$ into an aldehydrol1 i4e41 a comp\nd conta9+ two additional ,,oh gr\ps1 :i* lat] breaks d[n aga91 into ! beta modification 7) its specific rotatory p[] ( #bb74 ,:5 dissolv$ 9 alcohol1 ?is *ange does n take place because ( ! abs5ce ( ! excess ( wat] necess>y to produce ! int]m$iate aldehydrol =m4 ,!re are o!r examples ( ! exi/5ce ( ! alpha & beta modification ( glucose4 ,= example1 alpha-me?yl-glucoside & beta-me?yl-glucoside 7specific rotatory p[]s1 #aeg & -#cc1 respectively7 are bo? kn[n1 z well z sev]al o!r simil> glucoside arrangem5ts4 ,mannose4--,?is sug> does n occur z su* 9 plants2 b complex comp\nds :i* yield d-mannose :5 hydrolyz$1 kn[n z mannosans1 are f\nd 9 a numb] ( tropical plant =ms4 ,! mannose :i* is obta9$ f ^! by hydrolysis is v simil> to glucose 9 its prop]ties1 =ms ! same osazones z d glucose & fructose1 exhibits mut>otation1 etc4 ,mannose may also be obta9$ by oxidiz+ mannitol1 a hexatomic alcohol1 kn[n z mannite1 :i* occurs 9 _m plants1 especially 9 ! manna-a% 7,frax9us ornus71 ! dri$ sap f :i* is kn[n z manna4 ,galactose occurs 9 ! animal k+dom z "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( lactose1 or milk-sug>4 ,x is also "o ( ! con/itu5ts ( raff9ose1 a trisac*>ide sug> f\nd 9 plants1 & occurs z galactans 9 _m gums & sea-we$s4 ,! d-galactose1 obta9$ by ! hydrolysis ( any ( ^! comp\nds1 is a fa9tly sweet sub/ance :i* resembles glucose 9 _m ( its prop]ties2 hav+ "o *>act]i/ic diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 9 t x =ms mucic acid in/ead ( sac*>ic acid :5 oxidiz$ by conc5trat$ nitric acid4 ,^! oxidation products are v diff]5t 9 _! physical prop]ties & ?is diff]5ce s]ves to di/+ui% betwe5 ! two sug>s f :i* !y are d]iv$4 ,fructose 7levulose1 honey sug>1 or diabetic sug>7 occurs along ) glucose 9 ! juices ( _m fruits1 etc4 ,x is a con/itu5t ( sucrose1 ( raff9ose1 & ( ! polysac*>ide inul91 f :i* x may be obta9$ by hydrolysis4 ,x is a ketose sug>1 r$uces ,fehl+'s solution1 =ms ! same osazone z glucose1 & is easily f]m5table by yea/4 ,its sweetness is slightly great] ?an t ( ord9>y cane sug>4 d-fructose 7! ord9>y =m7 is easily soluble 9 wat]1 & is /rongly levorotatory1 its specific rotatory p[] at #bj ,c4 be+ -#ib4e2 x is unique 9 ! v l>ge effect :i* is produc$ 9 its rotatory p[] by increas+ ! temp]ature ( ! solution2 at #hg its specific rotatory p[] is r$uc$ to -#eb4g1 exactly equal to b 9 ! opposite direction ( ! effect ( glucose2 h5ce1 inv]t sug>1 :i* is a mixture ( an equal numb] ( molecules ( glucose & fructose1 & :i* has a specific rotatory p[] ( -#ai4d at #bj ,c41 becomes optically inactive at #hb ,c4 ,sorbose is ! only o!r ketohexose :i* has any importance 9 plant *emi/ry4 ,x does n occur free 9 plants1 b is ! fir/ oxidation product f ! hexatomic alcohol1 sorbitol1 :i* is pres5t 9 ! juice ( ! b]ries ( ! m\nta9-a%4 ,sorbose is a cry/all9e solid1 :i* is n f]m5table by yea/1 b :i* o!rwise closely resembles fructose4 ,,disac*>ides ,! disac*>ides1 hav+ ! =mula ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa1 may be reg>d$ z d]iv$ f ! monosac*>ides by ! l9k+ toge!r ( two hexose gr\ps ) ! dropp+ out ( a molecule ( wat]1 9 ! same way t _m o!r organic comp\nds =m su* l9kages4 ,t ?is is a p]fectly correct conception1 is %[n by ! fact t1 :5 hydrolyz$1 ! disac*>ides break d[n into two hexose sug>s1 ?us ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f4 ,) all kn[n disac*>ides1 at lea/ "o ( ! hexoses obta9$ by hydrolysis is glucose2 h5ce all disac*>ides may be reg>d$ z glucosides 7,c#f;,h#ab,o#e,r7 9 :i* ! ,r is ano!r hexose gr\p4 ,s9ce hexoses h bo? alcoholic & aldehyde gr\ps1 & s9ce ei!r ( ^! types ( gr\ps may function 9 ! l9kage ( ! two hexoses to =m a disac*>ide1 x is possible = two hexoses1 bo? ( :i* are r$uc+ sug>s to be l9k$ toge!r 9 ?ree diff]5t ways3 7#a7 ?r\gh an alcoholic gr\p ( ea* hexose1 7#b7 ?r\gh an alcoholic gr\p ( "o & ! aldehyde gr\p ( ! o!r1 & 7#c7 ?r\gh ! aldehyde gr\p ( ea* hexose4 ,disac*>ides l9k$ 9 ei!r ( ! fir/ two ways w be r$uc+ sug>s1 s9ce !y /ill conta9 a pot5tially active aldehyde gr\p2 b ^? ( ! ?ird type w n be r$uc+ sug>s1 s9ce ! l9kage ?r\gh ! aldehyde gr\ps de/roys _! p[] ( act+ z r$uc+ ag5ts4 ,examples ( ea* ( ^! ?ree types ( l9kage are f\nd among ! common disac*>ides1 z w be po9t$ out bel[4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! common disac*>ides4 ,type #a4--;,aldehyde gr\p pot5tially active1 r$uc+ sug>s3 ,sug> ,compon5ts ,maltose ,glucose & glucose ,g5tiobiose ,glucose & glucose ,lactose ,glucose & galactose ,melibiose ,glucose & galactose ,turanose ,glucose & fructose ,type #b4--,non-r$uc+ sug>s3 ,sucrose ,glucose & fructose ,trehalose ,glucose & glucose ,! disac*>ides ( ,type #a r$uce ,fehl+'s solution & =m hydrazones & osazones1 al?\gh some:at less readily ?an d ! hexoses4 ,!y all %[ mut>otation & exi/ 9 two modifications1 indicat+ t ! compon5t gr\ps h ! clos$-r+ arrangem5t4 ,! disac*>ides ( ,type #b1 s9ce !y conta9 no pot5tially active aldehyde gr\p1 d n r$uce ,fehl+'s solution1 nor =m osazones2 nei!r d !y exhibit mut>otation4 ,! only disac*>ides :i* occur z su* 9 plants are ( ?is type4 ,disac*>ides ( ,type #a may be obta9$ by ! hydrolysis ( o!r1 m complex1 c>bohydrates4 ,all disac*>ides are easily hydrolyz$ into mixtures ( _! compon5t hexoses1 by boil+ ) dilute m9]al acids1 or by treatm5t ) c]ta9 specific enzymes :i* are adapt$ to ! p>ticul> disac*>ide 9 ea* case 7see page #ee1 also ,*apt] ,,xiv74 ,sucrose 7cane sug>1 beet sug>1 maple sug>7 is ! ord9>y granulat$ sug> ( comm]ce4 ,x occurs widely di/ribut$ 9 plants1 :]e x s]ves z res]ve food mat]ial4 ,x is f\nd 9 l>ge/ proportions 9 ! /alks ( sug> cane1 9 ! roots ( c]ta9 v>ieties ( beets1 & 9 ! spr+ sap ( maple trees1 all ( :i* s]ve z indu/rial s\rces = ! sug>4 ,9 ! sug> cane1 & beet-roots1 x con/itutes f #ab to #bj p] c5t ( ! gre5 weight ( ! tissue & f #ge to #ij p] c5t ( ! soluble solids 9 ! juice :i* c be express$ f x4 ,its univ]sal use z a sweet5+ ag5t is due to ! comb9$ facts t x cry/allizes readily out ( conc5trat$ solutions &1 h5ce1 c be easily manufactur$ 9 solid =m1 & t x is sweet] ?an any o!r ( ! common sug>s except fructose4 ,sucrose is a non-r$uc+ sug>1 =ms no osazone1 & is n directly f]m5table by yea/1 al?\gh mo/ species ( yea/s conta9 an enzyme :i* w hydrolyze sucrose into its compon5t hexoses1 :i* !n readily f]m5t4 ,:5 hydrolyz$ by acids1 or by ! enzyme inv]tase1 x yields a mixture ( equal quantities ( glucose & fructose4 ,sucrose is dextrorotatory1 b s9ce fructose has a great] specific rotatory action to ! left ?an glucose has to ! "r1 ! mixture result+ f ! hydrolysis ( sucrose is levorotatory4 ,s9ce ! hydrolysis ( sucrose *anges ! rotatory effect ( ! solution f ! "r to ! left1 ! process is usually call$ ! inv]sion ( sucrose1 & ! resultant mixture ( equal p>ts ( glucose & fructose is call$ inv]t sug>4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out1 solutions ( inv]t sug> become optically inactive :5 heat$ to #hb ,c41 because ( ! r$uction 9 ! rotatory p[] ( fructose due to ! high] temp]ature4 ,! probable l9kage ( ! two hexoses to =m sucrose1 9 su* a way z to produce a non-r$uc+ sug>1 is illu/rat$ 9 ! foll[+ =mula3 ------,o------- ,,*#b,,oh,,*oh,,*,,*oh,,*oh,,* ,o ,,*#b,,oh,,*oh,,*oh,,*,c,,*#b,,oh _/ ,o ,trehalose seems to s]ve z ! res]ve food = fungi 9 mu* ! same way t sucrose does = high] plants4 ,x is compos$ ( two molecules ( glucose l9k$ toge!r ?r\gh ! aldehyde gr\p ( ea*1 z trehalose is a non-r$uc+ sug>4 ,?is l9kage is illu/rat$ 9 ! foll[+ =mula3 ------,o------- ,,*#b,,oh,,*oh,,*,,*oh,,*oh,,* ,o ,,*#b,,oh,,*oh,,*,,*oh,,*oh,,* ------,o------- ,trehalose may be hydrolyz$ into glucose by dilute acids & by ! enzyme trehalase1 :i* is conta9$ 9 _m yea/s & 9 sev]al species ( fungi4 ,x is /rongly dextrorotatory 7specific rotatory p[]1 #aii74 ,x is n f]m5table by yea/4 ,trehalose appe>s to replace sucrose 9 ^? plants :i* conta9 no *lorophyll & d n elaborate />*4 ,! quantity ( trehalose 9 su* plants rea*es a maximum j be=e spore =mation beg9s4 ,s9ce x is manufactur$ 9 ! abs5ce ( *lorophyll1 its =mation mu/ be accompli%$ by "s o!r means ?an photosyn!sis1 yet x is compos$ :olly ( glucose--a natural photosyn!tic product4 ,maltose r>ely occurs z su* 9 plants1 al?\gh its pres5ce 9 ! cell-sap ( leaves has sometimes be5 report$4 ,x is produc$ 9 l>ge quantities by ! hydrolysis ( />* dur+ ! g]m9ation ( b>ley & o!r gra9s4 ,?is hydrolysis is br\ght ab\t by ! enzyme dia/ase1 :i* is pres5t 9 ! spr\t+ gra94 ,maltose is easily soluble 9 wat]1 & cry/allizes 9 masses ( sl5d] ne$les4 ,x is a r$uc+ sug>2 readily =ms a *>act]i/ic osazone2 is /rongly dextrorotatory 7specific rotatory p[] #acg72 & is readily f]m5t$ by ord9>y brew]'s yea/1 :i* conta9s bo? maltase 7! enzyme :i* hydrolyzes maltose to glucose7 & zymase 7! alcohol-produc+ enzyme74 ,:5 hydrolyz$1 ei!r by dilute acids or by maltase1 "o molecule ( maltose yields two molecules ( glucose4 ,its compon5t hexoses are1 !re=e1 ! same z ^? ( trehalose1 a non-r$uc+ sug>1 ?is diff]5ce 9 prop]ties be+ due to ! diff]5ce 9 ! po9t ( l9kage betwe5 ! two glucose molecules1 t = maltose be+ su* z to leave "o ( ! aldehyde gr\ps pot5tially active1 z %[n 9 ! foll[+ =mula1 -------,o------ ,,*#b,,oh,,*oh,,*,,*oh,,*oh,,* ,o ,,*oh,,*oh,,*oh,,*,,*oh,,*#b ----------,o----- ,isomaltose is a syn!tic sug>1 obta9$ by ,fis*]1 by cond5s+ two molecules ( glucose4 ,its prop]ties are q simil> to ^? ( maltose1 b x yields a slightly diff]5t osazone & is n f]m5table by yea/4 ,^! diff]5ces are expla9$ by ! assumption t ?is sug> is a glucose-beta-glucoside1 :ile normal maltose is a glucose-alpha-glucoside4 ,g5tiobiose is a disac*>ide :i* results f ! p>tial hydrolysis ( ! trisac*>ide g5tianose 7see page #ec74 ,x is v simil> 9 its g5]al prop]ties to isomaltose4 ,cellobiose is a disac*>ide :i* results f ! hydrolysis ( cellulose4 ,x is a r$uc+ sug>1 =ms an osazone1 & resembles maltose4 ,maltose1 isomaltose1 g5tiobiose1 & cellobiose1 are all glucose-glucosides1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m be+ und\bt$ly due to l9kage be+ betwe5 diff]5t alcoholic gr\ps 9 ! glucose molecules4 ,! disac*>ide lactose is a glucose-galactoside4 ,x is ! sug> :i* is pres5t 9 ! milk ( all mammals4 ,x has nev] be5 f\nd 9 plants4 ,melibiose1 :i* is ! correspond+ vegetable glucose-galactoside1 may be obta9$ by ! p>tial hydrolysis ( ! trisac*>ide raff9ose 7see bel[74 ,x is a r$uc+ sug>2 =ms a *>act]i/ic osazone2 & exhibits mut>otation4 ,x is n f]m5t$ by ord9>y top-yea/s1 b is fir/ hydrolyz$ & !n f]m5t$ by ! enzymes pres5t 9 bottom-yea/s4 ,,trisac*>ides ,trisac*>ides1 z ! "n indicates1 consi/ ( ?ree hexoses 7or monosac*>ides7 l9k$ toge!r by ! dropp+ out ( two molecules ( wat]4 ,_! =mula is ,c#ah;,h#cb,o#af4 ,:5 completely hydrolyz$1 !y yield ?ree molecules ( monosac*>ides2 :5 p>tially hydrolyz$1 "o ea* ( a disac*>ide & a monosac*>ide4 ,"o trisac*>ide ( ! r$uc+ sug> type1 namely rhamnose1 exi/s 9 plants z a con/itu5t ( ! glucoside xan?orhamn94 ,x is compos$ ( "o molecule ( glucose unit$ to two molecules ( rhamnose 7me?yl p5tose1 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#e74 ,x is ( int]e/ only 9 connection ) ! prop]ties ( ! glucoside 9 :i* x is pres5t 7see page #hd74 ,?ree trisac*>ides :i* are non-r$uc+ sug>s are f\nd 9 plants2 namely1 raff9ose1 g5tianose1 & melizitose4 ,raff9ose occurs normally 9 cotton se$s1 9 b>ley gra9s1 & 9 manna2 also1 9 small quantities 9 ! beet root1 associat$ ) sucrose4 ,x is m soluble 9 wat] ?an is sucrose & h5ce rema9s 9 solution 9 ! molasses f beet-sug> manufacture1 :i* con/itutes ! comm]cial s\rce = ?is sug>4 ,raff9ose cry/allizes out ( conc5trat$ solutions1 ) five molecules ( wat] ( cry/allization1 9 clu/]s ( gli/5+ prisms4 ,x is /rongly dextrorotatory1 ! anhydr\s sug> hav+ a specific rotatory p[] ( #ahe1 & ! cry/all9e =m1 ,c#ah;,h#cb,o#af1 %[+ a specific rotation ( #ajd4e4 ,x does n r$uce ,fehl+'s solution1 nor =m an osazone1 & 9 its o!r prop]ties x closely resembles sucrose4 ,! hydrolysis ( raff9ose pres5ts sev]al int]e/+ possibilities4 ,if its /ructure is repres5t$ z foll[s3 ,c#f;,h#aa,o#e-;,c#f;,h#aj,o#d-;,c#f;,h# aa,o#e ,fructose ,glucose ,galactose _/ _/ _/ _/ ,sucrose ,melibiose x is app>5t t x may break d[n by hydrolysis 9 ?ree diff]5t ways3 7#a7 into sucrose & galactose1 7#b7 into fructose & melibiose1 & 7#c7 into fructose1 glucose1 & galactose4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 x does actually break d[n 9 ^! ?ree diff]5t ways1 "u ! influ5ce ( diff]5t cataly/s2 inv]tase or dilute acids break x d[n into fructose & melibiose1 emuls9 hydrolyzes x to sucrose & galactose1 :ile /rong acids or ! enzymes ( bottom-yea/s break x d[n into ! ?ree hexoses4 ,g5tianose1 a trisac*>ide f\nd 9 ! roots ( yell[ g5tian 7,g5tiana lutea71 is a non-r$uc+ sug>1 :i* :5 hydrolyz$ yields ei!r fructose & g5tiobiose1 or fructose & two molecules ( glucose4 ,melizitose1 a trisac*>ide :i*1 9 cry/alliz$ =m1 has ! =mula1 ,c#ah;,h#cb,o#afb;,h#b,o1 occurs 9 ! sap ( ,l>ix europea & 9 ,p]sian manna1 & has rec5tly be5 f\nd 9 consid]able quantities 9 ! manna :i* collects on ! twigs ( ,d\glas fir & o!r conif]s4 ,:5 hydrolyz$1 x yields "o molecule ( fructose & "o ( turanose1 a disac*>ide conta9+ fructose & glucose l9k$ toge!r 9 a slightly diff]5t way ?an !y are 9 sucrose4 ,turanose itself is a r$uc+ sug>1 b :5 l9k$ ) fructose to =m melizitose its r$uc+ prop]ties are de/roy$4 ,melizitose is a v sweet sug>4 ,,tetrasac*>ides ,a complex sac*>ide1 kn[n z /a*yose1 :i* is f\nd 9 ! tub]s ( ,/a*ys tub]if]a1 is said by "s inve/igators to be a tetrasac*>ide & by o!rs to h ! =mula ,c#cf;,h#fb,o#cag;,h#b,o 7i4e41 a hexasac*>ide74 ,x is a cry/all9e solid1 ) a fa9tly sweeti% ta/e1 & a specific rotatory p[] ( #adh4 ,:5 hydrolyz$ x yields glucose1 fructose1 & two 7or m7 molecules ( galactose4 ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,molecul> ,,configuration ,,( ,,sug>s ,,to ,,_! ,,bio*emical ,,prop]ties ,z w be po9t$ out lat] 7see ,*apt] ,,xiv71 all *emical reactions :i* are involv$ 9 vital ph5om5a1 includ+ ^? ( plant gr[? & metabolism1 are controll$ by enzymes4 ,! bio*emical reactions :i* ! soluble c>bohydrates und]go af=d su* excell5t illu/rations ( ! relation ( ! molecul> configuration ( an organic comp\nd to ! possibility ( ! action ( an enzyme ^u x1 t x seems desirable to discuss ?is relation%ip at ?is po9t1 r ?an to po/pone x until aft] ! nature ( enzyme action has be5 consid]$4 ,und\bt$ly1 ! /ud5t1 aft] he has /udi$ ! nature ( enzymes & _! mode ( action1 z pres5t$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xiv1 w f9d x pr(itable to return to ?is section & review ! facts "h pres5t$1 z illu/rat+ ! pr9ciples & me*anism ( enzyme action4 ,b a consid]ation1 at ?is "t1 ( ! relation ( ! molecul> configuration ( ! sug>s to _! bio*emical reactions _c fail to add int]e/ to ! /udy ( ^! matt]s f ! *emical & biological /&po9ts4 ,x has be5 kn[n = a long "t t ! dextro- & levo-isom]s ( a comp\nd :i* conta9s "o or m asymmetric c>bon atoms are affect$ diff]5tly by biological ag5ts1 su* z yea/s1 m\lds1 bact]ia1 etc4 ,pa/eur1 z e>ly z #ahej1 %[$ t ! gre5 m\ld1 ,p5icillium glaucum1 :5 gr[+ 9 solutions ( racemic acid 7a mixture ( equal molecules ( d- & l-t>t>ic acids7 uses up only ! d-acid1 leav+ ! l-=m absolutely unt\*$4 ,lat]1 x 0 f\nd t ! same gre5 m\ld attacks l-m&elic acid 9 pref]5ce to ! d- =m2 :]eas ! yea/1 ,sac*>omyces ellipsoideus1 exhibits ! opposite pref]5ce = ^! acids4 ,^! obs]vations ^u "s ( ! e>li] kn[n =ms ( optically active organic acids l$ ! way to a g5]al /udy ( ?is ph5om5on z exhibit$ by ! optically active soluble c>bohydrates4 ,! results ( ^! /udies may be consid]$ 9 connection ) ! sev]al diff]5t types ( reactions :i* ^! sug>s und]go1 z foll[s3 ,glucoside ,hydrolysis4--,z 0 po9t$ out 9 connection ) ! discussion ( ! mut>otation ( glucose1 ?is sug> may exi/ 9 ei!r ! alpha or ! beta modification4 ,glucosides ( bo? alpha & beta glucose are ( common occurr5ce4 ,! diff]5ce 9 molecul> configuration1 9 su* cases1 may be repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mulas3 ,r-,o-,c-,h ,h-,c-,o-,r _/ _/ _/ _/ ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,o ,o ,,ho-,c-,h _/ ,,ho-,c-,h _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,c-,h ,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh alpha-,glucoside beta-,glucoside ,! radical repres5t$ by ! ,r may be ei!r a common alkyl radical 7z ,,*#c1 ,c#b;,h#e1 etc471 ano!r sac*>ide gr\p 7z 9 ! case ( ! disac*>ides1 trisac*>ides1 etc471 or "s o!r complex organic gr\p 7z 9 ! case ( ! natural glucosides describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,vi74 ,b1 9 e case1 ! glucoside is easily hydrolyz$ by ! enzyme maltase 7or alpha-glucase7 if ! molecul> arrangem5t is t repres5t$ by ! alpha-atta*m5t1 or by ! enzyme emuls9 7or beta-glucase7 if ! glucoside is ( ! beta type2 b emuls9 is absolutely )\t effect ^u alpha-glucosides1 & maltase does n produce ! slighte/ *ange 9 beta-glucosides4 ,^! /atem5ts hold true reg>dless ( ! nature ( ! gr\p :i* is repres5t$ by ! ,r 9 ! =mulas above4 ,h5ce1 ! bio*emical prop]ties ( ! glucosides1 s f> z _! hydrolysis by ! enzymes :i* are pres5t 9 _m biological ag5ts is conc]n$1 dep5ds :olly ^u ! molecul> configuration ( ! glucose itself4 ,fur!rmore1 nei!r ! mannosides1 :i* diff] f glucosides only 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! ,h & ,,oh gr\ps atta*$ to "o ( ! asymmetric c>bon atoms 9 ! hexose1 nor galactosides 9 :i* two su* arrangem5ts are diff]5t 7see configuration =mulas on page #eg71 are attack$ by ei!r maltase or emuls94 ,b o!r enzymes specifically attack o!r disac*>ides1 or polysac*>ides1 or glucoside-l complexes4 ,= example1 lactase acts en]getically ^u ord9>y lactose & all o!r beta-galactosides2 b n ^u any glucoside1 mannoside1 etc4 ,aga91 nei!r alpha- nor beta-xylosides1 :i* correspond ) ! above-describ$ glucosides 9 e p>ticul> except t ! ,,hcoh gr\p next ! t]m9al ,,*#b,,oh gr\p is miss+1 are hydrolyz$ by ei!r emuls9 or maltase4 ,^! in/ances1 select$ f among _m simil> obs]vations1 cle>ly prove t n only ! numb] & k9d ( gr\ps 9 ! molecule1 b also ! arrangem5t ( ! con/itu5t gr\ps 9 space1 mu/ be id5tical 9 ord] t ! comp\nd may be act$ ^u by any giv5 enzyme act+ z a biological hydrolytic ag5t4 ,f]m5tability4--,! enzyme zymase1 pres5t 9 all yea/s1 promotes ! f]m5tation ( ! natural d- =ms ( ! ?ree hexoses1 glucose1 mannose1 & fructose1 b is )\t effect ^u ! artificial l- =ms ( ! same sug>s4 ,! uni=m action ( zymase ^u ^! hexoses is easily expla9$ ^u ! basis ( ! same assumption :i* 0 us$ to acc\nt = ! =mation ( id5tical osazones f ^! sug>s & _! easy trans=mation into ea* o!r2 namely1 _! easy trans=mation into an enolic =m :i* is id5tical = all ?ree4 ,fur!r1 galactose is f]m5t$ by "s yea/s 7al?\gh n by all71 b mu* less readily ?an are ! o!r sug>s1 & ! temp]ature reaction is q diff]5t ) galactose ?an ) ! o!rs4 ,talose & tagatose are entirely unf]m5table4 ,a /udy ( ! configuration =mulas = ^! sev]al sug>s %[s ! explanation = ^! obs]v$ facts4 ,^! =mulas are z foll[s3 ,,*o ,,*o ,,*#b,,oh ,,*oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,c,o ,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,glucose ,mannose ,fructose ,enol ,,*o ,,*o ,,*#b,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,ho-,c-,h ,c,o ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,,ho-,c-,h ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,galactose ,talose ,tagatose ,x w be not$ t 9 ! case ( glucose1 mannose1 & fructose1 ! configuration is id5tical at e po9t except at ! aldehyde end ( ! *a91 & t "h ! two gr\ps readily arrange !mselves into ! same enolic =m = ! ?ree sug>s4 ,galactose diff]s f ^! ?ree sug>s only 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! ,h & ,,oh gr\ps atta*$ to "o ( ! o!r c>bon atoms 7! ?ird f ! alcoholic end72 ! difficulty ( its f]m5tation indicates t "s molecul> re>rangem5t to br+ ?is gr\p into its prop] configuration mu/ prec$e ! f]m5tation process4 ,! fact t x is ! ?ird ,,hcoh gr\p :i* ?us und]goes re>rangem5t is significant because ( ! p>ticipation ( ^! p>ts ( molecules 9 gr\ps ( ?rees 9 _m biological processes1 z w be m5tion$ else:]e4 ,talose is unf]m5table1 ev5 ?\gh ! arrangem5t ( its upp] ?ree gr\ps is ! same z 9 ! galactose & ! l[] ?ree ! same z 9 mannose4 ,if fur!r pro( t f]m5tability dep5ds ^u molecul> configuration 7 ne$$1 x is furni%$ by ! fact t no p5tose is f]m5tible1 ev5 ?\gh ! /]eo-arrangem5t ( ea* ( ! f\r alcoholic gr\ps 9 ! molecule is id5tical ) ! correspond+ gr\ps 9 a f]m5tible hexose4 ,oxidation by ,bact]ia4--,! bacillus ,bact]ium xyl9um conta9s an enzyme1 or enzymes1 :i* promote ! oxidation ( ! aldehyde gr\p ( an aldose sug> to ,,cooh1 or ( "o alcoholic ,,*oh gr\p next ! t]m9al ,,*#b,,oh gr\p ( a hexatomic alcohol to ,c,o4 ,b ^! oxidiz+ enzymes affect only ^? comp\nds 9 :i* ! ,,oh gr\ps are on ! same side ( ! two asymmetric c>bon atoms next ! end ( ! molecule :]e ! oxidation takes place1 z indicat$ 9 ! foll[+ gr\p+s4 ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh ,h-,c-,,oh or ,h-,c-,,oh b n ,,ho-,c-,h or ,,ho-,c-,h ,,*o ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,*o ,! configuration ( ! rema9d] ( ! molecule is immat]ial to action by ^! oxidiz+ bact]ia2 h5ce1 ! enzymes 9 ?is case are app>5tly conc]n$ only ) ! configuration arrangem5t ( a portion ( ! molecule1 in/ead ( ) ! :ole hexose gr\p+1 z 9 ! cases ( ! o!r reactions :i* h be5 ?us f> consid]$4 ,x is app>5t f ^! illu/rations1 & f _m m :i* might be cit$1 t !re is a v def9ite relation betwe5 ! molecul> configuration ( a c>bohydrate & its bio*emical prop]ties1 z repres5t$ by ! possibilities ( ! action ( enzymes ^u x4 ,! probable nature ( ?is relation%ip w be bett] und]/ood aft] ! g5]al que/ions involv$ 9 ! mode ( enzyme action h be5 consid]$ 7see *apt] ,,xiv74 ,b = ! pres5t1 x w be suffici5t to note t x seems to be necess>y t ! enzyme %all actually fit ! molecul> arrangem5t ( ! comp\nd at all po9ts1 9 ! same way t a key fits its appropriate lock2 or a /ill bett] illu/ration is t ( ! fitt+ ( a glove to ! h&4 ,on ! basis ( ! latt] illu/ration1 x is j z impossible = a dextro-enzyme to affect a levo-sug>1 or = alpha-glucase to affect a beta-glucoside1 z x is to fit a "r-h& glove ^u a left h&4 ,fur!r att5tion w be giv5 to ^! matt]s 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,,polysac*>ides ,! polysac*>ides :i*1 l ! simpl] sac*>ides1 or sug>s1 :i* h ?us f> be5 /udi$1 und\bt$ly s]ve z res]ve food = plants1 are kn[n "u ! g5]al "n ( />*es4 ,!y are sub/ances ( high molecul> weight1 ^: con/itution is repres5t$ by ! g5]al =mula 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7n4 ,x %\ld be not$ t an exactly accurate =mula %\ld be 7,c#f7n7,h#ab,o#f7n-#a2 b s9ce ! value ( n is v high1 ! simpl] =mula is approximately correct4 ,! value ( n has n be5 accurately det]m9$ = any ( ! individual memb]s ( ! gr\p1 b is probably nev] less ?an #cj & may (t5 be #bjj or m4 ,! fact t ^! comp\nds are insoluble 9 mo/ ( ! solv5ts :i* c be us$ = molecul> weight det]m9ations makes x difficult to det]m9e _! actual molecul> con/itution4 ,:5 completely hydrolyz$1 ! polysac*>ides yield only hexoses4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 te*nically kn[n z hexosans4 ,ea* individual polysac*>ide :i* has be5 /udi$ ?us f> yields only a s+le hexose1 al?\gh ! p>ticul> hexose obta9$ v>ies 9 diff]5t cases4 ,9 fact1 ! polysac*>ides are (t5 classifi$ accord+ to ! hexoses :i* !y yield on hydrolysis1 into ! foll[+ gr\ps3 ! dextrosans1 :i* yield glucose1 & include />*1 dextr91 glycog51 li*591 etc42 ! levulosans1 :i* yield fructose1 & include inul91 gram991 tritic91 etc42 ! mannans2 & ! galactans4 ,! m common repres5tatives ( ea* ( ^! gr\ps are discuss$ bel[4 7,a7 ,,! ,,dextrosans ,^! are by f> ! mo/ common type ( polysac*>ides to be f\nd 9 plants4 ,/>*4--,x is probable t no o!r s+le organic comp\nd is s widely di/ribut$ 9 plants z is ord9>y />*4 ,x is produc$ 9 l>ge quantities 9 gre5 leaves z ! tempor>y /orage =m ( photosyn!tic products4 ,z a p]man5t res]ve food mat]ial1 x occurs 9 se$s1 9 fruits1 9 tub]s1 9 ! pi?1 m$ull>y rays & cortex ( ! /ems ( p]5nials1 etc4 ,x con/itutes f #ej to #fe p] c5t ( ! dry weight ( se$s ( c]eals1 & z high z #hj p] c5t ( ! dry matt] ( potato tub]s4 ,/>* occurs 9 plant tissues 9 ! =m ( microscopic granules1 compos$ ( conc5tric lay]s1 !re be+ app>5tly alt]nate lay]s ( two types ( c>bohydrate mat]ial1 :i* h be5 di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by sev]al diff]5t pairs ( names us$ by diff]5t au?ors3 ?us1 ,ngeli uses ! t]ms granulose & amylocellulose2 ,mey]1 alpha & beta amylose2 ,wolff1 amylo-cellulose & amylo-pect92 :ile ,kram] ass]ts t ! lay]s are alt]nate lamella ( cry/all9e & colloidal />*4 ,_m !ories z to ! nature ( ^! conc5tric lay]s & _! mode ( deposition h be5 advanc$1 b x w\ld n be pr(itable to discuss !m 9 detail "h4 ,= purposes ( /udy1 />* may be prep>$ f ! gr\nd meal ( c]eals1 potatoes1 etc41 by knead+ ! meal 9 a bag or sieve ( f9e-me%$ musl9 or silk1 "u a sl[ /ream ( wat]4 ,! />* granules1 be+ microscopic 9 size1 readily pass ?r\gh ! clo? ) ! wat]1 & may be caught 9 any suitable conta9]4 ,! />* is !n all[$ to settle to ! bottom1 ! wat] p\r$ (f & ! />* collect$ & dri$4 ,/>* is insoluble 9 wat]2 b if boil$ 9 wat]1 ! granules bur/ & a slimy opalesc5t mass1 kn[n z />* pa/e1 is obta9$4 ,?is is und\bt$ly a colloidal susp5sion ( ! />* 9 wat]4 ,by v>i\s processes1 su* z boil+ ) v dilute acids1 treatm5t ) acetone1 etc41 />* is conv]t$ into soluble />* :i* dissolves 9 wat] to a cle> solution4 ,soluble />* is precipitat$ out ( solution by alcohol1 or by lead subacetate solution4 ,air-dri$ />* conta9s f #ae to #bj p] c5t ( wat]2 b ?is c be completely remov$1 )\t alt]+ ! />* 9 any way1 by heat+ = "s "t at #ajj ,c4 ,! />* granules f diff]5t s\rces v>y consid]ably 9 size & %ape1 & c g5]ally be id5tifi$ by obs]vation "u ! microscope4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic reaction ( />* is ! blue color :i* x gives ) iod9e4 ,! reaction is mo/ m>k$ ) />* pa/e or soluble />*1 b ev5 dry />* granules are color$ blue :5 moi/5$ ) a solution ( iod9e 9 wat] conta9+ potassium iodide1 or ) t9cture ( iod9e4 ,:5 hydrolyz$1 ei!r by boil+ ) dilute acids or "u ! influ5ce ( enzymes1 />* und]goes a s]ies ( decompositions1 yield+ fir/ dextr9s1 !n maltose1 & f9ally glucose4 ,^! trans=mations c be trac$ by ! iod9e color reaction1 z />* w %[ its *>act]i/ic blue1 dextr9s purple or rose-r$1 & maltose & glucose no color ) iod9e4 ,dextr9s may occur 9 plants z transition products 9 ! trans=mation ( />* into sug>s1 or vice v]sa4 ,mo/ commonly1 h[ev]1 !y are artificial products result+ f ! p>tial hydrolysis ( />* 9 ! laboratory or factory4 ,!y are amorph\s sub/ances1 :i* are readily soluble 9 wat]1 =m+ /icky solutions :i* are (t5 us$ z adhesives 7libr>y pa/e is a common example ( a v conc5trat$ prep>ation ( ?is k9d74 ,!y are precipitat$ f solution by alcohol1 b n by lead subacetate 7di/9ction f />*74 ,!y are /rongly dextrorotatory 7specific rotatory p[] #aib to #aif72 are n f]m5t$ by yea/ alone1 b readily und]go hydrolysis to glucose :i* does f]m5t4 ,!re are sev]al diff]5t modifications1 or =ms1 ( dextr9s1 dep5d+ ^u ! ext5t to :i* ! simplification ( ! />* molecule by hydrolysis is c>ri$4 ,?ree fairly def9ite =ms are g5]ally recogniz$1 z foll[s3 amylo-dextr91 or soluble />*1 slightly soluble 9 cold wat]1 readily s 9 hot wat]1 giv+ a blue color ) iod9e2 ery?ro-dextr9 easily soluble 9 wat]1 neutral ta/e1 r$ color ) iod9e2 & a*roo-dextr91 easily soluble 9 wat]1 sweeti% ta/e1 no color ) iod9e4 ,comm]cial dextr91 :i* is mu* us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( mucilages & adhesive pa/es1 is prep>$ by heat+ dry />* to ab\t #bej ,c4 ,x is compos$ *iefly ( a*roo-dextr91 mix$ ) v>y+ quantities ( ery?ro-dextr9 & glucose4 ,glycog51 or animal />*1 is "o ( ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ res]ve foods ( ! animal body2 9 fact1 x is ! only kn[n =m ( c>bohydrate-res]ve 9 animal tissues4 ,b x is pres5t only r>ely 9 plants4 ,x occurs 9 c]ta9 fungi1 p>ticul>ly 9 yea/s4 ,9 ! animal body1 glycog5 is f\nd 9 all gr[+ cells2 also 9 ! muscles & blood2 b mo/ l>gely 9 ! liv]1 :]e x is /or$ 9 l>ge quantities4 ,! glycog5 f\nd 9 yea/s is id5tical ) t f\nd 9 animal tissues4 ,! quantity ( glycog5 9 a yea/ cell increases rapidly z ! yea/ gr[s dur+ ! f]m5tation process4 ,glycog5 is a :ite1 amorph\s comp\nd1 readily soluble 9 hot wat]1 =m+ an opalesc5t solution simil> 9 appe>ance to ! solutions ( soluble />*4 ,x is /rongly dextrorotatory 7specific rotatory p[] #aij71 is color$ br[n by iod9e1 & is hydrolyz$ to dextr9 & maltose1 & f9ally to glucose4 ,li*591 p>a dextran1 & p>a isodextran are dextrosans :i* h be5 isolat$ f v>i\s l[] plants4 ,!y all yield glucose :5 completely hydrolyz$4 ,!y resemble />* 9 *emical prop]ties1 b diff] f x 9 physical =m1 etc4 7,b7 ,,levulosans ,inul9 replaces />* z ! res]ve food c>bohydrate 9 a consid]able numb] ( natural ord]s ( plants1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,compositae4 ,x is ! c>bohydrate ( ! tub]s ( ! dahlia & arti*oke & ( ! fle%y roots ( *icory4 ,x is (t5 f\nd associat$ ) />* 9 monocotyl$on\s plants1 su* z _m species ( ,iris1 ,hyac9?us1 & ,musc>i4 ,among ! monocotyl$ons1 />* seems to be ! *>act]i/ic c>bohydrate res]ve ( aquatic1 or moi/ure-lov+1 species1 :ile inul9 is m common among ^? :i* pref] dry situations4 ,inul9 may be prep>$ f ! tub]s ( dahlias or arti*okes1 by boil+ ! cru%$ tub]s ) wat] conta9+ a little *alk 7to precipitate m9]al salts1 album9s1 etc47 filt]+ & cool+ ! filtrate practically to ! freez+ po9t1 :i* precipitates ! inul94 ,inul9 is a :ite1 ta/eless1 semi-cry/all9e p[d]1 :i* is soluble 9 hot wat]1 f :i* x may be precipitat$ by alcohol or by freez+4 ,x =ms no pa/e l t ( />* or dextr91 & gives no color ) iod9e4 ,x is levorotatory1 & :5 hydrolyz$ by acids or by ! enzyme inul9ase yields fructose2 9 fact1 inul9 be>s ! same relation to fructose t />* does to glucose4 ,gram991 iris91 phle91 s9i/r91 & tritic9 are all inul9-l polysac*>ides1 :i* h be5 f\nd 9 ! plants aft] :i* !y are nam$4 ,_! solutions are1 z a rule1 /icky or gummy 9 consi/5cy1 :i* sugge/s t ^! comp\nds be> ! same relation to inul9 t dextr9s d to />*4 7,c7 ,,mannosans1 ,,or ,,mannans ,mannan be>s ! same relation to mannose t />* does to glucose & inul9 to fructose4 ,x occurs z a res]ve food sub/ance 9 _m plants4 ,x has be5 report$ z pres5t 9 m\lds1 & 9 ergot2 9 ! roots ( asp>agus1 *icory1 etc42 9 ! leaves & wood ( _m trees1 su* z ! *e/nut1 apple1 mulb]ry1 & _m conif]s2 also z a "p ( ! s-call$ hemi-celluloses :i* are pres5t 9 ! se$s ( _m plants1 notably ! palms1 ! eld]s1 c$>1 l>*1 etc4 ,x is a :ite1 amorph\s p[d]1 :i* is difficultly soluble 9 wat]1 is /rongly dextrorotatory 7specific rotatory p[] #bhe71 & :5 hydrolyz$ yields mannose4 ,secal9 7or c>ub97 is a sub/ance :i* is f\nd 9 ! se$s ( b>ley1 rye1 etc41 :i* is simil> to mannan1 b is optically inactive4 7,d7 ,,galactans ,^! be> ! same relation to galactose t ! prec$+ dextrosans d to _! con/itu5t hexoses4 ,f\r diff]5t galactans h be5 isolat$ f plant tissues2 !y are all :ite1 amorph\s solids :i* dissolve ) difficulty 9 wat]1 =m+ gummy solutions4 ,bo? galactans & mannans commonly occur associat$ ) cellulose & hemi-celluloses 9 ! se$s or o!r /orage organs ( plants4 ,!y are practically indige/ible by animals1 z ! prop] enzymes to hydrolyze !m are n pres5t 9 ! dige/ive tract2 h5ce1 !y are commonly class$ ) ! indige/ible cellulose z ! crude fib] ( plants :i* are to be us$ z food by animals4 ,,physiological ,,use ,,& ,,biological ,,significance ,,( ,,c>bohydrates ,if ! organic comp\nds produc$ by plants be classifi$ ) ref]5ce to _! uses 9 metabolism into ! ?ree gr\ps kn[n1 respectively1 z tempor>y foods1 /orage products1 & p]man5t /ructures1 x is cle> t ! c>bohydrates :i* h be5 discuss$ 9 ?is *apt] may fall into ei!r "o ( ! fir/ two ( ^! classes4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! fir/ products ( photosyn!sis1 :i*ev] ones !y may be 9 diff]5t plants1 may be directly us$ z tempor>y foods1 to furni% ! en]gy & mat]ial = ! build+ up ( p]man5t /ructures4 ,also1 !re c be no d\bt t ^! same c>bohydrates are translocat$ to ! /orage organs & accumulat$ = lat] use by ! same plant 7z1 = example1 9 ! case ( ! p]5nials71 or by ! next g5]ation ( ! plant 7:5 ! /orage is 9 ! endosp]m adjo9+ ! embryo ( ! se$74 ,!re is no kn[n explanation z to :y diff]5t species ( plants make use ( diff]5t c>bohydrates = ^! purposes2 or :y c]ta9 species elaborate />* out ( ! same raw mat]ials f :i* o!r species produce sug>s1 inul91 or glycog51 etc4 ,9 g5]al1 />* is ! f9al product ( photosyn!sis 9 mo/ gre5 plants2 b !re are _m exceptions to ?is4 ,! polysac*>ides1 :i* are g5]ally insoluble1 mu/ be brok5 d[n into ! simpl] soluble sug>s be=e !y c be translocat$ to o!r organs ( ! plant = imm$iate1 or future1 use4 ,:5 !y rea* ! /orage organs1 !y may be recond5s$ into insoluble polysac*>ides1 or /or$ z soluble sug>s4 ,examples ( ! latt] type ( /orage are1 sucrose 9 beet roots1 glucose 9 onion bulbs1 etc4 ,sometimes1 ?is habit ( /orage seems to be a species *>act]i/ic2 z potatoes /ore />*1 :ile beets1 gr[+ 9 ! same soil & "u exactly ! same environm5t1 /ore sug>4 ,b 9 o!r cases1 ! nature ( ! c>bohydrate /or$ und\bt$ly is correlat$ ) ! ext]nal temp]atures at ! "t ( /orage4 ,x has be5 %[n t cold1 :i* t5ds to physiological dryness1 v frequ5tly favors ! /orage ( sug>s in/ead ( />*es4 ,?us1 9 temp]ate zones1 among aquatic1 or moi/ure-lov+ plants1 ^? species :i* hib]nate dur+ ! w9t] at ! bottom ( lakes or ponds & are kill$ by temp]atures bel[ freez+1 /ore />* & no sug>2 :ile 9 ! same ponds1 ! species ^: /orage organs pass ! w9t] above ! level ( ! wat] & c )/& temp]atures z l[ z -#g ,c4 conta9 sug> dur+ ! w9t] mon?s1 ev5 if !y conta9 />* dur+ w>m] p]iods4 ,simil>ly1 sug>s (t5 appe> 9 ! leaves & /ems ( conif]s dur+ ! w9t] mon?s1 only to disappe>1 or be replac$ by />*1 :5 spr+ approa*es4 ,?is same ph5om5on is noticeable 9 arctic plants1 :i* g5]ally conta9 b small proportions ( />* & relatively l>ge am\nts ( sug>s4 ,simil>ly1 ! ph5om5on ( ! turn+ sweet ( potatoes :5 expos$ to l[ temp]atures has (t5 be5 not$4 ,! *ange ( ! />* 9 potato tub]s to sug> is mo/ rapid at ! temp]ature ( #j ,c41 & ceases at #g1 or above4 ,also1 if potatoes 9 :i* ! maximum am\nt ( sug> is pres5t 7n ov] "o-six? ( ! total />* c be conv]t$ into sug>7 are expos$ to a high] temp]ature ! sug> soon disappe>s4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 x may be said t ea* p>ticul> species ( plant has its own p>ticul> pref]5ce = a specific c>bohydrate z its res]ve food mat]ial1 & elaborates ! prop] enzymes to make x possible to utilize ?is p>ticul> c>bohydrate = its metabolic ne$s4 ,aga91 ! "q z to :e!r ! /orage ( en]gy-produc+ mat]ials = ! use ( ! next g5]ation %all be 9 ! =m ( c>bohydrates or ( fats seems to be def9itely connect$ ) ! size ( ! se$1 & ! consequ5t available /orage space 7see page #ach74 ,animals habitually use ! space-cons]v+ =m ( fats = _! en]gy-/orage1 :ile plants m commonly use c>bohydrates = ?is purpose1 except 9 ! case ( ^? small se$s 9 :i* suffici5t en]gy _c be /or$ 9 c>bohydrate =m to develop ! "y se$l+ to ! po9t :]e x c manufacture its own food4 ,z a g5]al rule1 nuts1 :i* conta9 ! embryo ( sl[-gr[+ se$l+s1 & ne$ l>ge proportions ( en]gy res]ve1 are *>act]i/ically oily in/ead ( />*y 9 type4 ,b1 aside f temp]ature reactions & space requirem5ts1 !re is no law :i* has yet be5 discov]$ :i* det]m9es ! "* ( ! en]gy-/orage comp\nd :i* any giv5 species ( plant w elaborate4 ,! process ( photosyn!sis w\ld seem to be id5tical 9 all cases1 at lea/ up to ! po9t ( ! production ( ! fir/ hexose sug>2 b ! trans=mation ( glucose into o!r monosac*>ides1 disac*>ides1 & polysac*>ides seems to be a matt] :i* obeys no rule or law4 ,f9ally1 !re rema9s to be consid]$ ! occurr5ce & uses ( sug>s 9 ! fle%y tissues ( fruits4 ,^! tissues h1 ( c\rse1 no direct function 9 ! life hi/ory ( ! plant4 ,!y surr\nd ! se$1 b !y mu/ decay or be de/roy$ be=e ! se$ c come into ! prop] environm5t = g]m9ation & gr[?4 ,9 mo/ fruits1 />* is ! =m 9 :i* ! c>bohydrate mat]ial is fir/ deposit$ 9 ! gre5 tissue1 b z ! fruit rip5s ! />* rapidly *anges into sug>s1 ) ! result t ! fruit takes on a flavor :i* makes x mu* m attractive z a food = m5 & animals4 ,?is purely biological significance ( ! pres5ce ( sug>s 7& ( ! o!r sub/ances :i* give desirable flavors to fruits1 vegetables1 etc471 c h no possible relation to ! physiological ne$s ( ! individual plant1 h[ev]4 ,x is app>5t t ! production ( ^! imm5se /ores ( res]ve food by plants makes !m useful z food = animals1 & x is1 ( c\rse1 ! /orage p>ts ( ! plants :i* are mo/ useful = ?is purpose4 ,?is biological relation%ip ne$s no fur!r emphasis4 ,,ref]5ces ,,abd]hald51 ,e4--,bio*emis*es ,h&lexikon1 ,b& #b 444 ,die ,e9fa*5 ,zuck]>t51 ,inul9e1 ,cellulos51 4441 #gbi pages1 ,b]l91 #aiaa1 & ,b& #h--a ,ergnzungsb& 7same title z ,b& #b7-- #ejg pages2 ,b]l91 #aiad4 ,,arm/rong1 ,e4 ,f4--,! ,simple ,c>bohydrates & ,glucosides1 #bcc pages4 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiai 7#c;d ed474 ,,fis*]1 ,e4--,unt]su*ung ueb] ,kohl5hydrate und ,f]m5te1 #ahhd-aijh1 #iab pages1 ,b]l91 #aiji4 ,,mack5sie1 ,j4 ,e4--,! ,sug>s & _! ,simple ,d]ivatives1 #bdb pages1 #ag figs41 ,london1 #aiac4 ,,toll5s1 ,b4--,kurzes ,h&bu* d] ,kohl5hydrate1 #haf pages1 #bi figs41 ,leipzig1 #aiad 7#c;d ed474 ,,*apt] ,v ,,gums1 ,,pect9s1 ,,& ,,celluloses ,^! sub/ances con/itute a gr\p ( comp\nds :i* are v simil> to ! polysac*>ide c>bohydrates 9 composition & con/itution1 b :i* s]ve entirely diff]5t purposes 9 ! plant4 ,z a class1 !y are cond5sation products ( p5toses1 kn[n z p5tosans & hav+ ! =mula 7,c#e;,h#h,o#d7n1 or hexosans hav+ ! =mula 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7n1 or comb9$ p5tosan-hexosans4 ,9 g5]al1 ^! comp\nds make up ! skeleton1 or /ructural framework mat]ial1 ( ! plant1 9 contra/ ) ! protoplasmic mat]ials or food sub/ances = :i* mo/ ( ! o!r types ( organic comp\nds 7discuss$ 9 o!r *apt]s ( ?is book7 s]ve4 ,!y are ! pr9cipal con/itu5ts ( woody fib]1 ( cell-walls1 & ( ! middle lamella :i* fills up ! spaces betwe5 ! plant cells4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 f\nd 9 l>ge/ proportions 9 ! /ems ( woody plants2 b !y are also pres5t 9 e o!r organ ( plants1 z ! cell-wall or o!r /ructural mat]ial4 ,= purposes ( /udy1 ^! comp\nds may conv5i5tly be divid$ into ?ree gr\ps2 namely1 ! natural gums & p5tosans1 ! pect9s & mucilages1 & ! celluloses4 ,! segregation into ^! ?ree gr\ps is n %>ply def9$4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! gr\ps is bas$ ^u ! solubility ( ! comp\nds 9 wat]4 ,! gums & p5tosans readily dissolve 9 wat]2 ! pect9s =m colloidal solutions :i* are easily conv]t$ into jellies2 ! mucilages d n dissolve b =m slimy masses2 :ile ! celluloses are insoluble 9 & unalt]$ by wat]4 ,"s au?ors add a f\r? gr\p1 kn[n z hum9s2 b z ^! are ! products ( decay 7usually 9 ! soil7 ( ^! /ructural comp\nds1 r ?an ( gr[? & developm5t1 !y ne$ n be tak5 into consid]ation 9 a /udy ( ! *emi/ry ( plant gr[?4 ,,! ,,natural ,,gums ,,& ,,p5tosans ,! natural gums1 :5 hydrolyz$1 yield l>ge proportions ( sug>s1 b mo/ ( !m also conta9 a complex organic acid nucleus1 by means ( :i* !y =m salts ) calcium1 magnesium1 etc4 ,"s ( !m1 su* z *]ry gum & ^? :i* are f\nd 9 ! woody /ems ( plants 7wood gum1 & ^? f\nd 9 corn /alks1 ! /raw ( c]eals1 etc47 yield practically pure p5toses4 ,^! are kn[n z p5tosans4 ,!y be> ! same relation to ! p5tose sug>s z d ! dextrosans to glucose1 etc4 ,! w\nd gums1 = example1 yield arab9ose1 & ! wood gums yield xylose4 ,b mo/ ( ! natural gums yield a mixture ( galactose1 "s p5tose1 & "s complex organic acid4 ,! gums are transluc5t1 amorph\s sub/ances1 ^: solutions 9 wat] are levorotatory4 ,!y are precipitat$ out ( solution by alcohol & by lead subacetate solution4 ,gums are extremely difficult to hydrolyze1 ! laboratory process ( hydrolysis usually requir+ f eighte5 to tw5ty-f\r h\rs ( cont9u\s boil+ ) acids = its completion4 ,because ( ?is difficulty ( hydrolysis1 gums are practically indige/ible by animals & ( little use z food4 ,! foll[+ common examples w s]ve to illu/rate ! g5]al nature ( ^! comp\nds4 ,gum arabic1 f\nd 9 ! exudate f ! /ems ( v>i\s species ( ,acacia1 is a mixture ( ! calcium1 magnesium1 & potassium salts ( a di>aban-tetragalactan-arabic acid4 ,arabic acid has ! =mula ,c#bc;,h#ch,o#bb1 & "o molecule ( ?is acid s]ves z ! nucleus = ! union ( eight galactose & f\r arab9ose gr\ps1 l9k$ toge!r 9 "s unkn[n way4 ,! =mula = ! comp\nd1 exclusive ( ! metallic elem5ts ) :i* x is loosely unit$ is ,c#ia;,h#aej,o#gh4 ,?is gives "s idea ( its complexity4 ,:5 boil$ ) nitric acid1 x is oxidiz$ to mucic1 sac*>ic1 & oxalic acids4 ,x gives *>act]i/ic reactions ) alum1 basic lead acetate1 & o!r common reag5ts4 ,gum arabic comes on ! m>ket z a brittle1 glassy mass1 :i* is us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( mucilages1 & z a c>ri] = ess5tial oils1 etc41 9 c]ta9 toilet prep>ations4 ,rec5t inve/igations h %[n t ! s-call$ meta-pectic acid1 :i* is (t5 f\nd 9 sug> beets & int]f]es ) ! process ( sug> manufacture1 is id5tical ) gum arabic 9 composition & prop]ties4 ,gum tragacan? is ! soluble portion ( ! natural gum :i* is f\nd 9 sev]al species ( ,a/ragalus4 ,x con/itutes only #h to #aj p] c5t ( ! total gum-l mat]ial :i* is pres5t1 ! rema9d] be+ compos$ ( insoluble gummy sub/ances ( unkn[n composition4 ,! soluble gum consi/s ( calcium1 potassium1 & magnesium salts ( an acid :i*1 :5 hydrolyz$1 yields sev]al molecules ( arab9ose1 six ( galactose1 & "o ( g$dic acid 7an isom] ( arabic acid74 ,x is said to be produc$ by ! metamorphosis ( ! m$ull>y rays "u unfavorable conditions ( gr[?4 ,x comes on ! m>ket 9 globul> masses ( amorph\s mat]ial1 & is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( cosmetics1 etc4 ,w\nd gum is frequ5tly f\nd 9 ! tra*e ( plants1 & ne> surface w\nds1 :i* x /an*es4 ,x is secret$ by ! cells surr\nd+ ! injur$ "p4 ,x responds to ! reactions ( o!r gums & to "s ( ^? ( woody fib]4 ,its exact composition is n kn[n1 b probably lies betwe5 t ( ! true gums & t ( cellulose4 ,^! gums are g5]ally consid]$ to be decomposition products ( celluloses1 result+ f ! action ( "s hydrolytic f]m5t1 usually /imulat$ by "s unfavorable condition ( gr[?1 "s injury1 or "s morbid condition4 ,! p5tosans1 araban & xylan1 occur normally 9 ! /ems & out] se$ coats ( _m common plants4 ,!y con/itute a consid]able proportion ( ^! tissues1 z indicat$ by ! foll[+ results ( typical analyses3 ,:eat bran1 #bb to #be p] c5t2 clov] hay1 #h to #aj p] c5t2 oat /raw1 #af to #bj p] c5t2 :eat /raw1 #bf to #bg p] c5t2 corn bran1 #ch to #dc p] c5t2 jute fib]1 #ac to #ae p] c5t2 v>i\s wood gums1 #fj to #ib p] c5t4 ,!y are :ite1 fluffy solids1 :i* are difficultly soluble 9 cold wat]1 m readily 9 hot wat]4 ,!y are v difficult to hydrolyze1 & indige/ible by animals4 ,:5 f9ally hydrolyz$1 !y yield arab9ose & xylose1 respectively4 ,! pi? ( dry corn /alks is a good illu/ration ( _! g5]al "*4 ,,mucilages ,^! are *>act]iz$ by =m+ slimy masses :5 moi/5$ ) wat]4 ,!y are secret$ by hairs on ! sk9 ( _m plants1 s t ! ext]nal walls ( ! leaves1 fruit1 & se$s are (t5 mucilag9\s :5 damp4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( aquatic plants4 ,! *emical composition ( ! mucilages is unkn[n4 ,:5 hydrolyz$1 !y yield arab9ose & a hexose2 ! latt] is sometimes galactose & sometimes mannose4 ,:5 pres5t on ! surface ( plant tissues1 ! mucilages probably s]ve to prev5t ! too rapid diffusion ( mat]ials ?r\gh ! sk91 9 ! case ( ! aquatic plants1 & too rapid transpiration1 9 ! case ( "y vegetative tissues or 9 o!r plants :5 gr[+ "u extremely dry conditions4 ,:5 f\nd 9 tub]s1 or o!r /orage organs1 x has be5 suppos$ t !y may s]ve z res]ve food mat]ials1 b x seems t su* difficultly hydrolyzable comp\nds z ^! c h>dly function z normal res]ve foods4 ,,pect9s ,_m fruits1 su* z currants1 gooseb]ries1 apples1 pe>s1 etc41 & _m fle%y roots ( vegetables1 su* z c>rots1 p>snips1 etc41 conta9 sub/ances kn[n z pect9s4 ,^! are readily soluble 9 wat]1 & :5 dissolv$ 9 conc5trat$ solutions 9 hot wat]1 !y set into jellies :5 ! solution is cool$4 ,^! jellies c>ry ) !m ! soluble sug>s & flavors :i* are pres5t 9 ! fruits1 & con/itute a famili> article ( diet4 ,!re are und\bt$ly sev]al diff]5t modifications ( ! pect9s1 to :i* ! names meta-pect91 p>a-pect91 pectic acid1 meta-pectic acid1 & p>a-pectic acid1 h be5 appli$4 ,^! all seem to be products ( hydrolysis ( a "m sub/ance kn[n z pectose1 :i* con/itutes ! middle lamella ( unripe fruit1 etc4 ,z ! fruit rip5s1 ! pectose is hydrolyz$ into ! v>i\s semi-acid1 or acid1 bodies m5tion$ above4 ,! int]m$iate products ( ! hydrolysis are ! pect9s1 :i* swell up 9 wat] & readily =m jellies2 :ile ! f9al meta-pectic acid is easily soluble 9 wat] & resembles ! true gums 9 its prop]ties4 ,:5 ! middle lamella rea*es ! pectic acid /age1 ! fruit becomes s(t & mu%y 9 texture4 ,! pect9s m ne>ly approa* to ! composition1 prop]ties1 & functions ( ! celluloses ?an d any ( ! o!r gr\ps ( organic comp\nds4 ,!y h be5 ext5sively /udi$ 9 connection ) ! p>asitism ( c]ta9 fung\s diseases :i* cause ! s(t rots ( fruits & vegetables4 ,^! p>asites usually p5etrate ! tissues ( ! ho/ plant by dissolv+ out ! middle lamella mat]ial1 :i* may sometimes s]ve z food mat]ial = ! fungus2 b m (t5 ! p>asite secures its food supply f ! protoplasm ( ! cell cont5ts4 ,9 su* cases1 ! p>asite secretes bo? a pectose-dissolv+ enzyme1 kn[n z pectase & a cellulase :i* attacks ! cell-wall mat]ial 9 ord] to provide = ! entry ( ! fungus into ! cells4 ,o!r enzymes1 kn[n z pect9ases1 :i* coagulate ! soluble pect9s or pectic acids into insoluble jellies 9 ! tissues ( ! plants seem to aid ! plant 9 resi/+ ! p5etration by ! p>asite4 ,,celluloses ,us$ 9 its g5]al s5se1 ?is t]m includes all ^? sub/ances :i* are elaborat$ by protoplasm to con/itute ! cell-wall mat]ial4 ,cellulose prop] is a def9ite *emical comp\nd1 ^: prop]ties are well e/abli%$4 ,9 plants1 h[ev]1 ?is true cellulose is ne>ly always contam9at$ by v>i\s encru/+ mat]ials2 & 9 ! process ( wood-=mation1 ! cell-wall mat]ial cont9ually ?ick5s by ! conv]sion ( ! cellulose into ligno-cellulose & ! protoplasm ( ! cell z cont9u\sly dim9i%es 9 volume4 ,?us ! protoplasm ( ! cell produces a numb] ( diff]5t k9ds ( mat]ial :i* are deposit$ 9 ! walls ( ! cell4 ,all ( ^!1 tak5 toge!r1 con/itute ! g5]al gr\p kn[n z ! celluloses4 ,^! may be divid$ into ?ree classes3 namely1 7#a7 ! hemi-celluloses1 7#b7 ! normal celluloses1 & 7#c7 ! comp\nd celluloses4 ,! hemi-celluloses 7pseudo-1 or res]ve celluloses7 include a s]ies ( complex polysac*>ides :i* occur 9 ! cell-walls ( ! se$s ( v>i\s plants4 ,!y are f\nd 9 ! %ells ( nuts1 r9ds ( cocoanuts1 %ells ( /ony fruits1 etc41 & 9 ! se$coats ( beans1 peas & o!r legumes4 ,!y are mu* m easily hydrolyz$ ?an ! o!r memb]s ( ?is gr\p1 & :5 hydrolyz$ yield v>i\s sug>s1 *iefly galactose1 mannose1 & ! p5toses4 ,!y be> ! same relation to ^! sug>s t />* does to glucose1 & are g5]ally suppos$ to s]ve z res]ve food mat]ial1 al?\gh x is difficult to conceive h[ ! %ells1 etc41 9 :i* !y appe> c be utiliz$ by a gr[+ se$l+4 ,!y diff] 9 /ructure f ! fibr\s celluloses & are probably n cell-wall build+ mat]ial4 ,!y appe> to be a =m ( res]ve c>bohydrates1 :i* diff] f ! glucose-polysac*>ides 9 be+ cond5s$ 91 or z a "p (1 ! ext]nal /ructural mat]ial r ?an 9 ! int]nal /orage organs4 ,!y are soluble 9 wat] & exhibit ! prop]ties ( gums1 & are (t5 classifi$ ) ! gums & describ$ "u ! names galactans1 mannosans1 p5tosans1 etc4 ,! normal celluloses1 ( :i* ! fib]s obta9$ f cotton1 flax1 hemp1 etc41 are typical examples1 are widely di/ribut$ 9 plants & =m ! comm]cial s\rces = all textile fib]s ( vegetable orig94 ,ord9>y cotton fib] conta9s #ia p] c5t ( cellulose1 ab\t #g4e p] c5t ( wat]1 #j4d p] c5t ( wax & fat1 #j4ee p] c5t ( pectose d]ivatives1 & #j4be p] c5t ( m9]al matt]2 or a total ( only #a4b p] c5t ( non-cellulose solids4 ,filt] pap] is practically pure cellulose4 ,pure cellulose is a :ite1 hygroscopic sub/ance1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat] & 9 mo/ o!r solv5ts4 ,if heat$ ) wat] "u pressure to ab\t #bfj ,c41 x dissolves completely )\t decomposition4 ,if boil$ ) a /rong solution ( z9c *loride1 or treat$ 9 ! cold ) z9c *loride & conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid1 or ) an ammoniacal solution ( copp] hydroxide 7,s*weitz]'s reag5t71 x dissolves to a cle> solution f :i* x may be reprecipitat$ )\t *emical *ange by neutraliz+ or dilut+ ! solution4 ,cellulose has ! =mula 7,c#f;,h#ab,o#e7n4 ,:5 hydrolyz$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! enzyme cytase1 x breaks d[n1 fir/ into cellobiose1 an isom] ( maltose1 & !n into glucose4 ,x is1 !re=e1 *emically l1 b n id5tical )1 />*2 & /ructurally x is arrang$ 9 fibr\s =m in/ead ( 9 granules4 ,"u ! action ( f]m5tative enzymes1 z :5 vegetable matt] decays "u /agnant wat]1 9 swamps1 etc41 cellulose breaks d[n into c>bon dioxide & m>% gas1 accord+ to ! equation 7,c#f;,h#ab,o#e7n n,h#b,o #cn,,co#bcn,,*#d4 ,cellulose is act$ ^u by cau/ic alkalies 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,:5 fus$ ) a mixture ( dry sodium & potassium hydroxides1 x is decompos$ into oxalic & acetic acids4 ,:5 heat$ ) a #aj to #ae p] c5t solution ( cau/ic soda1 cellulose fib]s ?ick5 & become transluc5t1 ?us resembl+ silk fib]s4 ,?is process1 kn[n z ,m]c]iz+1 is l>gely us$ = ! production ( comm]cial fabrics4 ,acids also act on cellulose 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,:5 heat$ ) nitric acid 7sp4 gr4 #a4be71 x is conv]t$ into oxycellulose2 :ile dilute sulfuric acid1 "u simil> conditions1 yields hydro-cellulose1 a sub/ance hav+ ! =mula ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa1 :i* reta9s ! fibr\s /ructure ( ! orig9al cellulose b :i*1 :5 dry1 may be rubb$ up into a f9e p[d]4 ,conc5trat$ nitric acid1 or bett]1 a mixture ( conc5trat$ nitric & sulfuric acids1 acts ^u cellulose1 conv]t+ x into v>i\s nitro-d]ivatives1 sev]al ( :i* h great indu/rial value4 ,! numb] ( ,,no#c gr\ps :i* unite ) ! cellulose molecule "u ^! conditions dep5ds ^u ! temp]ature1 pressure1 etc41 employ$ dur+ ! nitration process2 di-1 tri-1 tetra-1 p5ta-1 & hexanitrates are all kn[n4 ,pyroxyl91 or collodion1 is a mixture ( ! tetra- & p5ta-nitrates1 :i* is soluble 9 alcohol & is us$ 9 surg]y1 9 photography1 & 9 ! manufacture ( celluloid1 :i* is a mixture ( collodion & camphor4 ,! hexanitrate1 ,c#ab;,h#ad7,,no#c7f,o#d1 is ! viol5t explosive kn[n z gun-cotton4 ,g5tl] oxidiz+ ag5ts1 su* z blea*+ p[d]1 etc41 h no effect ^u cellulose1 & h5ce are ext5sively us$ 9 ! treatm5t ( cotton & o!r vegetable fib]s1 9 prep>ation = _! use 9 ! manufacture ( textiles1 pap]1 etc4 ,cellulose is indige/ible 9 ! alim5t>y tract ( animals1 b ! putrefactive bact]ia :i* are g5]ally pres5t !re f]m5t x1 ) ! production ( acids ( ! fatty acid s]ies1 c>bon dioxide1 me?ane1 & hydrog54 ,excessive f]m5tations ( ?is k9d are responsible = ! di/ress+ ph5om5on kn[n z bloat4 ,! comp\nd celluloses comprise ! l>g] proportion ( ! mat]ial ( ! woody /ems ( plants4 ,!y consi/ ( a base ( true cellulose1 :i* is ei!r encru/$ ) or *emically comb9$ ) "s non-cellulose con/itu5t4 ,dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! non-cellulose compon5t1 ! comp\nd celluloses are divid$ into ?ree ma9 gr\ps1 kn[n respectively z 7#a7 ligno-celluloses1 7#b7 pecto-celluloses1 & 7#c7 adipo-1 or cuto-celluloses4 ,z ! names indicate1 ! non-cellulose compon5t 9 ! fir/ gr\p is lign92 9 ! second1 pectic sub/ances2 & 9 ! ?ird1 fats or waxes4 ,ligno-celluloses4--,9 ! "y plant cell1 ! cell-walls consi/ ( practically pure cellulose2 b z ! plant gr[s old]1 ?is becomes p]meat$ ) lign91 or woody fib]1 until 9 ! /em ( a tree1 = example1 ! proportion ( cellulose 9 ! tissue is only #ej to #fj p] c5t4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( wood pulp = ! manufacture ( pap]1 ! lign9 mat]ials are dissolv$ (f by means ( v>i\s *emical reag5ts1 leav+ ! cellulose fib]s 9 ne>ly pure =m = use z pap]4 ,! lign9 mat]ial g5]ally consi/s ( two types ( sub/ances1 "o ( :i* conta9s a clos$-r+ nucleus ( unkn[n composition & ! o!r is probably a p5tosan4 ,^! mat]ials are s extremely difficult to hydrolyze t _! composition has n yet be5 def9itely det]m9$4 ,pecto-celluloses are f\nd 9 v>i\s species ( fl[]+ plants2 ^? :i* are pres5t 9 ! /ems & roots be+ true pecto-celluloses1 :ile ^? :i* are f\nd 9 fruits & se$s conta9 mucilages r ?an pectose d]ivatives1 & are g5]ally designat$ z muco-celluloses4 ,! exce$+ly in]t "* ( ^! comp\nds makes _! /udy difficult & _! functions unc]ta94 ,! t]m cuto-celluloses is appli$ to ! gr\p ( sub/ances1 includ+ sub]9 & cut91 :i* con/itute wat]pro( cell-walls4 ,^! 7 =m]ly suppos$ to consi/ ( true cellulose impregnat$ ) fatty or wax-l mat]ials4 ,rec5t inve/igations seem to indicate1 h[ev]1 t !re is really no cellulose nucleus 9 su* walls z ^!1 b t !y are comp\nd glyc]yl e/]s resembl+ ! true fats 7see *apt] ,x7 9 composition4 ,if ?is view %\ld f9ally be e/abli%$ z a fact1 ?is sub-gr\p ( suppos$ comp\nd celluloses %\ld be dropp$ f consid]ation z su*4 ,,physiological ,,use ,,( ,,celluloses ,!re seems to be no "q t ! sole use ( celluloses is to s]ve z /ructure-build+ mat]ials4 ,!y are und\bt$ly elaborat$ f ! c>bohydrates z ! cell gr[s4 ,9 only r>e cases1 h[ev]1 is !re any evid5ce t !y c be reconv]t$ into c>bohydrates to s]ve z food mat]ial4 ,c]ta9 bact]ia c make use ( cellulose z food1 & secrete an enzyme1 cytase1 :i* aids 9 ! hydrolysis ( cellulose to sug>s = ?is purpose4 ,b ?is enzyme seems r>ely1 if at all1 to be pres5t 9 ! tissues ( high] plants4 ,x has be5 report$ t "s cellulose is hydrolyz$ dur+ ! malt+ ( b>ley1 indicat+ t ?is might h "s food use = ! gr[+ se$l+2 b ?is obs]vation has n be5 confirm$ & lat] inve/igations seem to ?r[ d\bt ^u its accuracy4 ,bact]ia ( decay also act ^u cellulose mat]ials1 conv]t+ !m *iefly into gase\s products2 b ?is seems to be a provision ( nature = ! de/ruction ( ! cell-wall mat]ial ( dead plants1 r ?an an arrangem5t = ! con/ructive use ( x z food = ! bact]ium4 ,:5 fibr\s plant residues decay 9 ! soil1 ! cellulose comp\nds are fir/ conv]t$ into a s]ies ( complex organic acids1 kn[n z hum9s1 :i* und\bt$ly h a significant effect ^u ! *emical & physical prop]ties ( ! soil1 b ^! h little int]e/ or significance 9 a /udy ( ! *emi/ry ( plant gr[?4 ,,ref]5ces ,,abd]hald51 ,e4--,bio*emis*es ,h&lexikon1 ,b& #b1 ,gummisub/anz51 ,hemicellulos51 ,pflanz5s*leim5 444 #gbi pages1 ,b]l91 #aiaa2 & ,b& #h--a ,ergnzungsb& 7same title z ,b& #b7--1 #ejg pages1 ,b]l91 #aiad4 ,,s*walbe1 ,c4 ,g4--,die ,*emie d] ,cellulose1 #ffe pages1 ,b]l91 #aiaa4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,glucosides ,/rictly speak+1 ! t]m glucoside %\ld be appli$ only to su* comp\nds z conta9 glucose z ! *>act]i/ic basic gr\p4 ,b 9 common usage1 x ref]s to any comp\nd :i*1 :5 hydrolyz$1 yields a sug> z "o ( ! products ( ! hydrolysis4 ,9 all ! natural glucosides :i* occur 9 plant tissues1 ! o!r organic con/itu5t1 :i* is repres5t$ by ! ,r 9 ! =mula = glucosides 7,r,c#f;,h#aa,o#e1 or ,r7,,*oh7#e;,,*o7 is "s aromatic gr\p1 or clos$-r+ b5z5e d]ivative4#c ,! diff]5t organic con/itu5ts ( glucosides are ( a great v>iety ( types1 su* z ph5ols1 alcohols1 aldehydes1 acids1 oxyflavone d]ivatives1 mu/>d oils1 etc4 ,x is notewor?y1 h[ev]1 t no nitrog5\s gr\ps ( ! prote9 type h be5 f\nd comb9$ ) sug>s 9 glucosides4 ,"s glucosides conta9 m ?an "o sac*>ide gr\p1 possibly z di- or trisac*>ides4 ,"u prop] conditions ( hydrolysis1 "o or m ( ! sac*>ide gr\ps c be remov$ f su* comp\nds1 result+ 9 glucosides ( simpl] /ructure4 ,mo/ ( ! common glucosides are d]iv$ f d-glucose4 ,"s are kn[n1 h[ev]1 :i* are d]ivatives ( galactose or rhamnose2 :ile 9 "s cases ! exact nature ( ! sug> :i* is pres5t has n yet be5 det]m9$4 ,,footnotes3 #c ,,hc _/_/ ,,hc ,,* ,! /ructural =mula = b5z5e1 ,c#f;,h#f1 is "o :i* x is ,,hc ,,* _/ ,,* difficult & inconv5i5t to reproduce 9 type4 ,on t acc\nt1 x is _/ cu/om>y to indicate ?is =mula by a plane hexagon1 ?us 4 _/ ,x is und]/ood1 9 all su* cases1 t ! figure repres5ts six c>bon atoms arrang$ 9 a clos$ r+1 ) alt]nate d\ble & s+le bonds1 & ) a hydrog5 atom atta*$ to ea* c>bon4 ,! pr9t+ ( "s o!r gr\p z ,,oh1 ,,*#c1 adjac5t to an angle ( ! hexagon means t ?is gr\p replaces ! ,h atom 9 ! comp\nd :i* is be+ illu/rat$4 ,,hydrolysis ,,( ,,! ,,natural ,,glucosides ,all natural glucosides are hydrolyz$ into a sug> & ano!r organic residue by boil+ ) m9]al acids2 al?\gh !y v>y widely 9 ! ease ) :i* ?is hydrolysis is br\ght ab\t4 ,9 mo/ cases1 ! glucoside is easily hydrolyz$ by an enzyme :i* occurs 9 ! same plant tissue1 b 9 diff]5t cells ?an ^? :i* conta9 ! glucoside4 ,injury to ! tissues1 g]m9ation processes1 & p]haps o!r physiological activities ( ! cells1 result 9 br++ ! enzyme 9 contact ) ! glucoside & ! hydrolysis ( ! latt] takes place4 ,a l>ge numb] ( su* enzymes h be5 f\nd 9 plants1 _m ( :i* hydrolyze only a s+le glucoside4 ,h[ev]1 two enzymes1 namely1 ! emuls9 ( almond k]nels1 & myros9 ( black mu/>d se$s1 ea* hydrolyze a consid]able numb] ( glucosides4 ,9 g5]al1 emuls9 w aid 9 ! hydrolysis ( any glucoside :i* is a d]ivative ( beta-glucose1 & myros9 w help to split up any sulfur-conta9+ glucoside4 ,glucosides :i* are d]ivatives ( rhamnose require a special enzyme1 kn[n z rhamnase1 = _! hydrolysis4 ,! foll[+ reactions = ! hydrolysis ( arbut9 & ( amygdal9 are typical ( ?is action1 & w s]ve to illu/rate ! g5]al /ructure ( ^! comp\nds3 ------,o------- ,,*#b,,oh,,*oh,,*,,*oh,,*oh,,*,o,c#f;,h# d,,oh ,h#b,o ,arbut9 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,,hoc#f;,h#d,,oh ,glucose ,hydroqu9one ,c#f;,h#e 7a7 ,c#f;,h#aa,o#e,o,c#f;,h#aj,o#d,o,,* ,h#b,o ,amygdal9 ,,cn ,c#f;,h#e ,c#f;,h#aa,o#e,o,,* ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,m&elo-nitrile ,glucose glucoside ,,cn ,c#f;,h#e 7b7 ,c#f;,h#aa,o#e,o,,*,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#e;,,*oh,,cn,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,m&elo-nitrile ,m&elo-nitrile ,glucose glucoside ,,cn 7c7 ,c#f;,h#e;,,*oh,,cn ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#e;,,*o ,,hcn ,m&elo-nitrile ,b5zaldehyde ,hydrocyanic acid ,,g5]al ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,glucosides ,z a rule1 glucosides are easily soluble 9 wat]4 ,!y are g5]ally extract$ f plant tissues by dige/ion ) wat] or alcohol4 ,9 mo/ cases1 ! enzyme :i* is pres5t 9 o!r cells ( ! same tissue mu/ be kill$ by heat+ ! mat]ial1 9 a moi/ condition1 to ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]1 be=e ! extraction is begun1 z o!rwise ! glucoside w be hydrolyz$ z rapidly z x is extract$ f its p>5t cell4 ,mac]ation or o!rwise bruis+ ! tissue1 aft] ! enzyme has be5 de/roy$1 facilitates ! extraction4 ,! glucosides1 aft] extraction & purification by recry/allization1 are g5]ally colorless1 cry/all9e solids1 hav+ a bitt] ta/e & levorotatory optical activity4 ,?is latt] prop]ty is rem>kable1 z mo/ ( !m are comp\nds ( ! /rongly dextrorotatory d-glucose4 ,_m ( ! natural glucosides h m>k$ !rapeutic prop]ties & are l>gely us$ z m$ic9es2 o!rs are ! "m-sub/ances = brilliant dyes2 = example1 indican1 f :i* indigo is obta9$1 & ! aliz>9 glucosides4 ,sev]al hundr$ diff]5t glucosides h be5 isolat$ f plant tissues1 & _! prop]ties describ$1 & ?is numb] is be+ add$ to con/antly1 z ! me?ods ( isolation & /udy are improv$4 ,!y may be classifi$ into gr\ps1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! organic comp\nd o!r ?an sug>s :i* !y yield :5 hydrolyz$4 ,! foll[+ descriptions ( ! occurr5ce1 con/itution1 products ( hydrolysis1 & special prop]ties ( typical memb]s ( ea* ( ! sev]al diff]5t classes ( glucosides w s]ve to illu/rate _! g5]al relation%ip to plant gr[?4 ,,! ,,ph5ol ,,glucosides ,arbut91 ,c#ab;,h#af,o#g1 is obta9$ f ! leaves ( ! be> b]ry 7,arcto/aphylos uva-ursi71 a small ev]gre5 %rub4 ,:5 hydrolyz$ by m9]al acids or emuls91 x yields glucose & hydroqu9one4 ,c#ab;,h#af,o#g;,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f;,c#f;,h#d7,,oh7#b4 ,hydroqu9one has /rongly antiseptic prop]ties4 ,arbut9 is bo? an antiseptic & a diuretic1 & is us$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,phloridz91 ,c#ba;,h#bd,o#aj1 is f\nd 9 ! b>k ( apple1 pe>1 *]ry1 plum1 & simil> trees4 ,m9]al acids 7b n emuls97 hydrolyze x to glucose & phloret9 7,c#ae;,h#ad,o#e71 accord+ to ! equation ,,*#c ,c#ba;,h#bd,o#aj ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f 7,,oh7#c;,c#f;,h#b;,,co,,*,c#f;,h#d,,oh4 ,x is us$ 9 m$ic9e z a rem$y = mal>ia1 hav+ m>k$ anti-p]iodic prop]ties4 ,glycyphyll91 ,c#ba;,h#bd,o#i1 f\nd 9 leaves ( ,smilax1 yields rhamnose & phloret91 :5 hydrolyz$4 ,irid91 ,c#bd;,h#bf,o#ac 7glucose & irig5971 f\nd 9 root/ocks ( ,iris1 is us$ 9 m$ic9e z a ca?>tic & diuretic4 ,baptis91 ,c#bf;,h#cb,o#adi;,h#b,o 7two rhamnose & baptig5971 f\nd 9 roots ( wild indigo 7,baptisia71 has /rong purgative prop]ties4 ,hesp]id91 ,c#ej;,h#fj,o#bg 7"o rhamnosetwo glucosehesp]it971 is f\nd 9 ! pulp ( lemons & oranges4 ,! *>act]i/ic ph5ol gr\p :i* is pres5t 9 ^! glucosides has ! foll[+ /ructural =mula1 9 ea* case1 ! ,x indicat+ ! ,h atom :i* is replac$ by ! sug> molecule to =m ! glucoside3 ,phloret9 _/ _/ _/ ----,c----,,*------_/ ,,ox ,,ho ,,oh ,o ,,*#c ,,oh _/ _/ _/ _/ ,irig59 ,o _/ -,,*#b-;,c-,o--_/ _/ _/ ,o,,*#c _/ ,o- ,,ox ,,*#c,o- _/ _/ _/ ,o ,,*#c ,hesp]it9 _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,ho -,,*,,*-,c- ,,ox ,,*#c,o _/ ,o _/ _/ _/ ,,! ,,alcohol ,,glucosides ,salic91 ,c#ac;,h#ah,o#g 7glucosesalig591 or o-oxy b5zyl alcohol7 is f\nd 9 ! b>k1 leaves1 & fl[]s ( mo/ species ( will[1 ! proportion pres5t dep5d+ ^u ! season ( ! ye>1 & ! sex ( ! tree4 ,x is us$ z a rem$y aga9/ fev]s & rheumatism1 caus+ less dige/ive di/urbances ?an ! salicylic acid :i* is ! oxidation product ( salig59 & :i* is sometimes us$ z a rem$y = rheumatism4 ,conif]91 ,c#af;,h#bb,o#h 7glucose & conif]yl alcohol71 is f\nd 9 ! b>k ( fir trees4 ,! conif]yl alcohol obta9$ f conif]9 by hydrolysis c be easily oxidiz$ to vanill91 & is1 !re=e1 ! s\rce = ! artificial flavor+ extract us$ z a sub/itute = ! true extract ( ! vanilla bean4 ,popul91 ,c#bj;,h#bb,o#h 7glucosesalig59b5zoic acid71 f\nd 9 ! b>k ( popl> trees1 is us$ 9 m$ic9e z an antipyretic4 ,x c be hydrolyz$1 by a special enzyme1 into salic9 & b5zoic acid4 ,! /ructure ( ! two typical clos$-r+ alcohols :i* are pres5t 9 ^! glucosides is indicat$ by ! foll[+ =mulas2 ,conif]yl alcohol ,salig59 ,,*,,*,,*#b,,oh _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,*#b,,oh ,,ox ,,o*#c _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,ox ,,! ,,aldehyde ,,glucosides ,sal9igr91 ,c#ac;,h#af,o#g 7glucose & m-oxy b5zaldehyde71 is f\nd 9 ! b>k ( "o species ( will[ 7,salix discolor74 ,its isom]1 kn[n z helic9 7glucose & o-oxy b5zaldehyde1 or salicylic aldehyde71 does n occur naturally 9 any plant1 b is easily produc$ artificially by ! g5tle oxidation ( salic94 ,_! relation%ips are %[n on ! foll[+ =mulas2 ,salic9 ,helic9 ,sal9igr9 _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,*#b,,oh ,,*o ,,*o ,,ox ,,ox _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,ox ,amygdal91 also conta9s a b5zaldehyde gr\p1 b !re is l9k$ ) x a hydrocyanic acid gr\p2 h5ce1 ?is glucoside is usually class$ ) ! cyanophoric glucosides 7see page #hf74 ,,! ,,acid ,,glucosides ,! mo/ common example ( ?is gr\p is gaul!r91 ,c#ad;,h#ah,o#h1 :i* is f\nd 9 ! b>k ( ! black bir* & is a comb9ation ( glucose ) me?yl salicylate4 ,bo? ! glucoside itself & ! me?yl salicylate 7oil ( w9t]gre57 :i* is d]iv$ f x are us$ z rem$ies = rheumatism4 ,jalap91 ,c#dd;,h#ef,o#af 7glucose & jalap9ic acid71 & convolvul91 ,c#ed;,h#if,o#bg 7glucoserhodeoseconvolvul9ic acid71 are glucosides ( v complex organic acids1 f\nd 9 jalap res91 :i* are us$ 9 m$ic9e z ca?>tics or purgatives4 ,,! ,,oxy-,,cum>9 ,,glucosides ,cum>9 itself is widely di/ribut$ 9 plants4 ,no glucoside conta9+ cum>9 z su* has yet be5 isolat$2 b sev]al glucosides ( its oxy-d]ivatives are kn[n4 ,! foll[+ are common ones3 ,skimm91 ,c#ae;,h#af,o#h 7glucose & skimmet971 is f\nd 9 ,skimmia japonica2 scul91 ,c#ae;,h#af,o#i 7glucose & sculet971 is f\nd 9 ! b>k ( ! horse-*e/nut1 sculus hippoca/anum1 & its isom]1 daphn9 7glucose & daphnet971 9 sev]al species ( ,daphne2 & frax91 ,c#af;,h#ah,o#aj 7glucose & fraxet971 is f\nd 9 ! b>k ( sev]al species ( a%4 ,! /ructural arrangem5t ( ! oxy-cum>9 gr\ps :i* are f\nd 9 ^! glucosides is %[n 9 ! foll[+ =mulas4 ,x is n kn[n to :i* ,,oh gr\p ! sug> is atta*$1 9 ea* case4 ,skimmet9 sculet9 ,,*,,*,,co ,,*,,*,,co _/ _/ _/ ,o _/ ,o ,,ho _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,oh ,,oh ,daphnet9 ,fraxet9 ,,*,,*,,co ,,*,,*,,co _/ _/ _/ ,o _/ ,o ,,ho ,,oh ,,ho _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,oh ,,o*#c ,scopol91 ,c#bb;,h#bh,o#ad1 f\nd 9 ,scopolia japonica1 conta9s two glucose molecules unit$ to a monome?yl e!r ( scul92 :ile limett91 f\nd 9 c]ta9 citrus trees1 is ! dime?yl e!r ( scul94 ,,! ,,pigm5t ,,glucosides ,_m1 if n all1 ( ! r$1 yell[1 violet1 & blue pigm5ts ( plants ei!r exi/ z1 or are d]iv$ f1 glucosides4 ,^! are ( ?ree types3 ! madd]1 or aliz>91 r$s are d]ivatives ( v>i\s oxy-an?raqu9ones2 mo/ ( ! soluble yell[ pigm5ts are glucosides d]iv$ f flavones or xan?ones2 & ! soluble r$1 blue1 & violet pigm5ts ( ! cell-sap ( plants are mo/ly an?ocyan d]ivatives4 ,! f\r basic gr\ps1 or nuclei1 :i* are pres5t 9 ^! diff]5t types ( comp\nds are complex gr\ps consi/+ ess5tially ( two b5z5e r+s l9k$ toge!r ?r\gh a ?ird r+ 9 :i* !re are ei!r two oxyg5 atoms 9 ! r+1 or "o oxyg5 9 ! r+ & a second atta*$ to ! opposite c>bon 9 ! 7,c,o7 arrangem5t1 z %[n by ! foll[+ diagrammatic =mulas3 ,xan?one ,an?raqu9one ,o ,o #a #a #a' _/ ,c _/ _/ ,c _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ #b #b #b' #c #c #c' _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,o _/ _/ ,c _/ #d #d #d' ,o ,flavone ,an?ocyan #a #a _/ ,o #e'd' _/ ,o #e'd' _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ #b _/#c' #b _/#c' #c #e #a' #b' #c #f #a' #b' _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,c _/ #e #d #d ,o ,! r$ dyes :i* 7 =m]ly obta9$ f madd]1 ! p[d]$ roots ( ,rubia t9ctoria1 b are n[ almo/ :olly artificially syn!tiz$1 consi/ ( at lea/ f\r diff]5t glucosides1 ! organic gr\p ( :i*1 9 ea* case1 is an hydroxy-d]ivative ( an?raqu9one4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! is rub]y?ric acid1 compos$ ( two molecules ( glucose l9k$ ) "o ( aliz>9 7#a1b1 dioxyan?raqu9one74 ,xan?opurpur9 conta9s #a1c1 dioxyan?raqu9one1 :i* is isom]ic ) aliz>92 & rubiad9 is a monome?yl 7! ,,*#c be+ 9 ! #d position71 d]ivative ( ?is comp\nd4 ,purpur9 is a glucoside ( #a1b1d1 trioxyan?raqu9one4 ,! soluble yell[ pigm5ts are g5]ally glucosides ( hydroxy-d]ivatives ( xan?one or flavone1 kn[n z oxyxan?ones or oxyflavones4 ,! sug>s :i* are unit$ to ^! nuclei v>y greatly1 s t !re are a great v>iety ( yell[1 :ite1 or colorless flavone or xan?one pigm5t comp\nds4 ,^! comp\nds are almo/ univ]sally pres5t 9 plants4 ,= example1 "o typical set ( exam9ations ( ! wood1 b>k1 leaves1 & fl[]s ( ov] #bdj diff]5t species ( tropical plants %[$ t flavone d]ivatives 7 pres5t 9 e sample :i* 0 te/$1 ! pigm5ts be+ usually locat$ 9 ! p[d]y coat+ ( ! epid]mis ( ! tissues4 ,! foll[+ typical examples w s]ve to illu/rate ! composition & prop]ties ( ! glucosides ( ?is type4 ,qu]citr91 ,c#ba;,h#bj,o#aa1 is f\nd 9 oak b>k1 9 ! leaves ( horse-*e/nut1 & 9 _m o!r plants1 (t5 associat$ ) o!r pigm5ts4 ,x is a brilliant yell[ cry/all9e p[d]4 ,indu/rially1 x ranks next to indigo & aliz>9 9 importance z a natural dye /uff4 ,x is a glucoside ( rhamnose ) #a1c1c'1d'1 tetraoxyflavonol 7i4e41 ! flavone nucleus ) five ,,oh gr\ps replac+ ! hydrog5s 9 ! #a1 #c1 #e1 #c'1 & #d' positions74 ,qu]cet91 ,c#ae;,h#aj,o#g1 :i* is ! tetraoxyflavonol itself1 )\t any sug> 9 comb9ation ) x1 is f\nd 9 ! leaves ( sev]al species ( tropical plants & 9 ! b>k ( o!rs4 ,isoqu]citr91 ,c#ba;,h#bj,o#ab1 is d]iv$ f ! same flavone1 b conta9s glucose in/ead ( rhamnose1 z ! sug> con/itu5t ( ! glucoside4 ,api91 ,c#bf;,h#bj,o#i1 ! yell[ glucoside f\nd 9 ! leaves ( p>sley1 cel]y1 etc41 conta9s apiose 7a p5tose sug> ( v unusual /ructure1 repres5t$ by ! =mula1 ,,*#b,,oh ,,coh,,*oh,,*o71 & apig591 :i* is a #a1c1d'1trioxyflavone4 _/ ,,*#b,,oh ,xan?orhamn91 ,c#cd;,h#db,o#bj1 is a v complex glucoside conta9+ two rhamnose & "o galactose gr\ps1 unit$ ) rhamnet91 :i* is qu]cit9 ) ! ,h ( ! ,,oh 9 ei!r ! #a1 or #c1 position replac$ by a me?yl gr\p4 ,!re are sev]al simil> pigm5ts :i* diff] f xan?orhamn9 only 9 ! numb] or position ( ! me?oxy gr\ps 7i4e41 ! ,,oh gr\ps ) a ,,*#c replac+ ! ,h71 or 9 ! nature ( ! sug> :i* is pres5t 9 ! comp\nd4 ,rhamnet9 itself is f\nd 9 ! fruits ( c]ta9 species ( ,rhamnus1 & is us$ 9 dye+ cotton4 ,! /ructural arrangem5t ( ! *>act]i/ic gr\ps ( ^! flavone pigm5ts w be dealt ) m 9 detail 9 ! *apt] deal+ ) ,pigm5ts 7,*apt] ,,viii74 ,! be/-kn[n yell[ pigm5t :i* is a xan?one d]ivative is euxan?ic acid1 kn[n z ,indian yell[1 :i* is a pair$ comp\nd ( glucuronic acid 7see page #db7 & euxan?one4 ,! latt] is a #b1 #c'1 dioxyxan?one4 ,! pigm5t is f\nd 9 ! ur9e ( cattle :i* h be5 f$ on mango leaves4 ,! soluble r$1 blue1 & violet pigm5ts are glucosides ( v>i\s hydroxy-d]ivatives ( ! an?ocyan nucleus4 ,_! con/itution & prop]ties w be discuss$ 9 detail 9 ! *apt] deal+ ) ! ,pigm5ts4 ,^! comp\nds are isom]ic ) simil> flavone & xan?one d]ivatives1 & ! transition f "o color to ! o!r 9 plants takes place v easily "u ! action ( oxidiz+ or r$uc+ enzymes4 ,?is acc\nts = ! *ange ( r$s & blues to yell[s & br[ns1 & vice v]sa1 "u *ang+ temp]ature conditions4 ,! foll[+ r$ or blue plant pigm5ts1 :i* are an?ocyan glucosides1 h be5 isolat$ & /udi$ 7= ! /ructural arrangem5t ( ! *>act]i/ic gr\ps1 see pages #aaf73 f cornfl[] & roses1 cyan91 ,c#bh;,h#ca,o#af;,cl 7#b molecules glucose cyanid972 f cranb]ries1 ida91 ,c#ba;,h#ba,o#aj;,cl 7galactose cyanid972 f g]anium1 pel>gon91 ,c#bg;,h#cj,o#ae;,cl 7#b molecules glucose pel>gonid972 f pony1 pon91 ,c#bh;,h#cc,o#af;,cl 7#b molecules glucose ponid91 a monome?yl cyanid972 f blue grapes1 oen91 ,c#bc;,h#be,o#ab;,cl 7glucose oenid972 f :ortle b]ry1 myrtill91 ,c#bb;,h#bc,o#ab;,cl 7glucose myrtillid972 f l>kspur1 delph991 ,c#da;,h#ci,o#ba;,cl 7#b molecules glucose #b molecules p-oxyb5zoic acid delph9id972 & f mall[1 malv91 ,c#bi;,h#ce,o#ag;,cl 7#b molecules glucose malvid974 ,! blue dye1 indigo1 is d]iv$ f a glucoside ( an entirely diff]5t type1 kn[n z indican4 ,indican is readily extract$ f ! leaves ( v>i\s species ( indigo plants4 ,:5 hydrolyz$1 x yields glucose & indoxyl 7colorless74 ,indoxyl is easily oxidiz$ to indigot9 7! deep blue dye kn[n z indigo74 ,! equations illu/rat+ ^! *anges are z foll[s3 7a7 ,c#ad;,h#ag,o#f,n ,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,c#h;,h#g,,on ,indican ,glucose ,indoxyl 7b7 #b;,c#h;,h#g,,on ,o#b ,c#af;,h#aj,o#b,n #b;,h#b,o ,indoxyl ,indigot9 ,! /ructural relation%ips ( indoxyl & indigot9 may be illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ =mulas3 ,o ,o _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,coh _/ ,c ,c_/ ,c-,h ,c,c _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,n _/ ,n ,n _/ ,h ,h ,h ,indoxyl ,indigot9 ,natural indigo dye is prep>$ by f]m5tation ( indigo leaves1 ! decay ( ! cell-walls lib]at+ ! enzymes 9 ! tissues1 :i* br+ ab\t ! *emical *anges illu/rat$ 9 ! above equations4 ,,! ,,cyanophore ,,glucosides ,sev]al glucosides :i* yield hydrocyanic acid z "o ( ! products ( _! hydrolysis are ( common occurr5ce 9 plants4 ,^! are g5]ally spok5 ( z ! cyanog5etic glucosides2 b z !y d n actually produce cyanog5 comp\nds1 b only lib]ate !m :5 hydrolyz$1 ! rec5tly sugge/$ t]m cyanophore und\bt$ly m correctly indicates _! prop]ties4 ,! be/ kn[n & mo/ widely di/ribut$ ( ^! is amygdal94 ,amygdal9 0 fir/ discov]$ 9 #ahcj1 & 0 "o ( ! fir/ sub/ances to be recogniz$ z a glucoside4 ,x is f\nd 9 l>ge quantities 9 bitt] almonds & 9 ! k]nels ( apricots1 pea*es1 & plums2 also 9 ! se$s ( apples1 etc41 9 fact 9 practically all ! se$s ( plants ( ! ,rose family4 ,x is ! "m sub/ance = oil ( bitt] almonds1 :i* is widely us$ z a flavor+ extract4 ,amygdal9 has be5 ! object ( v ext5sive /udies1 & ev5 yet ! exact nature ( ! l9kage betwe5 its con/itu5t gr\ps is n c]ta9ly kn[n4 ,:5 completely hydrolyz$1 x yields two molecules ( glucose & "o ea* ( b5zaldehyde & hydrocyanic acid4 ,rec5t /udies indicate t ! two sug> molecules are sep>ately unit$ to ! o!r con/itu5ts1 r ?an unit$ ) ea* o!r 9 ! disac*>ide relation%ip4 ,9 o!r words1 amygdal9 is a true glucoside r ?an a maltoside4 ,?is is indicat$ by ! fact t :5 submitt$ to ! action ( all kn[n hydrolyz+ ag5ts :i* affect x1 x has nev] be5 f\nd to yield maltose z "o ( ! products ( hydrolysis4 ,fur!rmore1 ! rate ( hydrolysis ( amygdal9 is n affect$ by ! pres5ce ( maltose2 & ! segregation ( ! two glucose molecules is accompli%$ by enzymes o!r ?an maltase1 :i* is ! only enzyme :i* is kn[n to break up a maltose molecule4 ,s9ce ! exact nature ( ! l9kage is n kn[n1 x is cu/om>y & conv5i5t to indicate ! unit gr\ps z l9k$ toge!r 9 ! foll[+ ord]3 ,c#f;,h#aa,o#e-,o-,c#f;,h#aj,o#d-,o-,c#f ;,h#e;,,*-,ctrb,n 7#a7 7#b7 7#c77d7 ,a /udy ( ! hydrolysis reactions ( amygdal9 %[s t !re are ?ree diff]5t l9kages 9 ! molecule :i* may be brok5 by ! simple int]polation ( a s+le molecule ( wat] & a f\r? :i* may be split by a diff]5t type ( hydrolysis1 namely1 ! ,ctrb,n l9kage4 ,^! are indicat$ by ! numb]s bel[ ! correspond+ portion ( ! =mula above4 ,mo/ hydrolyz+ ag5ts break ! molecule fir/ at 7#a71 yield+ "o molecule ( glucose & "o ( m&elo nitrile glucoside 7see page #gg74 ,! next /ep usually breaks ! latt] at ! po9t indicat$ by 7#b71 yield+ glucose & b5zaldehyde cyanhydr91 or m&elo nitrile4 ,! latt] 9 turn breaks d[n at 7#c7 into b5zaldehyde & ,,hcn4 ,b :5 amygdal9 is boil$ ) conc5trat$ hydro*loric acid1 ! fir/ *ange is ! splitt+ (f at 7#d7 ( ! nitrog5 9 ! =m ( ammonia & ! consequ5t conv]sion ( ! ,,cn gr\p into a ,,cooh gr\p1 produc+ amygdal9ic acid4 ,on fur!r hydrolysis1 ?is breaks up 9 ! same ord] z be=e4 ,simil>ly1 x is possible to conv]t m&elo nitrile into m&elic acid by splitt+ (f ! nitrog5 to =m a ,,cooh gr\p1 in/ead ( splitt+ (f ! ,,hcn gr\p leav+ b5zaldehyde4 ,! m&elo nitrile glucoside conta9s an asymmetric c>bon atom :i* is :olly outside its glucose gr\p1 ?us ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e-,o-,c#f;,h#e;,,*,,cn4 ,h5ce1 x may exi/ 9 dextro1 levo1 & racemic =ms4 ,9 ! amygdal9 molecule1 x exi/s 9 ! dextro =m1 :i* has be5 nam$ prunas94 ,! levo =m1 kn[n z sambunigr91 has be5 obta9$ by hydrolysis ( a comp\nd isom]ic ) amygdal91 ^: composition has n be5 def9itely work$ out2 :ile ! racemic =m1 kn[n z prulauras91 has be5 prep>$ f isoamygdal91 by ! action ( alkalies4 ,h5ce1 all ! possible comp\nds indicat$ by ! pres5ce ( ! asymmetric c>bon h be5 f\nd & id5tifi$4 ,! crude enzyme prep>ation :i* is obta9$ f almond se$s1 kn[n z emuls91 conta9s two enzymes1 amygdalase1 :i* breaks ! amygdal9 molecule at l9kage 7#a71 & prunase1 :i* breaks x at 7#b74 ,! action ( amygdalase mu/ always prec$e t ( prunase4 ,9 o!r words1 x is nev] possible to break (f a disac*>ide sug> f ! molecule1 ei!r by ! action ( prunase alone1 or by means ( any o!r hydrolytic ag5t4 ,dhurr91 ,c#ad;,h#ag,o#g,n1 is ano!r glucoside ( fairly g5]al occurr5ce 9 plants1 :i* yields ,,hcn z "o ( ! products ( its hydrolysis4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! leaves & /ems ( sev]al species ( millets & sorghums4 ,frequ5t cases ( poison+ ( cattle f eat+ ( ^! plants z =age h be5 report$4 ,on hydrolysis1 dhurr9 fir/ yields glucose & p>aoxy-m&elo nitrile2 ! latt] !n breaks d[n into p>aoxy-b5zaldehyde & ,,hcn4 ,vician91 ,c#ai;,h#be,o#aj,n1 is a cyanophoric glucoside1 f\nd 9 ! se$s ( wild vet*1 etc4 ,on hydrolysis1 x yields glucose1 arab9ose1 & d-m&elo nitrile4 ,x is1 !re=e1 simil> to amygdal91 except t "o glucose molecule is replac$ by arab9ose4 ,,! ,,mu/>d ,,oil ,,glucosides ,! se$s ( sev]al species ( plants ( ! ,crucif] or mu/>d family conta9 glucosides 9 :i* ! o!r *>act]i/ic gr\p is a sulfur-conta9+ comp\nd4 ,^! glucosides yield mu/>d oils :5 !y are hydrolyz$ by ! enzyme myros91 :i* accompanies !m 9 ! plant4 ,! foll[+ glucosides1 f\nd 9 ! se$s ( :ite & black mu/>d1 are ! be/-kn[n repres5tatives ( ?is class4 ,s9igr91 ,c#aj;,h#af,o#i,,ns#b,k1 f\nd 9 black mu/>d se$s1 :5 hydrolyz$ yields glucose1 acid potassium sulfate1 & allyl isosulfocyanide 7mu/>d oil71 z indicat$ by ! equation4 ,c#aj;,h#af,o#i,,ns#b,k,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f ,c#c;,h#e,ntrb,c,s,,khso#d4 ,! acid potassium sulfate gr\p sep>ates fir/ & mo/ readily1 leav+ a comp\nd kn[n z m]os9igr91 = :i* ! foll[+ =mula has be5 sugge/$3 -----,o------ ,,*#b,,oh,,*oh,,*,,*oh,,*,,* ,o ,s _/ _/ ,c,ntrb,c#c;,h#e ,?is comp\nd usually breaks d[n into glucose & mu/>d oil2 b by special treatm5t x is possible to obta9 f x ?ioglucose1 ,c#f;,h#aa,o#e,,%4 ,?is indicates t 9 ! orig9al glucoside ! glucose is l9k$ ) ! mu/>d oil ?r\gh ! sulfur atom4 ,s9alb91 ,c#cj;,h#db,o#ae,n#b,s#b1 f :ite mu/>d se$s1 :5 hydrolyz$ by myros91 yields glucose1 s9alb9 mu/>d oil 7a p>aoxyb5zyl d]ivative ( allyl isosulfocyanide7 & s9ap9 acid sulfate2 accord+ to ! equation ,c#cj;,h#db,o#ae,n#b,s#b;,h#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f;,c#g;,h#g,o,,ncs ,s9alb9 ,glucose ,s9alb9 mu/>d oil ,c#af;,h#bd,o#e,n,,hso#d4 ,s9ap9 acid sulfate ,! s9alb9 mu/>d oil may be repres5t$ by ! =mula _/ ,,ho-,,* ,,*-,,*#b,,ncs4 ,hydrolysis ( ! s9ap9 acid sulfate conv]ts _/ x into s9ap9ic acid1 ,c#f;,h#b,,oh7,,o*#c7b;,,*,,*,,cooh1 *ol9e1 ,n7,,*#c7d;,c#b;,h#d,,oh 7see page #aeb71 & ,h#b,,s#d4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a v complex glucoside4 ,,tee ,,digitalis ,,glucosides ,! five1 or m1 glucosides :i* are pres5t 9 ! leaves & se$s ( ! foxglove 7,digitalis purpurea7 h be5 ext5sively /udi$1 z !y are ! active pr9ciples 9 ! v>i\s digitalis extracts :i* are us$ 9 m$ic9e z a he>t /imulant4 ,digitox91 ,c#cd;,h#ed,o#aa1 :i* is ! mo/ active ( ^! glucosides 9 its physiological effects1 :5 hydrolyz$1 yields digitoxig591 ,c#bb;,h#cb,o#d1 & a sug> hav+ ! =mula ,c#f;,h#ab,o#d1 :i* is kn[n z digitoxose & is suppos$ to be a dime?yl tetrose4 ,digital91 ,c#ce;,h#ef,o#ad1 is also /rongly active4 ,:5 hydrolyz$1 x yields digitalig591 ,c#bb;,h#aj,o#c1 glucose1 & digitoxose4 ,digiton91 ,c#ed;,h#ib,o#bh1 con/itutes ab\t "o-half ( ! total glucosides 9 ! extract :i* is obta9$ f mo/ species ( ! digitalis plants4 ,x is mu* less active ?an ! o!rs4 ,x is a sapon9 7see page #ij7 9 type4 ,on hydrolysis1 x yields #b molecules ( glucose1 #b ( galactose1 & "o ( digitog594 ,giton91 ,c#di;,h#hj,o#bc1 conta9+ #c molecules ( galactose1 "o ( a p5tose sug>1 & "o ( gitog592 & gital91 ,c#bh;,h#dh,o#aj1 conta9+ digitoxose & gitalig591 h also be5 isolat$ f digitalis extracts4 ,! /ructural arrangem5t ( ! *>act]i/ic gr\ps 9 ^! glucosides has n yet be5 def9itely work$ out4 ,cym>91 ! active pr9ciple ( ,indian hemp 7,apocynum cannab9um71 is simil> 9 type to ! digitalis glucosides4 ,:5 hydrolyz$1 x yields a sug> kn[n z cym>ose1 ,c#g;,h#ad,o#g1 :i* seems to be a monome?yl d]ivative ( digitoxose1 & cym>ig591 ,c#bc;,h#cj,o#e1 a comp\nd :i* is ei!r id5tical or isom]ic ) ! organic residue obta9$ f o!r memb]s ( ?is gr\p4 ,,! ,,sapon9s ,! sapon9s con/itute a gr\p ( glucosides :i* are widely di/ribut$ 9 plants1 ^: prop]ties h be5 kn[n s9ce e>ly ,grecian times4 ,!y h be5 f\nd 9 ov] f\r hundr$ diff]5t species ( plants1 belong+ to m ?an =ty diff]5t ord]s4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( sapon9s is t !y =m colloidal solutions 9 wat] :i* produce a soapy foam :5 agitat$1 & are peculi>ly toxic1 especially to frogs & fi%es4 ,9 dry =m1 !y h a v bitt]1 acrid ta/e1 & _! du/ is v irritat+ to ! muc\s membranes ( ! eye1 nose1 & ?roat4 ,on hydrolysis1 ! sapon9s yield a v>iety ( sug>s1--glucose1 galactose1 arab9ose1 & sometimes fructose1 & ev5 o!r p5toses--& a gr\p ( physiologically active sub/ances1 kn[n z sapog59s4 ,! m toxic =ms ( ^! glucosides are kn[n z sapotox9s4 ,! *emical composition ( ! sapon9s v>ies s widely t x is sc>cely possible to cite typical individuals4 ,s>sap>illa1 ! dri$ root ( smilax plants1 conta9s a mixture ( non-poison\s sapon9s1 f :i* at lea/ f\r individual glucosides h be5 isolat$ & /udi$4 ,corn cockle conta9s a highly poison\s sapotox9 :i*1 on hydrolysis1 yields f\r molecules ( a sug> & "o ( sapog591 ,c#aj;,h#af,o#b4 ,o!r sapotox9s are obta9$ f ! roots ( soapwort & f sev]al species ( ,gypsophila4 ,digiton9 & digito-sapon9 are glucosides ( ?is type :i* are f\nd 9 ! extracts f v>i\s species ( ,digitalis4 ,,! ,,physiological ,,uses ,,( ,,glucosides ,x is sc>cely conceivable t sub/ances :i* v>y s widely 9 composition z d ! diff]5t types ( glucosides c possibly all h simil> physiological uses 9 plants4 ,! cyanophoric glucosides1 ! pigm5t glucosides1 ! mu/>d oil glucosides1 & ! sapon9s1 = example1 c h>dly be assum$ to h ! same def9ite relation%ips to ! metabolism & gr[? ( ! plant4 ,to be sure1 !y are alike 9 t !y all conta9 "o or m sug> molecules1 & x is probable t ! c>bohydrates :i* are held 9 ?is =m may s]ve z res]ve food mat]ial1 especially :5 ! glucoside is /or$ 9 ! se$s2 b x is obvi\s t ! simpl] & m normal =m ( su* /or$ food is t ( ! polysac*>ides :i* conta9 no o!r gr\ps ?an ^? ( ! c>bohydrates4 ,x seems mu* m probable t ! physiological uses ( glucosides dep5d ^u _! ability to =m tempor>ily inactive pairs ) a great v>iety ( diff]5t types ( organic comp\nds :i* are elaborat$ by plants = a v>iety ( purposes4 ,x has be5 not$ t 9 mo/1 if n all1 in/ances1 ! glucosides are accompani$ 9 ! same plant tissue 7al?\gh 9 sep>ate cells7 by ! appropriate enzyme to br+ ab\t _! hydrolysis & s set free bo? ! sug> & ! o!r *>act]i/ic compon5t :5ev] ! conditions are su* z to p]mit ! enzyme to come 9 contact ) ! glucoside4 ,?is occurs :5ev] ! tissue is injur$ by w\nd or disease1 & also dur+ ! g]m9ation process4 ,injury to ! plant tissue seems to be a necess>y prelim9>y to ! function+ ( ! active compon5ts ( ! glucoside1 except 9 ! case ( ! se$s4 ,?is leads naturally to ! supposition t at lea/ "s ( ^! glucosides are protective or curative ag5ts 9 ! plant tissues4 ,?is conception is fur!r support$ by ! facts t _m ( ! non-sug> compon5ts ( glucosides are bact]icidal 9 "* & t ! glucosides commonly occur 9 p>ts ( ! plant organism :i* are o!rwise be/ suit$ to s]ve z m$ia = ! gr[? ( bact]ia4 ,?us1 x is kn[n t 9 ! almond1 z soon z ! tissue is punctur$1 amygdal9 is hydrolyz$ & all bact]ial action is inhibit$4 ,simil>ly1 ! almo/ univ]sal pres5ce ( glucosides conta9+ bact]icidal con/itu5ts 9 ! b>k ( trees insures natural antiseptic conditions = all w\nds ( ! out] surfaces ( ! /em ( ! plant4 ,9 fact1 x is easily conceivable t at lea/ "o ( ! reasons = ! failure ( ! processes ( decay ( plant tissues to set 9 until aft] ! dea? ( ! cells1 is t dur+ liv+1 respiratory activity ^! antiseptic glucosides are s g5]ally pres5t 9 ! tissues4 ,fur!r1 x has be5 fairly well e/abli%$ t ! *romog5s1 or "m-sub/ances ( ! pigm5ts1 :i*1 "u ! influ5ce ( oxidase enzymes1 s]ve to regulate ! respiratory activities ( ! plant are ess5tially glucosidic 9 "*4 ,?is1 & o!r1 functions ( ! pigm5ts1 mo/ ( :i* are glucosides1 w be discuss$ at "s l5g? 9 ! *apt] deal+ ) ! ,pigm5ts 7,*apt] ,,viii74 ,_m gase\s an/hetics are kn[n to h a m>k$ effect 9 /imulat+ plant gr[?4 ,9 a numb] ( cases1 x has be5 %[n t ! contact ( plant tissues ) ^! an/hetics br+s ab\t an int]action ( ! enzyme & glucoside :i* are pres5t 9 ! tissue1 ) ! consequ5t hydrolysis ( ! latt]1 sett+ free its *>act]i/ic compon5ts4 ,?is obs]vation has l$ to ! supposition t _m ( ! organic con/itu5ts ( glucosides are def9ite plant /imulants1 to :i* ! "n hormones has be5 appli$4 ,!re is consid]able exp]im5tal evid5ce to support ?is conception t glucosides may be ! s\rce ( /imulat+ hormone sub/ances1 :i* w be discuss$ m 9 detail 9 ! *apt] deal+ ) ^! plant /imulants 7,*apt] ,,xvii74 ,glucosides may also s]ve z ! me*anism = putt+ out ( action ( h>mful products :i* may appe> 9 ! tissues z ! result ( abnormal conditions4 ,^! h>mful sub/ances may be r5d]$ soluble by comb9ation ) sug>s & s transpos$ by osmosis to "s o!r "p ( ! plant4 ,! abnormally l>ge p]c5tages ( glucosides :i* are pres5t 9 c]ta9 species ( plants dur+ unfavorable climatic conditions l5ds "s support to ?is view4 ,f9ally1 x may be assum$ t easily oxidizable sub/ances1 su* z aldehydes & acids1 are possibly protect$ aga9/ too rapid1 or premature1 oxidation by be+ trans=m$ into glucosides4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be said t ! glucosides seem to s]ve z ! regulatory1 protective1 & sanatory ag5cies ( ! plant me*anism4 ,,biological ,,significance ,,( ,,glucosides ,! bitt] ta/e ( glucosides & _! almo/ univ]sal pres5ce 9 ! b>k ( plants und\bt$ly helps to prev5t ! de/ructive gnaw+ ( ! b>k by animals4 ,glucosides hav+ ei!r a /rong bitt] ta/e1 or pron\nc$ly poison\s prop]ties1 likewise und\bt$ly s]ve to protect su* important organs ( plants z ! se$s & fruits f be+ prematurely eat5 by birds & animals4 ,! common disappe>ance ( ^! bitt] sub/ances z ! se$ or fruit rip5s adds to ! attractiv5ess ( ! mat]ial = food = animals at ! prop] /age ( rip5ess to provide = wid] di/ribution ( ! se$s = fur!r propagation4 ,fur!r1 ! v g5]al occurr5ce ( ^! protective glucosides 9 _m ( ! vegetative p>ts ( plants dur+ ! e>ly /ages ( gr[?1 foll[$ by _! disappe>ance aft] ! se$s ( ! plant h be5 =m$1 c]ta9ly s]ves to protect ^! plants f consumption z =age by animals be=e !y h be5 able to develop _! reproductive bodies4 ,! lack ( palatability1 & ev5 ! production ( dige/ive disord]s result+ f ! eat+ ( unripe fruit may be due1 9 "p at lea/1 to ! pres5ce ( protective glucosides 9 unripe fruits & vegetables4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! almo/ univ]sal pres5ce ( ! brilliant pigm5t glucosides 9 ! ext]nal p>ts ( fl[]s und\bt$ly s]ves to attract ! insects :i* are biologically adapt$ to provide = ! transportation ( poll5 f "o blossom to ano!r & s to insure ! cross-f]tilization :i* is s important 9 ma9ta9+ ! vigor ( _m species ( plants4 ,x is app>5t t ?is important gr\p ( comp\nds1 ) its exce$+ly v>i$ & complex con/itu5t gr\ps1 may play a v>iety ( significant rles 9 plant gr[?4 ,,ref]5ces4 ,,arm/rong1 ,e4 ,f4--,! ,simple ,c>bohydrates & ,glucosides1 #bci pages1 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiai 7#c;d ed474 ,,van ,,rijn1 ,j4 ,j4 ,l4--,die ,glykoside1 #eaa pages1 ,b]l91 #aijj4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,tann9s ,us+ ! t]m 9 its g5]al application to a gr\p ( sub/ances hav+ simil> *emical & physical prop]ties1 r ?an 9 its limit$ application to a s+le def9ite *emical comp\nd kn[n comm]cially z tann91 ! tann9s are a special gr\p ( plant sub/ances1 mo/ly glucosides1 :i* h ! foll[+ *>act]i/ic prop]ties4 ,fir/1 !y are non-cry/all9e#d sub/ances1 :i* =m colloidal solutions ) wat]1 :i* h an acid reaction & a %>p a/r+5t ta/e4 ,second1 !y =m insoluble comp\nds ) gelat9e-conta9+ tissues1 z %[n by ! conv]sion ( hide into lea!r4 ,?ird1 !y =m soluble1 d>k-blue or gre5i%-black comp\nds ) f]ric salts1 ! common inks4 ,f\r?1 !y are precipitat$ f _! solutions by _m metallic salts1 su* z lead acetate1 /ann\s *loride1 potassium bi*romate1 etc4 ,fif?1 !y precipitate out ( solution album9s1 alkaloids1 & basic organic color+ matt]s4 ,f9ally1 mo/ tann9s1 9 alkal9e solutions1 absorb oxyg5 f ! air & become d>k br[n or black 9 color4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,! ne$le-l =ms1 9 :i* comm]cial tann9 comes on ! m>ket1 are n true cry/als1 b are brok5 fragm5ts ( ! ?reads into :i* ! colloidal tann9 is spun-out f ! syrupy extracts ( nutgalls1 etc4 ,,occurr5ce ,tann9s occur widely di/ribut$ 9 plants4 ,practically e gr\p ( plants1 f ! fungi up to ! fl[]+ plants1 conta9s _m species ( plants :i* %[ tann9 9 "s ( _! tissues4 ,among ! high] plants1 tann9s occur 9 a great v>iety ( organs4 ,?us1 !y are f\nd 9 ! roots ( sev]al species ( tropical plants2 9 ! /]ns1 bo? b>k & wood1 ( oaks1 p9es1 hemlock1 etc42 9 ! leaves ( sumac1 rhodod5dron1 etc42 9 _m fruits1 especially 9 ! gre51 or immature1 /ages2 & 9 ! se$s ( sev]al species1 ei!r be=e or aft] g]m9ation4 ,tann9s are also f\nd 9 c]ta9 special /ructures1 su* z gl& cells1 cells ( ! pulv9i1 laticif]\s tissues1 etc4 ,fur!r1 !y are especially abundant 9 ! pa?ological gr[?s kn[n z galls1 :i* (t5 conta9 f #dj to #ge p] c5t ( tann9 & con/itute ! mo/ important comm]cial s\rce = ^! mat]ials4 ,! pr9cipal comm]cial s\rces ( tann91 :i* is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( inks1 9 ! tann+ ( lea!r1 9 c]ta9 dye+ op]ations1 etc41 are oak-galls1 ! b>k & wood ( oak1 hemlock1 acacia1 & eucalyptus1 ! b>k ( ! mangrove1 ! roots ( canaigre1 & ! leaves ( sev]al species ( sumac4 ,,*emical ,,con/itution ,tann9s are ei!r free ph5ol-acids or1 m commonly1 glucosides ( ^! acids4 ,common tann91 :5 hydrolyz$1 yields f #g to #h p] c5t ( glucose1 :i* indicates t x is a p5ta-acid e/] ( glucose1 i4e41 ea* glucose molecule has five acid gr\ps atta*$ to x4 ,! =mula = su* a tann9 is1 !re=e1 z foll[s1 ------,o------- ,,*#b,,or,,*or,,*,,*or,,*or,,*or 9 :i* ! ,r repres5ts a complex ph5ol-acid l tannic acid1 or digallic acid4 ,^! acids are d]ivatives ( ! common ph5ols1 ^: con/itution w be br\ght to m9d by ! foll[+ s]ies ( =mulas3 ,ord9>y ph5ol ,pyrocate*ol ,resorc9ol ,hydroqu9one _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,oh ,,oh ,,oh ,,oh ,,oh ,,ho _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,oh ,pyrogallol ,oxyhydroqu9one ,phlorogluc9ol ,,oh ,,oh ,,oh _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,oh ,,oh ,,oh ,,ho ,,oh _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,oh ,^! ph5ols !mselves d n occur z con/itu5ts ( tann9s1 al?\gh !y are (t5 f\nd 9 o!r glucosides1 gums1 etc4 ,! foll[+ mono-c>boxyl acid d]ivatives ( ^! ph5ols are1 h[ev]1 f\nd bo? free & 9 glucoside =mation z con/itu5ts ( _m ( ! common tann9s4 ,pyrocate*uic acid1 d]iv$ f pyrocate*ol1 repres5t$ by ! =mula1 ,,oh _/ _/ ,,oh _/ _/ ,,cooh ,gallic acid1 d]iv$ f pyrogallol1 & repres5t$ by ! =mula1 ,,oh _/ _/ ,,ho ,,ho ,,cooh _/ _/ ,,cooh ,9 mo/ ( ! common tann9s1 h[ev]1 ! *>act]i/ic acids are oxy-d]ivatives ( ! s-call$ tannon gr\p1 repres5t$ by ! =mula1 ,c#f;,h#e;,,co,o,c#f;,h#e4 ,= example1 digallic acid1 :i* is a con/itu5t ( _m common tann9s1 is a tetra-oxy1 mono-c>boxyl d]ivative ( ?is gr\p1 hav+ ! /ructural =mula1 _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,ho --,,co,o-- ,,cooh ,,ho ,,ho _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,oh ,,oh ,ellagic acid1 :i* is an hydrolysis product ( _m ( ! pyrogallol tann9s 7see bel[7 & :i* produces ! *>act]i/ic bloom on lea!r tann$ by ?is type ( tann9s1 has ! foll[+ =mula1 -----,,co,o----- _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,ho ,,oh ,,ho ,,co,o ,,oh _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,classes ,,( ,,tann9s ,! tann9s are divid$ into two g5]al classes1 kn[n respectively z ! pyrogallol tann9s & ! cate*ol tann9s4 ,^! diff] 9 _! *>act]i/ic reactions z foll[s3 ,pyrogallol v>iety ,cate*ol v>iety ,f]ric salts ,d>k blue ,gre5i% black ,brom9e wat] ,no precipitate ,yell[ or br[n precipitate ,lea!r ,produce a bloom ,no bloom ,conc4 sulfuric acid ,yell[ or br[n ,r$ or p9k ,lime wat] ,gray or blue ppte4 ,p9k to br[n ppte4 ,pyrogallol tann9s conta9 approximately #eb p] c5t ( c>bon2 :ile ! cate*ol tann9s usually conta9 #ei p] c5t to #fj p] c5t1 ! diff]5ce be+ due to ! abs5ce ( glucose f ! molecule 9 ! latt] types4 ,! two types are di/ribut$ 9 plants z foll[s3 pyrogallol tann9s 9 oak-galls1 oak wood1 sumac1 *e/nut1 divi-divi1 & alg>o billa2 cate*ol tann9s 9 ! b>ks ( p9es1 hemlocks1 oaks1 acacias1 mimosas1 cassia1 & mangrove1 9 quebra*o wood1 canaigre roots1 cut* & gambi]4 ,! s-call$ pseudo-tann9s 7i4e41 comp\nds :i* d n tan lea!r b possess o!r prop]ties l tann9s7 are f\nd 9 hops1 tea1 w9e1 fruits1 etc4 ,,"s ,,common ,,tann9s ,ord9>y comm]cial tann91 or tannic acid1 is a comp\nd ( "o molecule ( glucose ) five ( digallic acid4 ,x is f\nd 9 _m plants1 & is prep>$ comm]cially f ! ,turki% oak-galls & ! ,*9ese sumac-galls4 ,x exhibits all ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties :i* h be5 li/$ above = tann9s 9 g5]al & responds to all ! *>act]i/ic reactions ( a pyrogallol tann94 ,x is ext5sively us$ = ! manufacture ( blue-black ink1 & 9 _m te*nical processes4 ,cate*u tann9 & cate*9 are comp\nds ( ! cate*ol tann9 type4 ,! latt] is obta9$ f acacia wood1 mahogany wood1 mimosa wood1 etc4 ,x is n a true tann91 s9ce x does n conv]t hide into lea!r2 b :5 heat$ to #abj or above1 x is easily dehydrat$1 =m+ cate*u tann9 :i* is id5tical ) t :i* is obta9$ directly f gambi] & ,bombay cut* 7products made by evaporat+ wat] extracts f ! b>k ( v>i\s tropical trees74 ,?is latt] is a true tann91 :i* is mu* us$ 9 dye+ & o!r te*nical processes4 ,qu]citannic acid1 obta9$ f oak b>k1 etc41 is likewise a cate*ol tann94 ,x yields no glucose on hydrolysis4 ,a great _m o!r tann9s are kn[n1 & _! possibilities = te*nical use 9 tann+1 dye+1 etc41 h g5]ally be5 inve/igat$2 b s little has be5 le>n$ ab\t _! composition & relation to ! plant's own ne$s1 t x seems unnecess>y to discuss !m 9 detail "h4 ,,physiological ,,uses ,,( ,,tann9s ,tann9s are probably n direct products ( photosyn!sis4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 elaborat$ 9 ! gre5 leaves ( plants & translocat$ f !re to ! /ems1 roots1 etc4 ,_! close association ) ! photosyn!tic c>bohydrates has l$ _m inve/igators to seek to e/abli% = !m "s significant function z food mat]ials1 or z pla/ic sub/ances 9 cell metabolism4 ,_m conflict+ views h be5 advanc$1 b a c>eful review ( ^! leads inevitably to ! conclusion t tann9s probably d n s]ve 9 any significant way z food mat]ial4 ,! glucose :i* is g5]ally pres5t 9 ! tann9 molecule may1 ( c\rse1 s]ve z res]ve food mat]ial1 b x seems probable t x functions z a con/itu5t ( ! tann9s only to assi/ 9 mak+ !m m soluble & h5ce m easily translocat$ ?r\gh ! plant tissues4 ,"s fungi1 & p]haps o!r plants z well1 c actually utilize tann9s z food mat]ial "u suitable conditions & 9 ! abs5ce ( a prop] supply ( c>bohydrates4 ,b ?is does n prove t tann9s c normally replace c>bohydrates z food mat]ial = ^! species ( plants4 ,!re seems to be ample evid5ce t tann9s are elaborat$ :]e int5se metabolism is 9 progress1 su* z occurs 9 gre5 leaves dur+ ! e>ly gr[+ season2 9 ! rapid tissue =mation :i* takes place aft] ! /+s ( c]ta9 insects1 produc+ galls1 etc42 dur+ g]m9ation1 & z a result ( any o!r unusual /imulation ( metabolism4 ,x may be1 !re=e1 t tann9s s]ve z safety accumulations ( excessive cond5sations ( =maldehyde1 or o!r photosyn!tic products1 "u su* conditions4 ,x seems c]ta9 t 9 all su* cases tann9s are ! result (1 & n 7z "s inve/igators h suppos$7 ! causative ag5ts =1 ! abnormally rapid metabolism4 ,x seems to be fairly well demon/rat$ t tann9s are int]m$iate products = ! =mation ( cork tissue4 ,?is may acc\nt = _! common occurr5ce 9 ! wood & b>k ( trees4 ,inde$1 x has be5 %[n t gallic & tannic acids are pres5t 9 consid]able proportions 9 ^? p>ts ( ! plant :]e cork is be+ =m$4 ,fur!r1 t !y be> direct relation to cork-=mation has be5 demon/rat$ 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,fir/1 cork-l sub/ances h be5 artificially produc$ by pass+ a /ream ( c>bon dioxide ?r\gh mixtures ( =maldehyde ) v>i\s tannic acids4 ,second1 by v>i\s treatm5ts ( cork1 decomposition comp\nds %[+ tann9-l prop]ties may be obta9$4 ,"s inve/igators h held t n only cork tissue b also o!r lignose1 or cell-wall mat]ial1 may be develop$ f tann9s4 ,c]ta9 obs]vations ) ,spirogyra seem to indicate t tann9 may play an important "p 9 ! =mation ( new cell walls dur+ conjugation1 z cells :i* are ready to conjugate are ri* 9 tann91 :i* gradually dim9i%es 9 quantity until x is practically abs5t at ! "t ( spore-=mation4 ,!re seems to be no evid5ce t tann9s p]=m any su* function z ?is 9 high] plants1 h[ev]4 ,aga91 tann9s may play a v important "p 9 pigm5t-=mation4 ,!y are v simil> 9 /ructure to ! an?ocyan9 pigm5ts1 bo? be+ made up ( practically id5tical decomposition units1 ! ph5olic bodies4 ,! disappe>ance ( tann9s dur+ ! process ( rip5+ ( fruits may be connect$1 9 "p at lea/1 ) ! developm5t ( ! brilliant r$1 blue1 & yell[ pigm5ts :i* give su* ri* colors to ! ?or\ghly ripe fruits4 ,f9ally1 c]ta9 ( ! tann9s und\bt$ly s]ve z protective ag5ts to prev5t ! gr[? ( p>asitic fungi 9 fruits1 etc4 ,rec5t inve/igations %[ t at lea/ "s ( ! v>ieties ( fruits :i* are resi/ant to ! attacks ( c]ta9 p>asitic diseases utilize tann9s = ?is purpose4 ,?is protective effect may be accompli%$ 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,ei!r ! tann9 actually s]ves z an antiseptic to prev5t ! gr[? ( ! p>asitic fungus )9 ! tissues ( ! ho/ plant1 or x assi/s 9 ! developm5t ( a corky lay] :i* walls-(f ! infect$ area & s prev5ts fur!r spread ( ! disease ?r\gh ! tissue4 ,examples ( bo? types ( protective action h rec5tly be5 report$4 ,x is obvi\s t ! diff]5t =ms ( tann9s may play diff]5t rles 9 plant life1 & ! same tann9 sub/ance may possibly s]ve diff]5t purposes "u diff]5t conditions4 ,,biological ,,significance ,,( ,,tann9s ,,9 ,,fruits ,! pres5ce ( tann9s 9 fruits & ! *anges :i* !y und]go dur+ ! rip5+ process _c fail to attract att5tion to _! biological significance 9 s]v+ to protect ! fruit f premature consumption z food by animals4 ,tann9s are ( frequ5t occurr5ce 9 gre5 fruits1 imp>t+ to !m _! *>act]i/ic a/r+5t ta/e4 ,!y ne>ly always disappe> z ! fruit rip5s4 ,! fact t dur+ ! rip5+ process bo? sug>s & fruit e/]s1 z well z attractive surface pigm5ts1 are develop$ has l$ c]ta9 inve/igators to ! conclusion t tann9s s]ve z "m-sub/ances = ^! mat]ials 9 ! gre5 fruits & are conv]t$ into ^! attractive ag5cies dur+ rip5+4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! *emical composition ( tann9s :i* indicates1 h[ev]1 t !y are precursors ( sug>s or fruit e/]s1 al?\gh 7z has be5 po9t$ out7 !y may give rise to an?ocyan pigm5ts4 ,fur!r1 rec5t rese>*es conc]n+ ! tann9 ( p]simmons 7! be/-kn[n & mo/ /rik+ example ( ! ph5om5a "u discussion7 cle>ly %[ t ! tann9 is n actually us$ up dur+ ! rip5+ process2 t in/ead x rema9s 9 ! ripe fruit 9 practically undim9i%$ quantity2 b t :5 ! fruit is ripe1 ! tann9 is enclos$ 9 c]ta9 special l>ge cells or sacs1 :i* are surr\nd$ by an insoluble membrane1 s t :5 ! fruit is eat5 by animals ! a/r+5t tann91 envelop$ 9 ^! insoluble sacs1 passes by ! organs ( ta/e ( ! animal )\t caus+ any disagreeable effects4 ,?is wall+-(f ( ! a/r+5t tann9s c be /imulat$ 9 p>tially ripe fruits by treat+ !m ) sev]al diff]5t *emical ag5ts1 ! simple/ me?od be+ t ( plac+ ! unripe fruit 9 an atmosph]e ( c>bon dioxide gas = a %ort p]iod4 ,! artificial process+ ( p]simmons to r5d] !m edible = a long] p]iod be=e !y become naturally fully ripe & subject to decay is n[ a comm]cial ent]prise4 ,?is process is ( int]e/ because ( its possible connection ) ! conv]sion ( tann9s into cork1 "u ! influ5ce ( c>bon dioxide gas1 z m5tion$ 9 a prec$+ p>agraph4 ,f ^! facts1 x is app>5t t 9 p]simmons1 & probably 9 o!r tann9-conta9+ fruits1 ! process ( natural selection has develop$ a me*anism = ! secretion ( tann9 9 gre5 fruits1 foll[$ by a process = wall+ x (f 9 h>mless condition :5 ! fruit is ripe1 :i* s]ves mo/ admirably to protect ! fruit f consumption by animals be=e ! enclos$ se$s h fully develop$ _! reproductive p[]s4 ,,ref]5ces4 ,,abd]hald51 ,e4--,bio*emis*es ,h&lexikon1 ,b& #g1 ,g]b/(fe1 ,fle*t5/(fe1 ,sapon9e1 ,bitt]/(fe1 ,t]p5e1 ,ae!ris*e ,oele1 ,h>ze1 ,kauts*uk1 #hbb pages1 ,b]l91 #aiab4 ,,all5',s ,comm]cial ,organic ,analysis1 ,vol4 #e1 ,tann9s1 ,dyes & ,color+ ,matt]s1 ,inks1 #gjd pages1 #f figs41 ,philadelphia1 #aiaa 7#d? ed474 ,,cook1 ,m4 ,t4 & ,,taub5haus1 ,j4 ,j4--,! ,toxicity ( ,tann91 ,delaw>e ,college ,agricultural ,exp]im5t ,/ation ,bullet9 ,no4 #ia1 #gg pages1 #dc figs41 ,new>k1 ,del41 #aiaa4 ,,dekk]1 ,j4--,die ,g]b/(fe1 #fcf pages1 #c figs41 ,b]l91 #aiac4 ,,gore1 ,h4 ,c4--,exp]im5ts on ! ,process+ ( ,p]simmons to ,r5d] !m ,nona/r+5t1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,bureau ( ,*emi/ry ,bullet9 ,no4 #ada1 #ca pages1 #c plates1 #aiaa2 & ,no4 #aee1 #bj pages1 #aiab4 ,,lloyd1 ,f4 ,e4--,! ,tann9-,colloid ,complexes 9 ! ,fruit ( ! ,p]simmon1 ,diospyros1 9 ,bio*emical ,bullet91 ,vol4 #a1 ,no4 #a1 pages #g to #da1 #cd figs41 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,pigm5ts ,practically all plant /ructures conta9 pigm5ts4 ,^! may be consid]$ z ( two types3 7a7 ! vegetative pigm5ts1 :i* h a def9ite en]gy-absorb+ rle 9 ! metabolic processes ( ! tissues :i* conta9 !m1 & 7b7 ! ornam5tal pigm5ts4 ,x is probable t ! same *emical comp\nd may s]ve 9 ei!r "o ( ^! capacities "u diff]5t conditions1 b1 9 g5]al1 x is possible to assign ei!r a def9ite vegetative1 or physiological1 use1 or else a simple ornam5tal1 or biological1 significance to ea* ( ! common pigm5ts4 ,! fir/ type is f\nd widely di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! protoplasm1 or cell-sap1 ( ! plant /ructures2 :ile ! ornam5tal pigm5ts are locat$ *iefly 9 ! epid]mal cells1 especially ( fl[]s4 ,) respect to _! colors1 ! plant pigm5ts may be gr\p$ z foll[s3 ,gre5--! *lorophylls4 ,yell[--! c>ot9oids1 flavones1 & xan?ones4 ,r$--phyco]y?r91 lycop]sic91 an?ocyan94 ,blue--an?ocyan d]ivatives4 ,br[n--phycoph91 fucoxan?94 ,( ^!1 ! *lorophylls1 ! c>ot9oids1 phyco]y?r9 79 r$ sea-we$s7 & phycoph9 79 br[n sea-we$s7 are g5]ally vegetative pigm5ts2 :ile ! o!rs =m ! basis = mo/ ( ! ornam5tal pigm5ts1 al?\gh !y may h a def9ite en]gy-absorb+ effect1 9 "s cases4 ,,! ,,*lorophylls ,! importance ( ! gre5 color+ matt] 9 plants has be5 und]/ood = m ?an a c5tury1 its connection ) photosyn!sis hav+ be5 kn[n z f> back z #ahai4 ,b def9ite k z to its *emical con/itution is ( v rec5t orig94 ,z rec5tly z #aijh1 x 0 ass]t$ t *lorophyll is a leci?9-l body1 yield+ *ol9e & glyc]o-phosphoric acid on hydrolysis4 ,x is n[ kn[n1 h[ev]1 t *lorophyll conta9s nei!r *ol9e nor phosphorus1 ! e>li] obs]vations be+ due to mixtures ( v>i\s o!r mat]ials ) ! true *lorophyll 9 ! extracts :i* 7 exam9$4 ,beg9n+ ) #aiab1 ,will/tt] & 8 collaborators1 9 a s]ies ( classic pap]s :i* 7 f9ally collect$ 9 book =m1 cle>ly demon/rat$ ! *emical con/itution ( ! gre5 pigm5ts ( plants1 :i* _h be5 previ\sly designat$ "u ! s+le "n *lorophyll4 ,9 #aiab1 ,will/tt] & ,isl] fir/ %[$ t ! gre5 color+ matt] :i* is extract$ f plants by alcohol1 e!r1 etc41 is made up ( two def9ite *emical comp\nds1 to :i* !y assign$ ! names *lorophyll a & *lorophyll b1 associat$ ) two yell[ pigm5ts1 c>ot9 & xan?ophyll1 &1 9 "s cases1 ) ! r$di%-br[n fucoxan?94 ,! p]c5tages ( total pigm5t mat]ials1 & ! relative proportions ( ! five diff]5t pigm5ts1 9 sev]al types ( plants1 are z foll[s3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,l& ,br[n ,gre5 ,plants1 ,seawe$s1 ,alg1 ,p] ,c5t4 ,p] ,c5t4 ,p] ,c5t4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,total pigm5t 9 ! dry matt] #j4ii #j4bi #j4ba ,proportion (3 ,*lorophyll a #fc #ee #dd ,*lorophyll b #bb #d #ca ,c>ot9 #f #aa #g ,xan?ophyll #i #aj #ah ,fucoxan?9 #bj ,! two *lorophylls h ! foll[+ =mulas3 *lorophyll a1 ,c#ee;,h#gb,o#e,n#d,mg1 & *lorophyll b1 ,c#ee;,h#gj,o#f,n#d,mg4 ,h5ce1 !y diff] only 9 hav+ two hydrog5 atoms 9 ! "o replac$ by "o oxyg5 atom 9 ! o!r4 ,bo? are amorph\s p[d]s1 f :i* cry/all9e *lorophyll 7see bel[7 c be obta9$ by hydrolysis4 ,*lorophyll a is blue-black1 is easily soluble 9 mo/ organic solv5ts1 & :5 saponifi$ by alcoholic pota% gives a transi5t pure yell[ color4 ,*lorophyll b is d>k gre51 is some:at less soluble ?an ! o!r =m1 & :5 saponifi$ by pota% gives a transi5t brilliant r$4 ,amorph\s & ,cry/all9e ,*lorophyll4--,:5 ! *lorophyll ( plants is extract$ by alcohol & ! alcoholic extract evaporat$ ne>ly to dryness1 beautiful d>k gre5 cry/als are obta9$4 ,will/tt] has %[n1 h[ev]1 t 9 ^! cry/alliz$ =ms ! e?yl gr\p 7f ! e?yl alcohol us$7 has replac$ ! phytyl gr\p 7see bel[7 :i* is pres5t 9 ! pigm5ts z !y exi/ 9 ! plant tissues2 & t1 :5 extract$ by o!r solv5ts ?an alcohol1 ! pigm5ts may be obta9$ 9 ! amorph\s =ms 9 :i* !y exi/ 9 ! plant4 ,?is *ange f amorph\s to cry/all9e comp\nds may be und]/ood f ! prelim9>y /atem5t t ! *lorophylls are e/]s ( tri-basic acids1 9 :i* "o acid hydrog5 is replac$ by ! me?yl 7,,*#c7 gr\p & a second by ! phytyl 7,c#bj;,h#ci1 f phytol1 or phytyl alcohol1 ,c#bj;,h#ci,,oh7 gr\p4 ,:5 treat$ ) e?yl alcohol 7,c#b;,h#e,,oh7 = ! purpose ( extract+ ! pigm5ts1 ! e?yl 7,c#b;,h#e7 gr\p replaces ! phytyl gr\p1 ?us yield+ a me?yl-e?yl e/]1 & ^! e/]s are ! cry/all9e =ms ( ! *lorophylls4 ,?is replacem5t is made possible ?r\gh ! action on ! orig9al pigm5t 9 ! tissues ( an enzyme1 *lorophyllase1 :i* is also pres5t 9 ! tissues1 :i* splits (f ! phytyl gr\p1 =m+ phytyl alcohol1 & leav+ a free ,,cooh gr\p 9 ! pigm5t1 ) :i* ! alcohol us$ 9 ! extraction =ms ! e?yl e/] 7see ,*apt] ,,ix = a discussion ( ! =mation & hydrolysis ( e/]s74 ,:ile ! *lorophylls are tri-basic acids1 only two ( ! acid ,,cooh gr\ps actually function 9 e/]-=mation4 ,! ?ird acid gr\p seems n to exi/ z a free acid gr\p2 b 9 *lorophyll a1 x is 9 :at is kn[n z ! lactam arrangem5t1 repres5t$ by ! --,,conh-- gr\p1 & 9 *lorophyll b1 x is probably 9 ! lactone arrangem5t1 repres5t$ by ! --,,coo-- gr\p2 ! two bonds 9 ea* case be+ atta*$ to diff]5t /ructural units 9 ! molecule 7see page #ajf74 ,! *ange f amorph\s to cry/all9e =ms may be repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mulas1 9 :i* ! ,r repres5ts ! :ole ( ! complex gr\p to :i* ! acid e/] gr\ps are unit$3 ,,coo,,*#c ,,coo,,*#c ,,cooh _/ _/ _/ ,r ,r ,r ,,coo,c#bj;,h#ci ,,coo,c#b;,h#e ,,cooh ,amorph\s *lorophyll ,cry/all9e *lorophyll ,*lorophyll9 or or me?yl-phytyl me?yl-e?yl *lorophyllide *lorophyllide ,*lorophyll91 ! comp\nd 9 :i* ! e/] gr\ps h be5 conv]t$ into free acid gr\ps1 z indicat$ above1 may be obta9$ f ei!r amorph\s or cry/all9e *lorophyll by treatm5t ) cau/ic pota% dissolv$ 9 me?yl alcohol4 ,phytol4--,?is alcohol1 :i* furni%es ! *>act]i/ic e/] gr\p 9 ! *lorophyll ( plants1 is a comp\nd ( v unusual composition1 :i* has nev] be5 f\nd 9 any o!r =m or 9 any o!r type ( comp\nd :i* is pres5t 9 ei!r plant or animal tissues4 ,c>eful /udies ( its addition & oxidation products prove t x has ! foll[+ /ructural arrangem5t3 ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h-,c-----,c-----,c-----,c-----,c-----,c -----,c-----,c-----,c,c-----,c--,,*#b,,o h ,,*#c;,,*#c;,,*#c;,,*#c;,,*#c;,,*#c;,,*# c;,,*#c;,,*#c;,,*#c;,,*#c ,z ?is =mula indicates1 ! comp\nd conta9s "o unsaturat$1 d\ble-bond l9kage1 "o prim>y alcohol gr\p1 & elev5 me?yl gr\ps4 ,z has be5 said1 ?is alcohol occurs n[h]e else 9 nature1 & its pres5ce & function 9 ! *lorophyll molecule are1 z yet1 :olly unexpla9able4 ,phytol itself is a colorless1 oily liquid1 ) a high boil+ po9t 7#ade 9 vacuo1 #bjd at #aj mm4 pressure74 ,,! ,,con/itution ,,( ,,! ,,*lorophylls ,z has be5 m5tion$1 *lorophyll a diff]s f *lorophyll b by hav+ "o m oxyg5 & two less hydrog5 atoms 9 ! molecule1 & 9 hav+ "o ( its nitrog5 atoms 9 ! lactam arrangem5t4 ,^! diff]5ces 9 /ructure are repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mulas :i* are commonly us$ to repres5t ! two comp\nds1 b :i* d n %[ ! arrangem5ts ( ! major gr\ps ( ! complex molecules3 ,,coo,c#bj;,h#ci ,,coo,c#bj;,h#ci _/ _/ ,mg,c#ca;,h#bi,n#c-;,,coo,,*#c ,mg,c#cb;,h#bh,o#b,n#d-;,,coo,,*#c ,*lorophyll b ,,nh-,,co ,*lorophyll a ,! *lorophylls are un/able comp\nds1 readily act$ ^u by acids or alkalies1 & by ! enzyme *lorophyllase1 :i* splits (f ! phytyl alcohol gr\p4 ,! progressive action ( acids & ( alkalies 9 break+ d[n ! molecule1 & ! products ( its oxidation & r$uction1 h s]v$ to e/abli% ! *emical composition ( ! comp\nd 9 ea* case4 ,because ( ! importance ( ^! pigm5ts 9 ! :ole metabolic processes ( ! plant1 x seems to be desirable to consid] ! nature ( ^! reactions 9 "s detail1 z foll[s3 ,decomposition ( ! ,*lorophylls by ,alkalies4--,! fir/ action ( dilute alkalies on ! *lorophylls is to split (f1 by hydrolysis1 ! alcoholic gr\ps ( ! e/]s1 produc+ ! cry/all9e tri-basic acids1 or *lorophyll9s a & b4 ,ea* ( ^! *lorophyll9s exi/s 9 two =ms1 ! normal & ! iso1 9 :i* ! atta*m5t ( ! ,,cooh gr\ps to ! o!r gr\ps 9 ! molecule is 9 diff]5t positions4 ,h5ce1 *lorophyll a yields *lorophyll9 a & iso*lorophyll9 a1 & *lorophyll b yields *lorophyll9 b & iso*lorophyll9 b1 all f\r ( :i* are tri-basic acids4 ,^! comp\nds1 :5 heat$ ) alkalies1 split (f c>bon dioxide 9 successive /ages1 los+ "o ,,cooh gr\p at ea* /ep1 ?us yield+ a s]ies ( simpl] comp\nds ( ! foll[+ types3 ,fir/1 di-basic acids2 second1 monobasic acids2 & f9ally1 tiophyll91 a comp\nd 9 :i* no ,,cooh gr\p is pres5t4 ,9 all ( ^! comp\nds1 d]iv$ f *lorophylls by ! action ( alkalies1 ! ,mg rema9s 9 ! molecule1 & all ! ,mg-conta9+ d]ivatives f ! *lorophylls are kn[n z phyll9s4 ,at ! /age at :i* only "o ,,cooh gr\p rema9s 9 ! molecule1 only "o gr\p arrangem5t is possible1 & ! d]ivatives f *lorophyll9 a & iso*lorophyll9 b1 & ^? f *lorophyll9 b & iso*lorophyll9 a1 are id5tical4 ,at ! f9al /age1 ! d]ivatives f all f\r =ms are id5tical4 ,?is may be graphically illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ diagram indicat+ ! progressive decomposition ( ! two *lorophylls "u ! action ( alkalies3 ,illu/ration3 ,decomposition ( ,*lorophyll a & ,*lorophyll b ,decomposition ( ,*lorophylls by ,acids4--,! fir/ action ( dilute acids ^u *lorophylls is to remove ! magnesium1 )\t o!rwise *ang+ ! molecule4 ,two hydrog5s g 9 9 ! place ( ! magnesium4 ,dilute acids act 9 precisely ! same way ^u ea* ( ! phyll9s %[n 9 ! above s*eme4 ,9 ?is way1 a :ole s]ies ( comp\nds1 correspond+ to ea* ( ! *lorophylls & _! alkali-decomposition products1 b ) ! magnesium lack+ 9 ea* case1 has be5 prep>$4 ,?us1 ,,coo,c#bj;,h#ci _/ ,*lorophyll a1 ,mg,c#ca;,h#bi,n#c-;,,coo,,*#c1 7,,nhco7 ,,coo,c#bj;,h#ci _/ becomes ,phophyt9 a1 ,c#ca;,h#ca,n#c-;,,coo,,*#c1 7,,nhco7 ,,coo,c#bj;,h#ci _/ ,*lorophyll b1 ,mg,c#ca;,h#bi,o#b,n#d ,,coo,,*#c ,,coo,c#bj;,h#ci _/ becomes ,phophyt9 b1 ,c#cb;,h#cj,o#b,n#d ,,coo,,*#c ,simil>ly1 ,iso*lorophyll9 a1 becomes ,phyto*lor9 e1 ,*lorophyll9 a1 becomes ,phyto*lor9 f1 & g1 ,,cooh _/ ,c#cb;,h#cb,,on#d ,,cooh ,iso*lorophyll9 b1 becomes ,phytorhod9 g ,*lorophyll9 b1 becomes ,phytorhod9 i & k1 ,,cooh _/ ,c#cb;,h#cj,o#b,n#d ,,cooh ,& bodies kn[n z porphyr9s are simil>ly d]iv$ f all ! o!r kn[n phyll9s4 ,= example3 cyanophyll91 ,mg,c#ca;,h#cb,n#d7;,,cooh7#b1 becomes cyanoporphyr91 ,c#ca;,h#cd,n#d7;,,cooh7#b2 tiophyll91 ,mg,c#ca;,h#cd,n#d1 becomes tioporphyr91 ,c#ca;,h#cf,n#d1 etc4 ,phyto*lor9 e & phytorhod9 g are ! *ief products ( ! decomposition by acids ( ! *lorophylls4 ,inde$1 x 0 ! production ( ^! comp\nds :i* l$ to ! discov]y ( ! exi/5ce ( ! two *lorophylls4 ,:5 treat$ ) alkalies1 !y lose _! c>boxyl gr\ps & become tioporphyr94 ,decomposition ( ! ,*lorophylls by ,oxidation & ,r$uction4--,:5 act$ ^u by oxidiz+ ag5ts1 su* z *romic acid1 ! porphyr9s yield two *ief oxidation products1 :i* are pyrrole d]ivatives hav+ ! foll[+ =mulas1 ,,*#c-;,c-,,co ,,*#c-;,c-,,co ,,nh ,,nh _/ _/ ,,*#c-;,,*#b-;,c-,,co ,,hooc-,,*#b-;,,*#b-;,c-,,co ,me?yle?ylmale9 imide ,hmat9ic acid imide ,by r$uction1 !re h be5 obta9$ f ! *lorophylls & ! v>i\s porphyr9s1 ?ree isom]ic pyrrole d]ivatives hav+ ! foll[+ =mulas1 ,,*#c ,h ,,*#c ,c#b;,h#e-;,c,c ,c#b;,h#e-;,c,c ,c#b;,h#e-;,c,c ,,nh ,,nh ,,nh _/ _/ _/ ,,*#c-;,c,c ,,*#c-;,c,c ,,*#c-;,c,c ,,*#c ,,*#c ,h ,phyllopyrrole ,hmopyrrole ,isohmopyrrole ,z a result ( ! /udy ( ^! decomposition units1 ,will/tt] has sugge/$ ! foll[+ =mulas = ! /ructural arrangem5t ( tiophyll9 & tioporphyr91 ! comp\nds :i* result f ! removal ( all ( ! acid gr\ps & f9ally ( ! magnesium f ! *lorophylls1 ,h ,,hc,,* ,,*#c-;,c--,c ,c---,c _/_/ ,n ,n _/ ,c#b;,h#e-;,c--,c ,c---,,* _/_/ ,c------------,c _/ ,c#b;,h#e-;,c,c ,c,c-,c#b;,h#e _/ ,n-----,mg-----,n _/ ,,*#c-;,c,c ,c,c-,c#b;,h#e ,,*#c ,,*#c tiophyll9 ,h ,,hc,,* ,,*#c-;,c--,c ,c---,c _/_/ ,n ,n _/ ,c#b;,h#e-;,c--,c ,c---,,* _/_/ ,c------------,c _/ ,c#b;,h#e-;,c,c ,c,c-,c#b;,h#e _/ ,n ,n _/ ,,*#c-;,c,c ,c,c-,,*#c ,,*#c ,,*#c tioporphyr9 ,! ,,cooh gr\ps :i* are atta*$ to ^! comp\nds to =m ! v>i\s phyll9s & porphyr9s1 z well z ! orig9al *lorophylls1 are suppos$ to be atta*$ to ! ,c#b;,h#e gr\ps 9 ! above =mulas1 ! diff]5t modifications1 or comp\nds1 dep5d+ ^u ! position 9 :i* "o or m ( ^! atta*m5ts are made4 ,,simil>ity ,,( ,,*lorophyll ,,& ,h,,moglob9 ,x seems to be desirable1 at ?is po9t1 to call att5tion to ! rem>kable simil>ity 9 ! *emical composition ( *lorophyll1 ! mo/ important pigm5t ( plants1 & hmoglob91 ! all-important respiration-regulat+ pigm5t 9 ! blood ( animals4 ,hmoglob9 is a complex comp\nd1 consi/+ ( ab\t #if p] c5t ( album9 7a prote91 see ,*apt] ,,xiii7 unit$ ) ab\t #d p] c5t ( hmat91 a brilliant r$ pigm5t :i* has ! =mula ,fe,cl,c#cb;,h#cb,o#d,n#d4 ,:5 treat$ ) acids1 ! iron 7& its accompany+ ,cl7 is remov$1 & hmatoporphyr91 ,c#cb;,h#cf,o#d,n#d1 is obta9$4 ,:5 ei!r hmat91 or hmatoporphyr9 is oxidiz$1 hmat9ic acid imide id5tical ) t obta9$ f tioporphyr9 is obta9$4 ,also1 :5 hmatoporphyr9 is r$uc$1 hmopyrrole id5tical ) t f tioporphyr9 is obta9$4 ,?us1 x w\ld appe> t ! unit /ructural gr\ps 9 hmat9 & 9 *lorophyll are id5tical2 al?\gh *lorophyll may exhibit m v>iations 9 isom]ic arrangem5t ( ^! /ructural units ?an h be5 f\nd 9 hmat94 ,h5ce1 x is app>5t t ! only ess5tial diff]5ce 9 composition betwe5 *lorophyll & hmat9 is t 9 ! =m] ! /ructural units are l9k$ toge!r by iron1 :ile 9 ! latt]1 ! same units are unit$ ?r\gh magnesium z ! l9k+ elem5t4 ,fur!r1 x is kn[n t :ile iron is n a con/itu5t elem5t 9 ! *lorophyll molecule1 x is1 9 "s unkn[n way1 absolutely ess5tial to ! production ( *lorophyll 9 plants2 plants furni%$ ) an iron-free nutri5t solution rapidly become etiolat$ & photosyn!sis /ops4 ,! foll[+ skeleton =mulas h be5 sugge/$ to indicate ! way 9 :i* ^! elem5ts are l9k$ betwe5 ! /ructural units 9 _! respective comp\nds4 -,c ,c- -,c ,c- _/ _/ ,n ,n ,n ,n _/ _/ _/ _/ -,c _/ ,c- -,c _/ ,c- ,m g ,f e -,c _/ ,c- -,c _/ ,c- _/ _/ _/ _/ ,n ,n ,n ,c l ,n _/ _/ -,c ,c- -,c ,c- ,*lorophyll ,hmat9 ,x is und]/ood1 ( c\rse1 t ! m9]al elem5t does n furni% ! def9ite means ( hold+ ! /ructural units toge!r z o!rwise x w\ld n be possible to remove ! iron1 or magnesium1 )\t break+ d[n ! molecule1 z is done 9 ! case ( ! porphyr9s4 ,! actual b9d+ l9kage is und\bt$ly betwe5 c>bon atoms1 z indicat$ 9 ,will/tt]'s =mulas = tiophyll9 & tioporphyr9 7see page #aji74 ,! atta*m5t ( ! magnesium to ea* "o ( ! f\r nitrog5 atoms 9 ! skeleton =mula assumes ! exi/5ce ( subsidi>y val5ces ( #b-d = magnesium 7& ( #c-e = iron71 or ( possible oscillat+ val5ces simil> to ^? suppos$ to be exhibit$ by c>bon 9 its clos$-r+ arrangem5ts4 ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,! ,,*lorophylls ,! phytyl e/]s1 or natural *lorophylls1 are amorph\s solids2 :ile ! me?yle?yl e/]s 7*lorophyll9s7 & ! free acids 7phyll9s7 are cry/all9e comp\nds4 ,all ( ^! comp\nds are easily soluble 9 e!r & alcohol1 b insoluble 9 wat]4 ,! *lorophylls & *lorophyll9s are practically insoluble 9 petroleum e!r & *lor(orm2 b ! monobasic acids 7pyrrophyll9 & phyllophyll97 & ! neutral tiophyll9 dissolve easily 9 *lor(orm4 ,solutions ( ! *lorophylls are fluoresc5t1 be+ gre5 by transmitt$1 & r$ by reflect$ light4 ,*lorophyll a is a blue-black solid1 :i* gives d>k gre5 solutions 9 all ( its solv5ts4 ,*lorophyll b is a d>k-gre5 solid1 :i* yields brilliant gre5 solutions4 ,solutions 9 e!r ( glaucophyll9 & ( cyanophyll9 are blue2 ( rhodophyll91 deep violet2 ( rubiphyll91 light violet2 ( ery?rophyll91 r$2 & ( pyrrophyll9 & phyllophyll91 blui%-r$4 ,solutions ( ! porphyr9s are all r$1 ! di-basic ones be+ usually a blui%-r$1 & ! simpl] ones a brilliant r$ to deep br[ni%-r$ 9 color4 ,! sev]al *lorophyll d]ivatives are fur!r di/+ui%$ by *>act]i/ic diff]5ces 9 _! absorption spectra4 ,^! diff]5ces h be5 pictur$ by ,will/tt] 9 8 book deal+ ) ! results ( 8 inve/igations conc]n+ ! *lorophylls1 & reproduc$ 9 "o or two o!r texts :i* treat 9 detail ) ! physical-*emical prop]ties ( ^! pigm5ts1 b ne$ n be pres5t$ 9 su* detail "h4 ,,! ,,c>ot9oids ,! *>act]i/ic brilliant gre5 ( heal?y plant tissues is due to ! fact t !re are always associat$ ) ! d>k blui%-gre5 *lorophylls two 7or m7 yell[ pigm5ts4 ,^! are kn[n z ! c>ot9oids4 ,?is gr\p includes ! two brilliant yell[ pigm5ts1 c>ot9 & xan?ophyll1 & ! r$di% br[n fucoxan?9 & ! brilliant r$ lycop]sic91 :i* are simil> 9 _! *emical composition4 ,! fir/ two are f\nd univ]sally di/ribut$ 9 plants1 associat$ ) ! *lorophylls1 & may be reg>d$ z vegetative pigm5ts1 al?\gh ! *>act]i/ic ornam5tal yell[ & orange colors ( _m fl[]s & fruits1 z well z t ( ! roots ( c>rots1 etc41 due to ^! pigm5ts4 ,c>ot94--,?is pigm5t occurs 9 v>i\s =ms 9 plants1 bo? amorph\s & cry/all9e4 ,x cry/allizes out ( solution 9 flat plates1 :i* are orange-r$ by transmitt$ light1 & gre5i%-blue by reflect$ light1 & h a melt+ po9t ( #afh4 ,c>ot9 is insoluble 9 wat]1 only v slightly soluble 9 acetone or cold alcohol1 readily soluble 9 petroleum e!r1 e!r1 *lor(orm1 & c>bon disulfide4 ,its solutions are /rongly fluoresc5t4 ,its molecul> =mula is ,c#dj;,h#ef4 ,x is1 !re=e1 a hydroc>bon ( a v high degree ( unsaturation4 ,on exposure to dry air1 x absorbs #cd4c p] c5t ( its own weight ( oxyg51 :i* corresponds to #aa atoms ( oxyg51 comput$ on ! basis ( ! molecul> =mula ,c#dj;,h#ef1 & w\ld indicate a =mula ( 7,c#dj;,h#ef7b,o#bc = ! oxyg5at$ comp\nd2 ?is be+ ?ree oxyg5 atoms less ?an w\ld be requir$ to br+ ! comp\nd to ! !oretical /age ( saturation repres5t$ by ! unimolecul> =mula ,cn,h#bn#b4 ,9 moi/ air1 two m oxyg5 atoms are absorb$1 probably =m+ two ,,oh gr\ps 9 ! molecule4 ,moreov]1 c>ot9 absorbs iod9e4 ,:5 ! calculat$ am\nt ( iod9e is us$1 a def9ite comp\nd hav+ ! =mula ,c#dj;,h#ef;,i#b is produc$2 b 9 ! pres5ce ( an excess ( iod9e ano!r comp\nd hav+ ! app>5t =mula ,c#dj;,h#ef;,i#c 7or #b;,c#dj;,h#ef;,i#b;,i#b7 is obta9$4 7,note t #b atoms ( iod9e plus #ab atoms ( oxyg51 or #c ( iod9e plus #aa ( oxyg51 produce ! degree ( saturation requir$ by ! =mula ,cn,h#bn#b47 ,x is evid5t f ^! exp]im5tal data1 t a "p ( ! unsaturat$ l9kage 9 ! c>ot9 molecule is ( a type :i* c easily be saturat$ by direct addition ( oxyg51 :ile ! rema9d] may be saturat$ by iod9e4 ,! reaction ( c>ot9 t[>d brom9e is peculi>4 ,) ?is elem5t1 x =ms a comp\nd hav+ ! =mula ,c#dj;,h#cf;,br#bb1 indicat+ ! direct addition ( two atoms ( brom9e & ! sub/itution ( tw5ty atoms ( ?is elem5t = ! same numb] ( hydrog5 atoms4 ,! oxyg5at$ c>ot9s are colorless sub/ances1 :ile ! iodide cry/allizes 9 beautiful d>k-violet prisms1 hav+ a copp]y r$ fluoresc5ce4 ,xan?ophyll is closely relat$ to c>ot94 ,x has ! molecul> =mula ,c#dj;,h#ef,o#b4 ,x absorbs #cf4ee p] c5t ( oxyg5 7correspond+ to #ac atoms1 :i* w\ld indicate ! =mation ( two ,,oh gr\ps 9 addition to ! saturation requir$ by ! ,cn,h#bn#b =mula72 & an iod9e addition product hav+ ! =mula ,c#dj;,h#ef,o#b;,i#b1 :i* cry/allizes 9 d>k-violet ne$les4 ,xan?ophyll diff]s m>k$ly f c>ot9 9 its solubilities1 be+ insoluble 9 petroleum e!r & only sp>+ly soluble 9 c>bon disulfide4 ,x may be fairly easily r$uc$ to c>ot94 ,?is trans=mation is rev]sible1 & sugge/s a simil>ity to ! *ange f hmoglob9 to oxyhmoglob91 & ! rev]se1 9 ! blood ( animals1 z a "p ( _! respiration process4 ,sep>ation ( ! ,*lorophylls1 ,c>ot91 & ,xan?ophyll4--,^! pigm5ts1 :i* exi/ toge!r 9 mo/ plant tissues1 may easily be sep>at$ f ea* o!r by tak+ advantage ( ! diff]5ces 9 _! solubilities1 accord+ to ! foll[+ proc$ure4 ,gr9d up a small quantity ( ! fre% tissue 7leaves ( ! /++ nettle furni% a conv5i5tly l>ge supply ( ea* ( ^! pigm5ts7 ) f9e s& 9 a mort>4 ,cov] ) acetone1 let /& a few mom5ts & !n filt] on a ,b*n] funnel4 ,p\r ! filtrate into a sep>atory funnel1 add an equal volume ( e!r & two volumes ( wat]4 ,%ake up once & !n all[ ! e!r lay] to sep>ate2 ! pigm5ts w be 9 ?is lay]4 ,dra9 (f ! wat]-acetone lay]4 ,n[ to ! e!rial solution1 add ab\t half its volume ( a conc5trat$ solution ( potassium hydroxide 9 me?yl alcohol4 ,%ake well & all[ to /& until ! mixture becomes p]man5tly gre54 ,n[ add an equal volume ( wat] & a little m e!r1 until ! mixture sep>ates %>ply into two lay]s4 ,! *lorophylls w n[ be 9 ! l[] dilute alcohol lay]1 & ! c>ot9oids 9 ! upp] e!r1 & may be sep>at$ by dra9+ ( ea* lay] sep>ately4 ,to sep>ate ! c>ot9 f xan?ophyll place ! e!r solution 9 a small op5 di% & evaporate to a small volume4 ,n[ add ab\t t5 volumes ( petroleum _s & an equal volume ( me?yl alcohol1 /ir up well1 transf] to a sep>atory funnel & all[ ! two lay]s to sep>ate4 ,! c>ot9 w n[ be 9 ! upp] lay] ( petroleum e!r1 & ! xan?ophyll 9 ! l[] alcohol lay]2 ^! lay]s may be dra9$ (f sep>ately & ! solv5ts evaporat$ 9 ord] to recov] ! pigm5ts 9 dry =m4 ,lycop]sic9 7or lycop97 is a hydroc>bon pigm5t hav+ ! same =mula z c>ot94 ,x is1 h[ev]1 brilliantly r$ 9 color1 & cry/allizes 9 a diff]5t =m & has a diff]5t adsorption spectrum f c>ot94 ,x is ! *>act]i/ic pigm5t ( r$ tomatoes1 & is f\nd also 9 r$ pepp]s4 ,yell[ tomatoes h only c>ot9 z _! sk9-pigm5t1 :ile lycop]sic9 is usually pres5t 9 ! fle% ( ! ripe fruits ( all v>ieties & 9 ! sk9 ( r$ ones4 ,x has be5 %[n1 h[ev]1 t if v>ieties ( tomatoes :i* are normally r$ :5 ripe1 are rip5$ at high temp]atures1 #ij ,f4 or above1 _! sk9s w be yell[ in/ead ( r$ :5 fully ripe4 ,h5ce1 ! occurr5ce ( c>ot91 or ( lycop]sic91 z ! sk9 pigm5t is det]m9$ 9 "p by ! v>ietal "* 7be+ diff]5t 9 diff]5t v>ieties :5 rip5$ at normal temp]atures7 & 9 "p by ! temp]ature at :i* ! fruit rip5s4 ,! two pigm5ts are1 ( c\rse1 isom]s2 b ! diff]5ce 9 _! /ructural arrangem5t is n kn[n4 ,fucoxan?91 ,c#dj;,h#ed,o#f1 is a br[ni%-r$ pigm5t1 f\nd 9 fre% br[n alg1 & 9 "s br[n sea-we$s4 ,its =mula indicates t x is an oxidiz$ c>ot94 ,) iod9e1 x =ms a comp\nd hav+ ! =mula ,c#dj;,h#ed,o#f;,i#d4 ,x is unlike c>ot9 & xan?ophyll 9 t x has basic prop]ties1 =m+ salts ) acids1 :i* are blue 9 color4 ,,phyco]y?r9 ,,& ,,phycoph,,9 ,^! are ! pr9cipal pigm5ts ( r$ & br[n seawe$s1 respectively4 ,_! mo/ *>act]i/ic diff]5ce f ! pigm5ts ( non-aquatic plants is t !y are easily soluble 9 wat]1 & insoluble 9 mo/ organic solv5ts1 su* z alcohol1 e!r1 etc4 ,at fir/ ?\ght1 ?is w\ld appe> to be impossible1 s9ce ! plants gr[ 9 wat] & x w\ld seem t _! wat]-soluble pigm5ts w\ld be cont9u\sly dissolv$ out ( ! tissues4 ,! reason :y ?is does n occur lies 9 ! fact t ^! pigm5ts exi/ 9 ! cells ( ! seawe$s 9 colloidal =m 7see ,*apt] ,,xv71 &1 h5ce1 _c diffuse out ?r\gh ! cell-walls4 ,! only way 9 :i* !y c be extract$ f ! tissues is by ruptur+ ! cells1 by gr9d+ ) %>p s&1 etc41 aft] :i* ! pigm5ts c readily be dissolv$ out by wat]4 ,phyco]y?r9 is ! r$ pigm5t4 ,x is a colloidal1 nitrog5\s sub/ance1 alli$ to ! prote9s 7see ,*apt] ,,xiii7 b n a true prote9 comp\nd4 ,hydrolysis by acids indicates t x conta9s leuc9e & tyros9e1 two am9o-acids :i* are con/itu5ts ( prote9s1 along ) o!r bodies ( unkn[n composition4 ,! colloidal solution ( phyco]y?r9 9 wat] has a brilliant rose-r$ color1 ) an orange fluoresc5ce4 ,x readily sets to a gel 7see ,*apt] ,,xv71 s t ! solution is almo/ impossible to filt]4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 purifi$ solutions ( ?is pigm5t are v difficult to secure1 & no satisfactory analysis to indicate its composition has yet be5 obta9$4 ,act9ically1 x is a complem5t>y pigm5t to *lorophyll1 t is1 x absorbs ! blue & gre5 rays & p]mits ! passage ( light :i* is ( ! wave l5g? t is absorb$ by *lorophyll4 ,phycoph94--,/ill less is kn[n ( ! composition ( ?is pigm5t ?an ( t ( phyco]y?r94 ,x is ! *>act]i/ic pigm5t ( br[n seawe$s4 ,x is suppos$ to exi/ 9 ! cells ( alg1 *iefly z a colorless *romog51 :i* becomes fir/ yell[ & !n br[n on exposure to air4 ,associat$ ) x are o!r pigm5ts1 :i* h be5 v>i\sly report$ z c>ot91 phycoxan?91 etc4 ,,! ,,an?ocyans ,^! are a gr\p ( pigm5ts ( r$1 blue1 or violet color1 :i* occur 9 ! fl[]s1 fruits1 or leaves ( _m species ( plants4 ,!y are ess5tially ornam5tal pigm5ts1 & con/itute a l>ge proportion ( ! brilliant colors ( fl[]s1 etc4 ,!y occur n only dissolv$ 9 ! cell-sap1 b also z deposits ( def9ite cry/als or amorph\s comp\nds 9 ! cell protoplasm4 ,!y are all glucosides4 ,:5 ! an?ocyans are hydrolyz$1 ! sug> molecules are split (f & ! *>act]i/ic hydroxy-d]ivatives ( ! ?ree-r+ an?ocyan nucleus 7figur$ on page #hc71 kn[n z an?ocyanid9s1 rema94 ,^! an?ocyanid9s are !mselves pigm5ts4 ,!y h be5 %[n to be all d]ivatives ( ! an?ocyan nucleus4 ,! oxyg5 atom 9 ?is nucleus is v /rongly basic & exhibits its quadrival5t prop]ty by =m+ /able salts by direct addition ( acid radicles4 ,! v>iation ( color ( ! an?ocyan9s has be5 expla9$ by ,will/tt]1 z foll[s2 ! r$ is ! acid salt1 ! blue is a neutral metallic salt1 & ! violet is ! anhydride ( ! an?ocyanid9 9 "q1 ?us ,cl ,cl ,o ,o ,,ho _/ _/ _/ ,,ko _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,c ,o ,c ,r$ ,blue ,o _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,c ,violet ,all ( ! natural an?ocyan9 pigm5ts appe> to conta9 a *lor9e atom atta*$ directly to ! r+ oxyg51 z %[n 9 ! above p>tial =mulas4 ,9 addition1 !y h f\r1 five1 or six hydroxyl 7,,oh71 or me?oxy 7,,o*#c71 gr\ps atta*$ at v>i\s po9ts ar\nd ! ?ree r+s4 ,! foll[+ =mula = oenid91 "o ( ! mo/ complex ( ^! an?ocyanid9s1 w illu/rate _! /ructural arrangem5t4 ,cl ,,o*#c ,o _/ ,,ho _/ _/ _/ ,,oh _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,o*#c ,,oh ,,oh ,c ,delph9id9 is ! correspond+ comp\nd )\t ! two ,,*#c gr\ps2 :ile cyanid9 conta9s only five ,,oh gr\ps2 & pel>gonid91 only f\r ,,oh gr\ps4 ,! an?ocyan9 pigm5ts are soluble 9 wat]1 alcohol1 & e!r1 ! solutions be+ r$ or blue 9 color accord+ to ! acidity or alkal9ity ( ! m$ium4 ,_! pres5ce 9 _m species ( plants is h]$itable1 z ^! plants come true to color f se$1 z 9 ! case ( r$ beets1 r$ cabbage1 sev]al species ( blue b]ries1 etc4 ,9 o!r cases1 ! an?ocyan9 developm5t dep5ds l>gely ^u ! conditions ( gr[?1 p>ticul>ly ^? :i* prevail dur+ ! lat] /ages ( developm5t3 z 9 ! case ( apples1 :]e ! am\nt ( r$ color 9 ! sk9 dep5ds to a l>ge ext5t ^u ! conditions "u :i* ! fruit rip5s4 ,an?ocyan9 pigm5ts (t5 make _! appe>ance late 9 ! season2 9 fruits1 etc41 z ! result ( ! normal rip5+ process b 9 leaves z ! result ( %ort] daylight illum9ation acc5tuat$ also by %>p fro/s4 ,,! ,,an?oxan?9s ,! yell[ plant pigm5ts1 o!r ?an ! c>ot9oids1 are almo/ )\t exception glucosides hav+ a xan?one or flavone nucleus4 ,^! typical nuclei are illu/rat$ on page #hc4 ,9 ^! nuclei1 z 9 ! an?ocyan "o1 ! oxyg5 atom is /rongly basic & comb9es ) m9]al acids to =m salts 7! oxyg5 becom+ quadrival5t7 & ! color ( ! pigm5t dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! comb9ation =m$ 9 ?is way4 ,! an?oxan?9 pigm5ts are yell[1 cry/all9e solids1 :i* are only slightly soluble 9 wat]4 ,!y dissolve readily 9 dilute acids & alkalies1 giv+ yell[ or r$ solutions :i* are ( ! same color 9 ei!r acid or alkal9e m$ia4 ,!y are ext5sively us$ z yell[ dyes4 ,_m ( ! common memb]s ( ?is gr\p h be5 m5tion$ 9 ! *apt] deal+ ) ! glucosides4 ,! *>act]i/ic pigm5t nucleus ( sev]al ( ^! is z foll[s3 ,*rys91 f\nd 9 v>i\s species ( popl> & mall[s1 ,o ,,ho _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,ho ,c ,o ,apig591 f\nd 9 p>sley & cel]y1 z ! glucoside api91 ,o ,,ho _/ _/ _/ ,,oh _/ _/ _/ ,,ho ,c ,o ,campf]ol1 f\nd 9 ,java indigo1 z ! glucoside campf]itr91 ,o ,,ho _/ _/ _/ ,,oh _/ ,,oh _/ _/ ,,ho ,c ,o ,fiset91 f\nd 9 quebra*o wood & fiset wood1 ,o ,,oh ,,ho _/ _/ _/ ,,oh _/ _/ _/ ,c ,o ,qu]citr91 f\nd 9 oak b>k1 horse-*e/nut fl[]s1 & 9 ! sk9 ( onions1 ,o ,,oh ,,ho _/ _/ _/ ,,oh _/ ,,oh _/ _/ ,,ho ,c ,o ,mor91 f\nd 9 yell[ wood 7,morus t9ctoria74 ,o ,,ho ,,ho _/ _/ _/ ,,oh _/ ,,oh _/ _/ ,,ho ,c ,o ,g5tis91 f\nd 9 yell[ g5tian 7,g5tiana lutea71 ,o ,,*#c,o _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,oh ,,ho ,c ,o ,z a rule1 ! mo/ brilliant ( ^! yell[ pigm5ts are f\nd 9 ! l>ge/ quantities 9 ! b>k & wood ( v>i\s species ( tropical plants2 al?\gh !y are also pres5t1 9 small] am\nts1 9 ! blossoms ( species gr[+ 9 temp]ate zones4 ,! an?oxan?9s are easily conv]t$ into an?ocyan9s1 & vice v]sa1 by ! action ( oxidiz+ & r$uc+ enzymes :i* are commonly pres5t 9 ! tissues ( ! plants :i* develop ! pigm5ts4 ,,! ,,production ,,( ,,ornam5tal ,,pigm5ts ,,9 ,,fl[]s1 ,,etc4 ,! bre$+ ( fl[]+ plants hav+ blossoms ( almo/ any desir$ color has become a comm]cial ent]prise ( l>ge importance4 ,! results :i* h be5 obta9$1 9 _m cases1 h be5 made ! object ( sci5tific /udy ( ! g5etics ( color inh]itance4 ,^! /udies h develop$ c]ta9 int]e/+ facts ) ref]5ce to ! *emi/ry ( ! developm5t ( ^! ornam5tal pigm5ts1 :i* may be briefly m5tion$ "h4 ,9 _m ( ! plants :i* h be5 /udi$1 ! color ( ! fl[]s dep5ds ^u sev]al diff]5t factors1 z foll[s3 ,c1 a *romog5 7or color-produc+ sub/ance7 :i* is g5]ally a flavone or xan?one glucoside1 & :i* may be ei!r yell[ or colorless4 ,e1 an enzyme :i* acts ^u ,c1 to produce a r$ pigm5t4 e1 ano!r enzyme :i* acts ^u ! r$ pigm5t1 *ang+ x to "s o!r an?ocyan9 color4 ,a1 an antioxidase1 or anti5zyme1 :i* prev5ts ! action ( ,e4 ,r1 an enzyme :i* *anges r$s to yell[s4 ,?us1 if a plant ^: fl[] conta9s only ! factor ,c be cross$ ) "o :i* conta9s ! factor ,e1 a r$ blossom w result1 or if x conta9s ! factor e m int5se pigm5ts are develop$4 ,b if ei!r ,a or ,r are pres5t1 no *ange 9 ! color ( ! orig9al p>5ts w result f ! cross+4 ,,! ,,physiological ,,uses ,,( ,,pigm5ts ,! vegetative pigm5ts und\bt$ly s]ve z ag5cies = regulat+ ! rate ( metabolic processes4 ,at ! same "t1 x is extremely difficult to det]m9e :e!r ! pres5ce ( a pigm5t 9 any giv5 case is ! cause or ! effect ( ! *anges 9 ! plant's activities :i* result f *anges 9 its ext]nal environm5t4 ,! *lorophylls are1 ( c\rse1 ! regulator ( photosyn!sis1 absorb+ sol> en]gy ) :i* ! photosyn!tic process may be br\ght ab\t4 ,! simultane\s pres5ce ( c>ot9oids 9 v>y+ am\nts und\bt$ly s]ves to modify ! am\nt & "* ( ! radiant en]gy absorb$1 z ^! pigm5ts absorb a diff]5t "p ( ! spectrum ( light & h5ce und\bt$ly produce a diff]5t *emical activity or act9ic effect ( ! absorb$ en]gy4 ,! v>iations 9 dep? ( color ( foliage dur+ diff]5t gr[+ conditions1 f a pale yell[ :5 conditions are unfavorable & gr[? is sl[ to ! ri* d>k gre5 ( m favorable conditions1 is a famili> ph5om5on4 ,:e!r ?is *ange 9 pigm5tation is ! result ( an adju/m5t ( ! plant protoplasm1 s t x c absorb a m highly act9ic portion ( ! light1 or is a direct effect ( ! lack ( conditions favorable to *lorophyll-production & active photosyn!sis1 has n yet be5 det]m9$4 ,b !re mu/ be "s influ5ce o!r ?an response to environm5tal conditions :i* controls ! vegetative color 9 plants1 s9ce %rubs1 or trees1 :i* h gre51 yell[1 r$1 & purple leaves1 respectively1 w gr[ normally1 side by side1 "u id5tical ext]nal conditions ( sunlight1 moi/ure supply1 etc4 ,! h]$it>y influ5ce mu/ completely ov]%ad[ ! app>5t normal self-adju/m5t ( pigm5t to en]gy-absorb+ ne$s1 9 all su* cases4 ,aga91 x appe>s t !re is "s def9ite connection betwe5 pigm5t cont5t & respiration4 ,x is kn[n1 ( c\rse1 t ! gase\s ex*anges involv$ 9 animal respiration are accompli%$ ?r\gh ! rev]sible *ange ( hmoglob9 to oxyhmoglob91 ^! be+ ! *>act]i/ic blood pigm5ts4 ,! easy *ange ( c>ot91 ,c#dj;,h#ef1 to xan?ophyll1 ,c#dj;,h#ef,o#b1 & vice v]sa1 & ! rev]sible *anges ( ! yell[ an?oxan?9s to ! r$ an?ocyan9s1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! oxidiz+ & r$uc+ enzymes :i* are univ]sally pres5t 9 plants1 w\ld indicate ! possibility ( ! s]vice ( ^! pigm5ts z c>ri]s ( oxyg5 = respiratory activities 9 plants 9 a way simil> to t 9 :i* ! blood pigm5ts s]ve ?is purpose 9 ! animal body4 ,! fact1 :i* has be5 obs]v$ 9 connection ) ! exp]im5tal /udies ( ! developm5t ( ! lycop]sic91 t tomatoes :i* normally w\ld become r$ rema9 yell[ 9 ! abs5ce ( oxyg51 indicates t ?is pigm5tation1 at lea/1 is def9itely connect$ ) oxyg5 supply2 & ! fur!r fact t ! developm5t ( lycop]sic9 9 r$ tomatoes1 r$ pepp]s1 etc41 is dep5d5t ^u ! temp]ature at :i* ! fruit rip5s1 may indicate a def9ite connection ( ?is pigm5t ) ! ne$ = m oxyg5 7or = m heat1 z sugge/$ 9 ! foll[+ p>agraph7 at ^! l[] temp]atures4 ,aga91 _m inve/igators h conclud$ t at lea/ "o function ( ! an?ocyan9 pigm5ts is to absorb heat rays & s to increase transpiration & o!r *emical *anges4 ,9 support ( ?is view1 !re may be cit$ ! g5]al pres5ce ( su* pigm5ts 9 arctic plants1 _! appe>ance 9 ! leaves ( _m decidu\s trees aft] a fro/ 9 ! fall1 etc4 ,inde$1 !re is mu* to support ! view t ! autumnal *anges 9 foliage pigm5ts h ! physiological function ( absorb+ heat 9 ord] to ha/5 ! metabolic processes ( rip5+ & prep>ation = w9t] defoliation4 ,! rapid & brilliant *anges 9 foliage color+ aft] a %>p fro/ :i* kills ! tissues & makes rapid translocation ( ! food mat]ial ( ! leaves to ! /orage organs imm$iately necess>y1 h be5 expla9$ z ! response ( ! pigm5tation ( ! leaves to ! ne$ = increas$ heat-absorption4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! r$ pigm5ts ( ! beet-root1 etc41 :i* seem to be id5tical 9 composition ) ! o!r an?ocyan9 pigm5ts1 c h no su* function z ^? :i* h j be5 describ$4 ,fur!rmore1 ! fact t ! pigm5t (t5 v>ies 9 color f r$ to yell[ or br[n1 dep5d+ ^u ! temp]ature "u :i* ! tissue is rip5+1 makes x an op5 "q :e!r ! pigm5t is ! regulat+ ag5cy or :e!r its nature is ! result ( ! environm5tal conditions4 ,or1 9 o!r words1 x is a "q :e!r ^! *anges 9 color are a me*anism by :i* ! plant cell adju/s its absorptive p[]s1 or :e!r !y are only ! inevitable result ( ! *anges 9 temp]ature ^u a pigm5t mat]ial :i* is pres5t 9 ! cell = an entirely diff]5t use4 ,a v int]e/+ side-light ^u ! color *anges :i* _m species ( plants und]go :5 ! ext]nal temp]ature falls has be5 %[n by ! inve/igations ( ! relation ( ! sug> cont5t ( ! plant tissues to _! pigm5tation4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t n only d _m species ( decidu\s plants %[ ! *>act]i/ic r$d5+ ( _! leaves aft] fro/ 9 ! autumn b also _m ev]gre5s 7,ligu/rum1 ,h$]a1 ,mahonia1 etc47 exhibit a m>k$ r$d5+1 or purpl+1 ( _! foliage dur+ ! w9t] mon?s1 ) a return to ! normal gre5 color 9 ! spr+4 ,e>li] inve/igations1 :i* h be5 confirm$ by sev]al repetitions1 %[$ t ! r$ or purple leaves always conta9 high] p]c5tages ( sug> ?an d gre5 ones ( simil> types4 ,m rec5t /udies h %[n t artificial fe$+ ( "s species ( plants ) abnormally l>ge portions ( soluble sug>s produces a r$d5+ ( ! foliage tissues :i* is app>5tly id5tical ) t :i* ^! tissues und]go z ! result ( l[ temp]atures4 ,?us1 ! connection betwe5 ! natural w9t] r$d5+ ( foliage & ! developm5t ( sug> 9 ! tissues dur+ p]iods ( l[ temp]atures 7see page #fd7 seems to be cle>ly demon/rat$4 ,x appe>s t at lea/ a "p ( ! seasonal *anges 9 color ( plants is ei!r ! cause (1 or ! effect (1 v>iations 9 sug> cont5t ( ! tissues ( ! plants1 accompany+ ! *anges 9 ext]nal temp]atures4 ,(t5times1 ! an?ocyan9 pigm5ts seem to be associat$ ) sug> production1 z contra/$ ) ! *lorophylls1 :i* seem to be m favorable to ! production ( />*4 ,b 9 ?is case also1 x is impossible to say :e!r ! pigm5t is ! direct causative ag5t 9 ! type ( c>bohydrate production or :e!r x is ! effect ( ! same ext]nal factors :i* det]m9e1 or modify1 ! "* ( ! c>bohydrate cond5sation4 ,,biological ,,significance ,,( ,,ornam5tal ,,pigm5ts ,! ornam5tal pigm5ts und\bt$ly h def9ite biological significance4 ,:5 pres5t 9 ! /orage roots1 su* z beet-roots1 c>rots1 etc41 or 9 ! above-gr\nd p>ts ( plants1 !y may h s]v$ to protect ^! organs aga9/ h]bivor\s animals :i* 7 accu/om$ to consume gre5 foods4 ,9 fl[]s1 ! brilliant ornam5tal pigm5ts und\bt$ly s]ve to attract ! insects :i* visit ^! blossoms 9 se>* ( nect>1 & 9 s do+ promote cross-f]tilization4 ,rec5t exp]im5ts h demon/rat$ t colors are mu* m effici5t ?an odors 9 attract+ insects4 ,tak5 altoge!r1 x is app>5t t ! pigm5ts may h a v>iety ( important rles 9 plants4 ,at ! same "t1 "s ( !m may be wa/e products1 ) no def9ite use 9 ! plant economy4 ,,ref]5ces ,,abd]hald51 ,e4--,bio*emis*es ,h&lexikon1 ,b& #f1 ,f>b/(fe d] ,pflanz5- und d] ,ti]welt1 #cij pages1 ,b]l91 #aiaa4 ,,p]k91 ,a4 ,g4 ,,& ,,ev]e/1 ,a4 ,e4--,! ,natural ,organic ,col\r+ ,matt]s1 #fee pages1 ,london1 #aiah4 ,,wakem51 ,,nellie ,a4--,pigm5ts ( ,fl[]+ ,plants1 9 ,transactions ( ! ,wiscons9 ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ,arts1 & ,lett]s1 ,vol4 ,,xix1 ,"p ,,ii1 pages #gfg-ijf1 ,madison1 ,wisc41 #aiai4 ,,watson1 ,e4 ,r4--,col\r 9 ,relation to ,*emical ,con/itution1 #aig pages1 #fe figs41 #d plates1 ,london1 #aiah4 ,,:eldale1 ,m4--,! ,an?ocyan ,pigm5ts ( ,plants1 #cjd pages1 ,cambridge1 #aiaf4 ,,will/,,tt]1 ,r4 ,,& ,,/oll1 ,a4--,unt]su*ung b] ,*lorophyll51 ,me?od5 und ,ergebnisse1 #dcb pages1 #af figs41 ,b]l91 #aiac4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,organic ,,acids1 ,,acid ,,salts1 ,,& ,,e/]s ,organic acids1 ei!r 9 free =m1 or p>tially neutraliz$ ) calcium1 potassium1 or sodium1 =m+ acid salts1 or comb9$ ) v>i\s alcohols 9 ! =m ( e/]s1 are widely di/ribut$ 9 plants4 ,!y occur 9 l>ge/ proportions 9 ! fle%y tissues ( fruits & vegetables1 :]e !y are l>gely responsible = ! flavors :i* make ^! products attractive z food = m5 & animals4 ,b organic acids & _! salts are also f\nd 9 ! sap ( all plants1 & und\bt$ly play an important & def9ite "p 9 ! vital processes ( metabolism & gr[?4 ,,*emical ,,con/itution ,all organic acids conta9 "o 7or m7 ( ! *>act]i/ic ,o _/_/ acid gr\p1 --,,cooh1 or --,c1 kn[n z c>boxyl4 ,?is ,,oh gr\p is monoval5t1 & 9 ! simple/ organic acid1 =mic acid 7,h#b;,,co#b71 x is atta*$ to a s+le hydrog5 atom1 ?us1 ,h,,cooh4 ,9 all o!r monobasic acids1 x is atta*$ to "s o!r monoval5t gr\p1 usually an alkyl radical1 i4e41 a radical d]iv$ f an alcohol & conta9+ only c>bon & hydrog5 7z me?yl1 ,,*#c1 e?yl1 ,c#b;,h#e1 butyl1 ,c#d;,h#i1 acryl1 ,c#b;,h#c1 etc474 ,h5ce1 ! g5]al =mula = all monobasic organic acids is ,r,,cooh1 ! ,r repres5t+ any monoval5t radical4 ,9 ! simple/ dibasic acid1 oxalic 7,h#b;,c#b,o#d71 two c>boxyl gr\ps are unit$ to ea* o!r1 ?us1 ,,hooc,,cooh2 b 9 ! high] memb]s ( ! s]ies1 ! two *>act]i/ic acid gr\ps are unit$ ?r\gh "o or m --,,*#b-- gr\ps1 or _! oxy-d]ivatives 7z ,,hooc,,*#b;,,cooh1 malonic acid2 ,,hooc,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*#b;,,cooh1 glut>ic acid2 ,,hooc,,*oh,,*#b;,,cooh1 malic acid1 etc474 ,polybasic acids1 conta9+ ?ree or m c>boxyl gr\ps1 l9k$ toge!r ?r\gh "o or m alkyl c>bon atoms1 are also possible1 & a few typical ones 7z ,,cooh ,,hooc,,*#b;,,coh,,*#b;,,cooh1 citric acid7 are f\nd 9 fruits & o!r plant tissues4 ,! ,h atom ( ! ,,cooh gr\p may be replac$ by metals1 9 exactly ! same way z x is replaceable 9 inorganic acids1 produc+ ei!r neutral or acid salts1 dep5d+ ^u :e!r all or only a "p ( ! acid ,h atoms are replac$ by ! basic elem5t4 ,?us1 ) sulfuric acid3 ,,oh ,o,na _/ _/ ,,s#b 7,h#b,,s#d7 ,na,o,h ,,s#b 7,na,h#b,,s#d7 ,h#b,o ,,oh ,,oh ,sulfuric ,acid ,acid sodium sulfate ,,oh ,o,na _/ _/ or1 ,,s#b 7,h#b,,s#d7 #b,na,o,h ,,s#b 7,na#b,,s#d7 #b;,h#b,o ,,oh ,o,na ,sulfuric ,acid ,neutral sodium sulfate ,simil>ly1 ) oxalic acid3 ,,cooh ,,cook 7,h#b;,c#b,o#d7 ,,koh ,h#b,o ,,cooh ,,cooh ,oxalic acid ,acid potassium oxalate or1 ,,cooh ,,cook 7,h#b;,c#b,o#d7 #b,,koh #b;,h#b,o ,,cooh ,,cook ,oxalic acid ,neutral potassium oxalate ,simil>ly1 ! acid ,h atom ( ei!r an organic or an inorganic acid may be replac$ by ! alkyl gr\p ( an alcohol1 produc+ e!real salts1 or e/]s4 ,?us1 ) nitric acid2 ,,no#b,,oh7,,hno#c7;,c#b;,h#e,,oh ,,no#b,,oc#b;,h#e7;,c#b;,h#e,,no#c7;,h#b ,o ,nitric acid ,e?yl alcohol ,e?yl nitrate ,&1 ) acetic acid2 ,,*#c;,,cooh7,h#d;,c#b,o#b7;,c#b;,h#e,,o h ,,*#c;,,cooc#b;,h#e;,h#b,o ,acetic acid ,e?yl acetate ,) dibasic or polybasic acids1 ei!r "o or m ( ! c>boxyl ,h atoms may be replac$ ) an alcohol radical1 s t bo? acid & neutral e/]s ( all su* acids are possible4 ,examples ( all ( ^! diff]5t types ( d]ivatives ( organic acids are frequ5tly f\nd 9 plant tissues4 ,! occurr5ce1 prop]ties1 & functions ( a p>ticul> type ( glyc]ol1 & o!r e/]s ( organic acids1 :i* are kn[n z fats & waxes1 are n tak5 into consid]ation 9 ! foll[+ discussions1 b res]v$ = a subsequ5t *apt] deal+ specially ) !m4 ,,"s ,,common ,,organic ,,acids ,free organic acids1 or _! m9]al salts or volatile e/]s1 sometimes occur z sep>ate & *>act]i/ic individual comp\nds 9 p>ticul> species ( plants1 or fruits2 b mu* m commonly1 two1 ?ree1 or ev5 m acids or _! d]ivatives1 are associat$ toge!r4 ,=mic acid1 ,h,,cooh 7,h#b;,,co#b71 occurs 9 free =m & 9 consid]able proportions 9 ! leaves ( sev]al species ( nettle1 :]e x is responsible = ! unpleasant effects ( ! /+4 ,x may be detect$ 9 small am\nts 9 ! vegetative p>ts ( _m1 if n all1 plants1 especially dur+ p]iods ( rapid gr[?1 & is probably "o ( ! int]m$iate products 9 ! photosyn!sis ( c>bohydrates 7see ,*apt] ,,iii74 ,high] memb]s ( ! =mic acid s]ies 7z acetic1 ,,*#c;,,cooh2 propionic1 ,c#b;,h#e;,,cooh2 butyric1 ,c#c;,h#g;,,cooh2 etc47 are (t5 f\nd 9 small quantities 9 ! leaves ( _m plants & seem to be *>act]i/ically pres5t 9 c]ta9 species4 ,!y are easily produc$ f c>bohydrates by bact]ial action &1 h5ce1 are always pres5t 9 f]m5t+ tissues1 su* z silage1 sau]kraut1 etc4 ,fur!rmore1 ! glyc]ol e/]s ( high] memb]s ( ?is & o!r monobasic acid s]ies are con/itu5ts ( all natural fats & oils 7see ,*apt] ,x74 ,oxalic acid1 ,,hooc,,cooh 7,h#b;,c#b,o#d71 is f\nd 9 small am\nts 9 ne>ly all plants & 9 relatively l>ge proportions 9 ^? ( ,oxalis1 rhub>b1 etc4 ,x occurs bo? z ! free acid & z neutral1 or acid1 oxalates ( calcium1 potassium1 &1 p]haps1 ( magnesium & sodium4 ,solid cry/als ( insoluble calcium oxalate are (t5 f\nd 9 plant cells1 & x has be5 %[n t :5 s deposit$ ! calcium _c become aga9 available = metabolic uses4 ,x is /at$1 fur!r1 t su* cry/als =m only :5 calcium is 9 excess 9 ! plant sap2 h5ce1 ! deposition ( cry/alliz$ calcium oxalate seems to be a device = ! avoidance ( excessive calcium r ?an excessive oxalic acid1 9 ! plant juices4 ,succ9ic acid1 ,,hooc,,*#b;,,*#b;,,cooh 7,h#f;,c#d,o#d71 occurs 9 _m fruits & vegetables1 & is also f\nd 9 "s animal tissues4 ,9 fruits1 x is usually associat$ ) its d]ivatives1 malic & t>t>ic acids4 ,malic acid1 ,,hooc,,*#b;,,*oh,,cooh 7,h#f;,c#d,o#e71 occurs 9 apples & 9 _m small fruits1 & 9 _m vegetables4 ,acid calcium malate is n[ produc$ comm]cially z a bye-product f ! manufacture ( syrups f fruit juices1 & is us$ z a sub/itute = cream ( t>t> 9 ! manufacture ( bak+ p[d]s4 ,t>t>ic acid1 ,,hooc,,*oh,,*oh,,cooh 7,h#f;,c#d,o#f71 is f\nd 9 _m fruits1 b mo/ *>act]i/ically 9 ! grape1 :]e x occurs z ! mono-potassium salt4 ,dur+ ! f]m5tation ( grape juice into w9e1 ?is salt is deposit$ 9 consid]able quantities 9 ! bottom ( ! w9e-casks4 ,?is crude product is collect$ & sold "u ! "n argols4 ,f ^! argols1 pure acid potassium t>trate is obta9$ by decolorization & recry/allization1 & con/itutes ! cream ( t>t> ( comm]ce4 ,,cooh ,citric acid1 ,,hooc,,*#b;,,coh,,*#b;,,cooh 7,h#h;,c#f,o#g71 occurs 9 l>ge proportions 9 lemons1 & associat$ ) malic acid 9 /rawb]ries1 *]ries1 currants1 etc4 ,x is also f\nd 9 small quantities 9 ! se$s ( ! common legum9\s vegetables1 beans1 peas1 etc4 ,tannic acid occurs widely di/ribut$ 9 ! plant k+dom z a con/itu5t ( ! special type ( glucosides kn[n z tann9s1 ^: prop]ties & functions h already be5 discuss$ 7see ,*apt] ,,vii74 ,,physiological ,,uses ,,( ,,organic ,,acids ,no conclusive evid5ce conc]n+ ! rle ( organic acids 9 plant1 or animal1 gr[?1 has yet be5 produc$4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! hypo!tical c>bonic acid & its acid & normal salts h a significant effect 9 regulat+ ! acidity or alkal9ity ( plant juices1 or body fluids1 & s det]m9+ ! nature ( ! enzymic activities & colloidal conditions ( ! biological sy/ems 7see ,*apt]s ,,xiv & ,,xv74 ,x is probable t o!r organic acids1 su* z =mic1 acetic1 oxalic1 & succ9ic acids1 9 plants & s>co-lactic acid1 9 animal tissues1 p]=m simil> regulatory rles2 b !re seems z yet to be no indication z to :y diff]5t acids %\ld be us$ = ?is purpose by diff]5t species1 or organisms2 or z to ! me?ods by :i* !y p]=m _! specific functions1 :atev] ^! may be4 ,9 plants1 ! organic acids are usually 9 solution 9 ! sap4 ,:5 ! plant rip5s1 !y g5]ally disappe>1 ei!r be+ neutraliz$ by calcium1 or o!r bases1 & deposit$ z cry/als 9 ! leaves or /ems1 or else us$ up 9 ! syn!sis ( o!r organic comp\nds4 ,small proportions ( ^! acids are usually pres5t 9 mature se$s1 & ! p]c5tage increases mat]ially dur+ g]m9ation1 indicat+ t !y play an important rle 9 insur+ ! prop] conditions = ! conv]sion ( ! res]ve food ( ! se$ into soluble mat]ials available = ! nutrition ( ! "y gr[+ plant4 ,,biological ,,significance ,,( ,,fruit ,,acids1 ,,etc4 ,! occurr5ce ( organic acids1 or _! d]ivatives1 :i* h pron\nc$ odors or flavors1 9 ! fle% surr\nd+ ! se$s ( fruits1 9 ! endosp]m ( vegetable se$s1 or 9 ! tub]s1 etc41 ( p]5nial plants1 ?us mak+ !m attractive z food = animals & m51 und\bt$ly s]ves to insure a wid] di/ribution ( ! reproductive organs ( ^! plants2 a fact :i* has unque/ionably _h a m>k$ influ5ce ^u ! survival ( species 9 ! competitive /ruggle = exi/5ce dur+ pa/ eras & 9 ! developm5t & cultivation ( diff]5t species by man4 ,indirect evid5ce t ! proportion ( ^! attractive comp\nds pres5t 9 c]ta9 species may h be5 consid]ably increas$ by ! processes ( natural selection 9 ! pa/ is furni%$ by ! _m successful attempts to increase ! p]c5tage ( su* desirable con/itu5ts 9 fruits or vegetables by means ( artificial selection ( p>5t /ocks by skillful plant bre$]s4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,fats ,,& ,,oils1 ,,waxes1 ,,& ,,lipoids ,includ$ 9 ?is gr\p are sev]al diff]5t k9ds ( comp\nds :i* h simil> physical prop]ties1 & :i*1 9 g5]al1 belong to ! type ( organic comp\nds kn[n z e/]s1 i4e41 alcoholic salts ( organic acids4 ,! t]ms oil1 fat1 & wax1 are g5]ally appli$ m or less indiscrim9ately to any sub/ance :i* has a greasy feel+ to ! t\* & :i* does n mix )1 b floats on1 wat]4 ,!re are _m oils :i* are ( m9]al orig9 :i* are entirely diff]5t 9 composition f natural fats4 ,^! h no relation to plant life & w n be consid]$ "h4 ,! natural fats1 vegetable oils1 & plant waxes are all e/]s4 ,!re is no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 a fat & an oil1 ! latt] t]m be+ usually appli$ to a fat :i* is liquid at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,! waxes1 h[ev]1 are diff]5t 9 *emical composition f ! fats & oils1 be+ e/]s ( monohydric alcohols ( high molecul> weight1 su* z cetyl alcohol1 ,c#af;,h#cc,,oh1 myri/ic alcohol1 ,c#cj;,h#fa,,oh1 & *ole/]ol1 ,c#bg;,h#de,,oh2 :]eas ! fats & oils are all e/]s ( ! trihydric alcohol glyc]ol1 ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c4 ,lipoids are mu* m complex e/]s1 hav+ "s nitrog5\s1 or phosphorus-conta9+1 gr\p & sometimes a sug> 9 comb9ation ) ! fatty acids & glyc]ol :i* make up ! *>act]i/ic "p ( _! /ructure4 ,9 g5]al1 waxes & lipoids h a h>d] consi/5cy ?an fats3 b ?is is n always ! case1 s9ce wool-fat & sp]maceti1 bo? ( :i* are true waxes 9 composition1 are s ne>ly liquid 9 =m z to be commonly call$ fats2 :ile c]ta9 true fats1 l ,japan wax1 are s h>d z to be commonly designat$ z waxes4 ,x is pla9 t physical prop]ties alone _c be reli$ ^u 9 ! classification ( ^! bodies4 ,9 fact1 !re is no s+le def9ite prop]ty by :i* memb]s ( ?is gr\p c be accurately id5tifi$4 ,!re are _m o!r types ( sub/ances belong+ to entirely diff]5t *emical gr\ps1 :i* h oily1 or fat-l1 prop]ties4 ,a4 ,,fats ,,& ,,oils ,,occurr5ce ,fats & oils are widely di/ribut$ 9 plants4 ,!y occur v commonly 9 ! reproductive organs1 bo? spores & se$s1 z res]ve food mat]ial4 ,9 fungi1 oils are (t5 f\nd 9 ! spores1 b sometimes also 9 scl]otia1 mycelia1 or filam5ts4 ,= example1 ! scl]otia ( ergot h be5 f\nd to conta9 z mu* z #fj p] c5t ( oil4 ,9 high] plants1 _m se$s conta9 high p]c5tages ( oil1 s z to make !m comm]cial s\rces = edible or lubricat+ oils1 su* z olive oil1 rape-se$ oil1 cottonse$ oil1 ca/or oil1 corn oil1 sunfl[]-se$ oil1 etc41 etc4 ,nuts (t5 conta9 l>ge proportions ( oil1 ! k]nel ( ! ,brazil nut1 = example1 sometimes conta9s z high z #gj p] c5t ( oil1 :ile an oil cont5t ( #ej p] c5t1 or m1 is common 9 almonds1 walnuts1 etc4 ,oils also occur z res]ve food mat]ial 9 o!r /orage organs ( plants1 su* z ! tub]s ( c]ta9 fl[]+ plants1 & ! roots ( _m species ( or*ids4 ,sometimes ! appe>ance ( oils 9 ! /ems ( trees1 or ! w9t] leaves ( ev]gre5s1 seems to be only tempor>y & to occur only dur+ p]iods ( v l[ temp]atures4 ,mu* less frequ5tly1 fats or oils are f\nd 9 ! vegetative organs ( plants1 z 9 ! leaves ( ev]gre5s4 ,_! appe>ance & functions 9 ^! organs seem to be mu* less c]ta9 ?an 9 ! o!r cases cit$ above2 al?\gh 9 r>e cases a consid]able proportion ( oily mat]ial has be5 f\nd to exi/ 9 def9ite association ) ! *loropla/s4 ,! vegetable fats & oils h _m important indu/rial uses4 ,"s ( !m1 su* z olive oil1 cottonse$ oil1 cocoanut oil1 etc41 are l>gely us$ z human food4 ,o!rs1 z ca/or oil1 are us$ z lubricants4 ,! s-call$ dry+ oils 7see page #acb71 su* z l9se$ oil1 etc41 are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( pa9ts & v>ni%es4 ,"s *eap vegetable oils are us$ z ! basis = ! manufacture ( soaps1 etc4 ,h5ce1 indu/rial plants & processes = ! extraction ( oils f plant tissues are ( v great economic importance4 ,,*emical ,,con/itution ,! fats 7( ei!r plant or animal orig97 are glyc]ides1 i4e41 glyc]ol e/]s ( organic acids4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out1 e/]s are d]iv$ f organic acids & alcohols 9 exactly ! same way t m9]al salts are d]iv$ f inorganic acids & metallic bases4 -------- ,?us1 ,na,,oh ,h,,ono#b7;,,hno#c7 ,na,n,o#c ,h#b,o -------- ,base ,acid ,salt ----------- &1 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh ,h,,ooc,h ,c#b;,h#e,,ooc,h ,h#b,o ----------- ,alcohol ,acid ,e/] --------------- or1 ,r,,oh ,h,,ooc,r ,r,,ooc,r ,h#b,o --------------- ,any alcohol ,any acid ,any e/] ,glyc]ol is1 h[ev]1 a trihydric alcohol1 i4e41 x conta9s ?ree replaceable 7,,oh7 gr\ps4 ,its =mula is ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c1 or ,,*#b,,oh,,*oh,,*#b,,oh4 ,h5ce1 ?ree molecules ( a monobasic acid are requir$ to replace all ( its 7,,oh7 gr\ps4 ,= example1 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh ,,hooc,c#ag;,h#ce ,,*#b,,ooc,c#ag;,h#ce ,,*oh ,,hooc,c#ag;,h#ce ,,*ooc,c#ag;,h#ce #c;,h#b,o ,c#b;,h#e,,oh ,,hooc,c#ag;,h#ce ,,*#b,,ooc,c#ag;,h#ce ,x is !oretically possible1 ( c\rse1 to replace ei!r "o1 two1 or ?ree ( ! 7,,oh7 gr\ps 9 ! glyc]ol ) acid radicals1 ?us produc+ ei!r mono-1 di-1 or triglyc]ides4 ,if ! prim>y alcohol gr\ps 9 ! glyc]9e molecule are designat$ by 7#a7 & ! second>y "o by 7#b71 ?us1 ,,*#b,,oh7#a7;,,*oh7#b7;,,*#b,,oh7#a71 x is conceivable t !re may be ei!r 7#a7 or 7#b7 monoglyc]ides1 ei!r 7#a1 #a7 or 7#a1 #b7 diglyc]ides1 or a triglyc]ide1 dep5d+ ^u :i* ( ! 7,,oh7 gr\ps are replac$4 ,comp\nds ( all ( ^! types h be5 produc$ by comb9ations ( glyc]ol ) v>y+ proportions ( organic acids "u c>efully controll$ conditions2 & all ( !m f\nd to possess fat-l prop]ties4 ,all natural fats are triglyc]ides1 h[ev]4 ,mo/ natural fats are mixtures ( sev]al diff]5t triglyc]ides 9 ea* ( :i* ! ?ree 7,,oh7 gr\ps ( ! glyc]ol has be5 replac$ by ! same organic acid radical1 z 9 ! example ( /e>9 %[n above4 ,b rec5t inve/igations h %[n t "s ( ! common animal fats1 & p]haps "s plant oils1 may be made up ( mix$ glyc]ides1 i4e41 ^? 9 :i* ! diff]5t 7,,oh7 gr\ps h be5 replac$ by diff]5t acid gr\ps1 z oleo-/e>91 oleo-/e>o-palmit91 etc4 ,,! ,,acids ,,:i* ,,occur ,,9 ,,natural ,,fats ,! acids :i*1 :5 comb9$ ) glyc]ol1 produce fats are ( two g5]al types4 ,! fir/ ( ^! are ! s-call$ fatty acids hav+ ! g5]al =mula ,cn,h#bn#a;,,cooh4 ,^! are ! saturat$ acids1 i4e41 !y conta9 only s+le-bond l9kages 9 ! radical :i* is unit$ to ! ,,cooh gr\p2 h5ce1 !y _c take up hydrog51 oxyg51 etc41 by direct addition4 ,! second type are ! unsaturat$ acids belong+ to sev]al diff]5t gr\ps1 z discuss$ bel[1 b all hav+ "o or m d\ble-l9kages betwe5 ! c>bon atoms ( ! alkyl radical :i* !y conta94 ,because ( ^! d\ble l9kages1 !y are all able to take on oxyg51 hydrog51 or ! halog5 elem5ts1 by direct addition4 ,:5 expos$ to ! air1 = example1 ^! unsaturat$ acids1 or ! oils d]iv$ f !m1 take up oxyg51 increas+ 9 weight1 & becom+ solid or h>d & /iff4 ,h5ce1 natural oils :i* conta9 consid]able proportions ( glyc]ides ( ^! unsaturat$ acids are kn[n z dry+ oils & are l>gely us$ 9 ! manufacture ( pa9ts1 v>ni%es1 l9oleums1 etc42 :ile oils :i* conta9 little ( ^! glyc]ides are kn[n z non-dry+1 & are us$ = food1 = lubrication1 or = o!r te*nical purposes 9 :i* x is ess5tial t !y rema9 9 un*ang$ fluid condition :5 expos$ to ! air4 ,! foll[+ are "s ( ! m important ( ! acids :i* occur z glyc]ides 9 natural fats3 ,saturat$ ,acids3 7a7 ,acetic1 or /e>ic1 acid s]ies--g5]al =mula1 ,cn,h#bn#a;,,cooh4 7#a7 ,=mic acid1 ,h,,cooh1 occurs free 9 nettles1 ants1 etc4 7#b7 ,acetic acid1 ,,*#c;,,cooh1 occurs free 9 v9eg>4 7#c7 ,butyric acid1 ,c#c;,h#g;,,cooh1 9 butt] fat4 7#d7 ,capric acid1 ,c#i;,h#ai;,,cooh1 9 butt] fat & cocoanut oil4 7#e7 ,myri/ic acid1 ,c#ac;,h#bg;,,cooh1 9 cocoanut oil & sp]maceti4 7#f7 ,palmitic acid1 ,c#ae;,h#ca;,,cooh1 9 palm oil & _m fats4 7#g7 ,/e>ic acid1 ,c#ag;,h#ce;,,cooh1 9 mo/ fats & oils4 ,int]v5+ memb]s ( ?is s]ies1 su* z caprylic acid1 ,c#g;,h#ae;,,cooh1 & lauric acid1 ,c#aa;,h#bc;,,cooh1 are also f\nd 9 small] quantities 9 cocoanut & palm nut oils1 9 butt] fat1 & 9 sp]maceti2 :ile high] memb]s ( ! s]ies1 z ara*idic acid1 ,c#ai;,h#ci;,,cooh1 & lignoc]ic acid1 ,c#bc;,h#dg;,,cooh1 are f\nd 9 peanut oil2 & c]otic acid1 ,c#be;,h#ea;,,cooh1 & melissic acid1 ,c#bi;,h#ei;,,cooh1 9 beeswax & c>nauba wax4 ,unsaturat$ ,acids3 7b7 ,oleic acid s]ies--g5]al =mula1 ,cn,h#bn-#a;,,cooh4 7#a7 ,crotonic acid1 ,c#c;,h#e;,,cooh1 occurs 9 croton oil4 7#b7 ,oleic acid1 ,c#ag;,h#cc;,,cooh1 occurs 9 _m fats & oils4 7#c7 ,brassic acid1 ,c#ba;,h#da;,,cooh1 occurs 9 rape-se$ oil4 7#d7 ,ric9oleic acid1 ,c#ag;,h#cb,,oh,,cooh1 occurs 9 ca/or oil4 7c7 ,l9oleic acid s]ies--g5]al =mula1 ,cn,h#bn-#c;,,cooh4 7#a7 ,l9oleic acid1 ,c#ag;,h#ca;,,cooh1 occurs 9 l9se$ & o!r dry+ oils4 7d7 ,l9ol5ic acid s]ies--g5]al =mula1 ,cn,h#bn-#e;,,cooh4 7#a7 ,l9ol5ic acid1 ,c#ag;,h#bi;,,cooh1 occurs 9 _m dry+ oils4 ,x w be obs]v$ t all ( ^! acids conta9 a multiple ( two total c>bon atoms4 ,no acid conta9+ an unev5 numb] ( c>bon atoms has be5 f\nd 9 a natural fat4 ,fur!rmore1 ! acids :i* occur mo/ commonly 9 natural fats are ^? :i* conta9 eighte5 c>bon atoms2 9 fact1 m ?an #hj p] c5t ( ! glyc]ides :i* compose all animal & vegetable fats are ^? ( ! ,c#ah acids4 ,?is fact1 9 addition to ! "o t ! sug>s & />*es all conta9 multiples ( six c>bon atoms 9 _! molecules1 indicates a v great biological significance ( ! *a9 ( six c>bon atoms4 ,?is has be5 allud$ to 9 connection ) ! discussion ( ! biological significance ( molecul> configuration 7see page #eg7 & w be m5tion$ aga9 9 o!r connections4 ,,! ,,alcohols ,,:i* ,,occur ,,9 ,,natural ,,fats ,glyc]ol1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 is by f> ! mo/ common alcoholic con/itu5t ( natural fats & oils4 ,?is sub/ance1 :i* is famili> to ev]yone "u its common "n glyc]9e1 is a colorless1 viscid liquid hav+ a sweeti% ta/e4 ,x is a v heavy liquid 7specific gravity #a4bg7 :i* mixes ) wat] 9 all proportions & :5 9 conc5trat$ =m is v hygroscopic4 ,glyc]9e is made f fats & oils by comm]cial processes :i* cle>ly prove t ! con/itution ( fats is z describ$ above4 ,! fat is boil$ ) a solution ( cau/ic soda & is decompos$1 ! sodium ( ! alkali tak+ ! place ( ! glyc]yl 7,c#c;,h#e7 gr\p1 ! latt] comb9+ ) ?ree 7,,oh7 gr\ps f ! ?ree molecules ( alkali necess>y to decompose ! fat4 ,a sodium salt ( ! organic acid1 or soap1 & glyc]ol are ?us produc$1 & are sep>at$ by saturat+ ! hot solution ) common salt1 :i* causes ! soap to sep>ate out z a lay] on ! surface ( ! liquid1 :i*1 on cool+1 solidifies into a solid cake1 :i* is !n cut & press$ into ! famili> b>s ( comm]cial soap4 ,f ! rema9+ solution1 ! glyc]9e is recov]$ by evaporation & di/illation "u r$uc$ pressure4 ,tak+ /e>91 a common fat1 z ! example1 ! reaction :i* takes place 9 ! above process may be express$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,c#c;,h#e7;,c#ag;,h#ce;,,coo7#c #c,na,o,h #c;,c#ag;,h#ce;,c,o,o,na ,/e>9 ,sodium /e>ate--a soap ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c4 ,glyc]ol ,?is process1 s9ce x yields soap z "o ( its products1 is call$ saponification4 ,all fats1 :5 saponifi$1 yield soaps & ei!r glyc]ol or 7m r>ely7 "s ( ! o!r alcohols :i* are describ$ bel[4 ,glyc]9e is also prep>$ f fats by hydrolysis ) sup]heat$ /eam4 ,us+ ole91 a glyc]ide :i* is pres5t 9 olive oil & _m common fats1 z ! example 9 ?is case1 ! equation = ! reaction is3 ,c#c;,h#e7;,c#ag;,h#cc;,,coo7#c #c;,h#b,o #c;,c#ag;,h#cc;,,cooh ,ole9 ,/eam ,oleic acid ,c#c;,h#e7,,oh7#c ,glyc]ol ,9 ?is case ! free fatty acid1 in/ead ( a soap1 is ! product :i* is obta9$ 9 addition to glyc]ol4 ,9 ! equations pres5t$ above1 a s+le glyc]ide has be5 us$ z ! example 9 ea* case4 ,9 ! saponification1 or hydrolysis1 ( natural fats & oils :i*1 z has be5 %[n1 are mixtures ( _m glyc]ides1 ! resultant soaps1 or fatty acids1 are mixtures ( z _m comp\nds z !re 7 individual glyc]ides ( ! orig9al fat1 b ! glyc]ol is id5tical 9 e case4 ,:5 glyc]ol is heat$ ) dehydrat+ ag5ts1 x is easily conv]t$ into acrole91 an unsaturat$ aldehyde hav+ a peculi> *>act]i/ic pung5t odor4 ,h5ce1 ! pres5ce ( glyc]ol1 or glyc]ides1 9 any sub/ance may usually be detect$ by mix+ ! mat]ial ) anhydr\s acid potassium sulfate & heat+ ! mixture 9 a te/ tube1 :5 ! *>act]i/ic odor ( acrole9 w appe>4 ,glyc]ol possesses all ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( an alcohol1 =m+ alcoholates ) alkalies1 e/]s ) acids1 etc4 ,x is an active r$uc+ ag5t1 be+ itself easily oxidiz$ to a v>iety ( diff]5t products dep5d+ ^u ! /r5g? ( ! oxidiz+ ag5t us$ & ! conditions ( ! exp]im5t4 ,microorganisms affect x 9 a v>iety ( ways1 ei!r conv]t+ x into simple fatty acids1 or cond5s+ x into long]-*a9 comp\nds4 ,op5-*a9 monohydric alcohols1 high] memb]s ( ! e?yl alcohol s]ies1 su* z cetyl1 ,c#af;,h#cc,,oh1 c>naubyl1 ,c#bd;,h#di,,oh1 c]yl1 ,c#bf;,h#ec,,oh1 & melissyl1 ,c#cj;,h#fa,,oh1 are f\nd 9 ! e/]s :i* con/itute ! major proportion ( ! common waxes4 ,*ole/]ol & phyto/]ol are empirical names = c]ta9 clos$-r+1 monohydric alcohols :i* are f\nd 9 relatively small am\nts 9 all fats1 ! =m] t]m designat+ ^? f\nd 9 animal fats & ! latt] ^? ( plant orig94 ,_! composition has n yet be5 def9itely e/abli%$4 ,!y are kn[n to conta9 two1 or ?ree1 clos$ r+s1 probably ( ! ph5an?r5e type2 to =m di*lor- & dibrom- addition products1 %[+ t !y conta9 "o side-*a9 d\ble l9kage2 & to yield ketones :5 oxidiz$1 indicat+ t !y are second>y alcohols4 ,!y =m acetyl e/]s1 or acetates1 :i* c be sep>at$ f ea* o!r & id5tifi$ by _! cry/al =ms & melt+ po9ts4 ,because ( ?is fact & ( ! fur!r fact t !y are pres5t 9 detectable quantities 9 practically all fats & oils1 !y af=d a qualitative means ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 fats ( animal & ( plant orig94 ,?is possibility is ! mo/ int]e/+ fact kn[n conc]n+ ^! complex alcohols2 al?\gh _! pres5ce z e/]s 9 all plant & animal fats indicates t !y mu/ h "s biological function4 ,phyto/]ol is n a s+le alcohol1 b a mixture ( at lea/ two1 :i* h be5 sep>at$ & /udi$ z sito/]ol1 ,c#bg;,h#dc,,oh1 & /igma/]ol1 ,c#cj;,h#di,,oh4 ,z has be5 said1 ^! are f\nd 9 small proportions 9 all vegetable fats1 be+ pres5t 9 l>ge/ am\nts 9 oily se$s1 especially ^? ( ! legumes4 ,! saponification ( e/]s ( *ole/]ol & phyto/]ol is a difficult & unsatisfactory process2 b s9ce ?is af=ds ! only kn[n means to di/+ui% betwe5 fats ( plants & ( animal orig91 its te*nique has be5 fairly well work$ out1 & ! process us$ 9 ! /udy ( ! *anges :i* take place 9 plant fats :5 !y are us$ by animals z food4 ,,hydrolysis ,,& ,,syn!sis ,,( ,,fats ,! reaction = ! hydrolysis ( fats has be5 discuss$ 9 connection ) ! process = ! manufacture ( glyc]9e4 ,?is reaction takes place v sl[ly ) cold wat] alone1 c be easily br\ght ab\t by ! action ( sup]heat$ /eam1 & mu* m easily & rapidly 9 ! pres5ce ( "s cataly/ 7sulfuric acid is an especially effective cataly/ = ?is purpose74 ,fats c be artificially syn!tiz$ by heat+ mixtures ( glyc]ol & fatty acids1 "u consid]able pressure1 = "s "t at temp]atures ( #bjj to #bdj ,c42 or by heat+ a mixture ( ! disulfuric e/] ( glyc]ol ) a fatty acid dissolv$ 9 sulfuric acid4 ,rec5tly1 fatty acids h be5 prep>$ f c>bohydrates1 by fir/ break+ ! hexoses d[n into ?ree-c>bon comp\nds1 !n c>efully oxidiz+ ^! to pyruvic acid1 ,,*#c;,,co,,cooh1 :i* c !n be cond5s$ into acids hav+ long] *a9s4 ,! viol5t reag5ts & long-cont9u$ processes :i* mu/ be employ$ = ! artificial hydrolysis or syn!sis ( ! fats are 9 %>p contra/ ) ! easy & rapid transition ( c>bohydrates to fats1 & vice v]sa1 :i* take place 9 bo? plant & animal nutrition4 ,,! ,,extraction ,,( ,,oils ,,f ,,plant ,,tissues ,!re are ?ree types ( me?ods :i* are employ$ = ! extraction ( oil f oil-be>+ se$s1 etc41 ei!r z a comm]cial indu/ry or = ! purposes ( sci5tific /udy4 ,^! are 7#a7 by pressure2 7#b7 extraction ) volatile solv5ts2 & 7#c7 boil+ ! cru%$ se$s or fruits ) wat]4 ,by ! fir/ me?od1 ! se$s are fir/ clean$1 !n decorticat$ 7hulls remov$71 cru%$ or gr\nd1 !n subject$ to int5se pressure 9 an hydraulic press4 ,9 ! comm]cial process1 ! gr\nd se$s are fir/ press$ at ord9>y temp]ature1 :i* yields cold-drawn oil1 !n ! press cake is heat$ & press$ aga91 :]eby hot-drawn oil is obta9$4 ,! crude oil is ref9$ by heat+ x to coagulate any album9 :i* x may conta91 & is sometimes blea*$ by diff]5t processes be=e x is m>ket$4 ,! press cake f _m se$s1 su* z flaxse$ 7l9se$71 cottonse$1 etc41 is gr\nd up & sold = use z /ock fe$4 ,9 ! second me?od1 ! f9ely cru%$ se$s are treat$ ) solv5ts su* z gasol9e or c>bon bisulfide1 9 an app>atus :i* is s arrang$ t ! fre% mat]ial is treat$ fir/ ) solv5t :i* has already pass$ ?r\gh v>i\s successive lots ( mat]ial & has become highly *>g$ ) ! oil1 foll[$ by o!r portions :i* conta9 less oil1 & f9ally by fre% solv5t1 :]eby ! la/ traces ( oil are remov$ f ! mat]ial4 ,! saturat$ solv5t is transf]r$ to suitable boil]s & ! solv5t di/ill$ (f & cond5s$ = repeat$ use1 leav+ ! oil 9 ! boil] 9 v pure =m4 ,extraction by boil+ ) wat] is sometimes us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ca/or oil & olive oil4 ,9 su* cases1 ! cru%$ se$s are boil$ ) wat] & ! oil skimm$ (f z fa/ z x rises to ! surface4 ,,id5tification ,,( ,,fats ,,& ,,oils ,fats & oils are id5tifi$ by det]m9ations ( _! physical prop]ties1 su* z specific gravity1 melt+ po9t1 refractive index1 etc41 & by c]ta9 special color reactions = p>ticul> oils2 or by measurem5ts ( c]ta9 *emical con/ants1 su* z ! p]c5tage ( free fatty acids :i* !y conta91 ! saponification value 7i4e41 ! numb] ( milligrams ( ,,koh requir$ to completely saponify "o gram ( ! fat71 ! iod9e numb] 7p]c5tage by weight ( iod9e :i* is absorb$ by ! unsaturat$ fatty acids pres5t 9 ! fat71 p]c5tage ( wat]-insoluble fatty acids obta9$ aft] saponification & acidify+ ! resultant soap1 etc41 etc4 ,mo/ ( ^! te/s mu/ be c>ri$ out "u c>efully controll$ conditions 9 ord] to insure reliable id5tifications1 & ne$ n be discuss$ 9 detail "h4 ,full directions = mak+ su* te/s1 toge!r ) tables ( /&>d values = all common fats & oils1 may be f\nd 9 any ref]5ce book on oil analysis4 ,,physiological ,,use ,,( ,,fats ,,& ,,oils ,9 animal organisms1 fats are ! "o important =m ( en]gy /orage4 ,!y also =m "o ( ! mo/ important supplies ( en]gy res]ve mat]ial 9 plants4 ,c>bohydrates commonly s]ve ?is purpose 9 ^? plants ^: /orage res]voirs are 9 ! /ems1 tub]s1 etc42 b 9 mo/ small se$s ! res]ve supply ( en]gy is l>gely 9 ! =m ( oil1 & ev5 9 ^? se$s :i* h l>ge endosp]m /orage ( />*1 ! embryo is always suppli$ ) oil :i* seems to furni% ! en]gy necess>y = ! fir/ g]m9ative processes4 ,fats are ! mo/ conc5trat$ =m ( pot5tial en]gy ( all ! diff]5t types ( organic comp\nds :i* are elaborat$ by plants4 ,?is is because !y conta9 m c>bon & hydrog5 & less oxyg5 9 ! molecule ?an any o!r gr\p ( sub/ances ( vegetable 7or animal7 orig94 ,x has be5 po9t$ out t a quantity ( fat capable ( yield+ #ajj l>ge calories ( heat w occupy only ab\t #ab cc4 ( space1 :]eas f #abe to #bbe cc4 ( space 9 ! same tissue w\ld be requir$ = ! am\nt ( />* ( glycog5 necess>y to yield ! same am\nt ( heat1 or en]gy1 :5 oxidiz$4 ,! fats und\bt$ly catabolize fir/ by hydrolysis into glyc]ol & fatty acids1 & !n by oxidation possibly fir/ into c>bohydrates & !n f9ally into ! end-products ( oxidation1 namely1 c>bon dioxide & wat]4 ,! foll[+ hypo!tical equation to repres5t ! oxidation ( oleic acid into />*1 sugge/$ by ,detm]1 is int]e/+ z a sugge/ion ( h[ mu* oxyg5 is requir$ & h[ mu* heat w\ld be lib]at$ by su* a trans=mation3 ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b #bg,o #b7;,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7 #f;,,co#b #g;,h#b,o ,complete oxidation ( oleic acid to ! f9al end-products1 c>bon dioxide & wat]1 w\ld require mu* m oxyg51 ?us3 ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b #ea,o #ah;,,co#b #ag;,h#b,o4 ,h5ce1 ,detm]'s reaction w\ld yield only approximately "o-half ! total en]gy available 9 ! acid2 b x does indicate ! possibility ( r$evelopm5t ( fatty acids or fats f ! unoxidiz$ c>bohydrate mat]ial :i* rema9s 9 ! equation4 ,moreov]1 !re is abundant evid5ce to %[ t1 9 bo? animal & plant tissues1 en]gy *anges are br\ght ab\t *iefly by ! trans=mation ( fats into c>bohydrates & vice v]sa4 ,_m diff]5t hypo!ses h be5 put =w>d conc]n+ ! mode ( trans=mation ( fats into c>bohydrates1 & ! *anges :i* take place 9 oily se$s dur+ _! g]m9ation h be5 c>efully /udi$ by _m inve/igators4 ,! foll[+ seem to be fairly well e/abli%$ facts4 ,fir/1 t fats z su* may be translocat$ f cell to cell1 s9ce cell-walls & cell protoplasm seem to be p]meable to oil if x is a suffici5tly f9e emulsion2 or !y may be hydrolyz$ into glyc]ol & fatty acids & translocat$ f cell to cell 9 ^! =ms & recomb9$ into fats 9 ! new location4 ,second1 t fats are =m$ f glucose 9 "s plants1 f sucrose & f />* 9 o!rs1 & f mannite & simil> comp\nds 9 /ill o!r species4 ,?ird1 t 9 g]m9ation ! fatty acids are us$ up 9 ! ord] ( _! degree ( unsaturation1 ^? :i* conta9 ! l>ge/ numb] ( d\ble-bond l9kages be+ us$ fir/1 & ! saturat$ acids la/ ( all4 ,f\r?1 t ! sug> produc$ by ! oxidation ( fats is d]iv$ ei!r f ! glyc]ol or f ! fatty acids ( ! fat1 dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! latt]4 ,if ! fat is saturat$1 ! glyc]9e is conv]t$ into sug> :ile ! fatty acids are oxidiz$2 b if ! fat conta9s l>ge proportions ( unsaturat$ acids1 ^! contribute to ! =mation ( sug>4 ,rec5t /udies seem to %[ t 9 ! animal body fats s]ve an important function 9 connection ) ! production ( antibodies to disease g]ms4 ,b !re is z yet no evid5ce to %[ t fats & oils h any simil> function 9 plant tissues4 ,! fact t !y are f\nd almo/ :olly 9 ! /orage organs ( plants seems to indicate t _! use z food res]ve mat]ial is _! pr9cipal1 if n _! sole1 function 9 ! plant economy4 ,b4 ,,! ,,waxes ,waxes are mo/ commonly f\nd 9 or on ! sk9 ( leaves or fruits4 ,!y are simil> to fats 9 *emical composition1 except t1 in/ead ( be+ glyc]ides1 !y are e/]s ( monohydric alcohols ( high atomic weight4 ,! t]m wax1 :5 us$ 9 ! *emical s5se1 has ref]5ce to ?is p>ticul> type ( e/]s r ?an to any special physical prop]ties :i* ! comp\nd possesses1 & bo? solid & liquid waxes are kn[n4 ,c>nauba wax1 f\nd on ! leaves ( ! wax-palm 7,cop]nicia c]if]a7 conta9s c]yl alcohol 7,c#bc;,h#ec,,oh7 & myricyl alcohol 7,c#cj;,h#fa,,oh7 e/]s ( c]otic acid 7,c#be;,h#ea;,,cooh7 & c>naubic acid 7,c#bc;,h#dg;,,cooh74 ,x is ! be/ kn[n vegetable wax4 ,poppy wax is compos$ *iefly ( ! c]yl e/] ( palmitic acid 7,c#ag;,h#ce;,,cooh74 ,s9ce waxes conta9 no glyc]ol1 !y give no odor ( acrole9 :5 heat$ ) dehydrat+ ag5ts1 d n become rancid1 & are less easily hydrolyz$ ?an ! fats4 ,!y are soluble 9 ! same solv5ts z ! fats1 b g5]ally to a less degree4 ,! facts t waxes are imp]vi\s to wat] & usually occur on ! surfaces ( plant tissues h l$ to ! conclusion t _! *ief function is to provide aga9/ ! too-rapid loss ( wat] by evaporation f ^! tissues4 ,?is seems to be borne out by ! common exp]i5ce t _m fre% fruits & vegetables w keep long] )\t %rivel+ if _! waxy coat+ is undi/urb$4 ,no o!r function ?an t ( regulation ( wat] losses has be5 sugge/$ = ! plant waxes4 ,c4 ,,! ,,lipoids ,! lipoids1 or lip9s1 z "s au?ors pref] to call !m1 are sub/ances ( a fat-l nature :i* are f\nd 9 small quantities 9 ne>ly all plant & animal tissues & 9 consid]able proportions 9 n]ve & bra9 sub/ance1 9 egg yolk1 etc41 & 9 ! se$s ( plants4 ,:5 hydrolyz$1 !y yield fatty acids or d]ivatives ( fatty acids & "s o!r gr\p conta9+ ei!r nitrog5 only or bo? nitrog5 & phosphorus4 ,! facts t !y are extract$ f tissues by ! same solv5ts :i* extract fats & t !y yield fatty acids :5 hydrolyz$ acc\nt = ! "n lipoid1 :i* comes f ! ,greek ^w mean+ fat4 ,"s writ]s1 :o object to ! ^w lipoid z a gr\p "n1 pref] to call ^! sub/ances ! fat-l bodies4 ,! fir/ gr\p ( lipoids to be /udi$ 7 ^? :i* occur 9 ! bra92 & ! "n c]ebroside 0 giv5 to ^? lipoids :i*1 :5 hydrolyz$1 yield fatty acids1 a c>bohydrate & a nitrog5-conta9+ comp\nd b no phosphoric acid2 :ile ^? lipoids :i* conta9 bo? nitrog5 & phosphorus 7 call$ phosphatides4 ,sub/ances :i* correspond 9 composition to bo? ^! types are f\nd 9 plant tissues & ! same class names are appli$ 9 a g5]al way to lipoids ( ei!r plant or animal orig94 ,plant lipoids h n be5 /udi$ to ne>ly ! same ext5t z h ^? :i* occur 9 ! animal body2 & c]ta9 obs]v]s believe t !re are significant diff]5ces betwe5 ! lipoids ( plants & ^? ( animal orig94 ,h[ev]1 mo/ inve/igators use ! same me?ods ( /udy & ! same sy/ems ( nom5clature = ^! fat-l sub/ances1 reg>dless ( _! orig94 ,,leci?9 ,?is phosphatide is by f> ! be/-kn[n lipoid4 ,x occurs 9 ! bra91 ! he>t1 ! liv]1 & 9 ! yolk ( ! eggs ( _m animals2 & ei!r leci?9 or a sub/ance s ne>ly l x 9 "* z to be reg>d$ by mo/ inve/igators z id5tical ) x1 is pres5t 9 small1 b con/ant1 quantities 9 ne>ly all se$s1 especially ^? ( legum9\s plants4 ,9 _m legume se$s1 x con/itutes f #ej to #fj p] c5t ( ! e!r extract1 or crude fat1 :i* c be extract$ f ! cru%$ se$s1 us+ e!r z ! solv5t4 ,leci?9 is a glyc]ide4 ,only two ( ! 7,,oh7 gr\ps ( ! glyc]ol are replac$ by fatty acids1 h[ev]2 ! ?ird be+ replac$ by phosphoric acid1 ,h#c,,po#d1 or ,,po7,,oh7#c1 :i*1 9 turn1 has "o ( its hydrog5 atoms replac$ by ! base *ol9e4 ,*ol9e is a nitrog5\s base1 or am9e1 :i* may be reg>d$ z ammonium hydroxide ) ?ree ( its hydrog5 atoms replac$ by me?yl gr\ps & ! f\r? by ! e?oxyl gr\p1 ! latt] be+ ! e?yl gr\p ) an ,,oh 9 place ( "o ( its hydrog5s4 ,?us1 ,ammonium hydride ,*ol9e ,h ,h ,,*#c ,c#b;,h#d,,oh _/ _/ ,h-,n ,,*#c-,n _/ _/ ,h ,,oh ,,*#c ,,oh ,)\t ! *ol9e1 leci?9 w\ld be a di-fatty acid d]ivative ( glyc]o-phosphoric acid4 ,^! relations may be se5 9 ! foll[+ =mulas3 ,glyc]ol ,glyc]o-phosphoric acid ,fatty ,acid ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,oh ,,hooc,r _/ _/ ,,*oh ,,*--,o--,p,o ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b,,oh ,,oh ,*ol9e ,leci?9 ,,hoc#b;,h#d ,,*#b,,ooc,r ,,oh _/ _/ 7,,*#c7ctrb,n ,,*---,o---,p,o ,c#b;,h#d _/ _/ _/ _/ ,ntrb7,,*#c7c ,,ho ,,*#b,,ooc,r ,o _/ ,,ho fatty acid _/ ,or1 glyc]ol-fatty acid ,*ol9e ,leci?9 ,h#b,o phosphoric acid ,!re are _m diff]5t possible l9kages ( ! con/itu5t gr\ps :i* make up ! leci?9 molecule4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 if ! 7,,oh7 gr\ps ( ! glyc]ol molecule be numb]$ 7#a7 & 7#b71 ?us1 ,,*#b,,oh 7#a7 ,,*oh 7#b7 ,,*#b,,oh 7#a7 ! fatty acid radicals may be atta*$ ei!r 9 "o 7#a7 position & "o 7#b7 position1 or 9 ! two 7#a7 positions2 h5ce1 two =ms ( glyc]o-phosphoric acid are possible1 ?us fatty acid fatty acid _/ _/ 7,a7 glyc]ol--fatty acid 7,b7 glyc]ol--phosphoric acid phosphoric acid fatty acid ,aga91 ! *ol9e may be atta*$ to ! phosphoric acid ei!r ?r\gh its alcoholic 7,,oh7 gr\p or ?r\gh its basic 7,n7 gr\p1 ?us ,,oh ,,oh _/ _/ -,p,o ,c#b;,h#d -,p,o _/ ,o ,ntrb7,,*#c7c or1 ,o-,ntrb7,,*#c7c _/ ,,ho ,c#b;,h#d,,oh ,! facts t 9 ! arrangem5t 7,b7 ! c5tral c>bon atom ( ! glyc]ol w\ld be asymmetric1 & t bo? leci?9 & ! glyc]o-phosphoric acid d]iv$ f x by hydrolysis are optically active1 prove t =mula 7,b7 correctly repres5ts ! arrangem5t ( t "p ( ! leci?9 molecule2 & !re is ample !oretical & exp]im5tal evid5ce to prove t ! *ol9e l9kage is ?r\gh ! alcoholic 7,,oh7 gr\p4 ,h5ce ! =mula = leci?9 indicat+ ! l9kage z %[n above is ! correct "o4 ,! fatty acids 9 ! leci?9 molecule may be diff]5t 9 leci?9s f diff]5t s\rces1 j z !y are diff]5t 9 fats f diff]5t s\rces4 ,bo? oleic acid & a solid fatty acid h be5 f\nd 9 ! hydrolysis products ( leci?9 f legum9\s se$s4 ,9 c]ta9 lup9e se$s1 ! fatty acids pres5t 9 ! leci?9 appe> to be palmitic & /e>ic4 ,,o!r ,,plant ,,phosphatides ,phosphatides o!r ?an leci?9 are common 9 plants4 ,9 ^!1 v>i\s sug>s replace "p or all ( ! glyc]ol z ! alcoholic "p ( ! e/]4 ,p]c5tages ( sug> v>y+ f m]e traces up to #ag p] c5t ( ! weight ( mat]ial tak51 h be5 f\nd 9 ! products ( hydrolysis ( phosphatides prep>$ f vet* se$s1 potato tub]s1 plant poll5s1 & :ole :eat meal4 ,fur!rmore1 beta9e ,,*#b _/ 7tri-me?yl glycocoll1 ,,oc ,ntrb7,,*#c7c7 _/ ,o & p]haps o!r vegetable am9es 7see ,*apt] ,,xii7 sometimes replace *ol9e z ! basic gr\p 9 ! phosphatides4 ,,plant ,,c]ebrosides ,bodies simil> to ! animal c]ebrosides seem to occur 9 _m plant tissues1 s9ce plant lipoids :i* yield no phosphorus :5 hydrolyz$ h (t5 be5 isolat$4 ,! sug> :i* con/itutes ! alcoholic portion ( _! /ructure appe>s to be galactose 9 e case :i* has be5 report$4 ,beyond ?is1 little is kn[n ( ! /ructure ( ^! plant c]ebrosides1 z !y are v difficult to prep>e 9 pure =m & n easily hydrolyz$4 ,,physiological ,,uses ,,( ,,lipoids ,lipoids are s univ]sally pres5t 9 plant & animal tissues & s commonly f\nd 9 ^? p>ts ( ! organism 9 :i* vital ph5om5a are mo/ pron\nc$ 7bra91 he>t1 embryo ( egg1 embryo ( se$s1 etc471 t x is evid5t t !y mu/ play "s important rle 9 ! activity ( liv+ protoplasm4 ,!re is1 z yet1 h[ev]1 no def9ite & c]ta9 k ( :at ?is rle is4 ,v>i\s !ories conc]n+ ! matt] h be5 put =w>d 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,= example1 ,ov]ton1 9 #aija1 pres5t$ ! idea t e liv+ cell is surr\nd$ by a semi-p]meable membrane consi/+ ( lipoid mat]ial1 :i* regulates ! passage into & out ( ! cell ( sub/ances necess>y to its metabolism & gr[?4 ,rec5t inve/igations by ,o/]h\t & o!rs indicate1 h[ev]1 t ,ov]ton's hypo!tical lipoid membrane is n ess5tial to a prop] explanation ( ! migration into & out ( ! cell protoplasm ( nutritive mat]ials1 etc4 ,o!r inve/igators h cit$ results :i* appe> to indicate t lipoids play an important1 b z yet unkn[n1 "p 9 ! process ( fat metabolism4 ,o!rs g ev5 fur!r ?an ?is1 & argue t s9ce ! extraord9>y rapidity ( ! *emical *anges :i* take place 9 plant protoplasm indicates ! necessity ( ! pres5ce !re ( exce$+ly labile sub/ances1 & s9ce bo? fats & prote9s are relatively /able comp\nds1 x is possible t ! lipoids1 :i* conta9 bo? nitrog5\s & fatty acid gr\ps1 play an exce$+ly important "p 9 ! metabolism processes4 ,bang1 9 p>ticul>1 has po9t$ out 79 #aiaa7 t ! lipoids are probably ! mo/ labile ( all ! compon5ts :i* con/itute ! colloidal sy/em kn[n z plant protoplasm4 ,! importance ( su* consid]ations w be m app>5t aft] ! relation ( colloidal ph5om5a to ! activities ( plant cell cont5ts has be5 m fully discuss$ 7see ,*apt] ,,xvi74 ,exp]im5tal /udies ( ! physiological uses ( lipoids h ?us f> be5 devot$ almo/ exclusively to ^? ( animal tissues4 ,!y h be5 s]i\sly hamp]$ by ! difficulty ( secur+ prop]ly purifi$ extracts ( leci?9 & simil> lipoids4 ,! same labile "* :i* app>5tly makes !m s important 9 ! *emical *anges 9 ! cell makes !m equally un/able comp\nds to "w ) 9 attempt+ to secure pure prep>ations = ! purposes ( exp]im5tal /udy4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 !re is1 z yet1 no c]ta9 k conc]n+ _! actual physiological uses4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t !y h "s really important rle to play1 :i* op5s up a promis+ field = fur!r /udy4 ,,ref]5ces ,,abd]hald51 ,e4--,bio*emis*es ,h&lexikon1 ,b& #c1 ,fette1 ,wa*se1 ,phosphatide1 ,c]ebroside1 444 #cdj pages1 ,b]l91 #aiaa4 ,,hopk9s1 ,e4--,! ,oil-,*emi/'s ,h&book1 #gb pages1 ,new ,york1 #aijb4 ,,lea!s1 ,j4 ,b4--,! ,fats1 #ach pages1 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiac4 ,,lewk[its*1 ,j4--,*emical ,te*nology & ,analysis ( ,oils1 ,fats1 & ,waxes1 ,vol4 ,i1 #edb pages1 #ed figs42 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #haf pages1 #bj figs42 & ,vol4 ,,iii1 #djf pages1 #bh figs41 ,london1 #aiji4 ,,maclean1 ,h4--,leci?9 & ,alli$ ,sub/ances1 #bjf pages1 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiac4 ,,s\?combe1 ,j4 ,e4--,*emi/ry ( ! ,oil ,indu/ries1 #bjd pages1 #ac figs41 ,london1 #aiah4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,ess5tial ,,oils ,,& ,,res9s ,includ$ 9 ?is gr\p are all ^? sub/ances to :i* ! *>act]i/ic odors ( plants are due1 along ) o!rs simil> 9 /ructure & possess+ *>act]i/ic res9\s prop]ties4 ,!y h no su* uni=mity 9 composition z is exhibit$ by ! oils :i* are includ$ among ! fats & waxes2 b belong to sev]al widely diff]5t *emical gr\ps4 ,fur!rmore1 !re is no %>p divid+ l9e betwe5 ! ess5tial oils & c]ta9 e/]s ( organic acids on ! "o h& & ! fats on ! o!r4 ,= example1 if an aromatic fluid ess5ce is a light fluid1 non-viscid1 & easily volatile1 x is usually class$ ) ! organic e/]s2 d5s] liquid sub/ances1 ( oily or waxy consi/5cy1 & ) comp>atively slight odor & ta/e are usually fats1 :ile oils ( simil> physical prop]ties b possess+ /rong *>act]i/ic odors are class$ z ess5tial oils1 reg>dless ( _! *emical composition4 ,includ$ 9 ?is g5]al class are comp\nds hav+ a great v>iety ( *emical /ructures2 e4g41 hydroc>bons1 alcohols1 ph5ols1 organic sulfides & sulfocyanides1 etc4 ,_m ( ^! comp\nds are cry/all9e solids at ord9>y temp]atures1 b melt to oily fluids at high] temp]atures4 ,! *>act]i/ic prop]ty :i* assigns any giv5 plant extract to ?is gr\p is t x has a /rik+ly *>act]i/ic odor or ta/e1 (t5 accompani$ by "s def9ite physiological effect1 or m$ic9al prop]ty4 ,^! comp\nds may be ei!r secretions or excretions ( plants1 sometimes normally pres5t 9 ! heal?y tissue1 & sometimes produc$ z ! result ( injury or disease4 ,! ess5tial oils & ! res9s (t5 occur associat$ toge!r 9 ! plant2 or1 ! res9s may develop f ! oily juice ( ! plant aft] exposure to ! air4 ,,! ,,ess5tial ,,oils ,^! may be divid$1 accord+ to _! *emical composition1 into two major gr\ps2 7#a7 ! hydroc>bon oils1 or t]p5es1 & 7#b7 ! oxyg5at$ & sulfurett$ oils4 ,! t]p5es are ( ?ree diff]5t types1 namely3 7a7 ! hemit]p5es1 ,c#e;,h#h1 unsaturat$ comp\nds ( ! val]yl5e s]ies1 ( :i* isopr5e 7f\nd 9 crude rubb]7 is ! be/-kn[n example2 7b7 ! t]p5es prop]1 ,c#aj;,h#af1 :i* con/itute ! major proportion ( ! :ole gr\p2 & 7c7 ! polyt]p5es 7,c#e;,h#h7n1 ( :i* coloph5e & ca\t*\c are ! mo/ common examples4 ,elev5 diff]5t t]p5es hav+ ! =mula ,c#aj;,h#af h be5 isolat$ f v>i\s plant juices1 & _! molecul> arrangem5t c>efully work$ out4 ,! foll[+ ?ree examples w s]ve z typical ( ! g5]al /ructural arrangem5t ( ^! hydroc>bons3 ,limon5e ,camph5e ,p95e ,h ,c _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,*#c ,h _/ _/ ,c ,c _/,,*#c ,,*#c _/ ,,*#c _/ ,h#c;,c _/ ,,*#b _/ _/ ,c ,h#b;,c ,,* ,c ,,*#b _/ _/ _/ ,,*#c ,,h* _/ _/ ,h#b;,c ,,*#b ,,*#b;,c ,,*#b _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,* ,c _/ ,,hc ,,* ,c ,h _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ ,h#b;,c ,,*#c _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ _/_/ ,c ,,*#c ,a discussion ( ! evid5ce :i* supports ^! =mulas z prop]ly repres5t$ ! molecul> arrangem5ts ( ! v>i\s isom]ic =ms w\ld be out ( place "h1 z its only p>ticul> int]e/ is 9 connection ) ! m$ic9al effects ( ! diff]5t comp\nds4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t !y are six-memb]$ hydroc>bon r+s1 ) additional hydroc>bon gr\ps atta*$ to "o or m ( ! c>bon atoms 9 ! r+4 ,diff]5t modifications1 or v>ieties1 ( ! t]p5es con/itute ! ma9 proportions ( ! oils ( turp5t9e1 b]gamot1 lemon1 fir ne$les1 eucalyptus1 f5nel1 p5nyroyal1 etc4 ,! oxyg5at$ ess5tial oils may be ei!r alcohols1 aldehydes1 ketones1 acids1 e/]s1 or ph5ols1 d]iv$ f ei!r five-memb]$ or six-memb]$ clos$-r+ hydroc>bons4 ,!y are usually pres5t 9 ! plant oil 9 mixtures ) ea* o!r or ) a t]p5e4 ,s9ce mo/ ( !m h pron\nc$ physiological or m$ic9al prop]ties1 _! /ructure has be5 well work$ out1 9 mo/ cases2 b x seems to be h>dly wor? :ile to pres5t ^! matt]s 9 detail "h1 z !y are ( int]e/ *iefly on acc\nt ( _! m$ic9al prop]ties r ?an _! botanical functions4 ,borneol1 ,c#aj;,h#ag,,oh1 & m5?ol1 ,c#aj;,h#ai,,oh1 are typical alcohols4 ,! latt] is a cry/all9e sub/ance1 :i* melts at #db1 :i* is pres5t 9 pepp]m9t oil1 bo? z ! free alcohol & z an e/] ( acetic acid4 ,amyl acetate1 ,,*#c;,,cooc#e;,h#aa1 & l9alyl acetate1 ,,*#c;,,cooc#aj;,h#ag1 ! latt] occurr+ 9 ! oils ( lav5d] & b]gamot1 are typical e/]s class$ z ess5tial oils4 ,z examples ( ! aldehyde oils1 b5zoic aldehyde1 ,c#f;,h#e;,,*o1 oil ( bitt] almonds1 & c9namic aldehyde1 ,c#f;,h#e;,,*,,**o1 f\nd 9 ! oils ( c9namon & cassia1 may be cit$4 ,camphor1 ,c#aj;,h#af,o1 is a ketone1 hav+ ! foll[+ /ructural =mula3 ,h ,c _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,*#b ,,*#b ,,*#c-;,c-,,*#c ,,*#b ,c,o _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,c ,,*#c ,!re are a consid]able numb] ( ess5tial oils :i* are ph5ols4 ,?ymol1 ,c#f;,h#c7;,,*#c77;,c#c;,h#g7,,oh1 9 oil ( ?yme1 & c>vacrol1 its isom]1 9 oil ( hops1 are famili> examples4 ,o-,c,o _/ ,c\m>91 ! anhydride ( c9namic acid ,c#f;,h#d 1 ,,hc,,* is an example ( an acid sub/ance :i* is class$ z an ess5tial oil1 ev5 ?\gh x is a solid at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,x has an odor & flavor simil> to t ( vanill91 ! ess5tial flavor+ mat]ial ( ! vanilla bean1 & is (t5 us$ z a sub/itute = ! latt] 9 ! prep>ation ( artificial flavor+ extracts4 ,( ! ess5tial oils conta9+ sulfur1 !re are two common examples2 oil ( mu/>d1 allyl isosulfocyanide1 ,c#c;,h#e,,ncs1 & oil ( g>lic1 allyl sulfide 7,c#c;,h#e7b,s4 ,! latt] is pres5t 9 onions1 g>lic1 wat] cress1 radi%es1 etc41 ! diff]5ce 9 flavor ( ^! vegetables be+ due to ! fact t ! allyl sulfide is unit$ ) o!r diff]5t gr\ps 9 ! glucoside arrangem5t1 9 ! diff]5t plants4 ,simil>ly1 mu/>d oil is n pres5t 9 mu/>d se$s z su*1 b z a glucoside :i*1 :5 hydrolyz$ by ! enzyme myros9 :i* is always pres5t 9 o!r cells ( ! same se$s1 yields ,c#c;,h#e,,ncs1 ,,khso#d1 & ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f4 ,,! ,,res9s ,! res9s 7 =m]ly suppos$ to be ! "m sub/ances f :i* ! t]p5es are d]iv$4 ,x is n[ kn[n1 h[ev]1 t !y are ! oxidation products ( ! t]p5es4 ,_! exact /ructure is /ill a matt] ( "s unc]ta9ty1 z _! peculi> res9\s "* makes !m v difficult to /udy by ! usual me?ods ( *emical inve/igations4 ,res9s are divid$ into two classes3 7a7 ! balsams1 & 7b7 ! solid or h>d res9s4 ,canada balsam & crude turp5t9e are famili> examples ( ! fir/ class4 ,!y consi/ ( res9\s sub/ances1 dissolv$ 9 or mix$ ) fluid t]p5es4 ,ord9>y res91 or colophony1 consi/s *iefly ( a monobasic acid hav+ ! empirical =mula ,c#bj;,h#cj,o#b1 kn[n z sylv9ic acid1 ^: exact /ructure is n kn[n4 ,its sodium salt is us$ z ! basis = *eap soaps4 ,! h>d res9s are amorph\s sub/ances ( vitre\s "*1 :i* consi/ ( v complex aromatic acids1 alcohols1 or e/]s1 comb9$ ) o!r complicat$ /ructures1 kn[n z res5es1 ^: def9ite *emical nature is n yet kn[n4 ,among ! h>d res9s are _m sub/ances :i* are ext5sively us$ 9 ! manufacture ( v>ni%es1 su* z copal1 amb]1 damm>1 s&>a*1 etc4 ,!re are also res9\s sub/ances1 su* z asafoetida1 myrrh1 gamboge1 etc41 :i* are mixtures ( gums 7see ,*apt] ,,vi7 & true res9s4 ,"s ( ^! h consid]able comm]cial value = m$ic9al or te*nical uses4 ,,physiological ,,uses ,,& ,,biological ,,significance ,,( ,,ess5tial ,,oils ,no !ory has yet be5 advanc$ conc]n+ ! possibility ( ! use ( ess5tial oils & res9s by plants 9 _! normal metabolic processes4 ,! v great div]sity 9 _! *emical nature makes x impossible t !y %\ld all be consid]$ z hav+ ! same physiological function1 if inde$ any ( !m actually h any su* function4 ,x is evid5t t ^? aromatic comp\nds :i* occur z normal secretions ( plants & :i* give to ! plants _! *>act]i/ic odors may act ei!r z an attraction to animals :i* might utilize ! plants z food & s s]ve to di/ribute ! se$ =ms1 or z a repell5t to prev5t ! too rapid de/ruction ( ! leaves1 /ems1 or se$s ( c]ta9 species ( plants ^: sl[-gr[+ habits require ! long-cont9u$ gr[? ( ^! portions ( ! plant = ! p]petuation ( ! species4 ,! pres5ce ( ^! comp\nds 9 l>g] proportions 9 ^? species ( conif]s1 etc41 :i* gr[ 9 tropical regions1 9 competition ) o!r rapid-gr[+ vegetation1 sugge/s ! latt] possibility4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t _! pres5ce 9 su* cases may be ! result ( climatic conditions1 z indicat$ by ! fact t mo/ spice plants are tropical 9 habit1 r ?an ! result ( _! protective influ5ce 9 ! /ruggle = survival dur+ pa/ ages4 ,_m ( ! oils & res9s :i* are secret$ z ! result ( injury by disease or w\nds h m>k$ antiseptic prop]ties & und\bt$ly s]ve to prev5t ! entrance into ! injur$ tissue ( de/ructive organisms4 ,b ap>t f ^! possible protective influ5ces :i* may h _h an important effect ^u ! pres]vation & p]petuation ( ! species ( plants :i* secrete !m1 !re is no kn[n biological necessity = ! pres5ce ( ^! aromatic sub/ances 9 plants4 ,,ref]5ces ,,abd]hald51 ,e4--,bio*emis*es ,h&lexikon1 ,b& #g1 ,g]b/(fe1 ,fle*t5/(fe1 ,sapon9e1 ,bitt]/(fe1 ,t]p5e1 ,ae!ris*e ,oele1 ,h>ze1 ,kauts*uk1 #hbb pages1 ,b]l91 #aiab4 ,,all5',s ,comm]cial ,organic ,analysis1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,res9s1 ,rubb]1 ,guttap]*a1 & ,ess5tial ,oils1 #dfa pages1 #g figs41 ,philadelphia1 #aiaa 7#d? ed474 ,,heusl]1 ,f41 trans4 by ,pond1 ,f4 ,j4--,! ,*emi/ry ( ! ,t]p5es1 #deg pages1 ,philadelphia1 #aijb4 ,,p>ry1 ,e4 ,j4--,! ,*emi/ry ( ,ess5tial ,oils & ,p]fumes1 #dja pages1 #bj figs41 ,london1 #ahii4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,vegetable ,,bases ,we come1 n[1 to ! consid]ation ( ! *>act]i/ically nitrog5\s comp\nds ( plants4 ,none ( ! gr\ps ( comp\nds :i* h be5 consid]$ ?us f> h1 z a gr\p1 conta9$ ! elem5t nitrog54 ,?is elem5t is pres5t 9 ! *lorophylls & 9 c]ta9 o!r pigm5ts1 b n z ! *>act]i/ic con/itu5t ( ! molecul> /ructure ( ! gr\p ( comp\nds1 nor d ^! comp\nds s]ve z ! s\rce ( supply ( nitrog5 = ! plant's ne$s4 ,! *>act]i/ic nitrog5-conta9+ comp\nds may all be reg>d$ z d]iv$ f ammonia1 or ammonium hydroxide1 by ! replacem5t ( "o or m hydrog5 atoms ) organic radicals ( v>y+ type & complexity4 ,if ! gr\p1 or gr\ps1 :i* be consid]$ z hav+ replac$ a hydrog5 atom 9 ammonia1 9 su* comp\nds1 is an alkyl gr\p1 ! comp\nd is /rongly basic 9 "* & is kn[n z an am9e2 :]eas if ! replac+ gr\p is an acid radical1 ! result+ comp\nd may be neutral 7kn[n z acid amides71 or weakly acid 7kn[n z am9o-acids7 9 type4 ,comp\nds ( ! fir/ type con/itute ! vegetable bases2 :ile ^? ( ! second type are ! prote9s4 ,! vegetable bases may be divid$ into ?ree gr\ps4 ,^! are 7a7 ! plant am9es1 :i* are simple op5-*a9 am9es2 7b7 ! alkaloids1 :i* are comp>atively simple clos$-r+ am9es1 conta9+ only "o nitrog5 atom 9 any s+le r+2 & 7c7 ! pur9e bases1 :i* are complex comp\nds conta9+ a nucleus ) f\r c>bon atoms & f\r nitrog5 atoms arrang$ alt]nately to =m a d\ble-r+ gr\p4 ,,! ,,plant ,,am9es ,! simple am9es be> ! relation to ammonia1 or ammonium hydroxide1 repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mulas1 9 :i* ! ,r indicates any simple alkyl radical3 ,h ,r ,r ,r ,r ,r ,h ,h _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ,n-,h ,n-,h ,n-,h ,n-,r ,n-,r ,n-,h _/ _/ ,h ,h ,r ,r ,r ,,oh ,h ,,oh ,ammonia ,prim>y ,second>y ,t]ti>y ,quat]n>y ,ammonium am9e am9e am9e am9e hydroxide ,! simple am9es :i* occur 9 animal tissues are kn[n z ptoma9es & leucoma9es4 ,! ptoma9es are all decomposition products result+ f ! putrefactive decay ( prote9s caus$ by m\lds or bact]ia4 ,"s ( ^! are highly toxic1 produc+ ! s-call$ ptoma9e-poison+2 :ile o!rs are :olly innocu\s4 ,!y are all simple am9es4 ,putresc9e1 di-am9o butane1 ,,nh#b;,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*#b,,nh#b1 & cadav]9e1 di-am9o p5tane1 ,,hn#b7;,,*#b7e,,nh#b1 are common non-toxic ptoma9es1 result+ f ! decay ( meat4 ,neur9e1 trime?yl-e?yl5e ammonium hydroxide1 7,,*#c7c7;,c#b;,h#c7,,noh1 is a viol5tly poison\s ptoma9e produc$ 9 ! decay ( fi%4 ,am9es ( simil> /ructure to ^! are occasionally f\nd 9 liv+ animal tissues4 ,su* comp\nds are kn[n z leucoma9es1 to di/+ui% !m f ! ptoma9es1 :i* are f\nd only 9 dead mat]ial4 ,correspond+ 9 /ructure & prop]ties to ^! am9es ( animal orig91 !re is a s]ies ( basic sub/ances1 f\nd 9 _m plants1 kn[n z ! plant am9es4 ,! foll[+ are common examples3 ,trime?yl am9e1 7,,*#c7c,n1 is a v volatile comp\nd1 f\nd 9 ! fl[]s ( sev]al species ( ! ,rose family1 ! leaves ( c]ta9 we$s1 etc4 ,:5 cru%$1 ^! tissues give (f a v fetid odor1 :i* is due to ?is am9e4 ,*ol9e1 musc>9e1 & beta9e are plant am9es :i* are closely relat$ to ea* o!r & to neur9e 7! toxic ptoma9e7 9 composition & /ructure1 z %[n 9 ! foll[+ =mulas3 ,,*#b;,,*#b,,oh ,,*#b;,,*o _/ _/ 7,,*#c7c,n 7,,*#c7c,n ,,oh ,,oh ,*ol9e ,musc>9e ,,*#b;,,co ,,*,,*#b _/ _/ _/ 7,,*#c7c,n _/ 7,,*#c7c,n _/ ,o ,,oh ,beta9e ,neur9e ,*ol9e & beta9e are non-toxic2 :ile musc>9e & neur9e are viol5t poisons4 ,*ol9e & musc>9e occur 9 c]ta9 toad/ools4 ,beta9e & *ol9e (t5 occur toge!r 9 ! g]ms ( _m plants4 ,beta9e is f\nd 9 ! beet root & ! tub]s ( ,j]usalem arti*oke4 ,*ol9e occurs alone 9 ! se$s & fruits ( _m plants1 sometimes z ! free am9e1 b m (t5 z a con/itu5t ( leci?9 7see page #ada74 ,ph5yl d]ivatives ( simple am9es are sometimes f\nd 9 --- _/ plants4 ,hydroxyph5yle?yl am9e1 ,,ho-,c ,,*#b;,,*#b,,nh#b1 _/ --- --- _/ f\nd 9 ergot1 & horde9e1 ,,ho-,c ,,*#b;,,*#b,n7,,*#c7b1 _/ --- f\nd 9 b>ley1 are examples4 ,! =m] has m>k$ m$ic9al prop]ties4 ,!re is no kn[n physiological use = ^! simple am9es 9 plants4 ,by "s inve/igators1 !y are reg>d$ z int]m$iate products 9 ! syn!sis or decomposition ( prote9s2 b x w\ld seem t if ?is 7 a normal proc$ure1 ^! am9es w\ld occur 9 v>y+ proportions 9 all plants1 "u diff]5t conditions ( metabolism1 in/ead ( 9 practically con/ant proportions 9 only a few species1 z !y d4 ,,alkaloids ,^! are a gr\p ( /rong vegetable bases ^: nitrog5 atom is a "p ( a clos$-r+ arrangem5t4 ,z a rule1 alkaloids are colorless1 cry/all9e solids1 al?\gh a few are liquids at ord9>y temp]atures4 ,!y are g5]ally insoluble 9 wat]1 b easily soluble 9 organic solv5ts4 ,be+ /rong bases1 !y readily =m salts ) acids1 & ^! salts are usually readily soluble 9 wat]4 ,alkaloids are usually odorless2 al?\gh nicot9e1 coni9e1 & a few o!rs1 h /rong1 *>act]i/ic odors4 ,mo/ ( !m h a bitt] ta/e1 & _m ( !m h m>k$ physiological effects ^u animal organisms1 s t !y are ext5sively us$ z n>cotics1 /imulants1 or = o!r m$ic9al purposes4 ,mo/ ( ! alkaloids conta9 asymmetric c>bon atoms & are1 !re=e1 optically active1 usually levorotatory1 al?\gh a few are dextrorotatory4 ,! alkaloids are precipitat$ out ( _! solutions by v>i\s solutions ( *emical comp\nds1 kn[n z ! alkaloidal reag5ts3 iod9e dissolv$ 9 potassium iodide solution gives a *ocolate-br[n precipitate2 tannic acid1 phosphotung/ic acid1 phosphomolybdic acid1 & m]curic iodide solutions give colorless1 amorph\s precipitates2 :ile gold *loride & plat9ic *loride solutions give cry/all9e precipitates1 _m ( :i* h %>p melt+ po9ts & c be us$ = ! id5tification ( individual alkaloids4 ,!re are a great _m specific color reactions = individual alkaloids1 :i* are important to toxicologi/s & ph>maci/s1 b :i* x w\ld n be desirable to consid] 9 detail "h4 ,! alkaloids are conv5i5tly divid$ into gr\ps1 accord+ to ! *>act]i/ic clos$-r+ arrangem5ts :i* !y conta94 ,! sev]al clos$-r+ arrangem5ts :i* are f\nd 9 common alkaloids1 & ^u :i* _! gr\p+ is bas$1 may be illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ =mulas3 ,h ,h ,h ,h#b;,c---,,*#b _/ ,c ,c _/_/ _/ ,h#b;,c ,,*#b ,,hc ,,* ,h#b;,c ,,*#b _/ ,n ,,hc ,,* ,h#b;,c ,,*#b _/ _/ ,h ,n ,n ,pyrrolid9e1 ,c#d;,h#i,n ,pyrrid9e1 ,c#e;,h#e,n ,h ,pip]id9e1 ,c#e;,h#aa,n ,h ,h _/ ,h ,c _/ ,h#b;,c-----,c-----,,*#b ,h#b;,c ,,*#b ,,nh ,,*#b ,,hc ,,* _/ or ,h#b;,c-----,c-----,,*#b ,n _/ ,h _/ ,h ,h#b;,c-----,,*#b ,tropane1 ,c#g;,h#ac,n ,h ,h ,h ,h ,c ,c ,c ,c _/_/ _/ _/_/ _/ ,,hc ,c ,,* ,,hc ,c ,,* ,,hc ,c ,,* ,,hc ,c ,n _/ _/_/ _/ _/_/ ,c ,n ,c ,c ,h ,h ,h ,qu9ol9e1 ,c#i;,h#h,n ,isoqu9ol9e1 ,c#i;,h#h,n ,! common alkaloids are di/ribut$ 9 ! sev]al gr\ps z foll[s3 ,pyrrid9e--pip]id9e gr\p2 pip]9e1 coni9e1 nicot9e4 ,pyrrolid9e gr\p2 hygr9e & /a*ydr9e4 ,tropane gr\p2 atrop9e1 hyosc9e1 coca9e1 lup99e4 ,qu9ol9e gr\p2 qu99e1 c9*on9e1 /ry*n9e1 bruc9e4 ,isoqu9ol9e gr\p2 papav]9e1 hydra/9e1 morph9e1 code9e1 b]b]9e4 ,! composition & prop]ties ( ! individual alkaloids h be5 ext5sively /udi$1 because ( _! m$ic9al uses4 ,z !y h no kn[n metabolic use to ! plants :i* elaborate !m1 x w n be wor? :ile to consid] all ( ^! inve/igations 9 detail "h4 ,! foll[+ facts ) ref]5ce to c]ta9 typical memb]s ( ea* gr\p w s]ve to illu/rate ! g5]al con/itution & prop]ties ( ! alkaloids4 ,pip]9e1 ,c#ag;,h#ai,o#c1 is f\nd 9 black pepp]s4 ,its con/itution is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mula1 ! gr\p :i* is unit$ to ! pip]id9e r+1 9 ?is case1 be+ pip]ic acid3 ,h#b ,c _/ ,h#b;,c ,,*#b _/ --,o ,h#b;,c ,,*#b _/ ,,*#b ,n----,,oc,,*,,*,,*,,*-- _/ _/ --,o ,coni9e1 ,c#h;,h#ag,n1 is f\nd 9 ! umbellif]\s plant1 ,conium maculatum4 ,/ructurally1 x is a propyl-pip]id9e1 repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mula3 ,h#b ,c _/ ,h#b;,c ,,*#b ,h#b;,c ,,*-,c#c;,h#g _/ ,n ,h ,nicot9e1 ,c#aj;,h#ad,n#b1 is ! alkaloid ( tobacco leaves4 ,x is an extremely poison\s1 oily liquid1 ) a /rong odor & a burn+ ta/e4 ,its /ructural =mula %[s x to conta9 bo? a pyrrid9e r+ & a pyrrolid9e r+1 l9k$ toge!r ?us ,h ,c ,h#b;,c---,,*#b _/ ,,hc ,c------,,hc ,,*#b _/ ,,hc ,,* ,n _/_/ ,n ,,*#c ,hygr9e1 ,c#g;,h#ac,,no1 f coca leaves1 is an acetic acid salt ( pyrrolid9e1 repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mula3 ,h#b;,c---,,*--,,oc,,*#c ,h#b;,c ,,*#b _/ ,n ,,*#c ,atrop9e & hyoscyam9e1 ,c#ag;,h#bc,,no#c1 are optical isom]s4 ,atrop9e is an extremely poison\s1 :ite cry/all9e comp\nd1 :i* is obta9$ f deadly night%ade & h5bane1 & us$ 9 m$ic9e1 9 m9ute doses1 z an ag5t = r$uc+ temp]ature 9 acute cases ( fev]s4 ,/ructurally1 x is a tropic acid e/] ( tropane1 repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mula3 ,h#b;,c---,,*--------,,*#b ,c#f;,h#e ,n-,,*#c ,,*ooc---,,* ,h#b;,c---,,*--------,,*#b ,,*#b,,oh ,coca9e1 ,c#ag;,h#ba,,no#d1 is f\nd 9 coca leaves4 ,x is a :ite cry/all9e solid1 :i* is l>gely us$ z a local an/hetic = m9or surgical op]ations4 ,its /ructural =mula is ,h#b;,c---,,*--------,,hc-,,ooc,,*#c ,n-,,*#c ,,hc-,,ooc,c#f;,h#e ,h#b;,c---,,*---------,,*#b ,x is1 !re=e1 a di-e/] ( acetic & b5zoic acids ) tropane4 ,c9*on9e1 ,c#ai;,h#bb,n#b,o1 & qu99e1 ,c#bj;,h#bd,n#b,o#b1 are alkaloids f\nd 9 c9*ona b>k4 ,!y are :ite cry/all9e solids1 :i* are ext5sively us$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,!y h be5 %[n to conta9 a qu9ol9e gr\p comb9$ ) modifi$ pip]id9e gr\ps1 z repres5t$ 9 ! foll[+ =mulas3 ,h ,n ,c _/ _/ _/ _/ ,h#b;,c ,,h* ,,*-,,*,,*#b _/ _/ ,,*-,,*oh-,,hc ,,h* ,,*#b _/ ,n ,c9*on9e ,h ,n ,c _/ _/ _/ _/ ,h#b;,c ,,*-,,*,,*#b _/ _/ ,,*-,,*oh-,,hc ,,*#b _/ ,n ,qu99e ,/ry*n9e1 ,c#ba;,h#bb,n#b,o#b1 bruc9e1 ,c#ba;,h#bj7,,o*#c7,n#b,o#b1 & cur>9e are ?ree alkaloids :i* are pres5t 9 ! se$s ( sev]al species ( ,/ry*nos4 ,!y are all highly poison\s4 ,beyond ! fact t :5 !y are hydrolyz$ !y yield qu9ol9e & indole1 _! composition is unkn[n4 ,morph9e1 ,c#ag;,h#ai,,no#c1 is ! *ief alkaloid ( opium1 :i* is ! dri$ juice ( "y pods ( ! poppy4 ,bo? ! alcoholic solution ( opium 7kn[n z laudanum7 & morph9e itself are ext5sively us$ 9 m$ic9e z n>cotics to dead5 pa94 ,morph9e has an exce$+ly complex /ructure1 be+ a comb9ation ( an isoqu9ol9e & a ph5an?r5e nucleus1 :i* is probably correctly repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mula3 ,h ,h#b ,c ,c _/_/ _/ ,,hoc ,c ,,*#b ,c ,c ,n-,,*#c _/ _/ _/ _/ ,c ,,* ,o ,,hc ,,*#b _/ _/ ,,hc ,c ,h#b;,c ,,* _/ ,c ,h#b ,code9e1 ,c#ag;,h#ah7,,o*#c7,,no#b1 :i* is also f\nd 9 opium1 is a me?yl d]ivative ( morph9e4 ,papav]9e1 laudanos9e1 n>cot9e1 & n>ce9e are f\r o!r alkaloids f\nd 9 opium4 ,!y ea* conta9 an isoqu9ol9e nucleus1 comb9$ by "o bond to a b5z5e r+1 ) "o or m me?yl gr\ps & ?ree or m me?oxy 7,,o*#c7 gr\ps atta*$ at v>i\s po9ts ar\nd ! ?ree *>act]i/ic r+s4 ,! foll[+ =mula = laudanos9e w illu/rate _! /ructure3 _/ _/ ,,*#c,o ,,o*#c ,,*#c,o ,n-,,*#c _/ _/ _/ ,,o*#c _/ ,h#b;,c----------------,,* ,! above discussions ( ! composition ( typical alkaloids cle>ly indicate ! extreme complexity ( _! molecul> /ructure4 ,x is g5]ally suppos$ t !y are =m$ by ! decomposition ( prote9s4 ,b !y are develop$ 9 only a few p>ticul> species ( plants & are always pres5t 9 ^! plants 9 fairly con/ant quantities4 ,h5ce1 x appe>s t1 9 ^! species1 ! production ( alkaloids is 9 "s way def9itely connect$ ) prote9 metabolism2 b x is c]ta9 t ?is is n a common relation%ip1 z x is manife/$ by su* a limit$ numb] ( species ( plants1 & !re is absolutely no k z to its "* & functions4 ,"s au?orities pref] to reg>d ! alkaloids z wa/e-products ( prote9 metabolism2 b "h1 aga91 x is difficult to und]/& :y su* products %\ld result 9 c]ta9 species ( plants & n 9 o!rs4 ,,! ,,pur9e ,,bases ,?is is a gr\p ( comp\nds1 widely di/ribut$ 9 bo? plant & animal tissues1 all ( :i* are d]ivatives ( ! comp\nd kn[n z pur9e1 ,c#e;,h#d,n#d4 ,all ( ! naturally occurr+ comp\nds ( ?is gr\p may be reg>d$ z d]iv$ f pur9e1 ei!r by ! addition ( oxyg5 atoms1 or by ! replac+ ( "o or m ( its hydrog5 atoms ) a me?yl 7,,*#c7 gr\p or an am9o 7,,nh#b7 gr\p4 ,! foll[+ /ructural =mula repres5ts ! arrangem5t ( ! pur9e nucleus1 ! numb]s be+ us$ to designate ! nitrog5 or c>bon atoms to :i* ! additional atoms1 or gr\ps1 are atta*$ 9 ! m complex comp\nds ( ! gr\p4 ,9 pur9e itself1 ! f\r hydrog5 atoms are atta*$ 9 ! #b1 #f1 #g1 & #h positions4 #f #a,n,c-- #g --#b;,c #e;,c---,n-- #h;,c-- _/_/ #c,n--#d;,c--#i,n ,! d\ble bonds1 9 ea* case except ^? betwe5 ! #d & #e c>bon atoms1 are easily brok5 ap>t & readju/$1 s t o!r atoms or gr\ps c be atta*$ to any atom 9 ! nucleus except ! #d & #e c>bon atoms4 ,9 all ( ! /atem5ts ) ref]5ce to ! /ructure ( ! pur9e bases1 ! t]m oxy is us$ to mean an oxyg5 atom atta*$ by bo? its bonds to "o ( ! c>bons 9 ! nucleus1 in/ead ( its cu/om>y use to mean ! monoval5t ,,oh gr\p replac+ a hydrog51 z 9 ! case ( all o!r nom5clature ( organic comp\nds4 ,) ?is und]/&+1 ref]5ce to ! numb]$ nucleus =mula above w make pla9 ! /ructure ( all ( ! pur9e bases :i* are includ$ 9 ! foll[+ li/3 ,hypoxan?9e1 ,c#e;,h#d,n#d,o1 #f-monoxypur9e4 ,xan?9e1 ,c#e;,h#d,n#d,o#b1 #b1f-;dioxypur9e4 ,uric acid1 ,c#e;,h#d,n#d,o#c1 #b1f1h-trioxypur9e4 ,ad59e1 ,c#e;,h#c,n#d,,nh#b1 #f-;am9opur9e4 ,guan9e1 ,c#e;,h#c,n#d,,onh#b1 #b-;am9o-#f-oxypur9e4 ,!obrom9e1 ,c#e;,h#b,n#d,o#b7;,,*#c7b #c1g-;dime?yl-#b1f-;dioxypur9e1 or dime?yl xan?9e4 ,!ophyll9e1 ,c#e;,h#b,n#d,o#b7;,,*#c7b #a1c-;dime?yl-#b1f-;dioxypur9e4 ,caffe9e1 ,c#e;,,hn#d,o#b7;,,*#c7c #a1c1g-trime?yl-#b1f-;dioxypur9e1 or trime?yl xan?9e4 ,9 ord] to make ^! /ructural relation%ips q cle>1 ! foll[+ =mulas = uric acid & = caffe9e are pres5t$ z typical examples3 ,h ,n--,c,o ,,*#c--,n--,c,o ,o,c ,c--,n-,h ,o,c ,c--,n-,,*#c ,c,o ,,* _/ _/_/ ,,hn--,c--,n-,h ,,*#c-,n--,c--,n ,uric acid ,caffe9e ,uric acid is f\nd 9 ! excrem5t ( all animals2 9 ! ur9e ( mammals1 & 9 ! solid excrem5t ( birds & reptiles4 ,x is n kn[n to occur 9 plants4 ,xan?9e & hypoxan?9e occur 9 animal ur9e1 & also 9 ! tissues ( bo? plants & animals4 ,ad59e & guan9e are con/itu5ts ( all nucleic acids 7see bel[7 &1 h5ce1 are f\nd 9 all plant & animal tissues4 ,guan9e is ! *ief con/itu5t ( ! excrem5t ( spid]s1 & is f\nd also 9 ,p]uvian guano4 ,x is also a con/itu5t ( ! scales ( fi%es4 ,caffe9e1 !ophyll9e1 & !obrom9e are n f\nd 9 animal tissues1 b are fairly widely di/ribut$ 9 plants4 ,caffe9e & !obrom9e are ! active con/itu5ts ( tea leaves & c(fee se$s & are f\nd also 9 cacao beans & kola nuts4 ,! use ( ^! ?ree comp\nds 9 ! metabolism ( ! plants :i* elaborate !m is :olly unkn[n4 ,!y are n s directly relat$ to prote9 metabolism z are ! o!r pur9e bases4 ,! pur9e bases1 o!r ?an ! ?ree m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph1 are und\bt$ly int]m$iate products 9 prote9 metabolism4 ,9 animals1 !y con/itute a l>ge proportion ( ! wa/e-products f ! use ( prote9s 9 ! body4 ,x is n cle> t !re are simil> wa/e-products 9 plant metabolism1 h[ev]4 ,9 bo? plants & animals1 ! pur9e bases :i* are a "p ( ! nucleic acids und\bt$ly play an important & ess5tial "p 9 gr[?1 s9ce !y =m ! major proportion ( ! nucleus1 f :i* all cell-division proce$s4 ,,! ,,pyrimid9e ,,bases ,^! comp\nds d n occur free 9 plants2 b s9ce !y are con/itu5t gr\ps 9 ! plant nucleic acids 7see bel[71 a brief explanation ( _! composition is desirable4 ,!y are nitrog5\s bases1 simil> to1 b some:at simpl] ?an1 ! pur9e bases4 ,_! g5]al composition & /ructural relation%ips are illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ typical =mulas3 ,n,c-,h ,h-,n--,c,o ,h-,c ,c-,h ,o,c ,c-,h ,n--,c-,h ,h-,n--,c-,h ,pyrimid9e ,uracil ,c#d;,h#d,n#b ,c#d;,h#d,n#b,o#b #b1f-;dioxypyrimid9e ,n,c-,,nh#b ,h-,n--,c,o ,o,c ,c-,h ,o,c ,c-,,*#c ,h-,n--,c-,h ,h-,n--,c-,h ,cytos9e ,?ym9e ,c#d;,h#c,n#b,,onh#b ,c #d;,h#c,n#b,o#b;,,*#c #b1oxy-#f-;am9o-pyrimid9e #b1f-;dioxy-#e-me?yl-pyrimid9e ,,! ,,nucleic ,,acids ,! nuclei ( cells are compos$ almo/ :olly ( complex organic salts1 9 :i* prote9s con/itute ! basic "p & nucleic acids ! acid "p4 ,^! salts1 or e/]s1 are kn[n "u ! g5]al "n nucleoprote9s4 ,! composition ( ! prote9s is discuss$ 9 detail 9 ! foll[+ *apt]1 & x seems desirable to pres5t a brief discussion ( ! con/itution ( ! nucleic acids "h2 al?\gh !y are ess5tially acids r ?an vegetable bases4 ,! nucleic acids are complex comp\nds consi/+ ( a c>bohydrate1 phosphoric acid1 two pur9e bases1 & two pyrimid9e bases4 ,s f> z is kn[n1 all animal nucleic acids are id5tical & all plant nucleic acids are id5tical2 b ^? ( plant orig9 diff] f ^? f\nd 9 animal cells 9 ! "* ( ! c>bohydrate & t ( "o ( ! pyrimid9e bases :i* are pres5t 9 ! molecule1 z %[n 9 ! foll[+ tabulation ( _! composition3 ,animal nucleic acid ,plant nucleic acid ,phosphoric acid ,phosphoric acid ,hexose 7levulose7 ,p5tose 7d-ribose7 ,guan9e ,guan9e ,ad59e ,ad59e ,cytos9e ,cytos9e ,?ym9e ,uracil ,! /ructure ( ! plant nucleic acid may be repres5t$ by ! foll[+ =mula3 ,,oh ,o,p--,o--c>bohydrate-guan9e gr\p ,o ,o,p--,o--c>bohydrate-ad59e gr\p ,o ,o,p--,o--c>bohydrate-uracil gr\p ,o ,o,p--,o--c>bohydrate-cytos9e gr\p ,,oh ,t ?is is probably a correct repres5tation ( ! g5]al arrangem5t 9 ?is comp\nd1 is indicat$ by ! fact t by diff]5t me?ods ( hydrolysis x is possible to split (f ei!r ! pur9e & pyrimid9e bases1 leav+ a c>bohydrate e/] ( phosphoric acid2 or ! phosphoric acid1 leav+ c>bohydrate comb9ations ) ! nitrog5\s bases4 ,nucleic acid1 prep>$ f animal gl&s :i* conta9 l>ge proportions ( x1 is a :ite p[d]1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat]1 b :5 moi/5$ =ms a slimy mass4 ,x is almo/ insoluble 9 alcohol1 b dissolves readily 9 alkal9e solutions1 =m+ a colloidal solution :i* readily gelat9izes 7see *apt] on ,colloids74 ,solutions ( nucleic acids are optically active1 probably because ( ! c>bohydrate con/itu5ts4 ,f _! /ructure & prop]ties1 x is app>5t t nucleic acids are on ! bord] l9e betwe5 c>bohydrates1 plant am9es1 & prote9s4 ,!y und\bt$ly play an important "p1 bo? 9 cell-gr[? & 9 ! syn!sis ( prote9s f c>bohydrates & ammonium comp\nds4 ,ref]5ces ,,b>g]1 ,,geo4--,! ,simpl] ,natural ,bases1 #bae pages1 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiad4 ,,fis*]1 ,e4--,unt]su*ung5 9 d] ,pur+ruppe1 #ahhb-aijf1 #fjh pages1 ,b]l91 #aijg4 ,,h5ry1 ,t4 ,a4--,! ,plant ,alkaloids1 #dff pages1 ,philadelphia1 #aiac4 ,,jones1 ,w4--,! ,nucleic ,acids1 #aah pages1 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiad4 ,,pictet1 ,a4--,la ,con/itution ,*imique des ,alcaloides ,vegetaux1 #dba pages1 ,p>is1 #ahig 7#b;d ed474 ,,vaughan1 ,v4 ,c4 & ,,novy1 ,f4 ,g4--,ptoma9es1 ,leucoma9es1 ,tox9s & ,antitox9s1 #fjd pages1 ,philadelphia1 #ahif1 7#c;d ed474 ,,w9t]/e91 ,e4 & ,,tri]1 ,g4--,die ,alkaloide1 #cdj pages1 ,b]l91 #aiaj4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,prote9s ,! prote9s are ! mo/ important gr\p ( organic compon5ts ( plants4 ,!y con/itute ! active mat]ial ( protoplasm1 9 :i* all ( ! *emical *anges :i* g to make up ! vital ph5om5a take place4 ,comb9$ ) ! nucleic acids1 !y comprise ! nucleus ( ! cell1 :i* is ! seat ( ! p[] ( cell-division &1 h5ce1 ( ! gr[? ( ! organism4 ,g]m-cells are compos$ almo/ exclusively ( prote9 mat]ial4 ,h5ce1 x is n an ov]-/atem5t to say t prote9s furni% ! mat]ial 9 :i* ! vital p[]s ( gr[? & repair & ( reproduction are locat$4 ,a recognition ( _! importance is reflect$ 9 ! use ( ! "n prote91 :i* comes f a ,greek ^w mean+ pre-em95ce1 or ( fir/ importance4 ,9 addition to ! prote9s :i* con/itute ! active protoplasm1 plants also conta9 l>ge am\nts ( res]ve1 or /or$1 prote9s1 especially 9 ! se$s4 ,9 ! e>ly /ages ( gr[?1 ! prote9s are pres5t 9 l>ge/ proportions 9 ! vegetative portions ( ! plant2 b z maturity approa*es1 a consid]able proportion ( ! prote9 mat]ial is transf]r$ to ! se$s4 ,,g5]al ,,composition ,,( ,,prote9s ,! plant prote9s are fairly uni=m 9 _! p]c5tage composition4 ,! analyses ( "s sixte5 diff]5t plant prote9s %[ ! foll[+ maximum limits ( p]c5tages ( ! diff]5t *emical elem5ts :i* !y conta93 ,c>bon1 #ej4gb-ed4bi2 hydrog51 #f4hj-g4jc2 nitrog51 #ae4hd-ai4jc2 oxyg51 #bj4hf-bd4bi2 sulfur1 #j4ag-a4ji4 ,animal prote9s v>y m widely1 bo? 9 p]c5tage composition & 9 prop]ties1 ?an d ^? ( plant orig94 ,prote9 molecules are v l>ge &1 9 ! case ( ! s-call$ conjugat$ prote9s 9 p>ticul>1 _! /ructure is v complex4 ,! molecul> weight ( "s ( ! prote9s has be5 det]m9$ directly1 9 ! case ( ^? p>ticul> ones :i* c be prep>$ 9 prop] =m = ! usual det]m9ation ( molecul> weight by ! osmotic pressure me?od2 & has be5 comput$ = v>i\s o!rs1 f ! p]c5tage ( sulfur f\nd on analysis1 or 79 ! case ( ! hmoglob9 ( ! blood7 f ! proportion by weight ( oxyg5 absorb$4 ,f ^! det]m9ations & computations1 ! foll[+ =mulas = c]ta9 typical prote9s h be5 calculat$3 = ze9 7f ,indian corn71 ,c#gcf;,h#aafa,n#ahd,o#bjh,s#c2 = gliad9 7f :eat71 ,c#fhe;,h#ajfh,n#aif,o#baa,s#e2 = case9 7f milk71 ,c#gjh;,h#aacj,n#ahj,o#bbd,s#d,p#d2 = egg-album91 ,c#fif;,h#aabe,n#age,o#bbj,s#h4 ,^! few examples w s]ve to illu/rate ! enorm\s size & complexity ( ! prote9 molecule4 ,! conjugat$ prote9s are /ill m complex ?an ! simple prote9s ^: =mulas are "h pres5t$4 ,=tunately = ! purposes ( ! /udy ( ! *emi/ry ( ! prote9s1 h[ev]1 x has be5 f\nd t mo/ ( ! common plant prote9s1 kn[n z ! simple prote9s1 c easily be hydrolyz$ into _! con/itu5t unit gr\ps1 :i* are ! comp>atively simple am9o-acids1 ^: composition & prop]ties are well und]/ood4 ,a /udy ( ! results ( ! hydrolysis ( "s tw5ty common plant prote9s has %[n t x is r>ely possible to recov] ! am9o-acids 9 suffici5t quantities to acc\nt = a full #ajj p] c5t ( ! mat]ial us$1 ! actual p]c5tage ( am9o-acids recov]$ usually total+ f #fj to #hj p] c5t4 ,! rema9+ mat]ial is suppos$ to be also compos$ ( am9o-acids :i* are l9k$ toge!r 9 "s arrangem5t :i* is n brok5 ap>t by any me?od ( hydrolysis :i* has yet be5 devis$4 ,?is view is borne out by ! fact t sub/ances :i* exhibit all ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( prote9s h be5 artificially syn!tiz$1 by us+ only am9o-acid comp\nds4 ,animal prote9s (t5 %[ a mu* l>g] proportion ( unhydrolyzable mat]ial ?an d plant prote9s4 ,,am9o-,,acids ,,& ,,peptid ,,units ,! products ( hydrolysis ( ! common simple prote9s are all am9o-acids4 ,^! are ord9>y organic acids ) "o 7or m7 ( ! hydrog5 atoms ( ! alkyl gr\p replac$ by a --,,nh#b 7or sometimes by a --,,nh--7 gr\p4 ,!y may be reg>d$ z ammonia1 ,,nh#c1 ) "o ( its hydrog5 atoms replac$ by an acid radical2 or z ! acid ) "o ( its hydrog5s replac$ by ! ,,nh#b gr\p4 ,= example1 an am9o-acid d]iv$ f acetic acid1 ,,*#c;,,cooh1 is glyc9e1 or am9o-acetic acid1 ,,*#b,,nh#b;,,cooh2 f propionic acid1 ,,*#c;,,*#b;,,cooh1 !re may be obta9$ ei!r alpha-am9o-propionic acid1 ,,*#c;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 or beta-am9o-propionic acid1 ,,*#b,,nh#b;,,*#b;,,cooh1 etc4 ,all ( ! am9o-acids :i* result f ! hydrolysis ( prote9s are alpha-am9o-acids1 t is to say1 ! ,,nh#b gr\p is atta*$ to ! alpha-c>bon atom1 i4e41 ! "o ne>e/ to ! ,,cooh gr\p4 ,h5ce1 ! g5]al =mula = all ! am9o-acids :i* are f\nd 9 plants is ,r,,*nh#b;,,cooh4 ,^! am9o-acids conta9 bo? ! basic ,,nh#b gr\p & ! acid ,,cooh gr\p4 ,= ?is reason1 !y v easily unite toge!r1 9 ! same way t all acids & bases unite1 to =m l>g] molecules1 ! l9kage tak+ place betwe5 ! basic ,,nh#b gr\p ( "o molecule & ! acid ,,cooh gr\p ( ! o!r1 z indicat$ by ! foll[+ equation3 ,r ,r ,r ,r ---------- ,,hooc,c,n-,h ,,ho,,oc,c,,nh#b ,,hooc,c,n-,,oc,c,,nh#b ,h#b,o ---------- ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,h ,x is obvi\s t ! comp\nd ?us =m$ /ill conta9s a free ,,nh#b gr\p & a free ,,cooh gr\p1 & is1 !re=e1 capable ( l9k+ to ano!r am9o-acid molecule 9 exactly ! same way2 & s on indef9itely4 ,9 actual laboratory exp]im5ts1 z _m z eighte5 ( ^! am9o-acid units h be5 caus$ to unite toge!r 9 ?is way1 & ! result+ comp\nds ?us artificially prep>$ h be5 f\nd to possess ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( natural prote9s4 ,^! artificially prep>$1 prote9-l1 sub/ances h be5 call$ polypeptides1 & ! individual am9o-acids :i* unite toge!r to =m !m are call$ peptides4 ,?us1 a comp\nd :i* conta9s ?ree su* units l9k$ toge!r is call$ a tripeptid2 "o :i* conta9s f\r1 a tetrapeptid4 ,! use ( ! t]m peptid 0 sugge/$ by ! fact t ^! am9o-acids are produc$ f ! hydrolysis ( prote9s by ! dige/ive enzyme peps94 ,! peptid units ( any su* complex z ^? :i* h be5 ref]r$ to 9 ! prec$+ p>agraphs may be l9k$ toge!r 9 a great v>iety ( ways4 ,?us1 9 a tetrapeptid conta9+ units :i* may be designat$ by ! lett]s a1 b1 c1 & d1 ! arrangem5t may be 9 ! ord]s abcd1 bacd1 acbd1 dbca1 etc41 etc4 ,simil>ly1 ! same peptid unit may appe> 9 ! molecule 9 two or m diff]5t places4 ,h5ce1 ! numb] ( possible comb9ations ( am9o-acids into prote9 molecules is v great4 ,fur!r1 x is possible t ! peptid units 9 natural prote9s may be unit$ toge!r ?r\gh o!r l9kages ?an ! "o illu/rat$ above1 z !y (t5 conta9 alcoholic ,,oh gr\ps 9 addition to ! basic ,,nh#b gr\ps1 & ^! ,,oh gr\ps may =m e/]-l9kages ) ! acid 7,,cooh7 gr\ps ( o!r units4 ,/ill o!r acid & basic gr\ps are pres5t 9 "s ( ! am9o-acids :i* h be5 f\nd 9 natural prote9s1 s t ! possibility ( v>iation 9 ! polypeptid l9kages is almo/ limitless4 ,,individual ,,am9o-,,acids ,,f ,,prote9s ,ab\t tw5ty diff]5t am9o-acids h be5 isolat$ f ! products ( hydrolysis ( natural prote9s1 & ?is numb] is be+ add$ to f "t to "t1 z ! me?ods ( isolation & id5tification ( ^! comp\nds are improv$4 ,_m ( ^! same am9o-acids h be5 f\nd 9 free =m 9 plant tissues1 p>ticul>ly 9 rapidly gr[+ buds1 or %oots1 or 9 g]m9at+ se$s1 :]e !y und\bt$ly exi/ z int]m$iate products 9 ! trans=mation ( prote9s into o!r types ( comp\nds4 ,^! am9o-acids1 gr\p$ accord+ to ! *>act]i/ic gr\ps :i* !y conta91 are z foll[s3 ,a4 ,monoam9o-monoc>boxylic acids3 ,glyc9e1 ,c#b;,h#e,,no#b1 ,,*#b,,nh#b;,,cooh1 am9o-acetic acid4 ,alan9e1 ,c#c;,h#g,,no#b1 ,,*#c;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 am9o-propionic acid4 ,s]9e1 ,c#c;,h#g,,no#c1 ,,*#b,,oh,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 oxy-am9o-propionic acid4 ,,*#c ,val9e1 ,c#e;,h#aa,,no#b1 ,,*,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 _/ ,,*#c am9o-isoval]ianic acid4 ,,*#c ,leuc9e1 ,c#f;,h#ac,,no#b1 ,,*,,*#b;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 _/ ,,*#c am9o-isocaproic acid4 ,,*#c ,isoleuc9e1 ,c#f;,h#ac,,no#b1 ,,*,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 _/ ,c#b;,h#e am9o-me?yle?yl-propionic acid4 _/ ,ph5ylalan9e1 ,c#i;,h#aa,,no#b1 ,,*#b;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 ph5yl-am9o-propionic acid4 _/ _/ ,tyros9e1 ,c#i;,h#aa,,no#c1 ,,*#b;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 ,,oh p>aoxy-ph5ylalan9e4 _/ ,cy/9e1 ,c#f;,h#ab,n#b,o#d,s#b1 ,,hooc,,*nh#b;,,*#b,s-,,%#b;,c ,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 di7?io-am9o-propionic acid74 ,b4 ,monoam9o-dic>boxylic acids3 ,asp>tic acid1 ,c#d;,h#g,,no#d1 ,,hooc,,*#b;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 am9o-succ9ic acid4 ,glutamic acid1 ,c#e;,h#i,,no#d1 ,,hooc,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 am9o-glut>ic acid4 ,c4 ,diam9o-monoc>boxylic acids3 ,orni?9e1 ,c#e;,h#ab,n#b,o#b1 ,h#b,n,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 di-am9o-val]ianic acid4 ,lys9e1 ,c#f;,h#ad,n#b,o#b1 ,h#b,n,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*nh#b;,, cooh1 di-am9o-caproic acid4 ,arg99e1 ,c#f;,h#ad,n#d,o#b1 ,,nh#b _/ ,,hn,c ,,nh,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*#b;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 guanid9e-am9o-val]ianic acid4 ,di-am9o-oxysebacic acid1 ,c#aa;,h#ab,n#b,o#c4 ,di-am9o-trioxydodecanic acid1 ,c#ab;,h#bf,n#b,o#c4 ,d4 ,monoimido-monoc>boxylic acids3 ,prol9e1 ,c#e;,h#i,,no#b1 ,h#b;,c---,,*#b ,h#b;,c ,,*,,cooh1 pyrrolid9e-c>boxylic _/ acid ,n ,h ,oxyprol9e1 ,c#e;,h#i,,no#c1 prol9e ) "o 7,,oh7 gr\p4 ,e4 ,monoimido-monoam9o-monoc>boxylic acids4 ,hi/id9e1 ,c#f;,h#i,n#c,o#b1 ,,hc,c--,,*#b;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 imidazole-am9o-propionic ,n ,,nh acid4 _/ ,c ,h ,tryptophane1 ,c#aa;,h#ab,n#b,o#b1 _/ ---,c--,,*#b;,,*nh#b;,,cooh1 indole-am9o-propionic acid4 ,,* _/ _/ ,n ,h ,z has be5 said1 o!r am9o-acids are be+ f\nd1 f "t to "t1 z additional prote9s are exam9$1 or z bett] me?ods ( exam9ation ( ! cleavage products ( ! natural prote9s are devis$4 ,,composition ,,( ,,plant ,,prote9s ,! di/ribution ( ! diff]5t am9o-acids 9 "s ( ! diff]5t plant prote9s :i* h be5 exam9$ 9 ?is way is %[n 9 ! foll[+ table3 ,lett] code = column head+s3 ,a ,gliad9 7:eat74 ,b ,horde9 7b>ley se$74 ,c ,ze9 7corn74 ,d ,legum9 7vet*74 ,e ,ede/9 7hemp74 ,f ,globul9 7squa% se$74 ,g ,am&9 7almonds74 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,glyc9e #j4jb #j4jj #j4jj #j4ci #c4hj #j4eg #j4ea ,alan9e #b4jj #j4dc #i4gi #a4ae #c4fj #a4ib #a4dj ,val9e #j4ba #j4ac #a4hh #a4cf #f4bj #j4bf #j4af ,leuc9e #e4fa #e4fg #ai4ee #h4hj #ad4ej #g4cb #d4de ,prol9e #g4jf #ac4gc #i4jd #d4jd #d4aj #b4hb #b4dd ,ph5ylalan9e #b4ce #e4jc #f4ee #b4hg #c4ji #c4cb #b4ec ,asp>tic acid #j4eh 44444 #a4ga #c4ba #d4ej #c4cj #e4db ,glutamic acid #db4ih #dc4ai #bf4ag #ah4cj #ah4hd #ab4ce #bc4ad ,s]9e #j4ac 8 #a4jb 8 #j4cc 8 8 ,cy/9e #j4de 8 8 8 #a4jj #j4bc 8 ,tyros9e #a4bj #a4fg #c4ee #b4db #b4ac #c4jg #a4ab ,arg99e #c4af #b4af #a4ee #aa4jf #ad4ag #ad4dd #aa4he ,hi/id9e #j4fa #a4bh #j4dc #b4id #b4ai #b4fc #a4eh ,lys9e 44444 44444 44444 #c4ii #a4fe #a4ii #j4gj ,tryptophane pres5tpres5t abs5tpres5tpres5tpres5tpres5t ,ammonia #e4aa #d4hg #c4fd #b4ab #b4bh #a4ee #c4gj ---------------------------------------- --------- #ga4df #gh4af #he4bg #fb4fe #hb4ch #ee4gg #ei4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,at ! "t :5 ^! analyses 7 made1 a me?od = ! quantitative e/imation ( tryptophane _h n be5 devis$1 al?\gh "o is n[ available4 ,! addition ( ! p]c5tages ( tryptophane & ( o!r am9o-acids = :i* me?ods ( det]m9ation are n yet kn[n1 w\ld br+ ! total1 9 ea* case1 m ne>ly up to ! full #ajj p] c5t4 ,^! data w s]ve to %[ h[ widely ! diff]5t plant prote9s v>y 9 ! proportions ( ! diff]5t am9o-acids :i* !y conta94 ,animal prote9s h be5 f\nd to be /ill m v>iable 9 composition4 ,9 ! use ( ! prote9s z food = animals1 x appe>s t ! diff]5t am9o-acids are 9 "s way connect$ ) ! diff]5t physiological functions :i* ! prote9s h to p]=m 9 ! animal body3 ?us1 tryptophane is absolutely ess5tial to ! ma9t5ance ( life1 b does n promote gr[?2 lys9e1 on ! o!r h&1 def9itely promotes gr[?1 s t animals :i* h be5 ma9ta9$ )\t any increase 9 weight = _m mon?s imm$iately beg9 to gr[ :5 furni%$ ) a diet 9 :i* lys9e is a con/itu5t2 :ile arg99e seems to be def9itely associat$ ) ! reproductive function2 & cy/9e1 ) ! gr[? ( hair1 fea!rs1 etc4 ,x is n kn[n :e!r !re is any simil> relation ( am9o-acids to ! functions ( diff]5t prote9s 9 plant metabolism4 ,! sep>ation ( ! individual am9o-acids f ! mixture :i* results f ! hydrolysis ( any giv5 prote9 is a long & t$i\s process &1 at be/1 yields only mod]ately satisfactory results4 ,= t reason1 x has rec5tly be5 almo/ entirely ab&on$ 9 favor ( ! sep>ation devis$ by ,van ,slyke1 :i* divides ! total nitrog5\s matt] 9 ! mixture result+ f ! hydrolysis ( a prote9 into ! foll[+ gr\ps2 ammonia ,n1 hum9 7or melan97 ,n1 cy/9e ,n1 arg99e ,n1 hi/id9e ,n1 lys9e ,n1 am9o ,n ( ! filtrate1 & non-am9o ,n ( ! filtrate4 ,^! gr\ps c be conv5i5tly & fairly accurately sep>at$ out ( ! hydrolysis mixture1 by means ( v>i\s precipitat+ ag5ts1 & ! quantity ( ,n 9 ! sev]al precipitates det]m9$ by ! usual ,kjeldahl me?od4 ,! actual process = ^! sep>ations ne$ n be discuss$ "h1 z x is giv5 9 detail 9 all /&>d text-books deal+ ) ! me?ods ( bio*emical analysis4 ,! di/ribution ( ! nitrog5 9 any giv5 prote9 into ^! v>i\s gr\ps is *>act]i/ic = t p>ticul> prote91 & ! process s]ves bo? z a means ( id5tification ( individual prote9s & a me?od = trac+ _! *anges ?r\gh v>i\s vital1 or bio*emical1 trans=mations4 ,,g5]al ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,! ,,prote9s ,individual prote9s diff] slightly 9 _! *>act]i/ics1 b 9 g5]al !y are all alike 9 ! foll[+ physical & *emical prop]ties4#e ,physical ,prop]ties4--7#a7 ,! prote9s are all colloidal 9 "*1 t is1 !y =m solutions 9 wat]1 out ( :i* !y _c be dialyz$ ?r\gh p>*m5t1 or o!r simil> membranes4 7#b7 ,all natural prote9s1 :5 9 colloidal solution1 may be coagulat$1 =m+ a semi-solid gel1 :i* _c aga9 be r5d]$ soluble except by decomposition4 ,! mo/ famili> example ( ?is type ( coagulation is t ( egg-album91 :5 eggs are cook$4 ,?is coagulation may be produc$ by heat1 by ! action ( c]ta9 enzymes1 or by ! addition ( alcohol to ! solution4 7#c7 ,all solutions ( plant prote9s are optically active1 rotat+ ! plane ( pol>iz$ light to ! left1 9 e case4 7#d7 ,prote9s are precipitat$ out ( _! solutions1 )\t *ange 9 ! composition ( ! prote91 by saturat+ ! solution ) v>i\s neutral salts ( ! alkali1 or alkal9e e>?1 metals1 su* z sodium *loride1 ammonium sulfate1 magnesium sulfate1 etc4 ,?is is only ano!r way ( say+ t ! prote9s are insoluble 9 /rong salt solutions4 ,sep>ation f solution by ! addition ( salts is diff]5t f coagulation by heat1 etc41 z 9 ?is case simple dilution ( ! salt solution w cause ! prote9 to r$issolve1 :]eas a coagulat$ prote9 _c be r$issolv$ )\t "s *ange 9 its composition4 ,*emical ,prop]ties4 7#a7 ,precipitation reactions4--,! prote9s h bo? acid & basic prop]ties 7due to ! pres5ce 9 _! molecules ( bo? free ,,nh#b gr\ps & free ,,cooh gr\ps74 ,bodies ( ?is k9d are kn[n z amphot]ic electrolytes1 s9ce !y yield bo? positive & negative ions1 if dissociat$4 ,! prote9s readily =m salts1 :i* are g5]ally insoluble 9 wat]1 ) /rong acids4 ,= ?is reason1 !y are g5]ally precipitat$ out ( solution by ! addition ( ! common m9]al acids4 ,!y are also precipitat$ by _m ( ! alkaloidal reag5ts1 to :i* ref]5ce has be5 made 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 namely1 phosphotung/ic1 phosphomolybdic1 tannic1 picric1 f]rocyanic1 & tri*loracetic acids1 ! d\ble iodide ( potassium1 m]curic iodide1 etc4 ,! precipitates produc$ by /rong m9]al acids are (t5 soluble 9 excess ( ! acid1 ) ! =mation ( c]ta9 s-call$ d]iv$ prote9s1 :i* are probably products ( ! p>tial hydrolysis ( ! prote94 ,! prote9s are also precipitat$ out ( solution by ! addition ( small am\nts ( salts ( v>i\s heavy metals1 su* z ! *lorides1 sulfates1 & acetates ( iron1 copp]1 m]cury1 lead1 etc4 ,?is precipitation is diff]5t ?an t caus$ by ! saturation ( ! solution ) ! salts ( ! alkali metals1 z 9 ?is case ! metal unites ) ! prote9 to =m def9ite1 insoluble salts1 :i* _c be r$issolv$ except by treatm5t ) "s reag5t :i* removes ! metal f its comb9ation ) ! prote9 7hydrog5 sulfide is commonly us$ = ?is purpose74 7#b7 ,color reactions4--,c]ta9 specific gr\ps :i* are pres5t 9 mo/ prote9s give def9ite color reactions ) v>i\s reag5ts4 ,x is app>5t t any individual prote9 w respond to a p>ticul> color reaction1 or w n d s1 dep5d+ ^u :e!r ! p>ticul> gr\p :i* is responsible = ! color 9 "q is pres5t 9 t p>ticul> prote94 ,color reactions to :i* mo/ ( ! common plant prote9s respond are ! foll[+ ones3 7a7 ,biuret ,reaction4--,solutions ( copp] sulfate1 add$ to an alkal9e solution ( a prote91 give a blui%-violet color if ! sub/ance conta9s two1 or m1 --,,conh-- gr\ps unit$ toge!r ?r\gh c>bon1 nitrog51 or sulfur atoms4 ,inasmu* z mo/ natural prote9s conta9 sev]al su* gr\ps1 ! biuret reaction is a v g5]al te/ = prote9s4 7b7 ,millon's ,reaction4--,a solution ( m]curic nitrate conta9+ "s free nitr\s acid 7,millon's reag5t7 produces a precipitate :i* turns p9k or r$1 :5ev] x is add$ to a solution :i* conta9s tyros9e1 or a tyros9e-conta9+ prote94 7c7 ,xan?oproteic ,acid ,reaction4--,?is is ! famili> yell[ coloration :i* is produc$ :5ev] nitric acid comes 9 contact ) animal fle%4 ,x is caus$ by ! action ( nitric acid on tyros9e4 ,! color is int5sifi$ by heat+1 & is *ang$ to orange-r$ by ! addition ( ammonia4 7d7 ,adamkiewicz's ,reaction4--,if conc5trat$ sulfuric acid be add$ to a solution ( a prote9 to :i* "s acetic acid 7or bett]1 glyoxylic acid7 has previ\sly be5 add$1 a violet color is produc$4 ,?is color w appe> z a r+ at ! juncture ( ! two liquids1 if ! sulfuric acid is p\r$ c>efully d[n ! sides ( ! tube1 or ?r\gh\t ! mixture if x is %ak5 up4 ,x dep5ds ^u ! int]action ( ! glyoxylic acid 7:i* is g5]ally pres5t z an impurity 9 acetic acid7 ^u ! tryptophane gr\p1 & is !re=e giv5 by all prote9s :i* conta9 tryptophane4 7e7 ,molis*'s reaction = furfural w be %[n by ^? prote9s :i* conta9 a c>bohydrate gr\p4 ,9 apply+ ?is te/1 ! solution to be te/$ is fir/ treat$ ) a few drops ( an alcoholic solution ( alpha-naph?ol1 & !n conc5trat$ sulfuric acid is p\r$ c>efully d[n ! sides ( ! te/-tube4 ,if c>bohydrates are pres5t1 ei!r free or z a "p ( a prote9 molecule1 a r$-violet r+ =ms at ! juncture ( ! two liquids4 7f7 ,sulfur ,te/4--,if a drop ( a solution ( lead acetate be add$ to a solution conta9+ a prote91 foll[$ by suffici5t sodium hydroxide solution to dissolve ! precipitate :i* =ms1 & ! mixture is heat$ to boil+1 a black or br[n coloration w be produc$ if ! prote9 conta9s cy/9e1 ! sulfur-conta9+ am9o-acid4 ,,footnotes3 #e ,s9ce ! prote9s are ess5tially colloidal 9 nature1 _m ( ! t]ms us$ 9 ! discussions ( _! prop]ties1 & ^! prop]ties !mselves1 w be bett] und]/ood aft] ! *apt] deal+ ) ! colloidal condition ( matt] has be5 /udi$4 ,a m logical arrangem5t s f> z ! sy/ematic /udy ( ^! prop]ties is conc]n$ w\ld be to take up *apt] ,,xv be=e und]tak+ ! /udy ( ! prote9s 7?is ord] is actually foll[$ 9 "s texts on ,physiological ,*emi/ry74 ,b f ! /&po9t ( ! consid]ation ( ! v>i\s gr\ps ( organic compon5ts ( plants1 x seems a bett] arrangem5t to consid] ^! gr\ps 9 sequ5ce1 & !n to discuss ! v>i\s physical-*emical ph5om5a :i* gov]n _! activity4 ,h[ev]1 x is recomm5d$ t ! /ud5t ref] at once to ,*apt] ,,xv = an explanation ( any t]ms us$ "h1 :i* may n be famili> to him2 & t aft] ! /udy ( ,*apt] ,,xv1 he return to ?is *apt] deal+ ) ! prote9s = an illu/rative /udy ( ! applications ( ! pr9ciples pres5t$ !re4 ,,! ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,prote9s ,=m]ly1 ! classification ( prote9s 0 bas$ almo/ :olly ^u _! solubility & coagulation reactions4 ,m rec5tly1 s9ce _! products ( hydrolysis h be5 ext5sively /udi$1 _! classification has be5 modifi$1 9 attempts to make x correspond z closely z possible to _! *emical con/itution & physical prop]ties4 ,z k ( ^! matt]s progresses1 ! s*emes ( classification *ange4 ,on t acc\nt1 no "o def9ite s*eme is univ]sally us$4 ,= example1 ! ,engli% sy/em v>ies consid]ably f ! "o commonly us$ by ,am]ican bio*emi/s1 :i* is ! "o pres5t$ bel[4 ,! prote9s are divid$ into ?ree ma9 classes1 z foll[s3 7#a7 ,simple prote9s1 :i* yield only am9o-acids :5 hydrolyz$4 7#b7 ,conjugat$ prote9s1 comp\nds ( prote9s ) "s o!r non-prote9 gr\p4 7#c7 ,d]iv$ prote9s1 decomposition products ( simple prote9s4 ,! fir/ two ( ^! classes comprise all ! natural prote9s2 :ile ! ?ird includes ! artificial polypeptides & prote9s :i* h be5 modifi$ by reag5ts4 ,^! major classes are fur!r subdivid$ into ! foll[+ sub-classes1 :i* dep5d 9 "p ^u ! solubilities ( ! individual prote9s1 & 9 "p ^u ! nature ( _! products ( hydrolysis3 #a4 ,! ,simple ,prote9s ,a4 ,album9s--soluble 9 wat] & dilute salt solutions1 coagulat$ by heat4 ,b4 ,globul9s--insoluble 9 wat]1 soluble 9 dilute salt solutions1 coagulat$ by heat4 ,c4 ,glutel9s--insoluble 9 wat] or dilute salt solutions1 soluble 9 dilute acids or alkalies1 coagulat$ by heat4 ,d4 ,prolam9s--insoluble 9 wat]1 etc41 soluble 9 #hj p] c5t alcohol4 ,e4 ,hi/ones--soluble 9 wat]1 insoluble 9 ammonia1 n coagulat$ by heat4 ,f4 ,protam9es--soluble 9 wat] & ammonia1 n coagulat$ by heat1 yield+ l>ge proportions ( diam9o-acids on hydrolysis4 ,g4 ,album9oids--insoluble 9 wat]1 salt solutions1 acids1 or alkalies4 #b4 ,conjugat$ ,prote9s ,a4 ,*romoprote9s--comp\nds ( prote9s ) pigm5ts4 ,b4 ,glucoprote9s--comp\nds ( prote9s ) c>bohydrates4 ,c4 ,phosphoprote9s--prote9s ( ! cytoplasm1 conta9+ phosphoric acid4 ,d4 ,nucleoprote9s--prote9s ( ! nucleus1 conta9+ nucleic acids4 ,e4 ,leci?oprote9s--comp\nds ( prote9s ) phospholip9s4 ,f4 ,lipoprote9s--comp\nds ( prote9s ) fats1 exi/5ce 9 nature d\btful1 artificial =ms easily prep>$4 #c4 ,d]iv$ ,prote9s ,a4 ,prim>y prote9 d]ivatives4 a4 ,proteans--fir/ products ( hydrolysis1 insoluble 9 wat]4 b4 ,metaprote9s--result f fur!r action ( acids or alkalies1 soluble 9 weak acids & alkalies1 b insoluble 9 dilute salt solutions4 c4 ,coagulat$ prote9s--insoluble =ms produc$ by ! action ( heat or alcohol4 ,b4 ,second>y prote9 d]ivatives4 a4 ,proteoses--products ( hydrolysis1 soluble 9 wat]1 n coagulat$ by heat1 precipitat$ by saturation ( solution ) ammonium sulfate4 b4 ,peptones--products ( fur!r hydrolysis soluble 9 wat]1 n coagulat$ by heat1 n precipitat$ by ammonium sulfate1 give biuret reaction4 c4 ,peptides--individual am9o-acids1 or poly-peptides1 may or may n give biuret reaction4 ,! plant prote9s :i* h be5 inve/igat$1 ?us f>1 fall into ^! gr\ps z foll[s3 #a;,a4 ,album9s ,leucos91 f\nd 9 ! se$s ( :eat1 rye1 & b>ley4 ,legumel91 pea1 horse-bean1 vet*1 soy-bean1 l5til1 c[pea1 adzuki-bean4 ,phasel91 kidney-bean4 ,ric91 ca/or-bean4 #a;,b4 ,globul9s ,legum91 f\nd 9 ! se$s ( pea1 horse-bean1 l5til & vet*4 ,vign91 c[pea4 ,glyc991 soy-bean4 ,phaseol91 beans 7,phaseolus spp47 ,conglut91 lup9es4 ,vicil91 pea1 horse-bean1 l5til4 ,coryl91 hazel nut4 ,am&91 nuts ( almond & pea*4 ,juglans91 se$s ( walnut & butt]nut4 ,excels91 ,brazil nut4 ,ede/91 hemp se$4 ,av5al91 oats4 ,mays91 corn4 ,ca/an91 ! se$s ( ,european *e/nut4 ,tub]91 potato tub]s4 ,&1 cry/all9e globul9s f\nd 9 ! se$s ( flax1 squa%1 ca/or-bean1 sesame1 cotton1 sunfl[]1 radi%1 rape1 mu/>d1 & 9 cocoanuts1 c&l5uts1 & peanuts4 #a;,c4 ,glutel9s ,glut591 f\nd 9 ! se$s ( :eat4 ,oryz591 rice4 #a;,d4 ,prolam9s ,gliad91 f\nd 9 ! se$s ( rye1 :eat1 ) glut59 =ms glut54 ,horde91 b>ley4 ,ze91 corn4 #a;,e-#a;,g4 ,hi/ones1 ,protam9es & ,album9oids4--,s f> z is n[ kn[n1 no repres5tatives ( ^! classes are f\nd 9 plants4 #b4 ,conjugat$ ,prote9s4--,!re is no conclusive evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce 9 plants ( any ( ! conjugat$ prote9s1 o!r ?an ! nucleoprote9s & ! *romoprote9s1 ! composition & prop]ties ( :i* h be5 discuss$ 9 previ\s *apt]s4 ,! nucleoprote9s und\bt$ly occur 9 ! embryos ( _m1 if n all1 se$s4 #c4 ,d]iv$ ,prote9s4--,repres5tatives ( ! v>i\s types ( d]iv$ prote9s are und\bt$ly f\nd z tempor>y int]m$iate products 9 plants1 bo? z products ( hydrolysis produc$ dur+ ! g]m9ation ( se$s & z int]m$iate =ms 9 ! syn!sis ( prote9s4 ,s f> z is kn[n1 h[ev]1 !y d n occur z p]man5t =ms 9 any plant tissues4 ,!y h be5 prep>$ 9 l>ge numb]s & quantities1 by ! hydrolysis ( ! natural prote9s & ! artificial syn!sis ( polypeptides4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k conc]n+ ! function+ ( ! prote9s1 no significance 9 ! physiology ( plant life1 or metabolism1 is to be atta*$ to ! p>ticul> type ( prote9 mat]ial :i* x conta9s1 at lea/ s f> z ! simple prote9s ( ! cytoplasm are conc]n$4 ,,diff]5ces ,,betwe5 ,,plant ,,& ,,animal ,,prote9s ,a mu* l>g] v>iety ( prote9 mat]ials is f\nd 9 animal tissues ?an 9 plants4 ,?is is und\bt$ly because diff]5t animal organs p]=m s mu* m v>i$ physiological functions ?an d ^? ( plants4 ,?ree gr\ps ( simple prote9s1 ! hi/ones1 ! protam9es1 & ! album9oids1 :i* are q common 9 animal tissues1 are entirely unkn[n 9 plants4 ,fur!r1 conjugat$ prote9s ( great] complexity & m v>i$ /ructure are f\nd 9 animal tissues1 especially 9 ! bra91 n]ve-cells1 etc41 ?an 9 plants4 ,plant prote9s1 9 g5]al1 usually conta9 l>g] proportions ( prol9e & ( glutamic acid ?an are f\nd 9 animal prote9s2 also m arg99e ?an is f\nd 9 any ( ! animal prote9s except ! protam9es1 :i* conta9 z high z #he p] c5t ( ?is am9o-acid4 ,( ! tw5ty-five plant prote9s :i* h ?us f> be5 hydrolyz$ & /udi$ f ?is /&po9t1 all conta9$ leuc9e1 prol9e1 ph5ylalan9e1 asp>tic acid1 glutamic acid1 tyros9e1 hi/id9e1 & arg99e2 two gave no glyc9e2 two o!rs1 no alan9e2 f\r conta9$ no lys9e2 & "o1 no tryptophane4 ,ze91 ! pr9cipal prote9 ( corn conta9s no glyc9e1 lys9e1 or tryptophane4 ,x is n suffici5t to support animal life & promote gr[?1 if us$ z an exclusive s\rce = prote9 = food4 ,,! ,,extraction ,,( ,,prote9s ,,f ,,plant ,,tissues ,s9ce prote9s are indiffusible1 x is ess5tial t ! cell-walls ( ! tissue %all be ?or\ghly ruptur$ z ! fir/ /ep 9 any process = ! extraction ( ^! comp\nds f plant tissues4 ,?is is usually accompli%$ by gr9d+ ! mat]ial z f9ely z possible1 pref]ably ) ! addition ( %>p qu>tz s&1 or brok5 glass1 to aid 9 ! te>+ ( ! cell-wall mat]ial4 ,! solv5t to be us$ 9 extract+ ! prote9s f ?is f9ely gr\nd mat]ial dep5ds ^u ! nature & solubility ( ! prote9s :i* are pres5t1 & also ^u :e!r x is desir$ to sep>ate ! prote9s :i* may be pres5t 9 ! plant1 dur+ ! process ( ! extraction4 ,a glance at ! s*eme ( classification ( ! prote9s w %[ ! foll[+ solubilities :i* s]ve z a guide to ! proc$ure to be foll[$3 7a7 proteoses1 album9s1 & "s globul9s may be extract$ ) wat]2 7b7 globul9s & mo/ ( ! wat]-soluble prote9s may be extract$ by us+ a #aj p] c5t solution ( common salt2 7c7 prolam9es are extract$ by #gj-ij p] c5t alcohol2 glutel9s & prolam9s dissolve 9 dilute acids or dilute alkali4 ,a common proc$ure is to extract gr\ps 7a7 & 7b71 us+ a #aj p] c5t salt solution z ! solv5t1 & !n to sep>ate ! album9s1 globul9s1 etc41 f ?is solution by suitable precipitants2 !n to treat ! mat]ial ) #hj p] c5t alcohol1 to extract ! prolam9es2 & f9ally ) dilute alkali1 to extract ! glutel9s4 ,! dissolv$ prote9s 9 ea* extract c be subsequ5tly purifi$ by dialysis1 precipitation1 etc4 ,! insoluble prote9s c be /udi$ only aft] remov+ ! o!r mat]ials associat$ ) !m 9 ! tissue1 by suitable me*anical or *emical means4 ,,! ,,syn!sis ,,( ,,prote9s ,,9 ,,plants ,! syn!sis ( prote9s 9 plants is n a process ( photosyn!sis1 z x c take place 9 ! d>k & 9 ! abs5ce ( *lorophyll1 or any o!r en]gy-absorb+ pigm5t4 ,h[ev]1 prote9-=mation normally takes place 9 conjunction ) c>bohydrate-=mation4 ,! c>bon1 hydrog51 & oxyg5 necess>y = prote9 syn!sis are und\bt$ly obta9$ f c>bohydrates4 ,! nitrog5 & sulfur come f ! salts absorb$ f ! soil ?r\gh ! roots & br\ght to ! active cells 9 ! sap4 ,atmosph]ic nitrog5 _c be us$ by plants = ?is purpose1 except 9 ! case ( c]ta9 bact]ia & o!r l[ plants1 notably ! bact]ia :i* live 9 symbiosis ) ! legumes 9 ! nodules on ! roots ( ! ho/ plants4 ,9 g5]al1 ! sulfur mu/ come 9 ! =m ( sulfates & ! nitrog5 9 ! =m ( nitrates2 al?\gh _m plants c make use ( ammonia = prote9-=mation4 ,presumably1 ! nitrate nitrog5 mu/ be r$uc$ 9 ! plant to nitrites1 & !n to ammonia =m1 9 ord] to ent] ! am9o-arrangem5t requir$ = ! great] proportion ( ! prote9 nitrog54 ,! me*anism by :i* ammonia nitrog5 becomes am9o-acids 9 ! plant is n und]/ood4 ,artificial syn!ses ( am9o-acids1 by ! action ( ammonia ^u glyoxylic acid & sorbic acid1 bo? ( :i* occur 9 plants & may be obta9$ by ! oxidation ( simple sug>s1 h be5 accompli%$1 & x seems probable t simil> reactions 9 ! plant protoplasm may give rise to ! v>i\s am9o-acids :i* unite toge!r to =m prote9s4 ,no?+ is kn[n1 h[ev]1 ( ! process by :i* ! m complicat$ clos$-r+ am9o-acid comp\nds1 su* z prol9e1 hi/id9e1 or tryptophane1 are syn!tiz$4 ,! cond5sation ( am9o-acids into prote9s1 or ! rev]se decomposition1 is v readily accompli%$ 9 all liv+ protoplasm1 "u ! influ5ce ( special prote9-attack+ enzymes1 :i* are almo/ univ]sally pres5t 9 ! cytoplasm4 ,^! reactions 9 connection ) ! prote9s are simil> to ! easy trans=mation ( sug>s to />*es1 & vice v]sa1 "u ! action ( ! correspond+ c>bohydrate-attack+ enzymes4 ,,physiological ,,uses ,,( ,,prote9s ,!re c be no d\bt t ! all-important rle ( prote9s1 9 ei!r plant or animal tissue1 is to furni% ! colloidal protoplasmic mat]ial 9 :i* ! vital ph5om5a take place4 ,_! occurr5ce 9 se$s1 & o!r /orage organs1 is1 ( c\rse1 9 ord] to provide ! protoplasm-=m+ mat]ial = ! "y se$l+ plant4 ,!y are1 moreov]1 ! s\rce = ! mat]ial :i* goes into "s ( ! secretion gr\ps ( organic comp\nds2 z !y are easily brok5 d[n by v>i\s ag5ts ( decomposition into nitrog5-free alcohols1 aldehydes1 & acids1 :i* produce ! ess5tial oils1 pigm5ts1 etc4 ,mu*1 if n all1 ( _! physiological activity is due to _! colloidal nature1 ! importance & effects ( :i* w be m app>5t aft] ! *apt]s deal+ ) ! colloidal condition ( matt] & ) ! physical *emi/ry ( protoplasm h be5 /udi$4 ,,ref]5ces ,,abd]hald51 ,e4--,neu]e ,ergebnisse auf dem ,gebiete d] ,speziell5 ,eiweiss*emie1 #abh pages1 ,j5a1 #aiji4 ,,fis*]1 ,e4--,unt]su*ung5 b] ,am9osur51 ,polypeptide1 und ,prote9e1 #ahii-aijf1 #ggj pages1 ,b]l91 #aijf4 ,,mann1 ,g4--,*emi/ry ( ! ,proteids1 #fjf pages1 ,london1 #aijf4 ,,osborne1 ,t4 ,b4--,! ,vegetable ,prote9s1 #ach pages1 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiji4 ,,plimm]1 ,r4 ,h4 ,a4--,! ,*emical ,con/itution ( ! ,prote9s1 ,"p ,i1 ,analysis1 #ahh pages2 & ,"p ,,ii1 ,syn!sis1 etc4 #ajg pages1 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiag4 7#c;d ed474 ,,rob]tson1 ,t4 ,b4--,! ,physical ,*emi/ry ( ! ,prote9s1 #dgg pages1 ,new ,york1 #aiah4 ,,s*ryb]1 ,s4 ,b4--,! ,g5]al ,*>act]s ( ! ,prote9s1 #hf pages1 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiji4 ,,und]hill1 ,f4 ,p4--,! ,physiology ( ! ,am9o-acids1 #afi pages1 #ac figs4 #a plate4 ,yale ,univ]sity ,press1 #aiae4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,enzymes ,,& ,,_! ,,action ,! *>act]i/ic diff]5ce betwe5 ! reactions ( inorganic comp\nds & ^? ( organic sub/ances lies 9 ! rapidity1 or velocity1 ( ! *emical *anges involv$4 ,speak+ g5]ally *emical reactions take place betwe5 sub/ances :i* are 9 solution1 s t !y may come into suffici5tly intimate contact t *emical action betwe5 !m c take place4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 occasional examples ( reactions betwe5 dry solids1 su* z ! explosion ( gunp[d]1 etc41 b ! g5]al rule is t react+ mat]ials mu/ be 9 ei!r colloidal or true solutions4 ,inorganic mat]ials1 :5 dissolv$ 9 wat]1 usually ionize v readily4 ,t is1 !y are n only dis9tegrat$ into individual molecules1 b a consid]able proportion ( ^! molecules sep>ate into _! con/itu5t ions4 ,:5 solutions conta9+ ioniz$ comp\nds are br\ght toge!r1 conditions = *emical int]action are ideal1 & ! reaction proce$s ) su* trem5d\s rapidity z to be complet$ almo/ in/antane\sly1 9 mo/ cases4 ,organic comp\nds1 on ! o!r h&1 ionize only v sl[ly1 if at all4 ,h5ce1 reactions betwe5 organic comp\nds1 ev5 :5 !y are 9 solution1 proce$ v sl[ly unless c>ri$ on at high temp]atures1 "u increas$ pressure1 or "u ! influ5ce ( "s catalytic ag5t4 ,ev5 "u ! /imulation ( ^! reaction-accel]at+ ag5cies1 mo/ *emical *anges 9 organic comp\nds :5 c>ri$ on 9 ! laboratory1 require sev]al h\rs or ev5 days & sometimes weeks1 = _! completion4 ,b :5 simil> reactions take place 9 liv+ organisms1 !y proce$ ) velocities :i* resemble ^? ( inorganic comp\nds 9 ! laboratory4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! velocity ( organic reactions :5 c>ri$ on "u artificial conditions 9 ! laboratory 7(t5 spok5 ( z 9 vitro7 z comp>$ ) t ( ! same reactions :5 !y take place 9 a liv+ organism 79 vivo71 is due to ! univ]sal pres5ce 9 ! liv+ protoplasm ( c]ta9 organic cataly/s1 kn[n z enzymes4 ,,enzymes ,,z ,,cataly/s ,! ph5om5on kn[n z catalysis is ( common occurr5ce 9 bo? inorganic & organic *emi/ry4 ,! effect ( a small am\nt ( manganese dioxide 9 aid+ 9 ! lib]ation ( oxyg5 f potassium *lorate is an example :i* is famili> to all /ud5ts ( elem5t>y *emi/ry4 ,simil>ly1 spongy plat9um accel]ates ! oxidation ( sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide1 9 ! comm]cial manufacture ( sulfuric acid4 ,aga91 ! hydrolysis ( sucrose into fructose & glucose proce$s v sl[ly 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] alone1 b if a little hydro*loric acid or sulfuric acid be add$ to ! solution1 ! velocity ( ! hydrolysis is enorm\sly accel]at$4 ,_m o!r examples ( ! accel]at+ effect ( v>i\s *emicals ^u reactions into :i* !y d n !mselves ent]1 might be cit$4 ,! ess5tial features ( all su* catalytic actions are3 7#a7 ! velocity ( ! reaction is greatly alt]$1 usually accel]at$2 7#b7 ! catalytic ag5t does n appe> z "o ( ! initial sub/ances1 or end-products1 ( ! reaction1 & is n itself alt]$ by ! *emical *ange :i* is tak+ place2 7#c7 ! accel]at+ effect is directly proportional to ! am\nt ( ! cataly/ :i* is pres5t2 7#d7 relatively small am\nts ( ! cataly/ produce v l>ge results 9 ! react+ mixture2 & 7#e7 ! cataly/s _c !mselves initiate reactions1 b only influ5ce ! velocity ( reactions :i* w\ld o!rwise take place at a diff]5t rate 7usually mu* m sl[ly7 9 ! abs5ce ( any catalytic ag5t4 ,enzymes con=m to all ( ^! prop]ties ( cataly/s1 & are commonly def9$ z ! cataly/s ( liv+ matt]4 ,!y are almo/ univ]sally pres5t 9 liv+ organs ( e k9d1 & p]=m exce$+ly important functions1 bo? 9 ! build+-up ( syn!tic mat]ials & 9 ! r5d]+ soluble ( ! food ( bo? plants & animals1 s t x c be translocat$ f place to place ?r\gh ! tissues ( ! organism4 ,enzymes diff] f inorganic cataly/s 9 be+ de/roy$ by heat1 9 n always c>ry+ ! reaction to ! same /age z does ! inorganic cataly/ :i* may accel]ate ! same reaction1 & 9 produc+ diff]5t *anges 9 ! same sub/ance by diff]5t enzymes4 ,! "n enzyme comes f ,greek words mean+ 9 yea/1 z ! nature & effect ( ! enzyme involv$ 9 ! alcoholic f]m5tation ( sug>s by yea/ 7 ^? :i* 7 fir/ recogniz$ & und]/ood4 ,x 0 at fir/ ?\ght1 by ,pa/eur & 8 /ud5ts1 t f]m5tation is ! direct result ( ! life activities ( ! yea/ plant4 ,lat]1 x 0 f\nd t wat] extracts f spr\t$ b>ley1 f almond se$s1 & f ! /oma*1 pancreas1 etc41 7 able to br+ ab\t ! decomposition ( />*1 ( amygdal91 & ( prote9s1 respectively1 9 a way :i* seem$ to be q comp>able to ! f]m5tative action ( yea/s4 ,h5ce1 x 0 ?\ght t !re 7 two v>ieties ( active ag5ts ( ?is k9d1 "o compos$ ( liv+ cells & ! o!r non-liv+ *emical comp\nds1 & ^! 7 call$ ! organiz$ f]m5ts & ! unorganiz$ f]m5ts1 respectively4 ,h[ev]1 9 #ahig1 ,b*n] f\nd t by gr9d+ yea/ cells ) %>p s& until !y 7 completely dis9tegrat$ & !n submitt+ ! mass to hydraulic pressure1 he c\ld obta9 a cle> liquid1 entirely free f liv+ cells1 :i* 0 j z active 9 produc+ f]m5tation z 0 ! yea/ itself4 ,?is discov]y pav$ ! way = a long s]ies ( inve/igations1 :i* h conclusively demon/rat$ t !re is no di/9ction betwe5 organiz$ & unorganiz$ f]m5ts1 t all liv+ organisms p]=m _! *>act]i/ic functions by means ( ! enzymes :i* !y conta91 & t ^! enzymes c br+ ab\t _! *>act]i/ic catalytic effects outside ! cell1 or tissue :i* elaborates !m1 j z well z )9 x1 provid$ only t ! conditions ( temp]ature1 acidity or alkal9ity ( ! m$ium1 etc41 are suitable = ! p>ticul> enzyme action :i* is "u consid]ation4 ,,g5]al ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,enzymes ,s9ce enzymes are cataly/s1 x is pla9 t an accurate description ( _! activity %\ld1 9 ea* case1 ref] to ! influ5ce :i* !y ex]t ^u "s def9ite reaction velocity4 ,b s9ce ! phrases necess>y to describe su* an effect are cumb]some & inconv5i5t1 & s9ce mo/ ( ! reactions :i* are accel]at$ by ! catalytic action ( enzymes are ei!r simple hydrolyses1 *anges 9 oxyg5 cont5t1 or o!r simple decompositions or cond5sations1 :i* w o!rwise proce$ s sl[ly z to be practically negligible1 x is cu/om>y to speak ( ! enzyme z act+ ^u ! mat]ial 9 "q4 ,x %\ld be und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t ?is is a mis/atem5t1 z ! enzyme _c actually initiate a reaction1 or act ^u any sub/ance2 x only acts z a catalyz] to accel]ate ! action ( wat]1 oxyg51 etc41 ^u ! mat]ial 9 "q4 ,g5]ally speak+1 mo/ enzymes are colloidal 9 =m &1 h5ce1 d n diffuse ?r\gh membranes su* z ! cell-walls4 ,"s ( !m p]=m _! *>act]i/ic functions only )9 ! cell1 or organ1 :i* elaborates !m1 & c be obta9$ outside ^! tissues = purposes ( /udy only by fir/ ruptur+ ! cell-wall or o!r membrane ) :i* !y are surr\nd$4 ,su* enzymes are kn[n z intracellul>4 ,o!rs are regul>ly secret$ by gl&s :i* dis*>ge !m onto o!r organs1 z ! /oma* or inte/9es ( animals1 :]e !y p]=m _! useful functions2 or1 z 9 ! case ( g]m9at+ se$s1 !y move to o!r p>ts ( ! organ1 & c be extract$ f ! tissue by simple treatm5t ) wat]4 ,^! are kn[n z ! extracellul> enzymes4 ,enzymes are specific 9 _! action4 ,any giv5 enzyme affects only a s+le reaction2 or at mo/ acts only ^u a s+le gr\p ( comp\nds :i* h simil> molecul> configuration4 ,usually x is only a s+le comp\nd ^: decomposition is accel]at$ by ! action ( a p>ticul> enzyme2 b !re are a few enzymes1 su* z maltase 7:i* acts on all alpha-glucosides7 & emuls9 7:i* acts on all beta-glucosides7 :i* act catalytically ^u gr\ps ( consid]able numb]s ( simil> comp\nds4 ,enzymes1 l all o!r cataly/s1 act m en]getically at increas$ temp]atures2 b = ea* p>ticul> enzyme !re is an optimum temp]ature1 7usually betwe5 #dj & #fe7 above :i* ! de/ructive effect ( ! temp]ature ^u ! enzyme itself m ?an (fsets ! accel]at+ influ5ce ( ! increas$ temp]ature4 ,at /ill high] temp]atures 7usually #hj to #ajj7 ! enzymes are kill$1 i4e41 r5d]$ p]man5tly inactive4 ,all enzymes are kill$ by boil+ ! solutions 9 :i* !y are conta9$4 ,dry prep>ations ( enzyme mat]ial c )/& some:at high] temp]atures1 = some:at long] p]iods ( "t1 ?an c ! same enzyme 9 moi/ condition or 9 solution4 ,:5 an enzyme has once be5 inactivat$ by heat+1 or kill$1 x c nev] be re/or$ to activity aga94 ,enzymes are extremely s5sitive to acids1 bases1 or salts1 _! activity be+ (t5 enorm\sly enhanc$ or1 9 o!r cases1 entirely inhibit$1 by ! pres5ce 9 ! react+ m$ium ( v small am\nts ( free acids1 or bases1 or ev5 ( c]ta9 neutral salts4 ,= example1 peps91 ! enzyme ( ! /oma* w act only 9 ! pres5ce ( a slightly acid m$ium & is :olly inactive 9 a mixture :i* conta9s ev5 ! slighte/ am\nt ( free alkal9e mat]ial2 :ile tryps91 ! simil> enzyme ( ! inte/9e1 acts only "u alkal9e conditions4 ,practically all enzymes are r5d]$ inactive1 b n de/roy$1 by ! pres5ce ( ei!r acid or alkali 9 excess ( ,n_/#aj /r5g?4 ,_m w act only 9 ! pres5ce ( small quantities ( c]ta9 specific neutral salts2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 o!r salts are p[]ful inhibitors ( enzyme action4 ,enzymes (t5 diff] f ! protoplasm :i* secretes !m 9 _! response to antiseptics1 su* z tolu5e1 xyl5e1 etc41 :i* inhibit ! activity or gr[? ( ! cell1 b h no effect ^u ! activity ( ! enzymes :i* x conta9s4 ,,! ,,*emical ,,nature ,,( ,,enzymes ,no?+ is kn[n ) c]ta9ty conc]n+ ! *emical nature ( enzymes4 ,be+ colloidal 9 nature1 !y adsorb c>bohydrates1 prote9s1 fats1 etc41 s t active enzyme prep>ations (t5 respond to ! *>act]i/ic te/s = ^! gr\ps ( sub/ances2 & _m inve/igators h report$ :at has1 at fir/1 seem$ to be conclusive evid5ce t "s p>ticul> enzyme :i* !y h /udi$ is ei!r a c>bohydrate1 a prote91 or "s o!r type ( organic comp\nd4 ,lat] inve/igations h always %[n1 h[ev]1 t if ! prep>ation 9 "q be submitt$ to ! dige/ive action ( ! enzymes :i* hydrolyze ! p>ticul> type ( sub/ances to :i* x is suppos$ to belong1 ! mat]ial w lose its *>act]i/ic prote91 or c>bohydrate1 etc41 prop]ties1 )\t los+ its specific activity1 ?us cle>ly indicat+ t ! sub/ance :i* responds to ! *>act]i/ic te/s = "s well-kn[n type ( organic comp\nds is pres5t z an impurity & is n ! enzyme itself4 ,! pres5t /ate ( k conc]n+ ! nature ( enzymes seems to indicate t1 l ! inorganic cataly/s1 !y may v>y widely 9 *emical composition2 & t _! trem5d\s catalytic effects are due1 9 "p at lea/1 to _! colloidal nature4 ,?is w be bett] und]/ood & appreciat$ aft] ! ph5om5a associat$ ) ! colloidal condition h be5 consid]$ 7see ! foll[+ *apt]74 ,,nom5clature ,,& ,,classification ,s9ce no?+ is kn[n ( ! *emical composition ( enzymes1 !y c only be /udi$ by consid]+ ! effects :i* !y produce4 ,?is is reflect$ 9 ! sy/ems :i* h be5 adopt$ = _! nom5clature & classification4 ,z !y 7 fir/ suppos$ to be prote9s1 ! e>li] repres5tatives ( ! gr\p 7 giv5 *>act]i/ic names end+ ) ! suffix 91 simil> to t ( ! prote9s4 ,s9ce ?is idea has be5 f\nd to be incorrect1 h[ev]1 a sy/em ( nom5clature has be5 adopt$ :i* assigns to ea* enzyme ! "n ( ! mat]ial ^u :i* x acts1 foll[$ by ! suffix ase4 ,?us1 cellulase is ! enzyme :i* accel]ates ! hydrolysis ( cellulose2 glucase1 t act+ ^u glucose2 amylase1 t act+ ^u />* 7amylum71 etc4 ,! sub/ance ^u :i* ! enzyme acts 7or1 /rictly speak+1 ! sub/ance ^: hydrolysis1 oxidation1 or o!r *emical *ange1 is catalytically affect$ by ! enzyme7 is call$ ! sub/rate4 ,mo/ enzymes are cataly/s = hydrolysis reactions & are1 h5ce1 class$ z hydrolytic 9 _! action1 & may be spok5 ( z hydrolases4 ,^? :i* accel]ate oxidation are call$ oxidases2 :ile ^? t /imulate r$uction reactions are r$uctases2 ^? t aid 9 ! splitt+ (f ( ammonia1 or am9o-acid gr\ps1 are deam9ases2 & ^? t aid 9 ! splitt+ (f ( ,,co#b f ,,cooh gr\ps are c>boxylases1 etc4 ,! hydrolytic enzymes are fur!r subdivid$ into ! sucrocla/ic 7sug>-splitt+71 or sucrases2 ! lipocla/ic 7fat-splitt+71 or lipases2 ! e/]ases 7e/]-splitt+72 proteocla/ic 7prote9-splitt+71 or proteases2 etc4 ,,occurr5ce ,,& ,,prep>ation ,,= ,,/udy ,enzymes are pres5t 9 all liv+ matt]4 ,9 animal tissues1 !y occur 9 ! l>ge/ am\nts 9 ^? gl&s or organs :]e active vital processes take place1 z 9 ! bra91 ! dige/ive tract1 blood1 etc4 ,9 plants1 !y may be f\nd 9 all liv+ cells1 & are especially abundant 9 ! se$s1 :]e !y s]ve to r5d] soluble & available to ! "y plant ! /or$ food mat]ials4 ,! enzymes ( m\lds1 & o!r p>asitic plants1 are usually extracellul> 9 type1 be+ secret$ = ! purpose ( mak+ ! mat]ial ( ! ho/ plant available to ! p>asite4 ,extracellul> enzymes are also develop$ 9 se$s dur+ g]m9ation1 9 ord] t ! /or$ food mat]ial ( ! endosp]m may be r5d]$ soluble & translocat$ into ! tissues ( ! gr[+ se$l+4 ,b mo/ o!r plant enzymes are intracellul> 9 type4 ,h5ce1 9 all prep>ations ( plant enzymes = /udy1 or = comm]cial use1 ! fir/ /ep 9 ! process is1 necess>ily1 a ?or\gh ruptur+ ( ! cell-walls ( ! plant mat]ial4 ,! ruptur+ ( ! cells may be accompli%$ 9 a v>iety ( ways1 z foll[s3 7#a7 me*anical dis9tegration1 z by gr9d+ 9 a mort> ) %>p s&2 7#b7 freez+ ! mat]ial1 by treatm5t ) liquid air1 !n gr9d+2 7#c7 kill+ ! cells by dry+1 by treatm5t ) alcohol or acetone1 !n gr9d+ ! mass 9 a pa9t mill ) tolu5e2 7#d7 kill+ ! cells by *emicals 7sulfuric acid1 #j4e to #a4j p] c5t1 or o!r suitable ag5ts7 foll[$ by extraction ) wat]2 7#e7 autolysis1 or self-dige/ion1 9 :i* ! cells are mix$ ) tolu5e or "s o!r antiseptic :i* kills ! cells )\t injur+ ! enzymes1 !n ! mat]ial is m9c$ or gr\nd up & susp5d$ 9 wat] conta9+ ! antiseptic1 until ! enzymes dissolve ! cell-walls & s escape into ! liquid--?is process be+ especially adapt$ to ! prep>ation ( active extracts f yea/s1 :i* conta9 ! necess>y cell-wall dissolv+ enzymes to facilitate autolysis4 ,enzymes may be sep>at$ out ( ! aque\s extract obta9$ f cells ruptur$ by any ( ! above me?ods1 by precipitation ) alcohol1 acetone1 or e!r1 9 :i* !y are insoluble2 b if ?is is done1 ! precipitate mu/ be at once filt]$ (f & rapidly wa%$ & dri$1 z prolong$ contact ) ^! precipitat+ ag5ts greatly dim9i%es ! activity ( mo/ enzymes4 ,or1 !y may be adsorb$ out ( solution on gelat9\s1 or colloidal1 mat]ials1 l alum9ium hydroxide1 or v>i\s hydrat$ clays4 ,if ! dry prep>ations obta9$ 9 any ( ^! ways are contam9at$ by c>bohydrates1 prote9s1 etc41 ^! may be remov$ by treatm5t ) suitable dige/+ enzymes obta9$ f ! saliva1 ga/ric1 & pancreatic juices1 & ! dige/$ impurities wa%$ out ) #fj to #hj p] c5t alcohol1 leav+ ! enzyme prep>ation 9 a purifi$ b /ill active =m4 ,9 any /udy ( ! /r5g?1 or possible catalytic effects1 ( an enzyme prep>ation1 x is necess>y1 fir/1 to det]m9e :at p>ticul> reaction x affects1 by qualitative te/s ) v>i\s sub/rate mat]ials1 su* z />*1 sug>s1 glucosides1 prote9s1 etc41 & !n to det]m9e quantitatively its accel]at+ effect ^u ! reaction 9 "q4 ,! latt] may be done by measur+ ei!r ! "t requir$ to c>ry a unit quantity ( ! sub/rate mat]ial ?r\gh any det]m9$ /age ( *emical *ange1 or ! quantity ( ! sub/rate :i* is *ang$ 9 a unit p]iod ( "t4 ,x w\ld n be pr(itable to g into a detail$ discussion "h ( ! me?ods ( mak+ ^! quantitative measurem5ts ( enzyme activity4 ,su* discussions mu/ necess>ily be left to special treatises on me?ods ( /udy ( enzyme action4 ,x may be said1 h[ev]1 t g5]ally bo? ! qualitative te/s =1 & ! quantitative measurem5ts (1 ! accel]at+ influ5ce ( enzymes dep5d ^u ! obs]vation ( "s *ange 9 ! physical prop]ties ( ! sub/rate mat]ial1 su* z ! optical activity1 electrical conductivity1 or viscosity1 ( its solution4 ,9 "s cases1 x is conv5i5t to make an actual quantitative det]m9ation ( ! am\nt ( end-products produc$ 9 a giv5 "t1 z 9 ! inv]sion ( cane sug>1 ! hydrolysis ( maltose1 etc41 b su* det]m9ations necess>ily involve ! removal ( "s ( ! reaction mixture = ! purposes ( ! det]m9ations1 & are n1 !re=e1 suitable = ! /udy ( ! progressive developm5t ( ! reaction :i* is be+ /udi$4 ,enzymes are f\nd 9 all p>ts ( ! animal organism & ^? :i* are active 9 ! dige/ion ( food1 ! metabolism ( dige/$ mat]ial1 ! coagulation ( blood1 etc41 h be5 ext5sively /udi$4 ,a discussion ( ^! animal enzymes w\ld be out ( place 9 su* a text z ?is1 h[ev]1 & ! foll[+ li/ includes only enzymes :i* are kn[n to occur 9 plant tissues4 ,^! well-kn[n enzymes w s]ve z examples ( ! sev]al g5]al types :i* h ?us f> be5 isolat$ & /udi$4 ------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------- ,class & ,type4 ,enzyme4 ,sub/rate4 ,end-products4 ,f\nd 94 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,i4 ,hydrolases 7a7 ,e/]ases ,lipase ,fats ,glyc]ol & ,oily se$s fatty acids 7b7 ,c>bohydrases ,sucrase or ,sucrose ,glucose & ,yea/s inv]tase fructose ,maltase ,maltose & ,glucose1 etc4,b>ley malt all alpha- glucosides ,dextr9ase ,dextr9 ,maltose ,malt ,inulase ,inul9 ,fructose ,arti*okes1 etc4 ,amylase or ,/>* ,maltose ,malt1 etc4 dia/ase ,cellulase ,cellulose ,maltose ,bact]ia ,pect9ase ,pectose ,arab9ose ,fruits ,cytase ,hemi- ,mono- ,nuts1 celluloses sac*>ides se$s1 etc4 7c7 ,glucosidases ,emuls9 ,amygdal9 ,glucose1 ,almond & all etc4 k]nels1 beta- etc4 glucosides ,maltase ,all alpha- ,glucose1 ,b>ley malt glucosides etc4 ,myros9 ,sulfur- ,glucose1 ,mu/>d conta9+ etc4 se$s glucosides ,rhamnase ,xan?orhamn9,rhamnose1 ,rhamnus etc4 spp4 ,phytase ,phyt9 ,inosite & ,bran coats ,h#c,,po#d ( se$s 7d7 ,proteases ,ereps9 ,prote9s ,am9o-acids ,_m plants ,papa9 ,prote9s ,am9o-acids ,papaws ,bromel9 ,prote9s ,am9o-acids ,_m plants ,nuclease ,nucleo- ,prote9s & ,_m plants prote9s nucleic acid ,,ii4 ,oxidases 7a7 ,catalases 44444444 ,hydrog5 ,wat] & ,ne>ly p]oxide oxyg5 all plants 7b7 ,p]oxidases 44444444 ,organic ,active ,ne>ly p]oxides oxyg5 all plants 7c7 ,oxidases 44444444 ,*romog5s ,pigm5ts ,_m plants ,alcohols & ,acids ,_m plants ph5ols 7d7 ,r$uctases 44444444 444444444 444444444 ,_m plants ,,iii4 ,deam9ases ,urease ,urea ,ammonia & ,,co#b ,guanase ,guan9e ,xan?9e ,ad5ase ,ad59e ,hypoxan?9e ,,iv4 ,c>boxylases 7a7 44444444 ,keto-acids ,aldehydes & ,,co#b 7b7 44444444 ,am9o-acids ,am9es & ,,co#b ,v4 ,coagulation ,pectase ,coagulates 4444444444 ,fruits enzymes pectic bodies ,,vi4 ,f]m5tation ,zymase ,glucose1 etc4,alcohol & ,yea/s enzymes ,,co#b ,lactic acid,fatty acids ,lactic acid ,bact]ia f]m5t ,butyric ,fatty acids ,butyric acid ,bact]ia acid f]m5t ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,! above li/ includes only ! m common & be/-kn[n plant enzymes4 ,x seems reasonable to suppose t = e individual type ( organic comp\nd :i* may occur 9 g5]al plant gr\ps1 or ev5 9 s+le species1 !re is a correspond+ enzyme available to affect its physiological alt]ations4 ,inde$1 new prep>ations ( active enzymes f special types ( plants & new evid5ces ( ! exi/5ce ( enzymes 9 v>i\s plant organisms are cont9u\sly be+ report$4 ,a few ( ! mo/ common specific repres5tatives ( individual gr\ps ( enzymes may be briefly describ$1 z foll[s3 ,amylase 7or dia/ase1 z x 0 fir/ nam$ & is /ill commonly call$7 is probably ! mo/ widely di/ribut$ enzyme ( plants4 ,x is f\nd 9 practically all bact]ia & fungi2 9 practically all se$s 7x has be5 f\nd 9 active =m 9 se$s :i* 7 kn[n to be ov] fifty ye>s old72 9 all roots & tub]s2 & 9 practically all leaves1 :]e x is locat$ 9 ! /roma ( ! *loropla/s4 ,x appe>s to exi/ 9 two modifications1 kn[n1 respectively1 z 7a7 translocation dia/ase & 7b7 dia/ase ( secretion4 ,! fir/ =m is f\nd 9 ! cells ( ung]m9at$ se$s1 9 leaves1 %oots1 etc4 ,x rema9s 9 ! cells :]e res]ve />* is /or$ & aids 9 ! trans=mation ( />* into soluble mat]ials = translocation f cell to cell4 ,x is active at a l[] temp]ature ?an ! second =m1 its optimum temp]ature be+ #de to #ej4 ,! second =m is secret$ by ! scutellum1 & p]haps by ! aleurone cells1 ( g]m9at+ se$s1 be+ produc$ by special gl&ul> tissue4 ,x aids 9 ! hydrolysis ( ! />* = ! use ( ! gr[+ embryo4 ,its optimum temp]ature is #ej to #ee4 ,! activity ( amylase is accel]at$ by ! pres5ce ( small quantities ( neutral salts1 especially by sodium *loride & disodium phosphate4 ,x acts be/ 9 neutral solutions1 its activity be+ inhibit$1 al?\gh ! enzyme itself is n de/roy$1 by ! pres5ce ( m ?an m9ute traces ( free m9]al acid or alkali4 ,sucrase 7or inv]tase7 is pres5t 9 almo/ all species ( yea/s1 :]e x s]ves to conv]t unf]m5table sucrose into glucose & fructose1 :i* are readily f]m5table4 ,inv]tase is also pres5t 9 m\lds & o!r microorganisms2 & 9 ! buds1 leaves1 fl[]s1 & rootlets ( ^? high] ord] plants :i* /ore _! c>bohydrate res]ves 9 ! =m ( sucrose4 ,x appe>s t sucrose1 :ile easily soluble1 is n readily translocat$1 or utiliz$1 by plants until aft] x has be5 hydrolyz$ into its con/itu5t hexoses4 ,! optimum temp]ature = inv]tase is #ej to #ed2 x is kill$ if heat$1 9 ! moi/ condition1 to #gj4 ,its activity is increas$ by ! pres5ce ( small am\nts ( free acids2 b is inhibit$ by free alkalies4 ,zymase is ! active alcoholic f]m5tation enzyme ( yea/s4 ,x accel]ates ! well-kn[n reaction = ! conv]sion ( hexose sug>s into alcohol & c>bon dioxide1 namely1 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f #b;,c#b;,h#e,,oh #b;,,co#b4 ,because ( its sci5tific int]e/ & indu/rial importance 9 ! f]m5tation indu/ries1 its action has be5 ext5sively /udi$4 ,x acts only 9 ! pres5ce ( soluble phosphates & ( a co5zyme 7see bel[7 :i* is dialyzable & n de/roy$1 :i* is probably an organic e/] ( phosphoric acid4 ,! significance ( ! molecul> configuration ( ! hexose sug>s 9 _! susceptibility to action by zymase has already be5 discuss$ 9 detail 7see page #ef74 ,! optimum temp]ature = zymase action is #bh to #cj4 ,! enzyme is kill$ by heat+ to #de to #ej 9 solution1 or to #he if 9 dry prep>ation4 ,proteases ( ! ereps9 type1 i4e41 ^? :i* break prote9s d[n to am9o-acids in/ead ( only to ! proteose or peptone /age1 z is *>act]i/ic ( ! enzymes ( ! tryps9 type1 are widely di/ribut$ 9 plants4 ,except 9 ! case ( ! two :i* occur 9 l>ge am\nts 9 c]ta9 special fruits 7papa9 9 papaws1 & bromel9 9 p9eapples71 !y are v difficult to prep>e 9 pure =m = /udy4 ,9 g5]al1 all proteolytic actions1 ev5 :5 accel]at$ by active enzymes1 proce$ mu* m sl[ly ?an d ! hydrolyses ( c>bohydrates or fats4 ,x seems t metabolic *anges ( ! complex prote9 molecules are mu* m difficult to br+ ab\t & take place mu* m sl[ly ?an d ^? ( ! en]gy-produc+ types ( comp\nds4 ,! pres5ce ( proteolytic enzymes 9 mo/ vegetative cells1 & 9 se$s1 may be demon/rat$1 h[ev]1 by /udy+ ! action ( extracts ( ^! tissues ^u soluble prote9s4 ,! be/-kn[n example ( ?is type ( enzymes is ! protease ( yea/2 b simil> ones may be f\nd 9 g]m9at+ se$s4 ,^! vegetable proteases are usually mo/ active 9 neutral or only fa9tly alkal9e solutions1 & _! activity is ne>ly always inhibit$ by ev5 traces ( free acids4 ,mo/ laboratory /udies ( proteolytic enzymes are c>ri$ on ) prep>ations ( ! p[]ful memb]s ( ?is class ( enzymes :i* are f\nd 9 ! dige/ive tract ( animals1 namely1 ! peps9 ( ! ga/ric juice1 :i* acts 9 ! acid m$ium1 9 ! /oma*1 & ! tryps9 ( ! pancreatic juice1 :i* acts 9 ! alkal9e m$ium ( ! inte/9al tract4 ,b ev5 ^! p[]ful proteases require sev]al h\rs = ! trans=mation ( an am\nt ( soluble album9 into its am9o-acid con/itu5ts :i* is equival5t to ! am\nt ( />* :i* is hydrolyz$ to maltose by dia/ase 9 a v few m9utes4 ,enzymes :i* gov]n oxidative *anges1 kn[n respectively1 z catalases & oxidases1 are almo/ univ]sally pres5t 9 plants4 ,catalase decomposes p]oxides1 ) ! lib]ation ( free oxyg54 ,x is1 !re=e1 necess>y to ! f9al /ep 9 ! process ( photosyn!sis1 z elucidat$ by ,u%] & ,prie/ley 7see page #bf71 & s]ves to prev5t ! de/ructive action ( hydrog5 p]oxide ^u *lorophyll4 ,! almo/ univ]sal pres5ce ( oxidases 9 plant tissues has be5 repeat$ly demon/rat$4 ,!y are pres5t 9 especially l>ge am\nts 9 tissues :i* are be+ act$ ^u by p>asitic fungi or are combat+ unfavorable conditions ( gr[?4 ,! oxidases1 9 su* cases1 seem to be ! ag5ts by :i* ! plant is able to /imulate its metabolic activities to ov]come ! unfavorable environm5t = its normal developm5t4 ,9 vegetables & fruits1 ! common br[n+1 or black5+1 ( ! tissues :5 cut surfaces are expos$ to ! air has be5 demon/rat$ to be due to ! catalytic oxidation ( ! tann9s or ( c]ta9 am9o-acids1 especially tyros9e1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! oxidases :i* are pres5t 9 ! tissues4 ,9 fact1 mo/ pigm5tation ph5om5a are due to *anges 9 ! oxyg5 cont5t ( ! *romog5s ( ! cells ( ! plant1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! oxidases :i* are pres5t 9 ! protoplasm ( ! cells 9 "q4 ,h5ce1 ! oxidases may be said to be ! controll+ ag5cies = bo? ! en]gy-absorb+ activities & = respiration 9 plants4 ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,enzyme ,,action ,! me*anism by :i* an enzyme accompli%es its catalytic effects has be5 ! object ( ext5sive /udies dur+ rec5t ye>s1 especially s9ce ! discov]y by ,b*n] t enzymes c\ld be isolat$ 9 solutions entirely free f ! di/urb+ influ5ce ( gr[+ cells4 ,sev]al !ories conc]n+ ! mode ( ?is catalytic action h be5 advanc$4 ,! e>lie/ & simple/ ( ^! 0 t ! enzyme simply creates an environm5t favorable = ! p>ticul> *emical reaction to take place1 z by expos+ l>ge surfaces ( ! sub/ance 9 "q to ! action ( ! hydrolytic1 or o!r effective1 ag5t1 by means ( surface adsorption ( ! sub/rate mat]ial on ! colloidal enzyme4 ,h[ev]1 m rec5t inve/igations cle>ly indicate t !re is an actual comb9ation betwe5 ! sub/rate mat]ial & ! enzyme1 :i* comb9ation !n breaks d[n ) a resultant *ange 9 ! sub/rate mat]ial & a free+ ( ! enzyme = repeat$ recomb9ation ) additional sub/rate1 ) ! net result t ! *emical *ange 9 ! sub/rate mat]ial is enorm\sly accel]at$4 ,t su* a comb9ation betwe5 sub/rate & enzyme actually exi/s has be5 demon/rat$ 9 two diff]5t ways3 7a7 exp]im5tally1 by mix+ toge!r solutions ( an enzyme & ( its sub/rate1 ea* ( :i* is filt]able ?r\gh pap] or ?r\gh a por\s clay filt]1 ) ! result t ! active mat]ial 9 ! comb9$ solutions w n pass ?r\gh ^! same filt]s2 & 7b7 ma!matically1 by a /udy ( ! curves repres5t+ ! reaction velocities ( typical reactions :i* are proce$+ "u ! influ5ce ( an enzyme1 :i* %[ t s long z !re is a l>ge excess ( sub/rate mat]ial pres5t1 ! accel]at+ influ5ce ( ! cataly/ is uni=m ov] giv5 successive p]iods ( "t1 b t :5 ! quantity ( sub/rate mat]ial becomes small] ?an t :i* p]mits ! maximum comb9+ p[] ( ! enzyme to be ex]cis$1 ! reaction velocity imm$iately sl[s up4 ,aga91 ! fact t ! specificity ( ! action ( an enzyme1 i4e41 ! limitation ( ! action ( t enzyme to a specific s+le comp\nd or gr\p ( simil> comp\nds1 is def9itely relat$ to ! molecul> configuration ( ! molecule ( ! sub/rate1 z has be5 f\nd to be true 9 all ^? cases :]e ! molecul> configuration ( ! sub/rate mat]ial has be5 e/abli%$ 7see pages #ef to #eh71 is an add$ indication t !re is "s k9d ( a union betwe5 ! enzyme & ! sub/rate z a fir/ /ep 9 ! catalytic process4 ,z to ! nature ( ?is suppos$ comb9ation ( sub/rate & enzyme1 two !ories are held4 ,! fir/ is t ?is union is 9 ! =m ( an actual molecul> comb9ation1 or *emical comp\nd1 & ! o!r is t x is a purely physical1 or colloidal complex4 ,! latt] view has by f> ! great] weight ( !oretical & exp]im5tal evid5ce 9 its support4 ,! relation ( electrolytes to ! catalytic effect ( enzymes1 ! appe>ance ( ! react+ masses "u ! ultramicroscope1 & ! effect ( heat ^u ! react+ mixtures1 all po9t to ! conclusion t ! ph5om5on is colloidal r ?an molecul> 9 "*4 ,?is view also makes ! rem>kable catalytic effects :i* take place 9 liv+ protoplasm1 :i* und\bt$ly exi/s 9 ! colloidal condition1 mu* m easily und]/ood4 ,?is phase ( ! matt] w be mu* m app>5t aft] ! *apt] deal+ ) ! physical *emi/ry ( ! protoplasm has be5 /udi$4 ,a fur!r indication t ! me*anism ( enzyme activity is colloidal 9 "* lies 9 ! fact t1 s f> z is kn[n1 all reactions :i* are catalyz$ by specific enzymes are rev]sible & ! same enzyme w accel]ate ! velocity ( ! reaction 9 ei!r direction1 ! direction 9 :i* ! reaction goes be+ det]m9$ by ! conditions surr\nd+ ! react+ mat]ial at ! "t4 ,x 0 =m]ly suppos$ t enzymes catalyze only decomposition reactions & t ! syn!tic reactions ( liv+ tissues are produc$ by means ( "s o!r =ce or ag5cy4 ,?is view support$ ! idea ( a *emical union ( ! enzyme ) ! sub/rate :i*1 :5 x breaks d[n1 breaks ! molecule ( ! sub/rate mat]ial into "s simpl] =m1 or =ms4 ,b x is n[ kn[n t ! reaction :i* is influ5c$ by ! enzyme w be catalyz$ 9 ei!r direction by ! specific enzyme :i* fits ! p>ticul> sub/rate mat]ial at e po9t ( its molecul> configuration1 z ! glove fits ! h&4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ?is fitt+ ( ! enzyme to ! entire configuration ( ! molecule1 & ! union at a s+le po9t or gr\p :i* is *>act]i/ic ( *emical l9kages1 is app>5t4 ,z examples ( ! syn!tic action ( ! same enzyme :i*1 "u o!r conditions1 accel]ates ! decomposition ( ! same mat]ial1 !re may be cit$ ! demon/rat$ syn!sis ( isomaltose f glucose by maltase2 ! production ( e?yl butyrate f alcohol & butyric acid2 & ! syn!tic production ( artificial fats1 by ! aid ( ! pancreatic lipase2 & ! app>5t syn!sis ( a prote9 f ! same am9o-acids :i* may be obta9$ f x by hydrolysis "u ! influ5ce ( ! same protease1 b "u diff]5t environm5tal conditions4 ,,activators ,,& ,,inhibitors ,! activity ( enzymes is /rongly influ5c$ by ! pres5ce 9 ! solution ( o!r bodies1 usually1 al?\gh n always1 electrolytes4 ,?is is probably due1 9 mo/ cases at lea/1 to ! action ( ! electrolyte ^u ! colloidal condition ( ! enzyme4 ,all enzymes d n respond alike to ! action ( ! same electrolyte1 h[ev]4 ,! activity ( c]ta9 enzymes is enorm\sly increas$ by ! pres5ce ( a small am\nt ( acid2 :ile ! action ( ano!r may be absolutely inhibit$ by ! same acid 9 ! same conc5tration4 ,?us1 ! activity ( ! amylase f\nd 9 ! endosp]m ( _m se$s is in/antly /opp$ by add+ to ! solution en\gh sulfuric acid to make x two-hundr$? normal 9 /r5g?2 :ile ! same conc5tration ( acid actually accel]ates ! activity ( "s ( ! proteases4 ,=maldehyde1 hydrocyanic acid1 & soluble fluorides usually inhibit bo? ! activity ( a cell & ( ! enzymes :i* x conta9s2 :ile o!r antiseptics1 su* z tolu5e1 xyl5e1 etc41 prev5t ! gr[? ( ! cell1 or organism1 )\t int]f]+ ) ! activity ( ! enzymes :i* may be pres5t4 ,by ! use ( ?is latt] type ( antiseptics1 x is possible to di/+ui% betwe5 *emical *anges :i* are involv$ 9 ! actual developm5t ( a cell & ^? :i* c be br\ght ab\t 9 o!r m$ia by means ( ! enzymes :i* are conta9$ 9 ! cell4 ,any sub/ance :i* increases ! catalytic activity ( an enzyme is kn[n z an accel]ator1 or activator2 :ile "o :i* prev5ts ?is activity is call$ an inhibitor1 or p>alyz]4 ,a type ( accel]at+ influ5ce q diff]5t f t ( electrolytes is f\nd 9 ! effect ( c]ta9 am9o-acids ^u enzyme action4 ,! influ5ce ( small am\nts ( asp>ag9e 9 enorm\sly increas+ ! hydrolytic effect ( amylase is an example4 ,!re is no kn[n explanation = ?is type ( activation ( ! enzyme4 ,! influ5ce ( activators1 or inhibitors1 9 provid+ favorable or unfavorable conditions = ! action ( an enzyme1 %\ld n be confus$ ) ! relation to ! enzyme itself ( :at are kn[n z co5zymes & anti5zymes1 discuss$ 9 ! foll[+ p>agraph4 ,,co5zymes ,,& ,,anti5zymes ,9 ! cases ( _m enzymes ( animal tissues1 x has be5 f\nd t !y are absolutely inactive unless accompani$ by "s o!r sub/ance :i* is normally pres5t 9 ! gl&1 or protoplasm1 :i* secretes !m4 ,?us1 ! bile salts are absolutely necess>y to ! activity ( tryps91 9 its *>act]i/ic prote9-splitt+ action4 ,su* sub/ances are kn[n z co5zymes4 ,!y c usually be sep>at$ f _! correspond+ enzymes by dialysis1 ! co5zyme pass+ ?r\gh ! p>*m5t membrane4 ,su* co5zymes are n kill$ by boil+ ! dialyzate1 & ! activity ( ! enzyme is re/or$ by add+ ! boil$ dialyzate to ! liquid :i* rema9s )9 ! dialyz]4 ,! be/ kn[n example ( a co5zyme 9 plant tissues is 9 connection ) ! activity ( ! zymase ( yea/ cells4 ,if yea/ juice be filt]$ ?r\gh a gelat9 filt]1 ! colloidal enzymes :i* are left beh9d are entirely inactive 9 produc+ f]m5tation1 b may be re/or$ to activity aga9 by mix+ ) ! filtrate4 ,an exam9ation ( ?is filtrate1 :i* conta9s ! co5zyme = zymase1 %[s t x conta9s soluble phosphates & "s o!r sub/ance ^: exact nature has n yet be5 det]m9$1 bo? ( :i* are necess>y to ! activity ( ! zymase4 ,! phosphates seem to ent] into "s def9ite *emical comb9ation ) ! sub/rate sug>s1 :ile ! o!r co5zyme seems to be necess>y 9 ord] to make possible ! f9al break+ d[n ( ! sug>-phosphate complex by ! zymase4 ,?is ph5om5on ( co5zyme relation%ip is n v frequ5tly obs]v$ 9 plant enzyme /udies1 probably because ! co5zyme 7if !re be su*1 9 ! case :i* is "u obs]vation7 usually accompanies ! enzyme itself ?r\gh ! v>i\s processes ( extraction & purification ( ! mat]ial = /udy4 ,h[ev]1 c>e mu/ be tak5 9 all cases :5 dialysis is employ$1 to see t a possible co5zyme is n sep>at$ f an o!rwise active prep>ation4 ,an entirely diff]5t type ( ph5om5on is t exhibit$ by anti5zymes4 ,^! are f\nd 9 ! v>i\s inte/9al worms :i* live 9 ! dige/ive tracts ( animals2 & prev5t ! dige/ive action ( ! enzymes ( ! /oma* & inte/9es ^u ^! worms4 ,probably simil> anti5zymes are locat$ 9 ! muc\s l9+s ( ! inte/9al tract itself1 & s]ve to prev5t ! auto-dige/ion ( ^! organs by ! active enzymes ) :i* !y are almo/ cont9ually 9 contact4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 an anti5zyme1 :i* protects mat]ial :i* w\ld o!rwise be subject to ! attack ( an enzyme1 & an inhibitor1 :i* r5d]s ! enzyme itself inactive1 is app>5t4 ,s f> z is kn[n1 h[ev]1 no su* sub/ances z anti5zymes are pres5t 9 plant tissues2 al?\gh ! "q z to :y ! proteocla/ic enzymes :i* are elaborat$ by a giv5 mass ( protoplasm d n attack ! protoplasm itself1 might well be rais$4 ,,zymog5s ,x is app>5t t1 s9ce enzymes are produc$ by protoplasm = ! special ne$s ( any giv5 mom5t or /age ( developm5t1 !re mu/ be a prelim9>y /age1 or condition1 9 :i* !y d n ex]t _! *>act]i/ic catalytic effect4 ,:5 9 ?is /age1 ! comp\nd is kn[n z pro5zyme1 or zymog54 ,9 ?is /age1 x is inactive1 b c be made to exhibit its catalytic effect1 usually by br++ x into contact ) a suitable activator4 ,:5 once s activat$1 h[ev]1 x _c be return$ aga9 to ! inactive /ate4 ,?is ph5om5on has be5 /udi$ 9 connection ) ! zymog5s ( ! dige/ive proteases1 peps9 & tryps94 ,tryps9og5 may be r5d]$ active by contact ) ei!r calcium salts or ) ano!r sub/ance 7app>5tly itself an enzyme7 kn[n z ent]ok9ase1 :i* is secret$ 9 ! inte/9al tract4 ,simil>ly1 pro5zymes h be5 report$ z occurr+ 9 num]\s plant tissues4 ,^! pro5zymes are believ$ to be pres5t 9 ! plant cells 9 ! =m ( def9ite *>act]i/ic granules1 :i* may be obs]v$ "u ! microscope1 & :i* disappe> :5 ! enzyme becomes active4 ,?us1 pro9ulase has be5 report$ z occurr+ 9 arti*oke tub]s3 prolipase1 9 ca/or beans2 pro9v]tase1 9 sev]al species ( fungi2 &1 probably1 prooxidase1 9 tobacco leaves4 ,9 ! case ( ! la/-nam$ zymog51 x has be5 obs]v$ t aft] ! zymog5 has be5 once activat$1 z 9 response to ! ne$ = increas$ activity due to ! entrance ( ! g]ms ( c]ta9 leaf-diseases1 x c once aga9 produce a second supply ( ! enzyme1 b ! process _c aga9 be repeat$4 ,calcium salts1 or v dilute acids1 are usually en]getic activators ( pro5zymes4 ,,physiological ,,uses ,,( ,,enzymes ,!re c be no d\bt t enzymes ex]t a trem5d\sly important influ5ce 9 vital ph5om5a1 by det]m9+ ! rate at :i* ! *emical *anges :i* are involv$ 9 ^! ph5om5a %all proce$4 ,s9ce !y d n initiate reactions1 & s9ce !y may catalyze rev]sible reactions 9 ei!r direction1 x _c be said t !y det]m9e ! type ( reactions :i* w take place 9 any giv5 mass ( protoplasm2 b1 und\bt$ly1 !y d ex]t a det]m9+ influ5ce ^u ! rate at :i* ! reaction w proce$1 aft] ! protoplasmic activity has det]m9$ ! direction 9 :i* x %all g4 ,)\t ! int]v5tion ( ^! catalyz+ ag5ts1 x w\ld be impossible = reactions betwe5 ^! non-ioniz$ organic compon5ts ( ! cell cont5ts to come to completion ) any?+ l ! m>vel\s rapidity ) :i* ^! *anges mu/ take place 9 ord] to p]mit ! organism to gr[1 to p]=m its necess>y vital functions1 or to adju/ itself to ! *anges 9 its environm5tal conditions4 ,s9ce ! numb] ( diff]5t reactions :i* take place )9 a liv+ cell is v great1 & s9ce ^! *emical *anges are extremely v>iable 9 type1 x foll[s t ! numb] ( diff]5t enzymes :i* mu/ exi/ 9 ei!r a plant or an animal organism is likewise v l>ge4 ,= example1 f\rte5 diff]5t enzymes h be5 isolat$ f ! dige/ive sy/em1 & at lea/ sixte5 f ! liv]1 ( animals4 ,!y are univ]sally pres5t 9 liv+ protoplasm ( e k9d1 f ! mo/ m9ute bact]ium to ! l>ge/ =e/ trees1 9 ! plant k+dom2 & f ! amoeba to ! :ale1 9 animals4 ,:ile !re is a great v>iety ( enzymes :i* may be produc$ by a s+le individual organism1 ! same enzyme may be f\nd 9 ! greate/ v>iety ( organisms2 z1 = example1 ! protease tryps91 :i* has be5 f\nd 9 sev]al species ( bact]ia1 9 ! c>nivor\s plant kn[n z ,v5us' ,fly ,trap1 & 9 ! human pancreas1 z well z t ( all o!r animals4 ,,fur!r ,,/udies ,,ne$$ ,f ! discussions :i* h be5 pres5t$ 9 ?is *apt]1 x is app>5t t ! enzymes play a trem5d\sly important "p 9 vital ph5om5a1 by controll+ ! rate at :i* ! bio*emical reactions take place 9 ! cells ( ! liv+ organism4 ,! means by :i* ! protoplasm elaborates ^! all-important *emical comp\nds are z yet absolutely unkn[n4 ,ev5 ! nature ( ! enzymes !mselves is /ill a matt] ( speculation & /udy4 ,mu* int5sive /udy is ne$$ & %\ld be giv5 to ^! matt]s1 = ! purpose ( elucidat+ ! me?ods by :i* ! enzymes accompli% _! rem>kable catalytic effects1 &1 if possible1 ! actual *emical nature ( ! enzymes !mselves4 ,x is conceivable1 ( c\rse1 t if ! latt] object ( ^! /udies %\ld ev] be rea*$1 x might be possible to syn!tize enzymes artificially1 & s to develop a means = ! artificial duplication ( ! syn!sis ( organic comp\nds ) ! same velocity t ?is is done 9 ! plant cells4 ,su* a result w\ld h a sci5tific int]e/ fully z great z did ,whl]'s artificial syn!sis ( urea1 :i* prov$ t !re is no ess5tial diff]5ce 9 "* betwe5 ! comp\nds :i* are ! products ( liv+ organisms & ^? :i* are produc$ 9 ! laboratory2 &1 at ! same "t1 might h an imm5sely m important practical be>+1 s9ce x w\ld lead ! way to ! artificial production ( ! c>bohydrates1 prote9s1 fats1 etc41 = :i* we are n[ dep5d5t ^u plant gr[? z ! s\rce ( ^! mat]ials = use z human food4 ,ref]5ces ,,bayliss1 ,w4 ,m4--,! ,nature ( ,enzyme ,action1 #ahf pages1 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiai 7#d? ed474 ,,eul]1 ,h41 trans4 by ,,pope1 ,t4 ,h4--,g5]al ,*emi/ry ( ! ,enzymes1 #cai pages1 #g figs41 ,new ,york1 #aiab4 ,,effront1 ,j41 trans4 by ,,prescott1 ,s4 ,c4--,enzymes & _! ,application1--,enzymes ( ! ,c>bohydrates1 #cce pages1 ,new ,york1 #aijb4 ,,effront1 ,j41 trans4 by ,,prescott1 ,s4 ,c4--,bio*emical ,cataly/s 9 ,life & ,indu/ry--,proteolytic ,enzymes1 #gfc pages1 ,new ,york1 #aiag4 ,,gre51 ,j4 ,r4--,! ,soluble ,f]m5ts & ,f]m5tation1 #eab pages1 ,cambridge1 #aija1 7#b;d ed474 ,,grus1 ,j4--,biologie und ,kapill>analyse d] ,enzyme1 #bbg pages1 #eh figs41 #c plates1 ,b]l91 #aiab4 ,,h>d51 ,a4--,alcoholic ,f]m5tation1 #aef pages1 #h figs41 ,monographs on ,bio*emi/ry1 ,london1 #aiad4 ,,plimm]1 ,r4 ,h4 ,a4--,! ,*emical ,*anges & ,products ,result+ f ,f]m5tations1 #ahd pages1 ,london1 #aijc4 ,,opp5heim]1 ,c41 trans4 by ,,mit*ell1 ,c4 ,a4--,f]m5ts & _! ,actions1 #cdc pages1 ,london1 #aija4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,! ,,colloidal ,,condition ,ref]5ce has frequ5tly be5 made1 9 prec$+ *apt]s1 to ! fact t prote9s1 enzymes1 lipoids1 etc41 exi/ 9 ! protoplasm ( plants & animals 9 ! colloidal condition4 ,! prop]ties & uses ( ^! comp\nds by plants dep5d s mu* ^u ?is fact t1 be=e proce$+ to ! consid]ation ( ! actual physical *emi/ry ( protoplasm itself1 x w be appropriate & pr(itable to give "s att5tion to ! nature & significance ( ! colloidal condition ( matt] & ( "s ( ! ph5om5a :i* gr[ out ( x4 ,e discussion ( ! colloidal condition 9 g5]al prop]ly beg9s ) ref]5ce to ! "w ( ! ,engli% physici/1 ,?omas ,graham1 :o c>ri$ on 8 inve/igations ( ! s-call$ colloids ?r\gh a p]iod ( =ty ye>s1 beg9n+ ) #ahea4 ,8 mo/ important results 7 publi%$1 h[ev]1 f #ahfa to #ahfd4 ,graham /udi$ ! diffusibility ( sub/ances 9 solution ?r\gh ! p>*m5t membrane ( a simple dialyz]4 ,z a result ( 8 e>li] inve/igations1 he divid$ all ! *emical comp\nds :i* 7 kn[n to him into two gr\ps1 :i* he call$ cry/alloids & colloids1 respectively1 ! fir/ includ+ ^? sub/ances :i* readily diffus$ ?r\gh ! p>*m5t membrane & ! second ^? :i* diffus$ only v sl[ly or n at all4 ,he at fir/ ?\ght t cry/alloids are always inorganic comp\nds1 :ile colloids are ( organic orig94 ,he soon le>n$1 h[ev]1 t ?is di/9ction 9 behavior is n always relat$ to ! organic or inorganic nature ( ! comp\nd4 ,he fur!r discov]$ t ! same individual *emical elem5t or comp\nd may exi/ sometimes 9 cry/alloidal1 & sometimes 9 colloidal1 =m4 ,?is latt] discov]y l$ to ! conclusion t diffusibility dep5ds ^u ! condition1 r ?an ^u ! nature1 ( ! mat]ial "u obs]vation4 ,z a result ( ! long s]ies ( inve/igations :i* 7 /imulat$ by ,graham's "w1 ! mod]n conception is t diffusibility is a condition ( matt] :5 9 m9ute subdivision1 or 9 solution1 9 "s liquid1 z contra/$ ) its /ate1 or condition1 :5 exi/+ alone4 ,t is1 ! /ate ( a sub/ance may be ei!r gase\s1 liquid1 or solid2 & its condition :5 9 solution may be ei!r cry/alloidal or colloidal4 ,sub/ances :i* are 9 cry/alloidal =m1 9 true solution1 exi/ !re 9 molecul> or ioniz$ condition2 b1 z w be po9t$ out bel[1 :5 9 ! colloidal condition !y exi/ 9 aggregates :i* are some:at l>g] ?an molecules1 b n l>ge en\gh to be visible z individual p>ticles "u ! ord9>y microscope1 ev5 "u ! highe/ magnification :i* has yet be5 obta9$4 ,colloidal p>ticles are1 h[ev]1 g5]ally visible "u ! ,zigmondy ultramicroscope4 7,see bel[47 ,! use ( ! ^w colloid z a n\n1 or z ! "n = a sub/ance :i* is 9 ! colloidal condition1 is ( ! same nature z ! use ( ! words gas1 liquid1 & solid1 9 su* /atem5ts z ice is a solid1 wat] is a liquid1 or /eam is a gas1 etc42 i4e41 ! n\n repres5ts a /ate or condition r ?an an actual object or ?+4 ,h5ce1 ! expression enzymes are colloids1 means only t enzymes exi/ 9 ! colloidal condition1 & n t enzymes repres5t a def9ite type ( sub/ances hav+ ! gr\p "n colloids4 ,,! ,,colloidal ,,condition ,a ,,disp]sion ,,ph5om5on ,:5 "o sub/ance is di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! mass ( ano!r sub/ance1 ! mixture is said to be a two-phase sy/em1 compos$ ( ! disp]s$ phase1 or sub/ance1 & ! disp]sion m$ium1 or cont9u\s phase1 ?r\gh :i* ! o!r sub/ance is di/ribut$4 ,! foll[+ examples illu/rate ! possibilities ( su* two-phase sy/ems3 7#a7 ,disp]sion m$ium a gas4 7a7 ,disp]se phase a liquid--mi/ 9 ! air4 7b7 ,disp]se phase a solid--smoke or du/ 9 air4 7#b7 ,disp]sion m$ium a liquid4 7a7 ,disp]se phase a gas--foams4 7b7 ,disp]se phase a liquid--emulsions4 7c7 ,disp]se phase a solid--susp5sions4 7#c7 ,disp]sion m$ium a solid4 7a7 ,disp]se phase a gas--solid foams1 pumice /one1 etc4 7b7 ,disp]se phase a liquid--liquid inclusions 9 m9]als4 7c7 ,disp]se phase a solid--alloys1 color$ glass1 etc4 ,al?\gh ! same g5]al pr9ciples ( physical *emi/ry apply to all two-phase sy/ems1 ! t]m colloidal condition is commonly us$ only 9 connection ) a p>ticul> type ( disp]sions1 9 :i* ! disp]sion m$ium is a liquid & ! disp]s$ mat]ial is ei!r a solid or a liquid4 ,?or\gh & c>eful /udies h %[n t :5 a solid or a liquid is introduc$ into ano!r liquid1 & becomes disp]s$ or di/ribut$ ?r\gh x1 ! mixture may be ei!r a true solution1 a colloidal solution1 or a me*anical susp5sion4 ,! *>act]i/ic diff]5ces betwe5 ^! ?ree conditions may be tabulat$ z foll[s3 al?\gh ! significance ( "s ( ! phrases us$ w n be app>5t until ! ph5om5a 9 "q h be5 consid]$ 9 "s detail4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,true ,solutions4 ,colloidal ,solutions4 ,susp5sions4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- 7a7 ,p>ticles ( ! disp]se phase are3 ,9 molecul> ,9 colloidal ,9 me*anical subdivision subdivision subdivision ,invisible ,visible "u ,visible "u ultrascope microscope or to nak$ eye ,less ?an #a #a to #a 9 diamet] ,great] ?an #a 9 9 diamet]#f diamet] ,pass ?r\gh filt]s ,pass ?r\gh filt]s ,d n pass ?r\gh & p>*m5t membranes b n ?r\gh filt]s or p>*m5t p>*m5t ,9 molecul> motion ,9 ,br[nian movem5t ,9 gravitational movem5t 7b7 ,! sy/em exhibits3 ,high osmotic pressure ,l[ osmotic pressure ,no osmotic pressure ,transp>5cy ,tyndall ph5om5on ,is g5]ally opaque ,no gel-=mation ,=ms gels ,no gel-=mation ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,footnotes3 #f #a is "o-?\s&? ( a millimet]2 #a is "o-?\s&? ( a 1 or "o million? ( a millimet]4 ,x is recogniz$ by all /ud5ts ( ^! matt]s t x is n possible to draw a %>p divid+ l9e betwe5 ^! ?ree types ( conditions1 & t !y %ade into ea* o!r1 9 _m cases2 b 9 g5]al x may be said t a colloidal solution is "o 9 :i* ! disp]s$ p>ticles are usually betwe5 #e & #bjj 9 diamet]1 are difficultly or n at all diffusible ?r\gh ! membrane ( a simple dialyz]1 _c be filt]$ out ( solution1 d n settle out "u ! action ( gravitation1 & are visible only "u ! ultramicroscope2 & "o :i* has c]ta9 peculi> optical1 osmotic1 & o!r physical & *emical prop]ties4 ,s9ce colloidal p>ticles are v m9ute 9 size1 !y possess v l>ge relative surface areas z comp>$ ) _! total mass or volume1 v high surface t5sion1 & a relatively high surface en]gy z comp>$ ) _! total1 or molecul>1 en]gy4 ,^! prop]ties br+ into play1 9 a sub/ance :i* is 9 ! colloidal condition1 9 a rem>kable degree1 all ! ph5om5a :i* are associat$ ) surface b\nd>ies betwe5 solids & liquids1 liquids & gases1 etc4 ,! prop]ties aris+ out ( ! colloidal condition are ( su* trem5d\s importance 9 connection ) ! vital ph5om5a exhibit$ by cell protoplasm t x is necess>y to give "s detail$ consid]ation to !m "h4 ,_m l>ge volumes deal+ ) ?is condition ( matt] h be5 writt51 & x is v difficult to cond5se ev5 ! mo/ important facts conc]n+ x into a few pages1 b an attempt has be5 made to pres5t 9 ?is brief summ>y ! mo/ ess5tial facts & pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! colloidal ph5om5a4 ,,nom5clature ,,& ,,classification ,colloidal mixtures may exi/ 9 two diff]5t =ms3 "o1 9 :i* ! mixture is fluid & mobile1 l a true solution1 is kn[n z a sol2 & ! o!r1 :i* is a semi-solid1 or jelly-l1 =m1 is kn[n z a gel4 ,sols may be easily conv]t$ 7or set7 into gels1 by *anges ( temp]ature or ( ! electrolyte cont5t1 or by *anges 9 ! conc5tration ( ! mixture1 etc41 & 9 mo/ cases gels c be conv]t$ aga9 into sols4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 gel-=mation is irrev]sible1 ! gels are p]man5t & _c be *ang$ back aga9 into sols by any kn[n *ange 9 environm5tal conditions4 ,dep5d+ ^u :e!r ! liquid disp]sion m$ium is wat]1 alcohol1 e!r1 etc41 sols are kn[n z hydrosols1 alcosols1 e!rsols1 etc42 & gels z hydrogels1 alcogels1 etc4 ,sols 9 :i* ! disp]se phase is a solid are kn[n z susp5soids2 :ile ^? 9 :i* x is a liquid are emulsoids4 ,?us1 sols ( mo/ inorganic comp\nds1 ( dextr91 gelat91 & 7probably7 ( case91 etc41 are susp5soids2 :ile sols ( egg-album91 ( oils1 etc41 are emulsoids4 ,! classification ( ^! sub/ances into susp5soids & emulsoids is1 h[ev]1 m a matt] ( conv5i5ce ?an ( real diff]5ce 9 composition1 s9ce x is practically impossible to say :e!r _m ( ! organic sub/ances :i* normally exi/ 9 colloidal =m are !mselves liquids or solids1 :5 9 ! non-disp]s$ =m4 ,,conditions ,,necess>y ,,to ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,sols ,susp5soids diff] f me*anical susp5sion ( solids 9 a liquid 9 t 9 ! latt] ! solid p>ticles settle t[>d ! bottom ( ! mixture1 because ( ! effect ( ! attraction ( gravity ^u !m4 ,! rate at :i* su* p>ticles settle dep5ds ^u ! size & d5sity ( ! p>ticle & ! viscosity ( ! liquid1 & c be r\ghly calculat$ f ! =mula = ,/okes' law = ! rate ( fall+ ( a sph]ical body 9 a liquid4 ,?is =mula is ,v #br#b7s - s7g _/ #in2 ,v velocity ( ! fall+ body1 9 millimet]s p] second2 r radius ( ! p>ticle1 9 millimet]s2 s specific gravity ( ! solid2 s specific gravity ( ! liquid2 g ! attraction ( gravity1 9 dynes2 n ! viscosity ( ! liquid4 ,= example1 if ?is =mula be appli$ to det]m9e ! rate at :i* ! p>ticles ( gold ( ! size ( ^? 9 a r$ gold sol w\ld settle1 if !y 7 9 me*anical susp5sion 9 wat] 7r #aj1 or "o-t5-?\s&? ( a millimet]2 s #ai4c2 s #a2 g #ihj1 & n #j4ja71 x w be f\nd t su* p>ticles w settle at ! rate ( approximately #j4jadf millimet] p] h\r1 or a little ov] #aj mm4 7#j4d in*7 p] mon?4 ,h5ce1 ! settl+ ( su* p>ticles1 if 9 me*anical susp5sion1 w\ld be measurable1 al?\gh v sl[4 ,%ak+ up ! susp5sion w\ld cause ! p>ticles to rise ?r\gh ! liquid aga94 ,b 9 a gold sol1 or susp5soid1 :i* conta9s p>ticles ( gold ( ! size us$ 9 ?is calculation1 ! gold p>ticles d n settle1 ev5 at ! sl[ rate z calculat$ above4 ,!y rema9 uni=mly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! liquid = an indef9ite p]iod or "t4 ,! reason = ?is ph5om5on und\bt$ly lies 9 ! fact t ^! m9ute p>ticles c>ry an electric *>ge1 :i*1 is ( ! same sign = all ( ! p>ticles & results 9 a repell5t action :i* keeps ! p>ticles 9 con/ant motion4 ,?is con/ant motion may easily be conceiv$ to keep ! p>ticles uni=mly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! liquid1 j z con/ant %ak+ w\ld keep ^? ( a me*anical susp5sion uni=mly di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! mixture4 ,! sign ( ! electric *>ge on ! p>ticles ( a sol may be ei!r negative or positive1 dep5d+ ^u ! *emical nature & dielectric con/ants ( ! two phases ( ! sy/em4 ,! proportion ( ! total electric *>ge ( ! sy/em :i* is ( ! opposite sign to t borne by ! disp]s$ p>ticles is1 ( c\rse1 borne by ! liquid :i* con/itutes ! o!r phase4 ,! orig9 ( ?is electric *>ge on ! colloidal p>ticles is1 z yet1 n kn[n ) c]ta9ty2 b x seems probable t x is due to a p>tial ionization ( ^! small p>ticles1 simil> to1 b n s complete z1 t :i* takes place :5 comp\nds :i* are soluble g into true solution 9 wat]1 or o!r solv5ts :i* br+ ab\t ! dissociation ( dissolv$ sub/ances4 ,! conditions necess>y to br+ a solid sub/ance into a colloidal mixture ) "s liquid1 or1 9 o!r words1 to produce a susp5soid sol1 require t ! proportion ( liquid to solid %all be l>ge & "s means ( dis9tegrat+ ! mat]ial :i* is to be disp]s$ into v f9e p>ticles4 ,_m common *emical reactions1 if c>ri$ out 9 v dilute solutions1 result 9 ! production ( sols1 especially if a small am\nt ( "s emulsoid is pres5t 9 ! react+ mixture2 sols produc$ 9 ?is way are v /able1 & ! emulsoid :i* is us$ 9 /abiliz+ ! sol is kn[n z a protective colloid4 ,direct me?ods ( dis9tegration2 su* z r$uction by *emical ag5ts1 dis*>ge ( a /rong electrical curr5t ?r\gh ! sub/ance :i* is to be disp]s$ :ile x is subm]g$ 9 ! liquid1 alt]nate treatm5t ( f9ely gr\nd mat]ial ) alkali & acid s z to frequ5tly *ange ! electric *>ge1 etc41 are utiliz$ = br++ inorganic comp\nds into ! colloidal /ate4 ,susp5soids usually conta9 less ?an #a p] c5t ( ! solid disp]s$ ?r\gh ! liquid4 ,9 fact1 extreme dilution is "o ( ! necess>y conditions = susp5soid-=mation4 ,emulsoids are mu* m easily produc$ ?an are susp5soids4 ,! prop]ty ( =m+ an emulsoid seems to be mu* m def9itely a *>act]i/ic ( ! sub/ance 9 "q ?an does ! =mation ( sols f solids :i*1 "u o!r conditions1 may =m true solutions4 ,?is diff]5ce may be due to ! fact t ! liquids :i* easily =m emulsoids 7usually ^? ( organic orig97 h v l>ge molecules1 s t ! transf] f molecul> to colloidal condition involves mu* less *ange 9 su* cases ?an x does 9 ! case ( solid 7inorganic7 sub/ances ( relatively l[ molecul> weight4 ,?is view ( ! matt] is fur!r borne out by ! fact t solids :i* h v l>ge molecules 7g5]ally ( organic orig97 take on ! colloidal =m mu* m readily ?an d ^? ( small molecul> size4 ,at ! same "t1 a giv5 liquid may =m a true emulsoid :5 introduc$ into "o o!r liquid & a true solution :5 introduc$ into ano!r4 ,?us1 soaps =m emulsoids ) wat] 7true hydrosols72 b dissolve 9 alcohol to true solutions1 9 :i* !y affect ! osmotic pressure1 ! boil+ po9t ( ! liquid1 etc41 9 exactly ! same way t ! dissolv+ ( o!r cry/alloids 9 wat] affects ! prop]ties ( true aque\s solutions4 ,aga91 ord9>y tann91 :5 dissolv$ 9 wat]1 produces a sol1 :i* fro?s easily1 is non-diffusible1 etc42 b :5 dissolv$ 9 glacial acetic acid1 x produces a true solution4 ,! conc5tration ( ! disp]se phase may be mu* great] 9 ! case ( emulsoids ?an x c be 9 susp5soids4 ,?is is probably because ! disp]s$ p>ticles d n c>ry s l>ge an electric *>ge & are n 9 su* viol5t motion4 ,,gel-,,=mation ,! "o prop]ty :i* mo/ %>ply di/+ui%es sols f true solutions is _! ability to set into a jelly-l1 or gelat9\s semi-solid1 mass1 kn[n z a gel1 )\t any *ange 9 *emical composition1 or proportions1 ( ! two compon5ts ( ! sy/em4 ,9 ! gel1 ! two compon5ts are /ill pres5t 9 ! same proportions z 9 ! orig9al sol2 b ! mixture becomes semi-solid in/ead ( fluid 9 "*4 ,?us1 an ag>-ag> sol conta9+ #ih p] c5t ( wat] sets into a /iff gel2 :ile _m o!r gels :i* conta9 #ij to #ie p] c5t ( wat] c be cut into *unks ) a knife & no wat] w ooze f !m4 ,! wat] is n 9 *emical union ) ! solid matt] 9 ! =m ( def9ite *emical hydration1 h[ev]1 z ! same gel is =m$ ) all possible v>iations 9 ! wat] cont5t4 ,gels may be ei!r rigid1 z 9 ! case ( ^? ( silicic acid1 etc41 or ela/ic1 z are ^? ( gelat91 egg-album91 ag>-ag>1 etc4 ,! latt] are ! common type ( gels among organic colloids4 ,!y c be easily *ang$ 9 %ape1 or =m1 )\t any *ange 9 total volume4 ,9 gel-=mation1 ! two phases ( ! sy/em take a diff]5t relation%ip to ea* o!r4 ,! disp]se1 or solid1 phase becomes associat$ into a membrane-l1 or film1 /ructure1 surr\nd+ ! liquid phase 9 a cell-l arrangem5t4 ,t is1 ! :ole mass takes on a /ructure simil> to a honeycomb except t ! cells are r\ghly dodecah$ral 9 %ape1 in/ead ( ! hexagonal cyl9d]s 9 :i* ! bees arrange _! comb cells1 9 :i* ! orig9al disp]se phase con/itutes ! cell-walls & ! orig9al liquid1 or cont9u\s phase1 repres5ts ! cell-cont5ts4 ,! cells ( an ela/ic gel resemble closely ! cells ( a plant tissue 9 _m ( _! physical prop]ties4 ,!y are r\ghly twelve-sid$ 9 %ape1 z ?is is ! =m into :i* ela/ic sph]ical bodies are %ap$ :5 !y are compress$ into ! lea/ possible space4 ,imbibition & ,swell+ ( ,gels4--,:5 sub/ances :i* are natural gels1 su* z gelat91 ag>-ag>1 v>i\s gums1 etc41 are subm]g$ 9 wat]1 !y imbibe consid]able quantities ( ! liquid & ! cells become di/5d$ s t ! mass ( ! mat]ial swells up v consid]ably4 ,?is swell+ w take place ev5 aga9/ enorm\s pressures4 ,= example1 x has be5 f\nd t ! dry gel f sea-we$s w swell to #ccj p] c5t ( its dry volume1 if imm]s$ 9 wat] "u ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure2 b t x w increase by #af p] c5t ( its own volume :5 moi/5$1 if "u a pressure ( #db atmosph]es4 ,dur+ ! swell+ ( gels by imbibition ( wat]1 ! total volume ( ! sy/em 7i4e41 t ( ! orig9al dry gel plus t ( ! wat] absorb$7 becomes less4 ,= example1 a mixture ( gelat9 & wat] w1 aft] ! gelat9 has swell$ to its utmo/ limit1 occupy #b p] c5t less space ?an ! total volume ( ! orig9al gelat9 & wat]4 ,x has be5 comput$ t a pressure equival5t to t ( #djj atmosph]es w\ld be necess>y to compress ! wat] to an ext5t repres5t+ ?is %r9kage 9 volume4 ,on ! o!r h&1 gels :5 expos$ to ! air lose wat] by evaporation1 %r9k 9 volume1 & f9ally become h>d inela/ic solids1 z 9 ! case ( ! famili> =ms ( glue1 gelat91 ag>-ag>1 gum arabic1 etc4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! relation ( gels & t ( non-colloidal solids to wat] may be illu/rat$ by ! diff]5t action ( peas1 beans1 etc41 & ( a common brick1 :5 imm]s$ 9 wat]4 ,ea* ( ^! sub/ances1 "u ^! conditions1 absorbs1 or imbibes1 wat]2 b ! peas & beans swell to m ?an twice _! orig9al size & become s(t & ela/ic1 :ile ! brick und]goes no *ange 9 size1 ela/icity1 or ductility4 ,9 all cases ( colloidal swell+1 ! swoll5 body possesses mu* less cohesion1 & great] ductility1 ?an x _h be=e swell+4 ,! ess5tial diff]5ce 9 ! two types ( imbibition is t 9 ! case ( ! non-swell+ sub/ances ! cohesion1 or int]nal attraction ( ! molecules ( ! mat]ial1 is too great to p]mit !m to be =c$ ap>t by ! wat]2 :ile 9 colloidal swell+1 ! p>ticles are =c$ ap>t to su* an ext5t z to make ! tissue s(t & ela/ic4 ,x is possible1 ( c\rse1 to make ?is sep>ation g /ill fur!r1 until !re is an actual segregation ( ! molecules1 :5 a true solution is produc$2 = example1 gum arabic :5 fir/ treat$ ) wat] swells into a /iff gel1 !n into a s(t gel1 & f9ally completely dissolves into a true solution4 ,rev]sibility ( ,gel-=mation4--,9 "s cases1 ! *ange ( a sol to a gel is an easily rev]sible "o4 ,glue1 gelat91 v>i\s fruit jellies1 etc41 melt to a fluid sol at slightly increas$ temp]atures & set aga9 to a gel on cool+1 & ! *ange c be repeat$ an indef9ite numb] ( times4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _m gels _c be reconv]t$ into sols2 t is1 ! gelation process is irrev]sible4 ,= example1 egg-album9 :i* has be5 coagulat$ by heat _c be reconv]t$ into a sol2 case9 ( milk :5 once clott$ by acid _c aga9 be conv]t$ into its =m] condition1 etc4 ,irrev]sible gelation is usually spok5 ( z coagulation4 ,"s coagulat$ gels1 by prop] treatm5t ) v>i\s electrolytes1 etc41 c be conv]t$ into sols1 ! process be+ kn[n z peptization2 b 9 su* peptiz$ hydrosols1 ! mat]ial usually exi/s 9 a diff]5t =m ?an orig9ally1 hav+ und]gone "s *emical *ange dur+ ! peptization1 & ! coagulation & peptization _c be repeat$1 t is1 ! process is n a def9itely rev]sible "o4 ,importance ( ,gel-=mation4--,f ! physiological po9t ( view1 gel-=mation is und\bt$ly ! mo/ important aspect ( colloidal ph5om5a4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ability to absorb & hold z mu* z #hj to #ij p] c5t ( wat] 9 a semi-solid /ructure is ( imm5se physiological importance4 ,9 no o!r condition c s l>ge a proportion ( wat]1 ) its consequ5t effect ^u *emical reactivity1 be held 9 a /ructural1 or semi-solid1 mass4 ,b a va/ly m significant feature ( ! conditions suppli$ by ! gel lies 9 ! fact t ! non-wat] phase1 or phases1 ( ! sy/em are spread out 9 a ?9 film1 or membrane1 ?us giv+ x enorm\s surface z comp>$ ) its total volume4 ,?is effect is easily app>5t if "o ?9ks ( ! enorm\s surface :i* is expos$ :5 a t9y portion ( colloidal soap is bl[n out into a soap-bubble sev]al in*es 9 diamet]4 ,?is condition br+s into play all ! ph5om5a result+ f surface b\nd>ies betwe5 solids & liquids1 liquids & liquids1 liquids & gases1 etc41 f surface t5sion1 surface en]gy1 etc4 ,among ^! effects may be cit$ ^? ( adsorption1 increas$ *emical reactivity due to enl>g$ areas ( contact1 p]meability & diffusion1 etc41 ! importance ( :i* 9 ! vital ph5om5a ( cell-protoplasm w be discuss$ 9 detail 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,,g5]al ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,colloidal ,,solutions ,non-diffusibility4--,! mo/ *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( all sols is ! failure ( ! susp5d$ p>ticles to pass ?r\gh a p>*m5t1 or any simil> dialyz+ membrane4 ,visibility "u ! ,ultramicroscope4--,! p>ticles ( a sol1 9 contra/ ) ! molecules ( a true solution1 are visible z bright sc9tillat+ po9ts "u ! ultramicroscope4 ,?is is a modification ( ! type ( d>k-field illum9ation ( ! ord9>y microscope1 z appli$ to microscopic /udies1 9 :i* ! solution to be /udi$ is conta9$ 9 a small tube or box ( cle> glass :i* is m\nt$ on ! /age ( an ord9>y microscope & in/ead ( be+ illum9at$ f bel[ by transmitt$ light is illum9at$ by focus+ ^u x ! image ( ! sun1 or ( "s o!r brilliant s\rce ( light su* z an electric arc1 by pass+ ! rays f ! s\rce ( light ?r\gh a s]ies ( cond5s+ l5ses :i* are adju/$ at ! prop] di/ance & angles to br+ ! image ( ! illum9at+ body )9 ! tube conta9+ ! sub/ance :i* is to be exam9$ & 9 ! l9e ( vision ( ! microscope4 ,obvi\sly1 ?is results 9 int5se illum9ation ( any p>ticles 9 ! solution :i* come )9 ?is brilliant image ( ! sun1 or arc1 & !re=e r5d]s visible p>ticles :i* are ( less diamet] ?an ! wave-l5g? ( ord9>y light 7#dej to #gfj = ! visible spectrum7 &1 h5ce1 are n visible by ! ord9>y means ( illum9ation 9 ! direct l9e ( vision4 ,x w be app>5t t :at is se5 9 ! field ( ! ultramicroscope is n ! p>ticles !mselves1 b r ! image ( ! sun 7or o!r illum9at+ body7 fall+ ^u ! p>ticles :i* come )9 ! image1 j z "o does n see ! pap] b only ! image ( ! sun :5 ! rays f ! sun are br\ght to a focus ^u a %eet ( pap] ?r\gh any ord9>y convex l5s1 or burn+ glass4 ,h5ce1 ! ultramicroscope gives no idea ( ! %ape1 color1 or size ( ! p>ticles ^u :i* ! image falls2 b x does p]mit ! c\nt+ ( ! numb] ( p>ticles )9 a giv5 area1 & a /udy ( _! movem5ts1 f :i* x is possible1 by ma!matical computations1 to calculate ! relative size ( ! p>ticles !mselves4 ,repeat$ /udies h %[n t p>ticles ( ! sizes betwe5 #e & #bej 9 diamet]1 :i* are visible "u ! ultramicroscope1 are suffici5tly small to br+ ab\t ! surface ph5om5a :i* are kn[n z prop]ties ( colloidal solutions4 ,fur!r1 ! ultramicroscope p]mits ! obs]vation ( ! gr[?1 or dis9tegration1 "u v>i\s *emical reag5ts1 ( ! individual colloidal p>ticles1 :i* appe> z sc9tillat+ po9ts 9 ! field ( ! microscope2 & ! /udy ( *anges 9 relation%ips dur+ gel-=mation1 peptization1 etc4 ,! ,tyndall ,ph5om5on4--,colloidal solutions exhibit ?is ph5om5on2 t is1 if a bright beam ( light be pass$ ?r\gh a sol :i* is conta9$ 9 a cle> glass vessel hav+ p>allel v]tical sides1 & ! solution be view$ f ! side1 x appe>s turbid & (t5 has a m or less blui% %e54 ,?is effect is due to ! small p>ticles 9 ! sol1 ( pol>iz+ ! light :i* is reflect$ f !m1 ! blue rays be+ b5t m ?an are ^? 9 ! o!r "p ( ! spectrum4 ,! ,tyndall ph5om5on is simil> 9 its effect 9 mak+ ! t9y p>ticles ( ! sol visible to ! illum9ation ( ! du/ p>ticles 9 ! air ( a d>k5$ room :5 a ray or n>r[ beam ( light passes ?r\gh x4 ,9 a true molecul> solution1 ! p>ticles are too small to be visible by ?is mode ( illum9ation4 ,o!r ,optical ,prop]ties4--,sols are g5]ally transluc5t & opalesc5t2 _m ( !m are highly color$1 "s ( ! sols ( gold1 plat9um & o!r heavy metals possess+ p>ticul>ly brilliant colors4 ,9 g5]al1 metallic susp5soids are r$1 violet1 or "s o!r brilliant color2 :ile inorganic susp5soids are blui% :ite1 & emulsoids g5]ally blue to blui% :ite4 ,=mation ( ,fro?1 or ,foam4--,colloidal solutions1 especially ^? ( ! natural prote9s1 fats1 glucosides1 gums1 & ! artificial soaps1 h a /rong t5d5cy to produce fro?1 or foam1 :5 %ak52 ?is be+ due to ! enorm\s surface t5sion result+ f ! f9ely divid$ condition ( ! disp]s$ mat]ial4 ,l[ ,osmotic ,pressure4--,all colloidal solutions exhibit a v l[ osmotic pressure2 ! freez+ po9t ( ! disp]sion m$ium is l[]$ only v slightly & its boil+ po9t is only v slightly rais$ by ! pres5ce ( ! disp]s$ p>ticles 9 x4 ,precipitation by ,electrolytes4--,sols ( all k9ds are precipitat$1 or caus$ to =m gels1 by ! addition ( electrolytes1 s9ce ^! cause a di/urbance ( ! electric *>ge on ! disp]s$ p>ticles1 to :i* ! colloidal condition is due4 ,9 ! case ( mo/ emulsoids & ( a few ( ! susp5soids1 ?is *ange conv]ts ! mass into a /iff gel2 b 9 t ( _m ( ! metallic susp5soids1 ! disp]s$ p>ticles are ga!r$ toge!r into l>g] aggregates1 :i* settle out ( ! liquid 9 ! =m ( a gelat9\s precipitate4 ,9 ! latt] case1 ! effect is usually spok5 ( z precipitation by electrolytes2 :ile 9 ! =m]1 x is call$ coagulation1 or gelation4 ,! effectiv5ess ( ! v>i\s electrolytes 9 br++ ab\t ?is *ange is proportional to _! val5cy2 bival5t ions are f #gj to #hj times1 & trival5t ions ab\t #fjj times z effective z monoval5t ions4 ,fur!r1 all sols 9 :i* ! disp]s$ p>ticles c>ry a *>ge ( ! opposite sign likewise precipitate bo? susp5soids & emulsoids4 ,a demon/ration ( ! pres5ce ( an electric *>ge on ! p>ticles ( a sol & a det]m9ation ( its sign c be made by plac+ ! solution 9 a ,u tube1 ) a lay] ( di/ill$ wat] above ! sol 9 ea* arm ( ! tube1 & !n pass+ an electric curr5t ?r\gh ! cont5ts ( ! tube1 keep+ ! electrodes 9 ! di/ill$ wat]1 s t ! migration ( ! p>ticles t[>d "o pole or ! o!r c be obs]v$ by _! appe>ance 9 ! cle> wat] at t end ( ! tube2 or by pass+ an electric curr5t ?r\gh ! obs]vation *amb] ( an ultramicroscope1 9 :i* ! solution "u exam9ation has be5 plac$1 & obs]v+ ! migration ( ! p>ticles across ! field t[>d ei!r "o or ! o!r 7positive or negative7 electrode4 ,emulsoids & susp5soids diff] 9 _! prop]ties 9 ! foll[+ respects4 ,susp5soids are always v dilute1 conta9+ less ?an #a p] c5t ( ! disp]s$ solid2 :ile emulsoids may be prep>$ ) widely v>y+ proportions ( ! two compon5t liquids4 ,susp5soids h a viscosity :i* is only slightly great] ?an t ( ! liquid phase :5 x exi/s alone1 & _! viscosity v>ies ) ! proportion ( disp]s$ solid :i* is pres5t 9 ! sol2 :ile emulsoids h a v high viscosity 9 all cases4 ,emulsoids usually =m /iff gels :5 treat$ ) electrolytes2 :ile susp5soids m commonly yield gelat9\s precipitates "u ! same conditions4 ,susp5soids & emulsoids :i* c>ry electric *>ges ( opposite sign mutually precipitate ea* o!r4 ,b emulsoids (t5 protect susp5soids f precipitation by electrolytes1 by =m+ a protective film ar\nd ! p>ticles ( ! susp5soids1 :i* prev5ts ! aggregation ( ! p>ticles into ! precipitate =m4 ,,adsorption ,if a sol be precipitat$ or coagulat$ by ! action ( an electrolyte1 sub/ances :i* may be pres5t 9 solution 9 ! liquid ( ! sol are c>ri$ out ( solution & appe> 9 ! gel or precipitate4 ,?is ph5om5on is kn[n z adsorption1 :i* means ! accumulation ( "o sub/ance or body ^u ! surface ( ano!r body1 z contra/$ ) absorption1 :i* means ! accumulation ( "o sub/ance )9 ! int]ior ( ano!r4 ,s9ce sub/ances :i* are 9 ! colloidal =m h v l>ge relative surface areas1 x foll[s t ! opportunity = surface adsorption on colloidal mat]ials is v great4 ,surface adsorption is a common ph5om5on4 ,x 0 ext5sively /udi$ by ! physici/1 ,will>d ,gibbs1 :o %[$ t adsorption w take place :5ev] ! surface t5sion ( ! adsorb+ body w be l[]$ by ! conc5tration 9 its surface lay] ( ! mat]ial :i* is available 9 ! solution or o!r surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,z appli$ to colloidal ph5om5a1 adsorption may be exhibit$ 9 ei!r "o ( f\r diff]5t ways1 z foll[s3 7#a7 ,a cry/alloidal sub/ance :i* is 9 solution may be adsorb$ on ! colloidal p>ticles ( a hydrosol1 s t if ! mixture be dialyz$1 or filt]$ ?r\gh a s-call$ ultrafilt] 7i4e41 a filt] ) pores s small t x w reta9 colloidal p>ticles7 ! dissolv$ cry/alloid w rema9 ) ! sep>at$ colloidal p>ticles1 or ! dissolv$ cry/alloid w n react *emically z x w\ld 9 a free solution4 ,= example1 if to a solution ( me?yl5e blue1 :i* dyes wool readily1 !re be add$ a small quantity ( album9 7a colloidal sub/ance71 ! dye is adsorb$ by ! album9 & w no long] color wool ) any?+ l ! same read9ess4 7#b7 ,dur+ gel-=mation1 electrolytes & o!r soluble sub/ances :i* may be pres5t 9 solution 9 ! liquid may adsorb$ out ( ! solution & appe> 9 ! gel4 ,= example1 a precipitate ( alum9ium hydroxide1 or ( silicic acid1 is ne>ly always contam9at$ ) ! soluble salts :i* are pres5t 9 ! solution1 & c be prep>$ 9 pure =m only by repeat$ filt]+1 r$issolv+1 & reprecipitat+4 7#c7 ,colloidal sub/ances may be remov$ f sols by be+ adsorb$ ^u por\s mat]ials l *>coal1 full]'s e>?1 hydrat$ silicates1 etc4 ,= example1 animal *>coal 7or bone black7 is us$ comm]cially = ! cl>ification ( sug> solutions1 because x adsorbs out ( ^! solutions ! colloidal prote9s1 color+ matt]s1 etc41 ) :i* !y are contam9at$4 7#d7 ,f9ally1 colloids mutually adsorb ea* o!r1 z 9 ! case ( ! protective colloids previ\sly ref]r$ to4 ,c]ta9 *>act]i/ics ( adsorption ph5om5a are ( int]e/ & importance f bo? ! physiological & ! indu/rial po9t ( view4 ,! foll[+ may be m5tion$3 7a7 ,am\nt ( adsorption4 ,relatively m mat]ial is adsorb$ out ( dilute solutions ?an out ( m conc5trat$ ones4 ,an increase ( t5 times 9 ! conc5tration ( ! dissolv$ mat]ial results 9 only f\r times z mu* adsorption by ! colloidal sub/ance :i* may be introduc$ into ! two solutions4 ,9 ?is1 adsorption diff]s f *emical action1 z ! latt] is proportional to ! conc5tration ( ! react+ mat]ial :i* is pres5t 9 ! solution4 7b7 ,adsorption out ( diff]5t liquids1 by ! same adsorb+ body1 is diff]5t 9 am\nt4 ,x is usually greate/ out ( wat]4 ,h5ce1 _m dyes may be adsorb$ out ( wat] by *>coal1 por\s clay1 etc41 & if ! latt] be !n introduc$ into alcohol1 or e!r1 ! dye goes back into solution 9 ^! latt] liquids4 ,?is process is (t5 us$ indu/rially & 9 ! laboratory = ! purification ( su* sub/ances :5 !y are pres5t 9 impure =m 9 aque\s solutions4 7c7 ,selective adsorption4 ,diff]5t sub/ances are n adsorb$ out ( ! same solv5t to ! same ext5t by ! same adsorb+ ag5t4 ,advantage is tak5 ( ?is fact :5 filt] pap] is us$ 9 ! s-call$ capill>y analysis to sep>ate diff]5t dyes1 or o!r colloidal mat]ials :i* h be5 /a9$ diff]5t colors1 into alt]nate lay] by reason ( ! diff]5t rate at :i* ! pap] adsorbs ! diff]5t mat]ials out ( ! solution 9 :i* !y are pres5t toge!r4 7d7 ,simil> relative adsorption by diff]5t adsorb+ ag5ts4 ,al?\gh diff]5t adsorb+ ag5ts may possess v>y+ active surfaces & h5ce1 v>iable adsorb+ p[]1 or rates ( adsorption1 !y adsorb ! same relative am\nts ( diff]5t mat]ials2 i4e41 if sub/ance ,a adsorbs m ( ,x ?an x does ( ,z out ( any giv5 solution1 sub/ance ,b w likewise adsorb m ( ,x ?an ( ,z out ( ! same solution2 al?\gh ! actual am\nts adsorb$ by ,a may be q diff]5t f ^? adsorb$ by ,b4 ,,catalysis ,,affect$ ,,by ,,! ,,colloidal ,,condition ,! velocity ( a *emical reaction is ! net result ( oppos+ influ5ces4 ,x is directly proportional to ! *emical aff9ity ( ! react+ bodies & inv]sely proportional to ! s-call$ *emical resi/ance4 ,! fir/ factor1 *emical aff9ity1 is n easily measur$1 z x dep5ds ^u bo? ! mass ( ! react+ molecules1 atoms1 or ions1 & _! attraction = ea* o!r4 ,b if1 z ! result ( *emical aff9ity1 a reaction takes place1 x is evid5t t ! "t requir$ = its completion 7:i* measures ! velocity ( ! reaction7 is made up ( two sep>ate p]iods4 ,! fir/ is ! "t requir$ = ! react+ molecules to come into contact2 & ! second is t requir$ = ! molecul> re>rangem5t :i* con/itutes ! reaction4 ,cle>ly1 ! "t requir$ = ! sub/ances to come into molecul> contact w be greatly dim9i%$ if !y are mutually adsorb$ 9 l>ge quantities on ! ext5d$ surface area ( "s colloidal cataly/ :i* is pres5t 9 ! mixture r ?an scatt]$ ?r\gh\t its entire volume4 ,! application ( ?is pr9ciple to ! catalysis ( hydrolytic reactions is n app>5t1 if x is consid]$ t ! ,h#b,o molecules :i* cause ! hydrolysis are ^? ( ! solv5t itself2 b is cle> on ! assumption 7:i* is discuss$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]7 t ! wat] :i* ent]s into a colloidal complex is 9 multimolecul> =m1 repres5t$ by ! =mula 7,h#b,o7n1 9 :i* ! oxyg5 atoms are quadrival5t &1 h5ce1 mu* m active *emically ?an z illu/rat$ 9 ! simple solv5t action ( wat]4 ,h5ce1 ! surface adsorption ( react+ bodies by a colloidal cataly/ may h a v important influ5ce 9 decreas+ ! "t requir$ to br+ ! react+ molecules into intimate contact1 & s increas+ ! velocity ( ! reaction4 ,b ! colloidal condition ( ! cataly/ may also aid 9 decreas+ ! *emical resi/ance :i* t5ds to sl[ up ! reaction4 ,*emical resi/ance may be und]/ood to be ! int]nal molecul> friction ( ! d5sely pack$ atoms )9 ! react+ molecule1 :i* t5ds to prev5t ! molecul> re>rangem5t & s to prolong ! second p]iod ( ! reaction "t4 ,to ov]come ?is friction & s decrease ! reaction "t1 "s =m ( en]gy is necess>y4 ,if !re be pres5t 9 ! solution 9 :i* ! reaction is tak+ place "s colloidal cataly/1 & if ! react+ bodies are conc5trat$ at ! surface b\nd>ies betwe5 ! two phases ( ! colloidal sy/em1 !y may be conceiv$ to be )9 ! sph]e ( influ5ce ( ! surface en]gy ( ! disp]s$ p>ticles ( ! cataly/1 s t ?is may furni% ! en]gy necess>y to ov]come ! *emical resi/ance ( ! react+ bodies1 & s to spe$ up ! second portion ( ! reaction "t4 ,f ^! consid]ations1 x w\ld appe> t ! colloidal condition ( su* cataly/s z enzymes1 etc41 has mu* to d ) _! ability to increase reaction velocities1 bo? by r$uc+ ! "t necess>y = ! react+ bodies to come into molecul> contact & by furni%+ ! en]gy to ov]come ! *emical resi/ance to ! molecul> re>rangem5t :i* con/itutes ! reaction itself4 ,evid5ce 9 favor ( ! accuracy ( ?is view ( ! nature ( ! catalytic action ( colloidal sub/ances is af=d$ by ! facts t cataly/s accel]ate ! velocity ( rev]sible reactions 9 ei!r direction & t !y d n *ange ! po9t ( f9al equilibrium1 9 any case2 t is1 !y d n affect ! nature or direction ( ! reaction1 b only accel]ate a *emical *ange :i* w\ld o!rwise take place m sl[ly because ( ! /ability 7or *emical resi/ance7 ( ! molecules involv$1 or _! inability to come quickly into intimate molecul> contact4 ,^! facts & pr9ciples h be5 cle>ly e/abli%$ 9 _m /udies ( ! nature ( enzyme action 7enzymes are typical colloidal cataly/s7 & probably apply equally well to ! action ( o!r types ( colloidal cataly/s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! catalytic action ( c]ta9 inorganic & non-colloidal sub/ances1 su* z ! action ( acids 9 accel]at+ ! hydrolysis ( c>bohydrates1 etc41 may be conceiv$ to be due to *emical influ5ces ^u ! int]nal molecul> resi/ance1 :i* are simil> 9 _! effects1 b entirely diff]5t 9 _! me*anism1 f ! physical effects ( ! surface b\nd>y ph5om5a ( ! colloidal cataly/s4 ,,indu/rial ,,applications ,,( ,,colloidal ,,ph5om5a ,l>ge numb]s ( indu/rial processes are bas$ ^u colloidal ph5om5a4 ,_m ( ^! processes 7 kn[n & practic$ long be=e ! nature ( ! ph5om5on itself 0 und]/ood4 ,b ) ! com+ ( ! k ( ! nature1 causes1 & possibilities ( ! control1 ( ! colloidal condition ( ! mat]ials involv$1 imm5se improvem5ts 9 ! economy ( ! process1 or ! quality ( ! end-products1 h be5 work$ out1 9 _m cases4 ,_m volumes ( treatises conc]n+ ! indu/rial applications ( colloidal ph5om5a h be5 writt54 ,any discussion ( ^! w\ld be out ( place "h2 b ! foll[+ li/ ( examples w s]ve to illu/rate ! imm5se importance ( ^! matt]s bo? 9 indu/ry & to ! ne$s ( ev]yday life3 ! tann+ ( lea!r2 ! dye+ ( fabrics2 vulcaniz+ rubb]2 m]c]iz+ cotton2 siz+ textile fabrics2 manufacture ( mucilages & glues2 manufacture ( h>d5$ case9 goods2 manufacture ( celluloid2 production ( colloidal graphite = lubrication2 ! prev5tion ( ! smoke nuisance by electric deposition2 ! purification ( sewage2 ! manufacture ( soaps2 ! manufacture ( butt]1 *eese1 & ice cream2 fruit jellies1 salad dress+s1 etc4 ,?is li/ c\ld be ext5d$ to a great l5g?1 b is already long en\gh to emphasize ! v great importance & practical value ( colloidal ph5om5a 9 daily life4 ,,natural ,,colloidal ,,ph5om5a ,_m ( ! ph5om5a ( nature are colloidal 9 "*4 ,^! may be obs]v$ 9 ! m9]al1 ! animal1 & ! vegetable k+doms4 ,"h1 aga91 a l5g?y discussion ( ! nature ( ^! ph5om5a w\ld be out ( place 9 ?is connection1 & a few typical examples w s]ve to illu/rate ! g5]al importance 9 nature ( ?is prop]ty ( matt]4 ,9 ! soil1 ! foll[+ prop]ties are easily recognizable z def9ite colloidal ph5om5a3 wat]-hold+ capacity ( clays1 silts1 loams1 etc42 adsorption 7or fixation7 ( soluble plant foods s t !y are n readily lea*$ out ( ! soil by dra9age2 flocculation & deflocculation ( clay1 etc4 ,9 ! animal body2 ! contraction ( muscles1 ! conveyance ( n]ve /imuli1 etc41 are und\bt$ly accompli%$ by colloidal *anges2 & ! exi/5ce ( insoluble case9 & fat 9 colloidal =m 9 milk insures ! prop] n\ri%m5t ( ! "y ( ne>ly all species ( animals4 ,9 bo? plants & animals1 z w be po9t$ out 9 ! foll[+ *apt]1 practically all ! vital activities ( ! cell protoplasm are def9ite manife/ations ( colloidal ph5om5a4 ,enzymes p]=m _! catalytic functions by reason ( _! colloidal =m4 ,prote9s exi/ 9 colloidal =m & are ! seat ( all vital functions4 ,! regulation ( ! passage ( mat]ials into & out ( ! cell is gov]n$ by m9ute *anges 9 ! electrolyte conc5tration1 etc41 :i* produce enorm\s *anges 9 ! colloidal "* ( ! protoplasm4 ,x is app>5t1 !re=e1 t ! /udy ( ! colloidal condition ( matt] & ( ! prop]ties aris+ out ( x is ( imm5se importance to ! bio*emi/4 ,no o!r s+le field is capable ( yield+ m fruitful results to ! plant physiologi/1 9 8 /udies ( ! response ( plants to *anges 9 _! environm5t1 or ( ! me*anism by :i* plants p]=m _! int]nal functions4 ,ref]5ces ,,be*hold1 ,h41 trans4 by ,,bull[a1 ,j4 ,g4 ,m4--,colloids 9 ,biology & ,m$ic9e1 #dfc pages1 #ed figs41 ,new ,york1 #aiai4 ,,burton1 ,e4 ,f4--,! ,physical ,prop]ties ( ,colloidal ,solutions1 #bjj pages1 #ah figs41 ,london1 #aiaf4 ,,cassuto1 ,l4--,d] ,kolloide ,zu/& d] ,mat]ie1 #beb pages1 #ah figs41 ,dresd5 & ,leipzig1 #aiac4 ,,liesegang1 ,r4 ,e4--,beitrge zu e9] ,kolloid*emie des ,leb5s1 #add pages1 ,dresd51 #aiji4 ,,o/wald1 ,w41 trans4 by ,,fis*]1 ,m4 ,h4--,!oretical & ,appli$ ,colloid ,*emi/ry1 #bah pages1 #dc figs41 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,o/wald1 ,w41 trans4 by ,,fis*]1 ,m4 ,h4--,a ,h&book ( ,colloid-,*emi/ry1 #bgh pages1 #fj figs41 ,philadelphia1 #aiae4 ,,taylor1 ,w4 ,w4--,! ,*emi/ry ( ,colloids1 #cbh pages1 #bb figs41 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 ,,zigmondy1 ,r41 trans4 by ,,alex&]1 ,j4--,colloids & ! ,ultramicroscope1 #bch pages1 #b plates1 ,new ,york1 #aiji4 ,,zigmondy1 ,r41 trans4 by ,,spe>1 ,e4 ,b4--,! ,*emi/ry ( ,colloids1 #bgd pages1 #ci figs41 ,new ,york1 #aiag4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! ,,physical ,,*emi/ry ,,( ,,protoplasm ,?us f>1 we h consid]$ ! *emical nature ( ! v>i\s gr\ps ( comp\nds :i* are f\nd 9 ! tissues ( liv+ organisms1 lay+ emphasis ^u ^? :i* are ( plant orig94 ,^! comp\nds con/itute ! mat]ial1 or ma*9]y1 ( ! cell1 & _! v>i\s trans=mations furni% ! en]gy = its op]ation4 ,we come n[ to a /udy ( ! mode ( its op]ation1 or ! processes ( vital ph5om5a4 ,our k ( ^! matt]s is n yet f> en\gh advanc$ to p]mit a def9ite /atem5t z to :e!r !re is any diff]5ce betwe5 ! protoplasm ( plant tissues & t ( animal orig9 9 _! modes ( action1 or 9 ! physical-*emical *anges :i* con/itute ! vital ph5om5a 9 ! two gr\ps ( liv+ organisms4 ,?us f>1 no su* diff]5ces h be5 discov]$4 ,h5ce1 9 ! foll[+ discussions1 no attempt is made to diff]5tiate betwe5 animal & plant protoplasm4 ,mo/ ( ! facts & pr9ciples :i* are "h pres5t$ h be5 develop$ z ! result ( ! /udy ( ! physiological *emi/ry ( animal life4 ,no simil> c>eful /udy ( plant *emi/ry has yet be5 c>ri$ out2 b prelim9>y /udies seem to indicate t ! same g5]al pr9ciples apply to all protoplasm1 reg>dless ( :e!r x is ( plant or ( animal orig94 ,x is possible1 ( c\rse1 t fur!r /udies ( plant protoplasm w r5d] necess>y "s modifications ( "s ( ^! views z appli$ to ! gr[? ( plants2 b !y are believ$ to repres5t ! be/ :i* is n[ kn[n ( ! physical *emi/ry ( ! plant-cell activities4 ,,het]og5e\s ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,cell ,exam9ation ( cell protoplasm "u ! microscope reveals t x is n a simple homog5e\s mass4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x has a def9ite /ructure1 compos$ ( 7a7 a nucleus2 7b7 num]\s granul> bodies ( diff]5t sizes & k9ds2 & 7c7 a cle> mass ( colloidal mat]ial1 :i* 7if obs]v$ "u ! ultramicroscope1 or photograph$ by ultra-violet light7 is app>5tly made up ( v m9ute p>ticles ( _m diff]5t types ( mat]ials2 ! :ole mass1 9 ! case ( plant protoplasm1 be+ g5]ally surr\nd$ by 7d7 a diff]5tiat$ lay] kn[n z ! cell-wall4 ,! actual int]nal /ructural arrangem5t ( ! cle> colloidal mass is unc]ta92 b its prop]ties indicate t x may be consid]$ to be l a mass ( foam 7resembl+ a compact mass ( soap-bubbles7 ! comp>tm5ts ( ! foam be+1 ( c\rse1 v m9ute & ! films !mselves almo/ inf9itely ?91 ! cont5ts ( ea* comp>tm5t be+ probably liquid1 & ! :ole compos+ a typical colloidal gel ( complex composition4 ,?is conception may n be accurate 9 e detail1 b x seems to fit v closely ! conditions & reactions ( cell protoplasm4 ,fur!rmore1 x is obvi\s t ! def9ite /ructure1 or =m1 ( ! cell is ess5tial to its life2 s9ce1 if ! /ructure be de/roy$ by any k9d ( me*anical injury 7freez+ ( ! cell cont5ts1 result+ 9 ! punctur+ ( ! membranes by ice cry/als2 ruptur+ ( ! films1 or cell-walls1 by gr9d+ ) %>p s&1 etc47 s z to br+ ab\t an int]m+l+ ( ! p>ts :i* are segregat$ f ea* o!r 9 ! organiz$ /ructure1 !re results an imm$iate exhibition ( abnormal *emical actions1 accompani$ by ! lib]ation ( c>bon dioxide1 & ! dea? ( ! cell4 ,a prop] m5tal picture ( ! organization ( ! cell /ructure & ( ! int]relation ( all its work+ p>ts is sugge/$ by ! figure ( a well-organiz$ *emical factory1 ) ! diff]5t *emical trans=mations :i* are involv$ 9 ! :ole process be+ c>ri$ on 9 diff]5t portions1 or rooms1 ( ! factory1 ) ! v>i\s int]m$iate & f9al products regul>ly & sy/ematically transport$ f "o room to ano!r z !y are ne$$ to keep ea* individual /ep 9 ! :ole process go+ at ! prop] rate1 & ) ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! :ole factory work+ 9 smoo? coord9ation ) ea* o!r4 ,any di/urbance ( ! me*anism 9 any p>ticul> room1 or any abnormal condition :i* breaks d[n ! coord9ation or results 9 ! mix+ ( ! reag5ts or processes ( adjo9+ rooms 9 improp] ord] or proportions1 produces in/ant de/ruction ( ! normal process1 abnormal reactions take place1 & ! factory output is int]rupt$4 ,no o!r conception ?an ?is "o ( a def9ite /ructure & coord9ation ( ! diff]5t work+ p>ts ( a cell c adequately acc\nt = ! great v>iety ( *emical *anges :i* are con/antly go+ on 9 any giv5 cell4 ,x is :olly inconceivable t a homog5e\s mass ( all ! v>y+ *emical comp\nds :i* are conta9$ 9 any giv5 quantity ( protoplasm c\ld ei!r exi/ or produce any regul> sequ5ce ( *emical reactions4 ,/ructure1 or organization ( ! cell-cont5ts into sep>ate colloidal comp>tm5ts1 & ! segregation ( cell-cont5ts into masses hav+ diff]5t functions1 is ess5tial to any reasonable conception ( h[ ! cell p]=ms its v>i\s activities4 ,! be/ und]/&+ ( ! /ructural arrangem5t is af=d$ by ! conception t protoplasm consi/s ( a colloidal gel1 or sometimes a v viscid sol1 conta9+ wat]1 salts1 c>bohydrates1 fats1 prote9s1 & enzymes4 ,evid5ce 9 favor ( ?is conception is af=d$ by ! appe>ance ( protoplasm "u a high-p[] microscope1 & by ! close resemblance ( ! processes :i* g on 9 x1 & its responses to ext]nal /imuli1 to ^? ( an artificial gel ( simil> *emical composition4 ,two diff]5t conceptions ( ! =m 9 :i* ! *emical compon5ts exi/ 9 ?is mass h be5 advanc$4 ,"o is t !y are 9 true molecul> unions1 kn[n z biog5s1 & t ! reactions :i* take place 9 ! mass may1 !re=e1 be /udi$ f ! same basis z are reactions betwe5 simil> sub/ances :5 !y take place 9 a beak] or te/ tube 9 ! laboratory4 ,x w\ld seem1 h[ev]1 t ! con/antly v>y+ proportions ( ! mat]ials !mselves1 & ! lack ( homog5eity ( cell cont5ts1 af=d insurm\ntable difficulties to ?is conception z a basis = ! /udy ( cell activities4 ,! o!r1 & seem+ly m reasonable1 conception is t ^! bodies exi/ 9 ! =m ( colloidal complexes1 ^: composition may v>y )9 wide limits & ^: reactions are responsive to ! usual ph5om5a incid5t to ! colloidal condition ( matt]4 ,accord+ to ! latt] conception1 vital activities ( cell protoplasm may be due to *anges 9 wat] cont5t1 to electrical di/urbances1 to ! ph5om5a result+ f ! conditions br\ght ab\t by surface b\nd>ies betwe5 ! diff]5t phases ( ! gel1 to v>y+ osmotic pressure1 to *anges 9 *emical reaction1 etc41 & may be controll$ by v>i\s /imuli ( *emical1 physical1 or me*anical nature4 ,?is conception seems1 !re=e1 to fit mo/ closely ! actual conditions "u :i* ! protoplasm exi/s & c>ries on its vital functions4 ,) ?is conception 9 m9d1 we may n[ proce$ to a consid]ation ( h[ ! v>i\s compon5ts ( ! complex organic colloidal sy/em1 & _! specific prop]ties1 c affect its *emical activities4 ,! compon5ts ( ! sy/em are1 ( c\rse1 wat]1 salts1 & ! v>i\s organic comp\nds 7fats1 prote9s1 c>bohydrates1 & enzymes 9 all cells2 & o!r gr\ps1 su* z ess5tial oils1 tann9s1 pigm5ts1 etc41 9 cells :i* h c]ta9 special functions to p]=m7 :i* con/itute ! solid phase ( ! colloidal mixture4 ,9 addition to ! def9ite *emical prop]ties ( ea* ( ^! compon5t gr\ps1 :i* h be5 /udi$ 9 detail 9 prec$+ *apt]s1 !re are _m physical1 or physical-*emical1 prop]ties ( ! sy/em z a :ole1 & ( its compon5t p>ts1 :i* are ( ! utmo/ importance 9 ! physiological activities ( ! protoplasm4 ,^! we may n[ proce$ to consid] 9 "s detail4 ,,wat] ,wat] con/itutes ! l>ge/ proportion ( ! weight ( active protoplasm4 ,9 liv+ cell cont5ts 7except ^? ( su* bodies z re/+ se$s1 etc471 wat] comprises f #gj to #ie p] c5t ( ! total weight ( ! sub/ance2 ! av]age proportion be+ usually betwe5 #he & #ij p] c5t4 ,! fact t protoplasmic mat]ial c exi/ 9 turgid =m ) su* high p]c5tages ( wat] z ^! is due1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 to its exi/5ce z a colloidal gel4 ,x is because ( ?is condition t increases 9 ! proportion ( wat] g5]ally increase ! turgidity1 or turgor1 ( ! protoplasm2 in/ead (1 z 9 all o!r cases1 r5d]+ ! mixture less solid & m labile4 ,losses ( wat] f ! protoplasmic gel decrease its swoll5 condition & s r5d] ! tissue s(t & flabby2 :ile increases 9 wat] cont5t swell ! gel & make ! tissue /iff & turgid4 ,no o!r condition ?an t ( a colloidal gel c\ld respond 9 ?is way to *anges 9 wat] cont5t4 ,! =mula :i* is commonly assign$ to wat] is ! simple/ possible "o2 namely1 ,h#b,o4 ,b if ! wat] 7 really z simple z ?is1 ! comp\nd w\ld boil at a v l[ temp]ature1 w\ld h a v l[ surface t5sion1 etc42 :]eas its actual boil+ po9t1 surface t5sion1 etc41 are mu* high] ?an ^? ( o!r comp\nds hav+ a high] molecul> weight ?an is indicat$ by ! =mula ,h#b,o4 ,actual measurem5ts ( ! physical prop]ties ( wat] indicate t at ! temp]ature at :i* wat] is a vapor its =mula is at lea/ 7,h#b,o7#b2 :ile at l[] temp]atures1 at :i* x exi/s z a liquid1 its =mula may be 7,h#b,o7#c1 or 7,h#b,o7#d1 or ev5 m complex /ill4 ,! cause = ?is association ( ! comp\nd into multiple molecules und\bt$ly lies 9 ! extra val5ces ( ! oxyg54 ,9 _m organic comp\nds oxyg5 is und\bt$ly tetraval5t1 & x may be easily conceiv$ t 9 ^! complex molecul> gr\p+s 9 ! wat] x exhibits ?is same prop]ty2 ! possible molecul> arrangem5ts be+ repres5t$ by ! =mulas ,h ,h ,h ,h _/ _/ ,h-,o-,o-,h ,o,o & etc4 _/ ,h-,o-,o-,h ,h ,h _/ ,h ,h ,su* molecules may be conceiv$ to break d[n v easily1 leav+ ! extra val5ces ( ! oxyg5 available to =m l9kages ) o!r atoms or molecules4 ,?is may con/itute "o ( ! ways 9 :i* wat] ex]ts its rem>kable effects bo? z a solv5t & z an accel]ator ( all k9ds ( *emical reactions4 ,o!r organic comp\nds :i* conta9 tetraval5t oxyg5 are exce$+ly active *emically1 & !re seems to be mu* to comm5d ?is view ( ! *emical /ructure ( ! wat] molecule4 ,probably ! mo/ rem>kable prop]ty ( wat] is its p[] ( solution4 ,no o!r liquid surpasses wat] z a solv5t4 ,?is p[]1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 is suppos$ to be due to1 or 9 "s way correlat$ )1 ! extra val5ces ( ! oxyg5 atoms1 :i* may p]haps unite ) simil> extra val5ces ( o!r sub/ances ) :i* ! wat] is br\ght into contact1 & s cause ! latt] to ent] into solution4 ,all k9ds ( sub/ances dissolve 9 wat]1 & :5 9 solution1 or ev5 :5 only moi/5$1 are mu* m active *emically ?an :5 dry4 ,?is prop]ty ( wat] contributes greatly to ! possibilities ( ! *emical reactions :i* con/itute life processes4 ,wat]1 likewise1 has a high] dielectric con/ant ?an any o!r common liquid4 ,?is means t x does n readily conduct electricity1 or readily p]mit electric equilibrium to be e/abli%$ 9 x2 or1 9 o!r words1 t x is a good insulator4 ,?is prop]ty p]mits ! exi/5ce 9 x simultane\sly ( mat]ials hav+ opposite electric *>ges1 or ! s-call$ ionization ph5om5a2 h5ce1 wat] is ! be/-kn[n ioniz+ m$ium1 & ionization favors *emical reactivity4 ,aga91 wat] has a v high specific heat1 a fact :i* is ( ! utmo/ biological importance4 ,x takes m heat to raise ! temp]ature ( "o gram ( wat] ?r\gh "o degree ?an is requir$ to produce ! same result 9 any o!r kn[n sub/ance2 or1 /at$ ! o!r way ar\nd1 a giv5 am\nt ( heat w cause less *ange 9 temp]ature ( wat] ?an ( any o!r kn[n sub/ance4 ,fur!r1 ! lat5t heat ( liquefaction & ( vaporization 7i4e41 ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to *ange ! sub/ance f solid to liquid & f liquid to gase\s /ate1 respectively7 is great] = wat] ?an = any o!r common sub/ance4 ,^! facts are ( v great importance 9 cell-protoplasm4 ,! high specific heat ( wat] provides t ! heat lib]at$ by ! *emical reactions :i* take place 9 ! protoplasm c be absorb$ by ! wat] ( ! cell cont5ts1 & giv5 (f aga9 to o!r reactions1 ) v slight effect ^u ! temp]ature ( ! protoplasm itself4 ,h5ce1 viol5t *anges 9 temp]ature1 :i* might be disa/r\s to ! life ( ! cell1 are prev5t$ by ! high specific heat ( ! wat] :i* x conta9s4 ,simil>ly1 ! high lat5t heat ( liquefaction ( wat]1 result+ 9 ! giv+ up ( l>ge quantities ( heat be=e x c become solid1 or freeze1 t5ds to prev5t freez+ & ?aw+ ( ! cell cont5ts ) sudd5 *anges ( ext]nal temp]atures at or ne> ! freez+ temp]ature ( wat]4 ,z a result ( its physical prop]ties1 z j briefly describ$1 wat] accel]ates all k9ds ( *emical reactions 9 protoplasm1 bo? by solution & by ionization ( su* sub/ances z und]go electric dissociation2 & s]ves to regulate ! temp]ature ( ! protoplasmic mass4 ,fur!rmore1 9 organic tissues1 mo/ ( ! important *emical reactions ( ! protoplasm are rev]sible hydrolyses2 i4e41 wat] actually ent]s into ! reaction or is lib]at$ by x1 & ! equilibrium po9t ( ! reaction is *ang$ by ! proportions ( wat] :i* are pres5t 9 ! react+ mass4 ,h5ce1 ! pres5ce ( l>ge proportions ( wat] 9 ! colloidal complex kn[n z protoplasm has a v important influ5ce ^u its possibilities ( biological reactions4 ,,salts ,active protoplasm conta9s m9]al salts 9 solution4 ,^! are ( ! same g5]al nature z ^? f\nd 9 sea-wat]1 :i* is ! orig9al habitat ( ! e>li] evolution>y =ms ( liv+ matt]4 ,or1 x might be said t bo? plants & sea-wat] d]ive _! m9]al salts f ! same s\rce1 namely ! soluble salts ( ! soil4 ,rec5t inve/igations h %[n t ! proportions ( sodium ions to calcium ions 9 sea-wat] are precisely ^? :i* ma9ta9 fats1 prote9s1 etc41 9 a true colloidal emulsion2 & t comp>atively small v>iations 9 ! ratio ( ^! two cations produce v m>k$ effects ^u ! colloidal conditions ( ^! sub/ances 9 an artificial colloidal prep>ation1 :i* resemble v closely ! *anges :i* app>5tly take place 9 cell protoplasm "u ! influ5ce ( n>cotics1 or n]ve /imulants1 9 blood-coagulation1 9 ! p>?og5etic developm5t ( g]m cells1 9 canc]\s gr[? ( tissues1 etc4 ,9 o!r words1 9 s f> z x has be5 /udi$ 9 ?is respect1 cell plasma exhibits exactly ! same responses to v>iations 9 ! proportions ( salts 7electrolytes7 9 solution1 t artificial emulsions ( oils 7fats7 9 wat] d2 & ! normal1 or critical1 equilibrium proportion ( ^! electrolytes = all colloidal complexes is t 9 :i* !y occur 9 sea-wat]4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t !re is z yet no def9ite evid5ce t ! obs]vations :i* h be5 made ^u ! protoplasm ( animal tissues w apply equally well to plant cell protoplasm4 ,b _m ( ! ph5om5a :i* h be5 /udi$ 9 animal tissues h :at are app>5tly simil>1 if n id5tical1 effects 9 plant tissues1 & x seems reasonable to suppose t ^! conclusions apply g5]ally to protoplasm ( ei!r animal or plant orig94 ,! effects :i* salts produce 9 protoplasm are und\bt$ly due to ! fact t1 :5 9 solution1 !y readily ionize & conduct ! electric curr5t4 ,a discussion ( ! nature & importance ( ! !ory ( dissociation ( electrolytes 9 solution1 or ! s-call$ ionization !ory1 :i* has done s mu* to cle> up o!rwise unexpla9able prop]ties ( solutions1 w\ld be out ( place "h4 ,b x may be not$ t ! ioniz$ condition ( salts 9 solution acc\nts = ! avidity1 or /r5g?1 ( acids & bases2 = ! increas$ osmotic pressure ( su* solutions2 = ! conduction ( ! electric curr5t ?r\gh solutions2 & = ! effects ( ^! dissolv$ electrolytes ^u ! colloidal condition ( _m sub/ances1 s9ce ?is is due to ! electric *>ge on ! disp]s$ p>ticles4 ,h5ce1 ! pres5ce ( salts 9 solution 9 ! wat] ( ! protoplasm has a trem5d\s influ5ce ^u ! osmotic pressure 7:i* gov]ns ! movem5t ( dissolv$ mat]ials into & out ( ! cell protoplasm72 ^u ! colloidal condition ( ! cell cont5ts 7:i* controls all ! effects due to ! surface b\nd>y ph5om5a :i* are discuss$ bel[ & :i* are responsible = a l>ge "p ( ! rem>kable *emical activity ( ! protoplasm72 ^u ! electrical ph5om5a 7:i* con/itute _m ( ! /imulations :i* ! protoplasm receives72 & ^u ! acidity or alkal9ity ( ! cell cont5ts 7:i* det]m9e ! nature ( ! respiratory1 or oxidation1 reactions ( ! protoplasm &1 indirectly1 its life or dea?74 ,! g5]al nature ( ^! physical-*emical prop]ties ( ! protoplasm & ( ! relation ( electrolytes 9 solution to !m may n[ be consid]$ 9 "s detail4 ,,osmotic ,,pressure ,osmotic pressure is "o ( ! *ief factors 9 controll+ ! am\nt ( wat] 9 ! protoplasm4 ,z is well kn[n1 ! ph5om5on kn[n z osmosis is ! passage ( solv5ts1 or ( dissolv$ sub/ances1 into or out ( any tissue1 or sub/ance1 ?r\gh ! membrane :i* surr\nds x4 ,9 ! case ( a cell1 ! membrane 9 "q may be ei!r ! cell-wall or ! int]nal colloidal films :i* are di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! entire mass ( ! cell cont5ts4 ,f ! /&po9t ( _! relation to osmosis1 membranes may be ei!r imp]meable1 9 :i* case nei!r solv5t nor dissolv$ mat]ials c pass ?r\gh !m2 semi-p]meable1 :i* p]mit ! passage ( ! solv5t1 b n t ( dissolv$ cry/alloidal sub/ances2 or p]meable1 :i* p]mit ! free passage ?r\gh !m ( bo? solv5ts & solutes4 ,! fir/ & la/ ( ^! types ( membranes h no effect ^u osmotic pressure2 b osmotic pressure is at once set up :5ev] a semi-p]meable membrane is int]pos$ betwe5 solutions ( diff]5t conc5trations4 ,x is due to ! molecul> motion ( bo? ! liquid & ! dissolv$ solids1 z a result ( :i* a great] numb] ( molecules are bomb>d+1 or press+ ^u ! membrane f ! side ( ! m conc5trat$ solution4 ,?is sets up an unequal pressure ^u ! two sides ( ! membrane1 & if ! latt] be semi-p]meable !re w result a passage ( ! liquid ?r\gh ! membrane t[>d ! d5s] solution s z to equalize ! pressure4 ,! resultant t5d5cy is = ! solutions on ! two sides ( ! membranes to become equal 9 conc5tration by movem5t ( ! liquid f ! less d5se to ! m d5se portion1 in/ead ( by movem5t ( ! dissolv$ mat]ials t[>d ! less d5se "p ( ! solution z 9 ! case ( diffusion :5 solutions ( diff]5t conc5trations are br\ght 9 contact ) no membrane to int]f]e ) free diffusion4 ,osmotic pressure t5ds1 !re=e1 to =ce ! movem5t ( solv5ts ?r\gh semi-p]meable membranes f m dilute t[>d m conc5trat$ solutions4 ,protoplasm acts 9 g5]al z an approximately semi-p]meable membrane or mat]ial4 ,= example1 if ! conc5tration ( sug> 9 any giv5 mass ( protoplasm becomes great]1 by reason ( ! photosyn!tic activity1 osmotic pressure is set up & wat] ent]s ! mass1 ?us prev5t+ loss ( turgidity due to increas$ conc5tration4 ,simil>ly1 any o!r increase 9 conc5tration ( syn!tic products is comp5sat$ = by entrance ( wat] because ( increas$ osmotic pressure1 unless ! products are insoluble &1 !re=e1 incapable ( effect+ ! osmotic pressure4 ,h5ce1 osmotic pressure provides = ! movem5t ( wat] into & out ( protoplasm & s t5ds to keep ! proportion ( wat] uni=m ?r\gh\t ! entire tissue4 ,x w at once occur to ! read]1 h[ev]1 t if ! /atem5ts 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph 7 unqualifi$ly true1 & if ! protoplasmic mass 7 absolutely semi-p]meable 9 "*1 !re w\ld be no possibility ( ! passage ( dissolv$ solids into or out ( ! cell2 i4e41 if ! protoplasm act$ z an ideally semi-p]meable membrane1 only wat] c\ld pass into or out ( x4 ,b we "k t m9]al salts f ! soil mu/ pass into any cell be=e ! syn!sis ( prote9s1 etc41 c proce$1 & t ! fats1 c>bohydrates1 prote9s1 etc41 :i* are syn!tiz$ 9 vegetative cells pass f ^! to o!r organs ( ! plant = use or /orage4 ,! obvi\s explanation = ?is condition ( ?+s 9 ! plant is t protoplasm 7&1 inde$1 ?is is equally true = practically all kn[n membranes7 is n absolutely imp]meable to dissolv$ cry/alloids2 or1 9 o!r words1 semi-p]meability g5]ally means only t ! solv5t passes ?r\gh ! membrane m readily & m rapidly ?an d ! dissolv$ mat]ials 9 x4 ,ev5 colloidal mat]ials w diffuse ?r\gh mo/ common membranes1 al?\gh at s sl[ a rate t ! process is sc>cely obs]vable by ord9>y me?ods ( /udy4 ,h5ce1 ! actual p]meability ( ! protoplasm p]mits ! movem5t ( bo? wat] & dissolv$ solids f "o "p ( ! organism to ano!r2 b its approximation ( semi-p]meability produces osmotic pressure & induces fre] movem5t ( wat] ?an ( dissolv$ sub/ances1 & s provides = turgidity ( ! cells & = equalization ( ! wat] cont5t ( diff]5t portions ( ! protoplasmic mass4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t osmotic pressure plays an important "p 9 ! physical me*anism ( cell activities & 9 ! regulation ( ! proportion ( wat] conta9$ 9 ! protoplasm1 ) its consequ5t effects ^u ! *emical reactions :i* may g on 9 ! cell4 ,actual measurem5ts ( ! osmotic pressure ( plant cell h be5 made4 ,! results are m or less unc]ta91 because1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 a plant cell is n a def9ite quantity ( uni=m protoplasm surr\nd$ by an ideal semi-p]meable membrane1 b is in/ead a mass ( liv+ matt] :i* is approximately semi-p]meable ?r\gh\t its entire volume & is 9 a con/antly *ang+ condition because ( ! anabolic & catabolic activities :i* are go+ on 9 x2 b values h be5 obta9$ :i* %[ a normal osmotic pressure z high z f\rte5 atmosph]es 9 ! cells ( v turgid plants1 su* z ^? ( "s ( ! gre5 alg4 ,animal cells probably h an osmotic pressure simil> to t ( ! blood :i* circulates ar\nd !m1 :i* is approximate t ( sev5 atmosph]es4 ,,surface ,,b\nd>y ,,ph5om5a ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 a brief consid]ation ( ! ph5om5a aris+ at surface b\nd>ies 0 pres5t$4 ,x 0 po9t$ out t :5 any sub/ance exi/s 9 ! colloidal1 or disp]s$1 condition1 x has relatively enorm\s surface area & t1 consequ5tly1 enorm\s surface b\nd>ies betwe5 ! disp]s$ phase & ! disp]sion m$ium exi/ 9 all colloidal mixtures4 ,s9ce protoplasm is conceiv$ to exi/ 9 ! =m ( a colloidal gel1 hav+ a foamlike /ructure1 x is app>5t t x has ^! enorm\s surface b\nd>ies betwe5 ! diff]5t phases ( ! sy/em1 & t ! ph5om5a aris+ f ?is condition are ( great importance 9 its biological activities4 ,! foll[+ necess>ily brief discussion w s]ve to give "s indication ( ! physiological importance ( ! surface b\nd>ies 9 su* a sy/em4 ,x is easy to see t ! molecules :i* are 9 ! surface lay]s at ! int]face1 :]e two phases ( a colloidal sy/em are 9 contact1 are "u ! influ5ce ( =ces q diff]5t f ^? :i* are act+ ^u ! molecules 9 ! int]ior ( ei!r phase4 ,x is app>5t t ! molecules 9 ! surface lay] are expos$ on ! inn] side to ! attraction & influ5ce ( simil> molecules1 :ile on ! opposite1 or out]1 side !y are expos$ to ! influ5ce ( molecules ( an entirely diff]5t k9d4 ,?is results 9 a /ate ( t5sion1 kn[n z surface t5sion1 ) ! developm5t ( resultant =ces & en]gy :i* pr(\ndly affect ! *emical reactivity ( ! molecules :i* are pres5t 9 ?is surface lay]4 ,! s-call$ surface en]gy1 :i* results f ?is surface t5sion1 produces m>k$ increases 9 ! possibility ( *emical reaction betwe5 ! mat]ials :i* are pres5t at ! surface b\nd>ies4 ,9 colloidal gels1 ?is effect is s pron\nc$1 9 _m cases1 z to completely ov]%ad[ o!r types ( influ5ces ^u reaction velocities4 ,also1 ! surface lay] ( a liquid is compress$ by its surface t5sion1 to su* an ext5t t ! solubility ( sub/ances 9 ?is surface lay] is greatly increas$ ov] t ( ! same sub/ances 9 ! int]ior ( ! liquid1 :i* results 9 greatly increas$ conc5tration ( dissolv$ sub/ances 9 ! surface lay]1 & s increases ! rate ( *emical *anges :i* take place !re1 z contra/$ ) ! rate ( ! same reactions go+ on 9 ! int]ior ( ! solution4 ,?is latt] consid]ation seems to be ! factor ( l>ge/ influ5ce 9 colloidal catalysis4 ,b 9 addition to ! increas$ rate ( reaction 9 ! surface lay] due to ! increas$ en]gy available !re & to ! increas$ conc5tration ( dissolv$ sub/ances1 !re is ! possibility t ! act ( conc5tration itself br+ into play molecul> =ces :i* give rise to a resultant increase 9 *emical pot5tial1 or *emical aff9ity1 ( ! react+ mat]ials1 su* z has be5 obs]v$ to result 9 o!r conc5trat$ solutions4 ,a discussion ( ! !oretical & ma!matical consid]ations ^u :i* ?is conception is bas$ w\ld be out ( place "h1 b !re is ample exp]im5tal evid5ce to indicate its s\ndness4 ,fur!r1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 colloidal ph5om5a are ess5tially due1 9 l>ge "p at lea/1 to ! electric *>ges on ! disp]s$ p>ticles4 ,electric *>ges accumulate at ! surface ( any *>g$ body4 ,h5ce1 ! surface lay]s 9 any colloidal sy/em c>ry its electric *>ges 9 highe/ conc5tration1 & all ( ! *emical *anges :i* are /imulat$ by electrical ph5om5a are mo/ /rongly influ5c$ at ! surface b\nd>ies betwe5 ! diff]5t phases ( ! sy/em4 ,?is latt] consid]ation af=ds a satisfactory explanation ( ! well-kn[n depress+1 or /imulat+1 action ( electrolytes1 especially acids & bases1 ^u ! enzymic catalysis ( protoplasmic reactions4 ,^! few1 brief /atem5ts are suffici5t to indicate h[ ext5sively ! *emical activities ( colloidal protoplasm are influ5c$ by ! ph5om5a aris+ f ! surface b\nd>ies betwe5 diff]5t mat]ials1 :i* are pres5t 9 su* enorm\s ext5t 9 a colloidal gel4 ,surface b\nd>y ph5om5a 9 a het]og5e\s sy/em1 su* z we h se5 protoplasm to be1 provide ! possibilities = _m reactions :i* w\ld o!rwise take place v sl[ly1 if at all4 ,m]e subdivision ( ! protoplasmic mat]ials into ! film1 or foam1 /ructure br+s into play en]gies :i* may pr$om9ate ov] all o!r types ( en]gy 9 ! sy/em4 ,"h1 too1 effects may be extraord9>ily modifi$ by slight *anges 9 environm5t1 :i* effects c\ld n be expla9$ by any consid]ations :i* gov]n ord9>y *emical reactions4 ,"h1 we deal ) adsorption & o!r colloidal ph5om5a1 r ?an ) ord9>y /oi*iometric comb9ations4 ,inde$1 x is n too mu* to say t ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! *emical ph5om5a :i* are call$ vital & ^? :i* take place 9 ord9>y laboratory reactions are due to ! fact t ! =m] are manife/ations ( ! int]*anges ( en]gy betwe5 ! diff]5t phases ( a het]og5e\s colloidal sy/em1 :ile ! latt] are gov]n$ by ! laws ( ord9>y /oi*iometric comb9ations4 ,,electrical ,,ph5om5a ,,( ,,protoplasm ,! inve/igations ( ?is phase ( ! physical *emi/ry ( protoplasm h dealt almo/ exclusively ) animal tissues & reactions1 & h includ$ ! /udy ( su* ph5om5a z n]ve impulses1 muscul> contractions1 he>t-beats1 gl&ul> secretions1 etc4 ,tissues :i* respond to n]ve1 or bra91 control are1 ( c\rse1 n f\nd 9 plants4 ,b !re is pl5ty ( exp]im5tal evid5ce to %[ t plant protoplasm c>ries electrical *>ges & exhibits electrical ph5om5a :i* are simil> 9 "* to ^? ( animal tissues4 ,9 fact1 x has be5 %[n t ! contraction ( ! lobes ( ! ,v5us' fly trap1 :5 !y close ov] an imprison$ insect1 are accompani$ by electrical ph5om5a 9 ! leaf tissues :i* are precisely simil> to ^? :i* take place 9 an animal muscle :5 x contracts4 ,x seems probable t _m ( ! obs]vations & conclusions :i* h be5 d]iv$ f ! /udy ( ! electrical di/urbances 9 animal tissues may lat] be f\nd to h def9ite applications to ! vital ph5om5a ( plant cells4 ,h5ce1 x seems prop] to give "s brief consid]ation to ^! matt]s "h4 ,! /atem5t has be5 made t e active liv+ cell is ess5tially an electric batt]y1 & x is believ$ t e activity ( liv+ matt]1 su* z ! rhy?mic contraction ( ! he>t1 ! passage ( a n]ve impulse1 etc41 is accompani$ by an electric di/urbance 9 ! protoplasm ( ! tissues 9 "q4 ,exp]im5tal pro( ( ?is electrical di/urbance has be5 repeat$ly obta9$1 by connect+ a delicate galvanomet] 9 a circuit ?r\gh ! liv+ tissue :i* is und]go+ diff]5t activities & obta9+ widely v>y+ read+s ( ! in/rum5t z ! diff]5t ph5om5a are 9 progress1 or by connect+ ! in/rum5t ) muscul> tissue & obs]v+ its fluctuations ) ei!r ! irregul> contractions ( a volunt>y muscle or ) ! rhy?mic contractions ( a he>t muscle4 ,by means ( su* inve/igations z ^? j m5tion$1 x has be5 f\nd t ! "p ( ! protoplasm :i* is mo/ active is always electro-negative to ! "p :i* is less s2 t is1 ! electric curr5t fl[s f ! m active to ! less active portion ( ! protoplasm4 ,_m diff]5t explanations ( ! orig9 ( ! electric curr5t :i* develops :5 ! protoplasm is /imulat$ into activity h be5 sugge/$2 b none ( !m h1 z yet1 any exp]im5tal confirmation4 ,! mo/ t c be said is t :5ev] any /imulus excites ! protoplasm into activity1 !re is in/antly develop$ 9 x an electrical di/urbance1 :i* cont9ues z long z ! action is 9 progress4 ,rec5t inve/igations1 :i* h %[n t !re is a direct relation betwe5 _m ( ! vital processes ( protoplasm & ! ratio ( ! electrolytes :i* x conta9s1 p>ticul>ly ! ratio ( sodium & potassium to calcium1 w\ld seem to indicate t ! developm5t ( ! electrical di/urbance is a direct result ( v>iations 9 ! proportions ( ! salts ( ^! metals1 ei!r br\ght ab\t by1 or !mselves caus+1 *anges 9 ! p]meability ( ! protoplasm1 foll[+ ! /imulus :i* det]m9es ! nature ( ! activity :i* x is to und]go4 ,b !re is z yet no indication conc]n+ ! me*anism by :i* ?is /imulation1 ) its resultant electrical ph5om5a1 is transmitt$ to ! protoplasm & accompli%es its *>act]i/ic effects4 ,,acidity ,,or ,,alkal9ity ,,( ,,protoplasm ,! prec$+ sections ( ?is *apt] h dealt almo/ exclusively ) ! physical prop]ties ( protoplasm2 includ+ ! ph5om5a ( solution1 ionization1 surface b\nd>y effects1 & electrical di/urbances1 & _! probable effects ^u ! *emical reactions :i* con/itute its biological activities4 ,x is necess>y n[ to consid] ano!r phase ( ! physical *emi/ry ( protoplasm1 namely1 its *emical reaction1 :e!r acid1 alkal9e1 or neutral1 ! effects ( v>iation ( ?is condition ^u ! activity ( ! protoplasm1 & ! me*anism by :i* x t5ds to pres]ve its own prop] reaction 9 ?is respect4 ,! e>li] me?ods ( inve/igation ( ! *emical reaction ( protoplasm 7 all bas$ ^u its color reactions to v>i\s /a9+ ag5ts4 ,^! sometimes l$ to errone\s conclusions1 because ( ! effects ( ! /a9+ ag5t itself ^u ! tissue2 "s /a9s are poison\s & result 9 ! dea? ( ! protoplasm1 o!rs d n easily p5etrate ! semi-p]meable colloidal mass1 o!rs are !mselves *ang$ by ! oxidiz+ or r$uc+ action ( ! protoplasm1 etc4 ,aga91 colloidal adsorption effects (t5 lead to ! s-call$ capill>y segregation ( add$ /a9+ mat]ials4 ,s t ?is me?od ( /udy mu/ be us$ ) great c>e1 or :olly errone\s conclusions w be rea*$1 & _m ( ! e>li] reports h subsequ5tly be5 f\nd to be incorrect4 ,! rec5t improvem5ts 9 ! app>atus & me?ods = ! det]m9ation ( hydrog5-ion conc5tration h af=d$ a mu* m tru/wor?y me?od ( det]m9+ ! actual acidity or alkal9ity ( su* mat]ials ?an is obta9$ by color reactions1 & ?is me?od is n[ be+ ext5sively us$ 9 ! /udy ( ! reaction ( active protoplasm4 ,x mu/ be kept 9 m9d t protoplasm is an het]og5e\s mass & n an homog5e\s solution1 s t x is n always possible to det]m9e ! actual conditions z to neutrality ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! protoplasm ( a s+le cell1 = example4 ,h5ce1 "o ( ! be/ me?ods ( det]m9+ ! reaction :i* is favorable to ! life & activity ( any giv5 type ( protoplasm is to inve/igate ! reaction ( a liquid m$ium 9 :i* ! cells live & gr[2 ?is plan be+ bas$ ^u ! assumption t a cell is n likely to h a reaction diff]5t f t ( ! m$ium :i* is favorable to its gr[?4 ,! results ( all ( ! _m inve/igations :i* h dealt ) ?is problem po9t to ! conclusion t ! normal reaction = liv+ protoplasm is ei!r neutral or v fa9tly alkal9e2 b t x becomes acid :5 ! cell is work+ 9 ! abs5ce ( suffici5t oxyg51 & aft] ! dea? ( ! cell4 ,! fir/ effect ( a *ange 9 ! reaction t[>d acidity ( ! protoplasm is a decrease 9 ! rate ( respiration ( ! tissue1 :ile increas$ alkal9ity /imulates respiratory activity4 ,:et c>ri$ to ! po9t ( actual acidity1 ! respiratory coeffici5t becomes negative1 & ! cell actually gives (f c>bon dioxide because ( ! /oppage ( ! syn!tic processes4 ,a second effect ( *ange 9 reaction ( protoplasm is to alt] ! enzymic activity ( ! cell4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out1 enzymes are extraord9>ily s5sitive to m9ute *anges 9 ! reaction ( ! m$ium 9 :i* !y are work+4 ,a *ange t[>d acidity 9 protoplasm imm$iately results 9 ! /imulat+ ( c>bohydrate-splitt+ enzymes1 :i* increases ! supply ( easily oxidizable simple c>bohydrates1 !reby t5d+ to comp5sate = ! decrease 9 respiratory activity4 ,fur!r1 increase 9 acidity increases proteolysis1 !reby lib]at+ alkal9e ammonia-d]ivatives :i* t5d to neutralize ! ris+ acidity & s to re/ore normal neutrality or alkal9ity4 ,?us x w be se5 t 9 ! v great s5sitivity ( its enzyme cataly/s to slight *anges 9 ! reaction ( ! m$ium1 ! protoplasm possesses a v effici5t me*anism = regulat+ *anges & re/or+ equilibrium1 if ! latt] be di/urb$ by any abnormal conditions4 ,x %\ld also be not$1 at ?is po9t1 t ! almo/ univ]sal pres5ce 9 protoplasm ( salts ( c>bonic & phosphoric acids acts z an additional buff] aga9/ pron\nc$ *anges 9 reaction ( ! mat]ial2 ! bic>bonates act+ by means ( _! ready release or absorption ( c>bon dioxide1 & ! phosphates by _! easy *ange f mono-sodium phosphate to di-sodium phosphate1 & vice v]sa1 ! =m] be+ slightly acid & ! latt] slightly alkal9e 9 reaction4 ,a ?ird effect ( increas+ acidity is t x induces increas$ imbibition ( wat] by ! colloidal gel & causes swell+ ( ! tissue4 ,aft] dea?1 :5 ! reaction ( ! protoplasm becomes pron\nc$ly acid1 ?is swell+ (t5 proce$s to ! po9t ( ruptur+ ( ! cell-wall1 or int]nal membranes ( ! protoplasm1 ?us p]mitt+ ! entrance ( ! putrefactive bact]ia & ha/5+ ! decay ( ! tissue4 ,f9ally1 comp>atively slight v>iations 9 ! reaction ( ! protoplasm produce enorm\s *anges 9 its colloidal condition1 affect+ 9 a v m>k$ degree its p]meability1 its p[] ( adsorption1 etc4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t v>iations 9 ! *emical reaction ( protoplasm pr(\ndly affect its colloidal condition1 its enzymic activity1 & its respiratory processes4 ,?is necess>ily brief survey is suffici5t to indicate h[ important to ! activity ( ! protoplasm is ! *emical reaction ( ! mat]ial1 & ! me*anism ) :i* x is provid$ = ma9ta9+ ! favorable condition ( neutrality or slight alkal9ity4 ,,summ>y ,x is evid5t t1 )9 ! limits ( a s+le *apt]1 x has be5 possible to give only a v brief & incomplete discussion ( "s ( ! mo/ important applications ( ! pr9ciples ( physical *emi/ry to ! prop]ties & activities ( protoplasm4 ,!re=e1 x may be pr(itable to summ>ize briefly ^! into a s]ies ( def9ite /atem5ts :i* may s]ve z a review ( ! pr9ciples :i* h be5 discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 z appli$ to ! activities ( protoplasm4 ,protoplasm is a complex hydrogel1 compos$ ( an het]og5e\s mixture ( prote9s1 fats1 & c>bohydrates1 arrang$ 9 a foamlike /ructure1 ! comp>tm5ts ( ! gel be+ fill$ ) an aque\s solution ( ! soluble organic products ( syn!sis & ( v>y+ proportions ( m9]al salts :i* are ( ! same g5]al nature z ^? ( sea-wat]4 ,! gel is n uni=m ?r\gh\t ! volume ( any giv5 cell1 b is diff]5tiat$ 9 diff]5t p>ts into :at are kn[n z ! nucleus1 ! *loropla/s1 ! plasma ( ! cell1 etc4 ,! vital activities ( ! cell consi/ 9 *emical reactions :i* are controll$ by comp>atively slight *anges 9 ! electrolyte di/ribution1 or o!r environm5tal *anges :i* affect ! colloidal condition ( ! mass &1 g5]ally speak+1 result 9 *anges ( ! wat] cont5t ( ! plasma1 mo/ su* *emical *anges be+ ess5tially rev]sible hydrolytic reactions4 ,! compon5ts ( active protoplasm are 9 a condition mo/ favorable to *emical reactions by reason ( ! enorm\s surface area ( ! colloidal mat]ial1 result+ 9 abundance ( available en]gy1 intimate contact ( ! react+ mat]ials1 & ! ne>e/ possible approa* to ! condition ( true solution :i* c be obta9$ )\t ! loss ( /able =m & /ructure4 ,! reactions :i* take place 9 cell protoplasm1 z a result ( ! action ( ei!r physical or *emical /imuli1 are accompani$ by electrical di/urbances1 :i* may be ei!r caus$ by1 or ! result (1 *anges 9 ! electrical *>ges ( ! m9]al salts :i* are pres5t 9 ! gel4 ,su* *anges1 l ! *emical reactions :i* !y accompany1 may be reg>d$ z rev]sible & mutually self-regulatory2 s t ! protoplasm has n only ! possibilities ( enorm\s *emical reactivity1 b also ! me*anism = self-regulation ( its actions1 ! products or results f any giv5 s]ies ( *anges g5]ally t5d+ to rev]se ! process by :i* !y are proce$+ & s to re/ore ! condition ( normal equilibrium4 ,f9ally1 ! mo/ *>act]i/ic diff]5ce betwe5 ! reactions :i* g to make up ! vital activities ( a liv+ cell & ^? ( ! same *emical sub/ances :5 9 inanimate =m 9 ! laboratory lies 9 ! pres5ce 9 ! colloidal mass ( ! accel]at+ cataly/s kn[n z enzymes1 :i* are produc$ by ! protoplasm itself 9 "s way :i* is z yet :olly unkn[n2 & :i* n only add to ! possibilities ( rapid *emical *ange :i* are af=d$ by ! colloidal nature ( ! mat]ial1 b also1 because ( _! extreme s5sitiv5ess to m9ute *anges 9 environm5tal conditions1 s]ve to gov]n bo? ! rate & ! direction ( ! individual *emical reactions :i* con/itute ! vital activities ( ! protoplasmic mass4 ,^! enzymes are n di/ribut$ uni=mly ?r\gh any giv5 cell1 or organism1 b are localiz$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! cell or tissue & s give to its diff]5t p>ts ! ability to p]=m _! v>i\s diff]5t functions4 ,ref]5ces ,,atk9s1 ,w4 ,r4 ,g4--,"s ,rec5t ,rese>*es 9 ,plant ,physiology1 #cbh pages1 #bh figs41 ,london1 #aiaf4 ,,czapek1 ,f4--,*emical ,ph5om5a ( ,life1 #aeb pages1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,,czapek1 ,f4--,ueb] e9e ,me?ode zur direkt5 ,be/immung d] ,ob]fl*5spannung d] ,plasmahaut von ,pflanz51 #hf pages1 #c figs41 ,j5a1 #aiab4 ,h,,b]1 ,m4 ,r4--,physikalis*e ,*emie d] ,zelle und d] ,gewebe1 #fga pages1 #ee figs41 ,leipzig1 #aiaa4 ,,liv+/on1 ,b4 ,e4--,! ,rle ( ,diffusion & ,osmotic ,pressure 9 ,plants1 #adi pages1 ,*icago1 #aijc4 ,,mccl5don1 ,j4 ,f4--,physical ,*emi/ry ( ,vital ,ph5om5a1 #bdh pages1 ,pr9ceton ,univ]sity ,press1 #aiag4 ,,macd\gal1 ,d4 ,t4--,hydration & ,gr[?1 ,publication ,no4 #big1 ,c>negie ,in/itution ( ,wa%+ton1 #agf pages1 #eb figs41 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 #aibj4 ,,speigel1 ,l41 trans4 by ,,lu$ek+1 ,c4 & ,,boyl/on1 ,a4 ,c4--,*emical ,con/itution & ,physiological ,action1 #aee pages1 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 ,,?ompson1 ,d',a4 ,w4--,on ,gr[? & ,=m1 #gic pages1 #djh figs41 ,cambridge1 #aiag4 ,,will[s1 ,r4 ,s4 & ,,hats*ek1 ,e4--,surface ,t5sion & ,surface ,en]gy & _! ,influ5ce on ,*emical ,ph5om5a1 #aaf pages1 #ba figs41 ,new ,york1 #aiai1 7#b;d ed474 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,hormones1 ,,auximones1 ,,vitam9es1 ,,& ,,tox9s ,ref]5ce has frequ5tly be5 made1 9 prec$+ *apt]s1 to ! effect ( v>i\s /imulat+ or inhibit+ ag5cies ^u ! physiological activities ( plant protoplasm4 ,9 ! ma91 ^! ag5cies are ext]nal to ! plant & are ei!r physical1 su* z *anges ( temp]ature1 am\nt ( light receiv$1 etc42 or *emical1 su* z v>iations 9 ! salts receiv$ f ! soil1 or common an/hetics appli$ to ! plants by man4 ,a plant gr[s normally "u c]ta9 conditions to :i* x has become adju/$ by h]$it>y acquirem5ts4 ,:5 ^! conditions are alt]$1 ! effect ^u ! function+ ( ! plant protoplasm may be ei!r /imulat+ or depress+4 ,extreme *anges 9 environm5tal conditions g5]ally result 9 ! dea? ( ! plant2 b *anges :i* d n result 9 ! le?al condition affect ! plant by ei!r /imulat+ x to m rapid physiological activity or by depress+ its normal gr[? or functions4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out1 ! same ext]nal influ5ce1 ei!r *emical or physical1 :i* acts z a /imulant if x diff]s only slightly f normal conditions1 may become depress+1 or positively toxic1 if pres5t to a l>g] ext5t4 ,!re is also ! possibility ( ! elaboration by ! plant itself ( int]nal ag5ts1 or sub/ances1 :i* may h a def9ite /imulat+ or inhibitory effect ^u its metabolism & gr[?4 ,! /udy :i* has be5 giv5 to ^! matt]s has practically all be5 c>ri$ on )9 v rec5t ye>s & is /ill 9 progress4 ,mo/ ( x is /ill 9 ! exp]im5tal /age1 9 :i* no def9ite conclusions are z yet possible4 ,h5ce1 ! mo/ t c be done at pres5t is to give a brief review ( ! sugge/ions :i* h be5 made ?us f>1 z indicative ( ! unc]ta9ty ( our pres5t k ( ^! matt]s & ( ! g5]al tr5d ( ! inve/igations :i* are n[ 9 progress4 ,sub/ances :i* are elaborat$ by plants & :i* are suppos$ to h a def9ite /imulat+ or b5eficial effect ^u ! activities ( ! plant :i* produces !m1 or to influ5ce ! physiological activities ( o!r plants ) :i* ^! sub/ances come 9 contact ?r\gh ei!r ! p>asitic or ! symbiotic relation1 h be5 v>i\sly discuss$ "u ! names hormones1 auximones1 & vitam9es2 :ile injuri\s sub/ances are g5]ally kn[n z tox9s4 ,:e!r ^! diff]5t t]ms actually repres5t diff]5t def9ite types ( sub/ances1 or :e!r !re are actually diff]5t gr\ps ( /imulat+ or inhibitory ag5ts produc$ 9 plants1 is unc]ta92 b ! foll[+ brief /atem5ts w s]ve to indicate ! g5]al nature ( ! sugge/ions :i* h be5 put =w>d & ( ! exp]im5tal "w :i* is n[ 9 progress4 ,,hormones ,! t]m hormone 0 fir/ us$ to designate c]ta9 /imulat+ sub/ances :i* are suppos$ to exi/ 9 ! inte/9al tracts ( animals & to cause ! gl&s to elaborate & secrete _! *>act]i/ic enzymes4 ,! suppos$ hormones are n !mselves active 9 p]=m+ ! dige/ive functions ( ! gl&ul> secretions1 b are ! excit+1 or /imulat+1 ag5ts :i* cause ! gl&s to secrete _! active enzymes4 ,! same t]m has be5 us$1 by c]ta9 plant physiologi/s1 to designate any ag5cy1 ei!r ext]nal or int]nal1 :i* /imulates plant protoplasm to abnormal activity4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out t !re are a v>iety ( sub/ances1 :i* are !mselves *emically neutral1 t are p[]ful /imulants ( vital activity if us$ 9 only m9ute proportions1 b are p[]ful poisons if pres5t 9 l>g] am\nts4 ,_m ( ! alkaloids act 9 ?is way ^u ! animal organism2 :ile *lor(orm1 tolu5e1 & ev5 "s ( ! m complex hydroc>bons1 act simil>ly ^u ! tissues ( plants1 & e!r vapor is kn[n to be a p[]ful /imulant 9 accel]at+ ! fl[]+ ( plants & ! rip5+ ( fruits4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! vapors ( all su* sub/ances readily p5etrate ! protoplasm ( leaves1 se$s1 etc41 ev5 :5 ! same p>ts are imp]meable to mo/ m9]al salts1 sug>s1 etc42 & t ^u entrance to ! protoplasm ( a leaf1 or a se$1 !y trem5d\sly /imulate its metabolic activity4 ,^! hormones1 z a class1 are *emical sub/ances :i* h v little attraction =1 or p[] ( comb9ation ) wat]2 & x has be5 sugge/$ t ! ease ) :i* !y p5etrate ! protoplasm is due to ! fact t !y are n held at ! surface by comb9ation ) ! active wat] molecules :i* are pres5t 9 ! surface lay]4 ,! pr9cipal effect :i* is suppos$ to be produc$ by ^! hormones is ! /imulation ( ! enzymic activity1 p>ticul>ly t ( ! deg5]ative processes :i* take place late 9 ! plant's life1 at ! fl[]+ or rip5+ p]iods4 ,_m ( ! *anges :i* take place normally at rip5+ "t1 su* z ! *ange 9 color f gre5 to yell[ or r$ & f9ally to br[n or black1 :5 ! fruit or vegetable is fully ripe1 c be greatly accel]at$ by treatm5t ) ^! sub/ances4 ,hormones are simil> 9 type to ! e!real salts1 or e/]s1 :i* con/itute ! natural ess5tial oils t develop 9 _m plants at ?is /age ( _! gr[?4 ,h5ce1 x seems probable t ^! *anges 9 plants :i* are matur+ naturally may be ha/5$ by ! hormone action ( ! e/]s & simil> bodies :i* are develop$ 9 l>ge/ quantities at t /age4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out t ! *>act]i/ic gr\p :i* is pres5t 9 _m natural glucosides is ( ! same g5]al type z ! hormone sub/ances :i* are us$ 9 ! artificial /imulation ( ! fl[]+ or rip5+ *anges4 ,?is fact1 toge!r ) ! possibility ( ! lib]ation ( great] p]c5tages ( ^! aromatic comp\nds f _! glucoside comb9ations at ! lat] p]iods ( plant gr[?1 is assum$1 by "s plant physiologi/s1 to acc\nt = ! *ange f syn!tic to deg5]ative processes at ?is /age ( ! plant's developm5t4 ,fur!r1 x has be5 sugge/$ t ! autumnal coloration ( leaves1 & _! dropp+ f ! /ems ( ! plant1 z well z ! rip5+ ( se$s1 is probably det]m9$ by ! lib]ation 9 ! plant1 at t /age ( its gr[?1 or z a result ( *ang$ climatic conditions at t p>ticul> season ( ! ye>1 ( ! hormones :i* ei!r initiate or ha/5 ! special enzymic *anges :i* di/+ui% ! deg5]ative f ! syn!tic processes ( ! plant4 ,simil>ly1 x has be5 sugge/$ t p>asitic fungi are able to p5etrate ! ho/ plant by fir/ excret+ hormones :i* br+ ab\t deg5]ative *anges 9 ! tissues ( ! ho/ plant & s make x m easily p5etrable by ! hyphae ( ! p>asite4 ,x w be se5 t1 9 g5]al1 hormones are a type ( sub/ances 7possibly (t5 pres5t 9 plants 9 ! =m ( glucosides7 :i* are suppos$ to /imulate ! deg5]ative 7or katabolic7 vital processes 9 contra/ to ! syn!tic 7or anabolic7 *anges4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t !y d ?is 9 ei!r "o ( two ways2 namely1 by favor+ ! introduction ( wat] into ! protoplasm & s dilut+ ! cell cont5ts1 *ang+ ! osmotic pressure1 etc42 or by br++ ab\t a sep>ation ( ! colloidal lay]s1 or films1 ( ! protoplasmic complex1 produc+ a result simil> to t produc$ by freez+ ! tissues4 ,^! ideas h be5 sugge/$ by /udies ( ! *anges 9 ! equilibrium ( protoplasm :5 =eign sub/ances are introduc$ into x4 ,^! /udies h n z yet be5 br\ght to ! /age ( f9al conclusions1 & ! ideas pres5t$ mu/ be consid]$ z sugge/ive r ?an z conclusive4 ,,vitam9es ,vitam9es1 z contra/$ ) hormones1 are suppos$ /imulants ( syn!tic metabolic processes1 or accel]ators ( gr[?1 r ?an ( deg5]ative processes4 ,! t]m vitam9e 0 fir/ us$ to designate ! sub/ance1 or sub/ances1 :i* mu/ be pres5t 9 ! diet ( animals 9 ord] t ! animal organism may gr[4 ,abs5ce ( ^! sub/ances f ! food ( ! animal results 9 ! /oppage ( gr[? ( "y animals & 9 v>i\s s-call$ defici5cy diseases 7su* z b]i-b]i1 scurvy1 polyneuritis1 etc47 ( adults4 ,?is means t ! animal organism is altoge!r unable to elaborate its own vitam9es1 & ext5d$ inve/igations h indicat$ t ! vitam9es necess>y = animal uses are :olly ( plant orig94 ,! "n vitam9e 0 fir/ us$ because x 0 suppos$ t ^! sub/ances are *emical comp\nds ( ! am9e type &1 s9ce !y are necess>y to normal life processes ( animals1 ! "n vitam9e seem$ to repres5t bo? _! *emical "* & _! functions4 ,lat] inve/igations h caus$ d\bt z to ! accuracy ( ! fir/ belief z to _! *emical nature1 & v>i\s o!r names h be5 sugge/$ = ! g5]al gr\p ( sub/ances :i* h ! obs]v$ b5eficial effects2 :ile su* specific names z fat-soluble ,a1 wat]-soluble ,b1 etc41 h be5 us$ to designate individual types ( ^! accessory food sub/ances4 ,h[ev]1 ! t]m vitam9e is su* a conv5i5t "o & is s g5]ally recogniz$ & accept$ t x w probably cont9ue to be us$1 at lea/ until "s m def9ite k ( ! nature & composition ( ^! gr[?-promot+1 disease-prev5t+1 & reproduction-/imulat+ food con/itu5ts is obta9$4 ,! foll[+ def9ition ( ! t]m vitam9es gives a satisfactory conception ( ! nature & functions ( ^! sub/ances1 s f> z !y are yet kn[n4 ,vitam9es2 con/itute a class ( sub/ances ! individuals ( :i* are necess>y to ! normal metabolism ( c]ta9 liv+ organisms1 b :i* d n contribute to ! m9]al1 nitrog51 or en]gy factors ( ! nutrition ( ^? organisms4 ,z sub-gr\ps ( ! vitam9es1 !re h already be5 recogniz$ ! gr[?-promot+1 fat-soluble ,a2 ! ant9euritic ,b1 & ! antiscorbutic ,c4 ,until v rec5tly1 ! inve/igations ( vitam9es h dealt exclusively ) _! relation to human nutrition2 al?\gh x has be5 g5]ally believ$ t ! vitam9es !mselves are elaborat$ only by plants4 ,x 0 g5]ally recogniz$1 h[ev]1 t ^? plants1 or p>ts ( plants1 :i* are capable ( v rapid gr[? or metabolic *anges1 su* z g]ms1 spores1 leaves1 etc41 are g5]ally ! ri*e/ s\rce = vitam9es = animal ne$s4 ,h5ce1 !re seem$ to be consid]able basis = ! assumption t ! elaboration ( ^! sub/ances by plants is def9itely connect$ ) _! own metabolic ne$s4 ,rec5tly1 inve/igations ( ! functions ( vitam9es 9 ! gr[? ( plants h be5 begun4 ,^! are /ill 9 progress1 b ! foll[+ conclusions seem to be ju/ifi$ at ! pres5t "t3 7a7 ,potato tub]s appe> to conta9 gr[?-promot+ sub/ances :i* are ess5tial to ! prop] gr[? ( ! spr\ts4 ,:e!r ^! are ! same sub/ances :i* are effici5t 9 ! prev5tion ( scurvy 9 m5 has n yet be5 inve/igat$4 7b7 ,bak]'s yea/ is probably dep5d5t ^u a supply ( vitam9es 9 ! m$ium 9 :i* x is to gr[4 ,yea/ itself1 aft] hav+ gr[n 9 b>ley wort1 is "o ( ! mo/ important s\rces ( vitam9es = animal uses or = purposes ( inve/igations ( vitam9e activity4 ,b x has be5 report$ t a yea/ cell w n gr[ 9 an artificial m$ium :i* conta9s all ! ess5tial nutri5ts = yea/ b has no vitam9es ( o!r plant orig9 9 x4 ,! addition ( b>ley wort1 conta9+ ! vitam9es f b>ley g]ms1 or any o!r simil> supply ( vitam9es1 induces rapid gr[? & ! /orage ( vitam9es 9 ! gr[+ yea/ masses4 7c7 ,! gr[? ( _m bact]ia is ei!r :olly dep5d5t ^u or greatly /imulat$ by ! pres5ce ( vitam9e-l sub/ances 9 ! m$ium ^u :i* ! microorganisms gr[4 7d7 ,scl]ot9ia c9]ea1 ! br[n rot fungus ( pea*es & plums1 w gr[ only 9 a m$ium :i* conta9s1 9 addition to ! ess5tial sug>1 salts1 & nitrog5\s mat]ial1 vitam9es d]iv$ f ei!r ! natural ho/ plant tissues or o!r plant s\rces4 ,^! may be ( two types 7namely1 a vegetative factor & a reproductive factor7 or two diff]5t manife/ations ( activity ( ! same vitam9e sub/ance4 ,b bo? ( ^! factors mu/ be provid$ be=e ! fungus c make its *>act]i/ic gr[?4 ,!re is1 z yet1 no conclusive evid5ce on _m ( ! matt]s conc]n+ ! relation ( vitam9es to plant gr[?4 ,b x seems t ^! sub/ances are ( almo/ univ]sal occurr5ce 9 ! organic _w2 t !y are n ( ! same g5]al type z o!r sub/ances :i* are ess5tial to ! nutrition ( plants or animals1 b h specific /imulat+ or regulat+ effects ^u ! physiological activities ( ! organism2 t ! vitam9es :i* are ess5tial to animal life are elaborat$ by plant tissues1 b t 9 ! case ( ! bacilli ( c]ta9 human diseases !re seems to be "s indication t ! affect$ tissues ( ! animal ho/ produce vitam9es :i* are ess5tial1 or favorable1 to ! gr[? ( ! p>asitic organism4 ,!re seems1 !re=e1 to be evid5ce ( a mutual relation betwe5 plants & animals ) respect to _! nutritional ne$s = ! s-call$ vitam9es4 ,b ! evid5ce conc]n+ ! function ( ^! sub/ances 9 ! tissues ( ! organism :i* elaborates !m is1 z yet1 inadequate to provide any cle> conception ( ! reason = _! developm5t or ( ! me*anism by :i* !y are elaborat$4 ,nei!r is !re1 z yet1 any conclusive evid5ce conc]n+ ! *emical nature ( ! sub/ances !mselves4 ,,auximones ,c]ta9 inve/igations h indicat$ t bact]ia1 at lea/1 develop exog5\s vitam9es :i* are b5eficial to ! gr[? ( o!r plants4 ,^! are ! s-call$ auximones4 ,= example1 bact]iz$ peat seems to conta9 auximones :i* may be isolat$ f ! peat & ex]t a b5eficial effect ^u ! gr[? ( v>i\s se$-plants1 includ+ common f>m crops4 ,nei!r ! orig9al exp]im5tal data1 nor ! !ories :i* h be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = ! obs]v$ b5eficial effects ( ! suppos$ auximones h1 z yet1 suffici5t confirmatory evid5ce def9itely to e/abli% _! s\ndness4 ,b x seems t !re is a probability t "s plants1 at lea/1 d elaborate vitam9es1 or auximones1 :i* are useful to o!r plants4 ,,tox9s ,tox9s are sub/ances :i* affect injuri\sly ! normal activities ( ! organism4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out1 !y may be ! same sub/ances :i*1 9 less] conc5trations1 ex]t a /imulat+ effect ^u ! same organism4 ,h5ce1 x is probably inaccurate to discuss ! tox9s z a di/9ct gr\p ( sub/ances4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a l>ge numb] ( wat]-soluble *emical sub/ances :i* are injuri\s to all liv+ protoplasm1 ev5 at conc5trations consid]ably less ?an ! po9t ( osmotic equilibrium 9 ! juices ( ! protoplasm4 ,^! sub/ances may act ei!r directly or indirectly ^u ! protoplasm1 b at c]ta9 conc5trations !y always affect x injuri\sly4 ,9 ! ma91 ^! tox9s are ext]nal ag5ts ( o!r ?an plant orig92 al?\gh *emical sub/ances develop$ by "o plant may be toxic to o!r plants1 or ev5 to o!r organs ( ! same plant ?an ^? 9 :i* !y are elaborat$4 ,tox9s may be ei!r g5]al 7i4e41 injuri\s to all types ( plants71 or specific 7i4e41 injuri\s to only c]ta9 species7 9 _! action4 ,examples ( specific toxicity are ( only m9or importance 9 plant /udies4 ,!y seem to be g5]ally expla9able on ! basis ( "s unusual lack ( resi/ance or failure ( ! susceptible plants to be able to exclude ! entrance ( ^! injuri\s sub/ances into ! protoplasm by selective adsorption1 or to conv]t ! injuri\s sub/ances into insoluble & non-injuri\s =ms1 z is done by o!r plants :i* are n susceptible to injury by ^! specific poisons4 ,h5ce1 p>ticul> att5tion ne$ n be giv5 to ?is type ( tox9s4 ,toxic sub/ances may act injuri\sly ^u plant tissues 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,_m electrolytes1 especially ! salts ( ! heavy metals ( high val5cy1 coagulate prote9 mat]ial & ! entrance ( su* sub/ances into ! protoplasm causes di/urbances 9 ! colloidal condition :i* _c be o!rwise ?an injuri\s to its normal activities4 ,simil>ly1 =maldehyde & _m o!r organic comp\nds may affect ! colloidal prop]ties ( ! protoplasmic gel 9 su* a way z to injure ! plant tissues4 ,! same sub/ance is sometimes mu* m injuri\s to ! tissues ( "o "p ( a plant ?an x is to ^? ( ano!r "p ( ! same plant4 ,?us1 ! rootlets ( a "y gr[+ plant are mu* m susceptible to injury by _m m9]al salts ?an are ! vegetative p>ts ( ! same plants2 :ile an/hetics ( v>i\s k9ds g5]ally exhibit _! greate/ injuri\s effects ^u ! leaves1 or syn!tiz+ cells4 ,aga91 ! mycelia ( fungi are mu* m easily kill$ by toxic ag5ts us$ z fungicides ?an are ! spores ( ! same fungi4 ,"s ( ^! obs]v$ diff]5ces 9 toxicity may be due to diff]5ces 9 ! physiological effect ( ! sub/ance ^u ! protoplasm ( ! tissues :i* x ent]s1 & o!rs may be due to diff]5ces 9 ! resi/ance ( ! protoplasm1 or ( its protective cov]+s1 to p5etration by ! toxic mat]ial4 ,inde$1 ! possibilities ( diff]5t types ( toxic action1 & ( resi/ance to x by individual plants & species1 are s v>i$ t x is n possible to divide toxic ag5ts into specific gr\ps accord+ to ! nature ( _! injuri\s action ^u ! plant cell4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 m commonly gr\p$ into classes accord+ to _! *emical nature & economic significance z fungicides1 z foll[s3 inorganic & organic acids2 cau/ic alkalies2 salts ( ! heavy metals2 hydroc>bon gases2 =maldehyde2 alcohols & an/hetics2 nitrog5\s organic comp\nds2 & miscellane\s decomposition productions ( organic orig94 ,! foll[+ brief review ( "s ( ! results ( ! exp]im5tal /udies ( ! toxicity ( diff]5t comp\nds belong+ to ^! sev]al gr\ps w s]ve to indicate ! g5]al tr5d ( ! inve/igations ( ^! matt]s :i* h ?us f> be5 made4 ,acids4--,! common inorganic acids 7hydro*loric1 nitric1 & sulfuric7 kill ! rootlets ( common f>m crops :5 ! latt] are imm]s$ = tw5ty to tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 solutions ( ^! acids conta9+ f ?ree to five p>ts p] million ( free acid4 ,acetic acid mu/ be ab\t five times z conc5trat$ z ?is1 & o!r organic acids may be mu* m conc5trat$ /ill be=e !y produce ! same injuri\s effects4 ,! toxic effect ( all ^! acids is greatly r$uc$ 9 soil cultures1 or if p>ticles ( s&1 graphite1 clay1 filt] pap]1 etc41 are susp5d$ 9 ! solutions conta9+ ! acids1 ! r$uction 9 toxic effect be+ probably due to ! adsorption ( ! acids ^u ! solid p>ticles4 ,h5ce1 ! conc5trations :i* limit ! toxic effects ( ^! acids 9 wat] solutions _c be tak5 z repres5t+ ! condition ) :i* ! same plant w h to cont5d :5 gr[+ "u normal cultural conditions4 ,alkalies4--,! cau/ic alkalies mu/ usually be pres5t 9 f five to t5 times z great conc5trations z ^? ( ! m9]al acids1 9 ord] to produce ! same injuri\s effects ^u ! rootlets ( common plants4 ,! s-call$ alkali ( soils is n alkali at all1 b is neutral soluble salts pres5t 9 suffici5t conc5tration to ex]t a toxic effect4 ,salts ( ! heavy metals are especially toxic to rootlets ( plants4 ,salts ( copp]1 m]cury1 & silv]1 h be5 f\nd to kill ! roots ( se$l+s imm]s$ 9 !m = tw5ty-f\r h\rs :5 pres5t 9 proportions ( less ?an ?ree p>ts p] t5 million1 :ile salts ( _m o!r heavy metals are toxic :5 pres5t 9 conc5trations ( less ?an "o "p p] million4 ,! salts ( ! alkali metals are consid]able less injuri\s ?an are ^? ( ! heavy metals1 b ev5 ^! ex]t _! famili> injuri\s effect if pres5t 9 conc5trations :i*1 measur$ by ! ord9>y /&>ds1 w\ld /ill be reg>d$ z v dilute solutions4 ,illum9at+ gas1 & simil> hydroc>bon gases1 kill plants :5 pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e 9 z little z "o "p p] million4 ,leaves1 buds1 & roots are all alike s5sitive to ?is toxic effect1 ! nature ( :i* is n yet und]/ood4 ,=mal91 or =maldehyde1 is a p5etrat+ toxic ag5t = ne>ly all plant cells1 & is commonly us$ z a fungicide = ! de/ruction ( p>asitic fungi4 ,x probably affects ! colloidal condition 9 "s way simil> to its h>d5+ effect ^u gelat91 etc4 ,! toxic effect ( _m diff]5t organic comp\nds is s v>i$ 9 its nature & ext5t t x is impossible to give any satisfactory brief review ( its manife/ations4 ,rec5t inve/igations appe> to indicate t organic products ( decomposition ( plant residues 9 ! soil may ex]t p[]fully toxic effects ^u succe$+ g5]ations ( ! same1 or ( diff]5t1 plants gr[+ on ! l&4 ,b ! exp]im5tal data & conclusions conc]n+ ^! matt]s are n yet accept$ )\t "q by all /ud5ts ( plant sci5ce or ( ! problems ( ! productivity ( ! soil4 ,9 fact1 x is yet an op5 "q :e!r toxic soil con/itu5ts are really an important factor 9 ! s-call$ unproductivity ( c]ta9 soils4 ,alkaloids1 & ev5 ! am9o-acids :i* are produc$ 9 ! tissues ( "s species ( plants1 :ile n toxic to ! plants or organs :i* elaborate !m1 sometimes exhibit /rik+ly toxic action ^u o!r plant organs ) :i* !y are br\ght into contact4 ,!re is1 z yet1 no satisfactory explanation ( ?is diff]5ce 9 behavior betwe5 plant tissues t[>d v>i\s organic toxic sub/ances4 ,9 fact1 ! :ole subject ( ! toxic action ( v>i\s sub/ances ^u plants ne$s mu* m /udy be=e x is br\ght to ! po9t :]e x w af=d def9ite k ( ei!r ! physiological problems involv$ or ( _! practical applications 9 que/ions ( soil productivity1 etc4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,adaptations ,mo/ ( ! discussions :i* h be5 pres5t$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s h dealt ) ! types ( comp\nds1 ! k9ds ( reactions1 & ! me*anism = ! control ( ^!1 :i* are exhibit$ by plants "u _! normal conditions = developm5t4 ,! results ( ! evolution>y process h produc$ 9 ! diff]5t species ( plants c]ta9 fix$ habits ( gr[? & metabolism4 ,s def9itely fix$ are ^! t 9 ea* p>ticul> species ( plants ea* individual diff]s f o!r individuals1 :i* are ( ! same age & h _h ! same nutritional advantages & environm5tal opportunities = gr[?1 by sc>cely p]ceptible v>iations1 if at all4 ,inde$1 ?is fix$ habit ( developm5t makes possible ! classification ( plants into g5]a1 species1 etc4 ,:ile diff]5t species ( plants1 giv5 ! same conditions ( nutrition & environm5t1 produce organs ( ! wide/ conceivable v>iety 9 =m1 color1 & function2 )9 ! same species1 ! =m & size ( leaves1 ! position & bran*+ ( ! /em1 ! color1 size1 & %ape ( ! fl[]1 ! coloration & m>k+s ( ! fruit1 etc41 are relatively con/ant & subject to only v slight modifications4 ,x is unnecess>y to say t ! me*anism1 or ! impulses1 :i* gov]n ! morphological *>act]s ( ! tissues :i* any giv5 species ( plants w elaborate out ( ! crude food mat]ial :i* x receives f ! soil & atmosph]e1 are :olly unkn[n to sci5ce4 ,x is ! commonly accept$ assumption t ! fix$ habit ( gr[? ( ! species is transmitt$ f g5]ation to g5]ation ?r\gh ! *romosomes ( ! g]m cells4 ,b ! nature ( ! elem5ts1 or sub/ances1 :i* may be pres5t 9 ! *romosomes1 :i* influ5ce ! "* ( ! organs :i* w develop mon?s lat]1 aft] ! plant :i* gr[s f ! g]m cell has gone ?r\gh its v>i\s /ages ( vegetative gr[?1 is /ill altoge!r unkn[n4 ,!re c be no "q1 h[ev]1 t "s influ5ce produces a fixity ( habit ( gr[? & developm5t :i* is almo/ inevitable 9 its op]ation4 ,b :ile ?is unv>y+ habit ( gr[? is "o ( ! fix$ laws ( plant life1 !re are occasional deviations f x4 ,a plant :i*1 "u normal conditions ( gr[?1 develops 9 a c]ta9 fix$ way1 :5 expos$ to unusual environm5tal conditions1 may1 & (t5 does1 alt] its habit ( gr[? 9 :at may metaphorically be said to be an attempt to adju/ itself to ! new conditions4 ,num]\s examples ( ?is ph5om5on might be cit$4 ,c]ta9 alg1 :i* gr[ normally 9 wat] at a temp]ature ( #bj to #cj & :i* are kill$ if ! temp]ature rises above #de1 h be5 gr[n = successive g5]ations 9 wat] ! temp]ature ( :i* has be5 gradually rais$1 until !y produce app>5tly normal gr[? 9 wat] ! temp]ature ( :i* is z high z #gh2 also1 c]ta9 types ( alg normally gr[ 9 ! wat] ( hot spr+s at temp]atures ( #he to #ij1 & o!rs 9 arctic sea-wat] ! temp]ature ( :i* sometimes falls to -#a4h & nev] rises above #j ,c4 ,?is ph5om5on ( ! adju/m5t ( a species ( plants to new conditions1 :i* 9 ! case ( f>m crops is sometimes call$ acclimatization1 is ( common occurr5ce & is (t5 utiliz$ to economic advantage 9 ! introduction ( new /ra9s ( crops into new agricultural di/ricts4 ,aga91 ! normal developm5t ( plants may be alt]$ z ! result ( injury or mutilation4 ,?us1 if ! e> is remov$ f ! /alk ( ,indian corn1 at any "t aft] fl[]+1 !re always results an abnormal /orage ( sucrose 9 ! /alk1 in/ead ( ! normal /orage ( />* 9 ! k]nels4 ,simil>ly1 midsumm] prun+ ( fruit trees g5]ally results 9 ! production ( abnormally l>ge numb] ( fruit buds on ! rema9+ limbs4 ,_m o!r famili> examples ( alt]ation ( normal developm5t 9 response to1 or z ! result (1 abnormal conditions ( gr[? might be cit$4 ,,types ,,( ,,adaptations ,to designate ^! diff]5t alt]ations ( normal gr[?1 sev]al diff]5t t]ms h be5 us$4 ,among ^!1 adaptation1 accommodation1 & adju/m5t h be5 commonly us$ by diff]5t biologi/s4 ,sometimes ^! are us$ int]*angeably1 & sometimes diff]5t t]ms are us$ to designate diff]5t types ( response to alt]$ conditions ( gr[?4 ,inasmu* z !re seems to be no g5]ally accept$ usage ( ^! diff]5t t]ms1 only "o ( !m1 namely1 ! ^w adaptation w be us$ "h2 & diff]5t manife/ations ( ?is ph5om5on w be di/+ui%$ by us+ appropriate adjectives1 z physiological adaptations1 *romatic adaptations1 morphological adaptations1 etc4 ,two m>k$ly diff]5t types ( responses to alt]$ conditions1 or ( adju/m5t to environm5t1 may be recogniz$4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^!1 = :i* we w use ! t]m physiological adaptation1 ! species ( plant simply acquires ! ability to exi/ & gr[ normally "u conditions :i* =m]ly inhibit$ its gr[?4 ,?us1 we may speak ( ! ph5om5a m5tion$ above z acclimatization z ! physiological adaptation ( ! crop to ! new conditions ( gr[?4 ,9 g5]al1 physiological adaptations include su* v>iations 9 ! *>act]s or habits ( gr[? ( plants z results 9 diff]5ces 9 resi/ance to heat or to cold1 relations to wat]1 aggressiv5ess 9 competition ) o!r plants1 etc4 ,9 su* cases1 no modification ( ! morphological *>act]s ( ! plant c be obs]v$1 ! *anges :i* take place 9 ! /ructure ( ! plant 7if1 inde$1 !re be any su* *anges7 mu/ be only m9or adju/m5ts ( ! protoplasm to meet ! new environm5tal ne$s4 ,9 ! second type ( adaptations1 = :i* we w use ! t]m morphological adaptations1 ! /ructure1 or color1 or "s o!r morphological "* ( ! plant is actually *ang$ 9 "s easily recognizable way1 9 ord] t ! plant may be bett] adju/$ to its environm5t4 ,z examples ( morphological adaptations1 !re may be cit$ ! *ange 9 color ( sea-we$s ) increas+ dep? 9 ! sea1 & o!r examples ( *romatic adaptation :i* are discuss$ bel[2 ! developm5t ( few]1 or a l>g] numb]1 ( buds on ! above-gr\nd /ems ( plants1 9 response to decreases1 or increases1 9 ! available supply ( food2 ! alt]ation 9 ! size & %ape ( ! leaves ( _m plants :5 !y are gr[n 9 %ade2 ! dw>f+ ( plants at high altitudes1 or "u conditions ( sev]e dr\ght2 ! developm5t ( und]gr\nd /orage organs = c]ta9 species ( %rubs & trees :i* gr[ 9 regions t are subject to p]iodical burn+-ov]1 9 su* a way z to de/roy ! above-gr\nd /orage /ems1 etc4 ,h5ce1 ! two t]ms1 z we w use !m "h1 may be def9$ z foll[s3 morphological adaptation is a *ange 9 ! /ructural "* ( ! species 9 ord] t x may be bett] fitt$ to meet ! ne$s ( ! new conditions ( gr[?2 :ile physiological adaptation is an acquir$ p[] to survive & develop "u abnormal conditions1 :i* is n accompani$ by any visible *ange 9 ! *>act]i/ic /ructure ( ! species4 ,bo? ( ^! types ( adju/m5t may be ei!r h]$it>y 7or evolution>y71 or spontane\s 9 _! orig9 & developm5t4 ,*anges :i* are evolution>y are fix$ by h]$ity & become def9ite habits ( gr[? 9 ! species4 ,_! orig9 may be expla9$ 9 ei!r "o ( two ways2 namely1 ! s-call$ increase by use1 & ! survival ( ! fitte/4 ,! hypo!sis ( increase by use1 z an explanation ( adaptations1 is bas$ ^u ! well-kn[n obs]vation t1 9 animals1 muscles & o!r organs increase 9 volume z !y are ext5sively us$2 & ! assumption ( ! application ( ?is pr9ciple to ! ph5om5on ( adaptation supposes t ! modification ( any giv5 /ructure or composition is ! result ( ! h]$it>y accumulations ( increas$ size result+ f use1 or ( atrophy f disuse4 ,! survival ( ! fitte/ !ory supposes t individuals ( a species diff] f ea* o!r by spontane\s v>iations1 & t 9 ! competitive /ruggle = exi/5ce ^? =ms :i* are be/ adapt$ to ! environm5tal conditions survive :ile ! o!rs p]i%4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ^! two views is t ! fir/ holds t adaptation proce$s by developm5t1 & ! second t x proce$s by v>iation & elim9ation2 ! fir/ presupposes ! exi/5ce 9 ! organism ( a me*anism = response to *ang+ conditions1 & ! second assumes t !re are *ance v>iations foll[$ by ! dea? ?r\gh competition ( ! =ms :i* are n able to meet ! ne$s ( ! environm5t4 ,confusion arises :5ev] an attempt is made to apply ei!r ( ^! !ories to all k9ds ( adaptations4 ,! idea ( increase by use c be appli$ ) "s satisfaction to c]ta9 morphological adaptations 9 animal /ructure2 & to su* ph5om5a z ! increase 9 /r5g? ( ! bran*es ( fruit trees1 ei!r ) or )\t correspond+ increase 9 size1 z ! load ( fruit increases4 ,b x c]ta9ly _c apply to color *ange 9 surface pigm5tation ( ei!r animals or plants1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/ common =ms ( adaptation4 ,fur!rmore1 x is difficult to conceive ! g5]al application ( ?is idea to alt]ations ( habits ( gr[? ( plants1 s9ce a plant _c h any su* ?+ z a volunt>y control ov] ! am\nt ( use :i* x makes ( its diff]5t organs 9 response to *anges ( environm5t4 ,! common =m ( /atem5t t a plant develops an organ1 or a process to meet a c]ta9 ne$1 or modifies its habits ( gr[? to meet a *ange ( environm5t are1 ( c\rse1 purely metaphorical1 & c only be tak5 to mean t su* processes are me*anical responses to *anges 9 ext]nal conditions4 ,! nature ( ! me*anism by :i* ^! responses are accompli%$ is1 z yet1 :olly unkn[n4 ,!re is accumulat+ a l>ge mass ( exp]im5tal evid5ce :i* goes to %[ t1 :ile bo? temp]ature & light are v important factors 9 det]m9+ ! type ( *anges :i* w take place 9 a liv+ organism1 ! s-call$ photo*emical action ( light is by f> ! mo/ pot5t ( all ! climatic factors :i* influ5ce ! c\rse ( developm5t ( a plant4 ,b we h1 z yet1 no inkl+ ( h[ ! protoplasm ( ! plant adju/s or controls its responses to v>iations 9 any ( ^! ext]nal factors4 ,) ^! g5]al consid]ations 9 m9d1 we may n[ proce$ to ! consid]ation ( c]ta9 p>ticul> types ( adaptations4 ,,*romatic ,,adaptations ,adaptations h be5 obs]v$ 9 bo? ! en]gy-absorb+ pigm5ts ( ! g5]al tissues & 9 ! ornam5tal epid]mis pigm5ts ( plants4 ,! =m] are by f> ! mo/ important f ! physiological po9t ( view2 :ile ! latt] may h int]e/+ biological significance4 ,"u ne>ly all conditions ( gr[? ( l& plants1 ! supply ( ! *lorophylls & _! associat$ pigm5ts provides = ! absorption ( sol> en]gy f> 9 excess ( ! am\nt necess>y = ! photosyn!tic assimilation ( all ! c>bon dioxide :i* is available to ! plant4 ,x has be5 %[n t an active gre5 leaf1 on an ,augu/ day1 c absorb eight times z mu* radiant en]gy z w\ld be requir$ to assimilate all ! c>bon dioxide pres5t 9 ! air ov] its surface4 ,no l& plant1 "u normal conditions1 develops supplem5t>y pigm5ts 9 ord] to utilize o!r ?an ! p>ts ( ! spectrum :i* are absorb$ by *lorophyll & its associat$ pigm5ts4 ,b deep-sea plants %[ q a diff]5t ph5om5on ( pigm5t developm5t4 ,wat] is a blue liquid4 ,at dep?s ( #dj feet or m1 ! light :i* p5etrates is devoid ( r$ rays1 feeble 9 yell[1 & is *>act]i/ically gre5 or blue 9 color4 ,n[1 ! r$ rays ( ! spectrum are ! ones :i* are mo/ effici5t = photosyn!sis4 ,sea we$s :i* gr[ at ^! dep?s are brilliantly r$ 9 color1 at int]m$iate dep?s !y are br[n1 & at ! surface !y are gre51 9 ! same latitudes4 ,:ile x is possible t ! temp]ature ( ! wat] at ^! diff]5t dep?s may h some?+ to d ) ! *emical syn!sis ( ! pigm5ts1 x appe>s pla9 t ?is color *ange at increas+ dep?s is a def9ite adaptation to provide = ! absorption ( ! sol> en]gy :i* is available at ^! dep?s4 ,x has be5 %[n t ^! pigm5ts ( deep-sea plants are additional to1 & n sub/itutes =1 ! *lorophylls1 etc4 ,! latt] pigm5ts are pres5t 9 normal am\nts1 b are supplem5t$ by ^? :i* absorb ! gre5 & blue portion ( ! spectrum4 ,h5ce1 ?is type ( adaptation might be conceiv$ to be a survival ( ! fitte/1 result+ 9 ! natural selection ( individuals ( ! highe/ total pigm5tation4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is exp]im5tal evid5ce to %[ t plants possess "s means ( v>y+ _! pigm5tation 9 response to ! "* ( ! light :i* comes to !m4 ,=1 x has be5 f\nd t a complete *ange 9 color ( c]ta9 highly color$ plants c be produc$ 9 a s+le g5]ation1 by gr[+ ! plants 9 boxes or *amb]s ^: walls are compos$ entirely ( diff]5tly color$ glass1 s t ! plants )9 receive light ( only a p>ticul> "p ( ! spectrum4 ,9 su* cases1 ! plant1 />t+ ) an initial natural color1 *anges ?r\gh a succession ( colors until x f9ally rea*es equilibrium at "o :i* provides = ! prop] absorption ( ! "r k9d ( light f ! new supply :i* is available to x4 ,h5ce1 x seems prop] to conclude t *romatic adaptation is n a process ( natural selection1 b a def9ite result ( an actual me*anism = adaptation to *ang$ environm5tal conditions ( supply ( radiant en]gy4 ,,/ructural ,,adaptations ,*anges 9 /ructure to meet special conditions ( gr[? may be ( sev]al diff]5t types4 ,"o ( ^!1 :i* is (t5 cit$ z an example ( adaptation 79 ?is case1 ! t]m is us$ ) a significance q diff]5t ?an t 9 :i* x is be+ us$ "h7 is t ( ! developm5t ( unusual & (t5 fanta/ic %apes ( fl[]s1 :i* are s relat$ to ! anatomy ( c]ta9 species ( insects t visit ^! fl[]s 9 se>* ( nect>1 t provision = ! cross-f]tilization ( ! plants is insur$1 9 t ! poll5 f ! an!rs ( "o fl[] becomes lodg$ on ! body ( ! insect z x is )draw+ f ! fl[] 9 su* a way t x comes 9 contact ) ! pi/il ( a second fl[] z ! insect ent]s x4 ,su* fl[]s (t5 h su* peculi> %apes & l5g?s ( nect> tubes1 etc41 t only a s+le species ( insect1 ^: anatomical %ape is adapt$ to t p>ticul> blossom %ape c ent] ! fl[] 9 its se>* = nect>4 ,x is cle> t ?is =m ( morphological adaptation is a highly specializ$ "o1 :i* c only be ! result ( a long process ( evolution>y developm5t4 ,x is obvi\s t ! plant _c possibly possess a me*anism1 or ability1 to alt] its fl[] =m 9 ord] to make x con=m to ! %ape & l5g? ( ! proboscis1 or o!r body p>ts1 ( a p>ticul> species ( insect4 ,ei!r ! insect or ! plant1 or bo?1 mu/ g ?r\gh a process ( evolution>y developm5t 9 ord] to arrive at ?is =m ( mutual adaptation4 ,a =m ( true morphological adaptation 79 ! s5se 9 :i* we h be5 us+ ! t]m7 is exhibit$ by _m species ( plants1 :i* are provid$ ) _m m buds1 or gr[+ po9ts1 ?an ev] actually beg9 to gr[4 ,= example1 ! s+le plumule :i* develops f a g]m9at+ :eat embryo has at its upp] end a hundr$ or m t9y gr[+ po9ts4 ,at ! prop] /age ( its gr[?1 sev]al ( ^! t9y buds beg9 to gr[ into individual sep>ate /ems1 & ! new :eat plant ?us produces sev]al /ems f "o se$ & root sy/em1 a process kn[n z ! /ool+4 ,! numb] ( /ems 9 a s+le /ool dep5ds ^u ! numb] ( ! pot5tial gr[+ po9ts :i* are /imulat$ into gr[?4 ,x v>ies f only two or ?ree up to z _m z ?irty or =ty1 & is app>5tly controll$ by ! favorable or unfavorable conditions ( climate or nutrition at ! "t :5 ! /ool+ takes place4 ,! plant is ?us provid$ ) a me*anism = adapt+ its possibilities ( gr[? to ! supply ( gr[?-promot+ mat]ial :i* is available to x4 ,_m o!r plants produce f> m buds ?an ev] develop into gr[+ tissues1 & buds :i*1 "u normal conditions1 rema9 dormant1 "u alt]$ conditions />t into gr[? & s provide = an adaptation ( ! total mass ( ! gr[+ plant to correspond ) ! alt]$ conditions ( gr[?4 ,! actual means by :i* c]ta9 buds are /imulat$ into gr[? :ile o!rs rema9 dormant1 or are inhibit$ f gr[+1 are z yet unkn[n4 ,two !ories h be5 advanc$4 ,"o is t ! gr[+ buds absorb all available nutrition & ! o!rs rema9 dormant by reason ( lack ( gr[?-promot+ mat]ial4 ,! o!r is t ! vegetat+ 7gr[+7 tissue elaborates & s5ds to o!r p>ts ( ! organism "o or m sub/ances1 :i* actually inhibit gr[? ( ! o!r p>ts1 z dormant buds1 etc4 ,! exp]im5tal evid5ce :i* has be5 pres5t$ ?us f> is inconclusive1 b seems to favor ! di/ribution ( nutritional mat]ial z ! gov]n+ factor1 al?\gh !re is "s evid5ce :i* seems to indicate t a suppos$ gr[?-inhibit+ sub/ance is actually translocat$ f rapidly-vegetat+ tissues to o!r p>ts ( ! plant4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no explanation ( h[ ! buds1 or o!r tissues1 :i* d gr[ get _! initial /imulus1 :ile ! dormant buds d n4 ,aft] gr[? has once />t$1 ! *anges 9 osmotic pressure due to ! accumulation & translocation ( syn!tiz$ mat]ials c acc\nt = ! movem5t ( new nutritional mat]ial = ! syn!tic processes into ! gr[+ organ2 b ?is w\ld n acc\nt = ! selective /imulation ( only a "p ( ! buds1 or possible gr[+ po9ts1 ( a plant1 or = an adaptational developm5t ( o!rs "u alt]$ conditions ( gr[?4 ,! =m ( morphological adaptation :i* has be5 discov]$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! /udy ( ! native vegetation ( ! campos ( ,brazil 7:i* h a v dry season & h be5 regul>ly burn$ ov] by ! natives = _m g5]ations7 9 :i* ! papilionace\s %rubs h develop$ und]gr\nd trunks1 or /ems1 & seem actually to pr(it 9 luxuriance ( gr[? :5 ! ra9y season comes on by reason ( ?is morphological adaptation to ! unusual environm5tal conditions1 is :olly inexplicable by any pres5t k ( ! sci5ce ( plant gr[?4 ,,physiological ,,adaptations ,! type ( adju/m5t to environm5tal conditions :i* does n result 9 any recognizable alt]ation 9 ! /ructure ( ! plant1 b simply p]mits x to gr[ "u new conditions1 manife/s itself 9 _m ways4 ,^! adju/m5ts are usually associat$ ) diff]5ces 9 temp]ature dur+ ! gr[+ season1 & = ?is reason1 mo/ su* examples ( adaptation h be5 /udi$ 9 connection ) possible temp]ature reactions ^u ! gr[+ organism4 ,h[ev]1 rec5t inve/igations seem to po9t /rongly to ! conclusion t ! am\nt ( light r ?an ! temp]ature ( ! new surr\nd+s is ! mo/ important influ5ce 9 det]m9+ ! physiological processes kn[n z ! acclimatization ( plants4 ,= example1 a v elaborate s]ies ( inve/igations has %[n t ! fl[]+ /age 9 ! developm5t ( plants is det]m9$ by ! l5g? ( ! daylight p]iod p] day1 irrespective ( ! actual am\nt ( vegetative gr[? :i* ! plant has made4 ,?us1 tobacco plants1 :i* dur+ a p]iod ( long days gr[ to ! height ( #h or #aj feet be=e blossom+1 if gr[n at ! same temp]ature 9 p]iods ( %ort days 7or if kept 9 ! d>k dur+ a portion ( ! long] days7 w blossom :5 less ?an #c feet 9 height & :5 ! total mass ( vegetative mat]ial :i* has be5 produc$ is less ?an "o-?ird ( t ( ! gigantic plants ( ! same v>iety gr[n ) long] p]iods ( illum9ation p] day4 ,?is same pr9ciple has be5 f\nd to hold good = _m widely diff]5t types ( plants4 ,9 "s species1 h[ev]1 fl[]+ is favor$ by long days1 & vegetative gr[? by %ort daylight illum9ation4 ,b 9 all species :i* h be5 /udi$1 !re seems to be a direct relation betwe5 ! l5g? ( day1 or ! total illum9ation p] day1 & ! normal or abnormal function+ ( ! plant4 ,x is app>5t t at lea/ ! physiological function ( sexual reproduction 7fl[]+ & se$-production7 is det]m9$ by ! l5g? ( daylight illum9ation4 ,! duration ( daylight p] day :i* is necess>y to induce ! blossom+ ( ! plants v>ies = diff]5t species1 b x is con/ant = individuals ( ! same species4 ,?is adaptation ( /age ( gr[? to duration ( daily illum9ation mu/1 !re=e1 be an evolution>y "* ( ! species4 ,h5ce1 x appe>s t 9 _m cases physiological adaptation may be a direct response ( ! life-processes ( ! plant to ! daily l5g? ( photo*emical /imulation :i* x receives f sol> light4 ,b !re is1 z yet1 no explanation ( h[ ?is 7or any o!r7 influ5ce actually *anges ! vital processes ( ! plant protoplasm s z to br+ ab\t ei!r a morphological adaptation ( /ructure or a physiological adaptation ( functions to alt]$ conditions ( gr[?4 ,,conclud+ ,,/atem5ts ,en\gh has be5 said to %[ h[ v inconclusive & unsatisfactory is our k ( ! ph5om5a kn[n z adaptation4 ,ev5 ! nom5clature us$ by diff]5t sci5ti/s to describe its v>i\s manife/ations is confus$ & mislead+4 ,= example1 c]ta9 crops are said to be adapt$ 7i4e41 suit$7 to c]ta9 types ( soils1 & vice v]sa2 crops are said to be adapt$ to giv5 agricultural di/ricts1 etc4 ,9 ?is *apt]1 an attempt has be5 made to arrange 9 "s semblance ( ord] "s ( ! kn[n manife/ations ( alt]ation ( fix$ habits ( gr[? ( plants 9 response to *anges ( environm5t1 & to po9t out "s ( ! sugge/ions ( possible explanations ( ^! ph5om5a :i* h be5 pres5t$ by diff]5t inve/igators4 ,?is pres5tation _c be consid]$ z any?+ o!r ?an an introduction to a field ( /udy :i* is z yet almo/ entirely unexplor$1 &1 l all o!r unexplor$ t]ritory1 is full ( my/]ies4 ,if ! /udy ( ?is *apt] s]ves to /imulate int]e/ 9 ^! my/]ies & wond]s ( plant life1 its purpose w h be5 accompli%$4 ,,index ,bold-face figures indicate ma9 ref]5ces ,accel]ators1 #aif4 ,accessory sub/ances1 #ai4 ,a*roo-dextr91 #fa4 ,acid1 acetic1 #abe1 #abf1 #abh1 #acb1 #acc1 #aff4 arabic1 #fh4 ara*idic1 #acc4 asp>tic1 #afh1 #agg4 brassic1 #acc4 butyric1 #abf1 #acc4 capric1 #acc4 caprylic1 #acc4 c>naubic1 #adj4 c]otic1 #acc1 #adj4 citric1 #abe1 #abg4 convolvul9ic1 #ha4 crotonic1 #acc4 diam9o-oxysebacic1 #afi4 diam9o-trioxydodecanic1 #afi4 digallic1 #if4 ellagic1 #if4 euxan?ic1 #hd4 =mic1 #be1 #abf1 #abh1 #acb4 galactonic1 #db4 gallic1 #if4 g$dic1 #fi4 gluconic1 #db4 glucuronic1 #db1 #dc4 glutamic1 #afh1 #agg4 glyc]o-phosphoric1 #adb4 hydrocyanic1 #gg4 jalap9ic1 #ha4 lauric1 #acc4 lignoc]ic1 #acc4 l9oleic1 #acc4 l9ol5ic1 #acc4 malic1 #abd1 #abg4 malonic1 #abd4 mannonic1 #db4 melissic1 #acc4 meta-pectic1 #fh1 #gj4 mucic1 #fh4 myri/ic1 #acc4 nitric1 #abe4 nucleic1 #afb4 oleic1 #acc4 oxalic1 #fh1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf1 #abh4 palmitic1 #acc1 #adj4 p>apectic1 #gj4 pectic1 #ca1 #gj4 phosphoric1 #ada1 #adb1 #afb4 propionic1 #abf1 #aff4 pyrocate*uic1 #if4 qu]citannic1 #ih4 racemic1 #ed4 ric9oleic1 #acc4 rub]y?ric1 #hc4 sac*>ic1 #db1 #fh4 salicylic1 #ha4 s>co-lactic1 #abh4 /e>ic1 #aca1 #acc4 succ9ic1 #abg1 #abh4 sulfuric1 #abe4 sylv9ic1 #adi4 talonic1 #db4 tannic1 #ig1 #abg4 t>t>ic1 #abg4 uric1 #afj4 xan?oproteic1 #agc4 ,acid amides1 #aea4 ,acidity ( protoplasm1 #bcd4 ,acid glucosides1 #ha4 ,acid potassium oxalate1 #abe4 ,acid potassium sulfate1 #hh4 ,acid salts1 #abd4 ,acids z tox9s1 #bdf4 ,acid sodium sulfate1 #abe4 ,acrole91 #ace4 ,acrose1 #bh4 ,activators1 #aif4 ,adamkiewicz's reaction1 #agc4 ,adaptations1 #bdi4 ,ad5ase1 #aij4 ,ad59e1 #afj1 #afb4 ,adipo-celluloses1 #gd4 ,adsorption1 #bad4 sculet91 #ha1 #hb4 scul91 #ha1 #hb4 tiophyll91 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aji4 tioporphyr91 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj4 ,alan9e1 #afh1 #agg4 ,album9s1 #age1 #agf4 ,album9oids1 #age1 #agf4 ,alcogel1 #bje4 ,alcohol1 e?yl1 #dj1 #abe4 b5zyl1 #hj4 c>naubyl1 #ace4 c]yl1 #ace1 #adj4 cetyl1 #abi1 #ace4 conif]yl1 #hj4 melissyl1 #ace4 myricyl1 #abi1 #adj4 phytyl1 #ajd1 #aje4 polyhydric1 #ca4 ,alcohol glucosides1 #hj4 ,alcosol1 #bje4 ,aldehyde1 b5zoic1 #adh4 c9namic1 #adh4 =mic 7see =maldehyde74 glyc]ic1 #ce4 ,aldehyde glucosides1 #hj4 ,aldehydrol1 #df4 ,aldonic acids1 #db1 #dd4 ,aldose1 #cb4 ,aliz>9 glucosides1 #gh4 ,alkal9ity ( protoplasm1 #bcd4 ,alkalies z tox9s1 #bdg4 ,alkali salts1 #aj1 #bdg4 ,alkali soils1 #aj1 #ad4 ,alkaloidal reag5ts1 #aed1 #agb4 ,alkaloids1 #ah1 #bj1 #aea1 #aec1 #bdh4 ,allose1 #cf1 #cg4 ,allyl isosulfocyanide1 #hh1 #hi1 #adh4 ,allyl sulfide1 #adh4 alpha-glucose1 #df4 alpha-glucosides1 #ee4 alpha-me?yl glucoside1 #dg4 ,altrose1 #cf1 #cg4 ,alum9ium1 #d4 ,am&91 #agj1 #agf4 ,am9es1 #aea4 ,am9o-acids1 #f1 #aea1 #aff1 #agi1 #bdh4 ,ammonia1 #aeb4 ,ammonium hydroxide1 #adb1 #aeb4 ,ammonium salts1 #f4 ,amorph\s *lorophyll1 #ajd1 #aje ,amphot]ic electrolytes1 #agb4 ,amygdalase1 #hg4 ,amygdal91 #ha1 #hf4 ,amyl acetate1 #adh4 ,amylase1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aia4 ,amylo-cellulose1 #fj4 ,amylo-dextr91 #fa4 ,amylo-pect91 #fj4 ,amylose1 #fj4 ,an]gic food1 #b1 #ag4 ,animal nucleic acids1 #afb4 ,antagonism1 #ad4 ,an?ocyans1 #hc1 #ajb1 #aae1 #aba4 ,an?ocyanid9s1 #aaf4 ,an?ocyan91 #ajb4 ,an?oxan?9s1 #aag4 ,an?raqu9one1 #hc4 ,anti5zymes1 #abj1 #aig1 #aih4 ,antioxidase1 #abj4 ,antiscorbutic ,c1 #bdc4 ,apig591 #hd1 #aah4 ,api91 #hd4 ,apiose1 #hd4 ,araban1 #fi4 ,arab9ose1 #ce1 #dd1 #fh1 #fi1 #hh4 ,arab9osides1 #ef4 ,arbut91 #gg1 #gi4 ,arg99e1 #afi1 #aga1 #agg4 ,ars5ic1 #ac4 ,asymmetric c>bon atom1 #cc4 ,atrop9e1 #aee1 #aef4 ,autotrophic plants1 #af1 #ah4 ,auximones1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bdd4 ,available plant food1 #d4 ,av5al91 #agf4 ,baptig591 #gi4 ,baptis91 #gi4 ,beeswax1 #acc4 ,beet sug> 7see sucrose74 ,b]b]9e1 #aee4 ,beta9e1 #aeb4 beta-glucase1 #ee4 beta-glucose1 #df4 beta-glucosides1 #ee4 beta-me?yl glucoside1 #dg4 ,biog5s1 #bbc4 ,biological significance1 #ai4 ,biuret reaction1 #agc4 ,borneol1 #adh4 ,boron1 #ac4 ,bromel91 #ahi4 ,bruc9e1 #aee1 #aeg4 ,buff]s1 #bcf4 ,butt] fat1 #acc4 ,butyric acid f]m5t1 #aij4 ,cadav]9e1 #aeb4 ,caffe9e1 #afj4 ,calcifuges1 #i4 ,calciphiles1 #i4 ,calcium1 #c1 #e1 #i1 #aj1 #ad1 #fh4 ,calcium oxalate1 #abf4 ,campf]itr91 #aah4 ,campf]ol1 #aah4 ,camph5e1 #adg4 ,camphor1 #adh4 ,cane sug> 7see sucrose74 ,ca\t*\c1 #adg4 ,capill>y segregation1 #bce4 ,c>bohydrases1 #ahi4 ,c>bohydrates1 #ah1 #bj1 #ba1 #cj1 #afc1 #bcd4 ,c>bon dioxide1 #b1 #c1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #dj1 #bbb4 ,c>bonic acid1 #bbg4 ,c>bon monoxide1 #bd4 ,c>boxyl1 #abd4 ,c>boxylases1 #ahf1 #aij4 ,c>nauba wax1 #acc1 #adj4 ,c>ot91 #aab1 #aac1 #aba4 ,c>ot9oids1 #ajb1 #aaa4 ,c>vacrol1 #adh4 ,case91 #afe4 ,ca/an91 #agf4 ,ca/or oil1 #acj4 ,catalases1 #aij1 #aic4 ,catalysis1 #ahb4 ,cataly/s1 #ag1 #be1 #ahc4 ,cate*ol tann9s1 #ig4 ,cate*91 #ig4 ,cate*u tann9s1 #ig4 ,cellobiose1 #eb4 ,cell /ructure1 #bba4 ,cellulase1 #ga1 #ahf1 #ahi4 ,celluloid1 #gc4 ,cellulose1 #bj1 #de1 #fc1 #fg1 #gb4 ,cell-wall1 #i1 #ab1 #bbb4 ,c]ebrosides1 #ada1 #add4 ,*emical resi/ance1 #baf4 ,*]ry gum1 #fh4 ,*9ovose1 #ce4 ,*lor9e1 #ab4 ,*lorophyll1 #aj1 #aa1 #ba1 #bg1 #ajb1 #aje1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aac1 #abb1 #bed4 ,*lorophyll a1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaa4 ,*lorophyll b1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #ajh1 #aaa4 ,*lorophyllase1 #ajd4 ,*lorophyll9 a1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,*lorophyll9 b1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,*ole/]ol1 #abi1 #acf4 ,*ol9e1 #hi1 #ajc1 #ada1 #adb1 #aeb4 ,*romatic adaptations1 #bea1 #bec4 ,*romog5s1 #ib1 #aai4 ,*romo-prote9s1 #age4 ,*rys91 #aag4 ,c9*on9e1 #aee1 #aeg4 ,coagulat$ prote9s1 #age4 ,coagulation enzymes1 #aij4 ,coca9e1 #aee1 #aeg4 ,cocoanut oil1 #acc4 ,code9e1 #aee1 #aeh4 ,co5zymes1 #aig4 ,cold-drawn oils1 #acg4 ,collodion1 #gc4 ,colloidal ph5om5a1 #ag1 #bjb4 ,colloidal solutions1 #bjd4 ,colloids1 #bjb4 ,coloph5e1 #adg4 ,colophony1 #adi4 ,comp\nd celluloses1 #ga1 #gc4 ,conglut91 #agf4 ,conif]91 #hj4 ,coni9e1 #aee1 #aef4 ,conjugat$ prote9s1 #afe1 #agd1 #age4 ,cont9u\s phase1 #bjc4 ,convolvul91 #ha4 ,copp]1 #ac1 #bdg4 ,cork tissue1 #ii1 #aja4 ,corn oil1 #acj4 ,coryl91 #agf4 ,cottonse$ oil1 #acj4 ,critical elem5ts1 #d4 ,crude fat1 #ada4 ,cry/all9e *lorophyll1 #ajd1 #aje4 ,cry/alloids1 #bjb4 ,cum>91 #ha1 #adh4 ,cur>9e1 #aeg4 ,cuto-celluloses1 #gd4 ,cyanid91 #he1 #aaf4 ,cyan91 #he4 ,cyanophore glucosides1 #hf4 ,cyanophyll91 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,cyanoporphyr91 #ajh4 ,cym>ig591 #ij4 ,cym>91 #ij4 ,cym>ose1 #ij4 ,cy/9e1 #afh1 #aga4 ,cytase1 #gb1 #ahi4 ,cytos9e1 #afa1 #afb4 ,daphnet91 #ha1 #hb4 ,daphn91 #ha4 ,deam9ases1 #ahf1 #aij4 ,delph9id91 #he1 #aaf4 ,delph991 #he4 ,d]iv$ prote9s1 #agc1 #age1 #agg4 ,dextr91 #ei1 #fa4 ,dextr9ase1 #ahi4 d-galactose1 #cc4 d-glucose1 #cc4 ,dextrosans1 #ei4 ,dextrose 7see glucose74 ,dhurr91 #hg4 ,dia/ase 7see amylase74 ,dia/ase ( secretion1 #aia4 ,digitalig591 #hi4 ,digital91 #hi4 ,digitog591 #hi4 ,digiton91 #hi1 #ij4 ,digito-sapon91 #ij4 ,digitoxig591 #hi4 ,digitox91 #hi4 ,digitoxose1 #hi4 ,diglyc]ides1 #aca4 ,diose1 #cj4 ,dioxyacetone1 #ce4 ,dipeptides1 #afg4 ,disac*>ides1 #ca1 #dh4 ,disp]s$ phase1 #bjc4 ,disp]sion m$ium1 #bjc4 ,disp]sion ph5om5a1 #bjc4 ,dry+ oils1 #acb4 ,dulcitol s]ies1 #cf4 ,ede/91 #agj1 #agf4 ,egg-album91 #afe4 ,electrical ph5om5a ( protoplasm1 #bcc4 ,electrolytes1 #bac1 #bbg4 ,emulsoids1 #bjf1 #bad4 ,emulsions1 #bjf4 ,emuls91 #ee1 #gg1 #hg1 #ahd1 #ahi4 ,enol1 #dd1 #ef4 ,enzymes1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bc1 #bf1 #abj1 #aba1 #aha1 #ahc1 #aid1 #aii1 #bbd4 ,ereps91 #ahi4 ,ery?ro-dextr91 #fa4 ,ery?rophyll91 #ajg4 ,ery?rose1 #ce4 ,ess5tial elem5ts1 #d4 ,ess5tial oils1 #ah1 #adf1 #adg1 #bbd4 ,e/]ases1 #ahf1 #ahi4 ,e/]s1 #abd1 #abe1 #abi4 ,e!r extract1 #ada4 ,e!rial salts 7see e/]s74 ,e!rsol1 #bje4 ,e?yl acetate1 #abe4 ,e?yl nitrate1 #abe4 ,excels91 #agf4 ,extracellul> enzymes1 #ahd4 ,fats1 #ah1 #bj1 #abi1 #bbd1 #bbg4 ,fat-soluble ,a1 #bdc4 ,fatty acids1 #acb1 #adb4 ,fehl+'s solution1 #ci1 #dg4 ,f]m5tability1 #dj4 ,f]m5ts 7see enzymes74 ,f]ric salts1 #aa4 ,f]r\s salts1 #aa4 ,fiset91 #aah4 ,flavone1 #hb1 #hc1 #ajb4 ,flavonol1 #hd4 ,food1 #a4 ,=maldehyde1 #bb1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #bg1 #bdg4 ,frame-"w mat]ial1 #bj1 #fg4 ,fraxet91 #hb4 ,frax91 #hb4 ,fructose1 #bc1 #bh1 #cb1 #cf1 #ch1 #da1 #dd1 #de1 #dg1 #eg1 #afb4 ,fructosides1 #da1 #db4 ,fruit sug> 7see fructose74 ,fucose1 #ce4 ,fucoxan?91 #ajb1 #aab1 #aad4 ,galactans1 #dg1 #ei1 #fc1 #gb4 ,galactoheptose1 #cf4 ,galactooctose1 #cf4 ,galactose1 #cb1 #cf1 #ch1 #de1 #dg1 #eg1 #gb1 #gg4 ,galactosides1 #da1 #db4 ,gaul!r91 #ha4 ,gel1 #agb1 #bje1 #bjh4 ,gelation1 #baj4 ,gel-=mation1 #bjh1 #baa4 ,g5tianose1 #eb1 #ec4 ,g5tiobiose1 #di1 #eb1 #ec4 ,g5tis91 #aai4 ,gitalig591 #hi4 ,gital91 #hi4 ,gitog591 #hi4 ,giton91 #hi4 ,glaucophyll91 #ajg4 ,gliad91 #afe1 #agj1 #agf4 ,globul9s1 #agj1 #age1 #agf4 ,glucase1 #ahf4 ,glucodecose1 #dd4 ,glucoheptose1 #cf1 #dd4 ,glucononose1 #cf4 ,glucooctose1 #cf4 ,glucoprote9s1 #age4 ,glucose1 #bc1 #bh1 #cb1 #cf1 #cg1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #eg1 #gg4 ,glucosidases1 #ahi4 ,glucosides1 #ah1 #bj1 #da1 #dh1 #ee1 #gf1 #ia1 #ic4 ,glue1 #baj4 ,glutel9s1 #age1 #agf4 ,glut591 #agf4 ,glyc]9e 7see glyc]ol74 ,glyc]ol1 #abi1 #aca1 #acd1 #adb4 ,glyc9e1 #aff1 #afh1 #agg4 ,glyc991 #agf4 ,glycog51 #ei1 #fa4 ,glycyphyll91 #gi4 ,gram991 #ei1 #fb4 ,granulose1 #fj4 ,grape sug> 7see glucose74 ,guanase1 #aij4 ,guan9e1 #afj1 #afb4 ,gulose1 #cf1 #cg4 ,gum arabic1 #fh4 ,gums1 #fb1 #fg1 #fh4 ,gum tragacan?1 #fi4 ,gun-cotton1 #gc4 ,hmat91 #aaj4 ,hmat9ic acid imide1 #aji4 ,hmatoporphyr91 #aaj4 ,hmoglob91 #aaj4 ,hmopyrrole1 #aji4 ,helic91 #ha4 ,hemi-celluloses1 #fc1 #ga4 ,hemi-t]p5es1 #adg4 ,heptoses1 #cj4 ,hesp]id91 #gi4 ,hesp]it91 #gi1 #hj4 ,het]otrophic plants1 #af4 ,hexosans1 #ei1 #fg4 ,hexoses1 #bb1 #bh1 #cj4 ,hi/id9e1 #afi1 #agg4 ,hi/ones1 #age1 #agf4 ,honey sug> 7see fructose74 ,horde91 #aec1 #agj1 #agf4 ,hormones1 #ib1 #bci1 #bdj4 ,hot-drawn oils1 #acg4 ,hum9s1 #fg4 ,hydra/9e1 #aee4 ,hydrazones1 #dj1 #di4 ,hydrocellulose1 #gc4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide1 #bf1 #bg1 #aij4 ,hydrogel1 #bje4 ,hydrolases1 #ahf1 #ahi4 ,hydroqu9one1 #gg1 #gi4 ,hydrosol1 #bje4 ,hydroxy-ph5yl e?yl am9e1 #aec4 ,hygr9e1 #aee1 #aef4 ,hyosc9e1 #aee4 ,hyoscyam9e1 #aef4 ,hypoxan?9e1 #afj4 ,ida91 #he4 ,idose1 #cf1 #cg4 ,illum9at+ gas z a tox91 #bdg4 ,imbibition1 #bji4 ,imp]meable membranes1 #bbh4 ,indian yell[1 #hd4 ,indican1 #gh1 #he4 ,indigo1 #gh1 #hd4 ,indigot91 #he4 ,indole1 #aeh4 ,indoxyl1 #he4 ,inhibitors1 #aif4 ,intracellul> enzymes1 #ahd4 ,inul91 #ei4 ,inul9ase1 #fb1 #ahi4 ,inv]tase1 #ej1 #ahi1 #aia4 ,inv]t sug>1 #dg1 #ej4 ,iod9e numb]1 #ach4 ,ionization ph5om5a1 #bbf4 ,irid91 #gi4 ,irig591 #gi1 #hj4 ,iron1 #c1 #e1 #aa1 #aaj4 ,iso*lorophyll9 a1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,iso*lorophyll9 b1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,isohmopyrrole1 #aji4 ,isoleuc9e1 #afh4 ,isomaltose1 #ea4 ,isom]ism1 #cb4 ,isopr5e1 #adg4 ,isoqu]citr91 #hd4 ,isoqu9ol9e1 #aee4 ,jalap91 #ha4 ,japan wax1 #abi4 ,juglans91 #agf4 ,ketose1 #cb4 ,lactam1 #ajd4 ,lactase1 #ef4 ,lactic acid f]m5t1 #aij4 ,lactone1 #ajd4 ,lactose1 #de1 #di1 #eb4 ,laudanos9e1 #aeh4 ,laudanum1 #aeh4 ,leci?91 #g1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc4 ,leci?oprote9s1 #age4 ,legumel91 #agf4 ,legum91 #agj1 #agf4 ,leuc9e1 #aae1 #afh1 #agg4 ,leucoma9es1 #aeb4 ,leucos91 #agf4 l-galactose1 #cc4 l-glucose1 #cc4 ,levulosans1 #ei1 #fb4 ,levulose 7see fructose74 ,li*591 #fb4 ,light1 #ba1 #bec1 #beg4 ,lignocelluloses1 #gd4 ,lignose1 #ca4 ,limett91 #hb4 ,limon5e1 #adg4 ,l9alyl acetate1 #adh4 ,l9se$ oil1 #acc4 ,lipases1 #ahf1 #ahi4 ,lip9s 7see lipoids74 ,lipoids1 #abi1 #adj4 ,lipoprote9s1 #age4 ,lup99e1 #aee4 ,lycop]sic91 #ajb1 #abb1 #aad4 ,lys9e1 #afi1 #aga1 #agg4 ,lyxose1 #ce4 ,magnesium1 #c1 #e1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ac1 #ad1 #fh4 ,maltase1 #ee1 #ahd1 #ahi4 ,maltose1 #de1 #di1 #ea1 #eb4 ,malvid91 #he4 ,malv91 #he4 ,m&elo-nitrile1 #gh1 #hh4 ,m&elo-nitrile glucoside1 #gg1 #hg4 ,manganese1 #d1 #ac4 ,manna1 #dg4 ,mannans1 #ei1 #fb1 #fc1 #gb4 ,mannite1 #dg4 ,mannitol1 #dg4 ,mannitol s]ies1 #cf4 ,mannoheptose1 #cf1 #dd4 ,mannononose1 #cf4 ,mannooctose1 #cf4 ,mannosans 7see mannans74 ,mannose1 #cb1 #cf1 #cg1 #da1 #dd1 #de1 #dg1 #eg1 #gb4 ,mannosides1 #db4 ,maple sug> 7see sucrose74 ,mays91 #agf4 ,melibiose1 #di1 #eb4 ,melizitose1 #eb4 ,m5?ol1 #adh4 ,m]c]iz+ cotton1 #gc4 ,m]cury1 #bdg4 ,m]os9igr91 #hh4 ,metallic salts1 #ac1 #bbd1 #bbg1 #bcg1 #bdg4 ,metal proteids1 #ad4 ,meta-pect91 #gj4 ,metaprote9s1 #age4 ,me?yle?ylmale9 imide1 #ajh4 ,me?yl glucosides1 #db4 ,me?yl p5toses1 #ce4 ,me?yl salicylate1 #ha4 ,middle lamella1 #fg1 #gj4 ,millon's reaction1 #agc4 ,molis*'s reaction1 #agd4 ,monoglyc]ides1 #aca4 ,monohydric alcohols1 #ace4 ,monosac*>ides1 #ca1 #ce1 #de4 ,mor91 #aai4 ,morph9e1 #aee1 #aeh4 ,morphological adaptations1 #bea1 #beb1 #bee4 ,mucilages1 #fg1 #gj4 ,muco-celluloses1 #gd4 ,musc>9e1 #aeb4 ,mu/>d oils1 #hh1 #adh4 ,mu/>d oil glucosides1 #hh4 ,mut>otation1 #df1 #di4 ,myros91 #gg1 #hh1 #adi1 #ahi4 ,myrtillid91 #he4 ,myrtill91 #he4 ,n>ce9e1 #aeh4 ,n>cot9e1 #aeh4 ,natural selection1 #bed4 ,neur9e1 #aeb4 ,nicot9e1 #aee1 #aef4 ,nitrates1 #f4 ,nitrile reaction1 #dc4 ,nitriles1 #dc1 #dd4 ,nitrog51 #c1 #e1 #f1 #aea1 #afd4 ,non-dry+ oils1 #acb4 ,non-ess5tial elem5ts1 #d4 ,non-r$uc+ sug>s1 #ci1 #di4 ,nonoses1 #ca4 ,normal celluloses1 #gb4 ,nuclease1 #ahi4 ,nucleoprote9s1 #afb1 #age4 ,nutri5ts1 #a4 ,octoses1 #ca4 ,,oenid91 #he1 #aaf4 ,,oen91 #he4 ,oils1 #abi4 ,oil ( b]gamot1 #adh4 ,oil ( bitt] almonds1 #hf1 #adh4 ,oil ( cassia1 #adh4 ,oil ( c9namon1 #adh4 ,oil ( g>lic1 #adh4 ,oil ( lav5d]1 #adh4 ,oil ( mu/>d1 #adh4 ,olive oil1 #acj4 ,opium1 #aeh4 ,organic acids1 #ah1 #abd1 #bdh4 ,organiz$ f]m5ts1 #ahc4 ,ornam5tal pigm5ts1 #ajb1 #abc4 ,orni?9e1 #afi4 ,oryz591 #agf4 ,osazones1 #dj1 #da1 #di4 ,osmotic pressure1 #bac1 #bbh4 ,osones1 #da4 ,oxidases1 #ahf1 #aij1 #aic4 ,oxime1 #dd4 ,oxycellulose1 #gc4 ,oxycum>9 glucosides1 #ha4 ,oxyg5at$ oils1 #adg4 ,oxyhydroqu9one1 #ie4 ,oxyprol9e1 #afi4 ,ponid91 #he4 ,pon91 #he4 ,palm oil1 #acc4 ,papa91 #ahi4 ,papav]9e1 #aee1 #aeh4 ,p>a-dextran1 #fb4 ,p>a-isodextran1 #fb4 ,p>alyz]s1 #aif4 ,p>a-pect91 #gj4 ,p>asites1 #af4 ,peanut oil1 #acc4 ,pectase1 #ga4 ,pect9ase1 #ahi4 ,pect9s1 #bj1 #ca1 #fg1 #gj4 ,pecto-celluloses1 #gd4 ,pectose1 #ca1 #gj4 ,pel>gonid91 #he1 #aaf4 ,pel>gon91 #he4 ,p5tosans1 #ca1 #fg1 #fh1 #gb4 ,p5toses1 #cj1 #afb4 ,peps91 #afg4 ,peptids1 #aff1 #afg1 #agf4 ,peptones1 #agf4 ,p]meable membranes1 #bbh4 ,p]oxidases1 #aij4 ,p]simmons1 #ajj4 ,p]suelose1 #cf4 ,phophyt91 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,phasel91 #agf4 ,phaseol91 #agf4 ,ph5ol1 #ie4 ,ph5ol glucosides1 #gi4 ,ph5yl alan9e1 #afh1 #agg4 ,ph5yl hydraz9e1 #dj4 ,phle91 #fb4 ,phloret91 #gi4 ,phloridz91 #gi4 ,phlorogluc9ol1 #ie4 ,phosphates1 #g4 ,phosphatides1 #ada1 #adc4 ,phosphoprote9s1 #age4 ,phosphorus1 #c1 #e1 #g4 ,photo-*emical action ( light1 #bec1 #beg4 ,photolysis1 #bf4 ,photosyn!sis1 #g1 #h1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #bd1 #bed4 ,phyco]y?r91 #ajb1 #aae4 ,phycoph91 #ajb1 #aae4 ,phyll9s1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,phyllophyll91 #ajg4 ,phyllopyrrole1 #aji4 ,physiological adaptations1 #beb1 #beg4 ,physiological use1 #ai4 ,phytase1 #ahi4 ,phyto*lor91 #ajh4 ,phytorhod91 #ajh4 ,pigm5t glucosides1 #hb4 ,pigm5ts1 #ah1 #ajb1 #bbd1 #bed4 ,p95e1 #adg4 ,pip]id9e1 #aed4 ,pip]9e1 #aee4 ,plant am9es1 #aea1 #aeb1 #afc4 ,plant food1 #a4 ,plant nucleic acids1 #afb4 ,polybasic acids1 #abd4 ,polyhydric alcohols1 #ca4 ,polypeptides1 #afg4 ,polysac*>ides1 #ei4 ,polyt]p5es1 #adg4 ,poppy wax1 #adj4 ,popul91 #hj4 ,porphyr9s1 #ajh4 ,potassium1 #c1 #e1 #h1 #aj1 #ac1 #ad4 ,prim>y am9es1 #aeb4 ,pro5zymes1 #aih4 ,pro9ulase1 #aii4 ,pro9v]tase1 #aii4 ,prolam9s1 #age1 #agf4 ,prol9e1 #afi1 #agg4 ,prolipase1 #aii4 ,prooxidase1 #aii4 ,protam9es1 #age1 #agf4 ,proteans1 #age4 ,proteases1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aib4 ,protective colloids1 #bji4 ,prote9s1 #g1 #ah1 #bj1 #aea1 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #bbd4 ,proteoses1 #age4 ,protoplasm1 #ag1 #bf1 #bba4 ,prulauras91 #hg4 ,prunase1 #hg4 ,prunas91 #hg4 ,ptoma9es1 #aeb4 ,pur9e1 #aei4 ,pur9e bases1 #aea1 #aei1 #afb4 ,purpur91 #hc4 ,putresc9e1 #aeb4 ,pyrimid9e1 #afa4 ,pyrimid9e bases1 #afa1 #afb4 ,pyrocate*ol1 #ie4 ,pyrogallol1 #ie4 ,pyrogallol tann9s1 #ig4 ,pyroxyl91 #gc4 ,pyrrophyll91 #ajg4 ,pyrrid9e1 #aed4 ,pyrrolid9e1 #aed4 ,quat]n>y am9es1 #aeb4 ,qu]cet91 #hd1 #aah4 ,qu]citr91 #hd4 ,qu99e1 #aee1 #aeg4 ,qu9ol9e1 #aee1 #aeh4 ,radiant en]gy1 #ai4 ,raff9ose1 #de1 #eb1 #ec4 ,rape-se$ oil1 #acj4 ,r$uc+ sug>s1 #ci1 #di4 ,r$uctases1 #ahf1 #aij4 ,res]ve food1 #ba4 ,res5es1 #adi4 ,res9s1 #ah1 #adf1 #adi4 ,resorc9ol1 #ie4 ,respiration1 #ah1 #aba1 #bce1 #bcf4 ,rhamnase1 #gg1 #ahi4 ,rhamnet91 #hd4 ,rhamnose1 #ce1 #eb1 #gg1 #gi4 ,rhodeose1 #ce1 #ha4 ,rhodophyll91 #ajg4 ,ribose1 #ce4 ,ric91 #agf4 ,rubiad91 #hc4 ,rubiphyll91 #ajg4 ,sac*>ide1 #ca4 ,salic91 #hj4 ,salig591 #hj4 ,sal9igr91 #ha4 ,salts1 #bbd1 #bbg1 #bcg4 ,sambunigr91 #hg4 ,sapog59s1 #ij4 ,saponification1 #acd4 ,saponification value1 #ach4 ,sapon9s1 #ij4 ,sapotox9s1 #ij4 ,saprophytes1 #af4 ,saturat$ acids1 #acb4 ,scopol91 #hb4 ,secal91 #fc4 ,second>y am9es1 #aeb4 ,secretions1 #bj4 ,s$oheptose1 #cf4 ,semip]meable membranes1 #bbh4 ,s5sitiz]s1 #bg4 ,s]9e1 #afh4 ,silicates1 #ab4 ,silicon1 #d1 #ab4 ,silv]1 #bdg4 ,simple prote9s1 #afe1 #agd1 #age4 ,s9alb91 #hi4 ,s9alb9 mu/>d oil1 #hi4 ,s9ap9 acid sulfate1 #hi4 ,s9igr91 #hh4 ,s9i/r91 #fb4 ,sito/]ol1 #acf4 ,skimmet91 #ha1 #hb4 ,skimm91 #ha4 ,soaps1 #acd1 #bjh4 ,sodium1 #d1 #i1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad4 ,sodium /e>ate1 #acc4 ,sol1 #bje4 ,soluble />*1 #fj4 ,sorbitol1 #dh4 ,sorbose1 #cf1 #ch1 #de1 #dh4 ,specific rotatory p[]1 #ch1 #ci4 1 ( fructose1 #ci1 #dg4 1 ( galactose1 #di4 1 ( glucose1 #ci1 #dg4 1 ( maltose1 #ea4 1 ( raff9ose1 #ec4 1 ( sucrose1 #ci4 ,sp]maceti1 #abi1 #acc4 ,/a*ydr9e1 #aee4 ,/a*yose1 #ed4 ,/>*1 #h1 #bb1 #bh1 #cj1 #ca1 #de1 #ei1 #fd4 ,/>* pa/e1 #fj4 ,/e>91 #aca1 #acd4 ,/]eo-isom]ism1 #cb4 ,/igma/]ol1 #acf4 ,/ructural adaptations1 #bee4 ,/ructural isom]ism1 #cb4 ,/ry*n9e1 #aee1 #aeg4 ,sub/rate1 #ahf4 ,sucrase 7see inv]tase74 ,sucrose1 #bh1 #di1 #fd4 ,sug>s1 #h1 #ah1 #bb1 #bh1 #cj1 #ca4 ,sulfur1 #c1 #e1 #aa1 #adh4 ,sulfurett$ oils1 #adg1 #adh4 ,sulfur te/1 #agd4 ,sunfl[]-se$ oil1 #acj4 ,surface b\nd>y ph5om5a1 #bca4 ,surface en]gy1 #bca4 ,surface t5sion1 #bca4 ,survival ( ! fitte/1 #bed4 ,susp5soids1 #bjf1 #bad4 ,susp5sions1 #bjf4 ,syn]gic foods1 #b1 #bj4 ,syn!sis1 #ah4 ,tagatose1 #cf1 #ch1 #eg4 ,talose1 #cf1 #ch1 #db1 #eg4 ,tann9s1 #ah1 #id1 #ig1 #ii1 #ajj1 #abg1 #bjh1 #bbd4 ,tannon gr\p1 #if4 ,t]p5es1 #adg4 ,t]ti>y am9es1 #aeb4 ,tetrapeptids1 #afg4 ,tetrasac*>ides1 #ed4 ,tetrose1 #cj1 #ce4 ,!obrom9e1 #afj4 ,!ophyll9e1 #afj4 ,?ioglucose1 #hh4 ,?reose1 #ce4 ,?ym9e1 #afa1 #afb4 ,?ymol1 #adh4 ,tox9s1 #ac1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bde4 ,translocation dia/ase1 #aia4 ,trehalase1 #ea4 ,trehalose1 #di1 #ej4 ,triglyc]ides1 #aca4 ,trime?yl am9e1 #aeb4 ,trime?yl glycocoll1 #adc4 ,triose1 #cj1 #ce4 ,trioxyme?yl5e1 #bb1 #bc4 ,tripeptids1 #afg4 ,trisac*>ides1 #ca1 #eb4 ,tritic91 #ei1 #fb4 ,tryptophane1 #afi1 #aga1 #agg4 ,tub]91 #agf4 ,turanose1 #di1 #ec4 ,tyndall ph5om5a1 #bab4 ,tyros9e1 #aae1 #afh1 #agg4 ,unavailable plant food1 #d4 ,ultrafilt]1 #bae4 ,ultramicroscope1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bje1 #baa4 ,unorganiz$ f]m5ts1 #ahc4 ,unsaturat$ acids1 #acb1 #ach4 ,uracil1 #afa1 #afb4 ,urease1 #aij4 ,val9e1 #afh4 ,vanill91 #hj1 #adh4 ,vegetable bases1 #ah1 #aea4 ,vician91 #hh4 ,vicil91 #agf4 ,vign91 #agf4 ,vitam9es1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bdb4 ,volatile oils1 #bj1 #adg4 ,wat]1 #c1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bbd4 ,wat]-soluble ,b1 #bdc4 ,waxes1 #ah1 #abi1 #adj4 ,wea!r+1 #d4 ,wood gum1 #fh4 ,wool fat1 #abi4 ,w\nd gum1 #fh1 #fi4 ,xan?9e1 #afj4 ,xan?one1 #hb1 #hc1 #ajb4 ,xan?ophyll1 #aab1 #aac1 #aba4 ,xan?opurpur91 #hc4 ,xan?orhamn91 #eb1 #hd4 ,xylan1 #fi4 ,xylose1 #ce1 #fh1 #fi4 ,xylosides1 #ef4 ,yea/1 #fa4 ,ze91 #afe1 #agj1 #agf1 #agg4 ,z9c1 #ac4 ,zymase1 #ea1 #ef1 #aij1 #aib4 ,zymog5s1 #aih4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,! orig9al spell+ & m9or inconsi/5cies 9 ! spell+ & =matt+ h be5 ma9ta9$4 ,! foll[+ words h be5 v>iably hyph5at$ 9 ! orig9al3 oxy7-7cum>91 tri7-7sac*>ides1 sug>7-7l1 mono7-7sac*>ides1 sea7-7we$s1 di7-7sodium1 foam7-7l1 di7-7basic1 aldo7-7hexoses1 *romo7-7prote9s1 galacto7-7octose1 gluco7-7octose1 keto7-7hexoses1 ligno7-7celluloses1 manno7-7octose1 p>a7-7pectic1 di7-7sac*>ides1 poly7-7sac*>ides4 ,! v>iable hyph5ation has be5 reta9$ 9 ?is v]sion4 ,=matt+3 ,text 9 italics 0 m>k$ us+ und]scores 7text7 & bold text us+ equals 7text74 ,! greek *>act]s alpha & beta 7 m>k$ z alpha & beta ,triple bonds 7 m>k$ z trb 9 ord] to keep ! lt#a-text4 ,v]tical d\ble bonds are m>k$ ) a brok5 b> 4 ,on page #abj ! illu/ration ( ! decomposition ( *lorophyll a & *lorophyll b c\ld n be display$ due to its complex /ructure4 ,on page #adg ! incorrect =mulas ( sito/]ol1 ,c#bg;,h#dc,,oh & /igma/]ol1 ,c#cj;,h#di,,oh 7 n *ang$ due to ! fact t ! pure comp\nds 7 fir/ isolat$ 9 #aibf aft] ?is book 0 publi%$4 ,! table bel[ li/s all corrections appli$ to ! orig9al text4 p #c3 ,abd]hald5's ,bio*emis*e ,h&lexicon - ,h&lexikon p #aj3 ) ! blood pigm5t1 haemat9 - hmat9 p #ae3 special type1 or unusual orig94 - p]iod add$ p #ag3 t ! photo-syn!sis - photosyn!sis p #bj3 ,exp]im5ts ) algae - alg p #ba3 t :5 algae - alg p #bf3 ,exp]im5ts1 #bid pages1 #di - p]iod delet$ p #cf3 acts z a p[]ful anae/hetic - an/hetic p #dj3 ,die ,*emie d] ,*lorophyll - ,die ,*emie des ,*lorophylls p #da3 _m o!r poly-atomic - polyatomic p #ed3 ,left p>5!sis at ,c#f ( ,aldop5tose delet$ p #ee3 glucose yeilds - yields p #fj3 see pages - see page p #fa3 :5 heat$ to #hb ,c - #hb ,c p #fe3 p[] ( #adh4 - #adh4 p #fg3 attack o!r dissa*>ides - disac*>ides p #gd3 ,secalan - ,secal9 p #gg3 ,erganzungsb& - ,ergnzungsb& p #gg3 ,h&bu* d] ,kohl5hydrate1 - clos+ quotes add$ p #hf3 ,erganzungsb& - ,ergnzungsb& p #hh3 has n yet be5 det]m9$4 - p]iod add$ p #hg3 by a plane hexagon1 ?us ,illu/ration3 hexagon4 - p]iod add$ p #ie3 ,c#ba;,c#bj,o#ab - ,c#ba;,h#bj,o#ab p #if3 blue grapes1 o59 - oen9 p #if3 glucose o5id9 - oenid9 p #ig3 reactions ( amydal9 - amygdal9 p #ih3 reactions ( amgdal9 - amygdal9 p #ajg3 ,gallic acid1 - p]iod *ang$ to comma p #aab3 ,diospyrus - ,diospyros p #aad3 ! foll[+ =mulas3 - semicolon *ang$ to colon p #aba3 obta9$ f aetioporphyr9 - tioporphyr9 p #aba3 t f tioporphry9 - tioporphyr9 p #abb3 *lorophylls are fluoresc5t1 - p]iod *ang$ to comma p #abb3 & r$ by reflect$ - comma delet$ p #abb3 prop]ties ( ^! pigm5ts1 - p]iod *ang$ to comma p #abc3 roots ( c>rots1 etc41 - second p]iod *ang$ to comma p #abc3 due to ^! pigm5ts4 - p]iod add$ p #abd3 ,,oh gr\ps an addition - ,,oh gr\ps 9 addition p #abd3 ,bu*n] funnel - ,b*n] funnel p #abf3 t x conta9s leuc9 - leuc9e p #abf3 leuc9e & tyros9 - tyros9e p #acd3 ,will/tt] - ,will/tt] p #ace3 malonic acid - space add$ p #acg3 ,c#c;,h#e;,,cooh - ,c#c;,h#g;,,cooh p #ach3 comm]cially z a bye-product - by-product p #adf3 ( ! exp]im5t4 ,microrganisms - ,microorganisms p #aed3 or ?r\gh its basic 7,,oh7 gr\p - or ?r\gh its basic 7,n7 gr\p p #aeh3 oxyg5at$ & sulphurett$ - sulfurett$ p #afa3 ,ae!ris*e ,oele1 ,h>ze1 - comma add$ p #afa3 ,f4 trans4 - p]iod add$ p #afb3 ,,heusl]1 ,f41 additional comma add$ p #afd3 ergot1 & horde9e - horde9 p #aga3 ,c#e;,h#d,n#d,o#b1 - comma add$ p #aga3 gaun9e - guan9e p #agg3 ,,*#c;,,*nh,,cooh - ,,*#c;,,*nh #b;,,cooh p #agi3 monoam9o-monoc>boxylic acids3 - p]iod *ang$ to colon p #aha3 ,hy/id9e - ,hi/id9e p #aha3 ,amad9n - ,am&9 p #ahd3 :i* conta9s tyros9 - tyros9e p #ahd3 or a tyros9-conta9+ - tyros9e-conta9+ p #ahe3 nitric acid on tyros9 - tyros9e p #ahf3 acids1 or alkalies4 - p]iod add$ p #ahg3 ,juglans91 - comma add$ p #ahg3 ( walnut & butt]nut4 - p]iod add$ p #ahg3 b>ley4 - p]iod add$ p #aib3 reactions :5 c>i$ - c>ri$ p #aig3 :i* accel]ates ! hydyrolysis - hydrolysis p #aih3 are fur!r sub-divid$ - subdivid$ p #bjj3 ,butryic acid f]m5t - ,butyric acid f]m5t p #bjb3 & o!r microrganisms - microorganisms p #bjc3 alcohol & c>bon dixoide - dioxide p #bje3 especially tyros9 - tyros9e p #bjf3 masses "u ! ultra-microscope - ultramicroscope p #bab3 ,j4 trans - ,j41 trans4 - comma add$ p #bah3 *emical nature & dialectric - dielectric p #bca3 ,dresd5 & ,leipsig - ,leipzig p #bca3 ,leisegang - ,liesegang p #bca3 ,beitrage - ,beitrge p #bcc3 obs]v$ "u ! ultra-microscope - ultramicroscope p #bcf3 is und\bt$ly tetraval5t1 p]iod *ang$ to comma p #bcg3 has a high] dialectric - dielectric p #bci3 ,z 9 well kn[n - ,z is well kn[n p #bda3 ! organism to amo!r - ano!r p #bdb3 hav+ a foam-l - foamlike p #bdi3 ,be/immung d] ,ob]fla*5spannung - ,ob]fl*5spannung p #bdi3 ,! ,role ( ,diffusion - ,! ,rle ( ,diffusion p #bej3 ,,speigel1 ,l41 additional comma add$ p #beb3 ( comb9ation )4 wat] - ( comb9ation ) wat] p #bee3 ^u :i* ! micro-organisms - microorganisms p #beh3 heavy metals2 hydro-c>bon - hydroc>bon p #bfa3 ,campf]itir9 - ,campf]itr9 p #bfa3 ,c]ta9 algae - alg p #bfa3 c]ta9 types ( algae - alg p #bfb3 m5tion$ above z acclimitization-acclimatization p #bgj3 succ9ic1 #abg1 #abh4 - p]iod add$ p #bgj3 metapectic - meta-pectic p #bga3 mellisyl - melissyl p #bga3 myriscyl - myricyl p #bga3 ,asymetric - ,asymmetric p #bgb3 ,c>bon dioxide1 #b1 #c1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 - comma add$ p #bgc3 ,cur>9 - ,cur>9e p #bgd3 ,hesp]it91 #gi1 - p]iod *ang$ to comma p #bge3 ,l9ayl - ,l9alyl p #bge3 ,leucos9e - ,leucos9 p #bge3 ,lup59e - ,lup99e p #bgf3 ,me?yle?ylmalle9 imide - ,me?yle?ylmale9 imide p #bgf3 ,mryos9 - ,myros9 p #bgf3 ,oil ( lav5d> - lav5d] p #bgf3 ,oxy-hydroqu9one - ,oxyhydroqu9one p #bgg3 ,photo-*emical action ( light - ,photo*emical action ( light p #bgg3 ,proteases1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #ajb - ,proteases1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aib p #bgh3 ,sorbose1 - p]iod *ang$ to comma