,the ,variation of ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication by ,charles ,darwin ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,etc4 ,,volumes ,,one ,,and ,,two ,,contents4 ,,foreword ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i4--,,domestic ,,dogs ,,and ,,cats4 ,,ancient ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,dog--,,resemblance ,,of ,,domestic ,,dogs ,,in ,,various ,,countries ,,to ,,native ,,canine ,,species--,,animals ,,not ,,acquainted ,,with ,,man ,,at ,,first ,,fearless--,,dogs ,,resembling ,,wolves ,,and ,,jackals--,,habit ,,of ,,barking ,,acquired ,,and ,,lost--,,feral ,,dogs--,,tan-,,coloured ,,eye-,,spots--,,period ,,of ,,gestation--,,offensive ,,odour--,,fertility ,,of ,,the ,,races ,,when ,,crossed--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,races ,,in ,,part ,,due ,,to ,,descent ,,from ,,distinct ,,species--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,teeth--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,body1 ,,in ,,constitution--,,few ,,important ,,differences ,,have ,,been ,,fixed ,,by ,,selection--,,direct ,,action ,,of ,,climate--,,water-,,dogs ,,with ,,palmated ,,feet--,,history ,,of ,,the ,,changes ,,which ,,certain ,,english ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,dog ,,have ,,gradually ,,undergone ,,through ,,selection--,,extinction ,,of ,,the ,,less ,,improved ,,sub-,,breeds4 ,,cats1 ,,crossed ,,with ,,several ,,species--,,different ,,breeds ,,found ,,only ,,in ,,separated ,,countries--,,direct ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,feral ,,cats--,,individual ,,variability4 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,horses ,,and ,,asses4 ,,horse4 ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,breeds--,,individual ,,variability ,,of--,,direct ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,can ,,withstand ,,much ,,cold--,,breeds ,,much ,,modified ,,by ,,selection--,,colours ,,of ,,the ,,horse--,,dappling--,,dark ,,stripes ,,on ,,the ,,spine1 ,,legs1 ,,shoulders1 ,,and ,,forehead--,,dun-,,coloured ,,horses ,,most ,,frequently ,,striped--,,stripes ,,probably ,,due ,,to ,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,primitive ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,,asses4 ,,breeds ,,of--,,colour ,,of--,,leg- ,,and ,,shoulder-,,stripes--,,shoulder-,,strip es ,,sometimes ,,absent1 ,,sometimes ,,forked4 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,pigs--,,cattle--,,sheep--,,goa ts4 ,,pigs ,,belong ,,to ,,two ,,distinct ,,types1 ,,sus ,,scrofa ,,and ,,indicus--,,torfschwein--,,japan ,,pigs--,,fertility ,,of ,,crossed ,,pigs--,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,highly ,,cultivated ,,races--,,convergence ,,of ,,character--,,gestation--,,solid-,,hoof ed ,,swine--,,curious ,,appendages ,,to ,,the ,,jaws--,,decrease ,,in ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,tusks--,,young ,,pigs ,,longitudinally ,,striped--,,feral ,,pigs--,,crossed ,,breeds4 ,,cattle--,,zebu ,a ,,distinct ,,species--,,european ,,cattle ,,probably ,,descended ,,from ,,three ,,wild ,,forms--,,all ,,the ,,races ,,now ,,fertile ,,together--,,british ,,park ,,cattle--,,on ,,the ,,colour ,,of ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,species--,,constitutional ,,differences--,,south ,,african ,,races--,,south ,,american ,,races--,,niata ,,cattle--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,races ,,of ,,cattle4 ,,sheep --,,remarkable ,,races ,,of--,,variations ,,attached ,,to ,,the ,,male ,,sex--,,adaptations ,,to ,,various ,,conditions--,,gestation ,,of--,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,wool--,,semi-,,monstrous ,,breeds4 ,,goats --,,remarkable ,,variations ,,of4 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,domestic ,,rabbits4 ,,domestic ,,rabbits ,,descended ,,from ,,the ,,common ,,wild ,,rabbit--,,ancient ,,domestication--,,ancient ,,selection--,,large ,,lop-,,eared ,,rabbits--,,various ,,breeds--,,fluctuating ,,characters--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,himalayan ,,breed--,,curious ,,case ,,of ,,inheritance--,,feral ,,rabbits ,,in ,,jamaica ,,and ,,the ,,falkland ,,islands--,,porto ,,santo ,,feral ,,rabbits--,,osteological ,,characters--,,skull--,,skull ,,of ,,half-,,lop ,,rabbits--,,variations ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,analogous ,,to ,,differences ,,in ,,different ,,species ,,of ,,hares--,v,e,rtebr--,,sternum--,,scapul a--,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,the ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,limbs ,,and ,,body--,,capacity ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,reduced ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,brain--,,summary ,,on ,,the ,,modifications ,,of ,,domesticated ,,rabbits4 ,,chapter ,v4--,,domestic ,,pigeons4 ,,enumeration ,,and ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,breeds--,,individual ,,variability--,,variations ,,of ,a ,,remarkable ,,nature--,,osteological ,,characters3 ,,skull1 ,,lower ,,jaw1 ,,number ,,of vertebr--,,correlation ,,of ,,growth3 ,,tongue ,,with ,,beak2 ,,eyelids ,,and ,,nostrils ,,with ,,wattled ,,skin--,,number ,,of ,,wing-,,feathers1 ,,and ,,length ,,of ,,wing--,,colour ,,and ,,down--,,webbed ,,and ,,feathered ,,feet--,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,disuse--,,length ,,of ,,feet ,,in ,,correlation ,,with ,,length ,,of ,,beak--,,length ,,of ,,sternum1 ,,scapula1 ,,and ,,furculum--,,length ,,of ,,wings--,,summary ,,on ,,the ,,points ,,of ,,difference ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,breeds4 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,pigeons--continued4 ,,on ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,parent-,,stock ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,domestic ,,races--,,habits ,,of ,,life--,,wild ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,rock-,,pigeon--,dovecot-,,pigeons--,,p roofs ,,of ,,the ,,descent ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,races ,,from ,,columba ,,livia--,,fertility ,,of ,,the ,,races ,,when ,,crossed--,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,plumage ,,of ,,the ,,wild ,,rock-,,pigeon--,,circumstances ,,favourable ,,to ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,races--,,antiquity ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,races--,,manner ,,of ,,their ,,formation--,,selection--,,unconscious ,,selection--,,care ,,taken ,,by ,,fanciers ,,in ,,selecting ,,their ,,birds--,,slightly ,,different ,,strains ,,gradually ,,change ,,into ,,well-,,marked ,,breeds--,,extinction ,,of ,,intermediate ,,forms--,,certain ,,breeds ,,remain ,,permanent1 ,,whilst ,,others ,,change--,,summary4 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,fowls4 ,,brief ,,descriptions ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,breeds--,,arguments ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,their ,,descent ,,from ,,several ,,species--,,arguments ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,all ,,the ,,breeds ,,having ,,descended ,,from ,,gallus ,,bankiva--,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,parent-,,stock ,,in ,,colour--,,analogous ,,variations--,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,fowl--,,external ,,differences ,,between ,,the ,,several ,,breeds--,,eggs--,,chickens--,,secondar y ,,sexual ,,characters--,,wing-,,and ,,tail-,,feathers1 ,,voice1 ,,disposition1 ,,etc--,,osteological ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,skull1 ,,vertebr1 ,,etc--,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,certain ,,parts--,,correlation ,,of ,,growth4 ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,duck--,,goose--,,peacock--,,t urkey--,,guinea-,,fowl--,,canary-,,bird- -,,gold-,,fish--,,river -,,bees--,,silk-,,moths4 ,,ducks1 ,,several ,,breeds ,,of--,,progress ,,of ,,domestication--,,origin ,,of ,,from ,,the ,,common ,,wild-,,duck--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,breeds--,,osteological ,,differences--,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,the ,,limb-,,bones4 ,,goose1 ,,anciently ,,domesticated--,,little ,,variation ,,of--,,sebastopol ,,breed4 ,,peacock1 ,,origin ,,of ,,black-,,shouldered ,,breed4 ,,turkey1,,breeds ,,of--,,crossed ,,with ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,species--,,effects ,,of ,,climate ,,on4 ,,guinea-,,fowl1 ,,canary-,,bird1 ,,gold-,,fish1 ,,hive-,,bees4 ,,silk-,,moths1 ,,species ,,and ,,breeds ,,of--,,anciently ,,domesticated--,,care ,,in ,,their ,,selection--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,races--,,in ,,the ,,egg1 ,,caterpillar1 ,,and ,,cocoon ,,states--,,inheritance ,,of ,,characters--,,imperfect ,,wings--,,lost ,,instincts--,,correlated ,,characters4 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,cultivated ,,plants3 ,,cereal ,,and ,,culinary ,,plants4 ,,preliminary ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,number ,,and ,,parentage ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants--,,first ,,steps ,,in ,,cultivation--,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants4 ,,cerealia4 ,,doubts ,,on ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,species--,,wheat3 ,,varieties ,,of--,,individual ,,variability--,,changed ,,habits--,,selection--,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,varieties--,,maize3 ,,great ,,variation ,,of--,,direct ,,action ,,of ,,climate ,,on4 ,,culinary ,,plants4--,,cabbages3 ,,varieties ,,of1 ,,in ,,foliage ,,and ,,stems1 ,,but ,,not ,,in ,,other ,,parts--,,parentage ,,of--,,other ,,species ,,of ,,brassica--,,peas3 ,,amount ,,of ,,difference ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,kinds1 ,,chiefly ,,in ,,the ,,pods ,,and ,,seed--,,some ,,varieties ,,constant1 ,,some ,,highly ,,variable--,,do ,,not ,,intercross--,,beans--,,potatoes3 ,,numerous ,,varieties ,,of--,,differing ,,little ,,except ,,in ,,the ,,tubers--,,characters ,,inherited4 ,,chapter ,x4--,,plants continued--,,fruits--,,ornamental ,,trees--,,flowers4 ,,fruits4 ,,grapes3 ,,vary ,,in ,,odd ,,and ,,trifling ,,particulars--,,mulberry3 ,,the ,,orange ,,group--,,singular ,,results ,,from ,,crossing-- ,,peach ,,and ,,nectarine3 ,,bud ,,variation--,,analogous ,,variation--,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,almond--,,apricot--,,plums3 ,,variation ,,in ,,their ,,stones-- ,,cherries3 ,,singular ,,varieties ,,of--,,apple--,,pear--,,strawberry3 ,,interblending ,,of ,,the ,,original ,,forms--,,gooseberry3 ,,steady ,,increase ,,in ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,fruit--,,varieties ,,of--,,walnut--,,nut--,,cucurbitaceous ,,plants3 ,,wonderful ,,variation ,,of4 ,,ornamental ,,trees4 ,,their ,,variation ,,in ,,degree ,,and ,,kind--,,ash-,,tree--,,scotch-,,fir--,, hawthorn4 ,,flowers4 ,,multiple ,,origin ,,of ,,many ,,kinds--,,variation ,,in ,,constitutional ,,peculiarities--,,kind ,,of ,,variation--,,roses3 ,,several ,,species ,,cultivated--,,pansy--,,dahlia--,,hyaci nth3 ,,history ,,and ,,variation ,,of4 ,,chapter ,,xi4--,,on ,,bud-,,variation1 ,,and ,,on ,,certain ,,anomalous ,,modes ,,of ,,reproduction ,,and ,,variation4 ,,bud-,,variation ,,in ,,the ,,peach1 ,,plum1 ,,cherry1 ,,vine1 ,,gooseberry1 ,,currant1 ,,and ,,banana1 ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,modified ,,fruit--,,in ,,flowers3 ,,camellias1 ,,azaleas1 ,,chrysanthemums1 ,,roses1 ,,etc--,,on ,,the ,,running ,,of ,,the ,,colour ,,in ,,carnations--,,bud-,,variations ,,in ,,leaves--,,variations ,,by ,,suckers1 ,,tubers1 ,,and ,,bulbs--,,on ,,the ,,breaking ,,of ,,tulips--,,bud-,,variations ,,graduate ,,into ,,changes ,,consequent ,,on ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,graft-,,hybrids--,,on ,,the ,,segregation ,,of ,,the ,,parental ,,characters ,,in ,,seminal ,,hybrids ,,by ,,bud-,,variation--,,on ,,the ,,direct ,,or ,,immediate ,,action ,,of ,,foreign ,,pollen ,,on ,,the ,,mother-,,plant--,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,in ,,female ,,animals ,,of ,a ,,previous ,,impregnation ,,on ,,the ,,subsequent ,,offspring--,,conclusion ,,and ,,summary4 ,,chapter ,,xii4--,,inheritance4 ,,wonderful ,,nature ,,of ,,inheritance--,,pedigrees ,,of ,,our ,,domesticated ,,animals--,,inheritance ,,not ,,due ,,to ,,chance--,,trifling ,,characters ,,inherited--,,diseases ,,inherited--,,peculiarities ,,in ,,the ,,eye ,,inherited--,,diseases ,,in ,,the ,,horse--,,longevity ,,and ,,vigour--,,asymmetrical ,,deviations ,,of ,,structure--,,polydactylism ,,and ,,regrowth ,,of ,,supernumerary ,,digits ,,after ,,amputation--,,cases ,,of ,,several ,,children ,,similarly ,,affected ,,from ,,non-,,affected ,,parents--,,weak ,,and ,,fluctuating ,,inheritance3 ,,in ,,weeping ,,trees1 ,,in ,,dwarfness1 ,,colour ,,of ,,fruit ,,and ,,flowers--,,colour ,,of ,,horses--,,non-,,inheritance ,,in ,,certain ,,cases--,,inheritance ,,of ,,structure ,,and ,,habits ,,overborne ,,by ,,hostile ,,conditions ,,of ,,life1 ,,by ,,incessantly ,,recurring ,,variability1 ,,and ,,by ,,reversion--,,conclusion4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4--,,inheritance continued--,,reversion ,,of ,,atavism4 ,,different ,,forms ,,of ,,reversion--,,in ,,pure ,,or ,,uncrossed ,,breeds1 ,,as ,,in ,,pigeons1 ,,fowls1 ,,hornless ,,cattle ,,and ,,sheep1 ,,in ,,cultivated ,,plants--,,reversion ,,in ,,feral ,,animals ,,and ,,plants--,,reversion ,,in ,,crossed ,,varieties ,,and ,,species--,,reversion ,,through ,,bud-,,propagation1 ,,and ,,by ,,segments ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,flower ,,or ,,fruit--,,in ,,different ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,body ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,animal--,,the ,,act ,,of ,,crossing ,a ,,direct ,,cause ,,of ,,reversion1 ,,various ,,cases ,,of1 ,,with ,,instincts--,,other ,,proximate ,,causes ,,of ,,reversion--,,latent ,,characters--,,secondary ,,sexual ,,characters--,,unequal ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,sides ,,of ,,the ,,body--,,appearance ,,with ,,advancing ,,age ,,of ,,characters ,,derived ,,from ,a ,,cross--,,the ,,germ1 ,,with ,,all ,,its ,,latent ,,characters1 ,a ,,wonderful ,,object--,,monstrosities--,,peloric ,,flowers ,,due ,,in ,,some ,,cases ,,to ,,reversion4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4--,,inheritance continued--,,fixedness ,,of ,,character--,,prepotency--,,sexual ,,limitation--,,correspondence ,,of ,,age4 ,,fixedness ,,of ,,character ,,apparently ,,not ,,due ,,to ,,antiquity ,,of ,,initance--,,prepotency ,,of ,,transmission ,,in ,,individuals ,,of ,,the ,,same ,,family1 ,,in ,,crossed ,,breeds ,,and ,,species2 ,,often ,,stronger ,,in ,,one ,,sex ,,than ,,the ,,other2 ,,sometimes ,,due ,,to ,,the ,,same ,,character ,,being ,,present ,,and ,,visible ,,in ,,one ,,breed ,,and ,,latent ,,in ,,the ,,other--,,inheritance ,,as ,,limited ,,by ,,sex--,,newly-,,acquired ,,characters ,,in ,,our ,,domesticated ,,animals ,,often ,,transmitted ,,by ,,one ,,sex ,,alone1 ,,sometimes ,,lost ,,by ,,one ,,sex ,,alone--,,inheritance ,,at ,,corresponding ,,periods ,,of ,,life--,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,embryology2 ,,as ,,exhibited ,,in ,,domesticated ,,animals3 ,,as ,,exhibited ,,in ,,the ,,appearance ,,and ,,disappearance ,,of ,,inherited ,,diseases2 ,,sometimes ,,supervening ,,earlier ,,in ,,the ,,child ,,than ,,in ,,the ,,parent--,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,preceding ,,chapters4 ,,chapter ,,xv4--,,on ,,crossing4 ,,free ,,intercrossing ,,obliterates ,,the ,,differences ,,between ,,allied ,,breeds--,,when ,,the ,,numbers ,,of ,,two ,,commingling ,,breeds ,,are ,,unequal1 ,,one ,,absorbs ,,the ,,other--,,the ,,rate ,,of ,,absorption ,,determined ,,by ,,prepotency ,,of ,,transmission1 ,,by ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life1 ,,and ,,by ,,natural ,,selection--,,all ,,organic ,,beings ,,occasionally ,,intercross2 ,,apparent ,,exceptions--,,on ,,certain ,,characters ,,incapable ,,of ,,fusion2 ,,chiefly ,,or ,,exclusively ,,those ,,which ,,have ,,suddenly ,,appeared ,,in ,,the ,,individual--,,on ,,the ,,modification ,,of ,,old ,,races1 ,,and ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,new ,,races ,,by ,,crossing--,,some ,,crossed ,,races ,,have ,,bred ,,true ,,from ,,their ,,first ,,production--,,on ,,the ,,crossing ,,of ,,distinct ,,species ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,domestic ,,races4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4--,,causes ,,which ,,interfere ,,with ,,the ,,free ,,crossing ,,of ,,varieties--,,influence ,,of ,,domestication ,,on ,,fertility4 ,,difficulties ,,in ,,judging ,,of ,,the ,,fertility ,,of ,,varieties ,,when ,,crossed4 ,,various ,,causes ,,which ,,keep ,,varieties ,,distinct1 ,,as ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,breeding ,,and ,,sexual ,,preference--,,varieties ,,of ,,wheat ,,said ,,to ,,be ,,sterile ,,when ,,crossed--,,varieties ,,of ,,maize1 ,,verbascum1 ,,hollyhock1 ,,gourds1 ,,melons1 ,,and ,,tobacco1 ,,rendered ,,in ,,some ,,degree ,,mutually ,,sterile--,,domestication ,,eliminates ,,the ,,tendency ,,to ,,sterility ,,natural ,,to ,,species ,,when ,,crossed--,,on ,,the ,,increased ,,fertility ,,of ,,uncrossed ,,animals ,,and ,,plants ,,from ,,domestication ,,and ,,cultivation4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4--,,on ,,the ,,good ,,effects ,,of ,,crossing1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,evil ,,effects ,,of ,,close ,,interbreeding4 ,,definition ,,of ,,close ,,interbreeding--,,augmentation ,,of ,,morbid ,,tendencies--,,general ,,evidence ,,of ,,the ,,good ,,effects ,,derived ,,from ,,crossing1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,evil ,,effects ,,from ,,close ,,interbreeding--,,cattle1 ,,closely ,,interbred2 ,,half-,,wild ,,cattle ,,long ,,kept ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,parks--,,sheep--,,fallow-,,deer--,,dog s1 ,,rabbits1 ,,pigs--,,man1 ,,origin ,,of ,,his ,,abhorrence ,,of ,,incestuous ,,marriages--,,fowls--,,pigeons--,,hive- ,,bees--,,plants1 ,,general ,,considerations ,,on ,,the ,,benefits ,,derived ,,from ,,crossing--,,melons1 ,,fruit-,,trees1 ,,peas1 ,,cabbages1 ,,wheat1 ,,and ,,forest-,,trees--,,on ,,the ,,increased ,,size ,,of ,,hybrid ,,plants1 ,,not ,,exclusively ,,due ,,to ,,their ,,sterility--,,on ,,certain ,,plants ,,which ,,either ,,normally ,,or ,,abnormally ,,are ,,self-,,impotent1 ,,but ,,are ,,fertile1 ,,both ,,on ,,the ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,side1 ,,when ,,crossed ,,with ,,distinct ,,individuals ,,either ,,of ,,the ,,same ,,or ,,another ,,species--,,conclusion4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4--,,on ,,the ,,advantages ,,and ,,disadvantages ,,of ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life3 ,,sterility ,,from ,,various ,,causes4 ,,on ,,the ,,good ,,derived ,,from ,,slight ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,sterility ,,from ,,changed ,,conditions1 ,,in ,,animals1 ,,in ,,their ,,native ,,country ,,and ,,in ,,menageries--,,mammals1 ,,birds1 ,,and ,,insects--,,loss ,,of ,,secondary ,,sexual ,,characters ,,and ,,of ,,instincts--,,causes ,,of ,,sterility--,,sterility ,,of ,,domesticated ,,animals ,,from ,,changed ,,conditions--,,sexual ,,incompatibility ,,of ,,individual ,,animals--,,sterility ,,of ,,plants ,,from ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,contabescence ,,of ,,the ,,anthers--,,monstrosities ,,as ,a ,,cause ,,of ,,sterility--,,double ,,flowers--,,seedless ,,fruit--,,sterility ,,from ,,the ,,excessive ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,vegetation--,,from ,,long-,,continued ,,propagation ,,by ,,buds--,,incipient ,,sterility ,,the ,,primary ,,cause ,,of ,,double ,,flowers ,,and ,,seedless ,,fruit4 ,,chapter ,,xix4--,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,last ,,chapters1 ,,with ,,remarks ,,on ,,hybridism4 ,,on ,,the ,,good ,,derived ,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,crossing--,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,domestication ,,on ,,fertility--,,close ,,interbreeding--,,good ,,and ,,evil ,,results ,,from ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,varieties ,,when ,,crossed ,,not ,,invariably ,,fertile--,,on ,,the ,,difference ,,in ,,fertility ,,between ,,crossed ,,species ,,and ,,varieties--,,conclusions ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,hybridism--,,light ,,thrown ,,on ,,hybridism ,,by ,,the ,,illegitimate ,,progeny ,,of ,,heterostyled ,,plants--,,sterility ,,of ,,crossed ,,species ,,due ,,to ,,differences ,,confined ,,to ,,the ,,reproductive ,,system--,,not ,,accumulated ,,through ,,natural ,,selection--,,reasons ,,why ,,domestic ,,varieties ,,are ,,not ,,mutually ,,sterile--,,too ,,much ,,stress ,,has ,,been ,,laid ,,on ,,the ,,difference ,,in ,,fertility ,,between ,,crossed ,,species ,,and ,,crossed ,,varieties--,,conclusion4 ,,chapter ,,xx4--,,selection ,,by ,,man4 ,,selection ,a ,,difficult ,,art--,,methodical1 ,,unconscious1 ,,and ,,natural ,,selection--,,results ,,of ,,methodical ,,selection--,,care ,,taken ,,in ,,selection--,,selection ,,with ,,plants--,,selection ,,carried ,,on ,,by ,,the ,,ancients ,,and ,,by ,,semi-,,civilised ,,people--,,unimportant ,,characters ,,often ,,attended ,,to--,,unconscious ,,selection--,,as ,,circumstances ,,slowly ,,change1 ,,so ,,have ,,our ,,domesticated ,,animals ,,changed ,,through ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,unconscious ,,selection--,,influence ,,of ,,different ,,breeders ,,on ,,the ,,same ,,sub-,,variety--,,plants ,,as ,,affected ,,by ,,unconscious ,,selection--,,effects ,,of ,,selection ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,great ,,amount ,,of ,,difference ,,in ,,the ,,parts ,,most ,,valued ,,by ,,man4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4--,,selection1 continued ,,natural ,,selection ,,as ,,affecting ,,domestic ,,productions--,,characters ,,which ,,appear ,,of ,,trifling ,,value ,,often ,,of ,,real ,,importance--,,circumstances ,,favourable ,,to ,,selection ,,by ,,man--,,facility ,,in ,,preventing ,,crosses1 ,,and ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,conditions--,,close ,,attention ,,and ,,perseverance ,,indispensable--,,the ,,production ,,of ,a ,,large ,,number ,,of ,,individuals ,,especially ,,favourable--,,when ,,no ,,selection ,,is ,,applied1 ,,distinct ,,races ,,are ,,not ,,formed--,,highly-,,bred ,,animals ,,liable ,,to ,,degeneration--,,tendency ,,in ,,man ,,to ,,carry ,,the ,,selection ,,of ,,each ,,character ,,to ,,an ,,extreme ,,point1 ,,leading ,,to ,,divergence ,,of ,,character1 ,,rarely ,,to ,,convergence--,,characters ,,continuing ,,to ,,vary ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,direction ,,in ,,which ,,they ,,have ,,already ,,varied--,,divergence ,,of ,,character1 ,,with ,,the ,,extinction ,,of ,,intermediate ,,varieties1 ,,leads ,,to ,,distinctness ,,in ,,our ,,domestic ,,races--,,limit ,,to ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,selection--,,lapse ,,of ,,time ,,important--,,manner ,,in ,,which ,,domestic ,,races ,,have ,,originated--,,summary4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4--,,causes ,,of ,,variability4 ,,variability ,,does ,,not ,,necessarily ,,accompany ,,reproduction--,,causes ,,assigned ,,by ,,various ,,authors--,,individual ,,differences--,,variability ,,of ,,every ,,kind ,,due ,,to ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,such ,,changes--,,climate1 ,,food1 ,,excess ,,of ,,nutriment--,,slight ,,changes ,,sufficient--,,effects ,,of ,,grafting ,,on ,,the ,,variability ,,of ,,seedling-,,trees--,,domestic ,,productions ,,become ,,habituated ,,to ,,changed ,,conditions--,,on ,,the ,,accumulative ,,action ,,of ,,changed ,,conditions--,,close ,,interbreeding ,,and ,,the ,,imagination ,,of ,,the ,,mother ,,supposed ,,to ,,cause ,,variability--,,crossing ,,as ,a ,,cause ,,of ,,the ,,appearance ,,of ,,new ,,characters--,,variability ,,from ,,the ,,commingling ,,of ,,characters ,,and ,,from ,,reversion--,,on ,,the ,,manner ,,and ,,period ,,of ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,causes ,,which ,,either ,,directly1 ,,or ,,indirectly ,,through ,,the ,,reproductive ,,system1 ,,induce ,,variability4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4--,,direct ,,and ,,definite ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,conditions ,,of ,,life4 ,,slight ,,modifications ,,in ,,plants ,,from ,,the ,,definite ,,action ,,of ,,changed ,,conditions1 ,,in ,,size1 ,,colour1 ,,chemical ,,properties1 ,,and ,,in ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,tissues--,,local ,,diseases--,,conspicuous ,,modifications ,,from ,,changed ,,climate ,,or ,,food1 ,,etc--,,plumage ,,of ,,birds ,,affected ,,by ,,peculiar ,,nutriment1 ,,and ,,by ,,the ,,inoculation ,,of ,,poison--,,land-,,shells--,,modificatio ns ,,of ,,organic ,,beings ,,in ,a ,,state ,,of ,,nature ,,through ,,the ,,definite ,,action ,,of ,,external ,,conditions--,,comparison ,,of ,,american ,,and ,,european ,,trees--,,galls--,,effects ,,of ,,parasitic ,,fungi--,,considerations ,,opposed ,,to ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,the ,,potent ,,influence ,,of ,,changed ,,external ,,conditions--,,parallel ,,series ,,of ,,varieties--,,amount ,,of ,,variation ,,does ,,not ,,correspond ,,with ,,the ,,degree ,,of ,,change ,,in ,,the ,,conditions--,,bud-,,variation--,,monst rosities ,,produced ,,by ,,unnatural ,,treatment--,,summary4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4--,,laws ,,of ,,variation--,,use ,,and ,,disuse1 ,,etc4 ,,nisus ,,formativus1 ,,or ,,the ,,co-,,ordinating ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,organisation--,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,increased ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,of ,,organs--,,changed ,,habits ,,of ,,life--,,acclimatisation ,,with ,,animals ,,and ,,plants--,,various ,,methods ,,by ,,which ,,this ,,can ,,be ,,effected--,,arrests ,,of ,,development--,,rudimentary ,,organs4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4--,,laws ,,of ,,variation1 continued4--,,correlated ,,variability4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,term ,,correlation--,,connected ,,with ,,development--,,modifications ,,correlated ,,with ,,the ,,increased ,,or ,,decreased ,,size ,,of ,,parts--,,correlated ,,variation ,,of ,,homologous ,,parts--,,feathered ,,feet ,,in ,,birds ,,assuming ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,wings--,,correlation ,,between ,,the ,,head ,,and ,,the ,,extremities--,,between ,,the ,,skin ,,and ,,dermal ,,appendages--,,between ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,sight ,,and ,,hearing--,,correlated ,,modifications ,,in ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,plants--,,correlated ,,monstrosities--,,correlation ,,between ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,ears--,,skull ,,and ,,crest ,,of ,,feathers--,,skull ,,and ,,horns--,,correlation ,,of ,,growth ,,complicated ,,by ,,the ,,accumulated ,,effects ,,of ,,natural ,,selection--,,colour ,,as ,,correlated ,,with ,,constitutional ,,peculiarities4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4--,,laws ,,of ,,variation1 continued4--,,summary4 ,,the ,,fusion ,,of ,,homologous ,,parts--,,the ,,variability ,,of ,,multiple ,,and ,,homologous ,,parts--,,compensation ,,of ,,growth--,,mechanical ,,pressure--,,relative ,,position ,,of ,,flowers ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,the ,,axis1 ,,and ,,of ,,seeds ,,in ,,the ,,ovary1 ,,as ,,inducing ,,variation--,,analogous ,,or ,,parallel ,,varieties--,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,last ,,chapters4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4--,,provisional ,,hypothesis ,,of ,,pangenesis4 ,,preliminary ,,remarks--,,first ,,part3 ,,the ,,facts ,,to ,,be ,,connected ,,under ,a ,,single ,,point ,,of ,,view1 ,,namely1 ,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,reproduction--,,re-,,growth ,,of ,,amputated ,,parts--,,graft-,,hybrids--,,the ,,direct ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,male ,,element ,,on ,,the ,,female--,,development--,,the ,,functional ,,independence ,,of ,,the ,,units ,,of ,,the ,,body--,,variability--,,inheritance--,, reversion--,,second ,,part3 ,,statement ,,of ,,the ,,hypothesis--,,how ,,far ,,the ,,necessary ,,assumptions ,,are ,,improbable--,,explanation ,,by ,,aid ,,of ,,the ,,hypothesis ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,classes ,,of ,,facts ,,specified ,,in ,,the ,,first ,,part--,,conclusion4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4--,,concluding ,,remarks4 ,,domestication--,,nature ,,and ,,causes ,,of ,,variability--,,selection--,,divergence ,,and ,,distinctness ,,of ,,character--,,extinction ,,of ,,races--,,circumstances ,,favourable ,,to ,,selection ,,by ,,man--,,antiquity ,,of ,,certain ,,races--,,the ,,question ,,whether ,,each ,,particular ,,variation ,,has ,,been ,,specially ,,preordained4 ,,index ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,figure #a4 ,dun ,devonshire pony1 with shoulder1 spinal1 and leg stripes4 ,figure #b4 ,head of ,japan or masked pig4 ,figure #c4 ,head of wild boar1 and of 8golden days10 a pig of the ,yorkshire large breed4 ,figure #d4 ,old ,irish pig with jaw-appendages4 ,figure #e4 ,half-lop rabbit4 ,figure #f4 ,skull of wild rabbit4 ,figure #g4 ,skull of large lop-eared rabbit4 ,figure #h4 ,part of zygomatic arch1 showing the projecting end of the malar bone of the auditory meatus1 of rabbits4 ,figure #i4 ,posterior end of skull1 showing the inter-parietal bone1 of rabbits4 ,figure #aj4 ,occipital foramen of rabbits4 ,figure #aa4 ,skull of half-lop rabbit4 ,figure #ab4 ,atlas vertebrae of rabbits4 ,figure #ac4 ,third cervical vertebrae of rabbits4 ,figure #ad4 ,dorsal vertebrae1 from sixth to tenth inclusive1 of rabbits4 ,figure #ae4 ,terminal bone of sternum of rabbits4 ,figure #af4 ,acromion of scapula of rabbits4 ,figure #ag4 ,the rock-pigeon1 or columba livia4 ,figure #ah4 ,english pouter4 ,figure #ai4 ,english carrier4 ,figure #bj4 ,english barb4 ,figure #ba4 ,english fantail4 ,figure #bb4 ,african owl4 ,figure #bc4 ,short-faced ,english tumbler4 ,figure #bd4 ,skulls of pigeons1 viewed laterally4 ,figure #be4 ,lower jaws of pigeons1 seen from above4 ,figure #bf4 ,skull of runt1 seen from above4 ,figure #bg4 ,lateral view of jaws of pigeons4 ,figure #bh4 ,scapul of pigeons4 ,figure #bi4 ,furcula of pigeons4 ,figure #cj4 ,spanish fowl4 ,figure #ca4 ,hamburgh fowl4 ,figure #cb4 ,polish fowl4 ,figure #cc4 ,occipital foramen of the skulls of fowls4 ,figure #cd4 ,skulls of fowls1 viewed from above1 a little obliquely4 ,figure #ce4 ,longitudinal sections of skulls of fowls1 viewed laterally4 ,figure #cf4 ,skull of horned fowl1 viewed from above1 a little obliquely4 ,figure #cg4 ,sixth cervical vertebr of fowls1 viewed laterally4 ,figure #ch4 ,extremity of the furcula of fowls1 viewed laterally4 ,figure #ci4 ,skulls of ducks1 viewed laterally1 reduced to two-thirds of the natural size4 ,figure #dj4 ,cervical vertebr of ducks1 of natural size4 ,figure #da4 ,pods of the common pea4 ,figure #db4 ,peach and almond stones1 of natural size1 viewed edgeways4 ,figure #dc4 ,plum stones1 of natural size1 viewed laterally4 ,,foreword ,harriet ,ritvo ,charles ,darwin wrote ,on the ,origin of ,species in a hurry4 ,he had1 it was true1 been formulating his ideas and arguments for several decades--since his round-the-world ,beagle voyage of #ahca-ahcf4 ,these ideas and arguments had been slow to take definitive shape2 ,darwin had nurtured and reworked them1 amassing evidence for what he projected to be a weighty magnum opus4 ,although he had shared his developing evolutionary speculations with his closest professional colleagues1 ,darwin was reluctant to publish them on several grounds4 ,he was aware that his theory of evolution by natural selection 7or descent with modification7 was complex1 that it rested on vast but not incontrovertible evidence1 and that the chain of his reasoning was not uniformly strong4 ,further1 his conclusions challenged not only the scientific assumptions of many fellow specialists but also the theological convictions of a much wider circle of fellow citizens4 ,in #ahei1 ,darwin did not feel quite ready to expose his cherished theory to the harsh light of public scrutiny4 ,in the introduction to the ,origin he confessed that although his work on evolution by natural selection was 8nearly finished10 he would need 8two or three more years to complete it40 ,the ,origin was1 he suggested1 merely a stopgap1 a schematic 8abstract0 of a much longer and more fully supported treatise yet to come4 ,he had been moved to preview his labors in this way1 he explained1 because his health was 8far from strong0 and1 perhaps more importantly1 because ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 a younger naturalist working in isolation in southeast ,asia1 had sent a paper to the ,linnean ,society of ,london in which he 8arrived at almost exactly the same general conclusions that ,i have on the origin of species40 ,if ,darwin had not gone public with his theory at this point1 he would have risked losing credit for the work of many years4 ,as its reception showed immediately and has continued to show1 the ,origin benefited from the succinctness imposed by circumstances4 ,darwin himself may have appreciated this point2 at any rate1 he never produced the massive treatise1 although he repeatedly issued revised editions of the ,origin4 ,but he did not abandon his intention to buttress his initial schematic presentation with additional evidence4 ,in the course of the next two decades he published several full-length elaborations of topics summarily discussed in the ,origin3 ,the ,variation of ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication2 ,the ,descent of ,man1 and ,selection in ,relation to ,sex2 and ,the ,expression of the ,emotions in ,man and ,animals4 ,in addition to fleshing out the ,origin1 these subsequent studies bolstered its arguments and responded to questions raised by critical readers1 especially pragmatic questions about the way that descent with modification actually operated4 ,in ,the ,variation of ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication1 which appeared first in #ahfh and in a revised edition in #ahge1 ,darwin developed a theme to which he had accorded great rhetorical and evidentiary significance4 ,he had begun the ,origin with a description of artificial selection as practiced by farmers1 stock breeders1 and pet fanciers1 thus using a reassuringly homely example--one recognizable by the general public as well as by members of the scientific community--to introduce the most innovative component of his evolutionary theory4 ,in addition1 domesticated animals and plants1 because they were numerous and available for constant observation1 provided a readily available body of evidence4 ,reassuring as it was1 the analogy between natural and artificial selection was far from perfect4 ,the point of ,darwin's analogy was to make the idea of natural selection seem plausible by characterizing it as a grander version of a well-known process while emphasizing its efficiency and shaping power4 ,he noted1 for example1 that some of the prize birds bred by ,london pigeon fanciers diverged so strikingly in size1 plumage1 beak shape1 flying technique1 vocalizations4 bone structure1 and many other attributes1 that if they had been presented to an ornithologist as wild specimens1 they would unquestionably have been considered to represent distinct species1 perhaps even distinct genera4 ,darwin argued that if the relatively brief and constrained selective efforts of human breeders had produced such impressive results1 it was likely that the more protracted and thorough-going efforts of nature would work still more efficaciously4 ,but as ,darwin acknowledged1 there were some fairly obvious reasons why the two processes might diverge4 ,the superior power of natural selection--8,man can act only on external and visible characters3 nature 4 4 4 can act on 4 4 4 the whole machinery of life4 ,man selects only for his own good2 ,nature only for that of the being which she tends0 7,origin1 chap4 #e7--might constitute a difference of kind rather than of degree1 as might the much greater stretches of time available for natural selection4 ,further1 although the mechanism of the two processes appeared superficially similar1 their outcomes tended to be rather different4 ,natural selection produced a constantly increasing and diversifying variety of forms2 it never reversed or exactly repeated itself4 ,anyone familiar with artificial selection would have realized that1 although new breeds were constantly being developed and although neither improved wheat nor improved cattle showed any tendency to revert to the condition of their aboriginal wild ancestors1 the strains produced by human selection were neither as prolific nor as durable as those produced by nature4 ,indeed1 the animals and plants celebrated as the noblest achievements of the breeder's art were especially liable to delicacy and infertility4 ,highly bred strains1 long isolated from others of their species to preserve their genealogical purity1 far from serving as a springboard for further variation1 often had to be revivified with infusions of less-rarefied blood4 ,yet any relaxation of reproductive boundaries threatened subsidence into the common run of conspecifics4 ,darwin firmly connected ,variation to the ,origin by devoting its introduction to an overview of his theory of evolution by natural selection4 ,in particular1 the two volumes of ,variation1 cumbersomely organized and packed with zoological and botanical detail1 addressed some of the difficulties inherent in the attractive but paradoxical analogy between natural selection and artificial selection4 ,for selection of any sort to operate1 diversity already had to exist4 ,with wild populations living under natural conditions1 however1 diversity was difficult to discern4 ,it was widely believed that a heightened propensity to vary 7at least in ways obvious to human observers7 was one of the few general characteristics that differentiated domestic animals as a group from their wild relatives4 ,this point was conventionally illustrated with reference to coat color and design4 ,american bison1 for example1 were1 on the whole1 brown1 and all ,burchell's zebras shared similar black and white stripes4 ,a single herd of either ,bos tauras or ,equus caballus 7domestic cattle or horses71 on the other hand1 could display colors ranging from white through yellow1 red1 and brown to black1 as well as a variety of spotted and blotched patterns4 ,in order to demonstrate that such populations spontaneously produced sufficient variation to support artificial selection1 ,darwin devoted most of the first volume of ,variation to a species-by-species survey of domesticated plants and animals4 ,he began with the dog1 the breeds of which differed so greatly in size1 shape1 disposition1 talents1 and every other characteristic that ,darwin attributed its exemplary plasticity to its derivation from several different species of wild canines4 ,domestic cats1 on the other hand1 differed relatively little from one another1 at least1 their variation tended to be individual1 rather than consolidated into breeds4 ,darwin attributed this to the minimal influence exerted by cat owners over the mating behavior of their animals1 so that1 alone among fully domesticated animals1 cats could not be said to have undergone a genuine process of artificial selection4 ,farmyard ungulates1 however1 had all proved more susceptible to human manipulation1 whether through the gradual enhancement of inherent tendencies1 such as the relatively early maturation that distinguished shorthorn cattle1 or through the preservation of spontaneously arising monstrosities1 such as the short1 broad foreheads and protruding lower jaws of the niata cattle of ,south ,america1 the bulldogs of the bovine world4 ,among animals1 fancy pigeons1 with their short generations1 devoted breeders1 and lack of any pragmatic constraints on their extravagant deformations1 provided ,darwin with his most abundant material4 ,he allotted less space to his survey of domesticated plants1 although1 with the exception of trees1 they tended to he much shorter lived and more variable even than pigeons4 ,for example1 as ,darwin pointed out1 a single long-cultivated species--,brassica oleracea1 the ordinary cabbage--had given rise to strains as distinctive as ,brussels sprouts1 cauliflower1 broccoli1 and kohl-rabi4 ,darwin crammed in so much information of this sort that1 in order to confine ,variation to two volumes of manageable size1 less crucial evidence was relegated to a smaller typeface4 ,and so compendious was his survey of domesticates that he felt constrained to deny that it was intended to he an exhaustive catalog4 ,after all1 many such catalogs1 devoted merely to the accumulation of species- or breed-specific data1 existed already2 ,darwin cited them generously in his footnotes4 ,the material included in ,variation had been chosen to fulfill a more focused argumentative purpose4 ,darwin's theory of descent with modification required something further than the simple demonstration that abundant variation existed among domesticated animals and plants4 ,the accumulated experience of naturalists and breeders offered no clear explanation of the causes of variation2 indeed1 no consensus existed on this issue4 ,variation under domestication was frequently attributed to accidental external influences1 especially climate and food4 ,but environmentally induced variation was not of much use to ,darwin4 ,instead1 he sought evidence not only that the tendency to vary was inherent in domesticated animals and plants but also that specific variations were inherited4 ,as a result1 ,darwin's wealth of detail in ,variation disproportionately featured strong--as well as puzzling1 problematic1 or even questionable--versions of inheritance1 in addition to the unsurprising1 if still not completely understood1 likelihood that children would resemble their parents4 ,for example1 he devoted an entire chapter to what he termed 8atavism0 or 8reversion0--that is1 the tendency for offspring to manifest traits apparently derived from their grandparents1 collateral relations1 or even remote ancestors1 rather than from their mothers or their fathers4 ,the existence of this tendency in the lineages of individuals1 he argued1 incontrovertibly demonstrated the fact of heritability2 and in an extended or exaggerated version it also demonstrated evolutionary relations between species4 ,thus1 many breeds of domesticated chickens revealed their ultimate ancestry by producing occasional sports with the red and orange plumage of the original ,callus bankiva1 or jungle fowl4 ,like many other naturalists of his time1 ,darwin was receptive to the idea of telegony1 also known as 8the influence of the previous sire40 ,he retailed the famous story of ,lord ,morton's mare1 a chestnut of seven-eighths ,arabian blood1 whose first foal had been sired by a quagga 7a now-extinct relative of the zebra7 her owner was attempting to domesticate4 ,it was not surprising that the young hybrid faintly echoed his father's stripes1 but the fact that her next two foals1 both sired by a black ,arabian horse1 also seemed to resemble the quagga in this regard1 was more remarkable4 ,darwin pointed out that atavism offered one possible explanation of this phenomenon--infant horses and donkeys often showed evanescent striping1 which might indicate the pattern of their ancient shared progenitor--but he was also drawn to the notion that the first male to impregnate a female left some permanent1 heritable trace of himself behind4 ,he offered analogous examples from the vegetable kingdom1 where the pollen of related varieties of apples1 corn1 or orchids1 could not only produce hybrid offspring but occasionally also physically alter the reproductive tract of the female4 ,plants also1 and more regularly1 demonstrated a kind of variability that could arise independently of sexual reproduction1 such as 8bud variation10 whereby what ,darwin called a 8monstrosity0 might appear on a single branch or flower and then be transmitted1 sexually or asexually1 to future generations4 ,as he documented the profusion of variation among domesticated animals and plants1 and the tendency of organisms to transmit these variations down the generations1 ,darwin did more than demonstrate that there was ample grist for the mill of natural selection4 ,he also addressed the most serious weakness in the argument of the ,origin4 ,despite the incompleteness of the fossil record1 plenty of evidence suggested that evolution had taken place2 indeed the idea of evolution had been current in one form or another for a century before #ahei4 ,darwin's explanation of the way that natural selection should operate was also widely persuasive4 ,the competitive metaphors with which he characterized it1 especially the 8struggle for life0 prominently featured in the ,origin's subtitle1 fit well with ,victorian understandings about how things worked in the human arenas of industry1 commerce1 and geopolitics4 ,there was1 however1 a problem that troubled those inclined to sympathize with ,darwin's reasoning as well as those inclined to reject it4 ,the efficacy of natural selection1 like that of artificial selection1 depended on the inheritance of particular traits4 ,but before the modern understanding of genetics became available1 no satisfactory mechanism had been adduced to explain this phenomenon4 ,no consensus yet existed about the way that sexual reproduction worked1 so there was also disagreement about which characteristics were inherited and which were the result of environment1 and what could he contributed by the male as opposed to the female parent1 let alone why offspring sometimes resembled a grandparent or some more distant relative rather than their parents4 ,the special difficulty of accounting for the sudden emergence of monstrosities1 or even less dramatically novel traits1 led ,darwin1 in later editions of the ,origin as well as in ,variation1 to become increasingly receptive to the notion that characteristics acquired by one generation might he inherited by the next4 ,in the penultimate chapter of ,variation1 ,darwin attempted to strengthen the weak link in his chain of argument by proposing a mechanism for inheritance4 ,he called his theory 8pangenesis10 and he claimed that it explained not only ordinary inheritance--the influence of parents on their children--but also reversion1 telegony1 the regeneration of amputated limbs in some kinds of animals1 the inheritance of acquired characteristics1 and the relationship between sexual and asexual modes of reproduction and inheritance4 ,the operation of pangenesis depended on the posited existence of unobservable units that ,darwin called 8gemmules10 tiny granules that were thrown off by individual cells and then circulated through the body4 ,they had1 however1 an affinity for each other1 which led to their aggregation in the reproductive organs or in parthenogenetic buds4 ,they could remain latent for years1 until an organism reached a certain stage of development1 or for generations1 until they encountered other gemmules to which they bore some special relationship4 ,in this way a long-dormant greatgrandparental gemmule might suddenly manifest itself in a child4 ,since gemmules could he altered by environmental influences1 they could convert acquired characteristics into the stuff of heredity4 ,and since they were vulnerable to error1 they could occasionally make mistakes1 causing organs1 such as limbs or tails or even heads1 to develop in inappropriate numbers or in the wrong places4 ,it has doubtless been fortunate for ,darwin's reputation that his theory of pangenesis is not as well remembered as his theory of evolution by natural selection4 ,as vague in detail as it was ambitious and comprehensive in scope1 it was unpersuasive at the time and has since been proven completely wrong4 ,but like ,variation as a whole1 which similarly illustrated the limitations of its author as well as his strengths1 pangenesis does not therefore lack interest or significance4 ,despite recent excellent and well-appreciated studies of his entire life and extended oeuvre 7,janet ,browne1 ,charles ,darwin3 ,voyaging ,new ,york3 ,knopf1 #aiie and ,adrian ,desmond and ,james ,moore1 ,darwin ,london3 ,michael ,joseph1 #aiia1 ,darwin is known primarily as the author of the ,origin1 which is unrepresentative in its economy of structure1 argument1 and evidence1 as well as on account of its historical notoriety4 ,its enforced streamlining has helped to preserve the ,origin's accessibility1 but its relative paucity of examples was particularly uncharacteristic of ,darwin4 ,variation1 with its accumulation of evidence about everything from the webbing between dogs' toes to the weight of gooseberries1 was much more typical2 in addition1 it placed ,darwin firmly--indeed1 irretrievably--within his time1 rather than in an achronological limbo reserved for intellectual heroes4 ,as a graduate student from the ,people's ,republic of ,china told me several years ago1 after having participated in a seminar that read excerpts from ,variation and ,the ,expression of the ,emotions1 if the leaders of his government knew that ,darwin had written such books1 he would not be officially admired4 ,in science as in politics the victors tend to write the history books4 ,as a result1 the record of the past is edited1 intentionally or unintentionally1 so that it focuses mainly on the precursors of contemporary orthodoxy4 ,such a focus may accurately represent the genealogy of modem ideas1 but it almost inevitably misrepresents the historical experience of their progenitors4 ,viewed without the benefit of hindsight1 the marketplace of ,victorian ideas seemed much more competitive than it does to us4 ,even the powerful1 persuasive1 and ultimately triumphant theory of evolution by natural selection required not only defense1 but repeated buttressing and revision4 ,variation showed ,darwin hard at work on this rearguard action1 using the materials he had at hand--for the most part1 homely details about the domesticated animals and plants with which his audience was most familiar4 ,his information was gleaned from the observations of fanciers1 breeders1 and amateur naturalists1 as well as from the treatises of those on the cutting edge of zoology and botany4 ,as hindsight narrows the historical spotlight1 it imposes its own sense of hierarchy on the preoccupations of the past4 ,but ,darwin was interested in all of these topics1 valued all of these sources1 and belonged1 to a greater or lesser extent1 to all of these communities4 ,the author of ,variation was a ,victorian country gentleman1 a lover of dogs and horses1 a breeder of pigeons and peas4 ,he was also1 and equally1 the author of ,on the ,origin of ,species4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition ,during the seven years which have elapsed since the publication in #ahfh of the first edition of this ,work1 ,i have continued to attend to the same subjects1 as far as lay in my power2 and ,i have thus accumulated a large body of additional facts1 chiefly through the kindness of many correspondents4 ,of these facts ,i have been able here to use only those which seemed to me the more important4 ,i have omitted some statements1 and corrected some errors1 the discovery of which ,i owe to my reviewers4 ,many additional references have been given4 ,the eleventh chapter1 and that on ,pangenesis1 are those which have been most altered1 parts having been remodelled2 but ,i will give a list of the more important alterations for the sake of those who may possess the first edition of this book4 ,,table ,,of ,,principal ,,additions ,,and ,,corrections ,,in ,,second ,,edition ,first ,edition ,vol4 ,i ,second ,edition ,vol4 ,i ,first ,edition ,vol4 ,i ,second ,edition ,vol4 ,i ,page ,chapter #cd ,i ,dr4 ,burt ,wilder's observations on the brains of different breeds of the ,dog4 #ch ,i ,degeneracy of ,dogs imported into ,guinea4 #ea ,,ii ,difference in the number of lumbar vertebr in the races or species of the ,horse4 #ajb ,,iii ,hairy appendages to the throats of ,goats4 #afb ,v ,sexual differences in colour in the domestic ,pigeon4 #bag ,,vi ,movements like those of the ,tumbler-pigeon1 caused by injury to the brain4 #bij ,,viii ,additional facts with respect to the ,black-shouldered ,peacock4 #bif ,,viii ,ancient selection of ,gold-fish in ,china4 #cad ,,ix ,major ,hallett's #8,pedigree ,wheat4' #cbf ,,ix ,the common radish descended from ,raphanus raphanistrum4 #cgd ,,xi ,several additional cases of bud-variation given4 #cif ,,xi ,an abstract of all the cases recently published of graft-hybrids in the potato1 together with a general summary on graft-hybridisation4 #cii ,,xi ,an erroneous statement with respect to the pollen of the date-palm affecting the fruit of the ,chamrops omitted4 #djj ,,xi ,new cases of the direct action of pollen on the mother-plant4 #djd ,,xi ,additional and remarkable instances of the actions of the male parent on the future progeny of the female4 ,vol4,,ii #ad ,,xii ,an erroneous statement corrected1 with respect to the regrowth of supernumerary digits after amputation4 #bc ,,xii ,additional facts with respect to the inherited effects of circumcision4 #bc ,,xii ,dr4 ,brown-,squard on the inherited effects of operations on the ,guinea-pig4 #bd ,,xii ,other cases of inherited mutilations4 ,vol4 ,,ii #dc ,,xiii ,an additional case of reversion due to a cross4 #gb ,,xiv ,inheritance as limited by sex4 #aje ,,xvi ,two varieties of maize which cannot be crossed4 #abj ,,xvii ,some additional facts on the advantages of cross-breeding in animals4 #abc ,,xvii ,discussion on the effects of the close interbreeding in the case of man4 #ace to #ada ,,xvii ,additional cases of plants sterile with pollen from the same plant4 #adi ,,xviii ,mr4 ,sclater on the infertility of animals under confinement4 #aeb ,,xviii ,the ,aperea a distinct species from the ,guinea-pig4 #bcj ,,xxi ,prof4 ,jger on hawks killing light-coloured pigeons4 #bgc ,,xxiii ,prof4 ,wisemann on the effects of isolation in the development of species4 #bha ,,xxiii ,the direct action of the conditions of life in causing variation4 #cag ,,xxiv ,mr4 ,romanes on rudimentary parts4 #cbd to #cbh ,,xxv ,some additional cases of correlated variability4 #cci ,,xxvi ,on ,geoffrey ,st4 ,hilaire's law of 8soi pour soi40 #ceg to #djd ,,xxvii ,the chapter on ,pangenesis has been largely altered and re-modelled2 but the essential principles remain the same4 ,,introduction ,the object of this work is not to describe all the many races of animals which have been domesticated by man1 and of the plants which have been cultivated by him2 even if ,i possessed the requisite knowledge1 so gigantic an undertaking would be here superfluous4 ,it is my intention to give under the head of each species only such facts as ,i have been able to collect or observe1 showing the amount and nature of the changes which animals and plants have undergone whilst under man's dominion1 or which bear on the general principles of variation4 ,in one case alone1 namely in that of the domestic pigeon1 ,i will describe fully all the chief races1 their history1 the amount and nature of their differences1 and the probable steps by which they have been formed4 ,i have selected this case1 because1 as we shall hereafter see1 the materials are better than in any other2 and one case fully described will in fact illustrate all others4 ,but ,i shall also describe domesticated rabbits1 fowls1 and ducks1 with considerable fulness4 ,the subjects discussed in this volume are so connected that it is not a little difficult to decide how they can be best arranged4 ,i have determined in the first part to give1 under the heads of the various animals and plants1 a large body of facts1 some of which may at first appear but little related to our subject1 and to devote the latter part to general discussions4 ,whenever ,i have found it necessary to give numerous details1 in support of any proposition or conclusion1 small type has been used4 ,the reader will1 ,i think1 find this plan a convenience1 for1 if he does not doubt the conclusion or care about the details1 he can easily pass them over2 yet ,i may be permitted to say that some of the discussions thus printed deserve attention1 at least from the professed naturalist4 ,it may be useful to those who have read nothing about ,natural ,selection1 if ,i here give a brief sketch of the whole subject and of its bearing on the origin of species4#a ,this is the more desirable1 as it is impossible in the present work to avoid many allusions to questions which will be fully discussed in future volumes4 ,from a remote period1 in all parts of the world1 man has subjected many animals and plants to domestication or culture4 ,man has no power of altering the absolute conditions of life2 he cannot change the climate of any country2 he adds no new element to the soil2 but he can remove an animal or plant from one climate or soil to another1 and give it food on which it did not subsist in its natural state4 ,it is an error to speak of man 8tampering with nature0 and causing variability4 ,if a man drops a piece of iron into sulphuric acid1 it cannot be said strictly that he makes the sulphate of iron1 he only allows their elective affinities to come into play4 ,if organic beings had not possessed an inherent tendency to vary1 man could have done nothing4#b ,he unintentionally exposes his animals and plants to various conditions of life1 and variability supervenes1 which he cannot even prevent or check4 ,consider the simple case of a plant which has been cultivated during a long time in its native country1 and which consequently has not been subjected to any change of climate4 ,it has been protected to a certain extent from the competing roots of plants of other kinds2 it has generally been grown in manured soil2 but probably not richer than that of many an alluvial flat2 and lastly1 it has been exposed to changes in its conditions1 being grown sometimes in one district and sometimes in another1 in different soils4 ,under such circumstances1 scarcely a plant can be named1 though cultivated in the rudest manner1 which has not given birth to several varieties4 ,it can hardly be maintained that during the many changes which this earth has undergone1 and during the natural migrations of plants from one land or island to another1 tenanted by different species1 that such plants will not often have been subjected to changes in their conditions analogous to those which almost inevitably cause cultivated plants to vary4 ,no doubt man selects varying individuals1 sows their seeds1 and again selects their varying offspring4 ,but the initial variation on which man works1 and without which he can do nothing1 is caused by slight changes in the conditions of life1 which must often have occurred under nature4 ,man1 therefore1 may be said to have been trying an experiment on a gigantic scale2 and it is an experiment which nature during the long lapse of time has incessantly tried4 ,hence it follows that the principles of domestication are important for us4 ,the main result is that organic beings thus treated have varied largely1 and the variations have been inherited4 ,this has apparently been one chief cause of the belief long held by some few naturalists that species in a state of nature undergo change4 ,i shall in this volume treat1 as fully as my materials permit1 the whole subject of variation under domestication4 ,we may thus hope to obtain some light1 little though it be1 on the causes of variability1--on the laws which govern it1 such as the direct action of climate and food1 the effects of use and disuse1 and of correlation of growth1--and on the amount of change to which domesticated organisms are liable4 ,we shall learn something of the laws of inheritance1 of the effects of crossing different breeds1 and on that sterility which often supervenes when organic beings are removed from their natural conditions of life1 and likewise when they are too closely interbred4 ,during this investigation we shall see that the principle of ,selection is highly important4 ,although man does not cause variability and cannot even prevent it1 he can select1 preserve1 and accumulate the variations given to him by the hand of nature almost in any way which he chooses2 and thus he can certainly produce a great result4 ,selection may be followed either methodically and intentionally1 or unconsciously and unintentionally4 ,man may select and preserve each successive variation1 with the distinct intention of improving and altering a breed1 in accordance with a preconceived idea2 and by thus adding up variations1 often so slight as to be imperceptible by an uneducated eye1 he has effected wonderful changes and improvements4 ,it can1 also1 be clearly shown that man1 without any intention or thought of improving the breed1 by preserving in each successive generation the individuals which he prizes most1 and by destroying the worthless individuals1 slowly1 though surely1 induces great changes4 ,as the will of man thus comes into play1 we can understand how it is that domesticated breeds show adaptation to his wants and pleasures4 ,we can further understand how it is that domestic races of animals and cultivated races of plants often exhibit an abnormal character1 as compared with natural species2 for they have been modified not for their own benefit1 but for that of man4 ,in another work ,i shall discuss1 if time and health permit1 the variability of organic beings in a state of nature2 namely1 the individual differences presented by animals and plants1 and those slightly greater and generally inherited differences which are ranked by naturalists as varieties or geographical races4 ,we shall see how difficult1 or rather how impossible it often is1 to distinguish between races and sub-species1 as the less well-marked forms have sometimes been denominated2 and again between sub-species and true species4 ,i shall further attempt to show that it is the common and widely ranging1 or1 as they may be called1 the dominant species1 which most frequently vary2 and that it is the large and flourishing genera which include the greatest number of varying species4 ,varieties1 as we shall see1 may justly be called incipient species4 ,but it may be urged1 granting that organic beings in a state of nature present some varieties1--that their organisation is in some slight degree plastic2 granting that many animals and plants have varied greatly under domestication1 and that man by his power of selection has gone on accumulating such variations until he has made strongly marked and firmly inherited races2 granting all this1 how1 it may be asked1 have species arisen in a state of nature8 ,the differences between natural varieties are slight2 whereas the differences are considerable between the species of the same genus1 and great between the species of distinct genera4 ,how do these lesser differences become augmented into the greater difference8 ,how do varieties1 or as ,i have called them incipient species1 become converted into true and well-defined species8 ,how has each new species been adapted to the surrounding physical conditions1 and to the other forms of life on which it in any way depends8 ,we see on every side of us innumerable adaptations and contrivances1 which have justly excited the highest admiration of every observer4 ,there is1 for instance1 a fly 7,cecidomyia7#c which deposits its eggs within the stamens of a ,scrophularia1 and secretes a poison which produces a gall1 on which the larva feeds2 but there is another insect 7,misocampus7 which deposits its eggs within the body of the larva within the gall1 and is thus nourished by its living prey2 so that here a hymenopterous insect depends on a dipterous insect1 and this depends on its power of producing a monstrous growth in a particular organ of a particular plant4 ,so it is1 in a more or less plainly marked manner1 in thousands and tens of thousands of cases1 with the lowest as well as with the highest productions of nature4 ,this problem of the conversion of varieties into species1--that is1 the augmentation of the slight differences characteristic of varieties into the greater differences characteristic of species and genera1 including the admirable adaptations of each being to its complex organic and inorganic conditions of life1--has been briefly treated in my #8,origin of ,species4' ,it was there shown that all organic beings1 without exception1 tend to increase at so high a ratio1 that no district1 no station1 not even the whole surface of the land or the whole ocean1 would hold the progeny of a single pair after a certain number of generations4 ,the inevitable result is an ever-recurrent ,struggle for ,existence4 ,it has truly been said that all nature is at war2 the strongest ultimately prevail1 the weakest fail2 and we well know that myriads of forms have disappeared from the face of the earth4 ,if then organic beings in a state of nature vary even in a slight degree1 owing to changes in the surrounding conditions1 of which we have abundant geological evidence1 or from any other cause2 if1 in the long course of ages1 inheritable variations ever arise in any way advantageous to any being under its excessively complex and changing relations of life2 and it would be a strange fact if beneficial variations did never arise1 seeing how many have arisen which man has taken advantage of for his own profit or pleasure2 if then these contingencies ever occur1 and ,i do not see how the probability of their occurrence can be doubted1 then the severe and often-recurrent struggle for existence will determine that those variations1 however slight1 which are favourable shall be preserved or selected1 and those which are unfavourable shall be destroyed4 ,this preservation1 during the battle for life1 of varieties which possess any advantage in structure1 constitution1 or instinct1 ,i have called ,natural ,selection2 and ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer has well expressed the same idea by the ,survival of the ,fittest4 ,the term 8natural selection0 is in some respects a bad one1 as it seems to imply conscious choice2 but this will be disregarded after a little familiarity4 ,no one objects to chemists speaking of 8elective affinity20 and certainly an acid has no more choice in combining with a base1 than the conditions of life have in determining whether or not a new form be selected or preserved4 ,the term is so far a good one as it brings into connection the production of domestic races by man's power of selection1 and the natural preservation of varieties and species in a state of nature4 ,for brevity sake ,i sometimes speak of natural selection as an intelligent power2--in the same way as astronomers speak of the attraction of gravity as ruling the movements of the planets1 or as agriculturists speak of man making domestic races by his power of selection4 ,in the one case1 as in the other1 selection does nothing without variability1 and this depends in some manner on the action of the surrounding circumstances on the organism4 ,i have1 also1 often personified the word ,nature2 for ,i have found it difficult to avoid this ambiguity2 but ,i mean by nature only the aggregate action and product of many natural laws1--and by laws only the ascertained sequence of events4 ,it has been shown from many facts that the largest amount of life can be supported on each area1 by great diversification or divergence in the structure and constitution of its inhabitants4 ,we have1 also1 seen that the continued production of new forms through natural selection1 which implies that each new variety has some advantage over others1 inevitably leads to the extermination of the older and less improved forms4 ,these latter are almost necessarily intermediate in structure1 as well as in descent1 between the last-produced forms and their original parent-species4 ,now1 if we suppose a species to produce two or more varieties1 and these in the course of time to produce other varieties1 the principal of good being derived from diversification of structure will generally lead to the preservation of the most divergent varieties2 thus the lesser differences characteristic of varieties come to be augmented into the greater differences characteristic of species1 and1 by the extermination of the older intermediate forms1 new species end by being distinctly defined objects4 ,thus1 also1 we shall see how it is that organic beings can be classed by what is called a natural method in distinct groups--species under genera1 and genera under families4 ,as all the inhabitants of each country may be said1 owing to their high rate of reproduction1 to be striving to increase in numbers2 as each form comes into competition with many other forms in the struggle for life1--for destroy any one and its place will be seized by others2 as every part of the organisation occasionally varies in some slight degree1 and as natural selection acts exclusively by the preservation of variations which are advantageous under the excessively complex conditions to which each being is exposed1 no limit exists to the number1 singularity1 and perfection of the contrivances and co-adaptations which may thus be produced4 ,an animal or a plant may thus slowly become related in its structure and habits in the most intricate manner to many other animals and plants1 and to the physical conditions of its home4 ,variations in the organisation will in some cases be aided by habit1 or by the use and disuse of parts1 and they will be governed by the direct action of the surrounding physical conditions and by correlation of growth4 ,on the principles here briefly sketched out1 there is no innate or necessary tendency in each being to its own advancement in the scale of organisation4 ,we are almost compelled to look at the specialisation or differentiation of parts or organs for different functions as the best or even sole standard of advancement2 for by such division of labour each function of body and mind is better performed4 ,and as natural selection acts exclusively through the preservation of profitable modifications of structure1 and as the conditions of life in each area generally become more and more complex from the increasing number of different forms which inhabit it and from most of these forms acquiring a more and more perfect structure1 we may confidently believe1 that1 on the whole1 organisation advances4 ,nevertheless a very simple form fitted for very simple conditions of life might remain for indefinite ages unaltered or unimproved2 for what would it profit an infusorial animalcule1 for instance1 or an intestinal worm1 to become highly organised8 ,members of a high group might even become1 and this apparently has often occurred1 fitted for simpler conditions of life2 and in this case natural selection would tend to simplify or degrade the organisation1 for complicated mechanism for simple actions would be useless or even disadvantageous4 ,the arguments opposed to the theory of ,natural ,selection1 have been discussed in my #8,origin of ,species1' as far as the size of that work permitted1 under the following heads3 the difficulty in understanding how very simple organs have been converted by small and graduated steps into highly perfect and complex organs2 the marvellous facts of ,instinct2 the whole question of ,hybridity2 and1 lastly1 the absence in our known geological formations of innumerable links connecting all allied species4 ,although some of these difficulties are of great weight1 we shall see that many of them are explicable on the theory of natural selection1 and are otherwise inexplicable4 ,in scientific investigations it is permitted to invent any hypothesis1 and if it explains various large and independent classes of facts it rises to the rank of a well-grounded theory4 ,the undulations of the ether and even its existence are hypothetical1 yet every one now admits the undulatory theory of light4 ,the principle of natural selection may be looked at as a mere hypothesis1 but rendered in some degree probable by what we positively know of the variability of organic beings in a state of nature1--by what we positively know of the struggle for existence1 and the consequent almost inevitable preservation of favourable variations1--and from the analogical formation of domestic races4 ,now this hypothesis may be tested1--and this seems to me the only fair and legitimate manner of considering the whole question1--by trying whether it explains several large and independent classes of facts2 such as the geological succession of organic beings1 their distribution in past and present times1 and their mutual affinities and homologies4 ,if the principle of natural selection does explain these and other large bodies of facts1 it ought to be received4 ,on the ordinary view of each species having been independently created1 we gain no scientific explanation of any one of these facts4 ,we can only say that it has so pleased the ,creator to command that the past and present inhabitants of the world should appear in a certain order and in certain areas2 that ,he has impressed on them the most extraordinary resemblances1 and has classed them in groups subordinate to groups4 ,but by such statements we gain no new knowledge2 we do not connect together facts and laws2 we explain nothing4 ,it was the consideration of such large groups of facts as these which first led me to take up the present subject4 ,when ,i visited during the voyage of ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle1 the ,galapagos ,archipelago1 situated in the ,pacific ,ocean about #ejj miles from ,south ,america1 ,i found myself surrounded by peculiar species of birds1 reptiles1 and plants1 existing nowhere else in the world4 ,yet they nearly all bore an ,american stamp4 ,in the song of the mocking-thrush1 in the harsh cry of the carrion-hawk1 in the great candlestick-like opuntias1 ,i clearly perceived the neighbourhood of ,america1 though the islands were separated by so many miles of ocean from the mainland1 and differed much in their geological constitution and climate4 ,still more surprising was the fact that most of the inhabitants of each separate island in this small archipelago were specifically different1 though most closely related to each other4 ,the archipelago1 with its innumerable craters and bare streams of lava1 appeared to be of recent origin2 and thus ,i fancied myself brought near to the very act of creation4 ,i often asked myself how these many peculiar animals and plants had been produced3 the simplest answer seemed to be that the inhabitants of the several islands had descended from each other1 undergoing modification in the course of their descent2 and that all the inhabitants of the archipelago were descended from those of the nearest land1 namely ,america1 whence colonists would naturally have been derived4 ,but it long remained to me an inexplicable problem how the necessary degree of modification could have been effected1 and it would have thus remained for ever1 had ,i not studied domestic productions1 and thus acquired a just idea of the power of ,selection4 ,as soon as ,i had fully realised this idea1 ,i saw1 on reading ,malthus on ,population1 that ,natural ,selection was the inevitable result of the rapid increase of all organic beings2 for ,i was prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence by having long studied the habits of animals4 ,before visiting the ,galapagos ,i had collected many animals whilst travelling from north to south on both sides of ,america1 and everywhere1 under conditions of life as different as it is possible to conceive1 ,american forms were met with--species replacing species of the same peculiar genera4 ,thus it was when the ,cordilleras were ascended1 or the thick tropical forests penetrated1 or the fresh waters of ,america searched4 ,subsequently ,i visited other countries1 which in all their conditions of life were incomparably more like parts of ,south ,america1 than the different parts of that continent are to each other2 yet in these countries1 as in ,australia or ,southern ,africa1 the traveller cannot fail to be struck with the entire difference of their productions4 ,again the reflection was forced on me that community of descent from the early inhabitants of ,south ,america would alone explain the wide prevalence of ,american types throughout that immense area4 ,to exhume with one's own hands the bones of extinct and gigantic quadrupeds brings the whole question of the succession of species vividly before one's mind2 and ,i found in ,south ,america great pieces of tesselated armour exactly like1 but on a magnificent scale1 that covering the pigmy armadillo2 ,i had found great teeth like those of the living sloth1 and bones like those of the cavy4 ,an analogous succession of allied forms had been previously observed in ,australia4 ,here then we see the prevalence1 as if by descent1 in time as in space1 of the same types in the same areas2 and in neither the case does the similarity of the conditions by any means seem sufficient to account for the similarity of the forms of life4 ,it is notorious that the fossil remains of closely consecutive formations are closely allied in structure1 and we can at once understand the fact if they are closely allied by descent4 ,the succession of the many distinct species of the same genus throughout the long series of geological formations seems to have been unbroken or continuous4 ,new species come in gradually one by one4 ,ancient and extinct forms of life are often intermediate in character1 like the words of a dead language with respect to its several offshoots or living tongues4 ,all these facts seemed to me to point to descent with modification as the means of production of new species4 ,the innumerable past and present inhabitants of the world are connected together by the most singular and complex affinities1 and can be classed in groups under groups1 in the same manner as varieties can be classed under species and sub-varieties under varieties1 but with much higher grades of difference4 ,these complex affinities and the rules for classification1 receive a rational explanation on the theory of descent1 combined with the principle of natural selection1 which entails divergence of character and the extinction of intermediate forms4 ,how inexplicable is the similar pattern of the hand of a man1 the foot of a dog1 the wing of a bat1 the flipper of a seal1 on the doctrine of independent acts of creation6 how simply explained on the principle of the natural selection of successive slight variations in the diverging descendants from a single progenitor6 ,so it is with certain parts or organs in the same individual animal or plant1 for instance1 the jaws and legs of a crab1 or the petals1 stamens1 and pistils of a flower4 ,during the many changes to which in the course of time organic beings have been subjected1 certain organs or parts have occasionally become at first of little use and ultimately superfluous2 and the retention of such parts in a rudimentary and useless condition is intelligible on the theory of descent4 ,it can be shown that modifications of structure are generally inherited by the offspring at the same age at which each successive variation appeared in the parents2 it can further be shown that variations do not commonly supervene at a very early period of embryonic growth1 and on these two principles we can understand that most wonderful fact in the whole circuit of natural history1 namely1 the close similarity of the embryos within the same great class--for instance1 those of mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 and fish4 ,it is the consideration and explanation of such facts as these which has convinced me that the theory of descent with modification by means of natural selection is in the main true4 ,these facts have as yet received no explanation on the theory of independent ,creation2 they cannot be grouped together under one point of view1 but each has to be considered as an ultimate fact4 ,as the first origin of life on this earth1 as well as the continued life of each individual1 is at present quite beyond the scope of science1 ,i do not wish to lay much stress on the greater simplicity of the view of a few forms or of only one form having been originally created1 instead of innumerable miraculous creations having been necessary at innumerable periods2 though this more simple view accords well with ,maupertuis's philosophical axiom of 8least action40 ,in considering how far the theory of natural selection may be extended1 --that is1 in determining from how many progenitors the inhabitants of the world have descended1--we may conclude that at least all the members of the same class have descended from a single ancestor4 ,a number of organic beings are included in the same class1 because they present1 independently of their habits of life1 the same fundamental type of structure1 and because they graduate into each other4 ,moreover1 members of the same class can in most cases be shown to be closely alike at an early embryonic age4 ,these facts can be explained on the belief of their descent from a common form2 therefore it may be safely admitted that all the members of the same class are descended from one progenitor4 ,but as the members of quite distinct classes have something in common in structure and much in common in constitution1 analogy would lead us one step further1 and to infer as probable that all living creatures are descended from a single prototype4 ,i hope that the reader will pause before coming to any final and hostile conclusion on the theory of natural selection4 ,the reader may consult my #8,origin of ,species' for a general sketch of the whole subject2 but in that work he has to take many statements on trust4 ,in considering the theory of natural selection1 he will assuredly meet with weighty difficulties1 but these difficulties relate chiefly to subjects--such as the degree of perfection of the geological record1 the means of distribution1 the possibility of transitions in organs1 etc4--on which we are confessedly ignorant2 nor do we know how ignorant we are4 ,if we are much more ignorant than is generally supposed1 most of these difficulties wholly disappear4 ,let the reader reflect on the difficulty of looking at whole classes of facts from a new point of view4 ,let him observe how slowly1 but surely1 the noble views of ,lyell on the gradual changes now in progress on the earth's surface have been accepted as sufficient to account for all that we see in its past history4 ,the present action of natural selection may seem more or less probable2 but ,i believe in the truth of the theory1 because it collects1 under one point of view1 and gives a rational explanation of1 many apparently independent classes of facts4#d ,,references #a ,to any one who has attentively read my #8,origin of ,species' this ,introduction will be superfluous4 ,as ,i stated in that work that ,i should soon publish the facts on which the conclusions given in it were founded1 ,i here beg permission to remark that the great delay in publishing this first work has been caused by continued ill-health4 #b ,m4 ,pouchet has recently 7#8,plurality of ,races1' ,eng4 ,translat41 #ahfd1 p4 #hc1 etc47 insisted that variation under domestication throws no light on the natural modification of species4 ,i cannot perceive the force of his arguments1 or1 to speak more accurately1 of his assertions to this effect4 #c ,lon ,dufour in #8,annales des ,science4 ,nat4' 7#crd series1 ,zoolog471 tom4 v4 p4 #f4 #d ,in treating the several subjects included in the present and my other works ,i have continually been led to ask for information from many zoologists1 botanists1 geologists1 breeders of animals1 and horticulturists1 and ,i have invariably received from them the most generous assistance4 ,without such aid ,i could have effected little4 ,i have repeatedly applied for information and specimens to foreigners1 and to ,british merchants and officers of the ,government residing in distant lands1 and1 with the rarest exceptions1 ,i have received prompt1 open-handed1 and valuable assistance4 ,i cannot express too strongly my obligations to the many persons who have assisted me1 and who1 ,i am convinced1 would be equally willing to assist others in any scientific investigation4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,domestic ,,dogs ,,and ,,cats4 ,,ancient ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,dog--,,resemblance ,,of ,,domestic ,,dogs ,,in ,,various ,,countries ,,to ,,native ,,canine ,,species--,,animals ,,not ,,acquainted ,,with ,,man ,,at ,,first ,,fearless--,,dogs ,,resembling ,,wolves ,,and ,,jackals--,,habit ,,of ,,barking ,,acquired ,,and ,,lost--,,feral ,,dogs--,,tan-,,coloured ,,eye-,,spots--,,period ,,of ,,gestation--,,offensive ,,odour--,,fertility ,,of ,,the ,,races ,,when ,,crossed--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,races ,,in ,,part ,,due ,,to ,,descent ,,from ,,distinct ,,species--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,teeth--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,body1 ,,in ,,constitution--,,few ,,important ,,differences ,,have ,,been ,,fixed ,,by ,,selection--,,direct ,,action ,,of ,,climate--,,water-,,dogs ,,with ,,palmated ,,feet--,,history ,,of ,,the ,,changes ,,which ,,certain ,,english ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,dog ,,have ,,gradually ,,undergone ,,through ,,selection--,,extinction ,,of ,,the ,,less ,,improved ,,sub-,,breeds4 ,,cats1 ,,crossed ,,with ,,several ,,species--,,different ,,breeds ,,found ,,only ,,in ,,separated ,,countries--,,direct ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,feral ,,cats--,,individual ,,variability4 ,the first and chief point of interest in this chapter is1 whether the numerous domesticated varieties of the dog have descended from a single wild species1 or from several4 ,some authors believe that all have descended from the wolf1 or from the jackal1 or from an unknown and extinct species4 ,others again believe1 and this of late has been the favourite tenet1 that they have descended from several species1 extinct and recent1 more or less commingled together4 ,we shall probably never be able to ascertain their origin with certainty4 ,palontology#a does not throw much light on the question1 owing1 on the one hand1 to the close similarity of the skulls of extinct as well as living wolves and jackals1 and owing1 on the other hand1 to the great dissimilarity of the skulls of the several breeds of the domestic dogs4 ,it seems1 however1 that remains have been found in the later tertiary deposits more like those of a large dog than of a wolf1 which favours the belief of ,de ,blainville that our dogs are the descendants of a single extinct species4 ,on the other hand1 some authors go so far as to assert that every chief domestic breed must have had its wild prototype4 ,this latter view is extremely improbable3 it allows nothing for variation2 it passes over the almost monstrous character of some of the breeds2 and it almost necessarily assumes that a large number of species have become extinct since man domesticated the dog2 whereas we plainly see that wild members of the dog-family are extirpated by human agency with much difficulty2 even so recently as #agaj the wolf existed in so small an island as ,ireland4 ,the reasons which have led various authors to infer that our dogs have descended from more than one wild species are as follows4#b ,firstly1 the great difference between the several breeds2 but this will appear of comparatively little weight1 after we shall have seen how great are the differences between the several races of various domesticated animals which certainly have descended from a single parent-form4 ,secondly1 the more important fact1 that1 at the most anciently known historical periods1 several breeds of the dog existed1 very unlike each other1 and closely resembling or identical with breeds still alive4 ,we will briefly run back through the historical records4 ,the materials are remarkably deficient between the fourteenth century and the ,roman classical period4#c ,at this latter period various breeds1 namely hounds1 house-dogs1 lapdogs1 etc1 existed2 but1 as ,dr4 ,walther has remarked1 it is impossible to recognise the greater number with any certainty4 ,youatt1 however1 gives a drawing of a beautiful sculpture of two greyhound puppies from the ,villa of ,antoninus4 ,on an ,assyrian monument1 about #fdj ,b4,c41 an enormous mastiff#d is figured2 and according to ,sir ,h4 ,rawlinson 7as ,i was informed at the ,british ,museum71 similar dogs are still imported into this same country4 ,i have looked through the magnificent works of ,lepsius and ,rosellini1 and on the ,egyptian monuments from the fourth to the twelfth dynasties 7i4e4 from about #cdjj ,b4,c4 to #bajj ,b4,c47 several varieties of the dog are represented2 most of them are allied to greyhounds2 at the later of these periods a dog resembling a hound is figured1 with drooping ears1 but with a longer back and more pointed head than in our hounds4 ,there is1 also1 a turnspit1 with short and crooked legs1 closely resembling the existing variety2 but this kind of monstrosity is so common with various animals1 as with the ancon sheep1 and even1 according to ,rengger1 with jaguars in ,paraguay1 that it would be rash to look at the monumental animal as the parent of all our turnspits3 ,colonel ,sykes#e also has described an ,indian pariah dog as presenting the same monstrous character4 ,the most ancient dog represented on the ,egyptian monuments is one of the most singular2 it resembles a greyhound1 but has long pointed ears and a short curled tail3 a closely allied variety still exists in ,northern ,africa2 for ,mr4 ,e4 ,vernon ,harcourt#f states that the ,arab boar-hound is 8an eccentric hieroglyphic animal1 such as ,cheops once hunted with1 somewhat resembling the rough ,scotch deer-hound2 their tails are curled tight round on their backs1 and their ears stick out at right angles40 ,with this most ancient variety a pariah-like dog coexisted4 ,we thus see that1 at a period between four and five thousand years ago1 various breeds1 viz4 pariah dogs1 greyhounds1 common hounds1 mastiffs1 house-dogs1 lapdogs1 and turnspits1 existed1 more or less closely resembling our present breeds4 ,but there is not sufficient evidence that any of these ancient dogs belonged to the same identical sub-varieties with our present dogs4#g ,as long as man was believed to have existed on this earth only about #fjjj years1 this fact of the great diversity of the breeds at so early a period was an argument of much weight that they had proceeded from several wild sources1 for there would not have been sufficient time for their divergence and modification4 ,but now that we know1 from the discovery of flint tools embedded with the remains of extinct animals in districts which have since undergone great geographical changes1 that man has existed for an incomparably longer period1 and bearing in mind that the most barbarous nations possess domestic dogs1 the argument from insufficient time falls away greatly in value4 ,long before the period of any historical record the dog was domesticated in ,europe4 ,in the ,danish ,middens of the ,neolithic or ,newer ,stone period1 bones of a canine animal are embedded1 and ,steenstrup ingeniously argues that these belonged to a domestic dog2 for a very large proportion of the bones of birds preserved in the refuse consists of long bones1 which it was found on trial dogs cannot devour4#h ,this ancient dog was succeeded in ,denmark during the ,bronze period by a larger kind1 presenting certain differences1 and this again during the ,iron period1 by a still larger kind4 ,in ,switzerland1 we hear from ,prof4 ,rtimeyer1#i that during the ,neolithic period a domesticated dog of middle size existed1 which in its skull was about equally remote from the wolf and jackal1 and partook of the characters of our hounds and setters or spaniels 7,jagdhund und ,wachtelhund74 ,rtimeyer insists strongly on the constancy of form during a very long period of time of this the most ancient known dog4 ,during the ,bronze period a larger dog appeared1 and this closely resembled in its jaw a dog of the same age in ,denmark4 ,remains of two notably distinct varieties of the dog were found by ,schmerling in a cave2#aj but their age cannot be positively determined4 ,the existence of a single race1 remarkably constant in form during the whole ,neolithic period1 is an interesting fact in contrast with what we see of the changes which the races underwent during the period of the successive ,egyptian monuments1 and in contrast with our existing dogs4 ,the character of this animal during the ,neolithic period1 as given by ,rtimeyer1 supports ,de ,blainville's view that our varieties have descended from an unknown and extinct form4 ,but we should not forget that we know nothing with respect to the antiquity of man in the warmer parts of the world4 ,the succession of the different kinds of dogs in ,switzerland and ,denmark is thought to be due to the immigration of conquering tribes bringing with them their dogs2 and this view accords with the belief that different wild canine animals were domesticated in different regions4 ,independently of the immigration of new races of man1 we know from the wide-spread presence of bronze1 composed of an alloy of tin1 how much commerce there must have been throughout ,europe at an extremely remote period1 and dogs would then probably have been bartered4 ,at the present time1 amongst the savages of the interior of ,guiana1 the ,taruma ,indians are considered the best trainers of dogs1 and possess a large breed which they barter at a high price with other tribes4#aa ,the main argument in favour of the several breeds of the dog being the descendants of distinct wild stocks1 is their resemblance in various countries to distinct species still existing there4 ,it must1 however1 be admitted that the comparison between the wild and domesticated animal has been made but in few cases with sufficient exactness4 ,before entering on details1 it will be well to show that there is no a priori difficulty in the belief that several canine species have been domesticated4 ,members of the dog family inhabit nearly the whole world2 and several species agree pretty closely in habits and structure with our several domesticated dogs4 ,mr4 ,galton has shown#ab how fond savages are of keeping and taming animals of all kinds4 ,social animals are the most easily subjugated by man1 and several species of ,canid hunt in packs4 ,it deserves notice1 as bearing on other animals as well as on the dog1 that at an extremely ancient period1 when man first entered any country1 the animals living there would have felt no instinctive or inherited fear of him1 and would consequently have been tamed far more easily than at present4 ,for instance1 when the ,falkland ,islands were first visited by man1 the large wolf-like dog 7,canis antarcticus7 fearlessly came to meet ,byron's sailors1 who1 mistaking this ignorant curiosity for ferocity1 ran into the water to avoid them3 even recently a man1 by holding a piece of meat in one hand and a knife in the other1 could sometimes stick them at night4 ,on a island in the ,sea of ,aral1 when first discovered by ,butakoff1 the saigak antelopes1 which are 8generally very timid and watchful1 did not fly from us1 but on the contrary looked at us with a sort of curiosity40 ,so1 again1 on the shores of the ,mauritius1 the manatee was not at first in the least afraid of man1 and thus it has been in several quarters of the world with seals and the morse4 ,i have elsewhere shown#ac how slowly the native birds of several islands have acquired and inherited a salutary dread of man3 at the ,galapagos ,archipelago ,i pushed with the muzzle of my gun hawks from a branch1 and held out a pitcher of water for other birds to alight on and drink4 ,quadrupeds and birds which have seldom been disturbed by man1 dread him no more than do our ,english birds1 the cows1 or horses grazing in the fields4 ,it is a more important consideration that several canine species evince 7as will be shown in a future chapter7 no strong repugnance or inability to breed under confinement2 and the incapacity to breed under confinement is one of the commonest bars to domestication4 ,lastly1 savages set the highest value1 as we shall see in the chapter on ,selection1 on dogs3 even half-tamed animals are highly useful to them3 the ,indians of ,north ,america cross their half-wild dogs with wolves1 and thus render them even wilder than before1 but bolder3 the savages of ,guiana catch and partially tame and use the whelps of two wild species of ,canis1 as do the savages of ,australia those of the wild ,dingo4 ,mr4 ,philip ,king informs me that he once trained a wild ,dingo puppy to drive cattle1 and found it very useful4 ,from these several considerations we see that there is no difficulty in believing that man might have domesticated various canine species in different countries4 ,it would indeed have been a strange fact if one species alone had been domesticated throughout the world4 ,we will now enter into details4 ,the accurate and sagacious ,richardson says1 8,the resemblance between the ,northern ,american wolves 7,canis lupus1 var4 occidentalis7 and the domestic dogs of the ,indians is so great that the size and strength of the wolf seems to be the only difference4 ,i have more than once mistaken a band of wolves for the dogs of a party of ,indians2 and the howl of the animals of both species is prolonged so exactly in the same key that even the practised ear of the ,indian fails at times to discriminate them40 ,he adds that the more northern ,esquimaux dogs are not only extremely like the grey wolves of the ,arctic circle in form and colour1 but also nearly equal them in size4 ,dr4 ,kane has often seen in his teams of sledge-dogs the oblique eye 7a character on which some naturalists lay great stress71 the drooping tail1 and scared look of the wolf4 ,in disposition the ,esquimaux dogs differ little from wolves1 and1 according to ,dr4 ,hayes1 they are capable of no attachment to man1 and are so savage that when hungry they will attack even their masters4 ,according to ,kane they readily become feral4 ,their affinity is so close with wolves that they frequently cross with them1 and the ,indians take the whelps of wolves 8to improve the breed of their dogs40 ,the half-bred wolves sometimes 7,lamare-,picquot7 cannot be tamed1 8though this case is rare20 but they do not become thoroughly well broken in till the second or third generation4 ,these facts show that there can be but little1 if any1 sterility between the ,esquimaux dog and the wolf1 for otherwise they would not be used to improve the breed4 ,as ,dr4 ,hayes says of these dogs1 8reclaimed wolves they doubtless are40#ad ,north ,america is inhabited by a second kind of wolf1 the prairie-wolf 7,canis latrans71 which is now looked at by all naturalists as specifically distinct from the common wolf2 and is1 according to ,mr4 ,j4,k4 ,lord1 in some respects intermediate in habits between a wolf and a fox4 ,sir ,j4 ,richardson1 after describing the ,hare ,indian dog1 which differs in many respects from the ,esquimaux dog1 says1 8,it bears the same relation to the prairie-wolf that the ,esquimaux dog does to the great grey wolf40 ,he could1 in fact1 detect no marked difference between them2 and ,messrs4 ,nott and ,gliddon give additional details showing their close resemblance4 ,the dogs derived from the above two aboriginal sources cross together and with the wild wolves1 at least with the ,c4 occidentalis1 and with ,european dogs4 ,in ,florida1 according to ,bartram1 the black wolf-dog of the ,indians differs in nothing from the wolves of that country except in barking4#ae ,turning to the southern parts of the new world1 ,columbus found two kinds of dogs in the ,west ,indies2 and ,fernandez#af describes three in ,mexico3 some of these native dogs were dumb--that is1 did not bark4 ,in ,guiana it has been known since the time of ,buffon that the natives cross their dogs with an aboriginal species1 apparently the ,canis cancrivorus4 ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 who has so carefully explored these regions1 writes to me1 8,i have been repeatedly told by the ,arawaak ,indians1 who reside near the coast1 that they cross their dogs with a wild species to improve the breed1 and individual dogs have been shown to me which certainly resembled the ,c4 cancrivorus much more than the common breed4 ,it is but seldom that the ,indians keep the ,c4 cancrivorus for domestic purposes1 nor is the ,ai1 another species of wild dog1 and which ,i consider to be identical with the ,dusicyon silvestris of ,h4 ,smith1 now much used by the ,arecunas for the purpose of hunting4 ,the dogs of the ,taruma ,indians are quite distinct1 and resemble ,buffon's ,st4 ,domingo greyhound40 ,it thus appears that the natives of ,guiana have partially domesticated two aboriginal species1 and still cross their dogs with them2 these two species belong to a quite different type from the ,north ,american and ,european wolves4 ,a careful observer1 ,rengger1#ag gives reasons for believing that a hairless dog was domesticated when ,america was first visited by ,europeans3 some of these dogs in ,paraguay are still dumb1 and ,tschudi#ah states that they suffer from cold in the ,cordillera4 ,this naked dog is1 however quite distinct from that found preserved in the ancient ,peruvian burial-places1 and described by ,tschudi1 under the name of ,canis ing1 as withstanding cold well and as barking4 ,it is not known whether these two distinct kinds of dog are the descendants of native species1 and it might be argued that when man first migrated into ,america he brought with him from the ,asiatic continent dogs which had not learned to bark2 but this view does not seem probable1 as the natives along the line of their march from the north reclaimed1 as we have seen1 at least two ,n4 ,american species of ,canid4 ,turning to the ,old ,world1 some ,european dogs closely resemble the wolf2 thus the shepherd dog of the plains of ,hungary is white or reddish-brown1 has a sharp nose1 short1 erect ears1 shaggy coat1 and bushy tail1 and so much resembles a wolf that ,mr4 p4t1 who gives this description1 says he has known a ,hungarian mistake a wolf for one of his own dogs4 ,jeitteles1 also1 remarks on the close similarity of the ,hungarian dog and wolf4 ,shepherd dogs in ,italy must anciently have closely resembled wolves1 for ,columella 7vii4 #ab7 advises that white dogs be kept1 adding1 8pastor album probat1 ne pro lupo canem feriat40 ,several accounts have been given of dogs and wolves crossing naturally2 and ,pliny asserts that the ,gauls tied their female dogs in the woods that they might cross with wolves4#ai ,the ,european wolf differs slightly from that of ,north ,america1 and has been ranked by many naturalists as a distinct species4 ,the common wolf of ,india is also by some esteemed as a third species1 and here again we find a marked resemblance between the pariah dogs of certain districts of ,india and the ,indian wolf4#bj ,with respect to ,jackals1 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire#ba says that not one constant difference can be pointed out between their structure and that of the smaller races of dogs4 ,they agree closely in habits3 jackals1 when tamed and called by their master1 wag their tails1 lick his hands1 crouch1 and throw themselves on their backs2 they smell at the tails of other dogs1 and void their urine sideways2 they roll on carrion or on animals which they have killed2 and1 lastly1 when in high spirits1 they run round in circles or in a figure of eight1 with their tails between their legs4#bb ,a number of excellent naturalists1 from the time of ,gldenstdt to that of ,ehrenberg1 ,hemprich1 and ,cretzschmar1 have expressed themselves in the strongest terms with respect to the resemblance of the half-domestic dogs of ,asia and ,egypt to jackals4 ,m4 ,nordmann1 for instance1 says1 8,les chiens d',awhasie ressemblent tonnamment des chacals40 ,ehrenberg#bc asserts that the domestic dogs of ,lower ,egypt1 and certain mummied dogs1 have for their wild type a species of wolf 7,c4 lupaster7 of the country2 whereas the domestic dogs of ,nubia and certain other mummied dogs have the closest relation to a wild species of the same country1 viz4 ,c4 sabbar1 which is only a form of the common jackal4 ,pallas asserts that jackals and dogs sometimes naturally cross in the ,east2 and a case is on record in ,algeria4#bd ,the greater number of naturalists divide the jackals of ,asia and ,africa into several species1 but some few rank them all as one4 ,i may add that the domestic dogs on the coast of ,guinea are fox-like animals1 and are dumb4#be ,on the east coast of ,africa1 between latitude #d and #f south1 and about ten days' journey in the interior1 a semi-domestic dog1 as the ,rev4 ,s4 ,erhardt informs me1 is kept1 which the natives assert is derived from a similar wild animal4 ,lichtenstein#bf says that the dogs of the ,bosjemans present a striking resemblance even in colour 7excepting the black stripe down the back7 with the ,c4 mesomelas of ,south ,africa4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,layard informs me that he has seen a ,caffre dog which closely resembled an ,esquimaux dog4 ,in ,australia the ,dingo is both domesticated and wild2 though this animal may have been introduced aboriginally by man1 yet it must be considered as almost an endemic form1 for its remains have been found in a similar state of preservation and associated with extinct mammals1 so that its introduction must have been ancient4#bg ,from this resemblance of the half-domesticated dogs in several countries to the wild species still living there1--from the facility with which they can often be crossed together1--from even half-tamed animals being so much valued by savages1--and from the other circumstances previously remarked on which favour their domestication1 it is highly probable that the domestic dogs of the world are descended from two well-defined species of wolf 7viz4 ,c4 lupus and ,c4 latrans71 and from two or three other doubtful species 7namely1 the ,european1 ,indian1 and ,north ,african wolves72 from at least one or two ,south ,american canine species2 from several races or species of jackal2 and perhaps from one or more extinct species4 ,although it is possible or even probable that domesticated dogs1 introduced into any country and bred there for many generations1 might acquire some of the characters proper to the aboriginal ,canid of the country1 we can hardly thus account for introduced dogs having given rise to two breeds in the same country1 resembling two of its aboriginal species1 as in the above-given cases of ,guiana and of ,north ,america4#bh ,it cannot be objected to the view of several canine species having been anciently domesticated1 that these animals are tamed with difficulty3 facts have been already given on this head1 but ,i may add that the young of the ,canis primvus of ,india were tamed by ,mr4 ,hodgson1#bi and became as sensible of caresses1 and manifested as much intelligence1 as any sporting dog of the same age4 ,there is not much difference1 as we have already shown and shall further see1 in habits between the domestic dogs of the ,north ,american ,indians and the wolves of that country1 or between the ,eastern pariah dogs and jackals1 or between the dogs which have run wild in various countries and the several natural species of the family4 ,the habit of barking1 however1 which is almost universal with domesticated dogs1 forms an exception1 as it does not characterise a single natural species of the family1 though ,i am assured that the ,canis latrans of ,north ,america utters a noise which closely approaches a bark4 ,but this habit is soon lost by dogs when they become feral and is soon reacquired when they are again domesticated4 ,the case of the wild dogs on the island of ,juan ,fernandez having become dumb has often been quoted1 and there is reason to believe#cj that the dumbness ensued in the course of thirty-three years2 on the other hand1 dogs taken from this island by ,ulloa slowly reacquired the habit of barking4 ,the ,mackenzie-river dogs1 of the ,canis latrans type1 when brought to ,england1 never learned to bark properly2 but one born in the ,zoological ,gardens#ca 8made his voice sound as loudly as any other dog of the same age and size40 ,according to ,professor ,nillson1#cb a wolf-whelp reared by a bitch barks4 ,i4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire exhibited a jackal which barked with the same tone as any common dog4#cc ,an interesting account has been given by ,mr4 ,g4 ,clarke#cd of some dogs run wild on ,juan de ,nova1 in the ,indian ,ocean2 8they had entirely lost the faculty of barking2 they had no inclination for the company of other dogs1 nor did they acquire their voice0 during a captivity of several months4 ,on the island they 8congregate in vast packs1 and catch sea-birds with as much address as foxes could display40 ,the feral dogs of ,la ,plata have not become dumb2 they are of large size1 hunt singly or in packs1 and burrow holes for their young4#ce ,in these habits the feral dogs of ,la ,plata resemble wolves and jackals2 both of which hunt either singly or in packs1 and burrow holes4#cf ,these feral dogs have not become uniform in colour on ,juan ,fernandez1 ,juan de ,nova1 or ,la ,plata4#cg ,in ,cuba the feral dogs are described by ,poeppig as nearly all mouse-coloured1 with short ears and light-blue eyes4 ,in ,st4 ,domingo1 ,col4 ,ham4 ,smith says#ch that the feral dogs are very large1 like greyhounds1 of a uniform pale blue-ash1 with small ears1 and large light-brown eyes4 ,even the wild ,dingo1 though so anciently naturalised in ,australia1 8varies considerably in colour10 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,p4,p4 ,king3 a half-bred ,dingo reared in ,england#ci showed signs of wishing to burrow4 ,from the several foregoing facts we see that reversion in the feral state gives no indication of the colour or size of the aboriginal parent-species4 ,one fact1 however1 with respect to the colouring of domestic dogs1 ,i at one time hoped might have thrown some light on their origin2 and it is worth giving1 as showing how colouring follows laws1 even in so anciently and thoroughly domesticated an animal as the dog4 ,black dogs with tan-coloured feet1 whatever breed they may belong to1 almost invariably have a tan-coloured spot on the upper and inner corners of each eye1 and their lips are generally thus coloured4 ,i have seen only two exceptions to this rule1 namely1 in a spaniel and terrier4 ,dogs of a light-brown colour often have a lighter1 yellowish-brown spot over the eyes2 sometimes the spot is white1 and in a mongrel terrier the spot was black4 ,mr4 ,waring kindly examined for me a stud of fifteen greyhounds in ,suffolk3 eleven of them were black1 or black and white1 or brindled1 and these had no eye-spots2 but three were red and one slaty-blue1 and these four had dark-coloured spots over their eyes4 ,although the spots thus sometimes differ in colour1 they strongly tend to be tan-coloured2 this is proved by my having seen four spaniels1 a setter1 two ,yorkshire shepherd dogs1 a large mongrel1 and some fox-hounds1 coloured black and white1 with not a trace of tan-colour1 excepting the spots over the eyes1 and sometimes a little on the feet4 ,these latter cases1 and many others1 show plainly that the colour of the feet and the eye-spots are in some way correlated4 ,i have noticed1 in various breeds1 every gradation1 from the whole face being tan-coloured1 to a complete ring round the eyes1 to a minute spot over the inner and upper corners4 ,the spots occur in various sub-breeds of terriers and spaniels2 in setters2 in hounds of various kinds1 including the turnspit-like ,german badger-hound2 in shepherd dogs2 in a mongrel1 of which neither parent had the spots2 in one pure bulldog1 though the spots were in this case almost white2 and in greyhounds1--but true black-and-tan greyhounds are excessively rare2 nevertheless ,i have been assured by ,mr4 ,warwick1 that one ran at the ,caledonian ,champion meeting of ,april #ahfj1 and was 8marked precisely like a black-and-tan terrier40 ,this dog1 or another exactly the same colour1 ran at the ,scottish ,national ,club on the #bast of ,march1 #ahfe2 and ,i hear from ,mr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,browne1 that 8there was no reason either on the sire or dam side for the appearance of this unusual colour40 ,mr4 ,swinhoe at my request looked at the dogs in ,china1 at ,amoy1 and he soon noticed a brown dog with yellow spots over the eyes4 ,colonel ,h4 ,smith#dj figures the magnificent black mastiff of ,thibet with a tan-coloured stripe over the eyes1 feet1 and chaps2 and what is more singular1 he figures the ,alco1 or native domestic dog of ,mexico1 as black and white1 with narrow tan-coloured rings round the eyes2 at the ,exhibition of dogs in ,london1 ,may #ahfc1 a so-called forest dog from ,north-,west ,mexico was shown1 which had pale tan-coloured spots over the eyes4 ,the occurrence of these tan-coloured spots in dogs of such extremely different breeds1 living in various parts of the world1 makes the fact highly remarkable4 ,we shall hereafter see1 especially in the chapter on ,pigeons1 that coloured marks are strongly inherited1 and that they often aid us in discovering the primitive forms of our domestic races4 ,hence1 if any wild canine species had distinctly exhibited the tan-coloured spots over the eyes1 it might have been argued that this was the parent-form of nearly all our domestic races4 ,but after looking at many coloured plates1 and through the whole collection of skins in the ,british ,museum1 ,i can find no species thus marked4 ,it is no doubt possible that some extinct species was thus coloured4 ,on the other hand1 in looking at the various species1 there seems to be a tolerably plain correlation between tan-coloured legs and face2 and less frequently between black legs and a black face2 and this general rule of colouring explains to a certain extent the above-given cases of correlation between the eye-spots and the colour of the feet4 ,moreover1 some jackals and foxes have a trace of a white ring round their eyes1 as in ,c4 mesomelas1 ,c4 aureus1 and 7judging from ,colonel ,h4 ,smith's drawing7 in ,c4 alopex1 and ,c4 thaleb4 ,other species have a trace of a black line over the corners of the eyes1 as in ,c4 variegatus1 cinereo-variegatus1 and fulvus1 and the wild ,dingo4 ,hence ,i am inclined to conclude that a tendency for tan-coloured spots to appear over the eyes in the various breeds of dogs1 is analogous to the case observed by ,desmarest1 namely1 that when any white appears on a dog the tip of the tail is always white1 8de manire rappeler la tache terminale de mme couleur1 qui caractrise la plupart des ,canids sauvages40#da ,this rule1 however1 as ,i am assured by ,mr4 ,jesse1 does not invariably hold good4 ,it has been objected that our domestic dogs cannot be descended from wolves or jackals1 because their periods of gestation are different4 ,the supposed difference rests on statements made by ,buffon1 ,gilibert1 ,bechstein1 and others2 but these are now known to be erroneous2 and the period is found to agree in the wolf1 jackal1 and dog1 as closely as could be expected1 for it is often in some degree variable4#db ,tessier1 who has closely attended to this subject1 allows a difference of four days in the gestation of the dog4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox has given me three carefully recorded cases of retrievers1 in which the bitch was put only once to the dog2 and not counting this day1 but counting that of parturition1 the periods were fifty-nine1 sixty-two1 and sixty-seven days4 ,the average period is sixty-three days2 but ,bellingeri states that this applies only to large dogs2 and that for small races it is from sixty to sixty-three days2 ,mr4 ,eyton of ,eyton1 who has had much experience with dogs1 also informs me that the time is apt to be longer with large than with small dogs4 ,f4 ,cuvier has objected that the jackal would not have been domesticated on account of its offensive smell2 but savages are not sensitive in this respect4 ,the degree of odour1 also1 differs in the different kinds of jackal2#dc and ,colonel ,h4 ,smith makes a sectional division of the group with one character dependent on not being offensive4 ,on the other hand1 dogs-- for instance1 rough and smooth terriers--differ much in this respect2 and ,m4 ,godron states that the hairless so-called ,turkish dog is more odoriferous than other dogs4 ,isidore ,geoffroy#dd gave to a dog the same odour as that from a jackal by feeding it on raw flesh4 ,the belief that our dogs are descended from wolves1 jackals1 ,south ,american ,canid1 and other species1 suggests a far more important difficulty4 ,these animals in their undomesticated state1 judging from a widely-spread analogy1 would have been in some degree sterile if intercrossed2 and such sterility will be admitted as almost certain by all those who believe that the lessened fertility of crossed forms is an infallible criterion of specific distinctness4 ,anyhow these animals keep distinct in the countries which they inhabit in common4 ,on the other hand1 all domestic dogs1 which are here supposed to be descended from several distinct species1 are1 as far as is known1 mutually fertile together4 ,but1 as ,broca has well remarked1#de the fertility of successive generations of mongrel dogs has never been scrutinised with that care which is thought indispensable when species are crossed4 ,the few facts leading to the conclusion that the sexual feelings and reproductive powers differ in the several races of the dog when crossed are 7passing over mere size as rendering propagation difficult7 as follows3 the ,mexican ,alco#df apparently dislikes dogs of other kinds1 but this perhaps is not strictly a sexual feeling2 the hairless endemic dog of ,paraguay1 according to ,rengger1 mixes less with the ,european races than these do with each other2 the ,spitz dog in ,germany is said to receive the fox more readily than do other breeds2 and ,dr4 ,hodgkin states that a female ,dingo in ,england attracted the male wild foxes4 ,if these latter statements can be trusted1 they prove some degree of sexual difference in the breeds of the dog4 ,but the fact remains that our domestic dogs1 differing so widely as they do in external structure1 are far more fertile together than we have reason to believe their supposed wild parents would have been4 ,pallas assumes#dg that a long course of domestication eliminates that sterility which the parent-species would have exhibited if only lately captured2 no distinct facts are recorded in support of this hypothesis2 but the evidence seems to me so strong 7independently of the evidence derived from other domesticated animals7 in favour of our domestic dogs having descended from several wild stocks1 that ,i am inclined to admit the truth of this hypothesis4 ,there is another and closely allied difficulty consequent on the doctrine of the descent of our domestic dogs from several wild species1 namely1 that they do not seem to be perfectly fertile with their supposed parents4 ,but the experiment has not been quite fairly tried2 the ,hungarian dog1 for instance1 which in external appearance so closely resembles the ,european wolf1 ought to be crossed with this wolf3 and the pariah dogs of ,india with ,indian wolves and jackals2 and so in other cases4 ,that the sterility is very slight between certain dogs and wolves and other ,canid is shown by savages taking the trouble to cross them4 ,buffon got four successive generations from the wolf and dog1 and the mongrels were perfectly fertile together4#dh ,but more lately ,m4 ,flourens states positively as the result of his numerous experiments that hybrids from the wolf and dog1 crossed inter se1 become sterile at the third generation1 and those from the jackal and dog at the fourth generation4#di ,but these animals were closely confined2 and many wild animals1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 are rendered by confinement in some degree or even utterly sterile4 ,the ,dingo1 which breeds freely in ,australia with our imported dogs1 would not breed though repeatedly crossed in the ,jardin des ,plantes4#ej ,some hounds from ,central ,africa1 brought home by ,major ,denham1 never bred in the ,town of ,london2#ea and a similar tendency to sterility might be transmitted to the hybrid offspring of a wild animal4 ,moreover1 it appears that in ,m4 ,flourens' experiments the hybrids were closely bred in and in for three or four generations2 and this circumstance would most certainly increase the tendency to sterility4 ,several years ago ,i saw confined in the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london a female hybrid from an ,english dog and jackal1 which even in this the first generation was so sterile that1 as ,i was assured by her keeper1 she did not fully exhibit her proper periods2 but this case was certainly exceptional1 as numerous instances have occurred of fertile hybrids from these two animals4 ,in almost all experiments on the crossing of animals there are so many causes of doubt1 that it is extremely difficult to come to any positive conclusion4 ,it would1 however1 appear1 that those who believe that our dogs are descended from several species will have not only to admit that their offspring after a long course of domestication generally lose all tendency to sterility when crossed together2 but that between certain breeds of dogs and some of their supposed aboriginal parents a certain degree of sterility has been retained or possibly even acquired4 ,notwithstanding the difficulties in regard to fertility given in the last two paragraphs1 when we reflect on the inherent improbability of man having domesticated throughout the world one single species alone of so widely distributed1 so easily tamed1 and so useful a group as the ,canid2 when we reflect on the extreme antiquity of the different breeds2 and especially when we reflect on the close similarity1 both in external structure and habits1 between the domestic dogs of various countries and the wild species still inhabiting these same countries1 the balance of evidence is strongly in favour of the multiple origin of our dogs4 ,differences between the several ,breeds of the ,dog4--,if the several breeds have descended from several wild stocks1 their difference can obviously in part be explained by that of their parent species4 ,for instance1 the form of the greyhound may be partly accounted for by descent from some such animal as the slim ,abyssinian ,canis simensis1#eb with its elongated muzzle2 that of the larger dogs from the larger wolves1 and the smaller and slighter dogs from the jackals3 and thus perhaps we may account for certain constitutional and climatal differences4 ,but it would be a great error to suppose that there has not been in addition#ec a large amount of variation4 ,the intercrossing of the several aboriginal wild stocks1 and of the subsequently formed races1 has probably increased the total number of breeds1 and1 as we shall presently see1 has greatly modified some of them4 ,but we cannot explain by crossing the origin of such extreme forms as thoroughbred greyhounds1 bloodhounds1 bulldogs1 ,blenheim spaniels1 terriers1 pugs1 etc41 unless we believe that forms equally or more strongly characterised in these different respects once existed in nature4 ,but hardly any one has been bold enough to suppose that such unnatural forms ever did or could exist in a wild state4 ,when compared with all known members of the family of ,canid they betray a distinct and abnormal origin4 ,no instance is on record of such dogs as bloodhounds1 spaniels1 true greyhounds having been kept by savages3 they are the product of long-continued civilisation4 ,the number of breeds and sub-breeds of the dog is great2 ,youatt for instance1 describes twelve kinds of greyhounds4 ,i will not attempt to enumerate or describe the varieties1 for we cannot discriminate how much of their difference is due to variation1 and how much to descent from different aboriginal stocks4 ,but it may be worth while briefly to mention some points4 ,commencing with the skull1 ,cuvier has admitted#ed that in form the differences are 8plus fortes que celles d'aucunes espces sauvages d'un mme genre naturel40 ,the proportions of the different bones2 the curvature of the lower jaw1 the position of the condyles with respect to the plane of the teeth 7on which ,f4 ,cuvier founded his classification71 and in mastiffs the shape of its posterior branch2 the shape of the zygomatic arch1 and of the temporal fossae2 the position of the occiput--all vary considerably4#ee ,the difference in size between the brains of dogs belonging to large and small breeds 8is something prodigious40 8,some dogs' brains are high and rounded1 while others are low1 long1 and narrow in front40 ,in the latter1 8the olfactory lobes are visible for about half their extent1 when the brain is seen from above1 but they are wholly concealed by the hemispheres in other breeds40#ef ,the dog has properly six pairs of molar teeth in the upper jaw1 and seven in the lower2 but several naturalists have seen not rarely an additional pair in the upper jaw2#eg and ,professor ,gervais says that there are dogs 8qui ont sept paires de dents suprieures et huit infrieures40 ,de ,blainville#eh has given full particulars on the frequency of these deviations in the number of the teeth1 and has shown that it is not always the same tooth which is supernumerary4 ,in short-muzzled races1 according to ,h4 ,mller1#ei the molar teeth stand obliquely1 whilst in long-muzzled races they are placed longitudinally1 with open spaces between them4 ,the naked1 so-called ,egyptian or ,turkish dog is extremely deficient in its teeth1#fj --sometimes having none except one molar on each side2 but this1 though characteristic of the breed1 must be considered as a monstrosity4 ,m4 ,girard1#fa who seems to have attended closely to the subject1 says that the period of the appearance of the permanent teeth differs in different dogs1 being earlier in large dogs2 thus the mastiff assumes its adult teeth in four or five months1 whilst in the spaniel the period is sometimes more than seven or eight months4 ,on the other hand small dogs are mature1 and the females have arrived at the best age for breeding1 when one year old1 whereas large dogs 8are still in their puppyhood at this time1 and take fully twice as long to develop their proportions40#fb ,with respect to minor differences little need be said4 ,isidore ,geoffroy has shown#fc that in size some dogs are six times as long 7the tail being excluded7 as others2 and that the height relatively to the length of the body varies from between one to two1 and one to nearly four4 ,in the ,scotch deer-hound there is a striking and remarkable difference in the size of the male and female4#fd ,every one knows how the ears vary in size in different breeds1 and with their great development their muscles become atrophied4 ,certain breeds of dogs are described as having a deep furrow between the nostrils and lips4 ,the caudal vertebrae1 according to ,f4 ,cuvier1 on whose authority the two last statements rest1 vary in number2 and the tail in ,english cattle and some shepherd dogs is almost absent4 ,the mammae vary from seven to ten in number2 ,daubenton1 having examined twenty-one dogs1 found eight with five mammae on each side2 eight with four on each side2 and the others with an unequal number on the two sides4#fe ,dogs have properly five toes in front and four behind1 but a fifth toe is often added2 and ,f4 ,cuvier states that1 when a fifth toe is present1 a fourth cuneiform bone is developed2 and1 in this case1 sometimes the great cuneiform bone is raised1 and gives on its inner side a large articular surface to the astragalus2 so that even the relative connection of the bones1 the most constant of all characters1 varies4 ,these modifications1 however1 in the feet of dogs are not important1 because they ought to be ranked1 as ,de ,blainville has shown#ff as monstrosities4 ,nevertheless they are interesting from being correlated with the size of the body1 for they occur much more frequently with mastiffs and other large breeds than with small dogs4 ,closely allied varieties1 however1 sometimes differ in this respect2 thus ,mr4 ,hodgson states that the black-and-tan ,lassa variety of the ,thibet mastiff has the fifth digit1 whilst the ,mustang sub-variety is not thus characterised4 ,the extent to which the skin is developed between the toes varies much2 but we shall return to this point4 ,the degree to which the various breeds differ in the perfection of their senses1 dispositions1 and inherited habits is notorious to every one4 ,the breeds present some constitutional differences3 the pulse1 says ,youatt#fg 8varies materially according to the breed1 as well as to the size of the animal40 ,different breeds of dogs are subject in different degrees to various diseases4 ,they certainly become adapted to different climates under which they have long existed4 ,it is notorious that most of our best ,european breeds deteriorate in ,india4#fh ,the ,rev ,r4 ,everest#fi believes that no one has succeeded in keeping the ,newfoundland dog long alive in ,india2 so it is1 according to ,lichtenstein1#gj even at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the ,thibet mastiff degenerates on the plains of ,india1 and can live only on the mountains4#ga ,lloyd#gb asserts that our bloodhounds and bulldogs have been tried1 and cannot withstand the cold of the northern ,european forests4 ,seeing in how many characters the races of the dog differ from each other1 and remembering ,cuvier's admission that their skulls differ more than do those of the species of any natural genus1 and bearing in mind how closely the bones of wolves1 jackals1 foxes1 and other ,canid agree1 it is remarkable that we meet with the statement1 repeated over and over again1 that the races of the dog differ in no important characters4 ,a highly competent judge1 ,prof4 ,gervais1#gc admits 8si l'on prenait sans contrle les alterations dont chacun de ces organes est susceptible1 on pourrait croire qu'il y a entre les chiens domestiques des diffrences plus grandes que celles qui sparent ailleurs les espces1 quelquefois mme les genres40 ,some of the differences above enumerated are in one respect of comparatively little value1 for they are not characteristic of distinct breeds3 no one pretends that such is the case with the additional molar teeth or with the number of mammae2 the additional digit is generally present with mastiffs1 and some of the more important differences in the skull and lower jaw are more or less characteristic of various breeds4 ,but we must not forget that the predominant power of selection has not been applied in any of these cases2 we have variability in important parts1 but the differences have not been fixed by selection4 ,man cares for the form and fleetness of his greyhounds1 for the size of his mastiffs1 and formerly for the strength of the jaw in his bulldogs1 etc42 but he cares nothing about the number of their molar teeth or mammae or digits2 nor do we know that differences in these organs are correlated with1 or owe their development to1 differences in other parts of the body about which man does care4 ,those who have attended to the subject of selection will admit that1 nature having given variability1 man1 if he so chose1 could fix five toes to the hinder feet of certain breeds of dogs1 as certainly as to the feet of his ,dorking fowls3 he could probably fix1 but with much more difficulty1 an additional pair of molar teeth in either jaw1 in the same way as he has given additional horns to certain breeds of sheep2 if he wished to produce a toothless breed of dogs1 having the so-called ,turkish dog with its imperfect teeth to work on1 he could probably do so1 for he has succeeded in making hornless breeds of cattle and sheep4 ,with respect to the precise causes and steps by which the several races of dogs have come to differ so greatly from each other1 we are1 as in most other cases1 profoundly ignorant4 ,we may attribute part of the difference in external form and constitution to inheritance from distinct wild stocks1 that is to changes effected under nature before domestication4 ,we must attribute something to the crossing of the several domestic and natural races4 ,i shall1 however1 soon recur to the crossing of races4 ,we have already seen how often savages cross their dogs with wild native species2 and ,pennant gives a curious account#gd of the manner in which ,fochabers1 in ,scotland1 was stocked 8with a multitude of curs of a most wolfish aspect0 from a single hybrid-wolf brought into that district4 ,it would appear that climate to a certain extent directly modifies the forms of dogs4 ,we have lately seen that several of our ,english breeds cannot live in ,india1 and it is positively asserted that when bred there for a few generations they degenerate not only in their mental faculties1 but in form4 ,captain ,williamson1#ge who carefully attended to this subject1 states that 8hounds are the most rapid in their decline20 8greyhounds and pointers1 also1 rapidly decline40 ,but spaniels1 after eight or nine generations1 and without a cross from ,europe1 are as good as their ancestors4 ,dr4 ,falconer informs me that bulldogs1 which have been known1 when first brought into the country1 to pin down even an elephant by its trunk1 not only fall off after two or three generations in pluck and ferocity1 but lose the under-hung character of their lower jaws2 their muzzles become finer and their bodies lighter4 ,english dogs imported into ,india are so valuable that probably due care has been taken to prevent their crossing with native dogs2 so that the deterioration cannot be thus accounted for4 ,the ,rev4 ,r4 ,everest informs me that he obtained a pair of setters1 born in ,india1 which perfectly resembled their ,scotch parents3 he raised several litters from them in ,delhi1 taking the most stringent precautions to prevent a cross1 but he never succeeded1 though this was only the second generation in ,india1 in obtaining a single young dog like its parents in size or make2 their nostrils were more contracted1 their noses more pointed1 their size inferior1 and their limbs more slender4 ,so again on the coast of ,guinea1 dogs1 according to ,bosman1 8alter strangely2 their ears grow long and stiff like those of foxes1 to which colour they also incline1 so that in three or four years1 they degenerate into very ugly creatures2 and in three or four broods their barking turns into a howl40#gf ,this remarkable tendency to rapid deterioration in ,european dogs subjected to the climate of ,india and ,africa1 may be largely accounted for by reversion to a primordial condition which many animals exhibit1 as we shall hereafter see1 when their constitutions are in any way disturbed4 ,some of the peculiarities characteristic of the several breeds of the dog have probably arisen suddenly1 and1 though strictly inherited1 may be called monstrosities2 for instance1 the shape of the legs and body in the turnspit of ,europe and ,india2 the shape of the head and the under-hanging jaw in the bull-and pug-dog1 so alike in this one respect and so unlike in all others4 ,a peculiarity suddenly arising1 and therefore in one sense deserving to be called a monstrosity1 may1 however1 be increased and fixed by man's selection4 ,we can hardly doubt that long-continued training1 as with the greyhound in coursing hares1 as with water-dogs in swimming--and the want of exercise1 in the case of lapdogs--must have produced some direct effect on their structure and instincts4 ,but we shall immediately see that the most potent cause of change has probably been the selection1 both methodical and unconscious1 of slight individual differences1--the latter kind of selection resulting from the occasional preservation1 during hundreds of generations1 of those individual dogs which were the most useful to man for certain purposes and under certain conditions of life4 ,in a future chapter on ,selection ,i shall show that even barbarians attend closely to the qualities of their dogs4 ,this unconscious selection by man would be aided by a kind of natural selection2 for the dogs of savages have partly to gain their own subsistence3 for instance1 in ,australia1 as we hear from ,mr4 ,nind1#gg the dogs are sometimes compelled by want to leave their masters and provide for themselves2 but in a few days they generally return4 ,and we may infer that dogs of different shapes1 sizes1 and habits1 would have the best chance of surviving under different circumstances1--on open sterile plains1 where they have to run down their own prey1--on rocky coasts1 where they have to feed on crabs and fish left in the tidal pools1 as in the case of ,new ,guinea and ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,in this latter country1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,bridges1 the ,catechist to the ,mission1 the dogs turn over the stones on the shore to catch the crustaceans which lie beneath1 and they 8are clever enough to knock off the shell-fish at a first blow20 for if this be not done1 shell-fish are well-known to have an almost invincible power of adhesion4 ,it has already been remarked that dogs differ in the degree to which their feet are webbed4 ,in dogs of the ,newfoundland breed1 which are eminently aquatic in their habits1 the skin1 according to ,isidore ,geoffroy1#gh extends to the third phalanges whilst in ordinary dogs it extends only to the second4 ,in two ,newfoundland dogs which ,i examined1 when the toes were stretched apart and viewed on the under side1 the skin extended in a nearly straight line between the outer margins of the balls of the toes2 whereas1 in two terriers of distinct sub-breeds1 the skin viewed in the same manner was deeply scooped out4 ,in ,canada there is a dog which is peculiar to the country and common there1 and this has 8half-webbed feet and is fond of the water40#gi ,english otter-hounds are said to have webbed feet3 a friend examined for me the feet of two1 in comparison with the feet of some harriers and bloodhounds2 he found the skin variable in extent in all1 but more developed in the otter-hounds than in the others4#hj ,as aquatic animals which belong to quite different orders have webbed feet1 there can be no doubt that this structure would be serviceable to dogs that frequent the water4 ,we may confidently infer that no man ever selected his water-dogs by the extent to which the skin was developed between their toes2 but what he does1 is to preserve and breed from those individuals which hunt best in the water1 or best retrieve wounded game1 and thus he unconsciously selects dogs with feet slightly better webbed4 ,the effects of use from the frequent stretching apart of the toes will likewise aid in the result4 ,man thus closely imitates ,natural ,selection4 ,we have an excellent illustration of this same process in ,north ,america1 where1 according to ,sir ,j4 ,richardson1#ha all the wolves1 foxes1 and aboriginal domestic dogs have their feet broader than in the corresponding species of the ,old ,world1 and 8well calculated for running on the snow0 ,now1 in these ,arctic regions1 the life or death of every animal will often depend on its success in hunting over the snow when soft2 and this will in part depend on the feet being broad2 yet they must not be so broad as to interfere with the activity of the animal when the ground is sticky1 or with its power of burrowing holes1 or with other necessary habits of life4 ,as changes in domestic breeds which take place so slowly are not to be noticed at any one period1 whether due to the selection of individual variations or of differences resulting from crosses1 are most important in understanding the origin of our domestic productions1 and likewise in throwing indirect light on the changes effected under nature1 ,i will give in detail such cases as ,i have been able to collect4 ,lawrence1#hb who paid particular attention to the history of the foxhound1 writing in #ahbi1 says that between eighty and ninety years before 8an entirely new foxhound was raised through the breeder's art10 the ears of the old southern hound being reduced1 the bone and bulk lightened1 the waist increased in length1 and the stature somewhat added to4 ,it is believed that this was effected by a cross with a greyhound4 ,with respect to this latter dog1 ,youatt1#hc who is generally cautious in his statements1 says that the greyhound within the last fifty years1 that is before the commencement of the present century1 8assumed a somewhat different character from that which he once possessed4 ,he is now distinguished by a beautiful symmetry of form1 of which he could not once boast1 and he has even superior speed to that which he formerly exhibited4 ,he is no longer used to struggle with deer1 but contends with his fellows over a shorter and speedier course40 ,an able writer#hd believes that our ,english greyhounds are the descendants1 progressively improved1 of the large rough greyhounds which existed in ,scotland so early as the third century4 ,a cross at some former period with the ,italian greyhound has been suspected2 but this seems hardly probable1 considering the feebleness of this latter breed4 ,lord ,orford1 as is well-known1 crossed his famous greyhounds1 which failed in courage1 with a bulldog--this breed being chosen from being erroneously supposed to be deficient in the power of scent2 8after the sixth or seventh generation10 says ,youatt1 8there was not a vestige left of the form of the bulldog1 but his courage and indomitable perseverance remained40 ,youatt infers1 from a comparison of an old picture of ,king ,charles's spaniels with the living dog1 that 8the breed of the present day is materially altered for the worse30 the muzzle has become shorter1 the forehead more prominent1 and the eyes larger2 the changes in this case have probably been due to simple selection4 ,the setter1 as this author remarks in another place1 8is evidently the large spaniel improved to his present peculiar size and beauty1 and taught another way of marking his game4 ,if the form of the dog were not sufficiently satisfactory on this point1 we might have recourse to history30 he then refers to a document dated #afhe bearing on this subject1 and adds that the pure ,irish setter shows no signs of a cross with the pointer1 which some authors suspect has been the case with the ,english setter4 ,the bulldog is an ,english breed1 and as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,g4 ,r4 ,jesse1#he seems to have originated from the mastiff since the time of ,shakspeare2 but certainly existed in #afca1 as shown by ,prestwick ,eaton's letters4 ,there can be no doubt that the fancy bulldogs of the present day1 now that they are not used for bull-baiting1 have become greatly reduced in size1 without any express intention on the part of the breeder4 ,our pointers are certainly descended from a ,spanish breed1 as even their present names1 ,don1 ,ponto1 ,carlos1 etc41 show2 it is said that they were not known in ,england before the ,revolution in #afhh2hf but the breed since its introduction has been much modified1 for ,mr4 ,borrow1 who is a sportsman and knows ,spain intimately well1 informs me that he has not seen in that country any breed 8corresponding in figure with the ,english pointer2 but there are genuine pointers near ,xeres which have been imported by ,english gentlemen40 ,a nearly parallel case is offered by the ,newfoundland dog1 which was certainly brought into ,england from that country1 but which has since been so much modified that1 as several writers have observed1 it does not now closely resemble any existing native dog in ,newfoundland4#hg ,these several cases of slow and gradual changes in our ,english dogs possess some interest2 for though the changes have generally1 but not invariably1 been caused by one or two crosses with a distinct breed1 yet we may feel sure1 from the well-known extreme variability of crossed breeds1 that rigorous and long-continued selection must have been practised1 in order to improve them in a definite manner4 ,as soon as any strain or family became slightly improved or better adapted to alter circumstances1 it would tend to supplant the older and less improved strains4 ,for instance1 as soon as the old foxhound was improved by a cross with the greyhound1 or by simple selection1 and assumed its present character--and the change was probably desired owing to the increased fleetness of our hunters--it rapidly spread throughout the country1 and is now everywhere nearly uniform4 ,but the process of improvement is still going on for every one tries to improve his strain by occasionally procuring dogs from the best kennels4 ,through this process of gradual substitution the old ,english hound has been lost2 and so it has been with the ,irish wolf-dog1 the old ,english bulldog1 and several other breeds1 such as the alaunt1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,jesse4 ,but the extinction of former breeds is apparently aided by another cause2 for whenever a breed is kept in scanty numbers1 as at present with the bloodhound1 it is reared with some difficulty1 apparently from the evil effects of long-continued close interbreeding4 ,as several breeds of the dog have been slightly but sensibly modified within so short a period as the last one or two centuries1 by the selection of the best individuals1 modified in many cases by crosses with other breeds2 and as we shall hereafter see that the breeding of dogs was attended to in ancient times1 as it still is by savages1 we may conclude that we have in selection1 even if only occasionally practised1 a potent means of modification4 ,,domestic ,,cats4 ,cats have been domesticated in the ,east from an ancient period2 ,mr4 ,blyth informs me that they are mentioned in a ,sanskrit writing #bjjj years old1 and in ,egypt their antiquity is known to be even greater1 as shown by monumental drawings and their mummied bodies4 ,these mummies1 according to ,de ,blainville1#hh who has particularly studied the subject1 belong to no less than three species1 namely1 ,f4 caligulata1 bubastes1 and chaus4 ,the two former species are said to be still found1 both wild and domesticated1 in parts of ,egypt4 ,f4 caligulata presents a difference in the first inferior milk molar tooth1 as compared with the domestic cats of ,europe1 which makes ,de ,blainville conclude that it is not one of the parent-forms of our cats4 ,several naturalists1 as ,pallas1 ,temminck1 ,blyth1 believe that domestic cats are the descendants of several species commingled3 it is certain that cats cross readily with various wild species1 and it would appear that the character of the domestic breeds has1 at least in some cases1 been thus affected4 ,sir ,w4 ,jardine has no doubt that1 8in the north of ,scotland1 there has been occasional crossing with our native species 7,f4 sylvestris71 and that the result of these crosses has been kept in our houses4 ,i have seen10 he adds1 8many cats very closely resembling the wild cat1 and one or two that could scarcely be distinguished from it40 ,mr4 ,blyth#hi remarks on this passage1 8but such cats are never seen in the southern parts of ,england2 still1 as compared with any ,indian tame cat1 the affinity of the ordinary ,british cat to ,f4 sylvestris is manifest2 and due ,i suspect to frequent intermixture at a time when the tame cat was first introduced into ,britain and continued rare1 while the wild species was far more abundant than at present40 ,in ,hungary1 ,jeitteles#ij was assured on trustworthy authority that a wild male cat crossed with a female domestic cat1 and that the hybrids long lived in a domesticated state4 ,in ,algiers the domestic cat has crossed with the wild cat 7,f4 lybica7 of that country4#ia ,in ,south ,africa as ,mr4 ,e4 ,layard informs me1 the domestic cat intermingles freely with the wild ,f4 caffra2 he has seen a pair of hybrids which were quite tame and particularly attached to the lady who brought them up2 and ,mr4 ,fry has found that these hybrids are fertile4 ,in ,india the domestic cat1 according to ,mr4 ,blyth1 has crossed with four ,indian species4 ,with respect to one of these species1 ,f4 chaus1 an excellent observer1 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 informs me that he once killed1 near ,madras1 a wild brood1 which were evidently hybrids from the domestic cat2 these young animals had a thick lynx-like tail and the broad brown bar on the inside of the forearm characteristic of ,f4 chaus4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot adds that he has often observed this same mark on the forearms of domestic cats in ,india4 ,mr4 ,blyth states that domestic cats coloured nearly like ,f4 chaus1 but not resembling that species in shape1 abound in ,bengal2 he adds1 8such a colouration is utterly unknown in ,european cats1 and the proper tabby markings 7pale streaks on a black ground1 peculiarly and symmetrically disposed71 so common in ,english cats1 are never seen in those of ,india40 ,dr4 ,d4 ,short has assured ,mr4 ,blyth#ib that1 at ,hansi1 hybrids between the common cat and ,f4 ornata 7or torquata7 occur1 8and that many of the domestic cats of that part of ,india were undistinguishable from the wild ,f4 ornata40 ,azara states1 but only on the authority of the inhabitants1 that in ,paraguay the cat has crossed with two native species4 ,from these several cases we see that in ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 the common cat1 which lives a freer life than most other domesticated animals1 has crossed with various wild species2 and that in some instances the crossing has been sufficiently frequent to affect the character of the breed4 ,whether domestic cats have descended from several distinct species1 or have only been modified by occasional crosses1 their fertility1 as far as is known1 is unimpaired4 ,the large ,angora or ,persian cat is the most distinct in structure and habits of all the domestic breeds2 and is believed by ,pallas1 but on no distinct evidence1 to be descended from the ,f4 manul of middle ,asia2 and ,i am assured by ,mr4 ,blyth that the ,angora cat breeds freely with ,indian cats1 which1 as we have already seen1 have apparently been much crossed with ,f4 chaus4 ,in ,england half-bred ,angora cats are perfectly fertile with one another4 ,within the same country we do not meet with distinct races of the cat1 as we do of dogs and of most other domestic animals2 though the cats of the same country present a considerable amount of fluctuating variability4 ,the explanation obviously is that1 from their nocturnal and rambling habits1 indiscriminate crossing cannot without much trouble be prevented4 ,selection cannot be brought into play to produce distinct breeds1 or to keep those distinct which have been imported from foreign lands4 ,on the other hand1 in islands and in countries completely separated from each other1 we meet with breeds more or less distinct2 and these cases are worth giving1 showing that the scarcity of distinct races in the same country is not caused by a deficiency of variability in the animal4 ,the tailless cats of the ,isle of ,man are said to differ from common cats not only in the want of a tail1 but in the greater length of their hind legs1 in the size of their heads1 and in habits4 ,the ,creole cat of ,antigua1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,nicholson1 is smaller1 and has a more elongated head1 than the ,british cat4 ,in ,ceylon1 as ,mr4 ,thwaites writes to me1 every one at first notices the different appearance of the native cat from the ,english animal2 it is of small size1 with closely lying hairs2 its head is small1 with a receding forehead2 but the ears are large and sharp2 altogether it has what is there called a 8low-caste0 appearance4 ,rengger#ic says that the domestic cat1 which has been bred for #cjj years in ,paraguay1 presents a striking difference from the ,european cat2 it is smaller by a fourth1 has a more lanky body1 its hair is short1 shining1 scanty and lies close1 especially on the tail3 he adds that the change has been less at ,ascension1 the capital of ,paraguay1 owing to the continual crossing with newly imported cats2 and this fact well illustrates the importance of separation4 ,the conditions of life in ,paraguay appear not to be highly favourable to the cat1 for1 though they have run half-wild1 they do not become thoroughly feral1 like so many other ,european animals4 ,in another part of ,south ,america1 according to ,roulin1#id the introduced cat has lost the habit of uttering its hideous nocturnal howl4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4,d4 ,fox purchased a cat in ,portsmouth1 which he was told came from the coast of ,guinea2 its skin was black and wrinkled1 fur bluish-grey and short1 its ears rather bare1 legs long1 and whole aspect peculiar4 ,this 8negro0 cat was fertile with common cats4 ,on the opposite coast of ,africa1 at ,mombas1 ,captain ,owen1 ,r4,n41#ie states that all the cats are covered with short stiff hair instead of fur3 he gives a curious account of a cat from ,algoa ,bay1 which had been kept for some time on board and could be identified with certainty2 this animal was left for only eight weeks at ,mombas1 but during that short period it 8underwent a complete metamorphosis1 having parted with its sandy-coloured fur40 ,a cat from the ,cape of ,good ,hope has been described by ,desmarest as remarkable from a red stripe extending along the whole length of its back4 ,throughout an immense area1 namely1 the ,malayan archipelago1 ,siam1 ,pegu1 and ,burmah1 all the cats have truncated tails about half the proper length1#if often with a sort of knot at the end4 ,in the ,caroline archipelago the cats have very long legs1 and are of a reddish-yellow colour4#ig ,in ,china a breed has drooping ears4 ,at ,tobolsk1 according to ,gmelin1 there is a red-coloured breed4 ,in ,asia1 also1 we find the well-known ,angora or ,persian breed4 ,the domestic cat has run wild in several countries1 and everywhere assumes1 as far as can be judged by the short recorded descriptions1 a uniform character4 ,near ,maldonado1 in ,la ,plata1 ,i shot one which seemed perfectly wild2 it was carefully examined by ,mr4 ,waterhouse1#ih who found nothing remarkable in it1 excepting its great size4 ,in ,new ,zealand according to ,dieffenbach1 the feral cats assume a streaky grey colour like that of wild cats2 and this is the case with the half-wild cats of the ,scotch ,highlands4 ,we have seen that distant countries possess distinct domestic races of the cat4 ,the differences may be in part due to descent from several aboriginal species1 or at least to crosses with them4 ,in some cases1 as in ,paraguay1 ,mombas1 and ,antigua1 the differences seem due to the direct action of different conditions of life4 ,in other cases some slight effect may possibly be attributed to natural selection1 as cats in many cases have largely to support themselves and to escape diverse dangers4 ,but man1 owing to the difficulty of pairing cats1 has done nothing by methodical selection2 and probably very little by unintentional selection2 though in each litter he generally saves the prettiest1 and values most a good breed of mouse- or rat-catchers4 ,those cats which have a strong tendency to prowl after game1 generally get destroyed by traps4 ,as cats are so much petted1 a breed bearing the same relation to other cats1 that lapdogs bear to larger dogs1 would have been much valued2 and if selection could have been applied1 we should certainly have had many breeds in each long-civilised country1 for there is plenty of variability to work upon4 ,we see in this country considerable diversity in size1 some in the proportions of the body1 and extreme variability in colouring4 ,i have only lately attended to this subject1 but have already heard of some singular cases of variation2 one of a cat born in the ,west ,indies toothless1 and remaining so all its life4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has shown me the skull of a female cat with its canines so much developed that they protruded uncovered beyond the lips2 the tooth with the fang being 4#ie1 and the part projecting from the gum 4#f of an inch in length4 ,i have heard of several families of six-toed cats1 in one of which the peculiarity had been transmitted for at least three generations4 ,the tail varies greatly in length2 ,i have seen a cat which always carried its tail flat on its back when pleased4 ,the ears vary in shape1 and certain strains1 in ,england1 inherit a pencil-like tuft of hairs1 above a quarter of an inch in length1 on the tips of their ears2 and this same peculiarity1 according to ,mr4 ,blyth1 characterises some cats in ,india4 ,the great variability in the length of the tail and the lynx-like tufts of hairs on the ears are apparently analogous to differences in certain wild species of the genus4 ,a much more important difference1 according to ,daubenton1#ii is that the intestines of domestic cats are wider1 and a third longer1 than in wild cats of the same size2 and this apparently has been by their less strictly carnivorous diet4 ,,references #a ,owen #8,british ,fossil ,mammals1' pp4 #abc to #acc4 ,pictet's #8,trait de ,pal41' #ahec1 tom4 i4 p4 #bjb4 ,de ,blainville in his #8,ostographie1 ,canid1' p4 #adb1 has largely discussed the whole subject1 and concludes that the extinct parent of all domesticated dogs came nearest to the wolf in organisation1 and to the jackal in habits4 ,see also ,boyd ,dawkins1 #8,cave ,hunting1' #ahgd1 p4 #aca1 etc41 and his other publications4 ,jeitteles has discussed in great detail the character of the breeds of pre-historic dogs3 #8,die vorgeschichtlichen ,alterthmer der ,stadt ,olmtz1' ,,ii4 ,theil1 #ahgb1 p4 #dd to end4 #b ,pallas1 ,i believe1 originated this doctrine in #8,act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh1' #aghj1 ,part ii4 ,ehrenberg has advocated it1 as may be seen in ,de ,blainville's #8,ostographie1' p4 #gi4 ,it has been carried to an extreme extent by ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith in the #8,naturalist ,library1' vols ix and x4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,martin adopts it in his excellent #8,history of the ,dog1' #ahde2 as does ,dr4 ,morton1 as well as ,nott and ,gliddon1 in the ,united ,states4 ,prof4 ,low1 in his #8,domesticated ,animals1' #ahde1 p4 #fff1 comes to this same conclusion4 ,no one has argued on this side with more clearness and force than the late ,james ,wilson1 of ,edinburgh1 in various papers read before the ,highland ,agricultural and ,wernerian ,societies4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire 7#8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' #ahfj1 tom4 iii4 p4 #ajg71 though he believes that most dogs have descended from the jackal1 yet inclines to the belief that some are descended from the wolf4 ,prof4 ,gervais 7#8,hist4 ,nat4 ,mamm4' #ahee1 tom4 ii4 p4 #fi1 referring to the view that all the domestic races are the modified descendants of a single species1 after a long discussion1 says1 8,cette opinion est1 suivant nous du moins1 la moins probable40 #c ,berjeau1 #8,the ,varieties of the ,dog2 in old ,sculptures and ,pictures1' #ahfc4 #8,der ,hund1' von ,dr4 ,f4 ,l4 ,walther1 ,giessen1 #ahag1 s4 #dh3 this author seems carefully to have studied all classical works on the subject4 ,see also ,volz1 #8,beitrge zur ,kulturgeschichte1' ,leipzig1 #aheb1 s4 #aae1 #8,youatt on the ,dog1' #ahde1 p4 #f4 ,a very full history is given by ,de ,blainville in his #8,ostographie1 ,canid4' #d ,i have seen drawings of this dog from the tomb of the son of ,esar ,haddon1 and clay models in the ,british ,museum4 ,nott and ,gliddon1 in their #8,types of ,mankind1' #ahed1 p4 #cic1 give a copy of these drawings4 ,this dog has been called a ,thibetan mastiff1 but ,mr4 ,h4 ,a4 ,oldfield1 who is familiar with the so-called ,thibet mastiff1 and has examined the drawings in the ,british ,museum1 informs me that he considers them different4 #e #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,july #abth1 #ahca4 #f #8,sporting in ,algeria1' p4 #ea4 #g ,berjeau gives facsimiles of the ,egyptian drawings4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,martin in his #8,history of the ,dog1' #ahde1 copies several figures from the ,egyptian monuments1 and speaks with much confidence with respect to their identity with still living dogs4 ,messrs4 ,nott and ,gliddon 7#8,types of ,mankind1' #ahed1 p4 #chh7 give still more numerous figures4 ,mr4 ,gliddon asserts that a curl-tailed greyhound1 like that represented on the most ancient monuments1 is common in ,borneo2 but the ,rajah1 ,sir ,j4 ,brooke1 informs me that no such dog exists there4 #h ,these1 and the following facts on the ,danish remains1 are taken from ,m4 ,morlot's most interesting memoir in #8,soc4 ,vaudoise des ,sc4 ,nat4' tom4 vi41 #ahfj1 pp4 #bha1 #bii1 #cbj4 #i #8,die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahfa1 s4 #aag1 #afb4 #aj ,de ,blainville #8,ostographie1 ,canid4' #aa ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk has given me information on this head4 ,see also #8,journal of ,r4 ,geographical ,soc4' vol4 xiii4 #ahdc1 p4 #fe4 #ab #8,domestication of ,animals3' ,ethnological ,soc41 ,dec4 #bbnd1 #ahfc4 #ac #8,journal of ,researches1' etc41 #ahde1 p4 #cic4 ,with respect to ,canis antarcticus1 see p4 #aic4 ,for the case of the antelope1 see #8,journal ,royal ,geograph4 ,soc41' vol4 xxiii4 p4 #id4 #ad ,the authorities for the foregoing statements are as follow3--,richardson in #8,fauna ,boreali-,americana1' #ahbi1 pp4 #fd1 #ge2 ,dr4 ,kane #8,arctic ,explorations1' #ahef1 vol4 i4 pp4 #cih1 #dee2 ,dr4 ,hayes #8,arctic ,boat ,journey1' #ahfj1 p4 #afg4 ,franklin's #8,narrative1' vol4 i4 p4 #bfi1 gives the case of three whelps of a black wolf being carried away by the ,indians4 ,parry1 ,richardson1 and others1 give accounts of wolves and dogs naturally crossing in the eastern parts of ,north ,america4 ,seeman in his #8,voyage of ,h4,m4,s4 ,herald1' #ahec1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bf1 says the wolf is often caught by the ,esquimaux for the purpose of crossing with their dogs1 and thus adding to their size and strength4 ,m4 ,lamare-,picquot in #8,bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclimat1' tom4 vii41 #ahfj1 p4 #adh1 gives a good account of the half-bred ,esquimaux dogs4 #ae #8,fauna ,boreali-,americana1' #ahbi1 pp4 #gc1 #gh1 #hj4 ,nott and ,gliddon1 #8,types of ,mankind1' p4 #chc4 ,the naturalist and traveller ,bartram is quoted by ,hamilton ,smith1 in #8,naturalist ,lib41' vol4 x4 p4 #aef4 ,a ,mexican domestic dog seems also to resemble a wild dog of the same country2 but this may be the prairie-wolf4 ,another capable judge1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,k4 ,lord 7#8,the ,naturalist in ,vancouver ,island1' #ahff1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bah71 says that the ,indian dog of the ,spokans1 near the ,rocky ,mountains1 8is beyond all question nothing more than a tamed ,cayote or prairie-wolf10 or ,canis latrans47 #af ,i quote this from ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill's excellent account of the ,alco or domestic dog of ,mexico1 in ,gosse's #8,naturalist's ,sojourn in ,jamaica1' #ahea1 p4 #cbi4 #ag #8,naturgeschichte der ,sugethiere von ,paraguay1' #ahcj1 s4 #aea4 #ah ,quoted in ,humboldt's #8,aspects of ,nature' 7,eng4 trans471 vol4 i4 p4 #ajh4 #ai p4t's #8,travels in ,hungary and ,transylvania1' vol4 i4 p4 #eja4 ,jeitteles #8,fauna ,hungari ,superioris1' #ahfb1 s4 #ac4 ,see ,pliny #8,hist4 of the ,world' 7,eng4 trans471 #hth book1 ch4 xl41 about the ,gauls crossing their dogs4 ,see also ,aristotle #8,hist4 ,animal4'lib4 viii4 c4 #bh4 ,for good evidence about wolves and dogs naturally crossing near the ,pyrenees1 see ,m4 ,mauduyt #8,du ,loup et de ses ,races1' ,poitiers1 #ahea2 also ,pallas in #8,acta ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh1' #aghj1 part ii4 p4 #id4 #bj ,i give this on excellent authority1 namely ,mr4 ,blyth 7under the signature of ,zoophilus71 in the #8,indian ,sporting ,review1' ,oct4 #ahef1 p4 #acd4 ,mr4 ,blyth states that he was struck with the resemblance between a brush-tailed race of pariah-dogs1 north-west of ,cawnpore1 and the ,indian wolf4 ,he gives corroborative evidence with respect to the dogs of the valley of the ,nerbudda4 #ba ,for numerous and interesting details on the resemblance of dogs and jackals see ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' #ahfj1 tom4 iii4 p4 #aja4 ,see also #8,hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammifres1' par ,prof4 ,gervais1 #ahee1 tom4 ii4 p4 #fj4 #bb ,also ,gldenstdt #8,nov4 ,comment4 ,acad4 ,petrop41' tom4 xx41 pro anno #agge1 p4 #ddi4 ,also ,salvin in #8,land and ,water1' ,oct4 #ahfi4 #bc ,quoted by ,de ,blainville in his #8,ostographie1 ,canid1' pp4 #gi1 #ih4 #bd ,see ,pallas in #8,act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh1' #aghj1 part ii4 p4 #ia4 ,for ,algeria1 see ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #agg4 ,in both countries it is the male jackal which pairs with female domestic dogs4 #be ,john ,barbut's #8,description of the ,coast of ,guinea in #agdf4' #bf #8,travels in ,south ,africa1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bgb4 #bg ,selwyn1 ,geology of ,victoria2 #8,journal of ,geolog4 ,soc41' vol4 xiv41 #aheh1 p4 #ecf1 and vol4 xvi41 #ahfj1 p4 #adh2 and ,prof4 ,m',coy1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' 7#crd series7 vol4 ix41 #ahfb1 p4 #adg4 ,the ,dingo differs from the dogs of the central ,polynesian islands4 ,dieffenbach remarks 7#8,travels1' vol4 ii4 p4 #de7 that the native ,new ,zealand dog also differs from the ,dingo4 #bh ,these latter remarks afford1 ,i think1 a sufficient answer to some criticisms by ,mr4 ,wallace1 on the multiple origin of dogs1 given in ,lyell's #8,principles of ,geology1' #ahgb1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bie4 #bi #8,proceedings ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahcc1 p4 #aab4 ,see also1 on the taming of the common wolf1 ,l4 ,lloyd1 #8,scandinavian ,adventures1' #ahed1 vol4 i4 p4 #dfj4 ,with respect to the jackal1 see ,prof4 ,gervais #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,mamm4' tom4 ii4 p4 #fa4 ,with respect to the aguara of ,paraguay see ,rengger's work4 #cj ,roulin1 in #8,mm4 prsent4 par divers ,savans1' tom4 vi4 p4 #cda4 #ca ,martin1 #8,history of the ,dog1' p4 #ad4 #cb ,quoted by ,l4 ,lloyd in #8,field ,sports of ,north of ,europe1' vol4 i4 p4 #chg4 #cc ,quatrefages1 #8,soc4 d',acclimat41' ,may #aath1 #ahfc1 p4 #g4 #cd #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' vol4 xv41 #ahde1 p4 #adj4 #ce ,azara1 #8,voyages dans l',amr4 ,mrid4' tom4 i4 p4 #cha2 his account is fully confirmed by ,rengger4 ,quatrefages gives an account of a bitch brought from ,jerusalem to ,france which burrowed a hole and littered in it4 ,see #8,discours1 ,exposition des ,races ,canines1' #ahfe1 p4 #c4 #cf ,with respect to wolves burrowing holes see ,richardson1 #8,fauna ,boreali-,americana1' p4 #fd2 and ,bechstein #8,naturgeschichte ,deutschlands1' ,b4 i4 s4 #fag4 #cg ,see ,poeppig1 #8,reise in ,chile1' ,b4 i4 s4 #bij2 ,mr4 ,g4 ,clarke1 as above2 and ,rengger1 s4 #aee4 #ch ,dogs1 #8,nat4 ,library1' vol4 x4 p4 #aba2 an endemic ,south ,american dog seems also to have become feral in this island4 ,see ,gosse's #8,jamaica1' p4 #cdj4 #ci ,low #8,domesticated ,animals1' p4 #fej4 #dj #8,the ,naturalist ,library1' ,dogs1 vol4 x4 pp4 #d1 #ai4 #da ,quoted by ,prof4 ,gervais1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,mamm41' tom4 ii4 p4 #ff4 #db ,j4 ,hunter shows that the long period of seventy-three days given by ,buffon is easily explained by the bitch having received the dog many times during a period of sixteen days 7#8,phil4 ,transact41' #aghg1 p4 #cec74 ,hunter found that the gestation of a mongrel from wolf and dog 7#8,phil4 ,transact41' #aghi1 p4 #afj7 apparently was sixty-three days1 for she received the dog more than once4 ,the period of a mongrel dog and jackal was fifty-nine days4 ,fred4 ,cuvier found the period of gestation of the wolf to be 7#8,dict4 ,class4 d',hist4 ,nat4' tom4 iv4 p4 #h7 two months and a few days1 which agrees with the dog4 ,isid ,g4 ,st4-,hilaire1 who has discussed the whole subject1 and from whom ,i quote ,bellingeri1 states 7#8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #aab7 that in the ,jardin des ,plantes the period of the jackal has been found to be from sixty to sixty-three days1 exactly as with the dog4 #dc ,see ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #aab1 on the odour of jackals4 ,col4 ,ham4 ,smith in #8,nat4 ,lib41' vol4 x4 p4 #bhi4 #dd ,quoted by ,quatrefages in #8,bull4 ,soc4 d',acclimat41' ,may #aath1 #ahfc4 #de #8,journal de la ,physiologie1' tom4 ii4 p4 #che4 #df ,see ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill's excellent account of this breed in ,gosse's #8,jamaica1' p4 #cch2 ,rengger #8,sugethiere von ,paraguay1' s4 #aec4 ,with respect to ,spitz dogs1 see ,bechstein's #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands1' #ahja1 ,b4 i4 s4 #fch4 ,with respect to ,dr4 ,hodgkin's statement made before ,brit4 ,assoc4 see #8,the ,zoologist1' vol4 iv4 for #ahde-df p4 #ajig4 #dg #8,acta ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh1' #aghj1 part ii4 pp4 #hd1 #ajj4 #dh ,m4 ,broca has shown 7#8,journal de ,physiologie1' tom4 ii4 p4 #cec7 that ,buffon's experiments have been often misrepresented4 ,broca has collected 7pp4 #cij-cie7 many facts on the fertility of crossed dogs1 wolves1 and jackals4 #di #8,de la ,longvit ,humaine1' par ,m4 ,flourens1 #ahee1 p4 #adc4 ,mr4 ,blyth says 7#8,indian ,sporting ,review1' vol4 #b p4 #acg7 that he has seen in ,india several hybrids from the pariah-dog and jackal2 and between one of these hybrids and a terrier4 ,the experiments of ,hunter on the jackal are well-known4 ,see also ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #bag1 who speaks of the hybrid offspring of the jackal as perfectly fertile for three generations4 #ej ,on authority of ,f4 ,cuvier quoted in ,bronn's #8,geschichte der ,natur1' ,b ii4 s4 #afd4 #ea ,w4 ,c4 ,l4 ,martin #8,history of the ,dog1' #ahde1 p4 #bjc4 ,mr4 ,philip ,p4 ,king1 after ample opportunities of observation1 informs me that the ,dingo and ,european dogs often cross in ,australia4 #eb ,rppel #8,neue ,wirbelthiere von ,abyssinien1' #ahce-dj #8,mammif41' s4 #ci pl4 xiv4 ,there is a specimen of this fine animal in the ,british ,museum4 #ec ,even ,pallas admits this2 see #8,act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh1' #aghj1 p4 #ic4 #ed ,quoted by ,i4 ,geoffroy1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #dec4 #ee ,f4 ,cuvier in #8,annales du ,musum1' tom4 xviii4 p4 #ccg2 ,godron #8,de l',espce1' tom4 i4 p4 #cdb2 and ,col4 ,h4 ,smith in #8,nat4 ,library1' vol4 ix4 p4 #aja4 ,see also some observations on the degeneracy of the skull in certain breeds1 by ,prof4 ,bianconi1 #8,la ,theorie ,darwinienne1' #ahgd1 p4 #bgi4 #ef ,dr4 ,burt ,wilder1 #8,american ,assoc4 ,advancement of ,science1' #ahgc1 pp4 #bcf1 #bci4 #eg ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' #ahcb1 tom4 i4 p4 #ffj1 ,gervais #8,hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammifres1' tom4 ii41 #ahee1 p4 #ff4 ,de ,blainville 7#8,ostographie1 ,canid1' p4 #acg7 has also seen an extra molar on both sides4 #eh #8,ostographie1 ,canid1' p4 #acg4 #ei ,wrzburger #8,medecin4 ,zeitschrift1' #ahfj1 ,b4 i4 s4 #bfe4 #fj ,mr4 ,yarrell in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,oct4 #hth1 #ahcc4 ,mr4 ,waterhouse showed me a skull of one of these dogs1 which had only a single molar on each side and some imperfect incisors4 #fa ,quoted in #8,the ,veterinary1' ,london1 vol4 viii4 p4 #dae4 #fb ,this is quoted from ,stonehenge1 a great authority1 #8,the ,dog1' #ahfg1 p4 #ahg4 #fc #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gnral1' tom4 iii4 p4 #ddh4 #fd ,w4 ,scrope #8,art of ,deer-,stalking1' p4 #ced4 #fe ,quoted by ,col4 ,ham4 ,smith in #8,nat4 ,lib41' vol4 x4 p4 #gi4 #ff ,de ,blainville #8,ostographie1 ,canid1' p4 #acd4 ,f4 ,cuvier #8,annales du ,musum1' tom4 xviii4 p4 #cdb4 ,in regard to mastiffs1 see ,col4 ,h4 ,smith #8,nat4 ,lib4' vol4 x4 p4 #bah4 ,for the ,thibet mastiff1 see ,mr4 ,hodgson in #8,journal of ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 i41 #ahcb1 p4 #cdb4 #fg #8,the ,dog1' #ahde1 p4 #ahf4 ,with respect to diseases ,youatt asserts 7p4 #afg7 that the ,italian greyhound is 8strongly subject0 to polypi in the matrix or vagina4 ,the spaniel and pug 7p4 #ahb7 are most liable to bronchocele4 ,the liability to distemper 7p4 #bcb7 is extremely different in different breeds4 ,on the distemper1 see also ,col4 ,hutchinson on #8,dog ,breaking1' #ahej1 p4 #bgi4 #fh ,see ,youatt on the ,dog1 p4 #ae2 #8,the ,veterinary1' ,london1 vol4 xi4 p4 #bce4 #fi #8,journal of ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 iii4 p4 #ai4 #gj #8,travels1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ae4 #ga ,hodgson in #8,journal of ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 i4 p4 #cdb4 #gb #8,field ,sports of the ,north of ,europe1' vol4 ii4 p4 #afe4 #gc #8,hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammif41' #ahee1 tom4 ii4 pp4 #ff1 #fg4 #gd #8,history of ,quadrupeds1' #agic1 vol4 i4 p4 #bch4 #ge #8,oriental ,field ,sports1' quoted by ,youatt1 #8,the ,dog1' p4 #ae4 #gf ,a4 ,murray gives this passage in his #8,geographical ,distribution of ,mammals1' #dto1 #ahff1 p4 #h4 #gg ,quoted by ,mr4 ,galton1 #8,domestication of ,animals1' p4 #ac4 #gh #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #dej4 #gi ,mr4 ,greenhow on the ,canadian ,dog in ,loudon's #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 vi41 #ahcc1 p4 #eaa4 #hj ,see ,mr4 ,c4 ,o4 ,groom-,napier on the webbing of the hind feet of ,otterhounds in #8,land and ,water1' ,oct4 #ac1 #ahff1 p4 #bgj4 #ha #8,fauna ,boreali-,americana1' #ahbi1 p4 #fb4 #hb #8,the ,horse in all his ,varieties1' etc41 #ahbi1 pp4 #bcj1 #bcd4 #hc #8,the ,dog1' #ahde1 pp4 #ca1 #ce2 with respect to ,king ,charles's spaniel1 p4 #de2 for the setter1 p4 #ij4 #hd ,in the #8,encyclop4 of ,rural ,sports1' p4 #eeg4 #he ,author of #8,researches into the ,history of the ,british ,dog4' #hf ,see ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith on the antiquity of the ,pointer1 in #8,nat4 ,lib4' vol4 x4 p4 #aif4 #hg ,the ,newfoundland dog is believed to have originated from a cross between the ,esquimaux dog and a large ,french hound4 ,see ,dr4 ,hodgkin #8,british ,assoc41' #ahdd2 ,bechstein #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschland1' ,b4 i4 s4 #egd2 #8,nat4 ,lib41' vol4 x4 p4 #acb2 also ,mr4 ,jukes' #8,excursion in and about ,newfoundland4' #hh ,de ,blainville #8,ostographie1 ,felis1' p4 #fe1 on the character of ,f4 caligulata2 pp4 #he1 #hi1 #ij1 #age1 on the other mummied species4 ,he quotes ,ehrenberg on ,f4 maniculata being mummied4 #hi ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,calcutta2 ,curator's ,report1 ,aug4 #ahef4 ,the passage from ,sir ,w4 ,jardine is quoted from this ,report4 ,mr4 ,blyth1 who has especially attended to the wild and domestic cats of ,india1 has given in this ,report a very interesting discussion on their origin4 #ij #8,fauna ,hungari ,sup41' #ahfb1 s4 #ab4 #ia ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #agg4 #ib #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfc1 p4 #ahd4 #ic #8,sugethiere von ,paraguay1' #ahcj1 s4 #bab4 #id #8,mem4 prsents par divers ,savans3 ,acad4 ,roy4 des ,sciences1' tom4 vi4 p4 #cdf4 ,gomara first noticed this fact in #aeed4 #ie #8,narrative of ,voyages1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ahj4 #if ,j4 ,crawfurd #8,descript4 ,dict4 of the ,indian ,islands1' p4 #bee4 ,the ,madagascar cat is said to have a twisted tail2 see ,desmarest in #8,encyclop4 ,nat4 ,mamm41' #ahbj1 p4 #bcc1 for some of the other breeds4 #ig ,admiral ,lutk's ,voyage1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cjh4 #ih #8,zoology of the ,voyage of the ,beagle1 ,mammalia1' p4 #bj4 ,dieffenbach #8,travels in ,new ,zealand1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ahe4 ,ch4 ,st4 ,john #8,wild ,sports of the ,highlands1' #ahdf1 p4 #dj4 #ii ,quoted by ,isid4 ,geoffroy #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #dbg4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,horses ,,and ,,asses4 ,,horse4 ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,breeds--,,individual ,,variability ,,of--,,direct ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,can ,,withstand ,,much ,,cold--,,breeds ,,much ,,modified ,,by ,,selection--,,colours ,,of ,,the ,,horse--,,dappling--,,dark ,,stripes ,,on ,,the ,,spine1 ,,legs1 ,,shoulders1 ,,and ,,forehead--,,dun-,,coloured ,,horses ,,most ,,frequently ,,striped--,,stripes ,,probably ,,due ,,to ,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,primitive ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,,asses4 ,,breeds ,,of--,,colour ,,of--,,leg- ,,and ,,shoulder-,,stripes--,,shoulder-,,strip es ,,sometimes ,,absent1 ,,sometimes ,,forked4 ,the history of the ,horse is lost in antiquity4 ,remains of this animal in a domesticated condition have been found in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 belonging to the ,neolithic period4#a ,at the present time the number of breeds is great1 as may be seen by consulting any treatise on the ,horse4#b ,looking only to the native ponies of ,great ,britain1 those of the ,shetland ,isles1 ,wales1 the ,new ,forest1 and ,devonshire are distinguishable2 and so it is1 amongst other instances1 with each separate island in the great ,malay archipelago4#c ,some of the breeds present great differences in size1 shape of ears1 length of mane1 proportions of the body1 form of the withers and hind quarters1 and especially in the head4 ,compare the race-horse1 dray-horse1 and a ,shetland pony in size1 configuration1 and disposition2 and see how much greater the difference is than between the seven or eight other living species of the genus ,equus4 ,of individual variations not known to characterise particular breeds1 and not great or injurious enough to be called monstrosities1 ,i have not collected many cases4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,brown1 of the ,cirencester ,agricultural ,college1 who has particularly attended to the dentition of our domestic animals1 writes to me that he has 8several times noticed eight permanent incisors instead of six in the jaw40 ,male horses only should have canines1 but they are occasionally found in the mare1 though a small size4#d ,the number of ribs on each side is properly eighteen1 but ,youatt#e asserts that not unfrequently there are nineteen1 the additional one being always the posterior rib4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the ancient ,indian horse is said in the ,rig-,vda to have only seventeen ribs2 and ,m4 ,pitrement1#f who has called attention to this subject1 gives various reasons for placing full trust in this statement1 more especially as during former times the ,hindoos carefully counted the bones of animals4 ,i have seen several notices of variations in the bones of the leg2 thus ,mr4 ,price#g speaks of an additional bone in the hock1 and of certain abnormal appearances between the tibia and astragalus1 as quite common in ,irish horses1 and not due to disease4 ,horses have often been observed1 according to ,m4 ,gaudry1#h to possess a trapezium and a rudiment of a fifth metacarpal bone1 so that 8one sees appearing by monstrosity1 in the foot of the horse1 structures which normally exist in the foot of the ,hipparion10--an allied and extinct animal4 ,in various countries horn-like projections have been observed on the frontal bones of the horse3 in one case described by ,mr4 ,percival they arose about two inches above the orbital processes1 and were 8very like those in a calf from five to six months old10 being from half to three-quarters of an inch in length4#i ,azara has described two cases in ,south ,america in which the projections were between three and four inches in length3 other instances have occurred in ,spain4 ,that there has been much inherited variation in the horse cannot be doubted1 when we reflect on the number of the breeds existing throughout the world or even within the same country1 and when we know that they have largely increased in number since the earliest known records4#aj ,even in so fleeting a character as colour1 ,hofacker#aa found that1 out of #baf cases in which horses of the same colour were paired1 only eleven pairs produced foals of a quite different colour4 ,as ,professor ,low#ab has remarked1 the ,english race-horse offers the best possible evidence of inheritance4 ,the pedigree of a race-horse is of more value in judging of its probable success than its appearance3 8,king ,herod0 gained in prizes #bja1eje pounds sterling1 and begot #dig winners2 8,eclipse0 begot #ccd winners4 ,whether the whole amount of difference between the various breeds has arisen under domestication is doubtful4 ,from the fertility of the most distinct breeds#ac when crossed1 naturalists have generally looked at all the breeds as having descended from a single species4 ,few will agree with ,colonel ,h4 ,smith1 who believes that they have descended from no less than five primitive and differently coloured stocks4#ad ,but as several species and varieties of the horse existed#ae during the later tertiary periods1 and as ,rutimeyer found differences in the size and form of the skull in the earliest known domesticated horses1#af we ought not to feel sure that all our breeds are descended from a single species4 ,the savages of ,north and ,south ,america easily reclaim the feral horses1 so that there is no improbability in savages in various quarters of the world having domesticated more than one native species or natural race4 ,m4 ,sanson#ag thinks that he has proved that two distinct species have been domesticated1 one in the ,east1 and one in ,north ,africa2 and that these differed in the number of their lumbar vertebra and in various other parts2 but ,m4 ,sanson seems to believe that osteological characters are subject to very little variation1 which is certainly a mistake4 ,at present no aboriginal or truly wild horse is positively known to exist2 for it is commonly believed that the wild horses of the ,east are escaped domestic animals4#ah ,if therefore our domestic breeds are descended from several species or natural races1 all have become extinct in the wild state4 ,with respect to the causes of the modifications which horses have undergone1 the conditions of life seem to produce a considerable direct effect4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,forbes1 who has had excellent opportunities of comparing the horses of ,spain with those of ,south ,america1 informs me that the horses of ,chile1 which have lived under nearly the same conditions as their progenitors in ,andalusia1 remain unaltered1 whilst the ,pampas horses and the ,puno horses are considerably modified4 ,there can be no doubt that horses become greatly reduced in size and altered in appearance by living on mountains and islands2 and this apparently is due to want of nutritious or varied food4 ,every one knows how small and rugged the ponies are on the ,northern islands and on the mountains of ,europe4 ,corsica and ,sardinia have their native ponies2 and there were1#ai or still are1 on some islands on the coast of ,virginia1 ponies like those of the ,shetland ,islands1 which are believed to have originated through exposure to unfavourable conditions4 ,the ,puno ponies1 which inhabit the lofty regions of the ,cordillera1 are1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,d4 ,forbes1 strange little creatures1 very unlike their ,spanish progenitors4 ,further south1 in the ,falkland ,islands1 the offspring of the horses imported in #agfd have already so much deteriorated in size#bj and strength that they are unfitted for catching wild cattle with the lasso2 so that fresh horses have to be brought for this purpose from ,la ,plata at a great expense4 ,the reduced size of the horses bred on both southern and northern islands1 and on several mountain-chains1 can hardly have been caused by the cold1 as a similar reduction has occurred on the ,virginian and ,mediterranean islands4 ,the horse can withstand intense cold1 for wild troops live on the plains of ,siberia under lat4 #ef1ba and aboriginally the horses must have inhabited countries annually covered with snow1 for he long retains the instinct of scraping it away to get at the herbage beneath4 ,the wild tarpans in the ,east have this instinct2 and so it is1 as ,i am informed by ,admiral ,sulivan1 with the horses recently and formerly introduced into the ,falkland ,islands from ,la ,plata1 some of which have run wild2 this latter fact is remarkable1 as the progenitors of these horses could not have followed this instinct during many generations in ,la ,plata4 ,on the other hand1 the wild cattle of the ,falklands never scrape away the snow1 and perish when the ground is long covered4 ,in the northern parts of ,america the horses descended from those introduced by the ,spanish conquerors of ,mexico1 have the same habit1 as have the native bisons1 but not so the cattle introduced from ,europe4#bb ,the horse can flourish under intense heat as well as under intense cold1 for he is known to come to the highest perfection1 though not attaining a large size1 in ,arabia and northern ,africa4 ,much humidity is apparently more injurious to the horse than heat or cold4 ,in the ,falkland ,islands1 horses suffer much from the dampness2 and this circumstance may perhaps partly account for the singular fact that to the eastward of the ,bay of ,bengal1#bc over an enormous and humid area1 in ,ava1 ,pegu1 ,siam1 the ,malayan archipelago1 the ,loo ,choo ,islands1 and a large part of ,china1 no full-sized horse is found4 ,when we advance as far eastward as ,japan1 the horse reacquires his full size4#bd ,with most of our domesticated animals1 some breeds are kept on account of their curiosity or beauty2 but the horse is valued almost solely for its utility4 ,hence semi-monstrous breeds are not preserved2 and probably all the existing breeds have been slowly formed either by the direct action of the conditions of life1 or through the selection of individual differences4 ,no doubt semi-monstrous breeds might have been formed3 thus ,mr4 ,waterton records#be the case of a mare which produced successively three foals without tails2 so that a tailless race might have been formed like the tailless races of dogs and cats4 ,a ,russian breed of horses is said to have curled hair1 and ,azara#bf relates that in ,paraguay horses are occasionally born1 but are generally destroyed1 with hair like that on the head of a negro2 and this peculiarity is transmitted even to half-breeds3 it is a curious case of correlation that such horses have short manes and tails1 and their hoofs are of a peculiar shape like those of a mule4 ,it is scarcely possible to doubt that the long-continued selection of qualities serviceable to man has been the chief agent in the formation of the several breeds of the horse4 ,look at a dray-horse1 and see how well adapted he is to draw heavy weights1 and how unlike in appearance to any allied wild animal4 ,the ,english race-horse is known to be derived from the commingled blood of ,arabs1 ,turks1 and ,barbs2 but selection1 which was carried on during very early times in ,england1#bg together with training1 have made him a very different animal from his parent-stocks4 ,as a writer in ,india1 who evidently knows the pure ,arab well1 asks1 who now1 8looking at our present breed of race-horses1 could have conceived that they were the result of the union of the ,arab horse and ,african mare80 ,the improvement is so marked that in running for the ,goodwood ,cup the first descendants of ,arabian1 ,turkish1 and ,persian horses1 are allowed a discount of #ah pounds weight2 and when both parents are of these countries a discount of #cf pounds4#bh ,it is notorious that the ,arabs have long been as careful about the pedigree of their horses as we are1 and this implies great and continued care in breeding4 ,seeing what has been done in ,england by careful breeding1 can we doubt that the ,arabs must likewise have produced during the course of centuries a marked effect on the qualities of their horses8 ,but we may go much farther back in time1 for in the ,bible we hear of studs carefully kept for breeding1 and of horses imported at high prices from various countries4#bi ,we may therefore conclude that1 whether or not the various existing breeds of the horse have proceeded from one or more aboriginal stocks1 yet that a great amount of change has resulted from the direct action of the conditions of life1 and probably a still greater amount from the long-continued selection by man of slight individual differences4 ,with several domesticated quadrupeds and birds1 certain coloured marks are either strongly inherited or tend to reappear after having been lost for a long time4 ,as this subject will hereafter be seen to be of importance1 ,i will give a full account of the colouring of horses4 ,all ,english breeds1 however unlike in size and appearance1 and several of those in ,india and the ,malay archipelago1 present a similar range and diversity of colour4 ,the ,english race-horse1 however1 is said#cj never to be dun-coloured2 but as dun and cream-coloured horses are considered by the ,arabs as worthless1 8and fit only for ,jews to ride10#ca these tints may have been removed by long-continued selection4 ,horses of every colour1 and of such widely different kinds as dray-horses1 cobs1 and ponies1 are all occasionally dappled1#cb in the same manner as is so conspicuous with grey horses4 ,this fact does not throw any clear light on the colouring of the aboriginal horse1 but is a case of analogous variation1 for even asses are sometimes dappled1 and ,i have seen1 in the ,british ,museum1 a hybrid from the ass and zebra dappled on its hinder quarters4 ,by the expression analogous variation 7and it is one that ,i shall often have occasion to use7 ,i mean a variation occurring in a species or variety which resembles a normal character in another and distinct species or variety4 ,analogous variations may arise1 as will be explained in a future chapter1 from two or more forms with a similar constitution having been exposed to similar conditions1--or from one of two forms having reacquired through reversion a character inherited by the other form from their common progenitor1--or from both forms having reverted to the same ancestral character4 ,we shall immediately see that horses occasionally exhibit a tendency to become striped over a large part of their bodies2 and as we know that in the varieties of the domestic cat and in several feline species stripes readily pass into spots and cloudy marks--even the cubs of the uniformly-coloured lion being spotted with dark marks on a lighter ground--we may suspect that the dappling of the horse1 which has been noticed by some authors with surprise1 is a modification or vestige of a tendency to become striped4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,dun ,devonshire ,pony1 with shoulder1 spinal1 and leg stripes4 ,this tendency in the horse to become striped is in several respects an interesting fact4 ,horses of all colours1 of the most diverse breeds1 in various parts of the world1 often have a dark stripe extending along the spine1 from the mane to the tail2 but this is so common that ,i need enter into no particulars4#cc ,occasionally horses are transversely barred on the legs1 chiefly on the under side2 and more rarely they have a distinct stripe on the shoulder1 like that on the shoulder of the ass1 or a broad dark patch representing a stripe4 ,before entering on any details ,i must premise that the term dun-coloured is vague1 and includes three groups of colours1 viz41 that between cream-colour and reddish-brown1 which graduates into light-bay or light-chestnut--this1 ,i believe is often called fallow-dun2 secondly1 leaden or slate-colour or mouse-dun1 which graduates into an ash-colour2 and1 lastly1 dark-dun1 between brown and black4 ,in ,england ,i have examined a rather large1 lightly-built1 fallow-dun ,devonshire pony 7,figure #a71 with a conspicuous stripe along the back1 with light transverse stripes on the under sides of its front legs1 and with four parallel stripes on each shoulder4 ,of these four stripes the posterior one was very minute and faint2 the anterior one1 on the other hand1 was long and broad1 but interrupted in the middle1 and truncated at its lower extremity1 with the anterior angle produced into a long tapering point4 ,i mention this latter fact because the shoulder-stripe of the ass occasionally presents exactly the same appearance4 ,i have had an outline and description sent to me of a small1 purely-bred1 light fallow-dun ,welch pony1 with a spinal stripe1 a single transverse stripe on each leg1 and three shoulder-stripes2 the posterior stripe corresponding with that on the shoulder of the ass was the longest1 whilst the two anterior parallel stripes1 arising from the mane1 decreased in length1 in a reversed manner as compared with the shoulder-stripes on the above-described ,devonshire pony4 ,i have seen a bright fallow-dun cob1 with its front legs transversely barred on the under sides in the most conspicuous manner2 also a dark-leaden mouse-coloured pony with similar leg stripes1 but much less conspicuous2 also a bright fallow-dun colt1 fully three-parts thoroughbred1 with very plain transverse stripes on the legs2 also a chestnut-dun cart-horse with a conspicuous spinal stripe1 with distinct traces of shoulder-stripes1 but none on the legs2 ,i could add other cases4 ,my son made a sketch for me of a large1 heavy1 ,belgian cart-horse1 of a fallow-dun1 with a conspicuous spinal stripe1 traces of leg-stripes1 and with two parallel 7three inches apart7 stripes about seven or eight inches in length on both shoulders4 ,i have seen another rather light cart-horse1 of a dirty dark cream-colour1 with striped legs1 and on one shoulder a large ill-defined dark cloudy patch1 and on the opposite shoulder two parallel faint stripes4 ,all the cases yet mentioned are duns of various tints2 but ,mr4 ,w4 ,w4 ,edwards has seen a nearly thoroughbred chestnut horse which had the spinal stripe1 and distinct bars on the legs2 and ,i have seen two bay carriage-horses with black spinal stripes2 one of these horses had on each shoulder a light shoulder-stripe1 and the other had a broad back ill-defined stripe1 running obliquely half-way down each shoulder2 neither had leg-stripes4 ,the most interesting case which ,i have met with occurred in a colt of my own breeding4 ,a bay mare 7descended from a dark-brown ,flemish mare by a light grey ,turcoman horse7 was put to ,hercules1 a thoroughbred dark bay1 whose sire 7,kingston7 and dam were both bays4 ,the colt ultimately turned out brown2 but when only a fortnight old it was a dirty bay1 shaded with mouse-grey1 and in parts with a yellowish tint3 it had only a trace of the spinal stripe1 with a few obscure transverse bars on the legs2 but almost the whole body was marked with very narrow dark stripes1 in most parts so obscure as to be visible only in certain lights1 like the stripes which may be seen on black kittens4 ,these stripes were distinct on the hind-quarters1 where they diverged from the spine1 and pointed a little forwards2 many of them as they diverged became a little branched1 exactly in the same manner as in some zebrine species4 ,the stripes were plainest on the forehead between the ears1 where they formed a set of pointed arches1 one under the other1 decreasing in size downwards towards the muzzle2 exactly similar marks may be seen on the forehead of the quagga and ,burchell's zebra4 ,when this foal was two or three months old all the stripes entirely disappeared4 ,i have seen similar marks on the forehead of a fully grown1 fallow-dun1 cob-like horse1 having a conspicuous spinal stripe1 and with its front legs well barred4 ,in ,norway the colour of the native horse or pony is dun1 varying from almost cream-colour to dark-mouse dun2 and an animal is not considered purely bred unless it has the spinal and leg-stripes4#cd ,my son estimated that about a third of the ponies which he saw there had striped legs2 he counted seven stripes on the fore-legs and two on the hind-legs of one pony2 only a few of them exhibited traces of shoulder stripes2 but ,i have heard of a cob imported from ,norway which had the shoulder as well as the other stripes well developed4 ,colonel ,h4 ,smith#ce alludes to dun-horses with the spinal stripe in the ,sierras of ,spain2 and the horses originally derived from ,spain1 in some parts of ,south ,america1 are now duns4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot informs me that he inspected a herd of #cjj ,south ,american horses imported into ,madras1 and many of these had transverse stripes on the legs and short shoulder-stripes2 the most strongly marked individual1 of which a coloured drawing was sent me1 was a mouse-dun1 with the shoulder-stripes slightly forked4 ,in the ,north-,western parts of ,india striped horses of more than one breed are apparently commoner than in any other part of the world2 and ,i have received information respecting them from several officers1 especially from ,colonel ,poole1 ,colonel ,curtis1 ,major ,campbell1 ,brigadier ,st4 ,john1 and others4 ,the ,kattywar horses are often fifteen or sixteen hands in height1 and are well but lightly built4 ,they are of all colours1 but the several kinds of duns prevail2 and these are so generally striped1 that a horse without stripes is not considered pure4 ,colonel ,poole believes that all the duns have the spinal stripe1 the leg-stripes are generally present1 and he thinks that about half the horses have the shoulder-stripe2 this stripe is sometimes double or treble on both shoulders4 ,colonel ,poole has often seen stripes on the cheeks and sides of the nose4 ,he has seen stripes on the grey and bay ,kattywars when first foaled1 but they soon faded away4 ,i have received other accounts of cream-coloured1 bay1 brown1 and grey ,kattywar horses being striped4 ,eastward of ,india1 the ,shan 7north of ,burmah7 ponies1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,blyth1 have spinal1 leg1 and shoulder stripes4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot informs me that he saw two bay ,pegu ponies with leg-stripes4 ,burmese and ,javanese ponies are frequently dun-coloured1 and have the three kinds of stripes1 8in the same degree as in ,england40#cf ,mr4 ,swinhoe informs me that he examined two light-dun ponies of two ,chinese breeds1 viz41 those of ,shanghai and ,amoy2 both had the spinal stripe1 and the latter an indistinct shoulder-stripe4 ,we thus see that in all parts of the world breeds of the horse as different as possible1 when of a dun-colour 7including under this term a wide range of tint from cream to dusty black71 and rarely when almost white tinged with yellow1 grey1 bay1 and chestnut1 have the several above-specified stripes4 ,horses which are of a yellow colour with white mane and tail1 and which are sometimes called duns1 ,i have never seen with stripes4#cg ,from reasons which will be apparent in the chapter on ,reversion1 ,i have endeavoured1 but with poor success1 to discover whether duns1 which are so much oftener striped than other coloured horses1 are ever produced from the crossing of two horses1 neither of which are duns4 ,most persons to whom ,i have applied believe that one parent must be dun2 and it is generally asserted that1 when this is the case1 the dun-colour and the stripes are strongly inherited4#ch ,one case1 however1 has fallen under my own observation of a foal from a black mare by a bay horse1 which when fully grown was a dark fallow-dun and had a narrow but plain spinal stripe4 ,hofacker#ci gives two instances of mouse-duns 7,mausrapp7 being produced from two parents of different colours and neither duns4 ,the stripes of all kinds are generally plainer in the foal than in the adult horse1 being commonly lost at the first shedding of the hair4#dj ,colonel ,poole believes that 8the stripes in the ,kattywar breed are plainest when the colt is first foaled2 they then become less and less distinct till after the first coat is shed1 when they come out as strongly as before2 but certainly often fade away as the age of the horse increases40 ,two other accounts confirm this fading of the stripes in old horses in ,india4 ,one writer1 on the other hand1 states that colts are often born without stripes1 but that they appear as the colt grows older4 ,three authorities affirm that in ,norway the stripes are less plain in the foal than in the adult4 ,in the case described by me of the young foal which was narrowly striped over nearly all its body1 there was no doubt about the early and complete disappearance of the stripes4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,w4 ,edwards examined for me twenty-two foals of race-horses1 and twelve had the spinal stripe more or less plain2 this fact1 and some other accounts which ,i have received1 lead me to believe that the spinal stripe often disappears in the ,english race-horse when old4 ,with natural species1 the young often exhibit characters which disappear at maturity4 ,the stripes are variable in colour1 but are always darker than the rest of the body4 ,they do not by any means always coexist on the different parts of the body3 the legs may be striped without any shoulder-stripe1 or the converse case1 which is rarer1 may occur2 but ,i have never heard of either shoulder or leg-stripes without the spinal stripe4 ,the latter is by far the commonest of all the stripes1 as might have been expected1 as it characterises the other seven or eight species of the genus4 ,it is remarkable that so trifling a character as the shoulder-stripe being double or triple should occur in such different breeds as ,welch and ,devonshire ponies1 the ,shan pony1 heavy cart-horses1 light ,south ,american horses1 and the lanky ,kattywar breed4 ,colonel ,hamilton ,smith believes that one of his five supposed primitive stocks was dun-coloured and striped2 and that the stripes in all the other breeds result from ancient crosses with this one primitive dun2 but it is extremely improbable that different breeds living in such distant quarters of the world should all have been crossed with any one aboriginally distinct stock4 ,nor have we any reason to believe that the effects of a cross at a very remote period would be propagated for so many generations as is implied on this view4 ,with respect to the primitive colour of the horse having been dun1 ,colonel ,hamilton ,smith#da has collected a large body of evidence showing that this tint was common in the ,east as far back as the time of ,alexander1 and that the wild horses of ,western ,asia and ,eastern ,europe now are1 or recently were1 of various shades of dun4 ,it seems that not very long ago a wild breed of dun-coloured horses with a spinal stripe was preserved in the royal parks in ,prussia4 ,i hear from ,hungary that the inhabitants of that country look at the duns with a spinal stripe as the aboriginal stock1 and so it is in ,norway4 ,dun-coloured ponies are not rare in the mountainous parts of ,devonshire1 ,wales1 and ,scotland1 where the aboriginal breed would have the best chance of being preserved4 ,in ,south ,america in the time of ,azara1 when the horse had been feral for about #bej years1 #ij out of #ajj horses were 8bai-chtains10 and the remaining ten were 8zains10 that is brown2 not more than one in #bjjj being black4 ,in ,north ,america the feral horses show a strong tendency to become roans of various shades2 but in certain parts1 as ,i hear from ,dr4 ,canfield1 they are mostly duns and striped4#db ,in the following chapters on the ,pigeon we shall see that a blue bird is occasionally produced by pure breeds of various colours and that when this occurs certain black marks invariably appear on the wings and tail2 so again1 when variously coloured breeds are crossed1 blue birds with the same black marks are frequently produced4 ,we shall further see that these facts are explained by1 and afford strong evidence in favour of1 the view that all the breeds are descended from the rock-pigeon1 or ,columba livia1 which is thus coloured and marked4 ,but the appearance of the stripes on the various breeds of the horse1 when of a dun colour1 does not afford nearly such good evidence of their descent from a single primitive stock as in the case of the pigeon3 because no horse certainly wild is known as a standard of comparison2 because the stripes when they appear are variable in character2 because there is far from sufficient evidence that the crossing of distinct breeds produces stripes1 and lastly1 because all the species of the genus ,equus have the spinal stripe1 and several species have shoulder and leg stripes4 ,nevertheless the similarity in the most distinct breeds in their general range of colour1 in their dappling1 and in the occasional appearance1 especially in duns1 of leg-stripes and of double or triple shoulder-stripes1 taken together1 indicate the probability of the descent of all the existing races from a single1 dun-coloured1 more or less striped1 primitive stock1 to which our horses occasionally revert4 ,,the ,,ass4 ,four species of ,asses1 besides three zebras1 have been described by naturalists4 ,there is now little doubt that our domesticated animal is descended from the ,equus tniopus of ,abyssinia4#dc ,the ass is sometimes advanced as an instance of an animal domesticated1 as we know by the ,old ,testament1 from an ancient period1 which has varied only in a very slight degree4 ,but this is by no means strictly true2 for in ,syria alone there are four breeds2#dd first1 a light and graceful animal1 with an agreeable gait1 used by ladies2 secondly1 an ,arab breed reserved exclusively for the saddle2 thirdly1 a stouter animal used for ploughing and various purposes2 and lastly1 the large ,damascus breed1 with a peculiarly long body and ears4 ,in the ,south of ,france also there are several breeds1 and one of extraordinary size1 some individuals being as tall as full-sized horses4 ,although the ass in ,england is by no means uniform in appearance1 distinct breeds have not been formed4 ,this may probably be accounted for by the animal being kept chiefly by poor persons1 who do not rear large numbers1 nor carefully match and select the young4 ,for1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 the ass can with ease be greatly improved in size and strength by careful selection1 combined no doubt with good food2 and we may infer that all its other characters would be equally amenable to selection4 ,the small size of the ass in ,england and ,northern ,europe is apparently due far more to want of care in breeding than to cold2 for in ,western ,india1 where the ass is used as a beast of burden by some of the lower castes1 it is not much larger than a ,newfoundland dog1 8being generally not more than from twenty to thirty inches high40#de ,the ass varies greatly in colour2 and its legs1 especially the fore-legs1 both in ,england and other countries--for instance1 in ,china--are occasionally barred more plainly than those of dun-coloured horses4 ,thirteen or fourteen transverse stripes have been counted on both the fore and hind legs4 ,with the horse the occasional appearance of leg-stripes was accounted for by reversion to a supposed parent-form1 and in the case of the ass we may confidently believe in this explanation1 as ,e4 tniopus is known to be barred1 though only in a slight degree1 and not quite invariably4 ,the stripes are believed to occur most frequently and to be plainest on the legs of the domestic ass during early youth1#df as likewise occurs with the horse4 ,the shoulder-stripe1 which is so eminently characteristic of the species1 is nevertheless variable in breadth1 length1 and manner of termination4 ,i have measured one four times as broad as another1 and some more than twice as long as others4 ,in one light-grey ass the shoulder-stripe was only six inches in length1 and as thin as a piece of string2 and in another animal of the same colour there was only a dusky shade representing a stripe4 ,i have heard of three white asses1 not albinoes1 with no trace of shoulder or spinal stripes2#dg and ,i have seen nine other asses with no shoulder-stripe1 and some of them had no spinal stripe4 ,three of the nine were light-greys1 one a dark-grey1 another grey passing into reddish-roan1 and the others were brown1 two being tinted on parts of their bodies with a reddish or bay shade4 ,if therefore grey and reddish-brown asses had been steadily selected and bred from1 the shoulder stripe would probably have been lost almost as generally and completely as in the case of the horse4 ,the shoulder stripe on the ass is sometimes double1 and ,mr4 ,blyth has seen even three or four parallel stripes4#dh ,i have observed in ten cases shoulder-stripes abruptly truncated at the lower end1 with the anterior angle produced into a tapering point1 precisely as in the above dun ,devonshire pony4 ,i have seen three cases of the terminal portion abruptly and angularly bent2 and have seen and heard of four cases of a distinct though slight forking of the stripe4 ,in ,syria1 ,dr4 ,hooker and his party observed for me no less than five similar instances of the shoulder-stripe plainly bifurcating over the fore leg4 ,in the common mule it likewise sometimes bifurcates4 ,when ,i first noticed the forking and angular bending of the shoulder-stripe1 ,i had seen enough of the stripes in the various equine species to feel convinced that even a character so unimportant as this had a distinct meaning1 and was thus led to attend to the subject4 ,i now find that in the ,e4 burchellii and quagga1 the stripe which corresponds with the shoulder-stripe of the ass1 as well as some of the stripes on the neck1 bifurcate1 and that some of those near the shoulder have their extremities bent angularly backwards4 ,the bifurcation and angular bending of the stripes on the shoulders apparently are connected with the nearly upright stripes on the sides of the body and neck changing their direction and becoming transverse on the legs4 ,finally1 we see that the presence of shoulder1 leg1 and spinal stripes in the horse1-- their occasional absence in the ass1--the occurrence of double and triple shoulder-stripes in both animals1 and the similar manner in which these stripes terminate downwards1--are all cases of analogous variation in the horse and ass4 ,these cases are probably not due to similar conditions acting on similar constitutions1 but to a partial reversion in colour to the common progenitor of the genus4 ,we shall hereafter return to this subject1 and discuss it more fully4 ,,references #a ,rtimeyer #8,fauna der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahfa1 s4 #abb4 #b ,see #8,youatt on the ,horse'3 ,j4 ,lawrence on the ,horse1 #ahbi2 ,w4 ,c4 ,l4 ,martin1 #8,history of the ,horse1' #ahde3 ,col4 ,h4 ,smith1 in #8,nat4 ,library1 ,horses1' #ahda1 vol4 xii43 ,prof4 ,veith1 #8,die naturgesch4 ,haussugethiere1' #ahef4 #c ,crawfurd1 #8,descript4 ,dict4 of ,indian ,islands1' #ahef1 p4 #aec4 8,there are many different breeds1 every island having at least one peculiar to it40 ,thus in ,sumatra there are at least two breeds2 in ,achin and ,batubara one2 in ,java several breeds2 one in ,bali1 ,lomboc1 ,sumbawa 7one of the best breeds71 ,tambora1 ,bima1 ,gunung-api1 ,celebes1 ,sumba1 and ,philippines4 ,other breeds are specified by ,zollinger in the #8,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1' vol4 v1 p4 #cdc1 etc4 #d #8,the ,horse1' etc4 by ,john ,lawrence1 #ahbi1 p4 #ad4 #e #8,the ,veterinary1' ,london1 vol4 v1 p4 #edc4 #f #8,mmoire sur les chevaux trente-quatre ctes1' #ahga4 #g ,proc4 ,veterinary ,assoc41 in #8,the ,veterinary1' vol4 xiii4 p4 #db4 #h #8,bulletin de la ,soc4 ,golog41' tom4 xxii41 #ahff1 p4 #bb4 #i ,mr4 ,percival of the ,enniskillen ,dragoons1 in #8,the ,veterinary1' vol4 i4 p4 #bbd3 see ,azara1 #8,des ,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 p4 #cac4 ,the ,french translator of ,azara refers to other cases mentioned by ,huzard as having occurred in ,spain4 #aj ,godron1 #8,de l',espce' tom4 i4 p4 #cgh4 #aa #8,ueber die ,eigenschaften1' etc41 #ahbh1 s4 #aj4 #ab #8,domesticated ,animals of the ,british ,islands1' pp4 #ebg1 #ecb4 ,in all the veterinary treatises and papers which ,i have read1 the writers insist in the strongest terms on the inheritance by the horse of all good and bad tendencies and qualities4 ,perhaps the principle of inheritance is not really stronger in the horse than in any other animal2 but1 from its value1 the tendency has been more carefully observed4 #ac ,andrew ,knight crossed breeds so different in size as a dray-horse and ,norwegian pony3 see ,a4 ,walker on #8,intermarriage1' #ahch1 p4 #bje4 #ad #8,nat4 ,library1 ,horses1' vol4 xii4 p4 #bjh4 #ae ,gervais1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,mamm41' tom4 ii4 p4 #adc4 ,owen1 #8,british ,fossil ,mammals1' p4 #chc4 #af #8,kenntniss der fossilen ,pferde1' #ahfc1 s4 #aca4 #ag #8,comptes rendus1' #ahff1 p4 #dhe1 and #8,journal de l',anat4 et de la ,phys41' ,mai #ahfh4 #ah ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,l4 ,martin1 7#8,the ,horse1' #ahde1 p4 #cd71 in arguing against the belief that the wild ,eastern horses are merely feral1 has remarked on the improbability of man in ancient times having extirpated a species in a region where it can now exist in numbers4 #ai #8,transact4 ,maryland ,academy1' vol4 i4 part i4 p4 #bh4 #bj ,mr4 ,mackinnon #8,the ,falkland ,islands1' p4 #be4 ,the average height of the ,falkland horses is said to be #ad hands #b inches4 ,see also my #8,journal of ,researches4' #ba ,pallas1 #8,act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh1' #aggg1 part ii4 p4 #bfe4 ,with respect to the tarpans scraping away the snow see ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith in #8,nat4 ,lib41' vol4 xii4 p4 #afe4 #bb ,franklin's #8,narrative1' vol4 i4 p4 #hg2 note by ,sir ,j4 ,richardson4 #bc ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,moor1 #8,notices of the ,indian ,archipelago2' ,singapore1 #ahcg1 p4 #ahi4 ,a pony from ,java was sent 7#8,athenum1' #ahdb1 p4 #gah7 to the ,queen only #bh inches in height4 ,for the ,loo ,choo ,islands1 see ,beechey's #8,voyage1' #dth4 edit41 vol4 i4 p4 #dii4 #bd ,j4 ,crawford1 #8,history of the ,horse2' #8,journal of ,royal ,united ,service ,institution1' vol4 iv4 #be #8,essays on ,natural ,history1' #bnd series1 p4 #afa4 #bf #8,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ccc4 ,dr4 ,canfield informs me that a breed with curly hair was formed by selection at ,los ,angeles in ,north ,america4 #bg ,see the evidence on this head in #8,land and ,water1' ,may #bnd1 #ahfh4 #bh ,prof4 ,low1 #8,domesticated ,animals1' p4 #edf4 ,with respect to the writer in ,india see #8,india ,sporting ,review1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aha4 ,as ,lawrence has remarked 7#8,the ,horse1' p4 #i71 8perhaps no instance has ever occurred of a three-part bred horse 7i4e4 a horse1 one of whose grandparents was of impure blood7 saving his distance in running two miles with thoroughbred racers40 ,some few instances are on record of seven-eights racers having been successful4 #bi ,prof4 ,gervais 7in his #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,mamm41' tom4 ii4 p4 #add7 has collected many facts on this head4 ,for instance ,solomon 7,kings1 ,b4 i4 ch4 x4 v4 #bh7 bought horses in ,egypt at a high price4 #cj #8,the ,field1' ,july #acth1 #ahfa1 p4 #db4 #ca ,e4 ,vernon ,harcourt1 #8,sporting in ,algeria1' p4 #bf4 #cb ,i state this from my own observations made during several years on the colours of horses4 ,i have seen cream-coloured1 light-dun and mouse-dun horses dappled1 which ,i mention because it has been stated 7,martin1 #8,history of the ,horse1' p4 #acd7 that duns are never dappled4 ,martin 7p4 #bje7 refers to dappled asses4 ,in the #8,farrier' 7,london1 #ahbh1 pp4 #dec1 #dee7 there are some good remarks on the dappling of horses2 and likewise in ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith on #8,the ,horse4' #cc ,some details are given in #8,the ,farrier1' #ahbh1 pp4 #deb1 #dee4 ,one of the smallest ponies ,i ever saw1 of the colour of a mouse1 had a conspicuous spinal stripe4 ,a small ,indian chestnut pony had the same stripe1 as had a remarkably heavy chestnut cart-horse4 ,race-horses often have the spinal stripe4 #cd ,i have received information1 through the kindness of the ,consul-,general1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,crowe1 from ,prof4 ,boeck1 ,rasck1 and ,esmarck1 on the colours of the ,norwegian ponies4 ,see also #8,the ,field1' #ahfa1 p4 #dca4 #ce ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith1 #8,nat4 ,lib41' vol4 xii4 p4 #bge4 #cf ,mr4 ,g4 ,clark1 in #8,annal and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history1' #bnd series1 vol4 ii4 #ahdh1 p4 #cfc4 ,mr4 ,wallace informs me that he saw in ,java a dun and clay-coloured horse with spinal and leg stripes4 #cg ,see also on this point1 #8,the ,field1' ,july #bgth1 #ahfa1 p4 #ia4 #ch #8,the ,field1' #ahfa1 pp4 #dca1 #dic1 #ede4 #ci #8,ueber die ,eigenschaften1' etc41 #ahbh1 s4 #ac1 #ad4 #dj ,von ,nathusius1 #8,vortrge ber ,viehzucht1' #ahgb1 #ace4 #da #8,nat4 ,library1' vol4 xii4 7#ahda71 pp4 #aji1 #aef to #afc1 #bhj1 #bha4 ,cream-colour1 passing into ,isabella 7i4e4 the colour of the dirty linen of ,queen ,isabella71 seems to have been common in ancient times4 ,see also ,pallas's account of the wild horses of the ,east1 who speaks of dun and brown as the prevalent colours4 ,in the ,icelandic sagas1 which were committed to writing in the twelfth century1 dun-coloured horses with a black spinal stripe are mentioned2 see ,dasent's translation1 vol4 i4 p4 #afi4 #db ,azara1 #8,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 p4 #cjg4 ,in ,north ,america1 ,catlin 7vol4 ii4 p4 #eg7 describes the wild horses1 believed to have descended from the ,spanish horses of ,mexico1 as of all colours1 black1 grey1 roan1 and roan pied with sorrel4 ,f4 ,michaux 7#8,travels in ,north ,america1' ,eng4 translat41 p4 #bce7 describes two wild horses from ,mexico as roan4 ,in the ,falkland ,islands1 where the horse has been feral only between #fj and #gj years1 ,i was told that roans and iron-greys were the prevalent colours4 ,these several facts show that horses do not soon revert to any uniform colour4 #dc ,dr4 ,sclater1 in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfb1 p4 #afd4 ,dr4 ,hartmann says 7#8,annalen der ,landw4' ,b4 xliv4 p4 #bbb7 that this animal in its wild state is not always striped across the legs4 #dd ,w4 ,c4 ,martin1 #8,history of the ,horse1' #ahde1 p4 #bjg4 #de ,col4 ,sykes' ,cat4 of ,mammalia1 #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,july #abth1 #ahca4 ,williamson #8,oriental ,field ,sports1' vol4 ii41 quoted by ,martin1 p4 #bjf4 #df ,blyth1 in #8,charlesworth's ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 iv41 #ahdj1 p4 #hc4 ,i have also been assured by a breeder that this is the case4 #dg 7,one case is given by ,martin1 #8,the ,horse1' p4 #bje4 #dh #8,journal ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 xxviii4 #ahfj1 p4 #bca4 ,martin on the ,horse1 p4 #bje4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,pigs--,,cattle--,,sheep--,,goats ,,pigs ,,belong ,,to ,,two ,,distinct ,,types1 ,,sus ,,scrofa ,,and ,,indicus--,,torfschwein--,,japan ,,pigs--,,fertility ,,of ,,crossed ,,pigs--,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,highly ,,cultivated ,,races--,,convergence ,,of ,,character--,,gestation--,,solid-,,hoof ed ,,swine--,,curious ,,appendages ,,to ,,the ,,jaws--,,decrease ,,in ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,tusks--,,young ,,pigs ,,longitudinally ,,striped--,,feral ,,pigs--,,crossed ,,breeds4 ,,cattle--,,zebu ,a ,,distinct ,,species--,,european ,,cattle ,,probably ,,descended ,,from ,,three ,,wild ,,forms--,,all ,,the ,,races ,,now ,,fertile ,,together--,,british ,,park ,,cattle--,,on ,,the ,,colour ,,of ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,species--,,constitutional ,,differences--,,south ,,african ,,races--,,south ,,american ,,races--,,niata ,,cattle--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,races ,,of ,,cattle4 ,,sheep --,,remarkable ,,races ,,of--,,variations ,,attached ,,to ,,the ,,male ,,sex--,,adaptations ,,to ,,various ,,conditions--,,gestation ,,of--,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,wool--,,semi-,,monstrous ,,breeds4 ,,goats --,,remarkable ,,variations ,,of4 ,the breeds of the pig have recently been more closely studied1 though much still remains to be done1 than those of almost any other domesticated animal4 ,this has been effected by ,hermann von ,nathusius in two admirable works1 especially in the later one on the ,skulls of the several races1 and by ,rtimeyer in his celebrated ,fauna of the ancient ,swiss lake-dwellings4#a ,nathusius has shown that all the known breeds may be divided into two great groups3 one resembling in all important respects and no doubt descended from the common wild boar2 so that this may be called the ,sus scrofa group4 ,the other group differs in several important and constant osteological characters2 its wild parent-form is unknown2 the name given to it by ,nathusius1 according to the law of priority1 is ,sus indicus1 of ,pallas4 ,this name must now be followed1 though an unfortunate one1 as the wild aboriginal does not inhabit ,india1 and the best-known domesticated breeds have been imported from ,siam and ,china4 ,first for the ,sus scrofa breeds1 or those resembling the common wild boar4 ,these still exist1 according to ,nathusius 7#8,schweineschdel' s4 #ge71 in various parts of central and northern ,europe2 formerly every kingdom1#b and almost every province in ,britain1 possessed its own native breed2 but these are now everywhere rapidly disappearing1 being replaced by improved breeds crossed with the ,s4 indicus form4 ,the skull in the breeds of the ,s4 scrofa type resembles1 in all important respects1 that of the ,european wild boar2 but it has become 7#8,schweineschdel' s4 #fc-fh7 higher and broader relatively to its length2 and the hinder part is more upright4 ,the differences1 however1 are all variable in degree4 ,the breeds which thus resemble ,s4 scrofa in their essential skull characters differ conspicuously from each other in other respects1 as in the length of the ears and legs1 curvature of the ribs1 colour1 hairiness1 size and proportions of the body4 ,the wild ,sus scrofa has a wide range1 namely1 ,europe1 ,north ,africa1 as identified by osteological characters by ,rtimeyer1 and ,hindostan1 as similarly identified by ,nathusius4 ,but the wild boars inhabiting these several countries differ so much from each other in external characters1 that they have been ranked by some naturalists as specifically distinct4 ,even within ,hindostan these animals1 according to ,mr4 ,blyth1 form very distinct races in the different districts2 in the ,n4 ,western provinces1 as ,i am informed by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,everest1 the boar never exceeds #cf inches in height1 whilst in ,bengal one has been measured #dd inches in height4 ,in ,europe1 ,northern ,africa1 and ,hindostan1 domestic pigs have been known to cross with the wild native species2#c and in ,hindostan an accurate observer1#d ,sir ,walter ,elliot1 after describing the differences between wild ,indian and wild ,german boars1 remarks that 8the same differences are perceptible in the domesticated individuals of the two countries40 ,we may therefore conclude that the breeds of the ,sus scrofa type are descended from1 or have been modified by crossing with1 forms which may be ranked as geographical races1 but which1 according to some naturalists1 ought to be ranked as distinct species4 ,pigs of the ,sus indicus type are best known to ,englishmen under the form of the ,chinese breed4 ,the skull of ,s4 indicus1 as described by ,nathusius1 differs from that of ,s4 scrofa in several minor respects1 as in its greater breadth and in some details in the teeth2 but chiefly in the shortness of the lachrymal bones1 in the greater width of the fore part of the palate-bones1 and in the divergence of the premolar teeth4 ,it deserves especial notice that these latter characters are not gained1 even in the least degree1 by the domesticated forms of ,s4 scrofa4 ,after reading the remarks and descriptions given by ,nathusius1 it seems to me to be merely playing with words to doubt whether ,s4 indicus ought to be ranked as a species2 for the above-specified differences are more strongly marked than any that can be pointed out between1 for instance1 the fox and the wolf1 or the ass and the horse4 ,as already stated1 ,s4 indicus is not known in a wild state2 but its domesticated forms1 according to ,nathusius1 come near to ,s4 vittatus of ,java and some allied species4 ,a pig found wild in the ,aru islands 7#8,schweineschdel' s4 #afi7 is apparently identical with ,s4 indicus2 but it is doubtful whether this is a truly native animal4 ,the domesticated breeds of ,china1 ,cochin-,china1 and ,siam belong to this type4 ,the ,roman or ,neapolitan breed1 the ,andalusian1 the ,hungarian1 and the 8,krause0 swine of ,nathusius1 inhabiting south-eastern ,europe and ,turkey1 and having fine curly hair1 and the small ,swiss 8,bndtnerschwein0 of ,rtimeyer1 all agree in their more important skull-characters with ,s4 indicus1 and1 as is supposed1 have all been largely crossed with this form4 ,pigs of this type have existed during a long period on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 for a figure 7#8,schweineschdel' s4 #adb7 closely resembling the existing ,neapolitan pig was found in the buried city of ,herculaneum4 ,rtimeyer has made the remarkable discovery that there lived contemporaneously in ,switzerland1 during the ,neolithic period1 two domesticated forms1 the ,s4 scrofa1 and the ,s4 scrofa palustris or ,torfschwein4 ,rtimeyer perceived that the latter approached the ,eastern breeds1 and1 according to ,nathusius1 it certainly belongs to the ,s4 indicus group2 but ,rtimeyer has subsequently shown that it differs in some well-marked characters4 ,this author was formerly convinced that his ,torfschwein existed as a wild animal during the first part of the ,stone period1 and was domesticated during a later part of the same period4#e ,nathusius1 whilst he fully admits the curious fact first observed by ,rtimeyer1 that the bones of domesticated and wild animals can be distinguished by their different aspect1 yet1 from special difficulties in the case of the bones of the pig 7#8,schweineschdel' s4 #adg71 is not convinced of the truth of the above conclusion2 and ,rtimeyer himself seems now to feel some doubt4 ,other naturalists have also argued strongly on the same side as ,nathusius4#f ,several breeds1 differing in the proportions of the body1 in the length of the ears1 in the nature of the hair1 in colour1 etc41 come under the ,s4 indicus type4 ,nor is this surprising1 considering how ancient the domestication of this form has been both in ,europe and in ,china4 ,in this latter country the date is believed by an eminent ,chinese scholar#g to go back at least #dijj years from the present time4 ,this same scholar alludes to the existence of many local varieties of the pig in ,china2 and at the present time the ,chinese take extraordinary pains in feeding and tending their pigs1 not even allowing them to walk from place to place4#h ,hence these pigs1 as ,nathusius has remarked1#i display in an eminent degree the characters of a highly-cultivated race1 and hence1 no doubt1 their high value in the improvement of our ,european breeds4 ,nathusius makes a remarkable statement 7#8,schweineschdel' s4 #ach71 that the infusion of the #a_/cbnd1 or even of the #a_/fdth1 part of the blood of ,s4 indicus into a breed of ,s4 scrofa1 is sufficient plainly to modify the skull of the latter species4 ,this singular fact may perhaps be accounted for by several of the chief distinctive characters of ,s4 indicus1 such as the shortness of the lachrymal bones1 etc41 being common to several species of the genus2 for in crosses characters which are common to many species apparently tend to be prepotent over those appertaining to only a few species4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,head of ,japan or ,masked ,pig4 ,the ,japan pig 7,s4 pliciceps of ,gray71 which was formerly exhibited in the ,zoological ,gardens1 has an extraordinary appearance from its short head1 broad forehead and nose1 great fleshy ears1 and deeply furrowed skin4 ,figure #b is copied from that given by ,mr4 ,bartlett4#aj ,not only is the face furrowed1 but thick folds of skin1 which are harder than the other parts1 almost like the plates on the ,indian rhinoceros1 hang about the shoulders and rump4 ,it is coloured black1 with white feet1 and breeds true4 ,that it has long been domesticated there can be little doubt2 and this might have been inferred even from the fact that its young are not longitudinally striped2 for this is a character common to all the species included within the genus ,sus and the allied genera whilst in their natural state4#aa ,dr4 ,gray#ab has described the skull of this animal1 which he ranks not only as a distinct species1 but places it in a distinct section of the genus4 ,nathusius1 however1 after his careful study of the whole group1 states positively 7#8,schweineschdel' s4 #aec-aeh74 that the skull in all essential characters closely resembles that of the short-eared ,chinese breed of the ,s4 indicus type4 ,hence ,nathusius considers the ,japan pig as only a domesticated variety of ,s4 indicus3 if this really be the case1 it is a wonderful instance of the amount of modification which can be effected under domestication4 ,formerly there existed in the central islands of the ,pacific ,ocean a singular breed of pigs4 ,these are described by the ,rev4 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennett#ac as of small size1 hump-backed1 with a disproportionately long head1 with short ears turned backwards1 with a bushy tail not more than two inches in length1 placed as if it grew from the back4 ,within half a century after the introduction of ,european and ,chinese pigs into these islands1 the native breed1 according to the above authors1 became almost completely lost by being repeatedly crossed with them4 ,secluded islands1 as might have been expected1 seem favourable for the production or retention of peculiar breeds2 thus1 in the ,orkney ,islands1 the hogs have been described as very small1 with erect and sharp ears1 and 8with an appearance altogether different from the hogs brought from the south40#ad ,seeing how different the ,chinese pigs1 belonging to the ,sus indicus type1 are in their osteological characters and in external appearance from the pigs of the ,s4 scrofa type1 so that they must be considered specifically distinct1 it is a fact well deserving attention1 that ,chinese and common pigs have been repeatedly crossed in various manners1 with unimpaired fertility4 ,one great breeder who had used pure ,chinese pigs assured me that the fertility of the half-breeds inter se and of their recrossed progeny was actually increased2 and this is the general belief of agriculturists4 ,again1 the ,japan pig or ,s4 pliciceps of ,gray is so distinct in appearance from all common pigs1 that it stretches one's belief to the utmost to admit that it is simply a domestic variety2 yet this breed has been found perfectly fertile with the ,berkshire breed2 and ,mr4 ,eyton informs me that he paired a half-bred brother and sister and found them quite fertile together4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c--;,head of ,wild ,boar1 and of 8,golden ,days10 a pig of the ,yorkshire ,large ,breed ,the modification of the skull in the most highly cultivated races is wonderful4 ,to appreciate the amount of change1 ,nathusius' work1 with its excellent figures1 should be studied4 ,the whole of the exterior in all its parts has been altered3 the hinder surface1 instead of sloping backwards1 is directed forwards1 entailing many changes in other parts2 the front of the head is deeply concave2 the orbits have a different shape2 the auditory meatus has a different direction and shape2 the incisors of the upper and lower jaws do not touch each other1 and they stand in both jaws beyond the plane of the molars2 the canines of the upper jaw stand in front of those of the lower jaw1 and this is a remarkable anomaly3 the articular surfaces of the occipital condyles are so greatly changed in shape1 that1 as ,nathusius remarks 7s4 #acc71 no naturalist1 seeing this important part of the skull by itself1 would suppose that it belonged to the genus ,sus4 ,these and various other modifications1 as ,nathusius observes1 can hardly be considered as monstrosities1 for they are not injurious1 and are strictly inherited4 ,the whole head is much shortened2 thus1 whilst in common breeds its length to that of the body is as #a to #f1 in the 8cultur-racen0 the proportion is as #a to #i1 and even recently as #a to #aa4ae ,the following woodcut#af of the head of a wild boar and of a sow from a photograph of the ,yorkshire ,large ,breed1 may aid in showing how greatly the head in a highly cultivated race has been modified and shortened4 ,nathusius has well discussed the causes of the remarkable changes in the skull and shape of the body which the highly cultivated races have undergone4 ,these modifications occur chiefly in the pure and crossed races of the ,s4 indicus type2 but their commencement may be clearly detected in the slightly improved breeds of the ,s4 scrofa type4#ag ,nathusius states positively 7s4 #ii1 #ajc71 as the result of common experience and of his experiments1 that rich and abundant food1 given during youth1 tends by some direct action to make the head broader and shorter2 and that poor food works a contrary result4 ,he lays much stress on the fact that all wild and semi-domesticated pigs1 in ploughing up the ground with their muzzles1 have1 whilst young1 to exert the powerful muscles fixed to the hinder part of the head4 ,in highly cultivated races this habit is no longer followed1 and consequently the back of the skull becomes modified in shape1 entailing other changes in other parts4 ,there can hardly be a doubt that so great a change in habits would affect the skull2 but it seems rather doubtful how far this will account for the greatly reduced length of the skull and for its concave front4 ,it is well known 7,nathusius himself advancing many cases1 s4 #ajd7 that there is a strong tendency in many domestic animals--in bull- and pug-dogs1 in the niata cattle1 in sheep1 in ,polish fowls1 short-faced tumbler pigeons1 and in one variety of the carp--for the bones of the face to become greatly shortened4 ,in the case of the dog1 as ,h4 ,mller has shown1 this seems caused by an abnormal state of the primordial cartilage4 ,we may1 however1 readily admit that abundant and rich food supplied during many generations would give an inherited tendency to increased size of body1 and that1 from disuse1 the limbs would become finer and shorter4#ah ,we shall in a future chapter see also that the skull and limbs are apparently in some manner correlated1 so that any change in the one tends to affect the other4 ,nathusius has remarked1 and the observation is an interesting one1 that the peculiar form of the skull and body in the most highly cultivated races is not characteristic of any one race1 but is common to all when improved up to the same standard4 ,thus the large-bodied1 long-eared1 ,english breeds with a convex back1 and the small-bodied1 short-eared1 ,chinese breeds with a concave back1 when bred to the same state of perfection1 nearly resemble each other in the form of the head and body4 ,this result1 it appears1 is partly due to similar causes of change acting on the several races1 and partly to man breeding the pig for one sole purpose1 namely1 for the greatest amount of flesh and fat2 so that selection has always tended towards one and the same end4 ,with most domestic animals the result of selection has been divergence of character1 here it has been convergence4#ai ,the nature of the food supplied during many generations has apparently affected the length of the intestines2 for1 according to ,cuvier1#bj their length to that of the body in the wild boar is as #i to #a1--;in the common domestic boar as #ace to #a1--;and in the ,siam breed as #af to #a4 ,in this latter breed the greater length may be due either to descent from a distinct species or to more ancient domestication4 ,the number of mamm vary1 as does the period of gestation4 ,the latest authority says#ba that 8the period averages from #ag to #bj weeks10 but ,i think there must be some error in this statement3 in ,m4 ,tessier's observations on #be sows it varied from #aji to #abc days4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox has given me ten carefully recorded cases with well-bred pigs1 in which the period varied from #aja to #aaf days4 ,according to ,nathusius the period is shortest in the races which come early to maturity2 but the course of their development does not appear to be actually shortened1 for the young animal is born1 judging from the state of the skull1 less fully developed1 or in a more embryonic condition1#bb than in the case of common swine4 ,in the highly cultivated and early matured races the teeth1 also1 are developed earlier4 ,the difference in the number of the vertebr and ribs in different kinds of pigs1 as observed by ,mr4 ,eyton1#bc and as given in the following table1 has often been quoted4 ,the ,african sow probably belongs to the ,s4 scrofa type2 and ,mr4 ,eyton informs me that1 since the publication of this paper1 cross-bred animals from the ,african and ,english races were found by ,lord ,hill to be perfectly fertile4 ,english ,long-legged ,male4 ,african ,female4 ,chinese ,male4 ,wild ,boar from ,cuvier4 ,french ,domestic ,boar1 from ,cuvier4 ,dorsal vertebr #ae #ac #ae #ad #ad ,lumbar #f #f #d #e #e ,dorsal and lumbar together #ba #ai #ai #ai #ai ,sacral #e #e #d #d #d ,total number of vertebr #bf #bd #bc #bc #bc ,some semi-monstrous breeds deserve notice4 ,from the time of ,aristotle to the present time solid-hoofed swine have occasionally been observed in various parts of the world4 ,although this peculiarity is strongly inherited1 it is hardly probable that all the animals with solid hoofs have descended from the same parents2 it is more probable that the same peculiarity has reappeared at various times and places4 ,dr4 ,struthers has lately described and figured#bd the structure of the feet2 in both front and hind feet the distal phalanges of the two greater toes are represented by a single1 great1 hoof-bearing phalanx2 and in the front feet1 the middle phalanges are represented by a bone which is single towards the lower end1 but bears two separate articulations towards the upper end4 ,from other accounts it appears that an intermediate toe is likewise sometimes superadded4 ,illustration3 ,old ,irish ,pig1 with jaw-appendages4 ,another curious anomaly is offered by the appendages1 described by ,m4 ,eudes-,deslongchamps as often characterizing the ,normandy pigs4 ,these appendages are always attached to the same spot1 to the corners of the jaw2 they are cylindrical1 about three inches in length1 covered with bristles1 and with a pencil of bristles rising out of a sinus on one side3 they have a cartilaginous centre1 with two small longitudinal muscles they occur either symmetrically on both sides of the face or on one side alone4 ,richardson figures them on the gaunt old 8,irish ,greyhound pig20 and ,nathusius states that they occasionally appear in all the long eared races1 but are not strictly inherited1 for they occur or fail in animals of the same litter4#be ,as no wild pigs are known to have analogous appendages1 we have at present no reason to suppose that their appearance is due to reversion2 and if this be so1 we are forced to admit that a somewhat complex1 though apparently useless1 structure may be suddenly developed without the aid of selection4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the boars of all domesticated breeds have much shorter tusks than wild boars4 ,many facts show that with many animals the state of the hair is much affected by exposure to1 or protection from1 climate2 and as we see that the state of the hair and teeth are correlated in ,turkish dogs 7other analogous facts will be hereafter given71 may we not venture to surmise that the reduction of the tusks in the domestic boar is related to his coat of bristles being diminished from living under shelter8 ,on the other hand1 as we shall immediately see1 the tusks and bristles reappear with feral boars1 which are no longer protected from the weather4 ,it is not surprising that the tusks should be more affected than the other teeth2 as parts developed to serve as secondary sexual characters are always liable to much variation4 ,it is a well-known fact that the young of wild ,european and ,indian pigs1#bf for the first six months1 are longitudinally banded with light-coloured stripes4 ,this character generally disappears under domestication4 ,the ,turkish domestic pigs1 however1 have striped young1 as have those of ,westphalia1 8whatever may be their hue20#bg whether these latter pigs belong to the same curly-haired race as the ,turkish swine1 ,i do not know4 ,the pigs which have run wild in ,jamaica and the semi-feral pigs of ,new ,granada1 both those which are black and those which are black with a white band across the stomach1 often extending over the back1 have resumed this aboriginal character and produce longitudinally-striped young4 ,this is likewise the case1 at least occasionally1 with the neglected pigs in the ,zambesi settlement on the coast of ,africa4#bh ,the common belief that all domesticated animals1 when they run wild1 revert completely to the character of their parent-stock1 is chiefly founded1 as far as ,i can discover1 on feral pigs4 ,but even in this case the belief is not grounded on sufficient evidence2 for the two main types1 namely1 ,s4 scrofa and indicus1 have not been distinguished4 ,the young1 as we have just seen1 reacquire their longitudinal stripes1 and the boars invariably reassume their tusks4 ,they revert also in the general shape of their bodies1 and in the length of their legs and muzzles1 to the state of the wild animal1 as might have been expected from the amount of exercise which they are compelled to take in search of food4 ,in ,jamaica the feral pigs do not acquire the full size of the ,european wild boar1 8never attaining a greater height than #bj inches at the shoulder40 ,in various countries they reassume their original bristly covering1 but in different degrees1 dependent on the climate2 thus1 according to ,roulin1 the semi-feral pigs in the hot valleys of ,new ,granada are very scantily clothed2 whereas1 on the ,paramos1 at the height of #gjjj to #hjjj feet1 they acquire a thick covering of wool lying under the bristles1 like that on the truly wild pigs of ,france4 ,these pigs on the ,paramos are small and stunted4 ,the wild boar of ,india is said to have the bristles at the end of its tail arranged like the plumes of an arrow1 whilst the ,european boar has a simple tuft2 and it is a curious fact that many1 but not all1 of the feral pigs in ,jamaica1 derived from a ,spanish stock1 have a plumed tail4#bi ,with respect to colour1 feral pigs generally revert to that of the wild boar2 but in certain parts of ,s4 ,america1 as we have seen1 some of the semi-feral pigs have a curious white band across their stomachs2 and in certain other hot places the pigs are red1 and this colour has likewise occasionally been observed in the feral pigs of ,jamaica4 ,from these several facts we see that with pigs when feral there is a strong tendency to revert to the wild type2 but that this tendency is largely governed by the nature of the climate1 amount of exercise1 and other causes of change to which they have been subjected4 ,the last point worth notice is that we have unusually good evidence of breeds of pigs now keeping perfectly true1 which have been formed by the crossing of several distinct breeds4 ,the ,improved ,essex pigs1 for instance1 breed very true2 but there is no doubt that they largely owe their present excellent qualities to crosses originally made by ,lord ,western with the ,neapolitan race1 and to subsequent crosses with the ,berkshire breed 7this also having been improved by ,neapolitan crosses71 and likewise1 probably1 with the ,sussex breed4#cj ,in breeds thus formed by complex crosses1 the most careful and unremitting selection during many generations has been found to be indispensable4 ,chiefly in consequence of so much crossing1 some well-known breeds have undergone rapid changes2 thus1 according to ,nathusius1#ca the ,berkshire breed of #aghj is quite different from that of #ahaj2 and1 since this latter period1 at least two distinct forms have borne the same name4 ,,cattle4 ,domestic cattle are certainly the descendants of more than one wild form1 in the same manner as has been shown to be the case with our dogs and pigs4 ,naturalists have generally made two main divisions of cattle3 the humped kinds inhabiting tropical countries1 called in ,india ,zebus1 to which the specific name of ,bos indicus has been given2 and the common non-humped cattle1 generally included under the name of ,bos taurus4 ,the humped cattle were domesticated1 as may be seen on the ,egyptian monuments1 at least as early as the twelfth dynasty1 that is #bajj ,b4,c4 ,they differ from common cattle in various osteological characters1 even in a greater degree1 according to ,rtimeyer1#cb than do the fossil and prehistoric ,european species1 namely1 ,bos primigenius and longifrons1 from each other4 ,they differ1 also1 as ,mr4 ,blyth1#cc who has particularly attended to this subject1 remarks1 in general configuration1 in the shape of their ears1 in the point where the dewlap commences1 in the typical curvature of their horns1 in their manner of carrying their heads when at rest1 in their ordinary variations of colour1 especially in the frequent presence of 8nilgau-like markings on their feet10 and 8in the one being born with teeth protruding through the jaws1 and the other not so40 ,they have different habits1 and their voice is entirely different4 ,the humped cattle in ,india 8seldom seek shade1 and never go into the water and there stand knee-deep1 like the cattle of ,europe40 ,they have run wild in parts of ,oude and ,rohilcund1 and can maintain themselves in a region infested by tigers4 ,they have given rise to many races differing greatly in size1 in the presence of one or two humps1 in length of horns1 and other respects4 ,mr4 ,blyth sums up emphatically that the humped and humpless cattle must be considered as distinct species4 ,when we consider the number of points in external structure and habits1 independently of important osteological differences1 in which they differ from each other2 and that many of these points are not likely to have been affected by domestication1 there can hardly be a doubt1 notwithstanding the adverse opinion of some naturalists1 that the humped and non-humped cattle must be ranked as specifically distinct4 ,the ,european breeds of humpless cattle are numerous4 ,professor ,low enumerates #ai ,british breeds1 only a few of which are identical with those on the ,continent4 ,even the small ,channel islands of ,guernsey1 ,jersey1 and ,alderney possess their own sub-breeds2#cd and these again differ from the cattle of the other ,british islands1 such as ,anglesea1 and the western isles of ,scotland4 ,desmarest1 who paid attention to the subject1 describes #ae ,french races1 excluding sub-varieties and those imported from other countries4 ,in other parts of ,europe there are several distinct races1 such as the pale-coloured ,hungarian cattle1 with their light and free step1 and enormous horns sometimes measuring above five feet from tip to tip3#ce the ,podolian cattle also are remarkable from the height of their fore-quarters4 ,in the most recent work on ,cattle1#cf engravings are given of fifty-five ,european breeds2 it is1 however1 probable that several of these differ very little from each other1 or are merely synonyms4 ,it must not be supposed that numerous breeds of cattle exist only in long-civilised countries1 for we shall presently see that several kinds are kept by the savages of ,southern ,africa4 ,with respect to the parentage of the several ,european breeds1 we already know much from ,nilsson's ,memoir1#cg and more especially from ,rtimeyer's works and those of ,boyd ,dawkins4 ,two or three species or forms of ,bos1 closely allied to still living domestic races1 have been found in the more recent tertiary deposits or amongst prehistoric remains in ,europe4 ,following ,rtimeyer1 we have3-- ,bos primigenius4,this magnificent1 well known species was domesticated in ,switzerland during the ,neolithic period2 even at this early period it varied a little1 having apparently been crossed with other races4 ,some of the larger races on the ,continent1 as the ,friesland1 etc41 and the ,pembroke race in ,england1 closely resemble in essential structure ,b4 primigenius1 and no doubt are its descendants4 ,this is likewise the opinion of ,nilsson4 ,bos primigenius existed as a wild animal in ,csar's time1 and is now semi-wild1 though much degenerated in size1 in the park of ,chillingham2 for ,i am informed by ,professor ,rtimeyer1 to whom ,lord ,tankerville sent a skull1 that the ,chillingham cattle are less altered from the true primigenius type than any other known breed4#ch ,bos trochoceros4 ,this form is not included in the three species above mentioned1 for it is now considered by ,rtimeyer to be the female of an early domesticated form of ,b4 primigenius1 and as the progenitor of his frontosus race4 ,i may add that specific names have been given to four other fossil oxen1 now believed to be identical with ,b4 primigenius4#ci ,bos longifrons 7or brachyceros7 of ,owen4--,this very distinct species was of small size1 and had a short body with fine legs4 ,according to ,boyd ,dawkins#dj it was introduced as a domesticated animal into ,britain at a very early period1 and supplied food to the ,roman legionaries4#da ,some remains have been found in ,ireland in certain crannoges1 of which the dates are believed to be from #hdc-icc ,a4,d4#db ,it was also the commonest form in a domesticated condition in ,switzerland during the earliest part of the ,neolithic period4 ,professor ,owen#dc thinks it probable that the ,welsh and ,highland cattle are descended from this form2 as likewise is the case1 according to ,rtimeyer1 with some of the existing ,swiss breeds4 ,these latter are of different shades of colour from light-grey to blackish-brown1 with a lighter stripe along the spine1 but they have no pure white marks4 ,the cattle of ,north ,wales and the ,highlands1 on the other hand1 are generally black or dark-coloured4 ,bos frontosus of ,nilsson4--,this species is allied to ,b4 longifrons1 and1 according to the high authority of ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawkins1 is identical with it1 but in the opinion of some judges is distinct4 ,both co-existed in ,scania during the same late geological period1#dd and both have been found in the ,irish crannoges4#de ,nilsson believes that his ,b4 frontosus may be the parent of the mountain cattle of ,norway1 which have a high protuberance on the skull between the base of the horns4 ,as ,professor ,owen and others believe that the ,scotch ,highland cattle are descended from his ,b4 longifrons1 it is worth notice that a capable judge#df has remarked that he saw no cattle in ,norway like the ,highland breed1 but that they more nearly resembled the ,devonshire breed4 ,on the whole we may conclude1 more especially from the researches of ,boyd ,dawkins1 that ,european cattle are descended from two species2 and there is no improbability in this fact1 for the genus ,bos readily yields to domestication4 ,besides these two species and the zebu1 the yak1 the gayal1 and the arni#dg 7not to mention the buffalo or genus ,bubalus7 have been domesticated2 making altogether six species of ,bos4 ,the zebu and the two ,european species are now extinct in a wild state4 ,although certain races of cattle were domesticated at a very ancient period in ,europe1 it does not follow that they were first domesticated here4 ,those who place much reliance on philology argue that they were imported from the ,east4#dh ,it is probable that they originally inhabited a temperate or cold climate1 but not a land long covered with snow2 for our cattle1 as we have seen in the chapter on ,horses1 have not the instinct of scraping away the snow to get at the herbage beneath4 ,no one could behold the magnificent wild bulls on the bleak ,falkland ,islands in the southern hemisphere1 and doubt about the climate being admirably suited to them4 ,azara has remarked that in the temperate regions of ,la ,plata the cows conceive when two years old1 whilst in the much hotter country of ,paraguay they do not conceive till three years old2 8from which fact10 as he adds1 8one may conclude that cattle do not succeed so well in warm countries40#di ,bos primigenius and longifrons have been ranked by nearly all palontologists as distinct species2 and it would not be reasonable to take a different view simply because their domesticated descendants now intercross with the utmost freedom4 ,all the ,european breeds have so often been crossed both intentionally and unintentionally1 that1 if any sterility had ensued from such unions1 it would certainly have been detected4 ,as zebus inhabit a distant and much hotter region1 and as they differ in so many characters from our ,european cattle1 ,i have taken pains to ascertain whether the two forms are fertile when crossed4 ,the late ,lord ,powis imported some zebus and crossed them with common cattle in ,shropshire2 and ,i was assured by his steward that the cross-bred animals were perfectly fertile with both parent-stocks4 ,mr4 ,blyth informs me that in ,india hybrids1 with various proportions of either blood1 are quite fertile2 and this can hardly fail to be known1 for in some districts#ej the two species are allowed to breed freely together4 ,most of the cattle which were first introduced into ,tasmania were humped1 so that at one time thousands of crossed animals existed there2 and ,mr4 ,b4 ,o',neile ,wilson1 ,m4,a41 writes to me from ,tasmania that he has never heard of any sterility having been observed4 ,he himself formerly possessed a herd of such crossed cattle1 and all were perfectly fertile2 so much so1 that he cannot remember even a single cow failing to calve4 ,these several facts afford an important confirmation of the ,pallasian doctrine that the descendants of species which when first domesticated would if crossed have been in all probability in some degree sterile1 become perfectly fertile after a long course of domestication4 ,in a future chapter we shall see that this doctrine throws some light on the difficult subject of ,hybridism4 ,i have alluded to the cattle in ,chillingham ,park1 which1 according to ,rtimeyer1 have been very little changed from the ,bos primigenius type4 ,this park is so ancient that it is referred to in a record of the year #abbj4 ,the cattle in their instincts and habits are truly wild4 ,they are white1 with the inside of the ears reddish-brown1 eyes rimmed with black1 muzzles brown1 hoofs black1 and horns white tipped with black4 ,within a period of thirty-three years about a dozen calves were born with 8brown and blue spots upon the cheeks or necks2 but these1 together with any defective animals1 were always destroyed40 ,according to ,bewick1 about the year #aggj some calves appeared with black ears2 but these were also destroyed by the keeper1 and black ears have not since reappeared4 ,the wild white cattle in the ,duke of ,hamilton's park1 where ,i have heard of the birth of a black calf1 are said by ,lord ,tankerville to be inferior to those at ,chillingham4 ,the cattle kept until the year #aghj by the ,duke of ,queensberry1 but now extinct1 had their ears1 muzzle1 and orbits of the eyes black4 ,those which have existed from time immemorial at ,chartley1 closely resemble the cattle at ,chillingham1 but are larger1 8with some small difference in the colour of the ears40 8,they frequently tend to become entirely black2 and a singular superstition prevails in the vicinity that1 when a black calf is born1 some calamity impends over the noble house of ,ferrers4 ,all the black calves are destroyed40 ,the cattle at ,burton ,constable in ,yorkshire1 now extinct1 had ears1 muzzle1 and the tip of the tail black4 ,those at ,gisburne1 also in ,yorkshire1 are said by ,bewick to have been sometimes without dark muzzles1 with the inside alone of the ears brown2 and they are elsewhere said to have been low in stature and hornless4#ea ,the several above-specified differences in the park-cattle1 slight though they be1 are worth recording1 as they show that animals living nearly in a state of nature1 and exposed to nearly uniform conditions1 if not allowed to roam freely and to cross with other herds1 do not keep as uniform as truly wild animals4 ,for the preservation of a uniform character1 even within the same park1 a certain degree of selection--that is1 the destruction of the dark-coloured calves--is apparently necessary4 ,boyd ,dawkins believes that the park-cattle are descended from anciently domesticated1 and not truly wild animals2 and from the occasional appearance of dark-coloured calves1 it is improbable that the aboriginal ,bos primigenius was white4 ,it is curious what a strong1 though not invariable1 tendency there is in wild or escaped cattle to become white with coloured ears1 under widely different conditions of life4 ,if the old writers ,boethius and ,leslie#eb can be trusted1 the wild cattle of ,scotland were white and furnished with a great mane2 but the colour of their ears is not mentioned4 ,in ,wales1#ec during the tenth century1 some of the cattle are described as being white with red ears4 ,four hundred cattle thus coloured were sent to ,king ,john2 and an early record speaks of a hundred cattle with red ears having been demanded as a compensation for some offence1 but1 if the cattle were of a dark or black colour1 #aej were to be presented4 ,the black cattle of ,north ,wales apparently belong1 as we have seen1 to the small longifrons type3 and as the alternative was offered of either #aej dark cattle1 or #ajj white cattle with red ears1 we may presume that the latter were the larger beasts1 and probably belonged to the primigenius type4 ,youatt has remarked that at the present day1 whenever cattle of the shorthorn breed are white1 the extremities of their ears are more or less tinged with red4 ,the cattle which have run wild on the ,pampas1 in ,texas1 and in two parts of ,africa1 have become of a nearly uniform dark brownish-red4#ed ,on the ,ladrone ,islands1 in the ,pacific ,ocean1 immense herds of cattle1 which were wild in the year #agda1 are described as 8milk-white1 except their ears1 which are generally black40#ee ,the ,falkland ,islands1 situated far south1 with all the conditions of life as different as it is possible to conceive from those of the ,ladrones1 offer a more interesting case4 ,cattle have run wild there during eighty or ninety years2 and in the southern districts the animals are mostly white1 with their feet1 or whole heads1 or only their ears black2 but my informant1 ,admiral ,sulivan1#ef who long resided on these islands1 does not believe that they are ever purely white4 ,so that in these two archipelagos we see that the cattle tend to become white with coloured ears4 ,in other parts of the ,falkland ,islands other colours prevail3 near ,port ,pleasant brown is the common tint2 round ,mount ,usborn1 about half the animals in some of the herds were lead- or mouse-coloured1 which elsewhere is an unusual tint4 ,these latter cattle1 though generally inhabiting high land1 breed about a month earlier than the other cattle2 and this circumstance would aid in keeping them distinct and in perpetuating a peculiar colour4 ,it is worth recalling to mind that blue or lead-coloured marks have occasionally appeared on the white cattle of ,chillingham4 ,so plainly different were the colours of the wild herds in different parts of the ,falkland ,islands1 that in hunting them1 as ,admiral ,sulivan informs me1 white spots in one district1 and dark spots in another district1 were always looked out for on the distant hills4 ,in the intermediate districts1 intermediate colours prevailed4 ,whatever the cause may be1 this tendency in the wild cattle of the ,falkland ,islands1 which are all descended from a few brought from ,la ,plata1 to break up into herds of three different colours1 is an interesting fact4 ,returning to the several ,british breeds1 the conspicuous difference in general appearance between ,shorthorns1 ,longhorns 7now rarely seen71 ,herefords1 ,highland cattle1 ,alderneys1 etc41 must be familiar to every one4 ,a part of this difference may be attributed to descent from primordially distinct species2 but we may feel sure that there has been a considerable amount of variation4 ,even during the ,neolithic period1 the domestic cattle were to a certain extent variable4 ,within recent times most of the breeds have been modified by careful and methodical selection4 ,how strongly the characters thus acquired are inherited1 may be inferred from the prices realised by the improved breeds2 even at the first sale of ,colling's ,shorthorns1 eleven bulls reached an average of #bad pounds1 and lately ,shorthorn bulls have been sold for a thousand guineas1 and have been exported to all quarters of the world4 ,some constitutional differences may be here noticed4 ,the ,shorthorns arrive at maturity far earlier than the wilder breeds1 such as those of ,wales or the ,highlands4 ,this fact has been shown in an interesting manner by ,mr4 ,simonds1#eg who has given a table of the average period of their dentition1 which proves that there is a difference of no less than six months in the appearance of the permanent incisors4 ,the period of gestation1 from observations made by ,tessier on #aaca cows1 varies to the extent of eighty-one days2 and what is more interesting1 ,m4 ,lefour affirms 8that the period of gestation is longer in the large ,german cattle than in the smaller breeds40#eh ,with respect to the period of conception1 it seems certain that ,alderney and ,zetland cows often become pregnant earlier than other breeds4#ei ,lastly1 as four fully developed mamm is a generic character in the genus ,bos1#fj it is worth notice that with our domestic cows the two rudimentary mamm often become fairly well developed and yield milk4 ,as numerous breeds are generally found only in long-civilised countries1 it may be well to show that in some countries inhabited by barbarous races1 who are frequently at war with each other1 and therefore have little free communication1 several distinct breeds of cattle now exist or formerly existed4 ,at the ,cape of ,good ,hope ,leguat observed1 in the year #agbj1 three kinds4#fa ,at the present day various travellers have noticed the differences in the breeds in ,southern ,africa4 ,sir ,andrew ,smith several years ago remarked to me that the cattle possessed by the different tribes of ,caffres1 though living near each other under the same latitude and in the same kind of country1 yet differed1 and he expressed much surprise at the fact4 ,mr4 ,andersson has described#fb the ,damara1 ,bechuana1 and ,namaqua cattle2 and he informs me in a letter that the cattle north of ,lake ,ngami are likewise different1 as ,mr4 ,galton has heard is also the case with the cattle of ,benguela4 ,the ,namaqua cattle in size and shape nearly resemble ,european cattle1 and have short stout horns and large hoofs4 ,the ,damara cattle are very peculiar1 being big-boned1 with slender legs1 and small hard feet2 their tails are adorned with a tuft of long bushy hair nearly touching the ground1 and their horns are extraordinarily large4 ,the ,bechuana cattle have even larger horns1 and there is now a skull in ,london with the two horns #h ft4 #h-a_/d in4 long1 as measured in a straight line from tip to tip1 and no less than #ac ft4 #e in4 as measured along their curvature6 ,mr4 ,andersson in his letter to me says that1 though he will not venture to describe the differences between the breeds belonging to the many different sub-tribes1 yet such certainly exist1 as shown by the wonderful facility with which the natives discriminate them4 ,that many breeds of cattle have originated through variation1 independently of descent from distinct species1 we may infer from what we see in ,south ,america1 where the genus ,bos was not endemic1 and where the cattle which now exist in such vast numbers are the descendants of a few imported from ,spain and ,portugal4 ,in ,columbia1 ,roulin#fc describes two peculiar breeds1 namely1 pelones1 with extremely thin and fine hair1 and calongos1 absolutely naked4 ,according to ,castelnau there are two races in ,brazil1 one like ,european cattle1 the other different1 with remarkable horns4 ,in ,paraguay1 ,azara describes a breed which certainly originated in ,s4 ,america1 called chivos1 8because they have straight vertical horns1 conical1 and very large at the base40 ,he likewise describes a dwarf race in ,corrientes1 with short legs and a body larger than usual4 ,cattle without horns1 and others with reversed hair1 have also originated in ,paraguay4 ,another monstrous breed1 called niatas or natas1 of which ,i saw two small herds on the northern bank of the ,plata1 is so remarkable as to deserve a fuller description4 ,this breed bears the same relation to other breeds1 as bull or pug dogs do to other dogs1 or as improved pigs1 according to ,h4 von ,nathusius1 do to common pigs4#fd ,rtimeyer believes that these cattle belong to the primigenius type4#fe ,the forehead is very short and broad1 with the nasal end of the skull1 together with the whole plane of the upper molar-teeth1 curved upwards4 ,the lower jaw projects beyond the upper1 and has a corresponding upward curvature4 ,it is an interesting fact that an almost similar confirmation characterizes1 as ,i am informed by ,dr4 ,falconer1 the extinct and gigantic ,sivatherium of ,india1 and is not known in any other ruminant4 ,the upper lip is much drawn back1 the nostrils are seated high up and are widely open1 the eyes project outwards1 and the horns are large4 ,in walking the head is carried low1 and the neck is short4 ,the hind legs appear to be longer1 compared with the front legs1 than is usual4 ,the exposed incisor teeth1 the short head and upturned nostrils1 give these cattle the most ludicrous1 self-confident air of defiance4 ,the skull which ,i presented to the ,college of ,surgeons has been thus described by ,professor ,owen3#ff 8,it is remarkable from the stunted development of the nasals1 premaxillaries1 and fore-part of the lower jaw1 which is unusually curved upwards to come into contact with the premaxillaries4 ,the nasal bones are about one-third the ordinary length1 but retain almost their normal breadth4 ,the triangular vacuity is left between them1 the frontal and lachrymal1 which latter bone articulates with the premaxillary1 and thus excludes the maxillary from any junction with the nasal40 ,so that even the connexion of some of the bones is changed4 ,other differences might be added3 thus the plane of the condyles is somewhat modified1 and the terminal edge of the premaxillaries forms an arch4 ,in fact1 on comparison with the skull of a common ox1 scarcely a single bone presents the same exact shape1 and the whole skull has a wonderfully different appearance4 ,the first brief published notice of this race was by ,azara1 between the years #aghc-if2 but ,don ,f4 ,muniz1 of ,luxan1 who has kindly collected information for me1 states that about #agfj these cattle were kept as curiosities near ,buenos ,ayres4 ,their origin is not positively known1 but they must have originated subsequently to the year #aeeb1 when cattle were first introduced4 ,senor ,muniz informs me that the breed is believed to have originated with the ,indians southward of the ,plata4 ,even to this day those reared near the ,plata show their less civilised nature in being fiercer than common cattle1 and in the cow1 if visited too often1 easily deserting her first calf4 ,the breed is very true1 and a niata bull and cow invariably produce niata calves4 ,the breed has already lasted at least a century4 ,a niata bull crossed with a common cow1 and the reverse cross1 yield offspring having an intermediate character1 but with the niata character strongly displayed4 ,according to ,senor ,muniz1 there is the clearest evidence1 contrary to the common belief of agriculturists in analogous cases1 that the niata cow when crossed with a common bull transmits her peculiarities more strongly than does the niata bull when crossed with a common cow4 ,when the pasture is tolerably long1 these cattle feed as well as common cattle with their tongue and palate2 but during the great droughts1 when so many animals perish on the ,pampas1 the niata breed lies under a great disadvantage1 and would1 if not attended to1 become extinct2 for the common cattle1 like horses1 are able to keep alive by browsing with their lips on the twigs of trees and on reeds3 this the niatas cannot so well do1 as their lips do not join1 and hence they are found to perish before the common cattle4 ,this strikes me as a good illustration of how little we are able to judge from the ordinary habits of an animal1 on what circumstances1 occurring only at long intervals of time1 its rarity or extinction may depend4 ,it shows us1 also1 how natural selection would have determined the rejection of the niata modification had it arisen in a state of nature4 ,having described the semi-monstrous niata breed1 ,i may allude to a white bull1 said to have been brought from ,africa1 which was exhibited in ,london in #ahbi1 and which has been well figured by ,mr4 ,harvey4#fg ,it had a hump1 and was furnished with a mane4 ,the dewlap was peculiar1 being divided between its fore-legs into parallel divisions4 ,its lateral hoofs were annually shed1 and grew to the length of five or six inches4 ,the eye was very peculiar1 being remarkably prominent1 and 8resembled a cup and ball1 thus enabling the animal to see on all sides with equal ease2 the pupil was small and oval1 or rather a parallelogram with the ends cut off1 and lying transversely across the ball40 ,a new and strange breed might probably have been formed by careful breeding and selection from this animal4 ,i have often speculated on the probable causes through which each separate district in ,great ,britain came to possess in former times its own peculiar breed of cattle2 and the question is1 perhaps1 even more perplexing in the case of ,southern ,africa4 ,we now know that the differences may be in part attributed to descent from distinct species2 but this cause is far from sufficient4 ,have the slight differences in climate and in the nature of the pasture1 in the different districts of ,britain1 directly induced corresponding differences in the cattle8 ,we have seen that the semi-wild cattle in the several ,british parks are not identical in colouring or size1 and that some degree of selection has been requisite to keep them true4 ,it is almost certain that abundant food given during many generations directly affects the size of a breed4#fh ,that climate directly affects the thickness of the skin and the hair is likewise certain3 thus ,roulin asserts#fi that the hides of the feral cattle on the hot ,llanos 8are always much less heavy than those of the cattle raised on the high platform of ,bogota2 and that these hides yield in weight and in thickness of hair to those of the cattle which have run wild on the lofty ,paramos40 ,the same difference has been observed in the hides of the cattle reared on the bleak ,falkland ,islands and on the temperate ,pampas4 ,low has remarked#gj that the cattle which inhabit the more humid parts of ,britain have longer hair and thicker skins than other ,british cattle4 ,when we compare highly improved stall-fed cattle with the wilder breeds1 or compare mountain and lowland breeds1 we cannot doubt that an active life1 leading to the free use of the limbs and lungs1 affects the shape and proportions of the whole body4 ,it is probable that some breeds1 such as the semi-monstrous niata cattle1 and some peculiarities1 such as being hornless1 etc41 have appeared suddenly owing to what we may call in our ignorance spontaneous variation2 but even in this case a rude kind of selection is necessary1 and the animals thus characterised must be at least partially separated from others4 ,this degree of care1 however1 has sometimes been taken even in little-civilised districts1 where we should least have expected it1 as in the case of the niata1 chivo1 and hornless cattle in ,s4 ,america4 ,that methodical selection has done wonders within a recent period in modifying our cattle1 no one doubts4 ,during the process of methodical selection it has occasionally happened that deviations of structure1 more strongly pronounced than mere individual differences1 yet by no means deserving to be called monstrosities1 have been taken advantage of3 thus the famous ,longhorn ,bull1 ,shakespeare1 though of the pure ,canley stock1 scarcely inherited a single point of the long-horned breed1 his horns excepted2#ga yet in the hands of ,mr4 ,fowler1 this bull greatly improved his race4 ,we have also reason to believe that selection1 carried on so far unconsciously that there was at no one time any distinct intention to improve or change the breed1 has in the course of time modified most of our cattle2 for by this process1 aided by more abundant food1 all the lowland ,british breeds have increased greatly in size and in early maturity since the reign of ,henry ,,vii4#gb ,it should never be forgotten that many animals have to be annually slaughtered2 so that each owner must determine which shall be killed and which preserved for breeding4 ,in every district1 as ,youatt has remarked1 there is a prejudice in favour of the native breed2 so that animals possessing qualities1 whatever they may be1 which are most valued in each district1 will be oftenest preserved2 and this unmethodical selection assuredly will in the long run affect the character of the whole breed4 ,but it may be asked1 can this rude kind of selection have been practised by barbarians such as those of southern ,africa8 ,in a future chapter on ,selection we shall see that this has certainly occurred to some extent4 ,therefore1 looking to the origin of the many breeds of cattle which formerly inhabited the several districts of ,britain1 ,i conclude that1 although slight differences in the nature of the climate1 food1 etc41 as well as changed habits of life1 aided by correlation of growth1 and the occasional appearance from unknown causes of considerable deviations of structure1 have all probably played their parts2 yet that the occasional preservation in each district of those individual animals which were most valued by each owner has perhaps been even more effective in the production of the several ,british breeds4 ,as soon as two or more breeds were formed in any district1 or when new breeds descended from distinct species were introduced1 their crossing1 especially if aided by some selection1 will have multiplied the number and modified the characters of the older breeds4 ,,sheep4 ,i shall treat this subject briefly4 ,most authors look at our domestic sheep as descended from several distinct species4 ,mr4 ,blyth1 who has carefully attended to the subject1 believes that fourteen wild species now exist1 but 8that not one of them can be identified as the progenitor of any one of the interminable domestic races40 ,m4 ,gervais thinks that there are six species of ,ovis1#gc but that our domestic sheep form a distinct genus1 now completely extinct4 ,a ,german naturalist#gd believes that our sheep descend from ten aboriginally distinct species1 of which only one is still living in a wild state6 ,another ingenious observer1#ge though not a naturalist1 with a bold defiance of everything known on geographical distribution1 infers that the sheep of ,great ,britain alone are the descendants of eleven endemic ,british forms6 ,under such a hopeless state of doubt it would be useless for my purpose to give a detailed account of the several breeds2 but a few remarks may be added4 ,sheep have been domesticated from a very ancient period4 ,rtimeyer#gf found in the ,swiss lake-dwellings the remains of a small breed1 with thin tall legs1 and horns like those of a goat1 thus differing somewhat from any kind now known4 ,almost every country has its own peculiar breed2 and many countries have several breeds differing greatly from each other4 ,one of the most strongly marked races is an ,eastern one with a long tail1 including1 according to ,pallas1 twenty vertebr1 and so loaded with fat that it is sometimes placed on a truck1 which is dragged about by the living animal4 ,these sheep1 though ranked by ,fitzinger as a distinct aboriginal form1 bear in their drooping ears the stamp of long domestication4 ,this is likewise the case with those sheep which have two great masses of fat on the rump1 with the tail in a rudimentary condition4 ,the ,angola variety of the long-tailed race has curious masses of fat on the back of the head and beneath the jaws4#gg ,mr4 ,hodgson in an admirable paper#gh on the sheep of the ,himalaya infers from the distribution of the several races1 8that this caudal augmentation in most of its phases is an instance of degeneracy in these pre-eminently ,alpine animals40 ,the horns present an endless diversity in character2 being not rarely absent1 especially in the female sex1 or1 on the other hand1 amounting to four or even eight in number4 ,the horns1 when numerous1 arise from a crest on the frontal bone1 which is elevated in a peculiar manner4 ,it is remarkable that multiplicity of horns 8is generally accompanied by great length and coarseness of the fleece40#gi ,this correlation1 however1 is far from being general2 for instance1 ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,d4 ,forbes1 that the ,spanish sheep in ,chile resemble1 in fleece and in all other characters1 their parent merino-race1 except that instead of a pair they generally bear four horns4 ,the existence of a pair of mamm is a generic character in the genus ,ovis as well as in several allied forms2 nevertheless1 as ,mr4 ,hodgson has remarked1 8this character is not absolutely constant even among the true and proper sheep3 for ,i have more than once met with ,cgias 7a sub-,himalayan domestic race7 possessed of four teats40#hj ,this case is the more remarkable as1 when any part or organ is present in reduced number in comparison with the same part in allied groups1 it usually is subject to little variation4 ,the presence of interdigital pits has likewise been considered as a generic distinction in sheep2 but ,isidore ,geoffroy#ha has shown that these pits or pouches are absent in some breeds4 ,in sheep there is a strong tendency for characters1 which have apparently been acquired under domestication1 to become attached either exclusively to the male sex1 or to be more highly developed in this than in the other sex4 ,thus in many breeds the horns are deficient in the ewe1 though this likewise occurs occasionally with the female of the wild musmon4 ,in the rams of the ,wallachian breed1 8the horns spring almost perpendicularly from the frontal bone1 and then take a beautiful spiral form2 in the ewes they protrude nearly at right angles from the head1 and then become twisted in a singular manner40#hb ,mr4 ,hodgson states that the extraordinarily arched nose or chaffron1 which is so highly developed in several foreign breeds1 is characteristic of the ram alone1 and apparently is the result of domestication4#hc ,i hear from ,mr4 ,blyth that the accumulation of fat in the fat-tailed sheep of the plains of ,india is greater in the male than in the female2 and ,fitzinger#hd remarks that the mane in the ,african maned race is far more developed in the ram than in the ewe4 ,different races of sheep1 like cattle1 present constitutional differences4 ,thus the improved breeds arrive at maturity at an early age1 as has been well shown by ,mr4 ,simonds through their early average period of dentition4 ,the several races have become adapted to different kinds of pasture and climate3 for instance1 no one can rear ,leicester sheep on mountainous regions1 where ,cheviots flourish4 ,as ,youatt has remarked1 8,in all the different districts of ,great ,britain we find various breeds of sheep beautifully adapted to the locality which they occupy4 ,no one knows their origin2 they are indigenous to the soil1 climate1 pasturage1 and the locality on which they graze2 they seem to have been formed for it and by it40#he ,marshall relates#hf that a flock of heavy ,lincolnshire and light ,norfolk sheep which had been bred together in a large sheep-walk1 part of which was low1 rich1 and moist1 and another part high and dry1 with benty grass1 when turned out1 regularly separated from each other2 the heavy sheep drawing off to the rich soil1 and the lighter sheep to their own soil2 so that 8whilst there was plenty of grass the two breeds kept themselves as distinct as rooks and pigeons40 ,numerous sheep from various parts of the world have been brought during a long course of years to the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london2 but as ,youatt1 who attended the animals as a veterinary surgeon1 remarks1 8few or none die of the rot1 but they are phthisical2 not one of them from a torrid climate lasts out the second year1 and when they die their lungs are tuberculated40#hg ,there is very good evidence that ,english breeds of sheep will not succeed in ,france4#hh ,even in certain parts of ,england it has been found impossible to keep certain breeds of sheep2 thus on a farm on the banks of the ,ouse1 the ,leicester sheep were so rapidly destroyed by pleuritis#hi that the owner could not keep them2 the coarser-skinned sheep never being affected4 ,the period of gestation was formerly thought to be of so unalterable a character1 that a supposed difference of this kind between the wolf and the dog was esteemed a sure sign of specific distinction2 but we have seen that the period is shorter in the improved breeds of the pig1 and in the larger breeds of the ox1 than in other breeds of these two animals4 ,and now we know1 on the excellent authority of ,hermann von ,nathusius1#ij that ,merino and ,southdown sheep1 when both have long been kept under exactly the same conditions1 differ in their average period of gestation1 as is seen in the following ,table3-- ,merinos #aejc days4 ,southdowns #addb days4 ,half-bred ,merinos and ,southdowns #adfc days4 #c_/d blood of ,southdown #adee days4 #g_/h blood of ,southdown #addb days4 ,in this graduated difference in cross-bred animals having different proportions of ,southdown blood1 we see how strictly the two periods of gestation have been transmitted4 ,nathusius remarks that1 as ,southdowns grow with remarkable rapidity after birth1 it is not surprising that their foetal development should have been shortened4 ,it is of course possible that the difference in these two breeds may be due to their descent from distinct parent-species2 but as the early maturity of the ,southdowns has long been carefully attended to by breeders1 the difference is more probably the result of such attention4 ,lastly1 the fecundity of the several breeds differs much2 some generally producing twins or even triplets at a birth1 of which fact the curious ,shangai sheep 7with their truncated and rudimentary ears1 and great ,roman noses71 lately exhibited in the ,zoological ,gardens1 offer a remarkable instance4 ,sheep are perhaps more readily affected by the direct action of the conditions of life to which they have been exposed than almost any other domestic animal4 ,according to ,pallas1 and more recently according to ,erman1 the fat-tailed ,kirghisian sheep1 when bred for a few generations in ,russia1 degenerate1 and the mass of fat dwindles away1 8the scanty and bitter herbage of the steppes seems so essential to their development40 ,pallas makes an analogous statement with respect to one of the ,crimean breeds4 ,burnes states that the ,karakool breed1 which produces a fine1 curled1 black1 and valuable fleece1 when removed from its own canton near ,bokhara to ,persia or to other quarters1 loses its peculiar fleece4#ia ,in all such cases1 however1 it may be that a change of any kind in the conditions of life causes variability and consequent loss of character1 and not that certain conditions are necessary for the development of certain characters4 ,great heat1 however1 seems to act directly on the fleece3 several accounts have been published of the change which sheep imported from ,europe undergo in the ,west ,indies4 ,dr4 ,nicholson of ,antigua informs me that1 after the third generation1 the wool disappears from the whole body1 except over the loins2 and the animal then appears like a goat with a dirty door-mat on its back4 ,a similar change is said to take place on the west coast of ,africa4#ib ,on the other hand1 many wool-bearing sheep live on the hot plains of ,india4 ,roulin asserts that in the lower and heated valleys of the ,cordillera1 if the lambs are sheared as soon as the wool has grown to a certain thickness1 all goes on afterwards as usual2 but if not sheared1 the wool detaches itself in flakes1 and short shining hair like that on a goat is produced ever afterwards4 ,this curious result seems merely to be an exaggerated tendency natural to the ,merino breed1 for as a great authority1 namely1 ,lord ,somerville1 remarks1 8the wool of our ,merino sheep after shear-time is hard and coarse to such a degree as to render it almost impossible to suppose that the same animal could bear wool so opposite in quality1 compared to that which has been clipped from it3 as the cold weather advances1 the fleeces recover their soft quality40 ,as in sheep of all breeds the fleece naturally consists of longer and coarser hair covering shorter and softer wool1 the change which it often undergoes in hot climates is probably merely a case of unequal development2 for even with those sheep which like goats are covered with hair1 a small quantity of underlying wool may always be found4#ic ,in the wild mountain-sheep 7#jvis montana7 of ,north ,america there is an analogous annual change of coat2 8the wool begins to drop out in early spring1 leaving in its place a coat of hair resembling that of the elk1 a change of pelage quite different in character from the ordinary thickening of the coat or hair1 common to all furred animals in winter1--for instance1 in the horse1 the cow1 etc41 which shed their winter coat in the spring40#id ,a slight difference in climate or pasture sometimes slightly affects the fleece1 as has been observed even in different districts in ,england1 and is well shown by the great softness of the wool brought from ,southern ,australia4 ,but it should be observed1 as ,youatt repeatedly insists1 that the tendency to change may generally be counteracted by careful selection4 ,m4 ,lasterye1 after discussing this subject1 sums up as follows3 8,the preservation of the ,merino race in its utmost purity at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in the marshes of ,holland1 and under the rigorous climate of ,sweden1 furnishes an additional support of this my unalterable principle1 that fine-woolled sheep may be kept wherever industrious men and intelligent breeders exist40 ,that methodical selection has effected great changes in several breeds of sheep no one who knows anything on the subject1 entertains a doubt4 ,the case of the ,southdowns1 as improved by ,ellman1 offers perhaps the most striking instance4 ,unconscious or occasional selection has likewise slowly produced a great effect1 as we shall see in the chapters on ,selection4 ,that crossing has largely modified some breeds1 no one who will study what has been written on this subject--for instance1 ,mr4 ,spooner's paper--will dispute2 but to produce uniformity in a crossed breed1 careful selection and 8rigorous weeding10 as this author expresses it1 are indispensable4#ie ,in some few instances new breeds have suddenly originated2 thus1 in #agia1 a ram-lamb was born in ,massachusetts1 having short crooked legs and a long back1 like a turnspit-dog4 ,from this one lamb the otter or ancon semi-monstrous breed was raised2 as these sheep could not leap over the fences1 it was thought that they would be valuable2 but they have been supplanted by merinos1 and thus exterminated4 ,the sheep are remarkable from transmitting their character so truly that ,colonel ,humphreys#if never heard of 8but one questionable case0 of an ancon ram and ewe not producing ancon offspring4 ,when they are crossed with other breeds the offspring1 with rare exceptions1 instead of being intermediate in character1 perfectly resemble either parent2 even one of twins has resembled one parent and the second the other4 ,lastly1 8the ancons have been observed to keep together1 separating themselves from the rest of the flock when put into enclosures with other sheep40 ,a more interesting case has been recorded in the ,report of the ,juries for the ,great ,exhibition 7#ahea71 namely1 the production of a merino ram-lamb on the ,mauchamp farm1 in #ahbh1 which was remarkable for its long1 smooth1 straight1 and silky wool4 ,by the year #ahcc ,m4 ,graux had raised rams enough to serve his whole flock1 and after a few more years he was able to sell stock of his new breed4 ,so peculiar and valuable is the wool1 that it sells at #be per cent above the best merino wool3 even the fleeces of half-bred animals are valuable1 and are known in ,france as the 8,mauchamp-merino40 ,it is interesting1 as showing how generally any marked deviation of structure is accompanied by other deviations1 that the first ram and his immediate offspring were of small size1 with large heads1 long necks1 narrow chests1 and long flanks2 but these blemishes were removed by judicious crosses and selection4 ,the long smooth wool was also correlated with smooth horns2 and as horns and hair are homologous structures1 we can understand the meaning of this correlation4 ,if the ,mauchamp and ancon breeds had originated a century or two ago1 we should have had no record of their birth2 and many a naturalist would no doubt have insisted1 especially in the case of the ,mauchamp race1 that they had each descended from1 or been crossed with1 some unknown aboriginal form4 ,,goats4 ,from the recent researches of ,m4 ,brandt1 most naturalists now believe that all our goats are descended from the ,capra gagrus of the mountains of ,asia1 possibly mingled with the allied ,indian species ,c4 falconeri of ,india4#ig ,in ,switzerland1 during the neolithic period1 the domestic goat was commoner than the sheep2 and this very ancient race differed in no respect from that now common in ,switzerland4#ih ,at the present time1 the many races found in several parts of the world differ greatly from each other2 nevertheless1 as far as they have been tried1#ii they are all quite fertile when crossed4 ,so numerous are the breeds1 that ,mr4 ,g4 ,clark#ajj has described eight distinct kinds imported into the one island of ,mauritius4 ,the ears of one kind were enormously developed1 being1 as measured by ,mr4 ,clark1 no less than #ai inches in length and #d-c_/d inches in breadth4 ,as with cattle1 the mamm of those breeds which are regularly milked become greatly developed2 and1 as ,mr4 ,clark remarks1 8it is not rare to see their teats touching the ground40 ,the following cases are worth notice as presenting unusual points of variation4 ,according to ,godron1#aja the mamm differ greatly in shape in different breeds1 being elongated in the common goat1 hemispherical in the ,angora race1 and bilobed and divergent in the goats of ,syria and ,nubia4 ,according to this same author1 the males of certain breeds have lost their usual offensive odour4 ,in one of the ,indian breeds the males and females have horns of widely-different shapes2#ajb and in some breeds the females are destitute of horns4#ajc ,m4 ,ramu of ,nancy informs me that many of the goats there bear on the upper part of the throat a pair of hairy appendages1 #gj mm4 in length and about #aj mm4 in diameter1 which in external appearance resemble those above described on the jaws of pigs4 ,the presence of inter-digital pits or glands on all four feet has been thought to characterise the genus ,ovis1 and their absence to be characteristic of the genus ,capra2 but ,mr4 ,hodgson has found that they exist in the front feet of the majority of ,himalayan goats4#ajd ,mr4 ,hodgson measured the intestines in two goats of the ,dg race1 and he found that the proportional length of the great and small intestines differed considerably4 ,in one of these goats the ccum was thirteen inches1 and in the other no less than thirty-six inches in length6 ,,references #a ,hermann von ,nathusius #8,die ,racen des ,schweines1' ,berlin1 #ahfj2 and #8,vorstudien fr ,geschichte1' etc41 #8,schweineschdel1' ,berlin1 #ahfd4 ,rtimeyer1 #8,die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten1' ,basel1 #ahfa4 #b ,nathusius1 #8,die ,racen des ,schweines1' ,berlin1 #ahfj4 ,an excellent appendix is given with references to published and trustworthy drawings of the breeds of each country4 #c ,for ,europe see ,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands1' #ahja1 ,b4 i41 s4 #eje4 ,several accounts have been published on the fertility of the offspring from wild and tame swine4 ,see ,burdach's #8,physiology1' and ,godron #8,de l',espce1' tom4 i4 p4 #cgj4 ,for ,africa1 #8,bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclimat4' tom4 iv4 p4 #chi4 ,for ,india1 see ,nathusius1 #8,schweineschdel1' s4 #adh4 #d ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 ,catalogue of ,mammalia1 #8,madras ,journal of ,lit4 and ,science1' vol4 x4 p4 #bai4 #e #8,pfahlbauten1' s4 #afc et passim4 #f ,see ,j4 ,w4 ,schtz' interesting essay1 #8,zur ,kenntniss des ,torfschweins1' #ahfh4 ,this author believes that the ,torfschwein is descended from a distinct species1 the ,s4 sennariensis of ,central ,africa4 #g ,stan4 ,julien quoted by de ,blainville1 #8,ostographie1' p4 #afc4 #h ,richardson1 #8,pigs1 their ,origin1' etc41 p4 #bf4 #i #8,die ,racen des ,schweines' s4 #dg1 #fd4 #aj #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfa1 p4 #bfc4 #aa ,sclater1 in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,feb4 #bf1 #ahfa4 #ab #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfb1 p4 #ac4 ,the skull has since been described much more fully by ,professor ,lucae in a very interesting essay1 #8,der ,schdel des ,maskenschweines1' #ahgj4 ,he confirms the conclusion of von ,nathusius on the relationship of this kind of pig4 #ac #8,journal of ,voyages and ,travels from #ahba to #ahbi1' vol4 i4 p4 #cjj4 #ad ,rev4 ,g4 ,low #8,fauna ,orcadensis1' p4 #aj4 ,see also ,dr4 ,hibbert's account of the pig of the ,shetland ,islands4 #ae #8,die ,racen des ,schweines' s4 #gj4 #af ,these woodcuts are copied from engravings given in ,mr4 ,s4 ,sidney's excellent edition of #8,the ,pig1' by ,youatt1 #ahfj4 ,see pp4 #a1 #af1 #ai4 #ag #8,schweineschdel' s4 #gd1 #ace4 #ah ,nathusius1 #8,die ,racen des ,schweines1' s4 #ga4 #ai #8,die ,racen des ,schweines1' s4 #dg4 #8,schweineschdel' s4 #ajd4 ,compare1 also1 the figures of the old ,irish and the improved ,irish breeds in ,richardson on #8,the ,pig1' #ahdg4 #bj ,quoted by ,isid4 ,geoffroy1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #dda4 #ba ,s4 ,sidney1 #8,the ,pig1' p4 #fa4 #bb #8,schweineschdel1' s4 #b1 #bj4 #bc #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahcg1 p4 #bc4 ,i have not given the caudal vertebr1 as ,mr4 ,eyton says some might possibly have been lost4 ,i have added together the dorsal and lumbar vertebr1 owing to ,prof4 ,owen's remarks 7#8,journal ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 p4 #bh7 on the difference between dorsal and lumbar vertebr depending only on the development of the ribs4 ,nevertheless the difference in the number of the ribs in pigs deserves notice4 ,m4 ,sanson gives the number of lumbar vertebr in various pigs2 #8,comptes ,rendus1' lxiii4 p4 #hdc4 #bd #8,edinburgh ,new ,philosoph4 ,journal1' ,april1 #ahfc4 ,see also ,de ,blainville's #8,ostographie1' p4 #abh1 for various authorities on this subject4 #be ,eudes-,deslongchamps1 #8,mmoires de la ,soc4 ,linn4 de ,normandie1' vol4 vii41 #ahdb1 p4 #da4 ,richardson1 #8,pigs1 their ,origin1 etc41' #ahdg1 p4 #cj4 ,nathusius1 #8,die ,racen des ,schweines1' #ahfc1 s4 #ed4 #bf ,d4 ,johnson's #8,sketches of ,indian ,field ,sports1' p4 #bgb4 ,mr4 ,crawfurd informs me that the same fact holds good with the wild pigs of the ,malay peninsula4 #bg ,for ,turkish pigs see ,desmarest1 #8,mammalogie1' #ahbj1 p4 #cia4 ,for those of ,westphalia see ,richardson's #8,pigs1 their ,origin1 etc41' #ahdg1 p4 #da4 #bh ,with respect to the several foregoing and following statements on feral pigs1 see ,roulin1 in #8,mm4 prsents par divers ,savans a l',acad41' etc41 ,paris1 tom4 vi4 #ahce1 p4 #cbf4 ,it should be observed that his account does not apply to truly feral pigs2 but to pigs long introduced into the country and living in a half-wild state4 ,for the truly feral pigs of ,jamaica1 see ,gosse's #8,sojourn in ,jamaica1' #ahea1 p4 #chf2 and ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith1 in #8,nat4 ,library1' vol4 ix4 p4 #ic4 ,with respect to ,africa see ,livingstone's #8,expedition to the ,zambesi1' #ahfe1 p4 #aec4 ,the most precise statement with respect to the tusks of the ,west ,indian feral boars is by ,p4 ,labat 7quoted by ,roulin72 but this author attributes the state of these pigs to descent from a domestic stock which he saw in ,spain4 ,admiral ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 had ample opportunities of observing the wild pigs on ,eagle ,islet in the ,falklands2 and he informs me that they resembled wild boars with bristly ridged backs and large tusks4 ,the pigs which have run wild in the province of ,buenos ,ayres 7,rengger #8,sugethiere1' s4 #cca7 have not reverted to the wild type4 ,de ,blainville 7#8,ostographie1' p4 #acb7 refers to two skulls of domestic pigs sent from ,patagonia by ,al4 d',orbigny1 and he states that they have the occipital elevation of the wild ,european boar1 but that the head altogether is 8plus courte et plus ramasse40 ,he refers1 also1 to the skin of a feral pig from ,north ,america1 and says 8il ressemble tout fait un petit sanglier1 mais il est presque tout noir1 et peut-tre un peu plus ramass dans ses formes40 #bi ,gosse's #8,jamaica1' p4 #chf1 with a quotation from ,williamson's #8,oriental ,field ,sports4' ,also ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith1 in #8,naturalist ,library1' vol4 ix4 p4 #id4 #cj ,s4 ,sidney's edition of #8,youatt on the ,pig1' #ahfj1 pp4 #g1 #bf1 #bg1 #bi1 #cj4 #ca #8,schweineschdel' s4 #adj4 #cb #8,die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahfa1 s4 #aji1 #adi1 #bbb4 ,see also ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire in #8,mm4 du ,mus4 d',hist4 ,nat41' tom4 x4 p4 #agb2 and his son ,isidore in #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tom4 iii4 p4 #fi4 ,vasey1 in his #8,delineations of the ,ox ,tribe1' #ahea1 p4 #abg1 says the zebu has four1 and common ox five1 sacral vertebr4 ,mr4 ,hodgson found the ribs either thirteen or fourteen in number2 see a note in #8,indian ,field1' #aheh1 p4 #fb4 #cc #8,the ,indian ,field1' #aheh1 p4 #gd1 where ,mr4 ,blyth gives his authorities with respect to the feral humped cattle4 ,pickering1 also1 in his #8,races of ,man1' #ahej1 p4 #bgd1 notices the peculiar grunt-like character of the voice of the humped cattle4 #cd ,mr4 ,h4 ,e4 ,marquand1 in #8,the ,times1' ,june #bcrd1 #ahef4 #ce ,vasey1 #8,delineations of the ,ox-,tribe1' p4 #abd4 ,brace's #8,hungary1' #ahea1 p4 #id4 ,the ,hungarian cattle descend1 according to ,rtimeyer #8,zahmen ,europ4 ,rindes1' #ahff1 s4 #ac from ,bos primigenius4 #cf ,moll and ,gayot1 #8,la ,connaissance ,gn4 du ,buf1' ,paris1 #ahfj4 ,fig4 #hb is that of the ,podolian breed4 #cg ,a translation appeared in three parts in the #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #bnd series1 vol4 iv41 #ahdi4 #ch ,see also ,rtimeyer's #8,beitrge pal4 ,gesch4 der ,wiederkuer ,basel1' #ahfe1 s4 #ed4 #ci ,pictet #8,palontologie1' tom4 i4 p4 #cfe 7#bnd edit474 ,with respect to ,b4 trochoceros1 see ,rtimeyer #8,zahmen ,europ4 ,rindes1' #ahff1 s4 #bf4 #dj ,w4 ,boyd ,dawkins on the ,british ,fossil ,oxen1 #8,journal of the ,geolog4 ,soc41' ,aug4 #ahfg1 p4 #ahb4 ,also #8,proc4 ,phil4 ,soc4 of ,manchester1' ,nov4 #adth1 #ahga1 and #8,cave ,hunting1' #ahge1 p4 #bg1 #ach4 #da #8,british ,pleistocene ,mammalia1' by ,w4 ,b4 ,dawkins and ,w4 ,a4 ,sandford1 #ahff1 p4 #ae4 #db ,w4 ,r4 ,wilde1 #8,an ,essay on the ,animal ,remains1 etc4 ,royal ,irish ,academy1' #ahfj1 p4 #bi4 ,also #8,proc4 of ,r4 ,irish ,academy1' #aheh1 p4 #dh4 #dc #8,lecture3 ,royal ,institution of ,g4 ,britain1' ,may #bnd1 #ahef1 p4 #d4 #8,british ,fossil ,mammals1' p4 #eac4 #dd ,nilsson1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #ahdi1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ced4 #de ,see ,w4 ,r4 ,wilde1 ut supra2 and ,mr4 ,blyth1 in #8,proc4 ,irish ,academy1' ,march #eth1 #ahfd4 #df ,laing's #8,tour in ,norway1' p4 #aaj4 #dg ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 #if4 #dh ,idem1 tom4 iii4 pp4 #hb1 #ia4 #di #8,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 p4 #cfj4 #ej ,walther #8,das ,rindvieh1' #ahag1 s4 #cj4 #ea ,i am much indebted to the present ,earl of ,tankerville for information about his wild cattle2 and for the skull which was sent to ,prof4 ,rtimeyer4 ,the fullest account of the ,chillingham cattle is given by ,mr4 ,hindmarsh1 together with a letter by the late ,lord ,tankerville1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 ii41 #ahci1 p4 #bgd4 ,see ,bewick1 #8,quadrupeds1' #bnd edit41 #agia1 p4 #ce1 note4 ,with respect to those of the ,duke of ,queensberry1 see ,pennant's #8,tour in ,scotland1' p4 #aji4 ,for those of ,chartley1 see ,low's #8,domesticated ,animals of ,britain1' #ahde1 p4 #bch4 ,for those of ,gisburne1 see ,bewick #8,quadrupeds1' and #8,encyclop4 of ,rural ,sports1' p4 #aja4 #eb ,boethius was born in #adgj2 #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 ii41 #ahci1 p4 #bha2 and vol4 iv41 #ahdi1 p4 #dbd4 #ec n',youatt on ,cattle1' #ahcd1 p4 #dh3 ,see also p4 #bdb1 on short-horn cattle4 ,bell1 in his #8,british ,quadrupeds1' p4 #dbc1 states that1 after long attending to the subject1 he has found that white cattle invariably have coloured ears4ote #ed ,azara1 #8,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 p4 #cfa4 ,azara quotes ,buffon for the feral cattle of ,africa4 ,for ,texas see #8,times1' ,feb4 #ahth1 #ahdf4 #ee ,anson's ,voyage4 ,see ,kerr and ,porter's #8,collection1' vol4 xii4 p4 #ajc4 #ef ,see also ,mr4 ,mackinnon's pamphlet on the ,falkland ,islands1 p4 #bd4 #eg #8,the ,age of the ,ox1 ,sheep1 ,pig1' etc41 by ,prof4 ,james ,simonds1 published by order of the ,royal ,agricult4 ,soc4 #eh #8,ann4 ,agricult4 ,france1' ,april1 #ahcg1 as quoted in #8,the ,veterinary1' vol4 xii4 p4 #gbe4 ,i quote ,tessier's observations from #8,youatt on ,cattle1' p4 #ebg4 #ei #8,the ,veterinary1' vol4 viii4 p4 #fha and vol4 x4 p4 #bfh4 ,low's #8,domest4 ,animals1 etc4' p4 #big4 #fj ,mr4 ,ogleby in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahcf1 p4 #ach1 and #ahdj1 p4 #d4 ,quatrefages quotes ,philippi 7#8,revue des ,cours ,scientifiques1' ,feb4 #ab1 #afhh1 p4 #feg71 that the cattle of ,piacentino have thirteen dorsal vertebr and ribs in the place of the ordinary number of twelve4 #fa ,leguat's ,voyage1 quoted by ,vasey in his #8,delineations of the ,ox-tribe1' p4 #acb4 #fb #8,travels in ,south ,africa1' pp4 #cag1 #ccf4 #fc #8,mem4 de l',institut prsent4 par divers ,savans1' tom4 vi41 #ahce1 p4 #ccc4 ,for ,brazil1 see #8,comptes ,rendus1' ,june #ae1 #ahdf4 ,see ,azara #8,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 pp4 #cei1 #cfa4 #fd #8,schweineschdel1' #ahfd1 s4 #ajd4 ,nathusius states that the form of skull characteristic in the niata cattle occasionally appears in ,european cattle2 but he is mistaken1 as we shall hereafter see1 in supposing that these cattle do not form a distinct race4 ,prof4 ,wyman1 of ,cambridge1 ,united ,states1 informs me that the common cod-fish presents a similar monstrosity1 called by the fishermen 8bull-dog cod40 ,prof4 ,wyman also concluded1 after making numerous inquiries in ,la ,plata1 that the niata cattle transmit their peculiarities or form a race4 #fe #8,ueber ,art des zahmen ,europ4 ,rindes1' #ahff1 s4 #bh4 #ff #8,descriptive ,cat4 of ,ost4 ,collect4 of ,college of ,surgeons1' #ahec1 p4 #fbd4 ,vasey in his #8,delineations of the ,ox-tribe' has given a figure of this skull2 and ,i sent a photograph of it to ,prof4 ,rtimeyer4 #fg ,loudon's #8,magazine of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 i4 #ahbi1 p4 #aac4 ,separate figures are given of the animal1 its hoofs1 eye1 and dewlap4 #fh ,low1 #8,domesticated ,animals of the ,british ,isles1' p4 #bfd4 #fi #8,mm4 de l',institut prsent4 ,par divers ,savans1' tom4 vi41 #ahce1 p4 #ccb4 #gj ,idem1 pp4 #cjd1 #cfh1 etc4 #ga #8,youatt on ,cattle1' p4 #aic4 ,a full account of this bull is taken from ,marshall4 #gb #8,youatt on ,cattle1' p4 #aaf4 ,lord ,spencer has written on this same subject4 #gc ,blyth1 on the genus ,ovis1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history1' vol4 vii41 #ahda1 p4 #bfa4 ,with respect to the parentage of the breeds see ,mr4 ,blyth's excellent articles in #8,land and ,water1' #ahfg1 pp4 #acd1 #aef4 ,gervais1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammifres1' #ahee1 tom4 ii4 p4 #aia4 #gd ,dr4 ,l4 ,fitzinger1 #8,ueber die ,racen des ,zahmen ,schafes1' #ahfj1 s4 #hf4 #ge ,j4 ,anderson1 #8,recreations in ,agriculture and ,natural ,history1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bfd4 #gf #8,pfahlbauten' s4 #abg1 #aic4 #gg #8,youatt on ,sheep1' p4 #abj4 #gh #8,journal of the ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4xvi4 pp4 #ajjg1 #ajaf4 #gi #8,youatt on ,sheep1' pp4 #adb-afi4 #hj #8,journal ,asiat4 ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 xvi41 #ahdg1 p4 #ajae4 #ha #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #dce4 #hb #8,youatt on ,sheep1' p4 #ach4 #hc #8,journal ,asiat4 ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 xvi41 #ahdg1 pp4 #ajae1 #ajaf4 #hd #8,racen des ,zahmen ,schafes1' s4 #gg4 #he #8,rural ,economy of ,norfolk1' vol4 ii4 p4 #acf4 #hf #8,youatt on ,sheep1' p4 #cab4 ,on same subject1 see excellent remarks in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheh1 p4 #hfh4 ,for experiments in crossing ,cheviot sheep with ,leicesters see ,youatt1 p4 #cbe4 #hg #8,youatt on ,sheep1' note1 p4 #dia4 #hh ,m4 ,malingi-,nouel1 #8,journal ,r4 ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 xiv4 #ahec1 p4 #bad4 ,translated and therefore approved by a great authority1 ,mr4 ,pusey4 #hi #8,the ,veterinary1' vol4 x4 p4 #bag4 #ij ,a translation of his paper is given in #8,bull4 ,soc4 ,imp4 d',acclimat41' tom4 ix41 #ahfb1 p4 #gbc4 #ia ,erman's #8,travels in ,siberia1' 7,eng4 trans47 vol4 i4 p4 #bbh4 ,for ,pallas on the fat-tailed sheep ,i quote from ,anderson's account of the #8,sheep of ,russia1' #agid1 p4 #cd4 ,with respect to the ,crimean sheep see ,pallas' #8,travels' 7,eng4 trans47 vol4 ii4 p4 #ded4 ,for the ,karakool sheep see ,burnes' #8,travels in ,bokhara1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aea4 #ib ,see ,report of the ,directors of the ,sierra ,leone ,company1 as quoted in ,white's #8,gradation of ,man1' p4 #ie4 ,with respect to the change which sheep undergo in the ,west ,indies see also ,dr4 ,davy1 in #8,edin4 ,new4 ,phil4 ,journal1' ,jan4 #aheb4 ,for the statement made by ,roulin1 see #8,mm4 de l',institut prsent4 par divers ,savans1' tom4 vi41 #ahce1 p4 #cdg4 #ic #8,youatt on ,sheep1' p4 #fi1 where ,lord ,somerville is quoted4 ,see p4 #aag on the presence of wool under the hair4 ,with respect to the fleeces of ,australian sheep1 p4 #ahe4 ,on selection counteracting any tendency to change1 see pp4 #gj1 #aag1 #abj1 #afh4 #id ,audubon and ,bachman1 #8,the ,quadrupeds of ,north ,america1' #ahdf1 vol4 v4 p4 #cfe4 #ie #8,journal of ,r4 ,agricult4 ,soc4 of ,england1' vol4 xx41 part ii41 ,w4 ,c4 ,spooner on cross-,breeding4 #if #8,philosoph4 ,transactions1' ,london1 #ahac1 p4 #hh4 #ig ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gnrale1' tom4 iii4 p4 #hg4 ,mr4 ,blyth1 7#8,land and ,water1' #ahfg1 p4 #cg7 has arrived at a similar conclusion1 but he thinks that certain ,eastern races may perhaps be in part descended from the ,asiatic markhor4 #ih ,rtimeyer #8,pfahlbauten1' s4 #abg4 #ii ,godron #8,de l',espce1' tom4 i4 p4 #djb4 #ajj #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history1' vol ii4 7#bnd series71 #ahdh1 p4 #cfc4 #aja #8,de l',espce1' tom4 i4 p4 #djf4 ,mr4 ,clark also refers to differences in the shape of the mamm4 ,godron states that in the ,nubian race the scrotum is divided into two lobes2 and ,mr4 ,clark gives a ludicrous proof of this fact1 for he saw in the ,mauritius a male goat of the ,muscat breed purchased at a high price for a female in full milk4 ,these differences in the scrotum are probably not due to descent from distinct species3 for ,mr4 ,clark states that this part varies much in form4 #ajb ,mr4 ,clark1 #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 ii4 7#bnd series71 #ahdh1 p4 #cfa4 #ajc ,desmarest1 #8,encyclop4 ,mthod4 ,mammalogie1' p4 #dhj4 #ajd #8,journal of ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 xvi41 #ahdg1 pp4 #ajbj1 #ajbe4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,domestic ,,rabbits4 ,,domestic ,,rabbits ,,descended ,,from ,,the ,,common ,,wild ,,rabbit--,,ancient ,,domestication--,,ancient ,,selection--,,large ,,lop-,,eared ,,rabbits--,,various ,,breeds--,,fluctuating ,,characters--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,himalayan ,,breed--,,curious ,,case ,,of ,,inheritance--,,feral ,,rabbits ,,in ,,jamaica ,,and ,,the ,,falkland ,,islands--,,porto ,,santo ,,feral ,,rabbits--,,osteological ,,characters--,,skull--,,skull ,,of ,,half-,,lop ,,rabbits--,,variations ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,analogous ,,to ,,differences ,,in ,,different ,,species ,,of ,,hares--,v,e,rtebr--,,sternum--,,scapul a--,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,the ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,limbs ,,and ,,body--,,capacity ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,reduced ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,brain--,,summary ,,on ,,the ,,modifications ,,of ,,domesticated ,,rabbits4 ,all naturalists1 with1 as far as ,i know1 a single exception1 believe that the several domestic breeds of the rabbit are descended from the common wild species2 ,i shall therefore describe them more carefully than in the previous cases4 ,professor ,gervais#a states 8that the true wild rabbit is smaller than the domestic2 its proportions are not absolutely the same2 its tail is smaller2 its ears are shorter and more thickly clothed with hair2 and these characters1 without speaking of colour1 are so many indications opposed to the opinion which unites these animals under the same specific denomination40 ,few naturalists will agree with this author that such slight differences are sufficient to separate as distinct species the wild and domestic rabbit4 ,how extraordinary it would be1 if close confinement1 perfect tameness1 unnatural food1 and careful breeding1 all prolonged during many generations1 had not produced at least some effect6 ,the tame rabbit has been domesticated from an ancient period4 ,confucius ranges rabbits among animals worthy to be sacrificed to the gods1 and1 as he prescribes their multiplication1 they were probably at this early period domesticated in ,china4 ,they are mentioned by several of the classical writers4 ,in #afca ,gervaise ,markham writes1 8,you shall not1 as in other cattell1 looke to their shape1 but to their richnesse1 onely elect your buckes1 the largest and goodliest conies you can get2 and for the richnesse of the skin1 that is accounted the richest which hath the equallest mixture of blacke and white haire together1 yet the blacke rather shadowing the white2 the furre should be thicke1 deepe1 smooth1 and shining2 444 they are of body much fatter and larger1 and1 when another skin is worth two or three pence1 they are worth two shillings40 ,from this full description we see that silver-grey rabbits existed in ,england at this period2 and what is far more important1 we see that the breeding or selection of rabbits was then carefully attended to4 ,aldrovandi1 in #afcg1 describes1 on the authority of several old writers 7as ,scaliger1 in #aeeg71 rabbits of various colours1 some 8like a hare10 and he adds that ,p4 ,valerianus 7who died a very old man in #aeeh7 saw at ,verona rabbits four times bigger than ours4#b ,from the fact of the rabbit having been domesticated at an ancient period1 we must look to the northern hemisphere of the ,old ,world1 and to the warmer temperate regions alone1 for the aboriginal parent-form2 for the rabbit cannot live without protection in countries as cold as ,sweden1 and1 though it has run wild in the tropical island of ,jamaica1 it has never greatly multiplied there4 ,it now exists1 and has long existed1 in the warmer temperate parts of ,europe1 for fossil remains have been found in several countries4#c ,the domestic rabbit readily becomes feral in these same countries1 and when variously coloured kinds are turned out they generally revert to the ordinary grey colour4#d ,wild rabbits1 if taken young1 can be domesticated1 though the process is generally very troublesome4#e ,the various domestic races are often crossed1 and are believed to be quite fertile together1 and a perfect gradation can be shown to exist from the largest domestic kinds1 having enormously developed ears1 to the common wild kind4 ,the parent-form must have been a burrowing animal1 a habit not common1 as far as ,i can discover1 to any other species in the large genus ,lepus4 ,only one wild species is known with certainty to exist in ,europe2 but the rabbit 7if it be a true rabbit7 from ,mount ,sinai1 and likewise that from ,algeria1 present slight differences2 and these forms have been considered by some authors as specifically distinct4#f ,but such slight differences would aid us little in explaining the more considerable differences characteristic of the several domestic races4 ,if the latter are the descendants of two or more closely allied species1 these1 with the exception of the common rabbit1 have been exterminated in a wild state2 and this is very improbable1 seeing with what pertinacity this animal holds its ground4 ,from these several reasons we may infer with safety that all the domestic breeds are the descendants of the common wild species4 ,but from what we hear of the marvellous success in ,france in rearing hybrids between the hare and rabbit1#g it is possible1 though not probable1 from the great difficulty in making the first cross1 that some of the larger races1 which are coloured like the hare1 may have been modified by crosses with this animal4 ,nevertheless1 the chief differences in the skeletons of the several domestic breeds cannot1 as we shall presently see1 have been derived from a cross with the hare4 ,there are many breeds which transmit their characters more or less truly4 ,every one has seen the enormous lop-eared rabbits exhibited at our shows2 various allied sub-breeds are reared on the ,continent1 such as the so-called ,andalusian1 which is said to have a large head with a round forehead1 and to attain a greater size than any other kind2 another large ,paris breed is named the ,rouennais1 and has a square head2 the so-called ,patagonian rabbit has remarkably short ears and a large round head4 ,although ,i have not seen all these breeds1 ,i feel some doubt about there being any marked difference in the shape of their skulls4#h ,english lop-eared rabbits often weigh #h pounds or #aj pounds1 and one has been exhibited weighing #ah pounds2 whereas a full-sized wild rabbit weighs only about #c-a_/d pounds4 ,the head or skull in all the large lop-eared rabbits examined by me is much longer relatively to its breadth than in the wild rabbit4 ,many of them have loose transverse folds of skin or dewlaps beneath the throat1 which can be pulled out so as to reach nearly to the ends of the jaws4 ,their ears are prodigiously developed1 and hang down on each side of their faces4 ,a rabbit was exhibited in #ahfg with its two ears1 measured from the tip of one to the tip of the other1 #bb inches in length1 and each ear #e-c_/h inches in breadth4 ,in #ahfi one was exhibited with ears1 measured in the same manner1 #bc-a_/h in length and #e-a_/b in breadth2 8thus exceeding any rabbit ever exhibited at a prize show40 ,in a common wild rabbit ,i found that the length of two ears1 from tip to tip1 was #g-e_/h inches1 and the breadth only #a-g_/h inch4 ,the weight of body in the larger rabbits1 and the development of their ears1 are the qualities which win prizes1 and have been carefully selected4 ,the hare-coloured1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 the ,belgian rabbit1 differs in nothing except colour from the other large breeds2 but ,mr4 ,j4 ,young1 of ,southampton1 a great breeder of this kind1 informs me that the females1 in all the specimens examined by him1 had only six mamm and this certainly was the case with two females which came into my possession4 ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent1 however1 assures me that the number is variable with other domestic rabbits4 ,the common wild rabbit always has ten mamm4 ,the ,angora rabbit is remarkable from the length and fineness of its fur1 which even on the soles of the feet is of considerable length4 ,this breed is the only one which differs in its mental qualities1 for it is said to be much more sociable than other rabbits1 and the male shows no wish to destroy its young4#i ,two live rabbits were brought to me from ,moscow1 of about the size of the wild species1 but with long soft fur1 different from that of the ,angora4 ,these ,moscow rabbits had pink eyes and were snow-white1 excepting the ears1 two spots near the nose1 the upper and under surface of the tail1 and the hinder tarsi1 which were blackish-brown4 ,in short1 they were coloured nearly like the so-called ,himalayan rabbits1 presently to be described1 and differed from them only in the character of their fur4 ,there are two other breeds which come true to colour1 but differ in no other respect1 namely silver-greys and chinchillas4 ,lastly1 the ,nicard or ,dutch rabbit may be mentioned1 which varies in colour1 and is remarkable from its small size1 some specimens weighing only #a-a_/d pounds2 rabbits of this breed make excellent nurses for other and more delicate kinds4#aj ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e--;,half-lop ,rabbit4 ,certain characters are remarkably fluctuating1 or are very feebly transmitted by domestic rabbits3 thus1 one breeder tells me that with the smaller kinds he has hardly ever raised a whole litter of the same colour3 with the large lop-eared breeds 8it is impossible10 says a great judge1#aa 8to breed true to colour1 but by judicious crossing a great deal may be done towards it4 ,the fancier should know how his does are bred1 that is1 the colour of their parents40 ,nevertheless1 certain colours1 as we shall presently see1 are transmitted truly4 ,the dewlap is not strictly inherited4 ,lop-eared rabbits1 with their ears hanging down flat on each side of the face1 do not transmit this character at all truly4 ,mr4 ,delamer remarks that1 8with fancy rabbits1 when both the parents are perfectly formed1 have model ears1 and are handsomely marked1 their progeny do not invariably turn out the same40 ,when one parent1 or even both1 are oar-laps1 that is1 have their ears sticking out at right angles1 or when one parent or both are half-lops1 that is1 have only one ear dependent1 there is nearly as good a chance of the progeny having both ears full-lop1 as if both parents had been thus characterised4 ,but ,i am informed1 if both parents have upright ears1 there is hardly a chance of a full-lop4 ,in some half-lops the ear that hangs down is broader and longer than the upright ear2#ab so that we have the unusual case of a want of symmetry on the two sides4 ,this difference in the position and size of the two ears probably indicates that the lopping results from the great length and weight of the ear1 favoured no doubt by the weakness of the muscles consequent on disuse4 ,anderson#ac mentions a breed having only a single ear2 and ,professor ,gervais another breed destitute of ears4 ,we come now to the ,himalayan breed1 which is sometimes called ,chinese1 ,polish1 or ,russian4 ,these pretty rabbits are white1 or occasionally yellow1 excepting their ears1 nose1 feet1 and the upper side of the tail1 which are all brownish-black2 but as they have red eyes1 they may be considered as albinoes4 ,i have received several accounts of their breeding perfectly true4 ,from their symmetrical marks1 they were at first ranked as specifically distinct1 and were provisionally named ,l4 nigripes4#ad ,some good observers thought that they could detect a difference in their habits1 and stoutly maintained that they formed a new species4 ,the origin of this breed is so curious1 both in itself and as throwing some light on the complex laws of inheritance that it is worth giving in detail4 ,but it is first necessary briefly to describe two other breeds3 silver-greys or silver-sprigs generally have black heads and legs1 and their fine grey fur is interspersed with numerous black and white long hairs4 ,they breed perfectly true1 and have long been kept in warrens4 ,when they escape and cross with common rabbits1 the product1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,wyrley ,birch1 of ,wretham ,hall1 is not a mixture of the two colours1 but about half take after the one parent1 and the other half after the other parent4 ,secondly1 chinchillas or tame silver-greys 7,i will use the former name7 have short1 paler1 mouse or slate-coloured fur1 interspersed with long1 blackish1 slate-coloured1 and white hairs4#ae ,these rabbits breed perfectly true4 ,a writer stated in #ahegaf that he had produced ,himalayan rabbits in the following manner4 ,he had a breed of chinchillas which had been crossed with the common black rabbit1 and their offspring were either blacks or chinchillas4 ,these latter were again crossed with other chinchillas 7which had also been crossed with silver-greys71 and from this complicated cross ,himalayan rabbits were raised4 ,from these and other similar statements1 ,mr4 ,bartlett#ag was led to make a careful trial in the ,zoological ,gardens1 and he found that by simply crossing silver-greys with chinchillas he could always produce some few ,himalayans2 and the latter1 notwithstanding their sudden origin1 if kept separate1 bred perfectly true4 ,but ,i have recently been assured the pure silver-greys of any sub-breed occasionally produce ,himalayans4 ,the ,himalayans1 when first born1 are quite white1 and are then true albinoes2 but in the course of a few months they gradually assume their dark ears1 nose1 feet1 and tail4 ,occasionally1 however1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,wooler and the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox1 the young are born of a very pale grey colour1 and specimens of such fur were sent me by the former gentleman4 ,the grey tint1 however1 disappears as the animal comes to maturity4 ,so that with these ,himalayans there is a tendency1 strictly confined to early youth1 to revert to the colour of the adult silver-grey parent-stock4 ,silver-greys and chinchillas1 on the other hand1 present a remarkable contrast with the ,himalayans in their colour whilst quite young1 for they are born perfectly black1 but soon assume their characteristic grey or silver tints4 ,the same thing occurs with grey horses1 which1 as long as they are foals1 are generally of a nearly black colour1 but soon become grey1 and get whiter and whiter as they grow older4 ,hence the usual rule is that ,himalayans are born white and afterwards become in certain parts of their bodies dark-coloured2 whilst silver-greys are born black and afterwards become sprinkled with white4 ,exceptions1 however1 and of a directly opposite nature1 occasionally occur in both cases4 ,for young silver-greys are sometimes born in warrens1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,w4 ,birch1 of a cream-colour1 but these young animals ultimately become black4 ,the ,himalayans1 on the other hand1 sometimes produce1 as is stated by an experienced amateur1#ah a single black young one in a litter2 and this1 before two months elapse1 becomes perfectly white4 ,to sum up the whole curious case3 wild silver-greys may be considered as black rabbits which become grey at an early period of life4 ,when they are crossed with common rabbits1 the offspring are said not to have blended colours1 but to take after either parent2 and in this respect they resemble black and albino varieties of most quadrupeds1 which often transmit their colours in this same manner4 ,when they are crossed with chinchillas1 that is1 with a paler sub-variety1 the young are at first pure albinoes1 but soon become dark-coloured in certain parts of their bodies1 and are then called ,himalayans4 ,the young ,himalayans1 however1 are sometimes at first either pale grey or completely black1 in either case changing after a time to white4 ,in a future chapter ,i shall advance a large body of facts showing that1 when two varieties are crossed both of which differ in colour from their parent-stock1 there is a strong tendency in the young to revert to the aboriginal colour2 and what is very remarkable1 this reversion occasionally supervenes1 not before birth1 but during the growth of the animal4 ,hence1 if it could be shown that silver-greys and chinchillas were the offspring of a cross between a black and albino variety with the colours intimately blended--a supposition in itself not improbable1 and supported by the circumstance of silver-greys in warrens sometimes producing creamy-white young1 which ultimately become black--then all the above given paradoxical facts on the changes of colour in silver-greys and in their descendants the ,himalayans would come under the law of reversion1 supervening at different periods of growth and in different degrees1 either to the original black or to the original albino parent-variety4 ,it is1 also1 remarkable that ,himalayans1 though produced so suddenly2 breed true4 ,but as1 whilst young1 they are albinoes1 the case falls under a very general rule2 albinism being well known to be strongly inherited1 for instance with white mice and many other quadrupeds1 and even white flowers4 ,but why1 it may be asked1 do the ears1 tail1 nose1 and feet1 and no other part of the body1 revert to a black colour8 ,this apparently depends on a law1 which generally holds good1 namely1 that characters common to many species of a genus--and this1 in fact1 implies long inheritance from the ancient progenitor of the genus--are found to resist variation1 or to reappear if lost1 more persistently than the characters which are confined to the separate species4 ,now1 in the genus ,lepus1 a large majority of the species have their ears and the upper surface of the tail tinted black2 but the persistence of these marks is best seen in those species which in winter become white3 thus1 in ,scotland the ,l4 variabilis#ai in its winter dress has a shade of colour on its nose1 and the tips of its ears are black3 in the ,l4 tibetanus the ears are black1 the upper surface of the tail greyish-black1 and the soles of the feet brown3 in ,l4 glacialis the winter fur is pure white1 except the soles of the feet and the points of the ears4 ,even in the variously-coloured fancy rabbits we may often observe a tendency in these same parts to be more darkly tinted than the rest of the body4 ,thus the several coloured marks on the ,himalayan rabbits1 as they grow old1 are rendered intelligible4 ,i may add a nearly analogous case3 fancy rabbits very often have a white star on their foreheads2 and the common ,english hare1 whilst young1 generally has1 as ,i have myself observed1 a similar white star on its forehead4 ,when variously coloured rabbits are set free in ,europe1 and are thus placed under their natural conditions1 they generally revert to the aboriginal grey colour2 this may be in part due to the tendency in all crossed animals1 as lately observed1 to revert to their primordial state4 ,but this tendency does not always prevail2 thus silver-grey rabbits are kept in warrens1 and remain true though living almost in a state of nature2 but a warren must not be stocked with both silver-greys and common rabbits2 otherwise 8in a few years there will be none but common greys surviving40#bj ,when rabbits run wild in foreign countries under new conditions of life1 they by no means always revert to their aboriginal colour4 ,in ,jamaica the feral rabbits are described as having been 8slate-coloured1 deeply tinted with sprinklings of white on the neck1 on the shoulders1 and on the back2 softening off to blue-white under the breast and belly40#ba ,but in this tropical island the conditions were not favourable to their increase1 and they never spread widely1 and are now extinct1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill1 owing to a great fire which occurred in the woods4 ,rabbits during many years have run wild in the ,falkland ,islands2 they are abundant in certain parts1 but do not spread extensively4 ,most of them are of the common grey colour2 a few1 as ,i am informed by ,admiral ,sulivan1 are hare-coloured1 and many are black1 often with nearly symmetrical white marks on their faces4 ,hence1 ,m4 ,lesson described the black variety as a distinct species1 under the name of ,lepus magellanicus1 but this1 as ,i have elsewhere shown1 is an error4#bb ,within recent times the sealers have stocked some of the small outlying islets in the ,falkland group with rabbits2 and on ,pebble ,islet1 as ,i hear from ,admiral ,sulivan1 a large proportion are hare-coloured1 whereas on ,rabbit ,islet a large proportion are of a bluish colour1 which is not elsewhere seen4 ,how the rabbits were coloured which were turned out of these islets is not known4 ,the rabbits which have become feral on the island of ,porto ,santo1 near ,madeira1 deserve a fuller account4 ,in #adah or #adai1 ,j4 ,gonzales ,zarco#bc happened to have a female rabbit on board which had produced young during the voyage1 and he turned them all out on the island4 ,these animals soon increased so rapidly1 that they became a nuisance1 and actually caused the abandonment of the settlement4 ,thirty-seven years subsequently1 ,cada ,mosto describes them as innumerable2 nor is this surprising1 as the island was not inhabited by any beast of prey or by any terrestrial mammal4 ,we do not know the character of the mother-rabbit2 but it was probably the common domesticated kind4 ,the ,spanish peninsula1 whence ,zarco sailed1 is known to have abounded with the common wild species at the most remote historical period2 and as these rabbits were taken on board for food1 it is improbable that they should have been of any peculiar breed4 ,that the breed was well domesticated is shown by the doe having littered during the voyage4 ,mr4 ,wollaston1 at my request1 brought home two of these feral rabbits in spirits of wine2 and1 subsequently1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,haywood sent to me three more specimens in brine1 and two alive4 ,these seven specimens1 though caught at different periods1 closely resembled each other4 ,they were full grown1 as shown by the state of their bones4 ,although the conditions of life in ,porto ,santo are evidently highly favourable to rabbits1 as proved by their extraordinarily rapid increase1 yet they differ conspicuously in their small size from the wild ,english rabbit4 ,four ,english rabbits1 measured from the incisors to the anus1 varied between #ag and #ag-c_/d inches in length2 whilst two of the ,porto ,santo rabbits were only #ad-a_/b and #ae inches in length4 ,but the decrease in size is best shown by weight2 four wild ,english rabbits averaged #c pounds #e ounces1 whilst one of the ,porto ,santo rabbits1 which had lived for four years in the ,zoological ,gardens1 but had become thin1 weighed only #a pound #i ounces4 ,a fairer test is afforded by the comparison of the well-cleaned limb-bones of a ,porto ,santo rabbit killed on the island with the same bones of a wild ,english rabbit of average size1 and they differed in the proportion of rather less than five to nine4 ,so that the ,porto ,santo rabbits have decreased nearly three inches in length1 and almost half in weight of body4#bd ,the head has not decreased in length proportionally with the body2 and the capacity of the brain case is1 as we shall hereafter see1 singularly variable4 ,i prepared four skulls1 and these resembled each other more closely than do generally the skulls of wild ,english rabbits2 but the only difference in structure which they presented was that the supra-orbital processes of the frontal bones were narrower4 ,in colour the ,porto ,santo rabbit differs considerably from the common rabbit2 the upper surface is redder1 and is rarely interspersed with any black or black-tipped hairs4 ,the throat and certain parts of the under surface1 instead of being pure white1 are generally pale grey or leaden colour4 ,but the most remarkable difference is in the ears and tail2 ,i have examined many fresh ,english rabbits1 and the large collection of skins in the ,british ,museum from various countries1 and all have the upper surface of the tail and the tips of the ears clothed with blackish-grey fur2 and this is given in most works as one of the specific characters of the rabbit4 ,now in the seven ,porto ,santo rabbits the upper surface of the tail was reddish-brown1 and the tips of the ears had no trace of the black edging4 ,but here we meet with a singular circumstance3 in ,june1 #ahfa ,i examined two of these rabbits recently sent to the ,zoological ,gardens1 and their tails and ears were coloured as just described2 but when one of their dead bodies was sent to me in ,february1 #ahfe1 the ears were plainly edged1 and the upper surface of the tail was covered with blackish-grey fur1 and the whole body was much less red2 so that under the ,english climate this individual rabbit had recovered the proper colour of its fur in rather less than four years6 ,the two little ,porto ,santo rabbits1 whilst alive in the ,zoological ,gardens1 had a remarkably different appearance from the common kind4 ,they were extraordinarily wild and active1 so that many persons exclaimed on seeing them that they were more like large rats than rabbits4 ,they were nocturnal to an unusual degree in their habits1 and their wildness was never in the least subdued2 so that the superintendent1 ,mr4 ,bartlett1 assured me that he had never had a wilder animal under his charge4 ,this is a singular fact1 considering that they are descended from a domesticated breed4 ,i was so much surprised at it1 that ,i requested ,mr4 ,haywood to make inquiries on the spot1 whether they were much hunted by the inhabitants1 or persecuted by hawks1 or cats1 or other animals2 but this is not the case1 and no cause can be assigned for their wildness4 ,they live both on the central1 higher rocky land and near the sea-cliffs1 and1 from being exceedingly shy and timid1 seldom appear in the lower and cultivated districts4 ,they are said to produce from four to six young at a birth1 and their breeding season is in ,july and ,august4 ,lastly1 and this is a highly remarkable fact1 ,mr4 ,bartlett could never succeed in getting these two rabbits1 which were both males1 to associate or breed with the females of several breeds which were repeatedly placed with them4 ,if the history of these ,porto ,santo rabbits had not been known1 most naturalists1 on observing their much reduced size1 their colour1 reddish above and grey beneath1 their tails and ears not tipped with black1 would have ranked them as a distinct species4 ,they would have been strongly confirmed in this view by seeing them alive in the ,zoological ,gardens1 and hearing that they refused to couple with other rabbits4 ,yet this rabbit1 which there can be little doubt would thus have been ranked as a distinct species1 as certainly originated since the year #adbj4 ,finally1 from the three cases of the rabbits which have run wild in ,porto ,santo1 ,jamaica1 and the ,falkland ,islands1 we see that these animals do not1 under new conditions of life1 revert to or retain their aboriginal character1 as is so generally asserted to be the case by most authors4 ,osteological ,characters4 ,when we remember1 on the one hand1 how frequently it is stated that important parts of the structure never vary2 and1 on the other hand1 on what small differences in the skeleton fossil species have often been founded1 the variability of the skull and of some other bones in the domesticated rabbit well deserves attention4 ,it must not be supposed that the more important differences immediately to be described strictly characterise any one breed2 all that can be said is1 that they are generally present in certain breeds4 ,we should bear in mind that selection has not been applied to fix any character in the skeleton1 and that the animals have not had to support themselves under uniform habits of life4 ,we cannot account for most of the differences in the skeleton2 but we shall see that the increased size of the body1 due to careful nurture and continued selection1 has affected the head in a particular manner4 ,even the elongation and lopping of the ears have influenced in a small degree the form of the whole skull4 ,the want of exercise has apparently modified the proportional length of the limbs in comparison with that of the body4 ,as a standard of comparison1 ,i prepared skeletons of two wild rabbits from ,kent1 one from the ,shetland ,islands1 and one from ,antrim in ,ireland4 ,as all the bones in these four specimens from such distant localities closely resembled each other1 presenting scarcely any appreciable difference1 it may be concluded that the bones of the wild rabbit are generally uniform in character4 ,skull4--,i have carefully examined skulls of ten large lop-eared rabbits1 and of five common domestic rabbits1 which latter differ from the lop-eared only in not having such large bodies or ears1 yet both larger than in the wild rabbit4 ,first for the ten lop-eared rabbits3 in all these the skull is remarkably elongated in comparison with its breadth4 ,in a wild rabbit the length was #cae inches1 in a large fancy rabbit #dc2 whilst the breadth of the cranium enclosing the brain was in both almost exactly the same4 ,even by taking as the standard of comparison the widest part of the zygomatic arch1 the skulls of the lop-eared are proportionally to their breadth three-quarters of an inch too long4 ,the depth of the head has increased almost in the same proportion with the length2 it is the breadth alone which has not increased4 ,the parietal and occipital bones enclosing the brain are less arched1 both in a longitudinal and transverse line1 than in the wild rabbit1 so that the shape of the cranium is somewhat different4 ,the surface is rougher1 less cleanly sculptured1 and the lines of sutures are more prominent4 ,although the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits in comparison with those of the wild rabbit are much elongated relatively to their breadth1 yet1 relatively to the size of body1 they are far from elongated4 ,the lop-eared rabbits which ,i examined were1 though not fat1 more than twice as heavy as the wild specimens2 but the skull was very far from being twice as long4 ,even if we take the fairer standard of the length of body1 from the nose to the anus1 the skull is not on an average as long as it ought to be by a third of an inch4 ,in the small feral ,porto ,santo rabbit1 on the other hand1 the head relatively to the length of body is about a quarter of an inch too long4 ,this elongation of the skull relatively to its breadth1 ,i find a universal character1 not only with the large lop-eared rabbits1 but in all the artificial breeds2 as is well seen in the skull of the ,angora4 ,i was at first much surprised at the fact1 and could not imagine why domestication could produce this uniform result2 but the explanation seems to lie in the circumstance that during a number of generations the artificial races have been closely confined1 and have had little occasion to exert either their senses1 or intellect1 or voluntary muscles2 consequently the brain1 as we shall presently more fully see1 has not increased relatively with the size of body4 ,as the brain has not increased1 the bony case enclosing it has not increased1 and this has evidently affected through correlation the breadth of the entire skull from end to end4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f--,skull of ,wild ,rabbit4 ,fig4 #g--,skull of large ,lop-eared ,rabbit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h--,part of ,zygomatic ,arch4 ,in all the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits1 the supra-orbital plates or processes of the frontal bones are much broader than in the wild rabbit1 and they generally project more upwards4 ,in the zygomatic arch the posterior or projecting point of the malar-bone is broader and blunter2 and in the specimen1 fig4 #h1 it is so in a remarkable degree4 ,this point approaches nearer to the auditory meatus than in the wild rabbit1 as may be best seen in fig4 #h2 but this circumstance mainly depends on the changed direction of the meatus4 ,the inter-parietal bone 7see fig4 #i7 differs much in shape in the several skulls2 generally it is more oval1 that is more extended in the line of the longitudinal axis of the skull1 than in the wild rabbit4 ,the posterior margin of 8the square raised platform0#be of the occiput1 instead of being truncated1 or projecting slightly as in the wild rabbit1 is in most lop-eared rabbits pointed1 as in fig4 #i1 ,c4 ,the paramastoids relatively to the size of the skull are generally much thicker than in the wild rabbit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i--,posterior end of skull of ,rabbits4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj--,occipital ,foramen of ,rabbits4 ,the occipital foramen 7fig4 #aj7 presents some remarkable differences3 in the wild rabbit1 the lower edge between the condyles is considerably and almost angularly hollowed out1 and the upper edge is deeply and squarely notched2 hence the longitudinal axis exceeds the transverse axis4 ,in the skulls of the lop-eared rabbits the transverse axis exceeds the longitudinal2 for in none of these skulls was the lower edge between the condyles so deeply hollowed out2 in five of them there was no upper square notch1 in three there was a trace of the notch1 and in two alone it was well developed4 ,these differences in the shape of the foramen are remarkable1 considering that it gives passage to so important a structure as the spinal marrow1 though apparently the outline of the latter is not affected by the shape of the passage4 ,in all the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits1 the bony auditory meatus is conspicuously larger than in the wild rabbit4 ,in a skull #dc inches in length1 and which barely exceeded in breadth the skull of a wild rabbit 7which was #cae inches in length71 the longer diameter of the meatus was exactly twice as great4 ,the orifice is more compressed1 and its margin on the side nearest the skull stands up higher than the outer side4 ,the whole meatus is directed more forwards4 ,as in breeding lop-eared rabbits the length of the ears1 and their consequent lopping and lying flat on the face1 are the chief points of excellence1 there can hardly be a doubt that the great change in the size1 form1 and direction of the bony meatus1 relatively to this same part in the wild rabbit1 is due to the continued selection of individuals having larger and larger ears4 ,the influence of the external ear on the bony meatus is well shown in the skulls 7,i have examined three7 of half-lops 7see fig4 #e71 in which one ear stands upright1 and the other and longer ear hangs down2 for in these skulls there was a plain difference in the form and direction of the bony meatus on the two sides4 ,but it is a much more interesting fact1 that the changed direction and increased size of the bony meatus have slightly affected on the same side the structure of the whole skull4 ,i here give a drawing 7fig4 #aa7 of the skull of a half-lop2 and it may be observed that the suture between the parietal and frontal bones does not run strictly at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the skull2 the left frontal bone projects beyond the right one2 both the posterior and anterior margins of the left zygomatic arch on the side of the lopping ear stand a little in advance of the corresponding bones on the opposite side4 ,even the lower jaw is affected1 and the condyles are not quite symmetrical1 that on the left standing a little in advance of that on the right4 ,this seems to me a remarkable case of correlation of growth4 ,who would have surmised that by keeping an animal during many generations under confinement1 and so leading to the disuse of the muscles of the ears1 and by continually selecting individuals with the longest and largest ears1 he would thus indirectly have affected almost every suture in the skull and the form of the lower jaw6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa--,skull of ,half-lop ,rabbit4 ,in the large lop-eared rabbits the only difference in the lower jaw1 in comparison with that of the wild rabbit1 is that the posterior margin of the ascending ramus is broader and more inflected4 ,the teeth in neither jaw present any difference1 except that the small incisors1 beneath the large ones1 are proportionately a little longer4 ,the molar teeth have increased in size proportionately with the increased width of the skull1 measured across the zygomatic arch1 and not proportionally with its increased length4 ,the inner line of the sockets of the molar teeth in the upper jaw of the wild rabbit forms a perfectly straight line2 but in some of the largest skulls of the lop-eared this line was plainly bowed inwards4 ,in one specimen there was an additional molar tooth on each side of the upper jaw1 between the molars and premolars2 but these two teeth did not correspond in size2 and as no rodent has seven molars1 this is merely a monstrosity1 though a curious one4 ,the five other skulls of common domestic rabbits1 some of which approach in size the above-described largest skulls1 whilst the others exceed but little those of the wild rabbit1 are only worth notice as presenting a perfect gradation in all the above-specified differences between the skulls of the largest lop-eared and wild rabbits4 ,in all1 however1 the supra-orbital plates are rather larger1 and in all the auditory meatus is larger1 in conformity with the increased size of the external ears1 than in the wild rabbit4 ,the lower notch in the occipital foramen in some was not so deep as in the wild rabbit1 but in all five skulls the upper notch was well developed4 ,the skull of the ,angora rabbit1 like the latter five skulls1 is intermediate in general proportions1 and in most other characters1 between those of the largest lop-eared and wild rabbits4 ,it presents only one singular character3 though considerably longer than the skull of the wild rabbit1 the breadth measured within the posterior supra-orbital fissures is nearly a third less than in the wild4 ,the skulls of the silver-grey1 and chinchilla and ,himalayan rabbits are more elongated than in the wild1 with broader supra-orbital plates1 but differ little in any other respect1 excepting that the upper and lower notches of the occipital foramen are not so deep or so well developed4 ,the skull of the ,moscow rabbit scarcely differs at all from that of the wild rabbit4 ,in the ,porto ,santo feral rabbits the supra-orbital plates are generally narrower and more pointed than in our wild rabbits4 ,as some of the largest lop-eared rabbits of which ,i prepared skeletons were coloured almost like hares1 and as these latter animals and rabbits have1 as it is affirmed1 been recently crossed in ,france1 it might be thought that some of the above-described characters had been derived from a cross at a remote period with the hare4 ,consequently ,i examined skulls of the hare1 but no light could thus be thrown on the peculiarities of the skulls of the larger rabbits4 ,it is1 however1 an interesting fact1 as illustrating the law that varieties of one species often assume the characters of other species of the same genus1 that ,i found1 on comparing the skulls of ten species of hares in the ,british ,museum1 that they differed from each other chiefly in the very same points in which domestic rabbits vary1--namely1 in general proportions1 in the form and size of the supra-orbital plates1 in the form of the free end of the malar bone1 and in the line of suture separating the occipital and frontal bones4 ,moreover two eminently variable characters in the domestic rabbit1 namely1 the outline of the occipital foramen and the shape of the 8raised platform0 of the occiput1 were likewise variable in two instances in the same species of hare4 ,vertebr4--,the number is uniform in all the skeletons which ,i have examined1 with two exceptions1 namely1 in one of the small feral ,porto ,santo rabbits and in one of the largest lop-eared kinds2 both of these had as usual seven cervical1 twelve dorsal with ribs1 but1 instead of seven lumbar1 both had eight lumbar vertebr4 ,this is remarkable1 as ,gervais gives seven as the number for the whole genus ,lepus4 ,the caudal vertebr apparently differ by two or three1 but ,i did not attend to them1 and they are difficult to count with certainty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab--;,atlas ,vertebr of ,rabbits4 ,in the first cervical vertebra1 or atlas1 the anterior margin of the neural arch varies a little in wild specimens1 being either nearly smooth1 or furnished with a small supra-median atlantoid process2 ,i have figured a specimen with the largest process 7a7 which ,i have seen2 but it will be observed how inferior this is in size and different in shape to that in a large lop-eared rabbit4 ,in the latter1 the infra-median process 7b7 is also proportionally much thicker and longer4 ,the al are a little squarer in outline4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac--,third ,cervical ,vertebr1 of natural size1 of--,a4 ,wild ,rabbit2 ,b4 ,hare-coloured1 large1 ,lop-eared ,rabbit4 ,third cervical vertebra4--,in the wild rabbit 7fig4 #ac1 ,a a7 this vertebra1 viewed on the inferior surface1 has a transverse process1 which is directed obliquely backwards1 and consists of a single pointed bar2 in the fourth vertebra this process is slightly forked in the middle4 ,in the large lop-eared rabbits this process 7,b a7 is forked in the third vertebra1 as in the fourth of the wild rabbit4 ,but the third cervical vertebr of the wild and lop-eared 7,a b1 ,b b7 rabbits differ more conspicuously when their anterior articular surfaces are compared2 for the extremities of the antero-dorsal processes in the wild rabbit are simply rounded1 whilst in the lop-eared they are trifid1 with a deep central pit4 ,the canal for the spinal marrow in the lop-eared 7,b b7 is more elongated in a transverse direction than in the wild rabbit2 and the passages for the arteries are of a slightly different shape4 ,these several differences in this vertebra seem to me well deserving attention4 ,first dorsal vertebra4--,its neural spine varies in length in the wild rabbit2 being sometimes very short1 but generally more than half as long as that of the second dorsal2 but ,i have seen it in two large lop-eared rabbits three-fourths of the length of that of the second dorsal vertebra4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad--;,dorsal ,vertebr1 from sixth to tenth inclusive1 of natural size1 viewed laterally4 ,a4 ,wild ,rabbit4 ,b4 ,large1 ,hare-coloured1 so-called ,spanish ,rabbit4 ,ninth and tenth dorsal vertebr4--,in the wild rabbit the neural spine of the ninth vertebra is just perceptibly thicker than that of the eighth2 and the neural spine of the tenth is plainly thicker and shorter than those of all the anterior vertebr4 ,in the large lop-eared rabbits the neural spines of the tenth1 ninth1 and eighth vertebr1 and even in a slight degree that of the seventh1 are very much thicker1 and of somewhat different shape1 in comparison with those of the wild rabbit4 ,so that this part of the vertebral column differs considerably in appearance from the same part in the wild rabbit1 and closely resembles in an interesting manner these same vertebr in some species of hares4 ,in the ,angora1 ,chinchilla1 and ,himalayan rabbits1 the neural spines of the eighth and ninth vertebr are in a slight degree thicker than in the wild4 ,on the other hand1 in one of the feral ,porto ,santo rabbits1 which in most of its characters deviates from the common wild rabbit1 in a direction exactly opposite to that assumed by the large lop-eared rabbits1 the neural spines of the ninth and tenth vertebr were not at all larger than those of the several anterior vertebra4 ,in this same ,porto ,santo specimen there was no trace in the ninth vertebra of the anterior lateral processes 7see fig4 #ad71 which are plainly developed in all ,british wild rabbits1 and still more plainly developed in the large lop-eared rabbits4 ,in a half-wild rabbit from ,sandon ,park1#bf a haemal spine was moderately well developed on the under side of the twelfth dorsal vertebra1 and ,i have seen this in no other specimen4 ,lumbar vertebr4--,i have stated that in two cases there were eight instead of seven lumbar vertebr4 ,the third lumbar vertebr in one skeleton of a wild ,british rabbit1 and in one of the ,porto ,santo feral rabbits1 had a haemal spine2 whilst in four skeletons of large lop-eared rabbits1 and in the ,himalayan rabbit1 this same vertebra had a well developed hmal spine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae--,terminal bone of ,sternum of ,rabbits4 ,pelvis4--,in four wild specimens this bone was almost absolutely identical in shape2 but in several domesticated breeds shades of differences could be distinguished4 ,in the large lop-eared rabbits1 the whole upper part of the ilium is straighter1 or less splayed outwards1 than in the wild rabbit2 and the tuberosity on the inner lip of the anterior and upper part of the ilium is proportionally more prominent4 ,sternum4--,the posterior end of the posterior sternal bone in the wild rabbit 7fig4 #ae1 ,a7 is thin and slightly enlarged2 in some of the large lop-eared rabbits 7,b7 it is much more enlarged towards the extremity2 whilst in other specimens 7,c7 it keeps nearly of the same breadth from end to end1 but is much thicker at the extremity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af--;,acromion of ,scapula1 of natural size4 ,a4 ,wild ,rabbit4 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,large1 ,lop-eared ,rabbits4 ,scapula4--,the acromion sends out a rectangular bar1 ending in an oblique knob1 which latter in the wild rabbit 7fig4 #af1 ,a7 varies a little in shape and size1 as does the apex of the acromion in sharpness1 and the part just below the rectangular bar in breadth4 ,but the variations in these respects in the wild rabbit are very slight3 whilst in the large lop-eared rabbits they are considerable4 ,thus in some specimens 7,b7 the oblique terminal knob is developed into a short bar1 forming an obtuse angle with the rectangular bar4 ,in another specimen 7,c7 these two unequal bars form nearly a straight line4 ,the apex of the acromion varies much in breadth and sharpness1 as may be seen by comparing figures ,b1 ,c1 and ,d4 ,limbs4--,in these ,i could detect no variation2 but the bones of the feet were too troublesome to compare with much care4 ,i have now described all the differences in the skeletons which ,i have observed4 ,it is impossible not to be struck with the high degree of variability or plasticity of many of the bones4 ,we see how erroneous the often-repeated statement is1 that only the crests of the bones which give attachment to muscles vary in shape1 and that only parts of slight importance become modified under domestication4 ,no one will say1 for instance1 that the occipital foramen1 or the atlas1 or the third cervical vertebra is a part of slight importance4 ,if the several vertebr of the wild and lop-eared rabbits1 of which figures have been given1 had been found fossil1 palontologists would have declared without hesitation that they had belonged to distinct species4 ,the effects of the use and disuse of parts4--,in the large lop-eared rabbits the relative proportional length of the bones of the same leg1 and of the front and hind legs compared with each other1 have remained nearly the same as in the wild rabbit2 but in weight1 the bones of the hind legs apparently have not increased in due proportion with the front legs4 ,the weight of the whole body in the large rabbits examined by me was from twice to twice and a half as great as that of the wild rabbit2 and the weight of the bones of the front and hind limbs taken together 7excluding the feet1 on account of the difficulty of cleaning so many small bones7 has increased in the large lop-eared rabbits in nearly the same proportion2 consequently in due proportion to the weight of body which they have to support4 ,if we take the length of the body as the standard of comparison1 the limbs of the large rabbits have not increased in length in due proportion by one inch and a half4 ,again1 if we take as the standard of comparison the length of the skull1 which1 as we have before seen1 has not increased in length in due proportion to the length of body1 the limbs will be found to be1 proportionally with those of the wild rabbit1 from half to three-quarters of an inch too short4 ,hence1 whatever standard of comparison be taken1 the limb-bones of the large lop-eared rabbits have not increased in length1 though they have in weight1 in full proportion to the other parts of the frame2 and this1 ,i presume1 may be accounted for by the inactive life which during many generations they have spent4 ,nor has the scapula increased in length in due proportion to the increased length of the body4 ,the capacity of the osseous case of the brain is a more interesting point1 to which ,i was led to attend by finding1 as previously stated1 that with all domesticated rabbits the length of the skull relatively to its breadth has greatly increased in comparison with that of the wild rabbits4 ,if we had possessed a large number of domesticated rabbits of nearly the same size with the wild rabbits1 it would have been a simple task to have measured and compared the capacities of their skulls4 ,but this is not the case3 almost all the domestic breeds have larger bodies than wild rabbits1 and the lop-eared kinds are more than double their weight4 ,as a small animal has to exert its senses1 intellect1 and instincts equally with a large animal1 we ought not by any means to expect an animal twice or thrice as large as another to have a brain of double or treble the size4#bg ,now1 after weighing the bodies of four wild rabbits1 and of four large but not fattened lop-eared rabbits1 ,i find that on an average the wild are to the lop-eared in weight as #a to #bag2 in average length of body as #a to #ada2 whilst in capacity of skull they are as #a to #aae4 ,hence we see that the capacity of the skull1 and consequently the size of the brain1 has increased but little1 relatively to the increased size of the body2 and this fact explains the narrowness of the skull relatively to its length in all domestic rabbits4 ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,,iv ,name of ,breed ,,wild ,,and ,,semi-,,wild ,,rabbits4 ,length of ,skull4 ,length of ,body from ,incisors to ,anus4 ,weight of whole ,body4 ,capacity of ,skull measured by ,small ,shot4 inches inches lbs ozs grains #a ,wild ,rabbit1 ,kent #cae #agd #c #e #igb #b ,wild ,rabbit1 ,shetland ,islands #cae -- -- #igi #c ,wild ,rabbit1 ,ireland #cae -- -- #iib #d ,domestic rabbit1 run wild1 ,sandon #cae #ahe -- #iig #e ,wild1 common variety1 small specimen1 ,kent #bif #agj #b #ad #hge #f ,wild1 fawn-coloured variety1 ,scotland #caj -- -- #iah #g ,silver-grey1 small specimen1 ,thetford warren #bie #aee #b #aa #ich #h ,feral rabbit1 ,porto ,santo #bhc -- -- #hic #i ,feral rabbit1 ,porto ,santo #bhe -- -- #gef #aj ,feral ,rabbit1 ,porto ,santo #bie -- -- #hce ,average of the three ,porto ,santo rabbits #bhh -- -- #hbh ,,domestic ,,rabbits4 #aa ,himalayan #cej #bje -- #ifc #ab ,moscow #cbe #agj #c #h #hjc #ac ,angora #cej #aie #c #a #fig #ad ,chinchilla #cfe #bbj -- #iie #ae ,large lop-eared #daj #bde #g #j #ajfe #af ,large lop-eared #daj #bej #g #ac #aaec #ag ,large lop-eared #djg -- -- #ajcg #ah ,large lop-eared #daj #bej #g #d #abjh #ai ,large lop-eared #dcj -- -- #abcb #bj ,large lop-eared #dbe -- -- #aabd #ba ,large hare-coloured #chf #bdj #f #ad #aaca #bb ,average of above seven large lop-eared rabbits #daa #bdfb #g #d #aacf #bc ,hare 7,l4 timidus7 ,english specimen #cfa -- #g #j #acae #bd ,hare 7,l4 timidus7 ,german specimen #chb -- #g #j #adae ,v ,,vi ,,vii ,name of ,breed ,,wild ,,and ,,semi-,,wild ,,rabbits4 ,capacity calculated according to ,length of ,skull relatively to that of ,no4 #a4 ,difference between actual and calculated capacities of ,skulls4 ,showing how much per cent4 the ,brain1 by calculation according to the length of the ,skull is too light or too heavy1 relatively to the ,brain of the ,wild ,rabbit ,no4 #a4 grains grains #a ,wild ,rabbit1 ,kent -- -- #b ,wild ,rabbit1 ,shetland ,islands -- -- #b per cent4 too heavy in comparison with ,no4 #a #c ,wild ,rabbit1 ,ireland -- -- #d ,domestic rabbit1 run wild1 ,sandon #e ,wild1 common variety1 small specimen1 ,kent #iac #ch #d per cent4 too light4 #f ,wild1 fawn-coloured variety1 ,scotland #iej #cb #c per cent4 too light4 #g ,silver-grey1 small specimen1 ,thetford warren #iaj #bh #c per cent4 too heavy4 #h ,feral rabbit1 ,porto ,santo #hgc #bj #b per cent4 too heavy4 #i ,feral rabbit1 ,porto ,santo #hgi #abc #af per cent4 too light4 #aj ,feral ,rabbit1 ,porto ,santo #iaj #ge #i per cent4 too light4 ,average of the three ,porto ,santo rabbits #hhh #fj #g per cent4 too light4 ,,domestic ,,rabbits4 #aa ,himalayan #ajhj #aag #ab per cent4 too light4 #ab ,moscow #ajjb #aii #bd per cent4 too light4 #ac ,angora #ajhj #chc #ed per cent4 too light4 #ad ,chinchilla #aabf #aca #ac per cent4 too light4 #ae ,large lop-eared #abfe #bjj #ah per cent4 too light4 #af ,large lop-eared #abfe #aab #i per cent4 too light4 #ag ,large lop-eared #abee #bah #ba per cent4 too light4 #ah ,large lop-eared #abfe #eg #d per cent4 too light4 #ai ,large lop-eared #acbf #id #g per cent4 too light4 #bj ,large lop-eared #acaa #ahg #af per cent4 too light4 #ba ,large hare-coloured #aaia #fj #e per cent4 too light4 #bb ,average of above seven large lop-eared rabbits #abfh #acb #aa per cent4 too light4 ,in the upper half of ,table #c ,i have given the measurements of the skull of ten wild rabbits2 and in the lower half1 of eleven thoroughly domesticated kinds4 ,as these rabbits differ so greatly in size1 it is necessary to have some standard by which to compare the capacities of their skulls4 ,i have selected the length of skull as the best standard1 for in the larger rabbits it has not1 as already stated1 increased in length so much as the body2 but as the skull1 like every other part1 varies in length1 neither it nor any other part affords a perfect standard4 ,in the first column of figures the extreme length of the skull is given in inches and decimals4 ,i am aware that these measurements pretend to greater accuracy than is possible2 but ,i have found it the least trouble to record the exact length which the compass gave4 ,the second and third columns give the length and weight of body1 whenever these observations were made4 ,the fourth column gives the capacity of the skull by the weight of small shot with which the skulls were filled2 but it is not pretended that these weights are accurate within a few grains4 ,in the fifth column the capacity is given which the skull ought to have had by calculation1 according to the length of skull1 in comparison with that of the wild rabbit ,no4 #a2 in the sixth column the difference between the actual and calculated capacities1 and in the seventh the percentage of increase or decrease1 are given4 ,for instance1 as the wild rabbit ,no4 #e has a shorter and lighter body than the wild rabbit ,no4 #a1 we might have expected that its skull would have had less capacity2 the actual capacity1 as expressed by the weight of shot1 is #hge grains1 which is #ig grains less than that of the first rabbit4 ,but comparing these two rabbits by the length of their skulls1 we see that in ,no4 #a the skull is #cae inches in length1 and in ,no4 #e #bif inches in length2 according to this ratio1 the brain of ,no4 #e ought to have had a capacity of #iac grains of shot1 which is above the actual capacity1 but only by #ch grains4 ,or1 to put the case in another way 7as in column vii71 the brain of this small rabbit1 ,no4 #e1 for every #ajj grains of weight is only #d grains too light1--that is1 it ought1 according to the standard rabbit ,no4 #a1 to have been #d per cent heavier4 ,i have taken the rabbit ,no4 #a as the standard of comparison because1 of the skulls having a full average length1 this has the least capacity2 so that it is the least favourable to the result which ,i wish to show1 namely1 that the brain in all long-domesticated rabbits has decreased in size1 either actually1 or relatively to the length of the head and body1 in comparison with the brain of the wild rabbit4 ,had ,i taken the ,irish rabbit1 ,no4 #c1 as the standard1 the following results would have been somewhat more striking4 ,turning to ,table #c3 the first four wild rabbits have skulls of the same length1 and these differ but little in capacity4 ,the ,sandon rabbit 7,no4 #d7 is interesting1 as1 though now wild1 it is known to be descended from a domesticated breed1 as is still shown by its peculiar colouring and longer body2 nevertheless the skull has recovered its normal length and full capacity4 ,the next three rabbits are wild1 but of small size1 and they all have skulls with slightly lessened capacities4 ,the three ,porto ,santo feral rabbits 7,nos4 #h to #aj7 offer a perplexing case2 their bodies are greatly reduced in size1 as in a lesser degree are their skulls in length and in actual capacity1 in comparison with the skulls of wild ,english rabbits4 ,but when we compare the capacities of the skull in the three ,porto ,santo rabbits1 we observe a surprising difference1 which does not stand in any relation to the slight difference in the length of their skulls1 nor1 as ,i believe1 to any difference in the size of their bodies2 but ,i neglected weighing separately their bodies4 ,i can hardly suppose that the medullary matter of the brain in these three rabbits1 living under similar conditions1 can differ as much as is indicated by the proportional difference of capacity in their skulls2 nor do ,i know whether it is possible that one brain may contain considerably more fluid than another4 ,hence ,i can throw no light on this case4 ,looking to the lower half of ,table #c1 which gives the measurements of domesticated rabbits1 we see that in all the capacity of the skull is less1 but in very various degrees1 than might have been anticipated according to the length of their skulls1 relatively to that of the wild rabbit ,no4 #a4 ,in line #bb the average measurements of seven large lop-eared rabbits are given4 ,now the question arises1 has the average capacity of the skull in these seven large rabbits increased as much as might have been expected from the greatly increased size of body4 ,we may endeavour to answer this question in two ways3 in the upper half of the ,table we have measurements of the skulls of six small wild rabbits 7,nos4 #e to #aj71 and we find that on an average the skulls are #ah of an inch shorter1 and in capacity #ia grains less1 than the average length and capacity of the three first wild rabbits on the list4 ,the seven large lop-eared rabbits1 on an average1 have skulls #daa inches in length1 and #aacf grains in capacity2 so that these skulls have increased in length more than five times as much as the skulls of the six small wild rabbits have decreased in length2 hence we might have expected that the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits would have increased in capacity five times as much as the skulls of the six small rabbits have decreased in capacity2 and this would have given an average increased capacity of #dee grains1 whilst the real average increase is only #aee grains4 ,again1 the large lop-eared rabbits have bodies of nearly the same weight and size as the common hare1 but their heads are longer2 consequently1 if the lop-eared rabbits had been wild1 it might have been expected that their skulls would have had nearly the same capacity as that of the skull of the hare4 ,but this is far from being the case2 for the average capacity of the two hare-skulls 7,nos4 #bc1 #bd7 is so much larger than the average capacity of the seven lop-eared skulls1 that the latter would have to be increased #ba per cent to come up to the standard of the hare4#bh ,i have previously remarked that1 if we had possessed many domestic rabbits of the same average size with the wild rabbit1 it would have been easy to compare the capacity of their skulls4 ,now the ,himalayan1 ,moscow1 and ,angora rabbits 7,nos4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac of ,table #c7 are only a little larger in body and have skulls only a little longer1 than the wild animal1 and we see that the actual capacity of their skulls is less than in the wild animal1 and considerably less by calculation 7column #g71 according to the difference in the length of their skulls4 ,the narrowness of the brain-case in these three rabbits could be plainly seen and proved by external measurement4 ,the ,chinchilla rabbit 7,no4 #ad7 is a considerably larger animal than the wild rabbit1 yet the capacity of its skull only slightly exceeds that of the wild rabbit4 ,the ,angora rabbit1 ,no4 #ac1 offers the most remarkable case2 this animal in its pure white colour and length of silky fur bears the stamp of long domesticity4 ,it has a considerably longer head and body than the wild rabbit1 but the actual capacity of its skull is less than that of even the little wild ,porto ,santo rabbits4 ,by the standard of the length of skull the capacity 7see column #g7 is only half of what it ought to have been6 ,i kept this individual animal alive1 and it was not unhealthy nor idiotic4 ,this case of the ,angora rabbit so much surprised me1 that ,i repeated all the measurements and found them correct4 ,i have also compared the capacity of the skull of the ,angora with that of the wild rabbit by other standards1 namely1 by the length and weight of the body1 and by the weight of the limb-bones2 but by all these standards the brain appears to be much too small1 though in a less degree when the standard of the limb-bones was used2 and this latter circumstance may probably be accounted for by the limbs of this anciently domesticated breed having become much reduced in weight1 from its long-continued inactive life4 ,hence ,i infer that in the ,angora breed1 which is said to differ from other breeds in being quieter and more social1 the capacity of the skull has really undergone a remarkable amount of reduction4 ,from the several facts above given1--namely1 firstly1 that the actual capacity of the skull in the ,himalayan1 ,moscow1 and ,angora breeds1 is less than in the wild rabbit1 though they are in all their dimensions rather larger animals2 secondly1 that the capacity of the skull of the large lop-eared rabbits has not been increased in nearly the same ratio as the capacity of the skull of the smaller wild rabbits has been decreased2 and thirdly1 that the capacity of the skull in these same large lop-eared rabbits is very inferior to that of the hare1 an animal of nearly the same size1--,i conclude1 notwithstanding the remarkable differences in capacity in the skulls of the small ,porto ,santo rabbits1 and likewise in the large lop-eared kinds1 that in all long-domesticated rabbits the brain has either by no means increased in due proportion with the increased length of the head and increased size of the body1 or that it has actually decreased in size1 relatively to what would have occurred had these animals lived in a state of nature4 ,when we remember that rabbits1 from having been domesticated and closely confined during many generations1 cannot have exerted their intellect1 instincts1 senses1 and voluntary movements1 either in escaping from various dangers or in searching for food1 we may conclude that their brains will have been feebly exercised1 and consequently have suffered in development4 ,we thus see that the most important and complicated organ in the whole organisation is subject to the law of decrease in size from disuse4 ,finally1 let us sum up the more important modifications which domestic rabbits have undergone1 together with their causes as far as we can obscurely see them4 ,by the supply of abundant and nutritious food1 together with little exercise1 and by the continued selection of the heaviest individuals1 the weight of the larger breeds has been more than doubled4 ,the bones of the limbs taken together have increased in weight1 in due proportion with the increased weight of body1 but the hind legs have increased less than the front legs2 but in length they have not increased in due proportion1 and this may have been caused by the want of proper exercise4 ,with the increased size of the body the third cervical has assumed characters proper to the fourth cervical vertebra2 and the eighth and ninth dorsal vertebr have similarly assumed characters proper to the tenth and posterior vertebr4 ,the skull in the larger breeds has increased in length1 but not in due proportion with the increased length of body2 the brain has not duly increased in dimensions1 or has even actually decreased1 and consequently the bony case for the brain has remained narrow1 and by correlation has affected the bones of the face and the entire length of the skull4 ,the skull has thus acquired its characteristic narrowness4 ,from unknown causes the supra-orbital process of the frontal bones and the free end of the malar bones have increased in breadth2 and in the larger breeds the occipital foramen is generally much less deeply notched than in wild rabbits4 ,certain parts of the scapula and the terminal sternal bones have become highly variable in shape4 ,the ears have been increased enormously in length and breadth through continued selection2 their weight1 conjoined probably with the disuse of their muscles1 has caused them to lop downwards2 and this has affected the position and form of the bony auditory meatus2 and this again1 by correlation1 the position in a slight degree of almost every bone in the upper part of the skull1 and even the position of the condyles of the lower jaw4 ,,references #a ,m4 ,p4 ,gervais1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammifres1' #ahed1 tom4 i41 p4 #bhh4 #b ,u4 ,aldrovandi #8,de ,quadrupedibus digitatis1' #afcg1 p4 #chc4 ,for ,confucius and ,g4 ,markham see a writer who has studied the subject in #8,cottage ,gardener1' ,jan4 #bb1 #ahfa1 p4 #bej4 #c ,owen1 #8,british ,fossil ,mammals1' p4 #bab4 #d ,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands1' #ahja1 ,b4 i4 p4 #aacc4 ,i have received similar accounts with respect to ,england and ,scotland4 #e #8,pigeons and ,rabbits1' by ,e4 ,s4 ,delamer1 #ahed1 p4 #acc4 ,sir ,j4 ,sebright 7#8,observations on ,instinct1' #ahcf1 p4 #aj47 speaks most strongly on the difficulty4 ,but this difficulty is not invariable1 as ,i have received two accounts of perfect success in taming and breeding from the wild rabbit4 ,see also ,dr4 ,p4 ,broca in #8,journal de la ,physiologie1' tom4 ii4 p4 #cfh4 #f ,gervais1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammifres1' tom4 i4 p4 #bib4 #g ,see ,dr4 ,p4 ,broca's interesting memoir on this subject in ,brown-,squard's #8,journ4 de4 ,phys41' vol4 ii4 p4 #cfg4 #h ,the skulls of these breeds are briefly described in the #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,may #g1 #ahfa1 p4 #ajh4 #i #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 p4 #chj4 #aj #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,may #bh1 #ahfa1 p4 #afi4 #aa #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 p4 #cbg4 ,with respect to the ears see ,delamer on #8,pigeons and ,rabbits1' #ahed1 p4 #ada2 also #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dii1 and ditto for #ahed1 p4 #ehf4 #ab ,delamer1 #8,pigeons and ,rabbits1' p4 #acf4 ,see also #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 p4 #cge4 #ac #8,an ,account of the different ,kinds of ,sheep in the ,russian ,dominions1' #agid1 p4 #ci4 #ad #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,june #bc1 #aheg1 p4 #aei4 #ae #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,april #i1 #ahfa1 p4 #ce4 #af #8,cottage ,gardener1' #aheg1 p4 #ada4 #ag ,mr4 ,bartlett1 in #8,proc4 ,zoolog ,soc41' #ahfa1 p4 #dj4 #ah #8,phenomenon in ,himalayan ,rabbits1' in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,jan4 #bg1 #ahfe1 p4 #ajb4 #ai ,g4 ,r4 ,waterhouse1 #8,natural ,history of ,mammalia3 ,rodents1' #ahdf1 pp4 #eb1 #fj1 #aje4 #bj ,delamer on #8,pigeons and ,rabbits1' p4 #aad4 #ba ,gosse's #8,sojourn in ,jamaica1' #ahea1 p4 #dda1 as described by an excellent observer1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill4 ,this is the only known case in which rabbits have become feral in a hot country4 ,they can be kept1 however1 at ,loanda 7see ,livingstone's #8,travels1' p4 #djg74 ,in parts of ,india1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,blyth1 they breed well4 #bb ,darwin's #8,journal of ,researches1' p4 #aic2 and #8,zoology of the ,voyage of the ,beagle3 ,mammalia1' p4 #ib4 #bc ,kerr's #8,collection of ,voyages1' vol4 ii4 p4 #agg3 p4 #bje for ,cada ,mosto4 ,according to a work published in ,lisbon in #agag entitled #8,historia ,insulana1' written by a ,jesuit1 the rabbits were turned out in #adbj4 ,some authors believe that the island was discovered in #adac4 #bd ,something of the same kind has occurred on the island of ,lipari1 where1 according to ,spallanzani 7#8,voyage dans les deux ,siciles1' quoted by ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' p4 #cfd71 a countryman turned out some rabbits which multiplied prodigiously1 but1 says ,spallanzani1 8les lapins de l'ile de ,lipari sont plus petits que ceux qu'on lve en domesticit40 #be ,waterhouse1 #8,nat4 ,hist4 ,mammalia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cf4 #bf ,these rabbits have run wild for a considerable time in ,sandon ,park1 and in other places in ,staffordshire and ,shropshire4 ,they originated1 as ,i have been informed by the gamekeeper1 from variously-coloured domestic rabbits which had been turned out4 ,they vary in colour2 but many are symmetrically coloured1 being white with a streak along the spine1 and with the ears and certain marks about the head of a blackish-grey tint4 ,they have rather longer bodies than common rabbits4 #bg ,see ,prof4 ,owen's remarks on this subject in his paper on the #8,zoological ,significance of the ,brain1 etc41 of ,man1 etc41' read before ,brit4 ,association #ahfb3 with respect to ,birds1 see #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,jan4 #aa1 #ahdh1 p4 #h4 #bh ,this standard is apparently considerably too low1 for ,dr4 ,crisp 7#8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfa1 p4 #hf7 gives #baj grains as the actual weight of the brain of a hare which weighed #g pounds1 and #abe grains as the weight of the brain of a rabbit which weighed #c pounds #e ounces1 that is1 the same weight as the rabbit ,no4 #a in my list4 ,now the contents of the skull of rabbit ,no4 #a in shot is in my table #igb grains2 and according to ,dr4 ,crisp's ratio of #abe to #baj1 the skull of the hare ought to have contained #afcb grains of shot1 instead of only 7in the largest hare in my table7 #adee grains4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,domestic ,,pigeons4 ,,enumeration ,,and ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,breeds--,,individual ,,variability--,,variations ,,of ,a ,,remarkable ,,nature--,,osteological ,,characters3 ,,skull1 ,,lower ,,jaw1 ,,number ,,of vertebr--,,correlation ,,of ,,growth3 ,,tongue ,,with ,,beak2 ,,eyelids ,,and ,,nostrils ,,with ,,wattled ,,skin--,,number ,,of ,,wing-,,feathers1 ,,and ,,length ,,of ,,wing--,,colour ,,and ,,down--,,webbed ,,and ,,feathered ,,feet--,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,disuse--,,length ,,of ,,feet ,,in ,,correlation ,,with ,,length ,,of ,,beak--,,length ,,of ,,sternum1 ,,scapula1 ,,and ,,furculum--,,length ,,of ,,wings--,,summary ,,on ,,the ,,points ,,of ,,difference ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,breeds4 ,i have been led to study domestic pigeons with particular care1 because the evidence that all the domestic races are descended from one known source is far clearer than with any other anciently domesticated animal4 ,secondly1 because many treatises in several languages1 some of them old1 have been written on the pigeon1 so that we are enabled to trace the history of several breeds4 ,and lastly1 because1 from causes which we can partly understand1 the amount of variation has been extraordinarily great4 ,the details will often be tediously minute2 but no one who really wants to understand the progress of change in domestic animals1 and especially no one who has kept pigeons and has marked the great difference between the breeds and the trueness with which most of them propagate their kind1 will doubt that this minuteness is worth while4 ,notwithstanding the clear evidence that all the breeds are the descendants of a single species1 ,i could not persuade myself until some years had passed that the whole amount of difference between them1 had arisen since man first domesticated the wild rock-pigeon4 ,i have kept alive all the most distinct breeds1 which ,i could procure in ,england or from the ,continent2 and have prepared skeletons of all4 ,i have received skins from ,persia1 and a large number from ,india and other quarters of the world4#a ,since my admission into two of the ,london pigeon-clubs1 ,i have received the kindest assistance from many of the most eminent amateurs4#b ,the races of the ,pigeon which can be distinguished1 and which breed true1 are very numerous4 ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi#c describe in detail #abb kinds2 and ,i could add several ,european kinds not known to them4 ,in ,india1 judging from the skins sent me1 there are many breeds unknown here2 and ,sir ,w4 ,elliot informs me that a collection imported by an ,indian merchant into ,madras from ,cairo and ,constantinople included several kinds unknown in ,india4 ,i have no doubt that there exist considerably above #aej kinds which breed true and have been separately named4 ,but of these the far greater number differ from each other only in unimportant characters4 ,such differences will be here entirely passed over1 and ,i shall confine myself to the more important points of structure4 ,that many important differences exist we shall presently see4 ,i have looked through the magnificent collection of the ,columbid in the ,british ,museum1 and1 with the exception of a few forms 7such as the ,didunculus1 ,calnas1 ,goura1 etc471 ,i do not hesitate to affirm that some domestic races of the rock-pigeon differ fully as much from each other in external characters as do the most distinct natural genera4 ,we may look in vain through the #bhh known species#d for a beak so small and conical as that of the short-faced tumbler2 for one so broad and short as that of the barb2 for one so long1 straight1 and narrow1 with its enormous wattles1 as that of the ,english carrier2 for an expanded upraised tail like that of the fantail2 or for an sophagus like that of the pouter4 ,i do not for a moment pretend that the domestic races differ from each other in their whole organisation as much as the more distinct natural genera4 ,i refer only to external characters1 on which1 however1 it must be confessed that most genera of birds have been founded4 ,when1 in a future chapter1 we discuss the principle of selection as followed by man1 we shall clearly see why the differences between the domestic races are almost always confined to external1 or at least to externally visible1 characters4 ,owing to the amount and gradations of difference between the several breeds1 ,i have found it indispensable in the following classification to rank them under ,groups1 ,races1 and ,sub-races2 to which varieties and sub-varieties1 all strictly inheriting their proper characters1 must often be added4 ,even with the individuals of the same sub-variety1 when long kept by different fanciers1 different strains can sometimes be recognised4 ,there can be no doubt that1 if well-characterised forms of the several races had been found wild1 all would have been ranked as distinct species1 and several of them would certainly have been placed by ornithologists in distinct genera4 ,a good classification of the various domestic breeds is extremely difficult1 owing to the manner in which many of the forms graduate into each other2 but it is curious how exactly the same difficulties are encountered1 and the same rules have to be followed1 as in the classification of any natural but difficult group of organic beings4 ,an 8artificial classification0 might be followed which would present fewer difficulties than a 8natural classification20 but then it would interrupt many plain affinities4 ,extreme forms can readily be defined2 but intermediate and troublesome forms often destroy our definitions4 ,forms which may be called 8aberrant0 must sometimes be included within groups to which they do not accurately belong4 ,characters of all kinds must be used2 but as with birds in a state of nature1 those afforded by the beak are the best and most readily appreciated4 ,it is not possible to weigh the importance of all the characters which have to be used so as to make the groups and sub-groups of equal value4 ,lastly1 a group may contain only one race1 and another and less distinctly defined group may contain several races and sub-races1 and in this case it is difficult1 as in the classification of natural species1 to avoid placing too high a value on the number of forms which a group may contain4 ,in my measurements ,i have never trusted to the eye2 and when speaking of a part being large or small1 ,i always refer to the wild rock-pigeon 7,columba livia7 as the standard of comparison4 ,the measurements are given in decimals of an inch4#e ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag--,the ,rock-,pigeon1 or ,columba livia4#f ,the parent-form of all domesticated pigeons4 ,,columba ,,livia or ,,rock-,,pigeon4 ,illustration3 ,illustration3 ,i will now give a brief description of all the principal breeds4 ,the diagram above may aid the reader in learning their names and seeing their affinities4 ,the rock-pigeon1 or ,columba livia 7including under this name two or three closely-allied sub-species or geographical races1 hereafter to be described71 may be confidently viewed1 as we shall see in the next chapter1 as the common parent-form4 ,the names in italics on the right-hand side of the page show us the most distinct breeds1 or those which have undergone the greatest amount of modification4 ,the lengths of the dotted lines rudely represent the degree of distinctness of each breed from the parent-stock1 and the names placed under each other in the columns show the more or less closely connecting links4 ,the distances of the dotted lines from each other approximately represent the amount of difference between the several breeds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah--;,english ,pouter4 ,,group ,i4 ,this group includes a single race1 that of the ,pouters4 ,if the most strongly marked sub-race be taken1 namely1 the ,improved ,english ,pouter1 this is perhaps the most distinct of all domesticated pigeons4 ,race ,i4 ,pouter ,pigeons4 7,kropftauben1 ,german4 ,grosses-gorges1 or ,boulans1 ,french47 sophagus of great size1 barely separated from the crop1 often inflated4 ,body and legs elongated4 ,beak of moderate dimensions4 ,sub-race ,i4--,the improved ,english ,pouter1 when its crop is fully inflated1 presents a truly astonishing appearance4 ,the habit of slightly inflating the crop is common to all domestic pigeons1 but is carried to an extreme in the ,pouter4 ,the crop does not differ1 except in size1 from that of other pigeons2 but is less plainly separated by an oblique constriction from the sophagus4 ,the diameter of the upper part of the sophagus is immense1 even close up to the head4 ,the beak in one bird which ,i possessed was almost completely buried when the sophagus was fully expanded4 ,the males1 especially when excited1 pout more than the females1 and they glory in exercising this power4 ,if a bird will not1 to use the technical expression1 8play10 the fancier1 as ,i have witnessed1 by taking the beak into his mouth1 blows him up like a balloon2 and the bird1 then puffed up with wind and pride1 struts about1 retaining his magnificent size as long as he can4 ,pouters often take flight with their crops inflated4 ,after one of my birds had swallowed a good meal of peas and water1 as he flew up in order to disgorge them and feed his nearly fledged young1 ,i heard the peas rattling in his inflated crop as if in a bladder4 ,when flying1 they often strike the backs of their wings together1 and thus make a clapping noise4 ,pouters stand remarkably upright1 and their bodies are thin and elongated4 ,in connexion with this form of body1 the ribs are generally broader and the vertebr more numerous than in other breeds4 ,from their manner of standing their legs appear longer than they really are1 though1 in proportion with those of ,c4 livia1 the legs and feet are actually longer4 ,the wings appear much elongated1 but by measurement1 in relation to the length of body1 this is not the case4 ,the beak likewise appears longer1 but it is in fact a little shorter 7about #jc of an inch71 proportionally with the size of the body1 and relatively to the beak of the rock-pigeon4 ,the ,pouter1 though not bulky1 is a large bird2 ,i measured one which was #cd inches from tip to tip of wing1 and #ai inches from tip of beak to end of tail4 ,in a wild rock-pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands the same measurements gave only #bh and #ad4 ,there are many sub-varieties of the ,pouter of different colours1 but these ,i pass over4 ,sub-race ,,ii4 ,dutch ,pouter4--,this seems to be the parent-form of our improved ,english ,pouters4 ,i kept a pair1 but ,i suspect that they were not pure birds4 ,they are smaller than ,english pouters1 and less well developed in all their characters4 ,neumeister#g says that the wings are crossed over the tail1 and do not reach to its extremity4 ,sub-race ,,iii4 ,the ,lille ,pouter4--,i know this breed only from description4#h ,it approaches in general form the ,dutch ,pouter1 but the inflated sophagus assumes a spherical form1 as if the pigeon had swallowed a large orange1 which had stuck close under the beak4 ,this inflated ball is represented as rising to a level with the crown of the head4 ,the middle toe alone is feathered4 ,a variety of this sub-race1 called the claquant1 is described by ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi2 it pouts but little1 and is characterised by the habit of violently hitting its wings together over its back1--a habit which the ,english ,pouter has in a slight degree4 ,sub-race ,,iv4 ,common ,german ,pouter4--,i know this bird only from the figures and description given by the accurate ,neumeister1 one of the few writers on pigeons who1 as ,i have found1 may always be trusted4 ,this sub-race seems considerably different4 ,the upper part of the sophagus is much less distended4 ,the bird stands less upright4 ,the feet are not feathered1 and the legs and beak are shorter4 ,in these respects there is an approach in form to the common rock-pigeon4 ,the tail-feathers are very long1 yet the tips of the closed wings extend beyond the end of the tail2 and the length of the wings1 from tip to tip1 and of the body1 is greater than in the ,english ,pouter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai--;,english ,carrier4 ,,group ,,ii4 ,this group includes three ,races1 namely1 ,carriers1 ,runts1 and ,barbs1 which are manifestly allied to each other4 ,indeed1 certain carriers and runts pass into each other by such insensible gradations that an arbitrary line has to be drawn between them4 ,carriers also graduate through foreign breeds into the rock-pigeon4 ,yet1 if well-characterised ,carriers and ,barbs 7see figs #ai and #bj7 had existed as wild species1 no ornithologist would have placed them in the same genus with each other or with the rock-pigeon4 ,this group may1 as a general rule1 be recognised by the beak being long1 with the skin over the nostrils swollen and often carunculated or wattled1 and with that round the eyes bare and likewise carunculated4 ,the mouth is very wide1 and the feet are large4 ,nevertheless the ,barb1 which must be classed in this same group1 has a very short beak1 and some runts have very little bare skin round their eyes4 ,race ,,ii4--,carriers4 7,trkische ,tauben2 pigeons turcs1 dragons47 ,beak elongated1 narrow1 pointed2 eyes surrounded by much naked1 generally carunculated1 skin2 neck and body elongated4 ,sub-race ,i4 ,the ,english ,carrier4--,this is a fine bird1 of large size1 close feathered1 generally dark-coloured1 with an elongated neck4 ,the beak is attenuated and of wonderful length3 in one specimen it was #ad inch in length from the feathered base to the tip2 therefore nearly twice as long as that of the rock-pigeon1 which measured only #gg4 ,whenever ,i compare proportionally any part in the carrier and rock-pigeon1 ,i take the length of the body from the base of the beak to the end of the tail as the standard of comparison2 and according to this standard1 the beak in one ,carrier was nearly half an inch longer than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the upper mandible is often slightly arched4 ,the tongue is very long4 ,the development of the carunculated skin or wattle round the eyes1 over the nostrils1 and on the lower mandible1 is prodigious4 ,the eyelids1 measured longitudinally1 were in some specimens exactly twice as long as in the rock-pigeon4 ,the external orifice or furrow of the nostrils was also twice as long4 ,the open mouth in its widest part was in one case #ge of an inch in width1 whereas in the rock-pigeon it is only about #d of an inch4 ,this great width of mouth is shown in the skeleton by the reflexed edges of the ramus of the lower jaw4 ,the head is flat on the summit and narrow between the orbits4 ,the feet are large and coarse2 the length1 as measured from end of hind toe to end of middle toe 7without the claws71 was in two specimens #bf inches2 and this1 proportionally with the rock-pigeon1 is an excess of nearly a quarter of an inch4 ,one very fine ,carrier measured #ca inches from tip to tip of wing4 ,birds of this sub-race are too valuable to be flown as carriers4 ,sub-race ,,ii4 ,dragons2 ,persian ,carriers4--,the ,english ,dragon differs from the improved ,english ,carrier in being smaller in all its dimensions1 and in having less wattle round the eyes and over the nostrils1 and none on the lower mandible4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot sent me from ,madras a ,bagdad ,carrier 7sometimes called khandesi71 the name of which shows its ,persian origin3 it would be considered here a very poor ,dragon2 the body was of the size of the rock-pigeon1 with the beak a little longer1 namely1 #a inch from the tip to the feathered base4 ,the skin round the eyes was only slightly wattled1 whilst that over the nostrils was fairly wattled4 ,the ,hon4 ,c4 ,murray1 also1 sent me two ,carriers direct from ,persia2 these had nearly the same character as the ,madras bird1 being about as large as the rock-pigeon1 but the beak in one specimen was as much as #aae in length2 the skin over the nostrils was only moderately1 and that round the eyes scarcely at all wattled4 ,sub-race ,,iii4 ,bagadotten-,tauben of ,neumeister 7,pavdotten-or ,hocker-,tauben74--,i owe to the kindness of ,mr4 ,baily1 jun41 a dead specimen of this singular breed imported from ,germany4 ,it is certainly allied to the ,runts2 nevertheless1 from its close affinity with ,carriers1 it will be convenient here to describe it4 ,the beak is long1 and is hooked or bowed downwards in a highly remarkable manner1 as will be seen in fig4 #bd-;,d when ,i treat of the skeleton4 ,the eyes are surrounded by a wide space of bright red skin1 which1 as well as that over the nostrils1 is moderately wattled4 ,the breast-bone is remarkably protuberant1 being abruptly bowed outwards4 ,the feet and tarsi are of great length1 larger than in first-rate ,english ,carriers4 ,the whole bird is of large size1 but in proportion to the size of the body the feathers of the wing and tail are short2 a wild rock-pigeon1 of considerably less size1 had tail-feathers #df inches in length1 whereas in the large ,bagadotten these feathers were scarcely over #da inches in length4 ,riedel#i remarks that it is a very silent bird4 ,sub-race ,,iv4 ,bussorah ,carrier4--,two specimens were sent me by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot from ,madras1 one in spirits and the other skinned4 ,the name shows its ,persian origin4 ,it is much valued in ,india1 and is considered as a distinct breed from the ,bagdad ,carrier1 which forms my second sub-race4 ,at first ,i suspected that these two sub-races might have been recently formed by crosses with other breeds1 though the estimation in which they are held renders this improbable2 but in a ,persian treatise1#aj believed to have been written about #ajj years ago1 the ,bagdad and ,bussorah breeds are described as distinct4 ,the ,bussorah ,carrier is of about the same size as the wild rock-pigeon4 ,the shape of the beak1 with some little carunculated skin over the nostrils1-- the much elongated eyelids1--the broad mouth measured internally1--the narrow head1--the feet proportionally a little longer than in the rock-pigeon1--and the general appearance1 all show that this bird is an undoubted ,carrier2 yet in one specimen the beak was of exactly the same length as in the rock-pigeon4 ,in the other specimen the beak 7as well as the opening of the nostrils7 was only a very little longer1 viz41 by #jh of an inch4 ,although there was a considerable space of bare and slightly carunculated skin round the eyes1 that over the nostrils was only in a slight degree rugose4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot informs me that in the living bird the eye seems remarkably large and prominent1 and the same fact is noticed in the ,persian treatise2 but the bony orbit is barely larger than that in the rock-pigeon4 ,amongst the several breeds sent to me from ,madras by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot there is a pair of the ,kali ,par1 black birds with the beak slightly elongated1 with the skin over the nostrils rather full1 and with a little naked skin round the eyes4 ,this breed seems more closely allied to the ,carrier than to any other breed1 being nearly intermediate between the ,bussorah ,carrier and the rock-pigeon4 ,the names applied in different parts of ,europe and in ,india to the several kinds of ,carriers all point to ,persia or the surrounding countries as the source of this ,race4 ,and it deserves especial notice that1 even if we neglect the ,kali ,par as of doubtful origin1 we get a series broken by very small steps1 from the rock-pigeon1 through the ,bussorah1 which sometimes has a beak not at all longer than that of the rock-pigeon and with the naked skin round the eyes and over the nostrils very slightly swollen and carunculated1 through the ,bagdad sub-race and ,dragons1 to our improved ,english ,carriers1 which present so marvellous a difference from the rock-pigeon or ,columba livia4 ,race ,,iii4--,runts4 7,scanderoons3 die ,florentiner ,tauben and ,hinkeltauben of ,neumeister2 pigeon bagadais1 pigeon romain47 ,beak long1 massive2 body of great size4 ,inextricable confusion reigns in the classification1 affinities1 and naming of ,runts4 ,several characters which are generally pretty constant in other pigeons1 such as the length of the wings1 tail1 legs1 and neck1 and the amount of naked skin round the eyes1 are excessively variable in ,runts4 ,when the naked skin over the nostrils and round the eyes is considerably developed and wattled1 and when the size of body is not very great1 ,runts graduate in so insensible a manner into ,carriers1 that the distinction is quite arbitrary4 ,this fact is likewise shown by the names given to them in different parts of ,europe4 ,nevertheless1 taking the most distinct forms1 at least five sub-races 7some of them including well-marked varieties7 can be distinguished1 which differ in such important points of structure1 that they would be considered as good species in a state of nature4 ,sub-race ,i4 ,scanderoon of ,english ,writers 7die ,florentiner and ,hinkeltauben of ,neumeister74--,birds of this sub-race1 of which ,i kept one alive and have since seen two others1 differ from the ,bagadotten of ,neumeister only in not having the beak nearly so much curved downwards1 and in the naked skin round the eyes and over the nostrils being hardly at all wattled4 ,nevertheless ,i have felt myself compelled to place the ,bagadotten in ,race ,,ii41 or that of the ,carriers1 and the present bird in ,race ,,iii41 or that of the ,runts4 ,the ,scanderoon has a very short1 narrow1 and elevated tail2 wings extremely short1 so that the first primary feathers were not longer than those of a small tumbler pigeon6 ,neck long1 much bowed2 breast-bone prominent4 ,beak long1 being #aae inch from tip to feathered base2 vertically thick2 slightly curved downwards4 ,the skin over the nostrils swollen1 not wattled2 naked skin round the eyes1 broad1 slightly carunculated4 ,legs long2 feet very large4 ,skin of neck bright red1 often showing a naked medial line1 with a naked red patch at the distal end of the radius of the wing4 ,my bird1 as measured from the base of the beak to the root of the tail1 was fully #b inches longer than the rock-pigeon2 yet the tail itself was only #d inches in length1 whereas in the rock-pigeon1 which is a much smaller bird1 the tail is #d-e_/h inches in length4 ,the ,hinkel-or ,florentiner ,taube of ,neumeister 7,table #ac fig4 #a7 agrees with the above description in all the specified characters 7for the beak is not mentioned71 except that ,neumeister expressly says that the neck is short1 whereas in my ,scanderoon it was remarkably long and bowed2 so that the ,hinkel forms a well-marked variety4 ,sub-race ,,ii4 ,pigeon cygne and ,pigeon bagadais of ,boitard and ,corbi 7,scanderoon of ,french writers74--,i kept two of these birds alive1 imported from ,france4 ,they differed from the first sub-race or true ,scanderoon in the much greater length of the wing and tail1 in the beak not being so long1 and in the skin about the head being more carunculated4 ,the skin of the neck is red2 but the naked patches on the wings are absent4 ,one of my birds measured #ch inches from tip to tip of wing4 ,by taking the length of the body as the standard of comparison1 the two wings were no less than #e inches longer than those of the rock-pigeon6 ,the tail was #f inches in length1 and therefore #b inches longer than that of the ,scanderoon1--a bird of nearly the same size4 ,the beak is longer1 thicker1 and broader than in the rock-pigeon1 proportionally with the size of body4 ,the eyelids1 nostrils1 and internal gape of mouth are all proportionally very large1 as in ,carriers4 ,the foot1 from the end of the middle to end of hind toe1 was actually #bhe inches in length1 which is an excess of #cb of an inch over the foot of the rock-pigeon1 proportionally to the relative size of the two birds4 ,sub-race ,,iii4 ,spanish and ,roman ,runts4--,i am not sure that ,i am right in placing these ,runts in a distinct sub-race2 yet1 if we take well-characterised birds1 there can be no doubt of the propriety of the separation4 ,they are heavy1 massive birds1 with shorter necks1 legs1 and beaks than in the foregoing races4 ,the skin over the nostrils is swollen1 but not carunculated2 the naked skin round the eyes is not very wide1 and only slightly carunculated2 and ,i have seen a fine so-called ,spanish ,runt with hardly any naked skin round the eyes4 ,of the two varieties to be seen in ,england1 one1 which is the rarer1 has very long wings and tail1 and agrees pretty closely with the last sub-race2 the other1 with shorter wings and tail1 is apparently the ,pigeon romain ordinaire of ,boitard and ,corbi4 ,these ,runts are apt to tremble like ,fantails4 ,they are bad flyers4 ,a few years ago ,mr4 ,gulliver#aa exhibited a ,runt which weighed #a pound #ad ounces2 and1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 two ,runts from the south of ,france were lately exhibited at the ,crystal ,palace1 each of which weighed #b pounds #b ounces4 ,a very fine rock-pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands weighed only #ad ounces4 ,sub-race ,,iv4 ,tronfo of ,aldrovandi 7,leghorn ,runt874--,in ,aldrovandi's work published in #afjj there is a coarse woodcut of a great ,italian pigeon1 with an elevated tail1 short legs1 massive body1 and with the beak short and thick4 ,i had imagined that this latter character so abnormal in the group1 was merely a false representation from bad drawing2 but ,moore1 in his work published in #agce1 says that he possessed a ,leghorn ,runt of which 8the beak was very short for so large a bird40 ,in other respects ,moore's bird resembled the first sub-race or ,scanderoon1 for it had a long bowed neck1 long legs1 short beak1 and elevated tail1 and not much wattle about the head4 ,so that ,aldrovandi's and ,moore's birds must have formed distinct varieties1 both of which seem to be now extinct in ,europe4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 however1 informs me that he has seen in ,madras a short-beaked ,runt imported from ,cairo4 ,sub-race ,v4 ,murassa 7adorned ,pigeon7 of ,madras4--,skins of these handsome chequered birds were sent me from ,madras by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot4 ,they are rather larger than the largest rock-pigeon1 with longer and more massive beaks4 ,the skin over the nostrils is rather full and very slightly carunculated1 and they have some naked skin round the eyes2 feet large4 ,this breed is intermediate between the rock-pigeon and a very poor variety of ,runt or ,carrier4 ,from these several descriptions we see that with ,runts1 as with ,carriers1 we have a fine gradation from the rock-pigeon 7with the ,tronfo diverging as a distinct branch7 to our largest and most massive ,runts4 ,but the chain of affinities1 and many points of resemblance1 between ,runts and carriers1 make me believe that these two races have not descended by independent lines from the rock-pigeon1 but from some common parent1 as represented in the ,table1 which had already acquired a moderately long beak with slightly swollen skin over the nostrils1 and with some slightly carunculated naked skin round the eyes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj--;,english ,barb4 ,race ,,iv4--,barbs4 7,indische ,tauben2 pigeons polonais47 ,beak short1 broad1 deep2 naked skin round the eyes1 broad and carunculated2 skin over nostrils slightly swollen4 ,misled by the extraordinary shortness and form of the beak1 ,i did not at first perceive the near affinity of this ,race to that of ,carriers until the fact was pointed out to me by ,mr4 ,brent4 ,subsequently1 after examining the ,bussorah ,carrier1 ,i saw that no very great amount of modification would be requisite to convert it into a ,barb4 ,this view of the affinity of ,barbs to ,carriers is supported by the analogical difference between the short and long-beaked ,runts2 and still more strongly by the fact1 that1 young ,barbs and ,dragons1 within #bd hours after being hatched1 resemble each other much more closely than do young pigeons of other and equally distinct breeds4 ,at this early age1 the length of beak1 the swollen skin over the rather open nostrils1 the gape of the mouth1 and the size of the feet1 are the same in both2 although these parts afterwards become widely different4 ,we thus see that embryology 7as the comparison of very young animals may perhaps be called7 comes into play in the classification of domestic varieties1 as with species in a state of nature4 ,fanciers1 with some truth1 compare the head and beak of the ,barb to that of a bullfinch4 ,the ,barb1 if found in a state of nature would certainly have been placed in a new genus formed for its reception4 ,the body is a little larger than that of the rock-pigeon1 but the beak is more than #b of an inch shorter2 although shorter1 it is both vertically and horizontally thicker4 ,from the outward flexure of the rami of the lower jaw1 the mouth internally is very broad1 in the proportion of #f to #d to that of the rock-pigeon4 ,the whole head is broad4 ,the skin over the nostril is swollen1 but not carunculated1 except slightly in first-rate birds when old2 whilst the naked skin round the eye is broad and much carunculated4 ,it is sometimes so much developed1 that a bird belonging to ,mr4 ,harrison ,weir could hardly see to pick up food from the ground4 ,the eyelids in one specimen were nearly twice as long as those of the rock-pigeon4 ,the feet are coarse and strong1 but proportionally rather shorter than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the plumage is generally dark and uniform4 ,barbs1 in short1 may be called short-beaked ,carriers1 bearing the same relation to ,carriers that the ,tronfo of ,aldrovandi does to the common ,runt4 ,,group ,,iii4 ,this group is artificial1 and includes a heterogeneous collection of distinct forms4 ,it may be defined by the beak1 in well-characterised specimens of the several races1 being shorter than in the rock-pigeon1 and by the skin round the eyes not being much developed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba--;,english ,fantail4 ,race ,v4--,fantails4 ,sub-race ,i4 ,european ,fantails 7,pfauentauben2 trembleurs74 ,tail expanded1 directed upwards1 formed of many feathers2 oil-gland aborted2 body and beak rather short4 ,the normal number of tail-feathers in the genus ,columba is #ab2 but ,fantails have from only #ab 7as has been asserted7 up to1 according to ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi1 #db4 ,i have counted in one of my own birds #cc1 and at ,calcutta ,mr4 ,blyth#ab has counted in an imperfect tail #cd feathers4 ,in ,madras1 as ,i am informed by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 #cb is the standard number2 but in ,england number is much less valued than the position and expansion of the tail4 ,the feathers are arranged in an irregular double row2 their permanent fanlike expansion and their upward direction are more remarkable characters than their increased number4 ,the tail is capable of the same movements as in other pigeons1 and can be depressed so as to sweep the ground4 ,it arises from a more expanded basis than in other pigeons2 and in three skeletons there were one or two extra coccygeal vertebr4 ,i have examined many specimens of various colours from different countries1 and there was no trace of the oil-gland2 this is a curious case of abortion4#ac ,the neck is thin and bowed backwards4 ,the breast is broad and protuberant4 ,the feet are small4 ,the carriage of the bird is very different from that of other pigeons2 in good birds the head touches the tail-feathers1 which consequently often become crumpled4 ,they habitually tremble much3 and their necks have an extraordinary1 apparently convulsive1 backward and forward movement4 ,good birds walk in a singular manner1 as if their small feet were stiff4 ,owing to their large tails1 they fly badly on a windy day4 ,the dark-coloured varieties are generally larger than white ,fantails4 ,although between the best and common ,fantails1 now existing in ,england1 there is a vast difference in the position and size of the tail1 in the carriage of the head and neck1 in the convulsive movements of the neck1 in the manner of walking1 and in the breadth of the breast1 the differences so graduate away1 that it is impossible to make more than one sub-race4 ,moore1 however1 an excellent old authority#ad says1 that in #agce there were two sorts of broad-tailed shakers 7i4e4 ,fantails71 8one having a neck much longer and more slender than the other20 and ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent1 that there is an existing ,german ,fantail with a thicker and shorter beak4 ,sub-race ,,ii4 ,java ,fantail4--,mr4 ,swinhoe sent me from ,amoy1 in ,china1 the skin of a ,fantail belonging to a breed known to have been imported from ,java4 ,it was coloured in a peculiar manner1 unlike any ,european ,fantail2 and1 for a ,fantail1 had a remarkably short beak4 ,although a good bird of the kind1 it had only #ad tail-feathers2 but ,mr4 ,swinhoe has counted in other birds of this breed from #ah to #bd tail-feathers4 ,from a rough sketch sent to me1 it is evident that the tail is not so much expanded or so much upraised as in even second-rate ,european ,fantails4 ,the bird shakes its neck like our ,fantails4 ,it had a well-developed oil-gland4 ,fantails were known in ,india1 as ,we shall hereafter see1 before the year #afjj2 and we may suspect that in the ,java ,fantail we see the breed in its earlier and less improved condition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb--;,african ,owl4 ,race ,,vi4--,turbit and ,owl4 7,mventauben2 pigeons cravate47 ,feathers divergent along the front of the neck and breast2 beak very short1 vertically rather thick2 sophagus somewhat enlarged4 ,turbits and ,owls differ from each other slightly in the shape of the head2 the former have a crest1 and the beak is differently curved2 but they may be here conveniently grouped together4 ,these pretty birds1 some of which are very small1 can be recognised at once by the feathers irregularly diverging1 like a frill1 along the front of the neck1 in the same manner1 but in a less degree1 as along the back of the neck in the ,jacobin4 ,they have the remarkable habit of continually and momentarily inflating the upper part of the sophagus1 which causes a movement in the frill4 ,when the sophagus of a dead bird is inflated1 it is seen to be larger than in other breeds1 and not so distinctly separated from the crop4 ,the ,pouter inflates both its true crop and sophagus2 the ,turbit inflates in a much less degree the sophagus alone4 ,the beak of the ,turbit is very short1 being #bh of an inch shorter than that of the rock-pigeon1 proportionally with the size of their bodies2 and in some owls brought by ,mr4 ,e4 ,vernon ,harcourt from ,tunis1 it was even shorter4 ,the beak is vertically thicker1 and perhaps a little broader1 in proportion to that of the rock-pigeon4 ,race ,,vii4--,tumblers4 7,tmmler1 or ,burzeltauben2 culbutants47 ,during flight1 tumble backwards2 body generally small2 beak generally short1 sometimes excessively short and conical4 ,this race may be divided into four sub-races1 namely1 ,persian1 ,lotan1 ,common1 and short-faced ,tumblers4 ,these sub-races include many varieties which breed true4 ,i have examined eight skeletons of various kinds of ,tumblers3 excepting in one imperfect and doubtful specimen1 the ribs are only seven in number1 whereas the rock-pigeon has eight ribs4 ,sub-race ,i4 ,persian ,tumblers4--,i received a pair direct from ,persia1 from the ,hon4 ,c4 ,murray4 ,they are rather smaller birds than the wild rock-pigeon1 about the size of the common dovecot pigeon1 white and mottled1 slightly feathered on the feet1 with the beak just perceptibly shorter than in the rock-pigeon4 ,h4,m4 ,consul1 ,mr4 ,keith ,abbott1 informs me that the difference in the length of beak is so slight1 that only practised ,persian fanciers can distinguish these ,tumblers from the common pigeon of the country4 ,he informs me that they fly in flocks high up in the air and tumble well4 ,some of them occasionally appear to become giddy and tumble to the ground1 in which respect they resemble some of our ,tumblers4 ,sub-race ,,ii4 ,lotan1 or ,lowtun3 ,indian ,ground ,tumblers4--,these birds present one of the most remarkable inherited habits or instincts ever recorded4 ,the specimens sent to me from ,madras by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot are white1 slightly feathered on the feet1 with the feathers on the head reversed2 and they are rather smaller than the rock or dovecot pigeon4 ,the beak is proportionally only slightly shorter and rather thinner than in the rock-pigeon4 ,these birds when gently shaken and placed on the ground immediately begin tumbling head over heels1 and they continue thus to tumble until taken up and soothed1--the ceremony being generally to blow in their faces1 as in recovering a person from a state of hypnotism or mesmerism4 ,it is asserted that they will continue to roll over till they die1 if not taken up4 ,there is abundant evidence with respect to these remarkable peculiarities2 but what makes the case the more worthy of attention is1 that the habit has been inherited since before the year #afjj1 for the breed is distinctly described in the #8,ayeen ,akbery4'#ae ,mr4 ,evans kept a pair in ,london1 imported by ,captain ,vigne2 and he assures me that he has seen them tumble in the air1 as well as in the manner above described on the ground4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 however1 writes to me from ,madras1 that he is informed that they tumble exclusively on the ground1 or at a very small height above it4 ,he also mentions birds of another sub-variety1 called the ,kalmi ,lotan1 which begin to roll over if only touched on the neck with a rod or wand4 ,sub-race ,,iii4 ,common ,english ,tumblers4--,these birds have exactly the same habits as the ,persian ,tumbler1 but tumble better4 ,the ,english bird is rather smaller than the ,persian1 and the beak is plainly shorter4 ,compared with the rock-pigeon1 and proportionally with the size of body1 the beak is from #ae to nearly #b of an inch shorter1 but it is not thinner4 ,there are several varieties of the common ,tumbler1 namely1 ,baldheads1 ,beards1 and ,dutch ,rollers4 ,i have kept the latter alive2 they have differently shaped heads1 longer necks1 and are feather-footed4 ,they tumble to an extraordinary degree2 as ,mr4 ,brent remarks1#af 8,every few seconds over they go2 one1 two1 or three summersaults at a time4 ,here and there a bird gives a very quick and rapid spin1 revolving like a wheel1 though they sometimes lose their balance1 and make a rather ungraceful fall1 in which they occasionally hurt themselves by striking some object40 ,from ,madras ,i have received several specimens of the common ,tumbler of ,india1 differing slightly from each other in the length of their beaks4 ,mr4 ,brent sent me a dead specimen of a 8,house-tumbler10#ag which is a ,scotch variety1 not differing in general appearance and form of beak from the common ,tumbler4 ,mr4 ,brent states that these birds generally begin to tumble 8almost as soon as they can well fly2 at three months old they tumble well1 but still fly strong2 at five or six months they tumble excessively2 and in the second year they mostly give up flying1 on account of their tumbling so much and so close to the ground4 ,some fly round with the flock1 throwing a clean summersault every few yards1 till they are obliged to settle from giddiness and exhaustion4 ,these are called ,air ,tumblers1 and they commonly throw from twenty to thirty summersaults in a minute1 each clear and clean4 ,i have one red cock that ,i have on two or three occasions timed by my watch1 and counted forty summersaults in the minute4 ,others tumble differently4 ,at first they throw a single summersault1 then it is double1 till it becomes a continuous roll1 which puts an end to flying1 for if they fly a few yards over they go1 and roll till they reach the ground4 ,thus ,i had one kill herself1 and another broke his leg4 ,many of them turn over only a few inches from the ground1 and will tumble two or three times in flying across their loft4 ,these are called ,house-tumblers1 from tumbling in the house4 ,the act of tumbling seems to be one over which they have no control1 an involuntary movement which they seem to try to prevent4 ,i have seen a bird sometimes in his struggles fly a yard or two straight upwards1 the impulse forcing him backwards while he struggles to go forwards4 ,if suddenly startled1 or in a strange place1 they seem less able to fly than if quiet in their accustomed loft40 ,these ,house-tumblers differ from the ,lotan or ,ground ,tumbler of ,india1 in not requiring to be shaken in order to begin tumbling4 ,the breed has probably been formed merely by selecting the best common ,tumblers1 though it is possible that they may have been crossed at some former period with ,lotans4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc--,short-faced ,english ,tumbler4 ,sub-race ,,iv4 ,short-faced ,tumblers4--,these are marvellous birds1 and are the glory and pride of many fanciers4 ,in their extremely short1 sharp1 and conical beaks1 with the skin over the nostrils but little developed1 they almost depart from the type of the ,columbid4 ,their heads are nearly globular and upright in front1 so that some fanciers say#ah 8the head should resemble a cherry with a barleycorn stuck in it40 ,these are the smallest kind of pigeons4 ,mr4 ,esquilant possessed a blue ,baldhead1 two years old1 which when alive weighed1 before feeding-time1 only #f ounces #e drs42 two others1 each weighed #g ounces4 ,we have seen that a wild rock-pigeon weighed #ad ounces #b drs41 and a ,runt #cd ounces #d drs4 ,short-faced ,tumblers have a remarkably erect carriage1 with prominent breasts1 drooping wings1 and very small feet4 ,the length of the beak from the tip to the feathered base was in one good bird only #d of an inch2 in a wild rock-pigeon it was exactly double this length4 ,as these ,tumblers have shorter bodies than the wild rock-pigeon1 they ought of course to have shorter beaks2 but proportionally with the size of the body1 the beak is #bh of an inch too short4 ,so1 again1 the feet of this bird were actually #de shorter1 and proportionally #ba of an inch shorter1 than the feet of the rock-pigeon4 ,the middle toe has only twelve or thirteen1 instead of fourteen or fifteen scutell4 ,the primary wing-feathers are not rarely nine instead of ten in number4 ,the improved short-faced ,tumblers have almost lost the power of tumbling2 but there are several authentic accounts of their occasionally tumbling4 ,there are several sub-varieties1 such as ,bald-heads1 ,beards1 ,mottles1 and ,almonds2 the latter are remarkable from not acquiring their perfectly-coloured plumage until they have moulted three or four times4 ,there is good reason to believe that most of these sub-varieties1 some of which breed truly1 have arisen since the publication of ,moore's treatise in #agce4ai ,finally1 in regard to the whole group of ,tumblers1 it is impossible to conceive a more perfect gradation than ,i have now lying before me1 from the rock-pigeon1 through ,persian1 ,lotan1 and common ,tumblers1 up to the marvellous short-faced birds2 which latter1 no ornithologist1 judging from mere external structure1 would place in the same genus with the rock-pigeon4 ,the differences between the successive steps in this series are not greater than those which may be observed between common dovecot-pigeons 7,c4 livia7 brought from different countries4 ,race ,,viii4--,indian ,frill-back4 ,beak very short2 feathers reversed4 ,a specimen of this bird1 in spirits1 was sent to me from ,madras by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot4 ,it is wholly different from the ,frill-back often exhibited in ,england4 ,it is a smallish bird1 about the size of the common ,tumbler1 but has a beak in all its proportions like our short-faced ,tumblers4 ,the beak1 measured from the tip to the feathered base1 was only #df of an inch in length4 ,the feathers over the whole body are reversed or curl backwards4 ,had this bird occurred in ,europe1 ,i should have thought it only a monstrous variety of our improved ,tumbler3 but as short-faced ,tumblers are not known in ,india1 ,i think it must rank as a distinct breed4 ,probably this is the breed seen by ,hasselquist in #ageg at ,cairo1 and said to have been imported from ,india4 ,race ,,ix4--,jacobin4 7,zopf-or ,perrckentaube2 nonnain47 ,feathers of the neck forming a hood2 wings and tail long2 beak moderately short4 ,this pigeon can at once be recognised by its hood1 almost enclosing the head and meeting in front of the neck4 ,the hood seems to be merely an exaggeration of the crest of reversed feathers on the back of the head1 which is common to many sub-varieties1 and which in the ,latztaube#bj is in a nearly intermediate state between a hood and a crest4 ,the feathers of the hood are elongated4 ,both the wings and tail are likewise much elongated2 thus the folded wing of the ,jacobin1 though a somewhat smaller bird1 is fully #a inch longer than in the rock-pigeon4 ,taking the length of the body without the tail as the standard of comparison1 the folded wing1 proportionally with the wings of the rock-pigeon1 is #b inches too long1 and the two wings1 from tip to tip1 #e inches too long4 ,in disposition this bird is singularly quiet1 seldom flying or moving about1 as ,bechstein and ,riedel have likewise remarked in ,germany4#ba ,the latter author also notices the length of the wings and tail4 ,the beak is nearly #b of an inch shorter in proportion to the size of the body than in the rock-pigeon2 but the internal gape of the mouth is considerably wider4 ,,group ,,iv4 ,the birds of this group may be characterised by their resemblance in all important points of structure1 especially in the beak1 to the rock-pigeon4 ,the ,trumpeter forms the only well-marked race4 ,of the numerous other sub-races and varieties ,i shall specify only a few of the most distinct1 which ,i have myself seen and kept alive4 ,race ,x4--,trumpeter4 7,trommeltaube2 pigeon tambour1 glouglou47 ,a tuft of feathers at the base of the beak curling forward2 feet much feathered2 voice very peculiar2 size exceeding that of the rock-pigeon4 ,this is a well-marked breed1 with a peculiar voice1 wholly unlike that of any other pigeon4 ,the coo is rapidly repeated1 and is continued for several minutes2 hence their name of ,trumpeters4 ,they are also characterised by a tuft of elongated feathers1 which curls forward over the base of the beak1 and which is possessed by no other breed4 ,their feet are so heavily feathered1 that they almost appear like little wings4 ,they are larger birds than the rock-pigeon1 but their beak is of very nearly the same proportional size4 ,their feet are rather small4 ,this breed was perfectly characterised in ,moore's time1 in #agce4 ,mr4 ,brent says that two varieties exist1 which differ in size4 ,race ,,xi4--,scarcely differing in structure from the wild ,columba livia4 ,sub-race ,i4 ,laughers4--,size less than the ,rock-pigeon2 voice very peculiar4--,as this bird agrees in nearly all its proportions with the rock-pigeon1 though of smaller size1 ,i should not have thought it worthy of mention1 had it not been for its peculiar voice--a character supposed seldom to vary with birds4 ,although the voice of the ,laugher is very different from that of the ,trumpeter1 yet one of my ,trumpeters used to utter a single note like that of the ,laugher4 ,i have kept two varieties of ,laughers1 which differed only in one variety being turn-crowned2 the smooth-headed kind1 for which ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,mr4 ,brent1 besides its peculiar note1 used to coo in a singular and pleasing manner1 which1 independently1 struck both ,mr4 ,brent and myself as resembling that of the turtle-dove4 ,both varieties come from ,arabia4 ,this breed was known by ,moore in #agce4 ,a pigeon which seems to say ,yak-roo is mentioned in #afjj in the #8,ayeen ,akbery' and is probably the same breed4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot has also sent me from ,madras a pigeon called ,yahui1 said to have come from ,mecca1 which does not differ in appearance from the ,laugher2 it has 8a deep melancholy voice1 like ,yahu1 often repeated40 ,yahu1 yahu1 means ,oh ,god1 oh ,god2 and ,sayzid ,mohammed ,musari1 in the treatise written about #ajj years ago1 says that these birds 8are not flown1 because they repeat the name of the most high ,god40 ,mr4 ,keith ,abbott1 however1 informs me that the common pigeon is called ,yahoo in ,persia4 ,sub-race ,,ii4 ,common ,frill-back 7die ,strupptaube74--,beak rather longer than in the rock-pigeon2 feathers reversed4--,this is a considerably larger bird than the rock-pigeon1 and with the beak1 proportionally with the size of body1 a little 7viz4 by #jd of an inch7 longer4 ,the feathers1 especially on the wing-coverts1 have their points curled upwards or back-wards4 ,sub-race ,,iii4 ,nuns 7,pigeons coquilles74--,these elegant birds are smaller than the rock-pigeon4 ,the beak is actually #ag1 and proportionally with the size of the body #a of an inch shorter than in the rock-pigeons1 although of the same thickness4 ,in young birds the scutell on the tarsi and toes are generally of a leaden-black colour2 and this is a remarkable character 7though observed in a lesser degree in some other breeds71 as the colour of the legs in the adult state is subject to very little variation in any breed4 ,i have on two or three occasions counted thirteen or fourteen feathers in the tail2 this likewise occurs in the barely distinct breed called ,helmets4 ,nuns are symmetrically coloured1 with the head1 primary wing-feathers1 tail1 and tail-coverts of the same colour1 namely1 black or red1 and with the rest of the body white4 ,this breed has retained the same character since ,aldrovandi wrote in #afjj4 ,i have received from ,madras almost similarly coloured birds4 ,sub-race ,,iv4 ,spots 7die ,blasstauben2 pigeons heurts74--,these birds are a very little larger than the rock-pigeon1 with the beak a trace smaller in all its dimensions1 and with the feet decidedly smaller4 ,they are symmetrically coloured1 with a spot on the forehead1 with the tail and tail-coverts of the same colour1 the rest of the body being white4 ,this breed existed in #afgf2bb and in #agce ,moore remarks that they breed truly1 as is the case at the present day4 ,sub-race ,v4 ,swallows4--,these birds1 as measured from tip to tip of wing1 or from the end of the beak to the end of the tail1 exceed in size the rock-pigeon2 but their bodies are much less bulky2 their feet and legs are likewise smaller4 ,the beak is of about the same length1 but rather slighter4 ,altogether their general appearance is considerably different from that of the rock-pigeon4 ,their heads and wings are of the same colour1 the rest of the body being white4 ,their flight is said to be peculiar4 ,this seems to be a modern breed1 which1 however1 originated before the year #agie in ,germany1 for it is described by ,bechstein4 ,besides the several breeds now described1 three or four other very distinct kinds existed lately1 or perhaps still exist1 in ,germany and ,france4 ,firstly1 the ,karmeliten1 or carme pigeon1 which ,i have not seen2 it is described as of small size1 with very short legs1 and with an extremely short beak4 ,secondly1 the ,finnikin1 which is now extinct in ,england4 ,it had1 according to ,moore's#bc treatise1 published in #agce1 a tuft of feathers on the hinder part of the head1 which ran down its back not unlike a horse's mane4 8,when it is salacious it rises over the hen and turns round three or four times1 flapping its wings1 then reverses and turns as many times the other way40 ,the ,turner1 on the other hand1 when it 8plays to the female1 turns only one way40 ,whether these extraordinary statements may be trusted ,i know not2 but the inheritance of any habit may be believed1 after what we have seen with respect to the ,ground-tumbler of ,india4 ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi describe a pigeon#bd which has the singular habit of sailing for a considerable time through the air1 without flapping its wings1 like a bird of prey4 ,the confusion is inextricable1 from the time of ,aldrovandi in #afjj to the present day1 in the accounts published of the ,draijers1 ,smiters1 ,finnikins1 ,turners1 ,claquers1 etc41 which are all remarkable from their manner of flight4 ,mr4 ,brent informs me that he has seen one of these breeds in ,germany with its wing-feathers injured from having been so often struck together but he did not see it flying4 ,an old stuffed specimen of a ,finnikin in the ,british ,museum presents no well-marked character4 ,thirdly1 a singular pigeon with a forked tail is mentioned in some treatises2 and as ,bechstein#be briefly describes and figures this bird1 with a tail 8having completely the structure of that of the house-swallow10 it must once have existed1 for ,bechstein was far too good a naturalist to have confounded any distinct species with the domestic pigeon4 ,lastly1 an extraordinary pigeon imported from ,belgium has lately been exhibited at the ,philoperisteron ,society in ,london1#bf which 8conjoins the colour of an archangel with the head of an owl or barb1 its most striking peculiarity being the extraordinary length of the tail and wing-feathers1 the latter crossing beyond the tail1 and giving to the bird the appearance of a gigantic swift 7,cypselus71 or long-winged hawk40 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that this bird weighed only #aj ounces1 but in length was #ae inches from tip to beak to end of tail1 and #cb inches from tip to tip of wing2 now the wild rock-pigeon weighs #ad ounces1 and measures from tip to beak to end of tail #ae inches1 and from tip to tip of wing only #bf inches4 ,i have now described all the domestic pigeons known to me1 and have added a few others on reliable authority4 ,i have classed them under four ,groups1 in order to mark their affinities and degrees of difference2 but the third group is artificial4 ,the kinds examined by me form eleven races1 which include several sub-races2 and even these latter present differences that would certainly have been thought of specific value if observed in a state of nature4 ,the sub-races likewise include many strictly inherited varieties2 so that altogether there must exist1 as previously remarked1 above #aej kinds which can be distinguished1 though generally by characters of extremely slight importance4 ,many of the genera of the ,columbid1 admitted by ornithologists1 do not differ in any great degree from each other2 taking this into consideration1 there can be no doubt that several of the most strongly characterised domestic forms1 if found wild1 would have been placed in at least five new genera4 ,thus a new genus would have been formed for the reception of the improved ,english ,pouter3 a second genus for ,carriers and ,runts2 and this would have been a wide or comprehensive genus1 for it would have admitted common ,spanish ,runts without any wattle1 short-beaked ,runts like the ,tronfo1 and the improved ,english ,carrier3 a third genus would have been formed for the ,barb3 a fourth for the ,fantail3 and lastly1 a fifth for the short beaked1 not-wattled pigeons1 such as ,turbits and short-faced ,tumblers4 ,the remaining domestic forms might have been included1 in the same genus with the wild rock-pigeon4 ,individual ,variability2 variations of a remarkable nature4 ,the differences which we have as yet considered are characteristic of distinct breeds2 but there are other differences1 either confined to individual birds1 or often observed in certain breeds but not characteristic of them4 ,these individual differences are of importance1 as they might in most cases be secured and accumulated by man's power of selection and thus an existing breed might be greatly modified or a new one formed4 ,fanciers notice and select only those slight differences which are externally visible2 but the whole organisation is so tied together by correlation of growth1 that a change in one part is frequently accompanied by other changes4 ,for our purpose1 modifications of all kinds are equally important1 and if affecting a part which does not commonly vary1 are of more importance than a modification in some conspicuous part4 ,at the present day any visible deviation of character in a well-established breed is rejected as a blemish2 but it by no means follows that at an early period1 before well-marked breeds had been formed1 such deviations would have been rejected2 on the contrary1 they would have been eagerly preserved as presenting a novelty1 and would then have been slowly augmented1 as we shall hereafter more clearly see1 by the process of unconscious selection4 ,i have made numerous measurements of the various parts of the body in the several breeds1 and have hardly ever found them quite the same in birds of the same breed1--the differences being greater than we commonly meet with in wild species within the same district4 ,to begin with the primary feathers of the wing and tail2 but ,i must first mention1 as some readers may not be aware of the fact1 that the number of the primary wing and tail-feathers in wild birds is generally constant1 and characterises1 not only whole genera1 but even whole families4 ,when the tail-feathers are unusually numerous1 as for instance in the swan1 they are apt to be variable in number2 but this does not apply to the several species and genera of the ,columbid1 which never 7as far as ,i can hear7 have less than twelve or more than sixteen tail-feathers2 and these numbers characterise1 with rare exception1 whole sub-families4#bg ,the wild rock-pigeon has twelve tail-feathers4 ,with ,fantails1 as we have seen1 the number varies from fourteen to forty-two4 ,in two young birds in the same nest ,i counted twenty-two and twenty-seven feathers4 ,pouters are very liable to have additional tail-feathers1 and ,i have seen on several occasions fourteen or fifteen in my own birds4 ,mr4 ,bult had a specimen1 examined by ,mr4 ,yarrell1 with seventeen tail-feathers4 ,i had a ,nun with thirteen1 and another with fourteen tail-feathers2 and in a ,helmet1 a breed barely distinguishable from the ,nun1 ,i have counted fifteen1 and have heard of other such instances4 ,on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,brent possessed a ,dragon1 which during its whole life never had more than ten tail-feathers2 and one of my ,dragons1 descended from ,mr4 ,brent's1 had only eleven4 ,i have seen a ,bald-head ,tumbler with only ten2 and ,mr4 ,brent had an ,air-,tumbler with the same number1 but another with fourteen tail-feathers4 ,two of these latter ,tumblers1 bred by ,mr4 ,brent1 were remarkable1--one from having the two central tail-feathers a little divergent1 and the other from having the two outer feathers longer by three-eighths of an inch than the others2 so that in both cases the tail exhibited a tendency1 but in different ways1 to become forked4 ,and this shows us how a swallow-tailed breed1 like that described by ,bechstein1 might have been formed by careful selection4 ,with respect to the primary wing-feathers1 the number in the ,columbid1 as far as ,i can find out1 is always nine or ten4 ,in the rock-pigeon it is ten2 but ,i have seen no less than eight short-faced ,tumblers with only nine primaries1 and the occurrence of this number has been noticed by fanciers1 owing to ten primaries of a white colour being one of the points in ,short-faced ,bald-head-,tumblers4 ,mr4 ,brent1 however1 had an ,air-,tumbler 7not short-faced7 which had in both wings eleven primaries4 ,mr4 ,corker1 the eminent breeder of prize ,carriers1 assures me that some of his birds had eleven primaries in both wings4 ,i have seen eleven in one wing in two ,pouters4 ,i have been assured by three fanciers that they have seen twelve in ,scanderoons2 but as ,neumeister asserts that in the allied ,florence ,runt the middle flight-feather is often double1 the number twelve may have been caused by two of the ten primaries having each two shafts to a single feather4 ,the secondary wing-feathers are difficult to count1 but the number seems to vary from twelve to fifteen4 ,the length of the wing and tail relatively to the body1 and of the wings to the tail1 certainly varies2 ,i have especially noticed this in ,jacobins4 ,in ,mr4 ,bult's magnificent collection of ,pouters1 the wings and tail varied greatly in length2 and were sometimes so much elongated that the birds could hardly play upright4 ,in the relative length of the few first primaries ,i have observed only a slight degree of variability4 ,mr4 ,brent informs me that he has observed the shape of the first feather to vary very slightly4 ,but the variation in these latter points is extremely slight compared with the differences which may be observed in the natural species of the ,columbid4 ,in the beak ,i have seen very considerable differences in birds of the same breed1 as in carefully bred ,jacobins and ,trumpeters4 ,in ,carriers there is often a conspicuous difference in the degree of attenuation and curvature of the beak4 ,so it is indeed in many breeds3 thus ,i had two strains of black ,barbs1 which evidently differed in the curvature of the upper mandible4 ,in width of mouth ,i have found a great difference in two ,swallows4 ,in ,fantails of first-rate merit ,i have seen some birds with much longer and thinner necks than in others4 ,other analogous facts could be given4 ,we have seen that the oil-gland is aborted in all ,fantails 7with the exception of the sub-race from ,java71 and1 ,i may add1 so hereditary is this tendency to abortion1 that some1 although not all1 of the mongrels which ,i reared from the ,fantail and ,pouter had no oil-gland2 in one ,swallow out of many which ,i have examined1 and in two ,nuns1 there was no oil-gland4 ,the number of the scutell on the toes often varies in the same breed1 and sometimes even differs on the two feet of the same individual2 the ,shetland rock-pigeon has fifteen on the middle1 and six on the hinder toe2 whereas ,i have seen a ,runt with sixteen on the middle and eight on the hind toe2 and a short-faced ,tumbler with only twelve and five on these same toes4 ,the rock-pigeon has no sensible amount of skin between its toes2 but ,i possessed a ,spot and a ,nun with the skin extending for a space of a quarter of an inch from the fork1 between the two inner toes4 ,on the other hand1 as will hereafter be more fully shown1 pigeons with feathered feet very generally have the bases of their outer toes connected by skin4 ,i had a red ,tumbler1 which had a coo unlike that of its fellows1 approaching in tone to that of the ,laugher3 this bird had the habit1 to a degree which ,i never saw equalled in any other pigeon1 of often walking with its wings raised and arched in an elegant-manner4 ,i need say nothing on the great variability1 in almost every breed1 in size of body1 in colour1 in the feathering of the feet1 and in the feathers on the back of the head being reversed4 ,but ,i may mention a remarkable ,tumbler#bh exhibited at the ,crystal ,palace1 which had an irregular crest of feathers on its head1 somewhat like the tuft on the head of the ,polish fowl4 ,mr4 ,bult reared a hen ,jacobin with the feathers on the thigh so long as to reach the ground1 and a cock having1 but in a lesser degree1 the same peculiarity3 from these two birds he bred others similarly characterised1 which were exhibited at the ,philoperisteron ,soc4 ,i bred a mongrel pigeon which had fibrous feathers1 and the wing and tail-feathers so short and imperfect that the bird could not fly even a foot in height4 ,there are many singular and inherited peculiarities in the plumage of pigeons3 thus ,almond-,tumblers do not acquire their perfect mottled feathers until they have moulted three or four times3 the ,kite ,tumbler is at first brindled black and red with a barred appearance1 but when 8it throws its nest feathers it becomes almost black1 generally with a bluish tail1 and a reddish colour on the inner webs of the primary wing-feathers40#bi ,neumeister describes a breed of a black colour with white bars on the wing and a white crescent-shaped mark on the breast2 these marks are generally rusty-red before the first moult1 but after the third or fourth moult they undergo a change2 the wing-feathers and the crown of the head likewise then become white or grey4#cj ,it is an important fact1 and ,i believe there is hardly an exception to the rule1 that the especial characters for which each breed is valued are eminently variable3 thus1 in the ,fantail1 the number and direction of the tail-feathers1 the carriage of the body1 and the degree of trembling are all highly variable points2 in ,pouters1 the degree to which they pout1 and the shape of their inflated crops2 in the ,carrier1 the length1 narrowness1 and curvature of the beak1 and the amount of wattle2 in ,short-faced ,tumblers1 the shortness of the beak1 the prominence of the forehead1 and general carriage1#ca and in the ,almond-,tumbler the colour of the plumage2 in common ,tumblers1 the manner of tumbling2 in the ,barb1 the breadth and shortness of the beak and the amount of eye-wattle2 in ,runts1 the size of body2 in ,turbits the frill2 and lastly in ,trumpeters1 the cooing1 as well as the size of the tuft of feathers over the nostrils4 ,these1 which are the distinctive and selected characters of the several breeds1 are all eminently variable4 ,there is another interesting fact with respect to the characters of the several breeds1 namely1 that they are often most strongly displayed in the male bird4 ,in ,carriers1 when the males and females are exhibited in separate pens1 the wattle is plainly seen to be much more developed in the males1 though ,i have seen a hen ,carrier belonging to ,mr4 ,haynes heavily wattled4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that1 in twenty ,barbs in ,mr4 ,p4 ,h4 ,jones's possession1 the males had generally the largest eye-wattles2 ,mr4 ,esquilant also believes in this rule1 but ,mr4 ,h4 ,weir1 a first-rate judge1 entertains some doubt on the subject4 ,male ,pouters distend their crops to a much greater size than do the females2 ,i have1 however1 seen a hen in the possession of ,mr4 ,evans which pouted excellently2 but this is an unusual circumstance4 ,mr4 ,harrison ,weir1 a successful breeder of prize ,fantails1 informs me that his male birds often have a greater number of tail-feathers than the females4 ,mr4 ,eaton asserts#cb that if a cock and hen ,tumbler were of equal merit1 the hen would be worth double the money2 and as pigeons always pair1 so that an equal number of both sexes is necessary for reproduction1 this seems to show that high merit is rarer in the female than in the male4 ,in the development of the frill in ,turbits1 of the hood in ,jacobins1 of the tuft in ,trumpeters1 of tumbling in ,tumblers1 there is no difference between the males and females4 ,i may here add a rather different case1 namely1 the existence in ,france#cc of a wine-coloured variety of the ,pouter1 in which the male is generally chequered with black1 whilst the female is never so chequered4 ,dr4 ,chapuis also remarks#cd that in certain light-coloured pigeons the males have their feathers striated with black1 and these stri increase in size at each moult1 so that the male ultimately becomes spotted with black4 ,with ,carriers1 the wattle1 both on the beak and round the eyes1 and with ,barbs that round the eyes1 goes on increasing with age4 ,this augmentation of character with advancing age1 and more especially the difference between the males and females in the above-mentioned several respects1 are remarkable facts1 for there is no sensible difference at any age between the two sexes in the aboriginal rock-pigeon2 and not often any strongly marked difference throughout the family of the ,columbid4#ce ,osteological ,characters4 ,in the skeletons of the various breeds there is much variability2 and though certain differences occur frequently1 and others rarely1 in certain breeds1 yet none can be said to be absolutely characteristic of any breed4 ,considering that strongly-marked domestic races have been formed chiefly by man's selection1 we ought not to expect to find great and constant differences in the skeleton2 for fanciers neither see1 nor do they care for1 modifications of structure in the internal framework4 ,nor ought we to expect changes in the skeletons from changed habits of life2 as every facility is given to the most distinct breeds to follow the same habits1 and the much modified races are never allowed to wander abroad and procure their own food in various ways4 ,moreover1 ,i find1 on comparing the skeletons of ,columba livia1 oenas1 palumbus1 and turtur1 which are ranked by all systematists in two or three distinct though allied genera1 that the differences are extremely slight1 certainly less than between the skeletons of some of the most distinct domestic breeds4 ,how far the skeleton of the wild rock-pigeon is constant ,i have had no means of judging1 as ,i have examined only two4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd--,skulls of ,pigeons1 viewed laterally4 ,skull4--,the individual bones1 especially those at the base1 do not differ in shape4 ,but the whole skull1 in its proportions1 outline1 and relative direction of the bones1 differs greatly in some of the breeds1 as may be seen by comparing the figures of 7,a7 the wild rock-pigeon1 7,b7 the ,short-faced ,tumbler1 7,c7 the ,english ,carrier1 and 7,d7 the ,bagadotten ,carrier 7of ,neumeister71 all drawn of the natural size and viewed laterally4 ,in the ,carrier1 besides the elongation of the bones of the face1 the space between the orbits is proportionally a little narrower than in the rock-pigeon4 ,in the ,bagadotten the upper mandible is remarkably arched1 and the premaxillary bones are proportionally broader4 ,in the ,short-faced ,tumbler the skull is more globular3 all the bones of the face are much shortened1 and the front of the skull and descending nasal bones are almost perpendicular3 the maxillo-jugal arch and premaxillary bones form an almost straight line2 the space between the prominent edges of the eye-orbits is depressed4 ,in the ,barb the premaxillary bones are much shortened1 and their anterior portion is thicker than in the rock-pigeon1 as is the lower part of the nasal bone4 ,in two ,nuns the ascending branches of the premaxillaries1 near their tips1 were somewhat attenuated1 and in these birds1 as well as in some others1 for instance in the ,spot1 the occipital crest over the foramen was considerably more prominent than in the rock-pigeon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be--,lower jaws1 seen from above4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf--,skull of ,runt4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg--,lateral view of jaws4 ,in the lower jaw1 the articular surface is proportionably smaller in many breeds than in the rock-pigeon2 and the vertical diameter1 more especially of the outer part of the articular surface1 is considerably shorter4 ,may not this be accounted for by the lessened use of the jaws1 owing to nutritious food having been given during a long period to all highly improved pigeons8 ,in ,runts1 ,carriers1 and ,barbs 7and in a lesser degree in several breeds71 the whole side of the jaw near the articular end is bent inwards in a highly remarkable manner2 and the superior margin of the ramus1 beyond the middle1 is reflexed in an equally remarkable manner1 as may be seen in fig4 #be1 in comparison with the jaw of the rock-pigeon4 ,this reflection of the upper margin of the lower jaw is plainly connected with the singularly wide gape of the mouth1 as has been described in ,runts1 ,carriers1 and ,barbs4 ,the reflection is well shown in fig4 #bf of the head of a ,runt seen from above2 here a wide open space may be observed on each side1 between the edges of the lower jaw and of the premaxillary bones4 ,in the rock-pigeon1 and in several domestic breeds1 the edges of the lower jaw on each side come close up to the premaxillary bones1 so that no open space is left4 ,the degree of downward curvature of the distal half of the lower jaw also differs to an extraordinary degree in some breeds1 as may be seen in the drawings 7fig4 #bg ,a7 of the rock-pigeon1 7,b7 of the ,short-faced ,tumbler1 and 7,c7 of the ,bagadotten ,carrier of ,neumeister4 ,in some ,runts the symphysis of the lower jaw is remarkably solid4 ,no one would readily have believed that jaws differing in the several above-specified points so greatly could have belonged to the same species4 ,vertebr4--,all the breeds have twelve cervical vertebr4#cf ,but in a ,bussorah ,carrier from ,india the twelfth vertebra carried a small rib1 a quarter of an inch in length1 with a perfect double articulation4 ,the dorsal vertebr are always eight4 ,in the rock-pigeon all eight bear ribs2 the eighth rib being very thin1 and the seventh having no process4 ,in ,pouters all the ribs are extremely broad1 eight bear ribs2 the eighth rib being very thin and the seventh having no process4 ,in ,pouters all the ribs are extremely broad1 and1 in three out of four skeletons examined by me1 the eighth rib was twice or even thrice as broad as in the rock-pigeon2 and the seventh pair had distinct processes4 ,in many breeds there are only seven ribs1 as in seven out of eight skeletons of various ,tumblers1 and in several skeletons of ,fantails1 ,turbits and ,nuns4 ,in all these breeds the seventh pair was very small1 and was destitute of processes1 in which respect it differed from the same rib in the rock-pigeon4 ,in one ,tumbler1 and in the ,bussorah ,carrier1 even the sixth pair had no process4 ,the hypapophysis of the second dorsal vertebra varies much in development2 being sometimes 7as in several1 but not all ,tumblers7 nearly as prominent as that of the third dorsal vertebra2 and the two hypapophyses together tend to form an ossified arch4 ,the development of the arch1 formed by the hypapophyses of the third and fourth dorsal vertebr1 also varies considerably1 as does the size of the hypapophysis of the fifth vertebra4 ,the rock-pigeon has twelve sacral vertebr2 but these vary in number1 relative size1 and distinctness1 in the different breeds4 ,in ,pouters1 with their elongated bodies1 there are thirteen or even fourteen1 and1 as we shall immediately see1 an additional number of caudal vertebr4 ,in ,runts and ,carriers there is generally the proper number1 namely twelve2 but in one ,runt1 and in the ,bussorah ,carrier1 there were only eleven4 ,in ,tumblers there are either eleven1 or twelve1 or thirteen sacral vertebr4 ,the caudal vertebr are seven in number in the rock-pigeon4 ,in ,fantails1 which have their tails so largely developed1 there are eight or nine1 and apparently in one case ten1 and they are a little longer than in the rock-pigeon1 and their shape varies considerably4 ,pouters1 also1 have eight or nine caudal vertebr4 ,i have seen eight in a ,nun and ,jacobin4 ,tumblers1 though such small birds1 always have the normal number seven2 as have ,carriers1 with one exception1 in which there were only six4 ,the following table will serve as a summary1 and will show the most remarkable deviations in the number of the vertebra and ribs which ,i have observed3-- ,rock ,pigeon4 ,pouter1 from ,mr4 ,bult4 ,tumbler1 ,dutch ,roller4 ,bussorah ,carrier4 ,cervical ,vertebr #ab #ab #ab #ab ,the #abth bore a small rib4 ,dorsal ,vertebr #h #h #h #h ,dorsal ,ribs #h ,the #fth pair with processes1 the #gth pair without a process4 #h ,the #fth and #gth pair with processes4 #g ,the #fth and #gth pair without processes4 #g ,the #fth and #gth pair without processes4 ,sacral ,vertebr #ab #ad #aa #aa ,caudal ,vertebr #g #h or #i #g #g ,total ,vertebr #ci #db or #dc #ch #ch ,the pelvis differs very little in any breed4 ,the anterior margin of the ilium1 however1 is sometimes a little more equally rounded on both sides than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the ischium is also frequently rather more elongated4 ,the obturator-notch is sometimes1 as in many ,tumblers1 less developed than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the ridges on the ilium are very prominent in most ,runts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh--,scapul of ,pigeons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi--;,furcula of ,pigeons4 ,in the bones of the extremities ,i could detect no difference1 except in their proportional lengths2 for instance1 the metatarsus in a ,pouter was #afe inch1 and in a ,short-faced ,tumbler only #ie in length2 and this is a greater difference than would naturally follow from their differently-sized bodies2 but long legs in the ,pouter1 and small feet in the ,tumbler1 are selected points4 ,in some ,pouters the scapula is rather straighter1 and in some ,tumblers it is straighter1 with the apex less elongated1 than in the rock-pigeon3 in fig4 #bh1 the scapula of the rock-pigeon 7,a71 and of a short-faced ,tumbler 7,b71 are given4 ,the processes at the summit of the coracoid1 which receive the extremities of the furculum1 form a more perfect cavity in some ,tumblers than in the rock-pigeon3 in ,pouters these processes are larger and differently shaped1 and the exterior angle of the extremity of the coracoid1 which is articulated to the sternum1 is squarer4 ,the two arms of the furculum in ,pouters diverge less1 proportionally to their length1 than in the rock-pigeon2 and the symphysis is more solid and pointed4 ,in ,fantails the degree of divergence of the two arms varies in a remarkable manner4 ,in fig4 #bi1 ,b and ,c represent the furcula of two ,fantails2 and it will be seen that the divergence in ,b is rather less even than in the furculum of the short-faced1 small-sized ,tumbler 7,a71 whereas the divergence in ,c equals that in a rock-pigeon1 or in the ,pouter 7,d71 though the latter is a much larger bird4 ,the extremities of the furculum1 where articulated to the coracoids1 vary considerably in outline4 ,in the sternum the differences in form are slight1 except in the size and outline of the perforations1 which1 both in the larger and lesser sized breeds1 are sometimes small4 ,these perforations1 also1 are sometimes either nearly circular1 or elongated as is often the case with ,carriers4 ,the posterior perforations occasionally are not complete1 being left open posteriorly4 ,the marginal apophyses forming the anterior perforations vary greatly in development4 ,the degree of convexity of the posterior part of the sternum differs much1 being sometimes almost perfectly flat4 ,the manubrium is rather more prominent in some individuals than in others1 and the pore immediately under it varies greatly in size4 ,correlation of ,growth4--,by this term ,i mean that the whole organisation is so connected1 that when one part varies1 other parts vary2 but which of two correlated variations ought to be looked at as the cause and which as the effect1 or whether both result from some common cause1 we can seldom or never tell4 ,the point of interest for us is that1 when fanciers1 by the continued selection of slight variations1 have largely modified one part1 they often unintentionally produce other modifications4 ,for instance1 the beak is readily acted on by selection1 and1 with its increased or diminished length1 the tongue increases or diminishes1 but not in due proportion2 for1 in a ,barb and ,short-faced ,tumbler1 both of which have very short beaks1 the tongue1 taking the rock-pigeon as the standard of comparison1 was proportionally not shortened enough1 whilst in two ,carriers and in a ,runt the tongue1 proportionally with the beak1 was not lengthened enough1 thus1 in a first-rate ,english ,carrier1 in which the beak from the tip to the feathered base was exactly thrice as long as in a first-rate ,short-faced ,tumbler1 the tongue was only a little more than twice as long4 ,but the tongue varies in length independently of the beak3 thus in a ,carrier with a beak #ab inch in length1 the tongue was #fg in length3 whilst in a ,runt which equalled the ,carrier in length of body and in stretch of wings from tip to tip1 the beak was #ib whilst the tongue was #gc of an inch in length1 so that the tongue was actually longer than in the carrier with its long beak4 ,the tongue of the ,runt was also very broad at the root4 ,of two ,runts1 one had its beak longer by #bc of an inch1 whilst its tongue was shorter by #ad than in the other4 ,with the increased or diminished length of the beak the length of the slit forming the external orifice of the nostrils varies1 but not in due proportion1 for1 taking the rock-pigeon as the standard1 the orifice in a ,short-faced ,tumbler was not shortened in due proportion with its very short beak4 ,on the other hand 7and this could not have been anticipated71 the orifice in three ,english ,carriers1 in the ,bagadotten ,carrier1 and in a ,runt 7pigeon cygne71 was longer by above the tenth of an inch than would follow from the length of the beak proportionally with that of the rock-pigeon4 ,in one ,carrier the orifice of the nostrils was thrice as long as in the rock-pigeon1 though in body and length of beak this bird was not nearly double the size of the rock-pigeon4 ,this greatly increased length of the orifice of the nostrils seems to stand partly in correlation with the enlargement of the wattled skin on the upper mandible and over the nostrils2 and this is a character which is selected by fanciers4 ,so again1 the broad1 naked1 and wattled skin round the eyes of ,carriers and ,barbs is a selected character2 and in obvious correlation with this1 the eyelids1 measured longitudinally1 are proportionally more than double the length of those of the rock-pigeon4 ,the great difference 7see fig4 #bg7 in the curvature of the lower jaw in the rock-pigeon1 the ,tumbler1 and ,bagadotten ,carrier1 stands in obvious relation to the curvature of the upper jaw1 and more especially to the angle formed by the maxillo-jugal arch with the premaxillary bones4 ,but in ,carriers1 ,runts1 and ,barbs the singular reflexion of the upper margin of the middle part of the lower jaw 7see fig4 #be7 is not strictly correlated with the width or divergence 7as may be clearly seen in fig4 #bf7 of the premaxillary bones1 but with the breadth of the horny and soft parts of the upper mandible1 which are always overlapped by the edges of the lower mandible4 ,in ,pouters1 the elongation of the body is a selected character1 and the ribs1 as we have seen1 have generally become very broad1 with the seventh pair furnished with processes2 the sacral and caudal vertebr have been augmented in number2 the sternum has likewise increased in length 7but not in the depth of the crest7 by #d of an inch more than would follow from the greater bulk of the body in comparison with that of the rock-pigeon4 ,in ,fantails1 the length and number of the caudal vertebr have increased4 ,hence1 during the gradual progress of variation and selection1 the internal bony framework and the external shape of the body have been1 to a certain extent1 modified in a correlated manner4 ,although the wings and tail often vary in length independently of each other1 it is scarcely possible to doubt that they generally tend to become elongated or shortened in correlation4 ,this is well seen in ,jacobins1 and still more plainly in ,runts1 some varieties of which have their wings and tail of great length1 whilst others have both very short4 ,with ,jacobins1 the remarkable length of the tail and wing-feathers is not a character which is intentionally selected by fanciers2 but fanciers have been trying for centuries1 at least since the year #afjj1 to increase the length of the reversed feathers on the neck1 so that the hood may more completely enclose the head2 and it may be suspected that the increased length of the wing and tail-feathers stand in correlation with the increased length of the neck-feathers4 ,short-faced ,tumblers have short wings in nearly due proportion with the reduced size of their bodies2 but it is remarkable1 seeing that the number of the primary wing-feathers is a constant character in most birds1 that these ,tumblers generally have only nine instead of ten primaries4 ,i have myself observed this in eight birds2 and the ,original ,columbarian ,society#cg reduced the standard for ,bald-head ,tumblers from ten to nine white flight-feathers1 thinking it unfair that a bird which had only nine feathers should be disqualified for a prize because it had not ten white flight-feathers4 ,on the other hand1 in ,carriers and ,runts1 which have large bodies and long wings1 eleven primary feathers have occasionally been observed4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has informed me of a curious and inexplicable case of correlation1 namely1 that young pigeons of all breeds which when mature become white1 yellow1 silver 7i4e41 extremely pale blue71 or dun-coloured1 are born almost naked2 whereas pigeons of other colours are born well-clothed with down4 ,mr4 ,esquilant1 however1 has observed that young dun ,carriers are not so bare as young dun ,barbs and ,tumblers4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has seen two young birds in the same nest1 produced from differently coloured parents1 which differed greatly in the degree to which they were at first clothed with down4 ,i have observed another case of correlation which at first sight appears quite inexplicable1 but on which1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 some light can be thrown by the law of homologous parts varying in the same manner4 ,the case is1 that1 when the feet are much feathered1 the roots of the feathers are connected by a web of skin1 and apparently in correlation with this the two outer toes become connected for a considerable space by skin4 ,i have observed this in very many specimens of ,pouters1 ,trumpeters1 ,swallows1 ,roller-tumblers 7likewise observed in this breed by ,mr4 ,brent71 and in a lesser degree in other feather-footed pigeons4 ,the feet of the smaller and larger breeds are of course much smaller or larger than those of the rock-pigeon2 but the scutell or scales covering the toes and tarsi have not only decreased or increased in size1 but likewise in number4 ,to give a single instance1 ,i have counted eight scutell on the hind toe of a ,runt1 and only five on that of a ,short-faced ,tumbler4 ,with birds in a state of nature the number of the scutell on the feet is usually a constant character4 ,the length of the feet and the length of the beak apparently stand in correlation2 but as disuse apparently has affected the size of the feet1 this case may come under the following discussion4 ,on the ,effects of ,disuse4--,in the following discussion on the relative proportions of the feet1 sternum1 furculum1 scapul1 and wings1 ,i may premise1 in order to give some confidence to the reader1 that all my measurements were made in the same manner1 and that they were made without the least intention of applying them to the following purpose4 ,table ,i4 ,pigeons with their beaks generally shorter than that of the ,rock-pigeon1 proportionally to the size of their bodies4 ,name of ,breed4 ,actual length of ,feet ,difference between actual and calculated length of feet1 in proportion to length of feet and size of body in the ,rock-pigeon4 ,wild rock-pigeon 7mean measurement7 #bjb ,too short by ,too long by ,short-faced ,tumbler1 blad-head #aeg #jaa -- ,short-faced ,tumbler1 almond #afj #jaf -- ,tumbler1 red magpie #age #jai -- ,tumbler1 red common 7by standard to end of tail7 #ahe #jjg -- ,tumbler1 common bald-head #ahe #jah -- ,tumbler1 roller #ahj #jjf -- ,turbit #age #jag -- ,turbit #ahj #jja -- ,turbit #ahd #jae -- ,jacobin #aij #jjb -- ,trumpeter1 white #bjb #jjf -- ,trumpeter1 mottled #aie #jah -- ,fantail 7by standard to end of tail7 #ahe #jae -- ,fantail 7by standard to end of tail7 #aie #jae -- ,fantail crested va4 7by standard to end of tail7 #aie #jj #jj ,indian ,frill-back 7by standard to end of tail7 #ahj #jai -- ,english ,frill-back #baj #jjc -- ,nun #ahb #jjb -- ,laugher #afe #jaf -- ,barb #bjj #jjc -- ,barb #bjj -- #jjc ,spot #aij #jjb -- ,spot #aij #jjg -- ,swallow1 red #ahe #jah -- ,swallow1 blue #bjj -- #jjc ,pouter #bdb -- #jaa ,pouter1 ,german #bcj -- #jji ,bussorah ,carrier #bag -- #jji ,number of specimens #bh #bb #e ,i measured most of the birds which came into my possession1 from the feathered base of the beak 7the length of beak itself being so variable7 to the end of the tail1 and to the oil-gland1 but unfortunately 7except in a few cases7 not to the root of the tail2 ,i measured each bird from the extreme tip to tip of wing2 and the length of the terminal folded part of the wing1 from the extremity of the primaries to the joint of the radius4 ,i measured the feet without the claws1 from the end of the middle toe to the end of the hind toe2 and the tarsus and middle toe together4 ,i have taken in every case the mean measurement of two wild rock-pigeons from the ,shetland ,islands1 as the standard of comparison4 ,the following table shows the actual length of the feet in each bird2 and the difference between the length which the feet ought to have had according to the size of body of each1 in comparison with the size of body and length of feet of the rock-pigeon1 calculated 7with a few specified exceptions7 by the standard of the length of the body from the base of the beak to the oil-gland4 ,i have preferred this standard1 owing to the variability of the length of tail4 ,but ,i have made similar calculations1 taking as the standard the length from tip to tip of wing1 and likewise in most cases from the base of the beak to the end of the tail2 and the result has always been closely similar4 ,to give an example3 the first bird in the table1 being a ,short-faced ,tumbler1 is much smaller than the rock-pigeon1 and would naturally have shorter feet2 but it is found on calculation to have feet too short by #aa of an inch1 in comparison with the feet of the rock-pigeon1 relatively to the size of the body in these two birds1 as measured from the base of beak to the oil-gland4 ,so again1 when this same ,tumbler and the rock-pigeon were compared by the length of their wings1 or by the extreme length of their bodies1 the feet of the ,tumbler were likewise found to be too short in very nearly the same proportion4 ,i am well aware that the measurements pretend to greater accuracy than is possible1 but it was less trouble to write down the actual measurements given by the compasses in each case than an approximation4 ,table ,,ii4 ,pigeons with their beaks longer than that of the ,rock-pigeon1 proportionally to the size of their bodies4 ,name of ,breed4 ,actual length of ,feet ,difference between actual and calculated length of feet1 in proportion to length of feet and size of body in the ,rock-pigeon4 ,wild rock-pigeon 7mean measurement7 #bjb ,too short by ,too long by ,short-faced ,tumbler1 bald-head #aeg #jaa -- ,carrier #bfj -- #jca ,carrier #bfj -- #jbe ,carrier #bdj -- #jba ,carrier ,dragon #bbe -- #jjf ,bagadotten ,carrier #bhj -- #jef ,scanderoon1 white #bhj -- #jcg ,scanderoon1 ,pigeon cygne #bhe -- #jbi ,runt #bge -- #jbg ,number of specimens #h -- #h ,in these two tables 7,tables ,i and ,,ii7 we see in the first column the actual length of the feet in thirty-six birds belonging to various breeds1 and in the two other columns we see by how much the feet are too short or too long1 according to the size of bird1 in comparison with the rock-pigeon4 ,in the first table twenty-two specimens have their feet too short1 on an average by a little above the tenth of an inch 7viz4 #ajg72 and five specimens have their feet on an average a very little too long1 namely1 by #jg of an inch4 ,but some of these latter cases can be explained2 for instance1 with ,pouters the legs and feet are selected for length1 and thus any natural tendency to a diminution in the length of the feet will have been counteracted4 ,in the ,swallow and ,barb1 when the calculation was made on any standard of comparison besides the one used 7viz4 length of body from base of beak to oil-gland71 the feet were found to be too small4 ,in the second table we have eight birds1 with their beaks much longer than in the rock-pigeon1 both actually and proportionally with the size of body1 and their feet are in an equally marked manner longer1 namely1 in proportion1 on an average by #bi of an inch4 ,i should here state that in ,table ,i there are a few partial exceptions to the beak being proportionally shorter than in the rock-pigeon3 thus the beak of the ,english ,frill-back is just perceptibly longer1 and that of the ,bussorah ,carrier of the same length or slightly longer1 than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the beaks of ,spots1 ,swallows1 and ,laughers are only a very little shorter1 or of the same proportional length1 but slenderer4 ,nevertheless1 these two tables1 taken conjointly1 indicate pretty plainly some kind of correlation between the length of the beak and the size of the feet4 ,breeders of cattle and horses believe that there is an analogous connection between the length of the limbs and head2 they assert that a race-horse with the head of a dray-horse1 or a grey-hound with the head of a bulldog1 would be a monstrous production4 ,as fancy pigeons are generally kept in small aviaries1 and are abundantly supplied with food1 they must walk about much less than the wild rock-pigeon2 and it may be admitted as highly probable that the reduction in the size of the feet in the twenty-two birds in the first table has been caused by disuse1#ch and that this reduction has acted by correlation on the beaks of the great majority of the birds in ,table ,i4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the beak has been much elongated by the continued selection of successive slight increments of length1 the feet by correlation have likewise become much elongated in comparison with those of the wild rock-pigeon1 notwithstanding their lessened use4 ,as ,i had taken measures from the end of the middle toe to the heel of the tarsus in the rock-pigeon and in the above thirty-six birds1 ,i have made calculations analogous with those above given1 and the result is the same-- namely1 that in the short-beaked breeds1 with equally few exceptions as in the former case1 the middle toe conjointly with the tarsus has decreased in length2 whereas in the long-beaked breeds it has increased in length1 though not quite so uniformly as in the former case1 for the leg1 in some varieties of the ,runt varies much in length4 ,as fancy pigeons are generally confined in aviaries of moderate size1 and as even when not confined they do not search for their own food1 they must during many generations have used their wings incomparably less than the wild rock-pigeon4 ,hence it seemed to me probable that all the parts of the skeleton subservient to flight would be found to be reduced in size4 ,with respect to the sternum1 ,i have carefully measured its extreme length in twelve birds of different breeds1 and in two wild rock-pigeons from the ,shetland ,islands4 ,for the proportional comparison ,i have tried three standards of measurement1 with all twelve birds namely1 the length from the base of the beak to the oil-gland1 to the end of the tail1 and from the extreme tip to tip of wings4 ,the result has been in each case nearly the same1 the sternum being invariably found to be shorter than in the wild rock-pigeon4 ,i will give only a single table1 as calculated by the standard from the base of the beak to the oil-gland2 for the result in this case is nearly the mean between the results obtained by the two other standards4 ,length of ,sternum4 ,name of ,breed ,actual ,length4 ,inches ,too short by ,wild ,rock-pigeon #bee -- ,wild ,rock-pigeon #bee -- ,pied ,scanderoon #bhj #jfj ,bagadotten ,carrier #bhj #jag ,dragon #bde #jda ,carrier #bge #jce ,short-faced ,tumbler #bje #jbh ,barb #bce #jcd ,nun #bbg #jae ,german ,pouter #bcf #jed ,jacobin #bcc #jbb ,english ,frill-back #bdj #jdc ,swallow #bde #jag ,this table shows that in these twelve breeds the sternum is of an average one-third of an inch 7exactly #ccb7 shorter than in the rock-pigeon1 proportionally with the size of their bodies2 so that the sternum has been reduced by between one-seventh and one-eighth of its entire length2 and this is a considerable reduction4 ,i have also measured in twenty-one birds1 including the above dozen1 the prominence of the crest of the sternum relatively to its length1 independently of the size of the body4 ,in two of the twenty-one birds the crest was prominent in the same relative degree as in the rock-pigeon2 in seven it was more prominent2 but in five out of these seven1 namely1 in a ,fantail1 two ,scanderoons1 and two ,english ,carriers1 this greater prominence may to a certain extent be explained1 as a prominent breast is admired and selected by fanciers2 in the remaining twelve birds the prominence was less4 ,hence it follows that the crest exhibits a slight1 though uncertain1 tendency to be reduced in prominence in a greater degree than does the length of the sternum relatively to the size of body1 in comparison with the rock-pigeon4 ,i have measured the length of the scapula in nine different large and small-sized breeds1 and in all the scapula is proportionally shorter 7taking the same standard as before7 than in the wild rock-pigeon4 ,the reduction in length on an average is very nearly one-fifth of an inch1 or about one-ninth of the length of the scapula in the rock-pigeon4 ,the arms of the furcula in all the specimens which ,i compared1 diverged less1 proportionally with the size of body1 than in the rock-pigeon2 and the whole furculum was proportionally shorter4 ,thus in a ,runt1 which measured from tip to tip of wings #ch inches1 the furculum was only a very little longer 7with the arms hardly more divergent7 than in a rock-pigeon which measured from tip to tip #bf inches4 ,in a ,barb1 which in all its measurements was a little larger than the same rock-pigeon1 the furculum was a quarter of an inch shorter4 ,in a ,pouter1 the furculum had not been lengthened proportionally with the increased length of the body4 ,in a ,short-faced ,tumbler1 which measured from tip to tip of wings #bd inches1 therefore only #b inches less than the rock-pigeon1 the furculum was barely two-thirds of the length of that of the rock-pigeon4 ,we thus clearly see that the sternum1 scapula1 and furculum are all reduced in proportional length2 but when we turn to the wings we find what at first appears a wholly different and unexpected result4 ,i may here remark that ,i have not picked out specimens1 but have used every measurement made by me4 ,taking the length from the base of beak to the end of the tail as the standard of comparison1 ,i find that1 out of thirty-five birds of various breeds1 twenty-five have wings of greater1 and ten have them of less proportional length1 than in the rock-pigeon4 ,but from the frequently correlated length of the tail and wing-feathers1 it is better to take as the standard of comparison the length from the base of the beak to the oil-gland2 and by this standard1 out of twenty-six of the same birds which had been thus measured1 twenty-one had wings too long1 and only five had them too short4 ,in the twenty-one birds the wings exceeded in length those of the rock-pigeon1 on an average1 by #a-a_/c inch2 whilst in the five birds they were less in length by only #h of an inch4 ,as ,i was much surprised that the wings of closely confined birds should thus so frequently have been increased in length1 it occurred to me that it might be solely due to the greater length of the wing-feathers2 for this certainly is the case with the ,jacobin1 which has wings of unusual length4 ,as in almost every case ,i had measured the folded wings1 ,i subtracted the length of this terminal part from that of the expanded wings1 and thus ,i obtained1 with a moderate degree of accuracy1 the length of the wings from the ends of the two radii1 answering from wrist to wrist in our arms4 ,the wings1 thus measured in the same twenty-five birds1 now gave a widely different result2 for they were proportionally with those of the rock-pigeon too short in seventeen birds1 and in only eight too long4 ,of these eight birds1 five were long-beaked1#ci and this fact perhaps indicates that there is some correlation of the length of the beak with the length of the bones of the wings1 in the same manner as with that of the feet and tarsi4 ,the shortening of the humerus and radius in the seventeen birds may probably be attributed to disuse1 as in the case of the scapula and furculum to which the wing-bones are attached2--the lengthening of the wing-feathers1 and consequently the expansion of the wings from tip to tip1 being1 on the other hand1 as completely independent of use and disuse as is the growth of the hair or wool on our long-haired dogs or long-woolled sheep4 ,to sum up3 we may confidently admit that the length of the sternum1 and frequently the prominence of its crest1 the length of the scapula and furculum1 have all been reduced in size in comparison with the same parts in the rock-pigeon4 ,and ,i presume that this may be attributed to disuse or lessened exercise4 ,the wings1 as measured from the ends of the radii1 have likewise been generally reduced in length2 but1 owing to the increased growth of the wing-feathers1 the wings1 from tip to tip1 are commonly longer than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the feet1 as well as the tarsi conjointly with the middle toe1 have likewise in most cases become reduced2 and this it is probable has been caused by their lessened use2 but the existence of some sort of correlation between the feet and beak is shown more plainly than the effects of disuse4 ,we have also some faint indication of a similar correlation between the main bones of the wing and the beak4 ,summary on the ,points of ,difference between the several ,domestic ,races1 and between the individual ,birds4--,the beak1 together with the bones of the face1 differ remarkably in length1 breadth1 shape1 and curvature4 ,the skull differs in shape1 and greatly in the angle formed by the union of the pre-maxillary1 nasal1 and maxillo-jugal bones4 ,the curvature of the lower jaw and the reflection of its upper margin1 as well as the gape of the mouth1 differ in a highly remarkable manner4 ,the tongue varies much in length1 both independently and in correlation with the length of the beak4 ,the development of the naked1 wattled skin over the nostrils and round the eyes varies in an extreme degree4 ,the eyelids and the external orifices of the nostrils vary in length1 and are to a certain extent correlated with the degree of development of the wattle4 ,the size and form of the sophagus and crop1 and their capacity for inflation1 differ immensely4 ,the length of the neck varies4 ,with the varying shape of the body1 the breadth and number of the ribs1 the presence of processes1 the number of the sacral vertebr1 and the length of the sternum1 all vary4 ,the number and size of the coccygeal vertebr vary1 apparently in correlation with the increased size of the tail4 ,the size and shape of the perforations in the sternum1 and the size and divergence of the arms of the furculum1 differ4 ,the oil-gland varies in development1 and is sometimes quite aborted4 ,the direction and length of certain feathers have been much modified1 as in the hood of the ,jacobin and the frill of the ,turbit4 ,the wing and tail-feathers generally vary in length together1 but sometimes independently of each other and of the size of the body4 ,the number and position of the tail-feather vary to an unparalleled degree4 ,the primary and secondary wing-feathers occasionally vary in number1 apparently in correlation with the length of the wing4 ,the length of the leg and the size of the feet1 and1 in connection with the latter1 the number of the scutell1 all vary4 ,a web of skin sometimes connects the bases of the two inner toes1 and almost invariably the two outer toes when the feet are feathered4 ,the size of the body differs greatly3 a ,runt has been known to weigh more than five times as much as a ,short-faced ,tumbler4 ,the eggs differ in size and shape4 ,according to ,parmentier1#dj some races use much straw in building their nests1 and others use little2 but ,i cannot hear of any recent corroboration of this statement4 ,the length of time required for hatching the eggs is uniform in all the breeds4 ,the period at which the characteristic plumage of some breeds is acquired1 and at which certain changes of colour supervene1 differs4 ,the degree to which the young birds are clothed with down when first hatched is different1 and is correlated in a singular manner with the colour of the plumage4 ,the manner of flight1 and certain inherited movements1 such as clapping the wings1 tumbling either in the air or on the ground1 and the manner of courting the female1 present the most singular differences4 ,in disposition the several races differ4 ,some races are very silent2 others coo in a highly peculiar manner4 ,although many different races have kept true in character during several centuries1 as we shall hereafter more fully see1 yet there is far more individual variability in the most constant breeds than in birds in a state of nature4 ,there is hardly any exception to the rule that those characters vary most which are now most valued and attended to by fanciers1 and which consequently are now being improved by continued selection4 ,this is indirectly admitted by fanciers when they complain that it is much more difficult to breed high fancy pigeons up to the proper standard of excellence than the so-called toy pigeons1 which differ from each other merely in colour2 for particular colours when once acquired are not liable to continued improvement or augmentation4 ,some characters become attached1 from quite unknown causes1 more strongly to the male than to the female sex2 so that we have in certain races1 a tendency towards the appearance of secondary sexual characters1#da of which the aboriginal rock-pigeon displays not a trace4 ,,references #a ,the ,hon4 ,c4 ,murray has sent me some very valuable specimens from ,persia2 and ,h4,m4 ,consul1 ,mr4 ,keith ,abbott1 has given me information on the pigeons of the same country4 ,i am deeply indebted to ,sir ,walter ,elliot for an immense collection of skins from ,madras1 with much information regarding them4 ,mr4 ,blyth has freely communicated to me his stores of knowledge on this and all other related subjects4 ,the ,rajah ,sir ,james ,brooke sent me specimens from ,borneo1 as has ,h4,m4 ,consul1 ,mr4 ,swinhoe1 from ,amoy in ,china1 and ,dr4 ,daniell from the west coast of ,africa4 #b ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent1 well known for his various contributions to poultry literature1 has aided me in every way during several years3 so has ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 with unwearied kindness4 ,this latter gentleman1 who is well known for his works on poultry1 and who has largely bred pigeons1 has looked over this and the following chapters4 ,mr4 ,bult formerly showed me his unrivalled collection of ,pouters1 and gave me specimens4 ,i had access to ,mr4 ,wicking's collection1 which contained a greater assortment of kinds than could anywhere else be seen2 and he has always aided me with specimens and information given in the freest manner4 ,mr4 ,haynes and ,mr4 ,corker have given me specimens of their magnificent ,carriers4 ,to ,mr4 ,harrison ,weir ,i am likewise indebted4 ,nor must ,i by any means pass over the assistance received from ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton1 ,mr4 ,baker1 ,mr4 ,evans1 and ,mr4 ,j4 ,baily1 jun41 of ,mount-street--to the latter gentleman ,i have been indebted for some valuable specimens4 ,to all these gentlemen ,i beg permission to return my sincere and cordial thanks4 #c #8,les ,pigeons de ,volire et de ,colombier' ,paris #ahbd4 ,during forty-five years the sole occupation of ,m4 ,corbi was the care of the pigeons belonging to the ,duchess of ,berry4 ,bonizzi has described a large number of coloured varieties in ,italy3 #8,le variazioni dei colombi ,domestici1' ,padova1 #ahgc4 #d #8,coup d',oeil sur l',ordre des ,pigeons' par ,prince ,c4 ,l4 ,bonaparte1 ,paris1 #ahee4 ,this author makes #bhh species1 ranked under #he genera4 #e ,as ,i so often refer to the size of the ,c4 livia1 or rock-pigeon1 it may be convenient to give the mean between the measurements of two wild birds1 kindly sent me by ,dr4 ,edmondstone from the ,shetland ,islands4 ,inches ,from feathered base of beak to end of tail3 #adbe ,from feathered base of beak to oil-gland3 #iej ,from tip of beak to end of tail3 #aejb ,of tail-feathers3 #dfb ,from tip to tip of wing3 #bfge ,of folded wing3 #ibe ,beak3 ,length from tip of beak to feathered base3 #gg ,thickness1 measured vertically at distal end of nostrils3 #bc ,breadth1 measured at same place3 #af ,feet3 ,from end of middle toe 7without claw7 to distal end of tibia3 #bgg ,from end of middle toe to end of hind toe 7without claws73 #bjb ,weight3 #ad-a_/d ounces4 #f ,this drawing was made from a dead bird4 ,the six following figures were drawn with great care by ,mr4 ,luke ,wells from living birds selected by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier4 ,it may be confidently asserted that the characters of the six breeds which have been figured are not in the least exaggerated4 #g #8,das ,ganze der ,taubenzucht3' ,weimar1 #ahcg1 pl4 #aa and #ab4 #h ,boitard and ,corbi1 #8,les ,pigeons1' etc41 p4 #agg1 pl4 #f4 #i #8,die ,taubenzucht1' ,ulm1 #ahbd1 s4 #db4 #aj ,this treatise was written by ,sayzid ,mohammed ,musari1 who died in #aggj3 ,i owe to the great kindness of ,sir ,w4 ,elliot a translation of this curious treatise4 #aa #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 #b1 p4 #egc4 #ab #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history1' vol4 xix1 #ahdg1 p4 #aje4 #ac ,this gland occurs in most birds2 but ,nitzsch 7in his #8,pterylographie1' #ahdj1 p4 #ee7 states that it is absent in two species of ,columba1 in several species of ,psittacus1 in some species of ,otis1 and in most or all birds of the ,ostrich family4 ,it can hardly be an accidental coincidence that the two species of ,columba1 which are destitute of an oil-gland1 have an unusual number of tail-feathers1 namely #af1 and in this respect resemble ,fantails4 #ad ,see the two excellent editions published by ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton in #aheb and #aheh1 entitled #8,a ,treatise on ,fancy ,pigeons4' #ae ,english translation1 by ,f4 ,gladwin1 #dth edition1 vol4 i4 ,the habit of the ,lotan is also described in the ,persian treatise before alluded to1 published about #ajj years ago3 at this date the ,lotans were generally white and crested as at present4 ,mr4 ,blyth describes these birds in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xiv41 #ahdg1 p4 #ajd2 he says that they 8may be seen at any of the ,calcutta bird-dealers40 #af #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,oct4 #bb1 #ahfa1 p4 #gf4 #ag ,see the account of the ,house-tumblers kept at ,glasgow1 in the #8,cottage ,gardener1' #aheh1 p4 #bhe4 ,also ,mr4 ,brent's paper1 #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 p4 #gf4 #ah ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton1 #8,treatise on ,pigeons1' #aheb1 p4 #i4 #ai ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton1 #8,treatise1' edit4 #aheh1 p4 #gf4 #bj ,neumeister1 #8,taubenzucht1' tab4 #d4 fig4 i4 #ba ,riedel1 #8,die ,taubenzucht1' #ahbd1 s4 #bf4 ,bechstein1 #8,naturgeschichte ,deutschlands1' ,band iv4 s4 #cf1 #agie4 #bb ,willughby's #8,ornithology1' edited by ,ray4 #bc ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton's edition 7#aheh7 of ,moore1 p4 #ih4 #bd ,pigeon pattu plongeur4 #8,les ,pigeons1' etc41 p4 #afe4 #be #8,naturgeschichte ,deutschlands1' ,band iv4 s4 #dg4 #bf ,mr4 ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,jan4 #bj1 #ahfc1 p4 #eh4 #bg #8,coup-d'il sur ,l',ordre des ,pigeons1' par ,c4 ,l4 ,bonaparte 7#8,comptes ,rendus'71 #ahed-ee4 ,mr4 ,blyth1 in #8,annals of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xix41 #ahdg1 p4 #da1 mentions1 as a very singular fact1 8that of the two species of ,ectopistes1 which are nearly allied to each other1 one should have fourteen tail-feathers1 while the other1 the passenger pigeon of ,north ,america1 should possess but the usual number--twelve40 #bh ,described and figured in the #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 iii41 #ahee1 p4 #hb4 #bi #8,the ,pigeon ,book1' by ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent1 #ahei1 p4 #da4 #cj #8,die staarhlsige ,taube4 ,das ,ganze1 etc41' s4 #ba1 tab4 i4 fig4 #d4 #ca #8,a ,treatise on the ,almond-,tumbler1' by ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton1 #aheb1 p4 #h1 et passim4 #cb #8,a ,treatise1 etc41' p4 #aj4 #cc ,boitard and ,corbi #8,les ,pigeons1' etc41 #ahbd1 p4 #agc4 #cd #8,le ,pigeon ,voyageur ,belge1' #ahfe1 p4 #hg4 ,i have given in my #8,descent of ,man' 7#fth edit4 p4 #dff7 some curious cases1 on the authority of ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 of silver-coloured 7i4e4 very pale blue7 birds being generally females1 and of the ease with which a race thus characterised could be produced4 ,bonizzi 7see #8,variazioni dei ,columbi domestici3' ,padova1 #ahgc7 states that certain coloured spots are often different in the two sexes1 and the certain tints are commoner in females than in male pigeons4 #ce ,prof4 ,a4 ,newton 7#8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfe1 p4 #gaf7 remarks that he knows no species which present any remarkable sexual distinction2 but ,mr4 ,wallace informs me1 that in the sub-family of the ,treronid the sexes often differ considerably in colour4 ,see also on sexual differences in the ,columbid1 ,gould1 #8,handbook to the ,birds of ,australia1' vol4 ii41 pp4 #aji-adi4 #cf ,i am not sure that ,i have designated the different kinds of vertebr correctly3 but ,i observe that different anatomists follow in this respect different rules1 and1 as ,i use the same terms in the comparison of all the skeletons1 this1 ,i hope1 will not signify4 #cg ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton's #8,treatise1' edit4 #aheh1 p4 #gh4 #ch ,in an analogous1 but converse1 manner1 certain natural groups of the ,columbid1 from being more terrestrial in their habits than other allied groups1 have larger feet4 ,see ,prince ,bonaparte's #8,coup d'il sur l',ordre des ,pigeons4' #ci ,it perhaps deserves notice that besides these five birds two of the eight were ,barbs1 which1 as ,i have shown1 must be classed in the same group with the long-beaked ,carriers and ,runts4 ,barbs may properly be called short-beaked ,carriers4 ,it would1 therefore1 appear as if1 during the reduction of their beaks1 their wings had retained a little of that excess of length which is characteristic of their nearest relations and progenitors4 #dj ,temminck1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn4 des ,pigeons et des ,gallinacs1' tom4 i41 #ahac1 p4 #agj4 #da ,this term was used by ,john ,hunter for such differences in structure between the males and females1 as are not directly connected with the act of reproduction1 as the tail of the peacock1 the horns of deer1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,pigeons--continued4 ,,on ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,parent-,,stock ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,domestic ,,races--,,habits ,,of ,,life--,,wild ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,rock-,,pigeon--,dovecot-,,pigeons--,,p roofs ,,of ,,the ,,descent ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,races ,,from ,,columba ,,livia--,,fertility ,,of ,,the ,,races ,,when ,,crossed--,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,plumage ,,of ,,the ,,wild ,,rock-,,pigeon--,,circumstances ,,favourable ,,to ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,races--,,antiquity ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,races--,,manner ,,of ,,their ,,formation--,,selection--,,unconscious ,,selection--,,care ,,taken ,,by ,,fanciers ,,in ,,selecting ,,their ,,birds--,,slightly ,,different ,,strains ,,gradually ,,change ,,into ,,well-,,marked ,,breeds--,,extinction ,,of ,,intermediate ,,forms--,,certain ,,breeds ,,remain ,,permanent1 ,,whilst ,,others ,,change--,,summary4 ,the differences described in the last chapter between the eleven chief domestic races and between individual birds of the same race1 would be of little significance1 if they had not all descended from a single wild stock4 ,the question of their origin is therefore of fundamental importance1 and must be discussed at considerable length4 ,no one will think this superfluous who considers the great amount of difference between the races1 who knows how ancient many of them are1 and how truly they breed at the present day4 ,fanciers almost unanimously believe that the different races are descended from several wild stocks1 whereas most naturalists believe that all are descended from the ,columba livia or rock-pigeon4 ,temminck#a has well observed1 and ,mr4 ,gould has made the same remark to me1 that the aboriginal parent must have been a species which roosted and built its nest on rocks2 and ,i may add that it must have been a social bird4 ,for all the domestic races are highly social1 and none are known to build or habitually to roost on trees4 ,the awkward manner in which some pigeons1 kept by me in a summer-house near an old walnut-tree1 occasionally alighted on the barer branches1 was evident4#b ,nevertheless1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,scot ,skirving informs me that he often saw crowds of pigeons in ,upper ,egypt settling on low trees1 but not on palms1 in preference to alighting on the mud hovels of the natives4 ,in ,india ,mr4 ,blyth#c has been assured that the wild ,c4 livia1 var4 intermedia1 sometimes roosts in trees4 ,i may here give a curious instance of compulsion leading to changed habits3 the banks of the ,nile above lat4 #bh #cj are perpendicular for a long distance1 so that when the river is full the pigeons cannot alight on the shore to drink1 and ,mr4 ,skirving repeatedly saw whole flocks settle on the water1 and drink whilst they floated down the stream4 ,these flocks seen from a distance resembled flocks of gulls on the surface of the sea4 ,if any domestic race had descended from a species which was not social1 or which built its nest and roosted in trees1#d the sharp eyes of fanciers would assuredly have detected some vestige of so different an aboriginal habit4 ,for we have reason to believe that aboriginal habits are long retained under domestication4 ,thus with the common ass we see signs of its original desert life in its strong dislike to cross the smallest stream of water1 and in its pleasure in rolling in the dust4 ,the same strong dislike to cross a stream is common to the camel1 which has been domesticated from a very ancient period4 ,young pigs1 though so tame1 sometimes squat when frightened1 and thus try to conceal themselves even on an open and bare place4 ,young turkeys1 and occasionally even young fowls1 when the hen gives the danger-cry1 run away and try to hide themselves1 like young partridges or pheasants1 in order that their mother may take flight1 of which she has lost the power4 ,the musk-duck 7,cairina moschata7 in its native country often perches and roosts on trees1#e and our domesticated musk-ducks1 though such sluggish birds1 8are fond of perching on the tops of barns1 walls1 etc41 and1 if allowed to spend the night in the hen-house1 the female will generally go to roost by the side of the hens1 but the drake is too heavy to mount thither with ease40#f ,we know that the dog1 however well and regularly fed1 often buries1 like the fox1 any superfluous food2 and we see him turning round and round on a carpet1 as if to trample down grass to form a bed2 we see him on bare pavements scratching backwards as if to throw earth over his excrement1 although1 as ,i believe1 this is never effected even where there is earth4 ,in the delight with which lambs and kids crowd together and frisk on the smallest hillock1 we see a vestige of their former alpine habits4 ,we have therefore good reason to believe that all the domestic races of the pigeon are descended either from some one or from several species which both roosted and built their nests on rocks1 and were social in disposition4 ,as only five or six wild species have these habits1 and make any near approach in structure to the domesticated pigeon1 ,i will enumerate them4 ,firstly1 the ,columba leuconota resembles certain domestic varieties in its plumage1 with the one marked and never-failing difference of a white band which crosses the tail at some distance from the extremity4 ,this species1 moreover1 inhabits the ,himalaya1 close to the limit of perpetual snow2 and therefore1 as ,mr4 ,blyth has remarked1 is not likely to have been the parent of our domestic breeds1 which thrive in the hottest countries4 ,secondly1 the ,c4 rupestris1 of ,central ,asia1 which is intermediate#g between the ,c4 leuconota and livia2 but has nearly the same coloured tail as the former species4 ,thirdly1 the ,columba littoralis builds and roosts1 according to ,temminck1 on rocks in the ,malayan archipelago2 it is white1 excepting parts of the wing and the tip of the tail1 which are black2 its legs are livid-coloured1 and this is a character not observed in any adult domestic pigeon2 but ,i need not have mentioned this species or the closely-allied ,c4 luctuosa1 as they in fact belong to the genus ,carpophaga4 ,fourthly1 ,columba guinea1 which ranges from ,guinea#h to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and roosts either on trees or rocks1 according to the nature of the country4 ,this species belongs to the genus ,strictoenas of ,reichenbach1 but is closely allied to ,columba2 it is to some extent coloured like certain domestic races1 and has been said to be domesticated in ,abyssinia2 but ,mr4 ,mansfield ,parkyns1 who collected the birds of that country and knows the species1 informs me that this is a mistake4 ,moreover1 the ,c4 guinea is characterised by the feathers of the neck having peculiar notched tips1--a character not observed in any domestic race4 ,fifthly1 the ,columba nas of ,europe1 which roosts on trees1 and builds its nest in holes1 either in trees or the ground2 this species1 as far as external characters go1 might be the parent of several domestic races2 but1 though it crosses readily with the true rock-pigeon1 the offspring1 as we shall presently see1 are sterile hybrids1 and of such sterility there is not a trace when the domestic races are intercrossed4 ,it should also be observed that if we were to admit1 against all probability1 that any of the foregoing five or six species were the parents of some of our domestic pigeons1 not the least light would be thrown on the chief differences between the eleven most strongly-marked races4 ,we now come to the best known rock-pigeon1 the ,columba livia1 which is often designated in ,europe pre-eminently as the ,rock-pigeon1 and which naturalists believe to be the parent of all the domesticated breeds4 ,this bird agrees in every essential character with the breeds which have been only slightly modified4 ,it differs from all other species in being of a slaty-blue colour1 with two black bars on the wings1 and with the croup 7or loins7 white4 ,occasionally birds are seen in ,faroe and the ,hebrides with the black bars replaced by two or three black spots2 this form has been named by ,brehm#i ,c4 amali1 but this species has not been admitted as distinct by other ornithologists4 ,graba#aj even found a difference in the bars on the right and left wings of the same bird in ,faroe4 ,another and rather more distinct form is either truly wild or has become feral on the cliffs of ,england and was doubtfully named by ,mr4 ,blyth#aa as ,c4 affinis1 but is now no longer considered by him as a distinct species4 ,c4 affinis is rather smaller than the rock-pigeon of the ,scottish islands1 and has a very different appearance owing to the wing-coverts being chequered with black1 with similar marks often extending over the back4 ,the chequering consists of a large black spot on the two sides1 but chiefly on the outer side1 of each feather4 ,the wing-bars in the true rock-pigeon and in the chequered variety are1 in fact1 due to similar though larger spots symmetrically crossing the secondary wing-feather and the larger coverts4 ,hence the chequering arises merely from an extension of these marks to other parts of the plumage4 ,chequered birds are not confined to the coasts of ,england2 for they were found by ,graba at ,faroe2 and ,w4 ,thompson#ab says that at ,islay fully half the wild rock-pigeons were chequered4 ,colonel ,king1 of ,hythe1 stocked his dovecot with young wild birds which he himself procured from nests at the ,orkney ,islands2 and several specimens1 kindly sent to me by him1 were all plainly chequered4 ,as we thus see that chequered birds occur mingled with the true rock-pigeon at three distinct sites1 namely1 ,faroe1 the ,orkney ,islands1 and ,islay1 no importance can be attached to this natural variation in the plumage4 ,prince ,c4 ,l4 ,bonaparte1#ac a great divider of species1 enumerates1 with a mark of interrogation1 as distinct from ,c4 livia1 the ,c4 turricola of ,italy1 the ,c4 rupestris of ,daouria1 and the ,c4 schimperi of ,abyssinia2 but these birds differ from ,c4 livia in characters of the most trifling value4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is a chequered pigeon1 probably the ,c4 schimperi of ,bonaparte1 from ,abyssinia4 ,to these may be added the ,c4 gymnocyclus of ,g4 ,r4 ,gray from ,w4 ,africa1 which is slightly more distinct1 and has rather more naked skin round the eyes than the rock-pigeon2 but from information given me by ,dr4 ,daniell1 it is doubtful whether this is a wild bird1 for dovecot-pigeons 7which ,i have examined7 are kept on the coast of ,guinea4 ,the wild rock-pigeon of ,india 7,c4 intermedia of ,strickland7 has been more generally accepted as a distinct species4 ,it differs chiefly in the croup being blue instead of snow-white2 but as ,mr4 ,blyth informs me1 the tint varies1 being sometimes albescent4 ,when this form is domesticated chequered birds appear1 just as occurs in ,europe with the truly wild ,c4 livia4 ,moreover we shall immediately have proof that the blue and white croup is a highly variable character2 and ,bechstein#ad asserts that with dovecot-pigeons in ,germany this is the most variable of all the characters of the plumage4 ,hence it may be concluded that ,c4 intermedia cannot be ranked as specifically distinct from ,c4 livia4 ,in ,madeira there is a rock-pigeon which a few ornithologists have suspected to be distinct from ,c4 livia4 ,i have examined numerous specimens collected by ,mr4 ,e4 ,v4 ,harcourt and ,mr4 ,mason4 ,they are rather smaller than the rock- pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands1 and their beaks are plainly thinner1 but the thickness of the beak varied in the several specimens4 ,in plumage there is remarkable diversity2 some specimens are identical in every feather 7,i speak after actual comparison7 with the rock-pigeon of the ,shetland ,islands2 others are chequered1 like ,c4 affinis from the cliffs of ,england1 but generally to a greater degree1 being almost black over the whole back2 others are identical with the so-called ,c4 intermedia of ,india in the degree of blueness of the croup2 whilst others have this part very pale or very dark blue1 and are likewise chequered4 ,so much variability raises a strong suspicion that these birds are domestic pigeons which have become feral4 ,from these facts it can hardly be doubted that ,c4 livia1 affinis1 intermedia1 and the forms marked with an interrogation by ,bonaparte ought all to be included under a single species4 ,but it is quite immaterial whether or not they are thus ranked1 and whether some one of these forms or all are the progenitors of the various domestic kinds1 as far as any light can thus be thrown on the differences between the more strongly-marked races4 ,that common dovecot-pigeons1 which are kept in various parts of the world1 are descended from one or from several of the above-mentioned wild varieties of ,c4 livia1 no one who compares them will doubt4 ,but before making a few remarks on dovecot-pigeons1 it should be stated that the wild rock-pigeon has been found easy to tame in several countries4 ,we have seen that ,colonel ,king at ,hythe stocked his dovecot more than twenty years ago with young wild birds taken at the ,orkney ,islands1 and since then they have greatly multiplied4 ,the accurate ,macgillivray#ae asserts that he completely tamed a wild rock-pigeon in the ,hebrides2 and several accounts are on records of these pigeons having bred in dovecots in the ,shetland ,islands4 ,in ,india1 as ,captain ,hutton informs me1 the wild rock-pigeon is easily tamed1 and breeds readily with the domestic kind2 and ,mr4 ,blyth#af asserts that wild birds come frequently to the dovecots and mingle freely with their inhabitants4 ,in the ancient #8,ayeen ,akbery' it is written that1 if a few wild pigeons be taken1 8they are speedily joined by a thousand others of their kind40 ,dovecot-pigeons are those which are kept in dovecots in a semi- domesticated state2 for no special care is taken of them1 and they procure their own food1 except during the severest weather4 ,in ,england1 and1 judging from ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi's work1 in ,france1 the common dovecot- pigeon exactly resembles the chequered variety of ,c4 livia2 but ,i have seen dovecots brought from ,yorkshire without any trace of chequering1 like the wild rock-pigeon of the ,shetland ,islands4 ,the chequered dovecots from the ,orkney ,islands1 after having been domesticated by ,colonel ,king for more than twenty years1 differed slightly from each other in the darkness of their plumage and in the thickness of their beaks2 the thinnest beak being rather thicker than the thickest one in the ,madeira birds4 ,in ,germany1 according to ,bechstein1 the common dovecot-pigeon is not chequered4 ,in ,india they often become chequered1 and sometimes pied with white2 the croup also1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,blyth1 becomes nearly white4 ,i have received from ,sir4 ,j4 ,brooke some dovecot-pigeons1 which originally came from the ,s4 ,natunas ,islands in the ,malay ,archipelago1 and which had been crossed with the ,singapore dovecots3 they were small and the darkest variety was extremely like the dark chequered variety with a blue croup from ,madeira2 but the beak was not so thin1 though decidedly thinner than in the rock- pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands4 ,a dovecot-pigeon sent to me by ,mr4 ,swinhoe from ,foochow1 in ,china1 was likewise rather small1 but differed in no other respect4 ,i have also received through the kindness of ,dr4 ,daniell1 four living dovecot-pigeons from ,sierra ,leone1#ag these were fully as large as the ,shetland rock-pigeon1 with even bulkier bodies4 ,in plumage some of them were identical with the ,shetland rock pigeon1 but with the metallic tints apparently rather more brilliant2 others had a blue croup1 and resembled the chequered variety of ,c4 intermedia of ,india2 and some were so much chequered as to be nearly black4 ,in these four birds the beak differed slightly in length1 but in all it was decidedly shorter1 more massive1 and stronger than in the wild rock-pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands1 or in the ,english dovecot4 ,when the beaks of these ,african pigeons were compared with the thinnest beaks of the wild ,madeira specimens1 the contrast was great2 the former being fully one-third thicker in a vertical direction than the latter2 so that any one at first would have felt inclined to rank these birds as specifically distinct2 yet so perfectly graduated a series could be formed between the above-mentioned varieties1 that it was obviously impossible to separate them4 ,to sum up3 the wild ,columba livia1 including under this name ,c4 affinis1 intermedia1 and the other still more closely-affined geographical races1 has a vast range from the southern coast of ,norway and the ,faroe ,islands to the shores of the ,mediterranean1 to ,madeira and the ,canary ,islands1 to ,abyssinia1 ,india1 and ,japan4 ,it varies greatly in plumage1 being in many places chequered with black1 and having either a white or blue croup or loins2 it varies also slightly in the size of the beak and body4 ,dovecot-pigeons1 which no one disputes are descended from one or more of the above wild forms1 present a similar but greater range of variation in plumage1 in the size of body1 and in the length and thickness of the beak4 ,there seems to be some relation between the croup being blue or white1 and the temperature of the country inhabited by both wild and dovecot pigeons2 for nearly all the dovecot-pigeons in the northern parts of ,europe have a white croup1 like that of the wild ,european rock-pigeon2 and nearly all the dovecot-pigeons of ,india have a blue croup like that of the wild ,c4 intermedia of ,india4 ,as in various countries the wild rock-pigeon has been found easy to tame1 it seems extremely probable that the dovecot-pigeons throughout the world are the descendants of at least two and perhaps more wild stocks2 but these1 as we have just seen1 cannot be ranked as specifically distinct4 ,with respect to the variation of ,c4 livia1 we may without fear of contradiction go one step further4 ,those pigeon-fanciers who believe that all the chief races1 such as ,carriers1 ,pouters1 ,fantails1 etc41 are descended from distinct aboriginal stocks1 yet admit that the so-called toy-pigeons1 which differ from the rock-pigeon in little except colour1 are descended from this bird4 ,by toy-pigeons are meant such birds as ,spots1 ,nuns1 ,helmets1 ,swallows1 ,priests1 ,monks1 ,porcelains1 ,swabians1 ,archangels1 ,breasts1 ,shields1 and others in ,europe1 and many others in ,india4 ,it would indeed be as puerile to suppose that all these birds are descended from so many distinct wild stocks as to suppose this to be the case with the many varieties of the gooseberry1 heartsease1 or dahlia4 ,yet these kinds all breed true1 and many of them include sub-varieties which likewise transmit their character truly4 ,they differ greatly from each other and from the rock-pigeon in plumage1 slightly in size and proportions of body1 in size of feet1 and in the length and thickness of their beaks4 ,they differ from each other in these respects more than do dovecot-pigeons4 ,although we may safely admit that dovecot-pigeons1 which vary slightly1 and that toy- pigeons1 which vary in a greater degree in accordance with their more highly-domesticated condition1 are descended from ,c4 livia1 including under this name the above-enumerated wild geographical races2 yet the question becomes far more difficult when we consider the eleven principal races1 most of which have been profoundly modified4 ,it can1 however1 be shown1 by indirect evidence of a perfectly conclusive nature1 that these principal races are not descended from so many wild stocks2 and if this be once admitted1 few will dispute that they are the descendants of ,c4 livia1 which agrees with them so closely in habits and in most characters1 which varies in a state of nature1 and which has certainly undergone a considerable amount of variation1 as in the toy-pigeons4 ,we shall moreover presently see how eminently favourable circumstances have been for a great amount of modification in the more carefully tended breeds4 ,the reasons for concluding that the several principal races are not descended from so many aboriginal and unknown stocks may be grouped under the following six heads3-- ,firstly4--,if the eleven chief races have not arisen from the variation of some one species1 together with its geographical races1 they must be descended from several extremely distinct aboriginal species2 for no amount of crossing between only six or seven wild forms could produce races so distinct as ,pouters1 ,carriers1 ,runts1 ,fantails1 ,turbits1 ,short-faced ,tumblers1 ,jacobins1 and ,trumpeters4 ,how could crossing produce1 for instance1 a ,pouter or a ,fantail1 unless the two supposed aboriginal parents possessed the remarkable characters of these breeds8 ,i am aware that some naturalists1 following ,pallas1 believe that crossing gives a strong tendency to variation1 independently of the characters inherited from either parent4 ,they believe that it would be easier to raise a ,pouter or ,fantail pigeon from crossing two distinct species1 neither of which possessed the characters of these races1 than from any single species4 ,i can find few facts in support of this doctrine1 and believe in it only to a limited degree2 but in a future chapter ,i shall have to recur to this subject4 ,for our present purpose the point is not material4 ,the question which concerns us is1 whether or not many new and important characters have arisen since man first domesticated the pigeon4 ,on the ordinary view1 variability is due to changed conditions of life2 on the ,pallasian doctrine1 variability1 or the appearance of new characters1 is due to some mysterious effect from the crossing of two species1 neither of which possesses the characters in question4 ,in some few instances it is possible that well-marked races may have been formed by crossing2 for instance1 a ,barb might perhaps be formed by a cross between a long-beaked ,carrier1 having large eye-wattles1 and some short-beaked pigeon4 ,that many races have been in some degree modified by crossing1 and that certain varieties which are distinguished only by peculiar tints have arisen from crosses between differently-coloured varieties1 is almost certain4 ,on the doctrine1 therefore1 that the chief races owe their differences to their descent from distinct species1 we must admit that at least eight or nine1 or more probably a dozen species1 all having the same habit of breeding and roosting on rocks and living in society1 either now exist somewhere1 or formerly existed1 but have become extinct as wild birds4 ,considering how carefully wild pigeons have been collected throughout the world1 and what conspicuous birds they are1 especially when frequenting rocks1 it is extremely improbable that eight or nine species1 which were long ago domesticated and therefore must have inhabited some anciently known country1 should still exist in the wild state and be unknown to ornithologists4 ,the hypothesis that such species formerly existed1 but have become extinct1 is in some slight degree more probable4 ,but the extinction of so many species within the historical period is a bold hypothesis1 seeing how little influence man has had in exterminating the common rock-pigeon1 which agrees in all its habits of life with the domestic races4 ,the ,c4 livia now exists and flourishes on the small northern islands of ,faroe1 on many islands off the coast of ,scotland1 on ,sardinia1 and the shores of the ,mediterranean1 and in the centre of ,india4 ,fanciers have sometimes imagined that the several supposed parent-species were originally confined to small islands1 and thus might readily have been exterminated2 but the facts just given do not favour the probability of their extinction1 even on small islands4 ,nor is it probable1 from what is known of the distribution of birds1 that the islands near ,europe should have been inhabited by peculiar species of pigeons2 and if we assume that distant oceanic islands were the homes of the supposed parent-species1 we must remember that ancient voyages were tediously slow1 and that ships were then ill-provided with fresh food1 so that it would not have been easy to bring home living birds4 ,i have said ancient voyages1 for nearly all the races of the pigeon were known before the year #afjj1 so that the supposed wild species must have been captured and domesticated before that date4 ,secondly4--,the doctrine that the chief domestic races are descended from several aboriginal species1 implies that several species were formerly so thoroughly domesticated as to breed readily when confined4 ,although it is easy to tame most wild birds1 experience shows us that it is difficult to get them to breed freely under confinement2 although it must be owned that this is less difficult with pigeons than with most other birds4 ,during the last two or three hundred years1 many birds have been kept in aviaries1 but hardly one has been added to our list of thoroughly reclaimed species3 yet on the above doctrine we must admit that in ancient times nearly a dozen kinds of pigeons1 now unknown in the wild state1 were thoroughly domesticated4 ,thirdly4--,most of our domesticated animals have run wild in various parts of the world2 but birds1 owing apparently to their partial loss of the power of flight1 less often than quadrupeds4 ,nevertheless ,i have met with accounts showing that the common fowl has become feral in ,south ,america and perhaps in ,west ,africa1 and on several islands3 the turkey was at one time almost feral on the banks of the ,parana2 and the ,guinea-fowl has become perfectly wild at ,ascension and in ,jamaica4 ,in this latter island the peacock1 also1 8has become a maroon bird40 ,the common duck wanders from its home and becomes almost wild in ,norfolk4 ,hybrids between the common and musk-duck which have become wild have been shot in ,north ,america1 ,belgium1 and near the ,caspian ,sea4 ,the goose is said to have run wild in ,la ,plata4 ,the common dovecot-pigeon has become wild at ,juan ,fernandez1 ,norfolk ,island1 ,ascension1 probably at ,madeira1 on the shores of ,scotland1 and1 as is asserted1 on the banks of the ,hudson in ,north ,america4#ah ,but how different is the case1 when we turn to the eleven chief domestic races of the pigeon1 which are supposed by some authors to be descended from so many distinct species6 no one has ever pretended that any one of these races has been found wild in any quarter of the world2 yet they have been transported to all countries1 and some of them must have been carried back to their native homes4 ,on the view that all the races are the product of variation1 we can understand why they have not become feral1 for the great amount of modification which they have undergone shows how long and how thoroughly they have been domesticated2 and this would unfit them for a wild life4 ,fourthly4--,if it be assumed that the characteristic differences between the various domestic races are due to descent from several aboriginal species1 we must conclude that man chose for domestication in ancient times1 either intentionally or by chance1 a most abnormal set of pigeons2 for that species resembling such birds as ,pouters1 ,fantails1 ,carriers1 ,barbs1 ,short-faced ,tumblers1 ,turbits1 etc41 would be in the highest degree abnormal1 as compared with all the existing members of the great pigeon family1 cannot be doubted4 ,thus we should have to believe that man not only formerly succeeded in thoroughly domesticating several highly abnormal species1 but that these same species have since all become extinct1 or are at least now unknown4 ,this double accident is so extremely improbable that the assumed existence of so many abnormal species would require to be supported by the strongest evidence4 ,on the other hand1 if all the races are descended from ,c4 livia1 we can understand1 as will hereafter be more fully explained1 how any slight deviation in structure which first appeared would continually be augmented by the preservation of the most strongly marked individuals2 and as the power of selection would be applied according to man's fancy1 and not for the bird's own good1 the accumulated amount of deviation would certainly be of an abnormal nature in comparison with the structure of pigeons living in a state of nature4 ,i have already alluded to the remarkable fact that the characteristic differences between the chief domestic races are eminently variable2 we see this plainly in the great difference in the number of the tail-feathers in the ,fantail1 in the development of the crop in ,pouters1 in the length of the beak in ,tumblers1 in the state of the wattle in ,carriers1 etc4 ,if these characters are the result of successive variations added together by selection1 we can understand why they should be so variable3 for these are the very parts which have varied since the domestication of the pigeon1 and therefore would be likely still to vary2 these variations moreover have been recently1 and are still being accumulated by man's selection2 therefore they have not as yet become firmly fixed4 ,fifthly4--,all the domestic races pair readily together1 and1 what is equally important1 their mongrel offspring are perfectly fertile4 ,to ascertain this fact ,i made many experiments1 which are given in the note below2 and recently ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has made similar experiments with the same result4#ai ,the accurate ,neumeister asserts that when dovecots are crossed with pigeons of any other breed1 the mongrels are extremely fertile and hardy4#bj ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi#ba affirm1 after their great experience1 that the more distinct the breeds are which are crossed1 the more productive are their mongrel offspring4 ,i admit that the doctrine first broached by ,pallas is highly probable1 if not actually proved1 namely1 that closely allied species1 which in a state of nature or when first captured would have been in some degree sterile if crossed1 lose this sterility after a long course of domestication2 yet when we consider the great difference between such races as ,pouters1 ,carriers1 ,runts1 ,fantails1 ,turbits1 ,tumblers etc41 the fact of their perfect1 or even increased1 fertility when intercrossed in the most complicated manner becomes a strong argument in favour of their having all descended from a single species4 ,this argument is rendered much stronger when we hear 7,i append in a note#bb all the cases which ,i have collected7 that hardly a single well-ascertained instance is known of hybrids between two true species of pigeons being fertile1 inter se1 or even when crossed with one of their pure parents4 ,sixthly4--,excluding certain important characteristic differences1 the chief races agree most closely both with each other and with ,c4 livia in all other respects4 ,as previously observed1 all are eminently sociable2 all dislike to perch or roost1 and refuse to build in trees2 all lay two eggs1 and this is not a universal rule with the ,columbid2 all1 as far as ,i can hear1 require the same time for hatching their eggs2 all can endure the same great range of climate2 all prefer the same food1 and are passionately fond of salt2 all exhibit 7with the asserted exception of the ,finnikin and ,turner which do not differ much in any other character7 the same peculiar gestures when courting the females2 and all 7with the exception of ,trumpeters and ,laughers1 which likewise do not differ much in any other character7 coo in the same peculiar manner1 unlike the voice of any other wild pigeon4 ,all the coloured breeds display the same peculiar metallic tints on the breast1 a character far from general with pigeons4 ,each race presents nearly the same range of variation in colour2 and in most of the races we have the same singular correlation between the development of down in the young and the future colour of plumage4 ,all have the proportional length of their toes1 and of their primary wing-feathers1 nearly the same1--characters which are apt to differ in the several members of the ,columbid4 ,in those races which present some remarkable deviation of structure1 such as in the tail of ,fantails1 crop of ,pouters1 beak of ,carriers and ,tumblers1 etc41 the other parts remain nearly unaltered4 ,now every naturalist will admit that it would be scarcely possible to pick out a dozen natural species in any family which should agree closely in habits and in general structure1 and yet should differ greatly in a few characters alone4 ,this fact is explicable through the doctrine of natural selection2 for each successive modification of structure in each natural species is preserved1 solely because it is of service2 and such modifications when largely accumulated imply a great change in the habits of life1 and this will almost certainly lead to other changes of structure throughout the whole organisation4 ,on the other hand1 if the several races of the pigeon have been produced by man through selection and variation1 we can readily understand how it is that they should still all resemble each other in habits and in those many characters which man has not cared to modify1 whilst they differ to so prodigious a degree in those parts which have struck his eye or pleased his fancy4 ,besides the points above enumerated1 in which all the domestic races resemble ,c4 livia and each other1 there is one which deserves special notice4 ,the wild rock-pigeon is of a slaty-blue colour2 the wings are crossed by two bars2 the croup varies in colour1 being generally white in the pigeon of ,europe1 and blue in that of ,india2 the tail has a black bar close to the end1 and the outer webs of the outer tail-feathers are edged with white1 except near the tips4 ,these combined characters are not found in any wild pigeon besides ,c4 livia4 ,i have looked carefully through the great collections of pigeons in the ,british ,museum1 and ,i find that a dark bar at the end of the tail is common2 that the white edging to the outer tail-feathers is not rare2 but that the white croup is extremely rare1 and the two black bars on the wings occur in no other pigeon1 excepting the alpine ,c4 leuconota and ,c4 rupestris of ,asia4 ,now if we turn to the domestic races1 it is highly remarkable1 as an eminent fancier1 ,mr4 ,wicking1 observed to me1 that1 whenever a blue bird appears in any race1 the wings almost invariably show the double black bars4#bc ,the primary wing-feathers may be white or black1 and the whole body may be of any colour1 but if the wing-coverts are blue1 the two black bars are sure to appear4 ,i have myself seen1 or acquired trustworthy evidence1 as given below1#bd of blue birds with black bars on the wing1 with the croup either white or very pale or dark blue1 with the tail having a terminal black bar1 and with the outer feathers externally edged with white or very pale coloured1 in the following races1 which1 as ,i carefully observed in each case1 appeared to be perfectly true3 namely1 in ,pouters1 ,fantails1 ,tumblers1 ,jacobins1 ,turbits1 ,barbs1 ,carriers1 ,runts of three distinct varieties1 ,trumpeters1 ,swallows1 and in many other toy-pigeons1 which as being closely allied to ,c4 livia1 are not worth enumerating4 ,thus we see that1 in purely-bred races of every kind known in ,europe1 blue birds occasionally appear having all the marks which characterise ,c4 livia1 and which concur in no other wild species4 ,mr4 ,blyth1 also1 has made the same observation with respect to the various domestic races known in ,india4 ,certain variations in the plumage are equally common in the wild ,c4 livia1 in dovecot-pigeons1 and in all the most highly modified races4 ,thus1 in all1 the croup varies from white to blue1 being most frequently white in ,europe1 and very generally blue in ,india4#be ,we have seen that the wild ,c4 livia in ,europe1 and dovecots in all parts of the world1 often have the upper wing-coverts chequered with black2 and all the most distinct races1 when blue1 are occasionally chequered in precisely the same manner4 ,thus ,i have seen ,pouters1 ,fantails1 ,carriers1 ,turbits1 ,tumblers 7,indian and ,english71 ,swallows1 ,bald-pates1 and other toy-pigeons blue and chequered2 and ,mr4 ,esquilant has seen a chequered ,runt4 ,i bred from two pure blue ,tumblers a chequered bird4 ,the facts hitherto given refer to the occasional appearance in pure races of blue birds with black wing-bars1 and likewise of blue and chequered birds2 but it will now be seen that when two birds belonging to distinct races are crossed1 neither of which have1 nor probably have had during many generations1 a trace of blue in their plumage1 or a trace of wing-bars and the other characteristic marks1 they very frequently produce mongrel offspring of a blue colour1 sometimes chequered1 with black wing-bars1 etc42 or if not of a blue colour1 yet with the several characteristic marks more or less plainly developed4 ,i was led to investigate this subject from ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi#bf having asserted that from crosses between certain breeds it is rare to get anything but bisets or dovecot pigeons1 which1 as we know1 are blue birds with the usual characteristic marks4 ,we shall hereafter see that this subject possesses1 independently of our present object1 considerable interest1 so that ,i will give the results of my own trials in full4 ,i selected for experiment races which1 when pure1 very seldom produce birds of a blue colour1 or have bars on their wings and tail4 ,the ,nun is white1 with the head1 tail1 and primary wing-feathers black2 it is a breed which was established as long ago as the year #afjj4 ,i crossed a male ,nun with a female red common ,tumbler1 which latter variety generally breeds true4 ,thus neither parent had a trace of blue in the plumage1 or of bars on the wing and tail4 ,i should premise that common ,tumblers are rarely blue in ,england4 ,from the above cross ,i reared several young3 one was red over the whole back1 but with the tail as blue as that of the rock-pigeon2 the terminal bar1 however1 was absent1 but the outer feathers were edged with white3 a second and third nearly resembled the first1 but the tail in both presented a trace of the bar at the end3 a fourth was brownish1 and the wings showed a trace of the double bar3 a fifth was pale blue over the whole breast1 back1 croup1 and tail1 but the neck and primary wing-feathers were reddish2 the wings presented two distinct bars of a red colour2 the tail was not barred1 but the outer feathers were edged with white4 ,i crossed this last curiously coloured bird with a black mongrel of complicated descent1 namely1 from a black ,barb1 a ,spot1 and ,almond-tumbler1 so that the two young birds produced from this cross included the blood of five varieties1 none of which had a trace of blue or of wing and tail-bars3 one of the two young birds was brownish-black1 with black wing-bars2 the other was reddish-dun1 with reddish wing-bars1 paler than the rest of the body1 with the croup pale blue1 the tail bluish with a trace of the terminal bar4 ,mr4 ,eaton#bg matched two ,short-faced ,tumblers1 namely1 a splash cock and kite hen 7neither of which are blue or barred71 and from the first nest he got a perfect blue bird1 and from the second a silver or pale blue bird1 both of which1 in accordance with all analogy1 no doubt presented the usual characteristic marks4 ,i crossed two male black ,barbs with two female red ,spots4 ,these latter have the whole body and wings white1 with a spot on the forehead1 the tail and tail-coverts red2 the race existed at least as long ago as #afgf1 and now breeds perfectly true1 as was known to be the case in the year #agce4bh ,barbs are uniformly-coloured birds1 with rarely even a trace of bars on the wing or tail2 they are known to breed very true4 ,the mongrels thus raised were black or nearly black1 or dark or pale brown1 sometimes slightly piebald with white3 of these birds no less than six presented double wing-bars2 in two the bars were conspicuous and quite black2 in seven some white feathers appeared on the croup2 and in two or three there was a trace of the terminal bar to the tail1 but in none were the outer tail-feathers edged with white4 ,i crossed black ,barbs 7of two excellent strains7 with purely-bred1 snow-white ,fantails4 ,the mongrels were generally quite black1 with a few of the primary wing and tail feathers white3 others were dark reddish-brown1 and others snow-white3 none had a trace of wing-bars or of the white croup4 ,i then paired together two of these mongrels1 namely1 a brown and black bird1 and their offspring displayed wing-bars1 faint1 but of a darker brown than the rest of body4 ,in a second brood from the same parents a brown bird was produced1 with several white feathers confined to the croup4 ,i crossed a male dun ,dragon belonging to a family which had been dun- coloured without wing-bars during several generations1 with a uniform red ,barb 7bred from two black ,barbs72 and the offspring presented decided but faint traces of wing-bars4 ,i crossed a uniform red male ,runt with a ,white trumpeter2 and the offspring had a slaty-blue tail with a bar at the end1 and with the outer feathers edged with white4 ,i also crossed a female black and white chequered ,trumpeter 7of a different strain from the last7 with a male ,almond-tumbler1 neither of which exhibited a trace of blue1 or of the white croup1 or of the bar at end of tail3 nor is it probable that the progenitors of these two birds had for many generations exhibited any of these characters1 for ,i have never even heard of a blue ,trumpeter in this country1 and my ,almond-tumbler was purely bred2 yet the tail of this mongrel was bluish1 with a broad black bar at the end1 and the croup was perfectly white4 ,it may be observed in several of these cases1 that the tail first shows a tendency to become by reversion blue2 and this fact of the persistency of colour in the tail and tail-coverts#bi will surprise no one who has attended to the crossing of pigeons4 ,the last case which ,i will give is the most curious4 ,i paired a mongrel female ,barb-fantail with a mongrel male ,barb-spot2 neither of which mongrels had the least blue about them4 ,let it be remembered that blue ,barbs are excessively rare2 that ,spots1 as has been already stated1 were perfectly characterised in the year #afgf1 and breed perfectly true2 this likewise is the case with white ,fantails1 so much so that ,i have never heard of white ,fantails throwing any other colour4 ,nevertheless the offspring from the above two mongrels was of exactly the same blue tint as that of the wild rock-pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands over the whole back and wings2 the double black wing-bars were equally conspicuous2 the tail was exactly alike in all its characters1 and the croup was pure white2 the head1 however1 was tinted with a shade of red1 evidently derived from the ,spot1 and was of a paler blue than in the rock-pigeon1 as was the stomach4 ,so that two black ,barbs1 a red ,spot1 and a white ,fantail1 as the four purely-bred grandparents1 produced a bird exhibiting the general blue colour1 together with every characteristic mark1 the wild ,columba livia4 ,with respect to crossed breeds frequently producing blue birds chequered with black1 and resembling in all respects both the dovecot-pigeon and the chequered wild variety of the rock-pigeon1 the statement before referred to by ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi would almost suffice2 but ,i will give three instances of the appearance of such birds from crosses in which one alone of the parents or great-grandparents was blue1 but not chequered4 ,i crossed a male blue ,turbit with a snow-white ,trumpeter1 and the following year with a dark1 leaden-brown1 ,short-faced ,tumbler2 the offspring from the first cross were as perfectly chequered as any dovecot-pigeon2 and from the second1 so much so as to be nearly as black as the most darkly chequered rock-pigeon from ,madeira4 ,another bird1 whose great-grandparents were a white ,trumpeter1 a white ,fantail1 a white ,red-spot1 a red ,runt1 and a blue ,pouter1 was slaty-blue and chequered exactly like a dovecot-pigeon4 ,i may here add a remark made to me by ,mr4 ,wicking1 who has had more experience than any other person in ,england in breeding pigeons of various colours3 namely1 that when a blue1 or a blue and chequered bird1 having black wing- bars1 once appears in any race and is allowed to breed1 these characters are so strongly transmitted that it is extremely difficult to eradicate them4 ,what1 then1 are we to conclude from this tendency in all the chief domestic races1 both when purely bred and more especially when intercrossed1 to produce offspring of a blue colour1 with the same characteristic marks1 varying in the same manner1 as in ,columbia livia8 ,if we admit that these races are all descended from ,c4 livia1 no breeder will doubt that the occasional appearance of blue birds thus characterised is accounted for on the well-known principle of 8throwing back0 or reversion4 ,why crossing should give so strong a tendency to reversion1 we do not with certainty know2 but abundant evidence of this fact will be given in the following chapters4 ,it is probable that ,i might have bred even for a century pure black ,barbs1 ,spots1 ,nuns1 white ,fantails1 ,trumpeters1 etc41 without obtaining a single blue or barred bird2 yet by crossing these breeds ,i reared in the first and second generation1 during the course of only three or four years1 a considerable number of young birds1 more or less plainly coloured blue1 and with most of the characteristic marks4 ,when black and white1 or black and red birds1 are crossed1 it would appear that a slight tendency exists in both parents to produce blue offspring1 and that this1 when combined1 overpowers the separate tendency in either parent to produce black1 or white1 or red offspring4 ,if we reject the belief that all the races of the pigeon are the modified descendants of ,c4 livia1 and suppose that they are descended from several aboriginal stocks1 then we must choose between the three following assumptions3 firstly1 that at least eight or nine species formerly existed which were aboriginally coloured in various ways1 but have since varied in exactly the same manner so as to assume the colouring of ,c4 livia2 but this assumption throws not the least light on the appearance of such colours and marks when the races are crossed4 ,or secondly1 we may assume that the aboriginal species were all coloured blue1 and had the wing-bars and other characteristic marks of ,c4 livia1--a supposition which is highly improbable1 as besides this one species no existing member of the ,columbid presents these combined characters2 and it would not be possible to find any other instance of several species identical in plumage1 yet as different in important points of structure as are ,pouters1 ,fantails1 ,carriers1 ,tumblers1 etc4 ,or lastly1 we may assume that all the races1 whether descended from ,c4 livia or from several aboriginal species1 although they have been bred with so much care and are so highly valued by fanciers1 have all been crossed within a dozen or score of generations with ,c4 livia1 and have thus acquired their tendency to produce blue birds with the several characteristic marks4 ,i have said that it must be assumed that each race has been crossed with ,c4 livia within a dozen1 or1 at the utmost1 within a score of generations2 for there is no reason to believe that crossed offspring ever revert to one of their ancestors when removed by a greater number of generations4 ,in a breed which has been crossed only once1 the tendency to reversion will naturally become less and less in the succeeding generations1 as in each there will be less and less of the blood of the foreign breed2 but when there has been no cross with a distinct breed1 and there is a tendency in both parents to revert to some long-lost character1 this tendency1 for all that we can see to the contrary1 may be transmitted undiminished for an indefinite number of generations4 ,these two distinct cases of reversion are often confounded together by those who have written on inheritance4 ,considering1 on the one hand1 the improbability of the three assumptions which have just been discussed1 and1 on the other hand1 how simply the facts are explained on the principle of reversion1 we may conclude that the occasional appearance in all the races1 both when purely bred and more especially when crossed1 of blue birds1 sometimes chequered1 with double wing-bars1 with white or blue croups1 with a bar at the end of the tail1 and with the outer tail-feathers edged with white1 affords an argument of the greatest weight in favour of the view that all are descended from ,columba livia1 including under this name the three or four wild varieties or sub-species before enumerated4 ,to sum up the six foregoing arguments1 which are opposed to the belief that the chief domestic races are the descendants of at least eight or nine or perhaps a dozen species2 for the crossing of any less number would not yield the characteristic differences between the several races4 ,firstly1 the improbability that so many species should still exist somewhere1 but be unknown to ornithologists1 or that they should have become within the historical period extinct1 although man has had so little influence in exterminating the wild ,c4 livia4 ,secondly1 the improbability of man in former times having thoroughly domesticated and rendered fertile under confinement so many species4 ,thirdly1 these supposed species having nowhere become feral4 ,fourthly1 the extraordinary fact that man should1 intentionally or by chance1 have chosen for domestication several species1 extremely abnormal in character2 and furthermore1 the points of structure which render these supposed species so abnormal being now highly variable4 ,fifthly1 the fact of all the races1 though differing in many important points of structure1 producing perfectly fertile mongrels2 whilst all the hybrids which have been produced between even closely allied species in the pigeon-family are sterile4 ,sixthly1 the remarkable statements just given on the tendency in all the races1 both when purely bred and when crossed1 to revert in numerous minute details of colouring to the character of the wild rock-pigeon1 and to vary in a similar manner4 ,to these arguments may be added the extreme improbability that a number of species formerly existed1 which differed greatly from each other in some few points1 but which resembled each other as closely as do the domestic races in other points of structure1 in voice1 and in all their habits of life4 ,when these several facts and arguments are fairly taken into consideration1 it would require an overwhelming amount of evidence to make us admit that the chief domestic races are descended from several aboriginal stocks2 and of such evidence there is absolutely none4 ,the belief that the chief domestic races are descended from several wild stocks no doubt has arisen from the apparent improbability of such great modifications of structure having been effected since man first domesticated the rock-pigeon4 ,nor am ,i surprised at any degree of hesitation in admitting their common parentage3 formerly1 when ,i went into my aviaries and watched such birds as ,pouters1 ,carriers1 ,barbs1 ,fantails1 and ,short-faced ,tumblers1 etc41 ,i could not persuade myself that all had descended from the same wild stock1 and that man had consequently in one sense created these remarkable modifications4 ,therefore ,i have argued the question of their origin at great1 and1 as some will think1 superfluous length4 ,finally1 in favour of the belief that all the races are descended from a single stock1 we have in ,columba livia a still existing and widely distributed species1 which can be and has been domesticated in various countries4 ,this species agrees in most points of structure and in all its habits of life1 as well as occasionally in every detail of plumage1 with the several domestic races4 ,it breeds freely with them1 and produces fertile offspring4 ,it varies in a state of nature1#cj and still more so when semi-domesticated1 as shown by comparing the ,sierra ,leone pigeons with those of ,india1 or with those which apparently have run wild in ,madeira4 ,it has undergone a still greater amount of variation in the case of the numerous toy-pigeons1 which no one supposes to be descended from distinct species2 yet some of these toy-pigeons have transmitted their character truly for centuries4 ,why1 then1 should we hesitate to believe in that greater amount of variation which is necessary for the production of the eleven chief races8 ,it should be borne in mind that in two of the most strongly-marked races1 namely1 ,carriers and ,short-faced ,tumblers1 the extreme forms can be connected with the parent-species by graduated differences not greater than those which may be observed between the dovecot-pigeons inhabiting different countries1 or between the various kinds of toy-pigeons1--gradations which must certainly be attributed to variation4 ,that circumstances have been eminently favourable for the modification of the pigeon through variation and selection will now be shown4 ,the earliest record1 as has been pointed out to me by ,professor ,lepsius1 of pigeons in a domesticated condition1 occurs in the fifth ,egyptian dynasty1 about #cjjj ,b4,c42#ca but ,mr4 ,birch1 of the ,british ,museum1 informs me that the pigeon appears in a bill of fare in the previous dynasty4 ,domestic pigeons are mentioned in ,genesis1 ,leviticus1 and ,isaiah4#cb ,in the time of the ,romans1 as we hear from ,pliny1#cc immense prices were given for pigeons2 8nay1 they are come to this pass1 that they can reckon up their pedigree and race40 ,in ,india1 about the year #afjj1 pigeons were much valued by ,akbar ,khan3 #bj1jjj birds were carried about with the court1 and the merchants brought valuable collections4 8,the monarch of ,iran and ,turan sent him some very rare breeds4 ,his ,majesty10 says the courtly historian1 8by crossing the breeds1 which method was never practised before1 has improved them astonishingly40#cd ,akber ,khan possessed seventeen distinct kinds1 eight of which were valuable for beauty alone4 ,at about this same period of #afjj the ,dutch1 according to ,aldrovandi1 were as eager about pigeons as the ,romans had formerly been4 ,the breeds which were kept during the fifteenth century in ,europe and in ,india apparently differed from each other4 ,tavernier1 in his ,travels in #afgg1 speaks1 as does ,chardin in #agce1 of the vast number of pigeon-houses in ,persia2 and the former remarks that1 as ,christians were not permitted to keep pigeons1 some of the vulgar actually turned ,mahometans for this sole purpose4 ,the ,emperor of ,morocco had his favourite keeper of pigeons1 as is mentioned in ,moore's treatise1 published #agcg4 ,in ,england1 from the time of ,willughby in #afgh to the present day1 as well as in ,germany and in ,france1 numerous treatises have been published on the pigeon4 ,in ,india1 about a hundred years ago1 a ,persian treatise was written2 and the writer thought it no light affair1 for he begins with a solemn invocation1 8in the name of ,god1 the gracious and merciful40 ,many large towns1 in ,europe and the ,united ,states1 now have their societies of devoted pigeon-fanciers3 at present there are three such societies in ,london4 ,in ,india1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,blyth1 the inhabitants of ,delhi and of some other great cities are eager fanciers4 ,mr4 ,layard informs me that most of the known breeds are kept in ,ceylon4 ,in ,china1 according to ,mr4 ,swinhoe of ,amoy1 and ,dr4 ,lockhart of ,shangai1 ,carriers1 ,fantails1 ,tumblers1 and other varieties are reared with care1 especially by the bonzes or priests4 ,the ,chinese fasten a kind of whistle to the tail-feathers of their pigeons1 and as the flock wheels through the air they produce a sweet sound4 ,in ,egypt the late ,abbas ,pacha was a great fancier of ,fantails4 ,many pigeons are kept at ,cairo and ,constantinople1 and these have lately been imported by native merchants1 as ,i hear from ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 into ,southern ,india1 and sold at high prices4 ,the foregoing statements show in how many countries1 and during how long a period1 many men have been passionately devoted to the breeding of pigeons4 ,hear how an enthusiastic fancier at the present day writes3 8,if it were possible for noblemen and gentlemen to know the amazing amount of solace and pleasure derived from ,almond ,tumblers1 when they begin to understand their properties1 ,i should think that scarce any nobleman or gentleman would be without their aviaries of ,almond ,tumblers40#ce ,the pleasure thus taken is of paramount importance1 as it leads amateurs carefully to note and preserve each slight deviation of structure which strikes their fancy4 ,pigeons are often closely confined during their whole lives2 they do not partake of their naturally varied diet2 they have often been transported from one climate to another2 and all these changes in their conditions of life would be likely to cause variability4 ,pigeons have been domesticated for nearly #ejjj years1 and have been kept in many places1 so that the numbers reared under domestication must have been enormous3 and this is another circumstance of high importance1 for it obviously favours the chance of rare modifications of structure occasionally appearing4 ,slight variations of all kinds would almost certainly be observed1 and1 if valued1 would1 owing to the following circumstances1 be preserved and propagated with unusual facility4 ,pigeons1 differently from any other domesticated animal1 can easily be mated for life1 and1 though kept with other pigeons1 rarely prove unfaithful to each other4 ,even when the male does break his marriage-vow1 he does not permanently desert his mate4 ,i have bred in the same aviaries many pigeons of different kinds1 and never reared a single bird of an impure strain4 ,hence a fancier can with the greatest ease select and match his birds4 ,he will also see the good results of his care2 for pigeons breed with extraordinary rapidity4 ,he may freely reject inferior birds1 as they serve at an early age as excellent food4 ,history of the principal ,races of the ,pigeon4#cf ,before discussing the means and steps by which the chief races have been formed1 it will be advisable to give some historical details1 for more is known of the history of the pigeon1 little though this is1 than of any other domesticated animal4 ,some of the cases are interesting as proving how long domestic varieties may be propagated with exactly the same or nearly the same characters2 and other cases are still more interesting as showing how slowly but steadily races have been greatly modified during successive generations4 ,in the last chapter ,i stated that ,trumpeters and ,laughers1 both so remarkable for their voices1 seem to have been perfectly characterised in #agce2 and ,laughers were apparently known in ,india before the year #afjj4 ,spots in #afgf1 and ,nuns in the time of ,aldrovandi1 before #afjj1 were coloured exactly as they now are4 ,common ,tumblers and ,ground ,tumblers displayed in ,india1 before the year #afjj1 the same extraordinary peculiarities of flight as at the present day1 for they are well described in the #8,ayeen ,akbery4' ,these breeds may all have existed for a much longer period2 we know only that they were perfectly characterised at the dates above given4 ,the average length of life of the domestic pigeon is probably about five or six years2 if so1 some of these races have retained their character perfectly for at least forty or fifty generations4 ,pouters4--,these birds1 as far as a very short description serves for comparison1 appear to have been well characterised in ,aldrovandi's time1#cg before the year #afjj4 ,length of body and length of leg are at the present time the two chief points of excellence4 ,in #agce ,moore said 7see ,mr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton's edition7--and ,moore was a first-rate fancier--that he once saw a bird with a body #bj inches in length1 8though #ag or #ah inches is reckoned a very good length20 and he has seen the legs very nearly #g inches in length1 yet a leg #f or #f long 8must be allowed to be a very good one40 ,mr4 ,bult1 the most successful breeder of ,pouters in the world1 informs me that at present 7#aheh7 the standard length of the body is not less than #ah inches2 but he has measured one bird #ai inches in length1 and has heard of #bj and #bb inches1 but doubts the truth of these latter statements4 ,the standard length of the leg is now #g inches1 but ,mr4 ,bult has recently measured two of his own birds with legs #g long4 ,so that in the #abc years which have elapsed since #agce there has been hardly any increase in the standard length of the body2 #ag or #ah inches was formerly reckoned a very good length1 and now #ah inches is the minimum standard2 but the length of leg seems to have increased1 as ,moore never saw one quite #g inches long2 now the standard is #g1 and two of ,mr4 ,bult's birds measured #g inches in length4 ,the extremely slight improvement in ,pouters1 except in the length of the leg1 during the last #abc years1 may be partly accounted for by the neglect which they suffered1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,bult1 until within the last #bj or #cj years4 ,about #agfech there was a change of fashion1 stouter and more feathered legs being preferred to thin and nearly naked legs4 ,fantails4--,the first notice of the existence of this breed is in ,india1 before the year #afjj1 as given in the #8,ayeen ,akbery2'#ci at this date1 judging from ,aldrovandi1 the breed was unknown in ,europe4 ,in #afgg ,willughby speaks of a ,fantail with #bf tail-feathers2 in #agce ,moore saw one with #cf feathers2 and in #ahbd ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi assert that in ,france birds can easily be found with #db tail-feathers4 ,in ,england1 the number of the tail-feathers is not at present so much regarded as their upward direction and expansion4 ,the general carriage of the bird is likewise now much valued4 ,the old descriptions do not suffice to show whether in these latter respects there has been much improvement3 but if ,fantails with their heads and tails touching had formerly existed1 as at the present time1 the fact would almost certainly have been noticed4 ,the ,fantails which are now found in ,india probably show the state of the race1 as far as carriage is concerned1 at the date of their introduction into ,europe2 and some1 said to have been brought from ,calcutta1 which ,i kept alive1 were in a marked manner inferior to our exhibition birds4 ,the ,java ,fantail shows the same difference in carriage2 and although ,mr4 ,swinhoe has counted #ah and #bd tail-feathers in his birds1 a first-rate specimen sent to me had only #ad tail-feathers4 ,jacobins4--,this breed existed before #afjj1 but the hood1 judging from the figure given by ,aldrovandi1 did not enclose the head nearly so perfectly as at present3 nor was the head then white2 nor were the wings and tail so long1 but this last character might have been overlooked by the rude artist4 ,in ,moore's time1 in #agce1 the ,jacobin was considered the smallest kind of pigeon1 and the bill is said to be very short4 ,hence either the ,jacobin1 or the other kinds with which it was then compared1 must since that time have been considerably modified2 for ,moore's description 7and it must be remembered that he was a first-rate judge7 is clearly not applicable1 as far as size of body and length of beak are concerned1 to our present ,jacobins4 ,in #agie1 judging from ,bechstein1 the breed had assumed its present character4 ,turbits4--,it has generally been supposed by the older writers on pigeons1 that the ,turbit is the ,cortbeck of ,aldrovandi2 but if this be the case1 it is an extraordinary fact that the characteristic frill should not have been noticed4 ,the beak1 moreover1 of the ,cortbeck is described as closely resembling that of the ,jacobin1 which shows a change in the one or the other race4 ,the ,turbit1 with its characteristic frill1 and bearing its present name1 is described by ,willughby in #afgg2 and the bill is said to be like that of the bullfinch1--a good comparison1 but now more strictly applicable to the beak of the ,barb4 ,the sub-breed called the ,owl was well known in ,moore's time1 in #agce4 ,tumblers4--,common ,tumblers1 as well as ,ground ,tumblers1 perfect as far as tumbling is concerned1 existed in ,india before the year #afjj2 and at this period diversified modes of flight1 such as flying at night1 the ascent to a great height1 and manner of descent1 seem to have been much attended to in ,india1 as at the present time4 ,belon#dj in #aeee saw in ,paphlagonia what he describes as 8a very new thing1 viz4 pigeons which flew so high in the air that they were lost to view1 but returned to their pigeon-house without separating40 ,this manner of flight is characteristic of our present ,tumblers1 but it is clear that ,belon would have mentioned the act of tumbling if the pigeons described by him had tumbled4 ,tumblers were not known in ,europe in #afjj1 as they are not mentioned by ,aldrovandi1 who discusses the flight of pigeons4 ,they are briefly alluded to by ,willughby1 in #afhg1 as small pigeons 8which show like footballs in the air40 ,the short-faced race did not exist at this period1 as ,willughby could not have overlooked birds so remarkable for their small size and short beaks4 ,we can even trace some of the steps by which this race has been produced4 ,moore in #agce enumerates correctly the chief points of excellence1 but does not give any description of the several sub-breeds2 and from this fact ,mr4 ,eaton infers#da that the ,short-faced ,tumbler had not then come to full perfection4 ,moore even speaks of the ,jacobin as being the smallest pigeon4 ,thirty years afterwards1 in #agfe1 in the ,treatise dedicated to ,mayor1 short-faced ,almond ,tumblers are fully described1 but the author1 an excellent fancier1 expressly states in his ,preface 7p4 xiv47 that1 8from great care and expense in breeding them1 they have arrived to so great perfection and are so different from what they were #bj or #cj years past1 that an old fancier would have condemned them for no other reason than because they are not like what used to be thought good when he was in the fancy before40 ,hence it would appear that there was a rather sudden change in the character of the short-faced ,tumbler at about this period2 and there is reason to suspect that a dwarfed and half-monstrous bird1 the parent-form of the several short-faced sub-breeds1 then appeared4 ,i suspect this because short-faced ,tumblers are born with their beaks 7ascertained by careful measurement7 as short1 proportionally with the size of their bodies1 as in the adult bird2 and in this respect they differ greatly from all other breeds1 which slowly acquire during growth their various characteristic qualities4 ,since the year #agfe there has been some change in one of the chief characters of the short-faced ,tumbler1 namely1 in the length of the beak4 ,fanciers measure the 8head and beak0 from the tip of the beak to the front corner of the eyeball4 ,about the year #agfe a 8head and beak0 was considered good1#db which1 measured in the usual manner1 was #g_/h of an inch in length2 now it ought not to exceed #e_/h of an inch2 8it is however possible10 as ,mr4 ,eaton candidly confesses18for a bird to be considered as pleasant or neat even at #f_/h of an inch1 but exceeding that length it must be looked upon as unworthy of attention40 ,mr4 ,eaton states that he has never seen in the course of his life more than two or three birds with the 8head and beak0 not exceeding half an inch in length2 8still ,i believe in the course of a few years that the head and beak will be shortened1 and that half-inch birds will not be considered so great a curiosity as at the present time40 ,that ,mr4 ,eaton's opinion deserves attention cannot be doubted1 considering his success in winning prizes at our exhibitions4 ,finally in regard to the ,tumbler it may be concluded from the facts above given that it was originally introduced into ,europe1 probably first into ,england1 from the ,east2 and that it then resembled our common ,english ,tumbler1 or more probably the ,persian or ,indian ,tumbler1 with a beak only just perceptibly shorter than that of the common dovecot-pigeon4 ,with respect to the short-faced ,tumbler1 which is not known to exist in the ,east1 there can hardly be a doubt that the whole wonderful change in the size of the head1 beak1 body and feet1 and in general carriage1 has been produced during the last two centuries by continued selection1 aided probably by the birth of a semi- monstrous bird somewhere about the year #agej4 ,runts4--,of their history little can be said4 ,in the time of ,pliny the pigeons of ,campania were the largest known2 and from this fact alone some authors assert that they were ,runts4 ,in ,aldrovandi's time1 in #afjj1 two sub-breeds existed2 but one of them1 the short-beaked1 is now extinct in ,europe4 ,barbs4--,notwithstanding statements to the contrary1 it seems to me impossible to recognise the ,barb in ,aldrovandi's description and figures2 four breeds1 however1 existed in the year #afjj which evidently were allied both to ,barbs and ,carriers4 ,to show how difficult it is to recognise some of the breeds described by ,aldrovandi ,i will give the different opinions in regard to the above four kinds1 named by him ,c4 indica1 cretensis1 gutturosa1 and persica4 ,willughby thought that the ,columba indica was a ,turbit1 but the eminent fancier ,mr4 ,brent believes that it was an inferior ,barb3 ,c4 cretensis1 with a short beak and a swelling on the upper mandible1 cannot be recognised3 ,c4 7falsely called7 gutturosa1 which from its rostrum1 breve1 crassum1 et tuberosum seems to me to come nearest to the ,barb1 ,mr4 ,brent believes to be a ,carrier2 and lastly1 the ,c4 persica et turcica1 ,mr4 ,brent thinks1 and ,i quite concur with him1 was a short-beaked ,carrier with very little wattle4 ,in #afhg the ,barb was known in ,england1 and ,willughby describes the beak as like that of the ,turbit2 but it is not credible that his ,barbs should have had a beak like that of our present birds1 for so accurate an observer could not have overlooked its great breadth4 ,english ,carrier4--,we may look in vain in ,aldrovandi's work for any bird resembling our prize ,carriers2 the ,c4 persica et turcica of this author comes the nearest1 but is said to have had a short thick beak2 therefore it must have approached in character a ,barb1 and have differed greatly from our ,carriers4 ,in ,willughby's time1 in #afgg1 we can clearly recognise the ,carrier1 yet he adds1 8the bill is not short1 but of a moderate length20 a description which no one would apply to our present ,carriers1 so conspicuous for the extraordinary length of their beaks4 ,the old names given in ,europe to the ,carrier1 and the several names now in use in ,india1 indicate that ,carriers originally came from ,persia2 and ,willughby's description would perfectly apply to the ,bussorah ,carrier as it now exists in ,madras4 ,in later times we can partially trace the progress of change in our ,english ,carriers3 ,moore1 in #agce1 says 8an inch and a half is reckoned a long beak1 though there are very good ,carriers that are found not to exceed an inch and a quarter40 ,these birds must have resembled or perhaps been a little superior to the ,carriers1 previously described1 now found in ,persia4 ,in ,england at the present day 8there are10 as ,mr4 ,eaton#dc states1 8beaks that would measure 7from edge of eye to tip of beak7 one inch and three-quarters1 and some few even two inches in length40 ,from these historical details we see that nearly all the chief domestic races existed before the year #afjj4 ,some remarkable only for colour appear to have been identical with our present breeds1 some were nearly the same1 some considerably different1 and some have since become extinct4 ,several breeds1 such as ,finnikins and ,turners1 the swallow-tailed pigeon of ,bechstein and the ,carmelite1 seem to have originated and to have disappeared within this same period4 ,any one now visiting a well-stocked ,english aviary would certainly pick out as the most distinct kinds1 the massive ,runt1 the ,carrier with its wonderfully elongated beak and great wattles1 the ,barb with its short broad beak and eye-wattles1 the short-faced ,tumbler with its small conical beak1 the ,pouter with its great crop1 long legs and body1 the ,fantail with its upraised1 widely-expanded1 well-feathered tail1 the ,turbit with its frill and short blunt beak1 and the ,jacobin with his hood4 ,now1 if this same person could have viewed the pigeons kept before #afjj by ,akber ,khan in ,india and by ,aldrovandi in ,europe1 he would have seen the ,jacobin with a less perfect hood2 the ,turbit apparently without its frill2 the ,pouter with shorter legs1 and in every way less remarkable--that is1 if ,aldrovandi's ,pouter resembled the old ,german kind2 the ,fantail would have been far less singular in appearance1 and would have had much fewer feathers in its tail2 he would have seen excellent flying ,tumblers1 but he would in vain have looked for the marvellous short-faced breeds2 he would have seen birds allied to ,barbs1 but it is extremely doubtful whether he would have met with our actual ,barbs2 and lastly1 he would have found ,carriers with beaks and wattle incomparably less developed than in our ,english ,carriers4 ,he might have classed most of the breeds in the same groups as at present2 but the differences between the groups were then far less strongly pronounced than at present4 ,in short1 the several breeds had at this early period not diverged in so great a degree as now from their aboriginal common parent1 the wild rock-pigeon4 ,manner of ,formation of the chief ,races4 ,we will now consider more closely the probable steps by which the chief races have been formed4 ,as long as pigeons are kept semi-domesticated in dovecots in their native country1 without any care in selecting and matching them1 they are liable to little more variation than the wild ,c4 livia1 namely1 in the wings becoming chequered with black1 in the croup being blue or white1 and in the size of the body4 ,when1 however1 dovecot-pigeons are transported into diversified countries1 such as ,sierra ,leone1 the ,malay archipelago1 and ,madeira1 they are exposed to new conditions of life2 and apparently in consequence vary in a somewhat greater degree4 ,when closely confined1 either for the pleasure of watching them1 or to prevent their straying1 they must be exposed1 even in their native climate1 to considerably different conditions2 for they cannot obtain their natural diversity of food2 and1 what is probably more important1 they are abundantly fed1 whilst debarred from taking much exercise4 ,under these circumstances we might expect to find1 from the analogy of all other domesticated animals1 a greater amount of individual variability than with the wild pigeon2 and this is the case4 ,the want of exercise apparently tends to reduce the size of the feet and organs of flight2 and then1 from the law of correlation of growth1 the beak apparently becomes affected4 ,from what we now see occasionally taking place in our aviaries1 we may conclude that sudden variations or sports1 such as the appearance of a crest of feathers on the head1 of feathered feet1 of a new shade of colour1 of an additional feather in the tail or wing1 would occur at rare intervals during the many centuries which have elapsed since the pigeon was first domesticated4 ,at the present day such 8sports0 are generally rejected as blemishes2 and there is so much mystery in the breeding of pigeons that1 if a valuable sport did occur1 its history would often be concealed4 ,before the last hundred and fifty years1 there is hardly a chance of the history of any such sport having been recorded4 ,but it by no means follows from this that such sports in former times1 when the pigeon had undergone much less variation1 would have been rejected4 ,we are profoundly ignorant of the cause of each sudden and apparently spontaneous variation1 as well as of the infinitely numerous shades of difference between the birds of the same family4 ,but in a future chapter we shall see that all such variations appear to be the indirect result of changes of some kind in the conditions of life4 ,hence1 after a long course of domestication1 we might expect to see in the pigeon much individual variability1 and occasional sudden variations1 as well as slight modifications from the lessened use of certain parts1 together with the effects of correlation of growth4 ,but without selection all this would produce only a trifling or no result2 for without such aid differences of all kinds would1 from the two following causes1 soon disappear4 ,in a healthy and vigorous lot of pigeons many more young birds are killed for food or die than are reared to maturity2 so that an individual having any peculiar character1 if not selected1 would run a good chance of being destroyed2 and if not destroyed1 the peculiarity in question would generally be obliterated by free intercrossing4 ,it might1 however1 occasionally happen that the same variation repeatedly occurred1 owing to the action of peculiar and uniform conditions of life1 and in this case it would prevail independently of selection4 ,but when selection is brought into play all is changed2 for this is the foundation-stone in the formation of new races2 and with the pigeon1 circumstances1 as we have already seen1 are eminently favourable for selection4 ,when a bird presenting some conspicuous variation has been preserved1 and its offspring have been selected1 carefully matched1 and again propagated1 and so onwards during successive generations1 the principle is so obvious that nothing more need be said about it4 ,this may be called methodical selection1 for the breeder has a distinct object in view1 namely1 to preserve some character which has actually appeared2 or to create some improvement already pictured in his mind4 ,another form of selection has hardly been noticed by those authors who have discussed this subject1 but is even more important4 ,this form may be called unconscious selection1 for the breeder selects his birds unconsciously1 unintentionally1 and without method1 yet he surely though slowly produces a great result4 ,i refer to the effects which follow from each fancier at first procuring and afterwards rearing as good birds as he can1 according to his skill1 and according to the standard of excellence at each successive period4 ,he does not wish permanently to modify the breed2 he does not look to the distant future1 or speculate on the final result of the slow accumulation during many generations of successive slight changes2 he is content if he possesses a good stock1 and more than content if he can beat his rivals4 ,the fancier in the time of ,aldrovandi1 when in the year #afjj he admired his own ,jacobins1 ,pouters1 or ,carriers1 never reflected what their descendants in the year #ahfj would become3 he would have been astonished could he have seen our ,jacobins1 our improved ,english ,carriers1 and our ,pouters2 he would probably have denied that they were the descendants of his own once-admired stock1 and he would perhaps not have valued them1 for no other reason1 as was written in #agfe1 8than because they were not like what used to be thought good when he was in the fancy40 ,no one will attribute the lengthened beak of the ,carrier1 the shortened beak of the ,short-faced ,tumbler1 the lengthened leg of the ,pouter1 the more perfectly enclosed hood of the ,jacobin1 etc4--changes effected since the time of ,aldrovandi1 or even since a much later period1--to the direct and immediate action of the conditions of life4 ,for these several races have been modified in various and even in directly opposite ways1 though kept under the same climate and treated in all respects in as nearly uniform a manner as possible4 ,each slight change in the length or shortness of the beak1 in the length of leg1 etc41 has no doubt been indirectly and remotely caused by some change in the conditions to which the bird has been subjected1 but we must attribute the final result1 as is manifest in those cases of which we have any historical record1 to the continued selection and accumulation of many slight successive variations4 ,the action of unconscious selection1 as far as pigeons are concerned1 depends on a universal principle in human nature1 namely1 on our rivalry1 and desire to outdo our neighbours4 ,we see this in every fleeting fashion1 even in our dress1 and it leads the fancier to endeavour to exaggerate every peculiarity in his breeds4 ,a great authority on pigeons1#dd says1 8,fanciers do not and will not admire a medium standard1 that is1 half and half1 which is neither here nor there1 but admire extremes40 ,after remarking that the fancier of ,short-faced ,beard ,tumblers wishes for a very short beak1 and that the fancier of ,long-faced ,beard ,tumblers wishes for a very long beak1 he says1 with respect to one of intermediate length1 8,don't deceive yourself4 ,do you suppose for a moment the short or the long-faced fancier would accept such a bird as a gift8 ,certainly not2 the short-faced fancier could see no beauty in it2 the long-faced fancier would swear there was no use in it1 etc40 ,in these comical passages1 written seriously1 we see the principle which has ever guided fanciers1 and has led to such great modifications in all the domestic races which are valued solely for their beauty or curiosity4 ,fashions in pigeon-breeding endure for long periods2 we cannot change the structure of a bird as quickly as we can the fashion of our dress4 ,in the time of ,aldrovandi1 no doubt the more the pouter inflated his crop1 the more he was valued4 ,nevertheless1 fashions do to a certain extent change2 first one point of structure and then another is attended to2 or different breeds are admired at different times and in different countries4 ,as the author just quoted remarks1 8the fancy ebbs and flows2 a thorough fancier now-a-days never stoops to breed toy-birds20 yet these very 8toys0 are now most carefully bred in ,germany4 ,breeds which at the present time are highly valued in ,india are considered worthless in ,england4 ,no doubt1 when breeds are neglected1 they degenerate2 still we may believe that1 as long as they are kept under the same conditions of life1 characters once gained will be partially retained for a long time1 and may form the starting-point for a future course of selection4 ,let it not be objected to this view of the action of unconscious selection that fanciers would not observe or care for extremely slight differences4 ,those alone who have associated with fanciers can be thoroughly aware of their accurate powers of discrimination acquired by long practice1 and of the care and labour which they bestow on their birds4 ,i have known a fancier deliberately study his birds day after day to settle which to match together and which to reject4 ,observe how difficult the subject appears to one of the most eminent and experienced fanciers4 ,mr4 ,eaton1 the winner of many prizes1 says1 8,i would here particularly guard you against keeping too great a variety of pigeons1 otherwise you will know a little about all the kinds1 but nothing about one as it ought to be known40 8,it is possible there may be a few fanciers that have a good general knowledge of the several fancy pigeons1 but there are many who labour under the delusion of supposing they know what they do not40 ,speaking exclusively of one sub- variety of one race1 namely1 the short-faced almond tumbler1 and after saying that some fanciers sacrifice every property to obtain a good head and beak1 and that other fanciers sacrifice everything for plumage1 he remarks3 8,some young fanciers who are over covetous go in for all the five properties at once1 and they have their reward by getting nothing40 ,in ,india1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,blyth1 pigeons are likewise selected and matched with the greatest care4 ,we must not judge of the slight divergences from existing varieties which would have been valued in ancient days1 by those which are now valued after the formation of so many races1 each with its own standard of perfection1 kept uniform by our numerous ,exhibitions4 ,the ambition of the most energetic fancier may be fully satisfied by the difficulty of excelling other fanciers in the breeds already established1 without trying to form a new one4 ,a difficulty with respect to the power of selection will perhaps already have occurred to the reader1 namely1 what could have led fanciers first to attempt to make such singular breeds as ,pouters1 ,fantails1 ,carriers1 etc48 ,but it is this very difficulty which the principle of unconscious selection removes4 ,undoubtedly no fancier ever did intentionally make such an attempt4 ,all that we need suppose is that a variation occurred sufficiently marked to catch the discriminating eye of some ancient fancier1 and then unconscious selection carried on for many generations1 that is1 the wish of succeeding fanciers to excel their rivals1 would do the rest4 ,in the case of the ,fantail we may suppose that the first progenitor of the breed had a tail only slightly erected1 as may now be seen in certain ,runts1#de with some increase in the number of the tail-feathers1 as now occasionally occurs with ,nuns4 ,in the case of the ,pouter we may suppose that some bird inflated its crop a little more than other pigeons1 as is now the case in a slight degree with the esophagus of the ,turbit4 ,we do not know the origin of the common ,tumbler1 but we may suppose that a bird was born with some affection of the brain1 leading it to make somersaults in the air2#df and before the year #afjj pigeons remarkable for their diversified manner of flight were much valued in ,india1 and by the order of the ,emperor ,akber ,khan were sedulously trained and carefully matched4 ,in the foregoing cases we have supposed that a sudden variation1 conspicuous enough to catch a fancier's eye1 first appeared2 but even this degree of abruptness in the process of variation is not necessary for the formation of a new breed4 ,when the same kind of pigeon has been kept pure1 and has been bred during a long period by two or more fanciers1 slight differences in the strain can often be recognised4 ,thus ,i have seen first- rate ,jacobins in one man's possession which certainly differed slightly in several characters from those kept by another4 ,i possessed some excellent ,barbs descended from a pair which had won a prize1 and another lot descended from a stock formerly kept by that famous fancier ,sir ,john ,sebright1 and these plainly differed in the form of the beak2 but the differences were so slight that they could hardly be given by words4 ,again1 the common ,english and ,dutch ,tumbler differ in a somewhat greater degree1 both in length of beak and shape of head4 ,what first caused these slight differences cannot be explained any more than why one man has a long nose and another a short one4 ,in the strains long kept distinct by different fanciers1 such differences are so common that they cannot be accounted for by the accident of the birds first chosen for breeding having been originally as different as they now are4 ,the explanation no doubt lies in selection of a slightly different nature having been applied in each case2 for no two fanciers have exactly the same taste1 and consequently no two1 in choosing and carefully matching their birds1 prefer or select exactly the same4 ,as each man naturally admires his own birds1 he goes on continually exaggerating by selection whatever slight peculiarities they may possess4 ,this will more especially happen with fanciers living in different countries1 who do not compare their stocks or aim at a common standard of perfection4 ,thus1 when a mere strain has once been formed1 unconscious selection steadily tends to augment the amount of difference1 and thus converts the strain into a sub-breed and this ultimately into a well-marked breed or race4 ,the principle of correlation of growth should never be lost sight of4 ,most pigeons have small feet1 apparently caused by their lessened use1 and from correlation1 as it would appear1 their beaks have likewise become reduced in length4 ,the beak is a conspicuous organ1 and1 as soon as it had thus become perceptibly shortened1 fanciers would almost certainly strive to reduce it still more by the continued selection of birds with the shortest beaks2 whilst at the same time other fanciers1 as we know has actually been the case1 would in other sub-breeds1 strive to increase its length4 ,with the increased length of the beak1 the tongue becomes greatly lengthened1 as do the eyelids with the increased development of the eye-wattles2 with the reduced or increased size of the feet1 the number of the scutell vary2 with the length of the wing1 the number of the primary wing-feathers differ2 and with the increased length of the body in the pouter the number of the sacral vertebr is augmented4 ,these important and correlated differences of structure do not invariably characterise any breed2 but if they had been attended to and selected with as much care as the more conspicuous external differences1 there can hardly be a doubt that they would have been rendered constant4 ,fanciers could assuredly have made a race of ,tumblers with nine instead of ten primary wing-feathers1 seeing how often the number nine appears without any wish on their part1 and indeed in the case of the white-winged varieties in opposition to their wish4 ,in a similar manner1 if the vertebr had been visible and had been attended to by fanciers1 assuredly an additional number might easily have been fixed in the ,pouter4 ,if these latter characters had once been rendered constant1 we should never have suspected that they had at first been highly variable1 or that they had arisen from correlation1 in the one case with the shortness of the wings1 and in the other case with the length of the body4 ,in order to understand how the chief domestic races have become distinctly separated from each other1 it is important to bear in mind1 that fanciers constantly try to breed from the best birds1 and consequently that those which are inferior in the requisite qualities are in each generation neglected2 so that after a time the less improved parent-stocks and many subsequently formed intermediate grades become extinct4 ,this has occurred in the case of the ,pouter1 ,turbit1 and ,trumpeter1 for these highly improved breeds are now left without any links closely connecting them either with each other or with the aboriginal rock-pigeon4 ,in other countries1 indeed1 where the same care has not been applied1 or where the same fashion has not prevailed1 the earlier forms may long remain unaltered1 or altered only in a slight degree1 and we are thus sometimes enabled to recover the connecting links4 ,this is the case in ,persia and ,india with the ,tumbler and ,carrier1 which there differ but slightly from the rock-pigeon in the proportions of their beaks4 ,so again in ,java1 the ,fantail sometimes has only fourteen caudal feathers1 and the tail is much less elevated and expanded than in our improved birds2 so that the ,java bird forms a link between a first-rate ,fantail and the rock-pigeon4 ,occasionally a breed may be retained for some particular quality in a nearly unaltered condition in the same country1 together with highly modified off-shoots or sub-breeds1 which are valued for some distinct property4 ,we see this exemplified in ,england1 where the common ,tumbler1 which is valued only for its flight1 does not differ much from its parent-form1 the ,eastern ,tumbler2 whereas the ,short-faced ,tumbler has been prodigiously modified1 from being valued1 not for its flight1 but for other qualities4 ,but the common-flying ,tumbler of ,europe has already begun to branch out into slightly different sub-breeds1 such as the common ,english ,tumbler1 the ,dutch ,roller1 the ,glasgow ,house-tumbler1 and the ,long-faced ,beard ,tumbler1 etc42 and in the course of centuries1 unless fashions greatly change1 these sub-breeds will diverge through the slow and insensible process of unconscious selection1 and become modified1 in a greater and greater degree4 ,after a time the perfectly graduated links which now connect all these sub-breeds together1 will be lost1 for there would be no object and much difficulty in retaining such a host of intermediate sub-varieties4 ,the principle of divergence1 together with the extinction of the many previously existing intermediate forms1 is so important for understanding the origin of domestic races1 as well as of species in a state of nature1 that ,i will enlarge a little more on this subject4 ,our third main group includes ,carriers1 ,barbs1 and ,runts1 which are plainly related to one another1 yet wonderfully distinct in several important characters4 ,according to the view given in the last chapter1 these three races have probably descended from an unknown race having an intermediate character1 and this race from the rock-pigeon4 ,their characteristic differences are believed to be due to different breeders having at an early period admired different points of structure2 and then1 on the acknowledged principle of admiring extremes1 having gone on breeding1 without any thought of the future1 as good birds as they could1--,carrier-fanciers preferring long beaks with much wattle1--,barb-fanciers preferring short thick beaks with much eye-wattle1--and ,runt-fanciers not caring about the beak or wattle1 but only for the size and weight of the body4 ,this process would have led to the neglect and final extinction of the earlier1 inferior1 and intermediate birds2 and thus it has come to pass1 that in ,europe these three races are now so extraordinarily distinct from each other4 ,but in the ,east1 whence they were originally brought1 the fashion has been different1 and we there see breeds which connect the highly modified ,english ,carrier with the rock-pigeon1 and others which to a certain extent connect ,carriers and ,runts4 ,looking back to the time of ,aldrovandi1 we find that there existed in ,europe1 before the year #afjj1 four breeds which were closely allied to ,carriers and ,barbs1 but which competent authorities cannot now identify with our present ,barbs and ,carriers2 nor can ,aldrovandi's ,runts be identified with our present ,runts4 ,these four breeds certainly did not differ from each other nearly so much as do our existing ,english ,carriers1 ,barbs1 and ,runts4 ,all this is exactly what might have been anticipated4 ,if we could collect all the pigeons which have ever lived1 from before the time of the ,romans to the present day1 we should be able to group them in several lines1 diverging from the parent rock-pigeon4 ,each line would consist of almost insensible steps1 occasionally broken by some slightly greater variation or sport1 and each would culminate in one of our present highly modified forms4 ,of the many former connecting links1 some would be found to have become absolutely extinct without having left any issue1 whilst others1 though extinct1 would be recognised as the progenitors of the existing races4 ,i have heard it remarked as a strange circumstance that we occasionally hear of the local or complete extinction of domestic races1 whilst we hear nothing of their origin4 ,how1 it has been asked1 can these losses be compensated1 and more than compensated1 for we know that with almost all domesticated animals the races have largely increased in number since the time of the ,romans8 ,but on the view here given1 we can understand this apparent contradiction4 ,the extinction of a race within historical times is an event likely to be noticed2 but its gradual and scarcely sensible modification through unconscious selection1 and its subsequent divergence1 either in the same or more commonly in distant countries1 into two or more strains1 and their gradual conversion into sub-breeds1 and these into well- marked breeds are events which would rarely be noticed4 ,the death of a tree1 that has attained gigantic dimensions1 is recorded2 the slow growth of smaller trees and their increase in number excite no attention4 ,in accordance with the belief in the great power of selection1 and of the little direct power of changed conditions of life1 except in causing general variability or plasticity of organisation1 it is not surprising that dovecot-pigeons have remained unaltered from time immemorial2 and that some toy-pigeons1 which differ in little else besides colour from the dovecot-pigeon1 have retained the same character for several centuries4 ,for when one of these toy-pigeons had once become beautifully and symmetrically coloured1--when1 for instance1 a ,spot had been produced with the crown of its head1 its tail1 and tail-coverts of a uniform colour1 the rest of the body being snow-white1--no alteration or improvement would be desired4 ,on the other hand1 it is not surprising that during this same interval of time our highly-bred pigeons have undergone an astonishing amount of change2 for in regard to them there is no defined limit to the wish of the fancier1 and there is no known limit to the variability of their characters4 ,what is there to stop the fancier desiring to give to his ,carrier a longer and longer beak1 or to his ,tumbler a shorter and shorter beak8 nor has the extreme limit of variability in the beak1 if there be any such limit1 as yet been reached4 ,notwithstanding the great improvement effected within recent times in the ,short-faced ,almond ,tumbler1 ,mr4 ,eaton remarks1 8the field is still as open for fresh competitors as it was one hundred years ago20 but this is perhaps an exaggerated assertion1 for the young of all highly-improved fancy birds are extremely liable to disease and death4 ,i have heard it objected that the formation of the several domestic races of the pigeon throws no light on the origin of the wild species of the ,columbid1 because their differences are not of the same nature4 ,the domestic races1 for instance do not differ1 or differ hardly at all1 in the relative lengths and shape of the primary wing-feathers1 in the relative length of the hind toe1 or in habits of life1 as in roosting and building in trees4 ,but the above objection shows how completely the principle of selection has been misunderstood4 ,it is not likely that characters selected by the caprice of man should resemble differences preserved under natural conditions either from being of direct service to each species1 or from standing in correlation with other modified and serviceable structures4 ,until man selects birds differing in the relative length of the wing-feathers or toes1 etc41 no sensible change in these parts should be expected4 ,nor could man do anything unless these parts happened to vary under domestication3 ,i do not positively assert that this is the case1 although ,i have seen traces of such variability in the wing-feathers1 and certainly in the tail-feathers4 ,it would be a strange fact if the relative length of the hind toe should never vary1 seeing how variable the foot is both in size and in the number of the scutell4 ,with respect to the domestic races not roosting or building in trees1 it is obvious that fanciers would never attend to or select such changes in habits2 but we have seen that the pigeons in ,egypt1 which do not for some reason like settling on the low mud hovels of the natives1 are led1 apparently by compulsion1 to perch in crowds on the trees4 ,we may even affirm that1 if our domestic races had become greatly modified in any of the above specified respects1 and it could be shown that fanciers had never attended to such points1 or that they did not stand in correlation with other selected characters1 the fact1 on the principles advocated in this chapter1 would have offered a serious difficulty4 ,let us briefly sum up the last two chapters on the pigeon4 ,we may conclude with confidence that all the domestic races1 notwithstanding their great amount of difference1 are descended from the ,columba livia1 including under this name certain wild races4 ,but the differences between the latter throw no light whatever on the characters which distinguish the domestic races4 ,in each breed or sub-breed the individual birds are more variable than birds in a state of nature2 and occasionally they vary in a sudden and strongly-marked manner4 ,this plasticity of organisation apparently results from changed conditions of life4 ,disuse has reduced certain parts of the body4 ,correlation of growth so ties the organisation together1 that when one part varies other parts vary at the same time4 ,when several breeds have once been formed1 their intercrossing aids the progress of modification1 and has even produced new sub-breeds4 ,but as1 in the construction of a building1 mere stones or bricks are of little avail without the builder's art1 so1 in the production of new races1 selection has been the presiding power4 ,fanciers can act by selection on excessively slight individual differences1 as well as on those greater differences which are called sports4 ,selection is followed methodically when the fancier tries to improve and modify a breed according to a prefixed standard of excellence2 or he acts unmethodically and unconsciously1 by merely trying to rear as good birds as he can1 without any wish or intention to alter the breed4 ,the progress of selection almost inevitably leads to the neglect and ultimate extinction of the earlier and less improved forms1 as well as of many intermediate links in each long line of descent4 ,thus it has come to pass that most of our present races are so marvellously distinct from each other1 and from the aboriginal rock-pigeon4 ,,references #a ,temminck #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn4 des ,pigeons1' etc41 tom4 i4 p4 #aia4 #b ,i have heard through ,sir ,c4 ,lyell from ,miss ,buckley1 that some half-bred ,carriers kept during many years near ,london regularly settled by day on some adjoining trees1 and1 after being disturbed in their loft by their young being taken1 roosted on them at night4 #c #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #bnd ser41 vol4 xx41 #aheg1 p4 #eji2 and in a late volume of the ,journal of the ,asiatic ,society4 #d ,in works written on the pigeon by fanciers ,i have sometimes observed the mistaken belief expressed that the species which naturalists called ground-pigeons 7in contradistinction to arboreal pigeons7 do not perch and build on trees4 ,in these same works by fanciers wild species resembling the chief domestic races are often said to exist in various parts of the world2 but such species are quite unknown to naturalists4 #e ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk in #8,journal ,r4 ,geograph4 ,soc41' vol4 xiii41 #ahdd1 p4 #cb4 #f ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon #8,ornamental ,poultry1' #ahdh1 pp4 #fc1 #ff4 #g #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahei1 p4 #djj4 #h ,temminck1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn4 des ,pigeons1' tom4 i42 also #8,les ,pigeons' par ,mme4 ,knip and ,temminck4 ,bonaparte1 however1 in his #8,coup- d'il' believes that two closely allied species are confounded together under this name4 ,the ,c4 leucocephala of the ,west ,indies is stated by ,temminck to be a rock-pigeon2 but ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,gosse that this is an error4 #i #8,handbuch der ,naturgesch4 ,vgel ,deutschlands4' #aj #8,tagebuch1 ,reise nach ,fro1' #ahcj1 s4 #fb4 #aa #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xix41 #ahdg1 p4 #ajb4 ,this excellent paper on pigeons is well worth consulting4 #ab #8,natural ,history of ,ireland1' ,birds1 vol4 ii4 7#ahej71 p4 #aa4 ,for ,graba see previous reference4 #ac #8,coup-d'il sur l',ordre des ,pigeons1' #8,comptes ,rendus1' #ahed-ee4 #ad #8,naturgeschichte4 ,deutschlands1' ,band4 iv4 #agie1 s4 #ad4 #ae #8,history of ,british ,birds1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bge-bhd4 ,mr4 ,andrew ,duncan tamed a rock-pigeon in the ,shetland ,islands4 ,mr4 ,james ,barclay1 and ,mr4 ,smith of ,uyea ,sound1 both say that the wild rock-pigeon can be easily tamed2 and the former gentleman asserts that the tamed birds breed four times a year4 ,dr4 ,lawrence ,edmondstone informs me that a wild rock-pigeon came and settled in his dovecot in ,balta ,sound in the ,shetland ,islands1 and bred with his pigeons2 he has also given me other instances of the wild rock-pigeon having been taken young and breeding in captivity4 #af #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history1' vol4 xix4 #ahdg1 p4 #ajc1 and vol4 for #aheg1 p4 #eab4 #ag ,domestic pigeons of the common kind are mentioned as being pretty numerous in ,john ,barbut's #8,description of the ,coast of ,guinea' 7p4 #bae71 published in #agdf2 they are said1 in accordance with the name which they bear1 to have been imported4 #ah ,with respect to feral pigeons--for ,juan ,fernandez1 see ,bertero in #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat41' tom4 xxi4 p4 #cea4 ,for ,norfolk ,islands1 see ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon in the #8,dovecote1' #ahea1 p4 #ad1 on the authority of ,mr4 ,gould4 ,for ,ascension ,i rely on ,,ms4 information given me by ,mr4 ,layard4 ,for the banks of the ,hudson1 see ,blyth in #8,annals of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xx41 #aheg1 p4 #eaa4 ,for ,scotland1 see ,macgillivray1 #8,british ,birds1' vol4 i4 p4 #bge2 also ,thompson's #8,nat4 ,hist4 of ,ireland1 ,birds1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aa4 ,for ducks1 see ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 #8,ornamental ,poultry1' #ahdg1 p4 #abb4 ,for the feral hybrids of the common and musk-ducks1 see ,audubon's #8,american ,ornithology1' and ,selys-,longchamp's #8,hybrides dans la ,famille des ,anatides4' ,for the goose1 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #dih4 ,for guinea-fowls1 see ,gosse's #8,naturalist's ,sojourn in ,jamaica1' p4 #abd2 and his #8,birds of ,jamaica1' for fuller particulars4 ,i saw the wild guinea-fowl in ,ascension4 ,for the peacock1 see #8,a ,week at ,port ,royal1' by a competent authority1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill1 p4 #db4 ,for the turkey ,i rely on oral information2 ,i ascertained that they were not ,curassows4 ,with respect to fowls ,i will give the references in the next chapter4 #ai ,i have drawn out a long table of the various crosses made by fanciers between the several domestic breeds but ,i do not think it worth while publishing4 ,i have myself made for this special purpose many crosses1 and all were perfectly fertile4 ,i have united in one bird five of the most distinct races1 and with patience ,i might undoubtedly have thus united all4 ,the case of five distinct breeds being blended together with unimpaired fertility is important1 because ,grtner has shown that it is a very general1 though not1 as he thought1 universal rule1 that complex crosses between several species are excessively sterile4 ,i have met with only two or three cases of reported sterility in the offspring of certain races when crossed4 ,pistor 7#8,das ,ganze der ,feldtaubenzucht1' #ahca1 s4 #ae7 asserts that the mongrels from ,barbs and ,fantails are sterile3 ,i have proved this to be erroneous1 not only by crossing those hybrids with several other hybrids of the same parentage1 but by the more severe test of pairing brother and sister hybrids inter se1 and they were perfectly fertile4 ,temminck has stated 7#8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn4 des ,pigeons1' tom4 i4 p4 #aig7 that the ,turbit or ,owl will not cross readily with other breeds3 but my ,turbits crossed1 when left free with ,almond ,tumblers and with ,trumpeters2 the same thing has occurred 7,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 #8,the ,dovecote1' p4 #ajg7 between ,turbits and ,dovecots and ,nuns4 ,i have crossed ,turbits with ,barbs1 as has ,m4 ,boitard 7p4 #cd71 who says the hybrids were very fertile4 ,hybrids from a ,turbit and ,fantail have been known to breed inter se 7,riedel1 #8,taubenzucht1' s4 #be1 and ,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 ,deutsch41' ,b4 iv4 s4 #dd4 ,turbits 7,riedel1 s4 #bf7 have been crossed with ,pouters and with ,jacobins1 and with a hybrid ,jacobin-trumpeter 7,riedel1 s4 #bg74 ,the latter author has1 however1 made some vague statements 7s4 #bb7 on the sterility of ,turbits when crossed with certain other crossed breeds4 ,but ,i have little doubt that the ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon's explanation of such statements is correct1 viz4 that individual birds both with ,turbits and other breeds are occasionally sterile4 #bj #8,das ,ganze der ,taubenzucht1' s4 #ah4 #ba #8,les ,pigeons1' etc41 p4 #ce4 #bb ,domestic pigeons pair readily with the allied ,c4 nas 7,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands1' ,b4 iv4 s4 #c72 and ,mr4 ,brent has made the same cross several times in ,england1 but the young were very apt to die at about ten days old2 one hybrid which he reared 7from ,c4 nas and a male ,antwerp ,carrier7 paired with a ,dragon1 but never laid eggs4 ,bechstein further states 7s4 #bf7 that the domestic pigeon will cross with ,c4 palumbus1 ,turtur risoria1 and ,t4 vulgaris1 but nothing is said of the fertility of the hybrids1 and this would have been mentioned had the fact been ascertained4 ,in the ,zoological ,gardens 7,,ms4 report to me from ,mr4 ,james ,hunt7 a male hybrid from ,turtur vulgaris and a domestic pigeon 8paired with several different species of pigeons and doves1 but none of the eggs were good40 ,hybrids from ,c4 nas and gymnophthalmos were sterile4 ,in ,loudon's #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 vii4 #ahcd1 p4 #aed1 it is said that a male hybrid 7from ,turtur vulgaris male1 and the cream-coloured ,t4 risoria female7 paired during two years with a female ,t4 risoria1 and the latter laid many eggs1 but all were sterile4 ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi 7#8,les ,pigeons1' p4 #bce7 state that the hybrids from these two turtle-doves are invariably sterile both inter se and with either pure parent4 ,the experiment was tried by ,m4 ,corbi 8avec une espce d'obstination20 and likewise by ,m4 ,mauduyt1 and by ,m4 ,vieillot4 ,temminck also found the hybrids from these two species quite barren4 ,therefore1 when ,bechstein 7#8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands ,vgel1' ,b4 iv4 s4 #aja7 asserts that the hybrids from these two turtle-doves propagate inter se equally well with pure species1 and when a writer in the #8,field' newspaper 7in a letter dated ,nov4 #ajth1 #aheh7 makes a similar assertion1 it would appear that there must be some mistake2 though what the mistake is ,i know not1 as ,bechstein at least must have known the white variety of ,t4 risoria3 it would be an unparalleled fact if the same two species sometimes produced extremely fertile1 and sometimes extremely barren1 offspring4 ,in the ,,ms4 report from the ,zoological ,gardens it is said that hybrids from ,turtur vulgaris and suratensis1 and from ,t4 vulgaris and ,ectopistes migratorius1 were sterile4 ,two of the latter male hybrids paired with their pure parents1 viz4 ,turtur vulgaris and the ,ectopistes1 and likewise with ,t4 risoria and with ,columba nas1 and many eggs were produced1 but all were barren4 ,at ,paris1 hybrids have been raised 7,isid4 ,geoffrey ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gnrale1' tom4 iii4 p4 #ahj7 from ,turtur auritus with ,t4 cambayensis and with ,t4 suratensis2 but nothing is said of their fertility4 ,at the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london the ,goura coronata and victori produced a hybrid which paired with the pure ,g4 coronata1 and laid several eggs1 but these proved barren4 ,in #ahfj ,columba gymnophthalmos and maculosa produced hybrids in these same gardens4 #bc ,there is one exception to the rule1 namely1 in a sub-variety of the ,swallow of ,german origin1 which is figured by ,neumeister1 and was shown to me by ,mr4 ,wicking4 ,this bird is blue1 but has not the black wing-bars2 for our object1 however1 in tracing the descent of the chief races1 this exception signifies the less as the ,swallow approaches closely in structure to ,c4 livia4 ,in many sub-varieties the black bars are replaced by bars of various colours4 ,the figures given by ,neumeister are sufficient to show that1 if the wings alone are blue1 the black wing-bars appear4 #bd ,i have observed blue birds with all the above-mentioned marks in the following races1 which seemed to be perfectly pure1 and were shown at various exhibitions4 ,pouters1 with the double black wing-bars1 with white croup1 dark bar to end of tail1 and white edging to outer tail-feathers4 ,turbits1 with all these same characters4 ,fantails with the same2 but the croup in some was bluish or pure blue4 ,mr4 ,wicking bred blue ,fantails from two black birds4 ,carriers 7including the ,bagadotten of ,neumeister7 with all the marks3 two birds which ,i examined had white1 and two had blue croups2 the white edging to the outer tail-feathers was not present in all4 ,mr4 ,corker1 a great breeder1 assures me that1 if black carriers are matched for many successive generations1 the offspring become first ash-coloured1 and then blue with black wing-bars4 ,runts of the elongated breed had the same marks1 but the croup was pale blue2 the outer tail-feathers had white edges4 ,neumeister figures the great ,florence ,runt of a blue colour with black bars4 ,jacobins are very rarely blue1 but ,i have received authentic accounts of at least two instances of the blue variety with black bars having appeared in ,england2 blue ,jacobins were bred by ,mr4 ,brent from two black birds4 ,i have seen common ,tumblers1 both ,indian and ,english1 and ,short-faced ,tumblers1 of a blue colour1 with black wing-bars1 with the black bar at the end of the tail1 and with the outer tail-feathers edged with white2 the croup in all was blue1 or extremely pale blue1 never absolutely white4 ,blue ,barbs and ,trumpeters seem to be excessively rare2 but ,neumeister1 who may be implicitly trusted1 figures blue varieties of both1 with black wing-bars4 ,mr4 ,brent informs me that he has seen a blue ,barb2 and ,mr4 ,h4 ,weir1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 once bred a silver 7which means very pale blue7 ,barb from two yellow birds4 #be ,mr4 ,blyth informs me that all the domestic races in ,india have the croup blue2 but this is not invariable1 for ,i possess a very pale blue ,simmali pigeon with the croup perfectly white1 sent to me by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot from ,madras4 ,a slaty-blue and chequered ,nakshi pigeon has some white feathers on the croup alone4 ,in some other ,indian pigeons there were a few white feathers confined to the croup1 and ,i have noticed the same fact in a carrier from ,persia4 ,the ,java ,fantail 7imported into ,amoy1 and thence sent me7 has a perfectly white croup4 #bf #8,les ,pigeons1' etc41 p4 #cg4 #bg #8,treatise on ,pigeons1' #aheh1 p4 #ade4 #bh ,j4 ,moore's #8,columbarium1' #agce2 in ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton's edition1 #aheb1 p4 #ga4 #bi ,i could give numerous examples2 two will suffice4 ,a mongrel1 whose four grandparents were a white ,turbit1 white ,trumpeter1 white ,fantail1 and blue ,pouter1 was white all over1 except a very few feathers about the head and on the wings1 but the whole tail and tail-coverts were dark bluish-grey4 ,another mongrel whose four grandparents were a red ,runt1 white ,trumpeter1 white ,fantail1 and the same blue ,pouter1 was pure white all over1 except the tail and upper tail-coverts1 which were pale fawn1 and except the faintest trace of double wing-bars of the same pale fawn tint4 #cj ,it deserves notice1 as bearing on the general subject of variation1 that not only ,c4 livia presents several wild forms1 regarded by some naturalists as species and by others as sub-species or as mere varieties1 but that the species of several allied genera are in the same predicament4 ,this is the case1 as ,mr4 ,blyth has remarked to me1 with ,treron1 ,palumbus1 and ,turtur4 #ca #8,denkmler1' ,abth4 ii4 ,bl4 #gj4 #cb #8,the #8,dovecote1' by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 #ahea1 pp4 #aa-ac4 ,adolphe ,pictet 7in his #8,les ,origines ,indo-,europennes1' #ahei1 p4 #cii7 states that there are in the ancient ,sanscrit language between #be and #cj names for the pigeon1 and other #ae or #af ,persian names2 none of these are common to the ,european languages4 ,this fact indicates the antiquity of the domestication of the pigeon in the ,east4 #cc ,english translation1 #afja1 ,book x4 ch4 xxxvii4 #cd #8,ayeen ,akbery1' translated by ,f4 ,gladwin1 #dto edit41 vol4 i4 p4 #bgj4 #ce ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton1 #8,treatise on the ,almond ,tumbler1' #ahea2 ,preface1 p4 #f4 #cf ,as in the following discussion ,i often speak of the present time1 ,i should state that this chapter was completed in the year #aheh4 #cg #8,ornithologie1' #afjj1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfj4 #ch #8,a ,treatise on ,domestic ,pigeons1' dedicated to ,mr4 ,mayor1 #agfe4 ,preface1 p4 #ad4 #ci ,mr4 ,blyth has given a translation of part of the #8,ayeen ,akbery' in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xix4 #ahdg1 p4 #ajd4 #dj #8,l',histoire de la ,nature des ,oiseaux1' p4 #cad4 #da #8,treatise on ,pigeons1' #aheb1 p4 #fd4 #db ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton #8,treatise on the ,breeding and ,managing of the ,almond ,tumbler1' #ahea4 ,compare p4 v4 of ,preface1 p4 #i1 and p4 #cb4 #dc #8,treatise on ,pigeons1' #aheb1 p4 #da4 #dd ,eaton's #8,treatise on ,pigeons1' #aheh1 p4 #hf4 #de ,see ,neumeister's figure of the ,florence ,runt1 tab4 #ac in #8,das ,ganze der ,taubenzucht4' #df ,mr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,moore gives a full account of the ,ground ,tumblers of ,india 7#8,indian ,medical ,gazette1' ,jan4 and ,feb4 #ahgc71 and says the pricking the base of the brain1 and giving hydrocyanic acid1 together with strychnine1 to an ordinary pigeon1 brings on convulsive movements exactly like those of a ,tumbler4 ,one pigeon1 the brain of which had been pricked1 completely recovered1 and ever afterwards occasionally made somersaults4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,fowls4 ,,brief ,,descriptions ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,breeds--,,arguments ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,their ,,descent ,,from ,,several ,,species--,,arguments ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,all ,,the ,,breeds ,,having ,,descended ,,from ,,gallus ,,bankiva--,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,parent-,,stock ,,in ,,colour--,,analogous ,,variations--,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,fowl--,,external ,,differences ,,between ,,the ,,several ,,breeds--,,eggs--,,chickens--,,secondar y ,,sexual ,,characters--,,wing-,,and ,,tail-,,feathers1 ,,voice1 ,,disposition1 ,,etc--,,osteological ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,skull1 ,,vertebr1 ,,etc--,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,certain ,,parts--,,correlation ,,of ,,growth4 ,as some naturalists may not be familiar with the chief breeds of the fowl1 it will be advisable to give a condensed description of them4#a ,from what ,i have read and seen of specimens brought from several quarters of the world1 ,i believe that most of the chief kinds have been imported into ,england1 but many sub-breeds are probably still unknown here4 ,the following discussion on the origin of the various breeds and on their characteristic differences does not pretend to completeness1 but may be of some interest to the naturalist4 ,the classification of the breeds cannot1 as far as ,i can see1 be made natural4 ,they differ from each other in different degrees1 and do not afford characters in subordination to each other1 by which they can be ranked in group under group4 ,they seem all to have diverged by independent and different roads from a single type4 ,each chief breed includes differently coloured sub-varieties1 most of which can be truly propagated1 but it would be superfluous to describe them4 ,i have classed the various crested fowls as sub-breeds under the ,polish fowl2 but ,i have great doubts whether this is a natural arrangement1 showing true affinity or blood relationship4 ,it is scarcely possible to avoid laying stress on the commonness of a breed2 and if certain foreign sub-breeds had been largely kept in this country they would perhaps have been raised to the rank of main-breeds4 ,several breeds are abnormal in character2 that is1 they differ in certain points from all wild ,gallinaceous birds4 ,at first ,i made a division of the breeds into normal and abnormal1 but the result was wholly unsatisfactory4 #a4 ,,game ,,breed4--,this may be considered as the typical breed1 as it deviates only slightly from the wild ,gallus bankiva1 or1 as perhaps more correctly named1 ferrugineus4 ,beak strong2 comb single and upright4 ,spurs long and sharp4 ,feathers closely appressed to the body4 ,tail with the normal number of #ad feathers4 ,eggs often pale buff4 ,disposition indomitably courageous1 exhibited even in the hens and chickens4 ,an unusual number of differently coloured varieties exist1 such as black and brown-breasted reds1 duckwings1 blacks1 whites1 piles1 etc41 with their legs of various colours4 #b4 ,,malay ,,breed4--,body of great size1 with head1 neck1 and legs elongated2 carriage erect2 tail small1 sloping downwards1 generally formed of #af feathers2 comb and wattle small2 ear-lobe and face red2 skin yellowish2 feathers closely appressed to the body2 neck-hackles short1 narrow1 and hard4 ,eggs often pale buff4 ,chickens feather late4 ,disposition savage4 ,of ,eastern origin4 #c4 ,,cochin1 ,,or ,,shangai ,,breed4--,size great2 wing feathers short1 arched1 much hidden in the soft downy plumage2 barely capable of flight2 tail short1 generally formed of #af feathers1 developed at a late period in the young males2 legs thick1 feathered2 spurs short1 thick2 nail of middle toe flat and broad2 an additional toe not rarely developed2 skin yellowish4 ,comb and wattle well developed4 ,skull with deep medial furrow2 occipital foramen1 sub-triangular1 vertically elongated4 ,voice peculiar4 ,eggs rough1 buff-coloured4 ,disposition extremely quiet4 ,of ,chinese origin4 #d4 ,,dorking ,,breed4--,size great2 body square1 compact2 feet with an additional toe2 comb well developed1 but varies much in form2 wattles well developed2 colour of plumage various4 ,skull remarkably broad between the orbits4 ,of ,english origin4 ,the white ,dorking may be considered as a distinct sub-breed1 being a less massive bird4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj--,spanish ,fowl #e4 ,,spanish ,,breed 7fig4 #cj74--,tall1 with stately carriage2 tarsi long2 comb single1 deeply serrated1 of immense size2 wattles largely developed2 the large ear-lobes and sides of face white4 ,plumage black glossed with green4 ,do not incubate4 ,tender in constitution1 the comb being often injured by frost4 ,eggs white1 smooth1 of large size4 ,chickens feather late but the young cocks show their masculine characters1 and crow at an early age4 ,of ,mediterranean origin4 ,the ,andalusians may be ranked as a sub-breed3 they are of a slaty-blue colour1 and their chickens are well feathered4 ,a smaller1 short-legged ,dutch sub-breed has been described by some authors as distinct4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca--;,hamburgh ,fowl #f4 ,,hamburgh ,,breed 7fig #ca74--,size moderate2 comb flat1 produced backwards1 covered with numerous small points2 wattle of moderate dimensions2 ear lobe white2 legs blueish1 thin4 ,do not incubate4 ,skull1 with the tips of the ascending branches of the premaxillary and with the nasal bones standing a little separate from each other2 anterior margin of the frontal bones less depressed than usual4 ,there are two sub-breeds2 the spangled ,hamburgh1 of ,english origin1 with the tips of the feathers marked with a dark spot2 and the pencilled ,hamburgh1 of ,dutch origin1 with dark transverse lines across each feather1 and with the body rather smaller4 ,both these sub-breeds include gold and silver varieties1 as well as some other sub-varieties4 ,black ,hamburghs have been produced by a cross with the ,spanish breed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb--,polish ,fowl #g4 ,,crested ,,or ,,polish ,,breed 7fig #cb74--;,head with a large1 rounded crest of feathers1 supported on a hemispherical protuberance of the frontal bones1 which includes the anterior part of the brain4 ,the ascending branches of premaxillary bones and the inner nasal processes are much shortened4 ,the orifice of the nostrils raised and crescentic4 ,beak short4 ,comb absent1 or small and of crescentic shape2 wattles either present or replaced by a beard-like tuft of feathers4 ,legs leaden-blue4 ,sexual differences appear late in life4 ,do not incubate4 ,there are several beautiful varieties which differ in colour and slightly in other respects4 ,the following sub-breeds agree in having a crest1 more or less developed1 with the comb1 when present1 of crescentic shape4 ,the skull presents nearly the same remarkable peculiarities of structure as in the true ,polish fowl4 ,sub-breed 7a7 ,sultans4--,a ,turkish breed1 resembling white ,polish fowls with a large crest and beard with short and well-feathered legs4 ,the tail is furnished with additional sickle feathers4 ,do not incubate4#b ,sub-breed 7b7 ,ptarmigans4--,an inferior breed closely allied to the last1 white1 rather small1 legs much feathered1 with the crest pointed2 comb small1 cupped2 wattles small4 ,sub-breed 7c7 ,ghoondooks4--,another ,turkish breed having an extraordinary appearance2 black and tailless2 crest and beard large2 legs feathered4 ,the inner processes of the two nasal bones come into contact with each other1 owing to the complete abortion of the ascending branches of the premaxillaries4 ,i have seen an allied white1 tailless breed from ,turkey4 ,sub-breed 7d7 ,crve-cur4--,a ,french breed of large size1 barely capable of flight1 with short black legs1 head crested1 comb produced into two points or horns1 sometimes a little branched like the horns of a stag2 both beard and wattles present4 ,eggs large4 ,disposition quiet4#c ,sub-breed 7e7 ,horned fowl4--,with a small crest2 comb produced into two great points1 supported on two bony protuberances4 ,sub-breed 7f7 ,houdan4--,a ,french breed2 of moderate size1 short-legged with five toes1 well developed2 plumage invariably mottled with black1 white1 and straw-yellow2 head furnished with a crest1 on a triple comb placed transversely2 both wattles and beard present4#d ,sub-breed 7g7 ,guelderlands4--,no comb1 head said to be surmounted by a longitudinal crest of soft velvety feathers2 nostrils said to be crescentic2 wattles well developed2 legs feathered2 colour black4 ,from ,north ,america4 ,the ,breda fowl seems to be closely allied to the ,guelderland4 #h4 ,,bantam ,,breed4--,originally from ,japan#e characterised by small size alone2 carriage bold and erect4 ,there are several sub-breeds1 such as the ,cochin1 ,game1 and ,sebright ,bantams1 some of which have been recently formed by various crosses4 ,the ,black ,bantam has a differently shaped skull1 with the occipital foramen like that of the ,cochin fowl4 #i4 ,,rumpless ,,fowls4--,these are so variable in character#f that they hardly deserve to be called a breed4 ,any one who will examine the caudal vertebr will see how monstrous the breed is4 #aj4 ,,creepers ,,or ,,jumpers4--,these are characterised by an almost monstrous shortness of legs1 so that they move by jumping rather than by walking2 they are said not to scratch up the ground4 ,i have examined a ,burmese variety1 which had a skull of rather unusual shape4 #aa4 ,,frizzled ,,or ,,caffre ,,fowls4--,not uncommon in ,india1 with the feathers curling backwards1 and with the primary feathers of the wing and tail imperfect2 periosteum of bones black4 #ab4 ,,silk ,,fowls4--,feathers silky1 with the primary wing and tail-feathers imperfect2 skin and periosteum of bones black2 comb and wattles dark leaden-blue2 ear-lappets tinged with blue2 legs thin1 often furnished with an additional toe4 ,size rather small4 #ac4 ,,sooty ,,fowls4--,an ,indian breed1 having the peculiar appearance of a white bird smeared with soot1 with black skin and periosteum4 ,the hens alone are thus characterised4 ,from this synopsis we see that the several breeds differ considerably1 and they would have been nearly as interesting for us as pigeons1 if there had been equally good evidence that all had descended from one parent-species4 ,most fanciers believe that they are descended from several primitive stocks4 ,the ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon#g argues strongly on this side of the question2 and one fancier even denounces the opposite conclusion by asking1 8,do we not perceive pervading this spirit1 the spirit of the ,deist80 ,most naturalists1 with the exception of a few1 such as ,temminck1 believe that all the breeds have proceeded from a single species2 but authority on such a point goes for little4 ,fanciers look to all parts of the world as the possible sources of their unknown stocks2 thus ignoring the laws of geographical distribution4 ,they know well that the several kinds breed truly even in colour4 ,they assert1 but1 as we shall see1 on very weak grounds1 that most of the breeds are extremely ancient4 ,they are strongly impressed with the great difference between the chief kinds1 and they ask with force1 can differences in climate1 food1 or treatment have produced birds so different as the black stately ,spanish1 the diminutive elegant ,bantam1 the heavy ,cochin with its many peculiarities1 and the ,polish fowl with its great top-knot and protuberant skull8 ,but fanciers1 whilst admitting and even overrating the effects of crossing the various breeds1 do not sufficiently regard the probability of the occasional birth1 during the course of centuries1 of birds with abnormal and hereditary peculiarities2 they overlook the effects of correlation of growth--of the long-continued use and disuse of parts1 and of some direct result from changed food and climate1 though on this latter head ,i have found no sufficient evidence2 and lastly1 they all1 as far as ,i know1 entirely overlook the all-important subject of unconscious or unmethodical selection1 though they are well aware that their birds differ individually and that by selecting the best birds for a few generations they can improve their stocks4 ,an amateur writes#h as follows3 8,the fact that poultry have until lately received but little attention at the hands of the fancier1 and been entirely confined to the domains of the producer for the market1 would alone suggest the improbability of that constant and unremitting attention having been observed in breeding1 which is requisite to the consummating in the offspring of any two birds transmittable forms not exhibited by the parents40 ,this at first sight appears true4 ,but in a future chapter on ,selection1 abundant facts will be given showing not only that careful breeding1 but that actual selection was practised during ancient periods1 and by barely civilised races of man4 ,in the case of the fowl ,i can adduce no direct facts showing that selection was anciently practised2 but the ,romans at the commencement of the ,christian era kept six or seven breeds1 and ,columella 8particularly recommends as the best1 those sorts that have five toes and white ears40#i ,in the fifteenth century several breeds were known and described in ,europe2 and in ,china1 at nearly the same period1 seven kinds were named4 ,a more striking case is that at present1 in one of the ,philippine ,islands1 the semi-barbarous inhabitants have distinct native names for no less than nine sub-breeds of the ,game fowl4#aj ,azara1#aa who wrote towards the close of the last century1 states that in the interior parts of ,south ,america1 where ,i should not have expected that the least care would have been taken of poultry1 a black-skinned and black-boned breed is kept1 from being considered fertile and its flesh good for sick persons4 ,now every one who has kept poultry knows how impossible it is to keep several breeds distinct unless the utmost care be taken in separating the sexes4 ,will it then be pretended that those persons who1 in ancient times and in semi-civilised countries took pains to keep the breeds distinct1 and who therefore valued them1 would not occasionally have destroyed inferior birds and occasionally have preserved their best birds8 ,this is all that is required4 ,it is not pretended that any one in ancient times intended to form a new breed1 or to modify an old breed according to some ideal standard of excellence4 ,he who cared for poultry would merely wish to obtain1 and afterwards to rear1 the best birds which he could2 but this occasional preservation of the best birds would in the course of time modify the breed1 as surely1 though by no means as rapidly1 as does methodical selection at the present day1 ,if one person out of a hundred or out of a thousand attended to the breeding of his birds1 this would be sufficient2 for the birds thus tended would soon become superior to others1 and would form a new strain2 and this strain would1 as explained in the last chapter1 slowly have its characteristic differences augmented1 and at last be converted into a new sub-breed or breed4 ,but breeds would often be for a time neglected and would deteriorate2 they would1 however1 partially retain their character1 and afterwards might again come into fashion and be raised to a standard of perfection higher than their former standard2 as has actually occurred quite recently with ,polish fowls4 ,if1 however1 a breed were utterly neglected1 it would become extinct1 as has recently happened with one of the ,polish sub-breeds4 ,whenever in the course of past centuries a bird appeared with some slight abnormal structure1 such as with a lark-like crest on its head1 it would probably often have been preserved from that love of novelty which leads some persons in ,england to keep rumpless fowls1 and others in ,india to keep frizzled fowls4 ,and after a time any such abnormal appearance would be carefully preserved1 from being esteemed a sign of the purity and excellence of the breed2 for on this principle the ,romans eighteen centuries ago valued the fifth toe and the white ear-lobe in their fowls4 ,thus from the occasional appearance of abnormal characters1 though at first only slight in degree2 from the effects of the use and the disuse of parts2 possibly from the direct effects of changed climate and food2 from correlation of growth2 from occasional reversions to old and long-lost characters2 from the crossing of breeds1 when more than one had been formed2 but1 above all1 from unconscious selection carried on during many generations1 there is no insuperable difficulty1 to the best of my judgment1 in believing that all the breeds have descended from some one parent-source4 ,can any single species be named from which we may reasonably suppose that all are descended8 ,the ,gallus bankiva apparently fulfils every requirement4 ,i have already given as fair an account as ,i could of the arguments in favour of the multiple origin of the several breeds2 and now ,i will give those in favour of their common descent from ,g4 bankiva4 ,but it will be convenient first briefly to describe all the known species of ,gallus4 ,the ,g4 sonneratii does not range into the northern parts of ,india2 according to ,colonel ,sykes1#ab it presents at different heights of the ,ghauts1 two strongly marked varieties1 perhaps deserving to be called species4 ,it was at one time thought to be the primitive stock of all our domestic breeds1 and this shows that it closely approaches the common fowl in general structure2 but its hackles partially consist of highly peculiar1 horny lamin1 transversely banded with three colours2 and ,i have met no authentic account of any such character having been observed in any domestic breed4#ac ,this species also differs greatly from the common fowl1 in the comb being finely serrated1 and in the loins being destitute of true hackles4 ,its voice is utterly different4 ,it crosses readily in ,india with domestic hens2 and ,mr4 ,blyth#ad raised nearly #ajj hybrid chickens2 but they were tender and mostly died whilst young4 ,those which were reared were absolutely sterile when crossed inter se or with either parent4 ,at the ,zoological ,gardens1 however1 some #8hybrids of the same parentage were not quite so sterile3 ,mr4 ,dixon1 as he informed me1 made1 with ,mr4 ,yarrell's aid1 particular inquiries on this subject1 and was assured that out of #ej eggs only five or six chickens were reared4 ,some1 however1 of these half-bred birds were crossed with one of their parents1 namely1 a ,bantam1 and produced a few extremely feeble chickens4 ,mr4 ,dixon also procured some of these same birds and crossed them in several ways1 but all were more or less infertile4 ,nearly similar experiments have recently been tried on a great scale in the ,zoological ,gardens with almost the same result4#ae ,out of #ejj eggs1 raised from various first crosses and hybrids1 between ,g4 sonneratii1 bankiva1 and varius1 only #ab chickens were reared1 and of these only three were the product of hybrids inter se4 ,from these facts1 and from the above-mentioned strongly-marked differences in structure between the domestic fowl and ,g4 sonneratii1 we may reject this latter species as the parent of any domestic breed4 ,ceylon possesses a fowl peculiar to the island1 viz4 ,g4 stanleyii2 this species approaches so closely 7except in the colouring of the comb7 to the domestic fowl1 that ,messrs4 ,layard and ,kellaert#af would have considered it1 as they inform me1 as one of the parent-stocks1 had it not been for its singularly different voice4 ,this bird1 like the last1 crosses readily with tame hens1 and even visits solitary farms and ravishes them4 ,two hybrids1 a male and female1 thus produced1 were found by ,mr4 ,mitford to be quite sterile3 both inherited the peculiar voice of ,g4 stanleyii4 ,this species1 then1 may in all probability be rejected as one of the primitive stocks of the domestic fowl4 ,java and the islands eastward as far as ,flores are inhabited by ,g4 varius 7or furcatus71 which differs in so many characters--green plumage1 unserrated comb1 and single median wattle--that no one supposes it to have been the parent of any one of our breeds2 yet1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,crawfurd1#ag hybrids are commonly raised between the male ,g4 varius and the common hen1 and are kept for their great beauty1 but are invariably sterile3 this1 however1 was not the case with some bred in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,these hybrids were at one time thought to be specifically distinct1 and were named ,g4 neus4 ,mr4 ,blyth and others believe that the ,g4 temminckii#ah 7of which the history is not known7 is a similar hybrid4 ,sir ,j4 ,brooke sent me some skins of domestic fowls from ,borneo1 and across the tail of one of these1 as ,mr4 ,tegetmeier observed1 there were transverse blue bands like those which he had seen on the tail-feathers of hybrids from ,g4 varius1 reared in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,this fact apparently indicates that some of the fowls of ,borneo have been slightly affected by crosses with ,g4 varius1 but the case may possibly be one of analogous variation4 ,i may just allude to the ,g4 giganteus1 so often referred to in works on poultry as a wild species2 but ,marsden#ai the first describer1 speaks of it as a tame breed2 and the specimen in the ,british ,museum evidently has the aspect of a domestic variety4 ,the last species to be mentioned1 namely1 ,gallus bankiva1 has a much wider geographical range than the three previous species2 it inhabits ,northern ,india as far west as ,sinde1 and ascends the ,himalaya to a height of #djjj ft42 it inhabits ,burmah1 the ,malay peninsula1 the ,indo-,chinese countries1 the ,philippine ,islands1 and the ,malayan archipelago as far eastward as ,timor4 ,this species varies considerably in the wild state4 ,mr4 ,blyth informs me that the specimens1 both male and female1 brought from near the ,himalaya1 are rather paler coloured than those from other parts of ,india2 whilst those from the ,malay peninsula and ,java are brighter coloured than the ,indian birds4 ,i have seen specimens from these countries1 and the difference of tint in the hackles was conspicuous4 ,the ,malayan hens were a shade redder on the breast and neck than the ,indian hens4 ,the ,malayan males generally had a red ear-lappet1 instead of a white one as in ,india2 but ,mr4 ,blyth has seen one ,indian specimen without the white ear-lappet4 ,the legs are leaden blue in the ,indian1 whereas they show some tendency to be yellowish in the ,malayan and ,javan specimens4 ,in the former ,mr4 ,blyth finds the tarsus remarkably variable in length4 ,according to ,temminck#bj the ,timor specimens differ as a local race from that of ,java4 ,these several wild varieties have not as yet been ranked as distinct species2 if they should1 as is not unlikely1 be hereafter thus ranked1 the circumstance would be quite immaterial as far as the parentage and differences of our domestic breeds are concerned4 ,the wild ,g4 bankiva agrees most closely with the black-breasted red ,game-breed1 in colouring and in all other respects1 except in being smaller1 and in the tail being carried more horizontally4 ,but the manner in which the tail is carried is highly variable in many of our breeds1 for1 as ,mr4 ,brent informs me1 the tail slopes much in the ,malays1 is erect in the ,games and some other breeds1 and is more than erect in ,dorkings1 ,bantams1 etc4 ,there is one other difference namely1 that in ,g4 bankiva1 according to ,mr4 ,blyth1 the neck-hackles when first moulted are replaced during two or three months not by other hackles1 as with our domestic poultry1 but by short blackish feathers4#ba ,mr4 ,brent1 however1 has remarked that these black feathers remain in the wild bird after the development of the lower hackles1 and appear in the domestic bird at the same time with them3 so that the only difference is that the lower hackles are replaced more slowly in the wild than in the tame bird2 but as confinement is known sometimes to affect the masculine plumage1 this slight difference cannot be considered of any importance4 ,it is a significant fact that the voice of both the male and female ,g4 bankiva closely resembles1 as ,mr4 ,blyth and others have noted1 the voice of both sexes of the common domestic fowl2 but the last note of the crow of the wild bird is rather less prolonged4 ,captain ,hutton1 well known for his researches into the natural history of ,india1 informs me that he has seen several crossed fowls from the wild species and the ,chinese bantam2 these crossed fowls bred freely with bantams1 but unfortunately were not crossed inter se4 ,captain ,hutton reared chickens from the eggs of the ,gallus bankiva2 and these1 though at first very wild1 afterwards became so tame that they would crowd round his feet4 ,he did not succeed in rearing them to maturity2 but as he remarks1 8no wild gallinaceous bird thrives well at first on hard grain40 ,mr4 ,blyth also found much difficulty in keeping ,g4 bankiva in confinement4 ,in the ,philippine ,islands1 however1 the natives must succeed better1 as they keep wild cocks to fight with their domestic game-birds4#bb ,sir ,walter ,elliot informs me that the hen of a native domestic breed of ,pegu is undistinguishable from the hen of the wild ,g4 bankiva2 and the natives constantly catch wild cocks by taking tame cocks to fight with them in the woods4#bc ,mr4 ,crawfurd remarks that from etymology it might be argued that the fowl was first domesticated by the ,malays and ,javanese4#bd ,it is also a curious fact1 of which ,i have been assured by ,mr4 ,blyth1 that wild specimens of the ,gallus bankiva1 brought from the countries east of the ,bay of ,bengal1 are far more easily tamed than those of ,india2 nor is this an unparalleled fact1 for1 as ,humboldt long ago remarked1 the same species sometimes evinces a more tameable disposition in one country than in another4 ,if we suppose that the ,g4 bankiva was first tamed in ,malaya and afterwards imported into ,india1 we can understand an observation made to me by ,mr4 ,blyth1 that the domestic fowls of ,india do not resemble the wild ,g4 bankiva of ,india more closely than do those of ,europe4 ,from the extremely close resemblance in colour1 general structure1 and especially in voice1 between ,gallus bankiva and the ,game fowl2 from their fertility1 as far as this has been ascertained1 when crossed2 from the possibility of the wild species being tamed1 and from its varying in the wild state1 we may confidently look at it as the parent of the most typical of all the domestic breeds1 namely1 the ,game fowl4 ,it is a significant fact1 that almost all the naturalists in ,india1 namely ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 ,mr4 ,s4 ,n4 ,ward1 ,mr4 ,layard1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,jerdon1 and ,mr4 ,blyth1#be who are familiar with ,g4 bankiva1 believe that it is the parent of most or all our domestic breeds4 ,but even if it be admitted that ,g4 bankiva is the parent of the ,game breed1 yet it may be urged that other wild species have been the parents of the other domestic breeds2 and that these species still exist1 though unknown1 in some country1 or have become extinct4 ,the extinction1 however1 of several species of fowls1 is an improbable hypothesis1 seeing that the four known species have not become extinct in the most ancient and thickly peopled regions of the ,east4 ,there is1 in fact1 not one other kind of domesticated bird1 of which the wild parent-form is unknown1 that is become extinct4 ,for the discovery of new1 or the rediscovery of old species of ,gallus1 we must not look1 as fanciers often look1 to the whole world4 ,the larger gallinaceous birds1 as ,mr4 ,blyth has remarked1#bf generally have a restricted range3 we see this well illustrated in ,india1 where the genus ,gallus inhabits the base of the ,himalaya1 and is succeeded higher up by ,gallophasis1 and still higher up by ,phasianus4 ,australia1 with its islands1 is out of the question as the home for unknown species of the genus4 ,it is1 also1 as improbable that ,gallus should inhabit ,south ,america#bg as that a humming-bird should be found in the ,old ,world4 ,from the character of the other gallinaceous birds of ,africa1 it is not probable that ,gallus is an ,african genus4 ,we need not look to the western parts of ,asia1 for ,messrs4 ,blyth and ,crawfurd1 who have attended to this subject1 doubt whether ,gallus ever existed in a wild state even as far west as ,persia4 ,although the earliest ,greek writers speak of the fowl as a ,persian bird1 this probably merely indicates its line of importation4 ,for the discovery of unknown species we must look to ,india1 to the ,indo-,chinese countries1 and to the northern parts of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,the southern portion of ,china is the most likely country2 but as ,mr4 ,blyth informs me1 skins have been exported from ,china during a long period1 and living birds are largely kept there in aviaries1 so that any native species of ,gallus would probably have become known4 ,mr4 ,birch1 of the ,british ,museum1 has translated for me passages from a ,chinese ,encyclopdia published in #afji1 but compiled from more ancient documents1 in which it is said that fowls are creatures of the ,west1 and were introduced into the ,east 7i4e4 ,china7 in a dynasty #adjj ,b4,c4 ,whatever may be thought of so ancient a date1 we see that the ,indo-,chinese and ,indian regions were formerly considered by the ,chinese as the source of the domestic fowl4 ,from these several considerations we must look to the present metropolis of the genus1 namely1 to the south-eastern parts of ,asia1 for the discovery of species which were formerly domesticated1 but are now unknown in the wild state2 and the most experienced ornithologists do not consider it probable that such species will be discovered4 ,in considering whether the domestic breeds are descended from one species1 namely1 ,g4 bankiva1 or from several1 we must not quite overlook1 though we must not exaggerate1 the importance of the test of fertility4 ,most of our domestic breeds have been so often crossed1 and their mongrels so largely kept1 that it is almost certain1 if any degree of infertility had existed between them1 it would have been detected4 ,on the other hand1 the four known species of ,gallus when crossed with each other1 or when crossed1 with the exception of ,g4 bankiva1 with the domestic fowl1 produce infertile hybrids4 ,finally1 we have not such good evidence with fowls as with pigeons1 of all the breeds having descended from a single primitive stock4 ,in both cases the argument of fertility must go for something2 in both we have the improbability of man having succeeded in ancient times in thoroughly domesticating several supposed species1--most of these supposed species being extremely abnormal as compared with their natural allies1--all being now either unknown or extinct1 though the parent-form of no other domesticated bird has been lost4 ,but in searching for the supposed parent-stocks of the various breeds of the pigeon1 we were enabled to confine our search to species having peculiar habits of life2 whilst with fowls there is nothing in their habits in any marked manner distinct from those of other gallinaceous birds4 ,in the case of pigeons1 ,i have shown that purely-bred birds of every race and the crossed offspring of distinct races frequently resemble1 or revert to1 the wild rock-pigeon in general colour and in each characteristic mark4 ,with fowls we have facts of a similar nature1 but less strongly pronounced1 which we will now discuss4 ,reversion and ,analogous ,variation4--,purely-bred ,game1 ,malay1 ,cochin1 ,dorking1 ,bantam1 and1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 ,silk fowls1 may frequently or occasionally be met with1 which are almost identical in plumage with the wild ,g4 bankiva4 ,this is a fact well deserving attention1 when we reflect that these breeds rank amongst the most distinct4 ,fowls thus coloured are called by amateurs black-breasted reds4 ,hamburghs properly have a very different plumage2 nevertheless1 as ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me1 8the great difficulty in breeding cocks of the golden-spangled variety is their tendency to have black breasts and red backs4 ,the males of white ,bantams and white ,cochins1 as they come to maturity1 often assume a yellowish or saffron tinge2 and the longer neck hackles of black ,bantam cocks10#bh when two or three years old1 not uncommonly become ruddy2 these latter ,bantams occasionally 8even moult brassy-winged1 or actually red-shouldered40 ,so that in these several cases we see a plain tendency to reversion to the hues of ,g4 bankiva1 even during the lifetime of the individual bird4 ,with ,spanish1 ,polish1 pencilled ,hamburgh1 silver-spangled ,hamburgh fowls1 and with some other less common breeds1 ,i have never heard of a black-breasted red bird having appeared4 ,from my experience with pigeons1 ,i made the following crosses4 ,i first killed all my own poultry1 no others living near my house1 and then procured1 by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier's assistance1 a first-rate black ,spanish cock1 and hens of the following pure breeds1--white ,game1 white ,cochin1 silver-spangled ,polish1 silver-spangled ,hamburgh1 silver-pencilled ,hamburgh1 and white ,silk4 ,in none of these breeds is there a trace of red1 nor when kept pure have ,i ever heard of the appearance of a red feather2 though such an occurrence would perhaps not be very improbable with white ,games and white ,cochins4 ,of the many chickens reared from the above six crosses the majority were black1 both in the down and in the first plumage2 some were white1 and a very few were mottled black and white4 ,in one lot of eleven mixed eggs from the white ,game and white ,cochin by the black ,spanish cock1 seven of the chickens were white1 and only four black4 ,i mention this fact to show that whiteness of plumage is strongly inherited1 and that the belief in the prepotent power in the male to transmit his colour is not always correct4 ,the chickens were hatched in the spring1 and in the latter part of ,august several of the young cocks began to exhibit a change1 which with some of them increased during the following years4 ,thus a young male bird from the silver-spangled ,polish hen was in its first plumage coal-black1 and combined in its comb1 crest1 wattle1 and beard1 the characters of both parents2 but when two years old the secondary wing-feathers became largely and symmetrically marked with white1 and1 wherever in ,g4 bankiva the hackles are red1 they were in this bird greenish-black along the shaft1 narrowly bordered with brownish-black1 and this again broadly bordered with very pale yellowish-brown2 so that in general appearance the plumage had become pale-coloured instead of black4 ,in this case1 with advancing age there was a great change1 but no reversion to the red colour of ,g4 bankiva4 ,a cock with a regular rose comb derived either from the spangled or pencilled silver ,hamburgh was likewise at first quite black2 but in less than a year the neck-hackles1 as in the last case1 became whitish1 whilst those on the loins assumed a decided reddish-yellow tint2 and here we see the first symptom of reversion2 this likewise occurred with some other young cocks1 which need not here be described4 ,it has also been recorded#bi by a breeder1 that he crossed two silver-pencilled ,hamburgh hens with a ,spanish cock1 and reared a number of chickens1 all of which were black1 the cocks having golden and the hens brownish hackles2 so that in this instance likewise there was a clear tendency to reversion4 ,two young cocks from my white ,game hen were at first snow white2 of these1 one subsequently assumed male orange-coloured hackles1 chiefly on the loins1 and the other an abundance of fine orange-red hackles on the neck1 loins1 and upper wing-coverts4 ,here again we have a more decided1 though partial1 reversion to the colours of ,g4 bankiva4 ,this second cock was in fact coloured like an inferior 8pile ,came cock20--now this sub-breed can be produced1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 by crossing a black-breasted red ,game cock with a white ,game hen1 and the 8pile0 sub-breed thus produced can afterwards be truly propagated4 ,so that we have the curious fact of the glossy-black ,spanish cock and the black-breasted red ,game cock when crossed with white ,game hens producing offspring of nearly the same colours4 ,i reared several birds from the white ,silk hen by the ,spanish cock3 all were coal-black1 and all plainly showed their parentage in having blackish combs and bones2 none inherited the so-called silky feathers1 and the non-inheritance of this character has been observed by others4 ,the hens never varied in their plumage4 ,as the young cocks grew old1 one of them assumed yellowish-white hackles1 and thus resembled in a considerable degree the cross from the ,hamburgh hen2 the other became a gorgeous bird1 so much so that an acquaintance had it preserved and stuffed simply from its beauty4 ,when stalking about it closely resembled the wild ,gallus bankiva1 but with the red feathers rather darker4 ,on close comparison one considerable difference presented itself1 namely1 that the primary and secondary wing-feathers were edged with greenish-black1 instead of being edged1 as in ,g4 bankiva1 with fulvous and red tints4 ,the space1 also1 across the back1 which bears dark-green feathers1 was broader1 and the comb was blackish4 ,in all other respects1 even in trifling details of plumage1 there was the closest accordance4 ,altogether it was a marvellous sight to compare this bird first with ,g4 bankiva1 and then with its father1 the glossy green-black ,spanish cock1 and with its diminutive mother1 the white ,silk hen4 ,this case of reversion is the more extraordinary as the ,spanish breed has long been known to breed true1 and no instance is on record of its throwing a single red feather4 ,the ,silk hen likewise breeds true1 and is believed to be ancient1 for ,aldrovandi1 before #afjj1 alludes probably to this breed1 and described it as covered with wool4 ,it is so peculiar in many characters that some writers have considered it as specifically distinct2 yet1 as we now see1 when crossed with the ,spanish fowl1 it yields offspring closely resembling the wild ,g4 bankiva4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has been so kind as to repeat1 at my request1 the cross between a ,spanish cock and ,silk hen1 and he obtained similar results2 for he thus raised1 besides a black hen1 seven cocks1 all of which were dark-bodied with more or less orange-red hackles4 ,in the ensuing year he paired the black hen with one of her brothers1 and raised three young cocks1 all coloured like their father1 and a black hen mottled with white4 ,the hens from the six above-described crosses showed hardly any tendency to revert to the mottled-brown plumage of the female ,g4 bankiva3 one hen1 however1 from the white ,cochin1 which was at first coal-black1 became slightly brown or sooty4 ,several hens1 which were for a long time snow-white1 acquired as they grew old a few black feathers4 ,a hen from the white ,game1 which was for a long time entirely black glossed with green1 when two years old had some of the primary wing feathers greyish-white1 and a multitude of feathers over her body narrowly and symmetrically tipped or laced with white4 ,i had expected that some of the chickens whilst covered with down would have assumed the longitudinal stripes so general with gallinaceous birds2 but this did not occur in a single instance4 ,two or three alone were reddish-brown about their heads4 ,i was unfortunate in losing nearly all the white chickens from the first crosses2 so that black prevailed with the grandchildren2 but they were much diversified in colour1 some being sooty1 others mottled1 and one blackish chicken had its feathers oddly tipped and barred with brown4 ,i will here add a few miscellaneous facts connected with reversion1 and with the law of analogous variation4 ,this law implies1 as stated in a previous chapter1 that the varieties of one species frequently mock distinct but allied species2 and this fact is explained1 according to the views which ,i maintain1 on the principle of allied species having descended from one primitive form4 ,the white ,silk fowl with black skin and bones degenerates1 as has been observed by ,mr4 ,hewitt and ,mr4 ,r4 ,orton1 in our climate2 that is1 it reverts to the ordinary colour of the common fowl in its skin and bones1 due care having been taken to prevent any cross4 ,in ,germany#cj a distinct breed with black bones1 and with black1 not silky plumage1 has likewise been observed to degenerate4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that1 when distinct breeds are crossed1 fowls are frequently produced with their feathers marked or pencilled by narrow transverse lines of a darker colour4 ,this may be in part explained by direct reversion to the parent-form1 the ,bankiva hen2 for this bird has all its upper plumage finely mottled with dark and rufous brown1 with the mottling partially and obscurely arranged in transverse lines4 ,but the tendency to pencilling is probably much strengthened by the law of analogous variation1 for the hens of some other species of ,gallus are more plainly pencilled1 and the hens of many gallinaceous birds belonging to other genera1 as the partridge1 have pencilled feathers4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has also remarked to me that1 although with domestic pigeons we have so great a diversity of colouring1 we never see either pencilled or spangled feathers2 and this fact is intelligible on the law of analogous variation1 as neither the wild rock pigeon nor any closely allied species has such feathers4 ,the frequent appearance of pencilling in crossed birds probably accounts for the existence of 8cuckoo0 sub-breeds in the ,game1 ,polish1 ,dorking1 ,cochin1 ,andalusian1 and ,bantam breeds4 ,the plumage of these birds is slaty-blue or grey1 with each feather transversely barred with darker lines1 so as to resemble in some degree the plumage of the cuckoo4 ,it is a singular fact1 considering that the male of no species of ,gallus is in the least barred1 that the cuckoo-like plumage has often been transferred to the male1 more especially in the cuckoo ,dorking2 and the fact is all the more singular1 as in gold- and silver-pencilled ,hamburghs1 in which pencilling is characteristic of the breed1 the male is hardly at all pencilled1 this kind of plumage being confined to the female4 ,another case of analogous variation is the occurrence of spangled sub-breeds of ,hamburgh1 ,polish1 ,malay1 and ,bantam fowls4 ,spangled feathers have a dark mark1 properly crescent-shaped1 on their tips2 whilst pencilled feathers have several transverse bars4 ,the spangling cannot be due to reversion to ,g4 bankiva2 nor does it often follow1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 from crossing distinct breeds2 but it is a case of analogous variation1 for many gallinaceous birds have spangled feathers1--for instance1 the common pheasant4 ,hence spangled breeds are often called 8pheasant0-fowls4 ,another case of analogous variation in several domestic breeds is inexplicable2 it is1 that the chickens1 whilst covered with down1 of the black ,spanish1 black ,game1 black ,polish1 and black ,bantam1 all have white throats and breasts1 and often have some white on their wings4#ca ,the editor of the #8,poultry ,chronicle'#cb remarks that all the breeds which properly have red ear-lappets occasionally produce birds with white ear-,tappets4 ,this remark more especially applies to the ,game breed1 which of all comes nearest to the ,g4 bankiva2 and we have seen that with this species living in a state of nature1 the ear-lappets vary in colour1 being red in the ,malayan countries1 and generally1 but not invariably1 white in ,india4 ,in concluding this part of my subject1 ,i may repeat that there exists one widely-ranging1 varying1 and common species of ,gallus1 namely1 ,g4 bankiva1 which can be tamed1 produces fertile offspring when crossed with common fowls1 and closely resembles in its whole structure1 plumage1 and voice the ,game breed2 hence it may be safely ranked as the parent of this1 the most typical domesticated breed4 ,we have seen that there is much difficulty in believing that other1 now unknown1 species have been the parents of the other domestic breeds4 ,we know that all the breeds are most closely allied1 as shown by their similarity in most points of structure and in habits1 and by the analogous manner in which they vary4 ,we have also seen that several of the most distinct breeds occasionally or habitually closely resemble in plumage ,g4 bankiva1 and that the crossed offspring of other breeds1 which are not thus coloured1 show a stronger or weaker tendency to revert to this same plumage4 ,some of the breeds1 which appear the most distinct and the least likely to have proceeded from ,g4 bankiva1 such as ,polish fowls1 with their protuberant and little ossified skulls1 and ,cochins1 with their imperfect tail and small wings1 bear in these characters the plain marks of their artificial origin4 ,we know well that of late years methodical selection has greatly improved and fixed many characters2 and we have every reason to believe that unconscious selection1 carried on for many generations1 will have steadily augmented each new peculiarity1 and thus have given rise to new breeds4 ,as soon as two or three breeds were once formed1 crossing would come into play in changing their character and in increasing their number4 ,brahma ,pootras1 according to an account lately published in ,america1 offer a good instance of a breed1 lately formed by a cross1 which can be truly propagated4 ,the well-known ,sebright ,bantams offer another and similar instance4 ,hence it may be concluded that not only the ,game-breed but that all our breeds are probably the descendants of the ,malayan or ,indian variety of ,g4 bankiva4 ,if so1 this species has varied greatly since it was first domesticated2 but there has been ample time1 as we shall now show4 ,history of the ,fowl4--,rtimeyer found no remains of the fowl in the ancient ,swiss lake-dwellings2 but1 according to ,jeitteles1#cc such have certainly since been found associated with extinct animals and prehistoric remains4 ,it is1 therefore a strange fact that the fowl is not mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 nor figured on the ancient ,egyptian monuments4 ,it is not referred to by ,homer or ,hesiod 7about #ijj ,b4,c472 but is mentioned by ,theognis and ,aristophanes between #djj and #ejj ,b4,c4 ,it is figured on some of the ,babylonian cylinders1 between the sixth and seventh centuries ,b4,c41 of which ,mr4 ,layard sent me an impression2 and on the ,harpy ,tomb in ,lycia1 about #fjj ,b4,c43 so that the fowl apparently reached ,europe in a domesticated condition somewhere about the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,it had travelled still farther westward by the time of the ,christian era1 for it was found in ,britain by ,julius ,csar4 ,in ,india it must have been domesticated when the ,institutes of ,manu were written1 that is1 according to ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 #abjj ,b4,c41 but1 according to the later authority of ,mr4 ,h4 ,wilson1 only #hjj ,b4,c41 for the domestic fowl is forbidden1 whilst the wild is permitted to be eaten4 ,if1 as before remarked1 we may trust the old ,chinese ,encyclopdia1 the fowl must have been domesticated several centuries earlier1 as it is said to have been introduced from the ,west into ,china #adjj ,b4,c4 ,sufficient materials do not exist for tracing the history of the separate breeds4 ,about the commencement of the ,christian era1 ,columella mentions a five-toed fighting breed1 and some provincial breeds2 but we know nothing about them4 ,he also alludes to dwarf fowls2 but these cannot have been the same with our ,bantams1 which1 as ,mr4 ,crawfurd has shown1 were imported from ,japan into ,bantam in ,java4 ,a dwarf fowl1 probably the true ,bantam1 is referred to in an old ,japanese ,encyclopdia1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,birch4 ,in the ,chinese ,encyclopdia published in #aeif1 but compiled from various sources1 some of high antiquity1 seven breeds are mentioned1 including what we should now call ,jumpers or ,creepers1 and likewise fowls with black feathers1 bones1 and flesh4 ,in #afjj ,aldrovandi describes seven or eight breeds of fowls1 and this is the most ancient record from which the age of our ,european breeds can be inferred4 ,the ,gallus turcicus certainly seems to be a pencilled ,hamburgh2 but ,mr4 ,brent1 a most capable judge1 thinks that ,aldrovandi 8evidently figured what he happened to see1 and not the best of the breed40 ,mr4 ,brent1 indeed1 considers all ,aldrovandi's fowls as of impure breed2 but it is a far more probable view that all our breeds have been much improved and modified since his time2 for1 as he went to the expense of so many figures1 he probably would have secured characteristic specimens4 ,the ,silk fowl1 however1 probably then existed in its present state1 as did almost certainly the fowl with frizzled or reversed feathers4 ,mr4 ,dixon#cd considers ,aldrovandi's ,paduan fowl as 8a variety of the ,polish10 whereas ,mr4 ,brent believes it to have been more nearly allied to the ,malay4 ,the anatomical peculiarities of the skull of the ,polish breed were noticed by ,p4 ,borelli in #afef4 ,i may add that in #agcg one ,polish sub-breed1 viz41 the ,golden-spangled1 was known2 but judging from ,albin's description1 the comb was then larger1 the crest of feathers much smaller1 the breast more coarsely spotted1 and the stomach and thighs much blacker3 a ,golden-spangled ,polish fowl in this condition would now be of no value4 ,differences in ,external and ,internal ,structure between the ,breeds3 ,individual ,variability4--,fowls have been exposed to diversified conditions of life1 and as we have just seen there has been ample time for much variability and for the slow action of unconscious selection4 ,as there are good grounds for believing that all the breeds are descended from ,gallus bankiva1 it will be worth while to describe in some detail the chief points of difference4 ,beginning with the eggs and chickens1 ,i will pass on to their secondary sexual characters1 and then to their differences in external structure and in the skeleton4 ,i enter on the following details chiefly to show how variable almost every character has become under domestication4 ,eggs4--,mr4 ,dixon remarks#ce that 8to every hen belongs an individual peculiarity in the form1 colour1 and size of her egg1 which never changes during her life-time1 so long as she remains in health1 and which is as well known to those who are in the habit of taking her produce1 as the hand-writing of their nearest acquaintance40 ,i believe that this is generally true1 and that1 if no great number of hens be kept1 the eggs of each can almost always be recognised4 ,the eggs of differently sized breeds naturally differ much in size2 but apparently1 not always in strict relation to the size of the hen3 thus the ,malay is a larger bird than the ,spanish1 but she produces not such large eggs2 white ,bantams are said to lay smaller eggs than other ,bantams2#cf white ,cochins1 on the other hand1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 certainly lay larger eggs than buff ,cochins4 ,the eggs1 however1 of the different breeds vary considerably in character2 for instance1 ,mr4 ,ballance states#cg that his ,malay 8pullets of last year laid eggs equal in size to those of any duck1 and other ,malay hens1 two or three years old1 laid eggs very little larger than a good sized ,bantam's egg4 ,some were as white as a ,spanish hen's egg1 and others varied from a light cream-colour to a deep rich buff1 or even to a brown40 ,the shape also varies1 the two ends being much more equally rounded in ,cochins than in ,games or ,polish4 ,spanish fowls lay smoother eggs than ,cochins1 of which the eggs are generally granulated4 ,the shell in this latter breed1 and more especially in ,malays is apt to be thicker than in ,games or ,spanish2 but the ,minorcas1 a sub-breed of ,spanish1 are said to lay harder eggs than true ,spanish4#ch ,the colour differs considerably1--the ,cochins laying buff-coloured eggs2 the ,malays a paler variable buff2 and ,games a still paler buff4 ,it would appear that darker-coloured eggs characterise the breeds which have lately come from the ,east1 or are still closely allied to those now living there4 ,the colour of the yolk1 according to ,ferguson1 as well as of the shell1 differs slightly in the sub-breeds of the ,game4 ,i am also informed by ,mr4 ,brent that dark partridge-coloured ,cochin hens lay darker coloured eggs than the other ,cochin sub-breeds4 ,the flavour and richness of the egg certainly differ in different breeds4 ,the productiveness of the several breeds is very different4 ,spanish1 ,polish1 and ,hamburgh hens have lost the incubating instinct4 ,chickens4--,as the young of almost all gallinaceous birds1 even of the black curassow and black grouse1 whilst covered with down1 are longitudinally striped on the back1--of which character1 when adult1 neither sex retains a trace1--it might have been expected that the chickens of all our domestic fowls would have been similarly striped4#ci ,this could1 however1 hardly have been expected1 when the adult plumage in both sexes has undergone so great a change as to be wholly white or black4 ,in white fowls of various breeds the chickens are uniformly yellowish white1 passing in the black-boned ,silk fowl into bright canary-yellow4 ,this is also generally the case with the chickens of white ,cochins1 but ,i hear from ,mr4 ,zurhost that they are sometimes of a buff or oak colour1 and that all those of this latter colour1 which were watched1 turned out males4 ,the chickens of buff ,cochins are of a golden-yellow1 easily distinguishable from the paler tint of the white ,cochins1 and are often longitudinally streaked with dark shades3 the chickens of silver-cinnamon ,cochins are almost always of a buff colour4 ,the chickens of the white ,game and white ,dorking breeds1 when held in particular lights1 sometimes exhibit 7on the authority of ,mr4 ,brent7 faint traces of longitudinal stripes4 ,fowls which are entirely black1 namely1 ,spanish1 black ,game1 black ,polish1 and black ,bantams1 display a new character1 for their chickens have their breasts and throats more or less white1 with sometimes a little white elsewhere4 ,spanish chickens also1 occasionally 7,brent71 have1 where the down was white1 their first true feathers tipped for a time with white4 ,the primordially striped character is retained by the chickens of most of the ,game sub-breeds 7,brent1 ,dixon72 by ,dorkings2 by the partridge and grouse-coloured sub-breeds of ,cochins 7,brent71 but not1 as we have seen1 by the sub-breeds2 by the pheasant-,malay 7,dixon71 but apparently not 7at which ,i am much surprised7 by other ,malays4 ,the following breeds and sub-breeds are barely1 or not at all1 longitudinally striped3 viz41 gold and silver pencilled ,hamburghs1 which can hardly be distinguished from each other 7,brent7 in the down1 both having a few dark spots on the head and rump1 with occasionally a longitudinal stripe 7,dixon7 on the back of the neck4 ,i have seen only one chicken of the silver-spangled ,hamburgh1 and this was obscurely striped along the back4 ,gold-spangled ,polish chickens 7,tegetmeier7 are of a warm russet brown2 and silver-spangled ,polish chickens are grey1 sometimes 7,dixon7 with dashes of ochre on the head1 wings1 and breast4 ,cuckoo and blue-dun fowls 7,dixon7 are grey in the down4 ,the chickens of ,sebright ,bantams 7,dixon7 are uniformly dark brown1 whilst those of the brown-breasted red ,game ,bantam are black1 with some white on the throat and breast4 ,from these facts we see that young chickens of the different breeds1 and even of the same main breed1 differ much in their downy plumage2 and1 although longitudinal stripes characterise the young of all wild gallinaceous birds1 they disappear in several domestic breeds4 ,perhaps it may be accepted as a general rule that the more the adult plumage differs from that of the adult ,g4 bankiva1 the more completely the chickens have lost their stripes4 ,with respect to the period of life at which the characters proper to each breed first appear1 it is obvious that such structures as additional toes must be formed long before birth4 ,in ,polish fowls1 the extraordinary protuberance of the anterior part of the skull is well developed before the chickens come out of the egg2#dj but the crest1 which is supported on the protuberance1 is at first feebly developed1 nor does it attain its full size until the second year4 ,the ,spanish cock is pre-eminent for his magnificent comb1 and this is developed at an unusually early age2 so that the young males can be distinguished from the females when only a few weeks old1 and therefore earlier than in other breeds2 they likewise crow very early1 namely1 when about six weeks old4 ,in the ,dutch sub-breed of the ,spanish fowl the white ear-lappets are developed earlier than in the common ,spanish breed4#da ,cochins are characterised by a small tail1 and in the young cocks the tail is developed at an unusually late period4#db ,game fowls are notorious for their pugnacity2 and the young cocks crow1 clap their little wings1 and fight obstinately with each other1 even whilst under their mother's care4#dc 8,i have often had10 says one author1#dd 8whole broods1 scarcely feathered1 stone-blind from fighting2 the rival couples moping in corners1 and renewing their battles on obtaining the first ray of light40 ,the weapons and pugnacity of all male gallinaceous birds evidently serve the purpose of gaining possession of the females2 so that the tendency in our ,game chickens to fight at an extremely early age is not only useless1 but injurious1 as they suffer much from their wounds4 ,the training for battle during an early age may be natural to the wild ,gallus bankiva2 but as man during many generations has gone on selecting the most obstinately pugnacious cocks1 it is more probable that their pugnacity has been unnaturally increased1 and unnaturally transferred to the young male chickens4 ,in the same manner1 it is probable that the extraordinary development of the comb in the ,spanish cock has been unintentionally transferred to the young cocks2 for fanciers would not care whether their young birds had large combs1 but would select for breeding the adults which had the finest combs1 whether or not developed at an early period4 ,the last point which need here be noticed is that1 though the chickens of ,spanish and ,malay fowls are well covered with down1 the true feathers are acquired at an unusually late age2 so that for a time the young birds are partially naked1 and are liable to suffer from cold4 ,secondary ,sexual ,characters4--,the two sexes in the parent-form1 the ,gallus bankiva1 differ much in colour4 ,in our domestic breeds the difference is never greater1 but is often less1 and varies much in degree even in the sub-breeds of the same main breed4 ,thus in certain ,game fowls the difference is as great as in the parent-form1 whilst in the black and white sub-breeds there is no difference in plumage4 ,mr4 ,brent informs me that he has seen two strains of black-breasted red ,games1 of which the cocks could not be distinguished1 whilst the hens in one were partridge-brown and in the other fawn-brown4 ,a similar case has been observed in the strains of the brown-breasted red ,game4 ,the hen of the 8duck-winged ,game0 is 8extremely beautiful10 and differs much from the hens of all the other ,game sub-breeds2 but generally1 as with the blue and grey ,game and with some sub-varieties of the pile-game1 a moderately close relation may be observed between the males and females in the variation of their plumage4#de ,a similar relation is also evident when we compare the several varieties of ,cochins4 ,in the two sexes of gold and silver-spangled and of buff ,polish fowls1 there is much general similarity in the colouring and marks of the whole plumage1 excepting of course in the hackles1 crest1 and beard4 ,in spangled ,hamburghs1 there is likewise a considerable degree of similarity between the two sexes4 ,in pencilled ,hamburghs1 on the other hand1 there is much dissimilarity2 the pencilling which is characteristic of the hens being almost absent in the males of both the golden and silver varieties4 ,but1 as we have already seen1 it cannot be given as a general rule that male fowls never have pencilled feathers1 for ,cuckoo ,dorkings are 8remarkable from having nearly similar markings in both sexes40 ,it is a singular fact that the males in certain sub-breeds have lost some of their secondary masculine characters1 and from their close resemblance in plumage to the females1 are often called hennies4 ,there is much diversity of opinion whether these males are in any degree sterile2 that they sometimes are partially sterile seems clear1#df but this may have been caused by too close interbreeding4 ,that they are not quite sterile1 and that the whole case is widely different from that of old females assuming masculine characters1 is evident from several of these hen-like sub-breeds having been long propagated4 ,the males and females of gold and silver-laced ,sebright ,bantams can be barely distinguished from each other1 except by their combs1 wattles1 and spurs1 for they are coloured alike1 and the males have not hackles1 nor the flowing sickle-like tail-feathers4 ,a hen-tailed sub-breed of ,hamburghs was recently much esteemed4 ,there is also a breed of ,game-fowls1 in which the males and females resemble each other so closely that the cocks have often mistaken their hen-feathered opponents in the cock-pit for real hens1 and by the mistake have lost their lives4#dg ,the cocks1 though dressed in the feathers of the hen1 8are high-spirited birds1 and their courage has been often proved30 an engraving even has been published of one celebrated hen-tailed victor4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier#dh has recorded the remarkable case of a brown-breasted red ,game cock which1 after assuming its perfect masculine plumage1 became hen-feathered in the autumn of the following year2 but he did not lose voice1 spurs1 strength1 nor productiveness4 ,this bird has now retained the same character during five seasons1 and has begot both hen-feathered and male-feathered offspring4 ,mr4 ,grantley ,f4 ,berkeley relates the still more singular case of a celebrated strain of 8polecat ,game fowls10 which produced in nearly every brood a single hen-cock4 8,the great peculiarity in one of these birds was that he1 as the seasons succeeded each other1 was not always a hen-cock1 and not always of the colour called the polecat1 which is black4 ,from the polecat and hen-cock feather in one season he moulted to a full male-plumaged black-breasted red1 and in the following year he returned to the former feather40#di ,i have remarked in my #8,origin of ,species' that secondary sexual characters are apt to differ much in the species of the same genus1 and to be unusually variable in the individuals of the same species4 ,so it is with the breeds of the fowl1 as we have already seen1 as far as the colour of plumage is concerned1 and so it is with the other secondary sexual characters4 ,firstly1 the comb differs much in the various breeds1#ej and its form is eminently characteristic of each kind1 with the exception of the ,dorkings1 in which the form has not been as yet determined on by fanciers1 and fixed by selection4 ,a single1 deeply-serrated comb is the typical and most common form4 ,it differs much in size1 being immensely developed in ,spanish fowls2 and in a local breed called ,red-caps1 it is sometimes 8upwards of three inches in breadth at the front1 and more than four inches in length1 measured to the end of the peak behind40#ea ,in some breeds the comb is double1 and when the two ends are cemented together it forms a 8cup-comb20 in the 8rose-comb0 it is depressed1 covered with small projections1 and produced backwards2 in the horned and creve-coeur fowl it is produced into two horns2 it is triple in the pea-combed ,brahmas1 short and truncated in the ,malays1 and absent in the ,guelderlands4 ,in the tasselled ,game a few long feathers rise from the back of the comb3 in many breeds a crest of feathers replaces the comb4 ,the crest1 when little developed1 arises from a fleshy mass1 but1 when much developed1 from a hemispherical protuberance of the skull4 ,in the best ,polish fowls it is so largely developed1 that ,i have seen birds which could hardly pick up their food2 and a ,german writer asserts#eb that they are in consequence liable to be struck by hawks4 ,monstrous structures of this kind would thus be suppressed in a state of nature4 ,the wattles1 also1 vary much in size1 being small in ,malays and some other breeds2 in certain ,polish sub-breeds they are replaced by a great tuft of feathers called a beard4 ,the hackles do not differ much in the various breeds1 but are short and stiff in ,malays1 and absent in ,hennies4 ,as in some orders male birds display extraordinarily-shaped feathers1 such as naked shafts with discs at the end1 etc41 the following case may be worth giving4 ,in the wild ,gallus bankiva and in our domestic fowls1 the barbs which arise from each side of the extremities of the hackles are naked or not clothed with barbules1 so that they resemble bristles2 but ,mr4 ,brent sent me some scapular hackles from a young ,birchen ,duckwing ,game cock1 in which the naked barbs became densely re-clothed with barbules towards their tips2 so that these tips1 which were dark coloured with a metallic lustre1 were separated from the lower parts by a symmetrically-shaped transparent zone formed of the naked portions of the barbs4 ,hence the coloured tips appeared like little separate metallic discs4 ,the sickle-feathers in the tail1 of which there are three pair1 and which are eminently characteristic of the male sex1 differ much in the various breeds4 ,they are scimitar-shaped in some ,hamburghs1 instead of being long and flowing as in the typical breeds4 ,they are extremely short in ,cochins1 and are not at all developed in ,hennies4 ,they are carried1 together with the whole tail1 erect in ,dorkings and ,gaines2 but droop much in ,malays and in some ,cochins4 ,sultans are characterised by an additional number of lateral sickle-feathers4 ,the spurs vary much1 being placed higher or lower on the shank2 being extremely long and sharp in ,games1 and blunt and short in ,cochins4 ,these latter birds seem aware that their spurs are not efficient weapons2 for though they occasionally use them1 they more frequently fight1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 by seizing and shaking each other with their beaks4 ,in some ,indian ,game cocks1 received by ,mr4 ,brent from ,germany1 there are1 as he informs me1 three1 four1 or even five spurs on each leg4 ,some ,dorkings also have two spurs on each leg2#ec and in birds of this breed the spur is often placed almost on the outside of the leg4 ,double spurs are mentioned in an ancient ,chinese ,encyclopdia4 ,their occurrence may be considered as a case of analogous variation1 for some wild gallinaceous birds1 for instance1 the ,polyplectron1 have double spurs4 ,judging from the differences which generally distinguish the sexes in the ,gallinace1 certain characters in our domestic fowls appear to have been transferred from the one sex to the other4 ,in all the species 7except in ,turnix71 when there is any conspicuous difference in plumage between the male and female1 the male is always the most beautiful2 but in golden-spangled ,hamburghs the hen is equally beautiful with the cock1 and incomparably more beautiful than the hen in any natural species of ,gallus2 so that here a masculine character has been transferred to the female4 ,on the other hand1 in ,cuckoo ,dorkings and in other cuckoo breeds the pencilling1 which in ,gallus is a female attribute1 has been transferred to the male3 nor1 on the principle of analogous variation1 is this transference surprising1 as the males in many gallinaceous genera are barred or pencilled4 ,with most of these birds head ornaments of all kinds are more fully developed in the male than in the female2 but in ,polish fowls the crest or top-knot1 which in the male replaces the comb1 is equally developed in both sexes4 ,in the males of certain other sub-breeds1 which from the hen having a small crest1 are called lark-crested1 8a single upright comb sometimes almost entirely takes the place of the crest40#ed ,from this latter case1 and more especially from some facts presently to be given with respect to the protuberance of the skull in ,polish fowls1 the crest in this breed must be viewed as a feminine character which has been transferred to the male4 ,in the ,spanish breed the male1 as we know1 has an immense comb1 and this has been partially transferred to the female1 for her comb is unusually large1 though not upright4 ,in ,game fowls the bold and savage disposition of the male has likewise been largely transferred to the female2#ee and she sometimes even possesses the eminently masculine character of spurs4 ,many cases are on record of fertile hens being furnished with spurs2 and in ,germany1 according to ,bechstein1#ef the spurs in the ,silk hen are sometimes very long4 ,he mentions also another breed similarly characterised1 in which the hens are excellent layers1 but are apt to disturb and break their eggs owing to their spurs4 ,mr4 ,layard#eg has given an account of a breed of fowls in ,ceylon with black skin1 bones1 and wattle1 but with ordinary feathers1 and which cannot 8be more aptly described than by comparing them to a white fowl drawn down a sooty chimney2 it is1 however10 adds ,mr4 ,layard1 8a remarkable fact that a male bird of the pure sooty variety is almost as rare as a tortoise-shell tom-cat40 ,mr4 ,blyth found the same rule to hold good with this breed near ,calcutta4 ,the males and females1 on the other hand1 of the black-boned ,european breed1 with silky feathers1 do not differ from each other2 so that in the one breed1 black skin and bones and the same kind of plumage are common to both sexes1 whilst in the other breed1 these characters are confined to the female sex4 ,at the present day all the breeds of ,polish fowls have the great bony protuberance on their skulls1 which includes part of the brain and supports the crest1 equally developed in both sexes4 ,but formerly in ,germany the skull of the hen alone was protuberant3 ,blumenbach1#eh who particularly attended to abnormal peculiarities in domestic animals1 states1 in #ahje1 that this was the case2 and ,bechstein had previously1 in #agic observed the same fact4 ,this latter author has carefully described the effects on the skull of a crest not only in the case of fowls1 but of ducks1 geese1 and canaries4 ,he states that with fowls1 when the crest is not much developed1 it is supported on a fatty mass2 but when much developed1 it is always supported on a bony protuberance of variable size4 ,he well describes the peculiarities of this protuberance2 he attended also to the effects of the modified shape of the brain on the intellect of these birds1 and disputes ,pallas' statement that they are stupid4 ,he then expressly remarks that he never observed this protuberance in male fowls4 ,hence there can be no doubt that this extraordinary character in the skulls of ,polish fowls was formerly in ,germany confined to the female sex1 but has now been transferred to the males1 and has thus become common to both sexes4 ,external ,differences1 not connected with the ,sexes1 between the ,breeds and between individual ,birds4 ,the size of the body differs greatly4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has known a ,brahma to weigh #ag pounds2 a fine ,malay cock #aj pounds2 whilst a first-rate ,sebright ,bantam weighs hardly more than #a pound4 ,during the last #bj years the size of some of our breeds has been largely increased by methodical selection1 whilst that of other breeds has been much diminished4 ,we have already seen how greatly colour varies even within the same breed2 we know that the wild ,g4 bankiva varies slightly in colour2 we know that colour is variable in all our domestic animals2 nevertheless some eminent fanciers have so little faith in variability1 that they have actually argued that the chief ,game sub-breeds1 which differ from each other in nothing but colour1 are descended from distinct wild species6 ,crossing often causes strange modification of colour4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that when buff and white ,cochins are crossed1 some of the chickens are almost invariably black4 ,according to ,mr4 ,brent1 black and white ,cochins occasionally produce chickens of a slaty-blue tint2 and this same tint results1 as ,mr4 ,tegetmeier tells me1 from crossing white ,cochins with black ,spanish fowls1 or white ,dorkings with black ,minorcas4#ei ,a good observer#fj states that a first-rate silver-spangled ,hamburgh hen gradually lost the most characteristic qualities of the breed1 for the black lacing to her feathers disappeared1 and her legs changed from leaden-blue to white3 but what makes the case remarkable is1 that this tendency ran in the blood for her sister changed in a similar but less strongly marked manner2 and chickens produced from this latter hen were at first almost pure white1 8but on moulting acquired black colours and some spangled feathers with almost obliterated markings20 so that a new variety arose in this singular manner4 ,the skin in the different breeds differs much in colour1 being white in common kinds1 yellow in ,malays and ,cochins1 and black in ,silk fowls2 thus mocking1 as ,m4 ,godron#fa remarks the three principal types of skin in mankind4 ,the same author adds that1 as different kinds of fowls living in distant and isolated parts of the world have black skin and bones1 this colour must have appeared at various times and places4 ,the shape and carriage of the body1 and the shape of the head differ much4 ,the beak varies slightly in length and curvature1 but incomparably less than with pigeons4 ,in most crested fowls the nostrils offer a remarkable peculiarity in being raised with a crescentic outline4 ,the primary wing-feathers are short in ,cochins2 in a male1 which must have been more than twice as heavy as ,g4 bankiva1 these feathers were in both birds of the same length4 ,i have counted1 with ,mr4 ,tegetmeier's aid1 the primary wing-feathers in thirteen cocks and hens of various breeds2 in four of them1 namely in two ,hamburghs1 a ,cochin1 and ,game bantam1 there were #aj1 instead of the normal number #i2 but in counting these feathers ,i have followed the practice of fanciers1 and have not included the first minute primary feather1 barely three-quarters of an inch in length4 ,these feathers differ considerably in relative length1 the fourth1 or the fifth1 or the sixth1 being the longest2 with the third either equal to1 or considerably shorter than the fifth4 ,in wild gallinaceous species the relative length and number of the main wing and tail-feathers are extremely constant4 ,the tail differs much in erectness and size1 being small in ,malays and very small in ,cochins4 ,in thirteen fowls of various breeds which ,i have examined1 five had the normal number of #ad feathers1 including in this number the two middle sickle-feathers2 six others 7viz41 a ,caffre cock1 ,gold-spangled ,polish cock1 ,cochin hen1 ,sultan hen1 ,game hen and ,malay hen had #af2 and two 7an old ,cochin cock and ,malay hen7 had #ag feathers4 ,the rumpless fowl has no tail and in one which ,i possessed there was no oil-gland2 but this bird though the os coccygis was extremely imperfect1 had a vestige of a tail with two rather long feathers in the position of the outer caudals4 ,this bird came from a family where1 as ,i was told1 the breed had kept true for twenty years2 but rumpless fowls often produce chickens with tails4#fb ,an eminent physiologist#fc has recently spoken of this breed as a distinct species2 had he examined the deformed state of the os coccyx he would never have come to this conclusion2 he was probably misled by the statement1 which may be found in some works1 that tailless fowls are wild in ,ceylon2 but this statement1 as ,i have been assured by ,mr4 ,layard and ,dr4 ,kellaert who have so closely studied the birds of ,ceylon1 is utterly false4 ,the tarsi vary considerably in length1 being relatively to the femur considerably longer in the ,spanish and ,frizzled1 and shorter in the ,silk and ,bantam breeds1 than in the wild ,g4 bankiva2 but in the latter1 as we have seen1 the tarsi vary in length4 ,the tarsi are often feathered4 ,the feet in many breeds are furnished with additional toes4 ,golden-spangled ,polish fowls are said#fd to have the skin between their toes much developed3 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier observed this in one bird1 but it was not so in one which ,i examined4 ,prof4 ,hoffmann has sent me a sketch of the feet of a fowl of the common breed at ,giessen1 with a web extending between the three toes1 for about a third of their length4 ,in ,cochins the middle toe is said#fe to be nearly double the length of the lateral toes1 and therefore much longer than in ,g4 bankiva or in other fowls2 but this was not the case in two which ,i examined4 ,the nail of the middle toe in this same breed is surprisingly broad and flat1 but in a variable degree in two birds which ,i examined2 of this structure in the nail there is only a trace in ,g4 bankiva4 ,the voice differs slightly1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,dixon1 in almost every breed4 ,the ,malays#ff have a loud1 deep1 somewhat prolonged crow1 but with considerable individual difference4 ,colonel ,sykes remarks that the domestic ,kulm cock in ,india has not the shrill clear pipe of the ,english bird1 and 8his scale of notes appears more limited40 ,dr4 ,hooker was struck with the 8prolonged howling screech0 of the cocks in ,sikhim4#fg ,the crow of the ,cochin is notoriously and ludicrously different from that of the common cock4 ,the disposition of the different breeds is widely different1 varying from the savage and defiant temper of the ,game-cock to the extremely peaceable temper of the ,cochins4 ,the latter1 it has been asserted1 8graze to a much greater extent than any other varieties40 ,the ,spanish fowls suffer more from frost than other breeds4 ,before we pass on to the skeleton1 the degree of distinctness of the several breeds from ,g4 bankiva ought to be noticed4 ,some writers speak of the ,spanish as one of the most distinct breeds1 and so it is in general aspect2 but its characteristic differences are not important4 ,the ,malay appears to me more distinct1 from its tall stature1 small drooping tail with more than fourteen tail-feathers1 and from its small comb and wattles2 nevertheless1 one ,malay sub-breed is coloured almost exactly like ,g4 bankiva4 ,some authors consider the ,polish fowl as very distinct2 but this is a semi-monstrous breed1 as shown by the protuberant and irregularly perforated skull4 ,the ,cochin1 from its deeply furrowed frontal bones1 peculiarly shaped occipital foramen1 short wing-feathers1 short tail containing more than fourteen feathers1 broad nail to the middle toe1 fluffy plumage1 rough and dark-coloured eggs1 and especially from its peculiar voice1 is probably the most distinct of all the breeds4 ,if any one of our breeds has descended from some unknown species1 distinct from ,g4 bankiva1 it is probably the ,cochin2 but the balance of evidence does not favour this view4 ,all the characteristic differences of the ,cochin breed are more or less variable1 and may be detected in a greater or lesser degree in other breeds4 ,one sub-breed is coloured closely like ,g4 bankiva4 ,the feathered legs1 often furnished with an additional toe1 the wings incapable of flight1 the extremely quiet disposition1 indicate a long course of domestication2 and these fowls come from ,china1 where we know that plants and animals have been tended from a remote period with extraordinary care1 and where consequently we might expect to find profoundly modified domestic races4 ,osteological ,differences4--,i have examined twenty-seven skeletons and fifty-three skulls of various breeds1 including three of ,g4 bankiva3 nearly half of these skulls ,i owe to the kindness of ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 and three of the skeletons to ,mr4 ,eyton4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc--,occipital ,foramen of the ,skulls of ,fowls ,the ,skull differs greatly in size in different breeds1 being nearly twice as long in the largest ,cochins1 but not nearly twice as broad1 as in ,bantams4 ,the bones at the base1 from the occipital foramen to the anterior end 7including the quadrates and pterygoids71 are absolutely identical in shape in all the skulls4 ,so is the lower jaw4 ,in the forehead slight differences are often perceptible between the males and females1 evidently caused by the presence of the comb4 ,in every case ,i take the skull of ,g4 bankiva as the standard of comparison4 ,in four ,games1 in one ,malay hen1 in an ,african cock1 in a ,frizzled cock from ,madras1 in two black-boned ,silk hens1 no differences worth notice occur4 ,in three ,spanish cocks1 the form of the forehead between the orbits differs considerably2 in one it is considerably depressed1 whilst in the two others it is rather prominent1 with a deep medial furrow2 the skull of the hen is smooth4 ,in three skulls of ,sebright ,bantams the crown is more globular1 and slopes more abruptly to the occiput1 than in ,g4 bankiva4 ,in a ,bantam or ,jumper from ,burmah these same characters are more strongly pronounced1 and the supra-occiput is more pointed4 ,in a black ,bantam the skull is not so globular1 and the occipital foramen is very large1 and has nearly the same sub-triangular outline presently to be described in ,cochins2 and in this skull the two ascending branches of the premaxillary are overlapped in a singular manner by the processes of the nasal bone1 but1 as ,i have seen only one specimen1 some of these differences may be individual4 ,of ,cochins and ,brahmas 7the latter a crossed race approaching closely to ,cochins7 ,i have examined seven skulls2 at the point where the ascending branches of the premaxillary rest on the frontal bone the surface is much depressed1 and from this depression a deep medial furrow extends backwards to a variable distance2 the edges of this fissure are rather prominent1 as is the top of the skull behind and over the orbits4 ,these characters are less developed in the hens4 ,the pterygoids1 and the processes of the lower jaw1 are broader1 relatively to the size of the head1 than in ,g4 bankiva2 and this is likewise the case with ,dorkings when of large size4 ,the fork of the hyoid bone in ,cochins is twice as wide as in ,g4 bankiva1 whereas the length of the other hyoid bones is only as three to two4 ,but the most remarkable character is the shape of the occipital foramen3 in ,g4 bankiva 7,a7 the breadth in a horizontal line exceeds the height in a vertical line1 and the outline is nearly circular2 whereas in ,cochins 7,b7 the outline is sub-triangular1 and the vertical line exceeds the horizontal line in length4 ,this same form likewise occurs in the black ,bantam above referred to1 and an approach to it may be seen in some ,dorkings1 and in a slight degree in certain other breeds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd--,skulls of ,fowls ,of ,dorkings ,i have examined three skulls1 one belonging to the white-sub-breed2 the one character deserving notice is the breadth of the frontal bones1 which are moderately furrowed in the middle2 thus in a skull which was less than once and a half the length of that of ,g4 bankiva1 the breadth between the orbits was exactly double4 ,of ,hamburghs ,i have examined four skulls 7male and female7 of the pencilled sub-breed1 and one 7male7 of the spangled sub-breed2 the nasal bones stand remarkably wide apart1 but in a variable degree2 consequently narrow membrane-covered spaces are left between the tips of the two ascending branches of the pre-maxillary bones1 which are rather short1 and between these branches and the nasal bones4 ,the surface of the frontal bone1 on which the branches of the premaxillary rest1 is very little depressed4 ,these peculiarities no doubt stand in close relation with the broad1 flattened rose-comb characteristic of the ,hamburgh breed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce--,longitudinal sections of ,skulls of ,fowls ,i have examined fourteen skulls of ,polish and other crested breeds4 ,their differences are extraordinary4 ,first for nine skulls of different sub-breeds of ,english ,polish fowls4 ,the hemispherical protuberance of the frontal bones#fh may be seen in fig4 #cd1 in which 7,b7 the skull of a white-crested ,polish fowl is shown obliquely from above1 with the skull 7,a7 of ,g4 bankiva in the same position4 ,in fig4 #ce longitudinal sections are given of the skull of a ,polish fowl1 and1 for comparison1 of a ,cochin of the same size4 ,the protuberance in all ,polish fowls occupies the same position but differs much in size4 ,in one of my nine specimens it was extremely slight4 ,the degree to which the protuberance is ossified varies greatly1 larger or smaller portions of bone being replaced by membrane4 ,in one specimen there was only a single open pore2 generally1 there are many variously shaped open spaces1 the bone forming an irregular reticulation4 ,a medial1 longitudinal1 arched ribbon of bone is generally retained1 but in one specimen there was no bone whatever over the whole protuberance1 and the skull1 when cleaned and viewed from above1 presented the appearance of an open basin4 ,the change in the whole internal form of the skull is surprisingly great4 ,the brain is modified in a corresponding manner1 as is shown in the two longitudinal sections1 which deserve attentive consideration4 ,the upper and anterior cavity of the three into which the skull may be divided1 is the one which is so greatly modified2 it is evidently much larger than in the ,cochin skull of the same size1 and extends much further beyond the interorbital septum1 but laterally is less deep4 ,this cavity1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 is entirely filled with brain4 ,in the skull of the ,cochin and of all ordinary fowls a strong internal ridge of bone separates the anterior from the central cavity2 but this ridge is quite absent in the ,polish skull here figured4 ,the shape of the central cavity is circular in the ,polish1 and lengthened in the ,cochin skull4 ,the shape of the posterior cavity1 together with the position1 size1 and number of the pores for the nerves1 differ much in these two skulls4 ,a pit deeply penetrating the occipital bone of the ,cochin is entirely absent in this ,polish skull1 whilst in another specimen it was well developed4 ,in this second specimen the whole internal surface of the posterior cavity likewise differs to a certain extent in shape4 ,i made sections of two other skulls1--namely1 of a ,polish fowl with the protuberance singularly little developed1 and of a ,sultan in which it was a little more developed2 and when these two skulls were placed between the two above figured 7fig4 #ce71 a perfect gradation in the configuration of each part of the internal surface could be traced4 ,in the ,polish skull1 with a small protuberance1 the ridge between the anterior and middle cavities was present1 but low2 and in the ,sultan this ridge was replaced by a narrow furrow standing on a broad raised eminence4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf--,skulls of ,horned ,fowl ,it may naturally be asked whether these remarkable modifications in the form of the brain affect the intellect of ,polish fowls2 some writers have stated that they are extremely stupid1 but ,bechstein and ,mr4 ,tegetmeier have shown that this is by no means generally the case4 ,nevertheless ,bechstein#fi states that he had a ,polish hen which 8was crazy1 and anxiously wandered about all day long40 ,a hen in my possession was solitary in her habits1 and was often so absorbed in reverie that she could be touched2 she was also deficient in the most singular manner in the faculty of finding her way1 so that1 if she strayed a hundred yards from her feeding-place1 she was completely lost1 and would then obstinately try to proceed in a wrong direction4 ,i have received other and similar accounts of ,polish fowls appearing stupid or half-idiotic4#gj ,to return to the skull of ,polish fowls4 ,the posterior part1 viewed externally1 differs little from that of ,g4 bankiva4 ,in most fowls the posterior-lateral process of the frontal bone and the process of the squamosal bone run together and are ossified near their extremities3 this union of the two bones1 however1 is not constant in any breed2 and in eleven out of fourteen skulls of crested breeds1 these processes were quite distinct4 ,these processes1 when not united1 instead of being inclined anteriorly1 as in all common breeds1 descend at right angles to the lower jaw2 and in this case the longer axis of the bony cavity of the ear is likewise more perpendicular1 than in other breeds4 ,when the squamosal process is free instead of expanding at the tip1 it is reduced to an extremely fine and pointed style1 of variable length4 ,the pterygoid and quadrate bones present no differences4 ,the palatine bones are a little more curved upwards at their posterior ends4 ,the frontal bones1 anteriorly to the protuberance1 are1 as in ,dorkings1 very broad1 but in a variable degree4 ,the nasal bones either stand far apart1 as in ,hamburghs1 or almost touch each other1 and in one instance were ossified together4 ,each nasal bone properly sends out in front two long processes of equal lengths1 forming a fork2 but in all the ,polish skulls1 except one1 the inner process was considerably1 but in a variable degree1 shortened and somewhat upturned4 ,in all the skulls1 except one1 the two ascending branches of the premaxillary1 instead of running up between the processes of the nasal bones and resting on the ethmoid bone1 are much shortened and terminate in a blunt1 somewhat upturned point4 ,in those skulls in which the nasal bones approach quite close to each other or are ossified together1 it would be impossible for the ascending branches of the premaxillary to reach the ethmoid and frontal bones2 hence we see that even the relative connection of the bones has been changed4 ,apparently in consequence of the branches of the premaxillary and of the inner processes of the nasal bones being somewhat upturned1 the external orifices of the nostrils are upraised and assume a crescentic outline4 ,i must still say a few words on some of the foreign ,crested breeds4 ,the skull of a crested1 rumpless1 white ,turkish fowl was very slightly protuberant1 and but little perforated2 the ascending branches of the premaxillary were well developed4 ,in another ,turkish breed1 called ,ghoondooks1 the skull was considerably protuberant and perforated2 the ascending branches of the premaxillary were so much aborted that they projected only #a_/aeth of an inch2 and the inner processes of the nasal bone were so completely aborted1 that the surface where they should have projected was quite smooth4 ,here then we see these two bones modified to an extreme degree4 ,of ,sultans 7another ,turkish breed7 ,i examined two skulls2 in that of the female the protuberance was much larger than in the male4 ,in both skulls the ascending branches of the premaxillary were very short1 and in both the nasal portion of the inner processes of the nasal bones were ossified together4 ,these ,sultan skulls differed from those of ,english ,polish fowls in the frontal bones1 anteriorly to the protuberance1 not being broad4 ,the last skull which ,i need describe is a unique one1 lent to me by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier3 it resembles a ,polish skull in most of its characters1 but has not the great frontal protuberance2 it has1 however1 two rounded knobs of a different nature1 which stand more in front1 above the lachrymal bones4 ,these curious knobs1 into which the brain does not enter1 are separated from each other by a deep medial furrow2 and this is perforated by a few minute pores4 ,the nasal bones stand rather wide apart1 with their inner processes1 and the ascending branches of the premaxillary1 upturned and shortened4 ,the two knobs no doubt supported the two great horn-like projections of the comb4 ,from the foregoing facts we see in how astonishing a manner some of the bones of the skull vary in ,crested fowls4 ,the protuberance may certainly be called in one sense a monstrosity1 as being wholly unlike anything observed in nature3 but as in ordinary cases it is not injurious to the bird1 and as it is strictly inherited1 it can hardly in another sense be called a monstrosity4 ,a series may be formed commencing with the black-boned ,silk fowl1 which has a very small crest with the skull beneath penetrated only by a few minute orifices1 but with no other change in its structure2 and from this first stage we may proceed to fowls with a moderately large crest1 which rests1 according to ,bechstein1 on a fleshy mass1 but without any protuberance in the skull4 ,i may add that ,i have seen a similar fleshy or fibrous mass beneath the tuft of feathers on the head of the ,tufted duck2 and in this case there was no actual protuberance in the skull1 but it had become a little more globular4 ,lastly1 when we come to fowls with a largely developed crest1 the skull becomes largely protuberant and is perforated by a multitude of irregular open spaces4 ,the close relation between the crest and the size of the bony protuberance is shown in another way2 for ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that if chickens lately hatched be selected with a large bony protuberance1 when adult they will have a large crest4 ,there can be no doubt that in former times the breeder of ,polish fowls attended solely to the crest1 and not to the skull2 nevertheless1 by increasing the crest1 in which he has been wonderfully successful1 he has unintentionally made the skull protuberant to an astonishing degree2 and through correlation of growth1 he has at the same time affected the form and relative connexion of the premaxillary and nasal bones1 the shape of the orifice of the nose1 the breadth of the frontal bones1 the shape of the post-lateral processes of the frontal and squamosal bones1 the direction of the axis of the bony cavity of the ear1 and lastly the internal configuration of the whole skull together with the shape of the brain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg--,sixth ,cervical ,verterbra of ,fowls ,vertebr4--,in ,g4 bankiva there are fourteen cervical1 seven dorsal with ribs1 apparently fifteen lumbar and sacral1 and six caudal vertebr2#ga but the lumbar and sacral are so much anchylosed that ,i am not sure of their number1 and this makes the comparison of the total number of vertebr in the several breeds difficult4 ,i have spoken of six caudal vertebr1 because the basal one is almost completely anchylosed with the pelvis2 but if we consider the number as seven1 the caudal vertebr agree in all the skeletons4 ,the cervical vertebr are1 as just stated1 in appearance fourteen2 but out of twenty-three skeletons in a fit state for examination1 in five of them1 namely1 in two ,games1 in two pencilled ,hamburghs1 and in a ,polish1 the fourteenth vertebra bore ribs1 which1 though small1 were perfectly developed with a double articulation4 ,the presence of these little ribs cannot be considered as a fact of much importance1 for all the cervical vertebr bear representatives of ribs2 but their development in the fourteenth vertebra reduces the size of the passages in the transverse processes1 and makes this vertebra exactly like the first dorsal vertebra4 ,the addition of these little ribs does not affect the fourteenth cervical alone1 for properly the ribs of the first true dorsal vertebra are destitute of processes2 but in some of the skeletons in which the fourteenth cervical bore little ribs the first pair of true ribs had well-developed processes4 ,when we know that the sparrow has only nine1 and the swan twenty-three cervical vertebr1#gb we need feel no surprise at the number of the cervical vertebr in the fowl being1 as it appears1 variable4 ,there are seven dorsal vertebr bearing ribs2 the first dorsal is never anchylosed with the succeeding four1 which are generally anchylosed together4 ,in one ,sultan fowl1 however1 the two first dorsal vertebr were free4 ,in two skeletons1 the fifth dorsal was free2 generally the sixth is free 7as in ,g4 bankiva71 but sometimes only at its posterior end1 where in contact with the seventh4 ,the seventh dorsal vertebra1 in every case excepting in one ,spanish cock1 was anchylosed with the lumbar vertebr4 ,so that the degree to which these middle dorsal vertebr are anchylosed is variable4 ,seven is the normal number of true ribs1 but in two skeletons of the ,sultan fowl 7in which the fourteenth cervical vertebra was not furnished with little ribs7 there were eight pairs2 the eighth pair seemed to be developed on a vertebra corresponding with the first lumbar in ,g4 bankiva2 the sternal portion of both the seventh and eighth ribs did not reach the sternum4 ,in four skeletons in which ribs were developed on the fourteenth cervical vertebra1 there were1 when these cervical ribs are included1 eight pairs2 but in one ,game cock1 in which the fourteenth cervical was furnished with ribs1 there were only six pairs of true dorsal ribs2 the sixth pair in this case did not have processes1 and thus resembled the seventh pair in other skeletons2 in this ,game cock1 as far as could be judged from the appearance of the lumbar vertebr1 a whole dorsal vertebra with its ribs was missing4 ,we thus see that the ribs 7whether or not the little pair attached to the fourteenth cervical vertebra be counted7 vary from six to eight pair4 ,the sixth pair is frequently not furnished with processes4 ,the sternal portion of the seventh pair is extremely broad in ,cochins1 and is completely ossified4 ,as previously stated1 it is scarcely possible to count the lumbo-sacral vertebr2 but they certainly do not correspond in shape or number in the several skeletons4 ,the caudal vertebr are closely similar in all the skeletons1 the only difference being whether or not the basal one is anchylosed to the pelvis2 they hardly vary even in length1 not being shorter in ,cochins1 with their short tail-feathers1 than in other breeds2 in a ,spanish cock1 however1 the caudal vertebr were a little elongated4 ,in three rumpless fowls the caudal vertebr were few in number1 and anchylosed together into a misformed mass4 ,in the individual vertebr the differences in structure are very slight4 ,in the atlas the cavity for the occipital condyle is either ossified into a ring1 or is1 as in ,bankiva1 open on its upper margin4 ,the upper arc of the spinal canal is a little more arched in ,cochins1 in conformity with the shape of the occipital foramen1 than in ,g4 bankiva4 ,in several skeletons a difference1 but not of much importance1 may be observed1 which commences at the fourth cervical vertebra1 and is greatest at about the sixth1 seventh1 or eighth vertebra2 this consists in the hmal descending processes being united to the body of the vertebra by a sort of buttress4 ,this structure may be observed in ,cochins1 ,polish1 some ,hamburghs1 and probably other breeds2 but is absent1 or barely developed1 in ,game1 ,dorking1 ,spanish1 ,bantam1 and several other breeds examined by me4 ,on the dorsal surface of the sixth cervical vertebra in ,cochins three prominent points are more strongly developed than in the corresponding vertebra of the ,game fowl or ,g4 bankiva4 ,pelvis4--,this differs in some few points in the several skeletons4 ,the anterior margin of the ilium seems at first to vary much in outline1 but this is chiefly due to the degree to which the margin in the middle part is ossified to the crest of the vertebr2 the outline1 however1 does differ in being more truncated in ,bantams1 and more rounded in certain breeds1 as in ,cochins4 ,the outline of the ischiadic foramen differs considerably1 being nearly circular in ,bantams1 instead of egg-shaped as in the ,bankiva1 and more regularly oval in some skeletons1 as in the ,spanish4 ,the obturator notch is also much less elongated in some skeletons than in others4 ,the end of the pubic bone presents the greatest difference2 being hardly enlarged in the ,bankiva2 considerably and gradually enlarged in ,cochins1 and in a lesser degree in some other breeds2 and abruptly enlarged in ,bantams4 ,in one ,bantam this bone extended very little beyond the extremity of the ischium4 ,the whole pelvis in this latter bird differed widely in its proportions1 being far broader proportionally to its length than in ,bankiva4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch--;,extremity of the ,furcula of ,fowls ,sternum4--,this bone is generally so much deformed that it is scarcely possible to compare its shape strictly in the several breeds4 ,the form of the triangular extremity of the lateral processes differs considerably1 being either almost equilateral or much elongated4 ,the front margin of the crest is more or less perpendicular and varies greatly1 as does the curvature of the posterior end1 and the flatness of the lower surface4 ,the outline of the manubrial process also varies1 being wedge-shaped in the ,bankiva1 and rounded in the ,spanish breed4 ,the furculum differs in being more or less arched1 and greatly1 as may be seen in the accompanying outlines1 in the shape of the terminal plate2 but the shape of this part differed a little in two skeletons of the wild ,bankiva4 ,the coracoid presents no difference worth notice4 ,the scapula varies in shape1 being of nearly uniform breadth in ,bankiva1 much broader in the middle in the ,polish fowl1 and abruptly narrowed towards the apex in the two ,sultan fowls4 ,i carefully compared each separate bone of the leg and wing1 relatively to the same bones in the wild ,bankiva1 in the following breeds1 which ,i thought were the most likely to differ2 namely1 in ,cochin1 ,dorking1 ,spanish1 ,polish1 ,burmese ,bantam1 ,frizzled ,indian1 and black-boned ,silk fowls2 and it was truly surprising to see how absolutely every process1 articulation1 and pore agreed1 though the bones differed greatly in size4 ,the agreement is far more absolute than in other parts of the skeleton4 ,in stating this1 ,i do not refer to the relative thickness and length of the several bones2 for the tarsi varied considerably in both these respects4 ,but the other limb-bones varied little even in relative length4 ,finally1 ,i have not examined a sufficient number of skeletons to say whether any of the foregoing differences1 except in the skull1 are characteristic of the several breeds4 ,apparently some differences are more common in certain breeds than in others1--as an additional rib to the fourteenth cervical vertebra in ,hamburghs and ,games1 and the breadth of the end of the pubic bone in ,cochins4 ,both skeletons of the ,sultan fowl had eight dorsal vertebr1 and the end of the scapula in both was somewhat attenuated4 ,in the skull1 the deep medial furrow in the frontal bones and the vertically elongated occipital foramen seem to be characteristic of ,cochins2 as is the great breadth of the frontal bones in ,dorkings2 the separation and open spaces between the tips of the ascending branches of the premaxillaries and nasal bones1 as well as the front part of the skull being but little depressed1 characterise ,hamburghs2 the globular shape of the posterior part of the skull seems to be characteristic of laced ,bantams2 and lastly1 the protuberance of the skull with the ascending branches of the premaxillaries partially aborted1 together with the other differences before specified1 are eminently characteristic of ,polish and other ,crested fowls4 ,but the most striking result of my examination of the skeleton is the great variability of all the bones except those of the extremities4 ,to a certain extent we can understand why the skeleton fluctuates so much in structure2 fowls have been exposed to unnatural conditions of life1 and their whole organisation has thus been rendered variable2 but the breeder is quite indifferent to1 and never intentionally selects1 any modification in the skeleton4 ,external characters1 if not attended to by man1 such as the number of the tail and wing feathers and their relative lengths1 which in wild birds are generally constant1--fluctuate in our domestic fowls in the same manner as the several parts of the skeleton4 ,an additional toe is a 8point0 in ,dorkings1 and has become a fixed character1 but is variable in ,cochins and ,silk fowls4 ,the colour of the plumage and the form of the comb are in most breeds1 or even sub-breeds1 eminently fixed characters2 but in ,dorkings these points have not been attended to1 and are variable4 ,when any modification in the skeleton is related to some external character which man values1 it has been1 unintentionally on his part1 acted on by selection1 and has become more or less fixed4 ,we see this in the wonderful protuberance of the skull1 which supports the crest of feathers in ,polish fowls1 and which by correlation has affected other parts of the skull4 ,we see the same result in the two protuberances which support the horns in the horned fowl1 and in the flattened shape of the front of the skull in ,hamburghs consequent on their flattened and broad 8rose-combs40 ,we know not in the least whether additional ribs1 or the changed outline of the occipital foramen1 or the changed form of the scapula1 or of the extremity of the furculum1 are in any way correlated with other structures1 or have arisen from the changed conditions and habits of life to which our fowls have been subjected2 but there is no reason to doubt that these various modifications in the skeleton could be rendered1 either by direct selection1 or by the selection of correlated structures1 as constant and as characteristic of each breed1 as are the size and shape of the body1 the colour of the plumage1 and the form of the comb4 ,effects of the ,disuse of ,parts4 ,judging from the habits of our ,european gallinaceous birds1 ,gallus bankiva in its native haunts would use its legs and wings more than do our domestic fowls1 which rarely fly except to their roosts4 ,the ,silk and the ,frizzled fowls1 from having imperfect wing-feathers1 cannot fly at all2 and there is reason to believe that both these breeds are ancient1 so that their progenitors during many generations cannot have flown4 ,the ,cochins1 also1 from their short wings and heavy bodies1 can hardly fly up to a low perch4 ,therefore in these breeds1 especially in the two first1 a considerable diminution in the wing-bones might have been expected1 but this is not the case4 ,in every specimen1 after disarticulating and cleaning the bones1 ,i carefully compared the relative length of the two main bones of the wing to each other1 and of the two main bones of the leg to each other1 with those of ,g4 bankiva2 and it was surprising to see 7except in the case of the tarsi7 how exactly the same relative length had been retained4 ,this fact is curious1 from showing how truly the proportions of an organ may be inherited1 although not fully exercised during many generations4 ,i then compared in several breeds the length of the femur and tibia with the humerus and ulna1 and likewise these same bones with those of ,g4 bankiva2 the result was that the wing-bones in all the breeds 7except the ,burmese ,jumper1 which has unnaturally short legs1 are slightly shortened relatively to the leg-bones2 but the decrease is so slight that it may be due to the standard specimen of ,g4 bankiva having accidentally had wings of slightly greater length than usual2 so that the measurements are not worth giving4 ,but it deserves notice that the ,silk and ,frizzled fowls1 which are quite incapable of flight1 had their wings less reduced relatively to their legs than in almost any other breed6 ,we have seen with domesticated pigeons that the bones of the wings are somewhat reduced in length1 whilst the primary feathers are rather increased in length1 and it is just possible1 though not probable1 that in the ,silk and ,frizzled fowls any tendency to decrease in the length of the wing-bones from disuse may have been checked through the law of compensation1 by the decreased growth of the wing-feathers1 and consequent increased supply of nutriment4 ,the wing-bones1 however1 in both these breeds1 are found to be slightly reduced in length when judged by the standard of the length of the sternum or head1 relatively to these same parts in ,g4 bankiva4 ,the actual weight of the main bones of the leg and wing in twelve breeds is given in the two first columns in ,table ,i4 ,the calculated weight of the wing-bones relatively to the leg-bones1 in comparison with the leg and wing-bones of ,g4 bankiva1 are given in the third column1--the weight of the wing-bones in ,g4 bankiva being called a hundred4#gc ,table ,i4 ,names of ,breeds4 ,actual ,weight of ,femur and ,tibia4 ,actual ,weight of ,humerus and ,ulna4 ,weight of ,wing- bones relatively to the ,leg-bones in comparison with these same bones in ,g4 bankiva4 ,grains4 ,grains4 ,gallus bankiva 7wild male7 #hf #ed #ajj #a ,cochin 7male7 #caa #afb #hc #b ,dorking 7male7 #eeg #bdh #gj #c ,spanish 7,minorca7 7male7 #chf #ahc #ge #d ,gold-,spangled ,polish 7male7 #cjf #ade #ge #e ,game1 black-breasted 7male7 #bic #adc #gg #f ,malay 7female7 #bca #aaf #hj #g ,sultan 7male7 #ahi #id #gi #h ,indian ,frizzled 7male7 #bjf #hh #fg #i ,burmese ,jumper 7female7 #ec #cf #ajh #aj ,hamburgh 7pencilled7 7male7 #aeg #ajd #ajf #aa ,hamburgh 7pencilled7 7female7 #aad #gg #ajh #ab ,silk 7black-boned7 7female7 #hh #eg #ajc ,in the eight first birds1 belonging to distinct breeds1 in this table1 we see a decided reduction in the weight of the bones of the wing4 ,in the ,indian ,frizzled fowl1 which cannot fly1 the reduction is carried to the greatest extent1 namely1 to thirty-three per cent of their proper proportional weight4 ,in the next four birds1 including the ,silk hen1 which is incapable of flight1 we see that the wings1 relatively to the legs1 are slightly increased in weight2 but it should be observed that1 if in these birds the legs had become from any cause reduced in weight1 this would give the false appearance of the wings having increased in relative weight4 ,now a reduction of this nature has certainly occurred with the ,burmese ,jumper1 in which the legs are abnormally short1 and in the two ,hamburghs and ,silk fowl1 the legs1 though not short1 are formed of remarkably thin and light bones4 ,i make these statements1 not judging by mere eyesight1 but after having calculated the weights of the leg-bones relatively to those of ,g4 bankiva1 according to the only two standards of comparison which ,i could use1 namely1 the relative lengths of the head and sternum2 for ,i do not know the weight of the body in ,g4 bankiva1 which would have been a better standard4 ,according to these standards1 the leg-bones in these four fowls are in a marked manner far lighter than in any other breed4 ,it may therefore be concluded that in all cases in which the legs have not been through some unknown cause much reduced in weight1 the wing-bones have become reduced in weight relatively to the leg-bones1 in comparison with those of ,g4 bankiva4 ,and this reduction of weight may1 ,i apprehend1 safely be attributed to disuse4 ,to make ,table ,i quite satisfactory1 it ought to have been shown that in the eight first birds the leg-bones have not actually increased in weight out of due proportion with the rest of the body2 this ,i cannot show1 from not knowing1 as already remarked1 the weight of the wild ,bankiva4#gd ,i am indeed inclined to suspect that the leg-bones in the ,dorking1 ,no4 #b in the table1 are proportionally too heavy2 but this bird was a very large one1 weighing #g pounds #b ounces1 though very thin4 ,its leg-bones were more than ten times as heavy as those of the ,burmese ,jumper6 ,i tried to ascertain the length both of the leg-bones and wing-bones relatively to other parts of the body and skeleton3 but the whole organisation in these birds1 which have been so long domesticated1 has become so variable1 that no certain conclusions could be reached4 ,for instance1 the legs of the above ,dorking cock were nearly three-quarters of an inch too short relatively to the length of the sternum1 and more than three-quarters of an inch too long relatively to the length of the skull1 in comparison with these same parts in ,g4 bankiva4 ,table ,,ii4 ,names of ,breeds4 ,length of ,sternum4 ,depth of ,crest of ,sternum ,depth of ,crest relatively to the length of the ,sternum1 in comparison with ,g4 bankiva4 ,inches4 ,inches ,gallus bankiva 7male7 #dbj #adj #ajj #a ,cochin 7male7 #ehc #aee #gh #b ,dorking 7male7 #fie #aig #hd #c ,spanish 7male7 #faj #ahc #ij #d ,polish 7male7 #ejg #aej #hg #e ,game 7male7 #eee #aee #ha #f ,malay 7female7 #eaj #aej #hg #g ,sultan 7male7 #ddg #acf #ij #h ,frizzled hen 7male7 #dbe #abj #hd #i ,burmese ,jumper 7female7 #cjf #jhe #ha #aj ,hamburgh 7male7 #ejh #adj #ha #aa ,hamburgh 7female7 #dee #abf #ha #ab ,silk fowl 7female7 #ddi #aja #ff ,in ,table ,,ii in the two first columns we see in inches and decimals the length of the sternum1 and the extreme depth of its crest to which the pectoral muscles are attached4 ,in the third column we have the calculated depth of the crest1 relatively to the length of the sternum1 in comparison with these same parts in ,g4 bankiva4#ge ,by looking to the third column we see that in every case the depth of the crest relatively to the length of the sternum1 in comparison with ,g4 bankiva1 is diminished1 generally between #aj and #bj per cent4 ,but the degree of reduction varies much1 partly in consequence of the frequently deformed state of the sternum4 ,in the ,silk fowl1 which cannot fly1 the crest is #cd per cent less deep than what it ought to have been4 ,this reduction of the crest in all the breeds probably accounts for the great variability1 before referred to1 in the curvature of the furculum1 and in the shape of its sternal extremity4 ,medical men believe that the abnormal form of the spine so commonly observed in women of the higher ranks results from the attached muscles not being fully exercised4 ,so it is with our domestic fowls1 for they use their pectoral muscles but little1 and1 out of twenty-five sternums examined by me1 three alone were perfectly symmetrical1 ten were moderately crooked1 and twelve were deformed to an extreme degree4 ,mr4 ,romanes1 however1 believes that the malformation is due to fowls whilst young resting their sternums on the sticks on which they roost4 ,finally1 we may conclude with respect to the various breeds of the fowl1 that the main bones of the wing have probably been shortened in a very slight degree2 that they have certainly become lighter relatively to the leg-bones in all the breeds in which these latter bones are not unnaturally short or delicate2 and that the crest of the sternum1 to which the pectoral muscles are attached1 has invariably become less prominent1 the whole sternum being also extremely liable to deformity4 ,these results we may attribute to the lessened use of the wings4 ,correlation of ,growth4--,i will here sum up the few facts which ,i have collected on this obscure1 but important1 subject4 ,in ,cochin and ,game fowls there is perhaps some relation between the colour of the plumage and the darkness of the egg-shell4 ,in ,sultans the additional sickle-feathers in the tail are apparently related to the general redundancy of the plumage1 as shown by the feathered legs1 large crest1 and beard4 ,in two tailless fowls which ,i examined the oil-gland was aborted4 ,a large crest of feathers1 as ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has remarked1 seems always accompanied by a great diminution or almost entire absence of the comb4 ,a large beard is similarly accompanied by diminished or absent wattles4 ,these latter cases apparently come under the law of compensation or balancement of growth4 ,a large beard beneath the lower jaw and a large top-knot on the skull often go together4 ,the comb when of any peculiar shape1 as with ,horned1 ,spanish1 and ,hamburgh fowls1 affects in a corresponding manner the underlying skull2 and we have seen how wonderfully this is the case with ,crested fowls when the crest is largely developed4 ,with the protuberance of the frontal bones the shape of the internal surface of the skull and of the brain is greatly modified4 ,the presence of a crest influences in some unknown way the development of the ascending branches of the premaxillary bone1 and of the inner processes of the nasal bones2 and likewise the shape of the external orifice of the nostrils4 ,there is a plain and curious correlation between a crest of feathers and the imperfectly ossified condition of the skull4 ,not only does this hold good with nearly all crested fowls1 but likewise with tufted ducks1 and as ,dr4 ,gunther informs me with tufted geese in ,germany4 ,lastly1 the feathers composing the crest in male ,polish fowls resemble hackles1 and differ greatly in shape from those in the crest of the female4 ,the neck1 wing-coverts1 and loins in the male bird are properly covered with hackles1 and it would appear that feathers of this shape have spread by correlation to the head of the male4 ,this little fact is interesting2 because1 though both sexes of some wild gallinaceous birds have their heads similarly ornamented1 yet there is often a difference in the size and shape of feathers forming their crests4 ,furthermore1 there is in some cases1 as in the male ,gold and in the male ,amherst pheasants 7,p4 pictus and amhersti71 a close relation in colour1 as well as in structure1 between the plumes on the head and on the loins4 ,it would therefore appear that the same law has regulated the state of the feathers on the head and body1 both with species living under natural conditions1 and with birds which have varied under domestication4 ,,references #a ,i have drawn up this brief synopsis from various sources1 but chiefly from information given me by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier4 ,this gentleman has kindly looked through this chapter2 and from his well-known knowledge1 the statements here given may be fully trusted4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has likewise assisted me in every possible way in obtaining for me information and specimens4 ,i must not let this opportunity pass without expressing my cordial thanks to ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent1 a well-known writer on poultry1 for continuous assistance and the gift of many specimens4 #b ,the best account of ,sultans is by ,miss ,watts in #8,the ,poultry ,yard1' #ahef1 p4 #gi4 ,i owe to ,mr4 ,brent's kindness the examination of some specimens of this breed4 #c ,a good description1 with figures1 is given of this sub-breed in the #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,june #aj1 #ahfb1 p4 #bjf4 #d ,a description1 with figures1 is given of this breed in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,june #c1 #ahfb1 p4 #ahf4 ,some writers describe the comb as two-horned4 #e ,mr4 ,crawfurd #8,descript4 ,dict4 of the ,indian ,islands1' p4 #aac4 ,bantams are mentioned in an ancient native ,japanese ,encyclopdia1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,birch of the ,british ,museum4 #f #8,ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry1' #ahdh4 #g #8,ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry1' #ahdh4 #h ,ferguson's #8,illustrated ,series of ,rare and ,prize ,poultry1' #ahed1 p4 vi4 ,preface4 #i ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon in his #8,ornamental ,poultry1' p4 #bjc1 gives an account of ,columella's work4 #aj ,mr4 ,crawfurd #8,on the ,relation of the ,domesticated ,animals to ,civilization1' separately printed1 p4 #f2 first read before the ,brit4 ,assoc4 at ,oxford #ahfj4 #aa #8,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 p4 #cbd4 #ab #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahcb1 p4 #aea4 #ac ,these feathers have been described by ,dr4 ,w4 ,marshall #8,der ,zoolog4 ,garten1' ,april #ahgd1 p4 #abd4 ,i examined the feathers of some hybrids raised in the ,zoological ,gardens between the male ,g4 sonneratii and a red game-hen1 and they exhibited the true character of those of ,g4 sonneratii1 except that the horny lamine were much smaller4 #ad ,see also an excellent letter on the ,poultry of ,india1 by ,mr4 ,blyth1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahea1 p4 #fai4 #ae ,mr4 ,s4 ,j4 ,salter1 in #8,natural ,history ,review1' ,april #ahfc1 p4 #bgf4 #af ,see also ,mr4 ,layard's paper in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history1' #bnd series1 vol4 xiv4 p4 #fb4 #ag ,see also ,mr4 ,crawfurd's #8,descriptive ,dict4 of the ,indian ,islands1' #ahef1 p4 #aac4 #ah ,described by ,mr4 ,g4 ,r4 ,gray1 #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahdi1 p4 #fb4 #ai ,the passage from ,marsden is given by ,mr4 ,dixon in his #8,poultry ,book1' p4 #agf4 ,no ornithologist now ranks this bird as a distinct species4 #bj #8,coup-d'eil gnral sur l',inde ,archiplagique1' tom4 iii4 7#ahdi7 p4 #agg2 see also ,mr4 ,blyth in #8,indian ,sporting ,review1' vol4 ii4 p4 #e1 #ahef4 #ba ,mr4 ,blyth1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #bnd ser41 vol4 i4 7#ahdh71 p4 #dee4 #bb ,crawfurd1 #8,desc4 ,dict4 of ,indian ,islands1' #ahef1 p4 #aab4 #bc ,in ,burmah1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,blyth1 the wild and tame poultry constantly cross together1 and irregular transitional forms may be seen4 #bd ,ibid4 p4 #aac4 #be ,mr4 ,jerdon1 in the #8,madras ,journ4 of ,lit4 and ,science1' vol4 xxii4 p4 #b1 speaking of ,g4 bankiva1 says1 8unquestionably the origin of most of the varieties of our common fowls40 ,for ,mr4 ,blyth see his excellent article in #8,gardener's ,chron41' #ahea1 p4 #fai2 and in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xx41 #ahdg1 p4 #chh4 #bf #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahea1 p4 #fai4 #bg ,i have consulted an eminent authority1 ,mr4 ,sclater1 on this subject1 and he thinks that ,i have not expressed myself too strongly4 ,i am aware that one ancient author1 ,acosta1 speaks of fowls as having inhabited ,s4 ,america at the period of its discovery2 and more recently1 about #agie1 ,olivier de ,serres speaks of wild fowls in the forests of ,guiana2 these were probably feral birds4 ,dr4 ,daniell tells me1 he believes that fowls have become wild on the west coast of ,equatorial ,africa2 they may1 however1 not be true fowls1 but gallinaceous birds belonging to the genus ,phasidus4 ,the old voyager ,barbut says that poultry are not natural to ,guinea4 ,capt4 ,w4 ,allen 7#8,narrative of ,niger ,expedition1' #ahdh1 vol4 ii4 p4 #db7 describes wild fowls on ,ilha dos ,rollas1 an island near ,st4 ,thomas's on the west coast of ,africa2 the natives informed him that they had escaped from a vessel wrecked there many years ago2 they were extremely wild and had 8a cry quite different to that of the domestic fowl10 and their appearance was somewhat changed4 ,hence it is not a little doubtful1 notwithstanding the statement of the natives1 whether these birds really were fowls4 ,that the fowl has become feral on several islands is certain4 ,mr4 ,fry1 a very capable judge1 informed ,mr4 ,layard1 in a letter1 that the fowls which have run wild on ,ascension 8had nearly all got back to their primitive colours1 red1 and black cocks1 and smoky-grey hens40 ,but unfortunately we do not know the colour of the poultry which were turned out4 ,fowls have become feral on the ,nicobar ,islands 7,blyth in the #8,indian ,field1' #aheh1 p4 #fb71 and in the ,ladrones 7,anson's ,voyage74 ,those found in the ,pellew ,islands 7,crawfurd7 are believed to be feral2 and lastly1 it is asserted that they have become feral in ,new ,zealand1 but whether this is correct ,i know not4 #bh ,mr4 ,hewitt1 in #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #bdh4 #bi #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,jan4 #adth1 #ahfb1 p4 #cbe4 #cj #8,die ,hhner- und ,pfauenzucht1' ,ulm1 #ahbg1 s4 #ag4 ,for ,mr4 ,hewitt's statement with respect to the white ,silk fowl see the #8,poultry ,book1' by ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #bbb4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,orton for a letter on the same subject4 #ca ,dixon #8,ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry1' p4 #bec1 #cbd1 #cce4 ,for game fowls1 see ,ferguson on #8,prize ,poultry1' p4 #bfj4 #cb #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ga4 #cc #8,die vorgeschichtlichen ,alterthmer1' ,,ii4 ,theil1 #ahgb1 p4 #e4 ,dr4 ,pickering1 in his #8,races of ,man1' #ahej1 p4 #cgd1 says that the head and neck of a fowl is carried in a ,tribute-procession to ,thoutmousis ,,iii4 7#adde ,b4,c472 but ,mr4 ,birch of the ,british ,museum doubts whether the figure can be identified as the head of a fowl4 ,some caution is necessary with reference to the absence of figures of the fowl on the ancient ,egyptian monuments1 on account of the strong and widely prevalent prejudice against this bird4 ,i am informed by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,erhardt that on the east coast of ,africa1 from #d to #f south of the equator1 most of the pagan tribes at the present day hold the fowl in aversion4 ,the natives of the ,pellew ,islands would not eat the fowl nor will the ,indians in some parts of ,s4 ,america4 ,for the ancient history of the fowl see also ,volz #8,beitrge zur ,culturgeschichte1' #aheb1 s4 #gg2 and ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #fa4 ,mr4 ,crawfurd has given an admirable history of the fowl in his paper #8,on the ,relation of ,domesticated ,animals to ,civilisation1' read before the ,brit4 ,assoc4 at ,oxford in #ahfj1 and since printed separately4 ,i quote from him on the ,greek poet ,theognis1 and on the ,harpy ,tomb described by ,sir ,c4 ,fellowes4 ,i quote from a letter of ,mr4 ,blyth's with respect to the ,institutes of ,manu4 #cd #8,ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry1' #ahdg1 p4 #ahe2 for passages translated from ,columella1 see p4 #cab4 ,for ,golden ,hamburghs see ,albin's #8,natural ,history of ,birds1' #c vols41 with plates #agca-ch4 #ce #8,ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry1' p4 #aeb4 #cf ,ferguson on #8,rare ,prize ,poultry1' p4 #big4 ,this writer1 ,i am informed1 cannot generally be trusted4 ,he gives1 however1 figures and much information on eggs4 ,see pp4 #cd and #bce on the eggs of the ,game fowl4 #cg ,see #8,poultry ,book1' by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 pp4 #ha and #gh4 #ch #8,the ,cottage ,gardener1' ,oct4 #ahee1 p4 #ac4 ,on the thinness of the eggs of ,game-fowls see ,mowbray on ,poultry1 #gth edit41 p4 #ac4 #ci ,my information1 which is very far from perfect1 on chickens in the down1 is derived chiefly from ,mr4 ,dixon's #8,ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry4' ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent has also communicated to me many facts by letter1 as has ,mr4 ,tegetmeier4 ,i will in each case mark my authority by the name within brackets4 ,for the chickens of white ,silk-fowls see ,tegetmeier's #8,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 p4 #bba4 #dj ,as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier2 see also #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahef1 p4 #cff4 ,on the late development of the crest see #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 ii4 p4 #acb4 #da ,on these points1 see #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aff2 and ,tegetmeier's #8,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 pp4 #aje and #aba4 #db ,dixon1 #8,ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry1' p4 #bgc4 #dc ,ferguson on #8,rare and ,prize ,poultry1' p4 #bfa4 #dd ,mowbray on ,poultry1 #gth edit41 #ahcd1 p4 #ac4 #de ,see the full description of the varieties of the ,game-breed in ,tegetmeier's #8,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 p4 #aca4 ,for ,cuckoo ,dorkings1 p4 #ig4 #df ,mr4 ,hewitt in ,tegetmeier's #8,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 pp4 #bdf and #aef4 ,for hen-tailed game-cocks1 see p4 #aca4 #dg #8,the ,field1' ,april #bjth1 #ahfa4 ,the writer says he has seen half-a-dozen cocks thus sacrificed4 #dh #8,proceedings of ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,march #ahfa1 p4 #ajb4 ,the engraving of the hen-tailed cock just alluded to was exhibited before the ,society4 #di #8,the ,field1' ,april #bjth1 #ahfa4 #ej ,i am much indebted to ,mr4 ,brent for an account1 with sketches1 of all the variations of the comb known to him1 and likewise with respect to the tail as presently to be given4 #ea ,the #8,poultry ,book1' by ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #bcd4 #eb #8,die ,hhner-und ,pfauenzucht1' #ahbg1 s4 #aa4 #ec #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 i4 p4 #eie4 ,mr4 ,brent has informed me of the same fact4 ,with respect to the position of the spurs in ,dorkings see #8,cottage ,gardener1' ,sept4 #ahth1 #ahfj1 p4 #chj4 #ed ,dixon1 #8,ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry1' p4 #cbj4 #ee ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that ,game hens have been found so combative1 that it is now generally the practice to exhibit each hen in a separate pen4 #ef #8,naturgeschichte ,deutschlands1' ,band iii4 7#agic71 s4 #cci1 #djg4 #eg ,on the ,ornithology of ,ceylon in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history1' #bnd series1 vol4 xiv4 7#ahed71 p4 #fc4 #eh #8,handbuch der vergleich4 ,anatomie1' #ahje1 p4 #he1 note4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 who gives in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,nov4 #beth1 #ahef1 a very interesting account of the skulls of ,polish fowls1 not knowing of ,bechstein's account1 has disputed the accuracy of ,blumenbach's statement4 ,for ,bechstein see #8,naturgeschichte ,deutschlands1' ,band iii4 7#agic71 s4 #cii1 note4 ,i may add that at the first exhibition of ,poultry at the ,zoological ,gardens in ,may1 #ahde1 ,i saw some fowls1 called ,friezland fowls1 of which the hens were crested1 and the cocks furnished with a comb4 #ei #8,cottage ,gardener1' ,jan4 #crd1 #ahfj1 p4 #bah4 #fj ,mr4 ,williams1 in a paper read before the ,dublin ,nat4 ,hist4 ,soc41 quoted in #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahef1 p4 #afa4 #fa #8,de l',espce1' #ahei1 p4 #ddb4 ,for the occurrence of black-boned fowls in ,south ,america1 see ,roulin in #8,mm4 de l',acad4 des ,sciences1' tom4 vi4 p4 #cea2 and ,azara1 #8,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 p4 #cbd4 ,a frizzled fowl sent to me from ,madras had black bones4 #fb ,mr4 ,hewitt1 in ,tegetmeier's #8,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 p4 #bca4 #fc ,dr4 ,broca1 in ,brown-,squard's #8,journal de ,phys41' tom4 ii4 p4 #cfa4 #fd ,dixon's #8,ornamental ,poultry1' p4 #cbe4 #fe #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 i4 p4 #dhe4 ,tegetmeier's #8,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 p4 #da4 ,on ,cochins grazing1 ibid41 p4 #df4 #ff ,ferguson on #8,prize ,poultry1' p4 #hg4 #fg ,col4 ,sykes in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahcb1 p4 #aea4 ,dr4 ,hooker's #8,himalayan ,journals1' vol4 i4 p4 #cad4 #fh ,see ,mr4 ,tegetmeier's account with woodcuts of the skull of ,polish fowls in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,nov4 #beth1 #ahef4 ,for other references1 see ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,gn4 des ,anomalies1' tom4 i4 p4 #bhg4 ,m4 ,c4 ,dareste suspects 7#8,recherches sur les ,conditions de la ,vie1' etc41 ,lille #ahfc1 p4 #cf7 that the protuberance is not formed by the frontal bones1 but by the ossification of the dura mater4 #fi #8,naturgeschichte ,deutschlands1' ,band iii4 7#agic71 s4 #djj4 #gj ,the #8,field1' ,may #aath1 #ahfa4 ,i have received communications to a similar effect from ,messrs4 ,brent and ,tegetmeier4 #ga ,it appears that ,i have not correctly designated the several groups of vertebr1 for a great authority1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,k4 ,parker 7#8,transact4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' vol4 v4 p4 #aih71 specifies #af cervical1 #d dorsal1 #ae lumbar1 and #f caudal vertebr in this genus4 ,but ,i have used the same terms in all the following descriptions4 #gb ,macgillivray1 #8,british ,birds1' vol4 i4 p4 #be4 #gc ,it may be well to explain how the calculation has been made for the third column4 ,in ,g4 bankiva the leg-bones are to the wing-bones as #hf 3 #ed1 or as 7neglecting decimals7 #ajj 3 #fb2--;in ,cochins as #caa 3 #afb1 or as #ajj 3 #eb2--;in ,dorkings as #eeg 3 #bdh1 or as #ajj 3 #dd2 and so on for the other breeds4 ,we thus get the series of #fb1 #eb1 #dd for the relative weights of the wing-bones in ,g4 bankiva1 ,cochins1 ,dorkings1 etc4 ,and now taking #ajj1 instead of #fb1 for the weight of the wing-bones in ,g4 bankiva1 we get1 by another rule of three1 #hc as the weight of the wing-bones in ,cochins2 #gj in the ,dorkings2 and so on for the remainder of the third column in the table4 #gd ,mr4 ,blyth 7in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #bnd series1 vol4 i41 #ahdh1 p4 #def7 gives #c pounds as the weight of a full-grown male ,g4 bankiva2 but from what ,i have seen of the skins and skeletons of various breeds1 ,i cannot believe that my two specimens of ,g4 bankiva could have weighed so much4 #ge ,the third column is calculated on the same principle as explained in footnote #gc above4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,duck--,,goose--,,peacock--,,turkey--,, guinea-,,fowl--,,canary-,,bird--,,gold-, ,fish--,,river-,,bees-- ,,silk-,,moths4 ,,ducks1 ,,several ,,breeds ,,of--,,progress ,,of ,,domestication--,,origin ,,of ,,from ,,the ,,common ,,wild-,,duck--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,breeds--,,osteological ,,differences--,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,the ,,limb-,,bones4 ,,goose1 ,,anciently ,,domesticated--,,little ,,variation ,,of--,,sebastopol ,,breed4 ,,peacock1 ,,origin ,,of ,,black-,,shouldered ,,breed4 ,,turkey1,,breeds ,,of--,,crossed ,,with ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,species--,,effects ,,of ,,climate ,,on4 ,,guinea-,,fowl1 ,,canary-,,bird1 ,,gold-,,fish1 ,,hive-,,bees4 ,,silk-,,moths1 ,,species ,,and ,,breeds ,,of--,,anciently ,,domesticated--,,care ,,in ,,their ,,selection--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,races--,,in ,,the ,,egg1 ,,caterpillar1 ,,and ,,cocoon ,,states--,,inheritance ,,of ,,characters--,,imperfect ,,wings--,,lost ,,instincts--,,correlated ,,characters4 ,i will1 as in previous cases1 first briefly describe the chief domestic breeds of the duck3-- ,,breed #a4 ,common ,domestic ,duck4--,varies much in colour and in proportions1 and differs in instincts and disposition from the wild duck4 ,there are several sub-breeds3--7#a7 ,the ,aylesbury1 of great size1 white1 with pale-yellow beak and legs2 abdominal dermal sack largely developed4 7#b7 ,the ,rouen1 of great size1 coloured like the wild duck1 with green or mottled beak2 dermal sack largely developed4 7#c7 ,tufted ,duck1 with a large top-knot of fine downy feathers1 supported on a fleshy mass1 with the skull perforated beneath4 ,the top-knot in a duck which ,i imported from ,holland was two and a half inches in diameter4 7#d7 ,labrador 7or ,canadian1 or ,buenos ,ayres1 or ,east ,indian72 plumage entirely black2 beak broader1 relatively to its length1 than in the wild duck2 eggs slightly tinted with black4 ,this sub-breed perhaps ought to be ranked as a breed2 it includes two sub-varieties1 one as large as the common domestic duck1 which ,i have kept alive1 and the other smaller and often capable of flight4#a ,i presume it is this latter sub-variety which has been described in ,france#b as flying well1 being rather wild1 and when cooked having the flavour of the wild duck2 nevertheless this sub-variety is polygamous1 like other domesticated ducks and unlike the wild duck4 ,these black ,labrador ducks breed true2 but a case is given by ,dr4 ,turral of the ,french sub-variety producing young with some white feathers on the head and neck1 and with an ochre-coloured patch on the breast4 ,,breed #b4 ,hook-billed ,duck4--,this bird presents an extraordinary appearance from the downward curvature of the beak4 ,the head is often tufted4 ,the common colour is white1 but some are coloured like wild ducks4 ,it is an ancient breed1 having been noticed in #afgf4c ,it shows its prolonged domestication by almost incessantly laying eggs1 like the fowls which are called everlasting layers4#d ,,breed #c4 ,call ,duck4--,remarkable from its small size1 and from the extraordinary loquacity of the female4 ,beak short4 ,these birds are either white1 or coloured like the wild duck4 ,,breed #d4 ,penguin ,duck4--,this is the most remarkable of all the breeds1 and seems to have originated in the ,malayan archipelago4 ,it walks with its body extremely erect1 and with its thin neck stretched straight upwards4 ,beak rather short4 ,tail upturned1 including only #ah feathers4 ,femur and metatarsus elongated4 ,almost all naturalists admit that the several breeds are descended from the common wild duck 7,anas boschas72 most fanciers1 on the other hand1 take as usual a very different view4#e ,unless we deny that domestication1 prolonged during centuries1 can affect even such unimportant characters as colour1 size1 and in a slight degree proportional dimensions and mental disposition1 there is no reason whatever to doubt that the domestic duck is descended from the common wild species1 for the one differs from the other in no important character4 ,we have some historical evidence with respect to the period and progress of the domestication of the duck4 ,it was unknown#f to the ancient ,egyptians1 to the ,jews of the ,old ,testament1 and to the ,greeks of the ,homeric period4 ,about eighteen centuries ago ,columella#g and ,varro speak of the necessity of keeping ducks in netted enclosures like other wild fowl1 so that at this period there was danger of their flying away4 ,moreover1 the plan recommended by ,columella to those who wish to increase their stock of ducks1 namely1 to collect the eggs of the wild bird and to place them under a hen1 shows1 as ,mr4 ,dixon remarks1 8that the duck had not at this time become a naturalised and prolific inmate of the ,roman poultry-yard40 ,the origin of the domestic duck from the wild species is recognised in nearly every language of ,europe1 as ,aldrovandi long ago remarked1 by the same name being applied to both4 ,the wild duck has a wide range from the ,himalayas to ,north ,america4 ,it crosses readily with the domestic bird1 and the crossed offspring are perfectly fertile4 ,both in ,north ,america and ,europe the wild duck has been found easy to tame and breed4 ,in ,sweden this experiment was carefully tried by ,tiburtius2 he succeeded in rearing wild ducks for three generations1 but1 though they were treated like common ducks1 they did not vary even in a single feather4 ,the young birds suffered from being allowed to swim about in cold water1#h as is known to be the case1 though the fact is a strange one1 with the young of the common domestic duck4 ,an accurate and well-known observer in ,england#i has described in detail his often repeated and successful experiments in domesticating the wild duck4 ,young birds are easily reared from eggs hatched under a bantam2 but to succeed it is indispensable not to place the eggs of both the wild and tame duck under the same hen1 for in this case 8the young wild ducks die off1 leaving their more hardy brethren in undisturbed possession of their foster-mother's care4 ,the difference of habit at the onset in the newly-hatched ducklings almost entails such a result to a certainty40 ,the wild ducklings were from the first quite tame towards those who took care of them as long as they wore the same clothes1 and likewise to the dogs and cats of the house4 ,they would even snap with their beaks at the dogs1 and drive them away from any spot which they coveted4 ,but they were much alarmed at strange men and dogs4 ,differently from what occurred in ,sweden1 ,mr4 ,hewitt found that his young birds always changed and deteriorated in character in the course of two or three generations2 notwithstanding that great care was taken to prevent their crossing with tame ducks4 ,after the third generation his birds lost the elegant carriage of the wild species1 and began to acquire the gait of the common duck4 ,they increased in size in each generation1 and their legs became less fine4 ,the white collar round the neck of the mallard became broader and less regular1 and some of the longer primary wing-feathers became more or less white4 ,when this occurred1 ,mr4 ,hewitt destroyed nearly the whole of his stock and procured fresh eggs from wild nests2 so that he never bred the same family for more than five or six generations4 ,his birds continued to pair together1 and never became polygamous like the common domestic duck4 ,i have given these details1 because no other case1 as far as ,i know1 has been so carefully recorded by a competent observer of the progress of change in wild birds reared for several generations in a domestic condition4 ,from these considerations there can hardly be a doubt that the wild duck is the parent of the common domestic kind2 nor need we look to other species for the parentage of the more distinct breeds1 namely1 ,penguin1 ,call1 ,hook-billed1 ,tufted1 and ,labrador ducks4 ,i will not repeat the arguments used in the previous chapters on the improbability of man having in ancient times domesticated several species since become unknown or extinct1 though ducks are not readily exterminated in the wild state2--on some of the supposed parent-species having had abnormal characters in comparison with all the other species of the genus1 as with ,hook-billed and ,penguin ducks2--on all the breeds1 as far as is known being fertile together2#aj--on all the breeds having the same general disposition1 instinct1 etc4 ,but one fact bearing on this question may be noticed3 in the great duck family1 one species alone1 namely1 the male of ,a4 boschas1 has its four middle tail-feathers curled upwardly2 now in every one of the above-named domestic breeds these curled feathers exist1 and on the supposition that they are descended from distinct species1 we must assume that man formerly hit upon species all of which had this now unique character4 ,moreover1 sub-varieties of each breed are coloured almost exactly like the wild duck1 as ,i have seen with the largest and smallest breeds1 namely ,rouens and ,call ducks1 and1 as ,mr4 ,brent states1#aa is the case with ,hook-billed ducks4 ,this gentleman1 as he informs me1 crossed a white ,aylesbury drake and a black ,labrador duck1 and some of the ducklings as they grew up assumed the plumage of the wild duck4 ,with respect to ,penguins1 ,i have not seen many specimens1 and none were coloured precisely like the wild duck2 but ,sir ,james ,brooke sent me three skins from ,lombok and ,bali1 in the ,malayan archipelago2 the two females were paler and more rufous than the wild duck1 and the drake differed in having the whole under and upper surface 7excepting the neck1 tail-coverts1 tail1 and wings7 silver-grey1 finely pencilled with dark lines1 closely like certain parts of the plumage of the wild mallard4 ,but ,i found this drake to be identical in every feather with a variety of the common breed procured from a farm-yard in ,kent1 and ,i have occasionally elsewhere seen similar specimens4 ,the occurrence of a duck bred under so peculiar a climate as that of the ,malayan archipelago1 where the wild species does not exist1 with exactly the same plumage as may occasionally be seen in our farm-yards1 is a fact worth notice4 ,nevertheless the climate of the ,malayan archipelago apparently tends to cause the duck to vary much1 for ,zollinger1#ab speaking of the ,penguin breed1 says that in ,lombok 8there is an unusual and very wonderful variety of ducks40 ,one ,penguin drake which ,i kept alive differed from those of which the skins were sent me from ,lombok1 in having its breast and back partially coloured with chestnut-brown1 thus more closely resembling the ,mallard4 ,from these several facts1 more especially from the drakes of all the breeds having curled tail-feathers1 and from certain sub-varieties in each breed occasionally resembling in general plumage the wild duck1 we may conclude with confidence that all the breeds are descended from ,a4 boschas4 ,i will now notice some of the peculiarities characteristic of the several breeds4 ,the eggs vary in colour2 some common ducks laying pale-greenish and others quite white eggs4 ,the eggs which are first laid during each season by the black ,labrador duck1 are tinted black1 as if rubbed with ink4 ,a good observer assured me that one year his ducks of this breed laid almost perfectly white eggs4 ,another curious case shows what singular variations sometimes occur and are inherited2 ,mr4 ,hansell#ac relates that he had a common duck which always laid eggs with the yolk of a dark-brown colour like melted glue2 and the young ducks1 hatched from these eggs1 laid the same kind of eggs1 so that the breed had to be destroyed4 ,illustration3 ,fig #ci--,skulls of ,ducks1 viewed laterally4 ,a4 ,wild ,duck4 ,b4 ,hook-billed ,duck4 ,the ,hook-billed duck is highly remarkable 7see fig4 #ci1 of skull72 and its peculiar beak has been inherited at least since the year #afgf4 ,this structure is evidently analogous with that described in the ,bagadotten carrier pigeon4 ,mr4 ,brent#ad says that1 when ,hook-billed ducks are crossed with common ducks1 8many young ones are produced with the upper mandible shorter than the lower1 which not unfrequently causes the death of the bird40 ,with ducks a tuft of feathers on the head is by no means a rare occurrence2 namely1 in the ,true-tufted breed1 the ,hook-billed1 the common farm-yard kind1 and in a duck having no other peculiarity which was sent to me from the ,malayan archipelago4 ,the tuft is only so far interesting as it affects the skull1 which is thus rendered slightly more globular1 and is perforated by numerous apertures4 ,call ducks are remarkable from their extraordinary loquacity3 the drake only hisses like common drakes2 nevertheless1 when paired with the common duck1 he transmits to his female offspring a strong quacking tendency4 ,this loquacity seems at first a surprising character to have been acquired under domestication4 ,but the voice varies in the different breeds2 ,mr4 ,brent#ae says that ,hook-billed ducks are very loquacious1 and that ,rouens utter a 8dull1 loud1 and monotonous cry1 easily distinguishable by an experienced ear40 ,as the loquacity of the ,call duck is highly serviceable1 these birds being used in decoys1 this quality may have been increased by selection4 ,for instance1 ,colonel ,hawker says1 if young wild ducks cannot be got for a decoy1 8by way of make-shift1 select tame birds which are the most clamorous1 even if their colour should not be like that of wild ones40#af ,it has been erroneously asserted that ,call ducks hatch their eggs in less time than common ducks4#ag ,the ,penguin duck is the most remarkable of all the breeds2 the thin neck and body are carried erect2 the wings are small2 the tail is upturned2 and the thigh-bones and metatarsi are considerably lengthened in proportion with the same bones in the wild duck4 ,in five specimens examined by me there were only eighteen tail-feathers instead of twenty as in the wild duck2 but ,i have also found only eighteen and nineteen tail-feathers in two ,labrador ducks4 ,on the middle toe1 in three specimens1 there were twenty-seven or twenty-eight scutell1 whereas in two wild ducks there were thirty-one and thirty-two4 ,the ,penguin when crossed transmits with much power its peculiar form of body and gait to its offspring2 this was manifest with some hybrids raised in the ,zoological ,gardens between one of these birds and the ,egyptian goose1#ah 7,anser gyptiacus7 and likewise with some mongrels which ,i raised between the ,penguin and ,labrador duck4 ,i am not much surprised that some writers should maintain that this breed must be descended from an unknown and distinct species2 but from the reasons already assigned1 it seems to me far more probable that it is the descendant1 much modified by domestication under an unnatural climate1 of ,anas boschas4 ,osteological ,characters4--,the skulls of the several breeds differ from each other and from the skull of the wild duck in very little except in the proportional length and curvature of the premaxillaries4 ,these latter bones in the ,call duck are short1 and a line drawn from their extremities to the summit of the skull is nearly straight1 instead of being concave as in the common duck2 so that the skull resembles that of a small goose4 ,in the ,hook-billed duck 7fig4 #ci71 these same bones as well as the lower jaw curve downwards in a most remarkable manner1 as represented4 ,in the ,labrador duck the premaxillaries are rather broader than in the wild duck2 and in two skulls of this breed the vertical ridges on each side of the supra-occipital bone are very prominent4 ,in the ,penguin the premaxillaries are relatively shorter than in the wild duck2 and the inferior points of the paramastoids more prominent4 ,in a ,dutch tufted duck1 the skull under the enormous tuft was slightly more globular and was perforated by two large apertures2 in this skull the lachrymal bones were produced much further backwards1 so as to have a different shape and nearly to touch the post4 lat4 processes of the frontal bones1 thus almost completing the bony orbit of the eye4 ,as the quadrate and pterygoid bones are of such complex shape and stand in relation with so many other bones1 ,i carefully compared them in all the principal breeds2 but excepting in size they presented no difference4 ,illustration3 ,fig #dj--;,cervical ,verterbr of ,ducks4 ,vertebr and ,ribs4--,in one skeleton of the ,labrador duck there were the usual fifteen cervical vertebr and the usual nine dorsal vertebr bearing ribs2 in the other skeleton there were fifteen cervical and ten dorsal vertebr with ribs2 nor1 as far as could be judged1 was this owing merely to a rib having been developed on the first lumbar vertebra2 for in both skeletons the lumbar vertebr agreed perfectly in number1 shape1 and size with those of the wild duck4 ,in two skeletons of the ,call duck there were fifteen cervical and nine dorsal vertebr2 in a third skeleton small ribs were attached to the so-called fifteenth cervical vertebra1 making ten pairs of ribs2 but these ten ribs do not correspond1 or arise from the same vertebra1 with the ten in the above-mentioned ,labrador duck4 ,in the ,call duck1 which had small ribs attached to the fifteenth cervical vertebra1 the hmal spines of the thirteenth and fourteenth 7cervical7 and of the seventeenth 7dorsal7 vertebr corresponded with the spines on the fourteenth1 fifteenth1 and eighteenth vertebr of the wild duck3 so that each of these vertebr had acquired a structure proper to one posterior to it in position4 ,in the eighth cervical vertebra of this same ,call duck 7fig4 #dj1 ,b71 the two branches of the hmal spine stand much closer together than in the wild duck 7,a71 and the descending hmal processes are much shortened4 ,in the ,penguin duck the neck from its thinness and erectness falsely appears 7as ascertained by measurement7 to be much elongated1 but the cervical and dorsal vertebr present no difference2 the posterior dorsal vertebr1 however1 are more completely anchylosed to the pelvis than in the wild duck4 ,the ,aylesbury duck has fifteen cervical and ten dorsal vertebr furnished with ribs1 but the same number of lumbar1 sacral1 and caudal vertebr1 as far as could be traced1 as in the wild duck4 ,the cervical vertebr in this same duck 7fig4 #dj1 ,d7 were much broader and thicker relatively to their length than in the wild 7,c72 so much so1 that ,i have thought it worth while to give a sketch of the twelfth cervical vertebra in these two birds4 ,from the foregoing statements we see that the fifteenth cervical vertebra occasionally becomes modified into a dorsal vertebra1 and when this occurs all the adjoining vertebr are modified4 ,we also see that an additional dorsal vertebra bearing a rib is occasionally developed1 the number of the cervical and lumbar vertebr apparently remaining the same as usual4 ,i examined the bony enlargement of the trachea in the males of the ,penguin1 ,call1 ,hook-billed1 ,labrador1 and ,aylesbury breeds2 and in all it was identical in shape4 ,the pelvis is remarkably uniform2 but in the skeleton of the ,hook-billed duck the anterior part is much bowed inwards2 in the ,aylesbury and some other breeds the ischiadic foramen is less elongated4 ,in the sternum1 furculum1 coracoids1 and scapul1 the differences are so slight and so variable as not to be worth notice1 except that in two skeletons of the ,penguin duck the terminal portion of the scapula was much attenuated4 ,in the bones of the leg and wing no modification in shape could be observed4 ,but in the ,penguin and ,hook-billed ducks1 the terminal phalanges of the wing are a little shortened4 ,in the former1 the femur1 and metatarsus 7but not the tibia7 are considerably lengthened1 relatively to the same bones in the wild duck1 and to the wing-bones in both birds4 ,this elongation of the leg-bones could be seen whilst the bird was alive1 and is no doubt connected with its peculiar upright manner of walking4 ,in a large ,aylesbury duck1 on the other hand1 the tibia was the only bone of the leg which relatively to the other bones was slightly lengthened4 ,on the effects of the increased and decreased ,use of the ,limbs4--,in all the breeds the bones of the wing 7measured separately after having been cleaned7 relatively to those of the leg have become slightly shortened1 in comparison with the same bones in the wild duck1 as may be seen in ,table ,i4 ,table ,i ,name of ,breed ,length of ,femur1 ,tibia1 and ,meta- tarsus together ,length of ,humerus1 ,radius1 and ,meta- carpus together ,or as ,inches ,inches ,wild mallard #gad #ibh #ajj 3 #abi ,aylesbury #hfd #ajdc #ajj 3 #abj ,tufted 7,dutch7 #hbe #ihc #ajj 3 #aai ,penguin #gab #hgh #ajj 3 #abc ,call #fbj #ggg #ajj 3 #abe ,length of same ,bones ,length of all the ,bones of ,wing ,inches ,inches ,wild duck 7another specimen7 #fhe #ajjg #ajj 3 #adg ,common domestic duck #hae #aabf #ajj 3 #ach ,in ,table ,i we see1 by comparison with the wild duck1 that the reduction in the length of the bones of the wing1 relatively to those of the legs1 though slight1 is universal4 ,the reduction is least in the ,call duck1 which has the power and the habit of frequently flying4 ,in weight there is a greater relative difference between the bones of the leg and wing1 as may be seen in ,table ,,ii3-- ,table ,,ii ,name of ,breed ,weight of ,femur1 ,tibia1 and ,metatarsus ,weight of ,humerus1 ,radius1 and ,metacarpus ,or as ,grains ,grains ,wild mallard #ed #ig #ajj 3 #agi ,aylesbury #afd #bjd #ajj 3 #abd ,hooked-bill #ajg #afj #ajj 3 #adi ,tufted 7,dutch7 #aaa #adh #ajj 3 #acc ,penguin #ge #ij4e #ajj 3 #abj ,labrador #ada #afe #ajj 3 #aag ,call #eg #ic #ajj 3 #afc ,weight of all the ,bones of the ,leg and ,foot ,weight of all the ,bones of the ,wing ,grains ,grains ,wild 7another specimen7 #ff #aae #ajj 3 #agc ,common domestic duck #abg #aeh #ajj 3 #abd ,in these domesticated birds1 the considerably lessened weight of the bones of the wing 7i4e4 on an average1 twenty-five per cent of their proper proportional weight71 as well as their slightly lessened length1 relatively to the leg-bones1 might follow1 not from any actual decrease in the wing-bones1 but from the increased weight and length of the bones of the legs4 ,table ,i,i,ia shows that the leg-bones relatively to the weight of the entire skeleton have really increased in weight2 but ,table ,i,i,ib shows that according to the same standard the wing-bones have also really decreased in weight2 so that the relative disproportion shown in the foregoing tables between the wing and leg-bones1 in comparison with those of the wild duck1 is partly due to the increase in weight and length of the leg-bones1 and partly to the decrease in weight and length of the wing-bones4 ,table ,,iii ,name of ,breed ,weight of entire ,skeleton4 7,n4,b4 ,one ,metatarsus and ,foot was removed from each skeleton1 as it had been accidentally lost in two cases47 ,weight of ,femur1 ,tibia1 and ,metatarsus ,or as ,grains ,grains ,wild mallard #hci #ed #ajjj 3 #fd ,aylesbury #aibe #afd #ajjj 3 #he ,tufted 7,dutch7 #adjd #aaa #ajjj 3 #gi ,penguin #hga #ge #ajjj 3 #hf ,call 7from ,mr4 ,fox7 #gag #eg #ajjj 3 #gi ,weight of ,skeleton as above4 ,weight of ,humerus1 ,radius and ,metacarpus4 ,grains ,grains ,wild mallard #hci #ig #ajjj 3 #aae ,aylesbury #aibe #bjd #ajjj 3 #aje ,tufted 7,dutch7 #adjd #adh #ajjj 3 #aje ,penguin #hga #ij #ajjj 3 #ajc ,call 7from ,mr4 ,baker7 #iad #ajj #ajjj 3 #aji ,call 7from ,mr4 ,fox7 #gag #ib #ajjj 3 #abi ,with respect to ,table ,,iii1 ,i may first state that ,i tested them by taking another skeleton of a wild duck and of a common domestic duck1 and by comparing the weight of all the bones of the leg with all those of the wings1 and the result was the same4 ,in the first of these tables we see that the leg-bones in each case have increased in actual weight4 ,it might have been expected that1 with the increased or decreased weight of the entire skeleton1 the leg-bones would have become proportionally heavier or lighter2 but their greater weight in all the breeds relatively to the other bones can be accounted for only by these domestic birds having used their legs in walking and standing much more than the wild1 for they never fly1 and the more artificial breeds rarely swim4 ,in the second table we see1 with the exception of one case1 a plain reduction in the weight of the bones of the wing1 and this no doubt has resulted from their lessened use4 ,the one exceptional case1 namely1 in one of the ,call ducks1 is in truth no exception1 for this bird was constantly in the habit of flying about2 and ,i have seen it day after day rise from my grounds1 and fly for a long time in circles of more than a mile in diameter4 ,in this ,call duck there is not only no decrease1 but an actual increase in the weight of the wing-bones relatively to those of the wild-duck2 and this probably is consequent on the remarkable lightness and thinness of all the bones of the skeleton4 ,lastly1 ,i weighed the furculum1 coracoids1 and scapula of a wild duck and of a common domestic duck1 and ,i found that their weight1 relatively to that of the whole skeleton1 was as one hundred in the former to eighty-nine in the latter2 this shows that these bones in the domestic duck have been reduced eleven per cent of their due proportional weight4 ,the prominence of the crest of the sternum1 relatively to its length1 is also much reduced in all the domestic breeds4 ,these changes have evidently been caused by the lessened use of the wings4 ,it is well known that several birds1 belonging to different ,orders1 and inhabiting oceanic islands1 have their wings greatly reduced in size and are incapable of flight4 ,i suggested in my #8,origin of ,species' that1 as these birds are not persecuted by any enemies1 the reduction of their wings had probably been caused by gradual disuse4 ,hence1 during the earlier stages of the process of reduction1 such birds would probably have resembled our domesticated ducks in the state of their organs of flight4 ,this is the case with the water-hen 7,gallinula nesiotis7 of ,tristan d',acunha1 which 8can flutter a little1 but obviously uses its legs1 and not its wings1 as a mode of escape40 ,now ,mr4 ,sclater#ai finds in this bird that the wings1 sternum1 and coracoids are all reduced in length1 and the crest of the sternum in depth1 in comparison with the same bones in the ,european water-hen 7,g4 chloropus74 ,on the other hand1 the thigh-bones and pelvis are increased in length1 the former by four lines1 relatively to the same bones in the common water-hen4 ,hence in the skeleton of this natural species nearly the same changes have occurred1 only carried a little further1 as with our domestic ducks1 and in this latter case ,i presume no one will dispute that they have resulted from the lessened use of the wings and the increased use of the legs4 ,,the ,,goose4 ,this bird deserves some notice1 as hardly any other anciently domesticated bird or quadruped has varied so little4 ,that geese were anciently domesticated we know from certain verses in ,homer2 and from these birds having been kept 7#chh ,b4,c47 in the ,capitol at ,rome as sacred to ,juno1 which sacredness implies great antiquity4#bj ,that the goose has varied in some degree1 we may infer from naturalists not being unanimous with respect to its wild parent-form2 though the difficulty is chiefly due to the existence of three or four closely allied wild ,european species4#ba ,a large majority of capable judges are convinced that our geese are descended from the wild ,grey-leg goose 7,a4 ferus72 the young of which can easily be tamed4#bb ,this species1 when crossed with the domestic goose1 produced in the ,zoological ,gardens1 as ,i was assured in #ahdi1 perfectly fertile offspring4#bc ,yarrell#bd has observed that the lower part of the trachea of the domestic goose is sometimes flattened1 and that a ring of white feathers sometimes surrounds the base of the beak4 ,these characters seem at first sight good indications of a cross at some former period with the white-fronted goose 7,a4 albifrons72 but the white ring is variable in this latter species1 and we must not overlook the law of analogous variation2 that is1 of one species assuming some of the characters of allied species4 ,as the goose has proved so little flexible in its organisation under long-continued domestication1 the amount of variation which it has undergone may be worth giving4 ,it has increased in size and in productiveness2#be and varies from white to a dusky colour4 ,several observers#bf have stated that the gander is more frequently white than the goose1 and that when old it almost invariably becomes white2 but this is not the case with the parent-form1 the ,a4 ferus4 ,here1 again1 the law of analogous variation may have come into play1 as the almost snow-white male of the ,rock goose 7,bernicla antarctica7 standing on the sea-shore by his dusky partner is a sight well known to those who have traversed the sounds of ,tierra del ,fuego and the ,falkland ,islands4 ,some geese have top-knots2 and the skull beneath1 as before stated1 is perforated4 ,a sub-breed has lately been formed with the feathers reversed at the back of the head and neck4#bg ,the beak varies a little in size1 and is of a yellower tint than in the wild species2 but its colour and that of the legs are both slightly variable4#bh ,this latter fact deserves attention1 because the colour of the legs and beak is highly serviceable in discriminating the several closely allied wild forms4#bi ,at our ,shows two breeds are exhibited2 viz41 the ,embden and ,toulouse2 but they differ in nothing except colour4#cj ,recently a smaller and singular variety has been imported from ,sebastopol1#ca with the scapular feathers 7as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 who sent me specimens7 greatly elongated1 curled1 and even spirally twisted4 ,the margins of these feathers are rendered plumose by the divergence of the barbs and barbules1 so that they resemble in some degree those on the back of the black ,australian swan4 ,these feathers are likewise remarkable from the central shaft1 which is excessively thin and transparent1 being split into fine filaments1 which1 after running for a space free1 sometimes coalesce again4 ,it is a curious fact that these filaments are regularly clothed on each side with fine down or barbules1 precisely like those on the proper barbs of the feather4 ,this structure of the feathers is transmitted to half-bred birds4 ,in ,gallus sonneratii the barbs and barbules blend together1 and form thin horny plates of the same nature with the shaft3 in this variety of the goose1 the shaft divides into filaments which acquire barbules1 and thus resemble true barbs4 ,although the domestic goose certainly differs somewhat from any known wild species1 yet the amount of variation which it has undergone1 as compared with that of most domesticated animals1 is singularly small4 ,this fact can be partially accounted for by selection not having come largely into play4 ,birds of all kinds which present many distinct races are valued as pets or ornaments2 no one makes a pet of the goose2 the name1 indeed1 in more languages than one1 is a term of reproach4 ,the goose is valued for its size and flavour1 for the whiteness of its feathers which adds to their value1 and for its prolificness and tameness4 ,in all these points the goose differs from the wild parent-form2 and these are the points which have been selected4 ,even in ancient times the ,roman gourmands valued the liver of the white goose2 and ,pierre ,belon#cb in #aeee speaks of two varieties1 one of which was larger1 more fecund1 and of a better colour than the other2 and he expressly states that good managers attended to the colour of their goslings1 so that they might know which to preserve and select for breeding4 ,,the ,,peacock4 ,this is another bird which has hardly varied under domestication1 except in sometimes being white or piebald4 ,mr4 ,waterhouse carefully compared1 as he informs me1 skins of the wild ,indian and domestic bird1 and they were identical in every respect1 except that the plumage of the latter was perhaps rather thicker4 ,whether our birds are descended from those introduced into ,europe in the time of ,alexander1 or have been subsequently imported1 is doubtful4 ,they do not breed very freely with us1 and are seldom kept in large numbers1--circumstances which would greatly interfere with the gradual selection and formation of new breeds4 ,there is one strange fact with respect to the peacock1 namely1 the occasional appearance in ,england of the 8japanned0 or 8black-shouldered0 kind4 ,this form has lately been named on the high authority of ,mr4 ,sclater as a distinct species1 viz4 ,pavo nigripennis1 which he believes will hereafter be found wild in some country1 but not in ,india1 where it is certainly unknown4 ,the males of these japanned birds differ conspicuously from the common peacock in the colour of their secondary wing-feathers1 scapulars1 wing-coverts1 and thighs1 and are ,i think more beautiful2 they are rather smaller than the common sort1 and are always beaten by them in their battles1 as ,i hear from the ,hon4 ,a4 ,s4 ,g4 ,canning4 ,the females are much paler coloured than those of the common kind4 ,both sexes1 as ,mr4 ,canning informs me1 are white when they leave the egg1 and they differ from the young of the white variety only in having a peculiar pinkish tinge on their wings4 ,these japanned birds1 though appearing suddenly in flocks of the common kind1 propagate their kind quite truly4 ,although they do not resemble the hybrids which have been raised between ,p4 cristatus and muticus1 nevertheless they are in some respects intermediate in character between these two species2 and this fact favours1 as ,mr4 ,sclater believes1 the view that they form a distinct and natural species4#cc ,on the other hand1 ,sir ,h4 ,heron states#cd that this breed suddenly appeared within his memory in ,lord ,brownlow's large stock of pied1 white1 and common peacocks4 ,the same thing occurred in ,sir ,j4 ,trevelyan's flock composed entirely of the common kind1 and in ,mr4 ,thornton's stock of common and pied peacocks4 ,it is remarkable that in these two latter instances the black-shouldered kind1 though a smaller and weaker bird1 increased1 8to the extinction of the previously existing breed40 ,i have also received through ,mr4 ,sclater a statement from ,mr4 ,hudson ,gurney that he reared many years ago a pair of black-shouldered peacocks from the common kind2 and another ornithologist1 ,prof4 ,a4 ,newton1 states that1 five or six years ago1 a female bird1 in all respects similar to the female of the black-shouldered kind1 was produced from a stock of common peacocks in his possession1 which during more than twenty years had not been crossed with birds of any other strain4 ,mr4 ,jenner ,weir informs me that a peacock at ,blackheath whilst young was white1 but as it became older gradually assumed the characters of the black-shouldered variety2 both its parents were common peacocks4 ,lastly1 ,mr4 ,canning has given a case of a female of this same variety appearing in ,ireland in a flock of the ordinary kind4#ce ,here1 then1 we have seven well authenticated cases in ,great ,britain of japanned birds1 having suddenly appeared within recent times in flocks of the common peafowl4 ,this variety must also have formerly appeared in ,europe1 for ,mr4 ,canning has seen an old picture1 and another is referred to in the #8,field1' with this variety represented4 ,these facts seem to me to indicate that the japanned peacock is a strongly marked variety or 8sport10 which tends at all times and in many places to reappear4 ,this view is supported by the young being at first white like the young of the white breed1 which is undoubtedly a variation4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we believe the japanned peacock to be a distinct species1 we must suppose that in all the above cases the common breed had at some former period been crossed by it1 but had lost every trace of the cross2 yet that the offspring of these birds suddenly and completely reacquired through reversion the characters of ,p4 nigripennis4 ,i have heard of no other such case in the animal or vegetable kingdom4 ,to perceive the full improbability of such an occurrence1 we may suppose that a breed of dogs had been crossed at some former period with a wolf1 but had lost every trace of the wolf-like character1 yet that the breed gave birth in seven instances in the same country1 within no great length of time1 to a wolf perfect in every character2 and we must further suppose that in two of the cases1 the newly produced wolves afterwards spontaneously increased to such an extent as to lead to the extinction of the parent breed of dogs4 ,so remarkable a bird as the ,p4 nigripennis1 when first imported1 would have realised a large price2 it is therefore improbable that it should have been silently introduced and its history subsequently lost4 ,on the whole the evidence seems to me1 as it did to ,sir ,r4 ,heron1 to be decisive in favour of the japanned or black-shouldered breed being a variation1 induced by some unknown cause4 ,on this view1 the case is the most remarkable one ever recorded of the abrupt appearance of a new form1 which so closely resembles a true species that it has deceived one of the most experienced of living ornithologists4 ,,the ,,turkey4 ,it seems fairly well established by ,mr4 ,gould1#cf that the turkey1 in accordance with the history of its first introduction1 is descended from a wild ,mexican form1 which had been domesticated by the natives before the discovery of ,america1 and which is now generally ranked as a local race1 and not as a distinct species4 ,however this may be1 the case deserves notice because in the ,united ,states wild male turkeys sometimes court the domestic hens1 which are descended from the ,mexican form1 8and are generally received by them with great pleasure40#cg ,several accounts have likewise been published of young birds1 reared in the ,united ,states from the eggs of the wild species1 crossing and commingling with the common breed4 ,in ,england1 also1 this same species has been kept in several parks2 from two of which the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox procured birds1 and they crossed freely with the common domestic kind1 and during many years afterwards1 as he informs me1 the turkeys in his neighbourhood clearly showed traces of their crossed parentage4 ,we here have an instance of a domestic race being modified by a cross with a distinct wild race or species4 ,f4 ,michaux#ch suspected in #ahjb that the common domestic turkey was not descended from the ,united ,states species alone1 but likewise from a southern form1 and he went so far as to believe that ,english and ,french turkeys differed from having different proportions of the blood of the two parent-forms4 ,english turkeys are smaller than either wild form4 ,they have not varied in any great degree2 but there are some breeds which can be distinguished as ,norfolks1 ,suffolks1 ,whites1 and ,copper-coloured 7or ,cambridge71 all of which1 if precluded from crossing with other breeds propagate their kind truly4 ,of these kinds1 the most distinct is the small1 hardy1 dull-black ,norfolk turkey1 of which the chickens are black1 occasionally with white patches about the head4 ,the other breeds scarcely differ except in colour1 and their chickens are generally mottled all over with brownish-grey4#ci ,the inferior tail-coverts vary in number1 and according to a ,german superstition the hen lays as many eggs as the cock has feathers of this kind4#dj ,albin in #agch1 and ,temminck within a much later period1 describe a beautiful breed1 dusky-yellowish1 brown above and white beneath1 with a large top-knot of soft plumose feather4 ,the spurs of the male were rudimentary4 ,this breed has been for a long time extinct in ,europe2 but a living specimen has lately been imported from the east coast of ,africa1 which still retains the top-knot and the same general colouring and rudimentary spurs4#da ,mr4 ,wilmot has described#db a white turkey-cock having a crest formed of 8feathers about four inches long1 with bare quills1 and a tuft of soft white down growing at the end40 ,many of the young birds inherited this kind of crest1 but afterwards it fell off or was pecked out by the other birds4 ,this is an interesting case1 as with care a new breed might probably have been formed2 and a top-knot of this nature would have been to a certain extent analogous to that borne by the males in several allied genera1 such as ,euplocomus1 ,lophophorus1 and ,pavo4 ,wild turkeys1 believed in every instance to have been imported from the ,united ,states1 have been kept in the parks of ,lords ,powis1 ,leicester1 ,hill1 and ,derby4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox procured birds from the two first-named parks1 and he informs me that they certainly differed a little from each other in the shape of their bodies and in the barred plumage on their wings4 ,these birds likewise differed from ,lord ,hill's stock4 ,some of the latter kept at ,oulton by ,sir ,p4 ,egerton1 though precluded from crossing with common turkeys1 occasionally produced much paler-coloured birds1 and one that was almost white1 but not an albino4 ,these half-wild turkeys1 in thus differing slightly from each other1 present an analogous case with the wild cattle kept in the several ,british parks4 ,we must suppose that such differences have resulted from the prevention of free intercrossing between birds ranging over a wide area1 and from the changed conditions to which they have been exposed in ,england4 ,in ,india the climate has apparently wrought a still greater change in the turkey1 for it is described by ,mr4 ,blyth#dc as being much degenerated in size1 8utterly incapable of rising on the wing10 of a black colour1 and 8with the long pendulous appendages over the beak enormously developed40 ,,the ,,guinea ,,fowl4 ,the domesticated ,guinea fowl is now believed by some naturalists to be descended from the ,numida ptilorhynca1 which inhabits very hot1 and1 in parts1 extremely arid districts in ,eastern ,africa2 consequently it has been exposed in this country to extremely different conditions of life4 ,nevertheless it has hardly varied at all1 except in the plumage being either paler or darker-coloured4 ,it is a singular fact that this bird varies more in colour in the ,west ,indies and on the ,spanish ,main1 under a hot though humid climate1 than in ,europe4#dd ,the ,guinea fowl has become thoroughly feral in ,jamaica and in ,st4 ,domingo1#de and has diminished in size2 the legs are black1 whereas the legs of the aboriginal ,african bird are said to be grey4 ,this small change is worth notice on account of the often-repeated statement that all feral animals invariably revert in every character to their original type4 ,,the ,,canary ,,bird4 ,as this bird has been recently domesticated1 namely1 within the last #cej years1 its variability deserves notice4 ,it has been crossed with nine or ten other species of ,fringillid1 and some of the hybrids are almost completely fertile2 but we have no evidence that any distinct breed has originated from such crosses4 ,notwithstanding the modern domestication of the canary1 many varieties have been produced2 even before the year #agah a list of twenty-seven varieties was published in ,france1#df and in #aggi a long schedule of the desired qualities was printed by the ,london ,canary ,society1 so that methodical selection has been practised during a considerable period4 ,the greater number of the varieties differ only in colour and in the markings of their plumage4 ,some breeds however1 differ in shape1 such as the hooped or bowed canaries1 and the ,belgian canaries with their much elongated bodies4 ,mr4 ,brent#dg measured one of the latter and found it eight inches in length1 whilst the wild canary is only five and a quarter inches long4 ,there are top-knotted canaries1 and it is a singular fact that1 if two top-knotted birds are matched1 the young1 instead of having very fine top-knots1 are generally bald1 or even have a wound on their heads4#dh ,it would appear as if the top-knot were due to some morbid condition1 which is increased to an injurious degree when two birds in this state are paired4 ,there is a feather-footed breed1 and another with a kind of frill running down the breast4 ,one other character deserves notice from being confined to one period of life1 and from being strictly inherited at the same period2 namely1 the wing and tail feathers in prize canaries being black1 8but this colour is retained only until the first moult2 once moulted1 the peculiarity ceases40#di ,canaries differ much in disposition and character1 and in some small degree in song4 ,they produce eggs three or four times during the year4 ,,gold-,,fish4 ,besides mammals and birds1 only a few animals belonging to the other great classes have been domesticated2 but to show that it is an almost universal law that animals1 when removed from their natural conditions of life1 vary1 and that races can be formed when selection is applied1 it is necessary to say a few words on gold-fish1 bees1 and silk-moths4 ,gold-fish 7,cyprinus auratus7 were introduced into ,europe only two or three centuries ago2 but they have been kept in confinement from an ancient period in ,china4 ,mr4 ,blyth#ej suspects1 from the analogous variation of other fishes1 that golden-coloured fish do not occur in a state of nature4 ,these fishes frequently live under the most unnatural conditions1 and their variability in colour1 size1 and in some important points of structure is very great4 ,m4 ,sauvigny has described and given coloured drawings of no less than eighty-nine varieties4#ea ,many of the varieties1 however1 such as triple tail-fins1 etc41 ought to be called monstrosities2 but it is difficult to draw any distinct line between a variation and a monstrosity4 ,as gold-fish are kept for ornament or curiosity1 and as 8the ,chinese are just the people to have secluded a chance variety of any kind1 and to have matched and paired from it10#eb it might have been predicted that selection would have been largely practised in the formation of new breeds2 and this is the case4 ,in an old ,chinese work it is said that fish with vermilion scales were first raised in confinement during the ,sung dynasty 7which commenced ,a4,d4 #ifj71 8and now they are cultivated in families everywhere for the sake of ornament40 ,in another and more ancient work1 it is said that 8there is not a household where the gold-fish is not cultivated1 in rivalry as to its colour1 and as a source of profit10 etc4#ec ,although many breeds exist1 it is a singular fact that the variations are often not inherited4 ,sir ,r4 ,heron#ed kept many of these fishes1 and placed all the deformed ones1 namely1 those destitute of dorsal fins and those furnished with a double anal fin1 or triple tail1 in a pond by themselves2 but they did 8not produce a greater proportion of deformed offspring than the perfect fishes40 ,passing over an almost infinite diversity of colour1 we meet with the most extraordinary modifications of structure4 ,thus1 out of about two dozen specimens bought in ,london1 ,mr4 ,yarrell observed some with the dorsal fin extending along more than half the length of the back3 others with this fin reduced to only five or six rays3 and one with no dorsal fin4 ,the anal fins are sometimes double1 and the tail is often triple4 ,this latter deviation of structure seems generally to occur 8at the expense of the whole or part of some other fin20#ee but ,bory de ,saint-,vincent#ef saw at ,madrid gold-fish furnished with a dorsal fin and a triple tail4 ,one variety is characterised by a hump on its back near the head2 and the ,rev4 ,l4 ,jenyns#eg has described a most singular variety1 imported from ,china1 almost globular in form like a ,diodon1 with 8the fleshy part of the tail as if entirely cut away8 the caudal fin being set on a little behind the dorsal and immediately above the anal40 ,in this fish the anal and caudal fins were double2 the anal fin being attached to the body in a vertical line3 the eyes also were enormously large and protuberant4 ,,hive-,,bees4 ,bees have been domesticated from an ancient period2 if indeed their state can be considered one of domestication1 for they search for their own food1 with the exception of a little generally given to them during the winter4 ,their habitation is a hive instead of a hole in a tree4 ,bees1 however1 have been transported into almost every quarter of the world1 so that climate ought to have produced whatever direct effect it is capable of producing4 ,it is frequently asserted that the bees in different parts of ,great ,britain differ in size1 colour1 and temper2 and ,godron#eh says that they are generally larger in the south than in other parts of ,france2 it has also been asserted that the little brown bees of ,high ,burgundy1 when transported to ,la ,bresse become large and yellow in the second generation4 ,but these statements require confirmation4 ,as far as size is concerned1 it is known that bees produced in very old combs are smaller1 owing to the cells having become smaller from the successive old cocoons4 ,the best authorities#ei concur that1 with the exception of the ,ligurian race or species1 presently to be mentioned1 distinct breeds do not exist in ,britain or on the ,continent4 ,there is1 however1 even in the same stock1 some variability in colour4 ,thus1 ,mr4 ,woodbury states1#fj that he has several times seen queen bees of the common kind annulated with yellow-like ,ligurian queens1 and the latter dark-coloured like common bees4 ,he has also observed variations in the colour of the drones1 without any corresponding difference in the queens or workers of the same hive4 ,the great apiarian1 ,dzierzon1 in answer to my queries on this subject1 says1#fa that in ,germany bees of some stocks are decidedly dark1 whilst others are remarkable for their yellow colour4 ,bees also seem to differ in habits in different districts1 for ,dzierzon adds1 8,if many stocks with their offspring are more inclined to swarm1 whilst others are richer in honey1 so that some bee-keepers even distinguish between swarming and honey-gathering bees1 this is a habit which has become second nature1 caused by the customary mode of keeping the bees and the pasturage of the district4 ,for example1 what a difference in this respect one may perceive to exist between the bees of the ,luneburg heath and those of this country60 4 4 4 8,removing an old queen and substituting a young one of the current year is here an infallible mode of keeping the strongest stock from swarming and preventing drone-breeding2 whilst the same means if adopted in ,hanover would certainly be of no avail40 ,i procured a hive full of dead bees from ,jamaica1 where they have long been naturalised1 and1 on carefully comparing them under the microscope with my own bees1 ,i could detect not a trace of difference4 ,this remarkable uniformity in the hive-bee1 wherever kept1 may probably be accounted for by the great difficulty1 or rather impossibility1 of bringing selection into play by pairing particular queens and drones1 for these insects unite only during flight4 ,nor is there any record1 with a single partial exception1 of any person having separated and bred from a hive in which the workers presented some appreciable difference4 ,in order to form a new breed1 seclusion from other bees would1 as we now know1 be indispensable2 for since the introduction of the ,ligurian bee into ,germany and ,england1 it has been found that the drones wander at least two miles from their own hives1 and often cross with the queens of the common bee4#fb ,the ,ligurian bee1 although perfectly fertile when crossed with the common kind1 is ranked by most naturalists as a distinct species1 whilst by others it is ranked as a variety3 but this form need not here be noticed1 as there is no reason to believe that it is the product of domestication4 ,the ,egyptian and some other bees are likewise ranked by ,dr4 ,gerstcker1#fc but not by other highly competent judges1 as geographical races2 he grounds his conclusion in chief part on the fact that in certain districts1 as in the ,crimea and ,rhodes1 they vary so much in colour1 that the several geographical races can be closely connected by intermediate forms4 ,i have alluded to a single instance of the separation and preservation of a particular stock of bees4 ,mr4 ,lowe#fd procured some bees from a cottager a few miles from ,edinburgh1 and perceived that they differed from the common bee in the hairs on the head and thorax being lighter coloured and more profuse in quantity4 ,from the date of the introduction of the ,ligurian bee into ,great ,britain we may feel sure that these bees had not been crossed with this form4 ,mr4 ,lowe propagated this variety1 but unfortunately did not separate the stock from his other bees1 and after three generations the new character was almost completely lost4 ,nevertheless1 as he adds1 8a great number of the bees still retain traces1 though faint1 of the original colony40 ,this case shows us what could probably be effected by careful and long-continued selection applied exclusively to the workers1 for1 as we have seen1 queens and drones cannot be selected and paired4 ,,silk-,,moths4 ,these insects are in several respects interesting to us1 more especially because they have varied largely at an early period of life1 and the variations have been inherited at corresponding periods4 ,as the value of the silk-moth depends entirely on the cocoon1 every change in its structure and qualities has been carefully attended to1 and races differing much in the cocoon1 but hardly at all in the adult state1 have been produced4 ,with the races of most other domestic animals1 the young resemble each other closely1 whilst the adults differ much4 ,it would be useless1 even if it were possible1 to describe all the many kinds of silkworms4 ,several distinct species exist in ,india and ,china which produce useful silk1 and some of these are capable of freely crossing with the common silk-moth1 as has been recently ascertained in ,france4 ,captain ,hutton#fe states that throughout the world at least six species have been domesticated2 and he believes that the silk-moths reared in ,europe belong to two or three species4 ,this1 however1 is not the opinion of several capable judges who have particularly attended to the cultivation of this insect in ,france2 and hardly accords with some facts presently to be given4 ,the common silk-moth 7,bombyx mori7 was brought to ,constantinople in the sixth century1 whence it was carried into ,italy1 and in #adid into ,france4#ff ,everything has been favourable for the variation of this insect4 ,it is believed to have been domesticated in ,china as long ago as #bgjj ,b4,c4 ,it has been kept under unnatural and diversified conditions of life1 and has been transported into many countries4 ,there is reason to believe that the nature of the food given to the caterpillar influences to a certain extent the character of the breed4#fg ,disuse has apparently aided in checking the development of the wings4 ,but the most important element in the production of the many now existing1 much modified races1 no doubt has been the close attention which has long been applied in many countries to every promising variation4 ,the care taken in ,europe in the selection of the best cocoons and moths for breeding is notorious1#fh and the production of eggs is followed as a distinct trade in parts of ,france4 ,i have made inquiries through ,dr4 ,falconer1 and am assured that in ,india the natives are equally careful in the process of selection4 ,in ,china the production of eggs is confined to certain favourable districts1 and the raisers are precluded by law from producing silk1 so that their whole attention may be necessarily given up to this one object4#fi ,the following details on the differences between the several breeds are taken1 when not stated to the contrary1 from ,m4 ,robinet's excellent work1#gj which bears every sign of care and large experience4 ,the eggs in the different races vary in colour1 in shape 7being round1 elliptic or oval71 and in size4 ,the eggs laid in ,june in the south of ,france1 and in ,july in the central provinces1 do not hatch until the following spring2 and it is in vain1 says ,m4 ,robinet1 to expose them to a temperature gradually raised1 in order that the caterpillar may be quickly developed4 ,yet occasionally1 without any known cause1 batches of eggs are produced1 which immediately begin to undergo the proper changes1 and are hatched in from twenty to thirty days4 ,from these and some other analogous facts it may be concluded that the ,trevoltini silkworms of ,italy1 of which the caterpillars are hatched in from fifteen to twenty days1 do not necessarily form1 as has been maintained1 a distinct species4 ,although the breeds which live in temperate countries produce eggs which cannot be immediately hatched by artificial heat1 yet when they are removed to and reared in a hot country they gradually acquire the character of quick development1 as in the ,trevoltini races4#ga ,caterpillars4--,these vary greatly in size and colour4 ,the skin is generally white1 sometimes mottled with black or grey1 and occasionally quite black4 ,the colour1 however1 as ,m4 ,robinet asserts1 is not constant1 even in perfectly pure breeds2 except in the race tigre1 so called from being marked with transverse black stripes4 ,as the general colour of the caterpillar is not correlated with that of the silk1#gb this character is disregarded by cultivators1 and has not been fixed by selection4 ,captain ,hutton1 in the paper before referred to1 has argued with much force that the dark tiger-like marks1 which so frequently appear during the later moults in the caterpillars of various breeds1 are due to reversion2 for the caterpillars of several allied wild species of ,bombyx are marked and coloured in this manner4 ,he separated some caterpillars with the tiger-like marks1 and in the succeeding spring 7pp4 #adi1 #bih7 nearly all the caterpillars reared from them were dark-brindled1 and the tints became still darker in the third generation4 ,the moths reared from these caterpillars#gc also became darker1 and resembled in colouring the wild ,b4 huttoni4 ,on this view of the tiger-like marks being due to reversion1 the persistency with which they are transmitted is intelligible4 ,several years ago ,mrs4 ,whitby took great pains in breeding silkworms on a large scale1 and she informed me that some of her caterpillars had dark eyebrows4 ,this is probably the first step in reversion towards the tiger-like marks1 and ,i was curious to know whether so trifling a character would be inherited4 ,at my request she separated in #ahdh twenty of these caterpillars1 and having kept the moths separate1 bred from them4 ,of the many caterpillars thus reared1 8every one without exception had eyebrows1 some darker and more decidedly marked than the others1 but all had eyebrows more or less plainly visible40 ,black caterpillars occasionally appear amongst those of the common kind1 but in so variable a manner1 that1 according to ,m4 ,robinet1 the same race will one year exclusively produce white caterpillars1 and the next year many black ones2 nevertheless1 ,i have been informed by ,m4 ,a4 ,bossi of ,geneva1 that1 if these black caterpillars are separately bred from1 they reproduce the same colour2 but the cocoons and moths reared from them do not present any difference4 ,the caterpillar in ,europe ordinarily moults four times before passing into the cocoon stage2 but there are races 8 trois mues10 and the ,trevoltini race likewise moults only thrice4 ,it might have been thought that so important a physiological difference would not have arisen under domestication2 but ,m4 ,robinet#gd states that1 on the one hand1 ordinary caterpillars occasionally spin their cocoons after only three moults1 and1 on the other hand1 8presque toutes les races trois mues1 que nous avons exprimentees1 ont fait quatre mues la seconde ou la troisime anne1 ce qui semble prouver qu'il a suffi de les placer dans des conditions favorables pour leur rendre une facult qu'elles avaient perdue sous des influences moins favorables40 ,cocoons4--,the caterpillar in changing into the cocoon loses about #ej per cent of its weight2 but the amount of loss differs in different breeds1 and this is of importance to the cultivator4 ,the cocoon in the different races presents characteristic differences2 being large or small2--nearly spherical with no constriction1 as in the ,race de ,loriol1 or cylindrical1 with either a deep or slight constriction in the middle2 with the two ends1 or with one end alone1 more or less pointed4 ,the silk varies in fineness and quality1 and in being nearly white1 but of two tints1 or yellow4 ,generally the colour of the silk is not strictly inherited3 but in the chapter on ,selection ,i shall give a curious account how1 in the course of sixty-five generations1 the number of yellow cocoons in one breed has been reduced in ,france from one hundred to thirty-five in the thousand4 ,according to ,robinet1 the white race1 called ,sina1 by careful selection during the last seventy-five years1 8est arrive un tel tat de puret1 qu'on ne voit pas un seul cocon jaune dans des millions de cocons blancs40#ge ,cocoons are sometimes formed1 as is well known1 entirely destitute of silk1 which yet produce moths2 unfortunately ,mrs4 ,whitby was prevented by an accident from ascertaining whether this character would prove hereditary4 ,adult stage4--,i can find no account of any constant difference in the moths of the most distinct races4 ,mrs4 ,whitby assured me that there was none in the several kinds bred by her2 and ,i have received a similar statement from the eminent naturalist1 ,m4 de ,quatrefages4 ,captain ,hutton also says#gf that the moths of all kinds vary much in colour1 but in nearly the same inconstant manner4 ,considering how much the cocoons in the several races differ1 this fact is of interest1 and may probably be accounted for on the same principle as the fluctuating variability of colour in the caterpillar1 namely1 that there has been no motive for selecting and perpetuating any particular variation4 ,the males of the wild ,bombycid 8fly swiftly in the day-time and evening1 but the females are usually very sluggish and inactive40#gg ,in several moths of this family the females have abortive wings1 but no instance is known of the males being incapable of flight1 for in this case the species could hardly have been perpetuated4 ,in the silk-moth both sexes have imperfect1 crumpled wings1 and are incapable of flight2 but still there is a trace of the characteristic difference in the two sexes2 for though1 on comparing a number of males and females1 ,i could detect no difference in the development of their wings1 yet ,i was assured by ,mrs4 ,whitby that the males of the moths bred by her used their wings more than the females1 and could flutter downwards1 though never upwards4 ,she also states that1 when the females first emerge from the cocoon1 their wings are less expanded than those of the male4 ,the degree of imperfection1 however1 in the wings varies much in different races and under different circumstances4 ,m4 ,quatrefages#gh says that he has seen a number of moths with their wings reduced to a third1 fourth1 or tenth part of their normal dimensions1 and even to mere short straight stumps3 8il me semble qu'il y a l un vritable arrt de dveloppement partiel40 ,on the other hand1 he describes the female moths of the ,andr ,jean breed as having 8leurs ailes larges et tales4 ,un seul prsente quelques courbures irrgulires et des plis anormaux40 ,as moths and butterflies of all kinds reared from wild caterpillars under confinement often have crippled wings1 the same cause1 whatever it may be1 has probably acted on silk-moths1 but the disuse of their wings during so many generations has1 it may be suspected1 likewise come into play4 ,the moths of many breeds fail to glue their eggs to the surface on which they are laid1#gi but this proceeds1 according to ,capt4 ,hutton1#hj merely from the glands of the ovipositor being weakened4 ,as with other long-domesticated animals1 the instincts of the silk-moth have suffered4 ,the caterpillars1 when placed on a mulberry-tree1 often commit the strange mistake of devouring the base of the leaf on which they are feeding1 and consequently fall down2 but they are capable1 according to ,m4 ,robinet1#ha of again crawling up the trunk4 ,even this capacity sometimes fails1 for ,m4 ,martins#hb placed some caterpillars on a tree1 and those which fell were not able to remount and perished of hunger2 they were even incapable of passing from leaf to leaf4 ,some of the modifications which the silk-moth has undergone stand in correlation with one another4 ,thus1 the eggs of the moths which produce white cocoons and of those which produce yellow cocoons differ slightly in tint4 ,the abdominal feet1 also1 of the caterpillars which yield white cocoons are always white1 whilst those which give yellow cocoons are invariably yellow4#hc ,we have seen that the caterpillars with dark tiger-like stripes produce moths which are more darkly shaded than other moths4 ,it seems well established#hd that in ,france the caterpillars of the races which produce white silk1 and certain black caterpillars1 have resisted1 better than other races1 the disease which has recently devastated the silk-districts4 ,lastly1 the races differ constitutionally1 for some do not succeed so well under a temperate climate as others2 and a damp soil does not equally injure all the races4#he ,from these various facts we learn that silk-moths1 like the higher animals1 vary greatly under long-continued domestication4 ,we learn also the more important fact that variations may occur at various periods of life1 and be inherited at a corresponding period4 ,and finally we see that insects are amenable to the great principle of ,selection4 ,,references #a #8,poultry ,chronicle1' #ahed1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ia and vol4 i4 p4 #ccj4 #b ,dr4 ,turral1 #8,bull4 ,soc4 d',acclimat41' tom4 vii41 #ahfj1 p4 #eda4 #c ,willughby's #8,ornithology1' by ,ray1 p4 #cha4 ,this breed is also figured by ,albin in #agcd in his #8,nat4 ,hist4 of ,birds1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hf4 #d ,f4 ,cuvier1 in #8,annales du ,musum1' tom4 ix4 p4 #abh1 says that moulting and incubation alone stops these ducks laying4 ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent makes a similar remark in the #8,poultry ,chronicle1' #ahee1 vol4 iii4 p4 #eab4 #e ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 #8,ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry' 7#ahdh71 p4 #aag4 ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent1 in #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 iii41 #ahee1 p4 #eab4 #f ,crawfurd on the #8,relation of ,domesticated ,animals to ,civilisation1' read before the ,brit4 ,assoc4 at ,oxford1 #ahfj4 #g ,dureau de ,la ,malle1 in #8,annales des ,sciences ,nat41' tom4 xvii4 p4 #afd2 and tom4 xxi4 p4 #ee4 ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 #8,ornamental ,poultry1' p4 #aah4 ,tame ducks were not known in ,aristotle's time1 as remarked by ,volz1 in his #8,beitrge zur ,kulturgeschichte1' #aheb1 s4 #gh4 #h ,i quote this account from #8,die ,enten-und ,schwanenzucht1' ,ulm #ahbh1 s4 #adc4 ,see ,audubon's #8,ornithological ,biography1' vol4 iii4 p4 #afh1 on the taming of ducks on the ,mississippi4 ,for the same fact in ,england1 see ,mr4 ,waterton in ,loudon's #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 viii4 #ahce1 p4 #edb2 and ,mr4 ,st4 ,john1 #8,wild ,sports and ,nat4 ,hist4 of the ,highlands1' #ahdf1 p4 #abi4 #i ,mr4 ,e4 ,hewitt1 in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfb1 p4 #ggc2 and #ahfc1 p4 #ci4 #aj ,i have met with several statements on the fertility of the several breeds when crossed4 ,mr4 ,yarrell assured me that ,call and common ducks are perfectly fertile together4 ,i crossed ,hook-billed and common ducks1 and a ,penguin and ,labrador1 and the crossed ,ducks were quite fertile1 though they were not bred inter se1 so that the experiment was not fully tried4 ,some half-bred ,penguins and ,labradors were again crossed with ,penguins1 and subsequently bred by me inter se1 and they were extremely fertile4 #aa #8,poultry ,chronicle1' #ahee1 vol4 iii4 p4 #eab4 #ab #8,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1' vol4 v4 p4 #ccd4 #ac #8,the ,zoologist1' vols4 vii1 viii4 7#ahdi-ahej71 p4 #bcec4 #ad #8,poultry ,chronicle1' #ahee1 vol4 iii4 p4 #eab4 #ae #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 iii4 #ahee1 p4 #cab4 ,with respect to ,rouens see ditto vol4 i4 #ahed1 p4 #afg4 #af ,col4 ,hawker's #8,instructions to young ,sportsmen1' quoted by ,mr4 ,dixon in his #8,ornamental ,poultry1' p4 #abe4 #ag #8,cottage ,gardener1' ,april #ith1 #ahfa4 #ah ,these hybrids have been described by ,m4 ,selys-,longchamps in the #8,bulletins 7tom4 xii4 ,no #aj7 ,acad4 ,roy4 de ,bruxelles4' #ai #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfa1 p4 #bfa4 #bj #8,ceylon1' by ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,tennent1 #ahei1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhe2 also ,j4 ,crawfurd on the #8,relation of ,domest4 ,animals to ,civilisation1' read before ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahfj4 ,see also #8,ornamental ,poultry1' by ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 #ahdh1 p4 #acb4 ,the goose figured on the ,egyptian monuments seems to have been the ,red goose of ,egypt4 #ba ,macgillivray's #8,british ,birds1' vol4 iv4 p4 #eic4 #bb ,mr4 ,a4 ,strickland 7#8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #crd series1 vol4 iii4 #ahei1 p4 #abb7 reared some young wild geese1 and found them in habits and in all characters identical with the domestic goose4 #bc ,see also ,hunter's #8,essays1' edited by ,owen1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbb4 #bd ,yarrell's #8,british ,birds1' vol4 iii4 p4 #adb4 #be ,l4 ,lloyd1 #8,scandinavian ,adventures1' #ahed1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dac1 says that the wild goose lays from five to eight eggs1 which is a much fewer number than that laid by our domestic goose4 #bf ,the ,rev4 ,l4 ,jenyns 7,blomefield7 seems first to have made this observation in his #8,british ,animals4' ,see also ,yarrell1 and ,dixon in his #8,ornamental ,poultry' 7p4 #aci71 and #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheg1 p4 #de4 #bg ,mr4 ,bartlet exhibited the head and neck of a bird thus characterised before the ,zoological ,soc41 ,feb4 #ahfj4 #bh ,w4 ,thompson1 #8,natural ,hist4 of ,ireland1' #ahea1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ca4 ,the ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon gave me some information on the varying colour of the beak and legs4 #bi ,mr4 ,a4 ,strickland1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #crd series1 vol4 iii41 #ahei1 p4 #abb4 #cj #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 i41 #ahed1 p4 #dih2 vol4 iii4 p4 #baj4 #ca #8,the ,cottage ,gardener4' ,sept4 #dth1 #ahfj1 p4 #cdh4 #cb #8,l',hist4 de la ,nature des ,oiseaux1' par ,p4 ,belon1 #aeee1 p4 #aef4 ,with respect to the livers of white geese being preferred by the ,romans see ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #eh4 #cc ,mr4 ,sclater on the black-shouldered peacock of ,latham1 #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,april #bdth1 #ahfj4 ,mr4 ,swinhoe at one time believed1 7#8,ibis1' ,july1 #ahfh7 that this kind of peafowl was found wild in ,cochin ,china1 but he has since informed me that he feels very doubtful on this head4 #cd #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,april #adth1 #ahce4 #ce #8,the ,field1' ,may #fth1 #ahga4 ,i am much indebted to ,mr4 ,canning for information with respect to his birds4 #cf #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' ,april #hth1 #ahef1 p4 #fa4 ,prof4 ,baird believes 7as quoted in ,tegetmeier's #8,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 p4 #bfi7 that our turkeys are descended from a ,west ,indian species now extinct4 ,but besides the improbability of a bird having long ago become extinct in these large and luxuriant islands1 it appears 7as we shall presently see7 that the turkey degenerates in ,india1 and this fact indicates that it was not aboriginally an inhabitant of the lowlands of the tropics4 #cg ,audubon's #8,ornithological ,biography1' vol4 i41 #ahca1 pp4 #d-ac2 and #8,naturalist's ,library1' vol4 xiv41 ,birds1 p4 #ach4 #ch ,f4 ,michaux1 #8,travels in ,n4 ,america1' #ahjb1 ,eng4 translat41 p4 #bag4 #ci #8,ornamental ,poetry1' by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 #ahdh1 p4 #cd4 #dj ,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands1' ,b4 iii41 #agic1 s4 #cji4 #da ,mr4 ,bartlett in #8,land and ,water1' ,oct4 #cast1 #ahfh1 p4 #bcc2 and ,mr4 ,tegetmeier in the #8,field1' ,july #agth1 #ahfi1 p4 #df4 #db #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheb1 p4 #fii4 #dc ,e4 ,blyth1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #ahdg1 vol4 xx4 p4 #cia4 #dd ,roulin makes this remark in #8,mm4 de divers ,savans1 l',acad4 des ,sciences1' tom4 vi41 #ahce1 p4 #cdi4 ,mr4 ,hill1 of ,spanish ,town1 in a letter to me1 describes five varieties of the ,guinea fowl in ,jamaica4 ,i have seen singular pale-coloured varieties imported from ,barbadoes and ,demerara4 #de ,for ,st4 ,domingo1 see ,m4 ,a4 ,salle1 in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #aheg1 p4 #bcf4 ,mr4 ,hill remarks to me1 in his letter1 on the colour of the legs of the feral birds in ,jamaica4 #df ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent1 #8,the ,canary1 ,british ,finches1' etc41 pp4 #ba1 #cj4 #dg #8,cottage ,gardener1' ,dec4 #aath1 #ahee1 p4 #ahd3 an account is here given of all the varieties4 ,for many measurements of the wild birds1 see ,mr4 ,e4 ,vernon ,harcourt1 ibid41 ,dec4 #beth1 #ahee1 p4 #bbc4 #dh ,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 der ,stubenvgel1' #ahdj1 s4 #bdc2 see s4 #beb on the inherited song of ,canary-birds4 ,with respect to their baldness see also ,w4 ,kidd's #8,treatise on ,song-,birds4' #di ,w4 ,kidd's #8,treatise on ,song-,birds1' p4 #ah4 #ej ,the #8,indian ,field1' #aheh1 p4 #bee4 #ea ,yarrell's #8,british ,fishes1' vol4 i4 p4 #cai4 #eb ,mr4 ,blyth in the #8,indian ,field1' #aheh1 p4 #bee4 #ec ,w4 ,f4 ,mayers1 #8,chinese ,notes and ,queries1' ,aug4 #ahfh1 p4 #abc4 #ed #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,may #be1 #ahdb47 #ee ,yarrell's #8,british ,fishes1' vol4 i4 p4 #cai4 #ef #8,dict4 ,class4 d',hist4 ,nat41' tom4 v4 p4 #bgf4 #eg #8,observations in ,nat4 ,hist41' #ahdf1 p4 #baa4 ,dr4 ,gray has described1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #ahfj1 p4 #aea a nearly similar variety but destitute of a dorsal fin4 #eh #8,de l',espce1' #ahei1 p4 #dei4 ,with respect to the bees of ,burgundy see ,m4 ,gerard1 art4 #8,espce1' in #8,dict4 ,univers4 d',hist4 ,nat4' #ei ,see a discussion on this subject1 in answer to a question of mine1 in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfb1 pp4 #bbe-bdb2 also ,mr4 ,bevan ,fox1 in ditto1 #ahfb1 p4 #bhd4 #fj ,this excellent observer may be implicitly trusted2 see #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,july #adth1 #ahfc1 p4 #ci4 #fa #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,sept4 #ith1 #ahfb1 p4 #dfc2 see also ,herr ,kleine on same subject 7,nov4 #aath1 p4 #fdc1 who sums up1 that1 though there is some variability in colour1 no constant or perceptible differences can be detected in the bees of ,germany4 #fb ,mr4 ,woodbury has published several such accounts in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa and #ahfb4 #fc #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #crd series1 vol4 xi4 p4 #cci4 #fd #8,the ,cottage ,gardener1' ,may #ahfj1 p4 #aaj2 and ditto in #8,journal of ,hort41' #ahfb1 p4 #bdb4 #fe #8,transact4 ,entomolog4 ,soc4' #crd series1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #adc-agc and pp4 #bie-cca4 #ff ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' #ahei1 tom4 i4 p4 #dfj4 ,the antiquity of the silkworm in ,china is given on the authority of ,stanislas ,julien4 #fg ,see the remarks of ,prof4 ,westwood1 ,gen4 ,hearsey and others at the meeting of the ,entomolog4 ,soc4 of ,london1 ,july1 #ahfa4 #fh ,see for instance ,m4 ,a4 de ,quatrefages' #8tudes sur les ,maladies actuelles du ,ver ,soie1' #ahei1 p4 #aja4 #fi ,my authorities for the statements will be given in the chapter on ,selection4 #gj #8,manuel de l'ducateur de ,vers ,soie1' #ahdh4 #ga ,robinet1 ibid41 pp4 #ab1 #cah4 ,i may add that the eggs of ,n4 ,american silkworms taken to the ,sandwich ,islands produced moths at very irregular periods2 and the moths thus raised yielded eggs which were even worse in this respect4 ,some were hatched in ten days1 and others not until after the lapse of many months4 ,no doubt a regular early character would ultimately have been acquired4 ,see review in #8,athenum1' #ahdd1 p4 #cbi1 of ,j4 ,jarves' #8,scenes in the ,sandwich ,islands4' #gb #8,the ,art of rearing ,silk-worms1' translated from ,count ,dandolo1 #ahbe1 p4 #bc4 #gc #8,transact4 ,ent4 ,soc41' ut supra1 pp4 #aec1 #cjh4 #gd ,robinet1 ibid41 p4 #cag4 #ge ,robinet1 ibid41 pp4 #cjf-cag4 #gf #8,transact4 ,ent4 ,soc41' ut supra1 p4 #cag4 #gg ,stephen's ,illustrations1 #8,haustellata1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ce4 ,see also ,capt4 ,hutton1 #8,transact4 ,ent4 ,soc41' ibid41 p4 #aeb4 #gh #8tudes sur les ,maladies du ,ver ,soie1' #ahei1 pp4 #cjd1 #bji4 #gi ,quatrefages1 #8tudes1' etc41 p4 #bad4 #hj #8,transact4 ,ent4 ,soc41' ut supra1 p4 #aea4 #ha #8,manuel de l',educateur1' etc41 p4 #bf4 #hb ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' p4 #dfb4 #hc ,quatrefages1 #8tudes1' etc41 pp4 #ab1 #bji1 #bad4 #hd ,robinet1 #8,manuel1' etc41 p4 #cjc4 #he ,robinet1 ibid41 p4 #ae4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,cultivated ,,plants3 ,,cereal ,,and ,,culinary ,,plants4 ,,preliminary ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,number ,,and ,,parentage ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants--,,first ,,steps ,,in ,,cultivation--,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants4 ,,cerealia4 ,,doubts ,,on ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,species--,,wheat3 ,,varieties ,,of--,,individual ,,variability--,,changed ,,habits--,,selection--,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,varieties--,,maize3 ,,great ,,variation ,,of--,,direct ,,action ,,of ,,climate ,,on4 ,,culinary ,,plants4--,,cabbages3 ,,varieties ,,of1 ,,in ,,foliage ,,and ,,stems1 ,,but ,,not ,,in ,,other ,,parts--,,parentage ,,of--,,other ,,species ,,of ,,brassica--,,peas3 ,,amount ,,of ,,difference ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,kinds1 ,,chiefly ,,in ,,the ,,pods ,,and ,,seed--,,some ,,varieties ,,constant1 ,,some ,,highly ,,variable--,,do ,,not ,,intercross--,,beans--,,potatoes3 ,,numerous ,,varieties ,,of--,,differing ,,little ,,except ,,in ,,the ,,tubers--,,characters ,,inherited4 ,i shall not enter into so much detail on the variability of cultivated plants1 as in the case of domesticated animals4 ,the subject is involved in much difficulty4 ,botanists have generally neglected cultivated varieties1 as beneath their notice4 ,in several cases the wild prototype is unknown or doubtfully known2 and in other cases it is hardly possible to distinguish between escaped seedlings and truly wild plants1 so that there is no safe standard of comparison by which to judge of any supposed amount of change4 ,not a few botanists believe that several of our anciently cultivated plants have become so profoundly modified that it is not possible now to recognise their aboriginal parent-forms4 ,equally perplexing are the doubts whether some of them are descended from one species1 or from several inextricably commingled by crossing and variation4 ,variations often pass into1 and cannot be distinguished from1 monstrosities2 and monstrosities are of little significance for our purpose4 ,many varieties are propagated solely by grafts1 buds1 layers1 bulbs1 etc41 and frequently it is not known how far their peculiarities can be transmitted by seminal generation4 ,nevertheless1 some facts of value can be gleaned3 and other facts will hereafter be incidentally given4 ,one chief object in the two following chapters is to show how many characters in our cultivated plants have become variable4 ,before entering on details a few general remarks on the origin of cultivated plants may be introduced4 ,m4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle#a in an admirable discussion on this subject1 in which he displays a wonderful amount of knowledge1 gives a list of #aeg of the most useful cultivated plants4 ,of these he believes that #he are almost certainly known in their wild state2 but on this head other competent judges#b entertain great doubts4 ,of #dj of them1 the origin is admitted by ,m4 ,de ,candolle to be doubtful1 either from a certain amount of dissimilarity which they present when compared with their nearest allies in a wild state1 or from the probability of the latter not being truly wild plants1 but seedlings escaped from culture4 ,of the entire #aeg1 #cb alone are ranked by ,m4 ,de ,candolle as quite unknown in their aboriginal condition4 ,but it should be observed that he does not include in his list several plants which present ill-defined characters1 namely1 the various forms of pumpkins1 millet1 sorghum1 kidney-bean1 dolichos1 capsicum1 and indigo4 ,nor does he include flowers2 and several of the more anciently cultivated flowers1 such as certain roses1 the common ,imperial lily1 the tuberose1 and even the lilac1 are said#c not to be known in the wild state4 ,from the relative numbers above given1 and from other arguments of much weight1 ,m4 ,de ,candolle concludes that plants have rarely been so much modified by culture that they cannot be identified with their wild prototypes4 ,but on this view1 considering that savages probably would not have chosen rare plants for cultivation1 that useful plants are generally conspicuous1 and that they could not have been the inhabitants of deserts or of remote and recently discovered islands1 it appears strange to me that so many of our cultivated plants should be still unknown or only doubtfully known in the wild state4 ,if1 on the other hand1 many of these plants have been profoundly modified by culture1 the difficulty disappears4 ,the difficulty would also be removed if they have been exterminated during the progress of civilisation2 but ,m4 ,de ,candolle has shown that this probably has seldom occurred4 ,as soon as a plant was cultivated in any country1 the half-civilised inhabitants would no longer have need to search the whole surface of the land for it1 and thus lead to its extirpation2 and even if this did occur during a famine1 dormant seeds would be left in the ground4 ,in tropical countries the wild luxuriance of nature1 as was long ago remarked by ,humboldt1 overpowers the feeble efforts of man4 ,in anciently civilised temperate countries1 where the whole face of the land has been greatly changed1 it can hardly be doubted that some plants have become extinct2 nevertheless ,de ,candolle has shown that all the plants historically known to have been first cultivated in ,europe still exist here in the wild state4 ,,mm4 ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps#d and ,de ,candolle have remarked that our cultivated plants1 more especially the cereals1 must originally have existed in nearly their present state2 for otherwise they would not have been noticed and valued as objects of food4 ,but these authors apparently have not considered the many accounts given by travellers of the wretched food collected by savages4 ,i have read an account of the savages of ,australia cooking1 during a dearth1 many vegetables in various ways1 in the hopes of rendering them innocuous and more nutritious4 ,dr4 ,hooker found the half-starved inhabitants of a village in ,sikhim suffering greatly from having eaten arum-roots1#e which they had pounded and left for several days to ferment1 so as partially to destroy their poisonous nature2 and he adds that they cooked and ate many other deleterious plants4 ,sir ,andrew ,smith informs me that in ,south ,africa a large number of fruits and succulent leaves1 and especially roots1 are used in times of scarcity4 ,the natives1 indeed1 know the properties of a long catalogue of plants1 some having been found during famines to be eatable1 others injurious to health1 or even destructive to life4 ,he met a party of ,baquanas who1 having been expelled by the conquering ,zulus1 had lived for years on any roots or leaves which afforded some little nutriment and distended their stomachs1 so as to relieve the pangs of hunger4 ,they looked like walking skeletons1 and suffered fearfully from constipation4 ,sir ,andrew ,smith also informs me that on such occasions the natives observe as a guide for themselves1 what the wild animals1 especially baboons and monkeys1 eat4 ,from innumerable experiments made through dire necessity by the savages of every land1 with the results handed down by tradition1 the nutritious1 stimulating1 and medicinal properties of the most unpromising plants were probably first discovered4 ,it appears1 for instance1 at first an inexplicable fact that untutored man1 in three distant quarters of the world1 should have discovered1 amongst a host of native plants1 that the leaves of the tea-plant and mattee1 and the berries of the coffee1 all included a stimulating and nutritious essence1 now known to be chemically the same4 ,we can also see that savages suffering from severe constipation would naturally observe whether any of the roots which they devoured acted as aperients4 ,we probably owe our knowledge of the uses of almost all plants to man having originally existed in a barbarous state1 and having been often compelled by severe want to try as food almost everything which he could chew and swallow4 ,from what we know of the habits of savages in many quarters of the world1 there is no reason to suppose that our cereal plants originally existed in their present state so valuable to man4 ,let us look to one continent alone1 namely1 ,africa3 ,barth#f states that the slaves over a large part of the central region regularly collect the seeds of a wild grass1 the ,pennisetum distichum2 in another district he saw women collecting the seeds of a ,poa by swinging a sort of basket through the rich meadow-land4 ,near ,tete1 ,livingstone observed the natives collecting the seeds of a wild grass1 and farther south1 as ,andersson informs me1 the natives largely use the seed of a grass of about the size of canary-seed1 which they boil in water4 ,they eat also the roots of certain reeds1 and every one has read of the ,bushmen prowling about and digging up with a fire-hardened stake various roots4 ,similar facts with respect to the collection of seeds of wild grasses in other parts of the world could be given4#g ,accustomed as we are to our excellent vegetables and luscious fruits1 we can hardly persuade ourselves that the stringy roots of the wild carrot and parsnip1 or the little shoots of the wild asparagus1 or crabs1 sloes1 etc41 should ever have been valued2 yet1 from what we know of the habits of ,australian and ,south ,african savages1 we need feel no doubt on this head4 ,the inhabitants of ,switzerland during the ,stone-period largely collected wild crabs1 sloes1 bullaces1 hips of roses1 elderberries1 beechmast1 and other wild berries and fruit4#h ,jemmy ,button1 a ,fuegian on board the #8,beagle1' remarked to me that the poor and acid black-currants of ,tierra del ,fuego were too sweet for his taste4 ,the savage inhabitants of each land1 having found out by many and hard trials what plants were useful1 or could be rendered useful by various cooking processes1 would after a time take the first step in cultivation by planting them near their usual abodes4 ,livingstone#i states that the savage ,batokas sometimes left wild fruit-trees standing in their gardens1 and occasionally even planted them1 8a practice seen nowhere else amongst the natives40 ,but ,du ,chaillu saw a palm and some other wild fruit-trees which had been planted2 and these trees were considered private property4 ,the next step in cultivation1 and this would require but little forethought1 would be to sow the seeds of useful plants2 and as the soil near the hovels of the natives#aj would often be in some degree manured1 improved varieties would sooner or later arise4 ,or a wild and unusually good variety of a native plant might attract the attention of some wise old savage2 and he would transplant it1 or sow its seed4 ,that superior varieties of wild fruit-trees occasionally are found is certain1 as in the case of the ,american species of hawthorns1 plums1 cherries1 grapes1 and hickories1 specified by ,professor ,asa ,gray4#aa ,downing also refers to certain wild varieties of the hickory1 as being 8of much larger size and finer flavour than the common species40 ,i have referred to ,american fruit-trees1 because we are not in this case troubled with doubts whether or not the varieties are seedlings which have escaped from cultivation4 ,transplanting any superior variety1 or sowing its seeds1 hardly implies more forethought than might be expected at an early and rude period of civilisation4 ,even the ,australian barbarians 8have a law that no plant bearing seeds is to be dug up after it has flowered20 and ,sir ,g4 ,grey#ab never saw this law1 evidently framed for the preservation of the plant1 violated4 ,we see the same spirit in the superstitious belief of the ,fuegians1 that killing water-fowl whilst very young will be followed by 8much rain1 snow1 blow much40#ac ,i may add1 as showing forethought in the lowest barbarians1 that the ,fuegians when they find a stranded whale bury large portions in the sand1 and during the often-recurrent famines travel from great distances for the remnants of the half-putrid mass4 ,it has often been remarked#a that we do not owe a single useful plant to ,australia or the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 countries abounding to an unparalleled degree with endemic species1--or to ,new ,zealand1 or to ,america south of the ,plata2 and1 according to some authors1 not to ,america northward of ,mexico4 ,i do not believe that any edible or valuable plant1 except the canary-grass1 has been derived from an oceanic or uninhabited island4 ,if nearly all our useful plants1 natives of ,europe2 ,asia1 and ,south ,america1 had originally existed in their present condition1 the complete absence of similarly useful plants in the great countries just named would be indeed a surprising fact4 ,but if these plants have been so greatly modified and improved by culture as no longer closely to resemble any natural species1 we can understand why the above-named countries have given us no useful plants1 for they were either inhabited by men who did not cultivate the ground at all1 as in ,australia and the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 or who cultivated it very imperfectly1 as in some parts of ,america4 ,these countries do yield plants which are useful to savage man2 and ,dr4 ,hooker#ae enumerates no less than #ajg such species in ,australia alone2 but these plants have not been improved1 and consequently cannot compete with those which have been cultivated and improved during thousands of years in the civilised world4 ,the case of ,new ,zealand1 to which fine island we as yet owe no widely cultivated plant1 may seem opposed to this view2 for1 when first discovered1 the natives cultivated several plants2 but all inquirers believe1 in accordance with the traditions of the natives1 that the early ,polynesian colonists brought with them seeds and roots1 as well as the dog1 which had been wisely preserved during their long voyage4 ,the ,polynesians are so frequently lost on the ocean that this degree of prudence would occur to any wandering party3 hence the early colonists of ,new ,zealand1 like the later ,european colonists1 would not have had any strong inducement to cultivate the aboriginal plants4 ,according to ,de ,candolle we owe thirty-three useful plants to ,mexico1 ,peru1 and ,chile2 nor is this surprising when we remember the civilised state of the inhabitants1 as shown by the fact of their having practised artificial irrigation and made tunnels through hard rocks without the use of iron or gunpowder1 and who1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 fully recognised1 as far as animals were concerned1 and therefore probably in the case of plants1 the important principle of selection4 ,we owe some plants to ,brazil2 and the early voyagers1 namely1 ,vespucius and ,cabral1 describe the country as thickly peopled and cultivated4 ,in ,north ,america#af the natives cultivated maize1 pumpkins1 gourds1 beans1 and peas1 8all different from ours10 and tobacco2 and we are hardly justified in assuming that none of our present plants are descended from these ,north ,american forms4 ,had ,north ,america been civilised for as long a period1 and as thickly peopled1 as ,asia or ,europe1 it is probable that the native vines1 walnuts1 mulberries1 crabs1 and plums1 would have given rise1 after a long course of cultivation1 to a multitude of varieties1 some extremely different from their parent-stocks2 and escaped seedlings would have caused in the ,new1 as in the ,old ,world1 much perplexity with respect to their specific distinctness and parentage4'#ag ,cerealia4--,i will now enter on details4 ,the cereals cultivated in ,europe consist of four genera--wheat1 rye1 barley1 and oats4 ,of wheat the best modern authorities#ah make four or five1 or even seven distinct species2 of rye1 one2 of barley1 three2 and of oats1 two1 three1 or four species4 ,so that altogether our cereals are ranked by different authors under from ten to fifteen distinct species4 ,these have given rise to a multitude of varieties4 ,it is a remarkable fact that botanists are not universally agreed on the aboriginal parent-form of any one cereal plant4 ,for instance1 a high authority writes in #ahee1ai 8,we ourselves have no hesitation in stating our conviction1 as the result of all the most reliable evidence1 that none of these ,cerealia exist1 or have existed1 truly wild in their present state1 but that all are cultivated varieties of species now growing in great abundance in ,s4 ,europe or ,w4 ,asia40 ,on the other hand1 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle#bj has adduced abundant evidence that common wheat 7,triticum vulgare7 has been found wild in various parts of ,asia1 where it is not likely to have escaped from cultivation3 and there is some force in ,m4 ,godron's remark1 that1 supposing these plants to be escaped seedlings1#ba as they have propagated themselves in a wild state for several generations1 their continued resemblance to cultivated wheat renders it probable that the latter has retained its aboriginal character4 ,but the strong tendency to inheritance1 which most of the varieties of wheat evince1 as we shall presently see1 is here greatly undervalued4 ,much weight must also be attributed to a remark by ,professor ,hildebrand#bb that when the seeds or fruit of cultivated plants possess qualities disadvantageous to them as a means of distribution1 we may feel almost sure that they no longer retain their aboriginal condition4 ,on the other hand1 ,m4 ,de ,candolle insists strongly on the frequent occurrence in the ,austrian dominions of rye and of one kind of oats in an apparently wild condition4 ,with the exception of these two cases1 which however are rather doubtful1 and with the exception of two forms of wheat and one of barley1 which he believes to have been found truly wild1 ,m4 ,de ,candolle does not seem fully satisfied with the other reported discoveries of the parent-forms of our other cereals4 ,with respect to oats1 according to ,mr4 ,buckmann1#bc the wild ,english ,avena fatua can be converted by a few years of careful cultivation and selection into forms almost identical with two very distinct cultivated races4 ,the whole subject of the origin and specific distinctness of the various cereal plants is a most difficult one2 but we shall perhaps be able to judge a little better after considering the amount of variation which wheat has undergone4 ,metzger describes seven species of wheat1 ,godron refers to five1 and ,de ,candolle to only four4 ,it is not improbable that1 besides the kinds known in ,europe1 other strongly characterised forms exist in the more distant parts of the world2 for ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps#bd speaks of three new species or varieties1 sent to ,europe in #ahbb from ,chinese ,mongolia1 which he considers as being there indigenous4 ,moorcroft#be also speaks of ,hasora wheat in ,ladakh as very peculiar4 ,if those botanists are right who believe that at least seven species of wheat originally existed1 then the amount of variation in any important character which wheat has undergone under cultivation has been slight2 but if only four or a lesser number of species originally existed1 then it is evident that varieties have arisen so strongly marked1 that they have been considered by capable judges as specifically distinct4 ,but the impossibility of deciding which forms ought to be ranked as species and which as varieties1 makes it useless to specify in detail the differences between the various kinds of wheat4 ,speaking generally1 the organs of vegetation differ little2#bf but some kinds grow close and upright1 whilst others spread and trail along the ground4 ,the straw differs in being more or less hollow1 and in quality4 ,the ears#bg differ in colour and in shape1 being quadrangular1 compressed1 or nearly cylindrical2 and the florets differ in their approximation to each other1 in their pubescence1 and in being more or less elongated4 ,the presence or absence of barbs is a conspicuous difference1 and in certain ,gramine serves even as a generic character2#bh although1 as remarked by ,godron1#bi the presence of barbs is variable in certain wild grasses1 and especially in those such as ,bromus secalinus and ,lolium temulentum1 which habitually grow mingled with our cereal crops1 and which have thus unintentionally been exposed to culture4 ,the grains differ in size1 weight1 and colour2 in being more or less downy at one end1 in being smooth or wrinkled1 in being either nearly globular1 oval1 or elongated2 and finally in internal texture1 being tender or hard1 or even almost horny1 and in the proportion of gluten which they contain4 ,nearly all the races or species of wheat vary1 as ,godron#cj has remarked1 in an exactly parallel manner1--in the seed being downy or glabrous1 and in colour1--and in the florets being barbed or not barbed1 etc4 ,those who believe that all the kinds are descended from a single wild species may account for this parallel variation by the inheritance of a similar constitution1 and a consequent tendency to vary in the same manner2 and those who believe in the general theory of descent with modification may extend this view to the several species of wheat1 if such ever existed in a state of nature4 ,although few of the varieties of wheat present any conspicuous difference1 their number is great4 ,dalbret cultivated during thirty years from #aej to #afj kinds1 and excepting in the quality of the grain they all kept true2 ,colonel ,le ,couteur possessed upwards of #aej1 and ,philippar #cbb varieties4#ca ,as wheat is an annual1 we thus see how strictly many trifling differences in character are inherited through many generations4 ,colonel ,le ,couteur insists strongly on this same fact4 ,in his persevering and successful attempts to raise new varieties1 he found that there was only one 8secure mode to ensure the growth of pure sorts1 namely1 to grow them from single grains or from single ears1 and to follow up the plan by afterwards sowing only the produce of the most productive so as to form a stock40 ,but ,major ,hallett#cb has gone much farther1 and by the continued selection of plants from the grains of the same ear1 during successive generations1 has made his #8,pedigree in ,wheat' 7and other cereals7 now famous in many quarters of the world4 ,the great amount of variability in the plants of the same variety is another interesting point1 which would never have been detected except by an eye long practised to the work2 thus ,colonel ,le ,couteur relates#cc that in a field of his own wheat1 which he considered at least as pure as that of any of his neighbours1 ,professor ,la ,gasca found twenty-three sorts2 and ,professor ,henslow has observed similar facts4 ,besides such individual variations1 forms sufficiently well marked to be valued and to become widely cultivated sometimes suddenly appear3 thus ,mr4 ,shirreff has had the good fortune to raise in his lifetime seven new varieties1 which are now extensively grown in many parts of ,britain4#cd ,as in the case of many other plants1 some varieties1 both old and new1 are far more constant in character than others4 ,colonel ,le ,couteur was forced to reject some of his new sub-varieties1 which he suspected had been produced from a cross1 as incorrigibly sportive4 ,on the other hand ,major ,hallett#ce has shown how wonderfully constant some varieties are1 although not ancient ones1 and although cultivated in various countries4 ,with respect to the tendency to vary1 ,metzger#cf gives from his own experience some interesting facts3 he describes three ,spanish sub-varieties1 more especially one known to be constant in ,spain1 which in ,germany assumed their proper character only during hot summers2 another variety kept true only in good land1 but after having been cultivated for twenty-five years became more constant4 ,he mentions two other sub-varieties which were at first inconstant1 but subsequently became1 apparently without any selection1 accustomed to their new homes1 and retained their proper character4 ,these facts show what small changes in the conditions of life cause variability1 and they further show that a variety may become habituated to new conditions4 ,one is at first inclined to conclude with ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps1 that wheat cultivated in the same country is exposed to remarkably uniform conditions2 but manures differ1 seed is taken from one soil to another1 and1 what is far more important1 the plants are exposed as little as possible to struggle with other plants1 and are thus enabled to exist under diversified conditions4 ,in a state of nature each plant is confined to that particular station and kind of nutriment which it can seize from the other plants by which it is surrounded4 ,wheat quickly assumes new habits of life4 ,the summer and winter kinds were classed by ,linnus as distinct species2 but ,m4 ,monnier#cg has proved that the difference between them is only temporary4 ,he sowed winter-wheat in spring1 and out of one hundred plants four alone produced ripe seeds2 these were sown and resown1 and in three years plants were reared which ripened all their seed4 ,conversely1 nearly all the plants raised from summer-wheat1 which was sown in autumn1 perished from frost2 but a few were saved and produced seed1 and in three years this summer-variety was converted into a winter-variety4 ,hence it is not surprising that wheat soon becomes to a certain extent acclimatised1 and that seed brought from distant countries and sown in ,europe vegetates at first1 or even for a considerable period1#ch differently from our ,european varieties4 ,in ,canada the first settlers1 according to ,kalm1#ci found their winters too severe for winter-wheat brought from ,france1 and their summers often too short for summer-wheat2 and they thought that their country was useless for corn crops until they procured summer-wheat from the northern parts of ,europe1 which succeeded well4 ,it is notorious that the proportion of gluten differs much under different climates4 ,the weight of the grain is also quickly affected by climate3 ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps#dj sowed near ,paris #ed varieties1 obtained from the ,south of ,france and from the ,black ,sea1 and #eb of these yielded seed from #aj to #dj per cent heavier than the parent-seed4 ,he then sent these heavier grains back to the ,south of ,france1 but there they immediately yielded lighter seed4 ,all those who have closely attended to the subject insist on the close adaptation of numerous varieties of wheat to various soils and climates even within the same country2 thus ,colonel ,le ,couteur#da says1 8,it is the suitableness of each sort to each soil that will enable the farmer to pay his rent by sowing one variety1 where he would be unable to do so by attempting to grow another of a seemingly better sort40 ,this may be in part due to each kind becoming habituated to its conditions of life1 as ,metzger has shown certainly occurs1 but it is probably in main part due to innate differences between the several varieties4 ,much has been written on the deterioration of wheat2 that the quality of the flour1 size of grain1 time of flowering1 and hardness1 may be modified by climate and soil1 seems nearly certain2 but that the whole body of any one sub-variety ever becomes changed into another and distinct sub-variety1 there is no reason to believe4 ,what apparently does take place1 according to ,le ,couteur1#db is1 that some one sub-variety out of the many which may always be detected in the same field is more prolific than the others1 and gradually supplants the variety which was first sown4 ,with respect to the natural crossing of distinct varieties the evidence is conflicting1 but preponderates against its frequent occurrence4 ,many authors maintain that impregnation takes place in the closed flower1 but ,i am sure from my own observation that this is not the case1 at least with those varieties to which ,i have attended4 ,but as ,i shall have to discuss this subject in another work1 it may be here passed over4 ,in conclusion1 all authors admit that numerous varieties of wheat have arisen2 but their differences are unimportant1 unless1 indeed1 some of the so-called species are ranked as varieties4 ,those who believe that from four to seven wild species of ,triticum originally existed in nearly the same condition as at present1 rest their belief chiefly on the great antiquity of the several forms4#dc ,it is an important fact1 which we have recently learnt from the admirable researches of ,heer1#dd that the inhabitants of ,switzerland1 even so early as the ,neolithic period1 cultivated no less than ten cereal plants1 namely1 five kinds of wheat1 of which at least four are commonly looked at as distinct species1 three kinds of barley1 a panicum1 and a setaria4 ,if it could be shown that at the earliest dawn of agriculture five kinds of wheat and three of barley had been cultivated1 we should of course be compelled to look at these forms as distinct species4 ,but1 as ,heer has remarked1 agriculture even at the ,neolithic period1 had already made considerable progress2 for1 besides the cereals1 peas1 poppies1 flax1 and apparently apples1 were cultivated4 ,it may also be inferred1 from one variety of wheat being the so called ,egyptian1 and from what is known of the native country of the panicum and setaria1 as well as from the nature of the weeds which then grew mingled with the crops1 that the lake-inhabitants either still kept up commercial intercourse with some southern people or had originally proceeded as colonists from the ,south4 ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps#de has argued that1 if our cereal plants have been greatly modified by cultivation1 the weeds which habitually grow mingled with them would have been equally modified4 ,but this argument shows how completely the principle of selection has been overlooked4 ,that such weeds have not varied1 or at least do not vary now in any extreme degree1 is the opinion of ,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,watson and ,professor ,asa ,gray1 as they inform me2 but who will pretend to say that they do not vary as much as the individual plants of the same sub-variety of wheat8 ,we have already seen that pure varieties of wheat1 cultivated in the same field1 offer many slight variations1 which can be selected and separately propagated2 and that occasionally more strongly pronounced variations appear1 which1 as ,mr4 ,shirreff has proved1 are well worthy of extensive cultivation4 ,not until equal attention be paid to the variability and selection of weeds1 can the argument from their constancy under unintentional culture be of any value4 ,in accordance with the principles of selection we can understand how it is that in the several cultivated varieties of wheat the organs of vegetation differ so little2 for if a plant with peculiar leaves appeared1 it would be neglected unless the grains of corn were at the same time superior in quality or size4 the selection of seed-corn was strongly recommended#df in ancient times by ,columella and ,celsus2 and as ,virgil says1-- 8,i've seen the largest seeds1 tho' view'd with care1 ,degenerate1 unless th' industrious hand ,did yearly cull the largest40 ,but whether in ancient times selection was methodically pursued we may well doubt1 when we hear how laborious the work has been found by ,le ,coutour and ,hallett4 ,although the principle of selection is so important1 yet the little which man has effected1 by incessant efforts#dg during thousands of years1 in rendering the plants more productive or the grains more nutritious than they were in the time of the old ,egyptians1 would seem to speak strongly against its efficacy4 ,but we must not forget that at each successive period the state of agriculture and the quantity of manure supplied to the land will have determined the maximum degree of productiveness2 for it would be impossible to cultivate a highly productive variety1 unless the land contained a sufficient supply of the necessary chemical elements4 ,we now know that man was sufficiently civilised to cultivate the ground at an immensely remote period2 so that wheat might have been improved long ago up to that standard of excellence which was possible under the then existing state of agriculture4 ,one small class of facts supports this view of the slow and gradual improvement of our cereals4 ,in the most ancient lake-habitations of ,switzerland1 when men employed only flint-tools1 the most extensively cultivated wheat was a peculiar kind1 with remarkably small ears and grains4#dh 8,whilst the grains of the modern forms are in section from seven to eight millimetres in length1 the larger grains from the lake-habitations are six1 seldom seven1 and the smaller ones only four4 ,the ear is thus much narrower1 and the spikelets stand out more horizontally1 than in our present forms40 ,so again with barley1 the most ancient and most extensively cultivated kind had small ears1 and the grains were 8smaller1 shorter1 and nearer to each other1 than in that now grown2 without the husk they were #b lines long1 and scarcely #a broad1 whilst those now grown have a length of three lines1 and almost the same in breadth40#di ,these small-grained varieties of wheat and barley are believed by ,heer to be the parent-forms of certain existing allied varieties1 which have supplanted their early progenitors4 ,heer gives an interesting account of the first appearance and final disappearance of the several plants which were cultivated in greater or less abundance in ,switzerland during former successive periods1 and which generally differed more or less from our existing varieties4 ,the peculiar small-eared and small-grained wheat1 already alluded to1 was the commonest kind during the ,stone period2 it lasted down to the ,helvetico-,roman age1 and then became extinct4 ,a second kind was rare at first1 but afterwards became more frequent4 ,a third1 the ,egyptian wheat 7,t4 turgidum71 does not agree exactly with any existing variety1 and was rare during the ,stone period4 ,a fourth kind 7,t4 dicoccum7 differs from all known varieties of this form4 ,a fifth kind 7,t4 monococcum7 is known to have existed during the ,stone period only by the presence of a single ear4 ,a sixth kind1 the common ,t4 spelta1 was not introduced into ,switzerland until the ,bronze age4 ,of barley1 besides the short-eared and small-grained kind1 two others were cultivated1 one of which was very scarce1 and resembled our present common ,h4 distichum4 ,during the ,bronze age rye and oats were introduced2 the oat-grains being somewhat smaller than those produced by our existing varieties4 ,the poppy was largely cultivated during the ,stone period1 probably for its oil2 but the variety which then existed is not now known4 ,a peculiar pea with small seeds lasted from the ,stone to the ,bronze age1 and then became extinct2 whilst a peculiar bean1 likewise having small seeds1 came in at the ,bronze period and lasted to the time of the ,romans4 ,these details sound like the descriptions given by palontologists of the first appearance1 the increasing rarity1 and final extinction or modification of fossil species1 embedded in the successive stages of a geological formation4 ,finally1 every one must judge for himself whether it is more probable that the several forms of wheat1 barley1 rye1 and oats are descended from between ten and fifteen species1 most of which are now either unknown or extinct1 or whether they are descended from between four and eight species1 which may have either closely resembled our present cultivated forms1 or have been so widely different as to escape identification4 ,in this latter case we must conclude that man cultivated the cereals at an enormously remote period1 and that he formerly practised some degree of selection1 which in itself is not improbable4 ,we may1 perhaps1 further believe that1 when wheat was first cultivated the ears and grains increased quickly in size1 in the same manner as the roots of the wild carrot and parsnip are known to increase quickly in bulk under cultivation4 ,maize or ,indian ,corn3 ,zea mays4--,botanists are nearly unanimous that all the cultivated kinds belong to the same species4 ,it is undoubtedly#ej of ,american origin1 and was grown by the aborigines throughout the continent from ,new ,england to ,chili4 ,its cultivation must have been extremely ancient1 for ,tschudi#ea describes two kinds1 now extinct or not known in ,peru1 which were taken from tombs apparently prior to the dynasty of the ,incas4 #8,but there is even stronger evidence of antiquity1 for ,i found on the coast of ,peru#eb heads of maize1 together with eighteen species of recent sea-shell1 embedded in a beach which had been upraised at least #he feet above the level of the sea4 ,in accordance with this ancient cultivation1 numerous ,american varieties have arisen4 ,the aboriginal form has not as yet been discovered in the wild state4 ,a peculiar kind1#ec in which the grains1 instead of being naked1 are concealed by husks as much as eleven lines in length1 has been stated1 but on insufficient evidence1 to grow wild in ,brazil4 ,it is almost certain that the aboriginal form would have had its grains thus protected2#ed but the seeds of the ,brazilian variety produce1 as ,i hear from ,professor ,asa ,gray1 and as is stated in two published accounts1 either common or husked maize2 and it is not credible that a wild species1 when first cultivated1 should vary so quickly and in so great a degree4 ,maize has varied in an extraordinary and conspicuous manner4 ,metzger1#ee who paid particular attention to the cultivation of this plant1 makes twelve races 7unter-art7 with numerous sub-varieties3 of the latter some are tolerably constant1 others quite inconstant4 ,the different races vary in height from #ae-ah feet to only #af-ah inches1 as in a dwarf variety described by ,bonafous4 ,the whole ear is variable in shape1 being long and narrow1 or short and thick1 or branched4 ,the ear in one variety is more than four times as long as in a dwarf kind4 ,the seeds are arranged in the ear in from six to even twenty rows1 or are placed irregularly4 ,the seeds are coloured--white1 pale-yellow1 orange1 red1 violet1 or elegantly streaked with black2#ef and in the same ear there are sometimes seeds of two colours4 ,in a small collection ,i found that a single grain of one variety nearly equalled in weight seven grains of another variety4 ,the shape of the seed varies greatly1 being very flat1 or nearly globular1 or oval2 broader than long1 or longer than broad2 without any point1 or produced into a sharp tooth1 and this tooth is sometimes recurved4 ,one variety 7the rugosa of ,bonafous1 and which is extensively cultivated in the ,united ,states as sweet corn7 has its seeds curiously wrinkled1 giving to the whole ear a singular appearance4 ,another variety 7the cymosa of ,bon47 carries its ears so crowded together that it is called mas bouquet4 ,the seeds of some varieties contain much glucose instead of starch4 ,male flowers sometimes appear amongst the female flowers1 and ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott has lately observed the rarer case of female flowers on a true male panicle1 and likewise hermaphrodite flowers4#eg ,azara describes#eh a variety in ,paraguay the grains of which are very tender1 and he states that several varieties are fitted for being cooked in various ways4 ,the varieties also differ greatly in precocity1 and have different powers of resisting dryness and the action of violent wind4#ei ,some of the foregoing differences would certainly be considered of specific value with plants in a state of nature4 ,le ,comte ,r states that the grains of all the varieties which he cultivated ultimately assumed a yellow colour4 ,but ,bonafous#fj found that most of those which he sowed for ten consecutive years kept true to their proper tints2 and he adds that in the valleys of the ,pyrenees and on the plains of ,piedmont a white maize has been cultivated for more than a century1 and has undergone no change4 ,the tall kinds grown in southern latitudes1 and therefore exposed to great heat1 require from six to seven months to ripen their seed2 whereas the dwarf kinds1 grown in northern and colder climates1 require only from three to four months4#fa ,peter ,kalm1#fb who particularly attended to this plant1 says1 that in the ,united ,states1 in proceeding from south to north1 the plants steadily diminish in bulk4 ,seeds brought from lat4 #cg in ,virginia1 and sown in lat4 #dc-dd in ,new ,england1 produce plants which will not ripen their seed1 or ripen them with the utmost difficulty4 ,so it is with seed carried from ,new ,england to lat4 #de-dg in ,canada4 ,by taking great care at first1 the southern kinds after some years' culture ripen their seed perfectly in their northern homes1 so that this is an analogous case with that of the conversion of summer into winter wheat1 and conversely4 ,when tall and dwarf maize are planted together1 the dwarf kinds are in full flower before the others have produced a single flower2 and in ,pennsylvania they ripen their seeds six weeks earlier than the tall maize4 ,metzger also mentions a ,european maize which ripens its seed four weeks earlier than another ,european kind4 ,with these facts1 so plainly showing inherited acclimatisation1 we may readily believe ,kalm1 who states that in ,north ,america maize and some other plants have gradually been cultivated further and further northward4 ,all writers agree that to keep the varieties of maize pure they must be planted separately so that they shall not cross4 ,the effects of the climate of ,europe on the ,american varieties is highly remarkable4 ,metzger obtained seed from various parts of ,america1 and cultivated several kinds in ,germany4 ,i will give an abstract of the changes observed#fc in one case1 namely1 with a tall kind 7,breit-korniger mais1 ,zea altissima7 brought from the warmer parts of ,america4 ,during the first year the plants were twelve feet high1 and a few seeds were perfected2 the lower seeds in the ear kept true to their proper form1 but the upper seeds became slightly changed4 ,in the second generation the plants were from nine to ten feet in height1 and ripened their seed better2 the depression on the outer side of the seed had almost disappeared1 and the original beautiful white colour had become duskier4 ,some of the seeds had even become yellow1 and in their now rounded form they approached common ,european maize4 ,in the third generation nearly all resemblance to the original and very distinct ,american parent-form was lost4 ,in the sixth generation this maize perfectly resembled a ,european variety1 described as the second sub-variety of the fifth race4 ,when ,metzger published his book1 this variety was still cultivated near ,heidelberg1 and could be distinguished from the common kind only by a somewhat more vigorous growth4 ,analogous results were obtained by the cultivation of another ,american race1 the 8white-tooth corn10 in which the tooth nearly disappeared even in the second generation4 ,a third race1 the 8chicken-corn10 did not undergo so great a change1 but the seeds became less polished and pellucid4 ,in the above cases the seeds were carried from a warm to a colder climate4 ,but ,fritz ,mller informs me that a dwarf variety with small rounded seeds 7papa-gaien-mais71 introduced from ,germany into ,s4 ,brazil1 produces plants as tall1 with seeds as flat1 as those of the kind commonly cultivated there4 ,these facts afford the most remarkable instance known to me of the direct and prompt action of climate on a plant4 ,it might have been expected that the tallness of the stem1 the period of vegetation1 and the ripening of the seed1 would have been thus affected2 but it is a much more surprising fact that the seeds should have undergone so rapid and great a change4 ,as1 however1 flowers1 with their product the seed1 are formed by the metamorphosis of the stem and leaves1 any modification in these latter organs would be apt to extend1 through correlation1 to the organs of fructification4 ,cabbage 7,brassica oleracea74--,every one knows how greatly the various kinds of cabbage differ in appearance4 ,in the ,island of ,jersey1 from the effects of particular culture and of climate a stalk has grown to the height of sixteen feet1 and 8had its spring shoots at the top occupied by a magpie's nest30 the woody stems are not unfrequently from ten to twelve feet in height1 and are there used as rafters#fd and as walking-sticks4 ,we are thus reminded that in certain countries plants belonging to the generally herbaceous order of the ,crucifer are developed into trees4 ,every one can appreciate the difference between green or red cabbages with great single heads2 ,brussel-sprouts with numerous little heads2 broccolis and cauliflowers with the greater number of their flowers in an aborted condition1 incapable of producing seed1 and borne in a dense corymb instead of an open panicle2 savoys with their blistered and wrinkled leaves2 and borecoles and kails1 which come nearest to the wild parent-form4 ,there are also various frizzled and laciniated kinds1 some of such beautiful colours that ,vilmorin in his ,catalogue of #ahea enumerates ten varieties which are valued solely for ornament4 ,some kinds are less commonly known1 such as the ,portuguese ,couve ,tronchuda1 with the ribs of its leaves greatly thickened2 and the ,kohlrabi or choux-raves1 with their stems enlarged into great turnip-like masses above the ground2 and the recently formed new race#fe of the choux-raves1 already including nine sub-varieties1 in which the enlarged part lies beneath the ground like a turnip4 ,although we see such great differences in the shape1 size1 colour1 arrangement1 and manner of growth of the leaves and stem1 and of the flower-stems in the broccoli and cauliflower1 it is remarkable that the flowers themselves1 the seed-pods and seeds1 present extremely slight differences or none at all4#ff ,i compared the flowers of all the principal kinds2 those of the ,couve ,tronchuda are white and rather smaller than in common cabbages2 those of the ,portsmouth broccoli have narrower sepals1 and smaller1 less elongated petals2 and in no other cabbage could any difference be detected4 ,with respect to the seed-pods1 in the purple ,kohlrabi alone1 do they differ1 being a little longer and narrower than usual4 ,i made a collection of the seeds of twenty-eight different kinds1 and most of them were undistinguishable2 when there was any difference it was excessively slight2 thus1 the seeds of various broccolis and cauliflowers1 when seen in mass1 are a little redder2 those of the early green ,ulm savoy are rather smaller2 and those of the ,breda kail slightly larger than usual1 but not larger than the seeds of the wild cabbage from the coast of ,wales4 ,what a contrast in the amount of difference is presented if1 on the one hand1 we compare the leaves and stems of the various kinds of cabbage with their flowers1 pods1 and seeds1 and on the other hand the corresponding parts in the varieties of maize and wheat6 ,the explanation is obvious2 the seeds alone are valued in our cereals1 and their variations have been selected2 whereas the seeds1 seed-pods1 and flowers1 have been utterly neglected in the cabbage1 whilst many useful variations in their leaves and stems have been noticed and preserved from an extremely remote period1 for cabbages were cultivated by the old ,celts4#fg ,it would be useless to give a classified description#fh of the numerous races1 sub-races1 and varieties of the cabbage2 but it may be mentioned that ,dr4 ,lindley has lately proposed#fi a system founded on the state of development of the terminal and lateral leaf-buds4 ,thus3 ,i4 ,all the leaf-buds active and open1 as in the wild-cabbage1 kail1 etc4 ,,ii4 ,all the leaf-buds active1 but forming heads1 as in ,brussel-sprouts1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,terminal leaf-bud alone active1 forming a head as in common cabbages1 savoys1 etc4 ,,iv4 ,terminal leaf-bud alone active1 and open1 with most of the flowers abortive and succulent1 as in the cauliflower and broccoli4 ,v4 ,all the leaf-buds active and open1 with most of the flowers abortive and succulent1 as in the sprouting-broccoli4 ,this latter variety is a new one1 and bears the same relation to common broccoli1 as ,brussel-sprouts do to common cabbages2 it suddenly appeared in a bed of common broccoli1 and was found faithfully to transmit its newly-acquired and remarkable characters4 ,the principal kinds of cabbage existed at least as early as the sixteenth century1#gj so that numerous modifications of structure have been inherited for a long period4 ,this fact is the more remarkable as great care must be taken to prevent the crossing of the different kinds4 ,to give proof of this3 ,i raised #bcc seedlings from cabbages of different kinds1 which had purposely been planted near each other1 and of the seedlings no less than #aee were plainly deteriorated and mongrelised2 nor were the remaining #gh all perfectly true4 ,it may be doubted whether many permanent varieties have been formed by intentional or accidental crosses2 for such crossed plants are found to be very inconstant4 ,one kind1 however1 called 8,cottager's ,kail10 has lately been produced by crossing common kail and ,brussel-sprouts1 recrossed with purple broccoli1#ga and is said to be true2 but plants raised by me were not nearly so constant in character as any common kind of cabbage4 ,although most of the kinds keep true if carefully preserved from crossing1 yet the seed-beds must be yearly examined1 and a few seedlings are generally found false2 but even in this case the force of inheritance is shown1 for1 as ,metzger has remarked#gb when speaking of ,brussel-sprouts1 the variations generally keep to their 8unter art10 or main race4 ,but in order that any kind may be truly propagated there must be no great change in the conditions of life2 thus cabbages will not form heads in hot countries1 and the same thing has been observed with an ,english variety grown during an extremely warm and damp autumn near ,paris4#gc ,extremely poor soil also affects the characters of certain varieties4 ,most authors believe that all the races are descended from the wild cabbage found on the western shores of ,europe2 but ,alph4 ,de ,candolle#gd forcibly argues1 on historical and other grounds1 that it is more probable that two or three closely allied forms1 generally ranked as distinct species1 still living in the ,mediterranean region1 are the parents1 now all commingled together1 of the various cultivated kinds4 ,in the same manner as we have often seen with domesticated animals1 the supposed multiple origin of the cabbage throws no light on the characteristic differences between the cultivated forms4 ,if our cabbages are the descendants of three or four distinct species1 every trace of any sterility which may originally have existed between them is now lost1 for none of the varieties can be kept distinct without scrupulous care to prevent intercrossing4 ,the other cultivated forms of the genus ,brassica are descended1 according to the view adopted by ,godron and ,metzger1#ge from two species1 ,b4 napus and rapa2 but according to other botanists from three species2 whilst others again strongly suspect that all these forms1 both wild and cultivated1 ought to be ranked as a single species4 ,brassica napus has given rise to two large groups1 namely1 ,swedish turnips 7believed to be of hybrid origin7#gf and ,colzas1 the seeds of which yield oil4 ,brassica rapa 7of ,koch7 has also given rise to two races1 namely1 common turnips and the oil-giving rape4 ,the evidence is unusually clear that these latter plants1 though so different in external appearance1 belong to the same species2 for the turnip has been observed by ,koch and ,godron to lose its thick roots in uncultivated soil2 and when rape and turnips are sown together they cross to such a degree that scarcely a single plant comes true4#gg ,metzger by culture converted the biennial or winter rape into the annual or summer rape1--varieties which have been thought by some authors to be specifically distinct4#gh ,in the production of large1 fleshy1 turnip-like stems1 we have a case of analogous variation in three forms which are generally considered as distinct species4 ,but scarcely any modification seems so easily acquired as a succulent enlargement of the stem or root--that is1 a store of nutriment laid up for the plant's own future use4 ,we see this in our radishes1 beet1 and in the less generally known 8turnip-rooted0 celery1 and in the finocchio1 or ,italian variety of the common fennel4 ,mr4 ,buckman has lately proved by his interesting experiments bow quickly the roots of the wild parsnip can be enlarged1 as ,vilmorin formerly proved in the case of the carrot4#gi ,this latter plant1 in its cultivated state1 differs in scarcely any character from the wild ,english carrot1 except in general luxuriance and in the size and quality of its roots2 but ten varieties1 differing in the colour1 shape1 and quality of the root1 are cultivated in ,england and come true by seed4#hj ,hence with the carrot1 as in so many other cases1 for instance with the numerous varieties and sub-varieties of the radish1 that part of the plant which is valued by man1 falsely appears alone to have varied4 ,the truth is that variations in this part alone have been selected2 and the seedlings inheriting a tendency to vary in the same way1 analogous modifications have been again and again selected1 until at last a great amount of change has been effected4 ,with respect to the radish1 ,m4 ,carrire1 by sowing the seed of the wild ,raphanus raphanistrum in rich soil1 and by continued selection during several generations1 raised many varieties1 closely like the cultivated radish 7,r4 sativus7 in their roots1 as well as the wonderful ,chinese variety1 ,r4 caudatus3 7see #8,journal d',agriculture pratique1' tom4 i1 #ahfi1 p4 #aei2 also a separate essay #8,origine des ,plantes ,domestiques1' #ahfi47 ,raphanus raphanistrum and sativus have often been ranked as distinct species1 and owing to differences in their fruit even as distinct genera2 but ,professor ,hoffman 7#8,bot4 ,zeitung1' #ahgb1 p4 #dhb7 has now shown that these differences1 remarkable as they are1 graduate away1 the fruit of ,r4 caudatus being intermediate4 ,by cultivating ,r4 raphanistrum during several generations 7ibid41 #ahgc1 p4 #i71 ,professor ,hoffman also obtained plants bearing fruits like those of ,r4 sativus4 ,pea 7,pisum sativum74--,most botanists look at the garden-pea as specifically distinct from the field-pea 7,p4 arvense74 ,the latter exists in a wild state in ,southern ,europe2 but the aboriginal parent of the garden-pea has been found by one collector alone1 as he states1 in the ,crimea4#ha ,andrew ,knight crossed1 as ,i am informed by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,fitch1 the field-pea with a well-known garden variety1 the ,prussian pea1 and the cross seems to have been perfectly fertile4 ,dr4 ,alefield has recently studied#hb the genus with care1 and1 after having cultivated about fifty varieties1 concludes that certainly they all belong to the same species4 ,it is an interesting fact already alluded to1 that1 according to ,o4 ,heer1#hc the peas found in the lake-habitations of ,switzerland of the ,stone and ,bronze ages1 belong to an extinct variety1 with exceedingly small seeds1 allied to ,p4 arvense or the field-pea4 ,the varieties of the common garden-pea are numerous1 and differ considerably from one another4 ,for comparison ,i planted at the same time forty-one1 ,english and ,french varieties4 ,they differed greatly in height1-- namely from between #f and #ab inches to #h feet1#hd--;in manner of growth1 and in period of maturity4 ,some differ in general aspect even while only two or three inches in height4 ,the stems of the ,prussian pea are much branched4 ,the tall kinds have larger leaves than the dwarf kinds1 but not in strict proportion to their height3--,hair's ,dwarf ,monmouth has very large leaves1 and the ,pois nain hatif1 and the moderately tall ,blue ,prussian1 have leaves about two-thirds of the size of the tallest kind4 ,in the ,danecroft the leaflets are rather small and a little pointed2 in the ,queen of ,dwarfs rather rounded2 and in the ,queen of ,england broad and large4 ,in these three peas the slight differences in the shape of the leaves are accompanied by slight differences in colour1 in the ,pois gant sans parchemin1 which bears purple flowers1 the leaflets in the young plant are edged with red2 and in all the peas with purple flowers the stipules are marked with red4 ,in the different varieties1 one1 two1 or several flowers in a small cluster1 are borne on the same peduncle2 and this is a difference which is considered of specific value in some of the ,leguminos4 ,in all the varieties the flowers closely resemble each other except in colour and size4 ,they are generally white1 sometimes purple1 but the colour is inconstant even in the same variety4 ,in ,warner's ,emperor1 which is a tall kind1 the flowers are nearly double the size of the ,pois nain hatif2 but ,hair's ,dwarf ,monmouth1 which has large leaves1 likewise has large flowers4 ,the calyx in the ,victoria ,marrow is large1 and in ,bishop's ,long ,pod the sepals are rather narrow4 ,in no other kind is there any difference in the flower4 ,the pods and seeds1 which with natural species afford such constant characters1 differ greatly in the cultivated varieties of the pea2 and these are the valuable1 and consequently the selected parts4 ,sugar peas1 or ,p1 are remarkable from their thin pods1 which1 whilst young1 are cooked and eaten whole2 and in this group1 which1 according to ,mr4 ,gordon includes eleven sub-varieties1 it is the pod which differs most2 thus ,lewis's ,negro-podded pea has a straight1 broad1 smooth1 and dark-purple pod1 with the husk not so thin as in the other kinds2 the pod of another variety is extremely bowed2 that of the ,pois gant is much pointed at the extremity2 and in the variety 8 grands cosses0 the peas are seen through the husk in so conspicuous a manner that the pod1 especially when dry1 can hardly at first be recognised as that of a pea4 ,in the ordinary varieties the pods also differ much in size2--in colour1 that of ,woodford's ,green ,marrow being bright-green when dry1 instead of pale brown1 and that of the purple-podded pea being expressed by its name2--in smoothness1 that of ,danecroft being remarkably glossy1 whereas that of the ,ne plus ultra is rugged2 in being either nearly cylindrical1 or broad and flat2--in being pointed at the end1 as in ,thurston's ,reliance1 or much truncated1 as in the ,american ,dwarf4 ,in the ,auvergne pea the whole end of the pod is bowed upwards4 ,in the ,queen of the ,dwarfs and in ,scimitar peas the pod is almost elliptic in shape4 ,i here give drawings of the four most distinct pods produced by the plants cultivated by me4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--,pods of the ,common ,pea ,in the pea itself we have every tint between almost pure white1 brown1 yellow1 and intense green2 in the varieties of the ,sugar peas we have these same tints1 together with red passing through fine purple into a dark chocolate tint4 ,these colours are either uniform or distributed in dots1 stri1 or moss-like marks2 they depend in some cases on the colour of the cotyledons seen through the skin1 and in other cases on the outer coats of the pea itself4 ,in the different varieties1 the pods contain1 according to ,mr4 ,gordon1 from eleven or twelve to only four or five peas4 ,the largest peas are nearly twice as much in diameter as the smallest2 and the latter are not always borne by the most dwarfed kinds4 ,peas differ much in shape1 being smooth and spherical1 smooth and oblong1 nearly oval in the ,queen of the ,dwarfs1 and nearly cubical and crumpled in many of the larger kinds4 ,with respect to the value of the differences between the chief varieties1 it cannot be doubted that1 if one of the tall ,sugar-peas1 with purple flowers1 thin-skinned pods of an extraordinary shape1 including large1 dark-purple peas1 grew wild by the side of the lowly ,queen of the ,dwarfs1 with white flowers1 greyish-green1 rounded leaves1 scimitar-like pods1 containing oblong1 smooth1 pale-coloured peas1 which became mature at a different season3 or by the side of one of the gigantic sorts1 like the ,champion of ,england1 with leaves of great size1 pointed pods1 and large1 green1 crumpled1 almost cubical peas1--all three kinds would be ranked as distinct species4 ,andrew ,knight#he has observed that the varieties of peas keep very true1 because they are not crossed by insects4 ,as far as the fact of keeping true is concerned1 ,i hear from ,mr4 ,masters of ,canterbury1 well known as the originator of several new kinds1 that certain varieties have remained constant for a considerable time1--for instance1 ,knight's ,blue ,dwarf1 which came out about the year #ahbj4hf ,but the greater number of varieties have a singularly short existence3 thus ,loudon remarks#hg that 8sorts which were highly approved in #ahba1 are now1 in #ahcc1 nowhere to be found20 and on comparing the lists of #ahcc with those of #ahee1 ,i find that nearly all the varieties have changed4 ,mr4 ,masters informs me that the nature of the soil causes some varieties to lose their character4 ,as with other plants1 certain varieties can be propagated truly1 whilst others show a determined tendency to vary2 thus two peas differing in shape1 one round and the other wrinkled1 were found by ,mr4 ,masters within the same pod1 but the plants raised from the wrinkled kind always evinced a strong tendency to produce round peas4 ,mr4 ,masters also raised from a plant of another variety four distinct sub-varieties1 which bore blue and round1 white and round1 blue and wrinkled1 and white and wrinkled peas2 and although he sowed these four varieties separately during several successive years1 each kind always reproduced all four kinds mixed together6 ,with respect to the varieties not naturally intercrossing1 ,i have ascertained that the pea1 which in this respect differs from some other ,leguminos1 is perfectly fertile without the aid of insects4 ,yet ,i have seen humble-bees whilst sucking the nectar depress the keel-petals1 and become so thickly dusted with pollen1 that it could hardly fail to be left on the stigma of the next flower which was visited4 ,nevertheless1 distinct varieties growing closely together rarely cross2 and ,i have reason to believe that this is due to their stigmas being prematurely fertilised in this country by pollen from the same flower4 ,the horticulturists who raise seed-peas are thus enabled to plant distinct varieties close together without any bad consequences2 and it is certain1 as ,i have myself found1 that true seed may be saved during at least several generations under these circumstances4#hh ,mr4 ,fitch raised1 as he informs me1 one variety for twenty years1 and it always came true1 though grown close to other varieties4 ,from the analogy of kidney-beans ,i should have expected#hi that varieties thus circumstanced would have occasionally crossed2 and ,i shall give in the eleventh chapter two cases of this having occurred1 as shown 7in a manner hereafter to be explained7 by the pollen of the one variety having acted directly on the seeds of the other4 ,whether many of the new varieties which incessantly appear are due to such occasional and accidental crosses1 ,i do not know4 ,nor do ,i know whether the short existence of almost all the numerous varieties is the result of mere change of fashion1 or of their having a weak constitution1 from being the product of long-continued self-fertilisation4 ,it may1 however1 be noticed that several of ,andrew ,knight's varieties1 which have endured longer than most kinds1 were raised towards the close of the last century by artificial crosses2 some of them1 ,i believe1 were still vigorous in #ahfj2 but now1 in #ahfe1 a writer1 speaking#ij of ,knight's four kinds of marrows1 says1 they have acquired a famous history1 but their glory has departed4 ,with respect to ,beans 7,faba vulgaris71 ,i will say but little4 ,dr4 ,alefield has given#ia short diagnostic characters of forty varieties4 ,everyone who has seen a collection must have been struck with the great difference in shape1 thickness1 proportional length and breadth1 colour1 and size which beans present4 ,what a contrast between a ,windsor and ,horse-bean6 ,as in the case of the pea1 our existing varieties were preceded during the ,bronze age in ,switzerland#ib by a peculiar and now extinct variety producing very small beans4#ic ,potato 7,solanum tuberosum74--,there is little doubt about the parentage of this plant2 for the cultivated varieties differ extremely little in general appearance from the wild species1 which can be recognised in its native land at the first glance4#id ,the varieties cultivated in ,britain are numerous2 thus ,lawson#ie gives a description of #age kinds4 ,i planted eighteen kinds in adjoining rows2 their stems and leaves differed but little1 and in several cases there was as great a difference between the individuals of the same variety as between the different varieties4 ,the flower varied in size1 and in colour between white and purple1 but in no other respect1 except that in one kind the sepals were somewhat elongated4 ,one strange variety has been described which always produces two sorts of flowers1 the first double and sterile1 the second single and fertile4#if ,the fruit or berries also differ1 but only in a slight degree4#ig ,the varieties are liable in very different degree to the attack of the ,colorado potato-beetle4#ih ,the tubers1 on the other hand1 present a wonderful amount of diversity4 ,this fact accords with the principle that the valuable and selected parts of all cultivated productions present the greatest amount of modification4 ,they differ much in size and shape1 being globular1 oval1 flattened1 kidney-like1 or cylindrical4 ,one variety from ,peru is described#ii as being quite straight1 and at least six inches in length1 though no thicker than a man's finger4 ,the eyes or buds differ in form1 position1 and colour4 ,the manner in which the tubers are arranged on the so-called roots or rhizomes is different2 thus1 in the gurken-kartoffeln they form a pyramid with the apex downwards1 and in another variety they bury themselves deep in the ground4 ,the roots themselves run either near the surface or deep in the ground4 ,the tubers also differ in smoothness and colour1 being externally white1 red1 purple1 or almost black1 and internally white1 yellow1 or almost black4 ,they differ in flavour and quality1 being either waxy or mealy2 in their period of maturity1 and in their capacity for long preservation4 ,as with many other plants which have been long propagated by bulbs1 tubers1 cuttings1 etc41 by which means the same individual is exposed during a length of time to diversified conditions1 seedling potatoes generally display innumerable slight differences4 ,several varieties1 even when propagated by tubers1 are far from constant1 as will be seen in the chapter on ,bud-variation4 ,dr4 ,anderson#ajj procured seed from an ,irish purple potato1 which grew far from any other kind1 so that it could not at least in this generation have been crossed1 yet the many seedlings varied in almost every possible respect1 so that 8scarcely two plants were exactly alike40 ,some of the plants which closely resembled each other above ground1 produced extremely dissimilar tubers2 and some tubers which externally could hardly be distinguished1 differed widely in quality when cooked4 ,even in this case of extreme variability1 the parent-stock had some influence on the progeny1 for the greater number of the seedlings resembled in some degree the parent ,irish potato4 ,kidney potatoes must be ranked amongst the most highly cultivated and artificial races2 nevertheless their peculiarities can often be strictly propagated by seed4 ,a great authority1 ,mr4 ,rivers1#aja states that 8seedlings from the ash-leaved kidney always bear a strong resemblance to their parent4 ,seedlings from the fluke-kidney are still more remarkable for their adherence to their parent stock1 for1 on closely observing a great number during two seasons1 ,i have not been able to observe the least difference1 either in earliness1 productiveness1 or in the size or shape of their tubers40 ,,references #a #8,gographie botanique raisonne1' #ahee1 pp4 #haj to #iia4 #b ,review by ,mr4 ,bentham in #8,hort4 ,journal1' vol4 ix #ahee1 p4 #acc1 entitled1 #8,historical ,notes on cultivated ,plants1' by ,dr4 ,a4 ,targioni-,tozzetti4 ,see also #8,edinburgh ,review1' #ahff1 p4 #eaj4 #c #8,hist4 ,notes1' as above by ,targioni-,tozzetti4 #d #8,considrations sur les ,crales1' #ahdb1 p4 #cg4 #8,gographie ,bot41' #ahee1 p4 #icj4 8,plus on suppose l'agriculture ancienne et remontant une poque d'ignorance1 plus il est probable que les cultivateurs avaient choisi des especes offrant l'origine meme un avantage incontestable40 #e ,dr4 ,hooker has given me this information4 ,see also his #8,himalayan ,journals1' #ahed1 vol4 ii4 p4 #di4 #f #8,travels in ,central ,africa1' ,eng4 translat4 vol4 i4 pp4 #ebi and #cij2 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bi1 #bfe1 #bgj4 ,livingstone's #8,travels1' p4 #eea4 #g ,for instance in both ,north and ,south ,america4 ,mr4 ,edgeworth 7#8,journal ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 vi4 ,bot41 #ahfb1 p4 #aha7 states that in the deserts of the ,punjab poor women sweep up1 8by a whisk into straw baskets10 the seeds of four genera of grasses1 namely1 of ,agrostis1 ,panicum1 ,cenchrus1 and ,pennisetum1 as well as the seeds of four other genera belonging to distinct families4 #h ,prof4 ,o4 ,heer1 #8,die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1 #ahff1 aus dem ,neujahr4 ,naturforsch4 ,geselschaft1' #ahff2 and ,dr4 ,h4 ,christ in ,rutimeyer's #8,die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahfa1 s4 #bbf4 #i #8,travels1' p4 #ece4 ,du ,chaillu1 #8,adventures in ,equatorial ,africa1' #ahfa1 p4 #dde4 #aj ,in ,tierra del ,fuego the spot where wigwams had formerly stood could be distinguished at a great distance by the bright green tint of the native vegetation4 #aa #8,american ,acad4 of ,arts and ,sciences1' ,april #ajth1 #ahfj1 p4 #dac4 ,downing1 #8,the ,fruits of ,america1' #ahde1 p4 #bfa4 #ab #8,journals of ,expeditions in ,australia1' #ahda1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bib4 #ac ,darwin's #8,journal of ,researches1' #ahde1 p4 #bae4 #ad ,de ,candolle has tabulated the facts in the most interesting manner in his #8,gographie ,bot41' p4 #ihf4 #ae #8,flora of ,australia1' ,introduction1 p4 #aaj4 #af ,for ,canada1 see ,j4 ,cartier's ,voyage in #aecd2 for ,florida1 see ,narvaez and ,ferdinand de ,soto's ,voyages4 ,as ,i have consulted these and other old ,voyages in more than one general collection of ,voyages1 ,i do not give precise references to the pages4 ,see also1 for several references ,asa ,gray1 in the #8,american ,journal of ,science1' vol4 xxiv4 ,nov4 #aheg1 p4 #dda4 ,for the traditions of the natives of ,new ,zealand see ,crawfurd's #8,grammar and ,dict4 of the ,malay ,language1' #aheb1 p4 #bfj4 #ag ,see1 for example1 ,mr4 ,hewett ,c4 ,watson's remarks on our wild plums and cherries and crabs3 #8,cybele ,britannica1' vol4 i4 pp4 #ccj1 #ccd1 etc4 ,van ,mons 7in his #8,arbres ,fruitiers1' #ahce1 tom4 i4 p4 #ddd7 declares that he has found the types of all our cultivated varieties in wild seedlings1 but then he looks on these seedlings as so many aboriginal stocks4 #ah ,see ,a4 ,de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' #ahee1 p4 #ibh et seq4 ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' #ahei1 tom4 ii4 p4 #gj2 and ,metzger1 #8,die ,getreidearten1' etc41 #ahda4 #ai ,mr4 ,bentham1 in his review1 entitled #8,hist4 ,notes on cultivated ,plants1' by ,dr4 ,a4 ,targioni-,tozzetti1 in #8,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ix41 #ahee1 p4 #acc4 ,he informs me that he still retains the same opinion4 #bj #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #ibh4 ,the whole subject is discussed with admirable fulness and knowledge4 #ba ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #gb4 ,a few years ago the excellent1 though misinterpreted1 observations of ,m4 ,fabre led many persons to believe that wheat was a modified descendant of gilops2 but ,m4 ,godron 7tom4 i4 p4 #afe7 has shown by careful experiments that the first step in the series1 viz4 gilops triticoides1 is a hybrid between wheat and 4 ovata4 ,the frequency with which these hybrids spontaneously arise1 and the gradual manner in which the 4 triticoides becomes converted into true wheat1 alone leave any doubt with respect to ,m4 ,godron's conclusions4 #bb #8,die ,verbreitungsmittel der ,pflanzen1' #ahgc1 p4 #abi4 #bc ,report to ,british ,association for #aheg1 p4 #bjg4 #bd #8,considrations sur les ,crales1' #ahdb-dc1 p4 #bi4 #be #8,travels in the ,himalayan ,provinces1' etc41 #ahda1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbd4 #bf ,col4 ,j4 ,le ,couteur on the #8,varieties of ,wheat1' pp4 #bc1 #gi4 #bg ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps1 #8,consid4 sur les ,crales1' p4 #aa4 #bh ,see an excellent review in ,hooker's #8,journ4 of ,botany1' vol4 viii4 p4 #hb note4 #bi #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #gc4 #cj ,ibid41 tom4 ii4 p4 #ge4 #ca ,for ,dalbret and ,philippar1 see ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps #8,consid4 sur les ,crales1' pp4 #de1 #gj4 ,le ,couteur on ,wheat1 pp4 #f1 #ad-ag4 #cb ,see his ,essay on #8,pedigree in ,wheat1' #ahfb2 also paper read before the ,british ,association1 #ahfi1 and other publications4 #cc #8,varieties of ,wheat1' ,introduction1 p4 #f4 ,marshall1 in his #8,rural ,economy of ,yorkshire1' vol4 ii4 p4 #i1 remarks that 8in every field of corn there is as much variety as in a herd of cattle40 #cd #8,gardener's ,chron4' and #8,agricult4 ,gazette1' #ahfb1 p4 #ifc4 #ce #8,gardener's ,chron4' ,nov4 #ahfh1 p4 #aaii4 #cf #8,getreidearten1' #ahda1 s4 #ff1 #ia1 #ib1 #aaf1 #aag4 #cg ,quoted by ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' vol4 ii4 p4 #gd4 ,so it is1 according to ,metzger 7#8,getreidearten1' s4 #ah71 with summer and winter barley4 #ch ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps1 #8,crales1' part ii4 p4 #bbd4 ,le ,couteur1 p4 #gj4 ,many other accounts could be added4 #ci #8,travels in ,north ,america1' #agec-agfa1 ,eng4 translat41 vol4 iii p4 #afe4 #dj #8,crales1' part ii4 pp4 #agi-ahc4 #da #8,on the ,varieties of ,wheat1' ,introduct41 p4 #g4 ,see ,marshall #8,rural ,econ4 of ,yorkshire1' vol4 ii4 p4 #i4 ,with respect to similar cases of adaptation in the varieties of oats1 see some interesting papers in the #8,gardener's ,chron4 and ,agricult4 ,gazette1' #ahej1 pp4 #bjd1 #bai4 #db #8,on the ,varieties of ,wheat1' p4 #ei4 ,mr4 ,shirreff1 and a higher authority cannot be given 7#8,gard4 ,chron4 and ,agricult4 ,gazette1' #ahfb1 p4 #ifc71 says1 8,i have never seen grain which has either been improved or degenerated by cultivation1 so as to convey the change to the succeeding crop40 #dc ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #icj4 #dd #8,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahff4 #de #8,les ,crales1' p4 #id4 #df ,quoted by ,le ,couteur1 p4 #af4 #dg ,a4 ,de ,candolle1 #8,geograph4 ,bot41' p4 #icb4 #dh ,o4 ,heer #8,die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahff4 ,the following passage is quoted from ,dr4 ,christ1 in #8,die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten1 von ,dr4 ,rtimeyer1' #ahfa1 s4 #bbe4 #di ,heer1 as quoted by ,carl ,vogt1 #8,lectures on ,man1' ,eng4 translat41 p4 #cee4 #ej ,see ,alph4 ,de ,candolle's long discussion in his #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #idb4 ,with respect to ,new ,england1 see ,silliman's #8,american ,journal1' vol4 xliv4 p4 #ii4 #ea #8,travels in ,peru1' ,eng4 translat41 p4 #agg4 #eb #8,geolog4 ,observ4 on ,s4 ,america1' #ahdf1 p4 #di4 #ec ,this maize is figured in ,bonafous' magnificent work1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 du ,mais1' #ahcf1 ,pl4 v4 bis1 and in the #8,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 #ahdf1 p4 #aae1 where an account is given of the result of sowing the seed4 ,a young ,guarany ,indian1 on seeing this kind of maize1 told ,auguste ,st4 ,hilaire 7see ,de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #iea7 that it grew wild in the humid forests of his native land4 ,mr4 ,teschemacher4 in #8,proc4 ,boston ,soc4 ,hist41' ,oct4 #aith1 #ahdb1 gives an account of sowing the seed4 #ed ,moquin-,tandon1 #8,elments de ,tratologie1' #ahda1 p4 #abf4 #ee #8,die ,getreidearten1' #ahda1 s4 #bjh4 ,i have modified a few of ,metzger's statements in accordance with those made by ,bonafous in his great work #8,hist4 ,nat4 du ,mais1' #ahcf4 #ef ,godron #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #hj2 ,al4 ,de ,candolle1 ibid41 p4 #iea4 #eg #8,transact4 ,bot4 ,soc4 of ,edinburgh1' vol4 viii4 p4 #fj4 #eh #8,voyages dans l',amrique ,mridionale1' tom4 i4 p4 #adg4 #ei ,bonafous' #8,hist4 ,nat4 du ,mas1' p4 #ca4 #fj ,ibid41 p4 #ca4 #fa ,metzger1 #8,getreidearten1' s4 #bjf4 #fb #8,description of ,maize1' by ,p4 ,kalm1 #ageb1 in #8,swedish ,acts1' vol4 iv4 ,i have consulted an old ,english ,,ms4 translation4 #fc #8,getreidearten1' s4 #bjh4 #fd ,cabbage ,timber1 #8,gardener's ,chron41' #ahef1 p4 #gdd1 quoted from ,hooker's #8,journal of ,botany4' ,a walking-stick made from a cabbage-stalk is exhibited in the ,museum at ,kew4 #fe #8,journal de la ,soc4 ,imp4 d',horticulture1' #ahee1 p4 #bed1 quoted from #8,gartenflora1' ,april1 #ahee4 #ff ,godron #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #eb2 ,metzger1 #8,syst4 ,beschreibung der ,kult4 ,kohlarten1' #ahcc1 s4 #f4 #fg ,regnier1 #8,de l',economie ,publique des ,celtes1' #ahah1 p4 #dch4 #fh ,see the elder ,de ,candolle1 in #8,transact4 of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 v42 and ,metzger #8,kohlarten1' etc4 #fi #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahei1 p4 #iib4 #gj ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot4' pp4 #hdb and #ihi4 #ga #8,gardener's ,chron41' ,feb4 #aheh1 p4 #abh4 #gb #8,kohlarten1' s4 #bb4 #gc ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #eb2 ,metzger1 #8,kohlarten1' s4 #bb4 #gd #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #hdj4 #ge ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ed2 ,metzger1 #8,kohlarten1' s4 #aj4 #gf #8,gardener's ,chron4 and ,agricult4 ,gazette1' #ahef1 p4 #gbi4 ,see1 more especially1 ibid41 #ahfh1 p4 #bge3 the writer asserts that he planted a variety of cabbage 7,b4 oleracea7 close to turnips 7,b4 rapa7 and raised from the crossed seedlings true ,swedish turnips4 ,these latter plants ought1 therefore1 to be classed with cabbages or turnips1 and not under ,b4 napus4 #gg #8,gardener's ,chron4 and ,agricult4 ,gazette1' #ahee1 p4 #gcj4 #gh ,metzger1 #8,kohlarten1' s4 #ea4 #gi ,these experiments by ,vilmorin have been quoted by many writers4 ,an eminent botanist1 ,prof4 ,decaisne1 has lately expressed doubts on the subject from his own negative results1 but these cannot be valued equally with positive results4 ,on the other hand1 ,m4 ,carrire has lately stated 7#8,gard4 ,chronicle1' #ahfe1 p4 #aaed71 that he took seed from a wild carrot1 growing far from any cultivated land1 and even in the first generation the roots of his seedlings differed in being spindle-shaped1 longer1 softer1 and less fibrous than those of the wild plant4 ,from these seedlings he raised several distinct varieties4 #hj ,loudon's #8,encyclop4 of ,gardening1' p4 #hce4 #ha ,alph4 ,de ,candolle #8,gograph4 ,bot41' #ifj4 ,mr4 ,bentham 7#8,hort4 ,journal1' vol4 ix4 #ahee1 p4 #ada7 believes that garden and field peas belong to the same species1 and in this respect he differs from ,dr4 ,targioni4 #hb #8,botanische ,zeitung1' #ahfj1 s4 #bjd4 #hc #8,die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahff1 s4 #bc4 #hd ,a variety called the ,rounciva attains this height1 as is stated by ,mr4 ,gordon in #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' 7#bnd series71 vol4 i4 #ahce1 p4 #cgd1 from which paper ,i have taken some facts4 #he #8,phil4 ,tract41' #agii1 p4 #aif4 #hf #8,gardener's ,magazine1' vol4 i41 #ahbf1 p4 #aec4 #hg #8,encyclopdia of ,gardening1' p4 #hbc4 #hh ,see ,dr4 ,anderson to the same effect in the #8,bath ,soc4 ,agricultural ,papers1' vol4 iv4 p4 #hg4 #hi ,i have published full details of experiments on this subject in the #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheg1 ,oct4 #beth4 #ij #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfe1 p4 #chg4 #ia #8,bonplandia1' x41 #ahfb1 s4 #cdh4 #ib ,heer1 #8,die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahff1 s4 #bb4 #ic ,mr4 ,bentham informs me that in ,poitou and the adjoining parts of ,france1 varieties of ,phaseolus vulgaris are extremely numerous1 and so different that they were described by ,savi as distinct species4 ,mr4 ,bentham believes that all are descended from an unknown eastern species4 ,although the varieties differ so greatly in stature and in their seeds1 8there is a remarkable sameness in the neglected characters of foliage and flowers1 and especially in the bracteoles1 an insignificant character in the eyes even of botanists40 #id ,darwin1 #8,journal of ,researches1' #ahde1 p4 #bhe4 ,sabine1 in #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 v4 p4 #bdi4 #ie #8,synopsis of the ,vegetable ,products of ,scotland1' quoted in ,wilson's #8,british ,farming1' p4 #cag4 #if ,sir ,g4 ,mackenzie1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahde1 p4 #gij4 #ig ,putsche und ,vertuch #8,versuch einer ,monographie der ,kartoffeln1' #ahai1 s4 #i1 #ae4 ,see also ,dr4 ,anderson #8,recreations in ,agriculture1' vol4 iv4 p4 #cbe4 #ih ,walsh1 #8,the ,american ,entomologist1' #ahfi1 p4 #afj4 ,also ,s4 ,tenney1 #8,the ,american ,naturalist1' ,may #ahga1 p4 #aga4 #ii #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #ajeb4 #ajj #8,bath ,society ,agricult4 ,papers1' vol4 v4 p4 #abg4 ,and #8,recreations in ,agriculture1' vol4 v4 p4 #hf4 #aja #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfc1 p4 #fdc4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,plants continued--,,fruits--,,ornamental ,,trees--,,flowers4 ,,fruits4 ,,grapes3 ,,vary ,,in ,,odd ,,and ,,trifling ,,particulars--,,mulberry3 ,,the ,,orange ,,group--,,singular ,,results ,,from ,,crossing-- ,,peach ,,and ,,nectarine3 ,,bud ,,variation--,,analogous ,,variation--,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,almond--,,apricot--,,plums3 ,,variation ,,in ,,their ,,stones-- ,,cherries3 ,,singular ,,varieties ,,of--,,apple--,,pear--,,strawberry3 ,,interblending ,,of ,,the ,,original ,,forms--,,gooseberry3 ,,steady ,,increase ,,in ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,fruit--,,varieties ,,of--,,walnut--,,nut--,,cucurbitaceous ,,plants3 ,,wonderful ,,variation ,,of4 ,,ornamental ,,trees4 ,,their ,,variation ,,in ,,degree ,,and ,,kind--,,ash-,,tree--,,scotch-,,fir--,, hawthorn4 ,,flowers4 ,,multiple ,,origin ,,of ,,many ,,kinds--,,variation ,,in ,,constitutional ,,peculiarities--,,kind ,,of ,,variation--,,roses3 ,,several ,,species ,,cultivated--,,pansy--,,dahlia--,,hyaci nth3 ,,history ,,and ,,variation ,,of4 ,the ,vine 7,vitis vinifera74--,the best authorities consider all our grapes as the descendants of one species which now grows wild in western ,asia1 which grew wild during the ,bronze age in ,italy1#a and which has recently been found fossil in a tufaceous deposit in the south of ,france4#b ,some authors1 however1 entertain much doubt about the single parentage of our cultivated varieties1 owing to the number of semi-wild forms found in ,southern ,europe1 especially as described by ,clemente#c in a forest in ,spain2 but as the grape sows itself freely in ,southern ,europe1 and as several of the chief kinds transmit their characters by seed1#d whilst others are extremely variable1 the existence of many different escaped forms could hardly fail to occur in countries where this plant has been cultivated from the remotest antiquity4 ,that the vine varies much when propagated by seed1 we may infer from the largely increased number of varieties since the earlier historical records4 ,new hot-house varieties are produced almost every year2 for instance1#e a golden-coloured variety has been recently raised in ,england from a black grape without the aid of a cross4 ,van ,mons#f reared a multitude of varieties from the seed of one vine1 which was completely separated from all others1 so that there could not1 at least in this generation1 have been any crossing1 and the seedlings presented 8les analogues de toutes les sortes10 and differed in almost every possible character both in the fruits and foliage4 ,the cultivated varieties are extremely numerous2 ,count ,odart says that he will not deny that there may exist throughout the world #gjj or #hjj1 perhaps even #ajjj varieties1 but not a third of these have any value4 ,in the catalogue of fruit cultivated in the ,horticultural ,gardens of ,london1 published in #ahdb1 #ii varieties are enumerated4 ,wherever the grape is grown many varieties occur3 ,pallas describes #bd in the ,crimea1 and ,burnes mentions #aj in ,cabool4 ,the classification of the varieties has much perplexed writers1 and ,count ,odart is reduced to a geographical system2 but ,i will not enter on this subject1 nor on the many and great differences between the varieties4 ,i will merely specify a few curious and trifling peculiarities1 all taken from ,odart's highly esteemed work#g for the sake of showing the diversified variability of this plant4 ,simon has classed grapes into two main divisions1 those with downy leaves1 and those with smooth leaves1 but he admits that in one variety1 namely the ,rebazo1 the leaves are either smooth1 or downy2 and ,odart 7p4 #gj7 states that some varieties have the nerves alone1 and other varieties their young leaves1 downy1 whilst the old ones are smooth4 ,the ,pedro-,ximenes grape 7,odart1 p4 #cig7 presents a peculiarity by which it can be at once recognised amongst a host of other varieties1 namely1 that when the fruit is nearly ripe the nerves of the leaves or even the whole surface becomes yellow4 ,the ,barbera d',asti is well marked by several characters 7p4 #dbf71 amongst others1 8by some of the leaves1 and it is always the lowest on the branches1 suddenly becoming of a dark red colour40 ,several authors in classifying grapes have founded their main divisions on the berries being either round or oblong2 and ,odart admits the value of this character2 yet there is one variety1 the ,maccabeo 7p4 #ga71 which often produces small round1 and large oblong1 berries in the same bunch4 ,certain grapes called ,nebbiolo 7p4 #dbi7 present a constant character1 sufficient for their recognition1 namely1 8the slight adherence of that part of the pulp which surrounds the seeds to the rest of the berry1 when cut through transversely40 ,a ,rhenish variety is mentioned 7p4 #bbh7 which likes a dry soil2 the fruit ripens well1 but at the moment of maturity1 if much rain falls1 the berries are apt to rot2 on the other hand1 the fruit of a ,swiss variety 7p4 #bdc7 is valued for well sustaining prolonged humidity4 ,this latter variety sprouts late in the spring1 yet matures its fruit early2 other varieties 7page #cfb7 have the fault of being too much excited by the ,april sun1 and in consequence suffer from frost4 ,a ,styrian variety 7p4 #bed7 has brittle foot-stalks1 so that the clusters of fruit are often blown off2 this variety is said to be particularly attractive to wasps and bees4 ,other varieties have tough stalks1 which resist the wind4 ,many other variable characters could be given1 but the foregoing facts are sufficient to show in how many small structural and constitutional details the vine varies4 ,during the vine disease in ,france certain old groups of varieties#h have suffered far more from mildew than others4 ,thus 8the group of ,chasselas1 so rich in varieties1 did not afford a single fortunate exception20 certain other groups suffered much less2 the true old ,burgundy1 for instance1 was comparatively free from disease1 and the ,carminat likewise resisted the attack4 ,the ,american vines1 which belong to a distinct species1 entirely escaped the disease in ,france2 and we thus see that those ,european varieties which best resist the disease must have acquired in a slight degree the same constitutional peculiarities as the ,american species4 ,white ,mulberry 7,morus alba74--,i mention this plant because it has varied in certain characters1 namely1 in the texture and quality of the leaves1 fitting them to serve as food for the domesticated silkworm1 in a manner not observed with other plants2 but this has arisen simply from such variations in the mulberry having been attended to1 selected1 and rendered more or less constant4 ,m4 de ,quatrefages#i briefly describes six kinds cultivated in one valley in ,france3 of these the amourouso produces excellent leaves1 but is rapidly being abandoned because it produces much fruit mingled with the leaves3 the antofino yields deeply cut leaves of the finest quality1 but not in great quantity3 the claro is much sought for because the leaves can be easily collected3 lastly1 the roso bears strong hardy leaves1 produced in large quantity1 but with the one inconvenience1 that they are best adapted for the worms after their fourth moult4 ,,mm4 ,jacquemet-,bonnefont1 of ,lyon1 however1 remark in their catalogue 7#ahfb7 that two sub-varieties have been confounded under the name of the roso1 one having leaves too thick for the caterpillars1 the other being valuable because the leaves can easily be gathered from the branches without the bark being torn4 ,in ,india the mulberry has also given rise to many varieties4 ,the ,indian form is thought by many botanists to be a distinct species2 but as ,royle remarks1#aj 8so many varieties have been produced by cultivation that it is difficult to ascertain whether they all belong to one species20 they are1 as he adds1 nearly as numerous as those of the silkworm4 ,the ,orange ,group4--,we here meet with great confusion in the specific distinction and parentage of the several kinds4 ,gallesio1#aa who almost devoted his life-time to the subject1 considers that there are four species1 namely1 sweet and bitter oranges1 lemons1 and citrons1 each of which has given rise to whole groups of varieties1 monsters1 and supposed hybrids4 ,one high authority#ab believes that these four reputed species are all varieties of the wild ,citrus medica1 but that the shaddock 7,citrus decumana71 which is not known in a wild state1 is a distinct species2 though its distinctness is doubted by another writer 8of great authority on such matters10 namely1 ,dr4 ,buchanan ,hamilton4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1#ac on the other hand--and there cannot be a more capable judge--advances what he considers sufficient evidence of the orange 7he doubts whether the bitter and sweet kinds are specifically distinct71 the lemon1 and citron1 having been found wild1 and consequently that they are distinct4 ,he mentions two other forms cultivated in ,japan and ,java1 which he ranks undoubted species2 he speaks rather more doubtfully about the shaddock1 which varies much1 and has not been found wild2 and finally he considers some forms1 such as ,adam's apple and the bergamotte1 as probably hybrids4 ,i have briefly abstracted these opinions for the sake of showing those who have never attended to such subjects1 how perplexing they are4 ,it would1 therefore1 be useless for my purpose to give a sketch of the conspicuous differences between the several forms4 ,besides the ever-recurrent difficulty of determining whether forms found wild are truly aboriginal or are escaped seedlings1 many of the forms1 which must be ranked as varieties1 transmit their characters almost perfectly by seed4 ,sweet and bitter oranges differ in no important respect except in the flavour of their fruit1 but ,gallesio#ad is most emphatic that both kinds can be propagated by seed with absolute certainty4 ,consequently1 in accordance with his simple rule1 he classes them as distinct species2 as he does sweet and bitter almonds1 the peach and nectarine1 etc4 ,he admits1 however1 that the soft-shelled pine-tree produces not only soft-shelled but some hard-shelled seedlings1 so that a little greater force in the power of inheritance would1 according to this rule1 raise a soft-shelled pine-tree into the dignity of an aboriginally created species4 ,the positive assertion made by ,macfayden#ae that the pips of sweet oranges produced in ,jamaica1 according to the nature of the soil in which they are sown1 either sweet or bitter oranges1 is probably an error2 for ,m4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle informs me that since the publication of his great work he has received accounts from ,guiana1 the ,antilles1 and ,mauritius1 that in these countries sweet oranges faithfully transmit their character4 ,gallesio found that the willow-leafed and the ,little ,china oranges reproduced their proper leaves and fruit2 but the seedlings were not quite equal in merit to their parents4 ,the red-fleshed orange1 on the other hand1 fails to reproduce itself4 ,gallesio also observed that the seeds of several other singular varieties all reproduced trees having a peculiar physiognomy1 partly resembling their parent-forms4 ,i can adduce another case3 the myrtle leaved orange is ranked by all authors as a variety1 but is very distinct in general aspect3 in my father's greenhouse1 during many years1 it rarely yielded any fruit1 but at last produced one2 and a tree thus raised was identical with the parent-form4 ,another and more serious difficulty in determining the rank of the several forms is that1 according to ,gallesio1#af they largely intercross without artificial aid2 thus he positively states that seeds taken from lemon-trees 7,c4 lemonum7 growing mingled with the citron 7,c4 medica71 which is generally considered as a distinct species1 produced a graduated series of varieties between these two forms4 ,again1 an ,adam's apple was produced from the seed of a sweet orange1 which grew close to lemons and citrons4 ,but such facts hardly aid us in determining whether to rank these forms as species or varieties2 for it is now known that undoubted species of ,verbascum1 ,cistus1 ,primula1 ,salix1 etc41 frequently cross in a state of nature4 ,if indeed it were proved that plants of the orange tribe raised from these crosses were even partially sterile1 it would be a strong argument in favour of their rank as species4 ,gallesio asserts that this is the case2 but he does not distinguish between sterility from hybridism and from the effects of culture2 and he almost destroys the force of this statement by another#ag namely1 that when he impregnated the flowers of the common orange with the pollen taken from undoubted varieties of the orange1 monstrous fruits were produced1 which included 8little pulp1 and had no seeds1 or imperfect seeds40 ,in this tribe of plants we meet with instances of two highly remarkable facts in vegetable physiology3 ,gallesio#ah impregnated an orange with pollen from a lemon1 and the fruit borne on the mother tree had a raised stripe of peel like that of a lemon both in colour and taste1 but the pulp was like that of an orange and included only imperfect seeds4 ,the possibility of pollen from one variety or species directly affecting the fruit produced by another variety of species1 is a subject which ,i shall fully discuss in the following chapter4 ,the second remarkable fact is1 that two supposed hybrids#ai 7for their hybrid nature was not ascertained71 between an orange and either a lemon or citron1 produced on the same tree leaves1 flowers1 and fruit of both pure parent-forms1 as well as of a mixed or crossed nature4 ,a bud taken from any one of the branches and grafted on another tree produces either one of the pure kinds or a capricious tree reproducing the three kinds4 ,whether the sweet lemon1 which includes within the same fruit segments of differently flavoured pulp1#bj is an analogous case1 ,i know not4 ,but to this subject ,i shall have to recur4 ,i will conclude by giving from ,a4 ,risso#ba a short account of a very singular variety of the common orange4 ,it is the 8citrus aurantium fructu variabili10 which on the young shoots produces rounded-oval leaves spotted with yellow1 borne on petioles with heart-shaped wings2 when these leaves fall off1 they are succeeded by longer and narrower leaves1 with undulated margins1 of a pale-green colour embroidered with yellow1 borne on footstalks without wings4 ,the fruit whilst young is pear-shaped1 yellow1 longitudinally striated1 and sweet2 but as it ripens1 it becomes spherical1 of a reddish-yellow1 and bitter4 ,peach and ,nectarine 7,amygdalus persica74--,the best authorities are nearly unanimous that the peach has never been found wild4 ,it was introduced from ,persia into ,europe a little before the ,christian era1 and at this period few varieties existed4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1#bb from the fact of the peach not having spread from ,persia at an earlier period1 and from its not having pure ,sanscrit or ,hebrew names1 believes that it is not an aboriginal of ,western ,asia1 but came from the terra incognita of ,china4 ,the supposition1 however1 that the peach is a modified almond which acquired its present character at a comparatively late period1 would1 ,i presume1 account for these facts2 on the same principle that the nectarine1 the offspring of the peach1 has few native names1 and became known in ,europe at a still later period4 ,illustration3 ,peach and ,almond ,stones4 ,andrew ,knight1#bc from finding that a seedling-tree1 raised from a sweet almond fertilised by the pollen of a peach1 yielded fruit quite like that of a peach1 suspected that the peach-tree is a modified almond2 and in this he has been followed by various authors4#bd ,a first-rate peach1 almost globular in shape1 formed of soft and sweet pulp1 surrounding a hard1 much furrowed1 and slightly flattened stone1 certainly differs greatly from an almond1 with its soft1 slightly furrowed1 much flattened1 and elongated stone1 protected by a tough1 greenish layer of bitter flesh4 ,mr4 ,bentham#be has particularly called attention to the stone of the almond being so much more flattened than that of the peach4 ,but in the several varieties of the almond1 the stone differs greatly in the degree to which it is compressed1 in size1 shape1 strength1 and in the depth of the furrows1 as may be seen in fig4 #db 7,nos4 #d to #h7 of such kinds as ,i have been able to collect4 ,with peach-stones also 7,nos4 #a to #c7 the degree of compression and elongation is seen to vary2 so that the stone of the ,chinese ,honey-peach 7,no4 #c7 is much more elongated and compressed than that of the 7,no4 #h7 ,smyrna almond4 ,mr4 ,rivers1 of ,sawbridgeworth1 to whom ,i am indebted for some of the specimens above figured1 and who has had such great horticultural experience1 has called my attention to several varieties which connect the almond and the peach4 ,in ,france there is a variety called the ,peach-,almond1 which ,mr4 ,rivers formerly cultivated1 and which is correctly described in a ,french catalogue as being oval and swollen1 with the aspect of a peach1 including a hard stone surrounded by a fleshy covering1 which is sometimes eatable4#bf ,a remarkable statement by ,m4 ,luizet has recently appeared in the #8,revue ,horticole1'#bg namely1 that a ,peach-almond1 grafted on a peach1 bore1 during #ahfc and #ahfd almonds alone1 but in #ahfe bore six peaches and no almonds4 ,m4 ,carriere1 in commenting on this fact1 cites the case of a double-flowered almond which1 after producing during several years almonds1 suddenly bore for two years in succession spherical fleshy peach-like fruits1 but in #ahfe reverted to its former state and produced large almonds4 ,again1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,rivers1 the double-flowering ,chinese peaches resemble almonds in their manner of growth and in their flowers2 the fruit is much elongated and flattened1 with the flesh both bitter and sweet1 but not uneatable1 and it is said to be of better quality in ,china4 ,from this stage one small step leads us to such inferior peaches as are occasionally raised from seed4 ,for instance1 ,mr4 ,rivers sowed a number of peach-stones imported from the ,united ,states1 where they are collected for raising stocks1 and some of the trees raised by him produced peaches which were very like almonds in appearance1 being small and hard1 with the pulp not softening till very late in the autumn4 ,van ,mons#bh also states that he once raised from a peach-stone a peach having the aspect of a wild tree1 with fruit like that of the almond4 ,from inferior peaches1 such as these just described1 we may pass by small transitions1 through clingstones of poor quality1 to our best and most melting kinds4 ,from this gradation1 from the cases of sudden variation above recorded1 and from the fact that the peach has not been found wild1 it seems to me by far the most probable view1 that the peach is the descendant of the almond1 improved and modified in a marvellous manner4 ,one fact1 however1 is opposed to this conclusion4 ,a hybrid1 raised by ,knight from the sweet almond by the pollen of the peach1 produced flowers with little or no pollen1 yet bore fruit1 having been apparently fertilised by a neighbouring nectarine4 ,another hybrid1 from a sweet almond by the pollen of a nectarine1 produced during the first three years imperfect blossoms1 but afterwards perfect flowers with an abundance of pollen4 ,if this slight degree of sterility cannot be accounted for by the youth of the trees 7and this often causes lessened fertility71 or by the monstrous state of the flowers1 or by the conditions to which the trees were exposed1 these two cases would afford a good argument against the peach being the descendant of the almond4 ,whether or not the peach has proceeded from the almond1 it has certainly given rise to nectarines1 or smooth peaches1 as they are called by the ,french4 ,most of the varieties1 both of the peach and nectarine1 reproduce themselves truly by seed4 ,gallesio#bi says he has verified this with respect to eight races of the peach4 ,mr4 ,rivers#cj has given some striking instances from his own experience1 and it is notorious that good peaches are constantly raised in ,north ,america from seed4 ,many of the ,american sub-varieties come true or nearly true to their kind1 such as the white-blossom1 several of the yellow-fruited freestone peaches1 the blood clingstone1 the heath1 and the lemon clingstone4 ,on the other hand1 a clingstone peach has been known to give rise to a freestone4#ca ,in ,england it has been noticed that seedlings inherit from their parents flowers of the same size and colour4 ,some characters1 however1 contrary to what might have been expected1 often are not inherited2 such as the presence and form of the glands on the leaves4#cb ,with respect to nectarines1 both cling and freestones are known in ,north ,america to reproduce themselves by seed4#cc ,in ,england the new white nectarine was a seedling of the old white1 and ,mr4 ,rivers#cd has recorded several similar cases4 ,from this strong tendency to inheritance1 which both peach and nectarine trees exhibit1--from certain slight constitutional differences#ce in their nature1--and from the great difference in their fruit both in appearance and flavour1 it is not surprising1 notwithstanding that the trees differ in no other respects and cannot even be distinguished1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,rivers1 whilst young1 that they have been ranked by some authors as specifically distinct4 ,gallesio does not doubt that they are distinct2 even ,alph4 ,de ,candolle does not appear perfectly assured of their specific identity3 and an eminent botanist has quite recently#cf maintained that the nectarine 8probably constitutes a distinct species40 ,hence it may be worth while to give all the evidence on the origin of the nectarine4 ,the facts in themselves are curious1 and will hereafter have to be referred to when the important subject of bud-variation is discussed4 ,it is asserted#cg that the ,boston nectarine was produced from a peach-stone1 and this nectarine reproduced itself by seed4#ch ,mr4 ,rivers states#ci that from stones of three distinct varieties of the peach he raised three varieties of nectarine2 and in one of these cases no nectarine grew near the parent peach-tree4 ,in another instance ,mr4 ,rivers raised a nectarine from a peach1 and in the succeeding generation another nectarine from this nectarine4#dj ,other such instances have been communicated to me1 but they need not be given4 ,of the converse case1 namely1 of nectarine-stones yielding peach-trees 7both free and clingstones71 we have six undoubted instances recorded by ,mr4 ,rivers2 and in two of these instances the parent nectarines had been seedlings from other nectarines4#da ,with respect to the more curious case of full-grown peach-trees suddenly producing nectarines by bud-variation 7or sports as they are called by gardeners71 the evidence is superabundant2 there is also good evidence of the same tree producing both peaches and nectarines1 or half-and-half fruit2 by this term ,i mean a fruit with the one-half a perfect peach1 and the other half a perfect nectarine4 ,peter ,collinson in #agda recorded the first case of a peach-tree producing a nectarine1#db and in #agff he added two other instances4 ,in the same work1 the editor1 ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith1 describes the more remarkable case of a tree in ,norfolk which usually bore both perfect nectarines and perfect peaches2 but during two seasons some of the fruit were half and half in nature4 ,mr4 ,salisbury in #ahjhdc records six other cases of peach-trees producing nectarines4 ,three of the varieties are named2 viz41 the ,alberge1 ,belle ,chevreuse1 and ,royal ,george4 ,this latter tree seldom failed to produce both kinds of fruit4 ,he gives another case of a half-and-half fruit4 ,at ,radford in ,devonshire#dd a clingstone peach1 purchased as the ,chancellor1 was planted in #ahae1 and in #ahbd1 after having previously produced peaches alone1 bore on one branch twelve nectarines2 in #ahbe the same branch yielded twenty-six nectarines1 and in #ahbf thirty-six nectarines1 together with eighteen peaches4 ,one of the peaches was almost as smooth on one side as a nectarine4 ,the nectarines were as dark as1 but smaller than1 the ,elruge4 ,at ,beccles a ,royal ,george peach#de produced a fruit1 8three parts of it being peach and one part nectarine1 quite distinct in appearance as well as in flavour40 ,the lines of division were longitudinal1 as represented in the woodcut4 ,a nectarine-tree grew five yards from this tree4 ,professor ,chapman states#df that he has often seen in ,virginia very old peach-trees bearing nectarines4 ,a writer in the #8,gardener's ,chronicle' says that a peach tree planted fifteen years previously#dg produced this year a nectarine between two peaches2 a nectarine-tree grew close by4 ,in #ahdddh a ,vanguard peach-tree produced1 in the midst of its ordinary fruit1 a single red ,roman nectarine4 ,mr4 ,calver is stated#di to have raised in the ,united ,states a seedling peach which produced a mixed crop of both peaches and nectarines4 ,near ,dorking#ej a branch of the ,tton de ,vnus peach1 which reproduces itself truly by seed1#ea bore its own fruit 8so remarkable for its prominent point1 and a nectarine rather smaller but well formed and quite round40 ,the previous cases all refer to peaches suddenly producing nectarines1 but at ,carclew#eb the unique case occurred1 of a nectarine-tree1 raised twenty years before from seed and never grafted1 producing a fruit half peach and half nectarine2 subsequently bore a perfect peach4 ,to sum up the foregoing facts2 we have excellent evidence of peach-stones producing nectarine-trees1 and of nectarine-stones producing peach-,trees1--of the same tree bearing peaches and nectarines1--of peach-trees suddenly producing by bud-variation nectarines 7such nectarines reproducing nectarines by seed71 as well as fruit in part nectarine and in part peach1--and1 lastly1 of one nectarine-tree first bearing half-and-half fruit1 and subsequently true peaches4 ,as the peach came into existence before the nectarine1 it might have been expected from the law of reversion that nectarines would have given birth by bud-variation or by seed to peaches1 oftener than peaches to nectarines2 but this is by no means the case4 ,two explanations have been suggested to account for these conversions4 ,first1 that the parent trees have been in every case hybrids#ec between the peach and nectarine1 and have reverted by bud-variation or by seed to one of their pure parent forms4 ,this view in itself is not very improbable2 for the ,mountaineer peach1 which was raised by ,knight from the red nutmeg-peach by pollen of the violette htive nectarine1#ed produces peaches1 but these are said sometimes to partake of the smoothness and flavour of the nectarine4 ,but let it be observed that in the previous list no less than six well-known varieties and several unnamed varieties of the peach have once suddenly produced perfect nectarines by bud variation3 and it would be an extremely rash supposition that all these varieties of the peach1 which have been cultivated for years in many districts1 and which show not a vestige of a mixed parentage1 are1 nevertheless1 hybrids4 ,a second explanation is1 that the fruit of the peach has been directly affected by the pollen of the nectarine3 although this certainly is possible1 it cannot here apply2 for we have not a shadow of evidence that a branch which has borne fruit directly affected by foreign pollen is so profoundly modified as afterwards to produce buds which continue to yield fruit of the new and modified form4 ,now it is known that when a bud on a peach-tree has once borne a nectarine the same branch has in several instances gone on during successive years producing nectarines4 ,the ,carclew nectarine1 on the other hand1 first produced half-and-half fruit1 and subsequently pure peaches4 ,hence we may confidently accept the common view that the nectarine is a variety of the peach1 which may be produced either by bud-variation or from seed4 ,in the following chapter many analogous cases of bud-variation will he given4 ,the varieties of the peach and the nectarine run in parallel lines4 ,in both classes the kinds differ from each other in the flesh of the fruit being white1 red1 or yellow2 in being clingstones or freestones2 in the flowers being large or small1 with certain other characteristic differences2 and in the leaves being serrated without glands1 or crenated and furnished with globose or reniform glands4#ee ,we can hardly account for this parallelism by supposing that each variety of the nectarine is descended from a corresponding variety of the peach2 for though our nectarines are certainly the descendants of several kinds of peaches1 yet a large number are the descendants of other nectarines1 and they vary so much when thus reproduced that we can scarcely admit the above explanation4 ,the varieties of the peach have largely increased in number since the ,christian era1 when from two to five varieties were known2#ef and the nectarine was unknown4 ,at the present time1 besides many varieties said to exist in ,china1 ,downing describes1 in the ,united ,states1 seventy-nine native and imported varieties of the peach2 and a few years ago ,lindley#eg enumerated one hundred and sixty-four varieties of the peach and nectarine grown in ,england4 ,i have already indicated the chief points of difference between the several varieties4 ,nectarines1 even when produced from distinct kinds of peaches1 always possess their own peculiar flavour1 and are smooth and small4 ,clingstone and freestone peaches1 which differ in the ripe flesh either firmly adhering to the stone1 or easily separating from it1 also differ in the character of the stone itself2 that of the freestones or melters being more deeply fissured1 with the sides of the fissures smoother than in clingstones4 ,in the various kinds the flowers differ not only in size1 but in the larger flowers the petals are differently shaped1 more imbricated1 generally red in the centre and pale towards the margin3 whereas in the smaller flowers the margin of the petal is usually more darkly coloured4 ,one variety has nearly white flowers4 ,the leaves are more or less serrated1 and are either destitute of glands1 or have globose or reniform glands2#eh and some few peaches1 such as the ,brugnen1 bear on the same tree both globular and kidney-shaped glands4#ei ,according to ,robertson#fj the trees with glandular leaves are liable to blister1 but not in any great degree to mildew2 whilst the non-glandular trees are more subject to curl1 to mildew1 and to the attacks of aphides4 ,the varieties differ in the period of their maturity1 in the fruit keeping well1 and in hardiness1--the latter circumstance being especially attended to in the ,united ,states4 ,certain varieties1 such as the ,bellegarde1 stand forcing in hot-houses better than other varieties4 ,the flat-peach of ,china is the most remarkable of all the varieties2 it is so much depressed towards the summit1 that the stone is here covered only by roughened skin and not by a fleshy layer4#fa ,another ,chinese variety1 called the ,honey-peach1 is remarkable from the fruit terminating in a long sharp point2 its leaves are glandless and widely dentate4#fb ,the ,emperor of ,russia peach is a third singular variety1 having deeply double-serrated leaves2 the fruit is deeply cleft with one-half projecting considerably beyond the other3 it originated in ,america1 and its seedlings inherit similar leaves4#fc ,the peach has also produced in ,china a small class of trees valued for ornament1 namely the double-flowered2 of these1 five varieties are now known in ,england1 varying from pure white1 through rose1 to intense crimson4#fd ,one of these varieties1 called the camellia-flowered1 bears flowers above #b inches in diameter1 whilst those of the fruit-bearing kinds do not at most exceed #a inch in diameter4 ,the flowers of the double-flowered peaches have the singular property#fe of frequently producing double or treble fruit4 ,finally1 there is good reason to believe that the peach is an almond profoundly modified2 but whatever its origin may have been1 there can be no doubt that it has yielded during the last eighteen centuries many varieties1 some of them strongly characterised1 belonging both to the nectarine and peach form4 ,apricot 7,prunus armeniaca74--,it is commonly admitted that this tree is descended from a single species1 now found wild in the ,caucasian region4#ff ,on this view the varieties deserve notice1 because they illustrate differences supposed by some botanists to be of specific value in the almond and plum4 ,the best monograph on the apricot is by ,mr4 ,thompson1#fg who describes seventeen varieties4 ,we have seen that peaches and nectarines vary in a strictly parallel manner2 and in the apricot1 which forms a closely allied genus1 we again meet with variations analogous to those of the peach1 as well as to those of the plum4 ,the varieties differ considerably in the shape of their leaves1 which are either serrated or crenated1 sometimes with ear-like appendages at their bases1 and sometimes with glands on the petioles4 ,the flowers are generally alike1 but are small in the ,masculine4 ,the fruit varies much in size1 shape1 and in having the suture little pronounced or absent2 in the skin being smooth1 or downy1 as in the orange-apricot2 and in the flesh clinging to the stone1 as in the last-mentioned kind1 or in readily separating from it1 as in the ,turkey-apricot4 ,in all these differences we see the closest analogy with the varieties of the peach and nectarine4 ,in the stone we have more important differences1 and these in the case of the plum have been esteemed of specific value3 in some apricots the stone is almost spherical1 in others much flattened1 being either sharp in front or blunt at both ends1 sometimes channelled along the back1 or with a sharp ridge along both margins4 ,in the ,moorpark1 and generally in the ,hemskirke1 the stone presents a singular character in being perforated1 with a bundle of fibres passing through the perforation from end to end4 ,the most constant and important character1 according to ,thompson1 is whether the kernel is bitter or sweet3 yet in this respect we have a graduated difference1 for the kernel is very bitter in ,shipley's apricot2 in the ,hemskirke less bitter than in some other kinds2 slightly bitter in the ,royal2 and 8sweet like a hazel-nut0 in the ,breda1 ,angoumois1 and others4 ,in the case of the almond1 bitterness has been thought by some high authorities to indicate specific difference4 ,in ,n4 ,america the ,roman apricot endures 8cold and unfavourable situations1 where no other sort1 except the ,masculine1 will succeed2 and its blossoms bear quite a severe frost without injury40#fh ,according to ,mr4 ,rivers1#fi seedling apricots deviate but little from the character of their race3 in ,france the ,alberge is constantly reproduced from seed with but little variation4 ,in ,ladakh1 according to ,moorcroft1#gj ten varieties of the apricot1 very different from each other1 are cultivated1 and all are raised from seed1 excepting one1 which is budded4 ,illustration3 ,plum ,stones4 ,plums 7,prunus insititia74--,formerly the sloe1 ,p4 spinosa1 was thought to be the parent of all our plums2 but now this honour is very commonly accorded to ,p4 insititia or the bullace1 which is found wild in the ,caucasus and ,n4-,western ,india1 and is naturalised in ,england4#ga ,it is not at all improbable1 in accordance with some observations made by ,mr4 ,rivers1#gb that both these forms1 which some botanists rank as a single species1 may be the parents of our domesticated plums4 ,another supposed parent-form1 the ,p4 domestica1 is said to be found wild in the region of the ,caucasus4 ,godron remarks#gc that the cultivated varieties may be divided into two main groups1 which he supposes to be descended from two aboriginal stocks2 namely1 those with oblong fruit and stones pointed at both ends1 having narrow separate petals and upright branches2 and those with rounded fruit1 with stones blunt at both ends1 with rounded petals and spreading branches4 ,from what we know of the variability of the flowers in the peach and of the diversified manner of growth in our various fruit-trees1 it is difficult to lay much weight on these latter characters4 ,with respect to the shape of the fruit1 we have conclusive evidence that it is extremely variable3 ,downing#gd gives outlines of the plums of two seedlings1 namely1 the red and imperial gages1 raised from the greengage2 and the fruit of both is more elongated than that of the greengage4 ,the latter has a very blunt broad stone1 whereas the stone of the imperial gage is 8oval and pointed at both ends40 ,these trees also differ in their manner of growth3 8the greengage is a very short-jointed1 slow-growing tree1 of spreading and rather dwarfish habit20 whilst its offspring1 the imperial gage1 8grows freely and rises rapidly1 and has long dark shoots40 ,the famous ,washington plum bears a globular fruit1 but its offspring1 the emerald drop1 is nearly as much elongated as the most elongated plum figured by ,downing1 namely1 ,manning's prune4 ,i have made a small collection of the stones of twenty-five kinds1 and they graduate in shape from the bluntest into the sharpest kinds4 ,as characters derived from seeds are generally of high systematic importance1 ,i have thought it worth while to give drawings of the most distinct kinds in my small collection2 and they may be seen to differ in a surprising manner in size1 outline1 thickness1 prominence of the ridges1 and state of surface4 ,it deserves notice that the shape of the stone is not always strictly correlated with that of the fruit3 thus the ,washington plum is spherical and depressed at the pole1 with a somewhat elongated stone1 whilst the fruit of the ,goliath is more elongated1 but the stone less so1 than in the ,washington4 ,again1 ,denyer's ,victoria and ,goliath bear fruit closely resembling each other1 but their stones are widely different4 ,on the other hand1 the ,harvest and ,black ,margate plums are very dissimilar1 yet include closely similar stones4 ,the varieties of the plum are numerous1 and differ greatly in size1 shape1 quality1 and colour1--being bright yellow1 green1 almost white1 blue1 purple1 or red4 ,there are some curious varieties1 such as the double or ,siamese1 and the ,stoneless plum3 in the latter the kernel lies in a roomy cavity surrounded only by the pulp4 ,the climate of ,north ,america appears to be singularly favourable for the production of new and good varieties2 ,downing describes no less than forty1 of which seven of first-rate quality have been recently introduced into ,england4#ge ,varieties occasionally arise having an innate adaptation for certain soils1 almost as strongly pronounced as with natural species growing on the most distinct geological formations2 thus in ,america the imperial gage1 differently from almost all other kinds1 8is peculiarly fitted for dry light soils where many sorts drop their fruit10 whereas on rich heavy soils the fruit is often insipid4#gf ,my father could never succeed in making the ,wine-,sour yield even a moderate crop in a sandy orchard near ,shrewsbury1 whilst in some parts of the same county and in its native ,yorkshire it bears abundantly3 one of my relations also repeatedly tried in vain to grow this variety in a sandy district in ,staffordshire4 ,mr4 ,rivers has given#gg a number of interesting facts1 showing how truly many varieties can be propagated by seed4 ,he sowed the stones of twenty bushels of the greengage for the sake of raising stocks1 and closely observed the seedlings2 all had the smooth shoots1 the prominent buds1 and the glossy leaves of the greengage1 but the greater number had smaller leaves and thorns4 ,there are two kinds of damson1 one the ,shropshire with downy shoots1 and the other the ,kentish with smooth shoots1 and these differ but slightly in any other respect3 ,mr4 ,rivers sowed some bushels of the ,kentish damson1 and all the seedlings had smooth shoots1 but in some the fruit was oval1 in others round or roundish1 and in a few the fruit was small1 and1 except in being sweet1 closely resembled that of the wild sloe4 ,mr4 ,rivers gives several other striking instances of inheritance3 thus1 he raised eighty thousand seedlings from the common ,german ,quetsche plum1 and 8not one could be found varying in the least1 in foliage or habit40 ,similar facts were observed with the ,petite ,mirabelle plum1 yet this latter kind 7as well as the ,quetsche7 is known to have yielded some well-established varieties2 but1 as ,mr4 ,rivers remarks1 they all belong to the same group with the ,mirabelle4 ,cherries 7,prunus cerasus1 avium1 etc474--,botanists believe that our cultivated cherries are descended from one1 two1 four1 or even more wild stocks4#gh ,that there must be at least two parent species we may infer from the sterility of twenty hybrids raised by ,mr4 ,knight from the morello fertilised by pollen of the ,elton cherry2 for these hybrids produced in all only five cherries1 and one alone of these contained a seed4#gi ,mr4 ,thompson#hj has classified the varieties in an apparently natural method in two main groups by characters taken from the flowers1 fruit1 and leaves2 but some varieties which stand widely separate in this classification are quite fertile when crossed2 thus ,knight's ,early ,black cherries are the product of a cross between two such kinds4 ,mr4 ,knight states that seedling cherries are more variable than those of any other fruit-tree4#ha ,in the ,catalogue of the ,horticultural ,society for #ahdb eighty varieties are enumerated4 ,some varieties present singular characters3 thus1 the flower of the ,cluster cherry includes as many as twelve pistils1 of which the majority abort2 and they are said generally to produce from two to five or six cherries aggregated together and borne on a single peduncle4 ,in the ,ratafia cherry several flower-peduncles arise from a common peduncle1 upwards of an inch in length4 ,the fruit of ,gascoigne's ,heart has its apex produced into a globule or drop2 that of the white ,hungarian ,gean has almost transparent flesh4 ,the ,flemish cherry is 8a very odd-looking fruit10 much flattened at the summit and base1 with the latter deeply furrowed1 and borne on a stout1 very short footstalk4 ,in the ,kentish cherry the stone adheres so firmly to the footstalk1 that it could be drawn out of the flesh2 and this renders the fruit well fitted for drying4 ,the ,tobacco-leaved cherry1 according to ,sageret and ,thompson1 produces gigantic leaves1 more than a foot and sometimes even eighteen inches in length1 and half a foot in breadth4 ,the weeping cherry1 on the other hand1 is valuable only as an ornament1 and1 according to ,downing1 is 8a charming little tree1 with slender1 weeping branches1 clothed with small1 almost myrtle-like foliage40 ,there is also a peach-leaved variety4 ,sageret describes a remarkable variety1 le griottier de la ,toussaint1 which bears at the same time1 even as late as ,september1 flowers and fruit of all degrees of maturity4 ,the fruit1 which is of inferior quality1 is borne on long1 very thin footstalks4 ,but the extraordinary statement is made that all the leaf-bearing shoots spring from old flower-buds4 ,lastly1 there is an important physiological distinction between those kinds of cherries which bear fruit on young or on old wood2 but ,sageret positively asserts that a ,bigarreau in his garden bore fruit on wood of both ages4#hb ,apple 7,pyrus malus74--,the one source of doubt felt by botanists with respect to the parentage of the apple is whether1 besides ,p4 malus1 two or three other closely allied wild forms1 namely1 ,p4 acerba and prcox or paradisiaca1 do not deserve to be ranked as distinct species4 ,the ,p4 prcox is supposed by some authors#hc to be the parent of the dwarf paradise stock1 which1 owing to the fibrous roots not penetrating deeply into the ground1 is so largely used for grafting2 but the paradise stocks1 it is asserted1#hd cannot be propagated true by seed4 ,the common wild crab varies considerably in ,england2 but many of the varieties are believed to be escaped seedlings4#he ,every one knows the great difference in the manner of growth1 in the foliage1 flowers1 and especially in the fruit1 between the almost innumerable varieties of the apple4 ,the pips or seeds 7as ,i know by comparison7 likewise differ considerably in shape1 size1 and colour4 ,the fruit is adapted for eating or for cooking in various ways1 and keeps for only a few weeks or for nearly two years4 ,some few kinds have the fruit covered with a powdery secretion1 called bloom1 like that on plums2 and 8it is extremely remarkable that this occurs almost exclusively among varieties cultivated in ,russia40#hf ,another ,russian apple1 the white ,astracan1 possesses the singular property of becoming transparent1 when ripe1 like some sorts of crabs4 ,the api toil has five prominent ridges1 hence its name2 the api noir is nearly black3 the twin cluster pippin often bears fruit joined in pairs4#hg ,the trees of the several sorts differ greatly in their periods of leafing and flowering2 in my orchard the ,court ,pendu ,plat produces leaves so late1 that during several springs ,i thought that it was dead4 ,the ,tiffin apple scarcely bears a leaf when in full bloom2 the ,cornish crab1 on the other hand1 bears so many leaves at this period that the flowers can hardly be seen4#hh ,in some kinds the fruit ripens in mid-summer2 in others1 late in the autumn4 ,these several differences in leafing1 flowering1 and fruiting1 are not at all necessarily correlated2 for1 as ,andrew ,knight has remarked1#hi no one can judge from the early flowering of a new seedling1 or from the early shedding or change of colour of the leaves1 whether it will mature its fruit early in the season4 ,the varieties differ greatly in constitution4 ,it is notorious that our summers are not hot enough for the ,newtown ,pippin1#ij which is the glory of the orchards near ,new ,york2 and so it is with several varieties which we have imported from the ,continent4 ,on the other hand1 our ,court of ,wick succeeds well under the severe climate of ,canada4 ,the ,caville rouge de ,micoud occasionally bears two crops during the same year4 ,the ,burr ,knot is covered with small excrescences1 which emit roots so readily that a branch with blossom-buds may be stuck in the ground1 and will root and bear a few fruit even during the first year4#ia ,mr4 ,rivers has recently described#ib some seedlings valuable from their roots running near the surface4 ,one of these seedlings was remarkable from its extremely dwarfed size1 8forming itself into a bush only a few inches in height40 ,many varieties are particularly liable to canker in certain soils4 ,but perhaps the strangest constitutional peculiarity is that the ,winter ,majetin is not attacked by the mealy bug or coccus2 ,lindley#ic states that in an orchard in ,norfolk infested with these insects the ,majetin was quite free1 though the stock on which it was grafted was affected3 ,knight makes a similar statement with respect to a cider apple1 and adds that he only once saw these insects just above the stock1 but that three days afterwards they entirely disappeared2 this apple1 however1 was raised from a cross between the ,golden ,harvey and the ,siberian ,crab2 and the latter1 ,i believe1 is considered by some authors as specifically distinct4 ,the famous ,st4 ,valery apple must not be passed over2 the flower has a double calyx with ten divisions1 and fourteen styles surmounted by conspicuous oblique stigmas1 but is destitute of stamens or corolla4 ,the fruit is constricted round the middle1 and is formed of five seed-cells1 surmounted by nine other cells4#id ,not being provided with stamens1 the tree requires artificial fertilisation2 and the girls of ,st4 ,valery annually go to 8faire ses pommes10 each marking her own fruit with a ribbon2 and as different pollen is used the fruit differs1 and we here have an instance of the direct action of foreign pollen on the mother plant4 ,these monstrous apples include1 as we have seen1 fourteen seed-cells2 the pigeon-apple1#ie on the other hand1 has only four1 instead of1 as with all common apples1 five cells2 and this certainly is a remarkable difference4 ,in the catalogue of apples published in #ahdb by the ,horticultural ,society1 #hig varieties are enumerated2 but the differences between most of them are of comparatively little interest1 as they are not strictly inherited4 ,no one can raise1 for instance1 from the seed of the ,ribston ,pippin1 a tree of the same kind2 and it is said that the 8,sister ,ribston ,pippin0 was a white semi-transparent1 sour-fleshed apple1 or rather large crab4#if ,yet it was a mistake to suppose that with most varieties the characters are not to a certain extent inherited4 ,in two lots of seedlings raised from two well-marked kinds1 many worthless crab-like seedlings will appear1 but it is now known that the two lots not only usually differ from each other1 but resemble to a certain extent their parents4 ,we see this indeed in the several sub-groups of ,russetts1 ,sweetings1 ,codlins1 ,pearmains1 ,reinettes1 etc41#ig which are all believed1 and many are known1 to be descended from other varieties bearing the same names4 ,pears 7,pyrus communis74--,i need say little on this fruit1 which varies much in the wild state1 and to an extraordinary degree when cultivated1 in its fruit1 flowers1 and foliage4 ,one of the most celebrated botanists in ,europe1 ,m4 ,decaisne1 has carefully studied the many varieties2#ih although he formerly believed that they were derived from more than one species1 he now thinks that all belong to one4 ,he has arrived at this conclusion from finding in the several varieties a perfect gradation between the most extreme characters2 so perfect is this gradation that he maintains it to be impossible to classify the varieties by any natural method4 ,m4 ,decaisne raised many seedlings from four distinct kinds1 and has carefully recorded the variations in each4 ,notwithstanding this extreme degree of variability1 it is now positively known that many kinds reproduce by seed the leading characters of their race4#ii ,strawberries 7,fragaria74--,this fruit is remarkable on account of the number of species which have been cultivated1 and from their rapid improvement within the last fifty or sixty years4 ,let any one compare the fruit of one of the largest varieties exhibited at our ,shows with that of the wild wood strawberry1 or1 which will be a fairer comparison1 with the somewhat larger fruit of the wild ,american ,virginian ,strawberry1 and he will see what prodigies horticulture has effected4#ajj ,the number of varieties has likewise increased in a surprisingly rapid manner4 ,only three kinds were known in ,france1 in #agdf1 where this fruit was early cultivated4 ,in #agff five species had been introduced1 the same which are now cultivated1 but only five varieties of ,fragaria vesca1 with some sub-varieties1 had been produced4 ,at the present day the varieties of the several species are almost innumerable4 ,the species consist of1 firstly1 the wood or ,alpine cultivated strawberries1 descended from ,f4 vesca1 a native of ,europe and of ,north ,america4 ,there are eight wild ,european varieties1 as ranked by ,duchesne1 of ,f4 vesca1 but several of these are considered species by some botanists4 ,secondly1 the green strawberries1 descended from the ,european ,f4 collina1 and little cultivated in ,england4 ,thirdly1 the ,hautbois1 from the ,european ,f4 elatior4 ,fourthly1 the ,scarlets1 descended from ,f4 virginiana1 a native of the whole breadth of ,north ,america4 ,fifthly1 the ,chili1 descended from ,f4 chiloensis1 an inhabitant of the west coast of the temperate parts both of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,lastly1 the pines or ,carolinas 7including the old ,blacks71 which have been ranked by most authors under the name of ,f4 grandiflora as a distinct species1 said to inhabit ,surinam2 but this is a manifest error4 ,this form is considered by the highest authority1 ,m4 ,gay1 to be merely a strongly marked race of ,f4 chiloensis4#aja ,these five or six forms have been ranked by most botanists as specifically distinct2 but this may be doubted1 for ,andrew ,knight1#ajb who raised no less than #djj crossed strawberries1 asserts that the ,f4 virginiana1 chiloensis and grandiflora 8may be made to breed together indiscriminately10 and he found1 in accordance with the principle of analogous variation1 8that similar varieties could be obtained from the seeds of any one of them40 ,since ,knight's time there is abundant and additional evidence#ajc of the extent to which the ,american forms spontaneously cross4 ,we owe indeed to such crosses most of our choicest existing varieties4 ,knight did not succeed in crossing the ,european wood-strawberry with the ,american ,scarlet or with the ,hautbois4 ,mr4 ,williams of ,pitmaston1 however1 succeeded2 but the hybrid offspring from the ,hautbois1 though fruiting well1 never produced seed1 with the exception of a single one1 which reproduced the parent hybrid form4#ajd ,major ,r4 ,trevor ,clarke informs me that he crossed two members of the ,pine class 7,myatt's ,b4 ,queen and ,keen's ,seedling7 with the wood and hautbois1 and that in each case he raised only a single seedling2 one of these fruited1 but was almost barren4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,smith1 of ,york1 has raised similar hybrids with equally poor success4#aje ,we thus see#ajf that the ,european and ,american species can with some difficulty be crossed2 but it is improbable that hybrids sufficiently fertile to be worth cultivation will ever be thus produced4 ,this fact is surprising1 as these forms structurally are not widely distinct1 and are sometimes connected in the districts where they grow wild1 as ,i hear from ,professor ,asa ,gray1 by puzzling intermediate forms4 ,the energetic culture of the ,strawberry is of recent date1 and the cultivated varieties can in most cases be classed under some one of the above native stocks4 ,as the ,american strawberries cross so freely and spontaneously1 we can hardly doubt that they will ultimately become inextricably confused4 ,we find1 indeed1 that horticulturists at present disagree under which class to rank some few of the varieties2 and a writer in the #8,bon ,jardinier' of #ahdj remarks that formerly it was possible to class all of them under some one species1 but that now this is quite impossible with the ,american forms1 the new ,english varieties having completely filled up the gaps between them4#ajg ,the blending together of two or more aboriginal forms1 which there is every reason to believe has occurred with some of our anciently cultivated productions1 we see now actually occurring with our strawberries4 ,the cultivated species offer some variations worth notice4 ,the ,black ,prince1 a seedling from ,keen's ,imperial 7this latter being a seedling of a very white strawberry1 the white ,carolina71 is remarkable from 8its peculiar dark and polished surface1 and from presenting an appearance entirely unlike that of any other kind40#ajh ,although the fruit in the different varieties differs so greatly in form1 size1 colour1 and quality1 the so-called seed 7which corresponds with the whole fruit in the plum7 with the exception of being more or less deeply embedded in the pulp1 is1 according to ,de ,jonghe1#aji absolutely the same in all3 and this no doubt may be accounted for by the seed being of no value1 and consequently not having been subjected to selection4 ,the strawberry is properly three-leaved1 but in #agfa ,duchesne raised a single-leaved variety of the ,european wood-strawberry1 which ,linnus doubtfully raised to the rank of a species4 ,seedlings of this variety1 like those of most varieties not fixed by long-continued selection1 often revert to the ordinary form1 or present intermediate states4#aaj ,a variety raised by ,mr4 ,myatt1#aaa apparently belonging to one of the ,american forms presents a variation of an opposite nature1 for it has five leaves2 ,godron and ,lambertye also mention a five-leaved variety of ,f4 collina4 ,the ,red ,bush ,alpine strawberry 7one of the ,f4 vesca section7 does not produce stolons or runners1 and this remarkable deviation of structure is reproduced truly by seed4 ,another sub-variety1 the ,white ,bush ,alpine1 is similarly characterised1 but when propagated by seed it often degenerates and produces plants with runners4#aab ,a strawberry of the ,american ,pine section is also said to make but few runners4#aac ,much has been written on the sexes of strawberries2 the true ,hautbois properly bears the male and female organs on separate plants1#aad and was consequently named by ,duchesne dioica2 but it frequently produces hermaphrodites2 and ,lindley1#aae by propagating such plants by runners1 at the same time destroying the males1 soon raised a self-prolific stock4 ,the other species often showed a tendency towards an imperfect separation of the sexes1 as ,i have noticed with plants forced in a hot-house4 ,several ,english varieties1 which in this country are free from any such tendency1 when cultivated in rich soils under the climate of ,north ,america#aaf commonly produce plants with separate sexes4 ,thus a whole acre of ,keen's ,seedlings in the ,united ,states has been observed to be almost sterile from the absence of male flowers2 but the more general rule is1 that the male plants overrun the females4 ,some members of the ,cincinnati ,horticultural ,society1 especially appointed to investigate this subject1 report that 8few varieties have the flowers perfect in both sexual organs10 etc4 ,the most successful cultivators in ,ohio plant for every seven rows of 8pistillata10 or female plants1 one row of hermaphrodites1 which afford pollen for both kinds2 but the hermaphrodites1 owing to their expenditure in the production of pollen1 bear less fruit than the female plants4 ,the varieties differ in constitution4 ,some of our best ,english kinds1 such as ,keen's ,seedlings1 are too tender for certain parts of ,north ,america1 where other ,english and many ,american varieties succeed perfectly4 ,that splendid fruit1 the ,british ,queen1 can be cultivated but in few places either in ,england or ,france3 but this apparently depends more on the nature of the soil than on the climate2 a famous gardener says that 8no mortal could grow the ,british ,queen at ,shrubland ,park unless the whole nature of the soil was altered40#aag ,la ,constantine is one of the hardiest kinds1 and can withstand ,russian winters1 but it is easily burnt by the sun1 so that it will not succeed in certain soils either in ,england or the ,united ,states4#aah ,the ,filbert ,pine ,strawberry 8requires more water than any other variety2 and if the plants once suffer from drought1 they will do little or no good afterwards40#aai ,cuthill's ,black ,prince ,strawberry evinces a singular tendency to mildew2 no less than six cases have been recorded of this variety suffering severely1 whilst other varieties growing close by1 and treated in exactly the same manner1 were not at all infested by this fungus4#abj ,the time of maturity differs much in the different varieties3 some belonging to the wood or alpine section produce a succession of crops throughout the summer4 ,gooseberry 7,ribes grossularia74--,no one1 ,i believe1 has hitherto doubted that all the cultivated kinds are sprung from the wild plant bearing this name1 which is common in ,central and ,northern ,europe2 therefore it will be desirable briefly to specify all the points1 though not very important1 which have varied4 ,if it be admitted that these differences are due to culture1 authors perhaps will not be so ready to assume the existence of a large number of unknown wild parent-stocks for our other cultivated plants4 ,the gooseberry is not alluded to by writers of the classical period4 ,turner mentions it in #aegc1 and ,parkinson specifies eight varieties in #afbi2 the ,catalogue of the ,horticultural ,society for #ahdb gives #adi varieties1 and the lists of the ,lancashire nurserymen are said to include above #cjj names4#aba ,in the #8,gooseberry ,grower's ,register' for #ahfb ,i find that #bdc distinct varieties have won prizes at various periods1 so that a vast number must have been exhibited4 ,no doubt the difference between many of the varieties is very small2 but ,mr4 ,thompson in classifying the fruit for the ,horticultural ,society found less confusion in the nomenclature of the gooseberry than of any other fruit1 and he attributes this 8to the great interest which the prize-growers have taken in detecting sorts with wrong names10 and this shows that all the kinds1 numerous as they are1 can be recognised with certainty4 ,the bushes differ in their manner of growth1 being erect1 or spreading1 or pendulous4 ,the periods of leafing and flowering differ both absolutely and relatively to each other2 thus the ,whitesmith produces early flowers1 which from not being protected by the foliage1 as it is believed1 continually fail to produce fruit4#abb ,the leaves vary in size1 tint1 and in depth of lobes2 they are smooth1 downy1 or hairy on the upper surface4 ,the branches are more or less downy or spinose2 8the ,hedgehog has probably derived its name from the singular bristly condition of its shoots and fruit40 ,the branches of the wild gooseberry1 ,i may remark1 are smooth1 with the exception of thorns at the bases of the buds4 ,the thorns themselves are either very small1 few and single1 or very large and triple2 they are sometimes reflexed and much dilated at their bases4 ,in the different varieties the fruit varies in abundance1 in the period of maturity1 in hanging until shrivelled1 and greatly in size1 8some sorts having their fruit large during a very early period of growth1 whilst others are small1 until nearly ripe40 ,the fruit varies also much in colour1 being red1 yellow1 green1 and white--the pulp of one dark-red gooseberry being tinged with yellow2 in flavour2 in being smooth or downy1--few1 however1 of the ,red gooseberries1 whilst many of the so-called ,whites1 are downy2 or in being so spinose that one kind is called ,henderson's ,porcupine4 ,two kinds acquire when mature a powdery bloom on their fruit4 ,the fruit varies in the thickness and veining of the skin1 and1 lastly1 in shape1 being spherical1 oblong1 oval1 or obovate4#abc ,i cultivated fifty-four varieties1 and1 considering how greatly the fruit differs1 it was curious how closely similar the flowers were in all these kinds4 ,in only a few ,i detected a trace of difference in the size or colour of the corolla4 ,the calyx differed in a rather greater degree1 for in some kinds it was much redder than in others2 and in one smooth white gooseberry it was unusually red4 ,the calyx also differed in the basal part being smooth or woolly1 or covered with glandular hairs4 ,it deserves notice1 as being contrary to what might have been expected from the law of correlation1 that a smooth red gooseberry had a remarkably hairy calyx4 ,the flowers of the ,sportsman are furnished with very large coloured bracte2 and this is the most singular deviation of structure which ,i have observed4 ,these same flowers also varied much in the number of the petals1 and occasionally in the number of the stamens and pistils2 so that they were semi-monstrous in structure1 yet they produced plenty of fruit4 ,mr4 ,thompson remarks that in the ,pastime gooseberry 8extra bracts are often attached to the sides of the fruit40#abd ,the most interesting point in the history of the gooseberry is the steady increase in the size of the fruit4 ,manchester is the metropolis of the fanciers1 and prizes from five shillings to five or ten pounds are yearly given for the heaviest fruit4 ,the #8,gooseberry ,growers ,register' is published annually2 the earliest known copy is dated #aghf1 but it is certain that meetings for the adjudication of prizes were held some years previously4#abe ,the #8,register' for #ahde gives an account of #aga ,gooseberry ,shows1 held in different places during that year2 and this fact shows on how large a scale the culture has been carried on4 ,the fruit of the wild gooseberry is said#abf to weigh about a quarter of an ounce or #e dwts41 that is1 #abj grains2 about the year #aghf gooseberries were exhibited weighing #aj dwts41 so that the weight was then doubled2 in #ahag #bf dwts4 #ag grs4 was attained2 there was no advance till #ahbe1 when #ca dwts4 #af grs4 was reached2 in #ahcj 8,teazer0 weighed #cb dwts4 #ac grs42 in #ahda 8,wonderful0 weighed #cb dwts4 #af grs42 in #ahdd 8,london0 weighed #ce dwts4 #ab grs41 and in the following year #cf dwts4 #af grs42 and in #aheb in ,staffordshire1 the fruit of the same variety reached the astonishing weight of #cg dwts4 #g grs4#abg or #hif grs42 that is1 between seven or eight times the weight of the wild fruit4 ,i find that a small apple1 #f inches in circumference1 has exactly this same weight4 ,the 8,london0 gooseberry 7which in #aheb had altogether gained #ccc prizes7 has1 up to the present year of #ahge1 never reached a greater weight than that attained in #aheb4 ,perhaps the fruit of the gooseberry has now reached the greatest possible weight1 unless in the course of time some new and distinct variety shall arise4 ,this gradual1 and on the whole steady increase of weight from the latter part of the last century to the year #aheb1 is probably in large part due to improved methods of cultivation1 for extreme care is now taken2 the branches and roots are trained1 composts are made1 the soil is mulched1 and only a few berries are left on each bush2#abh but the increase no doubt is in main part due to the continued selection of seedlings which have been found to be more and more capable of yielding such extraordinary fruit4 ,assuredly the 8,highwayman0 in #ahag could not have produced fruit like that of the 8,roaring ,lion0 in #ahbe2 nor could the 8,roaring ,lion10 though it was grown by many persons in many places1 gain the supreme triumph achieved in #aheb by the 8,london0 ,gooseberry4 ,walnut 7,juglans regia74--,this tree and the common nut belong to a widely different order from the foregoing fruits1 and are therefore here noticed4 ,the walnut grows wild on the ,caucasus and in the ,himalaya1 where ,dr4 ,hooker#abi found the fruit of full size1 but 8as hard as a hickory-nut40 ,it has been found fossil1 as ,m4 de ,saporta informs me1 in the tertiary formation1 of ,france4 ,in ,england the walnut presents considerable differences1 in the shape and size of the fruit1 in the thickness of the husk1 and in the thinness of the shell2 this latter quality has given rise to a variety called the thin-shelled1 which is valuable1 but suffers from the attacks of tit-mice4#acj ,the degree to which the kernel fills the shell varies much4 ,in ,france there is a variety called the ,grape or cluster-walnut1 in which the nuts grow in 8bunches of ten1 fifteen1 or even twenty together40 ,there is another variety which bears on the same tree differently shaped leaves1 like the heterophyllous hornbeam2 this tree is also remarkable from having pendulous branches1 and bearing elongated1 large1 thin-shelled nuts4#aca ,m4 ,cardan has minutely described#acb some singular physiological peculiarities in the ,june-leafing variety1 which produces its leaves and flowers four or five weeks later than the common varieties2 and although in ,august it is apparently in exactly the same state of forwardness as the other kinds1 it retains its leaves and fruit much later in the autumn4 ,these constitutional peculiarities are strictly inherited4 ,lastly1 walnut-trees1 which are properly monoicous1 sometimes entirely fail to produce male flowers4#acc ,nuts 7,corylus avellana74--,most botanists rank all the varieties under the same species1 the common wild nut4#acd ,the husk1 or involucre1 differs greatly1 being extremely short in ,barr's ,spanish1 and extremely long in filberts1 in which it is contracted so as to prevent the nut falling out4 ,this kind of husk also protects the nut from birds1 for titmice 7,parus7 have been observed #ace to pass over filberts1 and attack cobs and common nuts growing in the same orchard4 ,in the purple-filbert the husk is purple1 and in the frizzled-filbert it is curiously laciniated2 in the red-filbert the pellicle of the kernel is red4 ,the shell is thick in some varieties1 but is thin in ,cosford's-nut1 and in one variety is of a bluish colour4 ,the nut itself differs much in size and shape1 being ovate and compressed in filberts1 nearly round and of great size in cobs and ,spanish nuts1 oblong and longitudinally striated in ,cosford's1 and obtusely four-sided in the ,downton ,square nut4 ,cucurbitaceous plants4--,these plants have been for a long period the opprobrium of botanists2 numerous varieties have been ranked as species1 and1 what happens more rarely1 forms which now must be considered as species have been classed as varieties4 ,owing to the admirable experimental researches of a distinguished botanist1 ,m4 ,naudin1#acf a flood of light has recently been thrown on this group of plants4 ,m4 ,naudin1 during many years1 observed and experimented on above #abjj living specimens1 collected from all quarters of the world4 ,six species are now recognised in the genus ,cucurbita2 but three alone have been cultivated and concern us1 namely1 ,c4 maxima and pepo1 which include all pumpkins1 gourds1 squashes1 and the vegetable marrow1 and ,c4 moschata4 ,these three species are not known in a wild state2 but ,asa ,gray#acg gives good reason for believing that some pumpkins are natives of ,n4 ,america4 ,these three species are closely allied1 and have the same general habit1 but their innumerable varieties can always be distinguished1 according to ,naudin1 by certain almost fixed characters2 and what is still more important1 when crossed they yield no seed1 or only sterile seed2 whilst the varieties spontaneously intercross with the utmost freedom4 ,naudin insists strongly 7p4 #ae71 that1 though these three species have varied greatly in many characters1 yet it has been in so closely an analogous manner that the varieties can he arranged in almost parallel series1 as we have seen with the forms of wheat1 with the two main races of the peach1 and in other cases4 ,though some of the varieties are inconstant in character1 yet others1 when grown separately under uniform conditions of life1 are1 as ,naudin repeatedly 7pp4 #f1 #af1 #ce7 urges1 8doues d'une stabilit presque comparable celle des espces les mieux caractrises40 ,one variety1 l',orangin 7pp4 #dc1 #fc71 has such prepotency in transmitting its character1 that when crossed with other varieties a vast majority of the seedlings come true4 ,naudin1 referring 7p4 #dg7 to ,c4 pepo1 says that its races 8ne different des espces veritables qu'en ce qu'elles peuvent s'allier les unes aux autres par voie d'hybridit1 sans que leur descendance perde la facult de se perptuer40 ,if we were to trust to external differences alone1 and give up the test of sterility1 a multitude of species would have to be formed out of the varieties of these three species of ,cucurbita4 ,many naturalists at the present day lay far too little stress1 in my opinion1 on the test of sterility2 yet it is not improbable that distinct species of plants after a long course of cultivation and variation may have their mutual sterility eliminated1 as we have every reason to believe has occurred with domesticated animals4 ,nor1 in the case of plants under cultivation1 should we be justified in assuming that varieties never acquire a slight degree of mutual sterility1 as we shall more fully see in a future chapter when certain facts are given on the high authority of ,grtner and ,klreuter4#ach ,the forms of ,c4 pepo are classed by ,naudin under seven sections1 each including subordinate varieties4 ,he considers this plant as probably the most variable in the world4 ,the fruit of one variety 7pp4 #cc1 #df7 exceeds in value that of another by more than two thousand fold6 ,when the fruit is of very large size1 the number produced is few 7p4 #de72 when of small size1 many are produced4 ,no less astonishing 7p4 #cc7 is the variation in the shape of the fruit1 the typical form apparently is egg-like1 but this becomes either drawn out into a cylinder1 or shortened into a flat disc4 ,we have also an almost infinite diversity in the colour and state of surface of the fruit1 in the hardness both of the shell and of the flesh1 and in the taste of the flesh1 which is either extremely sweet1 farinaceous1 or slightly bitter4 ,the seeds also differ in a slight degree in shape1 and wonderfully in size 7p4 #cd71 namely1 from six or seven to more than twenty-five millimtres in length4 ,in the varieties which grow upright or do not run and climb1 the tendrils1 though useless 7p4 #ca71 are either present or are represented by various semi-monstrous organs1 or are quite absent4 ,the tendrils are even absent in some running varieties in which the stems are much elongated4 ,it is a singular fact that 7p4 #ca7 in all the varieties with dwarfed stems1 the leaves closely resemble each other in shape4 ,those naturalists who believe in the immutability of species often maintain that1 even in the most variable forms1 the characters which they consider of specific value are unchangeable4 ,to give an example from a conscientious writer1#aci who1 relying on the labours of ,m4 ,naudin1 and referring to the species of ,cucurbita1 says1 8au milieu de toutes les variations du fruit1 les tiges1 les feuilles1 les calices1 les corolles1 les tamines restent invariables dans chacune d'elles40 ,yet ,m4 ,naudin1 in describing ,cucurbita pepo 7p4 #cj71 says1 8,ici1 d'ailleurs1 ce ne sont pas seulement les fruits qui varient1 c'est aussi le feuillage et tout le port de la plante4 ,nanmoins1 je crois qu'on la distinguera toujours facilement des deux autres espces1 si l'on veut ne pas perdre de vue les caractres diffrentiels que je m'efforce de faire ressortir4 ,ces caractres sont quelquefois peu marqus3 il arrive meme que plusieurs d'entre eux s'effacent presque entirement1 mais ii en reste toujours quelques-uns qui remettent l'observateur sur la voie40 ,now let it be noted what a difference1 with regard to the immutability of the so-called specific characters this paragraph produces on the mind1 from that above quoted from ,m4 ,godron4 ,i will add another remark3 naturalists continually assert that no important organ varies2 but in saying this they unconsciously argue in a vicious circle2 for if an organ1 let it be what it may1 is highly variable1 it is regarded as unimportant1 and under a systematic point of view this is quite correct4 ,but as long as constancy is thus taken as the criterion of importance1 it will indeed be long before an important organ can be shown to be inconstant4 ,the enlarged form of the stigmas1 and their sessile position on the summit of the ovary1 must be considered as important characters1 and were used by ,gasparini to separate certain pumpkins as a distinct genus2 but ,naudin says 7p4 #bj71 these parts have no constancy1 and in the flowers of the ,turban varieties of ,c4 maxima they sometimes resume their ordinary structure4 ,again1 in ,c4 maxima1 the carpels 7p4 #ai7 which form the turban project even as much as two-thirds of their length out of the receptacle1 and this latter part is thus reduced to a sort of platform2 but this remarkable structure occurs only in certain varieties1 and graduates into the common form in which the carpels are almost entirely enveloped within the receptacle4 ,in ,c4 moschata the ovarium 7p4 #ej7 varies greatly in shape1 being oval1 nearly spherical1 or cylindrical1 more or less swollen in the upper part1 or constricted round the middle1 and either straight or curved4 ,when the ovarium is short and oval the interior structure does not differ from that of ,c4 maxima and pepo1 but when it is elongated the carpels occupy only the terminal and swollen portion4 ,i may add that in one variety of the cucumber 7,cucumis sativus7 the fruit regularly contains five carpels instead of three4#adj ,i presume that it will not be disputed that we here have instances of great variability in organs of the highest physiological importance1 and with most plants of the highest classificatory importance4 ,sageret#ada and ,naudin found that the cucumber 7,c4 sativus7 could not be crossed with any other species of the genus2 therefore no doubt it is specifically distinct from the melon4 ,this will appear to most persons a superfluous statement2 yet we hear from ,naudin#adb that there is a race of melons1 in which the fruit is so like that of the cucumber1 8both externally and internally1 that it is hardly possible to distinguish the one from the other except by the leaves40 ,the varieties of the melon seem to be endless1 for ,naudin after six years' study had not come to the end of them3 he divides them into ten sections1 including numerous sub-varieties which all intercross with perfect ease4#adc ,of the forms considered by ,naudin to be varieties1 botanists have made thirty distinct species6 8and they had not the slightest acquaintance with the multitude of new forms which have appeared since their time40 ,nor is the creation of so many species at all surprising when we consider how strictly their characters are transmitted by seed1 and how wonderfully they differ in appearance3 8,mira est quidem foliorum et habitus diversitas1 sed multo magis fructuum10 says ,naudin4 ,the fruit is the valuable part1 and this1 in accordance with the common rule1 is the most modified part4 ,some melons are only as large as small plums1 others weigh as much as sixty-six pounds4 ,one variety has a scarlet fruit6 ,another is not more than an inch in diameter1 but sometimes more than a yard in length1 8twisting about in all directions like a serpent40 ,it is a singular fact that in this latter variety many parts of the plant1 namely1 the stems1 the footstalks of the female flowers1 the middle lobe of the leaves1 and especially the ovarium1 as well as the mature fruit1 all show a strong tendency to become elongated4 ,several varieties of the melon are interesting from assuming the characteristic features of distinct species and even of distinct though allied genera3 thus the serpent-melon has some resemblance to the fruit of ,trichosanthes anguina2 we have seen that other varieties closely resemble cucumbers2 some ,egyptian varieties have their seeds attached to a portion of the pulp1 and this is characteristic of certain wild forms4 ,lastly1 a variety of melon from ,algiers is remarkable from announcing its maturity by 8a spontaneous and almost sudden dislocation10 when deep cracks suddenly appear1 and the fruit falls to pieces2 and this occurs with the wild ,c4 momordica4 ,finally1 ,m4 ,naudin well remarks that this 8extraordinary production of races and varieties by a single species and their permanence when not interfered with by crossing1 are phenomena well calculated to cause reflection40 ,,useful ,,and ,,ornamental ,,trees4 ,trees deserve a passing notice on account of the numerous varieties which they present1 differing in their precocity1 in their manner of growth1 their foliage1 and bark4 ,thus of the common ash 7,fraxinus excelsior7 the catalogue of ,messrs4 ,lawson of ,edinburgh includes twenty-one varieties1 some of which differ much in their bark2 there is a yellow1 a streaked reddish-white1 a purple1 a wart-barked and a fungous-barked variety4#add ,of hollies no less than eighty-four varieties are grown alongside each other in ,mr4 ,paul's nursery4#ade ,in the case of trees1 all the recorded varieties1 as far as ,i can find out1 have been suddenly produced by one single act of variation4 ,the length of time required to raise many generations1 and the little value set on the fanciful varieties1 explains how it is that successive modifications have not been accumulated by selection2 hence1 also1 it follows that we do not here meet with sub-varieties subordinate to varieties1 and these again subordinate to higher groups4 ,on the ,continent1 however1 where the forests are more carefully attended to than in ,england1 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle#adf says that there is not a forester who does not search for seeds from that variety which he esteems the most valuable4 ,our useful trees have seldom been exposed to any great change of conditions2 they have not been richly manured1 and the ,english kinds grow under their proper climate4 ,yet in examining extensive beds of seedlings in nursery-gardens considerable differences may be generally observed in them2 and whilst touring in ,england ,i have been surprised at the amount of difference in the appearance of the same species in our hedgerows and woods4 ,but as plants vary so much in a truly wild state1 it would be difficult for even a skilful botanist to pronounce whether1 as ,i believe to be the case1 hedgerow trees vary more than those growing in a primeval forest4 ,trees when planted by man in woods or hedges do not grow where they would naturally be able to hold their place against a host of competitors1 and are therefore exposed to conditions not strictly natural3 even this slight change would probably suffice to cause seedlings raised from such trees to be variable4 ,whether or not our half-wild ,english trees1 as a general rule1 are more variable than trees growing in their native forests1 there can hardly be a doubt that they have yielded a greater number of strongly-marked and singular variations of structure4 ,in manner of growth1 we have weeping or pendulous varieties of the willow1 ash1 elm1 oak1 and yew1 and other trees2 and this weeping habit is sometimes inherited1 though in a singularly capricious manner4 ,in the ,lombardy poplar1 and in certain fastigiate or pyramidal varieties of thorns1 junipers1 oaks1 etc41 we have an opposite kind of growth4 ,the ,hessian oak1#adg which is famous from its fastigiate habit and size1 bears hardly any resemblance in general appearance to a common oak2 8its acorns are not sure to produce plants of the same habit2 some1 however1 turn out the same as the parent-tree40 ,another fastigiate oak is said to have been found wild in the ,pyrenees1 and this is a surprising circumstance2 it generally comes so true by seed1 that ,de ,candolle considered it as specifically distinct4#adh ,the fastigiate ,juniper 7,j4 suecica7 likewise transmits its character by seed4#adi ,dr4 ,falconer informs me that in the ,botanic ,gardens at ,calcutta the great heat caused apple-trees to become fastigiate2 and we thus see the same result following from the effects of climate and from some unknown cause4#aej ,in foliage we have variegated leaves which are often inherited2 dark purple or red leaves1 as in the hazel1 barberry1 and beech1 the colour in these two latter trees being sometimes strongly and sometimes weakly inherited2#aea deeply-cut leaves2 and leaves covered with prickles1 as in the variety of the holly well called ferox1 which is said to reproduce itself by seed4#aeb ,in fact1 nearly all the peculiar varieties evince a tendency1 more or less strongly marked1 to reproduce themselves by seed4#aec ,this is to a certain extent the case1 according to ,bosc1#aed with three varieties of the elm1 namely1 the broad-leafed1 lime-leafed1 and twisted elm1 in which latter the fibres of the wood are twisted4 ,even with the heterophyllous hornbeam 7,carpinus betulus71 which bears on each twig leaves of two shapes1 several plants raised from seed all retained 8the same peculiarity40#aee ,i will add only one other remarkable case of variation in foliage1 namely1 the occurrence of two sub-varieties of the ash with simple instead of pinnated leaves1 and which generally transmit their character by seed4#aef ,the occurrence1 in trees belonging to widely different orders1 of weeping and fastigiate varieties1 and of trees bearing deeply cut1 variegated1 and purple leaves1 shows that these deviations of structure must result from some very general physiological laws4 ,differences in general appearance and foliage1 not more strongly marked than those above indicated1 have led good observers to rank as distinct species certain forms which are now known to be mere varieties4 ,thus1 a plane-tree long cultivated in ,england was considered by almost every one as a ,north ,american species3 but is now ascertained by old records1 as ,i am informed by ,dr4 ,hooker1 to be a variety4 ,so1 again1 the ,thuja pendula or filiformis was ranked by such good observers as ,lambert1 ,wallich1 and others1 as a true species2 but it is now known that the original plants1 five in number1 suddenly appeared in a bed of seedlings1 raised at ,mr4 ,loddige's nursery1 from ,t4 orientalis2 and ,dr4 ,hooker has adduced excellent evidence that at ,turin seeds of ,t4 pendula have reproduced the parent form1 ,t4 orientalis4#aeg ,every one must have noticed how certain individual trees regularly put forth and shed their leaves earlier or later than others of the same species4 ,there is a famous horse-chestnut in the ,tuileries which is named from leafing so much earlier than the others4 ,there is also an oak near ,edinburgh which retains its leaves to a very late period4 ,these differences have been attributed by some authors to the nature of the soil in which the trees grow2 but ,archbishop ,whately grafted an early thorn on a late one1 and vice versa1 and both grafts kept to their proper periods1 which differed by about a fortnight1 as if they still grew on their own stocks4#aeh ,there is a ,cornish variety of the elm which is almost an evergreen1 and is so tender that the shoots are often killed by the frost2 and the varieties of the ,turkish oak 7,q4 cerris7 may be arranged as deciduous1 sub-evergreen1 and evergreen4#aei ,scotch ,fir 7,pinus sylvestris74--,i allude to this tree as it bears on the question of the greater variability of our hedgerow trees compared with those under strictly natural conditions4 ,a well-informed writer#afj states that the ,scotch fir presents few varieties in its native ,scotch forests2 but that it 8varies much in figure and foliage1 and in the size1 shape1 and colour of its cones1 when several generations have been produced away from its native locality40 ,there is little doubt that the highland and lowland varieties differ in the value of their timber1 and that they can be propagated truly by seed2 thus justifying ,loudon's remark1 that 8a variety is often of as much importance as a species1 and sometimes far more so40#afa ,i may mention one rather important point in which this tree occasionally varies2 in the classification of the ,conifer1 sections are founded on whether two1 three1 or five leaves are included in the same sheath2 the ,scotch fir has properly only two leaves thus enclosed1 but specimens have been observed with groups of three leaves in a sheath4#afb ,besides these differences in the semi-cultivated ,scotch fir1 there are in several parts of ,europe natural or geographical races1 which have been ranked by some authors as distinct species4#afc ,loudon#afd considers ,p4 pumilio1 with its several sub-varieties1 as mughus1 nana1 etc41 which differ much when planted in different soils1 and only come 8tolerably true from seed10 as alpine varieties of the ,scotch fir2 if this were proved to be the case1 it would be an interesting fact as showing that dwarfing from long exposure to a severe climate is to a certain extent inherited4 ,the ,hawthorn 7,cratgus oxyacantha74 has varied much4 ,besides endless slighter variations in the form of the leaves1 and in the size1 hardness1 fleshiness1 and shape of the berries1 ,loudon#afe enumerates twenty-nine well-marked varieties4 ,besides those cultivated for their pretty flowers1 there are others with golden-yellow1 black1 and whitish berries2 others with woolly berries1 and others with re-curved thorns4 ,loudon truly remarks that the chief reason why the hawthorn has yielded more varieties than most other trees1 is that nurserymen select any remarkable variety out of the immense beds of seedlings which are annually raised for making hedges4 ,the flowers of the hawthorn usually include from one to three pistils2 but in two varieties1 named monogyna and sibirica1 there is only a single pistil2 and d',asso states that the common thorn in ,spain is constantly in this state4#aff ,there is also a variety which is apetalous1 or has its petals reduced to mere rudiments4 ,the famous ,glastonbury thorn flowers and leafs towards the end of ,december1 at which time it bears berries produced from an earlier crop of flowers4#afg ,it is worth notice that several varieties of the hawthorn1 as well as of the lime and juniper1 are very distinct in their foliage and habit whilst young1 but in the course of thirty or forty years become extremely like each other2#afh thus reminding us of the well-known fact that the deodar1 the cedar of ,lebanon1 and that of the ,atlas1 are distinguished with the greatest ease whilst young1 but with difficulty when old4 ,,flowers4 ,i shall not for several reasons treat the variability of plants which are cultivated for their flowers alone at any great length4 ,many of our favourite kinds in their present state are the descendants of two or more species crossed and commingled together1 and this circumstance alone would render it difficult to detect the difference due to variation4 ,for instance1 our ,roses1 ,petunias1 ,calceolarias1 ,fuchsias1 ,verbenas1 ,gladioli1 ,pelargoniums1 etc41 certainly have had a multiple origin4 ,a botanist well acquainted with the parent-forms would probably detect some curious structural differences in their crossed and cultivated descendant2 and he would certainly observe many new and remarkable constitutional peculiarities4 ,i will give a few instances1 all relating to the ,pelargonium1 and taken chiefly from ,mr4 ,beck1#afi a famous cultivator of this plant3 some varieties require more water than others2 some are 8very impatient of the knife if too greedily used in making cuttings20 some1 when potted1 scarcely 8show a root at the outside of the ball of the earth20 one variety requires a certain amount of confinement in the pot to make it throw up a flower-stem2 some varieties bloom well at the commencement of the season1 others at the close2 one variety is known1#agj which will stand 8even pine-apple top and bottom heat1 without looking any more drawn than if it had stood in a common greenhouse2 and ,blanche ,fleur seems as if made on purpose for growing in winter1 like many bulbs1 and to rest all summer40 ,these odd constitutional peculiarities would enable a plant in a state of nature to become adapted to widely different circumstances and climates4 ,flowers possess little interest under our present point of view1 because they have been almost exclusively attended to and selected for their beautiful colour1 size1 perfect outline1 and manner of growth4 ,in these particulars hardly one long-cultivated flower can be named which has not varied greatly4 ,what does a florist care for the shape and structure of the organs of fructification1 unless1 indeed1 they add to the beauty of the flower8 ,when this is the case1 flowers become modified in important points2 stamens and pistils may be converted into petals1 and additional petals may be developed1 as in all double flowers4 ,the process of gradual selection by which flowers have been rendered more and more double1 each step in the process of conversion being inherited1 has been recorded in several instances4 ,in the so-called double flowers of the ,composit1 the corollas of the central florets are greatly modified1 and the modifications are likewise inherited4 ,in the columbine 7,aquilegia vulgaris7 some of the stamens are converted into petals having the shape of nectaries1 one neatly fitting into the other2 but in one variety they are converted into simple petals4#aga ,in the 8hose in hose0 primul1 the calyx becomes brightly coloured and enlarged so as to resemble a corolla2 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,wooler informs me that this peculiarity is transmitted2 for he crossed a common polyanthus with one having a coloured calyx1#agb and some of the seedlings inherited the coloured calyx during at least six generations4 ,in the 8hen-and-chicken0 daisy the main flower is surrounded by a brood of small flowers developed from buds in the axils of the scales of the involucre4 ,a wonderful poppy has been described1 in which the stamens are converted into pistils2 and so strictly was this peculiarity inherited that1 out of #aed seedlings1 one alone reverted to the ordinary and common type4#agc ,of the cock's-comb 7,celosia cristata71 which is an annual1 there are several races in which the flower-stem is wonderfully 8fasciated0 or compressed2 and one has been exhibited#agd actually eighteen inches in breadth4 ,peloric races of ,gloxinia speciosa and ,antirrhinum majus can be propagated by seed1 and they differ in a wonderful manner from the typical form both in structure and appearance4 ,a much more remarkable modification has been recorded by ,sir ,william and ,dr4 ,hooker#age in ,begonia frigida4 ,this plant properly produces male and female flowers on the same fascicles2 and in the female flowers the perianth is superior2 but a plant at ,kew produced1 besides the ordinary flowers1 others which graduated towards a perfect hermaphrodite structure2 and in these flowers the perianth was inferior4 ,to show the importance of this modification under a classificatory point of view1 ,i may quote what ,prof4 ,harvey says1 namely1 that had it 8occurred in a state of nature1 and had a botanist collected a plant with such flowers1 he would not only have placed it in a distinct genus from ,begonia1 but would probably have considered it as the type of a new natural order40 ,this modification cannot in one sense be considered as a monstrosity1 for analogous structures naturally occur in other orders1 as with ,saxifrag and ,aristolochiace4 ,the interest of the case is largely added to by ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,crocker's observation that seedlings from the normal flowers produced plants which bore1 in about the same proportion as the parent-plant1 hermaphrodite flowers having inferior perianths4 ,the hermaphrodite flowers fertilised with their own pollen were sterile4 ,if florists had attended to1 selected1 and propagated by seed other modifications of structure besides those which are beautiful1 a host of curious varieties would certainly have been raised2 and they would probably have transmitted their characters so truly that the cultivator would have felt aggrieved1 as in the case of culinary vegetables1 if his whole bed had not presented a uniform appearance4 ,florists have attended in some instances to the leaves of their plant1 and have thus produced the most elegant and symmetrical patterns of white1 red1 and green1 which1 as in the case of the pelargonium1 are sometimes strictly inherited4#agf ,any one who will habitually examine highly-cultivated flowers in gardens and greenhouses will observe numerous deviations in structure2 but most of these must be ranked as mere monstrosities1 and are only so far interesting as showing how plastic the organisation becomes under high cultivation4 ,from this point of view such works as ,professor ,moquin-,tandon's #8,tratologie' are highly instructive4 ,roses4--,these flowers offer an instance of a number of forms generally ranked as species1 namely1 ,r4 centifolia1 gallica1 alba1 damascena1 spinosissima1 bracteata1 indica1 semperflorens1 moschata1 etc41 which have largely varied and been intercrossed4 ,the genus ,rosa is a notoriously difficult one1 and1 though some of the above forms are admitted by all botanists to be distinct species1 others are doubtful2 thus1 with respect to the ,british forms1 ,babington makes seventeen1 and ,bentham only five species4 ,the hybrids from some of the most distinct forms--for instance1 from ,r4 indica1 fertilised by the pollen of ,r4 centifolia--produce an abundance of seed2 ,i state this on the authority of ,mr4 ,rivers1#agg from whose work ,i have drawn most of the following statements4 ,as almost all the aboriginal forms brought from different countries have been crossed and re-crossed1 it is no wonder that ,targioni-,tozzetti1 in speaking of the common roses of the ,italian gardens1 remarks that 8the native country and precise form of the wild type of most of them are involved in much uncertainty40#agh ,nevertheless1 ,mr4 ,rivers in referring to ,r4 indica 7p4 #fh7 says that the descendants of each group may generally be recognised by a close observer4 ,the same author often speaks of roses as having been a little hybridised2 but it is evident that in very many cases the differences due to variation and to hybridisation can now only be conjecturally distinguished4 ,the species have varied both by seed and by bud2 such modified buds being often called by gardeners sports4 ,in the following chapter ,i shall fully discuss this latter subject1 and shall show that bud-variations can be propagated not only by grafting and budding1 but often by seed4 ,whenever a new rose appears with any peculiar character1 however produced1 if it yields seed1 ,mr4 ,rivers 7p4 #d7 fully expects it to become the parent-type of a new family4 ,the tendency to vary is so strong in some kinds1 as in the ,village ,maid 7,rivers1 p4 #af71 that when grown in different soils it varies so much in colour that it has been thought to form several distinct kinds4 ,altogether the number of kinds is very great3 thus ,m4 ,desportes1 in his ,catalogue for #ahbi1 enumerates #befb as cultivated in ,france2 but no doubt a large proportion of these are merely nominal4 ,it would be useless to specify the many points of difference between the various kinds1 but some constitutional peculiarities may be mentioned4 ,several ,french roses 7,rivers1 p4 #ab7 will not succeed in ,england2 and an excellent horticulturist#agi remarks1 that 8,even in the same garden you will find that a rose that will do nothing under a south wall will do well under a north one4 ,that is the case with ,paul ,joseph here4 ,it grows strongly and blooms beautifully close to a north wall4 ,for three years seven plants have done nothing under a south wall40 ,many roses can be forced1 8many are totally unfit for forcing1 among which is ,general ,jacqueminot40#ahj ,from the effects of crossing and variation ,mr4 ,rivers enthusiastically anticipates 7p4 #hg7 that the day will come when all our roses1 even moss-roses1 will have evergreen foliage1 brilliant and fragrant flowers1 and the habit of blooming from ,june till ,november4 8,a distant view this seems1 but perseverance in gardening will yet achieve wonders10 as assuredly it has already achieved wonders4 ,it may be worth while briefly to give the well-known history of one class of roses4 ,in #agic some wild ,scotch roses 7,r4 spinosissima7 were transplanted into a garden2#aha and one of these bore flowers slightly tinged with red1 from which a plant was raised with semi-monstrous flowers1 also tinged with red2 seedlings from this flower were semi-double1 and by continued selection1 in about nine or ten years1 eight sub-varieties were raised4 ,in the course of less than twenty years these double ,scotch roses had so much increased in number and kind1 that twenty-six well-marked varieties1 classed in eight sections1 were described by ,mr4 ,sabine4 ,in #ahdaahb it is said that three hundred varieties could be procured in the nursery-gardens near ,glasgow2 and these are described as blush1 crimson1 purple1 red1 marbled1 two-coloured1 white1 and yellow1 and as differing much in the size and shape of the flower4 ,pansy or ,heartsease 7,viola tricolor1 etc474--,the history of this flower seems to be pretty well known2 it was grown in ,evelyn's garden in #afhg2 but the varieties were not attended to till #ahaj-ahab1 when ,lady ,monke1 together with ,mr4 ,lee1 the well-known nursery-man1 energetically commenced their culture2 and in the course of a few years twenty varieties could be purchased4#ahc ,at about the same period1 namely in #ahac or #ahad1 ,lord ,gambier collected some wild plants1 and his gardener1 ,mr4 ,thomson1 cultivated them1 together with some common garden varieties1 and soon effected a great improvement4 ,the first great change was the conversion of the dark lines in the centre of the flower into a dark eye or centre1 which at that period had never been seen1 but is now considered one of the chief requisites of a first-rate flower4 ,in #ahce a book entirely devoted to this flower was published1 and four hundred named varieties were on sale4 ,from these circumstances this plant seemed to me worth studying1 more especially from the great contrast between the small1 dull1 elongated1 irregular flowers of the wild pansy1 and the beautiful1 flat1 symmetrical1 circular1 velvet-like flowers1 more than two inches in diameter1 magnificently and variously coloured1 which are exhibited at our shows4 ,but when ,i came to enquire more closely1 ,i found that1 though the varieties were so modern1 yet that much confusion and doubt prevailed about their parentage4 ,florists believe that the varieties#ahd are descended from several wild stocks1 namely1 ,v4 tricolor1 lutea1 grandiflora1 amna1 and altaica1 more or less intercrossed4 ,and when ,i looked to botanical works to ascertain whether these forms ought to be ranked as species1 ,i found equal doubt and confusion4 ,viola altaica seems to be a distinct form1 but what part it has played in the origin of our varieties ,i know not2 it is said to have been crossed with ,v4 lutea4 ,viola amna#ahe is now looked at by all botanists as a natural variety of ,v4 grandiflora2 and this and ,v4 sudetica have been proved to be identical with ,v4 lutea4 ,the latter and ,v4 tricolor 7including its admitted variety ,v4 arvensis7 are ranked as distinct species by ,babington1 and likewise by ,m4 ,gay1#ahf who has paid particular attention to the genus2 but the specific distinction between ,v4 lutea and tricolor is chiefly grounded on the one being strictly and the other not strictly perennial1 as well as on some other slight and unimportant differences in the form of the stem and stipules4 ,bentham unites these two forms2 and a high authority on such matters1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,watson1#ahg says that1 8while ,v4 tricolor passes into ,v4 arvensis on the one side1 it approximates so much towards ,v4 lutea and ,v4 ,curtisii on the other side1 that a distinction becomes scarcely more easy between them40 ,hence1 after having carefully compared numerous varieties1 ,i gave up the attempt as too difficult for any one except a professed botanist4 ,most of the varieties present such inconstant characters1 that when grown in poor soil1 or when flowering out of their proper season1 they produced differently coloured and much smaller flowers4 ,cultivators speak of this or that kind as being remarkably constant or true2 but by this they do not mean1 as in other cases1 that the kind transmits its character by seed1 but that the individual plant does not change much under culture4 ,the principle of inheritance1 however1 does hold good to a certain extent even with the fleeting varieties of the ,heartsease1 for to gain good sorts it is indispensable to sow the seed of good sorts4 ,nevertheless1 in almost every large seed-bed a few1 almost wild seedlings reappear through reversion4 ,on comparing the choicest varieties with the nearest allied wild forms1 besides the difference in the size1 outline1 and colour of the flowers1 the leaves sometimes differ in shape1 as does the calyx occasionally in the length and breadth of the sepals4 ,the differences in the form of the nectary more especially deserve notice2 because characters derived from this organ have been much used in the discrimination of most of the species of ,viola4 ,in a large number of flowers compared in #ahdb ,i found that in the greater number the nectary was straight2 in others the extremity was a little turned upwards1 or downwards1 or inwards1 so as to be completely hooked2 in others1 instead of being hooked1 it was first turned rectangularly downwards1 and then backwards and upwards2 in others1 the extremity was considerably enlarged2 and lastly1 in some the basal part was depressed1 becoming1 as usual1 laterally compressed towards the extremity4 ,in a large number of flowers1 on the other hand1 examined by me in #ahef from a nursery-garden in a different part of ,england1 the nectary hardly varied at all4 ,now ,m4 ,gay says that in certain districts1 especially in ,auvergne1 the nectary of the wild ,v4 grandiflora varies in the manner just described4 ,must we conclude from this that the cultivated varieties first mentioned were all descended from ,v4 grandiflora1 and that the second lot1 though having the same general appearance1 were descended from ,v4 tricolor1 of which the nectary1 according to ,m4 ,gay1 is subject to little variation8 ,or is it not more probable that both these wild forms would be found under other conditions to vary in the same manner and degree1 thus showing that they ought not to be ranked as specifically distinct8 ,the ,dahlia has been referred to by almost every author who has written on the variation of plants1 because it is believed that all the varieties are descended from a single species1 and because all have arisen since #ahjb in ,france1 and since #ahjd in ,england4#ahh ,mr4 ,sabine remarks that 8it seems as if some period of cultivation had been required before the fixed qualities of the native plant gave way and began to sport into those changes which now so delight us40#ahi ,the flowers have been greatly modified in shape from a flat to a globular form4 ,anemone and ranunculus-like races#aij which differ in the form and arrangement of the florets1 have arisen2 also dwarfed races1 one of which is only eighteen inches in height4 ,the seeds vary much in size4 ,the petals are uniformly coloured or tipped or striped1 and present an almost infinite diversity of tints4 ,seedlings of fourteen different colours#aia have been raised from the same plant2 yet1 as ,mr4 ,sabine has remarked1 8many of the seedlings follow their parents in colour40 ,the period of flowering has been considerably hastened1 and this has probably been effected by continued selection4 ,salisbury1 writing #ahjh1 says that they then flowered from ,september to ,november2 in #ahbh some new dwarf varieties began flowering in ,june2#aib and ,mr4 ,grieve informs me that the dwarf purple ,zelinda in his garden is in full bloom by the middle of ,june and sometimes even earlier4 ,slight constitutional differences have been observed between certain varieties3 thus1 some kinds succeed much better in one part of ,england than in another2#aic and it has been noticed that some varieties require much more moisture than others4#aid ,such flowers as the carnation1 common tulip1 and hyacinth1 which are believed to be descended1 each from a single wild form1 present innumerable varieties1 differing almost exclusively in the size1 form1 and colour of the flowers4 ,these and some other anciently cultivated plants which have been long propagated by offsets1 pipings1 bulbs1 etc41 become so excessively variable1 that almost each new plant raised from seed forms a new variety1 8all of which to describe particularly10 as old ,gerarde wrote in #aeig1 8were to roll ,sisyphus's stone1 or to number the sands40 ,hyacinth 7,hyacinthus orientalis74--,it may1 however1 be worth while to give a short account of this plant1 which was introduced into ,england in #aeif from the ,levant4#aie ,the petals of the original flower1 says ,mr4 ,paul1 were narrow1 wrinkled1 pointed1 and of a flimsy texture2 now they are broad1 smooth1 solid1 and rounded4 ,the erectness1 breadth1 and length of the whole spike1 and the size of the flowers1 have all increased4 ,the colours have been intensified and diversified4 ,gerarde1 in #aeig1 enumerates four1 and ,parkinson1 in #afbi1 eight varieties4 ,now the varieties are very numerous1 and they were still more numerous a century ago4 ,mr4 ,paul remarks that 8it is interesting to compare the ,hyacinths of #afbi with those of #ahfd1 and to mark the improvement4 ,two hundred and thirty-five years have elapsed since then1 and this simple flower serves well to illustrate the great fact that the original forms of nature do not remain fixed and stationary1 at least when brought under cultivation4 ,while looking at the extremes1 we must not1 however1 forget that there are intermediate stages which are for the most part lost to us4 ,nature will sometimes indulge herself with a leap1 but as a rule her march is slow and gradual40 ,he adds that the cultivator should have 8in his mind an ideal of beauty1 for the realisation of which he works with head and hand40 ,we thus see how clearly ,mr4 ,paul1 an eminently successful cultivator of this flower1 appreciates the action of methodical selection4 ,in a curious and apparently trustworthy treatise1 published at ,amsterdam#aif in #agfh1 it is stated that nearly #b1jjj sorts were then known2 but in #ahfd ,mr4 ,paul found only #gjj in the largest garden at ,haarlem4 ,in this treatise it is said that not an instance is known of any one variety reproducing itself truly by seed3 the white kinds1 however1 now#aig almost always yield white hyacinths1 and the yellow kinds come nearly true4 ,the hyacinth is remarkable from having given rise to varieties with bright blue1 pink1 and distinctly yellow flowers4 ,these three primary colours do not occur in the varieties of any other species2 nor do they often all occur even in the distinct species of the same genus4 ,although the several kinds of hyacinths differ but slightly from each other except in colour1 yet each kind has its own individual character1 which can be recognised by a highly educated eye2 thus the writer of the ,amsterdam treatise asserts 7p4 #dc7 that some experienced florists1 such as the famous ,g4 ,voorhelm1 seldom failed in a collection of above twelve hundred sorts to recognise each variety by the bulb alone6 ,this same writer mentions some few singular variations3 for instance1 the hyacinth commonly produces six leaves1 but there is one kind 7p4 #ce7 which scarcely ever has more than three leaves2 another never more than five2 whilst others regularly produce either seven or eight leaves4 ,a variety1 called la ,coryphee1 invariably produces 7p4 #aaf7 two flower-stems1 united together and covered by one skin4 ,the flower-stem in another kind 7p4 #abh7 comes out of the ground in a coloured sheath1 before the appearance of the leaves1 and is consequently liable to suffer from frost4 ,another variety always pushes a second flower-stem after the first has begun to develop itself4 ,lastly1 white hyacinths with red1 purple1 or violet centres 7p4 #abi7 are the most liable to rot4 ,thus1 the hyacinth1 like so many previous plants1 when long cultivated and closely watched1 is found to offer many singular variations4 ,in the two last chapters ,i have given in some detail the range of variation1 and the history1 as far as known1 of a considerable number of plants1 which have been cultivated for various purposes4 ,but some of the most variable plants1 such as ,kidney-beans1 ,capsicum1 ,millets1 ,sorghum1 etc41 have been passed over2 for botanists are not at all agreed which kinds ought to rank as species and which as varieties2 and the wild parent-species are unknown4#aih ,many plants long cultivated in tropical countries1 such as the ,banana1 have produced numerous varieties2 but as these have never been described with even moderate care1 they are here also passed over4 ,nevertheless1 a sufficient1 and perhaps more than sufficient1 number of cases have been given1 so that the reader may be enabled to judge for himself on the nature and great amount of variation which cultivated plants have undergone4 ,,references #a ,heer1 #8,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahff1 s4 #bh4 #b ,alph4 ,de ,candolle #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #hgb2 ,dr4 ,a4 ,targioni-,tozzetti in #8,jour4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ix4 p4 #acc4 ,for the fossil vine found by ,dr4 ,g4 ,planchon ,see #8,nat4 ,hist4 ,review1' #ahfe1 ,april1 p4 #bbd4 ,see also the valuable works of ,m4 de ,saporta on the #8,tertiary ,plants of ,france4' #c ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ajj4 #d ,see an account of ,m4 ,vibert's experiments1 by ,alex4 ,jordan1 in #8,mm4 de l',acad4 de ,lyon1' tom4 ii4 #ahe1b p4 #ajh4 #e #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfd1 p4 #dhh4 #f #8,arbres ,fruitiers1' #ahcf1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bij4 #g ,odart1 #8,ampelographie ,universelle1' #ahdi4 #h ,m4 ,bouchardat1 in #8,comptes ,rendus1' ,dec4 #ast1 #ahea1 quoted in #8,gardener's ,chron41' #aheb1 p4 #dce4 ,see also ,c4 ,v4 ,riley on the manner in which some few of the varieties of the ,american ,labruscan ,vine escape the attacks of the ,phylloxera3 #8,fourth ,annual ,report on the ,insects of ,missouri1' #ahgb1 p4 #fc1 and #8,fifth ,report1' #ahgc1 p4 #ff4 #i #8,etudes sur les ,maladies actuelles du ,ver ,soie1' #ahei1 p4 #cba4 #aj #8,productive ,resources of ,india1' p4 #acj4 #aa #8,trait du ,citrus1' #ahaa4 #8,teoria della ,riproduzione ,vegetale1' #ahaf4 ,i quote chiefly from this second work4 ,in #ahci ,gallesio published in folio #8,gli ,agrumi dei ,giard4 ,bot4 di ,firenze1' in which he gives a curious diagram of the supposed relationship of all the forms4 #ab ,mr4 ,bentham1 #8,review of ,dr4 ,a4 ,targioni-,tozzetti1 ,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ix4 p4 #acc4 #ac #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #hfc4 #ad #8,teoria della ,riproduzione1' pp4 #eb-eg4 #ae ,hooker's #8,bot4 ,misc41' vol4 i4 p4 #cjb2 vol4 ii4 p4 #aaa4 #af #8,teoria della ,riproduzione1' p4 #ec4 #ag ,gallesio1 #8,teoria della ,riproduzione1' p4 #fi4 #ah ,ibid4 p4 #fg4 #ai ,gallesio1 #8,teoria della ,riproduzione1' pp4 #ge1 #gf4 #bj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahda1 p4 #fac4 #ba #8,annales du ,musum1' tom4 xx4 p4 #ahh4 #bb #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #hhb4 #bc #8,transactions of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iii4 p4 #a1 and vol4 iv4 p4 #cif1 and note to p4 #cgj4 ,a coloured drawing is given of this hybrid4 #bd #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahef1 p4 #ecb4 ,a writer1 it may be presumed ,dr4 ,lindley1 remarks on the perfect series which may be formed between the almond and the peach4 ,another high authority1 ,mr4 ,rivers1 who has had such wide experience1 strongly suspects 7#8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfc1 p4 #bg7 that peaches1 if left to a state of nature1 would in the course of time retrograde into thick-fleshed almonds4 #be #8,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ix4 p4 #afh4 #bf ,whether this is the same variety as one lately mentioned 7#8,gard4 ,chron4' #ahfe1 p4 #aaed7 by ,m4 ,carrire under the name of persica intermedia1 ,i know not2 this variety is said to be intermediate in nearly all its characters between the almond and peach2 it produces during successive years very different kinds of fruit4 #bg ,quoted in #8,gard4 ,chron4' #ahff1 p4 #hjj4 #bh ,quoted in #8,journal de ,la ,soc4 ,imp4 d',horticulture1' #ahee1 p4 #bch4 #bi #8,teoria della ,riproduzione ,vegetale1' #ahaf1 p4 #hf4 #cj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #aaie4 #ca ,mr4 ,rivers1 #8,gardener's ,chron41' #ahei1 p4 #ggd4 #cb ,downing1 #8,the ,fruits of ,america1' #ahde1 pp4 #dge1 #dhi1 #dib1 #did1 #dif4 ,see also ,f4 ,michaux1 #8,travels in ,n4 ,america' 7,eng4 translat471 p4 #bbh4 ,for similar cases in ,france ,see ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ig4 #cc ,brickell's #8,nat4 ,hist4 of ,n4 ,carolina1' p4 #ajb1 and ,downing's #8,fruit ,trees1' p4 #eje4 #cd #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #aaif4 #ce ,the peach and nectarine do not succeed equally well in the some soil3 ,see ,lindley's #8,horticulture1' p4 #cea4 #cf ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii41 #ahei1 p4 #ig4 #cg #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 vi4 p4 #cid4 #ch ,downing's #8,fruit ,trees1' p4 #ejb4 #ci #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #aaie4 #dj #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,feb4 #eth1 #ahff1 p4 #ajb4 #da ,mr4 ,rivers1 in #8,gardener's #8,chron41' #ahei1 p4 #ggd1 #ahfb1 p4 #aaie2 #ahfe1 p4 #ajei2 and #8,journal of ,hort41' #ahff1 p4 #ajb4 #db #8,correspondence of ,linnus1' #ahba1 pp4 #g1 #h1 #gj4 #dc #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 p4 #ajc4 #dd ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' #ahbf1 vol4 i4 p4 #dga4 #de ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' #ahbh1 p4 #ec4 #df ,ibid41 #ahcj1 p4 #eig4 #dg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahda1 p4 #fag4 #dh #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdd1 p4 #ehi4 #di #8,phytologist1' vol4 iv4 p4 #bii4 #ej #8,gardener's ,chron41' #ahef1 p4 #eca4 #ea ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ig4 #eb #8,gardener's ,chron41' #ahef1 p4 #eca4 #ec ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot4' p4 #hhf4 #ed ,thompson1 in ,loudon's #8,encyclop4 of ,gardening1' p4 #iaa4 #ee #8,catalogue of ,fruit in ,garden of ,hort4 ,soc41' #ahdb1 p4 #aje4 #ef ,dr4 ,a4 ,targioni-,tozzetti1 #8,journal ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ix4 p4 #afg4 ,alph4 de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #hhe4 #eg #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 v4 p4 #eed4 ,see also ,carrire1 #8,description et ,class4 des ,varits de ,pchers4' #eh ,loudon's #8,encyclop4 of ,gardening1' p4 #ijg4 #ei ,m4 ,carrire1 in #8,gard4 ,chron41' #ahfe1 p4 #aaed4 #fj #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iii4 p4 #ccb4 ,see also #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfe1 p4 #bga to same effect4 ,also #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,sept4 #bfth1 #ahfe1 p4 #bed4 #fa #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iv4 p4 #eab4 #fb #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,sept4 #hth1 #ahec p4 #ahh4 #fc #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 vi4 p4 #dab4 #fd #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheg1 p4 #baf4 #fe #8,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 #bhc4 #ff ,alph4 de ,candolle #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #hgi4 #fg #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' 7#bnd series71 vol4 i4 #ahce1 p4 #ef4 ,see also #8,cat4 of ,fruit in ,garden of ,hort4 ,soc41' #crd edit4 #ahdb4 #fh ,downing1 #8,the ,fruits of ,america1' #ahde1 p4 #aeg3 with respect to the ,alberge apricot in ,france ,see p4 #aec4 #fi #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfc1 p4 #cfd4 #gj #8,travels in the ,himalayan ,provinces1' vol4 i4 #ahda1 p4 #bie4 #ga ,see an excellent discussion on this subject in ,hewett ,c4 ,watson's #8,cybele ,britannica1' vol4 iv4 p4 #hj4 #gb #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfe1 p4 #bg4 #gc #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #id4 ,on the parentage of our plums see also ,alph4 ,de ,candolle #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #hgh4 ,also ,targioni-,tozzetti1 #8,journal ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ix4 p4 #afd4 ,also ,babington #8,manual of ,brit4 ,botany1' #ahea1 p4 #hg4 #gd #8,fruits of ,america1' pp4 #bgf1 #bgh1 #bhd1 #caj1 #cad4 ,mr4 ,rivers raised 7#8,gard4 ,chron41' #ahfc1 p4 #bg7 from the ,prune-pche1 which bears large1 round1 red plums on stout1 robust shoots1 a seedling which bears oval1 smaller fruit on shoots that are so slender as to be almost pendulous4 #ge #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahee1 p4 #gbf4 #gf ,downing's #8,fruit ,trees1' p4 #bgh4 #gg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfc1 p4 #bg4 ,sageret1 in his #8,pomologie ,phys41' p4 #cdf1 enumerates five kinds which can be propagated in ,france by seed3 see also ,downing's #8,fruit ,trees of ,america1' pp4 #cje1 #cab1 etc4 #gh ,compare ,alph4 ,de ,candolle #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #hgg2 ,bentham and ,targioni-,tozzetti1 in #8,hort4 ,journal1' vol4 ix4 p4 #afc2 ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ib4 #gi #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 v4 #ahbd1 p4 #bie4 #hj ,ibid41 second series1 vol4 i4 #ahce1 p4 #bdh4 #ha ,ibid41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ach4 #hb ,these several statements are taken from the four following works1 which may1 ,i believe1 be trusted3 ,thompson1 in #8,hort4 ,transact41' see above2 ,sageret's #8,pomologie ,phys41' #ahcj1 pp4 #ceh1 #cfd1 #cfg1 #cgi2 #8,catalogue of the ,fruit in the ,garden of ,hort4 ,soc41' #ahdb1 pp4 #eg1 #fj2 ,downing1 #8,the ,fruits of ,america1' #ahde1 pp4 #ahi1 #aie1 #bjj4 #hc ,mr4 ,lowe states in his #8,flora of ,madeira' 7quoted in #8,gard4 ,chron41' #ahfb1 p4 #bae7 that the ,p4 malus1 with its nearly sessile fruit1 ranges farther south than the long-stalked ,p4 acerba1 which is entirely absent in ,madeira1 the ,canaries1 and apparently in ,portugal4 ,this fact supports the belief that these two forms deserve to be called species4 ,but the characters separating them are of slight importance1 and of a kind known to vary in other cultivated fruit-trees4 #hd ,see #8,journ4 of ,hort4 ,tour1 by ,deputation of the ,caledonian ,hort4 ,soc41' #ahbc1 p4 #dei4 #he ,h4 ,c4 ,watson1 #8,cybele ,britannica1' vol4 i4 p4 #ccd4 #hf ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 vi41 #ahcj1 p4 #hc4 #hg ,see #8,catalogue of ,fruit in ,garden of ,hort4 ,soc41' #ahdb1 and ,downing's #8,american ,fruit ,trees4' #hh ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,magazine1' vol4 iv41 #ahbh1 p4 #aab4 #hi #8,the ,culture of the ,apple1' p4 #dc4 ,van ,mons makes the same remark on the pear1 #8,arbres ,fruitiers1' tom4 ii41 #ahcf1 p4 #dad4 #ij ,lindley's #8,horticulture1' p4 #aaf4 ,see also ,knight on the ,apple-,tree1 in #8,transact4 of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 vi41 p4 #bbi4 #ia ,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' vol4 i4 #ahab1 p4 #abj4 #ib #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,march #acth1 #ahff1 p4 #aid4 #ic #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iv4 p4 #fh4 ,for ,knight's case see vol4 vi4 p4 #edg4 ,when the coccus first appeared in this country it is said 7vol4 ii4 p4 #afc7 that it was more injurious to crab-stocks than to the apples grafted on them4 ,the ,majetin apple has been found equally free of the coccus at ,melbourne in ,australia 7#8,gard4 ,chron41' #ahga1 p4 #ajfe74 ,the wood of this tree has been there analysed1 and it is said 7but the fact seems a strange one7 that its ash contained over #ej per cent of lime1 while that of the crab exhibited not quite #bc per cent4 ,in ,tasmania ,mr4 ,wade 7#8,transact4 ,new ,zealand ,institute1' vol4 iv4 #ahga1 p4 #dca7 raised seedlings of the ,siberian ,bitter ,sweet for stocks1 and he found barely one per cent of them attacked by the coccus4 ,riley shows 7#8,fifth ,report on ,insects of ,missouri1' #ahgc1 p4 #hg7 that in the ,united ,states some varieties of apples are highly attractive to the coccus and others very little so4 ,turning to a very different pest1 namely1 the caterpillar of a moth 7,carpocapsa pomonella71 ,walsh affirms 7#8,the ,american ,entomologist1' ,april1 #ahfi1 p4 #afj7 that the maiden-blush 8is entirely exempt from apple-worms40 ,so1 it is said1 are some few other varieties2 whereas others are 8peculiarly subject to the attacks of this little pest40 #id #8,mm4 de ,la ,soc4 ,linn4 de ,paris1' tom4 iii4 #ahbe1 p4 #afd2 and ,seringe #8,bulletin ,bot4' #ahcj1 p4 #aag4 #ie ,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdi1 p4 #bd4 #if ,r4 ,thompson1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahej1 p4 #ghh4 #ig ,sageret #8,pomologie ,physiologique1' #ahcj1 p4 #bfc4 ,downing's #8,fruit ,trees1' pp4 #acj1 #acd1 #aci1 etc4 ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag4' vol4 viii4 p4 #cag4 ,alexis ,jordan1 #8,de l',origine des diverses ,varits1' in #8,mm4 de l',acad4 ,imp4 de ,lyon1' tom4 ii4 #aheb1 pp4 #ie1 #aad4 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahej1 pp4 #ggd1 #ghh4 #ih #8,comptes ,rendus1' ,july #fth1 #ahfc4 #ii #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahef1 p4 #hjd2 #aheg1 p4 #hbj2 #ahfb1 p4 #aaie4 #ajj ,most of the largest cultivated strawberries are the descendants of ,f4 grandiflora or chiloensis1 and ,i have seen no account of these forms in their wild state4 ,methuen's ,scarlet 7,downing1 #8,fruits1' p4 #ebg7 has 8immense fruit of the largest size10 and belongs to the section descended from ,f4 virginiana2 and the fruit of this species1 as ,i hear from ,prof4 ,a4 ,gray1 is only a little larger than that of ,f4 vesca1 or our common wood-strawberry4 #aja #8,le ,fraisier1' par le ,comte ,l4 de ,lambertye1 #ahfd1 p4 #ej4 #ajb #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iii4 #ahbj1 p4 #bjg4 #ajc ,see an account by ,prof4 ,decaisne1 and by others in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #cce1 and #aheh1 p4 #agb2 and ,mr4 ,barnet's paper in #8,hort4 ,soc4 ,transact41' vol4 vi4 #ahbf1 p4 #agj4 #ajd #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 v4 #ahbd1 p4 #bid4 #aje #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,dec4 #cjth1 #ahfb1 p4 #ggi4 ,see also ,mr4 ,prince to the same effect1 ibid41 #ahfc1 p4 #dah4 #ajf ,for additional evidence see #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,dec4 #ith1 #ahfb1 p4 #gba4 #ajg #8,le ,fraisier1' par le ,comte ,l4 de ,lambertye1 pp4 #bba1 #bcj4 #ajh #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 vi4 p4 #bjj4 #aji #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheh1 p4 #agc4 #aaj ,godron #8,de l',espce1' tom4 i4 p4 #afa4 #aaa #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahea1 p4 #ddj4 #aab ,f4 ,gloede in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #ajec4 #aac ,downing's #8,fruits1' p4 #ecb4 #aad ,barnet1 in #8,hort4 ,transact41' vol4 vi4 p4 #baj4 #aae #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdg1 p4 #eci4 #aaf ,for the several statements with respect to the ,american strawberries see ,downing1 #8,fruits1' p4 #ebd2 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #ahh2 #ahdg1 p4 #eci2 #ahfa1 p4 #gag4 #aag ,mr4 ,d4 ,beaton1 in #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfj1 p4 #hf4 ,see also #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahee1 p4 #hh1 and many other authorities4 ,for the ,continent1 see ,f4 ,gloede1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #ajec4 #aah ,rev4 ,w4 ,f4 ,radclyffe1 in #8,journal of ,hort41' ,march #adth1 #ahfe1 p4 #bjg4 #aai ,mr4 ,h4 ,doubleday in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #aaja4 #abj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahed1 p4 #bed4 #aba ,loudon's #8,encyclop4 of ,gardening1' p4 #icj2 and ,alph4 ,de ,candolle #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #iaj4 #abb ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,magazine1' vol4 iv4 #ahbh1 p4 #aab4 #abc ,the fullest account of the gooseberry is given by ,mr4 ,thompson in #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i41 #bnd series1 #ahce1 p4 #bah1 from which most of the foregoing facts are taken4 #abd #8,catalogue of ,fruits of ,hort4 ,soc4 ,garden1' #crd edit41 #ahdb4 #abe ,mr4 ,clarkson of ,manchester1 on the ,culture of the ,gooseberry1 in ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,magazine1' vol4 iv4 #ahbh1 p4 #dhb4 #abf ,downing's #8,fruits of ,america1' p4 #bac4 #abg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdd1 p4 #haa1 where a table is given2 and #ahde1 p4 #hai4 ,for the extreme weights gained1 see #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,july #bfth1 #ahfd1 p4 #fa4 #abh ,mr4 ,saul1 of ,lancaster1 in ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 iii4 #ahbh1 p4 #dba2 and vol4 x4 #ahcd1 p4 #db4 #abi #8,himalayan ,journals1' #ahed1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ccd4 ,moorcroft 7#8,travels1' vol4 ii4 p4 #adf7 describes four varieties cultivated in ,kashmir4 #acj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahej1 p4 #gbc4 #aca ,paper translated in ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' #ahbi1 vol4 v4 p4 #bjb4 #acb ,quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdi1 p4 #aja4 #acc #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdg1 pp4 #eda and #eeh4 #acd ,the following details are taken from the #8,catalogue of ,fruits1 #ahdb1 in ,garden of ,hort4 ,soc41' p4 #ajc2 and from ,loudon's #8,encyclop4 of ,gardening1' p4 #idc4 #ace #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #ief4 #acf #8,annales des ,sc4 ,nat4 ,bot41' #dth series1 vol4 vi4 #ahef1 p4 #e4 #acg #8,american ,journ4 of ,science1' #bnd series1 vol4 xxiv4 #aheg1 p4 #ddb4 #ach ,grtner #8,bastarderzeugung1' #ahdi1 s4 #hg1 and s4 #afi with respect to ,maize2 on ,verbascum1 ibid41 s4 #ib and #aha2 also his #8,kenntniss der ,befruchtung1' s4 #acg4 ,with respect to ,nicotiana see ,klreuter #8,zweite ,forts41' #agfd1 s4 #ec2 though this is a somewhat different case4 #aci #8,de l',espce1' par ,m4 ,godron1 tom4 ii4 p4 #fd4 #adj ,naudin1 in #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat41' #dth series1 ,bot4 tom4 xi4 #ahei1 p4 #bh4 #ada #8,mmoire sur les ,cucurbitaces1' #ahbf1 pp4 #f1 #bd4 #adb #8,flore des ,serres1' ,oct4 #ahfa1 quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfa1 p4 #aace4 ,i have often consulted and taken some facts from ,m4 ,naudin's ,memoir on ,cucumis in #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat41' #dth series1 ,bot4 tom4 xi4 #ahei1 p4 #e4 #adc ,see also ,sageret's #8,mmoire' p4 #g4 #add ,loudon's #8,arboretum et ,fruticetum1' vol4 ii4 p4 #abag4 #ade #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahff1 p4 #ajif4 #adf #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #ajif4 #adg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdb1 p4 #cf4 #adh ,loudon's #8,arboretum et ,fruticetum1' vol4 iii4 p4 #agca4 #adi ,ibid41 vol4 iv4 p4 #bdhi4 #aej ,godron 7#8,de l',espce' tom4 ii4 p4 #ia7 describes four varieties of ,robinia remarkable from their manner of growth4 #aea #8,journal of a ,horticultural ,tour1 by ,caledonian ,hort4 ,soc41' #ahbc1 p4 #ajg4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #ajhc4 ,verlot1 #8,sur ,la ,production des ,varits1' #ahfe2 p4 #ee for the ,barberry4 #aeb ,loudon's #8,arboretum et ,fruticetum1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ejh4 #aec ,verlot #8,des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #ib4 #aed ,loudon's #8,arboretum et ,fruticetum1' vol4 iii4 p4 #acgf4 #aee #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahda1 p4 #fhg4 #aef ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #hi4 ,in ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 xii4 #ahcf1 p4 #cga1 a variegated bushy ash is described and figured1 as having simple leaves2 it originated in ,ireland4 #aeg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfc1 p4 #ege4 #aeh ,quoted from ,royal ,irish ,academy in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahda1 p4 #gfg4 #aei ,loudon's #8,arboretum et ,fruticetum3' for ,elm1 see vol4 iii4 p4 #acgf2 for ,oak1 p4 #ahdf4 #afj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdi1 p4 #hbb4 #afa #8,arboretum et ,fruticetum1' vol4 iv4 p4 #baej4 #afb #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheb1 p4 #fic4 #afc ,see #8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss ,europischer ,pinus-arten von ,dr4 ,christ3 ,flora1 #ahfd4' ,he shows that in the ,ober-,engadin ,p4 sylvestris and montana are connected by intermediate links4 #afd #8,arboretum et ,fruticetum1' vol4 iv4 pp4 #baei and #bahi4 #afe ,ibid41 vol4 ii4 p4 #hcj2 ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 vi4 #ahcj1 p4 #gad4 #aff ,loudon's #8,arboretum et ,fruticetum1' vol4 ii4 p4 #hcd4 #afg ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 ix4 #ahcc1 p4 #abc4 #afh ,ibid41 vol4 xi4 #ahce1 p4 #ejc4 #afi #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahde1 p4 #fbc4 #agj ,d4 ,beaton1 in #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfj1 p4 #cgg4 ,see also ,mr4 ,beck1 on the habits of ,queen ,mab1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahde1 p4 #bbf4 #aga ,moquin-,tandon1 #8,elments de ,tratologie1' #ahda1 p4 #bac4 #agb ,see also #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfj1 p4 #acc4 #agc ,quoted by ,alph4 de ,candolle1 #8,bibl4 ,univ41' ,november #ahfb1 p4 #eh4 #agd ,knight1 #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iv4 p4 #cbb4 #age #8,botanical ,magazine1' tab4 #eafj1 fig4 #d2 ,dr4 ,hooker1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #aij2 ,prof4 ,harvey1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #ade2 ,mr4 ,crocker1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfa1 p4 #ajib4 #agf ,alph4 de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #ajhc2 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfa1 p4 #dcc4 ,the inheritance of the white and golden zones in ,pelargonium largely depends on the nature of the soil4 ,see ,d4 ,beaton1 in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 p4 #fd4 #agg #8,rose ,amateur's ,guide1' ,t4 ,rivers1 #ahcg1 p4 #ba4 #agh #8,journal ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ix4 #ahee1 p4 #ahb4 #agi ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,f4 ,radclyffe1 in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,march #adth1 #ahfe1 p4 #bjg4 #ahj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahca1 p4 #df4 #aha ,mr4 ,sabine1 in #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iv4 p4 #bhe4 #ahb #8,an ,encyclop4 of ,plants1' by ,j4 ,c4 ,loudon1 #ahda1 p4 #ddc4 #ahc ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,magazine1' vol4 xi4 #ahce1 p4 #dbg2 also #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,april #adth1 #ahfc1 p4 #bge4 #ahd ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,magazine1' vol4 viii4 p4 #ege3 vol4 ix4 p4 #fhi4 #ahe ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith1 #8,english ,flora1' vol4 i4 p4 #cjf4 ,h4 ,c4 ,watson1 #8,cybele ,britannica1' vol4 i4 #ahdg1 p4 #aha4 #ahf ,quoted from #8,annales des ,sciences1' in the ,companion to the #8,bot4 ,mag41' vol4 i4 #ahce1 p4 #aei4 #ahg #8,cybele ,britannica1' vol4 i4 p4 #agc4 ,see also ,dr4 ,herbert on the changes of colour in transplanted specimens1 and on the natural variations of ,v4 grandiflora1 in #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iv4 p4 #ai4 #ahh ,salisbury1 in #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 #ahab1 pp4 #hd1 #ib4 ,a semi-double variety was produced in ,madrid in #agij4 #ahi #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iii4 #ahbj1 p4 #bbe4 #aij ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 vi4 #ahcj1 p4 #gg4 #aia ,loudon's #8,encyclop4 of ,gardening1' p4 #ajce4 #aib #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 p4 #ia2 and ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 iii4 #ahbh1 p4 #agi4 #aic ,mr4 ,wildman1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #hg4 #8,cottage ,gardener1' ,april #hth1 #ahef1 p4 #cc4 #aid ,m4 ,faivre has given an interesting account of the successive variations of the ,chinese primrose1 since its introduction into ,europe about the year #ahbj3 #8,revue des ,cours ,scientifiques1' ,june1 #ahfi1 p4 #dbh4 #aie ,the best and fullest account of this plant which ,i have met with is by a famous horticulturist1 ,mr4 ,paul1 of ,waltham1 in the #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfd1 p4 #cdb4 #aif #8,des ,jacinthes1 de leur ,anatomie1 ,reproduction1 et ,culture1' ,amsterdam1 #agfh4 #aig ,alph4 de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #ajhb4 #aih ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #ihc4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,on ,,bud-,,variation1 ,,and ,,on ,,certain ,,anomalous ,,modes ,,of ,,reproduction ,,and ,,variation4 ,,bud-,,variation ,,in ,,the ,,peach1 ,,plum1 ,,cherry1 ,,vine1 ,,gooseberry1 ,,currant1 ,,and ,,banana1 ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,modified ,,fruit--,,in ,,flowers3 ,,camellias1 ,,azaleas1 ,,chrysanthemums1 ,,roses1 ,,etc--,,on ,,the ,,running ,,of ,,the ,,colour ,,in ,,carnations--,,bud-,,variations ,,in ,,leaves--,,variations ,,by ,,suckers1 ,,tubers1 ,,and ,,bulbs--,,on ,,the ,,breaking ,,of ,,tulips--,,bud-,,variations ,,graduate ,,into ,,changes ,,consequent ,,on ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,graft-,,hybrids--,,on ,,the ,,segregation ,,of ,,the ,,parental ,,characters ,,in ,,seminal ,,hybrids ,,by ,,bud-,,variation--,,on ,,the ,,direct ,,or ,,immediate ,,action ,,of ,,foreign ,,pollen ,,on ,,the ,,mother-,,plant--,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,in ,,female ,,animals ,,of ,a ,,previous ,,impregnation ,,on ,,the ,,subsequent ,,offspring--,,conclusion ,,and ,,summary ,this chapter will be chiefly devoted to a subject in many respects important1 namely1 bud-variation4 ,by this term ,i include all those sudden changes in structure or appearance which occasionally occur in full-grown plants in their flower-buds or leaf-buds4 ,gardeners call such changes 8,sports20 but this1 as previously remarked1 is an ill-defined expression1 as it has often been applied to strongly marked variations in seedling plants4 ,the difference between seminal and bud reproduction is not so great as it at first appears2 for each bud is in one sense a new and distinct individual2 but such individuals are produced through the formation of various kinds of buds without the aid of any special apparatus1 whilst fertile seeds are produced by the concourse of the two sexual elements4 ,the modifications which arise through bud-variation can generally be propagated to any extent by grafting1 budding1 cuttings1 bulbs1 etc41 and occasionally even by seed4 ,some few of our most beautiful and useful productions have arisen by bud-variation4 ,bud-variations have as yet been observed only in the vegetable kingdom2 but it is probable that if compound animals1 such as corals1 etc41 had been subjected to a long course of domestication1 they would have varied by buds2 for they resemble plants in many respects4 ,for instance1 any new or peculiar character presented by a compound animal is propagated by budding1 as occurs with differently coloured ,hydras1 and as ,mr4 ,gosse has shown to be the case with a singular variety of a true coral4 ,varieties of the ,hydra have also been grafted on other varieties1 and have retained their character4 ,i will in the first place give all the cases of bud variations which ,i have been able to collect1 and afterwards show their importance4#a ,these cases prove that those authors who1 like ,pallas1 attribute all variability to the crossing either of distinct races1 or of distinct individuals belonging to the same race but somewhat different from each other1 are in error2 as are those authors who attribute all variability to the mere act of sexual union4 ,nor can we account in all cases for the appearance through bud-variation of new characters by the principle of reversion to long-lost characters4 ,he who wishes to judge how far the conditions of life directly cause each particular variation ought to reflect well on the cases immediately to be given4 ,i will commence with bud-variations1 as exhibited in the fruit1 and then pass on to flowers1 and finally to leaves4 ,peach 7,amygdalus persica74--,in the last chapter ,i gave two cases of a peach-almond and a double-flowered almond which suddenly produced fruit closely resembling true peaches4 ,i have also given many cases of peach-trees producing buds1 which1 when developed into branches1 have yielded nectarines4 ,we have seen that no less than six named and several unnamed varieties of the peach have thus produced several varieties of nectarine4 ,i have shown that it is highly improbable that all these peach-trees1 some of which are old varieties1 and have been propagated by the million1 are hybrids from the peach and nectarine1 and that it is opposed to all analogy to attribute the occasional production of nectarines on peach-trees to the direct action of pollen from some neighbouring nectarine-tree4 ,several of the cases are highly remarkable1 because1 firstly1 the fruit thus produced has sometimes been in part a nectarine and in part a peach2 secondly1 because nectarines thus suddenly produced have reproduced themselves by seed2 and thirdly1 because nectarines are produced from peach-trees from seed as well as from buds4 ,the seed of the nectarine1 on the other hand1 occasionally produces peaches2 and we have seen in one instance that a nectarine-tree yielded peaches by bud-variation4 ,as the peach is certainly the oldest or primary variety1 the production of peaches from nectarines1 either by seeds or buds1 may perhaps be considered as a case of reversion4 ,certain trees have also been described as indifferently bearing peaches or nectarines1 and this may be considered as bud-variation carried to an extreme degree4 ,the grosse mignonne peach at ,montreuil produced 8from a sporting branch0 the grosse mignonne tardive1 8a most excellent variety10 which ripens its fruit a fortnight later than the parent tree1 and is equally good4#b ,this same peach has likewise produced by bud-variation the early grosse mignonne4 ,hunt's large tawny nectarine 8originated from ,hunt's small tawny nectarine1 but not through seminal reproduction40#c ,plums4--,mr4 ,knight states that a tree of the yellow magnum bonum plum1 forty years old1 which had always borne ordinary fruit1 produced a branch which yielded red magnum bonums4#d ,mr4 ,rivers1 of ,sawbridgeworth1 informs me 7,jan4 #ahfc7 that a single tree out of #djj or #ejj trees of the ,early ,prolific plum1 which is a purple kind1 descended from an old ,french variety bearing purple fruit1 produced when about ten years old bright yellow plums2 these differed in no respect except colour from those on the other trees1 but were unlike any other known kind of yellow plum4#e ,cherry 7,prunus cerasus74--,mr4 ,knight has recorded 7ibid47 the case of a branch of a ,may-,duke cherry1 which1 though certainly never grafted1 always produced fruit1 ripening later1 and more oblong than the fruit on the other branches4 ,another account has been given of two ,may-,duke cherry-trees in ,scotland1 with branches bearing oblong and very fine fruit1 which invariably ripened1 as in ,knight's case1 a fortnight later than the other cherries4#f ,m4 ,carrire gives 7p4 #cg7 numerous analogous cases1 and one of the same tree bearing three kinds of fruit4 ,grapes 7,vitis vinifera74--,the black or purple ,frontignan in one case produced during two successive years 7and no doubt permanently71 spurs which bore white ,frontignan grapes4 ,in another case1 on the same footstalk1 the lower berries 8were well-coloured black ,frontignans2 those next the stalk were white1 with the exception of one black and one streaked berry20 and altogether there were fifteen black and twelve white berries on the same stalk4 ,in another kind of grape1 black and amber-coloured berries were produced in the same cluster4#g ,count ,odart describes a variety which often bears on the same stalk small round and large oblong berries2 though the shape of the berry is generally a fixed character4#h ,here is another striking case given on the excellent authority of ,m4 ,carrire3#i 8a black ,hamburg grape 7,frankenthal7 was cut down1 and produced three suckers2 one of these was layered1 and after a time produced much smaller berries1 which always ripened at least a fortnight earlier than the others4 ,of the remaining two suckers1 one produced every year fine grapes1 whilst the other1 although it set an abundance of fruit1 matured only a few1 and these of inferior quality40 ,gooseberry 7,ribes grossularia74--,a remarkable case has been described by ,dr4 ,lindley#aj of a bush which bore at the same time no less than four kinds of berries1 namely1 hairy and red1--smooth1 small and red1--green1--and yellow tinged with buff2 the two latter kinds had a different flavour from the red berries1 and their seeds were coloured red4 ,three twigs on this bush grew close together2 the first bore three yellow berries and one red2 the second twig bore four yellow and one red2 and the third four red and one yellow4 ,mr4 ,laxton also informs me that he has seen a ,red ,warrington gooseberry bearing both red and yellow fruit on the same branch4 ,currant 7,ribes rubrum74--,a bush purchased as the ,champagne1 which is a variety that bears blush-coloured fruit intermediate between red and white1 produced during fourteen years on separate branches and mingled on the same branch1 berries of the red1 white1 and champagne kinds4#aa ,the suspicion naturally arises that this variety may have originated from a cross between a red and white variety1 and that the above transformation may be accounted for by reversion to both parent-forms2 but from the foregoing complex case of the gooseberry this view is doubtful4 ,in ,france1 a branch of a red-currant bush1 about ten years old1 produced near the summit five white berries7 and lower down1 amongst the red berries1 one berry half red and half white4#ab ,alexander ,braun#ac also has often seen branches on white currant-trees bearing red berries4 ,pear 7,pyrus communis74--,dureau de la ,malle states that the flowers on some trees of an ancient variety1 the doyenn galeux1 were destroyed by frost3 other flowers appeared in ,july1 which produced six pears2 these exactly resembled in their skin and taste the fruit of a distinct variety1 the gros doyenne blanc1 but in shape were like the bon-chrtien3 it was not ascertained whether this new variety could be propagated by budding or grafting4 ,the same author grafted a bon-chrtien on a quince1 and it produced1 besides its proper fruit1 an apparently new variety1 of a peculiar form with thick and rough skin4#ad ,apple 7,pyrus malus74--,in ,canada1 a tree of the variety called ,pound ,sweet1 produced1#ae between two of its proper fruit1 an apple which was well russeted1 small in size1 different in shape1 and with a short peduncle4 ,as no russet apple grew anywhere near1 this case apparently cannot be accounted for by the direct action of foreign pollen4 ,m4 ,carrire 7p4 #ch7 mentions an analogous instance4 ,i shall hereafter give cases of apple-trees which regularly produce fruit of two kinds1 or half-and-half fruit2 these trees are generally supposed1 and probably with truth1 to be of crossed parentage1 and that the fruit reverts to both parent-forms4 ,banana 7,musa sapientium74--,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk states that he saw in ,st4 ,domingo a raceme on the ,fig ,banana which bore towards the base #abe fruits of the proper kind2 and these were succeeded1 as is usual1 higher up the raceme1 by barren flowers1 and these by #dbj fruits1 having a widely different appearance1 and ripening earlier than the proper fruit4 ,the abnormal fruit closely resembled1 except in being smaller1 that of the ,musa chinensis or cavendishii1 which has generally been ranked as a distinct species4#af ,flowers4--,many cases have been recorded of a whole plant1 or single branch1 or bud1 suddenly producing flowers different from the proper type in colour1 form1 size1 doubleness1 or other character4 ,half the flower1 or a smaller segment1 sometimes changes colour4 ,camellia4--,the myrtle-leaved species 7,c4 myrtifolia71 and two or three varieties of the common species1 have been known to produce hexagonal and imperfectly quadrangular flowers2 and the branches producing such flowers have been propagated by grafting4#ag ,the ,pompon variety often bears 8four distinguishable kinds of flowers1--the pure white and the red-eyed1 which appear promiscuously2 the brindled pink and the rose-coloured1 which may be kept separate with tolerable certainty by grafting from the branches that bear them40 ,a branch1 also1 on an old tree of the rose-coloured variety has been seen to 8revert to the pure white colour1 an occurrence less common than the departure from it40#ah ,cratgus oxyacantha4--,a dark pink hawthorn has been known to throw out a single tuft of pure white blossoms2#ai and ,mr4 ,a4 ,clapham1 nurseryman1 of ,bedford1 informs me that his father had a deep crimson thorn grafted on a white thorn1 which during several years1 always bore1 high above the graft1 bunches of white1 pink and deep crimson flowers4 ,azalea indica is well known often to produce new varieties by buds4 ,i have myself seen several cases4 ,a plant of ,azalea indica variegata has been exhibited bearing a truss of flowers of ,a4 ind4 gledstanesii 8as true as could possibly be produced1 thus evidencing the origin of that fine variety40 ,on another plant of ,a4 ind4 variegata a perfect flower of ,a4 ind4 lateritia was produced2 so that both gledstanesii and lateritia no doubt originally appeared as sporting branches of ,a4 ind4 variegata4#bj ,hibiscus 7,paritium tricuspis74--,a seedling of this plant1 when some years old1 produced1 at ,saharunpore1#ba some branches 8which bore leaves and flowers widely different from the normal form40 8,the abnormal leaf is much less divided1 and not acuminated4 ,the petals are considerably larger1 and quite entire4 ,there is also in the fresh state a conspicuous1 large1 oblong gland1 full of a viscid secretion1 on the back of each of the calycine segments40 ,dr4 ,king1 who subsequently had charge of these ,gardens1 informs me that a tree of ,paritium tricuspis 7probably the very same plant7 growing there1 had a branch buried in the ground1 apparently by accident2 and this branch changed its character wonderfully1 growing like a bush1 and producing flowers and leaves1 resembling in shape those of another species1 viz41 ,p4 tiliaceum4 ,a small branch springing from this bush near the ground1 reverted to the parent-form4 ,both forms were extensively propagated during several years by cuttings and kept perfectly true4 ,altha rosea4--,a double yellow ,hollyhock suddenly turned one year into a pure white single kind2 subsequently a branch bearing the original double yellow flowers reappeared in the midst of the branches of the single white kind4#bb ,pelargonium4--,these highly cultivated plants seem eminently liable to bud-variation4 ,i will give only a few well-marked cases4 ,grtner has seen#bc a plant of ,p4 zonale with a branch having white edges1 which remained constant for years1 and bore flowers of a deeper red than usual4 ,generally speaking1 such branches present little or no difference in their flowers3 thus a writer#bd pinched off the leading shoot of a seedling ,p4 zonale1 and it threw out three branches1 which differed in the size and colour of their leaves and stems2 but on all three branches 8the flowers were identical10 except in being largest in the green-stemmed variety1 and smallest in that with variegated foliage3 these three varieties were subsequently propagated and distributed4 ,many branches1 and some whole plants1 of a variety called compactum1 which bears orange-scarlet flowers1 have been seen to produce pink flowers4#be ,hill's ,hector1 which is a pale red variety1 produced a branch with lilac flowers1 and some trusses with both red and lilac flowers4 ,this apparently is a case of reversion1 for ,hill's ,hector was a seedling from a lilac variety4#bf ,here is a better case of reversion3 a variety produced from a complicated cross1 after having been propagated for five generations by seed1 yielded by bud-variation three very distinct varieties which were undistinguishable from plants1 8known to have been at some time ancestors of the plant in question40#bg ,of all ,pelargoniums1 ,rollisson's ,unique seems to be the most sportive2 its origin is not positively known1 but is believed to be from a cross4 ,mr4 ,salter1 of ,hammersmith1 states#bh that he has himself known this purple variety to produce the lilac1 the rose-crimson or conspicuum1 and the red or coccineum varieties2 the latter has also produced the rose d'amour2 so that altogether four varieties have originated by bud variation from ,rollisson's ,unique4 ,mr4 ,salter remarks that these four varieties 8may now be considered as fixed1 although they occasionally produce flowers of the original colour4 ,this year coccineum has pushed flowers of three different colours1 red1 rose1 and lilac1 upon the same truss1 and upon other trusses are flowers half red and half lilac40 ,besides these four varieties1 two other scarlet ,uniques are known to exist1 both of which occasionally produce lilac flowers identical with ,rollisson's ,unique2#bi but one at least of these did not arise through bud-variation1 but is believed to be a seedling from ,rollisson's ,unique4#cj ,there are1 also1 in the trade#ca two other slightly different varieties1 of unknown origin1 of ,rollisson's ,unique3 so that altogether we have a curiously complex case of variation both by buds and seeds4#cb ,here is a still more complex case3 ,m4 ,rafarin states that a pale rose-coloured variety produced a branch bearing deep red flowers4 8,cuttings were taken from this #8sport1' from which #bj plants were raised1 which flowered in #ahfg1 when it was found that scarcely two were alike40 ,some resembled the parent-form1 some resembled the sport1 some bore both kinds of flowers2 and even some of the petals on the same flower were rose-coloured and others red4#cc ,an ,english wild plant1 the ,geranium pratense1 when cultivated in a garden1 has been seen to produce on the same plant both blue and white1 and striped blue and white flowers4#cd ,chrysanthemum4--,this plant frequently sports1 both by its lateral branches and occasionally by suckers4 ,a seedling raised by ,mr4 ,salter has produced by bud-variation six distinct sorts1 five different in colour and one in foliage1 all of which are now fixed4#ce ,a variety called cedo nulli bears small yellow flowers1 but habitually produces branches with white flowers2 and a specimen was exhibited1 which ,prof4 ,t4 ,dyer saw1 before the ,horticultural ,society4 ,the varieties which were first introduced from ,china were so excessively variable1 8that it was extremely difficult to tell which was the original colour of the variety1 and which was the sport40 ,the same plant would produce one year only buff-coloured1 and next year only rose-coloured flowers2 and then would change again1 or produce at the same time flowers of both colours4 ,these fluctuating varieties are now all lost1 and1 when a branch sports into a new variety1 it can generally be propagated and kept true2 but1 as ,mr4 ,salter remarks1 8every sport should be thoroughly tested in different soils before it can be really considered as fixed1 as many have been known to run back when planted in rich compost2 but when sufficient care and time are expended in proving1 there will exist little danger of subsequent disappointment40 ,mr4 ,salter informs me that with all the varieties the commonest kind of bud-variation is the production of yellow flowers1 and1 as this is the primordial colour1 these cases may be attributed to reversion4 ,mr4 ,salter has given me a list of seven differently coloured chrysanthemums1 which have all produced branches with yellow flowers2 but three of them have also sported into other colours4 ,with any change of colour in the flower1 the foliage generally changes in a corresponding manner in lightness or darkness4 ,another ,compositous plant1 namely1 ,centauria cyanus1 when cultivated in a garden1 not unfrequently produces on the same root flowers of four different colours1 viz41 blue1 white1 dark-purple1 and parti-coloured4#cf ,the flowers of ,anthemis also vary on the same plant4#cg ,roses4--,many varieties of the ,rose are known or are believed to have originated by bud-variation4#ch ,the common double moss-rose was imported into ,england from ,italy about the year #agce4ci ,its origin is unknown1 but from analogy it probably arose from the ,provence rose 7,r4 centifolia7 by bud-variation2 for the branches of the common moss-rose have several times been known to produce ,provence roses1 wholly or partially destitute of moss3 ,i have seen one such instance1 and several others have been recorded4#dj ,mr4 ,rivers also informs me that he raised two or three roses of the ,provence class from seed of the old single moss-rose2#da and this latter kind was produced in #ahjg by bud-variation from the common moss-rose4 ,the white moss-rose was also produced in #aghh by an offset from the common red moss-rose3 it was at first pale blush-coloured1 but became white by continued budding4 ,on cutting down the shoots which had produced this white moss-rose1 two weak shoots were thrown up1 and buds from these yielded the beautiful striped moss-rose4 ,the common moss-rose has yielded by bud-variation1 besides the old single red moss-rose1 the old scarlet semi-double moss-rose1 and the sage-leaf moss-rose1 which 8has a delicate shell-like form1 and is of a beautiful blush colour2 it is now 7#aheb7 nearly extinct40#db ,a white moss-rose has been seen to bear a flower half white and half pink4#dc ,although several moss-roses have thus certainly arisen by bud-variation1 the greater number probably owe their origin to seed of moss-roses4 ,for ,mr4 ,rivers informs me that his seedlings from the old single moss-rose almost always produced moss-roses2 and the old single moss-rose was1 as we have seen1 the product by bud-variation of the double moss-rose originally imported from ,italy4 ,that the original moss-rose was the product of bud-variation is probable1 from the facts above given and from the de ,meaux moss-rose 7also a variety of ,r4 centifolia7#dd having appeared as a sporting branch on the common rose de ,meaux4 ,prof4 ,caspary has carefully described#de the case of a six-year-old white moss-rose1 which sent up several suckers1 one of which was thorny1 and produced red flowers1 destitute of moss1 exactly like those of the ,provence rose 7,r4 centifolia73 another shoot bore both kinds of flowers1 and in addition longitudinally striped flowers4 ,as this white moss-rose had been grafted on the ,provence rose1 ,prof4 ,caspary attributes the above changes to the influence of the stock2 but from the facts already given1 and from others to be given1 bud-variation1 with reversion1 is probably a sufficient explanation4 ,many other instances could be added of roses varying by buds4 ,the white ,provence rose apparently originated in this way4#df ,m4 ,carrire states 7p4 #cf7 that he himself knows of five varieties thus produced by the ,baronne ,prvost4 ,the double and highly-coloured ,belladonna rose has produced by suckers both semi-double and almost single white roses2#dg whilst suckers from one of these semi-double white roses reverted to perfectly characterised ,belladonnas4 ,in ,st4 ,domingo1 varieties of the ,china rose propagated by cuttings often revert after a year or two into the old ,china rose4#dh ,many cases have been recorded of roses suddenly becoming striped or changing their character by segments3 some plants of the ,comtesse de ,chabrillant1 which is properly rose-coloured1 were exhibited in #ahfb1di with crimson flakes on a rose ground4 ,i have seen the ,beauty of ,billiard with a quarter and with half the flower almost white4 #8,the ,austrian bramble ,r4 lutea not rarely#ej produces branches with pure yellow flowers2 and ,prof4 ,henslow has seen exactly half the flower of a pure yellow1 and ,i have seen narrow yellow streaks on a single petal1 of which the rest was of the usual copper colour4 ,the following cases are highly remarkable4 ,mr4 ,rivers1 as ,i am informed by him1 possessed a new ,french rose with delicate smooth shoots1 pale glaucous-green leaves1 and semi-double pale flesh-coloured flowers striped with dark red2 and on branches thus characterised there suddenly appeared in more than one instance1 the famous old rose called the ,baronne ,prevost1 with its stout thorny shoots1 and immense1 uniformly and richly coloured double flowers2 so that in this case the shoots1 leaves1 and flowers1 all at once changed their character by bud-variation4 ,according to ,m4 ,verlot1#ea a variety called ,rosa cannabifolia1 which has peculiarly shaped leaflets1 and differs from every member of the family in the leaves being opposite instead of alternate1 suddenly appeared on a plant of ,r4 alba in the gardens of the ,luxembourg4 ,lastly1 8a running shoot0 was observed by ,mr4 ,h4 ,curtis#eb on the old ,aime ,vibert ,noisette1 and he budded it on ,celine2 thus a climbing ,aime ,vibert was first produced and afterwards propagated4 ,dianthus4--,it is quite common with the ,sweet ,william 7,d4 barbatus7 to see differently coloured flowers on the same root2 and ,i have observed on the same truss four differently coloured and shaded flowers4 ,carnations and pinks 7,d4 caryophyllus1 etc47 occasionally vary by layers2 and some kinds are so little certain in character that they are called by floriculturists 8catch-flowers40#ec ,mr4 ,dickson has ably discussed the 8running0 of particoloured or striped carnations1 and says it cannot be accounted for by the compost in which they are grown3 8layers from the same clean flower would come part of them clean and part foul1 even when subjected to precisely the same treatment2 and frequently one flower alone appears influenced by the taint1 the remainder coming perfectly clean40#ed ,this running of the parti-coloured flowers apparently is a case of reversion by buds to the original uniform tint of the species4 ,i will briefly mention some other cases of bud-variation to show how many plants belonging to many orders have varied in their flowers2 and many others might be added4 ,i have seen on a snap-dragon 7,antirrhinum majus7 white1 pink1 and striped flowers on the same plant1 and branches with striped flowers on a red-coloured variety4 ,on a double stock 7,matthiola incana7 ,i have seen a branch bearing single flowers2 and on a dingy-purple double variety of the wall-flower 7,cheiranthus cheiri71 a branch which had reverted to the ordinary copper colour4 ,on other branches of the same plant1 some flowers were exactly divided across the middle1 one half being purple and the other coppery2 but some of the smaller petals towards the centre of these same flowers were purple longitudinally streaked with coppery colour1 or coppery streaked with purple4 ,a ,cyclamen#ee has been observed to bear white and pink flowers of two forms1 the one resembling the ,persicum strain1 and the other the ,coum strain4 ,oenothera biennis has been seen#ef bearing flowers of three different colours4 ,the hybrid ,gladiolus colvilii occasionally bears uniformly coloured flowers1 and one case is recorded#eg of all the flowers on a plant thus changing colour4 ,a ,fuchsia has been seen#eh bearing two kinds of flowers4 ,mirabilis jalapa is eminently sportive1 sometimes bearing on the same root pure red1 yellow1 and white flowers1 and others striped with various combinations of these three colours4#ei ,the plants of the ,mirabilis1 which bear such extraordinarily variable flowers in most1 probably in all1 cases1 owe their origin1 as shown by ,prof4 ,lecoq1 to crosses between differently coloured varieties4 ,leaves and ,shoots4--,changes1 through bud-variation1 in fruits and flowers have hitherto been treated of2 incidentally some remarkable modifications in the leaves and shoots of the rose and ,paritium1 and in a lesser degree in the foliage of the ,pelargonium and ,chrysanthemum1 have been noticed4 ,i will now add a few more cases of variation in leaf-buds4 ,verlot#fj states that on ,aralia trifoliata1 which properly has leaves with three leaflets1 branches frequently appear bearing simple leaves of various forms2 these can be propagated by buds or by grafting1 and have given rise1 as he states1 to several nominal species4 ,with respect to trees1 the history of but few of the many varieties with curious or ornamental foliage is known2 but several probably have originated by bud-variation4 ,here is one case3--,an old ash-tree 7,fraxinus excelsior7 in the grounds of ,necton1 as ,mr4 ,mason states1 8for many years has had one bough of a totally different character to the rest of the tree1 or of any other ash-tree which ,i have seen2 being short-jointed and densely covered with foliage40 ,it was ascertained that this variety could be propagated by grafts4#fa ,the varieties of some trees with cut leaves1 as the oak-leaved laburnum1 the parsley-leaved vine1 and especially the fern-leaved beech1 are apt to revert by buds to the common forms4#fb ,the fern-like leaves of the beech sometimes revert only partially1 and the branches display here and there sprouts bearing common leaves1 fern-like1 and variously shaped leaves4 ,such cases differ but little from the so-called heterophyllus varieties1 in which the tree habitually bears leaves of various forms2 but it is probable that most heterophyllous trees have originated as seedlings4 ,there is a sub-variety of the weeping willow with leaves rolled up into a spiral coil2 and ,mr4 ,masters states that a tree of this kind kept true in his garden for twenty-five years1 and then threw out a single upright shoot bearing flat leaves4#fc ,i have often noticed single twigs and branches on beech and other trees with their leaves fully expanded before those on the other branches had opened2 and as there was nothing in their exposure or character to account for this difference1 ,i presume that they had appeared as bud-variations1 like the early and late fruit-maturing varieties of the peach and nectarine4 ,cryptogamic plants are liable to bud-variation1 for fronds on the same fern often display remarkable deviations of structure4 ,spores1 which are of the nature of buds1 taken from such abnormal fronds1 reproduce1 with remarkable fidelity1 the same variety1 after passing through the sexual stage4#fd ,with respect to colour1 leaves often become by bud-variation zoned1 blotched1 or spotted with white1 yellow1 and red2 and this occasionally occurs even with plants in a state of nature4 ,variegation1 however1 appears still more frequently in plants produced from seed2 even the cotyledons or seed-leaves being thus affected4#fe ,there have been endless disputes whether variegation should be considered as a disease4 ,in a future chapter we shall see that it is much influenced1 both in the case of seedlings and of mature plants1 by the nature of the soil4 ,plants which have become variegated as seedlings1 generally transmit their character by seed to a large proportion of their progeny2 and ,mr4 ,salter has given me a list of eight genera in which this occurred4#ff ,sir ,f4 ,pollock has given me more precise information3 he sowed seed from a variegated plant of ,ballota nigra which was found growing wild1 and thirty per cent of the seedlings were variegated2 seed from these latter being sown1 sixty per cent came up variegated4 ,when branches become variegated by bud-variation1 and the variety is attempted to be propagated by seed1 the seedlings are rarely variegated3 ,mr4 ,salter found this to be the case with plants belonging to eleven genera1 in which the greater number of the seedlings proved to be green-leaved2 yet a few were slightly variegated1 or were quite white1 but none were worth keeping4 ,variegated plants1 whether originally produced from seeds or buds1 can generally be propagated by budding1 grafting1 etc42 but all are apt to revert by bud-variation to their ordinary foliage4 ,this tendency1 however1 differs much in the varieties of even the same species2 for instance1 the golden-striped variety of ,euonymus japonicus 8is very liable to run back to the green-leaved1 while the silver-striped variety hardly ever changes40#fg ,i have seen a variety of the holly1 with its leaves having a central yellow patch1 which had everywhere partially reverted to the ordinary foliage1 so that on the same small branch there were many twigs of both kinds4 ,in the pelargonium1 and in some other plants1 variegation is generally accompanied by some degree of dwarfing1 as is well exemplified in the 8,dandy0 pelargonium4 ,when such dwarf varieties sport back by buds or suckers to the ordinary foliage1 the dwarfed stature still remains4#fh ,it is remarkable that plants propagated from branches which have reverted from variegated to plain leaves#fi do not always 7or never1 as one observer asserts7 perfectly resemble the original plain-leaved plant from which the variegated branch arose3 it seems that a plant1 in passing by bud-variation from plain leaves to variegated1 and back again from variegated to plain1 is generally in some degree affected so as to assume a slightly different aspect4 ,bud-variation by ,suckers1 ,tubers1 and ,bulbs4--,all the cases hitherto given of bud-variation in fruits1 flowers1 leaves1 and shoots1 have been confined to buds on the stems or branches1 with the exception of a few cases incidentally noticed of varying suckers in the rose1 pelargonium1 and chrysanthemum4 ,i will now give a few instances of variation in subterranean buds1 that is1 by suckers1 tubers1 and bulbs2 not that there is any essential difference between buds above and beneath the ground4 ,mr4 ,salter informs me that two variegated varieties of ,phlox originated as suckers2 but ,i should not have thought these worth mentioning1 had not ,mr4 ,salter found1 after repeated trials1 that he could not propagate them by 8root-joints10 whereas1 the variegated ,tussilago farfara can thus be safely propagated2#gj but this latter plant may have originated as a variegated seedling1 which would account for its greater fixedness of character4 ,the ,barberry 7,berberis vulgaris7 offers an analogous case2 there is a well-known variety with seedless fruit1 which can be propagated by cuttings or layers2 but suckers always revert to the common form1 which produces fruit containing seeds4#ga ,my father repeatedly tried this experiment1 and always with the same result4 ,i may here mention that maize and wheat sometimes produce new varieties from the stock or root1 as does the sugar-cane4#gb ,turning now to tubers3 in the common ,potato 7,solanum tuberosum7 a single bud or eye sometimes varies and produces a new variety2 or1 occasionally1 and this is a much more remarkable circumstance1 all the eyes in a tuber vary in the same manner and at the same time1 so that the whole tuber assumes a new character4 ,for instance1 a single eye in a tuber of the old ,forty-fold potato1 which is a purple variety1 was observed#gc to become white2 this eye was cut out and planted separately1 and the kind has since been largely propagated4 ,kemp's potato is properly white1 but a plant in ,lancashire produced two tubers which were red1 and two which were white2 the red kind was propagated in the usual manner by eyes1 and kept true to its new colour1 and1 being found a more productive variety1 soon became widely known under the name of ,taylor's forty-fold4#gd ,the old ,forty-fold potato1 as already stated1 is a purple variety2 but a plant long cultivated on the same ground produced1 not1 as in the case above given1 a single white eye1 but a whole white tuber1 which has since been propagated and keeps true4#ge ,several cases have been recorded of large portions of whole rows of potatoes slightly changing their character4#gf ,dahlias propagated by tubers under the hot climate of ,st4 ,domingo vary much2 ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk gives the case of the 8,butterfly variety10 which the second year produced on the same plant 8double and single flowers2 here white petals edged with maroon2 there of a uniform deep maroon40#gg ,mr4 ,bree also mentions a plant 8which bore two different kinds of self-coloured flowers1 as well as a third kind which partook of both colours beautifully intermixed40#gh ,another case is described of a dahlia with purple flowers which bore a white flower streaked with purple4#gi ,considering how long and extensively many ,bulbous plants have been cultivated1 and how numerous are the varieties produced from seed1 these plants have not perhaps varied so much by offsets1--that is1 by the production of new bulbs1--as might have been expected4 ,with the ,hyacinth1 however1 several instances have been given by ,m4 ,carrire4 ,a case also has been recorded of a blue variety which for three successive years gave offsets producing white flowers with a red centre4#hj ,another hyacinth bore#ha on the same truss a perfectly pink and a perfectly blue flower4 ,i have seen a bulb producing at the same time one stalk or truss with fine blue flowers1 another with fine red flowers1 and a third with blue flowers on one side and red on the other2 several of the flowers being also longitudinally striped red and blue4 ,mr4 ,john ,scott informs me that in #ahfb ,imatophyllum miniatum1 in the ,botanic ,gardens of ,edinburgh1 threw up a sucker which differed from the normal form1 in the leaves being two-ranked instead of four-ranked4 ,the leaves were also smaller1 with the upper surface raised instead of being channelled4 ,in the propagation of ,tulips1 seedlings are raised1 called selfs or breeders1 which1 8consist of one plain colour on a white or yellow bottom4 ,these1 being cultivated on a dry and rather poor soil1 become broken or variegated and produce new varieties4 ,the time that elapses before they break varies from one to twenty years or more1 and sometimes this change never takes place40#hb ,the broken or variegated colours which give value to all tulips are due to bud-variation2 for although the ,bybloemens and some other kinds have been raised from several distinct breeders1 yet all the ,baguets are said to have come from a single breeder or seedling4 ,this bud-variation1 in accordance with the views of ,,mm4 ,vilmorin and ,verlot1#hc is probably an attempt to revert to that uniform colour which is natural to the species4 ,a tulip1 however1 which has already become broken1 when treated with too strong manure1 is liable to flush or lose by a second act of reversion its variegated colours4 ,some kinds1 as ,imperatrix ,florum1 are much more liable than others to flushing2 and ,mr4 ,dickson maintains#hd that this can no more be accounted for than the variation of any other plant4 ,he believes that ,english growers1 from care in choosing seed from broken flowers instead of from plain flowers1 have to a certain extent diminished the tendency in flowers already broken to flushing or secondary reversion4 ,iris xiphium1 according to ,m4 ,carrire 7p4 #fe71 behaves in nearly the same manner1 as do so many tulips4 ,during two consecutive years all the early flowers in a bed of ,tigridia conchiflora#he resembled those of the old ,t4 pavonia2 but the later flowers assumed their proper colour of fine yellow1 spotted with crimson4 ,an apparently authentic account has been published#hf of two forms of ,hemerocallis1 which have been universally considered as distinct species1 changing into each other2 for the roots of the large-flowered tawny ,h4 fulva1 being divided and planted in a different soil and place1 produced the small-flowered ,h4 flava1 as well as some intermediate forms4 ,it is doubtful whether such cases as these latter1 as well as the 8flushing0 of broken tulips and the 8running0 of particoloured carnations1--that is1 their more or less complete return to a uniform tint1--ought to be classed under bud-variation1 or ought to be retained for the chapter in which ,i treat of the direct action of the conditions of life on organic beings4 ,these cases1 however1 have this much in bud-variation1 that the change is effected through buds and not through seminal reproduction4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there is this difference--that in ordinary cases of bud-variation1 one bud alone changes1 whilst in the foregoing cases all the buds on the same plant were modified together4 ,with the potato1 we have seen an intermediate case1 for all the eyes in one tuber simultaneously changed their character4 ,i will conclude with a few allied cases1 which may be ranked either under bud-variation1 or under the direct action of the conditions of life4 ,when the common ,hepatica is transplanted from its native woods1 the flowers change colour1 even during the first year4#hg ,it is notorious that the improved varieties of the ,heartsease 7,viola tricolor71 when transplanted1 often produce flowers widely different in size1 form1 and colour3 for instance1 ,i transplanted a large uniformly-coloured dark purple variety1 whilst in full flower1 and it then produced much smaller1 more elongated flowers1 with the lower petals yellow2 these were succeeded by flowers marked with large purple spots1 and ultimately1 towards the end of the same summer1 by the original large dark purple flowers4 ,the slight changes which some fruit-trees undergo from being grafted and regrafted on various stocks1#hh were considered by ,andrew ,knight#hi as closely allied to 8sporting branches10 or bud-variations4 ,again1 we have the case of young fruit-trees changing their character as they grow old2 seedling pears1 for instance1 lose with age their spines and improve in the flavour of their fruit4 ,weeping birch-trees1 when grafted on the common variety1 do not acquire a perfect pendulous habit until they grow old3 on the other hand1 ,i shall hereafter give the case of some weeping ashes which slowly and gradually assumed an upright habit of growth4 ,all such changes1 dependent on age1 may be compared with the changes1 alluded to in the last chapter1 which many trees naturally undergo2 as in the case of the ,deodar and ,cedar of ,lebanon1 which are unlike in youth1 whilst they closely resemble each other in old age2 and as with certain oaks1 and with some varieties of the lime and hawthorn4#ij ,graft-hybrids4--,before giving a summary on ,bud-variation ,i will discuss some singular and anomalous cases1 which are more or less closely related to this same subject4 ,i will begin with the famous case of ,adam's laburnum or ,cytisus adami1 a form or hybrid intermediate between two very distinct species1 namely1 ,c4 laburnum and purpureus1 the common and purple laburnum2 but as this tree has often been described1 ,i will be as brief as ,i can4 ,throughout ,europe1 in different soils and under different climates1 branches on this tree have repeatedly and suddenly reverted to the two parent species in their flowers and leaves4 ,to behold mingled on the same tree tufts of dingy-red1 bright yellow1 and purple flowers1 borne on branches having widely different leaves and manner of growth1 is a surprising sight4 ,the same raceme sometimes bears two kinds of flowers2 and ,i have seen a single flower exactly divided into halves1 one side being bright yellow and the other purple2 so that one half of the standard-petal was yellow and of larger size1 and the other half purple and smaller4 ,in another flower the whole corolla was bright yellow1 but exactly half the calyx was purple4 ,in another1 one of the dingy-red wing-petals had a narrow bright yellow stripe on it2 and lastly1 in another flower1 one of the stamens1 which had become slightly foliaceous1 was half yellow and half purple2 so that the tendency to segregation of character or reversion affects even single parts and organs4#ia ,the most remarkable fact about this tree is that in its intermediate state1 even when growing near both parent-species1 it is quite sterile2 but when the flowers become pure yellow or pure purple they yield seed4 ,i believe that the pods from the yellow flowers yield a full complement of seed2 they certainly yield a larger number4 ,two seedlings raised by ,mr4 ,herbert from such seed#ib exhibited a purple tinge on the stalks of their flowers2 but several seedlings raised by myself resembled in every character the common laburnum1 with the exception that some of them had remarkably long racemes3 these seedlings were perfectly fertile4 ,that such purity of character and fertility should be suddenly reacquired from so hybridised and sterile a form is an astonishing phenomenon4 ,the branches with purple flowers appear at first sight exactly to resemble those of ,c4 purpureus2 but on careful comparison ,i found that they differed from the pure species in the shoots being thicker1 the leaves a little broader1 and the flowers slightly shorter1 with the corolla and calyx less brightly purple3 the basal part of the standard-petal also plainly showed a trace of the yellow stain4 ,so that the flowers1 at least in this instance1 had not perfectly recovered their true character2 and in accordance with this1 they were not perfectly fertile1 for many of the pods contained no seed1 some produced one1 and very few contained as many as two seeds2 whilst numerous pods on a tree of the pure ,c4 purpureus in my garden contained three1 four1 and five fine seeds4 ,the pollen1 moreover1 was very imperfect1 a multitude of grains being small and shrivelled2 and this is a singular fact2 for1 as we shall immediately see1 the pollen-grains in the dingy-red and sterile flowers on the parent-tree1 were1 in external appearance1 in a much better state1 and included very few shrivelled grains4 ,although the pollen of the reverted purple flowers was in so poor a condition1 the ovules were well formed1 and the seeds1 when mature1 germinated freely with me4 ,mr4 ,herbert raised plants from seeds of the reverted purple flowers1 and they differed a very little from the usual state of ,c4 purpureus4 ,some which ,i raised in the same manner did not differ at all1 either in the character of their flowers or of the whole bush1 from the pure ,c4 purpureus4 ,prof4 ,caspary has examined the ovules of the dingy-red and sterile flowers in several plants of ,c4 adami on the ,continent1#ic and finds them generally monstrous4 ,in three plants examined by me in ,england1 the ovules were likewise monstrous1 the nucleus varying much in shape1 and projecting irregularly beyond the proper coats4 ,the pollen grains1 on the other hand1 judging from their external appearance1 were remarkably good1 and readily protruded their tubes4 ,by repeatedly counting1 under the microscope1 the proportional number of bad grains1 ,prof4 ,caspary ascertained that only #be per cent were bad1 which is a less proportion than in the pollen of three pure species of ,cytisus in their cultivated state1 viz41 ,c4 purpureus1 laburnum1 and alpinus4 ,although the pollen of ,c4 adami is thus in appearance good1 it does not follow1 according to ,m4 ,naudin's observation#id on ,mirabilis1 that it would be functionally effective4 ,the fact of the ovules of ,c4 adami being monstrous1 and the pollen apparently sound1 is all the more remarkable1 because it is opposed to what usually occurs not only with most hybrids1#ie but with two hybrids in the same genus1 namely in ,c4 purpureo-elongatus1 and ,c4 alpino-laburnum4 ,in both these hybrids1 the ovules1 as observed by ,prof4 ,caspary and myself1 were well-formed1 whilst many of the pollen-grains were ill-formed2 in the latter hybrid #bj4c per cent1 and in the former no less than #hdh per cent of the grains were ascertained by ,prof4 ,caspary to be bad4 ,this unusual condition of the male and female reproductive elements in ,c4 adami has been used by ,prof4 ,caspary as an argument against this plant being considered as an ordinary hybrid produced from seed2 but we should remember that with hybrids the ovules have not been examined nearly so frequently as the pollen1 and they may be much oftener imperfect than is generally supposed4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,bornet1 of ,antibes1 informs me 7through ,mr4 ,j4 ,traherne ,moggridge7 that with hybrid ,cisti the ovarium is frequently deformed1 the ovules being in some cases quite absent1 and in other cases incapable of fertilisation4 ,several theories have been propounded to account for the origin of ,c4 adami1 and for the transformations which it undergoes4 ,the whole case has been attributed by some authors to bud-variation2 but considering the wide difference between ,c4 laburnum and purpureus1 both of which are natural species1 and considering the sterility of the intermediate form1 this view may be summarily rejected4 ,we shall presently see that1 with hybrid plants1 two embryos differing in their characters may be developed within the same seed and cohere2 and it has been supposed that ,c4 adami thus originated4 ,many botanists maintain that ,c4 adami is a hybrid produced in the common way by seed1 and that it has reverted by buds to its two parent-forms4 ,negative results are not of much value2 but ,reisseck1 ,caspary1 and myself1 tried in vain to cross ,c4 laburnum and purpureus2 when ,i fertilised the former with pollen of the latter1 ,i had the nearest approach to success1 for pods were formed1 but in sixteen days after the withering of the flowers1 they fell off4 ,nevertheless1 the belief that ,c4 adami is a spontaneously produced hybrid between these two species is supported by the fact that such hybrids have arisen in this genus4 ,in a bed of seedlings from ,c4 elongatus1 which grew near to ,c4 purpureus1 and was probably fertilised by it through the agency of insects 7for these1 as ,i know by experiment1 play an important part in the fertilisation of the laburnum71 the sterile hybrid ,c4 purpureo-elongatus appeared4#if ,thus1 also1 ,waterer's laburnum1 the ,c4 alpino-laburnum1#ig spontaneously appeared1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,waterer1 in a bed of seedlings4 ,on the other hand1 we have a clear and distinct account given to ,poiteau1#ih by ,m4 ,adam1 who raised the plant1 showing that ,c4 adami is not an ordinary hybrid2 but is what may be called a graft-hybrid1 that is1 one produced from the united cellular tissue of two distinct species4 ,m4 ,adam inserted in the usual manner a shield of the bark of ,c4 purpureus into a stock of ,c4 laburnum2 and the bud lay dormant1 as often happens1 for a year2 the shield then produced many buds and shoots1 one of which grew more upright and vigorous with larger leaves than the shoots of ,c4 purpureus1 and was consequently propagated4 ,now it deserves especial notice that these plants were sold by ,m4 ,adam1 as a variety of ,c4 purpureus1 before they had flowered2 and the account was published by ,poiteau after the plants had flowered1 but before they had exhibited their remarkable tendency to revert into the two parent species4 ,so that there was no conceivable motive for falsification1 and it is difficult to see how there could have been any error4#ii ,if we admit as true ,m4 ,adam's account1 we must admit the extraordinary fact that two distinct species can unite by their cellular tissue1 and subsequently produce a plant bearing leaves and sterile flowers intermediate in character between the scion and stock1 and producing buds liable to reversion2 in short1 resembling in every important respect a hybrid formed in the ordinary way by seminal reproduction4 ,i will therefore give all the facts which ,i have been able to collect on the formation of hybrids between distinct species or varieties1 without the intervention of the sexual organs4 ,for if1 as ,i am now convinced1 this is possible1 it is a most important fact1 which will sooner or later change the views held by physiologists with respect to sexual reproduction4 ,a sufficient body of facts will afterwards be adduced1 showing that the segregation or separation of the characters of the two parent-forms by bud-variation1 as in the case of ,cytisus adami1 is not an unusual though a striking phenomenon4 ,we shall further see that a whole bud may thus revert1 or only half1 or some smaller segment4 ,the famous bizzarria ,orange offers a strictly parallel case to that of ,cytisus adami4 ,the gardener who in #afdd in ,florence raised this tree1 declared that it was a seedling which had been grafted2 and after the graft had perished1 the stock sprouted and produced the bizzarria4 ,gallesio1 who carefully examined several living specimens and compared them with the description given by the original describer1 ,p4 ,nato1#ajj states that the tree produces at the same time leaves1 flowers1 and fruit identical with the bitter orange and with the citron of ,florence1 and likewise compound fruit1 with the two kinds either blended together1 both externally and internally1 or segregated in various ways4 ,this tree can be propagated by cuttings1 and retains its diversified character4 ,the so-called trifacial orange of ,alexandria and ,smyrna#aja resembles in its general nature the bizzarria1 and differs only in the orange being of the sweet kind2 this and the citron are blended together in the same fruit1 or are separately produced on the same tree2 nothing is known of its origin4 ,in regard to the bizzarria1 many authors believe that it is a graft-hybrid2 ,gallesio1 on the other hand1 thinks that it is an ordinary hybrid1 with the habit of partially reverting by buds to the two parent-forms2 and we have seen that the species in this genus often cross spontaneously4 ,it is notorious that when the variegated ,jessamine is budded on the common kind1 the stock sometimes produces buds bearing variegated leaves3 ,mr4 ,rivers1 as he informs me1 has seen instances of this4 ,the same thing occurs with the ,oleander4#ajb ,mr4 ,rivers1 on the authority of a trustworthy friend1 states that some buds of a golden-variegated ash1 which were inserted into common ashes1 all died except one2 but the ash-stocks were affected1#ajc and produced1 both above and below the points of insertion of the plates of bark bearing the dead buds1 shoots which bore variegated leaves4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,anderson ,henry has communicated to me a nearly similar case3 ,mr4 ,brown1 of ,perth1 observed many years ago1 in a ,highland glen1 an ash-tree with yellow leaves2 and buds taken from this tree were inserted into common ashes1 which in consequence were affected1 and produced the ,blotched ,breadalbane ,ash4 ,this variety has been propagated1 and has preserved its character during the last fifty years4 ,weeping ashes1 also1 were budded on the affected stocks1 and became similarly variegated4 ,it has been repeatedly proved that several species of ,abutilon1 on which the variegated ,a4 thompsonii has been grafted1 become variegated4#ajd ,many authors consider variegation as the result of disease2 and the foregoing cases may be looked at as the direct result of the inoculation of a disease or some weakness4 ,this has been almost proved to be the case by ,morren in the excellent paper just referred to1 who shows that even a leaf inserted by its footstalk into the bark of the stock is sufficient to communicate variegation to it1 though the leaf soon perishes4 ,even fully formed leaves on the stock of ,abutilon are sometimes affected by the graft and become variegated4 ,variegation is much influenced1 as we shall hereafter see1 by the nature of the soil in which the plants are grown2 and it does not seem improbable that whatever change in the sap or tissues certain soils induce1 whether or not called a disease1 might spread from the inserted piece of bark to the stock4 ,but a change of this kind cannot be considered to be of the nature of a graft-hybrid4 ,there is a variety of the hazel with dark-purple leaves1 like those of the copper-beech3 no one has attributed this colour to disease1 and it apparently is only an exaggeration of a tint which may often be seen on the leaves of the common hazel4 ,when this variety is grafted on the common hazel1#aje it sometimes colours1 as has been asserted1 the leaves below the graft2 although negative evidence is not of much value1 ,i may add that ,mr4 ,rivers1 who has possessed hundreds of such grafted trees1 has never seen an instance4 ,grtner#ajf quotes two separate accounts of branches of dark and white-fruited vines which had been united in various ways1 such as being split longitudinally1 and then joined1 etc42 and these branches produced distinct bunches of grapes of the two colours1 and other bunches with berries1 either striped1 or of an intermediate and new tint4 ,even the leaves in one case were variegated4 ,these facts are the more remarkable because ,andrew ,knight never succeeded in raising variegated grapes by fertilising white kinds by pollen of dark kinds2 though1 as we have seen1 he obtained seedlings with variegated fruits and leaves1 by fertilising a white variety by the already variegated dark ,aleppo grape4 ,grtner attributes the above-quoted cases merely to bud-variation2 but it is a strange coincidence that the branches which had been grafted in a peculiar manner should alone thus have varied2 and ,h4 ,adorne de ,tscharner positively asserts that he produced the described result more than once1 and could do so at will1 by splitting and uniting the branches in the manner described by him4 ,i should not have quoted the following case had not the author of #8,des ,jacinthes'#ajg impressed me with the belief not only of his extensive knowledge1 but of his truthfulness3 he says that bulbs of blue and red hyacinths may be cut in two1 and that they will grow together and throw up a united stem 7and this ,i have myself seen7 with flowers of the two colours on the opposite sides4 ,but the remarkable point is1 that flowers are sometimes produced with the two colours blended together1 which makes the case closely analogous with that of the blended colours of the grapes on the united vine branches4 ,in the case of roses it is supposed that several graft-hybrids have been formed1 but there is much doubt about these cases1 owing to the frequency of ordinary bud-variations4 ,the most trustworthy instance known to me is one1 recorded by ,mr4 ,poynter1#ajh who assures me in a letter of the entire accuracy of the statement4 ,rosa devoniensis had been budded some years previously on a white ,banksian rose2 and from the much enlarged point of junction1 whence the ,devoniensis and ,banksian still continued to grow1 a third branch issued1 which was neither pure ,banksian nor pure ,devoniensis1 but partook of the character of both2 the flowers resembled1 but were superior in character to those of the variety called ,lamarque 7one of the ,noisettes71 while the shoots were similar in their manner of growth to those of the ,banksian rose1 with the exception that the longer and more robust shoots were furnished with prickles4 ,this rose was exhibited before the ,floral ,committee of the ,horticultural ,society of ,london4 ,dr4 ,lindley examined it and concluded that it had certainly been produced by the mingling of ,r4 banksi with some rose like ,r4 devoniensis1 8for while it was very greatly increased in vigour and in size of all the parts1 the leaves were half-way between a ,banksian and ,tea-scented rose40 ,it appears that rose-growers were previously aware that the ,banksian rose sometimes affects other roses4 ,as ,mr4 ,poynter's new variety is intermediate in its fruit and foliage between the stock and scion1 and as it arose from the point of junction between the two1 it is very improbable that it owes its origin to mere bud-variation1 independently of the mutual influence of the stock and scion4 ,lastly1 with respect to potatoes4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,trail stated in #ahfg before the ,botanical ,society of ,edinburgh 7and has since given me fuller information71 that several years ago he cut about sixty blue and white potatoes into halves through the eyes or buds1 and then carefully joined them1 destroying at the same time the other eyes4 ,some of these united tubers produced white1 and others blue tubers2 some1 however1 produced tubers partly white and partly blue2 and the tubers from about four or five were regularly mottled with the two colours4 ,in these latter cases we may conclude that a stem had been formed by the union of the bisected buds1 that is1 by graft-hybridisation4 ,in the #8,botanische ,zeitung' 7,may #af1 #ahfh71 ,professor ,hildebrand gives an account with a coloured figure1 of his experiments on two varieties which were found during the same season to be constant in character1 namely1 a somewhat elongated rough-skinned red potato and a rounded smooth white one4 ,he inserted buds reciprocally into both kinds1 destroying the other buds4 ,he thus raised two plants1 and each of these produced a tuber intermediate in character between the two parent-forms4 ,that from the red bud grafted into the white tuber1 was at one end red and rough1 as the whole tuber ought to have been if not affected2 in the middle it was smooth with red stripes1 and at the other end smooth and altogether white like that of the stock4 ,mr4 ,taylor1 who had received several accounts of potatoes having been grafted by wedge-shaped pieces of one variety inserted into another1 though sceptical on the subject1 made twenty-four experiments which he described in detail before the ,horticultural ,society4#aji ,he thus raised many new varieties1 some like the graft or like the stock2 others having an intermediate character4 ,several persons witnessed the digging up of the tubers from these graft-hybrids2 and one of them1 ,mr4 ,jameson1 a large dealer in potatoes1 writes thus1 8,they were such a mixed lot1 as ,i have never before or since seen4 ,they were of all colours and shapes1 some very ugly and some very handsome40 ,another witness says 8some were round1 some kidney1 pink-eyed kidney1 piebald1 and mottled red and purple1 of all shapes and sizes40 ,some of these varieties have been found valuable1 and have been extensively propagated4 ,mr4 ,jameson took away a large piebald potato which he cut into five sets and propagated2 these yielded round1 white1 red1 and piebald potatoes4 ,mr4 ,fitzpatrick followed a different plan2#aaj he grafted together not the tubers but the young stems of varieties producing black1 white1 and red potatoes4 ,the tubers borne by three of these twin or united plants were coloured in an extraordinary manner2 one was almost exactly half black and half white1 so that some persons on seeing it thought that two potatoes had been divided and rejoined2 other tubers were half red and half white1 or curiously mottled with red and white1 or with red and black1 according to the colours of the graft and stock4 ,the testimony of ,mr4 ,fenn is of much value1 as he is 8a well known potato-grower0 who has raised many new varieties by crossing different kinds in the ordinary manner4 ,he considers it 8demonstrated0 that new1 intermediate varieties can be produced by grafting the tubers1 though he doubts whether such will prove valuable4#aaa ,he made many trials and laid the results1 exhibiting specimens1 before the ,horticultural ,society4 ,not only were the tubers affected1 some being smooth and white at one end and rough and red at the other1 but the stems and leaves were modified in their manner of growth1 colour and precocity4 ,some of these graft-hybrids after being propagated for three years still showed in their haulms their new character1 different from that of the kind from which the eyes had been taken4 ,mr4 ,fenn gave twelve of the tubers of the third generation to ,mr4 ,alex4 ,dean1 who grew them1 and was thus converted into a believer in graft-hybridisation1 having previously been a complete sceptic4 ,for comparison he planted the pure parent-forms alongside the twelve tubers2 and found that many of the plants from the latter#aab were intermediate between the two parent-forms in precocity1 in the tallness1 uprightness1 jointing1 and robustness of the stems1 and in the size and colour of the leaves4 ,another experimentalist1 ,mr4 ,rintoul1 grafted no less than fifty-nine tubers1 which differed in shape 7some being kidneys7 in smoothness and colour1#aac and many of the plants thus raised 8were intermediate in the tubers as well as in the haulms40 ,he describes the more striking cases4 ,in #ahga ,i received a letter from ,mr4 ,merrick1 of ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 who states that1 8,mr4 ,fearing ,burr1 a very careful experimenter and author of a much valued book1 #8,the ,garden ,vegetables of ,america' has succeeded in producing distinctly mottled and most curious potatoes--evidently graft-hybrids1 by inserting eyes from blue or red potatoes into the substance of white ones1 after removing the eyes of the latter4 ,i have seen the potatoes1 and they are very curious40 ,we will now turn to the experiments made in ,germany1 since the publication of ,prof4 ,hildebrand's paper4 ,herr ,magnus relates#aad the results of numerous trials made by ,herren ,reuter and ,lindemuth1 both attached to the ,royal ,gardens of ,berlin4 ,they inserted the eyes of red potatoes into white ones1 and vice versa4 ,many different forms partaking of the characters of the inserted bud and of the stock were thus obtained2 for instance1 some of the tubers were white with red eyes4 ,herr ,magnus also exhibited in the following year before the same ,society 7,nov4 #ai1 #ahgb71 the produce of grafts between black1 white1 and red potatoes1 made by ,dr4 ,neubert4 ,these were made by uniting not the tubers but the young stems1 as was done by ,mr4 ,fitzpatrick4 ,the result was remarkable1 inasmuch as all the tubers thus produced were intermediate in character1 though in a variable degree4 ,those between the black and the white or the red were the most striking in appearance4 ,some from between the white and red had one half of one colour and the other half of the other colour4 ,at the next meeting of the society ,herr ,magnus communicated the results of ,dr4 ,heimann's experiments in grafting together the tubers of red ,saxon1 blue1 and elongated white potatoes4 ,the eyes were removed by a cylindrical instrument1 and inserted into corresponding holes in other varieties4 ,the plants thus produced yielded a great number of tubers1 which were intermediate between the two parent-forms in shape1 and in the colour both of the flesh and skin4 ,herr ,reuter experimented1#aae by inserting wedges of the elongated ,white ,mexican potato into a ,black ,kidney potato4 ,both sorts are known to be very constant1 and differ much not only in form and colour1 but in the eyes of the ,black ,kidney being deeply sunk1 whereas those of the ,white ,mexican are superficial and of a different shape4 ,the tubers produced by these hybrids were intermediate in colour and form2 and some which resembled in form the graft1 i4e4 the ,mexican1 had eyes deeply sunk and of the same shape as in the stock or ,black ,kidney4 ,any one who will attentively consider the abstract now given1 of the experiments made by many observers in several countries1 will1 ,i think1 be convinced that by grafting two varieties of the potato together in various ways1 hybridised plants can be produced4 ,it should be observed that several of the experimentalists are scientific horticulturists1 and some of them potato-growers on a large scale1 who1 though beforehand sceptical1 have been fully convinced of the possibility1 even of the ease1 of making graft-hybrids4 ,the only way of escaping from this conclusion is to attribute all the many recorded cases to simple bud-variation4 ,undoubtedly the potato1 as we have seen in this chapter1 does sometimes1 though not often1 vary by buds2 but it should be especially noted that it is experienced potato-growers1 whose business it is to look out for new varieties1 who have expressed unbounded astonishment at the number of new forms produced by graft-hybridisation4 ,it may be argued that it is merely the operation of grafting1 and not the union of two kinds1 which causes so extraordinary an amount of bud-variation2 but this objection is at once answered by the fact that potatoes are habitually propagated by the tubers being cut into pieces1 and the sole difference in the case of graft-hybrids is that either a half or a smaller segment or a cylinder is placed in close opposition with the tissue of another variety4 ,moreover1 in two cases1 the young stems were grafted together1 and the plants thus united yielded the same results as when the tubers were united4 ,it is an argument of the greatest weight that when varieties are produced by simple bud-variation1 they frequently present quite new characters2 whereas in all the numerous cases above given1 as ,herr ,magnus likewise insists1 the graft-hybrids are intermediate in character between the two forms employed4 ,that such a result should follow if the one kind did not affect the other is incredible4 ,characters of all kinds are affected by graft hybridisation1 in whatever way the grafting may have been effected4 ,the plants thus raised yield tubers which partake of the widely different colours1 form1 state of surface1 position and shape of the eye of the parents2 and according to two careful observers they are also intermediate in certain constitutional peculiarities4 ,but we should bear in mind that in all the varieties of the potato1 the tubers differ much more than any other part4 ,the potato affords the best evidence of the possibility of the formation of graft-hybrids1 but we must not overlook the account given of the origin of the famous ,cytisus adami by ,m4 ,adam1 who had no conceivable motive for deception1 and the exactly parallel account of the origin of the ,bizzarria orange1 namely by graft-hybridisation4 ,nor must the cases be undervalued in which different varieties or species of vines1 hyacinths and roses1 have been grafted together1 and have yielded intermediate forms4 ,it is evident that graft-hybrids can be made much more easily with some plants1 as the potato1 than with others1 for instance our common fruit trees2 for these latter have been grafted by the million during many centuries1 and though the graft is often slightly affected1 it is very doubtful whether this may not be accounted for1 merely by a more or less free supply of nutriment4 ,nevertheless1 the cases above given seem to me to prove that under certain unknown conditions graft-hybridisation can be effected4 ,herr ,magnus asserts with much truth that graft-hybrids resemble in all respects seminal hybrids1 including their great diversity of character4 ,there is1 however1 a partial exception1 inasmuch as the characters of the two parent forms are not often homogeneously blended together in graft-hybrids4 ,they much more commonly appear in a segregated condition1--that is1 in segments either at first1 or subsequently through reversion4 ,it would seem that the reproductive elements are not so completely blended by grafting as by sexual generation4 ,but segregation of this kind occurs by no means rarely1 as will be immediately shown1 in seminal hybrids4 ,finally it must1 ,i think1 be admitted that we learn from the foregoing cases a highly important physiological fact1 namely1 that the elements that go to the production of a new being1 are not necessarily formed by the male and female organs4 ,they are present in the cellular tissue in such a state that they can unite without the aid of the sexual organs1 and thus give rise to a new bud partaking of the characters of the two parent-forms4 ,on the segregation of the parental characters in seminal hybrids by bud-variation4--,i will now give a sufficient number of cases to show that segregation of this kind1 namely1 by buds1 may occur in ordinary hybrids raised from seed4 ,hybrids were raised by ,grtner between ,tropolum minus and majus#aaf which at first produced flowers intermediate in size1 colour1 and structure between their two parents2 but later in the season some of these plants produced flowers in all respects like those of the mother-form1 mingled with flowers still retaining the usual intermediate condition4 ,a hybrid ,cereus between ,c4 speciosissimus and phyllanthus1#aag plants which are widely different in appearance1 produced for the first three years angular1 five-sided stems1 and then some flat stems like those of ,c4 phyllanthus4 ,klreuter also gives cases of hybrid ,lobelias and ,verbascums1 which at first produced flowers of one colour1 and later in the season1 flowers of a different colour4#aah ,naudin#aai raised forty hybrids from ,datura lvis fertilised by ,d4 stramonium2 and three of these hybrids produced many capsules1 of which a half1 or quarter1 or lesser segment was smooth and of small size1 like the capsule of the pure ,d4 lvis1 the remaining part being spinose and of larger size1 like the capsule of the pure ,d4 stramonium3 from one of these composite capsules1 plants perfectly resembling both parent-forms were raised4 ,turning now to varieties4 ,a seedling apple1 conjectured to be of crossed parentage1 has been described in ,france1#abj which bears fruit with one half larger than the other1 of a red colour1 acid taste1 and peculiar odour2 the other side being greenish-yellow and very sweet3 it is said scarcely ever to include perfectly developed seed4 ,i suppose that this is not the same tree as that which ,gaudichaud#aba exhibited before the ,french institute1 bearing on the same branch two distinct kinds of apples1 one a reinette rouge1 and the other like a reinette canada jauntre3 this double-bearing variety can be propagated by grafts1 and continues to produce both kinds2 its origin is unknown4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,d4 ,la ,touche sent me a coloured drawing of an apple which he brought from ,canada1 of which half1 surrounding and including the whole of the calyx and the insertion of the foot-stalk1 is green1 the other half being brown and of the nature of the pomme gris apple1 with the line of separation between the two halves exactly defined4 ,the tree was a grafted one1 and ,mr4 ,la ,touche thinks that the branches which bore this curious apple sprung from the point of junction of the graft and stock3 had this fact been ascertained1 the case would probably have come into the class of graft-hybrids already given4 ,but the branch may have sprung from the stock1 which no doubt was a seedling4 ,prof4 ,h4 ,lecoq1 who has made a great number of crossings between the differently coloured varieties of ,mirabilis jalapa1#abb finds that in the seedlings the colours rarely combine1 but form distinct stripes2 or half the flower is of one colour and half of a different colour4 ,some varieties regularly bear flowers striped with yellow1 white1 and red2 but plants of such varieties occasionally produce on the same root branches with uniformly coloured flowers of all three tints1 and other branches with half-and-half coloured flowers1 and others with marbled flowers4 ,gallesio#abc crossed reciprocally white and red carnations1 and the seedlings were striped2 but some of the striped plants also bore entirely white and entirely red flowers4 ,some of these plants produced one year red flowers alone1 and in the following year striped flowers2 or conversely1 some plants1 after having borne for two or three years striped flowers1 would revert and bear exclusively red flowers4 ,it may be worth mentioning that ,i fertilised the ,purple ,sweet-pea 7,lathyrus odoratus7 with pollen from the light-coloured ,painted ,lady3 seedlings raised from the same pod were not intermediate in character1 but perfectly resembled either parent4 ,later in the summer1 the plants which had at first borne flowers identical with those of the ,painted ,lady1 produced flowers streaked and blotched with purple2 showing in these darker marks a tendency to reversion to the mother-variety4 ,andrew ,knight#abd fertilised two white grapes with pollen of the ,aleppo grape1 which is darkly variegated both in its leaves and fruit4 ,the result was that the young seedlings were not at first variegated1 but all became variegated during the succeeding summer2 besides this1 many produced on the same plant bunches of grapes which were all black1 or all white1 or lead-coloured striped with white1 or white dotted with minute black stripes2 and grapes of all these shades could frequently be found on the same foot-stalk4 ,i will append a very curious case1 not of bud-variation1 but of two cohering embryos1 different in character and contained within the same seed4 ,a distinguished botanist1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,thwaites1#abe states that a seed from ,fuchsia coccinea fertilised by ,f4 fulgens1 contained two embryos1 and was 8a true vegetable twin40 ,the two plants produced from the two embryos were 8extremely different in appearance and character10 though both resembled other hybrids of the same parentage produced at the same time4 ,these twin plants 8were closely coherent1 below the two pairs of cotyledon-leaves1 into a single cylindrical stem1 so that they had subsequently the appearance of being branches on one trunk40 ,had the two united stems grown up to their full height1 instead of dying1 a curiously mixed hybrid would have been produced4 ,a mongrel melon described by ,sageret#abf may perhaps have thus originated2 for the two main branches1 which arose from two cotyledon-buds1 produced very different fruit1--on the one branch like that of the paternal variety1 and on the other branch like to a certain extent that of the maternal variety1 the melon of ,china4 ,in most of these cases of crossed varieties1 and in some of the cases of crossed species1 the colours proper to both parents appeared in the seedlings1 as soon as they first flowered1 in the form of stripes or larger segments1 or as whole flowers or fruit of different kinds borne on the same plant2 and in this case the appearance of the two colours cannot strictly be said to be due to reversion1 but to some incapacity of fusion4 ,when1 however1 the later flowers or fruit produced during the same season1 or during a succeeding year or generation1 become striped or half-and-half1 etc41 the segregation of the two colours is strictly a case of reversion by bud-variation4 ,whether all the many recorded cases of striped flowers and fruit are due to previous hybridisation and reversion is by no means clear1 for instance with peaches and nectarines1 moss-roses1 etc4 ,in a future chapter ,i shall show that1 with animals of crossed parentage1 the same individual has been known to change its character during growth1 and to revert to one of its parents which it did not at first resemble4 ,finally1 from the various facts now given1 there can be no doubt that the same individual plant1 whether a hybrid or a mongrel1 sometimes returns in its leaves1 flowers1 and fruit1 either wholly or by segments1 to both parent-forms4 ,on the direct or immediate action of the male element on the mother form4--,another remarkable class of facts must be here considered1 firstly1 because they have a high physiological importance1 and secondly1 because they have been supposed to account for some cases of bud-variation4 ,i refer to the direct action of the male element1 not in the ordinary way on the ovules1 but on certain parts of the female plant1 or in case of animals on the subsequent progeny of the female by a second male4 ,i may premise that with plants the ovarium and the coats of the ovules are obviously parts of the female1 and it could not have been anticipated that they would have been affected by the pollen of a foreign variety or species1 although the development of the embryo1 inside the embryonic sack1 inside the ovule and ovarium1 of course1 depends on the male element4 ,even as long ago as #agbi it was observed#abg that white and blue varieties of the ,pea1 when planted near each other1 mutually crossed1 no doubt through the agency of bees1 and in the autumn blue and white peas were found within the same pods4 ,wiegmann made an exactly similar observation in the present century4 ,the same result has followed several times when a variety with peas of one colour has been artificially crossed by a differently-coloured variety4#abh ,these statements led ,grtner1 who was highly sceptical on the subject1 carefully to try a long series of experiments3 he selected the most constant varieties1 and the result conclusively showed that the colour of the skin of the pea is modified when pollen of a differently coloured variety is used4 ,this conclusion has since been confirmed by experiments made by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,berkeley4#abi ,mr4 ,laxton of ,stamford1 whilst making experiments on peas for the express purpose of ascertaining the influence of foreign pollen on the mother-plant1 has recently#acj observed an important additional fact4 ,he fertilised the ,tall ,sugar-pea1 which bears very thin green pods1 becoming brownish-white when dry1 with pollen of the ,purple-podded pea1 which1 as its name expresses1 has dark-purple pods with very thick skin1 becoming pale reddish purple when dry4 ,mr4 ,laxton has cultivated the tall sugar-pea during twenty years1 and has never seen or heard of it producing a purple pod3 nevertheless1 a flower fertilised by pollen from the purple-pod yielded a pod clouded with purplish-red which ,mr4 ,laxton kindly gave to me4 ,a space of about two inches in length towards the extremity of the pod1 and a smaller space near the stalk1 were thus coloured4 ,on comparing the colour with that of the purple pod1 both pods having been first dried and then soaked in water1 it was found to be identically the same2 and in both the colour was confined to the cells lying immediately beneath the outer skin of the pod4 ,the valves of the crossed pod were also decidedly thicker and stronger than those of the pods of the mother-plant1 but this may possibly have been an accidental circumstance1 for ,i know not how far their thickness is a variable character in the ,tall ,sugar-pea4 ,the peas of the ,tall ,sugar-pea1 when dry1 are pale greenish-brown1 thickly covered with dots of dark purple so minute as to be visible only through a lens1 and ,mr4 ,laxton has never seen or heard of this variety producing a purple pea2 but in the crossed pod one of the peas was of a uniform beautiful violet-purple tint1 and a second was irregularly clouded with pale purple4 ,the colour lies in the outer of the two coats which surround the pea4 ,as the peas of the purple-podded variety when dry are of a pale greenish-buff1 it would at first appear that this remarkable change of colour in the peas in the crossed pod could not have been caused by the direct action of the pollen of the purple-pod3 but when we bear in mind that this latter variety has purple flowers1 purple marks on its stipules1 and purple pods2 and that the ,tall ,sugar-pea likewise has purple flowers and stipules1 and microscopically minute purple dots on the peas1 we can hardly doubt that the tendency to the production of purple in both parents has in combination modified the colour of the peas in the crossed pod4 ,after having examined these specimens1 ,i crossed the same two varieties1 and the peas in one pod but not the pods themselves1 were clouded and tinted with purplish-red in a much more conspicuous manner than the peas in the uncrossed pods produced at the same time by the same plants4 ,i may notice as a caution that ,mr4 ,laxton sent me various other crossed peas slightly1 or even greatly1 modified in colour2 but the change in these cases was due1 as had been suspected by ,mr4 ,laxton1 to the altered colour of the cotyledons1 seen through the transparent coats of the peas2 and as the cotyledons are parts of the embryo1 these cases are not in any way remarkable4 ,turning now to the genus ,matthiola4 ,the pollen of one kind of stock sometimes affects the colour of the seeds of another kind1 used as the mother-plant4 ,i give the following case the more readily1 as ,grtner doubted similar statements previously made with respect to the stock by other observers4 ,a well-known horticulturist1 ,major ,trevor ,clarke1 informs me#aca that the seeds of the large red-flowered biennial stock1 ,matthiola annua 7,cocardeau of the ,french71 are light brown1 and those of the purple branching ,queen stock 7,m4 incana7 are violet-black2 and he found that1 when flowers of the red stock were fertilised by pollen from the purple stock1 they yielded about fifty per cent of black seeds4 ,he sent me four pods from a red flowered plant1 two of which had been fertilised by their own pollen1 and they included pale brown seed2 and two which had been crossed by pollen from the purple kind1 and they included seeds all deeply tinged with black4 ,these latter seeds yielded purple-flowered plants like their father2 whilst the pale brown seeds yielded normal red-flowered plants2 and ,major ,clarke1 by sowing similar seeds1 has observed on a greater scale the same result4 ,the evidence in this case of the direct action of the pollen of one species on the colour of the seeds of another species appears to me conclusive4 ,gallesio#acb fertilised the flowers of an orange with pollen from the lemon2 and one fruit thus produced bore a longitudinal stripe of peel having the colour1 flavour1 and other characters of the lemon4 ,mr4 ,anderson#acc fertilised a green-fleshed melon with pollen from a scarlet-fleshed kind2 in two of the fruits 8a sensible change was perceptible3 and four other fruits were somewhat altered both internally and externally40 ,the seeds of the two first-mentioned fruits produced plants partaking of the good properties of both parents4 ,in the ,united ,states1 where ,cucurbitace are largely cultivated1 it is the popular belief#acd that the fruit is thus directly affected hy foreign pollen2 and ,i have received a similar statement with respect to the cucumber in ,england4 ,it is believed that grapes have been thus affected in colour1 size1 and shape3 in ,france a pale-coloured grape had its juice tinted by the pollen of the dark-coloured ,teinturier2 in ,germany a variety bore berries which were affected by the pollen of two adjoining kinds2 some of the berries being only partially affected or mottled4#ace ,as long ago as #ageaacf it was observed that1 when differently-coloured varieties of maize grew near each other1 they mutually affected each other's seeds1 and this is now a popular belief in the ,united ,states4 ,dr4 ,savi#acg tried the experiment with care3 he sowed yellow and black-seeded maize together1 and on the same ear some of the seeds were yellow1 some black1 and some mottled1 the differently coloured seeds being arranged irregularly or in rows4 ,prof4 ,hildebrand has repeated the experiment#ach with the precaution of ascertaining that the mother-plant was true4 ,a kind bearing yellow grains was fertilised with pollen of a kind having brown grains1 and two ears produced yellow grains mingled with others of a dirty violet tint4 ,a third ear had only yellow grains1 but one side of the spindle was tinted of a reddish-brown2 so that here we have the important fact of the influence of the foreign pollen extending to the axis4 ,mr4 ,arnold1 in ,canada1 varied the experiment in an interesting manner3 8a female flower was subjected first to the action of pollen from a yellow variety1 and then to that from a white variety2 the result was an ear1 each grain of which was yellow below and white above40#aci ,with other plants it has occasionally been observed that the crossed offspring showed the influence of two kinds of pollen1 but in this case the two kinds affected the mother-plant4 ,mr4 ,sabine states#adj that he has seen the form of the nearly globular seed-capsule of ,amaryllis vittata altered by the application of the pollen of another species1 of which the capsule has gibbous angles4 ,with an allied genus1 a well-known botanist1 ,maximowicz1 has described in detail the striking results of reciprocally fertilising ,lilium bulbiferum and davuricum with each other's pollen4 ,each species produced fruit not like its own1 but almost identical with that of the pollen-bearing species2 but from an accident only the fruit of the latter species was carefully examined2 the seeds were intermediate in the development of their wings4#ada ,fritz ,mller fertilised ,cattleya leopoldi with pollen of ,epidendron cinnabarinum2 and the capsules contained very few seeds2 but these presented a most wonderful appearance1 which1 from the description given1 two botanists1 ,hildebrand and ,maximowicz1 attribute to the direct action of the pollen of the ,epidendron4#adb ,mr4 ,j4 ,anderson ,henry#adc crossed ,rhododendron dalhousi with the pollen of ,r4 nuttallii1 which is one of the largest-flowered and noblest species of the genus4 ,the largest pod produced by the former species1 when fertilised with its own pollen1 measured #a inch in length and #a in girth2 whilst three of the pods which had been fertilised by pollen of ,r4 nuttallii measured #a-e_/h inch in length and no less than #b inches in girth4 ,here the effect of the foreign pollen was apparently confined to increasing the size of the ovarium2 but we must be cautious in assuming1 as the following case shows1 that size had been transferred from the male parent to the capsule of the female plant4 ,mr4 ,henry fertilised ,arabis blepharophylla with pollen of ,a4 soyeri1 and the pods thus produced1 of which he was so kind as to send me detailed measurements and sketches1 were much larger in all their dimensions than those naturally produced by either the male or female parent-species4 ,in a future chapter we shall see that the organs of vegetation in hybrid plants1 independently of the character of either parent1 are sometimes developed to a monstrous size2 and the increased size of the pods in the foregoing cases may be an analogous fact4 ,on the other hand1 ,m4 de ,saporta informs me that an isolated female plant of ,pistacia vera is very apt to be fertilised by the pollen of neighbouring plants of ,p4 terebinthus1 and in this case the fruits are only half their proper size1 which he attributes to the influence of the pollen of ,p4 terebinthus4 ,no case of the direct action of the pollen of one variety on another is better authenticated or more remarkable than that of the common apple4 ,the fruit here consists of the lower part of the calyx and of the upper part of the flower-peduncle#add in a metamorphosed condition1 so that the effect of the foreign pollen has extended even beyond the limits of the ovarium4 ,cases of apples thus affected were recorded by ,bradley in the early part of the last century2 and other cases are given in old volumes of the #8,philosophical ,transactions'2#ade in one of these a ,russeting apple and an adjoining kind mutually affected each other's fruit2 and in another case a smooth apple affected a rough-coated kind4 ,another instance has been given#adf of two very different apple-trees growing close to each other1 which bore fruit resembling each other1 but only on the adjoining branches4 ,it is1 however1 almost superfluous to adduce these or other cases1 after that of the ,st4 ,valery apple1 the flowers which1 from the abortion of the stamens1 do not produce pollen1 but are fertilised by the girls of the neighbourhood with pollen of many kinds2 and they bear fruit1 8differing from one another in size1 flavour1 and colour1 but resembling in character the hermaphrodite kinds by which they have been fertilised40#adg ,i have now shown1 on the authority of several excellent observers1 in the case of plants belonging to widely different orders1 that the pollen of one species or variety1 when applied to the female of a distinct form1 occasionally causes the coats of the seeds1 the ovarium or fruit1 including even the calyx and upper part of the peduncle of the apple1 and the axis of the ear in maize1 to be modified4 ,sometimes the whole ovarium or all the seeds are thus affected2 sometimes only a certain number of the seeds1 as in the case of the pea1 or only a part of the ovarium1 as with the striped orange1 mottled grapes1 and maize1 is thus affected4 ,it must not be supposed that any direct or immediate effect invariably follows the use of foreign pollen3 this is far from being the case2 nor is it known on what conditions the result depends4 ,mr4 ,knight#adh expressly states that he has never seen the fruit thus affected1 though he crossed thousands of apple and other fruit-trees4 ,there is not the least reason to believe that a branch which has borne seed or fruit directly modified by foreign pollen is itself affected1 so as afterwards to produce modified buds2 such an occurrence1 from the temporary connection of the flower with the stem1 would be hardly possible4 ,hence1 but very few1 if any1 of the cases of bud-variation in the fruit of trees1 given in the early part of this chapter can be accounted for by the action of foreign pollen2 for such fruits have commonly been propagated by budding or grafting4 ,it is also obvious that changes of colour in flowers1 which necessarily supervene long before they are ready for fertilisation1 and changes in the shape or colour of leaves1 when due to the appearance of modified buds1 can have no relation to the action of foreign pollen4 ,the proofs of the action of foreign pollen on the mother-plant have been given in considerable detail1 because this action1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 is of the highest theoretical importance1 and because it is in itself a remarkable and apparently anomalous circumstance4 ,that it is remarkable under a physiological point of view is clear1 for the male element not only affects1 in accordance with its proper function1 the germ1 but at the same time various parts of the mother-plant1 in the same manner1 as it affects the same part in the seminal offspring from the same two parents4 ,we thus learn that an ovule is not indispensable for the reception of the influence of the male element4 ,but this direct action of the male element is not so anomalous as it at first appears1 for it comes into play in the ordinary fertilisation of many flowers4 ,grtner gradually increased the number of pollen grains until he succeeded in fertilising a ,malva1 and has#adi proved that many grains are first expended in the development1 or1 as he expresses it1 in the satiation1 of the pistil and ovarium4 ,again1 when one plant is fertilised by a widely distinct species1 it often happens that the ovarium is fully and quickly developed without any seeds being formed2 or the coats of the seeds are formed without any embryo being developed within4 ,prof4 ,hildebrand1 also1 has lately shown#aej that1 in the normal fertilisation of several ,orchide1 the action of the plant's own pollen is necessary for the development of the ovarium2 and that this development takes place not only long before the pollen-tubes have reached the ovules1 but even before the placent and ovules have been formed2 so that with these orchids the pollen acts directly on the ovarium4 ,on the other hand1 we must not overrate the efficacy of pollen in the case of hybridised plants1 for an embryo may be formed and its influence excite the surrounding tissues of the mother-plant1 and then perish at a very early age and be thus overlooked4 ,again1 it is well known that with many plants the ovarium may be fully developed1 though pollen be wholly excluded4 ,lastly1 ,mr4 ,smith1 the late ,curator at ,kew 7as ,i hear through ,dr4 ,hooker71 observed with an orchid1 the ,bonatea speciosa1 the singular fact that the development of the ovarium could be effected by the mechanical irritation of the stigma4 ,nevertheless1 from the number of the pollen-grains expended 8in the satiation of the ovarium and pistil10--from the generality of the formation of the ovarium and seed-coats in hybridised plants which produce no seeds1--and from ,dr4 ,hildebrand's observations on orchids1 we may admit that in most cases the swelling of the ovarium1 and the formation of the seed-coats are at least aided1 if not wholly caused1 by the direct action of the pollen1 independently of the intervention of the fertilised germ4 ,therefore1 in the previously given cases we have only to believe in the further power of pollen1 when applied to a distinct species or variety1 to influence the shape1 size1 colour1 texture1 etc41 of certain parts of the mother-plant4 ,turning now to the animal kingdom4 ,if we could imagine the same flower to yield seeds during successive years1 then it would not be very surprising that a flower of which the ovarium had been modified by foreign pollen should next year produce1 when self-fertilised1 offspring modified by the previous male influence4 ,closely analogous cases have actually occurred with animals4 ,in the case often quoted from ,lord ,morton1#aea a nearly purely-bred ,arabian chestnut mare bore a hybrid to a quagga2 she was subsequently sent to ,sir ,gore ,ouseley1 and produced two colts by a black ,arabian horse4 ,these colts were partially dun-coloured1 and were striped on the legs more plainly than the real hybrid1 or even than the quagga4 ,one of the two colts had its neck and some other parts of its body plainly marked with stripes4 ,stripes on the body1 not to mention those on the legs1 are extremely rare1--,i speak after having long attended to the subject1--with horses of all kinds in ,europe1 and are almost unknown in the case of ,arabians4 ,but what makes the case still more striking is that in these colts the hair of the mane resembled that of the quagga1 being short1 stiff1 and upright4 ,hence there can be no doubt that the quagga affected the character of the offspring subsequently begot by the black ,arabian horse4 ,mr4 ,jenner ,weir informs me of a strictly parallel case3 his neighbour ,mr4 ,lethbridge1 of ,blackheath1 has a horse1 bred by ,lord ,mostyn1 which had previously borne a foal by a quagga4 ,this horse is dun with a dark stripe down the back1 faint stripes on the forehead between the eyes1 plain stripes on the inner side of the fore-legs and rather more faint ones on the hind-legs1 with no shoulder-stripe4 ,the mane grows much lower on the forehead than in the horse1 but not so low as in the quagga or zebra4 ,the hoofs are proportionally longer than in the horse1--so much so that the farrier who first shod this animal1 and knew nothing of its origin1 said1 8,had ,i not seen ,i was shoeing a horse1 ,i should have thought ,i was shoeing a donkey40 ,with respect to the varieties of our domesticated animals1 many similar and well-authenticated facts have been published1#aeb and others have been communicated to me1 plainly showing the influence of the first male on the progeny subsequently borne by the mother to other males4 ,it will suffice to give a single instance1 recorded in the #8,philosophical ,transactions1' in a paper following that by ,lord ,morton3 ,mr4 ,giles put a sow of ,lord ,western's black and white ,essex breed to a wild boar of a deep chestnut colour2 and the 8pigs produced partook in appearance of both boar and sow1 but in some the chestnut colour of the boar strongly prevailed40 ,after the boar had long been dead1 the sow was put to a boar of her own black and white breed--a kind which is well known to breed very true and never to show any chestnut colour1--yet from this union the sow produced some young pigs which were plainly marked with the same chestnut tint as in the first litter4 ,similar cases have so frequently occurred1 that careful breeders avoid putting a choice female of any animal to an inferior male1 on account of the injury to her subsequent progeny which may be expected to follow4 ,some physiologists have attempted to account for these remarkable results from a previous impregnation1 by the imagination of the mother having been strongly affected2 but it will hereafter be seen that there are very slight grounds for any such belief4 ,other physiologists attribute the result to the close attachment and freely intercommunicating blood-vessels between the modified embryo and mother4 ,but the analogy from the action of foreign pollen on the ovarium1 seed-coats1 and other parts of the mother-plant1 strongly supports the belief that with animals the male element acts directly on the female1 and not through the crossed embryo4 ,with birds there is no close connection between the embryo and mother2 yet a careful observer1 ,dr4 ,chapuis1 states#aec that with pigeons the influence of a first male sometimes makes itself perceived in the succeeding broods2 but this statement requires confirmation4 ,conclusion and ,summary of the ,chapter4--,the facts given in the latter half of this chapter are well worthy of consideration1 as they show us in how many extraordinary modes the union of one form with another may lead to the modification of the seminal offspring or of the buds1 afterwards produced4 ,there is nothing surprising in the offspring of species or varieties crossed in the ordinary manner being modified2 but the case of two plants within the same seed1 which cohere and differ from each other1 is curious4 ,when a bud is formed after the cellular tissue of two species or two varieties have been united1 and it partakes of the characters of both parents1 the case is wonderful4 ,but ,i need not here repeat what has been so lately said on this subject4 ,we have also seen that in the case of plants the male element may affect in a direct manner the tissues of the mother1 and with animals may lead to the modification of her future progeny4 ,in the vegetable kingdom the offspring from a cross between two species or varieties1 whether effected by seminal generation or by grafting1 often revert1 to a greater or less degree1 in the first or in a succeeding generation1 to the two parent-forms2 and this reversion may affect the whole flower1 fruit1 or leaf-bud1 or only the half or a smaller segment of a single organ4 ,in some cases1 however1 such segregation of character apparently depends on an incapacity for union rather than on reversion1 for the flowers or fruit which are first produced display by segments the characters of both parents4 ,the various facts here given ought to be well considered by any one who wishes to embrace under a single point of view the many modes of reproduction by gemmation1 division1 and sexual union1 the reparation of lost parts1 variation1 inheritance1 reversion1 and other such phenomena4 ,towards the close of the second volume ,i shall attempt to connect these facts together by the hypothesis of pangenesis4 ,in the early half of the present chapter ,i have given a long list of plants in which through bud-variation1 that is1 independently of reproduction by seed1 the fruit has suddenly become modified in size1 colour1 flavour1 hairiness1 shape1 and time of maturity2 flowers have similarly changed in shape1 colour1 in being double1 and greatly in the character of the calyx2 young branches or shoots have changed in colour1 in bearing spines and in habit of growth1 as in climbing or in weeping2 leaves have changed in becoming variegated1 in shape1 period of unfolding1 and in their arrangement on the axis4 ,buds of all kinds1 whether produced on ordinary branches or on subterranean stems1 whether simple or much modified and supplied with a stock of nutriment1 as in tubers and bulbs1 are all liable to sudden variations of the same general nature4 ,in the list1 many of the cases are certainly due to reversion to characters not acquired from a cross1 but which were formerly present and have since been lost for a longer or shorter time2--as when a bud on a variegated plant produces plain leaves1 or when the variously-coloured flowers of the ,chrysanthemum revert to the aboriginal yellow tint4 ,many other cases included in the list are probably due to the plants being of crossed parentage1 and to the buds reverting either completely or by segments to one of the two parent-forms4#aed ,we may suspect that the strong tendency in the ,chrysanthemum to produce by bud-variation differently-coloured flowers1 results from the varieties having been at some time intentionally or accidentally crossed2 and this is certainly the case with some kinds of ,pelargonium4 ,so it may be to a large extent with the bud-varieties of the ,dahlia1 and with the 8broken colours0 of ,tulips4 ,when1 however1 a plant reverts by bud-variation to its two parent forms1 or to one of them1 it sometimes does not revert perfectly1 but assumes a somewhat new character1--of which fact1 instances have been given1 and ,carrire gives#aee another in the cherry4 ,many cases of bud-variation1 however1 cannot be attributed to reversion1 but to so-called spontaneous variability1 as is so common with cultivated plants raised from seed4 ,as a single variety of the ,chrysanthemum has produced by buds six other varieties1 and as one variety of the gooseberry has borne at the same time four distinct kinds of fruit1 it is scarcely possible to believe that all these variations are due to reversion4 ,we can hardly believe1 as remarked in a previous chapter1 that all the many peaches which have yielded nectarine-buds are of crossed parentage4 ,lastly1 in such cases as that of the moss-rose1 with its peculiar calyx1 and of the rose which bears opposite leaves1 in that of the ,imatophyllum1 etc41 there is no known natural species or variety from which the characters in question could have been derived by a cross4 ,we must attribute all such cases to the appearance of absolutely new characters in the buds4 ,the varieties which have thus arisen cannot be distinguished by any external character from seedlings2 this is notoriously the case with the varieties of the ,rose1 ,azalea1 and many other plants4 ,it deserves notice that all the plants which have yielded bud-variations have likewise varied greatly by seed4 ,the plants which have varied by buds belong to so many orders that we may infer that almost every plant would be liable to variation1 if placed under the proper exciting conditions4 ,these conditions1 as far as we can judge1 mainly depend on long-continued and high cultivation2 for almost all the plants in the foregoing list are perennials1 and have been largely propagated in many soils1 under different climates1 by cuttings1 offsets1 bulbs1 tubers1 and especially by budding or grafting4 ,the instances of annuals varying by buds1 or producing on the same plant differently coloured flowers1 are comparatively rare3 ,hopkirk#aef has seen this with ,convolvulus tricolor2 and it is not uncommon with the ,balsam and annual ,delphinium4 ,according to ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 plants from the warmer temperate regions1 when cultivated under the hot climate of ,st4 ,domingo1 are eminently liable to bud-variation4 ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,sedgwick that moss-roses which have often been taken to ,calcutta always there lose their mossiness2 but change of climate is by no means a necessary contingent1 as we see with the gooseberry1 currant1 and in many other cases4 ,plants living under their natural conditions are very rarely subject to bud-variation4 ,variegated leaves have1 however1 been observed under such circumstances2 and ,i have given an instance of variation by buds on an ash-tree planted in ornamental grounds1 but it is doubtful whether such a tree can be considered as living under strictly natural conditions4 ,grtner has seen white and dark-red flowers produced from the same root of the wild ,achillea millefolium2 and ,prof4 ,caspary has seen a completely wild ,viola lutea bearing flowers of two different colours and sizes4#aeg ,as wild plants are so rarely liable to bud-variation1 whilst highly cultivated plants long propagated by artificial means have yielded many varieties by this form of reproduction1 we are led through a series such as the following1--namely1 all the eyes in the same tuber of the potato varying in the same manner1--all the fruit on a purple plum-tree suddenly becoming yellow1--all the fruit on a double-flowered almond suddenly becoming peach like1--all the buds on grafted trees being in a very slight degree affected by the stock on which they have been worked1--all the flowers on a transplanted heartsease changing for a time in colour1 size1 and shape1--we are led by such a series to look at every case of bud-variation as the direct result of the conditions of life to which the plant has been exposed4 ,on the other hand1 plants of the same variety may be cultivated in two adjoining beds1 apparently under exactly the same conditions1 and those in the one bed1 as ,carrire insists1#aeh will produce many bud-variations1 and those in the other not a single one4 ,again1 if we look to such cases as that of a peach-tree which1 after having been cultivated by tens of thousands during many years in many countries1 and after having annually produced millions of buds1 all of which have apparently been exposed to precisely the same conditions1 yet at last suddenly produces a single bud with its whole character greatly transformed1 we are driven to the conclusion that the transformation stands in no direct relation to the conditions of life4 ,we have seen that varieties produced from seeds and from buds resemble each other so closely in general appearance that they cannot be distinguished4 ,just as certain species and groups of species1 when propagated by seed1 are more variable than other species or genera1 so it is in the case of certain bud-varieties4 ,thus1 the ,queen of ,england ,chrysanthemum has produced by this latter process no less than six1 and ,rollisson's ,unique ,pelargonium four distinct varieties2 moss-roses have also produced several other moss-roses4 ,the ,rosace have varied by buds more than any other group of plants2 but this may be in large part due to so many members having been long cultivated2 but within this same group1 the peach has often varied by buds1 whilst the apple and pear1 both grafted trees extensively cultivated1 have afforded1 as far as ,i can ascertain1 extremely few instances of bud-variation4 ,the law of analogous variation holds good with varieties produced by buds1 as with those produced from seed3 more than one kind of rose has sported into a moss-rose2 more than one kind of camellia has assumed an hexagonal form2 and at least seven or eight varieties of the peach have produced nectarines4 ,the laws of inheritance seem to be nearly the same with seminal and bud-varieties4 ,we know how commonly reversion comes into play with both1 and it may affect the whole1 or only segments of a leaf1 flower1 or fruit4 ,when the tendency to reversion affects many buds on the same tree1 it becomes covered with different kinds of leaves1 flowers1 or fruit2 but there is reason to believe that such fluctuating varieties have generally arisen from seed4 ,it is well known that1 out of a number of seedling varieties1 some transmit their character much more truly by seed than others2 so with bud-varieties1 some retain their character by successive buds more truly than others2 of which instances have been given with two kinds of variegated ,euonymus and with certain kinds of tulips and pelargoniums4 ,notwithstanding the sudden production of bud-varieties1 the characters thus acquired are sometimes capable of transmission by seminal reproduction3 ,mr4 ,rivers has found that moss-roses generally reproduce themselves by seed2 and the mossy character has been transferred by crossing from one species of rose to another4 ,the ,boston nectarine1 which appeared as a bud-variation1 produced by seed a closely allied nectarine4 ,on the other hand1 seedlings from some bud-variations have proved variable to an extreme degree4#aei ,we have also heard1 on the authority of ,mr4 ,salter1 that seeds taken from a branch with leaves variegated through bud-variation1 transmit this character very feebly2 whilst many plants1 which were variegated as seedlings1 transmit variegation to a large proportion of their progeny4 ,although ,i have been able to collect a good many cases of bud-variation1 as shown in the previous lists1 and might probably1 by searching foreign horticultural works1 have collected very many more cases1 yet their total number is as nothing in comparison with that of seminal varieties4 ,with seedlings raised from the more variable cultivated plants1 the variations are almost infinitely numerous1 but their differences are generally slight3 only at long intervals of time a strongly marked modification appears4 ,on the other hand1 it is a singular and inexplicable fact that1 when plants vary by buds1 the variations1 though they occur with comparative rarity1 are often1 or even generally1 strongly pronounced4 ,it struck me that this might perhaps be a delusion1 and that slight changes often occurred in buds1 but were overlooked or not recorded from being of no value4 ,accordingly1 ,i applied to two great authorities on this subject1 namely1 to ,mr4 ,rivers with respect to fruit-trees1 and to ,mr4 ,salter with respect to flowers4 ,mr4 ,rivers is doubtful1 but does not remember having noticed very slight variations in fruit-buds4 ,mr4 ,salter informs me that with flowers such do occur1 but1 if propagated1 they generally lose their new character in the following year2 yet he concurs with me that bud-variations usually at once assume a decided and permanent character4 ,we can hardly doubt that this is the rule1 when we reflect on such cases as that of the peach1 which has been so carefully observed1 and of which such trifling seminal varieties have been propagated1 yet this tree has repeatedly produced by bud-variation nectarines1 and only twice 7as far as ,i can learn7 any other variety1 namely1 the ,early and ,late ,grosse ,mignonne peaches2 and these differ from the parent-tree in hardly any character except the period of maturity4 ,to my surprise1 ,i hear from ,mr4 ,salter that he brings the principle of selection to bear on variegated plants propagated by buds1 and has thus greatly improved and fixed several varieties4 ,he informs me that at first a branch often produces variegated leaves on one side alone1 and that the leaves are marked only with an irregular edging or with a few lines of white and yellow4 ,to improve and fix such varieties1 he finds it necessary to encourage the buds at the bases of the most distinctly marked leaves1 and to propagate from them alone4 ,by following with perseverance this plan during three or four successive seasons1 a distinct and fixed variety can generally be secured4 ,finally1 the facts given in this chapter prove in how close and remarkable a manner the germ of a fertilised seed and the small cellular mass forming a bud1 resemble each other in all their functions--in their power of inheritance with occasional reversion1--and in their capacity for variation of the same general nature1 in obedience to the same laws4 ,this resemblance1 or rather identity of character1 is shown in the most striking manner by the fact that the cellular tissue of one species or variety1 when budded or grafted on another1 may give rise to a bud having an intermediate character4 ,we have seen that variability does not depend on sexual generation1 though much more frequently its concomitant than of bud reproduction4 ,we have seen that bud-variability is not solely dependent on reversion or atavism to long-lost characters1 or to those formerly acquired from a cross1 but appears often to be spontaneous4 ,but when we ask ourselves what is the cause of any particular bud-variation1 we are lost in doubt1 being driven in some cases to look to the direct action of the external conditions of life as sufficient1 and in other cases to feel a profound conviction that these have played a quite subordinate part1 of not more importance than the nature of the spark which ignites a mass of combustible matter4 ,,references #a ,since the publication of the first edition of this work1 ,i have found that ,m4 ,carrire1 ,chef des ,ppinires au ,mus4 d',hist4 ,nat41 in his excellent ,essay #8,production et ,fixation des ,varits1 #ahfe1' has given a list of bud-variations far more extensive than mine2 but as these relate chiefly to cases occurring in ,france ,i have left my list as it stood1 adding a few facts from ,m4 ,carrire and others4 ,any one who wishes to study the subject fully should refer to ,m4 ,carrire's ,essay4 #b #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahed1 p4 #hba4 #c ,lindley's #8,guide to ,orchard1' as quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheb1 p4 #hba4 ,for the ,early mignonne peach1 see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfd1 p4 #abea4 #d #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 p4 #afj4 #e ,see also #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfc1 p4 #bg4 #f #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheb1 p4 #hba4 #g #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheb1 p4 #fbi2 #ahef1 p4 #fdh2 #ahfd1 p4 #ihf4 ,other cases are given by ,braun #8,rejuvenescence1' in #8,ray ,soc4 ,bot4 ,mem41' #ahec1 p4 #cad4 #h #8,amplographie1' etc41 #ahdi1 p4 #ga4 #i #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahff1 p4 #igj4 #aj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahee1 pp4 #eig1 #fab4 #aa #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdb1 p4 #hgc2 #ahee1 p4 #fdf4 ,in the #8,chronicle1' p4 #hgf1 ,mr4 ,p4 ,mackenzie states that the bush still continues to bear the three kinds of fruit1 8although they have not been every year alike40 #ab #8,revue ,horticole1' quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdd1 p4 #hg4 #ac #8,rejuvenescence in ,nature1' #8,bot4 ,memoirs ,ray ,soc41' #ahec1 p4 #cad4 #ad #8,comptes ,rendus1' tom4 xli4 #ahee1 p4 #hjd4 ,the second case is given on the authority of ,gaudichaud1 ibid41 tom4 xxxiv4 #aheb1 p4 #gdh4 #ae ,this case is given in the #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfg1 p4 #djc4 #af #8,journal of ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc41' vol ii4 ,botany1 p4 #aca4 #ag #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdg1 p4 #bjg4 #ah ,herbert1 #8,amaryllidace1' #ahch1 p4 #cfi4 #ai #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #cia4 #bj ,exhibited at ,hort4 ,soc4 ,london4 ,report in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdd1 p4 #ccg4 #ba ,mr4 ,w4 ,bell #8,bot4 ,soc4 of ,edinburgh1' ,may1 #ahfc4 #bb #8,revue ,horticole1' quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahde1 p4 #dge4 #bc #8,bastarderzeugung1' #ahdi1 s4 #gf4 #bd #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 p4 #ccf4 #be ,w4 ,p4 ,ayres1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdb1 p4 #gia4 #bf ,w4 ,p4 ,ayres1 ibid4 #bg ,dr4 ,maxwell ,masters1 #8,pop4 ,science ,review1' ,july1 #ahgb1 p4 #bej4 #bh #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfa1 p4 #ifh4 #bi ,ibid41 #ahfa p4 #ide4 #cj ,w4 ,paul1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfa1 p4 #ifh4 #ca ,ibid41 p4 #ide4 #cb ,for other cases of bud-variation in this same variety1 see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfa1 pp4 #egh1 #fjj1 #ibe4 ,for other distinct cases of bud-variation in the genus ,pelargonium see #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfj1 p4 #aid4 #cc ,dr4 ,maxwell ,masters1 #8,pop4 ,science ,review1' ,july1 #ahgb1 p4 #bed4 #cd ,rev4 ,w4 ,t4 ,bree1 in ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 viii4 #ahcb1 p4 #ic4 #ce #8,the ,chrysanthemum3 its ,history and ,culture1' by ,j4 ,salter1 #ahfe1 p4 #da1 etc4 #cf ,bree1 in ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 viii4 #ahcb1 p4 #ic4 #cg ,bronn #8,geschichte der ,natur1' ,b4 ii4 s4 #abc4 #ch ,t4 ,rivers1 #8,rose ,amateur's ,guide #8 #ahcg p4 #d4 #ci ,mr4 ,shailer1 quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdh p4 #gei4 #dj #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iv4 #ahbb1 p4 #acg2 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdb1 p4 #dbb4 #da ,see also ,loudon's #8,arboretum1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ghj4 #db ,all these statements on the origin of the several varieties of the moss-rose are given on the authority of ,mr4 ,shailer1 who1 together with his father1 was concerned in their original propagation4 ,see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheb1 p4 #gei4 #dc #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahde1 p4 #efd4 #dd #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 p4 #bdb4 #de #8,shriften der ,phys4 ,oekon4 ,gesell4 zu ,knigsberg1' ,feb4 #crd1 #ahfe1 s4 #d4 ,see also ,dr4 ,caspary's paper in #8,transactions of the ,hort4 ,congress of ,amsterdam1' #ahfe4 #df #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheb1 p4 #gei4 #dg #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 p4 #bdb4 #dh ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 #8,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,bot41' vol4 ii4 p4 #acb4 #di #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #fai4 #ej ,hopkirk's #8,flora ,anomala1' #afg4 #ea #8,sur ,la ,production et la ,fixation des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #d4 #eb #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,march1 #ahfe1 p4 #bcc4 #ec #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #ace4 #ed ,ibid41 #ahdb1 p4 #ee4 #ee #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfg1 p4 #bce4 #ef ,grtner #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #cje4 #eg ,mr4 ,d4 ,beaton1 in #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfj1 p4 #bej4 #eh #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahej1 p4 #ecf4 #ei ,braun1 #8,ray ,soc4 ,bot4 ,mem41' #ahec1 p4 #cae2 ,hopkirk's #8,flora ,anomala1' p4 #afd2 ,lecoq #8,gograph4 ,bot4 de l',europe1' tom4 iii4 #ahed1 p4 #dje2 and #8,de la ,fcondation1' #ahfb1 p4 #cjc4 #fj #8,des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #e4 #fa ,w4 ,mason1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #hgh4 #fb ,alex4 ,braun1 #8,ray ,soc4 ,bot4 ,mem41' #ahec1 p4 #cae2 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahda1 p4 #cbi4 #fc ,dr4 ,m4 ,t4 ,masters1 #8,royal ,institution ,lecture1' ,march #afth1 #ahfj4 #fd ,see ,mr4 ,w4 ,k4 ,bridgeman's curious paper in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' ,dec4 #ahfa2 also ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott1 #8,bot4 ,soc4 ,edinburgh1' ,june #abth1 #ahfb4 #fe #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 p4 #ccf2 ,verlot1 #8,des ,varits1' p4 #gf4 #ff ,see also ,verlot1 #8,des ,varits1' p4 #gd4 #fg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdd1 p4 #hf4 #fh ,ibid41 #ahfa1 p4 #ifc4 #fi ,ibid41 #ahfa1 p4 #dcc2 #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfj1 p4 #b4 #gj ,m4 ,lemoine 7quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfg1 p4 #gd7 has lately observed that the ,symphytum with variegated leaves cannot be propagated by division of the roots4 ,he also found that out of #ejj plants of a ,phlox with striped flowers1 which had been propagated by root-division1 only seven or eight produced striped flowers4 ,see also on striped ,pelargoniums1 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfg1 p4 #ajjj4 #ga ,anderson's #8,recreations in ,agriculture1' vol4 v4 p4 #aeb4 #gb ,for wheat1 see #8,improvement of the ,cereals1' by ,p4 ,shirreff1 #ahgc1 p4 #dg4 ,for maize and sugar-cane1 ,carrire1 ibid41 pp4 #dj1 #db4 ,with respect to the sugar-cane ,mr4 ,j4 ,caldwell of ,mauritius1 says 7#8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahgd1 p4 #caf7 the ,ribbon cane has here 8sported into a perfectly green cane and a perfectly red cane from the same head4 ,i verified this myself1 and saw at least #bjj instances in the same plantation1 and the fact has completely upset all our preconceived ideas of the difference of colour being permanent4 ,the conversion of a striped cane into a green cane was not uncommon1 but the change into a red cane universally disbelieved1 and that both events should occur in the same plant incredible4 ,i find1 however1 in ,fleischman's #8,report on ,sugar ,cultivation in ,louisiana for #ahdh1' by the ,american ,patent ,office1 the circumstance is mentioned1 but he says he never saw it himself40 #gc #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheg1 p4 #ffb4 #gd #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahda1 p4 #had4 #ge ,ibid41 #aheg1 p4 #fac4 #gf ,ibid41 #aheg1 p4 #fgi4 ,see also ,philips #8,hist4 of ,vegetables1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ia1 for other and similar accounts47 #gg #8,journal of ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 ,botany1 p4 #acb4 #gh ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 viii4 #ahcb1 p4 #id4 #gi #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahej1 p4 #ecf2 and #ahdb1 p4 #gbi4 #hj #8,des ,jacinthes1' etc41 ,amsterdam1 #agfh1 p4 #abb4 #ha #8,gardener's ,chronicle4' #ahde4 p4 #bab4 #hb ,loudon's #8,encyclopdia of ,gardening1' p4 #ajbd4 #hc #8,production des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #fc4 #hd #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahda1 p4 #ghb2 #ahdb1 p4 #ee4 #he #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdi4 p4 #efe4 #hf #8,transact4 ,lin4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 p4 #ced4 #hg ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #hd4 #hh ,m4 ,carrire has lately described in the #8,revue ,horticole1' 7,dec4 #ast1 #ahff1 p4 #deg17 an extraordinary case4 ,he twice inserted grafts of the ,aria vestita on thorn-trees 7pines7 growing in pots2 and the grafts1 as they grew1 produced shoots with bark1 buds1 leaves1 petioles1 petals1 and flower-stalks1 all widely different from those of the ,aria4 ,the grafted shoots were also much hardier1 and flowered earlier1 than those on the ungrafted ,aria4 #hi #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 p4 #afj4 #ij ,for the cases of oaks see ,alph4 ,de ,candolle in #8,bibl4 ,univers41' ,geneva1 ,nov4 #ahfb2 for limes1 etc41 ,loudon's #8,gard4 ,mag41' vol4 xi4 #ahce1 p4 #ejc4 #ia ,for analogous facts1 see ,braun #8,rejuvenescence1' in #8,ray ,soc4 ,bot4 ,mem41' #ahec1 p4 #cbj2 and #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdb1 p4 #cig2 also ,braun in #8,sitzungsberichte der ,ges4 naturforschender ,freunde1' ,june1 #ahgc1 p4 #fc4 #ib #8,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 #ahdg1 p4 #ajj4 #ic ,see #8,transact4 of ,hort4 ,congress of ,amsterdam1' #ahfe2 but ,i owe most of the following information to ,prof4 ,caspary's letters4 #id #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #adc4 #ie ,see on this head1 ,naudin1 ibid41 p4 #ada4 #if ,braun1 in #8,bot4 ,mem4 ,ray4 ,soc41' #ahec1 p4 #bc4 #ig ,this hybrid has never been described4 ,it is exactly intermediate in foliage1 time of flowering1 dark stri at the base of the standard petal1 hairiness of the ovarium1 and in almost every other character1 between ,c4 laburnum and alpinus2 but it approaches the former species more nearly in colour1 and exceeds it in the length of the racemes4 ,we have before seen that #bjc per cent of its pollen-grains are ill-formed and worthless4 ,my plant1 though growing not above thirty or forty yards from both parent-species1 during some seasons yielded no good seeds2 but in #ahff it was unusually fertile1 and its long racemes produced from one to occasionally even four pods4 ,many of the pods contained no good seeds1 but generally they contained a single apparently good seed1 sometimes two1 and in one case three seeds4 ,some of these seeds germinated1 and ,i raised two trees from them2 one resembles the present form2 the other has a remarkable dwarf character with small leaves1 but has not yet flowered4 #ih #8,annales de la ,soc4 de l',hort4 de ,paris1' tom4 vii4 #ahcj1 p4 #ic4 #ii ,an account was given in the #8,gardener's ,chronicle' 7#aheg1 pp4 #chb1 #djj7 of a common laburnum on which grafts of ,c4 purpureus had been inserted1 and which gradually assumed the character of ,c4 adami2 but ,i have little doubt that ,c4 adami had been sold to the purchaser1 who was not a botanist1 in the place of ,c4 purpureus4 ,i have ascertained that this occurred in another instance4 #ajj ,gallesio1 #8,gli ,agrumi dei ,giard4 ,bot4 ,agrar4 di4 ,firenze1' #ahci1 p4 #aa4 ,in his #8,trait du ,citrus1' #ahaa1 p4 #adf1 he speaks as if the compound fruit consisted in part of a lemon1 but this apparently was a mistake4 #aja #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahee1 p4 #fbh4 ,see also ,prof4 ,caspary in #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,congress of ,amsterdam1' #ahfe4 #ajb ,grtner 7#8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #faa7 gives many references on this subject4 #ajc ,a nearly similar account was given by ,brabley1 in #agbd1 in his #8,treatise on ,husbandry1' vol4 i4 p4 #aii4 #ajd ,morren1 #8,bull4 de l',acad4 ,r4 des ,sciences de ,belgique1' #b;de sries1 tom4 xxviii4 #ahfi1 p4 #dcd4 ,also ,magnus #8,gesellschaft naturforschender ,freunde1 ,berlin1' ,feb4 #bast1 #ahga1 p4 #ac2 ibid41 ,june #bast1 #ahgj1 and ,oct4 #agth1 #ahga4 ,also #8,bot4 ,zeitung1' ,feb4 #bdth1 #ahga4 #aje ,loudon's #8,arboretum1' vol4 iv4 p4 #beie4 #ajf #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #fai4 #ajg ,amsterdam1 #agfh1 p4 #abd4 #ajh #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #fgb1 with a woodcut4 #aji ,see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfi1 p4 #bbj4 #aaj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfi1 p4 #cce4 #aaa #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfi1 p4 #ajah1 with remarks by ,dr4 ,masters on the adhesion of the united wedges4 ,see also ibid41 #ahgj1 pp4 #abgg1 #abhc4 #aab #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahga1 p4 #hcg4 #aac #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahgj1 p4 #aejf4 #aad #8,sitzungsberichte der ,gesellschaft naturforschender ,freunde zu ,berlin1' ,oct4 #agth1 #ahga4 #aae ,ibid41 ,nov4 #agth1 #ahgd4 ,see also excellent remarks by ,herr ,magnus4 #aaf #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #edi4 ,it is1 however1 doubtful whether these plants should be ranked as species or varieties4 #aag ,grtner1 ibid41 s4 #eej4 #aah #8,journal de ,physique1' tom4 xxiii4 #ahgc1 p4 #ajj4 #8,act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh1' #agha1 part i4 p4 #bdi4 #aai #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #di4 #abj ,l',herms1 ,jan4 #adth1 #ahcg1 quoted in ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 xiii4 p4 #bcj4 #aba #8,comptes ,rendus1' tom4 xxxiv4 #aheb1 p4 #gdf4 #abb #8,gograph4 ,bot4 de l',europe1' tom4 iii4 #ahed1 p4 #dje2 and #8,de la ,fcondation1' #ahfb1 p4 #cjb4 #abc #8,trait du ,citrus1' #ahaa1 p4 #de4 #abd #8,transact4 ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 ix4 p4 #bfh4 #abe #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' ,march1 #ahdh4 #abf #8,pomologie ,physiolog41' #ahcj1 p4 #abf4 #abg #8,philosophical ,transact41' vol4 xliii4 #agdd-de1 p4 #ebe4 #abh ,mr4 ,goss1 #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 v4 p4 #bcd3 and ,grtner1 #8,bastarderzeugung1' #ahdi1 ss4 #ha and #dii4 #abi #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahed1 p4 #djd4 #acj ,ibid41 #ahff1 p4 #ijj4 #aca ,see also a paper by this observer read before the ,international ,hort4 and ,bot4 ,congress of ,london1 #ahff4 #acb #8,trait du ,citrus1' p4 #dj4 #acc #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iii4 p4 #cah4 ,see also vol4 v4 p4 #fe4 #acd ,prof4 ,asa ,gray1 #8,proc4 ,acad4 ,sc41' ,boston1 vol4 iv4 #ahfj1 p4 #ba4 ,i have received statements to the same effect from other persons in the ,united ,states4 #ace ,for the ,french case see #8,journ4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 new series1 #ahff1 p4 #ej4 ,for ,germany1 see ,m4 ,jack quoted in ,henfrey's #8,botanical ,gazette1' vol4 i4 p4 #bgg4 ,a case in ,england has recently been alluded to by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,berkeley before the ,hort4 ,soc4 of ,london4 #acf #8,philosophical ,transactions1' vol4 xlvii4 #agea-eb1 p4 #bjf4 #acg ,gallesio1 #8,teoria della ,riproduzione1' #ahaf1 p4 #ie4 #ach #8,bot4 ,zeitung1' ,may1 #ahfh1 p4 #cbf4 #aci ,see ,dr4 ,j4 ,stockton-,hough1 in #8,american ,naturalist1' ,jan4 #ahgd1 p4 #bi4 #adj #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 v4 p4 #fi4 #ada #8,bull4 de l',acad4 ,imp4 de ,st4 ,petersburg1' tom4 xvii4 p4 #bge1 #ahgb4 ,the author gives references to those cases in the ,solanace of fruit affected by foreign pollen1 but as it does not appear that the mother-plant was artificially fertilised1 ,i have not entered into details4 #adb #8,bot4 ,zeitung1' ,sept4 #ahfh1 p4 #fca4 ,for ,maximowicz's judgment1 see the paper last referred to4 #adc #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,jan4 #bjth1 #ahfc1 p4 #df4 #add ,see on this head the high authority of ,prof4 ,decaisne1 in a paper translated in #8,journ4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i41 new series1 #ahff1 p4 #dh4 #ade ,vol4 xliii41 #agdd-de1 p4 #ebe2 vol4 xlv41 #agdg-dh1 p4 #fjb4 #adf #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 v4 pp4 #fe and #fh4 ,see also ,prof4 ,hildebrand1 with a coloured figure1 in #8,bot4 ,zeitung1' ,may #aeth1 #ahfh1 p4 #cbg4 ,puvis also has collected1 #8,de ,la ,dgnration1' #ahcg1 p4 #cf7several other instances2 but it is not in all cases possible to distinguish between the direct action of foreign pollen and bud-variations4 #adg ,t4 de ,clermont-,tonnerre1 in #8,mm4 de la ,soc4 ,linn4 de ,paris1' tom4 iii4 #ahbe1 p4 #afd4 #adh #8,transact4 of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 v4 p4 #fh4 #adi #8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,befruchtung1' #ahdd1 s4 #cdg-cea4 #aej #8,die ,fruchtbildung der ,orchideen1 ein ,beweis fr die doppelte ,wirkung des ,pollens1' #8,botanische ,zeitung1' ,no4 #dd et seq41 ,oct4 #cjth1 #ahfe2 and ,aug4 #dth1 #ahfe1 s4 #bdi4 #aea #8,philos4 ,transact41' #ahba1 p4 #bj4 #aeb ,dr4 ,alex4 ,harvey on #8,a remarkable ,effect of ,cross-breeding1' #ahea4 ,on the #8,physiology of ,breeding1' by ,mr4 ,reginald ,orton1 #ahee4 #8,intermarriage1' by ,alex4 ,walker1 #ahcg4 #8,l',hrdit ,naturelle1' by ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas1 tom4 ii4 p4 #eh4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,sedgwick1 in #8,british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurgical ,review1' #ahfc1 ,july1 p4 #ahc4 ,bronn1 in his #8,geschichte der ,natur1' #ahdc1 ,b4 ii4 s4 #abg1 has collected several cases with respect to mares1 sows1 and dogs4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,l4 ,martin 7#8,history of the ,dog1' #ahde1 p4 #ajd7 says he can personally vouch for the influence of the male parent on subsequent litters by other dogs4 ,a ,french poet1 ,jacques ,savary1 who wrote in #affe on dogs1 was aware of this singular fact4 ,dr4 ,bowerbank has given us the following striking case3--,a black1 hairless ,barbary bitch was first accidentally impregnated by a mongrel spaniel with long brown hair1 and she produced five puppies1 three of which were hairless and two covered with short brown hair4 ,the next time she was put to a black1 hairless ,barbary dog2 8but the mischief had been implanted in the mother1 and again about half the litter looked like pure ,barbarys1 and the other half like the short-haired progeny of the first father40 ,i have given in the text one case with pigs2 an equally striking one has been recently published in ,germany1 #8,illust4 ,landwirth4 ,zeitung1' #ahfh1 ,nov4 #agth1 p4 #adc4 ,it is worth notice that farmers in ,s4 ,brazil 7as ,i hear from ,fritz ,mller71 and at the ,c4 of ,good ,hope 7as ,i have heard from two trustworthy persons7 are convinced that mares which have once borne mules1 when subsequently put to horses1 are extremely liable to produce colts1 striped like a mule4 ,dr4 ,wilckens1 of ,pogarth1 gives 7#8,jahrbuch ,landwirthschaft1' ii4 #ahfi1 p4 #cbe7 a striking and analogous case4 ,a merino ram1 having two small lappets or flaps of skin on the neck1 was in the winter of #ahfa-fb put to several ,merino ewes1 all of whom bore lambs with similar flaps on their necks4 ,the ram was killed in the spring of #ahfb and subsequently to his death the ewes were put to other ,merino rams1 and in #ahfc to ,southdown rams1 none of whom ever have neck lappets3 nevertheless1 even as long afterwards as #ahfg1 several of these ewes produced lambs bearing these appendages4 #aec #8,le ,pigeon ,voyageur ,belge1' #ahfe1 p4 #ei4 #aed ,it may be worth while to call attention to the several means by which flowers and fruit become striped or mottled4 ,firstly1 by the direct action of the pollen of another variety or species1 as in the cases given of oranges and maize4 ,secondly1 in crosses of the first generation1 when the colours of the two parents do not readily unite1 as with ,mirabilis and ,dianthus4 ,thirdly1 in crossed plants of a subsequent generation by reversion1 through either bud or seminal generation4 ,fourthly1 by reversion to a character not originally gained by a cross1 but which had long been lost1 as with white-flowered varieties1 which we shall hereafter see often become striped with some other colour4 ,lastly1 there are cases1 as when peaches are produced with a half or quarter of the fruit like a nectarine1 in which the change is apparently due to mere variation1 through either bud or seminal generation4 #aee #8,production des ,varits1' p4 #cg4 #aef #8,flora ,anomala1' p4 #afd4 #aeg #8,schriften der physisch-okon4 ,gesell4 zu ,knigsberg1' ,b4 vi4 ,feb4 #crd1 #ahfe1 s4 #d4 #aeh #8,production des ,varits1' pp4 #eh1 #gj4 #aei ,carrire1 #8,production des ,varits1' p4 #ci4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,inheritance4 ,,wonderful ,,nature ,,of ,,inheritance--,,pedigrees ,,of ,,our ,,domesticated ,,animals--,,inheritance ,,not ,,due ,,to ,,chance--,,trifling ,,characters ,,inherited--,,diseases ,,inherited--,,peculiarities ,,in ,,the ,,eye ,,inherited--,,diseases ,,in ,,the ,,horse--,,longevity ,,and ,,vigour--,,asymmetrical ,,deviations ,,of ,,structure--,,polydactylism ,,and ,,regrowth ,,of ,,supernumerary ,,digits ,,after ,,amputation--,,cases ,,of ,,several ,,children ,,similarly ,,affected ,,from ,,non-,,affected ,,parents--,,weak ,,and ,,fluctuating ,,inheritance3 ,,in ,,weeping ,,trees1 ,,in ,,dwarfness1 ,,colour ,,of ,,fruit ,,and ,,flowers--,,colour ,,of ,,horses--,,non-,,inheritance ,,in ,,certain ,,cases--,,inheritance ,,of ,,structure ,,and ,,habits ,,overborne ,,by ,,hostile ,,conditions ,,of ,,life1 ,,by ,,incessantly ,,recurring ,,variability1 ,,and ,,by ,,reversion--,,conclusion4 ,the subject of inheritance is an immense one1 and has been treated by many authors4 ,one work alone1 #8,de l',hrdit ,naturelle' by ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas1 runs to the length of #aefb pages4 ,we must confine ourselves to certain points which have an important bearing on the general subject of variation1 both with domestic and natural productions4 ,it is obvious that a variation which is not inherited throws no light on the derivation of species1 nor is of any service to man1 except in the case of perennial plants1 which can be propagated by buds4 ,if animals and plants had never been domesticated1 and wild ones alone had been observed1 we should probably never have heard the saying1 that 8like begets like40 ,the proposition would have been as self-evident as that all the buds on the same tree are alike1 though neither proposition is strictly true4 ,for1 as has often been remarked1 probably no two individuals are identically the same4 ,all wild animals recognise each other1 which shows that there is some difference between them2 and when the eye is well practised1 the shepherd knows each sheep1 and man can distinguish a fellow-man out of millions on millions of other men4 ,some authors have gone so far as to maintain that the production of slight differences is as much a necessary function of the powers of generation1 as the production of offspring like their parents4 ,this view1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 is not theoretically probable1 though practically it holds good4 ,the saying that 8like begets like0 has1 in fact1 arisen from the perfect confidence felt by breeders1 that a superior or inferior animal will generally reproduce its kind2 but this very superiority or inferiority shows that the individual in question has departed slightly from its type4 ,the whole subject of inheritance is wonderful4 ,when a new character arises1 whatever its nature may be1 it generally tends to be inherited1 at least in a temporary and sometimes in a most persistent manner4 ,what can be more wonderful than that some trifling peculiarity1 not primordially attached to the species1 should be transmitted through the male or female sexual cells1 which are so minute as not to be visible to the naked eye1 and afterwards through the incessant changes of a long course of development1 undergone either in the womb or in the egg1 and ultimately appear in the offspring when mature1 or even when quite old1 as in the case of certain diseases8 ,or again1 what can be more wonderful than the well-ascertained fact that the minute ovule of a good milking cow will produce a male1 from whom a cell1 in union with an ovule1 will produce a female1 and she1 when mature1 will have large mammary glands1 yielding an abundant supply of milk1 and even milk of a particular quality8 ,nevertheless1 the real subject of surprise is1 as ,sir ,h4 ,holland has well remarked1#a not that a character should be inherited1 but that any should ever fail to be inherited4 ,in a future chapter1 devoted to an hypothesis which ,i have termed pangenesis1 an attempt will be made to show the means by which characters of all kinds are transmitted from generation to generation4 ,some writers1#b who have not attended to natural history1 have attempted to show that the force of inheritance has been much exaggerated4 ,the breeders of animals would smile at such simplicity2 and if they condescended to make any answer1 might ask what would be the chance of winning a prize if two inferior animals were paired together8 ,they might ask whether the half-wild ,arabs were led by theoretical notions to keep pedigrees of their horses8 ,why have pedigrees been scrupulously kept and published of the ,shorthorn cattle1 and more recently of the ,hereford breed8 ,is it an illusion that these recently improved animals safely transmit their excellent qualities even when crossed with other breeds8 have the ,shorthorns1 without good reason1 been purchased at immense prices and exported to almost every quarter of the globe1 a thousand guineas having been given for a bull8 ,with greyhounds pedigrees have likewise been kept1 and the names of such dogs1 as ,snowball1 ,major1 etc41 are as well known to coursers as those of ,eclipse and ,herod on the turf4 ,even with the ,gamecock1 pedigrees of famous strains were formerly kept1 and extended back for a century4 ,with pigs1 the ,yorkshire and ,cumberland breeders 8preserve and print pedigrees20 and to show how such highly-bred animals are valued1 ,i may mention that ,mr4 ,brown1 who won all the first prizes for small breeds at ,birmingham in #ahej1 sold a young sow and boar of his breed to ,lord ,ducie for #dc guineas2 the sow alone was afterwards sold to the ,rev4 ,f4 ,thursby for #fe guineas2 who writes1 8,she paid me very well1 having sold her produce for #cjj pounds1 and having now four breeding sows from her40#c ,hard cash paid down1 over and over again1 is an excellent test of inherited superiority4 ,in fact1 the whole art of breeding1 from which such great results have been attained during the present century1 depends on the inheritance of each small detail of structure4 ,but inheritance is not certain2 for if it were1 the breeder's art#d would be reduced to a certainty1 and there would be little scope left for that wonderful skill and perseverance shown by the men who have left an enduring monument of their success in the present state of our domesticated animals4 ,it is hardly possible1 within a moderate compass1 to impress on the mind of those who have not attended to the subject1 the full conviction of the force of inheritance which is slowly acquired by rearing animals1 by studying the many treatises which have been published on the various domestic animals1 and by conversing with breeders4 ,i will select a few facts of the kind1 which1 as far as ,i can judge1 have most influenced my own mind4 ,with man and the domestic animals1 certain peculiarities have appeared in an individual1 at rare intervals1 or only once or twice in the history of the world1 but have reappeared in several of the children and grandchildren4 ,thus ,lambert1 8the porcupine-man10 whose skin was thickly covered with warty projections1 which were periodically moulted1 had all his six children and two grandsons similarly affected4#e ,the face and body being covered with long hair1 accompanied by deficient teeth 7to which ,i shall hereafter refer71 occurred in three successive generations in a ,siamese family2 but this case is not unique1 as a woman#f with a completely hairy face who was exhibited in ,london in #affc1 and another instance has recently occurred4 ,colonel ,hallam#g has described a race of two-legged pigs1 8the hinder extremities being entirely wanting20 and this deficiency was transmitted through three generations4 ,in fact1 all races presenting any remarkable peculiarity1 such as solid-hoofed swine1 ,mauchamp sheep1 niata cattle1 etc41 are instances of the long-continued inheritance of rare deviations of structure4 ,when we reflect that certain extraordinary peculiarities have thus appeared in a single individual out of many millions1 all exposed in the same country to the same general conditions of life1 and1 again1 that the same extraordinary peculiarity has sometimes appeared in individuals living under widely different conditions of life1 we are driven to conclude that such peculiarities are not directly due to the action of the surrounding conditions1 but to unknown laws acting on the organisation or constitution of the individual2--that their production stands in hardly closer relation to the conditions of life than does life itself4 ,if this be so1 and the occurrence of the same unusual character in the child and parent cannot be attributed to both having been exposed to the same unusual conditions1 then the following problem is worth consideration1 as showing that the result cannot be due1 as some authors have supposed1 to mere coincidence1 but must be consequent on the members of the same family inheriting something in common in their constitution4 ,let it be assumed that1 in a large population1 a particular affection occurs on an average in one out of a million1 so that the priori chance that an individual taken at random will be so affected is only one in a million4 ,let the population consist of sixty millions1 composed1 we will assume1 of ten million families1 each containing six members4 ,on these data1 ,professor ,stokes has calculated for me that the odds will be no less than #hccc millions to #a that in the ten million families there will not be even a single family in which one parent and two children will be affected by the peculiarity in question4 ,but numerous instances could be given1 in which several children have been affected by the same rare peculiarity with one of their parents2 and in this case1 more especially if the grandchildren be included in the calculation1 the odds against mere coincidence become something prodigious1 almost beyond enumeration4 ,in some respects the evidence of inheritance is more striking when we consider the reappearance of trifling peculiarities4 ,dr4 ,hodgkin formerly told me of an ,english family in which1 for many generations1 some members had a single lock differently coloured from the rest of the hair4 ,i knew an ,irish gentleman1 who1 on the right side of his head1 had a small white lock in the midst of his dark hair3 he assured me that his grandmother had a similar lock on the same side1 and his mother on the opposite side4 ,but it is superfluous to give instances2 every shade of expression1 which may often be seen alike in parents and children1 tells the same story4 ,on what a curious combination of corporeal structure1 mental character1 and training1 handwriting depends6 yet every one must have noted the occasional close similarity of the handwriting in father and son1 although the father had not taught his son4 ,a great collector of autographs assured me that in his collection there were several signatures of father and son hardly distinguishable except by their dates4 ,hofacker1 in ,germany1 remarks on the inheritance of handwriting2 and it has even been asserted that ,english boys when taught to write in ,france naturally cling to their ,english manner of writing2 but for so extraordinary a statement more evidence is requisite4#h ,gait1 gestures1 voice1 and general bearing are all inherited1 as the illustrious ,hunter and ,sir ,a4 ,carlisle have insisted4#i ,my father communicated to me some striking instances1 in one of which a man died during the early infancy of his son1 and my father1 who did not see this son until grown up and out of health1 declared that it seemed to him as if his old friend had risen from the grave1 with all his highly peculiar habits and manners4 ,peculiar manners pass into tricks1 and several instances could be given of their inheritance2 as in the case1 often quoted1 of the father who generally slept on his back1 with his right leg crossed over the left1 and whose daughter1 whilst an infant in the cradle1 followed exactly the same habit1 though an attempt was made to cure her4#aj ,i will give one instance which has fallen under my own observation1 and which is curious from being a trick associated with a peculiar state of mind1 namely1 pleasureable emotion4 ,a boy had the singular habit1 when pleased1 of rapidly moving his fingers parallel to each other1 and1 when much excited1 of raising both hands1 with the fingers still moving1 to the sides of his face on a level with the eyes2 when this boy was almost an old man1 he could still hardly resist this trick when much pleased1 but from its absurdity concealed it4 ,he had eight children4 ,of these1 a girl1 when pleased1 at the age of four and a half years1 moved her fingers in exactly the same way1 and what is still odder1 when much excited1 she raised both her hands1 with her fingers still moving1 to the sides of her face1 in exactly the same manner as her father had done1 and sometimes even still continued to do so when alone4 ,i never heard of any one1 excepting this one man and his little daughter1 who had this strange habit2 and certainly imitation was in this instance out of the question4 ,some writers have doubted whether those complex mental attributes1 on which genius and talent depend1 are inherited1 even when both parents are thus endowed4 ,but he who will study ,mr4 ,galton's able work on #8,hereditary ,genius' will have its doubts allayed4 ,unfortunately it matters not1 as far as inheritance is concerned1 how injurious a quality or structure may be if compatible with life4 ,no one can read the many treatises#aa on hereditary disease and doubt this4 ,the ancients were strongly of this opinion1 or1 as ,ranchin expresses it1 ,omnes ,grci1 ,arabes1 et ,latini in eo consentiunt4 ,a long catalogue could be given of all sorts of inherited malformations and of predisposition to various diseases4 ,with gout1 fifty per cent of the cases observed in hospital practice are1 according to ,dr4 ,garrod1 inherited1 and a greater percentage in private practice4 ,every one knows how often insanity runs in families1 and some of the cases given by ,mr4 ,sedgwick are awful1--as of a surgeon1 whose brother1 father1 and four paternal uncles were all insane1 the latter dying by suicide2 of a ,jew1 whose father1 mother1 and six brothers and sisters were all mad2 and in some other cases several members of the same family1 during three or four successive generations1 have committed suicide4 ,striking instances have been recorded of epilepsy1 consumption1 asthma1 stone in the bladder1 cancer1 profuse bleeding from the slightest injuries1 of the mother not giving milk1 and of bad parturition being inherited4 ,in this latter respect ,i may mention an odd case given by a good observer1#ab in which the fault lay in the offspring1 and not in the mother3 in a part of ,yorkshire the farmers continued to select cattle with large hind-quarters1 until they made a strain called 8,dutch-buttocked10 and 8the monstrous size of the buttocks of the calf was frequently fatal to the cow1 and numbers of cows were annually lost in calving40 ,instead of giving numerous details on various inherited malformations and diseases1 ,i will confine myself to one organ1 that which is the most complex1 delicate1 and probably best-known in the human frame1 namely1 the eye1 with its accessory parts4#ac ,to begin with the latter3 ,i have received an account of a family in which one parent and the children are affected by drooping eyelids1 in so peculiar a manner1 that they cannot see without throwing their heads backwards4 ,mr4 ,wade1 of ,wakefield1 has given me an analogous case of a man who had not his eyelids thus affected at birth1 nor owed their state1 as far as was known1 to inheritance1 but they began to droop whilst he was an infant after suffering from fits1 and he has transmitted the affection to two out of his three children1 as was evident in the photographs of the whole family sent to me together with this account4 ,sir ,a4 ,carlisle#ad specifies a pendulous fold to the eyelids1 as inherited4 8,in a family10 says ,sir ,h4 ,holland1#ae 8where the father had a singular elongation of the upper eyelid1 seven or eight children were born with the same deformity2 two or three other children having it not40 ,many persons1 as ,i hear from ,sir ,j4 ,paget1 have two or three hairs in their eyebrows much longer than the others2 and even so trifling a peculiarity as this certainly runs in families4 ,with respect to the eye itself1 the highest authority in ,england1 ,mr4 ,bowman1 has been so kind as to give me the following remarks on certain inherited imperfections4 ,first1 hypermetropia1 or morbidly long sight3 in this affection1 the organ1 instead of being spherical1 is too flat from front to back1 and is often altogether too small1 so that the retina is brought too forward for the focus of the humours2 consequently a convex glass is required for clear vision of near objects1 and frequently even of distant ones4 ,this state occurs congenitally1 or at a very early age1 often in several children of the same family1 where one of the parents has presented it4#af ,secondly1 myopia1 or short-sight1 in which the eye is egg-shaped and too long from front to back2 the retina in this case lies behind the focus1 and is therefore fitted to see distinctly only very near objects4 ,this condition is not commonly congenital1 but comes on in youth1 the liability to it being well known to be transmissible from parent to child4 ,the change from the spherical to the ovoidal shape seems the immediate consequence of something like inflammation of the coats1 under which they yield1 and there is ground for believing that it may often originate in causes acting on the individual affected1#ag and may thenceforward become transmissible4 ,when both parents are myopic ,mr4 ,bowman has observed the hereditary tendency in this direction to be heightened1 and some of the children to be myopic at an earlier age or in a higher degree than their parents4 ,thirdly1 squinting is a familiar example of hereditary transmission3 it is frequently a result of such optical defects as have been above mentioned2 but the more primary and uncomplicated forms of it are also sometimes in a marked degree transmitted in a family4 ,fourthly1 ,cataract1 or opacity of the crystalline lens1 is commonly observed in persons whose parents have been similarly affected1 and often at an earlier age in the children than in the parents4 ,occasionally more than one child in a family is thus afflicted1 one of whose parents or other relations1 presents the senile form of the complaint4 ,when cataract affects several members of a family in the same generation1 it is often seen to commence at about the same age in each3 e4g41 in one family several infants or young persons may suffer from it2 in another1 several persons of middle age4 ,mr4 ,bowman also informs me that he has occasionally seen1 in several members of the same family1 various defects in either the right or left eye2 and ,mr4 ,white ,cooper has often seen peculiarities of vision confined to one eye reappearing in the same eye in the offspring4#ah ,the following cases are taken from an able paper by ,mr4 ,w4 ,sedgwick1 and from ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas4#ai ,amaurosis1 either congenital or coming on late in life1 and causing total blindness1 is often inherited2 it has been observed in three successive generations4 ,congenital absence of the iris has likewise been transmitted for three generations1 a cleft-iris for four generations1 being limited in this latter case to the males of the family4 ,opacity of the cornea and congenital smallness of the eyes have been inherited4 ,portal records a curious case1 in which a father and two sons were rendered blind1 whenever the head was bent downwards1 apparently owing to the crystalline lens1 with its capsule1 slipping through an unusually large pupil into the anterior chamber of the eye4 ,day-blindness1 or imperfect vision under a bright light1 is inherited1 as is night-blindness1 or an incapacity to see except under a strong light3 a case has been recorded1 by ,m4 ,cunier1 of this latter defect having affected eighty-five members of the same family during six generations4 ,the singular incapacity of distinguishing colours1 which has been called ,daltonism1 is notoriously hereditary1 and has been traced through five generations1 in which it was confined to the female sex4 ,with respect to the colour of the iris3 deficiency of colouring matter is well known to be hereditary in albinoes4 ,the iris of one eye being of different colour from that of the other1 and the iris being spotted1 are cases which have been inherited4 ,mr4 ,sedgwick gives1 in addition1 on the authority of ,dr4 ,osborne1#bj the following curious instance of strong inheritance3 a family of sixteen sons and five daughters all had eyes 8resembling in miniature the markings on the back of a tortoiseshell cat40 ,the mother of this large family had three sisters and a brother all similarly marked1 and they derived this peculiarity from their mother1 who belonged to a family notorious for transmitting it to their posterity4 ,finally1 ,dr4 ,lucas emphatically remarks that there is not one single faculty of the eye which is not subject to anomalies2 and not one which is not subjected to the principle of inheritance4 ,mr4 ,bowman agrees with the general truth of this proposition2 which of course does not imply that all malformations are necessarily inherited2 this would not even follow if both parents were affected by an anomaly which in most cases was transmissible4 ,even if no single fact had been known with respect to the inheritance of disease and malformations by man1 the evidence would have been ample in the case of the horse4 ,and this might have been expected1 as horses breed much quicker than man1 are matched with care1 and are highly valued4 ,i have consulted many works1 and the unanimity of the belief by veterinaries of all nations in the transmission of various morbid tendencies is surprising4 ,authors who have had wide experience give in detail many singular cases1 and assert that contracted feet1 with the numerous contingent evils1 of ring-bones1 curbs1 splints1 spavin1 founder and weakness of the front legs1 roaring or broken and thick wind1 melanosis1 specific ophthalmia1 and blindness 7the great ,french veterinary ,huzard going so far as to say that a blind race could soon be formed71 crib-biting1 jibbing and ill-temper1 are all plainly hereditary4 ,youatt sums up by saying 8there is scarcely a malady to which the horse is subject which is not hereditary20 and ,m4 ,bernard adds that the doctrine 8that there is scarcely a disease which does not run in the stock1 is gaining new advocates every day40#ba ,so it is in regard to cattle1 with consumption1 good and bad teeth1 fine skin1 etc4 etc4 ,but enough1 and more than enough1 has been said on disease4 ,andrew ,knight1 from his own experience1 asserts that disease is hereditary with plants2 and this assertion is endorsed by ,lindley4#bb ,seeing how hereditary evil qualities are1 it is fortunate that good health1 vigour1 and longevity are equally inherited4 ,it was formerly a well-known practice1 when annuities were purchased to be received during the life-time of a nominee1 to search out a person belonging to a family of which many members had lived to extreme old age4 ,as to the inheritance of vigour and endurance1 the ,english race-horse offers an excellent instance4 ,eclipse begot #ccd1 and ,king ,herod #dig winners4 ,a 8cock-tail0 is a horse not purely bred1 but with only one-eighth1 or one-sixteenth impure blood in his veins1 yet very few instances have ever occurred of such horses having won a great race4 ,they are sometimes as fleet for short distances as thoroughbreds1 but as ,mr4 ,robson1 the great trainer1 asserts1 they are deficient in wind1 and cannot keep up the pace4 ,mr4 ,lawrence also remarks1 8perhaps no instance has ever occurred of a three-part-bred horse saving his #8distance' in running two miles with thoroughbred racers40 ,it has been stated by ,cecil1 that when unknown horses1 whose parents were not celebrated1 have unexpectedly won great races1 as in the case of ,priam1 they can always be proved to be descended1 on both sides1 through many generations1 from first-rate ancestors4 ,on the ,continent1 ,baron ,cameronn challenges1 in a ,german veterinary periodical1 the opponents of the ,english race-horse to name one good horse on the ,continent1 which has not some ,english race-blood in his veins4#bc ,with respect to the transmission of the many slight1 but infinitely diversified characters1 by which the domestic races of animals and plants are distinguished1 nothing need be said2 for the very existence of persistent races proclaims the power of inheritance4 ,a few special cases1 however1 deserve some consideration4 ,it might have been anticipated1 that deviations from the law of symmetry would not have been inherited4 ,but ,anderson#bd states that a rabbit produced in a litter a young animal having only one ear2 and from this animal a breed was formed which steadily produced one-eared rabbits4 ,he also mentions a bitch with a single leg deficient1 and she produced several puppies with the same deficiency4 ,from ,hofacker's account1#be it appears that a one-horned stag was seen in #agha in a forest in ,germany1 in #aghh two1 and afterwards1 from year to year1 many were observed with only one horn on the right side of the head4 ,a cow lost a horn by suppuration1#bf and she produced three calves which had on the same side of the head1 instead of a horn1 a small bony lump attached merely to the skin2 but we here encroach on the subject of inherited mutilations4 ,a man who is left-handed1 and a shell in which the spire turns in the wrong directions1 are departures from the normal asymmetrical condition1 and they are well-known to be inherited4 ,polydactylism4--,supernumerary fingers and toes are eminently liable1 as various authors have insisted1 to be inherited4 ,polydactylism graduates#bg by multifarious steps from a mere cutaneous appendage1 not including any bone1 to a double hand4 ,but an additional digit1 supported on a metacarpal bone1 and furnished with all the proper muscles1 nerves1 and vessels1 is sometimes so perfect1 that it escapes detection1 unless the fingers are actually counted4 ,occasionally there are several supernumerary digits2 but usually only one1 making the total number six4 ,this one may be attached to the inner or outer margin of the hand1 representing either a thumb or little finger1 the latter being the more frequent4 ,generally1 through the law of correlation1 both hands and both feet are similarly affected4 ,dr4 ,burt ,wilder has tabulated#bh a large number of cases1 and finds that supernumerary digits are more common on the hands than on the feet1 and that men are affected oftener than women4 ,both these facts can be explained on two principles which seem generally to hold good2 firstly1 that of two parts1 the more specialised one is the more variable1 and the arm is more highly specialised than the leg2 and secondly that male animals are more variable than females4 ,the presence of a greater number of digits than five is a great anomaly1 for this number is not normally exceeded by any existing mammal1 bird1 or reptile4 ,nevertheless1 supernumerary digits are strongly inherited2 they have been transmitted through five generations2 and in some cases1 after disappearing for one1 two1 or even three generations1 have reappeared through reversion4 ,these facts are rendered1 as ,professor ,huxley has observed1 more remarkable from its being known in most cases that the affected person has not married one similarly affected4 ,in such cases the child of the fifth generation would have only #a-cbnd part of the blood of his first sedigitated ancestor4 ,other cases are rendered remarkable by the affection gathering force1 as ,dr4 ,struthers has shown1 in each generation1 though in each the affected person married one not affected2 moreover1 such additional digits are often amputated soon after birth1 and can seldom have been strengthened by use4 ,dr4 ,struthers gives the following instance3 in the first generation an additional digit appeared on one hand2 in the second1 on both hands2 in the third1 three brothers had both hands1 and one of the brothers a foot affected2 and in the fourth generation all four limbs were affected4 ,yet we must not over-estimate the force of inheritance4 ,dr4 ,struthers asserts that cases of non-inheritance and of the first appearance of additional digits in unaffected families are much more frequent than cases of inheritance4 ,many other deviations of structure1 of a nature almost as anomalous as supernumerary digits1 such as deficient phalanges1#bi thickened joints1 crooked fingers1 etc41 are1 in like manner1 strongly inherited1 and are equally subject to intermission1 together with reversion1 though in such cases there is no reason to suppose that both parents had been similarly affected4#cj ,additional digits have been observed in negroes as well as in other races of man1 and in several of the lower animals1 and have been inherited4 ,six toes have been described on the hind feet of the newt 7,salamandra cristata71 and are said to have occurred with the frog4 ,it deserves notice1 that the six-toed newt1 though adult1 preserved some of its larval characters2 for part of the hyoidal apparatus1 which is properly absorbed during the act of metamorphosis1 was retained4 ,it is also remarkable that in the case of man various structures in an embryonic or arrested state of development1 such as a cleft-palate1 bifid uterus1 etc41 are often accompanied by polydactylism4#ca ,six toes on the hinder feet are known to have been inherited for three generations of cats4 ,in several breeds of the fowl the hinder toe is double1 and is generally transmitted truly1 as is well shown when ,dorkings are crossed with common four-toed breeds4#cb ,with animals which have properly less than five digits1 the number is sometimes increased to five1 especially on the front legs1 though rarely carried beyond that number2 but this is due to the development of a digit already existing in a more or less rudimentary state4 ,thus1 the dog has properly four toes behind1 but in the larger breeds a fifth toe is commonly1 though not perfectly1 developed4 ,horses1 which properly have one toe alone fully developed with rudiments of the others1 have been described with each foot bearing two or three small separate hoofs3 analogous facts have been noticed with cows1 sheep1 goats1 and pigs4#cc ,there is a famous case described by ,mr4 ,white of a child1 three years old1 with a thumb double from the first joint4 ,he removed the lesser thumb1 which was furnished with a nail2 but to his astonishment it grew again and reproduced a nail4 ,the child was then taken to an eminent ,london surgeon1 and the newly-grown thumb was removed by its socket-joint1 but again it grew and reproduced a nail4 ,dr4 ,struthers mentions a case of the partial regrowth of an additional thumb1 amputated when a child was three months old2 and the late ,dr4 ,falconer communicated to me an analogous instance4 ,in the last edition of this work ,i also gave a case of the regrowth of a supernumerary little-finger after amputation2 but having been informed by ,dr4 ,bachmaier that several eminent surgeons expressed1 at a meeting of the ,anthropological ,society of ,munich1 great doubt about my statements1 ,i have made more particular inquiries4 ,the full information thus gained1 together with a tracing of the hand in its present state1 has been laid before ,sir ,j4 ,paget1 and he has come to the conclusion that the degree of regrowth in this case is not greater than sometimes occurs with normal bones1 especially with the humerus1 when amputated at an early age4 ,he further does not feel fully satisfied about the facts recorded by ,mr4 ,white4 ,this being so1 it is necessary for me to withdraw the view which ,i formerly advanced1 with much hesitation1 chiefly on the ground of the supposed regrowth of additional digits1 namely1 that their occasional development in man is a case of reversion to a lowly1 organised progenitor provided with more than five digits4 ,i may here allude to a class of facts closely allied to1 but somewhat different from1 ordinary cases of inheritance4 ,sir ,h4 ,holland#cd states that brothers and sisters of the same family are frequently affected1 often at about the same age1 by the same peculiar disease1 not known to have previously occurred in the family4 ,he specifies the occurrence of diabetes in three brothers under ten years old2 he also remarks that children of the same family often exhibit in common infantile diseases1 the same peculiar symptoms4 ,my father mentioned to me the case of four brothers who died between the ages of sixty and seventy1 in the same highly peculiar comatose state4 ,an instance has already been given of supernumerary digits appearing in four children out of six in a previously unaffected family4 ,dr4 ,devay states#ce that two brothers married two sisters1 their first-cousins1 none of the four nor any relation being an albino2 but the seven children produced from this double marriage were all perfect albinoes4 ,some of these cases1 as ,mr4 ,sedgwick#cf has shown1 are probably the result of reversion to a remote ancestor1 of whom no record had been preserved2 and all these cases are so far directly connected with inheritance that no doubt the children inherited a similar constitution from their parents1 and1 from being exposed to nearly similar conditions of life1 it is not surprising that they should be affected in the same manner and at the same period of life4 ,most of the facts hitherto given have served to illustrate the force of inheritance1 but we must now consider cases grouped as well as the subject allows into classes1 showing how feeble1 capricious1 or deficient the power of inheritance sometimes is4 ,when a new peculiarity first appears1 we can never predict whether it will be inherited4 ,if both parents from their birth present the same peculiarity1 the probability is strong that it will be transmitted to at least some of their offspring4 ,we have seen that variegation is transmitted much more feebly by seed1 taken from a branch which had become variegated through bud-variation1 than from plants which were variegated as seedlings4 ,with most plants the power of transmission notoriously depends on some innate capacity in the individual3 thus ,vilmorin#cg raised from a peculiarly coloured balsam some seedlings1 which all resembled their parent2 but of these seedlings some failed to transmit the new character1 whilst others transmitted it to all their descendants during several successive generations4 ,so again with a variety of the rose1 two plants alone out of six were found by ,vilmorin to be capable of transmitting the desired character2 numerous analogous cases could be given4 ,the weeping or pendulous growth of trees is strongly inherited in some cases1 and1 without any assignable reason1 feebly in other cases4 ,i have selected this character as an instance of capricious inheritance1 because it is certainly not proper to the parent-species1 and because1 both sexes being borne on the same tree1 both tend to transmit the same character4 ,even supposing that there may have been in some instances crossing with adjoining trees of the same species1 it is not probable that all the seedlings would have been thus affected4 ,at ,moccas ,court there is a famous weeping oak2 many of its branches 8are #cj feet long1 and no thicker in any part of this length than a common rope30 this tree transmits its weeping character1 in a greater or less degree1 to all its seedlings2 some of the young oaks being so flexible that they have to be supported by props2 others not showing the weeping tendency till about twenty years old4#ch ,mr4 ,rivers fertilised1 as he informs me1 the flowers of a new ,belgian weeping thorn 7,cratgus oxyacantha7 with pollen from a crimson not-weeping variety1 and three young trees1 8now six or seven years old1 show a decided tendency to be pendulous1 but as yet are not so much so as the mother-plant40 ,according to ,mr4 ,mac,nab1#ci seedlings from a magnificent weeping birch 7,betula alba71 in the ,botanic ,garden at ,edinburgh1 grew for the first ten or fifteen years upright1 but then all became weepers like their parent4 ,a peach with pendulous branches1 like those of the weeping willow1 has been found capable of propagation by seed4#dj ,lastly1 a weeping or rather a prostrate yew 7,taxus baccata7 was found in a hedge in ,shropshire2 it was a male1 but one branch bore female flowers1 and produced berries2 these1 being sown1 produced seventeen trees all of which had exactly the same peculiar habit with the parent-tree4#da ,these facts1 it might have been thought1 would have been sufficient to render it probable that a pendulous habit would in all cases be strictly inherited4 ,but let us look to the other side4 ,mr4 ,mac,nab#db sowed seeds of the weeping beech 7,fagus sylvatica71 but succeeded in raising only common beeches4 ,mr4 ,rivers1 at my request1 raised a number of seedlings from three distinct varieties of weeping elm2 and at least one of the parent-trees was so situated that it could not have been crossed by any other elm2 but none of the young trees1 now about a foot or two in height1 show the least signs of weeping4 ,mr4 ,rivers formerly sowed above twenty thousand seeds of the weeping ash 7,fraxinus excelsior71 and not a single seedling was in the least degree pendulous3 in ,germany1 ,m4 ,borchmeyer raised a thousand seedlings1 with the same result4 ,nevertheless1 ,mr4 ,anderson1 of the ,chelsea ,botanic ,garden1 by sowing seed from a weeping ash1 which was found before the year #aghj1 in ,cambridgeshire1 raised several pendulous trees4#dc ,professor ,henslow also informs me that some seedlings from a female weeping ash in the ,botanic ,garden at ,cambridge were at first a little pendulous1 but afterwards became quite upright3 it is probable that this latter tree1 which transmits to a certain extent its pendulous habit1 was derived by a bud from the same original ,cambridgeshire stock2 whilst other weeping ashes may have had a distinct origin4 ,but the crowning case1 communicated to me by ,mr4 ,rivers1 which shows how capricious is the inheritance of a pendulous habit1 is that a variety of another species of ash 7,f4 lentiscifolia71 now about twenty years old1 which was formerly pendulous1 8has long lost this habit1 every shoot being remarkably erect2 but seedlings formerly raised from it were perfectly prostrate1 the stems not rising more than two inches above the ground40 ,thus the weeping variety of the common ash1 which has been extensively propagated by buds during a long period1 did not with ,mr4 ,rivers1 transmit its character to one seedling out of above twenty thousand2 whereas the weeping variety of a second species of ash1 which could not1 whilst grown in the same garden1 retain its own weeping character1 transmitted to its character the pendulous habit in excess6 ,many analogous facts could be given1 showing how apparently capricious is the principle of inheritance4 ,all the seedlings from a variety of the ,barberry 7,b4 vulgaris7 with red leaves inherited the same character2 only about one-third of the seedlings of the copper ,beech 7,fagus sylvatica7 had purple leaves4 ,not one out of a hundred seedlings of a variety of the ,cerasus padus1 with yellow fruit1 bore yellow fruit3 one-twelfth of the seedlings of the variety of ,cornus mascula1 with yellow fruit1 came true3#dd and lastly1 all the trees raised by my father from a yellow-berried holly 7,ilex aquifolium71 found wild1 produced yellow berries4 ,vilmorin#de observed in a bed of ,saponaria calabrica an extremely dwarf variety1 and raised from it a large number of seedlings2 some of these partially resembled their parent1 and he selected their seed2 but the grandchildren were not in the least dwarfed3 on the other hand1 he observed a stunted and bushy variety of ,tagetes signata growing in the midst of the common varieties by which it was probably crossed2 for most of the seedlings raised from this plant were intermediate in character1 only two perfectly resembling their parent2 but seed saved from these two plants reproduced the new variety so truly1 that hardly any selection has since been necessary4 ,flowers transmit their colour truly1 or most capriciously4 ,many annuals come true3 thus ,i purchased ,german seeds of thirty-four named sub-varieties of one race of ten-week stocks 7,matthiola annua71 and raised a hundred and forty plants1 all of which1 with the exception of a single plant1 came true4 ,in saying this1 however1 it must be understood that ,i could distinguish only twenty kinds out of the thirty-four named sub-varieties2 nor did the colour of the flower always correspond with the name affixed to the packet2 but ,i say that they came true1 because in each of the thirty-six short rows every plant was absolutely alike1 with the one single exception4 ,again1 ,i procured packets of ,german seed of twenty-five named varieties of common and quilled asters1 and raised a hundred and twenty-four plants2 of these1 all except ten were true in the above limited sense2 and ,i considered even a wrong shade of colour as false4 ,it is a singular circumstance that white varieties generally transmit their colour much more truly than any other variety4 ,this fact probably stands in close relation with one observed by ,verlot1#df namely1 that flowers which are normally white rarely vary into any other colour4 ,i have found that the white varieties of ,delphinium consolida and of the ,stock are the truest4 ,it is1 indeed1 sufficient to look through a nurseryman's seed-list1 to see the large number of white varieties which can be propagated by seed4 ,the several coloured varieties of the sweet-pea 7,lathyrus odoratus7 are very true2 but ,i hear from ,mr4 ,masters1 of ,canterbury1 who has particularly attended to this plant1 that the white variety is the truest4 ,the hyacinth1 when propagated by seed1 is extremely inconstant in colour1 but 8white hyacinths almost always give by seed white-flowered plants20#dg and ,mr4 ,masters informs me that the yellow varieties also reproduce their colour1 but of different shades4 ,on the other hand1 pink and blue varieties1 the latter being the natural colour1 are not nearly so true3 hence1 as ,mr4 ,masters has remarked to me1 8we see that a garden variety may acquire a more permanent habit than a natural species20 but it should have been added1 that this occurs under cultivation1 and therefore under changed conditions4 ,with many flowers1 especially perennials1 nothing can be more fluctuating than the colour of the seedlings1 as is notoriously the case with verbenas1 carnations1 dahlias1 cinerarias1 and others4#dh ,i sowed seed of twelve named varieties of ,snapdragon 7,antirrhinum majus71 and utter confusion was the result4 ,in most cases the extremely fluctuating colour of seedling plants is probably in chief part due to crosses between differently-coloured varieties during previous generations4 ,it is almost certain that this is the case with the polyanthus and coloured primrose 7,primula veris and vulgaris71 from their reciprocally dimorphic structure2#di and these are plants which florists speak of as never coming true by seed3 but if care be taken to prevent crossing1 neither species is by any means very inconstant1 in colour2 thus ,i raised twenty-three plants from a purple primrose1 fertilised by ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott with its pollen1 and eighteen came up purple of different shades1 and only five reverted to the ordinary yellow colour3 again1 ,i raised twenty plants from a bright-red cowslip1 similarly treated by ,mr4 ,scott1 and every one perfectly resembled its parent in colour1 as likewise did1 with the exception of a single plant1 #gb grandchildren4 ,even with the most variable flowers1 it is probable that each delicate shade of colour might be permanently fixed so as to be transmitted by seed1 by cultivation in the same soil1 by long-continued selection1 and especially by the prevention of crosses4 ,i infer this from certain annual larkspurs 7,delphinium consolida and ajacis71 of which common seedlings present a greater diversity of colour than any other plant known to me2 yet on procuring seed of five named ,german varieties of ,d4 consolida1 only nine plants out of ninety-four were false2 and the seedlings of six varieties of ,d4 ajacis were true in the same manner and degree as with the stocks above described4 ,a distinguished botanist maintains that the annual species of ,delphinium are always self-fertilised2 therefore ,i may mention that thirty-two flowers on a branch of ,d4 consolida1 enclosed in a net1 yielded twenty-seven capsules1 with an average of #agb seed in each2 whilst five flowers1 under the same net1 which were artificially fertilised1 in the same manner as must be effected by bees during their incessant visits1 yielded five capsules with an average of #ceb fine seed2 and this shows that the agency of insects is necessary for the full fertility of this plant4 ,analogous facts could be given with respect to the crossing of many other flowers1 such as carnations1 etc41 of which the varieties fluctuate much in colour4 ,as with flowers1 so with our domesticated animals1 no character is more variable than colour1 and probably in no animal more so than with the horse4 ,yet1 with a little care in breeding1 it appears that races of any colour might soon be formed4 ,hofacker gives the result of matching two hundred and sixteen mares of four different colours with like-coloured stallions1 without regard to the colour of their ancestors2 and of the two hundred and sixteen colts born1 eleven alone failed to inherit the colour of their parents3 ,autenrieth and ,ammon assert that1 after two generations1 colts of a uniform colour are produced with certainty4#ej ,in a few rare cases peculiarities fail to be inherited1 apparently from the force of inheritance being too strong4 ,i have been assured by breeders of the canary-bird that to get a good jonquil-coloured bird it does not answer to pair two jonquils1 as the colour then comes out too strong1 or is even brown2 but this statement is disputed by other breeders4 ,so again1 if two crested canaries are paired1 the young birds rarely inherit this character3#ea for in crested birds a narrow space of bare skin is left on the back of the head1 where the feathers are up-turned to form the crest1 and1 when both parents are thus characterised1 the bareness becomes excessive1 and the crest itself fails to be developed4 ,mr4 ,hewitt1 speaking of ,laced ,sebright ,bantams1 says#eb that1 8why this should be so ,i know not1 but ,i am confident that those that are best laced frequently produce offspring very far from perfect in their markings1 whilst those exhibited by myself1 which have so often proved successful1 were bred from the union of heavily-laced birds with those that were scarcely sufficiently laced40 ,it is a singular fact that1 although several deaf-mutes often occur in the same family1 and though their cousins and other relations are often in the same condition1 yet their parents are rarely deaf-mutes4 ,to give a single instance3 not one scholar out of #adh1 who were at the same time in the ,london ,institution1 was the child of parents similarly affected4 ,so again1 when a male or female deaf-mute marries a sound person1 their children are most rarely affected3 in ,ireland1 out of #bjc children thus produced one alone was mute4 ,even when both parents have been deaf-mutes1 as in the case of forty-one marriages in the ,united ,states and of six in ,ireland1 only two deaf and dumb children were produced4 ,mr4 ,sedgwick1#ec in commenting on this remarkable and fortunate failure in the power of transmission in the direct line1 remarks that it may possibly be owing to 8excess having reversed the action of some natural law in development40 ,but it is safer in the present state of our knowledge to look at the whole case as simply unintelligible4 ,although many congenital monstrosities are inherited1 of which examples have already been given1 and to which may be added the lately recorded case of the transmission during a century of hare-lip with a cleft-palate in the writer's own family1#ed yet other malformations are rarely or never inherited4 ,of these latter cases1 many are probably due to injuries in the womb or egg1 and would come under the head of non-inherited injuries or mutilations4 ,with plants1 a long catalogue of inherited monstrosities of the most serious and diversified nature could easily be given2 and with plants1 there is no reason to suppose that monstrosities are caused by direct injuries to the seed or embryo4 ,with respect to the inheritance of structures mutilated by injuries or altered by disease1 it was until lately difficult to come to any definite conclusion4 ,some mutilations have been practised for a vast number of generations without any inherited result4 ,godron remarks#ee that different races of man have from time immemorial knocked out their upper incisors1 cut off joints of their fingers1 made holes of immense size through the lobes of their ears or through their nostrils1 tatooed themselves1 made deep gashes in various parts of their bodies1 and there is no reason to suppose that these mutilations have ever been inherited4#ef ,adhesions due to inflammation and pits from the small-pox 7and formerly many consecutive generations must have been thus pitted7 are not inherited4 ,with respect to ,jews1 ,i have been assured by three medical men of the ,jewish faith that circumcision1 which has been practised for so many ages1 has produced no inherited effect4 ,blumenbach1 however1 asserts#eg that ,jews are often born in ,germany in a condition rendering circumcision difficult1 so that a name is given them signifying 8born circumcised20 and ,professor ,preyer informs me that this is the case in ,bonn1 such children being considered the special favourites of ,jehovah4 ,i have also heard from ,dr4 ,a4 ,newman1 of ,guy's ,hospital1 of the grandson of a circumcised ,jew1 the father not having been circumcised1 in a similar condition4 ,but it is possible that all these cases may be accidental coincidence1 for ,sir ,j4 ,paget has seen five sons of a lady and one son of her sister with adherent prepuces2 and one of these boys was affected in a manner 8which might be considered like that commonly produced by circumcision20 yet there was no suspicion of ,jewish blood in the family of these two sisters4 ,circumcision is practised by ,mahomedans1 but at a much later age than by ,jews2 and ,dr4 ,riedel1 ,assistant ,resident in ,north ,celebes1 writes to me that the boys there go naked until from six to ten years old2 and he has observed that many of them1 though not all1 have their prepuces much reduced in length1 and this he attributes to the inherited effects of the operation4 ,in the vegetable kingdom oaks and other trees have borne galls from primeval times1 yet they do not produce inherited excrescences2 and many other such facts could be adduced4 ,notwithstanding the above several negative cases1 we now possess conclusive evidence that the effects of operations are sometimes inherited4 ,dr4 ,brown-,squard#eh gives the following summary of his observations on guinea-pigs2 and this summary is so important that ,i will quote the whole3-- 8#ast4 ,appearance of epilepsy in animals born of parents having been rendered epileptic by an injury to the spinal cord4 8#bnd4 ,appearance of epilepsy also in animals born of parents having been rendered epileptic by the section of the sciatic nerve4 8#crd4 ,a change in the shape of the ear in animals born of parents in which such a change was the effect of a division of the cervical sympathetic nerve4 8#dth4 ,partial closure of the eyelids in animals born of parents in which that state of the eyelids had been caused either by the section of the cervical sympathetic nerve or the removal of the superior cervical ganglion4 8#eth4 ,exophthalmia in animals born of parents in which an injury to the restiform body had produced that protrusion of the eyeball4 ,this interesting fact ,i have witnessed a good many times1 and ,i have seen the transmission of the morbid state of the eye continue through four generations4 ,in these animals1 modified by heredity1 the two eyes generally protruded1 although in the parents usually only one showed exophthalmia1 the lesion having been made in most cases only on one of the corpora restiformia4 8#fth4 ,hmatoma and dry gangrene of the ears in animals born of parents in which these ear-alterations had been caused by an injury to the restiform body near the nib of the calamus4 8#gth4 ,absence of two toes out of the three of the hind leg1 and sometimes of the three1 in animals whose parents had eaten up their hind-leg toes which had become ansthetic from a section of the sciatic nerve alone1 or of that nerve and also of the crural4 ,sometimes1 instead of complete absence of the toes1 only a part of one or two or three was missing in the young1 although in the parent not only the toes but the whole foot was absent 7partly eaten off1 partly destroyed by inflammation1 ulceration1 or gangrene74 8#hth4 ,appearance of various morbid states of the skin and hair of the neck and face in animals born of parents having had similar alterations in the same parts1 as effects of an injury to the sciatic nerve40 ,it should be especially observed that ,brown-,squard has bred during thirty years many thousand guinea-pigs from animals which had not been operated upon1 and not one of these manifested the epileptic tendency4 ,nor has he ever seen a guinea-pig born without toes1 which was not the offspring of parents which had gnawed off their own toes owing to the sciatic nerve having been divided4 ,of this latter fact thirteen instances were carefully recorded1 and a greater number were seen2 yet ,brown-,squard speaks of such cases as one of the rarer forms of inheritance4 ,it is a still more interesting fact-- 8,that the sciatic nerve in the congenitally toeless animal has inherited the power of passing through all the different morbid states which have occurred in one of its parents from the time of the division till after its reunion with the peripheric end4 ,it is not therefore simply the power of performing an action which is inherited1 but the power of performing a whole series of actions1 in a certain order40 ,in most of the cases of inheritance recorded by ,brown-,squard only one of the two parents had been operated upon and was affected4 ,he concludes by expressing his belief that 8what is transmitted is the morbid state of the nervous system10 due to the operation performed on the parents4 ,with the lower animals ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas has collected a long list of inherited injuries4 ,a few instances will suffice4 ,a cow lost a horn from an accident with consequent suppuration1 and she produced three calves which were hornless on the same side of the head4 ,with the horse1 there seems hardly a doubt that exostoses on the legs1 caused by too much travelling on hard roads1 are inherited4 ,blumenbach records the case of a man who had his little finger on the right hand almost cut off1 and which in consequence grew crooked1 and his sons had the same finger on the same hand similarly crooked4 ,a soldier1 fifteen years before his marriage1 lost his left eye from purulent ophthalmia1 and his two sons were microphthalmic on the same side4#ei ,in all cases in which a parent has had an organ injured on one side1 and two or more of the offspring are born with the same organ affected on the same side1 the chances against mere coincidence are almost infinitely great4 ,even when only a single child is born having exactly the same part of the body affected as that of his injured parent1 the chances against coincidence are great2 and ,professor ,rolleston has given me two such cases which have fallen under his own observation1--namely of two men1 one of whom had his knee and the other his cheek severely cut1 and both had children born with exactly the same spot marked or scarred4 ,many instances have been recorded of cats1 dogs1 and horses1 which have had their tails1 legs1 etc41 amputated or injured1 producing offspring with the same parts ill-formed2 but as it is not very rare for similar malformations to appear spontaneously1 all such cases may be due to coincidence4 ,it is1 however1 an argument on the other side that 8under the old excise laws the shepherd-dog was only exempt from tax when without a tail1 and for this reason it was always removed20#fj and there still exist breeds of the shepherd-dog which are always born destitute of a tail4 ,finally1 it must be admitted1 more especially since the publication of ,brown-,squard's observations1 that the effects of injuries1 especially when followed by disease1 or perhaps exclusively when thus followed1 are occasionally inherited4#fa ,causes of ,non-inheritance4 ,a large number of cases of non-inheritance are intelligible on the principle1 that a strong tendency to inheritance does exist1 but that it is overborne by hostile or unfavourable conditions of life4 ,no one would expect that our improved pigs1 if forced during several generations to travel about and root in the ground for their own subsistence1 would transmit1 as truly as they now do their short muzzles and legs1 and their tendency to fatten4 ,dray-horses assuredly would not long transmit their great size and massive limbs1 if compelled to live on a cold1 damp mountainous region2 we have indeed evidence of such deterioration in the horses which have run wild on the ,falkland ,islands4 ,european dogs in ,india often fail to transmit their true character4 ,our sheep in tropical countries lose their wool in a few generations4 ,there seems also to be a close relation between certain peculiar pastures and the inheritance of an enlarged tail in fat-tailed sheep1 which form one of the most ancient breeds in the world4 ,with plants1 we have seen that tropical varieties of maize lose their proper character in the course of two or three generations1 when cultivated in ,europe2 and conversely so it is with ,european varieties cultivated in ,brazil4 ,our cabbages1 which here come so true by seed1 cannot form heads in hot countries4 ,according to ,carrire1#fb the purple-leafed beech and barberry transmit their character by seed far less truly in certain districts than in others4 ,under changed circumstances1 periodical habits of life soon fail to be transmitted1 as the period of maturity in summer and winter wheat1 barley1 and vetches4 ,so it is with animals3 for instance1 a person1 whose statement ,i can trust1 procured eggs of ,aylesbury ducks from that town1 where they are kept in houses and are reared as early as possible for the ,london market2 the ducks bred from these eggs in a distant part of ,england1 hatched their first brood on ,january #bdth1 whilst common ducks1 kept in the same yard and treated in the same manner1 did not hatch till the end of ,march2 and this shows that the period of hatching was inherited4 ,but the grandchildren of these ,aylesbury ducks completely lost their habit of early incubation1 and hatched their eggs at the same time with the common ducks of the same place4 ,many cases of non-inheritance apparently result from the conditions of life continually inducing fresh variability4 ,we have seen that when the seeds of pears1 plums1 apples1 etc41 are sown1 the seedlings generally inherit some degree of family likeness4 ,mingled with these seedlings1 a few1 and sometimes many1 worthless1 wild-looking plants commonly appear1 and their appearance may be attributed to the principle of reversion4 ,but scarcely a single seedling will be found perfectly to resemble the parent-form2 and thus may be accounted for by constantly recurring variability induced by the conditions of life4 ,i believe in this1 because it has been observed that certain fruit-trees truly propagate their kind whilst growing on their own roots2 but when grafted on other stocks1 and by this process their natural state is manifestly affected1 they produce seedlings which vary greatly1 departing from the parental type in many characters4#fc ,metzger1 as stated in the ninth chapter1 found that certain kinds of wheat brought from ,spain and cultivated in ,germany1 failed during many years to reproduce themselves truly2 but at last1 when accustomed to their new conditions1 they ceased to be variable1--that is1 they became amenable to the power of inheritance4 ,nearly all the plants which cannot be propagated with any approach to certainty by seed1 are kinds which have been long propagated by buds1 cuttings1 offsets1 tubers1 etc41 and have in consequence been frequently exposed during what may be called their individual lives to widely diversified conditions of life4 ,plants thus propagated become so variable1 that they are subject1 as we have seen in the last chapter1 even to bud-variation4 ,our domesticated animals1 on the other hand1 are not commonly exposed during the life of the individual to such extremely diversified conditions1 and are not liable to such extreme variability2 therefore they do not lose the power of transmitting most of their characteristic features4 ,in the foregoing remarks on non-inheritance1 crossed breeds are of course excluded1 as their diversity mainly depends on the unequal development of character derived from either parent or their ancestors4 ,conclusion4 ,it has been shown in the early part of this chapter how commonly new characters of the most diversified nature1 whether normal or abnormal1 injurious or beneficial1 whether affecting organs of the highest or most trifling importance1 are inherited4 ,it is often sufficient for the inheritance of some peculiar character1 that one parent alone should possess it1 as in most cases in which the rarer anomalies have been transmitted4 ,but the power of transmission is extremely variable4 ,in a number of individuals descended from the same parents1 and treated in the same manner1 some display this power in a perfect manner1 and in some it is quite deficient2 and for this difference no reason can be assigned4 ,the effects of injuries or mutilations are occasionally inherited2 and we shall see in a future chapter that the long-continued use and disuse of parts produces an inherited effect4 ,even those characters which are considered the most fluctuating1 such as colour1 are with rare exceptions transmitted much more forcibly than is generally supposed4 ,the wonder1 indeed1 in all cases is not that any character should be transmitted1 but that the power of inheritance should ever fail4 ,the checks to inheritance1 as far as we know them1 are1 firstly1 circumstances hostile to the particular character in question2 secondly1 conditions of life incessantly inducing fresh variability2 and lastly1 the crossing of distinct varieties during some previous generation1 together with reversion or atavism-that is1 the tendency in the child to resemble its grand-parents or more remote ancestors instead of its immediate parents4 ,this latter subject will be discussed in the following chapter4 ,,references #a #8,medical ,notes and ,reflections1' #crd edit41 #ahee1 p4 #bfg4 #b ,mr4 ,buckle1 in his #8,history of ,civilisation1' expresses doubts on the subject1 owing to the want of statistics4 ,see also ,mr4 ,bowen1 ,professor of ,moral ,philosophy1 in #8,proc4 ,american ,acad4 of ,sciences1' vol4 v4 p4 #ajb4 #c ,for greyhounds1 see ,low's #8,domestic ,animals of the ,british ,islands1' #ahde1 p4 #gba4 ,for game-fowls1 see #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #abc4 ,for pigs1 see ,mr4 ,sidney's edition of #8,youatt on the ,pig1' #ahfj1 pp4 #aa1 #bb4 #d #8,the ,stud ,farm1' by ,cecil1 p4 #ci4 #e #8,philosophical ,transactions1' #agee1 p4 #bc4 ,i have seen only second-hand accounts of the two grandsons4 ,mr4 ,sedgwick1 in a paper to which ,i shall hereafter often refer1 states that four generations were affected1 and in each the males alone4 #f ,barbara ,van ,beck1 figured1 as ,i am informed by the ,rev4 ,w4,d4 ,fox1 in ,woodburn's #8,gallery of ,rare ,portraits1' #ahaf1 vol4 ii4 #g #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahcc1 p4 #af4 #h ,hofacker #8,ueber die ,eigenschaften1' etc41 #ahbh1 s4 #cd4 ,with respect to ,france1 ,report by ,pariset in #8,comptes ,rendus1' #ahdg1 p4 #eib4 #i ,hunter1 as quoted in ,harlan's #8,med4 ,researches1' p4 #ecj4 ,sir ,a4 ,carlisle1 #8,phil4 ,transact41' #ahad1 p4 #id4 #aj ,girou de ,buzareingues1 #8,de la ,gnration1' p4 #bhb4 ,i have given an analogous case in my book on #8,the ,expression of the ,emotions4' #aa ,the works which ,i have read and found most useful are ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas's great work1 #8,trait de l',hrdit ,naturelle1' #ahdg2 ,mr4 ,w4 ,sedgwick1 in #8,british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april and ,july1 #ahfa1 and ,april and ,july1 #ahfc3 ,dr4 ,garrod on ,gout is quoted in these articles4 ,sir ,henry ,holland1 #8,medical ,notes and ,reflections1' #crd edit41 #ahee4 ,piorry1 #8,de l',hrdit dans les ,maladies1' #ahdj4 ,adams1 #8,a ,philosophical ,treatise on ,hereditary ,peculiarities1' #bnd edit41 #ahae4 ,essay on #8,hereditary ,diseases1' by ,dr4 ,j4 ,steinan1 #ahdc4 ,see ,paget in #8,medical ,times1' #aheg1 p4 #aib1 on the ,inheritance of ,cancer2 ,dr4 ,gould1 in #8,proc4 of ,american ,acad4 of ,sciences1' ,nov4 #hth1 #ahec1 gives a curious case of hereditary bleeding in four generations4 ,harlan1 #8,medical ,researches1' p4 #eic4 #ab ,marshall1 quoted by ,youatt in his work on ,cattle1 p4 #bhd4 #ac ,almost any other organ might have been selected4 ,for instance ,mr4 ,j4 ,tomes1 #8,system of ,dental ,surgery1' #bnd edit41 #ahgc1 p4 #aad1 gives many instances with teeth1 and others have been communicated to me4 #ad #8,philosoph4 ,transact41' #ahad1 p4 #id4 #ae #8,medical ,notes and ,reflections1' #crd edit41 p4 #cc4 #af ,this affection1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,bowman1 has been ably described and spoken of as hereditary by ,dr4 ,donders of ,utrecht1 whose work was published in ,english by the ,sydenham ,society in #ahfd4 #ag ,m4 ,giraud-,teulon has recently collected abundant statistical evidence1 #8,revue des ,cours ,scientifiques1' ,sept41 #ahgj1 p4 #fbe1 showing that short sight is due to the habit of viewing objects from a short distance1 c'est le travail assidu1 de prs4 #ah ,quoted by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 #8,principles of ,biology1' vol4 i4 p4 #bdd4 #ai #8,british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april1 #ahfa1 pp4 #dhb-f2 #8,l',hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 i4 pp4 #cia-djh4 #bj ,dr4 ,osborne1 ,pres4 of ,royal ,college of ,phys4 in ,ireland1 published this case in the #8,dublin ,medical ,journal1' for #ahce4 #ba ,these various statements are taken from the following works and papers3--,youatt on #8,the ,horse1' pp4 #ce1 #bbj4 ,lawrence1 #8,the ,horse1' p4 #cj4 ,karkeek1 in an excellent paper in #8,gard4 ,chronicle1' #ahec1 p4 #ib4 ,mr4 ,burke1 in #8,journal of ,r4 ,agricul4 ,soc4 of ,england1' vol4 v4 p4 #eaa4 #8,encyclop4 of ,rural ,sports1' p4 #bgi4 ,girou de ,buzareingues1 #8,philosoph4 ,phys41' p4 #bae4 ,see following papers in #8,the ,veterinary2' ,roberts in vol4 ii4 p4 #add2 ,m4 ,marrimpoey vol4 ii4 p4 #chg2 ,mr4 ,karkeek1 vol4 iv4 p4 #e2 ,youatt on ,goitre in ,dogs1 vol4 v4 p4 #dhc3 ,youatt in vol4 vi4 pp4 #ff1 #cdh1 #dab2 ,m4 ,bernard1 vol4 xi4 p4 #eci2 ,dr4 ,samesreuther1 on ,cattle1 in vol4 xii4 p4 #aha2 ,percivall1 in vol4 xiii4 p4 #dg4 ,with respect to blindness in horses see also a whole row of authorities in ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas's great work1 tom4 i4 p4 #cii4 ,mr4 ,baker in #8,the ,veterinary1' vol4 xiii4 p4 #gba1 gives a strong case of hereditary imperfect vision and of jibbing4 #bb ,knight on #8,the ,culture of the ,apple and ,pear1' p4 #cd4 ,lindley's #8,horticulture1' p4 #ahj4 #bc ,these statements are taken from the following works in order3--,youatt on #8,the ,horse1' p4 #dh2 ,mr4 ,darvill1 in #8,the ,veterinary1' vol4 viii4 p4 #ej4 ,with respect to ,robson1 see #8,the ,veterinary1' vol4 iii4 p4 #ehj2 ,mr4 ,lawrence on #8,the ,horse1' #ahbi1 p4 #i2 #8,the ,stud ,farm1' by ,cecil1 #ahea2 ,baron ,cameronn1 quoted in #8,the ,veterinary1' vol4 x4 p4 #ejj4 #bd #8,recreations in ,agriculture and ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 i4 p4 #fh4 #be #8,ueber die ,eigenschaften1' etc41 #ahbh1 s4 #ajg4 #bf ,bronn's #8,geschichte der ,natur1' ,band ii4 #b s4 #acb4 #bg ,vrolik has discussed this point at full length in a work published in ,dutch1 from which ,sir ,j4 ,paget has kindly translated for me passages4 ,see1 also1 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire's #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' #ahcb1 tom4 i4 p4 #fhd4 #bh #8,massachusetts ,medical ,society1' vol4 ii4 ,no4 #c2 and #8,proc4 ,boston ,soc4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xiv4 #ahga1 p4 #aed4 #bi ,dr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,ogle gives a case of the inheritance of deficient phalanges during four generations4 ,he adds references to various recent papers on inheritance1 #8,brit4 and ,for4 ,med4-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april #ahgb4 #cj ,for these several statements1 see ,dr4 ,struthers #8,edinburgh ,new ,phil4 ,journal1' ,july1 #ahfc1 especially on intermissions in the line of descent4 ,prof4 ,huxley1 #8,lectures on our ,knowledge of ,organic ,nature1' #ahfc1 p4 #ig4 ,with respect to inheritance1 see ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas1 #8,l',hrdit ,nat41' tom4 i4 p4 #cbe4 ,isid4 ,geoffroy1 #8,anom41' tom4 i4 p4 #gja4 ,sir ,a4 ,carlisle1 in #8,phil4 ,transact41' #ahad1 p4 #id4 ,a4 ,walker1 on #8,intermarriage1' #ahch1 p4 #adj1 gives a case of five generations2 as does ,mr4 ,sedgwick in #8,brit4 and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april1 #ahfc1 p4 #dfb4 ,on the inheritance of other anomalies in the extremities see ,dr4 ,h4 ,dobell1 in vol4 xlvi4 of #8,medico-,chirurg4 ,transactions1' #ahfc2 also ,mr4 ,sedgwick in op4 cit41 ,april1 #ahfc1 p4 #dfj4 ,with respect to additional digits in the negro see ,prichard1 #8,physical ,history of ,mankind4' ,dr4 ,dieffenbach 7#8,jour4 ,royal ,geograph4 ,soc41' #ahda1 p4 #bjh7 says this anomaly is not uncommon with the ,polynesians of the ,chatham ,islands2 and ,i have heard of several cases with ,hindus and ,arabs4 #ca ,meckel and ,isid ,g4 ,st4 ,hilaire insist on this fact4 ,see also ,m4 ,a4 ,roujou1 #8,sur quelques ,analogies du ,type ,humain1' p4 #fa2 published1 ,i believe1 in the #8,journal of the ,anthropolog4 ,soc4 of ,paris1' ,jan4 #ahgb4 #cb #8,the ,poultry ,chronicle1' #ahed1 p4 #eei4 #cc ,the statements in this paragraph are taken from ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire1 #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' tom4 i4 pp4 #fhh-fic4 ,mr4 ,goodman gives1 #8,phil4 ,soc4 of ,cambridge1' ,nov4 #beth1 #ahgb1 the case of a cow with three well developed toes on each hind limb1 besides the ordinary rudiments2 and her calf by an ordinary bull had extra digits4 ,this calf also bore two calves having extra digits4 #cd #8,medical ,notes and ,reflections1' #ahci1 pp4 #bd1 #cd4 ,see also ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas1 #8,l',hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 ii4 p4 #cc4 #ce #8,du ,danger des ,mariages ,consanguins1' #bnd edit41 #ahfb1 p4 #ajc4 #cf #8,british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,july1 #ahfc1 pp4 #ahc1 #ahi4 #cg ,verlot #8,la ,product4 des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #cb4 #ch ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 xii4 #ahcf1 p4 #cfh4 #ci ,verlot1 #8,la ,product4 des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #id4 #dj ,bronn's #8,geschichte der ,natur1' ,b4 ii4 s4 #aba4 ,mr4 ,meehan makes a similar statement in #8,proc4 ,nat4 of ,philadelphia1' #ahgb1 p4 #bce4 #da ,rev4 ,w4 ,a4 ,leighton1 #8,flora of ,shropshire1' p4 #dig2 and ,charlesworth1 #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 i4 #ahcg1 p4 #cj4 ,i possess prostrate trees produced from these seeds4 #db ,verlot1 op4 cit41 p4 #ic4 #dc ,for these several statements1 see ,loudon's #8,gard4 ,magazine1' vol4 x4 #ahcd1 pp4 #djh1 #ahj2 and vol4 ix4 #ahcc1 p4 #eig4 #dd ,these statements are taken from ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1 #8,bot4 ,gograph41' p4 #ajhc4 #de ,verlot1 op4 cit41 p4 #ch4 #df ,op4 cit41 p4 #ei4 #dg ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #ajhb4 #dh ,see #8,cottage ,gardener1' ,april #ajth1 #ahfj1 p4 #ah1 and ,sept4 #ajth1 #ahfa1 p4 #def2 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahde1 p4 #ajb4 #di ,darwin in #8,journal of ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,bot41' #ahfb1 p4 #id4 #ej ,hofacker1 #8,ueber die ,eigenschaften1' etc41 s4 #aj4 #ea ,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands1' ,b4 iv4 s4 #dfb4 ,mr4 ,brent1 a great breeder of canaries1 informs me that he believes that these statements are correct4 #eb #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #bde4 #ec #8,british and ,foreign ,med4-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,july1 #ahfa1 pp4 #bjj-bjd4 ,mr4 ,sedgwick has given such full details on this subject1 with ample references1 that ,i need refer to no other authorities4 #ed ,mr4 ,sproule1 in #8,british ,medical ,journal1' ,april #ahth1 #ahfc4 #ee #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 #ahei1 p4 #bii4 #ef ,nevertheless ,mr4 ,wetherell states1 #8,nature1' ,dec4 #ahgj1 p4 #afh1 that when he visited fifteen years ago the ,sioux ,indians1 he was informed 8by a physician1 who has passed much of his time with these tribes1 that sometimes a child was born with these marks4 ,this was confirmed by the ,u4,s4 ,government ,indian ,agent40 #eg #8,philosoph4 ,mag41' vol4 iv4 #agii1 p4 #e4 #eh #8,proc4 ,royal ,soc41' vol4 x4 p4 #big4 #8,communication to the ,brit4 ,assoc41' #ahgj4 #8,the ,lancet1' ,jan4 #ahge1 p4 #g4 ,the extracts are from this last paper4 ,it appears that ,obersteiner1 #8,stricker's ,med4 ,jahrbcher1' #ahge1 ,no4 #b1 has confirmed ,brown-,squard's observations4 #ei ,this last case is quoted by ,mr4 ,sedgwick in #8,british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april1 #ahfa1 p4 #dhd4 ,for ,blumenbach1 see above-cited paper4 ,see also ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas1 #8,trait de l',hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 ii4 p4 #dib4 ,also1 #8,transact4 ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 ix4 p4 #cbc4 ,some curious cases are given by ,mr4 ,baker in the #8,veterinary1' vol4 xiii4 p4 #gbc4 ,another curious case is given in the #8,annales des ,scienc4 ,nat41' #ast series1 tom4 xi4 p4 #cbd4 #fj #8,the ,dog1' by ,stonehenge1 #ahfg1 p4 #aah4 #fa ,the ,mot-mot habitually bites the barbs off the middle part of the two central tail-feathers1 and as the barbs are congenitally somewhat reduced on the same part of these feathers1 it seems extremely probable1 as ,mr4 ,salvin remarks 7#8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahgc1 p4 #dbi71 that this is due to the inherited effects of long-continued mutilation4 #fb #8,production et ,fixation des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #gb4 #fc ,downing1 #8,fruits of ,america1' p4 #e3 ,sageret1 #8,pom4 ,phys41' pp4 #dc1 #gb4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,inheritance continued--,,reversion ,,of ,,atavism4 ,,different ,,forms ,,of ,,reversion--,,in ,,pure ,,or ,,uncrossed ,,breeds1 ,,as ,,in ,,pigeons1 ,,fowls1 ,,hornless ,,cattle ,,and ,,sheep1 ,,in ,,cultivated ,,plants--,,reversion ,,in ,,feral ,,animals ,,and ,,plants--,,reversion ,,in ,,crossed ,,varieties ,,and ,,species--,,reversion ,,through ,,bud-,,propagation1 ,,and ,,by ,,segments ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,flower ,,or ,,fruit--,,in ,,different ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,body ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,animal--,,the ,,act ,,of ,,crossing ,a ,,direct ,,cause ,,of ,,reversion1 ,,various ,,cases ,,of1 ,,with ,,instincts--,,other ,,proximate ,,causes ,,of ,,reversion--,,latent ,,characters--,,secondary ,,sexual ,,characters--,,unequal ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,sides ,,of ,,the ,,body--,,appearance ,,with ,,advancing ,,age ,,of ,,characters ,,derived ,,from ,a ,,cross--,,the ,,germ1 ,,with ,,all ,,its ,,latent ,,characters1 ,a ,,wonderful ,,object--,,monstrosities--,,peloric ,,flowers ,,due ,,in ,,some ,,cases ,,to ,,reversion4 ,the great principle of inheritance to be discussed in this chapter has been recognised by agriculturists and authors of various nations1 as shown by the scientific term ,atavism1 derived from atavus1 an ancestor2 by the ,english terms of ,reversion1 or ,throwing-back2 by the ,french ,pas-en-,arrire2 and by the ,german ,rckschlag1 or ,rckschritt4 ,when the child resembles either grandparent more closely than its immediate parents1 our attention is not much arrested1 though in truth the fact is highly remarkable2 but when the child resembles some remote ancestor or some distant member in a collateral line1--and in the last case we must attribute this to the descent of all the members from a common progenitor1--we feel a just degree of astonishment4 ,when one parent alone displays some newly-acquired and generally inheritable character1 and the offspring do not inherit it1 the cause may lie in the other parent having the power of prepotent transmission4 ,but when both parents are similarly characterised1 and the child does not1 whatever the cause may be1 inherit the character in question1 but resembles its grandparents1 we have one of the simplest cases of reversion4 ,we continually see another and even more simple case of atavism1 though not generally included under this head1 namely1 when the son more closely resembles his maternal than his paternal grand-sire in some male attribute1 as in any peculiarity in the beard of man1 the horns of the bull1 the hackles or comb of the cock1 or1 as in certain diseases necessarily confined to the male sex2 for as the mother cannot possess or exhibit such male attributes1 the child must inherit them1 through her blood1 from his maternal grandsire4 ,the cases of reversion may be divided into two main classes which1 however1 in some instances1 blend into one another2 namely1 first1 those occurring in a variety or race which has not been crossed1 but has lost by variation some character that it formerly possessed1 and which afterwards reappears4 ,the second class includes all cases in which an individual with some distinguishable character1 a race1 or species1 has at some former period been crossed1 and a character derived from this cross1 after having disappeared during one or several generations1 suddenly reappears4 ,a third class1 differing only in the manner of reproduction1 might be formed to include all cases of reversion effected by means of buds1 and therefore independent of true or seminal generation4 ,perhaps even a fourth class might be instituted1 to include reversions by segments in the same individual flower or fruit1 and in different parts of the body in the same individual animal as it grows old4 ,but the two first main classes will be sufficient for our purpose4 ,reversion to lost ,characters by pure or uncrossed forms4--,striking instances of this first class of cases were given in the sixth chapter1 namely1 of the occasional reappearance1 in variously-coloured breeds of the pigeon1 of blue birds with all the marks characteristic of the wild ,columba livia4 ,similar cases were given in the case of the fowl4 ,with the common ass1 as the legs of the wild progenitor are almost always striped1 we may feel assured that the occasional appearance of such stripes in the domestic animal is a case of simple reversion4 ,but ,i shall be compelled to refer again to these cases1 and therefore here pass them over4 ,the aboriginal species from which our domesticated cattle and sheep are descended1 no doubt possessed horns2 but several hornless breeds are now well established4 ,yet in these--for instance1 in ,southdown sheep--8it is not unusual to find among the male lambs some with small horns40 ,the horns1 which thus occasionally reappear in other polled breeds1 either 8grow to the full size10 or are curiously attached to the skin alone and hang 8loosely down1 or drop off40#a ,the ,galloways and ,suffolk cattle have been hornless for the last #ajj or #aej years1 but a horned calf1 with the horn often loosely attached1 is occasionally produced4#b ,there is reason to believe that sheep in their early domesticated condition were 8brown or dingy black20 but even in the time of ,david certain flocks were spoken of as white as snow4 ,during the classical period the sheep of ,spain are described by several ancient authors as being black1 red1 or tawny4#c ,at the present day1 notwithstanding the great care which is taken to prevent it1 particoloured lambs and some entirely black are occasionally1 or even frequently1 dropped by our most highly improved and valued breeds1 such as the ,southdowns4 ,since the time of the famous ,bakewell1 during the last century1 the ,leicester sheep have been bred with the most scrupulous care2 yet occasionally grey-faced1 or black-spotted1 or wholly black lambs appear4#d ,this occurs still more frequently with the less improved breeds1 such as the ,norfolks4#e ,as bearing on this tendency in sheep to revert to dark colours1 ,i may state 7though in doing so ,i trench on the reversion of crossed breeds1 and likewise on the subject of prepotency7 that the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox was informed that seven white ,southdown ewes were put to a so-called ,spanish ram1 which had two small black spots on his sides1 and they produced thirteen lambs1 all perfectly black4 ,mr4 ,fox believes that this ram belonged to a breed which he has himself kept1 and which is always spotted with black and white2 and he finds that ,leicester sheep crossed by rams of this breed always produce black lambs3 he has gone on recrossing these crossed sheep with pure white ,leicesters during three successive generations1 but always with the same result4 ,mr4 ,fox was also told by the friend from whom the spotted breed was procured1 that he likewise had gone on for six or seven generations crossing with white sheep1 but still black lambs were invariably produced4 ,similar facts could be given with respect to tailless breeds of various animals4 ,for instance1 ,mr4 ,hewitt#f states that chickens bred from some rumpless fowls1 which were reckoned so good that they won a prize at an exhibition1 8in a considerable number of instances were furnished with fully developed tail-feathers40 ,on inquiry1 the original breeder of these fowls stated that1 from the time when he had first kept them1 they had often produced fowls furnished with tails2 but that these latter would again reproduce rumpless chickens4 ,analogous cases of reversion occur in the vegetable kingdom2 thus 8from seeds gathered from the finest cultivated varieties of ,heartsease 7,viola tricolor71 plants perfectly wild both in their foliage and their flowers are frequently produced20#g but the reversion in this instance is not to a very ancient period1 for the best existing varieties of the heartsease are of comparatively modern origin4 ,with most of our cultivated vegetables there is some tendency to reversion to what is known to be1 or may be presumed to be1 their aboriginal state2 and this would be more evident if gardeners did not generally look over their beds of seedlings1 and pull up the false plants or 8rogues0 as they are called4 ,it has already been remarked1 that some few seedling apples and pears generally resemble1 but apparently are not identical with1 the wild trees from which they are descended4 ,in our turnip#h and carrot-beds a few plants often 8break 0--that is1 flower too soon2 and their roots are generally hard and stringy1 as in the parent-species4 ,by the aid of a little selection1 carried on during a few generations1 most of our cultivated plants could probably be brought back1 without any great change in their conditions of life1 to a wild or nearly wild condition3 ,mr4 ,buckman has effected this with the parsnip2#i and ,mr4 ,hewett ,c4 ,watson1 as he informs me1 selected1 during three generations1 8the most diverging plants of ,scotch kail1 perhaps one of the least modified varieties of the cabbage2 and in the third generation some of the plants came very close to the forms now established in ,england about old castle-walls1 and called indigenous40 ,reversion in ,animals and ,plants which have run wild4--,in the cases hitherto considered1 the reverting animals and plants have not been exposed to any great or abrupt change in their conditions of life which could have induced this tendency2 but it is very different with animals and plants which have become feral or run wild4 ,it has been repeatedly asserted in the most positive manner by various authors1 that feral animals and plants invariably return to their primitive specific type4 ,it is curious on what little evidence this belief rests4 ,many of our domesticated animals could not subsist in a wild state2 thus1 the more highly improved breeds of the pigeon will not 8field0 or search for their own food4 ,sheep have never become feral1 and would be destroyed by almost every beast of prey4#aj ,in several cases we do not know the aboriginal parent-species1 and cannot possibly tell whether or not there has been any close degree of reversion4 ,it is not known in any instance what variety was first turned out2 several varieties have probably in some cases run wild1 and their crossing alone would tend to obliterate their proper character4 ,our domesticated animals and plants1 when they run wild1 must always be exposed to new conditions of life1 for1 as ,mr4 ,wallace#aa has well remarked1 they have to obtain their own food1 and are exposed to competition with the native productions4 ,under these circumstances1 if our domesticated animals did not undergo change of some kind1 the result would be quite opposed to the conclusions arrived at in this work4 ,nevertheless1 ,i do not doubt that the simple fact of animals and plants becoming feral1 does cause some tendency to reversion to the primitive state2 though this tendency has been much exaggerated by some authors4 ,i will briefly run through the recorded cases4 ,with neither horses nor cattle is the primitive stock known2 and it has been shown in former chapters that they have assumed different colours in different countries4 ,thus the horses which have run wild in ,south ,america are generally brownish-bay1 and in the ,east dun-coloured2 their heads have become larger and coarser1 and this may be due to reversion4 ,no careful description has been given of the feral goat4 ,dogs which have run wild in various countries have hardly anywhere assumed a uniform character2 but they are probably descended from several domestic races1 and aboriginally from several distinct species4 ,feral cats1 both in ,europe and ,la ,plata1 are regularly striped2 in some cases they have grown to an unusually large size1 but do not differ from the domestic animal in any other character4 ,when variously-coloured tame rabbits are turned out in ,europe1 they generally reacquire the colouring of the wild animal2 there can be no doubt that this does really occur1 but we should remember that oddly-coloured and conspicuous animals would suffer much from beasts of prey and from being easily shot2 this at least was the opinion of a gentleman who tried to stock his woods with a nearly white variety2 if thus destroyed1 they would be supplanted by1 instead of being transformed into1 the common rabbit4 ,we have seen that the feral rabbits of ,jamaica1 and especially of ,porto ,santo1 have assumed new colours and other new characters4 ,the best known case of reversion1 and that on which the widely spread belief in its universality apparently rests1 is that of pigs4 ,these animals have run wild in the ,west ,indies1 ,south ,america1 and the ,falkland ,islands1 and have everywhere acquired the dark colour1 the thick bristles1 and great tusks of the wild boar2 and the young have reacquired longitudinal stripes4 ,but even in the case of the pig1 ,roulin describes the half-wild animals in different parts of ,south ,america as differing in several respects4 ,in ,louisiana the pig#ab has run wild1 and is said to differ a little in form1 and much in colour1 from the domestic animal1 yet does not closely resemble the wild boar of ,europe4 ,with pigeons and fowls1#ac it is not known what variety was first turned out1 nor what character the feral birds have assumed4 ,the guinea-fowl in the ,west ,indies1 when feral1 seems to vary more than in the domesticated state4 ,with respect to plants run wild1 ,dr4 ,hooker#ad has strongly insisted on what slight evidence the common belief in their reversion to a primitive state rests4 ,godron#ae describes wild turnips1 carrots1 and celery2 but these plants in their cultivated state hardly differ from their wild prototypes1 except in the succulency and enlargement of certain parts1-- characters which would certainly be lost by plants growing in poor soil and struggling with other plants4 ,no cultivated plant has run wild on so enormous a scale as the cardoon 7,cynara cardunculus7 in ,la ,plata4 ,every botanist who has seen it growing there1 in vast beds1 as high as a horse's back1 has been struck with its peculiar appearance2 but whether it differs in any important point from the cultivated ,spanish form1 which is said not to be prickly like its ,american descendant1 or whether it differs from the wild ,mediterranean species1 which is said not to be social 7though this may be due merely to the nature of the conditions71 ,i do not know4 ,reversion to ,characters derived from a ,cross1 in the case of ,sub-varieties1 ,races1 and ,species4--,when an individual having some recognisable peculiarity unites with another of the same sub-variety1 not having the peculiarity in question1 it often reappears in the descendants after an interval of several generations4 ,every one must have noticed1 or heard from old people of children closely resembling in appearance or mental disposition1 or in so small and complex a character as expression1 one of their grandparents1 or some more distant collateral relation4 ,very many anomalies of structure and diseases#af of which instances have been given in the last chapter1 have come into a family from one parent1 and have reappeared in the progeny after passing over two or three generations4 ,the following case has been communicated to me on good authority1 and may1 ,i believe1 be fully trusted3 a pointer-bitch produced seven puppies2 four were marked with blue and white1 which is so unusual a colour with pointers that she was thought to have played false with one of the greyhounds1 and the whole litter was condemned2 but the gamekeeper was permitted to save one as a curiosity4 ,two years afterwards a friend of the owner saw the young dog1 and declared that he was the image of his old pointer-bitch ,sappho1 the only blue and white pointer of pure descent which he had ever seen4 ,this led to close inquiry1 and it was proved that he was the great-great-grandson of ,sappho2 so that1 according to the common expression1 he had only #a_/afth of her blood in his veins4 ,i may give one other instance1 on the authority of ,mr4 ,r4 ,walker1 a large cattle-breeder in ,kincardineshire4 ,he bought a black bull1 the son of a black cow with white legs1 white belly and part of the tail white2 and in #ahgj a calf the gr4-gr4-gr4-gr4-grandchild of this cow was born coloured in the same very peculiar manner2 all the intermediate offspring having been black4 ,in these cases there can hardly be a doubt that a character derived from a cross with an individual of the same variety reappeared after passing over three generations in the one case1 and five in the other4 ,when two distinct races are crossed1 it is notorious that the tendency in the offspring to revert to one or both parent-forms is strong1 and endures for many generations4 ,i have myself seen the clearest evidence of this in crossed pigeons and with various plants4 ,mr4 ,sidney#ag states that1 in a litter of ,essex pigs1 two young ones appeared which were the image of the ,berkshire boar that had been used twenty-eight years before in giving size and constitution to the breed4 ,i observed in the farmyard at ,betley ,hall some fowls showing a strong likeness to the ,malay breed1 and was told by ,mr4 ,tollet that he had forty years before crossed his birds with ,malays2 and that1 though he had at first attempted to get rid of this strain1 he had subsequently given up the attempt in despair1 as the ,malay character would reappear4 ,this strong tendency in crossed breeds to revert has given rise to endless discussions in how many generations after a single cross1 either with a distinct breed or merely with an inferior animal1 the breed may be considered as pure1 and free from all danger of reversion4 ,no one supposes that less than three generations suffices1 and most breeders think that six1 seven1 or eight are necessary1 and some go to still greater lengths4#ah ,but neither in the case of a breed which has been contaminated by a single cross1 nor when1 in the attempt to form an intermediate breed1 half-bred animals have been matched together during many generations1 can any rule be laid down how soon the tendency to reversion will be obliterated4 ,it depends on the difference in the strength or prepotency of transmission in the two parent-forms1 on their actual amount of difference1 and on the nature of the conditions of life to which the crossed offspring are exposed4 ,but we must be careful not to confound these cases of reversion to characters which were gained by a cross1 with those under the first class1 in which characters originally common to ,,both parents1 but lost at some former period1 reappear2 for such characters may recur after an almost indefinite number of generations4 ,the law of reversion is as powerful with hybrids1 when they are sufficiently fertile to breed together1 or when they are repeatedly crossed with either pure parent-form1 as in the case of mongrels4 ,it is not necessary to give instances4 ,with plants almost every one who has worked on this subject1 from the time of ,klreuter to the present day1 has insisted on this tendency4 ,grtner has recorded some good instances2 but no one has given more striking ones than ,naudin4#ai ,the tendency differs in degree or strength in different groups1 and partly depends1 as we shall presently see1 on whether the parent-plants have been long cultivated4 ,although the tendency to reversion is extremely general with nearly all mongrels and hybrids1 it cannot be considered as invariably characteristic of them2 it may also be mastered by long-continued selection2 but these subjects will more properly be discussed in a future chapter on ,crossing4 ,from what we see of the power and scope of reversion1 both in pure races1 and when varieties or species are crossed1 we may infer that characters of almost every kind are capable of reappearing after having been lost for a great length of time4 ,but it does not follow from this that in each particular case certain characters will reappear2 for instance1 this will not occur when a race is crossed with another endowed with prepotency of transmission4 ,sometimes the power of reversion wholly fails1 without our being able to assign any cause for the failure3 thus it has been stated that in a ,french family in which #he out of above #fjj members1 during six generations1 had been subject to night-blindness1 8there has not been a single example of this affection in the children of parents who were themselves free from it40#bj ,reversion through ,bud-propagation--,partial ,reversion1 by segments in the same flower or fruit1 or in different parts of the body in the same individual animal4--,in the eleventh chapter many cases of reversion by buds1 independently of seminal generation1 were given--as when a leaf-bud on a variegated1 a curled1 or laciniated variety suddenly reassumes its proper character2 or as when a ,provence-rose appears on a moss-rose1 or a peach on a nectarine-tree4 ,in some of these cases only half the flower or fruit1 or a smaller segment1 or mere stripes1 reassume their former character2 and here we have reversion by segments4 ,vilmorin#ba has also recorded several cases with plants derived from seed1 of flowers reverting by stripes or blotches to their primitive colours3 he states that in all such cases a white or pale-coloured variety must first be formed1 and1 when this is propagated for a length of time by seed1 striped seedlings occasionally make their appearance2 and these can afterwards by care be multiplied by seed4 ,the stripes and segments just referred to are not due1 as far as is known1 to reversion to characters derived from a cross1 but to characters lost by variation4 ,these cases1 however1 as ,naudin#bb insists in his discussion on disjunction of character1 are closely analogous with those given in the eleventh chapter1 in which crossed plants have been known to produce half-and-half or striped flowers and fruit1 or distinct kinds of flowers on the same root resembling the two parent-forms4 ,many piebald animals probably come under this same head4 ,such cases1 as we shall see in the chapter on ,crossing1 apparently result from certain characters not readily blending together1 and1 as a consequence of this incapacity for fusion1 the offspring either perfectly resemble one of their two parents1 or resemble one parent in one part1 and the other parent in another part2 or whilst young are intermediate in character1 but with advancing age revert wholly or by segments to either parent-form1 or to both4 ,thus1 young trees of the ,cytisus adami are intermediate in foliage and flowers between the two parent-forms2 but when older the buds continually revert either partially or wholly to both forms4 ,the cases given in the eleventh chapter on the changes which occurred during growth in crossed plants of ,tropolum1 ,cereus1 ,datura1 and ,lathyrus are all analogous4 ,as1 however1 these plants are hybrids of the first generation1 and as their buds after a time come to resemble their parents and not their grandparents1 these cases do not at first appear to come under the law of reversion in the ordinary sense of the word2 nevertheless1 as the change is effected through a succession of bud-generations on the same plant1 they may be thus included4 ,analogous facts have been observed in the animal kingdom1 and are more remarkable1 as they occur in the same individual in the strictest sense1 and not as with plants through a succession of bud-generations4 ,with animals the act of reversion1 if it can be so designated1 does not pass over a true generation1 but merely over the early stages of growth in the same individual4 ,for instance1 ,i crossed several white hens with a black cock1 and many of the chickens were1 during the first year1 perfectly white1 but acquired during the second year black feathers2 on the other hand1 some of the chickens which were at first black1 became during the second year piebald with white4 ,a great breeder#bc says1 that a ,pencilled ,brahma hen which has any of the blood of the ,light ,brahma in her1 will 8occasionally produce a pullet well pencilled during the first year1 but she will most likely moult brown on the shoulders and become quite unlike her original colours in the second year40 ,the same thing occurs with light ,brahmas if of impure blood4 ,i have observed exactly similar cases with the crossed offspring from differently coloured pigeons4 ,but here is a more remarkable fact3 ,i crossed a turbit1 which has a frill formed by the feathers being reversed on its breast1 with a trumpeter2 and one of the young pigeons thus raised at first showed not a trace of the frill1 but1 after moulting thrice1 a small yet unmistakably distinct frill appeared on its breast4 ,according to ,girou#bd calves produced from a red cow by a black bull1 or from a black cow by a red bull1 are not rarely born red1 and subsequently become black4 ,i possess a dog1 the daughter of a white terrier by a fox-coloured bulldog2 as a puppy she was quite white1 but when about six months old a black spot appeared on her nose1 and brown spots on her ears4 ,when a little older she was badly wounded on the back1 and the hair which grew on the cicatrix was of a brown colour1 apparently derived from her father4 ,this is the more remarkable1 as with most animals having coloured hair1 that which grows on a wounded surface is white4 ,in the foregoing cases1 the characters which with advancing age reappeared1 were present in the immediately preceding generations2 but characters sometimes reappear in the same manner after a much longer interval of time4 ,thus the calves of a hornless race of cattle which originated in ,corrientes1 though at first quite hornless1 as they become adult sometimes acquire small1 crooked1 and loose horns2 and these in succeeding years occasionally become attached to the skull4#be ,white and black ,bantams1 both of which generally breed true1 sometimes assume as they grow old a saffron or red plumage4 ,for instance1 a first-rate black bantam has been described1 which during three seasons was perfectly black1 but then annually became more and more red2 and it deserves notice that this tendency to change1 whenever it occurs in a bantam1 8is almost certain to prove hereditary40#bf ,the cuckoo or blue-mottled ,dorking cock1 when old1 is liable to acquire yellow or orange hackles in place of his proper bluish-grey hackles4#bg ,now as ,gallus bankiva is coloured red and orange1 and as ,dorking fowls and bantams are descended from this species1 we can hardly doubt that the change which occasionally occurs in the plumage of these birds as their age advances1 results from a tendency in the individual to revert to the primitive type4 ,crossing as a direct cause of ,reversion4--,it has long been notorious that hybrids and mongrels often revert to both or to one of their parent-forms1 after an interval of from two to seven or eight1 or1 according to some authorities1 even a greater number of generations4 ,but that the act of crossing in itself gives an impulse towards reversion1 as shown by the reappearance of long-lost characters1 has never1 ,i believe1 been hitherto proved4 ,the proof lies in certain peculiarities1 which do not characterise the immediate parents1 and therefore cannot have been derived from them1 frequently appearing in the offspring of two breeds when crossed1 which peculiarities never appear1 or appear with extreme rarity1 in these same breeds1 as long as they are precluded from crossing4 ,as this conclusion seems to me highly curious and novel1 ,i will give the evidence in detail4 ,my attention was first called to this subject1 and ,i was led to make numerous experiments1 by ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie having stated that1 when they crossed certain breeds of pigeons1 birds coloured like the wild ,c4 livia1 or the common dovecote--namely1 slaty-blue1 with double black wing-bars1 sometimes chequered with black1 white loins1 the tail barred with black1 with the outer feathers edged with white1--were almost invariably produced4 ,the breeds which ,i crossed1 and the remarkable results attained1 have been fully described in the sixth chapter4 ,i selected pigeons belonging to true and ancient breeds1 which had not a trace of blue or any of the above specified marks2 but when crossed1 and their mongrels recrossed1 young birds were often produced1 more or less plainly coloured slaty-blue1 with some or all of the proper characteristic marks4 ,i may recall to the reader's memory one case1 namely1 that of a pigeon1 hardly distinguishable from the wild ,shetland species1 the grandchild of a red-spot1 white fantail1 and two black barbs1 from any of which1 when purely-bred1 the production of a pigeon coloured like the wild ,c4 livia would have been almost a prodigy4 ,i was thus led to make the experiments1 recorded in the seventh chapter1 on fowls4 ,i selected long-established pure breeds1 in which there was not a trace of red1 yet in several of the mongrels feathers of this colour appeared2 and one magnificent bird1 the offspring of a black ,spanish cock and white ,silk hen1 was coloured almost exactly like the wild ,gallus bankiva4 ,all who know anything of the breeding of poultry will admit that tens of thousands of pure ,spanish and of pure white ,silk fowls might have been reared without the appearance of a red feather4 ,the fact1 given on the authority of ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 of the frequent appearance1 in mongrel fowls1 of pencilled or transversely-barred feathers1 like those common to many gallinaceous birds1 is likewise apparently a case of reversion to a character formerly possessed by some ancient progenitor of the family4 ,i owe to the kindness of this excellent observer the opportunity of inspecting some neck-hackles and tail-feathers from a hybrid between the common fowl and a very distinct species1 the ,gallus varius2 and these feathers are transversely striped in a conspicuous manner with dark metallic blue and grey1 a character which could not have been derived from either immediate parent4 ,i have been informed by ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent1 that he crossed a white ,aylesbury drake and a black so-called ,labrador duck1 both of which are true breeds1 and he obtained a young drake closely like the mallard 7,a4 boschas74 ,of the musk-duck 7,cairina moschata1 ,linn47 there are two sub-breeds1 namely1 white and slate-coloured2 and these ,i am informed breed true1 or nearly true4 ,but the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox tells me that1 by putting a white drake to a slate-coloured duck1 black birds1 pied with white1 like the wild musk-duck1 were always produced4 ,i hear from ,mr4 ,blyth that hybrids from the canary and gold-finch almost always have streaked feathers on their backs2 and this streaking must be derived from the original wild canary4 ,we have seen in the fourth chapter1 that the so-called ,himalayan rabbit1 with its snow-white body1 black ears1 nose1 tail1 and feet1 breeds perfectly true4 ,this race is known to have been formed by the union of two varieties of silver-grey rabbits4 ,now1 when a ,himalayan doe was crossed by a sandy-coloured buck1 a silver-grey rabbit was produced2 and this is evidently a case of reversion to one of the parent varieties4 ,the young of the ,himalayan rabbit are born snow-white1 and the dark marks do not appear until some time subsequently2 but occasionally young ,himalayan rabbits are born of a light silver-grey1 which colour soon disappears2 so that here we have a trace of reversion1 during an early period of life1 to the parent varieties1 independently of any recent cross4 ,in the third chapter it was shown that at an ancient period some breeds of cattle in the wilder parts of ,britain were white with dark ears1 and that the cattle now kept half wild in certain parks1 and those which have run quite wild in two distant parts of the world1 are likewise thus coloured4 ,now1 an experienced breeder1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,beasley1 of ,northamptonshire1#bh crossed some carefully selected ,west ,highland cows with purely-bred shorthorn bulls4 ,the bulls were red1 red and white1 or dark roan2 and the ,highland cows were all of a red colour1 inclining to a light or yellow shade4 ,but a considerable number of the offspring--and ,mr4 ,beasley calls attention to this as a remarkable fact--were white1 or white with red ears4 ,bearing in mind that none of the parents were white1 and that they were purely-bred animals1 it is highly probable that here the offspring reverted1 in consequence of the cross1 to the colour of some ancient and half-wild parent-breed4 ,the following case1 perhaps1 comes under the same head3 cows in their natural state have their udders but little developed1 and do not yield nearly so much milk as our domesticated animals4 ,now there is some reason to believe#bi that cross-bred animals between two kinds1 both of which are good milkers1 such as ,alderneys and ,shorthorns1 often turn out worthless in this respect4 ,in the chapter on the ,horse reasons were assigned for believing that the primitive stock was striped and dun-coloured2 and details were given1 showing that in all parts of the world stripes of a dark colour frequently appear along the spine1 across the legs1 and on the shoulders1 where they are occasionally double or treble1 and even sometimes on the face and body of horses of all breeds and of all colours4 ,but the stripes appear most frequently on the various kinds of duns4 ,in foals they are sometimes plainly seen1 and subsequently disappear4 ,the dun-colour and the stripes are strongly transmitted when a horse thus characterised is crossed with any other2 but ,i was not able to prove that striped duns are generally produced from the crossing of two distinct breeds1 neither of which are duns1 though this does sometimes occur4 ,the legs of the ass are often striped1 and this may be considered as a reversion to the wild parent form1 the ,equus tniopus of ,abyssinia1#cj which is generally thus striped4 ,in the domestic animal the stripes on the shoulder are occasionally double1 or forked at the extremity1 as in certain zebrine species4 ,there is reason to believe that the foal is more frequently striped on the legs than the adult animal4 ,as with the horse1 ,i have not acquired any distinct evidence that the crossing of differently-coloured varieties of the ass brings out the stripes4 ,but now let us turn to the result of crossing the horse and ass4 ,although mules are not nearly so numerous in ,england as asses1 ,i have seen a much greater number with striped legs1 and with the stripes far more conspicuous than in either parent-form4 ,such mules are generally light-coloured1 and might be called fallow-duns4 ,the shoulder-stripe in one instance was deeply forked at the extremity1 and in another instance was double1 though united in the middle4 ,mr4 ,martin gives a figure of a ,spanish mule with strong zebra-like marks on its legs1#ca and remarks that mules are particularly liable to be thus striped on their legs4 ,in ,south ,america1 according to ,roulin1#cb such stripes are more frequent and conspicuous in the mule than in the ass4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,mr4 ,gosse1#cc speaking of these animals1 says1 8that in a great number1 perhaps in nine out of every ten1 the legs are banded with transverse dark stripes40 ,many years ago ,i saw in the ,zoological ,gardens a curious triple hybrid1 from a bay mare1 by a hybrid from a male ass and female zebra4 ,this animal when old had hardly any stripes2 but ,i was assured by the superintendent1 that when young it had shoulder-stripes1 and faint stripes on its flanks and legs4 ,i mention this case more especially as an instance of the stripes being much plainer during youth than in old age4 ,as the zebra has such a conspicuously striped body and legs1 it might have been expected that the hybrids from this animal and the common ass would have had their legs in some degree striped2 but it appears from the figures given in ,dr4 ,gray's #8,knowsley ,gleanings' and still more plainly from that given by ,geoffroy and ,f4 ,cuvier1#cd that the legs are much more conspicuously striped than the rest of the body2 and this fact is intelligible only on the belief that the ass aids in giving1 through the power of reversion1 this character to its hybrid offspring4 ,the quagga is banded over the whole front part of its body like a zebra1 but has no stripes on its legs1 or mere traces of them4 ,but in the famous hybrid bred by ,lord ,morton#ce from a chestnut1 nearly purely-bred1 ,arabian mare1 by a male quagga1 the stripes were more strongly defined and darker than those on the legs of 8the quagga40 ,the mare was subsequently put to a black ,arabian horse1 and bore two colts1 both of which1 as formerly stated1 were plainly striped on the legs1 and one of them likewise had stripes on the neck and body4 ,the ,equus indicus#cf is characterised by a spinal stripe1 without shoulder or leg stripes2 but traces of these latter stripes may occasionally be seen even in the adult#cg and ,colonel ,s4 ,poole1 who has had ample opportunities for observation1 informs me that in the foal1 when first born1 the head and legs are often striped1 but the shoulder-stripe is not so distinct as in the domestic ass2 all these stripes1 excepting that along the spine1 soon disappear4 ,now a hybrid1 raised at ,knowsley#ch from a female of this species by a male domestic ass1 had all four legs transversely and conspicuously striped1 had three short stripes on each shoulder and had even some zebra-like stripes on its face6 ,dr4 ,gray informs me that he has seen a second hybrid of the same parentage1 similarly striped4 ,from these facts we see that the crossing of the several equine species tends in a marked manner to cause stripes to appear on various parts of the body1 especially on the legs4 ,as we do not know whether the parent-form of the genus was striped1 the appearance of the stripes can only hypothetically be attributed to reversion4 ,but most persons1 after considering the many undoubted cases of variously coloured marks reappearing by reversion in my experiments on crossed pigeons and fowls1 will come to the same conclusion with respect to the horse-genus2 and if so1 we must admit that the progenitor of the group was striped on the legs1 shoulders1 face1 and probably over the whole body1 like a zebra4 ,lastly1 ,professor ,jaeger has given#ci a good case with pigs4 ,he crossed the ,japanese or masked breed with the common ,german breed1 and the offspring were intermediate in character4 ,he then re-crossed one of these mongrels with the pure ,japanese1 and in the litter thus produced one of the young resembled in all its characters a wild pig2 it had a long snout and upright ears1 and was striped on the back4 ,it should be borne in mind that the young of the ,japanese breed are not striped1 and that they have a short muzzle and ears remarkably dependent4 ,a similar tendency to the recovery of long lost characters holds good even with the instincts of crossed animals4 ,there are some breeds of fowls which are called 8everlasting layers10 because they have lost the instinct of incubation2 and so rare is it for them to incubate that ,i have seen notices published in works on poultry1 when hens of such breeds have taken to sit4#dj ,yet the aboriginal species was of course a good incubator2 and with birds in a state of nature hardly any instinct is so strong as this4 ,now1 so many cases have been recorded of the crossed offspring from two races1 neither of which are incubators1 becoming first-rate sitters1 that the reappearance of this instinct must be attributed to reversion from crossing4 ,one author goes so far as to say1 8that a cross between two non-sitting varieties almost invariably produces a mongrel that becomes broody1 and sits with remarkable steadiness40#da ,another author1 after giving a striking example1 remarks that the fact can be explained only on the principle that 8two negatives make a positive40 ,it cannot1 however1 be maintained that hens produced from a cross between two non-sitting breeds invariably recover their lost instinct1 any more than that crossed fowls or pigeons invariably recover the red or blue plumage of their prototypes4 ,thus ,i raised several chickens from a ,polish hen by a ,spanish cock1--breeds which do not incubate1--and none of the young hens at first showed any tendency to sit2 but one of them--the only one which was preserved--in the third year sat well on her eggs and reared a brood of chickens4 ,so that here we have the reappearance with advancing age of a primitive instinct1 in the same manner as we have seen that the red plumage of the ,gallus bankiva is sometimes reacquired both by crossed and purely-bred fowls of various kinds as they grow old4 ,the parents of all our domesticated animals were of course aboriginally wild in disposition2 and when a domesticated species is crossed with a distinct species1 whether this is a domesticated or only a tamed animal1 the hybrids are often wild to such a degree1 that the fact is intelligible only on the principle that the cross has caused a partial return to a primitive disposition4 ,thus1 the ,earl of ,powis formerly imported some thoroughly domesticated humped cattle from ,india1 and crossed them with ,english breeds1 which belong to a distinct species2 and his agent remarked to me1 without any question having been asked1 how oddly wild the cross-bred animals were4 ,the ,european wild boar and the ,chinese domesticated pig are almost certainly specifically distinct3 ,sir ,f4 ,darwin crossed a sow of the latter breed with a wild ,alpine boar which had become extremely tame1 but the young1 though having half-domesticated blood in their veins1 were 8extremely wild in confinement1 and would not eat swill like common ,english pigs40 ,captain ,hutton1 in ,india1 crossed a tame goat with a wild one from the ,himalaya1 and he remarked to me how surprisingly wild the offspring were4 ,mr4 ,hewitt1 who has had great experience in crossing tame cock-pheasants with fowls belonging to five breeds1 gives as the character of all 8extraordinary wildness02#db but ,i have myself seen one exception to this rule4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,j4 ,salter#dc who raised a large number of hybrids from a bantam-hen by ,gallus sonneratii1 states that 8all were exceedingly wild40 ,mr4 ,waterton#dd bred some wild ducks from eggs hatched under a common duck1 and the young were allowed to cross freely both amongst themselves and with the tame ducks2 they were 8half wild and half tame2 they came to the windows to be fed1 but still they had a wariness about them quite remarkable40 ,on the other hand1 mules from the horse and ass are certainly not in the least wild1 though notorious for obstinacy and vice4 ,mr4 ,brent1 who has crossed canary-birds with many kinds of finches1 has not observed1 as he informs me1 that the hybrids were in any way remarkably wild3 but ,mr4 ,jenner ,weir who has had still greater experience1 is of a directly opposite opinion4 ,he remarks that the siskin is the tamest of finches1 but its mules are as wild1 when young1 as newly caught birds1 and are often lost through their continued efforts to escape4 ,hybrids are often raised between the common and musk duck1 and ,i have been assured by three persons1 who have kept these crossed birds1 that they were not wild2 but ,mr4 ,garnett#de observed that his hybrids were wild1 and exhibited 8migratory propensities0 of which there is not a vestige in the common or musk duck4 ,no case is known of this latter bird having escaped and become wild in ,europe or ,asia1 except1 according to ,pallas1 on the ,caspian ,sea2 and the common domestic duck only occasionally becomes wild in districts where large lakes and fens abound4 ,nevertheless1 a large number of cases have been recorded#df of hybrids from these two ducks having been shot in a completely wild state1 although so few are reared in comparison with purely-bred birds of either species4 ,it is improbable that any of these hybrids could have acquired their wildness from the musk-duck having paired with a truly wild duck2 and this is known not to be the case in ,north ,america2 hence we must infer that they have reacquired1 through reversion1 their wildness1 as well as renewed powers of flight4 ,these latter facts remind us of the statements1 so frequently made by travellers in all parts of the world1 on the degraded state and savage disposition of crossed races of man4 ,that many excellent and kind-hearted mulattos have existed no one will dispute2 and a more mild and gentle set of men could hardly be found than the inhabitants of the island of ,chiloe1 who consist of ,indians commingled with ,spaniards in various proportions4 ,on the other hand1 many years ago1 long before ,i had thought of the present subject1 ,i was struck with the fact that1 in ,south ,america1 men of complicated descent between ,negroes1 ,indians1 and ,spaniards1 seldom had1 whatever the cause might be1 a good expression4#dg ,livingstone--and a more unimpeachable authority cannot be quoted1--after speaking of a half-caste man on the ,zambesi1 described by the ,portuguese as a rare monster of inhumanity1 remarks1 8,it is unaccountable why half-castes1 such as he1 are so much more cruel than the ,portuguese1 but such is undoubtedly the case40 ,an inhabitant remarked to ,livingstone1 8,god made white men1 and ,god made black men1 but the ,devil made halfcastes40#dh ,when two races1 both low in the scale1 are crossed the progeny seems to be eminently bad4 ,thus the noble-hearted ,humboldt1 who felt no prejudice against the inferior races1 speaks in strong terms of the bad and savage disposition of ,zambos1 or half-castes between ,indians and ,negroes2 and this conclusion has been arrived at by various observers4#di ,from these facts we may perhaps infer that the degraded state of so many half-castes is in part due to reversion to a primitive and savage condition1 induced by the act of crossing1 even if mainly due to the unfavourable moral conditions under which they are generally reared4 ,summary on the proximate causes leading to ,reversion4--,when purely-bred animals or plants reassume long-lost characters1--when the common ass1 for instance1 is born with striped legs1 when a pure race of black or white pigeons throws a slaty-blue bird1 or when a cultivated heartsease with large and rounded flowers produces a seedling with small and elongated flowers1--we are quite unable to assign any proximate cause4 ,when animals run wild1 the tendency to reversion1 which1 though it has been greatly exaggerated1 no doubt exists1 is sometimes to a certain extent intelligible4 ,thus1 with feral pigs1 exposure to the weather will probably favour the growth of the bristles1 as is known to be the case with the hair of other domesticated animals1 and through correlation the tusks will tend to be redeveloped4 ,but the reappearance of coloured longitudinal stripes on young feral pigs cannot be attributed to the direct action of external conditions4 ,in this case1 and in many others1 we can only say that any change in the habits of life apparently favour a tendency1 inherent or latent in the species1 to return to the primitive state4 ,it will be shown in a future chapter that the position of flowers on the summit of the axis1 and the position of seeds within the capsule1 sometimes determine a tendency towards reversion2 and this apparently depends on the amount of sap or nutriment which the flower-buds and seeds receive4 ,the position1 also1 of buds1 either on branches or on roots1 sometimes determines1 as was formerly shown1 the transmission of the character proper to the variety1 or its reversion to a former state4 ,we have seen in the last section that when two races or species are crossed there is the strongest tendency to the reappearance in the offspring of long-lost characters1 possessed by neither parent nor immediate progenitor4 ,when two white1 or red1 or black pigeons1 of well-established breeds1 are united1 the offspring are almost sure to inherit the same colours2 but when differently-coloured birds are crossed1 the opposed forces of inheritance apparently counteract each other1 and the tendency which is inherent in both parents to produce slaty-blue offspring becomes predominant4 ,so it is in several other cases4 ,but when1 for instance1 the ass is crossed with ,e4 indicus or with the horse--animals which have not striped legs--and the hybrids have conspicuous stripes on their legs and even on their faces1 all that can be said is1 that an inherent tendency to reversion is evolved through some disturbance in the organisation caused by the act of crossing4 ,another form of reversion is far commoner1 indeed is almost universal with the offspring from a cross1 namely1 to the characters proper to either pure parent-form4 ,as a general rule1 crossed offspring in the first generation are nearly intermediate between their parents1 but the grandchildren and succeeding generations continually revert1 in a greater or lesser degree1 to one or both of their progenitors4 ,several authors have maintained that hybrids and mongrels include all the characters of both parents1 not fused together1 but merely mingled in different proportions in different parts of the body2 or1 as ,naudin#ej has expressed it1 a hybrid is a living mosaic-work1 in which the eye cannot distinguish the discordant elements1 so completely are they intermingled4 ,we can hardly doubt that1 in a certain sense1 this is true1 as when we behold in a hybrid the elements of both species segregating themselves into segments in the same flower or fruit1 by a process of self-attraction or self-affinity2 this segregation taking place either by seminal or bud-propagation4 ,naudin further believes that the segregation of the two specific elements or essences is eminently liable to occur in the male and female reproductive matter2 and he thus explains the almost universal tendency to reversion in successive hybrid generations4 ,for this would be the natural result of the union of pollen and ovules1 in both of which the elements of the same species had been segregated by self-affinity4 ,if1 on the other hand1 pollen which included the elements of one species happened to unite with ovules including the elements of the other species1 the intermediate or hybrid state would still be retained1 and there would be no reversion4 ,but it would1 as ,i suspect1 be more correct to say that the elements of both parent-species exist in every hybrid in a double state1 namely1 blended together and completely separate4 ,how this is possible1 and what the term specific essence or element may be supposed to express1 ,i shall attempt to show in the chapter on the hypothesis of pangenesis4 ,but ,naudin's view1 as propounded by him1 is not applicable to the reappearance of characters lost long ago by variation2 and it is hardly applicable to races or species which1 after having been crossed at some former period with a distinct form1 and having since lost all traces of the cross1 nevertheless occasionally yield an individual which reverts 7as in the case of the great-great-grandchild of the pointer ,sappho7 to the crossing form4 ,the most simple case of reversion1 namely1 of a hybrid or mongrel to its grandparents1 is connected by an almost perfect series with the extreme case of a purely-bred race recovering characters which had been lost during many ages2 and we are thus led to infer that all the cases must be related by some common bond4 ,grtner believed that only highly sterile hybrid plants exhibit any tendency to reversion to their parent-forms4 ,this erroneous belief may perhaps be accounted for by the nature of the genera crossed by him1 for he admits that the tendency differs in different genera4 ,the statement is also directly contradicted by ,naudin's observations1 and by the notorious fact that perfectly fertile mongrels exhibit the tendency in a high degree1--even in a higher degree1 according to ,grtner himself1 than hybrids4#ea ,grtner further states that reversions rarely occur with hybrid plants raised from species which have not been cultivated1 whilst1 with those which have been long cultivated1 they are of frequent occurrence4 ,this conclusion explains a curious discrepancy3 ,max ,wichura#eb who worked exclusively on willows which had not been subjected to culture1 never saw an instance of reversion2 and he goes so far as to suspect that the careful ,gartner had not sufficiently protected his hybrids from the pollen of the parent-species3 ,naudin1 on the other hand1 who chiefly experimented on cucurbitaceous and other cultivated plants1 insists more strenuously than any other author on the tendency to reversion in all hybrids4 ,the conclusion that the condition of the parent-species1 as affected by culture1 is one of the proximate causes leading to reversion1 agrees well with the converse case of domesticated animals and cultivated plants being liable to reversion when they become feral2 for in both cases the organisation or constitution must be disturbed1 though in a very different way4#ec ,finally1 we have seen that characters often reappear in purely-bred races without our being able to assign any proximate cause2 but when they become feral this is either indirectly or directly induced by the change in their conditions of life4 ,with crossed breeds1 the act of crossing in itself certainly leads to the recovery of long-lost characters1 as well as of those derived from either parent-form4 ,changed conditions1 consequent on cultivation1 and the relative position of buds1 flowers1 and seeds on the plant1 all apparently aid in giving this same tendency4 ,reversion may occur either through seminal or bud generation1 generally at birth1 but sometimes only with an advance of age4 ,segments or portions of the individual may alone be thus affected4 ,that a being should be born resembling in certain characters an ancestor removed by two or three1 and in some cases by hundreds or even thousands of generations1 is assuredly a wonderful fact4 ,in these cases the child is commonly said to inherit such characters directly from its grandparent1 or more remote ancestors4 ,but this view is hardly conceivable4 ,if1 however1 we suppose that every character is derived exclusively from the father or mother1 but that many characters lie latent or dormant in both parents during a long succession of generations1 the foregoing facts are intelligible4 ,in what manner characters may be conceived to lie latent1 will be considered in a future chapter to which ,i have lately alluded4 ,latent ,characters4--,but ,i must explain what is meant by characters lying latent4 ,the most obvious illustration is afforded by secondary sexual characters4 ,in every female all the secondary male characters1 and in every male all the secondary female characters1 apparently exist in a latent state1 ready to be evolved under certain conditions4 ,it is well known that a large number of female birds1 such as fowls1 various pheasants1 partridges1 peahens1 ducks1 etc41 when old or diseased1 or when operated on1 assume many or all of the secondary male characters of their species4 ,in the case of the hen-pheasant this has been observed to occur far more frequently during certain years than during others4#ed ,a duck ten years old has been known to assume both the perfect winter and summer plumage of the drake4#ee ,waterton1#ef gives a curious case of a hen which had ceased laying1 and had assumed the plumage1 voice1 spurs1 and warlike disposition of the cock2 when opposed to an enemy she would erect her hackles and show fight4 ,thus every character1 even to the instinct and manner of fighting1 must have lain dormant in this hen as long as her ovaria continued to act4 ,the females of two kinds of deer1 when old1 have been known to acquire horns2 and1 as ,hunter has remarked1 we see something of an analogous nature in the human species4 ,on the other hand1 with male animals1 it is notorious that the secondary sexual characters are more or less completely lost when they are subjected to castration4 ,thus1 if the operation be performed on a young cock1 he never1 as ,yarrell states1 crows again2 the comb1 wattles1 and spurs do not grow to their full size1 and the hackles assume an intermediate appearance between true hackles and the feathers of the hen4 ,cases are recorded of confinement1 which often affects the reproductive system1 causing analogous results4 ,but characters properly confined to the female are likewise acquired by the male2 the capon takes to sitting on eggs1 and will bring up chickens2 and what is more curious1 the utterly sterile male hybrids from the pheasant and the fowl act in the same manner1 8their delight being to watch when the hens leave their nests1 and to take on themselves the office of a sitter40#eg ,that admirable observer ,reaumur#eh asserts that a cock1 by being long confined in solitude and darkness1 can be taught to take charge of young chickens2 he then utters a peculiar cry1 and retains during his whole life this newly acquired maternal instinct4 ,the many well-ascertained cases of various male mammals giving milk shows that their rudimentary mammary glands retain this capacity in a latent condition4 ,we thus see that in many1 probably in all cases1 the secondary characters of each sex lie dormant or latent in the opposite sex1 ready to be evolved under peculiar circumstances4 ,we can thus understand how1 for instance1 it is possible for a good milking cow to transmit her good qualities through her male offspring to future generations2 for we may confidently believe that these qualities are present1 though latent1 in the males of each generation4 ,so it is with the game-cock1 who can transmit his superiority in courage and vigour through his female to his male offspring2 and with man it is known#ei that diseases1 such as hydrocele1 necessarily confined to the male sex1 can be transmitted through the female to the grandson4 ,such cases as these offer1 as was remarked at the commencement of this chapter1 the simplest possible examples of reversion2 and they are intelligible on the belief that characters common to the grandparent and grandchild of the same sex are present1 though latent1 in the intermediate parent of the opposite sex4 ,the subject of latent characters is so important1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 that ,i will give another illustration4 ,many animals have the right and left sides of their body unequally developed3 this is well known to be the case with flat-fish1 in which the one side differs in thickness and colour and in the shape of the fins1 from the other1 and during the growth of the young fish one eye is gradually twisted from the lower to the upper surface4#fj ,in most flat-fishes the left is the blind side1 but in some it is the right2 though in both cases reversed or 8wrong fishes10 are occasionally developed2 and in ,platessa flesus the right or left side is indifferently the upper one4 ,with gasteropods or shell-fish1 the right and left sides are extremely unlike2 the far greater number of species are dextral1 with rare and occasional reversals of development2 and some few are normally sinistral2 but certain species of ,bulimus1 and many ,achatinell#fa are as often sinistral as dextral4 ,i will give an analogous case in the great articulate kingdom3 the two sides of ,verruca#fb are so wonderfully unlike1 that without careful dissection it is extremely difficult to recognise the corresponding parts on the opposite sides of the body2 yet it is apparently a mere matter of chance whether it be the right or the left side that undergoes so singular amount of change4 ,one plant is known to me#fc in which the flower1 according as it stands on the one or other side of the spike1 is unequally developed4 ,in all the foregoing cases the two sides are perfectly symmetrical at an early period of growth4 ,now1 whenever a species is as liable to be unequally developed on the one as on the other side1 we may infer that the capacity for such development is present1 though latent1 in the undeveloped side4 ,and as a reversal of development occasionally occurs in animals of many kinds1 this latent capacity is probably very common4 ,the best yet simplest cases of characters lying dormant are1 perhaps1 those previously given1 in which chickens and young pigeons1 raised from a cross between differently coloured birds1 are at first of one colour1 but in a year or two acquire feathers of the colour of the other parent2 for in this case the tendency to a change of plumage is clearly latent in the young bird4 ,so it is with hornless breeds of cattle1 some of which acquire small horns as they grow old4 ,purely bred black and white bantams1 and some other fowls1 occasionally assume1 with advancing years1 the red feathers of the parent-species4 ,i will here add a somewhat different case1 as it connects in a striking manner latent characters of two classes4 ,mr4 ,hewitt#fd possessed an excellent ,sebright gold-laced bantam hen1 which1 as she became old1 grew diseased in her ovaria1 and assumed male characters4 ,in this breed the males resemble the females in all respects except in their combs1 wattles1 spurs1 and instincts2 hence it might have been expected that the diseased hen would have assumed only those masculine characters which are proper to the breed1 but she acquired1 in addition1 well-arched tail sickle-feathers quite a foot in length1 saddle-feathers on the loins1 and hackles on the neck1--ornaments which1 as ,mr4 ,hewitt remarks1 8would be held as abominable in this breed40 ,the ,sebright bantam is known#fe to have originated about the year #ahjj from a cross between a common bantam and a ,polish fowl1 recrossed by a hen-tailed bantam1 and carefully selected2 hence there can hardly be a doubt that the sickle-feathers and hackles which appeared in the old hen were derived from the ,polish fowl or common bantam2 and we thus see that not only certain masculine characters proper to the ,sebright bantam1 but other masculine characters derived from the first progenitors of the breed1 removed by a period of above sixty years1 were lying latent in this henbird1 ready to be evolved as soon as her ovaria became diseased4 ,from these several facts it must be admitted that certain characters1 capacities1 and instincts1 may lie latent in an individual1 and even in a succession of individuals1 without our being able to detect the least sign of their presence4 ,when fowls1 pigeons1 or cattle of different colours are crossed1 and their offspring change colour as they grow old1 or when the crossed turbit acquired the characteristic frill after its third moult1 or when rarely-bred bantams partially assume the red plumage of their prototype1 we cannot doubt that these qualities were from the first present1 though latent1 in the individual animal1 like the characters of a moth in the caterpillar4 ,now1 if these animals had produced offspring before they had acquired with advancing age their new characters1 nothing is more probable than that they would have transmitted them to some of their offspring1 who in this case would in appearance have received such characters from their grand-parents or more distant progenitors4 ,we should then have had a case of reversion1 that is1 of the reappearance in the child of an ancestral character1 actually present1 though during youth completely latent1 in the parent2 and this we may safely conclude is what occurs in all reversions to progenitors1 however remote4 ,this view of the latency in each generation of all the characters which appear through reversion1 is also supported by their actual presence in some cases during early youth alone1 or by their more frequent appearance and greater distinctness at this age than during maturity4 ,we have seen that this is often the case with the stripes on the legs and faces of the several species of the horse genus4 ,the ,himalayan rabbit1 when crossed1 sometimes produces offspring which revert to the parent silver-grey breed1 and we have seen that in purely bred animals pale-grey fur occasionally reappears during early youth4 ,black cats1 we may feel assured1 would occasionally produce by reversion tabbies2 and on young black kittens1 with a pedigree#ff known to have been long pure1 faint traces of stripes may almost always be seen which afterwards disappear4 ,hornless ,suffolk cattle occasionally produce by reversion horned animals2 and ,youatt#fg asserts that even in hornless individuals 8the rudiment of a horn may be often felt at an early age40 ,no doubt it appears at first sight in the highest degree improbable that in every horse of every generation there should be a latent capacity and tendency to produce stripes1 though these may not appear once in a thousand generations2 that in every white1 black1 or other coloured pigeon1 which may have transmitted its proper colour during centuries1 there should be a latent capacity in the plumage to become blue and to be marked with certain characteristic bars2 that in every child in a six-fingered family there should be the capacity for the production of an additional digit2 and so in other cases4 ,nevertheless1 there is no more inherent improbability in this being the case than in a useless and rudimentary organ1 or even in only a tendency to the production of a rudimentary organ1 being inherited during millions of generations1 as is well known to occur with a multitude of organic beings4 ,there is no more inherent improbability in each domestic pig1 during a thousand generations1 retaining the capacity and tendency to develop great tusks under fitting conditions1 than in the young calf having retained1 for an indefinite number of generations rudimentary incisor teeth1 which never protrude through the gums4 ,i shall give at the end of the next chapter a summary of the three preceding chapters2 but as isolated and striking cases of reversion have here been chiefly insisted on1 ,i wish to guard the reader against supposing that reversion is due to some rare or accidental combination of circumstances4 ,when a character1 lost during hundreds of generations1 suddenly reappears1 no doubt some such combination must occur2 but reversions1 to the immediately preceding generations may be constantly observed1 at least1 in the offspring of most unions4 ,this has been universally recognised in the case of hybrids and mongrels1 but it has been recognised simply from the difference between the united forms rendering the resemblance of the offspring to their grandparents or more remote progenitors of easy detection4 ,reversion is likewise almost invariably the rule1 as ,mr4 ,sedgwick has shown1 with certain diseases4 ,hence we must conclude that a tendency to this peculiar form of transmission is an integral part of the general law of inheritance4 ,monstrosities4--,a large number of monstrous growths and of lesser anomalies are admitted by every one to be due to an arrest of development1 that is1 to the persistence of an embryonic condition4 ,but many monstrosities cannot be thus explained2 for parts of which no trace can be detected in the embryo1 but which occur in other members of the same class of animals occasionally appear1 and these may probably with truth be attributed to reversion4 ,as1 however1 ,i have treated this subject as fully as ,i could in my #8,descent of ,man' 7ch4 #a #bnd edition71 ,i will not here recur to it4 ,when flowers which have normally an irregular structure become regular or peloric1 the change is generally looked at by botanists as a return to the primitive state4 ,but ,dr4 ,maxwell ,masters1#fh who has ably discussed this subject1 remarks that when1 for instance1 all the sepals of a ,tropolum become green and of the same shape1 instead of being coloured with one prolonged into a spur1 or when all the petals of a ,linaria become simple and regular1 such cases may be due merely to an arrest of development2 for in these flowers all the organs during their earliest condition are symmetrical1 and1 if arrested at this stage of growth1 they would not become irregular4 ,if1 moreover1 the arrest were to take place at a still earlier period of development1 the result would be a simple tuft of green leaves2 and no one probably would call this a case of reversion4 ,dr4 ,masters designates the cases first alluded to as regular peloria2 and others1 in which all the corresponding parts assume a similar form of irregularity1 as when all the petals in a ,linaria become spurred1 as irregular peloria4 ,we have no right to attribute these latter cases to reversion1 until it can be shown that the parent-form1 for instance1 of the genus ,linaria had had all its petals spurred2 for a chance of this nature might result from the spreading of an anomalous structure1 in accordance with the law1 to be discussed in a future chapter1 of homologous parts tending to vary in the same manner4 ,but as both forms of peloria frequently occur on the same individual plant of the ,linaria1#fi they probably stand in some close relation to one another4 ,on the doctrine that peloria is simply the result of an arrest of development1 it is difficult to understand how an organ arrested at a very early period of growth should acquire its full functional perfection2--how a petal1 supposed to be thus arrested1 should acquire its brilliant colours1 and serve as an envelope to the flower1 or a stamen produce efficient pollen2 yet this occurs with many peloric flowers4 ,that pelorism is not due to mere chance variability1 but either to an arrest of development or to reversion1 we may infer from an observation made by ,ch4 ,morren#gj namely1 that families which have irregular flowers often 8return by these monstrous growths to their regular form2 whilst we never see a regular flower realise the structure of an irregular one40 ,some flowers have almost certainly become more or less completely peloric through reversion1 as the following interesting case shows4 ,corydalis tuberosa properly has one of its two nectaries colourless1 destitute of nectar1 only half the size of the other1 and therefore1 to a certain extent1 in a rudimentary state2 the pistil is curved towards the perfect nectary1 and the hood1 formed of the inner petals1 slips off the pistil and stamen in one direction alone1 so that1 when a bee sucks the perfect nectary1 the stigma and stamens are exposed and rubbed against the insect's body4 ,in several closely allied genera1 as in ,dielytra1 etc41 there are two perfect nectaries1 the pistil is straight1 and the hood slips off on either side1 according as the bee sucks either nectary4 ,now1 ,i have examined several flowers of ,corydalis tuberosa1 in which both nectaries were equally developed and contained nectar2 in this we see only the redevelopment of a partially aborted organ2 but with this redevelopment the pistil becomes straight1 and the hood slips off in either direction1 so that these flowers have acquired the perfect structure1 so well adapted for insect agency1 of ,dielytra and its allies4 ,we cannot attribute these coadapted modifications to chance1 or to correlated variability2 we must attribute them to reversion to a primordial condition of the species4 ,the peloric flowers of ,pelargonium have their five petals in all respects alike1 and there is no nectary so that they resemble the symmetrical flowers of the closely allied genus ,geranium2 but the alternate stamens are also sometimes destitute of anthers1 the shortened filaments being left as rudiments1 and in this respect they resemble the symmetrical flowers of the closely allied genus ,erodium4 ,hence we may look at the peloric flowers of ,pelargonium as having reverted to the state of some primordial form1 the progenitor of the three closely related genera of ,pelargonium1 ,geranium1 and ,erodium4 ,in the peloric form of ,antirrhinum majus1 appropriately called the 8,wonder10 the tubular and elongated flowers differ wonderfully from those of the common snapdragon2 the calyx and the mouth of the corolla consist of six equal lobes1 and include six equal instead of four unequal stamens4 ,one of the two additional stamens is manifestly formed by the development of a microscopically minute papilla1 which may be found at the base of the upper lip of the flower of the common snapdragons in the nineteen plants examined by me4 ,that this papilla is a rudiment of a stamen was well shown by its various degrees of development in crossed plants between the common and the peloric ,antirrhinum4 ,again1 a peloric ,galeobdolon luteum1 growing in my garden1 had five equal petals1 all striped like the ordinary lower lip1 and included five equal instead of four unequal stamens2 but ,mr4 ,r4 ,keeley1 who sent me this plant1 informs me that the flowers vary greatly1 having from four to six lobes to the corolla1 and from three to six stamens4#ga ,now1 as the members of the two great families to which the ,antirrhinum and ,galeobdolon belong are properly pentamerous1 with some of the parts confluent and others suppressed1 we ought not to look at the sixth stamen and the sixth lobe to the corolla in either case as due to reversion1 any more than the additional petals in double flowers in these same two families4 ,but the case is different with the fifth stamen in the peloric ,antirrhinum1 which is produced by the redevelopment of a rudiment always present1 and which probably reveals to us the state of the flower1 as far as the stamens are concerned1 at some ancient epoch4 ,it is also difficult to believe that the other four stamens and the petals1 after an arrest of development at a very early embryonic age1 would have come to full perfection in colour1 structure1 and function1 unless these organs had at some former period normally passed through a similar course of growth4 ,hence it appears to me probable that the progenitor of the genus ,antirrhinum must at some remote epoch have included five stamens and borne flowers in some degree resembling those now produced by the peloric form4 ,the conclusion that peloria is not a mere monstrosity1 irrespective of any former state of the species1 is supported by the fact that this structure is often strongly inherited1 as in the case of the peloric ,antirrhinum and ,gloxinia and sometimes in that of the peloric ,corydalis solida4#gb ,lastly ,i may add that many instances have been recorded of flowers1 not generally considered as peloric1 in which certain organs are abnormally augmented in number4 ,as an increase of parts cannot be looked at as an arrest of development1 nor as due to the redevelopment of rudiments1 for no rudiments are present1 and as these additional parts bring the plant into closer relationship with its natural allies1 they ought probably to be viewed as reversions to a primordial condition4 ,these several facts show us in an interesting manner how intimately certain abnormal states are connected together2 namely1 arrests of development causing parts to become rudimentary or to be wholly suppressed1--the redevelopment of parts now in a more or less rudimentary condition1--the reappearance of organs of which not a vestige can be detected1--and to these may be added1 in the case of animals1 the presence during youth1 and subsequent disappearance1 of certain characters which occasionally are retained throughout life4 ,some naturalists look at all such abnormal structures as a return to the ideal state of the group to which the affected being belongs2 but it is difficult to conceive what is meant to be conveyed by this expression4 ,other naturalists maintain1 with greater probability and distinctness of view1 that the common bond of connection between the several foregoing cases is an actual1 though partial1 return to the structure of the ancient progenitor of the group4 ,if this view be correct1 we must believe that a vast number of characters1 capable of evolution1 lie hidden in every organic being4 ,but it would be a mistake to suppose that the number is equally great in all beings4 ,we know1 for instance1 that plants of many orders occasionally become peloric2 but many more cases have been observed in the ,labiat and ,scrophulariace than in any other order2 and in one genus of the ,scrophulariace1 namely ,linaria1 no less than thirteen species have been described in this condition4#gc ,on this view of the nature of peloric flowers1 and bearing in mind certain monstrosities in the animal kingdom1 we must conclude that the progenitors of most plants and animals have left an impression1 capable of redevelopment1 on the germs of their descendants1 although these have since been profoundly modified4 ,the fertilised germ of one of the higher animals1 subjected as it is to so vast a series of changes from the germinal cell to old age1--incessantly agitated by what ,quatrefages well calls the tourbillon vital1--is perhaps the most wonderful object in nature4 ,it is probable that hardly a change of any kind affects either parent1 without some mark being left on the germ4 ,but on the doctrine of reversion1 as given in this chapter1 the germ becomes a far more marvellous object1 for1 besides the visible changes which it undergoes1 we must believe that it is crowded with invisible characters1 proper to both sexes1 to both the right and left side of the body1 and to a long line of male and female ancestors separated by hundreds or even thousands of generations from the present time3 and these characters1 like those written on paper with invisible ink1 lie ready to be evolved whenever the organisation is disturbed by certain known or unknown conditions4 ,,references #a ,youatt on ,sheep1 pp4 #bj1 #bcd4 ,the same fact of loose horns occasionally appearing in hornless breeds has been observed in ,germany2 ,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands4' b4 #a s4 #cfb4 #b ,youatt on ,cattle1 pp4 #aee1 #agd4 #c ,youatt on ,sheep1 #ahch1 pp4 #ag1 #ade4 #d ,i have been informed of this fact through the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox on the excellent authority of ,mr4 ,wilmot3 see also remarks on this subject in an article in the #8,quarterly ,review1' #ahdi1 p4 #cie4 #e ,youatt1 pp4 #ai1 #bcd4 #f #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #bca4 #g ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 x41 #ahcd1 p4 #cif3 a nurseryman1 with much experience on this subject1 has likewise assured me that this sometimes occurs4 #h #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahee1 p4 #ggg4 #i ,ibid41 #ahfb1 p4 #gba4 #aj ,mr4 ,boner speaks 7#8,chamois-hunting1' #bnd edit41 #ahfj1 p4 #ib7 of sheep often running wild in the ,bavarian ,alps2 but1 on making further inquiries at my request1 he found that they are not able to establish themselves2 they generally perish from the frozen snow clinging to their wool1 and they have lost the skill necessary to pass over steep icy slopes4 ,on one occasion two ewes survived the winter1 but their lambs perished4 #aa ,see some excellent remarks on this subject by ,mr4 ,wallace #8,journal ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc41' #aheh1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fj4 #ab ,dureau de la ,malle #8,comptes ,rendus1' tom4 xli41 #ahee1 p4 #hjg4 ,from the statements above given1 the author concludes that the wild pigs of ,louisiana are not descended from the ,european ,sus scrofa4 #ac ,capt4 ,w4 ,allen1 in his #8,expedition to the ,niger1' states that fowls have run wild on the island of ,annobon1 and have become modified in form and voice4 ,the account is so meagre and vague that it did not appear to me worth copying2 but ,i now find that ,dureau de la ,malle 7#8,comptes ,rendus1' tom4 xli41 #ahee1 p4 #fij7 advances this as a good instance of reversion to the primitive stock1 and as confirmatory of a still more vague statement in classical times by ,varro4 #ad #8,flora of ,australia1' #ahei1 ,introduct41 p4 ix4 #ae #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 pp4 #ed1 #eh1 #fj4 #af ,mr4 ,sedgwick gives many instances in the #8,british and ,foreign ,med4-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april and ,july1 #ahfc1 pp4 #ddh1 #ahh4 #ag ,in his edit4 of #8,youatt on the ,pig1' #ahfj1 p4 #bg4 #ah ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas1 #8,hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 ii4 pp4 #cad1 #hib3 see a good practical article on the subject in #8,gard4 ,chronicle1' #ahef1 p4 #fbj4 ,i could add a vast number of references1 but they would be superfluous4 #ai ,klreuter gives curious cases in his #8,dritte ,fortsetzung1' #agff1 ss4 #ec1 #ei2 and in his well-known #8,memoirs on ,lavatera and ,jalapa4' ,grtner1 #8,bastarderzeugung1' ss4 #dcg1 #dda1 etc4 ,naudin in his 8,recherches sur l',hybridit10 #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #be4 #bj ,quoted by ,mr4 ,sedgwick in #8,med4-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april1 #ahfa1 p4 #dhe4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,dobell in #8,med4-,chirurg4 ,transactions1' vol4 xlvi41 gives an analogous case in which1 in a large family1 fingers with thickened joints were transmitted to several members during five generations2 but when the blemish once disappeared it never reappeared4 #ba ,verlot #8,des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #fc4 #bb #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #be4 ,alex4 ,braun 7in his #8,rejuvenescence1' ,ray ,soc41 #ahec1 p4 #cae7 apparently holds a similar opinion4 #bc ,mr4 ,teebay in #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #gb4 #bd ,quoted by ,hofacker #8,ueber die ,eigenschaften1' etc41 s4 #ih4 #be ,azara1 #8,essais ,hist4 ,nat4 de ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 #ahja1 p4 #cgb4 #bf ,these facts are given on the high authority of ,mr4 ,hewitt1 in #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #bdh4 #bg #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #ig4 #bh #8,gardener's ,chron4 and ,agricultural ,gazette1' #ahff1 p4 #ebh4 #bi ,ibid41 #ahfj1 p4 #cdc4 ,i am glad to find that so experienced a breeder of cattle as ,mr4 ,willoughby ,wood1 7#8,gard4 ,chron4' #ahfi1 p4 #abaf71 admits my principle of a cross giving a tendency to reversion4 #cj ,sclater in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfb1 p4 #afc4 #ca #8,history of the ,horse1' p4 #bab4 #cb #8,mm4 prsents par divers ,savans l',acad4 ,royale1' tom4 vi4 #ahce1 p4 #cch4 #cc #8,letters from ,alabama1' #ahei1 p4 #bhj4 #cd #8,hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammiferes1' #ahbj1 tom4 i4 #ce #8,philosoph4 ,transact41' #ahba1 p4 #bj4 #cf ,sclater1 in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfb1 p4 #afc3 this species is the ,ghor-,khur of ,n4,w4 ,india1 and has often been called the ,hemionus of ,pallas4 ,see also ,mr4 ,blyth's excellent paper in #8,journal of ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 xviii41 #ahfj1 p4 #bbi4 #cg ,another species of wild ass1 the true ,e4 hemionus or ,kiang1 which ordinarily has no shoulder-stripes1 is said occasionally to have them2 and these1 as with the horse and ass1 are sometimes double3 see ,mr4 ,blyth in the paper just quoted and in #8,indian ,sporting ,review1' #ahef1 p4 #cbj3 and ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith in #8,nat4 ,library1 ,horses1' p4 #cah2 and #8,dict4 ,class4 d',hist4 ,nat41' tom4 iii4 p4 #efc4 #ch ,figured in the #8,gleanings from the ,knowsley ,menageries1' by ,dr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,gray4 #ci #8,darwin'sche ,theorie und ihre ,stellung zu ,moral und ,religion1' p4 #he4 #dj ,cases of both ,spanish and ,polish hens sitting are given in the #8,poultry ,chronicle1' #ahee1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dgg4 #da #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 pp4 #aai1 #afc4 ,the author1 who remarks on the two negatives 7#8,journ4 of ,hort41' #ahfb1 p4 #cbe71 states that two broods were raised from a ,spanish cock and ,silver-pencilled ,hamburgh hen1 neither of which are incubators1 and no less than seven out of eight hens in these two broods 8showed a perfect obstinacy in sitting40 ,the ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon 7#8,ornamental ,poultry1' #ahdh1 p4 #bjj7 says that chickens reared from a cross between ,golden and ,black ,polish fowls1 are 8good and steady birds to sit40 ,mr4 ,b4 ,p4 ,brent informs me that he raised some good sitting hens by crossing ,pencilled ,hamburgh and ,polish breeds4 ,a cross-bred bird from a ,spanish non-incubating cock and ,cochin incubating hen is mentioned in the #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 iii4 p4 #ac1 as an 8exemplary mother40 ,on the other hand1 an exceptional case is given in the #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfj1 p4 #chh1 of a hen raised from a ,spanish cock and black ,polish hen which did not incubate4 #db #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 pp4 #afe1 #afg4 #dc #8,natural ,history ,review1' #ahfc1 ,april1 p4 #bgg4 #dd #8,essays on ,natural ,history1' p4 #iag4 #de ,as stated by ,mr4 ,orton1 in his #8,physiology of ,breeding1' p4 #ab4 #df ,m4 ,e4 de ,selys-,longchamps refers 7#8,bulletin ,acad4 ,roy4 de ,bruxelles1' tom4 xii4 ,no4 #aj7 to more than seven of these hybrids shot in ,switzerland and ,france4 ,m4 ,deby asserts 7#8,zoologist1' vol4 v41 #ahde-df1 p4 #abed7 that several have been shot in various parts of ,belgium and ,northern ,france4 ,audubon 7#8,ornitholog4 ,biography1' vol4 iii4 p4 #afh71 speaking of these hybrids1 says that1 in ,north ,america1 they 8now and then wander off and become quite wild40 #dg #8,journal of ,researches1' #ahde1 p4 #ga4 #dh #8,expedition to the ,zambesi1' #ahfe1 pp4 #be1 #aej4 #di ,dr4 ,p4 ,broca1 on #8,hybridity in the ,genus ,homo1' ,eng4 translat41 #ahfd1 p4 #ci4 #ej #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #aea4 #ea #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #ehb1 #dch1 etc4 #eb #8,die ,bastardbefruchtung 4 4 4 der ,weiden1' #ahfe1 s4 #bc4 ,for ,grtner's remarks on this head1 see #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #dgd1 #ehb4 #ec ,prof4 ,weismann1 in his very curious essay on the different forms produced by the same species of butterfly at different seasons 7#8,saison-,dimorphismus der ,schmetterlinge1' pp4 #bg1 #bh71 has come to a similar conclusion1 namely1 that any cause which disturbs the organisation1 such as the exposure of the cocoons to heat or even to much shaking1 gives a tendency to reversion4 #ed ,yarrell1 #8,phil4 ,transact41' #ahbg1 p4 #bfh2 ,dr4 ,hamilton1 in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfb1 p4 #bc4 #ee #8,archiv4 ,skand4 ,beitrge zur ,naturgesch4' viii4 s4 #cig-dac4 #ef ,in his #8,essays on ,nat4 ,hist41' #ahch1 ,mr4 ,hewitt gives analogous cases with hen-pheasants in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,july #ab1 #ahfd1 p4 #cg4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 in his #8,essais de ,zoolog4 ,gen4' 7#8suites a ,buffon1' #ahdb1 pp4 #dif-eac71 has collected such cases in ten different kinds of birds4 ,it appears that ,aristotle was well aware of the change in mental disposition in old hens4 ,the case of the female deer acquiring horns is given at p4 #eac4 #eg #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfj1 p4 #cgi4 #eh #8,art de faire ,eclore1' etc41 #agdi1 tom4 ii4 p4 #h4 #ei ,sir ,h4 ,holland1 #8,medical ,notes and ,reflections1' #crd edit41 #ahee1 p4 #ca4 #fj ,see ,steenstrup on the #8,obliquity of ,flounders'3 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' ,may1 #ahfe1 p4 #cfa4 ,i have given an abstract of ,malm's explanation of this wonderful phenomenon in the #8,origin of ,species' #fth ,edit4 p4 #ahf4 #fa ,dr4 ,e4 von ,martens1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' ,march1 #ahff1 p4 #bji4 #fb ,darwin1 #8,balanid1' ,ray ,soc41 #ahed1 p4 #dii3 see also the appended remarks on the apparently capricious development of the thoracic limbs on the right and left sides in the higher crustaceans4 #fc ,mormodes ignea3 ,darwin1 #8,fertilisation of ,orchids1' #ahfb1 p4 #bea4 #fd #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,july1 #ahfd1 p4 #ch4 ,i have had the opportunity of examining these remarkable feathers through the kindness of ,mr4 ,tegetmeier4 #fe #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #bda4 #ff ,carl ,vogt1 #8,lectures on ,man1' ,eng4 translat41 #ahfd1 p4 #daa4 #fg #8,on ,cattle1' p4 #agd4 #fh #8,natural ,hist4 ,review1' ,april1 #ahfc1 p4 #beh4 ,see also his ,lecture1 ,royal ,institution1 ,march #af1 #ahfj4 ,on same subject see ,moquin-,tandon1 #8,elments de ,tratologie1' #ahda1 pp4 #ahd1 #ceb4 ,dr4 ,peyritsch has collected a large number of very interesting cases1 ,sitzb4 d4 k4 ,akad4 d4 ,wissensch43 ,wien4 b4 ,,lx4 and especially b4 ,,lxvi41 #ahgb1 p4 #abe4 #fi ,verlot1 #8,des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #hi2 ,naudin1 #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,museum1' tom4 i4 p4 #acg4 #gj ,in his discussion on some curious peloric ,calceolarias1 quoted in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,feb4 #bd1 #ahfc1 p4 #aeb4 #ga ,for other cases of six divisions in peloric flowers of the ,labiat and ,scrophulariace1 see ,moquin-,tandon1 #8,tratologie1' p4 #aib4 #gb ,godron1 reprinted from the #8,mmoires de l',acad4 de ,stanislas1' #ahfh4 #gc ,moquin-,tandon1 #8,tratologie1' p4 #ahf4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,inheritance continued--,,fixedness ,,of ,,character--,,prepotency--,,sexual ,,limitation--,,correspondence ,,of ,,age4 ,,fixedness ,,of ,,character ,,apparently ,,not ,,due ,,to ,,antiquity ,,of ,,initance--,,prepotency ,,of ,,transmission ,,in ,,individuals ,,of ,,the ,,same ,,family1 ,,in ,,crossed ,,breeds ,,and ,,species2 ,,often ,,stronger ,,in ,,one ,,sex ,,than ,,the ,,other2 ,,sometimes ,,due ,,to ,,the ,,same ,,character ,,being ,,present ,,and ,,visible ,,in ,,one ,,breed ,,and ,,latent ,,in ,,the ,,other--,,inheritance ,,as ,,limited ,,by ,,sex--,,newly-,,acquired ,,characters ,,in ,,our ,,domesticated ,,animals ,,often ,,transmitted ,,by ,,one ,,sex ,,alone1 ,,sometimes ,,lost ,,by ,,one ,,sex ,,alone--,,inheritance ,,at ,,corresponding ,,periods ,,of ,,life--,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,principle ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,embryology2 ,,as ,,exhibited ,,in ,,domesticated ,,animals3 ,,as ,,exhibited ,,in ,,the ,,appearance ,,and ,,disappearance ,,of ,,inherited ,,diseases2 ,,sometimes ,,supervening ,,earlier ,,in ,,the ,,child ,,than ,,in ,,the ,,parent--,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,preceding ,,chapters4 ,in the last two chapters the nature and force of ,inheritance1 the circumstances which interfere with its power1 and the tendency to ,reversion1 with its many remarkable contingencies1 were discussed4 ,in the present chapter some other related phenomena will be treated of1 as fully as my materials permit4 ,fixedness of ,character4 ,it is a general belief amongst breeders that the longer any character has been transmitted by a breed1 the more fully it will continue to be transmitted4 ,i do not wish to dispute the truth of the proposition that inheritance gains strength simply through long continuance1 but ,i doubt whether it can be proved4 ,in one sense the proposition is little better than a truism2 if any character has remained constant during many generations1 it will be likely to continue so1 if the conditions of life remain the same4 ,so1 again1 in improving a breed1 if care be taken for a length of time to exclude all inferior individuals1 the breed will obviously tend to become truer1 as it will not have been crossed during many generations by an inferior animal4 ,we have previously seen1 but without being able to assign any cause1 that1 when a new character appears1 it is occasionally from the first constant1 or fluctuates much1 or wholly fails to be transmitted4 ,so it is with the aggregate of slight differences which characterise a new variety1 for some propagate their kind from the first much truer than others4 ,even with plants multiplied by bulbs1 layers1 etc41 which may in one sense be said to form parts of the same individual1 it is well known that certain varieties retain and transmit through successive bud-generations their newly-acquired characters more truly than others4 ,in none of these1 nor in the following cases1 does there appear to be any relation between the force with which a character is transmitted and the length of time during which it has been transmitted4 ,some varieties1 such as white and yellow hyacinths and white sweet-peas1 transmit their colours more faithfully than do the varieties which have retained their natural colour4 ,in the ,irish family1 mentioned in the twelfth chapter1 the peculiar tortoiseshell-like colouring of the eyes was transmitted far more faithfully than any ordinary colour4 ,ancon and ,mauchamp sheep and niata cattle1 which are all comparatively modern breeds1 exhibit remarkably strong powers of inheritance4 ,many similar cases could be adduced4 ,as all domesticated animals and cultivated plants have varied1 and yet are descended from aboriginally wild forms1 which no doubt had retained the same character from an immensely remote epoch1 we see that scarcely any degree of antiquity ensures a character being transmitted perfectly true4 ,in this case1 however1 it may be said that changed conditions of life induce certain modifications1 and not that the power of inheritance fails2 but in every case of failure1 some cause1 either internal or external1 must interfere4 ,it will generally be found that the organs or parts which in our domesticated productions have varied1 or which still continue to vary1--that is1 which fail to retain their former state1--are the same with the parts which differ in the natural species of the same genus4 ,as1 on the theory of descent with modification1 the species of the same genus have been modified since they branched off from a common progenitor1 it follows that the characters by which they differ from one another have varied1 whilst other parts of the organisation have remained unchanged2 and it might be argued that these same characters now vary under domestication1 or fail to be inherited1 from their lesser antiquity4 ,but variation in a state of nature seems to stand in some close relation with changed conditions of life1 and characters which have already varied under such conditions would be apt to vary under the still greater changes consequent on domestication1 independently of their greater or less antiquity4 ,fixedness of character1 or the strength of inheritance1 has often been judged of by the preponderance of certain characters in the crossed offspring between distinct races2 but prepotency of transmission here comes into play1 and this1 as we shall immediately see1 is a very different consideration from the strength or weakness of inheritance4#a ,it has often been observed that breeds of animals inhabiting wild and mountainous countries cannot be permanently modified by our improved breeds2 and as these latter are of modern origin1 it has been thought that the greater antiquity of the wilder breeds has been the cause of their resistance to improvement by crossing2 but it is more probably due to their structure and constitution being better adapted to the surrounding conditions4 ,when plants are first subjected to culture1 it has been found that1 during several generations1 they transmit their characters truly1 that is1 do not vary1 and this has been attributed to ancient characters being strongly inherited3 but it may with equal or greater probability be consequent on changed conditions of life requiring a long time for their cumulative action4 ,notwithstanding these considerations1 it would perhaps be rash to deny that characters become more strongly fixed the longer they are transmitted2 but ,i believe that the proposition resolves itself into this1--that characters of all kinds1 whether new or old1 tend to be inherited1 and that those which have already withstood all counteracting influences and been truly transmitted1 will1 as a general rule1 continue to withstand them1 and consequently be faithfully inherited4 ,prepotency in the ,transmission of ,character4 ,when individuals1 belonging to the same family1 but distinct enough to be recognised1 or when two well-marked races1 or two species1 are crossed1 the usual result1 as stated in the previous chapter1 is1 that the offspring in the first generation are intermediate between their parents1 or resemble one parent in one part and the other parent in another part4 ,but this is by no means the invariable rule2 for in many cases it is found that certain individuals1 races1 and species1 are prepotent in transmitting their likeness4 ,this subject has been ably discussed by ,prosper ,lucas1#b but is rendered extremely complex by the prepotency sometimes running equally in both sexes1 and sometimes more strongly in one sex than in the other2 it is likewise complicated by the presence of secondary sexual characters1 which render the comparison of crossed breeds with their parents difficult4 ,it would appear that in certain families some one ancestor1 and after him others in the same family1 have had great power in transmitting their likeness through the male line2 for we cannot otherwise understand how the same features should so often be transmitted after marriages with many females1 as in the case of the ,austrian ,emperors2 and so it was1 according to ,niebuhr1 with the mental qualities of certain ,roman families4#c ,the famous bull ,favourite is believed#d to have had a prepotent influence on the shorthorn race4 ,it has also been observed#e with ,english racehorses that certain mares have generally transmitted their own character1 whilst other mares of equally pure blood have allowed the character of the sire to prevail4 ,a famous black greyhound1 ,bedlamite1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,c4 ,m4 ,brown 8invariably got all his puppies black1 no matter what was the colour of the bitch20 but then ,bedlamite 8had a preponderance of black in his blood1 both on the sire and dam side40 ,the truth of the principle of prepotency comes out more clearly when distinct races are crossed4 ,the improved ,shorthorns1 notwithstanding that the breed is comparatively modern1 are generally acknowledged to possess great power in impressing their likeness on all other breeds2 and it is chiefly in consequence of this power that they are so highly valued for exportation4#f ,godine has given a curious case of a ram of a goat-like breed of sheep from the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 which produced offspring hardly to be distinguished from himself1 when crossed with ewes of twelve other breeds4 ,but two of these half-bred ewes1 when put to a merino ram1 produced lambs closely resembling the merino breed4 ,girou de ,buzareingues#g found that of two races of ,french sheep the ewes of one1 when crossed during successive generations with merino rams1 yielded up their character far sooner than the ewes of the other race4 ,sturm and ,girou have given analogous cases with other breeds of sheep and with cattle1 the prepotency running in these cases through the male side2 but ,i was assured on good authority in ,south ,america1 that when niata cattle are crossed with common cattle1 though the niata breed is prepotent whether males or females are used1 yet that the prepotency is strongest through the female line4 ,the ,manx cat is tailless and has long hind legs2 ,dr4 ,wilson crossed a male ,manx with common cats1 and1 out of twenty-three kittens1 seventeen were destitute of tails2 but when the female ,manx was crossed by common male cats all the kittens had tails1 though they were generally short and imperfect4#h ,in making reciprocal crosses between pouter and fantail pigeons1 the pouter-race seemed to be prepotent through both sexes over the fantail4 ,but this is probably due to weak power in the fantail rather than to any unusually strong power in the pouter1 for ,i have observed that barbs also preponderate over fantails4 ,this weakness of transmission in the fantail1 though the breed is an ancient one1 is said#i to be general2 but ,i have observed one exception to the rule1 namely1 in a cross between a fantail and laugher4 ,the most curious instance known to me of weak power in both sexes is in the trumpeter pigeon4 ,this breed has been well known for at least #acj years3 it breeds perfectly true1 as ,i have been assured by those who have long kept many birds3 it is characterised by a peculiar tuft of feathers over the beak1 by a crest on the head1 by a singular coo quite unlike that of any other breed1 and by much-feathered feet4 ,i have crossed both sexes with turbits of two sub-breeds1 with almond tumblers1 spots1 and runts1 and reared many mongrels and recrossed them2 and though the crest on the head and feathered feet were inherited 7as is generally the case with most breeds71 ,i have never seen a vestige of the tuft over the beak or heard the peculiar coo4 ,boitard and ,corbi#aj assert that this is the invariable result of crossing trumpeters with other breeds3 ,neumeister1#aa however1 states that in ,germany mongrels have been obtained1 though very rarely1 which were furnished with the tuft and would trumpet3 but a pair of these mongrels with a tuft1 which ,i imported1 never trumpeted4 ,mr4 ,brent states#ab that the crossed offspring of a trumpeter were crossed with trumpeters for three generations1 by which time the mongrels had #g_/hths of this blood in their veins1 yet the tuft over the beak did not appear4 ,at the fourth generation the tuft appeared1 but the birds though now having #ae-afths trumpeter's blood still did not trumpet4 ,this case well shows the wide difference between inheritance and prepotency2 for here we have a well-established old race which transmits its characters faithfully1 but which1 when crossed with any other race1 has the feeblest power of transmitting its two chief characteristic qualities4 ,i will give one other instance with fowls and pigeons of weakness and strength in the transmission of the same character to their crossed offspring4 ,the ,silk fowl breeds true1 and there is reason to believe is a very ancient race2 but when ,i reared a large number of mongrels from a ,silk hen by a ,spanish cock1 not one exhibited even a trace of the so-called silkiness4 ,mr4 ,hewitt also asserts that in no instance are the silky feathers transmitted by this breed when crossed with any other variety4 ,but three birds out of many raised by ,mr4 ,orton from a cross between a silk cock and a bantam hen had silky feathers4#ac ,so that it is certain that this breed very seldom has the power of transmitting its peculiar plumage to its crossed progeny4 ,on the other hand1 there is a silk sub-variety of the fantail pigeon1 which has its feathers in nearly the same state as in the ,silk fowl3 now we have already seen that fantails1 when crossed1 possess singularly weak power in transmitting their general qualities2 but the silk sub-variety when crossed with any other small-sized race invariably transmits its silky feathers6#ad ,the well-known horticulturist1 ,mr4 ,paul1 informs me that he fertilised the ,black ,prince hollyhock with pollen of the ,white ,globe and the ,lemonade and ,black ,prince hollyhocks reciprocally2 but not one seedling from these three crosses inherited the black colour of the ,black ,prince4 ,so1 again1 ,mr4 ,laxton1 who has had such great experience in crossing peas1 writes to me that 8whenever a cross has been effected between a white-blossomed and a purple-blossomed pea1 or between a white-seeded and a purple-spotted1 brown or maple-seeded pea1 the offspring seems to lose nearly all the characteristics of the white-flowered and white-seeded varieties2 and this result follows whether these varieties have been used as the pollen-bearing or seed-producing parents40 ,the law of prepotency comes into action when species are crossed1 as with races and individuals4 ,grtner has unequivocally shown#ae that this is the case with plants4 ,to give one instance3 when ,nicotiana paniculata and vincflora are crossed1 the character of ,n4 paniculata is almost completely lost in the hybrid2 but if ,n4 quadrivalvis be crossed with ,n4 vincflora1 this latter species1 which was before so prepotent1 now in its turn almost disappears under the power of ,n4 quadrivalvis4 ,it is remarkable that the prepotency of one species over another in transmission is quite independent1 as shown by ,grtner1 of the greater or less facility with which the one fertilises the other4 ,with animals1 the jackal is prepotent over the dog1 as is stated by ,flourens1 who made many crosses between these animals2 and this was likewise the case with a hybrid which ,i once saw between a jackal and a terrier4 ,i cannot doubt1 from the observations of ,colin and others1 that the ass is prepotent over the horse2 the prepotency in this instance running more strongly through the male than through the female ass2 so that the mule resembles the ass more closely than does the hinny4#af ,the male pheasant1 judging from ,mr4 ,hewitt's descriptions1#ag and from the hybrids which ,i have seen1 preponderates over the domestic fowl2 but the latter1 as far as colour is concerned1 has considerable power of transmission1 for hybrids raised from five differently coloured hens differed greatly in plumage4 ,i formerly examined some curious hybrids in the ,zoological ,gardens1 between the ,penguin variety of the common duck and the ,egyptian goose 7,anser gyptiacus72 and although ,i will not assert that the domesticated variety preponderated over the natural species1 yet it had strongly impressed its unnatural upright figure on these hybrids4 ,i am aware that such cases as the foregoing have been ascribed by various authors1 not to one species1 race1 or individual being prepotent over the other in impressing its character on its crossed offspring1 but to such rules as that the father influences the external characters and the mother the internal or vital organs4 ,but the great diversity of the rules given by various authors almost proves their falseness4 ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas has fully discussed this point1 and has shown#ah that none of the rules 7and ,i could add others to those quoted by him7 apply to all animals4 ,similar rules have been announced for plants1 and have been proved by ,grtner#ai to be all erroneous4 ,if we confine our view to the domesticated races of a single species1 or perhaps even to the species of the same genus1 some such rules may hold good2 for instance1 it seems that in reciprocally crossing various breeds of fowls the male generally gives colour2#bj but conspicuous exceptions have passed under my own eyes4 ,it seems that the ram usually gives its peculiar horns and fleece to its crossed offspring1 and the bull the presence or absence of horns4 ,in the following chapter on ,crossing ,i shall have occasion to show that certain characters are rarely or never blended by crossing1 but are transmitted in an unmodified state from either parent-form2 ,i refer to this fact here because it is sometimes accompanied on the one side by prepotency1 which thus acquires the false appearance of unusual strength4 ,in the same chapter ,i shall show that the rate at which a species or breed absorbs and obliterates another by repeated crosses1 depends in chief part on prepotency in transmission4 ,in conclusion1 some of the cases above given1--for instance1 that of the trumpeter pigeon1--prove that there is a wide difference between mere inheritance and prepotency4 ,this latter power seems to us1 in our ignorance1 to act in most cases quite capriciously4 ,the very same character1 even though it be an abnormal or monstrous one1 such as silky feathers1 may be transmitted by different species1 when crossed1 either with prepotent force or singular feebleness4 ,it is obvious1 that a purely-bred form of either sex1 in all cases in which prepotency does not run more strongly in one sex than the other1 will transmit its character with prepotent force over a mongrelised and already variable form4#ba ,from several of the above-given cases we may conclude that mere antiquity of character does not by any means necessarily make it prepotent4 ,in some cases prepotency apparently depends on the same character being present and visible in one of the two breeds which are crossed1 and latent or invisible in the other breed2 and in this case it is natural that the character which is potentially present in both breeds should be prepotent4 ,thus1 we have reason to believe that there is a latent tendency in all horses to be dun-coloured and striped2 and when a horse of this kind is crossed with one of any other colour1 it is said that the offspring are almost sure to be striped4 ,sheep have a similar latent tendency to become dark-coloured1 and we have seen with what prepotent force a ram with a few black spots1 when crossed with white sheep of various breeds1 coloured its offspring4 ,all pigeons have a latent tendency to become slaty-blue1 with certain characteristic marks1 and it is known that1 when a bird thus coloured is crossed with one of any other colour1 it is most difficult afterwards to eradicate the blue tint4 ,a nearly parallel case is offered by those black bantams which1 as they grow old1 develop a latent tendency to acquire red feathers4 ,but there are exceptions to the rule3 hornless breeds of cattle possess a latent capacity to reproduce horns1 yet when crossed with horned breeds they do not invariably produce offspring bearing horns4 ,we meet with analogous cases with plants4 ,striped flowers1 though they can be propagated truly by seed1 have a latent tendency to become uniformly coloured1 but when once crossed by a uniformly coloured variety1 they ever afterwards fail to produce striped seedlings4#bb ,another case is in some respects more curious3 plants bearing peloric flowers have so strong a latent tendency to reproduce their normally irregular flowers1 that this often occurs by buds when a plant is transplanted into poorer or richer soil4#bc ,now ,i crossed the peloric snapdragon 7,antirrhinum majus71 described in the last chapter1 with pollen of the common form2 and the latter1 reciprocally1 with peloric pollen4 ,i thus raised two great beds of seedlings1 and not one was peloric4 ,naudin#bd obtained the same result from crossing a peloric ,linaria with the common form4 ,i carefully examined the flowers of ninety plants of the crossed ,antirrhinum in the two beds1 and their structure had not been in the least affected by the cross1 except that in a few instances the minute rudiment of the fifth stamen1 which is always present1 was more fully or even completely developed4 ,it must not be supposed that this entire obliteration of the peloric structure in the crossed plants can be accounted for by any incapacity of transmission2 for ,i raised a large bed of plants from the peloric ,antirrhinum1 artificially fertilised by its own pollen1 and sixteen plants1 which alone survived the winter1 were all as perfectly peloric as the parent-plant4 ,here we have a good instance of the wide difference between the inheritance of a character and the power of transmitting it to crossed offspring4 ,the crossed plants1 which perfectly resembled the common snapdragon1 were allowed to sow themselves1 and out of a hundred and twenty-seven seedlings1 eighty-eight proved to be common snapdragons1 two were in an intermediate condition between the peloric and normal state1 and thirty-seven were perfectly peloric1 having reverted to the structure of their one grand-parent4 ,this case seems at first sight to offer an exception to the rule just given1 namely1 that a character which is present in one form and latent in the other is generally transmitted with prepotent force when the two forms are crossed4 ,for in all the ,scrophulariace1 and especially in the genera ,antirrhinum and ,linaria1 there is1 as was shown in the last chapter1 a strong latent tendency to become peloric2 but there is also1 as we have seen1 a still stronger tendency in all peloric plants to reacquire their normal irregular structure4 ,so that we have two opposed latent tendencies in the same plants4 ,now1 with the crossed ,antirrhinums the tendency to produce normal or irregular flowers1 like those of the common ,snapdragon1 prevailed in the first generation2 whilst the tendency to pelorism1 appearing to gain strength by the intermission of a generation1 prevailed to a large extent in the second set of seedlings4 ,how it is possible for a character to gain strength by the intermission of a generation1 will be considered in the chapter on pangenesis4 ,on the whole1 the subject of prepotency is extremely intricate1--from its varying so much in strength1 even in regard to the same character1 in different animals1--from its running either equally in both sexes1 or1 as frequently is the case with animals1 but not with plants1 much stronger in one sex than the other1--from the existence of secondary sexual characters1--from the transmission of certain characters being limited1 as we shall immediately see1 by sex1--from certain characters not blending together1--and1 perhaps1 occasionally from the effects of a previous fertilisation on the mother4 ,it is therefore not surprising that no one has hitherto succeeded in drawing up general rules on the subject of prepotency4 ,inheritance as limited by ,sex4 ,new characters often appear in one sex1 and are afterwards transmitted to the same sex1 either exclusively or in a much greater degree than to the other4 ,this subject is important1 because with animals of many kinds in a state of nature1 both high and low in the scale1 secondary sexual characters1 not directly connected with the organs of reproduction1 are conspicuously present4 ,with our domesticated animals1 characters of this kind often differ widely from those distinguishing the two sexes of the parent species2 and the principle of inheritance1 as limited by sex1 explains how this is possible4 ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas has shown#be that when a peculiarity1 in no manner connected with the reproductive organs1 appears in either parent1 it is often transmitted exclusively to the offspring of the same sex1 or to a much greater number of them than of the opposite sex4 ,thus1 in the family of ,lambert1 the horn-like projections on the skin were transmitted from the father to his sons and grandsons alone2 so it has been with other cases of ichthyosis1 with supernumerary digits1 with a deficiency of digits and phalanges1 and in a lesser degree with various diseases1 especially with colour-blindness and the hmorrhagic diathesis1 that is1 an extreme liability to profuse and uncontrollable bleeding from trifling wounds4 ,on the other hand1 mothers have transmitted1 during several generations1 to their daughters alone1 supernumerary and deficient digits1 colour-blindness and other peculiarities4 ,so that the very same peculiarity may become attached to either sex1 and be long inherited by that sex alone2 but the attachment in certain cases is much more frequent to one than the other sex4 ,the same peculiarities also may be promiscuously transmitted to either sex4 ,dr4 ,lucas gives other cases1 showing that the male occasionally transmits his peculiarities to his daughters alone1 and the mother to her sons alone2 but even in this case we see that inheritance is to a certain extent1 though inversely1 regulated by sex4 ,dr4 ,lucas1 after weighing the whole evidence1 comes to the conclusion that every peculiarity tends to be transmitted in a greater or lesser degree to that sex in which it first appears4 ,but a more definite rule1 as ,i have elsewhere shown#bf generally holds good1 namely1 that variations which first appear in either sex at a late period of life1 when the reproductive functions are active1 tend to be developed in that sex alone2 whilst variations which first appear early in life in either sex are commonly transmitted to both sexes4 ,i am1 however1 far from supposing that this is the sole determining cause4 ,a few details from the many cases collected by ,mr4 ,sedgwick1#bg may be here given4 ,colour-blindness1 from some unknown cause1 shows itself much oftener in males than in females2 in upwards of two hundred cases collected by ,mr4 ,sedgwick1 nine-tenths related to men2 but it is eminently liable to be transmitted through women4 ,in the case given by ,dr4 ,earle1 members of eight related families were affected during five generations3 these families consisted of sixty-one individuals1 namely1 of thirty-two males1 of whom nine-sixteenths were incapable of distinguishing colour1 and of twenty-nine females1 of whom only one-fifteenth were thus affected4 ,although colour-blindness thus generally clings to the male sex1 nevertheless1 in one instance in which it first appeared in a female1 it was transmitted during five generations to thirteen individuals1 all of whom were females4 ,the hmorrhagic diathesis1 often accompanied by rheumatism1 has been known to affect the males alone during five generations1 being transmitted1 however1 through the females4 ,it is said that deficient phalanges in the fingers have been inherited by the females alone during ten generations4 ,in another case1 a man thus deficient in both hands and feet1 transmitted the peculiarity to his two sons and one daughter2 but in the third generation1--out of nineteen grandchildren1 twelve sons had the family defect1 whilst the seven daughters were free4 ,in ordinary cases of sexual limitation1 the sons or daughters inherit the peculiarity1 whatever it may be1 from their father or mother1 and transmit it to their children of the same sex2 but generally with the hmorrhagic diathesis1 and often with colour-blindness1 and in some other cases1 the sons never inherit the peculiarity directly from their fathers1 but the daughters alone transmit the latent tendency1 so that the sons of the daughters alone exhibit it4 ,thus the father1 grandson1 and great-great-grandson will exhibit a peculiarity1--the grandmother1 daughter1 and great-grand-daughter having transmitted it in a latent state4 ,hence we have1 as ,mr4 ,sedgwick remarks1 a double kind of atavism or reversion2 each grandson apparently receiving and developing the peculiarity from his grandfather1 and each daughter apparently receiving the latent tendency from her grandmother4 ,from the various facts recorded by ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas1 ,mr4 ,sedgwick1 and others1 there can be no doubt that peculiarities first appearing in either sex1 though not in any way necessarily or invariably connected with that sex1 strongly tend to be inherited by the offspring of the same sex1 but are often transmitted in a latent state through the opposite sex4 ,turning now to domesticated animals1 we find that certain characters not proper to the parent species are often confined to1 and inherited by1 one sex alone2 but we do not know the history of the first appearance of such characters4 ,in the chapter on ,sheep1 we have seen that the males of certain races differ greatly from the females in the shape of their horns1 these being absent in the ewes of some breeds2 they differ also in the development of fat in the tail and in the outline of the forehead4 ,these differences1 judging from the character of the allied wild species1 cannot be accounted for by supposing that they have been derived from distinct parent forms4 ,there is1 also1 a great difference between the horns of the two sexes in one ,indian breed of goats4 ,the bull zebu is said to have a larger hump than the cow4 ,in the ,scotch deer-hound the two sexes differ in size more than in any other variety of the dog#bh and1 judging from analogy1 more than in the aboriginal parent-species4 ,the peculiar colour called tortoise-shell is very rarely seen in a male cat2 the males of this variety being of a rusty tint4 ,in various breeds of the fowl the males and females often differ greatly2 and these differences are far from being the same with those which distinguish the two sexes of the parent-species1 the ,gallus bankiva2 and consequently have originated under domestication4 ,in certain sub-varieties of the ,game race we have the unusual case of the hens differing from each other more than the cocks4 ,in an ,indian breed of a white colour shaded with black1 the hens invariably have black skins1 and their bones are covered by a black periosteum1 whilst the cocks are never or most rarely thus characterised4 ,pigeons offer a more interesting case2 for throughout the whole great family the two sexes do not often differ much2 and the males and females of the parent-form1 the ,c4 livia1 are undistinguishable3 yet we have seen that with pouters the male has the characteristic quality of pouting more strongly developed than the female2 and in certain sub-varieties the males alone are spotted or striated with black1 or otherwise differ in colour4 ,when male and female ,english carrier-pigeons are exhibited in separate pens1 the difference in the development of the wattle over the beak and round the eyes is conspicuous4 ,so that here we have instances of the appearance of secondary sexual characters in the domesticated races of a species in which such differences are naturally quite absent4 ,on the other hand1 secondary sexual characters which belong to the species in a state of nature are sometimes quite lost1 or greatly diminished1 under domestication4 ,we see this in the small size of the tusks in our improved breeds of the pig1 in comparison with those of the wild boar4 ,there are sub-breeds of fowls1 in which the males have lost the fine-flowing tail-feathers and hackles2 and others in which there is no difference in colour between the two sexes4 ,in some cases the barred plumage1 which in gallinaceous birds is commonly the attribute of the hen1 has been transferred to the cock1 as in the cuckoo sub-breeds4 ,in other cases masculine characters have been partly transferred to the female1 as with the splendid plumage of the golden-spangled ,hamburgh hen1 the enlarged comb of the ,spanish hen1 the pugnacious disposition of the ,game hen1 and as in the well-developed spurs which occasionally appear in the hens of various breeds4 ,in ,polish fowls both sexes are ornamented with a topknot1 that of the male being formed of hackle-like feathers1 and this is a new male character in the genus ,gallus4 ,on the whole1 as far as ,i can judge1 new characters are more apt to appear in the males of our domesticated animals than in the females1#bi and afterwards to be inherited exclusively or more strongly by the males4 ,finally1 in accordance with the principle of inheritance as limited by sex1 the preservation and augmentation of secondary sexual characters in natural species offers no especial difficulty1 as this would follow through that form of selection which ,i have called sexual selection4 ,inheritance at corresponding periods of ,life4 ,this is an important subject4 ,since the publication of my #8,origin of ,species' ,i have seen no reason to doubt the truth of the explanation there given of one of the most remarkable facts in biology1 namely1 the difference between the embryo and the adult animal4 ,the explanation is1 that variations do not necessarily or generally occur at a very early period of embryonic growth1 and that such variations are inherited at a corresponding age4 ,as a consequence of this the embryo1 even after the parent-form has undergone great modification1 is left only slightly modified2 and the embryos of widely-different animals which are descended from a common progenitor remain in many important respects like one another and probably like their common progenitor4 ,we can thus understand why embryology throws a flood of light on the natural system of classification1 as this ought to be as far as possible genealogical4 ,when the embryo leads an independent life1 that is1 becomes a larva1 it has to be adapted to the surrounding conditions in its structure and instincts1 independently of those of its parents2 and the principle of inheritance at corresponding periods of life renders this possible4 ,this principle is1 indeed1 in one way so obvious that it escapes attention4 ,we possess a number of races of animals and plants1 which1 when compared with one another and with their parent-forms1 present conspicuous differences1 both in their immature and mature states4 ,look at the seeds of the several kinds of peas1 beans1 maize1 which can be propagated truly1 and see how they differ in size1 colour1 and shape1 whilst the full-grown plants differ but little4 ,cabbages1 on the other hand1 differ greatly in foliage and manner of growth1 but hardly at all in their seeds2 and generally it will be found that the differences between cultivated plants at different periods of growth are not necessarily closely connected together1 for plants may differ much in their seeds and little when full-grown1 and conversely may yield seeds hardly distinguishable1 yet differ much when full-grown4 ,in the several breeds of poultry1 descended from a single species1 differences in the eggs and chickens whilst covered with down1 in the plumage at the first and subsequent moults1 as well as in the comb and wattles1 are all inherited4 ,with man peculiarities in the milk and second teeth 7of which ,i have received the details7 are inheritable1 and longevity is often transmitted4 ,so again with our improved breeds of cattle and sheep1 early maturity1 including the early development of the teeth1 and with certain breeds of fowl the early appearance of secondary sexual characters1 all come under the same head of inheritance at corresponding periods4 ,numerous analogous facts could be given4 ,the silk-moth1 perhaps1 offers the best instance2 for in the breeds which transmit their characters truly1 the eggs differ in size1 colour1 and shape3 the caterpillars differ1 in moulting three or four times1 in colour1 even in having a dark-coloured mark like an eyebrow1 and in the loss of certain instincts2--the cocoons differ in size1 shape1 and in the colour and quality of the silk2 these several differences being followed by slight or barely distinguishable differences in the mature moth4 ,but it may be said that1 if in the above cases a new peculiarity is inherited1 it must be at the corresponding stage of development2 for an egg or seed can resemble only an egg or seed1 and the horn in a full-grown ox can resemble only a horn4 ,the following cases show inheritance at corresponding periods more plainly1 because they refer to peculiarities which might have supervened1 as far as we can see1 earlier or later in life1 yet are inherited at the same period at which they first appeared4 ,in the ,lambert family the porcupine-like excrescences appeared in the father and sons at the same age1 namely1 about nine weeks after birth4#cj ,in the extraordinary hairy family described by ,mr4 ,crawfurd1#ca children were produced during three generations with hairy ears2 in the father the hair began to grow over his body at six years old2 in his daughter somewhat earlier1 namely1 at one year2 and in both generations the milk teeth appeared late in life1 the permanent teeth being afterwards singularly deficient4 ,greyness of hair at an unusually early age has been transmitted in some families4 ,these cases border on diseases inherited at corresponding periods of life1 to which ,i shall immediately refer4 ,it is a well-known peculiarity with almond-tumbler pigeons1 that the full beauty and peculiar character of the plumage does not appear until the bird has moulted two or three times4 ,neumeister describes and figures a brace of pigeons in which the whole body is white except the breast1 neck1 and head2 but in their first plumage all the white feathers have coloured edges4 ,another breed is more remarkable3 its first plumage is black1 with rusty-red wing-bars and a crescent-shaped mark on the breast2 these marks then become white1 and remain so during three or four moults2 but after this period the white spreads over the body1 and the bird loses its beauty4#cb ,prize canary-birds have their wings and tail black3 8this colour1 however1 is only retained until the first moult1 so that they must be exhibited ere the change takes place4 ,once moulted1 the peculiarity has ceased4 ,of course all the birds emanating from this stock have black wings and tails the first year40#cc ,a curious and somewhat analogous account has been given#cd of a family of wild pied rooks which were first observed in #agih1 near ,chalfont1 and which every year from that date up to the period of the published notice1 viz41 #ahcg 8have several of their brood particoloured1 black and white4 ,this variegation of the plumage1 however1 disappears with the first moult2 but among the next young families there are always a few pied ones40 ,these changes of plumage1 which are inherited at various corresponding periods of life in the pigeon1 canary-bird1 and rook1 are remarkable1 because the parent-species passes through no such change4 ,inherited diseases afford evidence in some respects of less value than the foregoing cases1 because diseases are not necessarily connected with any change in structure2 but in other respects of more value1 because the periods have been more carefully observed4 ,certain diseases are communicated to the child apparently by a process like inoculation1 and the child is from the first affected2 such cases may be here passed over4 ,large classes of diseases usually appear at certain ages1 such as ,st4 ,vitus's dance in youth1 consumption in early mid-life1 gout later1 and apoplexy still later2 and these are naturally inherited at the same period4 ,but even in diseases of this class1 instances have been recorded1 as with ,st4 ,vitus's dance1 showing that an unusually early or late tendency to the disease is inheritable4#ce ,in most cases the appearance of any inherited disease is largely determined by certain critical periods in each person's life1 as well as by unfavourable conditions4 ,there are many other diseases1 which are not attached to any particular period1 but which certainly tend to appear in the child at about the same age at which the parent was first attacked4 ,an array of high authorities1 ancient and modern1 could be given in support of this proposition4 ,the illustrious ,hunter believed in it2 and ,piorry#cf cautions the physician to look closely to the child at the period when any grave inheritable disease attacked the parent4 ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas1#cg after collecting facts from every source1 asserts that affections of all kinds1 though not related to any particular period of life1 tend to reappear in the offspring at whatever period of life they first appeared in the progenitor4 ,as the subject is important1 it may be well to give a few instances1 simply as illustrations1 not as proof2 for proof1 recourse must be had to the authorities above quoted4 ,some of the following cases have been selected for the sake of showing that1 when a slight departure from the rule occurs1 the child is affected somewhat earlier in life than the parent4 ,in the family of ,le ,compte blindness was inherited through three generations1 and no less than twenty-seven children and grandchildren were all affected at about the same age2 their blindness in general began to advance about the fifteenth or sixteenth year1 and ended in total deprivation of sight at the age of about twenty-two4#ch ,in another case a father and his four children all became blind at twenty-one years old2 in another1 a grandmother grew blind at thirty-five1 her daughter at nineteen1 and three grandchildren at the ages of thirteen and eleven4#ci ,so with deafness1 two brothers1 their father and paternal grandfather1 all became deaf at the age of forty4#dj ,esquirol gives several striking instances of insanity coming on at the same age1 as that of a grandfather1 father1 and son1 who all committed suicide near their fiftieth year4 ,many other cases could be given1 as of a whole family who became insane at the age of forty4#da ,other cerebral affections sometimes follow the same rule1--for instance1 epilepsy and apoplexy4 ,a woman died of the latter disease when sixty-three years old2 one of her daughters at forty-three1 and the other at sixty-seven3 the latter had twelve children1 who all died from tubercular meningitis4#db ,i mention this latter case because it illustrates a frequent occurrence1 namely1 a change in the precise nature of an inherited disease1 though still affecting the same organ4 ,asthma has attacked several members of the same family when forty years old1 and other families during infancy4 ,the most different diseases1 such as angina pectoris1 stone in the bladder1 and various affections of the skin1 have appeared in successive generations at nearly the same age4 ,the little finger of a man began from some unknown cause to grow inwards1 and the same finger in his two sons began at the same age to bend inwards in a similar manner4 ,strange and inexplicable neuralgic affections have caused parents and children to suffer agonies at about the same period of life4#dc ,i will give only two other cases1 which are interesting as illustrating the disappearance as well as the appearance of disease at the same age4 ,two brothers1 their father1 their paternal uncles1 seven cousins1 and their paternal grandfather1 were all similarly affected by a skin-disease1 called pityriasis versicolor2 8the disease1 strictly limited to the males of the family 7though transmitted through the females71 usually appeared at puberty1 and disappeared at about the age of forty or forty-five years40 ,the second case is that of four brothers1 who when about twelve years old suffered almost every week from severe headaches1 which were relieved only by a recumbent position in a dark room4 ,their father1 paternal uncles1 paternal grandfather1 and granduncles all suffered in the same way from headaches1 which ceased at the age of fifty-four or fifty-five in all those who lived so long4 ,none of the females of the family were affected4#dd ,it is impossible to read the foregoing accounts1 and the many others which have been recorded1 of diseases coming on during three or even more generations in several members of the same family at the same age1 especially in the case of rare affections in which the coincidence cannot be attributed to chance1 and to doubt that there is a strong tendency to inheritance in disease at corresponding periods of life4 ,when the rule fails1 the disease is apt to come on earlier in the child than in the parent2 the exceptions in the other direction being very much rarer4 ,dr4 ,lucas#de alludes to several cases of inherited diseases coming on at an earlier period4 ,i have already given one striking instance with blindness during three generations2 and ,mr4 ,bowman remarks that this frequently occurs with cataract4 ,with cancer there seems to be a peculiar liability to earlier inheritance3 ,sir ,j4 ,paget1 who has particularly attended to this subject1 and tabulated a large number of cases1 informs me that he believes that in nine cases out of ten the later generation suffers from the disease at an earlier period than the previous generation4 ,he adds1 8,in the instances in which the opposite relation holds1 and the members of later generations have cancer at a later age than their predecessors1 ,i think it will be found that the non-cancerous parents have lived to extreme old ages40 ,so that the longevity of a non-affected parent seems to have the power of influencing the fatal period in the offspring2 and we thus apparently get another element of complexity in inheritance4 ,the facts1 showing that with certain diseases the period of inheritance occasionally or even frequently advances1 are important with respect to the general descent-theory1 for they render it probable that the same thing would occur with ordinary modifications of structure4 ,the final result of a long series of such advances would be the gradual obliteration of characters proper to the embryo and larva1 which would thus come to resemble more and more closely the mature parent-form4 ,but any structure which was of service to the embryo or larva would be preserved by the destruction at this stage of growth of each individual which manifested any tendency to lose its proper character at too early an age4 ,finally1 from the numerous races of cultivated plants and domestic animals1 in which the seeds or eggs1 the young or old1 differ from one another and from those of the parent-species2--from the cases in which new characters have appeared at a particular period1 and afterwards been inherited at the same period2--and from what we know with respect to disease1 we must believe in the truth of the great principle of inheritance at corresponding periods of life4 ,summary of the three preceding ,chapters4--,strong as is the force of inheritance1 it allows the incessant appearance of new characters4 ,these1 whether beneficial or injurious1--of the most trifling importance1 such as a shade of colour in a flower1 a coloured lock of hair1 or a mere gesture1--or of the highest importance1 as when affecting the brain1 or an organ so perfect and complex as the eye1--or of so grave a nature as to deserve to be called a monstrosity1--or so peculiar as not to occur normally in any member of the same natural class1--often inherited by man1 by the lower animals1 and plants4 ,in numberless cases it suffices for the inheritance of a peculiarity that one parent alone should be thus characterised4 ,inequalities in the two sides of the body1 though opposed to the law of symmetry1 may be transmitted4 ,there is ample evidence that the effects of mutilations and of accidents1 especially or perhaps exclusively when followed by disease1 are occasionally inherited4 ,there can be no doubt that the evil effects of the long-continued exposure of the parent to injurious conditions are sometimes transmitted to the offspring4 ,so it is1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 with the effects of the use and disuse of parts1 and of mental habits4 ,periodical habits are likewise transmitted1 but generally1 as it would appear1 with little force4 ,hence we are led to look at inheritance as the rule1 and non-inheritance as the anomaly4 ,but this power often appears to us in our ignorance to act capriciously1 transmitting a character with inexplicable strength or feebleness4 ,the very same peculiarity1 as the weeping habit of trees1 silky feathers1 etc41 may be inherited either firmly or not at all by different members of the same group1 and even by different individuals of the same species1 though treated in the same manner4 ,in this latter case we see that the power of transmission is a quality which is merely individual in its attachment4 ,as with single characters1 so it is with the several concurrent slight differences which distinguish sub-varieties or races2 for of these1 some can be propagated almost as truly as species1 whilst others cannot be relied on4 ,the same rule holds good with plants1 when propagated by bulbs1 offsets1 etc41 which in one sense still form parts of the same individual1 for some varieties retain or inherit through successive bud-generations their character far more truly than others4 ,some characters not proper to the parent-species have certainly been inherited from an extremely remote epoch1 and may therefore be considered as firmly fixed4 ,but it is doubtful whether length of inheritance in itself gives fixedness of character2 though the chances are obviously in favour of any character which has long been transmitted true or unaltered still being transmitted true as long as the conditions of life remain the same4 ,we know that many species1 after having retained the same character for countless ages1 whilst living under their natural conditions1 when domesticated have varied in the most diversified manner1 that is1 have failed to transmit their original form2 so that no character appears to be absolutely fixed4 ,we can sometimes account for the failure of inheritance by the conditions of life being opposed to the development of certain characters2 and still oftener1 as with plants cultivated by grafts and buds1 by the conditions causing new and slight modifications incessantly to appear4 ,in this latter case it is not that inheritance wholly fails1 but that new characters are continually superadded4 ,in some few cases1 in which both parents are similarly characterised1 inheritance seems to gain so much force by the combined action of the two parents1 that it counteracts its own power1 and a new modification is the result4 ,in many cases the failure of the parents to transmit their likeness is due to the breed having been at some former period crossed2 and the child takes after his grandparent or more remote ancestor of foreign blood4 ,in other cases1 in which the breed has not been crossed1 but some ancient character has been lost through variation1 it occasionally reappears through reversion1 so that the parents apparently fail to transmit their own likeness4 ,in all cases1 however1 we may safely conclude that the child inherits all its characters from its parents1 in whom certain characters are latent1 like the secondary sexual characters of one sex in the other4 ,when1 after a long succession of bud-generations1 a flower or fruit becomes separated into distinct segments1 having the colours or other attributes of both parent-forms1 we cannot doubt that these characters were latent in the earlier buds1 though they could not then be detected1 or could be detected only in an intimately commingled state4 ,so it is with animals of crossed parentage1 which with advancing years occasionally exhibit characters derived from one of their two parents1 of which not a trace could at first be perceived4 ,certain monstrosities1 which resemble what naturalists call the typical form of the group in question1 apparently come under the same law of reversion4 ,it is assuredly an astonishing fact that the male and female sexual elements1 that buds1 and even full-grown animals1 should retain characters1 during several generations in the case of crossed breeds1 and during thousands of generations in the case of pure breeds1 written as it were in invisible ink1 yet ready at any time to be evolved under certain conditions4 ,what these conditions precisely are1 we do not know4 ,but any cause which disturbs the organisation or constitution seems to be sufficient4 ,a cross certainly gives a strong tendency to the reappearance of long-lost characters1 both corporeal and mental4 ,in the case of plants1 this tendency is much stronger with those species which have been crossed after long cultivation and which therefore have had their constitutions disturbed by this cause as well as by crossing1 than with species which have always lived under their natural conditions and have then been crossed4 ,a return1 also1 of domesticated animals and cultivated plants to a wild state favours reversion2 but the tendency under these circumstances has been much exaggerated4 ,when individuals of the same family which differ somewhat1 and when races or species are crossed1 the one is often prepotent over the other in transmitting its character4 ,a race may possess a strong power of inheritance1 and yet when crossed1 as we have seen with trumpeter-pigeons1 yield to the prepotency of every other race4 ,prepotency of transmission may be equal in the two sexes of the same species1 but often runs more strongly in one sex4 ,it plays an important part in determining the rate at which one race can be modified or wholly absorbed by repeated crosses with another4 ,we can seldom tell what makes one race or species prepotent over another2 but it sometimes depends on the same character being present and visible in one parent1 and latent or potentially present in the other4 ,characters may first appear in either sex1 but oftener in the male than in the female1 and afterwards be transmitted to the offspring of the same sex4 ,in this case we may feel confident that the peculiarity in question is really present though latent in the opposite sex6 hence the father may transmit through his daughter any character to his grandson2 and the mother conversely to her granddaughter4 ,we thus learn1 and the fact is an important one1 that transmission and development are distinct powers4 ,occasionally these two powers seem to be antagonistic1 or incapable of combination in the same individual2 for several cases have been recorded in which the son has not directly inherited a character from his father1 or directly transmitted it to his son1 but has received it by transmission through his non-affected mother1 and transmitted it through his non-affected daughter4 ,owing to inheritance being limited by sex1 we see how secondary sexual characters may have arisen under nature2 their preservation and accumulation being dependent on their service to either sex4 ,at whatever period of life a new character first appears1 it generally remains latent in the offspring until a corresponding age is attained1 and then is developed4 ,when this rule fails1 the child generally exhibits the character at an earlier period than the parent4 ,on this principle of inheritance at corresponding periods1 we can understand how it is that most animals display from the germ to maturity such a marvellous succession of characters4 ,finally1 though much remains obscure with respect to ,inheritance1 we may look at the following laws as fairly well established4 ,firstly1 a tendency in every character1 new and old1 to be transmitted by seminal and bud generation1 though often counteracted by various known and unknown causes4 ,secondly1 reversion or atavism1 which depends on transmission and development being distinct powers3 it acts in various degrees and manners through both seminal and bud generation4 ,thirdly1 prepotency of transmission1 which may be confined to one sex1 or be common to both sexes4 ,fourthly1 transmission1 as limited by sex1 generally to the same sex in which the inherited character first appeared2 and this in many1 probably most cases1 depends on the new character having first appeared at a rather late period of life4 ,fifthly1 inheritance at corresponding periods of life1 with some tendency to the earlier development of the inherited character4 ,in these laws of ,inheritance1 as displayed under domestication1 we see an ample provision for the production1 through variability and natural selection1 of new specific forms4 ,,references #a ,see ,youatt on ,cattle1 pp4 #ib1 #fi1 #gh1 #hh1 #afc2 and ,youatt on ,sheep1 p4 #cbe4 ,also ,dr4 ,lucas #8,l',hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 ii4 p4 #caj4 #b #8,hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 ii4 pp4 #aab-abj4 #c ,sir ,h4 ,holland1 #8,chapters on ,mental ,physiology1' #aheb1 p4 #bcd4 #d #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #bgj4 #e ,mr4 ,n4 ,h4 ,smith1 #8,observations on ,breeding1' quoted in #8,encyclop4 of ,rural ,sports1' p4 #bgh4 #f ,quoted by ,bronn1 #8,geshichte der ,natur1' b4 ii4 s4 #agj4 ,see ,sturm1 #8,ueber ,racen1' #ahbe1 s4 #ajd-ajg4 ,for the niata cattle1 see my #8,journal of ,researches1' #ahde1 p4 #adf4 #g ,lucas1 #8,l',hrdite ,nat41' tom4 ii4 p4 #aab4 #h ,mr4 ,orton1 #8,physiology of ,breeding1' #ahee1 p4 #i4 #i ,boitard and ,corbi1 #8,les ,pigeons1' #ahbd1 p4 #bbd4 #aj #8,les ,pigeons1' pp4 #afh1 #aih4 #aa #8,das ,ganze1' etc41 #ahcg1 s4 #ci4 #ab #8,the ,pigeon ,book1' p4 #df4 #ac #8,physiology of ,breeding1' p4 #bb2 ,mr4 ,hewitt1 in #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #bbd4 #ad ,boitard and ,corbi1 #8,les ,pigeons1' #ahbd1 p4 #bbf4 #ae #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #bef1 #bij1 etc4 ,naudin 7#8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #adi7 gives a striking instance of prepotency in ,datura stramonium when crossed with two other species4 #af ,flourens1 #8,longvit ,humaine1' p4 #add1 on crossed jackals4 ,with respect to the difference between the mule and the hinny ,i am aware that this has generally been attributed to the sire and dam transmitting their characters differently2 but ,colin1 who has given in his #8,trait ,phys4 ,comp41' tom4 ii4 pp4 #ecg-eci1 the fullest description which ,i have met with of these reciprocal hybrids1 is strongly of opinion that the ass preponderates in both crosses1 but in an unequal degree4 ,this is likewise the conclusion of ,flourens1 and of ,bechstein in his #8,naturgeschichte ,deutschlands1' b4 i4 s4 #bid4 ,the tail of the hinny is much more like that of the horse than is the tail of the mule1 and this is generally accounted for by the males of both species transmitting with greater power this part of their structure2 but a compound hybrid which ,i saw in the ,zoological ,gardens1 from a mare by a hybrid ass-zebra1 closely resembled its mother in its tail4 #ag ,mr4 ,hewitt1 who has had such great experience in raising these hybrids says 7#8,poultry ,book1' by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 pp4 #afe-afg7 that in all1 the head was destitute of wattles1 comb1 and ear-lappets2 and all closely resembled the pheasant in the shape of the tail and general contour of the body4 ,these hybrids were raised from hens of several breeds by a cock-pheasant2 but another hybrid1 described by ,mr4 ,hewitt1 was raised from a hen-pheasant1 by a silver-laced ,bantam cock1 and this possessed a rudimental comb and wattles4 #ah #8,l',hrd4 ,nat4' tom4 ii4 #b book ii4 ch4 i4 #ai #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #bfd-bff4 ,naudin 7#8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #adh7 has arrived at a similar conclusion4 #bj #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahef1 pp4 #aja1 #acg4 #ba ,see some remarks on this head with respect to sheep by ,mr4 ,wilson1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfc1 p4 #ae4 ,many striking instances of this result are given by ,m4 ,malingi-,nouel 7#8,journ4 ,r4 ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 xiv4 #ahec1 p4 #bbj7 with respect to crosses between ,english and ,french sheep4 ,he found that he obtained the desired influence of the ,english breeds by crossing intentionally mongrelised ,french breeds with pure ,english breeds4 #bb ,verlot1 #8,des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #ff4 #bc ,moquin-,tandon1 #8,tratologie1' p4 #aia4 #bd #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #acg4 #be #8,l',hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 ii4 pp4 #acg-afe4 ,see also ,mr4 ,sedgwick's four memoirs1 immediately to be referred to4 #bf #8,descent of ,man1' #bnd edit41 p4 #cb4 #bg ,on ,sexual ,limitation in ,hereditary ,diseases1 #8,brit4 and ,for4 ,med4-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april #ahfa1 p4 #dgg2 ,july1 p4 #aih2 ,april #ahfc1 p4 #dde2 and ,july1 p4 #aei4 ,also in #ahfg1 #8,on the influence of ,age in ,hereditary ,disease4' #bh ,w4 ,scrope1 #8,art of ,deer ,stalking1' p4 #ced4 #bi ,i have given in my #8,descent of ,man' 7#bnd edit4 p4 #bbc7 sufficient evidence that male animals are usually more variable than the females4 #cj ,prichard1 #8,phys4 ,hist4 of ,mankind1' #ahea1 vol4 i4 p4 #cdi4 #ca #8,embassy to the ,court of ,ava1' vol4 i4 p4 #cbj4 ,the third generation is described by ,capt4 ,yule in his #8,narrative of the ,mission to the ,court of ,ava1' #ahee1 p4 #id4 #cb #8,das ,ganze der ,taubenzucht1' #ahcg1 s4 #bd1 tab4 iv41 fig4 #b2 s4 #ba1 tab4 i41 fig4 #d4 #cc ,kidd's #8,treatise on the ,canary1' p4 #ah4 #cd ,charlesworth1 #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 i4 #ahcg1 p4 #afg4 #ce ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas1 #8,hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 ii4 p4 #gac4 #cf #8,l',hrd4 dans les ,maladies1' #ahdj1 p4 #ace4 ,for ,hunter1 see ,harlan's #8,med4 ,researches1' p4 #ecj4 #cg #8,l',hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 ii4 p4 #hej4 #ch ,sedgwick1 #8,brit4 and ,for4 ,med4-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april1 #ahfa1 p4 #dhe4 ,in some accounts the number of children and grandchildren is given as #cg2 but this seems to be an error judging from the paper first published in the #8,baltimore ,med4 and ,phys4 ,reg4' #ahji1 of which ,mr4 ,sedgwick has been so kind as to send me a copy4 #ci ,prosper ,lucas1 #8,hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 i4 p4 #djj4 #dj ,sedgwick1 ibid41 ,july1 #ahfa1 p4 #bjb4 #da ,piorry1 p4 #aji2 ,prosper ,lucas1 tom4 ii4 p4 #gei4 #db ,prosper ,lucas1 tom4 ii4 p4 #gdh4 #dc ,prosper ,lucas1 tom4 iii4 pp4 #fgh1 #gjj1 #gjb2 ,sedgwick1 ibid41 ,april1 #ahfc1 p4 #ddi1 and ,july1 #ahfc1 p4 #afb4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,steinan #8,essay on ,hereditary ,disease1' #ahdc1 pp4 #bg1 #cd4 #dd ,these cases are given by ,mr4 ,sedgwick on the authority of ,dr4 ,h4 ,stewart1 in #8,med4-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april1 #ahfc1 pp4 #ddi1 #dgg4 #de #8,hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 ii4 p4 #heb4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,on ,,crossing4 ,,free ,,intercrossing ,,obliterates ,,the ,,differences ,,between ,,allied ,,breeds--,,when ,,the ,,numbers ,,of ,,two ,,commingling ,,breeds ,,are ,,unequal1 ,,one ,,absorbs ,,the ,,other--,,the ,,rate ,,of ,,absorption ,,determined ,,by ,,prepotency ,,of ,,transmission1 ,,by ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life1 ,,and ,,by ,,natural ,,selection--,,all ,,organic ,,beings ,,occasionally ,,intercross2 ,,apparent ,,exceptions--,,on ,,certain ,,characters ,,incapable ,,of ,,fusion2 ,,chiefly ,,or ,,exclusively ,,those ,,which ,,have ,,suddenly ,,appeared ,,in ,,the ,,individual--,,on ,,the ,,modification ,,of ,,old ,,races1 ,,and ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,new ,,races ,,by ,,crossing--,,some ,,crossed ,,races ,,have ,,bred ,,true ,,from ,,their ,,first ,,production--,,on ,,the ,,crossing ,,of ,,distinct ,,species ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,domestic ,,races4 ,in the two previous chapters1 when discussing reversion and prepotency1 ,i was necessarily led to give many facts on crossing4 ,in the present chapter ,i shall consider the part which crossing plays in two opposed directions1--firstly1 in obliterating characters1 and consequently in preventing the formation of new races2 and secondly1 in the modification of old races1 or in the formation of new and intermediate races1 by a combination of characters4 ,i shall also show that certain characters are incapable of fusion4 ,the effects of free or uncontrolled breeding between the members of the same variety or of closely allied varieties are important2 but are so obvious that they need not be discussed at much length4 ,it is free intercrossing which chiefly gives uniformity1 both under nature and under domestication1 to the individuals of the same species or variety1 when they live mingled together and are not exposed to any cause inducing excessive variability4 ,the prevention of free crossing1 and the intentional matching of individual animals1 are the corner-stones of the breeder's art4 ,no man in his senses would expect to improve or modify a breed in any particular manner1 or keep an old breed true and distinct1 unless he separated his animals4 ,the killing of inferior animals in each generation comes to the same thing as their separation4 ,in savage and semi-civilised countries1 where the inhabitants have not the means of separating their animals1 more than a single breed of the same species rarely or never exists4 ,in former times1 even in the ,united ,states1 there were no distinct races of sheep1 for all had been mingled together4#a ,the celebrated agriculturist ,marshall#b remarks that 8sheep that are kept within fences1 as well as shepherded flocks in open countries1 have generally a similarity1 if not a uniformity1 of character in the individuals of each flock20 for they breed freely together1 and are prevented from crossing with other kinds2 whereas in the unenclosed parts of ,england the unshepherded sheep1 even of the same flock1 are far from true or uniform1 owing to various breeds having mingled and crossed4 ,we have seen that the half-wild cattle in each of the several ,british parks are nearly uniform in character2 but in the different parks1 from not having mingled and crossed during many generations1 they differ to a certain small extent4 ,we cannot doubt that the extraordinary number of varieties and sub-varieties of the pigeon1 amounting to at least one hundred and fifty1 is partly due to their remaining1 differently from other domesticated birds1 paired for life once matched4 ,on the other hand1 breeds of cats imported into this country soon disappear1 for their nocturnal and rambling habits render it hardly possible to prevent free crossing4 ,rengger#c gives an interesting case with respect to the cat in ,paraguay3 in all the distant parts of the kingdom it has assumed1 apparently from the effects of the climate1 a peculiar character1 but near the capital this change has been prevented1 owing1 as he asserts1 to the native animal frequently crossing with cats imported from ,europe4 ,in all cases like the foregoing1 the effects of an occasional cross will be augmented by the increased vigour and fertility of the crossed offspring1 of which fact evidence will hereafter be given2 for this will lead to the mongrels increasing more rapidly than the pure parent-breeds4 ,when distinct breeds are allowed to cross freely1 the result will be a heterogeneous body2 for instance1 the dogs in ,paraguay are far from uniform1 and can no longer be affiliated to their parent-races4#d ,the character which a crossed body of animals will ultimately assume must depend on several contingencies1--namely1 on the relative members of the individuals belonging to the two or more races which are allowed to mingle2 on the prepotency of one race over the other in the transmission of character2 and on the conditions of life to which they are exposed4 ,when two commingled breeds exist at first in nearly equal numbers1 the whole will sooner or later become intimately blended1 but not so soon1 both breeds being equally favoured in all respects1 as might have been expected4 ,the following calculation#e shows that this is the case3 if a colony with an equal number of black and white men were founded1 and we assume that they marry indiscriminately1 are equally prolific1 and that one in thirty annually dies and is born2 then 8in #fe years the number of blacks1 whites1 and mulattoes would be equal4 ,in #ia years the whites would be #a-ajth1 the blacks #a-ajth1 and the mulattoes1 or people of intermediate degrees of colour1 #h-ajths of the whole number4 ,in three centuries not #a-ajjth part of the whites would exist40 ,when one of two mingled races exceed the other greatly in number1 the latter will soon be wholly1 or almost wholly1 absorbed and lost4#f ,thus ,european pigs and dogs have been largely introduced in the islands of the ,pacific ,ocean1 and the native races have been absorbed and lost in the course of about fifty or sixty years2#g but the imported races no doubt were favoured4 ,rats may be considered as semi-domesticated animals4 ,some snake-rats 7,mus alexandrinus7 escaped in the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london 8and for a long time afterwards the keepers frequently caught cross-bred rats1 at first half-breds1 afterwards with less of the character of the snake-rat1 till at length all traces of it disappeared40#h ,on the other hand1 in some parts of ,london1 especially near the docks1 where fresh rats are frequently imported1 an endless variety of intermediate forms may be found between the brown1 black1 and snake rat1 which are all three usually ranked as distinct species4 ,how many generations are necessary for one species or race to absorb another by repeated crosses has often been discussed2#i and the requisite number has probably been much exaggerated4 ,some writers have maintained that a dozen or score1 or even more generations1 are necessary2 but this in itself is improbable1 for in the tenth generation there would be only #a-ajbdth part of foreign blood in the offspring4 ,grtner found1#aj that with plants1 one species could be made to absorb another in from three to five generations1 and he believes that this could always be effected in from six to seven generations4 ,in one instance1 however1 ,kolreuter#aa speaks of the offspring of ,mirabilis vulgaris1 crossed during eight successive generations by ,m4 longiflora1 as resembling this latter species so closely1 that the most scrupulous observer could detect 8vix aliquam notabilem differentiam0 or1 as he says1 he succeeded1 8ad plenariam fere transmutationem40 ,but this expression shows that the act of absorption was not even then absolutely complete1 though these crossed plants contained only the #a-befth part of ,m4 vulgaris4 ,the conclusions of such accurate observers as ,grtner and ,klreuter are of far higher worth than those made without scientific aim by breeders4 ,the most precise account which ,i have met with is given by ,stonehenge#ab and is illustrated by photographs4 ,mr4 ,hanley crossed a greyhound bitch with a bulldog2 the offspring in each succeeding generation being recrossed with first-rate greyhounds4 ,as ,stonehenge remarks1 it might naturally be supposed that it would take several crosses to get rid of the heavy form of the bulldog2 but ,hysterics1 the gr-gr-granddaughter of a bulldog1 showed no trace whatever of this breed in external form4 ,she and all of the same litter1 however1 were 8remarkably deficient in stoutness1 though fast as well as clever40 ,i believe clever refers to skill in turning4 ,hysterics was put to a son of ,bedlamite1 8but the result of the fifth cross is not as yet1 ,i believe1 more satisfactory than that of the fourth40 ,on the other hand1 with sheep1 ,fleischmann#ac shows how persistent the effects of a single cross may be3 he says 8that the original coarse sheep 7of ,germany7 have #eejj fibres of wool on a square inch2 grades of the third or fourth ,merino cross produced about #hjjj1 the twentieth cross #bg1jjj1 the perfect pure ,merino blood #dj1jjj to #dh1jjj40 ,so that common ,german sheep crossed twenty times successively with ,merino did not by any means acquire wool as fine as that of the pure breed4 ,but in all cases1 the rate of absorption will depend largely on the conditions of life being favourable to any particular character2 and we may suspect that there would be a constant tendency to degeneration in the wool of ,merinos under the climate of ,germany1 unless prevented by careful selection2 and thus perhaps the foregoing remarkable case may be explained4 ,the rate of absorption must also depend on the amount of distinguishable difference between the two forms which are crossed1 and especially1 as ,grtner insists1 on prepotency of transmission in the one form over the other4 ,we have seen in the last chapter that one of two ,french breeds of sheep yielded up its character1 when crossed with ,merinos1 very much more slowly than the other2 and the common ,german sheep referred to by ,fleischmann may be in this respect analogous4 ,in all cases there will be more or less liability to reversion during many subsequent generations1 and it is this fact which has probably led authors to maintain that a score or more of generations are requisite for one race to absorb another4 ,in considering the final result of the commingling of two or more breeds1 we must not forget that the act of crossing in itself tends to bring back long-lost characters not proper to the immediate parent-forms4 ,with respect to the influence of the conditions of life on any two breeds which are allowed to cross freely1 unless both are indigenous and have long been accustomed to the country where they live1 they will1 in all probability1 be unequally affected by the conditions1 and this will modify the result4 ,even with indigenous breeds1 it will rarely or never occur that both are equally well adapted to the surrounding circumstances2 more especially when permitted to roam freely1 and not carefully tended1 as is generally the case with breeds allowed to cross4 ,as a consequence of this1 natural selection will to a certain extent come into action1 and the best fitted will survive1 and this will aid in determining the ultimate character of the commingled body4 ,how long a time it would require before such a crossed body of animals would assume a uniform character within a limited area1 no one can say2 that they would ultimately become uniform from free intercrossing1 and from the survival of the fittest1 we may feel assured2 but the characters thus acquired would rarely or never1 as may be inferred from the previous considerations1 be exactly intermediate between those of the two parent-breeds4 ,with respect to the very slight differences by which the individuals of the same sub-variety1 or even of allied varieties1 are characterised1 it is obvious that free crossing would soon obliterate such small distinctions4 ,the formation of new varieties1 independently of selection1 would also thus be prevented2 except when the same variation continually recurred from the action of some strongly predisposing cause4 ,we may therefore conclude that free crossing has in all cases played an important part in giving uniformity of character to all the members of the same domestic race and of the same natural species1 though largely governed by natural selection and by the direct action of the surrounding conditions4 ,on the possibility of all organic beings occasionally intercrossing4--,but it may be asked1 can free crossing occur with hermaphrodite animals and plants8 ,all the higher animals1 and the few insects which have been domesticated1 have separate sexes1 and must inevitably unite for each birth4 ,with respect to the crossing of hermaphrodites1 the subject is too large for the present volume1 but in the #8,origin of ,species' ,i have given a short abstract of the reasons which induce me to believe that all organic beings occasionally cross1 though perhaps in some cases only at long intervals of time4#ad ,i will merely recall the fact that many plants1 though hermaphrodite in structure1 are unisexual in function2--such as those called by ,c4,k4 ,sprengel dichogamous1 in which the pollen and stigma of the same flower are matured at different periods2 or those called by me reciprocally dimorphic1 in which the flower's own pollen is not fitted to fertilise its own stigma2 or again1 the many kinds in which curious mechanical contrivances exist1 effectually preventing self-fertilisation4 ,there are1 however1 many hermaphrodite plants which are not in any way specially constructed to favour intercrossing1 but which nevertheless commingle almost as freely as animals with separated sexes4 ,this is the case with cabbages1 radishes1 and onions1 as ,i know from having experimented on them3 even the peasants of ,liguria say that cabbages must be prevented 8from falling in love0 with each other4 ,in the orange tribe1 ,gallesio#ae remarks that the amelioration of the various kinds is checked by their continual and almost regular crossing4 ,so it is with numerous other plants4 ,on the other hand1 some cultivated plants rarely or never intercross1 for instance1 the common pea and sweet-pea 7,lathyrus odoratus72 yet their flowers are certainly adapted for cross fertilisation4 ,the varieties of the tomato and aubergine 7,solanum7 and the pimenta 7,pimenta vulgaris87 are said#af never to cross1 even when growing alongside one another4 ,but it should be observed that these are all exotic plants1 and we do not know how they would behave in their native country when visited by the proper insects4 ,with respect to the common pea1 ,i have ascertained that it is rarely crossed in this country owing to premature fertilisation4 ,there exist1 however1 some plants which under their natural conditions appear to be always self-fertilised1 such as the ,bee ,ophrys 7,ophrys apifera7 and a few other ,orchids2 yet these plants exhibit the plainest adaptations for cross-fertilisation4 ,again1 some few plants are believed to produce only closed flowers1 called cleistogene1 which cannot possibly be crossed4 ,this was long thought to be the case with the ,leersia oryzoides1#ag but this grass is now known occasionally to produce perfect flowers1 which set seed4 ,although some plants1 both indigenous and naturalised1 rarely or never produce flowers1 or if they flower never produce seeds1 yet no one doubts that phanerogamic plants are adapted to produce flowers1 and the flowers to produce seed4 ,when they fail1 we believe that such plants under different conditions would perform their proper function1 or that they formerly did so1 and will do so again4 ,on analogous grounds1 ,i believe that the flowers in the above specified anomalous cases which do not now intercross1 either would do so occasionally under different conditions1 or that they formerly did so--the means for affecting this being generally still retained--and will again intercross at some future period1 unless indeed they become extinct4 ,on this view alone1 many points in the structure and action of the reproductive organs in hermaphrodite plants and animals are intelligible1--for instance1 the fact of the male and female organs never being so completely enclosed as to render access from without impossible4 ,hence we may conclude that the most important of all the means for giving uniformity to the individuals of the same species1 namely1 the capacity of occasionally intercrossing1 is present1 or has been formerly present1 with all organic beings1 except1 perhaps1 some of the lowest4 ,on certain ,characters not blending4--,when two breeds are crossed their characters usually become intimately fused together2 but some characters refuse to blend1 and are transmitted in an unmodified state either from both parents or from one4 ,when grey and white mice are paired1 the young are piebald1 or pure white or grey1 but not of an intermediate tint2 so it is when white and common collared turtle-doves are paired4 ,in breeding ,game fowls1 a great authority1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,douglas1 remarks1 8,i may here state a strange fact3 if you cross a black with a white game1 you get birds of both breeds of the clearest colour40 ,sir ,r4 ,heron crossed during many years white1 black1 brown1 and fawn-coloured ,angora rabbits1 and never once got these colours mingled in the same animal1 but often all four colours in the same litter4#ah ,from cases like these1 in which the colours of the two parents are transmitted quite separately to the offspring1 we have all sorts of gradations1 leading to complete fusion4 ,i will give an instance3 a gentleman with a fair complexion1 light hair but dark eyes1 married a lady with dark hair and complexion3 their three children have very light hair1 but on careful search about a dozen black hairs were found scattered in the midst of the light hair on the heads of all three4 ,when turnspit dogs and ancon sheep1 both of which have dwarfed limbs1 are crossed with common breeds1 the offspring are not intermediate in structure1 but take after either parent4 ,when tailless or hornless animals are crossed with perfect animals1 it frequently1 but by no means invariably1 happens that the offspring are either furnished with these organs in a perfect state1 or are quite destitute of them4 ,according to ,rengger1 the hairless condition of the ,paraguay dog is either perfectly or not at all transmitted to its mongrel offspring2 but ,i have seen one partial exception in a dog of this parentage which had part of its skin hairy1 and part naked1 the parts being distinctly separated as in a piebald animal4 ,when ,dorking fowls with five toes are crossed with other breeds1 the chickens often have five toes on one foot and four on the other4 ,some crossed pigs raised by ,sir ,r4 ,heron between the solid-hoofed and common pig had not all four feet in an intermediate condition1 but two feet were furnished with properly divided1 and two with united hoofs4 ,analogous facts have been observed with plants3 ,major ,trevor ,clarke crossed the little1 glabrous-leaved1 annual stock 7,matthiola71 with pollen of a large1 red-flowered1 rough-leaved1 biennial stock1 called cocardeau by the ,french1 and the result was that half the seedlings had glabrous and the other half rough leaves1 but none had leaves in an intermediate state4 ,that the glabrous seedlings were the product of the rough-leaved variety1 and not accidentally of the mother-plant's own pollen1 was shown by their tall and strong habit of growth4#ai in the succeeding generations raised from the rough-leaved crossed seedlings1 some glabrous plants appeared1 showing that the glabrous character1 though incapable of blending with and modifying the rough leaves1 was all the time latent in this family of plants4 ,the numerous plants formerly referred to1 which ,i raised from reciprocal crosses between the peloric and common ,antirrhinum1 offer a nearly parallel case2 for in the first generation all the plants resembled the common form1 and in the next generation1 out of one hundred and thirty-seven plants1 two alone were in an intermediate condition1 the others perfectly resembling either the peloric or common form4 ,major ,trevor ,clarke also fertilised the above-mentioned red-flowered stock with pollen from the purple ,queen stock1 and about half the seedlings scarcely differed in habit1 and not at all in the red colour of the flower1 from the mother-plant1 the other half bearing blossoms of a rich purple1 closely like those of the paternal plant4 ,grtner crossed many white and yellow-flowered species and varieties of ,verbascum2 and these colours were never blended1 but the offspring bore either pure white or pure yellow blossoms2 the former in the larger proportion4#bj ,dr4 ,herbert raised many seedlings1 as he informed me1 from ,swedish turnips crossed by two other varieties1 and these never produced flowers of an intermediate tint1 but always like one of their parents4 ,i fertilised the purple sweet-pea 7,lathyrus odoratus71 which has a dark reddish-purple standard-petal and violet-coloured wings and keel1 with pollen of the painted lady sweet-pea1 which has a pale cherry-coloured standard1 and almost white wings and keel2 and from the same pod ,i twice raised plants perfectly resembling both sorts2 the greater number resembling the father4 ,so perfect was the resemblance1 that ,i should have thought there had been some mistake1 if the plants which were at first identical with the paternal variety1 namely1 the painted-lady1 had not later in the season produced1 as mentioned in a former chapter1 flowers blotched and streaked with dark purple4 ,i raised grandchildren and great-grandchildren from these crossed plants1 and they continued to resemble the painted-lady1 but during later generations became rather more blotched with purple1 yet none reverted completely to the original mother-plant1 the purple sweet-pea4 ,the following case is slightly different1 but still shows the same principle3 ,naudin#ba raised numerous hybrids between the yellow ,linaria vulgaris and the purple ,l4 purpurea1 and during three successive generations the colours kept distinct in different parts of the same flower4 ,from cases such as the foregoing1 in which the offspring of the first generation perfectly resemble either parent1 we come by a small step to those cases in which differently coloured flowers borne on the same root resemble both parents1 and by another step to those in which the same flower or fruit is striped or blotched with the two parental colours1 or bears a single stripe of the colour or other characteristic quality of one of the parent-forms4 ,with hybrids and mongrels it frequently or even generally happens that one part of the body resembles more or less closely one parent and another part the other parent2 and here again some resistence to fusion1 or1 what comes to the same thing1 some mutual affinity between the organic atoms of the same nature1 apparently comes into play1 for otherwise all parts of the body would be equally intermediate in character4 ,so again1 when the offspring of hybrids or mongrels1 which are themselves nearly intermediate in character1 revert either wholly or by segments to their ancestors1 the principle of the affinity of similar1 or the repulsion of dissimilar atoms1 must come into action4 ,to this principle1 which seems to be extremely general1 we shall recur in the chapter on pangenesis4 ,it is remarkable1 as has been strongly insisted upon by ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire in regard to animals1 that the transmission of characters without fusion occurs very rarely when species are crossed2 ,i know of one exception alone1 namely1 with the hybrids naturally produced between the common and hooded crow 7,corvus corone and cornix71 which1 however1 are closely allied species1 differing in nothing except colour4 ,nor have ,i met with any well-ascertained cases of transmission of this kind1 even when one form is strongly prepotent over another1 when two races are crossed which have been slowly formed by man's selection1 and therefore resemble to a certain extent natural species4 ,such cases as puppies in the same litter closely resembling two distinct breeds1 are probably due to superfoetation1--that is1 to the influence of two fathers4 ,all the characters above enumerated1 which are transmitted in a perfect state to some of the offspring and not to others1-- such as distinct colours1 nakedness of skin1 smoothness of leaves1 absence of horns or tail1 additional toes1 pelorism1 dwarfed structure1 etc41--have all been known to appear suddenly in individual animals and plants4 ,from this fact1 and from the several slight1 aggregated differences which distinguish domestic races and species from one another1 not being liable to this peculiar form of transmission1 we may conclude that it is in some way connected with the sudden appearance of the characters in question4 ,on the ,modification of old ,races and the ,formation of new ,races by ,crossing4--,we have hitherto chiefly considered the effects of crossing in giving uniformity of character2 we must now look to an opposite result4 ,there can be no doubt that crossing1 with the aid of rigorous selection during several generations1 has been a potent means in modifying old races1 and in forming new ones4 ,lord ,orford crossed his famous stud of greyhounds once with the bulldog1 in order to give them courage and perseverance4 ,certain pointers have been crossed1 as ,i hear from the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox1 with the foxhound1 to give them dash and speed4 ,certain strains of ,dorking fowls have had a slight infusion of ,game blood2 and ,i have known a great fancier who on a single occasion crossed his turbit-pigeons with barbs1 for the sake of gaining greater breadth of beak4 ,in the foregoing cases breeds have been crossed once1 for the sake of modifying some particular character2 but with most of the improved races of the pig1 which now breed true1 there have been repeated crosses1--for instance1 the improved ,essex owes its excellence to repeated crosses with the ,neapolitan1 together probably with some infusion of ,chinese blood4#bb ,so with our ,british sheep3 almost all the races1 except the ,southdown1 have been largely crossed2 8this1 in fact1 has been the history of our principal breeds40#bc ,to give an example1 the 8,oxfordshire ,downs0 now rank as an established breed4#bd ,they were produced about the year #ahcj by crossing 8,hampshire and in some instances ,southdown ewes with ,cotswold rams30 now the ,hampshire ram was itself produced by repeated crosses between the native ,hampshire sheep and ,southdowns2 and the long-woolled ,cotswold were improved by crosses with the ,leicester1 which latter again is believed to have been a cross between several long-woolled sheep4 ,mr4 ,spooner1 after considering the various cases which have been carefully recorded1 concludes1 8that from a judicious pairing of cross-bred animals it is practicable to establish a new breed40 ,on the continent the history of several crossed races of cattle and of other animals has been well ascertained4 ,to give one instance3 the ,king of ,wurtemburg1 after twenty-five years' careful breeding1 that is1 after six or seven generations1 made a new breed of cattle from a cross between a ,dutch and a ,swiss breed1 combined with other breeds4#be ,the ,sebright bantam1 which breeds as true as any other kind of fowl1 was formed about sixty years ago by a complicated cross4#bf ,dark ,brahmas1 which are believed by some fanciers to constitute a distinct species1 were undoubtedly formed#bg in the ,united ,states1 within a recent period1 by a cross between ,chittagongs and ,cochins4 ,with plants there is little doubt that the ,swede-turnip originated from a cross2 and the history of a variety of wheat1 raised from two very distinct varieties1 and which after six years' culture presented an even sample1 has been recorded on good authority4#bh ,until lately1 cautious and experienced breeders1 though not averse to a single infusion of foreign blood1 were almost universally convinced that the attempt to establish a new race1 intermediate between two widely distinct races1 was hopeless 8they clung with superstitious tenacity to the doctrine of purity of blood1 believing it to be the ark in which alone true safety could be found40#bi ,nor was this conviction unreasonable3 when two distinct races are crossed1 the offspring of the first generation are generally nearly uniform in character2 but even this sometimes fails to be the case1 especially with crossed dogs and fowls1 the young of which from the first are sometimes much diversified4 ,as cross-bred animals are generally of large size and vigorous1 they have been raised in great numbers for immediate consumption4 ,but for breeding they are found utterly useless2 for though they may themselves be uniform in character1 they yield during many generations astonishingly diversified offspring4 ,the breeder is driven to despair1 and concludes that he will never form an intermediate race4 ,but from the cases already given1 and from others which have been recorded1 it appears that patience alone is necessary2 as ,mr4 ,spooner remarks1 8nature opposes no barrier to successful admixture2 in the course of time1 by the aid of selection and careful weeding1 it is practicable to establish a new breed40 ,after six or seven generations the hoped-for result will in most cases be obtained2 but even then an occasional reversion1 or failure to keep true1 may be expected4 ,the attempt1 however1 will assuredly fail if the conditions of life be decidedly unfavourable to the characters of either parent-breed4#cj ,although the grandchildren and succeeding generations of cross-bred animals are generally variable in an extreme degree1 some curious exceptions to the rule have been observed both with crossed races and species4 ,thus ,boitard and ,corbi#ca assert that from a ,pouter and a ,runt 8a ,cavalier will appear1 which we have classed amongst pigeons of pure race1 because it transmits all its qualities to its posterity40 ,the editor of the #8,poultry ,chronicle'#cb bred some bluish fowls from a black ,spanish cock and a ,malay hen2 and these remained true to colour 8generation after generation40 ,the ,himalayan breed of rabbits was certainly formed by crossing two sub-varieties of the silver-grey rabbit2 although it suddenly assumed its present character1 which differs much from that of either parent-breed1 yet it has ever since been easily and truly propagated4 ,i crossed some ,labrador and ,penguin ducks1 and recrossed the mongrels with ,penguins2 afterwards most of the ducks reared during three generations were nearly uniform in character1 being brown with a white crescentic mark on the lower part of the breast1 and with some white spots at the base of the beak2 so that by the aid of a little selection a new breed might easily have been formed4 ,with regard to crossed varieties of plants1 ,mr4 ,beaton#cc remarks that 8,melville's extraordinary cross between the ,scotch kale and an early cabbage is as true and genuine as any on record20 but in this case no doubt selection was practised4 ,grtner#cd has given five cases of hybrids1 in which the progeny kept constant2 and hybrids between ,dianthus armeria and deltoides remained true and uniform to the tenth generation4 ,dr4 ,herbert likewise showed me a hybrid from two species of ,loasa which from its first production had kept constant during several generations4 ,we have seen in the first chapter1 that the several kinds of dogs are almost certainly descended from more than one species1 and so it is with cattle1 pigs and some other domesticated animals4 ,hence the crossing of aboriginally distinct species probably came into play at an early period in the formation of our present races4 ,from ,rutimeyer's observations there can be little doubt that this occurred with cattle2 but in most cases one form will probably have absorbed and obliterated the other1 for it is not likely that semi-civilised men would have taken the necessary pains to modify by selection their commingled1 crossed1 and fluctuating stock4 ,nevertheless1 those animals which were best adapted to their conditions of life would have survived through natural selection2 and by this means crossing will often have indirectly aided in the formation of primeval domesticated breeds4 ,within recent times1 as far as animals are concerned1 the crossing of distinct species has done little or nothing towards the formation or modification of our races4 ,it is not yet known whether the several species of silk-moth which have been recently crossed in ,france will yield permanent races4 ,with plants which can be multiplied by buds and cuttings1 hybridisation has done wonders1 as with many kinds of ,roses1 ,rhododendrons1 ,pelargoniums1 ,calceolarias1 and ,petunias4 ,nearly all these plants can be propagated by seed1 most of them freely2 but extremely few or none come true by seed4 ,some authors believe that crossing is the chief cause of variability1--that is1 of the appearance of absolutely new characters4 ,some have gone so far as to look at it as the sole cause2 but this conclusion is disproved by the facts given in the chapter on ,bud-variation4 ,the belief that characters not present in either parent or in their ancestors frequently originate from crossing is doubtful2 that they occasionally do so is probable2 but this subject will be more conveniently discussed in a future chapter on the causes of ,variability4 ,a condensed summary of this and of the three following chapters1 together with some remarks on ,hybridism1 will be given in the nineteenth chapter4 ,,references #a #8,communications to the ,board of ,agriculture1' vol4 i4 p4 #cfg4 #b #8,review of ,reports1 ,north of ,england1' #ahjh1 p4 #bjj4 #c #8,sugethiere von ,paraguay1' #ahcj1 s4 #bab4 #d ,rengger1 #8,sugethiere1' etc41 s4 #aed4 #e ,white1 #8,regular ,gradation in ,man1' p4 #adf4 #f ,dr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,edwards1 in his #8,caractres ,physiolog4 des ,races ,humaines1' p4 #bd1 first called attention to this subject1 and ably discussed it4 #g ,rev4 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,bennett1 #8,journal of ,voyages1' #ahba-ahbi1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjj4 #h ,mr4 ,s4 ,j4 ,salter1 #8,journal ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 vi41 #ahfb1 p4 #ga4 #i ,sturm1 #8,ueber ,racen1 etc41' #ahbe1 s4 #ajg4 ,bronn1 #8,geschichte der ,natur1' b4 ii4 s4 #agj1 gives a table of the proportions of blood after successive crosses4 ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas1 #8,l',hrdit ,nat41' tom4 ii4 p4 #cjh4 #aj #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #dfc1 #dgj4 #aa #8,nova ,acta ,petrop41' #agid1 p4 #cic3 see also previous volume4 #ab #8,the ,dog1' #ahfg1 pp4 #agi-ahd4 #ac ,as quoted in the #8,true ,principles of ,breeding1' by ,c4 ,h4 ,macknight and ,dr4 ,h4 ,madden1 #ahfe1 p4 #aa4 #ad ,with respect to plants1 an admirable essay on this subject 7,die ,geschlechter-,vertheilung bei den ,pflanzen3 #ahfg7 has been published by ,dr4 ,hildebrand1 who arrives at the same general conclusions as ,i have done4 ,various other treatises have since appeared on the same subject1 more especially by ,hermann ,mller and ,delpino4 #ae #8,teoria della ,riproduzione ,vegetal1' #ahaf1 p4 #ab4 #af ,verlot #8,des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #gb4 #ag ,duval ,jouve1 #8,bull4 ,soc4 ,bot4 de ,france1' tom4 x41 #ahfc1 p4 #aid4 ,with respect to the perfect flowers setting seed1 see ,dr4 ,ascherson in #8,bot4 ,zeitung1' #ahfd1 p4 #cej4 #ah ,extract of a letter from ,sir ,r4 ,heron1 #ahch1 given me by ,mr4 ,yarrell4 ,with respect to mice1 see #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat41' tom4 i4 p4 #ahj2 and ,i have heard of other similar cases4 ,for turtle-doves ,boitard and ,corbi1 #8,les ,pigeons1' etc41 p4 #bch4 ,for the ,game fowl1 #8,the ,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 p4 #abh4 ,for crosses of tailless fowls see ,bechstein1 #8,naturges4 ,deutsch4' b4 iii4 s4 #djc4 ,bronn1 #8,geschichte der ,natur1' b4 ii4 s4 #agj1 gives analogous facts with horses4 ,on the hairless condition of crossed ,south ,american dogs1 see ,rengger1 #8,sugethiere von ,paraguay1' s4 #aeb2 but ,i saw in the ,zoological ,gardens mongrels1 from a similar cross1 which were hairless1 quite hairy1 or hairy in patches1 that is1 piebald with hair4 ,for crosses of ,dorking and other fowls1 see #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cee4 ,about the crossed pigs1 extract of letter from ,sir ,r4 ,heron to ,mr4 ,yarrell4 ,for other cases1 see ,p4 ,lucas #8,l',hrd4 ,nat4' tom4 i4 p4 #bab4 #ai #8,internat4 ,hort4 and ,bot4 ,congress of ,london1' #ahff4 #bj #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #cjg4 ,klreuter 7#8,dritte ,fortsetszung1' s4 #cd1 #ci71 however1 obtained intermediate tints from similar crosses in the genus ,verbascum4 ,with respect to the turnips1 see ,herbert's #8,amaryllidace1' #ahcg1 p4 #cgj4 #ba #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #ajj4 #bb ,richardson1 #8,pigs1' #ahdg1 pp4 #cg1 #db2 ,s4 ,sidney's edition of #8,youatt on the ,pig1' #ahfj1 p4 #c4 #bc ,see ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,spooner's excellent paper on ,cross-,breeding1 #8,journal ,royal ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 xx41 part ii43 see also an equally good article by ,mr4 ,ch4 ,howard1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #cbj4 #bd #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheg1 pp4 #fdi1 #feb4 #be #8,bulletin de la ,soc4 d',acclimat41' #ahfb1 tom4 ix4 p4 #dfc4 ,see also for other cases ,,mm4 ,moll and ,gayot1 #8,du ,buf1' #ahfj1 p4 #cb4 #bf #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 ii41 #ahed1 p4 #cf4 #bg #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #eh4 #bh #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheb1 p4 #gfe4 #bi ,spooner1 in #8,journal ,royal ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 xx41 part ii4 #cj ,see ,colin's #8,trait de ,phys4 ,comp4 des ,animaux ,domestiques1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ecf1 where this subject is well treated4 #ca #8,les ,pigeons1' p4 #cg4 #cb ,vol4 i41 #ahed1 p4 #aja4 #cc #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahef1 p4 #aaj4 #cd #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #eec4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,causes ,,which ,,interfere ,,with ,,the ,,free ,,crossing ,,of ,,varieties--,,influence ,,of ,,domestication ,,on ,,fertility4 ,,difficulties ,,in ,,judging ,,of ,,the ,,fertility ,,of ,,varieties ,,when ,,crossed4 ,,various ,,causes ,,which ,,keep ,,varieties ,,distinct1 ,,as ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,breeding ,,and ,,sexual ,,preference--,,varieties ,,of ,,wheat ,,said ,,to ,,be ,,sterile ,,when ,,crossed--,,varieties ,,of ,,maize1 ,,verbascum1 ,,hollyhock1 ,,gourds1 ,,melons1 ,,and ,,tobacco1 ,,rendered ,,in ,,some ,,degree ,,mutually ,,sterile--,,domestication ,,eliminates ,,the ,,tendency ,,to ,,sterility ,,natural ,,to ,,species ,,when ,,crossed--,,on ,,the ,,increased ,,fertility ,,of ,,uncrossed ,,animals ,,and ,,plants ,,from ,,domestication ,,and ,,cultivation4 ,the domesticated races of both animals and plants1 when crossed1 are1 with extremely few exceptions1 quite prolific1--in some cases even more so than the purely-bred parent-races4 ,the offspring1 also1 raised from such crosses are likewise1 as we shall see in the following chapter1 generally more vigorous and fertile than their parents4 ,on the other hand1 species when crossed1 and their hybrid offspring1 are almost invariably in some degree sterile2 and here there seems to exist a broad and insuperable distinction between races and species4 ,the importance of this subject as bearing on the origin of species is obvious2 and we shall hereafter recur to it4 ,it is unfortunate how few precise observations have been made on the fertility of mongrel animals and plants during several successive generations4 ,dr4 ,broca#a has remarked that no one has observed whether1 for instance1 mongrel dogs1 bred inter se1 are indefinitely fertile2 yet1 if a shade of infertility be detected by careful observation in the offspring of natural forms when crossed1 it is thought that their specific distinction is proved4 ,but so many breeds of sheep1 cattle1 pigs1 dogs1 and poultry1 have been crossed and recrossed in various ways1 that any sterility1 if it had existed1 would from being injurious almost certainly have been observed4 ,in investigating the fertility of crossed varieties many sources of doubt occur4 ,whenever the least trace of sterility between two plants1 however closely allied1 was observed by ,kolreuter1 and more especially by ,grtner1 who counted the exact number of seed in each capsule1 the two forms were at once ranked as distinct species2 and if this rule be followed1 assuredly it will never be proved that varieties when crossed are in any degree sterile4 ,we have formerly seen that certain breeds of dogs do not readily pair together2 but no observations have been made whether1 when paired1 they produce the full number of young1 and whether the latter are perfectly fertile inter se2 but1 supposing that some degree of sterility were found to exist1 naturalists would simply infer that these breeds were descended from aboriginally distinct species2 and it would be scarcely possible to ascertain whether or not this explanation was the true one4 ,the ,sebright ,bantam is much less prolific than any other breed of fowls1 and is descended from a cross between two very distinct breeds1 recrossed by a third sub-variety4 ,but it would be extremely rash to infer that the loss of fertility was in any manner connected with its crossed origin1 for it may with more probability be attributed either to long-continued close interbreeding1 or to an innate tendency to sterility correlated with the absence of hackles and sickle tail-feathers4 ,before giving the few recorded cases of forms1 which must be ranked as varieties1 being in some degree sterile when crossed1 ,i may remark that other causes sometimes interfere with varieties freely intercrossing4 ,thus they may differ too greatly in size1 as with some kinds of dogs and fowls3 for instance1 the editor of the #8,journal of ,horticulture1 etc4'#b says that he can keep ,bantams with the larger breeds without much danger of their crossing1 but not with the smaller breeds1 such as ,games1 ,hamburghs1 etc4 ,with plants a difference in the period of flowering serves to keep varieties distinct1 as with the various kinds of maize and wheat3 thus ,colonel ,le ,couteur#c remarks1 8the ,talavera wheat1 from flowering much earlier than any other kind1 is sure to continue pure40 ,in different parts of the ,falkland ,islands the cattle are breaking up into herds of different colours2 and those on the higher ground1 which are generally white1 usually breed1 as ,i am informed by ,sir ,j4 ,sulivan1 three months earlier than those on the lowland2 and this would manifestly tend to keep the herds from blending4 ,certain domestic races seem to prefer breeding with their own kind2 and this is a fact of some importance1 for it is a step towards that instinctive feeling which helps to keep closely allied species in a state of nature distinct4 ,we have now abundant evidence that1 if it were not for this feeling1 many more hybrids would be naturally produced than in this case4 ,we have seen in the first chapter that the alco dog of ,mexico dislikes dogs of other breeds2 and the hairless dog of ,paraguay mixes less readily with the ,european races1 than the latter do with each other4 ,in ,germany the female ,spitz-dog is said to receive the fox more readily than will other dogs2 a female ,australian ,dingo in ,england attracted the wild male foxes4 ,but these differences in the sexual instinct and attractive power of the various breeds may be wholly due to their descent from distinct species4 ,in ,paraguay the horses have much freedom1 and an excellent observer#d believes that the native horses of the same colour and size prefer associating with each other1 and that the horses which have been imported from ,entre ,rios and ,banda ,oriental into ,paraguay likewise prefer associating together4 ,in ,circassia six sub-races of the horse have received distinct names2 and a native proprietor of rank#e asserts that horses of three of these races1 whilst living a free life1 almost always refuse to mingle and cross1 and will even attack one another4 ,it has been observed1 in a district stocked with heavy ,lincolnshire and light ,norfolk sheep1 that both kinds2 though bred together1 when turned out1 8in a short time separate to a sheep20 the ,lincolnshires drawing off to the rich soil1 and the ,norfolks to their own dry light soil2 and as long as there is plenty of grass1 8the two breeds keep themselves as distinct as rooks and pigeons40 ,in this case different habits of life tend to keep the races distinct4 ,on one of the ,faroe islands1 not more than half a mile in diameter1 the half-wild native black sheep are said not to have readily mixed with the imported white sheep4 ,it is a more curious fact that the semi-monstrous ancon sheep of modern origin 8have been observed to keep together1 separating themselves from the rest of the flock1 when put into enclosures with other sheep40#f ,with respect to fallow-deer1 which live in a semi-domesticated condition1 ,mr4 ,bennett#g states that the dark and pale coloured herds1 which have long been kept together in the ,forest of ,dean1 in ,high ,meadow ,woods1 and in the ,new ,forest1 have never been known to mingle3 the dark-coloured deer1 it may be added1 are believed to have been first brought by ,james ,i4 from ,norway1 on account of their greater hardiness4 ,i imported from the island of ,porto ,santo two of the feral rabbits1 which differ1 as described in the fourth chapter1 from common rabbits2 both proved to be males1 and1 though they lived during some years in the ,zoological ,gardens1 the superintendent1 ,mr4 ,bartlett1 in vain endeavoured to make them breed with various tame kinds2 but whether this refusal to breed was due to any change in the instinct1 or simply to their extreme wildness1 or whether confinement had rendered them sterile1 as often occurs1 cannot be determined4 ,whilst matching for the sake of experiment many of the most distinct breeds of pigeons1 it frequently appeared to me that the birds1 though faithful to their marriage vow1 retained some desire after their own kind4 ,accordingly ,i asked ,mr4 ,wicking1 who has kept a larger stock of various breeds together than any man in ,england1 whether he thought that they would prefer pairing with their own kind1 supposing that there were males and females enough of each2 and he without hesitation answered that he was convinced that this was the case4 ,it has often been noticed that the dovecote pigeon seems to have an actual aversion towards the several fancy breeds#h yet all have certainly sprung from a common progenitor4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox informs me that his flocks of white and common ,chinese geese kept distinct4 ,these facts and statements1 though some of them are incapable of proof1 resting only on the opinion of experienced observers1 show that some domestic races are led by different habits of life to keep to a certain extent separate1 and that others prefer coupling with their own kind1 in the same manner as species in a state of nature1 though in a much less degree4 ,with respect to sterility from the crossing of domestic races1 ,i know of no well-ascertained case with animals4 ,this fact1 seeing the great difference in structure between some breeds of pigeons1 fowls1 pigs1 dogs1 etc41 is extraordinary1 in contrast with the sterility of many closely allied natural species when crossed2 but we shall hereafter attempt to show that it is not so extraordinary as it at first appears4 ,and it may be well here to recall to mind that the amount of external difference between two species is not a safe guide for predicting whether or not they will breed together1--some closely allied species when crossed being utterly sterile1 and others which are extremely unlike being moderately fertile4 ,i have said that no case of sterility in crossed races rests on satisfactory evidence2 but here is one which at first seems trustworthy4 ,mr4 ,youatt#i and a better authority cannot be quoted1 states1 that formerly in ,lancashire crosses were frequently made between longhorn and shorthorn cattle2 the first cross was excellent1 but the produce was uncertain2 in the third or fourth generation the cows were bad milkers2 8in addition to which1 there was much uncertainty whether the cows would conceive2 and full one-third of the cows among some of these half-breds failed to be in calf40 ,this at first seems a good case3 but ,mr4 ,wilkinson states1#aj that a breed derived from this same cross was actually established in another part of ,england2 and if it had failed in fertility1 the fact would surely have been noticed4 ,moreover1 supposing that ,mr4 ,youatt had proved his case1 it might be argued that the sterility was wholly due to the two parent-breeds being descended from primordially distinct species4 ,in the case of plants ,grtner states that he fertilised thirteen heads 7and subsequently nine others7 on a dwarf maize bearing yellow seed#aa with pollen of a tall maize having red seed2 and one head alone produced good seed1 but only five in number4 ,though these plants are moncious1 and therefore do not require castration1 yet ,i should have suspected some accident in the manipulation1 had not ,grtner expressly stated that he had during many years grown these two varieties together1 and they did not spontaneously cross2 and this1 considering that the plants are monoecious and abound with pollen1 and are well known generally to cross freely1 seems explicable only on the belief that these two varieties are in some degree mutually infertile4 ,the hybrid plants raised from the above five seeds were intermediate in structure1 extremely variable1 and perfectly fertile4#ab ,in like manner ,prof4 ,hildebrand#ac could not succeed in fertilising the female flowers of a plant bearing brown grains with pollen from a certain kind bearing yellow grains2 although other flowers on the same plant1 which were fertilised with their own pollen1 yielded good seed4 ,no one1 ,i believe1 even suspects that these varieties of maize are distinct species2 but had the hybrids been in the least sterile1 no doubt ,grtner would at once have so classed them4 ,i may here remark1 that with undoubted species there is not necessarily any close relation between the sterility of a first cross and that of the hybrid offspring4 ,some species can be crossed with facility1 but produce utterly sterile hybrids2 others can be crossed with extreme difficulty1 but the hybrids when produced are moderately fertile4 ,i am not aware1 however1 of any instance quite like this of the maize1 namely1 of a first cross made with difficulty1 but yielding perfectly fertile hybrids4#ad ,the following case is much more remarkable1 and evidently perplexed ,grtner1 whose strong wish it was to draw a broad line of distinction between species and varieties4 ,in the genus ,verbascum1 he made1 during eighteen years1 a vast number of experiments1 and crossed no less than #ajhe flowers and counted their seeds4 ,many of these experiments consisted in crossing white and yellow varieties of both ,v4 lychnitis and ,v4 blattaria with nine other species and their hybrids4 ,that the white and yellow flowered plants of these two species are really varieties1 no one has doubted2 and ,grtner actually raised in the case of both species one variety from the seed of the other4 ,now in two of his works#ae he distinctly asserts that crosses between similarly-coloured flowers yield more seed than between dissimilarly-coloured2 so that the yellow-flowered variety of either species 7and conversely with the white-flowered variety71 when crossed with pollen of its own kind1 yields more seed than when crossed with that of the white variety2 and so it is when differently coloured species are crossed4 ,the general results may be seen in the ,table at the end of his volume4 ,in one instance he gives#af the following details2 but ,i must premise that ,grtner1 to avoid exaggerating the degree of sterility in his crosses1 always compares the maximum number obtained from a cross with the average number naturally given by the pure mother-plant4 ,the white variety of ,v4 lychnitis1 naturally fertilised by its own pollen1 gave from an average of twelve capsules ninety-six good seeds in each2 whilst twenty flowers fertilised with pollen from the yellow variety of this same species1 gave as the maximum only eighty-nine good seeds2 so that we have the proportion of #ajjj to #ijh1 according to ,grtner's usual scale4 ,i should have thought it possible that so small a difference in fertility might have been accounted for by the evil effects of the necessary castration2 but ,grtner shows that the white variety of ,v4 lychnitis1 when fertilised first by the white variety of ,v4 blattaria1 and then by the yellow variety of this species1 yielded seed in the proportion of #fbb to #dch2 and in both these cases castration was performed4 ,now the sterility which results from the crossing of the differently coloured varieties of the same species1 is fully as great as that which occurs in many cases when distinct species are crossed4 ,unfortunately ,grtner compared the results of the first unions alone1 and not the sterility of the two sets of hybrids produced from the white variety of ,v4 lychnitis when fertilised by the white and yellow varieties of ,v4 blattaria1 for it is probable that they would have differed in this respect4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott has given me the results of a series of experiments on ,verbascum1 made by him in the ,botanic ,gardens of ,edinburgh4#ag ,he repeated some of ,grtner's experiments on distinct species1 but obtained only fluctuating results1 some confirmatory1 the greater number contradictory2 nevertheless these seem hardly sufficient to overthrow the conclusion arrived at by ,grtner from experiments tried on a larger scale4 ,mr4 ,scott also experimented on the relative fertility of unions between similarly and dissimilarly-coloured varieties of the same species4 ,thus he fertilised six flowers of the yellow variety of ,v4 lychnitis by its own pollen1 and obtained six capsules2 and calling1 for the sake of comparison1 the average number of good seed in each of their capsules one hundred1 he found that this same yellow variety1 when fertilised by the white variety1 yielded from seven capsules an average of ninety-four seed4 ,on the same principle1 the white variety of ,v4 lychnitis by its own pollen 7from six capsules71 and by the pollen of the yellow variety 7eight capsules71 yielded seed in the proportion of #ajj to #hb4 ,the yellow variety of ,v4 thapsus by its own pollen 7eight capsules71 and by that of the white variety 7only two capsules71 yielded seed in the proportion of #ajj to #id4 ,lastly1 the white variety of ,v4 blattaria by its own pollen 7eight capsules71 and by that of the yellow variety 7five capsules71 yielded seed in the proportion of #ajj to #gi4 ,so that in every case the unions of similarly-coloured varieties of the same species were more fertile than the unions of dissimilarly-coloured varieties2 when all the cases are grouped together1 the difference of fertility is as #ajj to #hf4 ,some additional trials were made1 and altogether thirty-six similarly-coloured unions yielded thirty-five good capsules2 whilst thirty-five dissimilarly-coloured unions yielded only twenty-six good capsules4 ,besides the foregoing experiments1 the purple ,v4 phniceum was crossed by a rose-coloured and a white variety of the same species2 these two varieties were also crossed together1 and these several unions yielded less seed than ,v4 phniceum by its own pollen4 ,hence it follows from ,mr4 ,scott's experiments1 that in the genus ,verbascum the similarly and dissimilarly-coloured varieties of the same species behave1 when crossed1 like closely allied but distinct species4#ah ,this remarkable fact of the sexual affinity of similarly-coloured varieties1 as observed by ,grtner and ,mr4 ,scott1 may not be of very rare occurrence2 for the subject has not been attended to by others4 ,the following case is worth giving1 partly to show how difficult it is to avoid error4 ,dr4 ,herbert#ai has remarked that variously-coloured double varieties of the ,hollyhock 7,althea rosea7 may be raised with certainty by seed from plants growing close together4 ,i have been informed that nurserymen who raise seed for sale do not separate their plants2 accordingly ,i procured seed of eighteen named varieties2 of these1 eleven varieties produced sixty-two plants all perfectly true to their kind2 and seven produced forty-nine plants1 half of which were true and half false4 ,mr4 ,masters of ,canterbury has given me a more striking case2 he saved seed from a great bed of twenty-four named varieties planted in closely adjoining rows1 and each variety reproduced itself truly with only sometimes a shade of difference in tint4 ,now in the hollyhock the pollen1 which is abundant1 is matured and nearly all shed before the stigma of the same flower is ready to receive it2#bj and as bees covered with pollen incessantly fly from plant to plant1 it would appear that adjoining varieties could not escape being crossed4 ,as1 however1 this does not occur1 it appeared to me probable that the pollen of each variety was prepotent on its own stigma over that of all other varieties1 but ,i have no evidence on this point4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,turner of ,slough1 well known for his success in the cultivation of this plant1 informs me that it is the doubleness of the flowers which prevents the bees gaining access to the pollen and stigma2 and he finds that it is difficult even to cross them artificially4 ,whether this explanation will fully account for varieties in close proximity propagating themselves so truly by seed1 ,i do not know4 ,the following cases are worth giving1 as they relate to monoecious forms1 which do not require1 and consequently cannot have been injured by1 castration4 ,girou de ,buzareingues crossed what he designates three varieties of gourd1#ba and asserts that their mutual fertilisation is less easy in proportion to the difference which they present4 ,i am aware how imperfectly the forms in this group were until recently known2 but ,sageret1#bb who ranked them according to their mutual fertility1 considers the three forms above alluded to as varieties1 as does a far higher authority1 namely1 ,m4 ,naudin4#bc ,sageret#bd has observed that certain melons have a greater tendency1 whatever the cause may be1 to keep true than others2 and ,m4 ,naudin1 who has had such immense experience in this group1 informs me that he believes that certain varieties intercross more readily than others of the same species2 but he has not proved the truth of this conclusion2 the frequent abortion of the pollen near ,paris being one great difficulty4 ,nevertheless1 he has grown close together1 during seven years1 certain forms of ,citrullus1 which1 as they could be artificially crossed with perfect facility and produced fertile offspring1 are ranked as varieties2 but these forms when not artificially crossed kept true4 ,many other varieties1 on the other hand1 in the same group cross with such facility1 as ,m4 ,naudin repeatedly insists1 that without being grown far apart they cannot be kept in the least true4 ,another case1 though somewhat different1 may be here given1 as it is highly remarkable1 and is established on excellent evidence4 ,kolreuter minutely describes five varieties of the common tobacco#be which were reciprocally crossed1 and the offspring were intermediate in character and as fertile as their parents3 from this fact ,kolreuter inferred that they are really varieties2 and no one1 as far as ,i can discover1 seems to have doubted that such is the case4 ,he also crossed reciprocally these five varieties with ,n4 glutinosa1 and they yielded very sterile hybrids2 but those raised from the var4 perennis1 whether used as the father or mother plant1 were not so sterile as the hybrids from the four other varieties4#bf ,so that the sexual capacity of this one variety has certainly been in some degree modified1 so as to approach in nature that of ,n4 glutinosa4#bg ,these facts with respect to plants show that in some few cases certain varieties have had their sexual powers so far modified1 that they cross together less readily and yield less seed than other varieties of the same species4 ,we shall presently see that the sexual functions of most animals and plants are eminently liable to be affected by the conditions of life to which they are exposed2 and hereafter we shall briefly discuss the conjoint bearing of this fact1 and others1 on the difference in fertility between crossed varieties and crossed species4 ,domestication eliminates the tendency to ,sterility which is general with ,species when crossed4 ,this hypothesis was first propounded by ,pallas1#bh and has been adopted by several authors4 ,i can find hardly any direct facts in its support2 but unfortunately no one has compared1 in the case of either animals or plants1 the fertility of anciently domesticated varieties1 when crossed with a distinct species1 with that of the wild parent-species when similarly crossed4 ,no one has compared1 for instance1 the fertility of ,gallus bankiva and of the domesticated fowl1 when crossed with a distinct species of ,gallus or ,phasianus2 and the experiment would in all cases be surrounded by many difficulties4 ,dureau de la ,malle1 who has so closely studied classical literature1 states#bi that in the time of the ,romans the common mule was produced with more difficulty than at the present day2 but whether this statement may be trusted ,i know not4 ,a much more important1 though somewhat different1 case is given by ,m4 ,groenland1#cj namely1 that plants1 known from their intermediate character and sterility to be hybrids between gilops and wheat1 have perpetuated themselves under culture since #aheg1 with a rapid but varying increase of fertility in each generation4 ,in the fourth generation the plants1 still retaining their intermediate character1 had become as fertile as common cultivated wheat4 ,the indirect evidence in favour of the ,pallasian doctrine appears to me to be extremely strong4 ,in the earlier chapters ,i have shown that our various breeds of the dog are descended from several wild species2 and this probably is the case with sheep4 ,there can be no doubt that the ,zebu or humped ,indian ox belongs to a distinct species from ,european cattle3 the latter1 moreover1 are descended from two forms1 which may be called either species or races4 ,we have good evidence that our domesticated pigs belong to at least two specific types1 ,s4 scrofa and indicus4 ,now a widely extended analogy leads to the belief that if these several allied species1 when first reclaimed1 had been crossed1 they would have exhibited1 both in their first unions and in their hybrid offspring1 some degree of sterility4 ,nevertheless1 the several domesticated races descended from them are now all1 as far as can be ascertained1 perfectly fertile together4 ,if this reasoning be trustworthy1 and it is apparently sound1 we must admit the ,pallasian doctrine that long-continued domestication tends to eliminate that sterility which is natural to species when crossed in their aboriginal state4 ,on increased ,fertility from ,domestication and ,cultivation4 ,increased fertility from domestication1 without any reference to crossing1 may be here briefly considered4 ,this subject bears indirectly on two or three points connected with the modification of organic beings4 ,as ,buffon long ago remarked1#ca domestic animals breed oftener in the year and produce more young at a birth than wild animals of the same species2 they1 also1 sometimes breed at an earlier age4 ,the case would hardly have deserved further notice1 had not some authors lately attempted to show that fertility increases and decreases in an inverse ratio with the amount of food4 ,this strange doctrine has apparently arisen from individual animals when supplied with an inordinate quantity of food1 and from plants of many kinds when grown on excessively rich soil1 as on a dunghill1 becoming sterile3 but to this latter point ,i shall have occasion presently to return4 ,with hardly an exception1 our domesticated animals1 which have been long habituated to a regular and copious supply of food1 without the labour of searching for it1 are more fertile than the corresponding wild animals4 ,it is notorious how frequently cats and dogs breed1 and how many young they produce at a birth4 ,the wild rabbit is said generally to breed four times yearly1 and to produce each time at most six young2 the tame rabbit breeds six or seven times yearly1 producing each time from four to eleven young2 and ,mr4 ,harrison ,weir tells me of a case of eighteen young having been produced at a birth1 all of which survived4 ,the ferret1 though generally so closely confined1 is more prolific than its supposed wild prototype4 ,the wild sow is remarkably prolific2 she often breeds twice in the year1 and bears from four to eight and sometimes even twelve young2 but the domestic sow regularly breeds twice a year1 and would breed oftener if permitted2 and a sow that produces less than eight at a birth 8is worth little1 and the sooner she is fattened for the butcher the better40 ,the amount of food affects the fertility of the same individual3 thus sheep1 which on mountains never produce more than one lamb at a birth1 when brought down to lowland pastures frequently bear twins4 ,this difference apparently is not due to the cold of the higher land1 for sheep and other domestic animals are said to be extremely prolific in ,lapland4 ,hard living1 also1 retards the period at which animals conceive2 for it has been found disadvantageous in the northern islands of ,scotland to allow cows to bear calves before they are four years old4#cb ,birds offer still better evidence of increased fertility from domestication3 the hen of the wild ,gallus bankiva lays from six to ten eggs1 a number which would be thought nothing of with the domestic hen4 ,the wild duck lays from five to ten eggs2 the tame one in the course of the year from eighty to one hundred4 ,the wild grey-lag goose lays from five to eight eggs2 the tame from thirteen to eighteen1 and she lays a second time2 as ,mr4 ,dixon has remarked1 8high-feeding1 care1 and moderate warmth induce a habit of prolificacy which becomes in some measure hereditary40 ,whether the semi-domesticated dovecote pigeon is more fertile than the wild rock-pigeon1 ,c4 livia1 ,i know not2 but the more thoroughly domesticated breeds are nearly twice as fertile as dovecotes3 the latter1 however1 when caged and highly fed1 become equally fertile with house pigeons4 ,i hear from ,judge ,caton that the wild turkey in the ,united ,states does not breed when a year old1 as the domesticated turkeys there invariably do4 ,the peahen alone of domesticated birds is rather more fertile1 according to some accounts1 when wild in its native ,indian home1 than in ,europe when exposed to our much colder climate4#cc ,with respect to plants1 no one would expect wheat to tiller more1 and each ear to produce more grain1 in poor than in rich soil2 or to get in poor soil a heavy crop of peas or beans4 ,seeds vary so much in number that it is difficult to estimate them2 but on comparing beds of carrots in a nursery garden with wild plants1 the former seemed to produce about twice as much seed4 ,cultivated cabbages yielded thrice as many pods by measure as wild cabbages from the rocks of ,south ,wales4 ,the excess of berries produced by the cultivated asparagus in comparison with the wild plant is enormous4 ,no doubt many highly cultivated plants1 such as pears1 pineapples1 bananas1 sugar-cane1 etc41 are nearly or quite sterile2 and ,i am inclined to attribute this sterility to excess of food and to other unnatural conditions2 but to this subject ,i shall recur4 ,in some cases1 as with the pig1 rabbit1 etc41 and with those plants which are valued for their seed1 the direct selection of the more fertile individuals has probably much increased their fertility2 and in all cases this may have occurred indirectly1 from the better chance of some of the numerous offspring from the more fertile individuals having been preserved4 ,but with cats1 ferrets1 and dogs1 and with plants like carrots1 cabbages1 and asparagus1 which are not valued for their prolificacy1 selection can have played only a subordinate part2 and their increased fertility must be attributed to the more favourable conditions of life under which they have long existed4 ,,references #a #8,journal de ,physiolog41' tom4 ii41 #ahei1 p4 #che4 #b ,dec4 #ahfc1 p4 #dhd4 #c ,on #8,the ,varieties of ,wheat1' p4 #ff4 #d ,rengger1 #8,sugethiere von ,paraguay1' s4 #ccf4 #e ,see a memoir by ,,mm4 ,lherbette and ,de ,quatrefages1 in #8,bull4 ,soc4 d',acclimat41' tom4 viii41 ,july1 #ahfa1 p4 #cab4 #f ,for the ,norfolk sheep1 see ,marshall's #8,rural ,economy of ,norfolk1' vol4 ii4 p4 #acf4 ,see ,rev4 ,l4 ,landt's #8,description of ,faroe1' p4 #ff4 ,for the ancon sheep1 see #8,phil4 ,transact41' #ahac1 p4 #ij4 #g ,white's #8,nat4 ,hist4 of ,selbourne1' edited by ,bennett1 p4 #ci4 ,with respect to the origin of the dark-coloured deer1 see #8,some ,account of ,english ,deer ,parks1' by ,e4 ,p4 ,shirley1 ,esq4 #h #8,the ,dovecote1' by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 p4 #aee2 ,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands1' b4 iv41 #agie1 s4 #ag4 #i #8,cattle1' p4 #bjb4 #aj ,mr4 ,j4 ,wilkinson1 in #8,remarks addressed to ,sir ,j4 ,sebright1' #ahbj1 p4 #ch4 #aa #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #hg1 #afi4 ,see also the ,table at the end of volume4 #ab #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #hg1 #egg4 #ac #8,bot4 ,zeitung1' #ahfh1 p4 #cbg4 #ad ,mr4 ,shirreff formerly thought 7#8,gard4 ,chron41' #aheh1 p4 #gga7 that the offspring from a cross between certain varieties of wheat became sterile in the fourth generation2 but he now admits 7#8,improvement of the ,cereals1' #ahgc7 that this was an error4 #ae #8,kenntniss der ,befruchtung1' s4 #acg2 #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #ib1 #aha4 ,on raising the two varieties from seed1 see s4 #cjg4 #af #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #baf4 #ag ,the results have since been published in #8,journ4 ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal1' #ahfg1 p4 #ade4 #ah ,the following facts1 given by ,klreuter in his #8,dritte ,fortsetzung1' ss4 #cd1 #ci1 appear at first sight strongly to confirm ,mr4 ,scott's and ,grtner's statements2 and to a certain limited extent they do so4 ,klreuter asserts1 from innumerable observations1 that insects incessantly carry pollen from one species and variety of ,verbascum to another2 and ,i can confirm this assertion2 yet he found that the white and yellow varieties of ,verbascum lychnitis often grew wild mingled together3 moreover1 he cultivated these two varieties in considerable numbers during four years in his garden1 and they kept true by seed2 but when he crossed them1 they produced flowers of an intermediate tint4 ,hence it might have been thought that both varieties must have a stronger elective affinity for the pollen of their own variety than for that of the other2 this elective affinity1 ,i may add of each species for its own pollen 7,klreuter1 #8,dritte ,forts4' s4 #ci1 and ,grtner1 #8,bastarderz41' passim7 being a perfectly well-ascertained power4 ,but the force of the foregoing facts is much lessened by ,grtner's numerous experiments1 for1 differently from ,klreuter1 he never once got 7#8,bastarderz41' s4 #cjg7 an intermediate tint when he crossed the yellow and white flowered varieties of ,verbascum4 ,so that the fact of the white and yellow varieties keeping true to their colour by seed does not prove that they were not mutually fertilised by the pollen carried by insects from one to the other4 #ai #8,amaryllidace1' #ahcg1 p4 #cff4 ,grtner has made a similar observation4 #bj ,klreuter first observed this fact1 #8,mm4 de l',acad4 de ,st4 ,petersburg1' vol4 iii4 p4 #abg4 ,see also ,c4 ,k4 ,sprengel1 #8,das ,entdeckte ,geheimniss1' s4 #cde4 #ba ,namely1 ,barbarines1 ,pastissons1 ,giraumous3 #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat4' tom4 xxx41 #ahcc1 pp4 #cih and #dje4 #bb #8,mmoire sur les ,cucurbitace1' #ahbf1 pp4 #df1 #ee4 #bc #8,annales des ,sc4 ,nat41' #dth series1 tom4 vi4 ,m4 ,naudin considers these forms as undoubtedly varieties of ,cucurbita pepo4 #bd #8,mm4 ,cucurb41' p4 #h4 #be #8,zweite ,forts41' s4 #ec1 namely1 ,nicotiana major vulgaris2 7#b7 perennis2 7#c7 transylvanica2 7#d7 a sub-var4 of the last2 7#e7 major latifol4 fl4 alb4 #bf ,klreuter was so much struck with this fact that he suspected that a little pollen of ,n4 glutinosa in one of his experiments might have accidentally got mingled with that of var4 perennis1 and thus aided its fertilising power4 ,but we now know conclusively from ,grtner 7#8,bastarderz41' s4 #cd1 #dc7 that the pollen of two species never acts conjointly on a third species2 still less will the pollen of a distinct species1 mingled with a plant's own pollen1 if the latter be present in sufficient quantity1 have any effect4 ,the sole effect of mingling two kinds of pollen is to produce in the same capsule seeds which yield plants1 some taking after the one and some after the other parent4 #bg ,mr4 ,scott has made some observations on the absolute sterility of a purple and white primrose 7,primula vulgaris7 when fertilised by pollen from the common primrose 7#8,journal of ,proc4 of ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 viii41 #ahfd1 p4 #ih72 but these observations require confirmation4 ,i raised a number of purple-flowered long-styled seedlings from seed kindly sent me by ,mr4 ,scott1 and1 though they were all in some degree sterile1 they were much more fertile with pollen taken from the common primrose than with their own pollen4 ,mr4 ,scott has likewise described a red equal-styled cowslip 7,p4 veris1 ibid4 p4 #ajf71 which was found by him to be highly sterile when crossed with the common cowslip2 but this was not the case with several equal-styled red seedlings raised by me from his plant4 ,this variety of the cowslip presents the remarkable peculiarity of combining male organs in every respect like those of the short-styled form1 with female organs resembling in function and partly in structure those of the long-styled form2 so that we have the singular anomaly of the two forms combined in the same flower4 ,hence it is not surprising that these flowers should be spontaneously self-fertile in a high degree4 #bh #8,act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburg1' #aghj1 part ii4 pp4 #hd1 #ajj4 #bi #8,annales des ,sc4 ,nat4' tom4 xxi4 7#ast series71 p4 #fa4 #cj #8,bull4 ,bot4 ,soc4 de ,france1' ,dec4 #bgth1 #ahfa1 tom4 viii4 p4 #fab4 #ca ,quoted by ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire #8,hist4 ,naturelle ,gnrale1' tom4 iii4 p4 #dgf4 ,since this ,,ms4 has been sent to press a full discussion on the present subject has appeared in ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's #8,principles of ,biology1' vol4 ii41 #ahfg1 p4 #deg et seq4 #cb ,for cats and dogs1 etc41 see ,bellingeri in #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat41' #bnd series1 ,zoolog4 tom4 xii4 p4 #aee4 ,for ferrets1 ,bechstein1 #8,naturgeschichte ,deutschlands1' b4 i4 #ahja1 s4 #ghf1 #gie4 ,for rabbits1 ditto1 s4 #aabc1 #aaca2 and ,bronn's #8,geschichte der ,natur41' b4 ii4 s4 #ii4 ,for mountain sheep1 ditto1 s4 #ajb4 ,for the fertility of the wild sow1 see ,bechstein #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands1' b4 i41 #ahja1 s4 #ecd2 for the domestic pig1 ,sidney's edit4 of ,youatt on the ,pig1 #ahfj1 p4 #fb4 ,with respect to ,lapland1 see ,acerbi's #8,travels to the ,north ,cape1' ,eng4 translat41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbb4 ,about the ,highland cows1 see ,hogg on ,sheep1 p4 #bfc4 #cc ,for the eggs of ,gallus bankiva1 see ,blyth1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #bnd series1 vol4 i41 #ahdh1 p4 #def4 ,for wild and tame ducks1 ,macgillivray1 #8,british ,birds1' vol4 v4 p4 #cg2 and #8,die ,enten1' s4 #hg4 ,for wild geese1 ,l4 ,lloyd1 #8,scandinavian ,adventures1' vol4 ii4 #ahed1 p4 #dac2 and for tame geese1 #8,ornamental ,poultry1' by ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 p4 #aci4 ,on the breeding of ,pigeons1 ,pistor1 #8,das ,ganze der ,taubenzucht1' #ahca1 s4 #df2 and ,boitard and ,corbi #8,les ,pigeons1' p4 #aeh4 ,with respect to peacocks1 according to ,temminck 7#8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn4 des ,pigeons1' etc41 #ahac1 tom4 ii4 p4 #da71 the hen lays in ,india even as many as twenty eggs2 but according to ,jerdon and another writer 7quoted in ,tegetmeier's #8,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 pp4 #bhj1 #bhb71 she there lays only from four to nine or ten eggs3 in ,england she is said1 in the #8,poultry ,book1' to lay five or six1 but another writer says from eight to twelve eggs4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,on ,,the ,,good ,,effects ,,of ,,crossing1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,evil ,,effects ,,of ,,close ,,interbreeding4 ,,definition ,,of ,,close ,,interbreeding--,,augmentation ,,of ,,morbid ,,tendencies--,,general ,,evidence ,,of ,,the ,,good ,,effects ,,derived ,,from ,,crossing1 ,,and ,,on ,,the ,,evil ,,effects ,,from ,,close ,,interbreeding--,,cattle1 ,,closely ,,interbred2 ,,half-,,wild ,,cattle ,,long ,,kept ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,parks--,,sheep--,,fallow-,,deer--,,dog s1 ,,rabbits1 ,,pigs--,,man1 ,,origin ,,of ,,his ,,abhorrence ,,of ,,incestuous ,,marriages--,,fowls--,,pigeons--,,hive- ,,bees--,,plants1 ,,general ,,considerations ,,on ,,the ,,benefits ,,derived ,,from ,,crossing--,,melons1 ,,fruit-,,trees1 ,,peas1 ,,cabbages1 ,,wheat1 ,,and ,,forest-,,trees--,,on ,,the ,,increased ,,size ,,of ,,hybrid ,,plants1 ,,not ,,exclusively ,,due ,,to ,,their ,,sterility--,,on ,,certain ,,plants ,,which ,,either ,,normally ,,or ,,abnormally ,,are ,,self-,,impotent1 ,,but ,,are ,,fertile1 ,,both ,,on ,,the ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,side1 ,,when ,,crossed ,,with ,,distinct ,,individuals ,,either ,,of ,,the ,,same ,,or ,,another ,,species--,,conclusion4 ,the gain in constitutional vigour1 derived from an occasional cross between individuals of the same variety1 but belonging to distinct families1 or between distinct varieties1 has not been so largely or so frequently discussed1 as have the evil effects of too close interbreeding4 ,but the former point is the more important of the two1 inasmuch as the evidence is more decisive4 ,the evil results from close interbreeding are difficult to detect1 for they accumulate slowly1 and differ much in degree with different species2 whilst the good effects which almost invariably follow a cross are from the first manifest4 ,it should1 however1 be clearly understood that the advantage of close interbreeding1 as far as the retention of character is concerned1 is indisputable1 and often outweighs the evil of a slight loss of constitutional vigour4 ,in relation to the subject of domestication1 the whole question is of some importance1 as too close interbreeding interferes with the improvement of old races4 ,it is important as indirectly bearing on ,hybridism2 and possibly on the extinction of species1 when any form has become so rare that only a few individuals remain within a confined area4 ,it bears in an important manner on the influence of free intercrossing1 in obliterating individual differences1 and thus giving uniformity of character to the individuals of the same race or species2 for if additional vigour and fertility be thus gained1 the crossed offspring will multiply and prevail1 and the ultimate result will be far greater than otherwise would have occurred4 ,lastly1 the question is of high interest1 as bearing on mankind4 ,i shall therefore discuss this subject at full length4 ,as the facts which prove the evil effects of close interbreeding are more copious1 though less decisive1 than those on the good effects of crossing1 ,i shall1 under each group of beings1 begin with the former4 ,there is no difficulty in defining what is meant by a cross2 but this is by no means easy in regard to 8breeding in and in0 or 8too close interbreeding10 because1 as we shall see1 different species of animals are differently affected by the same degree of interbreeding4 ,the pairing of a father and daughter1 or mother and son1 or brothers and sisters1 if carried on during several generations1 is the closest possible form of interbreeding4 ,but some good judges1 for instance ,sir ,j4 ,sebright1 believe that the pairing of a brother and sister is much closer than that of parents and children2 for when the father is matched with his daughter he crosses1 as is said1 with only half his own blood4 ,the consequences of close interbreeding carried on for too long a time1 are1 as is generally believed1 loss of size1 constitutional vigour1 and fertility1 sometimes accompanied by a tendency to malformation4 ,manifest evil does not usually follow from pairing the nearest relations for two1 three1 or even four generations2 but several causes interfere with our detecting the evil--such as the deterioration being very gradual1 and the difficulty of distinguishing between such direct evil and the inevitable augmentation of any morbid tendencies which may be latent or apparent in the related parents4 ,on the other hand1 the benefit from a cross1 even when there has not been any very close interbreeding1 is almost invariably at once conspicuous4 ,there is good reason to believe1 and this was the opinion of that most experienced observer ,sir ,j4 ,sebright1#a that the evil effects of close interbreeding may be checked or quite prevented by the related individuals being separated for a few generations and exposed to different conditions of life4 ,this conclusion is now held by many breeders2 for instance ,mr4 ,carr#b remarks1 it is a well-known 8fact that a change of soil and climate effects perhaps almost as great a change in the constitution as would result from an infusion of fresh blood40 ,i hope to show in a future work that consanguinity by itself counts for nothing1 but acts solely from related organisms generally having a similar constitution1 and having been exposed in most cases to similar conditions4 ,that any evil directly follows from the closest interbreeding has been denied by many persons2 but rarely by any practical breeder2 and never1 as far as ,i know1 by one who has largely bred animals which propagate their kind quickly4 ,many physiologists attribute the evil exclusively to the combination and consequent increase of morbid tendencies common to both parents2 and that this is an active source of mischief there can be no doubt4 ,it is unfortunately too notorious that men and various domestic animals endowed with a wretched constitution1 and with a strong hereditary disposition to disease1 if not actually ill1 are fully capable of procreating their kind4 ,close interbreeding1 on the other hand1 often induces sterility2 and this indicates something quite distinct from the augmentation of morbid tendencies common to both parents4 ,the evidence immediately to be given convinces me that it is a great law of nature1 that all organic beings profit from an occasional cross with individuals not closely related to them in blood2 and that1 on the other hand1 long-continued close interbreeding is injurious4 ,various general considerations have had much influence in leading me to this conclusion2 but the reader will probably rely more on special facts and opinions4 ,the authority of experienced observers1 even when they do not advance the grounds of their belief1 is of some little value4 ,now almost all men who have bred many kinds of animals and have written on the subject1 such as ,sir ,j4 ,sebright1 ,andrew ,knight1 etc41#c have expressed the strongest conviction on the impossibility of long-continued close interbreeding4 ,those who have compiled works on agriculture1 and have associated much with breeders1 such as the sagacious ,youatt1 ,low1 etc41 have strongly declared their opinion to the same effect4 ,prosper ,lucas1 trusting largely to ,french authorities1 has come to a similar conclusion4 ,the distinguished ,german agriculturist ,hermann von ,nathusius1 who has written the most able treatise on this subject which ,i have met with1 concurs2 and as ,i shall have to quote from this treatise1 ,i may state that ,nathusius is not only intimately acquainted with works on agriculture in all languages1 and knows the pedigrees of our ,british breeds better than most ,englishmen1 but has imported many of our improved animals1 and is himself an experienced breeder4 ,evidence of the evil effects of close interbreeding can most readily be acquired in the case of animals1 such as fowls1 pigeons1 etc41 which propagate quickly1 and1 from being kept in the same place1 are exposed to the same conditions4 ,now ,i have inquired of very many breeders of these birds1 and ,i have hitherto not met with a single man who was not thoroughly convinced that an occasional cross with another strain of the same sub-variety was absolutely necessary4 ,most breeders of highly improved or fancy birds value their own strain1 and are most unwilling1 at the risk1 in their opinion1 of deterioration1 to make a cross4 ,the purchase of a first-rate bird of another strain is expensive1 and exchanges are troublesome2 yet all breeders1 as far as ,i can hear1 excepting those who keep large stocks at different places for the sake of crossing1 are driven after a time to take this step4 ,another general consideration which has had great influence on my mind is1 that with all hermaphrodite animals and plants1 which it might have been thought would have perpetually fertilised themselves and been thus subjected for long ages to the closest interbreeding1 there is not a single species1 as far as ,i can discover1 in which the structure ensures self-fertilisation4 ,on the contrary1 there are in a multitude of cases1 as briefly stated in the fifteenth chapter1 manifest adaptations which favour or inevitably lead to an occasional cross between one hermaphrodite and another of the same species2 and these adaptive structures are utterly purposeless1 as far as we can see1 for any other end4 ,with ,cattle there can be no doubt that extremely close interbreeding may be long carried on advantageously with respect to external characters1 and with no manifest evil as far as constitution is concerned4 ,the case of ,bakewell's ,longhorns1 which were closely interbred for a long period1 has often been quoted2 yet ,youatt says#d the breed 8had acquired a delicacy of constitution inconsistent with common management10 and 8the propagation of the species was not always certain40 ,but the ,shorthorns offer the most striking case of close interbreeding2 for instance1 the famous bull ,favourite 7who was himself the offspring of a half-brother and sister from ,foljambe7 was matched with his own daughter1 granddaughter1 and great-granddaughter2 so that the produce of this last union1 or the great-great-granddaughter1 had #ae-afths1 or #icge per cent of the blood of ,favourite in her veins4 ,this cow was matched with the bull ,wellington1 having #fbe per cent of ,favourite blood in his veins1 and produced ,clarissa2 ,clarissa was matched with the bull ,lancaster1 having #fhge of the same blood1 and she yielded valuable offspring4#e ,nevertheless ,collings1 who reared these animals1 and was a strong advocate for close breeding1 once crossed his stock with a ,galloway1 and the cows from this cross realised the highest prices4 ,bates's herd was esteemed the most celebrated in the world4 ,for thirteen years he bred most closely in and in2 but during the next seventeen years1 though he had the most exalted notion of the value of his own stock1 he thrice infused fresh blood into his herd3 it is said that he did this1 not to improve the form of his animals1 but on account of their lessened fertility4 ,mr4 ,bates's own view1 as given by a celebrated breeder1#f was1 that 8to breed in-and-in from a bad stock was ruin and devastation2 yet that the practice may be safely followed within certain limits when the parents so related are descended from first-rate animals40 ,we thus see that there has been much close interbreeding with ,shorthorns2 but ,nathusius1 after the most careful study of their pedigrees1 says that he can find no instance of a breeder who has strictly followed this practice during his whole life4 ,from this study and his own experience1 he concludes that close interbreeding is necessary to ennoble the stock2 but that in effecting this the greatest care is necessary1 on account of the tendency to infertility and weakness4 ,it may be added1 that another high authority#g asserts that many more calves are born cripples from ,shorthorns than from other and less closely interbred races of cattle4 ,although by carefully selecting the best animals 7as ,nature effectually does by the law of battle7 close interbreeding may be long carried on with cattle1 yet the good effects of a cross between almost any two breeds is at once shown by the greater size and vigour of the offspring2 as ,mr4 ,spooner writes to me1 8crossing distinct breeds certainly improves cattle for the butcher40 ,such crossed animals are of course of no value to the breeder2 but they have been raised during many years in several parts of ,england to be slaughtered2#h and their merit is now so fully recognised1 that at fat-cattle shows a separate class has been formed for their reception4 ,the best fat ox at the great show at ,islington in #ahfb was a crossed animal4 ,the half-wild cattle1 which have been kept in ,british parks probably for #djj or #ejj years1 or even for a longer period1 have been advanced by ,culley and others as a case of long-continued interbreeding within the limits of the same herd without any consequent injury4 ,with respect to the cattle at ,chillingham1 the late ,lord ,tankerville owned that they were bad breeders4#i ,the agent1 ,mr4 ,hardy1 estimates 7in a letter to me1 dated ,may1 #ahfa7 that in the herd of about fifty the average number annually slaughtered1 killed by fighting1 and dying1 is about ten1 or one in five4 ,as the herd is kept up to nearly the same average number1 the annual rate of increase must be likewise about one in five4 ,the bulls1 ,i may add1 engage in furious battles1 of which battles the present ,lord ,tankerville has given me a graphic description1 so that there will always be rigorous selection of the most vigorous males4 ,i procured in #ahee from ,mr4 ,d4 ,gardner1 agent to the ,duke of ,hamilton1 the following account of the wild cattle kept in the ,duke's park in ,lanarkshire1 which is about #bjj acres in extent4 ,the number of cattle varies from sixty-five to eighty2 and the number annually killed 7,i presume by all causes7 is from eight to ten2 so that the annual rate of increase can hardly be more than one in six4 ,now in ,south ,america1 where the herds are half-wild1 and therefore offer a nearly fair standard of comparison1 according to ,azara the natural increase of the cattle on an estancia is from one-third to one-fourth of the total number1 or one in between three and four and this1 no doubt1 applies exclusively to adult animals fit for consumption4 ,hence the half-wild ,british cattle which have long interbred within the limits of the same herd are relatively far less fertile4 ,although in an unenclosed country like ,paraguay there must be some crossing between the different herds1 yet even there the inhabitants believe that the occasional introduction of animals from distant localities is necessary to prevent 8degeneration in size and diminution of fertility40#aj ,the decrease in size from ancient times in the ,chillingham and ,hamilton cattle must have been prodigious1 for ,professor ,rtimeyer has shown that they are almost certainly the descendants of the gigantic ,bos primigenius4 ,no doubt this decrease in size may be largely attributed to less favourable conditions of life2 yet animals roaming over large parks1 and fed during severe winters1 can hardly be considered as placed under very unfavourable conditions4 ,with ,sheep there has often been long-continued interbreeding within the limits of the same flock2 but whether the nearest relations have been matched so frequently as in the case of ,shorthorn cattle1 ,i do not know4 ,the ,messrs4 ,brown during fifty years have never infused fresh blood into their excellent flock of ,leicesters4 ,since #ahaj ,mr4 ,barford has acted on the same principle with the ,foscote flock4 ,he asserts that half a century of experience has convinced him that when two nearly related animals are quite sound in constitution1 in-and-in breeding does not induce degeneracy2 but he adds that he 8does not pride himself on breeding from the nearest affinities40 ,in ,france the ,naz flock has been bred for sixty years without the introduction of a single strange ram4#aa ,nevertheless1 most great breeders of sheep have protested against close interbreeding prolonged for too great a length of time4#ab ,the most celebrated of recent breeders1 ,jonas ,webb1 kept five separate families to work on1 thus 8retaining the requisite distance of relationship between the sexes02#ac and what is probably of greater importance1 the separate flocks will have been exposed to somewhat different conditions4 ,although by the aid of careful selection the near interbreeding of sheep may be long continued without any manifest evil1 yet it has often been the practice with farmers to cross distinct breeds to obtain animals for the butcher1 which plainly shows that good of some kind is derived from this practice4 ,we have excellent evidence on this head from ,mr4 ,s4 ,druce1#ad who gives in detail the comparative numbers of four pure breeds and of a cross-breed which can be supported on the same ground1 and he gives their produce in fleece and carcase4 ,a high authority1 ,mr4 ,pusey1 sums up the result in money value during an equal length of time1 namely 7neglecting shillings71 for ,cotswolds #bdhl41 for ,leicesters #bbcl41 for ,southdowns #bjdl41 for ,hampshire ,downs #bfdl41 and for the crossbred #bicl4 ,a former celebrated breeder1 ,lord ,somerville1 states that his half-breeds from ,ryelands and ,spanish sheep were larger animals than either the pure ,ryelands or pure ,spanish sheep4 ,mr4 ,spooner concludes his excellent ,essay on ,crossing by asserting that there is a pecuniary advantage in judicious cross-breeding1 especially when the male is larger than the female4#ae ,as some of our ,british parks are ancient1 it occurred to me that there must have been long-continued close interbreeding with the fallow-deer 7,cervus dama7 kept in them2 but on inquiry ,i find that it is a common practice to infuse new blood by procuring bucks from other parks4 ,mr4 ,shirley1#af who has carefully studied the management of deer1 admits that in some parks there has been no admixture of foreign blood from a time beyond the memory of man4 ,but he concludes 8that in the end the constant breeding in-and-in is sure to tell to the disadvantage of the whole herd1 though it may take a very long time to prove it2 moreover1 when we find1 as is very constantly the case1 that the introduction of fresh blood has been of the very greatest use to deer1 both by improving their size and appearance1 and particularly by being of service in removing the taint of #8rickback1' if not of other diseases1 to which deer are sometimes subject when the blood has not been changed1 there can1 ,i think1 be no doubt but that a judicious cross with a good stock is of the greatest consequence1 and is indeed essential1 sooner or later1 to the prosperity of every well-ordered park40 ,mr4 ,meynell's famous foxhounds have been adduced1 as showing that no ill effects follow from close interbreeding2 and ,sir ,j4 ,sebright ascertained from him that he frequently bred from father and daughter1 mother and son1 and sometimes even from brothers and sisters4 ,with greyhounds also there has been much close interbreeding1 but the best breeders agree that it may be carried too far4#ag ,but ,sir ,j4 ,sebright declares1#ah that by breeding in-and-in1 by which he means matching brothers and sisters1 he has actually seen the offspring of strong spaniels degenerate into weak and diminutive lapdogs4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,fox has communicated to me the case of a small lot of bloodhounds1 long kept in the same family1 which had become very bad breeders1 and nearly all had a bony enlargement in the tail4 ,a single cross with a distinct strain of bloodhounds restored their fertility1 and drove away the tendency to malformation in the tail4 ,i have heard the particulars of another case with bloodhounds1 in which the female had to be held to the male4 ,considering how rapid is the natural increase of the dog1 it is difficult to understand the large price of all highly improved breeds1 which almost implies long-continued close interbreeding1 except on the belief that this process lessens fertility and increases liability to distemper and other diseases4 ,a high authority1 ,mr4 ,scrope1 attributes the rarity and deterioration in size of the ,scotch deerhound 7the few individuals formerly existing throughout the country being all related7 in large part to close interbreeding4 ,with all highly-bred animals there is more or less difficulty in getting them to procreate quickly1 and all suffer much from delicacy of constitution4 ,a great judge of rabbits#ai says1 8the long-eared does are often too highly bred or forced in their youth to be of much value as breeders1 often turning out barren or bad mothers40 ,they often desert their young1 so that it is necessary to have nurse-rabbits1 but ,i do not pretend to attribute all these evil results to close interbreeding4#bj ,with respect to ,pigs there is more unanimity amongst breeders on the evil effects of close interbreeding than1 perhaps1 with any other large animal4 ,mr4 ,druce1 a great and successful breeder of the ,improved ,oxfordshires 7a crossed race71 writes1 8without a change of boars of a different tribe1 but of the same breed1 constitution cannot be preserved40 ,mr4 ,fisher ,hobbs1 the raiser of the celebrated ,improved ,essex breed1 divided his stock into three separate families1 by which means he maintained the breed for more than twenty years1 8by judicious selection from the three distinct families40#ba ,lord ,western was the first importer of a ,neapolitan boar and sow4 8,from this pair he bred in-and-in1 until the breed was in danger of becoming extinct1 a sure result 7as ,mr4 ,sidney remarks7 of in-and-in breeding40 ,lord ,western then crossed his ,neapolitan pigs with the old ,essex1 and made the first great step towards the ,improved ,essex breed4 ,here is a more interesting case4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,wright1 well known as a breeder1 crossed#bb the same boar with the daughter1 granddaughter1 and great-granddaughter1 and so on for seven generations4 ,the result was1 that in many instances the offspring failed to breed2 in others they produced few that lived2 and of the latter many were idiotic1 without sense1 even to suck1 and when attempting to move could not walk straight4 ,now it deserves especial notice1 that the two last sows produced by this long course of interbreeding were sent to other boars1 and they bore several litters of healthy pigs4 ,the best sow in external appearance produced during the whole seven generations was one in the last stage of descent2 but the litter consisted of this one sow4 ,she would not breed to her sire1 yet bred at the first trial to a stranger in blood4 ,so that1 in ,mr4 ,wright's case1 long-continued and extremely close interbreeding did not affect the external form or merit of the young2 but with many of them the general constitution and mental powers1 and especially the reproductive functions1 were seriously affected4 ,nathusius gives#bc an analogous and even more striking case3 he imported from ,england a pregnant sow of the large ,yorkshire breed1 and bred the product closely in-and-in for three generations3 the result was unfavourable1 as the young were weak in constitution1 with impaired fertility4 ,one of the latest sows1 which he esteemed a good animal1 produced1 when paired with her own uncle 7who was known to be productive with sows of other breeds71 a litter of six1 and a second time a litter of only five weak young pigs4 ,he then paired this sow with a boar of a small black breed1 which he had likewise imported from ,england2 this boar1 when matched with sows of his own breed1 produced from seven to nine young4 ,now1 the sow of the large breed1 which was so unproductive when paired with her own uncle1 yielded to the small black boar1 in the first litter twenty-one1 and in the second litter eighteen young pigs2 so that in one year she produced thirty-nine fine young animals6 ,as in the case of several other animals already mentioned1 even when no injury is perceptible from moderately close interbreeding1 yet1 to quote the words of ,mr4 ,coate 7who five times won the annual gold medal of the ,smithfield ,club ,show for the best pen of pigs71 8,crosses answer well for profit to the farmer1 as you get more constitution and quicker growth2 but for me1 who sell a great number of pigs for breeding purposes1 ,i find it will not do1 as it requires many years to get anything like purity of blood again40#bd ,almost all the animals as yet mentioned are gregarious1 and the males must frequently pair with their own daughters1 for they expel the young males as well as all intruders1 until forced by old age and loss of strength to yield to some stronger male4 ,it is therefore not improbable that gregarious animals may have been rendered less susceptible than non-social species to the evil consequences of close interbreeding1 so that they may be enabled to live in herds without injury to their offspring4 ,unfortunately we do not know whether an animal like the cat1 which is not gregarious1 would suffer from close interbreeding in a greater degree than our other domesticated animals4 ,but the pig is not1 as far as ,i can discover1 strictly gregarious1 and we have seen that it appears eminently liable to the evil effects of close interbreeding4 ,mr4 ,huth1 in the case of the pig1 attributes 7,chapter ,,xxiv7 these effects to their having been 8cultivated most for their fat10 or to the selected individuals having had a weak constitution2 but we must remember that it is great breeders who have brought forward the above cases1 and who are far more familiar than ordinary men can be1 with the causes which are likely to interfere with the fertility of their animals4 ,the effects of close interbreeding in the case of man is a difficult subject1 on which ,i will say but little4 ,it has been discussed by various authors under many points of view4#be ,mr4 ,tylor#bf has shown that with widely different races in the most distant quarters of the world1 marriages between relations--even between distant relations--have been strictly prohibited4 ,there are1 however1 many exceptions to the rule1 which are fully given by ,mr4 ,huth4#bg ,it is a curious problem how these prohibitions arose during early and barbarous times4 ,mr4 ,tylor is inclined to attribute them to the evil effects of consanguineous marriages having been observed2 and he ingeniously attempts to explain some apparent anomalies in the prohibition not extending equally to the relations on the male and female side4 ,he admits1 however1 that other causes1 such as the extension of friendly alliances1 may have come into play4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,adam1 on the other hand1 concludes that related marriages are prohibited and viewed with repugnance1 from the confusion which would thus arise in the descent of property1 and from other still more recondite reasons4 ,but ,i cannot accept these views1 seeing that incest is held in abhorrence by savages such as those of ,australia and ,south ,america1#bh who have no property to bequeath1 or fine moral feelings to confuse1 and who are not likely to reflect on distant evils to their progeny4 ,according to ,mr4 ,huth the feeling is the indirect result of exogamy1 inasmuch as when this practice ceased in any tribe and it became endogamous1 so that marriages were strictly confined to the same tribe1 it is not unlikely that a vestige of the former practice would still be retained1 so that closely-related marriages would be prohibited4 ,with respect to exogamy itself ,mr4 ,mac,lennan believes that it arose from a scarcity of women1 owing to female infanticide1 aided perhaps by other causes4 ,it has been clearly shown by ,mr4 ,huth that there is no instinctive feeling in man against incest any more than in gregarious animals4 ,we know also how readily any prejudice or feeling may rise to abhorrence1 as shown by ,hindus in regard to objects causing defilement4 ,although there seems to be no strong inherited feeling in mankind against incest1 it seems possible that men during primeval times may have been more excited by strange females than by those with whom they habitually lived2 in the same manner as according to ,mr4 ,cupples1#bi male deerhounds are inclined towards strange females1 while the females prefer dogs with whom they have associated4 ,if any such feeling formerly existed in man1 this would have led to a preference for marriages beyond the nearest kin1 and might have been strengthened by the offspring of such marriages surviving in greater numbers1 as analogy would lead us to believe would have occurred4 ,whether consanguineous marriages1 such as are permitted in civilised nations1 and which would not be considered as close interbreeding in the case of our domesticated animals1 cause any injury will never be known with certainty until a census is taken with this object in view4 ,my son1 ,george ,darwin1 has done what is possible at present by a statistical investigation1#cj and he has come to the conclusion1 from his own researches and those of ,dr4 ,mitchell1 that the evidence as to any evil thus caused is conflicting1 but on the whole points to the evil being very small4 ,birds4--,in the case of the ,fowl a whole array of authorities could be given against too close interbreeding4 ,sir ,j4 ,sebright positively asserts that he made many trials1 and that his fowls1 when thus treated1 became long in the legs1 small in the body1 and bad breeders4#ca ,he produced the famous ,sebright ,bantams by complicated crosses1 and by breeding in-and-in2 and since his time there has been much close interbreeding with these animals2 and they are now notoriously bad breeders4 ,i have seen ,silver ,bantams1 directly descended from his stock1 which had become almost as barren as hybrids2 for not a single chicken had been that year hatched from two full nests of eggs4 ,mr4 ,hewitt says that with these ,bantams the sterility of the male stands1 with rare exceptions1 in the closest relation with their loss of certain secondary male characters3 he adds1 8,i have noticed1 as a general rule1 that even the slightest deviation from feminine character in the tail of the male ,sebright--say the elongation by only half an inch of the two principal tail feathers--brings with it improved probability of increased fertility40#cb ,mr4 ,wright states#cc that ,mr4 ,clark1 8whose fighting-cocks were so notorious1 continued to breed from his own kind till they lost their disposition to fight1 but stood to be cut up without making any resistance1 and were so reduced in size as to be under those weights required for the best prizes2 but on obtaining a cross from ,mr4 ,leighton1 they again resumed their former courage and weight40 ,it should be borne in mind that game-cocks before they fought were always weighed1 so that nothing was left to the imagination about any reduction or increase of weight4 ,mr4 ,clark does not seem to have bred from brothers and sisters1 which is the most injurious kind of union2 and he found1 after repeated trials1 that there was a greater reduction in weight in the young from a father paired with his daughter1 than from a mother with her son4 ,i may add that ,mr4 ,eyton of ,eyton1 the well-known ornithologist1 who is a large breeder of ,grey ,dorkings1 informs me that they certainly diminish in size1 and become less prolific1 unless a cross with another strain is occasionally obtained4 ,so it is with ,malays1 according to ,mr4 ,hewitt1 as far as size is concerned4#cd ,an experienced writer#ce remarks that the same amateur1 as is well known1 seldom long maintains the superiority of his birds2 and this1 he adds1 undoubtedly is due to all his stock 8being of the same blood20 hence it is indispensable that he should occasionally procure a bird of another strain4 ,but this is not necessary with those who keep a stock of fowls at different stations4 ,thus1 ,mr4 ,ballance1 who has bred ,malays for thirty years1 and has won more prizes with these birds than any other fancier in ,england1 says that breeding in-and-in does not necessarily cause deterioration2 8but all depends upon how this is managed4 ,my plan has been to keep about five or six distinct runs1 and to rear about two hundred or three hundred chickens each year1 and select the best birds from each run for crossing4 ,i thus secure sufficient crossing to prevent deterioration40#cf ,we thus see that there is almost complete unanimity with poultry-breeders that1 when fowls are kept at the same place1 evil quickly follows from interbreeding carried on to an extent which would be disregarded in the case of most quadrupeds4 ,moreover1 it is a generally received opinion that cross-bred chickens are the hardiest and most easily reared4#cg ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 who has carefully attended to poultry of all breeds1 says#ch that ,dorking hens1 allowed to run with ,houdan or ,crevecur cocks1 8produce in the early spring chickens that for size1 hardihood1 early maturity1 and fitness for the market1 surpass those of any pure breed that we have ever raised40 ,mr4 ,hewitt gives it as a general rule with fowls1 that crossing the breed increases their size4 ,he makes this remark after stating that hybrids from the pheasant and fowl are considerably larger than either progenitor3 so again1 hybrids from the male golden pheasant and female common pheasant 8are of far larger size than either parent-bird40#ci ,to this subject of the increased size of hybrids ,i shall presently return4 ,with ,pigeons1 breeders are unanimous1 as previously stated1 that it is absolutely indispensable1 notwithstanding the trouble and expense thus caused1 occasionally to cross their much-prized birds with individuals of another strain1 but belonging1 of course1 to the same variety4 ,it deserves notice that1 when size is one of the desired characters1 as with pouters#dj the evil effects of close interbreeding are much sooner perceived than when small birds1 such as short-faced tumblers1 are valued4 ,the extreme delicacy of the high fancy breeds1 such as these tumblers and improved ,english carriers1 is remarkable2 they are liable to many diseases1 and often die in the egg or during the first moult2 and their eggs have generally to be hatched under foster-mothers4 ,although these highly-prized birds have invariably been subjected to much close interbreeding1 yet their extreme delicacy of constitution cannot perhaps be thus fully explained4 ,mr4 ,yarrell informed me that ,sir ,j4 ,sebright continued closely interbreeding some owl-pigeons1 until from their extreme sterility he as nearly as possible lost the whole family4 ,mr4 ,brent#da tried to raise a breed of trumpeters1 by crossing a common pigeon1 and recrossing the daughter1 granddaughter1 great-granddaughter1 and great-great-granddaughter1 with the same male trumpeter1 until he obtained a bird with #ae_/af of trumpeter's blood2 but then the experiment failed1 for 8breeding so close stopped reproduction40 ,the experienced ,neumeister#db also asserts that the offspring from dovecotes and various other breeds are 8generally very fertile and hardy birds30 so again ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbi1#dc after forty-five years' experience1 recommend persons to cross their breeds for amusement2 for1 if they fail to make interesting birds1 they will succeed under an economical point of view1 8as it is found that mongrels are more fertile than pigeons of pure race40 ,i will refer only to one other animal1 namely1 the ,hive-bee1 because a distinguished entomologist has advanced this as a case of inevitable close interbreeding4 ,as the hive is tenanted by a single female1 it might have been thought that her male and female offspring would always have bred together1 more especially as bees of different hives are hostile to each other2 a strange worker being almost always attacked when trying to enter another hive4 ,but ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has shown#dd that this instinct does not apply to drones1 which are permitted to enter any hive2 so that there is no priori improbability of a queen receiving a foreign drone4 ,the fact of the union invariably and necessarily taking place on the wing1 during the queen's nuptial flight1 seems to be a special provision against continued interbreeding4 ,however this may be1 experience has shown1 since the introduction of the yellow-banded ,ligurian race into ,germany and ,england1 that bees freely cross3 ,mr4 ,woodbury1 who introduced ,ligurian bees into ,devonshire1 found during a single season that three stocks1 at distances of from one to two miles from his hives1 were crossed by his drones4 ,in one case the ,ligurian drones must have flown over the city of ,exeter1 and over several intermediate hives4 ,on another occasion several common black queens were crossed by ,ligurian drones at a distance of from one to three and a half miles4#de ,plants4 ,when a single plant of a new species is introduced into any country1 if propagated by seed1 many individuals will soon be raised1 so that if the proper insects be present there will be crossing4 ,with newly-introduced trees or other plants not propagated by seed we are not here concerned4 ,with old-established plants it is an almost universal practice occasionally to make exchanges of seed1 by which means individuals which have been exposed to different conditions of life1--and this1 as we have seen with animals1 diminishes the evil from close interbreeding1--will occasionally be introduced into each district4 ,with respect to individuals belonging to the same sub-variety1 ,grtner1 whose accuracy and experience exceeded that of all other observers1 states#df that he has many times observed good effects from this step1 especially with exotic genera1 of which the fertility is somewhat impaired1 such as ,passiflora1 ,lobelia1 ,fuchsia4 ,herbert also says1#dg 8,i am inclined to think that ,i have derived advantage from impregnating the flower from which ,i wished to obtain seed with pollen from another individual of the same variety1 or at least from another flower1 rather than with its own40 ,again1 ,professor ,lecoq ascertained that crossed offspring are more vigorous and robust than their parents4#dh ,general statements of this kind1 however1 can seldom be fully trusted3 ,i therefore began a long series of experiments1 continued for about ten years1 which will ,i think conclusively show the good effects of crossing two distinct plants of the same variety1 and the evil effects of long-continued self-fertilisation4 ,a clear light will thus be thrown on such questions1 as why flowers are almost invariably constructed so as to permit1 or favour1 or necessitate the union of two individuals4 ,we shall clearly understand why moncious and dioecious1--why dichogamous1 dimorphic and trimorphic plants exist1 and many other such cases4 ,i intend soon to publish an account of these experiments1 and ,i can here give only a few cases in illustration4 ,the plan which ,i followed was to grow plants in the same pot1 or in pots of the same size1 or close together in the open ground2 carefully to exclude insects2 and then to fertilise some of the flowers with pollen from the same flower1 and others on the same plant with pollen from a distinct but adjoining plant4 ,in many of these experiments1 the crossed plants yielded much more seed than the self-fertilised plants2 and ,i have never seen the reversed case4 ,the self-fertilised and crossed seeds thus obtained were allowed to germinate in the same glass vessel on damp sand2 and as the seeds germinated1 they were planted in pairs on opposite sides of the same pot1 with a superficial partition between them1 and were placed so as to be equally exposed to the light4 ,in other cases the self-fertilised and crossed seeds were simply sown on opposite sides of the same small pot4 ,i have1 in short1 followed different plans1 but in every case have taken all the precautions which ,i could think of1 so that the two lots should be equally favoured4 ,the growth of the plants raised from the crossed and self-fertilised seed1 were carefully observed from their germination to maturity1 in species belonging to fifty-two genera2 and the difference in their growth1 and in withstanding unfavourable conditions1 was in most cases manifest and strongly marked4 ,it is of importance that the two lots of seed should be sown or planted on opposite sides of the same pot1 so that the seedlings may struggle against each other2 for if sown separately in ample and good soil1 there is often but little difference in their growth4 ,i will briefly describe two of the first cases observed by me4 ,six crossed and six self-fertilised seeds of ,ipomoea purpurea1 from plants treated in the manner above described1 were planted as soon as they had germinated1 in pairs on opposite sides of two pots1 and rods of equal thickness were given them to twine up4 ,five of the crossed plants grew from the first more quickly than the opposed self-fertilised plants2 the sixth1 however1 was weakly and was for a time beaten1 but at last its sounder constitution prevailed and it shot ahead of its antagonist4 ,as soon as each crossed plant reached the top of its seven-foot rod its fellow was measured1 and the result was that1 when the crossed plants were seven feet high the self-fertilised had attained the average height of only five feet four and a half inches4 ,the crossed plants flowered a little before1 and more profusely than the self-fertilised plants4 ,on opposite sides of another small pot a large number of crossed and self-fertilised seeds were sown1 so that they had to struggle for bare existence2 a single rod was given to each lot3 here again the crossed plants showed from the first their advantage2 they never quite reached the summit of the seven-foot rod1 but relatively to the self-fertilised plants their average height was as seven feet to five feet two inches4 ,the experiment was repeated during several succeeding generations1 treated in exactly the same manner1 and with nearly the same result4 ,in the second generation1 the crossed plants1 which were again crossed1 produced #aba seed-capsules1 whilst the self-fertilised1 again self-fertilised1 produced only #hd capsules4 ,some flowers of the ,mimulus luteus were fertilised with their own pollen1 and others were crossed with pollen from distinct plants growing in the same pot4 ,the seeds were thickly sown on opposite sides of a pot4 ,the seedlings were at first equal in height2 but when the young crossed plants were half an inch1 the self-fertilised plants were only a quarter of an inch high4 ,but this degree of inequality did not last1 for1 when the crossed plants were four and a half inches high1 the self-fertilised were three inches1 and they retained the same relative difference till their growth was complete4 ,the crossed plants looked far more vigorous than the uncrossed1 and flowered before them2 they produced also a far greater number of capsules4 ,as in the former case1 the experiment was repeated during several succeeding generations4 ,had ,i not watched these plants of ,mimulus and ,ipomoea during their whole growth1 ,i could not have believed it possible1 that a difference apparently so slight as that of the pollen being taken from the same flower1 or from a distinct plant growing in the same pot1 could have made so wonderful a difference in the growth and vigour of the plants thus produced4 ,this1 under a physiological point of view1 is a most remarkable phenomenon4 ,with respect to the benefit derived from crossing distinct varieties1 plenty of evidence has been published4 ,sageret#di repeatedly speaks in strong terms of the vigour of melons raised by crossing different varieties1 and adds that they are more easily fertilised than common melons1 and produce numerous good seed4 ,here follows the evidence of an ,english gardener3#ej 8,i have this summer met with better success in my cultivation of melons1 in an unprotected state1 from the seeds of hybrids 7i4e4 mongrels7 obtained by cross impregnation1 than with old varieties4 ,the offspring of three different hybridisations 7one more especially1 of which the parents were the two most dissimilar varieties ,i could select7 each yielded more ample and finer produce than any one of between twenty and thirty established varieties40 ,andrew ,knight#ea believed that his seedlings from crossed varieties of the apple exhibited increased vigour and luxuriance2 and ,m4 ,chevreul#eb alludes to the extreme vigour of some of the crossed fruit-trees raised by ,sageret4 ,by crossing reciprocally the tallest and shortest peas1 ,knight#ec says3 8,i had in this experiment a striking instance of the stimulative effects of crossing the breeds2 for the smallest variety1 whose height rarely exceeded two feet1 was increased to six feet3 whilst the height of the large and luxuriant kind was very little diminished40 ,mr4 ,laxton gave me seed-peas produced from crosses between four distinct kinds2 and the plants thus raised were extraordinarily vigorous1 being in each case from one to two or three feet taller than the parent-forms growing close alongside them4 ,wiegmann#ed made many crosses between several varieties of cabbage2 and he speaks with astonishment of the vigour and height of the mongrels1 which excited the amazement of all the gardeners who beheld them4 ,mr4 ,chaundy raised a great number of mongrels by planting together six distinct varieties of cabbage4 ,these mongrels displayed an infinite diversity of character2 8,but the most remarkable circumstance was1 that1 while all the other cabbages and borecoles in the nursery were destroyed by a severe winter1 these hybrids were little injured1 and supplied the kitchen when there was no other cabbage to be had40 ,mr4 ,maund exhibited before the ,royal ,agricultural ,society#ee specimens of crossed wheat1 together with their parent varieties2 and the editor states that they were intermediate in character1 8united with that greater vigour of growth1 which it appears1 in the vegetable as in the animal world1 is the result of a first cross40 ,knight also crossed several varieties of wheat1#ef and he says 8that in the years #agie and #agif1 when almost the whole crop of corn in the island was blighted1 the varieties thus obtained1 and these only1 escaped in this neighbourhood1 though sown in several different soils and situations40 ,here is a remarkable case3 ,m4 ,clotzsch#eg crossed ,pinus sylvestris and nigricans1 ,quercus robur and pedunculata1 ,alnus glutinosa and incana1 ,ulmus campestris and effusa2 and the cross-fertilised seeds1 as well as seeds of the pure parent-trees1 were all sown at the same time and in the same place4 ,the result was1 that after an interval of eight years1 the hybrids were one-third taller than the pure trees6 ,the facts above given refer to undoubted varieties1 excepting the trees crossed by ,clotzsch1 which are ranked by various botanists as strongly-marked races1 sub-species1 or species4 ,that true hybrids raised from entirely distinct species1 though they lose in fertility1 often gain in size and constitutional vigour1 is certain4 ,it would be superfluous to quote any facts2 for all experimenters1 ,kolreuter1 ,grtner1 ,herbert1 ,sageret1 ,lecoq1 and ,naudin1 have been struck with the wonderful vigour1 height1 size1 tenacity of life1 precocity1 and hardiness of their hybrid productions4 ,grtner#eh sums up his conviction on this head in the strongest terms4 ,klreuter#ei gives numerous precise measurements of the weight and height of his hybrids in his comparison with measurements of both parent-forms2 and speaks with astonishment of their 8statura portentosa10 their 8ambitus vastissimus ac altitudo valde conspicua40 ,some exceptions to the rule in the case of very sterile hybrids have1 however1 been noticed by ,grtner and ,herbert2 but the most striking exceptions are given by ,max ,wichura#fj who found that hybrid willows were generally tender in constitution1 dwarf1 and short-lived4 ,kolreuter explains the vast increase in the size of the roots1 stems1 etc41 of his hybrids1 as the result of a sort of compensation due to their sterility1 in the same way as many emasculated animals are larger than the perfect males4 ,this view seems at first sight extremely probable1 and has been accepted by various authors2#fa but ,grtner#fb has well remarked that there is much difficulty in fully admitting it2 for with many hybrids there is no parallelism between the degree of their sterility and their increased size and vigour4 ,the most striking instances of luxuriant growth have been observed with hybrids which were not sterile in any extreme degree4 ,in the genus ,mirabilis1 certain hybrids are unusually fertile1 and their extraordinary luxuriance of growth1 together with their enormous roots#fc have been transmitted to their progeny4 ,the result in all cases is probably in part due to the saving of nutriment and vital force through the sexual organs acting imperfectly or not at all1 but more especially to the general law of good being derived from a cross4 ,for it deserves especial attention that mongrel animals and plants1 which are so far from being sterile that their fertility is often actually augmented1 have1 as previously shown1 their size1 hardiness1 and constitutional vigour generally increased4 ,it is not a little remarkable that an accession of vigour and size should thus arise under the opposite contingencies of increased and diminished fertility4 ,it is a perfectly well ascertained fact#fd that hybrids invariably breed with either pure parent1 and not rarely with a distinct species1 more readily than with one another4 ,herbert is inclined to explain even this fact by the advantage derived from a cross2 but ,grtner more justly accounts for it by the pollen of the hybrid1 and probably its ovules1 being in some degree vitiated1 whereas the pollen and ovules of both pure parents and of any third species are sound4 ,nevertheless1 there are some well-ascertained and remarkable facts1 which1 as we shall presently see1 show that a cross by itself undoubtedly tends to increase or re-establish the fertility of hybrids4 ,the same law1 namely1 that the crossed offspring both of varieties and species are larger than the parent-forms1 holds good in the most striking manner with hybrid animals as well as with mongrels4 ,mr4 ,bartlett1 who has had such large experience says1 8,among all hybrids of vertebrated animals there is a marked increase of size40 ,he then enumerates many cases with mammals1 including monkeys1 and with various families of birds4#fe ,on certain ,hermaphrodite ,plants which1 either normally or abnormally1 require to be fertilised by pollen from a distinct individual or species4 ,the facts now to be given differ from the foregoing1 as self-sterility is not here the result of long-continued close interbreeding4 ,these facts are1 however1 connected with our present subject1 because a cross with a distinct individual is shown to be either necessary or advantageous4 ,dimorphic and trimorphic plants1 though they are hermaphrodites1 must be reciprocally crossed1 one set of forms by the other1 in order to be fully fertile1 and in some cases to be fertile in any degree4 ,but ,i should not have noticed these plants1 had it not been for the following cases given by ,dr4 ,hildebrand3--#ff ,primula sinensis is a reciprocally dimorphic species3 ,dr4 ,hildebrand fertilised twenty-eight flowers of both forms1 each by pollen of the other form1 and obtained the full number of capsules containing on an average #dbg seed per capsule2 here we have complete and normal fertility4 ,he then fertilised forty-two flowers of both forms with pollen of the same form1 but taken from a distinct plant1 and all produced capsules containing on an average only #aif seed4 ,lastly1 and here we come to our more immediate point1 he fertilised forty-eight flowers of both forms with pollen of the same form and taken from the same flower1 and now he obtained only thirty-two capsules1 and these contained on an average #ahf seed1 or one less per capsule than in the former case4 ,so that1 with these illegitimate unions1 the act of impregnation is less assured1 and the fertility slightly less1 when the pollen and ovules belong to the same flower1 than when belonging to two distinct individuals of the same form4 ,dr4 ,hildebrand has recently made analogous experiments on the long-styled form of ,oxalis rosea1 with the same result4#fg ,it has recently been discovered that certain plants1 whilst growing in their native country under natural conditions1 cannot be fertilised with pollen from the same plant4 ,they are sometimes so utterly self-impotent1 that1 though they can readily be fertilised by the pollen of a distinct species or even distinct genus1 yet1 wonderful as is the fact1 they never produce a single seed by their own pollen4 ,in some cases1 moreover1 the plant's own pollen and stigma mutually act on each other in a deleterious manner4 ,most of the facts to be given relate to orchids1 but ,i will commence with a plant belonging to a widely different family4 ,sixty-three flowers of ,corydalis cava1 borne on distinct plants1 were fertilised by ,dr4 ,hildebrand#fh with pollen from other plants of the same species2 and fifty-eight capsules were obtained1 including on an average #d4e seed in each4 ,he then fertilised sixteen flowers produced by the same raceme1 one with another1 but obtained only three capsules1 one of which alone contained any good seeds1 namely1 two in number4 ,lastly1 he fertilised twenty-seven flowers1 each with its own pollen2 he left also fifty-seven flowers to be spontaneously fertilised1 and this would certainly have ensued if it had been possible1 for the anthers not only touch the stigma1 but the pollen-tubes were seen by ,dr4 ,hildebrand to penetrate it2 nevertheless these eighty-four flowers did not produce a single seed-capsule6 ,this whole case is highly instructive1 as it shows how widely different the action of the same pollen is1 according as it is placed on the stigma of the same flower1 or on that of another flower on the same raceme1 or on that of a distinct plant4 ,with exotic ,orchids several analogous cases have been observed1 chiefly by ,mr4 ,john ,scott4#fi ,oncidium sphacelatum has effective pollen1 for ,mr4 ,scott fertilised two distinct species with it2 the ovules are likewise capable of impregnation1 for they were readily fertilised by the pollen of ,o4 divaricatum2 nevertheless1 between one and two hundred flowers fertilised by their own pollen did not produce a single capsule1 though the stigmas were penetrated by the pollen-tubes4 ,mr4 ,robertson ,munro1 of the ,royal ,botanic ,gardens of ,edinburgh1 also informs me 7#ahfd7 that a hundred and twenty flowers of this same species were fertilised by him with their own pollen1 and did not produce a capsule1 but eight flowers1 fertilised by the pollen of ,o4 divaricatum1 produced four fine capsules3 again1 between two and three hundred flowers of ,o4 divaricatum1 fertilised by their own pollen1 did not set a capsule1 but twelve flowers fertilised by ,o4 flexuosum produced eight fine capsules3 so that here we have three utterly self-impotent species1 with their male and female organs perfect1 as shown by their mutual fertilisation4 ,in these cases fertilisation was effected only by the aid of a distinct species4 ,but1 as we shall presently see1 distinct plants1 raised from seed1 of ,oncidium flexuosum1 and probably of the other species1 would have been perfectly capable of fertilising each other1 for this is the natural process4 ,again1 ,mr4 ,scott found that the pollen of a plant of ,o4 microchilum was effective1 for with it he fertilised two distinct species2 he found its ovules good1 for they could be fertilised by the pollen of one of these species1 and by the pollen of a distinct plant of ,o4 microchilum2 but they could not be fertilised by pollen of the same plant1 though the pollen-tubes penetrated the stigma4 ,an analogous case has been recorded by ,m4 ,rivire#gj with two plants of ,o4 cavendishianum1 which were both self-sterile1 but reciprocally fertilised each other4 ,all these cases refer to the genus ,oncidium1 but ,mr4 ,scott found that ,maxillaria atro-rubens was 8totally insusceptible of fertilisation with its own pollen10 but fertilised1 and was fertilised by1 a widely distinct species1 viz4 ,m4 squalens4 ,as these orchids had been grown under unnatural conditions in hot-houses1 ,i concluded that their self-sterility was due to this cause4 ,but ,fritz ,mller informs me that at ,desterro1 in ,brazil1 he fertilised above one hundred flowers of the above-mentioned ,oncidium flexuosum1 which is there endemic1 with its own pollen1 and with that taken from distinct plants3 all the former were sterile1 whilst those fertilised by pollen from any other plant of the same species were fertile4 ,during the first three days there was no difference in the action of the two kinds of pollen3 that placed on stigma of the same plant separated in the usual manner into grains1 and emitted tubes which penetrated the column1 and the stigmatic chamber shut itself2 but only those flowers which had been fertilised by pollen taken from a distinct plant produced seed-capsules4 ,on a subsequent occasion these experiments were repeated on a large scale with the same result4 ,fritz ,mller found that four other endemic species of ,oncidium were in like manner utterly sterile with their own pollen1 but fertile with that from any other plant3 some of them likewise produced seed-capsules when impregnated with pollen of widely distinct genera1 such as ,cyrtopodium1 and ,rodriguezia4 ,oncidium crispum1 however1 differs from the foregoing species in varying much in its self-sterility2 some plants producing fine pods with their own pollen1 others failing to do so in two or three instances1 ,fritz ,mller observed that the pods produced by pollen taken from a distinct flower on the same plant1 were larger than those produced by the flower's own pollen4 ,in ,epidendrum cinnabarinum1 an orchid belonging to another division of the family1 fine pods were produced by the plant's own pollen1 but they contained by weight only about half as much seed as the capsules which had been fertilised by pollen from a distinct plant1 and in one instance from a distinct species2 moreover1 a very large proportion1 and in some cases nearly all the seeds produced by the plant's own pollen1 were destitute of an embryo4 ,some self-fertilised capsules of a ,maxillaria were in a similar state4 ,another observation made by ,fritz ,mller is highly remarkable1 namely1 that with various orchids the plant's own pollen not only fails to impregnate the flower1 but acts on the stigma1 and is acted on1 in an injurious or poisonous manner4 ,this is shown by the surface of the stigma in contact with the pollen1 and by the pollen itself becoming in from three to five days dark brown1 and then decaying4 ,the discoloration and decay are not caused by parasitic cryptograms1 which were observed by ,fritz ,mller in only a single instance4 ,these changes are well shown by placing on the same stigma1 at the same time1 the plant's own pollen and that from a distinct plant of the same species1 or of another species1 or even of another and widely remote genus4 ,thus1 on the stigma of ,oncidium flexuosum1 the plant's own pollen and that from a distinct plant were placed side by side1 and in five days' time the latter was perfectly fresh1 whilst the plant's own pollen was brown4 ,on the other hand1 when the pollen of a distinct plant of the ,oncidium flexuosum and of the ,epidendrum zebra 7nov4 spec487 were placed together on the same stigma1 they behaved in exactly the same manner1 the grains separating1 emitting tubes1 and penetrating the stigma1 so that the two pollen-masses1 after an interval of eleven days1 could not be distinguished except by the difference of their caudicles1 which1 of course1 undergo no change4 ,fritz ,mller has1 moreover1 made a large number of crosses between orchids belonging to distinct species and genera1 and he finds that in all cases when the flowers are not fertilised their footstalks first begin to wither2 and the withering slowly spreads upwards until the germens fall off1 after an interval of one or two weeks1 and in one instance of between six and seven weeks2 but even in this latter case1 and in most other cases1 the pollen and stigma remained in appearance fresh4 ,occasionally1 however1 the pollen becomes brownish1 generally on the external surface1 and not in contact with the stigma1 as is invariably the case when the plant's own pollen is applied4 ,fritz ,mller observed the poisonous action of the plant's own pollen in the above-mentioned ,oncidium flexuosum1 ,o4 unicorne1 pubes 7871 and in two other unnamed species4 ,also in two species of ,rodriguezia1 in two of ,notylia1 in one of ,burlingtonia1 and of a fourth genus in the same group4 ,in all these cases1 except the last1 it was proved that the flowers were1 as might have been expected1 fertile with pollen from a distinct plant of the same species4 ,numerous flowers of one species of ,notylia were fertilised with pollen from the same raceme2 in two days' time they all withered1 the germens began to shrink1 the pollen-masses became dark brown1 and not one pollen-grain emitted a tube4 ,so that in this orchid the injurious action of the plant's own pollen is more rapid than with ,oncidium flexuosum4 ,eight other flowers on the same raceme were fertilised with pollen from a distinct plant of the same species3 two of these were dissected1 and their stigmas were found to be penetrated by numberless pollen-tubes2 and the germens of the other six flowers became well developed4 ,on a subsequent occasion many other flowers were fertilised with their own pollen1 and all fell off dead in a few days2 whilst some flowers on the same raceme which had been left simply unfertilised adhered and long remained fresh4 ,we have seen that in cross-unions between extremely distinct orchids the pollen long remains undecayed2 but ,notylia behaved in this respect differently2 for when its pollen was placed on the stigma of ,oncidium flexuosum1 both the stigma and pollen quickly became dark brown1 in the same manner as if the plant's own pollen had been applied4 ,fritz ,mller suggests that1 as in all these cases the plant's own pollen is not only impotent 7thus effectually preventing self-fertilisation71 but likewise prevents1 as was ascertained in the case of the ,notylia and ,oncidium flexuosum1 the action of subsequently applied pollen from a distinct individual1 it would be an advantage to the plant to have its own pollen rendered more and more deleterious2 for the germens would thus quickly be killed1 and dropping off1 there would be no further waste in nourishing a part which ultimately could be of no avail4 ,the same naturalist found in ,brazil three plants of a ,bignonia growing near together4 ,he fertilised twenty-nine flowerets on one of them with their own pollen1 and they did not set a single capsule4 ,thirty flowers were then fertilised with pollen from a distinct plant1 one of the three1 and they yielded only two capsules4 ,lastly1 five flowers were fertilised with pollen from a fourth plant growing at a distance1 and all five produced capsules4 ,fritz ,mller thinks that the three plants which grew near one another were probably seedlings from the same parent1 and that from being closely related1 they acted very feebly on one another4 ,this view is extremely probable1 for he has since shown in a remarkable paper1#ga that in the case of some ,brazilian species of ,abutilon1 which are self-sterile1 and between which he raised some complex hybrids1 that these1 if near relatives1 were much less fertile inter se1 than when not closely related4 ,we now come to cases closely analogous with those just given1 but different in so far that only certain individuals of the species are self-sterile4 ,this self-impotence does not depend on the pollen or ovules being in an unfit state for fertilisation1 for both have been found effective in union with other plants of the same or of a distinct species4 ,the fact of plants having acquired so peculiar a constitution1 that they can be fertilised more readily by the pollen of a distinct species than by their own1 is exactly the reverse of what occurs with all ordinary species4 ,for in the latter the two sexual elements of the same individual plant are of course capable of freely acting on each other2 but are so constituted that they are more or less impotent when brought into union with the sexual elements of a distinct species1 and produce more or less sterile hybrids4 ,grtner experimented on two plants of ,lobelia fulgens1 brought from separate places1 and found#gb that their pollen was good1 for he fertilised with it ,l4 cardinalis and syphilitica2 their ovules were likewise good1 for they were fertilised by the pollen of these same two species2 but these two plants of ,l4 fulgens could not be fertilised by their own pollen1 as can generally be effected with perfect ease with this species4 ,again1 the pollen of a plant of ,verbascum nigrum grown in a pot was found by ,grtner#gc capable of fertilising ,v4 lychnitis and ,v4 austriacum2 the ovules could be fertilised by the pollen of ,v4 thapsus2 but the flowers could not be fertilised by their own pollen4 ,klreuter1 also1#gd gives the case of three garden plants of ,verbascum phniceum1 which bore during two years many flowers2 these he fertilised successfully with the pollen of no less than four distinct species1 but they produced not a seed with their own apparently good pollen2 subsequently these same plants1 and others raised from seed1 assumed a strangely fluctuating condition1 being temporarily sterile on the male or female side1 or on both sides1 and sometimes fertile on both sides2 but two of the plants were perfectly fertile throughout the summer4 ,with ,reseda odorata ,i have found certain individuals quite sterile with their own pollen1 and so it is with the indigenous ,reseda lutea4 ,the self-sterile plants of both species were perfectly fertile when crossed with pollen from any other individual of the same species4 ,these observations will hereafter be published in another work1 in which ,i shall also show that seeds sent to me by ,fritz ,mller produced by plants of ,eschscholtzia californica which were quite self-sterile in ,brazil1 yielded in this country plants which were only slightly self-sterile4 ,it appears#ge that certain flowers on certain plants of ,lilium candidum can be fertilised more freely by pollen from a distinct individual than by their own4 ,so1 again1 with the varieties of the potato4 ,tinzmann1#gf who made many trials with this plant1 says that pollen from another variety sometimes 8exerts a powerful influence1 and ,i have found sorts of potatoes which would not bear seed from impregnation with the pollen of their own flowers would bear it when impregnated with other pollen40 ,it does not1 however1 appear to have been proved that the pollen which failed to act on the flower's own stigma was in itself good4 ,in the genus ,passiflora it has long been known that several species do not produce fruit1 unless fertilised by pollen taken from distinct species3 thus1 ,mr4 ,mowbray#gg found that he could not get fruit from ,p4 alata and racemosa except by reciprocally fertilising them with each other's pollen2 and similar facts have been observed in ,germany and ,france4#gh ,i have received two accounts of ,p4 quadrangularis never producing fruit from its own pollen1 but doing so freely when fertilised in one case with the pollen of ,p4 crulea1 and in another case with that of ,p4 edulis4 ,but in three other cases this species fruited freely when fertilised with its own pollen2 and the writer in one case attributed the favourable result to the temperature of the house having been raised from #e to #aj ,fahr4 above the former temperature1 after the flowers were fertilised4#gi ,with respect to ,p4 laurifolia1 a cultivator of much experience has recently remarked#hj that the flowers 8must be fertilised with the pollen of ,p4 crulea1 or of some other common kind1 as their own pollen will not fertilise them40 ,but the fullest details on this subject have been given by ,messrs4 ,scott and ,robertson ,munro3#ha plants of ,passiflora racemosa1 crulea1 and alata flowered profusely during many years in the ,botanic ,gardens of ,edinburgh1 and1 though repeatedly fertilised with their own pollen1 never produced any seed2 yet this occurred at once with all three species when they were crossed together in various ways4 ,in the case of ,p4 crulea three plants1 two of which grew in the ,botanic ,gardens1 were all rendered fertile1 merely by impregnating each with pollen of one of the others4 ,the same result was attained in the same manner with ,p4 alata1 but with only one plant out of three4 ,as so many self-sterile species of ,passiflora have been mentioned1 it should be stated that the flowers of the annual ,p4 gracilis are nearly as fertile with their own pollen as with that from a distinct plant2 thus sixteen flowers spontaneously self-fertilised produced fruit1 each containing on an average #bac seed1 whilst fruit from fourteen crossed flowers contained #bda seed4 ,returning to ,p4 alata1 ,i have received 7#ahff7 some interesting details from ,mr4 ,robertson ,munro4 ,three plants1 including one in ,england1 have already been mentioned which were inveterately self-sterile1 and ,mr4 ,munro informs me of several others which1 after repeated trials during many years1 have been found in the same predicament4 ,at some other places1 however1 this species fruits readily when fertilised with its own pollen4 ,at ,taymouth ,castle there is a plant which was formerly grafted by ,mr4 ,donaldson on a distinct species1 name unknown1 and ever since the operation it has produced fruit in abundance by its own pollen2 so that this small and unnatural change in the state of this plant has restored its self-fertility6 ,some of the seedlings from the ,taymouth ,castle plant were found to be not only sterile with their own pollen1 but with each other's pollen1 and with the pollen of distinct species4 ,pollen from the ,taymouth plant failed to fertilise certain plants of the same species1 but was successful on one plant in the ,edinburgh ,botanic ,gardens4 ,seedlings were raised from this latter union1 and some of their flowers were fertilised by ,mr4 ,munro with their own pollen2 but they were found to be as self-impotent as the mother-plant had always proved1 except when fertilised by the grafted ,taymouth plant1 and except1 as we shall see1 when fertilised by her own seedlings4 ,for ,mr4 ,munro fertilised eighteen flowers on the self-impotent mother-plant with pollen from these her own self-impotent seedlings1 and obtained1 remarkable as the fact is1 eighteen fine capsules full of excellent seed6 ,i have met with no case in regard to plants which shows so well as this of ,p4 alata1 on what small and mysterious causes complete fertility or complete sterility depends4 ,the facts hitherto given relate to the much-lessened or completely destroyed fertility of pure species when impregnated with their own pollen1 in comparison with their fertility when impregnated by distinct individuals or distinct species2 but closely analogous facts have been observed with hybrids4 ,herbert states#hb that having in flower at the same time nine hybrid ,hippeastrums1 of complicated origin1 descended from several species1 he found that 8almost every flower touched with pollen from another cross produced seed abundantly1 and those which were touched with their own pollen either failed entirely1 or formed slowly a pod of inferior size1 with fewer seeds40 ,in the #8,horticultural ,journal' he adds that 8the admission of the pollen of another cross-bred ,hippeastrum 7however complicated the cross7 to any one flower of the number1 is almost sure to check the fructification of the others40 ,in a letter written to me in #ahci1 ,dr4 ,herbert says that he had already tried these experiments during five consecutive years1 and he subsequently repeated them1 with the same invariable result4 ,he was thus led to make an analogous trial on a pure species1 namely1 on the ,hippeastrum aulicum1 which he had lately imported from ,brazil3 this bulb produced four flowers1 three of which were fertilised by their own pollen1 and the fourth by the pollen of a triple cross between ,h4 bulbulosum1 regin1 and vittatum2 the result was1 that 8the ovaries of the three first flowers soon ceased to grow1 and after a few days perished entirely3 whereas the pod impregnated by the hybrid made vigorous and rapid progress to maturity1 and bore good seed1 which vegetated freely40 ,this is1 indeed1 as ,herbert remarks1 8a strange truth10 but not so strange as it then appeared4 ,as a confirmation of these statements1 ,i may add that ,mr4 ,m4 ,mayes#hc after much experience in crossing the species of ,amaryllis 7,hippeastrum71 says1 8neither the species nor the hybrids will1 we are well aware1 produce seed so abundantly from their own pollen as from that of others40 ,so1 again1 ,mr4 ,bidwell1 in ,new ,south ,wales#hd asserts that ,amaryllis belladonna bears many more seeds when fertilised by the pollen of ,brunswigia 7,amaryllis of some authors7 josephin or of ,b4 multiflora1 than when fertilised by its own pollen4 ,mr4 ,beaton dusted four flowers of a ,cyrtanthus with their own pollen1 and four with the pollen of ,vallota 7,amaryllis7 purpurea2 on the seventh day 8those which received their own pollen slackened their growth1 and ultimately perished2 those which were crossed with the ,vallota held on40#he ,these latter cases1 however1 relate to uncrossed species1 like those before given with respect to ,passiflora1 ,orchids1 etc41 and are here referred to only because the plants belong to the same group of ,amaryllidace4 ,in the experiments on the hybrid ,hippeastrums1 if ,herbert had found that the pollen of two or three kinds alone had been more efficient on certain kinds than their own pollen1 it might have been argued that these1 from their mixed parentage1 had a closer mutual affinity than the others2 but this explanation is inadmissible1 for the trials were made reciprocally backwards and forwards on nine different hybrids2 and a cross1 whichever way taken1 always proved highly beneficial4 ,i can add a striking and analogous case from experiments made by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,rawson1 of ,bromley ,common1 with some complex hybrids of ,gladiolus4 ,this skilful horticulturist possessed a number of ,french varieties1 differing from each other only in the colour and size of the flowers1 all descended from ,gandavensis1 a well-known old hybrid1 said to be descended from ,g4 natalensis by the pollen of ,g4 oppositiflorus4#hf ,mr4 ,rawson1 after repeated trials1 found that none of the varieties would set seed with their own pollen1 although taken from distinct plants of the same variety 7which had1 of course1 been propagated by bulbs71 but that they all seeded freely with pollen from any other variety4 ,to give two examples3 ,ophir did not produce a capsule with its own pollen1 but when fertilised with that of ,janire1 ,brenchleyensis1 ,vulcain and ,linn1 it produced ten fine capsules2 but the pollen of ,ophir was good1 for when ,linn was fertilised by it seven capsules were produced4 ,this latter variety1 on the other hand1 was utterly barren with its own pollen1 which we have seen was perfectly efficient on ,ophir4 ,altogether1 ,mr4 ,rawson1 in the year #ahfa fertilised twenty-six flowers borne by four varieties with pollen taken from other varieties1 and every single flower produced a fine seed-capsule2 whereas fifty-two flowers on the same plants1 fertilised at the same time with their own pollen1 did not yield a single seed-capsule4 ,mr4 ,rawson fertilised1 in some cases1 the alternate flowers1 and in other cases all those down one side of the spike1 with pollen of other varieties1 and the remaining flowers with their own pollen4 ,i saw these plants when the capsules were nearly mature1 and their curious arrangement at once brought full conviction to the mind that an immense advantage had been derived from crossing these hybrids4 ,lastly1 ,i have heard from ,dr4 ,e4 ,bornet1 of ,antibes1 who has made numerous experiments in crossing the species of ,cistus1 but has not yet published the results1 that1 when any of these hybrids are fertile1 they may be said to be1 in regard to function1 dioecious2 8for the flowers are always sterile when the pistil is fertilised by pollen taken from the same flower or from flowers on the same plant4 ,but they are often fertile if pollen be employed from a distinct individual of the same hybrid nature1 or from a hybrid made by a reciprocal cross40 ,conclusion4--,that plants should be self-sterile1 although both sexual elements are in a fit state for reproduction1 appears at first sight opposed to all analogy4 ,with respect to the species1 all the individuals of which are in this state1 although living under their natural conditions1 we may conclude that their self-sterility has been acquired for the sake of effectually preventing self-fertilisation4 ,the case is closely analogous with that of dimorphic and trimorphic or heterostyled plants1 which can be fully fertilised only by plants belonging to a different form1 and not1 as in the foregoing cases1 indifferently by any other individual of the species4 ,some of these hetero-styled plants are completely sterile with pollen taken from the same plant or from the same form4 ,with respect to species living under their natural conditions1 of which only certain individuals are self-sterile 7as with ,reseda lutea71 it is probable that these have been rendered self-sterile to ensure occasional cross-fertilisation1 whilst other individuals have remained self-fertile to ensure the propagation of the species4 ,the case seems to be parallel with that of plants which produce1 as ,hermann ,mller has discovered1 two forms--one bearing more conspicuous flowers with their structure adapted for cross-fertilisation by insects1 and the other form with less conspicuous flowers adapted for self-fertilisation4 ,the self-sterility1 however1 of some of the foregoing plants is incidental on the conditions to which they have been subjected1 as with the ,eschscholtzia1 the ,verbascum phniceum 7the sterility of which varied according to the season71 and with the ,passiflora alata1 which recovered its self-fertility when grafted on a different stock4 ,it is interesting to observe in the above several cases the graduated series from plants which1 when fertilised by their own pollen1 yield the full number of seeds1 but with the seedlings a little dwarfed in stature--to plants which when self-fertilised yield few seeds--to those which yield none1 but have their ovaria somewhat developed--and1 lastly1 to those in which the plant's own pollen and stigma mutually act on one another like poison4 ,it is also interesting to observe on how slight a difference in the nature of the pollen or of the ovules complete self-sterility or complete self-fertility must depend in some of the above cases4 ,every individual of the self-sterile species appears to be capable of producing the full complement of seed when fertilised by the pollen of any other individual 7though judging from the facts given with respect to ,abutilon the nearest kin must be excepted72 but not one individual can be fertilised by its own pollen4 ,as every organism differs in some slight degree from every other individual of the same species1 so no doubt it is with their pollen and ovules2 and in the above cases we must believe that complete self-sterility and complete self-fertility depend on such slight differences in the ovules and pollen1 and not their having been differentiated in some special manner in relation to one another2 for it is impossible that the sexual elements of many thousand individuals should have been specialised in relation to every other individual4 ,in some1 however1 of the above cases1 as with certain ,passifloras1 an amount of differentiation between the pollen and ovules sufficient for fertilisation is gained only by employing pollen from a distinct species2 but this is probably the result of such plants having been rendered somewhat sterile from the unnatural conditions to which they have been exposed4 ,exotic animals confined in menageries are sometimes in nearly the same state as the above-described self-impotent plants2 for1 as we shall see in the following chapter1 certain monkeys1 the larger carnivora1 several finches1 geese1 and pheasants1 cross together1 quite as freely as1 or even more freely than the individuals of the same species breed together4 ,cases will1 also1 be given of sexual incompatibility between certain1 male and female domesticated animals1 which1 nevertheless1 are fertile when matched with any other individual of the same kind4 ,in the early part of this chapter it was shown that the crossing of individuals belonging to distinct families of the same race1 or to different races or species1 gives increased size and constitutional vigour to the offspring1 and1 except in the case of crossed species1 increased fertility4 ,the evidence rests on the universal testimony of breeders 7for it should be observed that ,i am not here speaking of the evil results of close interbreeding71 and is practically exemplified in the higher value of cross-bred animals for immediate consumption4 ,the good results of crossing have also been demonstrated with some animals and with numerous plants1 by actual weight and measurement4 ,although animals of pure blood will obviously be deteriorated by crossing1 as far as their characteristic qualities are concerned1 there seems to be no exception to the rule that advantages of the kind just mentioned are thus gained1 even when there has not been any previous close interbreeding2 and the rule applies to such animals as cattle and sheep1 which can long resist breeding in-and-in between the nearest blood-relations4 ,in the case of crossed species1 although size1 vigour1 precocity1 and hardiness are1 with rare exceptions1 gained1 fertility1 in a greater or less degree1 is lost2 but the gain in the above respects can hardly be attributed to the principle of compensation2 for there is no close parallelism between the increased size and vigour of hybrid offspring and their sterility4 ,moreover1 it has been clearly proved that mongrels which are perfectly fertile gain these same advantages as well as sterile hybrids4 ,with the higher animals no special adaptations for ensuring occasional crosses between distinct families seem to exist4 ,the eagerness of the males1 leading to severe competition between them1 is sufficient2 for even with gregarious animals1 the old and dominant males will be dispossessed after a time and it would be a mere chance if a closely related member of the same family were to be the victorious successor4 ,the structure of many of the lower animals1 when they are hermaphrodites1 is such as to prevent the ovules being fertilised by the male element of the same individual2 so that the concourse of two individuals is necessary4 ,in other cases the access of the male element of a distinct individual is at least possible4 ,with plants1 which are affixed to the ground and cannot wander from place to place like animals1 the numerous adaptations for cross-fertilisation are wonderfully perfect1 as has been admitted by every one who has studied the subject4 ,the evil consequences of long-continued close interbreeding are not so easily recognised as the good effects from crossing1 for the deterioration is gradual4 ,nevertheless1 it is the general opinion of those who have had most experience1 especially with animals which propagate quickly1 that evil does inevitably follow sooner or later1 but at different rates with different animals4 ,no doubt a false belief may1 like a superstition1 prevail widely2 yet it is difficult to suppose that so many acute observers have all been deceived at the expense of much cost and trouble4 ,a male animal may sometimes be paired with his daughter1 granddaughter1 and so on1 even for seven generations1 without any manifest bad result3 but the experiment has never been tried of matching brothers and sisters1 which is considered the closest form of interbreeding1 for an equal number of generations4 ,there is good reason to believe that by keeping the members of the same family in distinct bodies1 especially if exposed to somewhat different conditions of life1 and by occasionally crossing these families1 the evil results of interbreeding may be much diminished or quite eliminated4 ,these results are loss of constitutional vigour1 size1 and fertility2 but there is no necessary deterioration in the general form of the body1 or in other good qualities4 ,we have seen that with pigs first-rate animals have been produced after long-continued close interbreeding1 though they had become extremely infertile when paired with their near relations4 ,the loss of fertility1 when it occurs1 seems never to be absolute1 but only relative to animals of the same blood2 so that this sterility is to a certain extent analogous with that of self-impotent plants which cannot be fertilised by their own pollen1 but are perfectly fertile with pollen of any other individual of the same species4 ,the fact of infertility of this peculiar nature being one of the results of long-continued interbreeding1 shows that interbreeding does not act merely by combining and augmenting various morbid tendencies common to both parents2 for animals with such tendencies1 if not at the time actually ill1 can generally propagate their kind4 ,although offspring descended from the nearest blood-relations are not necessarily deteriorated in structure1 yet some authors believe that they are eminently liable to malformations2 and this is not improbable1 as everything which lessens the vital powers acts in this manner4 ,instances of this kind have been recorded in the case of pigs1 bloodhounds1 and some other animals4 ,finally1 when we consider the various facts now given which plainly show that good follows from crossing1 and less plainly that evil follows from close interbreeding1 and when we bear in mind that with very many organisms elaborate provisions have been made for the occasional union of distinct individuals1 the existence of a great law of nature is almost proved2 namely1 that the crossing of animals and plants which are not closely related to each other is highly beneficial or even necessary1 and that interbreeding prolonged during many generations is injurious4 ,,references #a #8,the ,art of ,improving the ,breed1 etc41' #ahji1 p4 #af4 #b #8,the ,history of the ,rise and ,progress of the ,killerby1 etc4 ,herds1' p4 #da4 #c ,for ,andrew ,knight1 see ,a4 ,walker1 on #8,intermarriage1' #ahch1 p4 #bbg4 ,sir ,j4 ,sebright's ,treatise has just been quoted4 #d #8,cattle1' p4 #aii4 #e ,i give this on the authority of ,nathusius1 #8,ueber ,shorthorn ,rindvieh1' #aheg1 s4 #ga1 7see also #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #bgj74 ,but ,mr4 ,j4 ,storer1 a large breeder of cattle1 informs me that the parentage of ,clarissa is not well authenticated4 ,in the first vol4 of the #8,herd ,book1' she was entered as having six descents from ,favourite1 8which was a palpable mistake10 and in all subsequent editions she was spoken of as having only four descents4 ,mr4 ,storer doubts even about the four1 as no names of the dams are given4 ,moreover1 ,clarissa bore 8only two bulls and one heifer1 and in the next generation her progeny became extinct40 ,analogous cases of close interbreeding are given in a pamphlet published by ,mr4 ,c4 ,macknight and ,dr4 ,h4 ,madden1 #8,on the ,true ,principles of ,breeding2' ,melbourne1 ,australia1 #ahfe4 #f ,mr4 ,willoughby ,wood1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahee1 p4 #daa2 and #ahfj1 p4 #bgj4 ,see the very clear tables and pedigrees given in ,nathusius' #8,rindvieh1' s4 #gb-gg4 #g ,mr4 ,wright1 #8,journal of ,royal ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 vii41 #ahdf1 p4 #bjd4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,downing 7a successful breeder of ,shorthorns in ,ireland7 informs me that the raisers of the great families of ,shorthorns carefully conceal their sterility and want of constitution4 ,he adds that ,mr4 ,bates1 after he had bred his herd in-and-in for some years1 8lost in one season twenty-eight calves solely from want of constitution40 #h ,youatt on ,cattle1 p4 #bjb4 #i #8,report ,british ,assoc41 ,zoolog4 ,sect41' #ahch4 #aj ,azara1 #8,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 pp4 #ced1 #cfh4 #aa ,for the case of the ,messrs4 ,brown1 see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahee1 p4 #bf4 ,for the ,foscote flock1 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #daf4 ,for the ,naz flock1 #8,bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclimat41' #ahfj1 p4 #dgg4 #ab ,nathusius1 #8,rindvieh1' s4 #fe2 ,youatt on ,sheep1 p4 #die4 #ac #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfa1 p4 #fca4 #ad #8,journal ,r4 ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 xiv41 #ahec1 p4 #bab4 #ae ,lord ,somerville1 #8,facts on ,sheep and ,husbandry1' p4 #f4 ,mr4 ,spooner in #8,journal of ,royal ,agricult4 ,soc4 of ,england1' vol4 xx4 part ii4 ,see also an excellent paper on the same subject in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #cba1 by ,mr4 ,charles ,howard4 #af #8,some ,account of ,english ,deer ,parks1' by ,evelyn ,p4 ,shirley1 #ahfg4 #ag ,stonehenge1 #8,the ,dog1' #ahfg1 pp4 #age-agh4 #ah #8,the ,art of ,improving the ,breed1' etc41 p4 #ac4 ,with respect to ,scotch deerhounds1 see ,scrope's #8,art of ,deer ,stalking1' pp4 #cej-cec4 #ai #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfa1 p4 #cbg4 #bj ,mr4 ,huth gives 7#8,the ,marriage of ,near ,kin1' #ahge1 p4 #cjb7 from the #8,bulletin de l',acad4 ,r4 de ,md4 de ,belgique' 7vol4 ix41 #ahff1 pp4 #bhg1 #cje71 several statements made by a ,m4 ,legrain with respect to crossing brother and sister rabbits for five or six successive generations with no consequent evil results4 ,i was so much surprised at this account1 and at ,m4 ,legrain's invariable success in his experiments1 that ,i wrote to a distinguished naturalist in ,belgium to inquire whether ,m4 ,legrain was a trustworthy observer4 ,in answer1 ,i have heard that1 as doubts were expressed about the authenticity of these experiments1 a commission of inquiry was appointed1 and that at a succeeding meeting of the ,society 7#8,bull4 de l',acad4 ,r4 de ,md4 de ,belgique1' #ahfg1 #crd series1 ,tome #a1 ,no4 #a to #e71 ,dr4 ,crocq reported 8qu'il tait matriellement impossible que ,m4 ,legrain ait fait les expriences qu'il annonce40 ,to this public accusation no satisfactory answer was made4 #ba ,sidney's edit4 of #8,youatt on the ,pig1' #ahfj1 p4 #cj2 p4 #cc quotation from ,mr4 ,druce2 p4 #bi on ,lord ,western's case4 #bb #8,journal of ,royal ,agricult4 ,soc4 of ,england1' #ahdf1 vol4 vii4 p4 #bje4 #bc #8,ueber ,rindvieh1' etc41 s4 #gh4 ,col4 ,le ,couteur1 who has done so much for the agriculture of ,jersey1 writes to me that from possessing a fine breed of pigs he bred them very closely1 twice pairing brothers and sisters1 but nearly all the young had fits and died suddenly4 #bd ,sidney on the ,pig1 p4 #cf4 ,see also note p4 #cd4 ,also ,richardson on the ,pig1 #ahdg1 p4 #bf4 #be ,dr4 ,dally has published an excellent article 7translated in the #8,anthropolog4 ,review1' ,may1 #ahfd1 p4 #fe71 criticising all writers who have maintained that evil follows from consanguineous marriages4 ,no doubt on this side of the question many advocates have injured their cause by inaccuracies3 thus it has been stated 7,devay1 #8,du ,danger des ,mariages1' etc41 #ahfb1 p4 #ada7 that the marriages of cousins have been prohibited by the legislature of ,ohio2 but ,i have been assured1 in answer to inquiries made in the ,united ,states1 that this statement is a mere fable4 #bf ,see his interesting work on the #8,early ,history of ,man1' #ahfe1 chap4 x4 #bg #8,the ,marriage of ,near ,kin1' #ahge4 ,the evidence given by ,mr4 ,huth would1 ,i think1 have been even more valuable than it is on this and some other points1 if he had referred solely to the works of men who had long resided in each country referred to1 and who showed that they possessed judgment and caution4 ,see also ,mr4 ,w4 ,adam1 #8,on ,consanguinity in ,marriage' in the #8,fortnightly ,review1' #ahfe1 p4 #gaj4 ,also ,hofacker1 #8,ueber die ,eigenschaften1' etc41 #ahbh4 #bh ,sir ,g4 ,grey's #8,journal of ,expeditions into ,australia1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bdc2 and ,dobrizhoffer1 #8,on the ,abipones of ,south ,america4' #bi #8,descent of ,man1' #bnd4 edit4 p4 #ebd4 #cj #8,journal of ,statistical ,soc4' ,june1 #ahge1 p4 #aec2 and #8,fortnightly ,review1' ,june1 #ahge4 #ca #8,the ,art of ,improving the ,breed1' p4 #ac4 #cb #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #bde4 #cc #8,journal ,royal ,agricult4 ,soc41' #ahdf1 vol4 vii4 p4 #bje2 see also ,ferguson on the ,fowl1 pp4 #hc1 #cag2 see also #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #ace1 with respect to the extent to which cock-fighters found that they could venture to breed in-and-in1 viz41 occasionally a hen with her own son2 8but they were cautious not to repeat the in-and-in breeding40 #cd #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #gi4 #ce #8,the ,poultry ,chronicle1' #ahed1 vol4 i4 p4 #dc4 #cf #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #gi4 #cg #8,the ,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 i4 p4 #hi4 #ch #8,the ,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 p4 #baj4 #ci ,ibid4 #ahff1 p4 #afg2 and #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 iii41 #ahee1 p4 #ae4 #dj #8,a ,treatise on ,fancy ,pigeons1' by ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton1 p4 #ef4 #da #8,the ,pigeon ,book1' p4 #df4 #db #8,das ,ganze der ,taubenzucht1' #ahcg1 s4 #ah4 #dc #8,les ,pigeons1' #ahbd1 p4 #ce4 #dd #8,proc4 ,entomolog4 ,soc41' ,aug4 #fth1 #ahfj1 p4 #abf4 #de #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 pp4 #ci1 #gg1 #aeh2 and #ahfd1 p4 #bjf4 #df #8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,befruchtung1' #ahdd1 s4 #cff4 #dg #8,amaryllidace1' p4 #cga4 #dh #8,de la ,fcondation1' #bnd edit41 #ahfb1 p4 #gi4 #di #8,mmoire sur les ,cucurbitaces1' pp4 #cf1 #bh1 #cj4 #ej ,loudon's #8,gard4 ,mag41' vol4 viii41 #ahcb1 p4 #eb4 #ea #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 p4 #be4 #eb #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat41' #crd series1 ,bot41 tom4 vi4 p4 #ahi4 #ec #8,philosophical ,transactions1' #agii1 p4 #bjj4 #ed #8,ueber die ,bastarderzeugung1' #ahbh1 s4 #cb1 #cc4 ,for ,mr4 ,chaundy's case1 see ,loudon's #8,gard4 ,mag4' vol4 vii4 #ahca1 p4 #fif4 #ee #8,gardener's ,chron41' #ahdf1 p4 #fja4 #ef #8,philosoph4 ,transact41' #agii1 p4 #bja4 #eg ,quoted in #8,bull4 ,bot4 ,soc4 ,france1' vol4 ii41 #ahee1 p4 #cbg4 #eh ,grtner1 #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #bei1 #eah1 #ebf et seq4 #ei #8,fortsetzung1' #agfc1 s4 #bi2 #8,dritte ,fortsetzung1' s4 #dd1 #if2 #8,act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburg1' #aghb1 part ii41 p4 #bea2 #8,nova ,acta1' #agic1 pp4 #cia1 #cid2 #8,nova ,acta1' #agie1 pp4 #caf1 #cbc4 #fj #8,die ,bastardbefruchtung1' etc41 #ahfe1 s4 #ca1 #da1 #db4 #fa ,max ,wichura fully accepts this view 7#8,bastardbefruchtung1' s4 #dc71 as does the ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,berkeley1 in #8,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' ,jan4 #ahff1 p4 #gj4 #fb #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #cid1 #ebf1 #ebh4 #fc ,klreuter1 #8,nova ,acta1' #agie1 p4 #caf4 #fd ,grtner1 #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #dcj4 #fe ,quoted by ,dr4 ,murie1 in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahgj1 p4 #dj4 #ff #8,botanische ,zeitung1' ,jan4 #ahfd1 s4 #c4 #fg #8,monatsbericht ,akad4 ,wissen4' ,berlin1 #ahff1 s4 #cgb4 #fh ,international ,hort4 ,congress1 ,london1 #ahff4 #fi #8,proc4 ,bot4 ,soc4 of ,edinburgh1' ,may1 #ahfc3 these observations are given in abstract1 and others are added1 in the #8,journal of ,proc4 of ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 viii4 ,bot41 #ahfd1 p4 #afb4 #gj ,prof4 ,lecoq1 #8,de la ,fcondation1' #bnd edit41 #ahfb1 p4 #gf4 #ga #8,jenaische ,zeitschrift fur ,naturwiss4' ,b4 vii4 p4 #bb1 #ahgb1 and p4 #dda1 #ahgc4 ,a large part of this paper has been translated in the #8,american ,naturalist1' #ahgd1 p4 #bbc4 #gb #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #fd1 #ceg4 #gc ,ibid41 s4 #ceg4 #gd #8,zweite ,fortsetzung1' s4 #aj2 #8,dritte ,forts41' s4 #dj4 ,mr4 ,scott likewise fertilised fifty-four flowers of ,verbascum phniceum1 including two varieties1 with their own pollen1 and not a single capsule was produced4 ,many of the pollen-grains emitted their tubes1 but only a few of them penetrated the stigmas2 some slight effect however was produced1 as many of the ovaries became somewhat developed3 #8,journal ,asiatic ,soc4 ,bengal1' #ahfg1 p4 #aej4 #ge ,duvernoy1 quoted by ,grtner1 #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #ccd4 #gf #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdf1 p4 #ahc4 #gg #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 vii41 #ahcj1 p4 #ie4 #gh ,prof4 ,lecoq #8,de la ,fcondation1' #ahde1 p4 #gj2 ,grtner1 #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #fd4 #gi #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfh1 p4 #acda4 #hj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahff1 p4 #ajfh4 #ha #8,journal of ,proc4 of ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 viii41 #ahfd1 p4 #aafh4 ,mr4 ,robertson ,munro1 in #8,trans4 ,bot4 ,soc4' of ,edinburgh1 vol4 ix4 p4 #cii4 #hb #8,amaryllidace1' #ahcg1 p4 #cga2 #8,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ii41 #ahdg1 p4 #ai4 #hc ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,magazine1' vol4 xi41 #ahce1 p4 #bfj4 #hd #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahej1 p4 #dgj4 #he #8,journal ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 v4 p4 #ace4 ,the seedlings thus raised were given to the ,hort4 ,soc42 but ,i find1 on inquiry1 that they unfortunately died the following winter4 #hf ,mr4 ,d4 ,beaton1 in #8,journal of ,hort41' #ahfa1 p4 #dec4 ,lecoq however 7#8,de la ,fcond41' #ahfb1 p4 #cfi71 states that this hybrid is descended from ,g4 psittacinus and cardinalis2 but this is opposed to ,herbert's experience1 who found that the former species could not be crossed4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,on ,,the ,,advantages ,,and ,,disadvantages ,,of ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life3 ,,sterility ,,from ,,various ,,causes4 ,,on ,,the ,,good ,,derived ,,from ,,slight ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,sterility ,,from ,,changed ,,conditions1 ,,in ,,animals1 ,,in ,,their ,,native ,,country ,,and ,,in ,,menageries--,,mammals1 ,,birds1 ,,and ,,insects--,,loss ,,of ,,secondary ,,sexual ,,characters ,,and ,,of ,,instincts--,,causes ,,of ,,sterility--,,sterility ,,of ,,domesticated ,,animals ,,from ,,changed ,,conditions--,,sexual ,,incompatibility ,,of ,,individual ,,animals--,,sterility ,,of ,,plants ,,from ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,contabescence ,,of ,,the ,,anthers--,,monstrosities ,,as ,a ,,cause ,,of ,,sterility--,,double ,,flowers--,,seedless ,,fruit--,,sterility ,,from ,,the ,,excessive ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,vegetation--,,from ,,long-,,continued ,,propagation ,,by ,,buds--,,incipient ,,sterility ,,the ,,primary ,,cause ,,of ,,double ,,flowers ,,and ,,seedless ,,fruit4 ,on the ,good derived from slight ,changes in the ,conditions of ,life4--,in considering whether any facts were known which might throw light on the conclusion arrived at in the last chapter1 namely1 that benefits ensue from crossing1 and that it is a law of nature that all organic beings should occasionally cross1 it appeared to me probable that the good derived from slight changes in the conditions of life1 from being an analogous phenomenon1 might serve this purpose4 ,no two individuals1 and still less no two varieties1 are absolutely alike in constitution and structure2 and when the germ of one is fertilised by the male element of another1 we may believe that it is acted on in a somewhat similar manner as an individual when exposed to slightly changed conditions4 ,now1 every one must have observed the remarkable influence on convalescents of a change of residence1 and no medical man doubts the truth of this fact4 ,small farmers who hold but little land are convinced that their cattle derive great benefit from a change of pasture4 ,in the case of plants1 the evidence is strong that a great advantage is derived from exchanging seeds1 tubers1 bulbs1 and cuttings from one soil or place to another as different as possible4 ,the belief that plants are thus benefited1 whether or not well founded1 has been firmly maintained from the time of ,columella1 who wrote shortly after the ,christian era1 to the present day2 and it now prevails in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany4#a ,a sagacious observer1 ,bradley1 writing in #agbd1b says1 8,when we once become ,masters of a good ,sort of ,seed1 we should at least put it into ,two or ,three ,hands1 where the ,soils and ,situations are as different as possible2 and every ,year the ,parties should change with one another2 by which ,means1 ,i find the ,goodness of the ,seed will be maintained for several ,years4 ,for ,want of this ,use many ,farmers have failed in their ,crops and been great ,losers40 ,he then gives his own practical experience on this head4 ,a modern writer#c asserts1 8,nothing can be more clearly established in agriculture than that the continual growth of any one variety in the same district makes it liable to deterioration either in quality or quantity40 ,another writer states that he sowed close together in the same field two lots of wheat-seed1 the product of the same original stock1 one of which had been grown on the same land and the other at a distance1 and the difference in favour of the crop from the latter seed was remarkable4 ,a gentleman in ,surrey who has long made it his business to raise wheat to sell for seed1 and who has constantly realised in the market higher prices than others1 assures me that he finds it indispensable continually to change his seed2 and that for this purpose he keeps two farms differing much in soil and elevation4 ,with respect to the tubers of the potato1 ,i find that at the present day the practice of exchanging sets is almost everywhere followed4 ,the great growers of potatoes in ,lancashire formerly used to get tubers from ,scotland1 but they found that 8a change from the moss-lands1 and vice versa1 was generally sufficient40 ,in former times in ,france the crop of potatoes in the ,vosges had become reduced in the course of fifty or sixty years in the proportion from #abj-aej to #cj-dj bushels2 and the famous ,oberlin attributed the surprising good which he effected in large part to changing the sets4#d ,a well-known practical gardener1 ,mr4 ,robson#e positively states that he has himself witnessed decided advantage from obtaining bulbs of the onion1 tubers of the potato1 and various seeds1 all of the same kind1 from different soils and distant parts of ,england4 ,he further states that with plants propagated by cuttings1 as with the ,pelargonium1 and especially the ,dahlia1 manifest advantage is derived from getting plants of the same variety1 which have been cultivated in another place2 or1 8where the extent of the place allows1 to take cuttings from one description of soil to plant on another1 so as to afford the change that seems so necessary to the well-being of the plants40 ,he maintains that after a time an exchange of this nature is 8forced on the grower1 whether he be prepared for it or not40 ,similar remarks have been made by another excellent gardener1 ,mr4 ,fish1 namely1 that cuttings of the same variety of ,calceolaria1 which he obtained from a neighbour1 8showed much greater vigour than some of his own that were treated in exactly the same manner10 and he attributed this solely to his own plants having become 8to a certain extent worn out or tired of their quarters40 ,something of this kind apparently occurs in grafting and budding fruit-trees2 for1 according to ,mr4 ,abbey1 grafts or buds generally take with greater facility on a distinct variety or even species1 or on a stock previously grafted1 than on stocks raised from seeds of the variety which is to be grafted2 and he believes this cannot be altogether explained by the stocks in question being better adapted to the soil and climate of the place4 ,it should1 however1 be added1 that varieties grafted or budded on very distinct kinds1 though they may take more readily and grow at first more vigorously than when grafted on closely allied stocks1 afterwards often become unhealthy4 ,i have studied ,m4 ,tessier's careful and elaborate experiments#f made to disprove the common belief that good is derived from a change of seed2 and he certainly shows that the same seed may with care be cultivated on the same farm 7it is not stated whether on exactly the same soil7 for ten consecutive years without loss4 ,another excellent observer1 ,colonel ,le ,couteur#g has come to the same conclusion2 but then he expressly adds1 if the same seed be used1 8that which is grown on land manured from the mixen one year becomes seed for land prepared with lime1 and that again becomes seed for land dressed with ashes1 then for land dressed with mixed manure1 and so on40 ,but this in effect is a systematic exchange of seed1 within the limits of the same farm4 ,on the whole the belief1 which has long been held by many cultivators1 that good follows from exchanging seed1 tubers1 etc41 seems to be fairly well founded4 ,it seems hardly credible that the advantage thus derived can be due to the seeds1 especially if very small ones1 obtaining in one soil some chemical element deficient in the other and in sufficient quantity to influence the whole after-growth of the plant4 ,as plants after once germinating are fixed to the same spot1 it might have been anticipated that they would show the good effects of a change more plainly than do animals which continually wander about2 and this apparently is the case4 ,life depending on1 or consisting in1 an incessant play of the most complex forces1 it would appear that their action is in some way stimulated by slight changes in the circumstances to which each organism is exposed4 ,all forces throughout nature1 as ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer#h remarks1 tend towards an equilibrium1 and for the life of each organism it is necessary that this tendency should be checked4 ,these views and the foregoing facts probably throw light1 on the one hand1 on the good effects of crossing the breed1 for the germ will be thus slightly modified or acted on by new forces2 and on the other hand1 on the evil effects of close interbreeding prolonged during many generations1 during which the germ will be acted on by a male having almost identically the same constitution4 ,sterility from ,changed ,conditions of ,life4 ,i will now attempt to show that animals and plants1 when removed from their natural conditions1 are often rendered in some degree infertile or completely barren2 and this occurs even when the conditions have not been greatly changed4 ,this conclusion is not necessarily opposed to that at which we have just arrived1 namely1 that lesser changes of other kinds are advantageous to organic beings4 ,our present subject is of some importance1 from having an intimate connection with the causes of variability4 ,indirectly it perhaps bears on the sterility of species when crossed3 for as1 on the one hand1 slight changes in the conditions of life are favourable to plants and animals1 and the crossing of varieties adds to the size1 vigour1 and fertility of their offspring2 so1 on the other hand1 certain other changes in the conditions of life cause sterility2 and as this likewise ensues from crossing much-modified forms or species1 we have a parallel and double series of facts1 which apparently stand in close relation to each other4 ,it is notorious that many animals1 though perfectly tamed1 refuse to breed in captivity4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire#i consequently has drawn a broad distinction between tamed animals which will not breed under captivity1 and truly domesticated animals which breed freely--generally more freely1 as shown in the sixteenth chapter1 than in a state of nature4 ,it is possible and generally easy to tame most animals2 but experience has shown that it is difficult to get them to breed regularly1 or even at all4 ,i shall discuss this subject in detail2 but will give only those cases which seem most illustrative4 ,my materials are derived from notices scattered through various works1 and especially from a ,report1 kindly drawn up for me by the officers of the ,zoological ,society of ,london1 which has especial value1 as it records all the cases1 during nine years from #ahch-df1 in which the animals were seen to couple but produced no offspring1 as well as the cases in which they never1 as far as known1 coupled4 ,this ,,ms4 ,report ,i have corrected by the annual ,reports subsequently published up to the year #ahfe4aj ,many facts are given on the breeding of the animals in that magnificent work1 #8,gleanings from the ,menageries of ,knowsley ,hall' by ,dr4 ,gray4 ,i made1 also1 particular inquiries from the experienced keeper of the birds in the old ,surrey ,zoological ,gardens4 ,i should premise that a slight change in the treatment of animals sometimes makes a great difference in their fertility2 and it is probable that the results observed in different menageries would differ4 ,indeed1 some animals in our ,zoological ,gardens have become more productive since the year #ahdf4 ,it is1 also1 manifest from ,f4 ,cuvier's account of the ,jardin des ,plantes#aa that the animals formerly bred much less freely there than with us2 for instance1 in the ,duck tribe1 which is highly prolific1 only one species had at that period produced young4 ,the most remarkable cases1 however1 are afforded by animals kept in their native country1 which1 though perfectly tamed1 quite healthy1 and allowed some freedom1 are absolutely incapable of breeding4 ,rengger1#ab who in ,paraguay particularly attended to this subject1 specifies six quadrupeds in this condition2 and he mentions two or three others which most rarely breed4 ,mr4 ,bates1 in his admirable work on the ,amazons1 strongly insists on similar cases2#ac and he remarks1 that the fact of thoroughly tamed native mammals and birds not breeding when kept by the ,indians1 cannot be wholly accounted for by their negligence or indifference1 for the turkey and fowl are kept and bred by various remote tribes4 ,in almost every part of the world--for instance1 in the interior of ,africa1 and in several of the ,polynesian islands--the natives are extremely fond of taming the indigenous quadrupeds and birds2 but they rarely or never succeed in getting them to breed4 ,the most notorious case of an animal not breeding in captivity is that of the elephant4 ,elephants are kept in large numbers in their native ,indian home1 live to old age1 and are vigorous enough for the severest labour2 yet1 with a very few exceptions1 they have never been known even to couple1 though both males and females have their proper periodical seasons4 ,if1 however1 we proceed a little eastward to ,ava1 we hear from ,mr4 ,crawfurd#ad that their 8breeding in the domestic state1 or at least in the half-domestic state in which the female elephants are generally kept1 is of everyday occurrence20 and ,mr4 ,crawfurd informs me that he believes that the difference must be attributed solely to the females being allowed to roam the forest with some degree of freedom4 ,the captive rhinoceros1 on the other hand1 seems from ,bishop ,heber's account#ae to breed in ,india far more readily than the elephant4 ,four wild species of the horse genus have bred in ,europe1 though here exposed to a great change in their natural habits of life2 but the species have generally been crossed one with another4 ,most of the members of the pig family breed readily in our menageries2 even the ,red ,river hog 7,potamochrus penicillatus71 from the sweltering plains of ,west ,africa1 has bred twice in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,here also the ,peccary 7,dicotyles torquatus7 has bred several times2 but another species1 the ,d4 labiatus1 though rendered so tame as to be half-domesticated1 is said to breed so rarely in its native country of ,paraguay1 that according to ,rengger#af the fact requires confirmation4 ,mr4 ,bates remarks that the tapir1 though often kept tame in ,amazonia by the ,indians1 never breeds4 ,ruminants generally breed quite freely in ,england1 though brought from widely different climates1 as may be seen in the ,annual ,reports of the ,zoological ,gardens1 and in the ,gleanings from ,lord ,derby's menagerie4 ,the ,carnivora1 with the exception of the ,plantigrade division1 breed 7though with capricious exceptions7 about half as freely as ruminants4 ,many species of ,felidae have bred in various menageries1 although imported from diverse climates and closely confined4 ,mr4 ,bartlett1 the present superintendent of the ,zoological ,gardens#ag remarks that the lion appears to breed more frequently and to bring forth more young at a birth than any other species of the family4 ,he adds that the tiger has rarely bred2 8but there are several well-authenticated instances of the female tiger breeding with the lion40 ,strange as the fact may appear1 many animals under confinement unite with distinct species and produce hybrids quite as freely as1 or even more freely than1 with their own species4 ,on inquiring from ,dr4 ,falconer and others1 it appears that the tiger when confined in ,india does not breed1 though it has been known to couple4 ,the chetah 7,felis jubata7 has never been known by ,mr4 ,bartlett to breed in ,england1 but it has bred at ,frankfort2 nor does it breed in ,india1 where it is kept in large numbers for hunting2 but no pains would be taken to make them breed1 as only those animals which have hunted for themselves in a state of nature are serviceable and worth training4#ah ,according to ,rengger1 two species of wild cats in ,paraguay1 though thoroughly tamed1 have never bred4 ,although so many of the ,felidae breed readily in the ,zoological ,gardens1 yet conception by no means always follows union3 in the nine-year ,report1 various species are specified which were observed to couple seventy-three times1 and no doubt this must have passed many times unnoticed2 yet from the seventy- three unions only fifteen births ensued4 ,the ,carnivora in the ,zoological ,gardens were formerly less freely exposed to the air and cold than at present1 and this change of treatment1 as ,i was assured by the former superintendent1 ,mr4 ,miller1 greatly increased their fertility4 ,mr4 ,bartlett1 and there cannot be a more capable judge1 says1 8it is remarkable that lions breed more freely in travelling collections than in the ,zoological ,gardens2 probably the constant excitement and irritation produced by moving from place to place1 or change of air1 may have considerable influence in the matter40 ,many members of the ,dog family breed readily when confined4 ,the ,dhole is one of the most untamable animals in ,india1 yet a pair kept there by ,dr4 ,falconer produced young4 ,foxes1 on the other hand1 rarely breed1 and ,i have never heard of such an occurrence with the ,european fox3 the silver fox of ,north ,america 7,canis argentatus71 however1 has bred several times in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,even the otter has bred there4 ,every one knows how readily the semi-domesticated ferret breeds1 though shut up in miserably small cages2 but other species of ,viverra and ,paradoxurus absolutely refuse to breed in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,the ,genetta has bred both here and in the ,jardin des ,plantes1 and produced hybrids4 ,the ,herpestes fasciatus has likewise bred2 but ,i was formerly assured that the ,h4 griseus1 though many were kept in the ,gardens1 never bred4 ,the ,plantigrade ,carnivora breed under confinement much less freely than other ,carnivora1 although no reason can be assigned for this fact4 ,in the nine-year ,report it is stated that the bears had been seen in the ,zoological ,gardens to couple freely1 but previously to #ahdh had most rarely conceived4 ,in the ,reports published since this date three species have produced young 7hybrids in one case71 and1 wonderful to relate1 the white ,polar bear has produced young4 ,the badger 7,meles taxus7 has bred several times in the ,gardens2 but ,i have not heard of this occurring elsewhere in ,england1 and the event must be very rare1 for an instance in ,germany has been thought worth recording4#ai ,in ,paraguay the native ,nasua1 though kept in pairs during many years and perfectly tamed1 has never been known1 according to ,rengger1 to breed or show any sexual passion2 nor1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,bates1 does this animal1 or the ,cercoleptes1 breed in ,amazonia4 ,two other plantigrade genera1 ,procyon and ,gulo1 though often kept tame in ,paraguay1 never breed there4 ,in the ,zoological ,gardens species of ,nasua and ,procyon have been seen to couple2 but they did not produce young4 ,as domesticated rabbits1 guinea-pigs1 and white mice breed so abundantly when closely confined under various climates1 it might have been thought that most other members of the ,rodent order would have bred in captivity1 but this is not the case4 ,it deserves notice1 as showing how the capacity to breed sometimes goes by affinity1 that the one native rodent of ,paraguay1 which there breeds freely and has yielded successive generations1 is the ,cavia aperea2 and this animal is so closely allied to the guinea-pig1 that it has been erroneously thought to be the parent form4#bj ,in the ,zoological ,gardens1 some rodents have coupled1 but have never produced young2 some have neither coupled nor bred2 but a few have bred1 as the porcupine more than once1 the ,barbary mouse1 lemming1 chinchilla1 and agouti 7,dasyprocta aguti7 several times4 ,this latter animal has also produced young in ,paraguay1 though they were born dead and ill-formed2 but in ,amazonia1 according to ,mr4 ,bates1 it never breeds1 though often kept tame about the houses4 ,nor does the paca 7,clogenys paca7 breed there4 ,the common hare when confined has1 ,i believe1 never bred in ,europe2 though1 according to a recent statement1 it has crossed with the rabbit4#ba ,i have never heard of the dormouse breeding in confinement4 ,but squirrels offer a more curious case3 with one exception1 no species has bred in the ,zoological ,gardens1 yet as many as fourteen individuals of ,s4 palmarum were kept together during several years4 ,the ,s4 cinera has been seen to couple1 but it did not produce young2 nor has this species1 when rendered extremely tame in its native country1 ,north ,america1 been ever known to breed4#bb ,at ,lord ,derby's menagerie squirrels of many kinds were kept in numbers1 but ,mr4 ,thompson1 the superintendent1 told me that none had ever bred there1 or elsewhere as far as he knew4 ,i have never heard of the ,english squirrel breeding in confinement4 ,but the species which has bred more than once in the ,zoological ,gardens is the one which perhaps might have been least expected1 namely1 the flying squirrel 7,sciuropterus volucella73 it has1 also1 bred several times near ,birmingham2 but the female never produced more than two young at a birth1 whereas in its native ,american home she bears from three to six young4#bc ,monkeys1 in the nine-year ,report from the ,zoological ,gardens1 are stated to unite most freely1 but during this period1 though many individuals were kept1 there were only seven births4 ,i have heard of only one ,american monkey1 the ,ouistiti1 breeding in ,europe4#bd ,a ,macacus1 according to ,flourens1 bred in ,paris2 and more than one species of this genus has produced young in ,london1 especially the ,macacus rhesus1 which everywhere shows a special capacity to breed under confinement4 ,hybrids have been produced both in ,paris and ,london from this same genus4 ,the ,arabian baboon1 or ,cynocephalus hamadryas1#be and a ,cercopithecus have bred in the ,zoological ,gardens1 and the latter species at the ,duke of ,northumberland's4 ,several members of the family of ,lemurs have produced hybrids in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,it is much more remarkable that monkeys very rarely breed when confined in their native country2 thus the ,cay 7,cebus azar7 is frequently and completely tamed in ,paraguay1 but ,rengger#bf says that it breeds so rarely1 that he never saw more than two females which had produced young4 ,a similar observation has been made with respect to the monkeys which are frequently tamed by the aborigines in ,brazil4#bg ,in ,amazonia1 these animals are so often kept in a tame state1 that ,mr4 ,bates in walking through the streets of ,para counted thirteen species2 but1 as he asserts1 they have never been known to breed in captivity4#bh ,birds4 ,birds offer in some respects better evidence than quadrupeds1 from their breeding more rapidly and being kept in greater numbers4#bi ,we have seen that carnivorous animals are more fertile under confinement than most other mammals4 ,the reverse holds good with carnivorous birds4 ,it is said#cj that as many as eighteen species have been used in ,europe for hawking1 and several others in ,persia and ,india2#ca they have been kept in their native country in the finest condition1 and have been flown during six1 eight1 or nine years2#cb yet there is no record of their having ever produced young4 ,as these birds were formerly caught whilst young1 at great expense1 being imported from ,iceland1 ,norway1 and ,sweden1 there can be little doubt that1 if possible1 they would have been propagated4 ,in the ,jardin des ,plantes1 no bird of prey has been known to couple4#cc ,no hawk1 vulture1 or owl has ever produced fertile eggs in the ,zoological ,gardens1 or in the old ,surrey ,gardens1 with the exception1 in the former place on one occasion1 of a condor and a kite 7,milvus niger74 ,yet several species1 namely1 the ,aquila fusca1 ,haliaetus leucocephalus1 ,falco tinnunculus1 ,f4 subbuteo1 and ,buteo vulgaris1 have been seen to couple in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,mr4 ,morris#cd mentions as a unique fact that a kestrel 7,falco tinnunculus7 bred in an aviary4 ,the one kind of owl which has been known to couple in the ,zoological ,gardens was the ,eagle ,owl 7,bubo maximus72 and this species shows a special inclination to breed in captivity2 for a pair at ,arundel ,castle1 kept more nearly in a state of nature 8than ever fell to the lot of an animal deprived of its liberty10#ce actually reared their young4 ,mr4 ,gurney has given another instance of this same owl breeding in confinement2 and he records the case of a second species of owl1 the ,strix passerina1 breeding in captivity4#cf ,of the smaller graminivorous birds1 many kinds have been kept tame in their native countries1 and have lived long2 yet1 as the highest authority on cage-birds#cg remarks1 their propagation is 8uncommonly difficult40 ,the canary-bird shows that there is no inherent difficulty in these birds breeding freely in confinement2 and ,audubon says#ch that the ,fringilla 7,spiza7 ciris of ,north ,america breeds as perfectly as the canary4 ,the difficulty with the many finches which have been kept in confinement is all the more remarkable as more than a dozen species could be named which have yielded hybrids with the canary2 but hardly any of these1 with the exception of the siskin 7,fringilla spinus71 have reproduced their own kind4 ,even the bullfinch 7,loxia pyrrhula7 has bred as frequently with the canary1 though belonging to a distinct genus1 as with its own species4#ci ,with respect to the skylark 7,alauda arvensis71 ,i have heard of birds living for seven years in an aviary1 which never produced young2 and a great ,london bird-fancier assured me that he had never known an instance of their breeding2 nevertheless one case has been recorded4#dj ,in the nine-year ,report from the ,zoological ,society1 twenty-four insessorial species are enumerated which had not bred1 and of these only four were known to have coupled4 ,parrots are singularly long-lived birds2 and ,humboldt mentions the curious fact of a parrot in ,south ,america1 which spoke the language of an extinct ,indian tribe1 so that this bird preserved the sole relic of a lost language4 ,even in this country there is reason to believe#da that parrots have lived to the age of nearly one hundred years2 yet they breed so rarely1 though many have been kept in ,europe1 that the event has been thought worth recording in the gravest publications4#db ,nevertheless1 when ,mr4 ,buxton turned out a large number of parrots in ,norfolk1 three pairs bred and reared ten young birds in the course of two seasons2 and this success may be attributed to their free life4#dc ,according to ,bechstein#dd the ,african ,psittacus erithacus breeds oftener than any other species in ,germany3 the ,p4 macoa occasionally lays fertile eggs1 but rarely succeeds in hatching them2 this bird1 however1 has the instinct of incubation sometimes so strongly developed1 that it will hatch the eggs of fowls or pigeons4 ,in the ,zoological ,gardens and in the old ,surrey ,gardens some few species have coupled1 but1 with the exception of three species of parakeets1 none have bred4 ,it is a much more remarkable fact that in ,guiana parrots of two kinds1 as ,i am informed by ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 are often taken from the nests by the ,indians and reared in large numbers2 they are so tame that they fly freely about the houses1 and come when called to be fed1 like pigeons2 yet he has never heard of a single instance of their breeding4#de ,in ,jamaica1 a resident naturalist1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill1#df says1 8no birds more readily submit to human dependence than the parrot-tribe1 but no instance of a parrot breeding in this tame life has been known yet40 ,mr4 ,hill specifies a number of other native birds kept tame in the ,west ,indies1 which never breed in this state4 ,the great pigeon family offers a striking contrast with the parrots3 in the nine-year ,report thirteen species are recorded as having bred1 and1 what is more noticeable1 only two were seen to couple without any result4 ,since the above date every annual ,report gives many cases of various pigeons breeding4 ,the two magnificent crowned pigeons 7,goura coronata and victori7 produced hybrids2 nevertheless1 of the former species more than a dozen birds were kept1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 in a park at ,penang1 under a perfectly well-adapted climate1 but never once bred4 ,the ,columba migratoria in its native country1 ,north ,america1 invariably lays two eggs1 but in ,lord ,derby's menagerie never more than one4 ,the same fact has been observed with the ,c4 leucocephala4#dg ,gallinaceous birds of many genera likewise show an eminent capacity for breeding under captivity4 ,this is particularly the case with pheasants1 yet our ,english species seldom lays more than ten eggs in confinement2 whilst from eighteen to twenty is the usual number in the wild state4#dh ,with the ,gallinace1 as with all other orders1 there are marked and inexplicable exceptions in regard to the fertility of certain species and genera under confinement4 ,although many trials have been made with the common partridge1 it has rarely bred1 even when reared in large aviaries2 and the hen will never hatch her own eggs4#di ,the ,american tribe of ,guans or ,cracid are tamed with remarkable ease1 but are very shy breeders in this country2#ej but with care various species were formerly made to breed rather freely in ,holland4#ea ,birds of this tribe are often kept in a perfectly tamed condition in their native country by the ,indians1 but they never breed4#eb ,it might have been expected that grouse from their habits of life would not have bred in captivity1 more especially as they are said soon to languish and die4#ec ,but many cases are recorded of their breeding3 the capercailzie 7,tetrao urogallus7 has bred in the ,zoological ,gardens2 it breeds without much difficulty when confined in ,norway1 and in ,russia five successive generations have been reared3 ,tetrao tetrix has likewise bred in ,norway2 ,t4 scoticus in ,ireland2 ,t4 umbellus at ,lord ,derby's2 and ,t4 cupido in ,north ,america4 ,it is scarcely possible to imagine a greater change in habits than that which the members of the ostrich family must suffer1 when cooped up in small enclosures under a temperate climate1 after freely roaming over desert and tropical plains or entangled forests2 yet almost all the kinds have frequently produced young in the various ,european menageries1 even the mooruk 7,casuarius bennetii7 from ,new ,ireland4 ,the ,african ostrich1 though perfectly healthy and living long in the ,south of ,france1 never lays more than from twelve to fifteen eggs1 though in its native country it lays from twenty-five to thirty4#ed ,here we have another instance of fertility impaired1 but not lost1 under confinement1 as with the flying squirrel1 the hen-pheasant1 and two species of ,american pigeons4 ,most ,waders can be tamed1 as the ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon informs me1 with remarkable facility2 but several of them are short-lived under confinement1 so that their sterility in this state is not surprising4 ,the cranes breed more readily than other genera3 ,grus montigresia has bred several times in ,paris and in the ,zoological ,gardens1 as has ,g4 cinerea at the latter place1 and ,g4 antigone at ,calcutta4 ,of other members of this great order1 ,tetrapteryx paradisea has bred at ,knowsley1 a ,porphyrio in ,sicily1 and the ,gallinula chloropus in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,on the other hand1 several birds belonging to this order will not breed in their native country1 ,jamaica2 and the ,psophia1 though often kept by the ,indians of ,guiana about their houses1 8is seldom or never known to breed40#ee ,the members of the great ,duck family breed as readily in confinement as do the ,columb and ,gallin and this1 considering their aquatic and wandering habits1 and the nature of their food1 could not have been anticipated4 ,even some time ago above two dozen species had bred in the ,zoological ,gardens2 and ,m4 ,selys-,longchamps has recorded the production of hybrids from forty-four different members of the family2 and to these ,professor ,newton has added a few more cases4#ef 8,there is not10 says ,mr4 ,dixon1#eg 8in the wide world1 a goose which is not in the strict sense of the word domesticable20 that is1 capable of breeding under confinement2 but this statement is probably too bold4 ,the capacity to breed sometimes varies in individuals of the same species2 thus ,audubon#eh kept for more than eight years some wild geese 7,anser canadensis71 but they would not mate2 whilst other individuals of the same species produced young during the second year4 ,i know of but one instance in the whole family of a species which absolutely refuses to breed in captivity1 namely1 the ,dendrocygna viduata1 although1 according to ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1#ei it is easily tamed1 and is frequently kept by the ,indians of ,guiana4 ,lastly1 with respect to ,gulls1 though many have been kept in the ,zoological ,gardens and in the old ,surrey ,gardens1 no instance was known before the year #ahdh of their coupling or breeding2 but since that period the herring gull 7,larus argentatus7 has bred many times in the ,zoological ,gardens and at ,knowsley4 ,there is reason to believe that insects are affected by confinement like the higher animals4 ,it is well known that the ,sphingidae rarely breed when thus treated4 ,an entomologist#fj in ,paris kept twenty-five specimens of ,saturnia pyri1 but did not succeed in getting a single fertile egg4 ,a number of females of ,orthosia munda and of ,mamestra suasa reared in confinement were unattractive to the males4#fa ,mr4 ,newport kept nearly a hundred individuals of two species of ,vanessa1 but not one paired2 this1 however1 might have been due to their habit of coupling on the wing4#fb ,mr4 ,atkinson could never succeed in ,india in making the ,tarroo silk-moth breed in confinement4#fc ,it appears that a number of moths1 especially the ,sphingidae1 when hatched in the autumn out of their proper season1 are completely barren2 but this latter case is still involved in some obscurity4#fd ,independently of the fact of many animals under confinement not coupling1 or1 if they couple1 not producing young1 there is evidence of another kind that their sexual functions are disturbed4 ,for many cases have been recorded of the loss by male birds when confined of their characteristic plumage4 ,thus the common linnet 7,linota cannabina7 when caged does not acquire the fine crimson colour on its breast1 and one of the buntings 7,emberiza passerina7 loses the black on its head4 ,a ,pyrrhula and an ,oriolus have been observed to assume the quiet plumage of the hen-bird2 and the ,falco albidus returned to the dress of an earlier age4#fe ,mr4 ,thompson1 the superintendent of the ,knowsley menagerie1 informed me that he had often observed analogous facts4 ,the horns of a male deer 7,cervus canadensis7 during the voyage from ,america were badly developed2 but subsequently in ,paris perfect horns were produced4 ,when conception takes place under confinement1 the young are often born dead1 or die soon1 or are ill-formed4 ,this frequently occurs in the ,zoological ,gardens1 and1 according to ,rengger1 with native animals confined in ,paraguay4 ,the mother's milk often fails4 ,we may also attribute to the disturbance of the sexual functions the frequent occurrence of that monstrous instinct which leads the mother to devour her own offspring1--a mysterious case of perversion1 as it at first appears4 ,sufficient evidence has now been advanced to prove that animals when first confined are eminently liable to suffer in their reproductive systems4 ,we feel at first naturally inclined to attribute the result to loss of health1 or at least to loss of vigour2 but this view can hardly be admitted when we reflect how healthy1 long-lived1 and vigorous many animals are under captivity1 such as parrots1 and hawks when used for hawking1 cheetahs when used for hunting1 and elephants4 ,the reproductive organs themselves are not diseased2 and the diseases1 from which animals in menageries usually perish1 are not those which in any way affect their fertility4 ,no domestic animal is more subject to disease than the sheep1 yet it is remarkably prolific4 ,the failure of animals to breed under confinement has been sometimes attributed exclusively to a failure in their sexual instincts3 this may occasionally come into play1 but there is no obvious reason why this instinct should be especially liable to be affected with perfectly tamed animals1 except1 indeed1 indirectly through the reproductive system itself being disturbed4 ,moreover1 numerous cases have been given of various animals which couple freely under confinement1 but never conceive2 or1 if they conceive and produce young1 these are fewer in number than is natural to the species4 ,in the vegetable kingdom instinct of course can play no part2 and we shall presently see that plants when removed from their natural conditions are affected in nearly the same manner as animals4 ,change of climate cannot be the cause of the loss of fertility1 for1 whilst many animals imported into ,europe from extremely different climates breed freely1 many others when confined in their native land are completely sterile4 ,change of food cannot be the chief cause2 for ostriches1 ducks1 and many other animals1 which must have undergone a great change in this respect1 breed freely4 ,carnivorous birds when confined are extremely sterile1 whilst most carnivorous mammals1 except plantigrades1 are moderately fertile4 ,nor can the amount of food be the cause2 for a sufficient supply will certainly be given to valuable animals2 and there is no reason to suppose that much more food would be given to them than to our choice domestic productions which retain their full fertility4 ,lastly1 we may infer from the case of the elephant1 cheetah1 various hawks1 and of many animals which are allowed to lead an almost free life in their native land1 that want of exercise is not the sole cause4 ,it would appear that any change in the habits of life1 whatever these habits may be1 if great enough1 tends to affect in an inexplicable manner the powers of reproduction4 ,the result depends more on the constitution of the species than on the nature of the change2 for certain whole groups are affected more than others2 but exceptions always occur1 for some species in the most fertile groups refuse to breed1 and some in the most sterile groups breed freely4 ,those animals which usually breed freely under confinement1 rarely breed1 as ,i was assured1 in the ,zoological ,gardens1 within a year or two after their first importation4 ,when an animal which is generally sterile under confinement happens to breed1 the young apparently do not inherit this power3 for had this been the case1 various quadrupeds and birds1 which are valuable for exhibition1 would have become common4 ,dr4 ,broca even affirms#ff that many animals in the ,jardin des ,plantes1 after having produced young for three or four successive generations1 become sterile2 but this may be the result of too close interbreeding4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance that many mammals and birds have produced hybrids under confinement quite as readily as1 or even more readily than1 they have procreated their own kind4 ,of this fact many instances have been given2#fg and we are thus reminded of those plants which when cultivated refuse to be fertilised by their own pollen1 but can easily be fertilised by that of a distinct species4 ,finally1 we must conclude1 limited as the conclusion is1 that changed conditions of life have an especial power of acting injuriously on the reproductive system4 ,the whole case is quite peculiar1 for these organs1 though not diseased1 are thus rendered incapable of performing their proper functions1 or perform them imperfectly4 ,sterility of ,domesticated ,animals from changed conditions4--,with respect to domesticated animals1 as their domestication mainly depends on the accident of their breeding freely under captivity1 we ought not to expect that their reproductive system would be affected by any moderate degree of change4 ,those orders of quadrupeds and birds1 of which the wild species breed most readily in our menageries1 have afforded us the greatest number of domesticated productions4 ,savages in most parts of the world are fond of taming animals2#fh and if any of these regularly produced young1 and were at the same time useful1 they would be at once domesticated4 ,if1 when their masters migrated into other countries1 they were in addition found capable of withstanding various climates1 they would be still more valuable2 and it appears that the animals which breed readily in captivity can generally withstand different climates4 ,some few domesticated animals1 such as the reindeer and camel1 offer an exception to this rule4 ,many of our domesticated animals can bear with undiminished fertility the most unnatural conditions2 for instance1 rabbits1 guinea-pigs1 and ferrets breed in miserably confined hutches4 ,few ,european dogs of any kind withstand the climate of ,india without degenerating1 but as long as they survive1 they retain1 as ,i hear from ,dr4 ,falconer1 their fertility2 so it is1 according to ,dr4 ,daniell1 with ,english dogs taken to ,sierra ,leone4 ,the fowl1 a native of the hot jungles of ,india1 becomes more fertile than its parent-stock in every quarter of the world1 until we advance as far north as ,greenland and ,northern ,siberia1 where this bird will not breed4 ,both fowls and pigeons1 which ,i received during the autumn direct from ,sierra ,leone1 were at once ready to couple4#fi ,i have1 also1 seen pigeons breeding as freely as the common kinds within a year after their importation from the upper ,nile4 ,the guinea- fowl1 an aboriginal of the hot and dry deserts of ,africa1 whilst living under our damp and cool climate1 produces a large supply of eggs4 ,nevertheless1 our domesticated animals under new conditions occasionally show signs of lessened fertility4 ,roulin asserts that in the hot valleys of the equatorial ,cordillera sheep are not fully fecund2#gj and according to ,lord ,somerville#ga the merino-sheep which he imported from ,spain were not at first perfectly fertile1 it is said#gb that mares brought up on dry food in the stable1 and turned out to grass1 do not at first breed4 ,the peahen1 as we have seen1 is said not to lay so many eggs in ,england as in ,india4 ,it was long before the canary-bird was fully fertile1 and even now first-rate breeding birds are not common4#gc ,in the hot and dry province of ,delhi1 as ,i hear from ,dr4 ,falconer1 the eggs of the turkey1 though placed under a hen1 are extremely liable to fail4 ,according to ,roulin1 geese taken to the lofty plateau of ,bogota1 at first laid seldom1 and then only a few eggs2 of these scarcely a fourth were hatched1 and half the young birds died2 in the second generation they were more fertile2 and when ,roulin wrote they were becoming as fertile as our geese in ,europe4 ,with respect to the valley of ,quito1 ,mr4 ,orton says#gd 8the only geese in the valley are a few imported from ,europe1 and these refuse to propagate40 ,in the ,philippine ,archipelago the goose1 it is asserted1 will not breed or even lay eggs4#ge ,a more curious case is that of the fowl1 which1 according to ,roulin1 when first introduced would not breed at ,cusco in ,bolivia1 but subsequently became quite fertile2 and the ,english ,game fowl1 lately introduced1 had not as yet arrived at its full fertility1 for to raise two or three chickens from a nest of eggs was thought fortunate4 ,in ,europe close confinement has a marked effect on the fertility of the fowl3 it has been found in ,france that with fowls allowed considerable freedom only twenty per cent of the eggs failed2 when allowed less freedom forty per cent failed2 and in close confinement sixty out of the hundred were not hatched4#gf ,so we see that unnatural and changed conditions of life produce some effect on the fertility of our most thoroughly domesticated animals1 in the same manner1 though in a far less degree1 as with captive wild animals4 ,it is by no means rare to find certain males and females which will not breed together1 though both are known to be perfectly fertile with other males and females4 ,we have no reason to suppose that this is caused by these animals having been subjected to any change in their habits of life2 therefore such cases are hardly related to our present subject4 ,the cause apparently lies in an innate sexual incompatibility of the pair which are matched4 ,several instances have been communicated to me by ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,spooner 7well known for his essay on ,cross-breeding71 by ,mr4 ,eyton of ,eyton1 by ,mr4 ,wicksted and other breeders1 and especially by ,mr4 ,waring of ,chelsfield1 in relation to horses1 cattle1 pigs1 foxhounds1 other dogs1 and pigeons4#gg ,in these cases1 females1 which either previously or subsequently were proved to be fertile1 failed to breed with certain males1 with whom it was particularly desired to match them4 ,a change in the constitution of the female may sometimes have occurred before she was put to the second male2 but in other cases this explanation is hardly tenable1 for a female1 known not to be barren1 has been unsuccessfully paired seven or eight times with the same male likewise known to be perfectly fertile4 ,with cart-mares1 which sometimes will not breed with stallions of pure blood1 but subsequently have bred with cart-stallions1 ,mr4 ,spooner is inclined to attribute the failure to the lesser sexual power of the racehorse4 ,but ,i have heard from the greatest breeder of racehorses at the present day1 through ,mr4 ,waring1 that 8it frequently occurs with a mare to be put several times during one or two seasons to a particular stallion of acknowledged power1 and yet prove barren2 the mare afterwards breeding at once with some other horse40 ,these facts are worth recording1 as they show1 like so many previous facts1 on what slight constitutional differences the fertility of an animal often depends4 ,sterility of ,plants from changed ,conditions of ,life1 and from other causes4 ,in the vegetable kingdom cases of sterility frequently occur1 analogous with those previously given in the animal kingdom4 ,but the subject is obscured by several circumstances1 presently to be discussed1 namely1 the contabescence of the anthers1 as ,grtner has named a certain affection--monstrosities--doubleness of the flower--much-enlarged fruit--and long-continued or excessive propagation by buds4 ,it is notorious that many plants in our gardens and hot-houses1 though preserved in the most perfect health1 rarely or never produce seed4 ,i do not allude to plants which run to leaves1 from being kept too damp1 or too warm1 or too much manured2 for these do not flower1 and the case may be wholly different4 ,nor do ,i allude to fruit not ripening from want of heat or rotting from too much moisture4 ,but many exotic plants1 with their ovules and pollen appearing perfectly sound1 will not set any seed4 ,the sterility in many cases1 as ,i know from my own observation1 is simply due to the absence of the proper insects for carrying the pollen to the stigma4 ,but after excluding the several cases just specified1 there are many plants in which the reproductive system has been seriously affected by the altered conditions of life to which they have been subjected4 ,it would be tedious to enter on many details4 ,linnus long ago observed#gh that ,alpine plants1 although naturally loaded with seed1 produce either few or none when cultivated in gardens4 ,but exceptions often occur3 the ,draba sylvestris1 one of our most thoroughly ,alpine plants1 multiplies itself by seed in ,mr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,watson's garden1 near ,london2 and ,kerner1 who has particularly attended to the cultivation of ,alpine plants1 found that various kinds1 when cultivated1 spontaneously sowed themselves4#gi ,many plants which naturally grow in peat-earth are entirely sterile in our gardens4 ,i have noticed the same fact with several liliaceous plants1 which nevertheless grew vigorously4 ,too much manure renders some kinds utterly sterile1 as ,i have myself observed4 ,the tendency to sterility from this cause runs in families2 thus1 according to ,grtner1#hj it is hardly possible to give too much manure to most ,gramine1 ,crucifer1 and ,leguminos1 whilst succulent and bulbous-rooted plants are easily affected4 ,extreme poverty of soil is less apt to induce sterility2 but dwarfed plants of ,trifolium minus and repens1 growing on a lawn often mown and never manured1 were found by me not to produce any seed4 ,the temperature of the soil1 and the season at which plants are watered1 often have a marked effect on their fertility1 as was observed by ,klreuter in the case of ,mirabilis4#ha ,mr4 ,scott1 in the ,botanic ,gardens of ,edinburgh1 observed that ,oncidium divaricatum would not set seed when grown in a basket in which it throve1 but was capable of fertilisation in a pot where it was a little damper4 ,pelargonium fulgidum1 for many years after its introduction1 seeded freely2 it then became sterile2 now it is fertile#hb if kept in a dry stove during the winter4 ,other varieties of pelargonium are sterile and others fertile without our being able to assign any cause4 ,very slight changes in the position of a plant1 whether planted on a bank or at its base1 sometimes make all the difference in its producing seed4 ,temperature apparently has a much more powerful influence on the fertility of plants than on that of animals4 ,nevertheless it is wonderful what changes some few plants will withstand with undiminished fertility3 thus the ,zephyranthes candida1 a native of the moderately warm banks of the ,plata1 sows itself in the hot dry country near ,lima1 and in ,yorkshire resists the severest frosts1 and ,i have seen seeds gathered from pods which had been covered with snow during three weeks4#hc ,berberis wallichii1 from the hot ,khasia range in ,india1 is uninjured by our sharpest frosts1 and ripens its fruit under our cool summers4 ,nevertheless1 ,i presume we must attribute to change of climate the sterility of many foreign plants2 thus1 the ,persian and ,chinese lilacs 7,syringa persica and chinensis71 though perfectly hardy here1 never produce a seed2 the common lilac 7,s4 vulgaris7 seeds with us moderately well1 but in parts of ,germany the capsules never contain seed4#hd ,some few of the cases1 given in the last chapter1 of self-impotent plants1 might have been here introduced1 as their state seems due to the conditions to which they have been subjected4 ,the liability of plants to be affected in their fertility by slightly changed conditions is the more remarkable1 as the pollen when once in process of formation is not easily injured2 a plant may be transplanted1 or a branch with flower-buds be cut off and placed in water1 and the pollen will be matured4 ,pollen1 also1 when once mature1 may be kept for weeks or even months4#he ,the female organs are more sensitive1 for ,grtner#hf found that dicotyledonous plants1 when carefully removed so that they did not in the least flag1 could seldom be fertilised2 this occurred even with potted plants if the roots had grown out of the hole at the bottom4 ,in some few cases1 however1 as with ,digitalis1 transplantation did not prevent fertilisation2 and according to the testimony of ,mawz1 ,brassica rapa1 when pulled up by its roots and placed in water1 ripened its seed4 ,flower-stems of several monocotyledonous plants when cut off and placed in water likewise produce seed4 ,but in these cases ,i presume that the flowers had been already fertilised1 for ,herbert#hg found with the ,crocus that the plants might be removed or mutilated after the act of fertilisation1 and would still perfect their seeds2 but that1 if transplanted before being fertilised1 the application of pollen was powerless4 ,plants which have been long cultivated can generally endure with undiminished fertility various and great changes2 but not in most cases so great a change of climate as domesticated animals4 ,it is remarkable that many plants under these circumstances are so much affected that the proportion and the nature of their chemical ingredients are modified1 yet their fertility is unimpaired4 ,thus1 as ,dr4 ,falconer informs me1 there is a great difference in the character of the fibre in hemp1 in the quantity of oil in the seed of the ,linum1 in the proportion of narcotin to morphine in the poppy1 in gluten to starch in wheat1 when these plants are cultivated on the plains and on the mountains of ,india2 nevertheless1 they all remain fully fertile4 ,contabescence4--,grtner has designated by this term a peculiar condition of the anthers in certain plants1 in which they are shrivelled1 or become brown and tough1 and contain no good pollen4 ,when in this state they exactly resemble the anthers of the most sterile hybrids4 ,grtner1#hh in his discussion on this subject1 has shown that plants of many orders are occasionally thus affected2 but the ,caryophyllace and ,liliace suffer most1 and to these orders1 ,i think1 the ,ericace may be added4 ,contabescence varies in degree1 but on the same plant all the flowers are generally affected to nearly the same extent4 ,the anthers are affected at a very early period in the flower-bud1 and remain in the same state 7with one recorded exception7 during the life of the plant4 ,the affection cannot be cured by any change of treatment1 and is propagated by layers1 cuttings1 etc41 and perhaps even by seed4 ,in contabescent plants the female organs are seldom affected1 or merely become precocious in their development4 ,the cause of this affection is doubtful1 and is different in different cases4 ,until ,i read ,grtner's discussion ,i attributed it1 as apparently did ,herbert1 to the unnatural treatment of the plants2 but its permanence under changed conditions1 and the female organs not being affected1 seem incompatible with this view4 ,the fact of several endemic plants becoming contabescent in our gardens seems1 at first sight1 equally incompatible with this view2 but ,klreuter believes that this is the result of their transplantation4 ,the contabescent plants of ,dianthus and ,verbascum1 found wild by ,wiegmann1 grew on a dry and sterile bank4 ,the fact that exotic plants are eminently liable to this affection also seems to show that it is in some manner caused by their unnatural treatment4 ,in some instances1 as with ,silene1 ,grtner's view seems the most probable1 namely1 that it is caused by an inherent tendency in the species to become dioecious4 ,i can add another cause1 namely1 the illegitimate unions of heterostyled plants1 for ,i have observed seedlings of three species of ,primula and of ,lythrum salicaria1 which had been raised from plants illegitimately fertilised by their own-form pollen1 with some or all their anthers in a contabescent state4 ,there is perhaps an additional cause1 namely1 self-fertilisation2 for many plants of ,dianthus and ,lobelia1 which had been raised from self-fertilised seeds1 had their anthers in this state2 but these instances are not conclusive1 as both genera are liable from other causes to this affection4 ,cases of an opposite nature likewise occur1 namely1 plants with the female organs struck with sterility1 whilst the male organs remain perfect4 ,dianthus japonicus1 a ,passiflora1 and ,nicotiana1 have been described by ,grtner#hi as being in this unusual condition4 ,monstrosities as a cause of sterility4--,great deviations of structure1 even when the reproductive organs themselves are not seriously affected1 sometimes cause plants to become sterile4 ,but in other cases plants may become monstrous to an extreme degree and yet retain their full fertility4 ,gallesio1 who certainly had great experience1#ij often attributes sterility to this cause2 but it may be suspected that in some of his cases sterility was the cause1 and not the result1 of the monstrous growths4 ,the curious ,st4 ,valery apple1 although it bears fruit1 rarely produces seed4 ,the wonderfully anomalous flowers of ,begonia frigida1 formerly described1 though they appear fit for fructification1 are sterile4#ia ,species of ,primula in which the calyx is brightly coloured are said#ib to be often sterile1 though ,i have known them to be fertile4 ,on the other hand1 ,verlot gives several cases of proliferous flowers which can be propagated by seed4 ,this was the case with a poppy1 which had become monopetalous by the union of its petals4#ic ,another extraordinary poppy1 with the stamens replaced by numerous small supplementary capsules1 likewise reproduces itself by seed4 ,this has also occurred with a plant of ,saxifraga geum1 in which a series of adventitious carpels1 bearing ovules on their margins1 had been developed between the stamens and the normal carpels#id ,lastly1 with respect to peloric flowers1 which depart wonderfully from the natural structure1--those of ,linaria vulgaris seem generally to be more or less sterile1 whilst those before described of ,antirrhinum majus1 when artificially fertilised with their own pollen1 are perfectly fertile1 though sterile when left to themselves1 for bees are unable to crawl into the narrow tubular flower4 ,the peloric flowers of ,corydalis solida1 according to ,godron1#ie are sometimes barren and sometimes fertile2 whilst those of ,gloxinia are well known to yield plenty of seed4 ,in our greenhouse ,pelargoniums1 the central flower of the truss is often peloric1 and ,mr4 ,masters informs me that he tried in vain during several years to get seed from these flowers4 ,i likewise made many vain attempts1 but sometimes succeeded in fertilising them with pollen from a normal flower of another variety2 and conversely ,i several times fertilised ordinary flowers with peloric pollen4 ,only once ,i succeeded in raising a plant from a peloric flower fertilised by pollen from a peloric flower borne by another variety2 but the plant1 it may be added1 presented nothing particular in its structure4 ,hence we may conclude that no general rule can be laid down2 but any great deviation from the normal structure1 even when the reproductive organs themselves are not seriously affected1 certainly often leads to sexual impotence4 ,double ,flowers4--,when the stamens are converted into petals1 the plant becomes on the male side sterile2 when both stamens and pistils are thus changed1 the plant becomes completely barren4 ,symmetrical flowers having numerous stamens and petals are the most liable to become double1 as perhaps follows from all multiple organs being the most subject to variability4 ,but flowers furnished with only a few stamens1 and others which are asymmetrical in structure1 sometimes become double1 as we see with the double gorse or ,ulex1 and ,antirrhinum4 ,the ,composit bear what are called double flowers by the abnormal development of the corolla of their central florets4 ,doubleness is sometimes connected with prolification1#if or the continued growth of the axis of the flower4 ,doubleness is strongly inherited4 ,no one has produced1 as ,lindley remarks1#ig double flowers by promoting the perfect health of the plant4 ,on the contrary1 unnatural conditions of life favour their production4 ,there is some reason to believe that seeds kept during many years1 and seeds believed to be imperfectly fertilised1 yield double flowers more freely than fresh and perfectly fertilised seed4#ih ,long-continued cultivation in rich soil seems to be the commonest exciting cause4 ,a double narcissus and a double ,anthemis nobilis1 transplanted into very poor soil1 has been observed to become single2#ii and ,i have seen a completely double white primrose rendered permanently single by being divided and transplanted whilst in full flower4 ,it has been observed by ,professor ,e4 ,morren that doubleness of the flowers and variegation of the leaves are antagonistic states2 but so many exceptions to the rule have lately been recorded1#ajj that1 though general1 it cannot be looked at as invariable4 ,variegation seems generally to result from a feeble or atrophied condition of the plant1 and a large proportion of the seedlings raised from parents1 if both are variegated1 usually perish at an early age2 hence we may perhaps infer that doubleness1 which is the antagonistic state1 commonly arises from a plethoric condition4 ,on the other hand1 extremely poor soil sometimes1 though rarely1 appears to cause doubleness3 ,i formerly described#aja some completely double1 bud-like1 flowers produced in large numbers by stunted wild plants of ,gentiana amarella growing on a poor chalky bank4 ,i have also noticed a distinct tendency to doubleness in the flowers of a ,ranunculus1 ,horse-chestnut1 and ,bladder-nut 7,ranunculus repens1 ,aesculus pavia1 and ,staphylea71 growing under very unfavourable conditions4 ,professor ,lehmann#ajb found several wild plants growing near a hot spring with double flowers4 ,with respect to the cause of doubleness1 which arises1 as we see1 under widely different circumstances1 ,i shall presently attempt to show that the most probable view is that unnatural conditions first give a tendency to sterility1 and that then1 on the principle of compensation1 as the reproductive organs do not perform their proper functions1 they either become developed into petals1 or additional petals are formed4 ,this view has lately been supported by ,mr4 ,laxton#ajc who advances the case of some common peas1 which1 after long-continued heavy rain1 flowered a second time1 and produced double flowers4 ,seedless ,fruit4--,many of our most valuable fruits1 although consisting in a homological sense of widely different organs1 are either quite sterile1 or produce extremely few seeds4 ,this is notoriously the case with our best pears1 grapes1 and figs1 with the pine-apple1 banana1 bread-fruit1 pomegranate1 azarole1 date-palms1 and some members of the orange-tribe4 ,poorer varieties of these same fruits either habitually or occasionally yield seed4#ajd ,most horticulturists look at the great size and anomalous development of the fruit as the cause1 and sterility as the result2 but the opposite view1 as we shall presently see1 is more probable4 ,sterility from the excessive development of the organs of ,growth or ,vegetation4--,plants which from any cause grow too luxuriantly1 and produce leaves1 stems1 runners1 suckers1 tubers1 bulbs1 etc41 in excess1 sometimes do not flower1 or if they flower do not yield seed4 ,to make ,european vegetables under the hot climate of ,india yield seed1 it is necessary to check their growth2 and1 when one-third grown1 they are taken up1 and their stems and tap-roots are cut or mutilated4#aje ,so it is with hybrids2 for instance1 ,prof4 ,lecoq#ajf had three plants of ,mirabilis1 which1 though they grew luxuriantly and flowered1 were quite sterile2 but after beating one with a stick until a few branches alone were left1 these at once yielded good seed4 ,the sugar-cane1 which grows vigorously and produces a large supply of succulent stems1 never1 according to various observers1 bears seed in the ,west ,indies1 ,malaga1 ,india1 ,cochin ,china1 ,mauritius1 or the ,malay ,archipelago4#ajg ,plants which produce a large number of tubers are apt to be sterile1 as occurs1 to a certain extent1 with the common potato2 and ,mr4 ,fortune informs me that the sweet potato 7,convolvulus batatas7 in ,china never1 as far as he has seen1 yields seed4 ,dr4 ,royle remarks#ajh that in ,india the ,agave vivipara1 when grown in rich soil1 invariably produces bulbs1 but no seeds2 whilst a poor soil and dry climate lead to an opposite result4 ,in ,china1 according to ,mr4 ,fortune1 an extraordinary number of little bulbs are developed in the axils of the leaves of the yam1 and this plant does not bear seed4 ,whether in these cases1 as in those of double flowers and seedless fruit1 sexual sterility from changed conditions of life is the primary cause which leads to the excessive development of the organs of vegetation1 is doubtful2 though some evidence might be advanced in favour of this view4 ,it is perhaps a more probable view that plants which propagate themselves largely by one method1 namely by buds1 have not sufficient vital power or organised matter for the other method of sexual generation4 ,several distinguished botanists and good practical judges believe that long- continued propagation by cuttings1 runners1 tubers1 bulbs1 etc41 independently of any excessive development of these parts1 is the cause of many plants failing to produce flowers1 or producing only barren flowers1--it is as if they had lost the habit of sexual generation4#aji ,that many plants when thus propagated are sterile there can be no doubt1 but as to whether the long continuance of this form of propagation is the actual cause of their sterility1 ,i will not venture1 from the want of sufficient evidence1 to express an opinion4 ,that plants may be propagated for long periods by buds1 without the aid of sexual generation1 we may safely infer from this being the case with many plants which must have long survived in a state of nature4 ,as ,i have had occasion before to allude to this subject1 ,i will here give such cases as ,i have collected4 ,many alpine plants ascend mountains beyond the height at which they can produce seed4#aaj ,certain species of ,poa and ,festuca1 when growing on mountain-pastures1 propagate themselves1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,bentham1 almost exclusively by bulblets4 ,kalm gives a more curious instance#aaa of several ,american trees1 which grow so plentifully in marshes or in thick woods1 that they are certainly well adapted for these stations1 yet scarcely ever produce seeds2 but when accidentally growing on the outside of the marsh or wood1 are loaded with seed4 ,the common ivy is found in ,northern ,sweden and ,russia1 but flowers and fruits only in the southern provinces4 ,the ,acorus calamus extends over a large portion of the globe1 but so rarely perfects fruit that this has been seen only by a few botanists2 according to ,caspary1 all its pollen-grains are in a worthless condition4#aab ,the ,hypericum calycinum1 which propagates itself so freely in our shrubberies by rhizomes1 and is naturalised in ,ireland1 blossoms profusely1 but rarely sets any seed1 and this only during certain years2 nor did it set any when fertilised in my garden by pollen from plants growing at a distance4 ,the ,lysimachia nummularia1 which is furnished with long runners1 so seldom produces seed-capsules1 that ,prof4 ,decaisne1#aac who has especially attended to this plant1 has never seen it in fruit4 ,the ,carex rigida often fails to perfect its seed in ,scotland1 ,lapland1 ,greenland1 ,germany1 and ,new ,hampshire in the ,united ,states4#aad ,the periwinkle 7,vinca minor71 which spreads largely by runners1 is said scarcely ever to produce fruit in ,england2#aae but this plant requires insect-aid for its fertilisation1 and the proper insects may be absent or rare4 ,the ,jussiaea grandiflora has become naturalised in ,southern ,france1 and has spread by its rhizomes so extensively as to impede the navigation of the waters1 but never produces fertile seed4#aaf ,the horse-radish 7,cochleria armoracia7 spreads pertinaciously and is naturalised in various parts of ,europe2 though it bears flowers1 these rarely produce capsules3 ,professor ,caspary informs me that he has watched this plant since #ahea1 but has never seen its fruit2 #fe per cent of its pollen-grains are bad4 ,the common ,ranunculus ficaria rarely bears seed in ,england1 ,france1 or ,switzerland2 but in #ahfc ,i observed seeds on several plants growing near my house4#aag ,other cases analogous with the foregoing could be given2 for instance1 some kinds of mosses and lichens have never been seen to fructify in ,france4 ,some of these endemic and naturalised plants are probably rendered sterile from excessive multiplication by buds1 and their consequent incapacity to produce and nourish seed4 ,but the sterility of others more probably depends on the peculiar conditions under which they live1 as in the case of the ivy in the northern part of ,europe1 and of the trees in the swamps of the ,united ,states2 yet these plants must be in some respects eminently well adapted for the stations which they occupy1 for they hold their places against a host of competitors4 ,finally1 the high degree of sterility which often accompanies the doubling of flowers1 or an excessive development of fruit1 seldom supervenes at once4 ,an incipient tendency is observed1 and continued selection completes the result4 ,the view which seems the most probable1 and which connects together all the foregoing facts and brings them within our present subject1 is1 that changed and unnatural conditions of life first give a tendency to sterility2 and in consequence of this1 the organs of reproduction being no longer able fully to perform their proper functions1 a supply of organised matter1 not required for the development of the seed1 flows either into these organs and renders them foliaceous1 or into the fruit1 stems1 tubers1 etc41 increasing their size and succulency4 ,but it is probable that there exists1 independently of any incipient sterility1 an antagonism between the two forms of reproduction1 namely1 by seed and buds1 when either is carried to an extreme degree4 ,that incipient sterility plays an important part in the doubling of flowers1 and in the other cases just specified1 ,i infer chiefly from the following facts4 ,when fertility is lost from a wholly different cause1 namely1 from hybridism1 there is a strong tendency1 as ,grtner#aah affirms1 for flowers to become double1 and this tendency is inherited4 ,moreover1 it is notorious that with hybrids the male organs become sterile before the female organs1 and with double flowers the stamens first become foliaceous4 ,this latter fact is well shown by the male flowers of dioecious plants1 which1 according to ,gallesio#aai first become double4 ,again1 ,grtner#abj often insists that the flowers of even utterly sterile hybrids1 which do not produce any seed1 generally yield perfect capsules or fruit1--a fact which has likewise been repeatedly observed by ,naudin with the ,cucurbitace2 so that the production of fruit by plants rendered sterile through any cause is intelligible4 ,klreuter has also expressed his unbounded astonishment at the size and development of the tubers in certain hybrids2 and all experimentalists#aba have remarked on the strong tendency in hybrids to increase by roots1 runners1 and suckers4 ,seeing that hybrid plants1 which from their nature are more or less sterile1 thus tend to produce double flowers2 that they have the parts including the seed1 that is the fruit1 perfectly developed1 even when containing no seed2 that they sometimes yield gigantic roots2 that they almost invariably tend to increase largely by suckers and other such means2--seeing this1 and knowing1 from the many facts given in the earlier parts of this chapter1 that almost all organic beings when exposed to unnatural conditions tend to become more or less sterile1 it seems much the most probable view that with cultivated plants sterility is the exciting cause1 and double flowers1 rich seedless fruit1 and in some cases largely-developed organs of vegetation1 etc41 are the indirect results--these results having been in most cases largely increased through continued selection by man4 ,,references #a ,for ,england1 see below4 ,for ,germany1 see ,metzger1 #8,getreidearten1' #ahda1 s4 #fc4 ,for ,france1 ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps 7#8,consid4 sur les ,crales1' #ahdc1 p4 #bjj7 gives numerous references on this subject4 ,for ,southern ,france1 see ,godron1 #8,florula ,juvenalis1' #ahed1 p4 #bh4 #b #8,a ,general ,treatise of ,husbandry1' vol4 #c p4 #eh4 #c #8,gardener's ,chronicle and ,agricult4 ,gazette1' #aheh1 p4 #bdg2 and for the second statement1 ,ibid41 #ahej1 p4 #gjb4 ,on this same subject see also ,rev4 ,d4 ,walker's #8,prize ,essay of ,highland ,agricult4 ,soc4' vol4 ii4 p4 #bjj4 ,also ,marshall #8,minutes of ,agriculture1' ,november1 #agge4 #d ,oberlin's #8,memoirs1' ,eng4 translat41 p4 #gc4 ,for ,lancashire see ,marshall's #8,review of ,reports1' #ahjh1 p4 #bie4 #e #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahef1 p4 #ahf4 ,for ,mr4 ,robson's subsequent statements1 see #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,feb4 #ah1 #ahff1 p4 #aba4 ,for ,mr4 ,abbey's remarks on grafting1 etc41 ,ibid41 ,july #ah1 #ahfe1 p4 #dd4 #f #8,mm4 de l',acad4 des ,sciences1' #agij1 p4 #bji4 #g #8,on the ,varieties of ,wheat1' p4 #eb4 #h ,mr4 ,spencer has fully and ably discussed this whole subject in his #8,principles of ,biology1' #ahfd1 vol4 ii4 ch4 x4 ,in the first edition of my #8,origin of ,species1' #ahei1 p4 #bfg1 ,i spoke of the good effects from slight changes in the conditions of life and from cross-breeding1 and of the evil effects from great changes in the conditions and from crossing widely distinct forms1 as a series of facts 8connected together by some common but unknown bond1 which is essentially related to the principle of life40 #i #8,essais de ,zoologie ,gnrale1' #ahda1 p4 #bef4 #aj ,since the appearance of the first edition of this work1 ,mr4 ,sclater has published 7#8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfh1 p4 #fbc7 a list of the species of mammals which have bred in the gardens from #ahdh to #ahfg inclusive4 ,of the ,artiodactyla #he species have been kept1 and of these #a species in #ai have bred at least once during the #bj years2 of #bh ,marsupialia1 #a in #be have bred2 of #gd ,carnivora1 #a in #cj have bred2 of #eb ,rodentia1 #a in #dg have bred2 and of ,quadrumana #ge species have been kept1 and #a in #fb have bred4 #aa ,du ,rut1 #8,annales du ,musum1' #ahjg1 tom4 ix4 p4 #abj4 #ab #8,saugethiere von ,paraguay1' #ahcj1 s4 #di1 #ajf1 #aah1 #abd1 #bja1 #bjh1 #bdi1 #bfe1 #cbg4 #ac #8,the ,naturalist on the ,amazons1' #ahfc1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ii1 #aic2 vol4 ii4 p4 #aac4 #ad #8,embassy to the ,court of ,ava1' vol4 i4 p4 #ecd4 #ae #8,journal1' vol4 i4 p4 #bac4 #af #8,sugethiere1' s4 #cbg4 #ag ,on the ,breeding of the ,larger ,felid1 #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfa1 p4 #adj4 #ah ,sleeman's #8,rambles in ,india1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aj4 #ai ,wiegmann's #8,archiv4 fur ,naturgesch41' #ahcg1 s4 #afb4 #bj ,rengger #8,sugethiere1' etc41 s4 #bgf4 ,on the parentage of the guinea-pig1 see also ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' ,i sent to ,mr4 ,h4 ,denny of ,leeds the lice which ,i collected from the wild aperea in ,la ,plata1 and he informs me that they belong to a genus distinct from those found on the guinea-pig4 ,this is important evidence that the aperea is not the parent of the guinea-pig2 and is worth giving1 as some authors erroneously suppose that the guinea-pig since being domesticated has become sterile when crossed with the aperea4 #ba ,although the existence of the ,leporides1 as described by ,dr4 ,broca 7#8,journal de ,phys41' tom4 ii4 p4 #cgj71 has been positively denied1 yet ,dr4 ,pigeaux 7#8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xx41 #ahfg1 p4 #ge7 affirms that the hare and rabbit have produced hybrids4 #bb #8,quadrupeds of ,north ,america1' by ,audubon and ,bachman1 #ahdf1 p4 #bfh4 #bc ,loudon's #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 ix41 #ahcf1 p4 #ega2 ,audubon and ,bachman's #8,quadrupeds of ,north ,america1' p4 #bba4 #bd ,flourens1 #8,de l',instinct1' etc41 #ahde1 p4 #hh4 #be ,see #8,annual ,reports ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahee1 #aheh1 #ahfc1 #ahfd2 #8,times' newspaper1 ,aug4 #ajth1 #ahdg2 ,flourens1 #8,de l',instinct1' p4 #he4 #bf #8,sugethiere1' etc41 s4 #cd1 #di4 #bg ,art4 ,brazil1 #8,penny ,cyclop41' p4 #cfc4 #bh #8,the ,naturalist on the ,amazons1' vol4 i4 p4 #ii4 #bi ,a list of the species of birds which have bred in the ,zoological ,gardens from #ahdh to #ahfg inclusive has been published by ,mr4 ,sclater in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfi1 p4 #fbf1 since the first edition of this work appeared4 ,of ,columb #ea species have been kept1 and of ,anseres #hj species1 and in both these families #a species in #bf have bred at least once in the #bj years4 ,of ,gallin #hc species have been kept and #a in #bg have bred2 of #eg ,grall #a in #i have bred2 of #aaj ,prehensores #a in #bb have bred2 of #agh ,passeres #a in #bed have bred2 of #id ,accipitres #a in #dg have bred2 of #be ,picari and of #ce ,herodiones not one species in either group has bred4 #cj #8,encyclop4 of ,rural ,sports1' p4 #fia4 #ca ,according to ,sir ,a4 ,burnes 7#8,cabool1' etc41 p4 #ea71 eight species are used for hawking in ,sinde4 #cb ,loudon's #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 vi41 #ahcc1 p4 #aaj4 #cc ,f4 ,cuvier1 #8,annal4 du ,musum1' tom4 ix4 p4 #abh4 #cd #8,the ,zoologist1' vol4 vii4-viii41 #ahdi-ej1 p4 #bfdh4 #ce ,knox1 #8,ornithological ,rambles in ,sussex1' p4 #ia4 #cf #8,the ,zoologist1' vol4 vii4-viii41 #ahdi-ej1 p4 #beff2 vol4 ix4-x41 #ahea-b1 p4 #cbjg4 #cg ,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 der ,stubenvgel1' #ahdj1 s4 #bj4 #ch #8,ornithological ,biography1' vol4 v4 p4 #eag4 #ci ,a case is recorded in #8,the ,zoologist1' vol4 i4-ii41 #ahdc-de1 p4 #dec4 ,for the siskin breeding1 vol4 iii4-iv41 #ahde-df1 p4 #ajge4 ,bechstein #8,stubenvgel1' s4 #aci1 speaks of bullfinches making nests1 but rarely producing young4 #dj ,yarrell's #8,hist4 ,british ,birds1' #ahci1 vol4 i4 p4 #dab4 #da ,loudon's #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history1' vol4 xix41 #ahcf1 p4 #cdg4 #db #8,mmoires du ,musum d',hist4 ,nat41' tom4 x4 p4 #cad3 five cases of parrots breeding in ,france are here recorded4 ,see also #8,report ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,zoolog41' #ahdc4 #dc #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' ,nov4 #ahfh1 p4 #caa4 #dd #8,stubenvgel1' s4 #aje1 #hc4 #de ,dr4 ,hancock remarks 7#8,charlesworth's ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' vol4 ii41 #ahch1 p4 #dib71 8it is singular that1 amongst the numerous useful birds that are indigenous to ,guiana1 none are found to propagate among the ,indians2 yet the common fowl is reared in abundance throughout the country40 #df #8,a ,week at ,pert ,royal1' #ahee1 p4 #g4 #dg ,audubon1 #8,american ,ornithology1' vol4 v4 pp4 #eeb1 #eeg4 #dh ,mowbray on ,poultry1 #gth edit41 p4 #acc4 #di ,temminck1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn4 des ,pigeons1' etc41 #ahac1 tom4 iii4 pp4 #bhh1 #chb2 #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xii41 #ahdc1 p4 #dec4 ,other species of partridge have occasionally bred2 as the red-legged 7,p4 rubra71 when kept in a large court in ,france 7see #8,journal de ,physique1' tom4 xxv4 p4 #bid71 and in the ,zoological ,gardens in #ahef4 #ej ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 #8,the ,dovecote1' #ahea1 pp4 #bdc-beb4 #ea ,temminck1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn4 des ,pigeons1' etc41 tom4 ii4 pp4 #def1 #deh2 tom4 iii4 pp4 #b1 #ac1 #dg4 #eb ,bates1 #8,the ,naturalist on the ,amazons1' vol4 i4 p4 #aic2 vol4 ii4 p4 #aab4 #ec ,temminck1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' etc41 tom4 ii4 p4 #abe4 ,for ,tetrao urogallus1 see ,l4 ,lloyd1 #8,field ,sports of ,north of ,europe1' vol4 i4 pp4 #bhg1 #cad2 and #8,bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclimat41' tom4 vii41 #ahfj1 p4 #fjj4 ,for ,t4 scoticus1 ,thompson1 #8,nat4 ,hist4 of ,ireland1' vol4 ii4 #ahej1 p4 #di4 ,for ,t4 cupido1 #8,boston ,journal of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 iii4 p4 #aii4 #ed ,marcel de ,serres1 #8,annales des ,sc4 ,nat41' #bnd series1 ,zoolog41 tom4 xiii4 p4 #age4 #ee ,dr4 ,hancock1 in #8,charlesworth's ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 ii41 #ahch1 p4 #dia2 ,r4 ,hill1 #8,a ,week at ,port ,royal1' p4 #h2 #8,guide to the ,zoological ,gardens1' by ,p4 ,l4 ,sclater1 #ahei1 pp4 #aa1 #ab2 #8,the ,knowsley ,menagerie1' by ,d4 ,gray1 #ahdf1 pl4 xiv42 ,e4 ,blyth1 #8,report ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal1' ,may #ahee4 #ef ,prof4 ,newton1 in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahfj1 p4 #ccf4 #eg #8,the ,dovecote and ,aviary1' p4 #dbh4 #eh #8,ornithological ,biography1' vol4 iii4 p4 #i4 #ei #8,geograph4 ,journal1' vol4 xiii41 #ahdd1 p4 #cb4 #fj ,loudon's #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 v41 #ahcb1 p4 #aec4 #fa #8,zoologist1' vols4 v4-vi41 #ahdg-dh1 p4 #affj4 #fb #8,transact4 ,entomolog4 ,soc41' vol4 iv41 #ahde1 p4 #fj4 #fc #8,transact4 ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 vii4 p4 #dj4 #fd ,see an interesting paper by ,mr4 ,newman in the #8,zoologist1' #aheg1 p4 #egfd2 and ,dr4 ,wallace1 in #8,proc4 ,entomolog4 ,soc41' ,june #dth1 #ahfj1 p4 #aai4 #fe ,yarrell's #8,british ,birds1' vol4 i4 p4 #ejf2 ,bechstein #8,stubenvgel1' s4 #ahe2 #8,philosoph4 ,transact41' #aggb1 p4 #bga4 ,bronn 7#8,geschichte der ,natur1' ,band ii4 s4 #if7 has collected a number of cases4 ,for the case of the deer1 see #8,penny ,cyclop41' vol4 viii4 p4 #cej4 #ff #8,journal de ,physiologie1' tom4 ii4 p4 #cdg4 #fg ,for additional evidence on this subject1 see ,f4 ,cuvier in #8,annales du ,musum1' tom4 xii4 p4 #aai4 #fh ,numerous instances could be given4 ,thus ,livingstone 7#8,travels1' p4 #bag7 states that the ,king of the ,barotse1 an inland tribe which never had any communication with white men1 was extremely fond of taming animals1 and every young antelope was brought to him4 ,mr4 ,galton informs me that the ,damaras are likewise fond of keeping pets4 ,the ,indians of ,south ,america follow the same habit4 ,capt4 ,wilkes states that the ,polynesians of the ,samoan ,islands tamed pigeons2 and the ,new ,zealanders1 as ,mr4 ,mantell informs me1 kept various kinds of birds4 #fi ,for analogous cases with the fowl1 see ,raumur1 #8,l',art de faire ,eclore1' etc41 #agdi1 p4 #bdc2 and ,col4 ,sykes1 in #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahcb1 etc4 ,with respect to the fowl not breeding in northern regions1 see ,latham's #8,hist4 of ,birds1' vol4 viii41 #ahbc1 p4 #afi4 #gj 8,mm4 par divers ,savans10 #8,acad4 des ,sciences1' tom4 vi41 #ahce1 p4 #cdg4 #ga ,youatt on ,sheep1 p4 #aha4 #gb ,j4 ,mills1 #8,treatise on ,cattle1' #aggf1 p4 #gb4 #gc ,bechstein1 #8,stubenvgel1' s4 #bdb4 #gd #8,the ,andes and the ,amazon1' #ahgj1 p4 #ajg4 #ge ,crawfurd's #8,descriptive ,dict4 of the ,indian ,islands1' #ahef1 p4 #ade4 #gf #8,bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclimat41' tom4 ix41 #ahfb1 pp4 #chj1 #chd4 #gg ,for pigeons1 see ,dr4 ,chapuis1 #8,le ,pigeon ,voyageur ,belge1' #ahfe1 p4 #ff4 #gh #8,swedish ,acts1' vol4 i41 #agci1 p4 #c4 ,pallas makes the same remark in his #8,travels' 7,eng4 translat471 vol4 i4 p4 #bib4 #gi ,a4 ,kerner1 #8,die ,cultur der ,alpenpflanzen1' #ahfd1 s4 #aci2 ,watson's #8,cybele ,britannica1' vol4 i4 p4 #aca2 ,mr4 ,d4 ,cameron1 also1 has written on the culture of ,alpine plants in #8,gard4 ,chronicle1' #ahdh1 pp4 #bec1 #bfh1 and mentions a few which seed4 #hj #8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,befruchtung1' #ahdd s4 #ccc4 #ha #8,nova ,acta ,petrop41' #agic1 p4 #cia4 #hb #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahef1 pp4 #dd1 #aji4 #hc ,dr4 ,herbert1 #8,amaryllidace1' p4 #agf4 #hd ,grtner1 #8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss1' etc41 s4 #efj1 #efd4 #he #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdd1 p4 #bae2 #ahej1 p4 #dgj4 ,faivre gives a good rsum on this subject in his #8,la ,variabilit des ,espces1' #ahfh1 p4 #aee4 #hf #8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss1' etc41 s4 #beb1 #cch4 #hg #8,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ii41 #ahdg1 p4 #hc4 #hh #8,beitrge zur ,kenntniss1' etc41 s4 #aag et seq42 ,klreuter1 #8,zweite ,fortsetzung1' s4 #aj1 #aba2 #8,dritte ,fortsetzung1' s4 #eg4 ,herbert1 #8,amaryllidace1' p4 #cee4 ,wiegmann #8,ueber die ,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #bg4 #hi #8,bastarderzengung1' s4 #cef4 #ij #8,teoria della ,riproduzione1' #ahaf1 p4 #hd2 #8,trait du ,citrus1' #ahaa1 p4 #fg4 #ia ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,crocker1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfa1 p4 #ajib4 #ib ,verlot1 #8,des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #hj4 #ic ,verlot1 ibid41 p4 #hh4 #id ,prof4 ,allman1 ,brit4 ,assoc41 quoted in the #8,phytologist1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dhc4 ,prof4 ,harvey1 on the authority of ,mr4 ,andrews1 who discovered the plant1 informed me that this monstrosity could be propagated by seed4 ,with respect to the poppy1 see ,prof4 ,goeppert1 as quoted in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,july #ast1 #ahfc1 p4 #aga4 #ie #8,comptes ,rendus1' ,dec4 #aith1 #ahfd1 p4 #ajci4 #if #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahff1 p4 #fha4 #ig #8,theory of ,horticulture1' p4 #ccc4 #ih ,mr4 ,fairweather1 in #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iii4 p4 #djf3 ,bosse1 quoted by ,bronn1 #8,geschichte der ,natur1' ,b4 ii4 s4 #gg4 ,on the effects of the removal of the anthers1 see ,mr4 ,leitner1 in ,silliman's #8,north ,american ,journ4 of ,science1' vol4 xxiii4 p4 #dg2 and ,verlot1 #8,des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #hd4 #ii ,lindley's #8,theory of ,horticulture1' p4 #c8c4 #ajj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfe1 p4 #fbf2 #ahff1 pp4 #bij1 #gcj2 and ,verlot1 #8,des ,varits1' p4 #ge4 #aja #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #fbh4 ,in this article ,i suggested the theory above given on the doubleness of flowers4 ,this view is adopted by ,carrire1 #8,production et ,fix4 des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #fg4 #ajb ,quoted by ,grtner1 #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #efg4 #ajc #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahff1 p4 #ija4 #ajd ,lindley1 #8,theory of ,horticulture1' pp4 #age-agi2 ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ajf2 ,pickering1 #8,races of ,man2' ,gallesio1 #8,teoria della ,riproduzione1' l#haf1 pp4 #aja-aaj4 ,meyen1 7#8,reise um ,erde1' ,th4 ii4 s4 #bad7 states that at ,manilla one variety of the banana is full of seeds3 and ,chamisso 7,hooker's #8,bot4 ,misc41' vol4 i4 p4 #caj7 describes a variety of the bread-fruit in the ,mariana ,islands with small fruit1 containing seeds which are frequently perfect4 ,burnes1 in his #8,travels in ,bokhara1' remarks on the pomegranate seeding in ,mazenderan1 as a remarkable peculiarity4 #aje ,ingledew1 in #8,transact4 of ,agricult4 and ,hort4 ,soc4 of ,india1' vol4 ii4 #ajf #8,de la ,fcondation1' #ahfb1 p4 #cjh4 #ajg ,hooker's #8,bot4 ,misc41' vol4 i4 p4 #ii2 ,gallesio1 #8,teoria della ,riproduzione1' p4 #aaj4 ,dr4 ,j4 de ,cordemoy1 in #8,transact4 of the ,r4 ,soc4 of ,mauritius' 7new series71 vol4 vi4 #ahgc1 pp4 #fj-fg1 gives a large number of cases of plants which never seed1 including several species indigenous in ,mauritius4 #ajh #8,transact4 ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 xvii4 p4 #efc4 #aji ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ajf2 ,herbert on ,crocus1 in #8,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i41 #ahdf1 p4 #bed3 ,dr4 ,wight1 from what he has seen in ,india1 believes in this view2 #8,madras ,journal of ,lit4 and ,science1' vol4 iv41 #ahcf1 p4 #fa4 #aaj ,wahlenberg specifies eight species in this state on the ,lapland ,alps3 see ,appendix to ,linnus' #8,tour in ,lapland1' translated by ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #bgd-bhj4 #aaa #8,travels in ,north ,america1' ,eng4 translat41 vol4 iii4 p4 #age4 #aab ,with respect to the ivy and ,acorus1 see ,dr4 ,broomfield in the #8,phytologist1' vol4 iii4 p4 #cgf4 ,also ,lindley and ,vaucher on the ,acorus1 and see ,caspary as below4 #aac #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat41' #crd series1 ,zool41 tom4 iv4 p4 #bhj4 ,prof4 ,decaisne refers also to analogous cases with mosses and lichens near ,paris4 #aad ,mr4 ,tuckermann1 in ,silliman's #8,american ,journal of ,science1' vol4 xlv4 p4 #a4 #aae ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith1 #8,english ,flora1' vol4 i4 p4 #cci4 #aaf ,g4 ,planchon1 #8,flora de ,montpellier1' #ahfd1 p4 #bj4 #aag ,on the non-production of seeds in ,england1 see ,mr4 ,crocker1 in #8,gardener's ,weekly ,magazine1' #aheb1 p4 #gj2 ,vaucher1 #8,hist4 ,phys4 ,plantes d',europe1' tom4 i4 p4 #cc2 ,lecoq1 #8,gograph4 ,bot4 d',europe1' tom4 iv4 p4 #dff2 ,dr4 ,d4 ,clos1 in #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat41' #crd series1 ,bot41 tom4 xvii4 #aheb1 p4 #abi3 this latter author refers to other analogous cases4 ,see more especially on this plant and on other allied cases ,prof4 ,caspary1 8,die ,nuphar10 #8,abhand4 ,naturw4 ,gesellsch4 zu ,halle1' ,b4 xi4 #ahgj1 p4 #dj1 #gh4 #aah #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #efe4 ,klreuter 7,dritte ,fortsetzung1 s4 #gc1 #hg1 #aai7 also shows that when two species1 one single and the other double1 are crossed1 the hybrids are apt to be extremely double4 #aai #8,teoria della ,riproduzione ,veg41' #ahaf1 p4 #gc4 #abj #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #egc4 #aba ,ibid41 s4 #ebg4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,last ,,chapters1 ,,with ,,remarks ,,on ,,hybridism4 ,,on ,,the ,,good ,,derived ,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,crossing--,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,domestication ,,on ,,fertility--,,close ,,interbreeding--,,good ,,and ,,evil ,,results ,,from ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,varieties ,,when ,,crossed ,,not ,,invariably ,,fertile--,,on ,,the ,,difference ,,in ,,fertility ,,between ,,crossed ,,species ,,and ,,varieties--,,conclusions ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,hybridism--,,light ,,thrown ,,on ,,hybridism ,,by ,,the ,,illegitimate ,,progeny ,,of ,,heterostyled ,,plants--,,sterility ,,of ,,crossed ,,species ,,due ,,to ,,differences ,,confined ,,to ,,the ,,reproductive ,,system--,,not ,,accumulated ,,through ,,natural ,,selection--,,reasons ,,why ,,domestic ,,varieties ,,are ,,not ,,mutually ,,sterile--,,too ,,much ,,stress ,,has ,,been ,,laid ,,on ,,the ,,difference ,,in ,,fertility ,,between ,,crossed ,,species ,,and ,,crossed ,,varieties--,,conclusion4 ,it was shown in the fifteenth chapter that when individuals of the same variety1 or even of a distinct variety1 are allowed freely to intercross1 uniformity of character is ultimately acquired4 ,some few characters1 however1 are incapable of fusion1 but these are unimportant1 as they are often of a semi-monstrous nature1 and have suddenly appeared4 ,hence1 to preserve our domesticated breeds true1 or to improve them by methodical selection1 it is obviously necessary that they should be kept separate4 ,nevertheless1 a whole body of individuals may be slowly modified1 through unconscious selection1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 without separating them into distinct lots4 ,domestic races have often been intentionally modified by one or two crosses1 made with some allied race1 and occasionally even by repeated crosses with very distinct races2 but in almost all such cases1 long-continued and careful selection has been absolutely necessary1 owing to the excessive variability of the crossed offspring1 due to the principle of reversion4 ,in a few instances1 however1 mongrels have retained a uniform character from their first production4 ,when two varieties are allowed to cross freely1 and one is much more numerous than the other1 the former will ultimately absorb the latter4 ,should both varieties exist in nearly equal numbers1 it is probable that a considerable period would elapse before the acquirement of a uniform character2 and the character ultimately acquired would largely depend on prepotency of transmission and on the conditions of life2 for the nature of these conditions would generally favour one variety more than another1 so that a kind of natural selection would come into play4 ,unless the crossed offspring were slaughtered by man without the least discrimination1 some degree of unmethodical selection would likewise come into action4 ,from these several considerations we may infer1 that when two or more closely allied species first came into the possession of the same tribe1 their crossing will not have influenced1 in so great a degree as has often been supposed1 the character of the offspring in future times2 although in some cases it probably has had a considerable effect4 ,domestication1 as a general rule1 increases the prolificness of animals and plants4 ,it eliminates the tendency to sterility which is common to species when first taken from a state of nature and crossed4 ,on this latter head we have no direct evidence2 but as our races of dogs1 cattle1 pigs etc41 are almost certainly descended from aboriginally distinct stocks1 and as these races are now fully fertile together1 or at least incomparably more fertile than most species when crossed1 we may with entire confidence accept this conclusion4 ,abundant evidence has been given that crossing adds to the size1 vigour1 and fertility of the offspring4 ,this holds good when there has been no previous close interbreeding4 ,it applies to the individuals of the same variety but belonging to different families1 to distinct varieties1 sub-species1 and even to species4 ,in the latter case1 though size is gained1 fertility is lost2 but the increased size1 vigour1 and hardiness of many hybrids cannot be accounted for solely on the principle of compensation from the inaction of the reproductive system4 ,certain plants whilst growing under their natural conditions1 others when cultivated1 and others of hybrid origin1 are completely self-impotent1 though perfectly healthy2 and such plants can be stimulated to fertility only by being crossed with other individuals of the same or of a distinct species4 ,on the other hand1 long-continued close interbreeding between the nearest relations diminishes the constitutional vigour1 size1 and fertility of the offspring2 and occasionally leads to malformations1 but not necessarily to general deterioration of form or structure4 ,this failure of fertility shows that the evil results of interbreeding are independent of the augmentation of morbid tendencies common to both parents1 though this augmentation no doubt is often highly injurious4 ,our belief that evil follows from close interbreeding rests to a certain extent on the experience of practical breeders1 especially of those who have reared many animals of quickly propagating kinds2 but it likewise rests on several carefully recorded experiments4 ,with some animals close interbreeding may be carried on for a long period with impunity by the selection of the most vigorous and healthy individuals2 but sooner or later evil follows4 ,the evil1 however1 comes on so slowly and gradually that it easily escapes observation1 but can be recognised by the almost instantaneous manner in which size1 constitutional vigour1 and fertility are regained when animals that have long been interbred are crossed with a distinct family4 ,these two great classes of facts1 namely1 the good derived from crossing1 and the evil from close interbreeding1 with the consideration of the innumerable adaptations throughout nature for compelling1 or favouring1 or at least permitting1 the occasional union of distinct individuals1 taken together1 lead to the conclusion that it is a law of nature that organic beings shall not fertilise themselves for perpetuity4 ,this law was first plainly hinted at in #agii1 with respect to plants1 by ,andrew ,knight#a and1 not long afterwards1 that sagacious observer ,klreuter1 after showing how well the ,malvace are adapted for crossing1 asks1 8an id aliquid in recessu habeat1 quod hujuscemodi flores nunquam proprio suo pulvere1 sed semper eo aliarum su speciei impregnentur1 merito quritur8 ,certe natura nil facit frustra40 ,although we may demur to ,klreuter's saying that nature does nothing in vain1 seeing how many rudimentary and useless organs there are1 yet undoubtedly the argument from the innumerable contrivances1 which favour crossing1 is of the greatest weight4 ,the most important result of this law is that it leads to uniformity of character in the individuals of the same species4 ,in the case of certain hermaphrodites1 which probably intercross only at long intervals of time1 and with unisexual animals inhabiting somewhat separated localities1 which can only occasionally come into contact and pair1 the greater vigour and fertility of the crossed offspring will ultimately tend to give uniformity of character4 ,but when we go beyond the limits of the same species1 free intercrossing is barred by the law of sterility4 ,in searching for facts which might throw light on the cause of the good effects from crossing1 and of the evil effects from close interbreeding1 we have seen that1 on the one hand1 it is a widely prevalent and ancient belief1 that animals and plants profit from slight changes in their condition of life2 and it would appear that the germ1 in a somewhat analogous manner1 is more effectually stimulated by the male element1 when taken from a distinct individual1 and therefore slightly modified in nature1 than when taken from a male having the same identical constitution4 ,on the other hand1 numerous facts have been given1 showing that when animals are first subjected to captivity1 even in their native land1 and although allowed much liberty1 their reproductive functions are often greatly impaired or quite annulled4 ,some groups of animals are more affected than others1 but with apparently capricious exceptions in every group4 ,some animals never or rarely couple under confinement2 some couple freely1 but never or rarely conceive4 ,the secondary male characters1 the maternal functions and instincts1 are occasionally affected4 ,with plants1 when first subjected to cultivation1 analogous facts have been observed4 ,we probably owe our double flowers1 rich seedless fruits1 and in some cases greatly developed tubers1 etc41 to incipient sterility of the above nature combined with a copious supply of nutriment4 ,animals which have long been domesticated1 and plants which have long been cultivated1 can generally withstand1 with unimpaired fertility1 great changes in their conditions of life2 though both are sometimes slightly affected4 ,with animals the somewhat rare capacity of breeding freely under confinement1 together with their utility1 mainly determine the kinds which have been domesticated4 ,we can in no case precisely say what is the cause of the diminished fertility of an animal when first captured1 or of a plant when first cultivated2 we can only infer that it is caused by a change of some kind in the natural conditions of life4 ,the remarkable susceptibility of the reproductive system to such changes1--a susceptibility not common to any other organ1--apparently has an important bearing on ,variability1 as we shall see in a future chapter4 ,it is impossible not to be struck with the double parallelism between the two classes of facts just alluded to4 ,on the one hand1 slight changes in the conditions of life1 and crosses between slightly modified forms or varieties1 are beneficial as far as prolificness and constitutional vigour are concerned4 ,on the other hand1 changes in the conditions greater in degree1 or of a different nature1 and crosses between forms which have been slowly and greatly modified by natural means1--in other words1 between species1--are highly injurious1 as far as the reproductive system is concerned1 and in some few instances as far as constitutional vigour is concerned4 ,can this parallelism be accidental8 ,does it not rather indicate some real bond of connection8 ,as a fire goes out unless it be stirred up1 so the vital forces are always tending1 according to ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 to a state of equilibrium1 unless disturbed and renovated through the action of other forces4 ,in some few cases varieties tend to keep distinct1 by breeding at different seasons1 by great difference in size1 or by sexual preference4 ,but the crossing of varieties1 far from diminishing1 generally adds to the fertility of the first union and of the mongrel offspring4 ,whether all the more widely distinct domestic varieties are invariably quite fertile when crossed1 we do not positively know2 much time and trouble would be requisite for the necessary experiments1 and many difficulties occur1 such as the descent of the various races from aboriginally distinct species1 and the doubts whether certain forms ought to be ranked as species or varieties4 ,nevertheless1 the wide experience of practical breeders proves that the great majority of varieties1 even if some should hereafter prove not to be indefinitely fertile inter se1 are far more fertile when crossed1 than the vast majority of closely allied natural species4 ,a few remarkable cases have1 however1 been given on the authority of excellent observers1 showing that with plants certain forms1 which undoubtedly must be ranked as varieties1 yield fewer seeds when crossed than is natural to the parent-species4 ,other varieties have had their reproductive powers so far modified that they are either more or less fertile than their parents1 when crossed with a distinct species4 ,nevertheless1 the fact remains indisputable that domesticated varieties1 of animals and of plants1 which differ greatly from one another in structure1 but which are certainly descended from the same aboriginal species1 such as the races of the fowl1 pigeon1 many vegetables1 and a host of other productions1 are extremely fertile when crossed2 and this seems to make a broad and impassable barrier between domestic varieties and natural species4 ,but1 as ,i will now attempt to show1 the distinction is not so great and overwhelmingly important as it at first appears4 ,on the ,difference in ,fertility between ,varieties and ,species when crossed4 ,this work is not the proper place for fully treating the subject of hybridism1 and ,i have already given in my #8,origin of ,species' a moderately full abstract4 ,i will here merely enumerate the general conclusions which may be relied on1 and which bear on our present point4 ,firstly1 the laws governing the production of hybrids are identical1 or nearly identical1 in the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,secondly1 the sterility of distinct species when first united1 and that of their hybrid offspring1 graduate1 by an almost infinite number of steps1 from zero1 when the ovule is never impregnated and a seed-capsule is never formed1 up to complete fertility4 ,we can only escape the conclusion that some species are fully fertile when crossed1 by determining to designate as varieties all the forms which are quite fertile4 ,this high degree of fertility is1 however1 rare4 ,nevertheless1 plants1 which have been exposed to unnatural conditions1 sometimes become modified in so peculiar a manner1 that they are much more fertile when crossed with a distinct species than when fertilised by their own pollen4 ,success in effecting a first union between two species1 and the fertility of their hybrids1 depend in an eminent degree on the conditions of life being favourable4 ,the innate sterility of hybrids of the same parentage and raised from the same seed-capsule often differs much in degree4 ,thirdly1 the degree of sterility of a first cross between two species does not always run strictly parallel with that of their hybrid offspring4 ,many cases are known of species which can be crossed with ease1 but yield hybrids excessively sterile2 and conversely some which can be crossed with great difficulty1 but produce fairly fertile hybrids4 ,this is an inexplicable fact1 on the view that species have been specially endowed with mutual sterility in order to keep them distinct4 ,fourthly1 the degree of sterility often differs greatly in two species when reciprocally crossed2 for the first will readily fertilise the second2 but the latter is incapable1 after hundreds of trials1 of fertilising the former4 ,hybrids produced from reciprocal crosses between the same two species likewise sometimes differ in their degree of sterility4 ,these cases also are utterly inexplicable on the view of sterility being a special endowment4 ,fifthly1 the degree of sterility of first crosses and of hybrids runs1 to a certain extent1 parallel with the general or systematic affinity of the forms which are united4 ,for species belonging to distinct genera can rarely1 and those belonging to distinct families can never1 be crossed4 ,the parallelism1 however1 is far from complete2 for a multitude of closely allied species will not unite1 or unite with extreme difficulty1 whilst other species1 widely different from one another1 can be crossed with perfect facility4 ,nor does the difficulty depend on ordinary constitutional differences1 for annual and perennial plants1 deciduous and evergreen trees1 plants flowering at different seasons1 inhabiting different stations1 and naturally living under the most opposite climates1 can often be crossed with ease4 ,the difficulty or facility apparently depends exclusively on the sexual constitution of the species which are crossed2 or on their sexual elective affinity1 i4e4 ,wahlverwandtschaft of ,grtner4 ,as species rarely or never become modified in one character1 without being at the same time modified in many characters1 and as systematic affinity includes all visible similarities and dissimilarities1 any difference in sexual constitution between two species would naturally stand in more or less close relation with their systematic position4 ,sixthly1 the sterility of species when first crossed1 and that of hybrids1 may possibly depend to a certain extent on distinct causes4 ,with pure species the reproductive organs are in a perfect condition1 whilst with hybrids they are often plainly deteriorated4 ,a hybrid embryo which partakes of the constitution of its father and mother is exposed to unnatural conditions1 as long as it is nourished within the womb1 or egg1 or seed of the mother-form2 and as we know that unnatural conditions often induce sterility1 the reproductive organs of the hybrid might at this early age be permanently affected4 ,but this cause has no bearing on the infertility of first unions4 ,the diminished number of the offspring from first unions may often result1 as is certainly sometimes the case1 from the premature death of most of the hybrid embryos4 ,but we shall immediately see that a law of an unknown nature apparently exists1 which leads to the offspring from unions1 which are infertile1 being themselves more or less infertile2 and this at present is all that can be said4 ,seventhly1 hybrids and mongrels present1 with the one great exception of fertility1 the most striking accordance in all other respects2 namely1 in the laws of their resemblance to their two parents1 in their tendency to reversion1 in their variability1 and in being absorbed through repeated crosses by either parent-form4 ,after arriving at these conclusions1 ,i was led to investigate a subject which throws considerable light on hybridism1 namely1 the fertility of heterostyled or dimorphic and trimorphic plants1 when illegitimately united4 ,i have had occasion several times to allude to these plants1 and ,i may here give a brief abstract of my observations4 ,several plants belonging to distinct orders present two forms1 which exist in about equal numbers1 and which differ in no respect except in their reproductive organs2 one form having a long pistil with short stamens1 the other a short pistil with long stamens2 both with differently sized pollen-grains4 ,with trimorphic plants there are three forms likewise differing in the lengths of their pistils and stamens1 in the size and colour of the pollen-grains1 and in some other respects2 and as in each of the three forms there are two sets of stamens1 there are altogether six sets of stamens and three kinds of pistils4 ,these organs are so proportioned in length to one another that1 in any two of the forms1 half the stamens in each stand on a level with the stigma of the third form4 ,now ,i have shown1 and the result has been confirmed by other observers1 that1 in order to obtain full fertility with these plants1 it is necessary that the stigma of the one form should be fertilised by pollen taken from the stamens of corresponding height in the other form4 ,so that with dimorphic species two unions1 which may be called legitimate1 are fully fertile1 and two1 which may be called illegitimate1 are more or less infertile4 ,with trimorphic species six unions are legitimate1 or fully fertile1 and twelve are illegitimate1 or more or less infertile4#b ,the infertility which may be observed in various dimorphic and trimorphic plants1 when illegitimately fertilised1 that is1 by pollen taken from stamens not corresponding in height with the pistil1 differs much in degree1 up to absolute and utter sterility2 just in the same manner as occurs in crossing distinct species4 ,as the degree of sterility in the latter case depends in an eminent degree on the conditions of life being more or less favourable1 so ,i have found it with illegitimate unions4 ,it is well known that if pollen of a distinct species be placed on the stigma of a flower1 and its own pollen be afterwards1 even after a considerable interval of time1 placed on the same stigma1 its action is so strongly prepotent that it generally annihilates the effect of the foreign pollen2 so it is with the pollen of the several forms of the same species1 for legitimate pollen is strongly prepotent over illegitimate pollen1 when both are placed on the same stigma4 ,i ascertained this by fertilising several flowers1 first illegitimately1 and twenty-four hours afterwards legitimately1 with pollen taken from a peculiarly coloured variety1 and all the seedlings were similarly coloured2 this shows that the legitimate pollen1 though applied twenty-four hours subsequently1 had wholly destroyed or prevented the action of the previously applied illegitimate pollen4 ,again1 as1 in making reciprocal crosses between the same two species1 there is occasionally a great difference in the result1 so the same thing occurs with trimorphic plants2 for instance1 the mid-styled form of ,lythrum salicaria could be illegitimately fertilised with the greatest ease by pollen from the longer stamens of the short-styled form1 and yielded many seeds2 but the short-styled form did not yield a single seed when fertilised by the longer stamens of the mid-styled form4 ,in all these respects the forms of the same undoubted species1 when illegitimately united1 behave in exactly the same manner as do two distinct species when crossed4 ,this led me carefully to observe during four years many seedlings1 raised from several illegitimate unions4 ,the chief result is that these illegitimate plants1 as they may be called1 are not fully fertile4 ,it is possible to raise from dimorphic species1 both long-styled and short-styled illegitimate plants1 and from trimorphic plants all three illegitimate forms4 ,these can then be properly united in a legitimate manner4 ,when this is done1 there is no apparent reason why they should not yield as many seeds as did their parents when legitimately fertilised4 ,but such is not the case2 they are all infertile1 but in various degrees2 some being so utterly and incurably sterile that they did not yield during four seasons a single seed or even seed-capsule4 ,these illegitimate plants1 which are so sterile1 although united with each other in a legitimate manner1 may be strictly compared with hybrids when crossed inter se1 and it is well known how sterile these latter generally are4 ,when1 on the other hand1 a hybrid is crossed with either pure parent-species1 the sterility is usually much lessened3 and so it is when an illegitimate plant is fertilised by a legitimate plant4 ,in the same manner as the sterility of hybrids does not always run parallel with the difficulty of making the first cross between the two parent-species1 so the sterility of certain illegitimate plants was unusually great1 whilst the sterility of the union from which they were derived was by no means great4 ,with hybrids raised from the same seed-capsule the degree of sterility is innately variable1 so it is in a marked manner with illegitimate plants4 ,lastly1 many hybrids are profuse and persistent flowerers1 whilst other and more sterile hybrids produce few flowers1 and are weak1 miserable dwarfs2 exactly similar cases occur with the illegitimate offspring of various dimorphic and trimorphic plants4 ,although there is the closest identity in character and behaviour between illegitimate plants and hybrids1 it is hardly an exaggeration to maintain that the former are hybrids1 but produced within the limits of the same species by the improper union of certain forms1 whilst ordinary hybrids are produced from an improper union between so-called distinct species4 ,we have already seen that there is the closest similarity in all respects between first illegitimate unions1 and first crosses between distinct species4 ,this will perhaps be made more fully apparent by an illustration3--we may suppose that a botanist found two well-marked varieties 7and such occur7 of the long-styled form of the trimorphic ,lithrum salicaria1 and that he determined to try by crossing whether they were specifically distinct4 ,he would find that they yielded only about one-fifth of the proper number of seed1 and that they behaved in all the other above-specified respects as if they had been two distinct species4 ,but to make the case sure1 he would raise plants from his supposed hybridised seed1 and he would find that the seedlings were miserably dwarfed and utterly sterile1 and that they behaved in all other respects like ordinary hybrids1 he might then maintain that he had actually proved1 in accordance with the common view1 that his two varieties were as good and as distinct species as any in the world2 but he would be completely mistaken4 ,the facts now given on dimorphic and trimorphic plants are important1 because they show us1 first1 that the physiological test of lessened fertility1 both in first crosses and in hybrids1 is no criterion of specific distinction2 secondly1 because we may conclude that there is some unknown bond which connects the infertility of illegitimate unions with that of their illegitimate offspring1 and we are led to extend the same view to first crosses and hybrids2 thirdly1 because we find1 and this seems to me of especial importance1 that two or three forms of the same species may exist and may differ in no respect whatever1 either in structure or in constitution1 relatively to external conditions1 and yet be sterile when united in certain ways4 ,for we must remember that it is the union of the sexual elements of individuals of the same form1 for instance1 of two long-styled forms1 which results in sterility2 whilst it is the union of the sexual element proper to two distinct forms which is fertile4 ,hence the case appears at first sight exactly the reverse of what occurs in the ordinary unions of the individuals of the same species1 and with crosses between distinct species4 ,it is1 however1 doubtful whether this is really so2 but ,i will not enlarge on this obscure subject4 ,we may1 however1 infer as probable from the consideration of dimorphic and trimorphic plants1 that the sterility of distinct species when crossed1 and of their hybrid progeny1 depends exclusively on the nature of their sexual elements1 and not on any difference in their structure or general constitution4 ,we are also led to this same conclusion by considering reciprocal crosses1 in which the male of one species cannot be united1 or only with great difficulty1 with the female of a second species1 whilst the converse cross can be effected with perfect facility4 ,that excellent observer1 ,grtner1 likewise concluded that species when crossed are sterile owing to differences confined to their reproductive systems4 ,on the principle which makes it necessary for man1 whilst he is selecting and improving his domestic varieties1 to keep them separate1 it would clearly be advantageous to varieties in a state of nature1 that is to incipient species1 if they could be kept from blending1 either through sexual aversion1 or by becoming mutually sterile4 ,hence it at one time appeared to me probable1 as it has to others1 that this sterility might have been acquired through natural selection4 ,on this view we must suppose that a shade of lessened fertility first spontaneously appeared1 like any other modification1 in certain individuals of a species when crossed with other individuals of the same species2 and that successive slight degrees of infertility1 from being advantageous1 were slowly accumulated4 ,this appears all the more probable1 if we admit that the structural differences between the forms of dimorphic and trimorphic plants1 as the length and curvature of the pistil1 etc41 have been co-adapted through natural selection2 for if this be admitted1 we can hardly avoid extending the same conclusion to their mutual infertility4 ,sterility1 moreover1 has been acquired through natural selection for other and widely different purposes1 as with neuter insects in reference to their social economy4 ,in the case of plants1 the flowers on the circumference of the truss in the guelder rose 7,viburnum opulus7 and those on the summit of the spike in the feather-hyacinth 7,muscari comosum7 have been rendered conspicuous1 and apparently in consequence sterile1 in order that insects might easily discover and visit the perfect flowers4 ,but when we endeavour to apply the principle of natural selection to the acquirement by distinct species of mutual sterility1 we meet with great difficulties4 ,in the first place1 it may be remarked that separate regions are often inhabited by groups of species or by single species1 which when brought together and crossed are found to be more or less sterile2 now it could clearly have been no advantage to such separated species to have been rendered mutually sterile1 and consequently this could not have been effected through natural selection2 but it may perhaps be argued1 that1 if a species were rendered sterile with some one compatriot1 sterility with other species would follow as a necessary consequence4 ,in the second place1 it is as much opposed to the theory of natural selection1 as to the theory of special creation1 that in reciprocal crosses the male element of one form should have been rendered utterly impotent on a second form1 whilst at the same time the male element of this second form is enabled freely to fertilise the first form2 for this peculiar state of the reproductive system could not possibly have been advantageous to either species4 ,in considering the probability of natural selection having come into action in rendering species mutually sterile1 one of the greatest difficulties will be found to lie in the existence of many graduated steps from slightly lessened fertility to absolute sterility4 ,it may be admitted1 on the principle above explained1 that it would profit an incipient species if it were rendered in some slight degree sterile when crossed with its parent-form or with some other variety2 for thus fewer bastardised and deteriorated offspring would be produced to commingle their blood with the new species in process of formation4 ,but he who will take the trouble to reflect on the steps by which this first degree of sterility could be increased through natural selection to that higher degree which is common to so many species1 and which is universal with species which have been differentiated to a generic or family rank1 will find the subject extraordinarily complex4 ,after mature reflection it seems to me that this could not have been effected through natural selection4 ,take the case of any two species which1 when crossed1 produce few and sterile offspring2 now1 what is there which could favour the survival of those individuals which happened to be endowed in a slightly higher degree with mutual infertility1 and which thus approached by one small step towards absolute sterility8 ,yet an advance of this kind1 if the theory of natural selection be brought to bear1 must have incessantly occurred with many species1 for a multitude are mutually quite barren4 ,with sterile neuter insects we have reason to believe that modifications in their structure and fertility have been slowly accumulated by natural selection1 from an advantage having been thus indirectly given to the community to which they belonged over other communities of the same species2 but an individual animal not belonging to a social community1 if rendered slightly sterile when crossed with some other variety1 would not thus itself gain any advantage or indirectly give any advantage to the other individuals of the same variety1 thus leading to their preservation4 ,but it would be superfluous to discuss this question in detail2 for with plants we have conclusive evidence that the sterility of crossed species must be due to some principle1 quite independent of natural selection4 ,both ,grtner and ,kolreuter have proved that in general including numerous species1 a series can be formed from species which when crossed yield fewer and fewer seeds1 to species which never produce a single seed1 but yet are affected by the pollen of certain other species1 for the germen swells4 ,it is here manifestly impossible to select the more sterile individuals1 which have already ceased to yield seeds2 so that this acme of sterility1 when the germen alone is affected1 cannot have been gained through selection2 and from the laws governing the various grades of sterility being so uniform throughout the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 we may infer that the cause1 whatever it may be1 is the same or nearly the same in all cases4 ,as species have not been rendered mutually infertile through the accumulative action of natural selection1 and as we may safely conclude1 from the previous as well as from other and more general considerations1 that they have not been endowed through an act of creation with this quality1 we must infer that it has arisen incidentally during their slow formation in connection with other and unknown changes in their organisation4 ,by a quality arising incidentally1 ,i refer to such cases as different species of animals and plants being differently affected by poisons to which they are not naturally exposed2 and this difference in susceptibility is clearly incidental on other and unknown differences in their organisation4 ,so again the capacity in different kinds of trees to be grafted on each other1 or on a third species1 differs much1 and is of no advantage to these trees1 but is incidental on structural or functional differences in their woody tissues4 ,we need not feel surprise at sterility incidentally resulting from crosses between distinct species1--the modified descendants of a common progenitor1--when we bear in mind how easily the reproductive system is affected by various causes--often by extremely slight changes in the conditions of life1 by too close interbreeding1 and by other agencies4 ,it is well to bear in mind such cases as that of the ,passiflora alata1 which recovered its self-fertility from being grafted on a distinct species--the cases of plants which normally or abnormally are self-impotent1 but can readily be fertilised by the pollen of a distinct species--and lastly the cases of individual domesticated animals which evince towards each other sexual incompatibility4 ,we now at last come to the immediate point under discussion3 how is it that1 with some few exceptions in the case of plants1 domesticated varieties1 such as those of the dog1 fowl1 pigeon1 several fruit-trees1 and culinary vegetables1 which differ from each other in external characters more than many species1 are perfectly fertile when crossed1 or even fertile in excess1 whilst closely allied species are almost invariably in some degree sterile8 ,we can1 to a certain extent1 give a satisfactory answer to this question4 ,passing over the fact that the amount of external difference between two species is no sure guide to their degree of mutual sterility1 so that similar differences in the case of varieties would be no sure guide1 we know that with species the cause lies exclusively in differences in their sexual constitution4 ,now the conditions to which domesticated animals and cultivated plants have been subjected have had so little tendency towards modifying the reproductive system in a manner leading to mutual sterility1 that we have very good grounds for admitting the directly opposite doctrine of ,pallas1 namely1 that such conditions generally eliminate this tendency2 so that the domesticated descendants of species1 which in their natural state would have been in some degree sterile when crossed1 become perfectly fertile together4 ,with plants1 so far is cultivation from giving a tendency towards mutual sterility1 that in several well-authenticated cases1 already often alluded to1 certain species have been affected in a very different manner1 for they have become self-impotent1 whilst still retaining the capacity of fertilising1 and being fertilised by1 distinct species4 ,if the ,pallasian doctrine of the elimination of sterility through long-continued domestication be admitted1 and it can hardly be rejected1 it becomes in the highest degree improbable that similar circumstances should commonly both induce and eliminate the same tendency2 though in certain cases1 with species having a peculiar constitution1 sterility might occasionally be thus induced4 ,thus1 as ,i believe1 we can understand why with domesticated animals varieties have not been produced which are mutually sterile2 and why with plants only a few such cases have been observed1 namely1 by ,grtner1 with certain varieties of maize and verbascum1 by other experimentalists with varieties of the gourd and melon1 and by ,klreuter with one kind of tobacco4 ,with respect to varieties which have originated in a state of nature1 it is almost hopeless to expect to prove by direct evidence that they have been rendered mutually sterile2 for if even a trace of sterility could be detected1 such varieties would at once be raised by almost every naturalist to the rank of distinct species4 ,if1 for instance1 ,grtner's statement were fully confirmed1 that the blue and red flowered forms of the pimpernel 7,anagallis arvensis7 are sterile when crossed1 ,i presume that all the botanists who now maintain on various grounds that these two forms are merely fleeting varieties1 would at once admit that they were specifically distinct4 ,the real difficulty in our present subject is not1 as it appears to me1 why domestic varieties have not become mutually infertile when crossed1 but why this has so generally occurred with natural varieties as soon as they have been modified in a sufficient and permanent degree to take rank as species4 ,we are far from precisely knowing the cause2 but we can see that the species1 owing to their struggle for existence with numerous competitors1 must have been exposed to more uniform conditions of life during long periods of time than domestic varieties have been1 and this may well make a wide difference in the result4 ,for we know how commonly wild animals and plants1 when taken from their natural conditions and subjected to captivity1 are rendered sterile2 and the reproductive functions of organic beings which have always lived and been slowly modified under natural conditions would probably in like manner be eminently sensitive to the influence of an unnatural cross4 ,domesticated productions1 on the other hand1 which1 as shown by the mere fact of their domestication1 were not originally highly sensitive to changes in their conditions of life1 and which can now generally resist with undiminished fertility repeated changes of conditions1 might be expected to produce varieties1 which would be little liable to have their reproductive powers injuriously affected by the act of crossing with other varieties which had originated in a like manner4 ,certain naturalists have recently laid too great stress1 as it appears to me1 on the difference in fertility between varieties and species when crossed4 ,some allied species of trees cannot be grafted on one another1 whilst all varieties can be so grafted4 ,some allied animals are affected in a very different manner by the same poison1 but with varieties no such case until recently was known2 whilst now it has been proved that immunity from certain poisons sometimes stands in correlation with the colour of the individuals of the same species4 ,the period of gestation generally differs much in distinct species1 but with varieties until lately no such difference had been observed4 ,here we have various physiological differences1 and no doubt others could be added1 between one species and another of the same genus1 which do not occur1 or occur with extreme rarity1 in the case of varieties2 and these differences are apparently wholly or in chief part incidental on other constitutional differences1 just in the same manner as the sterility of crossed species is incidental on differences confined to the sexual system4 ,why1 then1 should these latter differences1 however serviceable they may indirectly be in keeping the inhabitants of the same country distinct1 be thought of such paramount importance1 in comparison with other incidental and functional differences8 ,no sufficient answer to this question can be given4 ,hence the fact that widely distinct domestic varieties are1 with rare exceptions1 perfectly fertile when crossed1 and produce fertile offspring1 whilst closely allied species are1 with rare exceptions1 more or less sterile1 is not nearly so formidable an objection as it appears at first to the theory of the common descent of allied species4 ,,references #a #8,transactions ,phil4 ,soc41' #agii1 p4 #bjb4 ,for ,klreuter see #8,mm4 de l',acad4 de ,st4-,ptersbourg1' tom4 iii4 #ahji 7published #ahaa7 p4 #aig4 ,in reading ,c4 ,k4 ,sprengel's remarkable work1 #8,das entdeckte ,geheimniss1' etc41 #agic1 it is curious to observe how often this wonderfully acute observer failed to understand the full meaning of the structure of the flowers which he has so well described1 from not always having before his mind the key to the problem1 namely1 the good derived from the crossing of distinct individual plants4 #b ,my observations #8,on the ,character and hybrid-like nature of the offspring from the illegitimate union of ,dimorphic and ,trimorphic ,plants' were published in the #8,journal of the ,linnean ,soc41' vol4 x4 p4 #cic4 ,the abstract here given is nearly the same with that which appeared in the #fth edition of my #8,origin of ,species4' ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,selection ,,by ,,man4 ,,selection ,a ,,difficult ,,art--,,methodical1 ,,unconscious1 ,,and ,,natural ,,selection--,,results ,,of ,,methodical ,,selection--,,care ,,taken ,,in ,,selection--,,selection ,,with ,,plants--,,selection ,,carried ,,on ,,by ,,the ,,ancients ,,and ,,by ,,semi-,,civilised ,,people--,,unimportant ,,characters ,,often ,,attended ,,to--,,unconscious ,,selection--,,as ,,circumstances ,,slowly ,,change1 ,,so ,,have ,,our ,,domesticated ,,animals ,,changed ,,through ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,unconscious ,,selection--,,influence ,,of ,,different ,,breeders ,,on ,,the ,,same ,,sub-,,variety--,,plants ,,as ,,affected ,,by ,,unconscious ,,selection--,,effects ,,of ,,selection ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,great ,,amount ,,of ,,difference ,,in ,,the ,,parts ,,most ,,valued ,,by ,,man4 ,the power of ,selection1 whether exercised by man1 or brought into play under nature through the struggle for existence and the consequent survival of the fittest1 absolutely depends on the variability of organic beings4 ,without variability nothing can be effected2 slight individual differences1 however1 suffice for the work1 and are probably the chief or sole means in the production of new species4 ,hence our discussion on the causes and laws of variability ought in strict order to have preceded the present subject1 as well as inheritance1 crossing1 etc42 but practically the present arrangement has been found the most convenient4 ,man does not attempt to cause variability2 though he unintentionally effects this by exposing organisms to new conditions of life1 and by crossing breeds already formed4 ,but variability being granted1 he works wonders4 ,unless some degree of selection be exercised1 the free commingling of the individuals of the same variety soon obliterates1 as we have previously seen1 the slight differences which arise1 and gives uniformity of character to the whole body of individuals4 ,in separated districts1 long-continued exposure to different conditions of life may produce new races without the aid of selection2 but to this subject of the direct action of the conditions of life ,i shall recur in a future chapter4 ,when animals or plants are born with some conspicuous and firmly inherited new character1 selection is reduced to the preservation of such individuals1 and to the subsequent prevention of crosses2 so that nothing more need be said on the subject4 ,but in the great majority of cases a new character1 or some superiority in an old character1 is at first faintly pronounced1 and is not strongly inherited2 and then the full difficulty of selection is experienced4 ,indomitable patience1 the finest powers of discrimination1 and sound judgment must be exercised during many years4 ,a clearly predetermined object must be kept steadily in view4 ,few men are endowed with all these qualities1 especially with that of discriminating very slight differences2 judgment can be acquired only by long experience2 but if any of these qualities be wanting1 the labour of a life may be thrown away4 ,i have been astonished when celebrated breeders1 whose skill and judgment have been proved by their success at exhibitions1 have shown me their animals1 which appeared all alike1 and have assigned their reasons for matching this and that individual4 ,the importance of the great principle of ,selection mainly lies in this power of selecting scarcely appreciable differences1 which nevertheless are found to be transmissible1 and which can be accumulated until the result is made manifest to the eyes of every beholder4 ,the principle of selection may be conveniently divided into three kinds4 ,methodical selection is that which guides a man who systematically endeavours to modify a breed according to some predetermined standard4 ,unconscious selection is that which follows from men naturally preserving the most valued and destroying the less valued individuals1 without any thought of altering the breed2 and undoubtedly this process slowly works great changes4 ,unconscious selection graduates into methodical1 and only extreme cases can be distinctly separated2 for he who preserves a useful or perfect animal will generally breed from it with the hope of getting offspring of the same character2 but as long as he has not a predetermined purpose to improve the breed1 he may be said to be selecting unconsciously4#a ,lastly1 we have ,natural selection1 which implies that the individuals which are best fitted for the complex1 and in the course of ages changing conditions to which they are exposed1 generally survive and procreate their kind4 ,with domestic productions1 natural selection comes to a certain extent into action1 independently of1 and even in opposition to1 the will of man4 ,methodical ,selection4--,what man has effected within recent times in ,england by methodical selection is clearly shown by our exhibitions of improved quadrupeds and fancy birds4 ,with respect to cattle1 sheep1 and pigs1 we owe their great improvement to a long series of well-known names--,bakewell1 ,coiling1 ,ellman1 ,bates1 ,jonas ,webb1 ,lords ,leicester and ,western1 ,fisher ,hobbs1 and others4 ,agricultural writers are unanimous on the power of selection3 any number of statements to this effect could be quoted2 a few will suffice4 ,youatt1 a sagacious and experienced observer1 writes#b the principle of selection is 8that which enables the agriculturist1 not only to modify the character of his flock1 but to change it altogether40 ,a great breeder of ,shorthorns#c says1 8,in the anatomy of the shoulder modern breeders have made great improvement on the ,ketton shorthorns by correcting the defect in the knuckle or shoulder-joint1 and by laying the top of the shoulder more snugly in the crop1 and thereby filling up the hollow behind it 4 4 4 ,the eye has its fashion at different periods3 at one time the eye high and outstanding from the head1 and at another time the sleepy eye sunk into the head2 but these extremes have merged into the medium of a full1 clear and prominent eye with a placid look40 ,again1 hear what an excellent judge of pigs#d says3 8,the legs should be no longer than just to prevent the animal's belly from trailing on the ground4 ,the leg is the least profitable portion of the hog1 and we therefore require no more of it than is absolutely necessary for the support of the rest40 ,let any one compare the wild-boar with any improved breed1 and he will see how effectually the legs have been shortened4 ,few persons1 except breeders1 are aware of the systematic care taken in selecting animals1 and of the necessity of having a clear and almost prophetic vision into futurity4 ,lord ,spencer's skill and judgment were well known2 and he writes1#e 8,it is therefore very desirable1 before any man commences to breed either cattle or sheep1 that he should make up his mind to the shape and qualities he wishes to obtain1 and steadily pursue this object40 ,lord ,somerville1 in speaking of the marvellous improvement of the ,new ,leicester sheep1 effected by ,bakewell and his successors1 says1 8,it would seem as if they had first drawn a perfect form1 and then given it life40 ,youatt#f urges the necessity of annually drafting each flock1 as many animals will certainly degenerate 8from the standard of excellence which the breeder has established in his own mind40 ,even with a bird of such little importance as the canary1 long ago 7#aghj-agij7 rules were established1 and a standard of perfection was fixed according to which the ,london fanciers tried to breed the several sub-varieties4#g ,a great winner of prizes at the ,pigeon-shows1#h in describing the short-faced ,almond ,tumbler1 says1 8,there are many first-rate fanciers who are particularly partial to what is called the goldfinch-beak1 which is very beautiful2 others say1 take a full-size round cherry then take a barleycorn1 and judiciously placing and thrusting it into the cherry1 form as it were your beak2 and that is not all1 for it will form a good head and beak1 provided1 as ,i said before1 it is judiciously done2 others take an oat2 but as ,i think the goldfinch-beak the handsomest1 ,i would advise the inexperienced fancier to get the head of a goldfinch1 and keep it by him for his observation40 ,wonderfully different as are the beaks of the rock pigeon and goldfinch1 the end has undoubtedly been nearly gained1 as far as external shape and proportions are concerned4 ,not only should our animals be examined with the greatest care whilst alive1 but1 as ,anderson remarks#i their carcases should be scrutinised1 8so as to breed from the descendants of such only as1 in the language of the butcher1 cut up well40 ,the 8grain of the meat0 in cattle1 and its being well marbled with fat1#aj and the greater or less accumulation of fat in the abdomen of our sheep1 have been attended to with success4 ,so with poultry1 a writer1#aa speaking of ,cochin-,china fowls1 which are said to differ much in the quality of their flesh1 says1 8the best mode is to purchase two young brother-cocks1 kill1 dress1 and serve up one2 if he be indifferent1 similarly dispose of the other1 and try again2 if1 however1 he be fine and well-flavoured1 his brother will not be amiss for breeding purposes for the table40 ,the great principle of the division of labour has been brought to bear on selection4 ,in certain districts#ab 8the breeding of bulls is confined to a very limited number of persons1 who by devoting their whole attention to this department1 are able from year to year to furnish a class of bulls which are steadily improving the general breed of the district40 ,the rearing and letting of choice rams has long been1 as is well known1 a chief source of profit to several eminent breeders4 ,in parts of ,germany this principle is carried with merino sheep to an extreme point4#ac ,so 8important is the proper selection of breeding animals considered1 that the best flock-masters do not trust to their own judgment or to that of their shepherds1 but employ persons called #8sheep-classifiers' who make it their special business to attend to this part of the management of several flocks1 and thus to preserve1 or if possible to improve1 the best qualities of both parents in the lambs40 ,in ,saxony1 8when the lambs are weaned1 each in his turn is placed upon a table that his wool and form may be minutely observed4 ,the finest are selected for breeding and receive a first mark4 ,when they are one year old1 and prior to shearing them1 another close examination of those previously marked takes place3 those in which no defect can be found receive a second mark1 and the rest are condemned4 ,a few months afterwards a third and last scrutiny is made2 the prime rams and ewes receive a third and final mark1 but the slightest blemish is sufficient to cause the rejection of the animal40 ,these sheep are bred and valued almost exclusively for the fineness of their wool2 and the result corresponds with the labour bestowed on their selection4 ,instruments have been invented to measure accurately the thickness of the fibres2 and 8an ,austrian fleece has been produced of which twelve hairs equalled in thickness one from a ,leicester sheep40 ,throughout the world1 wherever silk is produced1 the greatest care is bestowed on selecting the cocoons from which the moths for breeding are to be reared4 ,a careful cultivator#ad likewise examines the moths themselves1 and destroys those that are not perfect4 ,but what more immediately concerns us is that certain families in ,france devote themselves to raising eggs for sale4#ae ,in ,china1 near ,shanghai1 the inhabitants of two small districts have the privilege of raising eggs for the whole surrounding country1 and that they may give up their whole time to this business1 they are interdicted by law from producing silk4#af ,the care which successful breeders take in matching their birds is surprising4 ,sir ,john ,sebright1 whose fame is perpetuated by the 8,sebright ,bantam10 used to spend 8two and three days in examining1 consulting1 and disputing with a friend which were the best of five or six birds40#ag ,mr4 ,bult1 whose pouter-pigeons won so many prizes1 and were exported to ,north ,america under the charge of a man sent on purpose1 told me that he always deliberated for several days before he matched each pair4 ,hence we can understand the advice of an eminent fancier1 who writes#ah 8,i would here particularly guard you against having too great a variety of pigeons1 otherwise you will know a little of all1 but nothing about one as it ought to be known40 ,apparently it transcends the power of the human intellect to breed all kinds3 8it is possible that there may be a few fanciers that have a good general knowledge of fancy pigeons2 but there are many more who labour under the delusion of supposing they know what they do not40 ,the excellence of one sub-variety1 the ,almond ,tumbler1 lies in the plumage1 carriage1 head1 beak1 and eye2 but it is too presumptuous in the beginner to try for all these points4 ,the great judge above quoted says1 8,there are some young fanciers who are over-covetous1 who go for all the above five properties at once2 they have their reward by getting nothing40 ,we thus see that breeding even fancy pigeons is no simple art3 we may smile at the solemnity of these precepts1 but he who laughs will win no prizes4 ,what methodical selection has effected for our animals is sufficiently proved1 as already remarked1 by our ,exhibitions4 ,so greatly were the sheep belonging to some of the earlier breeders1 such as ,bakewell and ,lord ,western1 changed1 that many persons could not be persuaded that they had not been crossed4 ,our pigs1 as ,mr4 ,corringham remarks#ai during the last twenty years have undergone1 through rigorous selection together with crossing1 a complete metamorphosis4 ,the first exhibition for poultry was held in the ,zoological ,gardens in #ahde2 and the improvement effected since that time has been great4 ,as ,mr4 ,bailey1 the great judge1 remarked to me1 it was formerly ordered that the comb of the ,spanish cock should be upright1 and in four or five years all good birds had upright combs2 it was ordered that the ,polish cock should have no comb or wattles1 and now a bird thus furnished would be at once disqualified2 beards were ordered1 and out of fifty-seven pens lately 7#ahfj7 exhibited at the ,crystal ,palace1 all had beards4 ,so it has been in many other cases4 ,but in all cases the judges order only what is occasionally produced and what can be improved and rendered constant by selection4 ,the steady increase in weight during the last few years in our fowls1 turkeys1 ducks1 and geese is notorious2 8six-pound ducks are now common1 whereas four pounds was formerly the average40 ,as the time required to make a change has not often been recorded1 it may be worth mentioning that it took ,mr4 ,wicking thirteen years to put a clean white head on an almond tumbler's body1 8a triumph10 says another fancier1 8of which he may be justly proud40#bj ,mr4 ,tollet1 of ,betley ,hall1 selected cows1 and especially bulls1 descended from good milkers1 for the sole purpose of improving his cattle for the production of cheese2 he steadily tested the milk with the lactometer1 and in eight years he increased1 as ,i was informed by him1 the product in proportion of four to three4 ,here is a curious case#ba of steady but slow progress1 with the end not as yet fully attained3 in #aghd a race of silkworms was introduced into ,france1 in which one hundred in the thousand failed to produce white cocoons2 but now after careful selection during sixty-five generations1 the proportion of yellow cocoons has been reduced to thirty-five in the thousand4 ,with plants selection has been followed with the same good result as with animals4 ,but the process is simpler1 for plants in the great majority of cases bear both sexes4 ,nevertheless1 with most kinds it is necessary to take as much care to prevent crosses as with animals or unisexual plants2 but with some plants1 such as peas1 this care is not necessary4 ,with all improved plants1 excepting of course those which are propagated by buds1 cuttings1 etc41 it is almost indispensable to examine the seedlings and destroy those which depart from the proper type4 ,this is called 8roguing10 and is1 in fact1 a form of selection1 like the rejection of inferior animals4 ,experienced horticulturists and agriculturists incessantly urge every one to preserve the finest plants for the production of seed4 ,although plants often present much more conspicuous variations than animals1 yet the closest attention is generally requisite to detect each slight and favourable change4 ,mr4 ,masters relates#bb how 8many a patient hour was devoted10 whilst he was young1 to the detection of differences in peas intended for seed4 ,mr4 ,barnet#bc remarks that the old scarlet ,american strawberry was cultivated for more than a century without producing a single variety2 and another writer observes how singular it was that when gardeners first began to attend to this fruit it began to vary2 the truth no doubt being that it had always varied1 but that1 until slight variations were selected and propagated by seed1 no conspicuous result was obtained4 ,the finest shades of difference in wheat have been discriminated and selected with almost as much care as1 in the case of the higher animals1 for instance by ,col4 ,le ,couteur and more especially by ,major ,hallett4 ,it may be worth while to give a few examples of methodical selection with plants2 but in fact the great improvement of all our anciently cultivated plants may be attributed to selection long carried on1 in part methodically1 and in part unconsciously4 ,i have shown in a former chapter how the weight of the gooseberry has been increased by systematic selection and culture4 ,the flowers of the ,heartsease have been similarly increased in size and regularity of outline4 ,with the ,cineraria1 ,mr4 ,glenny#bd 8was bold enough when the flowers were ragged and starry and ill defined in colour1 to fix a standard which was then considered outrageously high and impossible1 and which1 even if reached1 it was said1 we should be no gainers by1 as it would spoil the beauty of the flowers4 ,he maintained that he was right2 and the event has proved it to be so40 ,the doubling of flowers has several times been effected by careful selection3 the ,rev4 ,w4 ,williamson1#be after sowing during several years seed of ,anemone coronaria1 found a plant with one additional petal2 he sowed the seed of this1 and by perseverance in the same course obtained several varieties with six or seven rows of petals4 ,the single ,scotch rose was doubled1 and yielded eight good varieties in nine or ten years4#bf ,the ,canterbury bell 7,campanula medium7 was doubled by careful selection in four generations4#bg ,in four years ,mr4 ,buckman1#bh by culture and careful selection1 converted parsnips1 raised from wild seed1 into a new and good variety4 ,by selection during a long course of years1 the early maturity of peas has been hastened by between ten and twenty-one days4#bi ,a more curious case is offered by the beet plant1 which since its cultivation in ,france1 has almost exactly doubled its yield of sugar4 ,this has been effected by the most careful selection2 the specific gravity of the roots being regularly tested1 and the best roots saved for the production of seed4#cj ,selection by ,ancient and ,semi-civilised ,people4 ,in attributing so much importance to the selection of animals and plants1 it may be objected1 that methodical selection would not have been carried on during ancient times4 ,a distinguished naturalist considers it as absurd to suppose that semi-civilised people should have practised selection of any kind4 ,undoubtedly the principle has been systematically acknowledged and followed to a far greater extent within the last hundred years than at any former period1 and a corresponding result has been gained2 but it would be a greater error to suppose1 as we shall immediately see1 that its importance was not recognised and acted on during the most ancient times1 and by semi-civilised people4 ,i should premise that many facts now to be given only show that care was taken in breeding2 but when this is the case1 selection is almost sure to be practised to a certain extent4 ,we shall hereafter be enabled better to judge how far selection1 when only occasionally carried on1 by a few of the inhabitants of a country1 will slowly produce a great effect4 ,in a well-known passage in the thirtieth chapter of ,genesis1 rules are given for influencing1 as was then thought possible1 the colour of sheep2 and speckled and dark breeds are spoken of as being kept separate4 ,by the time of ,david the fleece was likened to snow4 ,youatt1#ca who has discussed all the passages in relation to breeding in the ,old ,testament1 concludes that at this early period 8some of the best principles of breeding must have been steadily and long pursued40 ,it was ordered1 according to ,moses1 that 8,thou shalt not let thy cattle gender with a diverse kind20 but mules were purchased#cb so that at this early period other nations must have crossed the horse and ass4 ,it is said#cc that ,erichthonius1 some generations before the ,trojan war1 had many brood-mares1 8which by his care and judgment in the choice of stallions produced a breed of horses superior to any in the surrounding countries40 ,homer 7,book #e7 speaks of ,aeneas' horses as bred from mares which were put to the steeds of ,laomedon4 ,plato1 in his #8,republic' says to ,glaucus1 8,i see that you raise at your house a great many dogs for the chase4 ,do you take care about breeding and pairing them8 ,among animals of good blood1 are there not always some which are superior to the rest80 ,to which ,glaucus answers in the affirmative4#cd ,alexander the ,great selected the finest ,indian cattle to send to ,macedonia to improve the breed4#ce ,according to ,pliny1#cf ,king ,pyrrhus had an especially valuable breed of oxen3 and he did not suffer the bulls and cows to come together till four years old1 that the breed might not degenerate4 ,virgil1 in his ,georgics 7lib4 #c71 gives as strong advice as any modern agriculturist could do1 carefully to select the breeding stock2 8to note the tribe1 the lineage1 and the sire2 whom to reserve for husband of the herd20--to brand the progeny2--to select sheep of the purest white1 and to examine if their tongues are swarthy4 ,we have seen that the ,romans kept pedigrees of their pigeons1 and this would have been a senseless proceeding had not great care been taken in breeding them4 ,columella gives detailed instructions about breeding fowls3 8,let the breeding hens therefore be of a choice colour1 a robust body1 square-built1 full-breasted1 with large heads1 with upright and bright-red combs4 ,those are believed to be the best bred which have five toes40#cg ,according to ,tacitus1 the ,celts attended to the races of their domestic animals2 and ,caesar states that they paid high prices to merchants for fine imported horses4#ch ,in regard to plants1 ,virgil speaks of yearly culling the largest seeds2 and ,celsus says1 8where the corn and crop is but small1 we must pick out the best ears of corn1 and of them lay up our seed separately by itself40#ci ,coming down the stream of time1 we may be brief4 ,at about the beginning of the ninth century ,charlemagne expressly ordered his officers to take great care of his stallions2 and if any proved bad or old1 to forewarn him in good time before they were put to the mares4#dj ,even in a country so little civilised as ,ireland during the ninth century1 it would appear from some ancient verses1#da describing a ransom demanded by ,cormac1 that animals from particular places1 or having a particular character1 were valued4 ,thus it is said1-- ,two pigs of the pigs of ,mac ,lir1 ,a ram and ewe both round and red1 ,i brought with me from ,aengus4 ,i brought with me a stallion and a mare ,from the beautiful stud of ,manannan1 ,a bull and a white cow from ,druim ,cain4 ,athelstan1 in #icj1 received running-horses as a present from ,germany2 and he prohibited the exportation of ,english horses4 ,king ,john imported 8one hundred chosen stallions from ,flanders40#db ,on ,june #afth1 #acje1 the ,prince of ,wales wrote to the ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 begging for the loan of any choice stallion1 and promising its return at the end of the season4#dc ,there are numerous records at ancient periods in ,english history of the importation of choice animals of various kinds1 and of foolish laws against their exportation4 ,in the reigns of ,henry ,,vii4 and ,,viii4 it was ordered that the magistrates1 at ,michaelmas1 should scour the heaths and commons1 and destroy all mares beneath a certain size4#dd ,some of our earlier kings passed laws against the slaughtering rams of any good breed before they were seven years old1 so that they might have time to breed4 ,in ,spain ,cardinal ,ximenes issued1 in #aeji1 regulations on the selection of good rams for breeding4#de ,the ,emperor ,akbar ,khan before the year l#fjj is said to have 8wonderfully improved0 his pigeons by crossing the breeds2 and this necessarily implies careful selection4 ,about the same period the ,dutch attended with the greatest care to the breeding of these birds4 ,belon in #aeee says that good managers in ,france examined the colour of their goslings in order to get geese of a white colour and better kinds4 ,markham in #afca tells the breeder 8to elect the largest and goodliest conies10 and enters into minute details4 ,even with respect to seeds of plants for the flower-garden1 ,sir ,j4 ,hanmer writing about the year #affjdf says1 in 8choosing seed1 the best seed is the most weighty1 and is had from the lustiest and most vigorous stems20 and he then gives rules about leaving only a few flowers on plants for seed2 so that even such details were attended to in our flower-gardens two hundred years ago4 ,in order to show that selection has been silently carried on in places where it would not have been expected1 ,i may add that in the middle of the last century1 in a remote part of ,north ,america1 ,mr4 ,cooper improved by careful selection all his vegetables1 8so that they were greatly superior to those of any other person4 ,when his radishes1 for instance1 are fit for use1 he takes ten or twelve that he most approves1 and plants them at least #ajj yards from others that blossom at the same time4 ,in the same manner he treats all his other plants1 varying the circumstances according to their nature40#dg ,in the great work on ,china published in the last century by the ,jesuits1 and which is chiefly compiled from ancient ,chinese encyclopaedias1 it is said that with sheep 8improving the breed consists in choosing with particular care the lambs which are destined for propagation1 in nourishing them well1 and in keeping the flocks separate40 ,the same principles were applied by the ,chinese to various plants and fruit-trees4#dh ,an imperial edict recommends the choice of seed of remarkable size2 and selection was practised even by imperial hands1 for it is said that the ,ya-mi1 or imperial rice1 was noticed at an ancient period in a field by the ,emperor ,khang-hi1 was saved and cultivated in his garden1 and has since become valuable from being the only kind which will grow north of the ,great ,wall4#di ,even with flowers1 the tree paeony 7,p4 moutan7 has been cultivated1 according to ,chinese traditions1 for #adjj years2 between #bjj and #cjj varieties have been raised1 which are cherished like tulips formerly were by the ,dutch4#ej ,turning now to semi-civilised people and to savages3 it occurred to me1 from what ,i had seen of several parts of ,south ,america1 where fences do not exist1 and where the animals are of little value1 that there would be absolutely no care in breeding or selecting them2 and this to a large extent is true4 ,roulin1#ea however1 describes in ,columbia a naked race of cattle1 which are not allowed to increase1 on account of their delicate constitution4 ,according to ,azara#eb horses are often born in ,paraguay with curly hair2 but1 as the natives do not like them1 they are destroyed4 ,on the other hand1 ,azara states that a hornless bull1 born in #aggj1 was preserved and propagated its race4 ,i was informed of the existence in ,banda ,oriental of a breed with reversed hair2 and the extraordinary niata cattle first appeared and have since been kept distinct in ,la ,plata4 ,hence certain conspicuous variations have been preserved1 and others have been habitually destroyed1 in these countries1 which are so little favourable for careful selection4 ,we have also seen that the inhabitants sometimes introduce fresh cattle on their estates to prevent the evil effects of close interbreeding4 ,on the other hand1 ,i have heard on reliable authority that the ,gauchos of the ,pampas never take any pains in selecting the best bulls or stallions for breeding2 and this probably accounts for the cattle and horses being remarkably uniform in character throughout the immense range of the ,argentine republic4 ,looking to the ,old ,world1 in the ,sahara ,desert 8,the ,touareg is as careful in the selection of his breeding ,mahari 7a fine race of the dromedary7 as the ,arab is in that of his horse4 ,the pedigrees are handed down1 and many a dromedary can boast a genealogy far longer than the descendants of the ,darley ,arabian40#ec ,according to ,pallas the ,mongolians endeavour to breed the ,yaks or horse-tailed buffaloes with white tails1 for these are sold to the ,chinese mandarins as fly-flappers2 and ,moorcroft1 about seventy years after ,pallas1 found that white-tailed animals were still selected for breeding4#ed ,we have seen in the chapter on the ,dog that savages in different parts of ,north ,america and in ,guiana cross their dogs with wild ,canid1 as did the ancient ,gauls1 according to ,pliny4 ,this was done to give their dogs strength and vigour1 in the same way as the keepers in large warrens now sometimes cross their ferrets 7as ,i have been informed by ,mr4 ,yarrell7 with the wild polecat1 8to give them more devil40 ,according to ,varro1 the wild ass was formerly caught and crossed with the tame animal to improve the breed1 in the same manner as at the present day the natives of ,java sometimes drive their cattle into the forests to cross with the wild ,banteng 7,bos sondaicus74#ee ,in ,northern ,siberia1 among the ,ostyaks1 the dogs vary in markings in different districts1 but in each place they are spotted black and white in a remarkably uniform manner2#ef and from this fact alone we may infer careful breeding1 more especially as the dogs of one locality are famed throughout the country for their superiority4 ,i have heard of certain tribes of ,esquimaux who take pride in their teams of dogs being uniformly coloured4 ,in ,guiana1 as ,sir ,h4 ,schomburgk informs me1#eg the dogs of the ,turuma ,indians are highly valued and extensively bartered3 the price of a good one is the same as that given for a wife3 they are kept in a sort of cage1 and the ,indians 8take great care when the female is in season to prevent her uniting with a dog of an inferior description40 ,the ,indians told ,sir ,robert that1 if a dog proved bad or useless1 he was not killed1 but was left to die from sheer neglect4 ,hardly any nation is more barbarous than the ,fuegians1 but ,i hear from ,mr4 ,bridges1 the ,catechist to the ,mission1 that1 8when these savages have a large1 strong1 and active bitch1 they take care to put her to a fine dog1 and even take care to feed her well1 that her young may be strong and well favoured40 ,in the interior of ,africa1 negroes1 who have not associated with white men1 show great anxiety to improve their animals2 they 8always choose the larger and stronger males for stock20 the ,malakolo were much pleased at ,livingstone's promise to send them a bull1 and some ,bakalolo carried a live cock all the way from ,loanda into the interior4#eh ,at ,falaba ,mr4 ,winwood ,reade noticed an unusually fine horse1 and the negro ,king informed him that 8the owner was noted for his skill in breeding horses40 ,further south on the same continent1 ,andersson states that he has known a ,damara give two fine oxen for a dog which struck his fancy4 ,the ,damaras take great delight in having whole droves of cattle of the same colour1 and they prize their oxen in proportion to the size of their horns4 8,the ,namaquas have a perfect mania for a uniform team2 and almost all the people of ,southern ,africa value their cattle next to their women1 and take a pride in possessing animals that look high-bred4 ,they rarely or never make use of a handsome animal as a beast of burden40#ei ,the power of discrimination which these savages possess is wonderful1 and they can recognise to which tribe any cattle belong4 ,mr4 ,andersson further informs me that the natives frequently match a particular bull with a particular cow4 ,the most curious case of selection by semi-civilised people1 or indeed by any people1 which ,i have found recorded1 is that given by ,garcilazo de la ,vega1 a descendant of the ,incas1 as having been practised in ,peru before the country was subjugated by the ,spaniards4#fj ,the ,incas annually held great hunts1 when all the wild animals were driven from an immense circuit to a central point4 ,the beasts of prey were first destroyed as injurious4 ,the wild ,guanacos and ,vicunas were sheared2 the old males and females killed1 and the others set at liberty4 ,the various kinds of deer were examined2 the old males and females were likewise killed1 8but the young females1 with a certain number of males1 selected from the most beautiful and strong10 were given their freedom4 ,here1 then1 we have selection by man aiding natural selection4 ,so that the ,incas followed exactly the reverse system of that which our ,scottish sportsman are accused of following1 namely1 of steadily killing the finest stags1 thus causing the whole race to degenerate4#fa ,in regard to the domesticated llamas and alpacas1 they were separated in the time of the ,incas according to colour3 and if by chance one in a flock was born of the wrong colour1 it was eventually put into another flock4 ,in the genus ,auchenia there are four forms1--the ,guanaco and ,vicuna1 found wild and undoubtedly distinct species2 the ,llama and ,alpaca1 known only in a domesticated condition4 ,these four animals appear so different1 that most naturalists1 especially those who have studied these animals in their native country1 maintain that they are specifically distinct1 notwithstanding that no one pretends to have seen a wild llama or alpaca4 ,mr4 ,ledger1 however1 who has closely studied these animals both in ,peru and during their exportation to ,australia1 and who has made many experiments on their propagation1 adduces arguments#fb which seem to me conclusive1 that the llama is the domesticated descendant of the guanaco1 and the alpaca of the vicuna4 ,and now that we know that these animals were systematically bred and selected many centuries ago1 there is nothing surprising in the great amount of change which they have undergone4 ,it appeared to me at one time probable that1 though ancient and semi-civilised people might have attended to the improvement of their more useful animals in essential points1 yet that they would have disregarded unimportant characters4 ,but human nature is the same throughout the world3 fashion everywhere reigns supreme1 and man is apt to value whatever he may chance to possess4 ,we have seen that in ,south ,america the niata cattle1 which certainly are not made useful by their shortened faces and upturned nostrils1 have been preserved4 ,the ,damaras of ,south ,africa value their cattle for uniformity of colour and enormously long horns4 ,and ,i will now show that there is hardly any peculiarity in our most useful animals which1 from fashion1 superstition1 or some other motive1 has not been valued1 and consequently preserved4 ,with respect to cattle1 8an early record10 according to ,youatt#fc 8speaks of a hundred white cows with red ears being demanded as a compensation by the princes of ,north and ,south ,wales4 ,if the cattle were of a dark or black colour1 #aej were to be presented40 ,so that colour was attended to in ,wales before its subjugation by ,england4 ,in ,central ,africa1 an ox that beats the ground with its tail is killed2 and in ,south ,africa some of the ,damaras will not eat the flesh of a spotted ox4 ,the ,kaffirs value an animal with a musical voice2 and 8at a sale in ,british ,kaffraria the low of a heifer excited so much admiration that a sharp competition sprung up for her possession1 and she realised a considerable price40#fd ,with respect to sheep1 the ,chinese prefer rams without horns2 the ,tartars prefer them with spirally wound horns1 because the hornless are thought to lose courage4#fe ,some of the ,damaras will not eat the flesh of hornless sheep4 ,in regard to horses1 at the end of the fifteenth century animals of the colour described as liart pomme were most valued in ,france4 ,the ,arabs have a proverb1 8,never buy a horse with four white feet1 for he carries his shroud with him02#ff the ,arabs also1 as we have seen1 despise dun-coloured horses4 ,so with dogs1 ,xenophon and others at an ancient period were prejudiced in favour of certain colours2 and 8white or slate-coloured hunting dogs were not esteemed40#fg ,turning to poultry1 the old ,roman gourmands thought that the liver of a white goose was the most savoury4 ,in ,paraguay black-skinned fowls are kept because they are thought to be more productive1 and their flesh the most proper for invalids4#fh ,in ,guiana1 as ,i am informed by ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 the aborigines will not eat the flesh or eggs of the fowl1 but two races are kept distinct merely for ornament4 ,in the ,philippines1 no less than nine sub-varieties of the game-cock are kept and named1 so that they must be separately bred4 ,at the present time in ,europe1 the smallest peculiarities are carefully attended to in our most useful animals1 either from fashion1 or as a mark of purity of blood4 ,many examples could be given2 two will suffice4 8,in the ,western counties of ,england the prejudice against a white pig is nearly as strong as against a black one in ,yorkshire40 ,in one of the ,berkshire sub-breeds1 it is said1 8the white should be confined to four white feet1 a white spot between the eyes1 and a few white hairs behind each shoulder40 ,mr4 ,saddler possessed 8three hundred pigs1 every one of which was marked in this manner40#fi ,marshall1 towards the close of the last century1 in speaking of a change in one of the ,yorkshire breeds of cattle1 says the horns have been considerably modified1 as 8a clean1 small1 sharp horn has been fashionable for the last twenty years40#gj ,in a part of ,germany the cattle of the ,race de ,gfoehl are valued for many good qualities1 but they must have horns of a particular curvature and tint1 so much so that mechanical means are applied if they take a wrong direction2 but the inhabitants 8consider it of the highest importance that the nostrils of the bull should be flesh-coloured1 and the eyelashes light2 this is an indispensable condition4 ,a calf with blue nostrils would not be purchased1 or purchased at a very low price40#ga ,therefore let no man say that any point or character is too trifling to be methodically attended to and selected by breeders4 ,unconscious ,selection4--,by this term ,i mean1 as already more than once explained1 the preservation by man of the most valued1 and the destruction of the least valued individuals1 without any conscious intention on his part of altering the breed4 ,it is difficult to offer direct proofs of the results which follow from this kind of selection2 but the indirect evidence is abundant4 ,in fact1 except that in the one case man acts intentionally1 and in the other unintentionally1 there is little difference between methodical and unconscious selection4 ,in both cases man preserves the animals which are most useful or pleasing to him1 and destroys or neglects the others4 ,but no doubt a far more rapid result follows from methodical than from unconscious selection4 ,the 8roguing0 of plants by gardeners1 and the destruction by law in ,henry ,,viii4's reign of all under-sized mares1 are instances of a process the reverse of selection in the ordinary sense of the word1 but leading to the same general result4 ,the influence of the destruction of individuals having a particular character is well shown by the necessity of killing every lamb with a trace of black about it1 in order to keep the flock white2 or again1 by the effects on the average height of the men of ,france of the destructive wars of ,napoleon1 by which many tall men were killed1 the short ones being left to be the fathers of families4 ,this at least is the conclusion of some of those who have closely studied the effects of the conscription2 and it is certain that since ,napoleon's time the standard for the army has been lowered two or three times4 ,unconscious selection blends with methodical1 so that it is scarcely possible to separate them4 ,when a fancier long ago first happened to notice a pigeon with an unusually short beak1 or one with the tail-feathers unusually developed1 although he bred from these birds with the distinct intention of propagating the variety1 yet he could not have intended to make a short-faced tumbler or a fantail1 and was far from knowing that he had made the first step towards this end4 ,if he could have seen the final result1 he would have been struck with astonishment1 but1 from what we know of the habits of fanciers1 probably not with admiration4 ,our ,english carriers1 barbs1 and short-faced tumblers have been greatly modified in the same manner1 as we may infer both from the historical evidence given in the chapters on the ,pigeon1 and from the comparison of birds brought from distant countries4 ,so it has been with dogs2 our present fox-hounds differ from the old ,english hound2 our greyhounds have become lighter3 the ,scotch deer-hound has been modified1 and is now rare4 ,our bulldogs differ from those which were formerly used for baiting bulls4 ,our pointers and ,newfoundlands do not closely resemble any native dog now found in the countries whence they were brought4 ,these changes have been effected partly by crosses2 but in every case the result has been governed by the strictest selection4 ,nevertheless1 there is no reason to suppose that man intentionally and methodically made the breeds exactly what they now are4 ,as our horses became fleeter1 and the country more cultivated and smoother1 fleeter fox-hounds were desired and produced1 but probably without any one distinctly foreseeing what they would become4 ,our pointers and setters1 the latter almost certainly descended from large spaniels1 have been greatly modified in accordance with fashion and the desire for increased speed4 ,wolves have become extinct1 and so has the wolf-dog2 deer have become rarer1 bulls are no longer baited1 and the corresponding breeds of the dog have answered to the change4 ,but we may feel almost sure that when1 for instance1 bulls were no longer baited1 no man said to himself1 ,i will now breed my dogs of smaller size1 and thus create the present race4 ,as circumstances changed1 men unconsciously and slowly modified their course of selection4 ,with racehorses selection for swiftness has been followed methodically1 and our horses now easily surpass their progenitors4 ,the increased size and different appearance of the ,english racehorse led a good observer in ,india to ask1 8,could any one in this year of #ahef1 looking at our racehorses1 conceive that they were the result of the union of the ,arab horse and the ,african mare80#gb ,this change has1 it is probable1 been largely effected through unconscious selection1 that is1 by the general wish to breed as fine horses as possible in each generation1 combined with training and high feeding1 but without any intention to give to them their present appearance4 ,according to ,youatt1#gc the introduction in ,oliver ,cromwell's time of three celebrated ,eastern stallions speedily affected the ,english breed2 8so that ,lord ,harleigh1 one of the old school1 complained that the great horse was fast disappearing40 ,this is an excellent proof how carefully selection must have been attended to2 for without such care1 all traces of so small an infusion of ,eastern blood would soon have been absorbed and lost4 ,notwithstanding that the climate of ,england has never been esteemed particularly favourable to the horse1 yet long-continued selection1 both methodical and unconscious1 together with that practised by the ,arabs during a still longer and earlier period1 has ended in giving us the best breed of horses in the world4 ,macaulay#gd remarks1 8,two men whose authority on such subjects was held in great esteem1 the ,duke of ,newcastle and ,sir ,john ,fenwick1 pronounced that the meanest hack ever imported from ,tangier would produce a finer progeny than could be expected from the best sire of our native breed4 ,they would not readily have believed that a time would come when the princes and nobles of neighbouring lands would be as eager to obtain horses from ,england as ever the ,english had been to obtain horses from ,barbary40 ,the ,london dray-horse1 which differs so much in appearance from any natural species1 and which from its size has so astonished many ,eastern princes1 was probably formed by the heaviest and most powerful animals having been selected during many generations in ,flanders and ,england1 but without the least intention or expectation of creating a horse such as we now see4 ,if we go back to an early period of history1 we behold in the antique ,greek statues1 as ,schaaffhausen has remarked1#ge a horse equally unlike a race or dray horse1 and differing from any existing breed4 ,the results of unconscious selection1 in an early stage1 are well shown in the difference between the flocks descended from the same stock1 but separately reared by careful breeders4 ,youatt gives an excellent instance of this fact in the sheep belonging to ,messrs4 ,buckley and ,burgess1 which 8have been purely bred from the original stock of ,mr4 ,bakewell for upwards of fifty years4 ,there is not a suspicion existing in the mind of any one at all acquainted with the subject that the owner of either flock has deviated in any one instance from the pure blood of ,mr4 ,bakewell's flock2 yet the difference between the sheep possessed by these two gentlemen is so great1 that they have the appearance of being quite different varieties40#gf ,i have seen several analogous and well marked cases with pigeons3 for instance1 ,i had a family of barbs descended from those long bred by ,sir ,j4 ,sebright1 and another family long bred by another fancier1 and the two families plainly differed from each other4 ,nathusius--and a more competent witness could not be cited--observes that1 though the ,shorthorns are remarkably uniform in appearance 7except in colour71 yet the individual character and wishes of each breeder become impressed on his cattle1 so that different herds differ slightly from one another4#gg ,the ,hereford cattle assumed their present well-marked character soon after the year #agfi1 through careful selection by ,mr4 ,tomkins#gh and the breed has lately split into two strains--one strain having a white face1 and differing slightly1 it is said1#gi in some other points3 but there is no reason to believe that this split1 the origin of which is unknown1 was intentionally made2 it may with much more probability be attributed to different breeders having attended to different points4 ,so again1 the ,berkshire breed of swine in the year #ahaj had greatly changed from what it was in #aghj2 and since #ahaj at least two distinct sub-breeds have arisen bearing the same name4#hj ,keeping in mind how rapidly all animals increase1 and that some must be annually slaughtered and some saved for breeding1 then1 if the same breeder during a long course of years deliberately settles which shall be saved and which shall be killed1 it is almost inevitable that his individual turn of mind will influence the character of his stock1 without his having had any intention to modify the breed4 ,unconscious selection in the strictest sense of the word1 that is1 the saving of the more useful animals and the neglect or slaughter of the less useful1 without any thought of the future1 must have gone on occasionally from the remotest period and amongst the most barbarous nations4 ,savages often suffer from famines1 and are sometimes expelled by war from their own homes4 ,in such cases it can hardly be doubted that they would save their most useful animals4 ,when the ,fuegians are hard pressed by want1 they kill their old women for food rather than their dogs2 for1 as we were assured1 8old women no use--dogs catch otters40 ,the same sound sense would surely lead them to preserve their more useful dogs when still harder pressed by famine4 ,mr4 ,oldfield1 who has seen so much of the aborigines of ,australia1 informs me that 8they are all very glad to get a ,european kangaroo dog1 and several instances have been known of the father killing his own infant that the mother might suckle the much-prized puppy40 ,different kinds of dogs would be useful to the ,australian for hunting opossums and kangaroos1 and to the ,fuegian for catching fish and otters2 and the occasional preservation in the two countries of the most useful animals would ultimately lead to the formation of two widely distinct breeds4 ,with plants1 from the earliest dawn of civilisation1 the best variety which was known would generally have been cultivated at each period and its seeds occasionally sown2 so that there will have been some selection from an extremely remote period1 but without any prefixed standard of excellence or thought of the future4 ,we at the present day profit by a course of selection occasionally and unconsciously carried on during thousands of years4 ,this is proved in an interesting manner by ,oswald ,heer's researches on the lake-inhabitants of ,switzerland1 as given in a former chapter2 for he shows that the grain and seed of our present varieties of wheat1 barley1 oats1 peas1 beans1 lentils1 and poppy1 exceed in size those which were cultivated in ,switzerland during the ,neolithic and ,bronze periods4 ,these ancient people1 during the ,neolithic period1 possessed also a crab considerably larger than that now growing wild on the ,jura4#ha ,the pears described by ,pliny were evidently extremely inferior in quality to our present pears4 ,we can realise the effects of long-continued selection and cultivation in another way1 for would any one in his senses expect to raise a first-rate apple from the seed of a truly wild crab1 or a luscious melting pear from the wild pear8 ,alphonse de ,candolle informs me that he has lately seen on an ancient mosaic at ,rome a representation of the melon2 and as the ,rotnans1 who were such gourmands1 are silent on this fruit1 he infers that the melon has been greatly ameliorated since the classical period4 ,coming to later times1 ,buffon#hb on comparing the flowers1 fruit1 and vegetables which were then cultivated with some excellent drawings made a hundred and fifty years previously1 was struck with surprise at the great improvement which had been effected2 and remarks that these ancient flowers and vegetables would now be rejected1 not only by a florist but by a village gardener4 ,since the time of ,buffon the work of improvement has steadily and rapidly gone on4 ,every florist who compares our present flowers with those figured in books published not long since1 is astonished at the change4 ,a well-known amateur1#hc in speaking of the varieties of ,pelargonium raised by ,mr4 ,garth only twenty-two years before1 remarks1 8,what a rage they excited3 surely we had attained perfection1 it was said2 and now not one of the flowers of those days will be looked at4 ,but none the less is the debt of gratitude which we owe to those who saw what was to be done1 and did it40 ,mr4 ,paul1 the well-known horticulturist1 in writing of the same flower1#hd says he remembers when young being delighted with the portraits in ,sweet's work2 8but what are they in point of beauty compared with the ,pelargoniums of this day8 ,here again nature did not advance by leaps2 the improvement was gradual1 and if we had neglected those very gradual advances1 we must have foregone the present grand results40 ,how well this practical horticulturist appreciates and illustrates the gradual and accumulative force of selection6 ,the ,dahlia has advanced in beauty in a like manner2 the line of improvement being guided by fashion1 and by the successive modifications which the flower slowly underwent4#he ,a steady and gradual change has been noticed in many other flowers3 thus an old florist1#hf after describing the leading varieties of the ,pink which were grown in #ahac adds1 8the pinks of those days would now be scarcely grown as border-flowers40 ,the improvement of so many flowers and the number of the varieties which have been raised is all the more striking when we hear that the earliest known flower-garden in ,europe1 namely at ,padua1 dates only from the year #aede4hg ,effects of ,selection1 as shown by the parts most valued by man presenting the greatest amount of difference4--,the power of long-continued selection1 whether methodical or unconscious1 or both combined1 is well shown in a general way1 namely1 by the comparison of the differences between the varieties of distinct species1 which are valued for different parts1 such as for the leaves1 or stems1 or tubers1 the seed1 or fruit1 or flowers4 ,whatever part man values most1 that part will be found to present the greatest amount of difference4 ,with trees cultivated for their fruit1 ,sageret remarks that the fruit is larger than in the parent-species1 whilst with those cultivated for the seed1 as with nuts1 walnuts1 almonds1 chestnuts1 etc41 it is the seed itself which is larger2 and he accounts for this fact by the fruit in the one case1 and by the seed in the other1 having been carefully attended to and selected during many ages4 ,gallesio has made the same observation4 ,godron insists on the diversity of the tuber in the potato1 of the bulb in the onion1 and of the fruit in the melon2 and on the close similarity of the other parts in these same plants4#hh ,in order to judge how far my own impression on this subject was correct1 ,i cultivated numerous varieties of the same species close to one another4 ,the comparison of the amount of difference between widely different organs is necessarily vague2 ,i will therefore give the results in only a few cases4 ,we have previously seen in the ninth chapter how greatly the varieties of the cabbage differ in their foliage and stems1 which are the selected parts1 and how closely they resemble one another in their flowers1 capsules1 and seeds4 ,in seven varieties of the radish1 the roots differed greatly in colour and shape1 but no difference whatever could be detected in their foliage1 flowers1 or seeds4 ,now what a contrast is presented1 if we compare the flowers of the varieties of these two plants with those of any species cultivated in our flower-gardens for ornament2 or if we compare their seeds with those of the varieties of maize1 peas1 beans1 etc41 which are valued and cultivated for their seeds4 ,in the ninth chapter it was shown that the varieties of the pea differ but little except in the tallness of the plant1 moderately in the shape of the pod1 and greatly in the pea itself1 and these are all selected points4 ,the varieties1 however1 of the ,pois sans parchemin differ much more in their pods1 and these are eaten and valued4 ,i cultivated twelve varieties of the common bean2 one alone1 the ,dwarf ,fan1 differed considerably in general appearance2 two differed in the colour of their flowers1 one being an albino1 and the other being wholly instead of partially purple2 several differed considerably in the shape and size of the pod1 but far more in the bean itself1 and this is the valued and selected part4 ,toker's bean1 for instance1 is twice-and-a-half as long and broad as the horse-bean1 and is much thinner and of a different shape4 ,the varieties of the gooseberry1 as formerly described1 differ much in their fruit1 but hardly perceptibly in their flowers or organs of vegetation4 ,with the plum1 the differences likewise appear to be greater in the fruit than in the flowers or leaves4 ,on the other hand1 the seed of the strawberry1 which corresponds with the fruit of the plum1 differs hardly at all2 whilst every one knows how greatly the fruit--that is1 the enlarged receptacle--differs in several varieties4 ,in apples1 pears1 and peaches the flowers and leaves differ considerably1 but not1 as far as ,i can judge1 in proportion with the fruit4 ,the ,chinese double-flowering peaches1 on the other hand1 show that varieties of this tree have been formed1 which differ more in flower than in fruit4 ,if1 as is highly probable1 the peach is the modified descent of the almond1 a surprising amount of change has been effected in the same species1 in the fleshy covering of the former and in the kernels of the latter4 ,when parts stand in close relationship to each other1 such as the seed and the fleshy covering of the fruit 7whatever its homological nature may be71 changes in the one are usually accompanied by modifications in the other1 though not necessarily to the same degree4 ,with the plum-tree1 for instance1 some varieties produce plums which are nearly alike1 but include stones extremely dissimilar in shape2 whilst conversely other varieties produce dissimilar fruit with barely distinguishable stones2 and generally the stones1 though they have never been subjected to selection1 differ greatly in the several varieties of the plum4 ,in other cases organs which are not manifestly related1 through some unknown bond vary together1 and are consequently liable1 without any intention on man's part1 to be simultaneously acted on by selection4 ,thus the varieties of the stock 7,matthiola7 have been selected solely for the beauty of their flowers1 but the seeds differ greatly in colour and somewhat in size4 ,varieties of the lettuce have been selected solely on account of their leaves1 yet produce seeds which likewise differ in colour4 ,generally1 through the law of correlation1 when a variety differs greatly from its fellow-varieties in any one character1 it differs to a certain extent in several other characters4 ,i observed this fact when ,i cultivated together many varieties of the same species1 for ,i used first to make a list of the varieties which differed most from each other in their foliage and manner of growth1 afterwards of those that differed most in their flowers1 then in their seed-capsules1 and lastly in their mature seed2 and ,i found that the same names generally occurred in two1 three1 or four of the successive lists4 ,nevertheless the greatest amount of difference between the varieties was always exhibited1 as far as ,i could judge1 by that part or organ for which the plant was cultivated4 ,when we bear in mind that each plant was at first cultivated because useful to man1 and that its variation was a subsequent1 often a long subsequent1 event1 we cannot explain the greater amount of diversity in the valuable parts by supposing that species endowed with an especial tendency to vary in any particular manner were originally chosen4 ,we must attribute the result to the variations in these parts having been successively preserved1 and thus continually augmented2 whilst other variations1 excepting such as inevitably appeared through correlation1 were neglected and lost4 ,we may therefore infer that most plants might be made1 through long-continued selection1 to yield races as different from one another in any character as they now are in those parts for which they are valued and cultivated4 ,with animals we see nothing of the same kind2 but a sufficient number of species have not been domesticated for a fair comparison4 ,sheep are valued for their wool1 and the wool differs much more in the several races than the hair in cattle4 ,neither sheep1 goats1 ,european cattle1 nor pigs are valued for their fleetness or strength2 and we do not possess breeds differing in these respects like the racehorse and dray-horse4 ,but fleetness and strength are valued in camels and dogs2 and we have with the former the swift dromedary and heavy camel2 with the latter the greyhound and mastiff4 ,but dogs are valued even in a higher degree for their mental qualities and senses2 and every one knows how greatly the races differ in these respects4 ,on the other hand1 where the dog is kept solely to serve for food1 as in the ,polynesian islands and ,china1 it is described as an extremely stupid animal4#hi ,blumenbach remarks that 8many dogs1 such as the badger-dog1 have a build so marked and so appropriate for particular purposes1 that ,i should find it very difficult to persuade myself that this astonishing figure was an accidental consequence of degeneration40#ij ,had ,blumenbach reflected on the great principle of selection1 he would not have used the term degeneration1 and he would not have been astonished that dogs and other animals should become excellently adapted for the service of man4 ,on the whole we may conclude that whatever part or character is most valued--whether the leaves1 stems1 tubers1 bulbs1 flowers1 fruit1 or seed of plants1 or the size1 strength1 fleetness1 hairy covering1 or intellect of animals--that character will almost invariably be found to present the greatest amount of difference both in kind and degree4 ,and this result may be safely attributed to man having preserved during a long course of generations the variations which were useful to him1 and neglected the others4 ,i will conclude this chapter by some remarks on an important subject4 ,with animals such as the giraffe1 of which the whole structure is admirably co-ordinated for certain purposes1 it has been supposed that all the parts must have been simultaneously modified2 and it has been argued that1 on the principle of natural selection1 this is scarcely possible4 ,but in thus arguing1 it has been tacitly assumed that the variations must have been abrupt and great4 ,no doubt1 if the neck of a ruminant were suddenly to become greatly elongated1 the fore limbs and back would have to be simultaneously strengthened and modified2 but it cannot be denied that an animal might have its neck1 or head1 or tongue1 or fore-limbs elongated a very little without any corresponding modification in other parts of the body2 and animals thus slightly modified would1 during a dearth1 have a slight advantage1 and be enabled to browse on higher twigs1 and thus survive4 ,a few mouthfuls more or less every day would make all the difference between life and death4 ,by the repetition of the same process1 and by the occasional intercrossing of the survivors1 there would be some progress1 slow and fluctuating though it would be1 towards the admirably coordinated structure of the giraffe4 ,if the short-faced tumbler-pigeon1 with its small conical beak1 globular head1 rounded body1 short wings1 and small feet--characters which appear all in harmony--had been a natural species1 its whole structure would have been viewed as well fitted for its life2 but in this case we know that inexperienced breeders are urged to attend to point after point1 and not to attempt improving the whole structure at the same time4 ,look at the greyhound1 that perfect image of grace1 symmetry1 and vigour2 no natural species can boast of a more admirably co-ordinated structure1 with its tapering head1 slim body1 deep chest1 tucked-up abdomen1 rat-like tail1 and long muscular limbs1 all adapted for extreme fleetness1 and for running down weak prey4 ,now1 from what we see of the variability of animals1 and from what we know of the method which different men follow in improving their stock--some chiefly attending to one point1 others to another point1 others again correcting defects by crosses1 and so forth--we may feel assured that if we could see the long line of ancestors of a first-rate greyhound up to its wild wolf-like progenitor1 we should behold an infinite number of the finest gradations1 sometimes in one character and sometimes in another1 but all leading towards our present perfect type4 ,by small and doubtful steps such as these1 nature1 as we may confidently believe1 has progressed1 on her grand march of improvement and development4 ,a similar line of reasoning is as applicable to separate organs as to the whole organisation4 ,a writer#ia has recently maintained that 8it is probably no exaggeration to suppose that in order to improve such an organ as the eye at all1 it must be improved in ten different ways at once4 ,and the improbability of any complex organ being produced and brought to perfection in any such way is an improbability of the same kind and degree as that of producing a poem or a mathematical demonstration by throwing letters at random on a table40 ,if the eye were abruptly and greatly modified1 no doubt many parts would have to be simultaneously altered1 in order that the organ should remain serviceable4 ,but is this the case with smaller changes8 ,there are persons who can see distinctly only in a dull light1 and this condition depends1 ,i believe1 on the abnormal sensitiveness of the retina1 and is known to be inherited4 ,now if a bird1 for instance1 receive some great advantage from seeing well in the twilight1 all the individuals with the most sensitive retina would succeed best and be the most likely to survive2 and why should not all those which happened to have the eye itself a little larger1 or the pupil capable of greater dilatation1 be likewise preserved1 whether or not these modifications were strictly simultaneous8 ,these individuals would subsequently intercross and blend their respective advantages4 ,by such slight successive changes1 the eye of a diurnal bird would be brought into the condition of that of an owl1 which has often been advanced as an excellent instance of adaptation4 ,short-sight1 which is often inherited1 permits a person to see distinctly a minute object at so near a distance that it would be indistinct to ordinary eyes2 and here we have a capacity which might be serviceable under certain conditions1 abruptly gained4 ,the ,fuegians on board the ,beagle could certainly see distant objects more distinctly than our sailors with all their long practice2 ,i do not know whether this depends upon sensitiveness or on the power of adjustment in the focus2 but this capacity for distant vision might1 it is probable1 be slightly augmented by successive modifications of either kind4 ,amphibious animals which are enabled to see both in the water and in the air1 require and possess1 as ,m4 ,plateau has shown1#ib eyes constructed on the following plan3 8the cornea is always flat1 or at least much flattened in the front of the crystalline and over a space equal to the diameter of that lens1 whilst the lateral portions may be much curved40 ,the crystalline is very nearly a sphere1 and the humours have nearly the same density as water4 ,now as a terrestrial animal became more and more aquatic in its habits1 very slight changes1 first in the curvature of the cornea or crystalline1 and then in the density of the humours1 or conversely1 might successively occur1 and would be advantageous to the animal whilst under water1 without serious detriment to its power of vision in the air4 ,it is of course impossible to conjecture by what steps the fundamental structure of the eye in the ,vertebrata was originally acquired1 for we know nothing about this organ in the first progenitors of the class4 ,with respect to the lowest animals in the scale1 the transitional states through which the eye at first probably passed1 can by the aid of analogy be indicated1 as ,i have attempted to show in my #8,origin of ,species4'#ic ,,references #a ,the term unconscious selection has been objected to as a contradiction2 but see some excellent observations on this head by ,prof4 ,huxley 7#8,nat4 ,hist4 ,review1' ,oct4 #ahfd1 p4 #egh71 who remarks that when the wind heaps up sand-dunes it sifts and unconsciously selects from the gravel on the beach grains of sand of equal size4 #b #8,on ,sheep1' #ahch1 p4 #fj4 #c ,mr4 ,j4 ,wright on ,shorthorn ,cattle1 in #8,journal of ,royal ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 vii4 pp4 #bjh1 #bji4 #d ,h4 ,d4 ,richardson #8,on ,pigs1' #ahdg1 p4 #dd4 #e #8,journal of ,royal ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 p4 #bd4 #f #8,on ,sheep1' pp4 #ebj1 #cai4 #g ,loudon's #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 viii41 #ahce1 p4 #fah4 #h #8,a treatise on the ,art of ,breeding the ,almond ,tumbler4' #ahea4 p4 #i4 #i #8,recreations in ,agriculture1' vol4 ii4 p4 #dji4 #aj ,youatt on ,cattle1 pp4 #aia1 #bbg4 #aa ,ferguson1 #8,prize ,poultry1' #ahed1 p4 #bjh4 #ab ,wilson1 in #8,transact4 ,highland ,agricult4 ,soc41' quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdd1 p4 #bi4 #ac ,simmonds1 quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahee1 p4 #fcg4 ,and for the second quotation1 see ,youatt on ,sheep1 p4 #aga4 #ad ,robinet1 #8,vers ,soie1' #ahdh1 p4 #bga4 #ae ,quatrefages1 #8,les ,maladies du ,ver ,soie1' #ahei1 p4 #aja4 #af ,m4 ,simon1 in #8,bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclimat41' tom4 ix41 #ahfb1 p4 #bba4 #ag #8,the ,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 i41 #ahed1 p4 #fjg4 #ah ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton1 #8,a ,treatise on ,fancy ,pigeons1' #aheb1 p4 xiv41 and #8,a ,treatise on the ,almond ,tumbler1' #ahea1 p4 #aa4 #ai #8,journal ,royal ,agricultural ,soc41' vol4 vi41 p4 #bb4 #bj #8,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 ii41 #ahee1 p4 #eif4 #ba ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #bed4 #bb #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahej1 p4 #aih4 #bc #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 vi4 p4 #aeb4 #bd #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfb1 p4 #cfi4 #be #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iv4 p4 #cha4 #bf #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 iv4 p4 #bhe4 #bg ,rev4 ,w4 ,bromehead1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheg1 p4 #eej4 #bh #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #gba4 #bi ,dr4 ,anderson1 in #8,the ,bee1' vol4 vi4 p4 #if2 ,mr4 ,barnes in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdd1 p4 #dgf4 #cj ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' #ahei1 tom4 ii4 p4 #fi2 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahed1 p4 #beh4 #ca ,on ,sheep1 p4 #ah4 #cb ,volz1 #8,beitrge zur ,kulturgeschichte1' #aheb1 s4 #dg4 #cc ,mitford's #8,history of ,greece1' vol4 i4 p4 #gc4 #cd ,dr4 ,dally1 translated in #8,anthropological ,review1' ,may #ahfd1 p4 #aja4 #ce ,volz1 #8,beitrge1' etc41 #aheb1 s4 #hj4 #cf #8,history of the ,world1' ch4 #de4 #cg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdh1 p4 #cbc4 #ch ,reynier1 #8,de l'conomie des ,celtes1' #ahah1 pp4 #dhg1 #ejc4 #ci ,le ,couteur on ,wheat1 p4 #ae4 #dj ,michel1 #8,des ,haras1' #ahfa1 p4 #hd4 #da ,sir ,w4 ,wilde1 an #8,essay on ,unmanufactured ,animal ,remains1' etc41 #ahfj1 p4 #aa4 #db ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith1 #8,nat4 ,library1' vol4 xii41 ,horses1 pp4 #ace1 #adj4 #dc ,michel1 #8,des ,haras1' p4 #ij4 #dd ,mr4 ,baker1 #8,history of the ,horse1' #8,veterinary1' vol4 xiii4 p4 #dbc4 #de ,m4 l',abb ,carlier1 in #8,journal de ,physique1' vol4 xxiv41 #aghd1 p4 #aha2 this memoir contains much information on the ancient selection of sheep2 and is my authority for rams not being killed young in ,england4 #df #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #chi4 #dg #8,communications to ,board of ,agriculture' quoted in ,dr4 ,darwin's #8,phytologia1' #ahjj1 p4 #dea4 #dh #8,mmoire sur les ,chinois1' #aghf1 tom4 xi4 p4 #ee2 tom4 v4 p4 #ejg4 #di #8,recherches sur l',agriculture des ,chinois1' par ,l4 ,d',hervey ,saint-,denys1 #ahej1 p4 #bbi4 ,with respect to ,khang-hi see ,huc's #8,chinese ,empire1' p4 #caa4 #ej ,anderson1 in #8,linn4 ,transact41' vol4 xii4 p4 #bec4 #ea #8,mm4 de l',acad4' 7divers savants71 tom4 vi41 #ahce1 p4 #ccc4 #eb #8,des ,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' #ahja1 tom4 ii4 pp4 #ccc1 #cga4 #ec #8,the ,great ,sahara1' by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,b4 ,tristram1 #ahfj1 p4 #bch4 #ed ,pallas1 #8,act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburg1' #aggg1 p4 #bdi2 ,moorcroft and ,trebeck1 #8,travels in the ,himalayan ,provinces1' #ahda4 #ee ,quoted from ,raffles1 in the #8,indian ,field1' #ahei1 p4 #aif3 for ,varro1 see ,pallas ut supra4 #ef ,erman's #8,travels in ,siberia1' ,eng4 translat41 vol4 i4 p4 #dec4 #eg ,see also #8,journal of ,r4 ,geograph4 ,soc41' vol4 xiii4 part i4 p4 #fe4 #eh ,livingstone's #8,first ,travels1' pp4 #aia1 #dci1 #efe2 see also #8,expedition to the ,zambesi1' #ahfe1 p4 #die1 for an analogous case respecting a good breed of goats4 #ei ,andersson's #8,travels in ,south ,africa1' pp4 #bcb1 #cah1 #cai4 #fj ,dr4 ,vavasseur1 in #8,bull4 de ,la ,soc4 d',acclimat41' tom4 viii4 #ahfa1 p4 #acf4 #fa #8,the ,natural ,history of ,dee ,side1' #ahee1 p4 #dgf4 #fb #8,bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclimat41' tom4 vii4 #ahfj1 p4 #deg4 #fc #8,cattle1' p4 #dh4 #fd ,livingstone's ,travels1 p4 #egf2 ,andersson1 #8,lake ,ngami1' #ahef1 p4 #bbb4 ,with respect to the sale in ,kaffraria1 see #8,quarterly ,review1' #ahfj1 p4 #aci4 #fe #8,mmoire sur les ,chinois' 7by the ,jesuits71 #aghf1 tom4 xi4 p4 #eg4 #ff ,f4 ,michel1 #8,des ,haras1' pp4 #dg1 #ej4 #fg ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith1 ,dogs1 in #8,nat4 ,lib41' vol4 x4 p4 #ajc4 #fh ,azara1 #8,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 p4 #cbd4 #fi ,sidney's edit4 of ,youatt1 #ahfj1 pp4 #bd1 #be4 #gj #8,rural ,economy of ,yorkshire1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ahb4 #ga ,moll et ,gayot1 #8,du ,boeuf1' #ahfj1 p4 #edg4 #gb #8,the ,india ,sporting ,review1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aha2 #8,the ,stud ,farm1' by ,cecil1 p4 #eh4 #gc #8,the ,horse1' p4 #bb4 #gd #8,history of ,england1' vol4 i4 p4 #caf4 #ge #8,ueber ,bestndigkeit der ,arten4' #gf ,youatt on ,sheep1 p4 #cae4 #gg #8,ueber ,shorthorn ,rindvieh1' #aheg1 s4 #ea4 #gh ,low1 #8,domesticated ,animals1' #ahde1 p4 #cfc4 #gi #8,quarterly ,review1' #ahdi1 p4 #cib4 #hj ,h4 von ,nathusius1 #8,vorstudien 4 4 4 ,schweineschdel1' #ahfd1 s #adj4 #ha ,see also ,dr4 ,christ1 in ,rtimeyer's #8,pfahlbauten1' #ahfa1 s4 #bbf4 #hb ,the passage is given1 #8,bull4 ,soc4 d',acclimat41' #aheh1 p4 #aa4 #hc #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfb1 p4 #cid4 #hd #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheg1 p4 #he4 #he ,see ,mr4 ,wildman's address to the ,floricult4 ,soc4 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #hf4 #hf #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,oct4 #bdth1 #ahfe1 p4 #bci4 #hg ,prescott's #8,hist4 of ,mexico1' vol4 ii4 p4 #fa4 #hh ,sagaret1 #8,pomologie ,physiologique1' #ahcj1 p4 #dg2 ,gallesio1 #8,teoria della ,riproduzione1' #ahaf1 p4 #hh2 ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' #ahei1 tom4 #b pp4 #fc1 #fg1 #gj4 ,in my tenth and eleventh chapters ,i have given details on the potato2 and ,i can confirm similar remarks with respect to the onion4 ,i have also shown how far ,naudin concurs in regard to the varieties of the melon4 #hi ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #bg4 #ij #8,the ,anthropological ,treatises of ,blumenbach1' #ahef1 p4 #bib4 #ia ,mr4 ,j4 ,j4 ,murphy1 in his opening address to the ,belfast ,nat4 ,hist4 ,soc41 as given in the #8,belfast ,northern ,whig1' ,nov4 #aith1 #ahff4 ,mr4 ,murphy here follows the line of argument against my views previously and more cautiously given by the ,rev4 ,c4 ,pritchard1 ,pres4 ,royal ,astronomical ,soc41 in his sermon 7,appendix1 p4 #cc7 preached before the ,british ,association at ,nottingham1 #ahff4 #ib ,on the ,vision of ,fishes and ,amphibia1 translated in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xviii41 #ahff1 p4 #dfi4 #ic ,sixth edition1 #ahgb1 p4 #add4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,selection1 continued4 ,,natural ,,selection ,,as ,,affecting ,,domestic ,,productions--,,characters ,,which ,,appear ,,of ,,trifling ,,value ,,often ,,of ,,real ,,importance--,,circumstances ,,favourable ,,to ,,selection ,,by ,,man--,,facility ,,in ,,preventing ,,crosses1 ,,and ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,conditions--,,close ,,attention ,,and ,,perseverance ,,indispensable--,,the ,,production ,,of ,a ,,large ,,number ,,of ,,individuals ,,especially ,,favourable--,,when ,,no ,,selection ,,is ,,applied1 ,,distinct ,,races ,,are ,,not ,,formed--,,highly-,,bred ,,animals ,,liable ,,to ,,degeneration--,,tendency ,,in ,,man ,,to ,,carry ,,the ,,selection ,,of ,,each ,,character ,,to ,,an ,,extreme ,,point1 ,,leading ,,to ,,divergence ,,of ,,character1 ,,rarely ,,to ,,convergence--,,characters ,,continuing ,,to ,,vary ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,direction ,,in ,,which ,,they ,,have ,,already ,,varied--,,divergence ,,of ,,character1 ,,with ,,the ,,extinction ,,of ,,intermediate ,,varieties1 ,,leads ,,to ,,distinctness ,,in ,,our ,,domestic ,,races--,,limit ,,to ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,selection--,,lapse ,,of ,,time ,,important--,,manner ,,in ,,which ,,domestic ,,races ,,have ,,originated--,,summary4 ,natural ,selection1 or the ,survival of the ,fittest1 as affecting domestic productions4--,we know little on this head4 ,but as animals kept by savages have to provide throughout the year their own food either entirely or to a large extent1 it can hardly be doubted that in different countries1 varieties differing in constitution and in various characters would succeed best1 and so be naturally selected4 ,hence perhaps it is that the few domesticated animals kept by savages partake1 as has been remarked by more than one writer1 of the wild appearance of their masters1 and likewise resemble natural species4 ,even in long-civilised countries1 at least in the wilder parts1 natural selection must act on our domestic races4 ,it is obvious that varieties having very different habits1 constitution1 and structure1 would succeed best on mountains and on rich lowland pastures4 ,for example1 the improved ,leicester sheep were formerly taken to the ,lammermuir ,hills2 but an intelligent sheep-master reported that 8our coarse lean pastures were unequal to the task of supporting such heavy-bodied sheep2 and they gradually dwindled away into less and less bulk3 each generation was inferior to the preceding one2 and when the spring was severe1 seldom more than two-thirds of the lambs survived the ravages of the storms40#a ,so with the mountain cattle of ,north ,wales and the ,hebrides1 it has been found that they could not withstand being crossed with the larger and more delicate lowland breeds4 ,two ,french naturalists1 in describing the horses of ,circassia1 remark that1 subjected as they are to extreme vicissitudes of climate1 having to search for scanty pasture1 and exposed to constant danger from wolves1 the strongest and most vigorous alone survive4#b ,every one must have been struck with the surpassing grace1 strength1 and vigour of the ,game-cock1 with its bold and confident air1 its long1 yet firm neck1 compact body1 powerful and closely pressed wings1 muscular thighs1 strong beak massive at the base1 dense and sharp spurs set low on the legs for delivering the fatal blow1 and its compact1 glossy1 and mail-like plumage serving as a defence4 ,now the ,english game-cock has not only been improved during many years by man's careful selection1 but in addition1 as ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has remarked1#c by a kind of natural selection1 for the strongest1 most active and courageous birds have stricken down their antagonists in the cockpit1 generation after generation1 and have subsequently served as the progenitors of their race4 ,the same kind of double selection has come into play with the carrier pigeon1 for during their training the inferior birds fail to return home and are lost1 so that even without selection by man only the superior birds propagate their race4 ,in ,great ,britain1 in former times1 almost every district had its own breed of cattle and sheep2 8they were indigenous to the soil1 climate1 and pasturage of the locality on which they grazed3 they seemed to have been formed for it and by it40#d ,but in this case we are quite unable to disentangle the effects of the direct action of the conditions of life1--of use or habit--of natural selection--and of that kind of selection which we have seen is occasionally and unconsciously followed by man even during the rudest periods of history4 ,let us now look to the action of natural selection on special characters4 ,although nature is difficult to resist1 yet man often strives against her power1 and sometimes with success4 ,from the facts to be given1 it will also be seen that natural selection would powerfully affect many of our domestic productions if left unprotected4 ,this is a point of much interest1 for we thus learn that differences apparently of very slight importance would certainly determine the survival of a form when forced to struggle for its own existence4 ,it may have occurred to some naturalists1 as it formerly did to me1 that1 though selection acting under natural conditions would determine the structure of all important organs1 yet that it could not affect characters which are esteemed by us of little importance2 but this is an error to which we are eminently liable1 from our ignorance of what characters are of real value to each living creature4 ,when man attempts to make a breed with some serious defect in structure1 or in the mutual relation of the several parts1 he will partly or completely fail1 or encounter much difficulty2 he is in fact resisted by a form of natural selection4 ,we have seen that an attempt was once made in ,yorkshire to breed cattle with enormous buttocks1 but the cows perished so often in bringing forth their calves1 that the attempt had to be given up4 ,in rearing short-faced tumblers1 ,mr4 ,eaton says1#e 8,i am convinced that better head and beak birds have perished in the shell than ever were hatched2 the reason being that the amazingly short-faced bird cannot reach and break the shell with its beak1 and so perishes40 ,here is a more curious case1 in which natural selection comes into play only at long intervals of time3 during ordinary seasons the ,niata cattle can graze as well as others1 but occasionally1 as from #ahbg to #ahcj the plains of ,la ,plata suffer from long-continued droughts and the pasture is burnt up2 at such times common cattle and horses perish by the thousand1 but many survive by browsing on twigs1 reeds1 etc42 this the ,niata cattle cannot so well effect from their upturned jaws and the shape of their lips2 consequently1 if not attended to1 they perish before the other cattle4 ,in ,columbia1 according to ,roulin1 there is a breed of nearly hairless cattle1 called ,pelones2 these succeed in their native hot district1 but are found too tender for the ,cordillera2 in this case1 however1 natural selection determines only the range of the variety4 ,it is obvious that a host of artificial races could never survive in a state of nature2--such as ,italian greyhounds1--hairless and almost toothless ,turkish dogs1--fantail pigeons1 which cannot fly well against a strong wind1--barbs and ,polish fowls1 with their vision impeded by their eye wattles and great topknots1--hornless bulls and rams1 which consequently cannot cope with other males1 and thus have a poor chance of leaving offspring1--seedless plants1 and many other such cases4 ,colour is generally esteemed by the systematic naturalist as unimportant3 let us1 therefore1 see how far it indirectly affects our domestic productions1 and how far it would affect them if they were left exposed to the full force of natural selection4 ,in a future chapter ,i shall have to show that constitutional peculiarities of the strangest kind1 entailing liability to the action of certain poisons1 are correlated with the colour of the skin4 ,i will here give a single case1 on the high authority of ,professor ,wyman2 he informs me that1 being surprised at all the pigs in a part of ,virginia being black1 he made inquiries1 and ascertained that these animals feed on the roots of the ,lachnanthes tinctoria1 which colours their bones pink1 and1 excepting in the case of the black varieties1 causes the hoofs to drop off4 ,hence1 as one of the squatters remarked1 8we select the black members of the litter for raising1 as they alone have a good chance of living40 ,so that here we have artificial and natural selection working hand in hand4 ,i may add that in the ,tarentino the inhabitants keep black sheep alone1 because the ,hypericum crispum abounds there2 and this plant does not injure black sheep1 but kills the white ones in about a fortnight's time4#f ,complexion1 and liability to certain diseases1 are believed to run together in man and the lower animals4 ,thus white terriers suffer more than those of any other colour from the fatal distemper4#g ,in ,north ,america plum-trees are liable to a disease which ,downing#h believes is not caused by insects2 the kinds bearing purple fruit are most affected1 8and we have never known the green or yellow fruited varieties infected until the other sorts had first become filled with the knots40 ,on the other hand1 peaches in ,north ,america suffer much from a disease called the yellows1 which seems to be peculiar to that continent1 and more than nine-tenths of the victims1 8when the disease first appeared1 were the yellow-fleshed peaches4 ,the white-fleshed kinds are much more rarely attacked2 in some parts of the country never40 ,in ,mauritius1 the white sugar-canes have of late years been so severely attacked by a disease1 that many planters have been compelled to give up growing this variety 7although fresh plants were imported from ,china for trial71 and cultivate only red canes4#i ,now1 if these plants had been forced to struggle with other competing plants and enemies1 there cannot be a doubt that the colour of the flesh or skin of the fruit1 unimportant as these characters are considered1 would have rigorously determined their existence4 ,liability to the attacks of parasites is also connected with colour4 ,white chickens are certainly more subject than dark-coloured chickens to the 8gapes10 which is caused by a parasitic worm in the trachea4#aj ,on the other hand1 experience has shown that in ,france the caterpillars which produce white cocoons resist the deadly fungus better than those producing yellow cocoons4#aa ,analogous facts have been observed with plants3 a new and beautiful white onion1 imported from ,france1 though planted close to other kinds1 was alone attacked by a parasitic fungus4#ab ,white verbenas are especially liable to mildew4#ac ,near ,malaga1 during an early period of the vine-disease1 the green sorts suffered most2 8and red and black grapes1 even when interwoven with the sick plants1 suffered not at all40 ,in ,france whole groups of varieties were comparatively free1 and others1 such as the ,chasselas1 did not afford a single fortunate exception2 but ,i do not know whether any correlation between colour and liability to disease was here observed4#ad ,in a former chapter it was shown how curiously liable one variety of the strawberry is to mildew4 ,it is certain that insects regulate in many cases the range and even the existence of the higher animals1 whilst living under their natural conditions4 ,under domestication light-coloured animals suffer most3 in ,thuringia#ae the inhabitants do not like grey1 white1 or pale cattle1 because they are much more troubled by various kinds of flies than the brown1 red1 or black cattle4 ,an ,albino negro1 it has been remarked1#af was peculiarly sensitive to the bites of insects4 ,in the ,west ,indies#ag it is said that 8the only horned cattle fit for work are those which have a good deal of black in them4 ,the white are terribly tormented by the insects2 and they are weak and sluggish in proportion to the white40 ,in ,devonshire there is a prejudice against white pigs1 because it is believed that the sun blisters them when turned out2#ah and ,i knew a man who would not keep white pigs in ,kent1 for the same reason4 ,the scorching of flowers by the sun seems likewise to depend much on colour2 thus1 dark pelargoniums suffer most2 and from various accounts it is clear that the cloth-of-gold variety will not withstand a degree of exposure to sunshine which other varieties enjoy4 ,another amateur asserts that not only all dark-coloured verbenas1 but likewise scarlets1 suffer from the sun3 8the paler kinds stand better1 and pale blue is perhaps the best of all40 ,so again with the heartsease 7,viola tricolor72 hot weather suits the blotched sorts1 whilst it destroys the beautiful markings of some other kinds4#ai ,during one extremely cold season in ,holland all red-flowered hyacinths were observed to be very inferior in quality4 ,it is believed by many agriculturists that red wheat is hardier in northern climates than white wheat4#bj ,with animals1 white varieties from being conspicuous are the most liable to be attacked by beasts and birds of prey4 ,in parts of ,france and ,germany where hawks abound1 persons are advised not to keep white pigeons2 for1 as ,parmentier says1 8it is certain that in a flock the white always first fall victims to the kite40 ,in ,belgium1 where so many societies have been established for the flight of carrier-pigeons1 white is the one colour which for the same reason is disliked4#ba ,prof4 ,g4 ,jaeger#bb whilst fishing found four pigeons which had been killed by hawks1 and all were white2 on another occasion he examined the eyrie of a hawk1 and the feathers of the pigeons which had been caught were all of a white or yellow colour4 ,on the other hand1 it is said that the sea-eagle 7,falco ossifragus1 ,linn47 on the west coast of ,ireland picks out the black fowls1 so that 8the villagers avoid as much as possible rearing birds of that colour40 ,m4 ,daudin1#bc speaking of white rabbits kept in warrens in ,russia1 remarks that their colour is a great disadvantage1 as they are thus more exposed to attack1 and can be seen during bright nights from a distance4 ,a gentleman in ,kent1 who failed to stock his woods with a nearly white and hardy kind of rabbit1 accounted in the same manner for their early disappearance4 ,any one who will watch a white cat prowling after her prey will soon perceive under what a disadvantage she lies4 ,the white ,tartarian cherry1 8owing either to its colour being so much like that of the leaves1 or to the fruit always appearing from a distance unripe10 is not so readily attacked by birds as other sorts4 ,the yellow-fruited raspberry1 which generally comes nearly true by seed1 8is very little molested by birds1 who evidently are not fond of it2 so that nets may be dispensed with in places where nothing else will protect the red fruit40#bd ,this immunity1 though a benefit to the gardener1 would be a disadvantage in a state of nature both to the cherry and raspberry1 as dissemination depends on birds4 ,i noticed during several winters that some trees of the yellow-berried holly1 which were raised from seed from a tree found wild by my father remained covered with fruit1 whilst not a scarlet berry could be seen on the adjoining trees of the common kind4 ,a friend informs me that a mountain-ash 7,pyrus aucuparia7 growing in his garden bears berries which1 though not differently coloured1 are always devoured by birds before those on the other trees4 ,this variety of the mountain-ash would thus be more freely disseminated1 and the yellow-berried variety of the holly less freely1 than the common varieties of these two trees4 ,independently of colour1 trifling differences are sometimes found to be of importance to plants under cultivation1 and would be of paramount importance if they had to fight their own battle and to struggle with many competitors4 ,the thin-shelled peas1 called pois sans parchemin1 are attacked by birds#be much more commonly than ordinary peas4 ,on the other hand1 the purple-podded pea1 which has a hard shell1 escaped the attacks of tomtits 7,parus major7 in my garden far better than any other kind4 ,the thin-shelled walnut likewise suffers greatly from the tomtit4#bf ,these same birds have been observed to pass over and thus favour the filbert1 destroying only the other kinds of nuts which grew in the same orchard4#bg ,certain varieties of the pear have soft bark1 and these suffer severely from wood-boring beetles2 whilst other varieties are known to resist their attacks much better4#bh ,in ,north ,america the smoothness1 or absence of down on the fruit1 makes a great difference in the attacks of the weevil1 8which is the uncompromising foe of all smooth stone-fruits20 and the cultivator 8has the frequent mortification of seeing nearly all1 or indeed often the whole crop1 fall from the trees when half or two-thirds grown40 ,hence the nectarine suffers more than the peach4 ,a particular variety of the ,morello cherry1 raised in ,north ,america1 is1 without any assignable cause1 more liable to be injured by this same insect than other cherry-trees4#bi ,from some unknown cause1 certain varieties of the apple enjoy1 as we have seen1 the great advantage in various parts of the world of not being infested by the coccus4 ,on the other hand1 a particular case has been recorded in which aphides confined themselves to the ,winter ,nelis pear and touched no other kind in an extensive orchard4#cj ,the existence of minute glands on the leaves of peaches1 nectarines1 and apricots1 would not be esteemed by botanists as a character of the least importance for they are present or absent in closely-related sub-varieties1 descended from the same parent-tree2 yet there is good evidence#ca that the absence of glands leads to mildew1 which is highly injurious to these trees4 ,a difference either in flavour or in the amount of nutriment in certain varieties causes them to be more eagerly attacked by various enemies than other varieties of the same species4 ,bullfinches 7,pyrrhula vulgaris7 injure our fruit-trees by devouring the flower-buds1 and a pair of these birds have been seen 8to denude a large plum-tree in a couple of days of almost every bud20 but certain varieties#cb of the apple and thorn 7,cratgus oxyacantha7 are more especially liable to be attacked4 ,a striking instance of this was observed in ,mr4 ,rivers's garden1 in which two rows of a particular variety of plum#cc had to be carefully protected1 as they were usually stripped of all their buds during the winter1 whilst other sorts growing near them escaped4 ,the root 7or enlarged stem7 of ,laing's ,swedish turnip is preferred by hares1 and therefore suffers more than other varieties4 ,hares and rabbits eat down common rye before ,st4 ,john's-day-rye1 when both grow together4#cd ,in the south of ,france1 when an orchard of almond-trees is formed1 the nuts of the bitter variety are sown1 8in order that they may not be devoured by field-mice02#ce so we see the use of the bitter principle in almonds4 ,other slight differences1 which would be thought quite unimportant1 are no doubt sometimes of great service both to plants and animals4 ,the ,whitesmith's gooseberry1 as formerly stated1 produces its leaves later than other varieties1 and1 as the flowers are thus left unprotected1 the fruit often fails4 ,in one variety of the cherry1 according to ,mr4 ,rivers1#cf the petals are much curled backwards1 and in consequence of this the stigmas were observed to be killed by a severe frost2 whilst at the same time1 in another variety with incurved petals1 the stigmas were not in the least injured4 ,the straw of the ,fenton wheat is remarkably unequal in height2 and a competent observer believes that this variety is highly productive1 partly because the ears from being distributed at various heights above the ground are less crowded together4 ,the same observer maintains that in the upright varieties the divergent awns are serviceable by breaking the shocks when the ears are dashed together by the wind4#cg ,if several varieties of a plant are grown together1 and the seed is indiscriminately harvested1 it is clear that the hardier and more productive kinds will1 by a sort of natural selection1 gradually prevail over the others2 this takes place1 as ,colonel ,le ,couteur believes1#ch in our wheat-fields1 for1 as formerly shown1 no variety is quite uniform in character4 ,the same thing1 as ,i am assured by nurserymen1 would take place in our flower-gardens1 if the seed of the different varieties were not separately saved4 ,when the eggs of the wild and tame duck are hatched together1 the young wild ducks almost invariably perish1 from being of smaller size and not getting their fair share of food4#ci ,facts in sufficient number have now been given showing that natural selection often checks1 but occasionally favours1 man's power of selection4 ,these facts teach us1 in addition1 a valuable lesson1 namely1 that we ought to be extremely cautious in judging what characters are of importance in a state of nature to animals and plants1 which have to struggle for existence from the hour of their birth to that of their death1--their existence depending on conditions1 about which we are profoundly ignorant4 ,circumstances favourable to ,selection by ,man4 ,the possibility of selection rests on variability1 and this1 as we shall see in the following chapters1 mainly depends on changed conditions of life1 but is governed by infinitely complex and unknown laws4 ,domestication1 even when long continued1 occasionally causes but a small amount of variability1 as in the case of the goose and turkey4 ,the slight differences1 however1 which characterise each individual animal and plant would in most1 probably in all1 cases suffice for the production of distinct races through careful and prolonged selection4 ,we see what selection1 though acting on mere individual differences1 can effect when families of cattle1 sheep1 pigeons1 etc41 of the same race1 have been separately bred during a number of years by different men without any wish on their part to modify the breed4 ,we see the same fact in the difference between hounds bred for hunting in different districts1#dj and in many other such cases4 ,in order that selection should produce any result1 it is manifest that the crossing of distinct races must be prevented2 hence facility in pairing1 as with the pigeon1 is highly favourable for the work2 and difficulty in pairing1 as with cats1 prevents the formation of distinct breeds4 ,on nearly the same principle the cattle of the small island of ,jersey have been improved in their milking qualities 8with a rapidity that could not have been obtained in a widely extended country like ,france40#da ,although free crossing is a danger on the one side which every one can see1 too close interbreeding is a hidden danger on the other side4 ,unfavourable conditions of life overrule the power of selection4 ,our improved heavy breeds of cattle and sheep could not have been formed on mountainous pastures2 nor could dray-horses have been raised on a barren and inhospitable land1 such as the ,falkland ,islands1 where even the light horses of ,la ,plata rapidly decrease in size4 ,it seems impossible to preserve several ,english breeds of sheep in ,france2 for as soon as the lambs are weaned their vigour decays as the heat of the summer increases3#db it would be impossible to give great length of wool to sheep within the tropics2 yet selection has kept the ,merino breed nearly true under diversified and unfavourable conditions4 ,the power of selection is so great1 that breeds of the dog1 sheep1 and poultry1 of the largest and smallest size1 long and short beaked pigeons1 and other breeds with opposite characters1 have had their characteristic qualities augmented1 though treated in every way alike1 being exposed to the same climate and fed on the same food4 ,selection1 however1 is either checked or favoured by the effects of use or habit4 ,our wonderfully-improved pigs could never have been formed if they had been forced to search for their own food2 the ,english racehorse and greyhound could not have been improved up to their present high standard of excellence without constant training4 ,as conspicuous deviations of structure occur rarely1 the improvement of each breed is generally the result of the selection of slight individual differences4 ,hence the closest attention1 the sharpest powers of observation1 and indomitable perseverance1 are indispensable4 ,it is1 also1 highly important that many individuals of the breed which is to be improved should be raised2 for thus there will be a better chance of the appearance of variations in the right direction1 and individuals varying in an unfavourable manner may be freely rejected or destroyed4 ,but that a large number of individuals should be raised1 it is necessary that the conditions of life should favour the propagation of the species4 ,had the peacock been reared as easily as the fowl1 we should probably ere this have had many distinct races4 ,we see the importance of a large number of plants1 from the fact of nursery gardeners almost always beating amateurs in the exhibition of new varieties4 ,in #ahde it was estimated#dc that between #djjj and #ejjj pelargoniums were annually raised from seed in ,england1 yet a decidedly improved variety is rarely obtained4 ,at ,messrs4 ,carter's grounds1 in ,essex1 where such flowers as the ,lobelia1 ,nemophila1 ,mignonette1 etc41 are grown by the acre for seed1 8scarcely a season passes without some new kinds being raised1 or some improvement effected on old kinds40#dd ,at ,kew1 as ,mr4 ,beaton remarks1 where many seedlings of common plants are raised1 8you see new forms of ,laburnums1 ,spiraeas1 and other shrubs40#de ,so with animals3 ,marshall1#df in speaking of the sheep in one part of ,yorkshire1 remarks1 8as they belong to poor people1 and are mostly in small lots1 they never can be improved40 ,lord ,rivers1 when asked how he succeeded in always having first-rate greyhounds1 answered1 8,i breed many1 and hang many40 ,this1 as another man remarks1 8was the secret of his success2 and the same will be found in exhibiting fowls1-- successful competitors breed largely1 and keep the best40#dg ,it follows from this that the capacity of breeding at an early age and at short intervals1 as with pigeons1 rabbits1 etc41 facilitates selection2 for the result is thus soon made visible1 and perseverance in the work encouraged4 ,it can hardly be an accident that the great majority of the culinary and agricultural plants which have yielded numerous races are annuals or biennials1 which therefore are capable of rapid propagation1 and thus of improvement4 ,sea-kale1 asparagus1 common and ,jerusalem artichokes1 potatoes1 and onions1 must be excepted1 as they are perennials3 but onions are propagated like annuals1 and of the other plants just specified1 none1 with the exception of the potato1 have yielded in this country more than one or two varieties4 ,in the ,mediterranean region1 where artichokes are often raised from seed1 there are several kinds1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,bentham4 ,no doubt fruit-trees1 which cannot be propagated quickly by seed1 have yielded a host of varieties1 though not permanent races2 but these1 judging from prehistoric remains1 have been produced at a comparatively late period4 ,a species may be highly variable1 but distinct races will not be formed1 if from any cause selection be not applied4 ,it would be difficult to select slight variations in fishes from their place of habitation2 and though the carp is extremely variable and is much attended to in ,germany1 only one well-marked race has been formed1 as ,i hear from ,lord ,a4 ,russell1 namely the spiegel-carpe2 and this is carefully secluded from the common scaly kind4 ,on the other hand1 a closely allied species1 the gold-fish1 from being reared in small vessels1 and from having been carefully attended to by the ,chinese1 has yielded many races4 ,neither the bee1 which has been semi-domesticated from an extremely remote period1 nor the cochineal insect1 which was cultivated by the aboriginal ,mexicans1#dh has yielded races2 and it would be impossible to match the queen-bee with any particular drone1 and most difficult to match cochineal insects4 ,silk-moths1 on the other hand1 have been subjected to rigorous selection1 and have produced a host of races4 ,cats1 which from their nocturnal habits cannot be selected for breeding1 do not1 as formerly remarked1 yield distinct races within the same country4 ,dogs are held in abomination in the ,east1 and their breeding is neglected2 consequently1 as ,prof4 ,moritz ,wagner#di remarks1 one kind alone exists there4 ,the ass in ,england varies much in colour and size2 but as it is an animal of little value and bred by poor people1 there has been no selection1 and distinct races have not been formed4 ,we must not attribute the inferiority of our asses to climate1 for in ,india they are of even smaller size than in ,europe4 ,but when selection is brought to bear on the ass1 all is changed4 ,near ,cordova1 as ,i am informed 7,feb4 #ahfj7 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,webb1 ,c4,e41 they are carefully bred1 as much as #bjjl4 having been paid for a stallion ass1 and they have been immensely improved4 ,in ,kentucky1 asses have been imported 7for breeding mules7 from ,spain1 ,malta1 and ,france2 these 8seldom averaged more than fourteen hands high3 but the ,kentuckians1 by great care1 have raised them up to fifteen hands1 and sometimes even to sixteen4 ,the prices paid for these splendid animals1 for such they really are1 will prove how much they are in request4 ,one male1 of great celebrity1 was sold for upwards of one thousand pounds sterling40 ,these choice asses are sent to cattle-shows1 a day being given for their exhibition4#ej ,analogous facts have been observed with plants3 the nutmeg-tree in the ,malay archipelago is highly variable1 but there has been no selection1 and there are no distinct races4#ea ,the common mignonette 7,reseda odorata71 from bearing inconspicuous flowers1 valued solely for their fragrance1 8remains in the same unimproved condition as when first introduced40#eb ,our common forest-trees are very variable1 as may be seen in every extensive nursery-ground2 but as they are not valued like fruit-trees1 and as they seed late in life1 no selection has been applied to them2 consequently1 as ,mr4 ,patrick ,matthews remarks1#ec they have not yielded distinct races1 leafing at different periods1 growing to different sizes1 and producing timber fit for different purposes4 ,we have gained only some fanciful and semi-monstrous varieties1 which no doubt appeared suddenly as we now see them4 ,some botanists have argued that plants cannot have so strong a tendency to vary as is generally supposed1 because many species long grown in botanic gardens1 or unintentionally cultivated year after year mingled with our corn crops1 have not produced distinct races2 but this is accounted for by slight variations not having been selected and propagated4 ,let a plant which is now grown in a botanic garden1 or any common weed1 be cultivated on a large scale1 and let a sharp-sighted gardener look out for each slight variety and sow the seed1 and then1 if distinct races are not produced1 the argument will be valid4 ,the importance of selection is likewise shown by considering special characters4 ,for instance1 with most breeds of fowls the form of the comb and the colour of the plumage have been attended to1 and are eminently characteristic of each race2 but in ,dorkings fashion has never demanded uniformity of comb or colour2 and the utmost diversity in these respects prevails4 ,rose-combs1 double-combs1 cup-combs1 etc41 and colours of all kinds1 may be seen in purely bred and closely related ,dorking fowls1 whilst other points1 such as the general form of body1 and the presence of an additional toe1 have been attended to1 and are invariably present4 ,it has also been ascertained that colour can be fixed in this breed1 as well as in any other4#ed ,during the formation or improvement of a breed1 its members will always be found to vary much in those characters to which especial attention is directed1 and of which each slight improvement is eagerly sought and selected4 ,thus1 with short-faced tumbler-pigeons1 the shortness of the beak1 shape of head and plumage1--with carriers1 the length of the beak and wattle1--with fantails1 the tail and carriage1--with ,spanish fowls1 the white face and comb1--with long-eared rabbits1 the length of ear1 are all points which are eminently variable4 ,so it is in every case2 and the large price paid for first-rate animals proves the difficulty of breeding them up to the highest standard of excellence4 ,this subject has been discussed by fanciers1#ee and the greater prizes given for highly improved breeds1 in comparison with those given for old breeds which are not now undergoing rapid improvement1 have been fully justified4 ,nathusius makes#ef a similar remark when discussing the less uniform character of improved ,shorthorn cattle and of the ,english horse1 in comparison1 for example1 with the unennobled cattle of ,hungary1 or with the horses of the ,asiatic steppes4 ,this want of uniformity in the parts which at the time are undergoing selection chiefly depends on the strength of the principle of reversion2 but it likewise depends to a certain extent on the continued variability of the parts which have recently varied4 ,that the same parts do continue varying in the same manner we must admit1 for if it were not so1 there could be no improvement beyond an early standard of excellence1 and we know that such improvement is not only possible1 but is of general occurrence4 ,as a consequence of continued variability1 and more especially of reversion1 all highly improved races1 if neglected or not subjected to incessant selection1 soon degenerate4 ,youatt gives a curious instance of this in some cattle formerly kept in ,glamorganshire2 but in this case the cattle were not fed with sufficient care4 ,mr4 ,baker1 in his memoir on the ,horse1 sums up3 8,it must have been observed in the preceding pages that1 whenever there has been neglect1 the breed has proportionally deteriorated40#eg ,if a considerable number of improved cattle1 sheep1 or other animals of the same race1 were allowed to breed freely together1 with no selection1 but with no change in their condition of life1 there can be no doubt that after a score or hundred generations they would be very far from excellent of their kind2 but1 from what we see of the many common races of dogs1 cattle1 fowls1 pigeons1 etc41 which without any particular care have long retained nearly the same character1 we have no grounds for believing that they would altogether depart from their type4 ,it is a general belief amongst breeders that characters of all kinds become fixed by long-continued inheritance4 ,but ,i have attempted to show in the fourteenth chapter that this belief apparently resolves itself into the following proposition1 namely1 that all characters whatever1 whether recently acquired or ancient1 tend to be transmitted1 but that those which have already long withstood all counteracting influences1 will1 as a general rule1 continue to withstand them1 and consequently be faithfully transmitted4 ,tendency in ,man to carry the practice of ,selection to an extreme point4 ,it is an important principle that in the process of selection man almost invariably wishes to go to an extreme point4 ,thus1 there is no limit to his desire to breed certain kinds of horses and dogs as fleet as possible1 and others as strong as possible2 certain kinds of sheep for extreme fineness1 and others for extreme length of wool2 and he wishes to produce fruit1 grain1 tubers1 and other useful parts of plants1 as large and excellent as possible4 ,with animals bred for amusement1 the same principle is even more powerful2 for fashion1 as we see in our dress1 always runs to extremes4 ,this view has been expressly admitted by fanciers4 ,instances were given in the chapters on the pigeon1 but here is another3 ,mr4 ,eaton1 after describing a comparatively new variety1 namely1 the ,archangel1 remarks1 8,what fanciers intend doing with this bird ,i am at a loss to know1 whether they intend to breed it down to the tumbler's head and beak1 or carry it out to the carrier's head and beak2 leaving it as they found it1 is not progressing40 ,ferguson1 speaking of fowls1 says1 8their peculiarities1 whatever they may be1 must necessarily be fully developed3 a little peculiarity forms nought but ugliness1 seeing it violates the existing laws of symmetry40 ,so ,mr4 ,brent1 in discussing the merits of the sub-varieties of the ,belgian canary-bird1 remarks1 8,fanciers always go to extremes2 they do not admire indefinite properties40#eh ,this principle1 which necessarily leads to divergence of character1 explains the present state of various domestic races4 ,we can thus see how it is that racehorses and dray-horses1 greyhounds and mastiffs1 which are opposed to each other in every character1--how varieties so distinct as ,cochin-china fowls and bantams1 or carrier-pigeons with very long beaks1 and tumblers with excessively short beaks1 have been derived from the same stock4 ,as each breed is slowly improved1 the inferior varieties are first neglected and finally lost4 ,in a few cases1 by the aid of old records1 or from intermediate varieties still existing in countries where other fashions have prevailed1 we are enabled partially to trace the graduated changes through which certain breeds have passed4 ,selection1 whether methodical or unconscious1 always tending towards an extreme point1 together with the neglect and slow extinction of the intermediate and less-valued forms1 is the key which unlocks the mystery of how man has produced such wonderful results4 ,in a few instances selection1 guided by utility for a single purpose1 has led to convergence of character4 ,all the improved and different races of the pig1 as ,nathusius has well shown1#ei closely approach each other in character1 in their shortened legs and muzzles1 their almost hairless1 large1 rounded bodies1 and small tusks4 ,we see some degree of convergence in the similar outline of the body in well-bred cattle belonging to distinct races4#fj ,i know of no other such cases4 ,continued divergence of character depends on1 and is indeed a clear proof1 as previously remarked1 of the same parts continuing to vary in the same direction4 ,the tendency to mere general variability or plasticity of organisation can certainly be inherited1 even from one parent1 as has been shown by ,grtner and ,klreuter1 in the production of varying hybrids from two species1 of which one alone was variable4 ,it is in itself probable that1 when an organ has varied in any manner1 it will again vary in the same manner1 if the conditions which first caused the being to vary remain1 as far as can be judged1 the same4 ,this is either tacitly or expressly admitted by all horticulturists3 if a gardener observes one or two additional petals in a flower1 he feels confident that in a few generations he will be able to raise a double flower1 crowded with petals4 ,some of the seedlings from the weeping ,moccas oak were so prostrate that they only crawled along the ground4 ,a seedling from the fastigiate or upright ,irish yew is described as differing greatly from the parent-form 8by the exaggeration of the fastigiate habit of its branches40#fa ,mr4 ,shirreff1 who has been highly successful in raising new kinds of wheat1 remarks1 8,a good variety may safely be regarded as the forerunner of a better one40#fb ,a great rose-grower1 ,mr4 ,rivers1 has made the same remark with respect to roses4 ,sageret1#fc who had large experience1 in speaking of the future progress of fruit-trees1 observes that the most important principle is 8that the more plants have departed from their original type1 the more they tend to depart from it40 ,there is apparently much truth in this remark2 for we can in no other way understand the surprising amount of difference between varieties in the parts or qualities which are valued1 whilst other parts retain nearly their original character4 ,the foregoing discussion naturally leads to the question1 what is the limit to the possible amount of variation in any part or quality1 and1 consequently1 is there any limit to what selection can effect8 ,will a racehorse ever be reared fleeter than ,eclipse8 ,can our prize-cattle and sheep be still further improved8 ,will a gooseberry ever weigh more than that produced by 8,london0 in #aheb8 ,will the beet-root in ,france yield a greater percentage of sugar8 ,will future varieties of wheat and other grain produce heavier crops than our present varieties8 ,these questions cannot be positively answered2 but it is certain that we ought to be cautious in answering them by a negative4 ,in some lines of variation the limit has probably been reached4 ,youatt believes that the reduction of bone in some of our sheep has already been carried so far that it entails great delicacy of constitution4#fd ,but seeing the great improvement within recent times in our cattle and sheep1 and especially in our pigs2 seeing the wonderful increase in weight in our poultry of all kinds during the last few years2 he would be a bold man who would assert that perfection has been reached4 ,it has often been said that ,eclipse never was1 and never will be1 beaten in speed by any other horse2 but on making inquiries ,i find that the best judges believe that our present racehorses are fleeter4#fe ,the attempt to raise a new variety of wheat more productive than the many old kinds1 might have been thought until lately quite hopeless2 but this has been effected by ,major ,hallett1 by careful selection4 ,with respect to almost all our animals and plants1 those who are best qualified to judge do not believe that the extreme point of perfection has yet been reached even in the characters which have already been carried to a high standard4 ,for instance1 the short-faced tumbler-pigeon has been greatly modified2 nevertheless1 according to ,mr4 ,eaton#ff 8the field is still as open for fresh competitors as it was one hundred years ago40 ,over and over again it has been said that perfection had been attained with our flowers1 but a higher standard has soon been reached4 ,hardly any fruit has been more improved than the strawberry1 yet a great authority remarks1#fg 8it must not be concealed that we are far from the extreme limits at which we may arrive40 ,no doubt there is a limit beyond which the organisation cannot be modified compatibly with health or life4 ,the extreme degree of fleetness1 for instance1 of which a terrestrial animal is capable1 may have been acquired by our present racehorses2 but as ,mr4 ,wallace has well remarked1#fh the question that interests us1 8is not whether indefinite and unlimited change in any or all directions is possible1 but whether such differences as do occur in nature could have been produced by the accumulation of varieties by selection40 ,and in the case of our domestic productions1 there can be no doubt that many parts of the organisation1 to which man has attended1 have been thus modified to a greater degree than the corresponding parts in the natural species of the same genera or even families4 ,we see this in the form and size of our light and heavy dogs or horses1--in the beak and many other characters of our pigeons1--in the size and quality of many fruits1--in comparison with the species belonging to the same natural groups4 ,time is an important element in the formation of our domestic races1 as it permits innumerable individuals to be born1 and these when exposed to diversified conditions are rendered variable4 ,methodical selection has been occasionally practised from an ancient period to the present day1 even by semi-civilised people1 and during former times will have produced some effect4 ,unconscious selection will have been still more effective2 for during a lengthened period the more valuable individual animals will occasionally have been saved1 and the less valuable neglected4 ,in the course of time1 different varieties1 especially in the less civilised countries1 will also have been more or less modified through natural selection4 ,it is generally believed1 though on this head we have little or no evidence1 that new characters in time become fixed2 and after having long remained fixed it seems possible that under new conditions they might again be rendered variable4 ,how great the lapse of time has been since man first domesticated animals and cultivated plants1 we begin dimly to see4 ,when the lake-dwellings of ,switzerland were inhabited during the ,neolithic period1 several animals were already domesticated and various plants cultivated4 ,the science of language tells us that the art of ploughing and sowing the land was followed1 and the chief animals had been already domesticated1 at an epoch so immensely remote1 that the ,sanskrit1 ,greek1 ,latin1 ,gothic1 ,celtic1 and ,sclavonic languages had not as yet diverged from their common parent-tongue4#fi ,it is scarcely possible to overrate the effects of selection occasionally carried on in various ways and places during thousands of generations4 ,all that we know1 and1 in a still stronger degree1 all that we do not know1#gj of the history of the great majority of our breeds1 even of our more modern breeds1 agrees with the view that their production1 through the action of unconscious and methodical selection1 has been almost insensibly slow4 ,when a man attends rather more closely than is usual to the breeding of his animals1 he is almost sure to improve them to a slight extent4 ,they are in consequence valued in his immediate neighbourhood1 and are bred by others2 and their characteristic features1 whatever these may be1 will then slowly but steadily be increased1 sometimes by methodical and almost always by unconscious selection4 ,at last a strain1 deserving to be called a sub-variety1 becomes a little more widely known1 receives a local name1 and spreads4 ,the spreading will have been extremely slow during ancient and less civilised times1 but now is rapid4 ,by the time that the new breed had assumed a somewhat distinct character1 its history1 hardly noticed at the time1 will have been completely forgotten2 for1 as ,low remarks1#ga 8we know how quickly the memory of such events is effaced40 ,as soon as a new breed is thus formed1 it is liable through the same process to break up into new strains and sub-varieties4 ,for different varieties are suited for1 and are valued under1 different circumstances4 ,fashion changes1 but1 should a fashion last for even a moderate length of time1 so strong is the principle of inheritance1 that some effect will probably be impressed on the breed4 ,thus varieties go on increasing in number1 and history shows us how wonderfully they have increased since the earliest records4#gb ,as each new variety is produced1 the earlier1 intermediate1 and less valuable forms will be neglected1 and perish4 ,when a breed1 from not being valued1 is kept in small numbers1 its extinction almost inevitably follows sooner or later1 either from accidental causes of destruction or from close interbreeding2 and this is an event which1 in the case of well-marked breeds1 excites attention4 ,the birth or production of a new domestic race is so slow a process that it escapes notice2 its death or destruction is comparatively sudden1 is often recorded1 and when too late sometimes regretted4 ,several authors have drawn a wide distinction between artificial and natural races4 ,the latter are more uniform in character1 possessing in a high degree the appearance of natural species1 and are of ancient origin4 ,they are generally found in less civilised countries1 and have probably been largely modified by natural selection1 and only to a small extent by man's unconscious and methodical selection4 ,they have1 also1 during a long period1 been directly acted on by the physical conditions of the countries which they inhabit4 ,the so-called artificial races1 on the other hand1 are not so uniform in character2 some have a semi-monstrous character1 such as 8the wry-legged terriers so useful in rabbit-shooting10#gc turnspit dogs1 ancon sheep1 niata oxen1 ,polish fowls1 fantail-pigeons1 etc42 their characteristic features have generally been acquired suddenly1 though subsequently increased by careful selections in many cases4 ,other races1 which certainly must be called artificial1 for they have been largely modified by methodical selection and by crossing1 as the ,english racehorse1 terrier-dogs1 the ,english game-cock1 ,antwerp carrier-pigeons1 etc41 nevertheless cannot be said to have an unnatural appearance2 and no distinct line1 as it seems to me1 can be drawn between natural and artificial races4 ,it is not surprising that domestic races should generally present a different aspect from natural species4 ,man selects and propagates modifications solely for his own use or fancy1 and not for the creature's own good4 ,his attention is struck by strongly marked modifications1 which have appeared suddenly1 due to some great disturbing cause in the organisation4 ,he attends almost exclusively to external characters2 and when he succeeds in modifying internal organs1--when for instance he reduces the bones and offal1 or loads the viscera with fat1 or gives early maturity1 etc4-the chances are strong that he will at the same time weaken the constitution4 ,on the other hand1 when an animal has to struggle throughout its life with many competitors and enemies1 under circumstances inconceivably complex and liable to change1 modifications of the most varied nature in the internal organs as well as in external characters1 in the functions and mutual relations of parts1 will be rigorously tested1 preserved1 or rejected4 ,natural selection often checks man's comparatively feeble and capricious attempts at improvement2 and if it were not so1 the result of his work1 and of nature's work1 would be even still more different4 ,nevertheless1 we must not overrate the amount of difference between natural species and domestic races2 the most experienced naturalists have often disputed whether the latter are descended from one or from several aboriginal stocks1 and this clearly shows that there is no palpable difference between species and races4 ,domestic races propagate their kind far more truly1 and endure for munch longer periods1 than most naturalists are willing to admit4 ,breeders feel no doubt on this head3 ask a man who has long reared ,shorthorn or ,hereford cattle1 ,leicester or ,southdown sheep1 ,spanish or ,game poultry1 tumbler or carrier-pigeons1 whether these races may not have been derived from common progenitors1 and he will probably laugh you to scorn4 ,the breeder admits that he may hope to produce sheep with finer or longer wool and with better carcases1 or handsomer fowls1 or carrier-pigeons with beaks just perceptibly longer to the practised eye1 and thus be successful at an exhibition4 ,thus far he will go1 but no farther4 ,he does not reflect on what follows from adding up during a long course of time many slight1 successive modifications2 nor does he reflect on the former existence of numerous varieties1 connecting the links in each divergent line of descent4 ,he concludes1 as was shown in the earlier chapters1 that all the chief breeds to which he has long attended are aboriginal productions4 ,the systematic naturalist1 on the other hand1 who generally knows nothing of the art of breeding1 who does not pretend to know how and when the several domestic races were formed1 who cannot have seen the intermediate gradations1 for they do not now exist1 nevertheless feels no doubt that these races are sprung from a single source4 ,but ask him whether the closely allied natural species which he has studied may not have descended from a common progenitor1 and he in his turn will perhaps reject the notion with scorn4 ,thus the naturalist and breeder may mutually learn a useful lesson from each other4 ,summary on ,selection by ,man4--,there can be no doubt that methodical selection has effected and will effect wonderful results4 ,it was occasionally practised in ancient times1 and is still practised by semi-civilised people4 ,characters of the highest importance1 and others of trifling value1 have been attended to1 and modified4 ,i need not here repeat what has been so often said on the part which unconscious selection has played3 we see its power in the difference between flocks which have been separately bred1 and in the slow changes1 as circumstances have slowly changed1 which many animals have undergone in the same country1 or when transported into a foreign land4 ,we see the combined effects of methodical and unconscious selection1 in the great amount of difference in those parts or qualities which are valued by man in comparison with the parts which are not valued1 and consequently have not been attended to4 ,natural selection often determines man's power of selection4 ,we sometimes err in imagining that characters1 which are considered as unimportant by the systematic naturalist1 could not be affected by the struggle for existence1 and could not be acted on by natural selection2 but striking cases have been given1 showing how great an error this is4 ,the possibility of selection coming into action rests on variability2 and this is mainly caused1 as we shall hereafter see1 by changes in the conditions of life4 ,selection is sometimes rendered difficult1 or even impossible1 by the conditions being opposed to the desired character or quality4 ,it is sometimes checked by the lessened fertility and weakened constitution which follow from long-continued close interbreeding4 ,that methodical selection may be successful1 the closest attention and discernment1 combined with unwearied patience1 are absolutely necessary2 and these same qualities1 though not indispensable1 are highly serviceable in the case of unconscious selection4 ,it is almost necessary that a large number of individuals should be reared2 for thus there will be a fair chance of variations of the desired nature arising1 and of every individual with the slightest blemish or in any degree inferior being freely rejected4 ,hence length of time is an important element of success4 ,thus1 also1 reproduction at an early age and at short intervals favours the work4 ,facility in pairing animals1 or their inhabiting a confined area1 is advantageous as a check to free crossing4 ,whenever and wherever selection is not practised1 distinct races are not formed within the same country4 ,when any one part of the body or one quality is not attended to1 it remains either unchanged or varies in a fluctuating manner1 whilst at the same time other parts and other qualities may become permanently and greatly modified4 ,but from the tendency to reversion and to continued variability1 those parts or organs which are now undergoing rapid improvement through selection1 are likewise found to vary much4 ,consequently highly-bred animals when neglected soon degenerate2 but we have no reason to believe that the effects of long-continued selection would1 if the conditions of life remained the same1 be soon and completely lost4 ,man always tends to go to an extreme point in the selection1 whether methodical or unconscious1 of all useful and pleasing qualities4 ,this is an important principle1 as it leads to continued divergence1 and in some rare cases to convergence of character4 ,the possibility of continued divergence rests on the tendency in each part or organ to go on varying in the same manner in which it has already varied2 and that this occurs1 is proved by the steady and gradual improvement of many animals and plants during lengthened periods4 ,the principle of divergence of character1 combined with the neglect and final extinction of all previous1 less-valued1 and intermediate varieties1 explains the amount of difference and the distinctness of our several races4 ,although we may have reached the utmost limit to which certain characters can be modified1 yet we are far from having reached1 as we have good reason to believe1 the limit in the majority of cases4 ,finally1 from the difference between selection as carried on by man and by nature1 we can understand how it is that domestic races often1 though by no means always1 differ in general aspect from closely allied natural species4 ,throughout this chapter and elsewhere ,i have spoken of selection as the paramount power1 yet its action absolutely depends on what we in our ignorance call spontaneous or accidental variability4 ,let an architect be compelled to build an edifice with uncut stones1 fallen from a precipice4 ,the shape of each fragment may be called accidental2 yet the shape of each has been determined by the force of gravity1 the nature of the rock1 and the slope of the precipice1--events and circumstances1 all of which depend on natural laws2 but there is no relation between these laws and the purpose for which each fragment is used by the builder4 ,in the same manner the variations of each creature are determined by fixed and immutable laws2 but these bear no relation to the living structure which is slowly built up through the power of selection1 whether this be natural or artificial selection4 ,if our architect succeeded in rearing a noble edifice1 using the rough wedge-shaped fragments for the arches1 the longer stones for the lintels1 and so forth1 we should admire his skill even in a higher degree than if he had used stones shaped for the purpose4 ,so it is with selection1 whether applied by man or by nature2 for although variability is indispensably necessary1 yet1 when we look at some highly complex and excellently adapted organism1 variability sinks to a quite subordinate position in importance in comparison with selection1 in the same manner as the shape of each fragment used by our supposed architect is unimportant in comparison with his skill4 ,,references #a ,quoted by ,youatt on ,sheep1 p4 #cbe4 ,see also ,youatt on ,cattle1 pp4 #fb1 #fi4 #b ,,mm4 ,lherbette and ,de ,quatrefages1 in #8,bull4 ,soc4 d',acclimat41' tom4 viii4 #ahfa1 p4 #caa4 #c #8,the ,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 p4 #abc4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 #8,the ,homing or ,carrier ,pigeon1' #ahga1 pp4 #de-eh4 #d ,youatt on ,sheep1 p4 #cab4 #e #8,treatise on the ,almond ,tumbler1' #ahea1 p4 #cc4 #f ,dr4 ,heusinger1 #8,wochenschrift fr die ,heilkunde1' ,berlin1 #ahdf1 s4 #bgi4 #g ,youatt on the ,dog1 p4 #bcb4 #h #8,the ,fruit-trees of ,america1' #ahde1 p4 #bgj3 for peaches1 p4 #dff4 #i #8,proc4 ,royal ,soc4 of ,arts and ,sciences of ,mauritius1' #aheb1 p4 #ace4 #aj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahef1 p4 #cgi4 #aa ,quatrefages1 #8,maladies ,actuelles du ,ver ,soie1' #ahei1 pp4 #ab1 #bad4 #ab #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahea1 p4 #eie4 #ac #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfb1 p4 #dgf4 #ad #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheb1 pp4 #dce1 #fia4 #ae ,bechstein1 #8,naturgesch4 ,deutschlands1' #ahja1 ,b4 #a s4 #caj4 #af ,prichard1 #8,phys4 ,hist4 of ,mankind1' #ahea1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbd4 #ag ,g4 ,lewis's #8,journal of ,residence in ,west ,indies1' #8,home and ,col4 ,library1' p4 #ajj4 #ah ,sidney's edition of ,youatt on the ,pig1 p4 #bd4 ,i have given analogous facts in the case of mankind in my #8,descent of ,man1' #bnd edit41 p4 #aie4 #ai #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfb1 pp4 #dgf1 #dih2 #ahfe1 p4 #dfj4 ,with respect to the heartsease1 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfc1 p4 #fbh4 #bj #8,des ,jacinthes1 de leur ,culture1' #agfh1 p4 #ec3 on wheat #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdf1 p4 #fec4 #ba ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 #8,the ,field1' ,feb4 #be1 #ahfe4 ,with respect to black fowls1 see a quotation in ,thompson's #8,nat4 ,hist4 of ,ireland1' #ahdi1 vol4 i4 p4 #bb4 #bb #8,in ,sachen ,darwin's contra ,wigand1' #ahgd1 p4 #gj4 #bc #8,bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclimat41' tom4 vii4 #ahfj1 p4 #cei4 #bd #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 #bnd series1 #ahce1 p4 #bge4 ,for raspberries1 see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahee1 p4 #aed1 and #ahfc p4 #bde4 #be #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #hjf4 #bf ,ibid41 #ahej1 p4 #gcb4 #bg ,ibid41 #ahfj1 p4 #ief4 #bh ,j4 ,de ,jonghe1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #abj4 #bi ,downing1 #8,fruit-trees of ,north ,america1' pp4 #bff1 #eja3 in regard to the cherry1 p4 #aih4 #cj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdi1 p4 #gee4 #ca #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,sept4 #bfth1 #ahfe1 p4 #bed2 see other references given in chap4 x4 #cb ,mr4 ,selby1 in #8,mag4 of ,zoology and ,botany1' ,edinburgh1 vol4 ii4 #ahch1 p4 #cic4 #cc ,the ,reine ,claude de ,bavay1 #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,dec4 #bg1 #ahfd1 p4 #eaa4 #cd ,mr4 ,pusey1 in #8,journal of ,r4 ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 vi4 p4 #agi4 ,for ,swedish turnips1 see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdg1 p4 #ia4 #ce ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ih4 #cf #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahff1 p4 #gcb4 #cg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 pp4 #hbj1 #hba4 #ch #8,on the ,varieties of ,wheat1' p4 #ei4 #ci ,mr4 ,hewitt and others1 in #8,journal of ,hort41' #ahfb1 p4 #ggc4 #dj #8,encyclop4 of ,rural ,sports1' p4 #dje4 #da ,col4 ,le ,couteur1 #8,journal ,roy4 ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 iv4 p4 #dc4 #db ,malingi-,nouel1 #8,journal ,r4 ,agricult4 ,soc41' vol4 xiv4 #ahec1 pp4 #bae1 #bag4 #dc #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahde1 p4 #bgc4 #dd #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfb1 p4 #aeg4 #de #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfj1 p4 #cfh4 #df #8,a ,review of ,reports1' #ahjh1 p4 #djf4 #dg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahec1 p4 #de4 #dh ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gen41' tom4 iii4 p4 #di4 #8,on the ,cochineal ,insect1' p4 #df4 #di #8,die ,darwin'sche ,theorie und das ,migrationsgesetz der ,organismen1' #ahfh1 p4 #ai4 #ej ,capt4 ,marryat1 quoted by ,blyth in #8,journ4 ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 xxviii4 p4 #bbi4 #ea ,mr4 ,oxley1 #8,journal of the ,indian ,archipelago1' vol4 ii4 #ahdh1 p4 #fde4 #eb ,mr4 ,abbey1 #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,dec4 #a1 #ahfc1 p4 #dcj4 #ec #8,on ,naval ,timber1' #ahca1 p4 #ajg4 #ed ,mr4 ,baily1 in #8,the ,poultry ,chronicle1' vol4 ii4 #ahed1 p4 #aej4 ,also vol4 i4 p4 #cdb2 vol4 iii4 p4 #bde4 #ee #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahee1 ,december1 p4 #aga2 #ahef1 ,january1 pp4 #bdh1 #cbc4 #ef #8,ueber ,shorthorn ,rindvieh1' #aheg1 s4 #ea4 #eg #8,the ,veterinary1' vol4 xiii4 p4 #gbj4 ,for the ,glamorganshire cattle1 see ,youatt on ,cattle1 p4 #ea4 #eh ,j4 ,m4 ,eaton1 #8,a ,treatise on ,fancy ,pigeons1' p4 #hb2 ,ferguson1 on #8,rare and ,prize ,poultry1' p4 #afb2 ,mr4 ,brent1 in #8,cottage ,gardener1' ,oct4 #ahfj1 p4 #ac4 #ei #8,die ,racen des ,schweines1' #ahfj1 s4 #dh4 #fj ,see some good remarks on this head by ,m4 de ,quatrefages1 #8,unit de l',espce ,humaine1' #ahfa1 p4 #aai4 #fa ,verlot1 #8,des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #id4 #fb ,mr4 ,patrick ,shirreff1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheh1 p4 #gga4 #fc #8,pomologie ,physiolog41' #ahcj1 p4 #ajf4 #fd ,youatt on ,sheep1 p4 #eba4 #fe ,see also ,stonehenge1 #8,british ,rural ,sports1' edition of #ahga1 p4 #chd4 #ff #8,a ,treatise on the ,almond ,tumbler1' p4 #a4 #fg ,m4 ,j4 de ,jonghe1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheh1 p4 #agc4 #fh #8,contributions to the ,theory of ,natural ,selection1' #bnd edit41 #ahga1 p4 #bib4 #fi ,max ,mller1 #8,science of ,language1' #ahfa1 p4 #bbc4 #gj ,youatt on ,cattle1 pp4 #aaf1 #abh4 #ga #8,domesticated ,animals1' p4 #ahh4 #gb ,volz1 #8,beitrge zur ,kulturgeschichte1' #aheb1 s4 #ii et passim4 #gc ,blaine1 #8,encyclop4 of ,rural ,sports1' p4 #bac4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,causes ,,of ,,variability4 ,,variability ,,does ,,not ,,necessarily ,,accompany ,,reproduction--,,causes ,,assigned ,,by ,,various ,,authors--,,individual ,,differences--,,variability ,,of ,,every ,,kind ,,due ,,to ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,such ,,changes--,,climate1 ,,food1 ,,excess ,,of ,,nutriment--,,slight ,,changes ,,sufficient--,,effects ,,of ,,grafting ,,on ,,the ,,variability ,,of ,,seedling-,,trees--,,domestic ,,productions ,,become ,,habituated ,,to ,,changed ,,conditions--,,on ,,the ,,accumulative ,,action ,,of ,,changed ,,conditions--,,close ,,interbreeding ,,and ,,the ,,imagination ,,of ,,the ,,mother ,,supposed ,,to ,,cause ,,variability--,,crossing ,,as ,a ,,cause ,,of ,,the ,,appearance ,,of ,,new ,,characters--,,variability ,,from ,,the ,,commingling ,,of ,,characters ,,and ,,from ,,reversion--,,on ,,the ,,manner ,,and ,,period ,,of ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,causes ,,which ,,either ,,directly1 ,,or ,,indirectly ,,through ,,the ,,reproductive ,,system1 ,,induce ,,variability4 ,we will now consider1 as far as we can1 the causes of the almost universal variability of our domesticated productions4 ,the subject is an obscure one2 but it may be useful to probe our ignorance4 ,some authors1 for instance ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas1 look at variability as a necessary contingent on reproduction1 and as much an aboriginal law as growth or inheritance4 ,others have of late encouraged1 perhaps unintentionally1 this view by speaking of inheritance and variability as equal and antagonistic principles4 ,pallas maintained1 and he has had some followers1 that variability depends exclusively on the crossing of primordially distinct forms4 ,other authors attribute variability to an excess of food1 and with animals to an excess relatively to the amount of exercise taken1 or again to the effects of a more genial climate4 ,that these causes are all effective is highly probable4 ,but we must1 ,i think1 take a broader view1 and conclude that organic beings1 when subjected during several generations to any change whatever in their conditions1 tend to vary2 the kind of variation which ensues depending in most cases in a far higher degree on the nature or constitution of the being1 than on the nature of the changed conditions4 ,those authors who believe that it is a law of nature that each individual should differ in some slight degree from every other1 may maintain1 apparently with truth1 that this is the fact1 not only with all domesticated animals and cultivated plants1 but likewise with all organic beings in a state of nature4 ,the ,laplander by long practice knows and gives a name to each reindeer1 though1 as ,linnus remarks1 8to distinguish one from another among such multitudes was beyond my comprehension1 for they were like ants on an anthill40 ,in ,germany shepherds have won wagers by recognising each sheep in a flock of a hundred1 which they had never seen until the previous fortnight4 ,this power of discrimination1 however1 is as nothing compared to that which some florists have acquired4 ,verlot mentions a gardener who could distinguish #aej kinds of camellia1 when not in flower2 and it has been positively asserted that the famous old ,dutch florist ,voorhelm1 who kept above #abjj varieties of the hyacinth1 was hardly ever deceived in knowing each variety by the bulb alone4 ,hence we must conclude that the bulbs of the hyacinth and the branches and leaves of the camellia1 though appearing to an unpractised eye absolutely undistinguishable1 yet really differ4#a ,as ,linnus has compared the reindeer in number to ants1 ,i may add that each ant knows its fellow of the same community4 ,several times ,i carried ants of the same species 7,formica rufa7 from one ant-hill to another1 inhabited apparently by tens of thousands of ants2 but the strangers were instantly detected and killed4 ,i then put some ants taken from a very large nest into a bottle strongly perfumed with assaftida1 and after an interval of twenty-four hours returned them to their home2 they were at first threatened by their fellows1 but were soon recognised and allowed to pass4 ,hence each ant certainly recognised1 independently of odour1 its fellow2 and if all the ants of the same community have not some countersign or watchword1 they must present to each other's senses some distinguishable character4 ,the dissimilarity of brothers or sisters of the same family1 and of seedlings from the same capsule1 may be in part accounted for by the unequal blending of the characters of the two parents1 and by the more or less complete recovery through reversion of ancestral characters on either side2 but we thus only push the difficulty further back in time1 for what made the parents or their progenitors different8 ,hence the belief#b that an innate tendency to vary exists1 independently of external differences1 seems at first sight probable4 ,but even the seeds nurtured in the same capsule are not subjected to absolutely uniform conditions1 as they draw their nourishment from different points2 and we shall see in a future chapter that this difference sometimes suffices to affect the character of the future plant4 ,the greater dissimilarity of the successive children of the same family in comparison with twins1 which often resemble each other in external appearance1 mental disposition1 and constitution1 in so extraordinary a manner1 apparently proves that the state of the parents at the exact period of conception1 or the nature of the subsequent embryonic development1 has a direct and powerful influence on the character of the offspring4 ,nevertheless1 when we reflect on the individual differences between organic beings in a state of nature1 as shown by every wild animal knowing its mate2 and when we reflect on the infinite diversity of the many varieties of our domesticated productions1 we may well be inclined to exclaim1 though falsely as ,i believe1 that ,variability must be looked at as an ultimate fact1 necessarily contingent on reproduction4 ,those authors who adopt this latter view would probably deny that each separate variation has its own proper exciting cause4 ,although we can seldom trace the precise relation between cause and effect1 yet the considerations presently to be given lead to the conclusion that each modification must have its own distinct cause1 and is not the result of what we blindly call accident4 ,the following striking case has been communicated to me by ,dr4 ,william ,ogle4 ,two girls1 born as twins1 and in all respects extremely alike1 had their little fingers on both hands crooked2 and in both children the second bicuspid tooth of the second dentition on the right side in the upper jaw was misplaced2 for1 instead of standing in a line with the others1 it grew from the roof of the mouth behind the first bicuspid4 ,neither the parents nor any other members of the family were known to have exhibited any similar peculiarity2 but a son of one of these girls had the same tooth similarly misplaced4 ,now1 as both the girls were affected in exactly the same manner1 the idea of accident is at once excluded3 and we are compelled to admit that there must have existed some precise and sufficient cause which1 if it had occurred a hundred times1 would have given crooked fingers and misplaced bicuspid teeth to a hundred children4 ,it is of course possible that this case may have been due to reversion to some long-forgotten progenitor1 and this would much weaken the value of the argument4 ,i have been led to think of the probability of reversion1 from having been told by ,mr4 ,galton of another case of twin girls born with their little fingers slightly crooked1 which they inherited from their maternal grandmother4 ,we will now consider the general arguments1 which appear to me to have great weight1 in favour of the view that variations of all kinds and degrees are directly or indirectly caused by the conditions of life to which each being1 and more especially its ancestors1 have been exposed4 ,no one doubts that domesticated productions are more variable than organic beings which have never been removed from their natural conditions4 ,monstrosities graduate so insensibly into mere variations that it is impossible to separate them2 and all those who have studied monstrosities believe that they are far commoner with domesticated than with wild animals and plants2#c and in the case of plants1 monstrosities would be equally noticeable in the natural as in the cultivated state4 ,under nature1 the individuals of the same species are exposed to nearly uniform conditions1 for they are rigorously kept to their proper places by a host of competing animals and plants2 they have1 also1 long been habituated to their conditions of life2 but it cannot be said that they are subject to quite uniform conditions1 and they are liable to a certain amount of variation4 ,the circumstances under which our domestic productions are reared are widely different3 they are protected from competition2 they have not only been removed from their natural conditions and often from their native land1 but they are frequently carried from district to district1 where they are treated differently1 so that they rarely remain during any considerable length of time exposed to closely similar conditions4 ,in conformity with this1 all our domesticated productions1 with the rarest exceptions1 vary far more than natural species4 ,the hive-bee1 which feeds itself and follows in most respects its natural habits of life1 is the least variable of all domesticated animals1 and probably the goose is the next least variable2 but even the goose varies more than almost any wild bird1 so that it cannot be affiliated with perfect certainty to any natural species4 ,hardly a single plant can be named1 which has long been cultivated and propagated by seed1 that is not highly variable2 common rye 7,secale cereale7 has afforded fewer and less marked varieties than almost any other cultivated plant2#d but it may be doubted whether the variations of this1 the least valuable of all our cereals1 have been closely observed4 ,bud-variation1 which was fully discussed in a former chapter1 shows us that variability may be quite independent of seminal reproduction1 and likewise of reversion to long-lost ancestral characters4 ,no one will maintain that the sudden appearance of a moss-rose on a ,provence-rose is a return to a former state1 for mossiness of the calyx has been observed in no natural species2 the same argument is applicable to variegated and laciniated leaves2 nor can the appearance of nectarines on peach-trees be accounted for on the principle of reversion4 ,but bud-variations more immediately concern us1 as they occur far more frequently on plants which have been highly cultivated during a length of time1 than on other and less highly cultivated plants2 and very few well-marked instances have been observed with plants growing under strictly natural conditions4 ,i have given one instance of an ash-tree growing in a gentleman's pleasure-grounds2 and occasionally there may be seen1 on beech and other trees1 twigs leafing at a different period from the other branches4 ,but our forest trees in ,england can hardly be considered as living under strictly natural conditions2 the seedlings are raised and protected in nursery-grounds1 and must often be transplanted into places where wild trees of the kind would not naturally grow4 ,it would be esteemed a prodigy if a dog-rose growing in a hedge produced by bud-variation a moss-rose1 or a wild bullace or wild cherry-tree yielded a branch bearing fruit of a different shape and colour from the ordinary fruit4 ,the prodigy would be enhanced if these varying branches were found capable of propagation1 not only by grafts1 but sometimes by seed2 yet analogous cases have occurred with many of our highly cultivated trees and herbs4 ,these several considerations alone render it probable that variability of every kind is directly or indirectly caused by changed conditions of life4 ,or1 to put the case under another point of view1 if it were possible to expose all the individuals of a species during many generations to absolutely uniform conditions of life1 there would be no variability4 ,on the ,nature of the ,changes in the ,conditions of ,life which induce ,variability4 ,from a remote period to the present day1 under climates and circumstances as different as it is possible to conceive1 organic beings of all kinds1 when domesticated or cultivated1 have varied4 ,we see this with the many domestic races of quadrupeds and birds belonging to different orders1 with goldfish and silkworms1 with plants of many kinds1 raised in various quarters of the world4 ,in the deserts of northern ,africa the date-palm has yielded thirty-eight varieties2 in the fertile plains of ,india it is notorious how many varieties of rice and of a host of other plants exist2 in a single ,polynesian island1 twenty-four varieties of the bread-fruit1 the same number of the banana1 and twenty-two varieties of the arum1 are cultivated by the natives2 the mulberry-tree in ,india and ,europe has yielded many varieties serving as food for the silkworm2 and in ,china sixty-three varieties of the bamboo are used for various domestic purposes4#e ,these facts1 and innumerable others which could be added1 indicate that a change of almost any kind in the conditions of life suffices to cause variability--different changes acting on different organisms4 ,andrew ,knight#f attributed the variation of both animals and plants to a more abundant supply of nourishment1 or to a more favourable climate1 than that natural to the species4 ,a more genial climate1 however1 is far from necessary2 the kidney-bean1 which is often injured by our spring frosts1 and peaches1 which require the protection of a wall1 have varied much in ,england1 as has the orange-tree in northern ,italy1 where it is barely able to exist4#g ,nor can we overlook the fact1 though not immediately connected with our present subject1 that the plants and shells of the ,arctic regions are eminently variable4#h ,moreover1 it does not appear that a change of climate1 whether more or less genial1 is one of the most potent causes of variability2 for in regard to plants ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1 in his #8,gographie ,botanique' repeatedly shows that the native country of a plant1 where in most cases it has been longest cultivated1 is that where it has yielded the greatest number of varieties4 ,it is doubtful whether a change in the nature of the food is a potent cause of variability4 ,scarcely any domesticated animal has varied more than the pigeon or the fowl1 but their food1 especially that of highly-bred pigeons1 is generally the same4 ,nor can our cattle and sheep have been subjected to any great change in this respect4 ,but in all these cases the food probably is much less varied in kind than that which was consumed by the species in its natural state4#i ,of all the causes which induce variability1 excess of food1 whether or not changed in nature1 is probably the most powerful4 ,this view was held with regard to plants by ,andrew ,knight1 and is now held by ,schleiden1 more especially in reference to the inorganic elements of the food4#aj ,in order to give a plant more food it suffices in most cases to grow it separately1 and thus prevent other plants robbing its roots4 ,it is surprising1 as ,i have often seen1 how vigorously our common wild species flourish when planted by themselves1 though not in highly manured land2 separate growth is1 in fact1 the first step in cultivation4 ,we see the converse of the belief that excess of food induces variability in the following statement by a great raiser of seeds of all kinds3#aa 8,it is a rule invariably with us1 when we desire to keep a true stock of any one kind of seed1 to grow it on poor land without dung2 but when we grow for quantity1 we act contrary1 and sometimes have dearly to repent of it40 ,according also to ,carrire1 who has had great experience with flower-garden seeds1 8,on remarque en gnral les plantes de vigeur moyenne sont celles qui conservent le mieux leurs caractres40 ,in the case of animals the want of a proper amount of exercise1 as ,bechstein remarked1 has perhaps played1 independently of the direct effects of the disuse of any particular organ1 an important part in causing variability4 ,we can see in a vague manner that1 when the organised and nutrient fluids of the body are not used during growth1 or by the wear and tear of the tissues1 they will be in excess2 and as growth1 nutrition1 and reproduction are intimately allied processes1 this superfluity might disturb the due and proper action of the reproductive organs1 and consequently affect the character of the future offspring4 ,but it may be argued that neither an excess of food nor a superfluity in the organised fluids of the body necessarily induces variability4 ,the goose and the turkey have been well fed for many generations1 yet have varied very little4 ,our fruit-trees and culinary plants1 which are so variable1 have been cultivated from an ancient period1 and1 though they probably still receive more nutriment than in their natural state1 yet they must have received during many generations nearly the same amount2 and it might be thought that they would have become habituated to the excess4 ,nevertheless1 on the whole1 ,knight's view1 that excess of food is one of the most potent causes of variability1 appears1 as far as ,i can judge1 probable4 ,whether or not our various cultivated plants have received nutriment in excess1 all have been exposed to changes of various kinds4 ,fruit-trees are grafted on different stocks1 and grown in various soils4 ,the seeds of culinary and agricultural plants are carried from place to place2 and during the last century the rotation of our crops and the manures used have been greatly changed4 ,slight changes of treatment often suffice to induce variability4 ,the simple fact of almost all our cultivated plants and domesticated animals having varied in all places and at all times1 leads to this conclusion4 ,seeds taken from common ,english forest-trees1 grown under their native climate1 not highly manured or otherwise artificially treated1 yield seedlings which vary much1 as may be seen in every extensive seed-bed4 ,i have shown in a former chapter what a number of well-marked and singular varieties the thorn 7,cratgus oxycantha7 has produced3 yet this tree has been subjected to hardly any cultivation4 ,in ,staffordshire ,i carefully examined a large number of two ,british plants1 namely ,geranium phum and pyrenaicum1 which have never been highly cultivated4 ,these plants had spread spontaneously by seed from a common garden into an open plantation2 and the seedlings varied in almost every single character1 both in their flower and foliage1 to a degree which ,i have never seen exceeded2 yet they could not have been exposed to any great change in their conditions4 ,with respect to animals1 ,azara has remarked with much surprise#ab that1 whilst the feral horses on the ,pampas are always of one of three colours1 and the cattle always of a uniform colour1 yet these animals1 when bred on the unenclosed estancias1 though kept in a state which can hardly be called domesticated1 and apparently exposed to almost identically the same conditions as when they are feral1 nevertheless display a great diversity of colour4 ,so again in ,india several species of fresh-water fish are only so far treated artificially1 that they are reared in great tanks2 but this small change is sufficient to induce much variability4#ac ,some facts on the effects of grafting1 in regard to the variability of trees1 deserve attention4 ,cabanis asserts that when certain pears are grafted on the quince1 their seeds yield a greater number of varieties than do the seeds of the same variety of pear when grafted on the wild pear4#ad ,but as the pear and quince are distinct species1 though so closely related that the one can be readily grafted and succeeds admirably on the other1 the fact of variability being thus caused is not surprising2 as we are here enabled to see the cause1 namely1 the very different nature of the stock and graft4 ,several ,north ,american varieties of the plum and peach are well known to reproduce themselves truly by seed2 but ,downing asserts1#ae 8that when a graft is taken from one of these trees and placed upon another stock1 this grafted tree is found to lose its singular property of producing the same variety by seed1 and becomes like all other worked trees20--that is1 its seedlings become highly variable4 ,another case is worth giving3 the ,lalande variety of the walnut-tree leafs between ,april #bjth and ,may #aeth1 and its seedlings invariably inherit the same habit2 whilst several other varieties of the walnut leaf in ,june4 ,now1 if seedlings are raised from the ,may-leafing ,lalande variety1 grafted on another ,may-leafing variety1 though both stock and graft have the same early habit of leafing1 yet the seedlings leaf at various times1 even as late as the #eth of ,june4#af ,such facts as these are well fitted to show on what obscure and slight causes variability depends4 ,i may here just allude to the appearance of new and valuable varieties of fruit-trees and of wheat in woods and waste places1 which at first sight seems a most anomalous circumstance4 ,in ,france a considerable number of the best pears have been discovered in woods2 and this has occurred so frequently1 that ,poiteau asserts that 8improved varieties of our cultivated fruits rarely originate with nurserymen40#ag ,in ,england1 on the other hand1 no instance of a good pear having been found wild has been recorded2 and ,mr4 ,rivers informs me that he knows of only one instance with apples1 namely1 the ,bess ,poole1 which was discovered in a wood in ,nottinghamshire4 ,this difference between the two countries may be in part accounted for by the more favourable climate of ,france1 but chiefly from the great number of seedlings which spring up there in the woods4 ,i infer that this is the case from a remark made by a ,french gardener1#ah who regards it as a national calamity that such a number of pear-trees are periodically cut down for firewood1 before they have borne fruit4 ,the new varieties which thus spring up in the woods1 though they cannot have received any excess of nutriment1 will have been exposed to abruptly changed conditions1 but whether this is the cause of their production is very doubtful4 ,these varieties1 however1 are probably all descended#ai from old cultivated kinds growing in adjoining orchards-- a circumstance which will account for their variability2 and out of a vast number of varying trees there will always be a good chance of the appearance of a valuable kind4 ,in ,north ,america1 where fruit-trees frequently spring up in waste places1 the ,washington pear was found in a hedge1 and the ,emperor peach in a wood4#bj ,with respect to wheat1 some writers have spoken#ba as if it were an ordinary event for new varieties to be found in waste places2 the ,fenton wheat was certainly discovered growing on a pile of basaltic detritus in a quarry1 but in such a situation the plant would probably receive a sufficient amount of nutriment4 ,the ,chidham wheat was raised from an ear found on a hedge2 and ,hunter's wheat was discovered by the roadside in ,scotland1 but it is not said that this latter variety grew where it was found4#bb ,whether our domestic productions would ever become so completely habituated to the conditions under which they now live1 as to cease varying1 we have no sufficient means for judging4 ,but1 in fact1 our domestic productions are never exposed for a great length of time to uniform conditions1 and it is certain that our most anciently cultivated plants1 as well as animals1 still go on varying1 for all have recently undergone marked improvement4 ,in some few cases1 however1 plants have become habituated to new conditions4 ,thus1 ,metzger1 who cultivated in ,germany during many years numerous varieties of wheat1 brought from different countries1#bc states that some kinds were at first extremely variable1 but gradually1 in one instance after an interval of twenty-five years1 became constant2 and it does not appear that this resulted from the selection of the more constant forms4 ,on the ,accumulative ,action of changed ,conditions of ,life4--,we have good grounds for believing that the influence of changed conditions accumulates1 so that no effect is produced on a species until it has been exposed during several generations to continued cultivation or domestication4 ,universal experience shows us that when new flowers are first introduced into our gardens they do not vary2 but ultimately all1 with the rarest exceptions1 vary to a greater or less extent4 ,in a few cases the requisite number of generations1 as well as the successive steps in the progress of variation1 have been recorded1 as in the often quoted instance of the ,dahlia4#bd ,after several years' culture the ,zinnia has only lately 7#ahfj7 begun to vary in any great degree4 8,in the first seven or eight years of high cultivation1 the ,swan ,river daisy 7,brachycome iberidifolia7 kept to its original colour2 it then varied into lilac and purple and other minor shades40#be ,analogous facts have been recorded with the ,scotch rose4 ,in discussing the variability of plants several experienced horticulturists have spoken to the same general effect4 ,mr4 ,salter#bf remarks1 8,every one knows that the chief difficulty is in breaking through the original form and colour of the species1 and every one will be on the look-out for any natural sport1 either from seed or branch2 that being once obtained1 however trifling the change may be1 the result depends upon himself40 ,m4 de ,jonghe1 who has had so much success in raising new varieties of pears and strawberries1#bg remarks with respect to the former1 8,there is another principle1 namely1 that the more a type has entered into a state of variation1 the greater is its tendency to continue doing so2 and the more it has varied from the original type1 the more it is disposed to vary still farther40 ,we have1 indeed1 already discussed this latter point when treating of the power which man possesses1 through selection1 of continually augmenting in the same direction each modification2 for this power depends on continued variability of the same general kind4 ,the most celebrated horticulturist in ,france1 namely1 ,vilmorin1#bh even maintains that1 when any particular variation is desired1 the first step is to get the plant to vary in any manner whatever1 and to go on selecting the most variable individuals1 even though they vary in the wrong direction2 for the fixed character of the species being once broken1 the desired variation will sooner or later appear4 ,as nearly all our animals were domesticated at an extremely remote epoch1 we cannot1 of course1 say whether they varied quickly or slowly when first subjected to new conditions4 ,but ,dr4 ,bachman#bi states that he has seen turkeys raised from the eggs of the wild species lose their metallic tints and become spotted with white in the third generation4 ,mr4 ,yarrell many years ago informed me that the wild ducks bred on the ponds in ,st4 ,james's ,park1 which had never been crossed1 as it is believed1 with domestic ducks1 lost their true plumage after a few generations4 ,an excellent observer1#cj who has often reared ducks from the eggs of the wild bird1 and who took precautions that there should be no crossing with domestic breeds1 has given1 as previously stated1 full details on the changes which they gradually undergo4 ,he found that he could not breed these wild ducks true for more than five or six generations1 8as they then proved so much less beautiful4 ,the white collar round the neck of the mallard became much broader and more irregular1 and white feathers appeared in the ducklings' wings40 ,they increased also in size of body2 their legs became less fine1 and they lost their elegant carriage4 ,fresh eggs were then procured from wild birds2 but again the same result followed4 ,in these cases of the duck and turkey we see that animals1 like plants1 do not depart from their primitive type until they have been subjected during several generations to domestication4 ,on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,yarrell informed me that the ,australian dingos1 bred in the ,zoological ,gardens1 almost invariably produced in the first generation puppies marked with white and other colours2 but1 these introduced dingos had probably been procured from the natives1 who keep them in a semi-domesticated state4 ,it is certainly a remarkable fact that changed conditions should at first produce1 as far as we can see1 absolutely no effect2 but that they should subsequently cause the character of the species to change4 ,in the chapter on pangenesis ,i shall attempt to throw a little light on this fact4 ,returning now to the causes which are supposed to induce variability4 ,some authors#ca believe that close interbreeding gives this tendency1 and leads to the production of monstrosities4 ,in the seventeenth chapter some few facts were advanced1 showing that monstrosities are1 as it appears1 occasionally thus induced2 and there can be no doubt that close interbreeding causes lessened fertility and a weakened constitution2 hence it may lead to variability3 but ,i have not sufficient evidence on this head4 ,on the other hand1 close interbreeding1 if not carried to an injurious extreme1 far from causing variability1 tends to fix the character of each breed4 ,it was formerly a common belief1 still held by some persons1 that the imagination of the mother affects the child in the womb4#cb ,this view is evidently not applicable to the lower animals1 which lay unimpregnated eggs1 or to plants4 ,dr4 ,william ,hunter1 in the last century1 told my father that during many years every woman in a large ,london ,lying-in ,hospital was asked before her confinement whether anything had specially affected her mind1 and the answer was written down2 and it so happened that in no one instance could a coincidence be detected between the woman's answer and any abnormal structure2 but when she knew the nature of the structure1 she frequently suggested some fresh cause4 ,the belief in the power of the mother's imagination may perhaps have arisen from the children of a second marriage resembling the previous father1 as certainly sometimes occurs1 in accordance with the facts given in the eleventh chapter4 ,crossing as a ,cause of ,variability4--,in an early part of this chapter it was stated that ,pallas#cc and a few other naturalists maintain that variability is wholly due to crossing4 ,if this means that new characters never spontaneously appear in our domestic races1 but that they are all directly derived from certain aboriginal species1 the doctrine is little less than absurd2 for it implies that animals like ,italian greyhounds1 pug-dogs1 bull-dogs1 pouter and fantail pigeons1 etc41 were able to exist in a state of nature4 ,but the doctrine may mean something widely different1 namely1 that the crossing of distinct species is the sole cause of the first appearance of new characters1 and that without this aid man could not have formed his various breeds4 ,as1 however1 new characters have appeared in certain cases by bud-variation1 we may conclude with certainty that crossing is not necessary for variability4 ,it is1 moreover1 certain that the breeds of various animals1 such as of the rabbit1 pigeon1 duck1 etc41 and the varieties of several plants1 are the modified descendants of a single wild species4 ,nevertheless1 it is probable that the crossing of two forms1 when one or both have long been domesticated or cultivated1 adds to the variability of the offspring1 independently of the commingling of the characters derived from the two parent-forms2 and this implies that new characters actually arise4 ,but we must not forget the facts advanced in the thirteenth chapter1 which clearly prove that the act of crossing often leads to the reappearance or reversion of long-lost characters2 and in most cases it would be impossible to distinguish between the reappearance of ancient characters and the first appearance of absolutely new characters4 ,practically1 whether new or old1 they would be new to the breed in which they reappeared4 ,grtner declares1#cd and his experience is of the highest value on such a point1 that1 when he crossed native plants which had not been cultivated1 he never once saw in the offspring any new character2 but that from the odd manner in which the characters derived from the parents were combined1 they sometimes appeared as if new4 ,when1 on the other hand1 he crossed cultivated plants1 he admits that new characters occasionally appeared1 but he is strongly inclined to attribute their appearance to ordinary variability1 not in any way to the cross4 ,an opposite conclusion1 however1 appears to me the more probable4 ,according to ,klreuter1 hybrids in the genus ,mirabilis vary almost infinitely1 and he describes new and singular characters in the form of the seeds1 in the colour of the anthers1 in the cotyledons being of immense size1 in new and highly peculiar odours1 in the flowers expanding early in the season1 and in their closing at night4 ,with respect to one lot of these hybrids1 he remarks that they presented characters exactly the reverse of what might have been expected from their parentage4#ce ,prof4 ,lecoq#cf speaks strongly to the same effect in regard to this same genus1 and asserts that many of the hybrids from ,mirabilis jalapa and multiflora might easily be mistaken for distinct species1 and adds that they differed in a greater degree than the other species of the genus1 from ,m4 jalapa4 ,herbert1 also1 has described#cg certain hybrid ,rhododendrons as being 8as unlike all others in foliage1 as if they had been a separate species40 ,the common experience of floriculturists proves that the crossing and recrossing of distinct but allied plants1 such as the species of ,petunia1 ,calceolaria1 ,fuchsia1 ,verbena1 etc41 induces excessive variability2 hence the appearance of quite new characters is probable4 ,m4 ,carrire#ch has lately discussed this subject3 he states that ,erythrina cristagalli had been multiplied by seed for many years1 but had not yielded any varieties3 it was then crossed with the allied ,e4 herbacea1 and 8the resistance was now overcome1 and varieties were produced with flowers of extremely different size1 form1 and colour40 ,from the general and apparently well-founded belief that the crossing of distinct species1 besides commingling their characters1 adds greatly to their variability1 it has probably arisen that some botanists have gone so far as to maintain#ci that1 when a genus includes only a single species1 this when cultivated never varies4 ,the proposition made so broadly cannot be admitted2 but it is probably true that the variability of monotypic genera when cultivated is generally less than that of genera including numerous species1 and this quite independently of the effects of crossing4 ,i have shown in my #8,origin of ,species' that the species belonging to small genera generally yield a less number of varieties in a state of nature than those belonging to large genera4 ,hence the species of small genera would1 it is probable1 produce fewer varieties under cultivation than the already variable species of larger genera4 ,although we have not at present sufficient evidence that the crossing of species1 which have never been cultivated1 leads to the appearance of new characters1 this apparently does occur with species which have been already rendered in some degree variable through cultivation4 ,hence crossing1 like any other change in the conditions of life1 seems to be an element1 probably a potent one1 in causing variability4 ,but we seldom have the means of distinguishing1 as previously remarked1 between the appearance of really new characters and the reappearance of long-lost characters1 evoked through the act of crossing4 ,i will give an instance of the difficulty in distinguishing such cases4 ,the species of ,datura may be divided into two sections1 those having white flowers with green stems1 and those having purple flowers with brown stems3 now ,naudin#dj crossed ,datura lvis and ferox1 both of which belong to the white section1 and raised from them #bje hybrids4 ,of these hybrids1 every one had brown stems and bore purple flowers2 so that they resembled the species of the other section of the genus1 and not their own two parents4 ,naudin was so much astonished at this fact1 that he was led carefully to observe both parent-species1 and he discovered that the pure seedlings of ,d4 ferox1 immediately after germination1 had dark purple stems1 extending from the young roots up to the cotyledons1 and that this tint remained ever afterwards as a ring round the base of the stem of the plant when old4 ,now ,i have shown in the thirteenth chapter that the retention or exaggeration of an early character is so intimately related to reversion1 that it evidently comes under the same principle4 ,hence probably we ought to look at the purple flowers and brown stems of these hybrids1 not as new characters due to variability1 but as a return to the former state of some ancient progenitor4 ,independently of the appearance of new characters from crossing1 a few words may be added to what has been said in former chapters on the unequal combination and transmission of the characters proper to the two parent-forms4 ,when two species or races are crossed1 the offspring of the first generation are generally uniform1 but those subsequently produced display an almost infinite diversity of character4 ,he who wishes1 says ,klreuter1#da to obtain an endless number of varieties from hybrids should cross and recross them4 ,there is also much variability when hybrids or mongrels are reduced or absorbed by repeated crosses with either pure parent-form3 and a still higher degree of variability when three distinct species1 and most of all when four species1 are blended together by successive crosses4 ,beyond this point ,grtner1#db on whose authority the foregoing statements are made1 never succeeded in effecting a union2 but ,max ,wichura#dc united six distinct species of willows into a single hybrid4 ,the sex of the parent species affects in an inexplicable manner the degree of variability of hybrids2 for ,grtner#dd repeatedly found that when a hybrid was used as a father and either one of the pure parent-species1 or a third species1 was used as the mother1 the offspring were more variable than when the same hybrid was used as the mother1 and either pure parent or the same third species as the father3 thus seedlings from ,dianthus barbatus crossed by the hybrid ,d4 chinensi-barbatus were more variable than those raised from this latter hybrid fertilised by the pure ,d4 barbatus4 ,max ,wichura#de insists strongly on an analogous result with his hybrid willows4 ,again ,grtner#df asserts that the degree of variability sometimes differs in hybrids raised from reciprocal crosses between the same two species2 and here the sole difference is1 that the one species is first used as the father and then as the mother4 ,on the whole we see that1 independently of the appearance of new characters1 the variability of successive crossed generations is extremely complex1 partly from the offspring partaking unequally of the characters of the two parent-forms1 and more especially from their unequal tendency to revert to such characters or to those of more ancient progenitors4 ,on the ,manner and on the ,period of ,action of the ,causes which induce ,variability4--,this is an extremely obscure subject1 and we need here only consider1 whether inherited variations are due to certain parts being acted on after they have been formed1 or through the reproductive system being affected before their formation2 and in the former case at what period of growth or development the effect is produced4 ,we shall see in the two following chapters that various agencies1 such as an abundant supply of food1 exposure to a different climate1 increased use or disuse of parts1 etc41 prolonged during several generations1 certainly modify either the whole organisation or certain organs2 and it is clear at least in the case of bud-variation that the action cannot have been through the reproductive system4 ,with respect to the part which the reproductive system takes in causing variability1 we have seen in the eighteenth chapter that even slight changes in the conditions of life have a remarkable power in causing a greater or less degree of sterility4 ,hence it seems not improbable that beings generated through a system so easily affected should themselves be affected1 or should fail to inherit1 or inherit in excess1 characters proper to their parents4 ,we know that certain groups of organic beings1 but with exceptions in each group1 have their reproductive systems much more easily affected by changed conditions than other groups2 for instance1 carnivorous birds1 more readily than carnivorous mammals1 and parrots more readily than pigeons2 and this fact harmonises with the apparently capricious manner and degree in which various groups of animals and plants vary under domestication4 ,klreuter#dg was struck with the parallelism between the excessive variability of hybrids when crossed and recrossed in various ways1--these hybrids having their reproductive powers more or less affected1--and the variability of anciently cultivated plants4 ,max ,wichura#dh has gone one step farther1 and shows that with many of our highly cultivated plants1 such as the hyacinth1 tulip1 auricula1 snapdragon1 potato1 cabbage1 etc41 which there is no reason to believe have been hybridised1 the anthers contain many irregular pollen-grains in the same state as in hybrids4 ,he finds also in certain wild forms1 the same coincidence between the state of the pollen and a high degree of variability1 as in many species of ,rubus2 but in ,r4 caesius and idaeus1 which are not highly variable species1 the pollen is sound4 ,it is also notorious that many cultivated plants1 such as the banana1 pineapple1 bread-fruit1 and others previously mentioned1 have their reproductive organs so seriously affected as to be generally quite sterile2 and when they do yield seed1 the seedlings1 judging from the large number of cultivated races which exist1 must be variable in an extreme degree4 ,these facts indicate that there is some relation between the state of the reproductive organs and a tendency to variability2 but we must not conclude that the relation is strict4 ,although many of our highly cultivated plants may have their pollen in a deteriorated condition1 yet1 as we have previously seen1 they yield more seeds1 and our anciently domesticated animals are more prolific1 than the corresponding species in a state of nature4 ,the peacock is almost the only bird which is believed to be less fertile under domestication than in its native state1 and it has varied in a remarkably small degree4 ,from these considerations it would seem that changes in the conditions of life lead either to sterility or to variability1 or to both2 and not that sterility induces variability4 ,on the whole it is probable that any cause affecting the organs of reproduction would likewise affect their product1--that is1 the offspring thus generated4 ,the period of life at which the causes that induce variability act1 is likewise an obscure subject1 which has been discussed by various authors4#di ,in some of the cases1 to be given in the following chapter1 of modifications from the direct action of changed conditions1 which are inherited1 there can be no doubt that the causes have acted on the mature or nearly mature animal4 ,on the other hand1 monstrosities1 which cannot be distinctly separated from lesser variations1 are often caused by the embryo being injured whilst in the mother's womb or in the egg4 ,thus ,i4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire#ej asserts that poor women who work hard during their pregnancy1 and the mothers of illegitimate children troubled in their minds and forced to conceal their state1 are far more liable to give birth to monsters than women in easy circumstances4 ,the eggs of the fowl when placed upright or otherwise treated unnaturally frequently produce monstrous chickens4 ,it would1 however1 appear that complex monstrosities are induced more frequently during a rather late than during a very early period of embryonic life2 but this may partly result from some one part1 which has been injured during an early period1 affecting by its abnormal growth other parts subsequently developed2 and this would be less likely to occur with parts injured at a later period4#ea ,when any part or organ becomes monstrous through abortion1 a rudiment is generally left1 and this likewise indicates that its development had already commenced4 ,insects sometimes have their antennae or legs in a monstrous condition1 the larvae of which do not possess either antennae or legs2 and in these cases1 as ,quatrefages#eb believes1 we are enabled to see the precise period at which the normal progress of development was troubled4 ,but the nature of the food given to a caterpillar sometimes affects the colours of the moth1 without the caterpillar itself being affected2 therefore it seems possible that other characters in the mature insect might be indirectly modified through the larvae4 ,there is no reason to suppose that organs which have been rendered monstrous have always been acted on during their development2 the cause may have acted on the organisation at a much earlier stage4 ,it is even probable that either the male or female sexual elements1 or both1 before their union1 may be affected in such a manner as to lead to modifications in organs developed at a late period of life2 in nearly the same manner as a child may inherit from his father a disease which does not appear until old age4 ,in accordance with the facts above given1 which prove that in many cases a close relation exists between variability and the sterility following from changed conditions1 we may conclude that the exciting cause often acts at the earliest possible period1 namely1 on the sexual elements1 before impregnation has taken place4 ,that an affection of the female sexual element may induce variability we may likewise infer as probable from the occurrence of bud-variations2 for a bud seems to be the analogue of an ovule4 ,but the male element is apparently much oftener affected by changed conditions1 at least in a visible manner1 than the female element or ovule and we know from ,grtner's and ,wichura's statements that a hybrid used as the father and crossed with a pure species gives a greater degree of variability to the offspring1 than does the same hybrid when used as the mother4 ,lastly1 it is certain that variability may be transmitted through either sexual element1 whether or not originally excited in them1 for ,klreuter and ,grtner#ec found that when two species were crossed1 if either one was variable1 the offspring were rendered variable4 ,summary4--,from the facts given in this chapter1 we may conclude that the variability of organic beings under domestication1 although so general1 is not an inevitable contingent on life1 but results from the conditions to which the parents have been exposed4 ,changes of any kind in the conditions of life1 even extremely slight changes1 often suffice to cause variability4 ,excess of nutriment is perhaps the most efficient single exciting cause4 ,animals and plants continue to be variable for an immense period after their first domestication2 but the conditions to which they are exposed never long remain quite constant4 ,in the course of time they can be habituated to certain changes1 so as to become less variable2 and it is possible that when first domesticated they may have been even more variable than at present4 ,there is good evidence that the power of changed conditions accumulates2 so that two1 three1 or more generations must be exposed to new conditions before any effect is visible4 ,the crossing of distinct forms1 which have already become variable1 increases in the offspring the tendency to further variability1 by the unequal commingling of the characters of the two parents1 by the reappearance of long-lost characters1 and by the appearance of absolutely new characters4 ,some variations are induced by the direct action of the surrounding conditions on the whole organisation1 or on certain parts alone2 other variations appear to be induced indirectly through the reproductive system being affected1 as we know is often the case with various beings1 which when removed from their natural conditions become sterile4 ,the causes which induce variability act on the mature organism1 on the embryo1 and1 probably1 on the sexual elements before impregnation has been effected4 ,,references #a #8,des ,jacinthes1' etc41 ,amsterdam1 #agfh1 p4 #dc2 ,verlot1 #8,des ,varits1' etc41 p4 #hf4 ,on the reindeer see ,linnus1 #8,tour in ,lapland1' translated by ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smith1 vol4 i4 p4 #cad4 ,the statement in regard to ,german shepherds is given on the authority of ,dr4 ,weinland4 #b ,mller's #8,physiology1' ,eng4 translation1 vol4 ii4 p4 #affb4 ,with respect to the similarity of twins in constitution1 ,dr4 ,william ,ogle has given me the following extract from ,professor ,trousseau's ,lectures 7#8,clinique ,mdicale1' tom4 i4#a p4 #ebc71 in which a curious case is recorded3--8,j'ai donn mes soins deux frres jumeaux1 tous deux si extraordinairement ressemblants qu'il m'tait impossible de les reconnaitre1 moin de les voir l'un ct de l'autre4 ,cette ressemblance physique s'tendait plus loin3 ils avaient1 permettez-moi l'expression1 une similitude pathologique plus remarquable encore4 ,ainsi l'un d'eux que je voyais aux nothermes ,paris malade d'une ophthalmie rhumatismale me disait1 #8,en ce moment mon frere doit avoir une ophthalmie comme la mienne2' et comme je m'etais recrie1 il me montrait quelques jours apres une lettre qu'il venait de recevoir de ce frre alors ,vienne1 et qui lui crivait en effet--#8,j'ai mon ophthalmie1 tu dois avoir la tienne4' ,quelque singulier que ceci puisse paratre1 le fait n'en est pas moins exact3 on ne me l'a pas racont1 je l'ai vu1 et j'en ai vu d'autres analogues dans ma pratique4 ,ces deux jumeaux taient aussi tous deux asthmatiques1 et asthmatiques a un effroyable degr4 ,originaires de ,marseille1 ils n'ont jamais pu demeurer dans cette ville1 ou leurs intrts les appelaient souvent1 sans etre pris de leurs acces2 jamais ils n'en eprouvaient a ,paris4 ,bien mieux1 il leur suffisait de gagner ,toulon pour tre guris de leurs attaques de ,marseille4 ,voyageant sans cesse et dans tous pays pour leurs affaires1 ils avaient remarque que certaines localits leur taient funestes1 que dans d'autres ils etaient exempts de tout phnomne d'oppression40 #c ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' tom4 iii4 p4 #ceb2 ,moquin-,tandon1 #8,tratologie ,vgtale1' #ahda1 p4 #aae4 #d ,metzger1 #8,die ,getreidarten1' #ahda1 s4 #ci4 #e ,on the date-palm see ,vogel1 #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #ahed1 p4 #dfj4 ,on ,indian varieties1 ,dr4 ,f4 ,hamilton1 #8,transact4 ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 xiv4 p4 #bif4 ,on the varieties cultivated in ,tahiti1 see ,dr4 ,bennett1 in ,loudon's #8,mag4 of ,n4 ,hist41' vol4 v4 #ahcb1 p4 #dhd4 ,also ,ellis1 #8,polynesian ,researches1' vol4 i4 pp4 #cgj1 #cge4 ,on twenty varieties of the ,pandanus and other trees in the ,marianne ,island1 see #8,hooker's ,miscellany1' vol4 i4 p4 #cjh4 ,on the bamboo in ,china1 see ,huc's #8,chinese ,empire1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cjg4 #f #8,treatise on the ,culture of the ,apple1' etc41 p4 #c4 #g ,gallesio1 #8,teoria della ,riproduzione ,veg41' p4 #abe4 #h ,see ,dr4 ,hooker's ,memoir on ,arctic ,plants in #8,linn4 ,transact41' vol4 xxiii4 part ii4 ,mr4 ,woodward1 and a higher authority cannot be quoted1 speaks of the ,arctic mollusca 7in his #8,rudimentary ,treatise1' #ahef1 p4 #cee7 as remarkably subject to variation4 #i ,bechstein1 in his #8,naturgeschichte der ,stubenvgel1' #ahdj1 s4 #bch1 has some good remarks on this subject4 ,he states that his canary-birds varied in colour1 though kept on uniform food4 #aj #8,the ,plant1' by ,schleiden1 translated by ,henfrey1 #ahdh1 p4 #afi4 ,see also ,alex4 ,braun1 in #8,bot4 ,memoirs1' ,ray ,soc41 #ahec1 p4 #cac4 #aa ,messrs4 ,hardy and ,son1 of ,maldon1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahef1 p4 #deh4 ,carrire1 #8,production et ,fixation des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #ca4 #ab #8,quadrupedes du ,paraguay1' #ahja1 tom4 ii4 p4 #cai4 #ac ,m',clelland on ,indian ,cyprinid1 #8,asiatic ,researches1' vol4 xix4 part ii41 #ahci1 pp4 #bff1 #bfh1 #cac4 #ad ,quoted by ,sageret1 #8,pom4 ,phys41' #ahcj1 p4 #dc4 ,this statement1 however1 is not believed by ,decaisne4 #ae #8,the ,fruits of ,america1' #ahde1 p4 #e4 #af ,m4 ,cardan1 in #8,comptes ,rendus1' ,dec4 #ahdh1 quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdi1 p4 #aja4 #ag ,m4 ,alexis ,jordan mentions four excellent pears found in woods in ,france1 and alludes to others 7#8,mm4 ,acad4 de ,lyon1' tom4 ii4 #aheb1 p4 #aei74 ,poiteau's remark is quoted in #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 iv41 #ahbh1 p4 #che4 ,see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #cce1 for another case of a new variety of the pear found in a hedge in ,france4 ,also for another case1 see ,loudon's #8,encyclop4 of ,gardening1' p4 #ija4 ,mr4 ,rivers has given me similar information4 #ah ,duval1 #8,hist4 du ,poirier1' #ahdi1 p4 #b4 #ai ,i infer that this is the fact from ,van ,mons' statement 7#8,arbres ,fruitiers1' #ahce1 tom4 i4 p4 #ddf7 that he finds in the woods seedlings resembling all the chief cultivated races of both the pear and apple4 ,van ,mons1 however1 looked at these wild varieties as aboriginal species4 #bj ,downing1 #8,fruit-trees of ,north ,america1' p4 #dbb2 ,foley1 in #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 vi4 p4 #dab4 #ba #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdg1 p4 #bdd4 #bb #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahda1 p4 #chc2 #ahej1 p4 #gjj2 #ahed1 p4 #fej4 #bc #8,die ,getreidearten1' #ahdc1 s4 #ff1 #aaf1 #aag4 #bd ,sabine1 in #8,hort4 ,transact41' vol4 iii4 p4 #bbe2 ,bronn1 #8,geschichte der ,natur1' b4 ii4 s4 #aai4 #be #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 p4 #aab2 on ,zinnia1 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #heb4 #bf #8,the ,chrysanthemum1 its ,history1 etc41' #ahfe1 p4 #c4 #bg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahee1 p4 #ed2 #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,may #i1 #ahfe1 p4 #cfc4 #bh ,quoted by ,verlot1 #8,des ,varits1' etc41 #ahfe1 p4 #bh4 #bi #8,examination of the ,characteristics of ,genera and ,species1' ,charleston1 #ahee1 p4 #ad4 #cj ,mr4 ,hewitt1 #8,journal of ,hort41' #ahfc1 p4 #ci4 #ca ,devay1 #8,mariages ,consanguins1' pp4 #ig1 #abe4 ,in conversation ,i have found two or three naturalists of the same opinion4 #cb ,mller has conclusively argued against this belief1 #8,elements of ,phys41' ,eng4 translat41 vol4 ii4 #ahdb1 p4 #adje4 #cc #8,act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburg1' #aghj1 part ii4 p4 #hd1 etc4 #cd #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #bdi1 #bee1 #bie4 #ce #8,nova ,acta1 ,st4 ,petersburg1' #agid1 p4 #cgh2 #agie1 pp4 #cjg1 #cac1 #caf2 #aghg1 p4 #djg4 #cf #8,de la ,fcondation1' #ahfb1 p4 #caa4 #cg #8,amaryllidace1' #ahcg1 p4 #cfb4 #ch ,abstracted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #ajha4 #ci ,this was the opinion of the elder ,de ,candolle1 as quoted in #8,dic4 ,class4 d',hist4 ,nat41' tom4 viii4 p4 #dje4 ,puvis1 in his work1 #8,de la ,dgnration1' #ahcg1 p4 #cg1 has discussed this same point4 #dj #8,comptes ,rendus1' ,novembre #ba1 #ahfd1 p4 #hch4 #da #8,nova ,acta1 ,st4 ,petersburg1' #agid1 p4 #cia4 #db #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #ejg1 #eaf1 #egb4 #dc #8,die ,bastardbefruchtung1' etc41 #ahfe1 s4 #bd4 #dd #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #deb1 #ejg4 #de #8,die ,bastardbefruchtung1' s4 #ef4 #df #8,bastarderzeugung1' s4 #dbc4 #dg #8,dritte ,fortsetzung1' etc41 #agff1 s4 #he4 #dh #8,die ,bastardbefruchtung1' etc41 #ahfe1 s4 #ib3 see also the ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,berkeley on the same subject1 in #8,journal of ,royal ,hort4 ,soc41' #ahff1 p4 #hj4 #di ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas has given a history of opinion on this subject3 #8,hrd4 ,nat41' #ahdg1 tom4 i4 p4 #age4 #ej #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' tom4 iii4 p4 #dii4 #ea ,ibid41 tom4 iii4 pp4 #cib1 #ejb4 ,the several memoirs by ,m4 ,dareste hereafter referred to are of special value on this whole subject4 #eb ,see his interesting work1 #8,mtamorphoses de l',homme1' etc41 #ahfb1 p4 #abi4 #ec #8,dritte ,fortsetzung1' etc41 s4 #abc2 #8,bastarderzeugung' s4 #bdi4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,direct ,,and ,,definite ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,external ,,conditions ,,of ,,life4 ,,slight ,,modifications ,,in ,,plants ,,from ,,the ,,definite ,,action ,,of ,,changed ,,conditions1 ,,in ,,size1 ,,colour1 ,,chemical ,,properties1 ,,and ,,in ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,tissues--,,local ,,diseases--,,conspicuous ,,modifications ,,from ,,changed ,,climate ,,or ,,food1 ,,etc--,,plumage ,,of ,,birds ,,affected ,,by ,,peculiar ,,nutriment1 ,,and ,,by ,,the ,,inoculation ,,of ,,poison--,,land-,,shells--,,modificatio ns ,,of ,,organic ,,beings ,,in ,a ,,state ,,of ,,nature ,,through ,,the ,,definite ,,action ,,of ,,external ,,conditions--,,comparison ,,of ,,american ,,and ,,european ,,trees--,,galls--,,effects ,,of ,,parasitic ,,fungi--,,considerations ,,opposed ,,to ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,the ,,potent ,,influence ,,of ,,changed ,,external ,,conditions--,,parallel ,,series ,,of ,,varieties--,,amount ,,of ,,variation ,,does ,,not ,,correspond ,,with ,,the ,,degree ,,of ,,change ,,in ,,the ,,conditions--,,bud-,,variation--,,monst rosities ,,produced ,,by ,,unnatural ,,treatment--,,summary4 ,if we ask ourselves why this or that character has been modified under domestication1 we are1 in most cases1 lost in utter darkness4 ,many naturalists1 especially of the ,french school1 attribute every modification to the 8monde ambiant10 that is1 to changed climate1 with all its diversities of heat and cold1 dampness and dryness1 light and electricity1 to the nature of the soil1 and to varied kinds and amount of food4 ,by the term definite action1 as used in this chapter1 ,i mean an action of such a nature that1 when many individuals of the same variety are exposed during several generations to any particular change in their conditions of life1 all1 or nearly all the individuals1 are modified in the same manner4 ,the effects of habit1 or of the increased use and disuse of various organs1 might have been included under this head2 but it will be convenient to discuss this subject in a separate chapter4 ,by the term indefinite action ,i mean an action which causes one individual to vary in one way and another individual in another way1 as we often see with plants and animals after they have been subjected for some generations to changed conditions of life4 ,but we know far too little of the causes and laws of variation to make a sound classification4 ,the action of changed conditions1 whether leading to definite or indefinite results1 is a totally distinct consideration from the effects of selection2 for selection depends on the preservation by man of certain individuals1 or on their survival under various and complex natural circumstances1 and has no relation whatever to the primary cause of each particular variation4 ,i will first give in detail all the facts which ,i have been able to collect1 rendering it probable that climate1 food1 etc41 have acted so definitely and powerfully on the organisation of our domesticated productions1 that new sub-varieties or races have been thus formed without the aid of selection by man or nature4 ,i will then give the facts and considerations opposed to this conclusion1 and finally we will weigh1 as fairly as we can1 the evidence on both sides4 ,when we reflect that distinct races of almost all our domesticated animals exist in each kingdom of ,europe1 and formerly even in each district of ,england1 we are at first strongly inclined to attribute their origin to the definite action of the physical conditions of each country2 and this has been the conclusion of many authors4 ,but we should bear in mind that man annually has to choose which animals shall be preserved for breeding1 and which shall be slaughtered4 ,we have also seen that both methodical and unconscious selection were formerly practised1 and are now occasionally practised by the most barbarous races1 to a much greater extent than might have been anticipated4 ,hence it is difficult to judge how far differences in the conditions between1 for instance1 the several districts in ,england1 have sufficed to modify the breeds which have been reared in each4 ,it may be argued that1 as numerous wild animals and plants have ranged during many ages throughout ,great ,britain1 and still retain the same character1 the difference in conditions between the several districts could not have modified in a marked manner the various native races of cattle1 sheep1 pigs1 and horses4 ,the same difficulty of distinguishing between the effects of natural selection and the definite action of external conditions is encountered in a still higher degree when we compare closely allied species inhabiting two countries1 such as ,north ,america and ,europe1 which do not differ greatly in climate1 nature of soil1 etc41 for in this case natural selection will inevitably and rigorously have acted during a long succession of ages4 ,prof4 ,weismann has suggested#a that when a variable species enters a new and isolated country1 although the variations may be of the same general nature as before1 yet it is improbable that they should occur in the same proportional numbers4 ,after a longer or shorter period1 the species will tend to become nearly uniform in character from the incessant crossing of the varying individuals2 but owing to the proportion of the individuals varying in different ways not being the same in the two cases1 the final result will be the production of two forms somewhat different from one another4 ,in cases of this kind it would falsely appear as if the conditions had induced certain definite modifications1 whereas they had only excited indefinite variability1 but with the variations in slightly different proportional numbers4 ,this view may throw some light on the fact that the domestic animals which formerly inhabited the several districts in ,great ,britain1 and the half wild cattle lately kept in several ,british parks1 differed slightly from one another2 for these animals were prevented from wandering over the whole country and intercrossing1 but would have crossed freely within each district or park4 ,from the difficulty of judging how far changed conditions have caused definite modifications of structure1 it will be advisable to give as large a body of facts as possible1 showing that extremely slight differences within the same country1 or during different seasons1 certainly produce an appreciable effect1 at least on varieties which are already in an unstable condition4 ,ornamental flowers are good for this purpose1 as they are highly variable1 and are carefully observed4 ,all floriculturists are unanimous that certain varieties are affected by very slight differences in the nature of the artificial compost in which they are grown1 and by the natural soil of the district1 as well as by the season4 ,thus1 a skilful judge1 in writing on ,carnations and ,picotees#b asks 8where can ,admiral ,curzon be seen possessing the colour1 size1 and strength which it has in ,derbyshire8 ,where can ,flora's ,garland be found equal to those at ,slough8 ,where do high-coloured flowers revel better than at ,woolwich and ,birmingham8 ,yet in no two of these districts do the same varieties attain an equal degree of excellence1 although each may be receiving the attention of the most skilful cultivators40 ,the same writer then recommends every cultivator to keep five different kinds of soil and manure1 8and to endeavour to suit the respective appetites of the plants you are dealing with1 for without such attention all hope of general success will be vain40 ,so it is with the ,dahlia3#c the ,lady ,cooper rarely succeeds near ,london1 but does admirably in other districts2 the reverse holds good with other varieties2 and again1 there are others which succeed equally well in various situations4 ,a skilful gardener#d states that he procured cuttings of an old and well-known variety 7pulchella7 of ,verbena1 which from having been propagated in a different situation presented a slightly different shade of colour2 the two varieties were afterwards multiplied by cuttings1 being carefully kept distinct2 but in the second year they could hardly be distinguished1 and in the third year no one could distinguish them4 ,the nature of the season has an especial influence on certain varieties of the ,dahlia3 in #ahda two varieties were pre-eminently good1 and the next year these same two were pre-eminently bad4 ,a famous amateur#e asserts that in #ahfa many varieties of the ,rose came so untrue in character1 8that it was hardly possible to recognise them1 and the thought was not seldom entertained that the grower had lost his tally40 ,the same amateur#f states that in #ahfb two-thirds of his ,auriculas produced central trusses of flowers1 and such trusses are liable not to keep true2 and he adds that in some seasons certain varieties of this plant all prove good1 and the next season all prove bad2 whilst exactly the reverse happens with other varieties4 ,in #ahde the editor of the #8,gardener's ,chronicle'#g remarked how singular it was that this year many ,calceolarias tended to assume a tubular form4 ,with ,heartsease#h the blotched sorts do not acquire their proper character until hot weather sets in2 whilst other varieties lose their beautiful marks as soon as this occurs4 ,analogous facts have been observed with leaves3 ,mr4 ,beaton asserts#i that he raised at ,shrubland1 during six years1 twenty thousand seedlings from the ,punch ,pelargonium1 and not one had variegated leaves2 but at ,surbiton1 in ,surrey1 one-third1 or even a greater proportion1 of the seedlings from this same variety were more or less variegated4 ,the soil of another district in ,surrey has a strong tendency to cause variegation1 as appears from information given me by ,sir ,f4 ,pollock4 ,verlot#aj states that the variegated strawberry retains its character as long as grown in a dryish soil1 but soon loses it when planted in fresh and humid soil4 ,mr4 ,salter1 who is well known for his success in cultivating variegated plants1 informs me that rows of strawberries were planted in his garden in #ahei1 in the usual way2 and at various distances in one row1 several plants simultaneously became variegated2 and what made the case more extraordinary1 all were variegated in precisely the same manner4 ,these plants were removed1 but during the three succeeding years other plants in the same row became variegated1 and in no instance were the plants in any adjoining row affected4 ,the chemical qualities1 odours1 and tissues of plants are often modified by a change which seems to us slight4 ,the ,hemlock is said not to yield conicine in ,scotland4 ,the root of the ,aconitum napellus becomes innocuous in frigid climates4 ,the medicinal properties of the ,digitalis are easily affected by culture4 ,as the ,pistacia lentiscus grows abundantly in the ,south of ,france1 the climate must suit it1 but it yields no mastic4 ,the ,laurus sassafras in ,europe loses the odour proper to it in ,north ,america4#aa ,many similar facts could be given1 and they are remarkable because it might have been thought that definite chemical compounds would have been little liable to change either in quality or quantity4 ,the wood of the ,american ,locust-tree 7,robinia7 when grown in ,england is nearly worthless1 as is that of the ,oak-tree when grown at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4#ab ,hemp and flax1 as ,i hear from ,dr4 ,falconer1 flourish and yield plenty of seed on the plains of ,india1 but their fibres are brittle and useless4 ,hemp1 on the other hand1 fails to produce in ,england that resinous matter which is so largely used in ,india as an intoxicating drug4 ,the fruit of the ,melon is greatly influenced by slight differences in culture and climate4 ,hence it is generally a better plan1 according to ,naudin1 to improve an old kind than to introduce a new one into any locality4 ,the seed of the ,persian ,melon produces near ,paris fruit inferior to the poorest market kinds1 but at ,bordeaux yields delicious fruit4#ac ,seed is annually brought from ,thibet to ,kashmir#ad and produces fruit weighing from four to ten pounds1 but plants raised next year from seed saved in ,kashmir give fruit weighing only from two to three pounds4 ,it is well known that ,american varieties of the ,apple produce in their native land magnificent and brightly-coloured fruit1 but these in ,england are of poor quality and a dull colour4 ,in ,hungary there are many varieties of the kidney-bean1 remarkable for the beauty of their seeds1 but the ,rev4 ,m4,j4 ,berkeley#ae found that their beauty could hardly ever be preserved in ,england1 and in some cases the colour was greatly changed4 ,we have seen in the ninth chapter1 with respect to wheat1 what a remarkable effect transportal from the north to the south of ,france1 and conversely1 produced on the weight of the grain4 ,when man can perceive no change in plants or animals which have been exposed to a new climate or to different treatment1 insects can sometimes perceive a marked change4 ,a cactus has been imported into ,india from ,canton1 ,manilla ,mauritius1 and from the hot-houses of ,kew1 and there is likewise a so-called native kind which was formerly introduced from ,south ,america2 all these plants belong to the same species and are alike in appearance1 but the cochineal insect flourishes only on the native kind1 on which it thrives prodigiously4#af ,humboldt remarks#ag that white men 8born in the torrid zone walk barefoot with impunity in the same apartment where a ,european1 recently landed1 is exposed to the attacks of the ,pulex penetrans40 ,this insect1 the too well-known chigoe1 must therefore be able to perceive what the most delicate chemical analysis fails to discover1 namely1 a difference between the blood or tissues of a ,european and those of a white man born in the tropics4 ,but the discernment of the chigoe is not so surprising as it at first appears2 for according to ,liebig#ah the blood of men with different complexions1 though inhabiting the same country1 emits a different odour4 ,diseases peculiar to certain localities1 heights1 or climates1 may be here briefly noticed1 as showing the influence of external circumstances on the human body4 ,diseases confined to certain races of man do not concern us1 for the constitution of the race may play the more important part1 and this may have been determined by unknown causes4 ,the ,plica ,polonica stands1 in this respect1 in a nearly intermediate position2 for it rarely affects ,germans1 who inhabit the neighbourhood of the ,vistula1 where so many ,poles are grievously affected2 neither does it affect ,russians1 who are said to belong to the same original stock as the ,poles4#ai ,the elevation of a district often governs the appearance of diseases2 in ,mexico the yellow fever does not extend above #ibd metres2 and in ,peru1 people are affected with the verugas only between #fjj and #afjj metres above the sea2 many other such cases could be given4 ,a peculiar cutaneous complaint1 called the ,bouton d',alep1 affects in ,aleppo and some neighbouring districts almost every native infant1 and some few strangers2 and it seems fairly well established that this singular complaint depends on drinking certain waters4 ,in the healthy little island of ,st4 ,helena the scarlet-fever is dreaded like the ,plague2 analogous facts have been observed in ,chili and ,mexico4#bj ,even in the different departments of ,france it is found that the various infirmities which render the conscript unfit for serving in the army1 prevail with remarkable inequality1 revealing1 as ,boudin observes1 that many of them are endemic1 which otherwise would never have been suspected4#ba ,any one who will study the distribution of disease will be struck with surprise at what slight differences in the surrounding circumstances govern the nature and severity of the complaints by which man is at least temporarily affected4 ,the modifications as yet referred to are extremely slight1 and in most cases have been caused1 as far as we can judge1 by equally slight differences in the conditions4 ,but such conditions acting during a series of generations would perhaps produce a marked effect4 ,with plants1 a considerable change of climate sometimes produces a conspicuous result4 ,i have given in the ninth chapter the most remarkable case known to me1 namely1 that of varieties of maize1 which were greatly modified in the course of only two or three generations when taken from a tropical country to a cooler one1 or conversely4 ,dr4 ,falconer informs me that he has seen the ,english ,ribston-pippin apple1 a ,himalayan oak1 ,prunus and ,pyrus1 all assume in the hotter parts of ,india a fastigiate or pyramidal habit2 and this fact is the more interesting1 as a ,chinese tropical species of ,pyrus naturally grows thus4 ,although in these cases the changed manner of growth seems to have been directly caused by the great heat1 we know that many fastigiate trees have originated in their temperate homes4 ,in the ,botanic ,gardens of ,ceylon the apple-tree#bb 8sends out numerous runners under ground1 which continually rise into small stems1 and form a growth around the parent-tree40 ,the varieties of the cabbage which produce heads in ,europe fail to do so in certain tropical countries4#bc ,the ,rhododendron ciliatum produced at ,kew flowers so much larger and paler-coloured than those which it bears on its native ,himalayan mountain1 that ,dr4 ,hooker#bd would hardly have recognised the species by the flowers alone4 ,many similar facts with respect to the colour and size of flowers could be given4 ,the experiments of ,vilmorin and ,buckman on carrots and parsnips prove that abundant nutriment produces a definite and inheritable effect on the roots1 with scarcely any change in other parts of the plant4 ,alum directly influences the colour of the flowers of the ,hydrangea4#be ,dryness seems generally to favour the hairiness or villosity of plants4 ,grtner found that hybrid ,verbascums became extremely woolly when grown in pots4 ,mr4 ,masters1 on the other hand1 states that the ,opuntia leucotricha 8is well clothed with beautiful white hairs when grown in a damp heat1 but in a dry heat exhibits none of this peculiarity40#bf ,slight variations of many kinds1 not worth specifying in detail1 are retained only as long as plants are grown in certain soils1 of which ,sageret#bg gives some instances from his own experience4 ,odart1 who insists strongly on the permanence of the varieties of the grape1 admits#bh that some varieties1 when grown under a different climate or treated differently1 vary in a slight degree1 as in the tint of the fruit and in the period of ripening4 ,some authors have denied that grafting causes even the slightest difference in the scion2 but there is sufficient evidence that the fruit is sometimes slightly affected in size and flavour1 the leaves in duration1 and the flowers in appearance4#bi ,there can be no doubt1 from the facts given in the first chapter1 that ,european dogs deteriorate in ,india1 not only in their instincts but in structure2 but the changes which they undergo are of such a nature1 that they may be partly due to reversion to a primitive form1 as in the case of feral animals4 ,in parts of ,india the turkey becomes reduced in size1 8with the pendulous appendage over the beak enormously developed40#cj ,we have seen how soon the wild duck1 when domesticated1 loses its true character1 from the effects of abundant or changed food1 or from taking little exercise4 ,from the direct action of a humid climate and poor pasture the horse rapidly decreases in size in the ,falkland ,islands4 ,from information which ,i have received1 this seems likewise to be the case to a certain extent with sheep in ,australia4 ,climate definitely influences the hairy covering of animals2 in the ,west ,indies a great change is produced in the fleece of sheep1 in about three generations4 ,dr4 ,falconer states#ca that the ,thibet mastiff and goat1 when brought down from the ,himalaya to ,kashmir1 lose their fine wool4 ,at ,angora not only goats1 but shepherd-dogs and cats1 have fine fleecy hair1 and ,mr4 ,ainsworth#cb attributes the thickness of the fleece to the severe winters1 and its silky lustre to the hot summers4 ,burnes states positively#cc that the ,karakool sheep lose their peculiar black curled fleeces when removed into any other country4 ,even within the limits of ,england1 ,i have been assured that the wool of two breeds of sheep was slightly changed by the flocks being pastured in different localities4#cd ,it has been asserted on good authority#ce that horses kept during several years in the deep coal-mines of ,belgium become covered with velvety hair1 almost like that on the mole4 ,these cases probably stand in close relation to the natural change of coat in winter and summer4 ,naked varieties of several domestic animals have occasionally appeared2 but there is no reason to believe that this is in any way related to the nature of the climate to which they have been exposed4#cf ,it appears at first sight probable that the increased size1 the tendency to fatten1 the early maturity and altered forms of our improved cattle1 sheep1 and pigs1 have directly resulted from their abundant supply of food4 ,this is the opinion of many competent judges1 and probably is to a great extent true4 ,but as far as form is concerned1 we must not overlook the more potent influence of lessened use on the limbs and lungs4 ,we see1 moreover1 as far as size is concerned1 that selection is apparently a more powerful agent than a large supply of food1 for we can thus only account for the existence1 as remarked to me by ,mr4 ,blyth1 of the largest and smallest breeds of sheep in the same country1 of ,cochin-,china fowls and ,bantams1 of small ,tumbler and large ,runt pigeons1 all kept together and supplied with abundant nourishment4 ,nevertheless there can be little doubt that our domesticated animals have been modified1 independently of the increased or lessened use of parts1 by the conditions to which they have been subjected1 without the aid of selection4 ,for instance1 ,prof4 ,rtimeyer#cg shows that the bones of domesticated quadrupeds can be distinguished from those of wild animals by the state of their surface and general appearance4 ,it is scarcely possible to read ,nathusius's excellent #8,vorstudien'#ch and doubt that1 with the highly improved races of the pig1 abundant food has produced a conspicuous effect on the general form of the body1 on the breadth of the head and face1 and even on the teeth4 ,nathusius rests much on the case of a purely bred ,berkshire pig1 which when two months old became diseased in its digestive organs1 and was preserved for observation until nineteen months old2 at this age it had lost several characteristic features of the breed1 and had acquired a long1 narrow head1 of large size relatively to its small body1 and elongated legs4 ,but in this case and in some others we ought not to assume that1 because certain characters are lost1 perhaps through reversion1 under one course of treatment1 therefore that they were at first directly produced by an opposite treatment4 ,in the case of the rabbit1 which has become feral on the island of ,porto ,santo1 we are at first strongly tempted to attribute the whole change--the greatly reduced size1 the altered tints of the fur1 and the loss of certain characteristic marks--to the definite action of the new conditions to which it has been exposed4 ,but in all such cases we have to consider in addition the tendency to reversion to progenitors more or less remote1 and the natural selection of the finest shades of difference4 ,the nature of the food sometimes either definitely induces certain peculiarities1 or stands in some close relation with them4 ,pallas long ago asserted that the fat-tailed sheep of ,siberia degenerate and lose their enormous tails when removed from certain saline pastures2 and recently ,erman#ci states that this occurs with the ,kirgisian sheep when brought to ,orenburgh4 ,it is well known that hemp-seed causes bullfinches and certain other birds to become black4 ,mr4 ,wallace has communicated to me some much more remarkable facts of the same nature4 ,the natives of the ,amazonian region feed the common green parrot 7,chrysotis festiva1 ,linn47 with the fat of large ,siluroid fishes1 and the birds thus treated become beautifully variegated with red and yellow feathers4 ,in the ,malayan archipelago1 the natives of ,gilolo alter in an analogous manner the colours of another parrot1 namely1 the ,lorius garrulus1 ,linn41 and thus produce the ,lori rajah or ,king-,lory4 ,these parrots in the ,malay ,islands and ,south ,america1 when fed by the natives on natural vegetable food1 such as rice and plaintains1 retain their proper colours4 ,mr4 ,wallace has1 also1 recorded#dj a still more singular fact4 8,the ,indians 7of ,s4 ,america7 have a curious art by which they change the colours of the feathers of many birds4 ,they pluck out those from the part they wish to paint1 and inoculate the fresh wound with the milky secretion from the skin of a small toad4 ,the feathers grow of a brilliant yellow colour1 and on being plucked out1 it is said1 grow again of the same colour without any fresh operation40 ,bechstein#da does not entertain any doubt that seclusion from light affects1 at least temporarily1 the colours of cage-birds4 ,it is well known that the shells of land-mollusca are affected by the abundance of lime in different districts4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire#db gives the case of ,helix lactea1 which has recently been carried from ,spain to the ,south of ,france and to the ,rio ,plata1 and in both countries now presents a distinct appearance1 but whether this has resulted from food or climate is not known4 ,with respect to the common oyster1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,buckland informs me that he can generally distinguish the shells from different districts2 young oysters brought from ,wales and laid down in beds where 8natives0 are indigenous1 in the short space of two months begin to assume the 8native0 character4 ,m4 ,costa#dc has recorded a much more remarkable case of the same nature1 namely1 that young shells taken from the shores of ,england and placed in the ,mediterranean1 at once altered their manner of growth and formed prominent diverging rays1 like those on the shells of the proper ,mediterranean oyster4 ,the same individual shell1 showing both forms of growth1 was exhibited before a society in ,paris4 ,lastly1 it is well known that caterpillars fed on different food sometimes either themselves acquire a different colour or produce moths differing in colour4#dd ,it would be travelling beyond my proper limits here to discuss how far organic beings in a state of nature are definitely modified by changed conditions4 ,in my #8,origin of ,species' ,i have given a brief abstract of the facts bearing on this point1 and have shown the influence of light on the colours of birds1 and of residence near the sea on the lurid tints of insects1 and on the succulency of plants4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer#de has recently discussed with much ability this whole subject on general grounds4 ,he argues1 for instance1 that with all animals the external and internal tissues are differently acted on by the surrounding conditions1 and they invariably differ in intimate structure4 ,so again the upper and lower surfaces of true leaves1 as well as of stems and petioles1 when these assume the function and occupy the position of leaves1 are differently circumstanced with respect to light1 etc41 and apparently in consequence differ in structure4 ,but1 as ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer admits1 it is most difficult in all such cases to distinguish between the effects of the definite action of physical conditions and the accumulation through natural selection of inherited variations which are serviceable to the organism1 and which have arisen independently of the definite action of these conditions4 ,although we are not here concerned with the definite action of the conditions of life on organisms in a state of nature1 ,i may state that much evidence has been gained during the last few years on this subject4 ,in the ,united ,states1 for instance1 it has been clearly proved1 more especially by ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,allen1 that1 with birds1 many species differ in tint1 size of body and of beak1 and in length of tail1 in proceeding from the ,north to the ,south2 and it appears that these differences must be attributed to the direct action of temperature4#df ,with respect to plants ,i will give a somewhat analogous case3 ,mr4 ,meehan1#dg has compared twenty-nine kinds of ,american trees with their nearest ,european allies1 all grown in close proximity and under as nearly as possible the same conditions4 ,in the ,american species he finds1 with the rarest exceptions1 that the leaves fall earlier in the season1 and assume before their fall a brighter tint2 that they are less deeply toothed or serrated2 that the buds are smaller2 that the trees are more diffuse in growth and have fewer branchlets2 and1 lastly1 that the seeds are smaller--all in comparison with the corresponding ,european species4 ,now considering that these corresponding trees belong to several distinct orders1 and that they are adapted to widely different stations1 it can hardly be supposed that their differences are of any special service to them in the ,new and ,old worlds2 and if so such differences cannot have been gained through natural selection1 and must be attributed to the long continued action of a different climate4 ,galls4--,another class of facts1 not relating to cultivated plants1 deserves attention4 ,i allude to the production of galls4 ,every one knows the curious1 bright-red1 hairy productions on the wild rose-tree1 and the various different galls produced by the oak4 ,some of the latter resemble fruit1 with one face as rosy as the rosiest apple4 ,these bright colours can be of no service either to the gall-forming insect or to the tree1 and probably are the direct result of the action of the light1 in the same manner as the apples of ,nova ,scotia or ,canada are brighter coloured than ,english apples4 ,according to ,osten ,sacken's latest revision1 no less than fifty-eight kinds of galls are produced on the several species of oak1 by ,cynips with its sub-genera2 and ,mr4 ,b4 ,d4 ,walsh#dh states that he can add many others to the list4 ,one ,american species of willow1 the ,salix humilis1 bears ten distinct kinds of galls4 ,the leaves which spring from the galls of various ,english willows differ completely in shape from the natural leaves4 ,the young shoots of junipers and firs1 when punctured by certain insects1 yield monstrous growths resembling flowers and fir-cones2 and the flowers of some plants become from the same cause wholly changed in appearance4 ,galls are produced in every quarter of the world2 of several sent to me by ,mr4 ,thwaites from ,ceylon1 some were as symmetrical as a composite flower when in bud1 others smooth and spherical like a berry2 some protected by long spines1 others clothed with yellow wool formed of long cellular hairs1 others with regularly tufted hairs4 ,in some galls the internal structure is simple1 but in others it is highly complex2 thus ,m4 ,lacaze-,duthiers#di has figured in the common ink-gall no less than seven concentric layers1 composed of distinct tissue1 namely1 the epidermic1 sub-epidermic1 spongy1 intermediate1 and the hard protective layer formed of curiously thickened woody cells1 and1 lastly1 the central mass1 abounding with starch-granules on which the larv feed4 ,galls are produced by insects of various orders1 but the greater number by species of ,cynips4 ,it is impossible to read ,m4 ,lacaze-,duthiers' discussion and doubt that the poisonous secretion of the insect causes the growth of the gall2 and every one knows how virulent is the poison secreted by wasps and bees1 which belong to the same group with ,cynips4 ,galls grow with extraordinary rapidity1 and it is said that they attain their full size in a few days2#ej it is certain that they are almost completely developed before the larvae are hatched4 ,considering that many gall-insects are extremely small1 the drop of secreted poison must be excessively minute2 it probably acts on one or two cells alone1 which1 being abnormally stimulated1 rapidly increase by a process of self-division4 ,galls1 as ,mr4 ,walsh#ea remarks1 afford good1 constant1 and definite characters1 each kind keeping as true to form as does any independent organic being4 ,this fact becomes still more remarkable when we hear that1 for instance1 seven out of the ten different kinds of galls produced on ,salix humilis are formed by gall-gnats 7,cecidomyid7 which 8though essentially distinct species1 yet resemble one another so closely that in almost all cases it is difficult1 and in most cases impossible1 to distinguish the full-grown insects one from the other40#eb ,for in accordance with a wide-spread analogy we may safely infer that the poison secreted by insects so closely allied would not differ much in nature2 yet this slight difference is sufficient to induce widely different results4 ,in some few cases the same species of gall-gnat produces on distinct species of willows galls which cannot be distinguished2 the ,cynips fecundatrix1 also1 has been known to produce on the ,turkish oak1 to which it is not properly attached1 exactly the same kind of gall as on the ,european oak4#ec ,these latter facts apparently prove that the nature of the poison is a more powerful agent in determining the form of the gall than the specific character of the tree which is acted on4 ,as the poisonous secretion of insects belonging to various orders has the special power of affecting the growth of various plants2 as a slight difference in the nature of the poison suffices to produce widely different results2 and lastly1 as we know that the chemical compounds secreted by plants are eminently liable to be modified by changed conditions of life1 we may believe it possible that various parts of a plant might be modified through the agency of its own altered secretions4 ,compare1 for instance1 the mossy and viscid calyx of a moss-rose1 which suddenly appears through bud-variation on a ,provence-rose1 with the gall of red moss growing from the inoculated leaf of a wild rose1 with each filament symmetrically branched like a microscopical spruce-fir1 bearing a glandular tip and secreting odoriferous gummy matter4#ed ,or compare1 on the one hand1 the fruit of the peach1 with its hairy skin1 fleshy covering1 hard shell and kernel1 and on the other hand one of the more complex galls with its epidermic1 spongy1 and woody layers1 surrounding tissue loaded with starch granules4 ,these normal and abnormal structures manifestly present a certain degree of resemblance4 ,or1 again1 reflect on the cases above given of parrots which have had their plumage brightly decorated through some change in their blood1 caused by having been fed on certain fishes1 or locally inoculated with the poison of a toad4 ,i am far from wishing to maintain that the moss-rose or the hard shell of the peach-stone or the bright colours of birds are actually due to any chemical change in the sap or blood2 but these cases of galls and of parrots are excellently adapted to show us how powerfully and singularly external agencies may affect structure4 ,with such facts before us1 we need feel no surprise at the appearance of any modification in any organic being4 ,i may1 also1 here allude to the remarkable effects which parasitic fungi sometimes produce on plants4 ,reissek#ee has described a ,thesium1 affected by an cidium1 which was greatly modified1 and assumed some of the characteristic features of certain allied species1 or even genera4 ,suppose1 says ,reissek1 8the condition originally caused by the fungus to become constant in the course of time1 the plant would1 if found growing wild1 be considered as a distinct species or even as belonging to a new genus40 ,i quote this remark to show how profoundly1 yet in how natural a manner1 this plant must have been modified by the parasitic fungus4 ,mr4 ,meehan#ef also states that three species of ,euphorbia and ,portulaca olereacea1 which naturally grow prostrate1 become erect when they are attacked by the cidium4 ,euphorbia maculata in this case also becomes nodose1 with the branchlets comparatively smooth and the leaves modified in shape1 approaching in these respects to a distinct species1 namely1 the ,e4 hypericifolia4 ,facts and ,considerations opposed to the belief that the ,conditions of ,life act in a potent manner in causing definite ,modifications of ,structure ,i have alluded to the slight differences in species naturally living in distinct countries under different conditions2 and such differences we feel at first inclined to attribute1 probably often with justice1 to the definite action of the surrounding conditions4 ,but it must be borne in mind that there exist many animals and plants which range widely and have been exposed to great diversities of climate1 yet remain uniform in character4 ,some authors1 as previously remarked1 account for the varieties of our culinary and agricultural plants by the definite action of the conditions to which they have been exposed in the different parts of ,great ,britain2 but there are about #bjj plants#eg which are found in every single ,english county2 and these plants must have been exposed for an immense period to considerable differences of climate and soil1 yet do not differ4 ,so1 again1 some animals and plants range over a large portion of the world1 yet retain the same character4 ,notwithstanding the facts previously given on the occurrence of highly peculiar local diseases and on the strange modifications of structure in plants caused by the inoculated poison of insects1 and other analogous cases2 still there are a multitude of variations--such as the modified skull of the niata ox and bulldog1 the long horns of ,caffre cattle1 the conjoined toes of the solid-hoofed swine1 the immense crest and protuberant skull of ,polish fowls1 the crop of the pouter-pigeon1 and a host of other such cases--which we can hardly attribute to the definite action1 in the sense before specified1 of the external conditions of life4 ,no doubt in every case there must have been some exciting cause2 but as we see innumerable individuals exposed to nearly the same conditions1 and one alone is affected1 we may conclude that the constitution of the individual is of far higher importance than the conditions to which it has been exposed4 ,it seems1 indeed1 to be a general rule that conspicuous variations occur rarely1 and in one individual alone out of millions1 though all may have been exposed1 as far as we can judge1 to nearly the same conditions4 ,as the most strongly marked variations graduate insensibly into the most trifling1 we are led by the same train of thought to attribute each slight variation much more to innate differences of constitution1 however caused1 than to the definite action of the surrounding conditions4 ,we are led to the same conclusion by considering the cases1 formerly alluded to1 of fowls and pigeons1 which have varied and will no doubt go on varying in directly opposite ways1 though kept during many generations under nearly the same conditions4 ,some1 for instance1 are born with their beaks1 wings1 tails1 legs1 etc41 a little longer1 and others with these same parts a little shorter4 ,by the long-continued selection of such slight individual differences which occur in birds kept in the same aviary1 widely different races could certainly be formed2 and long-continued selection1 important as is the result1 does nothing but preserve the variations which arise1 as it appears to us1 spontaneously4 ,in these cases we see that domesticated animals vary in an indefinite number of particulars1 though treated as uniformly as is possible4 ,on the other hand1 there are instances of animals and plants1 which1 though they have been exposed to very different conditions1 both under nature and domestication1 have varied in nearly the same manner4 ,mr4 ,layard informs me that he has observed amongst the ,caffres of ,south ,africa a dog singularly like an arctic ,esquimaux dog4 ,pigeons in ,india present nearly the same wide diversities of colour as in ,europe2 and ,i have seen chequered and simply barred pigeons1 and pigeons with blue and white loins1 from ,sierra ,leone1 ,madeira1 ,england1 and ,india4 ,new varieties of flowers are continually raised in different parts of ,great ,britain1 but many of these are found by the judges at our exhibitions to be almost identical with old varieties4 ,a vast number of new fruit-trees and culinary vegetables have been produced in ,north ,america3 these differ from ,european varieties in the same general manner as the several varieties raised in ,europe differ from one another2 and no one has ever pretended that the climate of ,america has given to the many ,american varieties any general character by which they can be recognised4 ,nevertheless1 from the facts previously advanced on the authority of ,mr4 ,meehan with respect to ,american and ,european forest-trees it would be rash to affirm that varieties raised in the two countries would not in the course of ages assume a distinctive character4 ,dr4 ,m4 ,masters has recorded a striking fact#eh bearing on this subject3 he raised numerous plants of ,hybiscus syriacus from seed collected in ,south ,carolina and the ,holy ,land1 where the parent-plants must have been exposed to considerably different conditions2 yet the seedlings from both localities broke into two similar strains1 one with obtuse leaves and purple or crimson flowers1 and the other with elongated leaves and more or less pink flowers4 ,we may1 also1 infer the prepotent influence of the constitution of the organism over the definite action of the conditions of life1 from the several cases given in the earlier chapters of parallel series of varieties1--an important subject1 hereafter to be more fully discussed4 ,sub-varieties of the several kinds of wheat1 gourds1 peaches1 and other plants1 and to a limited extent sub-varieties of the fowl1 pigeon1 and dog1 have been shown either to resemble or to differ from one another in a closely corresponding or parallel manner4 ,in other cases1 a variety of one species resembles a distinct species2 or the varieties of two distinct species resemble one another4 ,although these parallel resemblances no doubt often result from reversion to the former characters of a common progenitor2 yet in other cases1 when new characters first appear1 the resemblance must be attributed to the inheritance of a similar constitution1 and consequently to a tendency to vary in the same manner4 ,we see something of a similar kind in the same monstrosity appearing and reappearing many times in the same species of animal1 and1 as ,dr4 ,maxwell ,masters has remarked to me1 in the same species of plant4 ,we may at least conclude1 that the amount of modification which animals and plants have undergone under domestication does not correspond with the degree to which they have been subjected to changed circumstances4 ,as we know the parentage of domesticated birds far better than of most quadrupeds1 we will glance through the list4 ,the pigeon has varied in ,europe more than almost any other bird2 yet it is a native species1 and has not been exposed to any extraordinary change of conditions4 ,the fowl has varied equally1 or almost equally1 with the pigeon1 and is a native of the hot jungles of ,india4 ,neither the peacock1 a native of the same country1 nor the guinea-fowl1 an inhabitant of the dry deserts of ,africa1 has varied at all1 or only in colour4 ,the turkey1 from ,mexico1 has varied but little4 ,the duck1 on the other hand1 a native of ,europe1 has yielded some well-marked races2 and as this is an aquatic bird1 it must have been subjected to a far more serious change in its habits than the pigeon or even the fowl1 which nevertheless have varied in a much higher degree4 ,the goose1 a native of ,europe and aquatic like the duck1 has varied less than any other domesticated bird1 except the peacock4 ,bud-variation is1 also1 important under our present point of view1 in some few cases1 as when all the eyes on the same tuber of the potato1 or all the fruit on the same plum-tree1 or all the flowers on the same plant1 have suddenly varied in the same manner1 it might be argued that the variation had been definitely caused by some change in the conditions to which the plants had been exposed2 yet1 in other cases1 such an admission is extremely difficult4 ,as new characters sometimes appear by bud-variation1 which do not occur in the parent-species or in any allied species1 we may reject1 at least in these cases1 the idea that they are due to reversion4 ,now it is well worth while to reflect maturely on some striking case of bud-variation1 for instance that of the peach4 ,this tree has been cultivated by the million in various parts of the world1 has been treated differently1 grown on its own roots and grafted on various stocks1 planted as a standard1 trained against a wall1 or under glass2 yet each bud of each sub-variety keeps true to its kind4 ,but occasionally1 at long intervals of time1 a tree in ,england1 or under the widely different climate of ,virginia1 produces a single bud1 and this yields a branch which ever afterwards bears nectarines4 ,nectarines differ1 as every one knows1 from peaches in their smoothness1 size1 and flavour2 and the difference is so great that some botanists have maintained that they are specifically distinct4 ,so permanent are the characters thus suddenly acquired1 that a nectarine produced by bud-variation has propagated itself by seed4 ,to guard against the supposition that there is some fundamental distinction between bud and seminal variation1 it is well to bear in mind that nectarines have likewise been produced from the stone of the peach2 and1 reversely1 peaches from the stone of the nectarine4 ,now is it possible to conceive external conditions more closely alike than those to which the buds on the same tree are exposed8 ,yet one bud alone1 out of the many thousands borne by the same tree1 has suddenly1 without any apparent cause1 produced a nectarine4 ,but the case is even stronger than this1 for the same flower-bud has yielded a fruit1 one-half or one-quarter a nectarine1 and the other half or three-quarters a peach4 ,again1 seven or eight varieties of the peach have yielded by bud-variation nectarines3 the nectarines thus produced1 no doubt1 differ a little from one another2 but still they are nectarines4 ,of course there must be some cause1 internal or external1 to excite the peach-bud to change its nature2 but ,i cannot imagine a class of facts better adapted to force on our minds the conviction that what we call the external conditions of life are in many cases quite insignificant in relation to any particular variation1 in comparison with the organisation or constitution of the being which varies4 ,it is known from the labours of ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 and recently from those of ,dareste and others1 that eggs of the fowl1 if shaken1 placed upright1 perforated1 covered in part with varnish1 etc41 produce monstrous chickens4 ,now these monstrosities may be said to be directly caused by such unnatural conditions1 but the modifications thus induced are not of a definite nature4 ,an excellent observer1 ,m4 ,camille ,dareste1#ei remarks 8that the various species of monstrosities are not determined by specific causes2 the external agencies which modify the development of the embryo act solely in causing a perturbation--a perversion in the normal course of development40 ,he compares the result to what we see in illness3 a sudden chill1 for instance1 affects one individual alone out of many1 causing either a cold1 or sore-throat1 rheumatism1 or inflammation of the lungs or pleura4 ,contagious matter acts in an analogous manner4#fj ,we may take a still more specific instance3 seven pigeons were struck by rattle-snakes3#fa some suffered from convulsions2 some had their blood coagulated1 in others it was perfectly fluid2 some showed ecchymosed spots on the heart1 others on the intestines1 etc42 others again showed no visible lesion in any organ4 ,it is well known that excess in drinking causes different diseases in different men2 but in the tropics the effects of intemperance differ from those caused in a cold climate2#fb and in this case we see the definite influence of opposite conditions4 ,the foregoing facts apparently give us as good an idea as we are likely for a long time to obtain1 how in many cases external conditions act directly1 though not definitely1 in causing modifications of structure4 ,summary4--,there can be no doubt1 from the facts given in this chapter1 that extremely slight changes in the conditions of life sometimes1 probably often1 act in a definite manner on our domesticated productions2 and1 as the action of changed conditions in causing indefinite variability is accumulative1 so it may be with their definite action4 ,hence considerable and definite modifications of structure probably follow from altered conditions acting during a long series of generations4 ,in some few instances a marked effect has been produced quickly on all1 or nearly all1 the individuals which have been exposed to a marked change of climate1 food1 or other circumstance4 ,this has occurred with ,european men in the ,united ,states1 with ,european dogs in ,india1 with horses in the ,falkland ,islands1 apparently with various animals at ,angora1 with foreign oysters in the ,mediterranean1 and with maize transported from one climate to another4 ,we have seen that the chemical compounds of some plants and the state of their tissues are readily affected by changed conditions4 ,a relation apparently exists between certain characters and certain conditions1 so that if the latter be changed the character is lost--as with the colours of flowers1 the state of some culinary plants1 the fruit of the melon1 the tail of fat-tailed sheep1 and the peculiar fleeces of other sheep4 ,the production of galls1 and the change of plumage in parrots when fed on peculiar food or when inoculated by the poison of a toad1 prove to us what great and mysterious changes in structure and colour1 may be the definite result of chemical changes in the nutrient fluids or tissues4 ,we now almost certainly know that organic beings in a state of nature may be modified in various definite ways by the conditions to which they have been long exposed1 as in the case of the birds and other animals in the northern and southern ,united ,states1 and of ,american trees in comparison with their representatives in ,europe4 ,but in many cases it is most difficult to distinguish between the definite result of changed conditions1 and the accumulation through natural selection of indefinite variations which have proved serviceable4 ,if it profited a plant to inhabit a humid instead of an arid station1 a fitting change in its constitution might possibly result from the direct action of the environment1 though we have no grounds for believing that variations of the right kind would occur more frequently with plants inhabiting a station a little more humid than usual1 than with other plants4 ,whether the station was unusually dry or humid1 variations adapting the plant in a slight degree for directly opposite habits of life would occasionally arise1 as we have good reason to believe from what we actually see in other cases4 ,the organisation or constitution of the being which is acted on1 is generally a much more important element than the nature of the changed conditions1 in determining the nature of the variation4 ,we have evidence of this in the appearance of nearly similar modifications under different conditions1 and of different modifications under apparently nearly the same conditions4 ,we have still better evidence of this in closely parallel varieties being frequently produced from distinct races1 or even distinct species2 and in the frequent recurrence of the same monstrosity in the same species4 ,we have also seen that the degree to which domesticated birds have varied1 does not stand in any close relation with the amount of change to which they have been subjected4 ,to recur once again to bud-variations4 ,when we reflect on the millions of buds which many trees have produced1 before some one bud has varied1 we are lost in wonder as to what the precise cause of each variation can be4 ,let us recall the case given by ,andrew ,knight of the forty-year-old tree of the yellow magnum bonum plum1 an old variety which has been propagated by grafts on various stocks for a very long period throughout ,europe and ,north ,america1 and on which a single bud suddenly produced the red magnum bonum4 ,we should also bear in mind that distinct varieties1 and even distinct species1--as in the case of peaches1 nectarines1 and apricots1--of certain roses and camellias1--although separated by a vast number of generations from any progenitor in common1 and although cultivated under diversified conditions1 have yielded by bud-variation closely analogous varieties4 ,when we reflect on these facts we become deeply impressed with the conviction that in such cases the nature of the variation depends but little on the conditions to which the plant has been exposed1 and not in any especial manner on its individual character1 but much more on the inherited nature or constitution of the whole group of allied beings to which the plant in question belongs4 ,we are thus driven to conclude that in most cases the conditions of life play a subordinate part in causing any particular modification2 like that which a spark plays1 when a mass of combustibles bursts into flame--the nature of the flame depending on the combustible matter1 and not on the spark4#fc ,no doubt each slight variation must have its efficient cause2 but it is as hopeless an attempt to discover the cause of each1 as to say why a chill or a poison affects one man differently from another4 ,even with modifications resulting from the definite action of the conditions of life1 when all or nearly all the individuals1 which have been similarly exposed1 are similarly affected1 we can rarely see the precise relation between cause and effect4 ,in the next chapter it will be shown that the increased use or disuse of various organs produces an inherited effect4 ,it will further be seen that certain variations are bound together by correlation as well as by other laws4 ,beyond this we cannot at present explain either the causes or nature of the variability of organic beings4 ,,references #a #8,ueber den ,einfluss der ,isolirung auf die ,artbildung1' #ahgb4 #b #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahec1 p4 #ahc4 #c ,mr4 ,wildman1 #8,floricultural ,soc41' ,feb4 #gth1 #ahdc1 reported in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #hf4 #d ,mr4 ,robson1 in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,feb4 #acth1 #ahff1 p4 #abb4 #e #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 p4 #bd4 #f ,ibid41 #ahfb1 p4 #hc4 #g #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahde1 p4 #ffj4 #h ,ibid41 #ahfc1 p4 #fbh4 #i #8,journal of ,hort41' #ahfa1 pp4 #fd1 #cji4 #aj #8,des ,varits1' etc41 p4 #gf4 #aa ,engel1 #8,sur les ,prop4 ,mdicales des ,plantes1' #ahfj1 pp4 #aj1 #be4 ,on changes in the odours of plants1 see ,dalibert's ,experiments quoted by ,beckman1 #8,inventions1' vol4 ii4 p4 #cdd2 and ,nees1 in ,ferussac1 #8,bull4 des ,sc4 ,nat41' #ahbd1 tom4 i4 p4 #fj4 ,with respect to the rhubarb1 etc41 see also #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdi1 p4 #cee2 #ahfb1 p4 #aabc4 #ab ,hooker1 #8,flora ,indica1' p4 #cb4 #ac ,naudin1 #8,annales des ,sc4 ,nat41' #dth series1 ,bot41 tom4 xi41 #ahei1 p4 #ha4 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahei1 p4 #dfd4 #ad ,moorcroft's #8,travels1' etc41 vol4 ii4 p4 #adc4 #ae #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfa1 p4 #aaac4 #af ,royle1 #8,productive ,resources of ,india1' p4 #ei4 #ag #8,personal ,narrative1' ,eng4 translat41 vol4 v4 p4 #aja4 ,this statement has been confirmed by ,karsten 7#8,beitrag zur ,kenntniss der ,rhynchoprion1' ,moscow1 #ahfd1 s4 #ci71 and by others4 #ah #8,organic ,chemistry1' ,eng4 translat41 #ast edit41 p4 #cfi4 #ai ,prichard1 #8,phys4 ,hist4 of ,mankind1' #ahea1 vol4 i4 p4 #aee4 #bj ,darwin1 #8,journal of ,researches1' #ahde1 p4 #dcd4 #ba ,these statements on disease are taken from ,dr4 ,boudin's #8,gographie et ,statistique ,mdicale1' #aheg1 tom4 i4 pp4 xliv4 and lii42 tom4 ii4 p4 #cae4 #bb #8,ceylon1' by ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,tennent1 vol4 i41 #ahei1 p4 #hi4 #bc ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #eb4 #bd #8,journal of ,horticultural ,soc41' vol4 vii41 #aheb1 p4 #aag4 #be #8,journal of ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 p4 #afj4 #bf ,see ,lecoq1 on the ,villosity of ,plants1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' tom4 iii4 pp4 #bhg1 #bia2 ,grtner1 #8,bastarderz41' s4 #bfa2 ,mr4 ,masters on the ,opuntia1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdf1 p4 #ddd4 #bg #8,pom4 ,phys41' p4 #acf4 #bh #8,amplographie1' #ahdi1 p4 #ai4 #bi ,grtner1 #8,bastarderz41' s4 #fjf1 has collected nearly all recorded facts4 ,andrew ,knight 7in #8,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc41' vol4 ii4 p4 #afj7 goes so far as to maintain that few varieties are absolutely permanent in character when propagated by buds or grafts4 #cj ,mr4 ,blyth1 #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xx4 #ahdg1 p4 #cia4 #ca #8,natural ,history ,review1' #ahfb1 p4 #aac4 #cb #8,journal of ,roy4 ,geographical ,soc41' vol4 ix41 #ahci1 p4 #bge4 #cc #8,travels in ,bokhara1' vol4 iii4 p4 #aea4 #cd ,see also1 on the influence of marshy pastures on the wool1 ,godron1 #8,l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #bb4 #ce ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #dch4 #cf ,azara has made some good remarks on this subject1 #8,quadrupedes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ccg4 ,see an account of a family of naked mice produced in ,england1 #8,proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahef1 p4 #ch4 #cg #8,die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahfa1 s4 #ae4 #ch #8,schweineschdel1' #ahfd1 s4 #ii4 #ci #8,travels in ,siberia1' ,eng4 translat41 vol4 i4 p4 #bbh4 #dj ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 #8,travels on the ,amazon and ,rio ,negro1' p4 #bid4 #da #8,naturgeschichte der ,stubenvgel1' #ahdj1 s4 #bfb1 #cjh4 #db #8,hist4 ,nat ,gn41' tom4 iii4 p4 #djb4 #dc #8,bull4 de ,la ,soc4 ,imp4 d',acclimat41' tom4 viii4 p4 #cea4 #dd ,see an account of ,mr4 ,gregson's experiments on the ,abraxus grossulariata1 #8,proc4 ,entomolog4 ,soc41' ,jan4 #fth1 #ahfb3 these experiments have been confirmed by ,mr4 ,greening1 in #8,proc4 of the ,northern ,entomolog4 ,soc41' ,july #bhth1 #ahfb4 ,for the effects of food on caterpillars1 see a curious account by ,m4 ,michely in #8,bull4 ,de ,la ,soc4 ,imp4 d',acclimat41' tom4 viii4 p4 #efc4 ,for analogous facts from ,dahlbom on ,hymenoptera1 see ,westwood's #8,modern ,class4 of ,insects1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ih4 ,see also ,dr4 ,l4 ,moller #8,die ,abhngigkeit der ,insecten1' #ahfg1 s4 #gj4 #de #8,the ,principles of ,biology1' vol4 ii41 #ahff4 ,the present chapters were written before ,i had read ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer's work1 so that ,i have not been able to make so much use of it as ,i should otherwise probably have done47 #df ,professor ,weismann comes to the same conclusion with respect to certain ,european butterflies in his valuable essay1 #8,ueber den ,saison-,dimorphismus1' #ahge4 ,i might also refer to the recent works of several other authors on the present subject2 for instance to ,kerner's #8,gute und schlechte ,arten1' #ahff4 #dg #8,proc4 ,acad4 ,nat4 ,soc4 of ,philadelphia1' ,jan4 #bhth1 #ahfb4 #dh ,see ,mr4 ,b4 ,d4 ,walsh's excellent papers in #8,proc4 ,entomolog4 ,soc4 ,philadelphia1' ,dec4 #ahff11 p4 #bhd4 ,with respect to the willow1 see ibid41 #ahfd4 p4 #edf4 #di ,see his admirable #8,histoire des ,galles' in #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 ,bot4' #crd series tom4 #ai #ahec p4 #bgc47 #ej ,kirby and ,spence's #8,entomology1' #ahah1 vol4 i4 p4 #dej2 ,lacaze-,duthiers1 ibid41 p4 #bhd4 #ea #8,proc4 ,entomolog4 ,soc4 ,philadelphia1' #ahfd1 p4 #eeh4 #eb ,mr4 ,b4 ,d4 ,walsh1 ibid41 p4 #fcc1 and ,dec4 #ahff1 p4 #bge4 #ec ,mr4 ,b4 ,d4 ,walsh1 ibid41 #ahfd1 pp4 #ede1 #daa1 #die2 and ,dec4 #ahff1 p4 #bgh4 ,see also ,lacaze-,duthiers4 #ed ,lacaze-,duthiers1 ibid41 pp4 #cbe1 #cbh4 #ee #8,linna1' vol4 xvii4 #ahdc2 quoted by ,dr4 ,m4 ,t4 ,masters1 ,royal ,institution1 ,march #afth1 #ahfj4 #ef #8,proc4 ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sc41 ,philadelphia1' ,june #afth1 #ahgd1 and ,july #bcrd1 #ahge4 #eg ,hewett ,c4 ,watson #8,cybele ,britannica1' vol4 i41 #ahdg1 p4 #aa4 #eh #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheg1 p4 #fbi4 #ei #8,mmoire sur la ,production ,artificielle des ,monstruosits1' #ahfb1 pp4 #h-ab2 #8,recherches sur les ,conditions1 etc41 chez les ,monstres1' #ahfc1 p4 #f4 ,an abstract is given of ,geoffroy's ,experiments by his son1 in his #8,vie1 ,travaux1' etc41 #ahdg1 p4 #bij4 #fj ,paget1 #8,lectures on ,surgical ,pathology1' #ahec1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhc4 #fa #8,researches upon the ,venom of the ,rattle-snake1' ,jan4 #ahfa1 by ,dr4 ,mitchell1 p4 #fg4 #fb ,mr4 ,sedgwick1 in #8,british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,july #ahfc1 p4 #age4 #fc ,professor ,weismann argues strongly in favour of this view in his #8,saison-,dimorphismus der ,schmetterlinge1' #ahge1 pp4 #dj-dc4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,laws ,,of ,,variation--,,use ,,and ,,disuse1 ,,etc4 ,,nisus ,,formativus1 ,,or ,,the ,,co-,,ordinating ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,organisation--,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,increased ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,of ,,organs--,,changed ,,habits ,,of ,,life--,,acclimatisation ,,with ,,animals ,,and ,,plants--,,various ,,methods ,,by ,,which ,,this ,,can ,,be ,,effected--,,arrests ,,of ,,development--,,rudimentary ,,organs4 ,in this and the two following chapters ,i shall discuss1 as well as the difficulty of the subject permits1 the several laws which govern ,variability4 ,these may be grouped under the effects of use and disuse1 including changed habits and acclimatisation--arrest of development--correlated variation--the cohesion of homologous parts-the variability of multiple parts--compensation of growth--the position of buds with respect to the axis of the plant--and lastly1 analogous variation4 ,these several subjects so graduate into one another that their distinction is often arbitrary4 ,it may be convenient first briefly to discuss that coordinating and reparative power which is common1 in a higher or lower degree1 to all organic beings1 and which was formerly designated by physiologists as nisus formativus4 ,blumenbach and others#a have insisted that the principle which permits a ,hydra1 when cut into fragments1 to develop itself into two or more perfect animals1 is the same with that which causes a wound in the higher animals to heal by a cicatrice4 ,such cases as that of the ,hydra are evidently analogous to the spontaneous division or fissiparous generation of the lowest animals1 and likewise to the budding of plants4 ,between these extreme cases and that of a mere cicatrice we have every gradation4 ,spallanzani#b by cutting off the legs and tail of a ,salamander1 got in the course of three months six crops of these members2 so that #fhg perfect bones were reproduced by one animal during one season4 ,at whatever point the limb was cut off1 the deficient part1 and no more1 was exactly reproduced4 ,when a diseased bone has been removed1 a new one sometimes 8gradually assumes the regular form1 and all the attachments of muscles1 ligaments1 etc41 become as complete as before40#c ,this power of regrowth does not1 however1 always act perfectly2 the reproduced tail of a lizard differs in the form of the scales from the normal tail3 with certain ,orthopterous insects the large hind legs are reproduced of smaller size3#d the white cicatrice which in the higher animals unites the edges of a deep wound is not formed of perfect skin1 for elastic tissue is not produced till long afterwards4#e 8,the activity of the nisus formativus10 says ,blumenbach1 8is in an inverse ratio to the age of the organised body40 ,its power is also greater with animals1 the lower they stand in the scale of organisation2 and animals low in the scale correspond with the embryos of higher animals belonging to the same class4 ,newport's observations#f afford a good illustration of this fact1 for he found that 8myriapods1 whose highest development scarcely carries them beyond the larva of perfect insects1 can regenerate limbs and antennae up to the time of their last moult20 and so can the larvae of true insects1 but1 except in one order1 not in the mature insect4 ,salamanders correspond in development with the tadpoles or larvae of the tailless ,batrachians1 and both possess to a large extent the power of regrowth2 but not so the mature tailless ,batrachians4 ,absorption often plays an important part in the repair of injuries4 ,when a bone is broken and does not unite1 the ends are absorbed and rounded1 so that a false joint is formed2 or if the ends unite1 but overlap1 the projecting parts are removed4#g ,a dislocated bone will form for itself a new socket4 ,displaced tendons and varicose veins excavate new channels in the bones against which they press4 ,but absorption comes into action1 as ,virchow remarks1 during the normal growth of bones2 parts which are solid during youth become hollowed out for the medullary tissue as the bone increases in size4 ,in trying to understand the many well-adapted cases of regrowth when aided by absorption1 we should remember that almost all parts of the organisation1 even whilst retaining the same form1 undergo constant renewal2 so that a part which is not renewed would be liable to absorption4 ,some cases1 usually classed under the so-called nisus formativus1 at first appear to come under a distinct head2 for not only are old structures reproduced1 but new structures are formed4 ,thus1 after inflammation 8false membranes10 furnished with blood-vessels1 lymphatics1 and nerves1 are developed2 or a ftus escapes from the ,fallopian tubes1 and falls into the abdomen1 8nature pours out a quantity of plastic lymph1 which forms itself into organised membrane1 richly supplied with blood-vessels10 and the ftus is nourished for a time4 ,in certain cases of hydrocephalus the open and dangerous spaces in the skull are filled up with new bones1 which interlock by perfect serrated sutures4#h ,but most physiologists1 especially on the ,continent1 have now given up the belief in plastic lymph or blastema1 and ,virchow#i maintains that every structure1 new or old1 is formed by the proliferation of pre-existing cells4 ,on this view false membranes1 like cancerous or other tumours1 are merely abnormal developments of normal growths2 and we can thus understand how it is that they resemble adjoining structures2 for instance1 that a 8false membrane in the serous cavities acquires a covering of epithelium exactly like that which covers the original serous membrane2 adhesions of the iris may become black apparently from the production of pigment-cells like those of the uvea40#aj ,no doubt the power of reparation1 though not always perfect1 is an admirable provision1 ready for various emergencies1 even for such as occur only at long intervals of time4#aa ,yet this power is not more wonderful than the growth and development of every single creature1 more especially of those which are propagated by fissiparous generation4 ,this subject has been here noticed1 because we may infer that1 when any part or organ is either greatly increased in size or wholly suppressed through variation and continued selection1 the co-ordinating power of the organisation will continually tend to bring again all the parts into harmony with one another4 ,on the ,effects of the ,increased ,use and ,disuse of ,organs4 ,it is notorious1 and we shall immediately adduce proofs1 that increased use or action strengthens muscles1 glands1 sense-organs1 etc42 and that disuse1 on the other hand1 weakens them4 ,it has been experimentally proved by ,ranke#ab that the flow of blood is greatly increased towards any part which is performing work1 and sinks again when the part is at rest4 ,consequently1 if the work is frequent1 the vessels increase in size and the part is better nourished4 ,paget#ac also accounts for the long1 thick1 dark-coloured hairs which occasionally grow1 even in young children1 near old-standing inflamed surfaces or fractured bones by an increased flow of blood to the part4 ,when ,hunter inserted the spur of a cock into the comb1 which is well supplied with blood-vessels1 it grew in one case spirally to a length of six inches1 and in another case forward1 like a horn1 so that the bird could not touch the ground with its beak4 ,according to the interesting observations of ,m4 ,sedillot1#ad when a portion of one of the bones of the leg of an animal is removed1 the associated bone enlarges till it attains a bulk equal to that of the two bones1 of which it has to perform the functions4 ,this is best exhibited in dogs in which the tibia has been removed2 the companion bone1 which is naturally almost filiform and not one-fifth the size of the other1 soon acquires a size equal to or greater than that of the tibia4 ,now1 it is at first difficult to believe that increased weight acting on a straight bone could1 by alternately increasing and diminishing the pressure1 cause the blood to flow more freely in the vessels which permeate the periosteum and thus supply more nutriment to the bone4 ,nevertheless the observations adduced by ,mr4 ,spencer1#ae on the strengthening of the bowed bones of rickety children1 along their concave sides1 leads to the belief that this is possible4 ,the rocking of the stem of a tree increases in a marked manner the growth of the woody tissue in the parts which are strained4 ,prof4 ,sachs believes1 from reasons which he assigns1 that this is due to the pressure of the bark being relaxed in such parts1 and not as ,knight and ,h4 ,spencer maintain1 to an increased flow of sap caused by the movement of the trunk4#af ,but hard woody tissue may be developed without the aid of any movement1 as we see with ivy closely attached to an old wall4 ,in all such cases1 it is very difficult to distinguish between the effects of long-continued selection and those which follow from the increased action of the part1 or directly from some other cause4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,spencer#ag acknowledges this difficulty1 and gives as an instance the thorns on trees and the shells of nuts4 ,here we have extremely hard woody tissue without the possibility of any movement1 and without1 as far as we can see1 any other directly exciting cause2 and as the hardness of these parts is of manifest service to the plant1 we may look at the result as probably due to the selection of so-called spontaneous variations4 ,every one knows that hard work thickens the epidermis on the hands2 and when we hear that with infants1 long before birth1 the epidermis is thicker on the palms and soles of the feet than on any other part of the body1 as was observed with admiration by ,albinus1#ah we are naturally inclined to attribute this to the inherited effects of long-continued use or pressure4 ,we are tempted to extend the same view even to the hoofs of quadrupeds2 but who will pretend to determine how far natural selection may have aided in the formation of structures of such obvious importance to the animal8 ,that use strengthens the muscles may be seen in the limbs of artisans who follow different trades2 and when a muscle is strengthened1 the tendons1 and the crests of bone to which they are attached1 become enlarged2 and this must likewise be the case with the blood-vessels and nerves4 ,on the other hand1 when a limb is not used1 as by ,eastern fanatics1 or when the nerve supplying it with nervous power is effectually destroyed1 the muscles wither4 ,so again1 when the eye is destroyed the optic nerve becomes atrophied1 sometimes even in the course of a few months4#ai ,the ,proteus is furnished with branchiae as well as with lungs3 and ,schreibers#bj found that when the animal was compelled to live in deep water1 the branchiae were developed to thrice their ordinary size1 and the lungs were partially atrophied4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the animal was compelled to live in shallow water1 the lungs became larger and more vascular1 whilst the branchiae disappeared in a more or less complete degree4 ,such modifications as these are1 however1 of comparatively little value for us1 as we do not actually know that they tend to be inherited4 ,in many cases there is reason to believe that the lessened use of various organs has affected the corresponding parts in the offspring4 ,but there is no good evidence that this ever follows in the course of a single generation4 ,it appears1 as in the case of general or indefinite variability1 that several generations must be subjected to changed habits for any appreciable result4 ,our domestic fowls1 ducks1 and geese have almost lost1 not only in the individual but in the race1 their power of flight2 for we do not see a young fowl1 when frightened1 take flight like a young pheasant4 ,hence ,i was led carefully to compare the limb-bones of fowls1 ducks1 pigeons1 and rabbits1 with the same bones in the wild parent-species4 ,as the measurements and weights were fully given in the earlier chapters ,i need here only recapitulate the results4 ,with domestic pigeons1 the length of the sternum1 the prominence of its crest1 the length of the scapulae and furculum1 the length of the wings as measured from tip to tip of the radii1 are all reduced relatively to the same parts in the wild pigeon4 ,the wing and tail feathers1 however1 are increased in length1 but this may have as little connection with the use of the wings or tail1 as the lengthened hair on a dog with the amount of exercise which it has habitually taken4 ,the feet of pigeons1 except in the long-beaked races1 are reduced in size4 ,with fowls the crest of the sternum is less prominent1 and is often distorted or monstrous2 the wing-bones have become lighter relatively to the leg-bones1 and are apparently a little shorter in comparison with those of the parent-form1 the ,gallus bankiva4 ,with ducks1 the crest of the sternum is affected in the same manner as in the foregoing cases3 the furculum1 coracoids1 and scapulae are all reduced in weight relatively to the whole skeleton3 the bones of the wings are shorter and lighter1 and the bones of the legs longer and heavier1 relatively to each other1 and relatively to the whole skeleton1 in comparison with the same bones in the wild-duck4 ,the decreased weight and size of the bones1 in the foregoing cases1 is probably the indirect result of the reaction of the weakened muscles on the bones4 ,i failed to compare the feathers of the wings of the tame and wild duck2 but ,gloger#ba asserts that in the wild duck the tips of the wing-feathers reach almost to the end of the tail1 whilst in the domestic duck they often hardly reach to its base4 ,he remarks also on the greater thickness of the legs1 and says that the swimming membrane between the toes is reduced2 but ,i was not able to detect this latter difference4 ,with the domesticated rabbit the body1 together with the whole skeleton1 is generally larger and heavier than in the wild animal1 and the leg-bones are heavier in due proportion2 but whatever standard of comparison be taken1 neither the leg-bones nor the scapulae have increased in length proportionally with the increased dimensions of the rest of the skeleton4 ,the skull has become in a marked manner narrower1 and1 from the measurements of its capacity formerly given1 we may conclude1 that this narrowness results from the decreased size of the brain1 consequent on the mentally inactive life led by these closely-confined animals4 ,we have seen in the eighth chapter that silk-moths1 which have been kept during many centuries closely confined1 emerge from their cocoons with their wings distorted1 incapable of flight1 often greatly reduced in size1 or even1 according to ,quatrefages1 quite rudimentary4 ,this condition of the wings may be largely owing to the same kind of monstrosity which often affects wild ,lepidoptera when artificially reared from the cocoon2 or it may be in part due to an inherent tendency1 which is common to the females of many ,bombycidae1 to have their wings in a more or less rudimentary state2 but part of the effect may be attributed to long-continued disuse4 ,from the foregoing facts there can be no doubt that with our anciently domesticated animals1 certain bones have increased or decreased in size and weight owing to increased or decreased use2 but they have not been modified1 as shown in the earlier chapters1 in shape or structure4 ,with animals living a free life and occasionally exposed to severe competition the reduction would tend to be greater1 as it would be an advantage to them to have the development of every superfluous part saved4 ,with highly-fed domesticated animals1 on the other hand1 there seems to be no economy of growth1 nor any tendency to the elimination of superfluous details4 ,but to this subject ,i shall recur4 ,turning now to more general observations1 ,nathusius has shown that with the improved races of the pig1 the shortened legs and snout1 the form of the articular condyles of the occiput1 and the position of the jaws with the upper canine teeth projecting in a most anomalous manner in front of the lower canines1 may be attributed to these parts not having been fully exercised4 ,for the highly-cultivated races do not travel in search of food1 nor root up the ground with their ringed muzzles4#bb ,these modifications of structure1 which are all strictly inherited1 characterise several improved breeds1 so that they cannot have been derived from any single domestic stock4 ,with respect to cattle1 ,professor ,tanner has remarked that the lungs and liver in the improved breeds 8are found to be considerably reduced in size when compared with those possessed by animals having perfect liberty02#bc and the reduction of these organs affects the general shape of the body4 ,the cause of the reduced lungs in highly-bred animals which take little exercise is obvious2 and perhaps the liver may be affected by the nutritious and artificial food on which they largely subsist4 ,again1 ,dr4 ,wilckens asserts#bd that various parts of the body certainly differ in ,alpine and lowland breeds of several domesticated animals1 owing to their different habits of life2 for instance1 the neck and fore-legs in length1 and the hoofs in shape4 ,it is well known that1 when an artery is tied1 the anastomosing branches1 from being forced to transmit more blood1 increase in diameter2 and this increase cannot be accounted for by mere extension1 as their coats gain in strength4 ,with respect to glands1 ,sir ,j4 ,paget observes that 8when one kidney is destroyed the other often becomes much larger1 and does double work40#be ,if we compare the size of the udders and their power of secretion in cows which have been long domesticated1 and in certain breeds of the goat in which the udders nearly touch the ground1 with these organs in wild or half-domesticated animals1 the difference is great4 ,a good cow with us daily yields more than five gallons1 or forty pints of milk1 whilst a first-rate animal1 kept1 for instance1 by the ,damaras of ,south ,africa1#bf 8rarely gives more than two or three pints of milk daily1 and1 should her calf be taken from her1 she absolutely refuses to give any40 ,we may attribute the excellence of our cows and of certain goats1 partly to the continued selection of the best milking animals1 and partly to the inherited effects of the increased action1 through man's art1 of the secreting glands4 ,it is notorious that short-sight is inherited2 and we have seen in the twelfth chapter from the statistical researches of ,m4 ,giraud-,teulon1 that the habit of viewing near objects gives a tendency to short-sight4 ,veterinarians are unanimous that horses are affected with spavins1 splints1 ringbones1 etc41 from being shod and from travelling on hard roads1 and they are almost equally unanimous that a tendency to these malformations is transmitted4 ,formerly horses were not shod in ,north ,carolina1 and it has been asserted that they did not then suffer from these diseases of the legs and feet4#bg ,our domesticated quadrupeds are all descended1 as far as is known1 from species having erect ears2 yet few kinds can be named1 of which at least one race has not drooping ears4 ,cats in ,china1 horses in parts of ,russia1 sheep in ,italy and elsewhere1 the guinea-pig formerly in ,germany1 goats and cattle in ,india1 rabbits1 pigs1 and dogs in all long-civilised countries have dependent ears4 ,with wild animals1 which constantly use their ears like funnels to catch every passing sound1 and especially to ascertain the direction whence it comes1 there is not1 as ,mr4 ,blyth has remarked1 any species with drooping ears except the elephant4 ,hence the incapacity to erect the ears is certainly in some manner the result of domestication2 and this incapacity has been attributed by various authors#bh to disuse1 for animals protected by man are not compelled habitually to use their ears4 ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith#bi states that in ancient effigies of the dog1 8with the exception of one ,egyptian instance1 no sculpture of the earlier ,grecian era produces representations of hounds with completely drooping ears2 those with them half pendulous are missing in the most ancient2 and this character increases1 by degrees1 in the works of the ,roman period40 ,godron also has remarked 8that the pigs of the ancient ,egyptians had not their ears enlarged and pendent40#cj ,but it is remarkable that the drooping of the ear is not accompanied by any decrease in size2 on the contrary1 animals so different as fancy rabbits1 certain ,indian breeds of the goat1 our petted spaniels1 blood-hounds1 and other dogs1 have enormously elongated ears1 so that it would appear as if their weight had caused them to droop1 aided perhaps by disuse4 ,with rabbits1 the drooping of the much elongated ears has affected even the structure of the skull4 ,the tail of no wild animal1 as remarked to me by ,mr4 ,blyth1 is curled2 whereas pigs and some races of dogs have their tails much curled4 ,this deformity1 therefore1 appears to be the result of domestication1 but whether in any way connected with the lessened use of the tail is doubtful4 ,the epidermis on our hands is easily thickened1 as every one knows1 by hard work4 ,in a district of ,ceylon the sheep have 8horny callosities that defend their knees1 and which arise from their habit of kneeling down to crop the short herbage1 and this distinguishes the ,jaffna flocks from those of other portions of the island20 but it is not stated whether this peculiarity is inherited4#ca ,the mucous membrane which lines the stomach is continuous with the external skin of the body2 therefore it is not surprising that its texture should be affected by the nature of the food consumed1 but other and more interesting changes likewise follow4 ,hunter long ago observed that the muscular coat of the stomach of a gull 7,larus tridactylus7 which had been fed for a year chiefly on grain was thickened2 and1 according to ,dr4 ,edmondston1 a similar change periodically occurs in the ,shetland ,islands in the stomach of the ,larus argentatus1 which in the spring frequents the cornfields and feeds on the seed4 ,the same careful observer has noticed a great change in the stomach of a raven which had been long fed on vegetable food4 ,in the case of an owl 7,strix grallaria71 similarly treated1 ,menetries states that the form of the stomach was changed1 the inner coat became leathery1 and the liver increased in size4 ,whether these modifications in the digestive organs would in the course of generations become inherited is not known4#cb ,the increased or diminished length of the intestines1 which apparently results from changed diet1 is a more remarkable case1 because it is characteristic of certain animals in their domesticated condition1 and therefore must be inherited4 ,the complex absorbent system1 the blood-vessels1 nerves1 and muscles1 are necessarily all modified together with the intestines4 ,according to ,daubenton1 the intestines of the domestic cat are one-third longer than those of the wild cat of ,europe2 and although this species is not the parent-stock of the domestic animal1 yet1 as ,isidore ,geoffroy has remarked1 the several species of cats are so closely allied that the comparison is probably a fair one4 ,the increased length appears to be due to the domestic cat being less strictly carnivorous in its diet than any wild feline species2 for instance1 ,i have seen a ,french kitten eating vegetables as readily as meat4 ,according to ,cuvier1 the intestines of the domesticated pig exceed greatly in proportionate length those of the wild boar4 ,in the tame and wild rabbit the change is of an opposite nature1 and probably results from the nutritious food given to the tame rabbit4#cc ,changed and inherited ,habits of ,life4--,this subject1 as far as the mental powers of animals are concerned1 so blends into instinct1 that ,i will here only remind the reader of such cases as the tameness of our domesticated animals--the pointing or retrieving of dogs-- their not attacking the smaller animals kept by man--and so forth4 ,how much of these changes ought to be attributed to mere habit1 and how much to the selection of individuals which have varied in the desired manner1 irrespectively of the special circumstances under which they have been kept1 can seldom be told4 ,we have already seen that animals may be habituated to a changed diet2 but some additional instances may be given4 ,in the ,polynesian ,islands and in ,china the dog is fed exclusively on vegetable matter1 and the taste for this kind of food is to a certain extent inherited4#cd ,our sporting dogs will not touch the bones of game birds1 whilst most other dogs devour them with greediness4 ,in some parts of the world sheep have been largely fed on fish4 ,the domestic hog is fond of barley1 the wild boar is said to disdain it2 and the disdain is partially inherited1 for some young wild pigs bred in captivity showed an aversion for this grain1 whilst others of the same brood relished it4#ce ,one of my relations bred some young pigs from a ,chinese sow by a wild ,alpine boar2 they lived free in the park1 and were so tame that they came to the house to be fed2 but they would not touch swill1 which was devoured by the other pigs4 ,an animal when once accustomed to an unnatural diet1 which can generally be effected only during youth1 dislikes its proper food1 as ,spallanzani found to be the case with a pigeon which had been long fed on meat4 ,individuals of the same species take to new food with different degrees of readiness2 one horse1 it is stated1 soon learned to eat meat1 whilst another would have perished from hunger rather than have partaken of it4#cf ,the caterpillars of the ,bombyx hesperus feed in a state of nature on the leaves of the ,caf diable1 but1 after having been reared on the ,ailanthus1 they would not touch the ,caf diable1 and actually died of hunger4#cg ,it has been found possible to accustom marine fish to live in fresh water2 but as such changes in fish and other marine animals have been chiefly observed in a state of nature1 they do not properly belong to our present subject4 ,the period of gestation and of maturity1 as shown in the earlier chapters1--the season and the frequency of the act of breeding1--have all been greatly modified under domestication4 ,with the ,egyptian goose the rate of change with respect to the season has been recorded4#ch ,the wild drake pairs with one female1 the domestic drake is polygamous4 ,certain breeds of fowls have lost the habit of incubation4 ,the paces of the horse1 and the manner of flight of certain breeds of the pigeon1 have been modified and are inherited4 ,cattle1 horses1 and pigs have learnt to browse under water in the ,st4 ,john's ,river1 ,east ,florida1 where the ,vallisneria has been largely naturalised4 ,the cows were observed by ,prof4 ,wyman to keep their heads immersed for 8a period varying from fifteen to thirty-five seconds40#ci ,the voice differs much in certain kinds of fowls and pigeons4 ,some varieties are clamorous and others silent1 as the ,call and common duck1 or the ,spitz and pointer dog4 ,every one knows how the breeds of the dog differ from one another in their manner of hunting1 and in their ardour after different kinds of game or vermin4 ,with plants the period of vegetation is easily changed and is inherited1 as in the case of summer and winter wheat1 barley1 and vetches2 but to this subject we shall immediately return under acclimatisation4 ,annual plants sometimes become perennial under a new climate1 as ,i hear from ,dr4 ,hooker is the case with the stock and mignonette in ,tasmania4 ,on the other hand1 perennials sometimes become annuals1 as with the ,ricinus in ,england1 and as1 according to ,captain ,mangles1 with many varieties of the heartsease4 ,von ,berg#dj raised from seed of ,verbascum phniceum1 which is usually a biennial1 both annual and perennial varieties4 ,some deciduous bushes become evergreen in hot countries4#da ,rice requires much water1 but there is one variety in ,india which can be grown without irrigation4#db ,certain varieties of the oat and of our other cereals are best fitted for certain soils4#dc ,endless similar facts could be given in the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,they are noticed here because they illustrate analogous differences in closely allied natural species1 and because such changed habits of life1 whether due to habit1 or to the direct action of external conditions1 or to so-called spontaneous variability1 would be apt to lead to modifications of structure4 ,acclimatisation4--,from the previous remarks we are naturally led to the much disputed subject of acclimatisation4 ,there are two distinct questions3 ,do varieties descended from the same species differ in their power of living under different climates8 ,and secondly1 if they so differ1 how have they become thus adapted8 ,we have seen that ,european dogs do not succeed well in ,india1 and it is asserted1#dd that no one has there succeeded in keeping the ,newfoundland long alive2 but then it may be argued1 and probably with truth1 that these northern breeds are specifically distinct from the native dogs which flourish in ,india4 ,the same remark may be made with respect to different breeds of sheep1 of which1 according to ,youatt1#de not one brought 8from a torrid climate lasts out the second year10 in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,but sheep are capable of some degree of acclimatisation1 for ,merino sheep bred at the ,cape of ,good ,hope have been found far better adapted for ,india than those imported from ,england4#df ,it is almost certain that all the breeds of the fowl are descended from one species2 but the ,spanish breed1 which there is good reason to believe originated near the ,mediterranean1#dg though so fine and vigorous in ,england1 suffers more from frost than any other breed4 ,the ,arrindy silk moth introduced from ,bengal1 and the ,ailanthus moth from the temperate province of ,shan ,tung1 in ,china1 belong to the same species1 as we may infer from their identity in the caterpillar1 cocoon1 and mature states2#dh yet they differ much in constitution3 the ,indian form 8will flourish only in warm latitudes10 the other is quite hardy and withstands cold and rain4 ,plants are more strictly adapted to climate than are animals4 ,the latter when domesticated withstand such great diversities of climate1 that we find nearly the same species in tropical and temperate countries2 whilst the cultivated plants are widely dissimilar4 ,hence a larger field is open for inquiry in regard to the acclimatisation of plants than of animals4 ,it is no exaggeration to say that with almost every plant which has long been cultivated1 varieties exist which are endowed with constitutions fitted for very different climates2 ,i will select only a few of the more striking cases1 as it would be tedious to give all4 ,in ,north ,america numerous fruit-trees have been raised1 and in horticultural publications1--for instance1 in that by ,downing1--lists are given of the varieties which are best able to withstand the severe climate of the northern ,states and ,canada4 ,many ,american varieties of the pear1 plum1 and peach are excellent in their own country1 but until recently1 hardly one was known that succeeded in ,england2 and with apples1#di not one succeeds4 ,though the ,american varieties can withstand a severer winter than ours1 the summer here is not hot enough4 ,fruit-trees have also originated in ,europe with different constitutions1 but they are not much noticed1 because nurserymen here do not supply wide areas4 ,the ,forelle pear flowers early1 and when the flowers have just set1 and this is the critical period1 they have been observed1 both in ,france and ,england1 to withstand with complete impunity a frost of #ah deg and even #ad ,fahr41 which killed the flowers1 whether fully expanded or in bud1 of all other kinds of pears4#ej ,this power in the flower of resisting cold and afterwards producing fruit does not invariably depend1 as we know on good authority1#ea on general constitutional vigour4 ,in proceeding northward1 the number of varieties which are found capable of resisting the climate rapidly decreases1 as may be seen in the list of the varieties of the cherry1 apple1 and pear1 which can be cultivated in the neighbourhood of ,stockholm4#eb ,near ,moscow1 ,prince ,troubetzkoy planted for experiment in the open ground several varieties of the pear1 but one alone1 the ,poire sans ,pepins1 withstood the cold of winter4#ec ,we thus see that our fruit-trees1 like distinct species of the same genus1 certainly differ from each other in their constitutional adaptation to different climates4 ,with the varieties of many plants1 the adaptation to climate is often very close4 ,thus it has been proved by repeated trials 8that few if any of the ,english varieties of wheat are adapted for cultivation in ,scotland02#ed but the failure in this case is at first only in the quantity1 though ultimately in the quality1 of the grain produced4 ,the ,rev4 ,m4 ,j4 ,berkeley sowed wheat-seed from ,india1 and got 8the most meagre ears10 on land which would certainly have yielded a good crop from ,english wheat4#ee ,in these cases varieties have been carried from a warmer to a cooler climate2 in the reverse case1 as 8when wheat was imported directly from ,france into the ,west ,indian ,islands1 it produced either wholly barren spikes or furnished with only two or three miserable seeds1 while ,west ,indian seed by its side yielded an enormous harvest40#ef ,here is another case of close adaptation to a slightly cooler climate2 a kind of wheat which in ,england may be used indifferently either as a winter or summer variety1 when sown under the warmer climate of ,grignan1 in ,france1 behaved exactly as if it had been a true winter wheat4#eg ,botanists believe that all the varieties of maize belong to the same species2 and we have seen that in ,north ,america1 in proceeding northward1 the varieties cultivated in each zone produce their flowers and ripen their seed within shorter and shorter periods4 ,so that the tall1 slowly maturing southern varieties do not succeed in ,new ,england1 and the ,new ,english varieties do not succeed in ,canada4 ,i have not met with any statement that the southern varieties are actually injured or killed by a degree of cold which the northern varieties can withstand with impunity1 though this is probable2 but the production of early flowering and early seeding varieties deserves to be considered as one form of acclimatisation4 ,hence it has been found possible1 according to ,kalm1 to cultivate maize further and further northwards in ,america4 ,in ,europe1 also1 as we learn from the evidence given by ,alph4 ,de ,candolle1 the culture of maize has extended since the end of the last century thirty leagues north of its former boundary4#eh ,on the authority of ,linnus1#ei ,i may quote an analogous case1 namely1 that in ,sweden tobacco raised from home-grown seed ripens its seed a month sooner and is less liable to miscarry than plants raised from foreign seed4 ,with the ,vine1 differently from the maize1 the line of practical culture has retreated a little southward since the middle ages2#fj but this seems due to commerce being now easier1 so that it is better to import wine from the south than to make it in northern districts4 ,nevertheless the fact of the vine not having spread northward shows that acclimatisation has made no progress during several centuries4 ,there is1 however1 a marked difference in the constitution of the several varieties1-- some being hardy1 whilst others1 like the muscat of ,alexandria1 require a very high temperature to come to perfection4 ,according to ,labat1#fa vines taken from ,france to the ,west ,indies succeed with extreme difficulty1 whilst those imported from ,madeira or the ,canary ,islands thrive admirably4 ,gallesio gives a curious account of the naturalisation of the ,orange in ,italy4 ,during many centuries the sweet orange was propagated exclusively by grafts1 and so often suffered from frosts1 that it required protection4 ,after the severe frost of #agji1 and more especially after that of #agfc1 so many trees were destroyed1 that seedlings from the sweet orange were raised1 and1 to the surprise of the inhabitants1 their fruit was found to be sweet4 ,the trees thus raised were larger1 more productive1 and hardier than the old kinds2 and seedlings are now continually raised4 ,hence ,gallesio concludes that much more was effected for the naturalisation of the orange in ,italy by the accidental production of new kinds during a period of about sixty years1 than had been effected by grafting old varieties during many ages4#fb ,i may add that ,risso#fc describes some ,portuguese varieties of the orange as extremely sensitive to cold1 and as much tenderer than certain other varieties4 ,the peach was known to ,theophrastus1 #cbb ,b4,c4#fd ,according to the authorities quoted by ,dr4 ,f4 ,rolle1#fe it was tender when first introduced into ,greece1 and even in the island of ,rhodes only occasionally bore fruit4 ,if this be correct1 the peach1 in spreading during the last two thousand years over the middle parts of ,europe1 must have become much hardier4 ,at the present day different varieties differ much in hardiness3 some ,french varieties will not succeed in ,england2 and near ,paris1 the ,pavie de ,bonneuil does not ripen its fruit till very late in the season1 even when grown on a wall2 8it is1 therefore1 only fit for a very hot southern climate40#ff ,i will briefly give a few other cases4 ,a variety of ,magnolia grandiflora1 raised by ,m4 ,roy1 withstands a temperature several degrees lower than that which any other variety can resist4 ,with camellias there is much difference in hardiness4 ,one particular variety of the ,noisette rose withstood the severe frost of #ahfj 8untouched and hale amidst a universal destruction of other ,noisettes40 ,in ,new ,york the 8,irish yew is quite hardy1 but the common yew is liable to be cut down40 ,i may add that there are varieties of the sweet potato 7,convolvulus batatas7 which are suited for warmer1 as well as for colder1 climates4#fg ,the plants as yet mentioned have been found capable of resisting an unusual degree of cold or heat1 when fully grown4 ,the following cases refer to plants whilst young4 ,in a large bed of young ,araucarias of the same age1 growing close together and equally exposed1 it was observed1#fh after the unusually severe winter of #ahfj-fa1 that1 8in the midst of the dying1 numerous individuals remained on which the frost had absolutely made no kind of impression40 ,dr4 ,lindley1 after alluding to this and other similar cases1 remarks1 8,among the lessons which the late formidable winter has taught us1 is that1 even in their power of resisting cold1 individuals of the same species of plants are remarkably different40 ,near ,salisbury1 there was a sharp frost on the night of ,may #bd1 #ahcf1 and all the ,french beans 7,phaseolus vulgaris7 in a bed were killed except about one in thirty1 which completely escaped4#fi ,on the same day of the month1 but in the year #ahfd1 there was a severe frost in ,kent1 and two rows of scarlet-runners 7,p4 multiflorus7 in my garden1 containing #cij plants of the same age and equally exposed1 were all blackened and killed except about a dozen plants4 ,in an adjoining row of 8,fulmer's dwarf bean0 7,p4 vulgaris71 one single plant escaped4 ,a still more severe frost occurred four days afterwards1 and of the dozen plants which had previously escaped only three survived2 these were not taller or more vigorous than the other young plants1 but they escaped completely1 with not even the tips of their leaves browned4 ,it was impossible to behold these three plants1 with their blackened1 withered1 and dead brethren all around1 and not see at a glance that they differed widely in constitutional power of resisting frost4 ,this work is not the proper place to show that wild plants of the same species1 naturally growing at different altitudes or under different latitudes1 become to a certain extent acclimatised1 as is proved by the different behaviour of their seedlings when raised in another country4 ,in my #8,origin of ,species' ,i have alluded to some cases1 and ,i could add many others4 ,one instance must suffice3 ,mr4 ,grigor1 of ,forres1#gj states that seedlings of the ,scotch fir 7,pinus sylvestris71 raised from seed from the ,continent and from the forests of ,scotland1 differ much4 8,the difference is perceptible in one-year-old1 and more so in two-year-old seedlings2 but the effects of the winter on the second year's growth almost uniformly make those from the ,continent quite brown1 and so damaged1 that by the month of ,march they are quite unsaleable1 while the plants from the native ,scotch pine1 under the same treatment1 and standing alongside1 although considerably shorter1 are rather stouter and quite green1 so that the beds of the one can be known from the other when seen from the distance of a mile40 ,closely similar facts have been observed with seedling larches4 ,hardy varieties would alone be valued or noticed in ,europe2 whilst tender varieties1 requiring more warmth1 would generally be neglected2 but such occasionally arise4 ,thus ,loudon#ga describes a ,cornish variety of the elm which is almost an evergreen1 and of which the shoots are often killed by the autumnal frosts1 so that its timber is of little value4 ,horticulturists know that some varieties are much more tender than others3 thus all the varieties of the broccoli are more tender than cabbages2 but there is much difference in this respect in the sub-varieties of the broccoli2 the pink and purple kinds are a little hardier than the white ,cape broccoli1 8but they are not to be depended on after the thermometer falls below #bd ,fahr420 the ,walcheren broccoli is less tender than the ,cape1 and there are several varieties which will stand much severer cold than the ,walcheren4#gb ,cauliflowers seed more freely in ,india than cabbages4#gc ,to give one instance with flowers3 eleven plants raised from a hollyhock1 called the ,queen of the ,whites1#gd were found to be much more tender than various other seedlings4 ,it may be presumed that all tender varieties would succeed better under a climate warmer than ours4 ,with fruit-trees1 it is well known that certain varieties1 for instance of the peach1 stand forcing in a hot-house better than others2 and this shows either pliability of organisation or some constitutional difference4 ,the same individual cherry-tree1 when forced1 has been observed during successive years gradually to change its period of vegetation4#ge ,few pelargoniums can resist the heat of a stove1 but ,alba ,multiflora will1 as a most skilful gardener asserts1 8stand pine-apple top and bottom heat the whole winter2 without looking any more drawn than if it had stood in a common greenhouse2 and ,blanche ,fleur seems as if it had been made on purpose for growing in winter1 like many bulbs1 and to rest all summer40#gf ,there can hardly be a doubt that the ,alba ,multiflora pelargonium must have a widely different constitution from that of most other varieties of this plant2 it would probably withstand even an equatorial climate4 ,we have seen that according to ,labat the vine and wheat require acclimatisation in order to succeed in the ,west ,indies4 ,similar facts have been observed at ,madras3 8two parcels of mignonette-seed1 one direct from ,europe1 the other saved at ,bangalore 7of which the mean temperature is much below that of ,madras71 were sown at the same time3 they both vegetated equally favourably1 but the former all died off a few days after they appeared above ground2 the latter still survive1 and are vigorous1 healthy plants40 8,so again1 turnip and carrot seed saved at ,hyderabad are found to answer better at ,madras than seed from ,europe or from the ,cape of ,good ,hope40#gg ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott of the ,calcutta ,botanic ,gardens1 informs me that seeds of the sweet-pea 7,lathyrus odoratus7 imported from ,england produce plants1 with thick1 rigid stems and small leaves1 which rarely blossom and never yield seed2 plants raised from ,french seed blossom sparingly1 but all the flowers are sterile2 on the other hand1 plants raised from sweet-peas grown near ,darjeeling in ,upper ,india1 but originally derived from ,england1 can be successfully cultivated on the plains of ,india2 for they flower and seed profusely1 and their stems are lax and scandent4 ,in some of the foregoing cases1 as ,dr4 ,hooker has remarked to me1 the greater success may perhaps be attributed to the seeds having been more fully ripened under a more favourable climate2 but this view can hardly be extended to so many cases1 including plants1 which1 from being cultivated under a climate hotter than their native one1 become fitted for a still hotter climate4 ,we may therefore safely conclude that plants can to a certain extent become accustomed to a climate either hotter or colder than their own2 although the latter cases have been more frequently observed4 ,we will now consider the means by which acclimatisation may be effected1 namely1 through the appearance of varieties having a different constitution1 and through the effects of habit4 ,in regard to new varieties1 there is no evidence that a change in the constitution of the offspring necessarily stands in any direct relation with the nature of the climate inhabited by the parents4 ,on the contrary1 it is certain that hardy and tender varieties of the same species appear in the same country4 ,new varieties thus spontaneously arising become fitted to slightly different climates in two different ways2 firstly1 they may have the power1 either as seedlings or when full-grown1 of resisting intense cold1 as with the ,moscow pear1 or of resisting intense heat1 as with some kinds of ,pelargonium1 or the flowers may withstand severe frost1 as with the ,forelle pear4 ,secondly1 plants may become adapted to climates widely different from their own1 from flowering and fruiting either earlier or later in the season4 ,in both these cases the power of acclimatisation by man consists simply in the selection and preservation of new varieties4 ,but without any direct intention on his part of securing a hardier variety1 acclimatisation may be unconsciously effected by merely raising tender plants from seed1 and by occasionally attempting their cultivation further and further northwards1 as in the case of maize1 the orange and the peach4 ,how much influence ought to be attributed to inherited habit or custom in the acclimatisation of animals and plants is a much more difficult question4 ,in many cases natural selection can hardly have failed to have come into play and complicated the result4 ,it is notorious that mountain sheep resist severe weather and storms of snow which would destroy lowland breeds2 but then mountain sheep have been thus exposed from time immemorial1 and all delicate individuals will have been destroyed1 and the hardiest preserved4 ,so with the ,arrindy silk-moths of ,china and ,india2 who can tell how far natural selection may have taken a share in the formation of the two races1 which are now fitted for such widely different climates8 ,it seems at first probable that the many fruit-trees which are so well fitted for the hot summers and cold winters of ,north ,america1 in contrast with their poor success under our climate1 have become adapted through habit2 but when we reflect on the multitude of seedlings annually raised in that country1 and that none would succeed unless born with a fitting constitution1 it is possible that mere habit may have done nothing towards their acclimatisation4 ,on the other hand1 when we hear that ,merino sheep1 bred during no great number of generations at the ,cape of ,good ,hope--that some ,european plants raised during only a few generations in the cooler parts of ,india1 withstand the hotter parts of that country much better than the sheep or seeds imported directly from ,england1 we must attribute some influence to habit4 ,we are led to the same conclusion when we hear from ,naudin#gh that the races of melons1 squashes1 and gourds1 which have long been cultivated in ,northern ,europe1 are comparatively more precocious1 and need much less heat for maturing their fruit1 than the varieties of the same species recently brought from tropical regions4 ,in the reciprocal conversion of summer and winter wheat1 barley1 and vetches into each other1 habit produces a marked effect in the course of a very few generations4 ,the same thing apparently occurs with the varieties of maize1 which1 when carried from the ,southern ,states of ,america1 or into ,germany1 soon became accustomed to their new homes4 ,with vine-plants taken to the ,west ,indies from ,madeira1 which are said to succeed better than plants brought directly from ,france1 we have some degree of acclimatisation in the individual1 independently of the production of new varieties by seed4 ,the common experience of agriculturists is of some value1 and they often advise persons to be cautious in trying the productions of one country in another4 ,the ancient agricultural writers of ,china recommend the preservation and cultivation of the varieties peculiar to each country4 ,during the classical period1 ,columella wrote1 8,vernaculum pecus peregrino longe prstantius est40#gi ,i am aware that the attempt to acclimatise either animals or plants has been called a vain chimera4 ,no doubt the attempt in most cases deserves to be thus called1 if made independently of the production of new varieties endowed with a different constitution4 ,with plants propagated by buds1 habit rarely produces any effect2 it apparently acts only through successive seminal generations4 ,the laurel1 bay1 laurestinus1 etc41 and the ,jerusalem artichoke1 which are propagated by cuttings or tubers1 are probably now as tender in ,england as when first introduced2 and this appears to be the case with the potato1 which until recently was seldom multiplied by seed4 ,with plants propagated by seed1 and with animals1 there will be little or no acclimatisation unless the hardier individuals are either intentionally or unconsciously preserved4 ,the kidney-bean has often been advanced as an instance of a plant which has not become hardier since its first introduction into ,britain4 ,we hear1 however1 on excellent authority#hj that some very fine seed1 imported from abroad1 produced plants 8which blossomed most profusely1 but were nearly all but abortive1 whilst plants grown alongside from ,english seed podded abundantly20 and this apparently shows some degree of acclimatisation in our ,english plants4 ,we have also seen that seedlings of the kidney-bean occasionally appear with a marked power of resisting frost2 but no one1 as far as ,i can hear1 has ever separated such hardy seedlings1 so as to prevent accidental crossing1 and then gathered their seed1 and repeated the process year after year4 ,it may1 however1 be objected with truth that natural selection ought to have had a decided effect on the hardiness of our kidney-beans2 for the tenderest individuals must have been killed during every severe spring1 and the hardier preserved4 ,but it should be borne in mind that the result of increased hardiness would simply be that gardeners1 who are always anxious for as early a crop as possible1 would sow their seed a few days earlier than formerly4 ,now1 as the period of sowing depends much on the soil and elevation of each district1 and varies with the season2 and as new varieties have often been imported from abroad1 can we feel sure that our kidney-beans are not somewhat hardier8 ,i have not been able1 by searching old horticultural works1 to answer this question satisfactorily4 ,on the whole the facts now given show that1 though habit does something towards acclimatisation1 yet that the appearance of constitutionally different individuals is a far more effective agent4 ,as no single instance has been recorded either with animals or plants of hardier individuals having been long and steadily selected1 though such selection is admitted to be indispensable for the improvement of any other character1 it is not surprising that man has done little in the acclimatisation of domesticated animals and cultivated plants4 ,we need not1 however1 doubt that under nature new races and new species would become adapted to widely different climates1 by variation1 aided by habit1 and regulated by natural selection4 ,arrests of ,development3 ,rudimentary and ,aborted ,organs4 ,modifications of structure from arrested development1 so great or so serious as to deserve to be called monstrosities1 are not infrequent with domesticated animals1 but1 as they differ much from any normal structure1 they require only a passing notice4 ,thus the whole head may be represented by a soft nipple-like projection1 and the limbs by mere papillae4 ,these rudiments of limbs are sometimes inherited1 as has been observed in a dog4#ha ,many lesser anomalies appear to be due to arrested development4 ,what the cause of the arrest may be1 we seldom know1 except in the case of direct injury to the embryo4 ,that the cause does not generally act at an extremely early embryonic period we may infer from the affected organ seldom being wholly aborted1--a rudiment being generally preserved4 ,the external ears are represented by mere vestiges in a ,chinese breed of sheep2 and in another breed1 the tail is reduced 8to a little button1 suffocated in a manner1 by fat40#hb ,in tailless dogs and cats a stump is left4 ,in certain breeds of fowls the comb and wattles are reduced to rudiments2 in the ,cochin-,china breed scarcely more than rudiments of spurs exist4 ,with polled ,suffolk cattle1 8rudiments of horns can often be felt at an early age02#hc and with species in a state of nature1 the relatively great development of rudimentary organs at an early period of life is highly characteristic of such organs4 ,with hornless breeds of cattle and sheep1 another and singular kind of rudiment has been observed1 namely1 minute dangling horns attached to the skin alone1 and which are often shed and grow again4 ,with hornless goats1 according to ,desmarest1#hd the bony protuberance which properly supports the horn exists as a mere rudiment4 ,with cultivated plants it is far from rare to find the petals1 stamens1 and pistils represented by rudiments1 like those observed in natural species4 ,so it is with the whole seed in many fruits2 thus1 near ,astrakhan there is a grape with mere traces of seeds1 8so small and lying so near the stalk that they are not perceived in eating the grape40#he ,in certain varieties of the gourd1 the tendrils1 according to ,naudin1 are represented by rudiments or by various monstrous growths4 ,in the broccoli and cauliflower the greater number of the flowers are incapable of expansion1 and include rudimentary organs4 ,in the ,feather hyacinth 7,muscari comosum7 in its natural state the upper and central flowers are brightly coloured but rudimentary2 under cultivation the tendency to abortion travels downwards and outwards1 and all the flowers become rudimentary2 but the abortive stamens and pistils are not so small in the lower as in the upper flowers4 ,in the ,viburnum opulus1 on the other hand1 the outer flowers naturally have their organs of fructification in a rudimentary state1 and the corolla is of large size2 under cultivation1 the change spreads to the centre1 and all the flowers become affected4 ,in the compositae1 the so-called doubling of the flowers consists in the greater development of the corolla of the central florets1 generally accompanied with some degree of sterility2 and it has been observed#hf that the progressive doubling invariably spreads from the circumference to the centre1--that is1 from the ray florets1 which so often include rudimentary organs1 to those of the disc4 ,i may add1 as bearing on this subject1 that with ,asters1 seeds taken from the florets of the circumference have been found to yield the greatest number of double flowers4#hg ,in the above cases we have a natural tendency in certain parts to be rudimentary1 and this under culture spreads either to1 or from1 the axis of the plant4 ,it deserves notice1 as showing how the same laws govern the changes which natural species and artificial varieties undergo1 that in the species of ,carthamus1 one of the ,compositae1 a tendency to the abortion of the pappus may be traced extending from the circumference to the centre of the disc as in the so-called doubling of the flowers in the members of the same family4 ,thus1 according to ,a4 de ,jussieu1#hh the abortion is only partial in ,carthamus creticus1 but more extended in ,c4 lanatus2 for in this species only two or three of the central seeds are furnished with a pappus1 the surrounding seeds being either quite naked or furnished with a few hairs2 and lastly in ,c4 tinctorius1 even the central seeds are destitute of pappus1 and the abortion is complete4 ,with animals and plants under domestication1 when an organ disappears1 leaving only a rudiment1 the loss has generally been sudden1 as with hornless and tailless breeds2 and such cases may be ranked as inherited monstrosities4 ,but in some few cases the loss has been gradual1 and has been effected partly by selection1 as with the rudimentary combs and wattles of certain fowls4 ,we have also seen that the wings of some domesticated birds have been slightly reduced by disuse1 and the great reduction of the wings in certain silk-moths1 with mere rudiments left1 has probably been aided by disuse4 ,with species in a state of nature1 rudimentary organs are extremely common4 ,such organs are generally variable1 as several naturalists have observed2 for1 being useless1 they are not regulated by natural selection1 and they are more or less liable to reversion4 ,the same rule certainly holds good with parts which have become rudimentary under domestication4 ,we do not know through what steps under nature rudimentary organs have passed in being reduced to their present condition2 but we so incessantly see in species of the same group the finest gradations between an organ in a rudimentary and perfect state1 that we are led to believe that the passage must have been extremely gradual4 ,it may be doubted whether a change of structure so abrupt as the sudden loss of an organ would ever be of service to a species in a state of nature2 for the conditions to which all organisms are closely adapted usually change very slowly4 ,even if an organ did suddenly disappear in some one individual by an arrest of development1 intercrossing with the other individuals of the same species would tend to cause its partial reappearance2 so that its final reduction could only be effected by some other means4 ,the most probable view is1 that a part which is now rudimentary1 was formerly1 owing to changed habits of life1 used less and less1 being at the same time reduced in size by disuse1 until at last it became quite useless and superfluous4 ,but as most parts or organs are not brought into action during an early period of life1 disuse or decreased action will not lead to their reduction until the organism arrives at a somewhat advanced age2 and from the principle of inheritance at corresponding ages the reduction will be transmitted to the offspring at the same advanced stage of growth4 ,the part or organ will thus retain its full size in the embryo1 as we know to be the case with most rudiments4 ,as soon as a part becomes useless1 another principle1 that of economy of growth1 will come into play1 as it would be an advantage to an organism exposed to severe competition to save the development of any useless part2 and individuals having the part less developed will have a slight advantage over others4 ,but1 as ,mr4 ,mivart has justly remarked1 as soon as a part is much reduced1 the saving from its further reduction will be utterly insignificant2 so that this cannot be effected by natural selection4 ,this manifestly holds good if the part be formed of mere cellular tissue1 entailing little expenditure of nutriment4 ,how then can the further reduction of an already somewhat reduced part be effected8 ,that this has occurred repeatedly under ,nature is shown by the many gradations which exist between organs in a perfect state and the merest vestiges of them4 ,mr4 ,romanes#hi has1 ,i think1 thrown much light on this difficult problem4 ,his view1 as far as it can be given in a few words1 is as follows3 all parts are somewhat variable and fluctuate in size round an average point4 ,now1 when a part has already begun from any cause to decrease1 it is very improbable that the variations should be as great in the direction of increase as of diminution2 for the previous reduction shows that circumstances have not been favourable for its development2 whilst there is nothing to check variations in the opposite direction4 ,if this be so1 the long continued crossing of many individuals furnished with an organ which fluctuates in a greater degree towards decrease than towards increase1 will slowly but steadily lead to its diminution4 ,with respect to the complete and absolute abortion of a part1 a distinct principle1 which will be discussed in the chapter on pangenesis1 probably comes into action4 ,with animals and plants reared by man there is no severe or recurrent struggle for existence1 and the principle of economy will not come into action1 so that the reduction of an organ will not thus be aided4 ,so far1 indeed1 is this from being the case1 that in some few instances organs1 which are naturally rudimentary in the parent-species1 become partially redeveloped in the domesticated descendants4 ,thus cows1 like most other ruminants1 properly have four active and two rudimentary mamma2 but in our domesticated animals1 the latter occasionally become considerably developed and yield milk4 ,the atrophied mammae1 which1 in male domesticated animals1 including man1 have in some rare cases grown to full size and secreted milk1 perhaps offer an analogous case4 ,the hind feet of dogs naturally include rudiments of a fifth toe1 and in certain large breeds these toes1 though still rudimentary1 become considerably developed and are furnished with claws4 ,in the common ,hen1 the spurs and comb are rudimentary1 but in certain breeds these become1 independently of age or disease of the ovaria1 well developed4 ,the stallion has canine teeth1 but the mare has only traces of the alveoli1 which1 as ,i am informed by the eminent veterinarian ,mr4 ,g4 ,t4 ,brown1 frequently contain minute irregular nodules of bone4 ,these nodules1 however1 sometimes become developed into imperfect teeth1 protruding through the gums and coated with enamel2 and occasionally they grow to a fourth or even a third of the length of the canines in the stallion4 ,with plants ,i do not know whether the redevelopment of rudimentary organs occurs more frequently under culture than under nature4 ,perhaps the pear-tree may be a case in point1 for when wild it bears thorns1 which consist of branches in a rudimentary condition and serve as a protection1 but1 when the tree is cultivated1 they are reconverted into branches4 ,,references #a #8,an ,essay on ,generation1' ,eng4 translat41 p4 #ah2 p4t1 #8,lectures on ,surgical ,pathology1' #ahec1 vol4 i4 p4 #bji4 #b #8,an ,essay on ,animal ,reproduction1' ,eng4 translat41 #agfi1 p4 #gi4 #c ,carpenter's #8,principles of ,comp4 ,physiology1' #ahed1 p4 #dgi4 #d ,charlesworth's #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 i4 #ahcg1 p4 #ade4 #e ,paget1 #8,lectures on ,surgical ,pathology1' vol4 i4 p4 #bci4 #f ,quoted by ,carpenter1 #8,comp4 ,phys41' p4 #dgi4 #g ,prof4 ,marey's discussion on the power of co-adaptation in all parts of the organisation is excellent4 #8,la ,machine ,animale1' #ahgc1 chap4 ix4 ,see also ,paget1 #8,lectures1' etc41 p4 #beg4 #h ,these cases are given by ,blumenbach in his #8,essay on ,generation1' pp4 #eb1 #ed4 #i #8,cellular ,pathology1' trans4 by ,dr4 ,chance1 #ahfj1 pp4 #bg1 #dda4 #aj ,paget1 #8,lectures on ,pathology1' vol4 i4 #ahec1 p4 #ceg4 #aa ,paget1 ibid41 p4 #aej4 #ab #8,die ,blutvertheilung1 etc4 der ,organe1' #ahga1 as quoted by ,jaeger1 #8,in ,sachen ,darwin's1' #ahgd1 p4 #dh4 ,see also ,h4 ,spencer #8,the ,principles of ,biology1' vol4 ii4 #ahff1 chap4 #c-e4 #ac #8,lectures on ,pathology1' #ahec1 vol4 i4 p4 #ga4 #ad #8,comptes ,rendus1' ,sept4 #bfth1 #ahfd1 p4 #eci4 #ae ,h4 ,spencer1 #8,the ,principles of ,biology1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bdc4 #af ,ibid41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bfi4 ,sachs1 #8,text-book of ,botany1' #ahge1 p4 #gcd4 #ag ,ibid41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bgc4 #ah ,paget1 #8,lectures on ,pathology1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bji4 #ai ,mller's #8,phys41' ,eng4 translat41 pp4 #ed1 #gia4 ,prof4 ,reed has given 7#8,physiological and ,anat4 ,researches1' p4 #aj7 a curious account of the atrophy of the limbs of rabbits after the destruction of the nerve4 #bj ,quoted by ,lecoq1 in #8,gograph4 ,bot41' tom4 i4 #ahed1 p4 #ahb4 #ba #8,das ,abndern der ,vgel1' #ahcc1 s4 #gd4 #bb ,nathusius1 #8,die ,racen des ,schweines1' #ahfj1 s4 #ec1 #eg2 #8,vorstudien 4 4 4 ,schweineschdel1' #ahfd1 s4 #ajc1 #acj1 #acc4 ,prof4 ,lucae supports and extends the conclusions of ,von ,nathusius3 #8,der ,schdel des ,maskenschweines1' #ahgj4 #bc #8,journal of ,agriculture of ,highland ,soc41' ,july #ahfj1 p4 #cba4 #bd #8,landwirth4 ,wochenblatt1' ,no4 #aj4 #be #8,lectures on ,surgical ,pathology1' #ahec1 vol4 i4 p4 #bg4 #bf ,andersson1 #8,travels in ,south ,africa1' p4 #cah4 ,for analogous cases in ,south ,america see ,aug4 ,st4-,hilaire #8,voyage dans la ,province de ,goyaz1' tom4 i4 p4 #ga4 #bg ,brickell's #8,nat4 ,hist4 of ,north ,carolina1' #agci1 p4 #ec4 #bh ,livingstone1 quoted by ,youatt on ,sheep1 p4 #adb4 ,hodgson in #8,journal of ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 xvi4 #ahdg1 p4 #ajjf1 etc4 etc4 ,on the other hand1 ,dr4 ,wilckens argues strongly against the belief that the drooping of the ears is the result of disuse3 #8,jahrbuch der deutschen ,viehzucht1' #ahff4 #bi #8,naturalist's ,library1' ,dogs1 vol4 ii4 #ahdj1 p4 #ajd4 #cj #8,de l',espce1' tom4 i4 #ahei1 p4 #cfg4 #ca #8,ceylon1' by ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,tennent1 #ahei1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eca4 #cb ,for the foregoing statements1 see ,hunter's #8,essays and ,observations1' #ahfa1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbi2 ,dr4 ,edmondston1 as quoted in ,macgillivray's #8,british ,birds1' vol4 v4 p4 #eej3 ,menetries1 as quoted in ,bronn's #8,geschichte der ,natur1' ,b4 ii4 s4 #aaj4 #cc ,these statements on the intestines are taken from ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gn41' tom4 iii4 pp4 #dbg1 #dda4 #cd ,gilbert ,white1 #8,nat4 ,hist4 ,selborne1' #ahbe1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aba4 #ce ,burdach1 #8,trait de ,phys41' tom4 ii4 p4 #bfg1 as quoted by ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas1 #8,l',hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 i4 p4 #chh4 #cf ,this and several other cases are given by ,colin1 #8,physiologie ,comp4 des ,animaux ,dom41' #ahed1 tom4 i4 p4 #dbf4 #cg ,m4 ,michely de ,cayenne1 in #8,bull4 ,soc4 d',acclimat41' tom4 viii4 #ahfa1 p4 #efc4 #ch ,quatrefages1 #8,unit de l',espce ,humaine1' #ahfa1 p4 #gi4 #ci #8,the ,american ,naturalist1' ,april #ahgd1 p4 #bcg4 #dj #8,flora1' #ahce1 ,b4 ii4 p4 #ejd4 #da ,alph4 de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' tom4 ii4 p4 #ajgh4 #db ,royle1 #8,illustrations of the ,botany of the ,himalaya1' p4 #ai4 #dc #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahej1 pp4 #bjd1 #bai4 #dd ,rev4 ,r4 ,everest1 #8,journal ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal1' vol4 iii4 p4 #ai4 #de ,youatt on ,sheep1 #ahch1 p4 #dia4 #df ,royle1 #8,prod4 ,resources of ,india1' p4 #aec4 #dg ,tegetmeier1 #8,poultry ,book1' #ahff1 p4 #ajb4 #dh ,dr4 ,r4 ,paterson1 in a paper communicated to ,bot4 ,soc4 of ,canada quoted in the #8,reader1' #ahfc1 ,nov4 #acth4 #di ,see remarks by ,editor in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdh1 p4 #e4 #ej #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #ich4 ,remarks by ,editor and quotation from ,decaisne4 #ea ,j4 de ,jonghe1 of ,brussels1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #aheg1 p4 #fab4 #eb ,ch4 ,martius1 #8,voyage ,bot4 ,ctes ,sept4 de la ,norvge1' p4 #bf4 #ec #8,journal de l',acad4 ,hort4 de ,gand1' quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahei1 p4 #g4 #ed #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahea1 p4 #cif4 #ee ,ibid41 #ahfb1 p4 #bce4 #ef ,on the authority of ,labat1 quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #bce4 #eg ,,mm4 ,edwards and ,colin1 #8,annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat41' #bnd series1 ,bot41 tom4 v4 p4 #bb4 #eh #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #ccg4 #ei #8,swedish ,acts1' ,eng4 translat41 #agci-dj1 vol4 i4 ,kalm1 in his #8,travels1' vol4 ii4 p4 #aff1 gives an analogous case with cotton-plants raised in ,new ,jersey from ,carolina seed4 #fj ,de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #cci4 #fa #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfb1 p4 #bce4 #fb ,gallesio1 #8,teoria della ,riproduzione ,veg41' #ahaf1 p4 #abe2 and #8,trait du ,citrus1' #ahaa1 p4 #cei4 #fc #8,essai sur l',hist4 des ,orangers1' #ahac1 p4 #bj1 etc4 #fd ,alph4 de ,candolle1 #8,gograph4 ,bot41' p4 #hhb4 #fe #8,ch4 ,darwin's ,lehre von der ,entstehung1' etc41 #ahfb1 s4 #hg4 #ff ,decaisne1 quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfe1 p4 #bga4 #fg ,for the magnolia1 see ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 xiii4 #ahcg1 p4 #ba4 ,for camellias and roses1 see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfj1 p4 #chd4 ,for the yew1 #8,journal of ,hort41' ,march #crd1 #ahfc1 p4 #agd4 ,for sweet potatoes1 see ,col4 von ,siebold1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahee1 p4 #hbb4 #fh ,the ,editor1 #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfa1 p4 #bci4 #fi ,loudon's #8,gardener's ,mag41' vol4 xii4 #ahcf1 p4 #cgh4 #gj #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfe1 p4 #fii4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,maw gives 7#8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahgj1 p4 #hie7 a number of striking cases2 he brought home from southern ,spain and northern ,africa several plants1 which he cultivated in ,england alongside specimens from northern districts2 and he found a great difference not only in their hardiness during the winter1 but in the behaviour of some of them during the summer4 #ga #8,arboretum et ,fruticetum1' vol4 iii4 p4 #acgf4 #gb ,mr4 ,robson1 in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 p4 #bc4 #gc ,dr4 ,bonavia1 #8,report of the ,agri4-,hort4 ,soc4 of ,oudh1' #ahff4 #gd #8,cottage ,gardener1' #ahfj1 ,april #bdth1 p4 #eg4 #ge #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahda1 p4 #bia4 #gf ,mr4 ,beaton1 in #8,cottage ,gardener1' ,march #bjth1 #ahfj1 p4 #cgg4 ,queen ,mab will also stand stove heat4 ,see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahde1 p4 #bbf4 #gg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahda1 p4 #dci4 #gh ,quoted by ,asa ,gray1 in #8,am4 ,journ4 of ,sc41' #bnd series1 ,jan4 #ahfe1 p4 #ajf4 #gi ,for ,china1 see #8,mmoire sur les ,chinois1' tom4 xi4 #aghf1 p4 #fj4 ,columella is quoted by ,carlier1 in #8,journal de ,physique1' tom4 xxiv4 #aghd4 #hj ,messrs4 ,hardy and ,son1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahef1 p4 #ehi4 #ha ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 ,nat4 des ,anomalies1' #ahcf1 tom4 ii4 pp4 #baj1 #bbc1 #bbd1 #cie2 #8,philosoph4 ,transact41' #agge1 p4 #cac4 #hb ,pallas1 quoted by ,youatt on ,sheep1 p4 #be4 #hc ,youatt on ,cattle1 #ahcd1 p4 #agd4 #hd #8,encyclop4 ,mthod41' #ahbj1 p4 #dhc3 see p4 #ejj1 on the ,indian zebu casting its horns4 ,similar cases in ,european cattle were given in the third chapter4 #he ,pallas1 #8,travels1' ,eng4 ,translat41 vol4 i4 p4 #bdc4 #hf ,mr4 ,beaton1 in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,may #bast1 #ahfa1 p4 #acc4 #hg ,lecoq1 #8,de la ,fcondation1' #ahfb1 p4 #bcc4 #hh #8,annales du ,musum1' tom4 vi4 p4 #cai4 #hi ,i suggested in #8,nature' 7vol4 #h pp4 #dcb1 #eje7 that with organisms subjected to unfavourable conditions all the parts would tend towards reduction1 and that under such circumstances any part which was not kept up to its standard size by natural selection would1 owing to intercrossing1 slowly but steadily decrease4 ,in three subsequent communications to #8,nature' 7,march #ab1 ,april #i1 and ,july #b1 #ahgd71 ,mr4 ,romanes gives his improved view4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,laws ,,of ,,variation1 continued4--,,correlated ,,variability4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,term ,,correlation--,,connected ,,with ,,development--,,modifications ,,correlated ,,with ,,the ,,increased ,,or ,,decreased ,,size ,,of ,,parts--,,correlated ,,variation ,,of ,,homologous ,,parts--,,feathered ,,feet ,,in ,,birds ,,assuming ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,wings--,,correlation ,,between ,,the ,,head ,,and ,,the ,,extremities--,,between ,,the ,,skin ,,and ,,dermal ,,appendages--,,between ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,sight ,,and ,,hearing--,,correlated ,,modifications ,,in ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,plants--,,correlated ,,monstrosities--,,correlation ,,between ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,ears--,,skull ,,and ,,crest ,,of ,,feathers--,,skull ,,and ,,horns--,,correlation ,,of ,,growth ,,complicated ,,by ,,the ,,accumulated ,,effects ,,of ,,natural ,,selection--,,colour ,,as ,,correlated ,,with ,,constitutional ,,peculiarities4 ,all parts of the organisation are to a certain extent connected together2 but the connection may be so slight that it hardly exists1 as with compound animals or the buds on the same tree4 ,even in the higher animals various parts are not at all closely related2 for one part may be wholly suppressed or rendered monstrous without any other part of the body being affected4 ,but in some cases1 when one part varies1 certain other parts always1 or nearly always1 simultaneously vary2 they are then subject to the law of correlated variation4 ,the whole body is admirably co-ordinated for the peculiar habits of life of each organic being1 and may be said1 as the ,duke of ,argyll insists in his #8,reign of ,law' to be correlated for this purpose4 ,again1 in large groups of animals certain structures always co-exist3 for instance1 a peculiar form of stomach with teeth of peculiar form1 and such structures may in one sense be said to be correlated4 ,but these cases have no necessary connection with the law to be discussed in the present chapter2 for we do not know that the initial or primary variations of the several parts were in any way related3 slight modifications or individual differences may have been preserved1 first in one and then in another part1 until the final and perfectly co-adapted structure was acquired2 but to this subject ,i shall presently recur4 ,again1 in many groups of animals the males alone are furnished with weapons1 or are ornamented with gay colours2 and these characters manifestly stand in some sort of correlation with the male reproductive organs1 for when the latter are destroyed these characters disappear4 ,but it was shown in the twelfth chapter that the very same peculiarity may become attached at any age to either sex1 and afterwards be exclusively transmitted to the same sex at a corresponding age4 ,in these cases we have inheritance limited by both sex and age2 but we have no reason for supposing that the original cause of the variation was necessarily connected with the reproductive organs1 or with the age of the affected being4 ,in cases of true correlated variation1 we are sometimes able to see the nature of the connection2 but in most cases it is hidden from us1 and certainly differs in different cases4 ,we can seldom say which of two correlated parts first varies1 and induces a change in the other2 or whether the two are the effects of some common cause4 ,correlated variation is an important subject for us2 for when one part is modified through continued selection1 either by man or under nature1 other parts of the organisation will be unavoidably modified4 ,from this correlation it apparently follows that with our domesticated animals and plants1 varieties rarely or never differ from one another by a single character alone4 ,one of the simplest cases of correlation is that a modification which arises during an early stage of growth tends to influence the subsequent development of the same part1 as well as of other and intimately connected parts4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire states#a that this may constantly be observed with monstrosities in the animal kingdom2 and ,moquin-,tandon#b remarks1 that1 as with plants the axis cannot become monstrous without in some way affecting the organs subsequently produced from it1 so axial anomalies are almost always accompanied by deviations of structure in the appended parts4 ,we shall presently see that with short-muzzled races of the dog certain histological changes in the basal elements of the bones arrest their development and shorten them1 and this affects the position of the subsequently developed molar teeth4 ,it is probable that certain modifications in the larv of insects would affect the structure of the mature insects4 ,but we must be careful not to extend this view too far1 for during the normal course of development1 certain species pass through an extraordinary course of change1 whilst other and closely allied species arrive at maturity with little change of structure4 ,another simple case of correlation is that with the increased or decreased dimensions of the whole body1 or of any particular part1 certain organs are increased or diminished in number1 or are otherwise modified4 ,thus pigeon fanciers have gone on selecting pouters for length of body1 and we have seen that their vertebrae are generally increased not only in size but in number1 and their ribs in breadth4 ,tumblers have been selected for their small bodies1 and their ribs and primary wing-feathers are generally lessened in number4 ,fantails have been selected for their large widely-expanded tails1 with numerous tail-feathers1 and the caudal vertebrae are increased in size and number4 ,carriers have been selected for length of beak1 and their tongues have become longer1 but not in strict accordance with the length of beak4 ,in this latter breed and in others having large feet1 the number of the scutellae on the toes is greater than in the breeds with small feet4 ,many similar cases could be given4 ,in ,germany it has been observed that the period of gestation is longer in large than in small breeds of cattle4 ,with our highly-improved breeds of all kinds1 the periods of maturity and of reproduction have advanced with respect to the age of the animal2 and1 in correspondence with this1 the teeth are now developed earlier than formerly1 so that1 to the surprise of agriculturists1 the ancient rules for judging of the age of an animal by the state of its teeth are no longer trustworthy4#c ,correlated ,variation of ,homologous ,parts4--,parts which are homologous tend to vary in the same manner2 and this is what might have been expected1 for such parts are identical in form and structure during an early period of embryonic development1 and are exposed in the egg or womb to similar conditions4 ,the symmetry1 in most kinds of animals1 of the corresponding or homologous organs on the right and left sides of the body1 is the simplest case in point2 but this symmetry sometimes fails1 as with rabbits having only one ear1 or stags with one horn1 or with many-horned sheep which sometimes carry an additional horn on one side of their heads4 ,with flowers which have regular corollas1 all the petals generally vary in the same manner1 as we see in the complicated and symmetrical pattern1 on the flowers1 for instance1 of the ,chinese pink2 but with irregular flowers1 though the petals are of course homologous1 this symmetry often fails1 as with the varieties of the ,antirrhinum or snapdragon1 or that variety of the kidney-bean 7,phaseolus7 which has a white standard-petal4 ,in the ,vertebrata the front and hind limbs are homologous1 and they tend to vary in the same manner1 as we see in long and short legged1 or in thick and thin legged races of the horse and dog4 ,isidore ,geoffroy#d has remarked on the tendency of supernumerary digits in man to appear1 not only on the right and left sides1 but on the upper and lower extremities4 ,meckel has insisted#e that1 when the muscles of the arm depart in number or arrangement from their proper type1 they almost always imitate those of the leg2 and so conversely the varying muscles of the leg imitate the normal muscles of the arm4 ,in several distinct breeds of the pigeon and fowl1 the legs and the two outer toes are heavily feathered1 so that in the trumpeter pigeon they appear like little wings4 ,in the feather-legged bantam the 8boots0 or feathers1 which grow from the outside of the leg and generally from the two outer toes1 have1 according to the excellent authority of ,mr4 ,hewitt1#f been seen to exceed the wing-feathers in length1 and in one case were actually nine and a half inches long6 ,as ,mr4 ,blyth has remarked to me1 these leg-feathers resemble the primary wing-feathers1 and are totally unlike the fine down which naturally grows on the legs of some birds1 such as grouse and owls4 ,hence it may be suspected that excess of food has first given redundancy to the plumage1 and then that the law of homologous variation has led to the development of feathers on the legs1 in a position corresponding with those on the wing1 namely1 on the outside of the tarsi and toes4 ,i am strengthened in this belief by the following curious case of correlation1 which for a long time seemed to me utterly inexplicable1 namely1 that in pigeons of any breed1 if the legs are feathered1 the two outer toes are partially connected by skin4 ,these two outer toes correspond with our third and fourth toes4#g ,now1 in the wing of the pigeon or of any other bird1 the first and fifth digits are aborted2 the second is rudimentary and carries the so-called 8bastard-wing20 whilst the third and fourth digits are completely united and enclosed by skin1 together forming the extremity of the wing4 ,so that in feather-footed pigeons1 not only does the exterior surface support a row of long feathers1 like wing-feathers1 but the very same digits which in the wing are completely united by skin become partially united by skin in the feet2 and thus by the law of the correlated variation of homologous parts we can understand the curious connection of feathered legs and membrane between the two outer toes4 ,andrew ,knight#h has remarked that the face or head and the limbs usually vary together in general proportions4 ,compare1 for instance1 the limbs of a dray and race horse1 or of a greyhound and mastiff4 ,what a monster a greyhound would appear with the head of a mastiff6 ,the modern bulldog1 however1 has fine limbs1 but this is a recently-selected character4 ,from the measurements given in the sixth chapter1 we see that in several breeds of the pigeon the length of the beak and the size of the feet are correlated4 ,the view which1 as before explained1 seems the most probable is1 that disuse in all cases tends to diminish the feet1 the beak becoming at the same time shorter through correlation2 but that in some few breeds in which length of beak has been a selected point1 the feet1 notwithstanding disuse1 have increased in size through correlation4 ,in the following case some kind of correlation is seen to exist between the feet and beak3 several specimens have been sent to ,mr4 ,bartlett at different times1 as hybrids between ducks and fowls1 and ,i have seen one2 these were1 as might be expected1 ordinary ducks in a semi-monstrous condition1 and in all of them the swimming-web between the toes was quite deficient or much reduced1 and in all the beak was narrow and ill-shaped4 ,with the increased length of the beak in pigeons1 not only the tongue increases in length1 but likewise the orifice of the nostrils4 ,but the increased length of the orifice of the nostrils perhaps stands in closer correlation with the development of the corrugated skin or wattle at the base of the beak1 for when there is much wattle round the eyes1 the eyelids are greatly increased or even doubled in length4 ,there is apparently some correlation even in colour between the head and the extremities4 ,thus with horses a large white star or blaze on the forehead is generally accompanied by white feet4#i ,with white rabbits and cattle1 dark marks often co-exist on the tips of the ears and on the feet4 ,in black and tan dogs of different breeds1 tan-coloured spots over the eyes and tan-coloured feet almost invariably go together4 ,these latter cases of connected colouring may be due either to reversion or to analogous variation1--subjects to which ,i shall hereafter return1--but this does not necessarily determine the question of their original correlation4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,jackson informs me that he has observed many hundred white-footed cats1 and he finds that all are more or less conspicuously marked with white on the front of the neck or chest4 ,the lopping forwards and downwards of the immense ears of fancy rabbits seems partly due to the disuse of the muscles1 and partly to the weight and length of the ears1 which have been increased by selection during many generations4 ,now1 with the increased size and changed direction of the ears not only has the bony auditory meatus become changed in outline1 direction1 and greatly in size1 but the whole skull has been slightly modified4 ,this could be clearly seen in 8half-lops0--that is1 in rabbits with only one ear lopping forward-- for the opposite sides of their skulls were not strictly symmetrical4 ,this seems to me a curious instance of correlation1 between hard bones and organs so soft and flexible1 as well as so unimportant under a physiological point of view1 as the external ears4 ,the result no doubt is largely due to mere mechanical action1 that is1 to the weight of the ears1 on the same principle that the skull of a human infant is easily modified by pressure4 ,the skin and the appendages of hair1 feathers1 hoofs1 horns1 and teeth1 are homologous over the whole body4 ,every one knows that the colour of the skin and that of the hair usually vary together2 so that ,virgil advises the shepherd to look whether the mouth and tongue of the ram are black1 lest the lambs should not be purely white4 ,the colour of the skin and hair1 and the odour emitted by the glands of the skin1 are said#aj to be connected1 even in the same race of men4 ,generally the hair varies in the same way all over the body in length1 fineness1 and curliness4 ,the same rule holds good with feathers1 as we see with the laced and frizzled breeds both of fowls and pigeons4 ,in the common cock the feathers on the neck and loins are always of a particular shape1 called hackles3 now in the ,polish breed1 both sexes are characterised by a tuft of feathers on the head1 and through correlation these feathers in the male always assume the form of hackles4 ,the wing and tail-feathers1 though arising from parts not homologous1 vary in length together2 so that long or short winged pigeons generally have long or short tails4 ,the case of the ,jacobin-pigeon is more curious1 for the wing and tail feathers are remarkably long2 and this apparently has arisen in correlation with the elongated and reversed feathers on the back of the neck1 which form the hood4 ,the hoofs and hair are homologous appendages2 and a careful observer1 namely ,azara1#aa states that in ,paraguay horses of various colours are often born with their hair curled and twisted like that on the head of a negro4 ,this peculiarity is strongly inherited4 ,but what is remarkable is that the hoofs of these horses 8are absolutely like those of a mule40 ,the hair also of their manes and tails is invariably much shorter than usual1 being only from four to twelve inches in length2 so that curliness and shortness of the hair are here1 as with the negro1 apparently correlated4 ,with respect to the horns of sheep1 ,youatt#ab remarks that 8multiplicity of horns is not found in any breed of much value2 it is generally accompanied by great length and coarseness of the fleece40 ,several tropical breeds of sheep which are clothed with hair instead of wool1 have horns almost like those of a goat4 ,sturm#ac expressly declares that in different races the more the wool is curled the more the horns are spirally twisted4 ,we have seen in the third chapter1 where other analogous facts have been given1 that the parent of the ,mauchamp breed1 so famous for its fleece1 had peculiarly shaped horns4 ,the inhabitants of ,angora assert#ad that 8only the white goats which have horns wear the fleece in the long curly locks that are so much admired2 those which are not horned having a comparatively close coat40 ,from these cases we may infer that the hair or wool and the horns tend to vary in a correlated manner4#ae ,those who have tried hydropathy are aware that the frequent application of cold water stimulates the skin2 and whatever stimulates the skin tends to increase the growth of the hair1 as is well shown in the abnormal growth of hair near old inflamed surfaces4 ,now1 ,professor ,low#af is convinced that with the different races of ,british cattle thick skin and long hair depend on the humidity of the climate which they inhabit4 ,we can thus see how a humid climate might act on the horns--in the first place directly on the skin and hair1 and secondly by correlation on the horns4 ,the presence or absence of horns1 moreover1 both in the case of sheep and cattle1 acts1 as will presently be shown1 by some sort of correlation on the skull4 ,with respect to hair and teeth1 ,mr4 ,yarrell#ag found many of the teeth deficient in three hairless 8,egyptian dogs10 and in a hairless terrier4 ,the incisors1 canines1 and the premolars suffered most1 but in one case all the teeth1 except the large tubercular molar on each side1 were deficient4 ,with man several striking cases have been recorded#ah of inherited baldness with inherited deficiency1 either complete or partial1 of the teeth4 ,i may give an analogous case1 communicated to me by ,mr4 ,w4 ,wedderburn1 of a ,hindoo family in ,scinde1 in which ten men1 in the course of four generations1 were furnished1 in both jaws taken together1 with only four small and weak incisor teeth and with eight posterior molars4 ,the men thus affected have very little hair on the body1 and become bald early in life4 ,they also suffer much during hot weather from excessive dryness of the skin4 ,it is remarkable that no instance has occurred of a daughter being thus affected2 and this fact reminds us how much more liable men are in ,england to become bald than women4 ,though the daughters in the above family are never affected1 they transmit the tendency to their sons2 and no case has occurred of a son transmitting it to his sons4 ,the affection thus appears only in alternate generations1 or after longer intervals4 ,there is a similar connection between hair and teeth1 according to ,mr4 ,sedgwick1 in those rare cases in which the hair has been renewed in old age1 for this has 8usually been accompanied by a renewal of the teeth40 ,i have remarked in a former part of this volume that the great reduction in the size of the tusks in domestic boars probably stands in close relation with their diminished bristles1 due to a certain amount of protection2 and that the reappearance of the tusks in boars1 which have become feral and are fully exposed to the weather1 probably depends on the reappearance of the bristles4 ,i may add1 though not strictly connected with our present point1 that an agriculturist#ai asserts that 8pigs with little hair on their bodies are most liable to lose their tails1 showing a weakness of the tegumental structure4 ,it may be prevented by crossing with a more hairy breed40 ,in the previous cases deficient hair1 and teeth deficient in number or size1 are apparently connected4 ,in the following cases abnormally redundant hair1 and teeth either deficient or redundant1 are likewise connected4 ,mr4 ,crawfurd#bj saw at the ,burmese ,court a man1 thirty years old1 with his whole body1 except the hands and feet1 covered with straight silky hair1 which on the shoulders and spine was five inches in length4 ,at birth the ears alone were covered4 ,he did not arrive at puberty1 or shed his milk teeth1 until twenty years old2 and at this period he acquired five teeth in the upper jaw1 namely1 four incisors and one canine1 and four incisor teeth in the lower jaw2 all the teeth were small4 ,this man had a daughter who was born with hair within her ears2 and the hair soon extended over her body4 ,when ,captain ,yule#ba visited the ,court1 he found this girl grown up2 and she presented a strange appearance with even her nose densely covered with soft hair4 ,like her father1 she was furnished with incisor teeth alone4 ,the ,king had with difficulty bribed a man to marry her1 and of her two children1 one1 a boy fourteen months old1 had hair growing out of his ears1 with a beard and moustache4 ,this strange peculiarity has1 therefore1 been inherited for three generations1 with the molar teeth deficient in the grandfather and mother2 whether these teeth would likewise fail in the infant could not then be told4 ,a parallel case of a man fifty-five years old1 and of his son1 with their faces covered with hair1 has recently occurred in ,russia4 ,dr4 ,alex4 ,brandt has sent me an account of this case1 together with specimens of the extremely fine hair from the cheeks4 ,the man is deficient in teeth1 possessing only four incisors in the lower and two in the upper jaw4 ,his son1 about three years old1 has no teeth except four lower incisors4 ,the case1 as ,dr4 ,brandt remarks in his letter1 no doubt is due to an arrest of development in the hair and teeth4 ,we here see how independent of the ordinary conditions of existence such arrests must be1 for the lives of a ,russian peasant and of a native of ,burmah are as different as possible4#bb ,here is another and somewhat different case communicated to me by ,mr4 ,wallace on the authority of ,dr4 ,purland1 a dentist3 ,julia ,pastrana1 a ,spanish dancer1 was a remarkably fine woman1 but she had a thick masculine beard and a hairy forehead2 she was photographed1 and her stuffed skin was exhibited as a show2 but what concerns us is1 that she had in both the upper and lower jaw an irregular double set of teeth1 one row being placed within the other1 of which ,dr4 ,purland took a cast4 ,from the redundancy of teeth her mouth projected1 and her face had a gorilla-like appearance4 ,these cases and those of the hairless dogs forcibly call to mind the fact1 that the two orders of mammals--namely1 the ,edentata and ,cetacea--which are the most abnormal in their dermal covering1 are likewise the most abnormal either by deficiency or redundancy of teeth4 ,the organs of sight and hearing are generally admitted to be homologous with one another and with various dermal appendages2 hence these parts are liable to be abnormally affected in conjunction4 ,mr4 ,white ,cowper says 8that in all cases of double microphthalmia brought under his notice he has at the same time met with defective development of the dental system40 ,certain forms of blindness seem to be associated with the colour of the hair2 a man with black hair and a woman with light-coloured hair1 both of sound constitution1 married and had nine children1 all of whom were born blind2 of these children1 five 8with dark hair and brown iris were afflicted with amaurosis2 the four others1 with light-coloured hair and blue iris1 had amaurosis and cataract conjoined40 ,several cases could be given1 showing that some relation exists between various affections of the eyes and ears2 thus ,liebreich states that out of #bda deaf-mutes in ,berlin1 no less than fourteen suffered from the rare disease called pigmentary retinitis4 ,mr4 ,white ,cowper and ,dr4 ,earle have remarked that inability to distinguish different colours1 or colour-blindness1 8is often associated with a corresponding inability to distinguish musical sounds40#bc ,here is a more curious case3 white cats1 if they have blue eyes1 are almost always deaf4 ,i formerly thought that the rule was invariable1 but ,i have heard of a few authentic exceptions4 ,the first two notices were published in #ahbi and relate to ,english and ,persian cats3 of the latter1 the ,rev4 ,w4 ,t4 ,bree possessed a female1 and he states1 8that of the offspring produced at one and the same birth1 such as1 like the mother1 were entirely white 7with blue eyes7 were1 like her1 invariably deaf2 while those that had the least speck of colour on their fur1 as invariably possessed the usual faculty of hearing40#bd ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,darwin ,fox informs me that he has seen more than a dozen instances of this correlation in ,english1 ,persian1 and ,danish cats2 but he adds 8that1 if one eye1 as ,i have several times observed1 be not blue1 the cat hears4 ,on the other hand1 ,i have never seen a white cat with eyes of the common colour that was deaf40 ,in ,france ,dr4 ,sichel#be has observed during twenty years similar facts2 he adds the remarkable case of the iris beginning1 at the end of four months1 to grow dark-coloured1 and then the cat first began to hear4 ,this case of correlation in cats has struck many persons as marvellous4 ,there is nothing unusual in the relation between blue eyes and white fur2 and we have already seen that the organs of sight and hearing are often simultaneously affected4 ,in the present instance the cause probably lies in a slight arrest of development in the nervous system in connection with the sense-organs4 ,kittens during the first nine days1 whilst their eyes are closed1 appear to be completely deaf2 ,i have made a great clanging noise with a poker and shovel close to their heads1 both when they were asleep and awake1 without producing any effect4 ,the trial must not be made by shouting close to their ears1 for they are1 even when asleep1 extremely sensitive to a breath of air4 ,now1 as long as the eyes continue closed1 the iris is no doubt blue1 for in all the kittens which ,i have seen this colour remains for some time after the eyelids open4 ,hence1 if we suppose the development of the organs of sight and hearing to be arrested at the stage of the closed eyelids1 the eyes would remain permanently blue and the ears would be incapable of perceiving sound2 and we should thus understand this curious case4 ,as1 however1 the colour of the fur is determined long before birth1 and as the blueness of the eyes and the whiteness of the fur are obviously connected1 we must believe that some primary cause acts at a much earlier period4 ,the instances of correlated variability hitherto given have been chiefly drawn from the animal kingdom1 and we will now turn to plants4 ,leaves1 sepals1 petals1 stamens1 and pistils are all homologous4 ,in double flowers we see that the stamens and pistils vary in the same manner1 and assume the form and colour of the petals4 ,in the double columbine 7,aquilegia vulgaris71 the successive whorls of stamens are converted into cornucopias1 which are enclosed within one another and resemble the true petals4 ,in hose-in-hose flowers the sepals mock the petals4 ,in some cases the flowers and leaves vary together in tint3 in all the varieties of the common pea1 which have purple flowers1 a purple mark may be seen on the stipules4 ,m4 ,faivre states that with the varieties of ,primula sinensis the colour of the flower is evidently correlated with the colour of the under side of the leaves2 and he adds that the varieties with fimbriated flowers almost always have voluminous1 balloon-like calyces4#bf ,with other plants the leaves and fruit or seeds vary together in colour1 as in a curious pale-leaved variety of the sycamore1 which has recently been described in ,france1#bg and as in the purple-leaved hazel1 in which the leaves1 the husk of the nut1 and the pellicle round the kernel are all coloured purple4#bh ,pomologists can predict to a certain extent1 from the size and appearance of the leaves of their seedlings1 the probable nature of the fruit2 for1 as ,van ,mons remarks#bi variations in the leaves are generally accompanied by some modification in the flower1 and consequently in the fruit4 ,in the ,serpent melon1 which has a narrow tortuous fruit above a yard in length1 the stem of the plant1 the peduncle of the female flower1 and the middle lobe of the leaf1 are all elongated in a remarkable manner4 ,on the other hand1 several varieties of ,cucurbita1 which have dwarfed stems1 all produce1 as ,naudin remarks1 leaves of the same peculiar shape4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,maw informs me that all the varieties of the scarlet ,pelargoniums which have contracted or imperfect leaves have contracted flowers3 the difference between 8,brilliant0 and its parent 8,tom ,thumb0 is a good instance of this4 ,it may be suspected that the curious case described by ,risso1#cj of a variety of the ,orange which produces on the young shoots rounded leaves with winged petioles1 and afterwards elongated leaves on long but wingless petioles1 is connected with the remarkable change in form and nature which the fruit undergoes during its development4 ,in the following instance we have the colour and the form of the petals apparently correlated1 and both dependent on the nature of the season4 ,an observer1 skilled in the subject1 writes1#ca 8,i noticed1 during the year #ahdb1 that every ,dahlia of which the colour had any tendency to scarlet1 was deeply notched--indeed1 to so great an extent as to give the petals the appearance of a saw2 the indentures were1 in some instances1 more than a quarter of an inch deep40 ,again1 ,dahlias which have their petals tipped with a different colour from the rest of the flower are very inconstant1 and during certain years some1 or even all the flowers1 become uniformly coloured2 and it has been observed with several varieties#cb that when this happens the petals grow much elongated and lose their proper shape4 ,this1 however1 may be due to reversion1 both in colour and form1 to the aboriginal species4 ,in this discussion on correlation1 we have hitherto treated of cases in which we can partly understand the bond of connection2 but ,i will now give cases in which we cannot even conjecture1 or can only very obscurely see1 the nature of the bond4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 in his work on ,monstrosities1 insists1#cc 8que certaines anomalies coexistent rarement entr'elles1 d'autres frquemment1 d'autres enfin presque constamment1 malgr la diffrence trs-grande de leur nature1 et quoiqu'elles puissent paratre compltement indpendantes les unes des autres40 ,we see something analogous in certain diseases3 thus in a rare affection of the renal capsules 7of which the functions are unknown71 the skin becomes bronzed2 and in hereditary syphilis1 as ,i hear from ,sir ,j4 ,paget1 both the milk and the second teeth assume a peculiar and characteristic form4 ,professor ,rolleston1 also1 informs me that the incisor teeth are sometimes furnished with a vascular rim in correlation with intra-pulmonary deposition of tubercles4 ,in other cases of phthisis and of cyanosis the nails and finger-ends become clubbed like acorns4 ,i believe that no explanation has been offered of these and of many other cases of correlated disease4 ,what can be more curious and less intelligible than the fact previously given1 on the authority of ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 that young pigeons of all breeds1 which when mature have white1 yellow1 silver-blue1 or dun-coloured plumage1 come out of the egg almost naked2 whereas pigeons of other colours when first born are clothed with plenty of down8 ,white ,pea-fowls1 as has been observed both in ,england and ,france1#cd and as ,i have myself seen1 are inferior in size to the common coloured kind2 and this cannot be accounted for by the belief that albinism is always accompanied by constitutional weakness2 for white or albino moles are generally larger than the common kind4 ,to turn to more important characters3 the niata cattle of the ,pampas are remarkable from their short foreheads1 upturned muzzles1 and curved lower jaws4 ,in the skull the nasal and premaxillary bones are much shortened1 the maxillaries are excluded from any junction with the nasals1 and all the bones are slightly modified1 even to the plane of the occiput4 ,from the analogous case of the dog1 hereafter to be given1 it is probable that the shortening of the nasal and adjoining bones is the proximate cause of the other modifications in the skull1 including the upward curvature of the lower jaw1 though we cannot follow out the steps by which these changes have been effected4 ,polish fowls have a large tuft of feathers on their heads2 and their skulls are perforated by numerous holes1 so that a pin can be driven into the brain without touching any bone4 ,that this deficiency of bone is in some way connected with the tuft of feathers is clear from tufted ducks and geese likewise having perforated skulls4 ,the case would probably be considered by some authors as one of balancement or compensation4 ,in the chapter on ,fowls1 ,i have shown that with ,polish fowls the tuft of feathers was probably at first small2 by continued selection it became larger1 and then rested on a fibrous mass2 and finally1 as it became still larger1 the skull itself became more and more protuberant until it acquired its present extraordinary structure4 ,through correlation with the protuberance of the skull1 the shape and even the relative connection of the premaxillary and nasal bones1 the shape of the orifice of the nostrils1 the breadth of the frontal bone1 the shape of the post-lateral processes of the frontal and squamosal bones1 and the direction of the bony cavity of the ear1 have all been modified4 ,the internal configuration of the skull and the whole shape of the brain have likewise been altered in a truly marvellous manner4 ,after this case of the ,polish fowl it would be superfluous to do more than refer to the details previously given on the manner in which the changed form of the comb has affected the skull1 in various breeds of the fowl1 causing by correlation crests1 protuberances1 and depressions on its surface4 ,with our cattle and sheep the horns stand in close connection with the size of the skull1 and with the shape of the frontal bones2 thus ,cline#ce found that the skull of a horned ram weighed five times as much as that of a hornless ram of the same age4 ,when cattle become hornless1 the frontal bones are 8materially diminished in breadth towards the poll20 and the cavities between the bony plates 8are not so deep1 nor do they extend beyond the frontals40#cf ,it may be well here to pause and observe how the effects of correlated variability1 of the increased use of parts1 and of the accumulation of so-called spontaneous variations through natural selection1 are in many cases inextricably commingled4 ,we may borrow an illustration from ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 who remarks that1 when the ,irish elk acquired its gigantic horns1 weighing above one hundred pounds1 numerous co-ordinated changes of structure would have been indispensable1--namely1 a thickened skull to carry the horns2 strengthened cervical vertebrae1 with strengthened ligaments2 enlarged dorsal vertebrae to support the neck1 with powerful fore-legs and feet2 all these parts being supplied with proper muscles1 blood-vessels1 and nerves4 ,how then could these admirably co-ordinated modifications of structure have been acquired8 ,according to the doctrine which ,i maintain1 the horns of the male elk were slowly gained through sexual selection1--that is1 by the best-armed males conquering the worse-armed1 and leaving a greater number of descendants4 ,but it is not at all necessary that the several parts of the body should have simultaneously varied4 ,each stag presents individual characteristics1 and in the same district those which had slightly heavier horns1 or stronger necks1 or stronger bodies1 or were the most courageous1 would secure the greater number of does1 and consequently have a greater number of offspring4 ,the offspring would inherit1 in a greater or less degree1 these same qualities1 would occasionally intercross with one another1 or with other individuals varying in some favourable manner2 and of their offspring1 those which were the best endowed in any respect would continue multiplying2 and so onwards1 always progressing1 sometimes in one direction1 and sometimes in another1 towards the excellently co-ordinated structure of the male elk4 ,to make this clear1 let us reflect on the probable steps1 as shown in the twentieth chapter1 by which our race and dray horses have arrived at their present state of excellence2 if we could view the whole series of intermediate forms between one of these animals and an early unimproved progenitor1 we should behold a vast number of animals1 not equally improved in each generation throughout their entire structure1 but sometimes a little more in one point1 and sometimes in another1 yet on the whole gradually approaching in character to our present race or dray horses1 which are so admirably fitted in the one case for fleetness and in the other for draught4 ,although natural selection would thus#cg tend to give to the male elk its present structure1 yet it is probable that the inherited effects of use1 and of the mutual action of part on part1 have been equally or more important4 ,as the horns gradually increased in weight the muscles of the neck1 with the bones to which they are attached1 would increase in size and strength2 and these parts would react on the body and legs4 ,nor must we overlook the fact that certain parts of the skull and the extremities would1 judging by analogy1 tend from the first to vary in a correlated manner4 ,the increased weight of the horns would also act directly on the skull1 in the same manner as when one bone is removed in the leg of a dog1 the other bone1 which has to carry the whole weight of the body1 increases in thickness4 ,but from the fact given with respect to horned and hornless cattle1 it is probable that the horns and skull would immediately act on each other through the principle of correlation4 ,lastly1 the growth and subsequent wear and tear of the augmented muscles and bones would require an increased supply of blood1 and consequently increased supply of food2 and this again would require increased powers of mastication1 digestion1 respiration1 and excretion4 ,colour as ,correlated with ,constitutional ,peculiarities4 ,it is an old belief that with man there is a connection between complexions and constitution2 and ,i find that some of the best authorities believe in this to the present day4#ch ,thus ,dr4 ,beddoe by his tables shows#ci that a relation exists between liability to consumption and the colour of the hair1 eyes1 and skin4 ,it has been affirmed#dj that1 in the ,french army which invaded ,russia1 soldiers having a dark complexion from the southern parts of ,europe1 withstood the intense cold better than those with lighter complexions from the north2 but no doubt such statements are liable to error4 ,in the second chapter on ,selection ,i have given several cases proving that with animals and plants differences in colour are correlated with constitutional differences1 as shown by greater or less immunity from certain diseases1 from the attacks of parasitic plants and animals1 from scorching by the sun1 and from the action of certain poisons4 ,when all the individuals of any one variety possess an immunity of this nature1 we do not know that it stands in any sort of correlation with their colour2 but when several similarly coloured varieties of the same species are thus characterised1 whilst other coloured varieties are not thus favoured1 we must believe in the existence of a correlation of this kind4 ,thus1 in the ,united ,states purple-fruited plums of many kinds are far more affected by a certain disease than green or yellow-fruited varieties4 ,on the other hand1 yellow-fleshed peaches of various kinds suffer from another disease much more than the white-fleshed varieties4 ,in the ,mauritius red sugar-canes are much less affected by a particular disease than the white canes4 ,white onions and verbenas are the most liable to mildew2 and in ,spain the green-fruited grapes suffered from the vine-disease more than other coloured varieties4 ,dark-coloured pelargoniums and verbenas are more scorched by the sun than varieties of other colours4 ,red wheats are believed to be hardier than white2 and red-flowered hyacinths were more injured during one particular winter in ,holland than other coloured varieties4 ,with animals1 white terriers suffer most from the distemper1 white chickens from a parasitic worm in their tracheae1 white pigs from scorching by the sun1 and white cattle from flies2 but the caterpillars of the silk-moth which yield white cocoons suffered in ,france less from the deadly parasitic fungus than those producing yellow silk4 ,the cases of immunity from the action of certain vegetable poisons1 in connexion with colour1 are more interesting1 and are at present wholly inexplicable4 ,i have already given a remarkable instance1 on the authority of ,professor ,wyman1 of all the hogs1 excepting those of a black colour1 suffering severely in ,virginia from eating the root of the ,lachnanthes tinctoria4 ,according to ,spinola and others1#da buckwheat 7,po#aygonum fagopyrum71 when in flower1 is highly injurious to white or white-spotted pigs1 if they are exposed to the heat of the sun1 but is quite innocuous to black pigs4 ,according to two accounts1 the ,hypericum crispum in ,sicily is poisonous to white sheep alone2 their heads swell1 their wool falls off1 and they often die2 but this plant1 according to ,lecce1 is poisonous only when it grows in swamps2 nor is this improbable1 as we know how readily the poisonous principle in plants is influenced by the conditions under which they grow4 ,three accounts have been published in ,eastern ,prussia1 of white and white-spotted horses being greatly injured by eating mildewed and honeydewed vetches2 every spot of skin bearing white hairs becoming inflamed and gangrenous4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,rodwell informs me that his father turned out about fifteen cart-horses into a field of tares which in parts swarmed with black aphides1 and which no doubt were honeydewed1 and probably mildewed2 the horses1 with two exceptions1 were chestnuts and bays with white marks on their faces and pasterns1 and the white parts alone swelled and became angry scabs4 ,the two bay horses with no white marks entirely escaped all injury4 ,in ,guernsey1 when horses eat fool's parsley 7thusa cynapium7 they are sometimes violently purged2 and this plant 8has a peculiar effect on the nose and lips1 causing deep cracks and ulcers1 particularly on horses with white muzzles40#db ,with cattle1 independently of the action of any poison1 cases have been published by ,youatt and ,erdt of cutaneous diseases with much constitutional disturbance 7in one instance after exposure to a hot sun7 affecting every single point which bore a white hair1 but completely passing over other parts of the body4 ,similar cases have been observed with horses4#dc ,we thus see that not only do those parts of the skin which bear white hair differ in a remarkable manner from those bearing hair of any other colour1 but that some great constitutional difference must be correlated with the colour of the hair2 for in the above-mentioned cases1 vegetable poisons caused fever1 swelling of the head1 as well as other symptoms1 and even death1 to all the white1 or white-spotted animals4 ,,references #a #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' tom4 iii4 p4 #cib4 ,prof4 ,huxley applies the same principle in accounting for the remarkable1 though normal1 differences in the arrangement of the nervous system in the ,mollusca1 in his paper on the ,morphology of the ,cephalous ,mollusca in #8,phil4 ,transact41' #ahec1 p4 #ef4 #b #8,elments de ,tratologie ,veg41' #ahda1 p4 #ac4 #c ,prof4 ,j4 ,b4 ,simonds on the ,age of the ,ox1 ,sheep1 etc41 quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahed1 p4 #ehh4 #d #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' tom4 i4 p4 #fgd4 #e ,quoted by ,isid4 ,geoffroy1 ibid41 tom4 i4 p4 #fce4 #f #8,the ,poultry ,book1' by ,w4 ,b4 ,tegetmeier1 #ahff1 p4 #bej4 #g ,naturalists differ with respect to the homologies of the digits of birds2 but several uphold the view above advanced4 ,see on this subject ,dr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,morse in #8,annals of the ,lyceum of ,nat4 ,hist4 of ,new ,york1' vol4 x4 #ahgb1 p4 #af4 #h ,a4 ,walker on ,intermarriage1 #ahch1 p4 #afj4 #i #8,the ,farrier and ,naturalist1' vol4 i4 #ahbh1 p4 #def4 ,a gentleman who has attended to this point1 tells me that about three-fourths of white-faced horses have white legs4 #aj ,godron1 #8,sur l',espce1' tom4 ii4 p4 #bag4 #aa #8,quadrupdes du ,paraguay1' tom4 ii4 p4 #ccc4 #ab ,on ,sheep1 p4 #adb4 #ac #8,ueber ,racen1 ,kreuzungen1' etc41 #ahbe1 s4 #bd4 #ad ,quoted from ,conolly1 in #8,the ,indian ,field1' ,feb4 #ahei1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bff4 #ae ,in the third chapter ,i have said that 8the hair and horns are so closely related to each other1 that they are apt to vary together40 ,dr4 ,wilckens 78,darwin's ,theorie10 #8,jahrbuch der ,deutschen ,viehzucht1' #ahff1 #a4 ,heft7 translates my words into 8lang-und grobhaarige ,thiere sollen geneigter sein1 lange und viele ,hrner zu bekommen0 and he then justly disputes this proposition2 but what ,i have really said1 in accordance with the authorities just quoted1 may1 ,i think1 be trusted4 #af #8,domesticated ,animals of the ,british ,islands1' pp4 #cjg1 #cfh4 ,dr4 ,wilckens argues 7#8,landwirth4 ,wochenblatt1' ,nr4 #aj1 #ahfi7 to the same effect with respect to domestic animals in ,germany4 #ag #8,proceedings ,zoolog4 ,soc41' #ahcc1 p4 #aac4 #ah ,sedgwick1 #8,brit4 and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april #ahfc1 p4 #dec4 #ai #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdi1 p4 #bje4 #bj #8,embassy to the ,court of ,ava1' vol4 i4 p4 #cbj4 #ba #8,narrative of a ,mission to the ,court of ,ava in #ahee1' p4 #id4 #bb ,i owe to the kindness of ,m4 ,chauman1 of ,st4 ,petersburg1 excellent photographs of this man and his son1 both of whom have since been exhibited in ,paris and ,london4 #bc ,these statements are taken from ,mr4 ,sedgwick in the #8,medico-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,july1 #ahfa1 p4 #aih2 ,april1 #ahfc1 pp4 #dee and #deh4 ,liebreich is quoted by ,professor ,devay1 in his #8,mariages ,consanguins1' #ahfb1 p4 #aaf4 #bd ,loudon's #8,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 i4 #ahbi1 pp4 #ff1 #agh4 ,see also ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas1 #8,l',hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 i4 p4 #dbh1 on the inheritance of deafness in cats4 ,mr4 ,lawson ,tait states 7#8,nature1' #ahgc1 p4 #cbc7 that only male cats are thus affected2 but this must be a hasty generalisation4 ,the first case recorded in ,england by ,mr4 ,bree related to a female1 and ,mr4 ,fox informs me that he has bred kittens from a white female with blue eyes1 which was completely deaf2 he has also observed other females in the same condition4 #be #8,annales des ,sc4 ,nat4' ,zoolog41 #crd series1 #ahdg1 tom4 viii4 p4 #bci4 #bf #8,revue des ,cours ,scientifiques1' ,june #eth1 #ahfi1 p4 #dcj4 #bg #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahfd1 p4 #abjb4 #bh ,verlot gives several other instances1 #8,des ,varits1' #ahfe1 p4 #gb4 #bi #8,arbres ,fruitiers1' #ahcf1 tom4 ii4 pp4 #bjd1 #bbf4 #cj #8,annales du ,musum1' tom4 xx4 p4 #ahh4 #ca #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahdc1 p4 #hgg4 #cb ,ibid41 #ahde1 p4 #ajb4 #cc #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' tom4 iii4 p4 #djb4 ,see also ,m4 ,camille ,dareste1 #8,recherches sur les ,conditions1' etc41 #ahfc1 pp4 #af1 #dh4 #cd ,rev4 ,e4 ,s4 ,dixon1 #8,ornamental ,poultry1' #ahdh1 p4 #aaa2 ,isidore ,geoffroy1 #8,hist4 ,anomalies1' tom4 i4 p4 #baa4 #ce #8,on the ,breeding of ,domestic ,animals1' #ahbi1 p4 #f4 #cf ,youatt on ,cattle1 #ahcd1 p4 #bhc4 #cg ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer 7#8,principles of ,biology1' #ahfd1 vol4 i4 pp4 #deb1 #dfh7 takes a different view2 and in one place remarks3 8,we have seen reason to think that1 as fast as essential faculties multiply1 and as fast as the number of organs that co-operate in any given function increases1 indirect equilibration through natural selection becomes less and less capable of producing specific adaptations2 and remains fully capable only of maintaining the general fitness of constitution to conditions40 ,this view that natural selection can do little in modifying the higher animals surprises me1 seeing that man's selection has undoubtedly effected much with our domesticated quadrupeds and birds4 #ch ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas apparently disbelieves in any such connection2 #8,l',hrd4 ,nat41' tom4 ii4 pp4 #hh-id4 #ci #8,british ,medical ,journal1' #ahfb1 p4 #dcc4 #dj ,boudin1 #8,gograph4 ,mdicale1' tom4 i4 p4 #djf4 #da ,this fact and the following cases1 when not stated to the contrary1 are taken from a very curious paper by ,prof4 ,heusinger1 in #8,wochenschrift fur ,heilkunde1' ,may1 #ahdf1 s4 #bgg4 ,settegast 7#8,die ,thierzucht1' #ahfh1 p4 #ci7 says that white or white-spotted sheep suffer like pigs1 or even die from eating buckwheat2 whilst black or dark-woolled individuals are not in the least affected4 #db ,mr4 ,mogford1 in the #8,veterinarian1' quoted in #8,the ,field1' ,jan4 #bbnd1 #ahfa1 p4 #ede4 #dc #8,edinburgh ,veterinary ,journal1' ,oct4 #ahfj1 p4 #cdg4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,laws ,,of ,,variation1 continued4--,,summary4 ,,the ,,fusion ,,of ,,homologous ,,parts--,,the ,,variability ,,of ,,multiple ,,and ,,homologous ,,parts--,,compensation ,,of ,,growth--,,mechanical ,,pressure--,,relative ,,position ,,of ,,flowers ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,the ,,axis1 ,,and ,,of ,,seeds ,,in ,,the ,,ovary1 ,,as ,,inducing ,,variation--,,analogous ,,or ,,parallel ,,varieties--,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,last ,,chapters4 ,the ,fusion of ,homologous ,parts4--,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire formerly propounded what he called la loi de l'affinit de soi pour soi1 which has been discussed and illustrated by his son1 ,isidore1 with respect to monsters in the animal kingdom1#a and by ,moquin-,tandon1 with respect to monstrous plants4 ,this law seems to imply that homologous parts actually attract one another and then unite4 ,no doubt there are many wonderful cases1 in which such parts become intimately fused together4 ,this is perhaps best seen in monsters with two heads1 which are united1 summit to summit1 or face to face1 or ,janus-like1 back to back1 or obliquely side to side4 ,in one instance of two heads united almost face to face1 but a little obliquely1 four ears were developed1 and on one side a perfect face1 which was manifestly formed by the fusion of two half-faces4 ,whenever two bodies or two heads are united1 each bone1 muscle1 vessel1 and nerve on the line of junction appears as if it had sought out its fellow1 and had become completely fused with it4 ,lereboullet1#b who carefully studied the development of double monsters in fishes1 observed in fifteen instances the steps by which two heads gradually became united into one4 ,in all such cases it is now thought by the greater number of capable judges that the homologous parts do not attract each other1 but that in the words of ,mr4 ,lowne3#c 8,as union takes place before the differentiation of distinct organs occurs1 these are formed in continuity with each other40 ,he adds that organs already differentiated probably in no case become united to homologous ones4 ,m4 ,dareste does not speak#d quite decisively against the law of soi pour soi1 but concludes by saying1 8,on se rend parfaitement compte de la formation des monstres1 si l'on admet que les embryons qui se soudent appartiennent un mme uf2 qu'ils s'unissent en mme temps qu'ils se forment1 et que la soudure ne se produit que pendant la premire priode de la vie embryonnaire1 celle ou les organes ne sont encore constitus que par des blastmes homognes40 ,by whatever means the abnormal fusion of homologous parts is effected1 such cases throw light on the frequent presence of organs which are double during an embryonic period 7and throughout life in other and lower members of the same class7 but which afterwards unite by a normal process into a single medial organ4 ,in the vegetable kingdom ,moquin-,tandon#e gives a long list of cases1 showing how frequently homologous parts1 such as leaves1 petals1 stamens1 and pistils1 flowers1 and aggregates of homologous parts1 such as buds1 as well as fruit1 become blended1 both normally and abnormally1 with perfect symmetry into one another4 ,the ,variability of ,multiple and ,homologous parts4--,isidore ,geoffroy#f insists that1 when any part or organ is repeated many times in the same animal1 it is particularly liable to vary both in number and structure4 ,with respect to number1 the proposition may1 ,i think1 be considered as fully established2 but the evidence is chiefly derived from organic beings living under their natural conditions1 with which we are not here concerned4 ,whenever such parts as the vertebrae or teeth1 the rays in the fins of fishes1 or the feathers in the tails of birds1 or petals1 stamens1 pistils1 or seeds1 are very numerous1 the number is generally variable4 ,with respect to the structure of multiple parts1 the evidence of variability is not so decisive2 but the fact1 as far as it may be trusted1 probably depends on multiple parts being of less physiological importance than single parts2 consequently their structure has been less rigorously guarded by natural selection4 ,compensation of ,growth1 or ,balancement4--,this law1 as applied to natural species1 was propounded by ,goethe and ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire at nearly the same time4 ,it implies that1 when much organised matter is used in building up some one part1 other parts are starved and become reduced4 ,several authors1 especially botanists1 believe in this law2 others reject it4 ,as far as ,i can judge1 it occasionally holds good2 but its importance has probably been exaggerated4 ,it is scarcely possible to distinguish between the supposed effects of such compensation1 and the effects of long-continued selection which may lead to the augmentation of one part1 and simultaneously to the diminution of another4 ,anyhow1 there can be no doubt that an organ may be greatly increased without any corresponding diminution of an adjoining part4 ,to recur to our former illustration of the ,irish elk1 it may be asked what part has suffered in consequence of the immense development of the horns8 ,it has already been observed that the struggle for existence does not bear hard on our domesticated productions1 and consequently the principle of economy of growth will seldom come into play1 so that we ought not to expect to find with them frequent evidence of compensation4 ,we have1 however1 some such cases4 ,moquin-,tandon describes a monstrous bean1#g in which the stipules were enormously developed1 and the leaflets apparently in consequence completely aborted2 this case is interesting1 as it represents the natural condition of ,lathyrus aphaca1 with its stipules of great size1 and its leaves reduced to mere threads1 which act as tendrils4 ,de ,candolle#h has remarked that the varieties of ,raphanus sativus which have small roots yield numerous seed containing much oil1 whilst those with large roots are not productive in oil2 and so it is with ,brassica asperifolia4 ,the varieties of ,cucurbita pepo which bear large fruit yield a small crop1 according to ,naudin2 whilst those producing small fruit yield a vast number4 ,lastly1 ,i have endeavoured to show in the eighteenth chapter that with many cultivated plants unnatural treatment checks the full and proper action of the reproductive organs1 and they are thus rendered more or less sterile2 consequently1 in the way of compensation1 the fruit becomes greatly enlarged1 and1 in double flowers1 the petals are greatly increased in number4 ,with animals1 it has been found difficult to produce cows which yield much milk1 and are afterwards capable of fattening well4 ,with fowls which have large top-knots and beards the comb and wattles are generally much reduced in size2 though there are exceptions to this rule4 ,perhaps the entire absence of the oil-gland in fantail pigeons may be connected with the great development of their tails4 ,mechanical ,pressure as a ,cause of ,modifications4--,in some few cases there is reason to believe that mere mechanical pressure has affected certain structures4 ,vrolik and ,weber#i maintain that the shape of the human head is influenced by the shape of the mother's pelvis4 ,the kidneys in different birds differ much in form1 and ,st4 ,ange#aj believes that this is determined by the form of the pelvis1 which again1 no doubt1 stands in close relation with their power of locomotion4 ,in snakes1 the viscera are curiously displaced1 in comparison with their position in other vertebrates2 and this has been attributed by some authors to the elongation of their bodies2 but here1 as in so many previous cases1 it is impossible to disentangle a direct result of this kind from that consequent on natural selection4 ,godron has argued#aa that the abortion of the spur on the inner side of the flowers in ,corydalis1 is caused by the buds at a very early period of growth whilst underground being closely pressed against one another and against the stem4 ,some botanists believe that the singular difference in the shape both of the seed and corolla1 in the interior and exterior florets in certain ,compositous and ,umbelliferous plants1 is due to the pressure to which the inner florets are subjected2 but this conclusion is doubtful4 ,the facts just given do not relate to domesticated productions1 and therefore do not strictly concern us4 ,but here is a more appropriate case3 ,h4 ,mller#ab has shown that in shortfaced races of the dog some of the molar teeth are placed in a slightly different position to that which they occupy in other dogs1 especially in those having elongated muzzles2 and as he remarks1 any inherited change in the arrangement of the teeth deserves notice1 considering their classificatory importance4 ,this difference in position is due to the shortening of certain facial bones and the consequent want of space2 and the shortening results from a peculiar and abnormal state of the embryonal cartilages of the bones4 ,relative ,position of ,flowers with respect to the ,axis1 and of ,seeds in the ,ovary1 as inducing ,variation4 ,in the thirteenth chapter various peloric flowers were described1 and their production was shown to be due either to arrested development1 or to reversion to a primordial condition4 ,moquin-,tandon has remarked that the flowers which stand on the summit of the main stem or of a lateral branch are more liable to become peloric than those on the sides2#ac and he adduces1 amongst other instances1 that of ,teucrium campanulatum4 ,in another ,labiate plant grown by me1 viz41 the ,galeobdolon luteum1 the peloric flowers were always produced on the summit of the stem1 where flowers are not usually borne4 ,in ,pelargonium1 a single flower in the truss is frequently peloric1 and when this occurs ,i have during several years invariably observed it to be the central flower4 ,this is of such frequent occurrence that one observer#ad gives the names of ten varieties flowering at the same time1 in every one of which the central flower was peloric4 ,occasionally more than one flower in the truss is peloric1 and then of course the additional ones must be lateral4 ,these flowers are interesting as showing how the whole structure is correlated4 ,in the common ,pelargonium the upper sepal is produced into a nectary which coheres with the flower-peduncle2 the two upper petals differ a little in shape from the three lower ones1 and are marked with dark shades of colour2 the stamens are graduated in length and upturned4 ,in the peloric flowers1 the nectary aborts2 all the petals become alike both in shape and colour2 the stamens are generally reduced in number and become straight1 so that the whole flower resembles that of the allied genus ,erodium4 ,the correlation between these changes is well shown when one of the two upper petals alone loses its dark mark1 for in this case the nectary does not entirely abort1 but is usually much reduced in length4#ae ,morren has described#af a marvellous flask-shaped flower of the ,calceolaria1 nearly four inches in length1 which was almost completely peloric2 it grew on the summit of the plant1 with a normal flower on each side2 ,prof4 ,westwood also has described#ag three similar peloric flowers1 which all occupied a central position on the flower-branches4 ,in the ,orchideous genus1 ,phalnopsis1 the terminal flower has been seen to become peloric4 ,in a ,laburnum-tree ,i observed that about a fourth part of the racemes produced terminal flowers which had lost their papilionaceous structure4 ,these were produced after almost all the other flowers on the same racemes had withered4 ,the most perfectly pelorised examples had six petals1 each marked with black striae like those on the standard-petal4 ,the keel seemed to resist the change more than the other petals4 ,dutrochet has described#ah an exactly similar case in ,france1 and ,i believe these are the only two instances of pelorism in the laburnum which have been recorded4 ,dutrochet remarks that the racemes on this tree do not properly produce a terminal flower1 so that 7as in the case of the ,galeobdolon7 their position as well as structure are both anomalies1 which no doubt are in some manner related4 ,dr4 ,masters has briefly described another leguminous plant1#ai namely1 a species of clover1 in which the uppermost and central flowers were regular or had lost their papilionaceous structure4 ,in some of these plants the flower-heads were also proliferous4 ,lastly1 ,linaria produces two kinds of peloric flowers1 one having simple petals1 and the other having them all spurred4 ,the two forms1 as ,naudin remarks1#bj not rarely occur on the same plant1 but in this case the spurred form almost invariably stands on the summit of the spike4 ,the tendency in the terminal or central flower to become peloric more frequently than the other flowers1 probably results from 8the bud which stands on the end of a shoot receiving the most sap2 it grows out into a stronger shoot than those situated lower down40#ba ,i have discussed the connection between pelorism and a central position1 partly because some few plants are known normally to produce a terminal flower different in structure from the lateral ones2 but chiefly on account of the following case1 in which we see a tendency to variability or to reversion connected with the same position4 ,a great judge of ,auriculas#bb states that when one throws up a side bloom it is pretty sure to keep its character2 but that if it grows from the centre or heart of the plant1 whatever the colour of the edging ought to be1 8it is just as likely to come in any other class as in the one to which it properly belongs40 ,this is so notorious a fact1 that some florists regularly pinch off the central trusses of flowers4 ,whether in the highly improved varieties the departure of the central trusses from their proper type is due to reversion1 ,i do not know4 ,mr4 ,dombrain insists that1 whatever may be the commonest kind of imperfection in each variety1 this is generally exaggerated in the central truss4 ,thus one variety 8sometimes has the fault of producing a little green floret in the centre of the flower10 and in central blooms these become excessive in size4 ,in some central blooms1 sent to me by ,mr4 ,dombrain1 all the organs of the flower were rudimentary in structure1 of minute size1 and of a green colour1 so that by a little further change all would have been converted into small leaves4 ,in this case we clearly see a tendency to prolification--a term which ,i may explain1 for those who have never attended to botany1 to mean the production of a branch or flower1 or head of flowers1 out of another flower4 ,now ,dr4 ,masters#bc states that the central or uppermost flower on a plant is generally the most liable to prolification4 ,thus1 in the varieties of the ,auricula1 the loss of their proper character and a tendency to prolification1 also a tendency to prolification with pelorism1 are all connected together1 and are due either to arrested development1 or to reversion to a former condition4 ,the following is a more interesting case2 ,metzger#bd cultivated in ,germany several kinds of maize brought from the hotter parts of ,america1 and he found1 as previously described1 that in two or three generations the grains became greatly changed in form1 size1 and colour2 and with respect to two races he expressly states that in the first generation1 whilst the lower grains on each head retained their proper character1 the uppermost grains already began to assume that character which in the third generation all the grains acquired4 ,as we do not know the aboriginal parent of the maize1 we cannot tell whether these changes are in any way connected with reversion4 ,in the two following cases1 reversion comes into play and is determined by the position of the seed in the capsule4 ,the ,blue ,imperial pea is the offspring of the ,blue ,prussian1 and has larger seed and broader pods than its parent4 ,now ,mr4 ,masters1 of ,canterbury1 a careful observer and a raiser of new varieties of the pea1 states#be that the ,blue ,imperial always has a strong tendency to revert to its parent-stock1 and the reversion 8occurs in this manner3 the last 7or uppermost7 pea in the pod is frequently much smaller than the rest2 and if these small peas are carefully collected and sown separately1 very many more1 in proportion1 will revert to their origin1 than those taken from the other parts of the pod40 ,again1 ,m4 ,chat#bf says that in raising seedling stocks he succeeds in getting eighty per cent to bear double flowers1 by leaving only a few of the secondary branches to seed2 but in addition to this1 8at the time of extracting the seeds1 the upper portion of the pod is separated and placed aside1 because it has been ascertained that the plants coming from the seeds situated in this portion of the pod1 give eighty per cent of single flowers40 ,now the production of single-flowering plants from the seed of double-flowering plants is clearly a case of reversion4 ,these latter facts1 as well as the connection between a central position and pelorism and prolification1 show in an interesting manner how small a difference--namely1 a little greater or less freedom in the flow of sap towards one part of the plant--determines important changes of structure4 ,analogous or ,parallel ,variation4--,by this term ,i mean that similar characters occasionally make their appearance in the several varieties or races descended from the same species1 and more rarely in the offspring of widely distinct species4 ,we are here concerned1 not as hitherto with the causes of variation1 but with the results2 but this discussion could not have been more conveniently introduced elsewhere4 ,the cases of analogous variation1 as far as their origin is concerned1 may be grouped1 disregarding minor subdivisions1 under two main heads2 firstly1 those due to unknown causes acting on similarly constituted organisms1 and which consequently have varied in a similar manner2 and secondly1 those due to the reappearance of characters which were possessed by a more or less remote progenitor4 ,but these two main divisions can often be separated only conjecturally1 and graduate1 as we shall presently see1 into each other4 ,under the first head of analogous variations1 not due to reversion1 we have the many cases of trees belonging to quite different orders which have produced pendulous and fastigiate varieties4 ,the beech1 hazel1 and barberry have given rise to purple-leaved varieties2 and1 as ,bernhardi remarks1#bg a multitude of plants1 as distinct as possible1 have yielded varieties with deeply-cut or laciniated leaves4 ,varieties descended from three distinct species of ,brassica have their stems1 or so-called roots1 enlarged into globular masses4 ,the nectarine is the offspring of the peach2 and the varieties of peaches and nectarines offer a remarkable parallelism in the fruit being white1 red1 or yellow fleshed--in being clingstones or freestones--in the flowers being large or small--in the leaves being serrated or crenated1 furnished with globose or reniform glands1 or quite destitute of glands4 ,it should be remarked that each variety of the nectarine has not derived its character from a corresponding variety of the peach4 ,the several varieties also of a closely allied genus1 namely the apricot1 differ from one another in nearly the same parallel manner4 ,there is no reason to believe that any of these varieties have merely reacquired long-lost characters2 and in most of them this certainly is not the case4 ,three species of ,cucurbita have yielded a multitude of races which correspond so closely in character that1 as ,naudin insists1 they may be arranged in almost strictly parallel series4 ,several varieties of the melon are interesting from resembling1 in important characters1 other species1 either of the same genus or of allied genera2 thus1 one variety has fruit so like1 both externally and internally1 the fruit of a perfectly distinct species1 namely1 the cucumber1 as hardly to be distinguished from it2 another has long cylindrical fruit twisting about like a serpent2 in another the seeds adhere to portions of the pulp2 in another the fruit1 when ripe1 suddenly cracks and falls into pieces2 and all these highly remarkable peculiarities are characteristic of species belonging to allied genera4 ,we can hardly account for the appearance of so many unusual characters by reversion to a single ancient form2 but we must believe that all the members of the family have inherited a nearly similar constitution from an early progenitor4 ,our cereal and many other plants offer similar cases4 ,with animals we have fewer cases of analogous variation1 independently of direct reversion4 ,we see something of the kind in the resemblance between the short-muzzled races of the dog1 such as the pug and bull-dog2 in feather-footed races of the fowl1 pigeon1 and canary-bird2 in horses of the most different races presenting the same range of colour2 in all black-and-tan dogs having tan-coloured eye-spots and feet1 but in this latter case reversion may possibly have played a part4 ,low has remarked#bh that several breeds of cattle are 8sheeted10--that is1 have a broad band of white passing round their bodies like a sheet2 this character is strongly inherited1 and sometimes originates from a cross2 it may be the first step in reversion to an early type1 for1 as was shown in the third chapter1 white cattle with dark ears1 dark feet and tip of tail1 formerly existed1 and now exist in feral or semi-feral condition in several quarters of the world4 ,under our second main division1 namely1 of analogous variations due to reversion1 the best cases are afforded by pigeons4 ,in all the most distinct breeds1 sub-varieties occasionally appear coloured exactly like the parent rock-pigeon1 with black wing-bars1 white loins1 banded tail1 etc42 and no one can doubt that these characters are due to reversion4 ,so with minor details2 turbits properly have white tails1 but occasionally a bird is born with a dark-coloured and banded tail2 pouters properly have their primary wing-feathers white1 but not rarely a 8sword-flighted0 bird appears1 that is1 one with the few first primaries dark-coloured2 and in these cases we have characters proper to the rock-pigeon1 but new to the breed1 evidently appearing from reversion4 ,in some domestic varieties the wing-bars1 instead of being simply black1 as in the rock-pigeon1 are beautifully edged with different zones of colour1 and they then present a striking analogy with the wing-bars in certain natural species of the same family1 such as ,phaps chalcoptera2 and this may probably be accounted for by all the species of the family being descended from the same remote progenitor and having a tendency to vary in the same manner4 ,thus1 also1 we can perhaps understand the fact of some ,laugher-pigeons cooing almost like turtle-doves1 and for several races having peculiarities in their flight1 since certain natural species 7viz41 ,c4 torquatrix and palumbus71 display singular vagaries in this respect4 ,in other cases a race1 instead of imitating a distinct species1 resembles some other race2 thus1 certain runts tremble and slightly elevate their tails1 like fantails2 and turbits inflate the upper part of their oesophagus1 like pouter-pigeons4 ,it is a common circumstance to find certain coloured marks persistently characterising all the species of a genus1 but differing much in tint2 and the same thing occurs with the varieties of the pigeon3 thus1 instead of the general plumage being blue1 with the wing-bars black1 there are snow-white varieties with red bars1 and black varieties with white bars2 in other varieties the wing-bars1 as we have seen1 are elegantly zoned with different tints4 ,the ,spot pigeon is characterised by the whole plumage being white1 excepting a spot on the forehead and the tail2 but these parts may be red1 yellow1 or black4 ,in the rock-pigeon and in many varieties the tail is blue1 with the outer edges of the outer feathers white2 but in the sub-variety of the monk-pigeon we have a reversed style of coloration1 for the tail is white1 except the outer edges of the outer feathers1 which are black4#bi ,with some species of birds1 for instance with gulls1 certain coloured parts appear as if almost washed out1 and ,i have observed exactly the same appearance in the terminal dark tail-bar in certain pigeons1 and in the whole plumage of certain varieties of the duck4 ,analogous facts in the vegetable kingdom could be given4 ,many sub-varieties of the pigeon have reversed and somewhat lengthened feathers on the back part of their heads1 and this is certainly not due to reversion to the parent-species1 which shows no trace of such structure3 but when we remember that sub-varieties of the fowl1 turkey1 canary-bird1 duck1 and goose1 all have either topknots or reversed feathers on their heads2 and when we remember that scarcely a single large natural group of birds can be named1 in which some members have not a tuft of feathers on their heads1 we may suspect that reversion to some extremely remote form has come into action4 ,several breeds of the fowl have either spangled or pencilled feathers2 and these cannot be derived from the parent-species1 the ,gallus bankiva2 though of course it is possible that one early progenitor of this species may have been spangled1 and another pencilled4 ,but1 as many gallinaceous birds are either spangled or pencilled1 it is a more probable view that the several domestic breeds of the fowl have acquired this kind of plumage from all the members of the family inheriting a tendency to vary in a like manner4 ,the same principle may account for the ewes in certain breeds of sheep being hornless1 like the females of some other hollow-horned ruminants2 it may account for certain domestic cats having slightly-tufted ears1 like those of the lynx2 and for the skulls of domestic rabbits often differing from one another in the same characters by which the skulls of the various species of the genus ,lepus differ4 ,i will only allude to one other case1 already discussed4 ,now that we know that the wild parent of the ass commonly has striped legs1 we may feel confident that the occasional appearance of stripes on the legs of the domestic ass is due to reversion2 but this will not account for the lower end of the shoulder-stripe being sometimes angularly bent or slightly forked4 ,so1 again1 when we see dun and other coloured horses with stripes on the spine1 shoulders1 and legs1 we are led1 from reasons formerly given1 to believe that they reappear through reversion to the wild parent-horse4 ,but when horses have two or three shoulder-stripes1 with one of them occasionally forked at the lower end1 or when they have stripes on their faces1 or are faintly striped as foals over nearly their whole bodies1 with the stripes angularly bent one under the other on the forehead1 or irregularly branched in other parts1 it would be rash to attribute such diversified characters to the reappearance of those proper to the aboriginal wild horse4 ,as three ,african species of the genus are much striped1 and as we have seen that the crossing of the unstriped species often leads to the hybrid offspring being conspicuously striped--bearing also in mind that the act of crossing certainly causes the reappearance of long-lost characters--it is a more probable view that the above-specified stripes are due to reversion1 not to the immediate wild parent-horse1 but to the striped progenitor of the whole genus4 ,i have discussed this subject of analogous variation at considerable length1 because it is well known that the varieties of one species frequently resemble distinct species--a fact in perfect harmony with the foregoing cases1 and explicable on the theory of descent4 ,secondly1 because these facts are important from showing1 as remarked in a former chapter1 that each trifling variation is governed by law1 and is determined in a much higher degree by the nature of the organisation1 than by the nature of the conditions to which the varying being has been exposed4 ,thirdly1 because these facts are to a certain extent related to a more general law1 namely1 that which ,mr4 ,b4 ,d4 ,walsh#cj has called the 8,law of ,equable ,variability10 or1 as he explains it1 8if any given character is very variable in one species of a group1 it will tend to be variable in allied species2 and if any given character is perfectly constant in one species of a group1 it will tend to be constant in allied species40 ,this leads me to recall a discussion in the chapter on ,selection1 in which it was shown that with domestic races1 which are now undergoing rapid improvement1 those parts or characters vary the most1 which are the most valued4 ,this naturally follows from recently selected characters continually tending to revert to their former less improved standard1 and from their being still acted on by the same agencies1 whatever these may be1 which first caused the characters in question to vary4 ,the same principle is applicable to natural species1 for1 as stated in my #8,origin of ,species' generic characters are less variable than specific characters2 and the latter are those which have been modified by variation and natural selection1 since the period when all the species belonging to the genus branched off from a common progenitor1 whilst generic characters are those which have remained unaltered from a much more remote epoch1 and accordingly are now less variable4 ,this statement makes a near approach to ,mr4 ,walsh's law of ,equable ,variability4 ,secondary sexual characters1 it may be added1 rarely serve to characterise distinct genera1 for they usually differ much in the species of the same genus1 and they are highly variable in the individuals of the same species2 we have also seen in the earlier chapters of this work how variable secondary sexual characters become under domestication4 ,summary of the three previous ,chapters on the ,laws of ,variation4 ,in the twenty-third chapter we saw that changed conditions occasionally1 or even often1 act in a definite manner on the organisation1 so that all1 or nearly all1 the individuals thus exposed become modified in the same manner4 ,but a far more frequent result of changed conditions1 whether acting directly on the organisation or indirectly through the reproductive system1 is indefinite and fluctuating variability4 ,in the three last chapters1 some of the laws by which such variability is regulated have been discussed4 ,increased use adds to the size of muscles1 together with the blood-vessels1 nerves1 ligaments1 the crests of bone and the whole bones1 to which they are attached4 ,increased functional activity increases the size of various glands1 and strengthens the sense-organs4 ,increased and intermittent pressure thickens the epidermis4 ,a change in the nature of the food sometimes modifies the coats of the stomach1 and augments or decreases the length of the intestines4 ,continued disuse1 on the other hand1 weakens and diminishes all parts of the organisation4 ,animals which during many generations have taken but little exercise1 have their lungs reduced in size1 and as a consequence the bony fabric of the chest and the whole form of the body become modified4 ,with our anciently domesticated birds1 the wings have been little used1 and they are slightly reduced2 with their decrease1 the crest of the sternum1 the scapulae1 coracoids1 and furculum1 have all been reduced4 ,with domesticated animals1 the reduction of a part from disuse is never carried so far that a mere rudiment is left2 whereas we have reason to believe that this has often occurred under nature2 the effects of disuse in this latter case being aided by economy of growth1 together with the intercrossing of many varying individuals4 ,the cause of this difference between organisms in a state of nature1 and under domestication1 probably is that in the latter case there has not been time sufficient for any very great change1 and that the principle of economy of growth does not come into action4 ,on the contrary1 structures which are rudimentary in the parent-species1 sometimes become partially redeveloped in our domesticated productions4 ,such rudiments as occasionally make their appearance under domestication1 seem always to be the result of a sudden arrest of development2 nevertheless they are of interest1 as showing that rudiments are the relics of organs once perfectly developed4 ,corporeal1 periodical1 and mental habits1 though the latter have been almost passed over in this work1 become changed under domestication1 and the changes are often inherited4 ,such changed habits in an organic being1 especially when living a free life1 would often lead to the augmented or diminished use of various organs1 and consequently to their modification4 ,from long-continued habit1 and more especially from the occasional birth of individuals with a slightly different constitution1 domestic animals and cultivated plants become to a certain extent acclimatised or adapted to a climate different from that proper to the parent-species4 ,through the principle of correlated variability1 taken in its widest sense1 when one part varies other parts vary1 either simultaneously1 or one after the other4 ,thus1 an organ modified during an early embryonic period affects other parts subsequently developed4 ,when an organ1 such as the beak1 increases or decreases in length1 adjoining or correlated parts1 as the tongue and the orifice of the nostrils1 tend to vary in the same manner4 ,when the whole body increases or decreases in size1 various parts become modified2 thus1 with pigeons the ribs increase or decrease in number and breadth4 ,homologous parts which are identical during their early development and are exposed to similar conditions1 tend to vary in the same or in some connected manner1--as in the case of the right and left sides of the body1 and of the front and hind limbs4 ,so it is with the organs of sight and hearing2 for instance1 white cats with blue eyes are almost always deaf4 ,there is a manifest relation throughout the body between the skin and various dermal appendages1 such as hair1 feathers1 hoofs1 horns1 and teeth4 ,in ,paraguay1 horses with curly hair have hoofs like those of a mule2 the wool and the horns of sheep often vary together2 hairless dogs are deficient in their teeth2 men with redundant hair have abnormal teeth1 either by deficiency or excess4 ,birds with long wing-feathers usually have long tail-feathers4 ,when long feathers grow from the outside of the legs and toes of pigeons1 the two outer toes are connected by membrane2 for the whole leg tends to assume the structure of the wing4 ,there is a manifest relation between a crest of feathers on the head and a marvellous amount of change in the skull of various fowls2 and in a lesser degree1 between the greatly elongated1 lopping ears of rabbits and the structure of their skulls4 ,with plants1 the leaves1 various parts of the flower1 and the fruit1 often vary together to a correlated manner4 ,in some cases we find correlation without being able even to conjecture what is the nature of the connection1 as with various monstrosities and diseases4 ,this is likewise the case with the colour of the adult pigeon1 in connection with the presence of down on the young bird4 ,numerous curious instances have been given of peculiarities of constitution1 in correlation with colour1 as shown by the immunity of individuals of one colour from certain diseases1 from the attacks of parasites and from the action of certain vegetable poisons4 ,correlation is an important subject2 for with species1 and in a lesser degree with domestic races1 we continually find that certain parts have been greatly modified to serve some useful purpose2 but we almost invariably find that other parts have likewise been more or less modified1 without our being able to discover any advantage in the change4 ,no doubt great caution is necessary with respect to this latter point1 for it is difficult to overrate our ignorance on the use of various parts of the organisation2 but from what we have seen1 we may believe that many modifications are of no direct service1 having arisen in correlation with other and useful changes4 ,homologous parts during their early development often become fused together4 ,multiple and homologous organs are especially liable to vary in number and probably in form4 ,as the supply of organised matter is not unlimited1 the principle of compensation sometimes comes into action2 so that1 when one part is greatly developed1 adjoining parts are apt to be reduced2 but this principle is probably of much less importance than the more general one of the economy of growth4 ,through mere mechanical pressure hard parts occasionally affect adjoining parts4 ,with plants the position of the flowers on the axis1 and of the seeds in the ovary1 sometimes leads1 through a more or less free flow of sap1 to changes of structure2 but such changes are often due to reversion4 ,modifications1 in whatever manner caused1 will be to a certain extent regulated by that co-ordinating power1 or so-called nisus formativus1 which is in fact a remnant of that simple form of reproduction1 displayed by many lowly organised beings in their power of fissiparous generation and budding4 ,finally1 the effects of the laws which directly or indirectly govern variability1 may be largely regulated by man's selection1 and will so far be determined by natural selection that changes advantageous to any race will be favoured1 and disadvantageous changes will be checked4 ,domestic races descended from the same species1 or from two or more allied species1 are liable to revert to characters derived from their common progenitor2 and1 as they inherit a somewhat similar constitution1 they are liable to vary in the same manner4 ,from these two causes analogous varieties often arise4 ,when we reflect on the several foregoing laws1 imperfectly as we understand them1 and when we bear in mind how much remains to be discovered1 we need not be surprised at the intricate and to us unintelligible manner in which our domestic productions have varied1 and still go on varying4 ,,references #a #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' #ahcb1 tom4 i4 pp4 #bb1 #ecg-eef2 tom4 iii4 p4 #dfb4 #b #8,comptes ,rendus1' #ahee1 pp4 #hee1 #ajci4 #c #8,catalogue of the ,teratological ,series in the ,museum of the ,r4 ,coll4 of ,surgeons1' #ahgb1 p4 #af4 #d #8,archives de ,zoolog4 ,exper41' ,jan4 #ahgd1 p4 #gh4 #e #8,tratologie ,vg41' #ahda1 livre iii4 #f #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' tom4 iii4 pp4 #d1 #e1 #f4 #g #8,tratologie ,vg41' p4 #aef4 ,see also my book on #8,the ,movements and ,habits of ,climbing ,plants1' #bnd edit41 #ahge1 p4 #bjb4 #h #8,mmoires du ,musum1' etc41 tom4 viii4 p4 #agh4 #i ,prichard1 #8,phys4 ,hist4 of ,mankind1' #ahea1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbd4 #aj #8,annales des ,sc4 ,nat41' #ast series1 tom4 xix4 p4 #cbg4 #aa #8,comptes ,rendus1' ,dec4 #ahfd1 p4 #ajci4 #ab 8,ueber ftale ,rachites10 #8,wrzburger ,medicin4 ,zeitschrift1' #ahfj1 ,b4 i4 s4 #bfe4 #ac #8,tratologie ,vg41' p4 #aib4 #ad #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,july #bnd1 #ahfa1 p4 #bec4 #ae ,it would be worth trial to fertilise with the same pollen the central and lateral flowers of the pelargonium1 or of other highly cultivated plants1 protecting them of course from insects3 then to sow the seed separately1 and observe whether the one or the other lot of seedlings varied the most4 #af ,quoted in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,feb4 #bdth1 #ahfc1 p4 #aeb4 #ag #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahff1 p4 #fab4 ,for the ,phalnopsis1 see ibid41 #ahfg1 p4 #baa4 #ah #8,mmoires 4 4 4 des ,vgtaux1' #ahcg1 tom4 ii4 p4 #agj4 #ai #8,journal of ,horticulture1' ,july #bcrd1 #ahfa1 p4 #caa4 #bj #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #acg4 #ba ,hugo von ,mohl1 #8,the ,vegetable ,cell1' ,eng4 translat41 #aheb1 p4 #gf4 #bb ,the ,rev4 ,h4 ,h4 ,dombrain1 in #8,journal of ,horticulture1' #ahfa1 ,june #dth1 p4 #agd2 and ,june #beth1 p4 #bcd2 #ahfb1 ,april #bith1 p4 #hc4 #bc #8,transact4 ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 xxiii4 #ahfa1 p4 #cfj4 #bd #8,die ,getreidearten1' #ahde1 s4 #bjh1 #bji4 #be #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahej1 p4 #aih4 #bf ,quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahff1 p4 #gd4 #bg #8,ueber den ,begriff der ,pflanzenart1' #ahcd1 s4 #ad4 #bh #8,domesticated ,animals1' #ahde1 p4 #cea4 #bi ,bechstein1 #8,naturgeschichte ,deutschlands1' ,b4 iv4 #agie1 s4 #ca4 #cj #8,proc4 ,entomolog4 ,soc4 of ,philadelphia1' ,oct4 #ahfc1 p4 #bac4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,provisional ,,hypothesis ,,of ,,pangenesis4 ,,preliminary ,,remarks--,,first ,,part3 ,,the ,,facts ,,to ,,be ,,connected ,,under ,a ,,single ,,point ,,of ,,view1 ,,namely1 ,,the ,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,reproduction--,,re-,,growth ,,of ,,amputated ,,parts--,,graft-,,hybrids--,,the ,,direct ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,male ,,element ,,on ,,the ,,female--,,development--,,the ,,functional ,,independence ,,of ,,the ,,units ,,of ,,the ,,body--,,variability--,,inheritance--,, reversion--,,second ,,part3 ,,statement ,,of ,,the ,,hypothesis--,,how ,,far ,,the ,,necessary ,,assumptions ,,are ,,improbable--,,explanation ,,by ,,aid ,,of ,,the ,,hypothesis ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,classes ,,of ,,facts ,,specified ,,in ,,the ,,first ,,part--,,conclusion4 ,in the previous chapters large classes of facts1 such as those bearing on bud-variation1 the various forms of inheritance1 the causes and laws of variation1 have been discussed2 and it is obvious that these subjects1 as well as the several modes of reproduction1 stand in some sort of relation to one another4 ,i have been led1 or rather forced1 to form a view which to a certain extent connects these facts by a tangible method4 ,every one would wish to explain to himself1 even in an imperfect manner1 how it is possible for a character possessed by some remote ancestor suddenly to reappear in the offspring2 how the effects of increased or decreased use of a limb can be transmitted to the child2 how the male sexual element can act not solely on the ovules1 but occasionally on the mother-form2 how a hybrid can be produced by the union of the cellular tissue of two plants independently of the organs of generation2 how a limb can be reproduced on the exact line of amputation1 with neither too much nor too little added2 how the same organism may be produced by such widely different processes1 as budding and true seminal generation2 and1 lastly1 how of two allied forms1 one passes in the course of its development through the most complex metamorphoses1 and the other does not do so1 though when mature both are alike in every detail of structure4 ,i am aware that my view is merely a provisional hypothesis or speculation2 but until a better one be advanced1 it will serve to bring together a multitude of facts which are at present left disconnected by any efficient cause4 ,as ,whewell1 the historian of the inductive sciences1 remarks3--8,hypotheses may often be of service to science1 when they involve a certain portion of incompleteness1 and even of error40 ,under this point of view ,i venture to advance the hypothesis of ,pangenesis1 which implies that every separate part of the whole organisation reproduces itself4 ,so that ovules1 spermatozoa1 and pollen-grains1--the fertilised egg or seed1 as well as buds1--include and consist of a multitude of germs thrown off from each separate part or unit4#a ,in the ,first ,part ,i will enumerate as briefly as ,i can the groups of facts which seem to demand connection2 but certain subjects1 not hitherto discussed1 must be treated at disproportionate length4 ,in the ,second ,part the hypothesis will be given2 and after considering how far the necessary assumptions are in themselves improbable1 we shall see whether it serves to bring under a single point of view the various facts4 ,,part ,i4 ,reproduction may be divided into two main classes1 namely1 sexual and asexual4 ,the latter is effected in many ways--by the formation of buds of various kinds1 and by fissiparous generation1 that is by spontaneous or artificial division4 ,it is notorious that some of the lower animals1 when cut into many pieces1 reproduce so many perfect individuals3 ,lyonnet cut a ,nais or freshwater worm into nearly forty pieces1 and these all reproduced perfect animals4#b ,it is probable that segmentation could be carried much further in some of the protozoa2 and with some of the lowest plants each cell will reproduce the parent-form4 ,johannes ,mller thought that there was an important distinction between gemmation and fission2 for in the latter case the divided portion1 however small1 is more fully developed than a bud1 which also is a younger formation2 but most physiologists are now convinced that the two processes are essentially alike4#c ,prof4 ,huxley remarks1 8fission is little more than a peculiar mode of budding10 and ,prof4 ,h4 ,j4 ,clark shows in detail that there is sometimes 8a compromise between self-division and budding40 ,when a limb is amputated1 or when the whole body is bisected1 the cut extremities are said to bud forth2#d and as the papilla1 which is first formed1 consists of undeveloped cellular tissue like that forming an ordinary bud1 the expression is apparently correct4 ,we see the connection of the two processes in another way2 for ,trembley observed with the hydra1 that the reproduction of the head after amputation was checked as soon as the animal put forth reproductive gemm4#e ,between the production1 by fissiparous generation1 of two or more complete individuals1 and the repair of even a very slight injury1 there is so perfect a gradation1 that it is impossible to doubt that the two processes are connected4 ,as at each stage of growth an amputated part is replaced by one in the same state of development1 we must also follow ,sir ,j4 ,paget in admitting1 8that the powers of development from the embryo1 are identical with those exercised for the restoration from injuries3 in other words1 that the powers are the same by which perfection is first achieved1 and by which1 when lost1 it is recovered40#f ,finally1 we may conclude that the several forms of budding1 fissiparous generation1 the repair of injuries1 and development1 are all essentially the results of one and the same power4 ,sexual ,generation4--,the union of the two sexual elements seems at first sight to make a broad distinction between sexual and asexual generation4 ,but the conjugation of alg1 by which process the contents of two cells unite into a single mass capable of development1 apparently gives us the first step towards sexual union3 and ,pringsheim1 in his memoir on the pairing of ,zoospores1#g shows that conjugation graduates into true sexual reproduction4 ,moreover1 the now well-ascertained cases of ,parthenogenesis prove that the distinction between sexual and asexual generation is not nearly so great as was formerly thought2 for ova occasionally1 and even in some cases frequently1 become developed into perfect beings1 without the concourse of the male4 ,with most of the lower animals and even with mammals1 the ova show a trace of parthenogenetic power1 for without being fertilised they pass through the first stages of segmentation4#h ,nor can pseudova which do not need fertilisation1 be distinguished from true ova1 as was first shown by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock1 and is now admitted by ,siebold4 ,so1 again1 the germ-balls in the larv of ,cecidomyia are said by ,leuckart#i to be formed within the ovarium1 but they do not require to be fertilised4 ,it should also be observed that in sexual generation1 the ovules and the male element have equal power of transmitting every single character possessed by either parent to their offspring4 ,we see this clearly when hybrids are paired inter se1 for the characters of both grandparents often appear in the progeny1 either perfectly or by segments4 ,it is an error to suppose that the male transmits certain characters and the female other characters2 although no doubt1 from unknown causes1 one sex sometimes has a much stronger power of transmission than the other4 ,it has1 however1 been maintained by some authors that a bud differs essentially from a fertilised germ1 in always reproducing the perfect character of the parent-stock2 whilst fertilised germs give birth to variable beings4 ,but there is no such broad distinction as this4 ,in the eleventh chapter numerous cases were advanced showing that buds occasionally grow into plants having quite new characters2 and the varieties thus produced can be propagated for a length of time by buds1 and occasionally by seed4 ,nevertheless1 it must be admitted that beings produced sexually are much more liable to vary than those produced asexually2 and of this fact a partial explanation will hereafter be attempted4 ,the variability in both cases is determined by the same general causes1 and is governed by the same laws4 ,hence new varieties arising from buds cannot be distinguished from those arising from seed4 ,although bud-varieties usually retain their character during successive bud-generations1 yet they occasionally revert1 even after a long series of bud-generations1 to their former character4 ,this tendency to reversion in buds1 is one of the most remarkable of the several points of agreement between the offspring from bud and seminal reproduction4 ,but there is one difference between organisms produced sexually and asexually1 which is very general4 ,the former pass in the course of their development from a very low stage to their highest stage1 as we see in the metamorphoses of insects and of many other animals1 and in the concealed metamorphoses of the vertebrata4 ,animals propagated asexually by buds or fission1 on the other hand1 commence their development at that stage at which the budding or self-dividing animal may happen to be1 and therefore do not pass through some of the lower developmental stages4#aj ,afterwards1 they often advance in organisation1 as we see in the many cases of 8alternate generation40 ,in thus speaking of alternate generation1 ,i follow those naturalists who look at this process as essentially one of internal budding or of fissiparous generation4 ,some of the lower plants1 however1 such as mosses and certain alg1 according to ,dr4 ,l4 ,radlkofer1#aa when propagated asexually1 do undergo a retrogressive metamorphosis4 ,as far as the final cause is concerned1 we can to a certain extent understand why beings propagated by buds should not pass through all the early stages of development2 for with each organism the structure acquired at each stage must be adapted to its peculiar habits2 and if there are places for the support of many individuals at some one stage1 the simplest plan will be that they should be multiplied at this stage1 and not that they should first retrograde in their development to an earlier or simpler structure1 which might not be fitted for the then surrounding conditions4 ,from the several foregoing considerations we may conclude that the difference between sexual and asexual generation is not nearly so great as at first appears2 the chief difference being that an ovule cannot continue to live and to be fully developed unless it unites with the male element2 but even this difference is far from invariable1 as shown by the many cases of parthenogenesis4 ,we are therefore naturally led to inquire what the final cause can be of the necessity in ordinary generation for the concourse of the two sexual elements4 ,seeds and ova are often highly serviceable as the means of disseminating plants and animals1 and of preserving them during one or more seasons in a dormant state2 but unimpregnated seeds or ova1 and detached buds1 would be equally serviceable for both purposes4 ,we can1 however1 indicate two important advantages gained by the concourse of the two sexes1 or rather of two individuals belonging to opposite sexes2 for1 as ,i have shown in a former chapter1 the structure of every organism appears to be especially adapted for the concurrence1 at least occasionally1 of two individuals4 ,when species are rendered highly variable by changed conditions of life1 the free intercrossing of the varying individuals tends to keep each form fitted for its proper place in nature2 and crossing can be effected only by sexual generation2 but whether the end thus gained is of sufficient importance to account for the first origin of sexual intercourse is extremely doubtful4 ,secondly1 ,i have shown from a large body of facts1 that1 as a slight change in the conditions of life is beneficial to each creature1 so1 in an analogous manner1 is the change effected in the germ by sexual union with a distinct individual2 and ,i have been led1 from observing the many widely-extended provisions throughout nature for this purpose1 and from the greater vigour of crossed organisms of all kinds1 as proved by direct experiments1 as well as from the evil effects of close interbreeding when long continued1 to believe that the advantage thus gained is very great4 ,why the germ1 which before impregnation undergoes a certain amount of development1 ceases to progress and perishes1 unless it be acted on by the male element2 and why conversely the male element1 which in the case of some insects is enabled to keep alive for four or five years1 and in the case of some plants for several years1 likewise perishes1 unless it acts on or unites with the germ1 are questions which cannot be answered with certainty4 ,it is1 however1 probable that both sexual elements perish1 unless brought into union1 simply from including too little formative matter for independent development4 ,quatrefages has shown in the case of the ,teredo1#ab as did formerly ,prevost and ,dumas with other animals1 that more than one spermatozoon is requisite to fertilise an ovum4 ,this has likewise been shown by ,newport1#ac who proved by numerous experiments1 that1 when a very small number of spermatozoa are applied to the ova of ,batrachians1 they are only partially impregnated1 and an embryo is never fully developed4 ,the rate also of the segmentation of the ovum is determined by the number of the spermatozoa4 ,with respect to plants1 nearly the same results were obtained by ,klreuter and ,grtner4 ,this last careful observer1 after making successive trials on a ,malva with more and more pollen-grains1 found1#ad that even thirty grains did not fertilise a single seed2 but when forty grains were applied to the stigma1 a few seeds of small size were formed4 ,in the case of ,mirabilis the pollen grains are extraordinarily large1 and the ovarium contains only a single ovule2 and these circumstances led ,naudin#ae to make the following experiments3 a flower was fertilised by three grains and succeeded perfectly2 twelve flowers were fertilised by two grains1 and seventeen flowers by a single grain1 and of these one flower alone in each lot perfected its seed3 and it deserves especial notice that the plants produced by these two seeds never attained their proper dimensions1 and bore flowers of remarkably small size4 ,from these facts we clearly see that the quantity of the peculiar formative matter which is contained within the spermatozoa and pollen-grains is an all-important element in the act of fertilisation1 not only for the full development of the seed1 but for the vigour of the plant produced from such seed4 ,we see something of the same kind in certain cases of parthenogenesis1 that is1 when the male element is wholly excluded2 for ,m4 ,jourdan#af found that1 out of about #eh1jjj eggs laid by unimpregnated silk-moths1 many passed through their early embryonic stages1 showing that they were capable of self-development1 but only twenty-nine out of the whole number produced caterpillars4 ,the same principle of quantity seems to hold good even in artificial fissiparous reproduction1 for ,hackel#ag found that by cutting the segmented and fertilised ova or larva of ,siphonophor 7jelly-fishes7 into pieces1 the smaller the pieces were1 the slower was the rate of development1 and the larv thus produced were by so much the more imperfect and inclined to monstrosity4 ,it seems1 therefore1 probable that with the separate sexual elements deficient quantity of formative matter is the main cause of their not having the capacity for prolonged existence and development1 unless they combine and thus increase each other's bulk4 ,the belief that it is the function of the spermatozoa to communicate life to the ovule seems a strange one1 seeing that the unimpregnated ovule is already alive and generally undergoes a certain amount of independent development4 ,sexual and asexual reproduction are thus seen not to differ essentially2 and we have already shown that asexual reproduction1 the power of re-growth and development are all parts of one and the same great law4 ,re-growth of amputated parts4--,this subject deserves a little further discussion4 ,a multitude of the lower animals and some vertebrates possess this wonderful power4 ,for instance1 ,spallanzani cut off the legs and tail of the same salamander six times successively1 and ,bonnet#ah did so eight times2 and on each occasion the limbs were reproduced on the exact line of amputation1 with no part deficient or in excess4 ,an allied animal1 the axolotl1 had a limb bitten off1 which was reproduced in an abnormal condition1 but when this was amputated it was replaced by a perfect limb4#ai ,the new limbs in these cases bud forth1 and are developed in the same manner as during the regular development of a young animal4 ,for instance1 with the ,amblystoma lurida1 three toes are first developed1 then the fourth1 and on the hind-feet the fifth1 and so it is with a reproduced limb4#bj ,the power of re-growth is generally much greater during the youth of an animal or during the earlier stages of its development than during maturity4 ,the larv or tadpoles of the ,batrachians are capable of reproducing lost members1 but not so the adults4#ba ,mature insects have no power of re-growth1 excepting in one order1 whilst the larv of many kinds have this power4 ,animals low in the scale are able1 as a general rule1 to reproduce lost parts far more easily than those which are more highly organised4 ,the myriapods offer a good illustration of this rule2 but there are some strange exceptions to it--thus ,nemerteans1 though lowly organised1 are said to exhibit little power of re-growth4 ,with the higher vertebrata1 such as birds and mammals1 the power is extremely limited4#bb ,in the case of those animals which may be bisected or chopped into pieces1 and of which every fragment will reproduce the whole1 the power of re-growth must be diffused throughout the whole body4 ,nevertheless there seems to be much truth in the view maintained by ,prof4 ,lessona1#bc that this capacity is generally a localised and special one1 serving to replace parts which are eminently liable to be lost in each particular animal4 ,the most striking case in favour of this view1 is that the terrestrial salamander1 according to ,lessona1 cannot reproduce lost parts1 whilst another species of the same genus1 the aquatic salamander1 has extraordinary powers of re-growth1 as we have just seen2 and this animal is eminently liable to have its limbs1 tail1 eyes and jaws bitten off by other tritons4#bd ,even with the aquatic salamander the capacity is to a certain extent localised1 for when ,m4 ,philipeaux#be extirpated the entire fore limb together with the scapula1 the power of re-growth was completely lost4 ,it is also a remarkable fact1 standing in opposition to a very general rule1 that the young of the aquatic salamander do not possess the power of repairing their limbs in an equal degree with the adults#bf but ,i do not know that they are more active1 or can otherwise better escape the loss of their limbs1 than the adults4 ,the walking-stick insect1 ,diapheromera femorata1 like other insects of the same order1 can reproduce its legs in the mature state1 and these from their great length must be liable to be lost3 but the capacity is localised 7as in the case of the salamander71 for ,dr4 ,scudder found1#bg that if the limb was removed within the trochanto-femoral articulation1 it was never renewed4 ,when a crab is seized by one of its legs1 this is thrown off at the basal joint1 being afterwards replaced by a new leg2 and it is generally admitted that this is a special provision for the safety of the animal4 ,lastly1 with gasteropod molluscs1 which are well known to have the power of reproducing their heads1 ,lessona shows that they are very liable to have their heads bitten off by fishes2 the rest of the body being protected by the shell4 ,even with plants we see something of the same kind1 for non-deciduous leaves and young stems have no power of re-growth1 these parts being easily replaced by growth from new buds2 whilst the bark and subjacent tissues of the trunks of trees have great power of re-growth1 probably on account of their increase in diameter1 and of their liability to injury from being gnawed by animals4 ,graft-hybrids4--,it is well known from innumerable trials made in all parts of the world1 that buds may be inserted into a stock1 and that the plants thus raised are not affected in a greater degree than can be accounted for by changed nutrition4 ,nor do the seedlings raised from such inserted buds partake of the character of the stock1 though they are more liable to vary than are seedlings from the same variety growing on its own roots4 ,a bud1 also1 may sport into a new and strongly-marked variety without any other bud on the same plant being in the least degree affected4 ,we may therefore infer1 in accordance with the common view1 that each bud is a distinct individual1 and that its formative elements do not spread beyond the parts subsequently developed from it4 ,nevertheless1 we have seen in the abstract on graft-hybridisation in the eleventh chapter that buds certainly include formative matter1 which can occasionally combine with that included in the tissues of a distinct variety or species2 a plant intermediate between the two parent-forms being thus produced4 ,in the case of the potato we have seen that the tubers produced from a bud of one kind inserted into another are intermediate in colour1 size1 shape and state of surface2 that the stems1 foliage1 and even certain constitutional peculiarities1 such as precocity1 are likewise intermediate4 ,with these well-established cases1 the evidence that graft-hybrids have also been produced with the laburnum1 orange1 vine1 rose1 etc41 seems sufficient4 ,but we do not know under what conditions this rare form of reproduction is possible4 ,from these several cases we learn the important fact that formative elements capable of blending with those of a distinct individual 7and this is the chief characteristic of sexual generation71 are not confined to the reproductive organs1 but are present in the buds and cellular tissue of plants2 and this is a fact of the highest physiological importance4 ,direct ,action of the ,male ,element on the ,female4--,in the eleventh chapter1 abundant proofs were given that foreign pollen occasionally affects in a direct manner the mother-plant4 ,thus1 when ,gallesio fertilised an orange-flower with pollen from the lemon1 the fruit bore stripes of perfectly characterised lemon-peel4 ,with peas1 several observers have seen the colour of the seed-coats and even of the pod directly affected by the pollen of a distinct variety4 ,so it has been with the fruit of the apple1 which consists of the modified calyx and upper part of the flower-stalk4 ,in ordinary cases these parts are wholly formed by the mother-plant4 ,we here see that the formative elements included within the male element or pollen of one variety can affect and hybridise1 not the part which they are properly adapted to affect1 namely1 the ovules1 but the partially-developed tissues of a distinct variety or species4 ,we are thus brought half-way towards a graft-hybrid1 in which the formative elements included within the tissues of one individual combine with those included in the tissues of a distinct variety or species1 thus giving rise to a new and intermediate form1 independently of the male or female sexual organs4 ,with animals which do not breed until nearly mature1 and of which all the parts are then fully developed1 it is hardly possible that the male element should directly affect the female4 ,but we have the analogous and perfectly well-ascertained case of the male element affecting 7as with the quagga and ,lord ,morton's mare7 the female or her ova1 in such a manner that when she is impregnated by another male her offspring are affected and hybridised by the first male4 ,the explanation would be simple if the spermatozoa could keep alive within the body of the female during the long interval which has sometimes elapsed between the two acts of impregnation2 but no one will suppose that this is possible with the higher animals4 ,development4--,the fertilised germ reaches maturity by a vast number of changes3 these are either slight and slowly effected1 as when the child grows into the man1 or are great and sudden1 as with the metamorphoses of most insects4 ,between these extremes we have every gradation1 even within the same class2 thus1 as ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock has shown#bh there is an ,ephemerous insect which moults above twenty times1 undergoing each time a slight but decided change of structure2 and these changes1 as he further remarks1 probably reveal to us the normal stages of development1 which are concealed and hurried through or suppressed in most other insects4 ,in ordinary metamorphoses1 the parts and organs appear to become changed into the corresponding parts in the next stage of development2 but there is another form of development1 which has been called by ,professor ,owen metagenesis4 ,in this case 8the new parts are not moulded upon the inner surface of the old ones4 ,the plastic force has changed its course of operation4 ,the outer case1 and all that gave form and character to the precedent individual1 perish and are cast off2 they are not changed into the corresponding parts of the new individual4 ,these are due to a new and distinct developmental process10 etc4#bi ,metamorphosis1 however1 graduates so insensibly1 into metagenesis1 that the two processes cannot be distinctly separated4 ,for instance1 in the last change which ,cirripedes undergo1 the alimentary canal and some other organs are moulded on pre-existing parts2 but the eyes of the old and the young animal are developed in entirely different parts of the body2 the tips of the mature limbs are formed within the larval limbs1 and may be said to be metamorphosed from them2 but their basal portions and the whole thorax are developed in a plane at right angles to the larval limbs and thorax2 and this may be called metagenesis4 ,the metagenetic process is carried to an extreme point in the development of some ,echinoderms1 for the animal in the second stage of development is formed almost like a bud within the animal of the first stage1 the latter being then cast off like an old vestment1 yet sometimes maintaining for a short period an independent vitality4#cj ,if1 instead of a single individual1 several were to be thus developed metagenetically within a pre-existing form1 the process would be called one of alternate generation4 ,the young thus developed may either closely resemble the encasing parent-form1 as with the larv of ,cecidomyia1 or may differ to an astonishing degree1 as with many parasitic worms and jelly-fishes2 but this does not make any essential difference in the process1 any more than the greatness or abruptness of the change in the metamorphoses of insects4 ,the whole question of development is of great importance for our present subject4 ,when an organ1 the eye1 for instance1 is metagenetically formed in a part of the body where during the previous stage of development no eye existed1 we must look at it as a new and independent growth4 ,the absolute independence of new and old structures1 although corresponding in structure and function1 is still more obvious when several individuals are formed within a previous form1 as in the cases of alternate generation4 ,the same important principle probably comes largely into play even in the case of apparently continuous growth1 as we shall see when we consider the inheritance of modifications at corresponding ages4 ,we are led to the same conclusion1 namely1 the independence of parts successively developed1 by another and quite distinct group of facts4 ,it is well known that many animals belonging to the same order1 and therefore not differing widely from each other1 pass through an extremely different course of development4 ,thus certain beetles1 not in any way remarkably different from others of the same order1 undergo what has been called a hyper-metamorphosis--that is1 they pass through an early stage wholly different from the ordinary grub-like larva4 ,in the same sub-order of crabs1 namely1 the ,macroura1 as ,fritz ,mller remarks1 the river cray-fish is hatched under the same form which it ever afterwards retains2 the young lobster has divided legs1 like a ,mysis2 the ,palmon appears under the form of a ,zoea1 and ,peneus under the ,nauplius-form2 and how wonderfully these larval forms differ from one another1 is known to every naturalist4#ca ,some other crustaceans1 as the same author observes1 start from the same point and arrive at nearly the same end1 but in the middle of their development are widely different from one another4 ,still more striking cases could be given with respect to the ,echinodermata4 ,with the ,medus or jelly-fishes ,professor ,allman observes1 8,the classification of the ,hydroida would be a comparatively simple task if1 as has been erroneously asserted1 generically-identical medusoids always arose from generically-identical polypoids2 and1 on the other hand1 that generically-identical polypoids always gave origin to generically-identical medusoids40 ,so again1 ,dr4 ,strethill ,wright remarks1 8,in the life-history of the ,hydroid any phase1 planuloid1 polypoid1 or medusoid1 may be absent40#cb ,according to the belief now generally accepted by our best naturalists1 all the members of the same order or class1 for instance1 the ,medus or the ,macrourous crustaceans1 are descended from a common progenitor4 ,during their descent they have diverged much in structure1 but have retained much in common2 and this has occurred1 though they have passed through and still pass through marvellously different metamorphoses4 ,this fact well illustrates how independent each structure is from that which precedes and that which follows it in the course of development4 ,the ,functional ,independence of the ,elements or ,units of the ,body4--,physiologists agree that the whole organism consists of a multitude of elemental parts1 which are to a great extent independent of one another4 ,each organ1 says ,claude ,bernard1#cc has its proper life1 its autonomy2 it can develop and reproduce itself independently of the adjoining tissues4 ,a great ,german authority1 ,virchow1#cd asserts still more emphatically that each system consists of an 8enormous mass of minute centres of action4 4 4 4 ,every element has its own special action1 and even though it derive its stimulus to activity from other parts1 yet alone effects the actual performance of duties4 4 4 4 ,every single epithelial and muscular fibre-cell leads a sort of parasitical existence in relation to the rest of the body4 4 4 4 ,every single bone-corpuscle really possesses conditions of nutrition peculiar to itself40 ,each element1 as ,sir ,j4 ,paget remarks1 lives its appointed time and then dies1 and is replaced after being cast off or absorbed4#ce ,i presume that no physiologist doubts that1 for instance1 each bone-corpuscle of the finger differs from the corresponding corpuscle in the corresponding joint of the toe2 and there can hardly be a doubt that even those on the corresponding sides of the body differ1 though almost identical in nature4 ,this near approach to identity is curiously shown in many diseases in which the same exact points on the right and left sides of the body are similarly affected2 thus ,sir ,j4 ,paget#cf gives a drawing of a diseased pelvis1 in which the bone has grown into a most complicated pattern1 but 8there is not one spot or line on one side which is not represented1 as exactly as it would be in a mirror1 on the other40 ,many facts support this view of the independent life of each minute element of the body4 ,virchow insists that a single bone-corpuscle or a single cell in the skin may become diseased4 ,the spur of a cock1 after being inserted into the ear of an ox1 lived for eight years1 and acquired a weight of #cif grammes 7nearly fourteen ounces71 and the astonishing length of twenty-four centimetres1 or about nine inches2 so that the head of the ox appeared to bear three horns4#cg ,the tail of a pig has been grafted into the middle of its back1 and reacquired sensibility4 ,dr4 ,ollier#ch inserted a piece of periosteum from the bone of a young dog under the skin of a rabbit1 and true bone was developed4 ,a multitude of similar facts could be given4 ,the frequent presence of hairs and of perfectly developed teeth1 even teeth of the second dentition1 in ovarian tumours1#ci are facts leading to the same conclusion4 ,mr4 ,lawson ,tait refers to a tumour in which 8over #cjj teeth were found1 resembling in many respects milk-teeth20 and to another tumour1 8full of hair which had grown and been shed from one little spot of skin not bigger than the tip of my little finger4 ,the amount of hair in the sac1 had it grown from a similarly sized area of the scalp1 would have taken almost a lifetime to grow and be shed40 ,whether each of the innumerable autonomous elements of the body is a cell or the modified product of a cell1 is a more doubtful question1 even if so wide a definition be given to the term1 as to include cell-like bodies without walls and without nuclei4#dj ,the doctrine of omnis cellula e cellul is admitted for plants1 and widely prevails with respect to animals4#da ,thus ,virchow1 the great supporter of the cellular theory1 whilst allowing that difficulties exist1 maintains that every atom of tissue is derived from cells1 and these from pre-existing cells1 and these primarily from the egg1 which he regards as a great cell4 ,that cells1 still retaining the same nature1 increase by self-division or proliferation1 is admitted by every one4 ,but when an organism undergoes great changes of structure during development1 the cells1 which at each stage are supposed to be directly derived from previously existing cells1 must likewise be greatly changed in nature2 this change is attributed by the supporters of the cellular doctrine to some inherent power which the cells possess1 and not to any external agency4 ,others maintain that cells and tissues of all kinds may be formed1 independently of pre-existing cells1 from plastic lymph or blastema4 ,whichever view may be correct1 every one admits that the body consists of a multitude of organic units1 all of which possess their own proper attributes1 and are to a certain extent independent of all others4 ,hence it will be convenient to use indifferently the terms cells or organic units1 or simply units4 ,variability and ,inheritance4--,we have seen in the twenty-second chapter that variability is not a principle co-ordinate with life or reproduction1 but results from special causes1 generally from changed conditions acting during successive generations4 ,the fluctuating variability thus induced is apparently due in part to the sexual system being easily affected1 so that it is often rendered impotent2 and when not so seriously affected1 it often fails in its proper function of transmitting truly the characters of the parents to the offspring4 ,but variability is not necessarily connected with the sexual system1 as we see in the cases of bud-variation4 ,although we are seldom able to trace the nature of the connection1 many deviations of structure no doubt result from changed conditions acting directly on the organisation1 independently of the reproductive system4 ,in some instances we may feel sure of this1 when all1 or nearly all the individuals which have been similarly exposed are similarly and definitely affected1 of which several instances have been given4 ,but it is by no means clear why the offspring should be affected by the exposure of the parents to new conditions1 and why it is necessary in most cases that several generations should have been thus exposed4 ,how1 again1 can we explain the inherited effects of the use or disuse of particular organs8 ,the domesticated duck flies less and walks more than the wild duck1 and its limb-bones have become diminished and increased in a corresponding manner in comparison with those of the wild duck4 ,a horse is trained to certain paces1 and the colt inherits similar consensual movements4 ,the domesticated rabbit becomes tame from close confinement2 the dog1 intelligent from associating with man2 the retriever is taught to fetch and carry2 and these mental endowments and bodily powers are all inherited4 ,nothing in the whole circuit of physiology is more wonderful4 ,how can the use or disuse of a particular limb or of the brain affect a small aggregate of reproductive cells1 seated in a distant part of the body1 in such a manner that the being developed from these cells inherits the characters of either one or both parents8 ,even an imperfect answer to this question would be satisfactory4 ,in the chapters devoted to inheritance it was shown that a multitude of newly acquired characters1 whether injurious or beneficial1 whether of the lowest or highest vital importance1 are often faithfully transmitted--frequently even when one parent alone possesses some new peculiarity2 and we may on the whole conclude that inheritance is the rule1 and non-inheritance the anomaly4 ,in some instances a character is not inherited1 from the conditions of life being directly opposed to its development2 in many instances1 from the conditions incessantly inducing fresh variability1 as with grafted fruit-trees and highly-cultivated flowers4 ,in the remaining cases the failure may be attributed to reversion1 by which the child resembles its grandparents or more remote progenitors1 instead of its parents4 ,inheritance is governed by various laws4 ,characters which first appear at any particular age tend to reappear at a corresponding age4 ,they often become associated with certain seasons of the year1 and reappear in the offspring at a corresponding season4 ,if they appear rather late in life in one sex1 they tend to reappear exclusively in the same sex at the same period of life4 ,the principle of reversion1 recently alluded to1 is one of the most wonderful of the attributes of ,inheritance4 ,it proves to us that the transmission of a character and its development1 which ordinarily go together and thus escape discrimination1 are distinct powers2 and these powers in some cases are even antagonistic1 for each acts alternately in successive generations4 ,reversion is not a rare event1 depending on some unusual or favourable combination of circumstances1 but occurs so regularly with crossed animals and plants1 and so frequently with uncrossed breeds1 that it is evidently an essential part of the principle of inheritance4 ,we know that changed conditions have the power of evoking long-lost characters1 as in the case of animals becoming feral4 ,the act of crossing in itself possesses this power in a high degree4 ,what can be more wonderful than that characters1 which have disappeared during scores1 or hundreds1 or even thousands of generations1 should suddenly reappear perfectly developed1 as in the case of pigeons and fowls1 both when purely bred and especially when crossed2 or as with the zebrine stripes on dun-coloured horses1 and other such cases8 ,many monstrosities come under this same head1 as when rudimentary organs are redeveloped1 or when an organ which we must believe was possessed by an early progenitor of the species1 but of which not even a rudiment is left1 suddenly reappears1 as with the fifth stamen in some ,scrophulariace4 ,we have already seen that reversion acts in bud-reproduction2 and we know that it occasionally acts during the growth of the same individual animal1 especially1 but not exclusively1 if of crossed parentage1--as in the rare cases described of fowls1 pigeons1 cattle1 and rabbits1 which have reverted to the colours of one of their parents or ancestors as they advanced in years4 ,we are led to believe1 as formerly explained1 that every character which occasionally reappears is present in a latent form in each generation1 in nearly the same manner as in male and female animals the secondary characters of the opposite sex lie latent and ready to be evolved when the reproductive organs are injured4 ,this comparison of the secondary sexual characters which lie latent in both sexes1 with other latent characters1 is the more appropriate from the case recorded of a ,hen1 which assumed some of the masculine characters1 not of her own race1 but of an early progenitor2 she thus exhibited at the same time the redevelopment of latent characters of both kinds4 ,in every living creature we may feel assured that a host of long-lost characters lie ready to be evolved under proper conditions4 ,how can we make intelligible and connect with other facts1 this wonderful and common capacity of reversion1--this power of calling back to life long-lost characters8 ,,part ,,ii4 ,i have now enumerated the chief facts which every one would desire to see connected by some intelligible bond4 ,this can be done1 if we make the following assumptions1 and much may be advanced in favour of the chief one4 ,the secondary assumptions can likewise be supported by various physiological considerations4 ,it is universally admitted that the cells or units of the body increase by self-division or proliferation1 retaining the same nature1 and that they ultimately become converted into the various tissues and substances of the body4 ,but besides this means of increase ,i assume that the units throw off minute granules which are dispersed throughout the whole system2 that these1 when supplied with proper nutriment1 multiply by self-division1 and are ultimately developed into units like those from which they were originally derived4 ,these granules may be called gemmules4 ,they are collected from all parts of the system to constitute the sexual elements1 and their development in the next generation forms a new being2 but they are likewise capable of transmission in a dormant state to future generations and may then be developed4 ,their development depends on their union with other partially developed or nascent cells which precede them in the regular course of growth4 ,why ,i use the term union1 will be seen when we discuss the direct action of pollen on the tissues of the mother-plant4 ,gemmules are supposed to be thrown off by every unit1 not only during the adult state1 but during each stage of development of every organism2 but not necessarily during the continued existence of the same unit4 ,lastly1 ,i assume that the gemmules in their dormant state have a mutual affinity for each other1 leading to their aggregation into buds or into the sexual elements4 ,hence1 it is not the reproductive organs or buds which generate new organisms1 but the units of which each individual is composed4 ,these assumptions constitute the provisional hypothesis which ,i have called ,pangenesis4 ,views in many respects similar have been propounded by various authors4#db ,before proceeding to show1 firstly1 how far these assumptions are in themselves probable1 and secondly1 how far they connect and explain the various groups of facts with which we are concerned1 it may be useful to give an illustration1 as simple as possible1 of the hypothesis4 ,if one of the ,protozoa be formed1 as it appears under the microscope1 of a small mass of homogeneous gelatinous matter1 a minute particle or gemmule thrown off from any part and nourished under favourable circumstances would reproduce the whole2 but if the upper and lower surfaces were to differ in texture from each other and from the central portion1 then all three parts would have to throw off gemmules1 which when aggregated by mutual affinity would form either buds or the sexual elements1 and would ultimately be developed into a similar organism4 ,precisely the same view may be extended to one of the higher animals2 although in this case many thousand gemmules must be thrown off from the various parts of the body at each stage of development2 these gemmules being developed in union with pre-existing nascent cells in due order of succession4 ,physiologists maintain1 as we have seen1 that each unit of the body1 though to a large extent dependent on others1 is likewise to a certain extent independent or autonomous1 and has the power of increasing by self-division4 ,i go one step further1 and assume that each unit casts off free gemmules which are dispersed throughout the system1 and are capable under proper conditions of being developed into similar units4 ,nor can this assumption be considered as gratuitous and improbable4 ,it is manifest that the sexual elements and buds include formative matter of some kind1 capable of development2 and we now know from the production of graft-hybrids that similar matter is dispersed throughout the tissues of plants1 and can combine with that of another and distinct plant1 giving rise to a new being1 intermediate in character4 ,we know also that the male element can act directly on the partially developed tissues of the mother-plant1 and on the future progeny of female animals4 ,the formative matter which is thus dispersed throughout the tissues of plants1 and which is capable of being developed into each unit or part1 must be generated there by some means2 and my chief assumption is that this matter consists of minute particles or gemmules cast off from each unit or cell4#dc ,but ,i have further to assume that the gemmules in their undeveloped state are capable of largely multiplying themselves by self-division1 like independent organisms4 ,delpino insists that to 8admit of multiplication by fissiparity in corpuscles1 analogous to seeds or buds 4 4 4 is repugnant to all analogy40 ,but this seems a strange objection1 as ,thuret#dd has seen the zoospore of an alga divide itself1 and each half germinated4 ,haeckel divided the segmented ovum of a siphonophora into many pieces1 and these were developed4 ,nor does the extreme minuteness of the gemmules1 which can hardly differ much in nature from the lowest and simplest organisms1 render it improbable that they should grow and multiply4 ,a great authority1 ,dr4 ,beale1#de says 8that minute yeast cells are capable of throwing off buds or gemmules1 much less than the #a_/ajjjjj of an inch in diameter20 and these he thinks are 8capable of subdivision practically ad infinitum40 ,a particle of small-pox matter1 so minute as to be borne by the wind1 must multiply itself many thousandfold in a person thus inoculated2 and so with the contagious matter of scarlet fever4#df ,it has recently been ascertained#dg that a minute portion of the mucous discharge from an animal affected with rinderpest1 if placed in the blood of a healthy ox1 increases so fast that in a short space of time 8the whole mass of blood1 weighing many pounds1 is infected1 and every small particle of that blood contains enough poison to give1 within less than forty-eight hours1 the disease to another animal40 ,the retention of free and undeveloped gemmules in the same body from early youth to old age will appear improbable1 but we should remember how long seeds lie dormant in the earth and buds in the bark of a tree4 ,their transmission from generation to generation will appear still more improbable2 but here again we should remember that many rudimentary and useless organs have been transmitted during an indefinite number of generations4 ,we shall presently see how well the long-continued transmission of undeveloped gemmules explains many facts4 ,as each unit1 or group of similar units1 throughout the body1 casts off its gemmules1 and as all are contained within the smallest ovule1 and within each spermatozoon or pollen-grain1 and as some animals and plants produce an astonishing number of pollen-grains and ovules1#dh the number and minuteness of the gemmules must be something inconceivable4 ,but considering how minute the molecules are1 and how many go to the formation of the smallest granule of any ordinary substance1 this difficulty with respect to the gemmules is not insuperable4 ,from the data arrived at by ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 my son ,george finds that a cube of #a_/ajjjj of an inch of glass or water must consist of between #af million millions1 and #aca thousand million million molecules4 ,no doubt the molecules of which an organism is formed are larger1 from being more complex1 than those of an inorganic substance1 and probably many molecules go to the formation of a gemmule2 but when we bear in mind that a cube of #a_/ajjjj of an inch is much smaller than any pollen-grain1 ovule or bud1 we can see what a vast number of gemmules one of these bodies might contain4 ,the gemmules derived from each part or organ must be thoroughly dispersed throughout the whole system4 ,we know1 for instance1 that even a minute fragment of a leaf of a ,begonia will reproduce the whole plant2 and that if a fresh-water worm is chopped into small pieces1 each will reproduce the whole animal4 ,considering also the minuteness of the gemmules and the permeability of all organic tissues1 the thorough dispersion of the gemmules is not surprising4 ,that matter may be readily transferred without the aid of vessels from part to part of the body1 we have a good instance in a case recorded by ,sir ,j4 ,paget of a lady1 whose hair lost its colour at each successive attack of neuralgia and recovered it again in the course of a few days4 ,with plants1 however1 and probably with compound animals1 such as corals1 the gemmules do not ordinarily spread from bud to bud1 but are confined to the parts developed from each separate bud2 and of this fact no explanation can be given4 ,the assumed elective affinity of each gemmule for that particular cell which precedes it in due order of development is supported by many analogies4 ,in all ordinary cases of sexual reproduction1 the male and female elements certainly have a mutual affinity for each other3 thus1 it is believed that about ten thousand species of ,composit exist1 and there can be no doubt that if the pollen of all these species could be simultaneously or successively placed on the stigma of any one species1 this one would elect with unerring certainty its own pollen4 ,this elective capacity is all the more wonderful1 as it must have been acquired since the many species of this great group of plants branched off from a common progenitor4 ,on any view of the nature of sexual reproduction1 the formative matter of each part contained within the ovules and the male element act on each other by some law of special affinity1 so that corresponding parts affect one another2 thus1 a calf produced from a short-horned cow by a long-horned bull has its horns affected by the union of the two forms1 and the offspring from two birds with differently coloured tails have their tails affected4 ,the various tissues of the body plainly show1 as many physiologists have insisted1#di an affinity for special organic substances1 whether natural or foreign to the body4 ,we see this in the cells of the kidneys attracting urea from the blood2 in curare affecting certain nerves2 ,lytta vesicatoria the kidneys2 and the poisonous matter of various diseases1 as small-pox1 scarlet-fever1 hooping-cough1 glanders1 and hydrophobia1 affecting certain definite parts of the body4 ,it has also been assumed that the development of each gemmule depends on its union with another cell or unit which has just commenced its development1 and which precedes it in due order of growth4 ,that the formative matter within the pollen of plants1 which by our hypothesis consists of gemmules1 can unite with and modify the partially developed cells of the mother-plant1 we have clearly seen in the section devoted to this subject4 ,as the tissues of plants are formed1 as far as is known1 only by the proliferation of pre-existing cells1 we must conclude that the gemmules derived from the foreign pollen do not become developed into new and separate cells1 but penetrate and modify the nascent cells of the mother-plant4 ,this process may be compared with what takes place in the act of ordinary fertilisation1 during which the contents of the pollen-tubes penetrate the closed embryonic sac within the ovule1 and determine the development of the embryo4 ,according to this view1 the cells of the mother-plant may almost literally be said to be fertilised by the gemmules derived from the foreign pollen4 ,in this case and in all others the proper gemmules must combine in due order with pre-existing nascent cells1 owing to their elective affinities4 ,a slight difference in nature between the gemmules and the nascent cells would be far from interfering with their mutual union and development1 for we well know in the case of ordinary reproduction that such slight differentiation in the sexual elements favours in a marked manner their union and subsequent development1 as well as the vigour of the offspring thus produced4 ,thus far we have been able by the aid of our hypothesis to throw some obscure light on the problems which have come before us2 but it must be confessed that many points remain altogether doubtful4 ,thus it is useless to speculate at what period of development each unit of the body casts off its gemmules1 as the whole subject of the development of the various tissues is as yet far from clear4 ,we do not know whether the gemmules are merely collected by some unknown means at certain seasons within the reproductive organs1 or whether after being thus collected they rapidly multiply there1 as the flow of blood to these organs at each breeding season seems to render probable4 ,nor do we know why the gemmules collect to form buds in certain definite places1 leading to the symmetrical growth of trees and corals4 ,we have no means of deciding whether the ordinary wear and tear of the tissues is made good by means of gemmules1 or merely by the proliferation of pre-existing cells4 ,if the gemmules are thus consumed1 as seems probable from the intimate connection between the repair of waste1 re-growth1 and development1 and more especially from the periodical changes which many male animals undergo in colour and structure1 then some light would be thrown on the phenomena of old age1 with its lessened power of reproduction and of the repair of injuries1 and on the obscure subject of longevity4 ,the fact of castrated animals1 which do not cast off innumerable gemmules in the act of reproduction1 not being longer-lived than perfect males1 seems opposed to the belief that gemmules are consumed in the ordinary repair of wasted tissues2 unless indeed the gemmules after being collected in small numbers within the reproductive organs are there largely multiplied4#ej ,that the same cells or units may live for a long period and continue multiplying without being modified by their union with free gemmules of any kind1 is probable from such cases as that of the spur of a cock which grew to an enormous size when grafted into the ear of an ox4 ,how far units are modified during their normal growth by absorbing peculiar nutriment from the surrounding tissues1 independently of their union with gemmules of a distinct nature1 is another doubtful point4#ea ,we shall appreciate this difficulty by calling to mind what complex yet symmetrical growths the cells of plants yield when inoculated by the poison of a gall-insect4 ,with animals various polypoid excrescences and tumours are generally admitted#eb to be the direct product1 through proliferation1 of normal cells which have become abnormal4 ,in the regular growth and repair of bones1 the tissues undergo1 as ,virchow remarks1#ec a whole series of permutations and substitutions4 8,the cartilage cells may be converted by a direct transformation into marrow-cells1 and continue as such2 or they may first be converted into osseous and then into medullary tissue2 or lastly1 they may first be converted into marrow and then into bone4 ,so variable are the permutations of these tissues1 in themselves so nearly allied1 and yet in their external appearance so completely distinct40 ,but as these tissues thus change their nature at any age1 without any obvious change in their nutrition1 we must suppose in accordance with our hypothesis that gemmules derived from one kind of tissue combine with the cells of another kind1 and cause the successive modifications4 ,we have good reason to believe that several gemmules are requisite for the development of one and the same unit or cell2 for we cannot otherwise understand the insufficiency of a single or even of two or three pollen-grains or spermatozoa4 ,but we are far from knowing whether the gemmules of all the units are free and separate from one another1 or whether some are from the first united into small aggregates4 ,a feather1 for instance1 is a complex structure1 and1 as each separate part is liable to inherited variations1 ,i conclude that each feather generates a large number of gemmules2 but it is possible that these may be aggregated into a compound gemmule4 ,the same remark applies to the petals of flowers1 which are sometimes highly complex structures1 with each ridge and hollow contrived for a special purpose1 so that each part must have been separately modified1 and the modifications transmitted2 consequently1 separate gemmules1 according to our hypothesis1 must have been thrown off from each cell or unit4 ,but1 as we sometimes see half an anther or a small portion of a filament becoming petali-form1 or parts or mere stripes of the calyx assuming the colour and texture of the corolla1 it is probable that with petals the gemmules of each cell are not aggregated together into a compound gemmule1 but are free and separate4 ,even in so simple a case as that of a perfect cell1 with its protoplasmic contents1 nucleus1 nucleolus1 and walls1 we do not know whether or not its development depends on a compound gemmule derived from each part4#ed ,having now endeavoured to show that the several foregoing assumptions are to a certain extent supported by analogous facts1 and having alluded to some of the most doubtful points1 we will consider how far the hypothesis brings under a single point of view the various cases enumerated in the ,first ,part4 ,all the forms of reproduction graduate into one another and agree in their product2 for it is impossible to distinguish between organisms produced from buds1 from self-division1 or from fertilised germs2 such organisms are liable to variations of the same nature and to reversions of the same kind2 and as1 according to our hypothesis1 all the forms of reproduction depend on the aggregation of gemmules derived from the whole body1 we can understand this remarkable agreement4 ,parthenogenesis is no longer wonderful1 and if we did not know that great good followed from the union of the sexual elements derived from two distinct individuals1 the wonder would be that parthenogenesis did not occur much oftener than it does4 ,on any ordinary theory of reproduction the formation of graft-hybrids1 and the action of the male element on the tissues of the mother-plant1 as well as on the future progeny of female animals1 are great anomalies2 but they are intelligible on our hypothesis4 ,the reproductive organs do not actually create the sexual elements2 they merely determine the aggregation and perhaps the multiplication of the gemmules in a special manner4 ,these organs1 however1 together with their accessory parts1 have high functions to perform4 ,they adapt one or both elements for independent temporary existence1 and for mutual union4 ,the stigmatic secretion acts on the pollen of a plant of the same species in a wholly different manner to what it does on the pollen of one belonging to a distinct genus or family4 ,the spermatophores of the ,cephalopoda are wonderfully complex structures1 which were formerly mistaken for parasitic worms2 and the spermatozoa of some animals possess attributes which1 if observed in an independent animal1 would be put down to instinct guided by sense-organs1--as when the spermatozoa of an insect find their way into the minute micropyle of the egg4 ,the antagonism which has long been observed1#ee with certain exceptions1 between growth and the power of sexual reproduction#ef--;between the repair of injuries and gemmation--and with plants1 between rapid increase by buds1 rhizomes1 etc41 and the production of seed1 is partly explained by the gemmules not existing in sufficient numbers for these processes to be carried on simultaneously4 ,hardly any fact in physiology is more wonderful than the power of re-growth2 for instance1 that a snail should be able to reproduce its head1 or a salamander its eyes1 tail1 and legs1 exactly at the points where they have been cut off4 ,such cases are explained by the presence of gemmules derived from each part1 and disseminated throughout the body4 ,i have heard the process compared with that of the repair of the broken angles of a crystal by re-crystallisation2 and the two processes have this much in common1 that in the one case the polarity of the molecules is the efficient cause1 and in the other the affinity of the gemmules for particular nascent cells4 ,but we have here to encounter two objections which apply not only to the re-growth of a part1 or of a bisected individual1 but to fissiparous generation and budding4 ,the first objection is that the part which is reproduced is in the same stage of development as that of the being which has been operated on or bisected2 and in the case of buds1 that the new beings thus produced are in the same stage as that of the budding parent4 ,thus a mature salamander1 of which the tail has been cut off1 does not reproduce a larval tail2 and a crab does not reproduce a larval leg4 ,in the case of budding it was shown in the first part of this chapter that the new being thus produced does not retrograde in development1--that is1 does not pass through those earlier stages1 which the fertilised germ has to pass through4 ,nevertheless1 the organisms operated on or multiplying themselves by buds must1 by our hypothesis1 include innumerable gemmules derived from every part or unit of the earlier stages of development2 and why do not such gemmules reproduce the amputated part or the whole body at a corresponding early stage of development8 ,the second objection1 which has been insisted on by ,delpino1 is that the tissues1 for instance1 of a mature salamander or crab1 of which a limb has been removed1 are already differentiated and have passed through their whole course of development2 and how can such tissues in accordance with our hypothesis attract and combine with the gemmules of the part which is to be reproduced8 ,in answer to these two objections we must bear in mind the evidence which has been advanced1 showing that at least in a large number of cases the power of re-growth is a localised faculty1 acquired for the sake of repairing special injuries to which each particular creature is liable2 and in the case of buds or fissiparous generation1 for the sake of quickly multiplying the organism at a period of life when it can be supported in large numbers4 ,these considerations lead us to believe that in all such cases a stock of nascent cells or of partially developed gemmules are retained for this special purpose either locally or throughout the body1 ready to combine with the gemmules derived from the cells which come next in due succession4 ,if this be admitted we have a sufficient answer to the above two objections4 ,anyhow1 pangenesis seems to throw a considerable amount of light on the wonderful power of re-growth4 ,it follows1 also1 from the view just given1 that the sexual elements differ from buds in not including nascent cells or gemmules in a somewhat advanced stage of development1 so that only the gemmules belonging to the earliest stages are first developed4 ,as young animals and those which stand low in the scale generally have a much greater capacity for re-growth than older and higher animals1 it would also appear that they retain cells in a nascent state1 or partially developed gemmules1 more readily than do animals which have already passed through a long series of developmental changes4 ,i may here add that although ovules can be detected in most or all female animals at an extremely early age1 there is no reason to doubt that gemmules derived from parts modified during maturity can pass into the ovules4 ,with respect to hybridism1 pangenesis agrees well with most of the ascertained facts4 ,we must believe1 as previously shown1 that several gemmules are requisite for the development of each cell or unit4 ,but from the occurrence of parthenogenesis1 more especially from those cases in which an embryo is only partially formed1 we may infer that the female element generally includes gemmules in nearly sufficient number for independent development1 so that when united with the male element the gemmules are superabundant4 ,now1 when two species or races are crossed reciprocally1 the offspring do not commonly differ1 and this shows that the sexual elements agree in power1 in accordance with the view that both include the same gemmules4 ,hybrids and mongrels are also generally intermediate in character between the two parent-forms1 yet occasionally they closely resemble one parent in one part and the other parent in another part1 or even in their whole structure3 nor is this difficult to understand on the admission that the gemmules in the fertilised germ are superabundant in number1 and that those derived from one parent may have some advantage in number1 affinity1 or vigour over those derived from the other parent4 ,crossed forms sometimes exhibit the colour or other characters of either parent in stripes or blotches2 and this occurs in the first generation1 or through reversion in succeeding bud and seminal generations1 of which fact several instances were given in the eleventh chapter4 ,in these cases we must follow ,naudin#eg and admit that the 8essence0 or 8element0 of the two species1--terms which ,i should translate into the gemmules1--have an affinity for their own kind1 and thus separate themselves into distinct stripes or blotches2 and reasons were given1 when discussing in the fifteenth chapter the incompatibility of certain characters to unite1 for believing in such mutual affinity4 ,when two forms are crossed1 one is not rarely found to be prepotent in the transmission of its characters over the other2 and this we can explain by again assuming that the one form has some advantage over the other in the number1 vigour1 or affinity of its gemmules4 ,in some cases1 however1 certain characters are present in the one form and latent in the other2 for instance1 there is a latent tendency in all pigeons to become blue1 and1 when a blue pigeon is crossed with one of any other colour1 the blue tint is generally prepotent4 ,the explanation of this form of prepotency will be obvious when we come to the consideration of ,reversion4 ,when two distinct species are crossed1 it is notorious that they do not yield the full or proper number of offspring2 and we can only say on this head that1 as the development of each organism depends on such nicely-balanced affinities between a host of gemmules and nascent cells1 we need not feel at all surprised that the commixture of gemmules derived from two distinct species should lead to partial or complete failure of development4 ,with respect to the sterility of hybrids produced from the union of two distinct species1 it was shown in the nineteenth chapter that this depends exclusively on the reproductive organs being specially affected2 but why these organs should be thus affected we do not know1 any more than why unnatural conditions of life1 though compatible with health1 should cause sterility2 or why continued close interbreeding1 or the illegitimate unions of heterostyled plants1 induce the same result4 ,the conclusion that the reproductive organs alone are affected1 and not the whole organisation1 agrees perfectly with the unimpaired or even increased capacity in hybrid plants for propagation by buds2 for this implies1 according to our hypothesis1 that the cells of the hybrids throw off hybridised gemmules1 which become aggregated into buds1 but fail to become aggregated within the reproductive organs1 so as to form the sexual elements4 ,in a similar manner many plants1 when placed under unnatural conditions1 fail to produce seed1 but can readily be propagated by buds4 ,we shall presently see that pangenesis agrees well with the strong tendency to reversion exhibited by all crossed animals and plants4 ,each organism reaches maturity through a longer or shorter course of growth and development3 the former term being confined to mere increase of size1 and development to changed structure4 ,the changes may be small and insensibly slow1 as when a child grows into a man1 or many1 abrupt1 and slight1 as in the metamorphoses of certain ephemerous insects1 or1 again1 few and strongly-marked1 as with most other insects4 ,each newly formed part may be moulded within a previously existing and corresponding part1 and in this case it will appear1 falsely as ,i believe1 to be developed from the old part2 or it may be formed within a distinct part of the body1 as in the extreme cases of metagenesis4 ,an eye1 for instance1 may be developed at a spot where no eye previously existed4 ,we have also seen that allied organic beings in the course of their metamorphoses sometimes attain nearly the same structure after passing through widely different forms2 or conversely1 after passing through nearly the same early forms1 arrive at widely different mature forms4 ,in these cases it is very difficult to accept the common view that the first-formed cells or units possess the inherent power1 independently of any external agency1 of producing new structures wholly different in form1 position1 and function4 ,but all these cases become plain on the hypothesis of pangenesis4 ,the units1 during each stage of development1 throw off gemmules1 which1 multiplying1 are transmitted to the offspring4 ,in the offspring1 as soon as any particular cell or unit becomes partially developed1 it unites with 7or1 to speak metaphorically1 is fertilised by7 the gemmule of the next succeeding cell1 and so onwards4 ,but organisms have often been subjected to changed conditions of life at a certain stage of their development1 and in consequence have been slightly modified2 and the gemmules cast off from such modified parts will tend to reproduce parts modified in the same manner4 ,this process may be repeated until the structure of the part becomes greatly changed at one particular stage of development1 but this will not necessarily affect other parts1 whether previously or subsequently formed4 ,in this manner we can understand the remarkable independence of structure in the successive metamorphoses1 and especially in the successive metageneses of many animals4 ,in the case1 however1 of diseases which supervene during old age1 subsequently to the ordinary period of procreation1 and which1 nevertheless1 are sometimes inherited1 as occurs with brain and heart complaints1 we must suppose that the organs were affected at an early age and threw off at this period affected gemmules2 but that the affection became visible or injurious only after the prolonged growth1 in the strict sense of the word1 of the part4 ,in all the changes of structure which regularly supervene during old age1 we probably see the effects of deteriorated growth1 and not of true development4 ,the principle of the independent formation of each part1 owing to the union of the proper gemmules with certain nascent cells1 together with the superabundance of the gemmules derived from both parents1 and the subsequent self-multiplication of the gemmules1 throws light on a widely different group of facts1 which on any ordinary view of development appears very strange4 ,i allude to organs which are abnormally transposed or multiplied4 ,for instance1 a curious case has been recorded by ,dr4 ,elliott ,coues#eh of a monstrous chicken with a perfect additional right leg articulated to the left side of the pelvis4 ,gold-fish often have supernumerary fins placed on various parts of their bodies4 ,when the tail of a lizard is broken off1 a double tail is sometimes reproduced2 and when the foot of the salamander was divided longitudinally by ,bonnet1 additional digits were occasionally formed4 ,valentin injured the caudal extremity of an embryo1 and three days afterwards it produced rudiments of a double pelvis and of double hind-limbs4#ei ,when frogs1 toads1 etc41 are born with their limbs doubled1 as sometimes happens1 the doubling1 as ,gervais remarks1#fj cannot be due to the complete fusion of two embryos1 with the exception of the limbs1 for the larv are limbless4 ,the same argument is applicable#fa to certain insects produced with multiple legs or antenn1 for these are metamorphosed from apodal or antenn-less larv4 ,alphonse ,milne-,edwards#fb has described the curious case of a crustacean in which one eye-peduncle supported1 instead of a complete eye1 only an imperfect cornea1 and out of the centre of this a portion of an antenna was developed4 ,a case has been recorded#fc of a man who had during both dentitions a double tooth in place of the left second incisor1 and he inherited this peculiarity from his paternal grandfather4 ,several cases are known#fd of additional teeth having been developed in the orbit of the eye1 and1 more especially with horses1 in the palate4 ,hairs occasionally appear in strange situations1 as 8within the substance of the brain40#fe ,certain breeds of sheep bear a whole crowd of horns on their foreheads4 ,as many as five spurs have been seen on both legs of certain ,game-fowls4 ,in the ,polish fowl the male is ornamented with a topknot of hackles like those on his neck1 whilst the female has a top-knot formed of common feathers4 ,in feather-footed pigeons and fowls1 feathers like those on the wing arise from the outer side of the legs and toes4 ,even the elemental parts of the same feather may be transposed2 for in the ,sebastopol goose1 barbules are developed on the divided filaments of the shaft4 ,imperfect nails sometimes appear on the stumps of the amputated fingers of man#ff and it is an interesting fact that with the snake-like ,saurians1 which present a series with more and more imperfect limbs1 the terminations of the phalanges first disappear1 8the nails becoming transferred to their proximal remnants1 or even to parts which are not phalanges40#fg ,analogous cases are of such frequent occurrence with plants that they do not strike us with sufficient surprise4 ,supernumerary petals1 stamens1 and pistils1 are often produced4 ,i have seen a leaflet low down in the compound leaf of ,vicia sativa replaced by a tendril2 and a tendril possesses many peculiar properties1 such as spontaneous movement and irritability4 ,the calyx sometimes assumes1 either wholly or by stripes1 the colour and texture of the corolla4 ,stamens are so frequently converted into petals1 more or less completely1 that such cases are passed over as not deserving notice2 but as petals have special functions to perform1 namely1 to protect the included organs1 to attract insects1 and in not a few cases to guide their entrance by well-adapted contrivances1 we can hardly account for the conversion of stamens into petals merely by unnatural or superfluous nourishment4 ,again1 the edge of a petal may occasionally be found including one of the highest products of the plant1 namely1 pollen2 for instance1 ,i have seen the pollen-mass of an ,ophrys1 which is a very complex structure1 developed in the edge of an upper petal4 ,the segments of the calyx of the common pea have been observed partially converted into carpels1 including ovules1 and with their tips converted into stigmas4 ,mr4 ,salter and ,dr4 ,maxwell ,masters have found pollen within the ovules of the passion-flower and of the rose4 ,buds may be developed in the most unnatural positions1 as on the petal of a flower4 ,numerous analogous facts could be given4#fh ,i do not know how physiologists look at such facts as the foregoing4 ,according to the doctrine of pangenesis1 the gemmules of the transposed organs become developed in the wrong place1 from uniting with wrong cells or aggregates of cells during their nascent state2 and this would follow from a slight modification in their elective affinities4 ,nor ought we to feel much surprise at the affinities of cells and gemmules varying1 when we remember the many curious cases given in the seventeenth chapter1 of plants which absolutely refuse to be fertilised by their own pollen1 though abundantly fertile with that of any other individual of the same species1 and in some cases only with that of a distinct species4 ,it is manifest that the sexual elective affinities of such plants--to use the term employed by ,grtner--have been modified4 ,as the cells of adjoining or homologous parts will have nearly the same nature1 they will be particularly liable to acquire by variation each other's elective affinities2 and we can thus understand to a certain extent such cases as a crowd of horns on the heads of certain sheep1 of several spurs on the legs of fowls1 hackle-like feathers on the heads of the males of other fowls1 and with the pigeon wing-like feathers on their legs and membrane between their toes1 for the leg is the homologue of the wing4 ,as all the organs of plants are homologous and spring from a common axis1 it is natural that they should be eminently liable to transposition4 ,it ought to be observed that when any compound part1 such as an additional limb or an antenna1 springs from a false position1 it is only necessary that the few first gemmules should be wrongly attached2 for these whilst developing would attract other gemmules in due succession1 as in the re-growth of an amputated limb4 ,when parts which are homologous and similar in structure1 as the vertebr of snakes or the stamens of polyandrous flowers1 etc41 are repeated many times in the same organism1 closely allied gemmules must be extremely numerous1 as well as the points to which they ought to become united2 and1 in accordance with the foregoing views1 we can to a certain extent understand ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire's law1 that parts1 which are already multiple1 are extremely liable to vary in number4 ,variability often depends1 as ,i have attempted to show1 on the reproductive organs being injuriously affected by changed conditions2 and in this case the gemmules derived from the various parts of the body are probably aggregated in an irregular manner1 some superfluous and others deficient4 ,whether a superabundance of gemmules would lead to the increased size of any part cannot be told2 but we can see that their partial deficiency1 without necessarily leading to the entire abortion of the part1 might cause considerable modifications2 for in the same manner as plants1 if their own pollen be excluded1 are easily hybridised1 so1 in the case of cells1 if the properly succeeding gemmules were absent1 they would probably combine easily with other and allied gemmules1 as we have just seen with transposed parts4 ,in variations caused by the direct action of changed conditions1 of which several instances have been given1 certain parts of the body are directly affected by the new conditions1 and consequently throw off modified gemmules1 which are transmitted to the offspring4 ,on any ordinary view it is unintelligible how changed conditions1 whether acting on the embryo1 the young or the adult1 can cause inherited modifications4 ,it is equally or even more unintelligible on any ordinary view1 how the effects of the long-continued use or disuse of a part1 or of changed habits of body or mind1 can be inherited4 ,a more perplexing problem can hardly be proposed2 but on our view we have only to suppose that certain cells become at last structurally modified2 and that these throw off similarly modified gemmules4 ,this may occur at any period of development1 and the modification will be inherited at a corresponding period2 for the modified gemmules will unite in all ordinary cases with the proper preceding cells1 and will consequently be developed at the same period at which the modification first arose4 ,with respect to mental habits or instincts1 we are so profoundly ignorant of the relation between the brain and the power of thought that we do not know positively whether a fixed habit induces any change in the nervous system1 though this seems highly probable2 but when such habit or other mental attribute1 or insanity1 is inherited1 we must believe that some actual modification is transmitted2#fi and this implies1 according to our hypothesis1 that gemmules derived from modified nerve-cells are transmitted to the offspring4 ,it is generally necessary that an organism should be exposed during several generations to changed conditions or habits1 in order that any modification thus acquired should appear in the offspring4 ,this may be partly due to the changes not being at first marked enough to catch attention1 but this explanation is insufficient2 and ,i can account for the fact only by the assumption1 which we shall see under the head of reversion is strongly supported1 that gemmules derived from each unmodified unit or part are transmitted in large numbers to successive generations1 and that the gemmules derived from the same unit after it has been modified go on multiplying under the same favourable conditions which first caused the modification1 until at last they become sufficiently numerous to overpower and supplant the old gemmules4 ,a difficulty may be here noticed2 we have seen that there is an important difference in the frequency1 though not in the nature1 of the variations in plants propagated by sexual and asexual generation4 ,as far as variability depends on the imperfect action of the reproductive organs under changed conditions1 we can at once see why plants propagated asexually should be far less variable than those propagated sexually4 ,with respect to the direct action of changed conditions1 we know that organisms produced from buds do not pass through the earlier phases of development2 they will therefore not be exposed1 at that period of life when structure is most readily modified1 to the various causes inducing variability in the same manner as are embryos and young larval forms2 but whether this is a sufficient explanation ,i know not4 ,with respect to variations due to reversion1 there is a similar difference between plants propagated from buds and seeds4 ,many varieties can be propagated securely by buds1 but generally or invariably revert to their parent-forms by seed4 ,so1 also1 hybridised plants can be multiplied to any extent by buds1 but are continually liable to reversion by seed1--that is1 to the loss of their hybrid or intermediate character4 ,i can offer no satisfactory explanation of these facts4 ,plants with variegated leaves1 phloxes with striped flowers1 barberries with seedless fruit1 can all be securely propagated by buds taken from the stem or branches2 but buds from the roots of these plants almost invariably lose their character and revert to their former condition4 ,this latter fact is also inexplicable1 unless buds developed from the roots are as distinct from those on the stem1 as is one bud on the stem from another1 and we know that these latter behave like independent organisms4 ,finally1 we see that on the hypothesis of pangenesis variability depends on at least two distinct groups of causes4 ,firstly1 the deficiency1 superabundance1 and transposition of gemmules1 and the redevelopment of those which have long been dormant2 the gemmules themselves not having undergone any modification2 and such changes will amply account for much fluctuating variability4 ,secondly1 the direct action of changed conditions on the organisation1 and of the increased use or disuse of parts2 and in this case the gemmules from the modified units will be themselves modified1 and1 when sufficiently multiplied1 will supplant the old gemmules and be developed into new structures4 ,turning now to the laws of ,inheritance4 ,if we suppose a homogeneous gelatinous protozoon to vary and assume a reddish colour1 a minute separated particle would naturally1 as it grew to full size1 retain the same colour2 and we should have the simplest form of inheritance4#gj ,precisely the same view may be extended to the infinitely numerous and diversified units of which the whole body of one of the higher animals is composed2 the separated particles being our gemmules4 ,we have already sufficiently discussed by implication1 the important principle of inheritance at corresponding ages4 ,inheritance as limited by sex and by the season of the year 7for instance with animals becoming white in winter7 is intelligible if we may believe that the elective affinities of the units of the body are slightly different in the two sexes1 especially at maturity1 and in one or both sexes at different seasons1 so that they unite with different gemmules4 ,it should be remembered that1 in the discussion on the abnormal transposition of organs1 we have seen reason to believe that such elective affinities are readily modified4 ,but ,i shall soon have to recur to sexual and seasonal inheritance4 ,these several laws are therefore explicable to a large extent through pangenesis1 and on no other hypothesis which has as yet been advanced4 ,but it appears at first sight a fatal objection to our hypothesis that a part or organ may be removed during several successive generations1 and if the operation be not followed by disease1 the lost part reappears in the offspring4 ,dogs and horses formerly had their tails docked during many generations without any inherited effect2 although1 as we have seen1 there is some reason to believe that the tailless condition of certain sheep-dogs is due to such inheritance4 ,circumcision has been practised by the ,jews from a remote period1 and in most cases the effects of the operation are not visible in the offspring2 though some maintain that an inherited effect does occasionally appear4 ,if inheritance depends on the presence of disseminated gemmules derived from all the units of the body1 why does not the amputation or mutilation of a part1 especially if effected on both sexes1 invariably affect the offspring8 ,the answer in accordance with our hypothesis probably is that gemmules multiply and are transmitted during a long series of generations--as we see in the reappearance of zebrine stripes on the horse--in the reappearance of muscles and other structures in man which are proper to his lowly organised progenitors1 and in many other such cases4 ,therefore the long-continued inheritance of a part which has been removed during many generations is no real anomaly1 for gemmules formerly derived from the part are multiplied and transmitted from generation to generation4 ,we have as yet spoken only of the removal of parts1 when not followed by morbid action3 but when the operation is thus followed1 it is certain that the deficiency is sometimes inherited4 ,in a former chapter instances were given1 as of a cow1 the loss of whose horn was followed by suppuration1 and her calves were destitute of a horn on the same side of their heads4 ,but the evidence which admits of no doubt is that given by ,brown-,squard with respect to guinea-pigs1 which after their sciatic nerves had been divided1 gnawed off their own gangrenous toes1 and the toes of their offspring were deficient in at least thirteen instances on the corresponding feet4 ,the inheritance of the lost part in several of these cases is all the more remarkable as only one parent was affected2 but we know that a congenital deficiency is often transmitted from one parent alone--for instance1 the offspring of hornless cattle of either sex1 when crossed with perfect animals1 are often hornless4 ,how1 then1 in accordance with our hypothesis can we account for mutilations being sometimes strongly inherited1 if they are followed by diseased action8 ,the answer probably is that all the gemmules of the mutilated or amputated part are gradually attracted to the diseased surface during the reparative process1 and are there destroyed by the morbid action4 ,a few words must be added on the complete abortion of organs4 ,when a part becomes diminished by disuse prolonged during many generations1 the principle of economy of growth1 together with intercrossing1 will tend to reduce it still further as previously explained1 but this will not account for the complete or almost complete obliteration of1 for instance1 a minute papilla of cellular tissue representing a pistil1 or of a microscopically minute nodule of bone representing a tooth4 ,in certain cases of suppression not yet completed1 in which a rudiment occasionally reappears through reversion1 dispersed gemmules derived from this part must1 according to our view1 still exist2 we must therefore suppose that the cells1 in union with which the rudiment was formerly developed1 fail in their affinity for such gemmules1 except in the occasional cases of reversion4 ,but when the abortion is complete and final1 the gemmules themselves no doubt perish2 nor is this in any way improbable1 for1 though a vast number of active and long-dormant gemmules are nourished in each living creature1 yet there must be some limit to their number2 and it appears natural that gemmules derived from reduced and useless parts would be more liable to perish than those freshly derived from other parts which are still in full functional activity4 ,the last subject that need be discussed1 namely1 ,reversion1 rests on the principle that transmission and development1 though generally acting in conjunction1 are distinct powers2 and the transmission of gemmules with their subsequent development shows us how this is possible4 ,we plainly see the distinction in the many cases in which a grandfather transmits to his grandson1 through his daughter1 characters which she does not1 or cannot1 possess4 ,but before proceeding1 it will be advisable to say a few words about latent or dormant characters4 ,most1 or perhaps all1 of the secondary characters1 which appertain to one sex1 lie dormant in the other sex2 that is1 gemmules capable of development into the secondary male sexual characters are included within the female2 and conversely female characters in the male3 we have evidence of this in certain masculine characters1 both corporeal and mental1 appearing in the female1 when her ovaria are diseased or when they fail to act from old age4 ,in like manner female characters appear in castrated males1 as in the shape of the horns of the ox1 and in the absence of horns in castrated stags4 ,even a slight change in the conditions of life due to confinement sometimes suffices to prevent the development of masculine characters in male animals1 although their reproductive organs are not permanently injured4 ,in the many cases in which masculine characters are periodically renewed1 these are latent at other seasons2 inheritance as limited by sex and season being here combined4 ,again1 masculine characters generally lie dormant in male animals until they arrive at the proper age for reproduction4 ,the curious case formerly given of a ,hen which assumed the masculine characters1 not of her own breed but of a remote progenitor1 illustrates the close connection between latent sexual characters and ordinary reversion4 ,with those animals and plants which habitually produce several forms1 as with certain butterflies described by ,mr4 ,wallace1 in which three female forms and one male form co-exist1 or1 as with the trimorphic species of ,lythrum and ,oxalis1 gemmules capable of reproducing these different forms must be latent in each individual4 ,insects are occasionally produced with one side or one quarter of their bodies like that of the male1 with the other half or three-quarters like that of the female4 ,in such cases the two sides are sometimes wonderfully different in structure1 and are separated from each other by a sharp line4 ,as gemmules derived from every part are present in each individual of both sexes1 it must be the elective affinities of the nascent cells which in these cases differ abnormally on the two sides of the body4 ,almost the same principle comes into play with those animals1 for instance1 certain gasteropods and ,verruca amongst cirripedes1 which normally have the two sides of the body constructed on a very different plan2 and yet a nearly equal number of individuals have either side modified in the same remarkable manner4 ,reversion1 in the ordinary sense of the word1 acts so incessantly1 that it evidently forms an essential part of the general law of inheritance4 ,it occurs with beings1 however propagated1 whether by buds or seminal generation1 and sometimes may be observed with advancing age even in the same individual4 ,the tendency to reversion is often induced by a change of conditions1 and in the plainest manner by crossing4 ,crossed forms of the first generation are generally nearly intermediate in character between their two parents2 but in the next generation the offspring commonly revert to one or both of their grandparents1 and occasionally to more remote ancestors4 ,how can we account for these facts8 ,each unit in a hybrid must throw off1 according to the doctrine of pangenesis1 an abundance of hybridised gemmules1 for crossed plants can be readily and largely propagated by buds2 but by the same hypothesis dormant gemmules derived from both pure parent-forms are likewise present2 and as these gemmules retain their normal condition1 they would1 it is probable1 be enabled to multiply largely during the lifetime of each hybrid4 ,consequently the sexual elements of a hybrid will include both pure and hybridised gemmules2 and when two hybrids pair1 the combination of pure gemmules derived from the one hybrid with the pure gemmules of the same parts derived from the other1 would necessarily lead to complete reversion of character2 and it is1 perhaps1 not too bold a supposition that unmodified and undeteriorated gemmules of the same nature would be especially apt to combine4 ,pure gemmules in combination with hybridised gemmules would lead to partial reversion4 ,and lastly1 hybridised gemmules derived from both parent-hybrids would simply reproduce the original hybrid form4#ga ,all these cases and degrees of reversion incessantly occur4 ,it was shown in the fifteenth chapter that certain characters are antagonistic to each other or do not readily blend2 hence1 when two animals with antagonistic characters are crossed1 it might well happen that a sufficiency of gemmules in the male alone for the reproduction of his peculiar characters1 and in the female alone for the reproduction of her peculiar characters1 would not be present2 and in this case dormant gemmules derived from the same part in some remote progenitor might easily gain the ascendancy1 and cause the reappearance of the long-lost character4 ,for instance1 when black and white pigeons1 or black and white fowls1 are crossed1--colours which do not readily blend1--blue plumage in the one case1 evidently derived from the rock-pigeon1 and red plumage in the other case1 derived from the wild jungle-cock1 occasionally reappear4 ,with uncrossed breeds the same result follows1 under conditions which favour the multiplication and development of certain dormant gemmules1 as when animals become feral and revert to their pristine character4 ,a certain number of gemmules being requisite for the development of each character1 as is known to be the case from several spermatozoa or pollen-grains being necessary for fertilisation1 and time favouring their multiplication1 will perhaps account for the curious cases1 insisted on by ,mr4 ,sedgwick1 of certain diseases which regularly appear in alternate generations4 ,this likewise holds good1 more or less strictly1 with other weakly inherited modifications4 ,hence1 as ,i have heard it remarked1 certain diseases appear to gain strength by the intermission of a generation4 ,the transmission of dormant gemmules during many successive generations is hardly in itself more improbable1 as previously remarked1 than the retention during many ages of rudimentary organs1 or even only of a tendency to the production of a rudiment2 but there is no reason to suppose that dormant gemmules can be transmitted and propagated for ever4 ,excessively minute and numerous as they are believed to be1 an infinite number derived1 during a long course of modification and descent1 from each unit of each progenitor1 could not be supported or nourished by the organism4 ,but it does not seem improbable that certain gemmules1 under favourable conditions1 should be retained and go on multiplying for a much longer period than others4 ,finally1 on the view here given1 we certainly gain some insight into the wonderful fact that the child may depart from the type of both its parents1 and resemble its grandparents1 or ancestors removed by many hundreds of generations4 ,conclusion4 ,the hypothesis of ,pangenesis1 as applied to the several great classes of facts just discussed1 no doubt is extremely complex1 but so are the facts4 ,the chief assumption is that all the units of the body1 besides having the universally admitted power of growing by self-division1 throw off minute gemmules which are dispersed through the system4 ,nor can this assumption be considered as too bold1 for we know from the cases of graft-hybridisation that formative matter of some kind is present in the tissues of plants1 which is capable of combining with that included in another individual1 and of reproducing every unit of the whole organism4 ,but we have further to assume that the gemmules grow1 multiply1 and aggregate themselves into buds and the sexual elements2 their development depending on their union with other nascent cells or units4 ,they are also believed to be capable of transmission in a dormant state1 like seeds in the ground1 to successive generations4 ,in a highly-organised animal1 the gemmules thrown off from each different unit throughout the body must be inconceivably numerous and minute4 ,each unit of each part1 as it changes during development1 and we know that some insects undergo at least twenty metamorphoses1 must throw off its gemmules4 ,but the same cells may long continue to increase by self-division1 and even become modified by absorbing peculiar nutriment1 without necessarily throwing off modified gemmules4 ,all organic beings1 moreover1 include many dormant gemmules derived from their grandparents and more remote progenitors1 but not from all their progenitors4 ,these almost infinitely numerous and minute gemmules are contained within each bud1 ovule1 spermatozoon1 and pollen-grain4 ,such an admission will be declared impossible2 but number and size are only relative difficulties4 ,independent organisms exist which are barely visible under the highest powers of the microscope1 and their germs must be excessively minute4 ,particles of infectious matter1 so small as to be wafted by the wind or to adhere to smooth paper1 will multiply so rapidly as to infect within a short time the whole body of a large animal4 ,we should also reflect on the admitted number and minuteness of the molecules composing a particle of ordinary matter4 ,the difficulty1 therefore1 which at first appears insurmountable1 of believing in the existence of gemmules so numerous and small as they must be according to our hypothesis1 has no great weight4 ,the units of the body are generally admitted by physiologists to be autonomous4 ,i go one step further and assume that they throw off reproductive gemmules4 ,thus an organism does not generate its kind as a whole1 but each separate unit generates its kind4 ,it has often been said by naturalists that each cell of a plant has the potential capacity of reproducing the whole plant2 but it has this power only in virtue of containing gemmules derived from every part4 ,when a cell or unit is from some cause modified1 the gemmules derived from it will be in like manner modified4 ,if our hypothesis be provisionally accepted1 we must look at all the forms of asexual reproduction1 whether occurring at maturity or during youth1 as fundamentally the same1 and dependent on the mutual aggregation and multiplication of the gemmules4 ,the re-growth of an amputated limb and the healing of a wound is the same process partially carried out4 ,buds apparently include nascent cells1 belonging to that stage of development at which the budding occurs1 and these cells are ready to unite with the gemmules derived from the next succeeding cells4 ,the sexual elements1 on the other hand1 do not include such nascent cells2 and the male and female elements taken separately do not contain a sufficient number of gemmules for independent development1 except in the cases of parthenogenesis4 ,the development of each being1 including all the forms of metamorphosis and metagenesis1 depends on the presence of gemmules thrown off at each period of life1 and on their development1 at a corresponding period1 in union with preceding cells4 ,such cells may be said to be fertilised by the gemmules which come next in due order of development4 ,thus the act of ordinary impregnation and the development of each part in each being are closely analogous processes4 ,the child1 strictly speaking1 does not grow into the man1 but includes germs which slowly and successively become developed and form the man4 ,in the child1 as well as in the adult1 each part generates the same part4 ,inheritance must be looked at as merely a form of growth1 like the self-division of a lowly-organised unicellular organism4 ,reversion depends on the transmission from the forefather to his descendants of dormant gemmules1 which occasionally become developed under certain known or unknown conditions4 ,each animal and plant may be compared with a bed of soil full of seeds1 some of which soon germinate1 some lie dormant for a period1 whilst others perish4 ,when we hear it said that a man carries in his constitution the seeds of an inherited disease1 there is much truth in the expression4 ,no other attempt1 as far as ,i am aware1 has been made1 imperfect as this confessedly is1 to connect under one point of view these several grand classes of facts4 ,an organic being is a microcosm--a little universe1 formed of a host of self-propagating organisms1 inconceivably minute and numerous as the stars in heaven4 ,,references #a ,this hypothesis has been severely criticised by many writers1 and it will be fair to give references to the more important articles4 ,the best essay which ,i have seen is by ,prof4 ,delpino1 entitled #8,sulla ,darwiniana ,teoria della ,pangenesi1 #ahfi1' of which a translation appeared in #8,scientific ,opinion1' ,sept4 #bith1 #ahfi1 and the succeeding numbers4 ,he rejects the hypothesis1 but criticises it fairly1 and ,i have found his criticisms very useful4 ,mr4 ,mivart 7#8,genesis of ,species1' #ahga1 chap4 x47 follows ,delpino1 but adds no new objections of any weight4 ,dr4 ,bastian 7#8,the ,beginnings of ,life1' #ahgb1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ih7 says that the hypothesis 8looks like a relic of the old rather than a fitting appanage of the new evolution philosophy40 ,he shows that ,i ought not to have used the term 8pangenesis10 as it had been previously used by ,dr4 ,gros in another sense4 ,dr4 ,lionel ,beale 7#8,nature1' ,may #aath1 #ahga1 p4 #bf7 sneers at the whole doctrine with much acerbity and some justice4 ,prof4 ,wigand 7#8,schriften der ,gesell4 der gesammt4 ,naturwissen4 zu ,marburg1' ,b4 ix4 #ahgj7 considers the hypothesis as unscientific and worthless4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes 7#8,fortnightly ,review1' ,nov4 #ast1 #ahfh1 p4 #ejc7 seems to consider that it may be useful3 he makes many good criticisms in a perfectly fair spirit4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,galton1 after describing his valuable experiments 7#8,proc4 ,royal ,soc41' vol4 xix4 p4 #cic7 on the intertransfusion of the blood of distinct varieties of the rabbit1 concludes by saying that in his opinion the results negative beyond all doubt the doctrine of ,pangenesis4 ,he informs me that subsequently to the publication of his paper he continued his experiments on a still larger scale for two more generations1 without any sign of mongrelism showing itself in the very numerous offspring4 ,i certainly should have expected that gemmules would have been present in the blood1 but this is no necessary part of the hypothesis1 which manifestly applies to plants and the lowest animals4 ,mr4 ,galton1 in a letter to #8,nature' 7,april #bgth1 #ahga1 p4 #ejb71 also criticises various incorrect expressions used by me4 ,on the other hand1 several writers have spoken favourably of the hypothesis1 but there would be no use in giving references to their articles4 ,i may1 however1 refer to ,dr4 ,ross' work1 #8,the ,graft ,theory of ,disease2 being an application of ,mr4 ,darwin's hypothesis of ,pangenesis1' #ahgb1 as he gives several original and ingenious discussions4 #b ,quoted by ,paget1 #8,lectures on ,pathology1' #ahec1 p4 #aei4 #c ,dr4 ,lachmann1 also1 observes 7#8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history1' #bnd series1 vol4 xix4 #aheg1 p4 #bca7 with respect to infusoria1 that 8fissation and gemmation pass into each other almost imperceptibly40 ,again1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,minor 7#8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #crd series1 vol4 xi4 p4 #cbh7 shows that with ,annelids the distinction that has been made between fission and budding is not a fundamental one4 ,see also ,professor ,clark's work #8,mind in ,nature1' ,new ,york1 #ahfe1 pp4 #fb1 #id4 #d ,see ,bonnet1 #8uvres d',hist4 ,nat41' tom4 v41 #agha1 p4 #cci1 for remarks on the budding-out of the amputated limbs of ,salamanders4 #e ,paget1 #8,lectures on ,pathology1' #ahec1 p4 #aeh4 #f ,ibid41 pp4 #aeb1 #afd4 #g ,translated in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' ,april #ahgj1 p4 #bgb4 #h ,bischoff1 as quoted by von ,siebold1 8,ueber ,parthenogenesis10 #8,sitzung der math4 phys4 ,classe4' ,munich1 ,nov4 #dth1 #ahga1 p4 #bdj4 ,see also ,quatrefages1 #8,annales des ,sc4 ,nat4 ,zoolog41' #crd series1 #ahej1 p4 #ach4 #i #8,on the ,asexual ,reproduction of ,cecidomyide ,larv1' translated in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' ,march #ahff1 pp4 #afg1 #aga4 #aj ,prof4 ,allman speaks 7#8,transact4 ,r4 ,soc4 of ,edinburgh1' vol4 xxvi41 #ahgj1 p4 #ajb7 decisively on this head with respect to the ,hydroida3 he says1 8,it is a universal law in the succession of zooids1 that no retrogression ever takes place in the series40 #aa #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #bnd series1 vol4 xx41 #aheg1 pp4 #aec-dee4 #ab #8,annales des ,sc4 ,nat41' #crd series1 #ahej1 tom4 xiii4 #ac #8,transact4 ,phil4 ,soc41' #ahea1 pp4 #aif1 #bjh1 #baj2 #ahec pp4 #bde1 #bdg4 #ad #8,beitrage zur ,kenntniss1' etc41 #ahdd1 s4 #cde4 #ae #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i4 p4 #bg4 #af ,as quoted by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock in #8,nat4 ,hist4 ,review1' #ahfb1 p4 #cde4 ,weijenbergh also raised 7#8,nature1' ,dec4 #bast1 #ahga1 p4 #adi7 two successive generations from unimpregnated females of another lepidopterous insect1 ,liparis dispar4 ,these females did not produce at most one-twentieth of their full complement of eggs1 and many of the eggs were worthless4 ,moreover the caterpillars raised from these unfertilised eggs 8possessed far less vitality0 than those from fertilised eggs4 ,in the third parthenogenetic generation not a single egg yielded a caterpillar4 #ag #8,entwickelungsgeschichte der ,siphonophora1' #ahfi1 p4 #gc4 #ah ,spallanzani1 #8,an ,essay on ,animal ,reproduction1' translated by ,dr4 ,maty1 #agfi1 p4 #gi4 ,bonnet1 #8uvres d',hist4 ,nat41' tom4 v41 part i41 #dto4 edit41 #agha1 pp4 #cdc1 #cej4 #ai ,vulpian1 as quoted by ,prof4 ,faivre1 #8,la ,variabilit des ,espces1' #ahfh1 p4 #aab4 #bj ,dr4 ,p4 ,hoy1 #8,the ,american ,naturalist1' ,sept4 #ahga1 p4 #egi4 #ba ,dr4 ,gunther1 in ,owen's #8,anatomy of ,vertebrates1' vol4 i41 #ahff1 p4 #efg4 ,spallanzani has made similar observations4 #bb ,a thrush was exhibited before the ,british ,association at ,hull in #ahec which had lost its tarsus1 and this member1 it was asserted1 had been thrice reproduced2 having been lost1 ,i presume1 each time by disease4 ,sir ,j4 ,paget informs me that he feels some doubt about the facts recorded by ,sir ,j4 ,simpson 7#8,monthly ,journal of ,medical ,science1' ,edinburgh1 #ahdh1 new series1 vol4 ii41 p4 #hij7 of the re-growth of limbs in the womb in the case of man4 #bc #8,atti della ,soc4 ,ital4 di ,sc4 ,nat41' vol4 xi41 #ahfi1 p4 #dic4 #bd ,lessona states that this is so in the paper just referred to4 ,see also #8,the ,american ,naturalist1' ,sept4 #ahga1 p4 #egi4 #be #8,comptes ,rendus1' ,oct4 #ast1 #ahff1 and ,june1 #ahfg4 #bf ,bonnet1 #8,oeuvres ,hist4 ,nat41' vol4 v41 p4 #bid1 as quoted by ,prof4 ,rolleston in his remarkable address to the #cfth annual meeting of the ,british ,medical ,association4 #bg #8,proc4 ,boston ,soc4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' vol4 xii41 #ahfh-fi1 p4 #a4 #bh #8,transact4 ,linn4 ,soc41' vol4 xxiv41 #ahfc1 p4 #fb4 #bi #8,parthenogenesis1' #ahdi1 pp4 #be1 #bf4 ,prof4 ,huxley has some excellent remarks 7#8,medical ,times1' #ahef1 p4 #fcg7 on this subject in reference to the development of star-fishes1 and shows how curiously metamorphosis graduates into gemmation or zoid-formation1 which is in fact the same as metagenesis4 #cj ,prof4 ,j4 ,reay ,greene1 in ,gnther's #8,record of ,zoolog4 ,lit41' #ahfe1 p4 #fbe4 #ca ,fritz ,mller1 #8,fr ,darwin1' #ahfd1 s4 #fe1 #ga4 ,the highest authority on crustaceans1 ,prof4 ,milne-,edwards1 insists 7#8,annal4 des ,sci4 ,nat41' #bnd series1 ,zoolog41 tom4 iii41 p4 #cbb7 on the difference in the metamorphosis of closely-allied genera4 #cb ,prof4 ,allman1 in #8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #crd series1 vol4 xiii41 #ahfd1 p4 #cdh2 ,dr4 ,s4 ,wright1 ibid41 vol4 viii41 #ahfa1 p4 #abg4 ,see also p4 #ceh for analogous statements by ,sars4 #cc #8,tissus ,vivants1' #ahff1 p4 #bb4 #cd #8,cellular ,pathology1' translated by ,dr4 ,chance1 #ahfj1 pp4 #ad1 #ah1 #hc1 #dfj4 #ce ,paget1 #8,surgical ,pathology1' vol4 i41 #ahec1 pp4 #ab-ad4 #cf ,ibid41 p4 #ai4 #cg ,see ,prof4 ,mantegazza's interesting work1 #8,degli innesti ,animali1' etc41 ,milano1 #ahfe1 p4 #ea1 tab4 #c4 #ch #8,de la ,production ,artificielle des ,os1' p4 #h4 #ci ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' tom4 ii41 pp4 #edi1 #efj1 #efb2 ,virchow1 ibid41 p4 #dhd4 ,lawson ,tait1 #8,the ,pathology of ,diseases of the ,ovaries1' #ahgd1 pp4 #fa1 #fb4 #dj ,for the most recent classification of cells1 see ,ernst ,hackel1 #8,generelle ,morpholog41' ,b4 ii41 #ahff1 s4 #bge4 #da ,dr4 ,w4 ,turner1 #8,the ,present ,aspect of ,cellular ,pathology1' #8,edinburgh ,medical ,journal1' ,april #ahfc4 #db ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes 7#8,fortnightly ,review1' ,nov4 #ast1 #ahfh1 p4 #ejf7 remarks on the number of writers who have advanced nearly similar views4 ,more than two thousand years ago ,aristotle combated a view of this kind1 which1 as ,i hear from ,dr4 ,w4 ,ogle1 was held by ,hippocrates and others4 ,ray1 in his #8,wisdom of ,god' 7#bnd edit41 #afib1 p4 #fh71 says that 8every part of the body seems to club and contribute to the seed40 ,the 8organic molecules0 of ,buffon 7#8,hist4 ,nat4 ,gen41' edit4 of #agdi1 tom4 ii41 pp4 #ed1 #fb1 #cbi1 #ccc1 #dbj1 #dbe7 appear at first sight to be the same as the gemmules of my hypothesis1 but they are essentially different4 ,bonnet 7#8uvres d',hist4 ,nat41' tom4 v41 part i41 #agha1 #dto edit41 p4 #ccd7 speaks of the limbs having germs adapted for the reparation of all possible losses2 but whether these germs are supposed to be the same with those within buds and the sexual organs is not clear4 ,prof4 ,owen says 7#8,anatomy of ,vertebrates1' vol4 iii41 #ahfh1 p4 #hac7 that he fails to see any fundamental difference between the views which he propounded in his #8,parthenogenesis' 7#ahdi1 pp4 #e-h71 and which he now considers as erroneous1 and my hypothesis of pangenesis3 but a reviewer 7#8,journal of ,anat4 and ,phys41' ,may #ahfi1 p4 #dda7 shows how different they really are4 ,i formerly thought that the 8physiological units0 of ,herbert ,spencer 7#8,principles of ,biology1' vol4 i41 chaps4 iv4 and viii41 #ahfc-fd7 were the same as my gemmules1 but ,i now know that this is not the case4 ,lastly1 it appears from a review of the present work by ,prof4 ,mantegazza 7#8,nuova ,antologia1 ,maggio1' #ahfh71 that he 7in his #8,elementi di ,igiene1' ,ediz4 iii41 p4 #edj7 clearly foresaw the doctrine of pangenesis4 #dc ,mr4 ,lowne has observed 7#8,journal of ,queckett ,microscopical ,club1' ,sept4 #bcrd1 #ahgj7 certain remarkable changes in the tissues of the larva of a fly1 which makes him believe 8it possible that organs and organisms are sometimes developed by the aggregation of excessively minute gemmules1 such as those which ,mr4 ,darwin's hypothesis demands40 #dd #8,annales des ,sc4 ,nat41' #crd series1 ,bot41 tom4 xiv41 #ahej1 p4 #bdd4 #de #8,disease ,germs1' p4 #bj4 #df ,see some very interesting papers on this subject by ,dr4 ,beale1 in #8,medical ,times and ,gazette1' ,sept4 #ith1 #ahfe1 pp4 #bgc1 #ccj4 #dg ,third ,report of the ,r4 ,comm4 on the ,cattle ,plague1 as quoted in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahff1 p4 #ddf4 #dh ,mr4 ,f4 ,buckland found #f1hfg1hdj eggs in a cod-fish 7#8,land and ,water1' #ahfh1 p4 #fb74 ,an ,ascaris produces about #fd1jjj1jjj eggs 7,carpenter's #8,comp4 ,phys41' #ahed1 p4 #eij74 ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott1 of the ,royal ,botanic ,garden of ,edinburgh1 calculated1 in the same manner as ,i have done for some ,british ,orchids 7#8,fertilisation of ,orchids1' p4 #cdd71 the number of seeds in a capsule of an ,acropera and found the number to be #cga1bej4 ,now this plant produces several flowers on a raceme1 and many racemes during a season4 ,in an allied genus1 ,gongora1 ,mr4 ,scott has seen twenty capsules produced on a single raceme2 ten such racemes on the ,acropera would yield above seventy-four millions of seed4 #di ,paget1 #8,lectures on ,pathology1' p4 #bg2 ,virchow1 #8,cellular ,pathology1' translated by ,dr4 ,chance1 pp4 #abc1 #abf1 #bid4 ,claude ,bernard1 #8,des ,tissus ,vivants1' pp4 #agg1 #baj1 #ccg2 ,mller1 #8,physiology1' ,eng4 translat41 p4 #bij4 #ej ,prof4 ,ray ,lankester has discussed several of the points here referred to as bearing on pangenesis1 in his interesting essay1 #8,on ,comparative ,longevity in ,man and the ,lower ,animals1' #ahgj1 pp4 #cc1 #gg1 etc4 #ea ,dr4 ,ross refers to this subject in his #8,graft ,theory of ,disease1' #ahgb1 p4 #ec4 #eb ,virchow1 #8,cellular ,pathology1' translated by ,dr4 ,chance1 #ahfj1 pp4 #fj1 #afb1 #bde1 #dda1 #ded4 #ec ,ibid41 pp4 #dab-dbf4 #ed ,see some good criticisms on this head by ,delpino and by ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes in the #8,fortnightly ,review1' ,nov4 #ast1 #ahfh1 p4 #eji4 #ee ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer 7#8,principles of ,biology1' vol4 ii41 p4 #dcj7 has fully discussed this antagonism4 #ef ,the male salmon is known to breed at a very early age4 ,the ,triton and ,siredon1 whilst retaining their larval branchi1 according to ,filippi and ,dumril 7#8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #crd series1 #ahff1 p4 #aeg7 are capable of reproduction4 ,ernst ,haeckel has recently 7#8,monatsbericht ,akad4 ,wiss4 ,berlin1' ,feb4 #bnd1 #ahfe7 observed the surprising case of a medusa1 with its reproductive organs active1 which produces by budding a widely different form of medusa2 and this latter also has the power of sexual reproduction4 ,krohn has shown 7#8,annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' #crd series1 vol4 xix41 #ahfb1 p4 #f7 that certain other medus1 whilst sexually mature1 propagate by gemm4 ,see also ,kolliker1 #8,morphologie und ,entwickelungsgeschichte des ,pennatulidenstammes1' #ahgb1 p4 #ab4 #eg ,see his excellent discussion on this subject in #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,museum1' tom4 i41 p4 #aea4 #eh #8,proc4 ,boston ,soc4 of ,nat4 ,hist41' republished in #8,scientific ,opinion1' ,nov4 #ajth1 #ahfi1 p4 #dhh4 #ei ,todd's #8,cyclop4 of ,anat4 and ,phys41' vol4 iv41 #ahdi-eb1 p4 #ige4 #fj #8,compte ,rendus1' ,nov4 #adth1 #ahfe1 p4 #hjj4 #fa ,as previously remarked by ,quatrefages1 in his #8,mtamorphoses de l',homme1' etc41 #ahfb1 p4 #abi4 #fb ,gnther's #8,zoological ,record1' #ahfd1 p4 #bgi4 #fc ,sedgwick1 #8,medico-,chirurg4 ,review1' ,april #ahfc1 p4 #ded4 #fd ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 #8,hist4 des ,anomalies1' tom4 i41 #ahcb1 pp4 #dce1 #feg2 and tom4 ii41 p4 #efj4 #fe ,virchow1 #8,cellular ,pathology1' #ahfj1 p4 #ff4 #ff ,mller's #8,phys41' ,eng4 ,translat41 vol4 i41 #ahcc1 p4 #djg4 ,a case of this kind has lately been communicated to me4 #fg ,dr4 ,frbringer1 #8,die ,knochen etc4 bei den schlangenhnlichen ,sauriern1' as reviewed in #8,journal of ,anat4 and ,phys41' ,may #ahgj1 p4 #bhf4 #fh ,moquin-,tandon1 #8,tratologie ,vg41' #ahda1 pp4 #bah1 #bbj1 #cec4 ,for the case of the pea1 see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahff1 p4 #hig4 ,with respect to pollen within ovules1 see ,dr4 ,masters in #8,science ,review1' ,oct4 #ahgc1 p4 #cfi4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,berkeley describes a bud developed on a petal of a ,clarkia1 in #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' ,april #bhth1 #ahff4 #fi ,see some remarks to this effect by ,sir ,h4 ,holland in his #8,medical ,notes1' #ahci1 p4 #cb4 #gj ,this is the view taken by ,prof4 ,haeckel1 in his #8,generelle ,morphologie' 7,b4 ii4 s4 #aga71 who says3 8,lediglich die partielle ,identitt der specifisch constituirten ,materie im elterlichen und im kindlichen ,organismus1 die ,theilung dieser ,materie bei der ,fortpflanzung1 ist die ,ursache der ,erblichkeit40 #ga ,in these remarks ,i1 in fact1 follow ,naudin1 who speaks of the elements or essences of the two species which are crossed4 ,see his excellent memoir in the #8,nouvelles ,archives du ,musum1' tom4 i41 p4 #aea4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,concluding ,,remarks4 ,,domestication--,,nature ,,and ,,causes ,,of ,,variability--,,selection--,,divergence ,,and ,,distinctness ,,of ,,character--,,extinction ,,of ,,races--,,circumstances ,,favourable ,,to ,,selection ,,by ,,man--,,antiquity ,,of ,,certain ,,races--,,the ,,question ,,whether ,,each ,,particular ,,variation ,,has ,,been ,,specially ,,preordained4 ,as summaries have been added to nearly all the chapters1 and as1 in the chapter on pangenesis1 various subjects1 such as the forms of reproduction1 inheritance1 reversion1 the causes and laws of variability1 etc41 have been recently discussed1 ,i will here only make a few general remarks on the more important conclusions which may be deduced from the multifarious details given throughout this work4 ,savages in all parts of the world easily succeed in taming wild animals2 and those inhabiting any country or island1 when first visited by man1 would probably have been still more easily tamed4 ,complete subjugation generally depends on an animal being social in its habits1 and on receiving man as the chief of the herd or family4 ,in order that an animal should be domesticated it must be fertile under changed conditions of life1 and this is far from being always the case4 ,an animal would not have been worth the labour of domestication1 at least during early times1 unless of service to man4 ,from these circumstances the number of domesticated animals has never been large4 ,with respect to plants1 ,i have shown in the ninth chapter how their varied uses were probably first discovered1 and the early steps in their cultivation4 ,man could not have known1 when he first domesticated an animal or plant1 whether it would flourish and multiply when transported to other countries1 therefore he could not have been thus influenced in his choice4 ,we see that the close adaptation of the reindeer and camel to extremely cold and hot countries has not prevented their domestication4 ,still less could man have foreseen whether his animals and plants would vary in succeeding generations and thus give birth to new races2 and the small capacity of variability in the goose has not prevented its domestication from a remote epoch4 ,with extremely few exceptions1 all animals and plants which have been long domesticated have varied greatly4 ,it matters not under what climate1 or for what purpose they are kept1 whether as food for man or beast1 for draught or hunting1 for clothing or mere pleasure1--under all these circumstances races have been produced which differ more from one another than do the forms which in a state of nature are ranked as different species4 ,why certain animals and plants have varied more under domestication than others we do not know1 any more than why some are rendered more sterile than others under changed conditions of life4 ,but we have to judge of the amount of variation which our domestic productions have undergone1 chiefly by the number and amount of difference between the races which have been formed1 and we can often clearly see why many and distinct races have not been formed1 namely1 because slight successive variations have not been steadily accumulated2 and such variations will never be accumulated if an animal or plant be not closely observed1 much valued1 and kept in large numbers4 ,the fluctuating1 and1 as far as we can judge1 never-ending variability of our domesticated productions1--the plasticity of almost their whole organisation1--is one of the most important lessons which we learn from the numerous details given in the earlier chapters of this work4 ,yet domesticated animals and plants can hardly have been exposed to greater changes in their conditions of life than have many natural species during the incessant geological1 geographical1 and climatal changes to which the world has been subject2 but domesticated productions will often have been exposed to more sudden changes and to less continuously uniform conditions4 ,as man has domesticated so many animals and plants belonging to widely different classes1 and as he certainly did not choose with prophetic instinct those species which would vary most1 we may infer that all natural species1 if exposed to analogous conditions1 would1 on an average1 vary to the same degree4 ,few men at the present day will maintain that animals and plants were created with a tendency to vary1 which long remained dormant1 in order that fanciers in after ages might rear1 for instance1 curious breeds of the fowl1 pigeon1 or canary-bird4 ,from several causes it is difficult to judge of the amount of modification which our domestic productions have undergone4 ,in some cases the primitive parent-stock has become extinct2 or it cannot be recognised with certainty1 owing to its supposed descendants having been so much modified4 ,in other cases two or more closely-allied forms1 after being domesticated1 have crossed2 and then it is difficult to estimate how much of the character of the present descendants ought to be attributed to variation1 and how much to the influence of the several parent-stocks4 ,but the degree to which our domesticated breeds have been modified by the crossing of distinct species has probably been much exaggerated by some authors4 ,a few individuals of one form would seldom permanently affect another form existing in greater numbers2 for1 without careful selection1 the stain of the foreign blood would soon be obliterated1 and during early and barbarous times1 when our animals were first domesticated1 such care would seldom have been taken4 ,there is good reason to believe in the case of the dog1 ox1 pig1 and of some other animals1 that several of our races are descended from distinct wild prototypes2 nevertheless the belief in the multiple origin of our domesticated animals has been extended by some few naturalists and by many breeders to an unauthorised extent4 ,breeders refuse to look at the whole subject under a single point of view2 ,i have heard it said by a man1 who maintained that our fowls were descended from at least half-a-dozen aboriginal species1 that the evidence of the common origin of pigeons1 ducks and rabbits1 was of no avail with respect to fowls4 ,breeders overlook the improbability of many species having been domesticated at an early and barbarous period4 ,they do not consider the improbability of species having existed in a state of nature which1 if they resembled our present domestic breeds1 would have been highly abnormal in comparison with all their congeners4 ,they maintain that certain species1 which formerly existed1 have become extinct1 or are now unknown1 although formerly known4 ,the assumption of so much recent extinction is no difficulty in their eyes2 for they do not judge of its probability by the facility or difficulty of the extinction of other closely-allied wild forms4 ,lastly1 they often ignore the whole subject of geographical distribution as completely as if it were the result of chance4 ,although from the reasons just assigned it is often difficult to judge accurately of the amount of change which our domesticated productions have undergone1 yet this can be ascertained in the cases in which all the breeds are known to be descended from a single species1--as with the pigeon1 duck1 rabbit1 and almost certainly with the fowl2 and by the aid of analogy this can be judged of to a certain extent with domesticated animals descended from several wild stocks4 ,it is impossible to read the details given in the earlier chapters and in many published works1 or to visit our various exhibitions1 without being deeply impressed with the extreme variability of our domesticated animals and cultivated plants4 ,no part of the organisation escapes the tendency to vary4 ,the variations generally affect parts of small vital or physiological importance1 but so it is with the differences which exist between closely-allied species4 ,in these unimportant characters there is often a greater difference between the breeds of the same species than between the natural species of the same genus1 as ,isidore ,geoffroy has shown to be the case with size1 and as is often the case with the colour1 texture1 form1 etc41 of the hair1 feathers1 horns1 and other dermal appendages4 ,it has often been asserted that important parts never vary under domestication1 but this is a complete error4 ,look at the skull of the pig in any one of the highly improved breeds1 with the occipital condyles and other parts greatly modified2 or look at that of the niata ox4 ,or1 again1 in the several breeds of the rabbit1 observe the elongated skull1 with the differently shaped occipital foramen1 atlas1 and other cervical vertebrae4 ,the whole shape of the brain1 together with the skull1 has been modified in ,polish fowls2 in other breeds of the fowl the number of the vertebrae and the forms of the cervical vertebrae have been changed4 ,in certain pigeons the shape of the lower jaw1 the relative length of the tongue1 the size of the nostrils and eyelids1 the number and shape of the ribs1 the form and size of the oesophagus1 have all varied4 ,in certain quadrupeds the length of the intestines has been much increased or diminished4 ,with plants we see wonderful differences in the stones of various fruits4 ,in the ,cucurbitaceae several highly important characters have varied1 such as the sessile position of the stigmas on the ovarium1 the position of the carpels1 and the projection of the ovarium out of the receptacle4 ,but it would be useless to run through the many facts given in the earlier chapters4 ,it is notorious how greatly the mental disposition1 tastes1 habits1 consensual movements1 loquacity or silence1 and tone of voice have varied and been inherited in our domesticated animals4 ,the dog offers the most striking instance of changed mental attributes1 and these differences cannot be accounted for by descent from distinct wild types4 ,new characters may appear and old ones disappear at any stage of development1 being inherited at a corresponding stage4 ,we see this in the difference between the eggs1 the down on the chickens and the first plumage of the various breeds of the fowl2 and still more plainly in the differences between the caterpillars and cocoons of the various breeds of the silk-moth4 ,these facts1 simple as they appear1 throw light on the differences between the larval and adult states of allied natural species1 and on the whole great subject of embryology4 ,new characters first appearing late in life are apt to become attached exclusively to that sex in which they first arose1 or they may be developed in a much higher degree in this than in the other sex2 or again1 after having become attached to one sex1 they may be transferred to the opposite sex4 ,these facts1 and more especially the circumstance that new characters seem to be particularly liable1 from some unknown cause1 to become attached to the male sex1 have an important bearing on the acquirement of secondary sexual characters by animals in a state of nature4 ,it has sometimes been said that our domestic races do not differ in constitutional peculiarities1 but this cannot be maintained4 ,in our improved cattle1 pigs1 etc41 the period of maturity1 including that of the second dentition1 has been much hastened4 ,the period of gestation varies much1 and has been modified in a fixed manner in one or two cases4 ,in some breeds of poultry and pigeons the period at which the down and the first plumage are acquired1 differs4 ,the number of moults through which the larvae of silk-moths pass1 varies4 ,the tendency to fatten1 to yield much milk1 to produce many young or eggs at a birth or during life1 differs in different breeds4 ,we find different degrees of adaptation to climate1 and different tendencies to certain diseases1 to the attacks of parasites1 and to the action of certain vegetable poisons4 ,with plants1 adaptation to certain soils1 the power of resisting frost1 the period of flowering and fruiting1 the duration of life1 the period of shedding the leaves or of retaining them throughout the winter1 the proportion and nature of certain chemical compounds in the tissues or seeds1 all vary4 ,there is1 however1 one important constitutional difference between domestic races and species2 ,i refer to the sterility which almost invariably follows1 in a greater or less degree1 when species are crossed1 and to the perfect fertility of the most distinct domestic races1 with the exception of a very few plants1 when similarly crossed4 ,it is certainly a most remarkable fact that many closely-allied species1 which in appearance differ extremely little1 should yield when crossed only a few more or less sterile offspring1 or none at all2 whilst domestic races which differ conspicuously from each other are1 when united1 remarkably fertile1 and yield perfectly fertile offspring4 ,but this fact is not in reality so inexplicable as it at first appears4 ,in the first place1 it was clearly shown in the nineteenth chapter that the sterility of crossed species does not depend chiefly on differences in their external structure or general constitution1 but on differences in the reproductive system1 analogous to those which cause the lessened fertility of the illegitimate unions of dimorphic and trimorphic plants4 ,in the second place1 the ,pallasian doctrine1 that species after having been long domesticated lose their natural tendency to sterility when crossed1 has been shown to be highly probable or almost certain4 ,we cannot avoid this conclusion when we reflect on the parentage and present fertility of the several breeds of the dog1 of the ,indian or humped and ,european cattle1 and of the two chief kinds of pigs4 ,hence it would be unreasonable to expect that races formed under domestication should acquire sterility when crossed1 whilst at the same time we admit that domestication eliminates the normal sterility of crossed species4 ,why with closely-allied species their reproductive systems should almost invariably have been modified in so peculiar a manner as to be mutually incapable of acting on each other--though in unequal degrees in the two sexes1 as shown by the difference in fertility between reciprocal crosses of the same species--we do not know1 but may with much probability infer the cause to be as follows4 ,most natural species have been habituated to nearly uniform conditions of life for an incomparably longer time than have domestic races2 and we positively know that changed conditions exert an especial and powerful influence on the reproductive system4 ,hence this difference may well account for the difference in the power of reproduction between domestic races when crossed and species when crossed4 ,it is probably in chief part owing to the same cause that domestic races can be suddenly transported from one climate to another1 or placed under widely different conditions1 and yet retain in most cases their fertility unimpaired2 whilst a multitude of species subjected to lesser changes are rendered incapable of breeding4 ,the offspring of crossed domestic races and of crossed species resemble each other in most respects1 with the one important exception of fertility2 they often partake in the same unequal degree of the characters of their parents1 one of which is often prepotent over the other2 and they are liable to reversion of the same kind4 ,by successive crosses one species may be made to absorb completely another1 and so it notoriously is with races4 ,the latter resemble species in many other ways4 ,they sometimes inherit their newly-acquired characters almost or even quite as firmly as species4 ,the conditions leading to variability and the laws governing its nature appear to be the same in both4 ,varieties can be classed in groups under groups1 like species under genera1 and these under families and orders2 and the classification may be either artificial1--that is1 founded on any arbitrary character1--or natural4 ,with varieties a natural classification is certainly founded1 and with species is apparently founded1 on community of descent1 together with the amount of modification which the forms have undergone4 ,the characters by which domestic varieties differ from one another are more variable than those distinguishing species1 though hardly more so than with certain polymorphic species2 but this greater degree of variability is not surprising1 as varieties have generally been exposed within recent times to fluctuating conditions of life1 and are much more liable to have been crossed2 they are also in many cases still undergoing1 or have recently undergone1 modification by man's methodical or unconscious selection4 ,domestic varieties as a general rule certainly differ from one another in less important parts than do species2 and when important differences occur1 they are seldom firmly fixed2 but this fact is intelligible1 if we consider man's method of selection4 ,in the living animal or plant he cannot observe internal modifications in the more important organs2 nor does he regard them as long as they are compatible with health and life4 ,what does the breeder care about any slight change in the molar teeth of his pigs1 or for an additional molar tooth in the dog2 or for any change in the intestinal canal or other internal organ8 ,the breeder cares for the flesh of his cattle being well marbled with fat1 and for an accumulation of fat within the abdomen of his sheep1 and this he has effected4 ,what would the floriculturist care for any change in the structure of the ovarium or of the ovules8 ,as important internal organs are certainly liable to numerous slight variations1 and as these would probably be transmitted1 for many strange monstrosities are inherited1 man could undoubtedly effect a certain amount of change in these organs4 ,when he has produced any modification in an important part1 he has generally done so unintentionally1 in correlation with some other conspicuous part4 ,for instance1 he has given ridges and protuberances to the skulls of fowls1 by attending to the form of the comb1 or to the plume of feathers on the head4 ,by attending to the external form of the pouter-pigeon1 he has enormously increased the size of the oesophagus1 and has added to the number of the ribs1 and given them greater breadth4 ,with the carrier-pigeon1 by increasing through steady selection the wattles on the upper mandible1 he has greatly modified the form of the lower mandible2 and so in many other cases4 ,natural species1 on the other hand1 have been modified exclusively for their own good1 to fit them for infinitely diversified conditions of life1 to avoid enemies of all kinds1 and to struggle against a host of competitors4 ,hence1 under such complex conditions1 it would often happen that modifications of the most varied kinds1 in important as well as in unimportant parts1 would be advantageous or even necessary2 and they would slowly but surely be acquired through the survival of the fittest4 ,still more important is the fact that various indirect modifications would likewise arise through the law of correlated variation4 ,domestic breeds often have an abnormal or semi-monstrous character1 as amongst dogs1 the ,italian greyhound1 bulldog1 ,blenheim spaniel1 and bloodhound1--some breeds of cattle and pigs1--several breeds of the fowl1--and the chief breeds of the pigeon4 ,in such abnormal breeds1 parts which differ but slightly or not at all in the allied natural species1 have been greatly modified4 ,this may be accounted for by man's often selecting1 especially at first1 conspicuous and semi-monstrous deviations of structure4 ,we should1 however1 be cautious in deciding what deviations ought to be called monstrous3 there can hardly be a doubt that1 if the brush of horse-like hair on the breast of the turkey-cock had first appeared in the domesticated bird1 it would have been considered as a monstrosity2 the great plume of feathers on the head of the ,polish cock has been thus designated1 though plumes are common on the heads of many kinds of birds2 we might call the wattle or corrugated skin round the base of the beak of the ,english carrier-pigeon a monstrosity1 but we do not thus speak of the globular fleshy excrescence at the base of the beak of the ,carpophaga oceanica4 ,some authors have drawn a wide distinction between artificial and natural breeds2 although in extreme cases the distinction is plain1 in many other cases it is arbitrary2 the difference depending chiefly on the kind of selection which has been applied4 ,artificial breeds are those which have been intentionally improved by man2 they frequently have an unnatural appearance1 and are especially liable to lose their characters through reversion and continued variability4 ,the so-called natural breeds1 on the other hand1 are those which are found in semi-civilised countries1 and which formerly inhabited separate districts in nearly all the ,european kingdoms4 ,they have been rarely acted on by man's intentional selection2 more frequently by unconscious selection1 and partly by natural selection1 for animals kept in semi-civilised countries have to provide largely for their own wants4 ,such natural breeds will also have been directly acted on by the differences1 though slight1 in the surrounding conditions4 ,there is a much more important distinction between our several breeds1 namely1 in some having originated from a strongly-marked or semi-monstrous deviation of structure1 which1 however1 may subsequently have been augmented by selection2 whilst others have been formed in so slow and insensible a manner1 that if we could see their early progenitors we should hardly be able to say when or how the breed first arose4 ,from the history of the racehorse1 greyhound1 gamecock1 etc41 and from their general appearance1 we may feel nearly confident that they were formed by a slow process of improvement2 and we know that this has been the case with the carrier-pigeon1 as well as with some other pigeons4 ,on the other hand1 it is certain that the ancon and mauchamp breeds of sheep1 and almost certain that the niata cattle1 turnspit1 and pug-dogs1 jumper and frizzled fowls1 short-faced tumbler pigeons1 hook-billed ducks1 etc41 suddenly appeared in nearly the same state as we now see them4 ,so it has been with many cultivated plants4 ,the frequency of these cases is likely to lead to the false belief that natural species have often originated in the same abrupt manner4 ,but we have no evidence of the appearance1 or at least of the continued procreation1 under nature1 of abrupt modifications of structure2 and various general reasons could be assigned against such a belief4 ,on the other hand1 we have abundant evidence of the constant occurrence under nature of slight individual differences of the most diversified kinds2 and we are thus led to conclude that species have generally originated by the natural selection of extremely slight differences4 ,this process may be strictly compared with the slow and gradual improvement of the racehorse1 greyhound1 and gamecock4 ,as every detail of structure in each species has to be closely adapted to its habits of life1 it will rarely happen that one part alone will be modified2 but1 as was formerly shown1 the co-adapted modifications need not be absolutely simultaneous4 ,many variations1 however1 are from the first connected by the law of correlation4 ,hence it follows that even closely-allied species rarely or never differ from one another by one character alone2 and the same remark is to a certain extent applicable to domestic races2 for these1 if they differ much1 generally differ in many respects4 ,some naturalists boldly insist#a that species are absolutely distinct productions1 never passing by intermediate links into one another2 whilst they maintain that domestic varieties can always be connected either with one another or with their parent-forms4 ,but if we could always find the links between the several breeds of the dog1 horse1 cattle1 sheep1 pigs1 etc41 there would not have been such incessant doubts whether they were descended from one or several species4 ,the greyhound genus1 if such a term may be used1 cannot be closely connected with any other breed1 unless1 perhaps1 we go back to the ancient ,egyptian monuments4 ,our ,english bulldog also forms a very distinct breed4 ,in all these cases crossed breeds must of course be excluded1 for distinct natural species can thus be likewise connected4 ,by what links can the ,cochin fowl be closely united with others8 ,by searching for breeds still preserved in distant lands1 and by going back to historical records1 tumbler-pigeons1 carriers1 and barbs can be closely connected with the parent rock-pigeon2 but we cannot thus connect the turbit or the pouter4 ,the degree of distinctness between the various domestic breeds depends on the amount of modification which they have undergone1 and more especially on the neglect and final extinction of intermediate and less-valued forms4 ,it has often been argued that no light is thrown on the changes which natural species are believed to undergo from the admitted changes of domestic races1 as the latter are said to be mere temporary productions1 always reverting1 as soon as they become feral1 to their pristine form4 ,this argument has been well combated by ,mr4 ,wallace#b and full details were given in the thirteenth chapter1 showing that the tendency to reversion in feral animals and plants has been greatly exaggerated1 though no doubt it exists to a certain extent4 ,it would be opposed to all the principles inculcated in this work1 if domestic animals1 when exposed to new conditions and compelled to struggle for their own wants against a host of foreign competitors1 were not modified in the course of time4 ,it should also be remembered that many characters lie latent in all organic beings1 ready to be evolved under fitting conditions2 and in breeds modified within recent times1 the tendency to reversion is particularly strong4 ,but the antiquity of some of our breeds clearly proves that they remain nearly constant as long as their conditions of life remain the same4 ,it has been boldly maintained by some authors that the amount of variation to which our domestic productions are liable is strictly limited2 but this is an assertion resting on little evidence4 ,whether or not the amount of change in any particular direction is limited1 the tendency to general variability is1 as far as we can judge1 unlimited4 ,cattle1 sheep1 and pigs have varied under domestication from the remotest period1 as shown by the researches of ,rutimeyer and others2 yet these animals have been improved to an unparalleled degree1 within quite recent times1 and this implies continued variability of structure4 ,wheat1 as we know from the remains found in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 is one of the most anciently cultivated plants1 yet at the present day new and better varieties frequently arise4 ,it may be that an ox will never be produced of larger size and finer proportions1 or a racehorse fleeter1 than our present animals1 or a gooseberry larger than the ,london variety2 but he would be a bold man who would assert that the extreme limit in these respects has been finally attained4 ,with flowers and fruit it has repeatedly been asserted that perfection has been reached1 but the standard has soon been excelled4 ,a breed of pigeons may never be produced with a beak shorter than that of the present short-faced tumbler1 or with one longer than that of the ,english carrier1 for these birds have weak constitutions and are bad breeders2 but shortness and length of beak are the points which have been steadily improved during the last #aej years1 and some of the best judges deny that the goal has yet been reached4 ,from reasons which could be assigned1 it is probable that parts which have now reached their maximum development1 might1 after remaining constant during a long period1 vary again in the direction of increase under new conditions of life4 ,but there must be1 as ,mr4 ,wallace has remarked with much truth1#c a limit to change in certain directions both with natural and domestic productions2 for instance1 there must be a limit to the fleetness of any terrestrial animal1 as this will be determined by the friction to be overcome1 the weight to be carried1 and the power of contraction in the muscular fibres4 ,the ,english racehorse may have reached this limit2 but it already surpasses in fleetness its own wild progenitor and all other equine species4 ,the short-faced tumbler-pigeon has a beak shorter1 and the carrier a beak longer1 relatively to the size of their bodies1 than that of any natural species of the family4 ,our apples1 pears and gooseberries bear larger fruit than those of any natural species of the same genera2 and so in many other cases4 ,it is not surprising1 seeing the great difference between many domestic breeds1 that some few naturalists have concluded that each is descended from a distinct aboriginal stock1 more especially as the principle of selection has been ignored1 and the high antiquity of man1 as a breeder of animals1 has only recently become known4 ,most naturalists1 however1 freely admit that our various breeds1 however dissimilar1 are descended from a single stock1 although they do not know much about the art of breeding1 cannot show the connecting links1 nor say where and when the breeds arose4 ,yet these same naturalists declare1 with an air of philosophical caution1 that they will never admit that one natural species has given birth to another until they behold all the transitional steps4 ,fanciers use exactly the same language with respect to domestic breeds2 thus1 an author of an excellent treatise on pigeons says he will never allow that the carrier and fantail are the descendants of the wild rock-pigeon1 until the transitions have 8actually been observed1 and can be repeated whenever man chooses to set about the task40 ,no doubt it is difficult to realise that slight changes added up during long centuries can produce such great results2 but he who wishes to understand the origin of domestic breeds or of natural species must overcome this difficulty4 ,the causes which excite and the laws which govern variability have been discussed so lately1 that ,i need here only enumerate the leading points4 ,as domesticated organisms are much more liable to slight deviations of structure and to monstrosities than species living under their natural conditions1 and as widely-ranging species generally vary more than those which inhabit restricted areas1 we may infer that variability mainly depends on changed conditions of life4 ,we must not overlook the effects of the unequal combination of the characters derived from both parents1 or reversion to former progenitors4 ,changed conditions have an especial tendency to render the reproductive organs more or less impotent1 as shown in the chapter devoted to this subject2 and these organs consequently often fail to transmit faithfully the parental characters4 ,changed conditions also act directly and definitely on the organisation1 so that all or nearly all the individuals of the same species thus exposed become modified in the same manner2 but why this or that part is especially affected we can seldom or ever say4 ,in most cases1 however1 a change in the conditions seems to act indefinitely1 causing diversified variations in nearly the same manner as exposure to cold or the absorption of the same poison affects different individuals in different ways4 ,we have reason to suspect that an habitual excess of highly-nutritious food1 or an excess relatively to the wear and tear of the organisation from exercise1 is a powerful exciting cause of variability4 ,when we see the symmetrical and complex outgrowths1 caused by a minute drop of the poison of a gall-insect1 we may believe that slight changes in the chemical nature of the sap or blood would lead to extraordinary modifications of structure4 ,the increased use of a muscle with its various attached parts1 and the increased activity of a gland or other organ1 lead to their increased development4 ,disuse has a contrary effect4 ,with domesticated productions1 although their organs sometimes become rudimentary through abortion1 we have no reason to suppose that this has ever followed solely from disuse4 ,with natural species1 on the contrary1 many organs appear to have been rendered rudimentary through disuse1 aided by the principle of the economy of growth together with intercrossing4 ,complete abortion can be accounted for only by the hypothesis given in the last chapter1 namely1 the final destruction of the germs or gemmules of useless parts4 ,this difference between species and domestic varieties may be partly accounted for by disuse having acted on the latter for an insufficient length of time1 and partly from their exemption from any severe struggle for existence entailing rigid economy in the development of each part1 to which all species under nature are subjected4 ,nevertheless the law of compensation or balancement1 which likewise depends on the economy of growth1 apparently has affected to a certain extent our domesticated productions4 ,as almost every part of the organisation becomes highly variable under domestication1 and as variations are easily selected both consciously and unconsciously1 it is very difficult to distinguish between the effects of the selection of indefinite variations and the direct action of the conditions of life4 ,for instance1 it is possible that the feet of our water-dogs and of the ,american dogs which have to travel much over the snow1 may have become partially webbed from the stimulus of widely extending their toes2 but it is more probable that the webbing1 like the membrane between the toes of certain pigeons1 spontaneously appeared and was afterwards increased by the best swimmers and the best snow-travellers being preserved during many generations4 ,a fancier who wished to decrease the size of his bantams or tumbler-pigeons would never think of starving them1 but would select the smallest individuals which spontaneously appeared4 ,quadrupeds are sometimes born destitute of hair and hairless breeds have been formed1 but there is no reason to believe that this is caused by a hot climate4 ,within the tropics heat often causes sheep to lose their fleeces2 on the other hand1 wet and cold act as a direct stimulus to the growth of hair2 but who will pretend to decide how far the thick fur of arctic animals1 or their white colour1 is due to the direct action of a severe climate1 and how far to the preservation of the best-protected individuals during a long succession of generations8 ,of all the laws governing variability1 that of correlation is one of the most important4 ,in many cases of slight deviations of structure as well as of grave monstrosities1 we cannot even conjecture what is the nature of the bond of connexion4 ,but between homologous parts--between the fore and hind limbs--between the hair1 hoofs1 horns1 and teeth--which are closely similar during their early development and which are exposed to similar conditions1 we can see that they would be eminently liable to be modified in the same manner4 ,homologous parts1 from having the same nature1 are apt to blend together1 and1 when many exist1 to vary in number4 ,although every variation is either directly or indirectly caused by some change in the surrounding conditions1 we must never forget that the nature of the organisation which is acted on1 is by far the more important factor in the result4 ,we see this in different organisms1 which when placed under similar conditions vary in a different manner1 whilst closely-allied organisms under dissimilar conditions often vary in nearly the same manner4 ,we see this1 in the same modification frequently reappearing in the same variety at long intervals of time1 and likewise in the several striking cases given of analogous or parallel variations4 ,although some of these latter cases are due to reversion1 others cannot thus be accounted for4 ,from the indirect action of changed conditions on the organisation1 owing to the reproductive organs being thus affected--from the direct action of such conditions1 and these will cause the individuals of the same species either to vary in the same manner1 or differently in accordance with slight differences in their constitution--from the effects of the increased or decreased use of parts--and from correlation1--the variability of our domesticated productions is complicated to an extreme degree4 ,the whole organisation becomes slightly plastic4 ,although each modification must have its own exciting cause1 and though each is subjected to law1 yet we can so rarely trace the precise relation between cause and effect1 that we are tempted to speak of variations as if they arose spontaneously4 ,we may even call them accidental1 but this must be only in the sense in which we say that a fragment of rock dropped from a height owes its shape to accident4 ,it may be worth while briefly to consider the result of the exposure to unnatural conditions of a large number of animals of the same species and allowed to cross freely with no selection of any kind1 and afterwards to consider the result when selection is brought into play4 ,let us suppose that #ejj wild rock-pigeons were confined in their native land in an aviary and fed in the same manner as pigeons usually are2 and that they were not allowed to increase in number4 ,as pigeons propagate so rapidly1 ,i suppose that a thousand or fifteen hundred birds would have to be annually killed4 ,after several generations had been thus reared1 we may feel sure that some of the young birds would vary1 and the variations would tend to be inherited2 for at the present day slight deviations of structure often occur and are inherited4 ,it would be tedious even to enumerate the multitude of points which still go on varying or have recently varied4 ,many variations would occur in correlation with one another1 as the length of the wing and tail feathers--the number of the primary wing-feathers1 as well as the number and breadth of the ribs1 in correlation with the size and form of the body--the number of the scutellae with the size of the feet--the length of the tongue with the length of the beak--the size of the nostrils and eyelids and the form of lower jaw in correlation with the development of wattle--the nakedness of the young with the future colour of the plumage--the size of the feet with that of the beak1 and other such points4 ,lastly1 as our birds are supposed to be confined in an aviary1 they would use their wings and legs but little1 and certain parts of the skeleton1 such as the sternum1 scapulae and feet1 would in consequence become slightly reduced in size4 ,as in our assumed case many birds have to be indiscriminately killed every year1 the chances are against any new variety surviving long enough to breed4 ,and as the variations which arise are of an extremely diversified nature1 the chances are very great against two birds pairing which have varied in the same manner2 nevertheless1 a varying bird even when not thus paired would occasionally transmit its character to its young2 and these would not only be exposed to the same conditions which first caused the variation in question to appear1 but would in addition inherit from their modified parent a tendency again to vary in the same manner4 ,so that1 if the conditions decidedly tended to induce some particular variation1 all the birds might in the course of time become similarly modified4 ,but a far commoner result would be1 that one bird would vary in one way and another bird in another way2 one would be born with a beak a little longer1 and another with a shorter beak2 one would gain some black feathers1 another some white or red feathers4 ,and as these birds would be continually intercrossing1 the final result would be a body of individuals differing from each other in many ways1 but only slightly2 yet more than did the original rock-pigeons4 ,but there would not be the least tendency towards the formation of several distinct breeds4 ,if two separate lots of pigeons were treated in the manner just described1 one in ,england and the other in a tropical country1 the two lots being supplied with different kinds of food1 would they after many generations differ8 ,when we reflect on the cases given in the twenty-third chapter1 and on such facts as the difference in former times between the breeds of cattle1 sheep1 etc41 in almost every district of ,europe1 we are strongly inclined to admit that the two lots would be differently modified through the influence of climate and food4 ,but the evidence on the definite action of changed conditions is in most cases insufficient2 and1 with respect to pigeons1 ,i have had the opportunity of examining a large collection of domesticated kinds1 sent to me by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot from ,india1 and they varied in a remarkably similar manner with our ,european birds4 ,if two distinct breeds were mingled together in equal numbers1 there is reason to suspect that they would to a certain extent prefer pairing with their own kind2 but they would often intercross4 ,from the greater vigour and fertility of the crossed offspring1 the whole body would by this means become interblended sooner than would otherwise have occurred4 ,from certain breeds being prepotent over others1 it does not follow that the interblended progeny would be strictly intermediate in character4 ,i have1 also1 proved that the act of crossing in itself gives a strong tendency to reversion1 so that the crossed offspring would tend to revert to the state of the aboriginal rock-pigeon2 and in the course of time they would probably be not much more heterogeneous in character than in our first case1 when birds of the same breed were confined together4 ,i have just said that the crossed offspring would gain in vigour and fertility4 ,from the facts given in the seventeenth chapter there can be no doubt of this fact2 and there can be little doubt1 though the evidence on this head is not so easily acquired1 that long-continued close interbreeding leads to evil results4 ,with hermaphrodites of all kinds1 if the sexual elements of the same individual habitually acted on each other1 the closest possible interbreeding would be perpetual4 ,but we should bear in mind that the structure of all hermaphrodite animals1 as far as ,i can learn1 permits and frequently necessitates a cross with a distinct individual4 ,with hermaphrodite plants we incessantly meet with elaborate and perfect contrivances for this same end4 ,it is no exaggeration to assert that1 if the use of the talons and tusks of a carnivorous animal1 or of the plumes and hooks on a seed1 may be safely inferred from their structure1 we may with equal safety infer that many flowers are constructed for the express purpose of ensuring a cross with a distinct plant4 ,from these various considerations1 not to mention the result of a long series of experiments which ,i have tried1 the conclusion arrived at in the chapter just referred to--namely1 that great good of some kind is derived from the sexual concourse of distinct individuals--must be admitted4 ,to return to our illustration3 we have hitherto assumed that the birds were kept down to the same number by indiscriminate slaughter2 but if the least choice be permitted in their preservation1 the whole result will be changed4 ,should the owner observe any slight variation in one of his birds1 and wish to obtain a breed thus characterised1 he would succeed in a surprisingly short time by careful selection4 ,as any part which has once varied generally goes on varying in the same direction1 it is easy1 by continually preserving the most strongly marked individuals1 to increase the amount of difference up to a high1 predetermined standard of excellence4 ,this is methodical selection4 ,if the owner of the aviary1 without any thought of making a new breed1 simply admired1 for instance1 short-beaked more than long-beaked birds1 he would1 when he had to reduce the number1 generally kill the latter2 and there can be no doubt that he would thus in the course of time sensibly modify his stock4 ,it is improbable1 if two men were to keep pigeons and act in this manner1 that they would prefer exactly the same characters2 they would1 as we know1 often prefer directly opposite characters1 and the two lots would ultimately come to differ4 ,this has actually occurred with strains or families of cattle1 sheep1 and pigeons1 which have been long kept and carefully attended to by different breeders1 without any wish on their part to form new and distinct sub-breeds4 ,this unconscious kind of selection will more especially come into action with animals which are highly serviceable to man2 for every one tries to get the best dogs1 horses1 cows1 or sheep1 without thinking about their future progeny1 yet these animals would transmit more or less surely their good qualities to their offspring4 ,nor is any one so careless as to breed from his worst animals4 ,even savages1 when compelled from extreme want to kill some of their animals1 would destroy the worst and preserve the best4 ,with animals kept for use and not for mere amusement1 different fashions prevail in different districts1 leading to the preservation1 and consequently to the transmission1 of all sorts of trifling peculiarities of character4 ,the same process will have been pursued with our fruit-trees and vegetables1 for the best will always have been the most largely cultivated1 and will occasionally have yielded seedlings better than their parents4 ,the different strains1 just alluded to1 which have been actually produced by breeders without any wish on their part to obtain such a result1 afford excellent evidence of the power of unconscious selection4 ,this form of selection has probably led to far more important results than methodical selection1 and is likewise more important under a theoretical point of view from closely resembling natural selection4 ,for during this process the best or most valued individuals are not separated and prevented from crossing with others of the same breed1 but are simply preferred and preserved2 yet this inevitably leads to their gradual modification and improvement2 so that finally they prevail1 to the exclusion of the old parent-form4 ,with our domesticated animals natural selection checks the production of races with any injurious deviation of structure4 ,in the case of animals which1 from being kept by savages or semi-civilised people1 have to provide largely for their own wants under different circumstances1 natural selection will have played a more important part4 ,hence it probably is that they often closely resemble natural species4 ,as there is no limit to man's desire to possess animals and plants more and more useful in any respect1 and as the fancier always wishes1 owing to fashions running into extremes1 to produce each character more and more strongly pronounced1 there is1 through the prolonged action of methodical and unconscious selection1 a constant tendency in every breed to become more and more different from its parent-stock2 and when several breeds have been produced and are valued for different qualities1 to differ more and more from each other4 ,this leads to ,divergence of ,character4 ,as improved sub-varieties and races are slowly formed1 the older and less improved breeds are neglected and decrease in number4 ,when few individuals of any breed exist within the same locality1 close interbreeding1 by lessening their vigour and fertility1 aids in their final extinction4 ,thus the intermediate links are lost1 and the remaining breeds gain in ,distinctness of ,character4 ,in the chapters on the ,pigeon1 it was proved by historical evidence and by the existence of connecting sub-varieties in distant lands that several breeds have steadily diverged in character1 and that many old and intermediate sub-breeds have been lost4 ,other cases could be adduced of the extinction of domestic breeds1 as of the ,irish wolf-dog1 the old ,english hound1 and of two breeds in ,france1 one of which was formerly highly valued4#d ,mr4 ,pickering remarks#e that 8the sheep figured on the most ancient ,egyptian monuments is unknown at the present day2 and at least one variety of the bullock1 formerly known in ,egypt1 has in like manner become extinct40 ,so it has been with some animals and with several plants cultivated by the ancient inhabitants of ,europe during the neolithic period4 ,in ,peru1 ,von ,tschudi#f found in certain tombs1 apparently prior to the dynasty of the ,incas1 two kinds of maize not now known in the country4 ,with our flowers and culinary vegetables1 the production of new varieties and their extinction has incessantly recurred4 ,at the present time improved breeds sometimes displace older breeds at an extraordinarily rapid rate2 as has recently occurred throughout ,england with pigs4 ,the ,longhorn cattle in their native home were 8suddenly swept away as if by some murderous pestilence10 by the introduction of ,shorthorns4#g ,what grand results have followed from the long-continued action of methodical and unconscious selection1 regulated to a certain extent by natural selection1 we see on every side of us4 ,compare the many animals and plants which are displayed at our exhibitions with their parent-forms when these are known1 or consult old historical records with respect to their former state4 ,most of our domesticated animals have given rise to numerous and distinct races1 but those which cannot be easily subjected to selection must be excepted--such as cats1 the cochineal insect1 and the hive-bee4 ,in accordance with what we know of the process of selection1 the formation of our many races has been slow and gradual4 ,the man who first observed and preserved a pigeon with its oesophagus a little enlarged1 its beak a little longer1 or its tail a little more expanded than usual1 never dreamed that he had made the first step in the creation of a pouter1 carrier1 and fantail-pigeon4 ,man can create not only anomalous breeds1 but others having their whole structure admirably co-ordinated for certain purposes1 such as the racehorse and dray-horse1 or the greyhound and bulldog4 ,it is by no means necessary that each small change of structure throughout the body1 leading towards excellence1 should simultaneously arise and be selected4 ,although man seldom attends to differences in organs which are important under a physiological point of view1 yet he has so profoundly modified some breeds1 that assuredly1 if found wild1 they would be ranked as distinct genera4 ,the best proof of what selection has effected is perhaps afforded by the fact that whatever part or quality in any animal1 and more especially in any plant1 is most valued by man1 that part or quality differs most in the several races4 ,this result is well seen by comparing the amount of difference between the fruits produced by the several varieties of fruit-trees1 between the flowers of our flower-garden plants1 between the seeds1 roots1 or leaves of our culinary and agricultural plants1 in comparison with the other and not valued parts of the same varieties4 ,striking evidence of a different kind is afforded by the fact ascertained by ,oswald ,heer#h namely1 that the seeds of a large number of plants1--wheat1 barley1 oats1 peas1 beans1 lentils1 poppies1--cultivated for their seed by the ancient ,lake-inhabitants of ,switzerland1 were all smaller than the seeds of our existing varieties4 ,rtimeyer has shown that the sheep and cattle which were kept by the earlier ,lake-inhabitants were likewise smaller than our present breeds4 ,in the middens of ,denmark1 the earliest dog of which the remains have been found was the weakest2 this was succeeded during the ,bronze age by a stronger kind1 and this again during the ,iron age by one still stronger4 ,the sheep of ,denmark during the ,bronze period had extraordinarily slender limbs1 and the horse was smaller than our present animal4#i ,no doubt in most of these cases the new and larger breeds were introduced from foreign lands by the immigration of new hordes of men4 ,but it is not probable that each larger breed1 which in the course of time has supplanted a previous and smaller breed1 was the descendant of a distinct and larger species2 it is far more probable that the domestic races of our various animals were gradually improved in different parts of the great ,europaeo-,asiatic continent1 and thence spread to other countries4 ,this fact of the gradual increase in size of our domestic animals is all the more striking as certain wild or half-wild animals1 such as red-deer1 aurochs1 park-cattle1 and boars#aj have within nearly the same period decreased in size4 ,the conditions favourable to selection by man are1--the closest attention to every character1--long-continued perseverance1--facility in matching or separating animals1--and especially a large number being kept1 so that the inferior individuals may be freely rejected or destroyed1 and the better ones preserved4 ,when many are kept there will also be a greater chance of the occurrence of well-marked deviations of structure4 ,length of time is all-important2 for as each character1 in order to become strongly pronounced1 has to be augmented by the selection of successive variations of the same kind1 this can be effected only during a long series of generations4 ,length of time will1 also1 allow any new feature to become fixed by the continued rejection of those individuals which revert or vary1 and by the preservation of those which still inherit the new character4 ,hence1 although some few animals have varied rapidly in certain respects under new conditions of life1 as dogs in ,india and sheep in the ,west ,indies1 yet all the animals and plants which have produced strongly marked races were domesticated at an extremely remote epoch1 often before the dawn of history4 ,as a consequence of this1 no record has been preserved of the origin of our chief domestic breeds4 ,even at the present day new strains or sub-breeds are formed so slowly that their first appearance passes unnoticed4 ,a man attends to some particular character1 or merely matches his animals with unusual care1 and after a time a slight difference is perceived by his neighbours2--the difference goes on being augmented by unconscious and methodical selection1 until at last a new sub-breed is formed1 receives a local name1 and spreads2 but by this time its history is almost forgotten4 ,when the new breed has spread widely1 it gives rise to new strains and sub-breeds1 and the best of these succeed and spread1 supplanting other and older breeds2 and so always onwards in the march of improvement4 ,when a well-marked breed has once been established1 if not supplanted by still further improved sub-breeds1 and if not exposed to greatly changed conditions of life inducing further variability or reversion to long-lost characters1 it may apparently last for an enormous period4 ,we may infer that this is the case from the high antiquity of certain races2 but some caution is necessary on this head1 for the same variation may appear independently after long intervals of time1 or in distant places4 ,we may safely assume that this has occurred with the turnspit-dog1 of which one is figured on the ancient ,egyptian monuments--with the solid-hoofed swine#aa mentioned by ,aristotle--with five-toed fowls described by ,columella--and certainly with the nectarine4 ,the dogs represented on the ,egyptian monuments1 about #bjjj ,b4,c41 show us that some of the chief breeds then existed1 but it is extremely doubtful whether any are identically the same with our present breeds4 ,a great mastiff sculptured on an ,assyrian tomb1 #fdj ,b4,c41 is said to be the same with the dog still imported from ,thibet into the same region4 ,the true greyhound existed during the ,roman classical period4 ,coming down to a later period1 we have seen that1 though most of the chief breeds of the pigeon existed between two and three centuries ago1 they have not all retained exactly the same character to the present day2 but this has occurred in certain cases in which no improvement was desired1 for instance1 in the case of the ,spot and ,indian ground-tumbler4 ,de ,candolle#ab has fully discussed the antiquity of various races of plants2 he states that the black seeded poppy was known in the time of ,homer1 the white-seeded sesamum by the ancient ,egyptians1 and almonds with sweet and bitter kernels by the ,hebrews2 but it does not seem improbable that some of these varieties may have been lost and reappeared4 ,one variety of barley and apparently one of wheat1 both of which were cultivated at an immensely remote period by the ,lake-inhabitants of ,switzerland1 still exist4 ,it is said#ac that 8specimens of a small variety of gourd which is still common in the market of ,lima were exhumed from an ancient cemetery in ,peru40 ,de ,candolle remarks that1 in the books and drawings of the sixteenth century1 the principal races of the cabbage1 turnip1 and gourd can be recognised3 this might have been expected at so late a period1 but whether any of these plants are absolutely identical with our present sub-varieties is not certain4 ,it is1 however1 said that the ,brussels sprout1 a variety which in some places is liable to degeneration1 has remained genuine for more than four centuries in the district where it is believed to have originated4#ad ,in accordance with the views maintained by me in this work and elsewhere1 not only the various domestic races1 but the most distinct genera and orders within the same great class--for instance1 mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 and fishes--are all the descendants of one common progenitor1 and we must admit that the whole vast amount of difference between these forms has primarily arisen from simple variability4 ,to consider the subject under this point of view is enough to strike one dumb with amazement4 ,but our amazement ought to be lessened when we reflect that beings almost infinite in number1 during an almost infinite lapse of time1 have often had their whole organisation rendered in some degree plastic1 and that each slight modification of structure which was in any way beneficial under excessively complex conditions of life has been preserved1 whilst each which was in any way injurious has been rigorously destroyed4 ,and the long-continued accumulation of beneficial variations will infallibly have led to structures as diversified1 as beautifully adapted for various purposes and as excellently co-ordinated1 as we see in the animals and plants around us4 ,hence ,i have spoken of selection as the paramount power1 whether applied by man to the formation of domestic breeds1 or by nature to the production of species4 ,i may recur to the metaphor given in a former chapter3 if an architect were to rear a noble and commodious edifice1 without the use of cut stone1 by selecting from the fragments at the base of a precipice wedge-formed stones for his arches1 elongated stones for his lintels1 and flat stones for his roof1 we should admire his skill and regard him as the paramount power4 ,now1 the fragments of stone1 though indispensable to the architect1 bear to the edifice built by him the same relation which the fluctuating variations of organic beings bear to the varied and admirable structures ultimately acquired by their modified descendants4 ,some authors have declared that natural selection explains nothing1 unless the precise cause of each slight individual difference be made clear4 ,if it were explained to a savage utterly ignorant of the art of building1 how the edifice had been raised stone upon stone1 and why wedge-formed fragments were used for the arches1 flat stones for the roof1 etc42 and if the use of each part and of the whole building were pointed out1 it would be unreasonable if he declared that nothing had been made clear to him1 because the precise cause of the shape of each fragment could not be told4 ,but this is a nearly parallel case with the objection that selection explains nothing1 because we know not the cause of each individual difference in the structure of each being4 ,the shape of the fragments of stone at the base of our precipice may be called accidental1 but this is not strictly correct2 for the shape of each depends on a long sequence of events1 all obeying natural laws2 on the nature of the rock1 on the lines of deposition or cleavage1 on the form of the mountain1 which depends on its upheaval and subsequent denudation1 and lastly on the storm or earthquake which throws down the fragments4 ,but in regard to the use to which the fragments may be put1 their shape may be strictly said to be accidental4 ,and here we are led to face a great difficulty1 in alluding to which ,i am aware that ,i am travelling beyond my proper province4 ,an omniscient ,creator must have foreseen every consequence which results from the laws imposed by ,him4 ,but can it be reasonably maintained that the ,creator intentionally ordered1 if we use the words in any ordinary sense1 that certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes so that the builder might erect his edifice8 ,if the various laws which have determined the shape of each fragment were not predetermined for the builder's sake1 can it be maintained with any greater probability that ,he specially ordained for the sake of the breeder each of the innumerable variations in our domestic animals and plants2--many of these variations being of no service to man1 and not beneficial1 far more often injurious1 to the creatures themselves8 ,did ,he ordain that the crop and tail-feathers of the pigeon should vary in order that the fancier might make his grotesque pouter and fantail breeds8 ,did ,he cause the frame and mental qualities of the dog to vary in order that a breed might be formed of indomitable ferocity1 with jaws fitted to pin down the bull for man's brutal sport8 ,but if we give up the principle in one case1--if we do not admit that the variations of the primeval dog were intentionally guided in order that the greyhound1 for instance1 that perfect image of symmetry and vigour1 might be formed1--no shadow of reason can be assigned for the belief that variations1 alike in nature and the result of the same general laws1 which have been the groundwork through natural selection of the formation of the most perfectly adapted animals in the world1 man included1 were intentionally and specially guided4 ,however much we may wish it1 we can hardly follow ,professor ,asa ,gray in his belief 8that variation has been led along certain beneficial lines10 like a stream 8along definite and useful lines of irrigation40 ,if we assume that each particular variation was from the beginning of all time preordained1 then that plasticity of organisation1 which leads to many injurious deviations of structure1 as well as the redundant power of reproduction which inevitably leads to a struggle for existence1 and1 as a consequence1 to the natural selection or survival of the fittest1 must appear to us superfluous laws of nature4 ,on the other hand1 an omnipotent and omniscient ,creator ordains everything and foresees everything4 ,thus we are brought face to face with a difficulty as insoluble as is that of free will and predestination4 ,,references #a ,godron1 #8,de l',espce1' #ahei1 tom4 ii4 p4 #dd1 etc4 #b #8,journal ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc41' #aheh1 vol4 iii4 p4 #fj4 #c #8,the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science1' ,oct4 #ahfg1 p4 #dhf4 #d ,m4 ,rufz de ,lavison1 in #8,bull4 ,soc4 ,imp4 d',acclimat41' ,dec4 #ahfb1 p4 #ajji4 #e #8,races of ,man1' #ahej1 p4 #cae4 #f #8,travels in ,peru1' ,eng4 translat41 p4 #agg4 #g ,youatt on ,cattle1 #ahcd1 p4 #bjj4 ,on ,pigs1 see #8,gardener's ,chronicle1' #ahed1 p4 #daj4 #h #8,die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahfe4 #i ,morlot1 #8,soc4 ,vaud4 des ,scien4 ,nat41' ,mars1 #ahfj1 p4 #bih4 #aj ,rtimeyer1 #8,die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten1' #ahfa1 s4 #cj4 #aa ,godron1',de l',espce1' tom4 i41 #ahei1 p4 #cfh4 #ab #8,geographie ,botan41' #ahee1 p4 #ihi4 #ac ,pickering1 #8,races of ,man1' #ahej1 p4 #cah4 #ad #8,journal of a ,horticultural ,tour1' by a ,deputation of the ,caledonian ,hist4 ,soc41 #ahbc1 p4 #bic4 ,,index ,,abbas ,,pacha1 a fancier of fantailed pigeons1 #f4 ,,abbey1 ,mr41 on grafting1 #ah 7#b72 --on mignonette1 #ba4 ,,abbott1 ,mr4 ,keith1 on the ,persian tumbler pigeon1 #e4 ,,abbreviation of the facial bones1 #c4 ,,abortion of organs1 #bd1 #bg4 ,,absorption of minority in crossed races1 #ae1 #ai4 ,,abutilon1 graft hybridisation of1 #aa4 ,,acclimatisation1 #bd2 --of maize1 #i4 ,,acerbi1 on the fertility of domestic animals in ,lapland1 #af4 ,achatinella1 #ac4 ,achillea millefolium1 bud variation in1 #aa4 ,aconitum napellus1 roots of1 innocuous in cold climates1 #bc4 ,acorus calamus1 sterility of1 #ah4 ,,acosta1 on fowls in ,south ,america at its discovery1 #g4 ,acropera1 number of seeds in1 #bg4 ,,adam1 ,m41 origin of ,cytisus adami1 #aa4 ,,adam1 ,w41 on consanguineous marriages1 #ag4 ,,adams1 on hereditary diseases1 #ab4 ,,advancement in scale of organisation1 ,introduction4 gilops triticoides1 observations of ,fabre and ,godron on1 #i2 --increasing fertility of hybrids of1 with wheat1 #af4 sculus pavia1 tendency of1 to become double1 #ah4 thusa cynapium1 #be4 ,,affinity1 sexual elective1 #ai4 ,,africa1 white bull from1 #c2 --feral cattle in1 #c2 --food-plants of savages of1 #i2 --,south1 diversity of breeds of cattle in1 #c2 --,west1 change in fleece of sheep in1 #c4 ,agave vivipara1 seeding of1 in poor soil1 #ah4 ,,age1 changes in trees1 dependent on1 #aa4 ----1 as bearing on pangenesis1 #bg4 ,,agouti1 fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,agriculture1 antiquity of1 #ba4 ,agrostis1 seeds of1 used as food1 #i4 ,,aguara1 #a4 ,,ainsworth1 ,mr41 on the change in the hair of animals at ,angora1 #bd4 ,,akbar ,,khan1 his fondness for pigeons1 #f2 #bj4 ,alauda arvensis1 #ah4 ,,albin1 on 8,golden ,hamburgh0 fowls1 #g2 --figure of the hook-billed duck1 #h4 ,,albinism1 #d1 #ab4 ,,albino1 negro1 attacked by insects1 #ba4 ,,albinoes1 heredity of1 #ab4 ,,albinus1 thickness of the epidermis on the palms of the hands in man1 #bd4 ,,alco1 #a1 #ae4 ,,aldrovandi1 on rabbits1 #d2 --description of the nun pigeon1 #e2 --on the fondness of the ,dutch for pigeons in the seventeenth century1 #f2 --notice of several varieties of pigeons1 #f2 --on the breeds of fowls1 #g2 --on the origin of the domestic duck1 #h4 ,,alefield1 ,dr41 on the varieties of peas and their specific unity1 #i2 --on the varieties of beans1 #i4 ,,alexander the ,great1 his selection of ,indian cattle1 #bj4 ,,alg1 retrogressive metamorphosis in1 #bg2 --division of zoospores of1 #bg4 ,,allen1 ,j41 birds in ,united ,states1 #bc4 ,,allen1 ,w41 on feral fowls1 #g1 #ac4 ,,allman1 ,professor1 on a monstrous ,saxifraga geum1 #ah2 --on the ,hydroida1 #bg 7#b74 ,,almond1 #aj2 --antiquity of1 #bh2 --bitter1 not eaten by mice1 #ba4 ,alnus glutinosa1 and incana1 hybrids of1 #ag4 ,,alpaca1 selection of1 #bj4 ,altha rosea1 #aa1 #af4 ,amaryllis1 #ag4 ,amaryllis vittata1 effect of foreign pollen on1 #e4 ,,amaurosis1 hereditary1 #ab4 ,amblystoma lurida1 #bg4 ,,america1 limits within which no useful plants have been furnished by1 #i2 --colours of feral horses in1 #b2 --,north1 native cultivated plants of1 #i2 --skin of feral pig from1 #c2 --,south1 variations in cattle of1 #c4 ,,ammon1 on the persistency of colour in horses1 #ab4 ,amygdalus persica1 #aj1 #aa4 ,anagallis arvensis1 #ai4 ,,analogous variation1 #e1 #bb2 --in horses1 #e2 --in the horse and ass1 #b2 --in fowls1 #g4 ,anas boschas1 #h1 #ac2 --skull of1 figured1 #h4 8,,ancon0 sheep of ,massachusetts1 #c1 #ae4 ,,andalusian fowls1 #g4 ,,andalusian rabbits1 #d4 ,,anderson1 ,j41 on the origin of ,british sheep1 #d2 --on the selection of qualities in cattle1 #bj2 --on a one-eared breed of rabbits1 #d2 --on the inheritance of characters from a one-eared rabbit1 and three-legged bitch1 #ab2 --on the persistency of varieties of peas1 #i2 --on the production of early peas by selection1 #bj2 --on the varieties of the potato1 #i2 --on crossing varieties of the melon1 #aa2 --on reversion in the barberry1 #aa4 ,,anderson1 ,mr41 on the reproduction of the weeping ash by seed1 #ab4 --on the cultivation of the tree pony in ,china1 #bj4 ,,andersson1 ,mr41 on the ,damara1 ,bechuana1 and ,namaqua cattle1 #c2 --on the cows of the ,damaras1 #bd2 --selection practised by the ,damaras and ,namaquas1 #bj2 --on the use of grass-seeds and the roots of reeds as food in ,south ,africa1 #i4 ,anemone coronaria1 doubled by selection1 #bj4 ,,angina pectoris1 hereditary1 occurring at a certain age1 #ad4 ,,anglesea1 cattle of1 #c4 ,,angola sheep1 #c4 ,,angora1 change in hair of animals at1 #bc2 --cats of1 #a 7#b72 --rabbits of1 #d 7#b74 ,,animals1 domestication of1 facilitated by fearlessness of man1 #a2 --refusal of wild1 to breed in captivity1 #ah2 --compound1 individual peculiarities of1 reproduced by budding1 #aa2 --variation by selection in useful qualities of1 #bj4 ,,annual plants1 rarity of bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,anomalies in the osteology of the horse1 #b4 ,,anomalous breeds of pigs1 #c2 --of cattle1 #c4 ,anser albifrons1 characters of1 reproduced in domestic geese1 #h4 ,anser gyptiacus1 #h1 #ad4 ,anser canadensis1 #ah4 ,anser ferus1 the original of the domestic goose1 #h2 --fertility of cross of1 with domestic goose1 #h4 ,,anson1 on feral fowls in the ,ladrones1 #g4 ,,antagonism between growth and reproduction1 #bg4 ,anthemis nobilis1 bud-variation in flowers of1 #aa2 --becomes single in poor soil1 #ah4 ,,anthers1 contabescence of1 #ah4 ,,antigua1 cats of1 #e2 --changed fleece of sheep in1 #c4 ,antirrhinum majus1 peloric1 #aj1 #ac 7#b71 #ah2 --double-flowered1 #ah2 --bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,ants1 individual recognition of1 #bb4 ,,aphides1 attacking pear-trees1 #ba2 --development of1 #bg4 ,,apoplexy1 hereditary1 occurring at a certain age1 #ad4 ,,apple1 #aj2 --fruit of1 in ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i2 --rendered fastigiate by heat in ,india1 #aj2 --bud-variation in the1 #aa2 --with dimidiate fruit1 #aa 7#b72 --with two kinds of fruit on the same branch1 #aa2 --artificial fecundation of1 #aa2 --,st4 ,valry1 #aa1 #ah2 --reversion in seedlings of1 #ac2 --crossing of varieties of1 #ag2 --growth of the1 in ,ceylon1 #ba2 --winter majetin1 not attacked by coccus1 #ba2 --flower-buds of1 attacked by bullfinches1 #ba2 --,american1 change of1 when grown in ,england1 #bc4 ,,apricot1 #aj 7#b72 --glands on the leaves of1 #ba2 --analogous variation in the1 #bf4 ,aquila fusca1 copulating in captivity1 #ah4 ,aquilegia vulgaris1 #aj1 #be4 ,,arab boarhound1 described by ,harcourt1 #a4 ,arabis blepharophylla and ,a4 soyeri1 effects of crossing1 #aa4 ,aralia trifoliata1 bud-variation in leaves of1 #aa4 ,,araucarias1 young1 variable resistance of1 to frost1 #bd4 ,,archangel pigeon1 #ba4 ,,arctic regions1 variability of plants and shells of1 #bb4 ,aria vestita1 grafted on thorns1 #aa4 ,,aristophanes1 fowls mentioned by1 #g4 ,,aristotle1 on solid-hoofed pigs1 #c2 --domestic duck unknown to1 #h2 --on the assumption of male characters by old hens1 #ac4 ,,arni1 domestication of the1 #c4 ,,arnold1 ,mr41 experiments of pollen on the maize1 #aa4 ,,arrests of development1 #bd4 ,,arteries1 increase of anastomosing branches of1 when tied1 #bd4 ,,aru ,islands1 wild pig of1 #c4 ,,arum1 ,polynesian varieties of1 #bb4 ,ascaris1 number of eggs of1 #bg4 ,,ash1 varieties of the1 #aj2 --weeping1 #aj2 --simple-leaved1 #aj2 --bud-variation in1 #aa2 --effects of graft upon the stock in the1 #aa2 --production of the blotched ,breadalbane1 #aa2 --weeping1 capricious reproduction of1 by seed1 #ab4 ,asinus burchellii1 #b4 ,asinus hemionus1 #ac4 ,asinus indicus1 #ac 7#b74 ,asinus quagga1 #b4 ,asinus tniopus1 the original of the domestic ass1 #b4 ,,asparagus1 increased fertility of cultivated1 #af4 ,,ass1 early domestication of the1 #b2 --breeds of1 #b2 --small size of1 in ,india1 #b2 --stripes of1 #b 7#b72 --dislike of1 to cross water1 #f2 --reversion in1 #ac 7#c72 --hybrid of the1 with mare and zebra1 #ac2 --prepotency of the1 over the horse1 #ad2 --crossed with wild ass1 #bj2 --variation and selection of the1 #ba4 ,,assyrian sculpture of a mastiff1 #a4 ,,asters1 #ab1 #bd4 ,,asthma1 hereditary1 #ab1 #ad4 ,,atavism4 ,see ,reversion4 ,,athelstan1 his care of horses1 #bj4 ,,atkinson1 ,mr41 on the sterility of the ,tarroo silk-moth in confinement1 #ah4 ,,aubergine1 #ae4 ,,audubon1 on feral hybrid ducks1 #f1 #ac2 --on the domestication of wild ducks on the ,mississippi1 #h2 --on the wild cock turkey visiting domestic hens1 #h2 --fertility of ,fringilla ciris in captivity1 #ah2 --fertility of ,columba migratoria and leucocephala in captivity1 #ah2 --breeding of ,anser canadensis in captivity1 #ah4 ,,audubon and ,bachman1 on the change of coat in ,ovis montana1 #c2 --sterility of ,sciurus cinerea in confinement1 #ah4 ,,auricula1 effect of seasonal conditions on the1 #bc2 --blooming of1 #bf4 ,,australia1 no generally useful plants derived from1 #i2 --useful plants of1 enumerated by ,hooker1 #i4 ,,austria1 heredity of character in emperors of1 #ad4 ,,autenrieth1 on persistency of colour in horses1 #ab4 ,,ava1 horses of1 #b4 ,avena fatua1 cultivability of1 #i4 #8,,ayeen ,akbery1' pigeons mentioned in the1 #e 7#b71 #f 7#d74 ,,ayres1 ,w4 ,p41 on bud-variation in pelargoniums1 #aa4 ,azalea indica1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,azara1 on the feral dogs of ,la ,plata1 #a2 --on the crossing of domestic with wild cats in ,paraguay1 #a2 --on hornlike processes in horses1 #b2 --on curled hair in horses1 #b2 --on the colours of feral horses1 #b2 --on the cattle of ,paraguay and ,la ,plata1 #c 7#c71 #bb2 --on a hornless bull1 #bj2 --on the increase of cattle in ,south ,america1 #ag2 --on the growth of horns in the hornless cattle of ,corrientes1 #ac2 --on the 8,niata0 cattle1 #c2 --on naked quadrupeds1 #bc2 --on a race of black-skinned fowls in ,south ,america1 #g1 #bj2 --on a variety of maize1 #i4 ,,babington1 ,c4 ,c41 on the origin of the plum1 #aj2 --,british species of the genus ,rosa1 #aj2 --distinctness of ,viola lutea and tricolor1 #aj4 ,,bachmann1 ,mr41 on the turkey1 #bb4 ,see also ,audubon4 ,,badger1 breeding in confinement1 #ah4 8,,bagadotten-,,taube10 #e4 ,,baily1 ,mr41 on the effect of selection on fowls1 #bj2 --on ,dorking fowls1 #ba4 ,,baird1 ,s41 on the origin of the turkey1 #h4 ,,baker1 ,mr41 on heredity in the horse1 #ab2 --on the degeneration of the horse by neglect1 #ba2 --orders of ,henrys ,,vii4 and ,,viii4 for the destruction of undersized mares1 #bj4 ,,bakewell1 change in the sheep effected by1 #bj4 ,,balancement1 #bf 7#b72 --of growth1 law of1 #bf4 ,,baldhead 7pigeon71 #e4 ,,baldness1 in man1 inherited1 #be2 --with deficiency in teeth1 #be 7#b74 ,,ballance1 ,mr41 on the effects of interbreeding on fowls1 #ag2 --on variation in the eggs of fowls1 #g4 ,ballota nigra1 transmission of variegated leaves in1 #aa4 ,,bamboo1 varieties of the1 #bb4 ,,banana1 variation of the1 #aj1 #bb2 --bud-variation in the1 #aa2 --sterility of the1 #bb4 ,,bantam fowls1 #g2 --,sebright1 origin of1 #ae2 --sterility of1 #af4 ,,barb 7pigeon71 #e 7#b71 #f1 #ba2 --figure of1 #e2 --figure of lower jaw of1 #e4 ,,barbs1 of wheat1 #i4 ,,barberry1 dark or red-leaved variety1 #aj1 #ab2 --reversion in suckers of seedless variety1 #aa4 ,,barbut1 ,j41 on the dogs of ,guinea1 #a2 --on the domestic pigeons in ,guinea1 #f2 --fowls not native in ,guinea1 #g4 ,,barking1 acquisition of the habit of1 by various dogs1 #a4 ,,barley1 wild1 #i2 --of the lake-dwellings1 #i2 --ancient variety of1 #bh4 ,,barnes1 ,mr41 production of early peas by selection1 #bj4 ,,barnet1 ,mr41 on the intercrossing of strawberries1 #aj2 --diciousness of the hautbois strawberry1 #aj2 --on the ,scarlet ,american strawberry1 #bj4 ,,barth1 ,dr41 use of grass-seeds as food in ,central ,africa1 #i4 ,,bartlett1 ,a4 ,d41 on the origin of 8,himalayan0 rabbits by intercrossing1 #d2 --on the feral rabbits of ,porto ,santo1 #d2 --on geese with reversed feathers on the head and neck1 #h2 --on the young of the black-shouldered peacock1 #h2 --on a variety of the turkey1 #h2 --size of hybrids1 #ag2 --on the breeding of the ,felid in captivity1 #ah2 --so-called hybrids1 #be4 ,,bartram1 on the black wolf-dog of ,florida1 #a4 ,,bates1 ,h4 ,w41 refusal of wild animals to breed in captivity1 #ah 7#b72 --sterility of ,american monkeys in captivity1 #ah2 --sterility of tamed guans1 #ah4 ,,batrachia1 regeneration of lost parts in1 #bg4 ,,beach1 raised1 in ,peru1 containing heads of maize1 #i4 ,,beak1 variability of1 in fowls1 #g2 --individual differences of1 in pigeons1 #e2 --correlation of1 with the feet in pigeons1 #e4 ,,beale1 ,lionel1 on the contents of cells1 #bg2 --on the multiplication of infectious atoms1 #bg4 ,,beans1 #i2 --of ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i2 --varieties of1 produced by selection1 #bj2 --,french and scarlet1 variable resistance of1 to frost1 #bd 7#b72 --superiority of native seed of1 #bd2 --a symmetrical variation of scarlet1 #bg2 --experiments on kidney1 #h2 --with monstrous stipules and abortive leaflets1 #bf4 ,,beard pigeon1 #e4 ,,bears1 breeding in captivity1 #ah4 ,,beasley1 ,j41 reversion in crossed cattle1 #ac4 ,,beaton1 ,d41 effect of soil upon strawberries1 #aj2 --on varieties of pelargonium1 #aj1 #bc 7#b72 --bud-variation in ,gladiolus colvilii1 #aa2 --cross between ,scotch kail and cabbage1 #ae2 --hybrid gladiolus1 #ag2 --constant occurrence of new forms among seedlings1 #ba2 --on the doubling of the ,composit1 #bd4 ,,bechuana cattle1 #c4 ,,bechstein1 on the burrowing of wolves1 #a2 --,spitz ,dog1 #a2 --origin of the ,newfoundland dog1 #a2 --crossing of domestic and wild swine1 #c2 --on the ,jacobin pigeon1 #e1 #f2 --notice of swallow-pigeons1 #e2 --on a fork-tailed pigeon1 #e2 --variations in the colour of the croup in pigeons1 #f2 --on the ,german dovecot pigeon1 #f2 --fertility of mongrel-pigeons1 #f2 --on hybrid turtle-doves1 #f2 --on crossing the pigeon with ,columba nas1 ,c4 palumbus1 ,turtur risoria1 and ,t4 vulgaris1 #f2 --development of spurs in the silk hen1 #g2 --on ,polish fowls1 #g 7#b72 --on crested birds1 #g2 --on the canary-bird1 #h1 #ab1 #ah2 --,german superstition about the turkey1 #h2 --occurrence of horns in hornless breeds of sheep1 #ac2 --hybrids of the horse and ass1 #ad2 --crosses of tailless fowls1 #ae2 --difficulty of pairing dove-cot and fancy pigeons1 #af2 --fertility of tame ferrets and rabbits1 #af2 --fertility of wild sow1 #af2 --difficulty of breeding caged birds1 #ah2 --comparative fertility of ,psittacus erithacus in captivity1 #ah2 --on changes of plumage in captivity1 #ah2 --liability of light-coloured cattle to the attacks of flies1 #ba2 --want of exercise a cause of variability1 #bb2 --effect of privation of light upon the plumage of birds1 #bc2 --on a sub-variety of the monk-pigeon1 #bf4 ,,beck1 ,mr41 constitutional differences in pelargoniums1 #aj4 ,,beckmann1 on changes in the odours of plants1 #bc4 ,,beddoe1 ,dr41 correlation of complexion with consumption1 #be4 ,,bee1 persistency of character of1 #ba1 #bb2 --intercrossing1 #ag2 --conveyance of pollen of peas by1 #i4 ,,bee ,,ophrys1 self-fertilisation of1 #ae4 ,,beech1 dark-leaved1 #aj1 #ab2 --fern-leaved1 reversion of1 #aa2 --weeping1 non-production of1 by seed1 #ab4 ,,beechey1 horses of ,loochoo ,islands1 #b4 ,,beet1 #i2 --increase of sugar in1 by selection1 #bj4 ,begonia frigida1 singular variety of1 #aj2 --sterility of1 #ah4 ,,belgian rabbit1 #d4 ,,bell1 ,t41 statement that white cattle have coloured ears1 #c4 ,,bell1 ,w41 bud-variation in ,paritium tricuspis1 #aa4 ,,bellingeri1 observations on gestation in the dog1 #a --on the fertility of dogs and cats1 #af4 ,,belon1 on high-flying pigeons in ,paphlagonia1 #f2 --varieties of the goose1 #h4 ,,benguela1 cattle of1 #c4 ,,bennett1 ,dr4 ,g41 pigs of the ,pacific ,islands1 #c1 #ae2 --dogs of the ,pacific ,islands1 #ae2 --varieties of cultivated plants in ,tahiti1 #bb4 ,,bennett1 ,mr41 on the fallow deer1 #af4 ,,bentham1 ,g41 number and origin of cultivated plants1 #i2 --on ,phaseolus1 #i2 --cereals all cultivated varieties1 #i2 --species of the orange group1 #aj2 --distinctions of almond and peach1 #aj2 --,british species of ,rosa1 #aj2 --identity of ,viola lutea and tricolor1 #aj4 ,berberis vulgaris1 #aa1 #ab4 ,berberis wallichii1 indifference of1 to climate1 #ah4 ,,berjeau1 on the history of the dog1 #a 7#b74 ,,berkeley1 ,g4 ,f41 production of hen-cocks in a strain of game-fowls1 #g4 ,,berkeley1 ,m4 ,j41 crossing of varieties of the pea1 #aa2 --effect of foreign pollen on grapes1 #aa2 --on hybrid plants1 #ag2 --analogy between pollen of highly-cultivated plants and hybrids1 #bb2 --on ,hungarian kidney-beans1 #bc2 --failure of ,indian wheat in ,england1 #bd4 ,,bernard1 inheritance of disease in the horse1 #ab4 ,,bernard1 ,c41 independence of the organs of the body1 #bg2 --special affinities of the tissues1 #bg4 ,,bernhardi1 varieties of plants with laciniated leaves1 #bf4 ,bernicla antarctica1 #h4 ,,bertero1 on feral pigeons in ,juan ,fernandez1 #f4 ,betula alba1 #ab4 ,,bewick1 on the ,british wild cattle1 #c4 ,,bianconi1 ,prof41 on the skulls of dogs1 #a4 ,,bible1 reference to breeding studs of horses in1 #b2 --references to domestic pigeons in the1 #f2 --indications of selection of sheep in the1 #bj2 --notice of mules in the1 #bj4 ,,bidwell1 ,mr41 on self-impotence in ,amaryllis1 #ag4 ,bignonia1 self-sterility of1 #ag4 ,,birch1 weeping1 #aa1 #ab4 ,,birch1 ,dr4 ,s41 on the ancient domestication of the pigeon in ,egypt1 #f2 --notice of bantam fowls in a ,japanese encyclopdia1 #g 7#b74 ,,birch1 ,,wyrley1 on silver-grey rabbits1 #d 7#b74 ,,birds1 sterility caused in1 by change of conditions1 #ah4 ,,bladder-,,nut1 tendency of the1 to become double1 #ah4 ,,blaine1 ,mr41 on wry-legged terriers1 #ba4 ,,blainville1 origin and history of the dog1 #a2 --variations in the number of teeth in dogs1 #a2 --variations in the number of toes in dogs1 #a2 --on mummies of cats1 #a2 --on the osteology of solid-hoofed pigs1 #c2 --on feral ,patagonian and ,n4 ,american pigs1 #c4 8,,blass-,,taube10 #e ,,bleeding1 hereditary1 #ab2 --sexual limitation of excessive1 #ad4 ,,blending of crossed races1 time occupied by the1 #ae4 ,,blindness1 hereditary1 #ab2 --at a certain age1 #ad2 --associated with colour of hair1 #be4 ,,bloodhounds1 degeneration of1 caused by interbreeding1 #ag4 ,,blumenbach1 on the protuberance of the skull in ,polish fowls1 #g2 --on the effect of circumcision1 #ab2 --inheritance of a crooked finger1 #ab2 --on badger-dogs and other varieties of the dog1 #bj2 --on ,hydra1 #bd2 --on the 8nisus formativus10 #bd4 ,,blyth1 ,e41 on the pariah dog1 #a2 --hybrids of dog and jackal1 #a2 --early domestication of cats in ,india1 #a2 --origin of domestic cat1 #a2 --crossing of domestic and wild cats1 #a2 --on ,indian cats resembling ,felis chaus1 #a2 --on striped ,burmese ponies1 #b2 --on the stripes of the ass1 #b2 --on ,indian wild pigs1 #c2 --on humped cattle1 #c2 --occurrence of ,bos frontosus in ,irish crannoges1 #c2 --fertile crossing of zebus and common cattle1 #c2 --on the species of sheep1 #c2 --on the fat-tailed ,indian sheep1 #c2 --origin of the goat1 #c2 --on rabbits breeding in ,india1 #d2 --number of tail-feathers in fantails1 #e2 --,lotan tumbler pigeons1 #e2 --number of tail-feathers in ,ectopistes1 #b2 --on ,columba affinis1 #f2 --pigeons roosting in trees1 #f2 --on ,columba leuconota1 #f2 --on ,columba intermedia of ,strickland1 #f2 --variation in colour of croup in pigeons1 #f 7#c72 --voluntary domestication of rock-pigeons in ,india1 #f2 --feral pigeons on the ,hudson1 #f2 --occurrence of sub-species of pigeons1 #f2 --notice of pigeon-fanciers in ,delhi1 etc41 #f2 --hybrids of ,gallus sonneratii and the domestic hen1 #g2 --supposed hybridity of ,gallus temminckii1 #g2 --variations and domestication of ,gallus bankiva1 #g 7#b72 --crossing of wild and tame fowls in ,burmah1 #g2 --restricted range of the larger gallinaceous birds1 #g2 --feral fowls in the ,nicobar ,islands1 #g2 --black-skinned fowls occurring near ,calcutta1 #g2 --weight of ,gallus bankiva1 #g2 --degeneration of the turkey in ,india1 #h1 #bc2 --on the colour of gold-fish1 #h2 --reversion from a cross1 #ac2 --on the ,ghor-,khur 7,asinus indicus71 #ac2 --on ,asinus hemionus1 #ac2 --number of eggs of ,gallus bankiva1 #af2 --on the breeding of birds in captivity1 #ah2 --co-existence of large and small breeds in the same country1 #bc2 --on the drooping ears of the elephant1 #bd2 --homology of leg and wing feathers1 #be4 ,,boethius on ,scotch wild cattle1 #c4 ,,boitard and ,corbi1 on the breeds of pigeons1 #e2 --,lille pouter pigeon1 #e2 --notice of a gliding pigeon1 #e2 --variety of the pouter pigeon1 #e2 --dove-cot pigeon1 #f2 --crossing pigeons1 #f1 #ae1 #ag2 --sterility of hybrids of turtle-doves1 #f2 --reversion of crossed pigeons1 #f1 #ac2 --on the fantail1 #f1 #ad2 --on the trumpeter1 #ad2 --prepotency of transmission in silky fantail1 #ad 7#b72 --secondary sexual characters in pigeons1 #ad2 --crossing of white and coloured turtle-doves1 #ae2 --fertility of pigeons1 #af4 ,,bombycid1 wingless females of1 #bd4 ,bombyx hesperus1 #bd4 ,bombyx huttoni1 #h4 ,bombyx mori1 #h4 ,,bonafous1 on maize1 #i4 ,,bonaparte1 number of species of ,columbid1 #e2 --number of tail-feathers in pigeons1 #e2 --size of the feet in ,columbid1 #e2 --on ,columba guinea1 #f2 --,columba turricola1 rupestris and schimperi1 #f4 ,bonatea speciosa1 development of ovary of1 #aa4 ,,bonavia1 ,dr41 growth of cauliflowers in ,india1 #bd4 ,,boner1 ,mr41 semi-feral sheep1 #ac4 ,,bones1 removal of portions of1 #bd2 --regeneration of1 #bd2 --growth and repair of1 #bg4 ,,bonizzi1 on pigeons1 #e 7#b74 ,,bonnet1 on the salamander1 #bg2 --theory of reproduction1 #bg 7#b74 ,,borchmeyer1 experiments with the seeds of the weeping ash1 #ab4 ,,borecole1 #i4 ,,borelli1 on ,polish fowls1 #g4 ,,borneo1 fowls of1 with tail-bands1 #g4 ,,bornet1 ,e41 condition of the ovary in hybrid ,cisti1 #aa2 --self-impotence of hybrid ,cisti1 #ag4 ,,borrow1 ,g41 on pointers1 #a4 ,,bory ,,de ,,saint-,,vincent1 on gold-fish1 #h4 ,bos1 probable origin of ,european domestic cattle from three species of1 #c4 ,bos frontosus1 #c4 ,bos indicus1 #c4 ,bos longifrons1 #c 7#c74 ,bos primigenius1 #c 7#b71 #ag4 ,bos sondaicus1 #bj4 ,bos taurus1 #c4 ,bos trochoceros1 #c4 ,,bosc1 heredity in foliage-varieties of the elm1 #aj4 ,,bosse1 production of double flowers from old seed1 #ah4 ,,bossi1 on breeding dark-coloured silkworms1 #h4 ,,bosman1 on dogs of ,guinea1 #a4 ,,bouchardat1 on the vine disease1 #aj4 ,,boudin1 on local diseases1 #bc2 --resistance to cold of dark-complexioned men1 #be4 8,,boulans10 #e4 8,,bouton d',alep10 #bc4 ,,bowen1 ,prof41 doubts as to the importance of inheritance1 #ab4 ,,bowman1 ,mr41 hereditary peculiarities in the human eye1 #ab2 --hereditary cataract1 #ad4 ,,brace1 ,mr41 on ,hungarian cattle1 #c4 ,brachycome iberidifolia1 #bb4 ,,bracts1 unusual development of1 in gooseberries1 #aj4 ,,bradley1 ,mr41 effect of grafts upon the stock in the ash1 #aa2 --effect of foreign pollen upon apples1 #aa2 --on change of soil1 #ah4 8,,brahma ,pootras10 a new breed of fowls1 #g4 ,,brain1 proportion of1 in hares and rabbits1 #d4 ,,brandt1 ,dr41 origin of the goat1 #c2 --correlation of teeth and hair1 #be4 ,brassica1 varieties of1 with enlarged stems1 #bf4 ,brassica asperifolia1 #bf4 ,brassica napus1 #i4 ,brassica oleracea1 #i4 ,brassica rapa1 #i1 #ah4 ,,braun1 ,a41 bud-variation in the vine1 #aa2 --in the currant1 #aa2 --in ,mirabilis jalapa1 #aa2 --in ,cytisus adami1 #aa2 --on reversion in the foliage of trees1 #aa2 --spontaneous production of ,cytisus purpureo-elongatus1 #aa2 --reversion of flowers by stripes and blotches1 #ac2 --excess of nourishment a source of variability1 #bb4 ,,brazil1 cattle of1 #c4 ,,bread-,,fruit1 varieties of1 #bb2 --sterility and variability of1 #bb4 ,,bree1 ,w4 ,t41 bud-variation in ,geranium pratense and ,centaurea cyanus1 #aa2 --by tubers in the dahlia1 #aa2 --on the deafness of white cats with blue eyes1 #be4 ,,breeding1 high1 dependent on inheritance1 #ab 7#b74 ,,breeds1 domestic1 persistency of1 #ba2 --artificial and natural1 #bh 7#b72 --extinction of1 #bh2 --of domestic cats1 #a2 --of pigs produced by crossing1 #c2 --of cattle1 #c 7#b72 --of goats1 #c4 ,,brehm1 on ,columba amali1 #f4 ,,brent1 ,b4 ,p41 number of mamm in rabbits1 #d2 --habits of the tumbler pigeon1 #e2 --,laugher pigeon1 #e2 --colouring of the kite tumbler1 #e2 --crossing of the pigeon with ,columba nas1 #f2 --mongrels of the trumpeter pigeon1 #ad2 --close interbreeding of pigeons1 #ag2 --opinion on ,aldrovandi's fowls1 #g2 --on stripes in chickens1 #g2 --on the combs of fowls1 #g2 --double-spurred ,dorking fowls1 #g2 --effect of crossing on colour of plumage in fowls1 #g2 ---incubatory instinct of mongrels between non-setting varieties of fowls1 #ac2 --origin of the domestic duck1 #h2 --fertility of the hook-billed duck1 #h2 --occurrence of the plumage of the wild duck in domestic breeds1 #h2 --voice of ducks1 #h2 --occurrence of a short upper mandible in crosses of hook-billed and common ducks1 #h2 --reversion in ducks produced by crossing1 #ac2 --variation of the canary-bird1 #h2 --fashion in the canary1 #ba2 --hybrids of canary and finches1 #ac4 ,,brickell1 on raising nectarines from seed1 #d2 --on the horses of ,north ,carolina1 #bd4 ,,bridges1 ,mr41 on the dogs of ,tierra del ,fuego1 #a2 --on the selection of dogs by the ,fuegians1 #bj4 ,,bridgman1 ,w4 ,k41 reproduction of abnormal ferns1 #aa4 ,,broca1 ,p41 on the intercrossing of dogs1 #a 7#b72 --on hybrids of hare and rabbit1 #d2 --on the rumpless fowl1 #g2 --on the character of half-castes1 #ac2 --degree of fertility of mongrels1 #af2 --sterility of descendants of wild animals bred in captivity1 #ah4 ,,broccoli1 #i2 --rudimentary flowers in1 #bd2 --tenderness of1 #bd4 ,,bromehead1 ,w41 doubling of the ,canterbury ,bell by selection1 #bj4 ,,broomfield1 ,dr41 sterility of the ivy and ,acorus calamus1 #ah4 ,bromus secalinus1 #i4 ,,bronn1 ,h4 ,g41 bud variation in ,anthemis1 #aa2 --effects of cross-breeding on the female1 #aa2 --on heredity in a one-horned cow1 #ab2 --propagation of a pendulous peach by seed1 #ab2 --absorption of the minority in crossed races1 #ae2 --on the crossing of horses1 #ae2 --fertility of tame rabbits and sheep1 #af2 --changes of plumage in captivity1 #ah2 --on the dahlia1 #bb4 ,,bronze period1 dog of1 #a4 ,,brown1 ,c4 ,m41 prepotency of a greyhound1 #ad4 ,,brown1 ,g41 variations in the dentition of the horse1 #b4 ,,brown-,s,,quard1 ,dr41 inheritance of artificially-produced epilepsy in the guinea-pig1 #ab2 --inherited effects of injuries1 #ab4 ,brunswigia1 #ag4 ,,brussels sprouts1 #i1 #bh4 ,bubo maximus1 #ah4 ,,buckland1 ,f41 on oysters1 #bc2 --number of eggs in a codfish1 #bg4 ,,buckle1 ,mr41 doubts as to the importance of inheritance1 #ab4 ,,buckley1 ,miss1 carrier-pigeons roosting in trees1 #f4 ,,buckman1 ,prof41 cultivation of ,avena fatua1 #i2 --cultivation of the wild parsnip1 #i1 #bj1 #bc2 --reversion in the parsnip1 #ac4 ,,buckwheat1 injurious when in flower to white pigs1 #be4 ,,bud and seed1 close analogy of1 #aa4 ,,bud-,,reversion1 #ac4 ,,buds1 adventitious1 #bg4 ,,bud-,,variation1 #aa1 #bb1 #bc 7#c72 --contrasted with seminal reproduction1 #aa2 --peculiar to plants1 #aa2 --in the peach1 #aj2 --in plums1 #aa2 --in the cherry1 #aa2 --in grapes1 #aa2 --in the gooseberry and currant1 #aa2 --pear and apple1 #aa2 --and in the banana1 camellia1 hawthorn1 ,azalea indica1 and ,paritium tricuspis1 #aa2 --in the hollyhock and pelargonium1 #aa2 --in ,geranium pratense and the chrysanthemum1 #aa2 --in roses1 #aj1 #aa2 --in sweet williams1 carnations1 pinks1 stocks1 and snapdragons1 #aa 7#b72 --in wall-flowers1 cyclamen1 nothera biennis1 ,gladiolus colvillii1 fuchsias1 and ,mirabilis jalapa1 #aa2 --in foliage of various trees1 #aa2 --cryptogamic plants1 #aa2 --by suckers in ,phlox and barberry1 #aa2 --by tubers in the potato1 #aa2 --in the dahlia1 #aa2 --by bulbs in hyacinths1 ,imatophyllum miniatum1 and tulips1 #aa2 --in ,tigridia conchiflora1 #aa2 --in ,hemerocallis1 #aa2 --doubtful cases1 #aa2 --in ,cytisus adami1 #aa2 --summary of observations on1 #aa4 ,,buffon1 on crossing the wolf and dog1 #a2 --increase of fertility by domestication1 #af2 --improvement of plants by unconscious selection1 #bj2 --theory of reproduction1 #bg4 ,bulimus1 #ac4 ,,bull1 apparent influence of1 on offspring1 #ad4 ,,bullace1 #aj4 ,,bulldog1 degeneration of1 in ,india1 #a2 --recent modifications of1 #a4 ,,bullfinch1 breeding in captivity1 #ah2 --attacking flower-buds1 #ba4 ,,bult1 ,mr41 on the length of pouter pigeons1 #f4 8,,bundtnerschwein10 #c4 ,,bunting1 reed1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,burdach1 crossing of domestic and wild animals1 #c2 --aversion of the wild boar to barley1 #bd4 ,,burke1 ,mr41 inheritance in the horse1 #ab4 ,burlingtonia1 #ag4 ,,burmah1 cats of1 #a4 ,,burmese ponies1 striped1 #b4 ,,burnes1 ,sir ,a41 on the ,karakool sheep1 #c1 #bc2 --varieties of the vine in ,cabool1 #aj2 --hawks1 trained in ,scinde1 #ah2 --pomegranates producing seed1 #ah4 ,,burr1 ,,fearing1 potato-grafting1 #aa4 ,,burton ,,constable1 wild cattle at1 #c4 8,,burzel-,,tauben10 #e4 ,,bussorah carrier1 #e4 ,buteo vulgaris1 copulation of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,butterflies1 polymorphic1 #bg4 ,,buxton1 ,mr41 parrots breeding in ,norfolk1 #ah4 ,,buzareingues1 ,,girou ,,de1 inheritance of tricks1 #ab4 ,,cabanis1 pears grafted on the quince1 #bb4 ,,cabbage1 #i2 --varieties of1 #i2 --unity of character in flowers and seeds of1 #i2 --cultivated by ancient ,celts1 #i2 --classification of varieties of1 #i2 --ready crossing of1 #i1 #ae 7#b71 #ag2 --origin of1 #i2 --increased fertility of1 when cultivated1 #af2 --growth of1 in tropical countries1 #bc4 ,,cabool1 vines of1 #aj4 ,,cabral1 on early cultivation in ,brazil1 #i4 ,,cactus1 growth of cochineal on1 in ,india1 #bc4 ,c,,sar1 ,bos primigenius wild in ,europe in the time of1 #c2 --notice of fowls in ,britain1 #g2 --notice of the importation of horses by the ,celts1 #bj4 ,,caffre fowls1 #g4 ,,caffres1 different kinds of cattle possessed by the1 #c4 8,c,,gias0 a breed of sheep1 #c4 ,cairina moschata1 #f4 ,,calceolarias1 #aj1 #ah2 --effects of seasonal conditions on1 #bc2 --peloric flowers in1 #bf4 ,,caldwell1 ,j41 sporting of sugar-cane1 #aa4 8,,calongos10 a ,columbian breed of cattle1 #c4 ,,calver1 ,mr41 on a seedling peach producing both peaches and nectarines1 #aj4 ,,calyx1 segments of the1 converted into carpels1 #bg4 ,,camel1 its dislike to crossing water1 #f4 ,camellia1 bud-variations in1 #aa2 --recognition of varieties of1 #bb2 --variety in1 hardiness of1 #bd4 ,,cameron1 ,d1 on the cultivation of ,alpine plants1 #ah4 ,,cameronn1 ,baron1 value of ,english blood in racehorses1 #ab4 ,campanula medium1 #bj4 ,,canary-,,bird1 #h2 --conditions of inheritance in1 #ab2 --hybrids of1 #ac2 --period of perfect plumage in1 #ad2 --diminished fertility of1 #ah2 --standard of perfection in1 #bj2 --analogous variation in1 #bf4 ,,cancer1 heredity of1 #ab1 #ad4 ,,canfield1 ,dr41 on horses with curled hair1 #b2 --on feral horses in ,north ,america1 #b4 ,,canine teeth1 development of the1 in mares1 #bd4 ,canis alopex1 #a4 ,canis antarcticus1 #a4 ,canis argentatus1 #ah4 ,canis aureus1 #a4 ,canis cancrivorus1 domesticated and crossed in ,guiana1 #a4 ,canis cinereo-variegatus1 #a4 ,canis fulvus1 #a4 ,canis ing1 the naked ,peruvian dog1 #a4 ,canis latrans1 #a2 --resemblance of1 to the ,hare ,indian dog1 #a2 --one of the original stocks1 #a4 ,canis lupaster1 #a4 ,canis lupus1 var4 occidentalis1 resemblance of1 to ,north ,american dogs1 #a2 --crossed with dogs1 #a2 --one of the original stocks1 #a4 ,canis mesomelas1 #a 7#b74 ,canis primvus1 tamed by ,mr4 ,hodgson1 #a4 ,canis sabbar1 #a4 ,canis simensis1 possible original of greyhounds1 #a4 ,canis thaleb1 #a4 ,canis variegatus1 #a4 ,,canning1 ,a4 ,s4 ,g41 the japanned peacock1 #h4 ,,canterbury ,bell1 doubled by selection1 #bj4 ,,cape of ,good ,hope1 different kinds of cattle at the1 #c2 --no useful plants derived from the1 #i4 ,,capercailzie1 breeding in captivity1 #ah4 ,capra gagrus and ,c4 falconeri1 probable parents of domestic goat1 #c4 ,,capsicum1 #aj4 ,,cardan1 on a variety of the walnut1 #aj2 --on grafted walnuts1 #bb4 ,,cardoon1 #ac4 ,carex rigida1 local sterility of the1 #ah4 ,,carlier1 early selection of sheep1 #bj4 ,,carlisle1 ,sir ,a41 inheritance of peculiarities1 #ab 7#b74 --of polydactylism1 #ab4 8,,carme0 pigeon1 #e4 ,,carnation1 bud-variation in1 #aa2 --variability of1 #aj2 --striped1 produced by crossing red and white1 #ab2 --effect of conditions of life on the1 #bc4 ,,carnivora1 general fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,caroline ,archipelago1 cats of1 #a4 ,,carp1 #ba4 ,,carpels1 variation of1 in cultivated ,cucurbitace1 #aj4 ,,carpenter1 ,w4 ,b41 regeneration of bone1 #bd2 --number of eggs in an ,ascaris1 #bg4 ,carpinus betulus1 #bg4 ,carpophaga oceanica1 #bh4 ,,carr1 ,mr41 effect of changed conditions1 #ag4 ,,carrier pigeon1 #e2 --,english1 #e2 --figured1 #e2 --skull figured1 #e2 --history of the1 #f2 --,persian1 #e2 --,bussorah1 #e2 --,bagadotten1 skull figured1 #e2 --lower jaw figured1 #e4 ,,carri,,re1 origin of radish1 #i2 --intermediate form between the almond and the peach1 #aj2 --glands of peach-leaves1 #aj2 --bud-variation in the vine1 #aa2 --bud-variation in the rose1 #aa2 --inheritance in purple-leaved trees1 #ab2 --on variation1 #aa 7#c72 --grafts of ,aria vestita upon thorns1 #aa2 --variability of hybrids of ,erythrina1 #bb4 ,,carrot1 wild1 effects of cultivation on the1 #i2 --reversion in the1 #ac2 --run wild1 #ac2 --increased fertility of cultivated1 #af2 --experiments on the1 #bc2 --acclimatisation of the1 in ,india1 #bd4 ,carthamus1 abortion of the pappus in1 #bd4 ,,cartier1 cultivation of native plants in ,canada1 #i4 ,,caryophyllace1 frequency of contabescence in the1 #ah4 ,,caspary1 bud-variation in the moss-rose1 #aa2 --on the ovules and pollen of ,cytisus1 #aa2 --crossing of ,cytisus purpureus and ,c4 laburnum1 #aa2 --trifacial orange1 #aa2 --differently-coloured flowers in the wild ,viola lutea1 #aa2 --sterility of the horse-radish1 #ah4 ,,castelnau1 on ,brazilian cattle1 #c4 ,,castration1 assumption of female characters caused by1 #ac 7#b74 ,casuarius bennettii1 #ah4 ,,cat1 domestic1 #a2 --early domestication and probable origin of the1 #a 7#b72 --intercrossing of1 with wild species1 #a 7#b72 --variations of1 #a2 --feral1 #a1 #ac2 --anomalous1 #a2 --polydactylism in1 #ab2 --black1 indications of stripes in young1 #ac2 --tortoiseshell1 #ad2 --effects of crossing in1 #ae2 --fertility of1 #af2 --difficulty of selection in1 #ba 7#b72 --length of intestines in1 #bd2 --white with blue eyes1 deafness of1 #be2 --with tufted ears1 #bf4 ,,cataract1 hereditary1 #ab1 #ad4 ,,caterpillars1 effect of changed food on1 #bc4 ,catleya leopoldii1 #aa4 ,,catlin1 ,g41 colour of feral horses in ,north ,america1 #b4 ,,caton1 ,judge1 wild turkey1 #af4 ,,cattle1 ,european1 their probable origin from three original species1 #c2 --humped1 or zebus1 #c2 --intercrossing of1 #c 7#c72 --wild1 of ,chillingham1 ,hamilton1 ,chartley1 ,burton ,constable1 and ,gisburne1 #a1 #ag2 --colour of feral1 #c1 #bj2 --,british breeds of1 #c 7#b72 --,south ,african breeds of1 #c2 --,south ,american breeds of1 #c1 #bj2 --,niata1 #c 7#b71 #bj 7#b71 #be2 --effects of food and climate on1 #c2 --effects of selection on1 #c 7#b72 --,dutch-buttocked1 #ab2 --hornless1 production of horns in1 #be2 --reversion in1 when crossed1 #ac2 --wildness of hybrid1 #ac2 --short-horned1 prepotency of1 #ad2 --wild1 influence of crossing and segregation on1 #ae2 --crosses of1 #ae1 #af1 #ag2 --of ,falkland ,islands1 #af2 --mutual fertility of all varieties of1 #af2 --effects of interbreeding on1 #ag 7#b72 --shorthorn1 sterility of1 #ag2 --effects of careful selection on1 #bj 7#b72 --naked1 of ,columbia1 #bj2 --crossed with wild banteng in ,java1 #bj2 --with reversed hair in ,banda ,oriental1 #bj2 --selection of trifling characters in1 #bj2 --fashion in1 #bj2 --similarity of best races of1 #ba2 --unconscious selection in1 #bj2 --effects of natural selection on anomalous breeds of1 #ba 7#b72 --light-coloured1 attacked by flies1 #ba1 #be2 --,jersey1 rapid improvement of1 #ba2 --effects of disuse of parts in1 #bd2 --rudimentary horns in1 #bd2 --supposed influence of humidity on the hair of1 #be2 --white spots of1 liable to disease1 #be2 --supposed analogous variation in1 #bf2 --displacement of long-horned by short-horned1 #bh4 ,,cauliflower1 #i2 --free-seeding of1 in ,india1 #ba2 --rudimentary flowers in1 #bd4 ,,cavalier pigeon1 #ae4 ,cavia aperea1 #ah4 ,,cay 7,cebus azar71 sterility of1 in confinement1 #ah4 ,cebus azar1 #ah4 ,cecidomyia1 larval development of1 #bc1 #bg 7#b72 --and ,misocampus1 ,introduction4 ,,cedars of ,lebanon and ,atlas1 #aj4 ,,celery1 turnip-rooted1 #i2 --run wild1 #ac4 ,,cell-,,theory1 #bg4 ,celosia cristata1 #aj4 ,,celsus1 on the selection of seed-corn1 #i1 #bj4 ,,celts1 early cultivation of the cabbage by the1 #i2 --selection of cattle and horses by the1 #bj4 ,cenchrus1 seeds of a1 used as food1 #i4 ,centaurea cyanus1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,cephalopoda1 spermatophores of1 #bg4 ,cerasus padus1 yellow-fruited1 #ab4 ,cercoleptes1 sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,cercopithecus1 breeding of a species of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,cereals1 #i 7#b72 --of the ,neolithic period in ,switzerland1 #i2 --adaptation of1 to soils1 #bd4 ,cereus1 #ac4 ,cereus speciosissimus and phyllanthus1 reversion in hybrids of1 #aa4 ,cervus canadensis1 #ah4 ,cervus dama1 #ag4 ,,cetacea1 correlation of dermal system and teeth in the1 #be4 ,,ceylon1 cats of1 #a2 --pigeon-fancying in1 #f4 ,,chamisso1 on seeding bread-fruit1 #ah4 ,,channel ,islands1 breeds of cattle in1 #c4 ,,chapman1 ,professor1 peach-trees producing nectarines1 #aj4 ,,chapuis1 ,f41 sexual peculiarities in pigeons1 #e2 --effect produced by first male upon the subsequent progeny of the female1 #aa2 --sterility of the union of some pigeons1 #ah4 ,,characters1 fixity of1 #ba2 --latent1 #ac1 #bg 7#b72 --continued divergence of1 #ba2 --antagonistic1 #bg4 ,,chardin1 abundance of pigeons in ,persia1 #f4 ,,charlemagne1 orders as to the selection of stallions1 #bj4 ,,chartley1 wild cattle of1 #c4 ,,chat1 reversion of the upper seeds in the pods of stocks1 #bf4 ,,chaundy1 ,mr41 crossed varieties of cabbage1 #ag4 ,,cheetah1 general sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,cheiranthus cheiri1 #aa4 ,,cherries1 #aj 7#b72 --bud-variation in1 #aa2 --white ,tartarian1 #ba2 --variety of1 with curled petals1 #ba2 --period of vegetation of1 changed by forcing1 #bd4 ,,chevreul1 on crossing fruit-trees1 #ag4 ,,chickens1 differences in characters of1 #g 7#b72 --white1 liable to gapes1 #ba1 #be4 ,,chigoe1 #bc4 ,,chile1 sheep of1 #c4 ,,chillingham cattle1 identical with ,bos primigenius1 #c2 --characters of1 #c4 ,,chiloe1 half-castes of1 #ac4 ,,china1 cats of1 with drooping ears1 #a2 --horses of1 #b2 --striped ponies of1 #b2 --asses of1 #b2 --notice of rabbits in1 by ,confucius1 #d2 --breeds of pigeons reared in1 #f2 --breeds of fowls of1 in fifteenth century1 #g 7#b74 ,,chinchilla1 fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,chinese1 selection practised by the1 #bj2 --preference of the1 for hornless rams1 #bj2 --recognition of the value of native breeds by the1 #bd4 ,,chinese1 or ,himalayan rabbit1 #d4 8,,chivos10 a breed of cattle in ,paraguay1 #c4 ,,choux-,,raves1 #i4 ,,christ1 ,h41 on the plants of the ,swiss ,lake-dwellings1 #i 7#b72 --intermediate forms between ,pinus sylvestris and montana1 #aj4 ,,chrysanthemum1 #aa4 ,chrysotis festiva1 #bc4 ,,cineraria1 effects of selection on the1 #bj4 ,,circassia1 horses of1 #af4 ,,circumcision1 #ab4 ,,cirripedes1 metagenesis in1 #bg4 ,cistus1 intercrossing and hybrids of1 #aj1 #ab1 #ag4 ,,citrons1 #aj 7#b74 8,citrus aurantium fructu variabili10 #aj ,citrus decumana1 #aj4 ,citrus lemonum1 #aj4 ,citrus medica1 #aj 7#b74 ,,clapham1 ,a41 bud-variation in the hawthorn1 #aa4 8,,claquant0 7pigeons71 #e4 8,,claquers0 7pigeons71 #e4 ,,clark1 ,g41 on the wild dogs of ,juan de ,nova1 #a2 --on striped ,burmese and ,javanese ponies1 #b2 --breeds of goats imported into the ,mauritius1 #c2 --variations in the mamm of goats1 #c2 --bilobed scrotum of ,muscat goat1 #c4 ,,clark1 ,h4 ,j41 on fission and gemmation1 #bg4 ,,clarke1 ,r4 ,t41 intercrossing of strawberries1 #aj4 ,,clarke1 ,t41 hybridisation of stocks1 #aa1 #ae4 ,,clarkson1 ,mr41 prize-cultivation of the gooseberry1 #aj4 ,,classification1 explained by the theory of natural selection1 ,introduction4 ,,cleft palate1 inheritance of1 #ab4 ,,clemente1 on wild vines in ,spain1 #aj4 ,,clermont-,,tonnerre1 on the ,st4 ,valry apple1 #aa4 ,,climate1 effect of1 upon breeds of dogs1 #a2 --on horses1 #b 7#b72 --on cattle1 #c 7#b72 --on the fleece of sheep1 #c 7#b72 --on seeds of wheat1 #i2 --on cultivated cabbages1 #i2 --adaptation of maize to1 #i4 ,,climate and pasture1 adaptation of breeds of sheep to1 #c 7#b74 ,,climate and soil1 effects of1 upon strawberries1 #aj4 ,,cline1 ,mr41 on the skull in horned and hornless rams1 #be4 ,,clos1 on sterility in ,ranunculus ficaria1 #ah4 ,,clotzsch1 hybrids of various trees1 #ag4 ,,clover1 pelorism in1 #bf4 ,,coate1 ,mr41 on interbreeding pigs1 #ag4 ,,coccus of apple-trees1 #ba4 ,,cochin fowls1 #g 7#e72 --occipital foramen of1 figured1 #g2 --section of skull of1 figured1 #g2 --cervical vertebra of1 figured1 #g4 ,,cochineal1 persistence of1 #ba2 --preference of1 for a particular cactus1 #bc4 ,cochlearia armoracia1 #ah4 ,,cock1 game1 natural selection in1 #ba2 --spur of1 grafted on the comb1 #bd2 --spur of1 inserted into the ear of an ox1 #bg2 --effect of castration upon the1 #ac4 ,,cock',s-,,comb1 varieties of the1 #aj4 ,,cocoons of silkworms1 variations in1 #h4 ,,codfish1 bulldog1 #c2 --number of eggs in the1 #bg4 ,coelogenys paca1 #ah4 ,,colin1 prepotency of the ass over the horse1 #ad2 --on cross-breeding1 #ae2 --on change of diet1 #bd4 ,,collinson1 ,,peter1 peach-tree producing a nectarine1 #aj4 ,,coloration in pigeons1 an evidence of unity of descent1 #f4 ,,colour1 correlation of1 in dogs1 #a2 --persistence of1 in horses1 #b2 --inheritance and diversity of1 in horses1 #b2 --variations of1 in the ass1 #e2 --of wild or feral cattle1 #e2 --transmission of1 in rabbits1 #d2 --peculiarities of1 in ,himalayan rabbits1 #d2 --influence of1 #ba2 --correlation of1 in head and limbs1 #be2 --correlated with constitutional peculiarities1 #be4 ,,colour and odour1 correlation of1 #be4 ,,colour-,,blindness1 hereditary1 #ab2 --more common in men than in women1 #ad 7#b72 --associated with inability to distinguish musical sounds1 #be4 ,,colours1 sometimes not blended by crossing1 #ae4 ,columba affinis1 ,blyth1 a variety of ,c4 livia1 #f4 ,columba amali1 ,brehm1 a variety of ,c4 livia1 #f4 ,columba guinea1 #f4 ,columba gymnocyclus1 ,gray1 a form of ,c4 livia1 #f4 ,columba gymnophthalmos1 hybrids of1 with ,c4 nas1 #f2 --with ,c4 maculosa1 #f4 ,columba intermedia1 ,strickland1 a variety of ,c4 livia1 #f4 ,columba leucocephala1 #ah4 ,columba leuconota1 #f 7#b74 ,columba littoralis1 #f4 ,columba livia1 #ac 7#b72 --the parent of domestic breeds of pigeons1 #f2 --measurements of1 #e2 --figured1 #e2 --skull figured1 #e2 --lower jaw figured1 #e2 --scapula figured1 #e4 ,columba luctuosa1 #f4 ,columba migratoria and leucocephala1 diminished fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,columba nas1 #f2 --crossed with common pigeon and ,c4 gymnophthalmos1 #f4 ,columba palumbus1 #f1 #bf4 ,columba rupestris1 #f 7#c74 ,columba schimperi1 #f4 ,columba torquatrix1 #bf4 ,columba turricola1 #f4 ,,columbia1 cattle of1 #f4 ,,columbine1 double1 #aj1 #be4 ,,columbus1 on ,west ,indian dogs1 #a4 ,,columella1 on ,italian shepherd dogs1 #a2 --on domestic fowls1 #g 7#b71 #bj1 #bh2 --on the keeping of ducks1 #h2 --on the selection of seed-corn1 #i2 --on the benefits of change of soil to plants1 #ah2 --on the value of native breeds1 #bd4 ,,colza1 #i4 ,,comb1 in fowls1 variations of1 #g2 --sometimes rudimentary1 #bd4 ,,compensation1 law of1 #g4 ,,compensation of growth1 #bf4 ,,complexion1 connection of1 with constitution1 #be4 ,,composit1 double flowers of1 #aj1 #ah1 #bd4 ,,conception1 earlier in ,alderney and ,zetland cows than in other breeds1 #c4 ,,conditions of life1 changed1 effect of1 #bh2 --on horses1 #b2 --upon variation in pigeons1 #f2 --upon wheat1 #i2 --upon trees1 #aj2 --in producing bud-variation1 #aa2 --advantages of1 #ah2 --sterility caused by1 #ah2 --conducive to variability1 #bb2 --accumulative action of1 #bb2 --direct action of1 #bc4 ,,condor1 breeding in captivity1 #ah4 ,,confinement1 effect of1 upon the cock1 #ag4 ,,confucius1 on the breeding of rabbits in ,china1 #d4 ,,conolly1 ,mr41 on ,angora goats1 #be4 ,,constitutional differences in sheep1 #c2 --in varieties of apples1 #aj2 --in pelargoniums1 #aj2 --in dahlias1 #aj4 ,,constitutional peculiarities in strawberries1 #aj2 --in roses1 #aj4 ,,consumption1 hereditary1 #ab2 --period of appearance of1 #ad2 --correlated with complexion1 #be4 ,,contabescence1 #ah 7#b74 ,convolvulus batatas1 #ah1 #bd4 ,convolvulus tricolor1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,cooper1 ,mr41 improvement of vegetables by selection1 #bj4 ,,cooper1 ,,white1 hereditary peculiarities of vision1 #ab2 --association of affections of the eyes with those of other systems1 #be4 ,,corals1 bud-variation in1 #aa2 --non-diffusion of cell-gemmules in1 #bg4 ,,corbi1 ,see ,boitard4 ,,cordemoz1 ,dr41 seedless plants1 #ah4 ,,cornea1 opacity of1 inherited1 #ab4 ,cornus mascula1 yellow-fruited1 #ab4 ,,correlation1 #be2 --of neighbouring parts1 #be2 --of change in the whole body1 and in some of its parts1 #be2 --of homologous parts1 #be2 --inexplicable1 #be1 #bf1 #bg2 --commingling of1 with the effects of other agencies1 #be4 ,,correlation of skull and limbs in swine1 #c2 --of tusks and bristles in swine1 #c2 --of multiplicity of horns and coarseness of wool in sheep1 #c2 --of beak and feet in pigeons1 #e 7#b72 --between nestling down and colour of plumage in pigeons1 #f2 --of changes in silkworms1 #h2 --in plants1 #bj2 --in maize1 #i2 --in pigeons1 #e2 --in fowls1 #g4 ,,corresponding periods1 inheritance at1 #ad4 ,,corrientes1 dwarf cattle of1 #c4 ,,corringham1 ,mr41 influence of selection on pigs1 #bj4 ,,corsica1 ponies of1 #b4 8,,cortbeck0 7pigeon7 of ,aldrovandi1 #f4 ,corvus corone1 and ,c4 cornix1 hybrids of1 #ae4 ,corydalis1 flower of1 #bf4 ,corydalis cava1 #ag 7#b74 ,corydalis solida1 sterile when peloric1 #ah4 ,corydalis tuberosa1 peloric by reversion1 #ac4 ,corylus avellana1 #aj4 ,,costa1 ,a41 on shells transferred from ,england to the ,mediterranean1 #bc4 ,,coues1 ,dr4 ,e41 on a monstrous chicken1 #bg4 ,,cowper1 ,mr4 ,,white1 defective development of the dental system1 #be4 8,,couve ,,tronchuda10 #i ,,cow1 inheritance of loss of one horn in the1 #ab2 --amount of milk furnished by the1 #bd2 --development of six mamm in1 #bd4 ,,cowslip1 #ab4 ,,cracid1 sterility of the1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,cranes1 fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,cratgus oxyacantha1 #aj1 #aa1 #ba1 #bb1 #ab4 ,cratgus monogyna1 #aj4 ,cratgus sibirica1 #aj4 ,,crawfurd1 ,j41 ,malasian cats1 #a2 --horses of the ,malay ,archipelago1 #b2 --horses of ,japan1 #b2 --occurrence of stripes in young wild pigs of ,malacca1 #c2 --on a ,burmese hairy family with deficient teeth1 #ad1 #be2 --,japanese origin of the bantam1 #g2 --game fowls of the ,philippine ,islands1 #bb2 --hybrids of ,gallus varius and domestic fowl1 #g2 --domestication of ,gallus bankiva1 #g2 --feral fowls in the ,pellew ,islands1 #g2 --history of the fowl1 #g2 --history of the domestic duck1 #h2 --domestication of the goose1 #h2 --cultivated plants of ,new ,zealand1 #i2 --breeding of tame elephants in ,ava1 #ah2 --sterility of ,goura coronata in confinement1 #ah2 --geese of the ,philippine ,islands1 #ah4 ,,creepers1 a breed of fowls1 #g4 ,,crested fowl1 #g2 --figured1 #g4 8,,cr,,ve-,c,,ur10 a ,french sub-breed of fowls1 #g4 ,,crisp1 ,dr41 on the brains of the hare and rabbit1 #d4 ,,crocker1 ,c4 ,w41 singular form of ,begonia frigida1 #aj1 #ah2 --sterility in ,ranunculus ficaria1 #ah4 ,,crocus1 #ah4 ,,cross-,,breeding1 permanent effect of1 on the female1 #aa4 ,,crossing1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ai2 --a cause of uniformity1 #ae2 --occurs in all organised beings1 #ae2 --some characters not blended by1 #ae1 #ai2 --modifications and new races produced by1 #ae2 --causes which check1 #af2 --domestication and cultivation favourable to1 #af1 #ai2 --beneficial effects of1 #ag1 #ai2 --necessary in some plants1 #ag1 #ai2 --summary of subject of1 #ag2 --of dogs with wolves in ,north ,america1 #a 7#b72 --with ,canis cancrivorus in ,guiana1 #a2 --of dog with wolf1 described by ,pliny and others1 #a2 --characters furnished by1 brought out by reversion in the progeny1 #ac2 --a direct cause of reversion1 #ac 7#b72 --a cause of variability1 #bb4 ,,crustacea1 macrourous1 differences in the development of the1 #bg4 ,,crustacean with an antenna-like development of the eye-peduncle1 #bg4 ,,cryptogamic plants1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,cuba1 wild dogs of1 #a4 8,,cuckoo10 sub-breeds of fowls1 #g4 ,,cucumber1 variation in number of carpels of1 #aj2 --supposed crossing of varieties of the1 #aa4 ,cucumis momordica1 #aj4 ,cucumis sativa1 #aj4 ,cucurbita1 dwarf1 correlation of leaves in1 #be4 ,cucurbita maxima1 #aj 7#b74 ,cucurbita moschata1 #aj 7#b74 ,cucurbita pepo #aj2 --varieties of1 #aj2 --relation in size and number of fruit of1 #bf4 ,,cucurbitace1 #aj2 --supposed crossing of1 #aa2 --,naudin's observations on hybrids of1 #ah2 --acclimatisation of1 #bd4 8,,culbutants0 7pigeons71 #e4 ,,cultivation of plants1 origin of1 among savages1 #i 7#b72 --fertility increased by1 #af4 ,,cunier1 on hereditary night-blindness1 #ab4 ,,cupples1 ,mr41 pairing of deer-hounds1 #ag4 ,,currants1 of ,tierra del ,fuego1 #i2 --bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,curtis1 ,mr41 bud-variation in the rose1 #aa4 ,,cuvier1 on the gestation of the wolf1 #a2 --the odour of the jackal1 an obstacle to domestication1 #a2 --differences of the skull in dogs1 #a2 --external characters of dogs1 #a2 --elongation of the intestines in domestic pigs1 #c1 #bd2 --fertility of the hook-billed duck1 #h2 --hybrid of ass and zebra1 #ac2 --breeding of animals in the ,jardin des ,plantes1 #ah2 --sterility of predaceous birds in captivity1 #ah2 --facility of hybridisation in confinement1 #ah4 ,,cyanosis1 affection of fingers in1 #be4 ,,cyclamen1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,cynara cardunculus1 #ac4 ,cynips fecundatrix1 #bc4 ,cynocephalus hamadryas1 #ah4 ,cyprinus auratus1 #h4 ,cyrtanthus1 #ag4 ,cyrtopodium1 #ag4 ,cytisus adami1 its bud-variation1 #aa2 --seedlings from1 #aa2 --different views of its origin1 #aa2 --experiments in crossing ,c4 purpureus and laburnum to produce1 #aa2 --its production by ,m4 ,adam1 #aa2 --discussion of origin of1 #aa4 ,cytisus alpino-laburnum1 ovules and pollen of1 #aa2 --origin of1 #aa4 ,cytisus alpinus1 #aa4 ,cytisus laburnum1 #aa 7#c74 ,cytisus purpureo-elongatus1 ovules and pollen of1 #aa2 --production of1 #aa4 ,cytisus purpureus1 #aa4 ,,dahlbohm1 effects of food on hymenoptera1 #bc4 ,,dahlia1 #aj2 --bud-variation by tubers in the1 #aa2 --improvement of1 by selection1 #bj2 --steps in cultivation of1 #bb2 --effect of conditions of life on1 #bc2 --correlation of form and colour in1 #be4 ,,daisy1 hen-and-chicken1 #aj2 --,swan ,river1 #bb4 ,,dalbret1 varieties of wheat1 #i4 ,,dalibert1 changes in the odours of plants1 #bc4 ,,dally1 ,dr41 on consanguineous marriages1 #ag4 ,,daltonism1 hereditary1 #ab4 ,,damaras1 cattle of1 #c1 #bj 7#b74 ,,damson1 #aj4 ,,dandolo1 ,count1 on silkworms1 #h4 ,,daniell1 fertility of ,english dogs in ,sierra ,leone1 #ah4 ,,danish ,middens1 remains of dogs in1 #a4 ,,dappling in horses1 asses1 and hybrids1 #b4 ,,dareste1 ,c41 on the skull of the ,polish fowl1 #g2 --causes of variability1 #bb2 --on the production of monstrous chickens1 #bc2 --co-existence of anomalies1 #be2 --production of double monsters1 #bf4 ,,darvill1 ,mr41 heredity of good qualities in horses1 #ab4 ,,darwin1 ,c41 on ,lepus magellanicus1 #d2 --on the wild potato1 #i2 --dimorphism in the polyanthus and primrose1 #ab4 ,,darwin1 ,dr41 improvement of vegetables by selection1 #bj4 ,,darwin1 ,sir ,f41 wildness of crossed pigs1 #ac4 ,,darwin1 ,g41 consanguineous marriages1 #ag4 ,d',,asso1 monogynous condition of the hawthorn in ,spain1 #aj4 ,dasyprocta aguti1 #ah4 ,,date-,,palm1 varieties of the1 #bb4 ,datura1 #ac2 --variability in1 #bb4 ,datura lvis and stramonium1 reversion in hybrids of1 #aa4 ,datura stramonium1 #ad4 ,,daubenton1 variations in the number of mamm in dogs1 #a2 --proportions of intestines in wild and domestic cats1 #a1 #bd4 ,,daudin1 on white rabbits1 #ba4 ,,davy1 ,dr41 on sheep in the ,west ,indies1 #c4 ,,dawkins1 ,w4 ,,boyd1 history of the dog1 #a2 --origin of cattle1 #c2 --early domestication of ,bos longifrons in ,britain1 #c4 ,,deaf-,,mutes1 non-heredity in1 #ab4 ,,deafness1 inheritance of1 #ad4 ,,dean1 potato-grafting1 #aa4 ,,deby1 wild hybrids of common and musk ducks1 #ac4 ,,de ,,candolle1 ,,alph41 number and origin of cultivated plants1 #i 7#b71 #aj2 --regions which have furnished no useful plants1 #i2 --wild wheat1 #i 7#b72 --wild rye and oats1 #i2 --antiquity of varieties of wheat1 #i2 --apparent inefficacy of selection in wheat1 #i2 --origin and cultivation of maize1 #i1 #be2 --colours of seeds of maize1 #i2 --varieties and origin of the cabbage1 #i 7#b72 --origin of the garden-pea1 #i2 --on the vine1 #aj1 #bd2 --cultivated species of the orange group1 #aj2 --,chinese origin of the peach1 #aj2 --on the peach and nectarine1 #aj 7#b72 --varieties of the peach1 #aj2 --origin of the apricot1 #aj2 --origin and varieties of the plum1 #aj2 --origin of the cherry1 #aj2 --varieties of the gooseberry1 #aj2 --selection practised with forest-trees1 #aj2 --wild fastigiate oak1 #aj2 --dark-leaved varieties of trees1 #aj2 --conversion of stamens into pistils in the poppy1 #aj2 --variegated foliage1 #aj2 --heredity of white hyacinths1 #aj1 #ab2 --changes in oaks dependent on age1 #aa2 --inheritance of anomalous characters1 #ab2 --variation of plants in their native countries1 #bb2 --deciduous bushes becoming evergreen in hot climates1 #bd2 --antiquity of races of plants1 #bh4 ,,de ,,candolle1 ,p41 non-variability of monotypic genera1 #bb2 --relative development of root and seed in ,raphanus sativus1 #bf4 ,,decaisne1 on the cultivation of the wild carrot1 #i2 --varieties of the pear1 #aj2 --intercrossing of strawberries1 #aj2 --fruit of the apple1 #aa2 --sterility of ,lysimachia nummularia1 #ah2 --tender variety of the peach1 #bd4 ,,deer1 assumption of horns by female1 #ac2 --imperfect development of horns in a1 on a voyage1 #ah4 ,,deer1 fallow1 #af4 ,,deerhound1 ,scotch1 difference in size of the sexes of1 #ad2 --deterioration of1 #ag4 ,,degeneration of high-bred races1 under neglect1 #ba4 ,,de ,,jonghe1 ,j41 on strawberries1 #aj2 --soft-barked pears1 #ba2 --on accumulative variation1 #bb2 --resistance of blossoms to frost1 #bd4 ,,delamer1 ,e4 ,s41 on rabbits1 #d 7#b74 ,delphinium ajacis1 #ab4 ,delphinium consolida1 #ab 7#b74 ,,delpino on ,pangenesis1 #bg 7#b74 ,dendrocygna viduata1 #ah4 ,,denny1 ,h41 lice of ,aperea1 #ah4 ,,dentition1 variations of1 in the horse1 #b4 ,,deodar1 #aj4 ,,desmarest1 distribution of white on dogs1 #a2 --cat from the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #a2 --cats of ,madagascar1 #a2 --occurrence of striped young in ,turkish pigs1 #c2 --,french breeds of cattle1 #c2 --horns of goats1 #c2 --on hornless goats1 #bd4 ,,desportes1 number of varieties of roses1 #aj4 ,,devay1 ,dr41 singular case of albinism1 #ab2 --on the marriage of cousins1 #ag2 --on the effects of close interbreeding1 #bb4 ,,development and metamorphosis1 #bg 7#b74 ,,development1 arrests of1 #bd4 ,,development1 embryonic1 #bg4 ,d',,hervey-,,saint-,,denys1 ,l41 on the ,yami1 or imperial race of the ,chinese1 #bj4 ,,dhole1 fertility of the1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,diabetes1 occurrence of1 in three brothers1 #ab4 ,dianthus1 contabescent plants of1 #ah 7#b72 --hybrid varieties of1 #bb4 ,dianthus armeria and deltoides1 hybrids of1 #ae4 ,dianthus barbatus1 #aa4 ,dianthus caryophyllus1 #aa4 ,dianthus japonicus1 contabescence of female organs in1 #ah4 ,diapheromera femorata1 #bg4 ,,dichogamous plants1 #ae4 ,,dickson1 ,mr41 on 8running0 in carnations1 #aa2 --on the colours of tulips1 #aa4 ,dicotyles torquatus and labiatus1 #ah4 ,,dieffenbach1 dog of ,new ,zealand1 #a2 --feral cats in ,new ,zealand1 #a2 --polydactylism in ,polynesia1 #ab4 ,dielytra1 #ac4 ,,diet1 change of1 #bd 7#b74 ,digitalis1 properties of1 affected by culture1 #bc4 ,,digits1 supernumerary1 #ab2 --analogy of1 with embryonic conditions1 #ac2 --fusion of1 #bf4 ,,dimorphic plants1 #ag2 --conditions of reproduction in1 #ai4 ,,dimorphism1 reciprocal1 #ae4 ,,dingo1 #a2 --variation of1 in colour #a2 --half-bred1 attempting to burrow #a2 --attraction of foxes by a female1 #a2 --variations of1 in confinement1 #bb4 ,,dioeciousness of strawberries1 #aj4 ,,diseases1 inheritance of1 #ab 7#b72 --inherited at corresponding periods of life1 #ad2 --peculiar to localities and climates1 #bc2 --obscure correlations in1 #be 7#b72 --affecting certain parts of the body1 #bg2 --occurring in alternate generations1 #bg4 ,,distemper1 fatal to white terriers1 #ba4 ,,disuse and use of parts1 effects of1 #bd1 #bf 7#b71 #bh 7#b72 --in the skeleton of rabbits1 #d2 --in pigeons1 #e2 --in fowls1 #g2 --in ducks1 #h2 --in the silk-moth1 #h4 ,,divergence1 influence of1 in producing breeds of pigeons1 #f4 ,,dixon1 ,e4 ,s41 on the musk duck1 #f2 --on feral ducks1 #f2 --on feral pigeons in ,norfolk ,island1 #f2 --crossing of pigeons1 #f2 --origin of domestic fowls1 #g2 --crossing of ,gallus sonneratii and common fowl1 #g2 --occurrence of white in the young chicks of black fowls1 #g2 --,paduan fowl of ,aldrovandi1 #g2 --peculiarities of the eggs of fowls1 #g2 --chickens1 #g 7#b72 --late development of the tail in ,cochin cocks1 #g2 --comb of lark-crested fowls1 #g2 --development of webs in ,polish fowls1 #g2 --on the voice of fowls1 #g2 --origin of the duck1 #h2 --ducks kept by the ,romans1 #h2 --domestication of the goose1 #h2 --gander frequently white1 #h2 --breeds of turkeys1 #h2 --incubatory instinct of mongrels of non-sitting races of fowls1 #ac2 --aversion of the dove-cot pigeon to pair with fancy birds1 #af2 --fertility of the goose1 #af2 --general sterility of the guans in captivity1 #ah2 --fertility of geese in captivity1 #ah2 --white pea-fowl1 #be4 ,,dobell1 ,h41 inheritance of anomalies of the extremities1 #ab2 --non-reversion to a malformation1 #ac4 ,,dobrizhoffer1 abhorrence of incest by the ,abipones1 #ag4 ,,dogs1 origin of1 #a2 --ancient breeds of1 #a1 #bh2 --of ,neolithic1 ,bronze and ,iron periods in ,europe1 #a 7#b71 #bh2 --resemblance of1 to various species of ,canid1 #a2 --of ,north ,america compared with wolves1 #a 7#b72 --of the ,west ,indies1 ,south ,america1 and ,mexico1 #a 7#b72 --of ,guiana1 #a 7#b72 --naked dogs of ,paraguay and ,peru1 #a 7#b72 --dumb1 on ,juan ,fernandez1 #a2 --of ,juan de ,nova1 #a2 --of ,la ,plata1 #a2 --of ,cuba1 #a2 --of ,st4 ,domingo1 #a2 --correlation of colour in1 #a 7#b72 --gestation of1 #a 7#b72 --hairless ,turkish1 #a1 #ba2 --inter-crossing of different breeds of1 #a2 --characters of different breeds of1 discussed1 #a2 --degeneration of ,european1 in warm climates1 #a 7#b71 #bc2 --liability to certain diseases in different breeds of1 #a 7#b72 --causes of differences of breeds discussed1 #a2 --catching fish and crabs in ,new ,guinea and ,tierra del ,fuego1 #a2 --webbing of the feet in1 #a2 --influence of selection in producing different breeds of1 #a 7#b72 --retention of original habits by1 #f2 --inheritance of polydactylism in1 #ab2 --feral1 #ac2 --reversion in fourth generation of1 #ac2 --of the ,pacific ,islands1 #ae1 #bj1 #bg2 --mongrel1 #ae2 --comparative facility of crossing different breeds of1 #af2 --fertility of1 #af1 #ah2 --interbreeding of1 #ag2 --selection of1 among the ,greeks1 #bj 7#b72 --among savages1 #ag 7#b72 --unconscious selection of1 #bj 7#b72 --valued by the ,fuegians1 #bj 7#b72 --climatal changes in hair of1 #bc2 --production of drooping ears in1 #bd2 --rejection of bones of game by1 #bd2 --inheritance of rudiments of limbs in1 #bd2 --development of fifth toe in1 #bd2 --hairless1 deficiency of teeth in1 #be2 --short-faced1 teeth of1 #bf2 --probable analogous variation in1 #bf2 --extinction of breeds of1 #bh4 ,,dombrain1 ,h4 ,h41 on the auricula1 #bf4 ,,domestication1 essential points in1 #bh 7#b72 --favourable to crossing1 #af1 7#b72 --fertility increased by1 #af1 #ai4 ,,domesticated animals1 origin of1 #ah 7#b72 --occasional sterility of1 under changed conditions1 #ah 7#b74 ,,donders1 ,dr41 hereditary hypermetropia1 #ab4 ,,dorking fowl1 #g 7#b72 --furculum of1 figured1 #g4 ,,dormouse1 #ah4 ,,double flowers1 #ah 7#d72 --produced by selection1 #bj4 ,,doubleday1 ,h41 cultivation of the filbert pine strawberry1 #aj4 ,,douglas1 ,j41 crossing of white and black game-fowls1 #ae4 ,,downing1 ,mr41 wild varieties of the hickory1 #i2 --peaches and nectarines from seed1 #aj 7#b72 --origin of the ,boston nectarine1 #aj2 --,american varieties of the peach1 #aj2 --,north ,american apricot1 #aj2 --varieties of the plum1 #aj2 --origin and varieties of the cherry1 #aj 7#b72 --8twin-cluster pippins10 #aj2 --varieties of the apple1 #aj2 --on strawberries1 #aj 7#b72 --fruit of the wild gooseberry1 #aj2 --effects of grafting upon the seed1 #ab2 --diseases of plum and peach tree1 #ba2 --injury done to stone fruit in ,america by the 8weevil10 #ba2 --grafts of the plum and peach1 #bb2 --wild varieties of pears1 #bb2 --varieties of fruit-trees suitable to different climates1 #bd4 ,,downing1 ,mr4 ,j41 sterility of shorthorns1 #ag4 ,draba sylvestris #ah4 ,,dragon 7pigeon71 #e 7#b74 8,,draijer0 7pigeon71 #e4 ,,drinking1 effects of1 in different climates1 #bc4 ,,dromedary1 selection of1 #bj4 ,,druce1 ,mr41 interbreeding1 #ag2 --value of cross breed of pigs1 #ag4 ,,du ,,chaillu1 fruit-trees in ,west ,africa1 #i4 ,,duchesne1 on ,fragaria vesca1 #aj 7#b74 ,,dufour1 ,,leon1 on ,cecidomyia and ,misocampus1 ,introduction4 ,,duck1 musk1 retention of perching habit by the1 #f2 --feral hybrid of1 #f4 ,,duck1 penguin1 hybrid of1 with ,egyptian goose1 #ad4 ,duck1 wild1 difficulty of rearing1 #ba2 --effects of domestication on1 #bc4 ,,ducks1 breeds of1 #h 7#b72 --origin of1 #h2 --history of1 #h2 --wild1 easily tamed1 #h 7#b72 --fertility of breeds of1 when crossed1 #h2 --with the plumage of ,anas boschas1 #h2 --,malayan penguin1 identical in plumage with ,english1 #h2 --characters of the breeds of1 #h2 --eggs of1 #h2 --effects of use and disuse in1 #h1 #bd2 --feral1 in ,norfolk1 #f2 --,aylesbury1 inheritance of early hatching by1 #ab2 --reversion in1 produced by crossing1 #ac2 --wildness of half-bred wild1 #ac2 --hybrids of1 with the musk duck1 #ac 7#b72 --assumption of male plumage by1 #ac2 --crossing of ,labrador and penguin1 #ae2 --increased fertility of1 by domestication1 #af2 --general fertility of1 in confinement1 #ah2 --increase of size of1 by care in breeding1 #bj2 --change produced by domestication in1 #bb4 ,,dum,,ril1 ,,aug41 breeding of ,siredon in the branchiferous stage1 #bg4 ,,dun-,,coloured horses1 origin of1 #b4 ,,dureau ,,de ,,la ,,malle1 feral pigs in ,louisiana1 #ac2 --feral fowls in ,africa1 #ac2 --bud-variation in the pear1 #aa2 --production of mules among the ,romans1 #af4 ,dusicyon silvestris1 #a4 ,,dutch rabbit1 #d4 ,,dutch roller pigeon1 #e4 ,,dutrochet1 pelorism in the laburnum1 #bf4 ,,duval1 growth of pears in woods in ,france1 #bb4 ,,duval-,,jouve1 on ,leersia oryzoides1 #ae4 ,,duvernoy1 self-impotence in ,lilium candidum1 #ag4 ,,dzierzon1 variability in the characters and habits of bees1 #h4 ,,earle1 ,dr41 on colour-blindness1 #ad1 #be4 ,,ears1 of fancy rabbits1 #d2 --deficiency of1 in breeds of rabbits1 #d2 --rudimentary1 in ,chinese sheep1 #bd2 --drooping1 #bd2 --fusion of1 #bf4 ,,eaton1 ,j4 ,m41 on fancy pigeons1 #e1 7#b72 --variability of characters in breeds of pigeons1 #e2 --reversion of crossed pigeons to coloration of ,columba livia1 #f2 --on pigeon-fancying1 #f 7#c72 --on tumbler-pigeons1 #f1 #ba2 --carrier-pigeon1 #f2 --effects of interbreeding on pigeons1 #ag2 --properties of pigeons1 #bj2 --death of short-faced tumblers in the egg1 #ba2 --,archangel-pigeon1 #ba4 ,,echinodermata1 metagenesis in1 #bg4 ,ectopistes1 specific difference in number of tail-feathers in1 #e4 ,ectopistes migratorius1 sterile hybrids of1 with ,turtur vulgaris1 #f4 ,,edentata1 correlation of dermal system and teeth in the1 #be4 ,,edgeworth1 ,mr41 use of grass-seeds as food in the ,punjab1 #i4 ,,edmonston1 ,dr41 on the stomach in ,larus argentatus and the raven1 #bd4 ,,edwards and ,colin1 on ,english wheat in ,france1 #bd4 ,,edwards1 ,w4 ,f41 absorption of the minority in crossed races1 #ae4 ,,edwards1 ,w4 ,w41 occurrence of stripes in a nearly thoroughbred horse1 #b2 --in foals of racehorses1 #b4 ,,eggs1 of fowls1 characters of1 #g2 --variations of1 in ducks1 #h2 --of the silk-moth1 #h4 ,,egypt1 ancient dogs of1 #a 7#b72 --ancient domestication of the pigeon in1 #f2 --absence of the fowl in ancient1 #g4 ,,egyptian goose1 hybrids of1 with penguin duck1 #h4 ,,ehrenberg1 ,prof41 multiple origin of the dog1 #a2 --dogs of ,lower ,egypt1 #a2 --mummies of ,felis maniculata1 #a4 ,,elements of the body1 functional independence of the1 #bg4 ,,elephant1 its sterility in captivity1#ah4 ,,elk1 ,irish1 correlations in the1 #be 7#b74 ,,elliot1 ,sir ,,walter1 on cats in ,india1 #a2 --on striped horses1 #b2 --,indian domestic and wild swine1 #c2 --pigeons from ,cairo and ,constantinople1 #e2 --fantail pigeons1 #e2 --,lotan tumbler pigeons1 #e2 --a pigeon uttering the sound 8,yahu10 #e2 --,gallus bankiva in ,pegu1 #g4 ,,ellis1 ,mr41 varieties of cultivated plants in ,tahiti1 #bb4 ,,elm1 nearly evergreen ,cornish variety of the1 #aj1 #bd2 --foliage-varieties of the1 #aj4 ,,elm1 weeping1 #aj2 --not reproduced by seed1 #ab4 ,emberiza passerina1 #ah4 ,,embryos1 similarity of1 #a2 --fusion of1 #bf4 ,,engel1 on ,laurus sassafras1 #bc4 ,,england1 domestication of ,bos longifrons in1 #c2 --selection of horses in1 in medival times1 #bj2 --laws against the early slaughter of rams in1 #bj4 ,,ephemerid1 development of the1 #bg4 ,epidendrum cinnabarinum1 #aa2 --and ,e4 zebra1 #ag4 ,,epilepsy1 hereditary1 #ab1 #ad4 ,equus burchellii1 #b4 ,equus quagga1 #b4 ,equus indicus1 #a 7#b74 ,equus tniopus1 #b 7#b71 #ac4 ,,erdt1 disease of the white parts of cattle1 #be4 ,,ericace1 frequency of contabescence in the1 #ah4 ,,erichthonius1 an improver of horses by selection1 #bj4 ,,erman1 on the fat-tailed ,kirghisian sheep1 #c1 #bc2 --on the dogs of the ,ostyaks1 #bj4 ,erodium1 #ac4 ,erythrina crista-galli and ,e4 herbacea1 hybrids of1 #bb4 ,eschscholtzia californica1 self-sterile in ,england1 #ag4 ,,esquilant1 ,mr41 on the naked young of dun-coloured pigeons1 #e4 ,,esquimaux dogs1 their resemblance to wolves1 #a2 --selection of1 #bj4 ,,esquirol1 on hereditary insanity1 #b4 ,,eudes-,,deslongchamps1 on appendages under the jaw of pigs1 #c4 ,euonymus japonicus1 #aa4 ,euphorbia maculata1 #bc4 ,,european cultivated plants1 still wild in ,europe1 #i4 ,,evans1 ,mr41 on the ,lotan tumbler pigeon1 #e4 ,,evelyn1 pansies grown in his garden1 #aj4 ,,everest1 ,r41 on the ,newfoundland dog in ,india1 #a1 #bd2 --degeneration of setters in ,india1 #a2 --,indian wild boars1 #c4 ,,ewes1 hornless1 #bf4 ,,extinction of domestic races1 #f4 ,,eyes1 hereditary peculiarities of the1 #ab2 --loss of1 causing microphthalmia in children1 #ab2 --modification of the structure of1 by natural selection1 #bj 7#b74 ,,eyebrows1 hereditary elongation of hairs in1 #ab4 ,,eyelids1 inherited peculiarities of the1 #ab4 ,,eyton1 ,mr41 on gestation in the dog1 #a2 --variability in number of vertebr in the pig1 #c2 --individual sterility1 #ah4 ,faba vulgaris1 #i4 ,,fabre1 observations on gilops triticoides1 #i4 ,fagus sylvatica1 #ab4 ,,fairweather1 ,mr41 production of double flowers from old seed1 #ah4 ,,faivre1 on the ,primula sinensis1 #aj1 #be4 ,falco albidus1 resumption of young plumage by1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,falco ossifragus1 #ba4 ,falco subbuteo1 copulating in captivity1 #ah4 ,falco tinnunculus1 breeding in captivity1 #ah4 ,,falconer1 ,dr41 sterility of ,english bulldogs in ,india1 #a2 --resemblance between ,sivatherium and ,niata cattle1 #c2 --selection of the silkworm in ,india1 #h2 --fastigiate apple-trees in ,calcutta1 #aj2 --reproduction of a supernumerary thumb after amputation1 #ab2 --fertility of the dhole in captivity1 #ah2 --fertility of ,english dogs in ,india1 #ah2 --sterility of the tiger in captivity1 #ah2 --turkeys at ,delhi1 #ah2 --on ,indian cultivated plants1 #ah2 --,thibet mastiff and goat1 #bc4 ,,falcons1 sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,falkland ,islands1 horses of the1 #b 7#b72 --feral pigs of the1 #c2 --feral cattle of the1 #c 7#b72 --feral rabbits of the1 #d4 ,,fallow deer1 #af1 #ag4 ,,fantail pigeons1 #e1 #ba2 --figured1 #e2 --furculum of1 figured1 #e2 --history of1 #f2 --absence of oil-gland in1 #bf4 ,,faroe ,islands1 pigeons of the1 #f4 ,,fashion1 influence of1 in breeding1 #ba4 ,,fastigiate trees1 #bc1 #bf4 ,,faunas1 geographical differences of1 #a4 8,,favourite0 bull1 #ad1 #ag4 ,,feathers1 homologous variation in1 #be4 ,,feet1 of pigeons1 individual differences of1 #e2 --correlations of external characters in1 #e4 ,,feet and beak1 correlation of1 in pigeons1 #e4 ,,felid1 fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,felis bubastes1 #a4 ,felis caffra1 #a4 ,felis caligulata1 #a4 ,felis chaus1 #a4 ,felis jubata1 #ah4 ,felis lybica1 #a4 ,felis maniculata1 #a4 ,felis manul1 #a4 ,felis ornata1 #a4 ,felis sylvestris1 #a4 ,felis torquata1 #a4 ,,female1 affected by male element1 #bg 7#b74 ,,female flowers1 in male panicle of maize1 #i4 ,,fenn1 ,mr41 grafting potatoes1 #aa4 ,,fennel1 ,italian variety of1 #i4 ,,feral cats1 #a2 --cattle1 #c2 --rabbits1 #d 7#b72 --,guinea fowl1 #h2 --animals and plants1 reversion in1 #ac 7#c74 ,,ferguson1 ,mr41 supposed plurality of origin of domestic fowls1 #g2 --chickens of black game-fowls1 #g2 --relative size of eggs of fowls1 #g2 --yolk of eggs of game-fowls1 #g2 --early pugnacity of game-cocks1 #g2 --voice of the ,malay fowl1 #g2 --effects of interbreeding on fowls1 #ag2 --selection in ,cochin-,china fowls1 #bj2 --on fashion in poultry1 #ba4 ,,fernandez1 on ,mexican dogs1 #a4 ,,ferns1 reproduction of abnormal forms of1 by spores1 #aa2 --non-diffusion of cell-gemmules in1 #bg4 ,,ferrets1 #af1 #ah1 #bj4 ,,fertilisation1 artificial1 of the ,st4 ,valry apple1 #aj 7#b74 ,,fertility1 various degrees of1 in sheep1 #c2 --unlimited mutual1 of breeds of pigeons1 #f2 --comparative1 of mongrels and hybrids1 #af 7#b71 #ai2 --influence of nourishment on1 #af2 --diminished by close interbreeding1 #ag1 #ai2 --reduced1 of ,chillingham wild cattle1 #ag2 --of domesticated varieties when crossed1 #ai4 ,festuca1 species of1 propagated by bulblets1 #ah4 ,,filberts1 spared by tomtits1 #ba4 ,,filippi1 on the breeding of branchiferous tritons1 #bg4 ,,finches1 general sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,finnikin 7pigeon71 #e4 ,,finnocchio1 #i4 ,,fir1 ,scotch1 acclimatisation of1 #bd4 ,,fish1 ,mr41 advantage of change of soil to plants1 #ah4 ,,fishes1 regeneration of portions of fins of1 #ac2 --variability of1 when kept in tanks1 #bb2 --marine1 living in fresh water1 #bd2 --double monsters of1 #bf4 ,,fission and gemmation1 #bg4 ,,fitch1 ,mr41 persistency of a variety of the pea1 #i4 ,,fittest1 survival of the1 #a4 ,,fitzinger1 origin of sheep1 #c2 --,african maned sheep1 #c4 ,,fitzpatrick1 ,mr41 potato-grafting1 #aa4 ,,fixedness of character1 conditions of1 discussed1 #ad4 ,,flax1 found in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i2 --climatal difference in products of1 #bc4 ,,fleece1 fineness of1 in ,austrian merinos1 #bj4 ,,fleischmann1 on ,german sheep crossed with merinos1 #ae4 8,,florentiner-,,taube10 #e 7#b74 ,,flounder1 #a4 ,,flourens1 crossing of wolf and dog1 #a2 --prepotency of the jackal over the dog1 #ad2 --hybrids of the horse and ass1 #ad2 --breeding of monkeys in ,europe1 #ah4 ,,flower-,,garden1 earliest known1 in ,europe1 #bj4 ,,flowers1 capricious transmission of colour-varieties in1 #ab 7#b72 --tendency to uniformity in striped1 #ad2 --scorching of1 dependent on colour1 #ba2 --change in1 caused by conditions of life1 #bc2 --rudimentary1 #bd2 --relative position of1 to the axis1 #bf4 ,f,,tation1 abdominal1 #bd4 ,,foley1 ,mr41 wild varieties of pears1 #bb4 ,,foliage1 inherited peculiarities of1 #aj2 --variegation of1 #aj2 --bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,food1 influence of1 on the pig1 #c2 --on cattle1 #c2 --excess of1 a cause of variability1 #bb4 ,,forbes1 ,d41 on ,chilian sheep1 #c2 --on the horses of ,spain1 ,chili1 and the ,pampas1 #b4 ,formica rufa1 #bb4 ,,fortune1 ,r41 sterility of the sweet potato in ,china1 #ah2 --development of axillary bulbs in the yam1 #ah4 ,,fowl1 common1 breeds of1 #g2 --supposed plurality of origin1 #g2 --early history of1 #g2 --causes of production of breeds of1 #g2 --origin of1 from ,gallus bankiva1 #g 7#b72 --feral1 notices of1 #g 7#b72 --reversion and analogous variation in1 #g1 #ac 7#b71 #bf 7#b72 --8cuckoo0 sub-breeds of1 #g2 --history of1 #g2 --structural characters of1 #g2 --sexual peculiarities of1 #g1 #ad2 --external differences of1 #g2 --differences of breeds of1 from ,g4 bankiva1 #g2 --osteological characters of1 #g2 --effects of disuse of parts in1 #g1 #bd2 --feral1 #f1 #ac2 --polydactylism in1 #ab2 --fertility of1 increased by domestication1 #af1 #ah2 --sterility of1 under certain conditions1 #ah2 --influence of selection on1 #bj 7#c72 --evils of close interbreeding of1 #ag 7#b72 --crossing of1 #ae2 --prepotency of transmission in1 #ad2 --rudimentary organs in1 #bd2 --crossing of non-sitting varieties of1 #ac 7#b72 --homology of wing and leg feathers in1 #be2 --hybrids of1 with pheasants and ,gallus sonneratii1 #ac2 --black-skinned1 #bj2 --black1 preyed upon by the osprey in ,ireland1 #ba2 --five-toed1 mentioned by ,columella1 #bh2 --rumpless1 tailed chickens produced by1 #ac2 --,dorking1 crosses of1 #ae2 --form of comb and colour of plumage in1 #ba2 --game1 crossing of white and black1 #ae2 --five-spurred1 #bg2 --,spanish1 liable to suffer from frost1 #bd2 --,polish1 peculiarities of skull of1 #be4 ,,fox1 sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,fox1 ,s4 ,,bevan1 races of bees1 #h4 ,,fox1 ,w4 ,,darwin1 gestation of the dog1 #a2 --8,negro0 cat1 #a2 --reversion of sheep in colour1 #ac2 --period of gestation in the pig1 #c2 --young of the ,himalayan rabbit1 #d2 --crossing of wild and domestic turkeys1 #h2 --reversion in crossed musk ducks1 #ac2 --spontaneous segregation of varieties of geese1 #af2 --effects of close interbreeding upon bloodhounds1 #ag2 --deafness of white cats with blue eyes1 #be4 ,,foxhounds1 #a1 #ag4 ,fragaria chiloensis1 #aj4 ,fragaria collina1 #aj4 ,fragaria dioica of ,duchesne1 #aj4 ,fragaria elatior1 #aj4 ,fragaria grandiflora1 #aj4 ,fragaria vesca1 #aj4 ,fragaria virginiana1 #aj4 ,fraxinus excelsior1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab4 ,fraxinus lentiscifolia1 #ab4 ,,friesland cattle1 probably descended from ,bos primigenius1 #c4 ,,frillback pigeon1 #e2 --,indian1 #e4 ,fringilla ciris1 #ah4 ,fringilla spinus1 #ah4 ,,frizzled fowls1 #g2 --horses1 #b4 ,,frog1 polydactylism in the1 #ab4 ,,fruit1 seedless1 #ah4 ,,fruit-,,trees1 varieties of1 occurring wild1 #i4 ,,fry1 ,mr41 on fertile hybrid cats1 #a2 --on feral fowls in ,ascension1 #g4 ,,fuchsias1 origin of1 #aj2 --bud-variation in1#aa4 ,fuchsia coccinea and fulgens1 twin seed produced by crossing1 #aa4 ,,fuegians1 their superstition about killing young water-fowl1 #i2 --selection of dogs by the1 #bj2 --their comparative estimation of dogs and old women1 #bj2 --their power of distant vision1 #bj4 ,,fungi1 parasitic1 #bc 7#b74 ,f,,rbringer1 ,dr41 on nails of ,saurians1 #bg4 ,,furculum1 characters and variations of the1 in pigeons1 #e2 --alteration of1 by disuse1 in pigeons1 #e2 --characters of1 in fowls1 #g4 ,,fusion of homologous parts1 #bg4 ,,gait1 inheritance of peculiarities of1 #ab4 ,,galapagos ,archipelago1 its peculiar fauna and flora1 ,introduction ,galeobdolon luteum1 pelorism in1 #ac1 #bf4 ,,galls1 #ac 7#b74 ,,gall-,,gnats1 #bc4 ,,gall-,,like excrescences not inherited1 #ac4 ,,gallinaceous birds1 restricted range of large1 #g2 --general fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,gallinula chloropus1 #e4 ,gallinula nesiotis1 #h4 ,,gallesio1 species of oranges1 #aj2 --hybridisation of oranges1 #aj2 --persistency of races in the peach1 #aj2 --supposed specific distinctions of peach and nectarine#aj2 --bizzarria orange1 #aa2 --crossing of red and white carnations1 #aa2 --crossing of the orange and lemon1 #aa1 #bg2 --effect of foreign pollen on maize1 #d2 --spontaneous crossing of oranges1 #ae2 --monstrosities a cause of sterility in plants1 #ah2 --seeding of ordinarily seedless fruits1 #ah2 --sterility of the sugar-cane1 #ah2 --tendency of male flowers to become double1 #ah2 --effects of selection in enlarging fruit1 etc41 #bj2 --variation of the orange-tree in ,north ,italy1 #bb2 --naturalisation of the orange in ,italy1 #bd4 ,gallus neus1 a hybrid of ,g4 varius and the domestic fowl1 #g4 ,gallus bankiva1 probable original of domestic fowls1 #g 7#c72 --game-fowl1 nearest to1 #g2 --crossed with ,g4 sonneratii1 #g2 --its character and habits1 #g1 #af2 --differences of various breeds of fowls from1 #g2 --occipital foramen of1 figured1 #g2 --skull of1 figured1 #g2 --cervical vertebra of1 figured1 #g2 --furculum of1 figured1 #g2 --reversion to1 in crossed fowls1 #ac 7#b72 --hybrid of1 with ,g4 varius1 #g1 #ac2 --number of eggs of1 #af4 ,gallus ferrugineus1 #g4 ,gallus furcatus1 #g4 ,gallus giganteus1 #g4 ,gallus sonneratii1 characters and habits of1 #g2 --hybrids of1 #g1 #ac ,gallus stanleyi1 hybrids of1 #g4 ,gallus temminckii1 probably a hybrid1 #g4 ,gallus varius1 characters and habits of1 #g2 --hybrids and probable hybrids of1 #g4 ,,galton1 ,mr41 fondness of savages for taming animals1 #a2 --cattle of ,benguela1 #c2 --on hereditary talent1 #ab2 --on ,pangenesis1 #bg4 ,,gambier1 ,lord1 his early cultivation of the pansy1 #aj4 ,,game-,,fowl1 #g 7#b74 ,,gapes1 #ba4 ,,garcilazo ,,de ,,la ,,vega1 annual hunts of the ,peruvian ,incas1 #bj4 ,,garnett1 ,mr41 migratory propensities of hybrid ducks1 #ac4 ,,garrod1 ,dr41 on hereditary gout1 #ab4 ,g,,rtner1 on the sterility of hybrids1 #f1 #af1 #ai2 --acquired sterility of varieties of plants when crossed1 #aj2 --sterility in transplanted plants1 and in the lilac in ,germany1 #ah2 --mutual sterility of blue and red flowers of the pimpernel1 #ai2 --supposed rules of transmission in crossing plants1 #ad2 --on crossing plants1 #ae1 #ag 7#c72 --on repeated crossing1 #bb2 --absorption of one species by another1 when crossed1 #ae2 --crossing of varieties of the pea1 #aa2 --crossing maize1 #af2 --crossing of species of ,verbascum1 #ae1 #af2 --reversion in hybrids1 #ac 7#c72 --of ,cereus1 #aa2 --of ,tropolum majus and minus1 #aa2 --variability of hybrids1 #bb2 --variable hybrids from one variable parent1 #bb2 --graft hybrid produced by inoculation in the vine1 #aa2 --effect produced by grafts on the stock1 #aa1 #bc2 --tendency of hybrid plants to produce double flowers1 #ah2 --production of perfect fruit by sterile hybrids1 #ah2 --sexual elective affinity1 #ai2 --self-impotence in ,lobelia1 ,verbascum1 ,lilium1 and ,passiflora1 #ag 7#b72 --on the action of pollen1 #af2 --fertilisation of ,malva1 #aa1 #bg2 --prepotency of pollen1 #ai2 --prepotency of transmission in species of ,nicotiana1 #ad2 --bud-variation in ,pelargonium zonale1 #aa2 --in nothera biennis1 #aa2 --in ,achilla millefolium1 #aa2 --effect of manure on the fertility of plants1 #ah2 --on contabescence1 #ah2 --inheritance of plasticity1 #ba2 --villosity of plants1 #bc4 ,,gasparini1 a genus of pumpkins1 founded on stigmatic characters1 #aj4 ,,gaudichaud1 bud-variation in the pear1 #aa2 --apple-tree with two kinds of fruit on branch1 #aa4 ,,gay1 on ,fragaria grandiflora1 #aj2 --on ,viola lutea and tricolor1 #aj2 --on the nectary of ,viola grandiflora1 #aj4 ,,gayal1 domestication of the1 #c4 ,,gayot4 ,see ,moll4 ,,geese 7anseres71 general fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,gemmation and fission1 #bg4 ,,gemmules1 or cell-gemmules1 #bg 7#c74 ,,generation1 alternate1 #bg 7#c74 ,,generation1 sexual1 #bg4 ,,genet1 fertility of the1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,genius1 inheritance of1 #ab4 ,gentiana amarella1 #ah4 ,,geoffroy ,,saint-,,hilaire1 production of monstrous chickens1 #bc2 --8,loi de l'affinite de soi pour soi10 #bf2 --compensation of growth1 #bf4 ,,geoffroy ,,saint-,,hilaire1 ,,isid41 origin of the dog1 #a2 --barking of a jackal1 #a2 --period of gestation and odour of the jackal1 #a2 --anomalies in the teeth of dogs1 #a2 --variations in the proportions of dogs1 #a2 --webbed feet of ,newfoundland dogs1 #a2 --crossing of domestic and wild cats1 #a2 --domestication of the arni1 #c2 --supposed introduction of cattle into ,europe from the ,east1 #c2 --absence of interdigital pits in sheep1 #c2 --origin of the goat1 #c2 --feral geese1 #f2 --ancient history of the fowl1 #g2 --skull of the ,polish fowl1 #g2 --preference of the ,romans for the liver of white geese1 #h2 --polydactylism1 #ab2 --assumption of male characters by female bird1 #ac2 --transmission and blending of characters in hybrids1 #ae2 --refusal of animals to breed in captivity1 #ah2 --on the ,guinea-pig1 #ah2 --silkworms producing white cocoons1 #bj2 --on the carp1 #ba2 --on ,helix lactea1 #bc2 --on monstrosities1 #bb2 --injury to the embryo a cause of monstrosity1 #bb2 --alteration in the coat of horses in coal-mines1 #bc2 --length of the intestines in wild and tame animals1 #bd 7#b72 --inheritance of rudimentary limbs in the dog1 #bd2 --correlation in monstrosities1 #be2 --supernumerary digits in man1 #be2 --co-existence of anomalies1 #be2 --presence of hairs and teeth in ovarian tumours1 #bg2 --development of teeth on the palate in the horse1 #bg4 ,,geographical differences of faunas1 ,introduction4 ,,geological succession of organisms1 ,introduction4 ,geranium1 #ac4 ,geranium phum and pyrenaicum1 #bb4 ,geranium pratense1 #aa4 ,,gerard1 asserted climatal change in ,burgundian bees1 #h4 ,,gerarde1 on varieties of the hyacinth1 #aj4 ,,gerst,,cker1 on hive-bees1 #h4 ,,gervais1 ,prof41 origin of the dog1 #a2 --resemblance of dogs and jackals1 #a2 --taming of the jackal1 #a2 --number of teeth in dogs1 #a2 --breeds of dogs1 #a2 --on tertiary horses1 #b2 --,biblical notices of horses1 #b2 --species of ,ovis1 #c2 --wild and domestic rabbits1 #d2 --rabbits from ,mount ,sinai and ,algeria1 #d2 --earless rabbits1 #d2 --batrachia with doubled limbs1 #bg4 ,,gestation1 period of1 in the dog1 wolf1 etc41 #a2 --in the pig1 #c 7#b72 --in cattle1 #c1 #be2 --in sheep1 #c4 ,,gestures1 inheritance of peculiarities in1 #ab4 8,,ghoondooks0 a sub-breed of fowls1 #g4 ,,ghor-,,khur1 #ac4 ,,giles1 ,mr41 effect of cross-breeding in the pig1 #aa4 ,,giraffe1 co-ordination of structure of1 #bj4 ,,girard1 period of appearance of permanent teeth in dogs1 #a4 ,,giraud-,,teulon1 cause of short sight1 #ab4 ,,girou ,,de ,,buzareingues1 inheritance in the horse1 #ab2 --reversion by age in cattle1 #ac2 --prepotency of transmission of character in sheep and cattle1 #ad2 --on crossing gourds1 #af4 ,,gisburne1 wild cattle at1 #c4 ,gladiolus1 #aj2 --self-impotence of hybrids of1 #ag4 ,gladiolus colvillii1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,glands1 compensatory development of1 #bd4 ,,glastonbury thorn1 #aj4 ,,glenny1 ,mr41 on the ,cineraria1 #bj4 ,,gloede1 ,f41 on strawberries1 #aj4 ,,gloger1 on the wings of ducks1 #bd4 8,,glouglou0 7pigeon71 #e4 ,gloxini1 peloric1 #aj1 #ah4 ,,gmelin1 on red cats1 at ,tobolsk1 #a4 ,,goat1 #c 7#b72 --polydactylism in the1 #ab2 --sexual differences in horns of1 #ad2 --valued by ,south ,africans1 #bj2 --,thibet1 #bc2 --amount of milk and development of udders in the1 #bd2 --hornless1 rudimentary bony cores in1 #bd2 --,angora1 #be4 ,,godine1 on prepotency of transmission41 #ad ,,godron1 odour of the hairless ,turkish dog1 #a2 --differences in the skull of dogs1 #a2 --increase of breeds of horses1 #b2 --crossing of domestic and wild swine1 #c2 --on goats1 #c 7#b72 --colour of the skin in fowls1 #g2 --bees of north and south of ,france1 #h2 --introduction of the silkworm into ,europe1 #h2 --variability in the silkworm1 #h2 --supposed species of wheat1 #i 7#b72 --on gilops triticoides11 #i2 --variable presence of barbs in grasses1 #i2 --colours of the seeds of maize1 #i2 --unity of character in cabbages1 #i2 --correlation of colour and odour1 #i2 --effect of heat and moisture on the cabbage1 #i2 --on the cultivated species of ,brassica1 #i2 --on the ,rouncival and sugar peas1 #i2 --variation in the numbers of peas in the same pod1 #i2 --wild vines in ,spain1 #aj2 --on raising peaches from seed1 #aj2 --supposed specific distinctness of peach and nectarine1 #aj2 --nectarine producing peaches1 #aj2 --on the flower of ,corydalis1 #bf2 --origin and variations of the plum1 #aj2 --origin of the cherry1 #aj2 --reversion of single-leaved strawberries1 #aj2 --five-leaved variety of ,fragaria collina1 #aj2 --supposed immutability of specific characters1 #aj 7#b72 --varieties of ,robinia1 #aj2 --permanency of the simple-leaved ash1 #aj2 --non-inheritance of certain mutilations1 #ab2 --wild turnips1 carrots1 and celery1 #ac2 --peloria1 #ac2 --prepotency of a goat-like ram1 #ad2 --benefit of change of soil to plants1 #ah2 --fertility of peloric flowers of ,corydalis solida1 #ah2 --seeding of ordinarily seedless fruit1 #ah2 --sexual sterility of plants propagated by buds1 etc41 #ah2 --increase of sugar in beet-root1 #bj2 --effects of selection in enlarging particular parts of plants1 #bj2 --growth of the cabbage in the tropics1 #bc2 --rejection of bitter almonds by mice1 #ba2 --influence of marshy pasture on the fleece of sheep1 #bc2 --on the ears of ancient ,egyptian pigs1 #bd2 --primitive distinctness of species1 #bh2 --solid-hoofed swine1 #bh4 ,,goethe1 on compensation of growth1 #bf4 ,,gold-,,fish1 #h 7#b71 #ba4 ,,gomara1 on ,south ,american cats1 #a4 ,,gongora1 number of seeds in the1 #bg4 ,,goodman1 three-toed cows1 #ab4 ,,goose1 ancient domestication of1 #h2 --sacred to ,juno in ,rome1 #h2 --inflexibility of organisation of1 #h2 --skull perforated in tufted1 #h2 --characters of breeds and sub-breeds of1 #h 7#b72 --variety of1 from ,sebastopol1 #h1 #bg2 --feral1 in ,la ,plata1 #f2 --,egyptian1 hybrid of1 with penguin duck1 #ad2 --spontaneous segregation of varieties of1 #af2 --fertility of1 increased by domestication1 #af2 --decreased fertility of1 in ,bogota1 #ah2 --sterility of1 in the ,philippine ,islands1 #ah2 --selection of1 #bj2 --white1 preference of the ,romans for the liver of1 #bj2 --persistency of character in1 #bb2 --,egyptian1 change in breeding season of1 #bd4 ,,gooseberry1 #aj2 --bud-variation in the1 #aa2 --,whitesmith's1 #ba4 ,g,,ppert1 on monstrous poppies1 #ah4 ,,gosse1 ,p4 ,h41 feral dogs in ,jamaica1 #a2 --feral pigs of ,jamaica1 #c2 --feral rabbits of ,jamaica1 #d2 --on ,columba leucocephala1 #f2 --feral ,guinea fowl in ,jamaica1 #f2 --reproduction of individual peculiarities by gemmation in a coral1 #aa2 --frequency of striped legs in mules1 #ac4 ,,gould1 ,dr41 on hereditary hmorrhage1 #ab4 ,,gould1 ,,john1 origin of the turkey1 #h4 ,goura coronata and ,victori1 hybrids of1 #f1 #ah4 ,,gourds1 #aj2 --crossing of varieties of1 #af2 --ancient ,peruvian variety of1 #bh4 ,,gout1 inheritance of1 #ab2 --period of appearance of1 #ad4 ,,graba1 on the pigeon of the ,faroe ,islands1 #f4 ,,grafting1 #ah2 --effects of1 #bb 7#b72 --upon the stock1 #aa2 --upon the variability of trees1 #bb2 --changes analogous to bud-variation produced by1 #aa 7#b74 ,,graft-,,hybrids1 #aa 7#b71 #bg4 ,,grapes1 bud-variation in1 #aa2 --cross of white and purple1 #aa2 --green1 liable to disease1 #be2 --effect of foreign pollen on1 #aa4 ,,grasses1 seeds of1 used as food by savages1 #i4 ,,gray1 ,,asa1 superior wild varieties of fruit-trees1 #i2 --cultivated native plants of ,north ,america1 #i1 #aj2 --non-variation of weeds1 #i2 --supposed spontaneous crossing of ,cucurbitace1 #aa2 --pre-ordination of variation1 #aa2 --progeny of husked form of maize1 #i2 --wild intermediate forms of strawberries1 #aj4 ,,gray1 ,g4 ,r41 on ,columba gymnocyclus11 #f4 ,,gray1 ,j4 ,e41 on ,sus pliciceps1 #c2 --on a variety of the gold-fish1 #h2 --hybrids of the ass and zebra1 #ac 7#b72 --on the breeding of animals at ,knowsley1 #ah2 --on the breeding of birds in captivity1 #ah4 ,,greene1 ,j4 ,,reay1 on the development of the echinodermata1 #bg4 ,,greenhow1 ,mr41 on a ,canadian web-footed dog1 #a4 ,,greening1 ,mr41 experiments on ,abraxas grossulariata1 #bc4 ,,gregson1 ,mr41 experiments on ,abraxas grossulariata1 #bc4 ,,grey1 ,sir ,,george1 preservation of seed-bearing plants by the ,australian savages1 #i2 --detestation of incest by ,australian savages1 #ag4 ,,greyhounds1 sculptured on ,egyptian monuments1 and in the ,villa of ,antoninus1 #a2 --modern breed of1 #a2 --crossed with the bulldog1 by ,lord ,orford1 #c2 --close interbreeding of1 #ag2 --co-ordination of structure of1 due to selection1 #bj 7#b72 --,italian1 #ba4 ,,greyness1 inherited at corresponding periods of life1 #ad4 ,,grieve1 ,mr41 on early-flowering dahlias1 #aj4 ,,grigor1 ,mr41 acclimatisation of the ,scotch fir1 #bd4 ,,gr,,nland1 hybrids of gilops and wheat1 #af4 ,,groom-,,napier1 ,c4 ,o41 on the webbed feet of the otter-hound1 #a4 ,,gros1 on ,pangenesis1 #bg4 8,,grosses-,,gorges0 7pigeons71 #e4 ,,ground-,,tumbler1 ,indian1 #e4 ,,grouse1 fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,grus montigresia1 cinerea1 and antigone1 #ah4 ,,guanacos1 selection of1 #bj4 ,,guans1 general fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,guelder-,,rose1 #ai4 ,,guelderland fowls1 #f4 ,,guiana1 selection of dogs by the ,indians of1 #bj4 ,,guinea fowl1 #h2 --feral1 in ,ascension and ,jamaica1 #f1 #ac2 --indifference of1 to change of climate1 #ah4 ,,guinea pig1 #ab1 #ah4 ,g,,ldenstadt1 on the jackal1 #a4 ,,gull1 herring1 breeding in confinement1 #ah4 ,,gulls1 general sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,gulo1 sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,g,,nther1 ,a41 on tufted ducks and geese1 #g2 --on the regeneration of lost parts in batrachia1 #bg4 ,,gurney1 ,mr41 owls breeding in captivity1 #ah2 --appearance of 8black-shouldered0 among ordinary peacocks1 #h4 ,,habit1 influence of1 in acclimatisation1 #bd4 ,h,,ckel1 on fissiparous reproduction1 #bg2 --on cells1 #bg2 --on the double reproduction of medus1 #bg2 --on inheritance1 #bg4 ,,hackles1 peculiarities of1 in fowls1 #g4 ,,hair1 on the face1 inheritance of1 in man1 #ab2 --peculiar lock of1 inherited1 #ab2 --growth of1 under stimulation of skin1 #be2 --homologous variation of1 #be2 --development of1 in the brain1 #bg4 ,,hair and teeth1 correlation of1 #be4 ,,hairy family1 corresponding period of inheritance in1 #ad4 ,,half-,,castes1 character of1 #ac4 ,,half-,,lop rabbits1 figured and described1 #d1 7#b72 --skull of1 #d4 ,halitus leucocephalus1 copulating in captivity1 #ah4 ,,hallam1 ,col41 on a two-legged race of pigs1 #ab4 ,,hallet1 ,major1 selection in cereals1 #e2 --on pedigree wheat1 #i4 ,,hamburgh fowl1 #g 7#b72 --figured1 #g4 ,,hamilton1 wild cattle of1 #c4 ,,hamilton1 ,dr41 on the assumption of male plumage by the hen pheasant1 #ac4 ,,hamilton1 ,f4 ,,buchanan1 on the shaddock1 #aj2 --varieties of ,indian cultivated plants1 #bb4 ,,hancock1 ,mr41 sterility of tamed birds1 #ah 7#b74 ,,handwriting1 inheritance of peculiarities in1 #ab4 ,,hanmer1 ,sir ,j41 on selection of flower-seeds1 #bj4 ,,hansell1 ,mr41 inheritance of dark yolks in duck's eggs1 #h4 ,,harcourt1 ,e4 ,v41 on the ,arab boar-hound1 #a2 --aversion of the ,arabs to dun-coloured horses1 #b4 ,,hardy1 ,mr41 effect of excess of nourishment on plants1 #bb4 ,,hare1 hybrids of1 with rabbit1 #d2 --sterility of the1 in confinement1 #ah2 --preference of1 for particular plants1 #ba4 ,,hare-,,lip1 inheritance of1 #ab4 ,,harlan1 ,dr41 on hereditary diseases1 #ab4 ,,hartman1 on the wild ass1 #b4 ,,harvey1 ,mr41 monstrous red and white ,african bull1 #c4 ,,harvey1 ,prof41 singular form of ,begonia frigida1 #aj2 --effects of cross-breeding on the female1 #aa2 --monstrous saxifrage1 #ah4 ,,hasora wheat1 #i4 ,,hautbois strawberry1 #aj4 ,,hawker1 ,col41 on call or decoy ducks1 #h4 ,,hawthorn1 varieties of1 #aj 7#b72 --pyramidal1 #aj2 --pendulous hybridised1 #ab2 --changes of1 by age1 #aj1 #aa2 --bud-variation in the1 #aa2 --flower buds of1 attacked by bullfinches1 #ba4 ,,hayes1 ,dr41 character of ,esquimaux dogs1 #a4 ,,haywood1 ,w41 on the feral rabbits of ,porto ,santo1 #d4 ,,hazel1 purple-leaved1 #aj1 #aa1 #be4 ,,head of wild boar and ,yorkshire pig1 figured1 #c4 ,,head and limbs1 correlated variability of1 #be4 ,,headache1 inheritance of1 #ad4 ,,heartsease1 #aj2 --change produced in the1 by transplantation1 #aa2 --reversion in1 #ac 7#b72 --effects of selection on1 #bj2 --scorching of1 #ba2 --effects of seasonal conditions on the1 #bc2 --annual varieties of the1 #bd4 ,,heat1 effect of1 upon the fleece of sheep1 #c4 ,,heber1 ,bishop1 on the breeding of the rhinoceros in captivity1 #ah4 ,,hebrides1 cattle of the1 #c2 --pigeons of the1 #f4 ,,heer1 ,o41 on the plants of the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i2 --on the cereals1 #i2 --on the peas1 #i2 --on the vine growing in ,italy in the ,bronze age1 #aj4 ,,heimann1 potato-grafting1 #aa4 ,helix lactea1 #bc4 ,hemerocallis fulva and flava1 interchanging by bud-variation1 #aa4 ,,hemlock1 yields no conicine in ,scotland1 #bc4 ,,hemp1 differences of1 in various parts of ,india1 #ah2 --climatal difference in products of1 #bc4 ,,hempseed1 effect of1 upon the colour of birds1 #bc4 ,,hermaphrodite flowers1 occurrence of1 in maize1 #i4 ,,hen1 assumption of male characters by the1 #ac 7#b72 --development of spurs in the1 #bd4 8,,hennies10 or hen-like male fowls1 #g4 ,,henry1 ,t4 ,a41 a variety of the ash produced by grafting1 #aa2 --crossing of species of ,rhododendron and ,arabis1 #aa4 ,,henslow1 ,prof41 individual variation in wheat1 #i2 --bud-variation in the ,austrian bramble rose1 #aa2 --partial reproduction of the weeping ash by seed1 #ab4 ,,hepatica1 changed by transplantation1 #aa4 ,,herbert1 ,dr41 variations of ,viola grandiflora1 #aj2 --bud-variation in camellias1 #aa2 --seedlings from reverted ,cytisus adami11 #aa2 --crosses of ,swedish and other turnips1 #ae2 --on hollyhocks1 #bj2 --breeding of hybrids1 #ag2 --self-impotence in hybrid hippeastrums1 #ag 7#b72 --hybrid ,gladiolus1 #ag2 --on ,zephyranthes candida1 #ah2 --fertility of the crocus1 #ah2 --on contabescence1 #ah2 --hybrid ,rhododendron1 #bb4 ,,herculaneum1 figure of a pig found in1 #c4 ,,heron1 ,sir ,r41 appearance of 8black-shouldered0 among ordinary peacocks1 #h 7#b72 --non-inheritance of monstrous characters by gold-fish1 #h2 --crossing of white and coloured ,angora rabbits1 #ae2 --crosses of solid-hoofed pigs1 #ae4 ,herpestes fasciatus and griseus1 #ah4 ,,heusinger1 on the sheep of the ,tarentino1 #ba2 --on correlated constitutional peculiarities1 #be4 ,,hewitt1 ,mr41 reversion in bantam cocks1 #g2 --degeneration of silk fowls1 #g2 --partial sterility of hen-like male fowls1 #g2 --production of tailed chickens by rumpless fowls1 #g2 --on taming and rearing wild ducks1 #h1 #ba1 #bb2 --conditions of inheritance in laced ,sebright bantams1 #ab2 --reversion in rumpless fowls1 #ac2 --reversion in fowls by age1 #ac2 --hybrids of pheasant and fowl1 #ac1 #ad2 --assumption of male characters by female pheasants1 #ac2 --development of latent characters in a barren bantam hen1 #ac2 --mongrels from the silk fowl1 #ad2 --effects of close interbreeding on fowls1 #ag 7#b72 --on feather-legged bantams1 #be4 ,,hibbert1 ,mr41 on the pigs of the ,shetland ,islands1 #c4 ,,hibiscus1 ,see ,paritium4 ,,highland cattle1 descended from ,bos longifrons1 #c4 ,,hildebrand1 ,dr41 on graft-hybrids with the potato1 #aa2 --on the influence of pollen on the mother-plant1 #aa2 --on the fertilisation of ,orchide1 #aa 7#b72 --occasional necessary crossing of plants1 #ae2 --on seeds not fitted for distribution1 #i2 --potato-grafting1 #aa2 --crossing of varieties1 #af2 --on ,primula sinensis and ,oxalis rosea1 #ag2 --on ,corydalis cava1 #ag 7#b74 ,,hill1 ,r41 on the ,alco1 #a2 --feral rabbits in ,jamaica1 #d2 --feral peacocks in ,jamaica1 #f2 --variation of the ,guinea fowl in ,jamaica1 #h2 --sterility of tamed birds in ,jamaica1 #ah 7#b74 ,,himalaya1 range of gallinaceous birds in the1 #g4 ,,himalayan rabbit1 #d 7#b72 --skull of1 #d4 ,,himalayan sheep1 #c4 ,,hindmarsh1 ,mr41 on ,chillingham cattle1 #c4 8,,hinkel-,,taube10 #e 7#b74 ,,hinny and mule1 difference of1 #ad4 ,hipparion1 anomalous resemblance to1 in horses1 #b4 ,hippeastrum1 hybrids of1 #ag 7#b74 ,,hive-,,bees1 ancient domestication of1 #h2 --breeds of1 #h2 --smaller when produced in old combs1 #h2 --variability in1 #h2 --crossing of ,ligurian and common1 #h4 ,,hobbs1 ,,fisher1 on interbreeding pigs1 #ag4 8,,hocker-,,taube10 #e4 ,,hodgkin1 ,dr41 on the attraction of foxes by a female ,dingo1 #a2 --origin of the ,newfoundland dog1 #a2 --transmission of a peculiar lock of hair1 #ab4 ,,hodgson1 ,mr41 domestication of ,canis primvus1 #a2 --development of a fifth digit in ,thibet mastiffs1 #a2 --number of ribs in humped cattle1 #c2 --on the sheep of the ,himalaya1 #c2 --presence of four mamm in sheep1 #c2 --arched nose in sheep1 #c2 --measurements of the intestines of goats1 #c2 --presence of interdigital pits in goats1 #c2 --disuse a cause of drooping ears1 #bd4 ,,hofacker1 persistency of colour in horses1 #b1 #ab2 --production of dun horses from parents of different colours1 #b2 --inheritance of peculiarities in handwriting1 #ab2 --heredity in a one horned stag1 #ab2 --on consanguineous marriages1 #ag4 ,,hoffman1 ,prof41 on ,raphanus1 #i4 ,,hog1 ,red ,river1 #ah4 ,,hogg1 ,mr41 retardation of breeding in cows by hard living1 #af4 ,,holland1 ,sir ,h41 necessity of inheritance1 #ab2 --on hereditary diseases1 #ab2 --hereditary peculiarity in the eyelid1 #ab2 --morbid uniformity in the same family1 #ab2 --transmission of hydrocele through the female1 #ac2 --inheritance of habits and tricks1 #bg4 ,,holly1 varieties of the1 #aj 7#b72 --bud-reversion in1 #aa2 --yellow-berried1 #ab1 #ba4 ,,hollyhock1 bud-variation in1 #aa2 --non-crossing of double varieties of1 #af2 --tender variety of the1 #bd4 ,,homer1 notice of geese1 #h2 --breeding of the horses of neas1 #bj4 ,,homologous parts1 correlated variability of1 #be1 #bf 7#b72 --fusion of1 #bf2 --affinity of1 #bf 7#b74 ,,hoofs1 correlated with hair in variation1 #be4 ,,hook-,,billed duck1 skull figured1 #h4 ,,hooker1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,d41 forked shoulder-stripe in ,syrian asses1 #b2 --voice of the cock in ,sikkim1 #g2 --use of ,arum-roots as food1 #i2 --native useful plants of ,australia1 #i2 --wild walnut of the ,himalayas1 #aj2 --variety of the plane-tree1 #aj2 --production of ,thuja orientalis from seeds of ,t4 pendula1 #aj2 --singular form of ,begonia frigida1 #aj2 --reversion in plants run wild1 #ac2 --on the sugar-cane1 #ah2 --on ,arctic plants1 #bb2 --on the oak grown at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #bc2 --on ,rhododendron ciliatum1 #bc2 --stock and mignonette perennial in ,tasmania1 #bd4 ,,hopkirk1 ,mr41 bud-variation in the rose1 #aa2 --in ,mirabilis jalapa1 #aa2 --in ,convolvulus tricolor1 #aa4 ,,hornbeam1 heterophyllous1 #aj4 ,,horned fowl1 #g2 --skull figured1 #g4 ,,hornless cattle in ,paraguay1 #c4 ,,horns of sheep1 #c2 --correlation of1 with fleece in sheep1 #be2 --correlation of1 with the skull1 #be2 --rudimentary in young polled cattle1 #bd2 --of goats1 #c4 ,,horses1 in ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #b2 --different breeds of1 in ,malay ,archipelago1 #b2 --anomalies in osteology and dentition of1 #b2 --mutual fertility of different breeds1 #b2 --feral1 #b2 --habit of scraping away snow1 #b2 --mode of production of breeds of1 #b2 --inheritance and diversity of colour in1 #b2 --dark stripes in1 #b2 --dun-coloured1 origin of1 #b2 --colours of feral1 #c 7#b72 --effect of fecundation by a quagga on the subsequent progeny of1 #aa2 --inheritance of peculiarities in1 #ab 7#b72 --polydactylism in1 #ab2 --inheritance of colour in1 #ab2 --inheritance of exostoses in legs of1 #ab2 --reversion in1 #ac 7#b72 --hybrids of1 with ass and zebra1 #ac2 --prepotency of transmission in the sexes of1 #ad2 --segregation of1 in ,paraguay1 #af2 --wild species of1 breeding in captivity1 #ah2 --curly1 in ,paraguay1 #bj1 #be2 --selection of1 for trifling characters1 #bj2 --unconscious selection of1 #bj 7#b72 --natural selection in ,circassia1 #ba2 --alteration of coat of1 in coal-mines1 #bc2 --degeneration of1 in the ,falkland ,islands1 #bc2 --diseases of1 caused by shoeing1 #bd2 --feeding on meat1 #bd2 --white and white-spotted1 poisoned by mildewed vetches1 #be2 --analogous variations in the colour of1 #bf2 --teeth developed on palate of1 #bg2 --of ,bronze period in ,denmark1 #bh4 ,,horse-,,chestnut1 early1 at the ,tuileries1 #aj2 --tendency to doubleness in1 #ah4 ,,horse-,,radish1 general sterility of the1 #ah4 8,,houdan10 a ,french sub-breed of fowls1 #g4 ,,howard1 ,c41 on an ,egyptian monument1 #a2 --on crossing sheep1 #c 7#b74 ,,huc1 on the ,emperor ,khang-hi1 #bj2 --,chinese varieties of the bamboo1 #bb4 ,,humboldt1 ,a41 character of the ,zambos1 #ac2 --parrot speaking in the language of an extinct tribe1 #ah2 --on ,pulex penetrans1 #bc4 ,,humidity1 injurious effect of1 upon horses1 #b4 ,,humphreys1 ,col41 on ,ancon sheep1 #c4 ,,hungarian cattle1 #c4 ,,hunter1 ,,john1 period of gestation in the dog1 #a2 --on secondary sexual characters1 #c2 --fertile crossing of ,anser ferus and the domestic goose1 #h2 --inheritance of peculiarities in gestures1 voice1 etc41 #ab2 --assumption of male characters by the human female1 #ac2 --period of appearance of hereditary diseases1 #ad2 --graft of the spur of a cock upon its comb1 #bd2 --on the stomach of ,larus tridentatus1 #bd4 ,,hunter1 ,w41 evidence against the influence of imagination upon the offspring1 #bb4 ,,huth1 ,mr41 close interbreeding of rabbits1 #ag2 --consanguineous marriages1 #ag4 ,,hutton1 ,capt41 on the variability of the silk-moth1 #h2 --on the number of species of silkworms1 #h2 --markings of silkworms1 #h2 --domestication of the rock-pigeon in ,india1 #f2 --domestication and crossing of ,gallus bankiva1 #g2 --reversion in goats from a cross1 #ac4 ,,hutchinson1 ,col41 liability of dogs to distemper1 #a4 ,,huxley1 ,prof41 on the transmission of polydactylism1 #ab2 --on unconscious selection1 #bj2 --on correlation in the mollusca1 #be2 --on gemmation and fission1 #bg2 --development of star-fishes1 #bg4 ,,hyacinths1 #aj2 --bud-variation in1 #aa2 --graft-hybrid by union of half bulbs of1 #aa2 --white1 reproduced by seed1 #ab2 --red1 #ba2 --varieties of1 recognisable by the bulb1 #bb4 ,,hyacinth1 feather1 #ai1 #bd4 ,hyacinthus orientalis1 #aj4 ,hybiscus syriacus1 #bc4 ,,hybrids1 of hare and rabbit1 #f2 --of various species of ,gallus1 #g2 --of almond1 peach1 and nectarine1 #aj2 --naturally produced1 of species of ,cytisus1 #aa2 --from twin-seed of ,fuchsia coccinea and fulgens1 #aa2 --reversion of1 #aa 7#b71 #ac 7#b72 --from mare1 ass1 and zebra1 #ac2 --of tame animals1 wildness of1 #ac 7#b72 --female instincts of sterile male1 #ac2 --transmission and blending of characters in1 #ae2 --breed better with parent species than with each other1 #ag2 --self-impotence in1 #ag2 --readily produced in captivity1 #ah4 ,,hybridisation1 singular effects of1 in oranges1 #aj2 --of cherries1 #aj2 --difficulty of1 in ,cucurbit1 #aj2 --of roses1 #aj4 ,,hybridism1 #ai2 --the cause of a tendency to double flowers1 #ah2 --in relation to ,pangenesis1 #bg4 ,,hybridity in cats1 #a 7#b72 --supposed1 of peach and nectarine1 #aj4 ,hydra1 #aa1 #bd1 #bg4 ,,hydrangea1 colour of flowers of1 influenced by alum1 #bc4 ,,hydrocele1 #ac4 ,,hydrocephalus1 #bd4 ,hypericum calycinum1 #ah4 ,hypericum crispum1 #ba1 #be4 ,,hypermetamorphosis1 #bg4 ,,hypermetropia1 hereditary1 #ab4 ,,ichthyopterygia1 number of digits in the1 #ac4 ,ilex aquifolium1 #ab4 ,,imagination1 supposed effect of1 on offspring1 #bb4 ,imatophyllum miniatum1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,incest1 abhorred by savages1 #ag4 ,,incubation1 by crossed fowls of non-sitting varieties1 #ac4 ,,india1 striped horses of1 #b2 --pigs of1 #c 7#b72 --breeding of rabbits in1 #d2 --cultivation of pigeons in1 #f4 ,,individual variability in pigeons1 #e4 ,,ingledew1 ,mr41 cultivation of ,european vegetables in ,india1 #ah4 8,,indische ,taube10 #e4 ,,inheritance1 #ab1 #bg1 7#b72 --doubts entertained of1 by some writers1 #ab2 --importance of1 to breeders1 #aa1 #ab2 --evidence of1 derived from statistics of chances1 #ab2 --of peculiarities in man1 #ab1 7#b72 --of disease1 #ab 7#c72 --of peculiarities in the eye1 #ab2 --of deviations from symmetry1 #ab2 --of polydactylism1 #ab2 --capriciousness of1 #ab2 --of mutilations1 #ab2 --of congenital monstrosities1 #ab2 --causes of absence of1 #ab2 --by reversion or atavism1 #ac2 --its connection with fixedness of character1 #ad2 --affected by prepotency of transmission of character1 #ad2 --limited by sex1 #ad2 --at corresponding periods of life1 #ad2 --summary of the subject of1 #ad2 --laws of1 the same in seminal and bud varieties1 #aa2 --of characters in the horse1 #b2 --in cattle1 #c2 --in rabbits1 #d2 --in the peach1 #aj2 --in the nectarine1 #aj2 --in plums1 #aj2 --in apples1 #aj2 --in pears1 #aj2 --in the pansy1 #aj2 --of primary characters of ,columba livia in crossed pigeons1 #e2 --of peculiarities of plumage in pigeons1 #e2 --of peculiarities of foliage in trees1 #aj2 --effects of1 in varieties of the cabbage1 #i4 ,,insanity1 inheritance of1 #ab1 #ad4 ,,insects1 regeneration of lost parts in1 #aj1 #bd2 --agency of1 in fecundation of larkspurs1 #ab2 --effect of changed conditions upon1 #ah2 --sterile neuter1 #ai2 --monstrosities in1 #bb1 #bg4 ,,instincts1 defective1 of silkworms1 #h4 ,,interbreeding1 close1 ill effects of1 #ag1 #ai4 ,,intercrossing1 of species1 as a cause of variation1 #f2 --natural1 of plants1 #aj2 --of species of ,canid and breeds of dogs1 #a2 --of domestic and wild cats1 #a 7#b72 --of breeds of pigs1 #c 7#b72 --of cattle1 #c2 --of varieties of cabbage1 #i2 --of peas1 #i 7#c72 --of varieties of orange1 #aj2 --of species of strawberries1 #aj 7#b72 --of ,cucurbit1 #aj 7#b72 --of flowering plants1 #aj2 --of pansies1 #aj4 ,,interdigital pits1 in goats1 #c4 ,,intermarriages1 close1 #ag 7#b74 ,,intestines1 elongation of1 in pigs1 #c2 --relative measurement of parts of1 in goats1 #c2 --effects of changed diet on1 #bd4 ,ipoma purpurea1 #ag4 ,,ireland1 remains of ,bos frontosus and longifrons found in1 #c4 ,,iris1 hereditary absence of the1 #ab2 --hereditary peculiarities of colour of the1 #ab2 --variation of1 #aa4 ,iris xiphium1 #aa4 ,,irish1 ancient1 selection practised by the1 #bj4 ,,iron period1 in ,europe1 dog of1 #a4 ,,islands1 oceanic1 scarcity of useful plants on1 #i4 ,,islay1 pigeons of1 #f4 ,,isolation1 effect of1 in favour of selection1 #ba 7#b74 ,,italy1 vine-growing in1 during the ,bronze period1 #aj4 ,,ivy1 sterility of1 in the north of ,europe1 #ah4 ,,jack1 ,mr41 effect of foreign pollen on grapes1 #aa4 ,,jackal1 #a 7#c72 --hybrids of1 with the dog1 #a2 --prepotency of1 over the dog1 #a4 ,,jackson1 ,mr41 white-footed cats1 #be4 ,,jacobin pigeon1 #e1 #f4 ,,jacquemet-,,bonnefort1 on the mulberry1 #aj4 ,,jaeger1 ,prof41 on reversion in pigs1 from a cross1 #ac2 --white pigeons killed by hawks1 #ba4 ,,jaguar1 with crooked legs1 #a4 ,,jamaica1 feral dogs of1 #a2 --feral pigs of1 #c2 --feral rabbits of1 #d4 ,,jameson1 ,mr41 on hybrid potatoes1 #aa4 ,,japan1 horses of1 #b4 ,,japanese pig 7figured71 #c4 ,,jardine1 ,sir ,w41 crossing of domestic and wild cats1 #a4 ,,jarves1 ,j41 silkworm in the ,sandwich ,islands1 #h4 ,,java1 fantail pigeon in1 #e4 ,,javanese ponies1 #b 7#b74 ,,jeitteles1 history of the dog1 #a2 --history of the fowl1 #g2 --,hungarian sheep-dogs1 #a2 --crossing of domestic and wild cats1 #a4 ,,jemmy ,,button1 #i4 ,,jenyns1 ,l41 whiteness of ganders1 #h2 --sunfish-like variety of the goldfish1 #h4 ,,jerdon1 ,j4 ,c41 number of eggs laid by the pea-hen1 #bj2 --origin of domestic fowl1 #g4 ,,jersey1 arborescent cabbages of1 #i4 ,,jessamine1 #aa4 ,,jesse1 ,g4 ,r41 on the bulldog1 #a4 ,,john1 ,king1 importation of stallions from ,flanders by1 #bj4 ,,johnson1 ,d41 occurrence of stripes on young wild pigs in ,india1 #c4 ,,jordan1 ,a41 on ,vibert's experiments on the vine1 #aj2 --origin of varieties of the apple1 #aj2 --varieties of pears found wild in woods1 #bb4 ,,jourdan1 parthenogenesis in the silk-moth1 #bg4 ,,juan ,,de ,,nova1 wild dogs on1 #a4 ,,juan ,,fernandez1 dumb dogs on1 #a4 ,juglans regia1 #aj4 ,,jukes1 ,prof41 origin of the ,newfoundland dog1 #a4 ,,julien1 ,stanislas1 early domestication of pigs in ,china1 #c2 --antiquity of the domestication of the silkworm in ,china1 #h4 ,,jumpers1 a breed of fowls1 #g4 ,,juniper1 variations of the1 #aj 7#b74 ,juniperus suecica1 #aj4 ,jussia grandiflora1 #ah4 ,,jussieu1 ,a4 de1 structure of the pappus in ,carthamus1 #bd4 ,,kail1 ,scotch1 reversion in1 #ac4 ,,kales1 #i4 8,,kali-,,par0 pigeon1 #e4 ,,kalm1 ,p41 on maize1 #i1 #bd2 --introduction of wheat into ,canada1 #i2 --sterility of trees growing in marshes and dense woods1 #ah4 8,,kalmi ,,lotan0 tumbler pigeon1 #e4 ,,kane1 ,dr41 on ,esquimaux dogs1 #a4 ,,karakool sheep1 #c4 ,,karkeek1 on inheritance in the horse1 #ab4 8,,karmeliten ,taube10 #e4 ,,karsten on ,pulex penetrans1 #bc4 ,,kattywar horses1 #b4 ,,keeley1 ,r41 pelorism in ,galeobdolon luteum1 #ac4 ,,kerner1 on the culture of ,alpine plants1 #ah2 --definite action of conditions1 #bc4 ,,kestrel1 breeding in captivity1 #ah4 8,,khand,,si10 #e4 ,,khang-,,hi1 selection of a variety of rice by1 #bj4 ,,kiang1 #ac4 ,,kidd1 on the canary-bird1 #h1 #ad4 ,,kidney bean1 #aj2 --varieties of1 #bb1 #bc4 ,,kidneys1 compensatory development of the1 #bd2 --shape of1 in birds influenced by the form of the pelvis1 #bf4 ,,king1 ,col41 domestication of rock doves from the ,orkneys1 #f 7#b74 ,,king1 ,dr41 on ,paritium1 #aa4 ,,king1 ,p4 ,p41 on the dingo1 #a 7#b74 ,,kirby and ,spence1 on the growth of galls1 #bc4 ,,kirghisian sheep1 #c4 ,,kite1 breeding in captivity1 #ah4 ,,kleine1 variability of bees1 #h4 ,,knight1 ,,andrew1 on crossing horses of different breeds1 #b2 --crossing varieties of peas1 #i1 #ag2 --persistency of varieties of peas1 #i2 --origin of the peach1 #aj2 --hybridisation of the morello by the ,elton cherry1 #aj2 --on seedling cherries1 #aj2 --variety of the apple not attacked by coccus1 #aj2 --intercrossing of strawberries1 #aj 7#b72 --broad variety of the cock's-comb1 #aj2 --bud variation in the cherry and plum1 #aa2 --crossing of white and purple grapes1 #aa2 --experiments in crossing apples1 #aa1 #ag2 --hereditary disease in plants1 #ab2 --on interbreeding1 #ag2 --crossed varieties of wheat1 #ag2 --necessity of intercrossing in plants1 #ai2 --on variation1 #bb 7#b72 --effects of grafting1 #aa1 #bc2 --bud-variation in a plum1 #bc2 --correlated variation of head and limbs1 #h4 ,,knox1 ,mr41 breeding of the eagle owl in captivity1 #ah4 ,,koch1 degeneracy in the turnip1 #i4 ,,kohlrabi1 #i4 ,k,,lreuter1 reversion in hybrids1 #aa1 #ac2 --acquired sterility of crossed varieties of plants1 #aj1 #af2 --absorption of ,mirabilis vulgaris by ,m4 longiflora1 #ae2 --crosses of species of ,verbascum1 #ae1 #af2 --on the hollyhock1 #af2 --crossing varieties of tobacco1 #af2 --benefits of crossing plants1 #ag 7#b71 #ai 7#b72 --sell-impotence in ,verbascum1 #ag 7#b72 --effects of conditions of growth upon fertility in ,mirabilis1 #ah2 --great development of tubers in hybrid plants1 #ah2 --inheritance of plasticity1 #ba2 --variability of hybrids of ,mirabilis1 #bb2 --repeated crossing a cause of variation1 #bb2 --number of pollen-grains necessary for fertilisation1 #bg4 8,,krauseschwein10 #c4 ,,krohn1 on the double reproduction of ,medus1 #bg4 8,,kropf-,,tauben10 #e4 ,,labat1 on the tusks of feral boars in the ,west ,indies1 #e2 --on ,french wheat grown in the ,west ,indies1 #bd2 --on the culture of the vine in the ,west ,indies1 #bd4 ,,laburnum1 ,adam's1 see ,cytisus adami12 --oak-leaved1 reversion of1 #aa2 --pelorism in the1 #bf2 --,waterer's1 #aa4 ,,lachmann1 on gemmation and fission1 #bg4 ,lachnanthes tinctoria1 #ba1 #be4 ,,lactation1 imperfect1 hereditary1 #ab2 --deficient1 of wild animals in captivity1 #ah4 ,,ladrone ,islands1 cattle of1 #c4 ,,la ,,gasca1 ,prof41 individual variation in wheat1 #i4 ,,laing1 ,mr41 resemblance of ,norwegian and ,devonshire cattle1 #c4 ,,lake-,,dwellings1 sheep of1 #c2 --cattle of1 #c2 --absence of the fowl in1 #g2 --cultivated plants of1 #i1 #bh 7#b72 --cereals of1 #i2 --peas found in1 #i2 --beans found in1 #i4 ,,lamare-,,piquot1 observations on half-bred ,north ,american wolves1 #a4 ,,lambert1 ,a4 ,b41 on ,thuja pendula or filiformis1 #aj4 ,,lambert family1 #ab1 #ad4 ,,lambertye1 on strawberries1 #aj 7#b72 --five-leaved variety of ,fragaria collina1 #aj4 ,,landt1 ,l41 on sheep in the ,faroe ,islands1 #af4 ,,lankester1 ,,ray1 on longevity1 #bg4 ,,la ,,plata1 wild dogs of1 #a2 --feral cat from1 #a4 ,,larch1 #bd4 ,,larkspurs1 insect agency necessary for the full fecundation of1 #ab4 ,larus argentatus1 #ah1 #bd4 ,larus tridactylus1 #bd4 ,,lasterye1 merino sheep in different countries1 #c4 ,,latent characters1 #ac4 ,,latham1 on the fowl not breeding in the extreme north1 #ah4 ,lathyrus1 #ac4 ,lathyrus aphaca1 #bf4 ,lathyrus odoratus1 #aa 7#b71 #ae 7#b71 #bd4 ,,la ,,touche1 ,j4 ,d41 on a ,canadian apple with dimidiate fruit1 #aa 7#b74 8,,latz-,,taube10 #e4 ,,laugher pigeon1 #e1 #f4 ,laurus sassafras1 #bc4 ,,lawrence1 ,j41 production of a new breed of foxhounds1 #a2 --occurrence of canines in mares1 #b2 --on three-parts-bred horses1 #b2 --on inheritance in the horse1 #ab 7#b74 ,,lawson1 ,mr41 varieties of the potato1 #i4 ,,laxton1 ,mr41 bud-variation in the gooseberry1 #aa2 --crossing of varieties of the pea1 #aa 7#b72 --weakness of transmission in peas1 #ad2 --double-flowered peas1 #ah4 ,,layard1 ,e4 ,l41 resemblance of a ,caffre dog to the ,esquimaux breed1 #a1 #bc2 --crossing of the domestic cat with ,felis caffra1 #a2 --feral pigeons in ,ascension1 #f2 --domestic pigeons of ,ceylon1 #f2 --on ,gallus stanleyi1 #g2 --on black-skinned ,ceylonese fowls1 #g4 ,,le ,,compte family1 blindness inherited in1 #ad4 ,,lecoq1 bud-variation in ,mirabilis jalapa1 #aa2 --hybrids of ,mirabilis1 #aa1 #ah1 #bb2 --crossing in plants1 #ag2 --fecundation of ,passiflora1 #ag2 --hybrid ,gladiolus1 #ag2 --sterility of ,ranunculus ficaria1 #ah2 --villosity in plants1 #bc2 --double asters1 #bd4 ,,le ,,couteur1 ,j41 varieties of wheat1 #i2 --acclimatisation of exotic wheat in ,europe1 #i2 --adaptation of wheat to soil and climate1 #i2 --selection of seed-corn1 #i2 --evil from inter-breeding1 #ag2 --on change of soil1 #ah2 --selection of wheat1 #bj2 --natural selection in wheat1 #ba2 --cattle of ,jersey1 #ba4 ,,ledger1 ,mr41 on the llama and alpaca1 #bj4 ,,lee1 ,mr41 his early culture of the pansy1 #aj4 ,leersia oryzoides1 #ae4 ,,lefour1 period of gestation in cattle1 #c4 ,,legrain1 falsified experiments of1 #ag4 ,,legs1 of fowls1 effects of disuse on1 #g2 --characters and variations of1 in ducks1 #bd4 ,,leguat1 cattle of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #c4 ,,lehmann1 occurrence of wild double-flowered plants near a hot spring1 #ah4 ,,leighton1 ,w4 ,a41 propagation of a weeping yew by seed1 #ab4 ,,leitner1 effects of removal of anthers1 #ah4 ,,lemming1 #ah4 ,,lemoine1 variegated ,symphytum and ,phlox1 #aa4 ,,lemon1 #aj2 --orange fecundated by pollen of the1 #aa4 ,,lemurs1 hybrid1 #d4 ,,leporides1 #ah4 ,,lepsius1 figures of ancient ,egyptian dogs1 #a2 --domestication of pigeons in ancient ,egypt1 #f4 ,lepus glacialis1 #d4 ,lepus magellanicus1 #d4 ,lepus nigripes1 #d4 ,lepus tibetanus1 #d4 ,lepus variabilis1 #d4 ,,lereboullet1 double monsters of fishes1 #bf4 ,,leslie1 on ,scotch wild cattle1 #c4 ,,lessona1 on regrowth1 #bg2 --on ,lepus magellanicus1 #d4 ,,lethbridge1 previous impregnation1 #aa4 ,,leuckart1 on the larva of ,cecidomyid1 #bg4 ,,lewes1 ,g4 ,h41 on ,pangenesis1 #bg4 ,,lewis1 ,g41 cattle of the ,west ,indies1 #ba4 ,,lherbette and ,quatrefages1 on the horses of ,circassia1 #af1 #ba4 ,,lichens1 sterility in1 #ah4 ,,lichtenstein1 resemblance of ,bosjesman's dogs to ,canis mesomelas1 #a2 --,newfoundland dog at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #a4 ,,liebig1 differences in human blood1 according to complexion1 #bc4 ,,liebreich1 occurrence of pigmentary retinitis in deaf-mutes1 #be4 ,,lilacs1 #ah4 ,,liliace1 contabescence in1 #ah4 ,lilium bulbiferum and davuricum1 #aa4 ,lilium candidum1 #ag4 ,,limbs1 regeneration of1 #bg4 ,,limbs and head1 correlated variation of1 #be4 ,,lime1 effect of1 upon shells of the mollusca1 #bc4 ,,lime-,,tree1 changes of1 by age1 #aj1 #aa4 ,,limitation1 sexual1 #ad4 ,,limitation1 supposed1 of variation1 #bh4 ,linaria1 pelorism in1 #ac 7#b71 #ad2 --peloric1 crossed with the normal form1 #ad2 --sterility of1 #ah4 ,linaria vulgaris and purpurea1 hybrids of1 #ae4 ,,lindemuth1 potato-grafting1 #aa4 ,,lindley1 ,,john1 classification of varieties of cabbages1 #i2 --origin of the peach1 #aj2 --influence of soil on peaches and nectarines1 #aj2 --varieties of the peach and nectarine1 #aj2 --on the ,new ,town pippin1 #aj2 --freedom of the ,winter ,majetin apple from coccus1 #aj2 --production of moncious ,hautbois strawberries by bud-selection1 #aj2 --origin of the large tawny nectarine1 #aa2 --bud-variation in the gooseberry1 #aa2 --hereditary disease in plants1 #ab2 --on double flowers1 #ah2 --seeding of ordinarily seedless fruits1 #ah2 --sterility of ,acorus calamus1 #ah2 --resistance of individual plants to cold1 #bd4 ,,linn,,us1 summer and winter wheat regarded as distinct species by1 #i2 --on the single-leaved strawberry1 #aj2 --sterility of ,alpine plants in gardens1 #ah2 --recognition of individual reindeer by the ,laplanders1 #bb2 --growth of tobacco in ,sweden1 #bd4 ,,linnet1 #ah4 ,linota cannabina1 #ah4 ,linum1 #ah4 ,,lion1 fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah 7#b74 ,,lipari1 feral rabbits of1 #d4 ,,livingstone1 ,dr41 striped young pigs on the ,zambesi1 #c2 --domestic rabbits at ,loanda1 #d2 --use of grass-seeds as food in ,africa1 #i2 --planting of fruit-trees by the ,batokas1 #i2 --character of half-castes1 #ac2 --taming of animals among the ,barotse1 #ah2 --selection practised in ,south ,africa1 #bj 7#b74 ,,livingstone1 ,mr41 disuse a cause of drooping ears1 #bd4 ,,lizards1 reproduction of tail in1 #bd4 ,,llama1 selection of1 #bj4 ,,lloyd1 ,mr41 taming of the wolf1 #a2 --,english dogs in northern ,europe1 #a2 --fertility of the goose increased by domestication1 #h2 --number of eggs laid by the wild goose1 #af2 --breeding of the capercailzie in captivity1 #ah4 ,,loanda1 domestic rabbits at1 #d4 ,loasa1 hybrid of two species of1 #ae4 ,lobelia1 reversion in hybrids of1 #aa2 --contabescence in1 #ah4 ,lobelia fulgens1 cardinalis1 and syphilitica1 #ag4 ,,lockhart1 ,dr41 on ,chinese pigeons1 #f4 ,,locust-,,tree1 #bc4 ,,loiseleur-,,deslongchamps1 originals of cultivated plants1 #i2 --,mongolian varieties of wheat1 #i2 --characters of the ear in wheat1 #i2 --acclimatisation of exotic wheat in ,europe1 #i2 --effect of change of climate on wheat1 #i2 --on the supposed necessity of the coincident variation of weeds and cultivated plants1 #i2 --advantage of change of soil to plants1 #ah4 ,lolium temulentum1 variable presence of barbs in1 #i4 ,,long-,,tailed sheep1 #c4 ,,loochoo ,islands1 horses of1 #b4 ,,lord1 ,j4 ,k41 on ,canis latrans1 #a4 8,,lori ,,rajah10 how produced1 #g4 ,lorius garrulus1 #bc4 8,,lotan0 tumbler pigeon1 #e4 ,,loudon1 ,j4 ,w41 varieties of the carrot1 #i2 --short duration of varieties of peas1 #i2 --on the glands of peach-leaves1 #aj2 --presence of bloom on ,russian apples1 #aj2 --origin of varieties of the apple1 #aj2 --varieties of the gooseberry1 #aj2 --on the nut tree1 #aj2 --varieties of the ash1 #aj2 --fastigiate juniper 7,j4 suecica71 #aj2 --on ,ilex aquifolium ferox1 #aj2 --varieties of the ,scotch fir1 #aj 7#b72 --varieties of the hawthorn1 #aj2 --variation in the persistency of leaves on the elm and ,turkish oak1 #aj2 --importance of cultivated varieties1 #aj2 --varieties of ,rosa spinosissima1 #aj2 --variation of dahlias from the same seed1 #aj2 --production of ,provence roses from seeds of the moss-rose1 #aa2 --effect of grafting the purple-leaved upon the common hazel1 #aa2 --intercrossing melons1 #ag2 --nearly evergreen ,cornish variety of the elm1 #bd4 ,,low1 on the pigs of the ,orkney ,islands1 #c4 ,,low1 ,prof41 pedigrees of greyhounds1 #ab2 --origin of the dog1 #a2 --burrowing instinct of a half-bred dingo1 #a2 --inheritance of qualities in horses1 #b2 --comparative powers of ,english racehorses1 ,arabs1 etc41 #b2 --,british breeds of cattle1 #c2 --wild cattle of ,chartley1 #c2 --effect of abundance of food on the size of cattle1 #c2 --effects of climate on the skin of cattle1 #c1 #be2 --on interbreeding1 #ag2 --selection in ,hereford cattle1 #bj2 --formation of new breeds1 #ba2 --on 8sheeted0 cattle1 #bf4 ,,lowe1 ,mr41 on hive bees1 #h4 ,,lowe1 ,rev4 ,mr41 on the range of ,pyrus malus and ,p4 acerba1 #aj4 ,,lowne1 ,mr41 monsters1 #bf2 --on gemmules1 #bg4 8,,lowtun0 tumbler pigeon1 #e4 ,loxia pyrrhula1 #e4 ,,lubbock1 ,sir ,j41 developments of the ,ephemerid1 #bg4 ,,lucas1 ,p41 effects of cross-breeding on the female1 #aa2 --hereditary diseases1 #ab1 #ad 7#b72 --hereditary affections of the eye1 #ab 7#b72 --inheritance of anomalies in the human eye and in that of the horse1 #ab2 --inheritance of polydactylism1 #ab2 --morbid uniformity in the same family1 #ab2 --inheritance of mutilations1 #ab2 --persistency of cross-reversion1 #ac2 --persistency of character in breeds of animals in wild countries1 #ad2 --prepotency of transmission1 #ad 7#b72 --supposed rules of transmission in crossing animals1 #ad2 --sexual limitations of transmission of peculiarities1 #ad 7#b72 --absorption of the minority in crossed races1 #ae2 --crosses without blending of certain characters1 #ae2 --on interbreeding1 #ag2 --variability dependent on reproduction1 #bb2 --period of action of variability1 #bb2 --inheritance of deafness in cats1 #be2 --complexion and constitution1 #be4 ,,lucaze-,,duthiers1 structure and growth of galls1 #bc4 ,,lucae1 ,prof41 on the masked pig1 #c2 --on pigs1 #bd4 ,,luizet1 grafting of a peach-almond on a peach1 #aj4 ,,lutke1 cats of the ,caroline ,archipelago1 #a4 ,,luxuriance1 of vegetative organs1 a cause of sterility in plants1 #ah 7#b74 ,,lyonnet1 on the scission of ,nais1 #bg4 ,lysimachia nummularia1 sterility of1 #ah4 ,lythrum1 trimorphic species of1 #bg4 ,lythrum salicaria1 #ai2 --contabescence in1 #ah4 ,lytta vesicatoria1 affecting the kidneys1 #bg4 ,macacus1 species of1 bred in captivity1 #ah4 ,,macaulay1 ,lord1 improvement of the ,english horse1 #bj4 ,m',,clelland1 ,dr41 variability of fresh-water fishes in ,india1 #bb4 ,m',,coy1 ,prof41 on the dingo1 #a4 ,,macfayden1 influence of soil in producing sweet or bitter oranges from the same seed1 #aj4 ,,macgillivray1 domestication of the rock-dove1 #f2 --feral pigeons in ,scotland1 #f2 --number of vertebr in birds1 #g2 --on wild geese1 #h2 --number of eggs of wild and tame ducks1 #af4 ,,mackenzie1 ,sir ,g41 peculiar variety of the potato1 #i4 ,,mackenzie1 ,p41 bud-variation in the currant1 #aa4 ,,mackinnon1 ,mr41 horses of the ,falkland ,islands1 #b2 --feral cattle of the ,falkland ,islands1 #c4 ,,macknight1 ,c41 on interbreeding cattle1 #ag4 ,,macnab1 ,mr41 on seedling weeping birches1 #ab2 --non-production of the weeping beech by seed1 #ab4 ,,madagascar1 cats of1 #a4 ,,madden1 ,h41 on interbreeding cattle1 #ag4 ,,madeira1 rock pigeon of1 #f4 ,magnolia grandiflora1 #bd4 ,,magnus1 ,herr1 on potato-grafting1 #aa2 --on graft-hybrids1 #aa 7#b74 ,,maize1 its unity of origin1 #i2 --antiquity of1 #i2 --with husked grains said to grow wild1 #i2 --variation of1 #g2 --irregularities in the flowers of1 #i2 --persistence of varieties1 #i2 --adaptation of1 to climate1 #i1 #bd2 --acclimatisation of1 #bd1 #bf2 --crossing of1 #aa1 #af 7#b72 --extinct ,peruvian varieties of1 #bh4 ,,malay fowl1 #g4 ,,malay ,archipelago1 horses of1 #b2 --short-tailed cats of1 #a2 --striped young wild pigs of1 #c2 --ducks of1 #h4 ,,male1 influence of1 on the fecundated female1 #aa2 --supposed influence of1 on offspring1 #ad4 ,,male flowers1 appearance of1 among female flowers in maize1 #i4 ,,malformations1 hereditary1 #ad4 ,,malingi-,,nouel1 on sheep1 #c2 --cross-breeding sheep1 #ad2 --,english sheep in ,france1 #ba4 ,,malm1 eyes of flat fish1 #ac4 ,malva1 fertilisation of1 #aa1 #bg4 ,mamestra suasa1 #ah4 ,,mamm1 variable in number in the pig1 #c2 --rudimentary1 occasional full development of1 in cows1 #c1 #bd2 --four present in some sheep1 #c2 --variable in number in rabbits1 #d2 --latent functions of1 in male animals1 #ac1 #bd4 ,,mangles1 ,mr41 annual varieties of the heartsease1 #bd4 ,,mantegazza1 abnormal growth of spur of cock1 #bg2 --on ,pangenesis1 #bg4 ,,mantell1 ,mr41 taming of birds by the ,new ,zealanders1 #ah4 ,,manu1 domestic fowl noticed in the ,institutes of1 #g4 ,,manure1 effect of1 on the fertility of plants1 #ah4 ,,manx cats1 #a1 #ad4 ,,marcel ,,de ,,serres1 fertility of the ostrich1 #ah4 ,,marianne ,islands1 varieties of ,pandanus in1 #bb4 ,,markham1 ,,gervase1 on rabbits1 #d1 #bj4 ,,markhor1 probably one of the parents of the goat1 #c4 ,,marquand1 cattle of the ,channel ,islands1 #c4 ,,marrimpoey1 inheritance in the horse1 #ab4 ,,marrow1 vegetable1 #aj4 ,,marryatt1 ,capt41 breeding of asses in ,kentucky1 #ba4 ,,marsden1 notice of ,gallus giganteus1 #g4 ,,marshall1 ,dr4 ,w41 on ,gallus sonneratii1 #g4 ,,marshall1 ,mr41 voluntary selection of pasture by sheep1 #c2 --adaptation of wheats to soil and climate1 #i2 --8,dutch-buttocked0 cattle1 #ab2 --segregation of herds of sheep1 #af2 --advantage of change of soil to wheat and potatoes1 #ah2 --fashionable change in the horns of cattle1 #bj2 --sheep in ,yorkshire1 #ba4 ,,martens1 ,e4 ,,von1 on ,achatinella1 #ac4 ,,martin1 ,w4 ,c4 ,l41 origin of the dog1 #a2 --,egyptian dogs1 #a2 --barking of a ,mackenzie ,river dog1 #a2 --,african hounds in the ,tower menagerie1 #c2 --on dun horses and dappled asses1 #b2 --breeds of the horse1 #b2 --wild horses1 #b2 --,syrian breeds of asses1 #b2 --asses without stripes1 #b2 --effects of cross-breeding on the female in dogs1 #aa2 --striped legs of mules1 #ac4 ,,martins1 defective instincts of silkworms1 #h4 ,,martius1 ,c41 fruit-trees of ,stockholm1 #bd4 ,,mason1 ,w41 bud-variation in the ash1 #aa4 ,,masters1 ,dr41 on bud-variation and reversion1 #aa2 --potato-grafting1 #aa2 --on pollen within ovules1 #bg2 --reversion in the spiral-leaved weeping willow1 #aa2 --on peloric flowers1 #ac2 --on ,opuntia1 #bc2 --pelorism in a clover1 #bf2 --position as a cause of pelorism1 #bf 7#b74 ,,masters1 ,mr41 persistence of varieties of peas1 #i2 --reproduction of colour in hyacinths1 #ab2 --on hollyhocks1 #af2 --selection of peas for seed1 #bj2 --on ,hibiscus syriacus1 #bc2 --reversion by the terminal pea in the pod1 #bf4 ,,mastiff1 sculptured on an ,assyrian monument1 #a1 #bh2 --,tibetan1 #a1 #bc4 ,,matthews1 ,,patrick1 on forest trees1 #ba4 ,matthiola annua1 #aa 7#b71 #ae4 ,matthiola incana1 #aa 7#b74 ,,mauchamp merino sheep1 #c4 ,,mauduyt1 crossing of wolves and dogs in the ,pyrenees1 #a4 ,,maund1 ,mr41 crossed varieties of wheat1 #ag4 ,,maupertuis1 axiom of 8least action10 #a4 ,,mauritius1 importation of goats into1 #c4 ,,maw1 ,g41 effects of change of climate1 #bd2 --correlation of contracted leaves and flowers in pelargoniums1 #be 7#b74 ,,mawz1 fertility of ,brassica rapa1 #ah4 ,maxillaria1 self-fertilised capsules of1 #ag4 ,maxillaria atro-rubens1 fertilisation of1 by ,m4 squalens1 #ag4 ,,maximowicz1 direct action of pollen1 #aa4 ,,mayers1 on gold-fish in ,china1 #h4 ,,mayes1 ,m41 self-impotence in ,amaryllis1 #ag4 ,,meckel1 on the number of digits1 #ab2 --correlation of abnormal muscles in the leg and arm1 #be4 ,,medus1 development of1 #bg 7#b74 ,,meehan1 ,mr41 weeping peach1 #ab2 --effects of parasites1 #bc2 --comparison of ,european and ,american trees1 #bc4 ,meles taxus1 #ah4 ,,melons1 #aj 7#b72 --mongrel supposed to be produced from a twin-seed1 #aa2 --crossing of varieties of1 #aa1 #af1 #ag2 --inferiority of1 in ,roman times1 #bj2 --changes in1 by culture and climate1 #bc2 --serpent1 correlation of variations in1 #be2 --analogous variations in1 #bf4 ,,membranes1 false1 #bd 7#b74 ,m,n,,tries1 on the stomach of ,strix grallaria1 #bd4 ,,meningitis1 tubercular1 inherited1 #ad4 ,,merrick1 potato-grafting1 #aa4 ,,metagenesis1 #bg4 ,,metamorphosis1 #bg4 ,,metamorphosis and development1 #bg 7#b74 ,,metzger1 on the supposed species of wheat1 #i 7#b72 --tendency of wheat to vary1 #i2 --variation of maize1 #i 7#b72 --cultivation of ,american maize in ,europe1 #i1 #bf2 --on cabbages1 #i2 --acclimatisation of ,spanish wheat in ,germany1 #ab2 --advantage of change of soil to plants1 #ah2 --on rye1 #bb2 --cultivation of different kinds of wheat1 #bb4 ,,mexico1 dog from1 with tan spots on the eyes1 #a2 --colours of feral horses in1 #b4 ,,meyen1 on seeding of bananas1 #ah4 ,,mice1 grey and white1 colours of1 not blended by crossing1 #ae2 --rejection of bitter almonds by1 #ba2 --naked1 #bc4 ,,michaux1 ,f41 roan-coloured feral horses of ,mexico1 #b2 --origin of domestic turkey1 #h2 --on raising peaches from seed1 #aj4 ,,michel1 ,f41 selection of horses in medival times1 #bj2 --horses preferred on account of slight characters1 #bj4 ,,michely1 effects of food on caterpillars1 #bc2 --on ,bombyx hesperus1 #be4 ,,microphthalmia1 associated with defective teeth1 #be4 ,,middens1 ,danish1 remains of dogs in1 #a1 #bh4 ,,mignonette1 #ba1 #bd4 ,,millet1 #aj4 ,,mills1 ,j41 diminished fertility of mares when first turned out to grass1 #ah4 ,,milne-,,edwards1 on the development of the crustacea1 #bg4 ,,milne-,,edwards1 ,a41 on a crustacean with a monstrous eye-peduncle1 #bg4 ,milvus niger1 #ah4 ,mimulus luteus1 #ag4 ,,minor1 ,w4 ,c41 gemmation and fission in annelids1 #bg4 ,mirabilis1 fertilisation of1 #bg2 --hybrids of1 #ag1 #ah1 #bb4 ,mirabilis jalapa1 #aa 7#b74 ,mirabilis longiflora1 #ae4 ,mirabilis vulgaris1 #ae4 ,misocampus and ,cecidomyia1 #a4 ,,mitchell1 ,dr41 effects of the poison of the rattlesnake1 #bc4 ,,mitford1 ,mr41 notice of the breeding of horses by ,erichthonius1 #bj4 ,,mivart1 ,mr41 rudimentary organs1 #bd4 ,,moccas ,court1 weeping oak at1 #ab4 ,,mogford1 horses poisoned by fool's parsley1 #be4 ,m,,ller1 ,l41 effects of food on insects1 #bc4 ,,mole1 white1 #be4 ,,moll and ,gayot1 on cattle1 #c1 #ae1 #bj4 ,,mollusca1 change in shells of1 #bc4 ,,monke1 ,lady1 culture of the pansy by1 #aj4 ,,monkeys1 rarely fertile in captivity1 #ah4 ,,monnier1 identity of summer and winter wheat1 #i4 ,,monsters1 double1 #bf 7#b74 ,,monstrosities1 occurrence of1 in domesticated animals and cultivated plants1 #aj1 #bb2 --due to persistence of embryonic conditions1 #ac2 --occurring by reversion1 #ac2 --a cause of sterility1 #ah2 --caused by injury to the embryo1 #bb4 ,,moor1 ,j4 ,h41 deterioration of the horse in ,malasia1 #b4 ,,moorcroft1 ,mr41 on ,hasora wheat1 #i2 --selection of white-tailed yaks1 #bj2 --melon of ,kaschmir1 #bc2 --varieties of the apricot cultivated in ,ladakh1 #aj2 --varieties of the walnut cultivated in ,kaschmir1 #bg4 ,,moore1 ,mr41 on breeds of pigeons1 #e 7#b71 #f 7#c72 --on ground tumblers1 #f4 ,,mooruk1 fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,moquin-,,tandon1 original form of maize1 #i2 --variety of the double columbine1 #aj2 --peloric flowers1 #ac2 --position as a cause of pelorism in flowers1 #bf2 --tendency of peloric flowers to become irregular1 #ad2 --on monstrosities1 #bb2 --correlation in the axis and appendages of plants1 #be2 --fusion of homologous parts in plants1 #bf2 --on a bean with monstrous stipules and abortive leaflets1 #bf2 --conversion of parts of flowers1 #bg4 ,,morlot1 dogs of the ,danish ,middens1 #a2 --sheep and horse of the ,bronze period1 #bh4 ,mormodes ignea1 #ac4 ,,morocco1 estimation of pigeons in1 #f4 ,,morren1 grafts of ,abutilon1 #aa2 --on pelorism1 #ac2 --in ,calceolaria1 #bf2 --non-coincidence of double flowers and variegated leaves1 #ah4 ,,morris1 ,mr41 breeding of the kestrel in captivity1 #ah4 ,,morse1 ,dr41 digits of birds1 #be4 ,,morton1 ,lord1 effect of fecundation by a quagga on an ,arab mare1 #aa4 ,,morton1 ,dr41 origin of the dog1 #a4 ,morus alba1 #aj4 ,,moscow1 rabbits of1 #d 7#b72 --effects of cold on pear-trees at1 #bd4 ,,mosses1 sterility in1 #ah2 --retrogressive metamorphosis in1 #bg4 ,,moss-,,rose1 probable origin of1 from ,rosa centifolia1 #aa2 --,provence roses produced from seeds of1 #aa4 ,,mosto1 ,cada1 on the introduction of rabbits into ,porto ,santo1 #d4 ,,mot-,,mot1 mutilation of feathers inherited1 #ab4 ,,mottling of fruits and flowers1 #aa4 ,,mountain-,,ash1 #ba4 ,,mouse1 ,barbary1 #ah4 8,m,,ven-,,taube10 #e4 ,,mowbray1 ,mr41 on the eggs of game fowls1 #g2 --early pugnacity of game cocks1 #g2 --diminished fecundity of the pheasant in captivity1 #ah4 ,,mowbray1 ,mr41 reciprocal fecundation of ,passiflora alata and racemosa1 #ag4 ,,mulattos1 character of1 #ac4 ,,mulberry1 #aj1 #bb4 ,,mule and hinny1 differences in the1 #ad4 ,,mules1 striped colouring of1 #ac2 --obstinacy of1 #ac2 --production of1 among the ,romans1 #af2 --noticed in the ,bible1 #bj4 ,m,,ller1 ,,fritz1 reproduction of orchids1 #ag2 --development of crustacea1 #bg2 --direct action of pollen1 #aa2 --self-sterile bignonia1 #ag4 ,m,,ller1 ,h41 on the face and teeth in dogs1 #a1 #c1 #bf4 ,m,,ller1 ,j41 tendency to variation1 #bb2 --atrophy of the optic nerve consequent on destruction of the eye1 #bd2 --on gemmation and fission1 #bg2 --identity of ovules and buds1 #bg2 --special affinities of the tissues1 #bg4 ,m,,ller1 ,,max1 antiquity of agriculture1 #ba4 ,,multiplicity of origin of pigeons1 hypotheses of1 discussed1 #f4 ,,muniz1 ,f41 on ,niata cattle1 #c4 ,,munro1 ,r41 on the fertilisation of orchids1 #ag2 --reproduction of ,passiflora alata1 #ag2 --self-sterile ,passiflora1 #ag4 8,,murassa0 pigeon1 #e4 ,,murie1 ,dr41 size of hybrids1 #ag4 ,,murphy1 ,j4 ,j41 the structure of the eye not producible by selection1 #bj4 ,mus alexandrinus1 #ae 7#b74 ,musa sapientium1 chinensis and cavendishii1 #aa4 ,muscari comosum1 #ai1 #bd4 ,,muscles1 effects of use on1 #bd4 ,,musk duck1 feral hybrid of1 with the common duck1 #f4 ,,mutilations1 inheritance or non-inheritance of1 #ab1 #bg 7#b74 ,,myatt1 on a five-leaved variety of the strawberry1 #aj4 ,,myopia1 hereditary1 #ab4 ,,myriapoda1 regeneration of lost parts in1 #bd1 #bg4 ,,nails1 growing on stumps of fingers1 #bg4 ,,nais1 scission of1 #bg4 ,,namaquas1 cattle of the1 #c1 #bj4 ,,narcissus1 double1 becoming single in poor soil1 #ah4 ,,narvaez1 on the cultivation of native plants in ,florida1 #i4 ,nasua1 sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 8,,natas0 or ,niatas1 a ,south ,american breed of cattle1 #c4 ,,nathusius1 ,h4 ,,von1 on striped horses1 #b2 --on the pigs of the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #c2 --on the races of pigs1 #c2 --convergence of character in highly-bred pigs1 #c1 #ba2 --causes of changes in the form of the pig's skull1 #c 7#b72 --changes in breeds of pigs by crossing1 #c2 --change of form in the pig1 #bc2 --effects of disuse of parts in the pig1 #bd2 --period of gestation in the pig1 #c2 --appendages to the jaw in pigs1 #c2 --on ,sus pliciceps1 #c2 --period of gestation in sheep1 #c2 --on ,niata cattle1 #c2 --on shorthorn cattle1 #ag2 --on interbreeding1 #ag2 --in the sheep1 #ag2 --in pigs1 #ag2 --unconscious selection in cattle and pigs1 #bj2 --variability of highly-selected races1 #ba4 ,,nato1 ,p41 on the ,bizzarria orange1 #aa4 ,,natural selection1 its general principles1 ,introduction4 ,,nature1 sense in which the term is employed1 ,introduction4 ,,naudin1 supposed rules of transmission in crossing plants1 #ad2 --on the nature of hybrids1 #ac 7#b72 --essences of the species in hybrids1 #bg 7#b72 --reversion of hybrids1 #ac 7#c72 --reversion in flowers by stripes and blotches1 #ac2 --hybrids of ,linaria vulgaris and purpurea1 #ae2 --pelorism in ,linaria1 #ac1 #ad2 --crossing of peloric ,linaria with the normal form1 #ad2 --variability in ,datura1 #bb2 --hybrids of ,datura laevis and stramonium1 #aa2 --prepotency of transmission of ,datura stramonium when crossed1 #ad2 --on the pollen of ,mirabilis and of hybrids1 #aa2 --fertilisation of ,mirabilis1 #bg2 --cultivated ,cucurbitace1 #aj 7#b71 #af2 --rudimentary tendrils in gourds1 #bd2 --dwarf ,cucurbit1 #be2 --relation between the size and number of the fruit in ,cucurbita pepo1 #bf2 --analogous variation in ,cucurbit1 #bb2 --acclimatisation of ,cucurbitace1 #bd2 --production of fruit by sterile hybrid ,cucurbitace1 #ah2 --on the melon1 #aj1 #af1 #bc2 --incapacity of the cucumber to cross with other species1 #aj4 ,,nectarine1 #aj2 --derived from the peach1 #aj 7#b72 --hybrids of1 #aj2 --persistency of characters in seedling1 #aj2 --origin of1 #aj2 --produced on peach-trees1 #aj 7#b72 --producing peaches1 #aj2 --variation in1 #aj 7#b72 --bud-variation in1 #aa2 --glands in the leaves of the1 #ba2 --analogous variation in1 #bf4 ,,nectary1 variations of1 in pansies1 #aj4 ,,nees1 on changes in the odour of plants1 #bc4 8,,negro0 cat1 #a4 ,,negroes1 polydactylism in1 #ab2 --selection of cattle practised by1 #bj4 ,,neolithic period1 domestication of ,bos longifrons and primigenius in the1 #c2 --cattle of the1 distinct from the original species1 #c2 --domestic goat in the1 #c2 --cereals of the1 #i4 ,,nerve1 optic1 atrophy of the1 #bd4 ,,neubert1 potato-grafting1 #aa4 ,,neumeister1 on the ,dutch and ,german pouter pigeons1 #e2 --on the ,jacobin pigeon1 #e2 --duplication of the middle flight feather in pigeons1 #e2 --on a peculiarly coloured breed of pigeons1 8,staarhalsige ,taube10 #e2 --fertility of hybrid pigeons1 #f2 --mongrels of the trumpeter pigeon1 #ad2 --period of perfect plumage in pigeons1 #ad2 --advantage of crossing pigeons1 #ag4 ,,neuralgia1 hereditary1 #ad4 ,,new ,,zealand1 feral cats of1 #a2 --cultivated plants of1 #i4 ,,newfoundland dog1 modification of1 in ,england1 #a4 ,,newman1 ,e41 sterility of ,sphingid under certain conditions1 #ah4 ,,newport1 ,g41 non-copulation of ,vaness in confinement1 #ah2 --fertilisation of the ovule in batrachia1 #bg4 ,,newt1 polydactylism in the1 #ab4 ,,newton1 ,a41 absence of sexual distinctions in the ,columbid1 #e2 --production of a 8black-shouldered0 peahen among the ordinary kind1 #h2 --on hybrid ducks1 #ah4 ,,ngami1 ,lake1 cattle of1 #c4 8,,niata0 cattle1 #c2 --resemblance of1 to ,sivatherium1 #c2 --prepotency of transmission of character by1 #ad4 8,,nicard0 rabbit1 #d4 ,,nicholson1 ,dr41 on the cats of ,antigua1 #a2 --on the sheep of ,antigua1 #c4 ,nicotiana1 crossing of varieties and species of1 #c2 --prepotency of transmission of characters in species of1 #ad2 --contabescence of female organs in1 #ah4 ,nicotiana glutinosa1 #af4 ,,niebuhr1 on the heredity of mental characteristics in some ,roman families1 #ad4 ,,night-,,blindness1 non-reversion to1 #ac4 ,,nilsson1 ,prof41 on the barking of a young wolf1 #a2 --parentage of ,european breeds of cattle1 #c 7#b72 --on ,bos frontosus in ,scania1 #c4 ,,nind1 ,mr41 on the dingo1 #a4 8,,nisus formativus10 #bd 7#b71 #bf4 ,,nitzsch1 on the absence of the oil-gland in certain ,columb1 #e4 ,,non-,,inheritance1 causes of1 #ab4 8,,nonnain0 pigeon1 #e4 ,,nordmann1 dogs of ,awhasie1 #a4 ,,normandy1 pigs of1 with appendages under the jaw1 #c4 ,,norway1 striped ponies of1 #b4 ,,nott and ,gliddon1 on the origin of the dog1 #a2 --mastiff represented on an ,assyrian tomb1 #a2 --on ,egyptian dogs1 #a2 --on the ,hare ,indian dog1 #a4 ,notylia1 #ag4 ,,nourishment1 excess of1 a cause of variability1 #bb4 ,,number1 importance of1 in selection1 #ba4 ,numida ptilorhyncha1 the original of the ,guinea-fowl1 #h4 ,,nun pigeon1 #e2 --known to ,aldrovandi1 #f4 ,,nutmeg-,,tree1 #ba4 ,,oak1 weeping1 #aj1 #ab1 #ba2 --pyramidal1 #aj2 --,hessian1 #aj2 --late-leaved1 #aj2 --valueless as timber at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #bc2 --changes in1 dependent on age1 #aa2 --galls of the1 #bc4 ,,oats1 wild1 #i2 --in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i4 ,,oberlin1 change of soil beneficial to the potato1 #ah4 ,,odart1 ,count1 varieties of the vine1 #aj1 #bc2 --bud-variation in the vine1 #aa4 cidium1 #bc4 nothera biennis1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,ogle1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,w41 inherited deficient phalanges1 #ab2 --resemblance of twins1 #bb 7#b74 ,,oil-,,gland1 absence of1 in fantail pigeons1 #e 7#b74 ,,oldfield1 ,mr41 estimation of ,european dogs among the natives of ,australia1 #bj4 ,,oleander1 stock affected by grafting in the1 #aa4 ,,ollier1 ,dr41 insertion of the periosteum of a dog beneath the skin of a rabbit1 #bg4 ,oncidium1 reproduction of1 #ag1 #ah4 ,,onions1 crossing of1 #ae2 --white1 liable to the attacks of fungi and disease1 #ba1 #be4 ,ophrys apifera1 self-fertilisation of1 #ae2 --formation of pollen by a petal in1 #bg4 ,opuntia leucotricha1 #bc4 ,,orange1 #aj2 --crossing of1 #ae2 --with the lemon1 #aa1 #bg2 --naturalisation of1 in ,italy1 #bd2 --variation of1 in ,north ,italy1 #bb2 --peculiar variety of1 #be2 --bizzarria1 #aa2 --trifacial1 #aa4 ,,orchids1 reproduction of1 #aa 7#b71 #ag4 ,,orford1 ,lord1 crossing greyhounds with the bulldog1 #a4 ,,organisms1 origin of1 ,introduction4 ,,organisation1 advancement in1 ,introduction4 ,,organs1 rudimentary and aborted1 #bd2 --multiplication of abnormal1 #bg4 ,,oriole1 assumptions of hen-plumage by a male in confinement1 #ah4 ,,orkney ,islands1 pigs of1 #c2 --pigeons of1 #f4 ,,orthoptera1 regeneration of hind legs in the1 #bd4 ,orthosia munda1 #ah4 ,,orton1 ,r41 on the effects of cross-breeding on the female1 #aa2 --on the ,manx cat1 #ad2 --on mongrels from the silk fowl1 #ad2 --infertility of geese in ,quito1 #ah4 ,,osborne1 ,dr41 inherited mottling of the iris1 #ab4 ,,osprey1 preying on black fowls1 #ba4 ,,osten-,,sacken1 ,baron1 on ,american oak-galls1 #bc4 ,,osteological characters of pigs1 #c 7#d72 --of rabbits1 #d2 --of pigeons1 #e2 --of ducks1 #h4 ,,ostrich1 diminished fertility of the1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,ostyaks1 selection of dogs by the1 #bj4 ,,otter1 #ah4 8,,otter0 sheep of ,massachusetts1 #c4 ,,oude1 feral humped cattle in1 #c4 ,,ouistiti1 breed in ,europe1 #ah4 ,,ovary1 variation of1 in ,cucurbita moschata1 #aj2 --development of1 independently of pollen1 #aa4 ,ovis montana1 #c4 ,,ovules and buds1 identity of nature of1 #bg4 ,,owen1 ,capt41 on stiff-haired cats at ,mombas1 #a4 ,,owen1 ,prof4 ,r41 palontological evidence as to the origin of dogs1 #a2 --on the skull of the 8,niata0 cattle1 #c2 --on fossil remains of rabbits1 #c2 --on the significance of the brain1 #d2 --on metagenesis1 #bg2 --theory of reproduction and parthenogenesis1 #bg4 ,,owl1 eagle1 breeding in captivity1 #ah4 ,,owl pigeon1 #e2 --,african1 figured1 #e2 --known in #agce1 #f4 ,oxalis1 trimorphic species of1 #bg4 ,oxalis rosea1 #ag4 ,,oxley1 ,mr41 on the nutmeg-tree1 #ba4 ,,oysters1 differences in the shells of1 #bc4 ,,paca1 sterility of the1 in confinement1 #d4 ,,pacific ,islands1 pigs of the1 #c4 ,,padua1 earliest known flower-garden at1 #bj4 ,,paduan fowl of ,aldrovandi1 #g4 ,ponia moutan1 #bj4 ,p,,ony-,,tree1 ancient cultivation of1 in ,china1 #bj4 ,,paget1 on the ,hungarian sheep-dog1 #a4 ,,paget1 ,sir ,j41 inheritance of cancer1 #ab2 --hereditary elongation of hairs in the eyebrow1 #ab2 --regrowth of extra digits1 #ab2 --circumcision1 #ab2 --period of inheritance of cancer1 #ad2 --on ,hydra1 #bd2 --on the healing of wounds1 #bd2 --on the reparation of bones1 #bd2 --growth of hair near inflamed surfaces or fractures1 #bd2 --on false membranes1 #bd2 --compensatory development of the kidney1 #bd2 --bronzed skin in disease of supra-renal capsules1 #be2 --unity of growth and gemmation1 #bg2 --independence of the elements of the body1 #bg2 --affinity of the tissues for special organic substances1 #bg4 ,,pallas1 on the influence of domestication upon the sterility of intercrossed species1 #a1 #d1 #f1 #af2 --hypothesis that variability is wholly due to crossing1 #d1 #h1 #bb 7#b72 --on the origin of the dog1 #a2 --variation in dogs1 #a2 --crossing of dog and jackal1 #a2 --origin of domestic cats1 #b2 --origin of ,angora cat1 #a2 --on wild horses1 #b 7#b72 --on ,persian sheep1 #c2 --on ,siberian fat-tailed sheep1 #bc2 --on ,chinese sheep1 #bd2 --on ,crimean varieties of the vine1 #aj2 --on a grape with rudimentary seeds1 #bd2 --on feral musk-ducks1 #ac2 --sterility of ,alpine plants in gardens1 #ah2 --selection of white-tailed yaks1 #bj4 ,,pampas1 feral cattle on the1 #c4 ,pandanus1 #bb4 ,,pangenesis1 hypothesis of1 #bg4 ,panicum1 seeds of1 used as food1 #i2 --found in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i4 ,,pansy1 #aj4 ,,pappus1 abortion of the1 in ,carthamus1 #bd4 ,paradoxurus1 sterility of species of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,paraguay1 cats of1 #a2 --cattle of1 #c2 --horses of1 #c2 --dogs of1 #c2 --black-skinned domestic fowl of1 #g4 ,,parallel variation1 #bf4 ,,paramos1 woolly pigs of1 #c4 ,,parasites1 liability to attacks of1 dependent on colour1 #ba4 ,,pariah dog1 with crooked legs1 #a2 --resembling the ,indian wolf1 #a4 ,,pariset1 inheritance of handwriting1 #ac4 ,paritium tricuspis1 bud-variation1 #aa4 ,,parker1 ,w4 ,k41 number of vertebr in fowls1 #g4 ,,parkinson1 ,mr41 varieties of the hyacinth1 #aj4 ,,parkyns1 ,,mansfield1 on ,columba guinea1 #f4 ,,parmentier1 differences in the nidification of pigeons1 #e2 --on white pigeons1 #ba4 ,,parrots1 general sterility of1 in confinement1 #ah2 --alteration of plumage of1 #bc4 ,,parsnip1 reversion in1 #ac2 --influence of selection on1 #bj2 --experiments on1 #bc2 --wild1 enlargement of roots of1 by cultivation1 #i4 ,,parthenogenesis1 #bg 7#b74 ,,partridge1 sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,parturition1 difficult1 hereditary1 #ab4 ,parus major1 #ba4 ,passiflora1 self-impotence in species of1 #ag 7#b72 --contabescence of female organs in1 #ah4 ,passiflora alata1 fertility of1 when grafted1 #ai4 ,,pastrana1 ,julia1 peculiarities in the hair and teeth of1 #be4 ,,pasture and climate1 adaptation of breeds of sheep to1 #c 7#b74 ,,patagonia1 crania of pigs from1 #c4 ,,patagonian rabbit1 #d4 ,,paterson1 ,r41 on the ,arrindy silk-moth1 #bd4 ,,paul1 ,w41 on the hyacinth1 #aj 7#b72 --varieties of pelargoniums1 #aa2 --weakness of transmission in hollyhocks1 #ad2 --improvement of pelargoniums1 #bj4 ,pavo cristatus and muticus1 hybrids of1 #h4 ,pavo nigripennis1 #h4 8,,pavodotten-,,taube10 #e4 ,,peach1 #aj2 --derived from the almond1 #aj2 --stones of1 figured1 #aj2 --contrasted with almonds1 #aj2 --double-flowering1 #aj 7#c72 --hybrids of1 #aj2 --persistency of races of1 #aj2 --trees producing nectarines1 #aj2 --variation in1 #aj 7#b72 --bud-variation in1 #aa2 --pendulous1 #ab2 --variation by selection in1 #bj2 --peculiar disease of the1 #ba2 --glands on the leaves of the1 #ba2 --antiquity of the1 #bd2 --increased hardiness of the1 #bd2 --varieties of1 adapted for forcing1 #bd2 --yellow-fleshed1 liable to certain diseases1 #be4 ,,peach-,,almond1 #bg4 ,,peafowl1 origin of1 #h2 --japanned or black-shouldered1 #h2 --feral1 in ,jamaica1 #f2 --comparative fertility of1 in wild and tame states1 #af1 #bb2 --white1 #be4 ,,pears1 #aj2 --bud-variation in1 #aa2 --reversion in seedling1 #ac2 --inferiority of1 in ,pliny's time1 #bj2 --winter nelis1 attacked by aphides1 #ba2 --soft-barked varieties of1 attacked by wood-boring beetles1 #ba2 --origination of good varieties of1 in woods1 #bb2 --,forelle1 resistance of1 to frost1 #bd4 ,,peas1 #i2 --origin of1 #i2 --varieties of1 #i2 --found in ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i 7#c72 --fruit and seeds figured1 #i2 --persistency of varieties1 #i2 --intercrossing of varieties1 #i1 #aa2 --effect of crossing on the female organs in1 #aa2 --double-flowered1 #ah2 --maturity of1 accelerated by selection1 #bj2 --varieties of1 produced by selection1 #bj2 --thin-shelled1 liable to the attacks of birds1 #ba2 --reversion of1 by the terminal seed in the pod1 #bf4 ,,peccary1 breeding of the1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,pedigrees of horses1 cattle1 greyhounds1 game-cocks1 and pigs1 #ab4 ,,pegu1 cats of1 #a2 --horses of1 #b4 ,,pelargoniums1 multiple origin of1 #aj2 --zones of1 #aj2 --bud-variation in1 #aa2 --variegation in1 accompanied by dwarfing1 #aa2 --pelorism in1 #ah1 #bf2 --by reversion1 #ac2 --advantage of change of soil to1 #ah2 --improvement of1 by selection1 #bj2 --scorching of1 #ba2 --numbers of1 raised from seed1 #ba2 --effects of conditions of life on1 #bc2 --stove-variety of1 #bd2 --correlation of contracted leaves and flowers in1 #be 7#b74 ,pelargonium fulgidum1 conditions of fertility in1 #ah4 8,,pelones10 a ,columbian breed of cattle1 #c1 #f4 ,,peloric flowers1 tendency of1 to acquire the normal form1 #ad2 --fertility or sterility of1 #ah 7#b74 ,,peloric races of ,gloxinia speciosa and ,antirrhinum majus1 #aj4 ,,pelorism1 #ac1 #bf 7#b74 ,,pelvis1 characters of1 in rabbits1 #d2 --in pigeons1 #e2 --in fowls1 #g2 --in ducks1 #h4 ,,pembroke cattle1 #c4 ,,pendulous trees1 #aj1 #bf2 --uncertainty of transmission of1 #ab 7#b74 ,,penguin ducks1 #h 7#b72 --hybrid of the1 with the ,egyptian goose1 #h4 ,,pennant1 production of wolf-like curs at ,fochabers1 #a2 --on the ,duke of ,queensberry's wild cattle1 #c4 ,pennisetum1 seeds of1 used as food in the ,punjab1 #i4 ,pennisetum distichum1 seeds of1 used as food in ,central ,africa1 #i4 ,,percival1 ,mr41 on inheritance in horses1 #ab2 --on horn-like processes in horses1 #b4 ,perdix rubra1 occasional fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,period of action of causes of variability1 #bb4 ,,periosteum of a dog1 producing bone in a rabbit1 #bg4 ,,periwinkle1 sterility of1 in ,england1 #ai4 ,,persia1 estimation of pigeons in1 #f2 --carrier pigeon of1 #e2 --tumbler pigeon of1 #e2 --cats of1 #a2 --sheep of1 #c4 ,,persistence of colour in horses1 #b2 --of generic peculiarities1 #d4 ,,peru1 antiquity of maize in1 #i2 --peculiar potato from1 #i2 --selection of wild animals practised by the ,incas of1 #bj 7#b74 8,,perucken-,,taube10 #e4 ,,petals1 rudimentary1 in cultivated plants1 #bd2 --producing pollen1 #bg4 ,,petunias1 multiple origin of1 #aj4 ,,peyritsch1 ,dr41 vegetable teratology1 #ac4 8,,pfauen-,,taube10 #e4 ,phalnopsis1 pelorism in1 #bf4 ,,phalanges1 deficiency of1 #ad4 ,phaps chalcoptera1 #bf4 ,phaseolus multiflorus1 #bd1 #be4 ,phaseolus vulgaris1 #i1 #bd4 ,phasianus pictus1 #g4 ,phasianus amhersti1 #g4 ,,pheasant1 assumption of male plumage by the hen1 #ac2 --wildness of hybrids of1 with the common fowl1 #ac2 --prepotency of the1 over the fowl1 #ad2 --diminished fecundity of the1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,pheasants1 golden and ,lady ,amherst's1 #g4 ,,pheasant-,,fowls1 #g4 ,,philipeaux1 regeneration of limbs in the salamander1 #bg4 ,,philippar1 on the varieties of wheat1 #i4 ,,philippine ,islands1 named breeds of game fowl in the1 #g4 ,,phillips1 ,mr41 on bud-variation in the potato1 #aa4 ,phlox1 bud-variation by suckers in1 #aa4 ,,phthisis1 affection of the fingers in1 #be4 ,,phylloxera1 #aj4 ,,pickering1 ,dr41 on the grunting voice of humped cattle1 #c2 --occurrence of the head of a fowl in an ancient ,egyptian procession1 #g2 --seeding of ordinarily seedless fruits1 #ah2 --extinction of ancient ,egyptian breeds of sheep and oxen1 #bh2 --on an ancient ,peruvian gourd1 #bh4 ,,picotees1 effect of conditions of life on1 #bc4 ,,pictet1 ,a41 oriental names of the pigeon1 #f4 ,,pictet1 ,prof41 origin of the dog1 #a2 --on fossil oxen1 #c4 ,,piebalds1 probably due to reversion1 #ac4 ,,pi,,trement1 ,m41 on the ribs of horses1 #b4 ,,pigeaux1 hybrids of the hare and rabbit1 #ah4 ,,pigeon cravate1 #e4 ,,pigeon bagadais1 #e 7#b74 ,,pigeon coquille1 #e4 ,,pigeon cygne1 #e4 ,,pigeon heurt1 #e4 ,,pigeon pattu plongeur1 #e4 ,,pigeon polonais1 #e4 ,,pigeon romain1 #e 7#b74 ,,pigeon tambour1 #e4 ,,pigeon turc1 #e4 ,,pigeons1 origin of1 #e 7#b71 #f2 --classified table of breeds of1 #e2 --pouter1 #e2 --carrier1 #e2 --runt1 #e2 --barbs1 #e2 --fantail1 #e2 --turbit and owl1 #e2 --tumbler1 #e2 --,indian frill-back1 #e2 --,jacobin1 #e2 --trumpeter1 #e2 --other breeds of1 #e2 --differences of1 equal to generic1 #e2 --individual variations of1 #e2 --variability of peculiarities characteristic of breeds in1 #e2 --sexual variability in1 #e 7#b72 --osteology of1 #e2 --correlation of growth in1 #e1 #be2 --young of some varieties naked when hatched1 #e1 #be2 --effects of disuse in1 #e2 --settling and roosting in trees1 #f2 --floating in the ,nile to drink1 #f2 --dovecot1 #f 7#b72 --arguments for unity of origin of1 #f2 --feral1 in various places1 #f1 #ac2 --unity of coloration in1 #f2 --reversion of mongrel1 to coloration of ,c4 livia1 #f2 --history of the cultivation of1 #f2 --history of the principal races of1 #f2 --mode of production of races of1 #f2 --reversion in1 #ac2 --by age1 #ac2 --produced by crossing in1 #ac 7#b72 --prepotency of transmission of characters in breeds of1 #ad 7#b72 --sexual differences in some varieties of1 #ad2 --period of perfect plumage in1 #ad2 --effect of segregation on1 #ae2 --preferent pairing of1 within the same breed1 #af2 --fertility of1 increased by domestication1 #af1 #ah2 --effects of interbreeding and necessity of crossing1 #ag2 --indifference of1 to change of climate1 #ah2 --selection of1 #af1 #bj 7#b72 --among the ,romans1 #bj2 --unconscious selection of1 #bj 7#b72 --facility of selection of1 #ba2 --white1 liable to the attacks of hawks1 #ba2 --effects of disuse of parts in1 #bd2 --fed upon meat1 #bd2 --effect of first male upon the subsequent progeny of the female1 #aa2 --homology of the leg and wing feathers in1 #be2 --union of two outer toes in feather-legged1 #be2 --correlation of beak1 limbs1 tongue1 and nostrils1 #be2 --analogous variation in1 #bf 7#b72 --permanence of breeds of1 #bh4 ,,pigs1 of ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #c2 --types of1 derived from ,sus scrofa and ,sus indicus1 #c2 --,japanese 7,sus pliciceps1 ,gray71 figured1 #c2 --of ,pacific ,islands1 #c1 #ae2 --modifications of skull in1 #c2 --length of intestines in1 #c1 #bd2 --period of gestation of1 #c2 --number of vertebr and ribs in1 #c2 --anomalous forms1 #c 7#b72 --development of tusks and bristles in1 #c2 --striped young of1 #c2 --reversion of feral1 to wild type1 #c 7#b71 #ac 7#b72 --production and changes of breeds of1 by intercrossing1 #c2 --effects produced by the first male upon the subsequent progeny of the female1 #aa2 --pedigrees of1 #ab2 --polydactylism in1 #ab2 --cross-reversion in1 #ac2 --hybrid1 wildness of1 #ac2 --disappearance of tusks in male under domestication1 #ad2 --solid-hoofed1 #bh2 --crosses of1 #ae 7#b72 --mutual fertility of all varieties of1 #af2 --increased fertility by domestication1 #af2 --ill effects of close interbreeding in1 #ag 7#b72 --influence of selection on1 #bj2 --prejudice against certain colours in1 #bj1 #ba1 #be2 --unconscious selection of1 #bj2 --black ,virginian1 #ba1 #be2 --similarity of the best breeds of1 #ba2 --change of form in1 #bc2 --effects of disuse of parts in1 #bd2 --ears of1 #bd2 --correlations in1 #be2 --white buck-wheat injurious to1 #be2 --tail of1 grafted upon the back1 #bg2 --extinction of the older races of1 #bh4 ,,pimenta1 #ae4 ,,pimpernel1 #ai4 ,,pine-,,apple1 sterility and variability of the1 #bb4 ,,pink1 ,chinese1 #be4 ,,pinks1 bud-variation in1 #aa2 --improvement of1 #bj4 ,pinus pumilio1 mughus1 and nana1 varieties of ,p4 sylvestris1 #aj4 ,pinus sylvestris1 #aj1 #bd2 --hybrids of1 with ,p4 nigricans1 #ag4 ,,piorry1 on hereditary disease1 #ab1 #ad4 ,pistacia lentiscus1 #bc4 ,pistacia vera1 #aa4 ,,pistils1 rudimentary1 in cultivated plants1 #bd4 ,,pistor1 sterility of some mongrel pigeons1 #f2 --fertility of pigeons1 #af4 ,pisum arvense and sativum1 #i4 ,,pityriasis versicolor1 inheritance of1 #ad4 ,,planchon1 ,g41 on a fossil vine1 #aj2 --sterility of ,jussia grandiflora in ,france1 #ah4 ,,plane-,,tree1 variety of the1 #aj4 ,,plantigrade carnivora1 general sterility of the1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,plants1 progress of cultivation of1 #i 7#b72 --cultivated1 their geographical derivation1 #i2 --crossing of1 #ae1 #ag2 --comparative fertility of wild and cultivated1 #af2 --self-impotent1 #ag2 --dimorphic and trimorphic1 #ag2 --sterility of1 from changed conditions1 #ah2 --from contabescence of anthers1 #ah 7#b72 --from monstrosities1 #i 7#b72 --from doubling of the flowers1 #ah 7#b72 --from seedless fruit1 #ah2 --from excessive development of vegetative organs1 #ah2 --influence of selection on1 #bj2 --variation by selection1 in useful parts of1 #bj2 --variability of1 #ba2 --variability of1 induced by crossing1 #bb2 --direct action of change of climate on1 #bc2 --change of period of vegetation in1 #bd2 --varieties of1 suitable to different climates1 #bd2 --correlated variability of1 #be2 --antiquity of races of1 #bh4 ,,plasticity1 inheritance of1 #ba4 ,,plateau1 ,f41 on the vision of amphibious animals1 #bj4 ,platessa flesus1 1 #ac4 ,,plato1 notice of selection in breeding dogs by1 #bj4 ,,plica polonica1 #bc4 ,,pliny1 on the crossing of shepherd dogs with the wolf1 #a2 --on ,pyrrhus' breed of cattle1 #bj2 --on the estimation of pigeons among the ,romans1 #f2 --pears described by1 #bj4 ,,plum1 #aj2 --stones figured1 #aj2 --varieties of the1 #aj 7#b71 #bj2 --bud-variation in the1 #aa2 --peculiar disease of the1 #ba2 --flower-buds of1 destroyed by bullfinches1 #ba2 --purple-fruited1 liable to certain diseases1 #be4 ,,plumage1 inherited peculiarities of1 in pigeons1 #e 7#b72 --sexual peculiarities of1 in fowls1 #g4 ,,plurality of races1 ,pouchet's views on1 #a4 ,poa1 seeds of1 used as food1 #i2 --species of1 propagated by bulblets1 #ah4 ,,podolian cattle1 #c4 ,,pointers1 modification of1 #a2 --crossed with the foxhound1 #c4 ,,pois sans parchemin1 #ba4 ,,poiteau1 origin of ,cytisus adami1 #aa2 --origin of cultivated varieties of fruit-trees1 #bb4 ,,polish fowl1 #g 7#f72 --skull figured1 #g2 --section of skull figured1 #g2 --development of protuberance of skull1 #g2 --furculum figured1 #g4 ,,polish1 or ,himalayan rabbit1 #d4 ,,pollen1 #bg 7#b72 --action of1 #af2 --injurious action of1 in some orchids1 #ag 7#b72 --resistance of1 to injurious treatment1 #ah2 --prepotency of1 #ai4 ,,pollock1 ,sir ,f41 transmission of variegated leaves in ,ballota nigra1 #aa2 --on local tendency to variegation1 #bc4 ,,polyanthus1 #ab4 ,,polydactylism1 inheritance of1 #ab2 --significance of1 #ab4 ,,ponies1 most frequent on islands and mountains1 #b2 --,javanese1 #b4 ,,poole1 ,col41 on striped ,indian horses1 #b 7#b72 --on the young of ,asinus indicus1 #ac4 ,,poplar1 ,lombardy1 #aj4 ,p,,ppig1 on ,cuban wild dogs1 #a4 ,,poppy1 found in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i 7#b72 --with the stamens converted into pistils1 #aj2 --differences of the1 in different parts of ,india1 #ah2 --monstrous1 fertility of1 #ah2 --black-seeded1 antiquity of1 #bh4 ,,porcupine1 breeding of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,porcupine family1 #ab1 #ad4 ,porphyrio1 breeding of a species of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,portal1 on a peculiar hereditary affection of the eye1 #ab4 ,,porto ,santo1 feral rabbits of1 #d4 ,portulaca oleracea1 #bc4 ,potamochoerus penicillatus1 #ah4 ,,potato1 #i 7#b72 --bud-variation by tubers in the1 #aa 7#b72 --graft-hybrid of1 by union of half-tubers1 #aa2 --individual self-impotence in the1 #ag2 --sterility of1 #ah2 --advantage of change of soil to the1 #ah4 ,,potato1 sweet1 sterility of the1 in ,china1 #ah2 --varieties of the1 suited to different climates1 #bd4 ,,pouchet1 ,m41 his views on plurality of races1 #a4 ,,pouter pigeons1 #e2 --furculum figured1 #e2 --history of1 #f4 ,,powis1 ,lord1 experiments in crossing humped and ,english cattle1 #c1 #ac4 ,,poynter1 ,mr41 on a graft-hybrid rose1 #aa4 ,,prairie wolf1 #a4 ,,precocity of highly-improved breeds1 #be4 ,,prepotency of pollen1 #ai4 ,,prepotency of transmission of character1 #ad1 #ai2 --in the ,austrian emperors and some ,roman families1 #ad2 --in cattle1 #ad 7#b72 --in sheep1 #ad2 --in cats1 #ad2 --in pigeons1 #ad2 --in fowls1 #ad2 --in plants1 #ad2 --in a variety of the pumpkin1 #aj2 --in the jackal over the dog1 #ad2 --in the ass over the horse1 #ad2 --in the pheasant over the fowl1 #ad2 --in the penguin duck over the ,egyptian goose1 #ad2 --discussion of the phenomena of1 #ad4 ,,prescott1 ,mr41 on the earliest known ,european flower-garden1 #bj4 ,,pressure1 mechanical1 a cause of modification1 #bf 7#b74 ,,prevost and ,dumas1 on the employment of several spermatozoids to fertilise one ovule1 #bg4 ,,preyer1 ,prof41 on the effect of circumcision1 #ab4 ,,price1 ,mr41 variations in the structure of the feet in horses1 #b4 ,,prichard1 ,dr41 on polydactylism in the negro1 #ab2 --on the ,lambert family1 #ad2 --on an albino negro1 #ba2 --on ,plica polonica1 #bc4 ,,primrose1 #bh2 --double1 rendered single by transplantation1 #ah4 ,primula1 intercrossing of species of1 #aj2 --contabescence in1 #ah2 --#8hose in hose1' #aj2 --with coloured calyces1 sterility of1 #ah4 ,primula sinensis1 variations1 #aj2 --reciprocally dimorphic1 #ag4 ,primula veris1 #ab1 #af4 ,primula vulgaris1 #ab1 #af4 ,,prince1 ,mr41 on the intercrossing of strawberries1 #bg4 ,,pringsheim1 on conjugation1 #bg4 ,procyon1 sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,prolificness1 increased by domestication1 #ai4 ,,protozoa1 reproduction of the1 #bg4 ,prunus armeniaca1 #aj 7#b74 ,prunus avium1 #aj4 ,prunus cerasus1 #aj 7#b74 ,prunus domestica1 #aj4 ,prunus insititia1 #aj4 ,prunus spinosa1 #aj4 ,,prussia1 wild horses in1 #b4 ,psittacus erithacus1 #ah4 ,psittacus macoa1 #ah4 ,psophia1 general sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,ptarmigan fowls1 #g4 ,pulex penetrans1 #bc4 ,,pumpkins1 #aj4 ,,puno ponies of the ,cordillera1 #b4 ,,pusey1 ,mr41 value of crossbred sheep1 #ag2 --preference of hares and rabbits for common rye1 #ba4 ,,putsche and ,vertuch1 varieties of the potato1 #i4 ,,puvis1 effects of foreign pollen on apples1 #aa2 --supposed non-variability of monotypic genera1 #bb4 ,pyrrhula vulgaris1 #ba2 --assumption of the hen-plumage by the male1 in confinement1 #ah4 ,,pyrrhus1 his breed of cattle1 #bj4 ,pyrus1 fastigiate ,chinese species of1 #bc4 ,pyrus acerba1 #aj4 ,pyrus aucuparia1 #ba4 ,pyrus communis1 #aj1 #aa4 ,pyrus malus1 #aj1 #aa4 ,pyrus paradisiaca1 #aj4 ,pyrus prcox1 #aj4 ,,quagga1 previous impregnation by1 #aa4 ,,quatrefages1 ,a4 ,,de1 on the burrowing of a bitch to litter1 #a2 --selection in the silkworm1 #h2 --development of the wings in the silk-moth1 #h1 #bd2 --on varieties of the mulberry1 #aj2 --special raising of eggs of the silk-moth1 #bj2 --on disease of the silkworm1 #ba2 --on monstrosities in insects1 #bb1 #bg2 --on a change in the breeding season of the ,egyptian goose1 #bd2 --fertilisation of the ,teredo1 #bg2 --tendency to similarity in the best races1 #ba2 --on his 8tourbillon vital10 #ac2 --on the independent existence of the sexual elements1 #bg4 ,quercus cerris1 #aj4 ,quercus robur and pedunculata1 hybrids of1 #ag4 ,,quince1 pears grafted on the1 #bb4 ,,rabbits1 domestic1 their origin1 #d2 --of ,mount ,sinai and ,algeria1 #d2 --breeds of1 #d2 --,himalayan1 ,chinese1 ,polish1 or ,russian1 #d1 #ae2 --feral1 #d2 --of ,jamaica1 #d2 --of the ,falkland ,islands1 #d2 --of ,porto ,santo1 #d1 #af1 #bc2 --osteological characters of1 #d2 --discussion of modifications in1 #d1 #e2 --one-eared1 transmission of peculiarity of1 #ab2 --reversion in feral1 #ac2 --in the ,himalayan1 #ac2 --crossing of white and coloured ,angora1 #ae2 --comparative fertility of wild and tame1 #af2 --falsified experiments in interbreeding of1 #ag2 --high-bred1 often bad breeders1 #ag2 --selection of1 #bj2 --white1 liable to destruction1 #ba2 --effects of disuse of parts in1 #bd2 --skull of1 affected by drooping ears1 #bd2 --length of intestines in1 #bd2 --correlation of ears and skull in1 #be 7#b72 --variations in skull of1 #bf2 --periosteum of a dog producing bone in1 #bg4 ,,racehorse1 origin of1 #b4 ,,races1 modification and formation of1 by crossing1 #c2 --natural and artificial1 #ba2 --,pouchet's views on plurality of1 ,introduction2 --of pigeons1 #f4 ,,radclyffe1 ,w4 ,f41 effect of climate and soil on strawberries1 #aj2 --constitutional differences in roses1 #aj4 ,,radishes1 #i2 --crossing of1 #ae2 --varieties of1 #ba4 ,,radlkofer1 retrogressive metamorphosis in mosses and alg1 #bg4 ,,rafarin1 ,m41 bud-variation and reversion1 #aa4 ,,raffles1 ,sir ,,stamford1 on the crossing of ,javanese cattle with ,bos sondaicus1 #bj4 ,,ram1 goat-like1 from the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #ad4 ,,ramu1 ,m41 on appendages to throat of goat1 #c4 ,,ranchin1 heredity of diseases1 #ab4 ,,range of gallinaceous birds on the ,himalaya1 #g4 ,,ranke1 on the effects of use and disuse of organs1 #bd4 ,ranunculus ficaria1 #ah4 ,ranunculus repens1 #ah4 ,,rape1 #i4 ,raphanus caudatus1 #i4 ,raphanus raphanistrum1 #i4 ,raphanus sativus1 #bf4 ,,raspberry1 yellow-fruited1 #ba4 ,,rattlesnake1 experiments with poison of the1 #bc4 ,,raven1 stomach of1 affected by vegetable diet1 #bd4 ,,rawson1 ,a41 self-impotence in hybrids of ,gladiolus1 #ag 7#b74 ,r1 ,,comte1 on the assumption of a yellow colour by all varieties of maize1 #i4 ,r,,aumur1 effect of confinement upon the cock1 #ac2 --fertility of fowls in most climates1 #ah4 ,,reed1 ,mr41 atrophy of the limbs of rabbits1 consequent on the destruction of their nerves1 #bd4 ,,regeneration of amputated parts in man1 #ab2 --in the human embryo1 #bg2 --in the lower vertebrata1 insects1 and myriapoda1 #bg4 ,,re-,,growth of amputated joints1 #bg4 ,,regnier1 early cultivation of the cabbage by the ,celts1 #i2 --selection practised by the ,celts1 #bj4 ,,reindeer1 individuals recognised by the ,laplanders1 #bb4 ,,reissek1 experiments in crossing ,cytisus purpureus and laburnum1 #aa2 --modification of a ,thesium by cidium1 #bc4 ,,relations1 characters of reproduced in children1 #ac4 ,,rengger1 occurrence of jaguars with crooked legs in ,paraguay1 #a2 --naked dogs of ,paraguay1 #a 7#b71 #ae1 #af2 --feral dogs of ,la ,plata1 #a2 --on the aguara1 #a2 --cats of ,paraguay1 #a1 #ae1 #ah2 --dogs of ,paraguay1 #ae2 --feral pigs of ,buenos ,ayres1 #c2 --on the refusal of wild animals to breed in captivity1 #ah2 --on ,dicotyles labiatus1 #ah2 --sterility of plantigrade carnivora in captivity1 #ah2 --on ,cavia aperea1 #ah2 --sterility of ,cebus azarae in captivity1 #ah2 --abortions produced by wild animals in captivity1 #ah4 ,,reproduction1 sexual and asexual1 contrasted1 #bg2 --unity of forms of1 #bg2 --antagonism of1 to growth1 #bg4 ,reseda odorata1 self-sterility of1 #ag1 #ba4 ,,retinitis1 pigmentary1 in deaf-mutes1 #be4 ,,reuter1 ,herr1 potato-grafting1 #aa4 ,,reversion1 #ac 7#b71 #bg 7#d72 --in pigeons1 #ac2 --in cattle1 #ac2 --in sheep1 #ac2 --in fowls1 #ac2 --in the heartsease1 #ac2 --in vegetables1 #ac2 --in feral animals and plants1 #ac2 --to characters derived from a previous cross in man1 dogs1 pigeons1 pigs1 and fowls1 #ac2 --in hybrids1 #ac2 --by bud-propagation in plants1 #ac2 --by age in fowls1 cattle1 etc41 #ac 7#b72 --partial1 from an injury1 #ac2 --caused by crossing1 #ac2 --explained by latent characters1 #ac2 --producing monstrosities1 #ac2 --producing peloric flowers1 #ac2 --of feral pigs to the wild type1 #c 7#b72 --of supposed feral rabbits to the wild type1 #d 7#c72 --of pigeons1 in coloration1 when crossed1 #f2 --in fowls1 #g2 --in the silkworm1 #h2 --in the pansy1 #aj2 --in a pelargonium1 #aa2 --in ,chrysanthemums1 #aa2 --of varieties of the ,china rose in ,st4 ,domingo1 #aa2 --by buds in pinks and carnations1 #aa2 --of laciniated varieties of trees to the normal form1 #aa2 --in variegated leaves of plants1 #aa2 --in tulips1 #aa2 --of suckers of the seedless barberry to the common form1 #aa2 --by buds in hybrids of ,tropolum1 #aa2 --in plants1 #aa2 --of crossed peloric snapdragons1 #ad2 --analogous variations due to1 #bf4 ,,rhinoceros1 breeding in captivity in ,india1 #ah4 ,rhododendron1 hybrid1 #bb4 ,rhododendron ciliatum1 #bc4 ,rhododendron dalhousi1 effect of pollen of ,r4 nuttallii upon1 #aa4 ,ribes grossularia1 #aj 7#b74 ,ribes rubrum1 #aa4 ,,ribs1 number and characters of1 in fowls1 #g2 --characters of1 in ducks1 #h 7#b74 ,,rice1 imperial1 of ,china1 #bj2 --,indian varieties of1 #bb2 --variety of1 not requiring water1 #bd4 ,,richardson1 ,h4 ,d41 on jaw-appendages in ,irish pigs1 #c2 --management of pigs in ,china1 #c2 --occurrence of striped young in ,westphalian pigs1 #c2 --on crossing pigs1 #ae2 --on interbreeding pigs1 #ag2 --on selection in pigs1 #bj4 ,,richardson1 ,sir ,john1 observations on the resemblance between ,north ,american dogs and wolves1 #a 7#b72 --on the burrowing of wolves1 #a2 --on the broad feet of dogs1 wolves1 and foxes in ,north ,america1 #a2 --on ,north ,american horses scraping away the snow1 #b4 ,ricinus1 annual in ,england1 #bd4 ,,riedel1 ,dr41 on the 8,bagadotte0 pigeon1 #e2 --on the ,jacobin pigeon1 #e2 --fertility of hybrid pigeons1 #f2 --circumcision1 #ab4 ,,riley1 on ,phylloxera1 #aj4 ,,rinderpest1 #bg4 ,,rintoul1 ,mr41 potato-grafting1 #aa4 ,,risso1 on varieties of the orange1 #aj1 #bd1 #be4 ,,rivers1 ,lord1 on the selection of greyhounds1 #ba4 ,,rivers1 ,mr41 persistency of characters in seedling potatoes1 #i2 --on the peach1 #aj 7#b72 --persistency of races in the peach and nectarine1 #aj 7#b72 --connection between the peach and the nectarine1 #aj2 --persistency of character in seedling apricots1 #aj2 --origin of the plum1 #aj2 --seedling varieties of the plum1 #aj2 --persistency of character in seedling plums1 #aj2 --bud-variation in the plum1 #aa2 --plum attacked by bullfinches1 #ba2 --seedling apples with surface-roots1 #aj2 --variety of the apple found in a wood1 #bb2 --on roses1 #aj 7#b72 --bud-variation in roses1 #aa2 --production of ,provence roses from seeds of the moss-rose1 #aa2 --effect produced by grafting on the stock in jessamine1 #aa2 --in the ash1 #aa2 --on grafted hazels1 #aa2 --hybridisation of a weeping thorn1 #ab2 --experiments with the seed of the weeping elm and ash1 #ab2 --variety of the cherry with curled petals1 #ba4 ,,rivi,,re1 reproduction of ,oncidium cavendishianum1 #ag4 ,,roberts1 ,mr41 on inheritance in the horse1 #ab4 ,,robertson1 ,mr41 on glandular-leaved peaches1 #aj4 ,,robinet1 on the silkworm1 #h1 #bj4 ,robinia1 #bc4 ,,robson1 ,mr41 deficiencies of half-bred horses1 #ab4 ,,robson1 ,mr41 on the advantage of change of soil to plants1 #ah 7#b72 --on the growth of the verbena1 #bc2 --on broccoli1 #bd4 ,,rock pigeon1 measurements of the1 #e2 --figured1 #e4 ,,rodents1 sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,rodriguezia1 #ag 7#b74 ,,rodwell1 ,j41 poisoning of horses by mildewed tares1 #be4 ,,rohilcund1 feral humped cattle in1 #c4 ,,rolle1 ,f41 on the history of the peach1 #bd4 ,,roller-,,pigeons1 ,dutch1 #e4 ,,rolleston1 ,prof41 inherited effects of injuries1 #ab2 --incisor teeth affected in form in cases of pulmonary tubercle1 #be4 ,,romanes on sternum of the fowl1 #g2 --rudimentary organs1 #bd4 ,,romans1 estimation of pigeons by1 #f2 --breeds of fowls possessed by1 #g 7#b74 ,,rooks1 pied1 #ad4 ,rosa1 cultivated species of1 #aj4 ,rosa devoniensis1 graft-hybrid produced by1 on the white ,banksian rose1 #aa4 ,rosa indica and centifolia1 fertile hybrids of1 #aj4 ,rosa spinosissima1 history of the culture of1 #aj4 ,,rosellini1 on ,egyptian dogs1 #a4 ,,roses1 #aj 7#b72 --origin of1 #aj2 --bud-variation in1 #aa2 --,scotch1 doubled by selection1 #bj2 --continuous variation of1 #ba2 --effect of seasonal conditions on1 #bc2 --noisette1 #bj2 --galls of1 #bc4 ,,ross1 ,dr41 on ,pangenesis1 #bg 7#b74 ,,rouennais1 rabbit1 #d4 ,,roujou1 polydactylism1 and arrested development1 #ab4 ,,roulin1 on the dogs of ,juan ,fernandez1 #a2 --on ,south ,american cats1 #a2 --striped young pigs1 #c2 --feral pigs in ,south ,america1 #c1 #ac2 --on ,columbian cattle1 #c1 #bj1 #ba2 --effects of heat on the hides of cattle in ,south ,america1 #c2 --fleece of sheep in the hot valleys of the ,cordilleras1 #c2 --diminished fertility of these sheep1 #ah2 --on black-boned ,south ,american fowls1 #g2 --variation of the guinea-fowl in tropical ,america1 #h2 --frequency of striped legs in mules1 #ac2 --geese in ,bogota1 #ah2 --sterility of fowls introduced into ,bolivia1 #ah4 ,,roy1 ,m41 on a variety of ,magnolia grandiflora1 #bd4 ,,royle1 ,dr41 ,indian varieties of the mulberry1 #aj2 --on ,agave vivipara1 #ah2 --variety of rice not requiring irrigation1 #bd2 --sheep from the ,cape in ,india1 #bd4 ,rubus1 pollen of1 #bb4 ,,rudimentary organs1 #a1 #bd4 ,,rufz ,,de ,,lavison1 extinction of breeds of dogs in ,france1 #bh4 ,,ruminants1 general fertility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,rumpless fowls1 #g4 ,,runts1 #e2 --history of1 #f2 --lower jaws and skull figured1 #e4 ,,russell1 ,lord ,a41 spiegelcarpe1 #ba4 ,,russian or ,himalayan rabbit1 #d4 ,,rutimeyer1 ,prof41 dogs of the ,neolithic period1 #a2 --horses of ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #b2 --diversity of early domesticated horses1 #b2 --pigs of the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #c 7#b72 --on humped cattle1 #c2 --parentage of ,european breeds of cattle1 #c1 #bh2 --on 8,niata0 cattle1 #c2 --sheep of the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #c1 #bh2 --goats of the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #c2 --absence of fowls in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #g2 --on crossing cattle1 #ae2 --differences in the bones of wild and domesticated animals1 #bc2 --decrease in size of wild ,european animals1 #bh4 ,,rye1 wild1 ,de ,candolle's observations on1 #i2 --found in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i2 --common1 preferred by hares and rabbits1 #ba2 --less variable than other cultivated plants1 #bb4 ,,sabine1 ,mr41 on the cultivation of ,rosa spinosissima1 #aj2 --on the cultivation of the dahlia1 #aj 7#b71 #bb2 --effect of foreign pollen on the seed-vessel in ,amaryllis vittata1 #aa4 ,,st4 ,,ange1 influence of the pelvis on the shape of the kidneys in birds1 #bf4 ,,st4 ,,domingo1 wild dogs of1 #a2 --bud-variation of dahlias in1 #aa4 ,,st4 ,,hilaire1 ,,aug41 milk furnished by cows in ,south ,america1 #bd2 --husked form of maize1 #i4 ,,st4 ,,john1 ,c41 feral cats in ,scotland1 #a2 --taming of wild ducks1 #h4 ,,st4 ,,val,,ry apple1 singular structure of the1 #aj2 --artificial fecundation of the1 #aa4 ,,st4 ,,vitus' ,dance1 period of appearance of1 #ad4 ,,sachs1 ,prof41 flow of sap1 #bd4 ,,sageret1 origin and varieties of the cherry1 #aj 7#b72 --origin of varieties of the apple1 #aj2 --incapacity of the cucumber for crossing with other species1 #aj2 --varieties of the melon1 #aj2 --supposed twin-mongrel melon1 #aa2 --crossing melons1 #af1 #ag2 --on gourds1 #af2 --effects of selection in enlarging fruit1 #bj2 --on the tendency to depart from type1 #ba2 --variation of plants in particular soils1 #bc4 ,,salamander1 experiments on the1 #bd1 #bg 7#b72 --regeneration of lost parts in the1 #bg4 ,salamandra cristata1 polydactylism in1 #ab4 ,,salisbury1 ,mr41 on the production of nectarines by peach-trees1 #aj2 --on the dahlia1 #aj 7#b74 ,salix1 intercrossing of species of1 #aj4 ,salix humilis1 galls of1 #bc 7#b74 ,,sall1 feral guinea-fowl in ,st4 ,domingo1 #h4 ,,salmon1 early breeding of male1 #bg4 ,,salter1 ,mr41 on bud-variation in pelargoniums1 #aa2 --in the ,chrysanthemum1 #aa2 --transmission of variegated leaves by seed1 #aa2 --bud-variation by suckers in ,phlox1 #aa2 --application of selection to bud-varieties of plants1 #aa2 --accumulative effect of changed conditions of life1 #bb2 --on the variegation of strawberry leaves1 #bc2 --on pollen within ovules1 #bg4 ,,salter1 ,s4 ,j41 hybrids of ,gallus sonneratii and the common fowl1 #g2 --crossing of races or species of rats1 #ae4 ,,salvin1 habits of the jackal1 #a2 --mutilation inherited in mot-mot1 #ab4 ,,samesreuther1 on inheritance in cattle1 #ab4 ,,sandford4 ,see ,,dawkins4 ,,sanson1 ,m41 origin of the horse1 #b2 --lumbar vertebra of pigs1 #c4 ,,sap1 ascent of the1 #bd4 ,saponaria calabrica1 #ab4 ,,saporta1 on ,pistacia1 #aa4 ,,sardinia1 ponies of1 #b4 ,,sars1 on the development of the hydroida1 #bg4 ,,satiation of the stigma1 #aa 7#b74 ,saturnia pyri1 sterility of1 in confinement1 #ah4 ,,saul1 on the management of prize gooseberries1 #aj4 ,,sauvigny1 varieties of the gold-fish1 #h4 ,,savages1 their indiscriminate use of plants as food1 #i2 --fondness of1 for taming animals1 #ah4 ,,savi1 effect of foreign pollen on maize1 #aa4 ,saxifraga geum1 #ah4 ,,sayzid ,,mohammed ,,musari1 on carrier-pigeons1 #e2 --on a pigeon which utters the sound 8,yahu10 #e4 ,,scanderoons 7pigeons71 #e 7#b74 ,,scania1 remains of ,bos frontosus found in1 #c4 ,,scapula1 characters of1 in rabbits1 #d2 --in fowls1 #g2 --in pigeons1 #e2 --alteration of1 by disuse1 in pigeons1 #e4 ,,scarlet fever1 #bc4 ,,schaaffhausen on the horses represented in ,greek statues1 #bj4 ,,schleiden1 excess of nourishment a cause of variability1 #bb4 ,,schmerling1 ,dr41 varieties of the dog found in a cave1 #a4 ,,schomburgk1 ,sir ,r41 on the dogs of ,indians of ,guiana1 #a 7#b71 #bj2 --on the musk duck1 #f2 --bud-variation in the banana1 #aa2 --reversion of varieties of the ,china rose in ,st4 ,domingo1 #aa2 --sterility of tame parrots in ,guiana1 #ah2 --on ,dendrocygna viduata1 #ah2 --selection of fowls in ,guiana1 #bj4 ,,schreibers1 on ,proteus1 #bd4 ,,sch,,tze on the ,torfschwein1 #c4 ,sciuropterus volucella1 #ah4 ,sciurus palmarum and cinerea1 #ah4 ,,sclater1 ,p4 ,l41 on ,asinus tniopus1 #b1 #ac2 --on ,asinus indicus1 #ac2 --striped character of young wild pigs1 #c2 --osteology of ,gallinula nesiotis1 #h2 --on the black-shouldered peacock1 #h2 --animals breeding in ,zoological ,gardens1 #ah2 --birds breeding in ,zoological ,gardens1 #ah2 --on the breeding of birds in captivity1 #ah 7#b74 ,,scotch fir1 local variation of1 #aj4 ,,scotch kail and cabbage1 cross between1 #ae4 ,,scott1 ,,john1 irregularities in the sex of the flowers of maize1 #i2 --bud-variation in ,imatophylium miniatum1 #aa2 --crossing of species of ,verbascum1 #af 7#b72 --self-sterility of ,verbascum1 #ag2 --experiments on crossing ,primul1 #af2 --reproduction of orchids1 #ag2 --fertility of ,oncidium divaricatum1 #ah2 --acclimatisation of the sweet pea in ,india1 #bd2 --number of seeds in ,acropera and ,gongora1 #bg4 ,,scrope1 on the ,scotch deerhound1 #ad1 #ag4 ,,scudder1 ,dr41 on regrowth1 #bg4 ,,sebright1 ,sir ,john1 effects of close interbreeding in dogs1 #bj2 --care taken by1 in selection of fowls1 #bj4 ,secale cereale1 #bb4 ,,sedgwick1 ,w41 effects of crossing on the female1 #aa2 --on the 8,porcupine man10 #ab2 --on hereditary diseases1 #ab2 --hereditary affections of the eye1 #ab1 #ad2 --inheritance of polydactylism and anomalies of the extremities1 #ab 7#b72 --morbid uniformity in the same family1 #ab2 --on deaf-mutes1 #ab2 --inheritance of injury to the eye1 #ab2 --atavism in diseases and anomalies of structure1 #ac2 --non-reversion to night-blindness1 #ac2 --sexual limitation of the transmission of peculiarities in man1 #ad 7#b72 --on the effects of hard-drinking1 #bc2 --inherited baldness with deficiency of teeth1 #be 7#b72 --occurrence of a molar tooth in place of an incisor1 #bg2 --diseases occurring in alternate generations1 #bg4 ,,sedillot1 on the removal of portions of bone1 #bd4 ,,seeds1 early selection of1 #bj2 --rudimentary1 in grapes1 #bd2 --relative position of1 in the capsule1 #bf4 ,,seeds and buds1 close analogies of1 #aa4 ,,seemann1 ,b41 crossing of the wolf and ,esquimaux dogs1 #a4 ,,segregation of characters1 #aa 7#b74 ,,selby1 ,p4 ,j41 on the bud-destroying habits of the bullfinch1 #ba4 ,,selection1 #bj2 --methodical1 #f1 #bj1 #ba2 --by the ancients and semi-civilised people1 #bj2 --of trifling characters1 #bj2 --unconscious1 #f 7#b72 --effects of1 shown by differences in most valued parts1 #bj2 --produced by accumulation of variability1 #bj2 --natural1 as affecting domestic productions1 #ai1 #ba2 --as the origin of species1 genera1 and other groups1 #bh2 --circumstances favourable to1 #ba2 --tendency of1 towards extremes1 #ba2 --possible limit of1 #ba2 --influence of time on1 #ba 7#b72 --summary of subject1 #ba 7#b72 --effects of1 in modifying breeds of cattle1 #c2 --in preserving the purity of breeds of sheep1 #c 7#b72 --in producing varieties of pigeons1 #f2 --in breeding fowls1 #g 7#b72 --in the goose1 #h2 --in the canary1 #h2 --in the gold-fish1 #h2 --in the silkworm1 #h 7#b72 --contrasted in cabbages and cereals1 #i2 --in white mulberry1 #aj2 --on gooseberries1 #aj2 --applied to wheat1 #i 7#b72 --exemplified in carrots1 etc41 #i2 --in potato1 #i2 --in the melon1 #aj2 --in flowering plants1 #aj2 --in the hyacinth1 #aj2 --applied to bud-varieties of plants1 #aa2 --illustrations of1 #bh4 ,,selection1 sexual1 #ad4 ,,self-,,impotence in plants1 #ag2 --in individual plants1 #ag2 --of hybrids1 #ai4 ,,selwyn1 ,mr41 on the ,dingo1 #a4 ,,selys-,,longchamps1 on hybrid ducks1 #f1 #ac1 #ah2 --hybrid of the hook-billed duck and ,egyptian goose1 #h4 ,,seringe1 on the ,st4 ,valry apple1 #aj4 ,,serpent melon1 #aj1 #be4 ,,serres1 ,,olivier ,,de1 wild poultry in ,guiana1 #g4 ,,sesamum1 white-seeded1 antiquity of the1 #bh4 ,setaria1 found in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i4 ,,settegast1 sheep poisoned by buckwheat1 #be4 ,,setters1 degeneration of1 in ,india1 #a2 --,youatt's remarks on1 #a4 ,,sex1 secondary characters of1 latent1 #ac 7#b72 --of parents1 influence of1 on hybrids1 #bb4 ,,sexual characters1 sometimes lost in domestication1 #ad4 ,,sexual limitation of characters1 #ad4 ,,sexual peculiarities1 induced by domestication in sheep1 #c2 --in fowls1 #g2 --transfer of1 #g4 ,,sexual variability in pigeons1 #e 7#b74 ,,sexual selection1 #ad4 ,,shaddock1 #aj4 ,,shailer1 ,mr41 on the moss-rose1 #aa4 ,,shan ponies1 striped1 #b4 ,,shanghai fowls1 #g4 ,,shanghai sheep1 their fecundity1 #c4 ,,sheep1 disputed origin of1 #c2 --early domestication of1 #c2 --large-tailed1 #c 7#b71 #bc2 --variations in horns1 mamm1 and other characters of1 #c2 --sexual characters of1 induced by domestication1 #c2 --adaptation of1 to climate and pasture1 #c 7#b72 --periods of gestation of1 #c2 --effect of heat on the fleece of1 #c2 --effect of selection on1 #c2 --8ancon0 or 8otter0 breeds of1 #c2 --8,mauchamp-merino10 #c 7#b72 --cross of ,german and merino1 #ae2 --black1 of the ,tarentino1 #ba2 --,karakool1 #bc2 --,jaffna1 with callosities on the knees1 #bd2 --,chinese1 #bd2 --,danish1 of the ,bronze period1 #bh2 --polydactylism in1 #ab2 --occasional production of horns in hornless breeds of1 #ac2 --reversion of colour in1 #ac2 --influence of male1 on offspring1 #ad2 --sexual differences in1 #ad2 --influence of crossing or segregation on1 #ae 7#b71 #af 7#b72 --interbreeding of1 #ag 7#b72 --effect of nourishment on the fertility of1 #af2 --value of1 crossbred1 #ag2 --diminished fertility of1 under certain conditions1 #ah2 --unconscious selection of1 #bj2 --natural selection in breeds of1 #ba 7#b72 --reduction of bones in1 #ba2 --individual differences of1 #bb2 --local changes in the fleece of1 in ,england1 #bc2 --partial degeneration of1 in ,australia1 #bc2 --correlation of horns and fleece in1 #be2 --feeding on flesh1 #bd2 --acclimatisation of1 #bd2 --mountain1 resistance of1 to severe weather1 #bd2 --white1 poisoned by ,hypericum crispum1 #be4 ,,sheep dogs1 resembling wolves1 #a2 --mutilated tail inherited1 #ab4 ,,shells1 sinistral and dextral1 #ac4 ,,shirley1 ,e4 ,p41 on the fallow-deer1 #af1 #ag4 ,,shirreff ,mr41 new varieties of wheat1 #i 7#b72 --on crossing wheat1 #af2 --variability of wheat1 #aa2 --continuous variation of wheat1 #ba4 ,,short1 ,d41 hybrids of the domestic cat and ,felis ornata1 #a4 ,,siam1 cats of1 #a2 --horses of1 #b4 ,,siberia1 northern range of wild horses in1 #b4 ,,sichel1 ,j41 on the deafness of white cats with blue eyes1 #be4 ,,sidney1 ,s41 on the pedigrees of pigs1 #ab2 --on cross-reversion in pigs1 #ac2 --period of gestation in the pig1 #c2 --production of breeds of pigs by intercrossing1 #c1 #ae2 --fertility of the pig1 #af2 --effects of interbreeding on pigs1 #ag2 --on the colours of pigs1 #bj1 #ba4 ,,siebold1 on the sweet potato1 #ba4 ,,siebold1 ,,carl ,,von1 on parthenogenesis1 #bg4 ,silene1 contabescence in1 #ah4 ,,silk ,,fowls1 #g1 #ad 7#b74 ,,silk-,,moth1 ,arrindy1 #bd 7#bc72 --,tarroo1 #ah4 ,,silk-,,moths1 #h2 --domesticated1 species of1 #h2 --history of1 #h2 --causes of modification in1 #h2 --differences presented by1 #h2 --crossing of1 #ae2 --disease in1 #ba2 --effects of disuse of parts in1 #bd2 --selection practised with1 #bj 7#b72 --variation of1 #ba2 --parthenogenesis in1 #bg4 ,,silkworms1 variations of1 #h2 --yielding white cocoons1 less liable to disease1 #be4 ,,silver-,,grey rabbit1 #d 7#c74 ,,simon1 on the raising of eggs of the silk-moth in ,china1 #bj4 ,,simonds1 ,j4 ,b41 period of maturity in various breeds of cattle1 #c2 --differences in the periods of dentition in sheep1 #c2 --on the teeth in cattle1 sheep1 etc41 #be2 --on the breeding of superior rams1 #bj4 ,,simpson1 ,sir ,j41 regenerative power of the human embryo1 #bg4 ,siredon1 breeding in the branchiferous stage1 #bg4 ,,siskin1 breeding in captivity1 #ah4 ,sivatherium1 resemblance of the1 to ,niata cattle1 #c4 ,,size1 difference of1 an obstacle to crossing1 #af4 ,,skin1 and its appendages1 homologous1 #be2 --hereditary affections of the1 #ad4 ,,skirving1 ,r4 ,s41 on pigeons settling on trees in ,egypt1 #f4 ,,skull1 characters of the1 in breeds of dogs1 #a2 --in breeds of pigs1 #c2 --in rabbits1 #d 7#b72 --in breeds of pigeons1 #e 7#b72 --in breeds of fowls1 #g2 --in ducks1 #h 7#b74 ,,skull and horns1 correlation of the1 #be4 ,,skylark1 #ah4 ,,sleeman1 on the cheetah1 #ah4 ,,sloe1 #aj4 ,,small-,,pox1 #bg4 ,,smiter 7pigeon71 #e4 ,,smith1 ,sir ,a41 on ,caffrarian cattle1 #c2 --on the use of numerous plants as food in ,south ,africa1 #i4 ,,smith1 ,colonel ,,hamilton1 on the odour of the jackal1 #a2 --on the origin of the dog1 #a2 --wild dogs in ,st4 ,domingo1 #a2 --on the ,thibet mastiff and the alco1 #a2 --development of the fifth toe in the hind feet of mastiffs1 #a2 --differences in the skull of dogs1 #a2 --history of the pointer1 #a2 --on the ears of the dog1 #bd2 --on the breeds of horses1 #b2 --origin of the horse1 #b2 --dappling of horses1 #b2 --striped horses in ,spain1 #b2 --original colour of the horse1 #b2 --on horses scraping away snow1 #b2 --on ,asinus hemionus1 #ac2 --feral pigs of ,jamaica1 #c 7#b74 ,,smith1 ,sir ,j4 ,e41 production of nectarines and peaches by the same tree1 #aj2 --on ,viola amoena1 #aj2 --sterility of ,vinca minor in ,england1 #ah4 ,,smith1 ,j41 development of the ovary in ,bonatea speciosa by irritation of the stigma1 #aa4 ,,smith1 ,n4 ,h41 influence of the bull 8,favourite0 on the breed of ,shorthorn cattle1 #ad4 ,,smith1 ,w41 on the intercrossing of strawberries1 #aj4 ,,snake-,,rat1 #ae 7#b74 ,,snakes1 form of the viscera in1 #bf4 ,,snapdragon1 bud-variation in1 #aa2 --non-inheritance of colour in1 #ab2 --peloric1 crossed with the normal form1 #ad1 #ae2 --asymmetrical variation of the1 #be4 ,,soil1 adaptation of plums to1 #aj2 --influence of1 on the zones of pelargoniums1 #aj2 --on roses1 #aj2 --on the variegation of leaves1 #aa2 --advantages of change of1 #ah4 ,,soil and climate1 effects of1 on strawberries1 #aj4 ,solanum1 non-intercrossing of species of1 #ae4 ,solanum tuberosum1 #i 7#b71 #aa4 ,,solid-,,hoofed pigs1#c4 ,,solomon1 his stud of horses1 #b4 ,,somerville1 ,lord1 on the fleece of ,merino sheep1 #c2 --on crossing sheep1 #ag2 --on selection of sheep1 #bj2 --diminished fertility of ,merino sheep brought from ,spain1 #ah4 ,,sooty fowls1 #g 7#b74 ,sorghum1 #aj4 ,,soto1 ,,ferdinand ,,de1 on the cultivation of native plants in ,florida1 #i4 ,,spain1 hawthorn monogynous in1 #aj4 ,,spallanzani1 on feral rabbits in ,lipari1 #d2 --experiments on salamanders1 #bd1 #bg 7#b72 --experiments in feeding a pigeon with meat1 #bd4 ,,spaniels1 in ,india1 #a2 --,king ,charles's1 #a2 --degeneration of1 caused by interbreeding1 #ag4 ,,spanish fowls1 #g 7#c72 --figured1 #g2 --early development of sexual characters in1 #g2 --furculum of1 figured1 #g4 ,,species1 difficulty of distinguishing from varieties1 ,introduction2 --conversion of varieties into1 ,introduction2 --origin of1 by natural selection1 #bh2 --by mutual sterility of varieties1 #ai4 ,,spencer1 ,lord1 on selection in breeding1 #bj4 ,,spencer1 ,,herbert1 on the 8survival of the fittest10 ,introduction2 --increase of fertility by domestication1 #af2 --on life1 #ah1 #ai2 --changes produced by external conditions1 #bc2 --effects of use on organs1 #bd2 --ascent of the sap in trees1 #bd2 --correlation exemplified in the ,irish elk1 #be 7#b72 --on 8physiological units10 #bg2 --antagonism of growth and reproduction1 #bg4 ,,spermatophores of the cephalopoda1 #bg4 ,,spermatozoids1 #bg 7#b74 ,,sphingid1 sterility of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,spinola1 on the injurious effect produced by flowering buckwheat on white pigs1 #be4 ,,spitz dog1 #a4 ,,spooner1 ,w4 ,c41 cross-breeding of sheep1 #c1 #ae 7#b71 #ag2 --on the effects of crossing1 #ae 7#b72 --on crossing cattle1 #ag2 --individual sterility1 #ah4 ,,spores1 reproduction of abnormal forms by1 #aa4 ,,sports1 #aa2 --in pigeons1 #f4 ,,spot pigeon1 #e1 #f4 ,,sprengel1 ,c4 ,k41 on dichogamous plants1 #ae2 --on the hollyhock1 #af2 --on the functions of flowers1 #ai4 ,,sproule1 ,mr41 transmission of hare-lip1 #ab4 ,,spurs1 of fowls1 #g2 --development of1 in hens1 #bd4 ,,squashes1 #aj4 ,,squinting1 hereditary1 #ab4 ,,squirrels1 generally sterile in captivity1 #ah4 ,,squirrels1 flying1 breeding in confinement1 #ah4 8,,staarhalsige ,taube10 #e4 ,,stag1 one-horned1 supposed heredity of character in1 #ab2 --degeneracy of1 in the ,highlands1 #bj4 ,,stamens1 occurrence of rudimentary1 #bd2 --conversion of1 into pistils1 #aj2 --into petals1 #bg4 ,staphylea1 #ah4 ,,steenstrup1 ,prof41 on the dog of the ,danish ,middens1 #a2 --on the obliquity of flounders1 #ac4 ,,steinan1 ,j41 on hereditary diseases1 #ab1 #ad4 ,,stephens1 ,j4 ,f41 on the habits of the ,bombycid1 #h4 ,,sterility1 in dogs1 consequent on close confinement1 #a2 --comparative1 of crosses1 #af 7#b72 --from changed conditions of life1 #ah2 --occurring in the descendants of wild animals bred in captivity1 #ah2 --individual1 #ah2 --resulting from propagation by buds1 cuttings1 bulbs1 etc41 #ah2 --in hybrids1 #ai1 #bg1 #bh 7#b72 --in specific hybrids of pigeons1 #f2 --as connected with natural selection1 #ai4 ,,sternum1 characters of the1 in rabbits1 #d2 --in pigeons1 #e 7#b72 --in fowls1 #g 7#b72 --effects of disuse on the1 #e 7#b74 ,,stewart1 ,h41 on hereditary disease1 #ad4 ,,stigma1 variation of the1 in cultivated ,cucurbitace1 #aj2 --satiation of the1 #aa 7#b74 ,,stockholm1 fruit-trees of1 #bd4 ,,stocks1 bud-variation in1 #aa2 --effect of crossing upon the colour of the seed of1 #aa2 --true by seed1 #ab2 --crosses of1 #ae2 --varieties of1 produced by selection1 #bj2 --reversion by the upper seeds in the pods of1 #bf4 ,,stockton1 ,,hough1 direct action of pollen1 #aa4 ,,stokes1 ,prof41 calculation of the chance of transmission of abnormal peculiarities in man1 #ab4 ,,stolons1 variations in the production of1 by strawberries1 #aj4 ,,stomach1 structure of the1 affected by food1 #bd4 ,,stone in the bladder1 hereditary1 #ab1 #ad4 ,,stonehenge1 on maturity of the dog1 #a2 --inherited effects of injury1 #ab2 --cross between bulldog and greyhound1 #ae2 --close interbreeding of greyhound1 #ag2 --fleetness of racehorses1 #ba4 ,,storer1 ,j41 pedigree of cattle1 #ag4 ,,strawberries1 #aj2 --remarkable varieties of1 #aj 7#b72 --hautbois dicious1 #aj2 --selection in1 #bj2 --probable further modification of1 #f2 --variegated1 effects of soil on1 #bc4 ,,strickland1 ,a41 on the domestication of ,anser ferus1 #h2 --on the colour of the bill and legs in geese1 #h4 ,strictnas1 #f4 ,,stripes on young of wild swine1 #c2 --of domestic pigs of ,turkey1 ,westphalia1 and the ,zambesi1 #c2 --of feral swine of ,jamaica and ,new ,granada1 #c2 --of fruit and flowers1 #aa1 #ac2 --in horses1 #b2 --in the ass1 #b 7#b72 --production of1 by crossing species of ,equid1 #ac 7#b74 ,strix grallaria1 #bd4 ,strix passerina1 #ah4 8,,strupp-,,taube10 #e4 ,,struthers1 ,d41 osteology of the feet in solid-hoofed pigs1 #c2 --on polydactylism1 #ab 7#b74 ,,sturm1 prepotency of transmission of characters in sheep and cattle1 #ad2 --absorption of the minority in crossed races1 #ae2 --correlation of twisted horns and curled wool in sheep1 #be4 ,,sub-,,species1 wild1 of ,columba livia and other pigeons1 #f4 ,,succession1 geological1 of organisms1 ,introduction4 ,,suckers1 bud-variation by1 #aa4 ,,sugar-,,cane1 sterility of1 in various countries1 #ah2 --sporting of1 #aa2 --white1 liability of1 to disease1 #ba1 #be4 ,,suicide1 hereditary tendency to1 #ab1 #ad4 ,,sulivan1 ,admiral1 on the horses of the ,falkland ,islands1 #b2 --wild pigs of the ,falkland ,islands1 #c2 --feral cattle of the ,falkland ,islands1 #c 7#b72 --feral rabbits of the ,falkland ,islands1 #d4 ,,sultan fowl1 #g 7#b74 ,sus indicus1 #c 7#b71 #af4 ,sus pliciceps 7figured71 #c4 ,sus scrofa1 #c 7#b71 #af4 ,sus scrofa palustris1 #c4 ,sus sennariensis1 #c4 ,sus vittatus1 #c4 ,,swallows1 a breed of pigeons1 #b4 ,,sweet peas1 #ae2 --crosses of1 #ae2 --varieties of1 coming true by seed1 #ab2 --acclimatisation of1 in ,india1 #h4 ,,sweet ,william1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,swinhoe1 ,r41 on ,chinese pigeons1 #e1 #f2 --on striped ,chinese horses1 #b2 --on the japanned peacock1 #h4 ,,switzerland1 ancient dogs of1 #a2 --pigs of1 in the ,neolithic period1 #c2 --goats of1 #c4 ,,sycamore1 pale-leaved variety of the1 #be4 ,,sykes1 ,colonel1 on a pariah dog with crooked legs1 #a2 --on small ,indian asses1 #b2 --on ,gallus sonneratii1 #g2 --on the voice of the ,indian ,kulm cock1 #g2 --fertility of the fowl in most climates1 #ah4 ,,symmetry1 hereditary departures from1 #ab4 ,symphytum1 variegated1 #aa4 ,,syphilis1 hereditary1 #be4 ,,syria1 asses of1 #b4 ,syringa persica1 chinensis1 and vulgaris1 #ah4 ,,tacitus1 on the care taken by the ,celts in breeding animals1 #bj4 ,tagetes signata1 dwarf variety of1 #ab4 ,,tahiti1 varieties of cultivated plants in1 #bb4 ,,tail1 never curled in wild animals1 #bd2 --rudimentary in ,chinese sheep1 #bd4 ,,tail-,,feathers1 numbers of1 in breeds of pigeons1 #e 7#b72 --peculiarities of1 in cocks1 #g2 --variability of1 in fowls1 #g2 --curled1 in ,anas boschas1 and tame drakes1 #h4 ,,tait1 ,,lawson1 presence of hairs and teeth in ovarian tumours1 #bg4 ,,talent1 hereditary1 #ab4 ,,tankerville1 ,earl of1 on ,chillingham cattle1 #c1 #ag4 ,,tanner1 ,prof41 effects of disuse of parts in cattle1 #bd4 ,,tapir1 sterility of the1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,targioni-,,tozzetti1 on cultivated plants1 #i2 --on the vine1 #aj2 --varieties of the peach1 #aj2 --origin and varieties of the plum1 #aj2 --origin of the cherry1 #aj2 --origin of roses1 #aj4 ,,tarsus1 variability of the1 in fowls1 #g2 --reproduction of the1 in a thrush1 #bg4 ,,tartars1 their preference for spiral-horned sheep1 #bj4 ,,tavernier1 abundance of pigeons in ,persia1 #f4 ,taxus baccata1 #ab4 ,,taylor1 ,mr41 potato-grafting1 #aa4 ,,teebay1 ,mr41 reversion in fowls1 #ac4 ,,teeth1 number and position of1 in dogs1 #a2 --deficiency of1 in naked ,turkish dogs1 #a2 --period of appearance of1 in breeds of dogs1 #a2 --precocity of1 in highly-bred animals1 #be2 --correlation of1 with hair1 #be2 --double row of1 with redundant hair1 in ,julia ,pastrana1 #be2 --affected in form by hereditary syphilis and by pulmonary tubercle1 #be2 --developed on the palate1 #bg4 ,,tegetmeier1 ,mr41 on a cat with monstrous teeth1 #a2 --on a swift-like pigeon1 #e2 --on sexual colours1 #e2 --naked young of some pigeons1 #e2 --fertility of hybrid pigeons1 #f2 --on white pigeons1 #ba2 --reversion in crossed breeds of fowls1 #g2 --chicks of the white silk fowl1 #g2 --development of the cranial protuberance in ,polish fowls1 #g2 --on the skull in the ,polish fowl1 #g 7#b72 --on the intelligence of ,polish fowls1 #g2 --correlation of the cranial protuberance and crest in ,polish fowls1 #g2 --development of the web in the feet of ,polish fowls1 #g2 --early development of several peculiarities in ,spanish cocks1 #g2 --on the comb in ,spanish fowls1 #g2 --on the ,spanish fowl1 #bd2 --varieties of game-fowls1 #g2 --pedigrees of game-fowls1 #ab2 --assumption of female plumage by a game-cock1 #g2 --natural selection in the game-cock1 #ba2 --pugnacity of game-hens1 #g2 --length of the middle toe in ,cochin fowls1 #g2 --origin of the ,sebright bantam1 #ac2 --differences in the size of fowls1 #g2 --effect of crossing in fowls1 #g2 --effects of interbreeding in fowls1 #ag 7#b72 --incubation by mongrels of non-sitting races of fowls1 #ac2 --inverse correlation of crest and comb in fowls1 #g2 --occurrence of pencilled feathers in fowls1 #ac2 --on a variety of the goose from ,sebastopol1 #h2 --on the fertility of the peahen1 #af2 --on the intercrossing of bees1 #ag4 ,,temminck1 origin of domestic cats1 #a2 --origin of domestic pigeons1 #f2 --on ,columba guinea1 #f2 --on ,columba leucocephala1 #f2 --asserted reluctance of some breeds of pigeons to cross1 #f2 --sterility of hybrid turtle-doves1 #f2 --variations of ,gallus bankiva1 #g2 --on a buff-coloured breed of turkeys1 #h2 --number of eggs laid by the peahen1 #af2 --breeding of guans in captivity1 #ah2 --behaviour of grouse in captivity1 #ah2 --sterility of the partridge in captivity1 #ah4 ,,tendrils in ,cucurbitace1 #aj1 #bd4 ,,tennent1 ,sir ,j4 ,e41 on the goose1 #h2 --on the growth of the apple in ,ceylon1 #bc2 --on the ,jaffna sheep1 #bd4 ,teredo1 fertilisation in1 #bg4 ,,terriers1 wry-legged1 #ba2 --white1 subject to distemper1 #be4 ,,teschemacher1 on a husked form of maize1 #i4 ,,tessier1 on the period of gestation of the dog1 #a2 --of the pig1 #c2 --in cattle1 #c2 --experiments on change of soil1 #ah4 ,tetrao1 breeding of species of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,tetrapteryx paradisea1 #ah4 ,teucrium campanulatum1 pelorism in1 #bf4 ,,texas1 feral cattle in1 #c4 ,,theognis1 his notice of the domestic fowl1 #g4 ,,theophrastus1 his notice of the peach1 #bd4 ,thesium1 #bc4 ,,thompson1 ,mr41 on the peach and nectarine1 #aj2 --on the varieties of the apricot1 #aj2 --classification of varieties of cherries1 #aj2 --on the 8,sister ribston-pippin10 #aj2 --on the varieties of the gooseberry1 #aj 7#b74 ,,thompson1 ,,william1 on the pigeons of ,islay1 #f2 --feral pigeons in ,scotland1 #f2 --colour of the bill and legs in geese1 #h2 --breeding of ,tetrao scotius in captivity1 #ah2 --destruction of black fowls by the osprey1 #ba4 ,,thorn1 grafting of early and late1 #aj2 --,glastonbury1 #aj4 ,,thorns1 reconversion of1 into branches1 in pear trees1 #bd4 ,,thrush1 asserted reproduction of the tarsus in a1 #bg4 ,thuja pendula or filiformis1 a variety of ,t4 orientalis1 #aj4 ,,thuret1 on the division of the zoospores of an alga1 #bg4 ,,thwaites1 ,g4 ,h41 on the cats of ,ceylon1 #a2 --on a twin seed of ,fuchsia coccinea and fulgens1 #aa4 ,,tiburtius1 experiments in rearing wild ducks1 #h4 ,,tiger1 rarely fertile in captivity1 #ah4 ,tigridia conchiflora1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,time1 importance of1 in the production of races1 #ba4 ,,tinzmann1 self-impotence in the potato1 #ag4 ,,tissues1 affinity of1 for special organic substances1 #bg4 ,,titmice1 destructive to thin-shelled walnuts1 #aj2 --attacking nuts1 #aj2 --attacking peas1 #ba4 ,,tobacco1 crossing of varieties of1 #af2 --cultivation of1 in ,sweden1 #bd4 ,,tobolsk1 red-coloured cats of1 #a4 ,,toes1 relative length of1 in fowls1 #g2 --development of fifth1 in dogs1 #bd4 ,,tollet1 ,mr41 his selection of cattle1 #bj4 ,,tomato1 #ae4 ,,tomes1 inheritance of dental malformations1 #ab4 ,,tomtits4 ,see ,,titmice4 ,,tongue1 relation of1 to the beak in pigeons1 #c4 ,,tooth1 occurrence of a molar1 in place of an incisor1 #bg4 8,,torfschwein10 #c4 ,,trail1 ,r41 on the union of half-tubers of different kinds of potatoes1 #aa4 ,,trees1 varieties of1 suddenly produced1 #aj2 --weeping or pendulous1 #aj2 --fastigiate or pyramidal1 #aj2 --with variegated or changed foliage1 #aj2 --early or late in leaf1 #aj2 --forest1 non-application of selection to1 #ba4 8,,trembleur0 7pigeons71 #e4 ,,trembley1 on reproduction in ,hydra1 #bg4 8,,trevoltini0 silkworms1 #h 7#b74 ,trichosanthes anguina1 #aj4 ,,tricks1 inheritance of1 #ab 7#b74 ,trifolium minus and repens1 #ah4 ,,trimorphic plants1 conditions of reproduction in1 #ai4 ,,tristram1 ,h4 ,b41 selection of the dromedary1 #bj4 ,triticum dicoccum1 #i4 ,triticum monococcum1 #i4 ,triticum spelta1 #i4 ,triticum turgidum1 #i4 ,triticum vulgare1 wild in ,asia1 #i4 ,,triton1 breeding in the branchiferous stage1 #bg4 8,,trommel-,,taube10 #e4 8,,tronfo0 pigeon1 #e4 ,tropolum1 #ac4 ,tropolum minus and majus1 reversion in hybrids of1 #bb4 ,,troubetzkoy1 ,prince1 experiments with pear-trees at ,moscow1 #bd4 ,,trousseau1 ,prof41 pathological resemblance of twins1 #bb4 ,,trumpeter pigeon1 #e2 --known in #agce1 #f4 ,,tscharner1 ,h4 ,a4 ,,de1 graft-hybrid produced by inosculation in the vine1 #aa4 ,,tschudi1 on the naked ,peruvian dog1 #a2 --extinct varieties of maize from ,peruvian tombs1 #i1 #aa4 ,,tubers1 bud-variation by1 #aa4 ,,tuckerman1 ,mr41 sterility of ,carex rigida1 #ah4 ,,tufted ducks1 #h4 ,,tulips1 variability of1 #aj2 --bud-variation in1 #aa 7#b72 --influence of soil in 8breaking10 #aa4 ,,tumbler pigeon1 #e2 --short-faced1 figured1 #e2 --skull figured1 #e2 --lower jaw figured1 #e2 --scapula and furculum figured1 #e2 --early known in ,india1 #f2 --history of1 #f2 --sub-breeds of1 #f2 --young1 unable to break the egg-shell1 #ba2 --probable further modification of1 #ba4 8,t,,mmler0 7pigeons71 #e4 ,,tumours1 ovarian1 occurrence of hairs and teeth in1 #bg2 --polypoid1 origin of1 #bg4 ,,turbit 7pigeon71 #e1 #f4 ,,turkey1 domestic1 origin of1 #h2 --crossing of1 with ,north ,american wild turkey1 #h 7#b72 --breeds of1 #h2 --crested white cock1 #h2 --wild1 characters of1 #h 7#b72 --degeneration of1 in ,india1 #h1 #bc2 --failure of eggs of1 in ,delhi1 #ah2 --feral1 on the ,parana1 #f2 --change produced in1 by domestication1 #bb4 ,,turkey1 striped young pigs in1 #c4 8,,turkische ,,taube10 #e4 ,,turner 7pigeon71 #e4 ,,turner1 ,c41 on the hollyhock1 #c4 ,,turner1 ,w41 on cells1 #bg4 ,,turnips1 origin of1 #i2 --reversion in1 #ac2 --run wild1 #ac2 --crosses of1 #ae 7#b72 --,swedish1 preferred by hares1 #ba2 --acclimatisation of1 in ,india1 #bd4 ,,turnspit1 on an ,egyptian monument1 #a2 --crosses of the1 #ae4 ,,turtle-,,dove1 white and coloured1 crossing of1 #ae4 ,turtur auritus1 hybrids of1 with ,t4 cambayensis and ,t4 suratensis1 #f4 ,turtur risorius1 crossing of1 with the common pigeon1 #f2 --hybrids of with ,t4 vulgaris1 #f4 ,turtur suratensis1 sterile hybrids of1 with ,t4 vulgaris1 #f2 --hybrids of1 with ,t4 auritus1 #f4 ,turtur vulgaris1 crossing of1 with the common pigeon1 #f2 --hybrid of1 with ,t4 risorius1 #f2 --sterile hybrids of1 with ,t4 suratensis and ,ectopistes migratorius1 #f4 ,,tusks of wild and domesticated pigs1 #c 7#b74 ,tussilago farfara1 variegated1 #aa4 ,,twin-,,seed of ,fuchsia coccinea and fulgens1 #aa4 ,,tyerman1 ,b41 on the pigs of the ,pacific ,islands1 #c1 #ae2 --on the dogs of the ,pacific ,islands1 #ae4 ,,tylor1 ,mr41 on the prohibition of consanguineous marriages1 #ag4 ,,udders1 development of the1 #bd4 ,ulex1 double-flowered1 #ah4 ,ulmus campestris and effusa1 hybrids of1 #ag4 ,,uniformity of character1 maintained by crossing1 #ae4 ,,units of the body1 functional independence of the1 #bg4 ,,unity or plurality of origin of organisms1 ,introduction4 ,,urea1 secretion of1 #bg4 ,,use and disuse of parts1 effects of1 #bd 7#b71 #bf 7#b71 #bh 7#b72 --in rabbits1 #d2 --in ducks1 #h4 ,,utility1 considerations of1 leading to uniformity1 #ba4 ,,valentin1 experimental production of double monsters by1 #bg4 ,vallota1 #ag4 ,,van ,,beck1 ,,barbara1 a hairy-faced woman1 #ab4 ,,van ,,mons1 on wild fruit-trees1 #i1 #bb2 --production of varieties of the vine1 #aj2 --correlated variability in fruit-trees1 #be2 --production of almond-like fruit by peach-seedlings1 #aj4 ,vanessa1 species of1 not copulating in captivity1 #ah4 ,,variability1 ,introduction1 #bg 7#b71 #bh2 --causes of1 #bb2 --correlated1 #be1 #bf 7#b71 #bh 7#b72 --law of1 equable1 #bf 7#b72 --necessity of1 for selection1 #ai2 --of selected characters1 #ba2 --of multiple homologous parts1 #bf4 ,,variation1 laws of1 #bd2 --continuity of1 #ba2 --possible limitation of1 #ba1 #bh 7#b72 --in domestic cats1 #a2 --origin of breeds of cattle by1 #c2 --in osteological characters of rabbits1 #d2 --of important organs1 #aj2 --analogous or parallel1 #i2 --in horses1 #b2 --in the horse and ass1 #b2 --in fowls1 #g2 --in geese1 #h2 --exemplified in the production of fleshy stems in cabbages1 etc41 #i2 --in the peach1 nectarine1 and apricot1 #aj 7#b72 --individual1 in wheat1 #i4 ,,variegation of foliage1 #aa1 #ah4 ,,varieties and species1 resemblance of1 ,introduction1 #bh2 --conversion of1 into species1 ,introduction2 --abnormal1 #bh2 --domestic1 gradually produced1 #bh4 ,,varro1 on domestic ducks1 #h2 --on feral fowls1 #ac2 --crossing of the wild and domestic ass1 #bj4 ,,vasey1 ,mr41 on the number of sacral vertebr in ordinary and humped cattle1 #c2 --on ,hungarian cattle1 #c4 ,,vaucher1 sterility of ,ranunculus ficaria and ,acorus calamus1 #ah4 ,,vegetables1 cultivated1 reversion in1 #ac2 --,european1 culture of1 in ,india1 #ah 7#b74 ,,veith1 ,mr41 on breeds of horses1 #b4 ,verbascum1 intercrossing of species of1 #aj1 #ae1 #af2 --reversion in hybrids of1 #aa2 --self-sterility of1 #ag2 --contabescent1 wild plants of1 #ah2 --villosity in1 #bc4 ,verbascum austriacum1 #ag4 ,verbascum blattaria1 #af 7#b74 ,verbascum lychnitis1 #af 7#b71 #ag4 ,verbascum nigrum1 #ag4 ,verbascum phniceum1 #af1 #ag2 --variable duration of1 #bd4 ,verbascum thapsus1 #af1 #ag4 ,,verbenas1 origin of1 #aj2 --white1 liability of1 to mildew1 #ba 7#b72 --scorching of dark1 #ba 7#b72 --effect of changed conditions of life on1 #bc4 ,,verlot1 on the dark-leaved barberry1 #aj2 --inheritance of peculiarities of foliage in trees1 #aj2 --production of ,rosa cannabifolia by bud-variation from ,r4 alba1 #aa2 --bud-variation in ,aralia trifoliata1 #aa2 --variegation of leaves1 #aa2 --colours of tulips1 #aa2 --uncertainty of inheritance1 #ab2 --persistency of white flowers1 #ab2 --peloric flowers of ,linaria1 #ac2 --tendency of striped flowers to uniformity of colour1 #ad2 --non-intercrossing of certain allied plants1 #ae2 --sterility of ,primul with coloured calyces1 #ah2 --on fertile proliferous flowers1 #ah2 --on the ,irish yew1 #ba2 --differences in the ,camellia1 #bb2 --effect of soil on the variegated strawberry1 #bc2 --correlated variability in plants1 #be4 ,verruca1 #ac1 #bg4 ,,vertebrae1 characters of1 in rabbits1 #d2 --in ducks1 #h 7#b72 --number and variations of1 in pigeons1 #e 7#b72 --number and characters of1 in fowls1 #g2 --variability of number of1 in the pig1 #c4 ,,vertuch4 ,see ,,putsche4 8,,verugas10 #bc4 ,,vespucius1 early cultivation in ,brazil1 #i4 ,,vibert',s experiments on the cultivation of the vine from seed1 #aj4 ,viburnum opulus1 #ai1 #bd4 ,vicia sativa1 leaflet converted into a tendril in1 #bg4 ,,vicunas1 selection of1 #bj4 ,,villosity of plants1 influenced by dryness1 #bc4 ,,vilmorin1 cultivation of the wild carrot1 #i1 #bc2 --colours of tulips1 #aa2 --uncertainty of inheritance in balsams and roses1 #ab2 --experiments with dwarf varieties of ,saponaria calabrica and ,tagetes signata1 #ab2 --reversion of flowers by stripes and blotches1 #ac2 --on variability1 #bb4 ,vinca minor1 sterility in1 #ah4 ,,vine1 #aj2 --parsley-leaved1 reversion of1 #aa2 --graft-hybrid produced by inosculation in the1 #aa2 --disease of1 influenced by colour of grapes1 #ba 7#b72 --influence of climate1 etc41 on varieties of the1 #bc2 --diminished extent of cultivation of the1 #bd2 --acclimatisation of the1 in the ,west ,indies1 #bd4 ,viola1 species of1 #aj4 ,viola lutea1 different coloured flowers in1 #aa4 ,viola tricolor1 reversion in1 #ac 7#b74 ,,virchow1 ,prof41 on the growth of bones1 #bd1 #bg2 --on cellular prolification1 #af2 --independence of the elements of the body1 #bg2 --on the cell-theory1 #bg2 --presence of hairs and teeth in ovarian tumours1 #bg2 --of hairs in the brain1 #bg2 --special affinities of the tissues1 #bg2 --origin of polypoid excrescences and tumours1 #bg4 ,,virgil1 on the selection of seed corn1 #i1 #bj2 --of cattle and sheep1 #bj4 ,,virginian ,islands1 ponies of1 #b4 ,,vision1 hereditary peculiarities of1 #ab 7#b72 --in amphibious animals1 #bj2 --varieties of1 #bd2 --affections of organs of1 correlated with other peculiarities1 #be4 ,vitis vinifera1 #aj1 #aa4 ,viverra1 sterility of species of1 in captivity1 #ah4 ,,vogel1 varieties of the date palm1 #bb4 ,,vogt1 on the indications of stripes on black kittens1 #ac4 ,,voice1 differences of1 in fowls1 #g2 --peculiarities of1 in ducks1 #h2 --inheritance of peculiarities of1 #ab4 ,,volz1 on the history of the dog1 #a2 --ancient history of the fowl1 #g2 --domestic ducks unknown to ,aristotle1 #h2 --,indian cattle sent to ,macedonia by ,alexander1 #bj2 --mention of mules in the ,bible1 #bj2 --history of the increase of breeds1 #ba4 ,,von ,,berg1 on ,verbascum phniceum1 #bd4 ,,voorhelm1 ,g41 his knowledge of hyacinths1 #aj1 #bb4 ,,vrolik1 ,prof41 on polydactylism1 #ab2 --influence of the shape of the mother's pelvis on her child's head1 #bf4 ,,wade1 drooping eyelids transmitted1 #ab4 ,,waders1 behaviour of1 in confinement1 #ah4 ,,wagner1 ,,moritz1 oriental dogs1 #ba4 ,,wahlenborg1 on the propagation of ,alpine plants by buds1 runners1 bulbs1 etc41 #ah4 8,,wahlverwandtschaft0 of ,grtner1 #ai4 ,,wales1 white cattle of1 in the tenth century1 #c4 ,,walker1 ,a41 on intermarriage1 #aa2 --on the inheritance of polydactylism1 #ab4 ,,walker1 ,d41 advantage of change of soil to wheat1 #ah4 ,,walker1 ,r41 reversion in cattle1 #ac4 ,,wallace1 ,a4 ,r41 on the multiple origin of the dog1 #a2 --on a striped ,javanese horse1 #b2 --on the conditions of life of feral animals1 #ac2 --artificial alteration of the plumage of birds1 #bc2 --on polymorphic butterflies1 #bg2 --on reversion1 #bh2 --on the limits of change1 #bh4 ,,wallace1 ,dr41 on the sterility of ,sphingidae hatched in autumn1 #ah4 ,,wallachian sheep1 sexual peculiarities in the horns of1 #c4 ,,wallflower1 bud-variation in1 #aa4 ,,wallich1 ,dr41 on ,thuja pendula or filiformis1 #aj4 ,,walnuts1 #aj 7#b72 --thin-shelled1 attacked by tomtits1 #aj2 --grafting of1 #bb4 ,,walsh1 ,b4 ,d41 on attacks of insects1 #aj2 --on galls1 #bc 7#b72 --his 8,law of equable variability10 #bf 7#b74 ,,walther1 ,f4 ,l41 on the history of the dog1 #a2 --on the intercrossing of the zebu and ordinary cattle1 #c4 ,,waring1 ,mr41 on individual sterility1 #ah4 ,,waterer1 ,mr41 spontaneous production of ,cytisus alpino-laburnum1 #aa4 ,,waterhouse1 ,g4 ,r41 on the winter-colouring of ,lepus variabilis1 #d4 ,,waterton1 ,c41 production of tailless foals1 #b2 --on taming wild ducks1 #h2 --on the wildness of half-bred wild ducks1 #ac2 --assumption of male characters by a hen1 #ac4 ,,watson1 ,h4 ,c41 on ,british wild fruit-trees1 #i2 --on the non-variation of weeds1 #i2 --origin of the plum1 #aj2 --variation in ,pyrus malus1 #aj2 --on ,viola amna and tricolor1 #aj2 --on reversion in ,scotch kail1 #ac2 --fertility of ,draba sylvestris when cultivated1 #ah2 --on generally distributed ,british plants1 #bc4 ,,wattles1 rudimentary1 in some fowls1 #bd4 ,,watts1 ,miss1 on ,sultan fowls1 #g4 ,,webb1 ,,jonas1 interbreeding of sheep1 #ag4 ,,weber1 effect of the shape of the mother's pelvis on her child's head1 #bf4 ,,wedderburn1 ,mr41 correlation of teeth and hair1 #be4 ,,weeds1 supposed necessity for their modification1 coincidently with cultivated plants1 #i4 ,,weeping varieties of trees1 #aj4 ,,weeping habit of trees1 capricious inheritance of1 #ab 7#b74 ,,weevil1 injury done to stone-fruit by1 in ,north ,america1 #ba4 ,,weijenbergh1 on parthenogenesis1 #bg4 ,,weir1 ,h41 large litter of pigs1 #af4 ,,weir1 ,,jenner1 on the japanned peacock1 #h2 --mare and quagga1 #aa2 --wildness of mule siskins1 #ac4 ,,weismann1 ,prof41 reversion from unnatural conditions1 #ac2 --isolation1 #bc2 --dimorphic butterflies1 #bc2 --causes of variability1 #bc4 ,,welsh cattle1 descended from ,bos longifrons1 #c4 ,,west ,indies1 feral pigs of1 #c2 --effect of climate of1 upon sheep1 #c4 ,,western1 ,lord1 change effected by1 in pigs1 #c 7#b72 --in the sheep1 #bj4 ,,westphalia1 striped young pigs in1 #c4 ,,westwood1 ,j4 ,o41 on peloric flowers of ,calceolaria1 #bf4 ,,wetherell1 ,mr41 on inheritance of mutilations1 #ab4 ,,whately1 ,archbishop1 on grafting early and late thorns1 #aj4 ,,wheat1 specific unity or diversity of1 #i 7#d72 --,hasora1 #i2 --presence or absence of barbs in1 #i2 --,godron on variations in1 #i2 --varieties of1 #i 7#b72 --effects of soil and climate on1 #i2 --deterioration of1 #i2 --crossing of varieties of1 #i1 #ae1 #af1 #ag2 --in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 #i2 --selection applied to1 #i1 #bj2 --increased fertility of hybrids of1 with gilops1 #af2 --advantage of change of soil to1 #ah2 --differences of1 in various parts of ,india1 #ah2 --continuous variation in1 #bj2 --red1 hardiness of1 #ba1 #be2 --,fenton1 #ba2 --natural selection in1 #ba2 --varieties of1 found wild1 #bb2 --effects of change of climate on1 #bd2 --ancient variety of1 #bh4 ,,whitby1 ,mrs41 on the markings of silkworms1 #h2 --on the silk-moth1 #h4 ,,white1 ,mr41 reproduction of supernumerary digits after amputation1 #ab2 --time occupied in the blending of crossed races1 #ae4 ,,white1 ,,gilbert1 vegetable diet of dogs1 #bd4 ,,white and white-spotted animals1 liability of1 to disease1 #be 7#b74 ,,white flowers1 most truly reproduced by seed1 #ab4 ,,wichura1 ,,max1 on hybrid willows1 #ac2 --analogy between the pollen of old-cultivated plants and of hybrids1 #bb4 ,,wicking1 ,mr41 inheritance of the primary characters of ,columba livia in cross-bred pigeons1 #f2 --production of a white head in almond tumblers1 #bj4 ,,wicksted1 ,mr41 on cases of individual sterility1 #ah4 ,,wiegmann1 spontaneous crossing of blue and white peas1 #aa2 --crossing of varieties of cabbage1 #ag2 --on contabescence1 #ah4 ,,wight1 ,dr41 sexual sterility of plants propagated by buds1 etc41 #ah4 ,,wilckens1 ,dr41 effect of previous impregnation1 #aa2 --alpine breeds1 #bd2 --drooping ears1 #bd2 --correlation of hair and horns1 #be4 ,,wilde1 ,sir ,w4 ,r41 occurrence of ,bos frontosus and longifrons in ,irish crannoges1 #c2 --attention paid to breeds of animals by the ancient ,irish1 #bj4 ,,wilder1 ,dr4 ,b41 on the brain of dogs1 #a2 --supernumerary digits1 #ab4 ,,wildman1 on the dahlia1 #bj1 #bc4 ,,wildness of the progeny of crossed tame animals1 #ac 7#b74 ,,wilkes1 ,capt41 on the taming of pigeons among the ,polynesians1 #ah4 ,,wilkinson1 ,j41 on crossed cattle1 #af4 ,,williams1 ,mr41 change of plumage in a ,hamburgh hen1 #g4 ,,williams1 ,mr41 intercrossing of strawberries1 #aj4 ,,williamson1 ,capt41 degeneration of dogs in ,india1 #a2 --on small ,indian asses1 #b4 ,,williamson1 ,rev4 ,w41 doubling of ,anemone coronaria by selection1 #bj4 ,,willows1 weeping1 #aj2 --reversion of spiral-leaved weeping1 #aa2 --hybrids of1 #bb2 --galls of1 #bc 7#b74 ,,willughby1 ,f41 notice of spot pigeons1 #e2 --on a fantail pigeon1 #f2 --on tumbler pigeons1 #f2 --on the turbit1 #f2 --on the barb and carrier pigeons1 #f2 --on the hook-billed duck1 #h4 ,,wilmot1 ,mr41 on a crested white ,turkey-cock1 #h2 --reversion of sheep in colour1 #ac4 ,,wilson1 ,b4 ,o41 fertility of hybrids of humped and ordinary cattle in ,tasmania1 #c4 ,,wilson1 ,dr41 prepotency of the ,manx over the common cat1 #ad4 ,,wilson1 ,,james1 origin of dogs1 #a4 ,,wilson1 ,mr41 on prepotency of transmission in sheep1 #ad2 --on the breeding of bulls1 #bj4 ,,wings1 proportionate length of1 in different breeds of pigeons1 #e 7#b72 --of fowls1 effects of disuse on1 #g2 --characters and variations of1 in ducks1 #h2 --diminution of1 in birds of small islands1 #h 7#b74 ,,wing-,,feathers1 number of1 in pigeons1 #e2 --variability of1 in fowls1 #g4 ,,wolf1 recent existence of1 in ,ireland1 #a2 --barking of young1 #a2 --hybrids of1 with the dog1 #a4 ,,wolf-,,dog1 black1 of ,florida1 #a4 ,,wolves1 ,north ,american1 their resemblance to dogs of the same region1 #a 7#b72 --burrowing of1 #a4 ,,woodbury1 ,mr41 crossing of the ,ligurian and common hive bees1 #h1 #ag2 --variability of bees1 #h4 ,,woodward1 ,s4 ,p41 on ,arctic ,mollusca1 #bb4 ,,wood1 ,,willoughby1 reversion from a cross1 #ac2 --on ,mr4 ,bates' cattle1 #ag4 ,,wooler1 ,w4 ,a41 on the young of the ,himalayan rabbit1 #d2 --persistency of the coloured calyx in a crossed polyanthus1 #aj4 ,,wounds1 healing of1 #bd4 ,,wright1 ,j41 production of crippled calves by short-horned cattle1 #ag2 --on selection in cattle1 #bj2 --effect of close interbreeding on pigs1 #ag2 --deterioration of game-cocks by close interbreeding1 #ag4 ,,wright1 ,,strethill1 on the development of the hydroida1 #bg4 ,,wyman1 ,dr41 on ,niata cattle1 and on a similar malformation in the codfish1 #c2 --on ,virginian pigs1 #ba2 --browsing under water1 #bd4 ,,xenophon1 on the colours of hunting dogs1 #bj4 ,,ximenes1 ,cardinal1 regulations for the selection of rams1 #bj4 8,,yahu10 the name of the pigeon in ,persia1 #e4 ,,yaks1 domestication of1 #bj2 --selection of white-tailed1 #bj4 ,,yam1 development of axillary bulbs in the1 #ah4 ,,yarrell1 ,mr41 deficiency of teeth in hairless dogs1 #a1 #be2 --on ducks1 #h1 #bb2 --characters of domestic goose1 resembling those of ,anser albifrons1 #h2 --whiteness of ganders1 #h2 --variations in gold-fish1 #h 7#b72 --assumption of male plumage by the hen-pheasant1 #ac2 --effect of castration upon the cock1 #ac 7#b72 --breeding of the skylark in captivity1 #ah2 --plumage of the male linnet in confinement1 #ah2 --on the dingo1 #bb4 ,,yellow fever1 in ,mexico1 #bc4 ,,yew1 fastigiate1 #ba4 ,,yew1 ,irish1 hardy in ,new ,york1 #bd4 ,,yew1 weeping1 #aj2 --propagation of1 by seed1 #ab4 ,,yolk1 variations of1 in the eggs of ducks1 #h4 ,,youatt1 ,mr41 history of the dog1 #a2 --variations of the pulse in breeds of dogs1 #a2 --liability to disease in dogs1 #a1 #ba2 --inheritance of goitre in dogs1 #ab2 --on the greyhound1 #a 7#b72 --on ,king ,charles' spaniels1 #a2 --on the setter1 #a2 --on breeds of horses1 #b2 --variation in the number of ribs in the horse1 #b2 --inheritance of diseases in the horse1 #ab 7#b72 --introduction of ,eastern blood into ,english horses1 #bj 7#b72 --on white ,welsh cattle1 #c1 #bj2 --improvement of ,british breeds of cattle1 #c2 --rudiments of horns in young hornless cattle1 #ac1 #bd2 --on crossed cattle1 #af1 #ag2 --on ,bakewell's long-horned cattle1 #ag2 --selection of qualities in cattle1 #bj2 --degeneration of cattle by neglect1 #ba2 --on the skull in hornless cattle1 #be2 --disease of white parts of cattle1 #be2 --displacement of long-horned by short-horned cattle1 #bh2 --on ,angola sheep1 #c2 --on the fleece of sheep1 #c2 --correlation of horns and fleece in sheep1 #c2 --adaptation of breeds of sheep to climate and pasture1 #c2 --horns of ,wallachian sheep1 #c2 --exotic sheep in the ,zoological ,gardens1 #c1 #bd2 --occurrence of horns in hornless breeds of sheep1 #ac2 --on the colour of sheep1 #ac2 --on interbreeding sheep1 #ag2 --on ,merino rams in ,germany1 #bj2 --effect of unconscious selection on sheep1 #bj2 --reversion of ,leicester sheep on the ,lammermuir ,hills1 #ba2 --on many-horned sheep1 #be2 --reduction of bone in sheep1 #ba2 --persistency of character in breeds of animals in mountainous countries1 #ad2 --on interbreeding1 #ag2 --on the power of selection1 #bj 7#b72 --slowness of production of breeds1 #ba2 --passages in the ,bible relating to the breeding of animals1 #bj4 ,,young1 ,j41 on the ,belgian rabbit1 #d4 ,,yule1 ,capt41 on a ,burmese hairy family1 #ad1 #be4 ,,zambesi1 striped young pigs on the1 #c4 ,,zambos1 character of the1 #ac4 ,,zarco1 ,j4 ,g41 introduction of rabbits into ,porto ,santo by1 #d4 ,zea altissima1 #i2 --mays1 #i4 ,,zebu1 #c2 --domestication of the1 #c2 --fertile crossing of1 with ,european cattle1 #c1 #af4 ,,zebra1 hybrids of1 with the ass and mare1 #ac4 ,zephyranthes candida1 #ah4 ,zinnia1 cultivation of1 #bb4 ,,zollinger on ,malayan penguin ducks1 #h4 ,,zoospore1 division of1 in ,alg1 #bc4 8,,zopf-,,taube10 #e4