---------------------------------------- ------------ ,transcrib]'s note3 ,!re are a v l>ge numb] ( words 9 ! text :i* occur jo9$1 hyph5at$ & spac$ ) simil> frequ5cies4 ,no attempt has be5 made to assure consi/5cy z ?is w\ld mean revis+ ! :ole book4 ,a ,c>et symbol is us$ = a ,g]man abbreviation4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,geology4 ,illu/ration3 ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,temple ,,( ,,s]apis ,,at ,,puzzuoli ,,9 #ahcf4 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,geology2 ,,or1 ,,! ,,mod]n ,,*anges ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,& ,,its ,,inhabitants ,,consid]$ ,,z ,,illu/rative ,,( ,,geology4 ,,by ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lyell1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,vice-,,presid5t ,,( ,,! ,,geological ,,society ,,( ,,london2 ,,au?or ,,( ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,elem5t>y ,,geology1 ,,travels ,,9 ,,nor? ,,am]ica1 ,a ,,second ,,visit ,,to ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates1 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,,new ,,& ,,entirely ,,revis$ ,,edition4 ,,illu/rat$ ,,) ,,maps1 ,,plates1 ,,& ,,woodcuts4 ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 #cdf #cdh ,,broadway4 ,m4,,dccc4,,liv4 ,v]e scire e/ p] causas scire4--,,bacon4 ,! /ony rocks are n primeval1 b ! daught]s ( ,"t4--,,l9naeus1 ,sy/4 ,nat4 ed4 #e1 ,/ockholm1 #agdh1 p4 #bai4 ,amid all ! revolutions ( ! globe1 ! economy ( nature has be5 uni=m1 & h] laws are ! only ?+s t h resi/$ ! g5]al movem5t4 ,! riv]s & ! rocks1 ! seas & ! cont95ts h be5 *ang$ 9 all _! p>ts2 b ! laws :i* direct ^? *anges1 & ! rules to :i* !y are subject1 h rema9$ inv>iably ! same4--,,playfair1 ,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory1 ,section #cgd4 ,! inhabitants ( ! globe1 l all ! o!r p>ts ( x1 are subject to *ange4 ,x is n only ! individual t p]i%es1 b :ole species4 ,a *ange 9 ! animal k+dom seems to be a "p ( ! ord] ( ,nature1 & is visible 9 in/ances to :i* human p[] _c h ext5d$4--,,playfair1 ,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory1 ,section #dac4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,n9? ,,edition4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology 9 ! fir/ five editions embrac$ n only a view ( ! mod]n *anges ( ! e>? & its inhabitants1 z set =? 9 ! pres5t "w1 b also "s acc\nt ( ^? monum5ts ( analog\s *anges ( anci5t date1 bo? 9 ! organic & inorganic _w1 :i* x is ! bus9ess ( ! geologi/ to int]pret4 ,! subject la/ m5tion$1 or geology prop]1 con/itut$ orig9ally a f\r? book1 n[ omitt$1 ! same hav+ be5 enl>g$ into a sep>ate treatise1 fir/ publi%$ 9 #ahch1 9 "o volume #abmo41 & call$ ,! ,elem5ts ( ,geology1 aft]w>ds reca/ 9 two volumes #abmo4 9 #ahdb1 & aga9 re-edit$ "u ! title ( ,manual ( ,elem5t>y ,geology1 9 "o volume #hvo4 9 #ahea4 ,! ,pr9ciples & ,manual ?us divid$1 occupy1 ) "o exception1 to :i* ,i %all pres5tly allude1 v diff]5t gr\nd4 ,! ,pr9ciples treat ( su* portions ( ! economy ( exi/+ nature1 animate & inanimate1 z are illu/rative ( ,geology1 s z to comprise an inve/igation ( ! p]man5t effects ( causes n[ 9 action1 :i* may s]ve z records to aft] ages ( ! pres5t condition ( ! globe & its inhabitants4 ,su* effects are ! endur+ monum5ts ( ! ev]-v>y+ /ate ( ! physical geography ( ! globe1 ! la/+ signs ( its de/ruction & r5ovation1 & ! memorials ( ! equally fluctuat+ condition ( ! organic _w4 ,!y may be reg>d$1 9 %ort1 z a symbolical language1 9 :i* ! e>?'s autobiography is writt54 ,9 ! ,manual ( ,elem5t>y ,geology1 on ! o!r h&1 ,i h treat$ briefly ( ! compon5t mat]ials ( ! e>?'s cru/1 _! arrangem5t & relative position1 & _! organic cont5ts1 :i*1 :5 deciph]$ by aid ( ! key suppli$ by ! /udy ( ! mod]n *anges above allud$ to1 reveal to u ! annals ( a gr& succession ( pa/ ev5ts--a s]ies ( revolutions :i* ! solid ext]ior ( ! globe1 & its liv+ inhabitants1 h exp]i5c$ 9 times antec$5t to ! creation ( man4 ,9 ?us sep>at+ ! two works1 h[ev]1 ,i h reta9$ 9 ! ,pr9ciples 7book i47 ! discussion ( "s matt]s :i* might fairly be reg>d$ z common to bo? treatises2 z = example1 an hi/orical sket* ( ! e>ly progress ( geology1 foll[$ by a s]ies ( prelim9>y essays to expla9 ! facts & argum5ts :i* lead me to believe t ! =ces n[ op]at+ ^u & b5ea? ! e>?'s surface may be ! same1 bo? 9 k9d & degree1 z ^? :i* at remote epo*s h work$ out geological *anges4 7,see ,analysis ( ,cont5ts ( ?is "w1 p4 ix47 ,if ,i am ask$ :e!r ! ,pr9ciples or ! ,manual %\ld be /udi$ fir/1 ,i feel mu* ! same difficulty 9 answ]+ ! "q z if a /ud5t %\ld inquire :e!r he ought to take up fir/ a treatise on ,*emi/ry1 or "o on ,natural ,philosophy1 subjects suffici5tly di/9ct1 yet insep>ably connect$4 ,on ! :ole1 :ile ,i h endeavor$ to make ea* ( ! two treatises1 9 _! pres5t =m1 q indep5d5t ( ! o!r1 ,i w\ld recomm5d ! read] to /udy fir/ ! mod]n *anges ( ! e>? & its inhabitants z !y are discuss$ 9 ! pres5t volume1 proce$+ aft]w>ds to ! classification & int]pretation ( ! monum5ts ( m remote ages4 ,,*>les ,,lyell4 #aa ,h>ley ,/reet1 ,london1 ,may #bd1 #ahec4 ,dates ( ! successive ,editions ( ! ,pr9ciples & ,elem5ts 7or ,manual7 ( ,geology1 by ! ,au?or4 ,pr9ciples1 #a/ vol4 9 octvo1 publi%$ 9 ,jan4 #ahcj4 ----------1 #b;d vol4 d4 d4 ,jan4 #ahcb4 ----------1 #a/ vol4 #b;d edition 9 octavo #ahcb4 ----------1 #b;d vol4 #b;d edition d4 ,jan4 #ahcc4 ----------1 #c;d vol4 #a/ edition d4 ,may1 #ahcc4 ----------1 ,new edition 7call$ ! #c;d7 ( ! :ole "w 9 #d vols4 #abmo ,may1 #ahcd4 ----------1 #d? edition1 #d vols4 #abmo ,june1 #ahce4 ----------1 #e? d4 d4 d4 ,m>4 #ahcg4 ,elem5ts1 #a/ edition 9 "o vol ,july1 #ahch4 ,pr9ciples1 #f? d4 #c vols4 #abmo ,june1 #ahdj4 ,elem5ts1 #b;d edition 9 #b vols4 #abmo ,july1 #ahda4 ,pr9ciples1 #g? edition 9 "o vol4 #hvo ,feb4 #ahdg4 ----------1 #h? edition 9 "o vol4 #hvo ,may1 #ahej4 ,manual ( ,elem5t>y ,geology 7or ,elem5ts1 #c;d edition7 9 "o vol4 #hvo ,jan4 #ahea4 ,manual1 #d? edition1 "o vol4 #hvo ,jan4 #aheb4 ,pr9ciples1 #i? edition1 n[ publi%$ 9 "o vol4 #hvo ,june1 #ahec4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,! ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,geology4 ,,book ,i4 7,,*apt]s ,i4 ,,to ,,xiii47 ,,hi/orical ,,sket* ,,( ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,geology1 ,,) ,a ,,s]ies ,,( ,,essays ,,to ,,%[ ,,t ,,! ,,monum5ts ,,( ,,! ,,anci5t ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,& ,,its ,,inhabitants1 ,,:i* ,,?is ,,sci5ce ,,int]prets1 ,,c ,,only ,,be ,,und]/ood ,,by ,a ,,previ\s ,,acqua9tance ,,) ,,t]re/rial ,,*anges ,,n[ ,,9 ,,progress1 ,,bo? ,,9 ,,! ,,organic ,,& ,,inorganic ,,worlds4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,geology def9$--,its relation to o!r ,sci5ces ,page #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,ori5tal & ,egyptian ,cosmogonies--,doctr9es ( ! ,greeks & ,romans be>+ on ,geology #d ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,hi/orical progress ( ,geology--,arabian ,writ]s--,italian1 ,fr5*1 ,g]man1 & ,engli% geologi/s be=e ! #ai? c5tury--,physico-!ological s*ool #ag ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,w]n] & ,hutton--,mod]n progress ( ! sci5ce #df ,,*apt] ,v4 ,prepossessions 9 reg>d to ! duration ( pa/ "t1 & o!r causes :i* h ret>d$ ! progress ( ,geology #fa ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,agreem5t ( ! anci5t & mod]n c\rse ( nature consid]$--,*anges ( climate #gc ,,*apt]s ,,vii4 ,,viii4 ,causes ( vicissitudes 9 climate1 & _! connection ) *anges 9 physical geography #ib1 #aad ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,!ory ( ! progressive developm5t ( organic life at successive p]iods consid]$--,mod]n orig9 ( ,man #acj ,,*apt] ,x4 ,suppos$ int5sity ( aque\s =ces at remote p]iods--,erratic blocks--,deluges #aec ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,suppos$ =m] int5sity ( ! igne\s =ces--,upheaval ( l&--,volcanic action #afj ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,causes ( ! diff]5ce 9 texture ( old] & new] rocks--,plutonic & ,metamorphic action #age ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,suppos$ alt]nate p]iods ( repose & disord]--,opposite doctr9e1 :i* ref]s geological ph5om5a to an un9t]rupt$ s]ies ( *anges 9 ! organic & inorganic _w1 unatt5d$ ) g5]al cata/rophes1 or ! developm5t ( p>oxysmal =ces #ahj ,,book ,,ii4 7,,*apt]s ,,xiv4 to ,,xxxii47 ,,obs]v$ ,,*anges ,,9 ,,! ,,inorganic ,,_w ,,n[ ,,9 ,,progress3 ,,fir/1 ,,! ,,effects ,,( ,,aque\s ,,causes1 ,,su* ,,z ,,riv]s1 ,,spr+s1 ,,glaci]s1 ,,waves1 ,,tides1 ,,& ,,curr5ts2 ,,secondly1 ,,( ,,igne\s ,,causes1 ,,or ,,subt]ranean ,,heat1 ,,z ,,exhibit$ ,,9 ,,! ,,volcano ,,& ,,! ,,e>?quake4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,aque\s causes--,excavat+ & transport+ p[] ( riv]s #aih ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,c>ry+ p[] ( riv]-ice--,glaci]s & ,iceb]gs #bai ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,ph5om5a ( spr+s #bcb ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,reproductive effects ( riv]s--,deltas ( lakes & inl& seas #bea ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,deltas ( ! ,mississippi1 ,ganges1 & o!r riv]s expos$ to tidal action #bfc ,,*apt]s ,,xix4 ,,xx4 ,,xxi4 ,d5ud+1 transport+1 & deposit+ ag5cy ( ! waves1 tides1 & curr5ts--,wa/e ( sea-cliffs on ! coa/ ( ,engl&--,delta ( ! ,rh9e--,deposition ( s$im5t "u ! influ5ce ( m>9e curr5ts #bij1 #cba1 #ccg ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,obs]v$ effects ( igne\s causes--,regions ( active volcanoes #cdd ,,*apt]s ,,xxiii4 ,,xxiv4 ,hi/ory ( ! volcanic eruptions ( ! di/rict r\nd ,naples--,/ructure ( ,vesuvius--,h]culaneum & ,pompeii #cfj1 #cge ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,etna--,its eruptions--,/ructure & antiquity ( ! cone #cif ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,volcanoes ( ,icel&1 ,mexico1 ! ,can>ies1 & ,grecian ,ar*ipelago--,mud volcanoes #dbd ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,e>?quakes & ! p]man5t *anges att5d+ !m #dea ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,e>?quake ( #aghc 9 ,calabria #dga ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,elevation & subsid5ce ( dry l&1 & ( ! b$ ( ! sea dur+ e>?quakes--,evid5ce ( ! same af=d$ by ! ,temple ( ,s]apis ne> ,naples #dic ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,elevation & subsid5ce ( l& 9 regions free f volcanoes & e>?quakes--,ris+ ( l& 9 ,sw$5 #eai ,,*apt]s ,,xxxi4 ,,xxxii4 ,causes ( e>?quakes & volcanoes--,!ory ( c5tral fluidity ( ! e>?--,*emical !ory ( volcanoes--,causes ( p]man5t upheaval & depression ( l& #ecc1 #ede ,,book ,,iii4 7,,*apt]s ,,xxxiii to ,l47 ,,obs]v$ ,,*anges ,,( ,,! ,,organic ,,_w ,,n[ ,,9 ,,progress2 ,,fir/1 ,,nature ,,& ,,geographical ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,species1 ,,& ,,!ories ,,respect+ ,,_! ,,creation ,,& ,,ext9ction2 ,,secondly1 ,,! ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,organic ,,be+s ,,9 ,,modify+ ,,physical ,,geography2 ,,?irdly1 ,,! ,,laws ,,accord+ ,,to ,,:i* ,,!y ,,are ,,imb$d$ ,,9 ,,volcanic1 ,,fre%wat]1 ,,& ,,m>9e ,,deposits4 ,,*apt]s ,,xxxiii4 ,,xxxiv4 ,,xxxv4 ,,xxxvi4 ,:e!r species h a real exi/5ce 9 nature--,!ory ( transmutation ( species--,v>iability ( species--,ph5om5a ( hybrids 9 animals & plants #eff1 #egh1 #eia1 #fjj ,,*apt] ,,xxxvii4 ,laws :i* regulate ! geographical di/ribution ( species--,di/9ct prov9ces ( peculi> species ( plants--,_! mode ( diffusion #fab ,,*apt] ,,xxxviii4 ,di/9ct prov9ces ( peculi> species ( animals--,di/ribution & disp]sion ( quadrup$s1 birds1 & reptiles #fbi ,,*apt] ,,xxxix4 ,geographical di/ribution & migrations ( fi%--,( te/acea--,( zoophytes--,( insects--,geographical di/ribution & diffusion ( ! human race #fdf ,,*apt] ,,xl4 ,!ories respect+ ! orig9al introduction ( species--,reciprocal influ5ce ( species on ea* o!r #ffe ,,*apt]s ,,xli4 ,,xlii4 ,ext9ction ( species--,h[ e ext5sion ( ! range ( a species alt]s ! condition ( _m o!rs--,effect ( *anges ( climate #fgg1 #fhi ,,*apt] ,,xliii4 ,creation ( species--,:e!r ! loss ( c]ta9 animals & plants is comp5sat$ by ! introduction ( new species #gja ,,*apt] ,,xliv4 ,modifications 9 physical geography caus$ by organic be+s #gjh ,,*apt] ,,xlv4 ,imb$d+ ( organic rema9s 9 peat1 bl[n s&1 & volcanic ejections #gah ,,*apt] ,,xlvi4 ,imb$d+ ( ! same 9 alluvial deposits & 9 caves #gcj ,,*apt] ,,xlvii4 ,imb$d+ ( organic rema9s 9 aque\s deposits--,t]re/rial plants--,insects1 reptiles1 birds1 quadrup$s #gdb ,,*apt] ,,xlviii4 ,imb$d+ ( ! rema9s ( man & 8 works #gec ,,*apt] ,,xlix4 ,imb$d+ ( aquatic animals & plants1 bo? fre%wat] & m>9e1 9 aque\s deposits #gfe ,,*apt] ,l4 ,=mation ( coral reefs #gge ,,li/ ,,( ,,plates4 ,,directions ,,to ,,! ,,b9d]4 ,,frontispiece1 ,view ( ! ,temple ( ,s]apis at ,puzzuoli 9 #ahcf1 to face title page4 ,,plate #a4 ,map %[+ ! ,area 9 ,europe :i* has be5 cov]$ by ,wat] s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! ,eoc5e ,p]iod to face p4 #aba #b4 ,b\ld]s drift$ by ,ice on ! ,%ores ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce #bbj #c4 ,view look+ up ! ,val del ,bove1 ,etna #djc #d4 ,view ( ! ,val del ,bove1 ,etna1 z se5 f above #djd ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,geology4 ,,book ,i4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,geology def9$--,comp>$ to ,hi/ory--,its relation to o!r ,physical ,sci5ces--,n to be conf\nd$ ) ,cosmogony4 ,geology is ! sci5ce :i* inve/igates ! successive *anges t h tak5 place 9 ! organic & inorganic k+doms ( nature2 x inquires into ! causes ( ^! *anges1 & ! influ5ce :i* !y h ex]t$ 9 modify+ ! surface & ext]nal /ructure ( our planet4 ,by ^! rese>*es into ! /ate ( ! e>? & its inhabitants at =m] p]iods1 we acquire a m p]fect k ( its pres5t condition1 & m compreh5sive views conc]n+ ! laws n[ gov]n+ its animate & inanimate productions4 ,:5 we /udy hi/ory1 we obta9 a m pr(\nd insight into human nature1 by in/itut+ a comp>ison betwe5 ! pres5t & =m] /ates ( society4 ,we trace ! long s]ies ( ev5ts :i* h gradually l$ to ! actual po/ure ( affairs2 & by connect+ effects ) _! causes1 we are enabl$ to classify & reta9 9 ! memory a multitude ( complicat$ relations--! v>i\s peculi>ities ( national "*--! diff]5t degrees ( moral & intellectual ref9em5t1 & num]\s o!r circum/ances1 :i*1 )\t hi/orical associations1 w\ld be un9t]e/+ or imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,z ! pres5t condition ( nations is ! result ( _m antec$5t *anges1 "s extremely remote1 & o!rs rec5t1 "s gradual1 o!rs sudd5 & viol5t2 s ! /ate1 ( ! natural _w is ! result ( a long succession ( ev5ts2 & if we w\ld enl>ge our exp]i5ce ( ! pres5t economy ( nature1 we mu/ inve/igate ! effects ( h] op]ations 9 =m] epo*s4 ,we (t5 discov] ) surprise1 on look+ back into ! *ronicles ( nations1 h[ ! =tune ( "s battle has influ5c$ ! fate ( millions ( our contempor>ies1 :5 x has long be5 =gott5 by ! mass ( ! population4 ,) ?is remote ev5t we may f9d insep>ably connect$ ! geographical b\nd>ies ( a great /ate1 ! language n[ spok5 by ! inhabitants1 _! peculi> mann]s1 laws1 & religi\s op9ions4 ,b f> m a/oni%+ & unexpect$ are ! connections br\ght to light1 :5 we c>ry back our rese>*es into ! hi/ory ( nature4 ,! =m ( a coa/1 ! configuration ( ! int]ior ( a c\ntry1 ! exi/5ce & ext5t ( lakes1 valleys1 & m\nta9s1 c (t5 be trac$ to ! =m] preval5ce ( e>?quakes & volcanoes 9 regions :i* h long be5 undi/urb$4 ,to ^! remote convulsions ! pres5t f]tility ( "s di/ricts1 ! /]ile "* ( o!rs1 ! elevation ( l& above ! sea1 ! climate1 & v>i\s peculi>ities1 may be di/9ctly ref]r$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _m di/+ui%+ features ( ! surface may (t5 be ascrib$ to ! op]ation1 at a remote era1 ( sl[ & tranquil causes--to ! gradual deposition ( s$im5t 9 a lake or 9 ! ocean1 or to ! prolific increase ( te/acea & corals4 ,to select ano!r example1 we f9d 9 c]ta9 localities subt]ranean deposits ( coal1 consi/+ ( vegetable matt]1 =m]ly drift$ into seas & lakes4 ,^! seas & lakes h s9ce be5 fill$ up1 ! l&s :]eon ! =e/s grew h disappe>$ or *ang$ _! =m1 ! riv]s & curr5ts :i* float$ ! vegetable masses c no long] be trac$1 & ! plants belong$ to species :i* = ages h pass$ away f ! surface ( our planet4 ,yet ! comm]cial prosp]ity1 & num]ical /r5g? ( a nation1 may n[ be ma9ly dep5d5t on ! local di/ribution ( fuel det]m9$ by t anci5t /ate ( ?+s4 ,geology is intimately relat$ to almo/ all ! physical sci5ces1 z hi/ory is to ! moral4 ,an hi/orian %\ld1 if possible1 be at once pr(\ndly acqua9t$ ) e?ics1 politics1 jurisprud5ce1 ! milit>y art1 !ology2 9 a ^w1 ) all bran*es ( k by :i* any insight into human affairs1 or into ! moral & intellectual nature ( man1 c be obta9$4 ,x w\ld be no less desirable t a geologi/ %\ld be well v]s$ 9 *emi/ry1 natural philosophy1 m9]alogy1 zoology1 comp>ative anatomy1 botany2 9 %ort1 9 e sci5ce relat+ to organic & inorganic nature4 ,) ^! accompli%m5ts1 ! hi/orian & geologi/ w\ld r>ely fail to draw correct & philosophical conclusions f ! v>i\s monum5ts transmitt$ to !m ( =m] occurr5ces4 ,!y w\ld "k to :at comb9ation ( causes analog\s effects 7 ref]able1 & !y w\ld (t5 be enabl$ to supply1 by inf]5ce1 in=mation conc]n+ _m ev5ts unrecord$ 9 ! defective ar*ives ( =m] ages4 ,b z su* ext5sive acquisitions are sc>cely )9 ! rea* ( any individual1 x is necess>y t m5 :o h devot$ _! lives to diff]5t dep>tm5ts %\ld unite _! ef=ts2 & z ! hi/orian receives assi/ance f ! antiqu>y1 & f ^? :o h cultivat$ diff]5t bran*es ( moral & political sci5ce1 s ! geologi/ %\ld avail himself ( ! aid ( _m naturali/s1 & p>ticul>ly ( ^? :o h /udi$ ! fossil rema9s ( lo/ species ( animals & plants4 ,! analogy1 h[ev]1 ( ! monum5ts consult$ 9 geology1 & ^? available 9 hi/ory1 ext5ds no f>!r ?an to "o class ( hi/orical monum5ts--^? :i* may be said to be undesign$ly commemorative ( =m] ev5ts4 ,! canoes1 = example1 & /one hat*ets f\nd 9 our peat bogs1 af=d an insight into ! rude arts & mann]s ( ! e>lie/ inhabitants ( our isl&2 ! buri$ co9 fixes ! date ( ! reign ( "s ,roman emp]or2 ! anci5t encampm5t indicates ! di/ricts once occupi$ by invad+ armies1 & ! =m] me?od ( con/ruct+ milit>y def5ces2 ! ,egyptian mummies ?r[ light on ! art ( embalm+1 ! rites ( sepulture1 or ! av]age /ature ( ! human race 9 anci5t ,egypt4 ,?is class ( memorials yields to no o!r 9 au!nticity1 b x con/itutes a small "p only ( ! res\rces on :i* ! hi/orian relies1 :]eas 9 geology x =ms ! only k9d ( evid5ce :i* is at our comm&4 ,= ?is reason we mu/ n expect to obta9 a full & connect$ acc\nt ( any s]ies ( ev5ts beyond ! rea* ( hi/ory4 ,b ! te/imony ( geological monum5ts1 if frequ5tly imp]fect1 possesses at lea/ ! advantage ( be+ free f all int5tional misrepres5tation4 ,we may be deceiv$ 9 ! inf]5ces :i* we draw1 9 ! same mann] z we (t5 mi/ake ! nature & import ( ph5om5a obs]v$ 9 ! daily c\rse ( nature2 b our liability to err is conf9$ to ! int]pretation1 &1 if ?is be correct1 our in=mation is c]ta94 ,x 0 long be=e ! di/9ct nature & legitimate objects ( geology 7 fully recogniz$1 & x 0 at fir/ conf\nd$ ) _m o!r bran*es ( inquiry1 j z ! limits ( hi/ory1 poetry1 & my?ology 7 ill-def9$ 9 ! infancy ( civilization4 ,ev5 9 ,w]n]'s "t1 or at ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 geology appe>s to h be5 reg>d$ z little o!r ?an a subord9ate dep>tm5t ( m9]alogy2 & ,desm>e/ includ$ x "u ! head ( ,physical ,geography4 ,b ! mo/ common & s]i\s s\rce ( confusion arose f ! notion1 t x 0 ! bus9ess ( geology to discov] ! mode 9 :i* ! e>? orig9at$1 or1 z "s imag9$1 to /udy ! effects ( ^? cosmological causes :i* 7 employ$ by ! ,au?or ( ,nature to br+ ?is planet out ( a nasc5t & *aotic /ate into a m p]fect & habitable condition4 ,hutton 0 ! fir/ :o endeavor$ to draw a /rong l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 8 favorite sci5ce & cosmogony1 = he decl>$ t geology 0 9 n[ise conc]n$ ) que/ions z to ! orig9 ( ?+s4 ,an attempt w be made 9 ! sequel ( ?is "w to demon/rate t geology diff]s z widely f cosmogony1 z speculations conc]n+ ! mode ( ! fir/ creation ( man diff] f hi/ory4 ,b1 be=e ent]+ m at l>ge on ?is controv]t$ "q1 x w be desirable to trace ! progress ( op9ion on ?is topic1 f ! e>lie/ ages to ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,hi/orical ,,sket* ,,( ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,geology4 ,ori5tal ,cosmogony--,hymns ( ! ,v$as--,in/itutes ( ,m5u--,doctr9e ( ! successive de/ruction & r5ovation ( ! _w--,orig9 ( ?is doctr9e--,common to ! ,egyptians--,adopt$ by ! ,greeks--,sy/em ( ,py?agoras--,( ,ari/otle--,dogmas conc]n+ ! ext9ction & reproduction ( g5]a & species--,/rabo's !ory ( elevation by e>?quakes--,pl9y--,conclud+ ,rem>ks on ! k ( ! ,anci5ts4 ,ori5tal ,cosmogony4--,! e>lie/ doctr9es ( ! ,indian & ,egyptian s*ools ( philosophy agre$ 9 ascrib+ ! fir/ creation ( ! _w to an omnipot5t & inf9ite ,be+4 ,!y concurr$ also 9 repres5t+ ?is ,be+1 :o _h exi/$ f all et]nity1 z hav+ repeat$ly de/roy$ & reproduc$ ! _w & all its inhabitants4 ,9 ! sacr$ volume ( ! ,h9doos1 call$ ! ,ord9ances ( ,m5u1 compris+ ! ,indian sy/em ( duties religi\s & civil1 we f9d a prelim9>y *apt] treat+ ( ! ,creation1 9 :i* ! cosmogony is kn[n to h be5 d]iv$ f e>li] writ+s & traditions2 & pr9cipally f c]ta9 hymns ( high antiquity1 call$ ! ,v$as4 ,^! hymns 7 fir/ put toge!r1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,colebrooke1#a 9 a connect$ s]ies1 ab\t ?irte5 c5turies be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 b !y appe> f int]nal evid5ce to h be5 writt5 at v>i\s antec$5t p]iods4 ,9 !m1 z we le>n f ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,wilson1 ! em95t ,sanscrit s*ol>1 two di/9ct philosophical sy/ems are discov]able4 ,accord+ to "o ( !m1 all ?+s 7 orig9ally br\ght into exi/5ce by ! sole w ( a s+le ,fir/ ,cause1 :i* exi/$ f et]nity2 accord+ to ! o!r1 !re h always exi/$ two pr9ciples1 ! "o mat]ial1 b )\t =m1 ! o!r spiritual & capable ( compell+ in]t matt] to develop its s5sible prop]ties4 ,?is developm5t ( matt] into individual & visible exi/5ces is call$ creation1 & is assign$ to a subord9ate ag5t1 or ! creative faculty ( ! ,supreme ,be+ embodi$ 9 ! p]son ( ,brahma4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ! ,ord9ances ( ,m5u above allud$ to1 we meet ) ! foll[+ passages relat+ to =m] de/ructions & r5ovations ( ! _w3-- ,! ,be+1 ^: p[]s are incompreh5sible1 hav+ creat$ me 7,m5u7 & ?is univ]se1 aga9 became absorb$ 9 ! supreme _s1 *ang+ ! "t ( en]gy = ! h\r ( repose4 ,:5 t ,p[] awakes1 !n has ?is _w its full expansion2 b :5 he slumb]s ) a tranquil _s1 !n ! :ole sy/em fades away44444 ,= :ile he reposes1 z x 71 embodi$ spirits end[$ ) pr9ciples ( action dep>t f _! sev]al acts1 & ! m9d itself becomes in]t4 ,! absorption ( all be+s into ! ,supreme ess5ce is !n describ$1 & ! ,div9e s\l itself is said to slumb]1 & to rema9 = a "t imm]s$ 9 ! fir/ idea1 or 9 d>kness4 ,aft] :i* ! text ?us proce$s 7v]se fifty-sev571 ,?us t immutable p[] by wak+ & repos+ alt]nately1 revivifies & de/roys1 9 et]nal succession1 ?is :ole assemblage ( locomotive & immovable creatures4 ,x is !n decl>$ t !re has be5 a long succession ( manwant>as1 or p]iods1 ea* ( ! duration ( _m ?\s& ages1 &-- ,!re are creations also1 & de/ructions ( worlds innum]able3 ! ,be+1 supremely exalt$1 p]=ms all ?is ) z mu* ease z if 9 sport1 aga9 & aga91 = ! sake ( conf]r+ happ9ess4#b ,no "p ( ! ,ea/]n cosmogony1 f :i* ^! extracts are made1 is m int]e/+ to ! geologi/ ?an ! doctr9e1 s frequ5tly allud$ to1 ( ! reit]at$ subm]sion ( ! l& b5ea? ! wat]s ( a univ]sal ocean4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ?+s1 we are told1 ! ,fir/ ,sole ,cause ) a ?\ght creat$ ! wat]s1 & !n mov$ ^u _! surface 9 ! =m ( ,brahma ! creator1 by ^: ag5cy ! em]g5ce ( ! dry l& 0 effect$1 & ! peopl+ ( ! e>? ) plants1 animals1 cele/ial creatures1 & man4 ,aft]w>ds1 z (t5 z a g5]al conflagration at ! close ( ea* manwant>a _h annihilat$ e visible & exi/+ ?+1 ,brahma1 on awak+ f 8 sleep1 f9ds ! :ole _w a %apeless ocean4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! leg5d>y poems call$ ! ,puranas1 compos$ at a lat] date ?an ! ,v$as1 ! ?ree fir/ ,avat>s or desc5ts ( ! ,deity ^u e>? h = _! object to recov] ! l& f ! wat]s4 ,= ?is purpose ,vi%nu is made successively to assume ! =m ( a fi%1 a tortoise1 & a bo>4 ,extravagant z may be "s ( ! conceits & fictions :i* disfigure ^! pret5d$ revelations1 we c by no means look ^u !m z a pure ef=t ( ! unassi/$ imag9ation1 or believe !m to h be5 compos$ )\t reg>d to op9ions & !ories f\nd$ on ! obs]vation ( ,nature4 ,9 a/ronomy1 = in/ance1 x is decl>$ t1 at ! ,nor? ,pole1 ! ye> 0 divid$ into a long day & night1 & t _! long day 0 ! nor!rn1 & _! night ! s\!rn c\rse ( ! sun2 & to ! inhabitants ( ! moon1 x is said "o day is equal 9 l5g? to "o mon? ( mortals4#c ,if su* /atem5ts _c be resolv$ into m]e conjectures1 we h no "r to ref] to m]e *ance ! prevail+ notion t ! e>? & its inhabitants _h =m]ly und]gone a succession ( revolutions & aque\s cata/rophes int]rupt$ by long int]vals ( tranquillity4 ,n[ !re are two s\rces 9 :i* su* a !ory may h orig9at$4 ,! m>ks ( =m] convulsions on e "p ( ! surface ( our planet are obvi\s & /rik+4 ,! rema9s ( m>9e animals imb$d$ 9 ! solid /rata are s abundant1 t !y may be expect$ to =ce !mselves on ! att5tion ( e p :o h made "s progress 9 ref9em5t2 & especially :]e "o class ( m5 are expressly set ap>t f ! re/1 l ! anci5t prie/hoods ( ,india & ,egypt1 = /udy & contemplation4 ,if ^! appe>ances are once recogniz$1 x seems natural t ! m9d %\ld conclude 9 favor1 n only ( mighty *anges 9 pa/ ages1 b ( alt]nate p]iods ( repose & disord]2--( repose1 :5 ! animals n[ fossil liv$1 grew1 & multipli$--( disord]1 :5 ! /rata 9 :i* !y 7 buri$ became transf]r$ f ! sea to ! int]ior ( cont95ts1 & 7 uplift$ s z to =m "p ( high m\nta9-*a9s4 ,^? mod]n writ]s1 :o are dispos$ to disp>age ! =m] intellectual advancem5t & civilization ( ,ea/]n nations1 may conc$e "s f\ndation ( obs]v$ facts = ! curi\s !ories n[ "u consid]ation1 )\t indulg+ 9 exagg]at$ op9ions ( ! progress ( sci5ce2 especially z univ]sal cata/rophes ( ! _w1 & ext]m9ations ( organic be+s1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* !y 7 und]/ood by ! ,brahm9s1 are unt5able doctr9es4 ,we "k t ! ,egyptian prie/s 7 aw>e1 n only t ! soil b5ea? ! pla9s ( ! ,nile1 b t also ! hills b\nd+ ! great valley1 conta9$ m>9e %ells2 & ,h]odotus inf]r$ f ^! facts1 t all l[] ,egypt1 & ev5 ! high l&s above ,memphis1 _h once be5 cov]$ by ! sea4#d ,z simil> fossil rema9s occur 9 all p>ts ( ,asia hi!rto explor$1 f> 9 ! int]ior ( ! cont95t z well z ne> ! sea1 !y c\ld h>dly h escap$ detection by "s ,ea/]n sages n less capable ?an ! ,greek hi/orian ( reason+ philosophically on natural ph5om5a4 ,we also "k t ! rul]s ( ,asia 7 engag$ 9 v remote eras 9 execut+ great national works1 su* z tanks & canals1 requir+ ext5sive excavations4 ,9 ! f\rte5? c5tury ( our era 79 ! ye> #acfj71 ! removal ( soil necess>y = su* und]tak+s br\ght to light geological facts1 :i* attract$ ! att5tion ( a p less civiliz$ ?an 7 _m ( ! old] nations ( ! ,ea/4 ,! hi/orian ,f]i%ta relates t fifty ?\s& labor]s 7 employ$ 9 cutt+ ?r\gh a m\nd1 s z to =m a junction betwe5 ! riv]s ,selima & ,sutlej2 & 9 ?is m\nd 7 f\nd ! bones ( elephants & m51 "s ( !m petrifi$1 & "s ( !m resembl+ bone4 ,! gigantic dim5sions attribut$ to ! human bones %[ !m to h belong$ to "s ( ! l>g] pa*yd]mata4#e ,b1 al?\gh ! ,brahm9s1 l ! prie/s ( ,egypt1 may h be5 acqua9t$ ) ! exi/5ce ( fossil rema9s 9 ! /rata1 x is possible t ! doctr9e ( successive de/ructions & r5ovations ( ! _w1 m]ely receiv$ corroboration f su* pro(s2 & t x may h be5 orig9ally h&$ d[n1 l ! religi\s traditions ( mo/ nations1 f a rud] /ate ( society4 ,! sy/em may h _h its s\rce1 9 "p at lea/1 9 exagg]at$ acc\nts ( ^? dreadful cata/rophes :i* are occasion$ by p>ticul> comb9ations ( natural causes4 ,floods & volcanic eruptions1 ! ag5cy ( wat] & fire1 are ! *ief in/rum5ts ( deva/ation on our globe4 ,we %all po9t out 9 ! sequel ! ext5t ( _m ( ^! calamities1 recurr+ at di/ant int]vals ( "t1 9 ! pres5t c\rse ( nature2 & %all only obs]ve "h1 t !y are s peculi>ly calculat$ to inspire a la/+ t]ror1 & are s (t5 fatal 9 _! consequ5ces to great multitudes ( p1 t x sc>cely requires ! passion = ! m>vell\s1 s *>act]i/ic ( rude & half-civiliz$ nations1 /ill less ! exub]ant imag9ation ( ,ea/]n writ]s1 to augm5t !m into g5]al cataclysms & conflagrations4 ,! great flood ( ! ,*9ese1 :i* _! traditions c>ry back to ! p]iod ( ,ya\1 some?+ m ?an #bjjj ye>s be=e our era1 has be5 id5tifi$ by "s p]sons ) ! univ]sal deluge describ$ 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t2 b accord+ to ,mr4 ,davis1 :o accompani$ two ( our embassies to ,*9a1 & :o has c>efully exam9$ _! writt5 acc\nts1 ! ,*9ese cataclysm is !re9 describ$ z int]rupt+ ! bus9ess ( agriculture1 r ?an z involv+ a g5]al de/ruction ( ! human race4 ,! great ,yu 0 celebrat$ = hav+ op5$ n9e *annels to draw (f ! wat]s1 :i* cov]$ ! l[ hills & ba!d ! foot ( ! highe/ m\nta9s4 ,mr4 ,davis sugge/s t a great d]angem5t ( wat]s ( ! ,yell[ ,riv]1 "o ( ! l>ge/ 9 ! _w1 might ev5 n[ cause ! flood ( ,ya\ to be repeat$1 & lay ! mo/ f]tile & popul\s pla9s ( ,*9a "u wat]4 ,9 mod]n times ! bur/+ ( ! banks ( an artificial canal1 into :i* a portion ( ! ,yell[ ,riv] has be5 turn$1 has repeat$ly giv5 rise to ! mo/ dreadful accid5ts1 & is a s\rce ( p]petual anxiety to ! gov]nm5t4 ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to imag9e h[ mu* great] may h be5 ! inundation1 if ?is valley 0 ev] convuls$ by a viol5t e>?quake4#f ,humboldt relates ! int]e/+ fact t1 aft] ! annihilation ( a l>ge "p ( ! inhabitants ( ,cumana1 by an e>?quake 9 #agff1 a season ( extraord9>y f]tility ensu$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! great ra9s :i* accompani$ ! subt]ranean convulsions4 ,! ,indians1 he says1 celebrat$1 aft] ! ideas ( an antique sup]/ition1 by fe/ivals & danc+1 ! de/ruction ( ! _w & ! approa*+ epo* ( its reg5]ation4#g ,! exi/5ce ( su* rites among ! rude nations ( ,s\? ,am]ica is mo/ important1 z %[+ :at effects may be produc$ by local cata/rophes1 recurr+ at di/ant int]vals ( "t1 on ! m9ds ( a b>b>\s & uncultivat$ race4 ,i %all po9t out 9 ! sequel h[ ! tradition ( a deluge among ! ,araucanian ,indians may be expla9$1 by ref]5ce to great e>?quake-waves :i* h repeat$ly roll$ ov] "p ( ,*ili s9ce ! fir/ record$ flood ( #aeij4 7,see *ap4 #bi1 ,book ,,ii47 ,! leg5d also ( ! anci5t ,p]uvians ( an inundation _m ye>s be=e ! reign ( ! ,incas1 9 :i* only six p]sons 7 sav$ on a float1 relates to a region :i* has m ?an once be5 ov]:elm$ by inroads ( ! ocean s9ce ! days ( ,piz>ro4 7,*ap4 #bi1 ,book ,,ii47 ,i might ref] ! read] to my acc\nt ( ! subm]g5ce ( a wide area 9 ,cut* s lately z ! ye> #ahai1 :5 a s+le t[] only ( ! =t ( ,s9dree appe>$ above ! wa/e ( wat]s 7see ,*ap4 #bh1 ,book ,,ii471 if x 7 necess>y1 to prove h[ easily ! cata/rophes ( mod]n times might give rise to tradition>y n>ratives1 among a rude p1 ( floods ( b\ndless ext5t4 ,nations )\t writt5 records1 & :o are indebt$ = all _! k ( pa/ ev5ts exclusively to oral tradition1 are 9 ! habit ( conf\nd+ 9 "o leg5d a s]ies ( incid5ts :i* h happ5$ at v>i\s epo*s2 nor mu/ we =get t ! sup]/itions ( a savage tribe are transmitt$ ?r\gh all ! progressive /ages ( society1 till !y ex]t a p[]ful influ5ce on ! m9d ( ! philosoph]4 ,he may f9d1 9 ! monum5ts ( =m] *anges on ! e>?'s surface1 an app>5t confirmation ( t5ets h&$ d[n ?r\gh successive g5]ations1 f ! rude hunt]1 ^: t]rifi$ imag9ation drew a false picture ( ^? awful visitations ( floods & e>?quakes1 :]eby ! :ole e>? z kn[n to him 0 simultane\sly deva/at$4 ,egyptian ,cosmogony4--,respect+ ! cosmogony ( ! ,egyptian prie/s1 we ga!r mu* in=mation f writ]s ( ! ,grecian sects1 :o borr[$ almo/ all _! t5ets f ,egypt1 & among/ o!rs t ( ! =m] successive de/ruction & r5ovation ( ! _w4#h ,we le>n f ,plut>*1 t ?is 0 ! !me ( "o ( ! hymns ( ,orpheus1 s celebrat$ 9 ! fabul\s ages ( ,greece4 ,x 0 br\ght by him f ! banks ( ! ,nile2 & we ev5 f9d 9 8 v]ses1 z 9 ! ,indian sy/ems1 a def9ite p]iod assign$ = ! duration ( ea* successive _w4#i ,! returns ( great cata/rophes 7 det]m9$ by ! p]iod ( ! ,annus ,magnus1 or great ye>1--a cycle compos$ ( ! revolutions ( ! sun1 moon1 & planets1 & t]m9at+ :5 ^! return toge!r to ! same sign :5ce !y 7 suppos$ at "s remote epo* to h set out4 ,! duration ( ?is great cycle 0 v>i\sly e/imat$4 ,accord+ to ,orpheus1 x 0 #abj1jjj ye>s2 accord+ to o!rs1 #cjj1jjj2 & by ,cass&] x 0 tak5 to be #cfj1jjj ye>s4#aj ,we le>n p>ticul>ly f ! ,timaeus ( ,plato1 t ! ,egyptians believ$ ! _w to be subject to occasional conflagrations & deluges1 :]eby ! gods arre/$ ! c>e] ( human wick$ness1 & purifi$ ! e>? f guilt4 ,aft] ea* reg5]ation1 mank9d 7 9 a /ate ( virtue & happ9ess1 f :i* !y gradually deg5]at$ aga9 into vice & immorality4 ,f ?is ,egyptian doctr9e1 ! poets d]iv$ ! fable ( ! decl9e f ! gold5 to ! iron age4 ,! sect ( ,/oics adopt$ mo/ fully ! sy/em ( cata/rophes de/9$ at c]ta9 int]vals to de/roy ! _w4 ,^? !y taught 7 ( two k9ds2--! ,cataclysm1 or de/ruction by wat]1 :i* sweeps away ! :ole human race1 & annihilates all ! animal & vegetable productions ( nature2 & ! ,ecpyrosis1 or de/ruction by fire1 :i* dissolves ! globe itself4 ,f ! ,egyptians also !y d]iv$ ! doctr9e ( ! gradual debasem5t ( man f a /ate ( innoc5ce4 ,t[>ds ! t]m9ation ( ea* era1 ! gods c\ld no long] be> ) ! wick$ness ( m51 & a %ock ( ! elem5ts or a deluge ov]:elm$ !m2 aft] :i* calamity1 ,a/rea aga9 desc5d$ on ! e>? to r5ew ! gold5 age4#aa ,! connection betwe5 ! doctr9e ( successive cata/rophes & repeat$ det]iorations 9 ! moral "* ( ! human race is m intimate & natural ?an might at fir/ be imag9$4 ,=1 9 a rude /ate ( society1 all great calamities are reg>d$ by ! p z judgm5ts ( ,god on ! wick$ness ( man4 ,?us1 9 our own "t1 ! prie/s p]suad$ a l>ge "p ( ! population ( ,*ili1 & p]haps believ$ !mselves1 t ! fatal e>?quake ( #ahbb 0 a sign ( ! wra? ( ,heav5 = ! great political revolution j !n consummat$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! acc\nt giv5 to ,solon by ! ,egyptian prie/s1 ( ! subm]sion ( ! isl& ( ,atlantis "u ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 aft] repeat$ %ocks ( an e>?quake1 we f9d t ! ev5t happ5$ :5 ,jupit] _h se5 ! moral depravity ( ! inhabitants4#ab ,n[1 :5 ! notion _h once ga9$ gr\nd1 :e!r f causes be=e sugge/$ or n1 t ! e>? _h be5 de/roy$ by sev]al g5]al cata/rophes1 x w\ld next be inf]r$ t ! human race _h be5 z (t5 de/roy$ & r5ovat$4 ,& s9ce e ext]m9ation 0 assum$ to be p5al1 x c\ld only be reconcil$ ) div9e ju/ice1 by ! supposition t man1 at ea* successive creation1 0 reg5]at$ 9 a /ate ( purity & innoc5ce4 ,a v l>ge portion ( ,asia1 inhabit$ by ! e>lie/ nations1 ^: traditions h come d[n to u1 has be5 always subject to trem5d\s e>?quakes4 ,( ! geographical b\nd>ies ( ^!1 & _! effects1 ,i %all speak 9 ! prop] place4 ,egypt has1 = ! mo/ "p1 be5 exempt f ?is sc\rge1 & ! ,egyptian doctr9e ( great cata/rophes 0 probably d]iv$ 9 "p1 z be=e h9t$1 f e>ly geological obs]vations1 & 9 "p f ,ea/]n nations4 ,py?agorean ,doctr9es4--,py?agoras1 :o resid$ = m ?an tw5ty ye>s 9 ,egypt1 &1 accord+ to ,cic]o1 _h visit$ ! ,ea/1 & conv]s$ ) ! ,p]sian philosoph]s1 introduc$ into 8 own c\ntry1 on 8 return1 ! doctr9e ( ! gradual det]ioration ( ! human race f an orig9al /ate ( virtue & happ9ess2 b if we are to judge ( 8 !ory conc]n+ ! de/ruction & r5ovation ( ! e>? f ! sket* giv5 by ,ovid1 we mu/ conc$e x to h be5 f> m philosophical ?an any kn[n v]sion ( ! cosmogonies ( ,ori5tal or ,egyptian sects4 ,al?\gh ,py?agoras is introduc$ by ! poet z deliv]+ 8 doctr9e 9 p]son1 "s ( ! illu/rations are d]iv$ f natural ev5ts :i* happ5$ aft] ! dea? ( ! philosoph]4 ,b not)/&+ ^! ana*ronisms1 we may reg>d ! acc\nt z a true picture ( ! t5ets ( ! ,py?agorean s*ool 9 ! ,augu/an age2 & al?\gh p]haps p>tially modifi$1 x mu/ h conta9$ ! sub/ance ( ! orig9al s*eme4 ,?us consid]$1 x is extremely curi\s & in/ructive2 = we "h f9d a compreh5sive summ>y ( almo/ all ! great causes ( *ange n[ 9 activity on ! globe1 & ^! adduc$ 9 confirmation ( a pr9ciple ( a p]petual & gradual revolution inh]5t 9 ! nature ( our t]re/rial sy/em4 ,^! doctr9es1 x is true1 are n directly appli$ to ! explanation ( geological ph5om5a2 or1 9 o!r words1 no attempt is made to e/imate :at may h be5 9 pa/ ages1 or :at may h]eaft] be1 ! aggregate am\nt ( *ange br\ght ab\t by su* nev]-end+ fluctuations4 ,_h ?is be5 ! case1 we might h be5 call$ ^u to admire s extraord9>y an anticipation ) no less int]e/ ?an a/ronom]s1 :5 !y endeavor to def9e by :at means ! ,samian philosoph] came to ! k ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em4 ,let u n[ exam9e ! celebrat$ passages to :i* we h be5 adv]t+3#ac ,no?+ p]i%es 9 ?is _w2 b ?+s m]ely v>y & *ange _! =m4 ,to be born1 means simply t a ?+ beg9s to be some?+ diff]5t f :at x 0 be=e2 & dy+1 is ceas+ to be ! same ?+4 ,yet1 al?\gh no?+ reta9s long ! same image1 ! sum ( ! :ole rema9s con/ant4 ,^! g5]al propositions are !n confirm$ by a s]ies ( examples1 all d]iv$ f natural appe>ances1 except ! fir/1 :i* ref]s to ! gold5 age giv+ place to ! age ( iron4 ,! illu/rations are ?us consecutively adduc$4 #a4 ,solid l& has be5 conv]t$ into sea4 #b4 ,sea has be5 *ang$ into l&4 ,m>9e %ells lie f> di/ant f ! deep1 & ! an*or has be5 f\nd on ! summit ( hills4 #c4 ,valleys h be5 excavat$ by runn+ wat]1 & floods h wa%$ d[n hills into ! sea4#ad #d4 ,m>%es h become dry gr\nd4 #e4 ,dry l&s h be5 *ang$ into /agnant pools4 #f4 ,dur+ e>?quakes "s spr+s h be5 clos$ up1 & new ones h brok5 out4 ,riv]s h des]t$ _! *annels1 & h be5 re-born else:]e1 z ! ,eras9us 9 ,greece1 & ,mysus 9 ,asia4 #g4 ,! wat]s ( "s riv]s1 =m]ly sweet1 h become bitt]2 z ^? ( ! ,anigris1 9 ,greece1 c4#ae #h4 ,isl&s h become connect$ ) ! ma9l& by ! gr[? ( deltas & new deposits2 z 9 ! case ( ,antissa jo9$ to ,lesbos1 ,ph>os to ,egypt1 c4 #i4 ,p59sulas h be5 divid$ f ! ma9 l&1 & h become isl&s1 z ,leucadia2 & accord+ to tradition1 ,sicily1 ! sea hav+ c>ri$ away ! i/hmus4 #aj4 ,l& has be5 subm]g$ by e>?quakes2 ! ,grecian cities ( ,helice & ,buris1 = example1 are to be se5 "u ! sea1 ) _! walls incl9$4 #aa4 ,pla9s h be5 upheav$ into hills by ! conf9$ air seek+ v5t2 z at ,troez5e 9 ! ,peloponnesus4 #ab4 ,! temp]ature ( "s spr+s v>ies at diff]5t p]iods4 ,! wat]s ( o!rs are inflammable4#af #ac4 ,!re are /reams :i* h a petrify+ p[]1 & conv]t ! sub/ances :i* !y t\* into m>ble4 #ad4 ,extraord9>y m$ic9al & delet]i\s effects are produc$ by ! wat] ( diff]5t lakes & spr+s4#ag #ae4 ,"s rocks & isl&s1 aft] float+ & hav+ be5 subject to viol5t movem5ts1 h at l5g? become /ation>y & immovable2 z ,delos & ! ,cyanean ,isles4#ah #af4 ,volcanic v5ts %ift _! position2 !re 0 a "t :5 ,etna 0 n a burn+ m\nta91 & ! "t w come :5 x w cease to burn4 ,:e!r x be t "s cav]ns become clos$ up by ! movem5ts ( ! e>?1 & o!rs op5$1 or :e!r ! fuel is f9ally exhau/$1 c41 c4 ,! v>i\s causes ( *ange 9 ! inanimate _w hav+ be5 ?us enum]at$1 ! doctr9e ( equivocal g5]ation is next prop\nd$1 z illu/rat+ a correspond+ p]petual flux 9 ! animate creation4#ai ,9 ! ,egyptian & ,ea/]n cosmogonies1 & 9 ! ,greek v]sion ( !m1 no v def9ite mean+ c1 9 g5]al1 be atta*$ to ! t]m de/ruction ( ! _w2 = sometimes x w\ld seem almo/ to imply ! annihilation ( our planet>y sy/em1 & at o!rs a m]e revolution ( ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,op9ions ( ,ari/otle4--,f ! works n[ extant ( ,ari/otle1 & f ! sy/em ( ,py?agoras1 z above expos$1 we might c]ta9ly inf] t ^! philosoph]s consid]$ ! ag5ts ( *ange n[ op]at+ 9 nature1 z capable ( br++ ab\t 9 ! lapse ( ages a complete revolution2 & ! ,/agyrite ev5 consid]s occasional cata/rophes1 happ5+ at di/ant int]vals ( "t1 z "p ( ! regul> & ord9>y c\rse ( nature4 ,! deluge ( ,deucalion1 he says1 affect$ ,greece only1 & pr9cipally ! "p call$ ,hellas1 & x arose f great inundations ( riv]s1 dur+ a ra9y w9t]4 ,b su* extraord9>y w9t]s1 he says1 ?\gh aft] a c]ta9 p]iod !y return1 d n always revisit ! same places4#bj ,c5sor9us quotes x z ,ari/otle's op9ion t !re 7 g5]al inundations ( ! globe1 & t !y alt]nat$ ) conflagrations2 & t ! flood con/itut$ ! w9t] ( ! great ye>1 or a/ronomical cycle1 :ile ! conflagration1 or de/ruction by fire1 is ! summ]1 or p]iod ( greate/ heat4#ba ,if ?is passage1 z ,lipsius supposes1 be an amplification1 by ,c5sor9us1 ( :at is writt5 9 ! ,meteorics1 x is a gross misrepres5tation ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,/agyrite1 = ! g5]al be>+ ( 8 reason+ 9 t treatise t5ds cle>ly 9 an opposite direction4 ,he ref]s to _m examples ( *anges n[ con/antly go+ on1 & insi/s emphatically on ! great results :i* !y mu/ produce 9 ! lapse ( ages4 ,he in/ances p>ticul> cases ( lakes t _h dri$ up1 & des]ts t _h at l5g? become wat]$ by riv]s & f]tiliz$4 ,he po9ts to ! gr[? ( ! ,nilotic ,delta s9ce ! "t ( ,hom]1 to ! %all[+ ( ! ,palus ,maeotis )9 sixty ye>s f 8 own "t2 & al?\gh1 9 ! same *apt] he says no?+ ( e>?quakes1 yet 9 o!rs ( ! same treatise he %[s himself n unacqua9t$ ) _! effects4#bb ,he alludes1 = example1 to ! upheav+ ( "o ( ! ,eolian isl&s previ\s to a volcanic eruption4 ,! *anges ( ! e>?1 he says1 are s sl[ 9 comp>ison to ! duration ( our lives1 t !y are ov]look$ 7,greek3 lan?anei73 & ! migrations ( p aft] great cata/rophes1 & _! removal to o!r regions1 cause ! ev5t to be =gott54#bc ,:5 we consid] ! acqua9tance display$ by ,ari/otle1 9 8 v>i\s works1 ) ! de/roy+ & r5ovat+ p[]s ( ,nature1 ! introductory & conclud+ passages ( ! twelf? *apt] ( 8 ,meteorics are c]ta9ly v rem>kable4 ,9 ! fir/ s5t5ce he says1 ,! di/ribution ( l& & sea 9 p>ticul> regions does n endure ?r\gh\t all "t1 b x becomes sea 9 ^? p>ts :]e x 0 l&1 & aga9 x becomes l& :]e x 0 sea3 & !re is reason = ?9k+ t ^! *anges take place accord+ to a c]ta9 sy/em1 & )9 a c]ta9 p]iod4 ,! conclud+ obs]vation is z foll[s3--,z "t nev] fails1 & ! univ]se is et]nal1 nei!r ! ,tanais1 nor ! ,nile1 c h fl[$ =ev]4 ,! places :]e !y rise 7 once dry1 & !re is a limit to _! op]ations2 b !re is none to "t4 ,s also ( all o!r riv]s2 !y spr+ up1 & !y p]i%2 & ! sea also cont9ually des]ts "s l&s & invades o!rs4 ,! same tracts1 !re=e1 ( ! e>? are n1 "s always sea1 & o!rs always cont95ts1 b e ?+ *anges 9 ! c\rse ( "t4 ,x seems1 !n1 t ! ,greeks _h n only d]iv$ f prec$+ nations1 b _h also1 9 "s slight degree1 d$uc$ f _! own obs]vations1 ! !ory ( p]iodical revolutions 9 ! inorganic _w3 !re is1 h[ev]1 no gr\nd = imag9+ t !y contemplat$ =m] *anges 9 ! races ( animals & plants4 ,ev5 ! fact t m>9e rema9s 7 inclos$ 9 solid rocks1 al?\gh obs]v$ by "s1 & ev5 made ! gr\ndwork ( geological speculation1 nev] /imulat$ ! indu/ry or guid$ ! inquiries ( naturali/s4 ,x is n impossible t ! !ory ( equivocal g5]ation might h eng5d]$ "s indiff]5ce on ?is subject1 & t a belief 9 ! spontane\s production ( liv+ be+s f ! e>? or corrupt matt]1 might h caus$ ! organic _w to appe> s un/able & fluctuat+1 t ph5om5a indicative ( =m] *anges w\ld n awak5 int5se curiosity4 ,! ,egyptians1 x is true1 _h taught1 & ! ,/oics _h repeat$1 t ! e>? _h once giv5 bir? to "s mon/r\s animals1 :i* exi/$ no long]2 b ! prevail+ op9ion seems to h be51 t aft] ea* great cata/rophe ! same species ( animals 7 creat$ ov] aga94 ,?is t5et is impli$ 9 a passage ( ,s5eca1 :]e1 speak+ ( a future deluge1 he says1 ,e animal %all be g5]at$ anew1 & man free f guilt %all be giv5 to ! e>?4#bd ,an old ,arabian v]sion ( ! doctr9e ( ! successive revolutions ( ! globe1 translat$ by ,abraham ,ec*ell5sis1#be seems to =m a s+ul> exception to ! g5]al rule1 = "h we f9d ! idea ( diff]5t g5]a & species hav+ be5 creat$4 ,! ,g]banites1 a sect ( a/ronom]s :o fl\ri%$ "s c5turies be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 taught z foll[s3--,t aft] e p]iod ( ?irty-six ?\s& f\r hundr$ & tw5ty-five ye>s1 !re 7 produc$ a pair ( e species ( animal1 bo? male & female1 f :om animals might be propagat$ & inhabit ?is l[] _w4 ,b :5 a circulation ( ! heav5ly orbs 0 complet$1 :i* is f9i%$ 9 t space ( ye>s1 o!r g5]a & species ( animals are propagat$1 z also ( plants & o!r ?+s1 & ! fir/ ord] is de/roy$1 & s x goes on =ev] & ev]4#bf ,!ory ( ,/rabo4--,z we le>n mu* ( ! t5ets ( ! ,egyptian & ,ori5tal s*ools 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,greeks1 s1 _m speculations ( ! e>ly ,greek au?ors are made kn[n to u 9 ! works ( ! ,augu/an & lat] ages4 ,/rabo1 9 p>ticul>1 ent]s l>gely1 9 ! second book ( 8 ,geography1 into ! op9ions ( ,erato/h5es & o!r ,greeks on "o ( ! mo/ difficult problems 9 geology1 viz41 by :at causes m>9e %ells came to be pl5tifully buri$ 9 ! e>? at su* great elevations & di/ances f ! sea4 ,he notices1 among/ o!rs1 ! explanation ( ,xan?us ! ,lydian1 :o said t ! seas _h once be5 m ext5sive1 & t !y _h aft]w>ds be5 p>tially dri$ up1 z 9 8 own "t _m lakes1 riv]s1 & wells 9 ,asia _h fail$ dur+ a season ( dr\ght4 ,treat+ ?is conjecture ) m]it$ disreg>d1 ,/rabo passes on to ! hypo!sis ( ,/rato1 ! natural philosoph]1 :o _h obs]v$ t ! quantity ( mud br\ght d[n by riv]s into ! ,eux9e 0 s great1 t its b$ mu/ be gradually rais$1 :ile ! riv]s /ill cont9ue to p\r 9 an undim9i%$ quantity ( wat]4 ,he1 !re=e1 conceiv$ t1 orig9ally1 :5 ! ,eux9e 0 an inl& sea1 its level _h by ?is means become s mu* elevat$ t x bur/ its b>ri] ne> ,byzantium1 & =m$ a communication ) ! ,propontis2 & ?is p>tial dra9age1 he suppos$1 _h already conv]t$ ! left side into m>%y gr\nd1 & ?us1 at la/1 ! :ole w\ld be *ok$ up ) soil4 ,s1 x 0 argu$1 ! ,m$it]ranean _h once op5$ a passage = itself by ! ,columns ( ,h]cules into ! ,atlantic2 & p]haps ! abundance ( sea-%ells 9 ,africa1 ne> ! ,temple ( ,jupit] ,ammon1 might also be ! deposit ( "s =m] inl& sea1 :i* _h at l5g? =c$ a passage & escap$4 ,b ,/rabo rejects ?is !ory1 z insuffici5t to acc\nt = all ! ph5om5a1 & he proposes "o ( 8 own1 ! pr(\ndness ( :i* mod]n geologi/s are only beg9n+ to appreciate4 ,x is n1 he says1 because ! l&s cov]$ by seas 7 orig9ally at diff]5t altitudes1 t ! wat]s h ris51 or subsid$1 or rec$$ f "s p>ts & inundat$ o!rs4 ,b ! reason is1 t ! same l& is sometimes rais$ up & sometimes depress$1 & ! sea also is simultane\sly rais$ & depress$1 s t x ei!r ov]fl[s or returns into its own place aga94 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 ascribe ! cause to ! gr\nd1 ei!r to t gr\nd :i* is "u ! sea1 or to t :i* becomes flood$ by x1 b r to t :i* lies b5ea? ! sea1 = ?is is m movable &1 on acc\nt ( its humidity1 c be alt]$ ) great] cel]ity4#bg ,x is prop]1 he obs]ves 9 cont9uation1 to d]ive our explanations f ?+s :i* are obvi\s1 & 9 "s measure ( daily occurr5ce1 su* z deluges1 e>?quakes1 & volcanic eruptions1#bh & sudd5 swell+s ( ! l& b5ea? ! sea2 = ! la/ raise up ! sea also2 & :5 ! same l&s subside aga91 !y occasion ! sea to be let d[n4 ,& x is n m]ely ! small1 b ! l>ge isl&s also1 & n m]ely ! isl&s1 b ! cont95ts :i* c be lift$ up toge!r ) ! sea2 & bo? l>ge & small tracts may subside1 = habitations & cities1 l ,bure1 ,bizona1 & _m o!rs1 h be5 engulph$ by e>?quakes4 ,9 ano!r place1 ?is le>n$ geograph]1 9 allud+ to ! tradition t ,sicily _h be5 sep>at$ by a convulsion f ,italy1 rem>ks1 t at pres5t ! l& ne> ! sea 9 ^? p>ts 0 r>ely %ak5 by e>?quakes1 s9ce !re 7 n[ op5 orifices :]eby fire & ignit$ matt]s1 & wat]s escape2 b =m]ly1 :5 ! volcanoes ( ,etna1 ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 ,is*ia1 & o!rs1 7 clos$ up1 ! imprison$ fire & w9d might h produc$ f> m vehem5t movem5ts4#bi ,! doctr9e1 !re=e1 t volcanoes are safety-valves1 & t ! subt]ranean convulsions are probably mo/ viol5t :5 fir/ ! volcanic en]gy %ifts itself to a new qu>t]1 is n mod]n4 ,we le>n f a passage 9 ,/rabo1#cj t x 0 a dogma ( ! ,gauli% ,druids t ! univ]se 0 immortal1 b de/9$ to survive cata/rophes bo? ( fire & wat]4 ,t ?is doctr9e 0 communicat$ to !m f ! ,ea/1 ) mu* ( _! le>n+1 _c be d\bt$4 ,caes>1 x w be rememb]$1 says t !y made use ( ,greek lett]s 9 ari?metical computations4#ca ,pl9y4--,?is philosoph] _h no !oretical op9ions ( 8 own conc]n+ *anges ( ! e>?'s surface2 & 9 ?is dep>tm5t1 z 9 o!rs1 he re/rict$ himself to ! task ( a compil]1 )\t reason+ on ! facts /at$ by him1 or attempt+ to dige/ !m into regul> ord]4 ,b 8 enum]ation ( ! new isl&s :i* _h be5 =m$ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ( o!r convulsions1 %[s t ! anci5ts _h n be5 inatt5tive obs]v]s ( ! *anges :i* _h tak5 place )9 ! memory ( man4 ,su*1 !n1 appe> to h be5 ! op9ions ent]ta9$ be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 conc]n+ ! pa/ revolutions ( our globe4 ,al?\gh no p>ticul> inve/igations _h be5 made = ! express purpose ( int]pret+ ! monum5ts ( anci5t *anges1 !y 7 too obvi\s to be entirely disreg>d$2 & ! obs]vation ( ! pres5t c\rse ( nature pres5t$ too _m pro(s ( alt]ations cont9ually 9 progress on ! e>? to all[ philosoph]s to believe t nature 0 9 a /ate ( re/1 or t ! surface _h rema9$1 & w\ld cont9ue to rema9 unalt]$4 ,b !y _h nev] comp>$ att5tively ! results ( ! de/roy+ & reproductive op]ations ( mod]n times ) ^? ( remote eras1 nor _h !y ev] ent]ta9$ s mu* z a conjecture conc]n+ ! comp>ative antiquity ( ! human race1 or ( liv+ species ( animals & plants1 ) ^? belong+ to =m] conditions ( ! organic _w4 ,!y _h /udi$ ! movem5ts & positions ( ! heav5ly bodies ) labori\s indu/ry1 & made "s progress 9 inve/igat+ ! animal1 vegetable1 & m9]al k+doms2 b ! anci5t hi/ory ( ! globe 0 to !m a seal$ book1 &1 al?\gh writt5 9 *>act]s ( ! mo/ /rik+ & impos+ k9d1 !y 7 unconsci\s ev5 ( its exi/5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,geology--cont9u$4 ,arabian writ]s ( ! t5? c5tury--,avic5na--,om>--,cosmogony ( ! ,koran--,kazw9i--,e>ly ,italian writ]s--,leon>do da ,v9ci--,fraca/oro--,controv]sy z to ! real nature ( fossils--,attribut$ to ! ,mosaic deluge--,palissy--,/5o --,scilla--,quir9i--,boyle--,li/]--,leib nitz--,hooke's ,!ory ( ,elevation by ,e>?quakes--,( lo/ species ( animals--,ray--,physico-!ological writ]s--,woodw>d's ,diluvial ,!ory--,burnet--,:i/on--,vallisn]i--,laz z>o ,moro--,g5]elli--,buffon--,8 !ory condemn$ by ! ,sorbonne z unor?odox--,8 decl>ation--,t>gioni--,ardu9o--,mi*ell --,catcott--,raspe ,fu*sel--,=tis--,te/a--,:itehur/--,palla s --,saussure4 ,arabian writ]s4--,aft] ! decl9e ( ! ,roman empire1 ! cultivation ( physical sci5ce 0 fir/ reviv$ ) "s success by ! ,s>ac5s1 ab\t ! middle ( ! eigh? c5tury ( our era4 ,! works ( ! mo/ em95t classic writ]s 7 pur*as$ at great exp5se f ! ,*ri/ians1 & translat$ into ,arabic2 & ,al ,mamun1 son ( ! fam\s ,h>un-al-,ra%id1 ! contempor>y ( ,*>lemagne1 receiv$ ) m>ks ( di/9ction1 at 8 c\rt at ,bagdad1 a/ronom]s & m5 ( le>n+ f diff]5t c\ntries4 ,?is caliph1 & "s ( 8 successors1 enc\nt]$ mu* opposition & jeal\sy f ! doctors ( ! ,mahometan law1 :o wi%$ ! ,moslems to conf9e _! /udies to ! ,koran1 dread+ ! effects ( ! diffusion ( a ta/e = ! physical sci5ces4#cb ,avic5na4--,almo/ all ! works ( ! e>ly ,arabian writ]s are lo/4 ,among/ ^? ( ! t5? c5tury1 ( :i* fragm5ts are n[ extant1 is a %ort treatise1 ,on ! ,=mation & ,classification ( ,m9]als1 by ,avic5na1 a physician1 9 ^: arrangem5t !re is consid]able m]it4 ,! second *apt]1 ,on ! ,cause ( ,m\nta9s1 is rem>kable2 = m\nta9s1 he says1 are =m$1 "s by ess5tial1 o!rs by accid5tal causes4 ,9 illu/ration ( ! ess5tial1 he in/ances a viol5t e>?quake1 by :i* l& is elevat$1 & becomes a m\nta92 ( ! accid5tal1 ! pr9cipal1 he says1 is excavation by wat]1 :]eby cavities are produc$1 & adjo9+ l&s made to /& out & =m em95ces4#cc ,om>--,cosmogony ( ! ,koran4--,9 ! same c5tury1 also1 ,om>1 surnam$ ,el ,aalem1 or ,! ,le>n$1 wrote a "w on ,! ,retreat ( ! ,sea4 ,x appe>s t on comp>+ ! *>ts ( 8 own "t ) ^? made by ! ,indian & ,p]sian a/ronom]s two ?\s& ye>s be=e1 he _h satisfi$ himself t important *anges _h tak5 place s9ce ! times ( hi/ory 9 ! =m ( ! coa/s ( ,asia1 & t ! ext5sion ( ! sea _h be5 great] at "s =m] p]iods4 ,he 0 confirm$ 9 ?is op9ion by ! num]\s salt spr+s & m>%es 9 ! int]ior ( ,asia1--a ph5om5on f :i* ,pallas1 9 m rec5t times1 has drawn ! same inf]5ce4 ,von ,h(f has sugge/$1 ) great probability1 t ! *anges 9 ! level ( ! ,caspian 7"s ( :i* !re is reason to believe h happ5$ )9 ! hi/orical era71 & ! geological appe>ances 9 t di/rict1 indicat+ ! des]tion by t sea ( its anci5t b$1 _h probably l$ ,om> to 8 !ory ( a g5]al subsid5ce4 ,b :atev] may h be5 ! pro(s reli$ on1 8 sy/em 0 decl>$ contradictory to c]ta9 passages 9 ! ,koran1 & he 0 call$ ^u publicly to recant 8 errors2 to avoid :i* p]secution he w5t into volunt>y bani%m5t f ,sam>k&4#cd ,! cosmological op9ions express$ 9 ! ,koran are few1 & m]ely introduc$ incid5tally3 s t x is n easy to und]/& h[ !y c\ld h int]f]$ s s]i\sly ) free discussion on ! =m] *anges ( ! globe4 ,! ,prophet decl>es t ! e>? 0 creat$ 9 two days1 & ! m\nta9s 7 !n plac$ on x2 & dur+ ^!1 & two additional days1 ! inhabitants ( ! e>? 7 =m$2 & 9 two m ! sev5 heav5s4#ce ,!re is no m detail ( circum/ances2 & ! deluge1 :i* is also m5tion$1 is discuss$ ) equal brevity4 ,! wat]s are repres5t$ to h p\r$ out ( an ov52 a /range fable1 said to be borr[$ f ! ,p]sian ,magi1 :o repres5t$ !m z issu+ f ! ov5 ( an old woman4#cf ,all m5 7 dr[n$1 save ,noah & 8 family2 & !n ,god said1 ,o e>?1 swall[ up ?y wat]s2 & ?\1 ,o heav51 )hold ?y ra92 & imm$iately ! wat]s abat$4#cg ,we may suppose ,om> to h repres5t$ ! des]tion ( ! l& by ! sea to h be5 gradual1 & t 8 hypo!sis requir$ a great] lapse ( ages ?an 0 consi/5t ) ,moslem or?odoxy2 = x is to be inf]r$ f ! ,koran1 t man & ?is planet 7 creat$ at ! same "t2 & al?\gh ,mahomet did n limit expressly ! antiquity ( ! human race1 yet he gave an impli$ sanction to ! ,mosaic *ronology1 by ! v5]ation express$ by him = ! ,hebrew ,patri>*s4#ch ,a manuscript "w1 entitl$ ! ,wond]s ( ,nature1 is pres]v$ 9 ! ,royal ,libr>y at ,p>is1 by an ,arabian writ]1 ,mohamm$ ,kazw9i1 :o fl\ri%$ 9 ! sev5? c5tury ( ! ,hegira1 or at ! close ( ! ?irte5? c5tury ( our era4#ci ,besides sev]al curi\s rem>ks on a]olites1 e>?quakes1 & ! successive *anges ( position :i* ! l& & sea h und]gone1 we meet ) ! foll[+ beautiful passage :i* is giv5 z ! n>rative ( ,kidhz1 an allegorical p]sonage3--,i pass$ "o day by a v anci5t & wond]fully popul\s city1 & ask$ "o ( its inhabitants h[ long x _h be5 f\nd$4 ',x is inde$ a mighty city1' repli$ he2 'we "k n h[ long x has exi/$1 & our ance/ors 7 on ?is subject z ignorant z ourselves4' ,five c5turies aft]w>ds1 z ,i pass$ by ! same place1 ,i c\ld n p]ceive ! slighte/ ve/ige ( ! city4 ,i dem&$ ( a peasant1 :o 0 ga!r+ h]bs ^u its =m] site1 h[ long x _h be5 de/roy$4 ',9 soo? a /range "q6' repli$ he4 ',! gr\nd "h has nev] be5 diff]5t f :at y n[ behold x4'--',0 !re n ( old1' said ,i1 'a spl5did city "h8'--',nev]1' answ]$ he1 's f> z we h se51 & nev] did our fa!rs speak to u ( any su*4' ,on my return !re #ejj ye>s aft]w>ds1 ,i f\nd ! sea 9 ! same place1 & on its %ores 7 a p>ty ( fi%]m51 ( :om ,i inquir$ h[ long ! l& _h be5 cov]$ by ! wat]s8 ',is ?is a "q1' said !y1 '= a man l y8 ?is spot has always be5 :at x is n[4' ,i aga9 return$1 #ejj ye>s aft]w>ds1 & ! sea _h disappe>$2 ,i inquir$ ( a man :o /ood alone ^u ! spot1 h[ long ago ?is *ange _h tak5 place1 & he gave me ! same answ] z ,i _h receiv$ be=e4 ,la/ly1 on com+ back aga9 aft] an equal lapse ( "t1 ,i f\nd !re a fl\ri%+ city1 m popul\s & m ri* 9 beautiful build+s1 ?an ! city ,i _h se5 ! fir/ "t1 & :5 ,i w\ld fa9 h in=m$ myself conc]n+ its orig91 ! inhabitants answ]$ me1 ',its rise is lo/ 9 remote antiquity3 we are ignorant h[ long x has exi/$1 & our fa!rs 7 on ?is subject z ignorant z ourselves4' ,e>ly ,italian writ]s4--,x 0 n till ! e>li] "p ( ! sixte5? c5tury t geological ph5om5a began to attract ! att5tion ( ! ,*ri/ian nations4 ,at t p]iod a v animat$ controv]sy sprang up 9 ,italy1 conc]n+ ! true nature & orig9 ( m>9e %ells1 & o!r organiz$ fossils1 f\nd abundantly 9 ! /rata ( ! p59sula4 ,! celebrat$ pa9t] ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 :o 9 8 y\? _h plann$ & execut$ "s navigable canals 9 ! nor? ( ,italy1 0 "o ( ! fir/ :o appli$ s\nd reason+ to ^! subjects4 ,! mud ( riv]s1 he said1 _h cov]$ & p5etrat$ into ! int]ior ( fossil %ells at a "t :5 ^! 7 /ill at ! bottom ( ! sea ne> ! coa/4 ,!y tell u t ^! %ells 7 =m$ 9 ! hills by ! influ5ce ( ! />s2 b ,i ask :]e 9 ! hills are ! />s n[ =m+ %ells ( di/9ct ages & species8 & h[ c ! />s expla9 ! orig9 ( gravel1 occurr+ at diff]5t heights & compos$ ( pebbles r\nd$ z if by ! motion ( runn+ wat]2 or 9 :at mann] c su* a cause acc\nt = ! petrifaction 9 ! same places ( v>i\s leaves1 sea-we$s1 & m>9e-crabs8#dj ,! excavations made 9 #aeag1 = repair+ ! city ( ,v]ona1 br\ght to light a multitude ( curi\s petrifactions1 & furni%$ matt] = speculation to diff]5t au?ors1 & among ! re/ to ,fraca/oro1#da :o decl>$ 8 op9ion1 t fossil %ells _h all belong$ to liv+ animals1 :i* _h =m]ly liv$ & multipli$ :]e !re exuviae are n[ f\nd4 ,he expos$ ! absurdity ( hav+ rec\rse to a c]ta9 pla/ic =ce1 :i* x 0 said _h p[] to fa%ion /ones into organic =ms2 & ) no less cog5t argum5ts1 demon/rat$ ! futility ( attribut+ ! situation ( ! %ells 9 "q to ! ,mosaic deluge1 a !ory ob/9ately def5d$ by "s4 ,t inundation1 he obs]v$1 0 too transi5t2 x consi/$ pr9cipally ( fluviatile wat]s2 & if x _h transport$ %ells to great di/ances1 mu/ h /rew$ !m ov] ! surface1 n buri$ !m at va/ dep?s 9 ! int]ior ( m\nta9s4 ,8 cle> exposition ( ! evid5ce w\ld h t]m9at$ ! discussion =ev]1 if ! passions ( mank9d _h n be5 enli/$ 9 ! dispute2 & ev5 ?\gh d\bts %\ld = a "t h rema9$ 9 "s m9ds1 !y w\ld spe$ily h be5 remov$ by ! fre% in=mation obta9$ almo/ imm$iately aft]w>ds1 respect+ ! /ructure ( fossil rema9s1 & ( _! liv+ analogues4 ,b ! cle> & philosophical views ( ,fraca/oro 7 disreg>d$1 & ! tal5t & argum5tative p[]s ( ! le>n$ 7 doom$ = ?ree c5turies to be wa/$ 9 ! discussion ( ^! two simple & prelim9>y que/ions3 fir/1 :e!r fossil rema9s _h ev] belong$ to liv+ creatures2 &1 secondly1 :e!r1 if ?is be admitt$1 all ! ph5om5a c\ld n be expla9$ by ! deluge ( ,noah4 ,x _h be5 ! g5]al belief ( ! ,*ri/ian _w d[n to ! p]iod n[ "u consid]ation1 t ! orig9 ( ?is planet 0 n m remote ?an a few ?\s& ye>s2 & t s9ce ! creation ! deluge 0 ! only great cata/rophe by :i* consid]able *ange _h be5 wr\ght on ! e>?'s surface4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! op9ion 0 sc>cely less g5]al1 t ! f9al dissolution ( our sy/em 0 an ev5t to be look$ = at no di/ant p]iod4 ,! era1 x is true1 ( ! expect$ mill5nium _h pass$ away2 & = five hundr$ ye>s aft] ! fatal h\r :5 ! annihilation ( ! planet _h be5 look$ =1 ! monks rema9$ 9 undi/urb$ enjoym5t ( ri* grants ( l& bequea!d to !m by pi\s donors1 :o1 9 ! preamble ( de$s beg9n+ approp9quante mundi t]m9o----approp9quante magno judicii die1 left la/+ monum5ts ( ! popul> delusion4#db ,b al?\gh 9 ! sixte5? c5tury x _h become necess>y to int]pret c]ta9 prophecies respect+ ! mill5nium m lib]ally1 & to assign a m di/ant date to ! future conflagration ( ! _w1 we f9d1 9 ! speculations ( ! e>ly geologi/s1 p]petual allusion to su* an approa*+ cata/rophe2 :ile 9 all t reg>d$ ! antiquity ( ! e>?1 no modification :atev] ( ! op9ions ( ! d>k ages _h be5 effect$4 ,consid]able al>m 0 at fir/ excit$ :5 ! attempt 0 made to invalidate1 by physical pro(s1 an article ( fai? s g5]ally receiv$2 b !re 0 suffici5t _s ( tol]ation & c&or among/ ! ,italian ecclesia/ics1 to all[ ! subject to be canvass$ ) mu* fre$om4 ,!y ev5 ent]$ w>mly into ! controv]sy !mselves1 (t5 favor+ diff]5t sides ( ! "q2 & h[ev] mu* we may deplore ! loss ( "t & labor devot$ to ! def5ce ( unt5able positions1 x mu/ be conc$$ t !y display$ f> less polemic bitt]ness ?an c]ta9 writ]s :o foll[$ !m beyond ! ,alps1 two c5turies & a half lat]4 ,,controv]sy ,,z ,,to ,,! ,,real ,,nature ,,( ,,fossil ,,organic ,,rema9s4 ,mattioli--,falloppio4--,! sy/em ( s*ola/ic disputations1 enc\rag$ 9 ! univ]sities ( ! middle ages1 _h un=tunately tra9$ m5 to habits ( indef9ite argum5tation2 & !y (t5 pref]r$ absurd & extravagant propositions1 because great] skill 0 requir$ to ma9ta9 !m2 ! end & object ( ^! intellectual combats be+ victory1 & n tru?4 ,no !ory c\ld be s f>-fet*$ or fanta/ical z n to attract "s foll[]s1 provid$ x fell 9 ) popul> notions2 & z cosmogoni/s 7 n at all re/rict$1 9 build+ _! sy/ems1 to ! ag5cy ( kn[n causes1 ! oppon5ts ( ,fraca/oro met 8 argum5ts by feign+ imag9>y causes1 :i* diff]$ f ea* o!r r 9 "n ?an 9 sub/ance4 ,&rea ,mattioli1 = in/ance1 an em95t botani/1 ! illu/rator ( ,dioscorides1 embrac$ ! notion ( ,agricola1 a skilful ,g]man m9]1 t a c]ta9 mat]ia p+uis1 or fatty matt]1 set into f]m5tation by heat1 gave bir? to fossil organic %apes4 ,yet ,mattioli _h come to ! conclusion1 f 8 own obs]vations1 t por\s bodies1 su* z bones & %ells1 might be conv]t$ into /one1 z be+ p]meable to :at he t]m$ ! lapidify+ juice4 ,9 l mann]1 ,falloppio ( ,padua conceiv$ t petrifi$ %ells 7 g5]at$ by f]m5tation 9 ! spots :]e !y are f\nd1 or t !y _h 9 "s cases acquir$ _! =m f ! tumultu\s movem5ts ( t]re/rial exhalations4 ,al?\gh celebrat$ z a pr(essor ( anatomy1 he taught t c]ta9 tusks ( elephants1 dug up 9 8 "t 9 ,apulia1 7 m]e e>?y concretions2 &1 consi/5tly ) ^! pr9ciples1 he ev5 w5t s f> z to consid] x probable1 t ! vases ( ,monte ,te/aceo at ,rome 7 natural impressions /amp$ 9 ! soil4#dc ,9 ! same _s1 ,m]cati1 :o publi%$1 9 #aegd1 fai?ful figures ( ! fossil %ells pres]v$ by ,pope ,sixtus ,v4 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,vatican1 express$ an op9ion t !y 7 m]e /ones1 :i* _h assum$ _! peculi> configuration f ! influ5ce ( ! heav5ly bodies2 & ,olivi ( ,cremona1 :o describ$ ! fossil rema9s ( a ri* museum at ,v]ona1 0 satisfi$ ) consid]+ !m z m]e sports ( nature4 ,"s ( ! fanciful notions ( ^? times 7 deem$ less unreasonable1 z be+ some:at 9 h>mony ) ! ,ari/otelian !ory ( spontane\s g5]ation1 !n taught 9 all ! s*ools4#dd ,= m5 :o _h be5 taught 9 e>ly y\?1 t a l>ge proportion ( liv+ animals & plants 0 =m$ f ! =tuit\s conc\rse ( atoms1 or _h sprung f ! corruption ( organic matt]1 might easily p]suade !mselves t organic %apes1 (t5 imp]fectly pres]v$ 9 ! int]ior ( solid rocks1 ow$ _! exi/5ce to causes equally obscure & my/]i\s4 ,c>dano1 #aeeb4--;,b !re 7 n want+ "s :o1 dur+ ! progress ( ?is c5tury1 express$ m s\nd & sob] op9ions4 ,! title ( a "w ( ,c>dano's1 publi%$ 9 #aeeb1 ,de ,subtilitate 7correspond+ to :at w\ld n[ be call$ ,transc5d5tal ,philosophy71 w\ld lead u to expect1 9 ! *apt] on m9]als1 _m f>-fet*$ !ories *>act]i/ic ( t age2 b :5 treat+ ( petrifi$ %ells1 he decid$ t !y cle>ly indicat$ ! =m] soj\rn ( ! sea ^u ! m\nta9s4#de ,cesalp9o--,majoli1 #aeig4--;,cesalp9o1 a celebrat$ botani/1 conceiv$ t fossil %ells _h be5 left on ! l& by ! retir+ sea1 & _h concret$ into /one dur+ ! consolidation ( ! soil2#df & 9 ! foll[+ ye> 7#aeig71 ,simeone ,majoli#dg w5t /ill f>!r2 &1 co9cid+ = ! mo/ "p ) ! views ( ,cesalp9o1 sugge/$ t ! %ells & subm>9e matt] ( ! ,v]onese1 & o!r di/ricts1 might h be5 ca/ up ^u ! l& by volcanic explosions1 l ^? :i* gave rise1 9 #aech1 to ,monte ,nuovo1 ne> ,puzzuoli4 ,?is h9t seems to h be5 ! fir/ imp]fect attempt to connect ! position ( fossil %ells ) ! ag5cy ( volcanoes1 a sy/em aft]w>ds m fully develop$ by ,hooke1 ,lazz>o ,moro1 ,hutton1 & o!r writ]s4 ,two ye>s aft]w>ds1 ,imp]ati advocat$ ! animal orig9 ( fossiliz$ %ells1 yet admitt$ t /ones c\ld vegetate by =ce ( an int]nal pr9ciple2 &1 z evid5ce ( ?is1 he ref]r$ to ! tee? ( fi% & sp9es ( e*9i f\nd petrifi$4#dh ,palissy1 #aehj4--,palissy1 a ,fr5* writ] on ,! ,orig9 ( ,spr+s f ,ra9-wat]1 & ( o!r sci5tific works1 und]took1 9 #aehj1 to combat ! notions ( _m ( 8 contempor>ies 9 ,italy1 t petrifi$ %ells _h all be5 deposit$ by ! univ]sal deluge4 ,he 0 ! fir/1 said ,font5elle1 :51 9 ! ,fr5* ,academy1 he pron\nc$ 8 eulogy1 ne>ly a c5tury & a half lat]1 :o d>$ ass]t1 9 ,p>is1 t fossil rema9s ( te/acea & fi% _h once belong$ to m>9e animals4 ,fabio ,colonna4--,to enum]ate ! multitude ( ,italian writ]s1 :o advanc$ v>i\s hypo!ses1 all equally fanta/ical1 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 w\ld be unpr(itably t$i\s2 b ,fabio ,colonna des]ves to be di/+ui%$2 =1 al?\gh he gave way to ! dogma1 t all fossil rema9s 7 to be ref]r$ to ! deluge ( ,noah1 he resi/$ ! absurd !ory ( ,/elluti1 :o taught t fossil wood & ammonites 7 m]e clay1 alt]$ into su* =ms by sulphure\s wat]s & subt]ranean heat2 & he po9t$ out ! diff]5t /ates ( %ells buri$ 9 ! /rata1 di/+ui%+ betwe51 fir/1 ! m]e m\ld or impression2 second1 ! ca/ or nucleus2 &1 ?irdly1 ! rema9s ( ! %ell itself4 ,he _h also ! m]it ( be+ ! fir/ to po9t out t "s ( ! fossils _h belong$ to m>9e & "s to t]re/rial te/acea4#di ,/5o1 #affi4--;,b ! mo/ rem>kable "w ( t p]iod 0 publi%$ by ,/5o1 a ,dane1 once pr(essor ( anatomy at ,padua1 & :o aft]w>ds resid$ _m ye>s at ! c\rt ( ! ,gr& ,duke ( ,tuscany4 ,8 treatise be>s ! qua9t title ( ,de ,solido intra ,solidum naturalti] cont5to 7#affi71 by :i* ! au?or int5d$ to express1 ,on ,gems1 ,cry/als1 & organic ,petrifactions inclos$ )9 solid ,rocks4 ,?is "w atte/s ! priority ( ! ,italian s*ool 9 geological rese>*2 exemplify+ at ! same "t ! p[]ful ob/acles oppos$1 9 t age1 to ! g5]al reception ( enl>g$ views 9 ! sci5ce4 ,x 0 /ill a favorite dogma1 t ! fossil rema9s ( %ells & m>9e creatures 7 n ( animal orig92 an op9ion adh]$ to by _m f _! extreme reluctance to believe1 t ! e>? c\ld h be5 inhabit$ by liv+ be+s be=e a great "p ( ! exi/+ m\nta9s 7 =m$4 ,9 ref]5ce to ?is controv]sy1 ,/5o _h dissect$ a %>k rec5tly tak5 f ! ,m$it]ranean1 & _h demon/rat$ t its tee? & bones 7 id5tical ) _m fossils f\nd 9 ,tuscany4 ,he _h also comp>$ ! %ells discov]$ 9 ! ,italian /rata ) liv+ species1 po9t$ out _! resemblance1 & trac$ ! v>i\s gradations f %ells m]ely calc9$1 or :i* _h only lo/ _! animal glut51 to ^? petrifactions 9 :i* !re 0 a p]fect sub/itution ( /ony matt]4 ,9 8 division ( m9]al masses1 he insi/$ on ! second>y orig9 ( ^? deposits 9 :i* ! spoils ( animals or fragm5ts ( old] rocks 7 inclos$4 ,he di/+ui%$ betwe5 m>9e =mations & ^? ( a fluviatile "*1 ! la/ conta9+ re$s1 grasses1 or ! trunks & bran*es ( trees4 ,he argu$ 9 favor ( ! orig9al horizontality ( s$im5t>y deposits1 attribut+ _! pres5t incl9$ & v]tical position sometimes to ! escape ( subt]ranean vapors heav+ ! cru/ ( ! e>? f bel[ upw>ds1 & sometimes to ! fall+ 9 ( masses ov]ly+ subt]ranean cavities4 ,he decl>$ t he _h obta9$ pro( t ,tuscany mu/ successively h acquir$ six di/9ct configurations1 hav+ be5 twice cov]$ by wat]1 twice laid dry ) a level1 & twice ) an irregul> & unev5 surface4#ej ,he display$ great anxiety to reconcile 8 new views ) ,scripture1 = :i* purpose he po9t$ to c]ta9 rocks z hav+ be5 =m$ be=e ! exi/5ce ( animals & plants3 select+ un=tunately z examples c]ta9 =mations ( lime/one & s&/one 9 8 own c\ntry1 n[ kn[n to conta91 ?\gh sp>+ly1 ! rema9s ( animals & plants1--/rata :i* d n ev5 rank z ! olde/ "p ( our second>y s]ies4 ,/5o sugge/$ t ,moses1 :5 speak+ ( ! l(tie/ m\nta9s z hav+ be5 cov]$ by ! deluge1 meant m]ely ! l(tie/ ( ! hills !n exi/+1 :i* may n h be5 v high4 ,! diluvian wat]s1 he suppos$1 may h issu$ f ! int]ior ( ! e>? into :i* !y _h retir$1 :5 9 ! beg9n+ ! l& 0 sep>at$ f ! sea4 ,^!1 & o!r hypo!ses on ! same subject1 are n calculat$ to enhance ! value ( ! treatise1 & c\ld sc>cely fail to detract f ! au?ority ( ^? op9ions :i* 7 s\nd & legitimate d$uctions f fact & obs]vation4 ,!y h s]v$1 nev]!less1 z ! g]ms ( _m popul> !ories ( lat] times1 & 9 an exp&$ =m h be5 put =? z orig9al inv5tions by "s ( our contempor>ies4 ,scilla1 #afgj4--,scilla1 a ,sicilian pa9t]1 publi%$1 9 #afgj1 a treatise1 9 ,lat91 on ! fossils ( ,calabria1 illu/rat$ by good engrav+s4 ,?is "w proves ! cont9u$ asc5dancy ( dogmas (t5 refut$2 = we f9d ! wit & eloqu5ce ( ! au?or *iefly direct$ aga9/ ! ob/9ate incr$ulity ( naturali/s z to ! organic nature ( fossil %ells4#ea ,l _m em95t naturali/s ( 8 day1 ,scilla gave way to ! popul> p]suasion1 t all fossil %ells 7 ! effects & pro(s ( ! ,mosaic deluge4 ,x may be d\bt$ :e!r he 0 p]fectly s9c]e1 & "s ( 8 contempor>ies :o took ! same c\rse 7 c]ta9ly n s4 ,b s eag] 7 !y to root out :at !y ju/ly consid]$ an absurd prejudice respect+ ! nature ( organiz$ fossils1 t !y seem to h be5 ready to make any concessions1 9 ord] to e/abli% ?is prelim9>y po9t4 ,su* a compromis+ policy 0 %ort-sight$1 s9ce x 0 to little purpose t ! nature ( ! docum5ts %\ld at l5g? be correctly und]/ood1 if m5 7 to be prev5t$ f d$uc+ fair conclusions f !m4 ,diluvial ,!ory4--,! !ologians :o n[ ent]$ ! field 9 ,italy1 ,g]many1 ,france1 & ,engl&1 7 innum]able2 & h5ce=w>d1 !y :o refus$ to subscribe to ! position1 t all m>9e organic rema9s 7 pro(s ( ! ,mosaic deluge1 7 expos$ to ! imputation ( disbeliev+ ! :ole ( ! sacr$ writ+s4 ,sc>cely any /ep _h be5 made 9 approximat+ to s\nd !ories s9ce ! "t ( ,fraca/oro1 m ?an a hundr$ ye>s hav+ be5 lo/1 9 writ+ d[n ! dogma t organiz$ fossils 7 m]e sports ( nature4 ,an additional p]iod ( a c5tury & a half 0 n[ de/9$ to be consum$ 9 explod+ ! hypo!sis1 t organiz$ fossils _h all be5 buri$ 9 ! solid /rata by ,noah's flood4 ,nev] did a !oretical fallacy1 9 any bran* ( sci5ce1 int]f]e m s]i\sly ) accurate obs]vation & ! sy/ematic classification ( facts4 ,9 rec5t times1 we may attribute our rapid progress *iefly to ! c>eful det]m9ation ( ! ord] ( succession 9 m9]al masses1 by means ( _! diff]5t organic cont5ts1 & _! regul> sup]position4 ,b ! old diluviali/s 7 induc$ by _! sy/em to conf\nd all ! gr\ps ( /rata toge!r in/ead ( discrim9at+1--to ref] all appe>ances to "o cause & to "o brief p]iod1 n to a v>iety ( causes act+ ?r\gh\t a long succession ( epo*s4 ,!y saw ! ph5om5a only z !y desir$ to see !m1 sometimes misrepres5t+ facts1 & at o!r times d$uc+ false conclusions f correct data4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( su* prejudices1 ?ree c5turies 7 ( z little avail z a few ye>s 9 our own times1 :5 we are no long] requir$ to propel ! vessel aga9/ ! =ce ( an adv]se curr5t4 ,x may be well1 !re=e1 to =ew>n ! read]1 t 9 trac+ ! hi/ory ( geology f ! close ( ! sev5te5? to ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 he mu/ expect to be occupi$ ) acc\nts ( ! ret>dation1 z well z ( ! advance1 ( ! sci5ce4 ,x w be necess>y to po9t out ! frequ5t revival ( explod$ errors1 & ! relapse f s\nd to ! mo/ absurd op9ions2 & to dwell on futile reason+ & vision>y hypo!sis1 because "s ( ! mo/ extravagant sy/ems 7 inv5t$ or controv]t$ by m5 ( ackn[l$g$ tal5t4 ,9 %ort1 a sket* ( ! progress ( geology is ! hi/ory ( a con/ant & viol5t /ruggle ( new op9ions aga9/ doctr9es sanction$ by ! implicit fai? ( _m g5]ations1 & suppos$ to re/ on scriptural au?ority4 ,! inquiry1 !re=e1 al?\gh highly int]e/+ to "o :o /udies ! philosophy ( ! human m9d1 is too (t5 b>r5 ( in/ruction to him :o se>*es = tru?s 9 physical sci5ce4 ,quir9i1 #afgf4--,quir9i1 9 #afgf1eb cont5d$1 9 opposition to ,scilla1 t ! diluvian wat]s c\ld n h convey$ heavy bodies to ! summit ( m\nta9s1 s9ce ! agitation ( ! sea nev] 7z ,boyle _h demon/rat$7 ext5d$ to great dep?s2#ec & /ill less c\ld ! te/acea1 z "s pret5d$1 h liv$ 9 ^! diluvian wat]s2 = ! duration ( ! flood 0 brief1 & ! heavy ra9s mu/ h de/roy$ ! saltness ( ! sea6 ,he 0 ! fir/ writ] :o v5tur$ to ma9ta9 t ! univ]sality ( ! ,mosaic cataclysm ought n to be insi/$ ^u4 ,z to ! nature ( petrifi$ %ells1 he conceiv$ t z e>?y p>ticles unit$ 9 ! sea to =m ! %ells ( mollusca1 ! same cry/alliz+ process might be effect$ on ! l&2 & t1 9 ! latt] case1 ! g]ms ( ! animals might h be5 dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! sub/ance ( ! rocks1 & aft]w>ds develop$ by virtue ( humidity4 ,vision>y z 0 ?is doctr9e1 x ga9$ _m proselytes ev5 among/ ! m sob] reason]s ( ,italy & ,g]many2 = x conc$$ t ! position ( fossil bodies c\ld n be acc\nt$ = by ! diluvial !ory4 ,plot--,li/]1 #afgh4--;,9 ! mean "t1 ! doctr9e t fossil %ells _h nev] belong$ to real animals ma9ta9$ its gr\nd 9 ,engl&1 :]e ! agitation ( ! "q began at a mu* lat] p]iod4 ,dr4 ,plot1 9 8 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,ox=d%ire 7#afgg71 attribut$ to a pla/ic virtue lat5t 9 ! e>? ! orig9 ( fossil %ells & fi%es2 & ,li/]1 to 8 accurate acc\nt ( ,briti% %ells1 9 #afgh1 add$ ! fossil species1 "u ! appellation ( turb9at$ & bivalve /ones4 ,ei!r1 said he1 ^! 7 t]rig9\s1 or1 if o!rwise1 ! animals !y s exactly repres5t h become ext9ct4 ,?is writ] appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ :o 0 aw>e ( ! cont9uity ov] l>ge di/ricts ( ! pr9cipal gr\ps ( /rata 9 ! ,briti% s]ies1 & :o propos$ ! con/ruction ( regul> geological maps4#ed ,leibnitz1 #afhj4--,! great ma!matician ,leibnitz publi%$ 8 ,protogoea 9 #afhj4 ,he imag9$ ?is planet to h be5 orig9ally a burn+ lum9\s mass1 :i* ev] s9ce its creation has be5 und]go+ refrig]ation4 ,:5 ! out] cru/ _h cool$ d[n suffici5tly to all[ ! vapors to be cond5s$1 !y fell1 & =m$ a univ]sal ocean1 cov]+ ! l(tie/ m\nta9s1 & inve/+ ! :ole globe4 ,! cru/1 z x consolidat$ f a /ate ( fusion1 assum$ a vesicul> & cav]n\s /ructure2 & be+ r5t 9 "s places1 all[$ ! wat] to ru% into ! subt]ranean holl[s1 :]eby ! level ( ! primeval ocean 0 l[]$4 ,! break+ 9 ( ^! va/ cav]ns is suppos$ to h giv5 rise to ! dislocat$ & d]ang$ position ( ! /rata :i* ,/5o _h describ$1 & ! same disruptions communicat$ viol5t movem5ts to ! incumb5t wat]s1 :5ce great inundations ensu$4 ,! wat]s1 aft] !y _h be5 ?us agitat$1 deposit$ _! s$im5t>y matt] dur+ int]vals ( quiesc5ce1 & h5ce ! v>i\s /ony & e>?y /rata4 ,we may recognize1 !re=e1 says ,leibnitz1 a d\ble orig9 ( primitive masses1 ! "o by refrig]ation f igne\s fusion1 ! o!r by concretion f aque\s solution4#ee ,by ! repetition ( simil> causes 7! disruption ( ! cru/ & consequ5t floods71 alt]nations ( new /rata 7 produc$1 until at l5g? ^! causes 7 r$uc$ to a condition ( quiesc5t equilibrium1 & a m p]man5t /ate ( ?+s 0 e/abli%$4#ef ,hooke1 #afhh4--,! ,po/hum\s ,works ( ,rob]t ,hooke1 ,m4 ,d41 well kn[n z a great ma!matician & natural philosoph]1 appe>$ 9 #agje1 conta9+ ,a ,disc\rse ( ,e>?quakes1 :i*1 we are in=m$ by 8 editor1 0 writt5 9 #affh1 b revis$ at subsequ5t p]iods4#eg ,hooke frequ5tly ref]s to ! be/ ,italian & ,engli% au?ors :o wrote be=e 8 "t on geological subjects2 b !re are no passages 9 8 works imply+ t he p>ticipat$ 9 ! enl>g$ views ( ,/5o & ,li/]1 or ( 8 contempor>y1 ,woodw>d1 9 reg>d to ! geographical ext5t ( c]ta9 gr\ps ( /rata4 ,8 treatise1 h[ev]1 is ! mo/ philosophical production ( t age1 9 reg>d to ! causes ( =m] *anges 9 ! organic & inorganic k+doms ( nature4 ,h[ev] trivial a ?+1 he says1 a rott5 %ell may appe> to "s1 yet ^! monum5ts ( nature are m c]ta9 tok5s ( antiquity ?an co9s or m$als1 s9ce ! be/ ( ^? may be c\nt]feit$ or made by art & design1 z may also books1 manuscripts1 & inscriptions1 z all ! le>n$ are n[ suffici5tly satisfi$ has (t5 be5 actually practis$1 c42 & ?\gh x mu/ be grant$ t x is v difficult to read !m 7! records ( nature7 & to raise a *ronology out ( !m1 & to /ate ! int]vals ( ! "t :]e9 su* or su* cata/rophes & mutations h happ5$1 yet x is n impossible4#eh ,respect+ ! ext9ction ( species1 ,hooke 0 aw>e t ! fossil ammonites1 nautili1 & _m o!r %ells & fossil skeletons f\nd 9 ,engl&1 7 ( diff]5t species f any !n kn[n2 b he d\bt$ :e!r ! species _h become ext9ct1 obs]v+ t ! k ( naturali/s ( all ! m>9e species1 especially ^? inhabit+ ! deep sea1 0 v defici5t4 ,9 "s p>ts ( 8 writ+s1 h[ev]1 he leans to ! op9ion t species _h be5 lo/2 & 9 speculat+ on ?is subject1 he ev5 sugge/s t !re might be "s connection betwe5 ! disappe>ance ( c]ta9 k9ds ( animals & plants1 & ! *anges wr\ght by e>?quakes 9 =m] ages4 ,"s species1 he obs]ves1 ) great sagacity1 are peculi> to c]ta9 places1 & n to be f\nd else:]e4 ,if1 !n1 su* a place _h be5 swall[$ up1 x is n improbable b t ^? animate be+s may h be5 de/roy$ ) x2 & ?is may be true bo? ( a]ial & aquatic animals2 = ^? animat$ bodies1 :e!r vegetables or animals1 :i* 7 naturally n\ri%$ or refre%$ by ! air1 w\ld be de/roy$ by ! wat]1 c4#ei ,turtles1 he adds1 & su* l>ge ammonites z are f\nd 9 ,portl&1 seem to h be5 ! productions ( hott] c\ntries2 & x is necess>y to suppose t ,engl& once lay "u ! sea )9 ! torrid zone6 ,to expla9 ?is & simil> ph5om5a1 he indulges 9 a v>iety ( speculations conc]n+ *anges 9 ! position ( ! axis ( ! e>?'s rotation1 a %ift+ ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 analog\s to ! revolutions ( ! magnetic pole1 c4 ,none ( ^! conjectures1 h[ev]1 are propos$ dogmatically1 b r 9 ! hope ( promot+ fre% inquiries & exp]im5ts4 ,9 opposition to ! prejudices ( 8 age1 we f9d him argu+ aga9/ ! idea t nature _h =m$ fossil bodies = no o!r end ?an to play ! mimic 9 ! m9]al k+dom2--ma9ta9+ t figur$ /ones 7 really ! sev]al bodies !y repres5t1 or ! m\ld+s ( !m petrifi$1 & n1 z "s h imag9$1 'a lusus naturae1' sport+ h]self 9 ! ne$less =mation ( useless be+s4#fj ,x 0 object$ to ,hooke1 t 8 doctr9e ( ! ext9ction ( species d]ogat$ f ! wisdom & p[] ( ! omnipot5t ,creator2 b he answ]$1 t1 z individuals die1 !re may be "s t]m9ation to ! duration ( a species2 & 8 op9ions1 he decl>$1 7 n repugnant to ,holy ,writ3 = ! ,scriptures taught t our sy/em 0 deg5]at+1 & t5d+ to its f9al dissolution2 & z1 :5 t %all happ51 all ! species w be lo/1 :y n "s at "o "t & "s at ano!r8#fa ,b 8 pr9cipal object 0 to acc\nt = ! mann] 9 :i* %ells _h be5 convey$ into ! high] p>ts ( ! ,alps1 ,ap5n9es1 & ,pyr5ean hills1 & ! int]ior ( cont95ts 9 g5]al4 ,^! & o!r appe>ances1 he said1 might h be5 br\ght ab\t by e>?quakes1 :i* h turn$ pla9s into m\nta9s1 & m\nta9s into pla9s1 seas into l&1 & l& into seas1 made riv]s :]e !re 7 none be=e1 & swall[$ up o!rs t =m]ly 71 c41 c42 & :i*1 s9ce ! creation ( ! _w1 h wr\ght _m great *anges on ! sup]ficial p>ts ( ! e>?1 & h be5 ! in/rum5ts ( plac+ %ells1 bones1 plants1 fi%es1 & ! l1 9 ^? places :]e1 ) mu* a/oni%m5t1 we f9d !m4#fb ,?is doctr9e1 x is true1 _h be5 laid d[n 9 t]ms almo/ equally explicit by ,/rabo1 to expla9 ! occurr5ce ( fossil %ells 9 ! int]ior ( cont95ts1 & to t geograph]1 & o!r writ]s ( antiquity1 ,hooke frequ5tly ref]s2 b ! revival & developm5t ( ! sy/em 0 an important /ep 9 ! progress ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,hooke enum]at$ all ! examples kn[n to him ( subt]ranean di/urbance1 f ! sad cata/rophe ( ,sodom & ,gomorrah1 d[n to ! ,*ilian e>?quake ( #afdf4 ,! elevat+ ( ! bottom ( ! sea1 ! s9k+ & subm]sion ( ! l&1 & mo/ ( ! inequalities ( ! e>?'s surface1 might1 he said1 be acc\nt$ = by ! ag5cy ( ^! subt]ranean causes4 ,he m5tions t ! coa/ ne> ,naples 0 rais$ dur+ ! eruption ( ,monte ,nuovo2 & t1 9 #aeia1 l& rose 9 ! isl& ( ,/4 ,mi*ael1 dur+ an eruption3 & al?\gh x w\ld be m difficult1 he says1 to prove1 he does n d\bt b t !re _h be5 z _m e>?quakes 9 ! p>ts ( ! e>? "u ! ocean1 z 9 ! p>ts ( ! dry l&2 9 confirmation ( :i*1 he m5tions ! immeasurable dep? ( ! sea ne> "s volcanoes4 ,to atte/ ! ext5t ( simultane\s subt]ranean movem5ts1 he ref]s to an e>?quake 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 9 ! ye> #afij1 :]e ! space ( e>? rais$1 or /ruck upw>ds1 by ! %ock1 exce$$1 he affirms1 ! l5g? ( ! ,alps & ,pyr5ees4 ,hooke's diluvial ,!ory4--,z ,hooke decl>$ ! favorite hypo!sis ( ! day1 t m>9e fossil bodies 7 to be ref]r$ to ,noah's flood1 to be :olly unt5able1 he appe>s to h felt himself call$ ^u to sub/itute a diluvial !ory ( 8 own1 & ?us he became involv$ 9 c\ntless difficulties & contradictions4 ,dur+ ! great cata/rophe1 he said1 !re might h be5 a *ang+ ( t "p :i* 0 be=e dry l& into sea by s9k+1 & ( t :i* 0 sea into dry l& by rais+1 & m>9e bodies might h be5 buri$ 9 s$im5t b5ea? ! ocean1 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! creation & ! deluge4#fc ,!n foll[s a disquisition on ! sep>ation ( ! l& f ! wat]s1 m5tion$ 9 ,g5esis2 dur+ :i* op]ation "s places ( ! %ell ( ! e>? 7 =c$ outw>ds1 & o!rs press$ d[nw>ds or inw>ds1 c4 ,8 diluvial hypo!sis v mu* resembl$ t ( ,/5o1 & 0 entirely oppos$ to ! fundam5tal pr9ciples pr(ess$ by him1 t he w\ld expla9 ! =m] *anges ( ! e>? 9 a m natural mann] ?an o!rs _h done4 ,:51 9 despite ( ?is decl>ation1 he requir$ a =m] crisis ( nature1 & taught t e>?quakes _h become debilitat$1 & t ! ,alps1 ,&es1 & o!r *a9s1 _h be5 lift$ up 9 a few mon?s1 he 0 compell$ to assume s rapid a rate ( *ange1 t 8 ma*9]y appe>$ sc>cely less extravagant ?an t ( 8 mo/ fanciful pr$ecessors4 ,= ?is reason1 p]haps1 8 :ole !ory ( e>?quakes met ) undes]v$ neglect4 ,ray1 #afib4--,"o ( 8 contempor>ies1 ! celebrat$ naturali/1 ,ray1 p>ticipat$ 9 ! same desire to expla9 geological ph5om5a by ref]5ce to causes less hypo!tical ?an ^? usually resort$ to4#fd ,9 8 essay on ,*aos & ,creation1 he propos$ a sy/em1 agree+ 9 its outl9e1 & 9 _m ( its details1 ) t ( ,hooke2 b 8 k ( natural hi/ory enabl$ him to elucidate ! subject ) v>i\s orig9al obs]vations4 ,e>?quakes1 he sugge/$1 might h be5 ! second causes employ$ at ! creation1 9 sep>at+ ! l& f ! wat]s1 & 9 ga!r+ ! wat]s toge!r into "o place4 ,he m5tions1 l ,hooke1 ! e>?quake ( #afdf1 :i* _h viol5tly %ak5 ! ,&es = "s hundr$s ( leagues1 & made _m alt]ations !re94 ,9 assign+ a cause = ! g5]al deluge1 he pref]r$ a *ange 9 ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity to ! introduction ( e>?quakes4 ,"s unkn[n cause1 he said1 might h =c$ ! subt]ranean wat]s outw>ds1 z 01 p]haps1 indicat$ by ! break+ up ( ! f\nta9s ( ! great deep4 ,ray 0 "o ( ! fir/ ( our writ]s :o enl>g$ ^u ! effects ( runn+ wat] ^u ! l&1 & ( ! encroa*m5t ( ! sea ^u ! %ores4 ,s important did he consid] ! ag5cy ( ^! causes1 t he saw 9 !m an indication ( ! t5d5cy ( our sy/em to its f9al dissolution2 & he wond]$ :y ! e>? did n proce$ m rapidly t[>ds a g5]al subm]sion b5ea? ! sea1 :5 s mu* matt] 0 c>ri$ d[n by riv]s1 or und]m9$ 9 ! sea-cliffs4 ,we p]ceive cle>ly f 8 writ+s1 t ! gradual decl9e ( our sy/em1 & its future consummation by fire1 0 held to be z necess>y an article ( fai? by ! or?odox1 z 0 ! rec5t orig9 ( our planet4 ,8 disc\rses1 l ^? ( ,hooke1 are highly int]e/+1 z atte/+ ! famili> association 9 ! m9ds ( philosoph]s1 9 ! age ( ,newton1 ( que/ions 9 physics & div9ity4 ,ray gave an unequivocal pro( ( ! s9c]ity ( 8 m9d1 by sacrific+ 8 pref]m5t 9 ! *ur*1 r ?an take an oa? aga9/ ! ,cov5ant]s1 :i* he c\ld n reconcile ) 8 consci5ce4 ,8 reputation1 moreov]1 9 ! sci5tific _w plac$ him high above ! temptation ( c\rt+ popul>ity1 by p&]+ to ! physico-!ological ta/e ( 8 age4 ,x is1 !re=e1 curi\s to meet ) s _m citations f ! ,*ri/ian fa!rs & prophets 9 8 essays on physical sci5ce--to f9d him 9 "o page proce$+1 by ! /rict rules ( induction1 to expla9 ! =m] *anges ( ! globe1 & 9 ! next gravely ent]ta9+ ! "q1 :e!r ! sun & />s1 & ! :ole heav5s1 %all be annihilat$1 toge!r ) ! e>?1 at ! era ( ! gr& conflagration4 ,woodw>d1 #afie4--;,among ! contempor>ies ( ,hooke & ,ray1 ,woodw>d1 a pr(essor ( m$ic9e1 _h acquir$ ! mo/ ext5sive in=mation respect+ ! geological /ructure ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,he _h exam9$ _m p>ts ( ! ,briti% /rata ) m9ute att5tion2 & 8 sy/ematic collection ( specim5s1 bequea!d to ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 & /ill pres]v$ !re z arrang$ by him1 %[s h[ f> he _h advanc$ 9 asc]ta9+ ! ord] ( sup]position4 ,f ! great numb] ( facts collect$ by him1 we might h expect$ 8 !oretical views to be m s\nd & enl>g$ ?an ^? ( 8 contempor>ies2 b 9 8 anxiety to accommodate all obs]v$ ph5om5a to ! scriptural acc\nt ( ! ,creation & ,deluge1 he arriv$ at mo/ errone\s results4 ,he conceiv$ ! :ole t]re/rial globe to h be5 tak5 to pieces & dissolv$ at ! flood1 & ! /rata to h settl$ d[n f ?is promiscu\s mass z any e>?y s$im5t f a fluid4#fe ,9 corroboration ( ^! views he insi/$ ^u ! fact1 t m>9e bodies are lodg$ 9 ! /rata accord+ to ! ord] ( _! gravity1 ! heavi] %ells 9 /one1 ! light] 9 *alk1 & s ( ! re/4#ff ,ray imm$iately expos$ ! unf\nd$ nature ( ?is ass]tion1 rem>k+ truly t fossil bodies are (t5 m+l$1 heavy ) light1 9 ! same /ratum2 & he ev5 w5t s f> z to say1 t ,woodw>d mu/ h inv5t$ ! ph5om5a = ! sake ( confirm+ 8 bold & /range hypo!sis#fg--;a /rong expression f ! p5 ( a contempor>y4 ,burnet1 #afij4--;,at ! same "t ,burnet publi%$ 8 ,!ory ( ! ,e>?4#fh ,! title is mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! age1--,! ,sacr$ ,!ory ( ! ,e>?2 conta9+ an ,acc\nt ( ! ,orig9al ( ! ,e>?1 & ( all ! g5]al ,*anges :i* x ha? already und]gone1 or is to und]go1 till ! ,consummation ( all ,?+s4 ,ev5 ,milton _h sc>cely v5tur$ 9 8 poem to indulge 8 imag9ation s freely 9 pa9t+ sc5es ( ! ,creation & ,deluge1 ,p>adise & ,*aos4 ,he expla9$ :y ! primeval e>? enjoy$ a p]petual spr+ be=e ! flood6 %[$ h[ ! cru/ ( ! globe 0 fissur$ by ! sun's rays1 s t x bur/1 & ?us ! diluvial wat]s 7 let loose f a suppos$ c5tral abyss4 ,n satisfi$ ) ^! !mes1 he d]iv$ f ! books ( ! inspir$ writ]s1 & ev5 f hea!n au?orities1 prophetic views ( ! future revolutions ( ! globe1 gave a mo/ t]rific description ( ! g5]al conflagration1 & prov$ t a new heav5 & a new e>? w rise out ( a second *aos--aft] :i* w foll[ ! bless$ mill5nium4 ,! read] %\ld be in=m$1 t1 accord+ to ! op9ion ( _m respectable writ]s ( t age1 !re 0 good scriptural gr\nd = presum+ t ! g>d5 be/[$ ^u our fir/ p>5ts 0 n on ! e>? itself1 b above ! cl\ds1 9 ! middle region betwe5 our planet & ! moon4 ,burnet approa*es ) becom+ gravity ! discussion ( s important a topic4 ,he 0 will+ to conc$e t ! geographical position ( ,p>adise 0 n 9 ,mesopotamia1 yet he ma9ta9$ t x 0 ^u ! e>?1 & 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ne> ! equ9octial l9e4 ,butl] select$ ?is conceit z a fair m>k = 8 satire1 :51 among/ ! num]\s accompli%m5ts ( ,hudibras1 he says1-- ,he knew ! seat ( ,p>adise1 ,c\ld tell 9 :at degree x lies2 ,&1 z he 0 dispos$1 c\ld prove x ,bel[ ! moon1 or else above x4 ,yet ! same mon>*1 :o is said nev] to h slept )\t ,butl]'s poem "u 8 pill[1 0 s great an admir] & patron ( ,burnet's book1 t he ord]$ x to be translat$ f ! ,lat9 into ,engli%4 ,! /yle ( ! ,sacr$ ,!ory 0 eloqu5t1 & ! book display$ p[]s ( inv5tion ( no ord9>y /amp4 ,x 01 9 fact1 a f9e hi/orical romance1 z ,buffon aft]w>ds decl>$2 b x 0 treat$ z a "w ( pr(\nd sci5ce 9 ! "t ( its au?or1 & 0 panegyriz$ by ,addison 9 a ,lat9 ode1 :ile ,/eele prais$ x 9 ! ,spectator4 ,:i/on1 #afif4--;,ano!r production ( ! same s*ool1 & equally *>act]i/ic ( ! "t1 0 t ( ,:i/on1 entitl$1 ,a ,new ,!ory ( ! ,e>?2 :]e9 ! ,creation ( ! _w 9 ,six ,days1 ! ,univ]sal ,deluge1 & ! ,g5]al ,conflagration1 z laid d[n 9 ! ,holy ,scriptures1 are %[n to be p]fectly agreeable to ,reason & ,philosophy4 ,he 0 at fir/ a foll[] ( ,burnet2 b 8 fai? 9 ! infallibility ( t writ] 0 %ak5 by ! decl>$ op9ion ( ,newton1 t !re 0 e presumption 9 a/ronomy aga9/ any =m] *ange 9 ! incl9ation ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,?is 0 a lead+ dogma 9 ,burnet's sy/em1 ?\gh n orig9al1 = x 0 borr[$ f an ,italian1 ,aless&ro degli ,aless&ri1 :o _h sugge/$ x 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! fifte5? c5tury1 to acc\nt = ! =m] occupation ( ! pres5t cont95ts by ! sea4 ,la ,place has s9ce /r5g!n$ ! argum5ts ( ,newton1 aga9/ ! probability ( any =m] revolution ( ?is k9d4 ,! rem>kable comet ( #afhj 0 fre% 9 ! memory ( e "o :5 ,:i/on fir/ began 8 cosmological /udies2 & ! pr9cipal novelty ( 8 speculations consi/$ 9 attribut+ ! deluge to ! ne> approa* to ! e>? ( "o ( ^! erratic bodies4 ,hav+ ascrib$ an increase ( ! wat]s to ?is s\rce1 he adopt$ ,woodw>d's !ory1 suppos+ all /ratifi$ deposits to h result$ f ! *aotic s$im5t ( ! flood4 ,:i/on 0 "o ( ! fir/ :o v5tur$ to propose t ! text ( ,g5esis %\ld be int]pret$ diff]5tly f its ord9>y acceptation1 s t ! doctr9e ( ! e>? hav+ exi/$ long previ\s to ! creation ( man might no long] be reg>d$ z unor?odox4 ,he _h ! art to ?r[ an air ( plausibility ov] ! mo/ improbable p>ts ( 8 !ory1 & seem$ to be proce$+ 9 ! mo/ sob] mann]1 &1 by ! aid ( ma!matical demon/ration1 to ! e/abli%m5t ( 8 v>i\s propositions4 ,locke pron\nc$ a panegyric on 8 !ory1 comm5d+ him = hav+ expla9$ s _m wond]ful & be=e inexplicable ?+s4 ,8 book1 z well z ,burnet's1 0 attack$ & refut$ by ,keill4#fi ,l all :o introduc$ purely hypo!tical causes to acc\nt = natural ph5om5a1 ,:i/on ret>d$ ! progress ( tru?1 div]t+ m5 f ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( sublun>y nature1 & induc+ !m to wa/e "t 9 speculations on ! p[] ( comets to drag ! wat]s ( ! ocean ov] ! l&--on ! cond5sation ( ! vapors ( _! tails into wat]1 & o!r matt]s equally edify+4 ,hut*9son1 #agbd4--;,john ,hut*9son1 :o _h be5 employ$ by ,woodw>d 9 mak+ 8 collection ( fossils1 publi%$ aft]w>ds1 9 #agbd1 ! fir/ "p ( 8 ,moses's ,pr9cipia1 :]e9 he ridicul$ ,woodw>d's hypo!sis4 ,he & 8 num]\s foll[]s 7 accu/om$ to declaim l\dly aga9/ human le>n+2 & !y ma9ta9$ t ! ,hebrew ,scriptures1 :5 rightly translat$1 compris$ a p]fect sy/em ( natural philosophy1 = :i* reason !y object$ to ! ,newtonian !ory ( gravitation4 ,celsius4--,&rea ,celsius1 ! ,sw$i% a/ronom]1 publi%$ ab\t ?is "t 8 rem>ks on ! gradual dim9ution & s9k+ ( ! wat]s 9 ! ,baltic1 to :i* ,i %all h occasion to adv]t m p>ticul>ly 9 ! sequel 7*4 #bi74 ,s*eu*z]1 #agjh4--;,9 ,g]many1 9 ! mean "t1 ,s*eu*z] publi%$ 8 ,compla9t & ,v9dication ( ! ,fi%es 7#agjh71 ,piscium ,qu]elae et ,v9diciae1 a "w ( zoological m]it1 9 :i* he gave "s good plates & descriptions ( fossil fi%4 ,among o!r conclusions he labor$ to prove t ! e>? _h be5 remodell$ at ! deluge4 ,plu*e1 also1 9 #agcb1 wrote to ! same effect2 :ile ,holba*1 9 #agec1 aft] consid]+ ! v>i\s attempts to ref] all ! anci5t =mations to ! flood ( ,noah1 expos$ ! inadequacy ( ?is cause4 ,italian ,geologi/s--,vallisn]i4--,i return ) pleasure to ! geologi/s ( ,italy1 :o prec$$1 z has be5 already %[n1 ! naturali/s ( o!r c\ntries 9 _! inve/igations into ! anci5t hi/ory ( ! e>?1 & :o /ill ma9ta9$ a decid$ pre-em95ce4 ,!y refut$ & ridicul$ ! physico-!ological sy/ems ( ,burnet1 ,:i/on1 & ,woodw>d2#gj :ile ,vallisn]i1#ga 9 8 comm5ts on ! ,woodw>dian !ory1 rem>k$ h[ mu* ! int]e/s ( religion1 z well z ^? ( s\nd philosophy1 _h suff]$ by p]petually mix+ up ! sacr$ writ+s ) que/ions 9 physical sci5ce4 ,! works ( ?is au?or 7 ri* 9 orig9al obs]vations4 ,he attempt$ ! fir/ g5]al sket* ( ! m>9e deposits ( ,italy1 _! geographical ext5t1 & mo/ *>act]i/ic organic rema9s4 ,9 8 treatise ,on ! ,orig9 ( ,spr+s1 he expla9$ _! dep5d5ce on ! ord]1 & (t5 on ! dislocations1 ( ! /rata1 & reason$ philosophically aga9/ ! op9ions ( ^? :o reg>d$ ! disord]$ /ate ( ! e>?'s cru/ z exhibit+ signs ( ! wra? ( ,god = ! s9s ( man4 ,he f\nd himself "u ! necessity ( cont5d+1 9 8 prelim9>y *apt]1 aga9/ ,/4 ,j]ome1 & f\r o!r pr9cipal int]pret]s ( ,scripture1 besides sev]al pr(essors ( div9ity1 t spr+s did n fl[ by subt]ranean siphons & cavities f ! sea upw>ds1 los+ _! saltness 9 ! passage1 = ?is !ory _h be5 made to re/ on ! infallible te/imony ( ,holy ,writ4 ,al?\gh reluctant to g5]alize on ! ri* mat]ials accumulat$ 9 8 travels1 ,vallisn]i _h be5 s mu* /ruck ) ! rem>kable cont9uity ( ! m rec5t m>9e /rata1 f "o end ( ,italy to ! o!r1 t he came to ! conclusion t ! ocean =m]ly ext5d$ ov] ! :ole e>?1 & aft] abid+ !re = a long "t1 _h gradually subsid$4 ,?is op9ion1 h[ev] unt5able1 0 a great /ep beyond ,woodw>d's diluvian hypo!sis1 aga9/ :i* ,vallisn]i1 & aft] him all ! ,tuscan geologi/s1 uni=mly cont5d$1 :ile x 0 w>mly support$ by ! memb]s ( ! ,in/itute ( ,bologna4#gb ,among o!rs ( t day1 ,spada1 a prie/ ( ,grezzana1 9 #agcg1 wrote to prove t ! petrifi$ m>9e bodies ne> ,v]ona 7 n diluvian4#gc ,mattani drew a simil> inf]5ce f ! %ells ( ,volt]ra & o!r places2 :ile ,co/ant9i1 on ! o!r h&1 ^: obs]vations on ! valley ( ! ,br5ta & o!r di/ricts 7 n )\t value1 und]took to v9dicate ! tru? ( ! deluge1 z also to prove t ,italy _h be5 peopl$ by ! desc5dants ( ,japhet4#gd ,moro1 #agdj4--,lazz>o ,moro1 9 8 "w 7publi%$ 9 #agdj7 ,on ! ,m>9e ,bodies :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,m\nta9s1#ge attempt$ to apply ! !ory ( e>?quakes1 z exp\nd$ by ,/rabo1 ,pl9y1 & o!r anci5t au?ors1 ) :om he 0 famili>1 to ! geological ph5om5a describ$ by ,vallisn]i4#gf ,8 att5tion 0 awak5$ to ! elevat+ p[] ( subt]ranean =ces by a rem>kable ph5om5on :i* happ5$ 9 8 own "t1 & :i* _h also be5 notic$ by ,vallisn]i 9 8 lett]s4 ,a new isl& rose 9 #agjg f deep wat] 9 ! ,gulf ( ,santor91 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 dur+ cont9u$ %ocks ( an e>?quake1 &1 increas+ rapidly 9 size1 grew 9 less ?an a mon? to be half a mile 9 circumf]5ce1 & ab\t tw5ty-five feet above high-wat] m>k4 ,x 0 soon aft]w>ds cov]$ by volcanic ejections1 b1 :5 fir/ exam9$1 x 0 f\nd to be a :ite rock1 be>+ on its surface liv+ oy/]s & cru/acea4 ,9 ord] to ridicule ! v>i\s !ories !n 9 vogue1 ,moro +5i\sly supposes ! arrival on ?is new isl& ( a p>ty ( naturali/s ignorant ( its rec5t orig94 ,"o imm$iately po9ts to ! m>9e %ells1 z pro(s ( ! univ]sal deluge2 ano!r argues t !y demon/rate ! =m] resid5ce ( ! sea ^u ! m\nta9s2 a ?ird dismisses !m z m]e sports ( nature2 :ile a f\r? affirms t !y 7 born & n\ri%$ )9 ! rock 9 anci5t cav]ns1 into :i* salt wat] _h be5 rais$ 9 ! %ape ( vapor by ! action ( subt]ranean heat4 ,moro po9t$ ) great judgm5t to ! faults & dislocations ( ! /rata describ$ by ,vallisn]i1 9 ! ,alps & o!r *a9s1 9 confirmation ( 8 doctr9e1 t ! cont95ts _h be5 heav$ up by subt]ranean movem5ts4 ,he object$1 on solid gr\nds1 to ! hypo!sis ( ,burnet & ( ,woodw>d2 yet he v5tur$ s f> to disreg>d ! prote/ ( ,vallisn]i1 z to und]take ! adaptation ( e "p ( 8 own sy/em to ! ,mosaic acc\nt ( ! creation4 ,on ! ?ird day1 he said1 ! globe 0 ev]y:]e cov]$ to ! same dep? by fre% wat]2 & :5 x pleas$ ! ,supreme ,be+ t ! dry l& %\ld appe>1 volcanic explosions broke up ! smoo? & regul> surface ( ! e>? compos$ ( prim>y rocks4 ,^! rose 9 m\nta9 masses above ! waves1 & all[$ melt$ metals & salts to asc5d ?r\gh fissures4 ,! sea gradually acquir$ its saltness f volcanic exhalations1 &1 :ile x became m circumscrib$ 9 area1 increas$ 9 dep?4 ,s& & a%es eject$ by volcanoes 7 regul>ly dispos$ along ! bottom ( ! ocean1 & =m$ ! second>y /rata1 :i* 9 _! turn 7 lift$ up by e>?quakes4 ,we ne$ n foll[ ?is au?or 9 trac+ ! progress ( ! creation ( vegetables & animals on ! o!r days ( creation2 b1 ^u ! :ole1 x may be rem>k$1 t few ( ! old cosmological !ories _h be5 conceiv$ ) s little violation ( kn[n analogies4 ,g5]elli's illu/rations ( ,moro1 #agdi4--,! /yle ( ,moro 0 extremely prolix1 &1 l ,hutton1 :o1 at a lat] p]iod1 advanc$ _m ( ! same views1 he /ood 9 ne$ ( an illu/rator4 ,! ,scot* geologi/ 0 h>dly m =tunate 9 ! advocacy ( ,playfair1 ?an 0 ,moro 9 numb]+ among/ 8 admir]s ,cirillo ,g5]elli1 :o1 n9e ye>s aft]w>ds1 deliv]$ at a sitt+ ( ,academicians at ,cremona a spirit$ exposition ( 8 !ory4 ,?is le>n$ ,c>melitan fri> does n pret5d to h be5 an orig9al obs]v]1 b he _h /udi$ suffici5tly to enable him to confirm ! op9ions ( ,moro by argum5ts f o!r writ]s2 & 8 selection ( ! doctr9es !n be/ e/abli%$ is s judici\s1 t a brief ab/ract ( !m _c fail to be acceptable1 z illu/rat+ ! /ate ( geology 9 ,europe1 & 9 ,italy 9 p>ticul>1 be=e ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,! b[els ( ! e>?1 says he1 h c>efully pres]v$ ! memorials ( pa/ ev5ts1 & ?is tru? ! m>9e productions s frequ5t 9 ! hills atte/4 ,f ! reflections ( ,lazz>o ,moro1 we may assure ourselves t ^! are ! effects ( e>?quakes 9 pa/ times1 :i* h *ang$ va/ spaces ( sea into t]ra firma1 & inhabit$ l&s into seas4 ,9 ?is1 m ?an 9 any o!r dep>tm5t ( physics1 are obs]vations & exp]im5ts indisp5sable1 & we mu/ dilig5tly consid] facts4 ,! l& is kn[n1 :]ev] we make excavations1 to be compos$ ( diff]5t /rata or soils plac$ "o above ! o!r1 "s ( s&1 "s ( rock1 "s ( *alk1 o!rs ( m>l1 coal1 pummice1 gypsum1 lime1 & ! re/4 ,^! +r$i5ts are sometimes pure1 & sometimes confus$ly int]mix$4 ,)9 are (t5 imprison$ diff]5t m>9e fi%es1 l dri$ mummies1 & m frequ5tly %ells1 cru/acea1 corals1 plants1 c41 n only 9 ,italy1 b 9 ,france1 ,g]many1 ,engl&1 ,africa1 ,asia1 & ,am]ica2--sometimes 9 ! l[e/1 sometimes 9 ! l(tie/ b$s ( ! e>?1 "s ^u ! m\nta9s1 "s 9 deep m9es1 o!rs ne> ! sea1 & o!rs hundr$s ( miles di/ant f x4 ,woodw>d conjectur$ t ^! m>9e bodies might be f\nd ev]y:]e2 b !re are rocks 9 :i* none ( !m occur1 z is suffici5tly atte/$ by ,vallisn]i & ,m>silli4 ,! rema9s ( fossil animals consi/ *iefly ( _! m solid p>ts1 & ! mo/ rocky /rata mu/ h be5 s(t :5 su* exuviae 7 inclos$ 9 !m4 ,vegetable productions are f\nd 9 diff]5t /ates ( maturity1 indicat+ t !y 7 imb$d$ 9 diff]5t seasons4 ,elephants1 elks1 & o!r t]re/rial quadrup$s1 h be5 f\nd 9 ,engl& & else:]e1 9 sup]ficial /rata1 nev] cov]$ by ! sea4 ,alt]nations are r>e1 yet n )\t example1 ( m>9e /rata1 ) ^? :i* conta9 m>%y & t]re/rial productions4 ,m>9e animals are arrang$ 9 ! subt]rane\s b$s ) admirable ord]1 9 di/9ct gr\ps1 oy/]s "h1 d5talia or corals !re1 c41 z n[1 accord+ to ,m>silli1#gg on ! %ores ( ! ,adriatic4 ,we mu/ ab&on ! doctr9e1 once s popul>1 :i* d5ies t organiz$ fossils 7 d]iv$ f liv+ be+s1 & we _c acc\nt = _! pres5t position by ! anci5t !ory ( ,/rabo1 nor by t ( ,leibnitz1 nor by ! univ]sal deluge1 z expla9$ by ,woodw>d & o!rs2 nor is x reasonable to call ! ,deity caprici\sly ^u ! /age1 & to make him "w miracles = ! sake ( confirm+ our preconceiv$ hypo!sis4 --,i hold 9 utt] abom9ation1 mo/ le>n$ ,academicians6 ^? sy/ems :i* are built ) _! f\ndations 9 ! air1 & _c be propp$ up )\t a miracle2 & ,i und]take1 ) ! assi/ance ( ,moro1 to expla9 to y h[ ^! m>9e animals 7 transport$ into ! m\nta9s by natural causes4#gh ,a brief ab/ract !n foll[s ( ,moro's !ory1 by :i*1 says ,g5]elli1 we may expla9 all ! ph5om5a1 z ,vallisn]i s ard5tly desir$1 )\t viol5ce1 )\t fictions1 )\t hypo!sis1 )\t miracles4#gi ,! ,c>melitan !n proce$s to /ruggle aga9/ an obvi\s objection to ,moro's sy/em1 consid]$ z a me?od ( expla9+ ! revolutions ( ! e>?1 naturally4 ,if e>?quakes h be5 ! ag5ts ( su* mighty *anges1 h[ does x happ5 t _! effects s9ce ! times ( hi/ory h be5 s inconsid]able8 ,?is same difficulty _h1 z we h se51 pres5t$ itself to ,hooke1 half a c5tury be=e1 & =c$ him to resort to a =m] crisis ( nature3 b ,g5]elli def5d$ 8 position by %[+ h[ num]\s 7 ! acc\nts ( eruptions & e>?quakes1 ( new isl&s1 & ( elevations & subsid5ces ( l&1 & yet h[ mu* great] a numb] ( l ev5ts mu/ h be5 unatte/$ & unrecord$ dur+ ! la/ six ?\s& ye>s4 ,he also appeal$ to ,vallisn]i z an au?ority to prove t ! m9]al masses conta9+ %ells1 bore1 ^u ! :ole1 b a small proportion to ^? rocks :i* 7 de/itute ( organic rema9s2 & ! latt]1 says ! le>n$ monk1 might h be5 creat$ z !y n[ exi/1 9 ! beg9n+4 ,g5]elli !n describes ! cont9ual wa/e ( m\nta9s & cont95ts1 by ! action ( riv]s & torr5ts1 & concludes ) ^! eloqu5t & orig9al obs]vations3--,is x possible t ?is wa/e %\ld h cont9u$ = six ?\s&1 & p]haps a great] numb] ( ye>s1 & t ! m\nta9s %\ld rema9 s great1 unless _! ru9s h be5 repair$8 ,is x cr$ible t ! ,au?or ( ,nature %\ld h f\nd$ ! _w ^u su* laws1 z t ! dry l& %\ld =ev] be gr[+ small]1 & at la/ become :olly subm]g$ b5ea? ! wat]s8 ,is x cr$ible t1 amid s _m creat$ ?+s1 ! m\nta9s alone %\ld daily dim9i% 9 numb] & bulk1 )\t !re be+ any repair ( _! losses8 ,?is w\ld be contr>y to t ord] ( ,provid5ce :i* is se5 to reign 9 all o!r ?+s 9 ! univ]se4 ,:]e=e ,i deem x j to conclude1 t ! same cause :i*1 9 ! beg9n+ ( "t1 rais$ m\nta9s f ! abyss1 has d[n to ! pres5t day cont9u$ to produce o!rs1 9 ord] to re/ore f "t to "t ! losses ( all su* z s9k d[n 9 diff]5t places1 or are r5t asund]1 or 9 o!r way suff] dis9tegration4 ,if ?is be admitt$1 we c easily und]/& :y !re %\ld n[ be f\nd ^u _m m\nta9s s great a numb] ( cru/acea & o!r m>9e animals4 ,9 ! above extract1 ,i h n m]ely enum]at$ ! op9ions & facts :i* are confirm$ by rec5t obs]vation1 suppress+ all t has s9ce prov$ to be errone\s1 b h giv5 a fai?ful abridgm5t ( ! entire treatise1 ) ! omission only ( ,moro's hypo!sis1 :i* ,g5]elli adopt$1 ) all its faults & excell5ces4 ,! read] w !re=e rem>k1 t al?\gh ?is admirable essay embraces s l>ge a portion ( ! pr9cipal objects ( geological rese>*1 x makes no allusion to ! ext9ction ( c]ta9 classes ( animals2 & x is evid5t t no op9ions on ?is head _h1 at t "t1 ga9$ a firm foot+ 9 ,italy4 ,t ,li/] & o!r ,engli% naturali/s %\ld long be=e h decl>$ 9 favor ( ! loss ( species1 :ile ,scilla & mo/ ( 8 c\ntrym5 hesitat$1 0 p]haps natural1 s9ce ! ,italian museums 7 fill$ ) fossil %ells belong+ to species ( :i* a great portion did actually exi/ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean2 :]eas ! ,engli% collectors c\ld obta9 no rec5t species f su* ( _! own /rata z 7 !n explor$4 ,! weake/ po9t 9 ,moro's sy/em consi/$ 9 d]iv+ all ! /ratifi$ rocks f volcanic ejections2 an absurdity :i* 8 oppon5ts took c>e to expose1 especially ,vito ,amici4#hj ,moro seems to h be5 misl$ by 8 anxi\s desire to repres5t ! =mation ( second>y rocks z hav+ occupi$ an extremely %ort p]iod1 :ile at ! same "t he wi%$ to employ kn[n ag5ts 9 nature4 ,to imag9e torr5ts1 riv]s1 curr5ts1 p>tial floods1 & all ! op]ations ( mov+ wat]1 to h gone on ex]t+ an en]gy _m ?\s& times great] ?an at pres5t1 w\ld h appe>$ prepo/]\s & incr$ible1 & w\ld h requir$ a hundr$ viol5t hypo!ses2 b we are s unacqua9t$ ) ! true s\rces ( subt]ranean di/urbances1 t _! =m] viol5ce may 9 !ory be multipli$ indef9itely1 )\t its be+ possible to prove ! same manife/ contradiction or absurdity 9 ! conjecture4 ,= ?is reason1 p]haps1 ,moro pref]r$ to d]ive ! mat]ials ( ! /rata f volcanic ejections1 r ?an f transportation by runn+ wat]4 ,m>silli4--,m>silli1 ^: "w is allud$ to by ,g5]elli1 _h be5 prompt$ to in/itute inquiries into ! b$ ( ! ,adriatic1 by discov]+1 9 ! t]ritory ( ,p>ma 7:at ,spada _h obs]v$ ne> ,v]ona1 & ,s*iavo 9 ,sicily71 t fossil %ells 7 n scatt]$ ?r\gh ! rocks at r&om1 b dispos$ 9 regul> ord]1 accord+ to c]ta9 g5]a & species4 ,vitaliano ,donati1 #agej4--;,b ) a view ( ?r[+ fur!r light ^u ^! que/ions1 ,donati1 9 #agej1 und]took a m ext5sive inve/igation ( ! ,adriatic1 & discov]$1 by num]\s s\nd+s1 t deposits ( s&1 m>l1 & tuface\s incru/ations1 mo/ /rictly analog\s to ^? ( ! ,subap5n9e hills1 7 9 ! act ( accumulat+ !re4 ,he asc]ta9$ t !re 7 no %ells 9 "s ( ! subm>9e tracts1 :ile 9 o!r places !y liv$ toge!r 9 families1 p>ticul>ly ! g5]a ,arca1 ,pect51 ,v5us1 ,murex1 & "s o!rs4 ,he also /ates t 9 div]s localities he f\nd a mass compos$ ( corals1 %ells1 & cru/ace\s bodies ( diff]5t species1 confus$ly bl5d$ ) e>?1 s&1 & gravel4 ,at ! dep? ( a foot or m1 ! organic sub/ances 7 entirely petrifi$ & r$uc$ to m>ble2 at less ?an a foot f ! surface1 !y approa*$ ne>] to _! natural /ate2 :ile at ! surface !y 7 alive1 or1 if dead1 9 a good /ate ( pres]vation4 ,baldass>i4--,a contempor>y naturali/1 ,baldass>i1 _h %[n t ! organic rema9s 9 ! t]ti>y m>ls ( ! ,si5nese t]ritory 7 gr\p$ 9 families1 9 a mann] precisely simil> to t above allud$ to by ,donati4 ,buffon1 #agdi4--;,buffon fir/ made kn[n 8 !oretical views conc]n+ ! =m] *anges ( ! e>?1 9 8 ,natural ,hi/ory1 publi%$ 9 #agdi4 ,he adopt$ ! !ory ( an orig9al volcanic nucleus1 toge!r ) ! univ]sal ocean ( ,leibnitz4 ,by ?is aque\s envelope ! highe/ m\nta9s 7 once cov]$4 ,m>9e curr5ts !n act$ viol5tly1 & =m$ horizontal /rata1 by wa%+ away solid matt] 9 "s p>ts1 & deposit+ x 9 o!rs2 !y also excavat$ deep subm>9e valleys4 ,! level ( ! ocean 0 !n depress$ by ! entrance ( a "p ( its wat]s into subt]ranean cav]ns1 & ?us "s l& 0 left dry4 ,buffon seems n to h pr(it$1 l ,leibnitz & ,moro1 by ! obs]vations ( ,/5o1 or he c\ld n h imag9$ t ! /rata 7 g5]ally horizontal1 & t ^? :i* conta9 organic rema9s _h nev] be5 di/urb$ s9ce ! era ( _! =mation4 ,he 0 consci\s ( ! great p[] annually ex]t$ by riv]s & m>9e curr5ts 9 transport+ e>?y mat]ials to l[] levels1 & he ev5 contemplat$ ! p]iod :5 !y w\ld de/roy all ! pres5t cont95ts4 ,al?\gh 9 geology he 0 n an orig9al obs]v]1 8 g5ius enabl$ him to r5d] 8 hypo!sis attractive2 & by ! eloqu5ce ( 8 /yle1 & ! boldness ( 8 speculations1 he awak5$ curiosity1 & provok$ a _s ( inquiry among/ 8 c\ntrym54 ,soon aft] ! publication ( 8 ,natural ,hi/ory1 9 :i* 0 includ$ 8 ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 he receiv$ an (ficial lett] 7dat$ ,janu>y1 #agea7 f ! ,sorbonne1 or ,faculty ( ,!ology 9 ,p>is1 in=m+ him t f\rte5 propositions 9 8 works 7 repreh5sible1 & contr>y to ! cre$ ( ! *ur*4 ,! fir/ ( ^! obnoxi\s passages1 & ! only "o relat+ to geology1 0 z foll[s3--,! wat]s ( ! sea h produc$ ! m\nta9s & valleys ( ! l&--! wat]s ( ! heav5s1 r$uc+ all to a level1 w at la/ deliv] ! :ole l& ov] to ! sea1 & ! sea successively prevail+ ov] ! l&1 w leave dry new cont95ts l ^? :i* we inhabit4 ,buffon 0 invit$ by ! ,college1 9 v c\rte\s t]ms1 to s5d 9 an explanation1 or r a recantation ( 8 unor?odox op9ions4 ,to ?is he submitt$2 & a g5]al assembly ( ! ,faculty hav+ approv$ ( 8 ,decl>ation1 he 0 requir$ to publi% x 9 8 next "w4 ,! docum5t beg9s ) ^! words3--,i decl>e t ,i _h no int5tion to contradict ! text ( ,scripture2 t ,i believe mo/ firmly all !re9 relat$ ab\t ! creation1 bo? z to ord] ( "t & matt] ( fact2 & ,i ab&on e ?+ 9 my book respect+ ! f\ndation ( ! e>?1 &1 g5]ally1 all :i* may be contr>y to ! n>ration ( ,moses4#ha ,! gr& pr9ciple :i* ,buffon 0 call$ ^u to r5\nce 0 simply ?is1--t ! pres5t m\nta9s & valleys ( ! e>? are due to second>y causes1 & t ! same causes w 9 "t de/roy all ! cont95ts1 hills1 & valleys1 & reproduce o!rs l !m4 ,n[1 :atev] may be ! defects ( _m ( 8 views1 x is no long] controv]t$ t ! pres5t cont95ts are ( second>y orig94 ,! doctr9e is z firmly e/abli%$ z ! e>?'s rotation on its axis2 & t ! l& n[ elevat$ above ! level ( ! sea w n endure =ev]1 is an op9ion :i* ga9s gr\nd daily1 9 proportion z we enl>ge our exp]i5ce ( ! *anges n[ 9 progress4 ,t>gioni1 #agea4--,t>gioni1 9 8 volum9\s ,travels 9 ,tuscany1 #agea & #aged1 labor$ to fill up ! sket* ( ! geology ( t region left by ,/5o sixty ye>s be=e4 ,not)/&+ a want ( arrangem5t & cond5sation 9 8 memoirs1 !y conta9$ a ri* /ore ( fai?ful obs]vations4 ,he has n indulg$ 9 _m g5]al views1 b 9 reg>d to ! orig9 ( valleys1 he 0 oppos$ to ! !ory ( ,buffon1 :o attribut$ !m pr9cipally to subm>9e curr5ts4 ,! ,tuscan naturali/ labor$ to %[ t bo? ! l>g] & small] valleys ( ! ,ap5n9es 7 excavat$ by riv]s & floods1 caus$ by ! bur/+ ( ! b>ri]s ( lakes1 aft] ! retreat ( ! ocean4 ,he also ma9ta9$ t ! elephants & o!r quadrup$s1 s frequ5t 9 ! lacu/r9e & alluvial deposits ( ,italy1 _h inhabit$ t p59sula2 & _h n be5 transport$ ?i!r1 z "s _h conceiv$1 by ,hannibal or ! ,romans1 nor by :at !y 7 pleas$ to t]m a cata/rophe ( nature4 ,lehman1 #agef4--;,9 ! ye> #agef ! treatise ( ,lehman1 a ,g]man m9]alogi/1 & director ( ! ,prussian m9es1 appe>$1 :o also divid$ m\nta9s into ?ree classes3 ! fir/1 ^? =m$ ) ! _w1 & prior to ! creation ( animals1 & :i* conta9$ no fragm5ts ( o!r rocks2 ! second class1 ^? :i* result$ f ! p>tial de/ruction ( ! prim>y rocks by a g5]al revolution2 & a ?ird class1 result+ f local revolutions1 & 9 "p f ! deluge ( ,noah4 ,a ,fr5* translation ( ?is "w appe>$ 9 #agei1 9 ! preface ( :i*1 ! translator displays v enlight5$ views respect+ ! op]ations ( e>?quakes1 z well z ( ! aque\s causes4#hb ,gesn]1 #ageh4--;,9 ?is ye> ,gesn]1 ! botani/1 ( ,zuri*1 publi%$ an excell5t treatise on petrifactions1 & ! *anges ( ! e>? :i* !y te/ify4#hc ,aft] a detail$ enum]ation ( ! v>i\s classes ( fossils ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 & rem>ks on ! diff]5t /ates 9 :i* !y are f\nd petrifi$1 he consid]s ! geological ph5om5a connect$ ) !m2 obs]v+1 t "s1 l ^? ( ,o,eningen1 resembl$ ! te/acea1 fi%1 & plants indig5\s 9 ! neighbor+ region2#hd :ile "s1 su* z ammonites1 gryphites1 belemnites1 & o!r %ells1 are ei!r ( unkn[n species1 or f\nd only 9 ! ,indian & o!r di/ant seas4 ,9 ord] to elucidate ! /ructure ( ! e>?1 he gives sections1 f ,v]5ius1 ,buffon1 & o!rs1 obta9$ 9 digg+ wells2 di/+ui%es betwe5 horizontal & incl9$ /rata2 &1 9 speculat+ on ! causes ( ^! appe>ances1 m5tions ,donati's exam9ation ( ! b$ ( ! ,adriatic2 ! fill+ up ( lakes & seas by s$im5t2 ! imb$d+ ( %ells n[ 9 progress2 & _m kn[n effects ( e>?quakes1 su* z ! s9k+ d[n ( di/ricts1 or ! heav+ up ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 s z to =m new isl&s1 & lay dry /rata conta9+ petrifactions4 ,! ocean1 he says1 des]ts its %ores 9 _m c\ntries1 z on ! bord]s ( ! ,baltic2 b ! rate ( recession has be5 s sl[ 9 ! la/ #bjjj ye>s1 t to all[ ! ,ap5n9es1 ^: summits are fill$ ) m>9e %ells1 to em]ge to _! pres5t height1 w\ld h requir$ ab\t #hj1jjj ye>s1--a lapse ( "t t5 times great]1 or m1 ?an ! age ( ! univ]se4 ,we mu/ !re=e ref] ! ph5om5on to ! comm& ( ! ,deity1 relat$ by ,moses1 t ! wat]s %\ld be ga!r$ toge!r 9 "o place1 & ! dry l& appe>4 ,gesn] adopt$ ! views ( ,leibnitz1 to acc\nt = ! retreat ( ! primeval ocean3 8 essay displays mu* erudition2 & ! op9ions ( prec$+ writ]s ( ,italy1 ,g]many1 & ,engl&1 are comm5t$ ^u ) fairness & discrim9ation4 ,ardu9o1 #agei4--;,9 ! ye> foll[+1 ,ardu9o1#he 9 8 memoirs on ! m\nta9s ( ,padua1 ,vic5za1 & ,v]ona1 d$uc$1 f orig9al obs]vations1 ! di/9ction ( rocks into prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y1 & %[$ t 9 ^? di/ricts !re _h be5 a succession ( subm>9e volcanic eruptions4 ,mi*ell1 #agfj4--;,9 ! foll[+ ye> 7#agfj7 ! ,rev4 ,john ,mi*ell1 ,woodw>dian ,pr(essor ( ,m9]alogy at ,cambridge1 publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions1 an ,essay on ! ,cause & ,ph5om5a ( ,e>?quakes4#hf ,8 att5tion _h be5 drawn to ?is subject by ! great e>?quake ( ,lisbon 9 #agee4 ,he advanc$ _m orig9al & philosophical views respect+ ! propagation ( subt]ranean movem5ts1 & ! cav]ns & fissures :]e9 /eam might be g5]at$4 ,9 ord] to po9t out ! application ( 8 !ory to ! /ructure ( ! globe1 he 0 l$ to describe ! arrangem5t & di/urbance ( ! /rata1 _! usual horizontality 9 l[ c\ntries1 & _! contortions & fractur$ /ate 9 ! neighborhood ( m\nta9 *a9s4 ,he also expla9$1 ) surpris+ accuracy1 ! relations ( ! c5tral ridges ( old] rocks to ! long n>r[ slips ( simil> e>?1 /ones1 & m9]als1 :i* are p>allel to ^! ridges4 ,9 8 g5]alizations1 d]iv$ 9 great "p f 8 own obs]vations on ! geological /ructure ( ,york%ire1 he anticipat$ _m ( ! views m fully develop$ by lat] naturali/s4 ,catcott1 #agfa4--,mi*ell's pap]s 7 entirely free f all physico-!ological disquisitions1 b "s ( 8 contempor>ies 7 /ill e>ne/ly engag$ 9 def5d+ or impugn+ ! ,woodw>dian hypo!sis4 ,we f9d _m ( ^! writ+s ref]r$ to by ,catcott1 a ,hut*9sonian1 :o publi%$ a ,treatise on ! ,deluge 9 #agfa4 ,he labor$ p>ticul>ly to refute an explanation (f]$ by 8 contempor>y1 ,bi%op ,clayton1 ( ! ,mosaic writ+s4 ,t prelate _h decl>$ t ! deluge c\ld n be lit]ally true1 save 9 respect to t "p :]e ,noah liv$ be=e ! flood4 ,catcott insi/$ on ! univ]sality ( ! deluge1 & ref]r$ to traditions ( inundations m5tion$ by anci5t writ]s1 or by travell]s1 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies1 ,*9a1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & o!r c\ntries4 ,?is "p ( 8 book is valuable1 al?\gh x is n easy to see :at be>+ ! traditions h1 if admitt$ to be au!ntic1 on ! ,bi%op's argum5t1 s9ce no evid5ce is adduc$ to prove t ! cata/rophes 7 contemporane\s ev5ts1 :ile "s ( !m are expressly repres5t$ by anci5t au?ors to h occurr$ 9 succession4 ,=tis--,odo>di1 #agfa4--,! doctr9es ( ,ardu9o1 above adv]t$ to1 7 aft]w>ds confirm$ by ,=tis & ,desm>e/1 9 _! travels 9 ! same c\ntry2 & !y1 z well z ,baldass>i1 labor$ to complete ! hi/ory ( ! ,subap5n9e /rata4 ,9 ! "w ( ,odo>di1#hg !re 0 also a cle> argum5t 9 favor ( ! di/9ct ages ( ! old] ,ap5n9e /rata1 & ! ,subap5n9e =mations ( m rec5t orig94 ,he po9t$ out t ! /rata ( ^! two gr\ps 7 uncon=mable1 & mu/ h be5 ! deposits ( diff]5t seas at di/ant p]iods ( "t4 ,raspe1 #agfc4--;,a hi/ory ( ! new isl&s1 by ,raspe1 a ,hanov]ian1 appe>$ 9 #agfc1 9 ,lat94#hh ,9 ?is "w1 all ! au!ntic acc\nts ( e>?quakes :i* _h produc$ p]man5t *anges on ! solid p>ts ( ! e>? 7 collect$ toge!r & exam9$ ) judici\s criticism4 ,! be/ sy/ems :i* _h be5 propos$ conc]n+ ! anci5t hi/ory ( ! globe1 bo? by anci5t & mod]n writ]s1 are review$2 & ! m]its & defects ( ! doctr9es ( ,hooke1 ,ray1 ,moro1 ,buffon1 & o!rs1 fairly e/imat$4 ,great admiration is express$ = ! hypo!sis ( ,hooke1 & 8 explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! /rata is %[n to h be5 m correct ?an ,moro's1 :ile _! !ory ( ! effects ( e>?quakes 0 ! same4 ,raspe _h n se5 ,mi*ell's memoirs1 & 8 views conc]n+ ! geological /ructure ( ! e>? 7 p]haps less enl>g$2 yet he 0 able to add _m additional argum5ts 9 favor ( ,hook's !ory1 & to r5d] x1 z he said1 a ne>] approa* to :at ,hooke w\ld h writt5 _h he liv$ 9 lat] times4 ,z to ! p]iods :]e9 all ! e>?quakes happ5$1 to :i* we owe ! elevation ( v>i\s p>ts ( our cont95ts & isl&s1 ,raspe says he pret5ds n to assign _! duration1 /ill less to def5d ,hooke's sugge/ion1 t ! convulsions almo/ all took place dur+ ! deluge ( ,noah4 ,he adv]ts to ! app>5t indications ( ! =m] tropical heat ( ! climate ( ,europe1 & ! *anges 9 ! species ( animals & plants1 z among ! mo/ obscure & difficult problems 9 geology4 ,9 reg>d to ! isl&s rais$ f ! sea1 )9 ! times ( hi/ory or tradition1 he decl>es t "s ( !m 7 compos$ ( /rata conta9+ organic rema9s1 & t !y 7 n1 z ,buffon _h ass]t$1 made ( m]e volcanic matt]4 ,8 "w concludes ) an eloqu5t exhortation to naturali/s to exam9e ! isles :i* rose1 9 #agjg1 9 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 &1 9 #agbj1 9 ! ,azores1 & n to neglect su* spl5did opportunities ( /udy+ nature 9 ! act ( p>turition4 ,t ,hooke's writ+s %\ld h be5 neglect$ = m ?an half a c5tury1 0 matt] ( a/oni%m5t to ,raspe2 b x is /ill m wond]ful t 8 own lum9\s exposition ( t !ory %\ld1 = m ?an ano!r half c5tury1 h excit$ s little int]e/4 ,fu*sel1 #agfb & #aggc4--;,fu*sel1 a ,g]man physician1 publi%$1 9 #agfb1 a geological description ( ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,?ur+]wald & ! ,h>tz1 & a memoir on ! environs ( ,rudel/adt2#hi & aft]w>ds1 9 #aggc1 a !oretical "w on ! anci5t hi/ory ( ! e>? & ( man4#ij ,he _h evid5tly advanc$ consid]ably beyond 8 pr$ecessor ,lehman1 & 0 aw>e ( ! di/9ctness1 bo? z to position & fossil cont5ts1 ( sev]al gr\ps ( /rata ( diff]5t ages1 correspond+ to ! second>y =mations n[ recogniz$ by geologi/s 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,g]many4 ,he suppos$ ! ,european cont95ts to h rema9$ cov]$ by ! sea until ! =mation ( ! m>9e /rata1 call$ 9 ,g]many mus*elkalk1 at ! same "t t ! t]re/rial plants ( _m ,european deposits1 atte/$ ! exi/5ce ( dry l& :i* bord]$ ! anci5t sea2 l& :i*1 !re=e1 mu/ h occupi$ ! place ( ! pres5t ocean4 ,! pre-exi/+ cont95t _h be5 gradually swall[$ up by ! sea1 diff]5t p>ts hav+ subsid$ 9 succession into subt]ranean cav]ns4 ,all ! s$im5t>y /rata 7 orig9ally horizontal1 & _! pres5t /ate ( d]angem5t mu/ be ref]r$ to subsequ5t oscillations ( ! gr\nd4 ,z !re 7 plants & animals 9 ! anci5t p]iods1 s also !re mu/ h be5 m51 b !y did n all desc5d f "o pair1 b 7 creat$ at v>i\s po9ts on ! e>?'s surface2 & ! numb] ( ^! di/9ct bir?-places 0 z great z are ! orig9al languages ( nations4 ,9 ! writ+s ( ,fu*sel we see a /rong desire manife/$ to expla9 geological ph5om5a z f> z possible by ref]5ce to ! ag5cy ( kn[n causes2 & al?\gh "s ( 8 speculations 7 fanciful1 8 views co9cide mu* m ne>ly ) ^? n[ g5]ally adopt$1 ?an ! !ories aft]w>ds promulgat$ by ,w]n] & 8 foll[]s4 ,br&]1 #agff4--;,gu/avus ,br&] publi%$1 9 #agff1 8 ,fossilia ,hantoni5sia1 conta9+ excell5t figures ( fossil %ells f ! m mod]n 7or ,eoc5e7 m>9e /rata ( ,hamp%ire4 ,v>i\s op9ions1 he says 9 ! preface1 _h be5 ent]ta9$ conc]n+ ! "t :5 & h[ ^! bodies became deposit$4 ,"s !re are :o conceive t x might h be5 effect$ 9 a wond]ful l5g? ( "t by a gradual *ang+ & %ift+ ( ! sea1 c4 ,b ! mo/ common cause assign$ is t ( ! deluge4 ,?is conjecture1 he says1 ev5 if ! univ]sality ( ! flood be n call$ 9 "q1 is purely hypo!tical4 ,9 8 op9ion1 fossil animals & te/acea 71 = ! mo/ "p1 ( unkn[n species2 & ( su* z 7 kn[n1 ! liv+ analogues n[ belong$ to s\!rn latitudes4 ,soldani1 #aghj4--,soldani appli$ successfully 8 k ( zoology to illu/rate ! hi/ory ( /ratifi$ masses4 ,he expla9$ t microscopic te/acea & zoophytes inhabit$ ! dep?s ( ! ,m$it]ranean2 & t ! fossil species 71 9 l mann]1 f\nd 9 ^? deposits :]e9 ! f95ess ( _! p>ticles1 & ! abs5ce ( pebbles1 impli$ t !y 7 accumulat$ 9 a deep sea1 or f> f %ore4 ,?is au?or fir/ rem>k$ ! alt]nation ( m>9e & fre%wat] /rata 9 ! ,p>is bas94#ia ,=tis--,te/a1 #agic4--;,a lively controv]sy arose betwe5 ,=tis & ano!r ,italian naturali/1 ,te/a1 conc]n+ ! fi% ( ,monte ,bolca1 9 #agic4 ,_! lett]s1#ib writt5 ) great _s & elegance1 %[ t !y 7 aw>e t a l>ge proportion ( ! ,subap5n9e %ells 7 id5tical ) liv+ species1 & "s ( !m ) species n[ liv+ 9 ! torrid zone4 ,=tis propos$ a some:at fanciful conjecture1 t :5 ! volcanoes ( ! ,vic5t9 7 burn+1 ! wat]s ( ! ,adriatic _h a high] temp]ature2 & 9 ?is mann]1 he said1 ! %ells ( w>m] regions may once h peopl$ _! own seas4 ,b ,te/a 0 dispos$ to ?9k t ^! species ( te/acea 7 /ill common to _! own & to equ9octial seas2 = _m1 he said1 once suppos$ to be conf9$ to hott] regions1 _h be5 aft]w>ds discov]$ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4#ic ,cortesi--,spallanzani--,wall]ius--,:ite hur/4--,:ile ^! ,italian naturali/s1 toge!r ) ,cortesi & ,spallanzani1 7 busily engag$ 9 po9t+ out ! analogy betwe5 ! deposits ( mod]n & anci5t seas1 & ! habits & arrangem5t ( _! organic inhabitants1 & :ile "s progress 0 mak+1 9 ! same c\ntry1 9 inve/igat+ ! anci5t & mod]n volcanic rocks1 "s ( ! mo/ orig9al obs]v]s among ! ,engli% & ,g]man writ]s1 ,:itehur/#id & ,wall]ius1 7 wa/+ _! /r5g? 9 cont5d+1 accord+ to ! old ,woodw>dian hypo!sis1 t all ! /rata 7 =m$ by ,noah's deluge4 ,b ,:itehur/'s description ( ! rocks ( ,d]by%ire 0 mo/ fai?ful2 & he aton$ = false !oretical views1 by provid+ data = _! refutation4 ,pallas--,saussure4--,t[>ds ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 ! idea ( di/+ui%+ ! m9]al masses on our globe into sep>ate gr\ps1 & /udy+ _! relations1 began to be g5]ally diffus$4 ,pallas & ,saussure 7 among ! mo/ celebrat$ ^: labors contribut$ to ?is end4 ,aft] an att5tive exam9ation ( ! two great m\nta9 *a9s ( ,sib]ia1 ,pallas ann\nc$ ! result1 t ! granitic rocks 7 9 ! middle1 ! s*i/ose at _! sides1 & ! lime/ones aga9 on ! outside ( ^!2 & ?is he conceiv$ w\ld prove a g5]al law 9 ! =mation ( all *a9s compos$ *iefly ( prim>y rocks4#ie ,9 8 ,travels 9 ,russia1 9 #agic & #agid1 he made _m geological obs]vations on ! rec5t /rata ne> ! ,wolga & ! ,caspian1 & adduc$ pro(s ( ! great] ext5t ( ! latt] sea at no di/ant era 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,8 memoir on ! fossil bones ( ,sib]ia attract$ att5tion to "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable ph5om5a 9 geology4 ,he /at$ t he _h f\nd a rh9oc]os entire 9 ! froz5 soil1 ) its sk9 & fle%3 an elephant1 f\nd aft]w>ds 9 a mass ( ice on ! %ore ( ! ,nor? ,sea1 remov$ all d\bt z to ! accuracy ( s wond]ful a discov]y4#if ,! subjects relat+ to natural hi/ory :i* engag$ ! att5tion ( ,pallas1 7 too multif>i\s to admit ( 8 devot+ a l>ge %>e ( 8 labors exclusively to geology4 ,saussure1 on ! o!r h&1 employ$ ! *ief portion ( 8 "t 9 /udy+ ! /ructure ( ! ,alps & ,jura1 & he provid$ valuable data = ^? :o foll[$ him4 ,he did n pret5d to d$uce any g5]al sy/em f 8 num]\s & int]e/+ obs]vations2 & ! few !oretical op9ions :i* escap$ f him1 seem1 l ^? ( ,pallas1 to h be5 *iefly d]iv$ f ! cosmological speculations ( prec$+ writ]s4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,geology--cont9u$4 ,w]n]'s application ( geology to ! art ( m9+--,excursive "* ( 8 lectures--,en?usiasm ( 8 pupils--,8 au?ority--,8 !oretical errors--,desm>e/'s ,map & ,description ( ,auv]gne--,controv]sy betwe5 ! ,vulcani/s & ,neptuni/s--,intemp]ance ( ! rival sects--,hutton's ,!ory ( ! e>?--,8 discov]y ( granite ve9s--,orig9ality ( 8 views--,:y oppos$--,playfair's illu/rations--,influ5ce ( ,voltaire's writ+s on geology--,imputations ca/ on ! ,huttonians by ,williams1 ,kirwan1 & ,de ,luc--,smi?'s ,map ( ,engl&--,geological ,society ( ,london--,progress ( ! sci5ce 9 ,france--,gr[+ importance ( ! /udy ( organic rema9s4 ,w]n]4--,! art ( m9+ has long be5 taught 9 ,france1 ,g]many1 & ,hung>y1 9 sci5tific in/itutions e/abli%$ = t purpose1 :]e m9]alogy has always be5 a pr9cipal bran* ( in/ruction4 ,w]n] 0 nam$1 9 #agge1 pr(essor ( t sci5ce 9 ! ,s*ool ( ,m9es1 at ,freyb]g1 9 ,saxony4 ,he direct$ 8 att5tion n m]ely to ! composition & ext]nal *>act]s ( m9]als1 b also to :at he t]m$ geognosy1 or ! natural position ( m9]als 9 p>ticul> rocks1 toge!r ) ! gr\p+ ( ^? rocks1 _! geographical di/ribution1 & v>i\s relations4 ,! ph5om5a obs]v$ 9 ! /ructure ( ! globe _h hi!rto s]v$ = little else ?an to furni% int]e/+ topics = philosophical discussion2 b :5 ,w]n] po9t$ out _! application to ! practical purposes ( m9+1 !y 7 in/antly reg>d$ by a l>ge class ( m5 z an ess5tial "p ( _! pr(essional education1 & f t "t ! sci5ce 0 cultivat$ 9 ,europe m ard5tly & sy/ematically4 ,w]n]'s m9d 0 at once imag9ative & ri*ly /or$ ) miscellane\s k4 ,he associat$ e ?+ ) 8 favorite sci5ce1 & 9 8 excursive lectures1 he po9t$ out all ! economical uses ( m9]als1 & _! application to m$ic9e2 ! influ5ce ( ! m9]al composition ( rocks ^u ! soil1 & ( ! soil ^u ! res\rces1 weal?1 & civilization ( man4 ,! va/ s&y pla9s ( ,t>t>y & ,africa1 he w\ld say1 reta9$ _! inhabitants 9 ! %ape ( w&]+ %eph]ds2 ! granitic m\nta9s & ! l[ calc>e\s & alluvial pla9s gave rise to diff]5t mann]s1 degrees ( weal?1 & intellig5ce4 ,! hi/ory ev5 ( languages1 & ! migration ( tribes1 _h be5 det]m9$ by ! direction ( p>ticul> /rata4 ,! qualities ( c]ta9 /ones us$ 9 build+ w\ld lead him to descant on ! ar*itecture ( diff]5t ages & nations2 & ! physical geography ( a c\ntry frequ5tly invit$ him to treat ( milit>y tactics4 ,! *>m ( 8 mann]s & 8 eloqu5ce k9dl$ en?usiasm 9 ! m9ds ( 8 pupils2 & _m1 :o _h int5d$ at fir/ only to acquire a slight k ( m9]alogy1 :5 !y _h once he>d him1 devot$ !mselves to x z ! bus9ess ( _! lives4 ,9 a few ye>s1 a small s*ool ( m9es1 be=e unhe>d ( 9 ,europe1 0 rais$ to ! rank ( a great univ]sity2 & m5 already di/+ui%$ 9 sci5ce /udi$ ! ,g]man language1 & came f ! mo/ di/ant c\ntries to he> ! great oracle ( geology4#ig ,w]n] _h a great antipa?y to ! me*anical labor ( writ+1 &1 ) ! exception ( a valuable treatise on metallif]\s ve9s1 he c\ld nev] be p]suad$ to p5 m ?an a few brief memoirs1 & ^? conta9+ no developm5t ( 8 g5]al views4 ,al?\gh ! natural mode/y ( 8 disposition 0 excessive1 approa*+ ev5 to timidity1 he indulg$ 9 ! mo/ bold & sweep+ g5]alizations1 & he inspir$ all 8 s*ol>s ) a mo/ implicit fai? 9 8 doctr9es4 ,_! admiration ( 8 g5ius1 & ! feel+s ( gratitude & fri5d%ip :i* !y all felt = him1 7 n undes]v$2 b ! supreme au?ority usurp$ by him ov] ! op9ions ( 8 contempor>ies1 0 ev5tually prejudicial to ! progress ( ! sci5ce2 s mu* s1 z greatly to c\nt]balance ! advantages :i* x d]iv$ f 8 ex]tions4 ,if x be true t deliv]y be ! fir/1 second1 & ?ird requisite 9 a popul> orator1 x is no less c]ta91 t to travel is ( fir/1 second1 & ?ird importance to ^? :o desire to orig9ate j & compreh5sive views conc]n+ ! /ructure ( our globe4 ,n[ ,w]n] _h n travell$ to di/ant c\ntries2 he _h m]ely explor$ a small portion ( ,g]many1 & conceiv$1 & p]suad$ o!rs to believe1 t ! :ole surface ( our planet1 & all ! m\nta9 *a9s 9 ! _w1 7 made aft] ! model ( 8 own prov9ce4 ,x became a rul+ object ( ambition 9 ! m9ds ( 8 pupils to confirm ! g5]alizations ( _! great ma/]1 & to discov] 9 ! mo/ di/ant p>ts ( ! globe 8 univ]sal =mations1 :i* he suppos$ _h be5 ea* 9 succession simultane\sly precipitat$ ov] ! :ole e>? f a common m5/ruum1 or *aotic fluid4 ,x n[ appe>s t ! ,saxon pr(essor _h mis9t]pret$ _m ( ! mo/ important appe>ances ev5 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ,freyb]g4 ,?us1 = example1 )9 a day's j\rney ( 8 s*ool1 ! porphyry1 call$ by him primitive1 has be5 f\nd n only to s5d =? ve9s or dikes ?r\gh /rata ( ! coal =mation1 b to ov]lie !m 9 mass4 ,! granite ( ! ,h>tz m\nta9s1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* he suppos$ to be ! nucleus ( ! *a91 is n[ well kn[n to trav]se ! o!r b$s1 z ne> ,gosl>2 & /ill ne>] ,freyb]g1 9 ! ,erzgebirge1 ! mica slate does n mantle r\nd ! granite z 0 suppos$1 b abuts abruptly aga9/ x4 ,fragm5ts1 also1 ( ! greywacka slate1 conta9+ organic rema9s1 h rec5tly be5 f\nd entangl$ 9 ! granite ( ! ,h>tz1 by ,m4 de ,seck5dorf4#ih ,! pr9cipal m]it ( ,w]n]'s sy/em ( in/ruction consi/$ 9 /eadily direct+ ! att5tion ( 8 s*ol>s to ! con/ant relations ( sup]position ( c]ta9 m9]al gr\ps2 b he _h be5 anticipat$1 z has be5 %[n 9 ! la/ *apt]1 9 ! discov]y ( ?is g5]al law1 by sev]al geologi/s 9 ,italy & else:]e2 & 8 lead+ divisions ( ! second>y /rata 7 at ! same "t1 & indep5d5tly1 made ! basis ( an arrangem5t ( ! ,briti% /rata by our c\ntryman1 ,william ,smi?1 to ^: "w ,i %all ref] 9 ! sequel4 ,controv]sy betwe5 ! ,vulcani/s & ,neptuni/s4--,9 reg>d to basalt & o!r igne\s rocks1 ,w]n]'s !ory 0 orig9al1 b x 0 also extremely errone\s4 ,! basalts ( ,saxony & ,hesse1 to :i* 8 obs]vations 7 *iefly conf9$1 consi/$ ( tabul> masses capp+ ! hills1 & n connect$ ) ! levels ( exi/+ valleys1 l _m 9 ,auv]gne & ! ,viv>ais4 ,^! basalts1 & all o!r rocks ( ! same family 9 o!r c\ntries1 71 accord+ to him1 *emical precipitates f wat]4 ,he d5i$ t !y 7 ! products ( subm>9e volcanoes2 & ev5 taught t1 9 ! primeval ages ( ! _w1 !re 7 no volcanoes4 ,8 !ory 0 oppos$1 9 a tw(old s5se1 to ! doctr9e ( ! p]man5t ag5cy ( ! same causes 9 nature2 = n only did he introduce1 )\t scruple1 _m imag9>y causes suppos$ to h once effect$ great revolutions 9 ! e>?1 & !n to h become ext9ct1 b new ones also 7 feign$ to h come into play 9 mod]n times2 &1 above all1 t mo/ viol5t in/rum5t ( *ange1 ! ag5cy ( subt]ranean heat4 ,s e>ly z #agfh1 be=e ,w]n] _h comm5c$ 8 m9]alogical /udies1 ,raspe _h truly *>act]iz$ ! basalts ( ,hesse z ( igne\s orig94 ,ardu9o1 we h se51 _h po9t$ out num]\s v>ieties ( trap-rock 9 ! ,vic5t9 z analog\s to volcanic products1 & z di/9ctly ref]able to anci5t subm>9e eruptions4 ,desm>e/1 z be=e /at$1 _h1 9 company ) ,=tis1 exam9$ ! ,vic5t9 9 #agff1 & confirm$ ,ardu9o's views4 ,9 #aggb1 ,banks1 ,sol&]1 & ,troil comp>$ ! column> basalt ( ,hecla ) t ( ! ,hebrides4 ,coll9i1 9 #aggd1 recogniz$ ! true nature ( ! igne\s rocks on ! ,rh9e1 betwe5 ,&]na* & ,bonn4 ,9 #agge1 ,guett>d visit$ ! ,viv>ais1 & e/abli%$ ! relation ( basaltic curr5ts to lavas4 ,la/ly1 9 #aggi1 ,faujas publi%$ 8 description ( ! volcanoes ( ! ,viv>ais & ,velay1 & %[$ h[ ! /reams ( basalt _h p\r$ out f crat]s :i* /ill rema9 9 a p]fect /ate4#ii ,desm>e/4--,:5 s\nd op9ions _h ?us = tw5ty ye>s prevail$ 9 ,europe conc]n+ ! true nature ( ! anci5t trap-rocks1 ,w]n] by 8 simple dictum caus$ a retrograde movem5t1 & n only ov]turn$ ! true !ory1 b sub/itut$ = x "o ( ! mo/ unphilosophical t c well be imag9$4 ,! cont9u$ asc5dancy ( 8 dogmas on ?is subject 0 ! m a/oni%+1 because a v>iety ( new & /rik+ facts 7 daily accumulat$ 9 favor ( ! correct op9ions previ\sly ent]ta9$4 ,desm>e/1 aft] a c>eful exam9ation ( ,auv]gne1 po9t$ out1 fir/1 ! mo/ rec5t volcanoes :i* _h _! crat]s /ill entire1 & _! /reams ( lava con=m+ to ! level ( ! pres5t riv]-c\rses4 ,he !n %[$ t !re 7 o!rs ( an int]m$iate epo*1 ^: crat]s 7 ne>ly effac$1 & ^: lavas 7 less intimately connect$ ) ! pres5t valleys2 &1 la/ly1 t !re 7 volcanic rocks1 /ill m anci5t1 )\t any disc]nible crat]s or scoriae1 & be>+ ! close/ analogy to rocks 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 ! igne\s orig9 ( :i* 0 d5i$ by ! s*ool ( ,freyb]g4#ajj ,desm>e/'s map ( ,auv]gne 0 a "w ( uncommon m]it4 ,he fir/ made a trigonometrical survey ( ! di/rict1 & del9eat$ its physical geography ) m9ute accuracy & admirable graphic p[]4 ,he contriv$1 at ! same "t1 to express )\t ! aid ( colors1 _m geological details1 includ+ ! diff]5t ages & sometimes ev5 ! /ructure1 ( ! volcanic rocks1 & di/+ui%+ !m f ! fre%-wat] & ! granitic4 ,!y alone :o h c>efully /udi$ ,auv]gne1 & trac$ ! diff]5t lava /reams f _! crat]s to _! t]m9ation1--! v>i\s isolat$ basaltic capp+s1--! relation ( "s lavas to ! pres5t valleys1---! abs5ce ( su* relations 9 o!rs1--c appreciate ! extraord9>y fidelity ( ?is elaborate "w4 ,no o!r di/rict ( equal dim5sions 9 ,europe exhibits1 p]haps1 s beautiful & v>i$ a s]ies ( ph5om5a2 &1 =tunately1 ,desm>e/ possess$ at once ! ma!matical k requir$ = ! con/ruction ( a map1 skill 9 m9]alogy1 & a p[] ( orig9al g5]alization4 ,dolomieu--,montlosi]4--,dolomieu1 ano!r ( ,w]n]'s contempor>ies1 _h f\nd prismatic basalt among ! anci5t lavas ( ,etna2 &1 9 #aghd1 _h obs]v$ ! alt]nations ( subm>9e lavas & calc>e\s /rata 9 ! ,val di ,noto1 9 ,sicily4#aja ,9 #agij1 also1 he describ$ simil> ph5om5a 9 ! ,vic5t9 & 9 ! ,tyrol4#ajb ,montlosi] publi%$1 9 #aghh1 an essay on ! !ories ( volcanoes ( ,auv]gne1 comb9+ accurate local obs]vations ) compreh5sive views4 ,not)/&+ ?is mass ( evid5ce ! s*ol>s ( ,w]n] 7 prep>$ to support 8 op9ions to _! utmo/ ext5t2 ma9ta9+1 9 ! fulness ( _! fai?1 t ev5 obsidian 0 an aque\s precipitate4 ,z !y 7 bl9d$ by _! v5]ation = ! great tea*]1 !y 7 impati5t ( opposition1 & soon imbib$ ! _s ( a faction2 & _! oppon5ts1 ! ,vulcani/s1 7 n long 9 becom+ contam9at$ ) ! same intemp]ate zeal4 ,ridicule & irony 7 weapons m frequ5tly employ$ ?an argum5t by ! rival sects1 till at la/ ! controv]sy 0 c>ri$ on ) a degree ( bitt]ness almo/ unprec$5t$ 9 que/ions ( physical sci5ce4 ,desm>e/ alone1 :o _h long be=e provid$ ample mat]ials = refut+ su* a !ory1 kept alo( f ! /rife2 & :5ev] a zeal\s ,neptuni/ wi%$ to draw ! old man into an argum5t1 he 0 satisfi$ ) reply+1 ,g & see4#ajc ,hutton1 #aghh4--;,x w\ld be contr>y to all analogy1 9 matt]s ( grav] import1 t a w> %\ld rage ) su* fury on ! ,cont95t1 & t ! inhabitants ( our isl& %\ld n m+le 9 ! affray4 ,al?\gh 9 ,engl& ! p]sonal influ5ce ( ,w]n] 0 want+ to /imulate m5 to ! def5ce ( ! weak] side ( ! "q1 !y contriv$ to f9d good reason = esp\s+ ! ,w]n]ian errors ) great en?usiasm4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! peculi> motives :i* l$ _m to ent]1 ev5 ) p>ty feel+1 into ?is conte/1 x w be necess>y to pres5t ! read] ) a sket* ( ! views unfold$ by ,hutton1 a contempor>y ( ! ,saxon geologi/4 ,! =m] naturali/ _h be5 educat$ z a physician1 b decl9+ ! practice ( m$ic9e1 he resolv$1 :5 "y1 to rema9 cont5t ) ! small indep5d5ce inh]it$ f 8 fa!r1 & !nce=? to give 8 undivid$ att5tion to sci5tific pursuits4 ,he resid$ at ,ed9burgh1 :]e he enjoy$ ! society ( _m m5 ( high atta9m5ts1 :o lov$ him = ! simplicity ( 8 mann]s1 & ! s9c]ity ( 8 "*4 ,8 application 0 unwe>i$2 & he made frequ5t t\rs ?r\gh diff]5t p>ts ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 acquir+ consid]able skill z a m9]alogi/1 & consequ5tly arriv+ at gr& & compreh5sive views 9 geology4 ,he communicat$ ! results ( 8 obs]vations unres]v$ly1 & ) ! fe>less _s ( "o :o 0 consci\s t love ( tru? 0 ! sole /imulus ( 8 ex]tions4 ,:5 at l5g? he _h matur$ 8 views1 he publi%$1 9 #aghh1 8 ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1#ajd & ! same1 aft]w>ds m fully develop$ 9 a sep>ate "w1 9 #agie4 ,?is treatise 0 ! fir/ 9 :i* geology 0 decl>$ to be 9 no way conc]n$ ab\t que/ions z to ! orig9 ( ?+s2 ! fir/ 9 :i* an attempt 0 made to disp5se entirely ) all hypo!tical causes1 & to expla9 ! =m] *anges ( ! e>?'s cru/ by ref]5ce exclusively to natural ag5ts4 ,hutton labor$ to give fix$ pr9ciples to geology1 z ,newton _h succe$$ 9 do+ to a/ronomy2 b1 9 ! =m] sci5ce1 too little progress _h be5 made t[>ds furni%+ ! necess>y data1 to enable any philosoph]1 h[ev] great 8 g5ius1 to realize s noble a project4 ,huttonian !ory4--,! ru9s ( an old] _w1 said ,hutton1 are visible 9 ! pres5t /ructure ( our planet2 & ! /rata :i* n[ compose our cont95ts h be5 once b5ea? ! sea1 & 7 =m$ out ( ! wa/e ( pre-exi/+ cont95ts4 ,! same =ces are /ill de/roy+1 by *emical decomposition or me*anical viol5ce1 ev5 ! h>de/ rocks1 & transport+ ! mat]ials to ! sea1 :]e !y are spread out1 & =m /rata analog\s to ^? ( m anci5t date4 ,al?\gh loosely deposit$ along ! bottom ( ! ocean1 !y become aft]w>ds alt]$ & consolidat$ by volcanic heat1 & !n heav$ up1 fractur$1 & contort$4 ,al?\gh ,hutton _h nev] explor$ any region ( active volcanoes1 he _h conv9c$ himself t basalt & _m o!r trap-rocks 7 ( igne\s orig91 & t _m ( !m _h be5 inject$ 9 a melt$ /ate ?r\gh fissures 9 ! old] /rata4 ,! compactness ( ^! rocks1 & _! diff]5t aspect f t ( ord9>y lava1 he attribut$ to _! hav+ cool$ d[n "u ! pressure ( ! sea2 & 9 ord] to remove ! objections />t$ aga9/ ?is !ory1 8 fri5d1 ,sir ,james ,hall1 in/itut$ a mo/ curi\s & in/ructive s]ies ( *emical exp]im5ts1 illu/rat+ ! cry/all9e arrangem5t & texture assum$ by melt$ matt] cool$ "u high pressure4 ,! abs5ce ( /ratification 9 granite1 & its analogy1 9 m9]al "*1 to rocks :i* he deem$ ( igne\s orig91 l$ ,hutton to conclude t granite also mu/ h be5 =m$ f matt] 9 fusion2 & ?is inf]5ce he felt c\ld n be fully confirm$1 unless he discov]$ at ! contact ( granite & o!r /rata a repetition ( ! ph5om5a exhibit$ s con/antly by ! trap-rocks4 ,resolv$ to try 8 !ory by ?is te/1 he w5t to ! ,grampians1 & survey$ ! l9e ( junction ( ! granite & sup]9cumb5t /ratifi$ masses1 until he f\nd 9 ,gl5 ,tilt1 9 #aghe1 ! mo/ cle> & unequivocal pro(s 9 support ( 8 views4 ,ve9s ( r$ granite are !re se5 bran*+ out f ! pr9cipal mass1 & trav]s+ ! black micace\s s*i/ & prim>y lime/one4 ,! int]sect$ /ratifi$ rocks are s di/9ct 9 color & appe>ance z to r5d] ! example 9 t locality mo/ /rik+1 & ! alt]ation ( ! lime/one 9 contact 0 v analog\s to t produc$ by trap ve9s on calc>e\s /rata4 ,?is v]ification ( 8 sy/em fill$ him ) delight1 & call$ =? su* m>ks ( joy & exultation1 t ! guides :o accompani$ him1 says 8 biograph]1 7 conv9c$ t he mu/ h discov]$ a ve9 ( silv] or gold4#aje ,he 0 aw>e t ! same !ory w\ld n expla9 ! orig9 ( ! prim>y s*i/s1 b ^! he call$ prim>y1 reject+ ! t]m primitive1 & 0 dispos$ to consid] !m z s$im5t>y rocks alt]$ by heat1 & t !y orig9at$ 9 "s o!r =m f ! wa/e ( previ\sly exi/+ rocks4 ,by ?is important discov]y ( granite ve9s1 to :i* he _h be5 l$ by fair induction f an indep5d5t class ( facts1 ,hutton prep>$ ! way = ! greate/ innovation ( ! sy/ems ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,vallisn]i _h po9t$ out ! g5]al fact t !re 7 c]ta9 fundam5tal rocks :i* conta9$ no organic rema9s1 & :i* he suppos$ to h be5 =m$ be=e ! creation ( liv+ be+s4 ,moro1 ,g5]elli1 & o!r ,italian writ]s1 embrac$ ! same doctr9e2 & ,lehman reg>d$ ! m\nta9s call$ by him primitive1 z p>ts ( ! orig9al nucleus ( ! globe4 ,! same t5et 0 an article ( fai? 9 ! s*ool ( ,freyb]g2 & if any "o v5tur$ to d\bt ! possibility ( our be+ enabl$ to c>ry back our rese>*es to ! creation ( ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s1 ! granitic rocks 7 triumphantly appeal$ to4 ,on !m seem$ writt51 9 legible *>act]s1 ! memorable inscription-- ,d9anzi a me non fur cose create ,se non et]ne2#ajf & no small s5sation 0 excit$ :5 ,hutton seem$1 ) unhall[$ h&1 desir\s to erase *>act]s already reg>d$ by _m z sacr$4 ,9 ! economy ( ! _w1 said ! ,scot* geologi/1 ,i c f9d no traces ( a beg9n+1 no prospect ( an end2 a decl>ation ! m />tl+ :5 c\pl$ ) ! doctr9e1 t all pa/ ages on ! globe _h be5 br\ght ab\t by ! sl[ ag5cy ( exi/+ causes4 ,! imag9ation 0 fir/ fatigu$ & ov]p[]$ by endeavor+ to conceive ! imm5sity ( "t requir$ = ! annihilation ( :ole cont95ts by s ins5sible a process2 & :5 ! ?\ghts _h w&]$ ?r\gh ^! int]m9able p]iods1 no re/+-place 0 assign$ 9 ! remote/ di/ance4 ,! olde/ rocks 7 repres5t$ to be ( a d]ivative nature1 ! la/ ( an antec$5t s]ies1 & t1 p]haps1 "o ( _m pre-exi/+ worlds4 ,su* views ( ! imm5sity ( pa/ "t1 l ^? unfold$ by ! ,newtonian philosophy 9 reg>d to space1 7 too va/ to awak5 ideas ( sublimity unmix$ ) a pa9ful s5se ( our incapacity to conceive a plan ( su* inf9ite ext5t4 ,worlds are se5 beyond worlds immeasurably di/ant f ea* o!r1 &1 beyond !m all1 innum]able o!r sy/ems are fa9tly trac$ on ! conf9es ( ! visible univ]se4 ,! *>act]i/ic feature ( ! ,huttonian !ory 01 z be=e h9t$1 ! exclusion ( all causes n suppos$ to belong to ! pres5t ord] ( nature4 ,b ,hutton _h made no /ep beyond ,hooke1 ,moro1 & ,raspe1 9 po9t+ out 9 :at mann] ! laws n[ gov]n+ subt]ranean movem5ts might br+ ab\t geological *anges1 if suffici5t "t be all[$4 ,on ! contr>y1 he seems to h fall5 f> %ort ( "s ( _! views1 especially :5 he refus$ to attribute any "p ( ! ext]nal configuration ( ! e>?'s cru/ to subsid5ce4 ,he imag9$ t ! cont95ts 7 fir/ gradually de/roy$ by aque\s degradation2 & :5 _! ru9s _h furni%$ mat]ials = new cont95ts1 !y 7 upheav$ by viol5t convulsions4 ,he !re=e requir$ alt]nate p]iods ( g5]al di/urbance & repose2 & su* he believ$ _h be51 & w\ld =ev] be1 ! c\rse ( nature4 ,g5]elli1 9 8 exposition ( ,moro's sy/em1 _h made a f> ne>] approximation t[>ds reconcil+ geological appe>ances ) ! /ate ( nature z kn[n to u2 = :ile he agre$ ) ,hutton1 t ! decay & reproduction ( rocks 7 always 9 progress1 proce$+ ) ! utmo/ uni=mity1 ! le>n$ ,c>melite repres5t$ ! repairs ( m\nta9s by elevation f bel[ to be effect$ by an equally con/ant & syn*ron\s op]ation4 ,nei!r ( ^! !ories1 consid]$ s+ly1 satisfies all ! conditions ( ! great problem1 :i* a geologi/1 :o rejects cosmological causes1 is call$ ^u to solve2 b !y probably conta9 toge!r ! g]ms ( a p]fect sy/em4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 t p]iods ( di/urbance & repose h foll[$ ea* o!r 9 succession 9 e region ( ! globe2 b x may be equally true1 t ! en]gy ( ! subt]ranean movem5ts has be5 always uni=m z reg>ds ! :ole e>?4 ,! =ce ( e>?quakes may = a cycle ( ye>s h be5 inv>iably conf9$1 z x is n[1 to l>ge b det]m9ate spaces1 & may !n h gradually %ift$ its position1 s t ano!r region1 :i* _h = ages be5 at re/1 became 9 its turn ! gr& !atre ( action4 ,playfair's illu/rations ( ,hutton4--,! explanation propos$ by ,hutton1 & by ,playfair1 ! illu/rator ( 8 !ory1 respect+ ! orig9 ( valleys & ( alluvial accumulations1 0 also v imp]fect4 ,!y ascrib$ none ( ! inequalities ( ! e>?'s surface to movem5ts :i* accompani$ ! upheav+ ( ! l&1 imag9+ t valleys 9 g5]al 7 =m$ 9 ! c\rse ( ages by ! riv]s n[ fl[+ 9 !m2 :ile !y seem n to h reflect$ on ! excavat+ & transport+ p[] :i* ! waves ( ! ocean might ex]t on l& dur+ its em]g5ce4 ,al?\gh ,hutton's k ( m9]alogy & *emi/ry 0 consid]able1 he possess$ b little in=mation conc]n+ organic rema9s2 !y m]ely s]v$ him1 z !y did ,w]n]1 to *>act]ize c]ta9 /rata1 & to prove _! m>9e orig94 ,! !ory ( =m] revolutions 9 organic life 0 n yet fully recogniz$2 & )\t ?is class ( pro(s 9 support ( ! antiquity ( ! globe1 ! indef9ite p]iods dem&$ by ! ,huttonian hypo!sis appe>$ vision>y to _m2 & "s1 :o deem$ ! doctr9e inconsi/5t ) reveal$ tru?s1 indulg$ v un*>itable suspicions ( ! motives ( its au?or4 ,!y accus$ him ( a delib]ate design ( reviv+ ! hea!n dogma ( an et]nal succession1 & ( d5y+ t ?is _w ev] _h a beg9n+4 ,playfair1 9 ! biography ( 8 fri5d1 has ! foll[+ comm5t on ?is "p ( _! !ory3--,9 ! planet>y motions1 :]e geometry has c>ri$ ! eye s f>1 bo? into ! future & ! pa/1 we discov] no m>k ei!r ( ! comm5cem5t or t]m9ation ( ! pres5t ord]4 ,x is unreasonable1 inde$1 to suppose t su* m>ks %\ld any:]e exi/4 ,! ,au?or ( ,nature has n giv5 laws to ! univ]se1 :i*1 l ! in/itutions ( m51 c>ry 9 !mselves ! elem5ts ( _! own de/ruction4 ,he has n p]mitt$ 9 ,8 works any symptom ( infancy or ( old age1 or any sign by :i* we may e/imate ei!r _! future or _! pa/ duration4 ,he may put an end1 z he no d\bt gave a beg9n+1 to ! pres5t sy/em1 at "s det]m9ate p]iod ( "t2 b we may re/ assur$ t ?is great cata/rophe w n be br\ght ab\t by ! laws n[ exi/+1 & t x is n indicat$1 by any ?+ :i* we p]ceive4#ajg ,! p>ty feel+ excit$ aga9/ ! ,huttonian doctr9es1 & ! op5 disreg>d ( c&or & temp] 9 ! controv]sy1 w h>dly be cr$it$ by ! read]1 unless he recalls to 8 recollection t ! m9d ( ! ,engli% public 0 at t "t 9 a /ate ( fev]i% excitem5t4 ,a class ( writ]s 9 ,france _h be5 labor+ indu/ri\sly = _m ye>s1 to dim9i% ! influ5ce ( ! cl]gy1 by sapp+ ! f\ndations ( ! ,*ri/ian fai?2 & _! success1 & ! consequ5ces ( ! ,revolution1 _h al>m$ ! mo/ resolute m9ds1 :ile ! imag9ation ( ! m timid 0 cont9ually haunt$ by dread ( innovation1 z by ! phantom ( "s fe>ful dream4 ,voltaire4--,voltaire _h us$ ! mod]n discov]ies 9 physics z "o ( ! num]\s weapons ( attack & ridicule direct$ by him aga9/ ! ,scriptures4 ,he f\nd t ! mo/ popul> sy/ems ( geology 7 accommodat$ to ! sacr$ writ+s1 & t mu* +5uity _h be5 employ$ to make e fact co9cide exactly ) ! ,mosaic acc\nt ( ! creation & deluge4 ,x 01 !re=e1 ) no fri5dly feel+s t he contemplat$ ! cultivators ( geology 9 g5]al1 reg>d+ ! sci5ce z "o :i* _h be5 successfully enli/$ by !ologians z an ally 9 _! cause4#ajh ,he knew t ! majority ( ^? :o 7 aw>e ( ! abundance ( fossil %ells 9 ! int]ior ( cont95ts1 7 /ill p]suad$ t !y 7 pro(s ( ! univ]sal deluge2 & z ! readie/ way ( %ak+ ?is article ( fai?1 he endeavor$ to inculcate skepticism z to ! real nature ( su* %ells1 & to recall f contempt ! explod$ dogma ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 t !y 7 sports ( nature4 ,he also pret5d$ t vegetable impressions 7 n ^? ( real plants4#aji ,yet he 0 p]fectly conv9c$ t ! %ells _h really belong$ to liv+ te/acea1 z may be se5 9 8 essay ,on ! =mation ( ,m\nta9s4#aaj ,he w\ld sometimes1 9 defiance ( all consi/5cy1 %ift 8 gr\nd :5 address+ ! vulg>2 &1 admitt+ ! true nature ( ! %ells collect$ 9 ! ,alps & o!r places1 pret5d t !y 7 ,ea/]n species1 :i* _h fall5 f ! hats ( pilgrims com+ f ,syria4 ,! num]\s essays writt5 by him on geological subjects 7 all calculat$ to /r5g!n prejudices1 p>tly because he 0 ignorant ( ! real /ate ( ! sci5ce1 & p>tly f 8 bad fai?4#aaa ,on ! o!r h&1 !y :o knew t 8 attacks 7 direct$ by a desire to invalidate ,scripture1 & :o 7 unacqua9t$ ) ! true m]its ( ! "q1 might well deem ! old diluvian hypo!sis incontrov]tible1 if ,voltaire c\ld adduce no bett] argum5t aga9/ x ?an to d5y ! true nature ( organic rema9s4 ,x is only by c>eful att5tion to imp$im5ts orig9at+ 9 extr9sic causes1 t we c expla9 ! sl[ & reluctant adoption ( ! simple/ tru?s 9 geology4 ,fir/1 we f9d _m able naturali/s adduc+ ! fossil rema9s ( m>9e animals z pro(s ( an ev5t relat$ 9 ,scripture4 ,! evid5ce is deem$ conclusive by ! multitude = a c5tury or m2 = x favors op9ions :i* !y ent]ta9$ be=e1 & !y are gratifi$ by suppos+ !m confirm$ by fre% & unexpect$ pro(s4 ,_m :o see ?r\gh ! fallacy h no wi% to undeceive ^? :o are influ5c$ by x1 approv+ ! effect ( ! delusion1 & conniv+ at x z a pi\s fraud2 until1 f9ally1 an opposite p>ty1 :o are ho/ile to ! sacr$ writ+s1 labor to explode ! errone\s op9ion1 by sub/itut+ = x ano!r dogma1 :i* !y "k to be equally uns\nd4 ,! h]etical ,vulcani/s 7 soon aft] op5ly assail$ 9 ,engl&1 by imputations ( ! mo/ illib]al k9d4 ,we _c e/imate ! malevol5ce ( su* a p]secution1 by ! pa9 :i* simil> ins9uations might n[ inflict2 = al?\gh *>ges ( infidelity & a!ism mu/ always be odi\s1 !y 7 injuri\s 9 ! extreme at t mom5t ( political excitem5t2 & x 0 bett]1 p]haps1 = a man's good reception 9 society1 t 8 moral "* %\ld h be5 traduc$1 ?an t he %\ld become a m>k = ^! poison$ weapons4 ,i %all pass ov] ! works ( num]\s div9es1 :o may be excus$ = s5sitiv5ess on po9ts :i* !n excit$ s mu* uneas9ess 9 ! public m9d2 & %all say no?+ ( ! amiable poet ,c[p]1#aab :o c\ld h>dly be expect$ to h inquir$ into ! m]it ( doctr9es 9 physics4 ,b 9 ! =emo/ ranks ( ! intol]ant are f\nd sev]al laym5 :o _h high claims to sci5tific reputation4 ,among ^! appe>s ,williams1 a m9]al surveyor ( ,ed9burgh1 :o publi%$ a ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,m9]al ,k+dom1 9 #aghi2 a "w ( great m]it1 = t day1 & ( practical utility1 z conta9+ ! be/ acc\nt ( ! coal /rata4 ,9 8 preface he misrepres5ts ,hutton's !ory altoge!r1 & *>ges him ) consid]+ all rocks to be lavas ( diff]5t colors & /ructure2 & also ) w>p+ e ?+ to support ! et]nity ( ! _w4#aac ,he descants on ! p]nici\s influ5ce ( su* skeptical notions1 z lead+ to d[nright infidelity & a!ism1 & z be+ no?+ less ?an to depose ! ,almighty ,creator ( ! univ]se f 8 (fice4#aad ,kirwan--,de ,luc4--,kirwan1 presid5t ( ! ,royal ,academy ( ,dubl91 a *emi/ & m9]alogi/ ( "s m]it1 b :o possess$ mu* great] au?ority 9 ! sci5tific _w ?an he 0 entitl$ by 8 tal5ts to enjoy1 said1 9 ! introduction to 8 ,geological ,essays1 #agii1 t s\nd geology graduat$ into religion1 & 0 requir$ to dispel c]ta9 sy/ems ( a!ism or infidelity1 ( :i* !y _h _h rec5t exp]i5ce4#aae ,he 0 an uncompromis+ def5d] ( ! aque\s !ory ( all rocks1 & 0 sc>cely surpass$ by ,burnet & ,:i/on1 9 8 desire to adduce ! ,mosaic writ+s 9 confirmation ( 8 op9ions4 ,de ,luc1 9 ! prelim9>y disc\rse to 8 ,treatise on ,geology1#aaf says1 ,! weapons h be5 *ang$ by :i* reveal$ religion is attack$2 x is n[ assail$ by geology1 & ! k ( ?is sci5ce has become ess5tial to !ologians4 ,he imputes ! failure ( =m] geological sy/ems to _! hav+ be5 anti-,mosaical1 & direct$ aga9/ a sublime tradition4 ,^! & simil> imputations1 reit]at$ 9 ! works ( ,de ,luc1 seem to h be5 tak5 = grant$ by "s mod]n writ]s3 x is !re=e necess>y to /ate1 9 ju/ice to ! num]\s geologi/s ( diff]5t nations1 ^: works h be5 consid]$1 t none ( !m 7 guilty ( endeavor+1 by argum5ts drawn f physics1 to invalidate scriptural t5ets4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! majority ( ^? :o 7 =tunate en\gh to discov] ! true causes ( ?+s1 r>ely des]v$ ano!r "p ( ! poet's panegyric1 ,atque metus omnes subjecit p$ibus4 ,! caution & ev5 timid res]ve1 ( _m em95t ,italian au?ors ( ! e>li] p]iod is v app>5t2 & !re c h>dly be a d\bt1 t !y subscrib$ to c]ta9 dogmas1 & p>ticul>ly to ! fir/ diluvian !ory1 out ( def]5ce to popul> prejudices1 r ?an f conviction4 ,if !y 7 guilty ( dissimulation1 we may feel regret1 b mu/ n blame _! want ( moral c\rage1 res]v+ r our condemnation = ! intol]ance ( ! times1 & t inquisitorial p[] :i* =c$ ,galileo to abjure1 & ! two ,jesuits to disclaim ! !ory ( ,newton4#aag ,hutton answ]$ ,kirwan's attacks ) great w>m?1 & ) ! indignation ju/ly excit$ by unm]it$ reproa*4 ,he _h always display$1 says ,playfair1 ! utmo/ disposition to admire ! b5efic5t design manife/$ 9 ! /ructure ( ! _w2 & he contemplat$ ) delight ^? p>ts ( 8 !ory :i* made ! greate/ additions to our k ( f9al causes4 ,we may say ) equal tru?1 t 9 no sci5tific works 9 our language c m eloqu5t passages be f\nd1 conc]n+ ! fitness1 h>mony1 & gr&eur ( all p>ts ( ! creation1 ?an 9 ^? ( ,playfair4 ,!y are evid5tly ! unaffect$ expressions ( a m9d1 :i* contemplat$ ! /udy ( nature1 z be/ calculat$ to elevate our conceptions ( ! attributes ( ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,at any o!r "t ! =ce & elegance ( ,playfair's /yle mu/ h insur$ popul>ity to ! ,huttonian doctr9es2 b by a s+ul> co9cid5ce1 ,neptunianism & or?odoxy 7 n[ associat$ 9 ! same cre$2 & ! tide ( prejudice ran s /rong1 t ! majority 7 c>ri$ f> away into ! *aotic fluid1 & o!r cosmological inv5tions ( ,w]n]4 ,^! fictions ! ,saxon pr(essor _h borr[$ ) little modification1 & )\t any improvem5t1 f 8 pr$ecessors4 ,!y _h n ! smalle/ f\ndation ei!r 9 ,scripture or 9 common s5se1 & 7 probably approv$ ( by _m z be+ s ideal & unsub/antial1 t !y c\ld nev] come into viol5t collision ) any preconceiv$ op9ions4 ,accord+ to ,de ,luc1 ! fir/ ess5tial di/9ction to be made betwe5 ! v>i\s ph5om5a exhibit$ on ! surface ( ! e>? 01 to det]m9e :i* 7 ! results ( causes /ill 9 action1 & :i* _h be5 produc$ by causes t _h ceas$ to act4 ,! =m & composition ( ! mass ( our cont95ts1 he said1 & _! exi/5ce above ! level ( ! sea1 mu/ be ascrib$ to causes no long] 9 action4 ,^! cont95ts em]g$1 at no v remote p]iod1 on ! sudd5 retreat ( ! ocean1 ! wat]s ( :i* made _! way into subt]ranean cav]ns4 ,! =mation ( ! rocks :i* ent] into ! cru/ ( ! e>? began ) ! precipitation ( granite f a primordial liquid1 aft] :i* o!r /rata conta9+ ! rema9s ( organiz$ bodies 7 deposit$1 till at la/ ! pres5t sea rema9$ z ! residuum ( ! primordial liquid1 & no long] cont9u$ to produce m9]al /rata4#aah ,william ,smi?1 #agij4--,:ile ! t5ets ( ! rival s*ools ( ,freyb]g & ,ed9burgh 7 w>mly esp\s$ by devot$ p>tisans1 ! labors ( an individual1 unassi/$ by ! advantages ( weal? or /ation 9 society1 7 almo/ unhe$$4 ,mr4 ,william ,smi?1 an ,engli% surveyor1 publi%$ 8 ,tabul> ,view ( ! ,briti% ,/rata 9 #agij1 :]e9 he propos$ a classification ( ! second>y =mations 9 ! ,we/ ( ,engl&4 ,al?\gh he _h n communicat$ ) ,w]n]1 x appe>$ by ?is "w t he _h arriv$ at ! same views respect+ ! laws ( sup]position ( /ratifi$ rocks2 t he 0 aw>e t ! ord] ( succession ( diff]5t gr\ps 0 nev] inv]t$2 & t !y might be id5tifi$ at v di/ant po9ts by _! peculi> organiz$ fossils4 ,f ! "t ( ! appe>ance ( ! ,tabul> ,view1 ! au?or labor$ to con/ruct a geological map ( ! :ole ( ,engl&2 & ) ! greate/ dis9t]e/$ness ( m9d1 communicat$ ! results ( 8 inve/igations to all :o desir$ in=mation1 giv+ su* publicity to 8 orig9al views1 z to enable 8 contempor>ies almo/ to compete ) him 9 ! race4 ,! execution ( 8 map 0 complet$ 9 #ahae1 & rema9s a la/+ monum5t ( orig9al tal5t & extraord9>y p]sev]ance2 = he _h explor$ ! :ole c\ntry on foot1 )\t ! guidance ( previ\s obs]v]s1 or ! aid ( fell[-labor]s1 & _h succe$$ 9 ?r[+ into natural divisions ! :ole complicat$ s]ies ( ,briti% rocks4 ,d',aubuisson1 a di/+ui%$ pupil ( ,w]n]1 paid a j tribute ( praise to ?is rem>kable p]=mance1 obs]v+1 t :at _m celebrat$ m9]alogi/s _h only accompli%$ = a small "p ( ,g]many 9 ! c\rse ( half a c5tury1 _h be5 effect$ by a s+le individual = ! :ole ( ,engl&4#aai ,w]n] inv5t$ a new language to express 8 divisions ( rocks1 & "s ( 8 te*nical t]ms1 su* z grauwacke1 gneiss1 & o!rs1 pass$ curr5t 9 e c\ntry 9 ,europe4 ,smi? adopt$ = ! mo/ "p ,engli% prov9cial t]ms1 (t5 ( b>b>\s s\nd1 su* z gault1 cornbra%1 clun* clay2 & affix$ !m to subdivisions ( ! ,briti% s]ies4 ,_m ( ^! /ill reta9 _! place 9 our sci5tific classifications1 & atte/ 8 priority ( arrangem5t4 ,,mod]n ,,progress ,,( ,,geology4 ,! cont5tion ( ! rival factions ( ! ,vulcani/s & ,neptuni/s _h be5 c>ri$ to su* a height1 t ^! names _h become t]ms ( reproa*2 & ! two p>ties _h be5 less occupi$ 9 se>*+ = tru?1 ?an = su* argum5ts z might /r5g!n _! own cause or s]ve to annoy _! antagoni/s4 ,a new s*ool at la/ arose1 :o pr(ess$ ! /ricte/ neutrality1 & ! utmo/ indiff]5ce to ! sy/ems ( ,w]n] & ,hutton1 & :o resolv$ dilig5tly to devote _! labors to obs]vation4 ,! reaction1 provok$ by ! intemp]ance ( ! conflict+ p>ties1 n[ produc$ a t5d5cy to extreme caution4 ,speculative views 7 disc\nt5anc$1 &1 ?r\gh fe> ( expos+ !mselves to ! suspicion ( a bias t[>ds ! dogmas ( a p>ty1 "s geologi/s became anxi\s to ent]ta9 no op9ion :atev] on ! causes ( ph5om5a1 & 7 incl9$ to skepticism ev5 :]e ! conclusions d$ucible f obs]v$ facts sc>cely admitt$ ( reasonable d\bt4 ,geological ,society ( ,london4--,b al?\gh ! reluctance to !orize 0 c>ri$ some:at to excess1 no measure c\ld be m salut>y at su* a mom5t ?an a susp5sion ( all attempts to =m :at 7 t]m$ !ories ( ! e>?4 ,a great body ( new data 7 requir$2 & ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 f\nd$ 9 #ahjg1 conduc$ greatly to ! atta9m5t ( ?is desirable end4 ,to multiply & record obs]vations1 & pati5tly to await ! result at "s future p]iod1 0 ! object propos$ by !m2 & x 0 _! favorite maxim t ! "t 0 n yet come = a g5]al sy/em ( geology1 b t all mu/ be cont5t = _m ye>s to be exclusively engag$ 9 furni%+ mat]ials = future g5]alizations4 ,by act+ up to ^! pr9ciples ) consi/5cy1 !y 9 a few ye>s dis>m$ all prejudice1 & rescu$ ! sci5ce f ! imputation ( be+ a dang]\s1 or at be/ b a vision>y pursuit4 ,a di/+ui%$ mod]n writ] has ) tru? rem>k$1 t ! advancem5t ( ?ree ( ! ma9 divisions ( geological inquiry h dur+ ! la/ half c5tury be5 promot$ successively by ?ree diff]5t nations ( ,europe1--! ,g]mans1 ! ,engli%1 & ! ,fr5*4#abj ,we h se5 t ! sy/ematic /udy ( :at may be call$ m9]alogical geology _h its orig9 & *ief po9t ( activity 9 ,g]many1 :]e ,w]n] fir/ describ$ ) precision ! m9]al *>act]s ( rocks4 ,! classification ( ! second>y =mations1 ea* m>k$ by _! peculi> fossils1 belongs1 9 a great measure1 to ,engl&1 :]e ! labors be=e allud$ to ( ,smi?1 & ^? ( ! mo/ active memb]s ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 7 /eadily direct$ to ^! objects4 ,! f\ndation ( ! ?ird bran*1 t relat+ to ! t]ti>y =mations1 0 laid 9 ,france by ! spl5did "w ( ,cuvi] & ,brongni>t1 publi%$ 9 #ahjh1 ,on ! ,m9]al ,geography & ,organic ,rema9s ( ! ,neighborhood ( ,p>is4 ,we may /ill trace1 9 ! language ( ! sci5ce & our pres5t me?ods ( arrangem5t1 ! v>i\s c\ntries :]e ! gr[? ( ^! sev]al dep>tm5ts ( geology 0 at diff]5t times promot$4 ,_m names ( simple m9]als & rocks rema9 to ?is day ,g]man2 :ile ! ,european divisions ( ! second>y /rata are 9 great "p ,engli%1 & are1 inde$1 (t5 f\nd$ too exclusively on ,engli% types4 ,la/ly1 ! subdivisions fir/ e/abli%$ ( ! succession ( /rata 9 ! ,p>is bas9 h s]v$ z normal gr\ps to :i* o!r t]ti>y deposits ?r\gh\t ,europe h be5 comp>$1 ev5 9 cases :]e ?is /&>d 0 :olly inapplicable4 ,no p]iod c\ld h be5 m =tunate = ! discov]y1 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ,p>is1 ( a ri* /ore ( well-pres]v$ fossils1 ?an ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury2 = at no =m] era _h ,natural hi/ory be5 cultivat$ ) su* en?usiasm 9 ! ,fr5* metropolis4 ,! labors ( ,cuvi] 9 comp>ative o/eology1 & ( ,lam>ck 9 rec5t & fossil %ells1 _h rais$ ^! dep>tm5ts ( /udy to a rank ( :i* !y _h nev] previ\sly be5 deem$ susceptible4 ,_! inve/igations _h ev5tually a p[]ful effect 9 dispell+ ! illusion :i* _h long prevail$ conc]n+ ! abs5ce ( analogy betwe5 ! anci5t & mod]n /ate ( our planet4 ,a close comp>ison ( ! rec5t & fossil species & ! inf]5ces drawn 9 reg>d to _! habits1 accu/om$ ! geologi/ to contemplate ! e>? z hav+ be5 at successive p]iods ! dwell+-place ( animals & plants ( diff]5t races1 "s t]re/rial1 & o!rs aquatic--"s fitt$ to live 9 seas1 o!rs 9 ! wat]s ( lakes & riv]s4 ,by ! consid]ation ( ^! topics1 ! m9d 0 sl[ly & ins5sibly )drawn f imag9>y pictures ( cata/rophes & *aotic confusion1 su* z haunt$ ! imag9ation ( ! e>ly cosmogoni/s4 ,num]\s pro(s 7 discov]$ ( ! tranquil deposition ( s$im5t>y matt]1 & ! sl[ developm5t ( organic life4 ,if _m writ]s1 & ,cuvi] himself 9 ! numb]1 /ill cont9u$ to ma9ta91 t ! ?read ( induction 0 brok51#aba yet1 9 reason+ by ! /rict rules ( induction f rec5t to fossil species1 !y 9 a great measure disclaim$ ! dogma :i* 9 !ory !y pr(ess$4 ,! adoption ( ! same g5]ic1 &1 9 "s cases1 ev5 ( ! same specific1 names = ! exuviae ( fossil animals & _! liv+ analogues1 0 an important /ep t[>ds famili>iz+ ! m9d ) ! idea ( ! id5tity & unity ( ! sy/em 9 di/ant eras4 ,x 0 an ackn[l$gm5t1 z x 71 t "p at lea/ ( ! anci5t memorials ( nature 7 writt5 9 a liv+ language4 ,! gr[+ importance1 !n1 ( ! natural hi/ory ( organic rema9s may be po9t$ out z ! *>act]i/ic feature ( ! progress ( ! sci5ce dur+ ! pres5t c5tury4 ,?is bran* ( k has already become an in/rum5t ( great utility 9 geological classification1 & is cont9u+ daily to unfold new data = gr& & enl>g$ views respect+ ! =m] *anges ( ! e>?4 ,:5 we comp>e ! result ( obs]vations 9 ! la/ fifty ye>s ) ^? ( ! ?ree prec$+ c5turies1 we _c b look =w>d ) ! mo/ sangu9e expectations to ! degree ( excell5ce to :i* geology may be c>ri$1 ev5 by ! labors ( ! pres5t g5]ation4 ,nev]1 p]haps1 did any sci5ce1 ) ! exception ( a/ronomy1 unfold1 9 an equally brief p]iod1 s _m novel & unexpect$ tru?s1 & ov]turn s _m preconceiv$ op9ions4 ,! s5ses _h = ages decl>$ ! e>? to be at re/1 until ! a/ronom] taught t x 0 c>ri$ ?r\gh space ) inconceivable rapidity4 ,9 l mann] 0 ! surface ( ?is planet reg>d$ z hav+ rema9$ unalt]$ s9ce its creation1 until ! geologi/ prov$ t x _h be5 ! !atre ( reit]at$ *ange1 & 0 /ill ! subject ( sl[ b nev]-end+ fluctuations4 ,! discov]y ( o!r sy/ems 9 ! b\ndless regions ( space 0 ! triumph ( a/ronomy2 to trace ! same sy/em ?r\gh v>i\s trans=mations--to behold x at successive eras adorn$ ) diff]5t hills & valleys1 lakes & seas1 & peopl$ ) new inhabitants1 0 ! delightful me$ ( geological rese>*4 ,by ! geomet] 7 measur$ ! regions ( space1 & ! relative di/ances ( ! heav5ly bodies2--by ! geologi/ myriads ( ages 7 reckon$1 n by ari?metical computation1 b by a tra9 ( physical ev5ts--a succession ( ph5om5a 9 ! animate & inanimate worlds--signs :i* convey to our m9ds m def9ite ideas ?an figures c d ( ! imm5sity ( "t4 ,:e!r our inve/igation ( ! e>?'s hi/ory & /ructure w ev5tually be productive ( z great practical b5efits to mank9d z a k ( ! di/ant heav5s1 mu/ rema9 = ! decision ( po/]ity4 ,x 0 n till a/ronomy _h be5 enri*$ by ! obs]vations ( _m c5turies1 & _h made its way aga9/ popul> prejudices to ! e/abli%m5t ( a s\nd !ory1 t its application to ! useful arts 0 mo/ conspicu\s4 ,! cultivation ( geology began at a lat] p]iod2 & 9 e /ep :i* x has hi!rto made t[>ds s\nd !oretical pr9ciples1 x _h to cont5d aga9/ m viol5t prepossessions4 ,! practical advantages already d]iv$ f x h n be5 inconsid]able2 b our g5]alizations are yet imp]fect1 & !y :o come aft] u may be expect$ to reap ! mo/ valuable fruits ( our labor4 ,mean:ile1 ! *>m ( fir/ discov]y is our own2 &1 z we explore ?is magnific5t field ( inquiry1 ! s5tim5t ( a great hi/orian ( our times may cont9ually be pres5t to our m9ds1 t he :o calls :at has vani%$ back aga9 into be+1 enjoys a bliss l t ( creat+4#abb ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,prejudices ,,:i* ,,h ,,ret>d$ ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,geology ,prepossessions 9 reg>d to ! duration ( pa/ "t--,prejudices aris+ f our peculi> position z inhabitants ( ! l&--,( ^? occasion$ by our n see+ subt]ranean *anges n[ 9 progress--,all ^! causes comb9e to make ! =m] c\rse ( ,nature appe> diff]5t f ! pres5t--,objections to ! doctr9e1 t causes simil> 9 k9d & en]gy to ^? n[ act+1 h produc$ ! =m] *anges ( ! e>?'s surface1 consid]$4 ,if we reflect on ! hi/ory ( ! progress ( geology1 z expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 we p]ceive t !re h be5 great fluctuations ( op9ion respect+ ! nature ( ! causes to :i* all =m] *anges ( ! e>?'s surface are ref]able4 ,! fir/ obs]v]s conceiv$ ! monum5ts :i* ! geologi/ endeavors to deciph] to relate to an orig9al /ate ( ! e>?1 or to a p]iod :5 !re 7 causes 9 activity1 di/9ct1 9 k9d & degree1 f ^? n[ con/itut+ ! economy ( nature4 ,^! views 7 gradually modifi$1 & "s ( !m entirely ab&on$1 9 proportion z obs]vations 7 multipli$1 & ! signs ( =m] mutations m skilfully int]pret$4 ,_m appe>ances1 :i* _h = a long "t be5 reg>d$ z indicat+ my/]i\s & extraord9>y ag5cy1 7 f9ally recogniz$ z ! necess>y result ( ! laws n[ gov]n+ ! mat]ial _w2 & ! discov]y ( ?is unlook$-= con=mity has at l5g? induc$ "s philosoph]s to inf]1 t1 dur+ ! ages contemplat$ 9 geology1 !re has nev] be5 any int]ruption to ! ag5cy ( ! same uni=m laws ( *ange4 ,! same assemblage ( g5]al causes1 !y conceive1 may h be5 suffici5t to produce1 by _! v>i\s comb9ations1 ! endless div]sity ( effects1 ( :i* ! %ell ( ! e>? has pres]v$ ! memorials2 &1 consi/5tly ) ^! pr9ciples1 ! recurr5ce ( analog\s *anges is expect$ by !m 9 "t to come4 ,:e!r we co9cide or n 9 ?is doctr9e1 we mu/ admit t ! gradual progress ( op9ion conc]n+ ! succession ( ph5om5a 9 v remote eras1 resembles1 9 a s+ul> mann]1 t :i* has accompani$ ! gr[+ intellig5ce ( e p1 9 reg>d to ! economy ( nature 9 _! own times4 ,9 an e>ly /ate ( advancem5t1 :5 a great numb] ( natural appe>ances are un9telligible1 an eclipse1 an e>?quake1 a flood1 or ! approa* ( a comet1 ) _m o!r occurr5ces aft]w>ds f\nd to belong to ! regul> c\rse ( ev5ts1 are reg>d$ z prodigies4 ,! same delusion prevails z to moral ph5om5a1 & _m ( ^! are ascrib$ to ! int]v5tion ( demons1 gho/s1 wit*es1 & o!r immat]ial & sup]natural ag5ts4 ,by degrees1 _m ( ! enigmas ( ! moral & physical _w are expla9$1 &1 in/ead ( be+ due to extr9sic & irregul> causes1 !y are f\nd to dep5d on fix$ & inv>iable laws4 ,! philosoph] at la/ becomes conv9c$ ( ! undeviat+ uni=mity ( second>y causes2 &1 guid$ by 8 fai? 9 ?is pr9ciple1 he det]m9es ! probability ( acc\nts transmitt$ to him ( =m] occurr5ces1 & (t5 rejects ! fabul\s tales ( =m] times1 on ! gr\nd ( _! be+ irreconcilable ) ! exp]i5ce ( m enlight5$ ages4 ,prepossessions 9 reg>d to ! duration ( pa/ "t4--,z a belief 9 ! want ( con=mity 9 ! causes by :i* ! e>?'s cru/ has be5 modifi$ 9 anci5t & mod]n p]iods 01 = a long "t1 univ]sally preval5t1 & t1 too1 among/ m5 :o 7 conv9c$ t ! ord] ( nature _h be5 uni=m = ! la/ sev]al ?\s& ye>s1 e circum/ance :i* c\ld h influ5c$ _! m9ds & giv5 an undue bias to _! op9ions des]ves p>ticul> att5tion4 ,n[ ! read] may easily satisfy himself1 t1 h[ev] undeviat+ ! c\rse ( nature may h be5 f ! e>lie/ epo*s1 x 0 impossible = ! fir/ cultivators ( geology to come to su* a conclusion1 s long z !y 7 "u a delusion z to ! age ( ! _w1 & ! date ( ! fir/ creation ( animate be+s4 ,h[ev] fanta/ical "s !ories ( ! sixte5? c5tury may n[ appe> to u1--h[ev] unwor?y ( m5 ( great tal5t & s\nd judgm5t1--we may re/ assur$ t1 if ! same misconception n[ prevail$ 9 reg>d to ! memorials ( human transactions1 x w\ld give rise to a simil> tra9 ( absurdities4 ,let u imag9e1 = example1 t ,*ampollion1 & ! ,fr5* & ,tuscan lit]ati lately engag$ 9 explor+ ! antiquities ( ,egypt1 _h visit$ t c\ntry ) a firm belief t ! banks ( ! ,nile 7 nev] peopl$ by ! human race be=e ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & t _! fai? 9 ?is dogma 0 z difficult to %ake z ! op9ion ( our ance/ors t ! e>? 0 nev] ! abode ( liv+ be+s until ! creation ( ! pres5t cont95ts1 & ( ! species n[ exi/+1--x is easy to p]ceive :at extravagant sy/ems !y w\ld frame1 :ile "u ! influ5ce ( ?is delusion1 to acc\nt = ! monum5ts discov]$ 9 ,egypt4 ,! sight ( ! pyramids1 obelisks1 colossal /atues1 & ru9$ temples1 w\ld fill !m ) su* a/oni%m5t1 t = a "t !y w\ld be z m5 spell-b\nd--:olly incapable ( reason+ ) sobriety4 ,!y might incl9e at fir/ to ref] ! con/ruction ( su* /up5d\s works to "s sup]human p[]s ( a primeval _w4 ,a sy/em might be inv5t$ resembl+ t s gravely advanc$ by ,mane?o1 :o relates t a dyna/y ( gods orig9ally rul$ 9 ,egypt1 ( :om ,vulcan1 ! fir/ mon>*1 reign$ n9e ?\s& ye>s2 aft] :om came ,h]cules & o!r demigods1 :o 7 at la/ succe$$ by human k+s4 ,:5 "s fanciful speculations ( ?is k9d _h amus$ _! imag9ations = a "t1 "s va/ repository ( mummies w\ld be discov]$1 & w\ld imm$iately undeceive ^? antiqu>ies :o enjoy$ an opportunity ( p]sonally exam9+ !m2 b ! prejudices ( o!rs at a di/ance1 :o 7 n eye-witnesses ( ! :ole ph5om5a1 w\ld n be s easily ov]come4 ,! concurr5t report ( _m travell]s w\ld1 inde$1 r5d] x necess>y = !m to accommodate anci5t !ories to "s ( ! new facts1 & mu* wit & +5uity w\ld be requir$ to modify & def5d _! old positions4 ,ea* new inv5tion w\ld violate a great] numb] ( kn[n analogies2 = if a !ory be requir$ to embrace "s false pr9ciple1 x becomes m vision>y 9 proportion z facts are multipli$1 z w\ld be ! case if geomet]s 7 n[ requir$ to =m an a/ronomical sy/em on ! assumption ( ! immobility ( ! e>?4 ,among/ o!r fanciful conjectures conc]n+ ! hi/ory ( ,egypt1 we may suppose "s ( ! foll[+ to be />t$4 ,z ! banks ( ! ,nile h be5 s rec5tly coloniz$ = ! fir/ "t1 ! curi\s sub/ances call$ mummies c\ld nev] 9 reality h belong$ to m54 ,!y may h be5 g5]at$ by "s pla/ic virtue resid+ 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 or !y may be abortions ( ,nature produc$ by h] incipi5t ef=ts 9 ! "w ( creation4 ,= if de=m$ be+s are sometimes born ev5 n[1 :5 ! s*eme ( ! univ]se is fully develop$1 _m m may h be5 's5t be=e _! "t1 sc>ce half made up1' :5 ! planet itself 0 9 ! embryo /ate4 ,b if ^! notions appe> to d]ogate f ! p]fection ( ! ,div9e attributes1 & if ^! mummies be 9 all _! p>ts true repres5tations ( ! human =m1 may we n ref] !m to ! future r ?an ! pa/8--,may we n be look+ into ! womb ( ,nature1 & n h] grave8 ,may n ^! images be l ! %ades ( ! unborn 9 ,virgil's ,elysium--! ar*etypes ( m5 n yet call$ into exi/5ce8 ,^! speculations1 if advocat$ by eloqu5t writ]s1 w\ld n fail to attract _m zeal\s vot>ies1 = !y w\ld relieve m5 f ! pa9ful necessity ( r5\nc+ preconceiv$ op9ions4 ,incr$ible z su* skepticism may appe>1 x has be5 rivall$ by _m sy/ems ( ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies1 & among o!rs by t ( ! le>n$ ,falloppio1 :o reg>d$ ! tusks ( fossil elephants z e>?y concretions1 & ! pott]y or fragm5ts ( vases 9 ! ,monte ,te/aceo1 ne> ,rome1 z works ( nature1 & n ( art4 ,b :5 "o g5]ation _h pass$ away1 & ano!r1 n compromis$ to ! support ( antiquat$ dogmas1 _h succe$$1 !y w\ld review ! evid5ce af=d$ by mummies m imp>tially1 & w\ld no long] controv]t ! prelim9>y "q1 t human be+s _h liv$ 9 ,egypt be=e ! n9ete5? c5tury3 s t :5 a hundr$ ye>s p]haps _h be5 lo/1 ! indu/ry & tal5ts ( ! philosoph] w\ld be at la/ direct$ to ! elucidation ( po9ts ( real hi/orical importance4 ,b ! above argum5ts are aim$ aga9/ "o only ( _m prejudices ) :i* ! e>li] geologi/s _h to cont5d4 ,ev5 :5 !y conc$$ t ! e>? _h be5 peopl$ ) animate be+s at an e>li] p]iod ?an 0 at fir/ suppos$1 !y _h no conception t ! quantity ( "t bore s great a proportion to ! hi/orical era z is n[ g5]ally conc$$4 ,h[ fatal e error z to ! quantity ( "t mu/ prove to ! introduction ( rational views conc]n+ ! /ate ( ?+s 9 =m] ages1 may be conceiv$ by suppos+ ! annals ( ! civil & milit>y transactions ( a great nation to be p]us$ "u ! impression t !y occurr$ 9 a p]iod ( "o hundr$ in/ead ( two ?\s& ye>s4 ,su* a portion ( hi/ory w\ld imm$iately assume ! air ( a romance2 ! ev5ts w\ld seem devoid ( cr$ibility1 & inconsi/5t ) ! pres5t c\rse ( human affairs4 ,a cr[d ( incid5ts w\ld foll[ ea* o!r 9 ?ick succession4 ,armies & fleets w\ld appe> to be assembl$ only to be de/roy$1 & cities built m]ely to fall 9 ru9s4 ,!re w\ld be ! mo/ viol5t transitions f =eign or inte/9e w> to p]iods ( pr(\nd peace1 & ! works effect$ dur+ ! ye>s ( disord] or tranquillity w\ld appe> alike sup]human 9 magnitude4 ,he :o %\ld /udy ! monum5ts ( ! natural _w "u ! influ5ce ( a simil> infatuation1 mu/ draw a no less exagg]at$ picture ( ! en]gy & viol5ce ( causes1 & mu/ exp]i5ce ! same insurm\ntable difficulty 9 reconcil+ ! =m] & pres5t /ate ( nature4 ,if we c\ld behold 9 "o view all ! volcanic cones ?r[n up 9 ,icel&1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 & o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 dur+ ! la/ five ?\s& ye>s1 & c\ld see ! lavas :i* h fl[$ dur+ ! same p]iod2 ! dislocations1 subsid5ces1 & elevations caus$ dur+ e>?quakes2 ! l&s add$ to v>i\s deltas1 or dev\r$ by ! sea1 toge!r ) ! effects ( deva/ation by floods1 & imag9e t all ^! ev5ts _h happ5$ 9 "o ye>1 we mu/ =m mo/ exalt$ ideas ( ! activity ( ! ag5ts1 & ! sudd5ness ( ! revolutions4 ,7 an equal am\nt ( *ange to pass be=e our eyes 9 ! next ye>1 c\ld we avoid ! conclusion t "s great crisis ( nature 0 at h&8 ,if geologi/s1 !re=e1 h mis9t]pret$ ! signs ( a succession ( ev5ts1 s z to conclude t c5turies 7 impli$ :]e ! *>act]s import$ ?\s&s ( ye>s1 & ?\s&s ( ye>s :]e ! language ( ,nature signifi$ millions1 !y c\ld n1 if !y reason$ logically f su* false premises1 come to any o!r conclusion ?an t ! sy/em ( ! natural _w _h und]gone a complete revolution4 ,we %\ld be w>rant$ 9 ascrib+ ! erection ( ! great pyramid to sup]human p[]1 if we 7 conv9c$ t x 0 rais$ 9 "o day2 & if we imag9e1 9 ! same mann]1 a cont95t or m\nta9-*a9 to h be5 elevat$ dur+ an equally small fraction ( ! "t :i* 0 really occupi$ 9 upheav+ x1 we might !n be ju/ifi$ 9 inf]r+1 t ! subt]ranean movem5ts 7 once f> m en]getic ?an 9 our own times4 ,we "k t dur+ "o e>?quake ! coa/ ( ,*ili may be rais$ = a hundr$ miles to ! av]age height ( ab\t ?ree feet4 ,a repetition ( two ?\s& %ocks1 ( equal viol5ce1 might produce a m\nta9-*a9 "o hundr$ miles long1 & six ?\s& feet high4 ,n[1 %\ld "o or two only ( ^! convulsions happ5 9 a c5tury1 x w\ld be consi/5t ) ! ord] ( ev5ts exp]i5c$ by ! ,*ilians f ! e>lie/ times2 b if ! :ole ( !m 7 to occur 9 ! next hundr$ ye>s1 ! entire di/rict mu/ be depopulat$1 sc>cely any animals or plants c\ld survive1 & ! surface w\ld be "o confus$ heap ( ru9 & desolation4 ,"o consequ5ce ( und]valu+ greatly ! quantity ( pa/ "t1 is ! app>5t co9cid5ce :i* x occasions ( ev5ts necess>ily disconnect$1 or :i* are s unusual1 t x w\ld be inconsi/5t ) all calculation ( *ances to suppose !m to happ5 at "o & ! same "t4 ,:5 ! unlook$-= association ( su* r>e ph5om5a is witness$ 9 ! pres5t c\rse ( nature1 x sc>cely ev] fails to excite a suspicion ( ! pret]natural 9 ^? m9ds :i* are n firmly conv9c$ ( ! uni=m ag5cy ( second>y causes2--z if ! dea? ( "s individual 9 ^: fate !y are int]e/$ happ5s to be accompani$ by ! appe>ance ( a lum9\s meteor1 or a comet1 or ! %ock ( an e>?quake4 ,x w\ld be only necess>y to multiply su* co9cid5ces indef9itely1 & ! m9d ( e philosoph] w\ld be di/urb$4 ,n[ x w\ld be difficult to exagg]ate ! numb] ( physical ev5ts1 _m ( !m mo/ r>e & unconnect$ 9 _! nature1 :i* 7 imag9$ by ! ,woodw>dian hypo!sis to h happ5$ 9 ! c\rse ( a few mon?s2 & num]\s o!r examples might be f\nd ( popul> geological !ories1 :i* require u to imag9e t a long succession ( ev5ts happ5$ 9 a brief & almo/ mom5t>y p]iod4 ,ano!r liability to error1 v ne>ly alli$ to ! =m]1 arises f ! frequ5t contact ( geological monum5ts ref]r+ to v di/ant p]iods ( "t4 ,we (t5 behold1 at "o glance1 ! effects ( causes :i* h act$ at times incalculably remote1 & yet !re may be no /rik+ circum/ances to m>k ! occurr5ce ( a great *asm 9 ! *ronological s]ies ( ,nature's ar*ives4 ,9 ! va/ int]val ( "t :i* may really h elaps$ betwe5 ! results ( op]ations ?us comp>$1 ! physical condition ( ! e>? may1 by sl[ & ins5sible modifications1 h become entirely alt]$2 "o or m races ( organic be+s may h pass$ away1 & yet h left beh9d1 9 ! p>ticul> region "u contemplation1 no trace ( _! exi/5ce4 ,to a m9d unconsci\s ( ^! int]m$iate ev5ts1 ! passage f "o /ate ( ?+s to ano!r mu/ appe> s viol5t1 t ! idea ( revolutions 9 ! sy/em inevitably sugge/s itself4 ,! imag9ation is z mu* p]plex$ by ! deception1 z x might be if two di/ant po9ts 9 space 7 sudd5ly br\ght into imm$iate proximity4 ,let u suppose1 = a mom5t1 t a philosoph] %\ld lie d[n to sleep 9 "s arctic wild]ness1 & !n be transf]r$ by a p[]1 su* z we read ( 9 tales ( en*antm5t1 to a valley 9 a tropical c\ntry1 :]e1 on awak+1 he might f9d himself surr\nd$ by birds ( brilliant plumage1 & all ! luxuriance ( animal & vegetable =ms ( :i* ,nature is s prodigal 9 ^? regions4 ,! mo/ reasonable supposition1 p]haps1 :i* he c\ld make1 if by ! necromanc]'s art he 7 plac$ 9 su* a situation1 w\ld be1 t he 0 dream+2 & if a geologi/ =m !ories "u a simil> delusion1 we _c expect him to pres]ve m consi/5cy 9 8 speculations ?an 9 ! tra9 ( ideas 9 an ord9>y dream4 ,x may af=d1 p]haps1 a lively illu/ration ( ! pr9ciple "h insi/$ ^u1 if ,i recall to ! read]'s recollection ! leg5d ( ! ,sev5 ,sleep]s4 ,! sc5e ( t popul> fable 0 plac$ 9 ! two c5turies :i* elaps$ betwe5 ! reign ( ! emp]or ,decius & ! dea? ( ,!odosius ! y\ng]4 ,9 t int]val ( "t 7betwe5 ! ye>s #bdi & #dej ( our era7 ! union ( ! ,roman ,empire _h be5 dissolv$1 & "s ( its faire/ prov9ces ov]run by ! b>b>ians ( ! nor?4 ,! seat ( gov]nm5t _h pass$ f ,rome to ,con/ant9ople1 & ! ?rone f a pagan p]secutor to a succession ( ,*ri/ian & or?odox pr9ces4 ,! g5ius ( ! empire _h be5 humbl$ 9 ! du/1 & ! alt>s ( ,diana & ,h]cules 7 on ! po9t ( be+ transf]r$ to ,ca?olic sa9ts & m>tyrs4 ,! leg5d relates1 t :5 ,decius 0 /ill p]secut+ ! ,*ri/ians1 sev5 noble y\?s ( ,ephesus conceal$ !mselves 9 a spaci\s cav]n 9 ! side ( an adjac5t m\nta91 :]e !y 7 doom$ to p]i% by ! tyrant1 :o gave ord]s t ! entrance %\ld be firmly secur$ ) a pile ( huge /ones4 ,!y imm$iately fell into a deep slumb]1 :i* 0 miracul\sly prolong$1 )\t injur+ ! p[]s ( life1 dur+ a p]iod ( #ahg ye>s4 ,at ! end ( t "t ! slaves ( ,adolius1 to :om ! inh]itance ( ! m\nta9 _h desc5d$1 remov$ ! /ones to supply mat]ials = "s ru/ic edifice3 ! light ( ! sun d>t$ into ! cav]n1 & ! ,sev5 ,sleep]s 7 p]mitt$ to awake4 ,aft] a slumb]1 z !y ?\ght1 ( a few h\rs1 !y 7 press$ by ! calls ( hung]1 & resolv$ t ,jambli*us1 "o ( _! numb]1 %\ld secretly return to ! city to pur*ase bread = ! use ( 8 companions4 ,! y\? c\ld no long] recognize ! once famili> aspect ( 8 native c\ntry1 & 8 surprise 0 increas$ by ! appe>ance ( a l>ge cross triumphantly erect$ ov] ! pr9cipal gate ( ,ephesus4 ,8 s+ul> dress & obsolete language conf\nd$ ! bak]1 to :om he (f]$ an anci5t m$al ( ,decius z ! curr5t co9 ( ! empire2 & ,jambli*us1 on ! suspicion ( a secret treasure1 0 dragg$ be=e ! judge4 ,_! mutual inquiries produc$ ! amaz+ discov]y1 t two c5turies 7 almo/ elaps$ s9ce ,jambli*us & 8 fri5ds _h escap$ f ! rage ( a pagan tyrant4#abc ,?is leg5d 0 receiv$ z au!ntic ?r\gh\t ! ,*ri/ian _w be=e ! end ( ! six? c5tury1 & 0 aft]w>ds introduc$ by ,mahomet z a div9e revelation into ! ,koran1 & f h5ce 0 adopt$ & adorn$ by all ! nations f ,b5gal to ,africa :o pr(ess$ ! ,mahometan fai?4 ,"s ve/iges ev5 ( a simil> tradition h be5 discov]$ 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,?is easy & univ]sal belief1 obs]ves ! philosophical hi/orian ( ! ,decl9e & ,fall1 s expressive ( ! s5se ( mank9d1 may be ascrib$ to ! g5u9e m]it ( ! fable itself4 ,we imp]ceptibly advance f y\? to age1 )\t obs]v+ ! gradual1 b incessant1 *ange ( human affairs2 & ev51 9 our l>g] exp]i5ce ( hi/ory1 ! imag9ation is accu/om$1 by a p]petual s]ies ( causes & effects1 to unite ! mo/ di/ant revolutions4 ,b if ! int]val betwe5 two memorable eras c\ld be in/antly annihilat$2 if x 7 possible1 aft] a mom5t>y slumb] ( two hundr$ ye>s1 to display ! new _w to ! eyes ( a spectator :o /ill reta9$ a lively & rec5t impression ( ! old1 8 surprise & 8 reflections w\ld furni% ! pleas+ subject ( a philosophical romance4#abd ,prejudices aris+ f our peculi> position z inhabitants ( ! l&4--,! s\rces ( prejudice hi!rto consid]$ may be deem$ peculi> = ! mo/ "p to ! infancy ( ! sci5ce1 b o!rs are common to ! fir/ cultivators ( geology & to ourselves1 & are all s+ul>ly calculat$ to produce ! same deception1 & to /r5g!n our belief t ! c\rse ( nature 9 ! e>li] ages diff]$ widely f t n[ e/abli%$4 ,al?\gh ^! circum/ances _c be fully expla9$ )\t assum+ "s ?+s z prov$1 :i* x w be ! object ( ano!r "p ( ?is "w to demon/rate1 x may be well to allude to !m briefly 9 ?is place4 ,! fir/ & greate/ difficulty1 !n1 consi/s 9 an habitual unconsci\sness t our position z obs]v]s is ess5tially unfavorable1 :5 we endeavor to e/imate ! nature & magnitude ( ! *anges n[ 9 progress4 ,9 consequ5ce ( our inatt5tion to ?is subject1 we are liable to s]i\s mi/akes 9 contra/+ ! pres5t ) =m] /ates ( ! globe4 ,z dwell]s on ! l&1 we inhabit ab\t a f\r? "p ( ! surface2 & t portion is almo/ exclusively a !atre ( decay1 & n ( reproduction4 ,we "k1 inde$1 t new deposits are annually =m$ 9 seas & lakes1 & t e ye> "s new igne\s rocks are produc$ 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1 b we _c wat* ! progress ( _! =mation2 & z !y are only pres5t to our m9ds by ! aid ( reflection1 x requires an ef=t bo? ( ! reason & ! imag9ation to appreciate duly _! importance4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n surpris+ t we e/imate v imp]fectly ! result ( op]ations ?us invisible to u2 & t1 :5 analog\s results ( =m] epo*s are pres5t$ to our inspection1 we _c imm$iately recognize ! analogy4 ,he :o has obs]v$ ! qu>ry+ ( /one f a rock1 & has se5 x %ipp$ = "s di/ant port1 & !n endeavors to conceive :at k9d ( edifice w be rais$ by ! mat]ials1 is 9 ! same pr$icam5t z a geologi/1 :o1 :ile he is conf9$ to ! l&1 sees ! decomposition ( rocks1 & ! transportation ( matt] by riv]s to ! sea1 & !n endeavors to picture to himself ! new /rata :i* ,nature is build+ b5ea? ! wat]s4 ,prejudices aris+ f our n see+ subt]ranean *anges4--,nor is 8 position less unfavorable :51 behold+ a volcanic eruption1 he tries to conceive :at *anges ! column ( lava has produc$1 9 its passage upw>ds1 on ! int]sect$ /rata2 or :at =m ! melt$ matt] may assume at great dep?s on cool+2 or :at may be ! ext5t ( ! subt]ranean riv]s & res]voirs ( liquid matt] f> b5ea? ! surface4 ,x %\ld1 !re=e1 be rememb]$1 t ! task impos$ on ^? :o /udy ! e>?'s hi/ory requires no ord9>y %>e ( discretion2 = we are preclud$ f collat+ ! correspond+ p>ts ( ! sy/em ( ?+s z x exi/s n[1 & z x exi/$ at =m] p]iods4 ,if we 7 inhabitants ( ano!r elem5t--if ! great ocean 7 our doma91 in/ead ( ! n>r[ limits ( ! l&1 our difficulties w\ld be consid]ably less5$2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 !re c be little d\bt1 al?\gh ! read] may1 p]haps1 smile at ! b>e sugge/ion ( su* an idea1 t an amphibi\s be+1 :o %\ld possess our faculties1 w\ld /ill m easily arrive at s\nd !oretical op9ions 9 geology1 s9ce he might behold1 on ! "o h&1 ! decomposition ( rocks 9 ! atmosph]e1 or ! transportation ( matt] by runn+ wat]2 &1 on ! o!r1 exam9e ! deposition ( s$im5t 9 ! sea1 & ! imb$d+ ( animal & vegetable rema9s 9 new /rata4 ,he might asc]ta91 by direct obs]vation1 ! action ( a m\nta9 torr5t1 z well z ( a m>9e curr5t2 might comp>e ! products ( volcanoes p\r$ out ^u ! l& ) ^? eject$ b5ea? ! wat]s2 & might m>k1 on ! "o h&1 ! gr[? ( ! =e/1 &1 on ! o!r1 t ( ! coral reef4 ,yet1 ev5 ) ^! advantages1 he w\ld be liable to fall into ! greate/ errors1 :5 endeavor+ to reason on rocks ( subt]ranean orig94 ,he w\ld seek 9 va91 )9 ! sph]e ( 8 obs]vation1 = any direct analogy to ! process ( _! =mation1 & w\ld !re=e be 9 dang] ( attribut+ !m1 :]ev] !y are uprais$ to view1 to "s primeval /ate ( nature4 ,b if we may be all[$ s f> to indulge ! imag9ation1 z to suppose a be+ entirely conf9$ to ! ne!r _w--"s dusky melan*oly sprite1 l ,umbriel1 :o c\ld flit on sooty p9ions to ! c5tral e>?1 b :o 0 nev] p]mitt$ to sully ! fair face ( light1 & em]ge into ! regions ( wat] & ( air2 & if ?is be+ %\ld busy himself 9 inve/igat+ ! /ructure ( ! globe1 he might frame !ories ! exact conv]se ( ^? usually adopt$ by human philosoph]s4 ,he might inf] t ! /ratifi$ rocks1 conta9+ %ells & o!r organic rema9s1 7 ! olde/ ( creat$ ?+s1 belong+ to "s orig9al & nasc5t /ate ( ! planet4 ,( ^! masses1 he might say1 :e!r !y consi/ ( loose incoh]5t s&1 s(t clay1 or solid /one1 none h be5 =m$ 9 mod]n times4 ,e ye> "s "p ( !m are brok5 & %att]$ by e>?quakes1 or melt$ by volcanic fire2 & :5 !y cool d[n sl[ly f a /ate ( fusion1 !y assume a new & m cry/all9e =m1 no long] exhibit+ t /ratifi$ disposition & ^? curi\s impressions & fanta/ic m>k+s1 by :i* !y 7 previ\sly *>act]iz$4 ,?is process _c h be5 c>ri$ on = an indef9ite "t1 = 9 t case all ! /ratifi$ rocks w\ld long ere ?is h be5 fus$ & cry/alliz$4 ,x is !re=e probable t ! :ole planet once consi/$ ( ^! my/]i\s & curi\sly b$d$ =mations at a "t :5 ! volcanic fire _h n yet be5 br\ght into activity4 ,s9ce t p]iod !re seems to h be5 a gradual developm5t ( heat2 & ?is augm5tation we may expect to cont9ue till ! :ole globe %all be 9 a /ate ( fluidity & inc&esc5ce4 ,su* might be ! sy/em ( ! ,gnome at ! v "t t ! foll[]s ( ,leibnitz1 reason+ on :at !y saw on ! out] surface1 might be tea*+ ! opposite doctr9e ( gradual refrig]ation1 & av]r+ t ! e>? _h begun its c>e] z a fi]y comet1 & might be de/9$ h]eaft] to become a froz5 mass4 ,! t5ets ( ! s*ools ( ! ne!r & ( ! upp] _w w\ld be directly oppos$ to ea* o!r1 = bo? w\ld p>take ( ! prejudices inevitably result+ f ! cont9ual contemplation ( "o class ( ph5om5a to ! exclusion ( ano!r4 ,man obs]ves ! annual decomposition ( cry/all9e & igne\s rocks1 & may sometimes see _! conv]sion into /ratifi$ deposits2 b he _c witness ! reconv]sion ( ! s$im5t>y into ! cry/all9e by subt]ranean fire4 ,he is 9 ! habit ( reg>d+ all ! s$im5t>y rocks z m rec5t ?an ! un/ratifi$1 = ! same reason t we may suppose him to fall into ! opposite error if he saw ! orig9 ( ! igne\s class only4 ,x 0 n an impossible cont+5cy1 t a/ronom]s might h be5 plac$ at "s p]iod 9 a situation mu* resembl+ t 9 :i* ! geologi/ seems to /& at pres5t4 ,if ! ,italians1 = example1 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! twelf? c5tury1 _h discov]$ at ,amalfi1 in/ead ( ! p&ects ( ,ju/9ian1 "s anci5t manuscripts fill$ ) a/ronomical obs]vations relat+ to a p]iod ( ?ree ?\s& ye>s1 & made by "s anci5t geomet]s :o possess$ optical in/rum5ts z p]fect z any 9 mod]n ,europe1 !y w\ld probably1 on consult+ ^! memorials1 h come to a conclusion t !re _h be5 a great revolution 9 ! sol> & sid]eal sy/ems4 ,_m prim>y & second>y planets1 !y might say1 are enum]at$ 9 ^! tables1 :i* exi/ no long]4 ,_! positions are assign$ ) su* precision t we may assure ourselves t !re is no?+ 9 _! place at pres5t b ! blue e!r4 ,:]e "o /> is visible to u1 ^! docum5ts repres5t sev]al ?\s&s4 ,"s ( ^? :i* are n[ s+le consi/$ !n ( two sep>ate bodies1 (t5 di/+ui%$ by diff]5t colors1 & revolv+ p]iodically r\nd a common c5tre ( gravity4 ,!re is no?+ analog\s to !m 9 ! univ]se at pres5t2 = !y 7 nei!r fix$ />s nor planets1 b seem to h /ood 9 ! mutual relation ( sun & planet to ea* o!r4 ,we mu/ conclude1 !re=e1 t !re has occurr$1 at no di/ant p]iod1 a trem5d\s cata/rophe1 :]eby ?\s&s ( worlds h be5 annihilat$ at once1 & "s heav5ly bodies absorb$ into ! sub/ance ( o!rs4 ,:5 su* doctr9es _h prevail$ = ages1 ! discov]y ( "s ( ! worlds1 suppos$ to h be5 lo/ 7! satellites ( ,jupit]1 = example71 by aid ( ! fir/ rude telescope inv5t$ aft] ! revival ( sci5ce1 w\ld n dissipate ! delusion1 = ! :ole burd5 ( pro( w\ld n[ be ?r[n on ^? :o insi/$ on ! /ability ( ! sy/em f a remote p]iod1 & ^! philosoph]s w\ld be requir$ to demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( all ! worlds said to h be5 annihilat$4 ,su* popul> prejudices w\ld be mo/ unfavorable to ! advancem5t ( a/ronomy2 =1 in/ead ( p]sev]+ 9 ! attempt to improve _! in/rum5ts1 & labori\sly to make & record obs]vations1 ! great] numb] w\ld despair ( v]ify+ ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! heav5ly bodies n visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,in/ead ( confess+ ! ext5t ( _! ignorance1 & /riv+ to remove x by br++ to light new facts1 !y w\ld indulge 9 ! m easy & indol5t employm5t ( fram+ imag9>y !ories conc]n+ cata/rophes & mighty revolutions 9 ! sy/em ( ! univ]se4 ,= m ?an two c5turies ! %elly /rata ( ! ,subap5n9e hills af=d$ matt] ( speculation to ! e>ly geologi/s ( ,italy1 & few ( !m _h any suspicion t simil> deposits 7 !n =m+ 9 ! neighbor+ sea4 ,!y 7 z unconsci\s ( ! cont9u$ action ( causes /ill produc+ simil> effects1 z ! a/ronom]s1 9 ! case above suppos$1 ( ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 heav5ly bodies /ill giv+ & reflect+ light1 & p]=m+ _! movem5ts z ( old4 ,"s imag9$ t ! /rata1 s ri* 9 organic rema9s1 in/ead ( be+ due to second>y ag5ts1 _h be5 s creat$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?+s by ! fiat ( ! ,almighty4 ,o!rs1 z we h se51 ascrib$ ! imb$d$ fossil bodies to "s pla/ic p[] :i* resid$ 9 ! e>? 9 ! e>ly ages ( ! _w4 ,9 :at mann] 7 ^! dogmas at l5g? explod$8 ,! fossil relics 7 c>efully comp>$ ) _! liv+ analogues1 & all d\bts z to _! organic orig9 7 ev5tually dispell$4 ,s1 also1 9 reg>d to ! nature ( ! conta9+ b$s ( mud1 s&1 & lime/one3 ^? p>ts ( ! bottom ( ! sea 7 exam9$ :]e %ells are n[ becom+ annually entomb$ 9 new deposits4 ,donati explor$ ! b$ ( ! ,adriatic1 & f\nd ! close/ resemblance betwe5 ! /rata !re =m+1 & ^? :i* con/itut$ hills above a ?\s& feet high 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,italian p59sula4 ,he asc]ta9$ by dr$g+ t liv+ te/acea 7 !re gr\p$ toge!r 9 precisely ! same mann] z 7 _! fossil analogues 9 ! inl& /rata2 & :ile "s ( ! rec5t %ells ( ! ,adriatic 7 becom+ incru/$ ) calc>e\s rock1 he obs]v$ t o!rs _h be5 newly buri$ 9 s& & clay1 precisely z fossil %ells occur 9 ! ,subap5n9e hills4 ,?is discov]y ( ! id5tity ( mod]n & anci5t subm>9e op]ations 0 n made )\t ! aid ( artificial in/rum5ts1 :i*1 l ! telescope1 br\ght ph5om5a into view n o!rwise )9 ! sph]e ( human obs]vation4 ,9 l mann]1 ! volcanic rocks ( ! ,vic5t9 _h be5 /udi$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! la/ c5tury2 b no geologi/ suspect$1 be=e ! "t ( ,ardu9o1 t ^! 7 compos$ ( anci5t subm>9e lavas4 ,dur+ _m ye>s ( controv]sy1 ! popul> op9ion incl9$ to a belief t basalt & rocks ( ! same class _h be5 precipitat$ f a *aotic fluid1 or an ocean :i* rose at successive p]iods ov] ! cont95ts1 *>g$ ) ! compon5t elem5ts ( ! rocks 9 "q4 ,few w n[ dispute t x w\ld h be5 difficult to inv5t a !ory m di/ant f ! tru?2 yet we mu/ cease to wond] t x ga9$ s _m proselytes1 :5 we rememb] t its claims to probability arose p>tly f ! v circum/ance ( its confirm+ ! assum$ want ( analogy betwe5 geological causes & ^? n[ 9 action4 ,by :at tra9 ( inve/igations 7 geologi/s induc$ at l5g? to reject ^! views1 & to ass5t to ! igne\s orig9 ( ! trappean =mations8 ,by an exam9ation ( volcanoes n[ active1 & by comp>+ _! /ructure & ! composition ( _! lavas ) ! anci5t trap-rocks4 ,! e/abli%m5t1 f "t to "t1 ( num]\s po9ts ( id5tification1 drew at l5g? f geologi/s a reluctant admission1 t !re 0 m correspond5ce betwe5 ! condition ( ! globe at remote eras & n[1 & m uni=mity 9 ! laws :i* h regulat$ ! *anges ( its surface1 ?an !y at fir/ imag9$4 ,if1 9 ?is /ate ( ! sci5ce1 !y /ill despair$ ( reconcil+ e class ( geological ph5om5a to ! op]ations ( ord9>y causes1 ev5 by /ra9+ analogy to ! utmo/ limits ( cr$ibility1 we might h expect$1 at lea/1 t ! balance ( probability w\ld n[ h be5 presum$ to incl9e t[>ds ! close analogy ( ! anci5t & mod]n causes4 ,b1 aft] repeat$ exp]i5ce ( ! failure ( attempts to speculate on geological monum5ts1 z belong+ to a di/9ct ord] ( ?+s1 new sects cont9u$ to p]sev]e 9 ! pr9ciples adopt$ by _! pr$ecessors4 ,!y /ill began1 z ea* new problem pres5t$ itself1 :e!r relat+ to ! animate or inanimate _w1 to assume an orig9al & dissimil> ord] ( nature2 & :5 at l5g? !y approximat$1 or entirely came r\nd to an opposite op9ion1 x 0 always ) ! feel+1 t !y 7 conc$+ :at !y _h be5 ju/ifi$ a priori 9 deem+ improbable4 ,9 a ^w1 ! same m5 :o1 z natural philosoph]s1 w\ld h be5 mo/ incr$ul\s respect+ any extraord9>y deviations f ! kn[n c\rse ( nature1 if report$ to h happ5$ 9 _! own "t1 7 equally dispos$1 z geologi/s1 to expect ! pro(s ( su* deviations at e p]iod ( ! pa/4 ,i %all proce$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s to enum]ate "s ( ! pr9cipal difficulties /ill oppos$ to ! !ory ( ! uni=m nature & en]gy ( ! causes :i* h work$ successive *anges 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 & 9 ! condition ( its liv+ inhabitants4 ,! discussion ( s important a "q on ! pres5t occasion may appe> premature1 b x is "o :i* naturally arises out ( a review ( ! =m] hi/ory ( ! sci5ce4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 impossible to ent] into su* speculative topics1 )\t occasionally c>ry+ ! novice beyond 8 dep?1 & appeal+ to facts & conclusions ) :i* he w be unacqua9t$1 until he has /udi$ "s elem5t>y "w on geology1 b x may be useful to excite 8 curiosity1 & lead him to /udy su* works by call+ 8 att5tion at once to "s ( ! pr9cipal po9ts ( controv]sy4#abe ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,! ,,discordance ,,( ,,! ,,anci5t ,,& ,,mod]n ,,causes ,,( ,,*ange ,,controv]t$4 ,climate ( ! ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e =m]ly diff]5t--,direct pro(s f ! organic rema9s ( ! ,italian /rata--,pro(s f analogy d]iv$ f ext9ct quadrup$s--,imb$d+ ( animals 9 iceb]gs--,sib]ian mammo?s--,evid5ce 9 reg>d to temp]ature1 f ! fossils ( t]ti>y & second>y rocks--,f ! plants ( ! coal =mation--,nor!rn limit ( ^! fossils--,:e!r su* plants c\ld endure ! long cont9uance ( an arctic night4 ,climate ( ! ,nor!rn hemisph]e =m]ly diff]5t4--,pro(s ( =m] revolutions 9 climate1 z d$uc$ f fossil rema9s1 h af=d$ "o ( ! mo/ popul> objections to ! !ory :i* endeavors to expla9 all geological *anges by ref]5ce to ^? n[ 9 progress on ! e>?4 ,! probable causes1 !re=e1 ( fluctuations 9 climate1 may fir/ be treat$ (4 ,t ! climate ( ! ,nor!rn hemisph]e has und]gone an important *ange1 & t its mean annual temp]ature mu/ once h m ne>ly resembl$ t n[ exp]i5c$ )9 ! tropics1 0 ! op9ion ( "s ( ! fir/ naturali/s :o inve/igat$ ! cont5ts ( ! anci5t /rata4 ,_! conjecture became m probable :5 ! %ells & corals ( ! old] t]ti>y & _m second>y rocks 7 c>efully exam9$2 = ! organic rema9s ( ^! =mations 7 f\nd to be intimately connect$ by g5]ic aff9ity ) species n[ liv+ 9 w>m] latitudes4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 _m reptiles1 su* z turtles1 tortoises1 & l>ge saurian animals1 7 discov]$ 9 ,european =mations 9 great abundance2 & !y suppli$ new & p[]ful argum5ts1 f analogy1 9 support ( ! doctr9e1 t ! heat ( ! climate _h be5 great :5 our second>y /rata 7 deposit$4 ,la/ly1 :5 ! botani/ turn$ 8 att5tion to ! specific det]m9ation ( fossil plants1 ! evid5ce acquir$ /ill full] confirmation2 = ! flora ( a c\ntry is peculi>ly influ5c$ by temp]ature3 & ! anci5t vegetation ( ! e>? might h be5 expect$ m readily ?an ! =ms ( animals1 to h af=d$ conflict+ pro(s1 _h ! popul> !ory be5 )\t f\ndation4 ,:5 ! exam9ation ( fossil rema9s 0 ext5d$ to rocks 9 ! mo/ nor!rn p>ts ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ev5 to ! ,arctic regions1 indications ( ! same revolution 9 climate 7 discov]$4 ,x _c be said1 t 9 ?is1 z 9 _m o!r dep>tm5ts ( geology1 we h inve/igat$ ! ph5om5a ( =m] eras1 & neglect$ ^? ( ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s4 ,on ! contr>y1 s9ce ! fir/ agitation ( ?is int]e/+ "q1 ! accessions to our k ( liv+ animals & plants h be5 imm5se1 & h f> surpass$ all ! data previ\sly obta9$ = g5]aliz+ on ! relation ( c]ta9 types ( organization to p>ticul> climates4 ,! tropical & temp]ate zones ( ,s\? ,am]ica & ( ,au/ralia h be5 explor$2 &1 on close comp>ison1 x has be5 f\nd t sc>cely any ( ! species ( ! animate creation 9 ^! ext5sive cont95ts are id5tical ) ^? inhabit+ ! old _w4 ,yet ! zoologi/ & botani/1 well acqua9t$ ) ! geographical di/ribution ( organic be+s 9 o!r p>ts ( ! globe1 w\ld h be5 able1 if di/9ct gr\ps ( species _h be5 pres5t$ to !m f ^! regions1 to recognize ^? :i* _h be5 collect$ f latitudes )91 & ^? :i* 7 br\ght f )\t ! tropics4 ,be=e ,i attempt to expla9 ! probable causes ( great vicissitudes ( temp]ature on ! e>?'s surface1 ,i %all take a rapid view ( "s ( ! pr9cipal data :i* appe> to support ! popul> op9ions n[ ent]ta9$ on ! subject4 ,to insi/ on ! s\ndness ( ^! inf]5ces1 is ! m necess>y1 because "s zoologi/s h und]tak5 to v9dicate ! uni=mity ( ! laws ( nature1 n by acc\nt+ = =m] fluctuations 9 climate1 b by d5y+ ! value ( ! evid5ce 9 _! favor4#abf ,pro(s f fossil %ells 9 t]ti>y /rata4--,9 ,sicily1 ,calabria1 & 9 ! neighborhood ( ,naples1 ! fossil te/acea ( ! mo/ mod]n t]ti>y =mations belong almo/ entirely to species n[ inhabit+ ! ,m$it]ranean2 b z we proce$ nor?w>ds 9 ! ,italian p59sula we f9d 9 ! /rata call$ ,subap5n9e an assemblage ( fossil %ells dep>t+ some:at m widely f ! type ( ! neighbor+ seas4 ,! proportion ( species id5tifiable ) ^? n[ liv+ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean is /ill consid]able2 b x no long] pr$om9ates1 z 9 ! ,s\? ( ,italy & "p ( ,sicily1 ov] ! unkn[n species4 ,al?\gh occurr+ 9 localities :i* are remov$ sev]al degrees f>!r f ! equator 7z at ,si5na1 ,p>ma1 ,a/i1 c471 ! %ells yield cle> indications ( a w>m] climate4 ,?is evid5ce is ( great weight1 & is n neutraliz$ by any facts ( a conflict+ "*2 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! association1 9 ! same gr\p1 ( individuals ref]able to species n[ conf9$ to arctic regions4 ,:5ev] any ( ! fossil %ells are id5tifi$ ) liv+ species =eign to ! ,m$it]ranean1 x is n 9 ! ,nor!rn ,ocean1 b ne>] ! tropics1 t !y mu/ be s\ght3 on ! o!r h&1 ! associat$ unkn[n species belong1 = ! mo/ "p1 to g5]a :i* are n[ mo/ l>gely develop$ 9 equ9octial regions1 z1 = example1 ! g5]a ,cancell>ia1 ,cassid>ia1 ,pleurotoma1 ,conus1 & ,cypraea4 ,on comp>+ ! fossils ( ! t]ti>y deposits ( ,p>is & ,london ) ^? ( ,b\rdeaux1 & ^! aga9 ) ! m mod]n /rata ( ,sicily1 we %\ld at fir/ expect t !y w\ld ea* indicate a high] temp]ature 9 proportion z !y are situat$ f>!r to ! s\?4 ,b ! contr>y is true2 ( ! %ells belong+ to ^! sev]al gr\ps1 :e!r fre%wat] or m>9e1 "s are ( ext9ct1 o!rs ( liv+ species4 ,^? f\nd 9 ! old]1 or ,eoc5e1 deposits ( ,p>is & ,london1 al?\gh six or sev5 degrees to ! nor? ( ! ,mioc5e /rata at ,b\rdeaux1 af=d evid5ce ( a w>m] climate2 :ile ^? ( ,b\rdeaux imply t ! sea 9 :i* !y liv$ 0 ( a high] temp]ature ?an t ( ,sicily1 :]e ! %elly /rata 7 =m$ six or sev5 degrees ne>] to ! equator4 ,9 ^! cases ! great] antiquity ( ! sev]al =mations 7! ,p>isian be+ ! olde/ & ! ,sicilian ! newe/7 has m ?an c\nt]balanc$ ! influ5ce :i* latitude w\ld o!rwise ex]t1 & ?is ph5om5on cle>ly po9ts to a gradual & successive refrig]ation ( climate4 ,sib]ian ,mammo?s4--,x w naturally be ask$1 :e!r "s rec5t geological discov]ies br++ evid5ce to light ( a cold]1 or z x has be5 t]m$ glacial epo*1 t[>ds ! close ( ! t]ti>y p]iods ?r\gh\t ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 does n conflict ) ! !ory above allud$ to1 ( a w>m] temp]ature hav+ prevail$ 9 ! eras ( ! ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e =mations4 ,9 answ] to ?is inquiry1 x may c]ta9ly be affirm$1 t an oscillation ( climate has occurr$ 9 times imm$iately antec$5t to ! peopl+ ( ! e>? by man2 b pro( ( ! int]calation ( a less g5ial climate at an era :5 ne>ly all ! m>9e & t]re/rial te/acea _h already become specifically ! same z ^? n[ liv+1 by no means rebuts ! conclusion previ\sly drawn1 9 favor ( a w>m] condition ( ! globe1 dur+ ! ages :i* elaps$ :ile ! t]ti>y /rata 7 deposit$4 ,9 "s ( ! mo/ sup]ficial pat*es ( s&1 gravel1 & loam1 scatt]$ v g5]ally ov] ,europe1 & conta9+ rec5t %ells1 ! rema9s ( ext9ct species ( l& quadrup$s h be5 f\nd1 especially 9 places :]e ! alluvial matt] appe>s to h be5 wa%$ into small lakes1 or into depressions 9 ! pla9s bord]+ anci5t riv]s4 ,simil> deposits h also be5 lodg$ 9 r5ts & cav]ns ( rocks1 :]e !y may h be5 swept 9 by l& floods1 or introduc$ by engulph$ riv]s dur+ *anges 9 ! physical geography ( ^! c\ntries4 ,! v>i\s circum/ances "u :i* ! bones ( animals h be5 ?us pres]v$1 w be m fully consid]$ h]eaft]2#abg ,i %all only /ate "h1 t among ! ext9ct mammalia ?us entomb$1 we f9d species ( ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 hippopotamus1 be>1 hya5a1 lion1 tig]1 monkey 7macacus#abh71 & _m o!rs2 consi/+ p>tly ( g5]a n[ conf9$ to w>m] regions4 ,x is c]ta9ly probable t :5 "s ( ^! quadrup$s ab\nd$ 9 ,europe1 ! climate 0 mild] ?an t n[ exp]i5c$4 ,! hippopotamus1 = example1 is n[ only met ) :]e ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is w>m & ne>ly uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 & :]e ! riv]s are nev] froz5 ov]4 ,yet :5 ! great fossil species 7,hippopotamus major1 ,cuv47 inhabit$ ,engl&1 ! te/acea ( our c\ntry 7 ne>ly ! same z ^? n[ exi/+1 & ! climate _c be suppos$ to h be5 v hot4 ,! bones ( ?is animal h lately be5 f\nd by ,mr4 ,/rickl&1 toge!r ) ^? ( a be> & o!r mammalia1 at ,crop?orn1 ne> ,eve%am1 9 ,worce/]%ire1 9 alluvial s&1 toge!r ) tw5ty-?ree species ( t]re/rial & fre%wat] %ells1 all1 ) two exceptions1 ( ,briti% species4 ,! b$ ( s&1 conta9+ ! %ells & bones1 reposes on lias1 & is cov]$ ) alt]nat+ /rata ( gravel1 s&1 & loam4#abi ,! mammo? also appe>s to h exi/$ 9 ,engl& :5 ! temp]ature ( our latitudes c\ld n h be5 v diff]5t f t :i* n[ prevails2 = rema9s ( ?is animal h be5 f\nd at ,nor? ,cliff1 9 ! c\nty ( ,york1 9 a lacu/r9e =mation1 9 :i* all ! l& & fre%wat] %ells1 ?irte5 9 numb]1 c be id5tifi$ ) species & v>ieties n[ exi/+ 9 t c\nty4 ,bones ( ! bison1 also1 an animal n[ inhabit+ a cold or temp]ate climate1 h be5 f\nd 9 ! same place4 ,t ^! quadrup$s1 & ! indig5\s species ( te/acea associat$ ) !m1 7 all contempor>y inhabitants ( ,york%ire1 has be5 e/abli%$ by unequivocal pro(4 ,! ,rev4 ,w4 ,v4 ,v]non ,h>c\rt caus$ a pit to be sunk to ! dep? ( tw5ty-two feet ?r\gh undi/urb$ /rata1 9 :i* ! rema9s ( ! mammo? 7 f\nd imb$d$1 toge!r ) ! %ells1 9 a deposit :i* _h evid5tly result$ f tranquil wat]s4#acj ,9 ! valley ( ! ,?ames1 z at ,il=d & ,grays1 9 ,essex1 bones ( ! elephant & rh9oc]os occur 9 /rata ab\nd+ 9 fre%wat] %ells ( ! g5]a ,unio1 ,cyclas1 ,palud9a1 ,valvata1 ,ancylus1 & o!rs4 ,^! fossil %ells belong = ! mo/ "p to species n[ liv+ 9 ! same di/rict1 yet "s few ( !m are ext9ct1 z1 = example1 a species ( ,cyr5a1 a g5us no long] inhabit+ ,europe1 & n[ entirely re/rict$ to w>m] latitudes4 ,:5 reason+ on su* ph5om5a1 ! read] mu/ always be> 9 m9d t ! fossil individuals belong$ to species ( elephant1 rh9oc]os1 hippopotamus1 be>1 tig]1 & hya5a1 di/9ct f ^? :i* n[ dwell )9 or ne> ! tropics4 ,dr4 ,flem+1 9 a discussion on ?is subject1 has well rem>k$ t a ne> resemblance 9 =m & o/eological /ructure is n always foll[$1 9 ! exi/+ creation1 by a simil>ity ( geographical di/ribution2 & we mu/ !re=e be on our gu>d aga9/ decid+ too confid5tly1 f m]e analogy ( anatomical /ructure1 respect+ ! habits & physiological peculi>ities ( species n[ no m4 ,! zebra delights to roam ov] ! tropical pla9s1 :ile ! horse c ma9ta9 its exi/5ce ?r\gh\t an ,icel& w9t]4 ,! buffalo1 l ! zebra1 pref]s a high temp]ature1 & _c ?rive ev5 :]e ! common ox prosp]s4 ,! musk-ox1 on ! o!r h&1 ?\gh ne>ly resembl+ ! buffalo1 pref]s ! /9t$ h]bage ( ! arctic regions1 & is able1 by its p]iodical migrations1 to outlive a nor!rn w9t]4 ,! jackal 7,canis aureus7 inhabits ,africa1 ! w>m] p>ts ( ,asia1 & ,greece2 :ile ! isatis 7,canis lagopus7 resides 9 ! arctic regions4 ,! ,african h>e & ! pol> h>e h _! geographical di/ribution express$ 9 _! trivial names2#aca & diff]5t species ( be>s ?rive 9 tropical1 temp]ate1 & arctic latitudes4 ,rec5t inve/igations h plac$ beyond all d\bt ! important fact t a species ( tig]1 id5tical ) t ( ,b5gal1 is common 9 ! neighborhood ( ,lake ,aral1 ne> ,sussac1 9 ! =ty-fif? degree ( nor? latitude2 & f "t to "t ?is animal is n[ se5 9 ,sib]ia1 9 a latitude z f> nor? z ! p>allel ( ,b]l9 & ,hamburgh4#acb ,humboldt rem>ks t ! "p ( ,s\!rn ,asia n[ inhabit$ by ?is ,indian species ( tig] is sep>at$ f ! ,himalaya by two great *a9s ( m\nta9s1 ea* cov]$ ) p]petual sn[1--! *a9 ( ,ku5lun1 lat4 #ce degrees ,n41 & t ( ,m\ztagh1 lat4 #db degrees1--s t x is impossible t ^! animals %\ld m]ely h made excursions f ,india1 s z to h p5etrat$ 9 summ] to ! =ty-eigh? & fifty-?ird degrees ( nor? latitude4 ,!y mu/ rema9 all ! w9t] nor? ( ! ,m\ztagh1 or ,cele/ial ,m\nta9s4 ,! la/ tig] kill$1 9 #ahbh1 on ! ,l5a1 9 lat4 #eb-a_/d degrees1 0 9 a climate cold] ?an t ( ,pet]sburg & ,/ockholm4#acc ,we le>n f ,mr4 ,hodgson's acc\nt ( ! mammalia ( ,nepal1 t ! tig] is sometimes f\nd at ! v edge ( p]petual sn[ 9 ! ,himalaya2#acd & ,p5nant m5tions t x is f\nd among ! sn[s ( ,m\nt ,ar>at 9 ,arm5ia4 ,! jagu>1 also1 has be5 se5 9 ,am]ica1 w&]+ f ,mexico1 z f> nor? z ,k5tucky1 lat4 #cg degrees ,n41#ace & ev5 z f> z #db degrees ,s4 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1--a latitude :i* corresponds to t ( ! ,pyr5ees 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4#acf ,! range ( ! puma is /ill wid]1 = x roams f ! equator to ! ,/raits ( ,magellan1 be+ (t5 se5 at ,port ,fam9e1 9 lat4 #ec degrees #ch m9utes ,s4 ,a new species ( pan!r 7,felis irbis71 cov]$ ) long hair1 has be5 discov]$ 9 ,sib]ia1 evid5tly inhabit+1 l ! tig]1 a region nor? ( ! ,cele/ial ,m\nta9s1 :i* are 9 lat4 #db degrees4#acg ,! two-horn$ ,african rh9oc]os occurs )\t ! tropics at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 9 lat4 #cd degrees #bi m9utes ,s41 :]e x is accompani$ by ! elephant1 hippopotamus1 & hya5a4 ,"h ! migration ( all ^! species t[>ds ! s\? is arre/$ by ! ocean2 b if ! cont95t _h be5 prolong$ /ill f>!r1 & ! l& _h be5 ( mod]ate elevation1 x is v probable t !y might h ext5d$ _! range to a great] di/ance f ! tropics4 ,n[1 if ! ,indian tig] c range 9 our own times to ! s\!rn bord]s ( ,sib]ia1 or skirt ! sn[s ( ! ,himalaya1 & if ! puma c rea* ! fifty-?ird degree ( latitude 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 we may easily und]/& h[ l>ge species ( ! same g5]a may once h inhabit$ our temp]ate climates4 ,! mammo? 7,e4 primig5ius71 already allud$ to1 z occurr+ fossil 9 ,engl&1 0 decid$ly diff]5t f ! two exi/+ species ( elephants1 "o ( :i* is limit$ to ,asia1 s\? ( ! #ca degrees ( ,n4 lat41 ! o!r to ,africa1 :]e x ext5ds1 z be=e /at$1 z f> s\? z ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,! bones ( ! great fossil species are v widely spread ov] ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica2 b are n[h]e 9 su* pr(usion z 9 ,sib]ia1 p>ticul>ly ne> ! %ores ( ! ,froz5 ,ocean4 ,are we1 !n1 to conclude t ?is animal pref]r$ a pol> climate8 ,if s1 x may well be ask$1 by :at food 0 x su/a9$1 & :y does x n /ill survive ne> ! arctic circle8#ach ,pallas & o!r writ]s describe ! bones ( ! mammo? z ab\nd+ ?r\gh\t all ! ,l[l&s ( ,sib]ia1 /ret*+ 9 a direction we/ & ea/1 f ! bord]s ( ,europe to ! extreme po9t ne>e/ ,am]ica1 & s\? & nor?1 f ! base ( ! m\nta9s ( ,c5tral ,asia to ! %ores ( ! ,arctic ,sea4 7,see map1 fig4 #a47 ,)9 ?is space1 sc>cely inf]ior 9 area to ! :ole ( ,europe1 fossil ivory has be5 collect$ almo/ ev]y:]e1 on ! banks ( ! ,irti%1 ,obi1 ,y5esei1 ,l5a1 & o!r riv]s4 ,! elephant9e rema9s d n occur 9 ! m>%es & l[ pla9s1 b :]e ! banks ( ! riv]s pres5t l(ty precipices ( s& & clay1 f :i* circum/ance ,pallas v ju/ly inf]r$ t1 if sections c\ld be obta9$1 simil> bones might be f\nd 9 all ! elevat$ l&s int]v5+ betwe5 ! great riv]s4 ,/rahl5b]g1 inde$1 _h /at$1 be=e ! "t ( ,pallas1 t :]ev] any ( ! great riv]s ov]fl[$ & cut out fre% *annels dur+ floods1 m fossil rema9s ( ! same k9d 7 inv>iably disclos$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,map ,,( ,,sib]ia4 ,fig4 #a4 ,map %[+ ! c\rse ( ! ,sib]ian riv]s f s\? to nor?1 f temp]ate to arctic regions1 9 ! c\ntry :]e ! fossil bones ( ! ,mammo? ab\nd4 ,z to ! position ( ! bones1 ,pallas f\nd !m 9 "s places imb$d$ toge!r ) m>9e rema9s2 9 o!rs1 simply ) fossil wood1 or lignite1 su* z1 he says1 might h be5 d]iv$ f c>boniz$ peat4 ,on ! banks ( ! ,y5esei1 bel[ ! city ( ,krasnoj>sk1 9 lat4 #ef degrees1 he obs]v$ gr9d]s1 & bones ( elephants1 9 /rata ( yell[ & r$ loam1 alt]nat+ ) co>se s& & gravel1 9 :i* 0 also mu* petrifi$ wood ( ! will[ & o!r trees4 ,nei!r "h nor 9 ! neighbor+ c\ntry 7 !re any m>9e %ells1 b m]ely lay]s ( black coal4#aci ,b gr9d]s ( ! mammo? 7 collect$ mu* f>!r d[n ! same riv]1 ne> ! sea1 9 lat4 #gj degrees1 mix$ ) m>9e petrifactions4#adj ,_m o!r places 9 ,sib]ia are cit$ by ,pallas1 :]e sea %ells & fi%es' tee? accompany ! bones ( ! mammo?1 rh9oc]os1 & ,sib]ian buffalo1 or bison 7,bos priscus74 ,b x is n on ! ,obi nor ! ,y5esei1 b on ! ,l5a1 f>!r to ! ea/1 :]e1 9 ! same p>allels ( latitude1 ! cold is f> m int5se1 t fossil rema9s h be5 f\nd 9 ! mo/ wond]ful /ate ( pres]vation4 ,9 #aggb1 ,pallas obta9$ f ,wiljuiskoi1 9 lat4 #fd degrees1 f ! banks ( ! ,wiljui1 a tribut>y ( ! ,l5a1 ! c>cass ( a rh9oc]os 7,r4 ti*orh9us71 tak5 f ! s& 9 :i* x mu/ h rema9$ congeal$ = ages1 ! soil ( t region be+ always froz5 to )9 a slight dep? ( ! surface4 ,?is c>cass 0 comp>$ to a natural mummy1 & emitt$ an odor l putrid fle%1 "p ( ! sk9 be+ /ill cov]$ ) black & gray hairs4 ,s great1 inde$1 0 ! quantity ( hair on ! foot & head convey$ to ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 t ,pallas ask$ :e!r ! rh9oc]os ( ! ,l5a might n h be5 an inhabitant ( ! temp]ate regions ( middle ,asia1 its clo?+ be+ s mu* w>m] ?an t ( ! ,african rh9oc]os4#ada ,pr(essor ,br&t1 ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 9 a lett] to ,b>on ,alex4 ,von ,humboldt1 dat$ #ahdf1 adds ! foll[+ p>ticul>s respect+ ?is wond]ful fossil relic3--,i h be5 s =tunate z to extract f cavities 9 ! mol> tee? ( ! ,wiljui rh9oc]os a small quantity ( its half-*ew$ food1 among :i* fragm5ts ( p9e leaves1 "o-half ( ! se$ ( a polygonace\s plant1 & v m9ute portions ( wood ) por\s cells 7or small fragm5ts ( conif]\s wood71 7 /ill recognizable4 ,x 0 also rem>kable1 on a close inve/igation ( ! head1 t ! blood-vessels discov]$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! mass appe>$ fill$1 ev5 to ! capill>y vessels1 ) a br[n mass 7coagulat$ blood71 :i* 9 _m places /ill %[$ ! r$ color ( blood4#adb ,aft] m ?an ?irty ye>s1 ! entire c>cass ( a mammo? 7or ext9ct species ( elephant7 0 obta9$ 9 #ahjc1 by ,mr4 ,adams1 mu* f>!r to ! nor?4 ,x fell f a mass ( ice1 9 :i* x _h be5 encas$1 on ! banks ( ! ,l5a1 9 lat4 #gj degrees2 & s p]fectly _h ! s(t p>ts ( ! c>cass be5 pres]v$1 t ! fle%1 z x lay1 0 dev\r$ by wolves & be>s4 ,?is skeleton is /ill 9 ! museum ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 ! head reta9+ its integum5t & _m ( ! ligam5ts entire4 ,! sk9 ( ! animal 0 cov]$1 fir/1 ) black bri/les1 ?ick] ?an horse hair1 f twelve to sixte5 in*es 9 l5g?2 secondly1 ) hair ( a r$di% br[n color1 ab\t f\r in*es long2 & ?irdly1 ) wool ( ! same color z ! hair1 ab\t an in* 9 l5g?4 ,( ! fur1 upw>ds ( ?irty p\nds' weight 7 ga!r$ f ! wet s&-bank4 ,! individual 0 n9e feet high & sixte5 feet long1 )\t reckon+ ! l>ge curv$ tusks3 a size r>ely surpass$ by ! l>ge/ liv+ male elephants4#adc ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t ! mammo?1 in/ead ( be+ nak$1 l ! liv+ ,indian & ,african elephants1 0 envelop$ 9 a ?ick %aggy cov]+ ( fur1 probably z imp5etrable to ra9 & cold z t ( ! musk ox4#add ,! species may h be5 fitt$ by nature to )/& ! vicissitudes ( a nor!rn climate2 & x is c]ta9 t1 f ! mom5t :5 ! c>casses1 bo? ( ! rh9oc]os & elephant1 above describ$1 7 buri$ 9 ,sib]ia1 9 latitudes #fd degrees & #gj degrees ,n41 ! soil mu/ h rema9$ froz51 & ! atmosph]e ne>ly z cold z at ?is day4 ,! mo/ rec5t discov]ies made 9 #ahdc by ,mr4 ,midd5dorf1 a di/+ui%$ ,russian naturali/1 & :i* he communicat$ to me 9 ,septemb]1 #ahdf1 af=d m precise in=mation z to ! climate ( ! ,sib]ian l[l&s1 at ! p]iod :5 ! ext9ct quadrup$s 7 entomb$4 ,"o elephant 0 f\nd on ! ,tas1 betwe5 ! ,obi & ,y5esei1 ne> ! arctic circle1 ab\t lat4 #ff degrees #cj m9utes ,n41 ) "s p>ts ( ! fle% 9 s p]fect a /ate t ! bulb ( ! eye is n[ pres]v$ 9 ! museum at ,mosc[4 ,ano!r c>cass1 toge!r ) a "y individual ( ! same species1 0 met ) 9 ! same ye>1 #ahdc1 9 lat4 #ge degrees #ae m9utes ,n41 ne> ! riv] ,taimyr1 ) ! fle% decay$4 ,x 0 imb$d$ 9 /rata ( clay & s&1 ) erratic blocks1 at ab\t #ae feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,9 ! same deposit ,mr4 ,midd5dorf obs]v$ ! trunk ( a l>* tree 7,p9us l>ix71 ! same wood z t n[ c>ri$ d[n 9 abundance by ! ,taimyr to ! ,arctic ,sea4 ,!re 7 also associat$ fossil %ells ( liv+ nor!rn species1 & :i* are moreov] *>act]i/ic ( ! drift or glacial deposits ( ,europe4 ,among ^! ,nucula pygmaea1 ,tell9a calc>ea1 ,mya truncata1 & ,saxicava rugosa 7 conspicu\s4 ,s fre% is ! ivory ?r\gh\t nor!rn ,russia1 t1 accord+ to ,tilesius1 ?\s&s ( fossil tusks h be5 collect$ & us$ 9 turn+2 yet o!rs are /ill procur$ & sold 9 great pl5ty4 ,he decl>es 8 belief t ! bones /ill left 9 nor!rn ,russia mu/ greatly exce$ 9 numb] all ! elephants n[ liv+ on ! globe4 ,we are z yet ignorant ( ! entire geographical range ( ! mammo?2 b its rema9s h be5 rec5tly collect$ f ! cliffs ( froz5 mud & ice on ! ea/ side ( ,behr+'s ,/raits1 9 ,es*s*oltz's ,bay1 9 ,russian ,am]ica1 lat4 #ff degrees ,n4 ,z ! cliffs wa/e away by ! ?aw+ ( ! ice1 tusks & bones fall out1 & a /rong odor ( animal matt] is exhal$ f ! mud4#ade ,on consid]+ all ! facts above enum]at$1 x seems reasonable to imag9e t a l>ge region 9 c5tral ,asia1 includ+1 p]haps1 ! s\!rn half ( ,sib]ia1 enjoy$1 at no v remote p]iod 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory1 a temp]ate climate1 suffici5tly mild to af=d food = num]\s h]ds ( elephants & rh9oc]oses1 ( species di/9ct f ^? n[ liv+4 ,x has usually be5 tak5 = grant$ t h]bivor\s animals ( l>ge size require a v luxuriant vegetation = _! support2 b ?is op9ion is1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,d>w91 completely errone\s3--,x has be5 d]iv$1 he says1 f our acqua9tance ) ,india & ! ,indian isl&s1 :]e ! m9d has be5 accu/om$ to associate troops ( elephants ) noble =e/s & imp5etrable jungles4 ,b ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,africa1 f ! tropic ( ,capricorn to ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 al?\gh /]ile & des]t1 are rem>kable = ! numb] & great bulk ( ! indig5\s quadrup$s4 ,we !re meet ) an elephant1 five species ( rh9oc]os1 a hippopotamus1 a giraffe1 ! bos caff]1 ! elan1 two zebras1 ! quagga1 two gnus1 & sev]al antelopes4 ,nor mu/ we suppose1 t :ile ! species are num]\s1 ! individuals ( ea* k9d are few4 ,dr4 ,&rew ,smi? saw1 9 "o day's m>*1 9 lat4 #bd degrees ,s41 )\t w&]+ to any great di/ance on ei!r side1 ab\t #aej rh9oc]oses1 ) sev]al h]ds ( giraffes1 & 8 p>ty _h kill$1 on ! previ\s night1 eight hippopotamuses4 ,yet ! c\ntry :i* !y inhabit$ 0 ?9ly cov]$ ) grass & bu%es ab\t f\r feet high1 & /ill m ?9ly ) mimosa-trees1 s t ! wagons ( ! travell]s 7 n prev5t$ f proce$+ 9 a ne>ly direct l9e4#adf ,9 ord] to expla9 h[ s _m animals c f9d support 9 ?is region1 x is sugge/$ t ! und]wood1 ( :i* _! food *iefly consi/s1 may conta9 mu* nutrim5t 9 a small bulk1 & also t ! vegetation has a rapid gr[?2 = no soon] is a "p consum$ ?an its place1 says ,dr4 ,smi?1 is suppli$ by a fre% /ock4 ,nev]!less1 aft] mak+ e all[ance = ?is successive production & consumption1 x is cle>1 f ! facts above cit$1 t ! quantity ( food requir$ by ! l>g] h]bivora is mu* less ?an we h usually imag9$4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 conceives t ! am\nt ( vegetation support$ at any "o "t by ,great ,brita9 may exce$1 9 a t5-fold ratio1 ! quantity exi/+ on an equal area 9 ! int]ior p>ts ( ,s\!rn ,africa4#adg ,x is rem>k$1 moreov]1 9 illu/ration ( ! small connection discov]able betwe5 abundance ( food & ! magnitude ( indig5\s mammalia1 t :ile 9 ! des]t "p ( ,s\!rn ,africa !re are s _m huge animals2 9 ,brazil1 :]e ! spl5dor & exub]ance ( ! vegetation are unrivall$1 !re is n a s+le wild quadrup$ ( l>ge size4#adh ,x w\ld d\btless be impossible = h]ds ( mammo?s & rh9oc]oses to subsi/1 at pres5t1 ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 ev5 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ,sib]ia1 cov]$ z x is ) sn[ dur+ w9t]2 b !re is no difficulty 9 suppos+ a vegetation capable ( n\ri%+ ^! great quadrup$s to h once fl\ri%$ betwe5 ! latitudes #dj degrees & #fj degrees ,n4 ,dr4 ,flem+ has h9t$1 t ! k9d ( food :i* ! exi/+ species ( elephant pref]s1 w n enable u to det]m9e1 or ev5 to (f] a probable conjecture1 conc]n+ t ( ! ext9ct species4 ,no "o acqua9t$ ) ! gram9e\s "* ( ! food ( our fall[-de]1 /ag1 or roe1 w\ld h assign$ a li*5 to ! re9de]4 ,travell]s m5tion t1 ev5 n[1 :5 ! climate ( ea/]n ,asia is s mu* cold] ?an ! same p>allels ( latitude f>!r we/1 !re are woods n only ( fir1 b ( bir*1 popl>1 & ald]1 on ! banks ( ! ,l5a1 z f> nor? z latitude #fj degrees4 ,x has1 moreov]1 be5 sugge/$1 t z1 9 our own times1 ! nor!rn animals migrate1 s ! ,sib]ian elephant & rh9oc]os may h w&]$ t[>ds ! nor? 9 summ]4 ,! musk ox5 annually des]t _! w9t] qu>t]s 9 ! s\?1 & cross ! sea ^u ! ice1 to graze = f\r mon?s1 f ,may to ,septemb]1 on ! ri* pa/urage ( ,melville ,isl&1 9 lat4 #ge degrees4 ,! mammo?s1 )\t pass+ s f> beyond ! arctic circle1 may nev]!less h made excursions1 dur+ ! heat ( a brief nor!rn summ]1 f ! c5tral or temp]ate p>ts ( ,asia to ! sixtie? p>allel ( latitude4 ,n[1 9 ?is case1 ! pres]vation ( _! bones1 or ev5 occasionally ( _! entire c>casses1 9 ice or froz5 soil1 may be acc\nt$ =1 )\t resort+ to speculations conc]n+ sudd5 revolutions 9 ! =m] /ate & climate ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,we are entitl$ to assume1 t1 9 ! "t ( ! ext9ct elephant & rh9oc]os1 ! ,l[l& ( ,sib]ia 0 less ext5sive t[>ds ! nor? ?an n[2 = we h se5 7p4 #hj7 t ! /rata ( ?is ,l[l&1 9 :i* ! fossil bones lie buri$1 7 orig9ally deposit$ b5ea? ! sea2 & we "k1 f ! facts br\ght to light 9 ,wrangle's ,voyage1 9 ! ye>s #ahba1 #ahbb1 & #ahbc1 t a sl[ upheaval ( ! l& along ! bord]s ( ! ,icy ,sea is n[ con/antly tak+ place1 simil> to t exp]i5c$ 9 "p ( ,sw$54 ,9 ! same mann]1 !n1 z ! %ores ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia are ext5d$1 n only by ! influx ( s$im5t br\ght d[n by riv]s1 b also by ! elevation & consequ5t dry+ up ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 s a l comb9ation ( causes may1 9 mod]n times1 h be5 ext5d+ ! l[ tract ( l& :]e m>9e %ells & fossil bones occur 9 ,sib]ia4#adi ,su* a *ange 9 ! physical geography ( t region1 imply+ a con/ant augm5tation 9 ! quantity ( arctic l&1 w\ld1 accord+ to pr9ciples to be expla9$ 9 ! next *apt]1 t5d to increase ! sev]ity ( ! w9t]s4 ,we may conclude1 !re=e1 t1 be=e ! l& rea*$ s f> to ! nor?1 ! temp]ature ( ! ,sib]ian w9t] & summ] 0 m ne>ly equaliz$2 & a great] degree ( w9t]'s cold may1 ev5 m ?an a g5]al dim9ution ( ! mean annual temp]ature1 h f9ally contribut$ to ! ext]m9ation ( ! mammo? & its contempor>ies4 ,on ref]r+ to ! map 7p4 #gi71 ! read] w see h[ all ! great riv]s ( ,sib]ia fl[ at pres5t f s\? to nor?1 f temp]ate to arctic regions1 & !y are all liable1 l ! ,mack5zie1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 to rem>kable floods1 9 consequ5ce ( fl[+ 9 ?is direction4 ,= !y are fill$ ) runn+ wat] 9 _! upp] or s\!rn c\rse :5 completely froz5 ov] = sev]al hundr$ miles ne> _! m\?s1 :]e !y rema9 block$ up by ice = six mon?s 9 e ye>4 ,! desc5d+ wat]s1 !re=e1 f9d+ no op5 *annel1 ru% ov] ! ice1 (t5 *ang+ _! direction1 & sweep+ along =e/s & prodigi\s quantities ( soil & gravel mix$ ) ice4 ,n[ ! riv]s ( ,sib]ia are among ! l>ge/ 9 ! _w1 ! ,y5esei hav+ a c\rse ( #bejj1 ! ,l5a ( #bjjj miles2 s t we may easily conceive t ! bodies ( animals :i* fall into _! wat]s may be transport$ to va/ di/ances t[>ds ! ,arctic ,sea1 &1 be=e arriv+ !re1 may be /r&$ ^u & (t5 froz5 into ?ick ice4 ,aft]w>ds1 :5 ! ice breaks up1 !y may be float$ /ill f>!r t[>ds ! ocean1 until at l5g? !y become buri$ 9 fluviatile & subm>9e deposits ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s4 ,humboldt rem>ks t ne> ! m\?s ( ! ,l5a a consid]able ?ickness ( froz5 soil may be f\nd at all seasons at ! dep? ( a few feet2 s t if a c>cass be once imb$d$ 9 mud & ice 9 su* a region & 9 su* a climate1 its putrefaction may be arre/$ = indef9ite ages4#aej ,accord+ to ,pr(4 ,von ,ba] ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 ! gr\nd is n[ froz5 p]man5tly to ! dep? ( #djj feet1 at ! t[n ( ,yakutzt1 on ! we/]n bank ( ! ,l5a1 9 lat4 #fb degrees ,n41 #fjj miles di/ant f ! pol> sea4 ,mr4 ,h$5/rom tells u t1 ?r\gh\t a wide area 9 ,sib]ia1 ! b\nd>y cliffs ( ! lakes & riv]s consi/ ( alt]nate lay]s ( e>?y mat]ials & ice1 9 horizontal /ratification2#aea & ,mr4 ,midd5dorf in=m$ u1 9 #ahdf1 t1 9 8 t\r !re ?ree ye>s be=e1 he _h bor$ 9 ,sib]ia to ! dep? ( sev5ty feet1 &1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh mu* froz5 soil mix$ ) ice1 _h come d[n ^u a solid mass ( pure transp>5t ice1 ! ?ickness ( :i*1 aft] p5etrat+ two or ?ree y>ds1 !y did n asc]ta94 ,we may conceive1 !re=e1 t ev5 at ! p]iod ( ! mammo?1 :5 ! ,l[l& ( ,sib]ia 0 less ext5sive t[>ds ! nor?1 & consequ5tly ! climate m temp]ate ?an n[1 ! cold may /ill h be5 suffici5tly int5se to cause ! riv]s fl[+ 9 _! pres5t direction to sweep d[n f s\? to nor? ! bodies ( dr[n$ animals1 & !re bury !m 9 drift ice & froz5 mud4 ,if x be true t ! c>cass ( ! mammo? 0 imb$d$ 9 pure ice1 !re are two ways 9 :i* x may h be5 froz5 94 ,we may suppose ! animal to h be5 ov]:elm$ by drift sn[4 ,i h be5 in=m$ by ,dr4 ,ri*>dson1 t1 9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,am]ica1 compris+ regions n[ inhabit$ by _m h]bivor\s quadrup$s1 ! drift sn[ is (t5 conv]t$ into p]man5t glaci]s4 ,x is commonly bl[n ov] ! edges ( /eep cliffs1 s z to =m an incl9$ talus hundr$s ( feet high2 & :5 a ?aw comm5ces1 torr5ts ru% f ! l&1 & ?r[ d[n f ! top ( ! cliff alluvial soil & gravel4 ,?is new soil soon becomes cov]$ ) vegetation1 & protects ! f\ndation ( sn[ f ! rays ( ! sun4 ,wat] occasionally p5etrates into ! crevices & pores ( ! sn[2 b1 z x soon freezes aga91 x s]ves ! m rapidly to consolidate ! mass into a compact iceb]g4 ,x may sometimes happ5 t cattle graz+ 9 a valley at ! base ( su* cliffs1 on ! bord]s ( a sea or riv]1 may be ov]:elm$1 & at l5g? inclos$ 9 solid ice1 & !n transport$ t[>ds ! pol> regions4 ,or a h]d ( mammo?s return+ f _! summ] pa/ures 9 ! nor?1 may h be5 surpris$1 :ile cross+ a /ream1 by ! sudd5 congelation ( ! wat]s4 ,! mission>y ,huc relates1 9 8 travels 9 ,?ibet 9 #ahdf1 t1 aft] _m ( 8 p>ty _h be5 froz5 to dea?1 !y pit*$ _! t5ts on ! banks ( ! ,m\r\i-,ousson 7:i* l[] d[n becomes ! fam\s ,blue ,riv]71 & saw f _! encampm5t "s black %apeless objects rang$ 9 file across ! /ream4 ,z !y advanc$ ne>] no *ange ei!r 9 =m or di/9ctness 0 app>5t2 nor 0 x till !y 7 q close1 t !y recogniz$ 9 !m a troop ( ! wild ox51 call$ ,yak by ! ,?ibetans4#aeb ,!re 7 m ?an fifty ( !m incru/$ 9 ! ice4 ,no d\bt !y _h tri$ to swim across at ! mom5t ( congelation1 & _h be5 unable to dis5gage !mselves4 ,_! beautiful heads1 surm\nt$ by huge horns1 7 /ill above ! surface1 b _! bodies 7 held fa/ 9 ! ice1 :i* 0 s transp>5t t ! position ( ! imprud5t bea/s 0 easily di/+ui%able2 !y look$ z if /ill swimm+1 b ! eagles & rav5s _h peck$ out _! eyes4#aec ,! =ego+ inve/igations1 !re=e1 lead u to inf] t ! mammo?1 & "s o!r ext9ct quadrup$s fitt$ to live 9 high latitudes1 7 inhabitants ( ,nor!rn ,asia at a "t :5 ! geographical conditions & climate ( t cont95t 7 diff]5t f ! pres5t4 ,b ! age ( ?is fauna 0 comp>atively mod]n 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,x appe>s t :5 ! olde/ or eoc5e t]ti>y deposits 7 =m$1 a w>m temp]ature p]vad$ ! ,european seas & l&s4 ,%ells ( ! g5us ,nautilus & o!r =ms *>act]i/ic ( tropical latitudes2 fossil reptiles1 su* z ! crocodile1 turtle1 & tortoise2 plants1 su* z palms1 "s ( !m alli$ to ! cocoa-nut1 ! screw-p9e1 ! cu/>d-apple1 & ! acacia1 all lead to ?is conclusion4 ,?is flora & fauna 7 foll[$ by ^? ( ! mioc5e =mation1 9 :i* indications ( a s\!rn1 b less tropical climate are detect$4 ,f9ally1 ! plioc5e deposits1 :i* come next 9 succession1 exhibit 9 _! organic rema9s a mu* ne>] approa* to ! /ate ( ?+s n[ prevail+ 9 correspond+ latitudes4 ,x 0 t[>ds ! close ( ?is p]iod t ! seas ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e became m & m fill$ ) float+ iceb]gs (t5 *>g$ ) erratic blocks1 s t ! wat]s & ! atmosph]e 7 *ill$ by ! melt+ ice1 & an arctic fauna enabl$1 = a "t1 to invade ! temp]ate latitudes bo? ( ,n4 ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,! ext9ction ( a consid]able numb] ( l& quadrup$s & aquatic mollusca 0 gradually br\ght ab\t by ! increas+ sev]ity ( ! cold2 b _m species surviv$ ?is revolution 9 climate1 ei!r by _! capacity ( liv+ "u a v>iety ( conditions1 or by migrat+ = a "t to m s\!rn l&s & seas4 ,at l5g?1 by modifications 9 ! physical geography ( ! nor!rn regions1 & ! cessation ( float+ ice on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,atlantic1 ! cold 0 mod]at$1 & a mild] climate ensu$1 su* z we n[ enjoy 9 ,europe4#aed ,pro(s f fossils 9 second>y & /ill old] /rata4--,a great int]val ( "t appe>s to h elaps$ betwe5 ! =mation ( ! second>y /rata1 :i* con/itute ! pr9cipal portion ( ! elevat$ l& 9 ,europe1 & ! orig9 ( ! eoc5e deposits4 ,if we exam9e ! rocks f ! *alk to ! new r$ s&/one inclusive1 we f9d _m di/9ct assemblages ( fossils entomb$ 9 !m1 all ( unkn[n species1 & _m ( !m ref]able to g5]a & families n[ mo/ abundant betwe5 ! tropics4 ,among ! mo/ rem>kable are reptiles ( gigantic size2 "s ( !m h]bivor\s1 o!rs c>nivor\s1 & f> exce$+ 9 size any n[ kn[n ev5 9 ! torrid zone4 ,! g5]a are = ! mo/ "p ext9ct1 b "s ( !m1 z ! crocodile & monitor1 h /ill repres5tatives 9 ! w>m] p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,coral reefs also 7 evid5tly num]\s 9 ! seas ( ! same p]iods1 compos$ ( species (t5 belong+ to g5]a n[ *>act]i/ic ( a tropical climate4 ,! numb] ( l>ge *amb]$ %ells also1 includ+ ! nautilus1 leads u to inf] an elevat$ temp]ature2 & ! associat$ fossil plants1 al?\gh imp]fectly kn[n1 t5d to ! same conclusion1 ! ,cycadeae con/itut+ ! mo/ num]\s family4 ,b x is f ! m anci5t coal-deposits t ! mo/ extraord9>y evid5ce has be5 suppli$ 9 pro( ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( a v diff]5t climate--a climate :i* seems to h be5 moi/1 w>m1 & extremely uni=m1 9 ^? v latitudes :i* are n[ ! cold]1 & 9 reg>d to temp]ature1 ! mo/ v>iable regions ( ! globe4 ,we le>n f ! rese>*es ( ,adolphe ,brongni>t1 ,goepp]t1 & o!r botani/s1 t 9 ! flora ( ! c>bonif]\s era !re 0 a great pr$om9ance ( f]ns1 "s ( :i* 7 arboresc5t2 z1 = example1 ,caulopt]is1 ,protopt]is1 & ,ps>ronius2 nor c ?is be acc\nt$ =1 z "s h suppos$1 by ! great] p[] :i* f]ns possess ( resi/+ mac]ation 9 wat]4#aee ,?is preval5ce ( f]ns indicates a moi/1 equable1 & temp]ate climate1 & ! abs5ce ( any sev]e cold2 = su* are ! conditions :i*1 at ! pres5t day1 are f\nd to be mo/ favorable to t tribe ( plants4 ,x is only 9 ! isl&s ( ! tropical oceans1 & ( ! s\!rn temp]ate zone1 su* z ,norfolk ,isl&1 ,otaheite1 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 ,tri/an d',acunha1 & ,new ,zeal&1 t we f9d any ne> approa* to t rem>kable prepond]ance ( f]ns :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>bonif]\s flora4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ t tree f]ns & o!r =ms ( vegetation :i* fl\ri%$ mo/ luxuriantly )9 ! tropics1 ext5d to a mu* great] di/ance f ! equator 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e ?an 9 ! nor!rn1 be+ f\nd ev5 z f> z #df degrees ,s4 latitude 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,!re is little d\bt t ?is is ow+ to ! m uni=m & moi/ climate occasion$ by ! great] proportional area ( sea4 ,next to f]ns & p9es1 ! mo/ abundant vegetable =ms 9 ! coal =mation are ! ,calamites1 ,lepidod5dra1 ,sigill>iae1 & ,/igm>iae4 ,^! 7 =m]ly consid]$ to be s closely alli$ to tropical g5]a1 & to be s mu* great] 9 size ?an ! correspond+ tribes n[ inhabit+ equatorial latitudes1 t !y 7 ?\ght to imply an extremely hot1 z well z humid & equable climate4 ,b rec5t discov]ies respect+ ! /ructure & relations ( ^! fossil plants1 h %[n t !y deviat$ s widely f all exi/+ types 9 ! vegetable _w1 t we h m reason to inf] f ?is evid5ce a widely diff]5t climate 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s era1 z comp>$ to t n[ prevail+1 ?an a temp]ature extremely elevat$4#aef ,palms1 if n entirely want+ :5 ! /rata ( ! c>bonif]\s gr\p 7 deposit$1 appe> to h be5 exce$+ly r>e4#aeg ,! ,conif]ae1 on ! o!r h&1 s abundantly met ) 9 ! coal1 resemble ,arauc>iae 9 /ructure1 a family ( ! fir tribe1 *>act]i/ic at pres5t ( ! mild] regions ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 su* z ,*ili1 ,brazil1 ,new ,holl&1 & ,norfolk ,isl&4 ,9 reg>d to ! geographical ext5t ( ! anci5t vegetation1 x 0 n conf9$1 says ,m4 ,brongni>t1 to a small space1 z to ,europe1 = example2 = ! same =ms are met ) aga9 at great di/ances4 ,?us1 ! coal-plants ( ,nor? ,am]ica are1 = ! mo/ "p1 id5tical ) ^? ( ,europe1 & all belong to ! same g5]a4 ,"s specim5s1 also1 f ,gre5l&1 are ref]able to f]ns1 analog\s to ^? ( our ,european coal-m9es4#aeh ,! fossil plants br\ght f ,melville ,isl&1 al?\gh 9 a v imp]fect /ate1 h be5 suppos$ to w>rant simil> conclusions2#aei & assum+ t !y agree ) ^? ( ,baff9's ,bay1 m5tion$ by ,m4 ,brongni>t1 h[ %all we expla9 ! mann] 9 :i* su* a vegetation liv$ ?r\gh an arctic night ( sev]al mon?s' duration8#afj ,x may seem premature to discuss ?is "q until ! true nature ( ! fossil flora ( ! arctic regions has be5 m accurately det]m9$2 yet1 z ! "q has attract$ "s att5tion1 let u assume = a mom5t t ! coal-plants ( ,melville ,isl& are /rictly analog\s to ^? ( ! /rata ( ,nor?umb]l&--w\ld su* a fact pres5t an inexplicable enigma to ! vegetable physiologi/8 ,plants1 x is affirm$1 _c rema9 9 d>kness1 ev5 = a week1 )\t s]i\s injury1 unless 9 a torpid /ate2 & if expos$ to heat & moi/ure !y _c rema9 torpid1 b w gr[1 & mu/ !re=e p]i%4 ,if1 !n1 9 ! latitude ( ,melville ,isl&1 #ge degrees ,n41 a high temp]ature1 & consequ5t humidity1 prevail$ at t p]iod :5 we "k ! arctic seas 7 fill$ ) corals & l>ge multilocul> %ells1 h[ c\ld plants ( tropical =ms h fl\ri%$8 ,is n ! bright light ( equatorial regions z indisp5sable a condition ( _! well-be+ z ! sultry heat ( ! same c\ntries8 & h[ c\ld !y annually endure a night prolong$ = ?ree mon?s8#afa ,n[1 9 reply to ?is objection1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d1 9 ! fir/ place1 t1 s f> z exp]im5ts h be5 made1 !re is e reason to conclude1 t ! range ( int5sity ( light to :i* liv+ plants c accommodate !mselves is f> wid] ?an t ( heat4 ,no palms or tree f]ns c live 9 our temp]ate latitudes )\t protection f ! cold2 b :5 plac$ 9 hot-h\ses !y gr[ luxuriantly1 ev5 "u a cl\dy sky1 & :]e mu* light is int]cept$ by ! glass & frame-"w4 ,at ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 9 lat4 #fj degrees ,n41 ^! plants h be5 successfully cultivat$ 9 hot-h\ses1 al?\gh !re !y mu/ ex*ange ! p]petual equ9ox ( _! native regions1 = days & nights :i* are alt]nately protract$ to n9ete5 h\rs & %ort5$ to five4 ,h[ mu* f>!r t[>ds ! pole !y might cont9ue to live1 provid$ a due quantity ( heat & moi/ure 7 suppli$1 has n yet be5 det]m9$2 b ,/4 ,pet]sburg is probably n ! utmo/ limit1 & we %\ld expect t 9 lat4 #fe degrees at lea/1 :]e !y w\ld nev] rema9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs )\t enjoy+ ! sun's light1 !y might /ill exi/4 ,x %\ld also be borne 9 m9d1 9 reg>d to tree f]ns1 t !y gr[ 9 ! gloomie/ & d>ke/ p>ts ( ! =e/s ( w>m & temp]ate regions1 ev5 ext5d+ to ne>ly ! #df? degree ( s\? latitude 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,9 equatorial c\ntries1 says ,humboldt1 !y ab\nd *iefly 9 ! temp]ate1 humid1 & %ady p>ts ( m\nta9s4 ,z we "k1 !re=e1 t elevation (t5 comp5sates = ! effect ( latitude 9 ! geographical di/ribution ( plants1 we may easily und]/& t a class ( vegetables1 :i* gr[s at a c]ta9 height 9 ! torrid zone1 w\ld fl\ri% on ! pla9s at great] di/ances f ! equator1 if ! temp]ature1 moi/ure1 & o!r necess>y conditions1 7 equally uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,nor mu/ we =get t 9 all ! examples above allud$ to1 we h be5 speak+ ( liv+ species2 b ! coal-plants 7 ( p]fectly di/9ct species1 nay1 few ( !m except ! f]ns & p9es c be ref]r$ to g5]a or ev5 families ( ! exi/+ vegetable k+dom4 ,hav+ a /ructure1 !re=e1 & (t5 a =m :i* appe>s to ! botani/ s anomal\s1 !y may also h be5 end[$ ) a diff]5t con/itution1 enabl+ !m to be> a great] v>iation ( circum/ances 9 reg>d to light4 ,we f9d t p>ticul> species ( plants & tree f]ns require at pres5t diff]5t degrees ( heat2 & t "s species c ?rive only 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ! equator1 o!rs only a di/ance f x4 ,9 ! same mann] ! m9imum ( light1 suffici5t = ! n[ exi/+ species1 _c be tak5 z ! /&>d = all analog\s tribes t may ev] h fl\ri%$ on ! globe4 ,b grant+ t ! extreme nor!rn po9t to :i* a flora l t ( ! ,c>bonif]\s era c\ld ev] rea*1 may be some:]e betwe5 ! latitudes ( #fe degrees & #gj degrees1 we %\ld /ill h to inquire :e!r ! vegetable rema9s might n h be5 drift$ f !nce1 by riv]s & curr5ts1 to ! p>allel ( ,melville ,isl&1 or /ill f>!r4 ,9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 at pres5t1 we see t ! mat]ials = future b$s ( lignite & coal are becom+ amass$ 9 high latitudes1 f> f ! di/ricts :]e ! =e/s grew1 & on %ores :]e sc>cely a /unt$ %rub c n[ exi/4 ,! ,mack5zie1 & o!r riv]s ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 c>ry p9es ) _! roots atta*$ = _m hundr$ miles t[>ds ! nor?1 into ! ,arctic ,sea1 :]e !y are imb$d$ 9 deltas1 & "s ( !m drift$ /ill f>!r by curr5ts t[>ds ! pole4 ,be=e we c decide on ?is "q ( transportation1 we mu/ "k :e!r ! fossil coal-plants occurr+ 9 high latitudes be> ! m>ks ( friction & ( hav+ decay$ previ\sly to fossilization4 ,_m appe>ances 9 our ,engli% coal-fields c]ta9ly prove t ! plants 7 n float$ f great di/ances2 = ! outl9e ( ! /ems ( succul5t species pres]ve _! %>p angles1 & o!rs h _! surfaces m>k$ ) ! mo/ delicate l9es & /reaks4 ,long leaves1 also1 are atta*$ 9 _m in/ances to ! trunks or bran*es2#afb & leaves1 we "k1 9 g5]al1 are soon de/roy$ :5 /eep$ 9 wat]1 al?\gh f]ns w reta9 _! =ms aft] an imm]sion ( _m mon?s4#afc ,x seems fair to presume1 t mo/ ( ! coal-plants grew ^u ! same l& :i* suppli$ mat]ials = ! s&/ones & conglom]ates ( ! /rata 9 :i* !y are imb$d$4 ,! co>s5ess ( ! p>ticles ( _m ( ^! rocks atte/s t !y 7 n borne f v remote localities1 & t !re 0 l& !re=e 9 ! vic9ity wa/+ away by ! action ( mov+ wat]s4 ,! progress also ( mod]n discov]y has l$ to ! v g5]al admission ( ! doctr9e t b$s ( coal h = ! mo/ "p be5 =m$ ( ! rema9s ( trees & plants t grew on ! spot :]e ! coal n[ exi/s2 ! l& hav+ be5 successively subm]g$1 s t a cov]+ ( mud & s& 0 deposit$ ^u accumulations ( vegetable mat]4 ,t su* has be5 ! orig9 ( "s coal-seams is prov$ by ! upright position ( fossil trees1 bo? 9 ,europe & ,am]ica1 9 :i* ! roots t]m9ate d[nw>ds 9 b$s ( coal4#afd ,to return1 !re=e1 f ?is digression1--! flora ( ! coal appe>s to indicate a uni=m & mild temp]ature 9 ! air1 :ile ! fossils ( ! contemporane\s m\nta9-lime/one1 compris+ abundance ( lamellif]\s corals1 l>ge *amb]$ cephalopods1 & cr9oidea1 naturally lead u to inf] a consid]able w>m? 9 ! wat]s ( ! nor!rn sea ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,s also 9 reg>d to /rata old] ?an ! coal1 !y conta9 9 high nor!rn latitudes m\nta9 masses ( corals :i* mu/ h liv$ & gr[n on ! spot1 & l>ge *amb]$ univalves1 su* z ,or?oc]ata & ,nautilus1 all seem+ to indicate1 ev5 9 regions bord]+ on ! arctic circle1 ! =m] preval5ce ( a temp]ature m elevat$ ?an t n[ prevail+4 ,! w>m? & humidity ( ! air1 & ! uni=mity ( climate1 bo? 9 ! diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>1 & 9 diff]5t latitudes1 appe>s to h be5 mo/ rem>kable :5 "s ( ! olde/ ( ! fossilif]\s /rata 7 =m$4 ,! approximation to a climate simil> to t n[ enjoy$ 9 ^! latitudes does n comm5ce till ! era ( ! =mations t]m$ t]ti>y2 & :ile ! diff]5t t]ti>y rocks 7 deposit$ 9 succession1 f ! eoc5e to ! plioc5e1 ! temp]ature seems to h be5 l[]$1 & to h cont9u$ to dim9i% ev5 aft] ! appe>ance ^u ! e>? ( a consid]able numb] ( ! exi/+ species1 ! cold rea*+ its maximum ( int5sity 9 ,european latitudes dur+ ! glacial epo*1 or ! epo* imm$iately antec$5t to t 9 :i* all ! species n[ contempor>y ) man 7 9 be+4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,f>!r ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,"q ,,z ,,to ,,! ,,assum$ ,,discordance ,,( ,,! ,,anci5t ,,& ,,mod]n ,,causes ,,( ,,*ange4 ,on ! causes ( vicissitudes 9 climate--,rem>ks on ! pres5t diffusion ( heat ov] ! globe--,on ! dep5d5ce ( ! mean temp]ature on ! relative position ( l& & sea--,iso!rmal ,l9es--,curr5ts f equatorial regions--,drift+ ( iceb]gs--,diff]5t temp]ature ( ,nor!rn & ,s\!rn hemisph]es--,comb9ation ( causes :i* might produce ! extreme cold ( :i* ! e>?'s surface is susceptible--,conditions necess>y = ! production ( ! extreme ( heat1 & its probable effects on organic life4 ,causes ( ,vicissitudes 9 ,climate4#afe--;,z ! pro(s enum]at$ 9 ! la/ *apt] indicate t ! e>?'s surface has exp]i5c$ great *anges ( climate s9ce ! deposition ( ! old] s$im5t>y /rata1 we h next to inquire h[ su* vicissitudes c be reconcil$ ) ! exi/+ ord] ( nature4 ,! cosmogoni/ has avail$ himself ( ?is1 z ( e obscure problem 9 geology1 to confirm 8 views conc]n+ a p]iod :5 ! planet 0 9 a nasc5t or half-=m$ /ate1 or :5 ! laws ( ! animate & inanimate _w diff]$ ess5tially f ^? n[ e/abli%$2 & he has 9 ?is1 z 9 _m o!r cases1 succe$$ s f>1 z to div]t att5tion f t class ( facts :i*1 if fully und]/ood1 might probably lead to an explanation ( ! ph5om5a4 ,at fir/ x 0 imag9$ t ! e>?'s axis _h be5 = ages p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 s t !re 0 a p]petual equ9ox1 & uni=mity ( seasons ?r\gh\t ! ye>2--t ! planet enjoy$ ?is p>adisiacal /ate until ! era ( ! great flood2 b 9 t cata/rophe1 :e!r by ! %ock ( a comet1 or "s o!r convulsion1 x lo/ its equal poise1 & h5ce ! obliquity ( its axis1 & ) t ! v>i$ seasons ( ! temp]ate zone1 & ! long nights & days ( ! pol> circles4 ,:5 ! progress ( a/ronomical sci5ce _h explod$ ?is !ory1 x 0 assum$1 t ! e>? at its creation 0 9 a /ate ( fluidity1 & r$-hot1 & t ev] s9ce t era1 x _h be5 cool+ d[n1 contract+ its dim5sions1 & acquir+ a solid cru/1--an hypo!sis h>dly less arbitr>y1 yet m calculat$ = la/+ popul>ity2 because1 by ref]r+ ! m9d directly to ! beg9n+ ( ?+s1 x requires no support f obs]vation1 nor f any ult]ior hypo!sis4 ,b if1 in/ead ( =m+ vague conjectures z to :at might h be5 ! /ate ( ! planet at ! era ( its creation1 we fix our ?\ghts on ! connection at pres5t exi/+ betwe5 climate & ! di/ribution ( l& & sea2 & !n consid] :at influ5ce =m] fluctuations 9 ! physical geography ( ! e>? mu/ h _h on sup]ficial temp]ature1 we may p]haps approximate to a true !ory4 ,if d\bts & obscurities /ill rema91 !y %\ld be ascrib$ to our limit$ acqua9tance ) ! laws ( ,nature1 n to revolutions 9 h] economy2--!y %\ld /imulate u to f>!r rese>*1 n tempt u to indulge our fancies respect+ ! imag9>y *anges ( int]nal temp]ature 9 an embryo _w4 ,diffusion ( ,heat ov] ! ,globe4--,9 consid]+ ! laws :i* regulate ! diffusion ( heat ov] ! globe1 we mu/ be c>eful1 z ,humboldt well rem>ks1 n to reg>d ! climate ( ,europe z a type ( ! temp]ature :i* all c\ntries plac$ "u ! same latitude enjoy4 ,! physical sci5ces1 obs]ves ?is philosoph]1 always be> ! impress ( ! places :]e !y began to be cultivat$2 & z1 9 geology1 an attempt 0 at fir/ made to ref] all ! volcanic ph5om5a to ^? ( ! volcanoes 9 ,italy1 s 9 meteorology1 a small "p ( ! old _w1 ! c5tre ( ! primitive civilization ( ,europe1 0 = a long "t consid]$ a type to :i* ! climate ( all correspond+ latitudes might be ref]r$4 ,b ?is region1 con/itut+ only "o-sev5? ( ! :ole globe1 prov$ ev5tually to be ! exception to ! g5]al rule4 ,= ! same reason1 we may w>n ! geologi/ to be on 8 gu>d1 & n ha/ily to assume t ! temp]ature ( ! e>? 9 ! pres5t era is a type ( t :i* mo/ usually obta9s1 s9ce he contemplates f> mighti] alt]ations 9 ! position ( l& & sea1 at diff]5t epo*s1 ?an ^? :i* n[ cause ! climate ( ,europe to diff] f t ( o!r c\ntries 9 ! same p>allels4 ,x is n[ well asc]ta9$ t zones ( equal w>m?1 bo? 9 ! atmosph]e & 9 ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 are nei!r p>allel to ! equator nor to ea* o!r4#aff ,x is also kn[n t ! mean annual temp]ature may be ! same 9 two places :i* enjoy v diff]5t climates1 = ! seasons may be ne>ly uni=m1 or viol5tly contra/$1 s t ! l9es ( equal w9t] temp]ature d n co9cide ) ^? ( equal annual heat or iso!rmal l9es4 ,! deviations ( all ^! l9es f ! same p>allel ( latitude are det]m9$ by a multitude ( circum/ances1 among ! pr9cipal ( :i* are ! position1 direction1 & elevation ( ! cont95ts & isl&s1 ! position & dep?s ( ! sea1 & ! direction ( curr5ts & ( w9ds4 ,on comp>+ ! two cont95ts ( ,europe & ,am]ica1 x is f\nd t places 9 ! same latitudes h sometimes a mean diff]5ce ( temp]ature am\nt+ to #aa degrees1 or ev5 9 a few cases to #ag degrees ,fahr42 & "s places on ! two cont95ts1 :i* h ! same mean temp]ature1 diff] f #g degrees to #ag degrees 9 latitude4 ,?us1 ,cumb]l& ,h\se1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 hav+ ! same latitude 7#ed degrees ,n47 z ! city ( ,york 9 ,engl&1 /&s on ! iso!rmal l9e ( #cb degrees1 :i* 9 ,europe rises to ! ,nor? ,cape1 9 lat4 #ga degrees1 b its summ] heat exce$s t ( ,brussels or ,p>is4#afg ,! pr9cipal cause ( great] int5sity ( cold 9 correspond+ latitudes ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 z contra/$ ) ,europe1 is ! connection ( ,am]ica ) ! pol> circle1 by a l>ge tract ( l&1 "s ( :i* is f ?ree to five ?\s& feet 9 height2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! sep>ation ( ,europe f ! arctic circle by an ocean4 ,! ocean has a t5d5cy to pres]ve ev]y:]e a mean temp]ature1 :i* x communicates to ! contigu\s l&1 s t x temp]s ! climate1 mod]at+ alike an excess ( heat or cold4 ,! elevat$ l&1 on ! o!r h&1 ris+ to ! cold] regions ( ! atmosph]e1 becomes a great res]voir ( ice & sn[1 arre/s1 cond5ses1 & congeals vapor1 & communicates its cold to ! adjo9+ c\ntry4 ,= ?is reason1 ,gre5l&1 =m+ "p ( a cont95t :i* /ret*es nor?w>d to ! #hb;d degree ( latitude1 exp]i5ces "u ! #fj? p>allel a m rigor\s climate ?an ,lapl& "u ! #gb;d p>allel4 ,b if l& be situat$ betwe5 ! #dj? p>allel & ! equator1 x produces1 unless x be ( extreme height1 exactly ! opposite effect2 = x !n w>ms ! tracts ( l& or sea t int]v5e betwe5 x & ! pol> circle4 ,= ! surface be+ 9 ?is case expos$ to ! v]tical1 or ne>ly v]tical rays ( ! sun1 absorbs a l>ge quantity ( heat1 :i* x diffuses by radiation into ! atmosph]e4 ,= ?is reason1 ! we/]n p>ts ( ! old cont95t d]ive w>m? f ,africa1 :i*1 l an imm5se furnace1 di/ributes its heat to ,arabia1 to ,turkey 9 ,asia1 & to ,europe4#afh ,on ! contr>y1 ! nor!a/]n extremity ( ,asia exp]i5ces 9 ! same latitude extreme cold2 = x has l& on ! nor? betwe5 ! #fj? & #gj? p>allel1 :ile to ! s\? x is sep>at$ f ! equator by ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! m equal temp]ature ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 ! climate ( isl&s & ( coa/s diff]s ess5tially f t ( ! int]ior ( cont95ts1 ! m m>itime climate be+ *>act]iz$ by mild w9t]s1 & m temp]ate summ]s2 = ! sea-breezes mod]ate ! cold ( w9t]1 z well z ! heat ( summ]4 ,:51 !re=e1 we trace r\nd ! globe ^? belts 9 :i* ! mean annual temp]ature is ! same1 we (t5 f9d great diff]5ces 9 climate2 = !re are insul> climates 9 :i* ! seasons are ne>ly equaliz$1 & excessive climates1 z !y h be5 t]m$1 :]e ! temp]ature ( w9t] & summ] is /rongly contra/$4 ,! :ole ( ,europe1 comp>$ ) ! ea/]n p>ts ( ,am]ica & ,asia1 has an insul> climate4 ,! nor!rn "p ( ,*9a1 & ! ,atlantic region ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 exhibit excessive climates4 ,we f9d at ,new ,york1 says ,humboldt1 ! summ] ( ,rome & ! w9t] ( ,cop5hag52 at ,quebec1 ! summ] ( ,p>is & ! w9t] ( ,pet]sburg4 ,at ,pek91 9 ,*9a1 :]e ! mean temp]ature ( ! ye> is t ( ! coa/s ( ,brittany1 ! scor*+ heats ( summ] are great] ?an at ,cairo1 & ! w9t]s z rigor\s z at ,upsala4#afi ,if l9es be drawn r\nd ! globe ?r\gh all ^? places :i* h ! same w9t] temp]ature1 !y are f\nd to deviate f ! t]re/rial p>allels mu* f>!r ?an ! l9es ( equal mean annual heat4 ,! l9es ( equal w9t] 9 ,europe1 = example1 are (t5 curv$ s z to rea* p>allels ( latitude #i degrees or #aj degrees di/ant f ea* o!r1 :]eas ! iso!rmal l9es1 or ^? pass+ ?r\gh places hav+ ! same mean annual temp]ature1 diff] only f #d degrees to #e degrees 9 ,europe4 ,influ5ce ( curr5ts & drift ice on temp]ature4--,among o!r influ5tial causes1 bo? ( rem>kable div]sity 9 ! mean annual heat1 & ( unequal division ( heat 9 ! diff]5t seasons1 are ! direction ( curr5ts & ! accumulation & drift+ ( ice 9 high latitudes4 ,! temp]ature ( ! ,lagullas curr5t is #aj degrees or #ab degrees ,fahr4 above t ( ! sea at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope2 = x d]ives ! great] "p ( its wat]s f ! ,mozambique *annel1 & s\!a/ coa/ ( ,africa1 & f regions 9 ! ,indian ,ocean mu* ne>] ! l9e1 & mu* hott] ?an ! ,cape4#agj ,an opposite effect is produc$ by ! equatorial curr5t1 :i* crosses ! ,atlantic f ,africa to ,brazil1 hav+ a bread? v>y+ f #afj to #dej nautical miles4 ,its wat]s are cool] by #c degrees or #d degrees ,fahr4 ?an ^? ( ! ocean "u ! l9e1 s t x mod]ates ! heat ( ! tropics4#aga ,b ! effects ( ! ,gulf /ream on ! climate ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean are f> m rem>kable4 ,?is mo/ p[]ful ( kn[n curr5ts has its s\rce 9 ! ,gulf or ,sea ( ,mexico1 :i*1 l ! ,m$it]ranean & o!r close seas 9 temp]ate or l[ latitudes1 is w>m] ?an ! op5 ocean 9 ! same p>allels4 ,! temp]ature ( ! ,mexican sea 9 summ] is1 accord+ to ,r5nell1 #hf degrees ,fahr41 or at lea/ #g degrees above t ( ! ,atlantic 9 ! same latitude4#agb ,f ?is great res]voir or caldron ( w>m wat]1 a con/ant curr5t p\rs =? ?r\gh ! /raits ( ,bahama at ! rate ( #c or #d miles an h\r2 x crosses ! ocean 9 a nor!a/]ly direction1 skirt+ ! great bank ( ,newf\ndl&1 :]e x /ill reta9s a temp]ature ( #h degrees above t ( ! surr\nd+ sea4 ,x rea*es ! ,azores 9 ab\t #gh days1 aft] fl[+ ne>ly #cjjj geographical miles1 & f !nce x sometimes ext5ds its c\rse a ?\s& miles f>!r1 s z to rea* ! ,bay ( ,biscay1 /ill reta9+ an excess ( #e degrees above ! mean temp]ature ( t sea4 ,z x has be5 kn[n to arrive !re 9 ! mon?s ( ,novemb] & ,janu>y1 x may t5d greatly to mod]ate ! cold ( w9t] 9 c\ntries on ! we/ ( ,europe4 4 ,!re is a l>ge tract 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 betwe5 ! p>allels ( #cc degrees & #de degrees ,n4 lat41 :i* ,r5nell calls ! recipi5t ( ! gulf wat]4 ,a great "p ( x is cov]$ by ! we$ call$ s>gasso 7,s>gassum baccif]um71 :i* ! curr5t floats 9 abundance f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,?is mass ( wat] is ne>ly /agnant1 is w>m] by #g degrees or #aj degrees ?an ! wat]s ( ! ,atlantic1 & may be comp>$ to ! fre% wat] ( a riv] ov]fl[+ ! heavi] salt wat] ( ! sea4 ,r5nell e/imates ! area ( ! recipi5t1 toge!r ) t cov]$ by ! ma9 curr5t1 z be+ #bjjj miles 9 l5g? f ,e4 to ,w41 & #cej 9 bread? f ,n4 to ,s41 :i*1 he rem>ks1 is a l>g] area ?an t ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! heat ( ?is great body ( wat] is kept up by ! incessant & quick arrivals ( fre% supplies ( w>m wat] f ! s\?2 & !re c be no d\bt t ! g5]al climate ( p>ts ( ,europe & ,am]ica is mat]ially affect$ by ?is cause4 ,x is consid]$ probable by ,scoresby t ! influ5ce ( ! ,gulf /ream ext5ds ev5 to ! sea ne> ,spitzb]g51 :]e its wat]s may pass "u ^? ( melt$ ice2 = x has be5 f\nd t 9 ! neighborhood ( ,spitzb]g51 ! wat] is w>m] by #f degrees or #g degrees at ! dep? ( "o hundr$ & two hundr$ fa?oms ?an at ! surface4 ,?is might arise f ! kn[n law t fre% wat] passes ! po9t ( greate/ d5sity :5 cool$ d[n bel[ #dj degrees1 & betwe5 t & ! freez+ po9t exp&s aga94 ,! wat] ( melt$ ice might be light]1 bo? z be+ fre% 7hav+ lo/ its salt 9 ! decompos+ process ( freez+71 & because its temp]ature is ne>] ! freez+ po9t ?an ! inf]ior wat] ( ! ,gulf /ream4 ,! great glaci]s g5]at$ 9 ! valleys ( ,spitzb]g51 9 ! #gi degrees ( nor? latitude1 are almo/ all cut (f at ! bea*1 be+ melt$ by ! feeble remnant ( heat /ill reta9$ by ! ,gulf /ream4 ,9 ,baff9's ,bay1 on ! contr>y1 on ! we/ coa/ ( ,old ,gre5l&1 :]e ! temp]ature ( ! sea is n mitigat$ by ! same cause1 & :]e !re is no w>m] "u-curr5t1 ! glaci]s /ret* out f ! %ore1 & furni% repeat$ crops ( m\nta9\s masses ( ice :i* float (f into ! ocean4#agc ,! numb] & dim5sions ( ^! b]gs is prodigi\s4 ,capta9 ,sir ,john ,ross saw sev]al ( !m toge!r 9 ,baff9's ,bay agr\nd 9 wat] fifte5 hundr$ feet deep6 ,_m ( !m are driv5 d[n into ,hudson's ,bay1 & accumulat+ !re1 diffuse excessive cold ov] ! neighbor+ cont95t2 s t ,capta9 ,frankl9 reports1 t at ! m\? ( ,hayes' ,riv]1 :i* lies 9 ! same latitude z ! nor? ( ,prussia or ! s\? ( ,scotl&1 ice is f\nd ev]y:]e 9 digg+ wells1 9 summ]1 at ! dep? ( f\r feet6 ,o!r b]gs h be5 occasionally met )1 at midsumm]1 9 a /ate ( rapid ?aw1 z f> s\? z lat4 #dj degrees & longitude ab\t #fj degrees we/1 :]e !y cool ! wat] s5sibly to ! di/ance ( =ty or fifty miles ar\nd1 ! !rmomet] s9k+ sometimes #ag degrees1 or ev5 #ah degrees1 ,fahr5heit1 9 _! neighborhood4#agd ,x is a well-kn[n fact t e f\r or five ye>s a l>ge numb] ( iceb]gs1 float+ f ,gre5l&1 d\ble ,cape ,langaness1 & are /r&$ on ! we/ coa/ ( ,icel&4 ,! inhabitants are !n aw>e t _! crops ( hay w fail1 9 consequ5ce ( fogs :i* are g5]at$ almo/ incessantly2 & ! de>? ( food is n conf9$ to ! l&1 = ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is s *ang$ t ! fi% entirely des]t ! coa/4 ,diff]5ce ( climate ( ! ,nor!rn & ,s\!rn hemisph]es4--,:5 we comp>e ! climate ( ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es1 we obta9 /ill m in/ruction 9 reg>d to ! influ5ce ( ! di/ribution ( l& & sea on climate4 ,! dry l& 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e is to t ( ! nor!rn 9 ! ratio only ( "o to ?ree1 exclud+ f our consid]ation t "p :i* lies betwe5 ! pole & ! #gh degrees ( s\? latitude1 :i* has hi!rto prov$ inaccessible4 ,& :]eas 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 betwe5 ! pole & ! ?irtie? p>allel ( nor? latitude1 ! l& & sea occupy ne>ly equal areas1 ! ocean 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e cov]s no less ?an fifte5 p>ts 9 sixte5 ( ! entire space includ$ betwe5 ! ant>ctic circle & ! ?irtie? p>allel ( s\? latitude4 ,?is great ext5t ( sea gives a p>ticul> "* to climates s\? ( ! equator1 ! w9t]s be+ mild & ! summ]s cool4 ,?us1 9 ,van ,dieman's ,l&1 correspond+ ne>ly 9 latitude to ,rome1 ! w9t]s are m mild ?an at ,naples1 & ! summ]s n w>m] ?an ^? at ,p>is1 :i* is #g degrees f>!r f ! equator4#age ,! effects on animal & vegetable life are rem>kable4 ,capt4 ,k+ obs]v$ l>ge %rubs ( ,fu*sia & ,v]onica1 :i* 9 ,engl& are treat$ z t5d] plants1 ?riv+ & 9 full fl[] 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego ) ! temp]ature at #cf degrees4 ,he /ates also t humm+ birds 7 se5 sipp+ ! sweets ( ! fl[]s aft] two or ?ree days ( con/ant ra91 sn[1 & sleet1 dur+ :i* "t ! !rmomet] _h be5 at ! freez+ po9t4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 also saw p>rots fe$+ on ! se$s ( a tree call$ ! w9t]'s b>k1 s\? ( lat4 #ee degrees1 ne> ,cape ,horn4#agf ,s ! or*ide\s plants :i* are p>asitical on trees1 & are g5]ally *>act]i/ic ( ! tropics1 advance to ! #ch? & #db;d degree ( ,s4 lat41 & ev5 beyond ! #de? degree 9 ,new ,zeal&1 :]e !y 7 f\nd by ,=/]4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica also arboresc5t grasses ab\nd 9 ! d5se =e/s ( ,*iloe1 9 lat4 #db degrees ,s41 :]e !y entw9e ! trees into "o entangl$ mass to ! height ( ?irty or =ty feet above ! gr\nd4 ,palm-trees 9 ! same qu>t] ( ! globe gr[ 9 lat4 #cg degrees1 an arboresc5t grass v l a bamboo 9 #dj degrees1 & ano!r closely alli$ k9d1 ( great l5g?1 b n erect1 ev5 z f> s\? z #de degrees4#agg ,x has long be5 suppos$ t ! g5]al temp]ature ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e 0 consid]ably l[] ?an t ( ! nor!rn1 & t ! diff]5ce am\nt$ to at lea/ #aj degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,b>on ,humboldt1 aft] collect+ & comp>+ a great numb] ( obs]vations1 came to ! conclusion t ev5 a mu* l>g] diff]5ce exi/$1 b t none 0 to be obs]v$ )9 ! tropics1 & only a small diff]5ce z f> z ! ?irty-fif? & =tie? p>allel4 ,capta9 ,cook 0 ( op9ion t ! ice ( ! ant>ctic pr$om9at$ greatly ov] t ( ! arctic region1 t encircl+ ! s\!rn pole com+ ne>] to ! equator by #aj degrees ?an ! ice ar\nd ! nor? pole4 ,all ! rec5t voyages ( discov]y h t5d$ to confirm ?is op9ion1 al?\gh ,capt4 ,w$del p5etrat$1 9 #ahbc1 ?ree degrees f>!r s\? ?an ,capt4 ,cook1 rea*+ lat4 #gd degrees #ae m9utes ,s\?1 long4 #cd degrees #ag m9utes ,we/1 & ,sir ,james ,ross1 9 #ahdb1 arriv$ at lat4 #gh degrees #aj m9utes ,s41 z high a latitude1 )9 ?ree degrees1 z ! f>!/ po9t atta9$ by ,capta9 ,p>ry 9 ! arctic circle1 or lat4 #ha degrees #ab m9utes ,nor?4 ,! description giv5 by anci5t z well z mod]n navigators ( ! sea & l& 9 high s\!rn latitudes1 cle>ly atte/s ! great] sev]ity ( ! climate z comp>$ to arctic regions4 ,9 ,s&wi* ,l&1 9 lat4 #ei degrees ,s41 or 9 ne>ly ! same p>allel z ! nor? ( ,scotl&1 ,capt4 ,cook f\nd ! :ole c\ntry1 f ! summits ( ! m\nta9s d[n to ! v br9k ( ! sea-cliffs1 cov]$ _m fa?oms ?ick ) ev]la/+ sn[1 & ?is on ! #a/ ( ,febru>y1 ! hotte/ "t ( ! ye>2 & :at is /ill m a/oni%+1 9 ! isl& ( ,s4 ,georgia1 :i* is 9 ! #ed degrees s\? latitude1 or ! same p>allel z ,york%ire1 ! l9e ( p]petual sn[ desc5ds to ! level ( ! ocean4#agh ,:5 we consid] ?is fact1 & !n recollect t ! highe/ m\nta9s 9 ,scotl&1 :i* asc5d to an elevation ( ne>ly #ejjj feet1 & are f\r degrees f>!r to ! nor?1 d n atta9 ! limit ( p]petual sn[ on our side ( ! equator1 we le>n t latitude is "o only ( _m p[]ful causes1 :i* det]m9e ! climate ( p>ticul> regions ( ! globe4 ,capt4 ,sir ,james ,ross1 9 8 explor+ exp$ition 9 #ahda-c1 f\nd t ! temp]ature s\? ( ! #fj? degree ( latitude seldom rose above #cb degrees ,fahr4 ,dur+ ! two summ] mon?s ( ! ye> #ahda 7,janu>y & ,febru>y7 ! range ( ! !rmomet] 0 betwe5 #aa degrees & #cb degrees ,fahr42 & sc>cely once rose above ! freez+ po9t4 ,! p]man5ce ( sn[ 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 is 9 ?is in/ance p>tly due to ! float+ ice1 :i* *ills ! atmosph]e & cond5ses ! vapor1 s t 9 summ] ! sun _c pi]ce ?r\gh ! foggy air4 ,b besides ! abundance ( ice :i* cov]s ! sea to ! s\? ( ,georgia & ,s&wi* ,l&1 we may also1 z ,humboldt sugge/s1 ascribe ! cold ( ^? c\ntries 9 "p to ! abs5ce ( l& betwe5 !m & ! tropics4 ,if ,africa & ,new ,holl& ext5d$ f>!r to ! s\?1 a dim9ution ( ice w\ld take place 9 consequ5ce ( ! radiation ( heat f ^! cont95ts dur+ summ]1 :i* w\ld w>m ! contigu\s sea & r>efy ! air4 ,! heat$ a]ial curr5ts w\ld !n asc5d & fl[ m rapidly t[>ds ! s\? pole1 & mod]ate ! w9t]4 ,9 confirmation ( ^! views1 x is /at$ t ! ice1 :i* ext5ds z f> z ! #fh degrees & #ga degrees ( s\? latitude1 advances m t[>ds ! equator :5ev] x meets an op5 sea2 t is1 :]e ! extremities ( ! pres5t cont95ts are n opposite to x2 & ?is circum/ance seems explicable only on ! pr9ciple above allud$ to1 ( ! radiation ( heat f ! l&s s situat$4 ,! cold ( ! ant>ctic regions 0 conjectur$ by ,cook to be due to ! exi/5ce ( a l>ge tract ( l& betwe5 ! sev5tie? degree ( s\? latitude & ! pole4 ,! ju/ness ( ^! & o!r speculations ( t great navigator h s9ce be5 s+ul>ly confirm$ by ! inve/igation made by ,sir ,james ,ross 9 #ahda4 ,he f\nd ,victoria ,l&1 ext5d+ f #ga degrees to #gi degrees ,s4 latitude1 skirt$ by a great b>ri] ( ice1 ! height ( ! l& rang+ f #djjj to #ad1jjj feet1 ! :ole entirely cov]$ ) sn[1 except a n>r[ r+ ( black e>? surr\nd+ ! huge crat] ( ! active volcano ( ,m\nt ,erebus1 ris+ #ab1djj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! position ( a m\nta9\s t]ritory ( su* altitude1 s ne> ! pole1 & s obvi\s a s\rce ( int5se cold1 fully expla9s :y ,graham's & ,end]by's ,l&1 discov]$ by ,capta9 ,biscoe 9 #ahca-b 7betwe5 lat4 #fd degrees & #fh degrees ,s471 pres5t$ a mo/ w9try aspect1 cov]$ ev5 9 summ] ) ice & sn[1 & ne>ly de/itute ( animal life4 ,9 correspond+ latitudes ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e we n only meet ) h]ds ( wild h]bivor\s animals1 b ) l& :i* man himself inhabits1 & :]e he has ev5 built ports & inl& villages4#agi ,! di/ance to :i* iceb]gs float f ! pol> regions on ! opposite sides ( ! l9e is1 z might h be5 anticipat$1 v diff]5t4 ,_! extreme limit 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e is lat4 #dj degrees1 z be=e m5tion$1 & !y are occasionally se5 9 lat4 #db degrees ,n41 ne> ! t]m9ation ( ! great bank ( ,newf\ndl&1 & at ! ,azores1 lat4 #db degrees ,n41 to :i* !y are sometimes drift$ f ,baff9's ,bay4 ,b 9 ! o!r hemisph]e !y h be5 se51 )9 ! la/ few ye>s1 at diff]5t po9ts (f ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 betwe5 lat4 #cf degrees & #ci degrees4#ahj ,"o ( ^! 7see fig4 #b7 0 two miles 9 circumf]5ce1 & #aej feet high1 appe>+ l *alk :5 ! sun 0 obscur$1 & hav+ ! lu/re ( ref9$ sug> :5 ! sun 0 %9+ on x4 ,o!rs rose f #bej to #cjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & 7 !re=e ( great volume bel[2 s9ce x is asc]ta9$ by exp]im5ts on ! buoyancy ( ice float+ 9 sea-wat]1 t = e cubic foot se5 above1 !re mu/ at lea/ be eight cubic feet bel[ wat]4#aha ,if ice isl&s f ! nor? pol> regions float$ z f>1 !y might rea* ,cape ,/4 ,v9c5t1 & !re1 be+ drawn by ! curr5t t always sets 9 f ! ,atlantic ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt>1 be drift$ into ! ,m$it]ranean1 s t ! s]5e sky ( t delightful region might soon be de=m$ by cl\ds & mi/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,iceb]g se5 (f ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 ,april1 #ahbi4 ,lat4 #hi degrees #ah m9utes ,s4 ,long4 #dh degrees #df m9utes ,e4 ,be=e ! am\nt ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! two hemisph]es 0 asc]ta9$1 x 0 ref]r$ by _m a/ronom]s to ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 or ! accel]ation ( ! e>?'s motion 9 its p]ihelium2 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! spr+ & summ] ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e are n[ %ort]1 by ne>ly eight days1 ?an ^? seasons nor? ( ! equator4 ,b ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el rem9ds u t ! excess ( eight days 9 ! duration ( ! sun's pres5ce 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e is n productive ( an excess ( annual light & heat2 s9ce1 accord+ to ! laws ( elliptic motion1 x is demon/rable t :atev] be ! ellipticity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 ! two hemisph]es mu/ receive equal absolute quantities ( light & heat p] annum1 ! proximity ( ! sun 9 p]igee exactly comp5sat+ ! effect ( its swift] motion4#ahb ,humboldt1 h[ev]1 obs]ves1 t !re mu/ be a great] loss ( heat by radiation 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e dur+ a w9t] long] by eight days ?an t on ! o!r side ( ! equator4#ahc ,p]haps no v s5sible effect may be produc$ by ?is s\rce ( di/urbance2 yet ! geologi/ %\ld be> 9 m9d t to a c]ta9 ext5t x op]ates alt]nately on ea* ( ! two hemisph]es = a p]iod ( upw>ds ( #aj1jjj ye>s1 divid+ unequally ! times dur+ :i* ! annual supply ( sol> light & heat is receiv$4 ,?is cause may sometimes t5d to c\nt]balance inequalities ( temp]ature result+ f o!r f> m influ5tial circum/ances2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ sometimes t5d to increase ! extreme ( deviation aris+ f p>ticul> comb9ations ( causes4 ,b :atev] may be at pres5t ! inf]iority ( heat 9 ! temp]ate & frigid zones s\? ( ! l9e1 x is q evid5t t ! cold w\ld be f> m int5se if !re happ5$1 in/ead ( op5 sea1 to be tracts ( elevat$ l& betwe5 ! #ee? & #gj? p>allel2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! cold w\ld be mod]at$ if !re 7 m l& betwe5 ! l9e & ! =ty-fif? degree ( s\? latitude4 ,*anges 9 ! position ( l& & sea may give rise to vicissitudes 9 climate4--,hav+ (f]$ ^! brief rem>ks on ! diffusion ( heat ov] ! globe 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! surface1 ,i %all n[ proce$ to speculate on ! vicissitudes ( climate1 :i* mu/ att5d ^? endless v>iations 9 ! geographical features ( our planet :i* are contemplat$ 9 geology4 ,t our speculations may be conf9$ )9 ! /rict limits ( analogy1 ,i %all assume1 #a/1 ,t ! proportion ( dry l& to sea cont9ues always ! same4 #b;dly1 ,t ! volume ( ! l& ris+ above ! level ( ! sea is a con/ant quantity2 & n only t its mean1 b t its extreme height1 is liable only to trifl+ v>iations4 #c;dly1 ,t bo? ! mean & extreme dep? ( ! sea are inv>iable2 & #d?ly1 ,x may be consi/5t ) due caution to assume t ! gr\p+ toge!r ( ! l& 9 cont95ts is a necess>y "p ( ! economy ( nature2 = x is possible t ! laws :i* gov]n ! subt]ranean =ces1 & :i* act simultane\sly along c]ta9 l9es1 _c b produce1 at e epo*1 cont9u\s m\nta9-*a9s2 s t ! subdivision ( ! :ole l& into innum]able isl&s may be preclud$4 ,if x be object$1 t ! maximum ( elevation ( l& & dep? ( sea are probably n con/ant1 nor ! ga!r+ toge!r ( all ! l& 9 c]ta9 p>ts1 nor ev5 p]haps ! relative ext5t ( l& & wat]1 ,i reply1 t ! argum5ts ab\t to be adduc$ w be /r5g!n$ if1 9 ^! peculi>ities ( ! surface1 !re be consid]able deviations f ! pres5t type4 ,if1 = example1 all o!r circum/ances be+ ! same1 ! l& is at "o "t m divid$ into isl&s ?an at ano!r1 a great] uni=mity ( climate might be produc$1 ! mean temp]ature rema9+ unalt]$2 or if1 at ano!r era1 !re 7 m\nta9s high] ?an ! ,himalaya1 ^!1 :5 plac$ 9 high latitudes1 w\ld cause a great] excess ( cold4 ,or1 if we suppose t at c]ta9 p]iods no *a9 ( hills 9 ! _w rose beyond ! height ( #aj1jjj feet1 a great] heat might !n h prevail$ ?an is compatible ) ! exi/5ce ( m\nta9s ?rice t elevation4 ,h[ev] con/ant may be ! relative proportion ( sea & l&1 we "k t !re is annually "s small v>iation 9 _! respective geographical positions1 & t 9 e c5tury ! l& is 9 "s p>ts rais$1 & 9 o!rs depress$ 9 level1 & s likewise is ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,by ^! & o!r ceaseless *anges1 ! configuration ( ! e>?'s surface has be5 remodell$ aga9 & aga91 s9ce x 0 ! habitation ( organic be+s1 & ! b$ ( ! ocean has be5 lift$ up to ! height ( "s ( ! l(tie/ m\nta9s4 ,! imag9ation is apt to take al>m :5 call$ ^u to admit ! =mation ( su* irregul>ities 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 aft] x _h once become ! habitation ( liv+ creatures2 b1 if "t be all[$1 ! op]ation ne$ n subv]t ! ord9>y repose ( nature2 & ! result is 9 a g5]al view insignificant1 if we consid] h[ slightly ! highe/ m\nta9-*a9s cause our globe to diff] f a p]fect sph]e4 ,*imborazo1 ?\gh x rises to m ?an #ba1jjj feet above ! sea1 w\ld be repres5t$1 on a globe ( ab\t six feet 9 diamet]1 by a gra9 ( s& less ?an "o-tw5tie? ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,! sup]ficial inequalities ( ! e>?1 !n1 may be deem$ m9ute 9 quantity1 & _! di/ribution at any p>ticul> epo* mu/ be reg>d$ 9 geology z tempor>y peculi>ities1 l ! height & outl9e ( ! cone ( ,vesuvius 9 ! int]val betwe5 two eruptions4 ,b al?\gh1 9 ref]5ce to ! magnitude ( ! globe1 ! unev5ness ( ! surface is s unimportant1 x is on ! position & direction ( ^! small inequalities t ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e1 & bo? ! local & g5]al climate1 are ma9ly dep5d5t4 ,be=e consid]+ ! effect :i* a mat]ial *ange 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & sea mu/ occasion1 x may be well to rem>k1 h[ greatly organic life may be affect$ by ^? m9or v>iations1 :i* ne$ n 9 ! lea/ degree alt] ! g5]al temp]ature4 ,?us1 = example1 if we suppose1 by a s]ies ( convulsions1 a c]ta9 "p ( ,gre5l& to become sea1 &1 9 comp5sation1 a tract ( l& to rise & connect ,spitzb]g5 ) ,lapl&1--an accession n great] 9 am\nt ?an "o :i* ! geologi/ c prove to h occurr$ 9 c]ta9 di/ricts bord]+ ! ,m$it]ranean1 )9 a comp>atively mod]n p]iod1--?is alt]$ =m ( ! l& might cause an int]*ange betwe5 ! climate ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ( ,europe1 :i* lie 9 correspond+ latitudes4 ,_m ,european species ( plants & animals w\ld probably p]i% 9 consequ5ce1 because ! mean temp]ature w\ld be greatly l[]$2 & o!rs w\ld fail 9 ,am]ica1 because x w\ld !re be rais$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 places :]e ! mean annual heat rema9$ unalt]$1 "s species :i* fl\ri% 9 ,europe1 :]e ! seasons are m uni=m1 w\ld be unable to resi/ ! great] heat ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican summ]1 or ! int5s] cold ( ! w9t]2 :ile o!rs1 n[ fitt$ by _! habits = ! great contra/ ( ! ,am]ican seasons1 w\ld n be fitt$ = ! insul> climate ( ,europe4 ,! v9e1 = example1 accord+ to ,humboldt1 c be cultivat$ ) advantage #aj degrees f>!r nor? 9 ,europe ?an 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,_m plants endure sev]e fro/1 b _c rip5 _! se$s )\t a c]ta9 int5sity ( summ] heat & a c]ta9 quantity ( light2 o!rs _c endure a simil> int5sity ei!r ( heat or cold4 ,x is n[ e/abli%$ t _m ( ! exi/+ species ( animals h surviv$ great *anges 9 ! physical geography ( ! globe4 ,if su* species be t]m$ mod]n1 9 comp>ison to races :i* prec$$ !m1 _! rema9s1 nev]!less1 ent] into subm>9e deposits _m hundr$ miles 9 l5g?1 & :i* h s9ce be5 rais$ f ! deep to no inconsid]able altitude4 ,:51 !re=e1 x is %[n t *anges 9 ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e may be ! consequ5ce ( su* physical revolutions ( ! surface1 we ought no long] to wond] t we f9d ! di/ribution ( exi/+ species to be local1 9 reg>d to longitude z well z latitude4 ,if all species 7 n[1 by an ex]tion ( creative p[]1 to be diffus$ uni=mly ?r\gh\t ^? zones :]e !re is an equal degree ( heat1 & 9 all respects a simil>ity ( climate1 !y w\ld beg9 f ?is mom5t to dep>t m & m f _! orig9al di/ribution4 ,aquatic & t]re/rial species w\ld be displac$1 z ,hooke long ago obs]v$1 s (t5 z l& & wat] ex*ang$ places2 & !re w\ld also1 by ! =mation ( new m\nta9s & o!r *anges1 be transpositions ( climate1 contribut+1 9 ! mann] be=e allud$ to1 to ! local ext]m9ation ( species4#ahd ,if we n[ proce$ to consid] ! circum/ances requir$ = a g5]al *ange ( temp]ature1 x w appe>1 f ! facts & pr9ciples already laid d[n1 t :5ev] a great] ext5t ( high l& is collect$ 9 ! pol> regions1 ! cold w augm5t2 & ! same result w be produc$ :5 !re is m sea betwe5 or ne> ! tropics2 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 s (t5 z ! above conditions are rev]s$1 ! heat w be great]4 7,see figs4 #e & #f1 p4 #aaa47 ,if ?is be admitt$1 x w foll[1 t unless ! sup]ficial inequalities ( ! e>? be fix$ & p]man5t1 !re mu/ be nev]-end+ fluctuations 9 ! mean temp]ature ( e zone2 & t ! climate ( "o era c no m be a type ( e o!r2 ?an is "o ( our f\r seasons ( all ! re/4 ,x has be5 well said1 t ! e>? is cov]$ by an ocean1 9 ! mid/ ( :i* are two great isl&s1 & _m small] ones2 = ! :ole ( ! cont95ts & isl&s occupy an area sc>cely exce$+ "o-f\r? ( ! :ole sup]ficies ( ! sph]oid4 ,n[1 accord+ to ?is analogy1 we may fairly speculate on ! probability t !re w\ld n be usually1 at any giv5 epo* ( ! pa/1 m ?an ab\t "o-f\r? dry l& 9 a p>ticul> region2 z1 = example1 ne> ! poles1 or betwe5 !m & ! #ge? p>allels ( ,n4 & ,s4 latitude4 ,if1 !re=e1 at pres5t !re %\ld happ5 to be1 9 bo? ^! qu>t]s ( ! globe1 mu* m ?an ?is av]age proportion ( l&1 "s ( x 9 ! arctic region1 be+ above1 five ?\s& feet 9 height1 & if 9 ant>ctic latitudes a m\nta9\s c\ntry has be5 f\nd v>y+ f #djjj to #ad1jjj feet 9 height1 ?is alone af=ds gr\nd = conclud+ t1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 ! mean heat ( ! climate is bel[ t :i* ! e>?'s surface1 9 its m ord9>y /ate1 w\ld enjoy4 ,?is presumption is height5$ :5 we reflect on ! results ( ! rec5t s\nd+s made by ,sir ,james ,ross1 9 ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1 & cont9u$ = f\r successive ye>s1 end+ #ahdd1 :i* seem to prove t ! mean dep? ( ! ,atlantic & ,pacific is z great z ,laplace & o!r em95t a/ronom]s _h imag9$2#ahe = !n we might look n only = m ?an two-?irds sea 9 ! frigid zones1 b = wat] ( great dep?1 :i* c\ld n readily be r$uc$ to ! freez+ po9t4 ,! same op9ion is confirm$1 :5 we comp>e ! quantity ( l& ly+ betwe5 ! poles & ! #cj? p>allels ( nor? & s\? latitude1 ) ! quantity plac$ betwe5 ^? p>allels & ! equator2 =1 x is cle>1 t we h at pres5t n only m ?an ! usual degree ( cold 9 ! pol> regions1 b also less ?an ! av]age quantity ( heat )9 ! tropics4 ,position ( l& & sea :i* might produce ! extreme ( cold ( :i* ! e>?'s surface is susceptible4--,to simplify our view ( ! v>i\s *anges 9 climate1 :i* diff]5t comb9ations ( geographical circum/ances may produce1 we %all fir/ consid] ! conditions necess>y = br++ ab\t ! extreme ( cold1 or :at w\ld h be5 t]m$ 9 ! language ( ! old writ]s ! w9t] ( ! great ye>1 or geological cycle1 & aft]w>ds1 ! conditions requisite to produce ! maximum ( heat1 or ! summ] ( ! same ye>4 ,to beg9 ) ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,let u suppose ^? hills ( ! ,italian p59sula & ( ,sicily1 :i* are ( comp>atively mod]n orig91 & conta9 _m fossil %ells id5tical ) liv+ species1 to subside aga9 into ! sea1 f :i* !y h be5 rais$1 & t an ext5t ( l& ( equal area & height 7v>y+ f "o to ?ree ?\s& feet7 %\ld rise up 9 ! ,arctic ,ocean betwe5 ,sib]ia & ! nor? pole4 ,9 speak+ ( su* *anges1 ,i %all n allude to ! mann] 9 :i* ,i conceive x possible t !y may be br\ght ab\t1 nor ( ! "t requir$ = _! accompli%m5t--res]v+ = a future occasion1 n only ! pro(s t revolutions ( equal magnitude h tak5 place1 b t analog\s op]ations are /ill 9 gradual progress4 ,! alt]ation n[ suppos$ 9 ! physical geography ( ! nor!rn regions1 w\ld cause additional sn[ & ice to accumulate :]e n[ !re is usually an op5 sea2 & ! temp]ature ( ! great] "p ( ,europe w\ld be some:at l[]$1 s z to resemble m ne>ly t ( correspond+ latitudes ( ,nor? ,am]ica3 or1 9 o!r words1 x might be necess>y to travel ab\t #aj degrees f>!r s\? 9 ord] to meet ) ! same climate :i* we n[ enjoy4 ,no comp5sation w\ld be d]iv$ f ! disappe>ance ( l& 9 ! ,m$it]ranean c\ntries2 b ! contr>y1 s9ce ! mean heat ( ! soil 9 ^? latitudes probably exce$s t :i* w\ld belong to ! sea1 by :i* we imag9e x to be replac$4 ,b let ! configuration ( ! surface be /ill f>!r v>i$1 & let "s l>ge di/rict )9 or ne> ! tropics1 su* z ,brazil1 ) its pla9s & hills ( mod]ate height1 be conv]t$ into sea1 :ile l&s ( equal elevation & ext5t rise up 9 ! arctic circle4 ,f ?is *ange !re w\ld1 9 ! fir/ place1 result a s5sible dim9ution ( temp]ature ne> ! tropic1 = ! ,brazilian soil w\ld no long] be heat$ by ! sun2 s t ! atmosph]e w\ld be less w>m1 z also ! neighbor+ ,atlantic4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! :ole ( ,europe1 ,nor!rn ,asia1 & ,nor? ,am]ica1 w\ld be *ill$ by ! enorm\s quantity ( ice & sn[1 ?us g5]at$ on ! new arctic cont95t4 ,if1 z we h already se51 !re are n[ "s po9ts 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e :]e sn[ is p]petual d[n to ! level ( ! sea1 9 latitudes z l[ z c5tral ,engl&1 su* might assur$ly be ! case ?r\gh\t a great "p ( ,europe1 "u ! *ange ( circum/ances above suppos$3 & if at pres5t ! extreme range ( drift$ iceb]gs is ! ,azores1 !y might easily rea* ! equator aft] ! assum$ alt]ation4 ,b to pursue ! subject /ill f>!r1 let ! ,himalaya m\nta9s1 ) ! :ole ( ,h9do/an1 s9k d[n1 & _! place be occupi$ by ! ,indian ,ocean1 :ile an equal ext5t ( t]ritory & m\nta9s1 ( ! same va/ height1 rise up betwe5 ,nor? ,gre5l& & ! ,orkney ,isl&s4 ,x seems difficult to exagg]ate ! am\nt to :i* ! climate ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e w\ld !n be cool$4#ahf ,b ! refrig]ation br\ght ab\t at ! same "t 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 w\ld be ne>ly equal1 & ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! arctic & equatorial latitudes w\ld n be mu* great] ?an at pres5t2 = no important di/urbance c occur 9 ! climate ( a p>ticul> region )\t its imm$iately affect+ all o!r latitudes1 h[ev] remote4 ,! heat & cold :i* surr\nd ! globe are 9 a /ate ( con/ant & univ]sal flux & reflux4 ,! heat$ & r>efi$ air is always ris+ & fl[+ f ! equator t[>ds ! poles 9 ! high] regions ( ! atmosph]e2 :ile 9 ! l[]1 ! cold] air is fl[+ back to re/ore ! equilibrium4 ,t ?is circulation is con/antly go+ on 9 ! a]ial curr5ts is n disput$2 x is (t5 prov$ by ! opposite c\rse ( ! cl\ds at diff]5t heights1 & ! fact has be5 f>!r illu/rat$ 9 a /rik+ mann] by two rec5t ev5ts4 ,! trade w9d cont9ually bl[s ) great =ce f ! isl& ( ,b>badoes to t ( ,/4 ,v9c5t2 not)/&+ :i*1 dur+ ! eruption ( ! volcano 9 ! isl& ( ,/4 ,v9c5t1 9 #ahab1 a%es fell 9 pr(usion f a great height 9 ! atmosph]e ^u ,b>badoes4#ahg ,9 l mann]1 dur+ ! great eruption ( ,sumbawa1 9 #ahae1 a%es 7 c>ri$ to ! isl&s ( ,amboyna & ,b&a1 :i* la/ is ab\t #hjj miles ea/ f ! site ( ! volcano4 ,yet ! s\!a/ monsoon 0 !n at its height4#ahh ,?is app>5t transposition ( matt] aga9/ ! w9d1 confirm$ ! op9ion ( ! exi/5ce ( a c\nt]-curr5t 9 ! high] regions1 :i* _h previ\sly re/$ on !oretical conclusions only4 ,t a correspond+ int]*ange takes place 9 ! seas1 is demon/rat$1 accord+ to ,humboldt1 by ! cold :i* is f\nd to exi/ at great dep?s )9 ! tropics2 &1 among o!r pro(s1 may be m5tion$ ! mass ( w>m] wat] :i* ! ,gulf /ream is con/antly be>+ nor?w>ds1 :ile a cool] curr5t fl[s f ! nor? along ! coa/ ( ,gre5l& & ,labrador1 & helps to re/ore ! equilibrium4#ahi ,curr5ts ( cold] & !re=e specifically heavi] wat] pass f ! poles t[>ds ! equator1 :i* cool ! inf]ior p>ts ( ! ocean2 s t ! heat ( ! torrid zone & ! cold ( ! pol> circle balance ea* o!r4 ,! refrig]ation1 !re=e1 ( ! pol> regions1 result+ f ! suppos$ alt]ation 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & sea1 w\ld be imm$iately communicat$ to ! tropics1 & f !m its influ5ce w\ld ext5d to ! ant>ctic circle1 :]e ! atmosph]e & ! ocean w\ld be cool$1 s t ice & sn[ w\ld augm5t4 ,al?\gh ! mean temp]ature ( high] latitudes 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e is1 z be=e /at$1 = ! mo/ "p1 l[] ?an t ( ! same p>allels 9 ! nor!rn1 yet1 = a consid]able space on ea* side ( ! l9e1 ! mean annual heat ( ! wat]s is f\nd to be ! same 9 correspond+ p>allels4 ,if1 !re=e1 by ! new position ( ! l&1 ! =mation ( iceb]gs _h become ( common occurr5ce 9 ! nor!rn temp]ate zone1 & if ^! 7 frequ5tly drift$ z f> z ! equator1 ! same degree ( cold :i* !y g5]at$ w\ld imm$iately be communicat$ z f> z ! tropic ( ,capricorn1 & f !nce to ! l&s or ocean to ! s\?4 ,! fre$om1 !n1 ( ! circulation ( heat & cold f pole to pole be+ duly consid]$1 x w be evid5t t ! mean temp]ature :i* may prevail at ! same po9t at two di/9ct p]iods1 may diff] f> m widely ?an t ( any two po9ts 9 ! same p>allels ( latitude1 at "o & ! same p]iod4 ,= ! range ( temp]ature1 or 9 o!r words1 ! curvature ( ! iso!rmal l9es 9 a giv5 zone1 & at a giv5 p]iod1 mu/ always be circumscrib$ )9 n>r[ limits1 ! climate ( ea* place 9 t zone be+ controll$ by ! comb9$ influ5ce ( ! geographical peculi>ities ( all o!r p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,:]eas1 if we comp>e ! /ate ( ?+s at two di/9ct & some:at di/ant epo*s1 a p>ticul> zone may at "o "t be "u ! influ5ce ( "o class ( di/urb+ causes1 & at ano!r "t may be affect$ by an opposite comb9ation4 ,! l&s1 = example1 to ! nor? ( ,gre5l& cause ! pres5t climate ( ,nor? ,am]ica to be cold] ?an t ( ,europe 9 ! same latitudes2 b ! excess ( cold is n s great z x w\ld h be5 if ! we/]n hemisph]e _h be5 entirely isolat$1 or sep>at$ f ! ea/]n l a di/9ct planet4 ,= n only does ! refrig]ation produc$ by ,gre5l& *ill to a c]ta9 ext5t ! atmosph]e ( nor!rn & we/]n ,europe1 b ! mild climate ( ,europe reacts also ^u ,nor? ,am]ica1 & mod]ates ! *ill+ influ5ce ( ! adjo9+ pol> l&s4 ,to return to ! /ate ( ! e>? aft] ! *anges above suppos$1 we mu/ n omit to dwell on ! important effects to :i* a wide expanse ( p]petual sn[ w\ld give rise4 ,x is probable t ne>ly ! :ole sea1 f ! poles to ! p>allels ( #de degrees1 w\ld be froz5 ov]2 = x is well kn[n t ! imm$iate proximity ( l& is n ess5tial to ! =mation & increase ( field ice1 provid$ !re be 9 "s "p ( ! same zone a suffici5t quantity ( glaci]s g5]at$ on or ne> ! l&1 to cool d[n ! sea4 ,capta9 ,scoresby1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! arctic regions1 obs]ves1 t :5 ! sun's rays fall ^u ! sn[-clad surface ( ! ice or l&1 !y are 9 a great measure reflect$1 )\t produc+ any mat]ial elevation ( temp]ature2 b :5 !y imp+e on ! black ext]ior ( a %ip1 ! pit* on "o side occasionally becomes fluid :ile ice is rapidly g5]at$ at ! o!r4#aij ,n[ field ice is almo/ always cov]$ ) sn[2#aia & ?us n only l& z ext5sive z our exi/+ cont95ts1 b imm5se tracts ( sea 9 ! frigid & temp]ate zones1 might pres5t a solid surface cov]$ ) sn[1 & reflect+ ! sun's rays = ! great] "p ( ! ye>4 ,)9 ! tropics1 moreov]1 :]e ! ocean n[ pr$om9ates1 ! sky w\ld no long] be s]5e & cle>1 z 9 ! pres5t era2 b masses ( float+ ice w\ld cause quick cond5sations ( vapor1 s t fogs & cl\ds w\ld deprive ! v]tical rays ( ! sun ( half _! p[]4 ,! :ole planet1 !re=e1 w\ld receive annually a small] portion ( ! sol> influ5ce1 & ! ext]nal cru/ w\ld "p1 by radiation1 ) "s ( ! heat :i* _h be5 accumulat$ 9 x1 dur+ a diff]5t /ate ( ! surface4 ,?is heat w\ld be dissipat$ 9 ! spaces surr\nd+ our atmosph]e1 :i*1 accord+ to ! calculations ( ,m4 ,f\ri]1 h a temp]ature mu* inf]ior to t ( freez+ wat]4 ,aft] ! geographical revolution above assum$1 ! climate ( equ9octial l&s might be br\ght at la/ to resemble t ( ! pres5t temp]ate zone1 or p]haps be f> m w9try4 ,!y :o %\ld !n inhabit su* small isles & coral reefs z are n[ se5 9 ! ,indian ,ocean & ,s\? ,pacific1 w\ld wond] t zoophytes ( l>ge dim5sions _h once be5 s prolific 9 _! seas2 or if1 p]*ance1 !y f\nd ! wood & fruit ( ! cocoa-nut tree or ! palm silicifi$ by ! wat]s ( "s anci5t m9]al spr+1 or incru/$ ) calc>e\s matt]1 !y w\ld muse on ! revolutions :i* _h annihilat$ su* g5]a1 & replac$ !m by ! oak1 ! *e/nut1 & ! p9e4 ,) equal admiration w\ld !y comp>e ! skeletons ( _! small liz>ds ) ! bones ( fossil alligators & crocodiles m ?an tw5ty feet 9 l5g?1 :i*1 at a =m] epo*1 _h multipli$ betwe5 ! tropics3 & :5 !y saw a p9e includ$ 9 an iceb]g1 drift$ f latitudes :i* we n[ call temp]ate1 !y w\ld be a/oni%$ at ! pro( ?us af=d$1 t =e/s _h once gr[n :]e no?+ c\ld be se5 9 _! own times b a wild]ness ( sn[4 ,if ! read] hesitate to suppose s ext5sive an alt]ation ( temp]ature z ! probable consequ5ce ( geographical *anges1 conf9$ to "o hemisph]e1 he %\ld rememb] h[ great are ! local anomalies 9 climate n[ result+ f ! peculi> di/ribution ( l& & sea 9 c]ta9 regions4 ,?us1 9 ! isl& ( ,s\? ,georgia1 be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #ih71 ,capta9 ,cook f\nd ! ev]la/+ sn[s desc5d+ to ! level ( ! sea1 betwe5 lat4 #ed degrees & #ee degrees ,s42 no trees or %rubs 7 to be se51 & 9 summ] a few rocks only1 aft] a p>tial melt+ ( ! ice & sn[1 7 scantily cov]$ ) moss & tufts ( grass4 ,if su* a climate c n[ exi/ at ! level ( ! sea 9 a latitude correspond+ to t ( ,york%ire 9 spite ( all ^? equaliz+ causes be=e enum]at$1 by :i* ! mixture ( ! temp]atures ( di/ant regions is facilitat$ ?r\gh\t ! globe1 :at rigors might we n anticipate 9 a w9t] g5]at$ by ! transf] ( ! m\nta9s ( ,india to our arctic circle6 ,b we h /ill to contemplate ! additional refrig]ation :i* might be effect$ by *anges 9 ! relative position ( l& & sea 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,if ! rema9+ cont95ts 7 transf]r$ f ! equatorial & contigu\s latitudes to ! s\? pol> regions1 ! int5sity ( cold produc$ might1 p]haps1 r5d] ! globe un9habitable4 ,we are too ignorant ( ! laws gov]n+ ! direction ( subt]ranean =ces1 to det]m9e :e!r su* a crisis be )9 ! limits ( possibility4 ,at ! same "t1 x may be obs]v$1 t no di/ribution ( l& c well be imag9$ m irregul>1 or1 z x 71 caprici\s1 ?an t :i* n[ prevails2 = at pres5t1 ! globe may be divid$ into two equal p>ts1 9 su* a mann]1 t "o hemisph]e %all be almo/ entirely cov]$ ) wat]1 :ile ! o!r %all conta9 less wat] ?an l& 7see figs4 #c & #d72aib &1 :at is /ill m extraord9>y1 on comp>+ ! extratropical l&s 9 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es1 ! l&s 9 ! nor!rn are f\nd to be to ^? 9 ! s\!rn 9 ! proportion ( ?irte5 to "o6#aic ,to imag9e all ! l&s1 !re=e1 9 high1 & all ! sea 9 l[ latitudes1 z del9eat$ 9 fig4 #f1 p4 #aaa1 w\ld sc>cely be a m anomal\s /ate ( ! surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,map %[+ ! pres5t unequal ,di/ribution ( ,,l& & ,,wat] on ! ,surface ( ! ,,globe4 ,fig4 #c4 ,"h ,london is tak5 z a c5tre1 & we behold ! greate/ quantity ( l& exi/+ 9 "o hemisph]e4 ,fig4 #d4 ,"h ! c5tre is ! antipodal po9t to ,london1 & we see ! greate/ quantity ( wat] exi/+ 9 "o hemisph]e4 ,! black %ad+ expresses l& hav+ l& opposite or antipodal to x4 ,illu/ration3 ,maps %[+ ! position ( ,,l& & ,,sea :i* might produce ! ,extremes ( ,,heat & ,,cold 9 ! ,climates ( ! ,,globe4 ,fig4 #e4 ,extreme ( ,heat4 ,fig4 #f4 ,extreme ( ,cold4 ,,obs]vations4--,^! maps are int5d$ to %[ t cont95ts & isl&s hav+ ! same %ape & relative dim5sions z ^? n[ exi/+1 might be plac$ s z to occupy ei!r ! equatorial or pol> regions4 ,9 fig4 #e1 sc>cely any ( ! l& ext5ds f ! equator t[>ds ! poles beyond ! #cj? p>allel ( latitude2 & fig4 #f1 a v small proportion ( x ext5ds f ! poles t[>ds ! ,equator beyond ! #dj? p>allel ( latitude4 ,position ( l& & sea :i* might give rise to ! extreme ( heat4--,let u n[ turn f ! contemplation ( ! w9t] ( ! great ye>1 & consid] ! opposite tra9 ( circum/ances :i* w\ld br+ on ! spr+ & summ]4 ,to imag9e all ! l&s to be collect$ toge!r 9 equatorial latitudes1 & a few promontories only to project beyond ! ?irtie? p>allel1 z repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ maps 7figs4 #e & #f71 w\ld be und\bt$ly to suppose an extreme result ( geological *ange4 ,b if we consid] a m]e approximation to su* a /ate ( ?+s1 x w\ld be suffici5t to cause a g5]al elevation ( temp]ature4 ,nor c x be reg>d$ z a vision>y idea1 t amid/ ! revolutions ( ! e>?'s surface1 ! quantity ( l& %\ld1 at c]ta9 p]iods1 h be5 simultane\sly less5$ 9 ! vic9ity ( bo? ! poles1 & increas$ )9 ! tropics4 ,we mu/ recollect t ev5 n[ x is necess>y to asc5d to ! height ( fifte5 ?\s& feet 9 ! ,&es "u ! l9e1 & 9 ! ,himalaya m\nta9s1 :i* are )\t ! tropic1 to sev5te5 ?\s& feet1 be=e we rea* ! limit ( p]petual sn[4 ,on ! nor!rn slope1 inde$1 ( ! ,himalaya range1 :]e ! heat radiat$ f a great cont95t mod]ates ! cold1 !re are mead[s & cultivat$ l& at an elevation equal to ! height ( ,mont ,blanc4#aid ,if !n !re 7 no arctic l&s to *ill ! atmosph]e1 & freeze ! sea1 & if ! l(tie/ *a9s 7 ne> ! l9e1 x seems reasonable to imag9e t ! highe/ m\nta9s might be clo!d ) a ri* vegetation to _! summits1 & t ne>ly all signs ( fro/ w\ld disappe> f ! e>?4 ,:5 ! absorption ( ! sol> rays 0 9 no region imp$$1 ev5 9 w9t]1 by a coat ( sn[1 ! mean heat ( ! e>?'s cru/ w\ld augm5t to consid]able dep?s1 & spr+s1 :i* we "k to be 9 g5]al an index ( ! mean temp]ature ( ! climate1 w\ld be w>m] 9 all latitudes4 ,! wat]s ( lakes1 !re=e1 & riv]s1 w\ld be mu* hott] 9 w9t]1 & w\ld be nev] *ill$ 9 summ] by melt$ sn[ & ice4 ,a rem>kable uni=mity ( climate w\ld prevail amid ! ar*ipelagoes ( ! temp]ate & pol> oceans1 :]e ! tepid wat]s ( equatorial curr5ts w\ld freely circulate4 ,! g5]al humidity ( ! atmosph]e w\ld f> exce$ t ( ! pres5t p]iod1 = increas$ heat w\ld promote evaporation 9 all p>ts ( ! globe4 ,! w9ds w\ld be fir/ heat$ 9 _! passage ov] ! tropical pla9s1 & w\ld !n ga!r moi/ure f ! surface ( ! deep1 till1 *>g$ ) vapor1 !y arriv$ at extreme nor!rn & s\!rn regions1 & !re enc\nt]+ a cool] atmosph]e1 dis*>g$ _! burd5 9 w>m ra94 ,if1 dur+ ! long night ( a pol> w9t]1 ! sn[s %\ld :it5 ! summits ( "s arctic isl&s1 !y w\ld be dissolv$ z rapidly by ! return+ sun1 z are ! sn[s ( ,etna by ! bla/s ( ! sirocco4 ,we le>n f ^? :o h /udi$ ! geographical di/ribution ( plants1 t 9 v l[ latitudes1 at pres5t1 ! vegetation ( small isl&s remote f cont95ts has a peculi> "*2 ! f]ns & alli$ families1 9 p>ticul>1 be>+ a great proportion to ! total numb] ( o!r plants4 ,o!r circum/ances be+ ! same1 ! m remote ! isles are f ! cont95ts1 ! great] does ?is proportion become4 ,?us1 9 ! cont95t ( ,india1 & ! tropical p>ts ( ,new ,holl&1 ! proportion ( f]ns to ! pha5ogam\s plants is only z "o to tw5ty-six2 :]eas1 9 ! ,s\?-,sea ,isl&s1 x is z "o to f\r1 or ev5 z "o to ?ree4#aie ,we might expect1 !re=e1 9 ! summ] ( ! great ye>1 or cycle ( climate1 t !re w\ld be a pr$om9ance ( tree f]ns & plants alli$ to g5]a n[ call$ tropical1 9 ! isl&s ( ! wide ocean1 :ile _m =ms n[ conf9$ to arctic & temp]ate regions1 or only f\nd ne> ! equator on ! summit ( ! l(tie/ m\nta9s1 w\ld almo/ disappe> f ! e>?4 ,!n might ^? g5]a ( animals return1 ( :i* ! memorials are pres]v$ 9 ! anci5t rocks ( our cont95ts4 ,! pt]odactyle might flit aga9 ?r\gh ! air1 ! huge iguanodon reappe> 9 ! woods1 & ! i*?yosaurs sw>m once m 9 ! sea4 ,coral reefs might be prolong$ aga9 beyond ! arctic circle1 :]e ! :ale & ! n>wal n[ ab\nd2 & droves ( turtles might beg9 aga9 to w&] ?r\gh regions n[ t5ant$ by ! walrus & ! seal4 ,b n to indulge too f> 9 ^! speculations1 ,i may obs]ve1 9 conclusion1 t h[ev] great1 dur+ ! lapse ( ages1 may be ! vicissitudes ( temp]ature 9 e zone1 x accords ) ?is !ory t ! g5]al climate %\ld n exp]i5ce any s5sible *ange 9 ! c\rse ( a few ?\s& ye>s2 because t p]iod is insuffici5t to affect ! lead+ features ( ! physical geography ( ! globe4 ,not)/&+ ! app>5t unc]ta9ty ( ! seasons1 x is f\nd t ! mean temp]ature ( p>ticul> localities is v con/ant1 :5 obs]vations made = a suffici5t s]ies ( ye>s are comp>$4 ,yet !re mu/ be exceptions to ?is rule2 & ev5 ! labors ( man h1 by ! dra9age ( lakes & m>%es1 & ! fell+ ( ext5sive =e/s1 caus$ su* *anges 9 ! atmosph]e z greatly to raise our conception ( ! m important influ5ce ( ^? =ces to :i*1 9 c]ta9 latitudes1 ev5 ! exi/5ce ( l& or wat]1 hill or valley1 lake or sea1 mu/ be ascrib$4 ,if we possess$ accurate in=mation ( ! am\nt ( local fluctuation 9 climate 9 ! c\rse ( tw5ty c5turies1 x w\ld (t51 und\bt$ly1 be consid]able4 ,c]ta9 tracts1 = example1 on ! coa/ ( ,holl& & ( ,engl& consi/$ ( cultivat$ l& 9 ! "t ( ! ,romans1 :i* ! sea1 by gradual encroa*m5ts1 has at l5g? occupi$4 ,"h1 at lea/1 a slight alt]ation has be5 effect$2 = nei!r ! di/ribution ( heat 9 ! diff]5t seasons1 nor ! mean annual temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e inve/+ ! sea1 is precisely ! same z t :i* re/s ^u ! l&4 ,9 ^? c\ntries1 also1 :]e e>?quakes & volcanoes are 9 full activity1 a mu* %ort] p]iod may produce a s5sible v>iation4 ,! climate ( ! great table-l& ( ,malpais 9 ,mexico1 mu/ diff] mat]ially f t :i* prevail$ be=e ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury2 =1 s9ce t "t1 six m\nta9s1 ! highe/ ( !m ris+ sixte5 hundr$ feet above ! plateau1 h be5 ?r[n up by volcanic eruptions4 ,x is by ! repetition ( an indef9ite numb] ( su* local revolutions1 & by sl[ movem5ts ext5d+ simultane\sly ov] wid] areas1 z w be aft]w>ds %[n1 t a g5]al *ange ( climate may f9ally be br\ght ab\t4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,on ,,=m] ,,*anges ,,9 ,,physical ,,geography ,,& ,,climate4 ,geographical features ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 at ! p]iod ( ! olde/ fossilif]\s /rata--,/ate ( ! surface :5 ! m\nta9 lime/one & coal 7 deposit$--,*anges 9 physical geography1 betwe5 ! c>bonif]\s p]iod & ! *alk--,abrupt transition f ! second>y to ! t]ti>y fossils--,accession ( l&1 & elevation ( m\nta9 *a9s1 aft] ! consolidation ( ! second>y rocks--,explanation ( ,map1 %[+ ! area cov]$ by sea1 s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! t]ti>y p]iod--,a/ronomical !ories ( ! causes ( v>iations 9 climate--,!ory ( ! dim9ution ( ! suppos$ primitive heat ( ! globe4 ,9 ! six? *apt]1 ,i /at$ ! argum5ts d]iv$ f organic rema9s = conclud+ t 9 ! p]iod :5 ! c>bonif]\s /rata 7 deposit$1 ! temp]ature ( ! ocean & ! air 0 m uni=m 9 ! diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>1 & 9 diff]5t latitudes1 ?an at pres5t1 & t !re 0 a rem>kable abs5ce ( cold z well z great moi/ure 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,x 0 also %[n t ! climate _h be5 modifi$ m ?an once s9ce t epo*1 & t x _h be5 r$uc$1 by successive *anges1 m & m ne>ly to t n[ prevail+ 9 ! same latitudes4 ,f>!r1 ,i endeavor$1 9 ! la/ *apt]1 to prove t vicissitudes 9 climate ( no less importance may be expect$ to recur 9 future1 if x be admitt$ t causes n[ active 9 nature h p[]1 9 ! lapse ( ages1 to produce consid]able v>iations 9 ! relative position ( l& & sea4 ,x rema9s to inquire :e!r ! alt]ations1 :i* ! geologi/ c prove to h actually tak5 place at =m] p]iods1 9 ! geographical features ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 co9cide 9 _! nature1 & 9 ! "t ( _! occurr5ce1 ) su* revolutions 9 climate z might naturally h result$1 accord+ to ! meteorological pr9ciples already expla9$4 ,p]iod ( ! prim>y fossilif]\s rocks4--,! olde/ sy/em ( /rata :i* af=d by _! organic rema9s any evid5ce z to climate1 or ! =m] position ( l& & sea1 are ^? =m]ly kn[n z ! transition rocks1 or :at h s9ce be5 t]m$ ,l[] ,silurian or prim>y fossilif]\s =mations4 ,^! h be5 f\nd 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,g]many1 ,sw$51 ,russia1 & o!r p>ts ( c5tral & nor!rn ,europe1 z also 9 ! great ,lake di/rict ( ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! multilocul> or *amb]$ univalves1 includ+ ! ,nautilus1 & ! corals1 obta9$ f ! lime/ones ( ^! anci5t gr\ps1 h be5 comp>$ to =ms n[ mo/ l>gely develop$ 9 tropical seas4 ,! corals1 h[ev]1 h be5 %[n by ,m4 ,milne ,edw>ds to diff] g5]ally f all liv+ zoophytes2 s t conclusions z to a w>m] climate drawn f su* remote analogies mu/ be receiv$ ) caution4 ,hi!rto1 few1 if any1 contemporane\s vegetable rema9s h be5 notic$2 b su* z are m5tion$ agree m ne>ly ) ! plants ( ! c>bonif]\s era ?an any o!r1 & w\ld !re=e imply a w>m & humid atmosph]e entirely free f int5se cold ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,?is abs5ce or great sc>city ( plants z well z ( fre%wat] %ells & o!r indications ( neighbor+ l&1 c\pl$ ) ! wide ext5t ( m>9e /rata ( ?is age 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 are facts :i* imply su* a /ate ( physical geography 7s f> at lea/ z reg>ds ! nor!rn hemisph]e7 z w\ld1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples be=e expla9$1 give rise to su* a moi/ & equable climate4 7,see p4 #aji1 & fig4 #e1 p4 #aaa47 ,c>bonif]\s gr\p4--,?is gr\p comes next 9 ! ord] ( succession2 & "o ( its pr9cipal memb]s1 ! m\nta9 lime/one1 0 evid5tly a m>9e =mation1 z is %[n by ! %ells & corals :i* x conta9s4 ,t ! ocean ( t p]iod 0 ( consid]able ext5t 9 our latitudes1 we may inf] f ! cont9uity ( ^! calc>e\s /rata ov] l>ge areas 9 ,europe1 ,canada1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! same gr\p has also be5 trac$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 t[>ds ! bord]s ( ! arctic sea4#aif ,!re are also sev]al regions 9 ,scotl&1 & 9 ! c5tral & nor!rn p>ts ( ,engl&1 z well z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e m>9e c>bonif]\s lime/ones alt]nate ) /rata conta9+ coal1 9 su* a mann] z to imply ! drift+ d[n ( plants by riv]s into ! sea1 & ! alt]nate occupation ( ! same space by fre% & salt wat]4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ! e>li] writ]s1 no /rata h be5 m ext5sively inve/igat$1 bo? 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 ?an ^? ( ! anci5t c>bonif]\s gr\p1 & ! progress ( sci5ce has l$ to a g5]al belief t a l>ge portion ( ! pure/ coal has be5 =m$1 n1 z 0 once imag9$1 by vegetable matt] float$ f a di/ance1 b by plants :i* grew on ! spot1 & some:at 9 ! mann] ( peat on ! spaces n[ cov]$ by ! b$s ( coal4 ,! =m] exi/5ce ( l& 9 "s ( ^! spaces has be5 prov$1 z already /at$1 by ! occurr5ce ( num]\s upright fossil trees1 ) _! roots t]m9at+ d[nw>ds 9 seams ( coal2 & /ill m g5]ally by ! roots ( trees 7/igm>iae7 rema9+ 9 _! natural position 9 ! clays :i* und]lie almo/ e lay] ( coal4 ,z "s ne>ly cont9u\s b$s ( su* coal h ( late ye>s be5 trac$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ov] areas #ajj or #bjj miles & upw>ds 9 diamet]1 x may be ask$ :e!r ! l>ge tracts ( anci5t l& impli$ by ?is fact are n inconsi/5t ) ! hypo!sis ( ! g5]al preval5ce ( isl&s at ! p]iod "u consid]ation8 ,9 reply1 ,i may obs]ve t ! coal-fields mu/ orig9ally h be5 l[ alluvial gr\nds1 resembl+ 9 situation ! cypress-swamps ( ! ,mississippi1 or ! sund]bunds ( ! ,ganges1 be+ liable l !m to be inundat$ at c]ta9 p]iods by a riv] or by ! sea1 if ! l& %\ld be depress$ a few feet4 ,all ! ph5om5a1 organic & inorganic1 imply conditions n[h]e to be met ) except 9 ! deltas ( l>ge riv]s4 ,we h to acc\nt = an abundant supply ( fluviatile s$im5t1 c>ri$ = ages t[>ds "o & ! same region1 & capable ( =m+ /rata ( mud & s& ?\s&s ( feet1 or ev5 fa?oms1 9 ?ickness1 _m ( !m consi/+ ( lam9at$ %ale1 inclos+ ! leaves ( f]ns & o!r t]re/rial plants4 ,we h also to expla9 ! frequ5t int]calations ( root-b$s1 & ! int]position "h & !re ( bracki% & m>9e deposits1 demon/rat+ ! occasional pres5ce ( ! neighbor+ sea4 ,b ^! =e/-cov]$ deltas c\ld only h be5 =m$ at ! t]m9ation ( l>ge hydrographical bas9s1 ea* dra9$ by a great riv] & its tribut>ies2 & ! accumulation ( s$im5t be>s te/imony to contemporane\s d5udation on a l>ge scale1 &1 !re=e1 to a wide area ( l&1 probably conta9+ )9 x "o or m m\nta9 *a9s4 ,9 ! case ( ! great ,ohio or ,appala*ian coal-field1 ! l>ge/ 9 ! _w1 x seems cle> t ! upl&s dra9$ by "o or m great riv]s 7 *iefly to ! ea/w>d1 or !y occupi$ a space n[ fill$ by "p ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 = ! me*anical deposits ( mud & s& increase greatly 9 ?ickness & co>s5ess ( mat]ial z we approa* ! ea/]n bord]s ( ! coal-field1 or ! s\!a/ flanks ( ! ,alleghany m\nta9s1 ne> ,philadelphia4 ,9 t region num]\s b$s ( pebbles1 (t5 ( ! size ( a h5's egg1 are se5 to alt]nate ) b$s ( pure coal4 ,b ! ,am]ican coal-fields are all compris$ )9 ! #cj? & #ej? degrees ( nor? latitude2 & !re is no reason to presume t ! l&s at ! bord]s ( :i* !y orig9at$ ev] p5etrat$ s f> or 9 su* masses into ! cold] & arctic regions1 s z to g5]ate a cold climate4 ,9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :]e ! pr$om9ance ( sea ov] l& is n[ ! di/+ui%+ geographical feature1 we nev]!less f9d a l>ge "p ( ! cont95t ( ,au/ralia1 z well z ,new ,zeal&1 plac$ betwe5 ! #cj? & #ej? degrees ( ,s4 latitude4 ,! two isl&s ( ,new ,zeal& tak5 toge!r1 are betwe5 #hjj & #ijj miles 9 l5g?1 ) a bread? 9 "s p>ts ( n9ety miles1 & !y /ret* z f> s\? z ! #df? degree ( latitude4 ,!y af=d1 !re=e1 a wide area = ! gr[? ( a t]re/rial vegetation1 & ! botany ( ?is region is *>act]iz$ by abundance ( f]ns1 "o hundr$ & =ty species ( :i* are already kn[n1 "s ( !m atta9+ ! size ( trees4 ,9 ?is respect ! s\!rn %ores ( ,new ,zeal& 9 ! #df? degree ( latitude almo/ vie ) tropical isl&s4 ,ano!r po9t ( resemblance betwe5 ! ,flora ( ,new ,zeal& & t ( ! anci5t c>bonif]\s p]iod is ! preval5ce ( ! fir tribe or ( conif]\s wood4 ,an argum5t ( "s weight 9 corroboration ( ! !ory above expla9$ respect+ ! geographical condition ( ! temp]ate & arctic latitudes ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e 9 ! c>bonif]\s p]iod may also be d]iv$ f ah exam9ation ( ^? gr\ps ( /rata :i* imm$iately prec$$ ! coal4 ,! fossils ( ! ,devonian & ,silurian /rata 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica h l$ to ! conclusion1 t !y 7 =m$ = ! mo/ "p 9 deep seas1 f> f l&4 ,9 ^? old] /rata l& plants are almo/ z r>e z !y are abundant or univ]sal 9 ! coal measures4 ,^? anci5t deposits1 !re=e1 may be suppos$ to h belong$ to an epo* :5 dry l& _h only j begun to be uprais$ f ! deep2 a !ory :i* w\ld imply ! exi/5ce dur+ ! c>bonif]\s epo* ( isl&s1 in/ead ( an ext5sive cont95t1 9 ! area :]e ! coal 0 =m$4 ,su* a /ate ( ?+s prevail+ 9 ! nor?1 f ! pole to ! #cj? p>allel ( latitude1 if n neutraliz$ by circum/ances ( a contr>y t5d5cy 9 correspond+ regions s\? ( ! l9e1 w\ld give rise to a g5]al w>m? & uni=mity ( climate ?r\gh\t ! globe4 ,*anges 9 physical geography betwe5 ! =mation ( ! c>bonif]\s /rata & ! *alk4--,we h evid5ce 9 ,engl& t ! /rata ( ! anci5t c>bonif]\s gr\p1 already adv]t$ to1 71 9 _m in/ances1 fractur$ & contort$1 & (t5 ?r[n into a v]tical position1 be=e ! deposition ( "s ev5 ( ! olde/ kn[n second>y rocks1 su* z ! new r$ s&/one4 ,fragm5ts ( ! old] =mations are sometimes includ$ 9 ! conglom]ates ( ! m mod]n2 & "s ( ^! fragm5ts /ill reta9 _! fossil %ells & corals1 s z to enable u to det]m9e ! p>5t rocks f :5ce !y 7 d]iv$4 ,!re are o!r pro(s ( ! di/urbance at successive epo*s ( diff]5t second>y rocks be=e ! deposition ( o!rs2 & satisfactory evid5ce t1 dur+ ^! reit]at$ convulsions1 ! geographical features ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e 7 frequ5tly modifi$1 & t f "t to "t new l&s em]g$ f ! deep4 ,! vegetation1 dur+ "s p>ts ( ! p]iod 9 "q 7f ! lias to ! *alk inclusive71 :5 g5]a alli$ to ,cycas & ,zamia 7 abundant1 appe>s to h approa*$ to t ( ! l>g] isl&s ( ! equatorial zone2 su*1 = example1 z we n[ f9d 9 ! ,we/ ,indian ar*ipelago4#aig ,^! isl&s appe> to h be5 dra9$ by riv]s ( consid]able size1 :i* 7 inhabit$ by crocodiles & gigantic ovip>\s reptiles1 bo? h]bivor\s & c>nivor\s1 belong+ = ! mo/ "p to ext9ct g5]a4 ,( ! contempor>y inhabitants ( ! l& we h z yet acquir$ b scanty in=mation1 b we "k t !re 7 fly+ reptiles1 insects1 & small mammif]s1 alli$ to ! m>supial tribes4 ,a fre%wat] deposit1 call$ ! ,weald51 occurs 9 ! upp] "p ( ! second>y s]ies ( ! s\? ( ,engl&1 :i*1 by its ext5t & fossils1 atte/s ! exi/5ce 9 t region ( a l>ge riv] dra9+ a cont95t or isl& ( consid]able dim5sions4 ,we "k t ?is l& 0 clo!d ) wood1 & inhabit$ by huge t]re/rial reptiles & birds4 ,its position s f> to ! nor? z ! c\nties ( ,surrey & ,sussex1 at a "t :5 ! mean temp]ature ( ! climate is suppos$ to h be5 mu* hott] ?an at pres5t1 may at fir/ sight appe> inconsi/5t ) ! !ory be=e expla9$1 t ! heat 0 caus$ by ! ga!r+ toge!r ( all ! great masses ( l& 9 l[ latitudes1 :ile ! nor!rn regions 7 almo/ entirely sea4 ,b x mu/ n be tak5 = grant$ t ! geographical conditions already describ$ 7p4 #aji1 & fig4 #e1 p4 #aaa7 z capable ( produc+ ! extreme ( heat 7 ev] comb9$ at any geological p]iod ( :i* we h yet obta9$ in=mation4 ,x is m probable1 f :at has be5 /at$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 t a slight approximation to su* an extreme /ate ( ?+s w\ld be suffici5t2 9 o!r words1 if mo/ ( ! dry l& 7 tropical1 & sc>cely any ( x arctic or ant>ctic1 a prodigi\s elevation ( temp]ature mu/ ensue1 ev5 ?\gh a "p ( "s cont95ts %\ld p5etrate f> into ! temp]ate zones4 ,*anges dur+ ! t]ti>y p]iods4--,! second>y & t]ti>y =mations ( ,europe1 :5 consid]$ sep>ately1 may be contra/$ z hav+ v diff]5t *>act]s2 ! second>y appe>+ to h be5 deposit$ 9 op5 seas1 ! t]ti>y 9 regions :]e dry l&1 lakes1 bays1 & p]haps inl& seas1 ab\nd$4 ,! second>y s]ies is almo/ exclusively m>9e2 ! t]ti>y1 ev5 ! olde/ "p1 conta9s lacu/r9e /rata1 & n unfrequ5tly fre%wat] & m>9e b$s alt]nat+4 ,9 fact !re is evid5ce ( important geographical *anges hav+ occurr$ betwe5 ! deposition ( ! cretace\s sy/em1 or upp]mo/ ( ! second>y s]ies1 & t ( ! olde/ t]ti>y gr\p1 & /ill m betwe5 ! era ( ! latt] & t ( ! new] t]ti>y =mations4 ,?is *ange 9 ! physical geography ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica 0 accompani$ by an alt]ation no less rem>kable 9 organic life1 sc>cely any species be+ common bo? to ! second>y & t]ti>y rocks1 & ! fossils ( ! latt] af=d+ evid5ce ( a diff]5t climate4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 we comp>e ! t]ti>y =mations ( successive ages1 we trace a gradual approximation 9 ! imb$d$ fossils1 f an assemblage 9 :i* ext9ct species pr$om9ate1 to "o :]e ! species agree = ! mo/ "p ) ^? n[ exi/+4 ,9 o!r words1 we f9d a gradual increase ( animals & plants fitt$ = our pres5t climates1 9 proportion z ! /rata :i* we exam9e are m mod]n4 ,n[1 dur+ all ^! successive t]ti>y p]iods1 !re are signs ( a great increase ( l& 9 ,european & ,nor? ,am]ican latitudes4 ,by ref]5ce to ! map 7,pl4 #a71 & its description1 p4 #aba1 ! read] w see t ab\t two-?irds ( ! pres5t ,european l&s h em]g$ s9ce ! e>lie/ t]ti>y gr\p orig9at$4 ,nor is ?is ! only revolution :i* ! same region has und]gone )9 ! p]iod allud$ to1 "s tracts :i* 7 previ\sly l& hav+ ga9$ 9 altitude1 o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 hav+ sunk bel[ _! =m] level4 ,t ! exi/+ l&s 7 n all upheav$ at once into _! pres5t position is prov$ by ! mo/ /rik+ evid5ce4 ,sev]al ,italian geologi/s1 ev5 be=e ! "t ( ,broc*i1 _h ju/ly inf]r$ t ! ,ap5n9es 7 elevat$ sev]al ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean be=e ! deposition ( ! mod]n ,subap5n9e b$s :i* flank !m on ei!r side4 ,:at n[ con/itutes ! c5tral calc>e\s *a9 ( ! ,ap5n9es mu/ = a long "t h be5 a n>r[ ridgy p59sula1 bran*+ (f1 at its nor!rn extremity1 f ! ,alps ne> ,savona4 ,?is p59sula has s9ce be5 rais$ f "o to two ?\s& feet1 by :i* movem5t ! anci5t %ores1 &1 = a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! b$ ( ! contigu\s sea1 h be5 laid dry1 bo? on ! side ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ! ,adriatic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,! nature ( ^! vicissitudes w be expla9$ by ! accompany+ diagram1 :i* repres5ts a transv]se section across ! ,italian p59sula4 ,! incl9$ /rata ,a are ! di/urb$ =mations ( ! ,ap5n9es1 into :i* ! anci5t igne\s rocks a are suppos$ to h intrud$ !mselves4 ,at a l[] level on ea* flank ( ! *a9 are ! m rec5t %elly b$s b b1 :i* (t5 conta9 r\nd$ pebbles d]iv$ f ! wa/e ( contigu\s p>ts ( ! old] ,ap5n9e lime/one4 ,^!1 x w be se51 are horizontal1 & lie 9 :at is t]m$ uncon=mable /ratification on ! m anci5t s]ies4 ,!y n[ con/itute a l9e ( hills ( mod]ate elevation betwe5 ! sea & ! ,ap5n9es1 b nev] p5etrate to ! high] & m anci5t valleys ( t *a94 ,! same ph5om5a are exhibit$ 9 ! ,alps on a mu* gr&] scale2 ^? m\nta9s be+ compos$ 9 "s ev5 ( _! high] regions ( ! new] second>y & olde/ t]ti>y =mations1 :ile !y are encircl$ by a great zone ( m mod]n t]ti>y rocks bo? on _! s\!rn flank t[>ds ! pla9s ( ! ,po1 & on ! side ( ,switz]l& & ,au/ria1 & at _! ea/]n t]m9ation t[>ds ,/yria & ,hung>y4#aih ,?is new] t]ti>y zone m>ks ! position ( =m] seas or gulfs1 l ! ,adriatic1 :]e9 masses ( /rata accumulat$1 "s s+le gr\ps ( :i* are n inf]ior 9 ?ickness to ! mo/ volum9\s ( our second>y =mations 9 ,engl&4 ,"s ev5 ( ^! new] gr\ps h be5 rais$ to ! height ( ?ree or f\r ?\s& feet1 & 9 proportion to _! antiquity1 !y g5]ally rise to great] heights1 ! old] ( !m =m+ int]ior zones ne>e/ to ! c5tral ridges ( ! ,alps4 ,we h already asc]ta9$ t ! ,alps ga9$ accessions to _! height & wid? at sev]al successive p]iods1 & t ! la/ s]ies ( improvem5ts occurr$ :5 ! seas 7 inhabit$ by _m exi/+ species ( animals4 ,we may imag9e "s future s]ies ( convulsions once m to heave up ?is /up5d\s *a91 toge!r ) ! adjo9+ b$ ( ! sea1 s t ! m\nta9s ( ,europe may rival ! ,&es 9 elevation2 9 :i* case ! deltas ( ! ,po1 ,adige1 & ,br5ta1 n[ encroa*+ ^u ! ,adriatic1 might be uplift$ s z to =m ano!r ext]ior belt ( consid]able height ar\nd ! s\!a/]n flank ( ! ,alps4 ,! ,pyr5ees1 also1 h acquir$ _! pres5t altitude1 :i* 9 ,mont ,p]du exce$s elev5 ?\s& feet1 s9ce ! deposition ( ! nummulitic or ,eoc5e division ( ! t]ti>y s]ies4 ,"s ( ! t]ti>y /rata at ! base ( ! *a9 are rais$ to ! height ( only a few hundr$ feet above ! sea1 & reta9 a horizontal position1 )\t p>tak+ 9 g5]al 9 ! di/urbance to :i* ! old] s]ies has be5 subject$2 s t ! great b>ri] betwe5 ,france & ,spa9 0 almo/ entirely upheav$ 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! deposition ( c]ta9 gr\ps ( t]ti>y /rata4 ,! rem>kable break betwe5 ! mo/ mod]n ( ! kn[n second>y rocks & ! olde/ t]ti>y1 may be app>5t only1 & ascribable to ! pres5t defici5cy ( our in=mation4 ,already ! m>les & gre5 s& ( ,he]s ne> ,tongres1 9 ,belgium1 obs]v$ by ,m4 ,dumont1 & ! pisolitic lime/one ( ! neighborhood ( ,p>is1 bo? int]m$iate 9 age betwe5 ! ,mae/ri*t *alk & ! l[] ,eoc5e /rata1 beg9 to af=d u signs ( a passage f "o /ate ( ?+s to ano!r4 ,nev]!less1 x is f> f impossible t ! int]val betwe5 ! *alk & t]ti>y =mations con/itut$ an era 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory1 :5 ! transition f "o class ( organic be+s to ano!r 01 comp>atively speak+1 rapid4 ,= if ! doctr9es above expla9$ 9 reg>d to vicissitudes ( temp]ature are s\nd1 x w foll[ t *anges ( equal magnitude 9 ! geographical features ( ! globe may at diff]5t p]iods produce v unequal effects on climate2 &1 s f> z ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 animals & plants dep5ds on climate1 ! duration ( species w\ld be %ort5$ or protract$1 accord+ to ! rate at :i* ! *ange ( temp]ature proce$$4 ,= ev5 if we assume t ! int5sity ( ! subt]ranean di/urb+ =ces is uni=m & capable ( produc+ ne>ly equal am\nts ( alt]ation on ! surface ( ! planet1 dur+ equal p]iods ( "t1 /ill ! rate ( alt]ation 9 climate w\ld be by no means uni=m4 ,let u imag9e ! quantity ( l& betwe5 ! equator & ! tropic 9 "o hemisph]e to be to t 9 ! o!r z ?irte5 to "o1 :i*1 z be=e /at$1 repres5ts ! unequal proportion ( ! extra-tropical l&s 9 ! two hemisph]es at pres5t4 7,see figs4 #c & #d1 p4 #aaj47 ,!n let ! fir/ geographical *ange consi/ 9 ! %ift+ ( ?is prepond]ance ( l& f "o side ( ! l9e to ! o!r2 f ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 = example1 to ! nor!rn4 ,n[ ?is ne$ n affect ! g5]al temp]ature ( ! e>?4 ,b if1 at ano!r epo*1 we suppose a cont9uance ( ! same ag5cy to transf] an equal volume ( l& f ! torrid zone to ! temp]ate & arctic regions ( ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es1 or into "o ( !m1 !re might be s great a refrig]ation ( ! mean temp]ature 9 all latitudes1 t sc>cely any ( ! pre-exi/+ races ( animals w\ld survive2 &1 unless x pleas$ ! ,au?or ( ,nature t ! planet %\ld be un9habit$1 new species1 & probably ( widely diff]5t =ms1 w\ld !n be sub/itut$ 9 ! room ( ! ext9ct4 ,we ought n1 !re=e1 to inf] t equal p]iods ( "t are always att5d$ by an equal am\nt ( *ange 9 organic life1 s9ce a great fluctuation 9 ! mean temp]ature ( ! e>?1 ! mo/ influ5tial cause :i* c be conceiv$ 9 ext]m9at+ :ole races ( animals & plants1 mu/1 9 diff]5t epo*s1 require unequal portions ( "t = its completion4 ,,plate ,i4 ,map %[+ ! ext5t ( surface 9 ,europe :i* has at "o p]iod or ano!r be5 cov]$ by ! sea s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! deposition ( ! old] or ,eoc5e ,t]ti>y /rata4 ,?is map w enable ! read] to p]ceive at a glance ! great ext5t ( *ange 9 ! physical geography ( ,europe1 :i* c be prov$ to h tak5 place s9ce "s ( ! old] t]ti>y /rata began to be deposit$4 ,! pro(s ( subm]g5ce1 dur+ "s "p or o!r ( ?is p]iod1 9 all ! di/ricts di/+ui%$ by rul$ l9es1 are ( a mo/ unequivocal "*2 = ! area ?us describ$ is n[ cov]$ by deposits conta9+ ! fossil rema9s ( animals :i* c\ld only h liv$ 9 salt wat]4 ,! mo/ anci5t "p ( ! p]iod ref]r$ to _c be deem$ v remote1 consid]$ geologically2 because ! deposits ( ! ,p>is & ,london bas9s1 & _m o!r di/ricts belong+ to ! old] t]ti>y epo*1 are new] ?an ! great] "p ( ! s$im5t>y rocks 7^? commonly call$ second>y & prim>y fossilif]\s or paleozoic7 ( :i* ! cru/ ( ! globe is compos$4 ,! species1 moreov]1 ( m>9e te/acea1 ( :i* ! rema9s are f\nd 9 ^! old] t]ti>y =mations1 are n entirely di/9ct f su* z n[ live4 ,yet1 not)/&+ ! comp>atively rec5t epo* to :i* ?is retrospect is c>ri$1 ! v>iations 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & sea depict$ on ! map =m only a "p ( ^? :i* mu/ h tak5 place dur+ ! p]iod "u consid]ation4 ,"s approximation has m]ely be5 made to an e/imate ( ! am\nt ( sea conv]t$ into l& 9 p>ts ( ,europe be/ kn[n to geologi/s2 b we _c det]m9e h[ mu* l& has become sea dur+ ! same p]iod2 & !re may h be5 repeat$ int]*anges ( l& & wat] 9 ! same places1 *anges ( :i* no acc\nt is tak5 9 ! map1 & respect+ ! am\nt ( :i* little accurate in=mation c ev] be obta9$4 ,i h ext5d$ ! sea 9 "s in/ances beyond ! limits ( ! l& n[ cov]$ by t]ti>y =mations1 & m>9e drift1 because o!r geological data h be5 obta9$ = inf]r+ ! subm]g5ce ( ^! tracts aft] ! deposition ( ! ,eoc5e /rata _h begun4 ,?us1 = example1 !re are good reasons = conclud+ t "p ( ! *alk ( ,engl& 7! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns1 = example1 toge!r ) ! int]v5+ second>y tracts7 cont9u$ b5ea? ! sea until ! olde/ t]ti>y b$s _h begun to accumulate4 ,a /rait ( ! sea sep>at+ ,engl& & ,wales has also be5 introduc$1 on ! evid5ce af=d$ by %ells ( exi/+ species f\nd 9 a deposit ( gravel1 s&1 loam1 & clay1 call$ ! nor!rn drift1 by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison4#aii ,& ,mr4 ,trimm] has discov]$ simil> rec5t m>9e %ells on ! nor!rn coa/ ( ,nor? ,wales1 & on ,moel ,tryfane1 ne> ! ,m5ai ,/raits1 at ! height ( #acib feet above ! level ( ! sea6 ,"s rais$ sea-bea*es1 & drift conta9+ m>9e %ells1 :i* ,i exam9$ 9 #ahdc1 betwe5 ,lim]ick & ,dubl91 & :i* h be5 trac$ ov] o!r p>ts ( ,irel& by diff]5t geologi/s1 h requir$ an ext5sion ( ! d>k l9es s z to divide t isl& into sev]al4 ,9 improv+ ?is "p ( my map ,i h be5 especially indebt$ to ! assi/ance ( ,mr4 ,oldham1 :o 9 #ahdc ann\nc$ to ! ,briti% ,association at ,cork ! fact t at ! p]iod :5 ! drift or glacial b$s 7 deposit$1 ,irel& mu/ h =m$ an ar*ipelago su* z is "h depict$4 ,a consid]able "p ( ,scotl& might also h be5 repres5t$ 9 a simil> mann] z "u wat] :5 ! drift orig9at$4 ,a portion ( ,brittany is divid$ into isl&s1 because x is kn[n to be cov]$ ) pat*es ( m>9e t]ti>y /rata *iefly mioc5e4 ,:5 ,i exam9$ ^! 9 #ahcj & #ahdc1 ,i conv9c$ myself t ! sea mu/ h cov]$ mu* l>g] areas ?an are n[ occupi$ by ^! small & deta*$ deposits4 ,! =m] connection ( ! ,:ite ,sea & ! ,gulf ( ,f9l& is prov$ by ! fact t a multitude ( huge erratic blocks ext5d ov] ! int]v5+ space1 & a l>ge portion ( ,norway1 ,sw$51 & ,d5m>k1 z well z ,g]many & ,russia1 are repres5t$ z sea1 on ! same evid5ce1 /r5g!n$ by ! actual occurr5ce ( fossil sea-%ells1 ( rec5t species1 9 ! drift ( v>i\s portions ( ^? c\ntries4 ,! subm]g5ce ( consid]able areas "u l>ge bodies ( fre% wat]1 dur+ ! t]ti>y p]iod1 ( :i* !re are _m /rik+ geological pro(s 9 ,auv]gne1 & else:]e1 has n be5 express$ by rul$ l9es4 ,!y be> te/imony to ! =m] exi/5ce ( neighbor+ l&s1 & a c]ta9 elevation ( ! areas :]e !y occur above ! level ( ! ocean2 !y are !re=e left blank1 toge!r ) all ! space t _c be demon/rat$ to h be5 "p ( ! sea at "s "t or o!r1 s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,eoc5e epo*4 ,9 compil+ ?is map1 :i* has be5 entirely reca/ s9ce ! fir/ edition1 ,i h avail$ myself ( ! late/ geological maps ( ! ,briti% isles1 & nor? ( ,europe2 also ( ^? publi%$ by ! gov]nm5t surveyors ( ,france1 ,,mm4 de ,beaumont & ,dufresnoy2 ! map ( ,g]many & "p ( ,europe1 by ,von ,de*51 & t ( ,italy by ,m4 ,t*ihat*(f 7,b]l91 #ahdb74 ,la/ly1 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison's important map ( ,russia1 & ! adjo9+ c\ntries1 has enabl$ me to m>k out n only a consid]able area1 previ\sly little kn[n1 9 :i* t]ti>y =mations occur2 b also a /ill wid] expanse1 ov] :i* ! nor!rn drift1 & erratic blocks ) occasional m>9e %ells1 are traceable4 ,! s\!rn limits ( ^! glacial deposits 9 ,russia & ,g]many indicate ! b\nd>y1 s f> z we c n[ det]m9e x1 ( ! nor!rn ocean1 at a p]iod imm$iately antec$5t to t ( ! human race4 ,i 0 anxi\s1 ev5 9 ! title ( ?is map1 to gu>d ! read] aga9/ ! supposition t x 0 int5d$ to repres5t ! /ate ( ! physical geography ( "p ( ,europe at any "o po9t ( "t4 ,! difficulty1 or r ! impossibility1 ( re/or+ ! geography ( ! globe z x may h exi/$ at any =m] p]iod1 especially a remote "o1 consi/s 9 ?is1 t we c only po9t out :]e "p ( ! sea has be5 turn$ into l&1 & are almo/ always unable to det]m9e :at l& may h become sea4 ,all maps1 !re=e1 pret5d+ to repres5t ! geography ( remote geological epo*s mu/ be ideal4 ,! map "u consid]ation is n a re/oration ( a =m] /ate ( ?+s1 at any p>ticul> mom5t ( "t1 b a synoptical view ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( "o k9d ( *ange 7! conv]sion ( sea into l&7 kn[n to h be5 br\ght ab\t )9 a giv5 p]iod4 ,x may be prop] to rem>k t ! v]tical movem5ts to :i* ! l& is subject 9 c]ta9 regions1 occasion alt]nately ! subsid5ce & ! upris+ ( ! surface2 & t1 by su* oscillations at successive p]iods1 a great area may h be5 entirely cov]$ ) m>9e deposits1 al?\gh ! :ole may nev] h be5 b5ea? ! wat]s at "o "t2 nay1 ev5 ?\gh ! relative proportion ( l& & sea may h cont9u$ unalt]$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole p]iod4 ,i believe1 h[ev]1 t s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! t]ti>y p]iod1 ! dry l& 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e has be5 cont9ually on ! increase1 bo? because x is n[ greatly 9 excess beyond ! av]age proportion :i* l& g5]ally be>s to wat] on ! globe1 & because a comp>ison ( ! second>y & t]ti>y /rata af=ds indications1 z ,i h already %[n1 ( a passage f ! condition ( an ocean int]sp]s$ ) isl&s to t ( a l>ge cont95t4 ,b suppos+ x 7 possible to repres5t all ! vicissitudes 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & sea t h occurr$ dur+ ! t]ti>y p]iod1 & to exhibit n only ! actual exi/5ce ( l& :]e !re 0 once sea1 b also ! ext5t ( surface n[ subm]g$ :i* may once h be5 l&1 ! map w\ld /ill fail to express all ! important revolutions 9 physical geography :i* h tak5 place )9 ! epo* "u consid]ation4 ,= ! oscillations ( level1 z 0 be=e /at$1 h n m]ely be5 su* z to lift up ! l& f bel[ ! wat]1 b 9 "s cases to occasion a rise ( _m ?\s& feet above ! sea4 ,?us ! ,alps h acquir$ an additional altitude ( #djjj1 & ev5 9 "s places #aj1jjj feet2 & ! ,ap5n9es owe a consid]able "p ( _! pres5t height to subt]ranean convulsions :i* h happ5$ )9 ! t]ti>y epo*4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "s m\nta9 *a9s may h be5 l[]$ dur+ ! same s]ies ( ages1 9 an equal degree1 & %oals may h be5 conv]t$ into deep abysses4#bjj ,s9ce ?is map 0 reca/ 9 #ahdg1 geologi/s h v g5]ally come to ! conclusion t ! nummulitic lime/one1 toge!r ) ! ov]ly+ fucoidal grit & %ale1 call$ ,flys*1 9 ! ,alps1 belongs to ! old] t]ti>y or ,eoc5e gr\p4 ,z ^! nummulitic rocks ent] into ! /ructure ( "s ( ! mo/ l(ty & di/urb$ p>ts ( ! ,alps1 ,ap5n9es1 ,c>pa?ians1 ,pyr5ees1 & o!r m\nta9 *a9s1 & =m _m ( ! elevat$ l&s ( ,africa & ,asia1 _! position almo/ implies ! ubiquity ( ! po/-,eoc5e ocean1 n1 inde$1 by ! simultane\s1 b by ! successive1 occupancy ( ! :ole gr\nd by its wat]s4#bja ,conclud+ rem>ks on *anges 9 physical geography4--,! =ego+ obs]vations1 x may be said1 are conf9$ *iefly to ,europe1 & !re=e m]ely e/abli% ! increase ( dry l& 9 a space :i* con/itutes b a small portion ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e2 b x 0 /at$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 t ! great ,l[l& ( ,sib]ia1 ly+ *iefly betwe5 ! latitudes #ee degrees & #ge degrees ,n4 7an area ne>ly equal to all ,europe71 is cov]$ = ! mo/ "p by m>9e /rata1 :i*1 f ! acc\nt giv5 by ,pallas1 & m rec5tly by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 belongs to a p]iod :5 all or ne>ly all ! %ells 7 ( a species /ill liv+ 9 ! nor?4 ,! em]g5ce1 !re=e1 ( ?is area f ! deep is1 comp>atively speak+1 a v mod]n ev5t1 & mu/1 z be=e rem>k$1 h caus$ a great increase ( cold ?r\gh\t ! globe4 ,^u a review1 !n1 ( all ! facts above enum]at$1 respect+ ! anci5t geography ( ! globe z atte/$ by geological monum5ts1 !re appe> good gr\nds = inf]r+ t *anges ( climate co9cid$ ) rem>kable revolutions 9 ! =m] position ( sea & l&4 ,a wide expanse ( ocean1 int]sp]s$ ) isl&s1 seems to h p]vad$ ! nor!rn hemisph]e at ! p]iods :5 ! ,silurian & c>bonif]\s rocks 7 =m$1 & a w>m & v uni=m temp]ature !n prevail$4 ,subsequ5t modifications 9 climate accompani$ ! deposition ( ! second>y =mations1 :5 repeat$ *anges 7 effect$ 9 ! physical geography ( our nor!rn latitudes4 ,la/ly1 ! refrig]ation became mo/ decid$1 & ! climate mo/ ne>ly assimilat$ to t n[ enjoy$1 :5 ! l&s 9 ,europe & nor!rn ,asia _h atta9$ _! full ext5sion1 & ! m\nta9 *a9s _! actual height4 ,soon aft] ! fir/ publication ( ?is !ory ( climate1 an objection 0 made by an anonym\s ,g]man critic 9 #ahcc t !re are no geological pro(s ( ! preval5ce at any =m] p]iod ( a temp]ature l[] ?an t n[ enjoy$2 :]eas1 if ! causes above assign$ 7 ! true ones1 x might reasonably h be5 expect$ t fossil rema9s w\ld sometimes indicate cold] z well z hott] climates ?an ^? n[ e/abli%$4#bjb ,9 answ] to ?is objection1 ,i may sugge/1 t our pres5t climates are probably f> m di/ant f ! extreme ( possible heat ?an f its opposite extreme ( cold4 ,a glance at ! map 7fig4 #f1 p4 #aaa7 w %[ t all ! exi/+ l&s might be plac$ betwe5 ! #cj? p>allels ( latitude on ea* side ( ! equator1 & t ev5 !n !y w\ld by no means fill t space4 ,9 no o!r position w\ld !y give rise to s high a temp]ature4 ,b ! pres5t geographical condition ( ! e>? is s f> remov$ f su* a /ate ( ?+s1 t ! l& ly+ betwe5 ! poles & ! p>allels ( #cj1 is 9 great excess2 s mu* s t1 in/ead ( be+ to ! sea 9 ! proportion ( #a to #c1 :i* is z ne> z possible ! av]age g5]al ratio ?r\gh\t ! globe1 x is #i to #bc4bjc ,h5ce x ought n to surprise u if1 9 our geological retrospect1 embrac+ p]haps a small "p only ( a complete cycle ( *ange 9 ! t]re/rial climates1 we %\ld happ5 to discov] ev]y:]e ! signs ( a high] temp]ature4 ,! /rata hi!rto exam9$ may h orig9at$ :5 ! quantity ( equatorial l& 0 always decreas+ & ! l& 9 regions ne>] ! poles augm5t+ 9 height & area1 until at l5g? x atta9$ its pres5t excess 9 high latitudes4 ,!re is no?+ improbable 9 suppos+ t ! geographical revolutions ( :i* we h hi!rto obta9$ pro(s _h ?is g5]al t5d5cy2 & 9 t case ! refrig]ation mu/ h be5 con/ant1 al?\gh1 = reasons be=e expla9$1 ! rate ( cool+ may n h be5 uni=m4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be z well to recall ! read]'s att5tion to :at 0 be=e said ( ! indication br\ght to light ( late ye>s1 ( a consid]able oscillation ( temp]ature1 9 ! p]iod imm$iately prec$+ ! human era4 ,we h se5 t on exam9+ "s ( ! mo/ nor!rn deposits1 ^? commonly call$ ! nor!rn drift 9 ,scotl&1 ,irel&1 & ,canada1 9 :i* ne>ly all1 9 "s cases1 p]haps all1 ! fossil %ells are ( rec5t species1 we discov] ! signs ( a climate cold] ?an t n[ prevail+ 9 correspond+ latitudes on bo? sides ! ,atlantic4 ,x appe>s t an arctic fauna specifically resembl+ t ( ! pres5t seas1 ext5d$ f>!r to ! s\? ?an n[4 ,?is op9ion is d]iv$ p>tly f ! kn[n habitations ( ! correspond+ liv+ species1 & p>tly f ! abundance ( c]ta9 g5]a ( %ells & ! abs5ce ( o!rs4#bjd ,! date ( ! refrig]ation ?us inf]r$ appe>s to co9cide v ne>ly ) ! era ( ! disp]sion ( erratic blocks ov] ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 a ph5om5on :i* w be ascrib$ 9 ! sequel 7*4 #af7 to ! cold !n prevail+ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! =ce1 moreov]1 ( ! ,g]man critic's objection has be5 s9ce 9 a great measure de/roy$1 by ! l>g] & m pr(\nd k acquir$ 9 ! la/ few ye>s ( ! anci5t c>bonif]\s flora1 :i* has l$ ! able/ botani/s to adopt ! op9ion1 t ! climate ( ! coal p]iod 0 rem>kable = its w>m?1 moi/ure1 equability1 & fre$om f cold1 r ?an ! int5sity ( its tropical heat4 ,we are !re=e no long] entitl$ to assume t !re has be5 a con/ant & gradual decl9e 9 ! absolute am\nt ( heat =m]ly conta9$ 9 ! atmosph]e & wat]s ( ! ocean1 su* z x 0 conjectur$ might h emanat$ f ! inc&esc5t c5tral nucleus ( a new & ne>ly fluid planet1 be=e ! int]ior _h lo/1 by radiation into surr\nd+ space1 a great "p ( its orig9al high temp]ature4 ,a/ronomical causes ( fluctuations 9 climate4--,sir ,john ,h]s*el has lately inquir$1 :e!r !re are any a/ronomical causes :i* may (f] a possible explanation ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! actual climate ( ! e>?'s surface1 & ^? :i* =m]ly appe> to h prevail$4 ,he has ent]$ ^u ?is subject1 he says1 impress$ ) ! magnific5ce ( t view ( geological revolutions1 :i* reg>ds !m r z regul> & necess>y effects ( great & g5]al causes1 ?an z result+ f a s]ies ( convulsions & cata/rophes1 regulat$ by no laws1 & r$ucible to no fix$ pr9ciples4 ,geomet]s1 he adds1 h demon/rat$ ! absolute inv>iability ( ! mean di/ance ( ! e>? f ! sun2 :5ce x w\ld at fir/ seem to foll[1 t ! mean annual supply ( light & heat d]iv$ f t lum9>y w\ld be alike inv>iable3 b a clos] consid]ation ( ! subject w %[1 t ?is w\ld n be a legitimate conclusion2 b t on ! contr>y1 ! mean am\nt ( sol> radiation is dep5d5t on ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 & !re=e liable to v>iation4#bje ,n[ ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit1 he cont9ues1 is actually dim9i%+1 & has be5 s = ages beyond ! records ( hi/ory4 ,9 consequ5ce1 ! ellipse is 9 a /ate ( approa* to a circle1 & ! annual av]age ( sol> heat radiat$ to ! e>? is actually on ! decrease4 ,s f> ?is is 9 accordance ) geological evid5ce1 :i* indicates a g5]al refrig]ation ( climate2 b ! "q rema9s1 :e!r ! am\nt ( dim9ution :i* ! ecc5tricity may h ev] und]gone c be suppos$ suffici5t to acc\nt = any s5sible refrig]ation4 ,! calculations necess>y to det]m9e ?is po9t1 ?\gh practicable1 h nev] yet be5 made1 & w\ld be extremely labori\s2 = !y mu/ embrace all ! p]turbations :i* ! mo/ influ5tial planets1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 & ,saturn1 w\ld cause 9 ! e>?'s orbit1 & 9 ea* o!r's movem5ts r\nd ! sun4 ,! problem is also v complicat$1 inasmu* z x dep5ds n m]ely on ! ellipticity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 b on ! assum$ temp]ature ( ! cele/ial spaces beyond ! e>?'s atmosph]e2 a matt] /ill op5 to discussion1 & on :i* ,m4 ,f\ri] & ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el h arriv$ at v diff]5t op9ions4 ,b if1 says ,h]s*el1 we suppose an extreme case1 z if ! e>?'s orbit %\ld ev] become z ecc5tric z t ( ! planet ,juno or ,pallas1 a great *ange ( climate might be conceiv$ to result1 ! w9t] & summ] temp]atures be+ sometimes mitigat$1 & at o!rs exagg]at$1 9 ! same latitudes4 ,x is mu* to be desir$ t ! calculations allud$ to 7 execut$1 z ev5 if !y %\ld demon/rate1 z ,m4 ,arago ?9ks highly probable1#bjf t ! mean am\nt ( sol> radiation c nev] be mat]ially affect$ by irregul>ities 9 ! e>?'s motion1 x w\ld /ill be satisfactory to asc]ta9 ! po9t4 ,su* inquiries1 h[ev]1 c nev] sup]s$e ! necessity ( inve/igat+ ! consequ5ces ( ! v>y+ position ( cont95ts1 %ift$ z we "k !m to h be5 dur+ successive epo*s1 f "o "p ( ! globe to ! o!r4 ,ano!r a/ronomical hypo!sis respect+ ! possible cause ( secul> v>iations 9 climate1 has be5 propos$ by a di/+ui%$ ma!matician & philosoph]1 ,m4 ,poisson4 ,he beg9s by assum+1 #a/1 t ! sun & our planet>y sy/em are n /ation>y1 b c>ri$ onw>d by a common movem5t ?r\gh space2 #b;dly1 t e po9t 9 space receives heat z well z light f innum]able />s surr\nd+ x on all sides1 s t if a "r l9e ( indef9ite l5g? be produc$ 9 any direction f su* a po9t1 x mu/ enc\nt] a /> ei!r visible or invisible to u4 #c;dly1 ,he !n goes on to assume1 t ! diff]5t regions ( space1 :i* 9 ! c\rse ( millions ( ye>s are trav]s$ by our sy/em1 mu/ be ( v unequal temp]ature1 inasmu* z "s ( !m mu/ receive a great]1 o!rs a less1 quantity ( radiant heat f ! great /ell>y inclosure4 ,if ! e>?1 he cont9ues1 or any o!r l>ge body1 pass f a hott] to a cold] region1 x w\ld n readily lose 9 ! second all ! heat :i* x has imbib$ 9 ! fir/ region1 b reta9 a temp]ature increas+ d[nw>ds f ! surface1 z 9 ! actual condition ( our planet4#bjg ,n[ ! op9ion orig9ally sugge/$ by ,sir ,w4 ,h]s*el1 t our sun & its att5dant planets 7 all mov+ onw>d ?r\gh space1 9 ! direction ( ! con/ellation ,h]cules1 is v g5]ally ?\ght by em95t a/ronom]s to be confirm$4 ,b ev5 if its reality be no long] matt] ( d\bt1 conjectures z to its am\nt are /ill vague & unc]ta92 & great1 inde$1 mu/ be ! ext5t ( ! movem5t be=e ?is cause alone c "w any mat]ial alt]ation 9 ! t]re/rial climates4 ,mr4 ,hopk9s1 :5 treat+ ( ?is !ory1 rem>k$1 t s f> z we 7 acqua9t$ ) ! position ( ! />s n v remote f ! sun1 !y seem to be s di/ant f ea* o!r1 t !re are no po9ts 9 space among !m1 :]e ! int5sity ( radiat+ heat w\ld be comp>able to t :i* ! e>? d]ives f ! sun1 except at po9ts v ne> to ea* />4 ,?us1 9 ord] t ! e>? %\ld d]ive a degree ( heat f /ell> radiation comp>able to t n[ d]iv$ f ! sun1 %e mu/ be 9 close proximity to "s p>ticul> />1 leav+ ! aggregate effect ( radiation f ! o!r />s ne>ly ! same z at pres5t4 ,?is approximation1 h[ev]1 to a s+le /> c\ld n take place consi/5tly ) ! pres]vation ( ! motion ( ! e>? ab\t ! sun1 accord+ to its pres5t laws4 ,suppose our sun %\ld approa* a /> )9 ! pres5t di/ance ( ,neptune4 ,t planet c\ld no long] rema9 a memb] ( ! sol> sy/em1 & ! motions ( ! o!r planets w\ld be di/urb$ 9 a degree :i* no "o has ev] contemplat$ z probable s9ce ! exi/5ce ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,b su* a />1 suppos+ x to be no l>g] ?an ! sun1 & to emit ! same quantity ( heat1 w\ld n s5d to ! e>? mu* m ?an "o-?\s&? "p ( ! heat :i* %e d]ives f ! sun1 & w\ld !re=e produce only a v small *ange 9 t]re/rial temp]ature4#bjh ,v>iable spl5dor ( />s4--,!re is /ill ano!r a/ronomical sugge/ion respect+ ! possible causes ( secul> v>iations 9 ! t]re/rial climates :i* des]ves notice4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t c]ta9 />s are liable to great & p]iodical fluctuations 9 spl5dor1 & ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el has lately asc]ta9$ 7,jan4 #ahdj71 t a l>ge & brilliant />1 call$ alpha ,orionis1 su/a9$1 9 ! c\rse ( six weeks1 a loss ( ne>ly half its light4 ,?is ph5om5on1 he rem>ks1 _c fail to awak5 att5tion1 & revive ^? speculations :i* 7 fir/ put =? by my fa!r ,sir ,w4 ,h]s*el1 respect+ ! possibility ( a *ange 9 ! lu/re ( our sun itself4 ,if !re really be a community ( nature betwe5 ! sun & fix$ />s1 e pro( t we obta9 ( ! ext5sive preval5ce ( su* p]iodical *anges 9 ^? remote bodies1 adds to ! probability ( f9d+ some?+ ( ! k9d ne>] home4 ,ref]r+ !n to ! possible be>+ ( su* facts on anci5t revolutions1 9 t]re/rial climates1 he says1 t x is a matt] ( obs]v$ fact1 t _m />s h und]gone1 9 pa/ ages1 )9 ! records ( a/ronomical hi/ory1 v ext5sive *anges 9 app>5t lu/re1 )\t a *ange ( di/ance adequate to produc+ su* an effect4 ,if our sun 7 ev5 intr9sically mu* bright] ?an at pres5t1 ! mean temp]ature ( ! surface ( our globe w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be proportionally great]4 ,i speak n[ n ( p]iodical1 b ( secul> *anges4 ,b ! argum5t is complicat$ ) ! consid]ation ( ! possibly imp]fect transp>5cy ( ! cele/ial spaces1 & ) ! cause ( t imp]fect transp>5cy1 :i* may be due to mat]ial non-lum9\s p>ticles diffus$ irregul>ly 9 pat*es analog\s to nebulae1 b ( great] ext5t--to cosmical cl\ds1 9 %ort--( ^: exi/5ce we h1 ,i ?9k1 "s indication 9 ! s+ul> & app>5tly caprici\s ph5om5a ( tempor>y />s1 & p]haps 9 ! rec5t extraord9>y sudd5 increase & h>dly less sudd5 dim9ution ( ,greek3 e ,argus4#bji ,m rec5tly 7#aheb7 ,s*wabe has obs]v$ t ! spots on ! sun alt]nately increase & decrease 9 ! c\rse ( e t5 ye>s1 & ,capta9 ,sab9e has po9t$ out t ?is v>iable obscuration co9cides 9 "t bo? z to its maximum & m9imum ) *anges 9 all ^? t]re/rial magnetic v>iations :i* are caus$ by ! sun4 ,h5ce he inf]s t ! p]iod ( alt]ation 9 ! spots is a sol> magnetic p]iod4 ,assum+ su* to be ! case1 ! v>iable light ( "s />s may indicate a simil> ph5om5on1 or !y may be /ell> magnetic p]iods1 diff]+ only 9 ! degree ( obscuration & its duration4 ,& z hi!rto we h p]ceiv$ no fluctuation 9 ! heat receiv$ by ! e>? f ! sun co9cid5t ) ! sol> magnetic p]iod1 s ! fluctuations 9 ! brilliancy ( ! />s may n p]haps be att5d$ ) any p]ceptible alt]ation 9 _! p[] ( radiat+ heat4 ,b be=e we c speculate ) advantage 9 ?is new & int]e/+ field ( inquiry1 we require m facts & obs]vations4 ,suppos$ gradual dim9ution ( ! e>?'s primitive heat4--,! gradual dim9ution ( ! suppos$ primitive heat ( ! globe has be5 resort$ to by _m geologi/s z ! pr9cipal cause ( alt]ations ( climate4 ,! matt] ( our planet is imag9$1 9 accordance ) ! conjectures ( ,leibnitz1 to h be5 orig9ally 9 an int5sely heat$ /ate1 & to h be5 p>t+ ev] s9ce ) portions ( its heat1 & at ! same "t contract+ its dim5sions4 ,!re are1 und\bt$ly1 good gr\nds = inf]r+ f rec5t obs]vation & exp]im5t1 t ! temp]ature ( ! e>? increases z we desc5d f ! surface to t slight dep? to :i* man c p5etrate3 b !re are no positive pro(s ( a secul> decrease ( int]nal heat accompani$ by contraction4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,la ,place has %[n1 by ref]5ce to a/ronomical obs]vations made 9 ! "t ( ,hipp>*us1 t 9 ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s at lea/ !re has be5 no s5sible contraction ( ! globe by cool+2 = _h ?is be5 ! case1 ev5 to an extremely small am\nt1 ! day w\ld h be5 %ort5$1 :]eas its l5g? has c]ta9ly n dim9i%$ dur+ t p]iod by #a_/cjj? ( a second4 ,b>on ,f\ri]1 aft] mak+ a curi\s s]ies ( exp]im5ts on ! cool+ ( inc&esc5t bodies1 consid]s x to be prov$ ma!matically1 t ! actual di/ribution ( heat 9 ! e>?'s envelope is precisely t :i* w\ld h tak5 place if ! globe _h be5 =m$ 9 a m$ium ( a v high temp]ature1 & _h aft]w>ds be5 con/antly cool$4#baj ,he cont5ds1 t al?\gh no contraction c be demon/rat$ to h tak5 place )9 ! hi/orical p]iod 7! op]ation be+ sl[ & ! "t ( obs]vation limit$71 yet x is no less c]ta9 t heat is annually pass+ out by radiation f ! int]ior ( ! globe into ! planet>y spaces4 ,he ev5 und]took to demon/rate t ! quantity ( heat ?us transmitt$ into space 9 ! c\rse ( e c5tury1 ?r\gh e squ>e metre ( ! e>?'s surface1 w\ld suffice to melt a column ( ice hav+ a squ>e metre = its base1 & be+ ?ree metres 7or #i feet #aj in*es7 high4 ,x is at ! same "t d5i$1 t !re is any assignable mode 9 :i* ! heat ?us lo/ by radiation c be aga9 re/or$ to ! e>?1 & consequ5tly ! int]ior ( our planet mu/1 f ! mom5t ( its creation1 h be5 subject to refrig]ation1 & is de/9$ toge!r ) ! sun & />s =ev] to gr[ cold]4 ,b ,i %all po9t out 9 ! sequel 7*apt] #ca7 _m objections to ^! views1 & to ! !ory ( ! int5se heat ( ! e>?'s c5tral nucleus1 & %all !n inquire h[ f> ! obs]v$ augm5tation ( temp]ature1 z we desc5d bel[ ! surface1 may be ref]able to o!r causes unconnect$ ) ! suppos$ pri/9e fluidity ( ! entire globe4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,progressive ,,developm5t ,,( ,,organic ,,life ,,at ,,successive ,,geological ,,p]iods4 ,!ory ( ! progressive developm5t ( organic life--,evid5ce 9 its support inconclusive--,v]tebrat$ animals1 & plants ( ! mo/ p]fect organization1 9 /rata ( v high antiquity--,diff]5ces betwe5 ! organic rema9s ( successive =mations--,comp>ative mod]n orig9 ( ! human race--,! popul> doctr9e ( successive developm5t n e/abli%$ by ! admission t man is ( mod]n orig9--,introduction ( man1 to :at ext5t a *ange 9 ! sy/em4 ,progressive developm5t ( organic life4--,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ,i h consid]$ :e!r revolutions 9 ! g5]al climate ( ! globe af=d any j gr\nd ( opposition to ! doctr9e t ! =m] *anges ( ! e>? :i* are treat$ ( 9 geology belong to "o un9t]rupt$ s]ies ( physical ev5ts gov]n$ by ord9>y causes4 ,aga9/ ?is doctr9e "s popul> argum5ts h be5 d]iv$ f ! great vicissitudes ( ! organic creation 9 times pa/2 ,i %all !re=e proce$ to ! discussion ( su* objections1 :i* h be5 ?us =mally advanc$ by ! late ,sir ,humphrey ,davy4 ,x is impossible1 he affirms1 to def5d ! proposition1 t ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s is ! anci5t & con/ant ord] ( nature1 only modifi$ by exi/+ laws3 9 ^? /rata :i* are deepe/1 & :i* mu/1 consequ5tly1 be suppos$ to be ! e>lie/ deposit$1 =ms ev5 ( vegetable life are r>e2 %ells & vegetable rema9s are f\nd 9 ! next ord]2 ! bones ( fi%es & ovip>\s reptiles exi/ 9 ! foll[+ class2 ! rema9s ( birds1 ) ^? ( ! same g5]a m5tion$ be=e1 9 ! next ord]2 ^? ( quadrup$s ( ext9ct species 9 a /ill m rec5t class2 & x is only 9 ! loose & slightly consolidat$ /rata ( gravel & s&1 & :i* are usually call$ diluvian =mations1 t ! rema9s ( animals su* z n[ p ! globe are f\nd1 ) o!rs belong+ to ext9ct species4 ,b1 9 none ( ^! =mations1 :e!r call$ second>y1 t]ti>y1 or diluvial1 h ! rema9s ( man1 or any ( 8 works1 be5 discov]$2 & :oev] dwells ^u ?is subject mu/ be conv9c$1 t ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s1 & ! comp>atively rec5t exi/5ce ( man z ! ma/] ( ! globe1 is z c]ta9 z ! de/ruction ( a =m] & a diff]5t ord]1 & ! ext9ction ( a numb] ( liv+ =ms :i* h no types 9 be+4 ,9 ! olde/ second>y /rata !re are no rema9s ( su* animals z n[ belong to ! surface2 & 9 ! rocks1 :i* may be reg>d$ z m rec5tly deposit$1 ^! rema9s occur b r>ely1 & ) abundance ( ext9ct species2--!re seems1 z x 71 a gradual approa* to ! pres5t sy/em ( ?+s1 & a succession ( de/ructions & creations prep>atory to ! exi/5ce ( man4#baa ,9 ! above passages1 ! au?or d$uces two important conclusions f geological data3 fir/1 t 9 ! successive gr\ps ( /rata1 f ! olde/ to ! mo/ rec5t1 !re is a progressive developm5t ( organic life1 f ! simple/ to ! mo/ complicat$ =ms2--secondly1 t man is ( comp>atively rec5t orig91 & ^! conclusions he reg>ds z inconsi/5t ) ! doctr9e1 t ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s is ! anci5t & con/ant ord] ( nature only modifi$ by exi/+ laws4 ,) respect1 !n1 to ! fir/ ( ^! propositions1 we may ask :e!r ! !ory ( ! progressive developm5t ( animal & vegetable life1 & _! successive advancem5t f a simple to a m p]fect /ate1 has any secure f\ndation 9 fact8 ,no geologi/s :o are 9 possession ( all ! data n[ e/abli%$ respect+ fossil rema9s1 w = a mom5t cont5d = ! doctr9e 9 all its detail1 z laid d[n by ! di/+ui%$ philosoph] to ^: op9ions we h ref]r$3 b naturali/s1 :o are n unacqua9t$ ) rec5t discov]ies1 cont9ue to def5d x 9 a modifi$ =m4 ,!y say t 9 ! fir/ p]iod ( ! _w 7by :i* !y mean ! e>lie/ ( :i* we h yet br\ght to light any memorials71 ! vegetation 0 *>act]iz$ by a pr$om9ance ( cryptogamic plants1 :ile ! animals :i* coexi/$ 7 almo/ entirely conf9$ to zoophytes1 te/acea1 & a few fi%4 ,plants ( a less simple /ructure1 conif]ae & cycadeae1 fl\ri%$ l>gely 9 ! next epo*1 :5 ovip>\s reptiles began also to ab\nd4 ,la/ly1 ! t]re/rial flora became mo/ div]sifi$ & mo/ p]fect :5 ! highe/ ord]s ( animals1 ! mammalia & birds1 7 call$ into exi/5ce4 ,n[ 9 ! fir/ place1 x may be obs]v$1 t _m naturali/s are guilty ( no small inconsi/5cy 9 endeavor+ to connect ! ph5om5a ( ! e>lie/ vegetation ) a nasc5t condition ( organic life1 & at ! same "t to d$uce f ! num]ical pr$om9ance ( c]ta9 =ms1 ! great] heat or uni=mity ( ! anci5t climate4 ,! argum5ts 9 favor ( ! latt] conclusion are )\t any =ce1 unless we c assume t ! rules foll[$ by ! ,au?or ( ,nature 9 ! creation & di/ribution ( organic be+s 7 ! same =m]ly z n[2 & t1 z c]ta9 families ( animals & plants are n[ mo/ abundant 91 or exclusively conf9$ to regions :]e !re is a c]ta9 temp]ature1 a c]ta9 degree ( humidity1 a c]ta9 int5sity ( light1 & o!r conditions1 s also analog\s ph5om5a 7 exhibit$ at e =m] era4 ,if ?is po/ulate be d5i$1 & ! preval5ce ( p>ticul> families be decl>$ to dep5d on a c]ta9 ord] ( prec$5ce 9 ! introduction ( diff]5t classes into ! e>?1 & if x be ma9ta9$ t ! /&>d ( organization 0 rais$ successively1 we mu/ !n ascribe ! num]ical prepond]ance1 9 ! e>li] ages1 ( plants ( simpl] /ructure1 n to ! heat1 or o!r climatal conditions1 b to ^? diff]5t laws :i* regulate organic life 9 newly creat$ worlds4 ,be=e we c inf] a w>m & uni=m temp]ature 9 high latitudes1 f ! pres5ce ( #bej species ( f]ns1 "s ( !m arboresc5t1 accompani$ by lycopadiacae ( l>ge size1 & arauc>iae1 we mu/ be p]mitt$ to assume1 t at all times1 pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 a heat$ & moi/ atmosph]e p]vad+ ! nor!rn hemisph]e has a t5d5cy to produce 9 ! vegetation a pr$om9ance ( analog\s =ms4 ,x %\ld moreov] be borne 9 m9d1 :5 we are consid]+ ! "q ( developm5t f a botanical po9t ( view1 t naturali/s are by no means agre$ z to ! exi/5ce ( an asc5d+ scale ( organization 9 ! vegetable _w correspond+ to t :i* is v g5]ally recogniz$ 9 animals4 ,f ! sponge to man1 9 ! language ( ,de ,bla9ville1 !re may be a progressive *a9 ( be+1 al?\gh (t5 brok5 & imp]fect2 b if we seek to classify plants accord+ to a l9e> arrangem5t1 asc5d+ gradually f ! li*5 to ! lily or ! rose1 we enc\nt] incomp>ably great] difficulties4 ,yet ! doctr9e ( a m highly develop$ organization 9 ! plants creat$ at successive p]iods presupposes ! admission ( su* a graduat$ scale4 ,we h z yet obta9$ b scanty in=mation respect+ ! /ate ( ! t]re/rial flora at p]iods antec$5t to ! coal4 ,9 ! c>bonif]\s epo*1 ab\t #ejj species ( fossil plants are enum]at$ by ,adolphe ,brongni>t1 :i* we may safely reg>d z a m]e fragm5t ( an anci5t flora2 s9ce1 9 ,europe alone1 !re are n[ no less ?an #aa1jjj liv+ species4 ,i h already h9t$ t ! plants :i* produc$ coal 7 n drift$ f a di/ance1 b t ne>ly all ( !m grew on ! spots :]e !y became fossil4 ,!y appe> to h belong$1 z be=e expla9$ 7p4 #aae71 to a peculi> class ( /ations1--to l[ level & swampy regions1 9 ! deltas ( l>ge riv]s1 slightly elevat$ above ! level ( ! sea4 ,f ! /udy1 !re=e1 ( su* a vegetation1 we c d]ive b little insight into ! nature ( ! contemporane\s upl& flora1 /ill less ( ! plants ( ! m\nta9\s or ,alp9e c\ntry2 & if s1 we are enabl$ to acc\nt = ! app>5t monotony ( ! vegetation1 al?\gh its uni=m "* 0 d\btless 9 "p ow+ to a great] uni=mity ( climate !n prevail+ ?r\gh\t ! globe4 ,"s ( ! commone/ trees ( ?is p]iod1 su* z ! sigill>iae1 :i* unit$ ! /ructure ( f]ns & ( cycadeae1 dep>t$ v widely f all kn[n liv+ types4 ,! conif]ae & f]ns1 on ! contr>y1 7 v closely alli$ to liv+ g5]a4 ,x is rem>kable t none ( ! exog5s ( ,l9dley 7dicotyl$on\s angiosp]ms ( ,brongni>t71 :i* comprise f\r-fif?s ( ! liv+ flora ( ! globe1 & include all ! =e/ trees ( ,europe except ! fir-tribe1 h yet be5 discov]$ 9 ! coal measures1 & a v small numb]--fifte5 species only--( monocotyl$ons4 ,if sev]al ( ^! la/ are true plants1 an op9ion to :i* ,messrs4 ,l9dley1 ,ung]1 ,corda1 & o!r botani/s ( note incl9e1 ! "q :e!r any ( ! mo/ highly organiz$ plants are to be met ) 9 anci5t /rata is at once answ]$ 9 ! affirmative4 ,b ! det]m9ation ( ^! palms be+ d\btful1 we h z yet 9 ! coal no positive pro(s ei!r ( ! exi/5ce ( ! mo/ p]fect1 or ( ! mo/ simple =ms ( fl[]+ or fl[]less vegetation4 ,we h no fungi1 li*5s1 hepatici or mosses3 yet ?is latt] class may h be5 z fully repres5t$ !n z n[4 ,9 ! flora ( ! second>y eras1 all botani/s agree t palms exi/$1 al?\gh 9 ,europe plants ( ! family ( zamia & cycas toge!r ) conif]ae pr$om9at$1 & mu/ h giv5 a peculi> aspect to ! flora4 ,z only #bjj or #cjj species ( plants are kn[n 9 all ! rocks rang+ f ! ,trias to ! ,oolite inclusive1 our data are too scanty z yet to affirm :e!r ! vegetation ( ?is second epo* 0 or 0 n on ! :ole ( a simpl] organization ?an t ( our own times4 ,9 ! ,l[] ,cretace\s =mation1 ne> ,aix-la-,*apelle1 ! leaves ( a great _m dicotyl$on\s trees h lately be5 discov]$ by ,dr4 ,debey1 e/abli%+ ! important fact ( ! coexi/5ce ( a l>ge numb] ( angiosp]ms ) cycadeae1 & ) t ri* reptilian fauna compris+ ! i*?yosaur1 plesiosaur1 & pt]odactyl1 :i* "s _h suppos$ to indicate a /ate ( ! atmosph]e unfavorable to a dicotyl$on\s vegetation4 ,! numb] ( plants hi!rto obta9$ f t]ti>y /rata ( diff]5t ages is v limit$1 b is rapidly increas+4 ,!y are ref]able to a mu* great] v>iety ( families & classes ?an an equal numb] ( fossil species tak5 f second>y or prim>y rocks1 ! angiosp]ms be>+ ! same proportion to ! gymnosp]ms & acrog5s z 9 ! pres5t flora ( ! globe4 ,?is great] v>iety may1 d\btless1 be p>tly ascrib$ to ! great] div]sity ( /ations 9 :i* ! plants grew1 z we h 9 ?is case an opportunity1 r>ely enjoy$ 9 /udy+ ! second>y fossils1 ( inve/igat+ inl& or lacu/r9e deposits accumulat$ at diff]5t heights above ! sea1 & conta9+ ! memorials ( plants wa%$ d[n f adjo9+ m\nta9s4 ,9 reg>d1 !n1 to ! /rata f ! cretace\s to ! upp]mo/ t]ti>y inclusive1 we may affirm t we f9d 9 !m all ! pr9cipal classes ( liv+ plants1 & dur+ ?is va/ lapse ( "t f\r or five complete *anges 9 ! vegetation occurr$1 yet no /ep :atev] 0 made 9 advance at any ( ^! p]iods by ! addition ( m highly organiz$ species4 ,if we next turn to ! fossils ( ! animal k+dom1 we may inquire :e!r1 :5 !y are arrang$ by ! geologi/s 9 a *ronological s]ies1 !y imply t be+s ( m highly develop$ /ructure & great] intellig5ce ent]$ ^u ! e>? at successive epo*s1 ^? ( ! simple/ organization be+ ! fir/ creat$1 & ^? m highly organiz$ be+ ! la/4 ,our k ( ! ,silurian fauna is at pres5t d]iv$ entirely f rocks ( m>9e orig91 no fre%-wat] /rata ( su* high antiquity hav+ yet be5 met )4 ,! fossils1 h[ev]1 ( ^! anci5t rocks at once r$uce ! !ory ( progressive developm5t to )9 v n>r[ limits1 = already !y comprise a v full repres5tation ( ! radiata1 mollusca1 & articulata prop] to ! sea4 ,?us1 9 ! great division ( radiata1 we f9d a/]iod & helian?oid zoophytes1 besides cr9oid & cy/idean e*9od]ms4 ,9 ! mollusca1 betwe5 #bjj & #cjj species ( cephalopoda are enum]at$4 ,9 ! articulata we h ! cru/aceans repres5t$ by m ?an #bjj species ( trilobites1 besides o!r g5]a ( ! same class4 ,! rema9s ( fi% are z yet conf9$ to ! upp] "p ( ! ,silurian s]ies2 b "s ( ^! belong to placoid fi%1 :i* occupy a high grade 9 ! scale ( organization4 ,"s naturali/s h assum$ t ! e>lie/ fauna 0 exclusively m>9e1 because we h n yet f\nd a s+le ,silurian helix1 insect1 bird1 t]re/rial reptile or mammif]2 b :5 we c>ry back our inve/igation to a p]iod s remote f ! pres5t1 we ought n to be surpris$ if ! only accessible /rata %\ld be limit$ to deposits =m$ f> f l&1 because ! ocean probably occupi$ !n1 z n[1 ! great] "p ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,aft] s _m entire geographical revolutions1 ! *ances are ne>ly ?ree to "o 9 favor ( our f9d+ t su* small portions ( ! exi/+ cont95ts & isl&s z expose ,silurian /rata to view1 %\ld co9cide 9 position ) ! anci5t ocean r ?an ! l&4 ,we mu/ n1 !re=e1 too ha/ily inf]1 f ! abs5ce ( fossil bones ( mammalia 9 ! old] rocks1 t ! highe/ class ( v]tebrat$ animals did n exi/ 9 remot] ages4 ,!re are regions at pres5t1 9 ! ,indian & ,pacific ,oceans1 coext5sive 9 area ) ! cont95ts ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e we might dr$ge ! bottom & draw up ?\s&s ( %ells & corals1 )\t obta9+ "o bone ( a l& quadrup$4 ,suppose our m>9]s 7 to report1 t1 on s\nd+ 9 ! ,indian ,ocean ne> "s coral reefs1 & at "s di/ance f ! l&1 !y drew up on hooks atta*$ to _! l9e portions ( a leop>d1 elephant1 or tapir1 %\ld we n be skeptical z to ! accuracy ( _! /atem5ts8 & if we _h no d\bt ( _! v]acity1 might we n suspect !m to be unskilful naturali/s8 or1 if ! fact 7 unque/ion$1 %\ld we n be dispos$ to believe t "s vessel _h be5 wreck$ on ! spot8 ,! casualties mu/ always be r>e by :i* l& quadrup$s are swept by riv]s f> out into ! op5 sea1 & /ill r>] ! cont+5cy ( su* a float+ body n be+ dev\r$ by %>ks or o!r pr$ace\s fi%1 su* z 7 ^? ( :i* we f9d ! tee? pres]v$ 9 "s ( ! c>bonif]\s /rata4 ,b if ! c>cass %\ld escape1 & %\ld happ5 to s9k :]e s$im5t 0 9 ! act ( accumulat+1 & if ! num]\s causes ( subsequ5t dis9tegration %\ld n efface all traces ( ! body1 includ$ = c\ntless ages 9 solid rock1 is x n contr>y to all calculation ( *ances t we %\ld hit ^u ! exact spot--t m]e po9t 9 ! b$ ( an anci5t ocean1 :]e ! preci\s relic 0 entomb$8 ,c we expect = a mom5t1 :5 we h only succe$$1 amid/ sev]al ?\s& fragm5ts ( corals & %ells1 9 f9d+ a few bones ( aquatic or amphibi\s animals1 t we %\ld meet ) a s+le skeleton ( an inhabitant ( ! l&8 ,cl>5ce1 9 8 dream1 saw1 9 ! slimy bottom ( ! deep1 ----a ?\s& fe>ful wrecks2 ,a ?\s& m51 t fi%es gnaw'd ^u3 ,w$ges ( gold1 great an*ors1 heaps ( pe>l4 ,_h he also beheld1 amid ! dead bones t lay scatt]$ by1 ! c>casses ( lions1 de]1 & ! o!r wild t5ants ( ! =e/ & ! pla91 ! fiction w\ld h be5 deem$ unwor?y ( ! g5ius ( ,%akspe>e4 ,s d>+ a disreg>d ( probability & violation ( analogy w\ld h be5 condemn$ z unp>donable1 ev5 :]e ! poet 0 pa9t+ ^? incongru\s images :i* pres5t !mselves to a di/urb$ imag9ation dur+ ! visions ( ! night4 ,until lately x 0 suppos$ t ! old r$ s&/one1 or ,devonian rocks1 conta9$ no v]tebrate rema9s except ^? ( fi%1 b 9 #ahej ! footpr9ts ( a *elonian1 & 9 #ahea ! skeleton ( a reptile1 alli$ bo? to ! batra*ians & liz>ds1 7 f\nd 9 a s&/one ( t age ne> ,elg9 9 ,scotl&4#bab ,up to ! ye> #ahdd x 0 laid d[n z a receiv$ dogma 9 _m works ( high au?ority 9 geology1 t reptiles 7 n creat$ until aft] ! close ( ! c>bonif]\s epo*4 ,9 ! c\rse ( t ye>1 h[ev]1 ,h]mann ,von ,mey] ann\nc$ ! discov]y1 9 ! coal measures ( ,rh5i% ,bav>ia1 ( a reptile1 call$ by him ,apateon1 relat$ to ! salam&]s2 & 9 #ahdg ?ree species ( ano!r g5us1 call$ ar*egosaurus by ,goldfuss1 7 obta9$ f ! coal ( ,sa>bruck1 betwe5 ,treves & ,/rasburg4 ,! footpr9ts ( a l>ge quadrup$1 probably batra*ian1 _h also be5 obs]v$ by ,dr4 ,k+ 9 ! c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,p5nsylvania 9 #ahdd4 ,! fir/ example ( ! bones ( a reptile 9 ! ,coal ( ,nor? ,am]ica 0 detect$ s lately z ,septemb]1 #aheb1 by ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,dawson & myself 9 ,nova ,scotia4 ,^! rema9s1 ref]r$ by ,messrs4 ,wyman & ,ow5 to a p]5nibran*iate batra*ian1 7 met ) 9 ! int]ior ( an erect fossil tree1 app>5tly a sigill>ia4 ,!y seem cle>ly to h be5 introduc$ toge!r ) s$im5t into ! tree1 dur+ its subm]g5ce & aft] x _h decay$ & 0 /&+ z a holl[ cyl9d] ( b>k1 ?is b>k be+ n[ conv]t$ into coal4 ,:5 ,agassiz1 9 8 great "w on fossil fi%1 describ$ #aeb species ( i*?yolites f ! ,coal1 he f\nd !m to consi/ ( #id placoids1 belong+ to ! families ( %>k & ray1 & #eh ganoids4 ,"o family ( ! latt] he call$ sauroid fi%1 includ+ ! megalic?ys & holopty*ius1 (t5 ( great size1 & all pr$ace\s4 ,al?\gh true fi%1 & n int]m$iate betwe5 t class & reptiles1 !y seem to h be5 m highly organiz$ ?an any liv+ fi%1 rem9d+ u ( ! skeletons ( saurians by ! close suture ( _! cranial bones1 _! l>ge conical tee?1 /riat$ longitud9ally1 & ! articulation ( ! sp9\s processes ) ! v]tebrae4 ,among liv+ species !y are mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! lepido/eus1 or bony pike ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican riv]s4 ,be=e ! rec5t progress ( discov]y above allud$ to _h %[n ! fallacy ( su* ideas1 x 0 imag9$ by "s geologi/s t ?is i*?yic type 0 ! m highly develop$1 because x took ! lead at ! head ( nature be=e ! class ( reptiles _h be5 creat$4 ,! confid5t assumption indulg$ 9 till ! ye> #ahdd1 t reptiles 7 fir/ introduc$ into ! e>? 9 ! ,p]mian p]iod1 %[s ! dang] ( tak+ = grant$ t ! date ( ! creation ( any family ( animals or plants 9 pa/ "t co9cides ) ! age ( ! olde/ /ratifi$ rock 9 :i* ! geologi/ has detect$ its rema9s4 ,nev]!less1 aft] repeat$ disappo9tm5ts1 we f9d "s naturali/s z mu* dispos$ z ev] to rely on su* negative evid5ce1 & to feel n[ z sure t reptiles 7 n introduc$ into ! e>? till aft] ! ,silurian epo*1 z !y 7 9 #ahdd1 t !y appe>$ = ! fir/ "t at an era subsequ5t to ! c>bonif]\s4 ,scanty z is ! in=mation hi!rto obta9$ 9 reg>d to ! articulata ( ! coal =mation1 we h at lea/ asc]ta9$ t "s insects w+$ _! way ?r\gh ! anci5t =e/s4 ,9 ! iron/one ( ,coalbrook ,dale1 two species ( coleopt]a ( ! ,l9naean g5us curculio h be5 met )3 & a neuropt]\s insect resembl+ a corydalis1 toge!r ) ano!r ( ! same ord] relat$ to ! phasmidae4 ,z an example ( ! insectivor\s ara*nidae1 ,i may m5tion ! scorpion ( ! ,bohemian coal1 figur$ by ,c\nt ,/]nb]g1 9 :i* ev5 ! eyes1 sk91 & m9ute hairs 7 pres]v$4#bac ,we ne$ n despair1 !re=e1 ( obta9+ ev5tually fossil repres5tatives ( all ! pr9cipal ord]s ( hexapods & ara*nidae 9 c>bonif]\s /rata4 ,next 9 *ronological ord] above ! ,coal comes ! alli$ ,magnesian ,lime/one1 or ,p]mian gr\p1 & ! second>y =mations f ! ,trias to ! ,*alk inclusive4 ,^! rocks comprise ! monum5ts ( a long s]ies ( ages 9 :i* reptiles ( e v>iety ( size1 =m1 & /ructure peopl$ ! e>?2 s t ! :ole p]iod1 & especially t ( ! ,lias & ,oolite1 has be5 sometimes call$ ! age ( reptiles4 ,z !re are n[ mammalia entirely conf9$ to ! l&2 o!rs :i*1 l ! bat & vampire1 fly 9 ! air2 o!rs1 aga91 ( amphibi\s habits1 frequ5t+ riv]s1 l ! hippopotamus1 ott]1 & beav]2 o!rs exclusively aquatic & m>9e1 l ! seal1 :ale1 & n>wal2 s 9 ! e>ly ages "u consid]ation1 !re 7 t]re/rial1 w+$1 & aquatic reptiles4 ,!re 7 iguanodons walk+ on ! l&1 pt]odactyls w++ _! way ?r\gh ! air1 monitors & crocodiles 9 ! riv]s1 & i*?yosaurs & plesiosaurs 9 ! ocean4 ,x appe>s also t "s ( ^! anci5t saurians approximat$ m ne>ly 9 _! organization to ! type ( liv+ mammalia ?an d any ( ! reptiles n[ exi/+4#bad ,9 ! va/ range ( /rata above allud$ to1 compris+ ! ,p]mian1 ! ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one & ,mus*elkalk1 ! ,lias1 ,oolite1 ,weald51 ,gre5-s&1 & ,*alk1 sc>cely any well-au!nticat$ in/ances ( ! occurr5ce ( fossil birds 9 ,europe are on record1 & only two or ?ree ( fossil mammalia4 ,9 reg>d to ! abs5ce ( birds1 !y are usually want+1 = reasons aft]w>ds to be expla9$ 7see *ap4 #dg71 9 deposits ( all ages1 ev5 9 ! t]ti>y p]iods1 :]e we "k t birds z well z l& quadrup$s ab\nd$4 ,"s at lea/ ( ! fossil rema9s =m]ly ref]r$ to ?is class 9 ! ,weald5 7a great fre%wat] deposit bel[ ! *alk71 h be5 rec5tly %[n by ,mr4 ,ow5 to belong to pt]odactyls4#bae ,b 9 ,nor? ,am]ica /ill m anci5t indications ( ! exi/5ce ( ! fea!r$ tribe h be5 detect$1 ! fossil foot-m>ks ( a great v>iety ( species1 ( v>i\s sizes1 "s l>g] ?an ! o/ri*1 o!rs small] ?an ! plov]1 hav+ be5 obs]v$4 ,^! bip$s h left m>ks ( _! foot/eps on /rata ( an age decid$ly int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,lias & ! ,coal4#baf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,natural ,size4 ,?ylaco!rium ,prevo/ii 7,val5ci5nes74 ,amphi!rium 7,ow574 ,l[] jaw1 f ! slate ( ,/onesfield1 ne> ,ox=d4#bah ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,myrmecobius fasciatus 7,wat]h\se74 ,rec5t f ,swan ,riv]4 ,l[] jaw ( ! natural size4#bai ,! examples ( mammalia1 above allud$ to1 are conf9$ to ! ,trias & ! ,oolite4 ,9 ! =m]1 ! evid5ce is z yet limit$ to two small mol> tee?1 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,pli5+] 9 #ahdg1 "u ! g5]ic "n ( ,microle/es4 ,!y 7 f\nd ne> ,/uttg>t1 & possess ! d\ble fangs s *>act]i/ic ( mammalia4#bag ,! o!r fossil rema9s ( ! same class 7 d]iv$ f "o ( ! inf]ior memb]s ( ! oolitic s]ies 9 ,ox=d%ire1 & af=d m full & satisfactory evid5ce1 consi/+ ( ! l[] jaws ( ?ree species ( small quadrup$s ab\t ! size ( a mole4 ,cuvi]1 :5 he saw "o ( !m 7dur+ a visit to ,ox=d 9 #ahah71 ref]r$ x to ! m>supial ord]1 /at+1 h[ev]1 t x diff]$ f all kn[n c>nivora 9 hav+ t5 mol> tee? 9 a r[4 ,pr(essor ,ow5 aft]w>ds po9t$ out t ! jaw belong$ to an ext9ct g5us1 hav+ consid]able aff9ity to a newly discov]$ ,au/ralian mammif]1 ! ,myrmecobius ( ,wat]h\se1 :i* has n9e mol> tee? 9 ! l[] jaw4 7,fig4 #i47 ,a m p]fect specim5 enabl$ ,mr4 ,ow5 9 #ahdf to prove t ! inflection ( ! angul> process ( ! l[] jaw 0 n suffici5tly m>k$ to entitle ! o/eologi/ to inf] t ?is quadrup$ 0 m>supial1 z ! process is n b5t inw>ds 9 a great] degree ?an 9 ! mole or h$gehog4 ,h5ce ! g5us amphi!rium1 ( :i* !re are two species f ,/onesfield1 mu/ be ref]r$ to ! ord9>y or plac5tal type ( insectivor\s mammals1 al?\gh x approximates 9 "s po9ts ( /ructure to ! myrmecobius & alli$ m>supials ( ,au/ralia4 ,! o!r contempor>y g5us1 call$ phascolo!rium1 agrees mu* m ne>ly 9 o/eological "* & precisely 9 ! numb] ( ! tee? ) ! opossums2 & is believ$ to h be5 truly m>supial4 7,fig4 #aj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,natural size4 ,phascolo!rium ,buckl&i1 ,ow54 7,syn4 ,didelphis ,buckl&i1 ,brod47 ,l[] jaw1 f ,/onesfield4#bbj #a4 ,! jaw magnifi$ twice 9 l5g?4 #b4 ,! second mol> too? magnifi$ six times4 ,! occurr5ce ( ^! mo/ anci5t memorials ( ! mammif]\s type1 9 s l[ a memb] ( ! oolitic s]ies1 :ile no o!r repres5tatives ( ! same class 7if we except ! microle/es7 h yet be5 f\nd 9 any o!r ( ! inf]ior or sup]ior second>y /rata1 is a /rik+ fact1 & %\ld s]ve z a w>n+ to u aga9/ ha/y g5]alizations1 f\nd$ solely on negative evid5ce4 ,s important an exception to a g5]al rule may be p]fectly consi/5t ) ! conclusion1 t a small numb] only ( mammalia inhabit$ ,european latitudes :5 our second>y rocks 7 =m$2 b x seems fatal to ! !ory ( progressive developm5t1 or to ! notion t ! ord] ( prec$5ce 9 ! creation ( animals1 consid]$ *ronologically1 has precisely co9cid$ ) ! ord] 9 :i* !y w\ld be rank$ accord+ to p]fection or complexity ( /ructure4 ,x 0 = _m ye>s sugge/$ t ! m>supial ord] to :i* ! fossil animals ( ,/onesfield 7 suppos$ exclusively to belong con/itutes ! l[e/ grade 9 ! class ,mammalia1 & t ?is ord]1 ( :i* ! bra9 is ( m simple =m1 ev9ces an inf]ior degree ( intellig5ce4 ,if1 !re=e1 9 ! oolitic p]iod ! m>supial tribes 7 ! only w>m-blood$ quadrup$s :i* _h z yet appe>$ ^u our planet1 ! fact1 x 0 said1 confirm$ ! !ory :i* tea*es t ! creation ( ! m simple =ms 9 ea* division ( ! animal k+dom prec$$ t ( ! m complex4 ,b on h[ sl5d] a support1 ev5 if ! facts _h cont9u$ to hold true1 did su* important conclusions hang6 ,! ,au/ralian cont95t1 s f> z x has be5 hi!rto explor$1 conta9s no indig5\s quadrup$s save ^? ( ! m>supial ord]1 ) ! exception ( a few small rod5ts1 :ile "s neighbor+ isl&s to ! nor?1 & ev5 s\!rn ,africa1 9 ! same latitude z ,au/ralia1 ab\nd 9 mammalia ( e tribe except ! m>supial4 ,we are entirely unable to expla9 on :at physiological or o!r laws ?is s+ul> div]sity 9 ! habitations ( liv+ mammalia dep5ds2 b no?+ is m cle> ?an t ! causes :i* /amp s peculi> a "* on two diff]5t prov9ces ( wide ext5t are :olly indep5d5t ( "t1 or ( ! age or maturity ( ! planet4 ,! /rata ( ! ,weald51 al?\gh ( a lat] date ?an ! oolite ( ,/onesfield1 & al?\gh fill$ ) ! rema9s ( l>ge reptiles1 bo? t]re/rial & aquatic1 h n yield$ z yet a s+le m>supial bone4 ,7 we to assume on su* scanty data t no w>m-blood$ quadrup$s 7 !n to be f\nd ?r\gh\t ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 !re w\ld /ill rema9 a curi\s subject ( speculation1 :e!r ! entire suppression ( "o important class ( v]tebrata1 su* z ! mammif]\s1 & ! great developm5t ( ano!r1 su* z ! reptilian1 implies a dep>ture f fix$ & uni=m rules gov]n+ ! fluctuations ( ! animal _w2 su* rules1 = example1 z appe> f "o c5tury to ano!r to det]m9e ! gr[? ( c]ta9 tribes ( plants & animals 9 arctic1 & ( o!r tribes 9 tropical regions4 ,9 ,au/ralia1 ,new ,zeal&1 & _m o!r p>ts ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :]e ! indig5\s l& quadrup$s are comp>atively few1 & ( small dim5sions1 ! reptiles d n pr$om9ate 9 numb] or size4 ,! deposits =m$ at ! m\? ( an ,au/ralian riv]1 )9 ! tropics1 might conta9 ! bones ( only a few small m>supial animals1 :i*1 l ^? ( ,/onesfield1 might h]eaft] be discov]$ ) difficulty by geologi/s2 b !re w\ld1 at ! same "t1 be no megalosauri & o!r fossil rema9s1 %[+ t l>ge saurians 7 pl5tiful on ! l& & 9 ! wat]s at a "t :5 mammalia 7 sc>ce4 ,?is example1 !re=e1 w\ld af=d a v imp]fect p>allel to ! /ate ( ! animal k+dom1 suppos$ to h prevail$ dur+ ! second>y p]iods1 :5 a high temp]ature p]vad$ ,european latitudes4 ,x may nev]!less be advantage\s to po9t to "s exi/+ anomalies 9 ! geographical developm5t ( di/9ct classes ( v]tebrata :i* may be comp>able to =m] conditions ( ! animal creation br\ght to light by geology4 ,?us 9 ! arctic regions1 at pres5t1 reptiles are small1 & sometimes :olly want+1 :]e birds1 l>ge l& quadrup$s1 & cetacea ab\nd4 ,we meet ) be>s1 wolves1 foxes1 musk ox51 & de]1 walruses1 seals1 :ales1 & n>wals1 9 regions ( ice & sn[1 :]e ! smalle/ snakes1 efts1 & frogs are r>ely1 if ev]1 se54 ,a /ill m anomal\s /ate ( ?+s pres5ts itself 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,ev5 9 ! temp]ate zone1 betwe5 ! latitudes #eb degrees & #ef degrees ,s41 z1 = example1 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 z well z 9 ! woody region imm$iately nor? ( ! ,/raits ( ,magellan1 & 9 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 no reptiles ( any k9d are met )1 n ev5 a snake1 liz>d1 or frog2 b 9 ^! same c\ntries we f9d ! guanaco 7a k9d ( llama71 a de]1 ! puma1 a l>ge species ( fox1 _m small rod5tia1 besides ! seal & ott]1 toge!r ) ! porpoise1 :ale1 & o!r cetacea4 ,on :at gr& laws 9 ! animal physiology ^! rem>kable ph5om5a dep5d1 _c 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce be conjectur$2 nor c\ld we pr$ict :e!r any opposite condition ( ! atmosph]e1 9 respect to heat1 moi/ure1 & o!r circum/ances1 w\ld br+ ab\t a /ate ( animal life :i* might be call$ ! conv]se ( t above describ$1 namely1 a /ate 9 :i* reptiles ( e size & ord] might ab\nd1 & mammalia disappe>4 ,! ne>e/ approximation to su* a fauna is f\nd 9 ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago4 ,^! isl&s1 situat$ "u ! equator1 & ne>ly #fjj miles we/ ( ! coa/ ( ,p]u1 h be5 call$ ! l& ( reptiles1 s great is ! numb] ( snakes1 l>ge tortoises1 & liz>ds1 :i* !y support4 ,among ! liz>ds1 ! fir/ liv+ species prop] to ! ocean has be5 discov]$4 ,yet1 al?\gh "s ( ^! isl&s are f #cjjj to #djjj feet high1 & "o ( !m #ge miles long1 !y conta91 ) ! exception ( "o small m\se1 no indig5\s mammif]4 ,ev5 "h1 h[ev]1 x is true t 9 ! neighbor+ sea !re are seals1 & sev]al k9ds ( cetacea4#bba ,x may be unreasonable to look = a ne>] analogy betwe5 ! fauna n[ exi/+ 9 any "p ( ! globe1 & t :i* we c %[ to h prevail$ :5 our second>y /rata 7 deposit$1 because we mu/ always recollect t a climate l t n[ exp]i5c$ at ! equator1 coexi/+ ) ! unequal days & nights ( ,european latitudes1 0 a /ate ( ?+s to :i* !re is n[ no c\nt]p>t on ! globe4 ,consequ5tly1 ! type ( animal & vegetable exi/5ce requir$ = su* a climate might be expect$ to deviate almo/ z widely f t n[ e/abli%$1 z d ! flora & fauna ( our tropical diff] f ^? ( our arctic regions4 ,9 ! ,t]ti>y /rata4--,! t]ti>y =mations 7 deposit$ :5 ! physical geography ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e _h be5 entirely alt]$4 ,l>ge inl& lakes _h become num]\s1 z 9 c5tral ,france & o!r c\ntries4 ,!re 7 gulfs ( ! sea1 into :i* consid]able riv]s empti$ !mselves1 & :]e /rata l ^? ( ! ,p>is bas9 7 accumulat$4 ,!re 7 also =mations 9 progress1 9 %all[ seas n f> f %ore1 su* z are indicat$ by portions ( ! ,faluns ( ! ,loire1 & ! ,engli% ,crag4 ,! proximity1 !re=e1 ( l>ge tracts ( dry l& to ! seas & lakes !n exi/+1 may1 9 a great measure1 expla9 :y ! rema9s ( l& animals1 s r>e 9 ! old] /rata1 are n uncommon 9 ^! m mod]n deposits4 ,yet ev5 ^! h sometimes prov$ entirely de/itute ( mammif]\s relics = ye>s aft] !y _h become celebrat$ = ! abundance ( _! fossil te/acea1 fi%1 & reptiles4 ,?us ! calcaire grossi]1 a m>9e lime/one ( ! di/rict r\nd ,p>is1 _h af=d$ to collectors m ?an #aajj species ( %ells1 besides _m zoophytes1 e*9od]mata1 & ! tee? ( fi%1 be=e ! bones ( "o or two l& quadrup$s 7 met ) 9 ! same rock4 ,! /rata call$ ,london & ,pla/ic clay 9 ,engl& h be5 /udi$ = m ?an half a c5tury1 & ab\t #djj species ( %ells1 #ej or m ( fi%1 besides sev]al k9ds ( *elonian & saurian reptiles1 7 kn[n be=e a s+le mammif] 0 detect$4 ,at l5g?1 9 ! ye> #ahci1 !re 7 f\nd 9 ?is =mation ! rema9s ( a monkey1 an opossum1 a bat1#bbb & a species ( ! ext9ct g5us ,hyraco!rium1 alli$ to ! ,pecc>y or hog tribe4 ,if we exam9e ! /rata above ! ,london clay 9 ,engl&1 we fir/ meet ) mammif]\s rema9s 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 9 b$s also belong+ to ! ,eoc5e epo*1 su* z ! rema9s ( ! ,palaeo!rium1 ,anoplo!rium1 & o!r ext9ct quadrup$s1 agree+ v closely ) ^? fir/ f\nd by ,cuvi]1 ne> ,p>is1 9 /rata ( ! same age1 & ( simil> fre%wat] orig94 ,9 ,france we meet ) ano!r fauna1 bo? con*ological & mammalian 9 ! ,mioc5e faluns ( ! ,loire2 above :i* 9 ! asc5d+ s]ies 9 ,great ,brita9 we arrive at ! corall9e crag ( ,suffolk1 a m>9e =mation :i* has yield$ ?ree or f\r hundr$ species ( %ells1 v diff]5t f ! ,eoc5e te/acea1 & ( :i* a l>ge proportion1 al?\gh a m9ority ( ! :ole numb]1 are rec5t1 besides _m corals1 e*9i1 =am9if]a1 & fi%1 b z yet no relic decid$ly mammalian except ! e>-bone ( a :ale4 ,9 ! %elly s&1 prov9cially t]m$ ,r$ ,crag1 9 ,suffolk1 :i* imm$iately succe$s ! corall9e1 con/itut+ a new] memb] ( ! same t]ti>y gr\p1 ab\t #bej species ( %ells h be5 recogniz$1 ( :i* a /ill l>g] proportion are rec5t4 ,!y are associat$ ) num]\s tee? ( fi%2 b no signs ( a w>m-blood$ quadrup$ _h be5 detect$ until #ahci1 :5 ! tee? ( a leop>d1 a be>1 a hog1 & a species ( rum9ant1 7 f\nd at ,newb\rn1 9 ,suffolk1 & s9ce t "t1 sev]al o!r g5]a ( mammalia h be5 met ) 9 ! same =mation1 or 9 ! ,r$ ,crag4#bbc ,( a /ill new] date is ! ,norwi* ,crag1 a fluvio-m>9e deposit ( ! ,pleioc5e epo*1 conta9+ a mixture ( m>9e1 fluviatile1 & l& %ells1 ( :i* #ij p] c5t4 or m are rec5t4 ,^! b$s1 s9ce ! "t ( _! fir/ inve/igation1 h yield$ a supply ( mammalian bones ( ! g5]a ma/odon1 elephant1 rh9oc]os1 pig1 horse1 de]1 ox1 & o!rs1 ! bodies ( :i* may h be5 wa%$ d[n into ! sea by riv]s dra9+ l&1 ( :i* ! contiguity is indicat$ by ! occasional pres5ce ( t]re/rial & fre%wat] %ells4 ,our acqua9tance ) ! new] ,pleioc5e mammalia 9 ,europe1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & ,au/ralia1 is d]iv$ *iefly f cav]n deposits1 a fact :i* we ought nev] to =get if we desire to appreciate ! sup]ior facilities we enjoy = /udy+ ! m mod]n z comp>$ to ! m anci5t t]re/rial faunas4 ,we "k no?+ ( ! fossil bones :i* mu/ h be5 inclos$ 9 ! /alagmite ( cav]ns 9 ! old] ,pleioc5e1 or 9 ! ,mioc5e or ,eoc5e epo*s1 mu* less c we d]ive any in=mation respect+ ! inhabitants ( ! l& f a simil> s\rce1 :5 we c>ry back our inquiries to ! ,weald5 or c>bonif]\s epo*s4 ,we are z well assur$ t l& & riv]s !n exi/$1 z t !y exi/ n[2 b x is evid5t t ev5 a slight geographical revolution1 accompani$ by ! subm]g5ce & d5udation ( l&1 w\ld r$uce to an extreme improbability ! *ance ( our hitt+ on ^? m9ute po9ts ( space :]e caves may once h occurr$ 9 lime/one rocks4 ,fossil quadrumana4--,until )9 a few ye>s 7#ahcf1 #ahcg71 n a s+le bone ( any quadruman\s animal1 su* z ! orang1 ape1 baboon1 & monkey1 _h be5 discov]$ 9 a fossil /ate1 al?\gh s mu* progress _h be5 made 9 br++ to light ! ext9ct mammalia ( successive t]ti>y eras1 bo? c>nivor\s & h]bivor\s4 ,! total abs5ce ( ^! an?ropomorph\s tribes among ! records ( a =m] _w1 _h l$ "s to believe t ! type ( organization mo/ ne>ly resembl+ ! human1 came s late 9 ! ord] ( creation1 z to be sc>cely1 if at all1 ant]ior to t ( man4 ,t su* g5]alizations 7 premature1 ,i endeavor$ to po9t out 9 ! fir/ edition ( ?is "w1#bbd 9 :i* ,i /at$ t ! bones ( quadrup$s hi!rto met ) 9 t]ti>y deposits 7 *iefly ^? :i* frequ5t m>%es1 riv]s1 or ! bord]s ( lakes1 z ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 hippopotamus1 tapir1 hog1 de]1 & ox1 :ile species :i* live 9 trees are extremely r>e 9 a fossil /ate4 ,i also h9t$1 t we _h z yet no data = det]m9+ h[ great a numb] ( ! "o k9d we ought to f9d1 be=e we h a "r to expect a s+le individual ( ! o!r4 ,la/ly1 ,i obs]v$ t ! climate ( ! m mod]n 7or ,po/-,eoc5e7 t]ti>y p]iods 9 ,engl& 0 n tropical1 & t 9 reg>d to ! ,london clay1 ( :i* ! crocodiles1 turtles1 & fossil fruits impli$ a climate hot en\gh = ! quadrumana1 we _h z yet made too little progress 9 asc]ta9+ :at 7 ! ,eoc5e pa*yd]mata ( ,engl&1 to entitle u to expect to h discov]$ any quadrumana ( ! same date4 ,s9ce ^? rem>ks 7 fir/ writt51 9 #ahbi1 a great numb] ( ext9ct species h be5 add$ to our collections ( t]ti>y mammalia f ,great ,brita9 & o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,at l5g?1 betwe5 ! ye>s #ahcf & #ahci1 a few rema9s ( quadrumana 7 f\nd 9 ,france & ,engl&1 ,india & ,brazil4 ,^? ( ,india1 belong+ to m ?an "o ext9ct species ( monkey1 7 fir/ discov]$ ne> ! ,sutlej1 9 lat4 #cj degrees ,n41 9 t]ti>y /rata1 ( :i* ! age is n yet det]m9$2 ! ,brazilian fossil1 br\ght f ! bas9 ( ! ,rio das ,velhas1 ab\t lat4 #ah degrees ,s41 is ref]able to a =m n[ peculi> 9 ,am]ica1 alli$ to ! g5us ,calli?rix1 ! species be+ ext9ct4 ,! skull & o!r bones met ) 9 ! ,s\? ( ,france belong to a gibbon1 or "o ( ! tailless apes1 :i* /& next 9 ! scale ( organization to ! orang4 ,x occurr$ at ,sansan1 ab\t =ty miles we/ ( ,t\l\se1 9 lat4 #dc degrees #dj m9utes ,n41 9 fre%wat] /rata1 probably ( ! ,mioc5e or middle t]ti>y p]iod4 ,la/ly1 ! ,engli% quadrumane fir/ met )1 occurr$ 9 a m anci5t /ratum ?an ! re/1 & at a po9t m remote f ! equator4 ,x belongs to ! g5us ,macacus1 is an ext9ct species1 & 0 f\nd 9 ,suffolk1 9 lat4 #eb degrees1#bbe 9 ! ,london clay1 ! fossils ( :i*1 su* z crocodiles1 turtles1 %ells ( ! g5us ,nautilus1 & _m curi\s fruits1 _h already l$ geologi/s to ! conclusion t ! climate ( t era 7! ,eoc5e7 0 w>m & ne>ly tropical4 ,"s ye>s lat] 79 #ahdf7 ! jaw ( ano!r ,briti% species ( fossil monkey1 ,macacus plioc5us1 0 ann\nc$ by ,mr4 ,ow5 z hav+ be5 met ) 9 ! new] ,pleioc5e /rata1 on ! banks ( ! ,?ames1 at ,grays1 9 ,essex1 accompany+ ! rema9s ( hippopotamus1 elephant1 & o!r quadrup$s1 & associat$ ) fre%wat] & l& %ells1 mo/ ( :i* are n[ inhabitants ( ! ,briti% ,isles4#bbf ,:5 we consid] ! small area ( ! e>?'s surface hi!rto explor$ geologically1 & ! new discov]ies br\ght to light daily1 ev5 9 ! environs ( great ,european capitals1 we mu/ feel t x w\ld be ra% to assume t ! ,l[] ,eoc5e deposits m>k ! era ( ! fir/ creation ( quadrumana4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be /ill m unphilosophical to inf]1 z "s writ]s h done1 f a s+le ext9ct species ( ?is family obta9$ 9 a latitude f> f ! tropics1 t ! ,eoc5e quadrumana did n atta9 z high a grade ( organization z !y d 9 our own times4 ,:at w\ld ! naturali/ "k ( ! apes & orangs n[ contempor>y ) man1 if our inve/igations 7 re/rict$ to su* nor!rn latitudes z ^? :]e alone ! geologi/ has hi!rto f\nd all ! fossil quadrumana ( ,europe8 ,cetacea4--,! abs5ce ( ,cetacea f rocks old] ?an ! ,eoc5e has be5 frequ5tly adduc$ z l5d+ c\nt5ance to ! !ory ( ! v late appe>ance ( ! highe/ class ( ,v]tebrata on ! e>?4 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick possesses 9 ! ,cambridge ,museum a mass ( an*ylos$ c]vical v]tebrae ( a :ale1 :i* he f\nd 9 drift clay ne> ,ely1 & :i* he has no d\bt 0 wa%$ out ( ! ,kimm]idge clay1 an upp] memb] ( ! ,oolite4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ow51 x exhibits well-m>k$ specific *>act]s1 di/+ui%+ x f all o!r kn[n rec5t or fossil cetacea4 ,dr4 ,leidy1 ( ,philadelphia1 has lately describ$ 7#ahea7 two species ( cetacea ( a new g5us1 :i* he has call$ ,priscodelph9us f ! gre5 s& ( ,new ,j]sey1 :i* corresponds 9 age ) ! ,engli% ,*alk or ! cretace\s /rata above ! gault4 ,! specim5s consi/ ( dorsal & c]vical v]tebrae4#bbg ,ev5 9 ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ,europe1 ! discov]y ( cetaceans has nev] kept pace ) t ( l& quadrup$s4 ,! only in/ance cit$ 9 ,great ,brita9 is a species ( ,monodon1 f ! ,london clay1 ( d\btful au!nticity z to its geological position4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! gigantic ,zeuglodon ( ,nor? ,am]ica occurs abundantly 9 ! ,middle ,eoc5e /rata ( ,georgia & ,alabama1 f :i* z yet no bones ( l& quadrup$s h be5 obta9$4 ,9 ! pres5t imp]fect /ate !n ( our in=mation1 we c sc>cely say m ?an t ! cetacea seem to h be5 sc>ce 9 ! second>y & prim>y p]iods4 ,x is q conceivable t :5 aquatic saurians1 "s ( !m c>nivor\s1 l ! ,i*?yosaurus1 7 sw>m+ 9 ! sea1 & :5 !re 7 l>ge h]bivor\s reptiles1 l ! ,iguanodon1 on ! l&1 ! class ( reptiles may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 h sup]s$$ ! cetacea1 & dis*>g$ _! functions 9 ! animal economy4 ,t mammalia _h be5 creat$ long be=e ! epo* ( ! ,kimm]idge clay1 is %[n by ! ,microle/es ( ! ,trias be=e allud$ to1 & by ! ,/onesfield quadrup$s f ! ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,& we are b\nd to rememb]1 :5ev] we inf] ! pov]ty ( ! flora or fauna ( any giv5 p]iod ( ! pa/1 f ! small numb] ( fossils occurr+ 9 anci5t rocks1 t x has be5 evid5tly no "p ( ! plan ( ,nature to h& d[n to u a complete or sy/ematic record ( ! =m] hi/ory ( ! animate _w4 ,we may h fail$ to discov] a s+le %ell1 m>9e or fre%wat]1 or a s+le coral or bone 9 c]ta9 s&/ones1 su* z t ( ! valley ( ! ,connecticut1 :]e ! footpr9ts ( bip$s & quadrup$s ab\nd2 b su* failure may h aris51 n because ! population ( ! l& or sea 0 scanty at t era1 b because 9 g5]al ! pres]vation ( any relics ( ! animals or plants ( =m] times is ! exception to a g5]al rule4 ,"t s enorm\s z t contemplat$ by ! geologi/ may multiply exceptional cases till !y seem to con/itute ! rule1 & s impose on ! imag9ation z to lead u to inf] ! non-exi/5ce ( creatures ( :i* no monum5ts happ5 to rema94 ,pr(essor ,=bes has rem>k$1 t few geologi/s are aw>e h[ l>ge a proportion ( all kn[n species ( fossils are f\nd$ on s+le specim5s1 :ile a /ill great] numb] are f\nd$ on a few individuals discov]$ 9 "o spot4 ,?is holds true n only 9 reg>d to animals & plants inhabit+ ! l&1 ! lake1 & ! riv]1 b ev5 to a surpris+ numb] ( ! m>9e mollusca1 articulata1 & radiata4 ,our k1 !re=e1 ( ! liv+ creation ( any giv5 p]iod ( ! pa/ may be said to dep5d 9 a great degree on :at we commonly call *ance1 & ! casual discov]y ( "s new localities ri* 9 peculi> fossils may modify or entirely ov]?r[ all our previ\s g5]alizations4 ,^u ! :ole !n we d]ive ?is result f a g5]al review ( ! fossils ( ! successive t]ti>y /rata1 namely1 t s9ce ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 !re h be5 sev]al great *anges 9 ! l& quadrup$s inhabit+ ,europe1 probably n less ?an five complete revolutions1 dur+ :i* !re has be5 no /ep :atev] made 9 advance1 no elevation 9 ! scale ( be+2 s t _h man be5 creat$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,eoc5e era1 he w\ld n h con/itut$ a great] innovation on ! /ate ( ! animal creation previ\sly e/abli%$ ?an n[1 :5 we believe him to h begun to exi/ at ! close ( ! ,pleioc5e4 ,! views1 !re=e1 :i* ,i propos$ 9 ! fir/ edition ( ?is "w1 ,janu>y1 #ahcj1 9 opposition to ! !ory ( progressive developm5t1 d n seem to me to require mat]ial modification1 not)/&+ ! l>ge additions s9ce made to our k ( fossil rema9s4 ,^! views may be ?us briefly /at$4 ,f ! e>lie/ p]iod at :i* plants & animals c be prov$ to h exi/$1 !re has be5 a cont9ual *ange go+ on 9 ! position ( l& & sea1 accompani$ by great fluctuations ( climate4 ,to ^! ev]-v>y+ geographical & climatal conditions ! /ate ( ! animate _w has be5 unceas+ly adapt$4 ,no satisfactory pro( has yet be5 discov]$ ( ! gradual passage ( ! e>? f a *aotic to a m habitable /ate1 nor ( any law ( progressive developm5t gov]n+ ! ext9ction & r5ovation ( species1 & caus+ ! fauna & flora to pass f an embryonic to a m p]fect condition1 f a simple to a m complex organization4 ,! pr9ciple ( adaptation to :i* ,i h allud$1 appe>s to h be5 analog\s to t :i* n[ peoples ! arctic1 temp]ate1 & tropical regions contemporane\sly ) di/9ct assemblages ( species & g5]a1 or :i*1 indep5d5tly ( m]e temp]ature1 gives rise to a pr$om9ance ( ! m>supial or didelph\s tribe ( quadrup$s 9 ,au/ralia1 ( ! plac5tal or monodelph\s tribe 9 ,asia & ,europe1 or :i* causes a pr(usion ( reptiles )\t mammalia 9 ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago1 & ( mammalia )\t reptiles 9 ,gre5l&4 ,rec5t orig9 ( man4--,if1 !n1 ! popul> !ory ( ! successive developm5t ( ! animal & vegetable _w1 f ! simple/ to ! mo/ p]fect =ms1 re/s on a v insecure f\ndation2 x may be ask$1 :e!r ! rec5t orig9 ( man l5ds any support to ! same doctr9e1 or h[ f> ! influ5ce ( man may be consid]$ z su* a deviation f ! analogy ( ! ord] ( ?+s previ\sly e/abli%$1 z to weak5 our confid5ce 9 ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature4 ,antec$5tly to inve/igation1 we might reasonably h anticipat$ t ! ve/iges ( man w\ld h be5 trac$ back at lea/ z f> z ^? mod]n /rata 9 :i* all ! te/acea & a c]ta9 numb] ( ! mammalia are ( exi/+ species1 = ( all ! mammalia ! human species is ! mo/ cosmopolite1 & p]haps m capable ?an any o!r ( surviv+ consid]able vicissitudes 9 climate1 & 9 ! physical geography ( ! globe4 ,no inhabitant ( ! l& exposes himself to s _m dang]s on ! wat]s z man1 :e!r 9 a savage or a civiliz$ /ate2#bbh & !re is no animal1 !re=e1 ^: skeleton is s liable to become imb$d$ 9 lacu/r9e or subm>9e deposits2 nor c x be said t 8 rema9s are m p]i%able ?an ^? ( o!r animals2 = 9 anci5t fields ( battle1 z ,cuvi] has obs]v$1 ! bones ( m5 h suff]$ z little decomposition z ^? ( horses :i* 7 buri$ 9 ! same grave4#bbi ,b ev5 if ! m solid p>ts ( our species _h disappe>$1 ! impression ( _! =m w\ld h rema9$ engrav5 on ! rocks1 z h ! traces ( ! t5d]e/ leaves ( plants1 & ! s(t integum5ts ( _m animals4 ,works ( art1 moreov]1 compos$ ( ! mo/ inde/ructible mat]ials1 w\ld h outla/$ almo/ all ! organic cont5ts ( s$im5t>y rocks4 ,edifices1 & ev5 entire cities1 h1 )9 ! times ( hi/ory1 be5 buri$ "u volcanic ejections1 subm]g$ b5ea? ! sea1 or engulf$ by e>?quakes2 & _h ^! cata/rophes be5 repeat$ ?r\gh\t an indef9ite lapse ( ages1 ! high antiquity ( man w\ld h be5 inscrib$ 9 f> m legible *>act]s on ! framework ( ! globe ?an are ! =ms ( ! anci5t vegetation :i* once cov]$ ! isl&s ( ! nor!rn ocean1 or ( ^? gigantic reptiles :i* at /ill lat] p]iods peopl$ ! seas & riv]s ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4#bcj ,dr4 ,pri*>d has argu$ t ! human race h n always exi/$ on ! surface ( ! e>?1 because ! /rata ( :i* our cont95ts are compos$ 7 once a "p ( ! ocean's b$--mank9d _h a beg9n+1 s9ce we c look back to ! p]iod :5 ! surface on :i* !y liv$ began to exi/4#bca ,?is pro(1 h[ev]1 is insuffici5t1 = _m ?\s&s ( human be+s n[ dwell 9 v>i\s qu>t]s ( ! globe :]e m>9e species liv$ )9 ! times ( hi/ory1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! sea n[ prevails p]man5tly ov] l>ge di/ricts once inhabit$ by ?\s&s ( human be+s4 ,nor c ?is int]*ange ( sea & l& ev] cease :ile ! pres5t causes are 9 exi/5ce4 ,t]re/rial species1 !re=e1 might be old] ?an ! cont95ts :i* !y inhabit1 & aquatic species ( high] antiquity ?an ! lakes & seas :i* !y n[ p4 ,b s f> z our int]pretation ( physical movem5ts has yet gone1 we h e reason to inf] t ! human race is extremely mod]n1 ev5 :5 comp>$ to ! l>g] numb] ( species n[ our contempor>ies on ! e>?1 & we may1 !re=e1 ask :e!r 8 creation c be consid]$ z "o /ep 9 a suppos$ progressive sy/em1 by :i* ! organic _w has advanc$ sl[ly f a m simple to a m complex & p]fect /ate8 ,if we conc$e1 = a mom5t1 ! tru? ( ! proposition1 t ! sponge1 ! cephalopod1 ! fi%1 ! reptile1 ! bird1 & ! mammif]1 h foll[$ ea* o!r 9 regul> *ronological ord]1 ! creation ( ea* class be+ sep>at$ f ! o!r by va/ int]vals ( "t1 %\ld we be able to recognize1 9 man's entrance ^u ! e>?1 ! la/ t]m ( "o & ! same s]ies ( progressive developm5ts8 ,9 reply to ?is "q x %\ld fir/ be obs]v$1 t ! sup]iority ( man dep5ds n on ^? faculties & attributes :i* he %>es 9 common ) ! inf]ior animals1 b on 8 reason1 by :i* he is di/+ui%$ f !m4 ,:5 x is said t ! human race is ( f> high] dignity ?an 7 any pre-exi/+ be+s on ! e>?1 x is ! intellectual & moral attributes ( our race1 r ?an ! physical1 :i* are consid]$2 & x is by no means cle> t ! organization ( man is su* z w\ld conf] a decid$ pre-em95ce ^u him1 if1 9 place ( 8 reason+ p[]s1 he 0 m]ely provid$ ) su* in/9cts z are possess$ by ! l[] animals4 ,if ?is be admitt$1 x w\ld n foll[1 ev5 if !re 7 suffici5t geological evid5ce 9 favor ( ! !ory ( progressive developm5t1 t ! creation ( man 0 ! la/ l9k 9 ! same *a94 ,= ! sudd5 passage f an irrational to a rational animal1 is a ph5om5on ( a di/9ct k9d f ! passage f ! m simple to ! m p]fect =ms ( animal organization & in/9ct4 ,to pret5d t su* a /ep1 or r leap1 c be "p ( a regul> s]ies ( *anges 9 ! animal _w1 is to /ra9 analogy beyond all reasonable b\nds4 ,introduction ( man1 to :at ext5t a *ange 9 ! sy/em4--,b sett+ aside ! "q ( progressive developm5t1 ano!r & a f> m difficult "o may arise out ( ! admission t man is comp>atively ( mod]n orig94 ,is n ! int]f]5ce ( ! human species1 x may be ask$1 su* a deviation f ! antec$5t c\rse ( physical ev5ts1 t ! k ( su* a fact t5ds to de/roy all our confid5ce 9 ! uni=mity ( ! ord] ( nature1 bo? 9 reg>d to "t pa/ & future8 ,if su* an innovation c\ld take place aft] ! e>? _h be5 exclusively inhabit$ = ?\s&s ( ages by inf]ior animals1 :y %\ld n o!r *anges z extraord9>y & unprec$5t$ happ5 f "t to "t8 ,if "o new cause 0 p]mitt$ to sup]v5e1 diff]+ 9 k9d & en]gy f any be=e 9 op]ation1 :y may n o!rs h come into action at diff]5t epo*s8 ,or :at security h we t !y may n arise h]eaft]8 ,& if su* be ! case1 h[ c ! exp]i5ce ( "o p]iod1 ev5 ?\gh we are acqua9t$ ) all ! possible effects ( ! !n exi/+ causes1 be a /&>d to :i* we c ref] all natural ph5om5a ( o!r p]iods8 ,n[ ^! objections w\ld be unansw]able1 if adduc$ aga9/ "o :o 0 cont5d+ = ! absolute uni=mity ?r\gh\t all "t ( ! succession ( sublun>y ev5ts--if1 = example1 he 0 dispos$ to indulge 9 ! philosophical rev]ies ( "s ,egyptian & ,greek sects1 :o repres5t$ all ! *anges bo? ( ! moral & mat]ial _w z repeat$ at di/ant int]vals1 s z to foll[ ea* o!r 9 _! =m] connection ( place & "t4 ,= !y comp>$ ! c\rse ( ev5ts on our globe to a/ronomical cycles2 & n only did !y consid] all sublun>y affairs to be "u ! influ5ce ( ! cele/ial bodies1 b !y taught t on ! e>?1 z well z 9 ! heav5s1 ! same id5tical ph5om5a recurr$ aga9 & aga9 9 a p]petual vicissitude4 ,! same individual m5 7 doom$ to be re-born1 & to p]=m ! same actions z be=e2 ! same arts 7 to be inv5t$1 & ! same cities built & de/roy$4 ,! ,argonautic exp$ition 0 de/9$ to sail aga9 ) ! same h]oes1 & ,a*illes ) 8 ,myrmidons to r5ew1 ! combat be=e ! walls ( ,troy4 ,alt] erit tum ,tiphys1 et alt]a quae vehat ,argo ,dilectos h]oas2 erunt etiam alt]a bella1 ,atque it]um ad ,trojam magnus mittetur ,a*illes4#bcb ,! geologi/1 h[ev]1 may condemn ^! t5ets z absurd1 )\t runn+ into ! opposite extreme1 & d5y+ t ! ord] ( nature has1 f ! e>lie/ p]iods1 be5 uni=m 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* we believe x to be uni=m at pres5t1 & expect x to rema9 s 9 future4 ,we h no reason to suppose1 t :5 man fir/ became ma/] ( a small "p ( ! globe1 a great] *ange took place 9 its physical condition ?an is n[ exp]i5c$ :5 di/ricts1 nev] be=e inhabit$1 become successively occupi$ by new settl]s4 ,:5 a p[]ful ,european colony l&s on ! %ores ( ,au/ralia1 & introduces at once ^? arts :i* x has requir$ _m c5turies to mature2 :5 x imports a multitude ( plants & l>ge animals f ! opposite extremity ( ! e>?1 & beg9s rapidly to extirpate _m ( ! indig5\s species1 a mighti] revolution is effect$ 9 a brief p]iod ?an ! fir/ entrance ( a savage horde1 or _! cont9u$ occupation ( ! c\ntry = _m c5turies1 c possibly be imag9$ to h produc$4 ,if !re be no impropriety 9 assum+ t ! sy/em is uni=m :5 di/urbances s unprec$5t$ occur 9 c]ta9 localities1 we c ) mu* great] confid5ce apply ! same language to ^? primeval ages :5 ! aggregate numb] & p[] ( ! human race1 or ! rate ( _! advancem5t 9 civilization1 mu/ be suppos$ to h be5 f> inf]ior4 ,9 reason+ on ! /ate ( ! globe imm$iately be=e our species 0 call$ into exi/5ce1 we mu/ be guid$ by ! same rules ( induction z :5 we speculate on ! /ate ( ,am]ica 9 ! int]val t elaps$ betwe5 ! introduction ( man into ,asia1 ! suppos$ cradle ( our race1 & ! arrival ( ! fir/ adv5tur]s on ! %ores ( ! ,new ,_w4 ,9 t int]val1 we imag9e ! /ate ( ?+s to h gone on accord+ to ! ord] n[ obs]v$ 9 regions unoccupi$ by man4 ,ev5 n[1 ! wat]s ( lakes1 seas1 & ! great ocean1 :i* teem ) life1 may be said to h no imm$iate relation to ! human race--to be portions ( ! t]re/rial sy/em ( :i* man has nev] tak51 nor ev] c take possession2 s t ! great] "p ( ! inhabit$ surface ( ! planet may /ill rema9 z ins5sible to our pres5ce z be=e any isle or cont95t 0 appo9t$ to be our resid5ce4 ,if ! b>r5 soil ar\nd ,sydney _h at once become f]tile ^u ! l&+ ( our fir/ settl]s2 if1 l ! happy isles :]e( ! poets h giv5 su* gl[+ descriptions1 ^? s&y tracts _h begun to yield spontane\sly an annual supply ( gra91 we might !n1 inde$1 h fanci$ alt]ations /ill m rem>kable 9 ! economy ( nature to h att5d$ ! fir/ com+ ( our species into ! planet4 ,or if1 :5 a volcanic isl& l ,is*ia 01 = ! fir/ "t1 br\ght "u cultivation by ! ent]prise & indu/ry ( a ,greek colony1 ! int]nal fire _h become dormant1 & ! e>?quake _h remitt$ its de/ructive viol5ce1 !re w\ld !n h be5 "s gr\nd = speculat+ on ! debilitation ( ! subt]ranean =ces1 :5 ! e>? 0 fir/ plac$ "u ! dom9ion ( man4 ,b aft] a long int]val ( re/1 ! volcano bur/s =? aga9 ) r5ew$ en]gy1 annihilates "o half ( ! inhabitants1 & compels ! rema9d] to emigrate4 ,! c\rse ( nature rema9s evid5tly un*ang$2 &1 9 l mann]1 we may suppose ! g5]al condition ( ! globe1 imm$iately be=e & aft] ! p]iod :5 our species fir/ began to exi/1 to h be5 ! same1 ) ! exception only ( man's pres5ce4 ,! modifications 9 ! sy/em ( :i* man is ! in/rum5t d n1 p]haps1 con/itute s great a deviation f previ\s analogy z we usually imag9e2 we (t51 = example1 =m an exagg]at$ e/imate ( ! ext5t ( our p[] 9 extirpat+ "s ( ! inf]ior animals1 & caus+ o!rs to multiply2 a p[] :i* is circumscrib$ )9 c]ta9 limits1 & :i*1 9 all likelihood1 is by no means exclusively ex]t$ by our species4#bcc ,! gr[? ( human population _c take place )\t dim9i%+ ! numb]s1 or caus+ ! entire de/ruction1 ( _m animals4 ,! l>g] bea/s ( prey1 9 p>ticul>1 give way be=e u2 b o!r quadrup$s ( small] size1 & innum]able birds1 insects1 & plants1 :i* are inimical to our int]e/s1 increase 9 spite ( u1 "s attack+ our food1 o!rs our raim5t & p]sons1 & o!rs int]f]+ ) our agricultural & horticultural labors4 ,we behold ! ri* h>ve/ :i* we h rais$ by ! sweat ( our br[1 dev\r$ by myriads ( insects1 & are (t5 z incapable ( arre/+ _! depr$ations1 z ( /ay+ ! %ock ( an e>?quake1 or ! c\rse ( a /ream ( lava4 ,a great philosoph] has obs]v$1 t we c comm& nature only by obey+ h] laws2 & ?is pr9ciple is true ev5 9 reg>d to ! a/oni%+ *anges :i* are sup]9duc$ 9 ! qualities ( c]ta9 animals & plants by dome/ication & g>d5 culture4 ,i %all po9t out 9 ! ?ird book t we c only effect su* surpris+ alt]ations by assi/+ ! developm5t ( c]ta9 in/9cts1 or by avail+ ourselves ( t my/]i\s law ( _! organization1 by :i* individual peculi>ities are transmissible f "o g5]ation to ano!r4#bcd ,x is probable f ^! & _m o!r consid]ations1 t z we enl>ge our k ( ! sy/em1 we %all become m & m conv9c$1 t ! alt]ations caus$ by ! int]f]5ce ( man deviate f> less f ! analogy ( ^? effect$ by o!r animals ?an is usually suppos$4#bce ,we are (t5 misl$1 :5 we in/itute su* comp>isons1 by our k ( ! wide di/9ction betwe5 ! in/9cts ( animals & ! reason+ p[] ( man2 & we are apt ha/ily to inf]1 t ! effects ( a rational & irrational species1 consid]$ m]ely z physical ag5ts1 w diff] almo/ z mu* z ! faculties by :i* _! actions are direct$4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 int5d$ t a real dep>ture f ! antec$5t c\rse ( physical ev5ts _c be trac$ 9 ! introduction ( man4 ,if t latitude ( action :i* enables ! brutes to accommodate !mselves 9 "s measure to accid5tal circum/ances c\ld be imag9$ to h be5 at any =m] p]iod s great1 t ! op]ations ( in/9ct 7 z mu* div]sifi$ z are ^? ( human reason1 x might1 p]haps1 be cont5d$1 t ! ag5cy ( man did n con/itute an anomal\s deviation f ! previ\sly e/abli%$ ord] ( ?+s4 ,x might !n h be5 said1 t ! e>?'s becom+ at a p>ticul> p]iod ! resid5ce ( human be+s1 0 an era 9 ! moral1 n 9 ! physical _w--t our /udy & contemplation ( ! e>?1 & ! laws :i* gov]n its animate productions1 ought no m to be consid]$ 9 ! light ( a di/urbance or deviation f ! sy/em1 ?an ! discov]y ( ! satellites ( ,jupit] %\ld be reg>d$ z a physical ev5t affect+ ^? heav5ly bodies4 ,_! influ5ce 9 advanc+ ! progress ( sci5ce among m51 & 9 aid+ navigation & comm]ce1 0 accompani$ by no reciprocal action ( ! human m9d ^u ! economy ( nature 9 ^? di/ant planets2 & s ! e>? might be conceiv$ to h become1 at a c]ta9 p]iod1 a place ( moral discipl9e & intellectual improvem5t to man1 )\t ! slighte/ d]angem5t ( a previ\sly exi/+ ord] ( *ange 9 its animate & inanimate productions4 ,! di/9ctness1 h[ev]1 ( ! human f all o!r species1 consid]$ m]ely z an effici5t cause 9 ! physical _w1 is real2 = we /& 9 a relation to contempor>y species ( animals & plants widely diff]5t f t :i* o!r irrational animals c ev] be suppos$ to h held to ea* o!r4 ,we modify _! in/9cts1 relative numb]s1 & geographical di/ribution1 9 a mann] sup]ior 9 degree1 & 9 "s respects v diff]5t 9 k9d f t 9 :i* any o!r species c affect ! re/4 ,besides1 ! progressive movem5t ( ea* successive g5]ation ( m5 causes ! human species to diff] m f itself 9 p[] at two di/ant p]iods1 ?an any "o species ( ! high] ord] ( animals diff]s f ano!r4 ,! e/abli%m5t1 !re=e1 by geological evid5ce1 ( ! fir/ int]v5tion ( su* a peculi> & unprec$5t$ ag5cy1 long aft] o!r p>ts ( ! animate & inanimate _w exi/$1 af=ds gr\nd = conclud+ t ! exp]i5ce dur+ ?\s&s ( ages ( all ! ev5ts :i* may happ5 on ?is globe1 w\ld n enable a philosoph] to speculate ) confid5ce conc]n+ future cont+5cies4 ,if1 !n1 an intellig5t be+1 aft] obs]v+ ! ord] ( ev5ts = an indef9ite s]ies ( ages1 _h witness$ at la/ s wond]ful an innovation z ?is1 to :at ext5t w\ld 8 belief 9 ! regul>ity ( ! sy/em be weak5$8--w\ld he cease to assume t !re 0 p]man5cy 9 ! laws ( nature8--w\ld he no long] be guid$ 9 8 speculations by ! /ricte/ rules ( induction8 ,to ^! que/ions x may be answ]$1 t1 _h he previ\sly presum$ to dogmatize respect+ ! absolute uni=mity ( ! ord] ( nature1 he w\ld und\bt$ly be *eck$ by witness+ ?is new & unexpect$ ev5t1 & w\ld =m a m j e/imate ( ! limit$ range ( 8 own k1 & ! unb\nd$ ext5t ( ! s*eme ( ! univ]se4 ,b he w\ld soon p]ceive t no "o ( ! fix$ & con/ant laws ( ! animate or inanimate _w 0 subv]t$ by human ag5cy1 & t ! modifications n[ introduc$ = ! fir/ "t 7 ! accompanim5ts ( new & extraord9>y circum/ances1 & ^? n ( a physical b a moral nature4 ,! deviation p]mitt$ w\ld also appe> to be z slight z 0 consi/5t ) ! accompli%m5t ( ! new moral ends propos$1 & to be 9 a great degree tempor>y 9 its nature1 s t1 :5ev] ! p[] ( ! new ag5t 0 )held1 ev5 = a brief p]iod1 a relapse w\ld take place to ! anci5t /ate ( ?+s2 ! dome/icat$ animal1 = example1 recov]+ 9 a few g5]ations its wild in/9ct1 & ! g>d5-fl[] & fruit-tree rev]t+ to ! lik5ess ( ! p>5t /ock4 ,n[1 if x w\ld be reasonable to draw su* inf]5ces ) respect to ! future1 we _c b apply ! same rules ( induction to ! pa/4 ,we h no "r to anticipate any modifications 9 ! results ( exi/+ causes 9 "t to come1 :i* are n con=mable to analogy1 unless !y be produc$ by ! progressive developm5t ( human p[]1 or p]haps by "s o!r new relations :i* may h]eaft] spr+ up betwe5 ! moral & mat]ial worlds4 ,9 ! same mann]1 :5 we speculate on ! vicissitudes ( ! animate & inanimate creation 9 =m] ages1 we ought n to look = any anomal\s results1 unless :]e man has int]f]$1 or unless cle> indications appe> ( "s o!r moral s\rce ( tempor>y d]angem5t4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,suppos$ ,,int5sity ,,( ,,aque\s ,,=ces ,,at ,,remote ,,p]iods4 ,int5sity ( aque\s causes--,sl[ accumulation ( /rata prov$ by fossils--,rate ( d5udation c only keep pace ) deposition--,erratics1 & effects ( ice--,deluges1 & ! causes to :i* !y are ref]r$--,suppos$ univ]sality ( anci5t deposits4 ,int5sity ( aque\s causes4--,! great problem consid]$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 namely1 :e!r ! =m] *anges ( ! e>? made kn[n to u by geology1 resemble 9 k9d & degree ^? n[ 9 daily progress1 may /ill be contemplat$ f sev]al o!r po9ts ( view4 ,we may inquire1 = example1 :e!r !re are any gr\nds = ! belief ent]ta9$ by _m1 t ! int5sity bo? ( aque\s & ( igne\s =ces1 9 remote ages1 f> exce$$ t :i* we witness 9 our own times4 ,fir/1 !n1 z to aque\s causes3 x has be5 %[n1 9 our hi/ory ( ! sci5ce1 t ,woodw>d did n hesitate1 9 #afie1 to tea* t ! entire mass ( fossilif]\s /rata conta9$ 9 ! e>?'s cru/ _h be5 deposit$ 9 a few mon?s2 &1 consequ5tly1 z _! me*anical & d]ivative orig9 0 already admitt$1 ! r$uction ( rocky masses into mud1 s&1 & pebbles1 ! transportation ( ! same to a di/ance1 & _! accumulation else:]e 9 regul> /rata1 7 all assum$ to h tak5 place ) a rapidity unp>allel$ 9 mod]n times4 ,?is doctr9e 0 modifi$ by degrees1 9 proportion z diff]5t classes ( organic rema9s1 su* z %ells1 corals1 & fossil plants1 _h be5 /udi$ ) att5tion4 ,analogy l$ e naturali/ to assume1 t ea* full-gr[n individual ( ! animal or vegetable k+dom1 _h requir$ a c]ta9 numb] ( mon?s or ye>s = ! atta9m5t ( maturity1 & ! p]petuation ( its species by g5]ation2 & ?us ! fir/ approa* 0 made to ! conception ( a common /&>d ( "t1 )\t :i* !re are no means :atev] ( measur+ ! comp>ative rate at :i* any succession ( ev5ts has tak5 place at two di/9ct p]iods4 ,?is /&>d consi/$ ( ! av]age duration ( ! lives ( individuals ( ! same g5]a or families 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms2 & ! multitude ( fossils disp]s$ ?r\gh successive /rata impli$ ! cont9uance ( ! same species = _m g5]ations4 ,at l5g? ! idea t species !mselves _h _h a limit$ duration1 arose out ( ! obs]v$ fact t sets ( /rata ( diff]5t ages conta9$ fossils ( di/9ct species4 ,f9ally1 ! op9ion became g5]al1 t 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 "o assemblage ( animals & plants _h disappe>$ aft] ano!r aga9 & aga91 & new tribes _h />t$ into life to replace !m4 ,d5udation4--,9 addition to ! pro(s d]iv$ f organic rema9s1 ! =ms ( /ratification l$ also1 on a full] inve/igation1 to ! belief t s$im5t>y rocks _h be5 sl[ly deposit$2 b x 0 /ill suppos$ t d5udation1 or ! p[] ( runn+ wat]1 & ! waves & curr5ts ( ! ocean1 to /rip (f sup]ior /rata1 & lay b>e ! rocks bel[1 _h =m]ly op]at$ ) an en]gy :olly unequall$ 9 our times4 ,^! op9ions 7 bo? illogical & inconsi/5t1 because deposition & d5udation are p>ts ( ! same process1 & :at is true ( ! "o mu/ be true ( ! o!r4 ,_! spe$ mu/ be always limit$ by ! same causes1 & ! conveyance ( solid matt] to a p>ticul> region c only keep pace ) its removal f ano!r1 s t ! aggregate ( s$im5t>y /rata 9 ! e>?'s cru/ c nev] exce$ 9 volume ! am\nt ( solid matt] :i* has be5 gr\nd d[n & wa%$ away by runn+ wat]4 ,h[ va/1 !n1 mu/ be ! spaces :i* ?is ab/raction ( matt] has left vacant6 h[ f> exce$+ 9 dim5sions all ! valleys1 h[ev] num]\s1 & ! holl[s1 h[ev] va/1 :i* we c prove to h be5 cle>$ out by aque\s erosion6 ,! evid5ces ( ! "w ( d5udation are defective1 because x is ! nature ( e de/roy+ cause to oblit]ate ! signs ( its own ag5cy2 b ! am\nt ( reproduction 9 ! =m ( s$im5t>y /rata mu/ always af=d a true measure ( ! m9imum ( d5udation :i* ! e>?'s surface has und]gone4 ,erratics4--,! next ph5om5on to :i* ! advocates ( ! excessive p[] ( runn+ wat] 9 times pa/ h appeal$1 is ! enorm\s size ( ! blocks call$ erratic1 :i* lie scatt]$ ov] ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,unque/ionably a l>ge proportion ( ^! blocks h be5 transport$ f> f _! orig9al position1 = betwe5 !m & ! p>5t rocks we n[ f9d1 n unfrequ5tly1 deep seas & valleys int]v5+1 or hills m ?an a ?\s& feet high4 ,to expla9 ! pres5t situation ( su* travell$ fragm5ts1 a deluge ( mud has be5 imag9$ by "s to h come f ! nor?1 be>+ along ) x s&1 gravel1 & /ony fragm5ts1 "s ( !m hundr$s ( tons 9 weight4 ,?is flood1 9 its transi5t passage ov] ! cont95ts1 disp]s$ ! b\ld]s irregul>ly ov] hill1 valley1 & pla92 or =c$ !m along ov] a surface ( h>d rock1 s z to poli% x & leave x ind5t$ ) p>allel scrat*es & grooves--su* m>k+s z are /ill visible 9 ! rocks ( ,sc&9avia1 ,scotl&1 ,canada1 & _m o!r c\ntries4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! myriads ( angul> & r\nd$ blocks above allud$ to1 _c h be5 borne along by ord9>y riv]s or m>9e curr5ts1 s great is _! volume & weight1 & s cle> are ! signs1 9 _m places1 ( "t hav+ be5 occupi$ 9 _! successive deposition2 = !y are (t5 di/ribut$ at v>i\s dep?s ?r\gh heaps ( regul>ly /ratifi$ s& & gravel4 ,no waves ( ! sea rais$ by e>?quakes1 nor ! bur/+ ( lakes damm$ up = a "t by l&slips or by avalan*es ( sn[1 c acc\nt = ! obs]v$ facts2 b ,i %all endeavor to %[1 9 ! next book1 *ap4 #ae1bcf t a comb9ation ( exi/+ causes may h convey$ erratics into _! pres5t situations4 ,! causes :i* w be ref]r$ to are1 fir/1 ! c>ry+ p[] ( ice1 comb9$ ) t ( runn+ wat]2 & second1 ! upw>d movem5t ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 conv]t+ x gradually into l&4 ,)\t ent]+ at pres5t into any details respect+ ^! causes1 ,i may m5tion t ! transportation ( blocks by ice is n[ simultane\sly 9 progress 9 ! cold & temp]ate latitudes1 bo? ( ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]e1 z1 = example1 on ! coa/s ( ,canada & ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 & also 9 ,*ili1 ,patagonia1 & ! isl& ( ,s\? ,georgia4 ,9 ^? regions ! unev5 b$ ( ! ocean is becom+ /rew$ ov] ) ice-drift$ fragm5ts1 :i* h ei!r /r&$ on %oals1 or be5 dropp$ 9 deep wat] by melt+ b]gs4 ,! entanglem5t ( b\ld]s 9 drift-ice w also be %[n to occur annually 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ^! /ones1 :5 firmly froz5 into ice1 w&] ye> aft] ye> f ,labrador to ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 & rea* po9ts ( ! we/]n hemisph]e f>!r s\? ?an any "p ( ,great ,brita94 ,! g5]al abs5ce ( erratics 9 ! w>m] p>ts ( ! equatorial regions ( ,asia1 ,africa1 & ,am]ica1 confirms ! same views4 ,z to ! poli%+ & groov+ ( h>d rocks1 x has lately be5 asc]ta9$ t glaci]s give rise to ^! effects :5 pu%+ =w>d s&1 pebbles1 & rocky fragm5ts1 & caus+ !m to grate along ! bottom4 ,nor c !re be any reasonable d\bt t iceb]gs1 :5 !y run agr\nd on ! floor ( ! ocean1 mu/ impr9t simil> m>ks ^u x4 ,x is unnecess>y1 !re=e1 to ref] to deluges1 or ev5 to speculate on ! =m] exi/5ce ( a climate m sev]e ?an t n[ prevail+ 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e1 to expla9 ! geographical di/ribution ( mo/ ( ! ,european erratics4 ,deluges4--,z deluges h be5 (t5 allud$ to1 ,i %all say some?+ ( ! causes :i* may be suppos$ to give rise to ^! gr& movem5ts ( wat] 9 addition to ^? already allud$ to 7p4 #i74 ,geologi/s :o believe t m\nta9-*a9s h be5 ?r[n up sudd5ly at _m successive epo*s1 imag9e t ! wat]s ( ! ocean may be rais$ by ^! convulsions1 & !n break 9 t]rific waves ^u ! l&1 sweep+ ov] :ole cont95ts1 holl[+ out valleys1 & transport+ s&1 gravel1 & erratics1 to great di/ances4 ,! sudd5 rise ( ! ,alps or ,&es1 x is said1 may h produc$ a flood ev5 subsequ5tly to ! "t :5 ! e>? became ! resid5ce ( man4 ,b x seems /range t none ( ! writ]s :o h indulg$ _! imag9ations 9 conjectures ( ?is k9d1 %\ld h ascrib$ a deluge to ! sudd5 conv]sion ( "p ( ! unfa?omable ocean into a %oal r ?an to ! rise ( m\nta9-*a9s4 ,9 ! latt] case1 ! m\nta9s !mselves c\ld d no m ?an displace a c]ta9 quantity ( atmosph]ic air1 :]eas1 ! in/antane\s =mation ( ! %oal w\ld displace a va/ body ( wat]1 :i* be+ heav$ up to a great height might roll ov] & p]man5tly subm]ge a l>ge portion ( a cont95t4 ,if we re/rict ourselves to comb9ations ( causes at pres5t kn[n1 x w\ld seem t ! two pr9cipal s\rces ( extraord9>y inundations are1 fir/1 ! escape ( ! wat]s ( a l>ge lake rais$ f> above ! sea2 &1 secondly1 ! p\r+ d[n ( a m>9e curr5t into l&s depress$ bel[ ! mean level ( ! ocean4 ,z an example ( ! fir/ ( ^! cases1 we may take ,lake ,sup]ior1 :i* is m ?an #djj geographical miles 9 l5g? & ab\t #aej 9 bread?1 hav+ an av]age dep? ( f #ejj to #ijj feet4 ,! surface ( ?is va/ body ( fre% wat] is no less ?an #fjj feet above ! level ( ! ocean2 ! l[e/ "p ( ! b>ri] :i* sep>ates ! lake on its s\?we/ side f ^? /reams :i* fl[ into ! head wat]s ( ! ,mississippi be+ ab\t #fjj feet high4 ,if1 !re=e1 a s]ies ( subsid5ces %\ld l[] any "p ( ?is b>ri] #fjj feet1 any subsequ5t r5d+ or depression1 ev5 ( a few y>ds at a "t1 w\ld all[ ! sudd5 escape ( va/ floods ( wat] into a hydrographical bas9 ( enorm\s ext5t4 ,if ! ev5t happ5$ 9 ! dry season1 :5 ! ord9>y *annels ( ! ,mississippi & its tribut>ies are 9 a great degree empty1 ! inundation might n be consid]able2 b if 9 ! flood-season1 a region capable ( support+ a population ( _m millions might be sudd5ly subm]g$4 ,b ev5 ?is ev5t w\ld be insuffici5t to cause a viol5t ru% ( wat]1 & to produce ^? effects usually call$ diluvial2 = ! diff]5ce ( level ( #fjj feet betwe5 ,lake ,sup]ior & ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 :5 di/ribut$ ov] a di/ance ( #ahjj miles1 w\ld give an av]age fall ( only f\r in*es p] mile4 ,! second case be=e adv]t$ to is :]e !re are l>ge tracts ( dry l& b5ea? ! mean level ( ! ocean4 ,x seems1 aft] mu* controv]sy1 to be at l5g? a settl$ po9t1 t ! ,caspian is really #hc feet #f in*es l[] ?an ! ,black ,sea4 ,z ! ,caspian cov]s an area ab\t equal to t ( ,spa91 & z its %ores are 9 g5]al l[ & flat1 !re mu/ be _m ?\s& squ>e miles ( c\ntry less ?an #hc feet above ! level ( t inl& sea1 & consequ5tly depress$ bel[ ! ,black ,sea & ,m$it]ranean4 ,?is area includes ! site ( ! popul\s city ( ,a/rakhan & o!r t[ns4 ,into ?is region ! ocean w\ld p\r its wat]s1 if ! l& n[ int]v5+ betwe5 ! ,sea ( ,az( & ! ,caspian %\ld subside4 ,yet ev5 if ?is ev5t %\ld occur1 x is mo/ probable t ! subm]g5ce ( ! :ole region w\ld n be accompli%$ simultane\sly1 b by a s]ies ( m9or floods1 ! s9k+ ( ! b>ri] be+ gradual4#bcg ,suppos$ univ]sality ( anci5t deposits4--,! next fallacy :i* has help$ to p]petuate ! doctr9e t ! op]ations ( wat] 7 on a diff]5t & gr&] scale 9 anci5t times1 is f\nd$ on ! indef9ite areas ov] :i* homog5e\s deposits 7 suppos$ to ext5d4 ,no mod]n s$im5t>y /rata1 x is said1 equally id5tical 9 m9]al "* & fossil cont5ts1 c be trac$ cont9u\sly f "o qu>t] ( ! globe to ano!r4 ,b ! fir/ propagators ( ^! op9ions 7 v slightly acqua9t$ ) ! incon/ancy 9 m9]al composition ( ! anci5t =mations1 & equally s ( ! wide spaces ov] :i* ! same k9d ( s$im5t is n[ actually di/ribut$ by riv]s & curr5ts 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies4 ,! p]si/5cy ( "* 9 ! old] s]ies 0 exagg]at$1 its extreme v>iability 9 ! new] 0 assum$ )\t pro(4 ,9 ! *apt] :i* treats ( riv]-deltas & ! disp]sion ( s$im5t by curr5ts1 & 9 ! description ( reefs ( coral n[ gr[+ ov] areas _m hundr$ miles 9 l5g?1 ,i %all h opportunities ( conv9c+ ! read] ( ! dang] ( ha/y g5]alizations on ?is head4 ,9 reg>d to ! imag9$ univ]sality ( p>ticul> rocks ( anci5t date1 x 0 almo/ unavoidable t ?is notion1 :5 once embrac$1 %\ld be p]petuat$2 = ! same k9ds ( rock h occasionally be5 reproduc$ at successive epo*s2 & :5 once ! agreem5t or disagreem5t 9 m9]al "* alone 0 reli$ on z ! te/ ( age1 x foll[$ t simil> rocks1 if f\nd ev5 at ! antipodes1 7 ref]r$ to ! same era1 until ! contr>y c\ld be %[n4 ,n[ x is usually impossible to combat su* an assumption on geological gr\nds1 s long z we are imp]fectly acqua9t$ ) ! ord] ( sup]position & ! organic rema9s ( ^! same =mations4 ,?us1 = example1 a gr\p ( r$ m>l & r$ s&/one1 conta9+ salt & gypsum1 be+ int]pos$ 9 ,engl& betwe5 ! ,lias & ! ,coal1 all o!r r$ m>ls & s&/ones1 associat$ "s ( !m ) salt1 & o!rs ) gypsum1 & occurr+ n only 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,europe1 b 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,p]u1 ,india1 ! salt des]ts ( ,asia1 ^? ( ,africa--9 a ^w1 9 e qu>t] ( ! globe1 7 ref]r$ to "o & ! same p]iod4 ,! burd5 ( pro( 0 n suppos$ to re/ ) ^? :o insi/$ on ! id5tity 9 age ( all ^! gr\ps--_! id5tity 9 m9]al composition 0 ?\ght suffici5t4 ,x 0 9 va9 to urge z an objection ! improbability ( ! hypo!sis :i* implies t all ! mov+ wat]s on ! globe 7 once simultane\sly *>g$ ) s$im5t ( a r$ color4 ,b ! ra%ness ( pret5d+ to id5tify1 9 age1 all ! r$ s&/ones & m>ls 9 "q1 has at l5g? be5 suffici5tly expos$1 by ! discov]y t1 ev5 9 ,europe1 !y belong decid$ly to _m diff]5t epo*s4 ,x is already asc]ta9$1 t ! r$ s&/one & r$ m>l conta9+ ! rock-salt ( ,c>dona 9 ,catalonia is new] ?an ! ,oolitic1 if n m mod]n ?an ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,x is also kn[n t c]ta9 r$ m>ls & v>iegat$ s&/ones 9 ,auv]gne :i* are undi/+ui%able 9 m9]al composition f ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,engli% geologi/s1 belong1 nev]!less1 to ! ,eoc5e p]iod2 &1 la/ly1 ! gypse\s r$ m>l ( ,aix1 9 ,prov5ce1 =m]ly suppos$ to be a m>9e second>y gr\p1 is n[ ackn[l$g$ to be a t]ti>y fre%wat] =mation4 ,9 ,nova ,scotia "o great deposit ( r$ m>l1 s&/one1 & gypsum1 precisely resembl+ 9 m9]al "* ! ,new ,r$ ( ,engl&1 occurs z a memb] ( ! ,c>bonif]\s gr\p1 & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ne> ! ,falls ( ,niag>a1 a simil> =mation con/itutes a subdivision ( ! ,silurian s]ies4#bch ,nor 0 ! nom5clature commonly adopt$ 9 geology )\t its influ5ce 9 p]petuat+ ! errone\s doctr9e ( univ]sal =mations4 ,su* names1 = example1 z ,*alk1 ,gre5 ,s&1 ,oolite1 ,r$ ,m>l1 ,coal1 & o!rs1 7 giv5 to "s ( ! pr9cipal fossilif]\s gr\ps 9 consequ5ce ( m9]al peculi>ities :i* happ5$ to *>act]ize !m 9 ! c\ntries :]e !y 7 fir/ /udi$4 ,:5 geologi/s _h at l5g? %[n1 by means ( fossils & ! ord] ( sup]position1 t o!r /rata1 entirely dissimil> 9 color1 texture1 & composition1 7 ( contemporane\s date1 x 0 ?\ght conv5i5t /ill to reta9 ! old names4 ,t ^! 7 (t5 inappropriate 0 admitt$2 b ! /ud5t 0 taught to und]/& !m 9 no o!r ?an a *ronological s5se2 s t ! ,*alk might n be a :ite cretace\s rock1 b a h>d dolomitic lime/one1 z 9 ! ,alps1 or a br[n s&/one or gre5 m>l1 z 9 ,new ,j]sey1 ,u4 ,s4 ,9 l mann]1 ! ,gre5 ,s&1 x 0 said1 might 9 "s places be repres5t$ by r$ s&/one1 r$ m>l1 salt1 & gypsum1 z 9 ! nor? ( ,spa94 ,s ! oolitic texture 0 decl>$ to be r an exception ?an o!rwise to ! g5]al rule 9 rocks ( ! ,oolitic p]iod2 & x (t5 became necess>y to affirm t no p>ticle ( c>bonace\s matt] c\ld be detect$ 9 di/ricts :]e ! true ,coal s]ies ab\nd$4 ,9 spite ( e precaution ! habitual use ( ?is language c\ld sc>cely fail to in/il into ! m9d ( ! pupil an idea t *alk1 coal1 salt1 r$ m>l1 or ! ,oolitic /ructure 7 f> m widely *>act]i/ic ( ! rocks ( a giv5 age ?an 0 really ! case4 ,!re is /ill ano!r cause ( deception1 dispos+ u to ascribe a m limit$ range to ! new] s$im5t>y =mations z comp>$ to ! old]1 namely1 ! v g5]al concealm5t ( ! new] /rata b5ea? ! wat]s ( lakes & seas1 & ! wide exposure above wat]s ( ! m anci5t4 ,! ,*alk1 = example1 n[ se5 /ret*+ = ?\s&s ( miles ov] diff]5t p>ts ( ,europe1 has become visible to u by ! effect1 n ( "o1 b ( _m di/9ct s]ies ( subt]ranean movem5ts4 ,"t has be5 requir$1 & a succession ( geological p]iods1 to raise x above ! waves 9 s _m regions2 & if calc>e\s rocks ( ! middle & upp] t]ti>y p]iods h be5 =m$1 z homog5e\s 9 m9]al composition ?r\gh\t equally ext5sive regions1 x may require convulsions z num]\s z all ^? :i* h occurr$ s9ce ! orig9 ( ! ,*alk to br+ !m up )9 ! sph]e ( human obs]vation4 ,h5ce ! rocks ( m mod]n p]iods may appe> p>tial1 z comp>$ to ^? ( remot] eras1 n because ( any orig9al inf]iority 9 _! ext5t1 b because !re has n be5 suffici5t "t s9ce _! orig9 = ! developm5t ( a great s]ies ( elevatory movem5ts4 ,9 reg>d1 h[ev]1 to "o ( ! mo/ important *>act]i/ics ( s$im5t>y rocks1 _! organic rema9s1 _m naturali/s ( high au?ority h ma9ta9$ t ! same species ( fossils are m uni=mly di/ribut$ ?r\gh =mations ( high antiquity ?an 9 ^? ( m mod]n date1 & t di/9ct zoological & botanical prov9ces1 z !y are call$1 :i* =m s /rik+ a feature 9 ! liv+ creation1 7 n e/abli%$ at remote eras4 ,?us ! plants ( ! ,coal1 ! %ells1 ! trilobites ( ! ,silurian rocks1 & ! ammonites ( ! ,oolite1 h be5 suppos$ to h a wid] geographical range ?an any liv+ species ( plants1 cru/aceans1 or mollusks4 ,?is op9ion seems 9 c]ta9 cases to be well f\nd$1 especially 9 relation to ! plants ( ! ,c>bonif]\s epo*1 ow+ probably to ! m uni=m temp]ature ( ! globe1 at a "t :5 ! position ( sea & l& 0 less favorable to v>iations 9 climate1 accord+ to pr9ciples already expla9$ 9 ! sev5? & eigh? *apt]s4 ,b a rec5t comp>ison ( ! fossils ( ,nor? ,am]ican rocks ) ^? ( correspond+ ages 9 ! ,european s]ies1 has prov$ t ! t]re/rial vegetation ( ! ,c>bonif]\s epo* is an exception to ! g5]al rule1 & t ! fauna & flora ( ! e>? at successive p]iods1 f ! olde/ ,silurian to ! newe/ ,t]ti>y 0 z div]sifi$ z n[4 ,! %ells1 corals1 & o!r classes ( organic rema9s demon/rate ! fact t ! e>? might !n h be5 divid$ into sep>ate zoological prov9ces1 9 a mann] analog\s to t obs]v$ 9 ! geographical di/ribution ( species n[ liv+4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,on ,,! ,,suppos$ ,,=m] ,,int5sity ,,( ,,! ,,igne\s ,,=ces4 ,volcanic action at successive geological p]iods--,plutonic rocks ( diff]5t ages--,gradual developm5t ( subt]ranean movem5ts--,faults--,doctr9e ( ! sudd5 upheaval ( p>allel m\nta9-*a9s--,objections to ! pro( ( ! sudd5ness ( ! upheaval1 & ! contemporane\sness ( p>allel *a9s--,tra9s ( active volcanoes n p>allel--,z l>ge tracts ( l& are ris+ or s9k+ sl[ly1 s n>r[ zones ( l& may be pu%$ up gradually to great heights--,b5d+ ( /rata by lat]al pressure--,adequacy ( ! volcanic p[] to effect ?is )\t p>oxysmal convulsions4 ,:5 reason+ on ! int5sity ( volcanic action at =m] p]iods1 z well z on ! p[] ( mov+ wat]1 already treat$ (1 geologi/s h be5 ev] prone to repres5t ,nature z hav+ be5 prodigal ( viol5ce & p>simoni\s ( "t4 ,n[1 al?\gh x is less easy to det]m9e ! relative ages ( ! volcanic ?an ( ! fossilif]\s =mations1 x is und5iable t igne\s rocks h be5 produc$ at all geological p]iods1 or z (t5 z we f9d di/9ct deposits m>k$ by peculi> animal & vegetable rema9s4 ,x c be %[n t rocks commonly call$ trappean h be5 inject$ into fissures1 & eject$ at ! surface1 bo? be=e & dur+ ! deposition ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies1 & at ! "t :5 ! ,magnesian ,lime/one1 & :5 ! ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one 7 =m$1 or :5 ! ,lias1 ,oolite1 ,gre5 ,s&1 ,*alk1 & ! sev]al t]ti>y gr\ps new] ?an ! *alk1 orig9at$ 9 succession4 ,nor is ?is all3 di/9ct volcanic products may be ref]r$ to ! subord9ate divisions ( ea* p]iod1 su* z ! ,c>bonif]\s1 z 9 ! c\nty ( ,fife1 9 ,scotl&1 :]e c]ta9 masses ( contemporane\s trap are associat$ ) ! ,l[]1 o!rs ) ! ,upp] ,coal measures4 ,& if "o ( ^! masses is m m9utely exam9$1 we f9d x to consi/ ( ! products ( a great _m successive outbur/s1 by :i* scoriae & lava 7 aga9 & aga9 emitt$1 & aft]w>ds consolidat$1 !n fissur$1 & f9ally trav]s$ by melt$ matt]1 con/itut+ :at are call$ dikes4#bci ,z we enl>ge1 !re=e1 our k ( ! anci5t rocks =m$ by subt]ranean heat1 we f9d ourselves compell$ to reg>d !m z ! aggregate effects ( innum]able eruptions1 ea* ( :i* may h be5 comp>able 9 viol5ce to ^? n[ exp]i5c$ 9 volcanic regions4 ,x may inde$ be said t we h z yet no data = e/imat+ ! relative volume ( matt] simultane\sly 9 a /ate ( fusion at two giv5 p]iods1 z if we 7 to comp>e ! column> basalt ( ,/affa & its environs ) ! lava p\r$ out 9 ,icel& 9 #aghc2 b = ?is v reason x w\ld be ra% & unphilosophical to assume an excess ( anci5t z contra/$ ) mod]n outp\r+s ( melt$ matt] at p>ticul> p]iods ( "t4#bdj ,x w\ld be /ill m presumptu\s to take = grant$ t ! m deep-seat$ effects ( subt]ranean heat surpass$ at remote eras ! correspond+ effects ( int]nal heat 9 our own times4 ,c]ta9 porphyries & granites1 & all ! rocks commonly call$ plutonic1 are n[ g5]ally suppos$ to h result$ f ! sl[ cool+ ( mat]ials fus$ & solidifi$ "u great pressure2 & we _c d\bt t b5ea? exi/+ volcanoes !re are l>ge spaces fill$ ) melt$ /one1 :i* mu/ = c5turies rema9 9 an inc&esc5t /ate1 & !n cool & become h>d & cry/all9e :5 ! subt]ranean heat %all be exhau/$4 ,t lakes ( lava are cont9u\s = hundr$s ( miles b5ea? ! ,*ilian ,&es1 seems e/abli%$ by obs]vations made 9 ! ye> #ahce4bda ,n[1 :]ev] ! fluid cont5ts ( su* res]voirs are p\r$ out successively f crat]s 9 ! op5 air1 or at ! bottom ( ! sea1 ! matt] s eject$ may af=d evid5ce by its arrangem5t ( hav+ orig9at$ at diff]5t p]iods2 b if ! subt]ranean residue aft] ! )drawal ( ! heat be conv]t$ into cry/all9e or plutonic rock1 ! entire mass may seem to h be5 =m$ at once1 h[ev] c\ntless ! ages requir$ = its fusion & subsequ5t refrig]ation4 ,z ! idea t all ! granite 9 ! e>?'s cru/ 0 produc$ simultane\sly1 & 9 a primitive /ate ( ! planet1 has n[ be5 univ]sally ab&on$2 s ! sugge/ion above adv]t$ to1 may put u on our gu>d aga9/ too readily adopt+ ano!r op9ion1 namely1 t ea* l>ge mass ( granite 0 g5]at$ 9 a brief p]iod ( "t4 ,mod]n writ]s inde$1 ( au?ority1 seem m & m agre$ t 9 ! case ( granitic rocks1 ! passage f a liquid or pa/y to a solid & cry/all9e /ate mu/ h be5 an extremely gradual process4 ,! doctr9e s mu* insi/$ ^u =m]ly1 t cry/all9e rocks1 su* z granite1 gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 qu>tzite1 & o!rs 7 produc$ 9 ! greate/ abundance 9 ! e>li] ages ( ! planet1 & t _! =mation has ceas$ altoge!r 9 our own times1 w be controv]t$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,gradual developm5t ( subt]ranean movem5ts4--,! extreme viol5ce ( ! subt]ranean =ces 9 remote ages has be5 (t5 inf]r$ f ! facts t ! old] rocks are m fractur$ & dislocat$ ?an ! new]4 ,b :at o!r result c\ld we h anticipat$ if ! quantity ( movem5t _h be5 always equal 9 equal p]iods ( "t8 ,"t mu/1 9 t case1 multiply ! d]angem5t ( /rata 9 ! ratio ( _! antiquity4 ,inde$ ! num]\s exceptions to ! above rule :i* we f9d 9 nature1 pres5t at fir/ sight ! only objection to ! hypo!sis ( uni=mity4 ,= ! m anci5t =mations rema9 9 _m places horizontal1 :ile 9 o!rs mu* new] /rata are curv$ & v]tical4 ,?is app>5t anomaly1 h[ev]1 w be se5 9 ! next *apt] to dep5d on ! irregul> mann] 9 :i* ! volcanic & subt]ranean ag5cy affect diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>? 9 succession1 be+ (t5 r5ew$ aga9 & aga9 9 c]ta9 areas1 :ile o!rs rema9 dur+ ! :ole "t at re/4 ,t ! m impressive effects ( subt]ranean p[]1 su* z ! upheaval ( m\nta9-*a9s1 may h be5 due to multipli$ convulsions ( mod]ate int5sity r ?an to a few p>oxysmal explosions1 w appe> ! less improbable :5 ! gradual & int]mitt5t developm5t ( volcanic eruptions 9 times pa/ is once e/abli%$4 ,x is n[ v g5]ally conc$$ t ^! eruptions h _! s\rce 9 ! same causes z ^? :i* give rise to ! p]man5t elevation & s9k+ ( l&2 ! admission1 !re=e1 t "o ( ! two volcanic or subt]ranean processes has gone on gradually1 draws ) x ! conclusion t ! effects ( ! o!r h be5 elaborat$ by successive & gradual ef=ts4 ,faults4--,! same reason+ is applicable to great faults1 or ^? /rik+ in/ances ( ! up?r[ or d[n?r[ ( l>ge masses ( rock1 :i* h be5 ?\ght by "s to imply trem5d\s cata/rophes :olly =eign to ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature4 ,?us we h 9 ,engl& faults1 9 :i* ! v]tical displacem5t is betwe5 #fjj & #cjjj feet1 & ! horizontal ext5t ?irty miles or m1 ! wid? ( ! fissures s9ce fill$ up ) rubbi% v>y+ f t5 to fifty feet4 ,b :5 we inquire into ! pro(s ( ! mass hav+ ris5 or fall5 sudd5ly on ! "o side ( ^! great r5ts1 sev]al hundr$s or ?\s&s ( feet above or bel[ ! rock ) :i* x 0 once cont9u\s on ! o!r side1 we f9d ! evid5ce defective4 ,!re are grooves1 x is said1 & scrat*es on ! rubb$ & poli%$ walls1 :i* h (t5 "o common direction1 favor+ ! !ory t ! movem5t 0 accompli%$ by a s+le /roke1 & n by a s]ies ( int]rupt$ movem5ts4 ,b1 9 fact1 ! /riae are n always p>allel 9 su* cases1 b (t5 irregul>1 & sometimes ! /ones & e>? :i* are 9 ! middle ( ! fault1 or fissure1 h be5 poli%$ & /riat$ by friction 9 diff]5t directions1 %[+ t !re h be5 slid+s subsequ5t to ! fir/ introduction ( ! fragm5t>y matt]4 ,nor %\ld we =get t ! la/ movem5t mu/ always t5d to oblit]ate ! signs ( previ\s trituration1 s t nei!r its in/antane\sness nor ! uni=mity ( its direction c be inf]r$ f ! p>allelism ( ! /riae t h be5 la/ produc$4 ,:5 rocks h be5 once fractur$1 & fre$om ( motion communicat$ to deta*$ portions ( !m1 ^! w naturally cont9ue to yield 9 ! same direction1 if ! process ( upheaval or ( und]m9+ be repeat$ aga9 & aga94 ,! incumb5t mass w always give way along ! l9es ( lea/ resi/ance1 or :]e x 0 =m]ly r5t asund]4 ,probably1 ! effects ( reit]at$ movem5t1 :e!r upw>d or d[nw>d1 9 a fault1 may be undi/+ui%able f ^? ( a s+le & in/antane\s rise or subsid5ce2 & ! same may be said ( ! ris+ or fall+ ( cont95tal masses1 su* z ,sw$5 or ,gre5l&1 :i* we "k to take place sl[ly & ins5sibly4 ,doctr9e ( ! sudd5 upheaval ( p>allel m\nta9-*a9s4--,! doctr9e ( ! sudd5ness ( _m =m] revolutions 9 ! physical geography ( ! globe has be5 ?\ght by "s to d]ive additional confirmation f a !ory respect+ ! orig9 ( m\nta9-*a9s1 advanc$ 9 #ahcc by a di/+ui%$ geologi/1 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont4 ,9 sev]al essays on ?is subject1 ! la/ publi%$ 9 #aheb1 he has attempt$ to e/abli% two po9ts2 fir/1 t a v>iety ( indep5d5t *a9s ( m\nta9s h be5 ?r[n up sudd5ly at p>ticul> p]iods2 &1 secondly1 t ! contemporane\s *a9s ?us ?r[n up1 pres]ve a p>allelism ! "o to ! o!r4 ,^! op9ions1 & o!rs by :i* !y are accompani$1 are s adv]se to ! me?od ( int]pret+ ! hi/ory ( geological *anges :i* ,i h recomm5d$ 9 ?is "w1 t ,i am desir\s ( expla9+ ! gr\nds ( my diss5t1 a c\rse :i* ,i feel myself ! m call$ ^u to adopt1 z ! g5]alizations allud$ to are ^? ( a skilful writ]1 & an orig9al obs]v] ( great tal5t & exp]i5ce4 ,i %all beg91 !re=e1 by giv+ a brief summ>y ( ! pr9cipal propositions laid d[n 9 ! works above ref]r$ to4#bdb #a/4 ,m4 de ,beaumont supposes t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? !re h be5 long p]iods ( comp>ative repose1 dur+ :i* ! deposition ( s$im5t>y matt] has gone on 9 regul> cont9uity2 & !re h also be5 %ort p]iods ( p>oxysmal viol5ce1 dur+ :i* t cont9uity 0 brok54 #b;dly4 ,at ea* ( ^! p]iods ( viol5ce or 'revolution1' 9 ! /ate ( ! e>?'s surface1 a great numb] ( m\nta9-*a9s h be5 =m$ sudd5ly4 #c;dly4 ,! *a9s ?r[n up by a p>ticul> revolution h "o uni=m direction1 be+ p>allel to ea* o!r )9 a few degrees ( ! compass1 ev5 :5 situat$ 9 remote regions2 :il/ ! *a9s ?r[n up at diff]5t p]iods h1 = ! mo/ "p1 diff]5t directions4 #d?ly4 ,ea* 'revolution1' or 'great convulsion1' has fall5 9 ) ! date ( ano!r geological ph5om5on2 namely1 '! passage f "o indep5d5t s$im5t>y =mation to ano!r1' *>act]iz$ by a consid]able diff]5ce 9 'organic types4' #e?ly4 ,!re has be5 a recurr5ce ( ^! p>oxysmal movem5ts f ! remote/ geological p]iods2 & !y may /ill be reproduc$1 & ! repose 9 :i* we live may h]eaft] be brok5 by ! sudd5 up?r[ ( ano!r sy/em ( p>allel *a9s ( m\nta9s4 #f?ly4 ,! orig9 ( ^! *a9s dep5ds n on p>tial volcanic action1 or a reit]ation ( ord9>y e>?quakes1 b on ! secul> refrig]ation ( ! entire planet4 ,= ! :ole globe1 ) ! exception ( a ?9 envelope1 mu* ?9n] 9 proportion ?an ! %ell to an egg1 is a fus$ mass1 kept fluid by heat1 b con/antly cool+ & contract+ its dim5sions4 ,! ext]nal cru/ does n gradually collapse & accommodate itself c5tury aft] c5tury to ! %runk5 nucleus1 subsid+ z (t5 z !re is a slight failure ( support1 b x is su/a9$ ?r\gh\t :ole geological p]iods1 s z to become p>tially sep>at$ f ! nucleus1 until at la/ x gives way sudd5ly1 crack+ & fall+ 9 along det]m9ate l9es ( fracture4 ,dur+ su* a crisis ! rocks are subject$ to great lat]al pressure1 ! unyield+ ones are cru%$1 & ! pliant /rata b5t1 & are =c$ to pack !mselves m closely into a small] space1 hav+ no long] ! same room to spread !mselves out horizontally4 ,at ! same "t1 a l>ge portion ( ! mass is squeez$ upw>ds1 because x is 9 ! upw>d direction only t ! excess 9 size ( ! envelope1 z comp>$ to ! contract$ nucleus1 c f9d relief4 ,?is excess produces "o or m ( ^? folds or wr9kles 9 ! e>?'s cru/ :i* we call m\nta9-*a9s4 ,la/ly1 "s *a9s are comp>atively mod]n2 su* z ! ,alps1 :i* 7 p>tly upheav$ aft] ! middle t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! elevation ( ! ,&es 0 mu* m rec5t1 & 0 accompani$ by ! simultane\s outbur/ = ! fir/ "t ( #bgj ( ! pr9cipal volcanoes n[ active4#bdc ,! agitation ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean caus$ by ?is convulsion probably occasion$ t transi5t & g5]al deluge :i* is notic$ 9 ! traditions ( s _m nations4#bdd ,sev]al ( ! topics enum]at$ 9 ! above summ>y1 su* z ! cause ( int]ruptions 9 ! s$im5t>y s]ies1 w be discuss$ 9 ! ?irte5? *apt]1 & ,i %all n[ conf9e myself to :at ,i conceive to be ! insuffici5cy ( ! pro(s adduc$ 9 favor ( ! sudd5ness ( ! up?r[1 & ! contemporane\sness ( ! orig9 ( ! p>allel *a9s ref]r$ to4 ,at ! same "t ,i may rem>k1 t ! great body ( facts collect$ toge!r by ,m4 de ,beaumont w always =m a mo/ valuable addition to our k1 t5d+ z !y d to confirm ! doctr9e t diff]5t m\nta9-*a9s h be5 =m$ 9 succession1 &1 z ,w]n] fir/ po9t$ out1 t !re are c]ta9 det]m9ate l9es ( direction or /rike 9 ! /rata ( v>i\s c\ntries4 ,! foll[+ may s]ve z an analysis ( ! evid5ce on :i* ! !ory above /at$ dep5ds4 ,we obs]ve1 says ,m4 de ,beaumont1 :5 we att5tively exam9e ne>ly all m\nta9-*a9s1 t ! mo/ rec5t rocks ext5d horizontally up to ! foot ( su* *a9s1 z we %\ld expect w\ld be ! case if !y 7 deposit$ 9 seas or lakes1 ( :i* ^! m\nta9s h p>tly =m$ ! %ores2 :il/ ! o!r s$im5t>y b$s1 tilt$ up1 & m or less contort$1 on ! flanks ( ! m\nta9s1 rise 9 c]ta9 po9ts ev5 to _! highe/ cre/s4#bde ,!re are1 !re=e1 9 & adjac5t to ea* *a91 two classes ( s$im5t>y rocks1 ! anci5t & incl9$ b$s1 & ! new] or horizontal4 ,x is evid5t t ! fir/ appe>ance ( ! *a9 itself 0 an ev5t int]m$iate betwe5 ! p]iod :5 ! b$s n[ uprais$ 7 deposit$1 & ! p]iod :5 ! /rata 7 produc$ horizontally at its feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,?us ! *a9 ,a assum$ its pres5t position aft] ! deposition ( ! /rata b1 :i* h und]gone great movem5ts1 & be=e ! deposition ( ! gr\p c1 9 :i* ! /rata h n suff]$ d]angem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,if we !n discov] ano!r *a9 ,b1 9 :i* we f9d n only ! =mation b1 b ! gr\p c also1 di/urb$ & ?r[n on its edges1 we may inf] t ! latt] *a9 is ( subsequ5t date to ,a2 = ,b mu/ h be5 elevat$ aft] ! deposition ( c1 & be=e t ( ! gr\p d2 :]eas ,a _h orig9at$ be=e ! /rata c 7 =m$4 ,x is !n argu$1 t 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :e!r o!r m\nta9 ranges are ( contemporane\s date ) ,a & ,b1 or are ref]able to di/9ct p]iods1 we h only to inquire :e!r ! incl9$ & undi/urb$ sets ( /rata 9 ea* range correspond ) or diff] f ^? 9 ! typical *a9 ,a & ,b4 ,n[ all ?is reason+ is p]fectly correct1 s long z ! p]iod ( "t requir$ = ! deposition ( ! /rata b & c is n made id5tical 9 duration ) ! p]iod ( "t dur+ :i* ! animals & plants f\nd fossil 9 b & c may h fl\ri%$2 = ! latt]1 t is to say1 ! duration ( c]ta9 gr\ps ( species1 may h greatly exce$$1 & probably did greatly exce$1 ! =m]1 or ! "t requir$ = ! accumulation ( c]ta9 local deposits1 su* z b & c 7figs4 #aa & #ab74 ,9 ord]1 moreov]1 to r5d] ! reason+ correct1 due latitude mu/ be giv5 to ! t]m contemporane\s2 = ?is t]m mu/ be und]/ood to allude1 n to a mom5t ( "t1 b to ! int]val1 :e!r brief or protract$1 :i* elaps$ betwe5 two ev5ts1 namely1 betwe5 ! accumulation ( ! incl9$ & t ( ! horizontal /rata4 ,b1 un=tunately1 no attempt has be5 made 9 ! treatises "u review to avoid ?is manife/ s\rce ( confusion1 & h5ce ! v t]ms ( ea* proposition are equivocal2 & ! possible l5g? ( "s ( ! int]vals is s va/1 t to affirm t all ! *a9s rais$ 9 su* int]vals 7 contemporane\s is an abuse ( language4 ,9 ord] to illu/rate ?is argum5t1 ,i %all select ! ,pyr5ees z an example4 ,orig9ally ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont spoke ( ?is range ( m\nta9s z hav+ be5 uplift$ sudd5ly 7a un seul jet71 b he has s9ce conc$$ t 9 ?is *a91 9 spite ( ! g5]al unity & simplicity ( its /ructure1 six1 if n sev51 sy/ems ( dislocation ( diff]5t dates c be recogniz$4#bdf ,9 ref]5ce1 h[ev]1 to ! late/1 & by f> ! mo/ important ( ^! convulsions1 ! *a9 is said to h atta9$ its pres5t elevation at a c]ta9 epo* 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory1 namely1 betwe5 ! deposition ( ! *alk1 or rocks ( ab\t t age1 & t ( c]ta9 t]ti>y =mations z old z ! pla/ic clay2 = ! *alk is se5 9 v]tical1 curv$1 & di/ort$ b$s on ! flanks ( ! *a91 z ! b$s b1 fig4 #aa1 :ile ! t]ti>y =mations re/ ^u !m 9 horizontal /rata at its base1 z c1 ibid4 ,! pro(1 !n1 ( ! extreme sudd5ness ( ! convulsion is suppos$ to be ! %ortness ( ! "t :i* int]v5$ betwe5 ! =mation ( ! *alk & ! orig9 ( c]ta9 t]ti>y /rata4#bdg ,ev5 if ! int]val 7 d$ucible )9 ^! limits1 x might comprise an indef9ite lapse ( "t4 ,9 /rictness ( reason+1 h[ev]1 ! au?or _c exclude ! ,cretace\s or ,t]ti>y p]iods f ! possible duration ( ! int]val dur+ :i* ! elevation may h tak5 place4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 x _c be assum$ t ! movem5t ( upheaval took place aft] ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod2 we c m]ely say1 t x occurr$ aft] ! deposition ( c]ta9 /rata ( t p]iod2 secondly1 al?\gh x 7 true t ! ev5t happ5$ be=e ! =mation ( all ! t]ti>y /rata n[ at ! base ( ! ,pyr5ees1 x w\ld by no means foll[ t x prec$$ ! :ole ,t]ti>y epo*4 ,! age ( ! /rata1 bo? ( ! incl9$ & horizontal s]ies1 may h be5 accurately det]m9$ by ,m4 ,de ,beaumont1 & /ill ! upheav+ ( ! ,pyr5ees may h be5 go+ on be=e ! animals ( ! ,*alk p]iod1 su* z are f\nd fossil 9 ,engl&1 _h ceas$ to exi/1 or :5 ! ,mae/ri*t b$s 7 9 progress1 or dur+ ! indef9ite ages :i* may h elaps$ betwe5 ! ext9ction ( ! ,mae/ri*t animals & ! introduction ( ! ,eoc5e tribes1 or dur+ ! ,eoc5e epo*1 or ! rise may h be5 go+ on ?r\gh\t "o1 or sev]al1 or all ( ^! p]iods4 ,x w\ld be a purely gratuit\s assumption to say t ! incl9$ cretace\s /rata 7b1 fig4 #aa7 on ! flanks ( ! ,pyr5ees1 7 ! v la/ :i* 7 deposit$ dur+ ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 or t1 z soon z !y 7 upheav$1 all or ne>ly all ! species ( animals & plants n[ f\nd fossil 9 !m 7 sudd5ly ext]m9at$2 yet1 unless ?is c be affirm$1 we _c say t ! ,pyr5ees 7 n upheav$ dur+ ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,consequ5tly1 ano!r range ( m\nta9s1 at ! base ( :i* cretace\s rocks may lie 9 horizontal /ratification1 may h be5 elevat$1 l ! *a9 ,a1 fig4 #ab1 dur+ "s "p ( ! same great p]iod4 ,!re are m\nta9s 9 ,sicily two or ?ree ?\s& feet high1 ! tops ( :i* are compos$ ( lime/one1 9 :i* a l>ge proportion ( ! fossil %ells agree specifically ) ^? n[ inhabit+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,"h1 z 9 _m o!r c\ntries1 ! deposits n[ 9 progress 9 ! sea mu/ inclose %ells & o!r fossils specifically id5tical ) ^? ( ! rocks con/itut+ ! contigu\s l&4 ,s !re are isl&s 9 ! ,pacific :]e a mass ( dead coral has em]g$ to a consid]able altitude1 :ile o!r portions ( ! mass rema9 b5ea? ! sea1 /ill increas+ by ! gr[? ( liv+ zoophytes & %ells4 ,! *alk ( ! ,pyr5ees1 !re=e1 may at a remote p]iod h be5 rais$ to an elevation ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 :ile ! species f\nd fossil 9 ! same *alk /ill cont9u$ to be repres5t$ 9 ! fauna ( ! neighbor+ ocean4 ,9 a ^w1 we _c assume t ! orig9 ( a new range ( m\nta9s caus$ ! ,cretace\s p]iod to cease1 & s]v$ z ! prelude to a new ord] ( ?+s 9 ! animate creation4 ,to illu/rate ! grave objections above advanc$1 aga9/ ! !ory consid]$ 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 let u suppose1 t 9 "s c\ntry ?ree /yles ( ar*itecture _h prevail$ 9 succession1 ea* = a p]iod ( "o ?\s& ye>s2 fir/ ! ,greek1 !n ! ,roman1 & !n ! ,go?ic2 & t a trem5d\s e>?quake 0 kn[n to h occurr$ 9 ! same di/rict dur+ "o ( ! ?ree p]iods--a convulsion ( su* viol5ce z to h levell$ to ! gr\nd all ! build+s !n /&+4 ,if an antiqu>y1 desir\s ( discov]+ ! date ( ! cata/rophe1 %\ld fir/ arrive at a city :]e sev]al ,greek temples 7 ly+ 9 ru9s & half engulph$ 9 ! e>?1 :ile _m ,go?ic edifices 7 /&+ un9jur$1 c\ld he det]m9e on ^! data ! era ( ! %ock8 ,c\ld he ev5 exclude any "o ( ! ?ree p]iods1 & decide t x mu/ h happ5$ dur+ "o ( ! o!r two8 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,he c\ld m]ely affirm t x happ5$ at "s p]iod aft] ! introduction ( ! ,greek /yle1 & be=e ! ,go?ic _h fall5 into disuse4 ,%\ld he pret5d to def9e ! date ( ! convulsion ) great] precision1 & decide t ! e>?quake mu/ h occurr$ aft] ! ,greek & be=e ! ,go?ic p]iod1 t is to say1 :5 ! ,roman /yle 0 9 use1 ! fallacy 9 8 reason+ w\ld be too palpable to escape detection = a mom5t4 ,yet su* is ! nature ( ! errone\s induction :i* ,i am n[ expos+4 ,= z1 9 ! example above propos$1 ! erection ( a p>ticul> edifice is p]fectly di/9ct f ! p]iod ( ar*itecture 9 :i* x may h be5 rais$1 s is ! deposition ( *alk1 or any o!r set ( /rata1 f ! geological epo*s *>act]iz$ by c]ta9 fossils to :i* !y may belong4 ,x is almo/ sup]flu\s to ent] into any f>!r analysis ( ! !ory ( p>allelism1 because ! :ole =ce ( ! argum5t dep5ds on ! accuracy ( ! data by :i* ! contemporane\s or non-contemporane\s date ( ! elevation ( two indep5d5t *a9s c be demon/rat$4 ,9 e case1 ?is evid5ce1 z /at$ by ,m4 de ,beaumont1 is equivocal1 because he has n includ$ 9 ! possible int]val ( "t betwe5 ! depositions ( ! d]ang$ & ! horizontal =mations1 "p ( ! p]iods to :i* ea* ( ^? classes ( =mations are ref]able4 ,ev5 if all ! geological facts1 !re=e1 adduc$ by ! au?or 7 true & unque/ionable1 yet ! conclusion t c]ta9 *a9s 7 or 7 n simultane\sly uprais$ is by no means a legitimate consequ5ce4 ,9 ! ?ird volume ( my fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9ciples1 :i* appe>$ 9 ,april1 #ahcc1 ,i controv]t$ ! views ( ,m4 de ,beaumont1 !n j publi%$1 9 ! same t]ms z ,i h n[ re/at$ !m4 ,at t "t ,i took = grant$ t ! *ronological date ( ! newe/ rocks ent]+ into ! di/urb$ s]ies ( ! ,pyr5ees _h be5 correctly asc]ta9$4 ,x n[ appe>s1 h[ev]1 t "s ( ! mo/ mod]n ( ^? di/urb$ /rata belong to ! nummulitic =mation1 :i* are reg>d$ by ! majority ( geologi/s z ,eoc5e or old] t]ti>y1 an op9ion n ass5t$ to by ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont1 & :i* ,i _c discuss "h )\t be+ l$ into too long a digression4#bdh ,p]haps a m /rik+ illu/ration ( ! difficulties we enc\nt]1 :5 we attempt to apply ! !ory "u consid]ation ev5 to ! be/ kn[n ,european c\ntries1 is af=d$ by :at is call$ ,! ,sy/em ( ! ,longmynds4 ,?is small *a91 situat$ 9 ,%rop%ire1 is ! ?ird ( ! typical sy/ems to :i* ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont comp>es o!r m\nta9 ranges correspond+ 9 /rike & /ructure4 ,! date assign$ to its upheaval is aft] ! unfossilif]\s greywacke1 or ,cambrian /rata1 & be=e ! ,silurian4 ,b ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,mur*ison _h %[n 9 #ahch1 9 8 ,silurian ,sy/em1 & ! ,briti% gov]nm5t surveyors1 s9ce t "t1 9 _! sections 7ab\t #ahde71 t ! ,longmynds & o!r *a9s ( simil> composition 9 ,nor? ,wales are po/-,silurian4 ,9 all ( !m fossilif]\s b$s ( ! l[] ,silurian =mation1 or ,ll&eilo flags are highly incl9$1 & (t5 v]tical4 ,9 "o limit$ region ! ,c>adoc s&/one1 a memb] ( ! l[] ,silurian1 re/s uncon=mably on ! d5ud$ edges ( ! inf]ior 7or ,ll&eilo7 memb] ( ! same gr\p2 :il/ 9 "s cases bo? ( ^! sets ( /rata are upturn$4 ,:51 !re=e1 s grave an error is detect$ 9 reg>d to ! age ( a typical *a91 we are entitl$ to inquire ) surprise1 by :at means n9e o!r p>allel *a9s 9 ,france1 ,g]many1 & ,sw$51 assum$ to be ante-,silurian1 h be5 made to agree precisely 9 date ) ! ,longmynds8 ,if !y are correctly repres5t$ z hav+ be5 all deposit$ be=e ! deposition ( ! ,silurian /rata1 !y _c be contemporane\s ) ! ,longmynds1 & !y only prove h[ little reliance c be plac$ on p>allelism z a te/ ( simultane\sness ( upheaval4 ,b 9 tru? x is impossible1 = reasons already giv51 to demon/rate t ea* ( ^? n9e *a9s co9cide 9 date ) "o ano!r1 any m ?an ) ! ,longmynds4 ,! read] w see 9 ! sequel 7*ap4 #cabdi7 t ,mr4 ,hopk9s has inf]r$ f a/ronomical calculations1 t ! solid cru/ ( ! e>? _c be less ?an #hjj or #ajjj miles ?ick1 & may be m4 ,ev5 if x be solid to ! dep? ( #ajj miles1 su* a ?ickness w\ld be inconsi/5t ) ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont's hypo!sis1 :i* requires a %ell n m ?an ?irty miles ?ick1 or ev5 less4 ,mr4 ,hopk9s admits t ! ext]ior ( ! planet1 ?\gh solid z a :ole1 may conta9 )9 x va/ lakes or seas ( lava4 ,if s1 ! gradual fusion ( rocks1 & ! expansive p[] ( heat ex]t$ = ages1 z well z ! subsequ5t contraction ( ! same dur+ sl[ refrig]ation1 may p]haps acc\nt = ! orig9 ( m\nta9-*a9s1 = ^!1 z ,dolomieu has rem>k$1 are f> less important1 proportionally speak+1 ?an ! inequalities on ! surface ( an egg-%ell1 :i* to ! eye appe>s smoo?4 ,a c5tripetal =ce affect+ ! :ole planet z x cools1 seems a mighti] cause ?an is requir$ to produce wr9kles ( su* insignificant size4 ,9 pursu+ 8 inve/igations1 ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont has ( late greatly multipli$ ! numb] ( successive p]iods ( in/antane\s upheaval1 admitt+ at ! same "t t occasionally new l9es ( up?r[ h tak5 ! direction ( old] ones4#bej ,^! admissions r5d] 8 views mu* m 9 h>mony ) ! pr9ciples advocat$ 9 ?is "w1 b !y impair ! practical utility ( p>allelism consid]$ z a *ronological te/2 = no rule is laid d[n = limit+ ! int]val1 :e!r 9 "t or space1 :i* may sep>ate two p>allel l9es ( upheaval ( diff]5t dates4#bea ,among ! v>i\s propositions above laid d[n 7p4 #afd71 x w be se5 t ! sudd5 rise ( ! ,&es is spok5 ( z a mod]n ev5t1 b ,mr4 ,d>w9 has br\ght toge!r ample data 9 pro( ( ! local p]si/5cy ( volcanic action ?r\gh\t a long succession ( geological p]iods1 beg9n+ ) times antec$5t to ! deposition ( ! oolitic & cretace\s =mations ( ,*ili1 & cont9u+ to ! hi/orical epo*4 ,x appe>s t "s ( ! p>allel ridges :i* compose ! ,cordill]as1 in/ead ( be+ contemporane\s1 7 successively & sl[ly upheav$ at widely diff]5t epo*s4 ,! :ole range1 aft] twice subsid+ "s ?\s&s ( feet1 0 br\ght up aga9 by a sl[ movem5t 9 mass1 dur+ ! era ( ! ,eoc5e t]ti>y =mations1 aft] :i* ! :ole sank d[n once m sev]al hundr$ feet1 to be aga9 uplift$ to its pres5t level by a sl[ & (t5 int]rupt$ movem5t4#beb ,9 a portion ( ?is latt] p]iod ! ,pampean mud 0 =m$1 9 :i* ! ,mega!rium mylodon & o!r ext9ct quadrup$s are buri$4 ,?is mud conta9s 9 x rec5t species ( %ells1 "s ( !m prop] to bracki% wat]1 & is believ$ by ,mr4 ,d>w9 to be an e/u>y or delta deposit4 ,m4 ,a4 d',orbigny1 h[ev]1 has advanc$ an hypo!sis ref]r$ to by ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont1 t ! agitation & displacem5t ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 caus$ by ! elevation ( ! ,&es1 gave rise to a deluge1 ( :i* ?is ,pampean mud1 :i* rises sometimes to ! height ( #ab1jjj feet1 is ! result & monum5t4#bec ,9 /udy+ _m *a9s ( m\nta9s1 we f9d t ! /rike or l9e ( outcrop ( cont9u\s sets ( /rata1 & ! g5]al direction ( ! *a91 may be f> f rectil9e>4 ,curves =m+ angles ( #bj degrees or #cj degrees may be f\nd 9 ! same range z 9 ! ,alleghanies2 j z tra9s ( active volcanoes & ! zones ?r\gh\t :i* mod]n e>?quakes occur are (t5 l9e>1 )\t runn+ 9 /raight l9es4 ,nor are all ( ^!1 ?\gh contemporane\s or belong+ to our own epo*1 by any means p>allel1 b "s at "r angles1 ! "o to ! o!r4 ,sl[ upheaval & subsid5ce4--,rec5t obs]vations h disclos$ to u ! wond]ful fact1 t n only ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 b also o!r l>ge areas1 "s ( !m sev]al ?\s& miles 9 circumf]5ce1 su* z ,sc&9avia1 & c]ta9 ar*ipelagoes 9 ! ,pacific1 are sl[ly & ins5sibly ris+2 :ile o!r regions1 su* z ,gre5l&1 & p>ts ( ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 9 :i* atolls or circul> coral isl&s ab\nd1 are z gradually s9k+4 ,t all ! exi/+ cont95ts & subm>9e abysses may h orig9at$ 9 movem5ts ( ?is k9d1 cont9u$ ?r\gh\t incalculable p]iods ( "t1 is und5iable1 & ! d5udation :i* ! dry l& appe>s ev]y:]e to h suff]$1 favors ! idea t x 0 rais$ f ! deep by a succession ( upw>d movem5ts1 prolong$ ?r\gh\t indef9ite p]iods4 ,= ! action ( waves & curr5ts on l& sl[ly em]g+ f ! deep1 af=ds ! only p[] by :i* we c conceive s _m deep valleys & wide spaces to h be5 d5ud$ z ^? :i* are unque/ionably ! effects ( runn+ wat]4 ,b p]haps x may be said t !re is no analogy betwe5 ! sl[ upheaval ( broad pla9s or table-l&s1 & ! mann] 9 :i* we mu/ presume all m\nta9-*a9s1 ) _! incl9$ /rata1 to h orig9at$4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 t ! ,&es h be5 ris+ c5tury aft] c5tury1 at ! rate ( sev]al feet1 :ile ! ,pampas on ! ea/ h be5 rais$ only a few in*es 9 ! same "t4 ,cross+ f ! ,atlantic to ! ,pacific1 9 a l9e pass+ ?r\gh ,m5doza1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 trav]s$ a pla9 #hjj miles broad1 ! ea/]n "p ( :i* has em]g$ f b5ea? ! sea at a v mod]n p]iod4 ,! slope f ! ,atlantic is at fir/ v g5tle1 !n great]1 until ! travell] f9ds1 on rea*+ ,m5doza1 t he has ga9$1 almo/ ins5sibly1 a height ( #djjj feet4 ,! m\nta9\s di/rict !n beg9s sudd5ly1 & its bread? f ,m5doza to ! %ores ( ! ,pacific is #abj miles1 ! av]age height ( ! pr9cipal *a9 be+ f #ae1jjj to #af1jjj feet1 )\t includ+ "s prom95t peaks1 :i* asc5d mu* high]4 ,n[ all we require1 to expla9 ! orig9 ( ! pr9cipal inequalities ( level "h describ$1 is to imag9e1 fir/1 a zone ( m viol5t movem5t to ! we/ ( ,m5doza1 &1 secondly1 to ! ea/ ( t place1 an upheav+ =ce1 :i* di$ away gradually z x approa*$ ! ,atlantic4 ,9 %ort1 we are only call$ ^u to conceive1 t ! region ( ! ,&es 0 pu%$ up f\r feet 9 ! same p]iod 9 :i* ! ,pampas ne> ,m5doza rose "o foot1 & ! pla9s ne> ! %ores ( ! ,atlantic "o in*4 ,9 ,europe we h le>nt t ! l& at ! ,nor? ,cape asc5ds ab\t five feet 9 a c5tury1 :ile f>!r to ! s\? ! movem5ts dim9i% 9 quantity fir/ to a foot1 & !n1 at ,/ockholm1 to ?ree in*es 9 a c5tury1 :ile at c]ta9 po9ts /ill f>!r s\? !re is no movem5t4 ,b 9 :at mann]1 x is ask$1 c we acc\nt = ! great lat]al pressure :i* has be5 ex]t$ n only 9 ! ,&es1 ,alps1 & o!r *a9s1 b also on ! /rata ( _m l[ & ne>ly level c\ntries8 ,d n ! fold+ & fracture ( ! b$s1 ! anticl9al & syncl9al ridges & tr\ghs1 z !y are call$1 & ! v]tical1 & ev5 sometimes ! inv]t$ position ( ! b$s1 imply an abruptness & int5sity 9 ! di/urb+ =ce :olly diff]5t 9 k9d & en]gy to t :i* n[ r5ds ! rocks dur+ ord9>y e>?quakes8 ,i %all treat m fully 9 ! sequel 7end ( *ap4 #cb7 ( ! probable subt]ranean s\rces1 :e!r ( upw>d or d[nw>d movem5t1 & ( great lat]al pressure2 b x may be well briefly to /ate 9 ?is place t 9 our own times1 z1 = example1 9 ,*ili1 9 #ahbb1 ! volcanic =ce has ov]come ! resi/ance1 & p]man5tly uplift$ a c\ntry ( su* va/ ext5t t ! weight & volume ( ! ,&es mu/ be insignificant 9 comp>ison1 ev5 if we indulge ! mo/ mod]ate conjectures z to ! ?ickness ( ! e>?'s cru/ above ! volcanic foci4 ,to assume t any set ( /rata ) :i* we are acqua9t$ are made up ( su* cohesive & unyield+ mat]ials1 z to be able to resi/ a p[] ( su* /up5d\s en]gy1 if its direction1 in/ead ( be+ v]tical1 happ5$ to be oblique or horizontal1 w\ld be extremely ra%4 ,b if !y c\ld yield to a sideway ?ru/1 ev5 9 a slight degree1 !y w\ld become squeez$ & fold$ to any am\nt if subject$ = a suffici5t numb] ( times to ! repeat$ action ( ! same =ce4 ,we c sc>cely d\bt t a mass ( rock sev]al miles ?ick 0 uplift$ 9 ,*ili 9 #ahbb & #ahce1 & t a mu* great] volume ( solid matt] is upheav$ :]ev] ! rise ( ! l& is v gradual1 z 9 ,sc&9avia1 ! developm5t ( heat be+ probably1 9 t region1 at a great] di/ance f ! surface4 ,if cont95ts1 rock$1 %ak51 & fissur$1 l ! we/]n region ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 or v g5tly elevat$1 l ,norway & ,sw$51 d n acquire 9 a few days or h\rs an additional height ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 ?is c arise f no lack ( me*anical =ce 9 ! subt]ranean mov+ cause1 b simply because ! antagoni/ p[]1 or ! /r5g?1 t\ghness1 & d5sity ( ! e>?'s cru/ is insuffici5t to resi/1 s long1 z to all[ ! volcanic en]gy an indef9ite "t to accumulate4 ,in/ead ( ! explosive *>ge augm5t+ 9 quantity = c\ntless ages1 x f9ds relief cont9u\sly1 or by a succession ( %ocks ( mod]ate viol5ce1 s z nev] to bur/ or bl[ up ! cov]+ ( incumb5t rock 9 "o gr& p>oxysmal convulsion4 ,ev5 9 its mo/ en]getic ef=ts x displays an int]mitt5t & mitigat$ int5sity1 be+ nev] p]mitt$ to lay a :ole cont95t 9 ru9s4 ,h5ce ! num]\s eruptions ( lava f ! same v5t1 or *a9 ( v5ts1 & ! recurr5ce ( simil> e>?quakes = ?\s&s ( ye>s along c]ta9 areas or zones ( c\ntry4 ,h5ce ! num]\s monum5ts ( ! successive ejection & injection ( melt$ matt] 9 anci5t geological epo*s1 & ! fissures =m$ 9 di/9ct ages1 & (t5 wid5$ & fill$ at diff]5t eras4 ,among ! causes ( lat]al pressure1 ! expansion by heat ( l>ge masses ( solid /one int]v5+ betwe5 o!rs :i* h a diff]5t degree ( expansibility1 or :i* happ5 n to h _! temp]ature rais$ at ! same "t1 may play an important "p4 ,b z we "k t rocks h s (t5 sunk d[n ?\s&s ( feet bel[ _! orig9al level1 we c h>dly d\bt t mu* ( ! b5d+ ( pliant /rata1 & ! pack+ ( ! same into small] spaces1 has frequ5tly be5 occasion$ by subsid5ce4 ,:e!r ! failure ( support be produc$ by ! melt+ ( por\s rocks1 :i*1 :5 fluid1 & subject$ to great pressure1 may occupy less room ?an be=e1 or :i*1 by pass+ f a pa/y to a cry/all9e condition1 may1 z 9 ! case ( granite1 accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,deville1 suff] a contraction ( #aj p] c5t41 or :e!r ! s9k+ be due to ! subtraction ( lava driv5 else:]e to "s volcanic orifice1 & !re =c$ outw>ds1 or :e!r x be br\ght on by ! %r9k+ ( solid & /ony masses dur+ refrig]ation1 or by ! cond5sation ( gases1 or any o!r imag9able cause1 we h no reason to incl9e to ! idea t ! consequ5t geological *anges are br\ght ab\t s sudd5ly1 z t l>ge p>ts ( cont95ts are swall[$ up at once 9 unfa?omable subt]ranean abysses4 ,if cavities be =m$1 !y w be enl>g$ gradually1 & z gradually fill$4 ,we read1 inde$1 acc\nts ( engulph$ cities & areas ( limit$ ext5t :i* h sunk d[n _m y>ds at once2 b we h z yet no au!ntic records ( ! sudd5 disappe>ance ( m\nta9s1 or ! subm]g5ce or em]g5ce ( great isl&s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! creeps 9 coal m9es#bed demon/rate t gravitation beg9s to act z soon z a mod]ate quantity ( matt] is remov$ ev5 at a great dep?4 ,! ro( s9ks 91 or ! floor ( ! m9e rises1 & ! b5t /rata (t5 assume z regul>ly a curv$ & crumpl$ arrangem5t z t obs]v$ on a gr&] scale 9 m\nta9-*a9s4 ,! abs5ce1 inde$1 ( *aotic disord]1 & ! regul>ity ( ! plications 9 geological =mations ( high antiquity1 al?\gh n unfrequ5tly adduc$ to prove ! unity & in/antane\sness ( ! di/urb+ =ce1 might ) f> great] propriety be br\ght =w>d z an argum5t 9 favor ( ! successive application ( "s irresi/ible b mod]at$ =ce1 su* z t :i* c elevate or depress a cont95t4 ,9 conclusion1 ,i may obs]ve t "o ( ! s\nde/ objections to ! !ory ( ! sudd5 up?r[ or d[n?r[ ( m\nta9-*a9s is ?is1 t x provides u ) too mu* =ce ( "o k9d1 namely1 t ( subt]ranean movem5t1 :ile x deprives u ( ano!r k9d ( me*anical =ce1 namely1 t ex]t$ by ! waves & curr5ts ( ! ocean1 :i* ! geologi/ requires = ! d5udation ( l& dur+ its sl[ upheaval or depression4 ,x may be safely affirm$ t ! quantity ( igne\s & aque\s action1--( volcanic eruption & d5udation1--( subt]ranean movem5t & s$im5t>y deposition1--n only ( pa/ ages1 b ( "o geological epo*1 or ev5 ! fraction ( an epo*1 has exce$$ immeasurably all ! fluctuations ( ! inorganic _w :i* h be5 witness$ by man4 ,b we h /ill to inquire :e!r ! "t to :i* ea* *apt] or page or p>agraph ( ! e>?'s autobiography relates1 0 n equally imm5se :5 contra/$ ) a brief era ( #cjjj or #ejjj ye>s4 ,! real po9t on :i* ! :ole controv]sy turns1 is ! relative am\nt ( "w done by me*anical =ce 9 giv5 quantities ( "t1 pa/ & pres5t4 ,be=e we c det]m9e ! relative int5sity ( ! =ce employ$1 we mu/ h "s fix$ /&>d by :i* to measure ! "t exp5d$ 9 its developm5t at two di/9ct p]iods4 ,x is n ! magnitude ( ! effects1 h[ev] gigantic _! proportions1 :i* c in=m u 9 ! slighte/ degree :e!r ! op]ation 0 sudd5 or gradual1 ins5sible or p>oxysmal4 ,x mu/ be %[n t a sl[ process c\ld nev] 9 any s]ies ( ages give rise to ! same results4 ,! advocate ( p>oxysmal en]gy might assume a uni=m & fix$ rate ( v>iation 9 times pa/ & pres5t = ! animate _w1 t is to say1 = ! dy+-out & com+-9 ( species1 & !n endeavor to prove t ! *anges ( ! inanimate _w h n gone on 9 a correspond+ ratio4 ,b ! adoption ( su* a /&>d ( comp>ison w\ld lead1 ,i suspect1 to a !ory by no means favorable to ! pri/9e int5sity ( natural causes4 ,t ! pres5t /ate ( ! organic _w is n /ation>y1 c be fairly inf]r$ f ! fact1 t "s species are kn[n to h become ext9ct 9 ! c\rse ev5 ( ! la/ ?ree c5turies1 & t ! ext]m9at+ causes always 9 activity1 bo? on ! l& & 9 ! wat]s1 are v num]\s2 also1 because man himself is an extremely mod]n creation2 & we may !re=e reasonably suppose t "s ( ! mammalia n[ contempor>y ) man1 z well z a v>iety ( species ( inf]ior classes1 may h be5 rec5tly introduc$ into ! e>?1 to supply ! places ( plants & animals :i* h f "t to "t disappe>$4 ,b grant+ t "s su* secul> v>iation 9 ! zoological & botanical worlds is go+ on1 & is by no means :olly inappreciable to ! naturali/1 /ill x is c]ta9ly f> less manife/ ?an ! revolution always 9 progress 9 ! inorganic _w4 ,e ye> "s volcanic eruptions take place1 & a rude e/imate might be made ( ! numb] ( cubic feet ( lava & scoriae p\r$ or ca/ out ( v>i\s crat]s4 ,! am\nt ( mud & s& deposit$ 9 deltas1 & ! advance ( new l& ^u ! sea1 or ! annual retreat ( wa/+ sea-cliffs1 are *anges ! m9imum am\nt ( :i* might be r\ghly e/imat$4 ,! quantity ( l& rais$ above or depress$ bel[ ! level ( ! sea might also be comput$1 & ! *ange aris+ f su* movem5ts 9 a c5tury might be conjectur$4 ,suppose ! av]age rise ( ! l& 9 "s p>ts ( ,sc&9avia to be z mu* z five feet 9 a hundr$ ye>s1 ! pres5t sea-coa/ might be uplift$ #gjj feet 9 f\rte5 ?\s& ye>s2 b we %\ld h no reason to anticipate1 f any zoological data hi!rto acquir$1 t ! mollusc\s fauna ( ! nor!rn seas w\ld 9 t lapse ( ye>s und]go any s5sible am\nt ( v>iation4 ,we discov] sea-bea*es 9 ,norway #gjj feet high1 9 :i* ! %ells are id5tical ) ^? n[ inhabit+ ! ,g]man ,ocean2 = ! rise ( l& 9 ,sc&9avia1 h[ev] ins5sible to ! inhabitants1 has evid5tly be5 rapid :5 comp>$ to ! rate ( contemporane\s *ange 9 ! te/ace\s fauna ( ! ,g]man ,ocean4 ,7 we to wait !re=e until ! mollusca %all h und]gone z mu* fluctuation z !y und]w5t betwe5 ! p]iod ( ! ,lias & ! ,upp] ,oolite =mations2 or betwe5 ! ,oolite & ,*alk1 nay1 ev5 betwe5 any two ( eight subdivisions ( ! ,eoc5e s]ies1 :at /up5d\s revolutions 9 physical geography ought we n to expect1 & h[ _m m\nta9-*a9s might n be produc$ by ! repetition ( %ocks ( mod]ate viol5ce1 or by movem5ts n ev5 p]ceptible by man6 ,or1 if we turn f ! mollusca to ! vegetable k+dom1 & ask ! botani/ h[ _m e>?quakes & volcanic eruptions might be expect$1 & h[ mu* ! relative level ( l& & sea might be alt]$1 or h[ f> ! pr9cipal deltas w encroa* ^u ! ocean1 or ! sea-cliffs rec$e f ! pres5t %ores1 be=e ! species ( ,european =e/-trees w die out1 he w\ld reply t su* alt]ations 9 ! inanimate _w might be multipli$ indef9itely be=e he %\ld h reason to anticipate1 by ref]5ce to any kn[n data1 t ! exi/+ species ( trees 9 our =e/s w\ld disappe> & give place to o!rs4 ,9 a ^w1 ! movem5t ( ! inorganic _w is obvi\s & palpable1 & might be lik5$ to ! m9ute-h& ( a clock1 ! progress ( :i* c be se5 & he>d1 :]eas ! fluctuations ( ! liv+ creation are ne>ly invisible1 & resemble ! motion ( ! h\r-h& ( a timepiece4 ,x is only by wat*+ x att5tively = "s "t1 & comp>+ its relative position aft] an int]val1 t we c prove ! reality ( its motion4#bee ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,diff]5ce ,,9 ,,texture ,,( ,,! ,,old] ,,& ,,new] ,,rocks4 ,consolidation ( fossilif]\s /rata--,"s deposits orig9ally solid--,transition & slaty texture--,cry/all9e "* ( ,plutonic & ,metamorphic rocks--,!ory ( _! orig9--,ess5tially subt]ranean--,no pro(s t !y 7 produc$ m abundantly at remote p]iods4 ,ano!r argum5t 9 favor ( ! dissimil>ity ( ! causes op]at+ at remote & rec5t eras has be5 d]iv$ by _m geologi/s f ! m compact1 /ony1 & cry/all9e texture ( ! old] z comp>$ ) ! new] rocks4 ,consolidation ( /rata4--,?is subject may be consid]$1 fir/ 9 ref]5ce to ! fossilif]\s /rata2 &1 secondly1 9 ref]5ce to ^? cry/all9e & /ratifi$ rocks :i* conta9 no organic rema9s1 su* z gneiss & mica-s*i/4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! =m] ( ^! classes1 or ! fossilif]\s1 are g5]ally m compact & /ony 9 proportion z !y are m anci5t4 ,x is also c]ta9 t a great "p ( !m 7 orig9ally 9 a s(t & incoh]5t /ate1 & t !y h be5 s9ce consolidat$4 ,?us we f9d occasionally t %+le & s& h be5 agglut9at$ firmly toge!r by a f]rug9\s or silice\s cem5t1 or t lime 9 solution has be5 introduc$1 s z to b9d toge!r mat]ials previ\sly incoh]5t4 ,organic rema9s h sometimes suff]$ a s+ul> trans=mation1 z = example1 :]e %ells1 corals1 & wood are silicifi$1 _! calc>e\s or ligne\s matt] hav+ be5 replac$ by ne>ly pure silica4 ,! con/itu5ts ( "s b$s h probably set & become h>d = ! fir/ "t :5 !y em]g$ f b5ea? ! wat]4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 we obs]ve 9 c]ta9 =mations n[ 9 progress1 p>ticul>ly 9 coral reefs1 & 9 deposits f ! wat]s ( m9]al spr+s1 bo? calc>e\s & silice\s1 t ! texture ( rocks may sometimes be /ony f ! fir/4 ,?is circum/ance may acc\nt = exceptions to ! g5]al rule1 n unfrequ5tly met )1 :]e solid /rata are sup]impos$ on o!rs ( a pla/ic & incoh]5t nature1 z 9 ! neighborhood ( ,p>is1 :]e ! t]ti>y =mations1 consi/+ (t5 ( compact lime/one & silice\s grit1 are m /ony ?an ! subjac5t *alk4 ,x w readily be und]/ood1 t ! v>i\s solidify+ causes1 includ+ ^? above enum]at$1 toge!r ) ! pressure ( incumb5t rocks & ! influ5ce ( subt]ranean heat1 mu/ all ( !m require "t 9 ord] to ex]t _! full p[]4 ,if 9 ! c\rse ( ages !y modify ! aspect & int]nal /ructure ( /ratifi$ deposits1 !y w give rise to a g5]al di/9ctness ( "* 9 ! old] z contra/$ ) ! new] =mations4 ,b ?is di/9ctness w n be ! consequ5ce ( any orig9al div]sity2 !y w be unlike1 j z ! wood 9 ! old] trees ( a =e/ usually diff]s 9 texture & h>dness f t ( y\ng] individuals ( ! same species4 ,transition texture4--,9 ! orig9al classification1 ( ,w]n]1 ! highly cry/all9e rocks1 su* z granite & gneiss1 :i* conta9 no organic rema9s1 7 call$ prim>y1 & ! fossilif]\s /rata second>y1 :ile to ano!r class ( an age int]m$iate betwe5 ! prim>y & second>y he gave ! "n ( transition4 ,!y 7 t]m$ transition because !y p>took 9 "s degree 9 _! m9]al composition ( ! nature ( ! mo/ cry/all9e rocks1 su* z gneiss & mica-s*i/1 :ile !y resembl$ ! fossilif]\s s]ies 9 conta9+ occasionally organic rema9s1 & exhibit+ evid5t signs ( a me*anical orig94 ,x 0 at fir/ imag9$1 t ! rocks hav+ ?is int]m$iate texture _h be5 all deposit$ subsequ5tly to ! s]ies call$ prim>y1 & be=e all ! m e>?y & fossilif]\s =mations4 ,b :5 ! relative position & organic rema9s ( ^! transition rocks 7 bett] und]/ood1 x 0 p]ceiv$ t !y did n all belong to "o p]iod4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! same m9]al *>act]s 7 f\nd 9 /rata ( v diff]5t ages1 & "s =mations occurr+ 9 ! ,alps1 :i* sev]al ( ! able/ s*ol>s ( ,w]n] _h det]m9$ to be transition1 7 ultimately asc]ta9$1 by means ( _! fossil cont5ts & position1 to be memb]s ( ! ,cretace\s1 & ev5 ( ! nummulitic or ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,^! /rata _h1 9 fact1 acquir$ ! transition texture f ! influ5ce ( causes :i*1 s9ce _! deposition _h modifi$ _! int]nal arrangem5t4 ,texture & orig9 ( ,plutonic & metamorphic rocks4--,among ! mo/ s+ul> ( ! *anges sup]9duc$ on rocks1 we h occasionally to include ! slaty texture1 ! divisional planes ( :i* sometimes int]sect ! true planes ( /ratification1 & ev5 pass directly ?r\gh imb$d$ fossils4 ,if1 !n1 ! cry/all9e1 ! slaty1 & o!r modes ( arrangem5t1 once deem$ *>act]i/ic ( c]ta9 p]iods 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?1 h 9 reality be5 assum$ by fossilif]\s rocks ( diff]5t ages & at diff]5t times1 we are prep>$ to inquire :e!r ! same may n be true ( ! mo/ highly cry/all9e /ate1 su* z t ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & /atu>y m>ble4 ,t ! peculi> *>act]i/ics ( su* rocks are really due to a v>iety ( modify+ causes has long be5 suspect$ by _m geologi/s1 & ! doctr9e has ga9$ gr\nd ( late1 al?\gh a consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion /ill prevails4 ,accord+ to ! orig9al ,neptunian !ory1 all ! cry/all9e =mations 7 precipitat$ f a univ]sal m5/ruum or *aotic fluid antec$5tly to ! creation ( animals & plants1 ! un/ratifi$ granite hav+ be5 fir/ ?r[n d[n s z to s]ve z a floor or f\ndation on :i* gneiss & o!r /ratifi$ rocks might repose4 ,aft]w>ds1 :5 ! igne\s orig9 ( granite 0 no long] disput$1 _m conceiv$ t a !rmal ocean envelop$ ! globe1 at a "t :5 ! fir/-=m$ cru/ ( granite 0 cool+1 b :5 x /ill reta9$ mu* ( its heat4 ,! hot wat]s ( ?is ocean held 9 solution ! +r$i5ts ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 clay-slate1 & m>ble1 rocks :i* 7 precipitat$1 "o aft] ! o!r1 9 a cry/all9e =m4 ,no fossils c\ld be inclos$ 9 !m1 ! high temp]ature ( ! fluid & ! quantity ( m9]al matt] :i* x held 9 solution1 r5d]+ x unfit = ! support ( organic be+s4 ,x w\ld be inconsi/5t ) ! plan ( ?is "w to ent] "h into a detail$ acc\nt ( :at ,i h else:]e t]m$ ! metamorphic !ory2#bef b ,i may /ate t x is n[ demon/rable 9 "s c\ntries t fossilif]\s =mations1 "s ( !m ( ! age ( ! ,silurian /rata1 z ne> ,*ri/iana 9 ,norway1 o!rs belong+ to ! ,oolitic p]iod1 z ar\nd ,c>r>a 9 ,italy1 h be5 conv]t$ p>tially into gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & /atu>y m>ble4 ,! transmutation has be5 effect$ app>5tly by ! influ5ce ( subt]ranean heat1 act+ "u great pressure1 or by *emical & electrical causes op]at+ 9 a mann] n yet und]/ood1 & :i* h be5 t]m$ ,plutonic action1 z express+1 9 "o ^w1 all ! modify+ causes :i* may be br\ght into play at great dep?s1 & "u conditions nev] exemplifi$ at ! surface4 ,to ?is ,plutonic action ! fusion ( granite itself 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1 z well z ! sup]9ducem5t ( ! metamorphic texture into s$im5t>y /rata1 mu/ be attribut$2 & 9 accordance ) ^! views ! age ( ea* metamorphic =mation may be said to be tw(old1 = we h fir/ to consid] ! p]iod :5 x orig9at$1 z an aque\s deposit1 9 ! =m ( mud1 s&1 m>l1 or lime/one2 secondly1 ! date at :i* x acquir$ a cry/all9e texture4 ,! same /rata1 !re=e1 may1 accord+ to ?is view1 be v anci5t 9 ref]5ce to ! "t ( _! deposition1 & v mod]n 9 reg>d to ! p]iod ( _! assum+ ! metamorphic "*4 ,no pro(s t ^! cry/all9e rocks 7 produc$ m abundantly at remote p]iods4--,sev]al mod]n writ]s1 )\t d5y+ ! tru? ( ! ,plutonic or metamorphic !ory1 /ill cont5d t ! cry/all9e & non-fossilif]\s =mations1 :e!r /ratifi$ or un/ratifi$1 su* z gneiss & granite1 are ess5tially anci5t z a class ( rocks4 ,!y 7 g5]at$1 say !y1 mo/ abundantly 9 ! primeval /ate ( ! globe1 s9ce :i* "t ! quantity produc$ has be5 always on ! decrease1 until x became v inconsid]able 9 ! ,oolitic & ,cretace\s p]iods1 & q evanesc5t be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ! t]ti>y epo*4 ,n[ ! ju/ness ( ^! views dep5ds almo/ entirely on ! "q :e!r granite1 gneiss1 & o!r rocks ( ! same ord] ev] orig9at$ at ! surface1 or :e!r1 accord+ to ! op9ions above adopt$1 !y are ess5tially subt]ranean 9 _! orig91 & !re=e entitl$ to ! appellation ( hypog5e4 ,if !y 7 =m$ sup]ficially 9 _! pres5t /ate1 & z copi\sly 9 ! mod]n z 9 ! m anci5t p]iods1 we ought to see a great] abundance ( t]ti>y & second>y ?an ( prim>y granite & gneiss2 b if we adopt ! hypog5e !ory be=e expla9$1 _! rapid dim9ution 9 volume among ! visible rocks 9 ! e>?'s cru/ 9 proportion z we inve/igate ! =mations ( new] date1 is q intelligible4 ,if a melt$ mass ( matt] be n[ cool+ v sl[ly at ! dep? ( sev]al miles b5ea? ! crat] ( an active volcano1 x mu/ rema9 invisible until great revolutions 9 ! e>?'s cru/ h be5 br\ght ab\t4 ,s also if /ratifi$ rocks h be5 subject$ to ,plutonic action1 & aft] hav+ be5 bak$ or r$uc$ to semi-fusion1 are n[ cool+ & cry/alliz+ f> "u gr\nd1 x w probably require ! lapse ( _m p]iods be=e !y w be =c$ up to ! surface & expos$ to view1 ev5 at a s+le po9t4 ,to effect ?is purpose !re may be ne$ ( z great a developm5t ( subt]ranean movem5t z t :i* 9 ! ,alps1 ,&es1 & ,himalaya has rais$ m>9e /rata conta9+ ammonites to ! height ( #hjjj1 #ad1jjj1 & #af1jjj feet4 ,by p>ity ( reason+ we c h>dly expect t any hypog5e rocks ( ! t]ti>y p]iods w h be5 br\ght )9 ! rea* ( human obs]vation1 see+ t ! em]g5ce ( su* rocks mu/ always be s long po/]ior to ! date ( _! orig91 & /ill less c =mations ( ?is class become g5]ally visible until s mu* "t has elaps$ z to conf] on !m a high relative antiquity4 ,ext5sive d5udation mu/ also comb9e ) upheaval be=e !y c be display$ at ! surface ?r\gh\t wide areas4 ,all geologi/s :o reflect on subt]ranean movem5ts n[ go+ on1 & ! eruptions ( active volcanoes1 are conv9c$ t great *anges are n[ cont9ually 9 progress 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?'s cru/ f> out ( sight4 ,!y mu/ be consci\s1 !re=e1 t ! inaccessibility ( ! regions 9 :i* ^! alt]ations are tak+ place1 compels !m to rema9 9 ignorance ( a great "p ( ! work+ ( exi/+ causes1 s t !y c only =m vague conjectures 9 reg>d to ! nature ( ! products :i* volcanic heat may elaborate "u great pressure4 ,b :5 !y f9d 9 m\nta9-*a9s ( high antiquity1 t :at 0 once ! int]ior ( ! e>?'s cru/ has s9ce be5 =c$ outw>ds & expos$ to view1 !y w naturally expect 9 ! exam9ation ( ^? m\nta9\s regions1 to h an opportunity ( gratify+ _! curiosity by obta9+ a sight n only ( ! sup]ficial /rata ( remote eras1 b also ( ! contemporane\s ne!r-=m$ rocks4 ,hav+ recogniz$1 !re=e1 9 su* m\nta9-*a9s "s anci5t rocks ( aque\s & volcanic orig91 correspond+ 9 "* to sup]ficial =mations ( mod]n date1 !y w reg>d any o!r class ( anci5t rocks1 su* z granite & gneiss1 z ! residual ph5om5a ( :i* !y are 9 se>*4 ,^! latt] rocks w n answ] ! expectations previ\sly =m$ ( _! probable nature & texture1 unless !y we> a =eign & my/]i\s aspect1 & h 9 "s places be5 fus$ or alt]$ by subt]ranean heat2 9 a ^w1 unless !y diff] :olly f ! fossilif]\s /rata deposit$ at ! surface1 or f ! lava & scoriae ?r[n out by volcanoes 9 ! op5 air4 ,x is ! total di/9ctness1 !re=e1 ( cry/all9e =mations1 su* z granite1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 & ! re/1 f e sub/ance ( :i* ! orig9 is famili> to u1 t con/itutes _! claim to be reg>d$ z ! effects ( causes n[ 9 action 9 ! subt]ranean regions4 ,!y belong n to an ord] ( ?+s :i* has pass$ away2 !y are n ! monum5ts ( a primeval p]iod1 be>+ inscrib$ ^u !m 9 obsolete *>act]s ! words & phrases ( a dead language2 b !y tea* u t "p ( ! liv+ language ( nature1 :i* we _c le>n by our daily int]c\rse ) :at passes on ! habitable surface4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,uni=mity ,,9 ,,! ,,s]ies ,,( ,,pa/ ,,*anges ,,9 ,,! ,,animate ,,& ,,inanimate ,,_w4 ,suppos$ alt]nate p]iods ( repose & disord]--,obs]v$ facts 9 :i* ?is doctr9e has orig9at$--,^! may be expla9$ by suppos+ a uni=m & un9t]rupt$ s]ies ( *anges--,?reefold consid]ation ( ?is subject2 fir/1 9 ref]5ce to ! liv+ creation1 ext9ction ( species1 & orig9 ( new animals & plants2 secondly1 9 ref]5ce to ! *anges produc$ 9 ! e>?'s cru/ by ! cont9uance ( subt]ranean movem5ts 9 c]ta9 areas1 & _! transf]5ce aft] long p]iods to new areas2 ?irdly1 9 ref]5ce to ! laws :i* gov]n ! =mation ( fossilif]\s /rata1 & ! %ift+ ( ! areas ( s$im5t>y deposition--,on ! comb9$ influ5ce ( all ^! modes & causes ( *ange 9 produc+ breaks & *asms 9 ! *a9 ( records--,conclud+ rem>ks on ! id5tity ( ! anci5t & pres5t sy/em ( t]re/rial *anges4 ,orig9 ( ! doctr9e ( alt]nate p]iods ( repose & disord]4--,x has be5 truly obs]v$1 t :5 we arrange ! fossilif]\s =mations 9 *ronological ord]1 !y con/itute a brok5 & defective s]ies ( monum5ts3 we pass )\t any int]m$iate gradations1 f sy/ems ( /rata :i* are horizontal to o!r sy/ems :i* are highly incl9$1 f rocks ( peculi> m9]al composition to o!rs :i* h a "* :olly di/9ct1--f "o assemblage ( organic rema9s to ano!r1 9 :i* frequ5tly all ! species1 & mo/ ( ! g5]a1 are diff]5t4 ,^! violations ( cont9uity are s common1 z to con/itute ! rule r ?an ! exception1 & !y h be5 consid]$ by _m geologi/s z conclusive 9 favor ( sudd5 revolutions 9 ! inanimate & animate _w4 ,accord+ to ! speculations ( "s writ]s1 !re h be5 9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! planet alt]nate p]iods ( tranquillity & convulsion1 ! =m] endur+ = ages1 & resembl+ t /ate ( ?+s n[ exp]i5c$ by man3 ! o!r brief1 transi5t1 & p>oxysmal1 giv+ rise to new m\nta9s1 seas1 & valleys1 annihilat+ "o set ( organic be+s1 & u%]+ 9 ! creation ( ano!r4 ,x w be ! object ( ! pres5t *apt] to demon/rate1 t ^! !oretical views are n borne out by a fair int]pretation ( geological monum5ts4 ,x is true t 9 ! solid framework ( ! globe1 we h a *ronological *a9 ( natural records1 & t _m l9ks 9 ?is *a9 are want+2 b a c>eful consid]ation ( all ! ph5om5a w lead to ! op9ion t ! s]ies 0 orig9ally defective1--t x has be5 r5d]$ /ill m s by "t--t a great "p ( :at rema9s is inaccessible to man1 & ev5 ( t fraction :i* is accessible1 n9e-t5?s are to ?is day unexplor$4 ,h[ ! facts may be expla9$ by assum+ a uni=m s]ies ( *anges4--,! readie/ way1 p]haps1 ( p]suad+ ! read] t we may disp5se ) great & sudd5 revolutions 9 ! geological ord] ( ev5ts1 is by %[+ him h[ a regul> & un9t]rupt$ s]ies ( *anges 9 ! animate & inanimate _w may give rise to su* breaks 9 ! sequ5ce1 & su* uncon=mability ( /ratifi$ rocks1 z are usually ?\ght to imply convulsions & cata/rophes4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to /ate1 t ! ord] ( ev5ts ?us assum$ to occur1 = ! sake ( illu/ration1 mu/ be 9 h>mony ) all ! conclusions legitimately drawn by geologi/s f ! /ructure ( ! e>?1 & mu/ be equally 9 accordance ) ! *anges obs]v$ by man to be n[ go+ on 9 ! liv+ z well z 9 ! inorganic creation4 ,x may be necess>y 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce to supply "s "p ( ! assum$ c\rse ( nature hypo!tically2 b if s1 ?is mu/ be done )\t any violation ( probability1 & always consi/5tly ) ! analogy ( :at is kn[n bo? ( ! pa/ & pres5t economy ( our sy/em4 ,al?\gh ! discussion ( s compreh5sive a subject mu/ c>ry ! beg9n] f> beyond 8 dep?1 x w also1 x is hop$1 /imulate 8 curiosity1 & prep>e him to read "s elem5t>y treatises on geology ) advantage1 & tea* him ! be>+ on t sci5ce ( ! *anges n[ 9 progress on ! e>?4 ,at ! same "t x may enable him ! bett] to und]/& ! intimate connection betwe5 ! second & ?ird books ( ?is "w1 ! =m] ( :i* is occupi$ ) ! *anges 9 ! inorganic1 ! latt] ) ^? ( ! organic creation4 ,9 pursuance1 !n1 ( ! plan above propos$1 ,i %all consid] 9 ?is *apt]1 fir/1 :at may be ! c\rse ( fluctuation 9 ! animate _w2 secondly1 ! mode 9 :i* contemporane\s subt]ranean movem5ts affect ! e>?'s cru/2 &1 ?irdly1 ! laws :i* regulate ! deposition ( s$im5t4 ,,uni=mity ,,( ,,*ange ,,consid]$ ,,fir/ ,,9 ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,! ,,liv+ ,,creation4 ,fir/1 9 reg>d to ! vicissitudes ( ! liv+ creation1 all are agre$ t ! s$im5t>y /rata f\nd 9 ! e>?'s cru/ are divisible into a v>iety ( gr\ps1 m or less dissimil> 9 _! organic rema9s & m9]al composition4 ,! conclusion univ]sally drawn f ! /udy & comp>ison ( ^! fossilif]\s gr\ps is ?is1 t at successive p]iods di/9ct tribes ( animals & plants h inhabit$ ! l& & wat]s1 & t ! organic types ( ! new] =mations are m analog\s to species n[ exi/+1 ?an ^? ( m anci5t rocks4 ,if we !n turn to ! pres5t /ate ( ! animate creation1 & inquire :e!r x has n[ become fix$ & /ation>y1 we discov] t1 on ! contr>y1 x is 9 a /ate ( cont9ual flux--t !re are _m causes 9 action :i* t5d to ! ext9ction ( species1 & :i* are conclusive aga9/ ! doctr9e ( _! unlimit$ durability4 ,b natural hi/ory has be5 successfully cultivat$ = s %ort a p]iod1 t a few examples only ( local1 & p]haps b "o or two ( absolute1 extirpation c z yet be prov$1 & ^! only :]e ! int]f]5ce ( man has be5 conspicu\s4 ,x w nev]!less appe> evid5t1 f ! facts & argum5ts detail$ 9 ! ?ird book 7f ! ?irty-sev5? to ! =ty-second *apt]s1 inclusive7 t man is n ! only ext]m9at+ ag5t2 & t1 indep5d5tly ( 8 int]v5tion1 ! annihilation ( species is promot$ by ! multiplication & gradual diffusion ( e animal or plant4 ,x w also appe>1 t e alt]ation 9 ! physical geography & climate ( ! globe _c fail to h ! same t5d5cy4 ,if we proce$ /ill f>!r1 & inquire :e!r new species are sub/itut$ f "t to "t = ^? :i* die out1 & :e!r !re are c]ta9 laws appo9t$ by ! ,au?or ( ,nature to regulate su* new creations1 we f9d t ! p]iod ( human obs]vation is z yet too %ort to af=d data = det]m9+ s weighty a "q4 ,all t c be done is to %[ t ! successive introduction ( new species may be a con/ant "p ( ! economy ( ! t]re/rial sy/em1 )\t our hav+ any "r to expect t we %\ld be 9 possession ( direct pro( ( ! fact4 ,! appe>ance aga9 & aga9 ( new species may easily h escap$ detection1 s9ce ! numb]s ( kn[n animals & plants h augm5t$ s rapidly )9 ! memory ( p]sons n[ liv+1 z to h d\bl$ 9 "s classes1 & quadrupl$ 9 o!rs4 ,x w also be rem>k$ 9 ! sequel 7book iii4 *ap4 #dc71 t x mu/ always be m easy if species proce$$ orig9ally f s+le /ocks1 to prove t "o :i* =m]ly ab\nd$ 9 a giv5 di/rict has ceas$ to be1 ?an t ano!r has be5 call$ into be+ = ! fir/ "t4 ,if1 !re=e1 !re be z yet only "o or two unequivocal in/ances ( ext9ction1 namely1 ^? ( ! dodo & solitaire 7see *4 #da71 x is sc>cely reasonable z yet to hope t we %\ld be cognizant ( a s+le in/ance ( ! fir/ appe>ance ( a new species4 ,rec5t orig9 ( man1 & gradual approa* 9 ! t]ti>y fossils ( successive p]iods f an ext9ct to ! rec5t fauna4--,! geologi/1 h[ev]1 if requir$ to advance "s fact :i* may l5d c\nt5ance to ! op9ion t 9 ! mo/ mod]n times1 t is to say1 aft] ! great] "p ( ! exi/+ fauna & flora 7 e/abli%$ on ! e>?1 !re has /ill be5 a new species sup]add$1 may po9t to man himself z furni%+ ! requir$ illu/ration--= man mu/ be reg>d$ by ! geologi/ z a creature ( ye/]day1 n m]ely 9 ref]5ce to ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! organic _w1 b also 9 relation to t p>ticul> /ate ( ! animate creation ( :i* he =ms a "p4 ,! comp>atively mod]n introduction ( ! human race is prov$ by ! abs5ce ( ! rema9s ( man & 8 works1 n only f all /rata conta9+ a c]ta9 proportion ( fossil %ells ( ext9ct species1 b ev5 f a l>ge "p ( ! newe/ /rata1 9 :i* all ! fossil individuals are ref]able to species /ill liv+4 ,to enable ! read] to appreciate ! full =ce ( ?is evid5ce1 ,i %all give a slight sket* ( ! in=mation obta9$ f ! new] /rata1 respect+ fluctuations 9 ! animate _w1 9 times imm$iately antec$5t to ! appe>ance ( man4 ,9 trac+ ! s]ies ( fossilif]\s =mations f ! m anci5t to ! m mod]n1 ! fir/ deposits 9 :i* we meet ) assemblages ( organic rema9s1 hav+ a ne> analogy to ! fauna ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ! globe 9 our own "t1 are ^? commonly call$ t]ti>y4 ,ev5 9 ! ,eoc5e1 or olde/ subdivision ( ^! t]ti>y =mations1 "s few ( ! te/acea belong to exi/+ species1 al?\gh almo/ all ( !m1 & app>5tly all ! associat$ v]tebrata1 are n[ ext9ct4 ,^! ,eoc5e /rata are succe$$ by a great numb] ( m mod]n deposits1 :i* dep>t gradually 9 ! "* ( _! fossils f ! ,eoc5e type1 & approa* m & m to t ( ! liv+ creation4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce1 x is *iefly by ! aid ( %ells t we are enabl$ to arrive at ^! results1 = ( all classes ! te/acea are ! mo/ g5]ally diffus$ 9 a fossil /ate1 & may be call$ ! m$als pr9cipally employ$ by nature1 9 record+ ! *ronology ( pa/ ev5ts4 ,9 ! ,mioc5e deposits1 :i* are next 9 succession to ! ,eoc5e1 we beg9 to f9d a consid]able numb]1 al?\gh /ill a m9ority1 ( rec5t species1 int]mix$ ) "s fossils common to ! prec$+ epo*4 ,we !n arrive at ! ,plioc5e /rata1 9 :i* species n[ contempor>y ) man beg9 to prepond]ate1 & 9 ! newe/ ( :i* n9e-t5?s ( ! fossils agree ) species /ill inhabit+ ! neighbor+ sea4 ,9 ?is pass+ f ! old] to ! new] memb]s ( ! t]ti>y sy/em we meet ) _m *asms1 b none :i* sep>ate entirely1 by a broad l9e ( dem>cation1 "o /ate ( ! organic _w f ano!r4 ,!re are no signs ( an abrupt t]m9ation ( "o fauna & flora1 & ! />t+ into life ( new & :olly di/9ct =ms4 ,al?\gh we are f> f be+ able to demon/rate geologically an ins5sible transition f ! ,eoc5e to ! ,mioc5e1 or ev5 f ! latt] to ! rec5t fauna1 yet ! m we enl>ge & p]fect our g5]al survey1 ! m ne>ly d we approximate to su* a cont9u\s s]ies1 & ! m gradually are we conduct$ f times :5 _m ( ! g5]a & ne>ly all ! species 7 ext9ct1 to ^? 9 :i* sc>cely a s+le species fl\ri%$ :i* we d n "k to exi/ at pres5t4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,philippi1 inde$1 aft] an elaborate comp>ison ( ! fossil t]ti>y %ells ( ,sicily ) ^? n[ liv+ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 ann\nces z ! result ( 8 exam9ation t !re are /rata 9 t isl&1 :i* atte/ a v gradual passage f a p]iod1 :5 only ?irte5 9 a hundr$ ( ! %ells 7 l ! species n[ liv+ 9 ! sea1 to an era :5 ! rec5t species _h atta9$ a proportion ( n9ety-five 9 a hundr$4 ,!re is !re=e evid5ce1 he says1 9 ,sicily ( ?is revolution 9 ! animate _w hav+ be5 effect$ )\t ! int]v5tion ( any convulsion or abrupt *anges1 c]ta9 species hav+ f "t to "t di$ out1 & o!rs hav+ be5 introduc$1 until at l5g? ! exi/+ fauna 0 elaborat$4 ,x _h (t5 be5 object$ t ! evid5ce ( fossil species occurr+ 9 two consecutive =mations1 0 conf9$ to ! te/acea or zoophytes1 ! *>act]s ( :i* are less m>k$ & decisive ?an ^? af=d$ by ! v]tebrate animals4 ,b ,mr4 ,ow5 has lately insi/$ on ! important fact1 t n a few ( ! quadrup$s :i* n[ inhabit our isl&1 & among o!rs ! horse1 ! ass1 ! hog1 ! small] wild ox1 ! goat1 ! r$ de]1 ! roe1 ! beav]1 & _m ( ! dim9utive rod5ts1 are ! same z ^? :i* once coexi/$ ) ! mammo?1 ! great nor!rn hippopotamus1 two k9ds ( rh9oc]os1 & o!r mammalia long s9ce ext9ct4 ,a "p1 he obs]ves1 & n ! :ole ( ! mod]n t]ti>y fauna has p]i%$1 & h5ce we may conclude t ! cause ( _! de/ruction has n be5 a viol5t & univ]sal cata/rophe f :i* none c\ld escape4#beg ,_h we discov]$ evid5ce t man _h come into ! e>? at a p]iod z e>ly z t :5 a l>ge numb] ( ! fossil quadrup$s n[ liv+1 & almo/ all ! rec5t species ( l&1 fre%wat]1 & m>9e %ells 7 9 exi/5ce1 we %\ld h be5 compell$ to ascribe a mu* high] antiquity to our species1 ?an ev5 ! bolde/ speculations ( ! e?nologi/ require1 = no small "p ( ! great physical revolution depict$ on ! map ( ,europe 7,pl4 #c71 be=e describ$1 took place v gradually aft] ! rec5t te/acea ab\nd$ almo/ to ! exclusion ( ! ext9ct4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ! deposits call$ ! nor!rn drift1 or ! glacial =mation ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! fossil m>9e %ells c easily be id5tifi$ ) species ei!r n[ inhabit+ ! neighbor+ sea1 or liv+ 9 ! seas ( high] latitudes4 ,yet !y exhibit no memorials ( ! human race1 or ( articles fabricat$ by ! h& ( man4 ,"s ( ! newe/ ( ^! /rata pass+ by ! "n ( rais$ bea*es1 occur at mod]ate elevations on ! coa/ ( ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 & ,irel&4 ,o!r examples are met ) on a m ext5d$ scale 9 ,sc&9avia1 z at ! height ( #bjj feet at ,uddevalla 9 ,sw$51 & at twice t elevation1 ne> ,*ri/iana1 9 ,norway1 also at an altitude ( #fjj or #gjj feet 9 places f>!r nor?4 ,!y consi/ ( b$s ( s& & clay1 fill+ holl[s 9 a di/rict ( granite & gneiss1 & !y mu/ closely resemble ! accumulations ( %elly matt] n[ 9 progress at ! bottom ( ! ,norwegian fiords4 ,! rate at :i* ! l& is n[ ris+ 9 ,sc&9avia1 is f> too irregul> 9 diff]5t places to af=d a safe /&>d = e/imat+ ! m9imum ( "t requir$ = ! upheaval ( ! fundam5tal granite1 & its m>9e %elly cov]+1 to ! height ( s _m hundr$ feet2 b accord+ to ! greate/ av]age1 ( five or six feet 9 a c5tury1 ! p]iod requir$ w\ld be v consid]able1 & ne>ly ! :ole ( x1 z well z ! antec$5t epo* ( subm]g5ce1 seems to h prec$$ ! introduction ( man into ^! p>ts ( ! e>?4 ,!re are o!r po/-t]ti>y =mations ( fluviatile orig91 9 ! c5tre ( ,europe1 9 :i* ! abs5ce ( human rema9s is p]haps /ill m /rik+1 because1 :5 =m$1 !y mu/ h be5 surr\nd$ by dry l&4 ,i allude to ! silt or loess ( ! bas9 ( ! ,rh9e1 :i* mu/ h gradually fill$ up ! great valley ( t riv] s9ce ! "t :5 its wat]s1 & ! contigu\s l&s1 7 inhabit$ by ! exi/+ species ( fre%wat] & t]re/rial mollusks4 ,%[]s ( a%es1 ?r[n out by "s ( ! la/ eruptions ( ! ,eifel volcanoes1 fell dur+ ! deposition ( ?is fluviatile silt1 & 7 int]/ratifi$ ) x4 ,b ^! volcanoes became exhau/$1 ! valley 0 re-excavat$ ?r\gh ! silt1 & aga9 r$uc$ to its pres5t =m be=e ! p]iod ( human hi/ory4 ,! /udy1 !re=e1 ( ?is %elly silt reveals to u ! hi/ory ( a long s]ies ( ev5ts1 :i* occurr$ aft] ! te/acea n[ liv+ inhabit$ ! l& & riv]s ( ,europe1 & ! :ole t]m9at$ )\t any signs ( ! com+ ( man into t "p ( ! globe4 ,to cite a /ill m rem>kable example1 we obs]ve 9 ,sicily a l(ty table-l& & hills1 sometimes ris+ to ! height ( #cjjj feet1 capp$ ) a lime/one1 9 :i* f #gj to #he p] c5t4 ( ! fossil te/acea are specifically id5tical ) ^? n[ inhabit+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,^! calc>e\s & o!r argillace\s /rata ( ! same age are int]sect$ by deep valleys :i* h be5 gradually =m$ by d5udation1 b h n v>i$ mat]ially 9 wid? or dep? s9ce ,sicily 0 fir/ coloniz$ by ! ,greeks4 ,! lime/one1 moreov]1 :i* is ( s late a date 9 geological *ronology1 0 qu>ri$ = build+ ^? anci5t temples ( ,girg5ti & ,syracuse1 ( :i* ! ru9s c>ry u back to a remote era 9 human hi/ory4 ,if we are lo/ 9 conjectures :5 speculat+ on ! ages requir$ to lift up ^! =mations to ! height ( sev]al ?\s& feet above ! sea1 h[ mu* m remote mu/ be ! era :5 ! same rocks 7 gradually =m$ b5ea? ! wat]s6 ,to conclude1 x appe>s t1 9 go+ back f ! rec5t to ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 we are c>ri$ by _m successive /eps f ! fauna n[ contempor>y ) man to an assemblage ( fossil species :olly diff]5t f ^? n[ liv+4 ,9 ?is retrospect we h n yet succe$$ 9 trac+ back a p]fect transition f ! rec5t to an ext9ct fauna2 b !re are usually s _m species 9 common to ! gr\ps :i* /& next 9 succession z to %[ t !re is no great *asm1 no signs ( a crisis :5 "o class ( organic be+s 0 annihilat$ to give place sudd5ly to ano!r4 ,?is analogy1 !re=e1 d]iv$ f a p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory :i* c be/ be comp>$ ) ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 & m ?or\ghly inve/igat$ ?an any o!r1 leads to ! conclusion t ! ext9ction & creation ( species1 has be5 & is ! result ( a sl[ & gradual *ange 9 ! organic _w4 ,,uni=mity ,,( ,,*ange ,,consid]$1 ,,secondly1 ,,9 ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,subt]ranean ,,movem5ts4 ,to pass on to ano!r ( ! ?ree topics be=e propos$ = discussion1 ! read] w f9d1 9 ! acc\nt giv5 9 ! second book ( ! e>?quakes record$ 9 hi/ory1 t c]ta9 c\ntries h1 f "t immemorial1 be5 rudely %ak5 aga9 & aga91 :ile o!rs1 compris+ by f> ! l>ge/ "p ( ! globe1 h rema9$ to all appe>ance motionless4 ,9 ! regions ( convulsion rocks h be5 r5t asund]1 ! surface has be5 =c$ up into ridges1 *asms h op5$1 or ! gr\nd ?r\gh\t l>ge spaces has be5 p]man5tly lift$ up above or let d[n bel[ its =m] level4 ,9 ! regions ( tranquillity "s areas h rema9$ at re/1 b o!rs h be5 asc]ta9$ by a comp>ison ( measurem5ts1 made at diff]5t p]iods1 to h ris5 by an ins5sible motion1 z 9 ,sw$51 or to h subsid$ v sl[ly1 z 9 ,gre5l&4 ,t ^! same movem5ts1 :e!r asc5d+ or desc5d+1 h cont9u$ = ages 9 ! same direction has be5 e/abli%$ by geological evid5ce4 ,?us1 we f9d bo? on ! ea/ & we/ coa/ ( ,sw$51 t gr\nd :i* =m]ly con/itut$ ! bottom ( ! ,baltic & ( ! ocean has be5 lift$ up to an elevation ( sev]al hundr$ feet above high-wat] m>k4 ,! rise )9 ! hi/orical p]iod has n am\nt$ to _m y>ds1 b ! great] ext5t ( antec$5t upheaval is prov$ by ! occurr5ce 9 inl& spots1 sev]al hundr$ feet high1 ( deposits fill$ ) fossil %ells ( species n[ liv+ ei!r 9 ! ocean or ! ,baltic4 ,to detect pro(s ( sl[ & gradual subsid5ce mu/ 9 g5]al be m difficult2 b ! !ory :i* acc\nts = ! =m ( circul> coral reefs & lagoon isl&s1 & :i* w be expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ! ?ird book1 w satisfy ! read] t !re are spaces on ! globe1 sev]al ?\s& miles 9 circumf]5ce1 ?r\gh\t :i* ! d[nw>d movem5t has pr$om9at$ = ages1 & yet ! l& has nev]1 9 a s+le in/ance1 gone d[n sudd5ly = sev]al hundr$ feet at once4 ,yet geology demon/rates t ! p]si/5cy ( subt]ranean movem5ts 9 "o direction has n be5 p]petual ?r\gh\t all pa/ "t4 ,!re h be5 great oscillations ( level by :i* a surface ( dry l& has be5 subm]g$ to a dep? ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 & !n at a p]iod long subsequ5t rais$ aga9 & made to em]ge4 ,nor h ! regions n[ motionless be5 always at re/2 & "s ( ^? :i* are at pres5t ! !atres ( reit]at$ e>?quakes h =m]ly enjoy$ a long cont9uance ( tranquillity4 ,b al?\gh di/urbances h ceas$ aft] hav+ long prevail$1 or h recomm5c$ aft] a susp5sion = ages1 !re has be5 no univ]sal disruption ( ! e>?'s cru/ or desolation ( ! surface s9ce times ! mo/ remote4 ,! non-occurr5ce ( su* a g5]al convulsion is prov$ by ! p]fect horizontally n[ reta9$ by "s ( ! mo/ anci5t fossilif]\s /rata ?r\gh\t wide areas4 ,inf]5ces d]iv$ f uncon=mable /rata4--,t ! subt]ranean =ces h visit$ diff]5t p>ts ( ! globe at successive p]iods1 is inf]r$ *iefly f ! uncon=mability ( /rata belong+ to gr\ps ( diff]5t ages4 ,?us1 = example1 on ! bord]s ( ,wales & ,%rop%ire we f9d ! slaty b$s ( ! anci5t ,silurian sy/em curv$ & v]tical1 :ile ! b$s ( ! ov]ly+ c>bonif]\s %ale & s&/one are horizontal4 ,all are agre$1 t 9 su* a case ! old] set ( /rata _h suff]$ great dislocation be=e ! deposition ( ! new] or c>bonif]\s b$s1 & t ^! la/ h nev] s9ce be5 convuls$ by any movem5ts ( excessive viol5ce4 ,b ! /rata ( ! inf]ior gr\p suff]$ only a local d]angem5t1 & rocks ( ! same age are by no means f\nd ev]y:]e 9 a curv$ or v]tical position4 ,9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,europe1 & p>ticul>ly ne> ,lake ,w5] 9 ! s\? ( ,sw$51 & 9 _m p>ts ( ,russia1 b$s ( ! same ,silurian sy/em ma9ta9 ! mo/ p]fect horizontality2 & a simil> obs]vation may be made respect+ lime/ones & %ales ( ! l antiquity 9 ! great lake di/rict ( ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y are /ill z flat & horizontal z :5 fir/ =m$2 yet s9ce _! orig9 n only h mo/ ( ! actual m\nta9-*a9s be5 uplift$1 b ! v rocks ( :i* ^? m\nta9s are compos$ h be5 =m$4 ,x w\ld be easy to multiply in/ances ( simil> uncon=mability 9 =mations ( o!r ages2 b a few m w suffice4 ,! coal measures be=e allud$ to z horizontal on ! bord]s ( ,wales are v]tical 9 ! ,m5dip ,hills 9 ,som]set%ire1 :]e ! ov]ly+ b$s ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one are horizontal4 ,aga91 9 ! ,wolds ( ,york%ire ! la/ m5tion$ s&/one supports on its curv$ & incl9$ b$s ! horizontal ,*alk4 ,! ,*alk aga9 is v]tical on ! flanks ( ! ,pyr5ees1 & ! t]ti>y /rata repose uncon=mably ^u x4 ,consi/5cy ( local di/urbances ) g5]al uni=mity4--,z almo/ e c\ntry supplies illu/rations ( ! same ph5om5a1 !y :o advocate ! doctr9e ( alt]nate p]iods ( disord] & repose may appeal to ! facts above describ$1 z prov+ t e di/rict has be5 by turns convuls$ by e>?quakes & !n respit$ = ages f convulsions4 ,b s x might ) equal tru? be affirm$ t e "p ( ,europe has be5 visit$ alt]nately by w9t] & summ]1 al?\gh x has always be5 w9t] & always summ] 9 "s "p ( ! planet1 & nei!r ( ^! seasons has ev] reign$ simultane\sly ov] ! entire globe4 ,!y h be5 always %ift+ ab\t f place to place2 b ! vicissitudes :i* recur ?us annually 9 a s+le spot are nev] all[$ to int]f]e ) ! inv>iable uni=mity ( seasons ?r\gh\t ! :ole planet4 ,s1 9 reg>d to subt]ranean movem5ts1 ! !ory ( ! p]petual uni=mity ( ! =ce :i* !y ex]t on ! e>?'s cru/ is q consi/5t ) ! admission ( _! alt]nate developm5t & susp5sion = indef9ite p]iods )9 limit$ geographical areas4 ,,uni=mity ,,( ,,*ange ,,consid]$1 ,,?irdly1 ,,9 ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,s$im5t>y ,,deposition4 ,x n[ rema9s to speak ( ! laws gov]n+ ! deposition ( new /rata4 ,if we survey ! surface ( ! globe we imm$iately p]ceive t x is divisible into areas ( deposition & non-deposition1 or1 9 o!r words1 at any giv5 "t !re are spaces :i* are ! recipi5ts1 o!rs :i* are n ! recipi5ts ( s$im5t>y matt]4 ,no new /rata1 = example1 are ?r[n d[n on dry l&1 :i* rema9s ! same f ye> to ye>2 :]eas1 9 _m p>ts ( ! bottom ( seas & lakes1 mud1 s&1 & pebbles are annually spread out by riv]s & curr5ts4 ,!re are also great masses ( lime/one gr[+ 9 "s seas1 or 9 mid-ocean1 *iefly compos$ ( corals & %ells4 ,no s$im5t deposit$ on dry l&4--,z to ! dry l&1 s f> f be+ ! receptacle ( fre% accessions ( matt]1 x is expos$ almo/ ev]y:]e to wa/e away4 ,=e/s may be z d5se & l(ty z ^? ( ,brazil1 & may sw>m ) quadrup$s1 birds1 & insects1 yet at ! end ( t5 ?\s& ye>s "o lay] ( black m\ld1 a few in*es ?ick1 may be ! sole repres5tative ( ^? myriads ( trees1 leaves1 fl[]s1 & fruits1 ^? innum]able bones & skeletons ( birds1 quadrup$s1 & reptiles1 :i* t5ant$ ! f]tile region4 ,%\ld ?is l& be at l5g? subm]g$1 ! waves ( ! sea may wa% away 9 a few h\rs ! scanty cov]+ ( m\ld1 & x may m]ely imp>t a d>k] %ade ( color to ! next /ratum ( m>l1 s&1 or o!r matt] newly ?r[n d[n4 ,s also at ! bottom ( ! ocean :]e no s$im5t is accumulat+1 sea-we$1 zoophytes1 fi%1 & ev5 %ells1 may multiply = ages & decompose1 leav+ no ve/ige ( _! =m or sub/ance beh9d4 ,_! decay1 9 wat]1 al?\gh m sl[1 is z c]ta9 & ev5tually z complete z 9 ! op5 air4 ,nor c !y be p]petuat$ = indef9ite p]iods 9 a fossil /ate1 unless imb$d$ 9 "s matrix :i* is imp]vi\s to wat]1 or :i* at lea/ does n all[ a free p]colation ( t fluid1 impregnat$ z x usually is1 ) a slight quantity ( c>bonic or o!r acid4 ,su* a free p]colation may be prev5t$ ei!r by ! m9]al nature ( ! matrix itself1 or by ! sup]position ( an imp]meable /ratum3 b if unimp$$1 ! fossil %ell or bone w be dissolv$ & remov$1 p>ticle aft] p>ticle1 & ?us entirely effac$1 unless petrifaction or ! sub/itution ( m9]al = organic matt] happ5 to take place4 ,t !re has be5 l& z well z sea at all =m] geological p]iods1 we "k f ! fact1 t fossil trees & t]re/rial plants are imb$d$ 9 rocks ( e age4 ,occasionally lacu/r9e & fluviatile %ells1 insects1 or ! bones ( amphibi\s or l& reptiles1 po9t to ! same conclusion4 ,! exi/5ce ( dry l& at all p]iods ( ! pa/ implies1 z be=e m5tion$1 ! p>tial deposition ( s$im5t1 or its limitation to c]ta9 areas2 & ! next po9t to :i* ,i %all call ! read]'s att5tion1 is ! %ift+ ( ^! areas f "o region to ano!r4 ,fir/1 !n1 v>iations 9 ! site ( s$im5t>y deposition are br\ght ab\t indep5d5tly ( subt]ranean movem5ts4 ,!re is always a slight *ange f ye> to ye>1 or f c5tury to c5tury4 ,! s$im5t ( ! ,rhone1 = example1 ?r[n into ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 is n[ convey$ to a spot a mile & a half di/ant f t :]e x accumulat$ 9 ! t5? c5tury1 & six miles f ! po9t :]e ! delta began orig9ally to =m4 ,we may look =w>d to ! p]iod :5 ?is lake w be fill$ up1 & !n ! di/ribution ( ! transport$ matt] w be sudd5ly alt]$1 = ! mud & s& br\ght d[n f ! ,alps w !nce=?1 in/ead ( be+ deposit$ ne> ,g5eva1 be c>ri$ ne>ly #bjj miles s\?w>ds1 :]e ! ,rhone ent]s ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,9 ! deltas ( l>ge riv]s1 su* z ^? ( ! ,ganges & ,indus1 ! mud is fir/ c>ri$ d[n = _m c5turies ?r\gh "o arm1 & on ?is be+ /opp$ up x is dis*>g$ by ano!r1 & may !n ent] ! sea at a po9t #ej or #ajj miles di/ant f its fir/ receptacle4 ,! direction ( m>9e curr5ts is also liable to be *ang$ by v>i\s accid5ts1 z by ! heap+ up ( new s&-banks1 or ! we>+ away ( cliffs & promontories4 ,b1 secondly1 all ^! causes ( fluctuation 9 ! s$im5t>y areas are entirely subord9ate to ^? great upw>d or d[nw>d movem5ts ( l& :i* h be5 already describ$ z prevail+ ov] l>ge tracts ( ! globe4 ,by su* elevation or subsid5ce c]ta9 spaces are gradually subm]g$1 or made gradually to em]ge3--9 ! "o case s$im5t>y deposition may be sudd5ly r5ew$ aft] hav+ be5 susp5d$ = ages1 9 ! o!r z sudd5ly made to cease aft] hav+ cont9u$ = an indef9ite p]iod4 ,causes ( v>iation 9 m9]al "* ( successive s$im5t>y gr\ps4--,if deposition be r5ew$ aft] a long int]val1 ! new /rata w usually diff] greatly f ! s$im5t>y rocks previ\sly =m$ 9 ! same place1 & especially if ! old] rocks h suff]$ d]angem5t1 :i* implies a *ange 9 ! physical geography ( ! di/rict s9ce ! previ\s conveyance ( s$im5t to ! same spot4 ,x may happ51 h[ev]1 t1 ev5 :5 ! inf]ior gr\p is horizontal & con=mable to ! upp] /rata1 ^! la/ may /ill diff] entirely 9 m9]al "*1 because s9ce ! orig9 ( ! old] =mation ! geography ( "s di/ant c\ntry has be5 alt]$4 ,9 t c\ntry rocks be=e conceal$ may h become expos$ by d5udation2 volcanoes may h bur/ out & cov]$ ! surface ) scoriae & lava1 or new lakes may h be5 =m$ by subsid5ce2 & o!r fluctuations may h occurr$1 by :i* ! mat]ials br\ght d[n f !nce by riv]s to ! sea h acquir$ a di/9ct m9]al "*4 ,x is well kn[n t ! /ream ( ! ,mississippi is *>g$ ) s$im5t ( a diff]5t color f t ( ! ,arkansas & ,r$ ,riv]s1 :i* are t+$ ) r$ mud1 d]iv$ f rocks ( porphyry 9 ! f> we/4 ,! wat]s ( ! ,uruguay1 says ,d>w91 dra9+ a granitic c\ntry1 are cle> & black1 ^? ( ! ,p>ana1 r$4#beh ,! mud ) :i* ! ,indus is load$1 says ,burnes1 is ( a clayey hue1 t ( ! ,*5ab1 on ! o!r h&1 is r$di%1 t ( ! ,sutlej is m pale4#bei ,! same causes :i* make ^! sev]al riv]s1 sometimes situat$ at no great di/ance ! "o f ! o!r1 to diff] greatly 9 ! "* ( _! s$im5t1 w make ! wat]s dra9+ ! same c\ntry at diff]5t epo*s1 especially be=e & aft] great revolutions 9 physical geography1 to be entirely dissimil>4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to add1 t m>9e curr5ts w be affect$ 9 an analog\s mann] 9 consequ5ce ( ! =mation ( new %oals1 ! em]g5ce ( new isl&s1 ! subsid5ce ( o!rs1 ! gradual wa/e ( neighbor+ coa/s1 ! gr[? ( new deltas1 ! increase ( coral reefs1 & o!r *anges4 ,:y successive s$im5t>y gr\ps conta9 di/9ct fossils4--,if1 9 ! next place1 we assume1 = reasons be=e /at$1 a cont9ual ext9ction ( species & introduction ( o!rs into ! globe1 x w !n foll[ t ! fossils ( /rata =m$ at two di/ant p]iods on ! same spot1 w diff] ev5 m c]ta9ly ?an ! m9]al composition ( ! same4 ,= rocks ( ! same k9d h sometimes be5 reproduc$ 9 ! same di/rict aft] a long int]val ( "t1 :]eas !re are no facts lead+ to ! op9ion t species :i* h once di$ out h ev] be5 reproduc$4 ,! subm]g5ce !n ( l& mu/ be (t5 att5d$ by ! comm5cem5t ( a new class ( s$im5t>y deposits1 *>act]iz$ by a new set ( fossil animals & plants1 :ile ! reconv]sion ( ! b$ ( ! sea into l& may arre/ at once & = an indef9ite "t ! =mation ( geological monum5ts4 ,%\ld ! l& aga9 s9k1 /rata w aga9 be =m$2 b "o or _m entire revolutions 9 animal or vegetable life may h be5 complet$ 9 ! int]val4 ,conditions requisite = ! orig9al complet5ess ( a fossilif]\s s]ies4--,if we inf]1 = reasons be=e expla9$1 t fluctuations 9 ! animate _w are br\ght ab\t by ! sl[ & successive removal & creation ( species1 we %all be conv9c$ t a r>e comb9ation ( circum/ances alone c give rise to su* a s]ies ( /rata z w be> te/imony to a gradual passage f "o /ate ( organic life to ano!r4 ,to produce su* /rata no?+ less w be requisite ?an ! =tunate co9cid5ce ( ! foll[+ conditions3 fir/1 a nev]-fail+ supply ( s$im5t 9 ! same region ?r\gh\t a p]iod ( va/ duration2 secondly1 ! fitness ( ! deposit 9 e "p = ! p]man5t pres]vation ( imb$d$ fossils2 &1 ?irdly1 a gradual subsid5ce to prev5t ! sea or lake f be+ fill$ up & conv]t$ into l&4 ,x w appe> 9 ! *apt] on coral reefs1#bfj t1 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ,pacific & ,indian ,oceans1 mo/ ( ^! conditions1 if n all1 are compli$ )1 & ! con/ant gr[? ( coral1 keep+ pace ) ! s9k+ ( ! bottom ( ! sea1 seems to h gone on s sl[ly1 = su* indef9ite p]iods1 t ! signs ( a gradual *ange 9 organic life might probably be detect$ 9 t qu>t] ( ! globe1 if we c\ld explore its subm>9e geology4 ,in/ead ( ! gr[? ( corall9e lime/one1 let u suppose1 9 "s o!r place1 ! cont9u\s deposition ( fluviatile mud & s&1 su* z ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra h p\r$ = ?\s&s ( ye>s into ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4 ,"p ( ?is bay1 al?\gh ( consid]able dep?1 might at l5g? be fill$ up be=e an appreciable am\nt ( *ange 0 effect$ 9 ! fi%1 mollusca1 & o!r inhabitants ( ! sea & neighbor+ l&4 ,b1 if ! bottom be l[]$ by s9k+ at ! same rate t x is rais$ by fluviatile mud1 ! bay c nev] be turn$ into dry l&4 ,9 t case "o new lay] ( matt] may be sup]impos$ ^u ano!r = a ?ickness ( _m ?\s& feet1 & ! fossils ( ! inf]ior b$s may diff] greatly f ^? entomb$ 9 ! upp]mo/1 yet e int]m$iate gradation may be indicat$ 9 ! passage f an old] to a new] assemblage ( species4 ,grant+1 h[ev]1 t su* an unbrok5 sequ5ce ( monum5ts may ?us be elaborat$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! sea1 & t ! /rata happ5 to be all ( !m well adapt$ to pres]ve ! includ$ fossils f decomposition1 h[ _m accid5ts mu/ /ill concur be=e ^! subm>9e =mations w be laid op5 to our inve/igation6 ,! :ole deposit mu/ fir/ be rais$ sev]al ?\s& feet1 9 ord] to br+ into view ! v f\ndation2 & dur+ ! process ( exposure ! sup]ior b$s mu/ n be entirely swept away by d5udation4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! *ances are z ?ree to "o aga9/ ! m]e em]g5ce ( ! mass above ! wat]s1 because ?ree-f\r?s ( ! globe are cov]$ by ! ocean4 ,b if x be upheav$ & made to con/itute "p ( ! dry l&1 x mu/ also1 be=e x c be available = our in/ruction1 become "p ( t area already survey$ by geologi/s2 & ?is area compreh5ds p]haps less ?an a t5? ( ! :ole e>?4 ,9 ?is small fraction ( l& already explor$1 & /ill v imp]fectly kn[n1 we are requir$ to f9d a set ( /rata1 orig9ally ( limit$ ext5t1 & probably mu* less5$ by subsequ5t d5udation4 ,yet x is precisely because we d n enc\nt] at e /ep ! evid5ce ( su* gradations f "o /ate ( ! organic _w to ano!r1 t s _m geologi/s embrace ! doctr9e ( great & sudd5 revolutions 9 ! hi/ory ( ! animate _w4 ,n cont5t ) simply avail+ !mselves1 = ! conv5i5ce ( classification1 ( ^? gaps & *asms :i* "h & !re int]rupt ! cont9uity ( ! *ronological s]ies1 z at pres5t kn[n1 !y d$uce1 f ! frequ5cy ( ^! breaks 9 ! *a9 ( records1 an irregul> mode ( succession 9 ! ev5ts !mselves bo? 9 ! organic & inorganic _w4 ,b1 besides t "s l9ks ( ! *a9 :i* once exi/$ are n[ cle>ly lo/ & o!rs conceal$ f view1 we h good reason to suspect t x 0 nev] complete orig9ally4 ,x may und\bt$ly be said1 t /rata h be5 always =m+ some:]e1 & !re=e at e mom5t ( pa/ "t nature has add$ a page to h] ar*ives2 b1 9 ref]5ce to ?is subject1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t we c nev] hope to compile a consecutive hi/ory by ga!r+ toge!r monum5ts :i* 7 orig9ally deta*$ & scatt]$ ov] ! globe4 ,= z ! species ( organic be+s contemporane\sly inhabit+ remote regions are di/9ct1 ! fossils ( ! fir/ ( sev]al p]iods :i* may be pres]v$ 9 any "o c\ntry1 z 9 ,am]ica1 = example1 w h no connection ) ^? ( a second p]iod f\nd 9 ,india1 & w !re=e no m enable u to trace ! signs ( a gradual *ange 9 ! liv+ creation1 ?an a fragm5t ( ,*9ese hi/ory w fill up a blank 9 ! political annals ( ,europe4 ,! abs5ce ( any deposits ( importance conta9+ rec5t %ells 9 ,*ili1 or any:]e on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 naturally l$ ,mr4 ,d>w9 to ! conclusion t :]e ! b$ ( ! sea is ei!r /ation>y or ris+1 circum/ances are f> less favorable ?an :]e ! level is s9k+ to ! accumulation ( con*if]\s /rata ( suffici5t ?ickness & ext5sion to resi/ ! av]age va/ am\nt ( d5udation4#bfa ,an exam9ation ( ! sup]ficial clay1 s&1 & gravel ( ! mo/ mod]n date 9 ,norway & ,sw$51 :]e ! l& is also ris+1 w\ld incl9e u to admit a simil> proposition4 ,yet 9 ^! cases !re has be5 a supply ( s$im5t f ! wa/e ( ! coa/ & ! int]ior1 especially 9 ,patagonia & ,*ili4 ,nev]!less :]ev] ! bottom ( ! sea has be5 cont9ually elevat$1 ! total ?ickness ( s$im5t>y matt] accumulat+ at dep?s suit$ to ! habitation ( mo/ ( ! species ( %ells c nev] be great1 nor c ! deposits be ?ickly cov]$ by sup]9cumb5t matt]1 s z to be consolidat$ by pressure4 ,:5 !y are upheav$1 !re=e1 ! waves on ! bea* w be> d[n & disp]se ! loose mat]ials2 :]eas if ! b$ ( ! sea subsides sl[ly1 a mass ( /rata conta9+ abundance ( su* species z live at mod]ate dep?s may increase 9 ?ickness to any am\nt1 & may ext5d ov] a broad area1 z ! wat] gradually encroa*es on ! l&4 ,if1 !n1 at p>ticul> p]iods1 z 9 ! ,mioc5e epo*1 = example1 bo? 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 contemporane\s %elly deposits h orig9at$1 & h be5 pres]v$ at v di/ant po9ts1 x may arise f ! preval5ce at t p]iod ( simultane\s subsid5ce ?r\gh\t v wide areas4 ,! abs5ce 9 ! same qu>t]s ( ! globe ( /rata m>k+ ! ages :i* imm$iately succe$$1 may be acc\nt$ = by suppos+ t ! level ( ! b$ ( ! sea & ! adjo9+ l& 0 /ation>y or 0 und]go+ sl[ upheaval4 ,h[ f> "s ( ! great violations ( cont9uity :i* n[ exi/ 9 ! *ronological table ( fossilif]\s rocks1 w h]eaft] be remov$ or less5$1 mu/ at pres5t be m]e matt] ( conjecture4 ,! hiatus :i* exi/s 9 ,great ,brita9 betwe5 ! fossils ( ! ,lias & ^? ( ! ,magnesian ,lime/one1 is suppli$ 9 ,g]many by ! ri* fauna & flora ( ! ,mus*elkalk1 ,keup]1 & ,bunt] ,s&/e91 :i* we "k to be ( a date precisely int]m$iate2 ^? ?ree =mations be+ int]pos$ 9 ,g]many betwe5 o!rs :i* agree p]fectly 9 _! organic rema9s ) our ,lias & ,magnesian ,lime/one4 ,until lately ! fossils ( ! ,coal-measures 7 sep>at$ f ^? ( ! antec$5t ,silurian gr\p by a v abrupt & decid$ l9e ( dem>cation2 b rec5t discov]ies h br\ght to light 9 ,devon%ire1 ,belgium1 ! ,eifel1 & ,we/phalia1 ! rema9s ( a fauna ( an int]v5+ p]iod4 ,?is connect+ l9k is furni%$ by ! fossil %ells1 fi%1 & corals ( ! ,devonian or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one gr\p1 & "s species ( ?is newly int]calat$ fauna are f\nd to be common to x & ! subjac5t ,silurian rocks1 :ile o!r species belong to x 9 common ) ! ,coal-measures4 ,we h also 9 l mann] _h "s success ( late ye>s 9 dim9i%+ ! hiatus :i* /ill sep>ates ! ,cretace\s & ,eoc5e p]iods 9 ,europe4 ,/ill we mu/ expect1 = reasons be=e /at$1 t "s su* *asms w =ev] cont9ue to occur 9 "s p>ts ( our s$im5t>y s]ies4 ,consi/5cy ( ! !ory ( gradual *ange ) ! exi/5ce ( great breaks 9 ! s]ies4--,to return to ! g5]al argum5t pursu$ 9 ?is *apt]1 x is assum$1 = reasons above expla9$1 t a sl[ *ange ( species is 9 simultane\s op]ation ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t ! habitable surface ( sea & l&2 :]eas ! fossilization ( plants & animals is conf9$ to ^? areas :]e new /rata are produc$4 ,^! areas1 z we h se51 are always %ift+ _! position2 s t ! fossiliz+ process1 by means ( :i* ! commemoration ( ! p>ticul> /ate ( ! organic _w1 at any giv5 "t1 is affect$1 may be said to move ab\t1 visit+ & revisit+ diff]5t tracts 9 succession4 ,to make /ill m cle> ! suppos$ work+ ( ?is ma*9]y1 ,i %all comp>e x to a some:at analog\s case t might be imag9$ to occur 9 ! hi/ory ( human affairs4 ,let ! mortality ( ! population ( a l>ge c\ntry repres5t ! successive ext9ction ( species1 & ! bir?s ( new individuals ! introduction ( new species4 ,:ile ^! fluctuations are gradually tak+ place ev]y:]e1 suppose commission]s to be appo9t$ to visit ea* prov9ce ( ! c\ntry 9 succession1 tak+ an exact acc\nt ( ! numb]1 names1 & individual peculi>ities ( all ! inhabitants1 & leav+ 9 ea* di/rict a regi/] conta9+ a record ( ?is in=mation4 ,if1 aft] ! completion ( "o c5sus1 ano!r is imm$iately made on ! same plan1 & !n ano!r1 !re w1 at la/1 be a s]ies ( /ati/ical docum5ts 9 ea* prov9ce4 ,:5 ^? belong+ to any "o prov9ce are arrang$ 9 *ronological ord]1 ! cont5ts ( su* z /& next to ea* o!r w diff] accord+ to ! l5g? ( ! int]vals ( "t betwe5 ! tak+ ( ea* c5sus4 ,if1 = example1 !re are sixty prov9ces1 & all ! regi/]s are made 9 a s+le ye>1 & r5ew$ annually1 ! numb] ( bir?s & dea?s w be s small1 9 proportion to ! :ole ( ! inhabitants1 dur+ ! int]val betwe5 ! compil+ ( ! two consecutive docum5ts1 t ! individuals describ$ 9 su* docum5ts w be ne>ly id5tical2 :]eas1 if ! survey ( ea* ( ! sixty prov9ces occupies all ! commission]s = a :ole ye>1 s t !y are unable to revisit ! same place until ! expiration ( sixty ye>s1 !re w !n be an almo/ entire discordance betwe5 ! p]sons enum]at$ 9 two consecutive regi/]s 9 ! same prov9ce4 ,!re are1 und\bt$ly1 o!r causes besides ! m]e quantity ( "t1 :i* may augm5t or dim9i% ! am\nt ( discrepancy4 ,?us1 at "s p]iods a pe/il5tial disease may h less5$ ! av]age duration ( human life1 or a v>iety ( circum/ances may h caus$ ! bir?s to be unusually num]\s1 & ! population to multiply2 or1 a prov9ce may be sudd5ly coloniz$ by p]sons migrat+ f surr\nd+ di/ricts4 ,^! exceptions may be comp>$ to ! accel]at$ rate ( fluctuation 9 ! fauna & flora ( a p>ticul> region1 9 :i* ! climate & physical geography may be und]go+ an extraord9>y degree ( alt]ation4 ,b ,i mu/ rem9d ! read]1 t ! case above propos$ has no pret5sions to be reg>d$ z an exact p>allel to ! geological ph5om5a :i* ,i desire to illu/rate2 = ! commission]s are suppos$ to visit ! diff]5t prov9ces 9 rotation2 :]eas ! commemorat+ processes by :i* organic rema9s become fossiliz$1 al?\gh !y are always %ift+ f "o area to ! o!r1 are yet v irregul> 9 _! movem5ts4 ,!y may ab&on & revisit _m spaces aga9 & aga9 be=e !y once approa* ano!r di/rict2 &1 besides ?is s\rce ( irregul>ity1 x may (t5 happ5 t1 :ile ! deposit+ process is susp5d$1 d5udation may take place1 :i* may be comp>$ to ! occasional de/ruction by fire or o!r causes ( "s ( ! /ati/ical docum5ts be=e m5tion$4 ,x is evid5t t1 :]e su* accid5ts occur1 ! want ( cont9uity 9 ! s]ies may become indef9itely great1 & t ! monum5ts :i* foll[ next 9 succession w by no means be equidi/ant f ea* o!r 9 po9t ( "t4 ,if ?is tra9 ( reason+ be admitt$1 ! occasional di/9ctness ( ! fossil rema9s1 9 =mations imm$iately 9 contact1 w\ld be a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! exi/+ laws ( s$im5t>y deposition & subt]ranean movem5t1 accompani$ by a con/ant mortality & r5ovation ( species4 ,z all ! conclusions above insi/$ on are directly oppos$ to op9ions /ill popul>1 ,i %all add ano!r comp>ison1 9 ! hope ( prev5t+ any possible misappreh5sion ( ! argum5t4 ,suppose we _h discov]$ two buri$ cities at ! foot ( ,vesuvius1 imm$iately sup]impos$ ^u ea* o!r1 ) a great mass ( tuff & lava int]v5+1 j z ,portici & ,res9a1 if n[ cov]$ ) a%es1 w\ld ov]lie ,h]culaneum4 ,an antiqu>y might possibly be entitl$ to inf]1 f ! inscriptions on public edifices1 t ! inhabitants ( ! inf]ior & old] city 7 ,greeks1 & ^? ( ! mod]n t[ns ,italians4 ,b he w\ld reason v ha/ily if he also conclud$ f ^! data t !re _h be5 a sudd5 *ange f ! ,greek to ! ,italian language 9 ,campania4 ,b if he aft]w>ds f\nd ?ree buri$ cities1 "o above ! o!r1 ! int]m$iate "o be+ ,roman1 :ile1 z 9 ! =m] example1 ! l[e/ 0 ,greek & ! upp]mo/ ,italian1 he w\ld !n p]ceive ! fallacy ( 8 =m] op9ion1 & w\ld beg9 to suspect t ! cata/rophes by :i* ! cities 7 inhum$ might h no relation :atev] to ! fluctuations 9 ! language ( ! inhabitants2 & t1 z ! ,roman tongue _h evid5tly int]v5$ betwe5 ! ,greek & ,italian1 s _m o!r dialects may h be5 spok5 9 succession1 & ! passage f ! ,greek to ! ,italian may h be5 v gradual2 "s t]ms gr[+ obsolete1 :ile o!rs 7 introduc$ f "t to "t4 ,if ?is antiqu>y c\ld h %[n t ! volcanic p>oxysms ( ,vesuvius 7 s gov]n$ z t cities %\ld be buri$ "o above ! o!r1 j z (t5 z any v>iation occurr$ 9 ! language ( ! inhabitants1 !n1 inde$1 ! abrupt passage f a ,greek to a ,roman1 & f a ,roman to an ,italian city1 w\ld af=d pro( ( fluctuations no less sudd5 9 ! language ( ! p4 ,s1 9 ,geology1 if we c\ld assume t x is "p ( ! plan ( ,nature to pres]ve1 9 e region ( ! globe1 an unbrok5 s]ies ( monum5ts to commemorate ! vicissitudes ( ! organic creation1 we might inf] ! sudd5 extirpation ( species1 & ! simultane\s introduction ( o!rs1 z (t5 z two =mations 9 contact are f\nd to include dissimil> organic fossils4 ,b we mu/ %ut our eyes to ! :ole economy ( ! exi/+ causes1 aque\s1 igne\s1 & organic1 if we fail to p]ceive t su* 9 n ! plan ( ,nature4 ,conclud+ rem>ks on ! id5tity ( ! anci5t & pres5t sy/em ( t]re/rial *anges4--,i %all n[ conclude ! discussion ( a "q ) :i* we h be5 occupi$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! fif? *apt]2 namely1 :e!r !re has be5 any int]ruption1 f ! remote/ p]iods1 ( "o uni=m sy/em ( *ange 9 ! animate & inanimate _w4 ,we 7 induc$ to ent] into t inquiry by reflect+ h[ mu* ! progress ( op9ion 9 ,geology _h be5 influ5c$ by ! assumption t ! analogy 0 slight 9 k9d1 & /ill m slight 9 degree1 betwe5 ! causes :i* produc$ ! =m] revolutions ( ! globe1 & ^? n[ 9 e-day op]ation4 ,x appe>$ cle> t ! e>li] geologi/s _h n only a scanty acqua9tance ) exi/+ *anges1 b 7 s+ul>ly unconsci\s ( ! am\nt ( _! ignorance4 ,) ! presumption naturally inspir$ by ?is unconsci\sness1 !y _h no hesitation 9 decid+ at once t "t c\ld nev] enable ! exi/+ p[]s ( nature to "w out *anges ( great magnitude1 /ill less su* important revolutions z ^? :i* are br\ght to light by ,geology4 ,!y1 !re=e1 felt !mselves at lib]ty to indulge _! imag9ations 9 guess+ at :at might be1 r ?an inquir+ :at is2 9 o!r words1 !y employ$ !mselves 9 conjectur+ :at might h be5 ! c\rse ( nature at a remote p]iod1 r ?an 9 ! inve/igation ( :at 0 ! c\rse ( nature 9 _! own times4 ,x appe>$ to !m m philosophical to speculate on ! possibilities ( ! pa/1 ?an pati5tly to explore ! realities ( ! pres5t2 & hav+ inv5t$ !ories "u ! influ5ce ( su* maxims1 !y 7 consi/5tly unwill+ to te/ _! validity by ! crit]ion ( _! accordance ) ! ord9>y op]ations ( nature4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! claims ( ea* new hypo!sis to cr$ibility appe>$ enhanc$ by ! great contra/1 9 k9d or int5sity1 ( ! causes ref]r$ to1 & ^? n[ 9 op]ation4 ,nev] 0 !re a dogma m calculat$ to fo/] indol5ce1 & to blunt ! ke5 edge ( curiosity1 ?an ?is assumption ( ! discordance betwe5 ! anci5t & exi/+ causes ( *ange4 ,x produc$ a /ate ( m9d unfavorable 9 ! highe/ degree to ! c&id reception ( ! evid5ce ( ^? m9ute b incessant alt]ations :i* e "p ( ! e>?'s surface is und]go+1 & by :i* ! condition ( its liv+ inhabitants is cont9ually made to v>y4 ,! /ud5t1 in/ead ( be+ enc\rag$ ) ! hope ( int]pret+ ! enigmas pres5t$ to him 9 ! e>?'s /ructure1--in/ead ( be+ prompt$ to und]take labori\s inquiries into ! natural hi/ory ( ! organic _w1 & ! complicat$ effects ( ! igne\s & aque\s causes n[ 9 op]ation1 0 taught to despond f ! fir/4 ,geology1 x 0 affirm$1 c\ld nev] rise to ! rank ( an exact sci5ce1--! great] numb] ( ph5om5a mu/ =ev] rema9 inexplicable1 or only be p>tially elucidat$ by +5i\s conjectures4 ,ev5 ! my/]y :i* inve/$ ! subject 0 said to con/itute "o ( its pr9cipal *>ms1 af=d+1 z x did1 full scope to ! fancy to indulge 9 a b\ndless field ( speculation4 ,! c\rse directly oppos$ to ?is me?od ( philosophiz+ consi/s 9 an e>ne/ & pati5t inquiry1 h[ f> geological appe>ances are reconcilable ) ! effect ( *anges n[ 9 progress1 or :i* may be 9 progress 9 regions inaccessible to u1 & ( :i* ! reality is atte/$ by volcanoes & subt]ranean movem5ts4 ,x also endeavors to e/imate ! aggregate result ( ord9>y op]ations multipli$ by "t1 & *]i%es a sangu9e hope t ! res\rces to be d]iv$ f obs]vation & exp]im5t1 or f ! /udy ( nature su* z %e n[ is1 are v f> f-be+ exhau/$4 ,= ?is reason all !ories are reject$ :i* involve ! assumption ( sudd5 & viol5t cata/rophes & revolutions ( ! :ole e>?1 & its inhabitants1--!ories :i* are re/ra9$ by no ref]5ce to exi/+ analogies1 & 9 :i* a desire is manife/$ to cut1 r ?an pati5tly to untie1 ! ,gordian knot4 ,we h n[1 at lea/1 ! advantage ( kn[+1 f exp]i5ce1 t an opposite me?od has always put geologi/s on ! road t leads to tru?1--sugge/+ views :i*1 al?\gh imp]fect at fir/1 h be5 f\nd capable ( improvem5t1 until at la/ adopt$ by univ]sal cons5t2 :ile ! me?od ( speculat+ on a =m] di/9ct /ate ( ?+s & causes1 has l$ inv>iably to a multitude ( contradictory sy/ems1 :i* h be5 ov]?r[n "o aft] ! o!r1--h be5 f\nd incapable ( modification1--& :i* h (t5 requir$ to be precisely rev]s$4 ,! rema9d] ( ?is "w w be devot$ to an inve/igation ( ! *anges n[ go+ on 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>? & its inhabitants4 ,! importance :i* ! /ud5t w atta* to su* rese>*es w ma9ly dep5d 9 ! degree ( confid5ce :i* he feels 9 ! pr9ciples above exp\nd$4 ,if he firmly believes 9 ! resemblance or id5tity ( ! anci5t & pres5t sy/em ( t]re/rial *anges1 he w reg>d e fact collect$ respect+ ! causes 9 diurnal action z af=d+ him a key to ! int]pretation ( "s my/]y 9 ! pa/4 ,ev5ts :i* h occurr$ at ! mo/ di/ant p]iods 9 ! animate & inanimate _w1 w be ackn[l$g$ to ?r[ light on ea* o!r1 & ! defici5cy ( our in=mation respect+ "s ( ! mo/ obscure p>ts ( ! pres5t creation w be remov$4 ,= z1 by /udy+ ! ext]nal configuration ( ! exi/+ l& & its inhabitants1 we may re/ore 9 imag9ation ! appe>ance ( ! anci5t cont95ts :i* h pass$ away1 s may we obta9 f ! deposits ( anci5t seas & lakes an insight into ! nature ( ! subaque\s processes n[ 9 op]ation1 & ( _m =ms ( organic life1 :i*1 ?\gh n[ exi/+1 are veil$ f sight4 ,rocks1 also1 produc$ by subt]ranean fire 9 =m] ages1 at great dep?s 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1 pres5t u1 :5 uprais$ by gradual movem5ts1 & expos$ to ! light ( heav51 ) an image ( ^? *anges :i* ! deep-seat$ volcano may n[ occasion 9 ! ne!r regions4 ,?us1 al?\gh we are m]e soj\rn]s on ! surface ( ! planet1 *a9$ to a m]e po9t 9 space1 endur+ b = a mom5t ( "t1 ! human m9d is n only enabl$ to numb] worlds beyond ! unassi/$ k5 ( mortal eye1 b to trace ! ev5ts ( indef9ite ages be=e ! creation ( our race1 & is n ev5 )held f p5etrat+ into ! d>k secrets ( ! ocean1 or ! int]ior ( ! solid globe2 free1 l ! _s :i* ! poet describ$ z animat+ ! univ]se1 ----ire p] omnes ,t]rasque1 tractusque m>is1 coelumque pr(undum4 ,,book ,,ii4 ,,*anges ,,9 ,,! ,,inorganic ,,_w4 ,,aque\s ,,causes4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,division ( ! subject into *anges ( ! organic & inorganic _w--,inorganic causes ( *ange divid$ into aque\s & igne\s--,aque\s causes fir/ consid]$--,fall ( ra9--,rec5t ra9-pr9ts 9 mud--,de/roy+ & transport+ p[] ( runn+ wat]--,newly =m$ valleys 9 ,georgia--,s9uosities ( riv]s--,two /reams :5 unit$ d n occupy a b$ ( d\ble surface--,inundations 9 ,scotl&--,floods caus$ by l&slips 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s--,bur/+ ( a lake 9 ,switz]l&--,deva/ations caus$ by ! ,anio at ,tivoli--,excavations 9 ! lavas ( ,etna by ,sicilian riv]s--,gorge ( ! ,simeto--,gradual recession ( ! cat>act ( ,niag>a4 ,division ( ! subject4--,geology 0 def9$ to be ! sci5ce :i* inve/igates ! =m] *anges t h tak5 place 9 ! organic z well z 9 ! inorganic k+doms ( nature4 ,z vicissitudes 9 ! inorganic _w are mo/ app>5t1 & z on !m all fluctuations 9 ! animate creation mu/ 9 a great measure dep5d1 !y may claim our fir/ consid]ation4 ,! great ag5ts ( *ange 9 ! inorganic _w may be divid$ into two pr9cipal classes1 ! aque\s & ! igne\s4 ,to ! aque\s belong ,ra91 ,riv]s1 ,torr5ts1 ,spr+s1 ,curr5ts1 & ,tides2 to ! igne\s1 ,volcanoes1 & ,e>?quakes4 ,bo? ^! classes are in/rum5ts ( decay z well z ( reproduction2 b !y may also be reg>d$ z antagoni/ =ces4 ,= ! aque\s ag5ts are incessantly labor+ to r$uce ! inequalities ( ! e>?'s surface to a level2 :ile ! igne\s are equally active 9 re/or+ ! unev5ness ( ! ext]nal cru/1 p>tly by heap+ up new matt] 9 c]ta9 localities1 & p>tly by depress+ "o portion1 & =c+ out ano!r1 ( ! e>?'s envelope4 ,x is difficult1 9 a sci5tific arrangem5t1 to give an accurate view ( ! comb9$ effects ( s _m =ces 9 simultane\s op]ation2 because1 :5 we consid] !m sep>ately1 we _c easily e/imate ei!r ! ext5t ( _! efficacy1 or ! k9d ( results :i* !y produce4 ,we are 9 dang]1 !re=e1 :5 we attempt to exam9e ! influ5ce ex]t$ s+ly by ea*1 ( ov]look+ ! modifications :i* !y produce on "o ano!r2 & ^! are s complicat$1 t sometimes ! igne\s & aque\s =ces co-op]ate to produce a jo9t effect1 to :i* nei!r ( !m unaid$ by ! o!r c\ld give rise1--z :5 repeat$ e>?quakes unite ) runn+ wat] to wid5 a valley2 or :5 a !rmal spr+ rises up f a great dep?1 & conveys ! m9]al +r$i5ts ) :i* x is impregnat$ f ! int]ior ( ! e>? to ! surface4 ,sometimes ! organic comb9e ) ! inorganic causes2 z :5 a reef1 compos$ ( %ells & corals1 protects "o l9e ( coa/ f ! de/roy+ p[] ( tides or curr5ts1 & turns !m aga9/ "s o!r po9t2 or :5 drift timb]1 float$ into a lake1 fills a holl[ to :i* ! /ream w\ld n h _h suffici5t velocity to convey e>?y s$im5t4 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 to divide our obs]vations on ^! v>i\s causes1 & to classify !m sy/ematically1 endeavor+ z mu* z possible to keep 9 view t ! effects 9 nature are mix$ & n simple1 z !y may appe> 9 an artificial arrangem5t4 ,9 treat+1 9 ! fir/ place1 ( ! aque\s causes1 we may consid] !m "u two divisions2 fir/1 ^? :i* are connect$ ) ! circulation ( wat] f ! l& to ! sea1 "u :i* are includ$ all ! ph5om5a ( ra91 riv]s1 glaci]s1 & spr+s2 secondly1 ^? :i* arise f ! movem5ts ( wat] 9 lakes1 seas1 & ! ocean1 :]e9 are compris$ ! ph5om5a ( waves1 tides1 & curr5ts4 ,9 turn+ our att5tion to ! =m] division1 we f9d t ! effects ( riv]s may be subdivid$ into1 fir/1 ^? ( a de/roy+ & transport+1 &1 secondly1 ^? ( a r5ovat+ nature2 9 ! =m] are includ$ ! erosion ( rocks & ! transportation ( matt] to l[] levels2 9 ! r5ovat+ class1 ! =mation ( deltas by ! influx ( s$im5t1 & ! %all[+ ( seas2 b ^! processes are s intimately relat$ to ea* o!r1 t x w n always be possible to consid] !m "u _! sep>ate heads4 ,fall ( ,ra94--,x is well kn[n t ! capacity ( ! atmosph]e to absorb aque\s vapor1 & hold x 9 susp5sion1 increases ) e increm5t ( temp]ature4 ,?is capacity is also f\nd to augm5t 9 a high] ratio ?an ! augm5tation ( ! heat4 ,h5ce1 z 0 fir/ sugge/$ by ! geologi/1 ,dr4 ,hutton1 :5 two volumes ( air1 ( diff]5t temp]atures1 bo? saturat$ ) moi/ure1 m+le toge!r1 cl\ds & ra9 are produc$1 = a mean degree ( heat hav+ result$ f ! union ( ! two moi/ airs1 ! excess ( vapor previ\sly held 9 susp5sion by ! w>m] ( ! two is giv5 out1 & if x be 9 suffici5t abundance is precipitat$ 9 ! =m ( ra94 ,z ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e dim9i%es gradually f ! equator t[>ds ! pole1 ! evaporation ( wat] & ! quantity ( ra9 dim9i% also4 ,accord+ to ,humboldt's computation1 ! av]age annual dep? ( ra9 at ! equator is #if in*es1 :ile 9 lat4 #de degrees x is only #bi in*es1 & 9 lat4 #fj degrees n m ?an #ag in*es4 ,b !re are s _m di/urb+ causes1 t ! actual dis*>ge1 9 any giv5 locality1 may deviate v widely f ?is rule4 ,9 ,engl&1 = example1 :]e ! av]age fall at ,london is #bd-a_/b in*es1 z asc]ta9$ at ! ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory1 !re is su* irregul>ity 9 "s di/ricts1 t :ile at ,:itehav51 9 ,cumb]l&1 !re fell 9 #ahdi1 #cb in*es1 ! quantity ( ra9 9 ,borr[dale1 ne> ,keswick 7only #ae miles to ! we/w>d71 0 no less ?an #adb in*es6#bfb ,9 l mann]1 9 ,india1 ,colonel ,sykes f\nd by obs]vations made 9 #ahdg & #ahdh1 t at places situat$ betwe5 #ag degrees & #ah degrees nor? lat41 on a l9e drawn across ! ,we/]n ,ghauts 9 ! ,deccan1 ! fall ( ra9 v>i$ f #ba to #bai in*es4#bfc ,! annual av]age 9 ,b5gal is probably bel[ #hj in*es1 yet ,dr4 ,g4 ,hook] witness$ at ,*urrapoonjee1 9 ! ye> #ahej1 a fall ( #cj in*es 9 #bd h\rs1 & 9 ! same place dur+ a resid5ce ( six mon?s 7f ,june to ,novemb]7 #ecj in*es6 ,?is occurr$ on ! s\? face ( ! ,khasia 7or ,g>r[7 m\nta9s 9 ,ea/]n ,b5gal 7see map1 ,*ap4 ,,xviii471 :]e ! dep? dur+ ! :ole ( ! same ye> probably exce$$ #fjj in*es4 ,s extraord9>y a dis*>ge ( wat]1 :i*1 z we %all pres5tly see1 is v local1 may be ?us acc\nt$ =4 ,w>m1 s\!rly w9ds1 bl[+ ov] ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 & becom+ lad5 ) vapor dur+ _! passage1 rea* ! l[ level delta ( ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra1 :]e ! ord9>y heat exce$s t ( ! sea1 & :]e evaporation is con/antly go+ on f c\ntless m>%es & ! arms ( ! great riv]s4 ,a m+l+ ( two masses ( damp air ( diff]5t temp]atures probably causes ! fall ( #gj or #hj in*es ( ra91 :i* takes place on ! pla9s4 ,! monsoon hav+ cross$ ! delta1 imp+es on ! ,khasia m\nta9s1 :i* rise abruptly f ! pla9 to a mean elevation ( betwe5 #djjj & #ejjj feet4 ,"h ! w9d n only enc\nt]s ! cold air ( ! m\nta9s1 b1 :at is f> m effective z a refrig]at+ cause1 ! a]ial curr5t is made to fl[ upw>ds1 & to asc5d to a height ( sev]al ?\s& feet above ! sea4 ,bo? ! air & ! vapor conta9$ 9 x1 be+ ?us reliev$ ( mu* atmosph]ic pressure1 exp& sudd5ly1 & are cool$ by r>efaction4 ,! vapor is cond5s$1 & ab\t #ejj in*es ( ra9 are ?r[n d[n annually1 ne>ly tw5ty times z mu* z falls 9 ,great ,brita9 9 a ye>1 & almo/ all ( x p\r$ d[n 9 six mon?s4 ,! *annel ( e torr5t & riv] is swoll5 at ?is season1 & mu* s&/one horizontally /ratifi$1 & o!r rocks are r$uc$ to s& & gravel by ! flood$ /reams4 ,s great is ! sup]ficial wa/e 7or d5udation71 t :at w\ld o!rwise be a ri* & luxuriantly wood$ region1 is conv]t$ into a wild & b>r5 moorl&4 ,aft] ! curr5t ( w>m air has be5 ?us dra9$ ( a l>ge portion ( its moi/ure1 x /ill cont9ues its nor!rly c\rse to ! opposite flank ( ! ,khasia range1 only #bj miles f>!r nor?1 & "h ! fall ( ra9 is r$uc$ to #gj in*es 9 ! ye>4 ,! same w9d !n bl[s nor?w>ds across ! valley ( ! ,brahmapootra1 & at l5g? arrives s dry & exhau/$ at ! ,bhootan ,himalaya 7lat4 #bh degrees ,n471 t ^? m\nta9s1 up to ! height ( #ejjj feet1 are nak$ & /]ile1 & all _! out] valleys arid & du/y4 ,! a]ial curr5t /ill cont9u+ its nor!rly c\rse & asc5d+ to a high] region1 becomes fur!r cool$1 cond5sation aga9 ensues1 & ,bhootan1 above #ejjj feet1 is d5sely clo!d ) vegetation4#bfd ,9 ano!r "p ( ,india1 imm$iately to ! we/w>d1 simil> ph5om5a are repeat$4 ,! same w>m & humid w9ds1 copi\sly *>g$ ) aque\s vapor f ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 hold _! c\rse due nor? = #cjj miles across ! flat & hot pla9s ( ! ,ganges1 till !y enc\nt] ! l(ty ,sikkim m\nta9s4 7,see map1 ,*ap4 ,,xviii47 ,on ! s\!rn flank ( ^! !y dis*>ge su* a deluge ( ra9 t ! riv]s 9 ! ra9y season rise twelve feet 9 z _m h\rs4 ,num]\s l&slips1 "s ( !m ext5d+ ?ree or f\r ?\s& feet along ! face ( ! m\nta9s1 compos$ ( granite1 gneiss1 & slate1 desc5d into ! b$s ( /reams1 & dam !m up = a "t1 caus+ tempor>y lakes1 :i* soon bur/ _! b>ri]s4 ,day & night1 says ,dr4 ,hook]1 we he>d ! cra%+ ( fall+ trees1 & ! s\nd ( b\ld]s ?r[n viol5tly aga9/ ea* o!r 9 ! b$s ( torr5ts4 ,by su* we> & te> rocky fragm5ts swept d[n f ! hills are 9 "p conv]t$ into s& & f9e mud2 & ! turbid ,ganges1 dur+ its annual inundation1 d]ives m ( its s$im5t f ?is s\rce ?an f ! wa/e ( ! f9e clay ( ! alluvial pla9s bel[4#bfe ,on ! v]ge ( ! tropics a great] quantity ( ra9 falls annually ?an at ! equator4 ,yet p>ts ev5 ( ! tropical latitudes are entirely de/itute ( ra93 ,p]u1 = example1 :i* owes its vegetation solely to riv]s & nightly dews4 ,9 t c\ntry ea/]ly w9ds prevail1 bl[+ f ! ,pacific1 & ^! be+ int]cept$ by ! ,&es1 & cool$ z !y rise1 are made to "p ) all _! moi/ure be=e rea*+ ! l[ region to ! leew>d4 ,! des]t zone ( ,nor? ,africa1 betwe5 lat4 #ae degrees & #cj degrees ,n41 is ano!r in/ance ( a ra9less region4 ,five or six consecutive ye>s may pass 9 ,upp] ,egypt1 ,nubia1 & ,dongola1 or 9 ! ,des]t ( ,sah>a1 )\t ra94 ,f ! facts above m5tion$1 ! read] w inf] t 9 ! c\rse ( successive geological p]iods !re w be great v>iations 9 ! quantity ( ra9 fall+ 9 "o & ! same region4 ,at "o "t !re may be none :atev] dur+ ! :ole ye>2 at ano!r a fall ( #ajj or #ejj in*es2 & ^! two la/ av]ages may occur on ! two opposite flanks ( a m\nta9-*a91 n m ?an #bj miles wide4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 ! valleys 9 "o di/rict are wid5$ & deep5$ annually1 !y may rema9 /ation>y 9 ano!r1 ! sup]ficial soil be+ protect$ f wa/e by a d5se cov]+ ( vegetation4 ,?is div]sity dep5ds on _m geographical circum/ances1 b pr9cipally on ! height ( ! l& above ! sea1 ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds1 & ! relative position1 at ! "t be+1 ( ! pla9s1 hills1 & ! ocean1 conditions all ( :i* are liable 9 ! c\rse ( ages to und]go a complete revolution4 ,rec5t ra9-pr9ts4--,:5 exam9+1 9 #ahdb1 ! ext5sive mud-flats ( ,nova ,scotia1 :i* are expos$ at l[ tide on ! bord]s ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 ,i obs]v$ n only ! foot-pr9ts ( birds :i* _h rec5tly pass$ ov] ! mud1 b also v di/9ct impressions ( ra9-drops4 ,a peculi> comb9ation ( circum/ances r5d]s ^! mud-flats admirably fitt$ to receive & reta9 any m>k+s :i* may happ5 to be made on _! surface4 ,! s$im5t ) :i* ! wat]s are *>g$ is extremely f9e1 be+ d]iv$ f ! de/ruction ( cliffs ( r$ s&/one & %ale1 & z ! tides rise fifty feet & upw>ds1 l>ge areas are laid dry = ne>ly a =tnight betwe5 ! spr+ & neap tides4 ,9 ?is int]val ! mud is bak$ 9 summ] by a hot sun1 s t x solidifies & becomes trav]s$ by cracks1 caus$ by %r9kage4 ,portions ( ! h>d5$ mud betwe5 ^! cracks may !n be tak5 up & remov$ )\t injury4 ,on exam9+ ! edges ( ea* slab1 we obs]ve num]\s lay]s1 =m$ by successive tides1 ea* lay] be+ usually v ?91 sometimes only "o-t5? ( an in* ?ick4 ,:5 a %[] ( ra9 falls1 ! highe/ portion ( ! mud-cov]$ flat is usually too h>d to receive any impressions2 :ile t rec5tly uncov]$ by ! tide ne> ! wat]'s edge is too s(t4 ,betwe5 ^! areas a zone occurs1 almo/ z smoo? & ev5 z a look+-glass1 on :i* e drop =ms a cavity ( circul> or oval =m1 &1 if ! %[] be transi5t1 ^! pits reta9 _! %ape p]man5tly1 be+ dri$ by ! sun1 & be+ !n too firm to be effac$ by ! action ( ! succe$+ tide1 :i* deposits ^u !m a new lay] ( mud4 ,h5ce we (t5 f9d1 9 splitt+ op5 a slab an in* or m ?ick1 on ! upp] surface ( :i* ! m>ks ( rec5t ra9 occur1 t an inf]ior lay]1 deposit$ dur+ "s previ\s rise ( ! tide1 exhibits on its "u side p]fect ca/s ( ra9-pr9ts1 :i* /& out 9 relief1 ! m\lds ( ! same be+ se5 on ! lay] bel[4 ,b 9 "s cases1 especially 9 ! m s&y lay]s1 ! m>k+s h be5 some:at blunt$ by ! tide1 & by sev]al ra9-pr9ts hav+ be5 jo9$ into "o by a repetition ( drops fall+ on ! same spot2 9 :i* case ! ca/s pres5t a v irregul> & bli/]$ appe>ance4 ,! f9e/ examples :i* ,i h se5 ( ^! ra9-pr9ts 7 s5t to me by ,dr4 ,web/]1 f ,k5tville1 on ! bord]s ( ! ,bay ( ,m9es1 9 ,nova ,scotia4 ,!y 7 made by a heavy %[] :i* fell on ! #ba/ ( ,july1 #ahdi1 :5 ! rise & fall ( ! tides 7 at _! maximum4 ,! impressions 7see fig4 #ac7 consi/ ( cup-%ap$ or hemisph]ical cavities1 ! av]age size ( :i* is f "o-eigh? to "o-t5? ( an in* across1 b ! l>ge/ are fully half an in* 9 diamet]1 & "o-t5? ( an in* deep4 ,! dep? is *iefly bel[ ! g5]al surface or plane ( /ratification1 b ! walls ( ! cavity consi/ p>tly ( a prom95t rim ( s&y mud1 =m$ ( ! matt] :i* has be5 =cibly expell$ f ! pit4 ,all ! cavities hav+ an oval =m are deep] at "o end1 :]e !y h also a high] rim1 & all ! deep ends h ! same direction1 %[+ t[>ds :i* qu>t] ! w9d 0 bl[+4 ,two or m drops are sometimes se5 to h int]f]$ ) ea* o!r2 9 :i* case x is usually possible to det]m9e :i* drop fell la/1 its rim be+ unbrok54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,rec5t ra9-pr9ts1 =m$ ,july #ba1 #ahdi1 at ,k5tville1 ,bay ( ,fundy1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,! arr[ repres5ts ! direction ( ! %[]4 ,on "s ( ! specim5s ! w9d+ tubul> tracks ( worms are se51 :i* h be5 bor$ j b5ea? ! surface 7see fig4 #ac1 left side74 ,!y occasionally pass "u ! middle ( a ra9-m>k1 hav+ be5 =m$ subsequ5tly4 ,sometimes ! worms h div$ b5ea? ! surface1 & !n reappe>$4 ,all ^! appe>ances1 bo? ( ra9-pr9ts & worm-tracks1 are ( great geological int]e/1 z _! exact c\nt]p>ts are se5 9 rocks ( v>i\s ages1 ev5 9 =mations ( v high antiquity4#bff ,small cavities1 (t5 correspond+ 9 size to ^? produc$ by ra91 are also caus$ by air-bubbles ris+ up ?r\gh s& or mud2 b ^! diff] 9 "* f ra9-pr9ts1 be+ usually deep] ?an !y are wide1 & hav+ _! sides /eep]4 ,^!1 inde$1 are occasionally v]tical1 or ov]>*+1 ! op5+ at ! top be+ n>r[] ?an ! pit bel[4 ,9 _! mode1 also1 ( mutual int]f]5ce !y are unlike ra9-pr9ts4#bfg ,9 consequ5ce ( ! effects ( m\nta9s 9 cool+ curr5ts ( moi/ air1 & caus+ ! cond5sation ( aque\s vapor 9 ! mann] above describ$1 x foll[s t 9 e c\ntry1 z a g5]al rule1 ! m elevat$ regions become p]petual res]voirs ( wat]1 :i* desc5ds & irrigates ! l[] valleys & pla9s4 ,! l>ge/ quantity ( wat] is fir/ c>ri$ to ! highe/ region1 & !n made to desc5d by /eep declivities t[>ds ! sea2 s t x acquires sup]ior velocity1 & removes m soil1 ?an x w\ld d if ! ra9 _h be5 di/ribut$ ov] ! pla9s & m\nta9s equally 9 proportion to _! relative areas4 ,! wat] is also made by ^! means to pass ov] ! greate/ di/ances be=e x c rega9 ! sea4 ,x has already be5 obs]v$ t 9 high] latitudes1 :]e ! atmosph]e be+ cold] is capable ( hold+ less wat] 9 susp5sion1 a dim9i%$ fall ( ra9 takes place4 ,?us at ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 ! am\nt is only #af in*es1 & at ,uleaborg 9 ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia 7,n4 lat4 #fe degrees71 only #ac-a_/b in*es1 or less ?an half ! av]age ( ,engl&1 & ev5 ?is small quantity desc5ds m sl[ly 9 ! temp]ate zone1 & is spread m equally ov] ! ye> ?an 9 tropical climates4 ,b 9 ref]5ce to geological *anges1 fro/ 9 ! cold] latitude acts z a comp5sat+ p[] 9 ! dis9tegration ( rocks1 & ! transportation ( /ones to l[] levels4 ,wat] :5 conv]t$ into ice augm5ts 9 bulk m ?an "o-tw5tie? ( its volume1 & ow+ to ?is prop]ty x wid5s ! m9ute crevices 7or jo9ts7 ( rocks into :i* x p5etrates4 ,ice also 9 v>i\s ways1 z w be %[n 9 ! next *apt]1 gives buoyancy to mud & s&1 ev5 to huge blocks ( /one1 enabl+ riv]s ( mod]ate size & velocity to c>ry !m to a great di/ance4 ,! me*anical =ce ex]t$ by runn+ wat] 9 und]m9+ cliffs1 & r\nd+ (f ! angles ( h>d rock1 is ma9ly due to ! int]mixture ( =eign +r$i5ts4 ,s& & pebbles1 :5 hurri$ along by ! viol5ce ( ! /ream1 are ?r[n aga9/ e ob/acle ly+ 9 _! way1 & ?us a p[] ( attrition is acquir$1 capable ( we>+ ?r\gh ! h>de/ silice\s /ones1 on :i* wat] alone c\ld make no impression4 ,newly =m$ valleys4--,:5 travell+ 9 ,georgia & ,alabama1 9 #ahdf1 ,i saw 9 bo? ^? ,/ates ! comm5cem5t ( hundr$s ( valleys 9 places :]e ! native =e/ _h rec5tly be5 remov$4 ,"o ( ^! newly =m$ gulleys or rav9es is repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ woodcut 7fig4 #ad71 f a draw+ :i* ,i made on ! spot4 ,x occurs ?ree miles & a half due we/ ( ,mill$geville1 ! capital ( ,georgia1 & is situat$ on ! f>m ( ,pomona1 on ! direct road to ,macon4#bfh ,tw5ty ye>s ago1 be=e ! l& 0 cle>$1 x _h no exi/5ce2 b :5 ! trees ( ! =e/ 7 cut d[n1 cracks ?ree feet deep 7 caus$ by ! sun's heat 9 ! clay2 &1 dur+ ! ra9s1 a sudd5 ru% ( wat] ?r\gh ! pr9cipal crack deep5$ x at its l[] extremity1 f :5ce ! excavat+ p[] work$ backw>ds1 till1 9 ! c\rse ( tw5ty ye>s1 a *asm1 measur+ no less ?an #ee feet 9 dep?1 #cjj y>ds 9 l5g?1 & v>y+ 9 wid? f #bj to #ahj feet1 0 ! result4 ,! high road has be5 sev]al times turn$ to avoid ?is cavity1 ! enl>gem5t ( :i* is /ill proce$+1 & ! old l9e ( road may be se5 to h held its c\rse directly ov] :at is n[ ! wilde/ "p ( ! rav9e4 ,9 ! p]p5dicul> walls ( ?is great *asm appe> b$s ( clay & s&1 r$1 :ite1 yell[1 & gre51 produc$ by ! decomposition 9 situ ( hornbl5dic gneiss1 ) lay]s & ve9s ( qu>tz1 :i* rema9 entire1 to prove t ! :ole mass 0 once solid & cry/all9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,rav9e on ! f>m ( ,pomona1 ne> ,mill$geville1 ,georgia1 z x appe>$ ,janu>y1 #ahdf4 ,excavat$ 9 tw5ty ye>s1 #ee feet deep1 & #ahj feet broad4 ,i inf]1 f ! rapidity ( ! d5udation :i* only began "h aft] ! removal ( ! native wood1 t ?is spot1 elevat$ ab\t #fjj feet above ! sea1 has be5 always cov]$ ) a d5se =e/1 f ! remote "t :5 x fir/ em]g$ f ! sea4 ,! t]m9ation ( ! cavity on ! "r h& 9 ! =egr\nd is ! head or upp] end ( ! rav9e1 & 9 almo/ e case1 su* gulleys are l5g!n$ by ! /reams cutt+ _! way backw>ds4 ,! dep? at ! upp] end is (t51 z 9 ?is case1 consid]able1 & !re is usually at ?is po9t1 dur+ floods1 a small cascade4 ,s9uosities ( riv]s4--,9 proportion z su* valleys are wid5$1 s9uosities are caus$ by ! deflection ( ! /ream fir/ to "o side & !n to ! o!r4 ,! unequal h>dness ( ! mat]ials ?r\gh :i* ! *annel is erod$ t5ds p>tly to give new directions to ! lat]al =ce ( excavation4 ,:5 by ^!1 or by accid5tal %ift+s ( ! alluvial matt] 9 ! *annel1 ! curr5t is made to cross its g5]al l9e ( desc5t1 x eats out a curve 9 ! opposite bank1 or 9 ! side ( ! hills b\nd+ ! valley1 f :i* curve x is turn$ back aga9 at an equal angle1 s t x recrosses ! l9e ( desc5t1 & gradually holl[s out ano!r curve l[] d[n 9 ! opposite bank1 till ! :ole sides ( ! valley1 or riv] b$1 pres5t a succession ( sali5t & retir+ angles4 ,among ! causes ( deviation f a /raight c\rse1 by :i* torr5ts & riv]s t5d 9 m\nta9\s regions to wid5 ! valleys ?r\gh :i* !y fl[1 may be m5tion$ ! conflu5ce ( lat]al torr5ts1 swoll5 irregul>ly at diff]5t seasons by p>tial /orms1 & dis*>g+ at diff]5t times unequal quantities ( s&1 mud1 & pebbles1 into ! ma9 *annel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,:5 ! tortu\s flexures ( a riv] are extremely great1 z (t5 happ5s 9 alluvial pla9s1 ! ab]ration f ! direct l9e ( desc5t may be re/or$ by ! riv] cutt+ ?r\gh ! i/hmus :i* sep>ates two neighbor+ curves4 ,?us 9 ! annex$ diagram1 ! extreme s9uosity ( ! riv] has caus$ x to return = a brief space 9 a contr>y direction to its ma9 c\rse1 s t a p59sula is =m$1 & ! i/hmus 7at a7 is consum$ on bo? sides by curr5ts fl[+ 9 opposite directions4 ,9 ?is case an isl& is soon =m$1--on ei!r side ( :i* a portion ( ! /ream usually rema9s4 ,transport+ p[] ( wat]4--,9 reg>d to ! transport+ p[] ( wat]1 we may (t5 be surpris$ at ! facility ) :i* /reams ( a small size1 & desc5d+ a slight declivity1 be> along co>se s& & gravel2 = we usually e/imate ! weight ( rocks 9 air1 & d n reflect on _! comp>ative buoyancy :5 subm]g$ 9 a d5s] fluid4 ,! specific gravity ( _m rocks is n m ?an twice t ( wat]1 & v r>ely m ?an ?rice1 s t almo/ all ! fragm5ts propell$ by a /ream h lo/ a ?ird1 & _m ( !m a half1 ( :at we usually t]m _! weight4 ,x has be5 prov$ by exp]im5t1 9 contradiction to ! !ories ( ! e>li] writ]s on hydro/atics1 to be a univ]sal law1 regulat+ ! motion ( runn+ wat]1 t ! velocity at ! bottom ( ! /ream is ev]y:]e less ?an 9 any "p above x1 & is greate/ at ! surface4 ,also t ! sup]ficial p>ticles 9 ! middle ( ! /ream move swift] ?an ^? at ! sides4 ,?is ret>dation ( ! l[e/ & lat]al curr5ts is produc$ by friction2 & :5 ! velocity is suffici5tly great1 ! soil compos+ ! sides & bottom gives way4 ,a velocity ( ?ree in*es p] second at ! bottom is asc]ta9$ to be suffici5t to te> up f9e clay1--six in*es p] second1 f9e s&1--twelve in*es p] second1 f9e gravel1--& ?ree feet p] second1 /ones ( ! size ( an egg4#bfi ,:5 ?is me*anical p[] ( runn+ wat] is consid]$1 we are prep>$ = ! transportation be=e allud$ to ( l>ge quantities ( gravel1 s&1 & mud1 by torr5ts :i* desc5d f m\nta9\s regions4 ,b a "q naturally arises1 ,h[ ! m tranquil riv]s ( ! valleys & pla9s1 fl[+ on comp>atively level gr\nd1 c remove ! prodigi\s burd5 :i* is dis*>g$ into !m by _! num]\s tribut>ies1 & by :at means !y are enabl$ to convey ! :ole mass to ! sea8 ,if !y _h n ?is remov+ p[]1 _! *annels w\ld be annually *ok$ up1 & ! valleys ( ! l[] c\ntry1 & pla9s at ! base ( m\nta9-*a9s1 w\ld be cont9ually /rew$ ov] ) fragm5ts ( rock & /]ile s&4 ,b ?is evil is prev5t$ by a g5]al law regulat+ ! conduct ( runn+ wat]1--t two equal /reams d n1 :5 unit$1 occupy a b$ ( d\ble surface4 ,nay1 ! wid? ( ! pr9cipal riv]1 aft] ! junction ( a tribut>y1 sometimes rema9s ! same z be=e1 or is ev5 less5$4 ,! cause ( ?is app>5t p>adox 0 long ago expla9$ by ! ,italian writ]s1 :o _h /udi$ ! conflu5ce ( ! ,po & its fe$]s 9 ! pla9s ( ,lomb>dy4 ,! addition ( a small] riv] augm5ts ! velocity ( ! ma9 /ream1 (t5 9 ! same proportion z x does ! quantity ( wat]4 ,?us ! ,v5etian bran* ( ! ,po swall[$ up ! ,f]ranese bran* & t ( ,pan>o )\t any enl>gem5t ( its own dim5sions4 ,! cause ( ! great] velocity is1 fir/1 t aft] ! union ( two riv]s ! wat]1 9 place ( ! friction ( f\r %ores1 has only t ( two to surm\nt2 #b;dly1 because ! ma9 body ( ! /ream be+ f>!r di/ant f ! banks1 fl[s on ) less int]ruption2 & la/ly1 because a great] quantity ( wat] mov+ m swiftly1 digs deep] into ! riv]'s b$4 ,by ?is beautiful adju/m5t1 ! wat] :i* dra9s ! int]ior c\ntry is made cont9ually to occupy less room z x approa*es ! sea2 & ?us ! mo/ valuable "p ( our cont95ts1 ! ri* deltas & great alluvial pla9s1 are prev5t$ f be+ con/antly "u wat]4 ,riv] floods 9 ,scotl&1 #ahbi4--,_m rem>kable illu/rations ( ! p[] ( runn+ wat] 9 mov+ /ones & heavy mat]ials 7 af=d$ by ! /orm & floods :i* occurr$ on ! #c;d & #d? ( ,augu/1 #ahbi1 9 ,ab]de5%ire & o!r c\nties 9 ,scotl&4 ,! elem5ts dur+ ?is /orm assum$ all ! *>act]s :i* m>k ! tropical hurricanes2 ! w9d bl[+ 9 sudd5 gu/s & :irlw9ds1 ! lightn+ & ?und] be+ su* z is r>ely witness$ 9 our climate1 & heavy ra9 fall+ )\t int]mission4 ,! floods ext5d$ almo/ simultane\sly1 & ) equal viol5ce ov] t "p ( ! nor!a/ ( ,scotl& :i* w\ld be cut (f by two l9es drawn f ! head ( ,lo*ranno*1 "o t[>ds ,inv]ness & ! o!r to ,/onehav54 ,! unit$ l9e ( ! diff]5t riv]s :i* 7 flood$1 c\ld n be less ?an f five to six hundr$ miles 9 l5g?2 & ! :ole ( _! c\rses 7 m>k$ by ! de/ruction ( bridges1 roads1 crops1 & build+s4 ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,laud] has record$ ! de/ruction ( ?irty-eight bridges1 & ! entire oblit]ation ( a great numb] ( f>ms & hamlets4 ,on ! ,nairn1 a fragm5t ( s&/one1 f\rte5 feet long by ?ree feet wide & "o foot ?ick1 0 c>ri$ above #bjj y>ds d[n ! riv]4 ,"s new rav9es 7 =m$ on ! sides ( m\nta9s :]e no /reams _h previ\sly fl[$1 & anci5t riv]-*annels1 :i* _h nev] be5 fill$ f "t immemorial1 gave passage to a copi\s flood4#bgj ,! bridge ov] ! ,dee at ,ballat] consi/$ ( five ar*es1 hav+ ^u ! :ole a wat]-way ( #bfj feet4 ,! b$ ( ! riv]1 on :i* ! pi]s re/$1 0 compos$ ( roll$ pieces ( granite & gneiss4 ,! bridge 0 built ( granite1 & _h /ood un9jur$ = tw5ty ye>s2 b ! diff]5t p>ts 7 swept away 9 succession by ! flood1 & ! :ole mass ( masonry disappe>$ 9 ! b$ ( ! riv]4 ,! riv] ,don1 obs]ves ,mr4 ,f>quh>son1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! inundations1 has ^u my own premises =c$ a mass ( f\r or five hundr$ tons ( /ones1 _m ( !m two or ?ree hundr$ p\nds' weight1 up an incl9$ plane1 ris+ six feet 9 eight or t5 y>ds1 & left !m 9 a rectangul> heap1 ab\t ?ree feet deep on a flat gr\nd3--! heap ends abruptly at its l[] extremity4#bga ,! p[] ev5 ( a small rivulet1 :5 swoll5 by ra91 9 remov+ heavy bodies1 0 exemplifi$ 9 ,augu/1 #ahbg1 9 ! ,college1 a small /ream :i* fl[s at a slight declivity f ! ea/]n wat]%$ ( ! ,*eviot ,hills4 ,sev]al ?\s& tons' weight ( gravel & s& 7 transport$ to ! pla9 ( ! ,till1 & a bridge1 !n 9 progress ( build+1 0 c>ri$ away1 "s ( ! ar*-/ones ( :i*1 weigh+ f half to ?ree qu>t]s ( a ton ea*1 7 propell$ two miles d[n ! rivulet4 ,on ! same occasion1 ! curr5t tore away f ! abutm5t ( a mill-dam a l>ge block ( gre5/one-porphyry1 weigh+ ne>ly two tons1 & transport$ x to ! di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile4 ,in/ances are relat$ z occurr+ repeat$ly1 9 :i* f "o to ?ree ?\s& tons ( gravel are1 9 l mann]1 remov$ by ?is /reamlet to /ill great] di/ances 9 "o day4#bgb ,floods caus$ by l&slips1 #ahbf4--,! p[] :i* runn+ wat] may ex]t 9 ! lapse ( ages1 9 wid5+ & deep5+ a valley1 does n s mu* dep5d on ! volume & velocity ( ! /ream usually fl[+ 9 x1 z on ! numb] & magnitude ( ! ob/ructions :i* h1 at diff]5t p]iods1 oppos$ its free passage4 ,if a torr5t1 h[ev] small1 be effectually damm$ up1 ! size ( ! valley above ! b>ri]1 & its declivity bel[1 & n ! dim5sions ( ! torr5t1 w det]m9e ! viol5ce ( ! dabacle4 ,! mo/ univ]sal s\rce ( local deluges1 are l&slips1 slides1 or avalan*es1 z !y are sometimes call$1 :5 great masses ( rock & soil1 or sometimes ice & sn[1 are precipitat$ into ! b$ ( a riv]1 ! b\nd>y cliffs ( :i* h be5 ?r[n d[n by ! %ock ( an e>?quake1 or und]m9$ by spr+s or o!r causes4 ,volumes might be fill$ ) ! enum]ation ( in/ances on record ( ^! t]rific cata/rophes2 ,i %all !re=e select a few examples ( rec5t occurr5ce1 ! facts ( :i* are well au!nticat$4 ,two dry seasons 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 9 ,new ,hamp%ire 7,unit$ ,/ates71 7 foll[$ by heavy ra9s on ! #bh? ,augu/1 #ahbf1 :5 f ! /eep & l(ty declivities :i* rise abruptly on bo? sides ( ! riv] ,saco1 innum]able rocks & /ones1 _m ( suffici5t size to fill a common ap>tm5t1 7 deta*$1 & 9 _! desc5t swept d[n be=e !m1 9 "o promiscu\s & frightful ru91 =e/s1 %rubs1 & ! e>? :i* su/a9$ !m4 ,al?\gh !re are num]\s indications on ! /eep sides ( ^! hills ( =m] slides ( ! same k9d1 yet no tradition _h be5 h&$ d[n ( any simil> cata/rophe )9 ! memory ( man1 & ! gr[? ( ! =e/ on ! v spots n[ deva/at$1 cle>ly %[$ t = a long int]val no?+ simil> _h occurr$4 ,"o ( ^! mov+ masses 0 aft]w>ds f\nd to h slid ?ree miles1 ) an av]age bread? ( a qu>t] ( a mile4 ,! natural excavations comm5c$ g5]ally 9 a tr5* a few y>ds 9 dep? & a few rods 9 wid?1 & desc5d$ ! m\nta9s1 wid5+ & deep5+ till !y became va/ *asms4 ,at ! base ( ^! holl[ rav9es 0 se5 a confus$ mass ( ru9s1 consi/+ ( transport$ e>?1 gravel1 rocks1 & trees4 ,=e/s ( spruce-fir & hemlock1 a k9d ( fir some:at resembl+ our yew 9 foliage1 7 pro/rat$ ) z mu* ease z if !y _h be5 fields ( gra92 =1 :]e !y disput$ ! gr\nd1 ! torr5t ( mud & rock accumulat$ beh9d1 till x ga!r$ suffici5t =ce to bur/ ! tempor>y b>ri]4 ,! valleys ( ! ,amonoosuck & ,saco pres5t$1 = _m miles1 an un9t]rupt$ sc5e ( desolation2 all ! bridges be+ c>ri$ away1 z well z ^? ov] _! tribut>y /reams4 ,9 "s places1 ! road 0 excavat$ to ! dep? ( f fifte5 to tw5ty feet2 9 o!rs1 x 0 cov]$ ) e>?1 rocks1 & trees1 to z great a height4 ,! wat] fl[$ = _m weeks aft] ! flood1 z d5sely *>g$ ) e>? z x c\ld be )\t be+ *ang$ into mud1 & m>ks 7 se5 9 v>i\s localities ( its hav+ ris5 on ei!r side ( ! valley to m ?an tw5ty-five feet above its ord9>y level4 ,_m %eep & cattle 7 swept away1 & ! ,willey family1 n9e 9 numb]1 :o 9 al>m _h des]t$ _! h\se1 7 de/roy$ on ! banks ( ! ,saco2 sev5 ( _! mangl$ bodies 7 aft]w>ds f\nd ne> ! riv]1 buri$ b5ea? drift-wood & m\nta9 ru9s4#bgc ,elev5 ye>s aft] ! ev5t1 ! deep *annels worn by ! avalan*es ( mud & /one1 & ! imm5se heaps ( b\ld]s & blocks ( granite 9 ! riv] *annel1 /ill =m$1 says ,pr(essor ,hubb>d1 a picturesque feature 9 ! sc5]y4#bgd ,:5 ,i visit$ ! c\ntry 9 #ahde1 eight ye>s aft] ,pr(essor ,hubb>d1 ,i f\nd ! signs ( deva/ation /ill v /rik+2 ,i also p>ticul>ly rem>k$ t al?\gh ! surface ( ! b>e granitic rocks _h be5 smoo!d by ! passage ov] !m ( s mu* mud & /one1 !re 7 no cont9u\s p>allel & rectil9e> furr[s1 nor any ( ! f9e scrat*es or /riae :i* *>act]ize glacial action4 ,! abs5ce ( ^! is n[h]e m cle>ly exemplifi$ ?an 9 ! b>e rocks ov] :i* pass$ ! great ,willey slide ( #ahbf4bge ,b ! cata/rophes 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s are insignificant1 :5 comp>$ to ^? :i* are occasion$ by e>?quakes1 :5 ! b\nd>y hills1 = miles 9 l5g?1 are ?r[n d[n into ! holl[ ( a valley4 ,i %all h opportunities ( allud+ to inundations ( ?is k9d1 :5 treat+ expressly ( e>?quakes1 & %all cont5t myself at pres5t ) select+ an example ( a flood due to a diff]5t cause4 ,flood 9 ! valley ( ,bagnes1 #ahah4--,! valley ( ,bagnes is "o ( ! l>ge/ ( ! lat]al embran*m5ts ( ! ma9 valley ( ! ,rhone1 above ! ,lake ( ,g5eva4 ,its upp] portion 01 9 #ahah1 conv]t$ into a lake by ! damm+ up ( a n>r[ pass1 by avalan*es ( sn[ & ice1 precipitat$ f an elevat$ glaci] into ! b$ ( ! riv] ,dranse4 ,9 ! w9t] season1 dur+ cont9u$ fro/1 sc>cely any wat] fl[s 9 ! b$ ( ?is riv] to pres]ve an op5 *annel1 s t ! ice b>ri] rema9$ entire until ! melt+ ( ! sn[s 9 spr+1 :5 a lake 0 =m$ above1 ab\t half a league 9 l5g?1 :i* f9ally atta9$ 9 "s p>ts a dep? ( ab\t two hundr$ feet1 & a wid? ( ab\t sev5 hundr$ feet4 ,to prev5t or less5 ! mis*ief appreh5d$ f ! sudd5 bur/+ ( ! b>ri]1 an artificial gall]y1 sev5 hundr$ feet 9 l5g?1 0 cut ?r\gh ! ice1 be=e ! wat]s _h ris5 to a great height4 ,:5 at l5g? !y accumulat$ & fl[$ ?r\gh ?is tunnel1 !y dissolv$ ! ice1 & ?us deep5$ _! *annel1 until ne>ly half ( ! :ole cont5ts ( ! lake 7 sl[ly dra9$ (f4 ,b at l5g?1 on ! approa* ( ! hot season1 ! c5tral portion ( ! rema9+ mass ( ice gave way ) a trem5d\s cra%1 & ! residue ( ! lake 0 empti$ 9 half an h\r4 ,9 ! c\rse ( its desc5t1 ! wat]s enc\nt]$ sev]al n>r[ gorges1 & at ea* ( ^! !y rose to a great height1 & !n bur/ ) new viol5ce into ! next bas91 sweep+ along rocks1 =e/s1 h\ses1 bridges1 & cultivat$ l&4 ,= ! great] "p ( its c\rse ! flood resembl$ a mov+ mass ( rock & mud1 r ?an ( wat]4 ,"s fragm5ts ( granitic rocks1 ( enorm\s magnitude1 & :i* f _! dim5sions1 might be comp>$ )\t exagg]ation to h\ses1 7 torn out ( a m anci5t alluvion1 & borne d[n = a qu>t] ( a mile4 ,"o ( ! fragm5ts mov$ 0 sixty paces 9 circumf]5ce4#bgf ,! velocity ( ! wat]1 9 ! fir/ "p ( its c\rse1 0 ?irty-?ree feet p] second1 :i* dim9i%$ to six feet be=e x rea*$ ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 :]e x arriv$ 9 six h\rs & a half1 ! di/ance be+ =ty-five miles4#bgg ,?is flood left beh9d x1 on ! pla9s ( ,m>tigny1 ?\s&s ( trees torn up by ! roots1 toge!r ) ! ru9s ( build+s4 ,"s ( ! h\ses 9 t t[n 7 fill$ ) mud up to ! second /ory4 ,aft] exp&+ 9 ! pla9 ( ,m>tigny1 x ent]$ ! ,rhone1 & did no f>!r damage2 b "s bodies ( m51 :o _h be5 dr[n$ above ,m>tigny1 7 aft]w>ds f\nd1 at ! di/ance ( ab\t ?irty miles1 float+ on ! f>!r side ( ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 ne> ,vevay4 ,! wat]s1 on escap+ f ! tempor>y lake1 int]mix$ ) mud & rock1 swept along1 = ! fir/ f\r miles1 at ! rate ( above tw5ty miles an h\r2 & ,m4 ,es*]1 ! eng9e]1 calculat$ t ! flood furni%$ #cjj1jjj cubic feet ( wat] e second--an efflux :i* is five times great] ?an t ( ! ,rh9e bel[ ,basle4 ,n[1 if "p ( ! lake _h n be5 gradually dra9$ (f1 ! flood w\ld h be5 ne>ly d\ble1 approa*+ 9 volume to "s ( ! l>ge/ riv]s 9 ,europe4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t :5 we are speculat+ on ! excavat+ =ce :i* a riv] may h ex]t$ 9 any p>ticul> valley1 ! mo/ important "q is1 n ! volume ( ! exi/+ /ream1 nor ! pres5t levels ( its *annel1 nor ev5 ! nature ( ! rocks1 b ! probability ( a succession ( floods at "s p]iod s9ce ! "t :5 ! valley may h be5 fir/ elevat$ above ! sea4 ,= sev]al mon?s aft] ! dabacle ( #ahah1 ! ,dranse1 hav+ no settl$ *annel1 %ift$ its position cont9ually f "o side to ! o!r ( ! valley1 c>ry+ away newly-erect$ bridges1 und]m9+ h\ses1 & cont9u+ to be *>g$ ) z l>ge a quantity ( e>?y matt] z ! fluid c\ld hold 9 susp5sion4 ,i visit$ ?is valley f\r mon?s aft] ! flood1 & 0 witness to ! sweep+ away ( a bridge1 & ! und]m9+ ( "p ( a h\se4 ,! great] "p ( ! ice-b>ri] 0 !n /&+1 pres5t+ v]tical cliffs #aej feet high1 l rav9es 9 ! lava-curr5ts ( ,etna or ,auv]gne1 :]e !y are int]sect$ by riv]s4 ,inundations1 precisely simil>1 are record$ to h occurr$ at =m] p]iods 9 ?is di/rict1 & f ! same cause4 ,9 #aeie1 = example1 a lake bur/1 & ! wat]s1 desc5d+ ) irresi/ible fury1 de/roy$ ! t[n ( ,m>tigny1 :]e f sixty to eighty p]sons p]i%$4 ,9 a simil> flood1 fifty ye>s be=e1 #adj p]sons 7 dr[n$4 ,flood at ,tivoli1 #ahbf4--;,i %all conclude ) "o m example d]iv$ f a l& ( classic recollections1 ! anci5t ,tibur1 & :i*1 l all ! o!r inundations above allud$ to1 occurr$ )9 ! pres5t c5tury4 ,! y\ng] ,pl9y1 x w be rememb]$1 describes a flood on ! ,anio1 :i* de/roy$ woods1 rocks1 & h\ses1 ) ! mo/ sumptu\s villas & works ( arts4#bgh ,= f\r or five c5turies consecutively1 ?is headlong /ream1 z ,horace truly call$ x1 has (t5 rema9$ )9 its b\nds1 & !n1 aft] s long an int]val ( re/1 has at diff]5t p]iods inundat$ its banks aga91 & wid5$ its *annel4 ,! la/ ( ^! cata/rophes happ5$ #ae? ,nov4 #ahbf1 aft] heavy ra9s1 su* z produc$ ! floods be=e allud$ to 9 ,scotl&4 ,! wat]s appe> also to h be5 imp$$ by an artificial dike1 by :i* !y 7 sep>at$ into two p>ts1 a %ort di/ance above ,tivoli4 ,!y broke ?r\gh ?is dike2 & leav+ ! left tr5* dry1 precipitat$ !mselves1 ) _! :ole weight1 on ! "r side4 ,"h !y und]m9$1 9 ! c\rse ( a few h\rs1 a high cliff1 & wid5$ ! riv]'s *annel ab\t fifte5 paces4 ,on ?is height /ood ! *ur* ( ,/4 ,lucia1 & ab\t ?irty-six h\ses ( ! t[n ( ,tivoli1 :i* 7 all c>ri$ away1 pres5t+ z !y sank into ! ro>+ flood1 a t]rific sc5e ( de/ruction to ! spectators on ! opposite bank4 ,z ! f\ndations 7 gradually remov$1 ea* build+1 "s ( !m edifices ( consid]able height1 0 fir/ trav]s$ ) num]\s r5ts1 :i* soon wid5$ into l>ge fissures1 until at l5g? ! ro(s fell 9 ) a cra%1 & !n ! walls sunk into ! riv]1 & 7 hurl$ d[n ! cat>act bel[4#bgi ,! de/roy+ ag5cy ( ! flood came )9 two hundr$ y>ds ( ! precipice on :i* ! beautiful temple ( ,ve/a /&s2 b =tunately ?is preci\s relic ( antiquity 0 sp>$1 :ile ! wreck ( mod]n /ructures 0 hurl$ d[n ! abyss4 ,ve/a1 x w be rememb]$1 9 ! hea!n my?ology1 p]sonifi$ ! /ability ( ! e>?2 & :5 ! ,samian a/ronom]1 ,ari/>*us1 fir/ taught t ! e>? revolv$ on its axis1 & r\nd ! sun1 he 0 publicly accus$ ( impiety1 = remov+ ! ev]la/+ ,ve/a f h] place4 ,playfair obs]v$1 t :5 ,hutton ascrib$ in/ability to ! e>?'s surface1 & repres5t$ ! cont95ts :i* we inhabit z ! !atre ( incessant *ange & movem5t1 8 antagoni/s1 :o reg>d$ !m z unalt]able1 assail$ him 9 a simil> mann] ) accusations f\nd$ on religi\s prejudices4#bhj ,we might appeal to ! excavat+ p[] ( ! ,anio z corroborative ( "o ( ! mo/ controv]t$ p>ts ( ! ,huttonian !ory2 & if ! days ( om5s _h n gone by1 ! geologi/s :o n[ wor%ip ,ve/a might reg>d ! late cata/rophe z port5t\s4 ,we may1 at lea/1 recomm5d ! mod]n vot>ies ( ! goddess to lose no "t 9 mak+ a pilgrimage to h] %r9e1 = ! next flood may n respect ! temple4 ,excavation ( rocks by runn+ wat]4--,! rapidity ) :i* ev5 ! smalle/ /reams holl[ out deep *annels 9 s(t & de/ructible soils is rem>kably exemplifi$ 9 volcanic c\ntries1 :]e ! s& & half-consolidat$ tuffs oppos$ b a slight resi/ance to ! torr5ts :i* desc5d ! m\nta9-side4 ,aft] ! heavy ra9s :i* foll[$ ! eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahbd1 ! wat] fl[+ f ! ,atrio del ,cavallo cut1 9 ?ree days1 a new *asm ?r\gh /rata ( tuff & eject$ volcanic matt]1 to ! dep? ( tw5ty-five feet4 ,i f\nd ! old mule-road1 9 #ahbh1 int]sect$ by ?is new rav9e4 ,! gradual erosion ( deep *asms ?r\gh "s ( ! h>de/ rocks1 by ! con/ant passage ( runn+ wat]1 *>g$ ) =eign matt]1 is ano!r ph5om5on ( :i* /rik+ examples may be adduc$4 ,illu/rations ( ?is excavat+ p[] are pres5t$ by _m valleys 9 c5tral ,france :]e ! *annels ( riv]s h be5 b>r$ up by solid curr5ts ( lava1 ?r\gh :i* ! /reams h re-excavat$ a passage1 to ! dep? ( f tw5ty to sev5ty feet & upw>ds1 & (t5 ( great wid?4 ,9 ^! cases !re are decisive pro(s t nei!r ! sea1 nor any d5ud+ wave or extraord9>y body ( wat]1 has pass$ ov] ! spot s9ce ! melt$ lava 0 consolidat$4 ,e hypo!sis ( ! int]v5tion ( sudd5 & viol5t ag5cy is entirely exclud$1 because ! cones ( loose scoriae1 out ( :i* ! lavas fl[$1 are (t5times at no great elevation above ! riv]s1 & h rema9$ undi/urb$ dur+ ! :ole p]iod :i* has be5 suffici5t = ! holl[+ out ( su* enorm\s rav9es4 ,rec5t excavation by ! ,simeto4--,b ,i %all at pres5t conf9e myself to examples d]iv$ f ev5ts :i* h happ5$ s9ce ! "t ( hi/ory4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,rec5t excavation ( lava at ! foot ( ,etna by ! riv] ,simeto4 ,at ! we/]n base ( ,etna1 a curr5t ( lava 7,a ,a1 fig4 #af71 desc5d+ f ne> ! summit ( ! great volcano1 has fl[$ to ! di/ance ( five or six miles1 & !n rea*$ ! alluvial pla9 ( ! ,simeto1 ! l>ge/ ( ! ,sicilian riv]s1 :i* skirts ! base ( ,etna1 & falls into ! sea a few miles s\? ( ,catania4 ,! lava ent]$ ! riv] ab\t ?ree miles above ! t[n ( ,ad]no1 & n only occupi$ its *annel = "s di/ance1 b1 cross+ to ! opposite side ( ! valley1 accumulat$ !re 9 a rocky mass4 ,gemmell>o gives ! ye> #afjc z ! date ( ! eruption4#bha ,! appe>ance ( ! curr5t cle>ly proves1 t x is "o ( ! mo/ mod]n ( ^? ( ,etna2 = x has n be5 cov]$ or cross$ by subsequ5t /reams or ejections1 & ! olives :i* _h be5 plant$ on its surface 7 all ( small size1 :5 ,i exam9$ ! spot 9 #ahbh1 yet !y 7 old] ?an ! natural wood on ! same lava4 ,9 ! c\rse1 !re=e1 ( ab\t two c5turies1 ! ,simeto has erod$ a passage f fifty to sev]al hundr$ feet wide1 & 9 "s p>ts f =ty to fifty feet deep4 ,! portion ( lava cut ?r\gh is 9 no "p por\s or scoriace\s1 b consi/s ( a compact homog5e\s mass ( h>d blue rock1 some:at inf]ior 9 weight to ord9>y basalt1 & conta9+ cry/als ( oliv9e & glassy felsp>4 ,! g5]al declivity ( ?is "p ( ! b$ ( ! ,simeto is n consid]able2 b1 9 consequ5ce ( ! unequal wa/e ( ! lava1 two wat]-falls occur at ,passo ,manzanelli1 ea* ab\t six feet 9 height4 ,"h ! *asm 7,b1 fig4 #af7 is ab\t =ty feet deep1 & only fifty broad4 ,! s& & pebbles 9 ! riv]-b$ consi/ *iefly ( a br[n qu>tzose s&/one1 d]iv$ f ! upp] c\ntry2 b ! mat]ials ( ! volcanic rock itself mu/ h greatly assi/$ ! attrition4 ,?is riv]1 l ! ,caltabiano on ! ea/]n side ( ,etna1 has n yet cut d[n to ! anci5t b$ ( :i* x 0 dispossess$1 & ( :i* ! probable position is indicat$ 9 ! annex$ diagram 7,c1 fig4 #af74 ,on ent]+ ! n>r[ rav9e :]e ! wat] foams d[n ! two cat>acts1 we are entirely %ut out f all view ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry2 & a geologi/ :o is accu/om$ to associate ! *>act]i/ic features ( ! l&scape ) ! relative age ( c]ta9 rocks1 c sc>cely dissuade himself f ! belief t he is contemplat+ a sc5e 9 "s rocky gorge ( a prim>y di/rict4 ,! ext]nal =ms ( ! h>d blue lava are z massive z any ( ! mo/ anci5t trap-rocks ( ,scotl&4 ,! solid surface is 9 "s p>ts smoo!d & almo/ poli%$ by attrition1 & cov]$ 9 o!rs ) a :ite li*51 :i* imp>ts to x an air ( extreme antiquity1 s z greatly to height5 ! delusion4 ,b ! mom5t we reasc5d ! cliff ! spell is brok52 = we sc>cely rec$e a few paces1 be=e ! rav9e & riv] disappe>1 & we /& on ! black & rugg$ surface ( a va/ curr5t ( lava1 :i* seems unbrok51 & :i* we c trace up ne>ly to ! di/ant summit ( t maje/ic cone :i* ,p9d> call$ ! pill> ( heav51 & :i* /ill cont9ues to s5d =? a fleecy wrea? ( vapor1 rem9d+ u t its fires are n ext9ct1 & t x may aga9 give out a rocky /ream1 :]e9 o!r sc5es l t n[ describ$ may pres5t !mselves to future obs]v]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,lake ,erie4 ,! ,falls4 ,lime/one ,%ale4 ,lewi/on4 ,niag>a ,riv]4 ,que5/[n4 ,falls ( ,niag>a4--,! falls ( ,niag>a af=d a magnific5t example ( ! progressive excavation ( a deep valley 9 solid rock4 ,t riv] fl[s ov] a flat table-l&1 9 a depression ( :i* ,lake ,erie is situat$4 ,:]e x issues f ! lake1 x is ne>ly a mile 9 wid?1 & #ccj feet above ,lake ,ont>io1 :i* is ab\t #cj miles di/ant4 ,= ! fir/ fifte5 miles bel[ ,lake ,erie ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 compris+ ,upp] ,canada on ! we/1 & ! /ate ( ,new ,york on ! ea/1 is almo/ on a level ) its banks1 & n[h]e m ?an ?irty or =ty feet above !m4#bhb 7,see fig4 #ag47 ,! riv] be+ occasionally int]sp]s$ ) l[ wood$ isl&s1 & hav+ sometimes a wid? ( ?ree miles1 glides along at fir/ ) a cle>1 smoo?1 & tranquil curr5t1 fall+ only fifte5 feet 9 z _m miles1 & 9 ?is "p ( its c\rse resembl+ an arm ( ,lake ,erie4 ,b its "* is aft]w>ds entirely *ang$1 on approa*+ ! ,rapids1 :]e x beg9s to ru% & foam ov] a rocky & unev5 lime/one bottom1 = ! space ( ne>ly a mile1 till at l5g? x is ?r[n d[n p]p5dicul>ly #afe feet at ! ,falls4 ,"h ! riv] is divid$ into two %eets ( wat] by an isl&1 ! l>ge/ cat>act be+ m ?an a ?ird ( a mile broad1 ! small] "o hav+ a bread? ( six hundr$ feet4 ,:5 ! wat] has precipitat$ itself into an unfa?omable pool1 x ru%es ) great velocity d[n ! slop+ bottom ( a n>r[ *asm1 = a di/ance ( sev5 miles4 ,?is rav9e v>ies f #bjj to #djj y>ds 9 wid? f cliff to cliff2 contra/+1 !re=e1 /rongly 9 its bread? ) t ( ! riv] above4 ,its dep? is f #bjj to #cjj feet1 & x int]sects = ab\t sev5 miles ! table-l& be=e describ$1 :i* t]m9ates sudd5ly at ,que5/[n 9 an esc>pm5t or long l9e ( inl& cliff fac+ nor?w>ds1 t[>ds ,lake ,ont>io4 ,! ,niag>a1 on rea*+ ! esc>pm5t & issu+ f ! gorge1 ent]s ! flat c\ntry1 :i* is s ne>ly on a level ) ,lake ,ont>io1 t !re is only a fall ( ab\t f\r feet 9 ! sev5 additional miles :i* int]v5e betwe5 ,que5/[n & ! %ores ( t lake4 ,x has long be5 ! popul> belief t ! ,niag>a once fl[$ 9 a %all[ valley across ! :ole plat=m1 f ! pres5t site ( ! ,falls to ! esc>pm5t 7call$ ! ,que5/[n heights71 :]e x is suppos$ t ! cat>act 0 fir/ situat$1 & t ! riv] has be5 sl[ly eat+ its way backw>ds ?r\gh ! rocks = ! di/ance ( sev5 miles4 ,?is hypo!sis naturally sugge/s itself to e obs]v]1 :o sees ! n>r[ness ( ! gorge at its t]m9ation1 & ?r\gh\t its :ole c\rse1 z f> up z ! ,falls1 above :i* po9t ! riv] exp&s z be=e /at$4 ,! b\nd>y cliffs ( ! rav9e are usually p]p5dicul>1 & 9 _m places und]m9$ on "o side by ! impetu\s /ream4 ,! upp]mo/ rock ( ! table-l& at ! ,falls consi/s ( h>d lime/one 7a memb] ( ! ,silurian s]ies71 ab\t n9ety feet ?ick1 b5ea? :i* lie s(t %ales ( equal ?ickness1 cont9ually und]m9$ by ! action ( ! spray1 :i* rises f ! pool into :i* s l>ge a body ( wat] is project$1 & is driv5 viol5tly by gu/s ( w9d aga9/ ! base ( ! precipice4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is action1 & t ( fro/1 ! %ale dis9tegrates & crumbles away1 & portions ( ! incumb5t rock ov]hang #dj feet1 & (t5 :5 unsupport$ tumble d[n1 s t ! ,falls d n rema9 absolutely /ation>y at ! same spot1 ev5 = half a c5tury4 ,acc\nts h come d[n to u1 f ! e>lie/ p]iod ( obs]vation1 ( ! frequ5t de/ruction ( ^! rocks1 & ! sudd5 desc5t ( huge fragm5ts 9 #ahah & #ahbh1 are said to h %ak5 ! adjac5t c\ntry l an e>?quake4 ,! e>lie/ travell]s1 ,h5nep9 & ,kalm1 :o 9 #afgh & #agea visit$ ! ,falls1 & publi%$ views ( !m1 atte/ ! fact1 t ! rocks h be5 suff]+ f dilapidation = m ?an a c5tury & a half1 & t "s slight *anges1 ev5 9 ! sc5]y ( ! cat>act h be5 br\ght ab\t )9 t "t4 ,! idea1 !re=e1 ( p]petual & progressive wa/e is con/antly pres5t to ! m9d ( e behold]2 & z t "p ( ! *asm1 :i* has be5 ! "w ( ! la/ hundr$ & fifty ye>s resembles precisely1 9 dep?1 wid?1 & "*1 ! re/ ( ! gorge :i* ext5ds sev5 miles bel[1 x is mo/ natural to inf]1 t ! entire rav9e has be5 holl[$ out 9 ! same mann]1 by ! recession ( ! cat>act4 ,x mu/ at lea/ be conc$$1 t ! riv] supplies an adequate cause = execut+ ! :ole task ?us assign$ to x1 provid$ we grant suffici5t "t = its completion4 ,z ?is "p ( ! c\ntry 0 a wild]ness till ne> ! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 we c obta9 no accurate data = e/imat+ ! exact rate at :i* ! cat>act has be5 rec$+4 ,mr4 ,bakewell1 son ( ! em95t geologi/ ( t "n1 :o visit$ ! ,niag>a 9 #ahbi1 made ! fir/ attempt to calculate f ! obs]vations ( "o :o _h liv$ =ty ye>s at ! ,falls1 & :o _h be5 ! fir/ settl] !re1 t ! cat>act _h dur+ t p]iod gone back ab\t a y>d annually4 ,b aft] ! mo/ c>eful inquiries :i* ,i 0 able to make1 dur+ my visit to ! spot 9 #ahda-b1 ,i came to ! conclusion t ! av]age ( "o foot a ye> w\ld be a mu* m probable conjecture4 ,9 t case1 x w\ld h requir$ ?irty-five ?\s& ye>s = ! retreat ( ! ,falls1 f ! esc>pm5t ( ,que5/[n to _! pres5t site4 ,x seems by no means improbable t su* a result w\ld be no exagg]ation ( ! tru?1 al?\gh we _c assume t ! retrograde movem5t has be5 uni=m4 ,an exam9ation ( ! geological /ructure ( ! di/rict1 z laid op5 9 ! rav9e1 %[s t at e /ep 9 ! process ( excavation1 ! height ( ! precipice1 ! h>dness ( ! mat]ials at its base1 & ! quantity ( fall5 matt] to be remov$1 mu/ h v>i$4 ,at "s po9ts x may h rec$$ mu* fa/] ?an at pres5t1 b 9 g5]al its progress 0 probably sl[]1 because ! cat>act1 :5 x began to rec$e1 mu/ h _h ne>ly twice its pres5t height4 ,f obs]vations made by me 9 #ahda1 :5 ,i _h ! advantage ( be+ accompani$ by ,mr4 ,hall1 /ate geologi/ ( ,new ,york1 & 9 #ahdb1 :5 ,i re-exam9$ ! ,niag>a di/rict1 ,i obta9$ geological evid5ce ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( an old riv]-b$1 :i*1 ,i h no d\bt1 indicates ! orig9al *annel ?r\gh :i* ! wat]s once fl[$ f ! ,falls to ,que5/[n1 at ! height ( ne>ly ?ree hundr$ feet above ! bottom ( ! pres5t gorge4 ,! geological monum5ts allud$ to1 consi/ ( pat*es ( s& & gravel1 =ty feet ?ick1 conta9+ fluviatile %ells ( ! g5]a ,unio1 ,cyclas1 ,melania1 c41 su* z n[ inhabit ! wat]s ( ! ,niag>a above ! ,falls4 ,! id5tity ( ! fossil species ) ! rec5t is unque/ionable1 & ^! fre%wat] deposits occur at ! edge ( ! cliffs b\nd+ ! rav9e1 s t !y prove ! =m] ext5sion ( an elevat$ %all[ valley1 f\r miles bel[ ! falls1 a di/9ct prolongation ( t n[ occupi$ by ! ,niag>a1 9 ! elevat$ region int]v5+ betwe5 ,lake ,erie & ! ,falls4 ,:atev] !ory be fram$ = ! holl[+ out ( ! rav9e fur!r d[n1 or = ! ?ree miles :i* int]v5e betwe5 ! :irlpool & ,que5/[n1 x w always be necess>y to suppose ! =m] exi/5ce ( a b>ri] ( rock1 n ( loose & de/ructible mat]ials1 su* z ^? compos+ ! drift 9 ?is di/rict1 some:]e imm$iately bel[ ! :irlpool4 ,by t b>ri] ! wat]s 7 held back = ages1 :5 ! fluviatile deposit1 #dj feet 9 ?ickness1 & #bej feet above ! pres5t *annel ( ! riv]1 orig9at$4 ,if we are l$ by ?is evid5ce to admit t ! cat>act has cut back its way = f\r miles1 we c h little hesitation 9 ref]r+ ! excavation ( ! rema9+ ?ree miles bel[ to a l ag5cy1 ! %ape ( ! *asm be+ precisely simil>4 ,!re h be5 _m speculations respect+ ! future recession ( ! ,falls1 & ! deluge t might be occasion$ by ! sudd5 escape ( ! wat]s ( ,lake ,erie1 if ! rav9e %\ld ev] be prolong$ #af miles backw>ds4 ,b a m accurate k ( ! geological succession ( ! rocks1 br\ght to light by ! ,/ate ,survey1 has satisfi$ e geologi/ t ! ,falls w\ld dim9i% gradually 9 height be=e !y travell$ back two miles1 & 9 consequ5ce ( a g5tle dip ( ! /rata to ! s\?1 ! massive lime/one n[ at ! top w\ld !n be at _! base1 & w\ld ret>d1 & p]haps put an effectual /op to1 ! excavat+ process4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,transportation ,,( ,,solid ,,matt] ,,by ,,ice4 ,c>ry+ p[] ( riv]-ice--,rocks annually convey$ into ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce by its tribut>ies--,gr\nd-ice2 its orig9 & transport+ p[]--,glaci]s--,!ory ( _! d[nw>d movem5t--,smoo!d & groov$ rocks--,! mora9e un/ratifi$--,iceb]gs cov]$ ) mud & /ones--,limits ( glaci]s & iceb]gs--,_! effects on ! bottom :5 !y run agr\nd--,pack+ ( coa/-ice--,b\ld]s drift$ by ice on coa/ ( ,labrador--,blocks mov$ by ice 9 ! ,baltic4 ,! p[] ( runn+ wat] to c>ry s&1 gravel1 & fragm5ts ( rock to consid]able di/ances is greatly augm5t$ 9 ^? regions :]e1 dur+ "s "p ( ! ye>1 ! fro/ is ( suffici5t int5sity to conv]t ! wat]1 ei!r at ! surface or bottom ( riv]s1 into ice4 ,?is subject may be consid]$ "u ?ree diff]5t heads3--fir/1 ! effect ( surface-ice & gr\nd-ice 9 enabl+ /reams to remove gravel & /ones to a di/ance2 secondly1 ! action ( glaci]s 9 ! transport ( b\ld]s1 & 9 ! poli%+ & scrat*+ ( rocks2 ?irdly1 ! float+ (f ( glaci]s *>g$ ) solid matt] into ! sea1 & ! drift+ ( iceb]gs & coa/-ice4 ,riv]-ice4--,pebbles & small pieces ( rock may be se5 entangl$ 9 ice1 & float+ annually d[n ! ,tay 9 ,scotl&1 z f> z ! m\? ( t riv]4 ,simil> obs]vations might d\btless be made respect+ almo/ all ! l>g] riv]s ( ,engl& & ,scotl&2 b !re seems reason to suspect t ! pr9cipal transf] f place to place ( pebbles & /ones adh]+ to ice goes on unse5 by u "u wat]4 ,= al?\gh ! specific gravity ( ! comp\nd mass may cause x to s9k1 x may /ill be v buoyant1 & easily borne along by a feeble curr5t4 ,! ice1 moreov]1 melts v sl[ly at ! bottom ( runn+ /reams 9 w9t]1 z ! wat] !re is (t5 ne>ly at ! freez+ po9t1 z w be se5 f :at w be said 9 ! sequel ( gr\nd-ice4 ,z we trav]se ,europe 9 ! latitudes ( ,great ,brita91 we f9d ! w9t]s m sev]e1 & ! riv]s m regul>ly froz5 ov]4 ,m4 ,l>ivi]e relates t1 be+ at ,memel on ! ,baltic 9 #ahba1 :5 ! ice ( ! riv] ,niem5 broke up1 he saw a mass ( ice ?irty feet long :i* _h desc5d$ ! /ream1 & _h be5 ?r[n a%ore4 ,9 ! middle ( x 0 a triangul> piece ( granite1 ab\t a y>d 9 diamet]1 resembl+ 9 composition ! r$ granite ( ,f9l&4#bhc ,:5 riv]s 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e fl[ f s\? to nor?1 ! ice fir/ breaks up 9 ! high] "p ( _! c\rse1 & ! flood$ wat]s1 be>+ along l>ge icy fragm5ts1 (t5 arrive at p>ts ( ! /ream :i* are /ill firmly froz5 ov]4 ,great inundations are ?us frequ5tly occasion$ by ! ob/ructions ?r[n 9 ! way ( ! desc5d+ wat]s1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,mack5zie 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ! ,irti%1 ,obi1 ,y5esei1 ,l5a1 & o!r riv]s ( ,sib]ia4 7,see map1 fig4 #a1 p4 #gi47 ,a p>tial /oppage ( ?is k9d lately occurr$ 7,jan4 #ca1 #ahdj7 9 ! ,vi/ula1 ab\t a mile & a half above ! city ( ,dantzic1 :]e ! riv]1 *ok$ up by pack$ ice1 0 made to take a new c\rse ov] its "r bank1 s t x holl[$ out 9 a few days a deep & broad *annel1 _m leagues 9 l5g?1 ?r\gh a tract ( s&-hills :i* 7 f #dj to #fj feet high4 ,9 ,canada1 :]e ! w9t]'s cold is int5se1 9 a latitude correspond+ to t ( c5tral ,france1 sev]al tribut>ies ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce beg9 to ?aw 9 _! upp] c\rse1 :ile !y rema9 froz5 ov] l[] d[n1 & ?us l>ge slabs ( ice are set free & ?r[n ^u ! unbrok5 %eet ( ice bel[4 ,!n beg9s :at is call$ ! pack+ ( ! drift$ fragm5ts2 t is to say1 "o slab is made to slide ov] ano!r1 until a va/ pile is built up1 & ! :ole be+ froz5 toge!r1 is urg$ onw>ds by ! =ce ( ! damm$ up wat]s & drift-ice4 ,?us propell$1 x n only =ces along b\ld]s1 b breaks (f f cliffs1 :i* bord] ! riv]s1 huge pieces ( project+ rock4 ,by ?is means sev]al buttresses ( solid masonry1 :i*1 up to ! ye> #ahcf1 support$ a wood5 bridge on ! ,/4 ,maurice1 :i* falls into ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ne> ! t[n ( ,trois ,rivi]es1 lat4 #df degrees #bj m9utes1 7 ?r[n d[n1 & convey$ by ! ice into ! ma9 riv]2 & in/ances h occurr$ at ,montreal ( :>fs & /one-build+s1 f #cj to #ej feet squ>e1 hav+ be5 remov$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,we le>n f ,capta9 ,bayfield t an*ors laid d[n )9 high-wat] m>k1 to secure vessels haul$ on %ore = ! w9t]1 mu/ be cut out ( ! ice on ! approa* ( spr+1 or !y w\ld be c>ri$ away4 ,9 #ahcd1 ! ,guln>e's b[]-an*or1 weigh+ half a ton1 0 transport$ "s y>ds by ! ice1 & s firmly 0 x fix$1 t ! =ce ( ! mov+ ice broke a *a9-cable suit$ = a #aj-;gun brig1 & :i* _h rode ! ,guln>e dur+ ! heavie/ gales 9 ! gulf4 ,_h n ?is an*or be5 cut out ( ! ice1 x w\ld h be5 e>n$ into deep wat] & lo/4#bhd ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,b\ld]s ,,drift$ ,,by ,,ice ,,on ,,%ores ,,( ,,! ,,/4 ,,lawr5ce ,view tak5 by ,lieut4 ,b[51 f ! ,n4 ,e41 9 ! ,spr+ ( #ahce1 at ,ri*elieu ,rapid1 lat4 #df degrees ,n4 ,! sc5e repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ plate 7pl4 #b71 f a draw+ by ,lieut5ant ,b[51 ,r4 ,n41 w enable ! read] to compreh5d ! incessant *anges :i* ! transport ( b\ld]s produces annually on ! l[ isl&s1 %ores1 & b$ ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce above ,quebec4 ,! fundam5tal rocks at ,ri*elieu ,rapid1 situat$ 9 lat4 #df degrees ,n41 are lime/one & slate1 :i* are se5 at l[-wat] to be cov]$ ) b\ld]s ( granite4 ,^! b\ld]s owe _! sph]oidal =m *iefly to wea!r+1 or action ( fro/1 :i* causes ! surface to exfoliate 9 conc5tric plates1 s t all ! m prom95t angles are remov$4 ,at ! po9t a is a cavity 9 ! mud or s& ( ! bea*1 n[ fill$ ) wat]1 :i* 0 occupi$ dur+ ! prec$+ w9t] 7#ahce7 by ! huge erratic b1 a mass ( granite1 #gj tons' weight1 f\nd 9 ! spr+ foll[+ 7#ahcf7 at a di/ance ( sev]al feet f its =m] position4 ,_m small isl&s are se5 on ! riv]1 su* z c d1 :i* af=d /ill m /rik+ pro(s ( ! c>ry+ & propell+ p[] ( ice4 ,^! islets are nev] "u wat]1 yet e w9t] ice is ?r[n ^u !m 9 su* abundance1 t x packs to ! height ( #bj1 & ev5 #cj feet1 br++ ) x a cont9ual supply ( l>ge /ones or b\ld]s1 & c>ry+ away o!rs2 ! greate/ numb] be+ deposit$1 accord+ to ,lieut5ant ,b[51 on ! edge ( deep wat]4 ,on ! isl& d1 on ! left ( ! accompany+ view1 a ligh?\se is repres5t$1 consi/+ ( a squ>e wood5 build+1 :i* hav+ no o!r f\ndation ?an ! b\ld]s1 requires to be tak5 d[n e w9t]1 & rebuilt on ! reop5+ ( ! riv]4 ,^! effects ( fro/1 :i* are s /rik+ on ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce above ,quebec1 are by no means display$ on a small] scale bel[ t city1 :]e ! gulf rises & falls ) ! tide4 ,on ! contr>y2 x is 9 ! e/u>y1 betwe5 ! latitudes #dg degrees & #di degrees1 t ! greate/ quantity ( gravel & b\ld]s ( l>ge dim5sions are c>ri$ d[n annually t[>ds ! sea4 ,"h ! fro/ is s int5se1 t a d5se %eet ( ice is =m$ at l[ wat]1 :i*1 on ! rise ( ! tide1 is lift$ up1 brok51 & ?r[n 9 heaps on ! ext5sive %oals :i* bord] ! e/u>y4 ,:5 ! tide rec$es1 ?is pack$ ice is expos$ to a temp]ature sometimes #cj degrees bel[ z]o1 :i* freezes toge!r all ! loose pieces ( ice1 z well z ! granitic & o!r b\ld]s4 ,! :ole ( ^! are (t5 swept away by a high tide1 or :5 ! riv] is swoll5 by ! melt+ ( ! sn[ 9 ,spr+4 ,"o huge block ( granite1 #ae feet long by #aj feet bo? 9 wid? & height1 & e/imat$ to conta9 #aejj cubic feet1 0 convey$ 9 ?is mann] to "s di/ance 9 ! ye> #ahcg1 its previ\s position be+ well kn[n1 z up to t "t x _h be5 us$ by ,capta9 ,bayfield z a m>k = ! survey+ /ation4 ,gr\nd-ice4--,:5 a curr5t ( cold air passes ov] ! surface ( a lake or /ream x ab/racts f x a quantity ( heat1 & ! specific gravity ( ! wat] be+ !reby increas$1 ! cool$ portion s9ks4 ,?is circulation may cont9ue until ! :ole body ( fluid has be5 cool$ d[n to ! temp]ature ( #dj degrees ,f41 aft] :i*1 if ! cold increase1 ! v]tical movem5t ceases1 ! wat] :i* is upp]mo/ exp&s & floats ov] ! heavi] fluid bel[1 & :5 x has atta9$ a temp]ature ( #cb degrees ,fahr4 x sets into a %eet ( ice4 ,x %\ld seem !re=e impossible1 accord+ to ?is law ( congelation1 t ice %\ld ev] =m at ! bottom ( a riv]2 & yet su* is ! fact1 & _m speculations h be5 haz>d$ to acc\nt = s s+ul> a ph5om5on4 ,m4 ,arago is ( op9ion t ! me*anical action ( a runn+ /ream produces a circulation by :i* ! entire body ( wat] is mix$ up toge!r1 & cool$ alike1 & ! :ole be+ ?us r$uc$ to ! freez+ po9t1 ice beg9s to =m at ! bottom = two reasons1 fir/1 because !re is less motion !re1 & secondly1 because ! wat] is 9 contact ) solid rock or pebbles :i* h a cold surface4#bhe ,:atev] explanation we adopt1 !re is no d\bt ( ! fact1 t 9 c\ntries :]e ! int5sity & duration ( ! cold is great1 riv]s & torr5ts acquire an increase ( c>ry+ p[] by ! =mation ( :at is call$ gr\nd-ice4 ,ev5 9 ! ,?ames we le>n f ,dr4 ,plott t pieces ( ?is k9d ( ice1 hav+ gravel froz5 on to _! "u side1 rise up f ! bottom 9 w9t]1 & float on ! surface4 ,9 ! ,sib]ian riv]s1 ,weitz describes l>ge /ones z hav+ be5 br\ght up f ! riv]'s b$ 9 ! same mann]1 & made to float4#bhf ,glaci]s4--,9 ! temp]ate zone1 ! sn[ lies = mon?s 9 w9t] on ! summit ( e high m\nta91 :ile 9 ! arctic regions1 a long summ]'s day ( half a ye>'s duration is insuffici5t to melt ! sn[1 ev5 on l& j rais$ above ! level ( ! sea4 ,x is !re=e n surpris+1 s9ce ! atmosph]e becomes cold] 9 proportion z we asc5d 9 x1 t !re %\ld be heights1 ev5 9 tropical c\ntries1 :]e ! sn[ nev] melts4 ,! l[e/ limit to :i* ! p]petual sn[ ext5ds d[nw>ds1 f ! tops ( m\nta9s at ! equator1 is an elevation ( n less ?an #af1jjj feet above ! sea2 :ile 9 ! ,swiss ,alps1 9 lat4 #df degrees ,n4 x rea*es z l[ z #h1ejj feet above ! same level1 ! l(ti] peaks ( ! ,alp9e *a9 be+ f #ab1jjj to #ae1jjj feet high4 ,! froz5 mass augm5t+ f ye> to ye> w\ld add indef9itely to ! altitude ( alp9e summits1 7 x n reliev$ by its desc5t ?r\gh ! l>g] & deep] valleys to regions f> bel[ ! g5]al sn[-l9e4 ,to ^! x sl[ly f9ds its way 9 ! =m ( riv]s ( ice1 call$ glaci]s1 ! consolidation ( :i* is produc$ by pressure1 & by ! congelation ( wat] infilt]$ into ! por\s mass1 :i* is always und]go+ p>tial liquefaction1 & receiv+ 9 summ] occasional %[]s ( ra9 on its surface4 ,9 a day ( hot sun%9e1 or mild ra91 innum]able rills ( pure & sp>kl+ wat] run 9 icy *annels along ! surface ( ! glaci]s1 :i* 9 ! night %r9k1 & come to no?+4 ,!y are (t5 precipitat$ 9 bold cascades into deep fissures 9 ! ice1 & contribute toge!r ) spr+s to =m torr5ts1 :i* fl[ 9 tunnels at ! bottom ( ! glaci]s = _m a league1 & at l5g? issue at _! extremities1 f b5ea? beautiful cav]ns or ar*es4 ,! wat]s ( ^! /reams are always d5sely *>g$ ) ! f9e/ mud1 produc$ by ! gr9d+ ( rock & s& "u ! weight ( ! mov+ mass4 7,see fig4 #ah47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #ah4 ,glaci] ) m$ial & lat]al mora9es & ) t]m9al cave4 ,! l5g? ( ! ,swiss glaci]s is sometimes tw5ty miles1 _! wid? 9 ! middle portion1 :]e !y are broade/1 occasionally two or ?ree miles2 _! dep? or ?ickness sometimes m ?an #fjj feet4 ,:5 !y desc5d /eep slopes1 & precipices1 or are =c$ ?r\gh n>r[ gorges1 ! ice is brok5 up1 & assumes ! mo/ fanta/ic & picturesque =ms1 ) l(ty peaks & p9nacles1 project+ above ! g5]al level4 ,^! sn[-:ite masses are (t5 reliev$ by a d>k backgr\nd ( p9es1 z 9 ! valley ( ,*am\ni2 & are n only surr\nd$ ) abundance ( ! wild rhodod5dron 9 full fl[]1 b encroa* /ill l[] into ! region ( cultivation1 & trespass on fields :]e ! tobacco-plant is fl\ri%+ by ! side ( ! peasant's hut4 ,! cause ( glaci] motion has ( late be5 a subject ( c>eful inve/igation & mu* ke5 controv]sy4 ,al?\gh a "q ( physics1 r ?an ( geology1 x is too int]e/+ to all[ me to pass x by )\t "s brief m5tion4 ,de ,saussure1 ^: travels 9 ! ,alps are full ( orig9al obs]vations1 z well z s\nd & compreh5sive g5]al views1 conceiv$ t ! weight ( ! ice might be suffici5t to urge x d[n ! slope ( ! valley1 if ! slid+ motion 7 aid$ by ! wat] fl[+ at ! bottom4 ,= ?is gravitation !ory ,*>p5ti]1 foll[$ by ,agassiz1 sub/itut$ ! hypo!sis ( dilatation4 ,! mo/ solid ice is always p]meable to wat]1 & p5etrat$ by innum]able fissures & capill>y tubes1 (t5 extremely m9ute4 ,^! tubes imbibe ! aque\s fluid dur+ ! day1 :i* freezes1 x is said1 9 ! cold ( ! night1 & exp&s :ile 9 ! act ( congelation4 ,! di/5sion ( ! :ole mass ex]ts an imm5se =ce1 t5d+ to propel ! glaci] 9 ! direction ( lea/ resi/ance--9 o!r words1 d[n ! valley4 ,?is !ory 0 oppos$ by ,mr4 ,hopk9s on ma!matical & me*anical gr\nds1 9 sev]al able pap]s4 ,among o!r objections1 he po9t$ out t ! friction ( s enorm\s a body z a glaci] on its b$ is s great1 t ! v]tical direction w\ld always be t ( lea/ resi/ance1 & if a consid]able di/5sion ( ! mass %\ld take place1 by ! action ( freez+1 x w\ld t5d to increase its ?ickness1 r ?an accel]ate its d[nw>d progress4 ,he also cont5d$ 7& 8 argum5ts 7 illu/rat$ by _m +5i\s exp]im5ts71 t a glaci] c move along an extremely slight slope1 solely by ! influ5ce ( gravitation1 ow+ to ! con/ant dissolution ( ice 9 contact ) ! rocky bottom1 & ! numb] ( sep>ate fragm5ts into :i* ! glaci] is divid$ by fissures1 s t fre$om ( motion is imp>t$ to its sev]al p>ts some:at resembl+ t ( an imp]fect fluid4 ,to ?is view ,pr(essor ,james ,=bes object$1 t gravitation w\ld n supply an adequate cause = ! slid+ ( solid ice d[n slopes hav+ an incl9ation ( no m ?an f\r or five degrees1 /ill less w\ld x expla9 h[ ! glaci] advances :]e ! *annel exp&s & contracts4 ,! ,m] de ,glace 9 ,*am\ni1 = example1 aft] be+ #bjjj y>ds wide1 passes ?r\gh a /rait only #ijj y>ds 9 wid?4 ,su* a gorge1 x is cont5d$1 w\ld be *ok$ up by ! advance ( any solid mass1 ev5 if x be brok5 up into num]\s fragm5ts4 ,! same acute obs]v] rem>k$1 t wat] 9 ! fissures & pores ( glaci]s _c1 & does n "p ) its lat5t heat1 s z to freeze e night to a great dep?1 or f> 9 ! int]ior ( ! mass4 ,_h ! dilatation !ory be5 true1 ! *ief motion ( ! glaci] w\ld h occurr$ ab\t sunset1 :5 ! freez+ ( ! wat] mu/ be greate/1 & x _h1 9 fact1 be5 at fir/ assum$ by ^? :o favor$ t hypo!sis1 t ! mass mov$ fa/] at ! sides1 :]e ! melt+ ( ice 0 promot$ by ! sun's heat1 reflect$ f b\nd>y precipices4 ,agassiz appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ to comm5ce1 9 #ahda1 aid$ by a skilful eng9e]1 ,m4 ,es*] de la ,l9?1 a s]ies ( exact measurem5ts to asc]ta9 ! laws ( glaci] motion1 & he soon discov]$1 contr>y to 8 preconceiv$ notions1 t ! /ream ( ice mov$ m sl[ly at ! sides ?an at ! c5tre1 & fa/] 9 ! middle region ( ! glaci] ?an at its extremity4#bhg ,pr(essor ,james ,=bes1 :o _h jo9$ ,mr4 ,agassiz dur+ 8 e>li] inve/igations 9 ! ,alps1 und]took himself an indep5d5t s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 :i* he foll[$ up ) great p]sev]ance1 to det]m9e ! laws ( glaci] motion4 ,^! he f\nd to agree v closely ) ! laws gov]n+ ! c\rse ( riv]s1 _! progress be+ great] 9 ! c5tre ?an at ! sides1 & m rapid at ! surface ?an at ! bottom4 ,?is fact 0 v]ifi$ by c>efully fix+ a great numb] ( m>ks 9 ! ice1 arrang$ 9 a /raight l9e1 :i* gradually assum$ a beautiful curve1 ! middle "p po9t+ d[n ! glaci]1 & %[+ a velocity !re1 d\ble or treble t ( ! lat]al p>ts4#bhh ,he asc]ta9$ t ! rate ( advance by night 0 ne>ly ! same z by day1 & t ev5 ! h\rly m>* ( ! icy /ream c\ld be detect$1 al?\gh ! progress might n am\nt to m ?an six or sev5 in*es 9 twelve h\rs4 ,by ! incessant ?\gh invisible advance ( ! m>ks plac$ on ! ice1 "t1 says ,mr4 ,=bes1 0 m>k$ out z by a %ad[ on a dial1 & ! unequivocal evid5ce :i* ,i obta9$1 t ev5 :ile walk+ on a glaci] we are1 day by day1 & h\r by h\r1 imp]ceptibly c>ri$ on by ! resi/less fl[ ( ! icy /ream1 fill$ me ) admiration4 7,travels 9 ! ,alps1 p4 #acc47 ,9 ord] to expla9 ?is rem>kable regul>ity ( motion1 & its ob$i5ce to laws s /rictly analog\s to ^? ( fluids1 ! same writ] propos$ ! !ory t ! ice1 in/ead ( be+ solid & compact1 is a visc\s or pla/ic body1 capable ( yield+ to great pressure1 & ! m s 9 proportion z its temp]ature is high]1 & z x approa*es m ne>ly to ! melt+ po9t4 ,he endeavors to %[ t ?is hypo!sis w acc\nt = _m complicat$ ph5om5a1 especially = a ribbon$ or ve9$ /ructure :i* is ev]y:]e obs]vable 9 ! ice1 & might be produc$ by l9es ( discont9uity1 aris+ f ! diff]5t rates at :i* ! v>i\s portions ( ! semi-rigid glaci] advance & pass ea* o!r4 ,_m examples are adduc$ to prove t a glaci] c model itself to ! =m ( ! gr\nd ov] :i* x is =c$1 exactly z w\ld happ5 if x possess$ a c]ta9 ductility1 & ?is p[] ( yield+ "u int5se pressure1 is %[n n to be irreconcilable ) ! idea ( ! ice be+ suffici5tly compact to break into fragm5ts1 :5 ! /ra9 ^u its p>ts is excessive2 z :]e ! glaci] turns a %>p angle1 or desc5ds ^u a rapid or convex slope4 ,! increas$ velocity 9 summ] is attribut$ p>tly to ! great] pla/icity ( ! ice1 :5 n expos$ to int5se cold1 & p>tly to ! hydro/atic pressure ( ! wat] 9 ! capill>y tubes1 :i* imbibe m ( ?is liquid 9 ! hot season4 ,on ! assumption ( ! ice be+ a rigid mass1 ,mr4 ,hopk9s attribut$ ! m rapid motions 9 ! c5tre to ! unequal rate at :i* ! broad /ripes ( ice1 int]v5+ betwe5 longitud9al fissures1 advance2 b besides t !re are p>ts ( ! glaci] :]e no su* fissures exi/1 su* a mode ( progression1 says ,mr4 ,=bes1 w\ld cause ! bord]s ( l>ge transv]se r5ts or crevasses1 to be jagg$ l a saw1 in/ead ( be+ p]fectly ev5 & /raight-edg$4#bhi ,an exp]im5t rec5tly made by ,mr4 ,*ri/ie1 secret>y to ! ,royal ,society1 appe>s to demon/rate t ice1 "u great pressure1 possesses a suffici5t degree ( m\ld+ & self-adapt+ p[] to all[ x to be act$ ^u1 z if x 7 a pa/y sub/ance4 ,a holl[ %ell ( iron an in* & a half ?ick1 ! int]ior be+ t5 in*es 9 diamet]1 0 fill$ ) wat]1 9 ! c\rse ( a sev]e w9t]1 & expos$ to ! fro/1 ) ! fuze-hole upp]mo/4 ,a portion ( ! wat] exp&$ 9 freez+1 s z to protrude a cyl9d] ( ice f ! fuze-hole2 & ?is cyl9d] cont9u$ to gr[ in* by in* 9 proportion z ! c5tral nucleus ( wat] froze4 ,z we _c d\bt t an out] %ell ( ice is fir/ =m$1 & !n ano!r )91 ! cont9u$ rise ( ! column ?r\gh ! fuze-hole mu/ proce$ f ! squeez+ ( successive %ells ( ice conc5trically =m$1 ?r\gh ! n>r[ orifice2 & yet ! protrud$ cyl9d] consi/$ ( entire1 & n fragm5t>y ice4#bij ,! ag5cy ( glaci]s 9 produc+ p]man5t geological *anges consi/s p>tly 9 _! p[] ( transport+ gravel1 s&1 & huge /ones to great di/ances1 & p>tly 9 ! smoo?+1 poli%+1 & scor+ ( _! rocky *annels1 & ! b\nd>y walls ( ! valleys ?r\gh :i* !y pass4 ,at ! foot ( e /eep cliff or precipice 9 high ,alp9e regions1 a talus is se5 ( rocky fragm5ts deta*$ by ! alt]nate action ( fro/ & ?aw4 ,if ^! loose masses1 in/ead ( accumulat+ on a /ation>y base1 happ5 to fall ^u a glaci]1 !y w move along ) x1 &1 9 place ( a s+le heap1 !y w =m 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s a long /ream ( blocks4 ,if a glaci] be #bj miles long1 & its annual progression ab\t #ejj feet1 x w require ab\t two c5turies = a block ?us lodg$ ^u its surface to travel d[n f ! high] to ! l[] regions1 or to ! extremity ( ! icy mass4 ,?is t]m9al po9t rema9s usually un*ang$ f ye> to ye>1 al?\gh e "p ( ! ice is 9 motion1 because ! liquefaction by heat is j suffici5t to balance ! onw>d movem5t ( ! glaci]1 :i* may be comp>$ to an endless file ( soldi]s1 p\r+ into a brea*1 & %ot d[n z fa/ z !y advance4 ,! /ones c>ri$ along on ! ice are call$ 9 ,switz]l& ! mora9es ( ! glaci]4 ,!re is always "o l9e ( blocks on ea* side or edge ( ! icy /ream1 & (t5 sev]al 9 ! middle1 :]e !y are arrang$ 9 long ridges or m\nds1 (t5 sev]al y>ds high4 7,see fig4 #ah1 p4 #bbc47 ,! cause ( ^! m$ial mora9es 0 fir/ expla9$ by ,agassiz1 :o ref]r$ !m to ! conflu5ce ( tribut>y glaci]s4#bia ,^u ! union ( two /reams ( ice1 ! "r lat]al mora9e ( "o ( ! /reams comes 9 contact ) ! left lat]al mora9e ( ! o!r1 & !y aft]w>ds move on toge!r1 9 ! c5tre1 if ! conflu5t glaci]s are equal 9 size1 or ne>] to "o side if unequal4 ,all s& & fragm5ts ( s(t /one :i* fall ?r\gh fissures & rea* ! bottom ( ! glaci]s1 or :i* are int]pos$ betwe5 ! glaci] & ! /eep sides ( ! valley1 are pu%$ along1 & gr\nd d[n into mud1 :ile ! l>g] & h>d] fragm5ts h _! angles worn (f4 ,at ! same "t ! fundam5tal & b\nd>y rocks are smoo!d & poli%$1 & (t5 scor$ ) p>allel furr[s1 or ) l9es & scrat*es produc$ by h>d m9]als1 su* z cry/als ( qu>tz1 :i* act l ! diamond ^u glass4#bib ,?is effect is p]fectly diff]5t f t caus$ by ! action ( wat]1 or a muddy torr5t =c+ along heavy fragm5ts2 = :5 /ones are fix$ firmly 9 ! ice1 & pu%$ along by x "u great pressure1 9 /raight l9es1 !y scoop out long rectil9e> furr[s or grooves p>allel to ea* o!r4#bic ,! discov]y ( su* m>k+s at v>i\s heights f> above ! surface ( ! exi/+ glaci]s & = miles beyond _! pres5t t]m9ations1 af=ds geological evid5ce ( ! =m] ext5sion ( ! ice beyond its pres5t limits 9 ,switz]l& & o!r c\ntries4 ,! mora9e ( ! glaci]1 obs]ves ,*>p5ti]1 is entirely devoid ( /ratification1 = !re has be5 no sort+ ( ! mat]ials1 z 9 ! case ( s&1 mud1 & pebbles1 :5 deposit$ by runn+ wat]4 ,! ice transports indiff]5tly1 & to ! same spots1 ! heavie/ blocks & ! f9e/ p>ticles1 m+l+ all toge!r1 & leav+ !m 9 "o confus$ & promiscu\s heap :]ev] x melts4#bid ,iceb]gs4--,9 c\ntries situat$ 9 high nor!rn latitudes1 l ,spitzb]g51 betwe5 #gj degrees & #hj degrees ,n41 glaci]s1 load$ ) mud & rock1 desc5d to ! sea1 & !re huge fragm5ts ( !m float (f & become iceb]gs4 ,scoresby c\nt$ #ejj ( ^! b]gs drift+ along 9 latitudes #fi degrees & #gj degrees ,n41 :i* rose above ! surface f ! height ( #ajj to #bjj feet1 & measur$ f a few y>ds to a mile 9 circumf]5ce4#bie ,_m ( !m 7 load$ ) b$s ( e>? & rock ( su* ?ickness1 t ! weight 0 conjectur$ to be f #ej1jjj to #ajj1jjj tons4 ,specim5s ( ! rocks 7 obta9$1 & among !m 7 granite1 gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 clay-slate1 granul> felsp>1 & gre5/one4 ,su* b]gs mu/ be ( great magnitude2 because ! mass ( ice bel[ ! level ( ! wat] is ab\t eight times great] ?an t above4 ,:]ev] !y are dissolv$1 x is evid5t t ! mora9e w fall to ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,9 ?is mann] may subm>9e valleys1 m\nta9s1 & plat=ms become /rew$ ov] ) gravel1 s&1 mud1 & scatt]$ blocks ( =eign rock1 ( a nature p]fectly dissimil> f all 9 ! vic9ity1 & :i* may h be5 transport$ across unfa?omable abysses4 ,if ! b]gs happ5 to melt 9 /ill wat]1 s t ! e>?y & /ony mat]ials may fall tranquilly to ! bottom1 ! deposit w probably be un/ratifi$1 l ! t]m9al mora9e ( a glaci]2 b :5ev] ! mat]ials are "u ! influ5ce ( a curr5t ( wat] z !y fall1 !y w be sort$ & arrang$ accord+ to _! relative weight & size1 & !re=e m or less p]fectly /ratifi$4 ,9 a =m] *apt] x 0 /at$ t "s ice isl&s h be5 kn[n to drift f ,baff9's ,bay to ! ,azores1 & f ! ,s\? ,pole to ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 s t ! area ov] :i* ! effects ( mov+ ice may be exp]i5c$1 compreh5ds a l>ge portion ( ! globe4 ,we le>n f ,von ,bu* t ! mo/ s\!rn po9t on ! cont95t ( ,europe at :i* a glaci] comes d[n to ! sea is 9 ,norway1 9 lat4 #fg degrees ,n4#bif ,b ,mr4 ,d>w9 has %[n1 t !y ext5d to ! sea1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 9 latitudes m ?an #bj degrees ne>] ! equator ?an 9 ,europe2 z1 = example1 9 ,*ili1 :]e1 9 ! ,gulf ( ,p5as1 lat4 #df degrees #dj m9utes ,s41 or ! latitude ( c5tral ,france2 & 9 ,sir ,george ,eyre's ,s\nd1 9 ! latitude ( ,p>is1 !y give orig9 to iceb]gs1 :i* 7 se5 9 #ahcd c>ry+ angul> pieces ( granite1 & /r&+ !m 9 fiords1 :]e ! %ores 7 compos$ ( clay-slate4#big ,a l>ge proportion1 h[ev]1 ( ! ice-isl&s se5 float+ bo? 9 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es1 are probably n g5]at$ by glaci]s1 b r by ! accumulation ( coa/ ice4 ,:5 ! sea freezes at ! base ( a l(ty precipice1 ! %eet ( ice is prev5t$ f adh]+ to ! l& by ! rise & fall ( ! tide4 ,nev]!less1 x (t5 cont9ues on ! %ore at ! foot ( ! cliff1 & receives accessions ( drift sn[ bl[n f ! l&4 ,"u ! weight ( ?is sn[ ! ice s9ks sl[ly if ! wat] be deep1 & ! sn[ is gradually conv]t$ into ice by p>tial liquefaction & re-congelation4 ,9 ?is mann]1 isl&s ( ice ( great ?ickness & _m leagues 9 l5g?1 orig9ate1 & are ev5tually bl[n out to sea by (f-%ore w9ds4 ,9 _! int]ior are inclos$ _m fragm5ts ( /one :i* _h fall5 ^u !m f ov]hang+ cliffs dur+ _! =mation4 ,su* float+ iceb]gs are commonly flat-topp$1 b _! l[] portions are liable to melt 9 latitudes :]e ! ocean at a mod]ate dep? is usually w>m] ?an ! surface wat] & ! air4 ,h5ce _! c5tre ( gravity *anges cont9ually1 & !y turn ov] & assume v irregul> %apes4 ,9 a voyage ( discov]y made 9 ! ant>ctic regions 9 #ahci1 a d>k-color$ angul> mass ( rock 0 se5 imb$d$ 9 an iceb]g1 drift+ along 9 mid-ocean 9 lat4 #fa degrees ,s4 ,t "p ( ! rock :i* 0 visible 0 ab\t #ab feet 9 height1 & f #e to #f 9 wid?1 b ! d>k color ( ! surr\nd+ ice indicat$ t mu* m ( ! /one 0 conceal$4 ,a sket* made by ,mr4 ,macnab1 :5 ! vessel 0 )9 a qu>t] ( a mile ( x1 is n[ publi%$4#bih ,?is iceb]g1 "o ( _m obs]v$ at sea on ! same day1 0 betwe5 #bej & #cjj feet high1 & 0 no less ?an #adjj miles f any c]ta9ly kn[n l&4 ,x is exce$+ly improbable1 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 9 8 notice ( ?is ph5om5on1 t any l& w h]eaft] be discov]$ )9 #ajj miles ( ! spot1 & x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! erratic 0 /ill firmly fix$ 9 ! ice1 & may h sail$ = _m a league f>!r be=e x dropp$ to ! bottom4#bii ,capta9 ,sir ,james ,ross1 9 8 ant>ctic voyage 9 #ahda1 #db1 & #dc1 saw multitudes ( iceb]gs transport+ /ones & rocks ( v>i\s sizes1 ) froz5 mud1 9 high s\!rn latitudes4 ,8 companion1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,hook]1 in=ms me t he came to ! conclusion t mo/ ( ! s\!rn iceb]gs h /ones 9 !m1 al?\gh !y are usually conceal$ f view by ! quantity ( sn[ :i* falls ^u !m4 ,9 ! acc\nt giv5 by ,messrs4 ,dease & ,simpson1 ( _! rec5t arctic discov]ies1 we le>n t 9 lat4 #ga degrees ,n41 long4 #aef degrees ,w41 !y f\nd a long l[ spit1 nam$ ,po9t ,b>r[1 compos$ ( gravel & co>se s&1 9 "s p>ts m ?an a qu>t] ( a mile broad1 :i* ! pressure ( ! ice _h =c$ up into num]\s m\nds1 t1 view$ f a di/ance1 assum$ ! appe>ance ( huge b\ld] rocks4#cjj ,?is fact is important1 z %[+ h[ masses ( drift ice1 :5 /r&+ on subm>9e banks1 may ex]t a lat]al pressure capable ( b5d+ & dislocat+ any yield+ /rata ( gravel1 s&1 or mud4 ,! banks on :i* iceb]gs occasionally run agr\nd betwe5 ,baff9's ,bay & ,newf\ndl&1 are _m hundr$ feet "u wat]1 & ! =ce ) :i* !y are /ruck w dep5d n s mu* on ! velocity z ! mom5tum ( ! float+ ice-isl&s4 ,! same b]g is (t5 c>ri$ away by a *ange ( w9d1 & !n driv5 back aga9 ^u ! same bank1 or x is made to rise & fall by ! waves ( ! ocean1 s t x may alt]nately /rike ! bottom ) its :ole weight1 & !n be lift$ up aga9 until x has d]ang$ ! sup]ficial b$s ov] a wide area4 ,9 ?is mann] ! geologi/ may acc\nt1 p]haps1 = ! circum/ance t 9 ,sc&9avia1 ,scotl&1 & o!r c\ntries :]e erratics are met )1 ! b$s ( s&1 loam1 & gravel are (t5 v]tical1 b5t1 & contort$ into ! mo/ complicat$ folds1 :ile ! und]ly+ /rata1 al?\gh compos$ ( equally pliant mat]ials1 are horizontal4 ,b "s ( ^! curvatures ( loose /rata may also h be5 due to repeat$ alt]nations ( lay]s ( gravel & s&1 ice & sn[1 ! melt+ ( ! latt] hav+ caus$ ! int]calat$ b$s ( inde/ructible matt] to assume _! pres5t anomal\s position4 ,!re c be little d\bt t iceb]gs mu/ (t5 break (f ! peaks & project+ po9ts ( subm>9e m\nta9s1 & mu/ grate ^u & poli% _! surface1 furr[+ or scrat*+ !m 9 precisely ! same way z we h se5 t glaci]s act on ! solid rocks ov] :i* !y are propell$4#cja ,to conclude3 x appe>s t l>ge /ones1 mud1 & gravel are c>ri$ d[n by ! ice ( riv]s1 e/u>ies1 & glaci]s1 into ! sea1 :]e ! tides & curr5ts ( ! ocean1 aid$ by ! w9d1 cause !m to drift = hundr$s ( miles f ! place ( _! orig94 ,al?\gh x w belong m prop]ly to ! sev5? & eigh? *apt]s to treat ( ! transportation ( solid matt] by ! movem5ts ( ! ocean1 ,i %all add "h :at ,i h f>!r to say on ?is subject 9 connection ) ice4 ,! sal9e matt] :i* sea-wat] holds 9 solution1 prev5ts its congelation1 except :]e ! mo/ int5se cold prevails4 ,b ! drift+ ( ! sn[ f ! l& (t5 r5d]s ! surface-wat] bracki% ne> ! coa/1 s t a %eet ( ice is readily =m$ !re1 & by ?is means a l>ge quantity ( gravel is frequ5tly convey$ f place to place1 & heavy b\ld]s also1 :5 ! coa/-ice is pack$ into d5se masses4 ,bo? ! l>ge & small /ones ?us convey$ usually travel 9 "o direction l %+le-bea*es1 & ?is 0 obs]v$ to take place on ! coa/ ( ,labrador & ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 betwe5 ! latitudes #ej degrees & #fj degrees ,n41 by ,capt4 ,bayfield1 dur+ 8 late survey4 ,! l9e ( coa/ allud$ to is /rew$ ov] = a di/ance ( #gjj miles ) ice-borne b\ld]s1 (t5 #f feet 9 diamet]1 :i* are = ! mo/ "p on _! way f nor? to s\?1 or 9 ! direction ( ! prevail+ curr5t4 ,"s po9ts on ?is coa/ h be5 obs]v$ to be occasionally des]t$1 & !n aga9 at ano!r season ?ickly be/rew$ ) erratics4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,b\ld]s1 *iefly ( granite1 /r&$ by ice on ! coa/ ( ,labrador1 betwe5 lat4 #ej degrees & #fj degrees ,n4 7,lieut4 ,b[51 ,r4 ,n47 ,! accompany+ draw+ 7fig4 #ai71 = :i* ,i am indebt$ to ,lieut4 ,b[51 ,r4 ,n41 repres5ts ! ord9>y appe>ance ( ! ,labrador coa/1 betwe5 ! latitudes ( #ej degrees & #fj degrees ,n4 ,c\ntless blocks1 *iefly granitic1 & ( v>i\s sizes1 are se5 ly+ betwe5 high & l[-wat] m>k4 ,capt4 ,bayfield saw simil> masses c>ri$ by ice ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,belle ,isle1 betwe5 ,newf\ndl& & ! ,am]ican cont95t1 :i* he conceives may h travell$ 9 ! c\rse ( ye>s f ,baff9's ,bay1 a di/ance :i* may be comp>$ 9 our hemisph]e to ! drift+ ( erratics f ,lapl& & ,icel& z f> s\? z ,g]many1 ,france1 & ,engl&4 ,x may be ask$ 9 :at mann] h ^! blocks be5 orig9ally deta*$8 ,we may answ] t "s h fall5 f precipit\s cliffs1 o!rs h be5 lift$ up f ! bottom ( ! sea1 adh]+ by _! tops to ! ice1 :ile o!rs h be5 br\ght d[n by riv]s & glaci]s4 ,! erratics ( ,nor? ,am]ica are sometimes angul>1 b mo/ ( !m h be5 r\nd$ ei!r by friction or decomposition4 ,! granite ( ,canada1 z be=e rem>k$ 7p4 #bba 71 has a t5d5cy to conc5tric exfoliation1 & scales (f 9 sph]oidal coats :5 expos$ to ! spray ( ! sea dur+ sev]e fro/s4 ,! range ( ! !rmomet] 9 t c\ntry usually exce$s1 9 ! c\rse ( ! ye>1 #ajj degrees1 & sometimes #abj degrees ,f42 &1 to prev5t ! granite us$ 9 ! build+s ( ,quebec f peel+ (f 9 w9t]1 x is necess>y to oil & pa9t ! squ>$ /ones4 ,9 p>ts ( ! ,baltic1 su* z ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 :]e ! quantity ( salt 9 ! wat] am\nts 9 g5]al to "o f\r? only ( t 9 ! ocean1 ! entire surface freezes ov] 9 w9t] to ! dep? ( #e or #f feet4 ,/ones are ?us froz5 91 & aft]w>ds lift$ up ab\t #c feet p]p5dicul>ly on ! melt+ ( ! sn[ 9 summ]1 & !n c>ri$ by float+ ice-isl&s to great di/ances4 ,pr(essor ,von ,ba] /ates1 9 a communication on ?is subject to ! ,academy ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 t a block ( granite1 weigh+ a million ( p\nds1 0 c>ri$ by ice dur+ ! w9t] ( #ahcg-h f ,f9l& to ! isl& ( ,hockl&1 & two o!r huge blocks 7 transport$ ab\t ! ye>s #ahjf & #ahad by pack$ ice on ! s\? coa/ ( ,f9l&1 accord+ to ! te/imony ( ! pilots & inhabitants1 "o block hav+ travell$ ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile1 & ly+ ab\t #ah feet above ! level ( ! sea4#cjb ,m rec5tly ,dr4 ,=*hamm] has %[n t 9 ! ,s\nd1 ! ,great ,belt1 & o!r places ne> ! entrance ( ! ,baltic1 gr\nd-ice =ms pl5tifully at ! bottom & !n rises to ! surface1 *>g$ ) s& & gravel1 /ones & sea-we$4 ,%eets ( ice1 also1 ) includ$ b\ld]s1 are driv5 up on ! coa/ dur+ /orms1 & pack$ to a height ( #ej feet4 ,to ! motion ( su* masses1 b /ill m to t ( ! gr\nd-ice1 ! ,dani% pr(essor attributes ! /riation ( rocky surfaces1 =m+ ! %ores & b$ ( ! sea1 & he relates a /rik+ fact to prove t l>ge quantities ( rocky fragm5ts are annually c>ri$ by ice out ( ! ,baltic4 ,9 ! ye> #ahjg1 he says1 at ! "t ( ! bomb>dm5t ( ! ,dani% fleet1 an ,engli% sloop-(-w>1 rid+ at an*or 9 ! roads at ,cop5hag51 blew up4 ,9 #ahdd1 or ?irty-sev5 ye>s aft]w>ds1 "o ( our div]s1 kn[n to be a tru/wor?y man1 w5t d[n to save :atev] might yet rema9 9 ! %ipwreck$ vessel4 ,he f\nd ! space betwe5 decks entire1 b cov]$ ) blocks f #f to #h cubic feet 9 size1 & "s ( !m heap$ "o ^u ! o!r4 ,he also affirm$1 t all ! sunk %ips :i* he _h visit$ 9 ! ,s\nd1 7 9 l mann] /rew$ ov] ) blocks4 ,dr4 ,=*hamm] also in=ms u1 t dur+ an int5se fro/ 9 ,febru>y1 #ahdd1 ! ,s\nd 0 sudd5ly froz5 ov]1 & %eets ( ice1 driv5 by a /orm1 7 heap$ up at ! bottom ( ! ,bay ( ,ta>beijk1 ?reat5+ to de/roy a fi%+-village on ! %ore4 ,! :ole 0 soon froz5 toge!r into "o mass1 & =c$ up on ! bea*1 =m+ a m\nd m ?an #af feet high1 :i* ?rew d[n ! walls ( sev]al build+s4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ! spot next day1 ,i saw ridges ( ice1 s&1 & pebbles1 n only on ! %ore1 b ext5d+ f> out into ! bottom ( ! sea1 %[+ h[ greatly its b$ _h be5 *ang$1 & h[ easily1 :]e x is compos$ ( rock1 x may be furr[$ & /reak$ by /ones firmly fix$ 9 ! mov+ ice4#cjc ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,ph5om5a ,,( ,,spr+s4 ,orig9 ( ,spr+s--,artesian wells--,bor+s at ,p>is--,di/9ct causes by :i* m9]al & !rmal wat]s may be rais$ to ! surface--,_! connection ) volcanic ag5cy--,calc>e\s spr+s--,trav]t9 ( ! ,elsa--,ba?s ( ,san ,vignone & ( ,san ,filippo1 ne> ,radic(ani--,sph]oidal /ructure 9 trav]t9--,lake ( ! ,solfat>a1 ne> ,rome--,trav]t9 at ,cascade ( ,tivoli--,gypse\s1 silice\s1 & f]rug9\s spr+s--,br9e spr+s--,c>bonat$ spr+s--,dis9tegration ( granite 9 ,auv]gne--,petroleum spr+s--,pit* lake ( ,tr9idad4 ,orig9 ( spr+s4--,! action ( runn+ wat] on ! surface ( ! l& hav+ be5 consid]$1 we may next turn our att5tion to :at may be t]m$ ! subt]ranean dra9age1 or ! ph5om5a ( spr+s4 ,e "o is famili> ) ! fact1 t c]ta9 por\s soils1 su* z loose s& & gravel1 absorb wat] ) rapidity1 & t ! gr\nd compos$ ( !m soon dries up aft] heavy %[]s4 ,if a well be sunk 9 su* soils1 we (t5 p5etrate to consid]able dep?s be=e we meet ) wat]2 b ?is is usually f\nd on our approa*+ ! l[] p>ts ( ! =mation1 :]e x re/s on "s imp]vi\s b$2 = "h ! wat]1 unable to make its way d[nw>ds 9 a direct l9e1 accumulates z 9 a res]voir1 & is ready to ooze out into any op5+ :i* may be made1 9 ! same mann] z we see ! salt wat] fl[ into1 & fill1 any holl[ :i* we dig 9 ! s&s ( ! %ore at l[ tide4 ,! facility ) :i* wat] c p]colate loose & gravelly soils is cle>ly illu/rat$ by ! effect ( ! tides 9 ! ,?ames betwe5 ,ri*mond & ,london4 ,! riv]1 9 ?is "p ( its c\rse1 fl[s ?r\gh a b$ ( gravel ov]ly+ clay1 & ! por\s sup]/ratum is alt]nately saturat$ by ! wat] ( ! ,?ames z ! tide rises1 & !n dra9$ aga9 to ! di/ance ( sev]al hundr$ feet f ! banks :5 ! tide falls1 s t ! wells 9 ?is tract regul>ly ebb & fl[4 ,if ! transmission ( wat] ?r\gh a por\s m$ium be s rapid1 we _c be surpris$ t spr+s %\ld be ?r[n out on ! side ( a hill1 :]e ! upp] set ( /rata consi/ ( *alk1 s&1 or o!r p]meable sub/ances1 :ile ! subjac5t are compos$ ( clay or o!r ret5tive soils4 ,! only difficulty1 inde$1 is to expla9 :y ! wat] does n ooze out ev]y:]e along ! l9e ( junction ( ! two =mations1 s z to =m "o cont9u\s l&-soak1 in/ead ( a few spr+s only1 & ^! f> di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,! pr9cipal cause ( ?is conc5tration ( ! wat]s at a few po9ts is1 fir/1 ! frequ5cy ( r5ts & fissures1 :i* act z natural dra9s2 secondly1 ! exi/5ce ( inequalities 9 ! upp] surface ( ! imp]meable /ratum1 :i* lead ! wat]1 z valleys d on ! ext]nal surface ( a c\ntry1 into c]ta9 l[ levels & *annels4 ,t ! g5]ality ( spr+s owe _! supply to ! atmosph]e is evid5t f ?is1 t !y become languid1 or entirely cease to fl[1 aft] long dr\ghts1 & are aga9 repl5i%$ aft] a cont9uance ( ra94 ,_m ( !m are probably indebt$ = ! con/ancy & uni=mity ( _! volume to ! great ext5t ( ! subt]ranean res]voirs ) :i* !y communicate1 & ! "t requir$ = ^! to empty !mselves by p]colation4 ,su* a gradual & regulat$ dis*>ge is exhibit$1 ?\gh 9 a less p]fect degree1 9 e great lake :i* is n s5sibly affect$ 9 its level by sudd5 %[]s1 b only slightly rais$2 s t its *annel ( efflux1 in/ead ( be+ swoll5 sudd5ly l ! b$ ( a torr5t1 is enabl$ to c>ry (f ! surplus wat] gradually4 ,mu* light has be5 ?r[n1 ( late ye>s1 on ! !ory ( spr+s1 by ! bor+ ( :at are call$ by ! ,fr5* ,artesian wells1 because ! me?od has long be5 kn[n & practis$ 9 ,artois2 & x is n[ demon/rat$ t !re are %eets1 & 9 "s places curr5ts ( fre% wat]1 at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! e>?4 ,! in/rum5t employ$ 9 excavat+ ^! wells is a l>ge augur1 & ! cavity bor$ is usually f ?ree to f\r in*es 9 diamet]4 ,if a h>d rock is met )1 x is fir/ triturat$ by an iron rod1 & ! mat]ials be+ ?us r$uc$ to small fragm5ts or p[d]1 are readily extract$4 ,to h9d] ! sides ( ! well f fall+ 91 z also to prev5t ! spread+ ( ! asc5d+ wat] 9 ! surr\nd+ soil1 a jo9t$ pipe is introduc$1 =m$ ( wood 9 ,artois1 b 9 o!r c\ntries m commonly ( metal4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s t1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh hundr$s ( feet ( ret5tive soils1 a wat]-be>+ /ratum is at l5g? pi]c$1 :5 ! fluid imm$iately asc5ds to ! surface1 & fl[s ov]4 ,! fir/ ru% ( ! wat] up ! tube is (t5 viol5t1 s t = a "t ! wat] plays l a f\nta91 & !n1 s9k+1 cont9ues to fl[ ov] tranquilly1 or sometimes rema9s /ation>y at a c]ta9 dep? bel[ ! orifice ( ! well4 ,?is sp\t+ ( ! wat] 9 ! fir/ in/ance is probably ow+ to ! dis5gagem5t ( air & c>bonic acid gas1 = bo? ( ^! h be5 se5 to bubble up ) ! wat]4#cjd ,at ,%e]ness1 at ! m\? ( ! ,?ames1 a well 0 bor$ on a l[ tongue ( l& ne> ! sea1 ?r\gh #cjj feet ( ! blue clay ( ,london1 bel[ :i* a b$ ( s& & pebbles 0 ent]$1 belong+1 d\btless1 to ! pla/ic clay =mation2 :5 ?is /ratum 0 pi]c$1 ! wat] bur/ up ) impetuosity1 & fill$ ! well4 ,by ano!r p]=ation at ! same place1 ! wat] 0 f\nd at ! dep? ( #cbh feet bel[ ! surface clay2 x fir/ rose rapidly to ! height ( #ahi feet1 & !n1 9 ! c\rse ( a few h\rs1 asc5d$ to an elevation ( eight feet above ! level ( ! gr\nd4 ,9 #ahbd a well 0 dug at ,fulham1 ne> ! ,?ames1 at ! ,bi%op ( ,london's1 to ! dep? ( #cag feet1 :i*1 aft] trav]s+ ! t]ti>y /rata1 0 cont9u$ ?r\gh #fg feet ( *alk4 ,! wat] imm$iately rose to ! surface1 & ! dis*>ge 0 ab\t #ej gallons p] m9ute4 ,9 ! g>d5 ( ! ,horticultural ,society at ,*iswick1 ! bor+s pass$ ?r\gh #ai feet ( gravel1 #bdb-a_/b feet ( clay & loam1 & #fg-a_/b feet ( *alk1 & ! wat] !n rose to ! surface f a dep? ( #cbi feet4#cje ,at ! ,duke ( ,nor?umb]l&'s1 above ,*iswick1 ! bor+s 7 c>ri$ to ! extraord9>y dep? ( #fbj feet1 s z to ent] ! *alk1 :5 a consid]able volume ( wat] 0 obta9$1 :i* rose f\r feet above ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,9 a well ( ,mr4 ,brooks1 at ,hamm]smi?1 ! ru% ( wat] f a dep? ( #cfj feet 0 s great1 z to inundate sev]al build+s & d consid]able damage2 & at ,toot+1 a suffici5t /ream 0 obta9$ to turn a :eel1 & raise ! wat] to ! upp] /ories ( ! h\ses4#cjf ,9 #ahch1 ! total supply obta9$ f ! *alk ne> ,london 0 e/imat$ at six million gallons a day1 &1 9 #ahea1 at ne>ly d\ble t am\nt1 ! increase be+ accompani$ by an av]age fall ( no less ?an two feet a ye> 9 ! level to :i* ! wat] rose4 ,! wat] /ood commonly1 9 #ahbb1 at high-wat] m>k1 & _h sunk 9 #ahea to #de1 & 9 "s wells to #fe feet bel[ high-wat] m>k4#cjg ,?is fact %[s ! limit$ capacity ( ! subt]ranean res]voir4 ,9 ! la/ ( ?ree wells bor$ ?r\gh ! *alk at ,t\rs1 to ! dep? ( sev]al hundr$ feet1 ! wat] rose #cb feet above ! level ( ! soil1 & ! dis*>ge am\nt$ to #cjj cubic y>ds ( wat] e tw5ty-f\r h\rs4#cjh ,by way ( exp]im5t1 ! s9k+ ( a well 0 comm5c$ at ,p>is 9 #ahcd1 :i* _h rea*$1 9 ,novemb]1 #ahci1 a dep? ( m ?an #afjj ,engli% feet1 & yet no wat] asc5d$ to ! surface4 ,! gov]nm5t 7 p]suad$ by ,m4 ,arago to p]sev]e1 if necess>y1 to ! dep? ( m ?an #bjjj feet2 b :5 !y _h desc5d$ above #ahjj ,engli% feet bel[ ! surface1 ! wat] rose ?r\gh ! tube 7:i* 0 ab\t t5 in*es 9 diamet]71 s z to dis*>ge half a million ( gallons ( limpid wat] e tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! temp]ature ( ! wat] increas$ at ! rate ( #a4h degrees ,f4 = e #aja ,engli% feet1 z !y w5t d[n1 ! result agree+ v closely ) ! anticipations ( ! sci5tific advis]s ( ?is mo/ spirit$ und]tak+4 ,mr4 ,briggs1 ! ,briti% consul 9 ,egypt1 obta9$ wat] betwe5 ,cairo & ,suez1 9 a calc>e\s s&1 at ! dep? ( ?irty feet2 b x did n rise 9 ! well4#cji ,b o!r bor+s 9 ! same des]t1 ( v>iable dep?1 betwe5 #ej & #cjj feet1 & :i* pass$ ?r\gh alt]nations ( s&1 clay1 & silice\s rock1 yield$ wat] at ! surface4#caj ,! rise & ov]fl[ ( ! wat] 9 ,artesian wells is g5]ally ref]r$1 & app>5tly ) reason1 to ! same pr9ciple z ! play ( an artificial f\nta94 ,let ! por\s /ratum or set ( /rata1 a a1 re/ on ! imp]meable rock d1 & be cov]$ by ano!r mass ( an imp]meable nature4 ,! :ole mass a a may easily1 9 su* a position1 become saturat$ ) wat]1 :i* may desc5d f its high] & expos$ p>ts--a hilly region to :i* cl\ds are attract$1 & :]e ra9 falls 9 abundance4 ,suppose t at "s po9t1 z at b1 an op5+ be made1 :i* gives a free passage upw>ds to ! wat]s conf9$ 9 a a1 at s l[ a level t !y are subject$ to ! pressure ( a consid]able column ( wat] collect$ 9 ! m elevat$ portion ( ! same /ratum4 ,! wat] w !n ru% out1 j z ! liquid f a l>ge b>rel :i* is tapp$1 & x w rise to a height correspond+ to ! level ( its po9t ( dep>ture1 or1 r1 to a height :i* balances ! pressure previ\sly ex]t$ by ! conf9$ wat]s aga9/ ! ro( & sides ( ! /ratum or res]voir a a4 ,9 l mann]1 if !re happ5 to be a natural fissure c1 a spr+ w be produc$ at ! surface on precisely ! same pr9ciple4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,among ! causes ( ! failure ( ,artesian wells1 we may m5tion ^? num]\s r5ts & faults :i* ab\nd 9 "s rocks1 & ! deep rav9es & valleys by :i* _m c\ntries are trav]s$2 =1 :5 ^! natural l9es ( dra9age exi/1 !re rema9s a small quantity only ( wat] to escape by artificial issues4 ,we are also liable to be baffl$ by ! great ?ickness ei!r ( por\s or imp]vi\s /rata1 or by ! dip ( ! b$s1 :i* may c>ry (f ! wat]s f ! adjo9+ high l&s to "s tr\gh 9 an opposite direction1 z :5 ! bor+s are made at ! foot ( an esc>pm5t :]e ! /rata incl9e inw>ds1 or 9 a direction opposite to ! face ( ! cliffs4 ,! m]e di/ance ( hills or m\nta9s ne$ n disc\rage u f mak+ trials2 = ! wat]s :i* fall on ^! high] l&s readily p5etrate to great dep?s ?r\gh highly incl9$ or v]tical /rata1 or ?r\gh ! fissures ( %att]$ rocks1 & aft] fl[+ = a great di/ance1 mu/ (t5 reasc5d & be br\ght up aga9 by o!r fissures1 s z to approa* ! surface 9 ! l[] c\ntry4 ,"h !y may be conceal$ b5ea? ! cov]+ ( undi/urb$ horizontal b$s1 :i* x may be necess>y to pi]ce 9 ord] to rea* !m4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$1 t ! c\rse ( wat]s fl[+ "u gr\nd be>s b a remote resemblance to t ( riv]s on ! surface1 !re be+1 9 ! "o case1 a con/ant desc5t f a high] to a l[] level f ! s\rce ( ! /ream to ! sea2 :]eas1 9 ! o!r1 ! wat] may at "o "t s9k f> bel[ ! level ( ! ocean1 & aft]w>ds rise aga9 high above x4 ,among o!r curi\s facts asc]ta9$ by aid ( ! bor]1 x is prov$ t 9 /rata ( diff]5t ages & compositions1 !re are (t5 op5 passages by :i* ! subt]ranean wat]s circulate4 ,?us1 at ,/4 ,ou51 9 ,france1 five di/9ct %eets ( wat] 7 int]sect$ 9 a well1 & f ea* ( ^! a supply obta9$4 ,9 ! ?ird wat]be>+ /ratum1 at ! dep? ( #aej feet1 a cavity 0 f\nd 9 :i* ! bor] fell sudd5ly ab\t a foot1 & !nce ! wat] asc5d$ 9 great volume4#caa ,! same fall+ ( ! in/rum5t1 z 9 a holl[ space1 has be5 rem>k$ 9 ,engl& & o!r c\ntries4 ,at ,t\rs1 9 #ahcj1 a well 0 p]=at$ q ?r\gh ! *alk1 :5 ! wat] sudd5ly br\ght up1 f a dep? ( #cfd feet1 a great quantity ( f9e s&1 ) mu* vegetable matt] & %ells4 ,bran*es ( a ?orn sev]al in*es long1 mu* black5$ by _! /ay 9 ! wat]1 7 recogniz$1 z also ! /ems ( m>% plants1 & "s ( _! roots1 :i* 7 /ill :ite1 toge!r ) ! se$s ( ! same 9 a /ate ( pres]vation1 :i* %[$ t !y _h n rema9$ m ?an ?ree or f\r mon?s 9 ! wat]4 ,among ! se$s 7 ^? ( ! m>% plant ,galium ulig9osum2 & among ! %ells1 a fre%wat] species 7,planorbis m>g9atus71 & "s l& species1 z ,helix rotundata1 & ,h4 /riata4 ,m4 ,duj>d91 :o1 ) o!rs1 obs]v$ ?is ph5om5on1 supposes t ! wat]s _h fl[$ f "s valleys ( ,auv]gne or ! ,viv>ais s9ce ! prec$+ autumn4#cab ,an analog\s ph5om5on is record$ at ,reimke1 ne> ,bo*um 9 ,we/phalia1 :]e ! wat] ( an ,artesian well br\ght up1 f a dep? ( #aef feet1 sev]al small fi%1 ?ree or f\r in*es long1 ! ne>e/ /reams 9 ! c\ntry be+ at a di/ance ( "s leagues4#cac ,9 bo? cases x is evid5t t wat] _h p5etrat$ to great dep?s1 n simply by filt]+ ?r\gh a por\s mass1 = !n x w\ld h left beh9d ! %ells1 fi%1 & fragm5ts ( plants1 b by fl[+ ?r\gh "s op5 *annels 9 ! e>?4 ,su* examples may sugge/ ! idea t ! leaky b$s ( riv]s are (t5 ! fe$]s ( spr+s4 ,,m9]al ,,& ,,!rmal ,,spr+s4 ,almo/ all spr+s1 ev5 ^? :i* we consid] ! pure/1 are impregnat$ ) "s =eign +r$i5ts1 :i*1 be+ 9 a /ate ( *emical solution1 are s intimately bl5d$ ) ! wat] z n to affect its cle>ness1 :ile !y r5d] x1 9 g5]al1 m agreeable to our ta/e1 & m nutriti\s ?an simple ra9-wat]4 ,b ! spr+s call$ m9]al conta9 an unusual abundance ( e>?y matt] 9 solution1 & ! sub/ances ) :i* !y are impregnat$ correspond rem>kably ) ^? evolv$ 9 a gase\s =m by volcanoes4 ,_m ( ^! spr+s are !rmal1 i4 e41 _! temp]ature is above ! mean temp]ature ( ! place1 & !y rise up ?r\gh all k9ds ( rock2 z1 = example1 ?r\gh granite1 gneiss1 lime/one1 or lava1 b are mo/ frequ5t 9 volcanic regions1 or :]e viol5t e>?quakes h occurr$ at eras comp>atively mod]n4 ,! wat] giv5 out by hot spr+s is g5]ally m volum9\s & less v>iable 9 quantity at diff]5t seasons ?an t proce$+ f any o!rs4 ,9 _m volcanic regions1 jets ( /eam1 call$ by ! ,italians /ufas1 issue f fissures1 at a temp]ature high above ! boil+ po9t1 z 9 ! neighborhood ( ,naples1 & 9 ! ,lip>i ,isles1 & are dis5gag$ unceas+ly = ages4 ,n[1 if su* columns ( /eam1 :i* are (t5 mix$ ) o!r gases1 %\ld be cond5s$ be=e rea*+ ! surface by com+ 9 contact ) /rata fill$ ) cold wat]1 !y may give rise to !rmal & m9]al spr+s ( e degree ( temp]ature4 ,x is1 inde$1 by ?is means only1 & n by hydro/atic pressure1 t we c acc\nt = ! rise ( su* bodies ( wat] f great dep?s2 nor c we hesitate to admit ! adequacy ( ! cause1 if we suppose ! expansion ( ! same ela/ic fluids to be suffici5t to raise columns ( lava to ! l(ty summits ( volcanic m\nta9s4 ,sev]al gases1 ! c>bonic acid 9 p>ticul>1 are dis5gag$ 9 a free /ate f ! soil 9 _m di/ricts1 especially 9 ! regions ( active or ext9ct volcanoes2 & ! same are f\nd m or less intimately comb9$ ) ! wat]s ( all m9]al spr+s1 bo? cold & !rmal4 ,dr4 ,daub5y & o!r writ]s h rem>k$1 n only t ^! spr+s are mo/ abundant 9 volcanic regions1 b t :5 remote f !m1 _! site usually co9cides ) ! position ( "s great d]angem5t 9 ! /rata2 a fault1 = example1 or great fissure1 indicat+ t a *annel ( communication has be5 op5$ ) ! int]ior ( ! e>? at "s =m] p]iod ( local convulsion4 ,x is also asc]ta9$ t at great heights 9 ! ,pyr5ees & ,himalaya m\nta9s hot spr+s bur/ out f granitic rocks1 & !y are abundant 9 ! ,alps also1 ^! *a9s hav+ all be5 di/urb$ & dislocat$ at times comp>atively mod]n1 z c be %[n by indep5d5t geological evid5ce4 ,! small area ( volcanic regions may appe>1 at fir/ view1 to pres5t an objection to ^! views1 b n s :5 we include e>?quakes among ! effects ( igne\s ag5cy4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! l& hi!rto explor$ by geologi/s c be %[n to h be5 r5t or %ak5 by subt]ranean movem5ts s9ce ! olde/ t]ti>y /rata 7 =m$4 ,x w also be se51 9 ! sequel1 t new spr+s h bur/ out1 & o!rs h _h ! volume ( _! wat]s augm5t$1 & _! temp]ature sudd5ly rais$ aft] e>?quakes1 s t ! description ( ^! spr+s might almo/ ) equal propriety h be5 giv5 "u ! head ( igne\s causes1 z !y are ag5ts ( a mix$ nature1 be+ at once igne\s & aque\s4 ,b h[1 x w be ask$1 c ! regions ( volcanic heat s5d =? su* inexhau/ible supplies ( wat]8 ,! difficulty ( solv+ ?is problem w\ld1 9 tru?1 be insurm\ntable1 if we believ$ t all ! atmosph]ic wat]s f\nd _! way into ! bas9 ( ! ocean2 b 9 bor+ ne> ! %ore we (t5 meet ) /reams ( fre% wat] at ! dep? ( sev]al hundr$ feet bel[ ! sea level2 & ^! probably desc5d1 9 _m cases1 f> b5ea? ! bottom ( ! sea1 :5 n artificially int]cept$ 9 _! c\rse4 ,yet1 h[ mu* great] may be ! quantity ( salt wat] :i* s9ks b5ea? ! floor ( ! ocean1 ?r\gh ! por\s /rata ( :i* x is (t5 compos$1 or ?r\gh fissures r5t 9 x by e>?quakes4 ,aft] p5etrat+ to a consid]able dep?1 ?is wat] may enc\nt] a heat ( suffici5t int5sity to conv]t x into vapor1 ev5 "u ! high pressure to :i* x w\ld !n be subject$4 ,?is heat w\ld probably be ne>e/ ! surface 9 volcanic c\ntries1 & f>!/ f x 9 ^? di/ricts :i* h be5 longe/ free f eruptions or e>?quakes4 ,x w\ld foll[ f ! views above expla9$1 t !re mu/ be a tw(old circulation ( t]re/rial wat]s2 "o caus$ by sol> heat1 & ! o!r by heat g5]at$ 9 ! int]ior ( our planet4 ,we "k t ! l& w\ld be unfit = vegetation1 if depriv$ ( ! wat]s rais$ into ! atmosph]e by ! sun2 b x is also true t m9]al spr+s are p[]ful in/rum5ts 9 r5d]+ ! surface subs]vi5t to ! support ( animal & vegetable life4 ,_! heat is said to promote ! developm5t ( ! aquatic tribes 9 _m p>ts ( ! ocean1 & ! sub/ances :i* !y c>ry up f ! b[els ( ! e>? to ! habitable surface1 are ( a nature & 9 a =m :i* adapts !m peculi>ly = ! nutrition ( animals & plants4 ,z ^! spr+s d]ive _! *ief importance to ! geologi/ f ! quantity & quality ( ! e>?y mat]ials :i*1 l volcanoes1 !y convey f bel[ upw>ds1 !y may prop]ly be consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to ! +r$i5ts :i* !y hold 9 solution4 ,^! consi/ ( a great v>iety ( sub/ances2 b *iefly salts ) bases ( lime1 magnesia1 alum9e1 & iron1 comb9$ ) c>bonic1 sulphuric1 & muriatic acids4 ,muriate ( soda1 silica1 & free c>bonic acid are frequ5tly pres5t2 also spr+s ( petroleum1 or liquid bitum51 & ( naph?a4 ,calc>e\s spr+s4--,our fir/ att5tion is naturally direct$ to spr+s :i* are highly *>g$ ) calc>e\s matt]1 = ^! produce a v>iety ( ph5om5a ( mu* int]e/ 9 geology4 ,x is kn[n t ra9-wat] collect+ c>bonic acid f ! atmosph]e has ! prop]ty ( dissolv+ ! calc>e\s rocks ov] :i* x fl[s1 & ?us1 9 ! smalle/ ponds & rivulets1 matt] is (t5 suppli$ = ! e>?y secretions ( te/acea1 & = ! gr[? ( c]ta9 plants on :i* !y fe$4 ,b _m spr+s hold s mu* c>bonic acid 9 solution1 t !y are enabl$ to dissolve a mu* l>g] quantity ( calc>e\s matt] ?an ra9-wat]2 & :5 ! acid is dissipat$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! m9]al +r$i5ts are ?r[n d[n1 9 ! =m ( por\s tufa or ( m compact trav]t94#cad ,auv]gne4--,calc>e\s spr+s1 al?\gh mo/ abundant 9 lime/one di/ricts1 are by no means conf9$ to !m1 b fl[ out indiscrim9ately f all rock =mations4 ,9 c5tral ,france1 a di/rict :]e ! prim>y rocks are unusually de/itute ( lime/one1 spr+s copi\sly *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime rise up ?r\gh ! granite & gneiss4 ,"s ( ^! are !rmal1 & probably d]ive _! orig9 f ! deep s\rce ( volcanic heat1 once s active 9 t region4 ,"o ( ^! spr+s1 at ! nor!rn base ( ! hill ^u :i* ,cl>emont is built1 issues f volcanic pep]9o1 :i* re/s on granite4 ,x has =m$1 by its incru/ations1 an elevat$ m\nd ( trav]t91 or :ite concretion>y lime/one1 #bdj feet 9 l5g?1 &1 at its t]m9ation1 sixte5 feet high & twelve wide4 ,ano!r encru/+ spr+ 9 ! same dep>tm5t1 situat$ at ,*aluzet1 ne> ,pont ,gibaud1 rises 9 a gneiss c\ntry1 at ! foot ( a regul> volcanic cone1 at lea/ tw5ty miles f any calc>e\s rock4 ,"s masses ( tuface\s deposit1 produc$ by ?is spr+1 h an oolitic texture4 ,valley ( ! ,elsa4--,if we pass f ! volcanic di/rict ( ,france to t :i* skirts ! ,ap5n9es 9 ! ,italian p59sula1 we meet ) innum]able spr+s :i* h precipitat$ s mu* calc>e\s matt]1 t ! :ole gr\nd 9 "s p>ts ( ,tuscany is coat$ ov] ) tufa & trav]t91 & s\nds holl[ b5ea? ! foot4 ,9 o!r places 9 ! same c\ntry1 compact rocks are se5 desc5d+ ! slant+ sides ( hills1 v mu* 9 ! mann] ( lava curr5ts1 except t !y are ( a :ite color & t]m9ate abruptly :5 !y rea* ! c\rse ( a riv]4 ,^! consi/ ( a calc>e\s precipitate f spr+s1 "s ( :i* are /ill fl[+1 :ile o!rs h disappe>$ or *ang$ _! position4 ,su* masses are frequ5t on ! slope ( ! hills :i* b\nd ! valley ( ! ,elsa1 "o ( ! tribut>ies ( ! ,arno1 :i* fl[s ne> ,colle1 ?r\gh a valley sev]al hundr$ feet deep1 %ap$ out ( a lacu/r9e =mation1 conta9+ fossil %ells ( exi/+ species4 ,i obs]v$ "h t ! trav]t9 0 uncon=mable to ! lacu/r9e b$s1 its incl9ation accord+ ) ! slope ( ! sides ( ! valley4 ,"o ( ! f9e/ examples :i* ,i saw 0 at ! ,mol9o delle ,caldane1 ne> ,colle4 ,! ,s5a1 & sev]al o!r small rivulets :i* fe$ ! ,elsa1 h ! prop]ty ( encru/+ wood & h]bs ) calc>e\s /one4 ,9 ! b$ ( ! ,elsa itself1 aquatic plants1 su* z ,*>ae1 :i* absorb l>ge quantities ( c>bonate ( lime1 are v abundant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,section ( trav]t91 ,san ,vignone4 ,ba?s ( ,san ,vignone4--,^? p]sons :o h m]ely se5 ! action ( petrify+ wat]s 9 ,engl&1 w n easily =m an adequate conception ( ! scale on :i* ! same process is exhibit$ 9 ^? regions :i* lie ne>] to ! active c5tres ( volcanic di/urbance4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ examples ( ! rapid precipitation ( c>bonate ( lime f !rmal wat]s1 occurs 9 ! hill ( ,san ,vignone 9 ,tuscany1 at a %ort di/ance f ,radic(ani1 & only a few hundr$ y>ds f ! high road betwe5 ,si5na & ,rome4 ,! spr+ issues f ne> ! summit ( a rocky hill1 ab\t #ajj feet 9 height4 ,! top ( ! hill /ret*es 9 a g5tly incl9$ plat=m to ! foot ( ,m\nt ,amiata1 a l(ty em95ce1 :i* consi/s 9 great "p ( volcanic products4 ,! fundam5tal rock1 f :i* ! spr+ issues1 is a black slate1 ) s]p5t9e 7b b1 fig4 #ba71 belong+ to ! old] ,ap5n9e =mation4 ,! wat] is hot1 has a /rong ta/e1 &1 :5 n 9 v small quantity1 is ( a bright gre5 color4 ,s rapid is ! deposition ne> ! s\rce1 t 9 ! bottom ( a conduit-pipe = c>ry+ (f ! wat] to ! ba?s1 & :i* is incl9$ at an angle ( #cj degrees1 half a foot ( solid trav]t9 is =m$ e ye>4 ,a m compact rock is produc$ :]e ! wat] fl[s sl[ly2 & ! precipitation 9 w9t]1 :5 !re is lea/ evaporation1 is said to be m solid1 b less 9 quantity by "o-f\r?1 ?an 9 summ]4 ,! rock is g5]ally :ite2 "s p>ts ( x are compact1 & r+ to ! hamm]2 o!rs are cellul>1 & ) su* cavities z are se5 9 ! c>i\s "p ( bone or ! silice\s mill/one ( ! ,p>is bas94 ,a portion ( x also bel[ ! village ( ,san ,vignone consi/s ( incru/ations ( long vegetable tubes1 & may be call$ tufa4 ,sometimes ! trav]t9 assumes precisely ! botryoidal & mammill>y =ms1 common to simil> deposits 9 ,auv]gne1 ( a mu* old] date2 &1 l !m1 x (t5 scales (f 9 ?91 slightly undulat+ lay]s4 ,a l>ge mass ( trav]t9 7c1 fig4 #ba7 desc5ds ! hill f ! po9t :]e ! spr+ issues1 & rea*es to ! di/ance ( ab\t half a mile ea/ ( ,san ,vignone4 ,! b$s take ! slope ( ! hill at ab\t an angle ( #f degrees1 & ! planes ( /ratification are p]fectly p>allel4 ,"o /ratum1 compos$ ( _m lay]s1 is ( a compact nature1 & fifte5 feet ?ick2 x s]ves z an excell5t build+ /one1 & a mass ( fifte5 feet 9 l5g? 01 9 #ahbh1 cut out = ! new bridge ov] ! ,orcia4 ,ano!r bran* ( x 7a1 fig4 #ba7 desc5ds to ! we/1 = #bej feet 9 l5g?1 ( v>y+ ?ickness1 b sometimes #bjj feet deep2 x is !n cut (f by ! small riv] ,orcia1 z "s glaci]s 9 ,switz]l& desc5d into a valley till _! progress is sudd5ly arre/$ by a transv]se /ream ( wat]4 ,! abrupt t]m9ation ( ! mass ( rock at ! riv]1 :]e its ?ickness is undim9i%$1 cle>ly %[s t x w\ld proce$ mu* f>!r if n arre/$ by ! /ream1 ov] :i* x imp5ds slightly4 ,b x _c encroa* ^u ! *annel ( ! ,orcia1 be+ con/antly und]m9$1 s t its solid fragm5ts are se5 /rew$ among/ ! alluvial gravel4 ,h[ev] enorm\s1 !re=e1 ! mass ( solid rock may appe> :i* has be5 giv5 out by ?is s+le spr+1 we may feel assur$ t x is insignificant 9 volume :5 comp>$ to t :i* has be5 c>ri$ to ! sea s9ce ! "t :5 x began to fl[4 ,:at may h be5 ! l5g? ( t p]iod ( "t we h no data = conjectur+4 ,9 qu>ry+ ! trav]t91 ,roman tiles h be5 sometimes f\nd at ! dep? ( five or six feet4 ,ba?s ( ,san ,filippo4--,on ano!r hill1 n _m miles f t la/ m5tion$1 & also connect$ ) ,m\nt ,amiata1 ! summit ( :i* is ab\t ?ree miles di/ant1 are ! celebrat$ ba?s ( ,san ,filippo4 ,! subjac5t rocks consi/ ( alt]nations ( black slate1 lime/one1 & s]p5t9e4 ,!re are ?ree w>m spr+s conta9+ c>bonate & sulphate ( lime1 & sulphate ( magnesia4 ,! wat] :i* supplies ! ba?s falls into a pond1 :]e x has be5 kn[n to deposit a solid mass ?irty feet ?ick 9 ab\t tw5ty ye>s4#cae ,a manufactory ( m$allions 9 basso-relievo is c>ri$ on at ^! ba?s4 ,! wat] is conduct$ by canals into sev]al pits1 9 :i* x deposits trav]t9 & cry/als ( sulphate ( lime4 ,aft] be+ ?us fre$ f its gross] p>ts1 x is convey$ by a tube to ! summit ( a small *amb]1 & made to fall ?r\gh a space ( t5 or twelve feet4 ,! curr5t is brok5 9 its desc5t by num]\s cross$ /icks1 by :i* ! spray is disp]s$ ar\nd ^u c]ta9 m\lds1 :i* are rubb$ lightly ov] ) a solution ( soap1 & a deposition ( solid matt] l m>ble is ! result1 yield+ a beautiful ca/ ( ! figures =m$ 9 ! m\ld4 ,! geologi/ may d]ive f ^! exp]im5ts consid]able light1 9 reg>d to ! high slope ( ! /rata at :i* "s semi-cry/all9e precipitations c be =m$2 = "s ( ! m\lds are dispos$ almo/ p]p5dicul>ly1 yet ! deposition is ne>ly equal 9 all p>ts4 ,a h>d /ratum ( /one1 ab\t a foot 9 ?ickness1 is obta9$ f ! wat]s ( ,san ,filippo 9 f\r mon?s2 &1 z ! spr+s are p[]ful1 & almo/ uni=m 9 ! quantity giv5 out1 we are at no loss to compreh5d ! magnitude ( ! mass :i* desc5ds ! hill1 :i* is a mile & a qu>t] 9 l5g? & ! ?ird ( a mile 9 bread?1 9 "s places atta9+ a ?ickness ( #bej feet at lea/4 ,to :at l5g? x might h rea*$ x is impossible to conjecture1 z x is cut (f1 l ! trav]t9 ( ,san ,vignone1 by a small /ream1 :]e x t]m9ates abruptly4 ,! rema9d] ( ! matt] held 9 solution is c>ri$ on probably to ! sea4 ,sph]oidal /ructure 9 trav]t94--,b :at r5d]s ?is rec5t lime/one ( peculi> int]e/ to ! geologi/1 is ! sph]oidal =m :i* x assumes1 analog\s to t ( ! cascade ( ,tivoli1 aft]w>ds to be describ$4 7,see fig4 #bb1 p4 #bdd47 ,! lam9ation ( "s ( ! conc5tric masses is s m9ute t sixty may be c\nt$ 9 ! ?ickness ( an in*1 yet1 not)/&+ ^! m>ks ( gradual & successive deposition1 sections are sometimes exhibit$ ( :at might seem to be p]fect sph]es4 ,?is t5d5cy to a mammill>y & globul> /ructure arises f ! facility ) :i* ! calc>e\s matt] is precipitat$ 9 ne>ly equal quantities on all sides ( any fragm5t ( %ell or wood or any inequality ( ! surface ov] :i* ! m9]al wat] fl[s1 ! =m ( ! nucleus be+ readily transmitt$ ?r\gh any numb] ( successive envelopes4 ,b ^! masses c nev] be p]fect sph]es1 al?\gh !y (t5 appe> su* :5 a transv]se section is made 9 any l9e n 9 ! direction ( ! po9t ( atta*m5t4 ,!re are1 inde$1 occasionally se5 small oolitic & pisolitic gra9s1 ( :i* ! =m is globul>2 = ! nucleus1 hav+ be5 = a "t 9 motion 9 ! wat]1 has receiv$ fre% accessions ( matt] on all sides4 ,9 ! same mann] ,i h se51 on ! v]tical walls ( l>ge /eam-boil]s1 ! heads ( nails or rivets cov]$ by a s]ies ( envelop+ cru/s ( calc>e\s matt]1 usually sulphate ( lime2 s t a concretion>y nodule is =m$1 pres]v+ a ne>ly globul> %ape1 :5 increas$ to a mass sev]al in*es 9 diamet]4 ,9 ^!1 z 9 _m trav]t9s1 !re is (t5 a comb9ation ( ! conc5tric & radiat$ /ructure4 ,campagna di ,roma4--,! c\ntry ar\nd ,rome1 l _m p>ts ( ! ,tuscan ,/ates already ref]r$ to1 has be5 at "s =m] p]iod ! site ( num]\s volcanic eruptions2 & ! spr+s are /ill copi\sly impregnat$ ) lime1 c>bonic acid1 & sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,a hot spr+ 0 discov]$ ab\t #ahbg1 ne> ,civita ,vec*ia1 by ,signor ,riccioli1 :i* deposits alt]nate b$s ( a yell[i% trav]t91 & a :ite granul> rock1 n di/+ui%able1 9 h& specim5s1 ei!r 9 gra91 color1 or composition1 f /atu>y m>ble4 ,!re is a passage betwe5 ?is & ord9>y trav]t94 ,! mass accumulat$ ne> ! spr+ is 9 "s places ab\t six feet ?ick4 ,lake ( ! ,solfat>a4--,9 ! ,campagna1 betwe5 ,rome & ,tivoli1 is ! ,lake ( ! ,solfat>a1 call$ also ,lago di ,zolfo 7lacus albula71 into :i* fl[s cont9ually a /ream ( tepid wat] f a small] lake1 situat$ a few y>ds above x4 ,! wat] is a saturat$ solution ( c>bonic acid gas1 :i* escapes f x 9 su* quantities 9 "s p>ts ( its surface1 t x has ! appe>ance ( be+ actually 9 ebullition4 ,i h f\nd by exp]im5t1 says ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 t ! wat] tak5 f ! mo/ tranquil "p ( ! lake1 ev5 aft] be+ agitat$ & expos$ to ! air1 conta9$ 9 solution m ?an its own volume ( c>bonic acid gas1 ) a v small quantity ( sulphurett$ hydrog54 ,its high temp]ature1 :i* is pretty con/ant at #hj degrees ( ,fahr41 & ! quantity ( c>bonic acid t x conta9s1 r5d] x peculi>ly fitt$ to af=d n\ri%m5t to vegetable life4 ,! banks ( trav]t9 are ev]y:]e cov]$ ) re$s1 li*51 conf]vae1 & v>i\s k9ds ( aquatic vegetables2 & at ! same "t t ! process ( vegetable life is go+ on1 ! cry/allizations ( ! calc>e\s matt]1 :i* is ev]y:]e deposit$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! escape ( c>bonic acid1 likewise proce$4 ,!re is1 ,i believe1 no place 9 ! _w :]e !re is a m /rik+ example ( ! opposition or contra/ ( ! laws ( animate & inanimate nature1 ( ! =ces ( inorganic *emical aff9ity1 & ^? ( ! p[]s ( life4#caf ,! same obs]v] in=ms u t he fix$ a /ick 9 a mass ( trav]t9 cov]$ by ! wat] 9 ! mon? ( ,may1 & 9 ,april foll[+ he _h "s difficulty 9 break+1 ) a %>p-po9t$ hamm]1 ! mass :i* adh]$ to ! /ick1 & :i* 0 sev]al in*es 9 ?ickness4 ,! upp] "p 0 a mixture ( light tufa & ! leaves ( conf]vae2 bel[ ?is 0 a d>k] & m solid trav]t91 conta9+ black & decompos$ masses ( conf]vae2 9 ! inf]ior "p ! trav]t9 0 m solid1 & ( a gray color1 b ) cavities probably produc$ by ! decomposition ( vegetable matt]4#cag ,! /ream :i* fl[s out ( ?is lake fills a canal ab\t n9e feet broad & f\r deep1 & is conspicu\s 9 ! l&scape by a l9e ( vapor :i* rises f x4 ,x deposits calc>e\s tufa 9 ?is *annel1 & ! ,tib] probably receives f x1 z well z f num]\s o!r /reams1 mu* c>bonate ( lime 9 solution1 :i* may contribute to ! rapid gr[? ( its delta4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ! mo/ spl5did edifices ( anci5t & mod]n ,rome are built ( trav]t91 d]iv$ f ! qu>ries ( ,ponte ,lucano1 :]e !re has evid5tly be5 a lake at a remote p]iod1 on ! same pla9 z t already describ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,section ( sph]oidal concretion>y ,trav]t9 "u ! ,cascade ( ,tivoli4 ,trav]t9 ( ,tivoli4--,9 ! same neighborhood ! calc>e\s wat]s ( ! ,anio incru/ ! re$s :i* gr[ on its banks1 & ! foam ( ! cat>act ( ,tivoli =ms beautiful p5dant /alactites4 ,on ! sides ( ! deep *asm into :i* ! cascade ?r[s itself1 !re is se5 an extraord9>y accumulation ( horizontal b$s ( tufa & trav]t91 f f\r to five hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! section imm$iately "u ! temples ( ,ve/a & ! ,sibyl1 displays1 9 a precipice ab\t f\r hundr$ feet high1 "s sph]oids :i* are f six to eight feet 9 diamet]1 ea* conc5tric lay] be+ ab\t ! eigh? ( an in* 9 ?ickness4 ,! prec$+ diagram exhibits ab\t f\rte5 feet ( ?is imm5se mass1 z se5 9 ! pa? cut out ( ! rock 9 desc5d+ f ! temple ( ,ve/a to ! ,grotto di ,nettuno4 ,i h n attempt$ to express 9 ?is draw+ ! innum]able ?9 lay]s ( :i* ^! magnific5t sph]oids are compos$1 b ! l9es giv5 m>k "s ( ! natural divisions into :i* !y are sep>at$ by m9ute v>iations 9 ! size or color ( ! lam9ae4 ,! undulations also are mu* small] 9 proportion to ! :ole circumf]5ce ?an 9 ! draw+4 ,! b$s 7a a7 are ( h>d trav]t9 & s(t tufa2 bel[ !m is a pisolite 7b71 ! globules be+ ( diff]5t sizes3 und]nea? ?is appe>s a mass ( concretion>y trav]t9 7c c71 "s ( ! sph]oids be+ ( ! above-m5tion$ extraord9>y size4 ,9 "s places 7z at d7 !re is a mass ( amorph\s lime/one1 or tufa1 surr\nd$ by conc5tric lay]s4 ,at ! bottom is ano!r b$ ( pisolite 7b71 9 :i* ! small nodules are ab\t ! size & %ape ( beans1 & "s ( !m ( filb]ts1 int]mix$ ) "s small] oolitic gra9s4 ,9 ! tuface\s /rata1 wood is se5 conv]t$ into a light tufa4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ! :ole ( ?is deposit 0 =m$ 9 an ext5sive lake :i* exi/$ :5 ! ext]nal configuration ( ?is c\ntry v>i$ greatly f t n[ obs]v$4 ,! ,anio ?r[s itself into a rav9e excavat$ 9 ! anci5t trav]t91 & its wat]s give rise to masses ( calc>e\s /one1 sc>cely if at all di/+ui%able f ! old] rock4 ,i 0 %[n1 9 #ahbh1 9 ! upp] "p ( ! trav]t91 ! holl[ left by a c>t-:eel1 9 :i* ! out] circle & ! spokes _h be5 decompos$1 & ! spaces :i* !y fill$ left void4 ,x seem$ to me at ! "t impossible to expla9 ! position ( ?is m\ld )\t suppos+ t ! :eel 0 imb$d$ be=e ! lake 0 dra9$2 b ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison sugge/s t x may h be5 wa%$ d[n by a flood into ! gorge 9 mod]n times1 & !n incru/$ ) calc>e\s tufa 9 ! same mann] z ! wood5 beam ( ! *ur* ( ,/4 ,lucia 0 swept d[n 9 #ahbf1 & /uck fa/ 9 ! ,grotto ( ! ,syr51 :]e x /ill rema9s1 & w ev5tually be q imb$d$ 9 trav]t94 ,i h already endeavor$ to expla9 7p4 #bda71 :5 speak+ ( ! trav]t9 ( ,san ,filippo1 h[ ! sph]oidal masses repres5t$ 9 figure #bb may h be5 =m$4 ,sulphure\s & gypseus spr+s4--,! quantity ( o!r m9]al +r$i5ts :]e) spr+s 9 g5]al are impregnat$1 is insignificant 9 comp>ison to lime1 & ?is e>? is mo/ frequ5tly comb9$ ) c>bonic acid4 ,b z sulphuric acid1 & sulphurett$ hydrog5 are v frequ5tly suppli$ by spr+s1 gypsum may1 p]haps1 be deposit$ l>gely 9 c]ta9 seas & lakes4 ,among o!r gypse\s precipitates at pres5t kn[n on ! l&1 ,i may m5tion ^? ( ,bad51 ne> ,vi5na1 :i* fe$ ! public ba?4 ,"s ( ^! supply s+ly f #fjj to #ajjj cubic feet ( wat] p] h\r1 & deposit a f9e p[d]1 compos$ ( a mixture ( sulphate ( lime ) sulphur & muriate ( lime4#cah ,! !rmal wat]s ( ,aix1 9 ,savoy1 9 pass+ ?r\gh /rata ( ,jurassic lime/one1 turn !m into gypsum or sulphate ( lime4 ,9 ! ,&es1 at ! ,pu5ta del ,inca1 ,lieut5ant ,br& f\nd a !rmal spr+ at ! temp]ature ( #ia degrees ,fahr41 conta9+ a l>ge proportion ( gypsum ) c>bonate ( lime & o!r +r$i5ts4#cai ,_m ( ! m9]al spr+s ( ,icel&1 says ,mr4 ,r4 ,buns51 deposit gypsum4#cbj & sulphure\s acid gas escapes pl5tifully f !m z f ! volcanoes ( ! same isl&4 ,x may1 inde$1 be laid d[n z a g5]al rule1 t ! m9]al sub/ances dissolv$ 9 hot spr+s agree v closely ) ^? :i* are dis5gag$ 9 a gase\s =m f ! crat]s ( active volcanoes4 ,silice\s spr+s4--,azores4--,9 ord] t wat] %\ld hold a v l>ge quantity ( silica 9 solution1 x seems necess>y t x %\ld be rais$ to a high temp]ature4#cba ,! hot spr+s ( ! ,valle das ,f]nas1 9 ! isl& ( ,/4 ,mi*ael1 ris+ ?r\gh volcanic rocks1 precipitate va/ quantities ( silice\s s9t]4 ,ar\nd ! circul> bas9 ( ! l>ge/ spr+1 :i* is betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty feet 9 diamet]1 alt]nate lay]s are se5 ( a co>s] v>iety ( s9t] mix$ ) clay1 includ+ grass1 f]ns1 & re$s1 9 diff]5t /ates ( petrifaction4 ,9 "s in/ances1 alum9a1 :i* is likewise deposit$ f ! hot wat]s1 is ! m9]aliz+ mat]ial4 ,bran*es ( ! same f]ns :i* n[ fl\ri% 9 ! isl& are f\nd completely petrifi$1 pres]v+ ! same appe>ance z :5 vegetat+1 except t !y acquire an a%-gray color4 ,fragm5ts ( wood1 & "o entire b$ f ?ree to five feet 9 dep?1 compos$ ( re$s n[ common 9 ! isl&1 h become completely m9]aliz$4 ,! mo/ abundant v>iety ( silice\s s9t] occurs 9 lay]s1 f a qu>t] to half an in* 9 ?ickness1 accumulat$ on ea* o!r (t5 to ! height ( a foot & upw>ds1 & con/itut+ p>allel1 & = ! mo/ "p horizontal1 /rata _m y>ds 9 ext5t4 ,?is s9t] has (t5 a beautiful semi-opalesc5t lu/re4 ,a rec5t breccia is also 9 ! act ( =m+1 compos$ ( obsidian1 pumice1 & scoriae1 cem5t$ by silice\s s9t]4#cbb ,geys]s ( ,icel&4--,b ! hot spr+s 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,icel&1 p>ticul>ly ! celebrat$ geys]s1 af=d ! mo/ rem>kable example ( ! deposition ( silex4#cbc ,! circul> res]voirs into :i* ! geys]s fall1 are l9$ 9 ! int]ior ) a v>iety ( opal1 & r\nd ! edges ) s9t]4 ,! plants incru/$ ) ! latt] sub/ance h mu* ! same appe>ance z ^? incru/$ ) calc>e\s tufa 9 our own c\ntry4 ,!y consi/ ( v>i\s grasses1 ! horse-tail 7,equisetum71 & leaves ( ! bir*-tree1 :i* are ! mo/ common ( all1 ?\gh no trees ( ?is species n[ exi/ 9 ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,! petrifi$ /ems also ( ! bir* occur 9 a /ate mu* resembl+ agatiz$ wood4#cbd ,by analysis ( ! wat]1 ,mr4 ,f>aday has asc]ta9$ t ! solution ( ! silex is promot$ by ! pres5ce ( ! alkali1 soda4 ,he sugge/s t ! deposition ( silica 9 an insoluble /ate takes place p>tly because ! wat] :5 cool$ by exposure to ! air is unable to reta9 z mu* silica z :5 x issues f ! e>? at a temp]ature ( #ahj degrees or #aij degrees ,fahr42 & p>tly because ! evaporation ( ! wat] decomposes ! comp\nd ( silica & soda :i* previ\sly exi/$4 ,?is la/ *ange is probably ha/5$ by ! c>bonic acid ( ! atmosph]e unit+ ) ! soda4 ,! alkali1 :5 disunit$ f ! silica1 w\ld readily be dissolv$ 9 & remov$ by runn+ wat]4#cbe ,m9]al wat]s1 ev5 :5 *>g$ ) a small proportion ( silica1 z ^? ( ,is*ia1 may supply c]ta9 species ( corals1 sponges1 & infusoria1 ) matt] = _! silice\s secretions2 b !re is little d\bt t riv]s obta9 silex 9 solution f ano!r & f> m g5]al s\rce1 namely1 ! decomposition ( felsp>4 ,:5 ?is m9]al1 :i* is s abundant an +r$i5t 9 ! hypog5e & trappean rocks1 has dis9tegrat$1 x is f\nd t ! residue1 call$ porcela9 clay1 conta9s a small proportion only ( ! silica :i* exi/$ 9 ! orig9al felsp>1 ! o!r "p hav+ be5 dissolv$ & remov$ by wat]4#cbf ,f]rug9\s spr+s4--,! wat]s ( almo/ all spr+s conta9 "s iron 9 solution2 & x is a fact famili> to all1 t _m ( !m are s copi\sly impregnat$ ) ?is metal1 z to /a9 ! rocks or h]bage ?r\gh :i* !y pass1 & to b9d toge!r s& & gravel into solid masses4 ,we may naturally1 !n1 conclude t ?is iron1 :i* is con/antly convey$ f ! int]ior ( ! e>? into lakes & seas1 & :i* does n escape aga9 f !m into ! atmosph]e by evaporation1 mu/ act z a color+ & cem5t+ pr9ciple 9 ! subaque\s deposits n[ 9 progress4 ,geologi/s are aw>e t _m anci5t s&/ones & conglom]ates are b\nd toge!r or color$ by iron4 ,br9e spr+s4--,s great is ! quantity ( muriate ( soda 9 "s spr+s1 t !y yield "o-f\r? ( _! weight 9 salt4 ,!y are r>ely1 h[ev]1 s saturat$1 & g5]ally conta91 int]mix$ ) salt1 c>bonate & sulphate ( lime1 magnesia1 & o!r m9]al +r$i5ts4 ,! br9e spr+s ( ,*e%ire are ! ri*e/ 9 our c\ntry2 ^? ( ,nor?wi* be+ almo/ saturat$4 ,^? ( ,b>ton also1 9 ,lanca%ire1 & ,droitwi* 9 ,worce/]%ire1 are extremely ri*4#cbg ,!y are kn[n to h fl[$ = m ?an #ajjj ye>s1 & ! quantity ( salt :i* !y h c>ri$ into ! ,sev]n & ,m]sey mu/ be enorm\s4 ,^! br9e spr+s rise up ?r\gh /rata ( s&/one & r$ m>l1 :i* conta9 l>ge b$s ( rock salt4 ,! orig9 ( ! br9e1 !re=e1 may be d]iv$ 9 ?is & _m o!r in/ances f b$s ( fossil salt2 b z muriate ( soda is "o ( ! products ( volcanic emanations & ( spr+s 9 volcanic regions1 ! orig9al s\rce ( salt may be z deep seat$ z t ( lava4 ,_m spr+s 9 ,sicily conta9 muriate ( soda1 & ! fiume salso1 9 p>ticul>1 is impregnat$ ) s l>ge a quantity1 t cattle refuse to dr9k ( x4 ,a hot spr+1 ris+ ?r\gh granite1 at ,sa9t ,nectaire1 9 ,auv]gne1 may be m5tion$ z "o ( _m1 conta9+ a l>ge proportion ( muriate ( soda1 toge!r ) magnesia & o!r +r$i5ts4#cbh ,c>bonat$ spr+s4--,auv]gne4--,c>bonic acid gas is v pl5tifully dis5gag$ f spr+s 9 almo/ all c\ntries1 b p>ticul>ly ne> active or ext9ct volcanoes4 ,?is ela/ic fluid has ! prop]ty ( decompos+ _m ( ! h>de/ rocks ) :i* x comes 9 contact1 p>ticul>ly t num]\s class 9 ^: composition felsp> is an +r$i5t4 ,x r5d]s ! oxide ( iron soluble 9 wat]1 & contributes1 z 0 be=e /at$1 to ! solution ( calc>e\s matt]4 ,9 volcanic di/ricts ^! gase\s emanations are n conf9$ to spr+s1 b rise up 9 ! /ate ( pure gas f ! soil 9 v>i\s places4 ,! ,grotto del ,cane1 ne> ,naples1 af=ds an example1 & prodigi\s quantities are n[ annually dis5gag$ f e "p ( ! ,limagne d',auv]gne1 :]e x appe>s to h be5 develop$ 9 equal quantity f "t immemorial4 ,z ! acid is invisible1 x is n obs]v$1 except an excavation be made1 :]e9 x imm$iately accumulates1 s t x w ext+ui% a c&le4 ,!re are "s spr+s 9 ?is di/rict1 :]e ! wat] is se5 bubbl+ & boil+ up ) mu* noise1 9 consequ5ce ( ! abundant dis5gagem5t ( ?is gas4 ,9 ! environs ( ,pont-,gibaud1 n f> f ,cl]mont1 a rock belong+ to ! gneiss =mation1 9 :i* lead-m9es are work$1 has be5 f\nd to be q saturat$ ) c>bonic acid gas1 :i* is con/antly dis5gag$4 ,! c>bonates ( iron1 lime1 & manganese are s dissolv$1 t ! rock is r5d]$ s(t1 & ! qu>tz alone rema9s unattack$4#cbi ,n f> (f is ! small volcanic cone ( ,*aluzet1 :i* once broke up ?r\gh ! gneiss1 & s5t =? a lava /ream4 ,suppos$ atmosph]e ( c>bonic acid4--,pr(4 ,bis*(f 9 8 hi/ory ( volcanoes1#ccj has %[n :at enorm\s quantities ( c>bonic acid gas are exhal$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ! ext9ct crat]s ( ! ,rh9e 79 ! neighborhood ( ! ,laa*]-see1 = example1 & ! ,eifel71 & also 9 ! m9]al spr+s ( ,nassau & o!r c\ntries1 :]e !re are no imm$iate traces ( volcanic action4 ,x w\ld be easy to calculate 9 h[ %ort a p]iod ! solid c>bon1 ?us emitt$ f ! int]ior ( ! e>? 9 an invisible =m1 w\ld am\nt to a quantity z great z c\ld be obta9$ f ! trees ( a l>ge =e/1 & h[ _m ?\s& ye>s w\ld be requir$ to supply ! mat]ials ( a d5se seam ( pure coal f ! same s\rce4 ,geologi/s :o favor ! doctr9e ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( an atmosph]e highly *>g$ ) c>bonic acid1 at ! p]iod ( ! anci5t coal-plants1 h n suffici5tly reflect$ on ! cont9ual dis5gagem5t ( c>bon1 :i* is tak+ place 9 a gase\s =m f spr+s1 z also 9 a free /ate f ! gr\nd & f volcanic crat]s into ! air4 ,we "k t all plants are n[ engag$ 9 secret+ c>bon1 & _m ?\s&s ( l>ge trees are annually float$ d[n by great riv]s1 & buri$ 9 _! alluvial deposits2 b be=e we c assume t ! quantity ( c>bon :i* becomes p]man5tly lock$ up 9 ! e>? by su* ag5cy w br+ ab\t an ess5tial *ange 9 ! *emical composition ( ! atmosph]e1 we mu/ be sure t ! trees annually buri$ conta9 m c>bon ?an is giv5 out f ! int]ior ( ! e>? 9 ! same lapse ( "t4 ,e l>ge area cov]$ by a d5se mass ( peat1 be>s ample te/imony to ! fact1 t sev]al million tons ( c>bon h be5 tak5 f ! air1 by ! p[]s ( vegetable life1 & /or$ up 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 a l>ge quantity ( oxyg5 hav+ be5 at ! same "t set free2 b we _c inf] f ^! circum/ances1 t ! con/itution ( ! atmosph]e has be5 mat]ially d]ang$1 until we h data = e/imat+ ! rate at :i* dead animal & vegetable sub/ances are daily putrefy+1--organic rema9s & v>i\s calc>e\s rocks decompos+1 & volcanic regions emitt+ fre% volumes ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,t ! anci5t c>bonif]\s p]iod 0 "o ( va/ duration all geologi/s are agre$2 in/ead1 !re=e1 ( suppos+ an excess ( c>bonic acid 9 ! air at t epo*1 = ! support ( a peculi> flora1 we may imag9e ,"t to h multipli$ ! quantity ( c>bon giv5 out annually by m9]al spr+s1 volcanic crat]s1 & o!r s\rces1 until ! compon5t elem5ts ( any giv5 numb] ( coal-seams _h be5 evolv$ f bel[1 )\t any v>iation tak+ place 9 ! con/itution ( ! atmosph]e4 ,x has be5 too common1 9 reason+ on ?is "q1 to compute ! loss ( c>bon by ! volume ( coal /or$ up 9 ! anci5t /rata1 & to take no acc\nt ( ! annual ga91 by ! re/oration ( c>bonic acid to ! atmosph]e1 ?r\gh ! ma*9]y above allud$ to4#cca ,dis9tegrat+ effects ( c>bonic acid4--,! dis9tegration ( granite is a /rik+ feature ( l>ge di/ricts 9 ,auv]gne1 especially 9 ! neighborhood ( ,cl]mont4 ,?is decay 0 call$ by ,dolomieu1 la maladie du granite2 & ! rock may ) propriety be said to h ! rot1 = x crumbles to pieces 9 ! h&4 ,! ph5om5on may1 )\t d\bt1 be ascrib$ to ! cont9ual dis5gagem5t ( c>bonic acid gas f num]\s fissures4 ,9 ! pla9s ( ! ,po1 betwe5 ,v]ona & ,p>ma1 especially at ,villa ,franca1 s\? ( ,mantua1 ,i obs]v$ great b$s ( alluvium1 consi/+ *iefly ( prim>y pebbles1 p]colat$ by spr+-wat]1 *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime & c>bonic acid 9 great abundance4 ,!y are = ! mo/ "p incru/$ ) calc-s9t]2 & ! r\nd$ blocks ( gneiss1 :i* h all ! outw>d appe>ance ( solidity1 h be5 s dis9tegrat$ by ! c>bonic acid z readily to fall to pieces4 ,! subtraction ( _m ( ! elem5ts ( rocks by ! solv5t p[] ( c>bonic acid1 asc5d+ bo? 9 a gase\s /ate & mix$ ) spr+-wat] 9 ! crevices ( rocks1 mu/ be "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful s\rces ( ^? int]nal *anges & re>rangem5ts ( p>ticles s (t5 obs]v$ 9 /rata ( e age4 ,! calc>e\s matt]1 = example1 ( %ells1 is (t5 entirely remov$ & replac$ by c>bonate ( iron1 pyrites1 silex1 or "s o!r +r$i5t1 su* z m9]al wat]s usually conta9 9 solution4 ,x r>ely happ5s1 except 9 lime/one rocks1 t ! c>bonic acid c dissolve all ! con/itu5t p>ts ( ! mass2 & = ?is reason1 probably1 calc>e\s rocks are almo/ ! only ones 9 :i* great cav]ns & long w9d+ passages are f\nd4 ,petroleum spr+s4--,spr+s ( :i* ! wat]s conta9 a mixture ( petroleum & ! v>i\s m9]als alli$ to x1 z bitum51 naph?a1 asphaltum1 & pit*1 are v num]\s1 & are1 9 _m cases1 und\bt$ly connect$ ) subt]ranean fires1 :i* raise or sublime ! m subtle p>ts ( ! bitum9\s matt]s conta9$ 9 rocks4 ,_m spr+s 9 ! t]ritory ( ,mod5a & ,p>ma1 9 ,italy1 produce petroleum 9 abundance2 b ! mo/ p[]ful1 p]haps1 yet kn[n1 are ^? on ! ,irawadi1 9 ! ,burman empire4 ,9 "o locality !re are said to be #ebj wells1 :i* yield annually #djj1jjj hog%eads ( petroleum4#ccb ,pit* lake ( ,tr9idad4--,fluid bitum5 is se5 to ooze f ! bottom ( ! sea1 on bo? sides ( ! isl& ( ,tr9idad1 & to rise up to ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,ne> ,cape ,la ,braye !re is a vortex :i*1 9 /ormy wea!r1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,mallet1 gu%es out1 rais+ ! wat] five or six feet1 & cov]s ! surface = a consid]able space ) petroleum1 or t>2 & ! same au?or quotes ,gumilla1 z /at+1 9 8 ,description ( ! ,or9oco1 t ab\t sev5ty ye>s ago1 a spot ( l& on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,tr9idad1 ne> half-way betwe5 ! capital & an ,indian village1 sank sudd5ly1 & 0 imm$iately replac$ by a small lake ( pit*1 to ! great t]ror ( ! inhabitants4#ccc ,x is probable t ! great pit* lake ( ,tr9idad owes its orig9 to a simil> cause2 & ,dr4 ,nug5t has ju/ly rem>k$1 t 9 t di/rict all ! circum/ances are n[ comb9$ f :i* deposits ( pit* may h orig9at$4 ,! ,or9oco has = ages be5 roll+ d[n great quantities ( woody & vegetable bodies into ! surr\nd+ sea1 :]e1 by ! influ5ce ( curr5ts & eddies1 !y may be arre/$ & accumulat$ 9 p>ticul> places4 ,! frequ5t occurr5ce ( e>?quakes & o!r indications ( volcanic action 9 ^? p>ts l5d c\nt5ance to ! op9ion1 t ^! vegetable sub/ances may h und]gone1 by ! ag5cy ( subt]ranean fire1 ^? trans=mations & *emical *anges :i* produce petroleum2 & ?is may1 by ! same causes1 be =c$ up to ! surface1 :]e1 by exposure to ! air1 x becomes inspissat$1 & =ms ! diff]5t v>ieties ( pure & e>?y pit*1 or asphaltum1 s abundant 9 ! isl&4#ccd ,x may be /at$ g5]ally1 t a l>ge portion ( ! f9] p>ticles & ! m cry/all9e sub/ances1 f\nd 9 s$im5t>y rocks ( diff]5t ages1 are compos$ ( ! same elem5ts z are n[ held 9 solution by spr+s1 :ile ! co>s] mat]ials be> an equally /rong resemblance to ! pebbles & s$im5t>y matt] c>ri$ d[n by torr5ts & riv]s4 ,x %\ld also be rememb]$1 t x is n only dur+ inundations1 :5 ! muddy s$im5t is app>5t1 t riv]s are busy 9 convey+ solid matt] to ! sea1 b t ev5 :5 _! wat]s are p]fectly transp>5t1 !y are annually be>+ along va/ masses ( c>bon1 lime1 & silica to ! ocean4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,reproductive ,,effects ,,( ,,riv]s4 ,lake deltas--,gr[? ( ! delta ( ! ,upp] ,rh9e 9 ! ,lake ( ,g5eva--,computation ( ! age ( deltas--,rec5t deposits 9 ,lake ,sup]ior--,deltas ( inl& seas--,c\rse ( ! ,po--,artificial embankm5ts ( ! ,po & ,adige--,delta ( ! ,po1 & o!r riv]s ent]+ ! ,adriatic--,rapid conv]sion ( t gulf into l&--,m9]al *>act]s ( ! new deposits--,m>9e delta ( ! ,rhone--,v>i\s pro(s ( its increase--,/ony nature ( its deposits--,coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or--,delta ( ! ,nile4 ,,deltas ,,9 ,,lakes4 ,i h already spok5 9 ! #ad? *apt] ( ! action ( runn+ wat]1 & ( ! d5ud+ p[] ( riv]s1 b we c only =m a j conception ( ! excavat+ & remov+ =ce ex]t$ by su* bodies ( wat]1 :5 we h ! advantage ( exam9+ ! reproductive effects ( ! same ag5ts3 9 o!r words1 ( behold+ 9 a palpable =m ! aggregate am\nt ( matt]1 :i* !y h ?r[n d[n at c]ta9 po9ts 9 _! alluvial pla9s1 or 9 ! bas9s ( lakes & seas4 ,yet x w appe>1 :5 we consid] ! action ( curr5ts1 t ! gr[? ( deltas af=ds a v inadequate /&>d by :i* to measure ! entire c>ry+ p[] ( runn+ wat]1 s9ce a consid]able portion ( fluviatile s$im5t is swept f> out to sea4 ,deltas may be divid$ into1 fir/1 ^? :i* are =m$ 9 lakes2 secondly1 ^? 9 isl& seas1 :]e ! tides are almo/ imp]ceptible2 &1 ?irdly1 ^? on ! bord]s ( ! ocean4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic di/9ction betwe5 ! lacu/r9e & m>9e deltas consi/s 9 ! nature ( ! organic rema9s :i* become imb$d$ 9 _! deposits2 =1 9 ! case ( a lake1 x is obvi\s t ^! mu/ consi/ exclusively ( su* g5]a ( animals z inhabit ! l& or ! wat]s ( a riv] or a lake2 :]eas1 9 ! o!r case1 !re w be an admixture1 & mo/ frequ5tly a pr$om9ance1 ( animals :i* inhabit salt wat]4 ,9 reg>d1 h[ev]1 to ! di/ribution ( inorganic matt]1 ! deposits ( lakes & seas are =m$ "u v analog\s circum/ances4 ,lake ( ,g5eva4--,lakes exemplify ! fir/ reproductive op]ations 9 :i* riv]s are engag$ :5 !y convey ! detritus ( rocks & ! +r$i5ts ( m9]al spr+s f m\nta9\s regions4 ,! accession ( new l& at ! m\? ( ! ,rhone1 at ! upp] end ( ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 or ! ,leman ,lake1 pres5ts u ) an example ( a consid]able ?ickness ( /rata :i* h accumulat$ s9ce ! hi/orical era4 ,?is %eet ( wat] is ab\t ?irty-sev5 miles long1 & its bread? is f two to eight miles4 ,! %ape ( ! bottom is v irregul>1 ! dep? hav+ be5 f\nd by late measurem5ts to v>y f #bj to #afj fa?oms4#cce ,! ,rhone1 :]e x ent]s at ! upp] end1 is turbid & discolor$2 b its wat]s1 :]e x issues at ! t[n ( ,g5eva1 are beautifully cle> & transp>5t4 ,an anci5t t[n1 call$ ,port ,vallais 7,portus ,valesiae ( ! ,romans71 once situat$ at ! wat]'s edge1 at ! upp] end1 is n[ m ?an a mile & a half inl&--?is int]v5+ alluvial tract hav+ be5 acquir$ 9 ab\t eight c5turies4 ,! rema9d] ( ! delta consi/s ( a flat alluvial pla91 ab\t five or six miles 9 l5g?1 compos$ ( s& & mud1 a little rais$ above ! level ( ! riv]1 & full ( m>%es4 ,sir ,h5ry ,de la ,be*e f\nd1 aft] num]\s s\nd+s 9 all p>ts ( ! lake1 t !re 0 a pretty uni=m dep? ( f #abj to #afj fa?oms ?r\gh\t ! c5tral region1 & on approa*+ ! delta1 ! %all[+ ( ! bottom began to be v s5sible at a di/ance ( ab\t a mile & ?ree qu>t]s f ! m\? ( ! ,rhone2 = a l9e drawn f ,/4 ,g+\lph to ,vevey gives a mean dep? ( some:at less ?an #fjj feet1 & f t "p ( ! ,rhone1 ! fluviatile mud is always f\nd along ! bottom4#ccf ,we may /ate1 !re=e1 t ! new /rata annually produc$ are ?r[n d[n ^u a slope ab\t two miles 9 l5g?2 s t1 not)/&+ ! great dep? ( ! lake1 ! new deposits are incl9$ at s slight an angle1 t ! dip ( ! b$s w\ld be t]m$1 9 ord9>y geological language1 horizontal4 ,! /rata probably consi/ ( alt]nations ( f9] & co>s] p>ticles2 =1 dur+ ! hott] mon?s f ,april to ,augu/1 :5 ! sn[s melt1 ! volume & velocity ( ! riv] are greate/1 & l>ge quantities ( s&1 mud1 vegetable matt]1 & drift-wood are introduc$2 b dur+ ! re/ ( ! ye>1 ! influx is comp>atively feeble1 s mu* s1 t ! :ole lake1 accord+ to ,saussure1 /&s six feet l[]4 ,if1 !n1 we c\ld obta9 a section ( ! accumulation =m$ 9 ! la/ eight c5turies1 we %\ld see a great s]ies ( /rata1 probably f #fjj to #ijj feet ?ick 7! suppos$ orig9al dep? ( ! head ( ! lake71 & ne>ly two miles 9 l5g?1 incl9$ at a v slight angle4 ,9 ! mean "t1 a great numb] ( small] deltas are gr[+ ar\nd ! bord]s ( ! lake1 at ! m\?s ( rapid torr5ts1 :i* p\r 9 l>ge masses ( s& & pebbles4 ,! body ( wat] 9 ^! torr5ts is too small to enable !m to spread out ! transport$ matt] ov] s ext5sive an area z ! ,rhone does4 ,?us1 = example1 !re is a dep? ( eighty fa?oms )9 half a mile ( ! %ore1 imm$iately opposite ! great torr5t :i* ent]s ea/ ( ,ripaille1 s t ! dip ( ! /rata 9 t m9or delta mu/ be ab\t f\r times z great z ^? deposit$ by ! ma9 riv] at ! upp] extremity ( ! lake4#ccg ,*ronological computations ( ! age ( deltas4--,! capacity ( ?is bas9 be+ n[ asc]ta9$1 x w\ld be an int]e/+ subject ( inquiry1 to det]m9e 9 :at numb] ( ye>s ! ,leman ,lake w be conv]t$ into dry l&4 ,x w\ld n be v difficult to obta9 ! elem5ts = su* a calculation1 s z to approximate at lea/ to ! quantity ( "t requir$ = ! accompli%m5t ( ! result4 ,! numb] ( cubic feet ( wat] annually dis*>g$ by ! riv] into ! lake be+ e/imat$1 exp]im5ts might be made 9 ! w9t] & summ] mon?s1 to det]m9e ! proportion ( matt] held 9 susp5sion or 9 *emical solution by ! ,rhone4 ,x w\ld be also necess>y to all[ = ! heavi] matt] drift$ along at ! bottom1 :i* might be e/imat$ on hydro/atical pr9ciples1 :5 ! av]age size ( ! gravel & ! volume & velocity ( ! /ream at diff]5t seasons 7 kn[n4 ,suppos+ all ^! obs]vations to h be5 made1 x w\ld be m easy to calculate ! future ?an ! =m] progress ( ! delta1 because x w\ld be a labori\s task to asc]ta91 ) any degree ( precision1 ! orig9al dep? & ext5t ( t "p ( ! lake :i* is already fill$ up4 ,ev5 if ?is in=mation 7 actually obta9$ by bor+s1 x w\ld only enable u to approximate )9 a c]ta9 numb] ( c5turies to ! "t :5 ! ,rhone began to =m its pres5t delta2 b ?is w\ld n give u ! date ( ! orig9 ( ! ,leman ,lake 9 its pres5t =m1 because ! riv] may h fl[$ into x = ?\s&s ( ye>s1 )\t import+ any s$im5t :atev]4 ,su* w\ld h be5 ! case1 if ! wat]s _h fir/ pass$ ?r\gh a *a9 ( upp] lakes2 & t ?is 0 actually ! fact1 seems indicat$ by ! c\rse ( ! ,rhone betwe5 ,m>tigny & ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 &1 /ill m decid$ly1 by ! *annels ( _m ( its pr9cipal fe$]s4 ,if we asc5d1 = example1 ! valley ?r\gh :i* ! ,dranse fl[s1 we f9d t x consi/s ( a succession ( bas9s1 "o above ! o!r1 9 ea* ( :i* !re is a wide expanse ( flat alluvial l&s1 sep>at$ f ! next bas9 by a rocky gorge1 once p]haps ! b>ri] ( a lake4 ,! riv] seems to h fill$ ^! lakes1 "o aft] ! o!r1 & to h p>tially cut ?r\gh ! b>ri]s1 "s ( :i* x is /ill gradually erod+ to a great] dep?4 ,be=e1 !re=e1 we c pret5d ev5 to haz>d a conjecture z to ! era at :i* ! pr9cipal delta ( ,lake ,leman or any o!r delta comm5c$1 we mu/ be ?or\ghly acqua9t$ ) ! geographical features & geological hi/ory ( ! :ole sy/em ( high] valleys :i* communicate ) ! ma9 /ream1 & all ! *anges :i* !y h und]gone s9ce ! la/ s]ies ( convulsions :i* agitat$ & alt]$ ! face ( ! c\ntry4 ,lake ,sup]ior4--,lake ,sup]ior is ! l>ge/ body ( fre%wat] 9 ! _w1 be+ above #agjj geographical miles 9 circumf]5ce :5 we foll[ ! s9uosities ( its coa/s1 & its l5g?1 on a curv$ l9e drawn ?r\gh its c5tre1 be+ m ?an #djj1 & its extreme bread? above #aej geographical miles4 ,its surface is ne>ly z l>ge z ! :ole ( ,engl&4 ,its av]age dep? v>ies f #hj to #aej fa?oms2 b1 accord+ to ,capta9 ,bayfield1 !re is reason to ?9k t its greate/ dep? w\ld n be ov]rat$ at #bjj fa?oms1 s t its bottom is1 9 "s p>ts1 ne>ly #fjj feet bel[ ! level ( ! ,atlantic1 its surface be+ ab\t z mu* above x4 ,!re are appe>ances 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ?is1 z ( ! o!r ,canadian lakes1 lead+ u to inf] t its wat]s =m]ly occupi$ a high] level ?an !y rea* at pres5t2 = at a consid]able di/ance f ! pres5t %ores1 p>allel l9es ( roll$ /ones & %ells are se5 ris+ "o above ! o!r1 l ! seats ( an amphi!atre4 ,^! anci5t l9es ( %+le are exactly simil> to ! pres5t bea*es 9 mo/ bays1 & !y (t5 atta9 an elevation ( #dj or #ej feet above ! pres5t level4 ,z ! heavie/ gales ( w9d d n raise ! wat]s m ?an ?ree or f\r feet1 ! elevat$ bea*es h by "s be5 ref]r$ to ! subsid5ce ( ! lake at =m] p]iods1 9 consequ5ce ( ! we>+ d[n ( its b>ri]2 by o!rs to ! uprais+ ( ! %ores by e>?quakes1 l ^? :i* h produc$ simil> ph5om5a on ! coa/ ( ,*ili4 ,! /reams :i* dis*>ge _! wat]s into ,lake ,sup]ior are sev]al hundr$ 9 numb]1 )\t reckon+ ^? ( small] size2 & ! quantity ( wat] suppli$ by !m is _m times great] ?an t dis*>g$ at ! ,falls ( ,/4 ,m>y1 ! only outlet4 ,! evaporation1 !re=e1 is v great1 & su* z might be expect$ f s va/ an ext5t ( surface4 ,on ! nor!rn side1 :i* is encircl$ by prim>y m\nta9s1 ! riv]s sweep 9 _m l>ge b\ld]s ) small] gravel & s&1 *iefly compos$ ( granitic & trap rocks4 ,!re are also curr5ts 9 ! lake 9 v>i\s directions1 caus$ by ! cont9u$ preval5ce ( /rong w9ds1 & to _! influ5ce we may attribute ! diffusion ( f9] mud f> & wide ov] great areas2 = by num]\s s\nd+s made dur+ ,capta9 ,bayfield's survey1 x 0 asc]ta9$ t ! bottom consi/s g5]ally ( a v adhesive clay1 conta9+ %ells ( ! species at pres5t exi/+ 9 ! lake4 ,:5 expos$ to ! air1 ?is clay imm$iately becomes indurat$ 9 s great a degree1 z to require a sm>t bl[ to break x4 ,x eff]vesces slightly ) dilut$ nitric acid1 & is ( diff]5t colors 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! lake2 9 "o di/rict blue1 9 ano!r r$1 & 9 a ?ird :ite1 h>d5+ into a sub/ance resembl+ pipeclay4#cch ,f ^! /atem5ts1 ! geologi/ w n fail to rem>k h[ closely ^! rec5t lacu/r9e =mations 9 ,am]ica resemble ! t]ti>y argillace\s & calc>e\s m>ls ( lacu/r9e orig9 9 ,c5tral ,france4 ,9 bo? cases _m ( ! g5]a ( %ells mo/ abundant1 z ,limnea & ,planorbis1 are ! same2 & 9 reg>d to o!r classes ( organic rema9s !re mu/ be ! close/ analogy1 z ,i %all endeavor m fully to expla9 :5 speak+ ( ! imb$d+ ( plants & animals 9 rec5t deposits4 ,,deltas ,,( ,,inl& ,,seas4 ,hav+ ?us briefly consid]$ "s ( ! lacu/r9e deltas n[ 9 progress1 we may next turn our att5tion to ^? ( inl& seas4 ,c\rse ( ! ,po4--,! ,po af=ds an in/ructive example ( ! mann] 9 :i* a great riv] be>s d[n to ! sea ! matt] p\r$ into x by a multitude ( tribut>ies desc5d+ f l(ty *a9s ( m\nta9s4 ,! *anges gradually effect$ 9 ! great pla9 ( ,nor!rn ,italy1 s9ce ! "t ( ! ,roman republic1 are consid]able4 ,ext5sive lakes & m>%es h be5 gradually fill$ up1 z ^? ne> ,plac5tia1 ,p>ma1 & ,cremona1 & _m h be5 dra9$ naturally by ! deep5+ ( ! b$s ( riv]s4 ,des]t$ riv]-c\rses are n unfrequ5t1 z t ( ! ,s]io ,morto1 :i* =m]ly fell into ! ,adda1 9 ,lomb>dy4 ,! ,po also itself has (t5 deviat$ f its c\rse1 hav+ aft] ! ye> #acij des]t$ "p ( ! t]ritory ( ,cremona1 & invad$ t ( ,p>ma2 its old *annel be+ /ill recognizable1 & be>+ ! "n ( ,po ,morto4 ,!re is also an old *annel ( ! ,po 9 ! t]ritory ( ,p>ma1 call$ ,po ,vec*io1 :i* 0 ab&on$ 9 ! twelf? c5tury1 :5 a great numb] ( t[ns 7 de/roy$4 ,artificial embankm5ts ( ,italian riv]s4--,to *eck ^! & simil> ab]rations1 a g5]al sy/em ( embankm5t has be5 adopt$2 & ! ,po1 ,adige1 & almo/ all _! tribut>ies1 are n[ conf9$ betwe5 high artificial banks4 ,! increas$ velocity acquir$ by /reams ?us clos$ 91 enables !m to convey a mu* l>g] portion ( =eign matt] to ! sea2 &1 consequ5tly1 ! deltas ( ! ,po & ,adige h ga9$ f> m rapidly on ! ,adriatic s9ce ! practice ( embankm5t became almo/ univ]sal4 ,b1 al?\gh m s$im5t is borne to ! sea1 "p ( ! s& & mud1 :i* 9 ! natural /ate ( ?+s w\ld be spread out by annual inundations ov] ! pla91 n[ subsides 9 ! bottom ( ! riv]-*annels2 & _! capacity be+ !reby dim9i%$1 x is necess>y1 9 ord] to prev5t inundations 9 ! foll[+ spr+1 to extract matt] f ! b$1 & to add x to ! banks ( ! riv]4 ,h5ce x happ5s t ^! /reams n[ trav]se ! pla9 on ! top ( high m\nds1 l ! wat]s ( aqu$ucts1 & at ,f]r>a ! surface ( ! ,po has become m elevat$ ?an ! ro(s ( ! h\ses4#cci ,! magnitude ( ^! b>ri]s is a subject ( increas+ exp5se & anxiety1 x hav+ be5 sometimes f\nd necess>y to give an additional height ( ne>ly "o foot to ! banks ( ! ,adige & ,po 9 a s+le season4 ,! practice ( embankm5t 0 adopt$ on "s ( ! ,italian riv]s z e>ly z ! ?irte5? c5tury2 & ,dante1 writ+ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! f\rte5?1 describes1 9 ! sev5? circle ( hell1 a rivulet ( te>s sep>at$ f a burn+ s&y des]t by embankm5ts l ^? :i*1 betwe5 ,gh5t & ,bruges1 7 rais$ aga9/ ! ocean1 or ^? :i* ! ,paduans _h erect$ along ! ,br5ta to def5d _! villas on ! melt+ ( ! ,alp9e sn[s4 ,quale i ,fiamm+hi tra ,guzzante e ,bruggia1 ,tem5do il fiotto *e 9 v] lor s'avv5ta1 ,fanno lo s*]mo1 p]*e il m> si fuggia1 ,e quale i ,padovan lungo la ,br5ta1 ,p] dif5d] lor ville e lor ca/elli1 ,anzi *e ,*i>5tana il caldo s5ta4-- ,inf]no1 ,canto xv4 ,9 ! ,adriatic1 f ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,gulf ( ,trie/e1 :]e ! ,isonzo ent]s1 d[n to ! s\? ( ,rav5na1 !re is an un9t]rupt$ s]ies ( rec5t accessions ( l&1 m ?an #ajj miles 9 l5g?1 :i*1 )9 ! la/ #bjjj ye>s1 h increas$ f two to tw5ty miles 9 bread?4 ,a l9e ( s&-b>s ( great l5g? has be5 =m$ ne>ly all along ! we/]n coa/ ( ?is gulf1 inside ( :i* are lagunes1 su* z ^? ( ,v5ice1 & ! l>ge lagune ( ,comac*io1 #bj miles 9 diamet]4 ,newly deposit$ mud br\ght d[n by ! /reams is cont9ually less5+ ! dep? ( ! lagunes1 & conv]t+ "p ( !m into mead[s4#cdj ,! ,isonzo1 ,tagliam5to1 ,piave1 ,br5ta1 ,adige1 & ,po1 besides _m o!r inf]ior riv]s1 contribute to ?is advance ( ! coa/-l9e & to ! %all[+ ( ! lagunes & ! gulf4 ,delta ( ! ,po4--,! ,po & ! ,adige may n[ be consid]$ z ent]+ by "o common delta1 = two bran*es ( ! ,adige are connect$ ) arms ( ! ,po1 & ?us ! pr9cipal delta has be5 pu%$ out beyond ^? b>s :i* sep>ate ! lagunes f ! sea4 ,! rate ( ! advance ( ?is new l& has be5 accel]at$1 z be=e /at$1 s9ce ! sy/em ( embank+ ! riv]s became g5]al1 especially at t po9t :]e ! ,po & ,adige ent]4 ,! wat]s are no long] p]mitt$ to spread !mselves f> & wide ov] ! pla9s1 & to leave beh9d !m ! l>g] portion ( _! s$im5t4 ,m\nta9 torr5ts also h become m turbid s9ce ! cle>+ away ( =e/s1 :i* once clo!d ! s\!rn flanks ( ! ,alps4 ,x is calculat$ t ! mean rate ( advance ( ! delta ( ! ,po on ! ,adriatic betwe5 ! ye>s #abjj & #afjj 0 #be y>ds or metres a ye>1 :]eas ! mean annual ga9 f #afjj to #ahjd 0 #gj metres4#cda ,adria 0 a seaport 9 ! "t ( ,augu/us1 & _h1 9 anci5t times1 giv5 its "n to ! gulf2 x is n[ ab\t tw5ty ,italian miles inl&4 ,rav5na 0 also a seaport1 & is n[ ab\t f\r miles f ! ma9 sea4 ,yet ev5 be=e ! practice ( embankm5t 0 introduc$1 ! alluvium ( ! ,po advanc$ ) rapidity on ! ,adriatic2 = ,sp9a1 a v anci5t city1 orig9ally built 9 ! di/rict ( ,rav5na1 at ! m\? ( a great arm ( ! ,po1 01 s e>ly z ! comm5cem5t ( our era1 elev5 miles di/ant f ! sea4#cdb ,b al?\gh s _m riv]s are rapidly conv]t+ ! ,adriatic into l&1 x appe>s1 by ! obs]vations ( ,m4 ,morlot1 t s9ce ! "t ( ! ,romans1 !re has be5 a g5]al subsid5ce ( ! coa/ & b$ ( ?is sea 9 ! same region to ! am\nt ( five feet1 s t ! advance ( ! new-made l& has n be5 s fa/ z x w\ld h be5 _h ! level ( ! coa/ rema9$ unalt]$4 ,! signs ( a mu* great] depression ant]ior to ! hi/orical p]iod h also be5 br\ght to light by an ,artesian well1 bor$ 9 #ahdg1 to ! dep? ( m ?an #djj feet1 :i* /ill fail$ to p5etrate ?r\gh ! mod]n fluviatile deposit4 ,! aug] pass$ *iefly ?r\gh b$s ( s& & clay1 b at f\r sev]al dep?s1 "o ( !m v ne> ! bottom ( ! excavation1 x pi]c$ b$s ( turf1 or accumulations ( vegetable matt]1 precisely simil> to ^? n[ =m$ sup]ficially on ! extreme bord]s ( ! ,adriatic4 ,h5ce we le>n t a consid]able area ( :at 0 once l& has sunk d[n #djj feet 9 ! c\rse ( ages4#cdc ,! greate/ dep? ( ! ,adriatic1 betwe5 ,dalmatia & ! m\?s ( ! ,po1 is tw5ty-two fa?oms2 b a l>ge "p ( ! ,gulf ( ,trie/e & ! ,adriatic1 opposite ,v5ice1 is less ?an twelve fa?oms deep4 ,f>!r to ! s\?1 :]e x is less affect$ by ! influx ( great riv]s1 ! gulf deep5s consid]ably4 ,donati1 aft] dr$g+ ! bottom1 discov]$ ! new deposits to consi/ p>tly ( mud & p>tly ( rock1 ! rock be+ =m$ ( calc>e\s matt]1 incru/+ %ells4 ,he also asc]ta9$1 t p>ticul> species ( te/acea 7 gr\p$ toge!r 9 c]ta9 places1 & 7 becom+ sl[ly incorporat$ ) ! mud or calc>e\s precipitates4#cdd ,olivi1 also1 f\nd "s deposits ( s&1 & o!rs ( mud1 ext5d+ half way across ! gulf2 & he /ates t _! di/ribution along ! bottom 0 evid5tly det]m9$ by ! prevail+ curr5t4#cde ,x is probable1 !re=e1 t ! f9] s$im5t ( all ! riv]s at ! head ( ! ,adriatic may be int]m+l$ by ! influ5ce ( ! curr5t2 & all ! c5tral p>ts ( ! gulf may be consid]$ z sl[ly fill+ up ) horizontal deposits1 simil> to ^? ( ! ,subap5n9e hills1 & conta9+ _m ( ! same species ( %ells4 ,! ,po m]ely introduces at pres5t f9e s& & mud1 = x c>ries no pebbles f>!r ?an ! spot :]e x jo9s ! ,trebia1 we/ ( ,piac5za4 ,ne> ! nor!rn bord]s ( ! bas91 ! ,isonzo1 ,tagliam5to1 & _m o!r /reams1 are =m+ imm5se b$s ( s& & "s conglom]ate2 = "h "s high m\nta9s ( ,alp9e lime/one approa* )9 a few miles ( ! sea4 ,9 ! "t ( ! ,romans1 ! hot-ba?s ( ,monfalcone 7 on "o ( sev]al isl&s ( ,alp9e lime/one1 betwe5 :i* & ! ma9l&1 on ! nor?1 0 a *annel ( ! sea1 ab\t a mile broad4 ,?is *annel is n[ conv]t$ into a grassy pla91 :i* surr\nds ! isl&s on all sides4 ,among ! num]\s *anges on ?is coa/1 we f9d t ! pres5t *annel ( ! ,isonzo is sev]al miles to ! we/ ( its anci5t b$1 9 "p ( :i*1 at ,ron*i1 ! old ,roman bridge :i* cross$ ! ,via ,appia 0 lately f\nd buri$ 9 fluviatile silt4 ,m>9e delta ( ! ,rhone4--,! lacu/r9e delta ( ! ,rhone 9 ,switz]l& has already be5 consid]$ 7p4 #bea71 its contemporane\s m>9e delta may n[ be describ$4 ,sc>cely has ! riv] pass$ out ( ! ,lake ( ,g5eva be=e its pure wat]s are aga9 fill$ ) s& & s$im5t by ! impetu\s ,arve1 desc5d+ f ! highe/ ,alps1 & be>+ along 9 its curr5t ! granitic detritus annually br\ght d[n by ! glaci]s ( ,mont ,blanc4 ,! ,rhone aft]w>ds receives va/ contributions ( transport$ matt] f ! ,alps ( ,dauph9y1 & ! prim>y & volcanic m\nta9s ( ,c5tral ,france2 & :5 at l5g? x ent]s ! ,m$it]ranean1 x discolors ! blue wat]s ( t sea ) a :iti% s$im5t1 = ! di/ance ( betwe5 six & sev5 miles1 ?r\gh\t :i* space ! curr5t ( fre% wat] is p]ceptible4 ,/rabo's description ( ! delta is s inapplicable to its pres5t configuration1 z to atte/ a complete alt]ation 9 ! physical features ( ! c\ntry s9ce ! ,augu/an age4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t ! head ( ! delta1 or ! po9t at :i* x beg9s to ramify1 has rema9$ unalt]$ s9ce ! "t ( ,pl9y1 = he /ates t ! ,rhone divid$ itself at ,arles into two arms4 ,?is is ! case at pres5t2 "o ( ! bran*es1 ! we/]n1 be+ n[ call$ ,le ,petit ,rhone1 :i* is aga9 subdivid$ be=e ent]+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! advance ( ! base ( ! delta1 9 ! la/ eighte5 c5turies1 is demon/rat$ by _m curi\s antiqu>ian monum5ts4 ,! mo/ /rik+ ( ^! is ! great & unnatural dat\r ( ! old ,roman road f ,ug]num to ,bezi]s 7,boet]rae7 :i* w5t r\nd by ,nismes 7,nemausus74 ,x is cle> t1 :5 ?is 0 fir/ con/ruct$1 x 0 impossible to pass 9 a direct l9e1 z n[1 across ! delta1 & t ei!r ! sea or m>%es int]v5$ 9 a tract n[ consi/+ ( t]ra firma4#cdf ,a/ruc also rem>ks1 t all ! places on l[ l&s1 ly+ to ! nor? ( ! old ,roman road betwe5 ,nismes & ,bezi]s1 h names ( ,celtic orig91 evid5tly giv5 to !m by ! fir/ inhabitants ( ! c\ntry2 :]eas1 ! places ly+ s\? ( t road1 t[>ds ! sea1 h names ( ,lat9 d]ivation1 & 7 cle>ly f\nd$ aft] ! ,roman language _h be5 introduc$4 ,ano!r pro(1 also1 ( ! great ext5t ( l& :i* has come into exi/5ce s9ce ! ,romans conqu]$ & coloniz$ ,gaul1 is d]iv$ f ! fact1 t ! ,roman writ]s nev] m5tion ! !rmal wat]s ( ,bal>uc 9 ! delta1 al?\gh !y 7 well acqua9t$ ) ^? ( ,aix1 & o!rs /ill m di/ant1 & atta*$ great importance to !m1 z !y inv>iably did to all hot spr+s4 ,! wat]s ( ,bal>uc1 !re=e1 mu/ h =m]ly issu$ "u ! sea--a common ph5om5on on ! bord]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean2 & on ! advance ( ! delta !y cont9u$ to fl[ out ?r\gh ! new deposits4 ,among ! m direct pro(s ( ! increase ( l&1 we f9d t ,mese1 describ$ "u ! appellation ( ,mesua ,collis by ,pomponius ,mela1#cdg & /at$ by him to be ne>ly an isl&1 is n[ f> inl&4 ,notre ,dame des ,ports1 also1 0 a h>bor 9 #hih1 b is n[ a league f ! %ore4 ,psalmodi 0 an isl& 9 #hae1 & is n[ two leagues f ! sea4 ,sev]al old l9es ( t[]s & sea-m>ks occur at diff]5t di/ances f ! pres5t coa/1 all indicat+ ! successive retreat ( ! sea1 = ea* l9e has 9 its turn become useless to m>9]s2 :i* may well be conceiv$1 :5 we /ate t ! ,t[] ( ,tignaux1 erect$ on ! %ore s late z ! ye> #agcg1 is already a mile remote f x4#cdh ,by ! conflu5ce ( ! ,rhone & ! curr5ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 driv5 by w9ds f ! s\?1 s&-b>s are (t5 =m$ across ! m\?s ( ! riv]2 by ^! means consid]able spaces become divid$ (f f ! sea1 & subsequ5tly f ! riv] also1 :5 x %ifts its *annels ( efflux4 ,z "s ( ^! lagoons are subject to ! occasional +ress ( ! riv] :5 flood$1 & ( ! sea dur+ /orms1 !y are alt]nately salt & fre%4 ,o!rs1 aft] be+ fill$ ) salt wat]1 are (t5 l[]$ by evaporation till !y become m salt ?an ! sea2 & x has happ5$1 occasionally1 t a consid]able precipitate ( muriate ( soda has tak5 place 9 ^! natural salt]ns4 ,dur+ ! latt] "p ( ,napoleon's c>e]1 :5 ! excise laws 7 en=c$ ) extreme rigor1 ! police 0 employ$ to prev5t su* salt f be+ us$4 ,! fluviatile & m>9e %ells inclos$ 9 ^! small lakes (t5 live toge!r 9 bracki% wat]2 b ! uncong5ial nature ( ! fluid usually produces a dw>fi% size1 & sometimes gives rise to /range v>ieties 9 =m & color4 ,capta9 ,smy? 9 8 survey ( ! coa/ ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 f\nd ! sea opposite ! m\? ( ! ,rhone1 to deep5 gradually f f\r to =ty fa?oms1 )9 a di/ance ( six or sev5 miles1 ov] :i* ! discolor$ fre% wat] ext5ds2 s t ! incl9ation ( ! new deposits mu/ be too slight to be appreciable 9 su* an ext5t ( section z a geologi/ usually obta9s 9 exam9+ anci5t =mations4 ,:5 ! w9d blew f ! s\?we/1 ! %ips employ$ 9 ! survey 7 oblig$ to quit _! moor+s2 & :5 !y return$1 ! new s&-banks 9 ! delta 7 f\nd cov]$ ov] ) a great abundance ( m>9e %ells4 ,by ?is means1 we le>n h[ occasional b$s ( drift$ m>9e %ells may become int]/ratifi$ ) fre%wat] /rata at a riv]'s m\?4 ,/ony nature ( its deposits4--,t a great proportion1 at lea/1 ( ! new deposit 9 ! delta ( ! ,rhone consi/s ( rock1 & n ( loose incoh]5t matt]1 is p]fectly asc]ta9$4 ,9 ! ,museum at ,montpeli] is a cannon tak5 up f ! sea ne> ! m\? ( ! riv]1 imb$d$ 9 a cry/all9e calc>e\s rock4 ,l>ge masses1 also1 are cont9ually tak5 up ( an ar5ace\s rock1 cem5t$ by calc>e\s matt]1 includ+ multitudes ( brok5 %ells ( rec5t species4 ,! obs]vations lately made on ?is subject corroborate ! =m] /atem5t ( ,m>silli1 t ! e>?y deposits ( ! coa/ ( ,langu$oc =m a /ony sub/ance1 = :i* reason he ascribes a c]ta9 bitum9\s1 sal9e1 & glut9\s nature to ! sub/ances br\ght d[n ) s& by ! ,rhone4#cdi ,if ! numb] ( m9]al spr+s *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime :i* fall into ! ,rhone & its fe$]s 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,france be consid]$1 we %all feel no surprise at ! lapidification ( ! newly deposit$ s$im5t 9 ?is delta4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$1 t ! fre% wat] introduc$ by riv]s be+ light] ?an ! wat] ( ! sea1 floats ov] ! latt]1 & rema9s ^u ! surface = a consid]able di/ance4 ,consequ5tly x is expos$ to z mu* evaporation z ! wat]s ( a lake2 & ! area ov] :i* ! riv]-wat] is spread1 at ! junction ( great riv]s & ! sea1 may well be comp>$1 9 po9t ( ext5t1 to t ( consid]able lakes4 ,n[1 x is well kn[n1 t s great is ! quantity ( wat] c>ri$ (f by evaporation 9 "s lakes1 t x is ne>ly equal to ! wat] fl[+ 92 & 9 "s inl& seas1 z ! ,caspian1 x is q equal4 ,we may1 !re=e1 well suppose t1 9 cases :]e a /rong curr5t does n int]f]e1 ! great] portion n only ( ! matt] held me*anically 9 susp5sion1 b ( t also :i* is 9 *emical solution1 may be precipitat$ at no great di/ance f ! %ore4 ,:5 ^! f9] +r$i5ts are extremely small 9 quantity1 !y may only suffice to supply cru/ace\s animals1 corals1 & m>9e plants1 ) ! e>?y p>ticles necess>y = _! secretions2 b :5ev] x is 9 excess 7z g5]ally happ5s if ! bas9 ( a riv] lie p>tly 9 a di/rict ( active or ext9ct volcanoes71 !n w solid deposits be =m$1 & ! %ells w at once be includ$ 9 a rocky mass4 ,coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or4--,examples ( ! advance ( ! l& ^u ! sea are af=d$ by ! s\!rn coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or4 ,admiral ,sir ,f4 ,beau=t has po9t$ out 9 8 survey ! great alt]ations effect$ s9ce ! "t ( ,/rabo1 :]e hav5s are fill$ up1 isl&s jo9$ to ! ma9l&1 & :]e ! :ole cont95t has increas$ _m miles 9 ext5t4 ,/rabo himself1 on comp>+ ! outl9e ( ! coa/ 9 8 "t ) its anci5t /ate1 0 conv9c$1 l our c\ntryman1 t x _h ga9$ v consid]ably ^u ! sea4 ,! new-=m$ /rata ( ,asia ,m9or consi/ ( /one1 n ( loose incoh]5t mat]ials4 ,almo/ all ! /reamlets & riv]s1 l _m ( ^? 9 ,tuscany & ! s\? ( ,italy1 hold abundance ( c>bonate ( lime 9 solution1 & precipitate trav]t91 or sometimes b9d toge!r ! s& & gravel into solid s&/ones & conglom]ates2 e delta & s&-b> ?us acquires solidity1 :i* (t5 prev5ts /reams f =c+ _! way ?r\gh !m1 s t _! m\?s are con/antly *ang+ _! position4#cej ,delta ( ! ,nile4--,t ,egypt 0 ! gift ( ! ,nile1 0 ! op9ion ( h] prie/s be=e ! "t ( ,h]odotus2 & ,r5nell obs]ves1 t ! configuration & composition ( ! l[ l&s leave no room = d\bt t ! sea once wa%$ ! base ( ! rocks on :i* ! pyramids ( ,memphis /&1 ! pres5t base ( :i* is wa%$ by ! inundation ( ! ,nile1 at an elevation ( #gj or #hj feet above ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,b :5 we attempt to c>ry back our ideas to ! remote p]iod :5 ! f\ndation ( ! delta 0 fir/ laid1 we are lo/ 9 ! contemplation ( s va/ an int]val ( "t4#cea ,h]odotus obs]ves1 t ! c\ntry r\nd ,memphis seem$ =m]ly to h be5 an arm ( ! sea gradually fill$ by ! ,nile1 9 ! same mann] z ! ,me&]1 ,a*el\s1 & o!r /reams1 _h =m$ deltas4 ,egypt1 !re=e1 he says1 l ! ,r$ ,sea1 0 once a long n>r[ bay1 & bo? gulfs 7 sep>at$ by a small neck ( l&4 ,if ! ,nile1 he adds1 %\ld by any means h an issue into ! ,arabian ,gulf1 x might *oke x up ) e>? 9 #bj1jjj or ev51 p]haps1 9 #aj1jjj ye>s2 & :y may n ! ,nile h fill$ a /ill great] gulf ) mud 9 ! space ( "t :i* has pass$ be=e our age8#ceb ,! di/ance betwe5 ,memphis & ! mo/ prom95t "p ( ! delta 9 a /raight l9e nor? & s\?1 is ab\t #ajj geographical miles2 ! l5g? ( ! base ( ! delta is m ?an #bjj miles if we foll[ ! coa/ betwe5 ! anci5t extreme ea/]n & we/]n arms2 b z ^! are n[ block$ up1 t "p only ( ,l[] ,egypt :i* int]v5es betwe5 ! ,rosetta & ,damietta bran*es1 is usually call$ ! delta1 ! coa/ l9e ( :i* is ab\t #ij miles 9 l5g?4 ,! b$ ( ! riv] itself1 says ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,wilk9son1 und]goes a gradual increase ( elevation v>y+ 9 diff]5t places1 & always less5+ 9 proportion z ! riv] approa*es ! sea4 ,?is increase ( elevation 9 p]p5dicul> height is mu* small] 9 ,l[] ?an 9 ,upp] ,egypt1 & 9 ! delta x dim9i%es /ill m2 s t1 accord+ to an approximate calculation1 ! l& ab\t ,elephant9e1 or ! fir/ cat>act1 lat4 #bd degrees #e m9utes1 has be5 rais$ n9e feet 9 #agjj ye>s2 at ,!bes1 lat4 #be degrees #dc m9utes1 ab\t sev5 feet2 & at ,heliopolis & ,cairo1 lat4 #cj degrees1 ab\t five feet t5 in*es4 ,at ,rosetta & ! m\?s ( ! ,nile1 lat4 #ca degrees #cj m9utes1 ! dim9ution 9 ! p]p5dicul> ?ickness ( ! deposit is less5$ 9 a mu* great] decreas+ ratio ?an 9 ! /rait5$ valley ( ,c5tral & ,upp] ,egypt1 ow+ to ! great ext5t1 ea/ & we/1 ov] :i* ! inundation spreads4#cec ,= ?is reason ! alluvial deposit does n cause ! delta to protrude rapidly into ! sea1 al?\gh "s anci5t cities are n[ a mile or m inl&1 & ! m\?s ( ! ,nile1 m5tion$ by ! e>li] geograph]s1 h be5 _m ( !m silt$ up1 & ! outl9e ( ! coa/ entirely *ang$4 ,! b$ ( ! ,nile always keeps pace ) ! g5]al elevation ( ! soil1 & ! banks ( ?is riv]1 l ^? ( ! ,mississippi & its tribut>ies 7see p4 #bfe71 are mu* high] ?an ! flat l& at a di/ance1 s t !y are seldom cov]$ dur+ ! highe/ inundations4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! gradual rise ( ! riv]'s b$1 ! annual flood is con/antly spread+ ov] a wid] area1 & ! alluvial soil encroa*es on ! des]t1 cov]+1 to ! dep? ( six or sev5 feet1 ! base ( /atues & temples :i* ! wat]s nev] rea*$ #cjjj ye>s ago4 ,al?\gh ! s&s ( ! ,libyan des]ts h 9 "s places be5 drift$ into ! valley ( ! ,nile1 yet ^! aggressions1 says ,wilk9son1 are f> m ?an c\nt]balanc$ by ! f]tiliz+ effect ( ! wat] :i* n[ rea*es f>!r inl& t[>ds ! des]t1 s t ! numb] ( squ>e miles ( arable soil is great] at pres5t ?an at any previ\s p]iod4 ,mud ( ! ,nile4--,on comp>+ ! diff]5t analyses :i* h be5 publi%$ ( ?is mud1 x w be f\nd t x conta9s a l>ge quantity ( argillace\s matt]1 ) mu* p]oxide ( iron1 "s c>bonate ( lime1 & a small proportion ( c>bonate ( magnesia4 ,! late/ & mo/ c>eful analysis by ,m4 ,lassaigne %[s a s+ul>ly close resemblance 9 ! proportions ( ! +r$i5ts ( silica1 alum9a1 iron1 c>bon1 lime1 & magnesia1 & ^? obs]v$ 9 ord9>y mica2#ced b a mu* l>g] quantity ( calc>e\s matt] is sometimes pres5t4 ,9 _m places1 z at ,cairo1 :]e artificial excavations h be5 made1 or :]e ! riv] has und]m9$ its banks1 ! mud is se5 to be ?9ly /ratifi$1 ! upp] "p ( ea* annual lay] consi/+ ( e>? ( a light] color ?an ! l[]1 & ! :ole sep>at+ easily f ! deposit ( ! succe$+ ye>4 ,^! annual lay]s are v>iable 9 ?ickness2 b1 accord+ to ! calculations ( ,gir>d & ,wilk9son1 ! mean annual ?ickness ( a lay] at ,cairo _c exce$ t ( a %eet ( ?9 pa/ebo>d1 & a /ratum ( two or ?ree feet mu/ repres5t ! accumulation ( a ?\s& ye>s4 ,! dep? ( ! ,m$it]ranean is ab\t twelve fa?oms at a small di/ance f ! %ore ( ! delta2 x aft]w>ds increases gradually to #ej1 & !n sudd5ly desc5ds to #chj fa?oms1 :i* is1 p]haps1 ! orig9al dep? ( ! sea :]e x has n be5 r5d]$ %all[] by fluviatile matt]4 ,we le>n f ,lieut4 ,newbold t no?+ b ! f9e/ & lighte/ +r$i5ts rea* ! ,m$it]ranean1 :]e he has obs]v$ ! sea discolor$ by !m to ! di/ance ( #dj miles f ! %ore4#cee ,! small progress ( ! delta 9 ! la/ #bjjj ye>s af=ds1 p]haps1 no measure = e/imat+ its rate ( gr[? :5 x 0 an inl& bay1 & _h n yet protrud$ itself beyond ! coa/-l9e ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,a p[]ful curr5t n[ sweeps along ! %ores ( ,africa1 f ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt> to ! prom95t convexity ( ,egypt1 ! we/]n side ( :i* is cont9ually ! prey ( ! waves2 s t n only are fre% accessions ( l& *eck$1 b anci5t p>ts ( ! delta are c>ri$ away4 ,by ?is cause1 ,canopus & "s o!r t[ns h be5 ov]:elm$2 b to ?is subject ,i %all aga9 ref] :5 speak+ ( tides & curr5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,reproductive ,,effects ,,( ,,riv]s--cont9u$4 ,deltas =m$ "u ! influ5ce ( tides--,bas9 & delta ( ! ,mississippi--,alluvial pla9--,riv]-banks & bluffs--,curves ( ! riv]--,natural rafts & snags--,new lakes1 & effects ( e>?quakes--,antiquity ( ! delta--,delta ( ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra--,head ( ! delta & ,sund]bunds--,isl&s =m$ & de/roy$--,crocodiles--,am\nt ( fluviatile s$im5t 9 ! wat]--,artesian bor+ at ,calcutta--,pro(s ( subsid5ce--,age ( ! delta--,conv]g5ce ( deltas--,orig9 ( exi/+ deltas n contemporane\s--,gr\p+ ( /rata & /ratification 9 deltas--,conglom]ates--,con/ant int]*ange ( l& & sea4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] sev]al examples 7 giv5 ( ! deltas ( inl& seas1 :]e ! influ5ce ( ! tides is almo/ imp]ceptible4 ,we may next consid] ^? m>9e or oceanic deltas1 :]e ! tides play an important "p 9 ! disp]sion ( fluviatile s$im5t1 z 9 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 :]e !y ex]t a mod]ate degree ( =ce1 & !n 9 ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 :]e !y are extremely p[]ful4 ,9 reg>d to e/u>ies1 :i* ,r5nel t]m$ negative deltas1 !y w be treat$ ( m prop]ly :5 our att5tion is specially turn$ to ! op]ations ( tides & curr5ts 7*apt]s #bj1 #ba1 & #bb74 ,9 ?is case1 in/ead ( ! l& ga9+ on ! sea at ! riv]'s m\?1 ! tides p5etrate f> inl& beyond ! g5]al coa/-l9e4 ,,bas9 ,,& ,,delta ,,( ,,! ,,mississippi4 ,alluvial pla94--,! hydrographical bas9 ( ! ,mississippi displays1 on ! gr&e/ scale1 ! action ( runn+ wat] on ! surface ( a va/ cont95t4 ,?is magnific5t riv] rises ne>ly 9 ! =ty-n9? p>allel ( nor? latitude1 & fl[s to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico 9 ! tw5ty-n9?--a c\rse1 includ+ its me&]s1 ( m ?an ?ree ?\s& miles4 ,x passes f a cold climate1 :]e ! hunt] obta9s 8 furs & peltries1 trav]ses ! temp]ate latitudes1 & dis*>ges its wat]s into ! sea 9 ! region ( rice1 ! cotton plant1 & ! sug>-cane4 ,f ne> its m\? at ! ,balize a /eamboat may asc5d = #bjjj miles ) sc>cely any p]ceptible diff]5ce 9 ! wid? ( ! riv]4 ,sev]al ( its tribut>ies1 ! ,r$ ,riv]1 ! ,arkansas1 ! ,miss\ri1 ! ,ohio1 & o!rs1 w\ld be reg>d$ else:]e z ( ! fir/ importance1 &1 tak5 toge!r1 are navigable = a di/ance _m times exce$+ t ( ! ma9 /ream4 ,no riv] af=ds a m /rik+ illu/ration ( ! law be=e m5tion$1 t an augm5tation ( volume does n occasion a proportional increase ( surface1 nay1 is ev5 sometimes att5d$ ) a n>r[+ ( ! *annel4 ,! ,mississippi is half a mile wide at its junction ) ! ,miss\ri1 ! latt] be+ also ( equal wid?2 yet ! unit$ wat]s h only1 f _! conflu5ce to ! m\? ( ! ,ohio1 a m$ial wid? ( ab\t half a mile4 ,! junction ( ! ,ohio seems also to produce no increase1 b r a decrease1 ( surface4#cef ,! ,/4 ,francis1 ,:ite1 ,arkansas1 & ,r$ riv]s are also absorb$ by ! ma9 /ream ) sc>cely any app>5t increase ( its wid?1 al?\gh "h & !re x exp&s to a bread? ( #a-a_/b1 or ev5 to #b miles4 ,on arriv+ at ,new ,orleans1 x is some:at less ?an half a mile wide4 ,its dep? !re is v v>iable1 ! greate/ at high wat] be+ #afh feet4 ,! mean rate at :i* ! :ole body ( wat] fl[s is v>i\sly e/imat$2 accord+ to ,mr4 ,=%ey ! mean velocity ( ! curr5t at ! surface1 some:at exce$s #b-a_/d miles an h\r :5 ! wat] is at a mean height4 ,= #cjj miles above ,new ,orleans ! di/ance measur$ by ! w9d+ riv] is ab\t twice z great z ! di/ance 9 a "r l9e4 ,= ! fir/ #ajj miles f ! m\? ! rate ( fall is #a4hj in* p] mile1 = ! second hundr$ #b in*es1 = ! ?ird #b4cj1 = ! f\r? #b4eg4 ,! alluvial pla9 ( ! ,mississippi beg9s to be ( great wid? bel[ ,cape ,gir>deau1 #ej miles above ! junction ( ! ,ohio4 ,at ?is junction x is ab\t #ej miles broad1 s\? ( :i* x contracts to ab\t #cj miles at ,memphis1 exp&s aga9 to #hj miles at ! m\? ( ! ,:ite ,riv]1 & !n1 aft] v>i\s contractions & expansions1 protrudes beyond ! g5]al coa/-l9e1 9 a l>ge delta1 ab\t #ij miles 9 wid?1 f ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,w4 ,mr4 ,=%ey e/imates ! area ( ! great pla9 z above def9$ at #ca1bjj squ>e miles1 ) a circumf]5ce ( ab\t #cjjj miles1 exce$+ ! area ( ,irel&4 ,if t "p ( ?is pla9 :i* lies bel[1 or to ! s\? ( ! bran*+ (f ( ! highe/ arm1 call$ ! ,at*afalaya1 be t]m$ ! delta1 x con/itutes less ?an half ( ! :ole1 be+ #ad1jjj squ>e ,briti% miles 9 area4 ,! delta may be said to be b\nd$ on ! ea/1 we/1 & s\? by ! sea2 on ! nor? *iefly by ! broad valley-pla9 :i* entirely resembles x 9 "* z 9 orig94 ,! ea/ & we/ b\nd>ies ( ! alluvial region above ! head ( ! delta consi/s ( cliffs or bluffs1 :i* on ! ea/ side ( ! ,mississippi are v abrupt1 & are und]m9$ by ! riv] at _m po9ts4 ,!y consi/1 f ,baton ,r\ge 9 ,l\isiana1 :]e !y comm5ce1 z f> nor? z ! bord]s ( ,k5tucky1 ( geological =mations new] ?an ! cretace\s1 ! l[e/ be+ ,eoc5e1 & ! upp]mo/ consi/+ ( loam1 resembl+ ! loess ( ! ,rh9e1 & conta9+ fre%wat] & l& %ells almo/ all ( exi/+ species4 7,see fig4 #bc47 ,^! rec5t %ells are associat$ ) ! bones ( ! ma/odon1 elephant1 tapir1 mylodon1 horse1 ox1 & o!r quadrup$s1 mo/ ( !m ( ext9ct species4 ,i h endeavor$ to %[ 9 my ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 t ?is ext5sive =mation ( loam is ei!r an anci5t alluvial pla9 or a delta ( ! great riv]1 =m$ orig9ally at a l[] level1 & s9ce upheav$1 & p>tially d5ud$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,,valley ,,( ,,! ,,mississippi4 ,! ,mississippi 9 t "p ( its c\rse :i* is bel[ ! m\? ( ! ,ohio1 frequ5tly wa%es ! ea/]n bluffs1 b nev] once comes 9 contact ) ! we/]n4 ,^! are compos$ ( simil> =mations2 b ,i le>n f ,mr4 ,=%ey t !y rise up m g5tly f ! alluvial pla9 7z at a1 fig4 #bc74 ,x is suppos$ t ! wat]s are ?r[n to ! ea/]n side1 because all ! l>ge tribut>y riv]s ent]+ f ! we/ h fill$ t side ( ! great valley ) _! deltas1 or ) a slop+ mass ( clay & s&2 s t ! opposite bluffs are und]m9$1 & ! ,mississippi is sl[ly b incessantly advanc+ ea/w>d4#ceg ,curves ( ! ,mississippi4--,! riv] trav]ses ! pla9 9 a me&]+ c\rse1 describ+ imm5se curves4 ,aft] sweep+ r\nd ! half ( a circle1 x is c>ri$ 9 a rapid curr5t diagonally across ! ord9>y direction ( its *annel1 to ano!r curve ( simil> %ape4 ,opposite to ea* ( ^!1 !re is always a s&-b>1 answ]+1 9 ! convexity ( its =m1 to ! concavity ( ! b5d1 z x is call$4#ceh ,! riv]1 by cont9ually we>+ ^! curves deep1 returns1 l _m o!r /reams be=e describ$1 on its own track1 s t a vessel 9 "s places1 aft] sail+ = tw5ty-five or ?irty miles1 is br\ght r\nd aga9 to )9 a mile ( ! place :5ce x />t$4 ,:5 ! wat]s approa* s ne> to ea* o!r1 x (t5 happ5s at high floods t !y bur/ ?r\gh ! small tongue ( l&1 & insulate a portion1 ru%+ ?r\gh :at is call$ ! cut-(f1 s t vessels may pass f "o po9t to ano!r 9 half a mile to a di/ance :i* x previ\sly requir$ a voyage ( tw5ty miles to rea*4 ,z soon z ! riv] has excavat$ ! new passage1 b>s ( s& & mud are =m$ at ! two po9ts ( junction ) ! old b5d1 :i* is soon entirely sep>at$ f ! ma9 riv] by a cont9u\s mud-bank cov]$ ) wood4 ,! old b5d !n becomes a semicircul> lake ( cle> wat]1 inhabit$ by l>ge g>-fi%1 alligators1 & wild f[l1 :i* ! /eam-boats h ne>ly driv5 away f ! ma9 riv]4 ,a multitude ( su* cresc5t-%ap$ lakes1 scatt]$ f> & wide ov] ! alluvial pla91 ! great] numb] ( !m to ! we/1 b "s ( !m also ea/w>d ( ! ,mississippi1 be> te/imony ( ! ext5sive w&]+s ( ! great /ream 9 =m] ages4 ,= ! la/ two hundr$ miles above its m\? ! c\rse ( ! riv] is mu* less w9d+ ?an above1 !re be+ only 9 ! :ole ( t di/ance "o great curve1 t call$ ! ,engli% ,turn4 ,?is great /raightness ( ! /ream is ascrib$ by ,mr4 ,=%ey to ! sup]ior t5acity ( ! banks1 :i* are m clayey 9 ?is region4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,section ( *annel1 bank1 levees 7a & b71 & swamps ( ,mississippi riv]4 ,! ,mississippi has be5 incorrectly describ$ by "s ( ! e>li] geograph]s1 z a riv] runn+ along ! top ( a long hill1 or m\nd 9 a pla94 ,9 reality x runs 9 a valley1 f #ajj to #bjj or m feet 9 dep?1 z a1 c1 b1 fig4 #bd1 its banks =m+ long /rips ( l& p>allel to ! c\rse ( ! ma9 /ream1 & to ! swamps g1 f1 & d1 e1 ly+ on ea* side4 ,^! ext5sive morasses1 :i* are commonly well-wood$1 ?\gh (t5 subm]g$ = mon?s cont9u\sly1 are r>ely m ?an fifte5 feet bel[ ! summit level ( ! banks4 ,! banks !mselves are occasionally ov]fl[$1 b are usually above wat] = a bread? ( ab\t two miles4 ,!y foll[ all ! curves ( ! great riv]1 & ne> ,new ,orleans are rais$ artificially by embankm5ts 7or levees71 a b1 fig4 #bd1 ?r\gh :i* ! riv] :5 swoll5 sometimes cuts a deep *annel 7or crevasse71 inundat+ ! adjo9+ l[ l&s & swamps1 & n sp>+ ! l[] /reets ( ! great city4 ,! cause ( ! uni=m upw>d slope ( ! riv]-bank above ! adjo9+ alluvial pla9 is ?is3 :5 ! wat]s *>g$ ) s$im5t pass ov] ! banks 9 ! flood season1 _! velocity is *eck$ among ! h]bage & re$s1 & !y ?r[ d[n at once ! co>s] & m s&y matt] ) :i* !y are *>g$4 ,b ! f9e p>ticles ( mud are c>ri$ f>!r on1 s t at ! di/ance ( ab\t two miles1 a ?9 film ( f9e clay only subsides1 =m+ a /iff unctu\s black soil1 :i* gradually envelops ! base ( trees gr[+ on ! bord]s ( ! swamps4 ,wa/e ( ! banks4--,x has be5 said ( a m\nta9 torr5t1 t x lays d[n :at x w remove1 & removes :at x has laid d[n2 & 9 l mann] ! ,mississippi1 by ! cont9ual %ift+ ( its c\rse1 sweeps away1 dur+ a great portion ( ! ye>1 consid]able tracts ( alluvium1 :i* 7 gradually accumulat$ by ! ov]fl[ ( =m] ye>s1 & ! matt] n[ left dur+ ! spr+-floods w be at "s future "t remov$4 ,aft] ! flood season1 :5 ! riv] subsides )9 its *annel1 x acts ) de/ructive =ce ^u ! alluvial banks1 s(t5$ & dilut$ by ! rec5t ov]fl[4 ,sev]al acres at a "t1 ?ickly cov]$ ) wood1 are precipitat$ into ! /ream2 & l>ge portions ( ! isl&s are frequ5tly swept away4 ,"s ye>s ago1 obs]ves ,capta9 ,hall1 :5 ! ,mississippi 0 regul>ly survey$1 all its isl&s 7 numb]$1 f ! conflu5ce ( ! ,miss\ri to ! sea2 b e season makes su* revolutions1 n only 9 ! numb]1 b 9 ! magnitude & situation ( ^! isl&s1 t ?is enum]ation is n[ almo/ obsolete4 ,sometimes l>ge isl&s are entirely melt$ away2 at o!r places !y h atta*$ !mselves to ! ma9 %ore1 or1 :i* is ! m correct /atem5t1 ! int]val has be5 fill$ up by myriads ( logs cem5t$ toge!r by mud & rubbi%4#cei ,rafts4--,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ features 9 ! great riv]s ( ?is "p ( ,am]ica is ! frequ5t accumulation ( :at are t]m$ rafts1 or masses ( float+ trees1 :i* h be5 arre/$ 9 _! progress by snags1 isl&s1 %oals1 or o!r ob/ructions1 & made to accumulate1 s z to =m natural bridges1 rea*+ entirely across ! /ream4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/ ( ^! 0 call$ ! raft ( ! ,at*afalaya1 an arm ( ! ,mississippi1 :i* 0 c]ta9ly at "s =m] "t ! *annel ( ! ,r$ ,riv]1 :5 ! latt] f\nd its way to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico by a sep>ate c\rse4 ,! ,at*afalaya be+ 9 a direct l9e ) ! g5]al direction ( ! ,mississippi1 cat*es a l>ge portion ( ! timb] annually br\ght d[n f ! nor?2 & ! drift-trees collect$ 9 ab\t ?irty-eight ye>s previ\s to #ahaf =m$ a cont9u\s raft1 no less ?an t5 miles 9 l5g?1 #bbj y>ds wide1 & eight feet deep4 ,! :ole rose & fell ) ! wat]1 yet 0 cov]$ ) gre5 bu%es & trees1 & its surface enliv5$ 9 ! autumn by a v>iety ( beautiful fl[]s4 ,x w5t on increas+ till ab\t #ahce1 :5 "s ( ! trees ^u x _h gr[n to ! height ( ab\t sixty feet4 ,/eps 7 !n tak5 by ! ,/ate ( ,l\isiana to cle> away ! :ole raft1 & op5 ! navigation1 :i* 0 effect$1 n )\t great labor1 9 ! space ( f\r ye>s4 ,! rafts on ,r$ ,riv] are equally rem>kable3 9 "s p>ts ( its c\rse1 c$>-trees are heap$ up by !mselves1 & 9 o!r places1 p9es4 ,on ! rise ( ! wat]s 9 summ] hundr$s ( ^! are se51 "s ) _! gre5 leaves /ill ^u !m1 j z !y h fall5 f a neighbor+ bank1 o!rs leafless1 brok5 & worn 9 _! passage f a f> di/ant tribut>y3 :]ev] !y accumulate on ! edge ( a s&-b> !y arre/ ! curr5t1 & soon become cov]$ ) s$im5t4 ,on ?is mud ! "y will[s & ! popl>s call$ cotton-wood spr+ up1 _! b\ghs /ill f>!r ret>d+ ! /ream1 & z ! inundation rises1 accel]at+ ! deposition ( new soil4 ,! bank cont9u+ to enl>ge1 ! *annel at l5g? becomes s n>r[ t a s+le long tree may rea* f side to side1 & ! rema9+ space is !n soon *ok$ up by a quantity ( o!r timb]4 ,un=tunately = ! navigation ( ! ,mississippi1 obs]ves ,capta9 ,hall1 "s ( ! l>ge/ trunks1 aft] be+ ca/ d[n f ! position on :i* !y grew1 get _! roots entangl$ ) ! bottom ( ! riv]1 :]e !y rema9 an*or$1 z x 71 9 ! mud4 ,! =ce ( ! curr5t naturally gives _! tops a t5d5cy d[nw>ds1 &1 by its fl[+ pa/1 soon /rips !m ( _! leaves & bran*es4 ,^! fixtures1 call$ snags1 or plant]s1 are extremely dang]\s to ! /eam-vessels proce$+ up ! /ream1 9 :i* !y lie l a lance 9 re/1 conceal$ b5ea? ! wat]1 ) _! %>p ends po9t$ directly aga9/ ! b[s ( ! vessels com+ up4 ,= ! mo/ "p ^! =midable snags rema9 s /ill t !y c be detect$ only by a slight ripple above !m1 n p]ceptible to inexp]i5c$ eyes4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 !y vibrate up & d[n1 alt]nately %[+ _! heads above ! surface & ba?+ !m b5ea? x4#cfj ,s imm95t1 until lately1 0 ! dang] caus$ by ^! ob/ructions1 t almo/ all ! boats on ! ,mississippi 7 con/ruct$ on a p>ticul> plan1 to gu>d aga9/ fatal accid5ts2 b 9 ! la/ t5 ye>s1 by ! aid ( ! p[] ( /eam & ! ma*9]y ( a snag-boat1 z x is call$1 ! great] numb] ( ^! trunks ( trees h be5 drawn out ( ! mud4#cfa ,! prodigi\s quantity ( wood annually drift$ d[n by ! ,mississippi & its tribut>ies1 is a subject ( geological int]e/1 n m]ely z illu/rat+ ! mann] 9 :i* abundance ( vegetable matt] becomes1 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature1 imb$d$ 9 subm>9e & e/u>y deposits1 b z atte/+ ! con/ant de/ruction ( soil & transportation ( matt] to l[] levels by ! t5d5cy ( riv]s to %ift _! c\rses4 ,ea* ( ^! trees mu/ h requir$ _m ye>s1 "s ( !m c5turies1 to atta9 _! full size2 ! soil1 !re=e1 :]eon !y grew1 aft] rema9+ undi/urb$ = long p]iods1 is ultimately torn up & swept away4 ,x is also f\nd 9 excavat+ at ,new ,orleans1 ev5 at ! dep? ( sev]al y>ds bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 t ! soil ( ! delta conta9s innum]able trunks ( trees1 lay] above lay]1 "s pro/rate1 z if drift$1 o!rs brok5 (f ne> ! bottom1 b rema9+ /ill erect1 & ) _! roots spread+ on all sides1 z if 9 _! natural position4 ,9 su* situations !y appe>$ to me to indicate a s9k+ ( ! gr\nd1 z ! trees mu/ =m]ly h gr[n 9 m>%es above ! sea-level4 ,9 ! high] p>ts ( ! alluvial pla91 = _m hundr$ miles above ! head ( ! delta1 simil> /ools & roots ( trees are also se5 buri$ 9 /iff clay at diff]5t levels1 "o above ! o!r1 & expos$ to view 9 ! banks at l[ wat]4 ,!y po9t cle>ly to ! successive gr[? ( =e/s 9 ! ext5sive swamps ( ! pla91 :]e ! gr\nd 0 sl[ly rais$1 ye> aft] ye>1 by ! mud ?r[n d[n dur+ inundations4 ,^! roots & /ools belong *iefly to ! decidu\s cypress 7,taxodium di/i*um71 & o!r swamp-trees1 & !y be> te/imony to ! con/ant %ift+ ( ! c\rse ( ! great riv]1 :i* is always excavat+ l& orig9ally =m$ at "s di/ance f its banks4 ,=mation ( lakes 9 ,l\isiana44--,ano!r /rik+ feature 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,mississippi1 illu/rative ( ! *anges n[ 9 progress1 is ! =mation by natural causes ( great lakes1 & ! dra9age ( o!rs4 ,^! are especially frequ5t 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,r$ ,riv] 9 ,l\isiana1 :]e ! l>ge/ ( !m1 call$ ,bi/9eau1 is m ?an ?irty miles long1 & has a m$ium dep? ( f fifte5 to tw5ty feet4 ,9 ! deepe/ p>ts are se5 num]\s cypress-trees1 ( all sizes1 n[ dead1 & mo/ ( !m ) _! tops brok5 by ! w9d1 yet /&+ erect "u wat]4 ,?is tree resi/s ! action ( air & wat] long] ?an any o!r1 &1 if n subm]g$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ye>1 w reta9 life = an extraord9>y p]iod4 ,lake ,bi/9eau1 z well z ,black ,lake1 ,cado ,lake1 ,spani% ,lake1 ,nat*ito*es ,lake1 & _m o!rs1 h be5 =m$1 accord+ to ,d>by1 by ! gradual elevation ( ! b$ ( ,r$ ,riv]1 9 :i* ! alluvial accumulations h be5 s great z to raise its *annel1 & cause its wat]s1 dur+ ! flood season1 to fl[ up ! m\?s ( _m tribut>ies1 & to conv]t p>ts ( _! c\rses into lakes4 ,9 ! autumn1 :5 ! level ( ,r$ ,riv] is aga9 depress$1 ! wat]s ru% back1 & "s lakes become grassy mead[s1 ) /reams me&]+ ?r\gh !m4#cfb ,?us1 !re is a p]iodical flux & reflux betwe5 ,r$ ,riv] & "s ( ^! bas9s1 :i* are m]ely res]voirs1 alt]nately empti$ & fill$1 l our tide e/u>ies--) ?is diff]5ce1 t 9 ! "o case ! l& is subm]g$ = sev]al mon?s cont9u\sly1 & 9 ! o!r twice 9 e tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,x has happ5$1 9 sev]al cases1 t a raft ( timb] or a b> has be5 ?r[n by ,r$ ,riv] across "s ( ! op5+s ( ^! *annels1 & !n ! lakes become1 l ,bi/9eau1 con/ant repositories ( wat]4 ,b1 ev5 9 ^! cases1 _! level is liable to annual elevation & depression1 because ! flood ( ! ma9 riv]1 :5 at its height1 passes ov] ! b>2 j z1 :]e s&-hills close ! entrance ( an e/u>y on ! ,norfolk or ,suffolk coa/1 ! sea1 dur+ "s high tide or /orm1 has (t5 brea*$ ! b>ri] & inundat$ aga9 ! int]ior4 ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,fea!r/onhaugh t ! pla9s ( ! ,r$ ,riv] & ! ,arkansas are s l[ & flat1 t :5ev] ! ,mississippi rises ?irty feet above its ord9>y level1 ^? great tribut>ies are made to fl[ back1 & inundate a region ( va/ ext5t4 ,bo? ! /reams allud$ to conta9 r$ s$im5t1 d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( r$ porphyry2 & s9ce #ahcc1 :5 !re 0 a great inundation 9 ! ,arkansas1 an imm5se swamp has be5 =m$ ne> ! ,mammelle m\nta91 compris+ #cj1jjj acres1 ) "h & !re l>ge lagoons1 :]e ! old b$ ( ! riv] 0 situat$2 9 :i* innum]able trees1 = ! mo/ "p dead1 are se5 /&+1 ( cypress1 cotton-wood1 or popl>1 ! triple-?orn$ acacia1 & o!rs1 :i* are ( great size4 ,_! trunks appe> z if pa9t$ r$ = ab\t fifte5 feet f ! gr\nd2 at :i* height a p]fectly level l9e ext5ds ?r\gh ! :ole =e/1 m>k+ ! rise ( ! wat]s dur+ ! la/ flood4#cfc ,b mo/ probably ! causes above assign$ = ! rec5t orig9 ( ^! lakes are n ! only ones4 ,subt]ranean movem5ts h alt]$1 s lately z ! ye>s #ahaa-ab1 ! relative levels ( v>i\s p>ts ( ! bas9 ( ! ,mississippi1 situat$ #cjj miles nor!a/ ( ,lake ,bi/9eau4 ,9 ^? ye>s ! great valley1 f ! m\? ( ! ,ohio to t ( ! ,/4 ,francis1 includ+ a tract #cjj miles 9 l5g?1 & exce$+ 9 area ! :ole bas9 ( ! ,?ames1 0 convuls$ to su* a degree1 z to create new isl&s 9 ! riv]1 & lakes 9 ! alluvial pla94 ,"s ( ^! 7 on ! left or ea/ bank ( ! ,mississippi1 & 7 tw5ty miles 9 ext5t2 z1 = example1 ^? nam$ ,reelfoot & ,obion 9 ,t5nessee1 =m$ 9 ! *annels or valleys ( small /reams be>+ ! same names4#cfd ,b ! l>ge/ area affect$ by ! great convulsion lies eight or t5 miles to ! we/w>d ( ! ,mississippi1 & inl& f ! t[n ( ,new ,madrid1 9 ,miss\ri4 ,x is call$ ! sunk c\ntry1 & is said to ext5d along ! c\rse ( ! ,:ite ,wat] & its tribut>ies1 = a di/ance ( betwe5 sev5ty & eighty miles nor? & s\?1 & ?irty miles or m ea/ & we/4 ,?r\gh\t ?is area1 innum]able subm]g$ trees1 "s /&+ leafless1 o!rs pro/rate1 are se52 & s great is ! ext5t ( lake & m>%1 t an active trade 9 ! sk9s ( muskrats1 m9k1 ott]s1 & o!r wild animals1 is n[ c>ri$ on !re4 ,9 ,m>*1 #ahdf1 ,i skirt$ ! bord]s ( ! sunk c\ntry ne>e/ to ,new ,madrid1 pass+ along ! ,bay\ ,/4 ,john & ,little ,prairie1 :]e dead trees ( v>i\s k9ds1 "s erect 9 ! wat]1 o!rs fall51 & /rew$ 9 d5se masses ov] ! bottom1 9 ! %all[s1 & ne> ! %ore1 7 conspicu\s4 ,i also beheld c\ntless r5ts 9 ! adjo9+ dry alluvial pla9s1 caus$ by ! movem5ts ( ! soil 9 #ahaa-ab1 & /ill op51 ?\gh ! ra9s1 fro/1 & riv] inundations1 h greatly dim9i%$ _! orig9al dep?4 ,i obs]v$1 moreov]1 num]\s circul> cavities1 call$ sunk holes1 f t5 to ?irty y>ds wide1 & tw5ty feet or m 9 dep?1 :i* int]rupt ! g5]al level ( ! pla94 ,^! 7 =m$ by ! sp\t+ out ( l>ge quantities ( s& & mud dur+ ! e>?quakes4#cfe ,t ! prevail+ *anges ( level 9 ! delta & alluvial pla9 ( ! ,mississippi h be5 caus$ by ! subsid5ce1 r ?an ! upheaval ( l&1 appe>s to me e/abli%$ by ! fact1 t !re are no protub]ances ( uprais$ alluvial soil1 project+ above ! level surface ( ! great pla94 ,x is true t ! gradual elevation ( t pla91 by new accessions ( matt]1 w\ld t5d to efface e inequality d]iv$ f ?is s\rce1 b we might c]ta9ly h expect$ to f9d m brok5 gr\nd betwe5 ! opposite bluffs1 _h local up?r[s ( alluvial /rata be5 ( repeat$ occurr5ce4 ,antiquity ( ! delta4--,! va/ size ( ! alluvial pla9 bo? above & bel[ ! head ( ! delta1 or ! bran*+ (f ( ! upp]mo/ arm ( ! ,at*afalaya1 has be5 already allud$ to4 ,its sup]ficial dim5sions1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,=%ey1 exce$ #cj1jjj squ>e miles1 ne>ly half ( :i* belong to ! true delta4 ,! deposits consi/ p>tly ( s& orig9ally =m$ ^u or ne> ! banks ( ! riv]1 & its tribut>ies1 p>tly ( gravel1 swept d[n ! ma9 *annel1 ( :i* ! position has cont9ually %ift$1 & p>tly ( f9e mud sl[ly accumulat$ 9 ! swamps4 ,! f>!r we desc5d ! riv] t[>ds its m\?1 ! f9] becomes ! texture ( ! s$im5t4 ,! :ole alluvial =mation1 f ! base ( ! delta upw>ds1 slopes ) a v g5tle incl9ation1 ris+ ab\t ?ree in*es 9 a mile f ! level ( ! sea at ! ,balize1 to ! height ( ab\t #bjj feet 9 a di/ance ( ab\t #hjj miles4 ,t a l>ge portion ( ?is fluviatile deposit1 toge!r ) ! fluvio-m>9e /rata n[ 9 progress ne> ! ,balize1 consi/s ( mud & s& ) mu* vegetable matt] int]mix$1 may be inf]r$ f :at has be5 said ( ! abundance ( drift trees float$ d[n e summ]4 ,^! are se5 matt$ toge!r into a net-"w ar\nd ! ext5sive mud banks at ! extreme m\?s ( ! riv]4 ,e "o acqua9t$ ) ! geography ( ,l\isiana is aw>e t ! mo/ s\!rn "p ( ! delta =ms a long n>r[ tongue ( l& protrud+ = #ej miles into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 at ! end ( :i* are num]\s *annels ( dis*>ge4 ,?is s+ul> promontory consi/s simply ( ! riv] & its two l[1 flat banks1 cov]$ ) re$s1 "y will[s1 & popl>s4 ,its appe>ance answ]s precisely to t ( ! banks f> 9 ! int]ior1 :5 no?+ appe>s above wat] dur+ inundations b ! high] "p ( ! slop+ glacis or bank4 ,9 ! "o case we h ! swamps or an expanse ( fre%wat] ) ! tops ( trees appe>+ above1 9 ! o!r ! blui% gre5 surface ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,an op9ion has v commonly prevail$ t ?is n>r[ promontory1 ! newe/ product ( ! riv]1 has ga9$ v rapidly ^u ! sea1 s9ce ! f\ndation ( ,new ,orleans2 b aft] visit+ ! ,balize 9 #ahdf1 9 company ) ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 & mak+ _m inquiries ( ! pilots1 & comp>+ ! pres5t outl9e ( ! coa/ ) ! excell5t ,spani% *>t1 publi%$ by ,*>levoix #abj ye>s be=e1 we came to a diff]5t conclusion4 ,! rate ( p]man5t advance ( ! new l& has be5 v sl[1 n exce$+ p]haps "o mile 9 a c5tury4 ,! ga9 may h be5 some:at m rapid 9 =m] ye>s1 :5 ! new /rip ( soil project$ less f> into ! gulf1 s9ce x is n[ mu* m expos$ to ! action ( a /rong m>9e curr5t4 ,! tides also1 :5 ! wat]s ( ! riv] are l[1 ent] into ea* op5+1 & sc\r !m out1 de/roy+ ! banks ( mud & ! s&-b>s newly =m$ dur+ ! flood season4 ,an obs]vation ( ,d>by1 9 reg>d to ! /rata compos+ "p ( ?is delta1 des]ves att5tion4 ,9 ! /eep banks ( ! ,at*afalaya1 be=e allud$ to1 ! foll[+ section1 he says1 is obs]vable at l[ wat]3--fir/ an upp] /ratum1 consi/+ inv>iably ( blui% clay1 common to ! banks ( ! ,mississippi2 bel[ ?is a /ratum ( r$ o*re\s e>?1 peculi> to ,r$ ,riv]1 "u :i* ! blue clay ( ! ,mississippi aga9 appe>s2 & ?is arrangem5t is con/ant1 prov+1 z t geograph] rem>ks1 t ! wat]s ( ! ,mississippi & ! ,r$ ,riv] occupi$ alt]nately1 at "s =m] p]iods1 consid]able tracts bel[ _! pres5t po9t ( union4#cff ,su* alt]nations are probably common 9 subm>9e spaces situat$ betwe5 two conv]g+ deltas2 =1 be=e ! two riv]s unite1 !re mu/ almo/ always be a c]ta9 p]iod :5 an int]m$iate tract w by turns be occupi$ & ab&on$ by ! wat]s ( ea* /ream2 s9ce x c r>ely happ5 t ! season ( highe/ flood w precisely correspond 9 ea*4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,r$ ,riv] & ,mississippi1 :i* c>ry (f ! wat]s f c\ntries plac$ "u widely di/ant latitudes1 an exact co9cid5ce 9 ! "t ( greate/ inundation is v improbable4 ,! antiquity ( ! delta1 or l5g? ( ! p]iod :i* has be5 occupi$ 9 ! deposition ( s va/ a mass ( alluvial matt]1 is a "q :i* may well excite ! curiosity ( e geologi/4 ,suffici5t data h n yet be5 obta9$ to af=d a full & satisfactory answ] to ! inquiry1 b "s approximation may already be made to ! m9imum ( "t requir$4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ,new ,orleans1 9 ,febru>y1 #ahdf1 ,i f\nd t ,dr4 ,riddell _h made num]\s exp]im5ts to asc]ta9 ! proportion ( s$im5t conta9$ 9 ! wat]s ( ! ,mississippi2 & he conclud$ t ! mean annual am\nt ( solid matt] 0 to ! wat] z #a_/abde 9 weight1 or ab\t #a_/cjjj 9 volume4#cfg ,f ! obs]vations ( ! same g5tleman1 & ^? ( ,dr4 ,c>p5t] & ,mr4 ,=%ey1 an em95t eng9e]1 to :om ,i h be=e allud$1 ! av]age wid?1 dep?1 & velocity ( ! ,mississippi1 & !nce ! mean annual dis*>ge ( wat] 7 d$uc$4 ,i assum$ #ebh feet1 or ! t5? ( a mile1 z ! probable ?ickness ( ! deposit ( mud & s& 9 ! delta2 f\nd+ my conjecture *iefly on ! dep? ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 betwe5 ! s\!rn po9t ( ,florida & ! ,balize1 :i* equals on an av]age #ajj fa?oms1 & p>tly on "s bor+s #fjj feet deep 9 ! delta1 ne> ,lake ,pont*>tra91 nor? ( ,new ,orleans1 9 :i* ! bottom ( ! alluvial matt] is said n to h be5 rea*$4 ,! area ( ! delta be+ ab\t #ac1fjj squ>e /atute miles1 & ! quantity ( solid matt] annually br\ght d[n by ! riv] #c1gjb1geh1djj cubic feet1 x mu/ h tak5 #fg1jjj ye>s = ! =mation ( ! :ole2 & if ! alluvial matt] ( ! pla9 above be #bfd feet deep1 or half t ( ! delta1#cfh x mu/ h requir$ #cc1ejj m ye>s = its accumulation1 ev5 if its area be e/imat$ z only equal to t ( ! delta1 :]eas x is 9 fact l>g]4 ,if "s d$uction be made f ! "t "h /at$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! effect ( ! drift-wood1 :i* mu/ h aid$ 9 fill+ up m rapidly ! space above allud$ to1 a f> m important all[ance mu/ be made on ! o!r h&1 = ! loss ( matt]1 ow+ to ! f9] p>ticles ( mud n settl+ at ! m\?s ( ! riv]1 b be+ swept out f> to sea dur+ ! pr$om9ant action ( ! tides1 & ! waves 9 ! w9t] mon?s1 :5 ! curr5t ( fre% wat] is feeble4 ,yet h[ev] va/ ! "t dur+ :i* ! ,mississippi has be5 transport+ its e>?y burd5 to ! ocean1 ! :ole p]iod1 ?\gh f> exce$+1 p]haps1 #ajj1jjj ye>s1 mu/ be insignificant 9 a geological po9t ( view1 s9ce ! bluffs or cliffs1 b\nd+ ! great valley1 & !re=e old] 9 date1 & :i* are f #ej to #bej feet 9 p]p5dicul> height1 consi/ 9 great "p ( loam conta9+ l&1 fluviatile1 & lacu/r9e %ells ( species /ill inhabit+ ! same c\ntry4 7,see fig4 #bc1 p4 #bfe47 ,be=e we take leave ( ! great delta1 we may d]ive an in/ructive lesson f ! reflection t ! new deposits already =m$1 or n[ accumulat+1 :e!r m>9e or fre%wat]1 mu/ greatly resemble 9 composition1 & ! g5]al "* ( _! organic rema9s1 _m anci5t /rata1 :i* ent] l>gely into ! e>?'s /ructure4 ,yet !re is no sudd5 revolution 9 progress1 :e!r on ! l& or 9 ! wat]s1 :e!r 9 ! animate or ! inanimate _w4 ,not)/&+ ! excessive de/ruction ( soil & uproot+ ( trees1 ! region :i* yields a nev]-fail+ supply ( drift-wood is d5sely clo!d ) noble =e/s1 & is almo/ unrivall$ 9 its p[] ( support+ animal & vegetable life4 ,9 spite ( ! und]m9+ ( _m a l(ty bluff1 & ! encroa*m5ts ( ! delta on ! sea--9 spite ( ! e>?quake1 :i* r5ds & fissures ! soil1 or causes areas m ?an sixty miles 9 l5g? to s9k d[n sev]al y>ds 9 a few mon?s1 ! g5]al features ( ! di/rict rema9 unalt]$1 or are m]ely und]go+ a sl[ & ins5sible *ange4 ,h]ds ( wild de] graze on ! pa/ures1 or br[se ^u ! trees2 & if !y dim9i% 9 numb]1 x is only :]e !y give way to man & ! dome/ic animals :i* foll[ 9 8 tra94 ,! be>1 ! wolf1 ! fox1 ! pan!r1 & ! wild-cat1 /ill ma9ta9 !mselves 9 ! fa/nesses ( ! =e/s ( cypress & gum-tree4 ,! racoon & ! opossum are ev]y:]e abundant1 :ile ! musk-rat1 ott]1 & m9k /ill frequ5t ! riv]s & lakes1 & a few beav]s & buffaloes h n yet be5 driv5 f _! anci5t haunts4 ,! wat]s teem ) alligators1 tortoises1 & fi%1 & _! surface is cov]$ ) millions ( migratory wat]f[l1 :i* p]=m _! annual voyage betwe5 ! ,canadian lakes & ! %ores ( ! ,mexican ,gulf4 ,! p[] ( man beg9s to be s5sibly felt1 & _m p>ts ( ! wild]ness to be replac$ by t[ns1 or*>ds1 & g>d5s4 ,! gild$ /eamboats1 l mov+ palaces1 /em ! =ce ( ! curr5t1 or %oot rapidly d[n ! desc5d+ /ream1 ?r\gh ! solitudes ( ! =e/s & prairies4 ,already does ! fl\ri%+ population ( ! great valley f> exce$ t ( ! ?irte5 ,unit$ ,/ates :5 fir/ !y decl>$ _! indep5d5ce4 ,su* is ! /ate ( a cont95t :]e trees & /ones are hurri$ annually by a ?\s& torr5ts1 f ! m\nta9s to ! pla9s1 & :]e s& & f9] matt] are swept d[n by a va/ curr5t to ! sea1 toge!r ) ! wreck ( c\ntless =e/s & ! bones ( animals :i* p]i% 9 ! inundations4 ,:5 ^! mat]ials rea* ! gulf1 !y d n r5d] ! wat]s unfit = aquatic animals2 b on ! contr>y1 ! ocean "h sw>ms ) life1 z x g5]ally does :]e ! influx ( a great riv] furni%es a copi\s supply ( organic & m9]al matt]4 ,yet _m geologi/s1 :5 !y behold ! spoils ( ! l& heap$ 9 successive /rata1 & bl5d$ confus$ly ) ! rema9s ( fi%es1 or int]sp]s$ ) brok5 %ells & corals2 :5 !y see portions ( erect trunks ( trees ) _! roots /ill reta9+ _! natural position1 & "o ti] ( ^! pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate above ano!r1 imag9e t !y are view+ ! signs ( a turbul5t in/ead ( a tranquil & settl$ /ate ( ! planet4 ,!y read 9 su* ph5om5a ! pro( ( *aotic disord] & reit]at$ cata/rophes1 in/ead ( indications ( a surface z habitable z ! mo/ delici\s & f]tile di/ricts n[ t5ant$ by man4 ,,delta ,,( ,,! ,,ganges ,,& ,,brahmapootra4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,delta ,,( ,,! ,,ganges ,,& ,,brahmapootra4 ,z an example ( a /ill l>g] delta advanc+ ^u ! sea 9 opposition to m p[]ful tides1 ,i %all next describe t ( ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra 7or ,burrampoot]74 ,^!1 ! two pr9cipal riv]s ( ,india1 desc5d f ! highe/ m\nta9s 9 ! _w1 & p>tially m+le _! wat]s 9 ! l[ pla9s ( ,h9do/an1 be=e rea*+ ! head ( ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4 ,! ,brahmapootra1 some:at ! l>g] ( ! two1 =m]ly pass$ to ! ea/ ( ,dacca1 ev5 s lately z ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury1 p\r+ mo/ ( its wat]s into "o ( ! num]\s *annels 9 ! delta call$ ! ,megna4 ,by t "n ! ma9 /ream 0 always spok5 ( by ,r5nell & o!rs 9 _! memoirs on ?is region4 ,b ! ma9 trunk n[ unites ) an arm ( ! ,ganges consid]ably high] up1 at a po9t ab\t #ajj miles di/ant f ! sea2 & x is con/antly1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,hook]1 work+ its way we/w>d1 hav+ =m]ly1 z may be se5 by anci5t maps1 mov$ ea/w>d = a long p]iod4 ,! area ( ! delta ( ! comb9$ riv]s1 = x is impossible n[ to di/+ui% :at belongs to ea*1 is consid]ably m ?an d\ble t ( ! ,nile1 ev5 if we exclude f ! delta a l>ge ext5t ( l[1 flat1 alluvial pla91 d\btless ( fluviatile orig91 :i* /ret*es m ?an #ajj miles to ! hills we/ ( ,calcutta 7see map1 fig4 #be71 & mu* f>!r 9 a nor!rly direction beyond ! head ( ! great delta4 ,! head ( a delta is t po9t :]e ! fir/ arm is giv5 (f4 ,above t po9t a riv] receives ! wat]s ( tribut>ies fl[+ f high] levels2 bel[ x1 on ! contr>y1 x gives out portions ( its wat]s to l[] levels1 ?r\gh *annels :i* fl[ into adjo9+ swamps1 or :i* run directly to ! sea4 ,! ,mississippi1 z be=e describ$1 has a s+le head1 :i* orig9at$ at an unkn[n p]iod :5 ! ,r$ ,riv] jo9$ x4 ,9 ! great delta ( ,b5gal !re may be said to be two heads ne>ly equidi/ant f ! sea1 t ( ! ,ganges 7,g1 map1 fig4 #be71 ab\t #cj miles bel[ ,rajmahal1 or #baf /atute miles 9 a direct l9e f ! sea1 & t ( ! ,brahmapootra 7,b71 bel[ ,*irapoonjee1 :]e ! riv] issues f ! ,khasia m\nta9s1 a di/ance ( #bbd miles f ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4 ,x w appe>1 by ref]5ce to ! map1 t ! great body ( fre% wat] d]iv$ f ! two riv]s ent]s ! bay on its ea/]n side2 & t a l>ge "p ( ! delta bord]+ on ! sea is compos$ ( a labyr9? ( riv]s & creeks1 all fill$ ) salt wat]1 except ^? imm$iately communicat+ ) ! ,hoogly1 or pr9cipal arm ( ! ,ganges4 ,?is tract alone1 kn[n by ! "n ( ! ,woods1 or ,sund]bunds 7m prop]ly ,soond]buns71 a wild]ness infe/$ by tig]s & crocodiles1 is1 accord+ to ,r5nell1 equal 9 ext5t to ! :ole pr9cipality ( ,wales4#cfi ,on ! sea-coa/ !re are eight great op5+s1 ea* ( :i* has evid5tly1 at "s anci5t p]iod1 s]v$ 9 its turn z ! pr9cipal *annel ( dis*>ge4 ,al?\gh ! flux & reflux ( ! tide ext5d ev5 to ! heads ( ! delta :5 ! riv]s are l[1 yet1 :5 !y are p]iodically swoll5 by tropical ra9s1 _! volume & velocity c\nt]act ! tidal curr5t1 s t1 except v ne> ! sea1 ! ebb & fl[ become ins5sible4 ,dur+ ! flood season1 !re=e1 ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra almo/ assume 9 _! delta1 ! "* ( riv]s ent]+ an inl& sea2 ! movem5ts ( ! ocean be+ !n subord9ate to ! =ce ( ! riv]s1 & only slightly di/urb+ _! op]ations4 ,! great ga9 ( ! delta 9 height & area takes place dur+ ! inundations2 &1 dur+ o!r seasons ( ! ye>1 ! ocean makes reprisals1 sc\r+ out ! *annels1 & sometimes dev\r+ ri* alluvial pla9s4 ,isl&s =m$ & de/roy$4--,major ,r4 ,h4 ,colebrooke1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! c\rse ( ! ,ganges1 relates examples ( ! rapid fill+ up ( "s ( its bran*es1 & ! excavation ( new *annels1 :]e ! numb] ( squ>e miles ( soil remov$ 9 a %ort "t 7! column ( e>? be+ #aad feet high7 0 truly a/oni%+4 ,=ty squ>e miles1 or #be1fjj acres1 are m5tion$ z hav+ be5 c>ri$ away1 9 "o place1 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s4#cgj ,! imm5se transportation ( e>?y matt] by ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra is prov$ by ! great magnitude ( ! isl&s =m$ 9 _! *annels dur+ a p]iod f> %ort ( t ( a man's life4 ,"s ( ^!1 _m miles 9 ext5t1 h orig9at$ 9 l>ge s&-banks ?r[n up r\nd ! po9ts at ! angul> turn+ ( ! riv]s1 & aft]w>ds insulat$ by brea*es ( ! /reams4 ,o!rs1 =m$ 9 ! ma9 *annel1 are caus$ by "s ob/ruction at ! bottom4 ,a l>ge tree1 or a sunk5 boat1 is sometimes suffici5t to *eck ! curr5t1 & cause a deposit ( s&1 :i* accumulates till x usurps a consid]able portion ( ! *annel4 ,! riv] !n und]m9es its banks on ea* side1 to supply ! defici5cy 9 its b$1 & ! isl& is aft]w>ds rais$ by fre% deposits dur+ e flood4 ,9 ! great gulf bel[ ,luckip\r1 =m$ by ! unit$ wat]s ( ! ,ganges & ,megna1 "s ( ! isl&s1 says ,r5nell1 rival 9 size & f]tility ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,:ile ! riv] is =m+ new isl&s 9 "o "p1 x is sweep+ away old ones 9 o!rs4 ,^? newly =m$ are soon ov]run ) re$s1 long grass1 ! ,tam>ix ,indica1 & o!r %rubs1 =m+ imp5etrable ?ickets1 :]e ! tig]1 ! rh9oc]os1 ! buffalo1 de]1 & o!r wild animals1 take %elt]4 ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to p]ceive1 t bo? animal & vegetable rema9s may occasionally be precipitat$ into ! flood1 & become imb$d$ 9 ! s$im5t :i* subsides 9 ! delta4 ,?ree or f\r species ( crocodile1 ( two di/9ct sub-g5]a1 ab\nd 9 ! ,ganges1 & its tribut>y & contigu\s wat]s2 & ,mr4 ,h4 ,t4 ,colebrooke in=m$ me1 t he _h se5 bo? =ms 9 places f> inl&1 _m hundr$ miles f ! sea4 ,! ,gangetic crocodile1 or ,gavial 79 correct or?ography1 ,g>ial71 is conf9$ to ! fre% wat]1 liv+ exclusively on fi%1 b ! common] k9ds1 call$ ,koomiah & ,mugg>1 frequ5t bo? fre% & salt1 be+ mu* l>g] & fi]c] 9 salt & bracki% wat]4#cga ,^! animals sw>m 9 ! bracki% wat] along ! l9e ( s&-banks1 :]e ! advance ( ! delta is mo/ rapid4 ,hundr$s ( !m are se5 toge!r 9 ! creeks ( ! delta1 or bask+ 9 ! sun on ! %oals )\t4 ,!y w attack m5 & cattle1 de/roy+ ! natives :5 ba?+1 & tame & wild animals :i* come to dr9k4 ,i h n unfrequ5tly1 says ,mr4 ,colebrooke1 be5 witness to ! horrid spectacle ( a float+ corpse seiz$ by a crocodile ) su* avidity1 t he half em]g$ above ! wat] ) 8 prey 9 8 m\?4 ,! geologi/ w n fail to obs]ve h[ peculi>ly ! habits & di/ribution ( ^! saurians expose !m to become imb$d$ 9 ! horizontal /rata ( f9e mud1 :i* are annually deposit$ ov] _m hundr$ squ>e miles 9 ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4 ,! inhabitants ( ! l&1 :i* happ5 to be dr[n$ or ?r[n into ! wat]1 are usually dev\r$ by ^! voraci\s reptiles2 b we may suppose ! rema9s ( ! saurians !mselves to be cont9ually entomb$ 9 ! new =mations4 ,! numb]1 also1 ( bodies ( ! poor] class ( ,h9doos ?r[n annually into ! ,ganges is s great1 t "s ( _! bones or skeletons c h>dly fail to be occasionally envelop$ 9 fluviatile mud4 ,x sometimes happ5s1 at ! season :5 ! p]iodical flood is at its height1 t a /rong gale ( w9d1 conspir+ ) a high spr+-tide1 *ecks ! desc5d+ curr5t ( ! riv]1 & gives rise to mo/ de/ructive inundations4 ,f ?is cause1 9 #agfc1 ! wat]s at ,luckip\r rose six feet above _! ord9>y level1 & ! inhabitants ( a consid]able di/rict1 ) _! h\ses & cattle1 7 totally swept away4 ,! population ( all oceanic deltas are p>ticul>ly expos$ to suff] by su* cata/rophes1 recurr+ at consid]able int]vals ( "t2 & we may safely assume t su* tragical ev5ts h happ5$ aga9 & aga9 s9ce ! ,gangetic delta 0 inhabit$ by man4 ,if human exp]i5ce & =e?\ght _c always gu>d aga9/ ^! calamities1 /ill less c ! inf]ior animals avoid !m2 & ! monum5ts ( su* disa/r\s inundations mu/ be look$ = 9 great abundance 9 /rata ( all ages1 if ! surface ( our planet has always be5 gov]n$ by ! same laws4 ,:5 we reflect on ! g5]al ord] & tranquillity t reigns 9 ! ri* & popul\s delta ( ,b5gal1 not)/&+ ! havoc occasionally committ$ by ! depr$ations ( ! ocean1 we p]ceive h[ unnecess>y x is to attribute ! imb$d+ ( successive races ( animals 9 old] /rata to extraord9>y en]gy 9 ! causes ( decay & reproduction 9 ! infancy ( our planet1 or to ^? g5]al cata/rophes & sudd5 revolutions s (t5 resort$ to4 ,deposits 9 ! delta4--,! quantity ( mud held 9 susp5sion by ! wat]s ( ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra is f\nd1 z might be expect$1 to exce$ t ( any ( ! riv]s allud$ to 9 ?is or ! prec$+ *apt]s2 =1 9 ! fir/ place1 _! fe$]s fl[ f m\nta9s ( unrivall$ altitude1 & d n cle> !mselves 9 any lakes1 z does ! ,rh9e 9 ! ,lake ( ,con/ance1 or ! ,rhone 9 t ( ,g5eva4 ,&1 secondly1 _! :ole c\rse is ne>] ! equator ?an t ( ! ,mississippi1 or any great riv]1 respect+ :i* c>eful exp]im5ts h be5 made1 to det]m9e ! quantity ( its wat] & e>?y cont5ts4 ,! fall ( ra91 moreov]1 z we h be=e se51 is excessive on ! s\!rn flanks ( ! fir/ range ( m\nta9s :i* rise f ! pla9s ( ,h9do/an1 & /ill m rem>kable is ! quantity sometimes p\r$ d[n 9 "o day4 7,see above1 p4 #bjj47 ,! sea1 :]e ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra dis*>ge _! ma9 /ream at ! flood season1 only recov]s its transp>5cy at ! di/ance ( f #fj to #ajj miles f ! delta2 & we may take = grant$ t ! curr5t cont9ues to transport ! f9] p>ticles mu* f>!r s\? ?an :]e ! surface wat] fir/ becomes cle>4 ,! g5]al slope1 !re=e1 ( ! new /rata mu/ be extremely g5tle4 ,accord+ to ! be/ *>ts1 !re is a gradual deep5+ f f\r to ab\t sixty fa?oms1 z we proce$ f ! base ( ! delta to ! di/ance ( ab\t "o hundr$ miles into ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4 ,at "s few po9ts sev5ty1 or ev5 "o hundr$1 fa?oms are obta9$ at t di/ance4 ,"o rem>kable exception1 h[ev]1 occurs to ! regul>ity ( ! %ape ( ! bottom4 ,opposite ! middle ( ! delta1 at ! di/ance ( ?irty or =ty miles f ! coa/1 a deep subm>9e valley occurs1 call$ ! swat* ( no gr\nd1 ab\t fifte5 miles 9 diamet]1 :]e s\nd+s ( #ahj1 & ev5 #cjj1 fa?oms fail to rea* ! bottom4 7,see map1 p4 #bge47 ,?is ph5om5on is ! m extraord9>y1 s9ce ! depression runs nor? to )9 five miles ( ! l9e ( %oals2 & n only d ! wat]s *>g$ ) s$im5t pass ov] x cont9ually1 b1 dur+ ! monsoons1 ! sea1 load$ ) mud & s&1 is beat5 back 9 t direction t[>ds ! delta4 ,z ! mud is kn[n to ext5d = eighty miles f>!r into ! gulf1 an enorm\s ?ickness ( matt] mu/ h be5 deposit$ 9 ! swat*4 ,we may conclude1 !re=e1 ei!r t ! orig9al dep? ( ?is "p ( ! ,bay ( ,b5gal 0 excessive1 or t subsid5ces h occurr$ 9 mod]n times4 ,! latt] conjecture is ! less improbable1 z ! :ole area ( ! delta has be5 convuls$ 9 ! hi/orical era by e>?quakes1 & actual subsid5ces h tak5 place 9 ! neighbor+ coa/ ( ,*ittagong1 :ile ! swat* lies n f> f ! volcanic b& :i* connects ,sumatra1 ,b>r5 ,isl&1 & ,ramree4#cgb ,opposite ! m\? ( ! ,hoogly riv]1 & imm$iately s\? ( ,saugor ,isl&1 f\r miles f ! ne>e/ l& ( ! delta1 a new islet 0 =m$ ab\t tw5ty ye>s ago1 call$ ,edmon/one ,isl&1 on ! c5tre ( :i* a beacon 0 erect$ z a l&m>k 9 #ahag4 ,9 #ahah ! isl& _h become two miles long & half a mile broad1 & 0 cov]$ ) vegetation & %rubs4 ,"s h\ses 7 !n built ^u x1 & 9 #ahbj x 0 us$ z a pilot /ation4 ,! sev]e gale ( #ahbc divid$ x into two p>ts1 & s r$uc$ its size z to leave ! beacon /&+ out 9 ! sea1 :]e1 aft] rema9+ sev5 ye>s1 x 0 wa%$ away4 ,! islet 9 #ahcf _h be5 conv]t$ by successive /orms into a s&-bank1 half a mile long1 on :i* a sea-m>k 0 plac$4 ,al?\gh !re is evid5ce ( ga9 at "s po9ts1 ! g5]al progress ( ! coa/ is v sl[2 = ! tides1 :5 ! riv] wat] is l[1 are actively employ$ 9 remov+ alluvial matt]4 ,9 ! ,sund]bunds ! usual rise & fall ( ! tides is no m ?an eight feet1 b1 on ! ea/ side ( ! delta1 ,dr4 ,hook] obs]v$1 9 ! w9t] ( #ahea1 a rise ( f sixty to eighty feet1 produc+ among ! isl&s at ! m\?s ( ! ,megna & ,f5ny riv]s1 a l(ty wave or bore z !y asc5d1 & caus+ ! riv] wat] to be pond$ back1 & !n to sweep d[n ) great viol5ce :5 ! tide ebbs4 ,! bay = =ty miles s\? ( ,*ittagong is s fre% t nei!r algae nor mangroves w gr[ 9 x4 ,we may1 !re=e1 conceive h[ effective may be ! curr5t =m$ by s great a volume ( wat] 9 disp]s+ f9e mud ov] a wide area4 ,its p[] is sometimes augm5t$ by ! agitation ( ! bay dur+ hurricanes 9 ! mon? ( ,may4 ,! new sup]ficial /rata consi/s entirely ( f9e s& & mud2 su*1 at lea/1 are ! only mat]ials :i* are expos$ to view 9 regul> b$s on ! banks ( ! num]\s creeks4 ,nei!r "h or high] up ! ,ganges1 c\ld ,dr4 ,hook] discov] any l& or fre%wat] %ells 9 sections ( ! banks1 :i* 9 ! pla9s high] up sometimes =m cliffs eighty feet 9 height at l[ wat]4 ,9 l mann] ,i h /at$#cgc t ,i 0 unable to f9d any buri$ %ells 9 ! delta or mod]n riv] cliffs ( ! ,mississippi4 ,no sub/ance s co>se z gravel occurs 9 any "p ( ! delta ( ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra1 nor ne>] ! sea ?an #djj miles4 ,yet x is rem>kable t ! bor+ ( an ,artesian well at ,=t ,william1 ne> ,calcutta1 9 ! ye>s #ahce-ahdj1 display$1 at ! dep? ( #abj feet1 clay & s& ) pebbles4 ,?is bor+ 0 c>ri$ to a dep? ( #dha feet bel[ ! level ( ,calcutta1 & ! geological section obta9$ 9 ! op]ation has be5 record$ ) great c>e4 ,"u ! surface soil1 at a dep? ( ab\t t5 feet1 !y came to a /iff blue clay ab\t =ty feet 9 ?ickness2 bel[ :i* 0 s&y clay1 conta9+ 9 its l[] portion abundance ( decay$ vegetable matt]1 :i* at ! bottom assum$ ! "* ( a /ratum ( black peat two feet ?ick4 ,?is peaty mass 0 consid]$ z a cle> indication 7l ! dirt-b$ ( ,portl&7 ( an anci5t t]re/rial surface1 ) a =e/ or ,sund]bund vegetation4 ,logs & bran*es ( a r$-color$ wood occur bo? above & imm$iately bel[ ! peat1 s little alt]$ t ,dr4 ,walli* 0 able to id5tify !m ) ! ,soondri tree1 ,h]iti]a littoralis1 "o ( ! mo/ preval5t =ms1 at ! base ( ! delta4 ,dr4 ,falcon] tells me t simil> peat has be5 met ) at o!r po9ts r\nd ,calcutta at ! dep? ( n9e feet & tw5ty-five feet4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t !re has be5 a s9k+ d[n ( :at 0 orig9ally l& 9 ?is region1 to ! am\nt ( sev5ty feet or m p]p5dicul>2 = ,calcutta is only a few feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & ! successive peat-b$s seem to imply t ! subsid5ce ( ! gr\nd 0 gradual or int]rupt$ by sev]al pauses4 ,bel[ ! vegetable mass !y ent]$ ^u a /ratum ( yell[i% clay ab\t t5 feet ?ick1 conta9+ horizontal lay]s ( kunk> 7or kank>71 a nodul>1 concretion>y1 argillace\s lime/one1 met ) abundantly at great] or less dep?s 9 all p>ts ( ! valley ( ! ,ganges1 ov] _m ?\s& squ>e miles1 & always pres5t+ ! same *>act]s1 ev5 at a di/ance ( "o ?\s& miles nor? ( ,calcutta4 ,"s ( ?is kunk> is said to be ( v rec5t orig9 9 deposits =m$ by riv] inundations ne> ,sah>anpoor4 ,aft] p5etrat+ #abj feet1 !y f\nd loam conta9+ wat]-worn fragm5ts ( mica-slate & o!r k9ds ( rock1 :i* ! curr5t ( ! ,ganges c no long] transport to ?is region4 ,9 ! v>i\s b$s pi]c$ ?r\gh bel[1 consi/+ ( clay1 m>l1 & friable s&/one1 ) kunk> "h & !re int]mix$1 no organic rema9s ( decid$ly m>9e orig9 7 met )4 ,too positive a conclusion ought n1 x is true1 to be drawn f su* a fact1 :5 we consid] ! n>r[ bore ( ! aug] & its effect 9 cru%+ %ells & bones4 ,nev]!less1 x is wor?y ( rem>k1 t ! only fossils obta9$ 9 a recognizable /ate 7 ( a fluviatile or t]re/rial "*4 ,?us1 at ! dep? ( #cej feet1 ! bony %ell ( a tortoise1 or trionyx1 a fre%wat] g5us1 0 f\nd 9 s&1 resembl+ ! liv+ species ( ,b5gal4 ,f ! same /ratum1 also1 !y drew up ! l[] half ( ! hum]us ( a rum9ant1 at fir/ ref]r$ to a hya5a4 ,x 0 ! size & %ape1 says ,dr4 ,falcon]1 ( ! %\ld]-bone ( ! ,c]vus porc9us1 or common hog-de]1 ( ,india4 ,at ! dep? ( #chj feet1 clay ) fragm5ts ( lacu/r9e %ells 0 incumb5t on :at appe>s cle>ly to h be5 ano!r dirt-b$1 or /ratum ( decay$ wood1 imply+ a p]iod ( repose ( "s duration1 & a =e/-cov]$ l&1 :i* mu/ h subsid$ #cjj feet1 to admit ( ! subsequ5t sup]position ( ! ov]ly+ deposits4 ,x has be5 conjectur$ t1 at ! "t :5 ?is area support$ trees1 ! l& ext5d$ mu* f>!r out into ! ,bay ( ,b5gal ?an n[1 & t 9 lat] times ! ,ganges1 :ile enl>g+ its delta1 has be5 only recov]+ lo/ gr\nd f ! sea4 ,at ! dep? ( ab\t #djj feet bel[ ! surface1 an abrupt *ange 0 obs]v$ 9 ! "* ( ! /rata1 :i* 7 compos$ 9 great "p ( s&1 %+le1 & b\ld]s1 ! only fossils obs]v$ be+ ! v]tebrae ( a crocodile1 %ell ( a trionyx1 & fragm5ts ( wood v little alt]$1 & simil> to t buri$ 9 b$s f> above4 ,^! gravelly b$s con/itut$ ! bottom ( ! section at ! dep? ( #dha feet1 :5 ! op]ations 7 discont9u$1 9 consequ5ce ( an accid5t :i* happ5$ to ! aug]4 ,! occurr5ce ( pebbles at ! dep?s ( #abj & #djj feet implies an important *ange 9 ! geographical condition ( ! region ar\nd or ne> ,calcutta4 ,! fall ( ! riv]1 or ! g5]al slope ( ! alluvial pla9 may h be5 =m]ly great]2 or1 be=e a g5]al & p]haps unequal subsid5ce1 hills once ne>] ! pres5t base ( ! delta may h ris5 sev]al hundr$ feet1 =m+ isl&s 9 ! bay1 :i* may h sunk gradually1 & become buri$ "u fluviatile s$im5t4 ,antiquity ( ! delta4--,x w\ld be a matt] ( no small sci5tific int]e/1 if exp]im5ts 7 made to enable u to det]m9e1 ) "s degree ( accuracy1 ! mean quantity ( e>?y matt] dis*>g$ annually into ! sea by ! unit$ wat]s ( ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra4 ,! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,ev]e/ in/itut$1 9 #ahca-b1 a s]ies ( obs]vations on ! e>?y matt] br\ght d[n by ! ,ganges1 at ,ghazepoor1 #ejj miles f ! sea4 ,he f\nd t1 9 #ahca1 ! numb] ( cubic feet ( wat] dis*>g$ by ! riv] p] second at t place 01 dur+ ! ,ra9s 7#d mon?s7 #did1bjh ,w9t] 7#e mon?s7 #ga1bjj ,hot wea!r 7#c mon?s7 #cf1ccj s t we may /ate 9 r\nd numb]s t #ejj1jjj cubic feet p] second fl[ d[n dur+ ! f\r mon?s ( ! flood season1 f ,june to ,septemb]1 & less ?an #fj1jjj p] second dur+ ! rema9+ eight mon?s4 ,! av]age quantity ( solid matt] susp5d$ 9 ! wat] dur+ ! ra9s 01 by weight1 #a_/dbh? "p2 b z ! wat] is ab\t "o-half ! specific gravity ( ! dri$ mud1 ! solid matt] dis*>g$ is #a_/hef? "p 9 bulk1 or #egg cubic feet p] second4 ,?is gives a total ( #f1jhb1jda1fjj cubic feet = ! dis*>ge 9 ! #abb days ( ! ra94 ,! proportion ( s$im5t 9 ! wat]s at o!r seasons 0 comp>atively insignificant1 ! total am\nt dur+ ! five w9t] mon?s be+ only #bdg1hha1fjj cubic feet1 & dur+ ! ?ree mon?s ( hot wea!r #ch1aed1bdj cubic feet4 ,! total annual dis*>ge1 !n1 w\ld be #f1cfh1jgg1ddj cubic feet4 ,?is quantity ( mud w\ld 9 "o ye> raise a surface ( #bbh-a_/b squ>e miles1 or a squ>e space1 ea* side ( :i* %\ld measure #ae miles1 a height ( "o foot4 ,to give "s idea ( ! magnitude ( ?is result1 we w assume t ! specific gravity ( ! dri$ mud is only "o-half t ( granite 7x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be m72 9 t case1 ! e>?y matt] dis*>g$ 9 a ye> w\ld equal #c1ahd1jch1gbj cubic feet ( granite4 ,n[ ab\t #ab-a_/b cubic feet ( granite weigh "o ton2 & x is comput$ t ! great ,pyramid ( ,egypt1 if x 7 a solid mass ( granite1 w\ld weigh ab\t #fjj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,! mass ( matt]1 !re=e1 c>ri$ d[n annually w\ld1 accord+ to ?is e/imate1 m ?an equal 9 weight & bulk =ty-two ( ! great pyramids ( ,egypt1 & t borne d[n 9 ! f\r mon?s ( ! ra9s w\ld equal =ty pyramids4 ,b if1 )\t any conjecture z to :at may h be5 ! specific gravity ( ! mud1 we att5d m]ely to ! weight ( solid matt] actually prov$ by ,mr4 ,ev]e/ to h be5 conta9$ 9 ! wat]1 we f9d t ! numb] ( tons weight :i* pass$ d[n 9 ! #abb days ( ! ra9y season 0 #cci1dac1gfj1 :i* w\ld give ! weight ( fifty-six pyramids & a half2 & 9 ! :ole ye> #cee1cfa1dfd tons1 or ne>ly ! weight ( sixty pyramids4 ,! base ( ! great ,pyramid ( ,egypt cov]s elev5 acres1 & its p]p5dicul> height is ab\t five hundr$ feet4 ,x is sc>cely possible to pres5t any picture to ! m9d :i* w convey an adequate conception ( ! mighty scale ( ?is op]ation1 s tranquilly & almo/ ins5sibly c>ri$ on by ! ,ganges1 z x glides ?r\gh its alluvial pla91 ev5 at a di/ance ( #ejj miles f ! sea4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be /at$1 t if a fleet ( m ?an eighty ,indiam51 ea* freight$ ) ab\t #adjj tons' weight ( mud1 7 to sail d[n ! riv] e h\r ( e day & night = f\r mon?s cont9u\sly1 !y w\ld only transport f ! high] c\ntry to ! sea a mass ( solid matt] equal to t borne d[n by ! ,ganges1 ev5 9 ?is "p ( its c\rse1 9 ! f\r mon?s ( ! flood season4 ,or ! ex]tions ( a fleet ( ab\t #bjjj su* %ips go+ d[n daily ) ! same burd51 & dis*>g+ x into ! gulf1 w\ld be no m ?an equival5t to ! op]ations ( ! great riv]4 ,! mo/ volum9\s curr5t ( lava :i* has fl[$ f ,etna )9 hi/orical times 0 t ( #affi4 ,f]r>a1 aft] correct+ ,borelli's e/imate1 calculat$ ! quantity ( cubic y>ds ( lava 9 ?is curr5t at #adj1jjj1jjj4 ,n[1 ?is w\ld n equal 9 bulk "o-fif? ( ! s$im5t>y matt] :i* is c>ri$ d[n 9 a s+le ye> by ! ,ganges1 pa/ ,ghazepoor1 accord+ to ! e/imate above expla9$2 s t x w\ld require five gr& eruptions ( ,etna to transf] a mass ( lava f ! subt]ranean regions to ! surface1 equal 9 volume to ! mud c>ri$ d[n 9 "o ye> to t place4 ,capta9 ,r4 ,/ra*ey1 ( ! ,b5gal ,eng9e]s1 has rem>k$ to me1 n only t ,ghazepoor1 :]e ,mr4 ,ev]e/'s obs]vations 7 made1 is #ejj miles f ! sea1 b t ! ,ganges has n be5 jo9$ !re by its mo/ important fe$]s4 ,^! dra9 ^u ! :ole #gej miles ( ! ,himalaya1 & no m ?an #aej miles ( t m\nta9-*a9 h s5t _! contributions to ! ma9 trunk at ,ghazepoor4 ,bel[ t place1 ! ,ganges is jo9$ by ! ,gogra1 ,gunduk1 ,khosee1 & ,tee/a f ! nor?1 to say no?+ ( ! ,sone fl[+ f ! s\?1 "o ( ! l>ge/ ( ! riv]s :i* rise 9 ! table-l& ( c5tral ,india4 7,see map1 fig4 #be1 p4 #bge47 ,moreov] ! rema9+ #fjj miles ( ! ,himalaya comprise t ea/]n portion ( ! bas9 :]e ! ra9s are heavie/4 7,see above1 p4 #bjj47 ,! quantity ( wat] !re=e c>ri$ d[n to ! sea may probably be f\r or five times z mu* z t :i* passes ,ghazepoor4 ,! ,brahmapootra1 accord+ to ,major ,wilcox1#cgd 9 ! mon? ( ,janu>y1 :5 x is ne> its m9imum1 dis*>ges #aej1jjj cubic feet ( wat] p] second at ,gwalp>a1 n _m miles above ! head ( its delta4 ,tak+ ! proportions obs]v$ at ,ghazepoor at ! diff]5t seasons z a guide1 ! probable av]age dis*>ge ( ! ,brahmapootra = ! :ole ye> may be e/imat$ at ab\t ! same z t ( ! ,ganges4 ,assum+ ?is2 & secondly1 9 ord] to avoid ! risk ( exagg]ation1 t ! proportion ( s$im5t 9 _! wat]s is ab\t a ?ird less ?an ,mr4 ,ev]e/'s e/imate1 ! mud borne d[n to ! ,bay ( ,b5gal 9 "o ye> w\ld equal #dj1jjj millions ( cubic feet1 or betwe5 six & sev5 times z mu* z t br\ght d[n to ,ghazepoor1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,ev]e/'s calculations 9 #ahca1 & t5 times z mu* z t convey$ annually by ! ,mississippi to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,capta9 ,/ra*ey e/imates ! annually inundat$ portion ( ! delta at #bej miles 9 l5g? by #hj 9 bread?1 mak+ an area ( #bj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,! space s\? ( ?is 9 ! bay1 :]e s$im5t is ?r[n d[n1 may be #cjj miles f ,e4 to ,w4 by #aej ,n4 & ,s41 or #de1jjj squ>e miles1 :i*1 add$ to ! =m]1 gives a surface ( #fe1jjj squ>e miles1 ov] :i* ! s$im5t is spread out by ! two riv]s4 ,suppose !n ! solid matt] to am\nt to #dj1jjj millions ( cubic feet p] annum1 ! deposit1 he obs]ves1 mu/ be cont9u$ = =ty-five ye>s & ?ree-t5?s to raise ! :ole area a height ( "o foot1 or #ac1fjj ye>s to raise x #cjj feet2 & ?is1 z we h se51 is mu* less ?an ! ?ickness ( ! fluviatile /rata actually p5etrat$1 7& ! bottom n rea*$7 by ! aug] at ,calcutta4 ,nev]!less we c by no means d$uce f ^! data alone1 :at w be ! future rate ( advance ( ! delta1 nor ev5 pr$ict :e!r ! l& w ga9 on ! sea1 or rema9 /ation>y4 ,at ! end ( #ac1jjj ye>s ! bay may be less %all[ ?an n[1 provid$ a mod]ate depression1 correspond+ to t exp]i5c$ 9 "p ( ,gre5l& = _m c5turies %all take place 7see *ap4 #cj74 ,a subsid5ce q ins5sible to ! inhabitants ( ,b5gal1 n exce$+ two feet ?ree in*es 9 a c5tury1 w\ld be m ?an suffici5t to c\nt]balance all ! ef=ts ( ! two mighty riv]s to ext5d ! limits ( _! delta4 ,we h se5 t ! ,artesian bor+s at ,calcutta atte/1 :at ! va/ dep? ( ! swat* may also 9 all likelihood indicate1 t ! antagoni/ =ce ( subsid5ce has pr$om9at$ = ages ov] ! influx ( fluviatile mud1 prev5t+ x f rais+ ! pla9s ( ,b5gal1 or f fill+ up a l>g] portion ( ! bay4 ,,conclud+ ,,rem>ks ,,on ,,deltas4 ,conv]g5ce ( deltas4--,if we possess$ an accurate s]ies ( maps ( ! ,adriatic = _m ?\s& ye>s1 our retrospect w\ld1 )\t d\bt1 c>ry u gradually back to ! "t :5 ! numb] ( riv]s desc5d+ f ! m\nta9s into t gulf by indep5d5t deltas 0 f> great] 9 numb]4 ,! deltas ( ! ,po & ! ,adige1 = in/ance1 w\ld sep>ate !mselves )9 ! rec5t era1 z1 9 all probability1 w\ld ^? ( ! ,isonzo & ! ,torre4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we speculate on future *anges1 we may anticipate ! p]iod :5 ! numb] ( deltas w greatly dim9i%2 = ! ,po _c cont9ue to encroa* at ! rate ( a mile 9 a hundr$ ye>s1 & o!r riv]s to ga9 z mu* 9 six or sev5 c5turies ^u ! %all[ gulf1 )\t new junctions occurr+ f "t to "t2 s t ,eridanus1 ! k+ ( riv]s1 w cont9ually boa/ a great] numb] ( tribut>ies4 ,! ,ganges & ! ,brahmapootra h p]haps become p>tially conflu5t 9 ! same delta )9 ! hi/orical1 or at lea/ )9 ! human era2 & ! date ( ! junction ( ! ,r$ ,riv] & ! ,mississippi w\ld1 9 all likelihood1 h be5 kn[n1 if ,am]ica _h n be5 s rec5tly discov]$4 ,! union ( ! ,tigris & ! ,euphrates mu/ und\bt$ly h be5 "o ( ! mod]n geographical *anges ( our ,e>?1 = ,col4 ,rawl9son in=ms me t ! delta ( ^? riv]s has advanc$ two miles 9 ! la/ sixty ye>s1 & is suppos$ to h encroa*$ ab\t =ty miles ^u ! ,gulf ( ,p]sia 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ tw5ty-five c5turies4 ,:5 ! deltas ( riv]s1 hav+ _m m\?s1 conv]ge1 a p>tial union at fir/ takes place by ! conflu5ce ( "s "o or m ( _! arms2 b x is n until ! ma9 trunks are connect$ above ! head ( ! common delta1 t a complete int]mixture ( _! jo9t wat]s & s$im5t takes place4 ,! union1 !re=e1 ( ! ,po & ,adige1 & ( ! ,ganges & ,brahmapootra1 is /ill incomplete4 ,if we reflect on ! geographical ext5t ( surface dra9$ by riv]s su* z n[ ent] ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 & !n consid] h[ complete ! bl5d+ toge!r ( ! great] "p ( _! transport$ matt] has already become1 & ?r\gh\t h[ va/ a delta x is spread by num]\s arms1 we no long] feel s mu* surprise at ! area occupi$ by "s anci5t =mations ( homog5e\s m9]al composition4 ,b our surprise w be /ill f>!r less5$1 :5 we aft]w>ds inquire 7*4 #ba7 into ! action ( tides & curr5ts 9 dissem9at+ s$im5t4 ,age ( exi/+ deltas4--,if we c\ld take = grant$1 t ! relative level ( l& & sea _h rema9$ /ation>y ev] s9ce all ! exi/+ deltas began to be =m$--c\ld we assume t _! gr[? comm5c$ at "o & ! same in/ant :5 ! pres5t cont95ts acquir$ _! actual %ape--we might und]/& ! language ( geologi/s :o speak ( ! epo* ( exi/+ cont95ts4 ,!y endeavor to calculate ! age ( deltas f ?is imag9>y fix$ p]iod2 & !y calculate ! ga9 ( new l& ^u ! sea1 at ! m\?s ( riv]s1 z hav+ begun ev]y:]e simultane\sly4 ,b ! m we /udy ! hi/ory ( deltas1 ! m we become conv9c$ t upw>d & d[nw>d movem5ts ( ! l& & contigu\s b$ ( ! sea h ex]t$1 & cont9ue to ex]t1 an influ5ce on ! physical geography ( _m hydrographical bas9s1 on a scale comp>able 9 magnitude or importance to ! am\nt ( fluviatile deposition effect$ 9 an equal lapse ( "t4 ,9 ! bas9 ( ! ,mississippi1 = example1 pro(s bo? ( desc5d+ & asc5d+ movem5ts to a v]tical am\nt ( sev]al hundr$ feet c be %[n to h tak5 place s9ce ! exi/+ species ( l& & fre%wat] %ells liv$ 9 t region4#cge ,! deltas also ( ! ,po & ,ganges h ea*1 z we h se5 7p4 #beg71 :5 prob$ by ! ,artesian aug]1 borne te/imony to a gradual subsid5ce ( l& to ! ext5t ( sev]al hundr$ feet--old t]re/rial surfaces1 turf1 peat1 =e/-l&1 & dirt-b$s1 hav+ be5 pi]c$ at v>i\s dep?s4 ,! *anges ( level at ! m\? ( ! ,indus 9 ,cut* 7see bel[1 *ap4 #bg71 & ^? ( ,new ,madrid 9 ! valley ( ! ,mississippi 7see p4 #bgj1 & *ap4 #bg71 are equally in/ructive1 z demon/rat+ unceas+ fluctuations 9 ! levels ( ^? areas into :i* runn+ wat] is transport+ s$im5t4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! exact age ( all mod]n deltas c\ld be kn[n1 x is sc>cely probable t we %\ld f9d any two ( !m 9 ! _w to h co9cid$ 9 date1 or 9 ! "t :5 _! e>lie/ deposits orig9at$4 ,gr\p+ ( /rata 9 deltas4--,! *anges :i* h tak5 place 9 deltas1 ev5 )9 ! times ( hi/ory1 may sugge/ _m important consid]ations 9 reg>d to ! mann] 9 :i* subaque\s s$im5t is di/ribut$4 ,) ! exception ( "s cases h]eaft] to be notic$1 !re are "s g5]al laws ( arrangem5t :i* mu/ evid5tly hold good 9 almo/ all ! lakes & seas n[ fill+ up4 ,if a lake1 = example1 be encircl$ on two sides by l(ty m\nta9s1 receiv+ f !m _m riv]s & torr5ts ( diff]5t sizes1 & if x be b\nd$ on ! o!r sides1 :]e ! surplus wat]s issue1 by a comp>atively l[ c\ntry1 x is n difficult to def9e "s ( ! lead+ geological features :i* mu/ *>act]ize ! lacu/r9e =mation1 :5 ?is bas9 %all h be5 gradually conv]t$ into dry l& by ! influx ( s$im5t4 ,! /rata w\ld be divisible into two pr9cipal gr\ps3 ! old] compris+ ^? deposits :i* orig9at$ on ! side adjo9+ ! m\nta9s1 :]e num]\s deltas fir/ began to =m2 & ! new] gr\p consi/+ ( b$s deposit$ 9 ! m c5tral p>ts ( ! bas91 & t[>ds ! side f>!/ f ! m\nta9s4 ,! foll[+ *>act]s w\ld =m ! pr9cipal m>ks ( di/9ction betwe5 ! /rata 9 ea* s]ies3--,! m anci5t sy/em w\ld be compos$1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( co>s] mat]ials1 conta9+ _m b$s ( pebbles & s&1 (t5 ( great ?ickness1 & sometimes dipp+ at a consid]able angle4 ,^!1 ) associat$ b$s ( f9] +r$i5ts1 w\ld1 if trac$ r\nd ! bord]s ( ! bas91 be se5 to v>y greatly 9 color & m9]al composition1 & w\ld also be v irregul> 9 ?ickness4 ,! b$s1 on ! contr>y1 9 ! new] gr\p1 w\ld consi/ ( f9] p>ticles1 & w\ld be horizontal1 or v slightly incl9$4 ,_! color & m9]al composition w\ld be v homog5e\s ?r\gh\t l>ge areas1 & w\ld diff] f almo/ all ! sep>ate b$s 9 ! old] s]ies4 ,! foll[+ causes w\ld produce ! div]sity "h allud$ to betwe5 ! two great memb]s ( su* lacu/r9e =mations3--,:5 ! riv]s & torr5ts fir/ rea* ! edge ( ! lake1 ! detritus wa%$ d[n by !m f ! adjo9+ heights s9ks at once into deep wat]1 all ! heavi] pebbles & s& subsid+ ne> ! %ore4 ,! f9] mud is c>ri$ some:at f>!r out1 b n to ! di/ance ( _m miles1 = ! great] "p may be se51 z1 = example1 :]e ! ,rhone ent]s ! ,lake ( ,g5eva1 to fall d[n 9 cl\ds to ! bottom1 n f> f ! riv]'s m\?4 ,?us alluvial tracts are soon =m$ at ! m\?s ( e torr5t & riv]1 & _m ( ^! 9 ! c\rse ( ages become ( consid]able ext5t4 ,pebbles & s& are !n transport$ f>!r f ! m\nta9s2 b 9 _! passage !y decrease 9 size by attrition1 & are 9 "p conv]t$ into mud & s&4 ,at l5g? "s ( ! num]\s deltas1 :i* are all direct$ t[>ds a common c5tre1 approa* ne> to ea* o!r2 ^? ( adjo9+ torr5ts become unit$1 & ea* is m]g$1 9 its turn1 9 ! delta ( ! l>ge/ riv]1 :i* advances mo/ rapidly into ! lake1 & r5d]s all ! m9or /reams1 "o aft] ! o!r1 its tribut>ies4 ,! v>i\s m9]al +r$i5ts ( all are ?us bl5d$ toge!r into "o homog5e\s mixture1 & ! s$im5t is p\r$ out f a common *annel into ! lake4 ,z ! av]age size ( ! transport$ p>ticles decreases1 :ile ! =ce & volume ( ! ma9 riv] augm5ts1 ! new] deposits are diffus$ cont9ually ov] a wid] area1 & are consequ5tly m horizontal ?an ! old]4 ,:5 at fir/ !re 7 _m indep5d5t deltas ne> ! bord]s ( ! bas91 _! sep>ate deposits diff]$ entirely f ea* o!r2 "o may h be5 *>g$1 l ! ,arve :]e x jo9s ! ,rhone1 ) :ite s& & s$im5t d]iv$ f granite--ano!r may h be5 black1 l _m /reams 9 ! ,tyrol1 fl[+ f ! wa/e ( decompos+ rocks ( d>k slate--a ?ird may h be5 color$ by o*re\s s$im5t1 l ! ,r$ ,riv] 9 ,l\isiana--a f\r?1 l ! ,elsa 9 ,tuscany1 may h held mu* c>bonate ( lime 9 solution4 ,at fir/ !y w\ld ea* =m di/9ct deposits ( s&1 gravel1 lime/one1 m>l1 or o!r mat]ials2 b1 aft] _! junction1 new *emical comb9ations & a di/9ct color w\ld be ! result1 & ! p>ticles1 hav+ be5 convey$ t51 tw5ty1 or a great] numb] ( miles ov] alluvial pla9s1 w\ld become f9]4 ,9 ^? deltas :]e ! tides & /rong m>9e curr5ts int]f]e1 ! above description w\ld only be applicable1 ) c]ta9 modifications4 ,if a s]ies ( e>?quakes accompany ! gr[? ( a delta1 & *ange ! levels ( ! l& f "t to "t1 z 9 ! region :]e ! ,indus n[ ent]s ! sea1 ! ph5om5a w dep>t /ill m widely f ! ord9>y type4 ,if1 aft] a protract$ p]iod ( re/1 a delta s9ks d[n1 pebbles may be borne along 9 %all[ wat] ne> ! foot ( ! b\nd>y hills1 s z to =m conglom]ates ov]ly+ ! f9e mud previ\sly ?r[n into deep] wat] 9 ! same area4 ,causes ( /ratification 9 deltas4--,! /ratifi$ arrangem5t1 :i* is obs]v$ to prevail s g5]ally 9 aque\s deposits1 is mo/ frequ5tly due to v>iations 9 ! velocity ( runn+ wat]1 :i* _c sweep along p>ticles ( m ?an a c]ta9 size & weight :5 mov+ at a giv5 rate4 ,h5ce1 z ! =ce ( ! /ream augm5ts or decreases1 ! mat]ials ?r[n d[n 9 successive lay]s at p>ticul> places are rudely sort$1 accord+ to _! dim5sions1 =m1 & specific gravity4 ,:]e ?is cause has n op]at$1 z :]e s&1 mud1 & fragm5ts ( rock are convey$ by a glaci]1 a confus$ heap ( rubbi% devoid ( all /ratification is produc$4 ,natural divisions are also occasion$ 9 deltas1 by ! int]val ( "t :i* sep>ates annually ! deposition ( matt] dur+ ! p]iodical ra9s1 or melt+ ( sn[ ^u ! m\nta9s4 ,! deposit ( ea* ye> may acquire "s degree ( consi/5cy be=e t ( ! succe$+ ye> is sup]impos$4 ,a v>iety ( circum/ances also give rise annually1 or sometimes f day to day1 to slight v>iations 9 color1 f95ess ( ! p>ticles1 & o!r *>act]s1 by :i* alt]nations ( /rata di/9ct 9 texture & m9]al +r$i5ts mu/ be produc$4 ,?us1 = example1 at "o p]iod ( ! ye>1 drift-wood may be c>ri$ d[n1 &1 at ano!r1 mud1 z 0 be=e /at$ to be ! case 9 ! delta ( ! ,mississippi2 or at "o "t1 :5 ! volume & velocity ( ! /ream are greate/1 pebbles & s& may be spread ov] a c]ta9 area1 ov] :i*1 :5 ! wat]s are l[1 f9e matt] or *emical precipitates are =m$4 ,dur+ inundations1 ! turbid curr5t ( fre% wat] (t5 repels ! sea = _m miles2 b :5 ! riv] is l[1 salt wat] aga9 occupies ! same space4 ,:5 two deltas are conv]g+1 ! int]m$iate space is (t51 = reasons be=e expla9$1 alt]nately ! receptacle ( diff]5t s$im5ts d]iv$ f ! conv]g+ /reams 7see p4 #bgb74 ,! "o is1 p]haps1 *>g$ ) calc>e\s1 ! o!r ) argillace\s matt]2 or "o sweeps d[n s& & pebbles1 ! o!r impalpable mud4 ,^! diff]5ces may be repeat$ ) consid]able regul>ity1 until a ?ickness ( hundr$s ( feet ( alt]nat+ b$s is accumulat$4 ,! multiplication1 also1 ( %ells & corals 9 p>ticul> spots1 & = limit$ p]iods1 gives rise occasionally to l9es ( sep>ation1 & divides a mass :i* might o!rwise be homog5e\s into di/9ct /rata4 ,an exam9ation ( ! %ell m>l n[ =m+ 9 ! ,scot* lakes1 or ! s$im5t t]m$ w>p1 :i* subsides f ! muddy wat] ( ! ,humb] & o!r riv]s1 %[s t rec5t deposits are (t5 compos$ ( a great numb] ( extremely ?9 lay]s1 ei!r ev5 or slightly undulat+1 & pres]v+ a g5]al p>allelism to ! planes ( /ratification4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! lam9ae 9 mod]n /rata are dispos$ diagonally at a consid]able angle1 :i* appe>s to take place :]e !re are conflict+ movem5ts 9 ! wat]s4 ,9 ,janu>y1 #ahbi1 ,i visit$1 9 company ) ,pr(essor ,l4 ,a4 ,neck]1 ( ,g5eva1 ! conflu5ce ( ! ,rhone & ,arve1 :5 ^? riv]s 7 v l[1 & 7 cutt+ *annels ?r\gh ! va/ heaps ( dabris ?r[n d[n f ! wat]s ( ! ,arve 9 ! prec$+ spr+4 ,"o ( ! s&banks :i* _h =m$1 9 ! spr+ ( #ahbh1 :]e ! oppos+ curr5ts ( ! two riv]s neutraliz$ ea* o!r1 & caus$ a ret>dation 9 ! motion1 _h be5 und]m9$2 & ! foll[+ is an exact repres5tation ( ! arrangem5t ( lam9ae expos$ 9 a v]tical section4 ,! l5g? ( ! portion "h se5 is ab\t twelve feet1 & ! height five4 ,! /rata ,a ,a consi/ ( irregul> alt]nations ( pebbles & s& 9 undulat+ b$s3 bel[ ^! are seams ( v f9e s& ,b ,b1 "s z ?9 z pap]1 o!rs ab\t a qu>t] ( an in* ?ick4 ,! /rata ,c ,c are compos$ ( lay]s ( f9e gre5i%-gray s& z ?9 z pap]4 ,"s ( ! incl9$ b$s w be se5 to be ?ick] at _! upp]1 o!rs at _! l[] extremity1 ! incl9ation ( "s be+ v consid]able4 ,^! lay]s mu/ h accumulat$ "o on ! o!r by lat]al apposition1 probably :5 "o ( ! riv]s 0 v gradually increas+ or dim9i%+ 9 velocity1 s t ! po9t ( greate/ ret>dation caus$ by _! conflict+ curr5ts %ift$ sl[ly1 all[+ ! s$im5t to be ?r[n d[n 9 successive lay]s on a slop+ bank4 ,! same ph5om5on is exhibit$ 9 old] /rata ( all ages4#cgf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,section ( a s&-bank 9 ! b$ ( ! ,arve at its conflu5ce ) ! ,rhone1 %[+ ! /ratification ( deposits :]e curr5ts meet4 ,if ! b$ ( a lake or ( ! sea be s9k+1 :e!r at a uni=m or an unequal rate1 or oscillat+ 9 level dur+ ! deposition ( s$im5t1 ^! movem5ts w give rise to a diff]5t class ( ph5om5a1 z1 = example1 to repeat$ alt]nations ( %all[-wat] & deep-wat] deposits1 ea* ) peculi> organic rema9s1 or to frequ5t repetitions ( simil> b$s1 =m$ at a uni=m dep?1 & inclos+ ! same organic rema9s1 & to o!r results too complicat$ & v>i$ to admit ( enum]ation "h4 ,=mation ( conglom]ates4--,along ! base ( ! ,m>itime ,alps1 betwe5 ,t\lon & ,g5oa1 ! riv]s1 ) few exceptions1 are n[ =m+ /rata ( conglom]ate & s&4 ,_! *annels are (t5 sev]al miles 9 bread?1 "s ( !m be+ dry1 & ! re/ easily =d$ = ne>ly eight mon?s 9 ! ye>1 :]eas dur+ ! melt+ ( ! sn[ !y are swoll51 & a great transportation ( mud & pebbles takes place4 ,9 ord] to keep op5 ! ma9 road f ,france to ,italy1 n[ c>ri$ along ! sea-coa/1 x is necess>y to remove annually great masses ( %+le br\ght d[n dur+ ! flood season4 ,a portion ( ! pebbles are se5 9 "s localities1 z ne> ,nice1 to =m b$s ( %+le along ! %ore1 b ! great] "p are swept into a deep sea4 ,! small progress made by ! deltas ( m9or riv]s on ?is coa/ ne$ n surprise u1 :5 we recollect t !re is sometimes a dep? ( two ?\s& feet at a few hundr$ y>ds f ! bea*1 z ne> ,nice4 ,simil> obs]vations might be made respect+ a l>ge proportion ( ! riv]s 9 ,sicily1 & among o!rs1 respect+ t :i*1 imm$iately nor? ( ! port ( ,mess9a1 hurries annually va/ masses ( granitic pebbles into ! sea4 ,con/ant int]*ange ( l& & sea4--,i may "h conclude my rem>ks on deltas1 obs]v+ t1 imp]fect z is our in=mation ( ! *anges :i* !y h und]gone )9 ! la/ ?ree ?\s& ye>s1 !y are suffici5t to %[ h[ con/ant an int]*ange ( sea & l& is tak+ place on ! face ( our globe4 ,9 ! ,m$it]ranean alone1 _m fl\ri%+ inl& t[ns1 & a /ill great] numb] ( ports1 n[ /& :]e ! sea roll$ its waves s9ce ! era ( ! e>ly civilization ( ,europe4 ,if we c\ld comp>e ) equal accuracy ! anci5t & actual /ate ( all ! isl&s & cont95ts1 we %\ld probably discov] t millions ( our race are n[ support$ by l&s situat$ :]e deep seas prevail$ 9 e>li] ages4 ,9 _m di/ricts n yet occupi$ by man1 l& animals & =e/s n[ ab\nd :]e %ips once sail$2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 we %all f9d1 on inquiry1 t inroads ( ! ocean h be5 no less consid]able4 ,:5 to ^! revolutions1 produc$ by aque\s causes1 we add analog\s *anges wr\ght by igne\s ag5cy1 we %all1 p]haps1 ackn[l$ge ! ju/ice ( ! conclusion ( ,ari/otle1 :o decl>$ t ! :ole l& & sea on our globe p]iodically *ang$ places4#cgg ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,de/roy+ ,,& ,,transport+ ,,effects ,,( ,,tides ,,& ,,curr5ts4 ,diff]5ce 9 ! rise ( tides--,lagullas & ,gulf curr5ts--,velocity ( curr5ts--,causes ( curr5ts--,action ( ! sea on ! ,briti% coa/--,%etl& ,isl&s--,l>ge blocks remov$--,isles r$uc$ to clu/]s ( rocks--,orkney isles--,wa/e ( ,ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl&--& ,ea/ coa/ ( ,engl&--,wa/e ( ! cliffs ( ,hold]ness1 ,norfolk1 & ,suffolk--,s&-dunes1 h[ f> *ronomet]s--,silt+ up ( e/u>ies--,y>m\? e/u>y--,suffolk coa/--,dunwi*--,essex coa/--,e/u>y ( ! ,?ames--,goodw9 ,s&s--,coa/ ( ,k5t--,=mation ( ! ,/raits ( ,dov]--,s\? coa/ ( ,engl&--,sussex--,hants--,dorset--,portl &--,orig9 ( ! ,*esil ,bank--,cornwall--,coa/ ( ,brittany4 ,al?\gh ! movem5ts ( great bodies ( wat]1 t]m$ tides & curr5ts1 are 9 g5]al due to v di/9ct causes1 _! effects _c be /udi$ sep>ately2 = !y produce1 by _! jo9t action1 aid$ by t ( ! waves1 ^? *anges :i* are objects ( geological int]e/4 ,^! =ces may be view$ 9 ! same mann] z we be=e consid]$ riv]s1 fir/1 z employ$ 9 de/roy+ portions ( ! solid cru/ ( ! e>? & remov+ !m to o!r places2 secondly1 z reproductive ( new /rata4 ,tides4--,x w\ld be sup]flu\s at ! pres5t day to (f] any rem>ks on ! cause ( ! tides4 ,!y are n p]ceptible 9 lakes or 9 mo/ inl& seas2 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ev51 deep & ext5sive z is t sea1 !y are sc>cely s5sible to ord9>y obs]vation1 _! effects be+ q subord9ate to ^? ( ! w9ds & curr5ts4 ,9 "s places1 h[ev]1 z 9 ! ,/raits ( ,mess9a1 !re is an ebb & fl[ to ! am\nt ( two feet & upw>ds2 at ,naples & at ! ,euripus1 ( twelve or ?irte5 in*es2 & at ,v5ice1 accord+ to ,r5nell1 ( five feet4#cgh ,9 ! ,syrtes1 also1 ( ! anci5ts1 two wide %all[ gulfs1 :i* p5etrate v f> )9 ! nor!rn coa/ ( ,africa1 betwe5 ,c>?age & ,cyr5e1 ! rise is said to exce$ five feet4#cgi ,9 isl&s remote f any cont95t1 ! ebb & fl[ ( ! ocean is v slight1 z at ,/4 ,hel5a1 = example1 :]e x is r>ely above ?ree feet4#chj ,9 any giv5 l9e ( coa/1 ! tides are greate/ 9 n>r[ *annels1 bays1 & e/u>ies1 & lea/ 9 ! int]v5+ tracts :]e ! l& is prom95t4 ,?us1 at ! entrance ( ! e/u>y ( ! ,?ames & ,m$way1 ! rise ( ! spr+ tides is eighte5 feet2 b :5 we foll[ our ea/]n coa/ f !nce nor?w>d1 t[>ds ,l[e/(f & ,y>m\?1 we f9d a gradual dim9ution1 until at ! places la/ m5tion$1 ! highe/ rise is only sev5 or eight feet4 ,f ?is po9t !re beg9s aga9 to be an increase1 s t at ,com]1 :]e ! coa/ aga9 retires t[>ds ! we/1 ! rise is sixte5 feet2 & t[>ds ! extremity ( ! gulf call$ ! ,wa%1 z at ,lynn & 9 ,bo/on ,deeps1 x is f tw5ty-two to tw5ty-f\r feet1 & 9 "s extraord9>y cases tw5ty-six feet4 ,f !nce aga9 !re is a decrease t[>ds1 ! nor?1 ! elevation at ! ,spurn ,po9t be+ f n9ete5 to tw5ty feet1 & at ,flambor\gh ,head & ! ,york%ire coa/ f f\rte5 to sixte5 feet4#cha ,at ,mil=d ,hav5 9 ,pembroke%ire1 at ! m\? ( ! ,bri/ol ,*annel1 ! tides rise ?irty-six feet2 & at ,k+-,road ne> ,bri/ol1 =ty-two feet4 ,at ,*ep/[ on ! ,wye1 a small riv] :i* op5s into ! e/u>y ( ! ,sev]n1 !y rea* fifty feet1 & sometimes sixty-n9e1 & ev5 sev5ty-two feet4 ,a curr5t :i* sets 9 on ! ,fr5* coa/1 to ! we/ ( ,cape ,la ,hague1 becomes p5t up by ,gu]nsey1 ,j]sey1 & o!r isl&s1 till ! rise ( ! tide is f tw5ty to =ty-five feet1 :i* la/ height x atta9s at ,j]sey1 & at ,/4 ,malo1 a seaport ( ,brittany4 ,! tides 9 ! ,bas9 ( ,m9es1 at ! head ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy 9 ,nova ,scotia1 rise to ! height ( sev5ty feet4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s coa/s :]e ! tides seem to (f] an exception to ! rule above m5tion$2 = :ile !re is sc>cely any rise 9 ! e/u>y ( ! ,plata 9 ,s4 ,am]ica1 !re is an extremely high tide on ! op5 coa/ ( ,patagonia1 f>!r to ! s\?4 ,yet ev5 9 ?is region ! tides rea* _! greate/ elevation 7ab\t fifty feet7 9 ! ,/raits ( ,magellan1 & s f> at lea/ !y con=m to ! g5]al rule4#chb ,curr5ts4--,! mo/ ext5sive & be/ det]m9$ sy/em ( curr5ts1 is t :i* has its s\rce 9 ! ,indian ,ocean "u ! influ5ce ( ! trade w9ds2 & :i*1 aft] d\bl+ ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 incl9es to ! nor?w>d1 along ! we/]n coa/ ( ,africa1 !n across ! ,atlantic1 ne> ! equator1 :]e x is call$ ! equatorial curr5t1 & is lo/ 9 ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 yet seems to be aga9 reviv$ 9 ! curr5t :i* issues f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,f !nce x fl[s rapidly ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,bahama1 tak+ ! "n ( ! ,gulf ,/ream1 & pass+ 9 a nor!a/]ly direction1 by ! ,banks ( ,newf\ndl&1 t[>ds ! ,azores4 ,we le>n f ! po/hum\s "w ( ,r5nell on ?is subject1 t ! ,lagullas curr5t1 s call$ f ! cape & bank ( t "n1 is =m$ by ! junction ( two /reams1 fl[+ f ! ,indian ,ocean2 ! "o f ! *annel ( ,mozambique1 d[n ! s\!a/ coa/ ( ,africa2 ! o!r f ! ocean at l>ge4 ,! collective /ream is f n9ety to "o hundr$ miles 9 bread?1 & runs at ! rate ( f two & a half to m ?an f\r miles p] h\r4 ,x is at l5g? turn$ we/w>d by ! ,lagullas bank1 :i* rises f a sea ( great dep? to )9 "o hundr$ fa?oms ( ! surface4 ,x mu/ !re=e be inf]r$1 says ,r5nell1 t ! curr5t "h is m ?an "o hundr$ fa?oms deep1 o!rwise ! ma9 body ( x w\ld pass across ! bank1 in/ead ( be+ deflect$ we/w>d1 s z to fl[ r\nd ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,f ?is cape x fl[s nor?w>d1 z be=e /at$1 along ! we/]n coa/ ( ,africa1 tak+ ! "n ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic curr5t4 ,x !n ent]s ! ,bight1 or ,bay ( ,b591 & is turn$ we/w>d1 p>tly by ! =m ( ! coa/ !re1 & p>tly1 p]haps1 by ! ,gu9ea curr5t1 :i* runs f ! nor? into ! same great bay4 ,f ! c5tre ( ?is bay proce$s ! equatorial curr5t already m5tion$1 hold+ a we/]ly direction across ! ,atlantic1 :i* x trav]ses1 f ! coa/ ( ,gu9ea to t ( ,brazil1 fl[+ aft]w>ds by ! %ores ( ,guiana to ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,! bread? ( ?is curr5t v>ies f #afj to #dej geographical miles1 & its velocity is f tw5ty-five to sev5ty-n9e miles p] day1 ! mean rate be+ ab\t ?irty miles4 ,! l5g? ( its :ole c\rse is ab\t #djjj miles4 ,z x skirts ! coa/ ( ,guiana1 x is increas$ by ! influx ( ! wat]s ( ! ,amazon & ,or9oco1 & by _! junction acquires accel]at$ velocity4 ,aft] pass+ ! isl& ( ,tr9idad x exp&s1 & is almo/ lo/ 9 ! ,c>ibbean ,sea2 b !re appe>s to be a g5]al movem5t ( t sea t[>ds ! ,mexican ,gulf1 :i* dis*>ges ! mo/ p[]ful ( all curr5ts ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida1 :]e ! wat]s run 9 ! nor!rn "p ) a velocity ( f\r or five miles an h\r1 hav+ a bread? ( f ?irty-five to fifty miles4#chc ,! temp]ature ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico is #hf degrees ,f4 9 summ]1 or #f degrees high] ?an t ( ! ocean1 9 ! same p>allel 7#be degrees ,n4 lat471 & a l>ge proportion ( ?is w>m? is reta9$1 ev5 :]e ! /ream rea*es ! #dc degrees ,n4 lat4 ,aft] issu+ f ! ,/raits ( ,florida1 ! curr5t runs 9 a nor!rly direction to ,cape ,hatt]as1 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ab\t #ce degrees ,n4 lat41 :]e x is m ?an sev5ty miles broad1 & /ill moves at ! rate ( sev5ty-five miles p] day4 ,9 ab\t ! #dj degrees ,n4 lat41 x is turn$ m t[>ds ! ,atlantic by ! ext5sive banks ( ,nantucket & ,/4 ,george1 :i* are f #bjj to #cjj feet b5ea? ! surface ( ! sea2 a cle> pro( t ! curr5t exce$s t dep?4 ,on arriv+ ne> ! ,azores1 ! /ream wid5s1 & ov]fl[s1 z x 71 =m+ a l>ge expanse ( w>m wat] 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 ov] a space ( #bjj or #cjj miles f nor? to s\?1 & hav+ a temp]ature ( f #h degrees to #aj degrees ,fahr4 above ! surr\nd+ ocean4 ,! :ole area1 cov]$ by ! ,gulf wat]1 is e/imat$ by ,r5nell at #bjjj miles 9 l5g?1 &1 at a mean1 #cej miles 9 bread?2 an area m ext5sive ?an t ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! w>m wat] has be5 sometimes kn[n to rea* ! ,bay ( ,biscay1 /ill reta9+ five degrees ( temp]ature above t ( ! adjo9+ ocean2 & a bran* ( ! ,gulf curr5t occasionally drifts fruits1 plants1 & wood1 ! produce ( ,am]ica & ! ,we/ ,indies1 to ! %ores ( ,irel& & ! ,hebrides4 ,f ! above /atem5ts we may und]/& :y ,r5nell has *>act]iz$ "s ( ! pr9cipal curr5ts z oceanic riv]s1 :i* he describes z be+ f #ej to #bej miles 9 bread?1 & hav+ a rapidity exce$+ t ( ! l>ge/ navigable riv]s ( ! cont95ts1 & s deep z to be sometimes ob/ruct$1 & occasionally turn$ aside1 by banks1 ! tops ( :i* d n rise )9 =ty1 fifty1 or ev5 "o hundr$ fa?oms ( ! surface ( ! sea4#chd ,greate/ velocity ( curr5ts4--,! ord9>y velocity ( ! pr9cipal curr5ts ( ! ocean is f "o to ?ree miles p] h\r2 b :5 ! b\nd>y l&s conv]ge1 l>ge bodies ( wat] are driv5 gradually into a n>r[ space1 & !n want+ lat]al room1 are compell$ to raise _! level4 ,:5ev] ?is occurs _! velocity is mu* increas$4 ,! curr5t :i* runs ?r\gh ! ,race ( ,ald]ney1 betwe5 ! isl& ( t "n & ! ma9 l&1 has a velocity ( ab\t eight ,engli% miles an h\r4 ,capta9 ,hewett f\nd t 9 ! ,p5tl& ,fir?1 ! /ream1 9 ord9>y spr+ tides1 runs t5 miles & a half an h\r1 & ab\t ?irte5 miles dur+ viol5t /orms4 ,! greate/ velocity ( ! tidal curr5t ?r\gh ! ,%oots or ,new ,passage1 9 ! ,bri/ol ,*annel1 is f\rte5 ,engli% miles an h\r2 & ,capta9 ,k+ obs]v$1 9 8 survey ( ! ,/raits ( ,magellan1 t ! tide ran at ! same rate ?r\gh ! ,fir/ ,n>r[s1 & ab\t eight geographical miles an h\r1 9 o!r p>ts ( ^? /raits4 ,causes ( curr5ts4--,t movem5ts ( no inconsid]able magnitude %\ld be impress$ on an expansive ocean1 by w9ds bl[+ = _m mon?s 9 "o direction1 may easily be conceiv$1 :5 we obs]ve ! effects produc$ 9 our own seas by ! tempor>y action ( ! same cause4 ,x is well kn[n t a /rong s\?we/ or nor?we/ w9d inv>iably raises ! tides to an unusual height along ! we/ coa/ ( ,engl& & 9 ! ,*annel2 & t a nor?we/ w9d ( any cont9uance causes ! ,baltic to rise two feet & upw>ds above its ord9>y level4 ,smeaton asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t1 t 9 a canal f\r miles 9 l5g?1 ! wat] 0 kept up f\r in*es high] at "o end ?an at ! o!r1 m]ely by ! action ( ! w9d along ! canal2 & ,r5nell in=ms u t a l>ge piece ( wat]1 t5 miles broad1 & g5]ally only ?ree feet deep1 has1 by a /rong w9d1 _h its wat]s driv5 to "o side1 & su/a9$ s z to become six feet deep1 :ile ! w9dw>d side 0 laid dry4#che ,z wat]1 !re=e1 he obs]ves1 :5 p5t up s t x _c escape1 acquires a high] level1 s1 9 a place :]e x c escape1 ! same op]ation produces a curr5t2 & ?is curr5t w ext5d to a great] or less di/ance1 accord+ to ! =ce by :i* x is produc$4 ,by ! side ( ! pr9cipal oceanic curr5ts1 su* z ! ,lagullas & ! ,gulf ,/ream1 are p>allel c\nt]-curr5ts runn+ /eadily 9 an opposite direction4 ,curr5ts fl[+ alt]nately 9 opposite directions are occasion$ by ! rise & fall ( ! tides4 ,! effect ( ?is cause is1 z be=e obs]v$1 mo/ /rik+ 9 e/u>ies & *annels betwe5 isl&s4 ,a ?ird cause ( oceanic curr5ts is evaporation by sol> heat1 ( :i* ! great curr5t sett+ ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt> into ! ,m$it]ranean is a rem>kable example1 & w be fully consid]$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,a /ream ( cold] wat] also fl[s f ! ,black ,sea into ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,x mu/ happ5 9 _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w t l>ge quantities ( wat] rais$ f "o tract ( ! ocean by sol> heat1 are c>ri$ to "s o!r :]e ! vapor is cond5s$ & falls 9 ! %ape ( ra91 & ?is1 9 fl[+ back aga9 to re/ore equilibrium1 w cause s5sible curr5ts4 ,^! consid]ations naturally lead to ! inquiry :e!r ! level ( ^? seas out ( :i* curr5ts fl[1 is high] ?an t ( seas into :i* !y fl[4 ,if n1 ! effect mu/ be imm$iately equaliz$ by "u-curr5ts or c\nt]-curr5ts4 ,arago is ( op9ion t1 s f> z obs]vations h gone1 !re are no exact pro(s ( any su* diff]5ce ( level4 ,x 0 inf]r$ f ! measurem5ts ( ,m4 ,lep>e1 t ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 ne> ,alex&ria1 0 l[] by #bf feet #f in*es1 ?an ! ,r$ ,sea ne> ,suez at l[ wat]1 & ab\t #cj feet l[] ?an ! ,r$ ,sea at ! same place at high wat]1#chf b ,mr4 ,rob]t ,/ev5son affirms1 z ! result ( a m rec5t survey1 t !re is no diff]5ce ( level betwe5 ! two seas4#chg ,x 0 =m]ly imag9$ t !re 0 an equal1 if n great]1 div]sity 9 ! relative levels ( ! ,atlantic & ,pacific1 on ! opposite sides ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama4 ,b ! levell+s c>ri$ across t i/hmus by ,capt4 ,lloyd1 9 #ahbh1 to asc]ta9 ! relative height ( ! ,pacific ,ocean at ,panama1 & ( ! ,atlantic at ! m\? ( ! riv] ,*agres1 h %[n1 t ! diff]5ce ( mean level betwe5 ^? oceans is n consid]able1 &1 contr>y to expectation1 ! diff]5ce :i* does exi/ is 9 favor ( ! great] height ( ! ,pacific4 ,accord+ to ?is survey1 ! mean height ( ! ,pacific is ?ree feet & a half1 or #c4eb above ! ,atlantic1 if we assume ! mean level ( a sea to co9cide ) ! mean betwe5 ! extremes ( ! elevation & depression ( ! tides2 = betwe5 ! extreme levels ( ! greate/ tides 9 ! ,pacific1 at ,panama1 !re is a diff]5ce ( #bg4dd feet2 & at ! usual spr+ tides #ba4bb feet2 :]eas at ,*agres ?is diff]5ce is only #a4af feet1 & is ! same at all seasons ( ! ye>4 ,! tides1 9 %ort1 9 ! ,c>ibbean ,sea are sc>cely p]ceptible1 n equall+ ^? 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 :]eas ! rise is v high 9 ! ,bay ( ,panama2 s t ! ,pacific is at high tide lift$ up sev]al feet above ! surface ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 & !n at l[ wat] let d[n z f> bel[ x4#chh ,b a/ronom]s are agre$ t1 on ma!matical pr9ciples1 ! rise ( ! tidal wave above ! mean level ( a p>ticul> sea mu/ be great] ?an ! fall bel[ x2 & al?\gh ! diff]5ce has be5 hi!rto suppos$ insuffici5t to cause an appreciable error1 x is1 nev]!less1 wor?y ( obs]vation1 t ! error1 su* z x may be1 w\ld t5d to r$uce ! small diff]5ce1 n[ inf]r$1 f ! obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,lloyd1 to exi/ betwe5 ! levels ( ! two oceans4 ,!re is /ill ano!r way 9 :i* heat & cold mu/ occasion great movem5ts 9 ! ocean1 a cause to :i*1 p]haps1 curr5ts are pr9cipally due4 ,:5ev] ! temp]ature ( ! surface ( ! sea is l[]$1 cond5sation takes place1 & ! sup]ficial wat]1 hav+ its specific gravity increas$1 falls to ! bottom1 ^u :i* light] wat] rises imm$iately & occupies its place4 ,:5 ?is circulation ( asc5d+ & desc5d+ curr5ts has gone on = a c]ta9 "t 9 high latitudes1 ! inf]ior p>ts ( ! sea are made to consi/ ( cold] or heavi] fluid ?an ! correspond+ dep?s ( ! ocean betwe5 ! tropics4 ,if !re be a free communication1 if no *a9 ( subm>9e m\nta9s divide ! pol> f ! equatorial bas9s1 a horizontal movem5t w arise by ! fl[+ ( cold] wat] f ! poles to ! equator1 & !re w !n be a reflux ( w>m] sup]ficial wat] f ! equator to ! poles4 ,a well-kn[n exp]im5t has be5 adduc$ to elucidate ?is mode ( action 9 explanation ( ! trade w9ds4#chi ,if a long tr\gh1 divid$ 9 ! middle by a sluice or p>tition1 h "o end fill$ ) wat] & ! o!r ) quicksilv]1 bo? fluids w rema9 quiet s long z !y are divid$2 b :5 ! sluice is drawn up1 ! heavi] fluid w ru% along ! bottom ( ! tr\gh1 :ile ! light]1 be+ displac$1 w rise1 &1 fl[+ 9 an opposite direction1 spread itself at ! top4 ,9 l mann] ! expansion & contraction ( sea-wat] by heat & cold1 h a t5d5cy to set "u-curr5ts 9 motion f ! poles to ! equator1 & to cause c\nt]-curr5ts at ! surface1 :i* are impell$ 9 a direction contr>y to t ( ! prevail+ trade w9ds4 ,! geographical & o!r circum/ances be+ v complicat$1 we _c expect to trace sep>ately ! movem5ts due to ea* cause1 b mu/ be prep>$ = _m anomalies1 especially z ! configuration ( ! b$ ( ! ocean mu/ (t5 modify & int]f]e ) ! c\rse ( ! inf]ior curr5ts1 z mu* z ! position & =m ( cont95ts & isl&s alt] ! direction ( ^? on ! surface4 ,?us on s\nd+ at great dep?s 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 ,capta9s ,b]>d & ,d',urville h f\nd t ! cold does n increase 9 a high ratio z 9 ! tropical regions ( ! ocean1 ! !rmomet] rema9+ fix$ at ab\t #ee degrees ,f4 betwe5 ! dep?s ( #ajjj & #fjjj feet4 ,?is might h be5 anticipat$1 z ,capta9 ,smy? 9 8 survey _h %[n t ! deepe/ "p ( ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt> is only #acbj feet1 s t a subm>9e b>ri] exi/s !re :i* mu/ prev5t ! influx ( any "u-curr5t ( ! ocean cool$ by pol> ice4 ,ea* ( ! f\r causes above m5tion$1 ! w9d1 ! tides1 evaporation1 & ! expansion & contraction ( wat] by heat & cold1 may be conceiv$ to op]ate indep5d5tly ( ! o!rs1 & al?\gh ! influ5ce ( all ! re/ 7 annihilat$4 ,b !re is ano!r cause1 ! rotation ( ! e>? on its axis1 :i* c only come into play :5 ! wat]s h already be5 set 9 motion by "s "o or all ( ! =ces above describ$1 & :5 ! direction ( ! curr5t s rais$ happ5s to be f s\? to nor?1 or f nor? to s\?4 ,! pr9ciple on :i* ?is cause op]ates is probably famili> to ! read]1 z x has long be5 recogniz$ 9 ! case ( ! trade w9ds4 ,)\t enl>g+1 !re=e1 on ! !ory1 x w be suffici5t to (f] an example ( ! mode ( action allud$ to4 ,:5 a curr5t fl[s f ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope t[>ds ! ,gulf ( ,gu9ea1 x consi/s ( a mass ( wat]1 :i*1 on d\bl+ ! ,cape1 9 lat4 #ce degrees1 has a rotatory velocity ( ab\t #hjj miles an h\r2 b :5 x rea*es ! l9e1 :]e x turns we/w>d1 x has arriv$ at a p>allel :]e ! surface ( ! e>? is :irl$ r\nd at ! rate ( #ajjj miles an h\r1 or ab\t #bjj miles fa/]4 ,if ?is great mass ( wat] 0 transf]r$ sudd5ly f ! high] to ! l[] latitude1 ! defici5cy ( its rotatory motion1 relatively to ! l& & wat] ) :i* x w\ld come into juxtaposition1 w\ld be su* z to cause an app>5t motion ( ! mo/ rapid k9d 7( no less ?an #bjj miles an h\r7 f ea/ to we/4 ,9 ! case ( su* a sudd5 transf]1 ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,am]ica1 be+ c>ri$ r\nd 9 an opposite direction1 might /rike aga9/ a l>ge body ( wat] ) trem5d\s viol5ce1 & a consid]able "p ( ! cont95t might be subm]g$4 ,?is di/urbance does n occur1 because ! wat] ( ! /ream1 z x advances gradually into new zones ( ! sea :i* are mov+ m rapidly1 acquires by friction an accel]at$ velocity4 ,yet z ?is motion is n imp>t$ in/antane\sly1 ! fluid is unable to keep up ) ! full spe$ ( ! new surface ov] :i* x is successively br\ght4 ,h5ce1 to borr[ ! language ( ,h]s*el1 :5 he speaks ( ! trade w9ds1 x lags or hangs back1 9 a direction opposite to ! e>?'s rotation1 t is1 f ea/ to we/1#cij & ?us a curr5t1 :i* w\ld h run simply t[>ds ! nor? b = ! rotation1 may acquire a relative direction t[>ds ! we/4 ,we may next consid] a case :]e ! circum/ances are ! conv]se ( ! above4 ,! ,gulf ,/ream fl[+ f ab\t lat4 #bj degrees is at fir/ impress$ ) a velocity ( rotation ( ab\t #idj miles an h\r1 & runs to ! lat4 #dj degrees1 :]e ! e>? revolves only at ! rate ( #gff miles1 or #agd miles sl[]4 ,9 ?is case a relative motion ( an opposite k9d may result2 & ! curr5t may reta9 an excess ( rotatory velocity1 t5d+ cont9ually to deflect x ea/w>d4 ,pol> curr5ts1 !re=e1 or ^? fl[+ f high to l[ latitudes1 are driv5 t[>ds ! ea/]n %ores ( cont95ts1 :ile tropical curr5ts fl[+ t[>ds ! poles are direct$ aga9/ _! we/]n %ores4 ,?us x w be se5 t curr5ts dep5d1 l ! tides1 on no tempor>y or accid5tal circum/ances1 b on ! laws :i* preside ov] ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,b al?\gh ! sum ( _! influ5ce 9 alt]+ ! surface ( ! e>? may be v con/ant ?r\gh\t successive epo*s1 yet ! po9ts :]e ^! op]ations are display$ 9 fulle/ en]gy %ift p]petually4 ,! height to :i* ! tides rise1 & ! viol5ce & velocity ( curr5ts1 dep5d 9 a great measure on ! actual configuration ( ! l&1 ! cont\r ( a long l9e ( cont95tal or insul> coa/1 ! dep? & bread? ( *annels1 ! peculi> =m ( ! bottom ( seas--9 a ^w1 on a comb9ation ( circum/ances :i* are made to v>y cont9ually by _m igne\s & aque\s causes1 &1 among/ ! re/1 by ! tides & curr5ts !mselves4 ,al?\gh ^! ag5ts1 !re=e1 ( decay & reproduction are local 9 ref]5ce to p]iods ( %ort duration1 su* z ^? :i* hi/ory embraces1 !y are nev]!less univ]sal1 if we ext5d our views to a suffici5t lapse ( ages4 ,de/roy+ & transport+ p[] ( curr5ts4--,aft] ^! prelim9>y rem>ks on ! nature & causes ( curr5ts1 _! velocity & direction1 we may next consid] _! action on ! solid mat]ials ( ! e>?4 ,we %all f9d t _! ef=ts are1 9 _m respects1 /rictly analog\s to ^? ( riv]s4 ,i h already treat$ 9 ! ?ird *apt]1 ( ! mann] 9 :i* curr5ts sometimes comb9e ) ice1 9 c>ry+ mud1 pebbles1 & l>ge fragm5ts ( rock to great di/ances4 ,_! op]ations are m conceal$ f our view ?an ^? ( riv]s1 b ext5d ov] wid] areas1 & are !re=e ( m geological importance4 ,wa/e ( ! ,briti% coa/s4--,%etl& ,isl&s4--,if we foll[ ! ea/]n & s\!rn %ores ( ! ,briti% isl&s1 f our ,ultima ,?ule 9 ,%etl& to ! ,l&'s ,end 9 ,cornwall1 we %all f9d evid5ce ( a s]ies ( *anges s9ce ! hi/orical era1 v illu/rative ( ! k9d & degree ( =ce ex]t$ by tides & curr5ts co-op]at+ ) ! waves ( ! sea4 ,9 ?is survey we %all h an opportunity ( trac+ _! jo9t p[] on isl&s1 promontories1 bays1 & e/u>ies2 on bold1 l(ty cliffs1 z well z on l[ %ores2 & on e description ( rock & soil1 f granite to bl[n s&4 ,! nor!rnmo/ gr\p ( ! ,briti% isl&s1 ! ,%etl&1 are compos$ ( a great v>iety ( rocks1 includ+ granite1 gneiss1 mica-slate1 s]p5t9e1 gre5/one1 & _m o!rs1 ) "s second>y rocks1 *iefly s&/one & conglom]ate4 ,^! isl&s are expos$ cont9ually to ! uncontroll$ viol5ce ( ! ,atlantic1 = no l& int]v5es betwe5 _! we/]n %ores & ,am]ica4 ,! preval5ce1 !re=e1 ( /rong we/]ly gales1 causes ! waves to be sometimes driv5 ) irresi/ible =ce ^u ! coa/1 :ile !re is also a curr5t sett+ f ! nor?4 ,! spray ( ! sea aids ! decomposition ( ! rocks1 & prep>es !m to be brea*$ by ! me*anical =ce ( ! waves4 ,/eep cliffs are holl[$ out into deep caves & l(ty ar*es2 & almo/ e promontory ends 9 a clu/] ( rocks1 imitat+ ! =ms ( columns1 p9nacles1 & obelisks4 ,drift+ ( l>ge masses ( rock4--,mod]n obs]vations %[ t ! r$uction ( cont9u\s tracts to su* insul> masses is a process 9 :i* nature is /ill actively engag$4 ,! isle ( ,/5ness1 says ,dr4 ,hibb]t1 pres5ts a sc5e ( unequall$ desolation4 ,9 /ormy w9t]s1 huge blocks ( /ones are ov]turn$1 or are remov$ f _! native b$s1 & hurri$ up a slight acclivity to a di/ance almo/ incr$ible4 ,9 ! w9t] ( #ahjb1 a tabul>-%ap$ mass1 eight feet two in*es by sev5 feet1 & five feet "o in* ?ick1 0 dislodg$ f its b$1 & remov$ to a di/ance ( f eighty to n9ety feet4 ,i measur$ ! rec5t b$ f :i* a block _h be5 c>ri$ away ! prec$+ w9t] 7,a4 ,d4 #ahah71 & f\nd x to be sev5te5 feet & a half by sev5 feet1 & ! dep? two feet eight in*es4 ,! remov$ mass _h be5 borne to a di/ance ( ?irty feet1 :5 x 0 %iv]$ into ?irte5 or m less] fragm5ts1 "s ( :i*1 7 c>ri$ /ill f>!r1 f #cj to #abj feet4 ,a block1 n9e feet two in*es by six feet & a half1 & f\r feet ?ick1 0 hurri$ up ! acclivity to a di/ance ( #aej feet4#cia ,at ,nor?mav9e1 also1 angul> blocks ( /one h be5 remov$ 9 a simil> mann] to consid]able di/ances by ! waves ( ! sea1 "s ( :i* are repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ figure4 ,effects ( lightn+4--,9 addition to num]\s examples ( masses deta*$ & driv5 by ! waves1 tides1 & curr5ts f _! place1 "s rem>kable effects ( lightn+ are record$ 9 ^! isles4 ,at ,funzie1 9 ,fetl>1 ab\t ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 a rock ( mica-s*i/1 #aje feet long1 t5 feet broad1 & 9 "s places f\r feet ?ick1 0 9 an in/ant torn by a fla% ( lightn+ f its b$1 & brok5 into ?ree l>ge & sev]al small] fragm5ts4 ,"o ( ^!1 tw5ty-six feet long1 t5 feet broad1 & f\r feet ?ick1 0 simply turn$ ov]4 ,! second1 :i* 0 tw5ty-eight feet long1 sev5te5 broad1 & five feet 9 ?ickness1 0 hurl$ across a high po9t to ! di/ance ( fifty y>ds4 ,ano!r brok5 mass1 ab\t =ty feet long1 0 ?r[n /ill f>!r1 b 9 ! same direction1 q into ! sea4 ,!re 7 also _m small] fragm5ts scatt]$ up & d[n4#cib ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,/ony fragm5ts drift$ by ! sea4 ,nor?mav9e1 ,%etl&4 ,:5 we ?us see electricity co-op]at+ ) ! viol5t movem5ts ( ! ocean 9 heap+ up piles ( %att]$ rocks on dry l& & b5ea? ! wat]s1 we _c b admit t a region :i* %all be ! !atre1 = myriads ( ages1 ( ! action ( su* di/urb+ causes1 might pres5t1 at "s future p]iod1 if uprais$ f> above ! bosom ( ! deep1 a sc5e ( havoc & ru9 t may comp>e ) any n[ f\nd by ! geologi/ on ! surface ( our cont95ts4 ,9 "s ( ! ,%etl& ,isles1 z on ! we/ ( ,meikle ,roe1 dikes1 or ve9s ( s(t granite1 h m\ld]$ away2 :ile ! matrix 9 :i* !y 7 inclos$1 be+ ( ! same sub/ance1 b ( a firm] texture1 has rema9$ unalt]$4 ,?us1 long n>r[ rav9es1 sometimes tw5ty feet wide1 are laid op51 & (t5 give access to ! waves4 ,aft] describ+ "s huge cav]n\s ap]tures into :i* ! sea fl[s = #bej feet 9 ,ro5ess1 ,dr4 ,hibb]t1 writ+ 9 #ahbb1 enum]ates o!r ravages ( ! ocean4 ,a mass ( rock1 ! av]age dim5sions ( :i* may p]haps be rat$ at twelve or ?irte5 feet squ>e1 & f\r & a half or five 9 ?ickness1 0 fir/ mov$ f its b$1 ab\t fifty ye>s ago1 to a di/ance ( ?irty feet1 & has s9ce be5 twice turn$ ov]4 ,passage =c$ by ! sea ?r\gh porphyritic rocks4--,b ! mo/ sublime sc5e is :]e a mural pile ( porphyry1 escap+ ! process ( dis9tegration t is deva/at+ ! coa/1 appe>s to h be5 left z a sort ( ramp>t aga9/ ! inroads ( ! ocean2--! ,atlantic1 :5 provok$ by w9try gales1 batt]s aga9/ x ) all ! =ce ( real artill]y--! waves hav+1 9 _! repeat$ assaults1 =c$ !mselves an entrance4 ,?is brea*1 nam$ ! ,gr9d ( ! ,navir 7fig4 #bh71 is wid5$ e w9t] by ! ov]:elm+ surge t1 f9d+ a passage ?r\gh x1 sep>ates l>ge /ones f its sides1 & =ces !m to a di/ance ( no less ?an #ahj feet4 ,9 two or ?ree spots1 ! fragm5ts :i* h be5 deta*$ are br\ght toge!r 9 imm5se heaps1 t appe> z an accumulation ( cubical masses1 ! product ( "s qu>ry4#cic ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,gr9d ( ! ,navir--passage =c$ by ! sea ?r\gh rocks ( h>d porphyry4 ,x is evid5t f ?is example1 t al?\gh ! great] inde/ructibility ( "s rocks may enable !m to )/&1 = a long] "t1 ! action ( ! elem5ts1 yet !y _c p]man5tly resi/4 ,!re are localities 9 ,%etl&1 9 :i* rocks ( almo/ e v>iety ( m9]al composition are suff]+ dis9tegration2 ?us ! sea makes great inroads on ! clay slate ( ,fitfel ,head1 on ! s]p5t9e ( ! ,vord ,hill 9 ,fetl>1 & on ! mica-s*i/ ( ! ,bay ( ,trie/a1 on ! ea/ coa/ ( ! same isl&1 :i* decomposes into angul> blocks4 ,! qu>tz rock on ! ea/ ( ,walls1 & ! gneiss & mica-s*i/ ( ,g>?ness1 suff] ! same fate4 ,de/ruction ( isl&s4--,su* deva/ation _c be incessantly committ$ = ?\s&s ( ye>s )\t divid+ isl&s1 until !y become at la/ m]e clu/]s ( rocks1 ! la/ %r$s ( masses once cont9u\s4 ,to ?is /ate _m appe> to h be5 r$uc$1 & innum]able fanta/ic =ms are assum$ by rocks adjo9+ ^! isl&s to :i* ! "n ( ,drongs is appli$1 z x is to ^? ( simil> %ape 9 ,f]oe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,granitic rocks nam$ ! ,drongs1 betwe5 ,papa ,/\r & ,hillswick ,ness4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,granitic rocks to ! s\? ( ,hillswick ,ness1 ,%etl&4 ,! granite rocks 7fig4 #bi71 betwe5 ,papa ,/\r & ,hillswick ,ness af=d an example4 ,a /ill m s+ul> clu/] ( rocks is se5 to ! s\? ( ,hillswick ,ness 7fig4 #cj71 :i* pres5ts a v>iety ( =ms z view$ f diff]5t po9ts1 & has (t5 be5 lik5$ to a small fleet ( vessels ) spread sails4#cid ,we may imag9e t 9 ! c\rse ( "t ,hillswick ,ness itself may pres5t a simil> wreck1 f ! unequal decomposition ( ! rocks :]e( x is compos$1 consi/+ ( gneiss & mica-s*i/ trav]s$ 9 all directions by ve9s ( felsp>-porphyry4 ,midway betwe5 ! gr\ps ( ,%etl& & ,orkney is ,fair ,isl&1 said to be compos$ ( s&/one ) high p]p5dicul> cliffs4 ,! curr5t runs ) su* velocity1 t dur+ a calm1 & :5 !re is no swell1 ! rocks on its %ores are :ite ) ! foam ( ! sea driv5 aga9/ !m4 ,! ,orkneys1 if c>efully exam9$1 w\ld probably illu/rate our pres5t topic z mu* z ! ,%etl& gr\p4 ,! nor!a/ promontory ( ,s&a1 "o ( ^! isl&s1 has be5 cut (f 9 mod]n times by ! sea1 s t x became :at is n[ call$ ,/>t ,isl&1 :]e a ligh?\se 0 erect$ 9 #ahjg1 s9ce :i* "t ! new /rait has gr[n broad]4 ,ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl&4--,to pass ov] to ! ma9 l& ( ,scotl&1 we f9d t 9 ,inv]ness-%ire !re h be5 inroads ( ! sea at ,=t ,george1 & o!rs 9 ,moray%ire1 :i* h swept away ! old t[n ( ,f9dhorn4 ,on ! coa/ ( ,k9c>d9e%ire1 an illu/ration 0 af=d$ at ! close ( ! la/ c5tury1 ( ! effect ( promontories 9 protect+ a l9e ( l[ %ore4 ,! village ( ,ma!rs1 two miles s\? ( ,john%av51 0 built on an anci5t %+le bea*1 protect$ by a project+ l$ge ( lime/one rock4 ,?is 0 qu>ri$ = lime to su* an ext5t t ! sea broke ?r\gh1 & 9 #agie c>ri$ away ! :ole village 9 "o night1 & p5etrat$ #aej y>ds inl&1 :]e x has ma9ta9$ its gr\nd ev] s9ce1 ! new village hav+ be5 built f>!r inl& on ! new %ore4 ,9 ! bay ( ,montrose1 we f9d ! ,nor? ,esk & ! ,s\? ,esk riv]s p\r+ annually into ! sea l>ge quantities ( s& & pebbles2 yet !y h =m$ no deltas1 = ! waves1 aid$ by ! curr5t1 sett+ across _! m\?s1 sweep away all ! mat]ials4 ,consid]able b$s ( %+le1 br\ght d[n by ! ,nor? ,esk1 are se5 along ! bea*4 ,proce$+ s\?w>ds1 we le>n t at ,arbroa?1 9 ,=f>%ire1 :i* /&s on a rock ( r$ s&/one1 g>d5s & h\ses h be5 c>ri$ away s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury by encroa*m5ts ( ! sea4 ,x _h become necess>y be=e #ahbh1 to remove ! ligh?\ses at ! m\? ( ! e/u>y ( ! ,tay1 9 ! same c\nty1 at ,button ,ness1 :i* 7 built on a tract ( bl[n s&1 ! sea hav+ encroa*$ = ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile4 ,=ce ( waves & curr5ts 9 e/u>ies4--,! comb9$ p[] :i* waves & curr5ts c ex]t 9 e/u>ies 7a t]m :i* ,i conf9e to bays ent]$ bo? by riv]s & ! tides ( ! sea71 0 rem>kably exhibit$ dur+ ! build+ ( ! ,bell ,rock ,ligh?\se1 (f ! m\? ( ! ,tay4 ,! ,bell ,rock is a sunk5 reef1 consi/+ ( r$ s&/one1 be+ f twelve to sixte5 feet "u ! surface at high wat]1 & ab\t twelve miles f ! ma9l&4 ,at ! di/ance ( #ajj y>ds1 !re is a dep?1 9 all directions ( two or ?ree fa?oms at l[ wat]4 ,9 #ahjg1 dur+ ! erection ( ! ligh?\se1 six l>ge blocks ( granite1 :i* _h be5 l&$ on ! reef1 7 remov$ by ! =ce ( ! sea1 & ?r[n ov] a ris+ l$ge to ! di/ance ( twelve or fifte5 paces2 & an an*or1 weigh+ ab\t #bb cwt41 0 ?r[n up ^u ! rock4#cie ,mr4 ,/ev5son in=ms u moreov]1 t drift /ones1 measur+ upw>ds ( ?irty cubic feet1 or m ?an two tons' weight1 h1 dur+ /orms1 be5 (t5 ?r[n ^u ! rock f ! deep wat]4#cif ,subm>9e =e/s4--,among ! pro(s t ! sea has encroa*$ on ! l& bord]+ ! e/u>y ( ! ,tay1 ,dr4 ,flem+ has m5tion$ a subm>9e =e/ :i* has be5 trac$ = sev]al miles along ! nor!rn %ore ( ! c\nty ( ,fife4#cig ,b subsequ5t surveys seem to h %[n t ! b$ ( peat conta9+ tree-roots1 leaves1 & bran*es1 n[ occurr+ at a l[] level ?an ! ,tay1 mu/ h come into its pres5t position by a g5]al s9k+ ( ! gr\nd on :i* ! =e/ grew4 ,! peat-b$ allud$ to is n conf9$1 says ,mr4 ,bui/1 to ! pres5t *annel ( ! ,tay1 b ext5ds f> beyond x1 & is cov]$ by /ratifi$ clay f fifte5 to tw5ty-five feet 9 ?ickness1 9 ! mid/ ( :i*1 9 "s places1 is a b$ full ( sea-%ells4#cih ,rec5t discov]ies hav+ e/abli%$ ! fact t upw>d & d[nw>d movem5ts h affect$ our isl& s9ce ! g5]al coa/-l9e _h ne>ly acquir$ its pres5t %ape1 we mu/ hesitate be=e we attribute any giv5 *ange to a s+le cause1 su* z ! local encroa*m5t ( ! sea ^u l[ l&4 ,on ! coa/ ( ,fife1 at ,/4 ,&rew's1 a tract ( l&1 said to h int]v5$ betwe5 ! ca/le ( ,c>d9al ,beaton & ! sea1 has be5 entirely swept away1 z 7 ! la/ rema9s ( ! ,priory ( ,crail1 9 ! same c\nty1 9 #ahjc4 ,on bo? sides ( ! ,fri? ( ,=?1 l& has be5 consum$2 at ,nor? ,b]wick 9 p>ticul>1 & at ,ne:av51 :]e an ars5al & dock1 built 9 ! reign ( ,james ,,iv41 9 ! fifte5? c5tury1 has be5 ov]fl[$4 ,ea/ coa/ ( ,engl&4--,if we n[ proce$ to ! ,engli% coa/1 we f9d records ( num]\s l&s hav+ be5 de/roy$ 9 ,nor?umb]l&1 z ^? ne> ,bambor\gh & ,holy ,isl&1 & at ,tynem\? ,ca/le1 :i* n[ ov]hangs ! sea1 al?\gh =m]ly sep>at$ f x by a /rip ( l&4 ,at ,h>tlepool1 & sev]al o!r p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,durham compos$ ( magnesian lime/one1 ! sea has made consid]able inroads4 ,coa/ ( ,york%ire4--,almo/ ! :ole coa/ ( ,york%ire1 f ! m\? ( ! ,tees to t ( ! ,humb]1 is 9 a /ate ( gradual dilapidation4 ,t "p ( ! cliffs :i* consi/ ( lias1 ! oolite s]ies1 & *alk1 decays sl[ly4 ,!y pres5t abrupt & nak$ precipices1 (t5 #cjj feet 9 height2 & x is only at a few po9ts t ! grassy cov]+ ( ! slop+ talus m>ks a tempor>y relaxation ( ! erosive action ( ! sea4 ,! *alk cliffs are worn into caves & ne$les 9 ! project+ headl& ( ,flambor\gh1 :]e !y are decompos$ by ! salt spray1 & sl[ly crumble away4 ,b ! wa/e is mo/ rapid betwe5 t promontory & ,spurn ,po9t1 or ! coa/ ( ,hold]ness1 z x is call$1 a tract consi/+ ( b$s ( clay1 gravel1 s&1 & *alk rubble4 ,! irregul> int]mixture ( ! argillace\s b$s causes _m spr+s to be ?r[n out1 & ?is facilitates ! und]m9+ process1 ! waves beat+ aga9/ !m1 & a /rong curr5t sett+ *iefly f ! nor?4 ,! wa/eful action is v conspicu\s at ,diml+ton ,height1 ! l(tie/ po9t 9 ,hold]ness1 :]e ! beacon /&s on a cliff #adf feet above high wat]1 ! :ole be+ compos$ ( clay1 ) pebbles scatt]$ ?r\gh x4#cii ,= _m ye>s1 says ,pr(essor ,phillips1 ! rate at :i* ! cliffs rec$e f ,bridl+ton to ,spurn1 a di/ance ( ?irty-six miles1 has be5 f\nd by measurem5t to equal on an av]age two & a qu>t] y>ds annually1 :i*1 ^u ?irty-six miles ( coa/1 w\ld am\nt to ab\t ?irty acres a ye>4 ,at ?is rate1 ! coa/1 ! mean height ( :i* above ! sea is ab\t =ty feet1 has lo/ "o mile 9 bread? s9ce ! ,norman ,conque/1 & m ?an two miles s9ce ! occupation ( ,york 7,eboracum7 by ! ,romans4#djj ,! ext5t ( ?is d5udation1 z e/imat$ by ! numb] ( cubic feet ( matt] remov$ annually1 w be aga9 spok5 ( 9 *apt] #bb4 ,9 ! old maps ( ,york%ire1 we f9d spots1 n[ s&-banks 9 ! sea1 m>k$ z ! anci5t sites ( ! t[ns & villages ( ,auburn1 ,h>tburn1 & ,hyde4 ,( ,hyde1 says ,p5nant1 only ! tradition is left2 & ne> ! village ( ,hornsea1 a /reet call$ ,hornsea ,beck has long s9ce be5 swall[$4#dja ,ow?orne & its *ur* h also be5 9 great "p de/roy$1 & ! village ( ,kilnsea2 b ^! places are n[ remov$ f>!r inl&4 ,! annual rate ( encroa*m5t at ,ow?orne = sev]al ye>s prec$+ #ahcj1 is /at$ to h av]ag$ ab\t f\r y>ds4 ,n unreasonable fe>s are ent]ta9$ t at "s future "t ! ,spurn ,po9t w become an isl&1 & t ! ocean1 ent]+ into ! e/u>y ( ! ,humb]1 w cause great deva/ation4#djb ,p5nant1 aft] speak+ ( ! silt+ up ( "s anci5t ports 9 t e/u>y1 obs]ves1 ,b1 9 return1 ! sea has made mo/ ample reprisals2 ! site1 & ev5 ! v names ( sev]al places1 once t[ns ( note ^u ! ,humb]1 are n[ only record$ 9 hi/ory2 & ,rav5sp] 0 at "o "t a rival to ,hull 7,madox1 ,ant4 ,ex*4 i4 #dbb71 & a port s v consid]able 9 #accb1 t ,edw>d ,baliol & ! conf$]at$ ,engli% b>ons sail$ f h5ce to invade ,scotl&2 & ,h5ry ,,iv41 9 #acii1 made *oice ( ?is port to l& at1 to effect ! deposal ( ,ri*>d ,,ii42 yet ! :ole ( ?is has long s9ce be5 dev\r$ by ! m]ciless ocean2 ext5sive s&s1 dry at l[ wat]1 are to be se5 9 _! /ead4#djc ,p5nant describes ,spurn ,head z a promontory 9 ! =m ( a sickle1 & says ! l&1 = "s miles to ! nor?1 0 p]petually prey$ on by ! fury ( ! ,g]man ,sea1 :i* dev\rs :ole acres at a "t1 & exposes on ! %ores consid]able quantities ( beautiful amb]4 ,l9coln%ire4--,! m>itime di/rict ( ,l9coln%ire consi/s *iefly ( l&s t lie bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 be+ protect$ by embankm5ts4 ,"s ( ! f5s 7 embank$ & dra9$ by ! ,romans2 b aft] _! dep>ture ! sea return$1 & l>ge tracts 7 cov]$ ) b$s ( silt1 conta9+ m>9e %ells1 n[ aga9 conv]t$ into productive l&s4 ,_m dreadful cata/rophes are record$ by incursions ( ! sea1 :]eby sev]al p>i%es h be5 at diff]5t times ov]:elm$4 ,norfolk4--,! decay ( ! cliffs ( ,norfolk & ,suffolk is incessant4 ,at ,hun/anton1 on ! nor?1 ! und]m9+ ( ! l[] ar5ace\s b$s at ! foot ( ! cliff1 causes masses ( r$ & :ite *alk to be precipitat$ f above4 ,betwe5 ,hun/anton & ,weyb\rne1 l[ hills1 or dunes1 ( bl[n s&1 are =m$ along ! %ore1 f fifty to sixty feet high4 ,!y are compos$ ( dry s&1 b\nd 9 a compact mass by ! long creep+ roots ( ! plant call$ ,m>ram 7,arundo ar5>ia74 ,su* is ! pres5t set ( ! tides1 t ! h>bors ( ,clay1 ,wells1 & o!r places are securely def5d$ by ^! b>ri]s2 af=d+ a cle> pro( t x is n ! /r5g? ( ! mat]ial at p>ticul> po9ts t det]m9es :e!r ! sea %all be progressive or /ation>y1 b ! g5]al cont\r ( ! coa/4 ,! waves con/antly und]m9e ! l[ *alk cliffs1 cov]$ ) s& & clay1 betwe5 ,weyb\rne & ,%]r+ham1 a c]ta9 portion ( !m be+ annually remov$4 ,at ! latt] t[n ,i asc]ta9$1 9 #ahbi1 "s facts :i* ?r[ light on ! rate at :i* ! sea ga9s ^u ! l&4 ,x 0 comput$1 :5 ! pres5t inn 0 built1 9 #ahje1 t x w\ld require sev5ty ye>s = ! sea to rea* ! spot3 ! mean loss ( l& be+ calculat$1 f previ\s obs]vations1 to be some:at less ?an "o y>d1 annually4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! h\se & ! sea 0 fifty y>ds2 b no all[ance 0 made = ! slope ( ! gr\nd be+ f ! sea1 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! wa/e 0 naturally accel]at$ e ye>1 z ! cliff grew l[]1 !re be+ at ea* succe$+ p]iod less matt] to remove :5 portions ( equal area fell d[n4 ,betwe5 ! ye>s #ahbd & #ahbi1 no less ?an sev5te5 y>ds 7 swept away1 & only a small g>d5 0 !n left betwe5 ! build+ & ! sea4 ,!re 01 9 #ahbi1 a dep? ( tw5ty feet 7suffici5t to float a frigate7 at "o po9t 9 ! h>bor ( t port1 :]e1 only =ty-eight ye>s be=e1 !re /ood a cliff fifty feet high1 ) h\ses ^u x6 ,if once 9 half a c5tury an equal am\nt ( *ange 7 produc$ sudd5ly by ! mom5t>y %ock ( an e>?quake1 hi/ory w\ld be fill$ ) records ( su* wond]ful revolutions ( ! e>?'s surface2 b1 if ! conv]sion ( high l& into deep sea be gradual1 x excites only local att5tion4 ,! flag/aff ( ! ,prev5tive ,s]vice /ation1 on ! s\? side ( ?is h>bor1 0 ?rice remov$ inl& betwe5 ! ye>s #ahad & #ahbi1 9 consequ5ce ( ! advance ( ! sea4 ,f>!r to ! s\? we f9d cliffs1 compos$1 l ^? ( ,hold]ness be=e m5tion$1 ( alt]nat+ /rata ( blue clay1 gravel1 loam1 & f9e s&4 ,al?\gh !y sometimes exce$ #cjj feet 9 height1 ! havoc made on ! coa/ is mo/ =midable4 ,! :ole site ( anci5t ,crom] n[ =ms "p ( ! ,g]man ,ocean1 ! inhabitants hav+ gradually retreat$ inl& to _! pres5t situation1 f :5ce ! sea /ill ?reat5s to dislodge !m4 ,9 ! w9t] ( #ahbe1 a fall5 mass 0 precipitat$ f ne> ! ligh?\se1 :i* cov]$ twelve acres1 ext5d+ f> into ! sea1 ! cliffs be+ #bej feet 9 height4#djd ,! und]m9+ by spr+s has sometimes caus$ l>ge portions ( ! upp] "p ( ! cliffs1 ) h\ses /ill /&+ ^u !m1 to give way1 s t x is impossible1 by erect+ breakwat]s at ! base ( ! cliffs1 p]man5tly to w>d (f ! dang]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,t[] ( ! buri$ ,*ur* ( ,eccles1 ,norfolk1 ,a4 ,d4 #ahci4 ,! inl& slope ( ! hills ( bl[n s& is %[n 9 ?is view1 ) ! ligh?\se ( ,hasbor\gh 9 ! di/ance4 ,on ! same coa/1 says ,mr4 ,r4 ,c4 ,taylor1 ! anci5t villages ( ,%ipd51 ,wimpwell1 & ,eccles h disappe>$2 sev]al manors & l>ge portions ( neighbor+ p>i%es hav+1 piece aft] piece1 be5 swall[$ up2 nor has !re be5 any int]mission1 f "t immemorial1 9 ! ravages ( ! sea along a l9e ( coa/ tw5ty miles 9 l5g?1 9 :i* ^! places /ood4#dje ,( ,eccles1 h[ev]1 a monum5t /ill rema9s 9 ! ra9$ t[] ( ! old *ur*1 :i* is half buri$ 9 ! dunes ( s& )9 a few paces 7#fj87 ( ! sea-bea* 7fig4 #ca74 ,s e>ly z #afje ! inhabitants petition$ ,james ,i4 = a r$uction ( taxes1 z #cjj acres ( l&1 & all _! h\ses1 save f\rte51 _h !n be5 de/roy$ by ! sea4 ,n "o half t numb] ( acres n[ rema9s 9 ! p>i%1 & hills ( bl[n s& n[ occupy ! site ( ! h\ses :i* 7 /ill extant 9 #afje4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ! spot 9 #ahci1 ! sea 0 fa/ encroa*+ on ! s&-hills1 & _h laid op5 on ! bea* ! f\ndations ( a h\se f\rte5 y>ds squ>e1 ! upp] "p ( :i* _h evid5tly be5 pull$ d[n be=e x _h be5 buri$ "u s&4 ,! body ( ! *ur* has also be5 long buri$1 b ! t[] /ill rema9s visible4 ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont has sugge/$ t s&-dunes 9 ,holl& & o!r c\ntries may s]ve z natural *ronomet]s1 by :i* ! date ( ! exi/+ cont95ts may be asc]ta9$4 ,! s&s1 he says1 are cont9ually bl[n inl& by ! =ce ( ! w9ds1 & by obs]v+ ! rate ( _! m>* we may calculate ! p]iod :5 ! movem5t comm5c$4#djf ,b ! example j giv5 w satisfy e geologi/ t we _c asc]ta9 ! />t+-po9t ( dunes1 all coa/s be+ liable to wa/e1 & ! %ores ( ! ,l[ ,c\ntries 9 p>ticul>1 be+ n only expos$ to inroads ( ! sea1 b1 z ,m4 de ,beaumont himself has well %[n1 hav+ ev5 9 hi/orical times und]gone a *ange ( level4 ,! dunes may inde$1 9 "s cases1 be made use ( z *ronomet]s1 to enable u to assign a m9imum ( antiquity to exi/+ coa/-l9es2 b ?is te/ mu/ be appli$ ) great caution1 s v>iable is ! rate at :i* ! s&s may advance into ! int]ior4 ,hills ( bl[n s&1 betwe5 ,eccles & ,w9t]ton1 h b>r$ up & exclud$ ! tide = _m hundr$ ye>s f ! m\?s ( sev]al small e/u>ies2 b !re are records ( n9e brea*es1 f #bj to #abj y>ds wide1 hav+ be5 made ?r\gh ^!1 by :i* imm5se damage 0 done to ! l[ gr\nds 9 ! int]ior4 ,a few miles s\? ( ,happisburgh1 also1 are hills ( bl[n s&1 :i* ext5d to ,y>m\?4 ,^! dunes af=d a tempor>y protection to ! coa/1 & an inl& cliff1 ab\t a mile long1 at ,w9t]ton1 %[s cle>ly t at t po9t ! sea mu/ h p5etrat$ =m]ly f>!r ?an at pres5t4 ,silt+ up ( e/u>ies--,at ,y>m\?1 ! sea has n advanc$ ^u ! s&s 9 ! slighte/ degree s9ce ! reign ( ,elizabe?4 ,9 ! "t ( ! ,saxons1 a great e/u>y ext5d$ z f> z ,norwi*1 :i* city1 is repres5t$2 ev5 9 ! ?irte5? & f\rte5? c5turies1 z situat$ on ! banks ( an arm ( ! sea4 ,! s&s :]eon ,y>m\? is built1 fir/ became firm & habitable gr\nd ab\t ! ye> #ajjh1 f :i* "t a l9e ( dunes has gradually increas$ 9 height & bread?1 /ret*+ across ! :ole entrance ( ! anci5t e/u>y1 & ob/ruct+ ! +ress ( ! tides s completely1 t !y are only admitt$ by ! n>r[ passage :i* ! riv] keeps op51 & :i* has gradually %ift$ sev]al miles to ! s\?4 ,! ord9>y tides at ! riv]'s m\? rise1 at pres5t1 only to ! height1 ( ?ree or f\r feet1 ! spr+ tides to ab\t eight or n9e4 ,by ! exclusion ( ! sea1 ?\s&s ( acres 9 ! int]ior h become cultivat$ l&s2 &1 exclusive ( small] pools1 upw>ds ( sixty fre%wat] lakes h be5 =m$1 v>y+ 9 dep? f fifte5 to ?irty feet1 & 9 ext5t f "o acre to twelve hundr$4#djg ,! ,y>e1 & o!r riv]s1 frequ5tly communicate ) ^! %eets ( wat]2 & ?us !y are liable to be fill$ up gradually ) lacu/r9e & fluviatile deposits1 & to be conv]t$ into l& cov]$ ) =e/s4 ,yet x mu/ n be imag9$1 t ! acquisition ( new l& fit = cultivation 9 ,norfolk & ,suffolk indicates any p]man5t gr[? ( ! ea/]n limits ( our isl& to comp5sate its reit]at$ losses4 ,no delta c =m on su* a %ore4 ,imm$iately (f ,y>m\?1 & p>allel to ! %ore1 is a great range ( s&-banks1 ! %ape ( :i* v>ies sl[ly f ye> to ye>1 & (t5 sudd5ly aft] great /orms4 ,capta9 ,hewitt1 ,r4 ,n41 f\nd 9 ^! banks1 9 #ahcf1 a broad *annel sixty-five feet deep1 :]e !re 0 only a dep? ( f\r feet dur+ a prior survey 9 #ahbb4 ,! sea _h excavat$ to ! dep? ( sixty feet 9 ! c\rse ( f\rte5 ye>s1 or p]haps a %ort] p]iod4 ,! new *annel ?us =m$ s]ves at pres5t 7#ahch71 = ! entrance ( %ips into ,y>m\? ,roads2 & ! magnitude ( ?is *ange %[s h[ easily a new set ( ! waves & curr5ts might endang] ! subm]g5ce ( ! l& ga9$ )9 ! anci5t e/u>y ( ! ,y>e4 ,t great banks %\ld be ?r[n across ! m\?s ( e/u>ies on our ea/]n coa/1 :]e !re is n a l>ge body ( riv]-wat] to ma9ta9 an op5 *annel1 is p]fectly intelligible1 :5 we be> 9 m9d t ! m>9e curr5t1 sweep+ along ! coa/1 is *>g$ ) ! mat]ials ( wa/+ cliffs1 & ready to =m a b> any:]e ! in/ant its c\rse is int]rupt$ or *eck$ by any oppos+ /ream4 ,! m\? ( ! ,y>e has be51 )9 ! la/ five c5turies1 div]t$ ab\t f\r miles to ! s\?4 ,9 l mann] x is evid5t t1 at "s remote p]iod1 ! riv] ,alde ent]$ ! sea at ,aldbor\gh1 until its anci5t outlet 0 b>r$ up & at l5g? transf]r$ to a po9t no less ?an t5 miles di/ant to ! s\?we/4 ,9 ?is case1 ridges ( s& & %+le1 l ^? ( ,l[e/(f ,ness1 :i* w be describ$ by & by1 h be5 ?r[n up betwe5 ! riv] & ! sea2 & an anci5t sea-cliff is to be se5 n[ inl&4 ,x may be ask$ :y ! riv]s on our ea/ coa/ are always deflect$ s\?w>ds1 al?\gh ! tidal curr5t fl[s alt]nately f ! s\? & nor?8 ,! cause is to be f\nd 9 ! sup]ior =ce ( :at is commonly call$ ! flood tide f ! nor?1 a tidal wave d]iv$ f ! ,atlantic1 a small "p ( :i* passes ea/w>d up ! ,engli% ,*annel1 & ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,dov] & !n nor?w>ds1 :ile ! pr9cipal body ( wat]1 mov+ mu* m rapidly 9 a m op5 sea1 on ! we/]n side ( ,brita91 fir/ passes ! ,orkneys1 & !n turn+1 fl[s d[n betwe5 ,norway & ,scotl&1 & sweeps ) great velocity along our ea/]n coa/4 ,x is well kn[n t ! highe/ tides on ?is coa/ are occasion$ by a p[]ful nor?we/ w9d1 :i* raises ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,atlantic1 & causes x to p\r a great] volume ( wat] into ! ,g]man ,ocean4 ,?is circum/ance ( a viol5t (f-%ore w9d be+ att5d$ ) a rise ( ! wat]s1 in/ead ( a g5]al retreat ( ! sea1 naturally excites ! wond] ( ! inhabitants ( our coa/4 ,9 _m di/ricts !y look ) confid5ce = a ri* h>ve/ ( t valuable manure1 ! sea-we$1 :5 ! nor?-we/]ly gales prevail1 & are r>ely disappo9t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,map ( ,l[e/(f ,ness1 ,suffolk4#djh a1 a4 ,! dott$ l9es express a s]ies ( s& & %+le1 =m+ ! extremity ( ! triangul> space call$ ! ,ness4 b1 b1 b4 ,! d>k l9e repres5ts ! inl& cliff on :i* ! t[n ( ,l[e/(f /&s1 betwe5 :i* & ! sea is ! ,ness4 ,coa/ ( ,suffolk4--,! cliffs ( ,suffolk1 to :i* we next proce$1 are some:at less elevat$ ?an ^? ( ,norfolk1 b compos$ ( simil> alt]nations ( clay1 s&1 & gravel4 ,f ,gorle/on 9 ,suffolk1 to )9 a few miles nor? ( ,l[e/(f1 ! cliffs are sl[ly und]m9$4 ,ne> ! la/-m5tion$ t[n1 !re is an inl& cliff ab\t sixty feet high1 ! slop+ talus ( :i* is cov]$ ) turf & hea?4 ,betwe5 ! cliff & ! sea is a l[ flat tract ( s& call$ ! ,ness1 ne>ly ?ree miles long1 & = ! mo/ "p out ( rea* ( ! highe/ tides4 ,! po9t ( ! ,ness projects f ! base ( ! orig9al cliff to ! di/ance ( #ffj y>ds4 ,?is accession ( l&1 says ,mr4 ,taylor1 has be5 effect$ at di/9ct & di/ant int]vals1 by ! influ5ce ( curr5ts runn+ betwe5 ! l& & a %oal ab\t a mile (f ,l[e/(f1 call$ ! ,holm ,s&4 ,! l9es ( gr[? 9 ! ,ness are indicat$ by a s]ies ( conc5tric ridges or embankm5ts inclos+ limit$ areas1 & sev]al ( ^! ridges h be5 =m$ )9 ! obs]vation ( p]sons n[ liv+4 ,a ramp>t ( heavy mat]ials is fir/ ?r[n up to an unusual altitude by "s extraord9>y tide1 att5d$ ) a viol5t gale4 ,subsequ5t tides ext5d ! base ( ?is high bank ( %+le1 & ! int]/ices are !n fill$ ) s& bl[n f ! bea*4 ,! ,arundo & o!r m>9e plants by degrees obta9 a foot+2 & creep+ along ! ridge1 give solidity to ! mass1 & =m 9 "s cases a matt$ cov]+ ( turf4 ,mean:ile ano!r m\nd is =m+ ext]nally1 :i* by ! l process rises & gives protection to ! fir/4 ,if ! sea =ces its way ?r\gh "o ( ! ext]nal & incomplete m\nds1 ! brea* is soon repair$4 ,aft] a :ile ! m>9e plants )9 ! areas inclos$ by ^! embankm5ts are succe$$ by a bett] species ( h]bage af=d+ good pa/urage1 & ! s&s become suffici5tly firm to support build+s4 ,de/ruction ( ,dunwi* by ! sea4--,( ! gradual de/ruction ( ,dunwi*1 once ! mo/ consid]able seaport on ?is coa/1 we h _m au!ntic records4 ,g>dn]1 9 8 hi/ory ( t bor\gh1 publi%$ 9 #aged1 %[s1 by ref]5ce to docum5ts1 beg9n+ ) ,doomsday ,book1 t ! cliffs at ,dunwi*1 ,s\?wold1 ,ea/]n1 & ,pakefield1 h be5 always subject to we> away4 ,at ,dunwi*1 9 p>ticul>1 two tracts ( l& :i* _h be5 tax$ 9 ! elev5? c5tury1 9 ! "t ( ,k+ ,edw>d ! ,confessor1 are m5tion$ 9 ! ,conqu]or's survey1 made b a few ye>s aft]w>ds1 z hav+ be5 dev\r$ by ! sea4 ,! losses1 at a subsequ5t p]iod1 ( a mona/]y1--at ano!r ( sev]al *ur*es1--aft]w>ds ( ! old port1--!n ( f\r hundr$ h\ses at once1--( ! *ur* ( ,/4 ,leon>d1 ! high-road1 t[n-hall1 jail1 & _m o!r build+s1 are m5tion$1 ) ! dates :5 !y p]i%$4 ,x is /at$ t1 9 ! sixte5? c5tury1 n "o-qu>t] ( ! t[n 0 left /&+2 yet ! inhabitants retreat+ inl&1 ! "n 0 pres]v$1 z has be5 ! case ) _m o!r ports :5 _! anci5t site has be5 blott$ out4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a *ur* ( consid]able antiquity /ill /&+1 ! la/ ( twelve m5tion$ 9 "s records4 ,9 #agdj1 ! lay+ op5 ( ! *ur*y>d ( ,/4 ,ni*olas & ,/4 ,francis1 9 ! sea-cliffs1 is well describ$ by ,g>dn]1 ) ! c(f9s & skeletons expos$ to view--"s ly+ on ! bea*1 & rock$ ,9 cradle ( ! rude imp]i\s surge4 ,( ^! cemet]ies no rema9s c n[ be se54 ,ray also says1 t anci5t writ+s make m5tion ( a wood a mile & a half to ! ea/ ( ,dunwi*1 ! site ( :i* mu/ at pres5t be s f> )9 ! sea4#dji ,?is city1 once s fl\ri%+ & popul\s1 is n[ a small village1 ) ab\t tw5ty h\ses1 & "o hundr$ inhabitants4 ,!re is an old tradition1 t ! tailors sat 9 _! %ops at ,dunwi*1 & saw ! %ips 9 ,y>m\? ,bay2 b :5 we consid] h[ f> ! coa/ at ,l[e/(f ,ness projects betwe5 ^! places1 we _c give cr$it to ! tale1 :i*1 nev]!less1 proves h[ mu* ! inroads ( ! sea 9 times ( old _h prompt$ m5 ( lively imag9ation to indulge _! ta/e = ! m>vell\s4 ,g>dn]'s description ( ! cemet]ies laid op5 by ! waves rem9ds u ( ! sc5e :i* has be5 s well depict$ by ,bewick1#daj & ( :i* num]\s po9ts on ! same coa/ might h sugge/$ ! idea4 ,on ! v]ge ( a cliff1 :i* ! sea has und]m9$1 are repres5t$ ! un%ak5 t[] & we/]n end ( an abbey4 ,! ea/]n aisle is gone1 & ! pill>s ( ! cloi/] are soon to foll[4 ,! waves h almo/ isolat$ ! promontory1 & invad$ ! cemet]y1 :]e !y h made sport ) ! mortal relics1 & ?r[n up a skull ^u ! bea*4 ,9 ! =egr\nd is se5 a brok5 tomb/one1 erect$1 z its leg5d tells1 to p]petuate ! memory--( "o ^: "n is oblit]at$1 z is t ( ! c\nty = :i* he 0 ,cu/os ,rotulorum4 ,a cormorant is p]*$ on ! monum5t1 defil+ x1 z if to rem9d "s moraliz] l ,hamlet1 ( ! base uses to :i* ?+s sacr$ may be turn$4 ,_h ?is excell5t arti/ desir$ to satirize c]ta9 popul> !ories ( geology1 he might h inscrib$ ! /one to ! memory ( "s philosoph] :o taught ! p]man5cy ( exi/+ cont95ts--! era ( repose--! impot5ce ( mod]n causes4 ,! incursions ( ! sea at ,aldbor\gh1 7 =m]ly v de/ructive1 & ?is bor\gh is kn[n to h be5 once situat$ a qu>t] ( a mile ea/ ( ! pres5t %ore4 ,! inhabitants cont9u$ to build f>!r inl&1 till !y arriv$ at ! extremity ( _! prop]ty1 & !n ! t[n decay$ greatly2 b two s&-banks1 ?r[n up at a %ort di/ance1 n[ af=d a tempor>y safegu>d to ! coa/4 ,betwe5 ^! banks & ! pres5t %ore1 :]e ! curr5t n[ fl[s1 ! sea is tw5ty-f\r feet deep on ! spot :]e ! t[n =m]ly /ood4 ,essex4--,h>wi* is said to h ow$ its rise to ! de/ruction ( ,orwell1 a t[n :i* /ood on ! spot n[ call$ ! we/ rocks1 & 0 ov]:elm$ by an inroad ( ! sea s9ce ! ,conque/4 ,appreh5sions h be5 ent]ta9$ t ! i/hmus on :i* ,h>wi* /&s may at no remote p]iod become an isl&1 = ! sea may be expect$ to make a brea* ne> ,l[] ,dov] ,c\rt1 :]e ,beacon ,cliff is compos$ ( horizontal b$s ( ,london clay conta9+ sept>ia4 ,x _h wa/$ away consid]ably betwe5 ! ye>s #ahbi & #ahch1 at bo? :i* p]iods ,i exam9$ ?is coa/4 ,9 t %ort int]val sev]al g>d5s & _m h\ses _h be5 swept into ! sea1 & 9 ,april1 #ahch1 a :ole /reet 0 ?reat5$ ) de/ruction4 ,! advance ( ! sea is mu* accel]at$ by ! traffic c>ri$ on 9 sept>ia1 :i* are %ipp$ (f = cem5t z fa/ z !y fall d[n ^u ! bea*4 ,^! /ones1 if all[$ to rema9 9 heaps on ! %ore1 w\ld break ! =ce ( ! waves & ret>d ! conv]sion ( ! p59sula into an isl&1 an ev5t :i* might be foll[$ by ! de/ruction ( ! t[n ( ,h>wi*4 ,capta9 ,wa%+ton1 ,r4 ,n41 asc]ta9$ 9 #ahdg1 t ,beacon ,cliff1 above m5tion$1 :i* is ab\t fifty feet high1 _h giv5 way at ! rate ( =ty feet 9 =ty-sev5 ye>s1 betwe5 #agji & #agef2 eighty feet betwe5 #agef & #ahjd2 & ?ree hundr$ & fifty feet betwe5 ! latt] p]iod & #ahda2 %[+ a rapidly accel]at$ rate ( de/ruction4#daa ,among o!r losses x is record$ t1 s9ce ! ye> #ahjg1 a field call$ ! ,vic>'s ,field1 :i* belong$ to ! liv+ ( ,h>wi*1 has be5 ov]:elm$2#dab & 9 ! ye> #ahbj !re 0 a consid]able space betwe5 ! batt]y at ,h>wi*1 built 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t c5tury1 & ! sea2 "p ( ! =tification _h be5 swept away 9 #ahbi1 & ! re/ !n ov]hung ! wat]4 ,at ,walton ,naze1 9 ! same c\nty1 ! cliffs1 compos$ ( ,london clay1 capp$ by ! %elly s&s ( ! crag1 rea* ! height ( ab\t #ajj feet1 & are annually und]m9$ by ! waves4 ,! old *ur*y>d ( ,walton has be5 wa%$ away1 & ! cliffs to ! s\? are con/antly disappe>+4 ,k5t4--,isle ( ,%eppey4--,on ! coa/ b\nd+ ! e/u>y ( ! ,?ames1 !re are num]\s examples bo? ( ! ga9 & loss ( l&4 ,! ,isle ( ,%eppey1 :i* is n[ ab\t six miles long by f\r 9 bread?1 is compos$ ( ,london clay4 ,! cliffs on ! nor?1 :i* are f sixty to eighty feet high1 decay rapidly1 fifty acres hav+ be5 lo/ 9 tw5ty ye>s1 betwe5 #ahaj & #ahcj4 ,! *ur* at ,m9/]1 n[ ne> ! coa/1 is said to h be5 9 ! middle ( ! isl& 9 #aghj2 & if ! pres5t rate ( de/ruction %\ld cont9ue1 we might calculate ! p]iod1 & t n a v remote "o1 :5 ! :ole isl& w be annihilat$4 ,on ! coa/ ( ! ma9l&1 to ! ea/ ( ,%eppey1 is ,h]ne ,bay3 a place /ill reta9+ ! "n ( a bay1 al?\gh x is no long] appropriate1 z ! waves & curr5ts h swept away ! anci5t headl&s4 ,!re 0 =m]ly a small promontory 9 ! l9e ( ! %oals :]e ! pres5t pi] is built1 by :i* ! l>g] bay 0 divid$ into two1 call$ ! ,upp] & ,l[]4#dac ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,view ( ,reculv] ,*ur*1 tak5 9 ! ye> #agha4 #a4 ,isle ( ,%eppey4 #b4 ,anci5t *apel n[ de/roy$4 ,! cottage betwe5 ?is *apel & ! cliff 0 demoli%$ by ! sea1 9 #aghb4 ,/ill f>!r ea/ /&s ! *ur* ( ,reculv]1 ^u a cliff compos$ ( clay & s&1 ab\t tw5ty-five feet high4 ,reculv] 7,regulvium7 0 an important milit>y /ation 9 ! "t ( ! ,romans1 & appe>s1 f ,lel&'s acc\nt1 to h be51 s late z ,h5ry ,,viii4's reign1 ne>ly "o mile di/ant f ! sea4 ,9 ! ,g5tleman's ,magaz9e1 !re is a view ( x1 tak5 9 #agha1 :i* /ill repres5ts a consid]able space z int]v5+ betwe5 ! nor? wall ( ! *ur*y>d & ! cliff4#dad ,sometime be=e ! ye> #aghj1 ! waves _h rea*$ ! site ( ! anci5t ,roman camp or =tification1 ! walls ( :i* _h cont9u$ = sev]al ye>s aft] !y 7 und]m9$ to ov]hang ! sea1 be+ firmly cem5t$ into "o mass4 ,!y 7 eighty y>ds ne>] ! sea ?an ! *ur*1 & !y are spok5 ( 9 ! ,topographica ,britannica1 9 ! ye> #aghj1 z hav+ rec5tly fall5 d[n4 ,9 #ahjd1 "p ( ! *ur*y>d ) "s adjo9+ h\ses 0 wa%$ away1 & ! anci5t *ur*1 ) its two spires1 0 dismantl$ & ab&on$ z a place ( wor%ip1 b kept 9 repair z a l&m>k well kn[n to m>9]s4 ,i visit$ ! spot 9 ,june1 #ahea1 & saw human bones & "p ( a wood5 c(f9 project+ f ! cliff1 ne> ! top4 ,! :ole build+ w\ld probably h be5 swept away long ere ?is1 _h n ! =ce ( ! waves be5 *eck$ by an artificial causeway ( /ones & l>ge wood5 piles driv5 into ! s&s on ! bea* to break ! =ce ( ! waves4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,reculv] ,*ur*1 9 #ahcd4 ,isle ( ,?anet4--,! isle ( ,?anet 01 9 ! "t ( ! ,romans1 sep>at$ f ! re/ ( ,k5t by a navigable *annel1 ?r\gh :i* ! ,roman fleets sail$ on _! way to & f ,london4 ,b$e describes ?is small e/u>y z be+1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! eigh? c5tury1 ?ree furlongs 9 bread?2 & x is suppos$ t x began to gr[ %all[ ab\t ! p]iod ( ! ,norman conque/4 ,x 0 s f> silt$ up 9 ! ye> #adhe1 t an act 0 !n obta9$ to build a bridge across x2 & x has s9ce become m>% l& ) small /reams runn+ ?r\gh x4 ,on ! coa/1 ,b$lam ,f>m1 belong+ to ! hospital ( t "n1 lo/ eight acres 9 ! tw5ty ye>s prec$+ #ahcj1 ! l& be+ compos$ ( *alk f =ty to fifty feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,x has be5 comput$ t ! av]age wa/e ( ! cliff betwe5 ! ,nor? ,=el& & ! ,reculv]s1 a di/ance ( ab\t elev5 miles1 is n less ?an two feet p] annum4 ,! *alk cliffs on ! s\? ( ,?anet1 betwe5 ,ramsgate & ,pegwell ,bay1 h on an av]age lo/ ?ree feet p] annum = ! la/ t5 ye>s 7prec$+ #ahcj74 ,goodw9 ,s&s4--,! ,goodw9 ,s&s lie opposite ?is "p ( ! ,k5ti% coa/4 ,!y are ab\t t5 miles 9 l5g?1 & are 9 "s p>ts ?ree1 & 9 o!rs sev51 miles di/ant f ! %ore2 &1 = a c]ta9 space1 are laid b>e at l[ wat]4 ,t !y are a remnant ( l&1 & n a m]e accumulation ( sea s&1 z ,r5nell imag9$1#dae may be presum$ f ! fact t1 :5 ! erection ( a ligh?\se on ?is %oal 0 9 contemplation by ! ,tr9ity ,bo>d 9 ! ye> #ahag1 x 0 f\nd1 by bor+s1 t ! bank consi/$ ( fifte5 feet ( s&1 re/+ on blue clay2 &1 by subsequ5t bor+s1 ! subjac5t *alk has be5 rea*$4 ,an obscure tradition has come d[n to u1 t ! e/ates ( ,e>l ,goodw91 ! fa!r ( ,h>old1 :o di$ 9 ! ye> #ajec1 7 situat$ "h1 & "s h conjectur$ t !y 7 ov]:elm$ by ! flood m5tion$ 9 ! ,saxon *ronicle1 sub anno #ajii4 ,! la/ rema9s ( an isl&1 consi/+1 l ,%eppey1 ( clay1 may p]haps h be5 c>ri$ away ab\t t "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,%akspe>e's ,cliff 9 #ahcf1 se5 f ! nor!a/4 ,!re are o!r records ( wa/e 9 ! c\nty ( ,k5t1 z at ,deal2 & at ,dov]1 :]e ,%akspe>e's ,cliff1 compos$ entirely ( *alk1 has suff]$ greatly1 & cont9ually dim9i%es 9 height1 ! slope ( ! hill be+ t[>ds ! l&4 7,see fig4 #ce47 ,!re 0 an imm5se l&slip f ?is cliff 9 #ahaj1 by :i* ,dov] 0 %ak5 z if by an e>?quake1 & a /ill great] "o 9 #aggb4daf ,we may suppose1 !re=e1 t ! view f ! top ( ! precipice 9 ! ye> #afjj1 :5 ! trag$y ( ,k+ ,le> 0 writt51 0 m fe>ful & dizzy ?an x is n[4 ,! be/ antiqu>ian au?orities are agre$1 t ,dov] ,h>bor 0 =m]ly an e/u>y1 ! sea fl[+ up a valley betwe5 ! *alk hills4 ,! rema9s f\nd 9 diff]5t excavations confirm ! description ( ! spot giv5 by ,caes> & ,anton9us1 & !re is cle> hi/orical evid5ce to prove t at an e>ly p]iod !re 0 no %+le at all at ,dov]4#dag ,/raits ( ,dov]4--,9 proce$+ f ! nor!rn p>ts ( ! ,g]man ,ocean t[>ds ! ,/raits ( ,dov]1 ! wat] becomes gradually m %all[1 s t1 9 ! di/ance ( ab\t two hundr$ leagues1 we pass f a dep? ( #abj to t ( #eh1 #ch1 #ah1 & ev5 less ?an #b fa?oms4 ,! %all[e/ "p foll[s a l9e drawn betwe5 ,romney ,m>% & ,b\logne4 ,f ?is po9t ! ,engli% ,*annel aga9 deep5s progressively z we proce$ we/w>d1 s t ! ,/raits ( ,dov] may be said to "p two seas4#dah ,:e!r ,engl& 0 =m]ly unit$ ) ,france has (t5 be5 a favorite subject ( speculation4 ,s e>ly z #afje our c\ntryman ,v]/egan1 9 8 ,antiquities ( ! ,engli% ,nation1 obs]v$ t _m prec$+ writ]s _h ma9ta9$ ?is op9ion1 b )\t support+ x by any weighty reasons4 ,he accord+ly endeavors himself to confirm x by v>i\s argum5ts1 ! pr9cipal ( :i* are1 fir/1 ! proximity & id5tity ( ! composition ( ! opposite cliffs & %ores ( ,albion & ,gallia1 :i*1 :e!r flat & s&y1 or /eep & *alky1 correspond exactly ) ea* o!r2 secondly ! occurr5ce ( a subm>9e ridge1 call$ our ,lady's ,s&1 ext5d+ f %ore to %ore at no great dep?1 & :i*1 f its composition1 appe>s to be ! orig9al basis ( ! i/hmus2 ?irdly1 ! id5tity ( ! noxi\s animals 9 ,france & ,engl&1 :i* c\ld nei!r h swum across1 nor h be5 introduc$ by man4 ,?us no "o1 he says1 w\ld h import$ wolves1 !re=e ^! wick$ bea/s did ( !mselves pass ov]4 ,he supposes ! anci5t i/hmus to h be5 ab\t six ,engli% miles 9 bread?1 compos$ entirely ( *alk & fl9t1 & 9 "s places ( no great height above ! sea-level4 ,! op]ation ( ! waves & tides1 he says1 w\ld h be5 m p[]ful :5 ! /raits 7 n>r[]1 & ev5 n[ !y are de/roy+ cliffs compos$ ( simil> mat]ials4 ,he sugge/s ! possible co-op]ation ( e>?quakes2 & :5 we consid] h[ _m subm>9e =e/s skirt ! s\!rn & ea/]n %ores ( ,engl&1 & t !re are rais$ bea*es at _m po9ts above ! sea-level1 conta9+ fossil %ells ( rec5t species1 x seems reasonable to suppose t su* upw>d & d[nw>d movem5ts1 tak+ place p]haps z sl[ly z ^? n[ 9 progress 9 ,sw$5 & ,gre5l&1 may h greatly assi/$ ! d5ud+ =ce ( ! ocean /ream1 ,greek3 ,potamoio mega /h5os ,o*eanoto4 ,folk/one4--,at ,folk/one1 ! sea und]m9es ! *alk & subjac5t /rata4 ,ab\t ! ye> #agaf !re 0 a rem>kable s9k+ ( a tract ( l& ne> ! sea1 s t h\ses became visible f c]ta9 po9ts at sea1 & f p>ticul> spots on ! sea cliffs1 f :5ce !y c\ld n be se5 previ\sly4 ,9 ! description ( ?is subsid5ce 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 #agaf1 x is said1 t ! l& consi/$ ( a solid /ony mass 7*alk71 re/+ on wet clay 7gault71 s t x slid =w>ds t[>ds ! sea1 j z a %ip is laun*$ on tall[$ planks4 ,x is also /at$ t1 )9 ! memory ( p]sons !n liv+1 ! cliff !re _h be5 wa%$ away to ! ext5t ( t5 rods4 ,encroa*m5ts ( ! sea at ,hy! are also on record2 b betwe5 ?is po9t & ,rye !re has be5 a ga9 ( l& )9 ! times ( hi/ory2 ! ri* level tract call$ ,romney ,m>%1 or ,dung5ess1 ab\t t5 miles 9 wid? & five 9 bread?1 & =m$ ( silt1 hav+ receiv$ great accession4 ,x has be5 necess>y1 h[ev]1 to protect x f ! sea1 f ! e>lie/ p]iods1 by embankm5ts1 ! t[ns ( ,lydd & ,romney be+ ! only p>ts ( ! m>% above ! level ( ! highe/ tides4#dai ,mr4 ,r$man has cit$ num]\s old *>ts & tru/wor?y au?orities to prove t ! av]age annual increase ( ! promontory ( %+le call$ ,dung5ess am\nt$ = two c5turies1 previ\s to #ahdd1 to ne>ly six y>ds4 ,its progress1 h[ev]1 has fluctuat$ dur+ t p]iod2 = betwe5 #afhi & #agid1 a t]m ( #aje ye>s1 ! rate 0 z mu* z #h-a_/d y>ds p] annum4#dbj ,x is asc]ta9$ t ! %+le is d]iv$ f ! we/w>d4 ,:e!r ! pebbles are /opp$ by ! meet+ ( ! tide f ! nor? fl[+ ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,dov]1 ) t :i* comes up ! ,*annel f ! we/1 z 0 =m]ly held1 or by ! *eck giv5 to ! tidal curr5t by ! wat]s ( ! ,ro!r1 z "s ma9ta91 is /ill a disput$ "q4 ,rye1 situat$ to ! s\? ( ,romney ,m>%1 0 once de/roy$ by ! sea1 b x is n[ two miles di/ant f x4 ,! neighbor+ t[n ( ,w9*elsea 0 de/roy$ 9 ! reign ( ,edw>d ,i41 ! m\? ( ! ,ro!r /opp$ up1 & ! riv] div]t$ into ano!r *annel4 ,9 its old b$1 an anci5t vessel1 app>5tly a ,dut* m]*antman1 0 f\nd ab\t ! ye> #ahbd4 ,x 0 built entirely ( oak1 & mu* black5$4#dba ,l>ge quantities ( hazel-nuts1 peat1 & wood are f\nd 9 digg+ 9 ,romney ,m>%4 ,s\? coa/ ( ,engl&4--,we/w>d ( ,ha/+s1 or ( ,/4 ,leon>d's1 ! %ore l9e has be5 giv+ way z f> z ,pev5sey ,bay1 :]e =m]ly !re exi/$ a hav5 n[ entirely block$ up by %+le4 ,! degradation has equall$ = a s]ies ( ye>s sev5 feet p] annum 9 "s places1 & sev]al m>tello t[]s _h 9 consequ5ce1 be=e #ahea1 be5 remov$ by ! ,ordnance4#dbb ,at ! promontory ( ,bea*y ,head a mass ( *alk1 ?ree hundr$ feet 9 l5g?1 & f sev5ty to eighty 9 bread?1 fell 9 ! ye> #ahac ) a trem5d\s cra%2 & simil> slips h s9ce be5 frequ5t4#dbc ,ab\t a mile to ! we/ ( ! t[n ( ,ne:av51 ! rema9s ( an anci5t intr5*m5t are se5 on ! br[ ( ,ca/le ,hill4 ,?is e>?-"w1 suppos$ to be ,roman1 0 evid5tly once ( consid]able ext5t & ( an oval =m1 b ! great] "p has be5 cut away by ! sea4 ,! cliffs1 :i* are und]m9$ "h1 are high2 m ?an "o hundr$ feet ( *alk be+ cov]$ by t]ti>y clay & s&1 f sixty to sev5ty feet 9 ?ickness4 ,9 a few c5turies ! la/ ve/iges ( ! pla/ic clay =mation on ! s\!rn bord]s ( ! *alk ( ! ,s\? ,d[ns on ?is coa/ w probably be annihilat$1 & future geologi/s w le>n1 f hi/orical docum5ts1 ! anci5t geographical b\nd>ies ( ?is gr\p ( /rata 9 t direction4 ,on ! opposite side ( ! e/u>y ( ! ,ouse1 on ! ea/ ( ,ne:av5 h>bor1 a b$ ( %+le1 compos$ ( *alk fl9ts d]iv$ f ! wa/e ( ! adjo9+ cliffs1 _h accumulat$ at ,sea=d = sev]al c5turies4 ,9 ! great /orm ( ,novemb]1 #ahbd1 ?is bank 0 entirely swept away1 & ! t[n ( ,sea=d inundat$4 ,ano!r great bea* ( %+le is n[ =m+ f fre% mat]ials4 ,! :ole coa/ ( ,sussex has be5 incessantly encroa*$ ^u by ! sea f "t immemorial2 &1 al?\gh sudd5 inundations only1 :i* ov]:elm$ f]tile or inhabit$ tracts1 are notic$ 9 hi/ory1 ! records atte/ an extraord9>y am\nt ( loss4 ,dur+ a p]iod ( no m ?an eighty ye>s1 !re are notices ( ab\t tw5ty inroads1 9 :i* tracts ( l& ( f tw5ty to f\r hundr$ acres 9 ext5t 7 ov]:elm$ at once1 ! value ( ! ti!s be+ m5tion$ 9 ! ,taxatio ,ecclesia/ica4#dbd ,9 ! reign ( ,elizabe?1 ! t[n ( ,brighton 0 situat$ on t tract :]e ! *a9 pi] n[ ext5ds into ! sea4 ,9 ! ye> #affe1 tw5ty-two t5em5ts _h be5 de/roy$ "u ! cliff4 ,at t p]iod !re /ill rema9$ "u ! cliff #aac t5em5ts1 ! :ole ( :i* 7 ov]:elm$ 9 #agjc & #agje4 ,no traces ( ! anci5t t[n are n[ p]ceptible1 yet !re is evid5ce t ! sea has m]ely resum$ its anci5t position at ! base ( ! cliffs1 ! site ( ! :ole t[n hav+ be5 m]ely a bea* ab&on$ by ! ocean = ages4 ,hamp%ire4--,isle ( ,wight4--,x w\ld be endless to allude to all ! localities on ! ,sussex & ,hamp%ire coa/s :]e ! l& has giv5 way2 b ,i may po9t out ! relation :i* ! geological /ructure ( ! ,isle ( ,wight be>s to its pres5t %ape1 z atte/+ t ! coa/ owes its outl9e to ! cont9u$ action ( ! sea4 ,?r\gh ! middle ( ! isl& runs a high ridge ( *alk /rata1 9 a v]tical position1 & 9 a direction ea/ & we/4 ,?is *alk =ms ! project+ promontory ( ,culv] ,cliff on ! ea/1 & ( ! ,ne$les on ! we/2 :ile ,s&[n ,bay on ! "o side1 & ,compton ,bay on ! o!r1 h be5 holl[$ out ( ! s(t] s&s & argillace\s /rata1 :i* are inf]ior1 9 geological position1 to ! *alk4 ,! same ph5om5a are repeat$ 9 ! ,isle ( ,purbeck1 :]e ! l9e ( v]tical *alk =ms ! project+ promontory ( ,h&fa/ ,po9t2 & ,swanage ,bay m>ks ! deep excavation made by ! waves 9 ! s(t] /rata1 correspond+ to ^? ( ,s&[n ,bay4 ,hur/ ,ca/le bank--progressive motion ( sea bea*es4--,al?\gh ! loose pebbles & gra9s ( s& compos+ any giv5 l9e ( sea-bea* are c>ri$ sometimes "o way1 sometimes ano!r1 !y h1 nev]!less1 an ultimate motion 9 "o p>ticul> direction4#dbe ,_! progress1 = example1 on ! s\? coa/ ( ,engl&1 is f we/ to ea/1 :i* is ow+ p>tly to ! action ( ! waves driv5 ea/w>ds by ! prevail+ w9d1 & p>tly to ! curr5t1 or ! motion ( ! g5]al body ( wat] caus$ by ! tides & w9ds4 ,! =ce ( ! waves gives motion to pebbles :i* ! velocity ( ! curr5ts alone w\ld be unable to c>ry =w>ds2 b z ! pebbles are f9ally r$uc$ to s& or mud1 by cont9ual attrition1 !y are br\ght )9 ! influ5ce ( a curr5t2 & ?is cause mu/ det]m9e ! c\rse :i* ! ma9 body ( matt] d]iv$ f wa/+ cliffs w ev5tually take4 ,x appe>s1 f ! obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,palm] & o!rs1 t if a pi] or gro9 be erect$ any:]e on our s\!rn or s\!a/]n coa/ to /op ! progress ( ! bea*1 a heap ( %+le soon collects on ! we/]n side ( su* artificial b>ri]s4 ,! pebbles cont9ue to accumulate till !y rise z high z ! pi] or gro91 aft] :i* !y p\r ov] 9 great numb]s dur+ heavy gales4#dbf ,! we/]n entrance ( ! ,*annel1 call$ ! ,sol5t1 is cross$ = m ?an two-?irds ( its wid? by ! %+le-bank ( ,hur/ ,ca/le1 :i* is ab\t two miles long1 sev5ty y>ds broad1 & twelve feet high1 pres5t+ an incl9$ plane to ! we/4 ,?is s+ul> b> consi/s ( a b$ ( r\nd$ *alk fl9ts1 re/+ on a subm>9e argillace\s base4 ,! fl9ts & a few o!r pebbles1 int]mix$1 are d]iv$ f ! wa/e ( ,hordwell1 & o!r cliffs to ! we/w>d1 :]e t]ti>y /rata1 capp$ ) a cov]+ ( brok5 *alk fl9ts1 f five to fifty feet ?ick1 are rapidly und]m9$4 ,9 ! great /orm ( ,novemb]1 #ahbd1 ?is bank ( %+le 0 mov$ bodily =w>ds = =ty y>ds t[>ds ! nor!a/2 & c]ta9 piles1 :i* s]v$ to m>k ! b\nd>ies ( two manors1 7 f\nd aft] ! /orm on ! opposite side ( ! b>4 ,at ! same "t _m acres ( pa/ure l& 7 cov]$ by %+le1 on ! f>m ( ,we/ov]1 ne> ,lym+ton4 ,b ! b> 0 soon re/or$ 9 its old position by pebbles drift$ f ! we/2 & x appe>s f anci5t maps t x has pres]v$ ! same g5]al outl9e & position = c5turies4#dbg ,mr4 ,au/5 rem>ks t1 z a g5]al rule1 x is only :5 high tides concur ) a gale ( w9d1 t ! sea rea*es ! base ( cliffs s z to und]m9e !m & ?r[ d[n e>? & /one4 ,b ! waves are p]petually employ$ 9 abrad+ & fa%ion+ ! mat]ials already /rew$ ov] ! bea*4 ,mu* ( ! gravel & %+le is always travell+ up & d[n1 betwe5 high-wat] m>k & a slight dep? bel[ ! level ( ! l[e/ tides1 & occasionally ! mat]ials are swept away & c>ri$ into deep] wat]4 ,ow+ to ^! movem5ts e portion ( our s\!rn coa/ may be se5 at "o "t or o!r 9 ! condition ( b>e rock4 ,yet o!r b$s ( s& & %+le soon collect1 &1 al?\gh compos$ ( new mat]ials1 inv>iably exhibit on ! same spots precisely simil> *>act]s4#dbh ,! cliffs betwe5 ,hur/ ,%+le ,b> & ,*ri/*ur* are und]m9$ cont9ually1 ! sea hav+ (t5 encroa*$ = a s]ies ( ye>s at ! rate ( a y>d annually4 ,)9 ! memory ( p]sons n[ liv+1 x has be5 necess>y ?rice to remove ! coa/-road f>!r inl&4 ,! tradition1 !re=e1 is probably true1 t ! *ur* ( ,hordwell 0 once 9 ! middle ( t p>i%1 al?\gh n[ 7#ahcj7 v ne> ! sea4 ,! promontory ( ,*ri/*ur* ,head gives way sl[ly4 ,x is ! only po9t betwe5 ,lym+ton & ,poole ,h>bor1 9 ,dorset%ire1 :]e any h>d /ony masses occur 9 ! cliffs4 ,five lay]s ( l>ge f]rug9\s concretions1 some:at l ! sept>ia ( ! ,london clay1 h occasion$ a resi/ance at ?is po9t1 to :i* we may ascribe ?is headl&4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! waves h cut deeply into ! s(t s&s & loam ( ,poole ,bay2 &1 aft] sev]e fro/s1 great l&slips take place1 :i* by degrees become enl>g$ into n>r[ rav9es1 or *9es1 z !y are call$1 ) v]tical sides4 ,"o ( ^! *9es1 ne> ,boscomb1 has be5 deep5$ tw5ty feet )9 a few ye>s4 ,at ! head ( ea* !re is a spr+1 ! wat]s ( :i* h be5 *iefly in/rum5tal 9 produc+ ^! n>r[ excavations1 :i* are sometimes f #ajj to #aej feet deep4 ,isle ( ,portl&4--,! p59sulas ( ,purbeck & ,portl& are cont9ually wa/+ away4 ,9 ! latt]1 ! s(t argillace\s sub/ratum 7,kimm]idge clay7 ha/5s ! dilapidation ( ! sup]9cumb5t mass ( lime/one4 ,9 #afee ! cliffs adjo9+ ! pr9cipal qu>ries 9 ,portl& gave way to ! ext5t ( "o hundr$ y>ds1 & fell into ! sea2 & 9 ,decemb]1 #agcd1 a slide to ! ext5t ( #aej y>ds occurr$ on ! ea/ side ( ! isle1 by :i* sev]al skeletons buri$ betwe5 slabs ( /one1 7 discov]$4 ,b a mu* m memorable occurr5ce ( ?is nature1 9 #agib1 occasion$ probably by ! und]m9+ ( ! cliffs1 is ?us describ$ 9 ,hut*9's ,hi/ory ( ,dorset%ire3--,e>ly 9 ! morn+ ! road 0 obs]v$ to crack3 ?is cont9u$ increas+1 & be=e two o'clock ! gr\nd _h sunk sev]al feet1 & 0 9 "o cont9u$ motion1 b att5d$ ) no o!r noise ?an :at 0 occasion$ by ! sep>ation ( ! roots & brambles1 & n[ & !n a fall+ rock4 ,at night x seem$ to /op a little1 b soon mov$ aga92 &1 be=e morn+1 ! gr\nd f ! top ( ! cliff to ! wat]-side _h sunk 9 "s places fifty feet p]p5dicul>4 ,! ext5t ( gr\nd t mov$ 0 ab\t a mile & a qu>t] f nor? to s\?1 & #fjj y>ds f ea/ to we/4 ,=mation ( ! ,*esil ,bank4--,portl& is connect$ ) ! ma9l& by ! ,*esil ,bank1 a ridge ( %+le ab\t sev5te5 miles 9 l5g?1 &1 9 mo/ places1 ne>ly a qu>t] ( a mile 9 bread?4 ,! pebbles =m+ ?is imm5se b>ri] are *iefly silice\s1 all loosely ?r[n toge!r1 & ris+ to ! height ( f tw5ty to ?irty feet above ! ord9>y high-wat] m>k2 & at ! s\!a/]n end1 :i* is ne>e/ ! ,isle ( ,portl&1 :]e ! pebbles are l>ge/1 =ty feet4 ,! fundam5tal rocks :]eon ! %+le re/s are f\nd at ! dep? ( a few y>ds only bel[ ! level ( ! sea4 ,! =mation ( t "p ( ! b> :i* atta*es ,portl& to ! ma9l& may h be5 due to an orig9al %oal or reef1 or to ! set ( ! tides 9 ! n>r[ *annel1 by :i* ! c\rse ( ! pebbles1 :i* are always com+ f ! we/1 has be5 arre/$4 ,x is a s+ul> fact t1 ?r\gh\t ! ,*esil ,bank1 ! pebbles increase gradually 9 size z we proce$ s\!a/w>d1 or z we g f>!r f ! qu>t] :i* suppli$ !m4 ,_h ! case be5 rev]s$1 we %\ld naturally h attribut$ ! circum/ance to ! con/ant we>+ d[n ( ! pebbles by friction1 z !y are roll$ along a bea* sev5te5 miles 9 l5g?4 ,b ! true explanation ( ! ph5om5on is d\btless ?is3 ! tidal curr5t runs /ronge/ f we/ to ea/1 & its p[] is great] 9 ! m op5 *annel or f>!r f ! l&4 ,9 o!r words its =ce increases s\?w>ds1 & z ! direction ( ! bank is f nor?we/ to s\!a/1 ! size ( ! masses com+ f ! we/w>d & ?r[n a%ore mu/ always be l>ge/ :]e ! motion ( ! wat] is mo/ viol5t4 ,colonel ,reid /ates t all calc>e\s /ones roll$ along f ! we/ are soon gr\nd into s&1 & 9 ?is =m !y pass r\nd ,portl& ,isl&4#dbi ,! /orm ( #ahbd bur/ ov] ! ,*esil ,bank ) great fury1 & ! village ( ,*esilton1 built ^u its s\!rn extremity1 0 ov]:elm$1 ) _m ( ! inhabitants4 ,! same /orm c>ri$ away "p ( ! ,breakwat] at ,plym\?1 & huge masses ( rock1 f two to five tons 9 weight1 7 lift$ f ! bottom ( ! wea!r side1 & roll$ fairly to ! top ( ! pile4 ,"o block ( lime/one1 weigh+ sev5 tons1 0 wa%$ r\nd ! we/]n extremity ( ! ,breakwat]1 & c>ri$ #aej feet4#dcj ,! propell+ p[] is d]iv$ 9 ^! cases f ! break+ ( ! waves1 :i* run fa/e/ 9 %all[ wat]1 & = a %ort space f> exce$ ! mo/ rapid curr5ts 9 swiftness4 ,x 0 9 ! same mon?1 & also dur+ a spr+-tide1 t a great flood is m5tion$ on ! coa/s ( ,engl&1 9 ! ye> #ajii4 ,flor5ce ( ,worce/] says1 ,on ! ?ird day ( ! nones ( ,nov4 #ajii1 ! sea came out ^u ! %ore & buri$ t[ns & m5 v _m1 & ox5 & %eep innum]able4 ,we also read 9 ! ,saxon ,*ronicle1 = ! ye> #ajii1 ,?is ye> eke on ,/4 ,m>t9's mass day1 ! #aa? ( ,novembre1 sprung up s mu* ( ! sea flood1 & s myckle h>m did1 z no man m9d$ t x ev] a=e did1 & !re 0 ! ylk day a new moon4 ,s\? ( ! ,bill1 or s\!rn po9t ( ,portl&1 is a rem>kable %oal 9 ! *annel at ! dep? ( sev5 fa?oms1 call$ ! ,%ambles1 consi/+ entirely ( roll$ & brok5 %ells ( ,purpura lapillus1 ,mytilus edulis1 & o!r species n[ liv+4 ,?is mass ( light mat]ials is always 9 motion1 v>y+ 9 height f day to day1 & yet ! %oal rema9s con/ant4 ,dorset%ire4--,devon%ire4--,at ,lyme ,regis1 9 ,dorset%ire1 ! ,*ur* ,cliffs1 z !y are call$1 consi/+ ( lias ab\t "o hundr$ feet 9 height1 gradually fell away at ! rate ( "o y>d a ye>1 f #ahjj to #ahbi4dca ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,l&slip1 ne> ,axm\?1 ,dec4 #ahci4 7,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybe>e47 ,a4 ,tract ( ,d[ns /ill rema9+ at _! orig9al level4 ,b4 ,new rav9e4 ,c1 ,d4 ,sunk & fractur$ /rip unit$ to ,a1 be=e ! convulsion4 ,d1 ,e4 ,b5don und]cliff z be=e1 b m fissur$1 & ?ru/ =w>d ab\t fifty feet1 t[>ds ! sea4 ,f4 ,pyramidal crag1 sunk f sev5ty to tw5ty feet 9 height4 ,g4 ,new reef upheav$ f ! sea4 ,an extraord9>y l&slip occurr$ on ! #bd? ( ,decemb]1 #ahci1 on ! coa/ betwe5 ,lyme ,regis & ,axm\?1 :i* has be5 describ$ by ! ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybe>e1 to ^: k9dness ,i am indebt$ = ! accompany+ section1 fig4 #cf4 ,! tract ( d[ns rang+ !re along ! coa/ is capp$ by *alk 7h71 :i* re/s on s&/one1 alt]nat+ ) *]t 7i71 b5ea? :i* is m ?an #ajj feet ( loose s& 7k71 ) concretions at ! bottom1 & belong+ l i to ! gre5-s& =mation2 ! :ole ( ! above masses1 h1 i1 k1 repos+ on ret5tive b$s ( clay 7l71 belong+ to ! lias1 :i* %elves t[>ds ! sea4 ,num]\s spr+s issu+ f ! loose s& 7k71 h gradually remov$ portions ( x1 & ?us und]m9$ ! sup]/ratum1 s z to h caus$ subsid5ces at =m] times1 & to h produc$ a l9e ( und]cliff betwe5 ,d & ,e4 ,9 #ahci an excessively wet season _h saturat$ all ! rocks ) moi/ure1 s z to increase ! weight ( ! incumb5t mass1 f :i* ! support _h already be5 )drawn by ! action ( spr+s4 ,?us ! sup]/rata 7 precipitat$ into holl[s prep>$ = !m1 & ! adjac5t masses ( p>tially und]m9$ rock1 to :i* ! movem5t 0 communicat$1 7 made to slide d[n on a slipp]y basis ( wat]y s& t[>ds ! sea4 ,^! causes gave rise to a convulsion1 :i* began on ! morn+ ( ! #bd? ( ,decemb]1 ) a cra%+ noise2 &1 on ! ev5+ ( ! same day1 fissures 7 se5 op5+ 9 ! gr\nd1 & ! walls ( t5em5ts r5d+ & s9k+1 until a deep *asm or rav9e1 ,b1 0 =m$1 ext5d+ ne>ly ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile 9 l5g?1 ) a dep? ( f #ajj to #aej feet1 & a bread? exce$+ #bdj feet4 ,at ! bottom ( ?is deep gulf lie fragm5ts ( ! orig9al surface ?r[n toge!r 9 ! wilde/ confusion4 ,9 consequ5ce ( lat]al movem5ts1 ! tract int]v5+ betwe5 ! new fissure & ! sea1 includ+ ! anci5t und]cliff1 0 fractur$1 & ! :ole l9e ( sea-cliff c>ri$ bodily =w>ds = _m y>ds4 ,a rem>kable pyramidal crag1 ,f1 (f ,culv]hole ,po9t1 :i* lately =m$ a di/+ui%+ l&m>k1 has sunk f a height ( ab\t sev5ty to tw5ty feet1 & ! ma9 cliff1 ,e1 be=e m ?an fifty feet di/ant f ?is insulat$ crag1 is n[ br\ght almo/ close to x4 ,?is motion ( ! sea-cliff has produc$ a f>!r effect1 :i* may rank among ! mo/ /rik+ ph5om5a ( ?is cata/rophe4 ,! lat]al pressure ( ! desc5d+ rocks has urg$ ! neighbor+ /rata1 ext5d+ b5ea? ! %+le ( ! %ore1 by _! /ate ( unnatural cond5sation1 to bur/ upw>ds 9 a l9e p>allel to ! coa/--?us an elevat$ ridge1 ,g1 m ?an a mile 9 l5g?1 & ris+ m ?an =ty feet1 cov]$ by a confus$ assemblage ( brok5 /rata1 & imm5se blocks ( rock1 inve/$ ) sea-we$ & corall9es1 & scatt]$ ov] ) %ells & />-fi%1 & o!r productions ( ! deep1 =ms an ext5d$ reef 9 front ( ! pres5t range ( cliffs4#dcb ,a full acc\nt ( ?is rem>kable l&slip1 ) a plan1 sections1 & _m f9e illu/rative draw+s1 0 publi%$ by ,messrs4 ,conybe>e & ,buckl&1#dcc f "o ( :i* ! annex$ cut has be5 r$uc$1 fig4 #cg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,view ( ! ,axm\? l&slip f ,great ,b9don1 look+ we/w>d to ! ,sidm\? hills1 & e/u>y ( ! ,exe4 ,f an orig9al draw+ by ,mrs4 ,buckl&4 ,cornwall4--,ne> ,p5zance1 9 ,cornwall1 !re is a project+ tongue ( l&1 call$ ! ,gre51 =m$ ( granitic s&1 f :i* m ?an ?irty acres ( pa/ure l& h be5 gradually swept away1 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ two or ?ree c5turies4#dcd ,x is also said t ,/4 ,mi*ael's ,m\nt1 n[ an insul> rock1 0 =m]ly situat$ 9 a wood1 sev]al miles f ! sea2 & its old ,corni% "n 7,c>acl[se 9 ,c[se7 signifies1 accord+ to ,c>ew1 ! ,ho> ,rock 9 ! wood4#dce ,betwe5 ! ,m\nt & ,newlyn !re is se5 "u ! s&1 black vegetable m\ld1 full ( hazel-nuts1 & ! bran*es1 leaves1 roots1 & trunks ( =e/-trees1 all ( indig5\s species4 ,?is /ratum has be5 trac$ seaw>d z f> z ! ebb p]mits1 & _m pro(s ( a subm]g$ vegetable accumulation1 ) /umps ( trees 9 ! position 9 :i* !y grew1 h be5 trac$1 says ,sir ,h5ry ,de la ,be*e1 r\nd ! %ores ( ,devon1 ,cornwall1 & ,we/]n ,som]set4 ,! facts n only indicate a *ange 9 ! relative level ( ! sea & l&1 s9ce ! species ( animals & plants 7 ! same z ^? n[ liv+ 9 ?is di/rict2 b1 :at is v rem>kable1 !re seems evid5ce ( ! subm]g5ce hav+ be5 effect$1 9 "p at lea/1 s9ce ! c\ntry 0 inhabit$ by man4#dcf ,a subm>9e =e/ occurr+ at ! m\? ( ! ,p>ret 9 ,som]set%ire1 on ! s\? side ( ! ,bri/ol ,*annel1 0 describ$ by ,mr4 ,l4 ,horn]1 9 #ahae1 & its position attribut$ to subsid5ce4 ,a b$ ( peat is !re se5 bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 & ! trunks ( l>ge trees1 su* z ! oak & yew1 hav+ _! roots /ill div]g+ z !y grew1 & fix$ 9 blue clay4#dcg ,tradition ( loss ( l& 9 ,cornwall4--,! olde/ hi/orians m5tion a tradition 9 ,cornwall1 ( ! subm]sion ( ! ,lionnesse1 a c\ntry said to h /ret*$ f ! ,l&'s ,end to ! ,scilly ,isl&s4 ,! tract1 if x exi/$1 mu/ h be5 ?irty miles 9 l5g?1 & p]haps t5 9 bread?4 ,! l& n[ rema9+ on ei!r side is f two hundr$ to ?ree hundr$ feet high2 ! int]v5+ sea ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet deep4 ,al?\gh !re is no au!ntic evid5ce = ?is romantic tale1 x probably orig9at$ 9 "s =m] inroads ( ! ,atlantic1 accompany+1 p]haps1 a subsid5ce ( l& on ?is coa/4#dch ,we/ coa/ ( ,engl&4--,hav+ n[ br\ght toge!r an ample body ( pro(s ( ! de/ructive op]ations ( ! waves1 tides1 & curr5ts1 on our ea/]n & s\!rn %ores1 x w be unnecess>y to ent] into details ( *anges on ! we/]n coa/1 = !y pres5t m]ely a repetition ( ! same ph5om5a1 & 9 g5]al on an inf]ior scale4 ,on ! bord]s ( ! e/u>y ( ! ,sev]n ! flats ( ,som]set%ire & ,gl\ce/]%ire h receiv$ enorm\s accessions1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! coa/ ( ,*e%ire1 betwe5 ! riv]s ,m]sey & ,dee1 has lo/1 s9ce ! ye> #agfd1 _m hundr$ y>ds1 & "s affirm m ?an half a mile1 by ! advance ( ! sea ^u ! abrupt cliffs ( r$ clay & m>ls4 ,)9 ! p]iod above m5tion$ sev]al ligh?\ses h be5 successively ab&on$4#dci ,!re are traditions 9 ,pembroke%ire#ddj & ,c>digan%ire#dda ( f> great] losses ( t]ritory ?an t :i* ! ,lionnesse tale ( ,cornwall pret5ds to commemorate4 ,!y are all important1 z demon/rat+ t ! e>lie/ inhabitants 7 famili> ) ! ph5om5on ( incursions ( ! sea4 ,loss ( l& on ! coa/ ( ,france4--,! ,fr5* coa/1 p>ticul>ly t "p ( ,brittany1 :]e ! tides rise to an extraord9>y height1 is ! con/ant prey ( ! waves4 ,9 ! n9? c5tury _m villages & woods are report$ to h be5 c>ri$ away1 ! coa/ und]go+ great *ange1 :]eby ! hill ( ,/4 ,mi*ael 0 deta*$ f ! ma9l&4 ,! p>i% ( ,b\rgneuf1 & sev]al o!rs 9 t neighborhood1 7 ov]fl[$ 9 ! ye> #aejj4 ,9 #agce1 dur+ a great /orm1 ! ru9s ( ,palnel 7 se5 uncov]$ 9 ! sea4#ddb ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,action ,,( ,,tides ,,& ,,curr5ts--cont9u$4 ,inroads ( ! sea at ! m\?s ( ! ,rh9e 9 ,holl&--,*anges 9 ! arms ( ! ,rh9e--,pro(s ( subsid5ce ( l&--,e/u>y ( ! ,bies ,bosoh1 =m$ 9 #adba--,zuyd] ,zee1 9 ! #ac? c5tury--,isl&s de/roy$--,delta ( ! ,ems conv]t$ into a bay--,e/u>y ( ! ,doll>t =m$--,encroa*m5t ( ! sea on ! coa/ ( ,sleswick--,on %ores ( ,nor? ,am]ica--,tidal wave1 call$ ! ,bore--,influ5ce ( tides & curr5ts on ! mean level ( seas--,action ( curr5ts 9 inl& lakes & seas--,baltic--,cimbrian deluge--,/raits ( ,gibralt>--,no "u-curr5t !re--,:e!r salt is precipitat$ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean--,wa/e ( %ores ( ,m$it]ranean4 ,inroads ( ! sea at ! m\?s ( ! ,rh9e4--,! l9e ( ,briti% coa/ consid]$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] (f]$ no example ( ! conflict ( two great antagoni/ =ces2 ! influx1 on ! "o h&1 ( a riv] dra9+ a l>ge cont95t1 &1 on ! o!r1 ! action ( ! waves1 tides1 & curr5ts ( ! ocean4 ,b :5 we pass ov] by ! ,/raits ( ,dov] to ! ,cont95t1 & proce$ nor!a/w>ds1 we f9d an admirable illu/ration ( su* a conte/1 :]e ! ocean & ! ,rh9e are oppos$ to ea* o!r1 ea* disput+ ! gr\nd n[ occupi$ by ,holl&2 ! "o /riv+ to %ape out an e/u>y1 ! o!r to =m a delta4 ,!re 0 evid5tly a p]iod :5 ! riv] obta9$ ! asc5dancy1 :5 ! %ape & p]haps ! relative level ( ! coa/ & set ( ! tides 7 v diff]5t2 b = ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s1 dur+ :i* man has witness$ & actively p>ticipat$ 9 ! /ruggle1 ! result has be5 9 favor ( ! ocean2 ! area ( ! :ole t]ritory hav+ become m & m circumscrib$2 natural & artificial b>ri]s hav+ giv5 away1 "o aft] ano!r2 & _m hundr$ ?\s& human be+s hav+ p]i%$ 9 ! waves4 ,*anges 9 ! arms ( ! ,rh9e4--,! ,rh9e1 aft] fl[+ f ! ,grison ,alps1 copi\sly *>g$ ) s$im5t1 fir/ purifies itself 9 ! ,lake ( ,con/ance1 :]e a l>ge delta is =m$2 !n swell$ by ! ,a> & num]\s o!r tribut>ies1 x fl[s = m ?an six hundr$ miles t[>ds ! nor?2 :51 ent]+ a l[ tract1 x divides into two arms1 ab\t t5 miles nor!a/ ( ,cleves1--a po9t :i* mu/ !re=e be consid]$ ! head ( its delta4 7,see,a1 map1 fig4 #h47 ,9 speak+ ( ! delta1 ,i d n mean to assume t all t "p ( ,holl& :i* is compris$ )9 ! sev]al arms ( ! ,rh9e c be call$ a delta 9 ! /ricte/ s5se ( ! t]m2 because "s portion ( ! c\ntry ?us circumscrib$1 z1 = example1 a "p ( ,geld]l& & ,utre*t1 consi/s ( /rata :i* may h be5 deposit$ 9 ! sea be=e ! ,rh9e exi/$4 ,^! old] tracts may ei!r h be5 rais$ l ! ,ullah ,bund 9 ,cut*1 dur+ ! p]iod :5 ! s$im5t ( ! ,rh9e 0 conv]t+ a "p ( ! sea into l&1 or !y may h con/itut$ isl&s previ\sly4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,! d>k t9t betwe5 ,antw]p & ,nieuport1 repres5ts "p ( ! ,ne!rl&s :i* 0 l& 9 ! "t ( ! ,romans1 !n ov]fl[$ by ! sea be=e & dur+ ! #e? c5tury1 & aft]w>ds reconv]t$ into l&4 ,:5 ! riv] divides nor? ( ,cleves1 ! left arm takes ! "n ( ! ,waal2 & ! "r1 reta9+ t ( ! ,rh9e1 is connect$1 a little f>!r to ! nor?1 by an artificial canal ) ! riv] ,yssel4 ,! ,rh9e !n fl[+ we/w>d divides aga9 s\!a/ ( ,utre*t1 & f ?is po9t x takes ! "n ( ! ,leck1 a "n :i* 0 giv5 to di/+ui% x f ! nor!rn arm call$ ! old ,rh9e1 :i* 0 s&$ up until ! ye> #ahbe1 :5 a *annel 0 cut = x1 by :i* x n[ ent]s ! sea at ,catwyck4 ,x is common1 9 all great deltas1 t ! pr9cipal *annels ( dis*>ge %\ld %ift f "t to "t1 b 9 ,holl& s _m magnific5t canals h be5 con/ruct$1 & h s div]t$1 f "t to "t1 ! c\rse ( ! wat]s1 t ! geographical *anges 9 ?is delta are endless1 & _! hi/ory1 s9ce ! ,roman era1 =ms a complicat$ topic ( antiqu>ian rese>*4 ,! pres5t head ( ! delta is ab\t =ty geographical miles f ! ne>e/ "p ( ! gulf call$ ! ,zuyd] ,zee1 & m ?an twice t di/ance f ! g5]al coa/-l9e4 ,! pres5t head ( ! delta ( ! ,nile is ab\t #hj or #ij geographical miles f ! sea2 t ( ! ,ganges1 z be=e /at$1 #bbj2 & t ( ! ,mississippi ab\t #ahj1 reckon+ f ! po9t :]e ! ,at*afalaya bran*es (f to ! extremity ( ! new tongue ( l& 9 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,b ! comp>ative di/ance betwe5 ! heads ( deltas & ! sea af=ds no positive data = e/imat+ ! relative magnitude ( ! alluvial tracts =m$ by _! respective riv]s1 = ! ramifications dep5d on _m v>y+ & tempor>y circum/ances1 & ! area ov] :i* !y ext5d does n hold any con/ant proportion to ! volume ( wat] 9 ! riv]4 ,! ,rh9e !re=e has at pres5t ?ree m\?s4 ,ab\t two-?irds ( its wat]s fl[ to ! sea by ! ,waal1 & ! rema9d] is c>ri$ p>tly to ! ,zuyd] ,zee by ! ,yssel1 & p>tly to ! ocean by ! ,leck4 ,z ! :ole coa/ to ! s\? z f> z ,o/5d1 & on ! nor? to ! entrance ( ! ,baltic1 has1 ) few exceptions1 f "t immemorial1 yield$ to ! =ce ( ! waves1 x is evid5t t ! common delta ( ! ,rh9e1 ,meuse1 & ,s*eldt1 = ^! ?ree riv]s may all be consid]$ z dis*>g+ _! wat]s into ! same "p ( ! sea1 w\ld1 if its advance _h n be5 *eck$1 h become extremely prom95t2 & ev5 if x _h rema9$ /ation>y1 w\ld long ere ?is h project$ f> beyond ! r\nd$ outl9e ( ! coa/1 l t /rip ( l& already describ$ at ! m\? ( ! ,mississippi4 ,b we f9d1 on ! contr>y1 t ! isl&s :i* skirt ! coa/ h n only less5$ 9 size1 b 9 numb] also1 :ile great bays h be5 =m$ 9 ! int]ior by incursions ( ! sea4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! incessant advance ( ! ocean on ! %ores & inl& c\ntry ( ,holl&1 ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont has sugge/$ t !re has 9 all probability be5 a g5]al depression or s9k+ ( ! l& bel[ its =m] level ov] a wide area4 ,su* a *ange ( level w\ld enable ! sea to break ?r\gh ! anci5t l9e ( s&-banks & isl&s :i* protect$ ! coa/1--w\ld lead to ! enl>gem5t ( bays1 ! =mation ( new e/u>ies1 & ultimately to ! entire subm]g5ce ( l&4 ,^! views appe> to be support$ by ! fact t sev]al peat-mosses ( fre%-wat] orig9 n[ occur "u ! level ( ! sea1 especially on ! site ( ! ,zuyd] ,zee & ,lake ,flevo1 pres5tly to be m5tion$4 ,sev]al excavations also made = wells at ,utre*t1 ,am/]dam1 & ,rott]dam h prov$1 t bel[ ! level ( ! ocean1 ! soil ne> ! coa/ consi/s ( alt]nations ( s& ) m>9e %ells1 & b$s ( peat & clay1 :i* h be5 trac$ to ! dep? ( fifty feet & upw>ds4#ddc ,i h said t ! coa/ to ! s\? z f> z ,o/5d has giv5 way4 ,?is /atem5t may at fir/ seem oppos$ to ! fact1 t ! tract betwe5 ,antw]p & ,nieuport1 %ad$ black 9 ! annex$ map 7fig4 #ch71 al?\gh n[ dry l&1 & support+ a l>ge population1 has1 )9 ! hi/orical p]iod1 be5 cov]$ ) ! sea4 ,?is region1 h[ev]1 consi/$1 9 ! "t ( ! ,romans1 ( woods1 m>%es1 & peat-mosses1 protect$ f ! ocean by a *a9 ( s&y dunes1 :i* 7 aft]w>ds brok5 ?r\gh dur+ /orms1 especially 9 ! fif? c5tury4 ,! wat]s ( ! sea dur+ ^! irruptions ?rew d[n ^u ! b>r5 peat a horizontal b$ ( f]tile clay1 :i* is 9 "s places ?ree y>ds ?ick1 full ( rec5t %ells & works ( art4 ,! inhabitants1 by ! aid ( embankm5ts & ! s& dunes ( ! coa/1 h succe$$1 al?\gh n )\t frequ5t disa/]s1 9 def5d+ ! soil ?us rais$ by ! m>9e deposit4#ddd ,inroads ( ! ,sea 9 ,holl&4--,if we pass to ! nor?w>d ( ! t]ritory j allud$ to1 & cross ! ,s*eldt1 we f9d t betwe5 ! f\rte5? & eighte5? c5turies p>ts ( ! isl&s ,wal*]5 & ,bevel& 7 swept away1 & sev]al popul\s di/ricts ( ,kadz&1 losses :i* f> m ?an c\nt]balance ! ga9 ( l& caus$ by ! s&+ up ( "s pre-exi/+ creeks4 ,9 #afeh ! ,isl& ,orisant 0 annihilat$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ memorable inroads ( ! sea occurr$ 9 #adba1 :5 ! tide1 p\r+ into ! m\? ( ! unit$ ,meuse & ,waal1 bur/ ?r\gh a dam 9 ! di/rict betwe5 ,dort & ,g]trud5b]g1 & ov]fl[$ sev5ty-two villages1 =m+ a l>ge %eet ( wat] call$ ! ,bies ,bos*4 7,see map1 fig4 #ch47 ,?irty-five ( ! villages 7 irretrievably lo/1 & no ve/ige1 ev5 ( _! ru9s1 0 aft]w>ds se54 ,! re/ 7 r$eem$1 & ! site ( ! o!rs1 ?\gh /ill v g5]ally repres5t$ on maps z an e/u>y1 has 9 fact be5 gradually fill$ up by alluvial deposits1 & _h become 9 #ahce1 z ,i 0 in=m$ by ,pr(essor ,moll1 an imm5se pla91 yield+ abundant crops ( hay1 ?\gh /ill un9habit$4 ,to ! nor? ( ! ,meuse is a long l9e ( %ore cov]$ ) s& dunes1 :]e great encroa*m5ts h tak5 place f "t to "t1 9 consequ5ce *iefly ( ! preval5ce ( s\!a/]ly w9ds1 :i* bl[ d[n ! s&s t[>ds ! sea4 ,! *ur* ( ,s*ev5+51 n f> f ! ,hague1 0 once 9 ! middle ( ! village1 & n[ /&s on ! %ore1 half ! place hav+ be5 ov]:elm$ by ! waves 9 #aegj4 ,catwyck1 once f> f ! sea1 is n[ ^u ! %ore2 two ( its /reets hav+ be5 ov]fl[$1 & l& torn away to ! ext5t ( #bjj y>ds1 9 #agai4 ,x is only by ! aid ( embankm5ts t ,pett51 & sev]al o!r places f>!r nor?1 h be5 def5d$ aga9/ ! sea4 ,=mation ( ! ,zuyd] ,zee & ,/raits ( ,/av]54--,/ill m important are ! *anges :i* h tak5 place on ! coa/ opposite ! "r arm ( ! ,rh9e1 or ! ,yssel1 :]e ! ocean has bur/ ?r\gh a l>ge i/hmus1 & ent]$ ! inl& lake ,flevo1 :i*1 9 anci5t times1 01 accord+ to ,pomponius ,mela1 =m$ by ! ov]fl[+ ( ! ,rh9e ov] c]ta9 l[l&s4 ,x appe>s t1 9 ! "t ( ,tacitus1 !re 7 sev]al lakes on ! pres5t site ( ! ,zuyd] ,zee1 betwe5 ,friesl& & ,holl&4 ,! successive inroads by :i* ^! & a great "p ( ! adjo9+ t]ritory1 7 trans=m$ into a great gulf1 began ab\t ! comm5cem5t1 & 7 complet$ t[>ds ! close1 ( ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,alt+ gives ! foll[+ relation ( ! occurr5ce1 drawn f manuscript docum5ts ( contempor>y inhabitants ( ! neighbor+ prov9ces4 ,9 ! ye> #abje1 ! isl& n[ call$ ,wi]+51 to ! s\? ( ! ,texel1 0 /ill a "p ( ! ma9l&1 b dur+ sev]al high floods1 ( :i* ! dates are giv51 end+ 9 ,decemb]1 #abea1 x 0 sep>at$ f ! cont95t4 ,by subsequ5t incursions ! sea consum$ great p>ts ( ! ri* & popul\s i/hmus1 a l[ tract :i* /ret*$ on ! nor? ( ,lake ,flevo1 betwe5 ,/av]5 9 ,friesl& & ,m$emblick 9 ,holl&1 till at l5g? a brea* 0 complet$ ab\t ! ye> #abhb1 & aft]w>ds wid5$4 ,great de/ruction ( l& took place :5 ! sea fir/ broke 91 & _m t[ns 7 swept away2 b !re 0 aft]w>ds a reaction to a c]ta9 ext5t1 l>ge tracts1 at fir/ subm]g$1 hav+ be5 gradually r$eem$4 ,! new /raits s\? ( ,/av]5 are m ?an half ! wid? ( ^? ( ,dov]1 b are v %all[1 ! greate/ dep? n exce$+ two or ?ree fa?oms4 ,! new bay is ( a some:at circul> =m1 & betwe5 ?irty & =ty miles 9 diamet]4 ,h[ mu* ( ?is space may =m]ly h be5 occupi$ by ,lake ,flevo is unkn[n4 7,see map1 fig4 #ch47 ,de/ruction ( isl&s4--,a s]ies ( isl&s /ret*+ f ! ,texel to ! m\?s ( ! ,wes] & ,elbe are probably ! la/ relics ( a tract once cont9u\s4 ,!y h greatly dim9i%$ 9 size1 & h lo/ ab\t a ?ird ( _! numb]1 s9ce ! "t ( ,pl9y2 = t naturali/ c\nt$ tw5ty-?ree isl&s betwe5 ! ,texel & ,eid]1 :]eas !re are n[ only sixte51 includ+ ,heligol& & ,neuw]k4#dde ,! isl& ( ,heligol&1 at ! m\? ( ! ,elbe1 consi/s ( a rock ( r$ m>l ( ! ,keup] =mation 7( ! ,g]mans71 & is b\nd$ by p]p5dicul> r$ cliffs1 above #bjj feet high4 ,al?\gh1 accord+ to "s acc\nts1 x has be5 greatly r$uc$ 9 size s9ce ! ye> #hjj1 ,m4 ,wiebel assures u1 t ! anci5t map by ,mey] _c be dep5d$ ^u1 & t ! isl&1 accord+ to ! description /ill extant by ,adam ( ,brem51 0 n mu* l>g] ?an n[1 9 ! "t ( ,*>lemagne4 ,on comp>+ ! map made 9 ! ye> #agic by ! ,dani% eng9e] ,wessel1 ! av]age encroa*m5t ( ! sea on ! cliffs1 betwe5 t p]iod & ! ye> #ahdh 7or ab\t half a c5tury71 did n am\nt to m ?an ?ree feet4#ddf ,on ! o!r h&1 "s few isl&s h ext5d$ _! b\nds 9 "o direction1 or become connect$ ) o!rs1 by ! s&+-up ( *annels2 b ev5 ^!1 l ,jui/1 h g5]ally giv5 way z mu* on ! nor? t[>ds ! sea z !y h ga9$ on ! s\?1 or l& side4 ,! ,doll>t =m$4--,:ile ! delta ( ! ,rh9e has suff]$ s mat]ially f ! movem5ts ( ! ocean1 x c h>dly be suppos$ t m9or riv]s on ! same coa/ %\ld h be5 p]mitt$ to ext5d _! deltas4 ,x appe>s t 9 ! "t ( ! ,romans !re 0 an alluvial pla9 ( great f]tility1 :]e ! ,ems ent]$ ! sea by ?ree arms4 ,?is l[ c\ntry /ret*$ betwe5 ,gron+5 & ,friesl&1 & s5t out a p59sula to ! nor!a/ t[>ds ,emd54 ,a flood 9 #abgg fir/ de/roy$ "p ( ! p59sula4 ,o!r inundations foll[$ at diff]5t p]iods ?r\gh\t ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,9 #aejg1 a "p only ( ,torum1 a consid]able t[n1 rema9$ /&+2 & 9 spite ( ! erection ( dams1 ! rema9d] ( t place1 toge!r ) m>ket-t[ns1 villages1 & mona/]ies1 to ! numb] ( fifty1 7 f9ally ov]:elm$4 ,! new gulf1 :i* 0 call$ ! ,doll>t1 al?\gh small 9 comp>ison to ! ,zuyd] ,zee1 occupi$ no less ?an six squ>e miles at fir/2 b "p ( ?is space 01 9 ! c\rse ( ! two foll[+ c5turies1 aga9 r$eem$ f ! sea4 ,! small bay ( ,leybu*t1 f>!r nor?1 0 =m$ 9 a simil> mann] 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury2 & ! bay ( ,h>lbu*t 9 ! middle ( ! sixte5?4 ,bo? ( ^! h s9ce be5 p>tially reconv]t$ into dry l&4 ,ano!r new e/u>y1 call$ ! ,gulf ( ,jahde1 ne> ! m\? ( ! ,wes]1 sc>cely inf]ior 9 size to ! ,doll>t1 has be5 gradually holl[$ out s9ce ! ye> #ajaf1 betwe5 :i* era & #afea a space ( ab\t f\r squ>e miles has be5 add$ to ! sea4 ,! rivulet :i* n[ ent]s ?is inlet is v small2 b ,ar5s conjectures t an arm ( ! ,wes] _h once an outlet 9 t direction4 ,coa/ ( ,sleswick4--,f>!r nor? we f9d s _m records ( wa/e on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,sleswick1 z to lead u to anticipate t1 at no di/ant p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ! physical geography ( ,europe1 ,jutl& may become an isl&1 & ! ocean may obta9 a m direct entrance into ! ,baltic4 ,inde$1 ! tempor>y insulation ( ! nor!rn extremity ( ,jutl& has be5 affect$ no less ?an f\r times )9 ! records ( hi/ory1 ! ocean hav+ z (t5 made a brea* ?r\gh ! b> ( s&1 :i* usually excludes x f ! ,lym ,fiord4 ,?is long fri? is #abj miles 9 l5g? includ+ its w9d+s1 & communicates at its ea/]n end ) ! ,baltic4 ,! la/ irruption ( salt wat] happ5$ 9 #ahbd1 & ! fiord 0 /ill op5 9 #ahcg1 :5 "s vessels ( ?irty tons' burd5 pass$ ?r\gh4 ,! ,m>% isl&s betwe5 ! riv]s ,elbe & ,eid] are m]e banks1 l ! l&s =m$ ( ! w>p 9 ! ,humb]1 protect$ by dikes4 ,"s ( !m1 aft] hav+ be5 inhabit$ ) security = m ?an t5 c5turies1 h be5 sudd5ly ov]:elm$4 ,9 ?is mann]1 9 #abaf1 no less ?an t5 ?\s& ( ! inhabitants ( ,eid]/$e & ,ditm>s* p]i%$2 & on ! #aa? ( ,octob]1 #afcd1 ! isl&s & ! :ole coa/1 z f> z ,jutl&1 suff]$ by a dreadful deluge4 ,de/ruction ( ,nor?/r& by ! sea4--,nor?/r&1 up to ! ye> #abdj1 01 ) ! isl&s ,sylt & ,fohr1 s ne>ly connect$ ) ! ma9l& z to appe> a p59sula1 & 0 call$ ,nor? ,friesl&1 a highly cultivat$ & popul\s di/rict4 ,x measur$ f n9e to elev5 geographical miles f nor? to s\?1 & six to eight f ea/ to we/4 ,9 ! above-m5tion$ ye> x 0 torn asund] f ! cont95t1 & 9 "p ov]:elm$4 ,! ,isle ( ,nor?/r&1 ?us =m$1 01 t[>ds ! end ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 only f\r geographical miles 9 circumf]5ce1 & 0 /ill celebrat$ = its cultivation & num]\s population4 ,aft] _m losses1 x /ill conta9$ n9e ?\s& inhabitants4 ,at la/1 9 ! ye> #afcd1 on ! ev5+ ( ! #aa? ( ,octob]1 a flood pass$ ov] ! :ole isl&1 :]eby #acjj h\ses1 ) _m *ur*es1 7 lo/2 fifty ?\s& head ( cattle p]i%$1 & above six ?\s& m54 ,?ree small islets1 "o ( !m /ill call$ ,nor?/r&1 alone rema9$1 :i* are n[ cont9ually wa/+4 ,! r$undancy ( riv] wat] 9 ! ,baltic1 especially dur+ ! melt+ ( ice & sn[ 9 spr+1 causes 9 g5]al an outw>d curr5t ?r\gh ! *annel call$ ! ,cattegat4 ,b aft] a cont9uance ( nor?we/]ly gales1 especially dur+ ! height ( ! spr+-tides1 ! ,atlantic rises1 & p\r+ a flood ( wat] into ! ,baltic1 commits dreadful deva/ations on ! isles ( ! ,dani% ,ar*ipelago4 ,?is curr5t ev5 acts1 ?\gh ) dim9i%$ =ce1 z f> ea/w>d z ! vic9ity ( ,dantzic4#ddg ,acc\nts writt5 dur+ ! la/ t5 c5turies atte/ ! we>+ d[n ( promontories on ! ,dani% coa/1 ! deep5+ ( gulfs1 ! sev]+ ( p59sulas f ! ma9l&1 & ! wa/e ( isl&s1 :ile 9 sev]al cases m>% l&1 def5d$ = c5turies by dikes1 has at la/ be5 ov]fl[$1 & ?\s&s ( ! inhabitants :elm$ 9 ! waves4 ,?us ! isl& ,b>soe1 on ! coa/ ( ,sleswick1 has lo/1 ye> aft] ye>1 an acre at a "t1 & ! isl& ,als5 suff]s 9 l mann]4 ,cimbrian deluge4--,z we h already se5 t dur+ ! flood be=e m5tion$1 #fjjj m5 & #ej1jjj head ( cattle p]i%$ on ,nor?/r& on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,jutl&1 we are all well prep>$ to f9d t ?is p59sula1 ! ,cimbrica ,*]sonesus ( ! anci5ts1 has f a remote p]iod be5 ! !atre ( l cata/rophes4 ,accord+ly1 ,/rabo records a /ory1 al?\gh he treats x z an incr$ible fiction1 t1 dur+ a high tide1 ! ocean rose ^u ?is coa/ s rapidly1 t m5 on horseback 7 sc>cely able to escape4#ddh ,florus1 allud+ to ! same tradition1 says1 ,cimbri1 ,teutoni1 atque ,tigur9i1 ab extremis ,galliae pr(ugi1 cum t]ras eorum inundasset ,oceanus1 novas s$es toto orbe qua]ebant4#ddi ,?is ev5t1 commonly call$ ! ,cimbrian ,deluge1 is suppos$ to h happ5$ ab\t ?ree c5turies be=e ! ,*ri/ian era2 b x is n improbable t ! pr9cipal cata/rophe 0 prec$$ & foll[$ by _m deva/ations l ^? exp]i5c$ 9 mod]n times on ! isl&s & %ores ( ,jutl&1 & su* calamities may well be conceiv$ to h =c$ on ! migration ( "s m>itime tribes4 ,inroads ( ! sea on ! ea/]n %ores ( ,nor? ,am]ica4--,aft] s _m au!ntic details respect+ ! de/ruction ( ! coa/ 9 p>ts ( ,europe be/ kn[n1 x w be unnecess>y to multiply examples ( analog\s *anges 9 m di/ant regions ( ! _w4 ,x mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be imag9$ t our own seas =m any exception to ! g5]al rule4 ,?us1 = example1 if we pass ov] to ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e ! tides rise1 9 ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 to a great elevation1 we f9d _m facts atte/+ ! incessant demolition ( l&4 ,cliffs1 (t5 sev]al hundr$ feet high1 compos$ ( s&/one1 r$ m>l1 & o!r rocks1 :i* bord] t bay & its num]\s e/u>ies1 are p]petually und]m9$4 ,! ru9s ( ^! cliffs are gradually c>ri$1 9 ! =m ( mud1 s&1 & l>ge b\ld]s1 into ! ,atlantic by p[]ful curr5ts1 aid$ at c]ta9 seasons by drift ice1 :i* =ms along ! coa/1 & freezes r\nd l>ge /ones4 ,at ,cape ,may1 on ! nor? side ( ,delaw>e ,bay1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! encroa*m5t ( ! sea 0 %[n by obs]vations made consecutively = sixte5 ye>s1 f #ahjd to #ahbj1 to av]age ab\t n9e feet a ye>2#dej & at ,sullivan's ,isl&1 :i* lies on ! nor? side ( ! entrance ( ! h>bor ( ,*>le/on1 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ! sea c>ri$ away a qu>t] ( a mile ( l& 9 ?ree ye>s1 end+ 9 #aghf4dea ,tidal wave call$ ! ,bore4--,be=e conclud+ my rem>ks on ! action ( ! tides1 ,i mu/ n omit to m5tion ! wave call$ ! ,bore1 :i* is sometimes produc$ 9 a riv] :]e a l>ge body ( wat] is made to rise sudd5ly1 9 consequ5ce ( ! contraction ( ! *annel4 ,?is wave t]m9ates abruptly on ! inl& side2 because ! quantity ( wat] conta9$ 9 x is s great1 & its motion s rapid1 t "t is n all[$ = ! surface ( ! riv] to be imm$iately rais$ by means ( transmitt$ pressure4 ,a tide wave ?us r5d]$ abrupt has a close analogy1 obs]ves ,mr4 ,:ewell1 to ! waves :i* curl ov] & break on a %elv+ %ore4#deb ,! ,bore :i* ent]s ! ,sev]n1 :]e ! ph5om5on is ( almo/ daily occurr5ce1 is sometimes n9e feet high1 & at spr+-tides ru%es up ! e/u>y ) extraord9>y rapidity4 ,! f9e/ example :i* ,i h se5 ( ?is wave 0 at ,nova ,scotia1#dec :]e ! tide is said to rise 9 "s places sev5ty feet p]p5dicul>1 & to be ! highe/ 9 ! _w4 ,9 ! l>ge e/u>y ( ! ,%ub5acadie1 :i* connects ) ano!r e/u>y call$ ! ,bas9 ( ,m9es1 itself an embran*m5t ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 a va/ body ( wat] comes ru%+ up1 ) a ro>+ noise1 into a long n>r[ *annel1 & :ile x is asc5d+1 has all ! appe>ance ( p\r+ d[n a slope z /eep z t ( ! celebrat$ rapids ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce4 ,9 picturesque effect1 h[ev]1 x be>s no comp>ison1 = in/ead ( ! transp>5t gre5 wat] & sn[-:ite foam ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ! :ole curr5t ( ! ,%ub5acadie is turbid & d5sely *>g$ ) r$ mud4 ,! same ph5om5on is frequ5tly witness$ 9 ! pr9cipal bran*es ( ! ,ganges & 9 ! ,megna z be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #bgi74 ,9 ! ,hoogly1 says ,r5nell1 ! ,bore comm5ces at ,hoogly ,po9t1 ! place :]e ! riv] fir/ contracts itself1 & is p]ceptible above ,hoogly ,t[n2 & s quick is its motion1 t x h>dly employs f\r h\rs 9 travell+ f "o to ! o!r1 ?\gh ! di/ance is ne>ly sev5ty miles4 ,at ,calcutta x sometimes occasions an in/antane\s rise ( five feet2 & bo? "h1 & 9 e o!r "p ( its track1 ! boats1 on its approa*1 imm$iately quit ! %ore1 & make = safety to ! middle ( ! riv]4 ,9 ! *annels1 betwe5 ! isl&s 9 ! m\? ( ! ,megna1 ! height ( ! ,bore is said to exce$ twelve feet2 & is s t]rific 9 its appe>ance1 & dang]\s 9 its consequ5ces1 t no boat w v5ture to pass at spr+-tide4#ded ,^! waves may sometimes cause inundations1 und]m9e cliffs1 & /ill m frequ5tly sweep away trees & l& animals f l[ %ores1 s t !y may be c>ri$ d[n1 & ultimately imb$d$ 9 fluviatile or subm>9e deposits4 ,,curr5ts ,,9 ,,inl& ,,lakes ,,& ,,seas4 ,9 su* l>ge bodies ( wat] z ! ,nor? ,am]ican lakes1 ! cont9uance ( a /rong w9d 9 "o direction (t5 causes ! elevation ( ! wat]1 & its accumulation on ! leew>d side2 & :ile ! equilibrium is re/or+ itself1 p[]ful curr5ts are occasion$4 ,9 ,octob]1 #ahcc1 a /rong curr5t 9 ,lake ,erie1 caus$ p>tly by ! set ( ! wat]s t[>ds ! outlet ( ! lake1 & p>tly by ! prevail+ w9d1 bur/ a passage ?r\gh ! ext5sive p59sula call$ ,long ,po9t1 & soon excavat$ a *annel m ?an n9e feet deep & n9e hundr$ feet wide4 ,its wid? & dep? h s9ce increas$1 & a new & co/ly pi] has be5 erect$2 = x is hop$ t ?is ev5t w p]man5tly improve ! navigation ( ,lake ,erie = /eamboats4#dee ,on ! opposite1 or s\!rn coa/ ( ?is lake1 9 front ( ! t[n ( ,clevel&1 ! degradation ( ! cliffs _h be5 s rapid = sev]al ye>s prec$+ a survey made 9 #ahcg1 z to ?reat5 _m t[ns ) demolition4#def ,9 ! ,black ,sea1 also1 al?\gh free f tides1 we le>n f ,pallas t !re is a suffici5tly /rong curr5t to und]m9e ! cliffs 9 _m p>ts1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,crimea4 ,/raits ( ,gibralt>4--,x is well kn[n t a p[]ful curr5t sets con/antly f ! ,atlantic into ! ,m$it]ranean1 & its influ5ce ext5ds along ! :ole s\!rn bord]s ( t sea1 & ev5 to ! %ores ( ,asia ,m9or4 ,capta9 ,smy? f\nd1 dur+ 8 survey1 t ! c5tral curr5t ran con/antly at ! rate ( f ?ree to six miles an h\r ea/w>d into ! ,m$it]ranean1 ! body ( wat] be+ ?ree miles & a half wide4 ,b !re are also two lat]al curr5ts--"o on ! ,european1 & "o on ! ,african side2 ea* ( !m ab\t two miles & a half broad1 & fl[+ at ab\t ! same rate z ! c5tral /ream4 ,^! lat]al curr5ts ebb & fl[ ) ! tide1 sett+ alt]nately into ! ,m$it]ranean & into ! ,atlantic4 ,! excess ( wat] con/antly fl[+ 9 is v great1 & !re is only "o cause to :i* ?is c be attribut$1 ! loss ( wat] 9 ! ,m$it]ranean by evaporation4 ,t ! level ( ?is sea %\ld be consid]ably depress$ by ?is cause is q conceivable1 s9ce we "k t ! w9ds bl[+ f ! %ores ( ,africa are hot & dry2 & hygrometrical exp]im5ts rec5tly made 9 ,malta & o!r places1 %[ t ! mean quantity ( moi/ure 9 ! air inve/+ ! ,m$it]ranean is equal only to "o half ( t 9 ! atmosph]e ( ,engl&4 ,! temp]ature also ( ! great inl& sea is ^u an av]age high]1 by #c-a_/b degrees ( ,fahr5heit1 ?an ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean 9 ! same latitude1 :i* mu/ greatly promote its evaporation4 ,! ,black ,sea be+ situat$ 9 a high] latitude1 & be+ ! receptacle ( riv]s fl[+ f ! nor?1 is mu* cold]1 & its exp5diture f> less2 accord+ly x does n draw any supply f ! ,m$it]ranean1 b1 on ! contr>y1 contributes to x by a curr5t fl[+ outw>ds1 = ! mo/ "p ( ! ye>1 ?r\gh ! ,d>danelles4 ,! dis*>ge1 h[ev]1 at ! ,bosphorus is s small1 :5 comp>$ to ! volume ( wat] c>ri$ 9 by riv]s1 z to imply a great am\nt ( evaporation 9 ! ,black ,sea4 ,:e!r salt be precipitat$ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4--,x is1 h[ev]1 object$1 t evaporation c>ries away only fre% wat]1 & t ! curr5t f ! ,atlantic is cont9ually br++ 9 salt wat]3 :y1 !n1 d n ! compon5t p>ts ( ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean v>y8 or h[ c !y rema9 s ne>ly ! same z ^? ( ! ocean8 ,"s h imag9$ t ! excess ( salt might be c>ri$ away by an "u-curr5t runn+ 9 a contr>y direction to ! sup]ior2 & ?is hypo!sis appe>$ to receive confirmation f a late discov]y1 t ! wat] tak5 up ab\t fifty miles )9 ! ,/raits1 f a dep? ( #fgj fa?oms1 conta9$ a quantity ( salt f\r times great] ?an ! wat] ( ! surface4 ,dr4 ,wolla/on1#deg :o analyz$ ?is wat] obta9$ by ,capta9 ,smy?1 truly inf]r$ t an "u-curr5t ( su* d5s] wat] fl[+ outw>d1 if ( equal bread? & dep? ) ! curr5t ne> ! surface1 w\ld c>ry out z mu* salt bel[ z is br\ght 9 above1 al?\gh x mov$ ) less ?an "o-f\r? "p ( ! velocity1 & w\ld ?us prev5t a p]petual increase ( saltness 9 ! ,m$it]ranean beyond t exi/+ 9 ! ,atlantic4 ,x 0 also rem>k$ by o!rs1 t ! result w\ld be ! same1 if ! swiftness be+ equal1 ! inf]ior curr5t _h only "o-f\r? ( ! volume ( ! sup]ior4 ,at ! same "t !re appe>$ reason to conclude t ?is great specific gravity 0 only acquir$ by wat] at imm5se dep?s2 = two specim5s ( ! wat]1 tak5 )9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 at ! di/ance ( "s hundr$ miles f ! ,/raits1 & at dep?s ( #djj & ev5 #dej fa?oms1 7 f\nd by ,dr4 ,wolla/on n to exce$ 9 d5sity t ( _m ord9>y samples ( sea-wat]4 ,su* be+ ! case1 we c n[ prove t ! va/ am\nt ( salt br\ght into ! ,m$it]ranean does n pass out aga9 by ! ,/raits2 = x appe>s by ,capta9 ,smy?'s s\nd+s1 :i* ,dr4 ,walla/on _h n se51 t betwe5 ! capes ( ,trafalg> & ,sp>tel1 :i* are tw5ty-two miles ap>t1 & :]e ! ,/raits are %all[e/1 ! deepe/ "p1 :i* is on ! side ( ,cape ,sp>tel1 is only #bbj fa?oms4 ,x is !re=e evid5t1 t if wat] s9ks 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 9 consequ5ce ( ! increase ( its specific gravity1 to great] dep?s ?an #bbj fa?oms1 x c nev] fl[ out aga9 into ! ,atlantic1 s9ce x mu/ be /opp$ by ! subm>9e b>ri] :i* crosses ! %all[e/ "p ( ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt>4 ,! idea ( ! exi/5ce ( a c\nt]-curr5t1 at a c]ta9 dep?1 fir/ orig9at$ 9 ! foll[+ circum/ances3--,m4 ,de l',aigle1 comm&] ( a private] call$ ! ,pho5ix ( ,m>seilles1 gave *ase to a ,dut* m]*ant-%ip1 ne> ,ceuta ,po9t1 & com+ up ) h] 9 ! middle ( ! gut1 betwe5 ,t>iffa & ,tangi]1 gave h] "o broadside1 :i* directly sunk h]4 ,a few days aft]1 ! sunk5 %ip1 ) h] c>go ( br&y & oil1 0 ca/ a%ore ne> ,tangi]1 :i* is at lea/ f\r leagues to ! we/w>d ( ! place :]e %e w5t d[n1 & to :i* %e mu/ h float$ 9 a direction contr>y to ! c\rse ( ! c5tral curr5t4#deh ,?is fact1 h[ev]1 af=ds no evid5ce ( an "u-curr5t1 because ! %ip1 :5 x approa*$ ! coa/1 w\ld necess>ily be )9 ! influ5ce ( a lat]al curr5t1 :i* runn+ we/w>d twice e tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 might h br\ght back ! vessel to ,tangi]4 ,:at1 !n1 becomes ( ! excess ( salt8--= ?is is an inquiry ( ! highe/ geological int]e/4 ,! ,rhone1 ! ,po1 ! ,nile1 & _m hundr$ m9or /reams & spr+s1 p\r annually into ! ,m$it]ranean l>ge quantities ( c>bonate ( lime1 toge!r ) iron1 magnesia1 silica1 alum9a1 sulphur1 & o!r m9]al +r$i5ts 9 a /ate ( *emical solution4 ,to expla9 :y ! influx ( ?is matt] does n alt] ! composition ( ?is sea has nev] be5 reg>d$ z a difficulty2 = x is kn[n t calc>e\s rocks are =m+ 9 ! delta ( ! ,rhone1 9 ! ,adriatic1 on ! coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or1 & 9 o!r localities4 ,precipitation is ackn[l$g$ to be ! means :]eby ! surplus m9]al matt] is dispos$ (1 aft] ! consumption ( a c]ta9 portion 9 ! secretions ( te/acea1 zoophytes1 & o!r m>9e animals4 ,b be=e muriate ( soda c1 9 l mann]1 be precipitat$1 ! :ole ,m$it]ranean ought1 accord+ to ! receiv$ pr9ciples ( *emi/ry1 to become z mu* saturat$ ) salt z ,lake ,aral1 ! ,dead ,sea1 or ! br9e-spr+s ( ,*e%ire4 ,x is und\bt$ly true1 9 reg>d to small bodies ( wat]1 t e p>ticle mu/ be fully saturat$ ) muriate ( soda be=e a s+le cry/al ( salt c be =m$2 su* is probably ! case 9 all natural salt]ns3 su*1 = example1 z ^? describ$ by travell]s z occurr+ on ! we/]n bord]s ( ! ,black ,sea1 :]e ext5sive m>%es are said to be cov]$ by ?9 films ( salt aft] a rapid evaporation ( sea-wat]4 ,! salt atangs ( ! ,rhone1 :]e salt has sometimes be5 precipitat$ 9 consid]able abundance1 h be5 already m5tion$4 ,9 reg>d to ! dep? ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 x appe>s t betwe5 ,gibralt> & ,ceuta1 ,capta9 ,smy? s\nd$ to ! enorm\s dep? ( #iej fa?oms1 & f\nd !re a gravelly bottom1 ) fragm5ts ( brok5 %ells4 ,saussure s\nd$ to ! dep? ( two ?\s& feet1 )9 a few y>ds ( ! %ore1 at ,nice2 & ,m4 ,b>>d has lately fa?om$ to ! dep? ( m ?an six ?\s& feet 9 sev]al places )\t rea*+ ! bottom4#dei ,! c5tral abysses1 !re=e1 ( ?is sea are1 9 all likelihood1 at lea/ z deep z ! ,alps are high2 &1 z at ! dep? ( sev5 hundr$ fa?oms only1 wat] has be5 f\nd to conta9 a proportion ( salt f\r times great] ?an at ! surface1 we may presume t ! excess ( salt may be mu* great] at ! dep? ( two or ?ree miles4 ,aft] evaporation1 ! surface wat] becomes impregnat$ ) a slight excess ( salt1 & its specific gravity be+ ?us increas$1 x in/antly falls to ! bottom1 :ile light] wat] rises to ! top1 or fl[s 9 lat]ally1 be+ always suppli$ by riv]s & ! curr5t f ! ,atlantic4 ,! heavi] fluid1 :5 x arrives at ! bottom1 _c /op if x c ga9 access to any l[] "p ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 n previ\sly occupi$ by wat] ( ! same d5sity4 ,h[ f> ?is accumulation ( br9e c ext5d be=e ! inf]ior /rata ( wat] w "p ) any ( _! salt1 & :at diff]5ce 9 su* a *emical process ! imm5se pressure ( ! incumb5t ocean1 or ! escape ( heat$ vapors1 !rmal spr+s1 or subm>9e volcanic eruptions1 might occasion1 are que/ions :i* _c be answ]$ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce4 ,! ,/raits ( ,gibralt> are said to become gradually wid] by ! we>+ d[n ( ! cliffs on ea* side at _m po9ts2 & ! curr5t sets along ! coa/ ( ,africa1 s z to cause consid]able inroads 9 v>i\s p>ts1 p>ticul>ly ne> ,c>?age4 ,ne> ! ,canopic m\? ( ! ,nile1 at ,ab\kir1 ! coa/ 0 greatly deva/at$ 9 ! ye> #aghd1 :5 a small isl& 0 ne>ly consum$4 ,by a s]ies ( simil> op]ations1 ! old site ( ! cities ( ,nicropolis1 ,taposiris1 ,p>va & ,canopus1 h become a s&-bank4#dfj ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,reproductive ,,effects ,,( ,,tides ,,& ,,curr5ts4 ,e/u>ies1 h[ =m$--,silt+ up ( e/u>ies does n comp5sate ! loss ( l& on ! bord]s ( ! ocean--,b$ ( ! ,g]man ,ocean--,composition & ext5t ( its s&-banks--,/rata deposit$ by curr5ts 9 ! ,engli% *annel--,on ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean--,at ! m\?s ( ! ,amazon1 ,or9oco1 & ,mississippi--,wide area ov] :i* /rata may be =m$ by ?is cause4 ,f ! facts enum]at$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 x appe>s t on ! bord]s ( ! ocean1 curr5ts & tides co-op]at+ ) ! waves ( ! sea are mo/ p[]ful in/rum5ts 9 ! de/ruction & transportation ( rocks2 & z num]\s tribut>ies dis*>ge _! alluvial burd5 into ! *annel ( "o great riv]1 s we f9d t _m riv]s deliv] _! e>?y cont5ts to "o m>9e curr5t1 to be borne by x to a di/ance1 & deposit$ 9 "s deep receptacle ( ! ocean4 ,! curr5t1 besides receiv+ ?is tribute ( s$im5t>y matt] f /reams dra9+ ! l&1 acts also itself on ! coa/1 z does a riv] on ! cliffs :i* b\nd a valley4 ,yet ! wa/e ( cliffs by m>9e curr5ts con/itutes on ! :ole a v insignificant portion ( ! d5udation annually effect$ by aque\s causes1 z ,i %all po9t out 9 ! sequel ( ?is *apt] 7p4 #cci74 ,9 inl& seas1 :]e ! tides are ins5sible1 or on ^? p>ts ( ! bord]s ( ! ocean :]e !y are feeble1 x is sc>cely possible to prev5t a h>bor at a riv]'s m\? f silt+ up2 = a b> ( s& or mud is =m$ at po9ts :]e ! velocity ( ! turbid riv] is *eck$ by ! sea1 or :]e ! riv] & a m>9e curr5t neutralize ea* o!r's =ce4 ,= ! curr5t1 z we h se51 may1 l ! riv]1 hold 9 susp5sion a l>ge quantity ( s$im5t1 or1 co-op]at+ ) ! waves1 may cause ! progressive motion ( a %+le bea* 9 "o direction4 ,i h already allud$ to ! erection ( pi]s & gro9s at c]ta9 places on our s\!rn coa/1 to arre/ ! c\rse ( ! %+le & s& 7see p4 #cah74 ,! imm$iate effect ( ^! tempor>y ob/acles is to cause a great accumulation ( pebbles on "o side ( ! b>ri]1 aft] :i* ! bea* /ill moves on r\nd ! end ( ! pi] at a great] di/ance f ! l&4 ,?is sy/em1 h[ev]1 is (t5 att5d$ ) a s]i\s evil1 = dur+ /orms ! waves ?r[ sudd5ly into ! h>bor ! va/ heap ( pebbles :i* h collect$ = ye>s beh9d ! gro9 or pi]1 z happ5$ dur+ a great gale 7,jan4 #ahci7 at ,dov]4 ,! =mation & keep+ op5 ( l>ge e/u>ies are due to ! comb9$ influ5ce ( tidal curr5ts & riv]s2 = :5 ! tide rises1 a l>ge body ( wat] sudd5ly ent]s ! m\? ( ! riv]1 :]e1 becom+ conf9$ )9 n>r[] b\nds1 :ile its mom5tum is n de/roy$1 x is urg$ on1 &1 hav+ to pass ?r\gh a contract$ *annel1 rises & runs ) increas$ velocity1 j z a /ream :5 x rea*es ! ar* ( a bridge sc>cely l>ge en\gh to give passage to its wat]s1 ru%es ) a /eep fall ?r\gh ! ar*4 ,dur+ ! asc5t ( ! tide1 a body ( fre% wat]1 fl[+ d[n 9 an opposite direction f ! high] c\ntry1 is arre/$ 9 its c\rse = sev]al h\rs2 & ?us a l>ge lake ( fre% & bracki% wat] is accumulat$1 :i*1 :5 ! sea ebbs1 is let loose1 z on ! removal ( an artificial sluice or dam4 ,by ! =ce ( ?is retir+ wat]1 ! alluvial s$im5t bo? ( ! riv] & ( ! sea is swept away1 & transport$ to su* a di/ance f ! m\? ( ! e/u>y1 t a small "p only c return ) ! next tide4 ,x sometimes happ5s1 t dur+ a viol5t /orm a l>ge b> ( s& is sudd5ly made to %ift its position1 s z to prev5t ! free influx ( ! tides1 or efflux ( riv] wat]4 ,?us ab\t ! ye> #aejj ! s&s at ,bayonne 7 sudd5ly ?r[n across ! m\? ( ! ,ad\r4 ,t riv]1 fl[+ back ^u itself1 soon =c$ a passage to ! nor?w>d along ! s&y pla9 ( ,capbreton1 till at la/ x rea*$ ! sea at ,b\cau1 at ! di/ance ( sev5 leagues f ! po9t :]e x _h =m]ly ent]$4 ,x 0 n till ! ye> #aegi t ! celebrat$ ar*itect ,l\is de ,foix und]took1 at ! desire ( ,h5ry ,,iii41 to reop5 ! anci5t *annel1 :i* he at la/ effect$ ) great difficulty4#dfa ,9 ! e/u>y ( ! ,?ames at ,london1 & 9 ! ,gironde1 ! tide rises only = five h\rs & ebbs sev51 & 9 all e/u>ies ! wat] requires a long] "t to run d[n ?an up2 s t ! prepond]at+ =ce is always 9 ! direction :i* t5ds to keep op5 a deep & broad passage4 ,b = reasons already expla9$1 !re is naturally a t5d5cy 9 all e/u>ies to silt up p>tially1 s9ce eddies1 & backwat]s1 & po9ts :]e oppos+ /reams meet1 are v num]\s1 & con/antly *ange _! position4 ,_m writ]s h decl>$ t ! ga9 on our ea/]n coa/1 s9ce ! e>lie/ p]iods ( hi/ory1 has m ?an c\nt]balanc$ ! loss2 b !y h be5 at no pa9s to calculate ! am\nt ( loss1 & h (t5 =gott5 t1 :ile ! new acquisitions are manife/1 !re are r>ely any natural monum5ts to atte/ ! =m] exi/5ce ( ! l& t has be5 c>ri$ away4 ,!y h also tak5 into _! acc\nt ^? tracts artificially recov]$1 :i* are (t5 ( great agricultural importance1 & may rema9 secure1 p]haps1 = ?\s&s ( ye>s1 b :i* are only a few feet above ! mean level ( ! sea1 & are !re=e expos$ to be ov]fl[$ aga9 by a small proportion ( ! =ce requir$ to move cliffs ( consid]able height on our %ores4 ,if x 7 true t ! area ( l& annually ab&on$ by ! sea 9 e/u>ies 7 equal to t invad$ by x1 !re w\ld /ill be no comp5sation 9 k9d4 ,! tidal curr5t :i* fl[s out f ! nor?we/1 & be>s aga9/ ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,engl&1 transports1 z we h se51 mat]ials ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,aid$ by ! waves1 x und]m9es & sweeps away ! granite1 gneiss1 trap-rocks1 & s&/one ( ,%etl&1 & removes ! gravel & loam ( ! cliffs ( ,hold]ness1 ,norfolk1 & ,suffolk1 :i* are betwe5 tw5ty & ?ree hundr$ feet 9 height1 & :i* wa/e at v>i\s rates ( f "o foot to six y>ds annually4 ,x also be>s away1 9 co-op]ation ) ! ,?ames & ! tides1 ! /rata ( ,london clay on ! coa/ ( ,essex & ,%eppey4 ,! sea at ! same "t consumes ! *alk ) its fl9ts = _m miles cont9u\sly on ! %ores ( ,k5t & ,sussex--commits annual ravages on ! fre%wat] b$s1 capp$ by a ?ick cov]+ ( *alk-fl9t gravel1 9 ,hamp%ire1 & cont9ually saps ! f\ndations ( ! ,portl& lime/one4 ,x receives1 besides1 dur+ ! ra9y mon?s1 l>ge supplies ( pebbles1 s&1 & mud1 :i* num]\s /reams f ! ,grampians1 ,*eviots1 & o!r *a9s1 s5d d[n to ! sea4 ,to :at regions1 !n1 is all ?is matt] consign$8 ,x is n reta9$ 9 me*anical susp5sion by ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 nor does x mix ) !m 9 a /ate ( *emical solution--x is deposit$ some:]e1 yet c]ta9ly n 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( our %ores2 =1 9 t case1 !re w\ld soon be a cessation ( ! encroa*m5t ( ! sea1 & l>ge tracts ( l[ l&1 l ,romney ,m>%1 w\ld almo/ ev]y:]e encircle our isl&4 ,z !re is n[ a dep? ( wat] exce$+ ?irty feet1 9 "s spots :]e t[ns l ,dunwi* fl\ri%$ b a few c5turies ago1 x is cle> t ! curr5t n only c>ries f> away ! mat]ials ( ! wa/$ cliffs1 b is capable also ( excavat+ ! b$ ( ! sea to a c]ta9 mod]ate dep?4 ,s great is ! quantity ( matt] held 9 susp5sion by ! tidal curr5t on our %ores1 t ! wat]s are 9 "s places artificially introduc$ into c]ta9 l&s bel[ ! level ( ! sea2 & by repeat+ ?is op]ation1 :i* is call$ w>p+1 = two or ?ree ye>s1 consid]able tracts h be5 rais$1 9 ! e/u>y ( ! ,humb]1 to ! height ( ab\t six feet4 ,if a curr5t1 *>g$ ) su* mat]ials1 meets ) deep depressions 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean1 x mu/ (t5 fill !m up2 j z a riv]1 :5 x meets ) a lake 9 its c\rse1 fills x gradually ) s$im5t4 ,i h said 7p4 #ccg7 t ! action ( ! waves & curr5ts on sea-cliffs1 or _! p[] to remove matt] f above to bel[ ! sea-level1 is insignificant 9 comp>ison ) ! p[] ( riv]s to p]=m ! same task4 ,z an illu/ration we may take ! coa/ ( ,hold]ness describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt] 7p4 #cjd74 ,x is compos$1 z we h se51 ( v de/ructible mat]ials1 is ?irty-six miles long1 & its av]age height may be tak5 at =ty feet4 ,z x has wa/$ away at ! rate ( two & a qu>t] y>ds annually1 = a long p]iod1 x w be f\nd on calculation t ! quantity ( matt] ?r[n d[n into ! sea e ye>1 & remov$ by ! curr5t1 am\nts to #ea1cba1fjj cubic feet4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! unit$ ,ganges & ,brahmapootra c>ry d[n to ! ,bay ( ,b5gal #dj1jjj1jjj1jjj ( cubic feet ( solid matt] e ye>1 s t _! transport+ p[] is no less ?an #ghj times great] ?an t ( ! sea on ! coa/ above-m5tion$2 & 9 ord] to produce a result equal to t ( ! two ,indian riv]s1 we mu/ h a l9e ( wa/+ coa/1 l t ( ,hold]ness1 ne>ly #bh1jjj miles 9 l5g?1 or long] ?an ! entire circumf]5ce ( ! globe by above #cjjj miles4 ,! reason ( s great a diff]5ce 9 ! results may be und]/ood :5 we reflect t ! op]ations ( ! ocean are limit$ to a s+le l9e ( cliff surr\nd+ a l>ge area1 :]eas great riv]s ) _! tribut>ies1 & ! m\nta9 torr5ts :i* fl[ into !m1 act simultane\sly on a l5g? ( bank almo/ indef9ite4 ,nev]!less we are by no means entitl$ to inf]1 t ! d5ud+ =ce ( ! great ocean is a geological cause ( small efficacy1 or inf]ior to t ( riv]s4 ,its *ief influ5ce is ex]t$ at mod]ate dep?s bel[ ! surface1 on all ^? areas :i* are sl[ly ris+1 or are attempt+1 z x 71 to rise above ! sea4 ,f data hi!rto obta9$ respect+ subt]ranean movem5ts1 we c sc>cely speculate on an av]age rate ( upheaval ( m ?an two or ?ree feet 9 a c5tury4 ,an elevation to ?is am\nt is tak+ place 9 ,sc&9avia1 & probably 9 _m subm>9e areas z va/ z ^? :i* we "k to be s9k+ f ! pro(s d]iv$ f circul> lagoon isl&s or coral atolls4 7,see *ap4 #ej47 ,suppose /rata z de/ructible z ^? ( ! ,weald51 or ! l[] & upp] cretace\s =mation1 or ! t]ti>y deposits ( ! ,briti% ,isles to be ?us sl[ly upheav$1 h[ readily might !y all be swept away by waves & curr5ts 9 an op5 sea6 ,h[ entirely might ea* /ratum disappe> z x 0 br\ght up successively & expos$ to ! break]s6 ,%oals ( wide ext5t might be produc$1 b x is difficult to conceive h[ any cont95t c\ld ev] be =m$ "u su* circum/ances4 ,7 x n inde$ = ! h>dness & t\ghness ( ! cry/all9e & volcanic rocks1 :i* are (t5 capable ( resi/+ ! action ( ! waves1 few l&s might ev] em]ge f ! mid/ ( an op5 sea4 ,suppos$ fill+ up ( ! ,g]man ,ocean4--,! ,g]man ,ocean is deepe/ on ! ,norwegian side1 :]e ! s\nd+s give #aij fa?oms2 b ! mean dep? ( ! :ole bas9 may be /at$ at no m ?an ?irty-"o fa?oms4#dfb ,! b$ ( ?is sea is trav]s$ by sev]al enorm\s banks1 ! greate/ ( :i* is ! ,dogg] ,bank1 ext5d+ = upw>ds ( #ced miles f nor? to s\?4 ,! :ole sup]ficies ( ^! %oals is equal to ab\t "o-?ird ( ! :ole ext5t ( ,engl& & ,scotl&4 ,! av]age height ( ! banks measures1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,/ev5son1 ab\t sev5ty-eight feet2 ! upp] portion ( !m consi/+ ( f9e & co>se silice\s s&1 mix$ ) comm9ut$ corals & %ells4#dfc ,x _h be5 suppos$ t ^! va/ subm>9e hills 7 made up bodily ( loose mat]ials suppli$ f ! wa/e ( ! ,engli%1 ,dut*1 & o!r coa/s2 b ! survey ( ! ,nor? ,sea1 conduct$ by ,capta9 ,hewett1 af=ds gr\nd = suspect+ ?is op9ion to be errone\s4 ,if su* imm5se m\nds ( s& & mud _h be5 accumulat$ "u ! influ5ce ( curr5ts1 ! same causes ought ne>ly to h r$uc$ to "o level ! entire bottom ( ! ,g]man ,ocean2 in/ead ( :i* "s long n>r[ rav9es are f\nd to int]sect ! banks4 ,"o ( ^! v>ies f sev5te5 to =ty-f\r fa?oms 9 dep?1 & has v precipit\s sides2 9 "o "p1 call$ ! ,inn] ,silv] ,pits1 x is fifty-five fa?oms deep4 ,! %all[e/ p>ts ( ! ,dogg] ,bank 7 f\nd to be =ty-two feet "u wat]1 except 9 "o place1 :]e ! wreck ( a %ip _h caus$ a %oal4 ,su* uni=mity 9 ! m9imum dep? ( wat] seems to imply t ! curr5ts1 :i* v>y 9 _! velocity f a mile to two miles & a half p] h\r1 h p[] to prev5t ! accumulation ( drift matt] 9 places ( less dep?4 ,/rata deposit$ by curr5ts4--,x appe>s extraord9>y1 t 9 "s tracts ( ! sea1 adjo9+ ! coa/ ( ,engl&1 :]e we "k t curr5ts are n only sweep+ along rocky masses1 ?r[n d[n1 f "t to "t1 f ! high cliffs1 b also occasionally scoop+ out *annels 9 ! regul> /rata1 !re %\ld exi/ fragile %ells & t5d] zoophytes 9 abundance1 :i* live un9jur$ by ^! viol5t movem5ts4 ,! ocean1 h[ev]1 is 9 ?is respect a c\nt]p>t ( ! l&2 & z1 on ! cont95ts1 riv]s may und]m9e _! banks1 uproot trees1 & roll along s& & gravel1 :ile _! wat]s are inhabit$ by te/acea & fi%1 & _! alluvial pla9s are adorn$ ) ri* vegetation & =e/s1 s ! sea may be trav]s$ by rapid curr5ts1 & its b$ may "h & !re suff] great local d]angem5t1 )\t any int]ruption ( ! g5]al ord] & tranquillity4 ,x has be5 asc]ta9$ by s\nd+s 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 t :]e new deposits are tak+ place 9 ! sea1 co>se s& & small pebbles commonly occur ne> ! %ore1 :ile f>!r f l&1 & 9 deep] wat]1 f9] s& & brok5 %ells are spread out ov] ! bottom4 ,/ill f>!r out1 ! f9e/ mud & ooze are alone met )4 ,mr4 ,au/5 obs]ves t ?is rule holds good 9 e "p ( ! ,engli% ,*annel exam9$ by him4 ,he also in=ms u1 t :]e ! tidal curr5t runs rapidly 9 :at are call$ races1 :]e surface undulations are p]ceiv$ 9 ! calme/ wea!r1 ov] deep banks1 ! discoloration ( ! wat] does n arise f ! p[] ( su* a curr5t to di/urb ! bottom at a dep? ( #dj or #hj fa?oms1 z "s h suppos$4 ,9 ^! cases1 a column ( wat] sometimes #ejj feet 9 height1 is mov+ onw>ds ) ! tide cle> & transp>5t above1 :ile ! l[] portion holds f9e s$im5t 9 susp5sion 7a fact asc]ta9$ by s\nd+s71 :5 sudd5ly x imp+es ^u a bank1 & its height is r$uc$ to #cjj feet4 ,x is ?us made to boil up & fl[ (f at ! surface1 a process :i* =ces up ! l[] /rata ( wat] *>g$ ) f9e p>ticles ( mud1 :i* 9 _! passage f ! coa/ _h gradually sunk to a dep? ( #cjj feet or m4#dfd ,"o important "* 9 ! =mations produc$ by curr5ts is1 ! imm5se ext5t ov] :i* !y may be ! means ( diffus+ homog5e\s mixtures1 = ^! are (t5 coext5sive ) a great l9e ( coa/2 &1 by comp>ison ) _! deposits1 ! deltas ( riv]s mu/ %r9k into significance4 ,9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 ! same curr5t :i* is rapidly de/roy+ _m p>ts ( ! ,african coa/1 betwe5 ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt> & ! ,nile1 *ecks also ! gr[? ( ! delta ( ! ,nile1 & drifts ! s$im5t ( t great riv] to ! ea/w>d4 ,to ?is s\rce may be attribut$ ! rapid accretions ( l& on p>ts ( ! ,syrian %ores :]e riv]s d n ent]4 ,among ! greate/ deposits n[ 9 progress1 & ( :i* ! di/ribution is *iefly det]m9$ by curr5ts1 we may class ^? betwe5 ! m\?s ( ! ,amazon & ! s\!rn coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,capta9 ,sab9e f\nd t ! equatorial curr5t be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #bib7 0 runn+ ) ! rapidity ( f\r miles an h\r :]e x crosses ! /ream ( ! ,amazon1 :i* riv] pres]ves "p ( its orig9al impulse1 & has its wat]s n :olly m+l$ ) ^? ( ! ocean at ! di/ance ( #cjj miles f its m\?4#dfe ,! s$im5t ( ! ,amazon is ?us con/antly c>ri$ to ! nor?we/ z f> z to ! m\?s ( ! ,or9oco1 & an imm5se tract ( swamp is =m$ along ! coa/ ( ,guiana1 ) a long range ( muddy %oals bord]+ ! m>%es1 & becom+ conv]t$ into l&4#dff ,! s$im5t ( ! ,or9oco is p>tly deta9$1 & settles ne> its m\?1 caus+ ! %ores ( ,tr9idad to ext5d rapidly1 & is p>tly swept away into ! ,c>ribean ,sea by ! ,gu9ea curr5t4 ,accord+ to ,humboldt1 mu* s$im5t is c>ri$ aga9 out ( ! ,c>ribean ,sea into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,x %\ld n be ov]look$ t m>9e curr5ts1 ev5 on coa/s :]e !re are no l>ge riv]s1 may /ill be ! ag5ts ( spread+ n only s& & pebbles1 b ! f9e/ mud1 f> & wide ov] ! bottom ( ! ocean4 ,= sev]al ?\s& miles along ! we/]n coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 compris+ ! l>g] p>ts ( ,p]u & ,*ili1 !re is a p]petual roll+ ( %+le along ! %ore1 "p ( :i*1 z ,mr4 ,d>w9 has %[n1 are incessantly r$uc$ to ! f9e/ mud by ! waves1 & swept into ! dep?s ( ! ,pacific by ! tides & curr5ts4 ,! same au?or h[ev] has rem>k$ t1 not)/&+ ! great =ce ( ! waves on t %ore1 all rocks #fj feet "u wat] are cov]$ by sea-we$1 %[+ t ! b$ ( ! sea is n d5ud$ at t dep?1 ! effects ( ! w9ds be+ comp>atively sup]ficial4 ,9 reg>d to ! di/ribution ( s$im5t by curr5ts x may be obs]v$1 t ! rate ( subsid5ce ( ! f9] mud c>ri$ d[n by e great riv] into ! ocean1 or ( t caus$ by ! roll+ ( ! waves ^u a %ore1 mu/ be extremely sl[2 = ! m m9ute ! sep>ate p>ticles ( mud1 ! sl[] w !y s9k to ! bottom1 & ! soon] w !y acquire :at is call$ _! t]m9al velocity4 ,x is well kn[n t a solid body1 desc5d+ ?r\gh a resi/+ m$ium1 falls by ! =ce ( gravity1 :i* is con/ant1 b its motion is resi/$ by ! m$ium m & m z its velocity increases1 until ! resi/ance becomes suffici5t to c\nt]act ! f>!r increase ( velocity4 ,= example1 a lead5 ball1 "o in* diamet]1 fall+ ?r\gh air ( d5sity z at ! e>?'s surface1 w nev] acquire great] velocity ?an #bfj feet p] second1 &1 9 wat]1 its greate/ velocity w be #h feet #f in*es p] second4 ,if ! diamet] ( ! ball 7 #a_/ajj ( an in*1 ! t]m9al velocities 9 air w\ld be #bf feet1 & 9 wat] 4#hf ( a foot p] second4 ,n[1 e *emi/ is famili> ) ! fact1 t m9ute p>ticles desc5d ) extreme sl[ness ?r\gh wat]1 ! ext5t ( _! surface be+ v great 9 proportion to _! weight1 & ! resi/ance ( ! fluid dep5d+ on ! am\nt ( surface4 ,a precipitate ( sulphate ( b>yta1 = example1 w sometimes require m ?an five or six h\rs to subside "o in*2#dfg :ile oxalate & phosphate ( lime require ne>ly an h\r to subside ab\t an in* & a half & two in*es respectively1#dfh s exce$+ly small are ! p>ticles ( :i* ^! sub/ances consi/4 ,:5 we recollect t ! dep? ( ! ocean is suppos$ frequ5tly to exce$ ?ree miles1 & t curr5ts run ?r\gh diff]5t p>ts ( t ocean at ! rate ( f\r miles an h\r1 & :5 at ! same "t we consid] t "s f9e mud c>ri$ away f ! m\?s ( riv]s & f sea-bea*es1 :]e !re is a heavy surf1 z well z ! impalpable p[d] %[]$ d[n by volcanoes1 may subside at ! rate ( only an in* p] h\r1 we %all be prep>$ to f9d examples ( ! transportation ( s$im5t ov] areas ( indef9ite ext5t4 ,x is n uncommon = ! em]y p[d] us$ 9 poli%+ glass to take m ?an an h\r to s9k "o foot4 ,suppose mud compos$ ( co>s] p>ticles to fall at ! rate ( two feet p] h\r1 & ^! to be dis*>g$ into t "p ( ! ,gulf ,/ream :i* pres]ves a mean velocity ( ?ree miles an h\r = a di/ance ( two ?\s& miles2 9 tw5ty-eight days ^! p>ticles w be c>ri$ #bjaf miles1 & w h fall5 only to a dep? ( #bbd fa?oms4 ,9 ?is example1 h[ev]1 x is assum$ t ! curr5t reta9s its sup]ficial velocity at ! dep? ( #bbd fa?oms1 = :i* we h z yet no data1 al?\gh we h se5 t ! motion ( a curr5t may cont9ue at ! dep? ( #ajj fa?oms4 7,see above1 p4 #bh47 ,exp]im5ts %\ld be made to asc]ta9 ! rate ( curr5ts at consid]able di/ances f ! surface1 & ! "t tak5 by ! f9e/ s$im5t to settle 9 sea-wat] ( a giv5 dep?1 & !n ! geologi/ may det]m9e ! area ov] :i* homog5e\s mixtures may be simultane\sly di/ribut$ 9 c]ta9 seas4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,igne\s ,,causes4 ,*anges ( ! inorganic _w1 cont9u$--,igne\s causes--,division ( ! subject--,di/9ct volcanic regions--,region ( ! ,&es--,sy/em ( volcanoes ext5d+ f ! ,aleutian isles to ! ,molucca & ,sunda isl&s--,polynesian ar*ipelago--,volcanic region ext5d+ f ,c5tral ,asia to ! ,azores--,tradition ( deluges on ! %ores ( ! ,bosphorus1 ,hellespont1 & ,grecian isles--,p]iodical alt]nation ( e>?quakes 9 ,syria & ,s\!rn ,italy--,we/]n limits ( ! ,european region--,e>?quakes r>] & m feeble z we rec$e f ! c5tres ( volcanic action4 ,ext9ct volcanoes n to be includ$ 9 l9es ( active v5ts4 ,we h hi!rto consid]$ ! *anges wr\ght1 s9ce ! times ( hi/ory & tradition1 by ! cont9u$ action ( aque\s causes on ! e>?'s surface2 & we h next to exam9e ^? result+ f igne\s ag5cy4 ,z ! riv]s & spr+s on ! l&1 & ! tides & curr5ts 9 ! sea1 h1 ) "s slight modifications1 be5 fix$ & con/ant to c]ta9 localities f ! e>lie/ p]iods ( :i* we h any records1 s ! volcano & ! e>?quake h1 ) few exceptions1 cont9u$1 dur+ ! same lapse ( "t1 to di/urb ! same regions4 ,b z !re are signs1 on almo/ e "p ( our cont95t1 ( great p[] hav+ be5 ex]t$ by runn+ wat] on ! surface ( ! l&1 & by waves1 tides1 & curr5ts on cliffs bord]+ ! sea1 :]e1 9 mod]n times1 no riv]s h excavat$1 & no waves or tidal curr5ts und]m9$--s we f9d signs ( volcanic v5ts & viol5t subt]ranean movem5ts 9 places :]e ! action ( fire or int]nal heat has long be5 dormant4 ,we c expla9 :y ! int5sity ( ! =ce ( aque\s causes %\ld be develop$ 9 succession 9 diff]5t di/ricts4 ,curr5ts1 = example1 tides1 & ! waves ( ! sea1 _c de/roy coa/s1 %ape out or silt up e/u>ies1 break ?r\gh i/hmuses1 & annihilate isl&s1 =m %oals 9 "o place1 & remove !m f ano!r1 )\t ! direction & position ( _! de/roy+ & transport+ p[] becom+ transf]r$ to new localities4 ,nei!r c ! relative levels ( ! e>?'s cru/1 above & b5ea? ! wat]s1 v>y f "t to "t1 z !y are admitt$ to h v>i$ at =m] p]iods1 & z x w be demon/rat$ t !y /ill d1 )\t ! cont95ts be+1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 modifi$1 & ev5 entirely alt]$1 9 _! ext]nal configuration4 ,su* ev5ts mu/ cle>ly be accompani$ by a complete *ange 9 ! volume1 velocity1 & direction ( ! /reams & l& floods to :i* c]ta9 regions give passage4 ,t we %\ld f9d1 !re=e1 cliffs :]e ! sea once committ$ ravages1 & f :i* x has n[ retir$--e/u>ies :]e high tides once rose1 b :i* are n[ dri$ up--valleys holl[$ out by wat]1 :]e no /reams n[ fl[1 is no m ?an we %\ld expect2 ^! & simil> ph5om5a are ! necess>y consequ5ces ( physical causes n[ 9 op]ation2 & if !re be no in/ability 9 ! laws ( nature1 simil> fluctuations mu/ recur aga9 & aga9 9 "t to come4 ,b1 h[ev] natural x may be t ! =ce ( runn+ wat] 9 num]\s valleys1 & ( tides & curr5ts 9 _m tracts ( ! sea1 %\ld n[ be sp5t1 x is by no means s easy to expla9 :y ! viol5ce ( ! e>?quake & ! fire ( ! volcano %\ld also h become locally ext9ct at successive p]iods4 ,we c look back to ! "t :5 ! m>9e /rata1 :]eon ! great mass ( ,etna re/s1 _h no exi/5ce2 & t "t is extremely mod]n 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,?is alone af=ds gr\nd = anticipat+ t ! eruptions ( ,etna w "o day cease4 ,nec quae sulfureis ardet =nacibus1 ,a,etna ,ignea semp] erit1 neque enim fuit ignea semp]1 7,ovid1 ,metam4 lib4 #ae-cdj17 are ! memorable words :i* are put into ! m\? ( ,py?agoras by ! ,roman poet1 & !y are foll[$ by speculations z to ! cause ( volcanic v5ts %ift+ _! positions4 ,:atev] d\bts ! philosoph] expresses z to ! nature ( ^! causes1 x is assum$1 z incontrov]tible1 t ! po9ts ( eruption w h]eaft] v>y1 because !y h =m]ly done s2 a pr9ciple ( reason+ :i*1 z ,i h endeavor$ to %[ 9 =m] *apt]s1 has be5 too mu* set at naught by "s ( ! e>li] s*ools ( geology1 :i* refus$ to conclude t great revolutions 9 ! e>?'s surface are n[ 9 progress1 or t !y w take place h]eaft]1 because !y h (t5 be5 repeat$ 9 =m] ages4 ,division ( ! subject4--,volcanic action may be def9$ to be ! influ5ce ex]t$ by ! heat$ int]ior ( ! e>? on its ext]nal cov]+4 ,if we adopt ?is def9ition1 )\t connect+ x1 z ,humboldt has done1 ) ! !ory ( secul> refrig]ation1 or ! cool+ d[n ( an orig9al heat$ & fluid nucleus1 we may !n class "u a g5]al head all ! subt]ranean ph5om5a1 :e!r ( volcanoes1 or e>?quakes1 & ^? ins5sible movem5ts ( ! l&1 by :i*1 z w aft]w>ds appe>1 l>ge di/ricts may be depress$ or elevat$1 )\t convulsions4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 ,i %all consid] fir/1 ! volcano2 secondly1 ! e>?quake2 ?irdly1 ! ris+ or s9k+ ( l& 9 c\ntries :]e !re are no volcanoes or e>?quakes2 f\r?ly1 ! probable causes ( ! *anges :i* result f subt]ranean ag5cy4 ,x is a v g5]al op9ion t e>?quakes & volcanoes h a common orig92 = bo? are conf9$ to c]ta9 regions1 al?\gh ! subt]ranean movem5ts are lea/ viol5t 9 ! imm$iate proximity ( volcanic v5ts1 especially :]e ! dis*>ge ( a]i=m fluids & melt$ rock is made con/antly f ! same crat]4 ,b z !re are p>ticul> regions1 to :i* bo? ! po9ts ( eruption & ! movem5ts ( great e>?quakes are conf9$1 ,i %all beg9 by trac+ out ! geographical b\nd>ies ( "s ( ^!1 t ! read] may be aw>e ( ! magnific5t scale on :i* ! ag5cy ( subt]ranean fire is n[ simultane\sly develop$4 ,ov] ! :ole ( ! va/ tracts allud$ to1 active volcanic v5ts are di/ribut$ at int]vals1 & mo/ commonly arrang$ 9 a l9e> direction4 ,?r\gh\t ! int]m$iate spaces !re is (t5 abundant evid5ce t ! subt]ranean fire is at "w cont9u\sly1 = ! gr\nd is convuls$ f "t to "t by e>?quakes2 gase\s vapors1 especially c>bonic acid gas1 are dis5gag$ pl5tifully f ! soil2 spr+s (t5 issue at a v high temp]ature1 & _! wat]s are usually impregnat$ ) ! same m9]al matt]s z are dis*>g$ by volcanoes dur+ eruptions4 ,,volcanic ,,regions4 ,region ( ! ,&es4--,( ^! great regions1 t ( ! ,&es ( ,s\? ,am]ica is "o ( ! be/ def9$1 ext5d+ f ! s\?w>d ( ,*ili to ! nor?w>d ( ,quito1 f ab\t lat4 #dc degrees ,s4 to ab\t #b degrees ,n4 ( ! equator4 ,9 ?is range1 h[ev]1 compreh5d+ =ty-five degrees ( latitude1 !re is an alt]nation on a gr& scale ( di/ricts ( active ) ^? ( ext9ct volcanoes1 or :i*1 if n sp5t1 h at lea/ be5 dormant = ! la/ ?ree c5turies4 ,h[ long an int]val ( re/ may entitle u to consid] a volcano z entirely ext9ct is n easily det]m9$2 b we "k t 9 ,is*ia !re int]v5$ betwe5 two consecutive eruptions a pause ( sev5te5 c5turies2 & ! discov]y ( ,am]ica is an ev5t ( f> too rec5t a date to all[ u ev5 to conjecture :e!r diff]5t portions ( ! ,&es1 ne>ly ! :ole ( :i* are subject to e>?quakes1 may n exp]i5ce alt]nately a cessation & r5ewal ( eruptions4 ,! fir/ l9e ( active v5ts :i* h be5 se5 9 eruption 9 ! ,&es ext5ds f lat4 #dc degrees #bh m9utes ,s42 or1 f ,yantales1 opposite ! isle ( ,*iloe1 to ,coquimbo1 9 lat4 #cj degrees ,s42 to ^! ?irte5 degrees ( latitude succe$ m ?an eight degrees 9 :i* no rec5t volcanic eruptions h be5 obs]v$4 ,we !n come to ! volcanoes ( ,bolivia & ,p]u1 rea*+ six degrees f ,s4 to ,n41 or f lat4 #ba degrees ,s4 to lat4 #ae degrees ,s4 ,betwe5 ! ,p]uvian volcanoes & ^? ( ,quito1 ano!r space int]v5es ( no less ?an f\rte5 degrees ( latitude1 said to be free f volcanic action s f> z yet kn[n4 ,! volcanoes ( ,quito !n succe$1 beg9n+ ab\t #ajj geographical miles s\? ( ! equator1 & cont9u+ = ab\t #acj miles nor? ( ! l9e1 :5 !re occurs ano!r undi/urb$ int]val ( m ?an six degrees ( latitude1 aft] :i* we arrive at ! volcanoes ( ,guatemala or ,c5tral ,am]ica1 nor? ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama4#dfi ,hav+ ?us trac$ out ! l9e f s\? to nor?1 ,i may fir/ /ate1 9 reg>d to ! num]\s v5ts ( ,*ili1 t ! volcanoes ( ,yantales & ,osorno 7 9 eruption dur+ ! great e>?quake ( #ahce1 at ! same mom5t t ! l& 0 %ak5 9 ,*iloe1 & 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,*ilian coa/ p]man5tly upheav$2 :il/ at ,juan ,f]n&ez1 at ! di/ance ( no less ?an #gbj geographical miles f ,yantales1 an eruption took place b5ea? ! sea4 ,"s ( ! volcanoes ( ,*ili are ( great height1 z t ( ,antuco1 9 lat4 #cg degrees #dj m9utes ,s41 ! summit ( :i* is at lea/ #af1jjj feet above ! sea4 ,f ! flanks ( ?is volcano1 at a great height1 imm5se curr5ts ( lava h issu$1 "o ( :i* fl[$ 9 ! ye> #ahbh4 ,?is ev5t is said to be an exception 9 ! g5]al rule2 few volcanoes 9 ! ,&es1 & none ( ^? 9 ,quito1 hav+ be5 se5 9 mod]n times to p\r out lava1 b hav+ m]ely eject$ vapor or scoriae4 ,bo? ! basaltic 7or augitic7 lavas1 & ^? ( ! felspa?ic class1 occur 9 ,*ili & o!r p>ts ( ! ,&es2 b ! volcanic rocks ( ! felspa?ic family are said by ,von ,bu* to be g5]ally n tra*yte1 b a rock :i* has be5 call$ &esite1 or a mixture ( augite & albite4 ,! la/-m5tion$ m9]al conta9s soda in/ead ( ! pota% f\nd 9 common felsp>4 ,! volcano ( ,rancagua1 lat4 #cd degrees #ae m9utes ,s41 is said to be always ?r[+ out a%es & vapors l ,/romboli1 a pro( ( ! p]man5tly heat$ /ate ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ! int]ior ( ! e>? bel[4 ,a ye> r>ely passes 9 ,*ili )\t "s slight %ocks ( e>?quakes1 & 9 c]ta9 di/ricts n a mon?4 ,^? %ocks :i* come f ! side ( ! ocean are ! mo/ viol5t1 & ! same is said to be ! case 9 ,p]u4 ,! t[n ( ,copiapo 0 laid wa/e by ?is t]rible sc\rge 9 ! ye>s #aggc1 #agif1 & #ahai1 or 9 bo? cases aft] regul> int]vals ( tw5ty-?ree ye>s4 ,!re h1 h[ev]1 be5 o!r %ocks 9 t c\ntry 9 ! p]iods int]v5+ betwe5 ! dates above m5tion$1 al?\gh probably all less sev]e1 at lea/ on ! exact site ( ,copiapo4 ,! evid5ce aga9/ a regul> recurr5ce ( volcanic convulsions at /at$ p]iods is s /rong z a g5]al fact1 t we mu/ be on our gu>d aga9/ atta*+ too mu* importance to a few /rik+ b probably accid5tal co9cid5ces4 ,among ^! la/ might be adduc$ ! case ( ,lima1 viol5tly %ak5 by an e>?quake on ! #ag? ( ,june1 #aegh1 & aga9 on ! v same day1 #afgh2 or ! eruptions ( ,cosegu9a 9 ! ye> #agji & #ahji1 :i* are ! only two record$ ( t volcano previ\s to t ( #ahce4dgj ,( ! p]man5t upheaval ( l& aft] e>?quakes 9 ,*ili1 ,i %all h occasion to speak 9 ! next *apt]1 :5 x w also be se5 t great %ocks (t5 co9cide ) eruptions1 ei!r subm>9e or f ! cones ( ! ,&es1 %[+ ! id5tity ( ! =ce :i* elevates cont95ts ) t :i* causes volcanic outbur/s4#dga ,! space betwe5 ,*ili & ,p]u1 9 :i* no volcanic action has be5 obs]v$1 is #afj nautical leagues f s\? to nor?4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 z ,von ,bu* obs]ves1 t "p ( ! ,&es :i* is lea/ kn[n1 be+ ?9ly peopl$1 & 9 "s p>ts entirely des]t4 ,! volcanoes ( ,p]u rise f a l(ty plat=m to va/ heights above ! level ( ! sea1 f #ag1jjj to #bj1jjj feet4 ,! lava :i* has issu$ f ,viejo1 lat4 #af degrees #ee m9utes ,s41 accompani$ by pumice1 is compos$ ( a mixture ( cry/als ( albitic felsp>1 hornbl5de1 & mica1 a rock :i* has be5 consid]$ z "o ( ! v>ieties ( &esite4 ,"s trem5d\s e>?quakes :i* h visit$ ,p]u 9 mod]n times w be m5tion$ 9 a subsequ5t *apt]4 ,! volcanoes ( ,quito1 occurr+ betwe5 ! second degree ( s\? & ! ?ird degree ( nor? latitude1 rise to va/ elevations above ! sea1 _m ( !m be+ betwe5 #ad1jjj & #ah1jjj feet high4 ,! ,indians ( ,lican h a tradition t ! m\nta9 call$ ,l',alt>1 or ,capac ,urcu1 :i* means ! *ief1 0 once ! highe/ ( ^? ne> ! equator1 be+ high] ?an ,*imborazo2 b 9 ! reign ( ,oua9ia ,aboma?a1 be=e ! discov]y ( ,am]ica1 a prodigi\s eruption took place1 :i* la/$ eight ye>s1 & broke x d[n4 ,! fragm5ts ( tra*yte1 says ,m4 ,b\ss+ault1 :i* once =m$ ! conical summit ( ?is celebrat$ m\nta91 are at ?is day spread ov] ! pla94#dgb ,cotopaxi is ! mo/ l(ty ( all ! ,s\? ,am]ican volcanoes :i* h be5 9 a /ate ( activity 9 mod]n times1 its height be+ #ah1heh feet2 & its eruptions h be5 m frequ5t & de/ructive ?an ^? ( any o!r m\nta94 ,x is a p]fect cone1 usually cov]$ ) an enorm\s b$ ( sn[1 :i* has1 h[ev]1 be5 sometimes melt$ sudd5ly dur+ an eruption2 z 9 ,janu>y1 #ahjc1 = example1 :5 ! sn[s 7 dissolv$ 9 "o night4 ,deluges are (t5 caus$ 9 ! ,&es by ! liquefaction ( great masses ( sn[1 & sometimes by ! r5d+ op51 dur+ e>?quakes1 ( subt]ranean cavities fill$ ) wat]4 ,9 ^! inundations f9e volcanic s&1 loose /ones1 & o!r mat]ials :i* ! wat] meets ) 9 its desc5t1 are swept away1 & a va/ quantity ( mud1 call$ moya1 is ?us =m$ & c>ri$ d[n into ! l[] regions4 ,mud d]iv$ f ?is s\rce desc5d$1 9 #agig1 f ! sides ( ,tunguragua 9 ,quito1 & fill$ valleys a ?\s& feet wide to ! dep? ( six hundr$ feet1 damm+ up riv]s & caus+ lakes4 ,9 ^! curr5ts & lakes ( moya1 ?\s&s ( small fi% are sometimes envelop$1 :i*1 accord+ to ,humboldt1 h liv$ & multipli$ 9 subt]ranean cavities4 ,s great a quantity ( ^! fi% 7 eject$ f ! volcano ( ,imbaburu 9 #afia1 t fev]s1 :i* prevail$ at ! p]iod1 7 attribut$ to ! effluvia aris+ f ! putrid animal matt]4 ,9 ,quito1 _m important revolutions 9 ! physical features ( ! c\ntry are said to h result$1 )9 ! memory ( man1 f ! e>?quakes by :i* x has be5 convuls$4 ,m4 ,b\ss+ault decl>es 8 belief1 t if a full regi/] _h be5 kept ( all ! convulsions exp]i5c$ "h & 9 o!r popul\s di/ricts ( ! ,&es1 x w\ld be f\nd t ! trembl+ ( ! e>? _h be5 incessant4 ,! frequ5cy ( ! movem5t1 he ?9ks1 is n due to volcanic explosions1 b to ! cont9ual fall+ 9 ( masses ( rock :i* h be5 fractur$ & upheav$ 9 a solid =m at a comp>atively rec5t epo*2 b a long] s]ies ( obs]vations w\ld be requisite to confirm ?is op9ion4 ,accord+ to ! same au?or1 ! height ( sev]al m\nta9s ( ! ,&es has dim9i%$ 9 mod]n times4#dgc ,! great cre/ or cordill]a ( ! ,&es is depress$ at ! ,i/hmus ( ,panama to a height ( ab\t #ajjj feet1 & at ! l[e/ po9t ( sep>ation betwe5 ! two seas ne> ! ,gulf ( ,san ,miguel1 to #aej feet4 ,:at "s geograph]s reg>d z a cont9uation ( t *a9 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica lies to ! ea/ ( a s]ies ( volcanoes1 _m ( :i* are active 9 ! prov9ces ( ,pa/o1 ,popayan1 & ,guatemala4 ,cosegu9a1 on ! s\? side ( ! ,gulf ( ,fonseca1 0 9 eruption 9 ,janu>y1 #ahce1 & "s ( its a%es fell at ,truxillo1 on ! %ores ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,:at is /ill m rem>kable1 on ! same day1 at ,k+/on1 9 ,jamaica1 ! same %[] ( a%es fell1 hav+ be5 c>ri$ by an upp] c\nt]-curr5t aga9/ ! regul> ea/ w9d :i* 0 !n bl[+4 ,k+/on is ab\t #gjj miles di/ant f ,cosegu9a1 & ^! a%es mu/ h be5 m ?an f\r days 9 ! air1 hav+ travell$ #agj miles a day4 ,eight leagues to ! s\?w>d ( ! crat]1 ! a%es cov]$ ! gr\nd to ! dep? ( ?ree y>ds & a half1 de/roy+ ! woods & dwell+s4 ,?\s&s ( cattle p]i%$1 _! bodies be+ 9 _m in/ances "o mass ( scor*$ fle%4 ,de] & o!r wild animals s\ght ! t[ns = protection2 _m birds & quadrup$s 7 f\nd suffocat$ 9 ! a%es1 & ! neighbor+ /reams 7 /rew$ ) dead fi%4#dgd ,su* facts ?r[ light on geological monum5ts1 = 9 ! a%es ?r[n out at remote p]iods f ! volcanoes ( ,auv]gne1 n[ ext9ct1 we f9d ! bones & skeletons ( lo/ species ( quadrup$s4 ,mexico4--,! great volcanic *a91 aft] hav+ ?us pursu$ its c\rse = sev]al ?\s& miles f s\? to nor?1 s5ds (f a bran* 9 a new direction 9 ,mexico1 9 ! p>allel ( ! city ( t "n1 & is prolong$ 9 a great plat=m betwe5 ! eighte5? & tw5ty-second degrees ( nor? latitude4 ,five active volcanoes trav]se ,mexico f we/ to ea/--,tuxtla1 ,orizaba1 ,popocatepetl1 ,jorullo1 & ,colima4 ,jorullo1 :i* is 9 ! c5tre ( ! great plat=m1 is no less ?an #abj miles f ! ne>e/ ocean--an important circum/ance1 z %[+ t ! proximity ( ! sea is n a necess>y condition1 al?\gh c]ta9ly a v g5]al *>act]i/ic ( ! position ( active volcanoes4 ,! extraord9>y eruption ( ?is m\nta91 9 #agei1 w be describ$ 9 ! sequel4 ,if ! l9e :i* connects ^! five v5ts be prolong$ 9 a we/]ly direction1 x cuts ! volcanic gr\p ( isl&s call$ ! ,isles ( ,revillagig$o4 ,to ! nor? ( ,mexico !re are said to be ?ree1 or accord+ to "s1 five volcanoes 9 ! p59sula ( ,cali=nia2 & a volcano is report$ to h be5 9 eruption 9 ! ,n4 ,w4 coa/ ( ,am]ica1 ne> ! ,colombia riv]1 lat4 #de degrees #cg m9utes ,n4 ,we/ ,indies4--,to return to ! ,&es ( ,quito3 ,von ,bu* incl9es to ! belief t if we 7 bett] acqua9t$ ) ! region to ! ea/ ( ! ,madal5a1 & ) ,new ,granada & ! ,c>accas1 we might f9d ! volcanic *a9 ( ! ,&es to be connect$ ) t ( ! ,we/ ,indian or ,c>ribee ,isl&s4 ,! tru? ( ?is conjecture has almo/ be5 set at re/ by ! eruption1 9 #ahdh1 ( ! volcano ( ,zamba1 9 ,new ,gr5ada1 at ! m\? ( ! riv] ,madal5a4#dge ,( ! ,we/ ,indian isl&s !re are two p>allel s]ies3 ! "o to ! we/1 :i* are all volcanic1 & :i* rise to ! height ( sev]al ?\s& feet2 ! o!rs to ! ea/1 = ! mo/ "p compos$ ( calc>e\s rocks1 & v l[4 ,9 ! =m] or volcanic s]ies1 are ,granada1 ,/4 ,v9c5t1 ,/4 ,lucia1 ,m>t9ique1 ,dom9ica1 ,guadal\pe1 ,monts]rat1 ,nevis1 & ,/4 ,eu/ace4 ,9 ! calc>e\s *a9 are ,tobago1 ,b>badoes1 ,m>iegallante1 ,gr&et]re1 ,desirade1 ,antigua1 ,b>buda1 ,/4 ,b>?olomew1 & ,/4 ,m>t94 ,! mo/ consid]able eruptions 9 mod]n times h be5 ^? ( ,/4 ,v9c5t4 ,great e>?quakes h agitat$ ,/4 ,dom+o1 z w be se5 9 ! tw5ty-n9? *apt]4 ,i h be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #bgj7 ! viol5t e>?quake :i* 9 #ahab convuls$ ! valley ( ! ,mississippi at ,new ,madrid1 = ! space ( #cjj miles 9 l5g?1 ( :i* m w be said 9 ! tw5ty-sev5? *apt]4 ,?is happ5$ exactly at ! same "t z ! great e>?quake ( ,c>accas1 s t x is possible t ^! two po9ts are p>ts ( "o subt]ranean volcanic region4 ,! isl& ( ,jamaica1 ) a tract ( ! contigu\s sea1 has (t5 exp]i5c$ trem5d\s %ocks2 & ^! are frequ5t along a l9e ext5d+ f ,jamaica to ,/4 ,dom+o & ,porto ,rico4 ,?us x w be se5 t1 )\t tak+ acc\nt ( ! ,we/ ,indian & ,mexican bran*es1 a l9e> tra9 ( volcanoes & tracts %ak5 by e>?quakes may be trac$ f ! isl& ( ,*iloe & opposite coa/ to ,mexico1 or ev5 p]haps to ! m\? ( ! ,colombia riv]--a di/ance ^u ! :ole z great z f ! pole to ! equator4 ,9 reg>d to ! we/]n limits ( ! region1 !y lie deep b5ea? ! waves ( ! ,pacific1 & mu/ cont9ue unkn[n to u4 ,on ! ea/ !y are n prolong$1 except :]e !y include ! ,we/ ,indian ,isl&s1 to a great di/ance2 = !re seem to be no indications ( volcanic di/urbances 9 ,bu5os ,ayres1 ,brazil1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,,map ,,( ,,active ,,volcanoes ,,& ,,atolls ( ,,! ,,indian ,,ar*ipelago1 & ,"p ( ! adjo9+ ,,pacific ,,ocean4 ,volcanic region f ! ,aleutian ,isles to ! ,moluccas & ,isles ( ,sunda4--,on a scale :i* equals or surpasses t ( ! ,&es1 is ano!r l9e ( volcanic action1 :i* comm5ces1 on ! nor?1 ) ! ,aleutian ,isles 9 ,russian ,am]ica1 & ext5ds1 fir/ 9 a we/]ly direction = ne>ly #bjj geographical miles1 & !n s\?w>ds1 ) few int]ruptions1 ?r\gh\t a space ( betwe5 sixty & sev5ty degrees ( latitude to ! ,moluccas1 :]e x s5ds (f a bran* to ! s\!a/ :ile ! pr9cipal tra9 cont9ues we/]ly ?r\gh ,sumbawa & ,java to ,sumatra1 & !n 9 a nor?we/]ly direction to ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4#dgf ,?is volcanic l9e1 obs]ves ,von ,bu*1 may be said to foll[ ?r\gh\t its c\rse ! ext]nal bord] ( ! cont95t ( ,asia2 :ile ! bran* :i* has be5 allud$ to z /rik+ s\!a/ f ! ,moluccas1 passes f ,new ,gu9ea to ,new ,zeal&1 con=m+1 ?\gh some:at rudely1 to ! outl9e ( ,au/ralia4#dgg ,! connection1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,new ,gu9ea volcanoes ) ! l9e 9 ,java 7z laid d[n 9 ,von ,bu*'s map7 is n cle>ly made out4 ,by consult+ ,d>w9's map ( coral reefs & active volcanoes1#dgh ! read] w see t we might almo/ ) equal propriety include ! ,m>iana & ,bon9 volcanoes 9 a b& ) ,new ,gu9ea4 ,or if we all[ s mu* latitude 9 fram+ zones ( volcanic action1 we mu/ also suppose ! ,new ,hebrides1 ,solomon ,isles1 & ,new ,irel& to con/itute "o l9e 7see map1 fig4 #ci1 p4 #cea74 ,! nor!rn extremity ( ! volcanic region ( ,asia1 z describ$ by ,von ,bu*1 is on ! bord]s ( ,cook's ,inlet1 nor!a/ ( ! ,p59sula ( ,alaska1 :]e "o volcano1 9 ab\t ! sixtie? degree ( latitude1 is said to be #ad1jjj feet high4 ,9 ,alaska itself are cones ( va/ height1 :i* h be5 se5 9 eruption1 & :i* are cov]$ = two-?irds ( _! height d[nw>ds ) p]petual sn[4 ,! summit ( ! l(tie/ peak is truncat$1 & is said to h fall5 9 dur+ an eruption 9 #aghf4 ,f ,alaska ! l9e is cont9u$ ?r\gh ! ,aleutian or ,fox ,isl&s to ,kamts*atka4 ,9 ! ,aleutian ,ar*ipelago eruptions are frequ5t1 & ab\t ?irty miles to ! nor? ( ,unalaska1 ne> ! ,isle ( ,umnack1 a new isl& 0 =m$ 9 #agif4 ,x 0 fir/ obs]v$ aft] a /orm1 at a po9t 9 ! sea f :i* a column ( smoke _h be5 se5 to rise4 ,flames !n issu$ f ! new islet :i* illum9at$ ! c\ntry = t5 miles r\nd2 a frightful e>?quake %ook ! new-=m$ cone1 & %[]s ( /ones 7 ?r[n z f> z ,umnack4 ,! eruption cont9u$ = sev]al mon?s1 & eight ye>s aft]w>ds1 9 #ahjd1 :5 x 0 explor$ by "s hunt]s1 ! soil 0 s hot 9 "s places t !y c\ld n walk on x4 ,accord+ to ,langsdorf & o!rs1 ?is new isl&1 :i* is n[ sev]al ?\s& feet high1 & two or ?ree miles 9 circumf]5ce1 has be5 cont9ually f\nd to h increas$ 9 size :5 successively visit$ by diff]5t travell]s2 b we h no accurate means ( det]m9+ h[ mu* ( its gr[?1 if any1 has be5 due to upheaval1 or h[ f> x has be5 exclusively =m$ by ! ejection ( a%es & /reams ( lava4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 to be well atte/$ t e>?quakes ( ! mo/ t]rific description agitate & alt] ! b$ ( ! sea & surface ( ! l& ?r\gh\t ?is tract4 ,! l9e is cont9u$ 9 ! s\!rn extremity ( ! ,p59sula ( ,kamts*atka1 :]e !re are _m active volcanoes1 :i*1 9 "s eruptions1 h scatt]$ a%es to imm5se di/ances4 ,! l>ge/ & mo/ active ( ^! is ,kluts*ew1 lat4 #ef degrees #c m9utes ,n41 :i* rises at once f ! sea to ! prodigi\s height ( #ae1jjj feet4 ,)9 #gjj feet ( ! summit1 ,erman saw1 9 #ahbi1 a curr5t ( lava1 emitt+ a vivid light1 fl[ d[n ! nor?we/ side to ! foot ( ! cone4 ,a fl[ ( lava f ! summit ( ,mont ,blanc to its base 9 ! valley ( ,*am\ni w\ld af=d b an inadequate idea ( ! declivity d[n :i* ?is curr5t desc5d$4 ,l>ge quantities ( ice & sn[ oppos$ = a "t a b>ri] to ! lava1 until at l5g? ! fi]y torr5t ov]came1 by its heat & pressure1 ?is ob/acle1 & p\r$ d[n ! m\nta9 side ) a frightful noise1 :i* 0 he>d = a di/ance ( m ?an fifty miles4#dgi ,! ,kurile *a9 ( isl&s con/itutes ! prolongation ( ! ,kamts*atka range1 :]e a tra9 ( volcanic m\nta9s1 n9e ( :i* are kn[n to h be5 9 eruption1 tr5ds 9 a s\!rly direction4 ,! l9e is !n cont9u$ to ! s\?we/ 9 ! great isl& ( ,jesso1 & aga9 9 ,nipon1 ! pr9cipal ( ! ,japanese gr\p4 ,x !n ext5ds by ,loo ,*oo & ,=mosa to ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s1 & !nce by ,sangir & ! nor!a/]n extremity ( ,celebes to ! ,moluccas 7see map1 fig4 #ci74 ,aft]w>ds x passes we/w>d ?r\gh ,sumbawa to ,java4 ,!re are said to be ?irty-eight consid]able volcanoes 9 ,java1 "s ( :i* are m ?an #aj1jjj feet high4 ,!y are rem>kable = ! quantity ( sulphur & sulphure\s vapors :i* !y dis*>ge4 ,!y r>ely emit lava1 b riv]s ( mud issue f !m1 l ! moya ( ! ,&es ( ,quito4 ,! memorable eruption ( ,galongoon1 9 #ahbb1 w be describ$ 9 ! tw5ty-fif? *apt]4 ,! crat] ( ,tas*em1 at ! ea/]n extremity ( ,java1 conta9s a lake /rongly impregnat$ ) sulphuric acid1 a qu>t] ( a mile long1 f :i* a riv] ( acid wat] issues1 :i* supports no liv+ creature1 nor c fi% live 9 ! sea ne> its conflu5ce4 ,!re is an ext9ct crat] ne> ,batur1 call$ ,guevo ,upas1 or ! ,valley ( ,poison1 ab\t half a mile 9 circumf]5ce1 :i* is ju/ly an object ( t]ror to ! inhabitants ( ! c\ntry4 ,e liv+ be+ :i* p5etrates into ?is valley falls d[n dead1 & ! soil is cov]$ ) ! c>casses ( tig]s1 de]1 birds1 & ev5 ! bones ( m52 all kill$ by ! abundant emanations ( c>bonic acid gas1 by :i* ! bottom ( ! valley is fill$4 ,9 ano!r crat] 9 ?is l& ( wond]s1 ne> ! volcano ( ,talaga ,bodas1 we le>n f ,m4 ,re9w>dt1 t ! sulphure\s exhalations h kill$ tig]s1 birds1 & innum]able insects2 & ! s(t p>ts ( ^! animals1 su* z ! fibres1 muscles1 nails1 hair1 & sk91 are v well pres]v$1 :ile ! bones are corrod$1 & entirely de/roy$4 ,we le>n f obs]vations made 9 #ahdd1 by ,mr4 ,jukes1 t a rec5t t]ti>y =mation compos$ ( lime/one & resembl+ ! coral rock ( a fr++ reef1 cl+s to ! flanks ( all ! volcanic isl&s f ! ea/ end ( ,timor to ! we/ end ( ,java4 ,^! mod]n calc>e\s /rata are (t5 :ite & *alk-l1 sometimes #ajjj feet & upw>ds above ! sea1 regul>ly /ratifi$ 9 ?ick horizontal b$s1 & !y %[ t !re has be5 a g5]al elevation ( ^! isl&s at a comp>atively mod]n p]iod4#dhj ,! same l9e> arrangem5t :i* is obs]v$ 9 ,java holds good 9 ! volcanoes ( ,sumatra1 "s ( :i* are ( great height1 z ,b]api1 :i* is m ?an #ab1jjj feet above ! sea1 & is cont9ually smok+4 ,hot spr+s are abundant at its base4 ,! volcanic l9e !n incl9es slightly to ! nor?we/1 & po9ts to ,b>r5 ,isl&1 lat4 #ab degrees #ae m9utes ,n41 9 ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4 ,?is volcano 0 9 eruption 9 #agib1 & w be describ$ 9 ! tw5ty-six? *apt]4 ,! volcanic tra9 !n ext5ds1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,macclell&1 to ! isl& ( ,n>condam1 lat4 #ac degrees4 #bb m9utes ,n41 :i* is a cone sev5 or eight hundr$ feet high1 ris+ f deep wat]1 & said to pres5t signs ( lava curr5ts desc5d+ f ! crat] to ! base4 ,aft]w>ds ! tra9 /ret*es 9 ! same direction to ! volcanic isl& ( ,ramree1 ab\t lat4 #ai degrees4 ,n41 & ! adjo9+ isl& ( ,*$uba1 :i* is repres5t$ 9 old *>ts z a burn+ m\nta94 ,?us we arrive at ! ,*ittagong coa/1 :i* 9 #agfb 0 convuls$ by a trem5d\s e>?quake 7see *ap4 #bi74dha ,to enum]ate all ! volcanic regions ( ! ,indian & ,pacific oceans w\ld lead me f> beyond ! prop] limits ( ?is treatise2 b x w appe> 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ?is volume1 :5 coral reefs are treat$ (1 t ! isl&s ( ! ,pacific consi/ alt]nately ( l9e> gr\ps ( two classes1 ! "o l(ty1 & conta9+ active volcanoes1 & m>9e /rata above ! sea-level1 & :i* h be5 und]go+ upheaval 9 mod]n times2 ! o!r v l[1 consi/+ ( reefs ( coral1 usually ) lagoons 9 _! c5tres1 & 9 :i* !re is evid5ce ( a gradual subsid5ce ( ! gr\nd4 ,! ext5t & direction ( ^! p>allel volcanic b&s h be5 depict$ ) great c>e by ,d>w9 9 8 map be=e cit$ 7p4 #cea74 ,! mo/ rem>kable !atre ( volcanic activity 9 ! ,nor!rn ,pacific--or1 p]haps1 9 ! :ole _w--occurs 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 :i* h be5 admirably treat$ ( 9 a rec5t "w by ,mr4 ,dana4#dhb ,volcanic region f c5tral ,asia to ! ,azores4--,ano!r great region ( subt]ranean di/urbance is t :i* has be5 imag9$ to ext5d ?r\gh a l>ge "p ( ,c5tral ,asia to ! ,azores1 t is to say1 f ,*9a & ,t>t>y ?r\gh ,lake ,aral & ! ,caspian to ! ,caucasus1 & ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,black ,sea1 !n aga9 ?r\gh "p ( ,asia ,m9or to ,syria1 & we/w>d to ! ,grecian ,isl&s1 ,greece1 ,naples1 ,sicily1 ! s\!rn "p ( ,spa91 ,portugal & ! ,azores4 ,respect+ ! ea/]n extremity ( ?is l9e 9 ,*9a1 we h little in=mation1 b _m viol5t e>?quakes are kn[n to h occurr$ !re4 ,! volcano said to h be5 9 eruption 9 ! sev5? c5tury 9 ,c5tral ,t>t>y is situat$ on ! nor!rn declivity ( ! ,cele/ial ,m\nta9s1 n f> di/ant f ! l>ge lake call$ ,issik\l2 & ,humboldt m5tions o!r v5ts & solfat>as 9 ! same qu>t]1 :i* are all wor?y ( notice1 z be+ f> m di/ant f ! ocean 7#bfj geographical miles7 ?an any o!r kn[n po9ts ( eruption4 ,we f9d on ! we/]n %ores ( ! ,caspian1 9 ! c\ntry r\nd ,baku1 a tract call$ ! ,field ( ,fire1 :i* cont9ually emits inflammable gas1 :ile spr+s ( naph?a & petroleum occur 9 ! same vic9ity1 z also mud volcanoes4 ,syria & ,pale/9e ab\nd 9 volcanic appe>ances1 & v ext5sive areas h be5 %ak51 at diff]5t p]iods1 ) great de/ruction ( cities & loss ( lives4 ,cont9ual m5tion is made 9 hi/ory ( ! ravages committ$ by e>?quakes 9 ,sidon1 ,tyre1 ,b]ytus1 ,laodicea1 & ,antio*1 & 9 ! ,isl& ( ,cyprus4 ,! c\ntry ar\nd ! ,dead ,sea appe>s evid5tly1 f ! acc\nts ( mod]n travell]s1 to be volcanic4 ,a di/rict ne> ,smyrna1 9 ,asia ,m9or1 0 t]m$ by ! ,greeks ,catacecaum5e1 or ! burnt up1 :]e !re is a l>ge arid t]ritory1 )\t trees1 & ) a c9d]y soil4#dhc ,?is c\ntry 0 visit$ 9 #ahda by ,mr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,hamilton1 :o f\nd 9 ! valley ( ! ,h]mus p]fect cones ( scoriae1 ) lava-/reams1 l ^? ( ,auv]gne1 con=m+ to ! exi/+ riv]-*annels1 & ) _! surface undecompos$4#dhd ,grecian ,ar*ipelago4--,proce$+ we/w>ds1 we rea* ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 :]e ,santor91 aft]w>ds to be describ$1 is ! gr& c5tre ( volcanic action4 ,x 0 ,von ,bu*'s op9ion t ! volcanoes ( ,greece 7 arrang$ 9 a l9e runn+ ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 & ,s4 ,s4 ,e41 & t !y af=d$ ! only example 9 ,europe ( active volcanoes hav+ a l9e> direction2 b ,m4 ,virlet1 on ! contr>y1 ann\nces z ! result ( 8 inve/igations1 made dur+ ! ,fr5* exp$ition to ! ,morea 9 #ahbi1 t !re is no "o det]m9ate l9e ( direction = ! volcanic ph5om5a 9 ,greece1 :e!r we foll[ ! po9ts ( eruptions1 or ! e>?quakes1 or any o!r signs ( igne\s ag5cy4#dhe ,mac$onia1 ,?race1 & ,epirus1 h always be5 subject to e>?quakes1 & ! ,ionian ,isles are cont9ually convuls$4 ,respect+ ,s\!rn ,italy1 ,sicily1 & ! ,lip>i ,isles1 x is unnecess>y to enl>ge "h1 z ,i %all h occasion aga9 to allude to !m4 ,i may m5tion1 h[ev]1 t a b& ( volcanic action has be5 trac$ by ,dr4 ,daub5y across ! ,italian ,p59sula1 f ,is*ia to ,m\nt ,vultur1 9 ,apulia1 ! comm5cem5t ( ! l9e be+ f\nd 9 ! hot spr+s ( ,is*ia1 aft] :i* x is prolong$ ?r\gh ,vesuvius to ! ,lago d',ansanto1 :]e gases simil> to ^? ( ,vesuvius are evolv$4 ,its f>!r ext5sion /rikes ,m\nt ,vultur1 a l(ty cone compos$ ( tuff & lava1 f "o side ( :i* c>bonic acid & sulphurett$ hydrog5 are emitt$4#dhf ,traditions ( deluges4--,! traditions :i* h come d[n to u f remote ages ( great inundations said to h happ5$ 9 ,greece & on ! conf9es ( ! ,grecian settlem5ts1 _h d\btless _! orig9 9 a s]ies ( local cata/rophes1 caus$ pr9cipally by e>?quakes4 ,! frequ5t migrations ( ! e>li] inhabitants1 & ! total want ( writt5 annals long aft] ! fir/ settlem5t ( ea* c\ntry1 make x impossible = u at ?is di/ance ( "t to fix ei!r ! true localities or probable dates ( ^! ev5ts4 ,! fir/ philosophical writ]s ( ,greece 71 !re=e1 z mu* at a loss z ourselves to (f] a reasonable conjecture on ^! po9ts1 or to decide h[ _m cata/rophes might sometimes h become conf\nd$ 9 "o tale1 or h[ mu* ?is tale may h be5 amplifi$1 9 aft] times1 or obscur$ by my?ological fiction4 ,! floods ( ,ogyges & ,deucalion are commonly said to h happ5$ be=e ! ,trojan w>2 t ( ,ogyges m ?an sev5te51 & t ( ,deucalion m ?an fifte5 c5turies be=e our era4 ,z to ! ,ogygian flood1 x is g5]ally describ$ z hav+ laid wa/e ,attica1 & 0 ref]r$ by "s writ]s to a great ov]fl[+ ( riv]s1 to :i* cause ,ari/otle also attribut$ ! deluge ( ,deucalion1 :i*1 he says1 affect$ ,hellas only1 or ! c5tral "p ( ,!ssaly4 ,o!rs imag9$ ! same ev5t to h be5 due to an e>?quake1 :i* drew d[n masses ( rock1 & /opp$ up ! c\rse ( ! ,p5eus 9 ! n>r[ defile betwe5 m\nts ,ossa & ,olympus4 ,z to ! deluge ( ,samo?race1 :i* is g5]ally ref]r$ to a di/9ct date1 x appe>s t ! %ores ( t small isl& & ! adjo9+ ma9l& ( ,asia 7 inundat$ by ! sea4 ,diodorus ,siculus says t ! inhabitants _h "t to take refuge 9 ! m\nta9s1 & save !mselves by flight2 he also relates1 t long aft] ! ev5t ! fi%]m5 ( ! isl& drew up 9 _! nets ! capitals ( columns1 :i* 7 ! rema9s ( cities subm]g$ by t t]rible cata/rophe4#dhg ,^! /atem5ts sc>cely leave any d\bt t !re occurr$1 at ! p]iod allud$ to1 a subsid5ce ( ! coa/1 accompani$ by e>?quakes & inroads ( ! sea4 ,x is n impossible t ! /ory ( ! bur/+ ( ! ,black ,sea ?r\gh ! ,?racian ,bosphorus into ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 :i* accompani$1 &1 z "s say1 caus$ ! ,samo?racian deluge1 may h ref]5ce to a wave1 or succession ( waves1 rais$ 9 ! ,eux9e by ! same convulsion4 ,we "k t subt]ranean movem5ts & volcanic eruptions are (t5 att5d$ n only by incursions ( ! sea1 b also by viol5t ra9s1 & ! complete d]angem5t ( ! riv] dra9age ( ! inl& c\ntry1 & by ! damm+ up ( ! outlets ( lakes by l&slips1 or ob/ructions 9 ! c\rses ( subt]ranean riv]s1 su* z ab\nd 9 ,!ssaly & ! ,morea4 ,we ne$ n !re=e be surpris$ at ! v>iety ( causes assign$ = ! traditional floods ( ,greece1 by ,h]odotus1 ,ari/otle1 ,diodorus1 ,/rabo1 & o!rs4 ,z to ! area embrac$1 _h all ! ,grecian deluges occurr$ simultane\sly1 in/ead ( be+ spread ov] _m c5turies1 & _h !y1 in/ead ( be+ extremely local1 rea*$ at once f ! ,eux9e to ! s\?we/]n limit ( ! ,peloponnese1 & f ,mac$onia to ,rhodes1 ! deva/ation w\ld /ill h be5 m limit$ ?an t :i* visit$ ,*ili 9 #ahce1 :5 a volcanic eruption broke out 9 ! ,&es1 opposite ,*iloe1 & ano!r at ,juan ,f]n&ez1 di/ant #gbj geographical miles1 at ! same "t t sev]al l(ty cones1 9 ! ,cordill]a1 #djj miles to ! ea/w>d ( t isl&1 ?rew out vapor & ignit$ matt]4 ,?r\gh\t a great "p ( ! space ?us rec5tly %ak5 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 cities 7 laid 9 ru9s1 or ! l& 0 p]man5tly upheav$1 or m\nta9\s waves roll$ inl& f ! ,pacific4 ,p]iodical alt]nation ( ,e>?quakes 9 ,syria & ,s\!rn ,italy4--,x has be5 rem>k$ by ,von ,h(f1 t f ! comm5cem5t ( ! ?irte5? to ! latt] half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 !re 0 an almo/ entire cessation ( e>?quakes 9 ,syria & ,judea2 &1 dur+ ?is int]val ( quiesc5ce1 ! ,ar*ipelago1 toge!r ) "p ( ! adjac5t coa/ ( ,less] ,asia1 z also ,s\!rn ,italy & ,sicily1 suff]$ greatly f e>?quakes2 :ile volcanic eruptions 7 unusually frequ5t 9 ! same regions4 ,a m ext5d$ comp>ison1 also1 ( ! hi/ory ( ! subt]ranean convulsions ( ^! tracts seems to confirm ! op9ion1 t a viol5t crisis ( commotion nev] visits bo? at ! same "t4 ,x is impossible = u to decl>e1 z yet1 :e!r ?is ph5om5on is con/ant 9 ?is & o!r regions1 because we c r>ely trace back a connect$ s]ies ( ev5ts f>!r ?an a few c5turies2 b x is well kn[n t1 :]e num]\s v5ts are clu/]$ toge!r )9 a small area1 z 9 _m ar*ipelagoes = in/ance1 two ( !m are nev] 9 viol5t eruption at once4 ,if ! action ( "o becomes v great = a c5tury or m1 ! o!rs assume ! appe>ance ( sp5t volcanoes4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n improbable t sep>ate prov9ces ( ! same great range ( volcanic fires may hold a relation to "o deep-seat$ focus1 analog\s to t :i* ! ap]tures ( a small gr\p be> to "s m sup]ficial r5t or cavity4 ,?us1 = example1 we may conjecture t1 at a comp>atively small di/ance f ! surface1 ,is*ia & ,vesuvius mutually communicate ) c]ta9 fissures1 & t ea* af=ds relief alt]nately to ela/ic fluids & lava !re g5]at$4 ,s we may suppose ,s\!rn ,italy & ,syria to be connect$1 at a mu* great] dep?1 ) a l[] "p ( ! v same sy/em ( fissures2 9 :i* case any ob/ruction occurr+ 9 "o duct may h ! effect ( caus+ almo/ all ! vapor & melt$ matt] to be =c$ up ! o!r1 & if !y _c get v5t1 !y may be ! cause ( viol5t e>?quakes4 ,"s objections advanc$ aga9/ ?is doctr9e t volcanoes act z safety-valves1 w be consid]$ 9 ! sequel4#dhh ,! nor!a/]n portion ( ,africa1 includ+ ,egypt1 :i* lies six or sev5 degrees s\? ( ! volcanic l9e already trac$1 has be5 almo/ always exempt f e>?quakes2 b ! nor?we/]n portion1 especially ,fez & ,morocco1 :i* fall )9 ! l9e1 suff] greatly f "t to "t4 ,! s\!rn "p ( ,spa9 also1 & ,portugal1 h g5]ally be5 expos$ to ! same sc\rge simultane\sly ) ,nor!rn ,africa4 ,! prov9ces ( ,malaga1 ,murcia1 & ,granada1 & 9 ,portugal ! c\ntry r\nd ,lisbon1 are record$ at sev]al p]iods to h be5 deva/at$ by great e>?quakes4 ,x w be se51 f ,mi*ell's acc\nt ( ! great ,lisbon %ock1 9 #agee1 t ! fir/ movem5t proce$$ f ! b$ ( ! ocean t5 or fifte5 leagues f ! coa/4 ,s late z ,febru>y #b1 #ahaf1 :5 ,lisbon 0 vehem5tly %ak51 two %ips felt a %ock 9 ! ocean we/ f ,lisbon2 "o ( !m at ! di/ance ( #abj1 & ! o!r #bfb ,fr5* leagues f ! coa/#dhi--;a fact :i* is m int]e/+1 because a l9e drawn ?r\gh ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 ! volcanic region ( ,s\!rn ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,s\!rn ,spa91 & ,portugal1 w1 if prolong$ we/w>d ?r\gh ! ocean1 /rike ! volcanic gr\p ( ! ,azores1 :i* may possibly !re=e h a subm>9e connection ) ! ,european l9e4 ,9 reg>d to ! volcanic sy/em ( ,s\!rn ,europe1 x may be obs]v$1 t !re is a c5tral tract :]e ! greate/ e>?quakes prevail1 9 :i* rocks are %att]$1 m\nta9s r5t1 ! surface elevat$ or depress$1 & cities laid 9 ru9s4 ,on ea* side ( ?is l9e ( greate/ commotion !re are p>allel b&s ( c\ntry :]e ! %ocks are less viol5t4 ,at a /ill great] di/ance 7z 9 ,nor!rn ,italy1 = example1 ext5d+ to ! foot ( ! ,alps71 !re are spaces :]e ! %ocks are mu* r>] & m feeble1 yet possibly ( suffici5t =ce to cause1 by cont9u$ repetition1 "s appreciable alt]ation 9 ! ext]nal =m ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,beyond ^! limits1 aga91 all c\ntries are liable to slight tremors1 at di/ant int]vals ( "t1 :5 "s great crisis ( subt]ranean movem5t agitates an adjo9+ volcanic region2 b ^! may be consid]$ z m]e vibrations1 propagat$ me*anically ?r\gh ! ext]nal cov]+ ( ! globe1 z s\nds travel almo/ to indef9ite di/ances ?r\gh ! air4 ,%ocks ( ?is k9d h be5 felt 9 ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 ,nor!rn ,france1 & ,g]many--p>ticul>ly dur+ ! ,lisbon e>?quake4 ,b ^! c\ntries _c1 on ?is acc\nt1 be suppos$ to con/itute p>ts ( ! s\!rn volcanic region1 any m ?an ! ,%etl& & ,orkney isl&s c be consid]$ z belong+ to ! ,icel&ic circle1 because ! s&s eject$ f ,hecla h be5 waft$ ?i!r by ! w9ds4 ,besides ! cont9u\s spaces ( subt]ranean di/urbance1 ( :i* we h m]ely sket*$ ! outl9e1 !re are o!r disconnect$ volcanic gr\ps1 ( :i* sev]al w be m5tion$ h]eaft]4 ,l9es ( active & ext9ct ,volcanoes n to be conf\nd$4--,we mu/ always be c>eful to di/+ui% betwe5 l9es ( ext9ct & active volcanoes1 ev5 :]e !y appe> to run 9 ! same direction2 = anci5t & mod]n sy/ems may int]f]e ) ea* o!r4 ,already1 inde$1 we h pro( t ?is is ! case2 s t x is n by geographical position1 b by ref]5ce to ! species ( organic be+s alone1 :e!r aquatic or t]re/rial1 ^: rema9s occur 9 b$s int]/ratifi$ ) lavas1 t we c cle>ly di/+ui% ! relative age ( volcanoes ( :i* no eruptions are record$4 ,_h ,s\!rn ,italy be5 kn[n to civiliz$ nations = z %ort a p]iod z ,am]ica1 we %\ld h _h no record ( eruptions 9 ,is*ia2 yet we might h assur$ ourselves t ! lavas ( t isle _h fl[$ s9ce ! ,m$it]ranean 0 inhabit$ by ! species ( te/acea n[ liv+ 9 ! ,neapolitan seas4 ,) ?is assurance1 x w\ld n h be5 ra% to include ! num]\s v5ts ( t isl& 9 ! mod]n volcanic gr\p ( ,campania4 ,on simil> gr\nds we may inf]1 )\t mu* hesitation1 t ! eruptions ( ,etna1 & ! mod]n e>?quakes ( ,calabria1 are a cont9uation ( t action :i*1 at a some:at e>li] p]iod1 produc$ ! subm>9e lavas ( ! ,val di ,noto 9 ,sicily4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 ! lavas ( ! ,euganean hills & ! ,vic5t91 al?\gh n :olly beyond ! range ( e>?quakes 9 ,nor!rn ,italy1 mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) any exi/+ volcanic sy/em2 = :5 !y fl[$1 ! seas 7 inhabit$ by animals almo/ all ( !m di/9ct f ^? n[ kn[n to live1 :e!r 9 ! ,m$it]ranean or o!r p>ts ( ! globe4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,volcanic ,,di/rict ,,( ,,naples4 ,hi/ory ( ! volcanic eruptions 9 ! di/rict r\nd ,naples--,e>ly convulsions 9 ! isl& ( ,is*ia--,num]\s cones ?r[n up !re--,lake ,av]nus--,! ,solfat>a--,r5ewal ( ! eruptions ( ,vesuvius1 ,a4,d4 #gi--,pl9y's description ( ! ph5om5a--,8 sil5ce respect+ ! de/ruction ( ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii--,subsequ5t hi/ory ( ,vesuvius--,lava dis*>g$ 9 ,is*ia 9 #acjb--,pause 9 ! eruptions ( ,vesuvius--,monte ,nuovo ?r[n up--,uni=mity ( ! volcanic op]ations ( ,vesuvius & ,phlegraean ,fields 9 anci5t & mod]n times4 ,i %all next give a sket* ( ! hi/ory ( "s ( ! volcanic v5ts disp]s$ ?r\gh\t ! great regions be=e describ$1 & consid] ! composition & arrangem5t ( _! lavas & eject$ matt]4 ,! only volcanic region kn[n to ! anci5ts 0 t ( ! ,m$it]ranean2 & ev5 ( ?is !y h transmitt$ to u v imp]fect records relat+ to ! eruptions ( ! ?ree pr9cipal di/ricts1 namely1 t r\nd ,naples1 t ( ,sicily & its isles1 & t ( ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago4 ,by f> ! mo/ connect$ s]ies ( records ?r\gh\t a long p]iod relates to ! fir/ ( ^! prov9ces2 & ^! _c be too att5tively consid]$1 z mu* hi/orical in=mation is indisp5sable 9 ord] to enable u to obta9 a cle> view ( ! connection & alt]nate mode ( action ( ! diff]5t v5ts 9 a s+le volcanic gr\p4 ,e>ly convulsions 9 ! ,isl& ( ,is*ia4---,! ,neapolitan volcanoes ext5d f ,vesuvius1 ?r\gh ! ,phlegraean ,fields1 to ,procida & ,is*ia1 9 a some:at l9e> arrangem5t1 rang+ f ! nor!a/ to ! s\?we/1 z w be se5 9 ! annex$ map ( ! volcanic di/rict ( ,naples 7fig4 #dj74 ,)9 ! space above limit$1 ! volcanic =ce is sometimes develop$ 9 s+le eruptions f a consid]able numb] ( irregul>ly scatt]$ po9ts2 b a great "p ( its action has be5 conf9$ to "o pr9cipal & habitual v5t1 ,vesuvius or ,somma4 ,be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 f ! remote/ p]iods ( :i* we h any tradition1 ?is pr9cipal v5t 0 9 a /ate ( inactivity4 ,b t]rific convulsions !n took place f "t to "t 9 ,is*ia 7,pi!cusa71 & seem to h ext5d$ to ! neighbor+ isle ( ,procida 7,pro*yta72 = ,/rabo#dij m5tions a /ory ( ,procida hav+ be5 torn asund] f ,is*ia2 & ,pl9y#dia d]ives its "n f its hav+ be5 p\r$ =? by an eruption f ,is*ia4 ,! pres5t circumf]5ce ( ,is*ia along ! wat]'s edge is eighte5 miles1 its l5g? f we/ to ea/ ab\t five1 & its bread? f nor? to s\? ?ree miles4 ,sev]al ,greek colonies :i* settl$ !re be=e ! ,*ri/ian era 7 compell$ to ab&on x 9 consequ5ce ( ! viol5ce ( ! eruptions4 ,fir/ ! ,ery?raeans1 & aft]w>ds ! ,*alcidians1 are m5tion$ z hav+ be5 driv5 out by e>?quakes & igne\s exhalations4 ,a colony 0 aft]w>ds e/abli%$ by ,hi]o1 k+ ( ,syracuse1 ab\t #chj ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era2 b :5 !y _h built a =tress1 !y 7 compell$ by an eruption to fly1 & nev] aga9 return$4 ,/rabo tells u t ,timaeus record$ a tradition1 t1 a little be=e 8 "t1 ,epomeus1 ! pr9cipal m\nta9 9 ! c5tre ( ! isl&1 vomit$ fire dur+ great e>?quakes2 t ! l& betwe5 x & ! coa/ _h eject$ mu* fi]y matt]1 :i* fl[$ into ! sea1 & t ! sea rec$$ = ! di/ance ( ?ree /adia1 & !n return+1 ov]fl[$ ! isl&4 ,?is eruption is suppos$ by "s to h be5 t :i* =m$ ! crat] ( ,monte ,corvo on "o ( ! high] flanks ( ,epomeo1 above ,=ia1 ! lava-curr5t ( :i* may /ill be trac$1 by aid ( ! scoriae on its surface1 f ! crat] to ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,,volcanic ,,di/rict ,,( ,,naples4 ,a4 ,a/roni4 ,b4 ,monte ,b>b>o4 ,m4 ,monte ,nuovo4 ,s4 ,! ,solfat>a4 ,to "o ( ! subsequ5t eruptions 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! isle1 :i* caus$ ! expulsion ( ! fir/ ,greek colony1 ,monte ,rot>o has be5 attribut$1 & x be>s e m>k ( rec5t orig94 ,! cone1 :i* ,i exam9$ 9 #ahbh1 is rem>kably p]fect1 & has a crat] on its summit precisely resembl+ t ( ,monte ,nuovo ne> ,naples2 b ! hill is l>g]1 & resembles "s ( ! m consid]able cones ( s+le eruption ne> ,cl]mont 9 ,auv]gne1 &1 l "s ( !m1 x has giv5 v5t to a lava-/ream at its base1 in/ead ( its summit4 ,a small rav9e swept out by a torr5t exposes ! /ructure ( ! cone1 :i* is compos$ ( innum]able incl9$ & slightly undulat+ lay]s ( pumice1 scoriae1 :ite lapilli1 & enorm\s angul> blocks ( tra*yte4 ,^! la/ h evid5tly be5 ?r[n out by viol5t explosions1 l ^? :i* 9 #ahbb laun*$ f ,vesuvius a mass ( augitic lava1 ( _m tons' weight1 to ! di/ance ( ?ree miles1 :i* fell 9 ! g>d5 ( ,pr9ce ,ottajano4 ,! cone ( ,rot>o is cov]$ ) ! arbutus1 & o!r beautiful ev]gre5s4 ,su* is ! /r5g? ( ! virg9 soil1 t ! %rubs h become almo/ arboresc5t2 & ! gr[? ( "s ( ! small] wild plants has be5 s vigor\s1 t botani/s h sc>cely be5 able to recognize ! species4 ,! eruption :i* dislodg$ ! ,syracusan colony is suppos$ to h giv5 rise to t mighty curr5t :i* =ms ! promontory ( ,z>o & ,c>uso4 ,! surface ( ^! lavas is /ill v arid & bri/l+1 & is cov]$ ) black scoriae2 s t x is n )\t great labor t human indu/ry has r$eem$ "s small spots1 & conv]t$ !m into v9ey>ds4 ,^u ! produce ( ^! v9ey>ds ! population ( ! isl& is almo/ entirely support$4 ,x am\nt$ :5 ,i 0 !re1 9 #ahbh1 to ab\t tw5ty-five ?\s&1 & 0 on ! increase4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #da4 ,"p ( ,is*ia se5 f ! ,we/4 a4 ,monte ,epomeo or ,san ,niccola4 b4 ,monte ,vico4 c4 ,ano!r ( ! m9or cones ) a crat]4#dib ,f ! date ( ! great eruption la/ allud$ to1 d[n to our own "t1 ,is*ia has enjoy$ tranquillity1 ) ! exception ( "o emission ( lava h]eaft] to be describ$1 :i*1 al?\gh x occasion$ mu* local damage1 does n appe> to h deva/at$ ! :ole c\ntry1 9 ! mann] ( m anci5t explosions4 ,!re are1 ^u ! :ole1 on diff]5t p>ts ( ,epomeo1 or scatt]$ ?r\gh ! l[] tracts ( ,is*ia1 twelve consid]able volcanic cones :i* h be5 ?r[n up s9ce ! isl& 0 rais$ above ! surface ( ! deep2 & _m /reams ( lava may h fl[$1 l t ( ,arso 9 #acjb1 )\t cones hav+ be5 produc$2 s t ?is isl& may1 = ages be=e ! p]iod ( ! remote/ traditions1 h s]v$ z a safety-valve to ! :ole ,t]ra di ,lavoro1 :ile ! fires ( ,vesuvius 7 dormant4 ,lake ,av]nus4--,x seems also cle> t ,av]nus1 a circul> lake ne> ,puzzuoli1 ab\t half a mile 9 diamet]1 :i* is n[ a salubri\s & *e]ful spot1 once exhal$ mephitic vapors1 su* z are (t5 emitt$ by crat]s aft] eruptions4 ,!re is no reason = discr$it+ ! acc\nt ( ,lucretius1 t birds c\ld n fly ov] x )\t be+ /ifl$1 al?\gh !y may n[ frequ5t x un9jur$4#dic ,!re mu/ h be5 a "t :5 ?is crat] 0 9 action2 & = _m c5turies aft]w>ds x may h des]v$ ! appellation ( atri jauna ,ditis1 emitt+1 p]haps1 gases z de/ructive ( animal life z ^? suffocat+ vapors giv5 out by ,lake ,quilotoa1 9 ,quito1 9 #agig1 by :i* :ole h]ds ( cattle on its %ores 7 kill$1#did or z ^? delet]i\s emanations :i* annihilat$ all ! cattle 9 ! isl& ( ,lanc]ote1 "o ( ! ,can>ies1 9 #agcj4die ,bory ,/4 ,v9c5t m5tions1 t 9 ! same isle birds fell lifeless to ! gr\nd2 & ,sir ,william ,hamilton in=ms u t he pick$ up dead birds on ,vesuvius dur+ an eruption4 ,solfat>a4--,! ,solfat>a1 ne> ,puzzuoli1 :i* may be consid]$ z a ne>ly ext+ui%$ crat]1 appe>s1 by ! acc\nts ( ,/rabo & o!rs1 to h be5 be=e ! ,*ri/ian era 9 v mu* ! same /ate z at pres5t1 giv+ v5t cont9ually to aque\s vapor1 toge!r ) sulphure\s & muriatic acid gases1 l ^? evolv$ by ,vesuvius4 ,anci5t hi/ory ( ,vesuvius4--,su*1 !n1 7 ! po9ts :]e ! subt]ranean fires obta9$ v5t1 f ! e>lie/ p]iod to :i* tradition rea*es back1 d[n to ! fir/ c5tury ( ! ,*ri/ian era2 b we !n arrive at a crisis 9 ! volcanic action ( ?is di/rict--"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ev5ts witness$ by man dur+ ! brief p]iod ?r\gh\t :i* he has obs]v$ ! physical *anges on ! e>?'s surface4 ,f ! fir/ colonization ( ,s\!rn ,italy by ! ,greeks1 ,vesuvius af=d$ no o!r indications ( its volcanic "* ?an su* z ! naturali/ might inf]1 f ! analogy ( its /ructure to o!r volcanoes4 ,^! 7 recogniz$ by ,/rabo1 b ,pl9y did n include ! m\nta9 9 8 li/ ( active v5ts4 ,! anci5t cone 0 ( a v regul> =m1 t]m9at+ n z at pres5t 9 two peaks1 b ) a summit :i* pres5t$1 :5 se5 f a di/ance1 ! ev5 outl9e ( an abruptly truncat$ cone4 ,on ! summit1 z we le>n f ,plut>*1 !re 0 a crat] ) /eep cliffs1 & hav+ its int]ior ov]gr[n ) wild v9es1 & ) a /]ile pla9 at ! bottom4 ,on ! ext]ior1 ! flanks ( ! m\nta9 7 clo!d ) f]tile fields ri*ly cultivat$1 & at its base 7 ! popul\s cities ( ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii4 ,b ! sc5e ( repose 0 at l5g? doom$ to cease1 & ! volcanic fire 0 recall$ to ! ma9 *annel1 :i* at "s =m] unkn[n p]iod _h giv5 passage to repeat$ /reams ( melt$ lava1 s&1 & scoriae4 ,r5ewal ( its eruptions4--,! fir/ symptom ( ! revival ( ! en]gies ( ?is volcano 0 ! occurr5ce ( an e>?quake 9 ! ye> #fc aft] ,*ri/1 :i* did consid]able injury to ! cities 9 its vic9ity4 ,f t "t to ! ye> #gi slight %ocks 7 frequ5t2 & 9 ! mon? ( ,augu/ ( t ye> !y became m num]\s & viol5t1 till !y end$ at l5g? 9 an eruption4 ,! eld] ,pl9y1 :o comm&$ ! ,roman fleet1 0 !n /ation$ at ,mis5um2 & 9 8 anxiety to obta9 a ne> view ( ! ph5om5a1 he lo/ 8 life1 be+ suffocat$ by sulphure\s vapors4 ,8 nephew1 ! y\ng] ,pl9y1 rema9$ at ,mis5um1 & has giv5 u1 9 8 ,lett]s1 a lively description ( ! awful sc5e4 ,a d5se column ( vapor 0 fir/ se5 ris+ v]tically f ,vesuvius1 & !n spread+ itself out lat]ally1 s t its upp] portion resembl$ ! head1 & its l[] ! trunk ( ! p9e1 :i* *>act]izes ! ,italian l&scape4 ,?is black cl\d 0 pi]c$ occasionally by fla%es ( fire1 z vivid z lightn+1 succe$$ by d>kness m pr(\nd ?an night4 ,a%es fell ev5 ^u ! %ips at ,mis5um1 & caus$ a %oal 9 "o "p ( ! sea--! gr\nd rock$1 & ! sea rec$$ f ! %ores1 s t _m m>9e animals 7 se5 on ! dry s&4 ,! appe>ances above describ$ agree p]fectly ) ^? witness$ 9 m rec5t eruptions1 especially ^? ( ,monte ,nuovo1 9 #aech1 & ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahbb4 ,! y\ng] ,pl9y1 al?\gh giv+ a circum/antial detail ( s _m physical facts1 & describ+ ! eruption & e>?quake1 & ! %[] ( a%es :i* fell at ,/abiae1 makes no allusion to ! sudd5 ov]:elm+ ( two l>ge & popul\s cities1 ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii4 ,9 explanation ( ?is omission1 x has be5 sugge/$ t 8 *ief object 0 simply to give ,tacitus a full acc\nt ( ! p>ticul>s ( 8 uncle's dea?4 ,x is wor?y1 h[ev]1 ( rem>k1 t _h ! buri$ cities nev] be5 discov]$1 ! acc\nts transmitt$ to u ( _! tragical end might well h be5 discr$it$ by ! majority1 s vague & g5]al are ! n>ratives1 or s long subsequ5t to ! ev5t4 ,tacitus1 ! fri5d & contempor>y ( ,pl9y1 :5 adv]t+ 9 g5]al t]ms to ! convulsions1 says m]ely t cities 7 consum$ or buri$4#dif ,suetonius1 al?\gh he alludes to ! eruption incid5tally1 is sil5t z to ! cities4 ,!y are m5tion$ by ,m>tial1 9 an epigram1 z imm]s$ 9 c9d]s2 b ! fir/ hi/orian :o alludes to !m by "n is ,dion ,cassius1#dig :o fl\ri%$ ab\t a c5tury & a half aft] ,pl9y4 ,he appe>s to h d]iv$ 8 in=mation f ! traditions ( ! inhabitants1 & to h record$1 )\t discrim9ation1 all ! facts & fables :i* he c\ld collect4 ,he tells u1 t dur+ ! eruption a multitude ( m5 ( sup]human /ature1 resembl+ giants1 appe>$1 sometimes on ! m\nta91 & sometimes 9 ! environs--t /ones & smoke 7 ?r[n out1 ! sun 0 hidd51 & !n ! giants seem$ to rise aga91 :ile ! s\nds ( trumpets 7 he>d1 c41 c42 & f9ally1 he relates1 two entire cities1 ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii1 7 buri$ "u %[]s ( a%es1 :ile all ! p 7 sitt+ 9 ! !atre4 ,t _m ( ^! circum/ances 7 inv5t$1 w\ld h be5 obvi\s1 ev5 )\t ! aid ( ,pl9y's lett]s2 & ! exam9ation ( ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii enables u to prove1 t none ( ! p 7 de/roy$ 9 ! !atres1 & inde$ t !re 7 v few ( ! inhabitants :o did n escape f bo? cities4 ,yet "s lives 7 lo/1 & !re 0 ample f\ndation = ! tale 9 its mo/ ess5tial p>ticul>s4 ,x does n appe> t 9 ! ye> #gi any lava fl[$ f ,vesuvius2 ! eject$ sub/ances1 p]haps1 consi/$ entirely ( lapilli1 s&1 & fragm5ts ( old] lava1 z :5 ,monte ,nuovo 0 ?r[n up 9 #aech4 ,! fir/ era at :i* we h au!ntic acc\nts ( ! fl[+ ( a /ream ( lava1 is ! ye> #ajcf1 :i* is ! sev5? eruption f ! revival ( ! fires ( ! volcano4 ,a few ye>s aft]w>ds1 9 #ajdi1 ano!r eruption is m5tion$1 & ano!r 9 #aach 7or #aaci71 aft] :i* a great pause ensu$ ( #afh ye>s4 ,dur+ ?is long int]val ( repose1 two m9or v5ts op5$ at di/ant po9ts4 ,fir/1 x is on tradition t an eruption took place f ! ,solfat>a1 9 ! ye> #aaih1 dur+ ! reign ( ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 ,emp]or ( ,g]many2 & al?\gh no circum/antial detail ( ! ev5t has rea*$ u f ^? d>k ages1 we may receive ! fact )\t hesitation4#dih ,no?+ m1 h[ev]1 c be attribut$ to ?is eruption1 z ,mr4 ,scrope obs]ves1 ?an ! dis*>ge ( a light & scori=m tra*ytic lava1 ( rec5t aspect1 re/+ ^u ! /rata ( loose tuff :i* cov]s ! pr9cipal mass ( tra*yte4#dii ,volcanic eruption 9 ,is*ia1 #acjb4--,! o!r occurr5ce is well au!nticat$--! eruption1 9 ! ye> #acjb1 ( a lava-/ream f a new v5t on ! s\!a/ end ( ! ,isl& ( ,is*ia4 ,dur+ "p ( #acja1 e>?quakes _h succe$$ "o ano!r ) fe>ful rapidity2 & !y t]m9at$ at la/ ) ! dis*>ge ( a lava-/ream f a po9t nam$ ! ,campo del ,arso1 n f> f ! t[n ( ,is*ia4 ,?is lava ran q d[n to ! sea--a di/ance ( ab\t two miles2 9 color x v>ies f iron-gray to r$di% black1 & is rem>kable = ! glassy felsp> :i* x conta9s4 ,its surface is almo/ z /]ile1 aft] a p]iod ( five c5turies1 z if x _h cool$ d[n ye/]day4 ,a few scantl+s ( wild ?yme1 & two or ?ree o!r dw>fi% plants1 alone appe> 9 ! int]/ices ( ! scoriae1 :ile ! ,vesuvian lava ( #agfg is already cov]$ ) a luxuriant vegetation4 ,pontanus1 ^: c\ntry-h\se 0 burnt & ov]:elm$1 describes ! dreadful sc5e z hav+ la/$ two mon?s4#ejj ,_m h\ses 7 swall[$ up1 & a p>tial emigration ( ! inhabitants foll[$4 ,?is eruption produc$ no cone1 b only a slight depression1 h>dly des]v+ ! "n ( a crat]1 :]e heaps ( black & r$ scoriae lie scatt]$ ar\nd4 ,until ?is eruption1 ,is*ia is g5]ally believ$ to h enjoy$ an int]val ( re/ = ab\t sev5te5 c5turies2 b ,julius ,obsequ5s1#eja :o fl\ri%$ ,a4 ,d4 #bad1 ref]s to "s volcanic convulsions 9 ! ye> #ffb aft] ! build+ ( ,rome 7#ia ,b4 ,c47 ,z ,pl9y1 :o liv$ a c5tury be=e ,obsequ5s1 does n enum]ate ?is among o!r volcanic eruptions1 ! /atem5t ( ! latt] au?or is suppos$ to h be5 errone\s2 b x w\ld be m consi/5t1 = reasons be=e /at$1 to disreg>d ! sil5ce ( ,pl9y1 & to conclude1 t "s k9d ( subt]ranean commotion1 probably ( no great viol5ce1 happ5$ at ! p]iod allud$ to4 ,hi/ory ( ,vesuvius aft] #aach4--,to return to ,vesuvius3--! next eruption occurr$ 9 #acjf2 betwe5 :i* era & #afca !re 0 only "o o!r 79 #aejj71 & t a slight "o4 ,x has be5 rem>k$1 t ?r\gh\t ?is p]iod ,etna 0 9 a /ate ( su* unusual activity1 z to l5d c\nt5ance to ! idea t ! great ,sicilian volcano may sometimes s]ve z a *annel ( dis*>ge to ela/ic fluids & lava t w\ld o!rwise rise to ! v5ts 9 ,campania4 ,=mation ( ,monte ,nuovo1 #aech4--,! great pause 0 also m>k$ by a memorable ev5t 9 ! ,phlegraean ,fields--! sudd5 =mation ( a new m\nta9 9 #aech1 ( :i* we h receiv$ au!ntic acc\nts f contempor>y writ]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,monte ,nuovo1 =m$ 9 ! ,bay ( ,baiae1 ,sept4 #bi?1 #aech4 #a4 ,cone ( ,monte ,nuovo4 #b4 ,brim ( crat] ( ditto4 #c4 ,!rmal spr+1 call$ ,ba?s ( ,n]o1 or ,/ufe di ,tritoli4 ,! height ( ?is m\nta91 call$ ev] s9ce ,monte ,nuovo1 has be5 det]m9$ by ! ,italian m9]alogi/ ,p9i1 to be #ddj ,engli% feet above ! level ( ! bay2 its base is ab\t eight ?\s& feet1 or m ?an a mile & a half 9 circumf]5ce4 ,accord+ to ,p9i1 ! dep? ( ! crat] is #dba ,engli% feet f ! summit ( ! hill1 s t its bottom is only n9ete5 feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! cone is decl>$1 by ! be/ au?orities1 to /& p>tly on ! site ( ! ,lucr9e ,lake 7#d1 fig4 #dc71ejb :i* 0 no?+ m ?an ! crat] ( a pre-exi/5t volcano1 & 0 almo/ entirely fill$ dur+ ! explosion ( #aech4 ,no?+ n[ rema9s b a %all[ pool1 sep>at$ f ! sea by an elevat$ bea*1 rais$ artificially4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,! ,phlegraean ,fields4 #a4 ,monte ,nuovo4 #b4 ,monte ,b>b>o4 #c4 ,lake ,av]nus4 #d4 ,lucr9e ,lake4 #e4 ,! ,solfat>a4 #f4 ,puzzuoli4 #g4 ,bay ( ,baiae4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton has giv5 u two orig9al lett]s describ+ ?is eruption4 ,! fir/1 by ,falconi1 dat$ #aech1 conta9s ! foll[+ passages4#ejc ,x is n[ two ye>s s9ce !re h be5 frequ5t e>?quakes at ,puzzuoli1 ,naples1 & ! neighbor+ p>ts4 ,on ! day & 9 ! night be=e ! eruption 7( ,monte ,nuovo71 above tw5ty %ocks1 great & small1 7 felt4 ,! eruption began on ! #bi? ( ,septemb]1 #aech4 ,x 0 on a ,sunday1 ab\t "o o'clock 9 ! night1 :5 flames ( fire 7 se5 betwe5 ! hot ba?s & ,trip]gola4 ,9 a %ort "t ! fire increas$ to su* a degree1 t x bur/ op5 ! e>? 9 ?is place1 & ?rew up s great a quantity ( a%es & pumice-/ones1 mix$ ) wat]1 z cov]$ ! :ole c\ntry4 ,! next morn+ 7aft] ! =mation ( ,monte ,nuovo7 ! poor inhabitants ( ,puzzuoli quitt$ _! habitations 9 t]ror1 cov]$ ) ! muddy & black %[] :i* cont9u$ ! :ole day 9 t c\ntry--fly+ f dea?1 b ) dea? pa9t$ 9 _! c\nt5ances4 ,"s ) _! *ildr5 9 _! arms1 "s ) sacks full ( _! goods2 o!rs lead+ an ass1 load$ ) _! fright5$ family1 t[>ds ,naples2 o!rs c>ry+ quantities ( birds1 ( v>i\s sorts1 t _h fall5 dead at ! beg9n+ ( ! eruption2 o!rs1 aga91 ) fi% :i* !y _h f\nd1 & :i* 7 to be met ) 9 pl5ty on ! %ore1 ! sea hav+ left !m dry = a consid]able "t4 ,i accompani$ ,signor ,moramaldo to behold ! wond]ful effects ( ! eruption4 ,! sea _h retir$ on ! side ( ,baiae1 ab&on+ a consid]able tract1 & ! %ore appe>$ almo/ entirely dry1 f ! quantity ( a%es & brok5 pumice-/ones ?r[n up by ! eruption4 ,i saw two spr+s 9 ! newly discov]$ ru9s2 "o be=e ! h\se t 0 ! que5's1 ( hot & salt wat]1 c4 ,s f> ,falconi3 ! o!r acc\nt is by ,pietro ,giacomo di ,tol$o1 :i* beg9s ?us3--,x is n[ two ye>s s9ce ?is prov9ce ( ,campagna has be5 afflict$ ) e>?quakes1 ! c\ntry ab\t ,puzzuoli mu* m s ?an any o!r p>ts2 b ! #bg? & ! #bh? ( ! mon? ( ,septemb] la/1 ! e>?quakes did n cease day or night 9 ! t[n ( ,puzzuoli3 t pla9 :i* lies betwe5 ,lake ,av]nus1 ! ,monte ,b>b>o1 & ! sea1 0 rais$ a little1 & _m cracks 7 made 9 x1 f "s ( :i* issu$ wat]2 at ! same "t ! sea1 imm$iately jo9+ ! pla91 dri$ up ab\t two hundr$ paces1 s t ! fi% 7 left on ! s& a prey to ! inhabitants ( ,puzzuoli4 ,at la/1 on ! #bi? ( ! same mon?1 ab\t two o'clock 9 ! night1 ! e>? op5$ ne> ! lake1 & discov]$ a horrid m\?1 f :i* 7 vomit$ furi\sly smoke1 fire1 /ones1 & mud1 compos$ ( a%es1 mak+ at ! "t ( its op5+ a noise l ! l\de/ ?und]4 ,! /ones :i* foll[$ 7 by ! flames conv]t$ to pumice1 & "s ( ^! 7 l>g] ?an an ox4 ,! /ones w5t ab\t z high z a cross-b[ c c>ry1 & !n fell d[n1 sometimes on ! edge1 & sometimes into ! m\? itself4 ,! mud 0 ( ! color ( a%es1 & at fir/ v liquid1 !n by degrees less s1 & 9 su* quantities1 t 9 less ?an twelve h\rs1 ) ! help ( ! above-m5tion$ /ones1 a m\nta9 0 rais$ ( #ajjj paces 9 height4 ,n only ,puzzuoli & ! neighbor+ c\ntry 0 full ( ?is mud1 b ! city ( ,naples also2 s t _m ( its palaces 7 defac$ by x4 ,n[ ?is eruption la/$ two nights & two days )\t int]mission1 ?\gh1 x is true1 n always ) ! same =ce2 ! ?ird day ! eruption ceas$1 & ,i w5t up ) _m p to ! top ( ! new hill1 & saw d[n into its m\?1 :i* 0 a r\nd cavity ab\t a qu>t] ( a mile 9 circumf]5ce1 9 ! middle ( :i*1 ! /ones :i* _h fall5 7 boil+ up1 j z a caldron ( wat] boils on ! fire4 ,! f\r? day x began to ?r[ up aga91 & ! sev5? mu* m1 b /ill ) less viol5ce ?an ! fir/ night4 ,at ?is "t _m p]sons :o 7 on ! hill 7 knock$ d[n by ! /ones & kill$1 or smo!r$ ) ! smoke4 ,9 ! day ! smoke /ill cont9ues1 & y (t5 see fire 9 ! mid/ ( x 9 ! nighttime4#ejd ,x w be se5 t bo? ^! acc\nts1 writt5 imm$iately aft] ! bir? ( ,monte ,nuovo1 agree 9 /at+ t ! sea retir$2 & "o m5tions t its bottom 0 uprais$2 b !y attribute ! orig9 ( ! new hill exclusively to ! jets ( mud1 %[]s ( scoriae1 & l>ge fragm5ts ( rock1 ca/ out f a c5tral orifice1 = sev]al days & nights4 ,b>on ,von ,bu*1 h[ev]1 9 8 excell5t "w on ! ,can>y ,isl&s1 & volcanic ph5om5a 9 g5]al1 has decl>$ 8 op9ion t ! cone & crat] ( ,monte ,nuovo 7 =m$1 n 9 ! mann] above describ$1 b by ! upheaval ( solid b$s ( :ite tuff1 :i* 7 previ\sly horizontal1 b :i* 7 pu%$ up 9 #aech1 s z to dip away 9 all directions f ! c5tre1 ) ! same incl9ation z ! slop+ surface ( ! cone itself4 ,x is an error1 he says1 to imag9e t ?is hill 0 =m$ by eruption1 or by ! ejection ( pumice1 scoriae1 & o!r incoh]5t matt]2 = ! solid b$s ( uprais$ tuff are visible all r\nd ! crat]1 & x is m]ely ! sup]ficial cov]+ ( ! cone :i* is made up ( eject$ scoriae4#eje ,9 confirmation ( ?is view1 ,m4 ,dufranoy has cit$ a passage f ! works ( ,porzio1 a celebrat$ physician ( t p]iod1 to prove t 9 #aech ! gr\nd :]e ,monte ,nuovo /&s 0 pu%$ up 9 ! =m ( a great bubble or bli/]1 :i* on bur/+1 gave orig9 to ! pres5t deep crat]4 ,porzio1 says1 t aft] two days & nights ( viol5t e>?quakes1 ! sea retir$ = ne>ly #bjj y>ds2 s t ! inhabitants c\ld collect great numb]s ( fi% on ?is "p ( ! %ore1 & see "s spr+s ( fre% wat] :i* rose up !re4 ,at l5g?1 on ! ?ird day ( ! cal5ds ( ,octob] 7,septemb] #bi71 !y saw a l>ge tract ( gr\nd int]v5+ betwe5 ! foot ( ,monte ,b>b>o1 & "p ( ! sea1 ne> ! ,lake ,av]nus1 rise1 & sudd5ly assume ! =m ( an incipi5t hill2 & at two o'clock at night1 ?is heap ( e>?1 op5+ z x 7 its m\?1 vomit$1 ) a l\d noise1 flames1 pumice-/ones1 & a%es4#ejf ,s late z ! ye> #ahdf a f\r? manuscript 7writt5 imm$iately aft] ! eruption7 0 discov]$ & publi%$ 9 ,g]many4 ,x 0 writt5 9 #aech by ,francesco del ,n]o1#ejg :o m5tions ! dry+ up ( ! b$ ( ! sea ne> ,puzzuoli1 :i* enabl$ ! inhabitants ( ! t[n to c>ry (f loads ( fi%4 ,ab\t eight o'clock 9 ! morn+ ( ! #bi? ,septemb]1 ! e>? sunk d[n ab\t #ad feet 9 t place :]e ! volcanic orifice n[ appe>s1 & !re issu$ =? a small /ream ( wat]1 at fir/ cold1 & aft]w>ds tepid4 ,at noon1 on ! same day1 ! e>? began to swell up 9 ! same spot :]e x _h sunk d[n #ad feet1 s z to =m a hill4 ,ab\t ?is "t fire issu$ =?1 & gave rise to ! great gulf1 ) su* a =ce1 noise1 & %9+ light1 t ,i1 :o 0 /&+ 9 my g>d51 0 seiz$ ) t]ror4 ,=ty m9utes aft]w>ds1 al?\gh unwell1 ,i got ^u a neighbor+ height1 f :i* ,i saw all t took place1 & by my tro? x 0 a spl5did fire1 t ?rew up = a long "t mu* e>? & _m /ones1 :i* fell back aga9 all r\nd ! gulf1 9 a semicircle ( f "o to ?ree b[-%ots 9 diamet]1 &1 fill+ up "p ( ! sea1 =m$ a hill ne>ly ( ! height ( ,monte ,morello4 ,masses ( e>? & /ones1 z l>ge z an ox1 7 %ot up f ! fi]y gulf into ! air1 to a height :i* ,i e/imate at a mile & a half4 ,:5 !y desc5d$1 "s 7 dry1 o!rs 9 a s(t muddy /ate4 ,he concludes by allud+ aga9 to ! s9k+ ( ! gr\nd1 & ! elevation ( x :i* foll[$1 & says t to him x 0 inconceivable h[ su* a mass ( /ones & a%es c\ld h be5 p\r$ =? f ! gulf4 ,he also ref]s to ! acc\nt :i* ,porzio 0 to draw up = ! ,vic]oy4 ,on comp>+ ^! f\r acc\nts1 record$ by eye-witnesses1 !re appe>s to be no real discrepancy betwe5 !m4 ,x seems cle> t ! gr\nd fir/ sunk d[n #ad feet on ! site ( ! future volcano1 & aft] hav+ subsid$ x 0 aga9 propell$ upw>ds by ! lava m+l$ ) /eam & gases1 :i* 7 ab\t to bur/ =?4 ,jets ( r$-hot lava1 fragm5ts ( fractur$ rock1 & occasionally mud compos$ ( a mixture ( pumice1 tuff1 & sea-wat]1 7 hurl$ into ! air4 ,"s ( ! blocks ( /one 7 v l>ge1 lead+ u to inf] t ! gr\nd :i* sank & rose aga9 0 mu* %att]$ & torn to pieces by ! ela/ic vapors4 ,! :ole hill 0 n =m$ at once1 b by an int]mitt5t action ext5d+ ov] a week or m4 ,x seems t ! *asm op5$ betwe5 ,trip]gola & ! ba?s 9 its suburbs1 & t ! eject$ mat]ials fell & buri$ t small t[n4 ,a consid]able "p1 h[ev]1 ( ! hill 0 =m$ 9 less ?an tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & 9 ! same mann] z on a small] scale ! mud cones ( ! air volcanoes are produc$1 ) a cavity 9 ! middle4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 conceiv+ t ! pumice\s mud1 if s ?r[n out1 may h set into a k9d ( /one on dry+1 j z "s cem5ts1 compos$ ( volcanic a%es1 are kn[n to consolidate ) facility4 ,i am in=m$ t ,b>on ,von ,bu* discov]$ "s m>9e %ells ( exi/+ species1 su* z occur fossil 9 ! tuff ( ! neighborhood1 9 b$s expos$ l[ d[n 9 ! walls ( ! crat] ( ,monte ,nuovo4 ,^! may h be5 eject$ 9 ! mud mix$ ) sea-wat] :i* 0 ca/ out ( ! boil+ gulf2 or1 z ,signor ,arcangelo ,scac*i has sugge/$1#ejh !y may h be5 d]iv$ f ! old] tuff1 :i* conta9s m>9e %ells ( rec5t species4 ,! same obs]v] rem>ks t ,porzio's acc\nt ^u ! :ole corroborates ! doctr9e ( ! cone hav+ be5 =m$ by eruption1 9 pro( ( :i* he cites ! foll[+ passage3--,b :at 0 truly a/oni%+1 a hill ( pumice-/ones & a%es 0 heap$ up r\nd ! gulf to ! height ( a mile 9 a s+le night4#eji ,signor ,scac*i also adds t ! anci5t temple ( ,apollo1 n[ at ! foot ( ,monte ,nuovo1 & ! walls ( :i* /ill reta9 _! p]fect p]p5dicul>ity1 c\ld n possibly h ma9ta9$ t position _h ! cone ( ,monte ,nuovo really be5 ! result ( upheaval4 ,trip]gola 0 mu* frequ5t$ z a wat]+-place1 & conta9$ a hospital = ^? :o resort$ !re = ! b5efit ( ! !rmal spr+s2 & x appe>s t !re 7 no few] ?an ?ree inns 9 ! pr9cipal /reet4 ,_h ,porzio /at$ t any ( ^! build+s1 or ! ru9s ( !m1 7 se5 by himself or o!rs rais$ up above ! pla91 a %ort "t be=e ! fir/ eruption1 s z to /& on ! summit or slope ( a newly-rais$ hillock1 we might h be5 compell$1 by s circum/antial a n>rative1 to adopt ,m4 ,dufranoy's int]pretation4 ,b 9 ! abs5ce ( su* evid5ce1 we mu/ appeal to ! crat] itself1 :]e we behold a section ( ! :ole m\nta91 )\t be+ able to detect any orig9al nucleus ( upheav$ rock di/9ct f ! re/2 on ! contr>y1 ! :ole mass is simil> ?r\gh\t 9 composition1 & ! cone v symmetrical 9 =m2 nor are !re any clefts1 su* z might be look$ =1 z ! effect ( ! sudd5 up?r[ ( /ony masses4 ,m4 ,c4 ,prevo/ has well rem>k$1 t if b$s ( solid & non-ela/ic mat]ials _h yield$ to a viol5t pressure direct$ f bel[ upw>d1 we %\ld f9d n simply a deep empty cavity1 b an irregul> op5+1 :]e _m r5ts conv]g$2 & ^! r5ts w\ld be n[ se5 break+ ?r\gh ! walls ( ! crat]1 wid5+ z !y approa* ! c5tre4 7,see ,fig4 #dd1 a1 b47#eaj ,n a s+le fissure ( ?is k9d is obs]vable 9 ! int]ior ( ,monte ,nuovo1 :]e ! walls ( ! crat] are cont9u\s & entire2 nor are !re any dikes imply+ t r5ts _h exi/$1 :i* 7 aft]w>ds fill$ ) lava or o!r matt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,x has moreov] be5 (t5 urg$ by ,von ,bu*1 ,de ,beaumont1 & o!rs1 :o ascribe ! conical =m ( volcanoes *iefly to upheaval f bel[1 t 9 su* m\nta9s !re are a great numb] ( deep r5ts & rav9es1 :i* div]ge on all sides l ! spokes ( a :eel1 f ne> ! c5tral axis to ! circumf]5ce or base ( ! cone1 z 9 ! case ( ,palma1 ,cantal1 & ,t5]iffe4 ,yet ! entire abs5ce ( su* div]g5t fissures or rav9es1 9 su* cases z ,monte ,nuovo1 ,somma1 or ,etna1 is pass$ by unnotic$1 & appe>s to h rais$ 9 _! m9ds no objection to _! favorite !ory4 ,x is1 inde$1 admitt$ by ,m4 ,dufranoy t !re are "s facts :i* x is v difficult to reconcile ) 8 own view ( ,porzio's record4 ,?us1 = example1 !re are c]ta9 ,roman monum5ts at ! base ( ,monte ,nuovo1 & on ! bord]s ( ,lake ,av]nus1 su* z ! temples ( ,apollo 7be=e m5tion$7 & ,pluto1 :i* d n seem to h suff]$ 9 ! lea/ degree by ! suppos$ upheaval4 ,! walls :i* /ill exi/ h pres]v$ _! v]tical position1 & ! vaults are 9 ! same /ate z o!r monum5ts on ! %ores ( ! ,bay ( ,baiae4 ,! long gall]y :i* l$ to ! ,sibyl's ,cave1 on ! o!r side ( ,lake ,av]nus1 has 9 l mann] escap$ injury1 ! ro( ( ! gall]y rema9+ p]fectly horizontal1 ! only *ange be+ t ! soil ( ! *amb] 9 :i* ! ,sibyl gave out h] oracles is n[ cov]$ by a few in*es ( wat]1 :i* m]ely indicates a slight alt]ation 9 ! level ( ,lake ,av]nus4#eaa ,on ! supposition1 !n1 t pre-exi/+ b$s ( pumice\s tuff 7 uprais$ 9 #aech1 s z to =m ,monte ,nuovo1 x is ackn[l$g$ t ! p]fectly undi/urb$ /ate ( ! contigu\s soil on :i* ^! anci5t monum5ts /&1 is v diff]5t f :at might h be5 expect$4 ,mr4 ,d>w91 9 8 ,volcanic ,isl&s1 has describ$ sev]al crat]i=m hills 9 ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago z compos$ ( tuff :i* has evid5tly fl[$ l mud1 & yet on consolidat+ has pres]v$ an incl9ation ( tw5ty & ev5 ?irty degrees4 ,! tuff does n fold 9 cont9u\s %eets r\nd ! hills z w\ld h happ5$ if !y _h be5 =m$ by ! upheaval ( horizontal lay]s4 ,! au?or describes ! composition ( ! tuff z v simil> to t ( ,monte ,nuovo1 & ! high angles at :i* ! b$s slope1 bo? ^? :i* h fl[$ & ^? :i* h fall5 9 ! =m ( a%es1 entirely removes ! difficulty suppos$ by ,m4 ,dufranoy to exi/ 9 reg>d to ! slope ( ,monte ,nuovo1 :]e x exce$s an angle ( #ah degrees4 to #bj degrees4#eab ,mr4 ,dana1 also1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1#eac %[s t 9 ! c9d] cones ( t region1 ! /rata h an orig9al incl9ation ( betwe5 #ce degrees & #dj degrees1 :ile 9 ! tufa cones =m$ ne> ! sea1 ! b$s slope at ab\t an angle ( #cj degrees4 ,! same naturali/ also obs]v$ 9 ! ,samoan or ,navigator ,isl&s 9 ,polynesia1 t fragm5ts ( fre% coral _h be5 ?r[n up toge!r ) volcanic matt] to ! height ( #bjj feet above ! level ( ! sea 9 cones ( tufa4#ead ,i %all aga9 rev]t to ! doctr9e ( ! orig9 ( volcanic cones by upheaval1 :5 speak+ ( ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 & ,santor91 & %all n[ m]ely add1 t1 9 #aech1 ! :ole coa/1 f ,monte ,nuovo to beyond ,puzzuoli1 0 uprais$ to ! height ( _m feet above ! b$ ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & has s9ce reta9$ ! great] "p ( ! elevation !n acquir$4 ,! pro(s ( ^! rem>kable *anges ( level w be consid]$ at l5g? :5 ! ph5om5a ( ! temple ( ,s]apis are describ$4#eae ,volcanoes ( ! ,phlegraean ,fields4--,imm$iately adjo9+ ,monte ,nuovo is ! l>g] volcanic cone ( ,monte ,b>b>o 7#b1 fig4 #dc1 p4 #cfg71 ! ,gaurus inanis ( ,juv5al--an appellation giv5 to x probably f its deep circul> crat]1 :i* is ab\t a mile 9 diamet]4 ,l>ge z is ?is cone1 x 0 probably produc$ by a s+le eruption2 & x does n1 p]haps1 exce$ 9 magnitude "s ( ! l>ge/ ( ^? =m$ 9 ,is*ia1 )9 ! hi/orical era4 ,x is compos$ *iefly ( indurat$ tufa l ,monte ,nuovo1 /ratifi$ con=mably to its conical surface4 ,?is hill 0 once v celebrat$ = its w9es1 & is /ill cov]$ ) v9ey>ds2 b :5 ! v9e is n 9 leaf x has a /]ile appe>ance1 &1 late 9 ! ye>1 :5 se5 f ! beautiful ,bay ( ,baiae1 x (t5 contra/s s /rongly 9 v]dure ) ,monte ,nuovo1 :i* is always clo!d ) arbutus1 myrtle1 & o!r wild ev]gre5s1 t a /rang] might well imag9e ! cone ( old] date to be t ?r[n up 9 ! sixte5? c5tury4#eaf ,!re is no?+1 inde$1 s calculat$ to in/ruct ! geologi/ z ! /rik+ mann] 9 :i* ! rec5t volcanic hills ( ,is*ia1 & t n[ "u consid]ation1 bl5d ) ! surr\nd+ l&scape4 ,no?+ seems want+ or r$undant2 e "p ( ! picture is 9 su* p]fect h>mony ) ! re/1 t ! :ole has ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 call$ into exi/5ce by a s+le ef=t ( creative p[]4 ,yet :at o!r result c\ld we h anticipat$ if nature has ev] be5 gov]n$ by ! same laws8 ,ea* new m\nta9 ?r[n up--ea* new tract ( l& rais$ or depress$ by e>?quakes--%\ld be 9 p]fect accordance ) ^? previ\sly =m$1 if ! entire configuration ( ! surface has be5 due to a long s]ies ( simil> di/urbances4 ,7 x true t ! great] "p ( ! dry l& orig9at$ simultane\sly 9 its pres5t /ate1 at "s era ( p>oxysmal convulsion1 & t additions 7 aft]w>ds made sl[ly & successively dur+ a p]iod ( comp>ative repose2 !n1 inde$1 !re might be reason to expect a /rong l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! signs ( ! anci5t & mod]n *anges4 ,b ! v cont9uity ( ! plan1 & ! p]fect id5tity ( ! causes1 are to _m a s\rce ( deception2 s9ce by produc+ a unity ( effect1 !y lead !m to exagg]ate ! en]gy ( ! ag5ts :i* op]at$ 9 ! e>li] ages4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( all hi/orical in=mation1 !y are z unable to sep>ate ! dates ( ! orig9 ( diff]5t portions ( our cont95ts1 z ! /rang] is to det]m9e1 by _! physical features alone1 ! di/9ct ages ( ,monte ,nuovo1 ,monte ,b>b>a1 ,a/roni1 & ! ,solfat>a4 ,! va/ scale & viol5ce ( ! volcanic op]ations 9 ,campania1 9 ! old5 "t1 has be5 a !me ( declamation1 & has be5 contra/$ ) ! comp>ative /ate ( quiesc5ce ( ?is delightful region 9 ! mod]n era4 ,in/ead ( inf]r+1 f analogy1 t ! anci5t ,vesuvius 0 always at re/ :5 ! crat]s ( ! ,phlegraean ,fields 7 burn+--t ea* cone rose 9 succession1--& t _m ye>s1 & (t5 c5turies1 ( repose int]v5$ betwe5 diff]5t eruptions1--geologi/s seem to h g5]ally conjectur$ t ! :ole gr\p sprung up f ! gr\nd at once1 l ! soldi]s ( ,cadmus :5 he s[$ ! dragon's tee?4 ,z well might !y endeavor to p]suade u t on ^! ,phlegraean ,fields1 z ! poets feign$1 ! giants w>r$ ) ,jove1 ere yet ! puny race ( mortals 7 9 be+4 ,mod]n eruptions ( ,vesuvius4--,= ne>ly a c5tury aft] ! bir? ( ,monte ,nuovo1 ,vesuvius cont9u$ 9 a /ate ( tranquillity4 ,!re _h be5 no viol5t eruption = #dib ye>s2 & x appe>s t ! crat] 0 !n exactly 9 ! condition ( ! pres5t ext9ct volcano ( ,a/roni1 ne> ,naples4 ,brac9i1 :o visit$ ,vesuvius n long be=e ! eruption ( #afca1 gives ! foll[+ int]e/+ description ( ! int]ior3--,! crat] 0 five miles 9 circumf]5ce1 & ab\t a ?\s& paces deep3 its sides 7 cov]$ ) bru%wood1 & at ! bottom !re 0 a pla9 on :i* cattle graz$4 ,9 ! woody p>ts wild bo>s frequ5tly h>bor$4 ,9 "o "p ( ! pla91 cov]$ ) a%es1 7 ?ree small pools1 "o fill$ ) hot & bitt] wat]1 ano!r salt] ?an ! sea1 & a ?ird hot1 b ta/eless4#eag ,b at l5g? ^! =e/s & grassy pla9s 7 consum$1 be+ sudd5ly bl[n into ! air1 & _! a%es scatt]$ to ! w9ds4 ,9 ,decemb]1 #afca1 sev5 /reams ( lava p\r$ at once f ! crat]1 & ov]fl[$ sev]al villages1 on ! flanks & at ! foot ( ! m\nta94 ,res9a1 p>tly built ov] ! anci5t site ( ,h]culaneum1 0 consum$ by ! fi]y torr5t4 ,great floods ( mud 7 z de/ructive z ! lava itself1--no uncommon occurr5ce dur+ ^! cata/rophes2 = su* is ! viol5ce ( ra9s produc$ by ! evolutions ( aque\s vapor1 t torr5ts ( wat] desc5d ! cone1 & becom+ *>g$ ) impalpable volcanic du/1 & roll+ along loose a%es1 acquire suffici5t consi/5cy to des]ve _! ord9>y appellation ( aque\s lavas4 ,a brief p]iod ( repose ensu$1 :i* la/$ only until ! ye> #afff1 f :i* "t to ! pres5t !re has be5 a con/ant s]ies ( eruptions1 ) r>ely an int]val ( re/ exce$+ t5 ye>s4 ,dur+ ^! ?ree c5turies1 no irregul> volcanic ag5cy has convuls$ o!r po9ts 9 ?is di/rict4 ,brieslak rem>k$1 t su* irregul> convulsions _h occurr$ 9 ! ,bay ( ,naples 9 e second c5tury2 z1 = example1 ! eruption ( ! ,solfat>a1 9 ! twelf?2 ( ! lava ( ,arso1 9 ,is*ia1 9 ! f\rte5?2 & ( ,monte ,nuovo 9 ! sixte5?2 b ! eighte5? has =m$ an exception to ?is rule1 & ?is seems acc\nt$ = by ! unprec$5t$ numb] ( eruptions ( ,vesuvius dur+ t p]iod2 :]eas1 :5 ! new v5ts op5$1 !re _h always be51 z we h se51 a long int]mitt5ce ( activity 9 ! pr9cipal volcano4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,volcanic ,,di/rict ,,( ,,naples--cont9u$4 ,dim5sions & /ructure ( ! cone ( ,vesuvius--,fluidity & motion ( lava--,dikes--,alluviums call$ aque\s lavas--,orig9 & composition ( ! matt] envelop+ ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii--,condition & cont5ts ( ! buri$ cities--,small numb] ( skeletons--,/ate ( pres]vation ( animal & vegetable sub/ances--,rolls ( papyrus--,/abiae--,torre del ,greco--,conclud+ rem>ks on ! ,campanian volcanoes4 ,/ructure ( ! cone ( ,vesuvius4--,betwe5 ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury & ! ye> #ahbb1 ! great crat] ( ,vesuvius _h be5 gradually fill$ by lava boil+ up f bel[1 & by scoriae fall+ f ! explosions ( m9or m\?s :i* 7 =m$ at int]vals on its bottom & sides4 ,9 place ( a regul> cavity1 !re=e1 !re 0 a r\gh & rocky pla91 cov]$ ) blocks ( lava & scoriae1 & cut by num]\s fissures1 f :i* cl\ds ( vapor 7 evolv$4 ,b ?is /ate ( ?+s 0 totally *ang$ by ! eruption ( ,octob]1 #ahbb1 :5 viol5t explosions1 dur+ ! space ( m ?an tw5ty days1 broke up & ?rew out all ?is accumulat$ mass1 s z to leave an imm5se gulf or *asm1 ( an irregul>1 b some:at elliptical %ape1 ab\t ?ree miles 9 circumf]5ce :5 measur$ along ! v s9u\s & irregul> l9e ( its extreme m>g91 b some:at less ?an ?ree qu>t]s ( a mile 9 its longe/ diamet]1 :i* 0 direct$ f ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,w4#eah ,! dep? ( ?is trem5d\s abyss has be5 v>i\sly e/imat$2 = f ! h\r ( its =mation x increas$ daily by ! dilapidation ( its sides4 ,x measur$1 at fir/1 accord+ to ! acc\nt ( "s au?ors1 two ?\s& feet 9 dep? f ! extreme "p ( ! exi/+ summit2#eai b ,mr4 ,scrope1 :5 he saw x1 soon aft] ! eruption1 e/imat$ its dep? at less ?an half t am\nt4 ,m ?an eight hundr$ feet ( ! cone 0 c>ri$ away by ! explosions1 s t ! m\nta9 0 r$uc$ 9 height f ab\t #dbjj to #cdjj feet4#ebj ,z we asc5d ! slop+ sides1 ! volcano appe>s a mass ( loose mat]ials--a m]e heap ( rubbi%1 ?r[n toge!r )\t ! slighte/ ord]2 b on arriv+ at ! brim ( ! crat]1 & obta9+ a view ( ! int]ior1 we are agreeably surpris$ to discov] t ! con=mation ( ! :ole displays 9 e "p ! mo/ p]fect symmetry & arrangem5t4 ,! mat]ials are dispos$ 9 regul> /rata1 slightly undulat+1 appe>+1 :5 view$ 9 front1 to be dispos$ 9 horizontal planes4 ,b1 z we make ! circuit ( ! edge ( ! crat]1 & obs]ve ! cliffs by :i* x is encircl$ project+ or rec$+ 9 sali5t or retir+ angles1 we behold transv]se sections ( ! curr5ts ( lava & b$s ( s& & scoriae1 & recognize _! true dip4 ,we !n discov] t !y incl9e outw>ds f ! axis ( ! cone1 at angles v>y+ f #cj degrees4 to #dj degrees4 ,! :ole cone1 9 fact1 is compos$ ( a numb] ( conc5tric coat+s ( alt]nat+ lavas1 s&1 & scoriae4 ,e %[] ( a%es :i* has fall5 f above1 & e /ream ( lava desc5d+ f ! lips ( ! crat]1 h con=m$ to ! outw>d surface ( ! hill1 s t "o conical envelope may be said to h be5 successively fold$ r\nd ano!r1 until ! aggregation ( ! :ole m\nta9 0 complet$4 ,! m>k$ sep>ation into di/9ct b$s results f ! diff]5t colors & degrees ( co>s5ess 9 ! s&s1 scoriae1 & lava1 & ! alt]nation ( ^! ) ea* o!r4 ,! greate/ difficulty1 on ! fir/ view1 is to conceive h[ s mu* regul>ity c be produc$1 not)/&+ ! unequal di/ribution ( s& & scoriae1 driv5 by prevail+ w9ds 9 p>ticul> eruptions1 & ! small bread? ( ea* %eet ( lava z x fir/ fl[s out f ! crat]4 ,b1 on a clos] exam9ation1 we f9d t ! appe>ance ( extreme uni=mity is delusive2 = :5 a numb] ( b$s ?9 out gradually1 & at diff]5t po9ts1 ! eye does n )\t difficulty recognize ! t]m9ation ( any "o /ratum1 b usually supposes x cont9u\s ) "s o!r1 :i* at a %ort di/ance may lie precisely 9 ! same plane4 ,! slight undulations1 moreov]1 produc$ by inequalities on ! sides ( ! hill on :i* ! successive lay]s 7 m\ld$1 assi/ ! deception4 ,z c\ntless b$s ( s& & scoriae con/itute ! great] "p ( ! :ole mass1 ^! may sometimes mantle cont9u\sly r\nd ! :ole cone2 & ev5 lava /reams may be ( consid]able bread? :5 fir/ !y ov]fl[1 & s9ce1 9 "s eruptions1 a consid]able "p ( ! upp] portion ( ! cone breaks d[n at once1 may =m a %eet ext5d+ z f> z ! space :i* ! eye usually takes 91 9 a s+le section4 ,! high incl9ation ( "s ( ! b$s1 & ! firm union ( ! p>ticles ev5 :]e !re is evid5tly no cem5t1 is ano!r /rik+ feature 9 ! volcanic tuffs & breccias1 :i* seems at fir/ n v easy ( explanation4 ,b ! la/ great eruption af=d$ ample illu/ration ( ! mann] 9 :i* ^! /rata are =m$4 ,fragm5ts ( lava1 scoriae1 pumice1 & s&1 :5 !y fall at slight di/ances f ! summit1 are only half cool$ d[n f a /ate ( fusion1 & are aft]w>ds act$ ^u by ! heat f )91 & by fum]oles or small crevices 9 ! cone ?r\gh :i* hot vapors are dis5gag$4 ,?us heat$1 ! eject$ fragm5ts coh]e toge!r /rongly2 & ! :ole mass acquires su* consi/5cy 9 a few days1 t fragm5ts _c be deta*$ )\t a sm>t bl[ ( ! hamm]4 ,at ! same "t s& & scoriae1 eject$ to a great] di/ance1 rema9 incoh]5t4#eba ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 9 8 description ( ! eruption ( #aggi1 says t jets ( liquid lava1 mix$ ) /ones & scoriae1 7 ?r[n up to ! height ( at lea/ t5 ?\s& feet1 hav+ ! appe>ance ( a column ( fire4#ebb ,"s ( ^! 7 direct$ by ! w9ds t[>ds ,ottajano1 & "s ( !m fall+ almo/ p]p5dicul>ly1 /ill r$-hot & liquid1 on ,vesuvius1 cov]$ its :ole cone1 "p ( ! m\nta9 ( ,somma1 & ! valley betwe5 !m4 ,! fall+ matt] be+ ne>ly z vividly inflam$ z t :i* 0 cont9ually issu+ fre% f ! crat]1 =m$ ) x "o complete body ( fire1 :i* c\ld n be less ?an two miles & a half 9 bread?1 & ( ! extraord9>y height above m5tion$1 ca/+ a heat to ! di/ance ( at lea/ six miles r\nd x4 ,dr4 ,cl>ke1 also1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! eruption ( #agic1 says t millions ( r$-hot /ones 7 %ot into ! air full half ! height ( ! cone itself1 & !n b5d+1 fell all r\nd 9 a f9e ar*4 ,on ano!r occasion he says t1 z !y fell1 !y cov]$ ne>ly half ! cone ) fire4 ,! same au?or has also describ$ ! diff]5t appe>ance ( ! lava at its s\rce1 & at "s di/ance f x1 :5 x _h desc5d$ into ! pla9s bel[4 ,at ! po9t :]e x issu$1 9 #agic1 f an ar*$ *asm 9 ! side ( ! m\nta91 ! vivid torr5t ru%$ ) ! velocity ( a flood4 ,x 0 9 p]fect fusion1 unatt5d$ ) any scoriae on its surface1 or any gross mat]ials n 9 a /ate ( complete solution4 ,x fl[$ ) ! transluc5cy ( honey1 9 regul> *annels1 cut f9] ?an art c imitate1 & gl[+ ) all ! spl5dor ( ! sun4--,sir ,william ,hamilton1 he cont9ues1 _h conceiv$ t no /ones ?r[n ^u a curr5t ( lava w\ld make any impression4 ,i 0 soon conv9c$ ( ! contr>y4 ,light bodies1 inde$1 ( five1 t51 & fifte5 p\nds' weight1 made little or no impression ev5 at ! s\rce2 b bodies ( sixty1 sev5ty1 & eighty p\nds 7 se5 to =m a k9d ( b$ on ! surface ( ! lava1 & float away ) x4 ,a /one ( ?ree hundr$ weight1 t _h be5 ?r[n out by ! crat]1 lay ne> ! s\rce ( ! curr5t ( lava3 ,i rais$ x ^u "o end1 & !n let x fall 9 ^u ! liquid lava2 :5 x gradually sunk b5ea? ! surface1 & disappe>$4 ,if ,i wi%$ to describe ! mann] 9 :i* x act$ ^u ! lava1 ,i %\ld say t x 0 l a loaf ( bread ?r[n into a b[l ( v ?ick honey1 :i* gradually involves itself 9 ! heavy liquid1 & !n sl[ly s9ks to ! bottom4 ,! lava1 at a small di/ance f its s\rce1 acquires a d>k] t9t ^u its surface1 is less easily act$ ^u1 &1 z ! /ream wid5s1 ! surface1 hav+ lo/ its /ate ( p]fect solution1 gr[s h>d] & h>d]1 & cracks into innum]able fragm5ts ( v por\s matt]1 to :i* !y give ! "n ( scoriae1 & ! appe>ance ( :i* has l$ _m to suppose t x proce$$ ?us f ! m\nta94 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no tru? 9 ?is4 ,all lava1 at its fir/ exit f its native volcano1 fl[s out 9 a liquid /ate1 & all equally 9 fusion4 ,! appe>ance ( ! scoriae is to be attribut$ only to ! action ( ! ext]nal air1 & n to any diff]5ce 9 ! mat]ials :i* compose x1 s9ce any lava :atev]1 sep>at$ f its *annel1 & expos$ to ! action ( ! ext]nal air1 imm$iately cracks1 becomes por\s1 & alt]s its =m4 ,z we proce$$ d[nw>ds1 ?is became m & m evid5t2 & ! same lava :i* at its orig9al s\rce fl[$ 9 p]fect solution1 undivid$1 & free f incumbrances ( any k9d1 a little f>!r d[n _h its surface load$ ) scoriae 9 su* a mann]1 t1 ^u its arrival at ! bottom ( ! m\nta91 ! :ole curr5t resembl$ no?+ s mu* z a heap ( unconnect$ c9d]s f an iron-f\ndry4 ,9 ano!r place he says t ! riv]s ( lava 9 ! pla9 resembl$ a va/ heap ( c9d]s1 or ! scoriae ( an iron-f\ndry1 roll+ sl[ly along1 & fall+ ) a rattl+ noise ov] "o ano!r4#ebc ,von ,bu*1 :o 0 9 company ) ,,mm4 de ,humboldt & ,gay-,lussac1 describes ! lava ( #ahje 7! mo/ fluid on record7 z %oot+ sudd5ly be=e _! eyes f top to bottom ( ! cone 9 "o s+le in/ant4 ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes rem>ks t ! l5g? ( ! slope ( ! cone prop] be+ ab\t #acjj feet1 ?is motion mu/ correspond to a velocity ( _m hundr$ feet 9 a few seconds1 )\t int]pret+ ,von ,bu*'s expression lit]ally4 ,! same lava1 :5 x rea*$ ! level road at ,torre del ,greco1 mov$ at ! rate ( only eighte5 in*es p] m9ute1 or ?ree-t5?s ( an in* p] second4#ebd ,al?\gh common lava1 obs]ves ,pr(essor ,=bes1 is ne>ly z liquid z melt$ iron1 :5 x issues f ! orifice ( ! crat]1 its fluidity rapidly dim9i%es1 & z x becomes m & m burd5$ by ! consolidat$ slag ?r\gh :i* x has to =ce its way1 its velocity ( motion dim9i%es 9 an almo/ inconceivable degree2 & at l5g?1 :5 x ceases to pres5t ! slighte/ ext]nal trace ( fluidity1 its movem5t c only be asc]ta9$ by c>eful & repeat$ obs]vations1 j z 9 ! case ( a glaci]4#ebe ,x appe>s t ! int5sity ( ! light & heat ( ! lava v>ies consid]ably at diff]5t p]iods ( ! same eruption1 z 9 t ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahai & #ahbj1 :5 ,sir ,h4 ,davy rem>k$ diff]5t degrees ( vividness 9 ! :ite heat at ! po9t :]e ! lava orig9at$4#ebf ,:5 ! expressions flame & smoke are us$ 9 describ+ volcanic appe>ances1 !y mu/ g5]ally be und]/ood 9 a figurative s5se4 ,we are in=m$1 inde$1 by ,m4 ,abi*1 t he di/9ctly saw1 9 ! eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahcd1 ! flame ( burn+ hydrog52#ebg b :at is usually mi/ak5 = flame consi/s ( vapor or scoriae1 & impalpable du/ illum9at$ by t vivid light :i* is emitt$ f ! crat] bel[1 :]e ! lava is said to gl[ ) ! spl5dor ( ! sun4 ,! cl\ds ( app>5t smoke are =m$ ei!r ( aque\s & o!r vapor1 or ( f9ely comm9ut$ scoriae4 ,dikes 9 ! rec5t cone1 h[ =m$4--,! incl9$ /rata be=e m5tion$ :i* dip outw>ds 9 all directions f ! axis ( ! cone ( ,vesuvius1 are int]sect$ by ve9s or dikes ( compact lava1 = ! mo/ "p 9 a v]tical position4 ,9 #ahbh ^! 7 se5 to be ab\t sev5 9 numb]1 "s ( !m n less ?an f\r or five hundr$ feet 9 height1 & ?9n+ out be=e !y rea*$ ! upp]mo/ "p ( ! cone4 ,be+ h>d] ?an ! b$s ?r\gh :i* !y pass1 !y h decompos$ less rapidly1 & !re=e /& out 9 relief4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ,vesuvius1 9 ,novemb]1 #ahbh1 ,i 0 prev5t$ f desc5d+ into ! crat] by ! con/ant ejections !n ?r[n out2 s t ,i got sight ( ?ree only ( ! dikes2 b ,signor ,monticelli _h previ\sly _h draw+s made ( ! :ole1 :i* he %[$ me4 ,! dikes :i* ,i saw 7 on t side ( ! cone :i* is encircl$ by ,somma4 ,! eruption be=e m5tion$1 ( #ahbh1 began 9 ,m>*1 & 9 ! ,novemb] foll[+ ! eject$ matt] _h fill$ up ne>ly "o-?ird ( ! deep abyss =m$ at ! close ( ! eruption ( #ahbb4 ,9 ,novemb] ,i f\nd a s+le black cone at ! bottom ( ! crat] cont9ually ?r[+ out scoriae1 :ile on ! ext]ior ( ! cone ,i obs]v$ ! lava ( #ahbb1 :i* _h fl[$ out six ye>s be=e1 n yet cool1 & /ill evolv+ mu* heat & vapor f crevices4 ,h(fmann1 9 #ahcb1 saw on ! nor? side ( ,vesuvius1 ne> ! peak call$ ,palo1 a great _m p>allel b&s ( lava1 "s f six to eight feet ?ick1 alt]nat+ ) scoriae & conglom]ate4 ,^! b$s1 he says1 7 cut ?r\gh by _m dikes1 "s ( !m five feet broad4 ,!y resemble ^? ( ,somma1 ! /one be+ compos$ ( gra9s ( leucite & augite4#ebh ,!re c be no d\bt t ! dikes above m5tion$ h be5 produc$ by ! fill+ up ( op5 fissures ) liquid lava2 b ( ! date ( _! =mation we "k no?+ f>!r ?an t !y are all subsequ5t to ! ye> #gi1 &1 relatively speak+1 t !y are m mod]n ?an all ! lavas & scoriae :i* !y int]sect4 ,a consid]able numb] ( ! upp] /rata are n trav]s$ by !m4 ,t ! e>?quakes1 :i* almo/ inv>iably prec$e eruptions1 occasion r5ts 9 ! mass1 is well kn[n2 &1 9 #ahbb1 ?ree mon?s be=e ! lava fl[$ out1 op5 fissures1 evolv+ hot vapors1 7 num]\s4 ,x is cle> t su* r5ts mu/ be eject$ ) melt$ matt] :5 ! column ( lava rises1 s t ! orig9 ( ! dikes is easily expla9$1 z also ! great solidity & cry/all9e nature ( ! rock compos+ !m1 :i* has be5 =m$ by lava cool+ sl[ly "u great pressure4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! frequ5t r5d+ ( volcanic cones dur+ eruptions may be connect$ ) ! gradual & successive upheaval ( ! :ole mass 9 su* a mann] z to increase ! incl9ation ( ! b$s compos+ ! cone2 & 9 accordance ) ! hypo!sis be=e propos$ = ! orig9 ( ,monte ,nuovo1 ,von ,bu* supposes t ! pres5t cone ( ,vesuvius 0 =m$ 9 ! ye> #gi1 n by eruption1 b by upheaval4 ,x 0 n produc$ by ! repeat$ sup]position ( scoriae & lava ca/ out or fl[+ f a c5tral s\rce1 b by ! uplift+ ( /rata previ\sly horizontal4 ,! entire cone rose at once1 su* z we n[ see x1 f ! int]ior & middle ( ,somma1 & has s9ce receiv$ no accession ( height1 b1 on ! contr>y1 has ev] s9ce be5 dim9i%+ 9 elevation4#ebi ,al?\gh ,i consid] ?is hypo!sis ( ,von ,bu* to be q unt5able1 ,i may m5tion "s facts :i* may at fir/ sight seem to favor x4 ,^! are record$ by ,m4 ,abi* 9 8 acc\nt ( ! ,vesuvian eruptions ( #ahcc & #ahcd1 a "w illu/rat$ by excell5t engrav+s ( ! volcanic ph5om5a :i* he witness$4#ecj ,x appe>s t1 9 ! ye> #ahcd1 ! great crat] ( ,vesuvius _h be5 fill$ up ne>ly to ! top ) lava1 :i* _h consolidat$ & =m$ a level & unbrok5 pla91 except t a small cone ?r[n up by ! ejection ( scoriae rose 9 ! middle ( x l an isl& 9 a lake4 ,at l5g? ?is pla9 ( lava 0 brok5 by a fissure :i* pass$ f ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,w41 & along ?is l9e a great numb] ( m9ute cones emitt+ vapor 7 =m$4 ,! fir/ act ( =mation ( ^! m9or cones is said to h consi/$ ( a p>tial upheaval ( b$s ( lava previ\sly horizontal1 & :i* _h be5 r5d]$ flexible by ! heat & t5sion ( ela/ic fluids1 :i*1 ris+ f bel[1 escap$ f ! c5tre ( ea* new monticule4 ,!re w\ld be consid]able analogy betwe5 ?is mode ( orig9 & t ascrib$ by ,von ,bu* to ,vesuvius & ,somma1 if ! dim5sions ( ! uprais$ masses 7 n on s diff]5t a scale1 & if x 0 safe to reason f ! inflation ( bladd]s ( half-fus$ lava1 f fifte5 to tw5ty-five feet 9 height1 to m\nta9s atta9+ an altitude ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 & hav+ _! compon5t /rata /r5g!n$ by int]sect+ dikes ( solid lava4 ,at ! same "t ,m4 ,abi* m5tions1 t :51 9 ,augu/1 #ahcd1 a great subsid5ce took place 9 ! plat=m ( lava )9 ! great crat]1 s t ! /ructure ( ! c5tral cone 0 laid op51 x 0 se5 to h be5 evid5tly =m$1 n by upheaval1 b by ! fall ( c9d]s & scoriae :i* _h be5 ?r[n out dur+ successive eruptions4#eca ,previ\s to ! ye> #gi1 ,vesuvius appe>s1 f ! description ( its figure giv5 by ,/rabo1 to h be5 a truncat$ cone1 hav+ a level & ev5 outl9e z se5 f a di/ance4 ,t x _h a crat] on its summit1 we may inf] f a passage 9 ,plut>*1 on :i* ,dr4 ,daub5y has judici\sly comm5t$ 9 8 treatise on volcanoes4#ecb ,! walls ( ! crat] 7 evid5tly entire1 except on "o side1 :]e !re 0 a s+le n>r[ brea*4 ,:5 ,sp>tacus1 9 ! ye> #gb1 encamp$ 8 gladiators 9 ?is holl[1 ,clodius1 ! praetor1 besieg$ him !re1 keep+ ! s+le outlet c>efully gu>d$1 & !n let d[n 8 soldi]s by scal+-ladd]s ov] ! /eep precipices :i* surr\nd$ ! crat]1 at ! bottom ( :i* ! insurg5ts 7 encamp$4 ,on ! side t[>ds ! sea1 ! walls ( ?is orig9al cavity1 :i* mu/ h be5 ?ree miles 9 diamet]1 h be5 de/roy$1 & ,brieslak 0 ! fir/ to ann\nce ! op9ion1 t ?is de/ruction happ5$ dur+ ! trem5d\s eruption :i* occurr$ 9 #gi1 :5 ! new cone1 n[ call$ ,vesuvius1 0 ?r[n up1 :i* /&s encircl$ on ?ree sides by ! ru9s ( ! anci5t cone1 call$ ,monte ,somma4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,suppos$ section ( ,vesuvius & ,somma4 a1 ,monte ,somma1 or ! rema9s ( ! anci5t cone ( ,vesuvius4 b1 ,! ,p$am5t9a1 a t]race-l projection1 encircl+ ! base ( ! rec5t cone ( ,vesuvius on ! s\? side4 c1 ,atrio del ,cavallo4#ecc d1 e1 ,crat] left by eruption ( #ahbb4 f1 ,small cone ?r[n up 9 #ahbh1 at ! bottom ( ! great crat]4 g1 g1 ,dikes int]sect+ ,somma4 h1 h1 ,dikes int]sect+ ! rec5t cone ( ,vesuvius4 ,9 ! annex$ diagram 7fig4 #de7 x w be se5 t on ! side ( ,vesuvius opposite to t :]e a portion ( ! anci5t cone ( ,somma 7a7 /ill rema9s1 is a projection 7b7 call$ ! ,p$am5t9a1 :i* "s h suppos$ to be "p ( ! circumf]5ce ( ! anci5t crat] brok5 d[n t[>ds ! sea1 & ov] ! edge ( :i* ! lavas ( ! mod]n ,vesuvius h p\r$2 ! axis ( ! pres5t cone ( ,vesuvius be+1 accord+ to ,visconti1 precisely equidi/ant f ! esc>pm5t ( ,somma & ! ,p$am5t9a4 ,9 ! same diagram ,i h repres5t$ ! slant+ b$s ( ! cone ( ,vesuvius z becom+ horizontal 9 ! ,atrio del ,cavallo 7at c71 :]e ! base ( ! new cone meets ! precipit\s esc>pm5t ( ,somma2 = :5 ! lava fl[s d[n to ?is po9t1 z happ5$ 9 #ahbb1 its desc5d+ c\rse is arre/$1 & x !n runs 9 ano!r direction along ?is small valley1 circl+ r\nd ! base ( ! cone4 ,s& & scoriae1 also1 bl[n by ! w9ds1 collect at ! base ( ! cone1 & are !n swept away by torr5ts2 s t !re is always "h a flati% pla91 z repres5t$4 ,9 ! same mann]1 ! small int]ior cone 7f7 mu/ be compos$ ( slop+ b$s1 t]m9at+ 9 a horizontal pla92 =1 :ile ?is monticule 0 gradually ga9+ height by successive ejections ( lava & scoriae1 9 #ahbh1 x 0 always surr\nd$ by a flat pool ( semi-fluid lava1 into :i* scoriae & s& 7 ?r[n4 ,9 ! /eep simicircul> esc>pm5t ( ,somma1 :i* faces ! mod]n ,vesuvius1 we see a great numb] ( %eets ( lava incl9$ at an angle ( ab\t #bf degrees4 ,!y alt]nate ) scoriae1 & are int]sect$ by num]\s dikes1 :i*1 l ! %eets ( lava1 are compos$ *iefly ( augite1 ) cry/als ( leucite1 b ! rock 9 ! dikes is m compact1 hav+ cool$ & consolidat$ "u great] pressure4 ,"s ( ! dikes cut ?r\gh & %ift o!rs1 s t !y h evid5tly be5 =m$ dur+ successive eruptions4 ,:ile ! high] region ( ,somma is made up ( ^! igne\s products1 !re appe> on its flanks1 = "s dep? f ! surface1 z se5 9 a rav9e call$ ! ,fossa ,gr&e1 b$s ( :ite pumice\s tuff1 resembl+ ! tuff :i*1 at ,pausilippo1 & o!r places1 ne> ,naples1 conta9 %ells ( liv+ ,m$it]ranean species4 ,x is suppos$ by ,pilla1 ,von ,bu*1 & o!rs1 t ! tuface\s b$s1 :i* rise 9 ,somma to m ?an half ! height ( t m\nta91 are1 9 l mann]1 ( subm>9e orig91 because a few sea-%ells h be5 f\nd 9 !m1 "h & !re1 toge!r ) s]pulae ( rec5t species atta*$ to includ$ blocks ( lime/one4#ecd ,x is cont5d$1 !re=e1 t z ^! /rata 7 once accumulat$ b5ea? ! sea1 !y may h be5 subject$ z !y rose to su* an upw>d movem5t z may h giv5 rise to a conical hill2 & ?is hypo!sis1 x is said1 acquires confirmation f ! fact1 t ! %eets ( lava ne> ! summit ( ,somma are s compact & cry/all9e1 & ( su* bread? individually1 z w\ld n h be5 ! case _h !y run d[n a /eep slope4 ,!y mu/1 !re=e1 h consolidat$ on a ne>ly level surface1 & h be5 subsequ5tly uplift$ into _! pres5t incl9$ position4 ,un=tunately !re are no sections ( suffici5t dep? & cont9uity on ! flanks ( ,somma1 to reveal to u cle>ly ! relations ( ! lava1 scoriae1 & associat$ dikes1 =m+ ! highe/ "p ( ! m\nta91 ) ! m>9e tuffs obs]v$ on its declivity4 ,bo? may1 p]haps1 h be5 produc$ contemporane\sly :5 ,somma rais$ its head1 l ,/romboli1 above ! sea1 its sides & base be+ !n subm]g$4 ,su* a /ate ( ?+s may be indicat$ by a fact notic$ by ,von ,bu*1 namely1 t ! pumice\s b$s ( ,naples1 :5 !y approa* ,somma1 conta9 fragm5ts ( ! peculi> leucitic lava prop] to t m\nta91 :i* are n f\nd 9 ! same tuff at a great] di/ance4#ece ,portions1 !re=e1 ( ?is lava 7 ei!r ?r[n out by explosions1 or torn (f by ! waves1 dur+ ! deposition ( ! pumice\s /rata b5ea? ! sea4 ,we h z yet b a scanty acqua9tance ) ! laws :i* regulate ! fl[ ( lava b5ea? wat]1 or ! arrangem5t ( scoriae & volcanic du/ on ! sides ( a subm>9e cone4 ,!re c1 h[ev]1 be little d\bt t %[]s ( eject$ matt] may settle on a /eep slope1 & may include %ells & ! rema9s ( aquatic animals1 :i* fl\ri% 9 ! int]vals betwe5 eruptions4 ,lava "u ! pressure ( wat] w\ld be less por\s2 b1 z ,dr4 ,daub5y sugge/s1 x may reta9 its fluidity long] ?an 9 ! op5 air2 = ! rapidity ) :i* heat$ bodies are cool$ by be+ plung$ into wat] arises *iefly f ! conv]sion ( ! l[] portions ( wat] into /eam1 :i* /eam absorb+ mu* heat1 imm$iately asc5ds1 & is reconv]t$ into wat]4 ,b "u ! pressure ( a deep ocean1 ! heat ( ! lava w\ld be c>ri$ (f m sl[ly1 & only by ! circulation ( asc5d+ & desc5d+ curr5ts ( wat]1 ^? portions ne>e/ ! s\rce ( heat becom+ specifically light1 & consequ5tly displac+ ! wat] above4 ,?is k9d ( circulation w\ld take place ) mu* less rapidity ?an 9 ! atmosph]e1 inasmu* z ! expansion ( wat] by equal increm5ts ( heat is less consid]able ?an t ( air4#ecf ,we le>n f ! valuable obs]vations made by ,mr4 ,dana on ! active volcanoes ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 t l>ge %eets ( compact basaltic lava h be5 p\r$ out ( crat]s at ! top or ne> ! summits ( flatt5$ domes high] ?an ,etna1 z 9 ! case ( ,m\nt ,loa = example1 :]e a copi\s /ream two miles broad & tw5ty-five miles long proce$$ f an op5+ #ac1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! usual slope ( ^! %eets ( lava is betwe5 #e degrees4 & #aj degrees42 b ,mr4 ,dana conv9c$ himself t1 ow+ to ! sudd5ness ) :i* !y cool 9 ! air1 "s lavas may occasionally =m on slopes equall+ #be degrees1 & /ill pres]ve a consid]able compactness ( texture4 ,x is ev5 prov$1 he says1 f :at he saw 9 ! great lat]al crat] ( ,kilauea1 on ! flanks ( ,m\nt ,loa1 t a mass ( su* melt$ rock may consolidate at an incl9ation ( #cj degrees1 & be cont9u\s = #cjj or #djj feet4 ,su* masses are n>r[1 he admits1 b if ! s\rce _h be5 m g5]\s1 !y w\ld h _h a great] bread?1 & by a succession ( ejections ov]spread+ ea* cool$ lay]1 a consid]able ?ickness might h be5 atta9$4#ecg ,! same au?or has also %[n1 z be=e m5tion$1 t 9 ! c9d] cones ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 ! /rata h an orig9al incl9ation ( betwe5 #ce degrees & #dj degrees4#ech ,mr4 ,scrope1 writ+ 9 #ahbg1 attribut$ ! =mation ( a volcanic cone *iefly to matt] eject$ f a c5tral orifice1 b p>tly to ! injection ( lava into dikes1 & to t =ce ( gase\s expansion1 ! int5sity ( :i*1 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! cone1 is atte/$ by local e>?quakes1 :i* s (t5 accompany eruptions4#eci ,x is ! op9ion ( ,,mm4 ,von ,bu*1 ,de ,beaumont1 & ,dufranoy1 t ! %eets ( lava on ,somma are s uni=m & compact1 t _! orig9al incl9ation did n exce$ f\r or five degrees1 & t f\r-fif?s1 !re=e1 ( _! pres5t slope is due to _! hav+ be5 subsequ5tly tilt$ & uprais$4 ,not)/&+ ! light ?r[n by ,m4 de ,beaumont on ! laws regulat+ ! fl[ & consolidation ( lava1 ,i d n conceive t ^! laws are z yet suffici5tly det]m9$ to w>rant u 9 assign+ s mu* ( ! incl9$ position ( ! b$s ( ,somma to ! subsequ5t r5d+ & dislocation ( ! cone4 ,ev5 if ?is 7 admitt$1 x is f> m 9 h>mony ) ! usual mode ( developm5t ( volcanic =ces to suppose ! movem5t :i* modifi$ ! %ape ( ! cone to h be5 int]mitt5t & gradual1 & n to h consi/$ ( a s+le ef=t1 or "o sudd5 & viol5t convulsion4#edj ,vesuvian lavas4--,! lavas ( ,somma are *>act]iz$ by conta9+ dissem9at$ cry/als ( leucite 7call$1 by ! ,fr5*1 amphig5e71 a m9]al said to be v r>e 9 ! mod]n lavas ( ,vesuvius1 :i* are 9 g5]al mu* m scoriace\s & less cry/all9e ?an ^? ( ,somma4#eda ,at ! =tress ne> ,torre del ,greco a section is expos$1 fifte5 feet 9 height1 ( a curr5t :i* ran into ! sea2 & x ev9ces1 especially 9 ! l[] "p1 a decid$ t5d5cy to divide into rude columns4 ,a /ill m /rik+ example may be se5 to ! we/ ( ,torre del ,annunziata1 ne> ,=te ,scassato1 :]e ! mass is laid op5 to ! dep? ( tw5ty feet4 ,9 bo? ^! cases1 h[ev]1 ! rock may r be said to be divid$ into num]\s p]p5dicul> fissures1 ?an to be prismatic1 al?\gh ! same picturesque effect is produc$4 ,9 ! lava-curr5ts ( ,c5tral ,france 7^? ( ! ,viv>ais1 9 p>ticul>71 ! upp]mo/ portion1 (t5 =ty feet or m 9 ?ickness1 is an amorph\s mass pass+ d[nw>ds into lava irregul>ly prismatic2 & "u ?is !re is a f\ndation ( regul> & v]tical columns2 b ^! lavas are (t5 "o hundr$ feet or m 9 ?ickness4 ,we c sc>cely expect to discov] ! same ph5om5on 9 ! %all[ curr5ts ( ,vesuvius1 :]e ! l[e/ "p has cool$ m rapidly1 al?\gh x may be look$ = 9 mod]n /reams 9 ,icel&1 :i* exce$ ev5 ^? ( anci5t ,france 9 volume4 ,mr4 ,scrope m5tions t1 9 ! cliffs encircl+ ! mod]n crat] ( ,vesuvius1 he saw _m curr5ts (f]+ a column> division1 & "s almo/ z regul>ly prismatic z any ranges ( ! old] basalts2 & he adds1 t 9 "s ! sph]oidal concretion>y /ructure1 on a l>ge scale1 0 equally conspicu\s4#edb ,brieslak#edc also in=ms u t1 9 ! silice\s lava ( #agcg1 :i* conta9s augite1 leucite1 & cry/als ( felsp>1 he f\nd v regul> prisms 9 a qu>ry ne> ,torre del ,greco2 an obs]vation confirm$ by mod]n au?orities4#edd ,effects ( decomposition on lavas4--,! decomposition ( "s ( ! felspa?ic lavas1 ei!r by simple wea!r+1 or by gase\s emanations1 conv]ts !m f a h>d to a s(t clayey /ate1 s t !y no long] reta9 ! smalle/ resemblance to rocks cool$ d[n f a /ate ( fusion4 ,! exhalations ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 & muriatic acid1 :i* are dis5gag$ cont9ually f ! ,solfat>a1 also produce curi\s *anges on ! tra*yte ( t ne>ly ext9ct volcano3 ! rock is blea*$1 & becomes por\s1 fissile1 & honey-comb$1 till at l5g? x crumbles into a :ite silice\s p[d]4#ede ,num]\s globul> concretions1 compos$ ( conc5tric lam9ae1 are also =m$ by ! same vapors 9 ?is decompos$ rock4#edf ,vesuvian m9]als4--,a great v>iety ( m9]als are f\nd 9 ! lavas ( ,vesuvius & ,somma2 augite1 leucite1 felsp>1 mica1 oliv9e1 & sulphur are mo/ abundant4 ,x is an extraord9>y fact1 t 9 an area ( ?ree squ>e miles r\nd ,vesuvius1 a great] numb] ( simple m9]als h be5 f\nd ?an 9 any spot ( ! same dim5sions on ! surface ( ! globe4 ,hauy enum]at$ only #chj species ( simple m9]als z kn[n to him2 & no less ?an eighty-two _h be5 f\nd on ,vesuvius & 9 ! tuffs on ! flanks ( ,somma be=e ! end ( ! ye> #ahbh4edg ,_m ( ^! are peculi> to t locality4 ,"s m9]alogi/s h conjectur$ t ! great] "p ( ^! 7 n ( ,vesuvian orig91 b ?r[n up 9 fragm5ts f "s old] =mation1 ?r\gh :i* ! gase\s explosions bur/4 ,b none ( ! old] rocks 9 ,italy1 or else:]e1 conta9 su* an assemblage ( m9]al products2 & ! hypo!sis seems to h be5 prompt$ by a dis9cl9ation to admit t1 9 times s rec5t 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory1 ! laboratory ( nature c\ld h be5 s prolific 9 ! creation ( new & r>e comp\nds4 ,_h ,vesuvius be5 a volcano ( high antiquity1 =m$ :5 nature ,wanton'd z 9 h] prime1 & play'd at w ,h] virg9 fancies1 x w\ld h be5 readily admitt$ t ^!1 or a mu* great] v>iety ( sub/ances1 _h be5 sublim$ 9 ! crevices ( lava1 j z sev]al new e>?y & metallic comp\nds are kn[n to h be5 produc$ by fum]oles1 s9ce ! eruption ( #ahbb4 ,mass envelop+ ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii4--,9 addition to ! ejections :i* fall on ! cone1 & t mu* great] mass :i* f9ds its way gradually to ! neighbor+ sea1 !re is a ?ird portion1 (t5 ( no inconsid]able ?ickness1 compos$ ( alluviums1 spread ov] ! valleys & pla9s at small di/ances f ! volcano4 ,aque\s vapors are evolv$ copi\sly f volcanic crat]s dur+ eruptions1 & (t5 = a long "t subsequ5tly to ! dis*>ge ( scoriae & lava3 ^! vapors are cond5s$ 9 ! cold atmosph]e surr\nd+ ! high volcanic peak1 & heavy ra9s are ?us caus$4 ,! floods ?us occasion$1 sweep along ! impalpable du/ & light scoriae1 till a curr5t ( mud is produc$1 :i* is call$ 9 ,campania lava d' acqua1 & is (t5 m dread$ ?an an igne\s /ream 7lava di fuoco71 f ! great] velocity ) :i* x moves4 ,s late z ! #bg? ( ,octob]1 #ahbb1 "o ( ^! alluviums desc5d$ ! cone ( ,vesuvius1 &1 aft] ov]spread+ mu* cultivat$ soil1 fl[$ sudd5ly into ! villages ( ,/4 ,seba/ian & ,massa1 :]e1 fill+ ! /reets & int]ior ( "s ( ! h\ses1 x suffocat$ sev5 p]sons4 ,x w1 !re=e1 happ5 v frequ5tly t1 t[>ds ! base ( a volcanic cone1 alt]nations w be f\nd ( lava1 alluvium1 & %[]s ( a%es4 ,to :i* ( ^! two latt] divisions ! mass envelop+ ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii %\ld be ref]r$1 has be5 a "q ( ! ke5e/ controv]sy2 b ! discussion might h be5 %ort5$1 if ! combatants _h reflect$ t1 :e!r volcanic s& & a%es 7 convey$ to ! t[ns by runn+ wat]1 or ?r\gh ! air1 dur+ an eruption1 ! int]ior ( build+s1 s long z ! ro(s rema9 entire1 toge!r ) all und]gr\nd vaults & cell>s1 c\ld be fill$ only by an alluvium4 ,we le>n f hi/ory1 t a heavy %[] ( s&1 pumice1 & lapilli1 suffici5tly great to r5d] ,pompeii & ,h]culaneum un9habitable1 fell = eight successive days & nights 9 ! ye> #gi1 accompani$ by viol5t ra9s4#edh ,we ought1 !re=e1 to f9d a v close resemblance betwe5 ! /rata cov]+ ^! t[ns & ^? compos+ ! m9or cones ( ! ,phlegraean ,fields1 accumulat$ rapidly1 l ,monte ,nuovo1 dur+ a cont9u$ %[] ( eject$ matt]2 ) ?is diff]5ce h[ev]1 t ! /rata incumb5t on ! cities w\ld be horizontal1 :]eas ^? on ! cones are highly incl9$2 & t l>ge angul> fragm5ts ( rock1 :i* are ?r[n out ne> ! v5t1 w\ld be want+ at a di/ance :]e small lapilli only c be f\nd4 ,accord+ly1 ) ^! exceptions1 no id5tity c be m p]fect ?an ! =m1 & di/ribution ( ! matt] at ! base ( ,monte ,nuovo1 z laid op5 by ! encroa*+ sea1 & ! appe>ance ( ! b$s sup]impos$ on ,pompeii4 ,t city is cov]$ ) num]\s alt]nations ( diff]5t horizontal b$s ( tuff & lapilli1 = ! mo/ "p ?91 & subdivid$ into v f9e lay]s4 ,i obs]v$ ! foll[+ section ne> ! amphi!atre1 9 ,novemb]1 #ahbh--7;desc5d+ s]ies73-- ,feet ,in*es4 #a4 ,black sp>kl+ s& f ! eruption ( #ahbb1 conta9+ m9ute regul>ly =m$ cry/als ( augite & t\rmal9e #j #b-a_/b #b4 ,vegetable m\ld #c #j #c4 ,br[n incoh]5t tuff1 full ( pisolitic globules 9 lay]s1 f half an in* to ?ree in*es 9 ?ickness #a #f #d4 ,small scoriae & :ite lapilli #j #c #e4 ,br[n e>?y tuff1 ) num]\s pisolitic globules #j #i #f4 ,br[n e>?y tuff1 ) lapilli divid$ into lay]s #d #j #g4 ,lay] ( :iti% lapilli #j #a #h4 ,gray solid tuff #j #c #i4 ,pumice & :ite lapilli #j #c ------- #aj #c-a_/b ------- ,_m ( ! a%es 9 ^! b$s are vitrifi$1 & h>% to ! t\*4 ,cry/als ( leucite1 bo? fre% & f>9ace\s1 h be5 f\nd int]mix$4#edi ,! dep? ( ! b$ ( a%es above ! h\ses is v>iable1 b seldom exce$s twelve or f\rte5 feet1 & x is said t ! high] "p ( ! amphi!atre always project$ above ! surface2 ?\gh if ?is 7 ! case1 x seems inexplicable t ! city %\ld nev] h be5 discov]$ till ! ye> #agej4 ,x w be obs]v$ 9 ! above section t two ( ! br[n1 half-consolidat$ tuffs are fill$ ) small pisolitic globules4 ,?is circum/ance is n allud$ to 9 ! animat$ controv]sy :i* ! ,royal ,academy ( ,naples ma9ta9$ ) "o ( _! memb]s1 ,signor ,lippi1 z to ! orig9 ( ! /rata incumb5t on ,pompeii4 ,! mode ( aggregation ( ^! globules has be5 fully expla9$ by ,mr4 ,scrope1 :o saw !m =m$ 9 great numb]s 9 #ahbb1 by ra9 fall+ dur+ ! eruption on f9e volcanic s&1 & sometimes also produc$ l hail 9 ! air1 by ! mutual attraction ( ! m9ute/ p>ticles ( f9e damp s&4 ,_! occurr5ce1 !re=e1 agrees rem>kably well ) ! acc\nt ( heavy ra91 & %[]s ( s& & a%es record$ 9 hi/ory4#eej ,lippi entitl$ 8 "w1 ,fu il fuoco o l' acqua *e sott]o ,pompei ed ,ercolano8#eea & he cont5d$ t nei!r 7 ! two cities de/roy$ 9 ! ye> #gi1 nor by a volcanic eruption1 b purely by ! ag5cy ( wat] *>g$ ) transport$ matt]4 ,8 lett]s1 :]e9 he endeavor$ to disp5se1 z f> z possible1 ) igne\s ag5cy1 ev5 at ! foot ( ! volcano1 7 d$icat$1 ) great propriety1 to ,w]n]1 & af=d an amus+ illu/ration ( ! polemic /yle 9 :i* geological writ]s ( t day indulg$ !mselves4 ,8 argum5ts 7 p>tly ( an hi/orical nature1 d]iv$ f ! sil5ce ( contempor>y hi/orians1 respect+ ! fate ( ! cities1 :i*1 z we h already /at$1 is mo/ rem>kable1 & p>tly drawn f physical pro(s4 ,he po9t$ out ) great cle>ness ! resemblance ( ! tuface\s matt] 9 ! vaults & cell>s at ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii to aque\s alluviums1 & its di/9ctness f ejections :i* _h fall5 ?r\gh ! air4 ,no?+1 he obs]ves1 b moi/ pa/y matt] c\ld h receiv$ ! impression ( a woman's brea/1 :i* 0 f\nd 9 a vault at ,pompeii1 or h giv5 ! ca/ ( a /atue discov]$ 9 ! !atre at ,h]culaneum4 ,x 0 object$ to him1 t ! heat ( ! tuff 9 ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii 0 prov$ by ! c>bonization ( ! timb]1 corn1 papyrus-rolls1 & o!r vegetable sub/ances !re discov]$2 b ,lippi repli$ ) tru?1 t ! papyri w\ld h be5 burnt up if !y _h come 9 contact ) fire1 & t _! be+ only c>boniz$ 0 a cle> demon/ration ( _! hav+ be5 envelop$1 l fossil wood1 9 a s$im5t deposit$ f wat]4 ,! ,academicians1 9 _! report on 8 pamphlet1 ass]t1 t :5 ! amphi!atre 0 fir/ cle>$ out1 ! matt] 0 arrang$ on ! /eps 9 a succession ( concave lay]s1 accommodat+ !mselves to ! int]ior =m ( ! build+1 j z sn[ w\ld lie if x _h fall5 !re4 ,?is obs]vation is highly int]e/+1 & po9ts to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! /ratification ( a%es 9 an op5 build+ & ( mud d]iv$ f ! same 9 ! int]ior ( edifices & cell>s4 ,nor ought we to call ! allegation 9 "q1 because x c\ld n be sub/antiat$ at ! "t ( ! controv]sy aft] ! matt] _h be5 all remov$2 al?\gh ,lippi took advantage ( ?is removal1 & met ! argum5t ( 8 antagoni/s by requir+ !m to prove ! fact4 ,!re is decisive evid5ce t no /ream ( lava has ev] rea*$ ,pompeii s9ce x 0 fir/ built1 al?\gh ! f\ndations ( ! t[n /& ^u ! old leucitic lava ( ,somma2 sev]al /reams ( :i*1 ) tuff int]pos$1 _h be5 cut ?r\gh 9 excavations4 ,infusorial b$s cov]+ ,pompeii4--,a mo/ s+ul> & unexpect$ discov]y has be5 rec5tly made 7#ahdd-e7 by ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g1 respect+ ! remote orig9 ( _m ( ! lay]s ( a%es & pumice envelop+ ,pompeii4 ,!y are1 he says1 9 great "p1 ( organic & fre%wat] orig91 consi/+ ( ! silice\s cases ( microscopic infusoria4 ,:at is /ill m surpris+1 ?is fact proves to be by no means an isolat$ or solit>y example ( an intimate relation betwe5 organic life & ! results ( volcanic activity4 ,on ! ,rh9e1 sev]al b$s ( tuff & pumice\s conglom]ate1 resembl+ ! mass incumb5t ^u ,pompeii & closely connect$ ) ext9ct volcanoes1 are n[ asc]ta9$ to be made up to a great ext5t ( ! silice\s cases ( infusoria 7or ,diatomaceae71 invisible to ! nak$ eye1 & (t5 half fus$4#eeb ,no less ?an #id di/9ct species h already be5 detect$ 9 "o mass ( ?is k9d1 m ?an #aej feet ?ick1 at ,ho*simm]1 on ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e1 ne> ! ,laa*]-see4 ,"s ( ^! ,rh5i% infusorial accumulations appe> to h fall5 9 %[]s1 o!rs to h be5 p\r$ out ( lake-crat]s 9 ! =m ( mud1 z 9 ! ,brohl valley4 ,9 ,mexico1 ,p]u1 ! ,isle ( ,france1 & sev]al o!r volcanic regions1 analog\s ph5om5a h be5 obs]v$1 & ev]y:]e ! species ( infusoria belong to fre%wat] & t]re/rial g5]a1 except 9 ! case ( ! ,patagonian pumice\s tuffs1 specim5s ( :i*1 br\ght home by ,mr4 ,d>w91 are f\nd to conta9 ! rema9s ( m>9e animalcules4 ,9 v>i\s k9ds ( pumice eject$ by volcanoes1 ! microscope has reveal$ to ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g ! silice\s cases ( infusoria (t5 half oblit]at$ by ! action ( heat1 & ! f9e du/ ?r[n out into ! air dur+ eruptions1 is sometimes ref]able to ^! mo/ m9ute organic sub/ances1 br\ght up f consid]able dep?s1 & sometimes m+l$ ) small p>ticles ( vegetable matt]4 ,9 :at mann] did ! solid cov]+s ( ^! mo/ m9ute plants & animalcules1 :i* c only orig9ate & increase at ! surface ( ! e>?1 s9k d[n & p5etrate into subt]ranean cavities1 s z to be eject$ f ! volcanic orifices8 ,we h ( late ye>s become famili> ) ! fact1 9 ! process ( bor+ ,artesian wells1 t ! se$s ( plants1 ! rema9s ( insects1 & ev5 small fi%1 ) o!r organic bodies1 are c>ri$ 9 an un9jur$ /ate by ! und]gr\nd circulation ( wat]s1 to ! dep? ( _m hundr$ feet4 ,) /ill great] facility 9 a volcanic region we may conjecture1 t wat] & mud full ( invisible infusoria may be suck$ d[n1 f "t to "t1 into subt]ranean r5ts & holl[s 9 cav]n\s lava :i* has be5 p]meat$ by gases1 or 9 rocks dislocat$ by e>?quakes4 ,x (t5 happ5s t a lake :i* has endur$ = c5turies 9 a volcanic crat]1 disappe>s sudd5ly on ! approa* ( a new eruption4 ,viol5t %ocks agitate ! surr\nd+ region1 & ponds1 riv]s1 & wells are dri$ up4 ,l>ge cavities f> bel[ may ?us become fill$ ) f5-mud *iefly compos$ ( ! m inde/ructible & silice\s portions ( infusoria1 de/9$ p]haps to be "o day eject$ 9 a fragm5t>y or half-fus$ /ate1 yet )\t ! oblit]ation ( all traces ( organic /ructure4#eec ,h]culaneum4--,x 0 rem>k$ t no lava has fl[$ ov] ! site ( ,pompeii1 s9ce t city 0 built1 b ) ,h]culaneum ! case is diff]5t4 ,al?\gh ! sub/ance :i* fills ! int]ior ( ! h\ses & ! vaults mu/ h be5 introduc$ 9 a /ate ( mud1 l t f\nd 9 simil> situations 9 ,pompeii2 yet ! sup]9cumb5t mass diff]s :olly 9 composition & ?ickness4 ,h]culaneum 0 situat$ sev]al miles ne>] to ! volcano1 & has1 !re=e1 be5 always m expos$ to be cov]$1 n only by %[]s ( a%es1 b by alluviums & /reams ( lava4 ,accord+ly1 masses ( bo? h accumulat$ on ea* o!r above ! city1 to a dep? ( n[h]e less ?an #gj1 & 9 _m places ( #aab feet4#eed ,! tuff :i* envelops ! build+s consi/s ( comm9ut$ volcanic a%es1 mix$ ) pumice4 ,a mask imb$d$ 9 ?is matrix has left a ca/1 ! %>pness ( :i* 0 comp>$ by ,hamilton to ^? 9 pla/] ( ,p>is2 nor 0 ! mask 9 ! lea/ degree scor*$1 z if x _h be5 imb$d$ 9 heat$ matt]4 ,?is tuff is por\s2 &1 :5 fir/ excavat$1 is s(t & easily work$1 b acquires a consid]able degree ( induration on exposure to ! air4 ,above ?is l[e/ /ratum is plac$1 accord+ to ,hamilton1 ! matt] ( six eruptions1 ea* sep>at$ f ! o!r by ve9s ( good soil4 ,9 ^! soils ,lippi /ates t he collect$ a consid]able numb] ( l& %ells--an obs]vation :i* is no d\bt correct2 = _m snails burr[ 9 s(t soils1 & "s ,italian species desc5d1 :5 !y hyb]nate1 to ! dep? ( five feet & m f ! surface4 ,della ,torre also in=ms u t !re is 9 "o "p ( ?is sup]impos$ mass a b$ ( true silice\s lava 7lava di pietra dura72 &1 z no su* curr5t is believ$ to h fl[$ till ne> "o ?\s& ye>s aft] ! de/ruction ( ,h]culaneum1 we mu/ conclude1 t ! orig9 ( a l>ge "p ( ! cov]+ ( ,h]culaneum 0 long subsequ5t to ! fir/ inhumation ( ! place4 ,t city1 z well z ,pompeii1 0 a seaport4 ,h]culaneum is /ill v ne> ! %ore1 b a tract ( l&1 a mile 9 l5g?1 int]v5es betwe5 ! bord]s ( ! ,bay ( ,naples & ,pompeii4 ,9 bo? cases ! ga9 ( l& is due to ! fill+ up ( ! b$ ( ! sea ) volcanic matt]1 & n to elevation by e>?quakes1 = !re has be5 no *ange 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea4 ,pompeii /ood on a slight em95ce compos$ ( ! lavas ( ! anci5t ,vesuvius1 & flights ( /eps l$ d[n to ! wat]'s edge4 ,! l[]mo/ ( ^! /eps are said to be /ill on an exact level ) ! sea4 ,condition & cont5ts ( ! buri$ cities4--,aft] ^! obs]vations on ! nature ( ! /rata envelop+ & surr\nd+ ! cities1 we may proce$ to consid] _! int]nal condition & cont5ts1 s f> at lea/ z !y (f] facts ( geological int]e/4 ,not)/&+ ! mu* great] dep? at :i* ,h]culaneum 0 buri$1 x 0 discov]$ be=e ,pompeii1 by ! accid5tal circum/ance ( a well be+ sunk1 9 #agac1 :i* came "r d[n ^u ! !atre1 :]e ! /atues ( ,h]cules & ,cleopatra 7 soon f\nd4 ,:e!r ?is city or ,pompeii1 bo? ( !m f\nd$ by ,greek colonies1 0 ! m consid]able1 is n yet det]m9$2 b bo? are m5tion$ by anci5t au?ors z among ! sev5 mo/ fl\ri%+ cities 9 ,campania4 ,! walls ( ,pompeii 7 ?ree miles 9 circumf]5ce2 b we h1 z yet1 no c]ta9 k ( ! dim5sions ( ,h]culaneum4 ,9 ! latt] place ! !atre alone is op5 = inspection2 ! ,=um1 ,temple ( ,jupit]1 & o!r build+s1 hav+ be5 fill$ up ) rubbi% z ! workm5 proce$$1 ow+ to ! difficulty ( remov+ x f s great a dep? bel[ gr\nd4 ,ev5 ! !atre is only se5 by tor*-light1 & ! mo/ int]e/+ in=mation1 p]haps1 :i* ! geologi/ obta9s !re1 is ! cont9ual =mation ( /alactite 9 ! gall]ies cut ?r\gh ! tuff2 = !re is a con/ant p]colation ( wat] *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime mix$ ) a small portion ( magnesia4 ,su* m9]al wat]s mu/1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 create great *anges 9 _m rocks2 especially 9 lavas1 ! pores ( :i* !y may fill ) calc>e\s sp>1 s z to conv]t !m into amygdaloids4 ,"s geologi/s1 !re=e1 are unreasonable :5 !y expect t volcanic rocks ( remote eras %\ld accord precisely ) ^? ( mod]n date2 s9ce x is obvi\s t _m ( ^? produc$ 9 our own "t w n long reta9 ! same aspect & int]nal composition4 ,bo? at ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii1 temples h be5 f\nd ) inscriptions commemorat+ ! rebuild+ ( ! edifices aft] !y _h be5 ?r[n d[n by an e>?quake4#eee ,?is e>?quake happ5$ 9 ! reign ( ,n]o1 sixte5 ye>s be=e ! cities 7 ov]:elm$4 ,9 ,pompeii1 "o-f\r? ( :i* is n[ laid op5 to ! day1 bo? ! public & private build+s be> te/imony to ! cata/rophe4 ,! walls are r5t1 & 9 _m places trav]s$ by fissures /ill op54 ,columns are ly+ on ! gr\nd only half hewn f huge blocks ( trav]t91 & ! temple = :i* !y 7 design$ is se5 half repair$4 ,9 "s few places ! pavem5t _h sunk 91 b 9 g5]al x 0 undi/urb$1 consi/+ ( l>ge irregul> flags ( lava jo9$ neatly toge!r1 9 :i* ! c>riage :eels h (t5 worn ruts an in* & a half deep4 ,9 ! wid] /reets1 ! ruts are num]\s & irregul>2 9 ! n>r[]1 !re are only two1 "o on ea* side1 :i* are v conspicu\s4 ,x is impossible n to look ) "s int]e/ ev5 on ^! ruts1 :i* 7 worn by *>iot :eels m ?an sev5te5 c5turies ago2 &1 indep5d5tly ( _! antiquity1 x is rem>kable to see su* deep incisions s cont9u\s 9 a /one ( great h>dness4 ,small numb] ( skeletons4--,a v small numb] ( skeletons h be5 discov]$ 9 ei!r city2 & x is cle> t mo/ ( ! inhabitants n only f\nd "t to escape1 b also to c>ry ) !m ! pr9cipal "p ( _! valuable effects4 ,9 ! b>racks at ,pompeii 7 ! skeletons ( two soldi]s *a9$ to ! /ocks1 & 9 ! vaults ( a c\ntry-h\se 9 ! suburbs 7 ! skeletons ( sev5te5 p]sons1 :o appe> to h fl$ !re to escape f ! %[] ( a%es4 ,!y 7 f\nd inclos$ 9 an indurat$ tuff1 & 9 ?is matrix 0 pres]v$ a p]fect ca/ ( a woman1 p]haps ! mi/ress ( ! h\se1 ) an infant 9 h] arms4 ,al?\gh h] =m 0 impr9t$ on ! rock1 no?+ b ! bones rema9$4 ,to ^! a *a9 ( gold 0 susp5d$1 & on ! f+]s ( ! skeletons 7 r+s ) jewels4 ,aga9/ ! sides ( ! same vault 0 rang$ a long l9e ( e>!n amphorae4 ,! writ+s scribbl$ by ! soldi]s on ! walls ( _! b>racks1 & ! names ( ! own]s ( ea* h\se writt5 ov] ! doors1 are /ill p]fectly legible4 ,! colors ( fresco pa9t+s on ! /ucco$ walls 9 ! int]ior ( build+s are almo/ z vivid z if !y 7 j f9i%$4 ,!re are public f\nta9s decorat$ ) %ells laid out 9 patt]ns 9 ! same fa%ion z ^? n[ se5 9 ! t[n ( ,naples2 & 9 ! room ( a pa9t]1 :o 0 p]haps a naturali/1 a l>ge collection ( %ells 0 f\nd1 compris+ a great v>iety ( ,m$it]ranean species1 9 z good a /ate ( pres]vation z if !y _h rema9$ = ! same numb] ( ye>s 9 a museum4 ,a comp>ison ( ^! rema9s1 ) ^? f\nd s g5]ally 9 a fossil /ate w\ld n assi/ u 9 obta9+ ! lea/ insight into ! "t requir$ to produce a c]ta9 degree ( decomposition or m9]alization2 =1 al?\gh "u favorable circum/ances mu* great] alt]ation might d\btless h be5 br\ght ab\t 9 a %ort] p]iod1 yet ! example be=e u %[s t an inhumation ( sev5te5 c5turies may sometimes effect no?+ t[>ds ! r$uction ( %ells to ! /ate 9 :i* fossils are usually f\nd4 ,! wood5 beams 9 ! h\ses at ,h]culaneum are black on ! ext]ior1 b1 :5 cleft op51 !y appe> to be almo/ 9 ! /ate ( ord9>y wood1 & ! progress made by ! :ole mass t[>ds ! /ate ( lignite is sc>cely appreciable4 ,"s animal & vegetable sub/ances ( m p]i%able k9ds h ( c\rse suff]$ mu* *ange & decay1 yet ! /ate ( pres]vation ( ^! is truly rem>kable4 ,fi%+-nets are v abundant 9 bo? cities1 (t5 q entire2 & _! numb] at ,pompeii is ! m int]e/+ f ! sea be+ n[1 z we /at$1 a mile di/ant4 ,l95 has be5 f\nd at ,h]culaneum1 ) ! texture well def9$2 & 9 a fruit]]'s %op 9 t city 7 discov]$ vessels full ( almonds1 *e/nuts1 walnuts1 & fruit ( ! c>ubi]e1 all di/9ctly recognizable f _! %ape4 ,a loaf1 also1 /ill reta9+ its =m1 0 f\nd 9 a bak]'s %op1 ) 8 "n /amp$ ^u x4 ,on ! c\nt] ( an apo!c>y 0 a box ( pills conv]t$ into a f9e e>?y sub/ance2 & by ! side ( x a small cyl9drical roll evid5tly prep>$ to be cut into pills4 ,by ! side ( ^! 0 a j> conta9+ m$ic9al h]bs4 ,9 #ahbg1 moi/ olives 7 f\nd 9 a squ>e glass-case1 & cavi>e1 or roe ( a fi%1 9 a /ate ( wond]ful pres]vation4 ,an exam9ation ( ^! curi\s condim5ts has be5 publi%$ by ,covelli ( ,naples1 & !y are pres]v$ h]metically seal$ 9 ! museum !re4#eef ,papyri4--,!re is a m>k$ diff]5ce 9 ! condition & appe>ance ( ! animal & vegetable sub/ances f\nd at ,pompeii & ,h]culaneum2 ^? ( ,pompeii be+ p5etrat$ by a gray pulv]ul5t tuff1 ^? 9 ,h]culaneum seem+ to h be5 fir/ envelop$ by a pa/e :i* consolidat$ r\nd !m1 & !n all[$ !m to become sl[ly c>boniz$4 ,"s ( ! rolls ( papyrus at ,pompeii /ill reta9 _! =m2 b ! writ+1 & inde$ almo/ all ! vegetable matt]1 appe> to h vani%$1 & to h be5 replac$ by volcanic tuff some:at pulv]ul5t4 ,at ,h]culaneum ! e>?y matt] has sc>cely ev] p5etrat$2 & ! vegetable sub/ance ( ! papyrus has become a ?9 friable black matt]1 almo/ resembl+ 9 appe>ance ! t9d] :i* rema9s :5 /iff pap] has be5 burnt1 9 :i* ! lett]s may /ill be sometimes trac$4 ,! small bundles ( papyri1 compos$ ( five or six rolls ti$ up toge!r1 _h sometimes la9 horizontally1 & 7 press$ 9 t direction1 b sometimes !y _h be5 plac$ 9 a v]tical position4 ,small tickets 7 atta*$ to ea* bundle1 on :i* ! title ( ! "w 0 inscrib$4 ,9 "o case only h ! %eets be5 f\nd ) writ+ on bo? sides ( ! pages4 ,s num]\s are ! oblit]ations & corrections1 t _m mu/ h be5 orig9al manuscripts4 ,! v>iety ( h&writ+s is q extraord9>y3 ne>ly all are writt5 9 ,greek1 b !re are a few 9 ,lat94 ,!y 7 almo/ all f\nd 9 a suburban villa 9 ! libr>y ( "o private individual2 & ! titles ( f\r hundr$ ( ^? lea/ injur$1 :i* h be5 read1 are f\nd to be unimportant works1 b all entirely new1 *iefly relat+ to music1 rhetoric1 & cook]y4 ,!re are two volumes ( ,epicurus ,on ,nature1 & ! o!rs are mo/ly by writ]s ( ! same s*ool1 only "o fragm5t hav+ be5 discov]$1 by an oppon5t ( ! ,epicurean sy/em1 ,*rysippus4#eeg ,probability ( future discov]ies ( ,,mss4--,9 ! op9ion ( "s antiqu>ies1 n "o-hundr$? "p ( ! city has yet be5 explor$3 & ! qu>t]s hi!rto cle>$ out at a great exp5se1 are ^? :]e !re 0 ! lea/ probability ( discov]+ manuscripts4 ,z ,italy c\ld already boa/ h] spl5did ,roman amphi!atres & ,greek temples1 x 0 a matt] ( second>y int]e/ to add to _! numb] ^? 9 ! d>k & dripp+ gall]ies ( ,h]culaneum2 & hav+ s _m ( ! ma/]pieces ( anci5t art1 we c\ld h disp5s$ ) ! inf]ior bu/s & /atues :i* c\ld alone h be5 expect$ to rew>d our rese>*es 9 ! ru9s ( a prov9cial t[n4 ,b f ! mom5t t x 0 asc]ta9$ t rolls ( papyrus pres]v$ 9 ?is city c\ld /ill be deciph]$1 e ex]tion ought to h be5 /eadily & exclusively direct$ t[>ds ! discov]y ( o!r libr>ies4 ,private dwell+s %\ld h be5 se>*$1 be=e s mu* labor & exp5se 7 consum$ 9 exam9+ public edifices4 ,a small portion ( t zeal & enlight5$ _s :i* prompt$ ! late ,fr5* & ,tuscan exp$ition to ,egypt might long ere ?is1 9 a c\ntry ne>] home1 h snat*$ f oblivion "s ( ! lo/ works ( ! ,augu/an age1 or ( em95t ,greek hi/orians & philosoph]s4 ,a s+le roll ( papyrus might h disclos$ m matt] ( int5se int]e/ ?an all t 0 ev] writt5 9 hi]oglyphics4 ,/abiae4--,besides ! cities already m5tion$1 ,/abiae1 a small t[n ab\t six miles f ,vesuvius1 & ne> ! site ( ! mod]n ,ca/el-a-,m>e 7see map ( volcanic di/rict ( ,naples71 0 ov]:elm$ dur+ ! eruption ( #gi4 ,pl9y m5tions t1 :5 8 uncle 0 !re1 he 0 oblig$ to make 8 escape1 s great 0 ! quantity ( fall+ /ones & a%es4 ,9 ! ru9s ( ?is place1 a few skeletons h be5 f\nd buri$ 9 volcanic ejections1 toge!r ) "s antiquities ( no great value1 & rolls ( papyrus1 :i*1 l ^? ( ,pompeii1 7 illegible4 ,torre del ,greco ov]fl[$ by lava4--,( ! t[ns hi!rto m5tion$1 ,h]culaneum alone has be5 ov]fl[$ by a /ream ( melt$ matt]2 b ?is did n1 z we h se51 ent] or injure ! build+s1 :i* 7 previ\sly envelop$ or cov]$ ov] ) tuff4 ,b burn+ torr5ts h (t5 tak5 _! c\rse ?r\gh ! /reets ( ,torre del ,greco1 & consum$ or inclos$ a l>ge portion ( ! t[n 9 solid rock4 ,x seems probable t ! de/ruction ( ?ree ?\s& ( its inhabitants 9 #afca1 :i* "s acc\nts attribute to boil+ wat]1 0 pr9cipally due to "o ( ^? alluvial floods :i* we be=e m5tion$3 b1 9 #agcg1 ! lava itself fl[$ ?r\gh ! ea/]n side ( ! t[n1 & aft]w>ds rea*$ ! sea2 &1 9 #agid1 ano!r curr5t1 roll+ ov] ! we/]n side1 fill$ ! /reets & h\ses1 & kill$ m ?an f\r hundr$ p]sons4 ,! ma9 /reet is n[ qu>ri$ ?r\gh ?is lava1 :i* suppli$ build+ /ones = new h\ses erect$ :]e o!rs _h be5 annihilat$4 ,! *ur* 0 half buri$ 9 a rocky mass1 b ! upp] portion s]v$ z ! f\ndation ( a new edifice4 ,! numb] ( ! population at pres5t is e/imat$ at fifte5 ?\s&2 & a satisfactory answ] may readily be return$ to ^? :o inquire h[ ! inhabitants c be s inatt5tive to ! voice ( "t & ! w>n+s ( nature1#eeh z to rebuild _! dwell+s on a spot s (t5 deva/at$4 ,no neighbor+ site unoccupi$ by a t[n1 or :i* w\ld n be equally insecure1 comb9es ! same advantages ( proximity to ! capital1 to ! sea1 & to ! ri* l&s on ! flanks ( ,vesuvius4 ,if ! pres5t population 7 exil$1 !y w\ld imm$iately be replac$ by ano!r1 = ! same reason t ! ,m>emma ( ,tuscany & ! ,campagna di ,roma w nev] be depopulat$1 al?\gh ! mal>ia fev] commits m havoc 9 a few ye>s ?an ! ,vesuvian lavas 9 z _m c5turies4 ,! di/rict ar\nd ,naples supplies "o among/ innum]able examples1 t ^? regions :]e ! surface is mo/ frequ5tly r5ew$1 & :]e ! r5ovation is accompani$1 at diff]5t int]vals ( "t1 by p>tial de/ruction ( animal & vegetable life1 may nev]!less be among/ ! mo/ habitable & delightful on our globe4 ,i h already made a simil> rem>k :5 speak+ ( tracts :]e aque\s causes are n[ mo/ active2 & ! obs]vation applies z well to p>ts ( ! surface :i* are ! abode ( aquatic animals1 z to ^? :i* support t]re/rial species4 ,! slop+ sides ( ,vesuvius give n\ri%m5t to a vigor\s & heal?y population ( ab\t eighty ?\s& s\ls2 & ! surr\nd+ hills & pla9s1 toge!r ) sev]al ( ! adjo9+ isles1 owe ! f]tility ( _! soil to matt] eject$ by prior eruptions4 ,_h ! fundam5tal lime/one ( ! ,ap5n9es rema9$ uncov]$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole area1 ! c\ntry c\ld n h su/a9$ a tw5tie? "p ( its pres5t inhabitants4 ,?is w be app>5t to e geologi/ :o has m>k$ ! *ange 9 ! agricultural "* ( ! soil ! mom5t he has pass$ ! utmo/ b\nd>y ( ! volcanic ejections1 z :51 = example1 at ! di/ance ( ab\t sev5 miles f ,vesuvius1 he leaves ! pla9 & asc5ds ! declivity ( ! ,sorr5t9e ,hills4 ,yet1 favor$ z ?is region has be5 by ,nature f "t immemorial1 ! signs ( ! *anges impr9t$ on x dur+ ! p]iod t x has s]v$ z ! habitation ( man may appe> 9 aft]-ages to indicate a s]ies ( unp>allel$ disa/]s4 ,let u suppose t at "s future "t ! ,m$it]ranean %\ld =m a gulf ( ! great ocean1 & t ! waves & tidal curr5t %\ld encroa* on ! %ores ( ,campania1 z x n[ advances ^u ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,engl&2 ! geologi/ w !n behold ! t[ns already buri$1 & _m m :i* w evid5tly be entomb$ h]eaft]1 laid op5 9 ! /eep cliffs1 :]e he w discov] build+s sup]impos$ above ea* o!r1 ) ?ick int]v5+ /rata ( tuff or lava--"s unsca!d by fire1 l ^? ( ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii2 o!rs half melt$ d[n1 z 9 ,torre del ,greco2 & _m %att]$ & ?r[n ab\t 9 /range confusion1 z 9 ,trip]gola1 b5ea? ,monte ,nuovo4 ,among ! ru9s w be se5 skeletons ( m51 & impressions ( ! human =m /amp$ 9 solid rocks ( tuff4 ,nor w ! signs ( e>?quakes be want+4 ,! pavem5t ( "p ( ! ,domitian ,way1 & ! temple ( ! ,nymphs1 subm]g$ at high tide1 w be uncov]$ at l[ wat]1 ! columns rema9+ erect & un9jur$4 ,o!r temples :i* _h once sunk d[n1 l t ( ,s]apis1 w be f\nd to h be5 uprais$ aga9 by subsequ5t movem5ts4 ,if !y :o /udy ^! ph5om5a1 & speculate on _! causes1 assume t !re 7 p]iods :5 ! laws ( ,nature or ! :ole c\rse ( natural ev5ts diff]$ greatly f ^? obs]v$ 9 _! own "t1 !y w sc>cely hesitate to ref] ! wond]ful monum5ts 9 "q to ^? primeval ages4 ,:5 !y consid] ! num]\s pro(s ( reit]at$ cata/rophes to :i* ! region 0 subject1 !y may1 p]haps1 commis]ate ! unhappy fate ( be+s condemn$ to inhabit a planet dur+ its nasc5t & *aotic /ate1 & feel grateful t _! favor$ race has escap$ su* sc5es ( an>*y & misrule4 ,yet :at 0 ! real condition ( ,campania dur+ ^? ye>s ( dire convulsion8 ,a climate :]e heav5's brea? smells sweet & woo+ly--a vigor\s & luxuriant nature unp>allel$ 9 its productions--a coa/ :i* 0 once ! fairy-l& ( poets1 & ! favorite retreat ( great m54 ,ev5 ! tyrants ( ! creation lov$ ?is allur+ region1 sp>$ x1 adorn$ x1 liv$ 9 x1 di$ 9 x4#eei ,! inhabitants1 inde$1 h enjoy$ no immunity f ! calamities :i* are ! lot ( mank9d2 b ! pr9cipal evils :i* !y h suff]$ mu/ be attribut$ to moral1 n to physical1 causes--to disa/r\s ev5ts ov] :i* man might h ex]cis$ a control1 r ?an to ! inevitable cata/rophes :i* result f subt]ranean ag5cy4 ,:5 ,sp>tacus encamp$ 8 army ( t5 ?\s& gladiators 9 ! old ext9ct crat] ( ,vesuvius1 ! volcano 0 m ju/ly a subject ( t]ror to ,campania1 ?an x has ev] be5 s9ce ! rek9dl+ ( its fires4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,etna4 ,ext]nal physiognomy ( ,etna--,lat]al cones--,_! successive oblit]ation--,e>ly eruptions--,monti ,rossi 9 #affi--,t[ns ov]fl[$ by lava--,"p ( ,catania ov]fl[$--,mode ( advance ( a curr5t ( lava--,subt]ranean cav]ns--,m>9e /rata at base ( ,etna--,val del ,bove n an anci5t crat]--,its sc5]y--,=m1 composition1 & orig9 ( ! dikes--,l9e> direction ( cones =m$ 9 #ahaa & #ahai--,lavas & breccias--,flood produc$ by ! melt+ ( sn[ by lava--,glaci] cov]$ by a lava /ream--,val del ,bove h[ =m$--,/ructure & orig9 ( ! cone ( ,etna--,:e!r ! incl9$ %eets ( lava 7 orig9ally horizontal--,antiquity ( ,etna--,:e!r signs ( diluvial waves are obs]vable on ,etna4 ,ext]nal physiognomy ( ,etna4--,aft] ,vesuvius1 our mo/ au!ntic records relate to ,etna1 :i* rises ne> ! sea 9 solit>y gr&eur to ! height ( ne>ly elev5 ?\s& feet4#efj ,! base ( ! cone is almo/ circul>1 & eighty-sev5 ,engli% miles 9 circumf]5ce2 b if we include ! :ole di/rict ov] :i* its lavas ext5d1 ! circuit is probably twice t ext5t4 ,divid$ into ?ree regions4--,! cone is divid$ by nature into ?ree di/9ct zones1 call$ ! f]tile1 ! woody1 & ! des]t regions4 ,! fir/ ( ^!1 compris+ ! delightful c\ntry ar\nd ! skirts ( ! m\nta91 is well cultivat$1 ?ickly inhabit$1 & cov]$ ) olives1 v9es1 corn1 fruit-trees1 & aromatic h]bs4 ,high] up1 ! woody region encircles ! m\nta9--an ext5sive =e/ six or sev5 miles 9 wid?1 af=d+ pa/urage = num]\s flocks4 ,! trees are ( v>i\s species1 ! *e/nut1 oak1 & p9e be+ mo/ luxuriant2 :ile 9 "s tracts are groves ( cork & bee*4 ,above ! =e/ is ! des]t region1 a wa/e ( black lava & scoriae2 :]e1 on a k9d ( pla91 rises a cone ( eruption to ! height ( ab\t elev5 hundr$ feet1 f :i* sulphure\s vapors are cont9ually evolv$4 ,cones produc$ by lat]al eruption4--,! mo/ gr& & orig9al feature 9 ! physiognomy ( ,etna is ! multitude ( m9or cones :i* are di/ribut$ ov] its flanks1 & :i* are mo/ abundant 9 ! woody region4 ,^!1 al?\gh !y appe> b trifl+ irregul>ities :5 view$ f a di/ance z subord9ate p>ts ( s impos+ & colossal a m\nta91 w\ld1 nev]!less1 be deem$ hills ( consid]able altitude 9 almo/ any o!r region4 ,)\t enum]at+ num]\s monticules ( a%es ?r[n out at diff]5t po9ts1 !re are ab\t eighty ( ^! second>y volcanoes1 ( consid]able dim5sions2 fifty-two on ! we/ & nor?1 & tw5ty-sev5 on ! ea/ side ( ,etna4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/1 call$ ,monte ,m9>do1 ne> ,bronte1 is upw>ds ( #gjj feet 9 height1 & a d\ble hill ne> ,nicolosi1 call$ ,monti ,rossi1 =m$ 9 #affi1 is #dej feet high1 & ! base two miles 9 circumf]5ce2 s t x some:at exce$s 9 size ,monte ,nuovo1 be=e describ$4 ,yet x ranks only z a cone ( ! second magnitude among/ ^? produc$ by ! lat]al eruptions ( ,etna4 ,on look+ d[n f ! l[] bord]s ( ! des]t region1 ^! volcanoes pres5t u ) "o ( ! mo/ delightful & *>act]i/ic sc5es 9 ,europe4 ,!y af=d e v>iety ( height & size1 & are arrang$ 9 beautiful & picturesque gr\ps4 ,h[ev] uni=m !y may appe> :5 se5 f ! sea1 or ! pla9s bel[1 no?+ c be m div]sifi$ ?an _! %ape :5 we look f above into _! crat]s1 "o side ( :i* is g5]ally brok5 d[n4 ,!re are1 inde$1 few objects 9 nature m picturesque ?an a wood$ volcanic crat]4 ,! cones situat$ 9 ! high] p>ts ( ! =e/ zone are *iefly clo!d ) l(ty p9es2 :ile ^? at a l[] elevation are adorn$ ) *e/nuts1 oaks1 bee*1 & holm4 ,successive oblit]ation ( ^! cones4--,! hi/ory ( ! eruptions ( ,etna1 imp]fect & int]rupt$ z x is1 af=ds u1 nev]!less1 mu* insight into ! mann] 9 :i* ! :ole m\nta9 has successively atta9$ its pres5t magnitude & int]nal /ructure4 ,! pr9cipal cone has m ?an once fall5 9 & be5 reproduc$4 ,9 #addd x 0 #cbj feet high1 & fell 9 aft] ! e>?quakes ( #aecg4 ,9 ! ye> #afic1 :5 a viol5t e>?quake %ook ! :ole ( ,sicily1 & kill$ sixty ?\s& p]sons1 ! cone lo/ s mu* ( its height1 says ,boccone1 t x c\ld n be se5 f sev]al places 9 ,valdemone1 f :i* x 0 be=e visible4 ,! great] numb] ( eruptions happ5 ei!r f ! great crat]1 or f lat]al op5+s 9 ! des]t region4 ,:5 hills are ?r[n up 9 ! middle zone1 & project beyond ! g5]al level1 !y gradually lose _! height dur+ subsequ5t eruptions2 = :5 lava runs d[n f ! upp] p>ts ( ! m\nta91 & enc\nt]s any ( ^! hills1 ! /ream is divid$1 & fl[s r\nd !m s z to elevate ! g5tly slop+ gr\nds f :i* !y rise4 ,9 ?is mann] a d$uction is (t5 made at once ( tw5ty or ?irty feet1 or ev5 m1 f _! height4 ,?us1 "o ( ! m9or cones1 call$ ,monte ,peluso1 0 dim9i%$ 9 altitude by a great lava /ream :i* encircl$ x 9 #addd2 & ano!r curr5t has rec5tly tak5 ! same c\rse--yet ?is hill /ill rema9s f\r or five hundr$ feet high4 ,!re is a cone call$ ,monte ,nucilla ne> ,nicolosi1 r\nd ! base ( :i* sev]al successive curr5ts h fl[$1 & %[]s ( a%es h fall51 s9ce ! "t ( hi/ory1 till at la/1 dur+ an eruption 9 #aecf1 ! surr\nd+ pla9 0 s rais$1 t ! top ( ! cone alone 0 left project+ above ! g5]al level4 ,monte ,n]o1 situat$ above ! ,grotta dell' ,capre1 0 9 #agff almo/ subm]g$ by a curr5t3 & ,monte ,capreolo af=d$1 9 ! ye> #affi1 a curi\s example ( "o ( ! la/ /ages ( oblit]ation2 = a lava /ream1 desc5d+ on a high ridge :i* _h be5 built up by ! cont9u$ sup]position ( successive lavas1 fl[$ directly into ! crat]1 & ne>ly fill$ x4 ,! lava1 !re=e1 ( ea* new lat]al cone t5ds to detract f ! relative height ( l[] cones above _! base3 s t ! flanks ( ,etna1 slop+ ) a g5tle incl9ation1 envelop 9 succession a great multitude ( m9or volcanoes1 :ile new ones spr+ up f "t to "t4 ,e>ly eruptions ( ,etna4--,etna appe>s to h be5 9 activity f ! e>lie/ times ( tradition2 = ,diodorus ,siculus m5tions an eruption :i* caus$ a di/rict to be des]t$ by ! ,sicani be=e ! ,trojan w>4 ,?ucydides in=ms u1 t 9 ! six? ye> ( ! ,peloponnesian w>1 or 9 ! spr+ ( ! ye> #dbe ,b4 ,c41 a lava /ream ravag$ ! environs ( ,catania1 & ?is he says 0 ! ?ird eruption :i* _h happ5$ 9 ,sicily s9ce ! colonization ( t isl& by ! ,greeks4#efa ,! second ( ! ?ree eruptions allud$ to by ! hi/orian took place 9 ! ye> #dge ,b4 ,c41 & 0 t s poetically describ$ by ,p9d>1 two ye>s aft]w>ds1 9 8 fir/ ,py?ian ode3-- ,greek3 kion ,d' ourania syne*ei ,niphoess' ,aitna1 panetes ,*ionos oxeias ti!na4 ,9 ^! & ! sev5 v]ses :i* foll[1 a graphic description is giv5 ( ,etna1 su* z x appe>$ five c5turies be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 & su* z x has be5 se5 :5 9 eruption 9 mod]n times4 ,! poet is only mak+ a pass+ allusion to ! ,sicilian volcano1 z ! m\nta9 "u :i* ,typhoeus lay buri$1 yet by a few t\*es ( 8 ma/]-h& e /rik+ feature ( ! sc5e has be5 fai?fully portray$4 ,we are told ( ! sn[y ,etna1 ! pill> ( heav5--! nurse ( ev]la/+ fro/1 9 ^: deep cav]ns lie conceal$ ! f\nta9s ( unapproa*able fire--a /ream ( eddy+ smoke by day--a bright & ruddy flame by night2 & burn+ rocks roll$ d[n ) l\d upro> into ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,m9or cones on ! flanks ( ,etna4 #a4 ,monti ,rossi1 ne> ,nicolosi1 =m$ 9 #affi4 #b4 ,vampeluso8#efb ,eruption ( #affi--,monti ,rossi =m$4--,! great eruption :i* happ5$ 9 ! ye> #affi is ! fir/ :i* claims p>ticul> att5tion4 ,an e>?quake _h levell$ to ! gr\nd all ! h\ses 9 ,nicolosi1 a t[n situat$ ne> ! l[] m>g9 ( ! woody region1 ab\t tw5ty miles f ! summit ( ,etna1 & t5 f ! sea at ,catania4 ,two gulfs !n op5$ ne> t t[n1 f :5ce s& & scoriae 7 ?r[n up 9 su* quantity1 t 9 ! c\rse ( ?ree or f\r mon?s a d\ble cone 0 =m$1 call$ ,monti ,rossi1 ab\t #dej feet high4 ,b ! mo/ extraord9>y ph5om5on occurr$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! convulsion 9 ! pla9 ( ,s4 ,lio4 ,a fissure six feet broad1 & ( unkn[n dep?1 op5$ ) a l\d cra%1 & ran 9 a some:at tortu\s c\rse to )9 a mile ( ! summit ( ,etna4 ,its direction 0 f nor? to s\?1 & its l5g? twelve miles4 ,x emitt$ a mo/ vivid light4 ,five o!r p>allel fissures ( consid]able l5g? aft]w>ds op5$1 "o aft] ! o!r1 & emitt$ smoke1 & gave out bell[+ s\nds :i* 7 he>d at ! di/ance ( =ty miles4 ,?is case seems to pres5t ! geologi/ ) an illu/ration ( ! mann] 9 :i* ^? cont9u\s dikes ( v]tical porphyry 7 =m$1 :i* are se5 to trav]se "s ( ! old] lavas ( ,etna2 = ! light emitt$ f ! great r5t ( ,s4 ,lio appe>s to indicate t ! fissure 0 fill$ to a c]ta9 height ) inc&esc5t lava1 probably to ! height ( an orifice n f> di/ant f ,monti ,rossi1 :i* at t "t op5$ & p\r$ out a lava curr5t4 ,:5 ! melt$ matt] 9 su* a r5t has cool$1 x mu/ become a solid wall or dike1 int]sect+ ! old] rocks ( :i* ! m\nta9 is compos$2 simil> r5ts h be5 obs]v$ dur+ subsequ5t eruptions1 z 9 #ahcb1 :5 !y ran 9 all directions f ! c5tre ( ! volcano4 ,x has be5 ju/ly rem>k$ by ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 t su* />-%ap$ fractures may indicate a slight upheaval ( ! :ole ( ,etna4 ,!y may be ! signs ( ! /ret*+ ( ! mass1 :i* may ?us be rais$ gradually by a =ce f bel[4#efc ,! lava curr5t ( #affi1 be=e allud$ to1 soon rea*$ 9 its c\rse a m9or cone call$ ,mompili]e1 at ! base ( :i* x ent]$ a subt]ranean grotto1 communicat+ ) a suite ( ^? cav]ns :i* are s common 9 ! lavas ( ,etna4 ,"h x appe>s to h melt$ d[n "s ( ! vault$ f\ndations ( ! hill1 s t ! :ole ( t cone became slightly depress$ & trav]s$ by num]\s op5 fissures4 ,"p ( ,catania de/roy$4--,! lava1 aft] ov]fl[+ f\rte5 t[ns & villages1 "s hav+ a population ( betwe5 ?ree & f\r ?\s& inhabitants1 arriv$ at l5g? at ! walls ( ,catania4 ,^! _h be5 purposely rais$ to protect ! city2 b ! burn+ flood accumulat$ till x rose to ! top ( ! ramp>t1 :i* 0 sixty feet 9 height1 & !n x fell 9 a fi]y cascade & ov]:elm$ "p ( ! city4 ,! wall1 h[ev]1 0 n ?r[n d[n1 b 0 discov]$ long aft]w>ds by excavations made 9 ! rock by ! ,pr9ce ( ,bisc>i2 s t ! travell] may n[ see ! solid lava curl+ ov] ! top ( ! ramp>t z if /ill 9 ! v act ( fall+4 ,?is great curr5t p]=m$ ! fir/ ?irte5 miles ( its c\rse 9 tw5ty days1 or at ! rate ( #afb feet p] h\r1 b requir$ tw5ty-?ree days = ! la/ two miles1 giv+ a velocity ( only tw5ty-two feet p] h\r2 & we le>n f ,dolomieu t ! /ream mov$ dur+ "p ( its c\rse at ! rate ( #aejj feet an h\r1 & 9 o!rs x took sev]al days to cov] a few y>ds4#efd ,:5 x ent]$ ! sea x 0 /ill six hundr$ y>ds broad1 & =ty feet deep4 ,x cov]$ "s t]ritories 9 ! environs ( ,catania :i* _h nev] be=e be5 visit$ by ! lavas ( ,etna4 ,:ile mov+ on1 its surface 0 9 g5]al a mass ( solid rock2 & its mode ( advanc+1 z is usual ) lava /reams1 0 by ! occasional fissur+ ( ! solid walls4 ,a g5tleman ( ,catania1 nam$ ,pappal>do1 desir+ to secure ! city f ! approa* ( ! ?reat5+ torr5t1 w5t out ) a p>ty ( fifty m5 :om he _h dress$ 9 sk9s to protect !m f ! heat1 & arm$ ) iron cr[s & hooks4 ,!y broke op5 "o ( ! solid walls :i* flank$ ! curr5t ne> ,belpasso1 & imm$iately =? issu$ a rivulet ( melt$ matt] :i* took ! direction ( ,pat]no2 b ! inhabitants ( t t[n1 be+ al>m$ = _! safety1 took up arms & put a /op to f>!r op]ations4#efe ,z ano!r illu/ration ( ! solidity ( ! walls ( an advanc+ lava /ream1 ,i may m5tion an adv5ture relat$ by ,recup]o1 :o1 9 #agff1 _h asc5d$ a small hill =m$ ( anci5t volcanic matt]1 to behold ! sl[ & gradual approa* ( a fi]y curr5t1 two miles & a half broad2 :5 sudd5ly two small ?reads ( liquid matt] issu+ f a crevice deta*$ !mselves f ! ma9 /ream1 & ran rapidly t[>ds ! hill4 ,he & 8 guide _h j "t to escape1 :5 !y saw ! hill1 :i* 0 fifty feet 9 height1 surr\nd$1 & 9 a qu>t] ( an h\r melt$ d[n into ! burn+ mass1 s z to fl[ on ) x4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t ?is complete fusion ( rocky matt] com+ 9 contact ) lava is ( univ]sal1 or ev5 common1 occurr5ce4 ,x probably happ5s :5 fre% portions ( inc&esc5t matt] come successively 9 contact ) fusible mat]ials4 ,9 _m ( ! dikes :i* int]sect ! tuffs & lavas ( ,etna1 !re is sc>cely any p]ceptible alt]ation effect$ by heat on ! edges ( ! horizontal b$s1 9 contact ) ! v]tical & m cry/all9e mass4 ,on ! side ( ,mompili]e1 "o ( ! t[ns ov]fl[$ 9 ! great eruption above describ$1 an excavation 0 made 9 #agjd2 & by imm5se labor ! workm5 rea*$1 at ! dep? ( ?irty-five feet1 ! gate ( ! pr9cipal *ur*1 :]e !re 7 ?ree /atues1 held 9 high v5]ation4 ,"o ( ^!1 toge!r ) a bell1 "s money1 & o!r articles1 7 extract$ 9 a good /ate ( pres]vation f b5ea? a great ar* =m$ by ! lava4 ,x seems v extraord9>y t any works ( art1 n encas$ ) tuff1 l ^? 9 ,h]culaneum1 %\ld h escap$ fusion 9 holl[ spaces left op5 9 ?is lava-curr5t1 :i* 0 s hot at ,catania eight ye>s aft] x ent]$ ! t[n1 t x 0 impossible to hold ! h& 9 "s ( ! crevices4 ,subt]ranean cav]ns on ,etna4--,m5tion 0 made ( ! entrance ( a lava-/ream into a subt]ranean grotto1 :]eby ! f\ndations ( a hill 7 p>tially und]m9$4 ,su* und]gr\nd passages are among ! mo/ curi\s features on ,etna1 & appe> to h be5 produc$ by ! h>d5+ ( ! lava1 dur+ ! escape ( great volumes ( ela/ic fluids1 :i* are (t5 dis*>g$ = _m days 9 succession1 aft] ! crisis ( ! eruption is ov]4 ,ne> ,nicolosi1 n f> f ,monti ,rossi1 "o ( ^! great op5+s may be se51 call$ ! ,fossa della ,palomba1 #fbe feet 9 circumf]5ce at its m\?1 & sev5ty-eight deep4 ,aft] rea*+ ! bottom ( ?is1 we ent] ano!r d>k cavity1 & !n o!rs 9 succession1 sometimes desc5d+ precipices by means ( ladd]s4 ,at l5g? ! vaults t]m9ate 9 a great gall]y n9ety feet long1 & f fifte5 to fifty broad1 beyond :i* !re is /ill a passage1 nev] yet explor$2 s t ! ext5t ( ^! cav]ns rema9s unkn[n4#eff ,! walls & ro(s ( ^! great vaults are compos$ ( r\gh & bri/l+ scoriae1 ( ! mo/ fanta/ic =ms4 ,m>9e /rata at base ( ,etna4--,if we skirt ! f]tile region at ! base ( ,etna on its s\!rn & ea/]n sides1 we behold m>9e /rata ( clay s&1 & volcanic tuff1 cropp+ out f b5ea? ! mod]n lavas4 ,! m>9e fossil %ells occurr+ 9 ^! /rata are all ( !m1 or ne>ly all1 id5tical ) species n[ inhabit+ ! ,m$it]ranean2 & z !y appe> at ! height ( f #fjj to #hjj feet above ! sea ne> ,catania1 !y cle>ly prove t !re has be5 9 ?is region1 z 9 o!r p>ts ( ,sicily f>!r to ! s\?1 an upw>d movem5t ( ! anci5t b$ ( ! sea4 ,x is fair1 !re=e1 to inf] t ! :ole m\nta91 ) ! exception ( ^? p>ts :i* are ( v mod]n orig91 has p>ticipat$ 9 ?is upheaval4 ,if we view ,etna f ! s\?1 we see ! m>9e deposits above allud$ to1 =m+ a l[ l9e ( hills 7e1 e1 ,fig4 #dg71 or a /eep inl& slope or cliff 7f71 z 9 ! annex$ draw+ tak5 f ! lime/one plat=m ( ,primosole4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ h[ev]1 9 ref]5ce to ?is view1 t ! height ( ! volcanic cone is t5 times great] ?an ! hills at its base 7e1 e71 al?\gh x appe>s less elevat$1 because ! summit ( ! cone is t5 or twelve times m di/ant f ! pla9 ( ,catania ?an is ,licodia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,view ( ,etna f ! summit ( ! lime/one plat=m ( ,primosole4 a1 ,highe/ cone4 b1 ,montagnuola4 c1 ,monte ,m9>do1 ) small] lat]al cones above4 d1 ,t[n ( ,licodia dei ,monaci4 e1 ,m>9e =mation call$ creta1 argillace\s & s&y b$s ) a few %ells1 & associat$ volcanic rocks4 f1 ,esc>pm5t ( /ratifi$ subaque\s volcanic tuff1 c41 nor?we/ ( ,catania4 g1 ,t[n ( ,catania4 h i1 ,dott$ l9e express+ ! highe/ b\nd>y along :i* ! m>9e /rata are occasionally se54 k1 ,pla9 ( ,catania4 l1 ,lime/one plat=m ( ,primosole ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e p]iod4 m1 ,la ,motta di ,catania4 ,! m\nta9 is 9 g5]al ( a v symmetrical =m1 a flatt5$ cone brok5 on its ea/]n side1 by a deep valley1 call$ ! ,val del ,bove1 or 9 ! prov9cial dialect ( ! peasants1 ,val di ,bua1 = "h ! h]dsman ---- 9 r$ucta valle mugi5tium ,prospectat errantes greges4 ,dr4 ,buckl& 01 ,i believe1 ! fir/ ,engli% geologi/ :o exam9$ ?is valley ) att5tion1 & ,i am indebt$ to him = hav+ describ$ x to me1 be=e ,i visit$ ,sicily1 z m wor?y ( att5tion ?an any s+le spot 9 t isl&1 or p]haps 9 ,europe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iii ,,view ,,look+ ,,up ,,! ,,val ,,del ,,bove1 ,,etna ,! ,val del ,bove comm5ces ne> ! summit ( ,etna1 & desc5d+ into ! woody region1 is f>!r cont9u$ on "o side by a second & n>r[] valley1 call$ ! ,val di ,calanna4 ,bel[ ?is ano!r1 nam$ ! ,val di ,/4 ,giacomo1 beg9s1--a long n>r[ rav9e1 :i* is prolong$ to ! neighborhood ( ,zaff>ana 7e1 fig4 #dh71 on ! conf9es ( ! f]tile region4 ,^! natural incisions into ! side ( ! volcano are ( su* dep? t !y expose to view a great "p ( ! /ructure ( ! entire mass1 :i*1 9 ! ,val del ,bove1 is laid op5 to ! dep? ( f #cjjj to above #djjj feet f ! summit ( ,etna4 ,! geologi/ ?us enjoys an opportunity ( asc]ta9+ h[ f> ! int]nal con=mation ( ! cone corresponds ) :at he might h anticipat$ z ! result ( t mode ( increase :i* has be5 witness$ dur+ ! hi/orical era4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,great valley on ! ea/ side ( ,etna4 a1 ,highe/ cone4 b1 ,montagnuola4 c1 ,head ( ,val del ,bove4 d1 d1 ,s]re del ,solfizio4 e1 ,village ( ,zaff>ana on ! l[] bord] ( ! woody region4 f1 ,"o ( ! lat]al cones4 g1 ,monti ,rossi4 ,description ( ,plate ,,iii4--,! accompany+ view 7,pl4 ,,iii47 is "p ( a panoramic sket* :i* ,i made 9 ,novemb]1 #ahbh1 & may assi/ ! read] 9 compreh5d+ "s topographical details to be allud$ to 9 ! sequel1 al?\gh x c convey no idea ( ! picturesque gr&eur ( ! sc5e4 ,! great lava-curr5ts ( #ahai & #ahaa are se5 p\r+ d[n f ! high] p>ts ( ! valley1 ov]runn+ ! =e/s ( ! great pla91 & ris+ up 9 ! =egr\nd on ! left ) a rugg$ surface1 on :i* _m hillocks & depressions appe>1 su* z (t5 *>act]ize a lava-curr5t imm$iately aft] its consolidation4 ,! small cone1 ,no4 #g1 0 =m$ 9 #ahaa1 & 0 /ill smok+ :5 ,i saw x 9 #ahbh4 ,! o!r small volcano to ! left1 f :i* vapor is issu+1 01 ,i believe1 "o ( ^? =m$ 9 #ahai4 ,! foll[+ are ! names ( "s ( ! o!r po9ts indicat$ 9 ! sket*3-- #a1 ,montagnuola4 #b1 ,torre del ,filos(o4 #c1 ,highe/ cone4 #d1 ,lepra4 #e1 ,f9oc*io4 #f1 ,capra4 #g1 ,cone ( #ahaa4 #h1 ,cima del ,as9o4 #i1 ,mus>a4 #aj1 ,zocol>o4 #aa1 ,rocca di ,calanna4 ,,description ,,( ,,plate ,,iv4--,! second view 7,pl4 ,,iv47 repres5ts ! same valley z se5 f above1 or look+ directly d[n ! ,val del ,bove1 f ! summit ( ! pr9cipal crat] =m$ 9 #ahai4efg ,i am unable to po9t out ! precise spot :i* ?is crat] w\ld occupy 9 ! view repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,iii42 b ,i conceive t x w\ld appe> 9 ! face ( ! great precipice1 ne> :i* ! smoke issu+ f ! cone ,no4 #g is made to t]m9ate4 ,!re are _m l$ges ( rock on ! face ( t precipice :]e eruptions h occurr$4 ,! circul> =m ( ! ,val del ,bove is well %[n 9 ?is view4 7,pl4 ,,iv47 ,to ! "r & left are ! l(ty precipices :i* =m ! s\!rn & nor!rn sides ( ! great valley1 & :i* are int]sect$ by dikes project+ 9 ! mann] aft]w>ds to be describ$4 ,9 ! di/ance appe>s ! f]tile region ( ,etna1 ext5d+ l a great pla9 along ! sea-coa/4 ,! spots p>ticul>ly ref]r$ to 9 ! plate are ! foll[+3-- a1 ,cape ,sp>tiv5to1 9 ,italy1 ( :i* ! outl9e is se5 9 ! di/ance4 b1 ,! promontory ( ,taorm9o1 on ! ,sicilian coa/4 c1 ,! riv] ,alcantra4 d1 ,! small village ( ,ripo/o4 f1 ,! t[n ( ,aci ,reale4 g1 ,cyclopian isl&s1 or ,f>aglioni1 9 ! ,bay ( ,trezza4 h1 ,! great h>bor ( ,syracuse4 k1 ,! ,lake ( ,l5t9i4 i1 ,! city ( ,catania1 ne> :i* is m>k$ ! c\rse ( ! lava :i* fl[$ f ! ,monti ,rossi 9 #affi1 & de/roy$ "p ( ! city4 l1 ,to ! left ( ! view is ! crat] ( #ahaa1 :i* is also %[n at ,no4 #g 9 ,plate ,,iii4 m1 ,rock ( ,mus>a1 also se5 at ,no4 #i 9 ,plate ,,iii4 e1 ,valley ( ,calanna4 ,! ,val del ,bove is ( truly magnific5t dim5sions1 a va/ amphi!atre f\r or five miles 9 diamet]1 surr\nd$ by ne>ly v]tical precipices1 v>y+ f #ajjj to above #cjjj feet 9 height1 ! l(tie/ be+ at ! upp] end1 & ! height gradually dim9i%+ on bo? sides4 ,! feature :i* fir/ /rikes ! geologi/ z di/+ui%+ ! b\nd>y cliffs ( ?is valley1 is ! prodigi\s multitude ( v]ticle dikes :i* are se5 9 all directions trav]s+ ! volcanic b$s4 ,! circul> =m ( ?is great *asm1 & ! occurr5ce ( ^! c\ntless dikes1 am\nt+ p]haps to sev]al ?\s&s 9 numb]1 s =cibly recall$ to my m9d ! ph5om5a ( ! ,atrio del ,cavallo1 on ,vesuvius1 t ,i at fir/ imag9$ t ,i _h ent]$ a va/ crat]1 on a scale z f> exce$+ t ( ,somma1 z ,etna surpasses ,vesuvius 9 magnitude4 ,b ,i 0 soon undeceiv$ :5 ,i _h att5tively explor$ ! diff]5t sides ( ! great amphi!atre1 9 ord] to satisfy myself :e!r ! semicircul> wall ( ! ,val del ,bove _h ev] =m$ ! b\nd>y ( a crat]1 & :e!r ! b$s _h ! same quaqua-v]sal dip :i* is s beautifully exhibit$ 9 ! esc>pm5t ( ,somma4 ,_h ! suppos$ analogy betwe5 ,somma & ! ,val del ,bove held true1 ! tufts & lavas at ! head ( ! valley w\ld h dipp$ to ! we/1 ^? on ! nor? side t[>ds ! nor?1 & ^? on ! s\!rn side to ! s\?4 ,b su* ,i did n f9d to be ! incl9ation ( ! b$s2 !y all dip t[>ds ! sea1 or ne>ly ea/1 z 9 ! valleys ( ,/4 ,giacomo & ,calanna bel[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iv ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,val ,,del ,,bove1 ,,etna1 ,,z ,,se5 ,,f ,,above1 ,,or ,,f ,,! ,,crat] ,,( #ahai ,sc5]y ( ! ,val del ,bove4--,let ! read] picture to himself a l>ge amphi!atre1 five miles 9 diamet]1 & surr\nd$ on ?ree sides by precipices f #bjjj to #cjjj feet 9 height4 ,if he has beheld t mo/ picturesque sc5e 9 ! *a9 ( ! ,pyr5ees1 ! celebrat$ cirque ( ,gav>nie1 he may =m "s conception ( ! magnific5t circle ( precipit\s rocks :i* inclose1 on ?ree sides1 ! great pla9 ( ! ,val del ,bove4 ,?is pla9 has be5 delug$ by repeat$ /reams ( lava2 & al?\gh x appe>s almo/ level1 :5 view$ f a di/ance1 x is1 9 fact1 m unev5 ?an ! surface ( ! mo/ tempe/u\s sea4 ,besides ! m9or irregul>ities ( ! lava1 ! valley is 9 "o "p int]rupt$ by a ridge ( rocks1 two ( :i*1 ,mus>a & ,capra1 are v prom95t4 ,x c h>dly be said t !y ----l giants /& ,to s5t9el en*ant$ l&2 = al?\gh1 l ! ,trosa*s1 9 ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 !y are ( gigantic dim5sions1 & appe> almo/ isolat$1 z se5 f _m po9ts1 yet ! /]n & sev]e gr&eur ( ! sc5]y :i* !y adorn is n su* z w\ld be select$ by a poet = a vale ( en*antm5t4 ,! "* ( ! sc5e w\ld accord f> bett] ) ,milton's picture ( ! inf]nal _w2 & if we imag9e ourselves to behold 9 motion1 9 ! d>kness ( ! night1 "o ( ^? fi]y curr5ts :i* h s (t5 trav]s$ ! great valley1 we may well recall ----yon dre>y pla91 =lorn & wild1 ,! seat ( desolation1 void ( light1 ,save :at ! glimm]+ ( ^! livid flames ,ca/s pale & dreadful4 ,! face ( ! precipices already m5tion$ is brok5 9 ! mo/ picturesque mann] by ! v]tical walls ( lava :i* trav]se !m4 ,^! masses visually /& out 9 relief1 are exce$+ly div]sifi$ 9 =m1 & ( imm5se altitude4 ,9 ! autumn1 _! black outl9e may (t5 be se5 reliev$ by cl\ds ( fleecy vapor :i* settle beh9d !m1 & d n disp]se until mid-day1 cont9u+ to fill ! valley :ile ! sun is %9+ on e o!r "p ( ,sicily1 & on ! high] regions ( ,etna4 ,z soon z ! vapors beg9 to rise1 ! *anges ( sc5e are v>i$ 9 ! highe/ degree1 diff]5t rocks be+ unveil$ & hidd5 by turns1 & ! summit ( ,etna (t5 break+ ?r\gh ! cl\ds = a mom5t ) its dazzl+ sn[s1 & be+ !n z sudd5ly )drawn f ! view4 ,an unusual sil5ce prevails2 = !re are no torr5ts da%+ f ! rocks1 nor any movem5t ( runn+ wat] 9 ?is valley su* z may almo/ inv>iably be he>d 9 m\nta9\s regions4 ,e drop ( wat] t falls f ! heav5s1 or fl[s f ! melt+ ice & sn[1 is in/antly absorb$ by ! por\s lava2 & su* is ! de>? ( spr+s1 t ! h]dsman is compell$ to supply 8 flocks1 dur+ ! hot season1 f /ores ( sn[ laid up 9 holl[s ( ! m\nta9 dur+ w9t]4 ,! /rips ( gre5 h]bage & =e/ l&1 :i* h "h & !re escap$ ! burn+ lavas1 s]ve1 by contra/1 to height5 ! desolation ( ! sc5e4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ! valley1 n9e ye>s aft] ! eruption ( #ahai1 ,i saw hundr$s ( trees1 or r ! :ite skeletons ( trees1 on ! bord]s ( ! black lava1 ! trunks & bran*es be+ all leafless1 & depriv$ ( _! b>k by ! scor*+ heat emitt$ f ! melt$ rock2 an image recall+ ^? beautiful l9es3-- ----,z :5 heav5's fire ,ha? sca?'d ! =e/ oaks1 or m\nta9 p9es1 ,) s+$ top _! /ately gr[?1 ?\gh b>e1 ,/&s on ! bla/$ hea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,dikes at ! base ( ! ,s]re del ,solfizio1 ,etna4 ,=m1 composition1 & orig9 ( ! dikes4--,b )\t indulg+ ! imag9ation any long] 9 descriptions ( sc5]y1 ,i may obs]ve t ! dikes be=e m5tion$ =m unque/ionably ! mo/ int]e/+ geological ph5om5on 9 ! ,val del ,bove4 ,"s ( ^! are compos$ ( tra*yte1 o!rs ( compact blue basalt ) oliv9e4 ,!y v>y 9 bread? f two to tw5ty feet & upw>ds1 & usually project f ! face ( ! cliffs1 z repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ draw+ 7fig4 #di74 ,!y consi/ ( h>d] mat]ials ?an ! /rata :i* !y trav]se1 & !re=e wa/e away less rapidly "u ! influ5ce ( t repeat$ congelation & ?aw+ to :i* ! rocks 9 ?is zone ( ,etna are expos$4 ,! dikes are = ! mo/ "p v]tical1 b sometimes !y run 9 a tortu\s c\rse ?r\gh ! tuffs & breccias1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ej4 ,9 ! esc>pm5t ( ,somma1 :]e simil> walls ( lava cut ?r\gh alt]nat+ b$s ( s& & scoriae1 a coat+ ( coal-black rock1 approa*+ 9 its nature & appe>ance to pit*/one1 is se5 at ! contact ( ! dike ) ! int]sect$ b$s4 ,i did n obs]ve su* p>t+ lay]s at ! junction ( ! ,etnean dikes :i* ,i exam9$1 b !y may p]haps be discov]able4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,tortu\s ve9s ( lava at ,punto di ,gium5to1 ,etna4 ,! geographical position ( ^! dikes is mo/ int]e/+1 z !y are v num]\s ne> ! head ( ! ,val del ,bove1 :]e ! cones ( #ahaa & #ahai 7 ?r[n up1 z also 9 t zone ( ! m\nta9 :]e lat]al eruptions are frequ5t2 :]eas 9 ! valley ( ,calanna1 :i* is bel[ t p>allel1 & 9 a region :]e lat]al eruptions are extremely r>e1 sc>cely any dikes are se51 & none :atev] /ill l[] 9 ! valley ( ,/4 ,giacomo4 ,?is is precisely :at we might h expect$1 if we consid] ! v]tical fissures n[ fill$ ) rock to h be5 ! fe$]s ( lat]al cones1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! *annels :i* gave passage to ! lava-curr5ts & scoriae t h issu$ f v5ts 9 ! =e/ zone4 ,9 o!r p>ts ( ,etna !re may be num]\s dikes at z l[ a level z ! ,valley ( ,calanna1 because ! l9e ( lat]al eruptions is n ev]y:]e at ! same height above ! sea2 b 9 ! section above allud$ to1 !re appe>$ to me an obvi\s connection betwe5 ! frequ5cy ( dikes & ( lat]al eruptions4 ,"s fissures may h be5 fill$ f above1 b ,i did n see any :i*1 by t]m9at+ d[nw>ds1 gave pro( ( su* an orig94 ,almo/ all ! isolat$ masses 9 ! ,val del ,bove1 su* z ,capra1 ,mus>a1 & o!rs1 are trav]s$ by dikes1 & may1 p]haps1 h p>tly ow$ _! pres]vation to t circum/ance1 if at lea/ ! action ( occasional floods has be5 "o ( ! de/roy+ causes 9 ! ,val del ,bove2 = !re is no?+ :i* af=ds s mu* protection to a mass ( /rata aga9/ ! und]m9+ action ( runn+ wat] z a p]p5dicul> dike ( h>d rock4 ,9 ! accompany+ draw+ 7fig4 #ea71 ! fl[+ ( ! lavas ( #ahaa & #ahai1 betwe5 ! rocks ,f9o*io1 ,capra1 & ,mus>a1 is repres5t$4 ,! height ( ! two la/-m5tion$ isolat$ masses has be5 mu* dim9i%$ by ! elevation ( _! base1 caus$ by ^! curr5ts4 ,!y may1 p]haps1 be ! remnants ( lat]al cones :i* exi/$ be=e ! ,val del ,bove 0 =m$1 & may h]eaft] be once m buri$ by ! lavas t are n[ accumulat+ 9 ! valley4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,view ( ! rocks ,f9o*io1 ,capra1 & ,mus>a1 ,val del ,bove4 ,f no po9t ( view are ! dikes m conspicu\s ?an f ! summit ( ! highe/ cone ( ,etna2 a view ( "s ( !m is giv5 9 ! annex$ draw+4 7,fig4 #eb47 ,eruption ( #ahaa4--;,i h allud$ to ! /reams ( lava :i* 7 p\r$ =? 9 #ahaa & #ahai4 ,gemmell>o1 :o witness$ ^! eruptions1 in=ms u t ! great crat] 9 #ahaa fir/ te/ifi$ by its l\d detonations t a column ( lava _h asc5d$ to ne> ! summit ( ! m\nta94 ,a viol5t %ock 0 !n felt1 & a /ream broke out f ! side ( ! cone1 at no great di/ance f its apex4 ,%ortly aft] ?is _h ceas$ to fl[1 a second /ream bur/ =? at ano!r op5+1 consid]ably bel[ ! fir/2 !n a ?ird /ill l[]1 & s on till sev5 diff]5t issues _h be5 ?us successively =m$1 all ly+ ^u ! same /raight l9e4 ,x has be5 suppos$ t ?is l9e 0 a p]p5dicul> r5t 9 ! int]nal framework ( ! m\nta91 :i* r5t 0 probably n produc$ at "o %ock1 b prolong$ successively d[nw>ds1 by ! lat]al pressure & int5se heat ( ! int]nal column ( lava1 z x subsid$ by gradual dis*>ge ?r\gh ea* v5t4#efh ,eruption ( #ahai4--;,9 #ahai ?ree l>ge m\?s or cav]ns op5$ v ne> ^? :i* 7 =m$ 9 ! eruptions ( #ahaa1 f :i* flames1 r$-hot c9d]s1 & s& 7 ?r[n up ) l\d explosions4 ,a few m9utes aft]w>ds ano!r m\? op5$ bel[1 f :i* flames & smoke issu$2 & f9ally a fif?1 l[] /ill1 :5ce a torr5t ( lava fl[$1 :i* spread itself ) great velocity ov] ! deep & broad valley call$ ,val del ,bove4 ,?is /ream fl[$ two miles 9 ! fir/ tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & ne>ly z f> 9 ! succe$+ day & night4 ,! ?ree orig9al m\?s at l5g? unit$ into "o l>ge crat]1 & s5t =? lava1 z did ! inf]ior ap]tures1 s t an enorm\s torr5t p\r$ d[n ! ,val del ,bove4 ,:5 x arriv$ at a va/ & almo/ p]p5dicul> precipice1 at ! head ( ! ,valley ( ,calanna1 x p\r$ ov] 9 a cascade1 &1 be+ h>d5$ 9 its desc5t1 made an inconceivable cra% z x 0 da%$ aga9/ ! bottom4 ,s imm5se 0 ! column ( du/ rais$ by ! abrasion ( ! tuface\s hill ov] :i* ! h>d5$ mass desc5d$1 t ! ,catanians 7 9 great al>m1 suppos+ a new eruption to h bur/ out 9 ! woody region1 exce$+ 9 viol5ce t ne> ! summit ( ,etna4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,view f ! summit ( ,etna into ! ,val del ,bove4#efi ,mode ( advance ( ! lava4--,( ! cones ?r[n up dur+ ?is eruption1 n m ?an two are ( suffici5t magnitude to be numb]$ among ^? eighty :i* 7 be=e describ$ z adorn+ ! flanks ( ,etna4 ,! surface ( ! lava :i* delug$ ! ,val del ,bove1 consi/s ( rocky & angul> blocks1 toss$ toge!r 9 ! utmo/ disord]4 ,no?+ c be m rugg$1 or m unlike ! smoo? & ev5 sup]ficies1 :i* ^? :o are unacqua9t$ ) volcanic c\ntries may h pictur$ to !mselves1 9 a mass ( matt] :i* _h consolidat$ f a liquid /ate4 ,mr4 ,scrope obs]v$ ?is curr5t 9 ! ye> #ahai1 sl[ly advanc+ d[n a consid]able slope1 at ! rate ( ab\t a y>d an h\r1 n9e mon?s aft] its emission4 ,! l[] /ratum be+ arre/$ by ! resi/ance ( ! gr\nd1 ! upp] or c5tral "p gradually protrud$ itself1 &1 be+ unsupport$1 fell d[n4 ,?is 9 its turn 0 cov]$ by a mass ( m liquid lava1 :i* swell$ ov] x f above4 ,! curr5t _h all ! appe>ance ( a huge heap ( r\gh & l>ge c9d]s roll+ ov] & ov] ^u itself by ! effect ( an extremely sl[ propulsion f beh9d4 ,! contraction ( ! cru/ z x solidifi$1 & ! friction ( ! scori=m cakes aga9/ "o ano!r1 produc$ a crackl+ s\nd4 ,)9 ! crevices a dull r$ heat might be se5 by night1 & vapor issu+ 9 consid]able quantity 0 visible by day4#egj ,x 0 /at$ t :5 ! lava ( #ahai arriv$ at ! head ( ! ,valley ( ,calanna1 aft] fl[+ d[n ! ,val del ,bove1 x desc5d$ 9 a cascade4 ,?is /ream1 9 fact1 l _m previ\s curr5ts ( lava :i* h fl[$ d[n successively f ! high] regions ( ,etna1 0 turn$ by a great promontory project+ f ! s\!rn side ( ! ,val del ,bove4 ,?is promontory consi/s ( ! hills call$ ,zocol>o & ,calanna1 & ( a ridge ( inf]ior height :i* connects !m4 7,see fig4 #ec47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,a1 ,zocol>o4 ,b1 ,monte di ,calanna4 ,c1 ,pla9 at ! head ( ! ,valley ( ,calanna4 a1 ,lava ( #ahai desc5d+ ! precipice & fl[+ ?r\gh ! valley4 b1 ,lavas ( #ahaa & #ahai fl[+ r\nd ! hill ( ,calanna4 ,x happ5$ 9 #ahaa & #ahai t ! fl[s ( lava ov]topp$ ! ridge int]v5+ betwe5 ! hills ( ,zocol>o & ,calanna1 s t !y fell 9 a cascade ov] a l(ty precipice1 & began to fill up ! valley ( ,calanna 7a1 fig4 #ec74 ,o!r portions ( ! same lava-curr5t 7b7 fl[$ r\nd ! promontory1 & !y exhibit "o ( ! peculi> *>act]i/ics ( su* /reams1 namely t ( becom+ solid ext]nally1 ev5 :ile yet 9 motion4 ,in/ead ( ?9n+ out gradually at _! edges1 _! sides may (t5 be comp>$ to two rocky walls :i* are sometimes incl9$ at an angle ( betwe5 ?irty & =ty degrees4 ,:5 su* /reams are turn$ f _! c\rse by a project+ rock1 !y move "r onw>ds 9 a new direction2 & 9 ! ,valley ( ,calanna a consid]able space has ?us be5 left betwe5 ! /eep sides ( ! lavas b b1 s deflect$1 & ! precipit\s esc>pm5t ( ,zocol>o1 ,a1 :i* b\nds ! pla9 ,c4 ,lavas & breccias4--,9 reg>d to ! volcanic masses :i* are int]sect$ by dikes 9 ! ,val del ,bove1 !y consi/ 9 great "p ( gray/one lavas1 ( an int]m$iate "* betwe5 basalt & tra*yte1 & p>tly ( porphyritic lava resembl+ tra*yte1 b to :i* t "n _c1 accord+ to ,von ,bu* & ,g4 ,rose1 be 9 /rictness appli$1 because ! felsp> belongs to ! v>iety call$ ,labradorite4 ,!re is great simil>ity 9 ! composition ( ! anci5t & mod]n lavas ( ,etna1 bo? consi/+ ( felsp>1 augite1 oliv9e1 & titanif]\s iron4 ,! alt]nat+ breccias are made up ( scoriae1 s&1 & angul> blocks ( lava4 ,_m ( ^! fragm5ts may h be5 ?r[n out by volcanic explosions1 :i*1 fall+ on ! h>d5$ surface ( mov+ lava-curr5ts1 may h be5 c>ri$ to a consid]able di/ance4 ,x may also happ5 t :5 lava advances v sl[ly1 9 ! mann] ( ! fl[ ( #ahai1 ! angul> masses result+ f ! frequ5t break+ ( ! mass z x rolls ov] ^u itself1 may produce ^! breccias4 ,x is at lea/ c]ta9 t ! upp] portion ( ! lava-curr5ts ( #ahaa & #ahai n[ consi/ ( angul> masses to ! dep? ( _m y>ds4 ,d',aubuisson has comp>$ ! surface ( "o ( ! anci5t lavas ( ,auv]gne to t ( a riv] sudd5ly froz5 ov] by ! /oppage ( imm5se fragm5ts ( drift-ice1 a description p]fectly applicable to ^! mod]n ,etnean fl[s4 ,! ?ickness ( ! sep>ate b$s ( conglom]ate or breccia :i* are se5 9 ! same v]tical section1 is (t5 extremely diff]5t1 v>y+ f #c to ne>ly #ej feet1 z ,i obs]v$ 9 ! hill ( ,calanna4 ,flood produc$ by ! melt+ ( sn[ by lava4--,x is possible t "s ( ! breccias or conglom]ates may be ref]r$ to aque\s causes1 z great floods occasionally sweep d[n ! flanks ( ,etna1 :5 eruptions take place 9 w9t]1 & :5 ! sn[s are melt$ by lava4 ,x is true t runn+ wat] 9 g5]al ex]ts no p[] on ,etna1 ! ra9 :i* falls be+ imm$iately imbib$ by ! por\s lavas2 s t1 va/ z is ! ext5t ( ! m\nta91 x fe$s only a few small rivulets1 & ^!1 ev51 are dry ?r\gh\t ! great] portion ( ! ye>4 ,! enorm\s r\nd$ b\ld]s1 !re=e1 ( felsp>-porphyry & basalt1 a l9e ( :i* c be trac$ f ! sea1 f ne> ,gi>d9i1 by ,mascali1 & ,zaf>ana1 to ! ,val del ,bove1 w\ld (f] a p]plex+ problem to ! geologi/1 if hi/ory _h n pres]v$ ! memorials ( a trem5d\s flood :i* happ5$ 9 ?is di/rict 9 ! ye> #agee4 ,x appe>s t two /reams ( lava fl[$ 9 t ye>1 on ! #b;d ( ,m>*1 f ! highe/ crat]2 !y 7 imm$iately precipitat$ ^u an enorm\s mass ( sn[ :i* !n cov]$ ! :ole m\nta91 & 0 extremely deep ne> ! summit4 ,! sudd5 melt+ ( ?is froz5 mass1 by a fi]y torr5t ?ree miles 9 l5g?1 produc$ a frightful inundation1 :i* deva/at$ ! sides ( ! m\nta9 = eight miles 9 l5g?1 & aft]w>ds cov]$ ! l[] flanks ( ,etna1 :]e !y 7 less /eep1 toge!r ) ! pla9s ne> ! sea1 ) great deposits ( s&1 scoriae1 & blocks ( lava4 ,_m absurd /ories circulat$ 9 ,sicily respect+ ?is ev5t2 su* z t ! wat] 0 boil+1 & t x 0 vomit$ f ! highe/ crat]2 t x 0 z salt z ! sea1 & full ( m>9e %ells2 b ^! 7 m]e inv5tions1 to :i* ,recup]o1 al?\gh he relates !m z tales ( ! m\nta9e]s1 seems to h atta*$ r too mu* importance4 ,floods ( consid]able viol5ce h also be5 produc$ on ,etna by ! fall ( heavy ra9s1 aid$1 probably1 by ! melt+ ( sn[4 ,by ?is cause alone1 9 #agfa1 sixty ( ! inhabitants ( ,acicat5a 7 kill$1 & _m ( _! h\ses swept away4#ega ,glaci] cov]$ by a lava-/ream4--,a rem>kable discov]y 0 made on ,etna 9 #ahbh ( a great mass ( ice1 pres]v$ = _m ye>s1 p]haps = c5turies1 f melt+1 by ! s+ul> accid5t ( a curr5t ( r$-hot lava hav+ fl[$ ov] x4 ,! foll[+ are ! facts 9 atte/ation ( a ph5om5on :i* mu/ at fir/ sight appe> ( s p>adoxical a "*4 ,! extraord9>y heat exp]i5c$ 9 ! ,s\? ( ,europe1 dur+ ! summ] & autumn ( #ahbh1 caus$ ! supplies ( sn[ & ice :i* _h be5 pres]v$ 9 ! spr+ ( t ye>1 = ! use ( ,catania & ! adjo9+ p>ts ( ,sicily & ! isl& ( ,malta1 to fail entirely4 ,great di/ress 0 consequ5tly felt = want ( a commodity reg>d$ 9 ^? c\ntries z "o ( ! necess>ies ( life r ?an an article ( luxury1 & ! abundance ( :i* contributes 9 "s ( ! l>g] cities to ! salubrity ( ! wat] & ! g5]al heal? ( ! community4 ,! magi/rates ( ,catania appli$ to ,signor ,m4 ,gemmell>o1 9 ! hope t 8 local k ( ,etna might enable him to po9t out "s crevice or natural grotto on ! m\nta91 :]e drift-sn[ 0 /ill pres]v$4 ,nor 7 !y disappo9t$2 = he _h long suspect$ t a small mass ( p]5nial ice at ! foot ( ! highe/ cone 0 "p ( a l>ge & cont9u\s glaci] cov]$ by a lava-curr5t4 ,hav+ procur$ a l>ge body ( workm51 he qu>ri$ into ?is ice1 & prov$ ! sup]position ( ! lava = sev]al hundr$ y>ds1 s z completely to satisfy himself t no?+ b ! subsequ5t fl[+ ( ! lava ov] ! ice c\ld acc\nt = ! position ( ! glaci]4 ,un=tunately = ! geologi/1 ! ice 0 s extremely h>d1 & ! excavation s exp5sive1 t !re is no probability ( ! op]ations be+ r5ew$4 ,on ! fir/ ( ,decemb]1 #ahbh1 ,i visit$ ?is spot1 :i* is on ! s\!a/ side ( ! cone1 & n f> above ! ,casa ,+lese2 b ! fre% sn[ _h already ne>ly fill$ up ! new op5+1 s t x _h only ! appe>ance ( ! m\? ( a grotto4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 "q ! accuracy ( ! conclusion ( ,sign] ,gemmell>o1 :o1 be+ well acqua9t$ ) all ! appe>ances ( drift-sn[ 9 ! fissures & cavities ( ,etna1 _h recogniz$1 ev5 be=e ! late excavations1 ! peculi>ity ( ! position ( ! ice 9 ?is locality4 ,we may suppose t1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! eruption1 a deep mass ( drift-sn[ _h be5 cov]$ by volcanic s& %[]$ d[n ^u x be=e ! desc5t ( ! lava4 ,a d5se /ratum ( ?is f9e du/ mix$ ) scoriae is well kn[n to be an extremely bad conductor ( heat2 & ! %eph]ds 9 ! high] regions ( ,etna are accu/om$ to provide wat] = _! flocks dur+ summ]1 by /rew+ a lay] ( volcanic s& a few in*es ?ick ov] ! sn[1 :i* effectually prev5ts ! heat ( ! sun f p5etrat+4 ,suppose ! mass ( sn[ to h be5 pres]v$ f liquefaction until ! l[] "p ( ! lava _h consolidat$1 we may !n readily conceive t a glaci] ?us protect$1 at ! height ( t5 ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! sea1 w\ld endure z long z ! sn[s ( ,mont ,blanc1 unless melt$ by volcanic heat f bel[4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ! great crat] 9 ! beg9n+ ( w9t] 7,decemb] #a/1 #ahbh71 ,i f\nd ! crevices 9 ! int]ior incru/$ ) ?ick ice1 & 9 "s cases hot vapors 7 actually /ream+ out betwe5 masses ( ice & ! rugg$ & /eep walls ( ! crat]4#egb ,aft] ! discov]y ( ,signor ,gemmell>o1 x w\ld n be surpris+ to f9d 9 ! cones ( ! ,icel&ic volcanoes1 :i* are cov]$ = ! mo/ "p ) p]petual sn[1 repeat$ alt]nations ( lava-/reams & glaci]s4 ,we h1 inde$1 ,lieut5ant ,k5dall's au?ority = ! fact t ,deception ,isl&1 9 ,new ,s\? ,%etl&1 lat4 #fb degrees4 #ee m9utes ,s41 is pr9cipally compos$ ( alt]nate lay]s ( volcanic a%es & ice4#egc ,orig9 ( ! ,val del ,bove4--,x is record$1 z w be /at$ 9 ! hi/ory ( e>?quakes 7*4 #bi71 t 9 ! ye> #aggb a great subsid5ce took place on ,pap&ayang1 ! l>ge/ volcano 9 ! isl& ( ,java2 an ext5t ( gr\nd fifte5 miles 9 l5g?1 & six 9 bread?1 cov]$ by no less ?an =ty villages1 0 engulph$1 & ! cone lo/ #djjj feet ( its height4 ,9 l mann] ! summit ( ,c>guairazo1 "o ( ! l(tie/ ( ! ,&es ( ,quito1 fell 9 on ! #ai? ,july1 #afih2 & ano!r m\nta9 ( /ill great] altitude 9 ! same *a91 call$ ,capac ,urcu1 a %ort "t be=e ! conque/ ( ,am]ica by ! ,spani>ds4 ,x w also be se5 9 ! next *apt] t1 s late z ! ye> #ahbb1 dur+ a viol5t e>?quake & volcanic eruption 9 ,java1 "o side ( ! m\nta9 call$ ,galongoon1 :i* 0 cov]$ by a d5se =e/1 became an enorm\s gulf 9 ! =m ( a semicircle4 ,! new cavity 0 ab\t midway betwe5 ! summit & ! pla91 & surr\nd$ by /eep rocks4 ,n[ we might imag9e a simil> ev5t1 or a s]ies ( subsid5ces to h =m]ly occurr$ on ! ea/]n side ( ,etna1 al?\gh su* cata/rophes h n be5 witness$ 9 mod]n times1 or only on a v trifl+ scale4 ,a n>r[ rav9e1 ab\t a mile long1 tw5ty feet wide1 & f tw5ty to ?irty-six 9 dep?1 has be5 =m$1 )9 ! hi/orical era1 on ! flanks ( ! volcano1 ne> ! t[n ( ,mascalucia2 & a small circul> tract1 call$ ! ,ci/]na1 ne> ! summit1 sank d[n 9 ! ye> #agib1 to ! dep? ( ab\t =ty feet1 & left on all sides ( ! *asm a v]tical section ( ! b$s1 exactly resembl+ ^? :i* are se5 9 ! precipices ( ! ,val del ,bove4 ,at "s remote p]iods1 !re=e1 we might suppose m ext5sive portions ( ! m\nta9 to h fall5 9 dur+ great e>?quakes4 ,b we ought n to exclude entirely f our speculations ano!r possible ag5cy1 by :i* ! great cavity may 9 "p at lea/ h be5 excavat$1 namely1 ! d5ud+ action ( ! sea4 ,:e!r its waves may once h _h access to ! great valley be=e ! anci5t portion ( ,etna 0 upheav$ to its pres5t elevation1 is a "q :i* w naturally pres5t itself to e geologi/4 ,m>9e %ells h be5 trac$ to a height ( #hjj feet above ! base ( ,etna1 & w\ld d\btless be se5 to asc5d mu* high]1 7 n ! /ructure ( ! l[] region ( ! m\nta9 conceal$ by floods ( lava4 ,we _c asc]ta9 to :at ext5t a *ange 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea may h be5 c>ri$ 9 ?is spot1 b we "k t "s ( ! t]ti>y /rata 9 ,sicily ( no anci5t date rea* a height ( #cjjj feet1 & ! m>9e deposits on ! flanks ( ,etna1 full ( rec5t species ( %ells1 may asc5d to equal or great] heights4 ,! n>r[ ,valley ( ,calanna lead+ out ( ! ,val del ,bove1 & t ( ,san ,giacomo l[] d[n1 h mu* ! appe>ance ( rav9es swept out by aque\s action4 ,/ructure & orig9 ( ! cone ( ,etna4--,our data = fram+ a correct !ory ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! cone ( ,etna has acquir$ its pres5t dim5sions & int]nal /ructure are v imp]fect1 because x is on its ea/]n side only1 9 ! ,val del ,bove above describ$1 t we see a deep section expos$4 ,ev5 "h we obta9 no insight into ! int]ior composition ( ! m\nta9 beyond a dep? ( betwe5 ?ree & f\r ?\s& feet bel[ ! base ( t highe/ cone1 :i* has be5 sev]al times de/roy$ & r5ew$4 ,! precipices se5 at ! head ( ! ,val del ,bove1 9 ! esc>pm5t call$ ! ,s]re del ,solfizio1 exhibit m]ely ! same s]ies ( alt]nat+ lavas & breccias1 :i*1 desc5d+ ) a g5]al dip t[>ds ! sea1 =m ! b\nd>y cliffs ( all o!r p>ts ( ! ,val del ,bove4 ,if !n we e/imate ! height ( ,etna at ab\t #aa1jjj feet1 we may say t we "k f actual obs]vation less ?an "o-half ( its compon5t mat]ials1 assum+ x to ext5d d[nw>ds to ! level ( ! sea2 namely1 fir/1 ! highe/ cone1 :i* is ab\t #ajjj feet above its base2 &1 secondly1 ! alt]nations ( lava1 tuff1 & volcanic breccia1 :i* con/itute ! rocks betwe5 ! ,ci/]na1 ne> ! base ( ! upp] cone1 & ! foot ( ! precipices at ! head ( ! ,val del ,bove4 ,at ! l[e/ po9t to :i* ! v]tical section ext5ds1 !re are no signs ( any approa* to a t]m9ation ( ! purely volcanic mass1 :i* may p]haps p5etrate _m ?\s& feet f>!r d[nw>ds4 ,!re is1 inde$1 a rock call$ ,rocca ,gianicola1 ne> ! foot ( ! great esc>pm5t1 :i* consi/s ( a l>ge mass betwe5 #aej & #bjj feet wide1 n divid$ into b$s1 & almo/ resembl+ granite 9 its /ructure1 al?\gh agree+ v closely 9 m9]al composition ) ! lavas ( ,etna 9 g5]al4#egd ,?is mass may d\btless be tak5 z a repres5tative ( ^? cry/all9e or plutonic =mations :i* w\ld be met ) 9 abundance if we c\ld desc5d to great] dep?s 9 ! direction ( ! c5tral axis ( ! m\nta94 ,= a great body ( geological evid5ce leads u to conclude1 t rocks ( ?is class result f ! consolidation1 "u great pressure1 ( melt$ matt]1 :i* has ris5 up & fill$ r5ts & *asms1 su*1 = example1 z may communicate ) ! pr9cipal & m9or v5ts ( eruption 9 a volcano l ,etna4 ,b1 if we speculate on ! nature ( ! =mation :i* ! lava may h pi]c$ 9 its way upw>ds1 we may fairly presume t a portion ( ^! consi/ ( m>9e t]ti>y rocks1 l ^? ( ! neighbor+ ,val di ,noto1 or ^? :i* skirt ! bord]s ( ! ,etnean cone1 on its s\!rn & ea/]n sides4 ,etna may1 9 fact1 h be5 at fir/ an insul> volcano1 rais+ its summit b slightly above ! level ( ! sea2 b we h no gr\nds = conclud+ t any ( ! b$s expos$ 9 ! deep section ( ! ,val del ,bove h =m$ a "p ( su* a m>9e accumulation4 ,on ! contr>y1 all ! usual signs ( subaque\s orig9 are want+2 & ev5 if we believe ! f\ndations ( ! m\nta9 to h be5 laid 9 ! sea1 we c\ld n expect ?is portion to be made visible 9 sections :i* only proce$ d[nw>ds f ! summit ?r\gh "o-half ! ?ickness ( ! m\nta91 especially z ! highe/ po9ts atta9$ by ! t]ti>y /rata 9 o!r p>ts ( ,sicily v r>ely exce$ #cjjj feet above ! sea4 ,on ! ea/]n & s\!rn base ( ,etna1 a m>9e deposit1 already allud$ to1 is trac$ up to ! height ( #hjj or #ajjj feet1 be=e x becomes conceal$ b5ea? t cov]+ ( mod]n lavas :i* is cont9ually ext5d+ its limits dur+ successive eruptions1 & prev5ts u f asc]ta9+ h[ mu* high] ! m>9e /rata may asc5d4 ,z ! imb$d$ %ells belong almo/ entirely to species n[ inhabit+ ! ,m$it]ranean1 x is evid5t t !re has be5 "h an upheaval ( ! region at ! base ( ,etna at a v mod]n p]iod4 ,x is fair1 !re=e1 to inf] t ! volcanic nucleus ( ! m\nta91 p>tly p]haps ( subm>9e1 & p>tly ( suba]ial orig91 p>ticipat$ 9 ?is movem5t1 & 0 c>ri$ up bodily4 ,n[1 9 proportion z a cone ga9s height by su* a movem5t1 comb9$ ) ! cumulative effects ( eruptions1 ?r[+ out matt] successively f "o or m c5tral v5ts1 ! hydro/atic pressure ( ! columns ( lava augm5ts ) _! increas+ height1 until ! "t arrives :5 ! flanks ( ! cone c no long] resi/ ! increas$ pressure2 & f t p]iod !y give way m readily1 lat]al outbur/s becom+ m frequ5t4 ,h5ce1 indep5d5tly ( any local expansion ( ! fractur$ volcanic mass1 ^? g5]al causes by :i* ! mod]n t]ti>y /rata ( a great "p ( ,sicily h be5 rais$ to ! height ( sev]al ?\s& feet above _! orig9al level1 w\ld t5d naturally to r5d] ! dis*>ge ( lava & scoriae f ! summit ( ,etna less copi\s1 & ! lat]al dis*>ge great]4 ,if1 !n1 a conical or dome-%ap$ mass ( volcanic mat]ials 0 accumulat$ to ! height ( #djjj1 or p]haps #gjjj feet1 be=e ! upw>d movem5t began1 or1 :at is mu* m probable1 dur+ ! cont9uance ( ! upw>d movem5t1 t anci5t mass w\ld n be buri$ "u ! products ( new] eruptions1 because ^! la/ w\ld !n be p\r$ out *iefly at a l[] level4 ,s9ce ,i visit$ ,etna 9 #ahbh1 ,m4 de ,beaumont has publi%$ a mo/ valuable memoir on ! /ructure & orig9 ( t m\nta91 :i* he exam9$ 9 #ahcd2ege & an excell5t description ( x has also appe>$ 9 ! po/hum\s "w ( ,h(fmann4#egf ,9 ,m4 de ,beaumont's essay1 9 :i* he has expla9$ 8 views ) uncommon p]spicuity & tal5t1 he ma9ta9s t all ! alt]nat+ /ony & fragm5t>y b$s1 m ?an #cjjj feet ?ick1 :i* are expos$ 9 ! ,val del ,bove1 7 =m$ orig9ally on a surface s ne>ly flat t ! slope nev] exce$$ ?ree degrees4 ,f ?is horizontal position !y 7 at l5g? heav$ up sudd5ly 7d'un seul c\p7 into a great m\nta91 to :i* no important additions h s9ce be5 made4 ,prior to ?is up?r[1 a plat=m is suppos$ to h exi/$ above ! level ( ! sea1 9 :i* v>i\s fissures op5$2 & f ^! melt$ matt] 0 p\r$ =? aga9 & aga91 :i* spread itself ar\nd 9 ?9 %eets ( uni=m ?ickness4 ,f ! same r5ts issu$ %[]s ( scoriae & fragm5t>y matt]1 :i* 7 spread out s z to =m equally uni=m & horizontal b$s1 int]v5+ betwe5 ! %eets ( lava4 ,b al?\gh1 by ! cont9u$ repetition ( ^! op]ations1 a va/ pile ( volcanic matt]1 #djjj feet or m 9 ?ickness1 0 built up precisely 9 t region :]e ,etna n[ rises1 & to :i* no?+ simil> 0 produc$ else:]e 9 ,sicily1 /ill we are told t ,etna 0 n yet a m\nta94 ,no hypo!tical diagram has be5 giv5 to help u to conceive h[ ?is great mass ( mat]ials ( supram>9e orig9 c\ld h be5 dispos$ ( 9 horizontal b$s1 s z n to con/itute an em95ce t[]+ f> above ! re/ ( ,sicily2 b x is assum$ t a p[]ful =ce f bel[ at l5g? bur/ sudd5ly ?r\gh ! horizontal =mation1 uplift$ x to a consid]able height1 & caus$ ! b$s to be1 9 _m places1 highly incl9$4 ,?is elevatory =ce 0 n all exp5d$ on a s+le c5tral po9t z ,von ,bu* has imag9$ 9 ! case ( ,palma1 ,t5]iffe1 or ,somma1 b r foll[$ = a %ort di/ance a l9e> direction4#egg ,among o!r objections t may be advanc$ aga9/ ! !ory above propos$1 ,i may m5tion1 fir/1 t ! increas+ numb] ( dikes z we approa* ! head ( ! ,val del ,bove1 or ! middle ( ,etna1 & ! great ?ickness ( lava1 scoriae1 & conglom]ates 9 t region1 imply t ! great c5tre ( eruption 0 always :]e x n[ is1 or ne>ly at ! same po9t1 & !re mu/1 !re=e1 h be5 a t5d5cy1 f ! beg9n+1 to a conical or dome-%ap$ arrangem5t 9 ! eject$ mat]ials4 ,secondly1 7 we to admit a great numb] ( sep>ate po9ts ( eruption1 scatt]$ ov] a pla9 or plat=m1 !re mu/ h be5 a great numb] ( cones ?r[n up ov] ^! diff]5t v5ts2 & ^! hills1 "s ( :i* w\ld probably be z l(ty z ^? n[ se5 on ! flanks ( ,etna1 or f #cjj to #gej feet 9 height1 w\ld break ! cont9uity ( ! %eets ( lava1 :ile !y w\ld become gradually envelop$ by !m4 ,! eject$ mat]ials1 moreov]1 w\ld slope at a high angle on ! sides ( ^! cones1 & :]e !y fell on ! surr\nd+ pla91 w\ld =m /rata ?ick] ne> ! base ( ea* cone ?an at a di/ance4 ,:at !n are ! facts1 x w be ask$1 to acc\nt = :i* ?is hypo!sis ( orig9al horizontality1 foll[$ by a s+le & sudd5 ef=t ( upheaval1 :i* gave to ! b$s _! pres5t slope1 has be5 inv5t$8 ,m4 de ,beaumont obs]ves1 t 9 ! b\nd>y precipices ( ! ,val del ,bove1 %eets ( lava & int]calat$ b$s ( c9d]s1 mix$ ) pulv]ul5t & fragm5t>y matt] evid5tly ca/ out dur+ eruptions1 are sometimes incl9$ at /eep angles1 v>y+ f #ae degrees4 to #bg degrees4 ,x is impossible1 he says1 t ! lavas c\ld h fl[$ orig9ally on planes s /eeply incl9$1 = /reams :i* desc5d a slope ev5 ( #aj degrees =m n>r[ /ripes1 & nev] acquire su* a compact texture4 ,_! ?ickness1 moreov]1 always inconsid]able1 v>ies ) e v>iation ( /eepness1 9 ! declivity d[n :i* !y fl[2 :]eas1 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! ,val del ,bove1 ! %eets ( lava are cont9u\s = great di/ances1 9 spite ( _! /eep incl9ation1 & are (t5 compact1 & p]fectly p>allel "o to ! o!r1 ev5 :]e !re are m ?an #ajj b$s ( int]polat$ fragm5t>y matt]4 ,! int]sect+ dikes also t]m9ate upw>ds 9 _m in/ances1 at diff]5t elevations1 & bl5d 7or1 z ,m4 de ,beaumont t]ms x1 articulate7 ) %eets ( lava1 :i* !y meet at "r angles4 ,x is !re=e assum$ t su* dikes 7 ! fe$]s ( ! /reams ( lava ) :i* !y unite1 & !y are suppos$ to prove t ! plat=m1 on ! surface ( :i* ! melt$ matt] 0 p\r$ out1 0 at fir/ s flat1 t ! fluid mass spread freely & equally 9 e direction1 & n t[>ds "o po9t only ( ! compass1 z w\ld happ5 if x _h desc5d$ ! slop+ sides ( a cone4 ,?is argum5t is +5i\sly & pla9ly put 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3--,_h ! melt$ matt] p\r$ d[n an incl9$ plane1 aft] issu+ f a r5t1 ! %eet ( lava w\ld1 aft] consolidation1 h =m$ an elb[ ) ! dike1 l ! upp] b> ( ! lett] ,f1 in/ead ( ext5d+ itself on bo? sides l t ( a ,t4#egh ,x is also cont5d$ t a s]ies ( %eets ( lava1 =m$ on a conical or dome-%ap$ m\nta91 w\ld h be5 m num]\s at po9ts f>!/ f ! c5tral axis1 s9ce e dike :i* _h be5 ! s\rce ( a lava-/ream1 mu/ h p\r$ its cont5ts d[nw>ds1 & nev] upw>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,dikes z !y w\ld n[ appe> _h !y be5 orig9ally p]p5dicul>4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! facts "h /at$1 ,i may m5tion t ! dikes :i* ,i saw 9 ! ,val del ,bove 7 ei!r v]tical1 or made almo/ all ( !m a ne> approa* to ! p]p5dicul>1 :i* c\ld n h be5 ! case _h !y be5 ! fe$]s ( horizontal b$s ( lava1 & _h !y consequ5tly jo9$ !m orig9ally at "r angles1 = !n ! dikes1 z at a1 b1 c1 fig4 #ed1 ought subsequ5tly to h acquir$ a consid]able slope1 l ! b$s :i* !y int]sect4 ,i may also urge ano!r objection to ! views above set =?1 namely1 t _h ! dikes be5 l9e> v5ts1 or orifices ( eruption1 we mu/ suppose ! int]-/ratifi$ scoriae & lapilli1 z well z ! lavas1 to h come out ( !m1 & 9 t case ! irregul> heap+ up ( fragm5t>y matt] ar\nd ! v5ts w\ld1 z be=e h9t$1 h di/urb$ t uni=m ?ickness & p>allelism ( ! b$s :i* ,m4 de ,beaumont describes4 ,if1 h[ev]1 "s ( ! %eets ( lava jo9 ! dikes 9 su* a mann]1 z to imply t !y 7 9 a melt$ /ate simultane\sly ) ! cont5ts ( ! fissures1--a po9t n easily asc]ta9$1 :]e ! precipices are = ! mo/ "p inaccessible1--! fact may admit ( a diff]5t int]pretation f t propos$ by ! ,fr5* geologi/s4 ,r5ts l ^? be=e allud$ to 7p4 #cii71 :i* op5$ 9 ! pla9 ( ,s4 ,lio 9 #affi1 fill$ bel[ ) inc&esc5t lava1 may h la9 9 ! way ( curr5ts ( melt$ matt] desc5d+ f high] op5+s4 ,9 t case1 ! matt] ( ! curr5t w\ld h fl[$ into ! fissure & mix$ ) ! lava at its bottom4 ,num]\s op5 r5ts ( ?is k9d are describ$ by ,mr4 ,dana z hav+ be5 caus$1 dur+ a late eruption1 9 "o ( ! volcanic domes ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s4 ,!y rema9$ op5 at v>i\s heights on ! slopes ( ! great cone1 runn+ 9 diff]5t directions1 & demon/rate ! possibility ( future junctions ( slightly incl9$ lava-/reams ) p]p5dicul> walls ( lava4 ,to me1 !re=e1 x appe>s f> m easy to expla9 ! uni=m ?ickness & p>allelism ( s _m lavas & b$s ( fragm5t>y matt] se5 9 ! ,val del ,bove1 by suppos+ !m to h issu$ successively out ( "o or m high] v5ts ne> ! summit ( a great dome1 ?an to imag9e !m to h proce$$ f lat]al dikes or r5ts op5+ 9 a level pla94 ,9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 we h examples ( volcanic domes #ae1jjj feet high1 produc$ by successive outp\r+s f v5ts at or ne> ! summit4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,m\nt ,loa1 has a slope 9 all directions ( #f degrees #cj m9utes2 ano!r1 ,m\nt ,kea1 a mean incl9ation ( #g degrees #df m9utes4 ,t _! lavas may occasionally consolidate on slopes ( #be degrees1 & ev5 m1 & /ill pres]ve consid]able solidity ( texture1 has be5 already /at$2 see above1 p4 #chc4 ,we "k n h[ l>ge a quantity ( mod]n lava may h be5 p\r$ into ! bottom ( ! ,val del ,bove1 yet we p]ceive t eruptions break+ =? ne> ! c5tre ( ,etna h already made "s progress 9 fill+ up ?is great holl[4 ,ev5 )9 ! memory ( p]sons n[ liv+1 ! rocks ( ,mus>a & ,capra h1 z be=e /at$1 lo/ mu* ( _! height & picturesque gr&eur by ! pil+ up ( rec5t lavas r\nd _! base 7see fig4 #ea1 p4 #djh71 & ! great *asm has int]cept$ _m /reams :i* w\ld o!rwise h delug$ ! f]tile region bel[1 z has happ5$ on ! side ( ,catania4 ,! volcanic =ces are n[ labor+1 !re=e1 to repair ! brea* :i* subsid5ce has caus$ on "o side ( ! great cone2 & unless _! en]gy %\ld decl9e1 or a new s9k+ take place1 !y may 9 "t efface ?is inequality4 ,9 t ev5t1 ! re/or$ portion w always be uncon=mable to ! m anci5t "p1 yet x w consi/1 l x1 ( alt]nat+ b$s ( lava1 scoriae21 & conglom]ates1 :i*1 ) all _! irregul>ities1 w h a g5]al slope f ! c5tre & summit ( ,etna t[>ds ! sea4 ,i %all conclude1 !n1 by rem>k+ t ,i conceive ! g5]al incl9ation ( ! alt]nat+ /ony & fragm5t>y b$s ( ! ,val del ,bove1 f ! axis ( ,etna t[>ds its circumf]5ce or base1 & ! great] ?ickness ( ! volcanic pile z we approa* ! c5tral p>ts ( ! m\nta91 to be due to ! prepond]ance ( eruptions f t c5tre4 ,^! gave rise1 f ! fir/1 to a dome-%ap$ mass1 :i* has ev] s9ce be5 increas+ 9 height & area1 be+ fractur$ aga9 & aga9 by ! expansive =ce ( vapors1 & ! sev]al p>ts made to coh]e toge!r m firmly aft] ! solidification ( ! lava ) :i* e op5 fissure & *asm has be5 fill$4 ,at ! same "t ! cone may h ga9$ a portion ( its height by ! elevatory effect ( su* dislocat+ movem5ts1 & ! %eets ( lava may h acquir$ 9 "s places a great]1 9 o!rs a less1 incl9ation ?an t :i* at fir/ belong$ to !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,non-volcanic protub]ance & valley ( elevation4 ,b _h ! m\nta9 be5 due solely1 or ev5 pr9cipally1 to upheaval1 its /ructure w\ld h resembl$ t :i* geologi/s h s (t5 recogniz$ 9 dome-%ap$ hills1 or c]ta9 elevat$ regions1 :i* all consid] z hav+ be5 ?ru/ up by a =ce f bel[4 ,9 ?is case !re is (t5 an elliptical cavity at ! summit1 due p>tly to ! fracture ( ! uprais$ rocks1 b /ill m to aque\s d5udation1 z !y rose out ( ! sea4 ,! c5tral cavity1 or valley1 exposes to view ! subjac5t =mation c1 fig4 #ee1 & ! incumb5t mass dips away on all sides f ! axis1 b has no t5d5cy to ?9 out ne> ! base ( ! dome1 or at x1 x2 :]eas at ?is po9t ! volcanic mass t]m9ates 7see fig4 #ef7 & all[s ! fundam5tal rock c to appe> at ! surface4 ,9 ! la/ diagram1 ! m ord9>y case is repres5t$ ( a great holl[ or crat] at ! summit ( ! volcanic cone2 b in/ead ( ?is1 we h se5 t 9 ! case ( ,etna !re is a deep lat]al depression1 call$ ! ,val del ,bove1 ! upp] "p ( :i* approa*es ne> to ! c5tral axis1 & ! orig9 ( :i* we h attribut$ to subsid5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,volcanic m\nta9 & crat]4 ,antiquity ( ! cone ( ,etna4--,x 0 be=e rem>k$ t conf9$ notions 9 reg>d to ! quantity ( pa/ "t h t5d$1 m ?an any o!r prepossessions1 to ret>d ! progress ( s\nd !oretical views 9 geology2#egi ! inadequacy ( our conceptions ( ! e>?'s antiquity hav+ cramp$ ! fre$om ( our speculations 9 ?is sci5ce1 v mu* 9 ! same way z a belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( a vault$ firmam5t once ret>d$ ! progress ( a/ronomy4 ,x 0 n until ,desc>tes assum$ ! indef9ite ext5t ( ! cele/ial spaces1 & remov$ ! suppos$ b\nd>ies ( ! univ]se1 t j op9ions began to be ent]ta9$ ( ! relative di/ances ( ! heav5ly bodies2 & until we habituate ourselves to contemplate ! possibility ( an indef9ite lapse ( ages hav+ be5 compris$ )9 ea* ( ! mod]n p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 we %all be 9 dang] ( =m+ mo/ errone\s & p>tial views 9 geology4 ,if hi/ory _h bequea!d to u a fai?ful record ( ! eruptions ( ,etna1 & a hundr$ o!r ( ! pr9cipal active volcanoes ( ! globe1 dur+ ! la/ ?ree ?\s& ye>s1--if we _h an exact acc\nt ( ! volume ( lava & matt] eject$ dur+ t p]iod1 & ! times ( _! production1--we might1 p]haps1 be able to =m a correct e/imate ( ! av]age rate ( ! gr[? ( a volcanic cone4 ,= we might obta9 a mean result f ! comp>ison ( ! eruptions ( s great a numb] ( v5ts1 h[ev] irregul> might be ! developm5t ( ! igne\s action 9 any "o ( !m1 if contemplat$ s+ly dur+ a brief p]iod4 ,x w\ld be necess>y to balance protract$ p]iods ( inaction aga9/ ! occasional outbur/ ( p>oxysmal explosions4 ,sometimes we %\ld h evid5ce ( a repose ( sev5te5 c5turies1 l t :i* 0 int]pos$ 9 ,is*ia1 betwe5 ! end ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4,c41 & ! beg9n+ ( ! f\rte5? c5tury ( our era4#ehj ,occasionally a trem5d\s eruption1 l t ( ,jorullo1 w\ld be record$1 giv+ rise1 at once1 to a consid]able m\nta94 ,if we desire to approximate to ! age ( a cone su* z ,etna1 we ought fir/ to obta9 "s data 9 reg>d to ! ?ickness ( matt] :i* has be5 add$ dur+ ! hi/orical era1 & !n endeavor to e/imate ! "t requir$ = ! accumulation ( su* alt]nat+ lavas & b$s ( s& & scoriae z are sup]impos$ ^u ea* o!r 9 ! ,val del ,bove2 aft]w>ds we %\ld try to d$uce1 f obs]vations on o!r volcanoes1 ! m or less rapid increase ( burn+ m\nta9s 9 all ! diff]5t /ages ( _! gr[?4 ,!re is a consid]able analogy betwe5 ! mode ( increase ( a volcanic cone & t ( trees ( exog5\s gr[?4 ,^! trees augm5t1 bo? 9 height & diamet]1 by ! successive application ext]nally ( cone ^u cone ( new ligne\s matt]2 s t if we make a transv]se section ne> ! base ( ! trunk1 we int]sect a mu* great] numb] ( lay]s ?an ne>] to ! summit4 ,:5 bran*es occasionally %oot out f ! trunk1 !y fir/ pi]ce ! b>k1 & !n1 aft] gr[+ to a c]ta9 size1 if !y *ance to be brok5 (f1 !y may become inclos$ 9 ! body ( ! tree1 z x augm5ts 9 size1 =m+ knots 9 ! wood1 :i* are !mselves compos$ ( lay]s ( ligne\s matt]1 cone )9 cone4 ,9 l mann]1 a volcanic m\nta91 z we h se51 consi/s ( a succession ( conical masses envelop+ o!rs1 :ile lat]al cones1 hav+ a simil> int]nal /ructure1 (t5 project1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 l bran*es f ! surface ( ! ma9 cone1 & !n becom+ buri$ aga91 are hidd5 l ! knots ( a tree4 ,we c asc]ta9 ! age ( an oak or p9e by c\nt+ ! numb] ( conc5tric r+s ( annual gr[? se5 9 a transv]se section ne> ! base1 s t we may "k ! date at :i* ! se$l+ began to vegetate4 ,! ,baobab-tree ( ,s5egal 7,adansonia digitata7 is suppos$ to exce$ almo/ any o!r 9 longevity4 ,adanson inf]r$ t "o :i* he measur$1 & f\nd to be ?irty feet 9 diamet]1 _h atta9$ ! age ( #eaej ye>s4 ,hav+ made an incision to a c]ta9 dep?1 he fir/ c\nt$ ?ree hundr$ r+s ( annual gr[?1 & obs]v$ :at ?ickness ! tree _h ga9$ 9 t p]iod4 ,! av]age rate ( gr[? ( y\ng] trees1 ( ! same species1 0 !n asc]ta9$1 & ! calculation made accord+ to a suppos$ mean rate ( increase4 ,de ,c&olle consid]s x n improbable t ! celebrat$ ,taxodium ( ,*apultepec1 9 ,mexico 7,cupressus di/i*a1 ,l9n471 :i* is #aag feet 9 circumf]5ce1 may be /ill m ag$4#eha ,x is1 h[ev]1 impossible1 until m data are collect$ respect+ ! av]age int5sity ( ! volcanic action1 to make any ?+ l an approximation to ! age ( a cone l ,etna2 because1 9 ?is case1 ! successive envelopes ( lava & scoriae are n cont9u\s1 l ! lay]s ( wood 9 a tree1 & af=d u no def9ite measure ( "t4 ,ea* conical envelope is made up ( a great numb] ( di/9ct lava-curr5ts & %[]s ( s& & scoriae1 diff]+ 9 quantity1 & :i* may h be5 accumulat$ 9 unequal p]iods ( "t4 ,yet we _c fail to =m ! mo/ exalt$ conception ( ! antiquity ( ?is m\nta91 :5 we consid] t its base is ab\t n9ety miles 9 circumf]5ce2 s t x w\ld require n9ety fl[s ( lava1 ea* a mile 9 bread? at _! t]m9ation1 to raise ! pres5t foot ( ! volcano z mu* z ! av]age height ( "o lava-curr5t4 ,!re are no records )9 ! hi/orical era :i* lead to ! op9ion t ! altitude ( ,etna has mat]ially v>i$ )9 ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s4 ,( ! eighty mo/ conspicu\s m9or cones :i* adorn its flanks1 only "o ( ! l>ge/1 ,monti ,rossi1 has be5 produc$ )9 ! times ( au!ntic hi/ory4 ,ev5 ?is hill1 ?r[n up 9 ! ye> #affi1 al?\gh #dej feet 9 height1 only ranks z a cone ( second magnitude4 ,monte ,m9>do1 ne> ,bronte1 rises1 ev5 n[1 to ! height ( #gej feet1 al?\gh its base has be5 elevat$ by m mod]n lavas & ejections4 ,! dim5sions ( ^! l>g] cones appe> to be> te/imony to p>oxysms ( volcanic activity1 aft] :i* we may conclude1 f analogy1 t ! fires ( ,etna rema9$ dormant = _m ye>s--s9ce ne>ly a c5tury ( re/ has sometimes foll[$ a viol5t eruption 9 ! hi/orical era4 ,x mu/ also be rememb]$1 t ( ! small numb] ( eruptions :i* occur 9 a c5tury1 "o only is e/imat$ to issue f ! summit ( ,etna = e two t proce$ f ! sides4 ,nor d all ! lat]al eruptions give rise to su* cones z w\ld be reckon$ among/ ! smalle/ ( ! eighty hills above enum]at$2 "s ( !m produce m]ely insignificant monticules1 :i* are soon aft]w>ds buri$ by %[]s ( a%es4 ,h[ _m ye>s !n mu/ we n suppose to h be5 exp5d$ 9 ! =mation ( ! eighty cones8 ,x is difficult to imag9e t a f\r? "p ( !m h orig9at$ dur+ ! la/ ?irty c5turies4 ,b if we conjecture ! :ole ( !m to h be5 =m$ 9 twelve ?\s& ye>s1 h[ inconsid]able an era w\ld ?is portion ( "t con/itute 9 ! hi/ory ( ! volcano6 ,if we c\ld /rip (f f ,etna all ! lat]al monticules n[ visible1 toge!r ) ! lavas & scoriae t h be5 p\r$ out f !m1 & f ! highe/ crat]1 dur+ ! p]iod ( _! gr[?1 ! dim9ution ( ! entire mass w\ld be extremely slight3 ,etna might lose1 p]haps1 sev]al miles 9 diamet] at its base1 & "s hundr$s ( feet 9 elevation2 b x w\ld /ill be ! l(tie/ ( ,sicilian m\nta9s1 /udd$ ) o!r cones1 :i* w\ld be recall$1 z x 71 into exi/5ce by ! removal ( ! rocks "u :i* !y are n[ buri$4 ,!re seems no?+ 9 ! deep sections ( ! ,val del ,bove to indicate t ! lava-curr5ts ( remote p]iods 7 great] 9 volume ?an ^? ( mod]n times2 & !re are abundant pro(s t ! c\ntless b$s ( solid rock & scoriae 7 accumulat$1 z n[1 9 succession4 ,on ! gr\nds1 !re=e1 already expla9$1 we mu/ inf] t a mass s _m ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness mu/ h requir$ an imm5se s]ies ( ages ant]ior to our hi/orical p]iods = its gr[?2 yet ! :ole mu/ be reg>d$ z ! product ( a mod]n portion ( ! t]ti>y epo*4 ,su*1 at lea/1 is ! conclusion t seems to foll[ f geological data1 :i* %[ t ! olde/ p>ts ( ! m\nta91 if n ( po/]ior date to ! m>9e /rata ar\nd its base1 7 at lea/ ( coeval orig94 ,"s geologi/s cont5d1 t ! sudd5 elevation ( l>ge cont95ts f b5ea? ! wat]s ( ! sea h aga9 & aga9 produc$ waves :i* h swept ov] va/ regions ( ! e>?4#ehb ,b x is cle> t no deva/at+ wave has pass$ ov] ! =e/ zone ( ,etna s9ce any ( ! lat]al cones be=e m5tion$ 7 ?r[n up2 = none ( ^! heaps ( loose s& & scoriae c\ld h resi/$ = a mom5t ! d5ud+ action ( a viol5t flood4 ,to "s1 p]haps1 x may appe> t hills ( su* incoh]5t mat]ials _c be ( v great antiquity1 because ! m]e action ( ! atmosph]e mu/1 9 ! c\rse ( sev]al ?\s& ye>s1 h oblit]at$ _! orig9al =ms4 ,b !re is no weight 9 ?is objection2 = ! old] hills are cov]$ ) trees & h]bage1 :i* protect !m f wa/e2 &1 9 reg>d to ! new] ones1 su* is ! porosity ( _! compon5t mat]ials1 t ! ra9 :i* falls ^u !m is in/antly absorb$2 & = ! same reason t ! riv]s on ,etna h a subt]ranean c\rse1 !re are none desc5d+ ! sides ( ! m9or cones4 ,no s5sible alt]ation has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! =m ( ^! cones s9ce ! e>lie/ p]iods ( :i* !re are memorials2 & !re seems no reason = anticipat+ t 9 ! c\rse ( ! next t5 ?\s& or tw5ty ?\s& ye>s !y w und]go any great alt]ation 9 _! appe>ance1 unless !y %\ld be %att]$ by e>?quakes or cov]$ by volcanic ejections4 ,9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 z 9 ,auv]gne & ,velay1 9 ,france1 simil> loose cones ( scoriae1 probably ( z high antiquity z ! :ole mass ( ,etna1 /& un9jur$ at inf]ior elevations above ! level ( ! sea4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,volcanic eruption 9 ,icel& 9 #aghc--,new isl& ?r[n up--,lava curr5ts ( ,skapt> ,jokul1 9 same ye>--_! imm5se volume--,eruption ( ,jorullo 9 ,mexico--,humboldt's !ory ( ! convexity ( ! pla9 ( ,malpais--,eruption ( ,galongoon 9 ,java--,subm>9e volcanoes--,graham isl&1 =m$ 9 #ahca--,volcanic ar*ipelagoes--,subm>9e eruptions 9 mid-,atlantic--,! ,can>ies--,t5]iffe--,cones ?r[n up 9 ,lanc]ote1 #agcj-cf--,santor9 & its contigu\s isles--,b>r5 isl& 9 ! ,bay ( ,b5gal--,mud volcanoes--,m9]al composition ( volcanic products4 ,volcanic eruptions 9 ,icel&4--,) ! exception ( ,etna & ,vesuvius1 ! mo/ complete *ronological records ( a s]ies ( eruptions are ^? ( ,icel&1 = _! hi/ory rea*es z f> back z ! n9? c5tury ( our era2 &1 f ! beg9n+ ( ! twelf? c5tury1 !re is cle> evid5ce t1 dur+ ! :ole p]iod1 !re has nev] be5 an int]val ( m ?an =ty1 & v r>ely "o ( tw5ty ye>s1 )\t ei!r an eruption or a great e>?quake4 ,s int5se is ! en]gy ( ! volcanic action 9 ?is region1 t "s eruptions ( ,hecla h la/$ six ye>s )\t ceas+4 ,e>?quakes h (t5 %ak5 ! :ole isl& at once1 caus+ great *anges 9 ! int]ior1 su* z ! s9k+ d[n ( hills1 ! r5d+ ( m\nta9s1 ! des]tion by riv]s ( _! *annels1 & ! appe>ance ( new lakes4#ehc ,new isl&s h (t5 be5 ?r[n up ne> ! coa/1 "s ( :i* /ill exi/2 :ile o!rs h disappe>$1 ei!r by subsid5ce or ! action ( ! waves4 ,9 ! int]val betwe5 eruptions1 innum]able hot spr+s af=d v5t to subt]ranean heat1 & solfat>as dis*>ge copi\s /reams ( inflammable matt]4 ,! volcanoes 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ?is isl& are obs]v$1 l ^? ( ! ,phlegraean ,fields1 to be 9 activity by turns1 "o v5t (t5 s]v+ = a "t z a safety-valve to ! re/4 ,_m cones are (t5 ?r[n up 9 "o eruption1 & 9 ?is case !y take a l9e> direction1 runn+ g5]ally f nor!a/ to s\?we/1 f ! nor!a/]n "p ( ! isl&1 :]e ! volcano ,krabla lies1 to ! promontory ,reykianas4 ,new isl& ?r[n up 9 #aghc4--,! convulsions ( ! ye> #aghc appe> to h be5 m trem5d\s ?an any record$ 9 ! mod]n annals ( ,icel&2 & ! orig9al ,dani% n>rative ( ! cata/rophe1 drawn up 9 great detail1 has s9ce be5 sub/antiat$ by sev]al ,engli% travell]s1 p>ticul>ly 9 reg>d to ! prodigi\s ext5t ( c\ntry laid wa/e1 & ! volume ( lava produc$4#ehd ,ab\t a mon? previ\s to ! eruption on ! ma9l&1 a subm>9e volcano bur/ =? 9 ! sea 9 lat4 #fc degrees #be m9utes ,n41 long4 #bc degrees #dd m9utes ,w41 at a di/ance ( ?irty miles 9 a s\?we/ direction f ,cape ,reykianas1 & eject$ s mu* pumice1 t ! ocean 0 cov]$ ) t sub/ance to ! di/ance ( #aej miles1 & %ips 7 consid]ably imp$$ 9 _! c\rse4 ,a new isl& 0 ?r[n up1 consi/+ ( high cliffs1 )9 :i* fire1 smoke1 & pumice 7 emitt$ f two or ?ree diff]5t po9ts4 ,?is isl& 0 claim$ by 8 ,dani% ,maje/y1 :o d5om9at$ x ,nyoe1 or ! ,new ,isl&2 b be=e a ye> _h elaps$1 ! sea resum$ its anci5t doma91 & no?+ 0 left b a reef ( rocks f five to ?irty fa?oms "u wat]4 ,great eruption ( ,skapt> ,jokul4--,e>?quakes :i* _h long be5 felt 9 ,icel&1 became viol5t on ! #aa? ( ,june1 #aghc1 :5 ,skapt> ,jokul1 di/ant ne>ly #bjj miles f ,nyoe1 ?rew out a torr5t ( lava :i* fl[$ d[n into ! riv] ,skapta1 & completely dri$ x up4 ,! *annel ( ! riv] 0 betwe5 high rocks1 9 _m places f f\r hundr$ to six hundr$ feet 9 dep?1 & ne> two hundr$ 9 bread?4 ,n only did ! lava fill up ?is great defile to ! br9k1 b x ov]fl[$ ! adjac5t fields to a consid]able ext5t4 ,! burn+ flood1 on issu+ f ! conf9$ rocky gorge1 0 !n arre/$ = "s "t by a deep lake1 :i* =m]ly exi/$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! riv]1 betwe5 ,skapt>dal & ,aa1 :i* x entirely fill$4 ,! curr5t !n advanc$ aga91 & rea*+ "s anci5t lava full ( subt]rane\s cav]ns1 p5etrat$ & melt$ d[n "p ( x2 & 9 "s places1 :]e ! /eam c\ld n ga9 v5t1 x blew up ! rock1 ?r[+ fragm5ts to ! height ( m ?an #aej feet4 ,on ! #ah? ( ,june ano!r ejection ( liquid lava ru%$ f ! volcano1 :i* fl[$ d[n ) amaz+ velocity ov] ! surface ( ! fir/ /ream4 ,by ! damm+ up ( ! m\?s ( "s ( ! tribut>ies ( ! ,skapta1 _m villages 7 completely ov]fl[$ ) wat]1 & ?us great de/ruction ( prop]ty 0 caus$4 ,! lava1 aft] fl[+ = sev]al days1 0 precipitat$ d[n a trem5d\s cat>act call$ ,/apafoss1 :]e x fill$ a pr(\nd abyss1 :i* t great wat]fall _h be5 holl[+ out = ages1 & aft] ?is1 ! fi]y curr5t aga9 cont9u$ its c\rse4 ,on ! ?ird ( ,augu/1 fre% floods ( lava /ill p\r+ f ! volcano1 a new bran* 0 s5t (f 9 a diff]5t direction2 = ! *annel ( ! ,skapta 0 n[ s entirely *ok$ up1 & e op5+ to ! we/ & nor? s ob/ruct$1 t ! melt$ matt] 0 =c$ to take a new c\rse1 s t x ran 9 a s\!a/ direction1 & dis*>g$ itself into ! b$ ( ! riv] ,hv]fisfliot1 :]e a sc5e ( de/ruction sc>cely inf]ior to ! =m] 0 occasion$4 ,^! ,icel&ic lavas 7l ! anci5t /reams :i* are met ) 9 ,auv]gne1 & o!r prov9ces ( ,c5tral ,france71 are /at$ by ,/eph5son to h accumulat$ to a prodigi\s dep? 9 n>r[ rocky gorges2 b :5 !y came to wide alluvial pla9s1 !y spread !mselves out into broad burn+ lakes1 sometimes f twelve to fifte5 miles wide1 & "o hundr$ feet deep4 ,:5 ! fi]y lake :i* fill$ up ! l[] portion ( ! valley ( ! ,skapta1 _h be5 augm5t$ by new supplies1 ! lava fl[$ up ! c\rse ( ! riv] to ! foot ( ! hills f :5ce ! ,skapta takes its rise4 ,?is af=ds a p>allel case to "o :i* c be %[n to h happ5$ at a remote era 9 ! volcanic region ( ! ,viv>ais 9 ,france1 :]e lava issu$ f ! cone ( ,?ueyts1 & :ile "o bran* ran d[n1 ano!r m p[]ful /ream fl[$ up ! *annel ( ! riv] ,arde*e4 ,! sides ( ! valley ( ! ,skapta pres5t sup]b ranges ( basaltic columns ( old] lava1 resembl+ ^? :i* are laid op5 9 ! valleys desc5d+ f ,mont ,dor1 9 ,auv]gne1 :]e m mod]n lava-curr5ts1 on a scale v inf]ior 9 magnitude to ^? ( ,icel&1 h also usurp$ ! b$s ( ! exi/+ riv]s4 ,! eruption ( ,skapt> ,jokul did n entirely cease till ! end ( two ye>s2 & :5 ,mr4 ,paulson visit$ ! tract elev5 ye>s aft]w>ds1 9 #agid1 he f\nd columns ( smoke /ill ris+ f p>ts ( ! lava1 & sev]al r5ts fill$ ) hot wat]4#ehe ,al?\gh ! population ( ,icel& 0 v mu* scatt]$1 & did n exce$ fifty ?\s&1 no less ?an tw5ty villages 7 de/roy$1 besides ^? inundat$ by wat]2 & m ?an n9e ?\s& human be+s p]i%$1 toge!r ) an imm5se numb] ( cattle1 p>tly by ! depr$ations ( ! lava1 p>tly by ! noxi\s vapors :i* impregnat$ ! air1 &1 9 "p1 by ! fam9e caus$ by %[]s ( a%es ?r\gh\t ! isl&1 & ! des]tion ( ! coa/s by ! fi%4 ,imm5se volume ( ! lava4--,b ! extraord9>y volume ( melt$ matt] produc$ 9 ?is eruption des]ves ! p>ticul> att5tion ( ! geologi/4 ,( ! two bran*es1 :i* fl[$ 9 ne>ly opposite directions1 ! greate/ 0 fifty1 & ! less] =ty miles 9 l5g?4 ,! extreme bread? :i* ! ,skapta bran* atta9$ 9 ! l[ c\ntries 0 f twelve to fifte5 miles1 t ( ! o!r ab\t sev54 ,! ord9>y height ( bo? curr5ts 0 "o hundr$ feet1 b 9 n>r[ defiles x sometimes am\nt$ to six hundr$4 ,pr(essor ,bis*(f has calculat$ t ! mass ( lava br\ght up f ! subt]ranean regions by ?is s+le eruption surpass$ 9 magnitude ! bulk ( ,mont ,blanc4#ehf ,b a m di/9ct idea w be =m$ ( ! dim5sions ( ! two /reams1 if we consid] h[ /rik+ a feature !y w\ld n[ =m 9 ! geology ( ,engl&1 _h !y be5 p\r$ out on ! bottom ( ! sea aft] ! deposition & be=e ! elevation ( our second>y & t]ti>y rocks4 ,! same causes :i* h excavat$ valleys ?r\gh p>ts ( our m>9e /rata1 once cont9u\s1 might h act$ ) equal =ce on ! igne\s rocks1 leav+1 at ! same "t1 a suffici5t portion unde/roy$ to enable u to discov] _! =m] ext5t4 ,let u1 !n1 imag9e ! t]m9ation ( ! ,skapta bran* ( lava to re/ on ! esc>pm5t ( ! inf]ior & middle oolite1 :]e x comm&s ! vale ( ,gl\ce/]4 ,! great plat=m might be "o hundr$ feet ?ick1 & f t5 to fifte5 miles broad1 exce$+ any :i* c be f\nd 9 ,c5tral ,france4 ,we may also suppose great tabul> masses to occur at int]vals1 capp+ ! summit ( ! ,cotswold ,hills betwe5 ,gl\ce/] & ,ox=d1 by ,nor?lea*1 ,bur=d1 & o!r t[ns4 ,! wide valley ( ! ,ox=d clay w\ld !n occasion an int]ruption = _m miles2 b ! same rocks might recur on ! summit ( ,cumnor & ,%otov] ,hills1 & all ! o!r oolitic em95ces ( t di/rict4 ,on ! *alk ( ,b]k%ire1 ext5sive plateaus1 six or sev5 miles wide1 w\ld aga9 be =m$2 & la/ly1 cr[n+ ! highe/ s&s ( ,highgate & ,hamp/ead1 we might behold "s remnants ( ! curr5t five or six hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 caus+ ^? hills to rival1 or ev5 to surpass1 9 height1 ,salisbury ,craigs & ,ar?ur's ,seat4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! extreme po9ts "h indicat$ w\ld n exce$ n9ety miles 9 a direct l9e2 & we might !n add1 at ! di/ance ( ne>ly two hundr$ miles f ,london1 along ! coa/ ( ,dorset%ire & ,devon%ire1 = example1 a great mass ( igne\s rocks1 to repres5t ^? ( contempor>y orig91 :i* 7 produc$ b5ea? ! level ( ! sea1 :]e ! isl& ( ,nyoe rose up4 ,volume ( anci5t & mod]n fl[s ( lava comp>$4--,yet1 gigantic z mu/ appe> ! scale ( ^! mod]n volcanic op]ations1 we mu/ be cont5t to reg>d !m z p]fectly insignificant 9 comp>ison to curr5ts ( ! primeval ages1 if we embrace ! !oretical views ( _m geologi/s1 :i* 7 n inaccurately express$ by ! late ,pr(essor ,alex&] ,brongni>t1 :5 he decl>$ t aux apoques gaogno/iques anci5nes1 t\s les phanom5es gaologiques se passoi5t dans des dim5sions c5tuples de celles qu'ils pras5t5t auj\rd'hui4#ehg ,_h ,skapt> ,jokul1 !re=e1 be5 a volcano ( ! old5 "t1 x w\ld h p\r$ =? lavas at a s+le eruption a hundr$ times m volum9\s ?an ^? :i* 7 witness$ by ! pres5t g5]ation 9 #aghc4 ,b x may1 on ! contr>y1 be affirm$ t1 among ! old] =mations1 no igne\s rock ( su* colossal magnitude has yet be5 met )2 nay1 x w\ld be mo/ difficult to po9t out a mass ( anci5t date 7di/9ctly ref]able to a s+le eruption7 :i* w\ld ev5 rival 9 volume ! matt] p\r$ out f ,skapt> ,jokul 9 #aghc4 ,eruption ( ,jorullo 9 #agei4--;,z ano!r example ( ! /up5d\s scale ( mod]n volcanic eruptions1 ,i may m5tion t ( ,jorullo 9 ,mexico1 9 #agei4 ,! great region to :i* ?is m\nta9 belongs has already be5 describ$4 ,! pla9 ( ,malpais =ms "p ( an elevat$ plat=m1 betwe5 two & ?ree ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & is b\nd$ by hills compos$ ( basalt1 tra*yte1 & volcanic tuff1 cle>ly indicat+ t ! c\ntry _h previ\sly1 ?\gh probably at a remote p]iod1 be5 ! !atre ( igne\s action4 ,f ! era ( ! discov]y ( ! ,new ,_w to ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 ! di/rict _h rema9$ undi/urb$1 & ! space1 n[ ! site ( ! volcano1 :i* is ?irty-six leagues di/ant f ! ne>e/ sea1 0 occupi$ by f]tile fields ( sug>-cane & indigo1 & wat]$ by ! two brooks ,cuitimba & ,san ,p$ro4 ,9 ! mon? ( ,june1 #agei1 holl[ s\nds ( an al>m+ nature 7 he>d1 & e>?quakes succe$$ ea* o!r = two mon?s1 until1 at ! end ( ,septemb]1 flames issu$ f ! gr\nd1 & fragm5ts ( burn+ rocks 7 ?r[n to prodigi\s heights4 ,six volcanic cones1 compos$ ( scoriae & fragm5t>y lava1 7 =m$ on ! l9e ( a *asm :i* ran 9 ! direction f ,n4 ,n4 ,e4 to ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 ,! lea/ ( ^! cones 0 #cjj feet 9 height2 & ,jorullo1 ! c5tral volcano1 0 elevat$ #afjj feet above ! level ( ! pla94 ,x s5t =? great /reams ( basaltic lava1 conta9+ includ$ fragm5ts ( granitic rocks1 & its ejections did n cease till ! mon? ( ,febru>y1 #agfj4ehh ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 a1 ,summit ( ,jorullo4 b1 c1 ,incl9$ plane slop+ at an angle ( #f degrees f ! base ( ! cones4 ,humboldt visit$ ! c\ntry m ?an =ty ye>s aft] ?is occurr5ce1 & 0 in=m$ by ! ,indians1 t :5 !y return$1 long aft] ! cata/rophe1 to ! pla91 !y f\nd ! gr\nd un9habitable f ! excessive heat4 ,:5 he himself visit$ ! place1 !re appe>$1 ar\nd ! base ( ! cones1 & spread+ f !m1 z f a c5tre1 ov] an ext5t ( f\r squ>e miles1 a mass ( matt] ( a convex =m1 ab\t #eej feet high at its junction ) ! cones1 & gradually slop+ f !m 9 all directions t[>ds ! pla94 ,?is mass 0 /ill 9 a heat$ /ate1 ! temp]ature 9 ! fissures be+ on ! decrease f ye> to ye>1 b 9 #aghj x 0 /ill suffici5t to light a cig> at ! dep? ( a few in*es4 ,on ?is slightly convex protub]ance1 ! slope ( :i* mu/ =m an angle ( ab\t #f degrees ) ! horizon1 7 ?\s&s ( flatti% conical m\nds1 f six to n9e feet high1 :i*1 z well z l>ge fissures trav]s+ ! pla91 act$ z fum]oles1 giv+ out cl\ds ( sulphur\s acid & hot aque\s vapor4 ,! two small riv]s be=e m5tion$ disappe>$ dur+ ! eruption1 los+ !mselves bel[ ! ea/]n extremity ( ! pla91 & reappe>+ z hot spr+s at its we/]n limit4 ,cause ( ! convexity ( ! pla9 ( ,malpais4--,humboldt attribut$ ! convexity ( ! pla9 to inflation f bel[2 suppos+ ! gr\nd1 = f\r squ>e miles 9 ext5t1 to h ris5 up 9 ! %ape ( a bladd] to ! elevation ( #eej feet above ! pla9 9 ! highe/ "p4 ,b ,mr4 ,scrope has sugge/$ t ! ph5om5a may be acc\nt$ = f> m naturally1 by suppos+ t lava fl[+ simultane\sly f ! diff]5t orifices1 & pr9cipally f ,jorullo1 unit$ into a sort ( pool or lake4 ,z !y 7 p\r$ =? on a surface previ\sly flat1 !y w\ld1 if _! liquidity 0 n v great1 rema9 ?icke/ & deepe/ ne> _! s\rce1 & dim9i% 9 bulk f !nce t[>ds ! limits ( ! space :i* !y cov]$4 ,fre% supplies 7 probably emitt$ successively dur+ ! c\rse ( an eruption :i* la/$ m ?an half a ye>2 & "s ( ^!1 re/+ on ^? fir/ emitt$1 might only spread to a small di/ance f ! foot ( ! cone1 :]e !y w\ld necess>ily accumulate to a great height4 ,! av]age slope ( ! great dome-%ap$ volcanoes ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 =m$ almo/ exclusively ( lava1 ) sc>ce any scoriae1 is betwe5 #f degrees #cj m9utes & #g degrees #df m9utes1 s t ! incl9ation ( ! convex mass ar\nd ,jorullo1 if we adopt ,mr4 ,scrope's explanation 7see fig4 #eg71 is q 9 accordance ) ! kn[n laws :i* gov]n ! fl[ ( lava4 ,! %[]s1 also1 ( loose & pulv]ul5t matt] f ! six crat]s1 & pr9cipally f ,jorullo1 w\ld be compos$ ( heavi] & m bulky p>ticles ne> ! cones1 & w\ld raise ! gr\nd at _! base1 :]e1 mix+ ) ra91 !y might h giv5 rise to ! /ratum ( black clay1 :i* is describ$ z cov]+ ! lava4 ,! small conical m\nds 7call$ hornitos1 or little ov5s7 may resemble ^? five or six small hillocks :i* exi/$ 9 #ahbc on ! ,vesuvian lava1 & s5t =? columns ( vapor1 hav+ be5 produc$ by ! dis5gagem5t ( ela/ic fluids heap+ up small dome-%ap$ masses ( lava4 ,! fissures m5tion$ by ,humboldt z ( frequ5t occurr5ce1 are su* z might naturally accompany ! consolidation ( a ?ick b$ ( lava1 contract+ z x congeals2 & ! disappe>ance ( riv]s is ! usual result ( ! occupation ( ! l[] "p ( a valley or pla9 by lava1 ( :i* !re are _m beautiful examples 9 ! old lava-curr5ts ( ,auv]gne4 ,! heat ( ! hornitos is /at$ to h dim9i%$ f ! fir/2 & ,mr4 ,bullock1 :o visit$ ! spot _m ye>s aft] ,humboldt1 f\nd ! temp]ature ( ! hot spr+ v l[1--a fact :i* seems cle>ly to indicate ! gradual congelation ( a subjac5t b$ ( lava1 :i* f its imm5se ?ickness may h be5 enabl$ to reta9 its heat = half a c5tury4 ,! read] may be rem9d$1 t :5 we ?us suppose ! lava ne> ! volcano to h be51 toge!r ) ! eject$ a%es1 m ?an five hundr$ feet 9 dep?1 we m]ely assign a ?ickness :i* ! curr5t ( ,skapt> ,jokul atta9$ 9 "s places 9 #aghc4 ,holl[ s\nd ( ! pla9 :5 /ruck4--,ano!r argum5t adduc$ 9 support ( ! !ory ( inflation f bel[1 01 ! holl[ s\nd made by ! /eps ( a horse ^u ! pla92 :i*1 h[ev]1 proves no?+ m ?an t ! mat]ials ( :i* ! convex mass is compos$ are light & por\s4 ,! s\nd call$ rimbombo by ! ,italians is v commonly return$ by made gr\nd :5 /ruck %>ply2 & has be5 obs]v$ n only on ! sides ( ,vesuvius & o!r volcanic cones :]e !re is a cavity bel[1 b 9 su* regions z ! ,campagna di ,roma1 compos$ 9 a great measure ( tuff & por\s volcanic rocks4 ,! rev]b]ation1 h[ev]1 may p]haps be assi/$ by grottoes & cav]ns1 = ^! may be z num]\s 9 ! lavas ( ,jorullo z 9 _m ( ^? ( ,etna2 b _! exi/5ce w\ld l5d no c\nt5ance to ! hypo!sis ( a great ar*$ cavity1 f\r squ>e miles 9 ext5t1 & 9 ! c5tre #eej feet high4#ehi ,no rec5t eruptions ( ,jorullo4--,9 a =m] edition ,i /at$ t ,i _h be5 in=m$ by ,capta9 ,vet*1 t 9 #ahai a t[] at ,guadalax>a 0 ?r[n d[n by an e>?quake1 & t a%es1 suppos$ to h come f ,jorullo1 fell at ! same "t at ,guanaxuato1 a t[n situat$ #adj ,engli% miles f ! volcano4 ,b ,mr4 ,burkh>dt1 a ,g]man director ( m9es1 :o exam9$ ,jorullo 9 #ahbg1 asc]ta9$ t !re _h be5 no eruption !re s9ce ,humboldt's visit 9 #ahjc4 ,he w5t to ! bottom ( ! crat]1 & obs]v$ a slight evolution ( sulphur\s acid vapors1 b ! hornitos _h entirely ceas$ to s5d =? /eam4 ,dur+ ! tw5ty-f\r ye>s int]v5+ betwe5 8 visit & t ( ,humboldt1 vegetation _h made great progress on ! flanks ( ! new hills2 ! ri* soil ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry 0 once m cov]$ ) luxuriant crops ( sug>-cane & indigo1 & !re 0 an abundant gr[? ( natural und]wood on all ! uncultivat$ tracts4#eij ,galongoon1 ,java1 #ahbb4--,! m\nta9 ( ,galongoon 7or ,galung ,gung7 0 9 #ahbb cov]$ by a d5se =e/1 & situat$ 9 a fruitful & ?ickly-peopl$ "p ( ,java4 ,!re 0 a circul> holl[ at its summit1 b no tradition exi/$ ( any =m] eruption4 ,9 ,july1 #ahbb1 ! wat]s ( ! riv] ,kunir1 "o ( ^? :i* fl[$ f its flanks1 became = a "t hot & turbid4 ,on ! #h? ( ,octob] foll[+ a l\d explosion 0 he>d1 ! e>? %ook1 & imm5se columns ( hot wat] & boil+ mud1 mix$ ) burn+ brim/one1 a%es1 & lapilli1 ( ! size ( nuts1 7 project$ f ! m\nta9 l a wat]sp\t1 ) su* prodigi\s viol5ce t l>ge quantities fell beyond ! riv] ,t&oi1 :i* is =ty miles di/ant4 ,e valley )9 ! range ( ?is eruption became fill$ ) a burn+ torr5t1 & ! riv]s1 swoll5 ) hot wat] & mud1 ov]fl[$ _! banks1 & c>ri$ away great numb]s ( ! p1 :o 7 endeavor+ to escape1 & ! bodies ( cattle1 wild bea/s1 & birds4 ,a space ( tw5ty-f\r miles betwe5 ! m\nta9 & ! riv] ,t&oi 0 cov]$ to su* a dep? ) blui% mud t p 7 buri$ 9 _! h\ses1 & n a trace ( ! num]\s villages & plantations ?r\gh\t t ext5t 0 visible4 ,)9 ?is space ! bodies ( ^? :o p]i%$ 7 buri$ 9 mud & conceal$1 b ne> ! limits ( ! volcanic action !y 7 expos$1 & /rew$ ov] ! gr\nd 9 great numb]s1 p>tly boil$ & p>tly burnt4 ,x 0 rem>k$1 t ! boil+ mud & c9d]s 7 project$ ) su* viol5ce f ! m\nta91 t :ile _m remote villages 7 utt]ly de/roy$ & buri$1 o!rs mu* ne>] ! volcano 7 sc>cely injur$4 ,! fir/ eruption la/$ ne>ly five h\rs1 & on ! foll[+ days ! ra9 fell 9 torr5ts1 & ! riv]s1 d5sely *>g$ ) mud1 delug$ ! c\ntry f> & wide4 ,at ! end ( f\r days 7,octob] #ab?7 a second eruption occurr$ m viol5t ?an ! fir/1 9 :i* hot wat] & mud 7 aga9 vomit$1 & great blocks ( basalt 7 ?r[n to ! di/ance ( sev5 miles f ! volcano4 ,!re 0 at ! same "t a viol5t e>?quake1 & 9 "o acc\nt x is /at$ t ! face ( ! m\nta9 0 utt]ly *ang$1 its summits brok5 d[n1 & "o side1 :i* _h be5 cov]$ ) trees1 became an enorm\s gulf 9 ! =m ( a semicircle4 ,?is cavity 0 ab\t midway betwe5 ! summit & ! pla91 & surr\nd$ by /eep rocks1 said to be newly heap$ up dur+ ! eruption4 ,new hills & valleys are said to h be5 =m$1 & ! riv]s ,banj>ang & ,wulan *ang$ _! c\rse1 & 9 "o night 7,octob] #ab?7 #bjjj p]sons 7 kill$4 ,! fir/ intimation :i* ! inhabitants ( ,b&ong receiv$ ( ?is calamity on ! #h? ( ,octob]1 0 ! news t ! riv] ,wulna 0 be>+ d[n into ! sea ! dead bodies ( m51 & ! c>casses ( /ags1 rh9oc]oses1 tig]s1 & o!r animals4 ,! ,dut* pa9t] ,pay5 det]m9$ to travel f !nce to ! volcano1 & he f\nd t ! quantity ( ! a%es dim9i%$ z he approa*$ ! base ( ! m\nta94 ,he alludes to ! alt]$ =m ( ! m\nta9 aft] ! #ab?1 b does n describe ! new semicircul> gulf on its side4 ,! (ficial acc\nts /ate t #aad villages 7 de/roy$1 & above #djjj p]sons kill$4#eia ,subm>9e volcanoes4--,al?\gh we h e reason to believe t volcanic eruptions z well z e>?quakes are common 9 ! b$ ( ! sea1 x 0 n to be expect$ t _m opportunities w\ld occur to sci5tific obs]v]s ( witness+ ! ph5om5a4 ,! crews ( vessels h sometimes report$ t !y h se5 9 diff]5t places sulphur\s smoke1 flame1 jets ( wat]1 & /eam1 ris+ up f ! sea1 or !y h obs]v$ ! wat]s greatly discolor$1 & 9 a /ate ( viol5t agitation z if boil+4 ,new %oals h also be5 enc\nt]$1 or a reef ( rocks j em]g+ above ! surface1 :]e previ\sly !re 0 always suppos$ to h be5 deep wat]4 ,on "s few occasions ! gradual =mation ( an isl& by a subm>9e eruption has be5 obs]v$1 z t ( ,sabr9a1 9 ! ye> #ahaa1 (f ,/4 ,mi*ael's 9 ! ,azores4 ,! ?r[+ up ( a%es 9 t case1 & ! =mation ( a cone ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet 9 height1 ) a crat] 9 ! c5tre1 closely resembl$ ! ph5om5a usually accompany+ a volcanic eruption on l&4 ,sabr9a 0 soon wa%$ away by ! waves4 ,previ\s eruptions 9 ! same "p ( ! sea 7 record$ to h happ5$ 9 #afia & #agbj4 ,! rise ( ,nyoe1 also1 a small isl& (f ! coa/ ( ,icel&1 9 #aghc1 has already be5 allud$ to2 & ano!r volcanic isle 0 produc$ by an eruption ne> ,reikiavig1 on ! same coa/1 9 ,june1 #ahcj4eib ,graham ,isl&#eic1 #ahca4--,we h /ill m rec5t & m9ute in=mation respect+ ! appe>ance1 9 #ahca1 ( a new volcanic isl& 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 betwe5 ! ,s4 ,w4 coa/ ( ,sicily & t project+ "p ( ! ,african coa/ :]e anci5t ,c>?age /ood4 ,! site ( ! isl& 0 n any "p ( ! great %oal1 or bank1 call$ ,n]ita1 z 0 fir/ ass]t$1 b a spot :]e ,capta9 ,w4 ,h4 ,smy? _h f\nd1 9 8 survey a few ye>s be=e1 a dep? ( m ?an "o hundr$ fa?oms wat]4#eid ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,=m ( ! cliffs ( ,graham ,isl&1 z se5 f ,s4 ,s4 ,e41 di/ant "o mile1 #g? ,augu/1 #ahca4eif ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,view ( ! int]ior ( ,graham ,isl&1 #bi? ,sept41 #ahca4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,graham ,isl&1 #bi? ,sept41 #ahca4eig ,! position ( ! isl& 7lat4 #cg degrees #h m9utes #cj ,n41 long4 #ab degrees #db m9utes #ae ,e47 0 ab\t ?irty miles ,s4 ,w4 ( ,sciacca1 9 ,sicily1 & ?irty-?ree miles ,n4 ,e4 ( ,pantell>ia4#eie ,on ! #bh? ( ,june1 ab\t a =tnight be=e ! eruption 0 visible1 ,sir ,pult5ey ,malcolm1 9 pass+ ov] ! spot 9 8 %ip1 felt ! %ocks ( an e>?quake1 z if he _h /ruck on a s&-bank2 & ! same %ocks 7 felt on ! we/ coa/ ( ,sicily1 9 a direction f ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e4 ,ab\t ! #aj? ( ,july1 ,john ,corrao1 ! capta9 ( a ,sicilian vessel1 report$ t1 z he pass$ ne> ! place1 he saw a column ( wat] l a wat]-sp\t1 sixty feet high1 & #hjj y>ds 9 circumf]5ce1 ris+ f ! sea1 & soon aft]w>ds a d5se /eam 9 its place1 :i* asc5d$ to ! height ( #ahjj feet4 ,! same ,corrao1 on 8 return f ,girg5ti1 on ! #ah? ( ,july1 f\nd a small isl&1 twelve feet high ) a crat] 9 its c5tre1 eject+ volcanic matt]1 & imm5se columns ( vapor2 ! sea ar\nd be+ cov]$ ) float+ c9d]s & dead fi%4 ,! scoriae 7 ( a *ocolate color1 & ! wat] :i* boil$ 9 ! circul> bas9 0 ( a d+y r$4 ,! eruption cont9u$ ) great viol5ce to ! end ( ! same mon?2 at :i* "t ! isl& 0 visit$ by sev]al p]sons1 & among o!rs by ,capt4 ,sw9burne1 ,r4 ,n41 & ,m4 ,h(fmann1 ! ,prussian geologi/4 ,x 0 !n f fifty to n9ety feet 9 height1 & ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile 9 circumf]5ce4 ,by ! #d? ( ,augu/ x became1 accord+ to "s acc\nts1 above #bjj feet high1 & ?ree miles 9 circumf]5ce2 aft] :i* x began to dim9i% 9 size by ! action ( ! waves1 & x 0 only two miles r\nd on ! #be? ( ,augu/2 & on ! #c;d ( ,septemb]1 :5 x 0 c>efully exam9$ by ,capta9 ,wodeh\se1 only ?ree-fif?s ( a mile 9 circumf]5ce2 its greate/ height be+ !n #ajg feet4 ,at ?is "t ! crat] 0 ab\t #ghj feet 9 circumf]5ce4 ,on ! #bi? ( ,septemb]1 :5 x 0 visit$ by ,mons4 ,c4 ,prevo/1 its circumf]5ce 0 r$uc$ to ab\t #gjj y>ds4 ,x 0 compos$ entirely ( incoh]5t eject$ matt]1 scoriae1 pumice1 & lapilli1 =m+ regul> /rata1 "s ( :i* are describ$ z hav+ be5 p>allel to ! /eep inw>d slope ( ! crat]1 :ile ! re/ 7 incl9$ outw>ds1 l ^? ( ,vesuvius4#eih ,:5 ! arrangem5t ( ! eject$ mat]ials has be5 det]m9$ by _! fall+ cont9ually on two /eep slopes1 t ( ! ext]nal cone & t ( ! crat]1 :i* is always a holl[ inv]t$ cone1 a transv]se section w\ld probably resemble t giv5 9 ! annex$ figure 7#fa74 ,b :5 ,i visit$ ,vesuvius1 9 #ahbh1 ,i saw no b$s ( scoriae incl9$ t[>ds ! axis ( ! cone4 7,see fig4 #de1 p4 #cha47 ,su* may h once exi/$2 b ! explosions or subsid5ces1 or :atev] causes produc$ ! great crat] ( #ahbb1 _h possibly de/roy$ !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,few ( ! pieces ( /one ?r[n out f ,graham ,isl& exce$$ a foot 9 diamet]4 ,"s fragm5ts ( dolomitic lime/one 7 int]mix$2 b ^! 7 ! only non-volcanic sub/ances4 ,dur+ ! mon? ( ,augu/1 !re occurr$ on ! ,s4 ,w4 side ( ! new isl& a viol5t ebullition & agitation ( ! sea1 accompani$ by ! con/ant asc5sion ( a column ( d5se :ite /eam1 indicat+ ! exi/5ce ( a second v5t at no great dep? f ! surface4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ,octob]1 no ve/ige ( ! crat] rema9$1 & ! isl& 0 ne>ly levell$ ) ! surface ( ! ocean1 ) ! exception1 at "o po9t1 ( a small monticule ( s& & scoriae4 ,x 0 report$ t1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ye> foll[+ 7#ahcb71 !re 0 a dep? ( #aej feet :]e ! isl& _h be53 b ?is acc\nt 0 q errone\s2 = 9 ! e>ly "p ( t ye> ,capta9 ,sw9burne f\nd a %oal & discolor$ wat] !re1 & t[>ds ! end ( #ahcc a dang]\s reef exi/$ ( an oval figure1 ab\t ?ree-fif?s ( a mile 9 ext5t4 ,9 ! c5tre 0 a black rock1 ( ! diamet] ( ab\t tw5ty-six fa?oms1 f n9e to elev5 feet "u wat]2 & r\nd ?is rock are banks ( black volcanic /ones & loose s&4 ,at ! di/ance ( sixty fa?oms f ?is c5tral mass1 ! dep? increas$ rapidly4 ,!re 0 also a second %oal at ! di/ance ( #dej feet ,s4 ,w4 ( ! great reef1 ) fifte5 feet wat] ov] x1 also compos$ ( rock1 surr\nd$ by deep sea4 ,we c sc>cely d\bt t ! rock 9 ! middle ( ! l>g] reef is solid lava1 :i* rose up 9 ! pr9cipal crat]1 & t ! second %oal m>ks ! site ( ! subm>9e eruption obs]v$ 9 ,augu/1 #ahca1 to ! ,s4 ,w4 ( ! isl&4 ,f ! :ole ( ! facts above detail$1 x appe>s t a hill eight hundr$ feet or m 9 height 0 =m$ by a subm>9e volcanic v5t1 ( :i* ! upp] "p 7only ab\t two hundr$ feet high7 em]g$ above ! wat]s1 s z to =m an isl&4 ,?is cone mu/ h be5 equal 9 size to "o ( ! l>ge/ ( ! lat]al volcanoes on ! flanks ( ,etna1 & ab\t half ! height ( ! m\nta9 ,jorullo 9 ,mexico1 :i* 0 =m$ 9 ! c\rse ( n9e mon?s1 9 #agei4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! new volcano a l>ge cavity 0 kept op5 by gase\s dis*>ges1 :i* ?rew out scoriae2 & fluid lava probably rose up 9 ?is cavity4 ,x is n uncommon = small subsidi>y crat]s to op5 ne> ! summit ( a cone1 & "o ( ^! may h be5 =m$ 9 ! case ( ,graham ,isl&2 a v5t1 p]haps1 connect$ ) ! ma9 *annel ( dis*>ge :i* gave passage 9 t direction to ela/ic fluids1 scoriae1 & melt$ lava4 ,x does n appe> t1 ei!r f ?is duct1 or f ! pr9cipal v5t1 !re 0 any ov]fl[+ ( lava2 b melt$ rock may h fl[$ f ! flanks or base ( ! cone 7a common occurr5ce on l&71 & may h spread 9 a broad %eet ov] ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,suppos$ section ( ,graham ,isl&4 7,c4 ,macl>54#eii7 ,! dott$ l9es 9 ! annex$ figure are an imag9>y re/oration ( ! upp] "p ( ! cone1 n[ remov$ by ! waves3 ! /rong l9es repres5t ! "p ( ! volcano :i* is /ill "u wat]3 9 ! c5tre is a great column1 or dike1 ( solid lava1 two hundr$ feet 9 diamet]1 suppos$ to fill ! space by :i* ! gase\s fluids rose2 & on ea* side ( ! dike is a /ratifi$ mass ( scoriae & fragm5t>y lava4 ,! solid nucleus ( ! reef1 :]e ! black rock is n[ f\nd1 )/&s ! movem5ts ( ! sea2 :ile ! surr\nd+ loose tuffs are cut away to a some:at l[] level4 ,9 ?is mann] ! lava1 :i* 0 ! l[e/ "p ( ! isl&1 or1 to speak m correctly1 :i* sc>cely ev] rose above ! level ( ! sea :5 ! isl& exi/$1 has n[ become ! highe/ po9t 9 ! reef4 ,no appe>ances obs]v$1 ei!r dur+ ! eruption or s9ce ! isl& disappe>$1 gave ! lea/ support to ! op9ion promulgat$ by "s writ]s1 t "p ( ! anci5t b$ ( ! sea _h be5 lift$ up bodily4 ,! solid products1 says ,dr4 ,john ,davy1 :e!r !y consi/$ ( s&1 light c9d]s1 or vesicul> lava1 diff]$ m 9 =m ?an 9 composition4 ,! lava conta9$ augite2 & ! specific gravity 0 #b4jg & #b4gj4 ,:5 ! light spongy c9d]1 :i* float$ on ! sea1 0 r$uc$ to f9e p[d] by trituration1 & ! great] "p ( ! entangl$ air got rid (1 x 0 f\nd to be ( ! specific gravity #b4fd2 & t ( "s ( ! s& :i* fell 9 ! eruption 0 #b4ge2fjj s t ! mat]ials equall$ ord9>y granites 9 weight & solidity4 ,! only gas evolv$ 9 any consid]able quantity 0 c>bonic acid4#fja ,subm>9e eruptions 9 mid-,atlantic4--,9 ! ,nautical ,magaz9e = #ahce1 p4 #fdb1 & = #ahch1 p4 #cfa1 & 9 ! ,comptes ,r5dus1 ,april1 #ahch1 acc\nts are giv5 ( a s]ies ( volcanic ph5om5a1 e>?quakes1 tr\bl$ wat]1 float+ scoriae & columns ( smoke1 :i* h be5 obs]v$ at int]vals s9ce ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 9 a space ( op5 sea betwe5 longitudes #bj degrees & #bb degrees we/1 ab\t half a degree s\? ( ! equator4 ,^! facts1 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 seem to %[1 t an isl& or an ar*ipelago is 9 process ( =mation 9 ! middle ( ! ,atlantic2 a l9e jo9+ ,/4 ,hel5a & ,asc5sion w\ld1 if prolong$1 int]sect ?is sl[ly nasc5t focus ( volcanic action4#fjb ,%\ld l& be ev5tually =m$ "h1 x w n be ! fir/ t has be5 produc$ by igne\s action 9 ?is ocean s9ce x 0 inhabit$ by ! exi/+ species ( te/acea4 ,at ,porto ,praya 9 ,/4 ,jago1 "o ( ! ,azores1 a horizontal1 calc>e\s /ratum occurs1 conta9+ %ells ( rec5t m>9e species1 cov]$ by a great %eet ( basalt eighty feet ?ick4#fjc ,x w\ld be difficult to e/imate too highly ! comm]cial & political importance :i* a gr\p ( isl&s might acquire1 if 9 ! next two or ?ree ?\s& ye>s !y %\ld rise 9 mid-ocean betwe5 ,/4 ,hel5a & ,asc5sion4 ,,can>y ,,isl&s4 ,eruption 9 ,lanc]ote1 #agcj to #agcf4--,! effects ( an eruption :i* happ5$ 9 ,lanc]ote1 "o ( ! ,can>y ,isl&s1 betwe5 ! ye>s #agcj & #agcf1 7 v rem>kable2 & a detail$ description has be5 publi%$ by ,von ,bu*1 :o _h an opportunity1 :5 he visit$ t isl& 9 #ahae1 ( comp>+ ! acc\nts transmitt$ to u ( ! ev5t1 ) ! pres5t /ate & geological appe>ances ( ! c\ntry4#fjd ,on ! #a/ ( ,septemb]1 #agcj1 ! e>? split op5 on a sudd5 two leagues f ,yaira4 ,9 "o night a consid]able hill ( eject$ matt] 0 ?r[n up2 &1 a few days lat]1 ano!r v5t op5$1 & gave out a lava-/ream1 :i* ov]ran ,*9anfaya & o!r villages4 ,x fl[$ fir/ rapidly1 l wat]1 b became aft]w>ds heavy & sl[1 l honey4 ,on ! #g? ( ,septemb] an imm5se rock 0 protrud$ f ! bottom ( ! lava ) a noise l ?und]1 & ! /ream 0 =c$ to *ange its c\rse f ,n4 to ,n4 ,w41 s t ,/4 ,catal9a & o!r villages 7 ov]fl[$4 ,:e!r ?is mass 0 protrud$ by an e>?quake1 or 0 a mass ( anci5t lava1 bl[n up l t be=e m5tion$ 9 #aghc 9 ,icel&1 is n expla9$4 ,on ! #aa? ( ,septemb] m lava fl[$ out1 & cov]$ ! village ( ,maso entirely1 & = ! space ( eight days precipitat$ itself ) a horrible ro> into ! sea4 ,dead fi% float$ on ! wat]s 9 indescribable multitudes1 or 7 ?r[n dy+ on ! %ore4 ,aft] a brief int]val ( repose1 ?ree new op5+s broke =? imm$iately f ! site ( ! consum$ ,/4 ,catal9a1 & s5t out an enorm\s quantity ( lapilli1 s&1 & a%es4 ,on ! #bh? ( ,octob] ! cattle ?r\gh\t ! :ole c\ntry dropp$ lifeless to ! gr\nd1 suffocat$ by putrid vapors1 :i* cond5s$ & fell d[n 9 drops4 ,on ! #a/ ( ,decemb] a lava-/ream rea*$ ! sea1 & =m$ an isl&1 r\nd :i* dead fi% 7 /rew$4 ,numb] ( cones ?r[n up4--,x is unnecess>y "h to give ! details ( ! ov]:elm+ ( o!r places by fi]y torr5ts1 or ( a /orm :i* 0 equally new & t]rify+ to ! inhabitants1 z !y _h nev] kn[n "o 9 _! c\ntry be=e4 ,on ! #aj? ( ,janu>y1 #agca1 a high hill 0 ?r[n up1 :i*1 on ! same day1 precipitat$ itself back aga9 into its own crat]2 fi]y brooks ( lava fl[$ f x to ! sea4 ,on ! #c;d ( ,febru>y a new cone arose4 ,o!rs 7 ?r[n up 9 ,m>*1 & p\r$ =? lava-/reams4 ,num]\s o!r volcanic cones 7 subsequ5tly =m$ 9 succession1 till at la/ _! numb] am\nt$ to ab\t ?irty4 ,9 ,june1 #agca1 dur+ a r5ewal ( ! eruptions1 all ! banks & %ores 9 ! we/]n "p ( ! isl& 7 cov]$ ) dy+ fi%1 ( diff]5t species1 "s ( :i* _h nev] be=e be5 se54 ,smoke & flame arose f ! sea1 ) l\d detonations4 ,^! dreadful commotions la/$ )\t int]ruption = five successive ye>s1 s t a great emigration ( ! inhabitants became necess>y4 ,_! l9e> direction4--,z to ! height ( ! new cones1 ,von ,bu* 0 assur$ t ! =m]ly great & fl\ri%+ ,/4 ,catal9a lay buri$ "u hills #djj feet 9 height2 & he obs]ves t ! mo/ elevat$ cone ( ! s]ies rose #fjj feet above its base1 & #acgh feet above ! sea1 & t sev]al o!rs 7 ne>ly z high4 ,! new v5ts 7 all arrang$ 9 "o l9e1 ab\t two geographical miles long1 & 9 a direction ne>ly ea/ & we/4 ,if we admit ! probability ( ,von ,bu*'s conjecture1 t ^! v5ts op5$ along ! l9e ( a cleft1 x seems necess>y to suppose t ?is subt]ranean fissure 0 only prolong$ upw>ds to ! surface by degrees1 & t ! r5t 0 n>r[ at fir/1 z is usually ! case ) fissures caus$ by e>?quakes4 ,lava & ela/ic fluids might escape f "s po9t on ! r5t :]e !re 0 lea/ resi/ance1 till1 ! fir/ ap]ture becom+ ob/ruct$ by ejections & ! consolidation ( lava1 o!r orifices bur/ op5 9 succession along ! l9e ( ! orig9al fissure4 ,von ,bu* f\nd t ea* crat] 0 l[e/ on t side on :i* lava _h issu$2 b "s crat]s 7 n brea*$1 & 7 )\t any lava /reams4 ,9 "o ( ^! 7 op5 fissures1 out ( :i* hot vapors rose1 :i* 9 #ahae rais$ ! !rmomet] to #ade degrees ,fahr5heit1 & 0 probably at ! boil+ po9t l[] d[n4 ,! exhalations seem$ to consi/ ( aque\s vapor2 yet !y c\ld n be pure /eam1 = ! crevices 7 incru/$ on ei!r side by silice\s s9t] 7an opal-l hydrate ( silica ( a :ite color71 :i* ext5d$ almo/ to ! middle4 ,?is important fact atte/s ! l5g? ( "t dur+ :i* *emical processes cont9ue aft] eruptions1 & h[ op5 fissures may be fill$ up lat]ally by m9]al matt]1 sublim$ f volcanic exhalations4 ,! lavas ( ?is eruption cov]$ ne>ly a ?ird ( ! :ole isl&1 (t5 =m+ on slightly incl9$ planes great horizontal %eets sev]al squ>e leagues 9 area1 resembl+ v mu* ! basaltic plat=ms ( ,auv]gne4 ,pret5d$ di/9ction betwe5 anci5t & mod]n lavas4--,"o ( ! new lavas 0 obs]v$ to conta9 masses ( oliv9e ( an olive-gre5 color1 resembl+ ^? :i* occur 9 "o ( ! lavas ( ! ,viv>ais4 ,von ,bu* supposes ! great cry/als ( oliv9e to h be5 d]iv$ f a previ\sly exi/+ basalt melt$ up by ! new volcanoes2 b we h sc>cely suffici5t data to be> out su* a conjecture4 ,! old] rocks ( ! isl& consi/1 9 a great measure1 ( t k9d ( basaltic lava call$ dol]ite1 sometimes column>1 & p>tly ( common basalt & amygdaloid4 ,"s rec5t lavas assum$1 on ent]+ ! sea1 a prismatic =m1 & s mu* resembl$ ! old] lavas ( ! ,can>ies1 t ! only geological di/9ction :i* ,von ,bu* appe>s to h be5 able to draw betwe5 !m 01 t !y did n alt]nate ) conglom]ates1 l ! anci5t basalts4 ,"s mod]n writ]s h endeavor$ to discov]1 9 ! abundance ( ^! conglom]ates1 a pro( ( ! dissimil>ity ( ! volcanic action 9 anci5t & mod]n times2 b ?is "* is m probably attributable to ! diff]5ce betwe5 subm>9e op]ations & ^? on ! l&4 ,all ! blocks & imp]fectly r\nd$ fragm5ts ( lava1 transport$ dur+ ! int]vals ( eruption1 by riv]s & torr5ts1 into ! adjo9+ sea1 or torn by ! cont9u$ action ( ! waves f cliffs :i* are und]m9$1 mu/ accumulate 9 /ratifi$ breccias & conglom]ates1 & be cov]$ aga9 & aga9 by o!r lavas4 ,?is is n[ tak+ place on ! %ores ( ,sicily1 betwe5 ,catania & ,trezza1 :]e ! sea breaks d[n & cov]s ! %ore ) blocks & pebbles ( ! mod]n lavas ( ,etna2 & on p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,is*ia1 :]e num]\s curr5ts ( tra*yte are 9 l mann] und]m9$ 9 l(ty precipices4 ,s (t51 !n1 z an isl& is rais$ 9 a volcanic ar*ipelago by e>?quakes f ! deep1 ! fundam5tal & 7relatively to all above7 ! olde/ lava w (t5 be di/+ui%able f ^? =m$ by subsequ5t eruptions on dry l&1 by _! alt]nation ) b$s ( s&/one & fragm5t>y rocks4 ,! suppos$ want ( id5tity1 !n1 betwe5 ! volcanic ph5om5a ( diff]5t epo*s resolves itself p>tly at lea/ into ! m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 ! op]ations simultane\sly 9 progress1 above & bel[ ! wat]s4 ,su*1 inde$1 is ! s\rce1 z 0 be=e /at$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,book 7,*ap4 ,v471 ( _m ( our /ronge/ !oretical prejudices 9 geology4 ,no soon] d we /udy & endeavor to expla9 subm>9e appe>ances1 ?an we feel1 to use a common expression1 out ( our elem5t2 & unwill+ to conc$e t our extreme ignorance ( processes n[ cont9ually go+ on c be ! cause ( our p]plexity1 we take refuge 9 a pre-exi/5t ord] ( nature4 ,rec5t =mation ( oolitic trav]t9 9 ,lanc]ote4--,?r\gh\t a consid]able "p ( ,lanc]ote1 ! old lavas are cov]$ by a ?9 /ratum ( lime/one1 f an in* to two feet 9 ?ickness4 ,x is ( a h>d /alactitic nature1 sometimes oolitic1 l ! ,jura lime/one1 & conta9s fragm5ts ( lava & t]re/rial %ells1 *iefly helices & spiral bulimi4 ,x sometimes rises to ! height ( #hjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,von ,bu* imag9es t ?is rem>kable sup]/ratum has be5 produc$ by ! furi\s nor?we/ /orms1 :i* 9 w9t] drive ! spray ( ! sea 9 cl\ds ov] ! :ole isl&2 f :5ce calc>e\s p>ticles may be deposit$ /alactitically4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 in=ms me t he f\nd a lime/one 9 ,/4 ,hel5a1 ! h>d] p>ts ( :i* correspond precisely to ! /one ( ,lanc]ote4 ,he attributes ! orig9 ( ?is rock 9 ,/4 ,hel5a n to ! spray ( ! sea1 b to drift+ by viol5t w9ds ( ! f9] p>ticles ( %ells f ! sea-bea*4 ,"s p>ts ( ?is drift are subsequ5tly dissolv$ by atmosph]ic moi/ure1 & r$eposit$1 s z to conv]t calc>e\s s& into oolite4 ,rec5t eruption 9 ,lanc]ote4--,f ! ye> #agcf to #ahae1 :5 ,von ,bu* visit$ ,lanc]ote1 !re _h be5 no eruption2 b1 9 ,augu/1 #ahbd1 a crat] op5$ ne> ! port ( ,rescif1 & =m$ by its ejections1 9 ! space ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 a consid]able hill4 ,viol5t e>?quakes prec$$ & accompani$ ?is eruption4#fje ,t5]iffe4--,! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe is ab\t #ab1jjj feet high1 & /&s1 says ,von ,bu*1 l a t[] encircl$ by its fosse & ba/ion4 ,! ba/ion consi/s1 l ! semicircul> esc>pm5t ( ,somma turn$ t[>ds ,vesuvius1 ( precipit\s cliffs1 compos$ ( tra*yte1 basalt1 co>se conglom]ates1 & tuffs1 trav]s$ by volcanic dikes1 mo/ly v]tical1 & ( basalt4 ,^! cliffs v>y 9 height f #ajjj to #ahjj feet1 & are suppos$ by ,von ,bu* to h be5 heav$ up into _! pres5t position by a =ce ex]t$ f bel[1 9 accordance ) ! !ory propos$ by ! same au?or = ! orig9 ( ! cones ( ,vesuvius & ,etna4 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,m4 ,deville 9 #ahcifjf1 ! tra*ytes are (t5 granitoid 9 _! aspect1 & conta9 in/ead ( glassy felsp> ! alli$ m9]al call$ oligoclase1 :i* _h be5 previ\sly consid]$ z *>act]i/ic ( m anci5t igne\s rocks4 ,! same travell] supposes1 al?\gh he f\nd no lime/one or trace ( fossils 9 any ( ! rocks ( ,t5]iffe1 t ! alt]nat+ tra*ytes & tra*ytic conglom]ates orig9at$ b5ea? ! sea4 ,if ?is op9ion be correct1 & x is at lea/ v probable1 geologi/s may /ill speculate on two modes 9 :i* ! mass ( ! isl& acquir$ its pres5t =m & elevation above ! sea4 #a/1 ,! advocates ( ,von ,bu*'s crat]-(-elevation hypo!sis may imag9e t a succession ( horizontally sup]impos$ b$s 7 upheav$ by a sudd5 movem5t1 & tilt$ s z to dip 9 all directions outw>ds f ! c5tre ( a new dome-%ap$ em95ce1 9 ! middle ( :i* a l>ge op5+ or b[l-%ap$ cavity 0 produc$4 #b;dly1 ,or accord+ to ! !ory :i* to me appe>s pref]able1 a subm>9e hill 9 ! =m ( a flatt5$ dome may h gradually accumulat$1 p>tly bel[ ! wat]s & p>tly above by ! cont9u$ outp\r+s ( %eets ( lava & ! ejection ( a%es f a c5tral orifice4 ,9 ?is case ! dikes w\ld repres5t ! fissures1 :i* 7 fill$ dur+ successive eruptions1 & ! orig9al incl9ation ( ! b$s may h be5 increas$ by ! di/5sion & upheaval ( ! mass dur+ reit]at$ convulsions1 act+ mo/ =cibly at or ne> ! *annel ( dis*>ge1 :i* w\ld become p>tially seal$ up ) lava f "t to "t1 & !n be bur/ op5 aga9 dur+ eruptions4 ,at l5g? ! :ole isl& may h be5 rais$ bodily out ( ! sea by a gradual upw>d movem5t4 ,:atev] !ory we adopt1 we mu/ always expla9 ! abrupt t]m9ation ( ! dikes & lay]s ( tra*yte & basalt 9 ! /eep walls ( ! esc>pm5ts surr\nd+ ! great crat] by suppos+ ! removal ( "p ( ! mat]ials once prolong$ f>!r inw>d t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,if1 accord+ to ! elevation-crat] hypo!sis1 a s]ies ( %eets ( lava & a%es orig9ally spread ov] a level & ev5 surface h be5 viol5tly brok5 & uplift$1 :y d n ! opposite walls ( ! *asm correspond 9 su* a mann] z to imply by _! pres5t outl9e t !y 7 =m]ly unit$8 ,x is evid5t t ! precipices on opposite sides ( ! crat]i=m holl[ w\ld n fit if br\ght toge!r1 !re be+ no project+ masses 9 "o wall to ent] into ind5tations 9 ! o!r1 z w\ld happ5 ) ! sides ( _m m9]al ve9s1 trap-dikes1 & faults1 c\ld we extract ! intrusive matt] n[ sep>at+ !m1 & reunite ! rocks :i* h be5 fractur$ & disjo9$4 ,! highe/ crat] ( ! peak has m]ely dis5gag$ sulphure\s vapors ev] s9ce x has be5 kn[n to ,europeans2 b an eruption happ5$ 9 ,june1 #agih1 n f> f ! summit1 & o!rs are record$1 :i* p\r$ out /reams ( lava f great heights1 besides _m :i* h brok5 out ne>] ! level ( ! sea4 ,all ^!1 h[ev]1 seem to be dep5d5t on "o great c5tre ( eruption1 or on t op5 *annel communicat+ betwe5 ! int]ior ( ! e>? & ! atmosph]e1 :i* t]m9ates 9 ! highe/ crat] ( ! peak4 ,we may consid] ,t5]iffe1 !n1 z hav+ be5 f a remote p]iod ! pr9cipal & habitual v5t ( ! volcanic ar*ipelago ( ! ,can>ies4 ,! dis*>ges :i* h tak5 place 9 ! contigu\s isles ( ,palma1 ,lanc]ote1 & ! re/1 may be ( a subsidi>y k9d1 & h probably be5 mo/ frequ5t & viol5t :5 ! great] crat] has be5 p>tially seal$ up1 j z ! viol5t eruptions ( ,is*ia or t ( ,monte ,nuovo co9cid$ ) ! dormant /ate ( ,vesuvius4 ,,santor94 ,! ,gulf ( ,santor91 9 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 has be5 = two ?\s& ye>s a sc5e ( active volcanic op]ations4 ,! l>ge/ ( ! ?ree out] isl&s ( ! gr\p 7to :i* ! g5]al "n ( ,santor9 is giv57 is call$ ,!ra 7or sometimes ,santor971 & =ms m ?an two-?irds ( ! circuit ( ! gulf 7see ,map1 fig4 #fc1 p4 #ddb74 ,! l5g? ( ! ext]ior coa/-l9e ( ?is & ! o!r two isl&s nam$ ,!rasia & ,aspronisi1 tak5 toge!r1 am\nts to ab\t ?irty miles1 & t ( ! inn] coa/-l9e ( ! same isl&s to ab\t eighte5 miles4 ,9 ! middle ( ! gulf are ?ree o!r isl&s1 call$ ! ,little1 ! ,new1 & ! ,old ,kaim5is1 or ,burnt ,isl&s4 ,! accompany+ map has be5 r$uc$ f a rec5t survey execut$ 9 #ahdh by ,capta9 ,graves1 ,r4 ,n41 & %ortly to be publi%$ by ! ,admiralty4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,map ( ,santor9 9 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 f a ,survey 9 #ahdh1 by ,capta9 ,graves1 ,r4 ,n4 ,! s\nd+s are giv5 9 fa?oms4 ,a1 ,%oal =m$ by subm>9e volcanic eruption 9 #afej4 ,b1 ,nor!rn entrance4 ,c1 ,mansell's ,rock4 ,d1 ,m\nt ,/4 ,elias1 #ahhg feet high4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,section ( ,santor91 9 a ,n4 ,e4 & ,s4 ,w4 direction1 f ,!ra ?r\gh ! ,kaim5ia to ,aspronisi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,"p ( ! section1 fig4 #fd1 enl>g$4 ,pl9y in=ms u t ! ye> #ahf1 ,b4 ,c41 gave bir? to ! ,old ,kaim5i1 also call$ ,hi]a1 or ! ,sacr$ ,isle1 & 9 ! ye> #ai ( our era ,?ia 7! ,div9e7 made its appe>ance above wat]1 & 0 soon jo9$ by subsequ5t eruptions to ! old] isl&1 f :i* x 0 only #bej paces di/ant4 ,! ,old ,kaim5i also increas$ successively 9 size 9 #gbf & 9 #adbg4 ,a c5tury & a half lat]1 9 #aegc1 ano!r eruption produc$ ! cone & crat] call$ ,micra-,kaim5i1 or ! ,small ,burnt ,isl&4 ,! next great ev5t :i* we f9d record$ occurr$ 9 #afej1 :5 a subm>9e outbreak viol5tly agitat$ ! sea1 at a po9t ?ree & a half miles to ! ,n4 ,e4 ( ,!ra1 & :i* gave rise to a %oal 7see ,a 9 ! map7 c>efully exam9$ dur+ ! late survey 9 #ahdh by ,capta9 ,graves1 & f\nd to h t5 fa?oms wat] ov] x1 ! sea deep5+ ar\nd x 9 all directions4 ,?is eruption la/$ ?ree mon?s1 cov]+ ! sea ) float+ pumice4 ,at ! same "t an e>?quake de/roy$ _m h\ses 9 ,!ra1 :ile ! sea broke ^u ! coa/ & ov]?rew two *ur*es1 expos+ to view two villages1 "o on ea* side ( ! m\nta9 ( ,/4 ,/eph51 bo? ( :i* mu/ h be5 ov]:elm$ by %[]s ( volcanic matt] dur+ "s previ\s eruptions ( unkn[n date4#fjg ,! accompany+ evolution ( sulphur & hydrog5 issu+ f ! sea kill$ m ?an fifty p]sons1 & above #ajjj dome/ic animals4 ,a wave1 also1 #ej feet high1 broke ^u ! rocks ( ! ,isle ( ,nia1 ab\t f\r leagues di/ant1 & advanc$ #dej y>ds into ! int]ior ( ! ,isl& ( ,sik9o4 ,la/ly1 9 #agjg & #agji1 ,nea-,kaim5i1 or ! ,new ,burnt ,isl&1 0 =m$ betwe5 ! two o!rs1 ,palaia & ,micra1 ! ,old & ,little isles4 ,?is isle 0 compos$ orig9ally ( two di/9ct p>ts2 ! fir/ :i* rose 0 call$ ! ,:ite ,isl&1 compos$ ( a mass ( pumice1 extremely por\s4 ,gorce1 ! ,jesuit1 :o 0 !n 9 ,santor91 says t ! rock cut l bread1 & t1 :5 ! inhabitants l&$ on x1 !y f\nd a multitude ( full-gr[n fre% oy/]s adh]+ to x1 :i* !y ate4#fjh ,?is mass 0 aft]w>ds cov]$1 9 great "p1 by ! matt] eject$ f ! crat] ( a tw9-isl& =m$ simultane\sly1 & call$ ,black ,isl&1 consi/+ ( br[n tra*yte4 ,! tra*ytic lava :i* rose on ?is spot appe>s to h be5 a long "t 9 an intumesc5t /ate1 = ! ,new ,kaim5i 0 sometimes l[]$ on "o side :ile x ga9$ height on ! o!r1 & rocks rose up 9 ! sea at diff]5t di/ances f ! %ore & !n disappe>$ aga94 ,! eruption 0 r5ew$ at int]vals dur+ ! ye>s #agaa & #agab1 & at l5g? a cone 0 pil$ up to ! height ( #ccj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 its ext]ior slope =m+ an angle ( #cc degrees ) ! horizon1 & ! crat] on its summit be+ #hj y>ds 9 diamet]4 ,9 addition to ! two po9ts ( suba]ial eruption on ! ,new & ,little ,kaim5is1 two o!r cones1 indicat+ ! sites ( subm>9e outbur/s ( unkn[n date1 7 discov]$ "u wat] ne> ! ,kaim5is dur+ ! late survey4 ,9 reg>d to ! ,:ite ,isl&1 :i* 0 describ$ & visit$ by ,gorce 9 #agjg1 we are indebt$ to ,mr4 ,edw>d ,=bes = hav+1 9 #ahdb1 c>efully inve/igat$ ! lay] ( pumice\s a% ( :i* x is con/itut$4 ,he obta9$ f x _m %ells ( m>9e g5]a1 ,pectunculus1 ,arca1 ,c>dita1 ,tro*us1 & o!rs1 bo? univalve & bivalve1 all ( rec5t ,m$it]ranean species4 ,!y 7 9 a f9e /ate ( pres]vation1 ! bivalves ) ! epid]mis rema9+1 & valves clos$1 %[+ t !y _h be5 sudd5ly de/roy$4 ,mr4 ,=bes1 f 8 /udy ( ! habits ( ! mollusca liv+ at diff]5t dep?s 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 0 able to decide t su* an assemblage ( species c\ld n h liv$ at a less dep? ?an #bbj feet1 s t a bodily upheaval ( ! mass to t am\nt mu/ h tak5 place 9 ord] to br+ up ?is b$ ( a%es & %ells to ! level ( ! sea1 & !y n[ rise five or six feet above t level4#fji ,we may comp>e ?is p>tial elevation ( solid matt] to ! rise ( a h>d5$ cru/ ( scoriae1 su* z is usually =m$ on ! surface ( lava-curr5ts1 ev5 :ile !y are 9 motion1 & :i*1 al?\gh /ony & capable ( support+ heavy weights1 may be uprais$ )\t bur/+ by ! intumesc5ce ( ! melt$ matt] bel[4 ,t ! upheaval 0 m]ely local is prov$ by ! fact t ! neighbor+ ,kaim5is did n p>ticipate 9 ! movem5t1 /ill less ! ?ree m di/ant or out] isl&s be=e m5tion$4 ,! hi/ory1 !re=e1 ( ! ,kaim5is %[s t !y h be5 ! result ( int]mitt5t action1 & x l5ds no support to ! hypo!sis ( ! sudd5 di/5sion ( horizontal b$s bl[n up l a bladd] by a s+le p>oxysmal ef=t ( expansive gases4 ,x w be se5 by ! accompany+ map & sections1 t ! ,kaim5is are arrang$ 9 a l9e> direction1 runn+ ,n4 ,e4 & ,s4 ,w41 9 a mann] diff]5t f t repres5t$ 9 ! old] *>ts4 ,9 _! longe/ diamet] !y =m at _! base a ridge ne>ly bisect+ ! gulf or crat] 7see sections1 figs4 #fd1 #fe74 ,on consid]+ ^! facts we are naturally l$ to comp>e ! small] & new] isl&s 9 ! c5tre ( ! gulf to ! mod]n cone ( ,vesuvius1 surr\nd$ by ! old] semicircul> esc>pm5t ( ,somma1 or to lik5 !m to ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe be=e describ$1 z surr\nd$ by its fosse & ba/ion4 ,?is idea w appe> to be /ill m fully confirm$ :5 we /udy ! s\nd+s tak5 dur+ ! late hydrographical survey4 ,!ra1 :i* con/itutes alone m ?an two-?irds ( ! out] circuit1 pres5ts ev]y:]e t[>ds ! gulf1 high & /eep precipices compos$ ( rocks ( volcanic orig94 ,9 all places ne> ! base ( its cliffs1 a dep? ( f #hjj to #ajjj feet ( wat] 0 f\nd1 & ,lieut4 ,leyce/] in=ms u#faj t if ! gulf1 :i* is six miles 9 diamet]1 c\ld be dra9$1 a b[l-%ap$ cavity w\ld appe> ) walls #bddi feet high 9 "s places1 & ev5 on ! s\?we/ side1 :]e x is l[e/1 n[h]e less ?an #abjj feet high2 :ile ! ,kaim5is w\ld be se5 to =m 9 ! c5tre a huge m\nta9 five & a half miles 9 circumf]5ce at its base1 ) ?ree pr9cipal summits 7! ,old1 ! ,new1 & ! ,little ,burnt ,isl&s7 ris+ sev]ally to ! heights ( #abea1 #afbi1 & #aaeh feet above ! bottom ( ! abyss4 ,! rim ( ! great caldron ?us expos$ w\ld be obs]v$ to be 9 all p>ts p]fect & unbrok51 except at "o po9t :]e !re is a deep & long *asm or *annel1 kn[n by m>9]s z ! nor!rn entrance 7,b1 fig4 #fc7 betwe5 ,!ra & ,!rasia1 & call$ by ,lieut4 ,leyce/] ! door into ! crat]4 ,x is no less ?an #aagj feet deep1 & con/itutes1 z w appe> by ! s\nd+s 7see map71 a rem>kable feature 9 ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,!re is no correspond+ *annel pass+ out f ! gulf into ! ,m$it]ranean at any o!r po9t 9 ! circuit betwe5 ! out] isl&s1 ! greate/ dep? !re rang+ f #g to #ff feet4 ,we may conceive1 !re=e1 if at "s =m] "t ! :ole mass ( ,santor9 /ood at a high] level by #abjj feet1 t ?is s+le rav9e or n>r[ valley n[ =m+ ! nor!rn entrance1 0 ! passage by :i* ! sea ent]$ a circul> bay & swept out 9 ! =m ( mud & pebbles1 ! mat]ials d]iv$ by d5udation f wa/+ cliffs4 ,9 ?is mann] ! orig9al crat] may h be5 sl[ly wid5$ & deep5$1 aft] :i* ! :ole ar*ipelago may h be5 p>tially subm]g$ to its pres5t dep?4 ,t su* oscillations ( level may 9 ! c\rse ( ages h tak5 place1 w be ! m readily admitt$ :5 we /ate t "p ( ,!ra has actually sunk d[n 9 mod]n times1 z1 = example1 dur+ ! great e>?quake be=e allud$ to1 :i* happ5$ 9 #afej4 ,! subsid5ce allud$ to is prov$ n only by tradition1 b by ! fact t a road :i* =m]ly l$ betwe5 two places on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,!ra is n[ twelve fa?oms "u wat]4 ,,mm4 ,boblaye & ,virlet m5tion1#faa t ! waves are con/antly und]m9+ & encroa*+ on ! cliffs ( ,!rasia & ,aspronisi1 & %oals or subm>9e l$ges 7 f\nd1 dur+ ! late survey1 to occur r\nd a great "p ( ^! isl&s1 atte/+ ! rec5t progress ( d5udation4 ,m4 ,virlet also rem>ks1 9 reg>d to ! sep>ation ( ! ?ree isl&s =m+ ! walls ( ! crat]1 t ! *annels betwe5 !m are all to ! ,w4 & ,n4 ,w41 ! qu>t] mo/ expos$ to ! waves & curr5ts4 ,mr4 ,d>w91 9 8 "w on volcanic isl&s1 has %[n t 9 ! ,mauritius & 9 ,santiago1 !re is an ext]nal circle ( basaltic rocks ( va/ diamet]1 9 ! int]ior ( :i* m mod]n eruptions h tak5 place1 ! old] rocks dipp+ away f ! c5tral space 9 e direction1 z 9 ! out] isl&s ( ,santor94 ,he ref]s ! num]\s brea*es1 "s ( !m v wide 9 ! ext]nal ramp>ts ( ^? isl&s1 to ! d5ud+ action ( ! sea4 ,e geologi/1 !re=e1 w be prep>$ to call 9 ! aid ( ! same p[]ful cause1 to acc\nt = ! removal ( a l>ge "p ( ! rocks :i* mu/ once h occupi$ ! int]ior space1 9 ! same mann] z !y attribute ! ab/raction ( matt] f elliptical valleys ( elevation1 su* z ^? ( ,woolhope & ! ,weald5 9 ,engl&1 to ! waves & curr5ts ( ! sea4 ,!ra1 ,!rasia1 & ,aspronisi are all compos$ ( volcanic matt]1 except ! s\!rn "p ( ,!ra1 :]e ,m\nt ,/4 ,elias rises to ?ree times ! height ( ! l(tie/ ( ! igne\s rocks1 rea*+ an elevation ( #ahhg feet above ! sea4#fab ,?is m\nta9 is =m$ ( granul> lime/one & argillace\s s*i/1 & mu/ h be5 orig9ally a subm>9e em95ce 9 ! b$ ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 be=e ! volcanic cone1 "o side ( ! base ( :i* n[ abuts aga9/ x1 0 =m$4 ,! incl9ation1 /rike1 & fractures ( ! calc>e\s & argillace\s /rata ( ,/4 ,elias h no relation to ! great cone1 b1 accord+ to ,m4 ,bory ,/4 ,v9c5t1 h ! same direction z ^? ( ! o!r isles ( ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 namely1 f ,n4 ,n4 ,w4 to ,s4 ,s4 ,e4 ,ea* ( ! ?ree isl&s1 ,!ra1 ,!rasia1 & ,aspronisi1 is capp$ by an enorm\s mass ( :ite tuface\s conglom]ate1 f =ty to fifty feet ?ick1 b5ea? :i* are b$s ( tra*ytic lava & tuff1 hav+ a g5tle incl9ation ( only #c degrees or #d degrees4 ,ea* b$ is usually v n>r[ & discont9u\s1 ! successive lay]s be+ m\ld$ or dove-tail$1 z ,m4 ,virlet expresses x1 into ! inequalities ( ! previ\sly exi/+ surface1 on :i* %[]s ( c9d]s or /reams ( melt$ matt] h be5 p\r$4 ,no?+1 !re=e1 seems m evid5t ?an t we h 9 ,santor9 ! basal rema9s ( a great ru9$ cone1 or flatt5$ dome2 & ! abs5ce ( dikes 9 ! cliffs surr\nd+ ! gulf w\ld indicate t ! eruptions took place orig9ally1 z !y h done 9 ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s1 n ne> ! m>g9 b 9 ! c5tre ( ! space n[ occupi$ by ! gulf4 ,! c5tral portions ( ! dome h s9ce be5 remov$ by engulfm5t1 or d5udation1 or by bo? ^! causes4 ,an important fact is adduc$ by ,m4 ,virlet1 to %[ t ! g5tle dip ( ! lava-/reams 9 ! ?ree out] isl&s t[>ds all po9ts ( ! compass1 away f ! c5tre ( ! gulf1 has n be5 due to ! upheaval ( horizontal b$s1 z conjectur$ by ,von ,bu*1 :o _h n visit$ ,santor94#fac ,! ,fr5* geologi/ f\nd t ! vesicles or pores ( ! tra*ytic masses 7 l5g!n$ out 9 ! sev]al directions 9 :i* !y w\ld h fl[$ if !y _h desc5d$ f ! axis ( a cone once occupy+ ! c5tre ( ! crat]4 ,= x is well kn[n t ! bubbles ( conf9$ gas 9 a fluid 9 motion assume an oval =m1 & ! direction ( _! long] axis co9cides always ) t ( ! /ream4 ,on a review1 !re=e1 ( all ! facts n[ br\ght to light respect+ ,santor91 ,i attribute ! mod]ate slope ( ! b$s 9 ,!ra & ! o!r ext]nal isl&s to _! hav+ orig9ally desc5d$ ! incl9$ flanks ( a l>ge volcanic cone1 ! pr9cipal orifice or v5ts ( eruption hav+ be5 always situat$ :]e !y are n[1 9 or ne> ! c5tre ( ! space occupi$ by ! gulf or crat]--9 o!r words1 :]e ! outbur/ ( ! ,kaim5is has be5 witness$ 9 hi/orical times4 ,! s+le long & deep op5+ into ! crat] is a feature common to all ^? remnants ( anci5t volcanoes1 ! c5tral portions ( :i* h be5 remov$1 & is probably connect$ ) aque\s d5udation4 ,?is d5ud+ process has be5 ! "w ( ages :5 ! sea 0 admitt$ into an orig9al crat]1 & has tak5 place dur+ ! gradual em]g5ce ( ! isl& f ! sea1 or dur+ v>i\s oscillations 9 its level4 ,! volcanic isl& ( ,/4 ,paul 9 ! mid/ ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 lat4 #ch degrees #dd m9utes ,s41 long4 #gg degrees #cg m9utes ,e41 survey$ by ,capt4 ,blackwood 9 #ahdb1 seems to exemplify ! fir/ /age 9 ! =mation ( su* an ar*ipelago z t ( ,santor94 ,we h !re a crat] "o mile 9 diamet]1 surr\nd$ by /eep & l(ty cliffs on e side save "o1 :]e ! sea ent]s by a s+le passage ne>ly dry at l[ wat]4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ! small circul> bay or crat] !re is a dep? ( #cj fa?oms1 or #ahj feet4 ,! surface ( ! isl& slopes away on all sides f ! cre/ ( ! rocks encircl+ ! crat]4#fad ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,cone & crat] ( ,b>r5 ,isl&1 9 ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4 ,height ( ! c5tral cone 7accord+ to ,capt ,mill]1 9 #ahcd71 #ejj feet4 ,b>r5 ,isl&4--,!re is great analogy betwe5 ! /ructure ( ,b>r5 ,isl& 9 ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 lat4 #ab degrees #ae m9utes1 & t ( ,santor9 la/ describ$4 ,:5 se5 f ! ocean1 ?is isl& pres5ts1 on almo/ all sides1 a surface ( b>e rocks1 ris+1 ) a mod]ate acclivity1 t[>ds ! int]ior2 b at "o po9t !re is a cleft by :i* we c p5etrate into ! c5tre1 & !re discov] t x is occupi$ by a great circul> bas91 fill$ by ! wat]s ( ! sea1 & bord]$ all ar\nd by /eep rocks1 9 ! mid/ ( :i* rises a volcanic cone1 v frequ5tly 9 eruption4 ,! summit ( ?is cone is ab\t #ejj feet 9 height1 correspond+ to t ( ! circul> bord] :i* incloses ! bas92 s t x c be se5 f ! sea only ?r\gh ! rav9e4 ,x is mo/ probable t ! ext]ior inclosure ( ,b>r5 ,isl& 7c1 d1 fig4 #fg7 is no?+ m ?an ! rema9s ( a truncat$ cone c1 a1 b1 d1 a great portion ( :i* has be5 remov$ by engulfm5t1 explosion1 or d5udation1 :i* may h prec$$ ! =mation ( ! new int]ior cone1 f1 e1 g4#fae ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,suppos$ section ( ,b>r5 ,isl&1 9 ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4 ,,mud ,,volcanoes4 ,icel&4--,mr4 ,r4 ,buns51 9 8 acc\nt ( ! pseudo-volcanic ph5om5a ( ,icel&1 describes _m valleys :]e sulphur\s & aque\s vapors bur/ =? ) a hiss+ s\nd1 f ! hot soil =m$ ( volcanic tuff4 ,9 su* spots a pool ( boil+ wat] is se51 9 :i* a blui%-black argillace\s pa/e rises 9 huge bubbles4 ,^! bubbles on bur/+ ?r[ ! boil+ mud to a height ( fifte5 feet & upw>ds1 accumulat+ x 9 l$ges r\nd ! crat] or bas9 ( ! spr+4 ,baku on ! ,caspian4--,! =mation ( a new mud volcano 0 witness$ on ! #bg? ( ,novemb]1 #ahbg1 at ,tokmali1 on ! p59sula ( ,abs*]on1 ea/ ( ,baku4 ,flames blaz$ up to an extraord9>y height = a space ( ?ree h\rs1 & cont9u$ = tw5ty h\rs to rise ab\t ?ree feet above a crat]1 f :i* mud 0 eject$4 ,at ano!r po9t 9 ! same di/rict :]e flames issu$1 fragm5ts ( rock ( l>ge size 7 hurl$ up into ! air1 & scatt]$ ar\nd4#faf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,mud cones & crat]s ( ,h+laj ne> ,beila1 di/rict ( ,lus1 #abj miles nor?we/ ( m\? ( ,indus4 ,f orig9al draw+ by ,capt4 ,rob]tson4 7,see ,map1 p4 #dfj47 ,sicily4--,at a place call$ ,macaluba1 ne> ,girg5ti 9 ,sicily1 are sev]al conical m\nds f t5 to ?irty feet 9 height1 ) small crat]s at _! summits1 f :i* cold wat]1 mix$ ) mud & bitum51 is ca/ out4 ,bubbles ( c>bonic acid & c>burett$ hydrog5 gas are also dis5gag$ f ^! spr+s1 & at c]ta9 p]iods ) su* viol5ce1 z to ?r[ ! mud to ! height ( #bjj feet4 ,^! air volcanoes1 z !y are sometimes t]m$1 are kn[n to h be5 9 ! same /ate ( activity = ! la/ fifte5 c5turies2 & ,dr4 ,daub5y imag9es t ! gases :i* escape may be g5]at$ by ! sl[ combu/ion ( b$s ( sulphur1 :i* is actually 9 progress 9 ! blue clay1 out ( :i* ! spr+s rise4#fag ,b z ! gases are simil> to ^? dis5gag$ 9 volcanic eruptions1 & z !y h cont9u$ to /ream out = s long a p]iod1 !y may p]haps be d]iv$ f a m deep-seat$ s\rce4 ,beila 9 ,india4--,9 ! di/rict ( ,luss or ,lus1 s\? ( ,beila1 ab\t #abj miles ,n4 ,w4 ( ,cut* & ! m\?s ( ! ,indus 7see ,map1 fig4 #ga1 p4 #dfj71 num]\s mud volcanoes are scatt]$ ov] an area ( probably n less ?an #ajjj squ>e miles4 ,"s ( ^! h be5 well describ$ by ,capta9 ,h>t1 & subsequ5tly by ,capta9 ,rob]tson1 :o has paid a visit to t region1 & made sket*es ( !m1 :i* he has k9dly plac$ at my disposal4 ,f "o ( ^! ! annex$ view has be5 select$4 ,^! conical hills occur to ! we/w>d ( ! ,h>a m\nta9s & ! riv] ,hubb4 7,see ,map1 p4 #dfj47 ,"o ( ! cones is #djj feet high1 compos$ ( light-color$ e>?1 & hav+ at its summit a crat] ?irty y>ds 9 diamet]4 ,! liquid mud :i* fills ! crat] is cont9ually di/urb$ by air-bubbles1 & "h & !re is ca/ up 9 small jets4#fah ,m9]al composition ( volcanic products4--,! m9]al call$ felsp> =ms 9 g5]al m ?an half ( ! mass ( mod]n lavas4 ,:5 x is 9 great excess1 lavas are call$ tra*ytic3 !y consi/ g5]ally ( a base ( compact felsp>1 9 :i* cry/als ( glassy felsp> are dissem9at$4#fai ,:5 augite 7or pyrox5e7 pr$om9ates1 lavas are t]m$ basaltic4 ,!y conta9 ab\t #ej p] c5t4 ( silica1 or mu* less ?an ! tra*ytes1 9 :i* !re is usually ab\t #ge p] c5t4 ( t m9]al4 ,!y also conta9 ab\t #aa p] c5t4 ( protoxide ( iron1 & z mu* ( lime1 bo? ( :i* are want+1 or only 9 insignificant quantities 9 ! tra*ytic rocks4#fbj ,b lavas occur ( an int]m$iate composition betwe5 ! tra*ytic & basaltic1 :i* f _! color h be5 call$ gray/ones4 ,! abundance ( qu>tz1 =m+ di/9ct cry/als or concretions1 *>act]izes ! granitic & o!r anci5t rocks1 n[ g5]ally consid]$ by geologi/s z ( igne\s orig92 :]eas t m9]al is r>ely exhibit$ 9 a sep>ate =m 9 rec5t lavas1 al?\gh silica ent]s s l>gely into _! composition4 ,hornbl5de1 s common 9 hypog5e rocks1 or ^? commonly call$ prim>y1 is r>e 9 mod]n lava2 nor does x ent] l>gely into rocks ( any age 9 :i* augite ab\nds4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be /at$1 t ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr4 ,gu/av ,rose h made x v que/ionable1 :e!r ! m9]als call$ hornbl5de & augite c be sep>at$ z di/9ct species1 z _! diff]5t v>ieties seem to pass into ea* o!r1 :e!r we consid] ! *>act]s d]iv$ f _! angles ( cry/allization1 _! *emical composition1 or _! specific gravity4 ,! diff]5ce 9 =m ( ! two sub/ances may be expla9$ by ! diff]5t circum/ances "u :i* !y h be5 produc$1 ! =m ( hornbl5de be+ ! result ( sl[] cool+4 ,cry/als ( augite h be5 met ) 9 ! scoriae ( furnaces1 b nev] ^? ( hornbl5de2 & cry/als ( augite h be5 obta9$ by melt+ hornbl5de 9 a plat9a crucible2 b hornbl5de itself has n be5 =m$ artificially4#fba ,mica occurs pl5tifully 9 "s rec5t tra*ytes1 b is r>ely pres5t :]e augite is 9 excess4 ,frequ5cy ( eruptions1 & nature ( subt]ranean igne\s rocks4--,:5 we speak ( ! igne\s rocks ( our own times1 we mean t small portion :i*1 9 viol5t eruptions1 is =c$ up by ela/ic fluids to ! surface ( ! e>?1--! s&1 scoriae1 & lava1 :i* cool 9 ! op5 air4 ,b we _c obta9 access to t :i* is congeal$ f> b5ea? ! surface "u great pressure1 equal to t ( _m hundr$1 or _m ?\s& atmosph]es4 ,dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 ab\t fifty eruptions are record$ ( ! five ,european volcanic di/ricts1 ( ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ,volcano1 ,santor91 & ,icel&2 b _m b5ea? ! sea 9 ! ,grecian ar*ipelago & ne> ,icel& may d\btless h pass$ unnotic$4 ,if "s ( !m produc$ no lava1 o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 l t ( ,skapt> ,jokul1 9 #aghc1 p\r$ out melt$ matt] = five or six ye>s consecutively2 :i* cases1 be+ reckon$ z s+le eruptions1 w comp5sate = ^? ( inf]ior /r5g?4 ,n[1 if we consid] ! active volcanoes ( ,europe to con/itute ab\t a =tie? "p ( ^? already kn[n on ! globe1 & calculate t1 "o ) ano!r1 !y are ab\t equal 9 activity to ! burn+ m\nta9s 9 o!r di/ricts1 we may !n compute t !re happ5 on ! e>? ab\t #bjjj eruptions 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury1 or ab\t tw5ty e ye>4 ,h[ev] inconsid]able1 !re=e1 may be ! sup]ficial rocks :i* ! op]ations ( fire produce on ! surface1 we mu/ suppose ! subt]ranean *anges n[ con/antly 9 progress to be on ! gr&e/ scale4 ,! l(tie/ volcanic cones mu/ be z insignificant1 :5 contra/$ to ! products ( fire 9 ! ne!r regions1 z are ! deposits =m$ 9 %all[ e/u>ies :5 comp>$ to subm>9e =mations accumulat+ 9 ! abysses ( ! ocean4 ,9 reg>d to ! *>act]s ( ^! volcanic rocks1 =m$ 9 our own times 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1 :e!r 9 r5ts & cav]ns1 or by ! cool+ ( lakes ( melt$ lava1 we may safely inf] t ! rocks are heavi] & less por\s ?an ord9>y lavas1 & m cry/all9e1 al?\gh compos$ ( ! same m9]al +r$i5ts4 ,z ! h>de/ cry/als produc$ artificially 9 ! laboratory require ! longe/ "t = _! =mation1 s we mu/ suppose t :]e ! cool+ d[n ( melt$ matt] takes place by ins5sible degrees1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 a v>iety ( m9]als w be produc$ f> h>d] ?an any =m$ by natural processes )9 ! %ort p]iod ( human obs]vation4 ,^! subt]ranean volcanic rocks1 moreov]1 _c be /ratifi$ 9 ! same mann] z s$im5t>y deposits f wat]1 al?\gh x is evid5t t :5 great masses consolidate f a /ate ( fusion1 !y may sep>ate into natural divisions2 = ?is is se5 to be ! case 9 _m lava-curr5ts4 ,we may also expect t ! rocks 9 "q w (t5 be r5t by e>?quakes1 s9ce ^! are common 9 volcanic regions2 & ! fissures w be (t5 inject$ ) simil> matt]1 s t dikes ( cry/all9e rock w trav]se masses ( simil> composition4 ,x is also cle>1 t no organic rema9s c be includ$ 9 su* masses1 z also t ^! deep-seat$ igne\s =mations consid]$ 9 mass mu/ und]lie all ! /rata conta9+ organic rema9s1 because ! heat proce$s f bel[ upw>ds1 & ! int5sity requir$ to r$uce ! m9]al +r$i5ts to a fluid /ate mu/ de/roy all organic bodies 9 rocks includ$ 9 ! mid/ ( !m4 ,if by a cont9u$ s]ies ( elevatory movem5ts1 su* masses %all h]eaft] be br\ght up to ! surface1 9 ! same mann] z s$im5t>y m>9e /rata h1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 be5 upheav$ to ! summit ( ! l(tie/ m\nta9s1 x is n difficult to =esee :at p]plex+ problems may be pres5t$ to ! geologi/4 ,he may !n1 p]haps1 /udy 9 "s m\nta9-*a9 ! v rocks produc$ at ! dep? ( sev]al miles b5ea? ! ,&es1 ,icel&1 or ,java1 9 ! "t ( ,leibnitz1 & draw f !m ! same conclusion :i* t philosoph] d]iv$ f c]ta9 igne\s products ( high antiquity2 = he conceiv$ our globe to h be51 = an indef9ite p]iod1 9 ! /ate ( a comet1 )\t an ocean1 & un9habitable alike by aquatic or t]re/rial animals4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,e>?quakes ,,& ,,_! ,,effects4 ,e>?quakes & _! effects--,defici5cy ( anci5t acc\nts--,ord9>y atmosph]ic ph5om5a--,*anges produc$ by e>?quakes 9 mod]n times consid]$ 9 *ronological ord]--,e>?quake 9 ,syria1 #ahcg--;,e>?quakes 9 ,*ili 9 #ahcg & #ahce--;,isle ( ,santa ,m>ia rais$ t5 feet--,*ili1 #ahbb--;,ext5t ( c\ntry elevat$--,aleppo & ,ionian ,isles--,e>?quake ( ,cut* 9 #ahai--,subsid5ce 9 ! ,delta ( ! ,indus--,isl& ( ,sumbawa 9 #ahae--;,e>?quake ( ,c>accas 9 #ahab--,%ocks at ,new ,madrid 9 #ahaa 9 ! valley ( ! ,mississippi--,aleutian ,isl&s 9 #ahjf--,reflections on ! e>?quakes ( ! n9ete5? c5tury--,e>?quake 9 ,quito1 ,quebec1 c4--,java1 #aghf--,s9k+ d[n ( l>ge tracts4 ,9 ! sket* be=e giv5 ( ! geographical b\nd>ies ( volcanic regions1 ,i /at$1 t al?\gh ! po9ts ( eruption are b ?9ly scatt]$1 con/itut+ m]e spots on ! surface ( ^? va/ di/ricts1 yet ! subt]ranean movem5ts ext5d simultane\sly ov] imm5se areas4 ,we may n[ proce$ to consid] ! *anges :i* ^! movem5ts produce on ! surface1 & 9 ! int]nal /ructure ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,defici5cy ( anci5t acc\nts4--,x is only )9 ! la/ c5tury & a half1 s9ce ,hooke fir/ promulgat$1 9 #afhh1 8 views respect+ ! connection betwe5 geological ph5om5a & e>?quakes1 t ! p]man5t *anges affect$ by ^! convulsions h excit$ att5tion4 ,be=e t "t1 ! n>rative ( ! hi/orian 0 almo/ exclusively conf9$ to ! numb] ( human be+s :o p]i%$1 ! numb] ( cities laid 9 ru9s1 ! value ( prop]ty de/roy$1 or c]ta9 atmosph]ic appe>ances :i* dazzl$ or t]rifi$ ! obs]v]s4 ,! creation ( a new lake1 ! engulf+ ( a new city1 or ! rais+ ( a new isl&1 are sometimes1 x is true1 adv]t$ to1 z be+ too obvi\s1 or ( too mu* geographical or political int]e/ to be pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce4 ,b no rese>*es 7 made expressly ) a view ( asc]ta9+ ! am\nt ( depression or elevation ( ! gr\nd1 or any p>ticul> alt]ations 9 ! relative position ( sea & l&2 & v little di/9ction 0 made betwe5 ! rais+ ( soil by volcanic ejections1 & ! upheav+ ( x by =ces act+ f bel[4 ,! same rem>k applies to a v l>ge proportion ( mod]n acc\nts3 & h[ mu* reason we h to regret ?is defici5cy ( in=mation appe>s f ?is1 t 9 e in/ance :]e a _s ( sci5tific inquiry has animat$ ! eye-witnesses ( ^! ev5ts1 facts calculat$ to ?r[ light on =m] modifications ( ! e>?'s /ructure are record$4 ,ph5om5a att5d+ e>?quakes4--,z ,i %all conf9e myself almo/ entirely1 9 ! foll[+ notice ( e>?quakes1 to ! *anges br\ght ab\t by !m 9 ! configuration ( ! e>?'s cru/1 ,i may m5tion1 g5]ally1 "s accompanim5ts ( ^! t]rible ev5ts :i* are almo/ uni=mly commemorat$ 9 hi/ory1 t x may be unnecess>y to adv]t to !m aga94 ,irregul>ities 9 ! seasons prec$+ or foll[+ ! %ocks2 sudd5 gu/s ( w9d1 int]rupt$ by dead calms2 viol5t ra9s at unusual seasons1 or 9 c\ntries :]e su* ph5om5a are almo/ unkn[n2 a r$d5+ ( ! sun's disk1 & a haz9ess 9 ! air1 (t5 cont9u$ = mon?s2 an evolution ( electric matt]1 or ( inflammable gas f ! soil1 ) sulphur\s & mephitic vapors2 noises und]gr\nd1 l ! runn+ ( c>riages1 or ! dis*>ge ( artill]y1 or di/ant ?und]2 animals utt]+ cries ( di/ress1 & ev9c+ extraord9>y al>m1 be+ m s5sitive ?an m5 ( ! slighte/ movem5t2 a s5sation l sea-sickness1 & a dizz9ess 9 ! head1 exp]i5c$ by m53--^!1 & o!r ph5om5a1 less connect$ ) our pres5t subject z geologi/s1 h recurr$ aga9 & aga9 at di/ant ages1 & 9 all p>ts ( ! globe4 ,i %all n[ beg9 ! enum]ation ( e>?quakes ) ! late/ au!ntic n>ratives1 & s c>ry back ! survey retrospectively1 t ,i may br+ be=e ! read]1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! m9ute & circum/antial details ( mod]n times1 & ?us enable him1 by obs]v+ ! extraord9>y am\nt ( *ange )9 ! la/ #aej ye>s1 to p]ceive h[ great mu/ be ! defici5cy 9 ! meag] annals ( e>li] eras4 ,,e>?quakes ,,( ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury4#fbb ,syria1 ,janu>y1 #ahcg4--;,x has be5 rem>k$ t e>?quakes affect elongat$ areas4 ,! viol5t %ock :i* deva/at$ ,syria 9 #ahcg 0 felt on a l9e #ejj miles 9 l5g? by #ij 9 bread?3#fbc m ?an #fjjj p]sons p]i%$2 deep r5ts 7 caus$ 9 solid rocks1 & new hot spr+s bur/ out at ,tab]eah4 ,*ili--,valdivia1 #ahcg4--,"o ( ! late/ e>?quakes by :i* ! position ( solid l& is kn[n to h be5 p]man5tly alt]$ is t :i* occurr$ 9 ,*ili1 on ,novemb] #g?1 #ahcg4 ,on t day ,valdivia 0 de/roy$ by an e>?quake1 & a :al]1 comm&$ by ,capta9 ,co/e1 0 viol5tly %ak5 at sea1 & lo/ h] ma/s1 9 lat4 #dc degrees #ch m9utes ,s4 9 sight ( ! l&4 ,! capta9 w5t on ! #aa? ( ,decemb] foll[+ to a spot ne> ! isl& ( ,lemus1 "o ( ! ,*onos ar*ipelago1 :]e he _h an*or$ two ye>s be=e1 & f\nd t ! bottom ( ! sea _h be5 rais$ m ?an eight feet4 ,"s rocks =m]ly cov]$ at all times by ! sea 7 n[ con/antly expos$1 & an enorm\s quantity ( %ells & fi% 9 a decay+ /ate1 :i* _h be5 ?r[n !re by ! waves1 or sudd5ly laid dry dur+ ! e>?quake1 atte/$ ! rec5t date ( ! occurr5ce4 ,! :ole coa/ 0 /rew$ ) uproot$ trees4#fbd ,*ili--,conception1 #ahce4--;,=tunately we h a /ill m detail$ acc\nt ( ! geographical *anges produc$ 9 ! same c\ntry on ! #bj? ( ,febru>y1 #ahce4 ,an e>?quake 0 !n felt at all places betwe5 ,copiapo & ,*iloe1 f nor? to s\?1 & f ,m5doza to ,juan ,f]n&ez1 f ea/ to we/4 ,vessels1 says ,mr4 ,caldcleugh1 navigat+ ! ,pacific1 )9 #ajj miles ( ! coa/1 exp]i5c$ ! %ock ) consid]able =ce4#fbe ,conception1 ,talcahuano1 ,*illan1 & o!r t[ns 7 ?r[n d[n4 ,f ! acc\nt ( ,capta9 ,fitz ,roy1 ,r4 ,n41 :o 0 !n employ$ 9 survey+ ! coa/1 we le>n t aft] ! %ock ! sea retir$ 9 ! ,bay ( ,conception1 & ! vessels gr\nd$1 ev5 ^? :i* _h be5 ly+ 9 sev5 fa?oms wat]3 all ! %oals 7 visible1 & soon aft]w>ds a wave ru%$ 9 & !n retreat$1 & 0 foll[$ by two o!r waves4 ,! v]tical height ( ^! waves does n appe> to h be5 mu* great] ?an f sixte5 to tw5ty feet1 al?\gh !y rose to mu* great] heights :5 !y broke ^u a slop+ bea*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,caldcleugh & ,mr4 ,d>w91 ! :ole volcanic *a9 ( ! ,*ilian ,&es1 a range #aej miles 9 l5g?1 0 9 a /ate ( unusual activity1 bo? dur+ ! %ocks & = "s "t prec$+ & aft] ! convulsion1 & lava 0 se5 to fl[ f ! crat] ( ,osorno4 7,see ,map1 fig4 #fi47 ,! isl& ( ,juan ,f]n&ez1 di/ant #cfe geographical miles f ,*ili1 0 viol5tly %ak5 at ! same "t1 & deva/at$ by a great wave4 ,a subm>9e volcano broke out !re ne> ,bacalao ,head1 ab\t a mile f ! %ore1 9 sixty-n9e fa?oms wat]1 & illum9$ ! :ole isl& dur+ ! night4#fbf ,at ,conception1 says ,capta9 ,fitz ,roy1 ! e>? op5$ & clos$ rapidly 9 num]\s places4 ,! direction ( ! cracks 0 n uni=m1 ?\gh g5]ally f s\!a/ to nor?we/4 ,! e>? 0 n quiet = ?ree days aft] ! great %ock1 & m ?an #cjj %ocks 7 c\nt$ betwe5 ! #bj? ,febru>y & ! #d? ( ,m>*4 ,! loose e>? ( ! valley ( ! ,biobio 0 ev]y:]e p>t$ f ! solid rocks :i* b\nd ! pla91 !re be+ an op5+ betwe5 !m f an in* to a foot 9 wid?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,= "s days aft] ! #bj? ( ,febru>y1 ! sea at ,talcahuano1 says ,capta9 ,fitz ,roy1 did n rise to ! usual m>ks by f\r or five feet v]tically4 ,:5 walk+ on ! %ore1 ev5 at high wat]1 b$s ( dead mussels1 num]\s *itons1 & limpets1 & )]$ seawe$1 /ill adh]+1 ?\gh lifeless1 to ! rocks on :i* !y _h liv$1 ev]y:]e met ! eye4 ,b ?is diff]5ce 9 ! relative level ( ! l& & sea gradually dim9i%$1 till 9 ! middle ( ,april ! wat] rose aga9 to )9 two feet ( ! =m] high-wat] m>k4 ,x might be suppos$ t ^! *anges ( level m]ely indicat$ a tempor>y di/urbance 9 ! set ( ! curr5ts or 9 ! height ( ! tides at ,talcahuano2 b1 on consid]+ :at occurr$ 9 ! neighbor+ isl& ( ,santa ,m>ia1 ,capta9 ,fitz ,roy conclud$ t ! l& _h be5 rais$ f\r or five feet 9 ,febru>y1 & t x _h return$ 9 ,april to )9 two or ?ree feet ( its =m] level4 ,santa ,m>ia1 ! isl& j allud$ to1 is ab\t sev5 miles long & two broad1 & ab\t tw5ty-five miles s\?we/ ( ,conception4 7,see ,map1 fig4 #gj47 ,! ph5om5a obs]v$ !re are mo/ important4 ,x appe>$1 says ,capta9 ,fitz ,roy1 :o visit$ ,santa ,m>ia twice1 ! fir/ "t at ! end ( ,m>*1 & aft]w>ds 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,april1 t ! s\!rn extremity ( ! isl& _h be5 rais$ eight feet1 ! middle n9e1 & ! nor!rn end upw>ds ( t5 feet4 ,on /eep rocks1 :]e v]tical measures c\ld be correctly tak51 b$s ( dead mussels 7 f\nd t5 feet above high-wat] m>k4 ,"o foot l[] ?an ! highe/ b$ ( mussels1 a few limpets & *itons 7 se5 adh]+ to ! rock :]e !y _h gr[n4 ,two feet l[] ?an ! same1 dead mussels1 *itons1 & limpets 7 abundant4 ,an ext5sive rocky flat lies ar\nd ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,santa ,m>ia4 ,be=e ! e>?quake ?is flat 0 cov]$ by ! sea1 "s project+ rocks only %[+ !mselves4 ,n[1 ! :ole flat is expos$1 & squ>e acres ( x are cov]$ ) dead %ell-fi%1 ! /5* aris+ f :i* is abom9able4 ,by ?is elevation ( ! l& ! s\!rn port ( ,santa ,m>ia has be5 almo/ de/roy$2 little %elt] rema9+ !re1 & v bad l&+4 ,! surr\nd+ sea is also /at$ to h become %all[] 9 exactly ! same proportion z ! l& _h ris52 ! s\nd+s hav+ dim9i%$ a fa?om & a half ev]y:]e ar\nd ! isl&4 ,at ,tubal1 also1 to ! s\!a/ ( ,santa ,m>ia1 ! l& 0 rais$ six feet1 at ,mo*a two feet1 b no elevation c\ld be asc]ta9$ at ,valdivia4 ,among o!r effects ( ! cata/rophe1 x is /at$ t cattle /&+ on a /eep slope1 ne> ! %ore1 7 roll$ d[n into ! sea1 & _m o!rs 7 wa%$ (f by ! great wave f l[ l& & dr[n$4#fbg ,9 ,novemb] ( ! same ye> 7#ahce71 ,conception 0 %ak5 by a sev]e e>?quake1 & on ! same day ,osorno1 at ! di/ance ( #djj miles1 r5ew$ its activity4 ,^! facts prove n only ! connection ( e>?quakes ) volcanic eruptions 9 ?is region1 b also ! va/ ext5t ( ! subt]ranean areas ov] :i* ! di/urb+ cause acts simultane\sly4 ,is*ia1 #ahbh4--,on ! #b;d ( ,febru>y ! :ole isl& ( ,is*ia 0 %ak5 by an e>?quake1 & 9 ! ,octob] foll[+ ,i f\nd all ! h\ses 9 ,casamicciol /ill )\t _! ro(s4 ,on ! sides ( a rav9e betwe5 t t[n & ,=io1 ,i saw masses ( gre5i% tuff :i* _h be5 ?r[n d[n4 ,! hot-spr+ ( ,rita1 :i* 0 ne>e/ ! c5tre ( ! movem5t1 0 asc]ta9$ by ,m4 ,covelli to h increas$ 9 temp]ature1 %[+1 z he obs]ves1 t ! explosion took place bel[ ! res]voirs :i* heat ! !rmal wat]s4#fbh ,bogota1 #ahbg4--,on ! #af? ( ,novemb]1 #ahbg1 ! pla9 ( ,bogota1 9 ,new ,granada1 or ,colombia1 0 convuls$ by an e>?quake1 & a great numb] ( t[ns 7 ?r[n d[n4 ,torr5ts ( ra9 swell$ ! ,magdal5a1 sweep+ along va/ quantities ( mud & o!r sub/ances1 :i* emitt$ a sulphur\s vapor & de/roy$ ! fi%4 ,popayan1 :i* is di/ant #bjj geographical miles ,s4 ,s4 ,w4 ( ,bogota1 suff]$ greatly4 ,wide crevices appe>$ 9 ! road ( ,guanacas1 leav+ no d\bt t ! :ole ( ! ,cordill]as su/a9$ a p[]ful %ock4 ,o!r fissures op5$ ne> ,co/a1 9 ! pla9s ( ,bogota1 into :i* ! riv] ,tunza imm$iately began to fl[4#fbi ,x is wor?y ( rem>k1 t 9 all su* cases ! anci5t gravel b$ ( a riv] is des]t$ & a new "o =m$ at a l[] level2 s t a want ( relation 9 ! position ( alluvial b$s ( ! exi/+ wat]-c\rses may be no te/ ( ! high antiquity ( su* deposits1 at lea/ 9 c\ntries habitually convuls$ by e>?quakes4 ,extraord9>y ra9s accompani$ ! %ocks be=e m5tion$2 & two volcanoes are said to h be5 9 eruption 9 ! m\nta9-*a9 ne>e/ to ,bogota4 ,*ili1 #ahbb4--,on ! #ai? ( ,novemb]1 #ahbb1 ! coa/ ( ,*ili 0 visit$ by a mo/ de/ructive e>?quake4 ,! %ock 0 felt simultane\sly ?r\gh\t a space ( #abjj miles f nor? to s\?4 ,/4 ,jago1 ,valp>aiso1 & "s o!r places1 7 greatly injur$4 ,:5 ! di/rict r\nd ,valp>aiso 0 exam9$ on ! morn+ aft] ! %ock1 x 0 f\nd t ! coa/ = a consid]able di/ance 0 rais$ above its =m] level4#fcj ,at ,valp>aiso ! elevation 0 ?ree feet1 & at ,qu9t]o ab\t f\r feet4 ,"p ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 says ,mrs4 ,graham1 rema9$ b>e & dry at high wat]1 ) b$s ( oy/]s1 mussels1 & o!r %ells adh]+ to ! rocks on :i* !y grew1 ! fi% be+ all dead1 & exhal+ mo/ (f5sive effluvia4#fca ,an old wreck ( a %ip1 :i* be=e c\ld n be approa*$1 became accessible f ! l&1 al?\gh its di/ance f ! orig9al sea-%ore _h n alt]$4 ,x 0 obs]v$ t ! wat]-c\rse ( a mill1 at ! di/ance ( ab\t a mile f ! sea1 ga9$ a fall ( f\rte5 in*es1 9 little m ?an "o hundr$ y>ds2 & f ?is fact x is inf]r$ t ! rise 9 "s p>ts ( ! inl& c\ntry 0 f> m consid]able ?an on ! bord]s ( ! ocean4#fcb ,"p ( ! coa/ ?us elevat$ consi/$ ( granite1 9 :i* p>allel fissures 7 caus$1 "s ( :i* 7 trac$ = a mile & a half inl&4 ,cones ( e>? ab\t f\r feet high 7 ?r[n up 9 sev]al di/ricts1 by ! =c+ up ( wat] mix$ ) s& ?r\gh funnel-%ap$ holl[s1--a ph5om5on v common 9 ,calabria1 & ! explanation ( :i* w h]eaft] be consid]$4 ,^? h\ses 9 ,*ili ( :i* ! f\ndations 7 on rock 7 less damag$ ?an su* z 7 built on alluvial soil4 ,mr4 ,cruick%anks1 an ,engli% botani/1 :o resid$ 9 ! c\ntry dur+ ! e>?quake1 has in=m$ me t "s rocks ( gre5/one at ,qu9t]o1 a few hundr$ y>ds f ! bea*1 :i* _h always be5 "u wat] till ! %ock ( #ahbb1 h s9ce be5 uncov]$ :5 ! tide is at half-ebb3 & he /ates t1 aft] ! e>?quake1 x 0 ! g5]al belief ( ! fi%]m5 & inhabitants ( ! ,*ilian coa/1 n t ! l& _h ris51 b t ! ocean _h p]man5tly retreat$4 ,dr4 ,mey51 a ,prussian travell]1 :o visit$ ,valp>aiso 9 #ahca1 says t on exam9+ ! rocks bo? nor? & s\? ( ! t[n1 n9e ye>s aft] ! ev5t1 he f\nd1 9 corroboration ( ,mrs4 ,graham's acc\nt1 t rema9s ( animals & sea-we$1 ! ,lessonia ( ,bory de ,/4 ,v9c5t1 :i* has a firm ligne\s /em1 /ill adh]$ to ^? rocks :i* 9 #ahbb _h be5 elevat$ above high-wat] m>k4#fcc ,accord+ to ! same au?or1 ! :ole coa/ ( ,c5tral ,*ili 0 rais$ ab\t f\r feet1 & banks ( m>9e %ells 7 laid dry on _m p>ts ( ! coa/4 ,he obs]v$ simil> banks1 elevat$ at unkn[n p]iods1 9 sev]al places1 especially at ,copiapo1 :]e ! species all agree ) ^? n[ liv+ 9 ! ocean4 ,mr4 ,frey] also1 :o resid$ "s ye>s 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 has confirm$ ^! /atem5ts2#fcd & ,mr4 ,d>w9 obta9$ evid5ce t ! rema9s ( an anci5t wall1 =m]ly wa%$ by ! sea1 & n[ #aa-a_/b feet above high-wat] m>k1 acquir$ sev]al feet ( ?is additional elevation dur+ ! e>?quake ( #ahbb4fce ,! %ocks cont9u$ up to ! end ( ,septemb]1 #ahbc2 ev5 !n1 =ty-eight h\rs seldom pass$ )\t "o1 & sometimes two or ?ree 7 felt dur+ tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,mrs4 ,graham obs]v$1 aft] ! e>?quake ( #ahbb1 t besides a bea* newly rais$ above high-wat] m>k1 !re 7 sev]al old] elevat$ l9es ( bea*1 "o above ! o!r1 consi/+ ( %+le mix$ ) %ells ext5d+ 9 a p>allel direction to ! %ore1 to ! height ( fifty feet above ! sea4#fcf ,ext5t ( c\ntry elevat$4--,by "s obs]v]s x has be5 suppos$ t ! :ole c\ntry f ! foot ( ! ,&es to a great di/ance "u ! sea 0 uprais$ 9 #ahbb1 ! greate/ rise be+ at ! di/ance ( ab\t two miles f ! %ore4 ,! rise ^u ! coa/ 0 f two to f\r feet3--at ! di/ance ( a mile inl& x mu/ h be5 f five to six or sev5 feet4#fcg ,x has also be5 conjectur$ by ! same eye-witnesses to ! convulsion1 t ! area ov] :i* ?is p]man5t alt]ation ( level ext5d$ may h be5 equal to #ajj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,al?\gh ! increas$ fall ( c]ta9 wat]-c\rses may h af=d$ "s gr\nd = ?is conjecture1 x mu/ be consid]$ z v hypo!tical1 & ! e/imate may h exce$$ or greatly fall5 %ort ( ! tru?4 ,x may nev]!less be useful to reflect on ! enorm\s am\nt ( *ange :i* ?is s+le convulsion occasion$1 if ! ext5t ( c\ntry mov$ upw>d really am\nt$ to #ajj1jjj squ>e miles1--an ext5t j equal to half ! area ( ,france1 or ab\t five-six?s ( ! area ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&4 ,if we suppose ! elevation to h be5 only ?ree feet on an av]age1 x w be se5 t ! mass ( rock add$ to ! cont95t ( ,am]ica by ! movem5t1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! mass previ\sly bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 & aft] ! %ocks p]man5tly above x1 mu/ h conta9$ fifty-sev5 cubic miles 9 bulk2 :i* w\ld be suffici5t to =m a conical m\nta9 two miles high 7or ab\t z high z ,etna71 ) a circumf]5ce at ! base ( ne>ly ?irty-?ree miles4 ,we may take ! mean specific gravity ( ! rock at #b4fee1--;a fair av]age1 & a conv5i5t "o 9 su* computations1 because at su* a rate a cubic y>d weighs two tons4 ,!n1 assum+ ! great pyramid ( ,egypt1 if solid1 to weigh1 9 accordance ) an e/imate be=e giv51 six million tons1 we may /ate ! rock add$ to ! cont95t by ! ,*ilian e>?quake to h m ?an equall$ #ajj1jjj pyramids4 ,b x mu/ always be borne 9 m9d t ! weight ( rock "h allud$ to con/itut$ b an insignificant "p ( ! :ole am\nt :i* ! volcanic =ces _h to ov]come4 ,! :ole ?ickness ( rock betwe5 ! surface ( ,*ili & ! subt]ranean foci ( volcanic action may be _m miles or leagues deep4 ,say t ! ?ickness 0 only two miles1 ev5 !n ! mass :i* *ang$ place & rose ?ree feet be+ #bjj1jjj cubic miles 9 volume1 mu/ h exce$$ 9 weight #cfc million pyramids4 ,x may be in/ruct+ to consid] ^! results 9 connection ) o!rs already obta9$ f a diff]5t s\rce1 & to comp>e ! work+ ( two antagoni/ic =ces--! levell+ p[] ( runn+ wat]1 & ! expansive en]gy ( subt]ranean heat4 ,h[ long1 x may be ask$1 w\ld ! ,ganges require1 accord+ to data be=e expla9$ 7p4 #bhc71 to transport to ! sea a quantity ( solid matt] equal to t :i* may h be5 add$ to ! l& by ! ,*ilian e>?quake8 ,! dis*>ge ( mud 9 "o ye> by ! ,ganges 0 e/imat$ at #bj1jjj million cubic feet4 ,accord+ to t e/imate x w\ld require ab\t f\r c5turies 7or #dah ye>s7 be=e ! riv] c\ld be> d[n f ! cont95t into ! sea a mass equal to t ga9$ by ! ,*ilian e>?quake4 ,9 ab\t half t "t1 p]haps1 ! unit$ wat]s ( ! ,ganges & ,burrampoot] might accompli% ! op]ation4 ,cut*1 #ahai4--;,a viol5t e>?quake occurr$ at ,cut*1 9 ! delta ( ! ,indus1 on ! #af? ( ,june1 #ahai4 7,see ,map1 fig4 #ga47 ,! pr9cipal t[n1 ,bhooj1 0 conv]t$ into a heap ( ru9s1 & its /one build+s 7 ?r[n d[n4 ,! movem5t 0 felt ov] an area hav+ a radius ( #ajjj miles f ,bhooj1 & ext5d+ to ,kbatm&oo1 ,calcutta1 & ,pondi*]ry4#fch ,! vibrations 7 felt 9 ,nor?we/ ,india1 at a di/ance ( #hjj miles1 aft] an int]val ( ab\t fifte5 m9utes aft] ! e>?quake at ,bhooj4 ,at ,ahm$abad ! great mosque1 erect$ by ,sultan ,ahm$ ne>ly #dej ye>s be=e1 fell to ! gr\nd1 atte/+ h[ long a p]iod _h elaps$ s9ce a %ock ( simil> viol5ce _h visit$ t po9t4 ,at ,anj>1 ! =t1 ) its t[] & guns1 0 hurl$ to ! gr\nd 9 "o common mass ( ru94 ,! %ocks cont9u$ until ! #bj?2 :51 ?irty miles nor?we/ f ,bhooj1 ! volcano call$ ,d5odur is said by "s to h s5t =? flames1 b ,capt4 ,grant 0 unable to au!nticate ?is /atem5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,,map ( ,,! ,,c\ntries at ,,! ,,m\? ,,( ,,! ,,indus4 ,subsid5ce 9 ! delta ( ! ,indus4--,al?\gh ! ru9 ( t[ns 0 great1 ! face ( nature 9 ! inl& c\ntry1 says ,capta9 ,macmurdo1 0 n visibly alt]$4 ,9 ! hills "s l>ge masses only ( rock & soil 7 deta*$ f ! precipices2 b ! ea/]n & almo/ des]t$ *annel ( ! ,indus1 :i* b\nds ! prov9ce ( ,cut*1 0 greatly *ang$4 ,?is e/u>y1 or inlet ( ! sea1 01 be=e ! e>?quake1 =dable at ,luckput1 be+ only ab\t a foot deep :5 ! tide 0 at ebb1 & at flood-tide nev] m ?an six feet2 b x 0 deep5$ at ! =t ( ,luckput1 aft] ! %ock1 to m ?an eighte5 feet at l[ wat]4#fci ,on s\nd+ o!r p>ts ( ! *annel1 x 0 f\nd1 t :]e previ\sly ! dep? ( ! wat] at flood nev] exce$$ "o or two feet1 x _h become f f\r to t5 feet deep4 ,by ^! & o!r rem>kable *anges ( level1 a "p ( ! inl& navigation ( t c\ntry1 :i* _h be5 clos$ = c5turies1 became aga9 practicable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,=t ( ,s9dree1 on ! ea/]n bran* ( ! ,indus1 be=e x 0 subm]g$ by ! e>?quake ( #ahai1 f a sket* ( ,capt4 ,gr9dlay1 made 9 #ahjh4 ,=t & village subm]g$4#fdj--,! =t & village ( ,s9dree1 on ! ea/]n arm ( ! ,indus1 above ,luckput1 are /at$ by ! same writ] to h be5 ov]fl[$2 &1 aft] ! %ock1 ! tops ( ! h\ses & wall 7 alone to be se5 above ! wat]1 = ! h\ses1 al?\gh subm]g$1 7 n ca/ d[n4 ,_h !y be5 situat$1 !re=e1 9 ! int]ior1 :]e s _m =ts 7 levell$ to ! gr\nd1 _! site w\ld1 p]haps1 h be5 reg>d$ z hav+ rema9$ comp>atively unmov$4 ,h5ce we may suspect t great p]man5t upheav+s & depressions ( soil may be ! result ( e>?quakes1 )\t ! inhabitants be+ 9 ! lea/ degree consci\s ( any *ange ( level4 ,a m rec5t survey ( ,cut*1 by ,sir ,a4 ,burnes1 :o 0 n 9 communication ) ,capt4 ,macmurdo1 confirms ! facts above enum]at$1 & adds _m important details4#fda ,t (fic] exam9$ ! delta ( ! ,indus 9 #ahbf & #ahbh1 & f 8 acc\nt x appe>s t1 :5 ,s9dree subsid$ 9 ,june1 #ahai1 ! sea fl[$ 9 by ! ea/]n m\? ( ! ,indus1 & 9 a few h\rs conv]t$ a tract ( l&1 #bjjj squ>e miles 9 area1 into an inl& sea1 or lagoon4 ,nei!r ! ru% ( ! sea into ?is new depression1 nor ! movem5t ( ! e>?quake1 ?rew d[n entirely ! small =t ( ,s9dree1 "o ( ! f\r t[]s1 ! nor?we/]n1 /ill cont9u+ to /&2 &1 ! day aft] ! e>?quake1 ! inhabitants :o _h asc5d$ to ! top ( ?is t[]1 sav$ !mselves 9 boats4#fdb ,elevation ( ! ,ullah ,bund4--,imm$iately aft] ! %ock1 ! inhabitants ( ,s9dree saw1 at ! di/ance ( five miles & a half f _! village1 a long elevat$ m\nd1 :]e previ\sly !re _h be5 a l[ & p]fectly level pla94 7,see ,map1 fig4 #ga47 ,to ?is uplift$ tract !y gave ! "n ( ,ullah ,bund1 or ! ,m\nd ( ,god1 to di/+ui% x f sev]al artificial dams previ\sly ?r[n across ! ea/]n arm ( ! ,indus4 ,ext5t ( c\ntry rais$4--,x has be5 asc]ta9$ t ?is new-rais$ c\ntry is upw>ds ( fifty miles 9 l5g? f ea/ to we/1 runn+ p>allel to t l9e ( subsid5ce be=e m5tion$1 :i* caus$ ! gr\nds ar\nd ,s9dree to be flood$4 ,! range ( ?is elevation ext5ds f ,pu*um ,isl& t[>ds ,gh>ee2 its bread? f nor? to s\? is conjectur$ to be 9 "s p>ts sixte5 miles1 & its greate/ asc]ta9$ height above ! orig9al level ( ! delta is t5 feet1--an elevation :i* appe>s to ! eye to be v uni=m ?r\gh\t4 ,= sev]al ye>s aft] ! convulsion ( #ahai1 ! c\rse ( ! ,indus 0 v unsettl$1 & at l5g?1 9 #ahbf1 ! riv] ?rew a va/ body ( wat] into its ea/]n arm1 t call$ ! ,phurraun1 above ,s9dree2 & =c+ its way 9 a m direct c\rse to ! sea1 bur/ ?r\gh all ! artificial dams :i* _h be5 ?r[n across its *annel1 & at l5g? cut "r ?r\gh ! ,ullah ,bund1 :]eby a natural section 0 obta9$4 ,9 ! p]p5dicul> cliffs ?us laid op5 ,sir ,a4 ,burnes f\nd t ! uprais$ l&s consi/$ ( clay fill$ ) %ells4 ,! new *annel ( ! riv] :]e x int]sect$ ! bund 0 eighte5 feet deep1 & =ty y>ds 9 wid?2 b 9 #ahbh ! *annel 0 /ill f>!r enl>g$4 ,! ,indus1 :5 x fir/ op5$ ?is new passage1 ?rew su* a body ( wat] into ! new m]e1 or salt lagoon1 ( ,s9dree1 t x became fre% = _m mon?s2 b x _h recov]$ its saltness 9 #ahbh1 :5 ! supply ( riv]-wat] 0 less copi\s1 & f9ally x became m salt ?an ! sea1 9 consequ5ce1 z ! natives sugge/$ to ,sir ,a4 ,burnes1 ( ! sal9e p>ticles ) :i* ! ,runn ( ,cut* is impregnat$4 ,9 #ahbh ,sir ,a4 ,burnes w5t 9 a boat to ! ru9s ( ,s9dree1 :]e a s+le rema9+ t[] 0 se5 9 ! mid/ ( a wide expanse ( sea4 ,! tops ( ! ru9$ walls /ill rose two or ?ree feet above ! level ( ! wat]2 & /&+ on "o ( ^!1 he c\ld behold no?+ 9 ! horizon b wat]1 except 9 "o direction1 :]e a blue /reak ( l& to ! nor? indicat$ ! ,ullah ,bund4 ,?is sc5e pres5ts to ! imag9ation a lively picture ( ! revolutions n[ 9 progress on ! e>?--a wa/e ( wat]s :]e a few ye>s be=e all 0 l&1 & ! only l& visible consi/+ ( gr\nd uplift$ by a rec5t e>?quake4 ,t5 ye>s aft] ! visit ( ,sir ,a4 ,burnes above allud$ to1 my fri5d1 ,capta9 ,grant1 ,f4 ,g4 ,s41 ( ! ,bombay ,eng9e]s1 _h ! k9dness to s5d at my reque/ a native surveyor to make a plan ( ,s9dree & ,ullah ,bund1 9 ,m>*1 #ahch4 ,f 8 description x appe>s t1 at t season1 ! drie/ ( ! :ole ye>1 he f\nd ! *annel trav]s+ ! ,bund to be #ajj y>ds wide1 )\t wat]1 & incru/$ ) salt4 ,he 0 told t x has n[ only f\r or five feet ( wat] 9 x aft] ra9s4 ,! sides or banks 7 ne>ly p]p5dicul>1 & n9e feet 9 height4 ,! lagoon has dim9i%$ bo? 9 area & dep?1 & "p ne> ! =t 0 dry l&4 ,! annex$ draw+1 made by ,capta9 ,grant f ! surveyor's plan1 %[s ! appe>ance ( ! =t 9 ! mid/ ( ! lake1 z se5 9 #ahch f ! we/1 or f ! same po9t z t f :i* ,capta9 ,gr9dlay's sket* 7see fig4 #gb7 0 tak5 9 #ahjh1 be=e ! e>?quake4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,view ( ! ,=t ( ,s9dree1 f ! we/1 9 ,m>*1 #ahch4 ,! ,runn ( ,cut* is a flat region ( a v peculi> "*1 & no less ?an #gjjj squ>e miles 9 area3 a great] sup]ficial ext5t ?an ,york%ire1 or ab\t "o-f\r? ! area ( ,irel&4 ,x is n a des]t ( mov+ s&1 nor a m>%1 b evid5tly ! dri$-up b$ ( an inl& sea1 :i* = a great "p ( e ye> has a h>d & dry bottom uncov]$ by we$s or grass1 & only support+ "h & !re a few tam>isks4 ,b dur+ ! monsoons1 :5 ! sea runs high1 ! salt-wat] driv5 up f ! ,gulf ( ,cut* & ! creeks at ,luckput ov]fl[s a l>ge "p ( ! ,runn1 especially aft] ra9s1 :5 ! soak$ gr\nd p]mits ! sea-wat] to spread rapidly4 ,! ,runn is also liable to be ov]fl[$ occasionally 9 "s p>ts by riv]-wat]3 & x is rem>kable t ! only portion :i* 0 ev] highly cultivat$ 7t anci5tly call$ ,sayra7 is n[ p]man5tly subm]g$4 ,! surface ( ! ,runn is sometimes incru/$ ) salt ab\t an in* 9 dep?1 9 consequ5ce ( ! evaporation ( ! sea-wat]4 ,isl&s rise up 9 "s p>ts ( ! wa/e1 & ! b\nd>y l&s =m bays & promontories4 ,! natives h v>i\s traditions respect+ ! =m] sep>ation ( ,cut* & ,s9de by a bay ( ! sea1 & ! dry+ up ( ! di/rict call$ ! ,runn4 ,b ^! tales1 besides ! usual unc]ta9ty ( oral tradition1 are f>!r obscur$ by my?ological fictions4 ,! conv]sion ( ! ,runn into l& is *iefly ascrib$ to ! miracul\s p[]s ( a ,h9doo sa9t1 by "n ,damora? 7or ,dhoorunna?71 :o _h previ\sly done p5ance = twelve ye>s on ! summit ( ,d5odur hill4 ,capta9 ,grant inf]s1 on v>i\s gr\nds1 t ?is sa9t fl\ri%$ ab\t ! elev5? or twelf? c5tury ( our era4 ,9 pro( ( ! dry+ up ( ! ,runn1 "s t[ns f> inl& are /ill po9t$ out z hav+ once be5 anci5t ports4 ,x has1 moreov]1 be5 always said t %ips 7 wreck$ & engulph$ by ! great cata/rophe2 & 9 ! jets ( black muddy wat] ?r[n out ( fissures 9 t region1 9 #ahai1 !re 7 ca/ up num]\s pieces ( wr\ght-iron & %ip nails4#fdc ,cones ( s& six or eight feet 9 height 7 at ! same "t ?r[n up on ^! l&s4#fdd ,we mu/ n conclude )\t allud+ to a moral ph5om5on connect$ ) ?is trem5d\s cata/rophe1 :i* we reg>d z highly des]v+ ! att5tion ( geologi/s4 ,x is /at$ by ,sir ,a4 ,burnes1 t ^! wond]ful ev5ts pass$ unhe$$ by ! inhabitants ( ,cut*2 = ! region convuls$1 ?\gh once f]tile1 _h = a long p]iod be5 r$uc$ to /]ility by want ( irrigation1 s t ! natives 7 indiff]5t z to its fate4 ,n[ x is to ?is pr(\nd apa?y :i* all b highly civiliz$ nations feel1 9 reg>d to physical ev5ts n hav+ an imm$iate influ5ce on _! worldly =tunes1 t we mu/ ascribe ! extraord9>y de>? ( hi/orical in=mation conc]n+ *anges ( ! e>?'s surface1 :i* mod]n obs]vations %[ to be by no means ( r>e occurr5ce 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature4 ,s9ce ! above acc\nt 0 writt51 a description has be5 publi%$ ( m rec5t geographical *anges 9 ! di/rict ( ,cut*1 ne> ! m\? ( ! ,koree1 or ea/]n bran* ( ! ,indus1 :i* happ5$ 9 ,june1 #ahde4 ,a l>ge area seems to h subsid$1 & ! ,s9dree lake _h become a salt m>%4#fde ,isl& ( ,sumbawa1 #ahae4--;,9 ,april1 #ahae1 "o ( ! mo/ frightful eruptions record$ 9 hi/ory occurr$ 9 ! prov9ce ( ,tomboro1 9 ! isl& ( ,sumbawa 7see ,map1 fig4 #ci1 p4 #cea71 ab\t #bjj miles f ! ea/]n extremity ( ,java4 ,9 ,april ( ! ye> prec$+ ! volcano _h be5 obs]v$ 9 a /ate ( consid]able activity1 a%es hav+ fall5 ^u ! decks ( vessels :i* sail$ pa/ ! coa/4#fdf ,! eruption ( #ahae began on ! #e? ( ,april1 b 0 mo/ viol5t on ! #aa? & #ab?1 & did n entirely cease till ,july4 ,! s\nd ( ! explosions 0 he>d 9 ,sumatra1 at ! di/ance ( #igj geographical miles 9 a direct l9e2 & at ,t]nate1 9 an opposite direction1 at ! di/ance ( #gbj miles4 ,out ( a population ( #ab1jjj1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,tomboro1 only tw5ty-six individuals surviv$4 ,viol5t :irlw9ds c>ri$ up m51 horses1 cattle1 & :atev] else came )9 _! influ5ce into ! air2 tore up ! l>ge/ trees by ! roots1 & cov]$ ! :ole sea ) float+ timb]4#fdg ,great tracts ( l& 7 cov]$ by lava1 sev]al /reams ( :i*1 issu+ f ! crat] ( ! ,tomboro m\nta91 rea*$ ! sea3 ,s heavy 0 ! fall ( a%es1 t !y broke into ! ,resid5t's h\se at ,bima1 =ty miles ea/ ( ! volcano1 & r5d]$ x z well z _m o!r dwell+s 9 ! t[n un9habitable4 ,on ! side ( ,java ! a%es 7 c>ri$ to ! di/ance ( #cjj miles1 & #bag t[>ds ,celebes1 9 suffici5t quantity to d>k5 ! air4 ,! float+ c9d]s to ! we/w>d ( ,sumatra =m$1 on ! #ab? ( ,april1 a mass two feet ?ick1 & sev]al miles 9 ext5t1 ?r\gh :i* %ips ) difficulty =c$ _! way4 ,! d>kness occasion$ 9 ! daytime by ! a%es 9 ,java 0 s pr(\nd1 t no?+ equal to x 0 ev] witness$ 9 ! d>ke/ night4 ,al?\gh ?is volcanic du/ :5 x fell 0 an impalpable p[d]1 x 0 ( consid]able weight :5 compress$1 a p9t ( x weigh+ twelve ounces & ?ree qu>t]s4 ,"s ( ! f9e/ p>ticles1 says ,mr4 ,crawfurd1 7 transport$ to ! isl&s ( ,amboyna & ,b&a1 :i* la/ is ab\t #hjj miles ea/ f ! site ( ! volcano1 al?\gh ! s\!a/ monsoon 0 !n at its height4 ,!y mu/ h be5 project$1 !re=e1 into ! upp] regions ( ! atmosph]e1 :]e a c\nt]-curr5t prevail$4 ,along ! sea-coa/ ( ,sumbawa & ! adjac5t isles1 ! sea rose sudd5ly to ! height ( f two to twelve feet1 a great wave ru%+ up ! e/u>ies1 & !n sudd5ly subsid+4 ,al?\gh ! w9d at ,bima 0 /ill dur+ ! :ole "t1 ! sea roll$ 9 ^u ! %ore1 & fill$ ! l[] p>ts ( ! h\ses ) wat] a foot deep4 ,e pr[ & boat 0 =c$ f ! an*orage1 & driv5 on %ore4 ,! t[n call$ ,tomboro1 on ! we/ side ( ,sumbawa1 0 ov]fl[$ by ! sea1 :i* encroa*$ ^u ! %ore s t ! wat] rema9$ p]man5tly eighte5 feet deep 9 places :]e !re 0 l& be=e4 ,"h we may obs]ve1 t ! am\nt ( subsid5ce ( l& 0 app>5t1 9 spite ( ! a%es1 :i* w\ld naturally h caus$ ! limits ( ! coa/ to be ext5d$4 ,! area ov] :i* tremul\s noises & o!r volcanic effects ext5d$1 0 #ajjj ,engli% miles 9 circumf]5ce1 includ+ ! :ole ( ! ,molucca ,isl&s1 ,java1 a consid]able portion ( ,celebes1 ,sumatra1 & ,borneo4 ,9 ! isl& ( ,amboyna1 9 ! same mon? & ye>1 ! gr\nd op5$1 ?rew out wat]1 & !n clos$ aga94#fdh ,9 conclusion1 ,i may rem9d ! read]1 t b = ! accid5tal pres5ce ( ,sir ,/am=d ,raffles1 !n ,gov]nor ( ,java1 we %\ld sc>cely h he>d 9 ,europe ( ?is trem5d\s cata/rophe4 ,he requir$ all ! resid5ts 9 ! v>i\s di/ricts "u 8 au?ority to s5d 9 a /atem5t ( ! circum/ances :i* occurr$ )9 _! own k2 b1 valuable z 7 _! communications1 !y are (t5 calculat$ to excite r ?an to satisfy ! curiosity ( ! geologi/4 ,!y m5tion t simil> effects1 ?\gh 9 a less degree1 _h1 ab\t sev5 ye>s be=e1 accompani$ an eruption ( ,c>ang ,assam1 a volcano 9 ! isl& ( ,bali1 we/ ( ,sumatra2 b no p>ticul>s ( t great cata/rophe are record$4#fdi ,c>accas1 #ahab4--,on ! #bf? ( ,m>*1 #ahab1 sev]al viol5t %ocks ( an e>?quake 7 felt 9 ,c>accas4 ,! surface undulat$ l a boil+ liquid1 & t]rific s\nds 7 he>d und]gr\nd4 ,! :ole city ) its spl5did *ur*es 0 9 an in/ant a heap ( ru9s1 "u :i* #aj1jjj ( ! inhabitants 7 buri$4 ,on ! #e? ( ,april1 enorm\s rocks 7 deta*$ f ! m\nta9s4 ,x 0 believ$ t ! m\nta9 ,silla lo/ f #cjj to #cfj feet ( its height by subsid5ce2 b ?is 0 an op9ion n f\nd$ on any measurem5t4 ,on ! #bg? ( ,april1 a volcano 9 ,/4 ,v9c5t's ?rew out a%es2 &1 on ! #cj?1 lava fl[$ f its crat] into ! sea1 :ile its explosions 7 he>d at a di/ance equal to t betwe5 ,vesuvius & ,switz]l&1 ! s\nd be+ transmitt$1 z ,humboldt supposes1 ?r\gh ! gr\nd4 ,dur+ ! e>?quake :i* de/roy$ ,c>accas1 an imm5se quantity ( wat] 0 ?r[n out at ,valecillo1 ne> ,val5cia1 z also at ,porto ,cabello1 ?r\gh op5+s 9 ! e>?2 & 9 ! ,lake ,m>acaybo ! wat] sank4 ,humboldt obs]v$ t ! ,cordill]as1 compos$ ( gneiss & mica slate1 & ! c\ntry imm$iately at _! feet1 7 m viol5tly %ak5 ?an ! pla9s4#fej ,s\? ,c>ol9a & ,new ,madrid1 ,miss\ri1 #ahaa-ab4--,previ\s to ! de/ruction ( ,la ,guayra & ,c>accas1 9 #ahab1 e>?quakes 7 felt 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a2 & ! %ocks cont9u$ till ^? cities 7 de/roy$4 ,! valley also ( ! ,mississippi1 f ! village ( ,new ,madrid to ! m\? ( ! ,ohio 9 "o direction1 & to ! ,/4 ,francis 9 ano!r1 0 convuls$ 9 su* a degree z to create new lakes & isl&s4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ by ,humboldt 9 8 ,cosmos1 t ! e>?quake ( ,new ,madrid pres5ts "o ( ! few examples on record ( ! incessant quak+ ( ! gr\nd = sev]al successive mon?s f> f any volcano4 ,fl9t1 ! geograph]1 :o visit$ ! c\ntry sev5 ye>s aft] ! ev5t1 in=ms u1 t a tract ( _m miles 9 ext5t1 ne> ! ,little ,prairie1 became cov]$ ) wat] ?ree or f\r feet deep2 & :5 ! wat] disappe>$ a /ratum ( s& 0 left 9 its place4 ,l>ge lakes ( tw5ty miles 9 ext5t 7 =m$ 9 ! c\rse ( an h\r1 & o!rs 7 dra9$4 ,! grave-y>d at ,new ,madrid 0 precipitat$ into ! b$ ( ! ,mississippi2 & x is /at$ t ! gr\nd :]eon ! t[n is built1 & ! riv]-bank = fifte5 miles above1 sank eight feet bel[ _! =m] level4#fea ,! neighbor+ =e/ pres5t$ = "s ye>s aft]w>ds a s+ul> sc5e ( confusion2 ! trees /&+ incl9$ 9 e direction1 & _m hav+ _! trunks & bran*es brok54#feb ,! inhabitants relate t ! e>? rose 9 great undulations2 & :5 ^! rea*$ a c]ta9 fe>ful height1 ! soil bur/1 & va/ volumes ( wat]1 s&1 & pit-coal 7 dis*>g$ z high z ! tops ( ! trees4 ,fl9t saw hundr$s ( ^! deep *asms rema9+ 9 an alluvial soil1 sev5 ye>s aft]4 ,! p 9 ! c\ntry1 al?\gh inexp]i5c$ 9 su* convulsions1 _h rem>k$ t ! *asms 9 ! e>? 7 9 a direction f ,s4 ,w4 to ,n4 ,e42 & !y accord+ly fell$ ! talle/ trees1 & lay+ !m at "r angles to ! *asms1 /ation$ !mselves ^u !m4 ,by ?is inv5tion1 :5 *asms op5$ m ?an once "u ^! trees1 sev]al p]sons 7 prev5t$ f be+ swall[$ up4#fec ,at "o p]iod dur+ ?is e>?quake1 ! gr\nd n f> bel[ ,new ,madrid swell$ up s z to arre/ ! ,mississippi 9 its c\rse1 & to cause a tempor>y reflux ( its waves4 ,! motion ( "s ( ! %ocks is describ$ z hav+ be5 horizontal1 & ( o!rs p]p5dicul>2 & ! v]tical movem5t is said to h be5 mu* less desolat+ ?an ! horizontal4 ,! above acc\nt has be5 repr9t$ exactly z x appe>$ 9 =m] editions ( ?is "w1 compil$ f ! au?orities :i* ,i h cit$2 b hav+ m rec5tly 7,m>*1 #ahdf7 _h an opportunity myself ( visit+ ! di/urb$ region ( ! ,mississippi1 & conv]s+ ) _m eye-witnesses ( ! cata/rophe1 ,i am able to confirm ! tru? ( ^? /atem5ts1 & to add "s rem>ks on ! pres5t face & features ( ! c\ntry4 ,i skirt$1 z 0 be=e relat$ 7p4 #bgj71 "p ( ! t]ritory imm$iately we/ ( ,new ,madrid1 call$ ! sunk c\ntry1 :i* 0 = ! fir/ "t p]man5tly subm]g$ dur+ ! e>?quake ( #ahaa-ab4 ,x is said to ext5d along ! c\rse ( ! ,:ite ,wat] & its tribut>ies = a di/ance ( betwe5 #gj & #hj miles nor? & s\?1 & #cj miles ea/ & we/4 ,i saw on its bord]s _m full-gr[n trees /ill /&+ leafless1 ! bottoms ( _! trunks sev]al feet "u wat]1 & a /ill great] numb] ly+ pro/rate4 ,an active vegetation ( aquatic plants is already beg9n+ to fill up "s ( ! %all[s1 & ! s$im5t wa%$ 9 by occasional floods :5 ! ,mississippi rises to an extraord9>y height contributes to conv]t ! sunk region into m>% & =e/ l&4 ,ev5 on ! dry gr\nd along ! conf9es ( ! subm]g$ area1 ,i obs]v$ 9 "s places t all ! trees ( prior date to #ahaa 7 dead & leafless1 ?\gh /&+ erect & entire4 ,!y are suppos$ to h be5 kill$ by ! loos5+ ( _! roots dur+ ! repeat$ undulations :i* pass$ ?r\gh ! gr\nd = ?ree mon?s 9 succession4 ,mr4 ,br+i]1 an exp]i5c$ eng9e] ( ,new ,orleans1 :o 0 on horseback ne> ,new ,madrid :5 "s ( ! sev]e/ %ocks 7 exp]i5c$1 relat$ to me 79 #ahdf71 t z ! waves advanc$ ! trees b5t d[n1 & ! in/ant aft]w>ds1 :ile recov]+ _! position1 !y (t5 met ^? ( o!r trees simil>ly incl9$1 s t _! bran*es becom+ int]lock$1 !y 7 prev5t$ f right+ !mselves aga94 ,! transit ( ! wave ?r\gh ! woods 0 m>k$ by ! cra%+ noise ( c\ntless b\ghs1 fir/ he>d on "o side & !n on ! o!r4 ,at ! same "t p[]ful jets ( wat]1 mix$ ) s&1 mud1 & fragm5ts ( coaly matt]1 7 ca/ up1 endang]+ ! lives ( bo? horse & rid]4 ,i 0 curi\s1 to asc]ta9 :e!r any ve/iges /ill rema9$ ( ^! f\nta9s ( mud & wat]1 & c>efully exam9$ betwe5 ,new ,madrid & ! ,little ,prairie sev]al s9k holes1 z !y are t]m$4 ,!y consi/ ( cavities f #aj to #cj y>ds 9 wid?1 & #bj feet or m 9 dep?1 & are v conspicu\s1 int]rupt+ ! level surface ( a flat alluvial pla94 ,i saw abundance ( s&1 :i* "s ( ! pres5t inhabitants saw sp\t+ f ^! deep holes1 also fragm5ts ( decay$ wood & black bitum9\s %ale1 probably drift$ d[n at "s =m] p]iod 9 ! ma9 *annel ( ! ,mississippi1 f ! coal-fields f>!r nor?4 ,i also f\nd num]\s r5ts 9 ! soil left by ! e>?quake1 "s ( !m /ill sev]al feet wide1 & a y>d or two 9 dep?1 al?\gh ! action ( ra9s1 fro/1 & occasional inundations1 & especially ! leaves ( trees bl[n into !m 9 c\ntless numb]s e autumn1 h done mu* to fill !m up4 ,i measur$ ! direction ( "s ( ! fissures1 :i* usually v>i$ f #aj to #de degrees ,w4 ( nor?1 & 7 (t5 p>allel to ea* o!r2 ,i f\nd1 h[ev]1 a consid]able div]sity 9 _! direction4 ,_m ( !m are traceable = half a mile & upw>ds1 b !y might easily be mi/ak5 = artificial tr5*es if resid5t settl]s 7 n !re to assure u t )9 _! recollection !y 7 z deep z wells4 ,fragm5ts ( coaly %ale 7 /rew$ along ! edges ( "s ( ^! op5 fissures1 toge!r ) :ite s&1 9 ! same mann] z r\nd ! s9k holes4#fed ,among o!r monum5ts ( ! *anges wr\ght 9 #ahaa-ab1 ,i explor$ ! b$ ( ! lake call$ ,eulalie1 ne> ,new ,madrid1 #cjj y>ds long by #ajj y>ds 9 wid?1 :i* 0 sudd5ly dra9$ dur+ ! e>?quake4 ,! p>allel fissures by :i* ! wat]s escap$ are n yet entirely clos$1 & all ! trees gr[+ on its bottom 7 at ! "t ( my visit less ?an #cd ye>s old4 ,!y consi/$ ( cotton-wood1 will[s1 & honey-locu/1 & o!r species1 diff]+ f ^? clo?+ ! surr\nd+ high] gr\nds1 :i* are m elevat$ by #ab or #ae feet4 ,on !m ! hickory1 ! black & :ite oak1 ! gum & o!r trees1 _m ( !m ( anci5t date1 7 fl\ri%+4 ,aleutian ,isl&s1 #ahjf4--;,9 ! ye> #ahjf1 a new isl&1 9 ! =m ( a peak1 ) "s l[ conical hills ^u x1 is said to h ris5 f ! sea among ! ,aleutian ,isl&s1 ea/ ( ,kamts*atka4 ,accord+ to ,langsdorf1#fee x 0 f\r geographical miles 9 circumf]5ce2 & ,von ,bu* inf]s f its magnitude1 & f its n hav+ aga9 subsid$ bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 t x did n consi/ m]ely ( eject$ matt]1 b ( a solid rock ( tra*yte upheav$4#fef ,ano!r extraord9>y eruption happ5$ 9 ! spr+ ( ! ye> #ahad1 9 ! sea ne> ,unalas*ka1 9 ! same ar*ipelago4 ,a new isle 0 !n produc$ ( consid]able size1 & ) a peak ?ree ?\s& feet high1 :i* rema9$ /&+ = a ye> aft]w>ds1 ?\gh ) some:at dim9i%$ height4 ,al?\gh x is n improbable t e>?quakes accompany+ ^! trem5d\s eruptions may h heav$ up "p ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 yet ! circum/ance ( ! isl&s n hav+ disappe>$ l ,sabr9a 7see p4 #daf71 may h aris5 f ! emission ( lava4 ,if ,jorullo1 = example1 9 #agei1 _h ris5 f a %all[ sea to ! height ( #afjj feet1 in/ead ( atta9+ t elevation above ! ,mexican plateau1 ! massive curr5t ( basaltic lava :i* p\r$ out f its crat] w\ld h enabl$ x to )/&1 = a long p]iod1 ! action ( a turbul5t sea4 ,reflections on ! e>?quakes ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4--,we are n[ ab\t to pass on to ! ev5ts ( ! eighte5? c5tury2 b be=e we leave ! consid]ation ( ^? already enum]at$1 let u pause = a mom5t1 & reflect h[ _m rem>kable facts ( geological int]e/ are af=d$ by ! e>?quakes above describ$1 ?\gh !y con/itute b a small "p ( ! convulsions ev5 ( ! la/ =ty ye>s4 ,new rocks h ris5 f ! wat]s2 new hot spr+s h bur/ out1 & ! temp]ature ( o!rs has be5 rais$2 ! coa/ ( ,*ili has be5 ?rice p]man5tly elevat$2 a consid]able tract 9 ! delta ( ! ,indus has sunk d[n1 & "s ( its %all[ *annels h become navigable2 an adjo9+ "p ( ! same di/rict1 upw>ds ( fifty miles 9 l5g? & sixte5 9 bread?1 has be5 rais$ ab\t t5 feet above its =m] level2 "p ( ! great pla9 ( ! ,mississippi1 = a di/ance ( eighty miles 9 l5g? by ?irty 9 bread?1 has sunk d[n sev]al feet2 ! t[n ( ,tomboro has be5 subm]g$1 & twelve ?\s& ( ! inhabitants ( ,sumbawa h be5 de/roy$4 ,yet1 ) a k ( ^! t]rific cata/rophes1 witness$ dur+ s brief a p]iod by ! pres5t g5]ation1 w ! geologi/ decl>e ) p]fect composure t ! e>? has at l5g? settl$ into a /ate ( repose8 ,w he cont9ue to ass]t t ! *anges ( relative level ( l& & sea1 s common 9 =m] ages ( ! _w1 h n[ ceas$8 ,if1 9 ! face ( s _m /rik+ facts1 he p]si/s 9 ma9ta9+ ?is favorite dogma1 x is 9 va9 to hope t1 by accumulat+ ! pro(s ( simil> convulsions dur+ a s]ies ( antec$5t ages1 we %all %ake 8 t5acity ( purpose3-- ,si fractus illabatur orbis ,impavidum f]i5t ru9ae4 ,,e>?quakes ,,( ,,! ,,eighte5? ,,c5tury4 ,quito1 #agig4--,on ! morn+ ( ,febru>y #d?1 #agig1 ! volcano ( ,tunguragua 9 ,quito1 & ! surr\nd+ di/rict1 = =ty leagues f s\? to nor?1 & tw5ty leagues f we/ to ea/1 exp]i5c$ an undulat+ movem5t1 :i* la/$ f\r m9utes4 ,! same %ock 0 felt ov] a tract ( #agj leagues f s\? to nor?1 f ,piura to ,popayan2 & #adj f we/ to ea/1 f ! sea to ! riv] ,napo4 ,9 ! small] di/rict fir/ m5tion$1 :]e ! movem5t 0 m int5se1 e t[n 0 levell$ to ! gr\nd2 & ,riobamba1 ,qu]o1 & o!r places1 7 buri$ "u masses deta*$ f ! m\nta9s4 ,at ! foot ( ,tunguragua ! e>? 0 r5t op5 9 sev]al places2 & /reams ( wat] & fetid mud1 call$ moya1 p\r$ out1 ov]fl[+ & wa/+ e ?+4 ,9 valleys #ajjj feet broad1 ! wat] ( ^! floods rea*$ to ! height ( #fjj feet2 & ! mud deposit b>r$ up ! c\rse ( ! riv]1 s z to =m lakes1 :i* 9 "s places cont9u$ = m ?an eighty days4 ,flames & suffocat+ vapors escap$ f ! lake ,quilotoa1 & kill$ all ! cattle on its %ores4 ,! %ocks cont9u$ all ,febru>y & ,m>*2 & on ! #e? ( ,april !y recurr$ ) almo/ z mu* viol5ce z at fir/4 ,we are told t ! =m ( ! surface 9 ! di/rict mo/ %ak5 0 entirely alt]$1 b no exact measurem5ts are giv5 :]eby we may e/imate ! degree ( elevation or subsid5ce4#feg ,inde$ x w\ld be difficult1 except 9 ! imm$iate neighborhood ( ! sea1 to obta9 any c]ta9 /&>d ( comp>ison if ! levels 7 really z mu* alt]$ z ! n>rations imply4 ,cumana1 #agig4--;,9 ! same ye>1 on ! #ad? ( ,decemb]1 ! small ,antilles exp]i5c$ subt]ranean movem5ts1 & f\r-fif?s ( ! t[n ( ,cumana 0 %ak5 d[n by a v]tical %ock4 ,! =m ( ! %oal ( ,morn]\ge1 at ! m\? ( ! riv] ,b\rdones1 0 *ang$ by an upheav+ ( ! gr\nd4#feh ,canada--,quebec1 #agia4--,we le>n f ,capta9 ,bayfield's memoirs1 t e>?quakes are v frequ5t on ! %ore ( ! e/u>y ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ( =ce suffici5t at times to split walls & ?r[ d[n *imneys4 ,su* 7 ! effects exp]i5c$ 9 ,decemb]1 #agba1 9 ,/4 ,paul's ,bay1 ab\t fifty miles ,n4 ,e4 f ,quebec2 & ! inhabitants say1 t ab\t e tw5ty-five ye>s a viol5t e>?quake returns1 :i* la/s =ty days4 ,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,canada1 x is /at$ t1 9 #affc1 a trem5d\s convulsion la/$ six mon?s1 ext5d+ f ,quebec to ,tadeausac1--a di/ance ( ab\t #acj miles4 ,! ice on ! riv] 0 brok5 up1 & _m l&slips caus$4#fei ,c>accas1 #agij4--;,9 ! ,c>accas1 ne> :]e ! ,caura jo9s ! ,or9oco1 betwe5 ! t[ns ,san ,p$ro de ,alcant>a & ,san ,francisco de ,aripao1 an e>?quake1 on ,/4 ,mat!w's day #agij1 caus$ a s9k+ 9 ( ! granitic soil1 & left a lake #hjj y>ds 9 diamet]1 & f eighty to "o hundr$ 9 dep?4 ,x 0 a portion ( ! =e/ ( ,aripao :i* subsid$1 & ! trees rema9$ gre5 = sev]al mon?s "u wat]4#ffj ,sicily1 #agij4--,on ! #ah? ( ,m>* 9 ! same ye>1 at ,s4 ,m>ia di ,niscemi1 "s miles f ,t]ranuova1 ne> ! s\? coa/ ( ,sicily1 ! gr\nd gradually sunk d[n = a circumf]5ce ( ?ree ,italian miles1 dur+ sev5 %ocks2 &1 9 "o place1 to ! dep? ( ?irty feet4 ,x cont9u$ to subside to ! end ( ! mon?4 ,sev]al fissures s5t =? sulphur1 petroleum1 /eam1 & hot wat]1 & a /ream ( mud1 :i* fl[$ = two h\rs1 & cov]$ a space sixty feet long & ?irty broad4 ,?is happ5$ f> f bo? ! anci5t & mod]n volcanic di/rict1 9 a gr\p ( /rata consi/+ *iefly ( blue clay4#ffa ,java1 #aghf4--;,ab\t ! ye> #aghf1 an e>?quake 0 felt at int]vals1 = ! p]iod ( f\r mon?s1 9 ! neighborhood ( ,batur1 9 ,java1 & an eruption foll[$4 ,v>i\s r5ts 7 =m$1 :i* emitt$ a sulphur\s vapor2 sep>ate tracts sunk away1 & 7 swall[$ by ! e>?4 ,into "o ( ^! ! rivulet ,dotog ent]$1 & aft]w>ds cont9u$ to foll[ a subt]rane\s c\rse4 ,! village ( ,jampang 0 buri$ 9 ! gr\nd1 ) ?irty-eight ( its inhabitants1 :o _h n "t to escape4 ,we are indebt$ to ,dr4 ,horsfield = hav+ v]ifi$ ! above-m5tion$ facts4#ffb ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,e>?quake ,,9 ,,calabria1 #aghc4 ,e>?quake 9 ,calabria1 ,febru>y #e1 #aghc--,%ocks cont9u$ to ! end ( ! ye> #aghf--;,au?orities--,area convuls$--,geological /ructure ( ! di/rict--,difficulty ( asc]ta9+ *anges ( level--,subsid5ce ( ! quay at ,mess9a--,movem5t 9 ! /ones ( two obelisks--,%ift or fault 9 ! ,r\nd ,t[] ( ,t]ranuova--,op5+ & clos+ ( fissures--,l>ge edifices engulf$--,dim5sions ( new cav]ns & fissures--,gradual clos+ 9 ( r5ts--,b\nd+ ( deta*$ masses into ! air--,l&slips--,build+s transport$ entire to great di/ances--,new lakes--,funnel-%ap$ holl[s 9 alluvial pla9s--,curr5ts ( mud--,fall ( cliffs1 & %ore ne> ,scilla inundat$--,/ate ( ,/romboli & ,etna dur+ ! %ocks--,h[ e>?quakes contribute to ! =mation ( valleys--,conclud+ rem>ks4 ,calabria1 #aghc4--,( ! num]\s e>?quakes :i* h occurr$ 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! globe1 dur+ ! la/ #ajj ye>s1 t ( ,calabria1 9 #aghc1 is almo/ ! only "o ( :i* ! geologi/ c be said to h su* a circum/antial acc\nt z to enable him fully to appreciate ! *anges :i* ?is cause is capable ( produc+ 9 ! lapse ( ages4 ,! %ocks began 9 ,febru>y1 #aghc1 & la/$ = ne>ly f\r ye>s1 to ! end ( #aghf4 ,nei!r 9 duration1 nor 9 viol5ce1 nor 9 ! ext5t ( t]ritory mov$1 0 ?is convulsion rem>kable1 :5 contra/$ ) _m exp]i5c$ 9 o!r c\ntries1 bo? dur+ ! la/ & pres5t c5tury2 nor 7 ! alt]ations :i* x occasion$ 9 ! relative level ( hill & valley1 l& & sea1 s great z ^? effect$ by "s subt]ranean movem5ts 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 9 lat] times4 ,! importance ( ! e>?quake 9 "q arises f ! circum/ance1 t ,calabria is ! only spot hi!rto visit$1 bo? dur+ & aft] ! convulsions1 by m5 possess+ suffici5t leisure1 zeal1 & sci5tific in=mation1 to enable !m to collect & describe ) accuracy ! physical facts :i* ?r[ light on geological que/ions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,au?orities4--,among ! num]\s au?orities1 ,viv5zio1 physician to ! k+ ( ,naples1 transmitt$ to ! c\rt a regul> /atem5t ( 8 obs]vations dur+ ! cont9uance ( ! %ocks2 & 8 n>rative is drawn up ) c>e & cle>ness4#ffc ,francesco ,antonio ,grimaldi1 !n secret>y ( w>1 visit$ ! diff]5t prov9ces at ! k+'s comm&1 & publi%$ a mo/ detail$ description ( ! p]man5t *anges 9 ! surface4#ffd ,he measur$ ! l5g?1 bread?1 & dep? ( ! diff]5t fissures & gulfs :i* op5$1 & asc]ta9$ _! numb] 9 _m prov9ces4 ,8 comm5ts1 moreov]1 on ! reports ( ! inhabitants1 & 8 explanations ( _! relations1 are judici\s & in/ructive4 ,pignat>o1 a physician resid+ at ,monteleone1 a t[n plac$ 9 ! v c5tre ( ! convulsions1 kept a regi/] ( ! %ocks1 di/+ui%+ !m into f\r classes1 accord+ to _! degree ( viol5ce4 ,f 8 "w1 x appe>s t1 9 ! ye> #aghc1 ! numb] 0 #idi1 ( :i* #eja 7 %ocks ( ! fir/ degree ( =ce2 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> !re 7 #aea1 ( :i* #ih 7 ( ! fir/ magnitude4 ,c\nt ,ippolito1 also1 & _m o!rs1 wrote descriptions ( ! e>?quake2 & ! ,royal ,academy ( ,naples1 n satisfi$ ) ^! & o!r obs]vations1 s5t a deputation f _! own body into ,calabria1 be=e ! %ocks _h ceas$1 :o 7 accompani$ by arti/s in/ruct$ to illu/rate by draw+s ! physical *anges ( ! di/rict1 & ! /ate ( ru9$ t[ns & edifices4 ,un=tunately ^! arti/s 7 n v successful 9 _! repres5tations ( ! condition ( ! c\ntry1 p>ticul>ly :5 !y attempt$ to express1 on a l>ge scale1 ! extraord9>y revolutions :i* _m ( ! great & m9or riv]-c\rses und]w5t4 ,b _m ( ! plates publi%$ by ! ,academy are valuable2 & z !y are little kn[n1 ,i %all frequ5tly avail myself ( !m to illu/rate ! facts ab\t to be describ$4#ffe ,9 addition to ^! ,neapolitan s\rces ( in=mation1 our c\ntryman1 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 survey$ ! di/rict1 n )\t "s p]sonal risk1 be=e ! %ocks _h ceas$2 & 8 sket*1 publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions1 supplies _m facts t w\ld o!rwise h be5 lo/4 ,he has expla9$1 9 a rational mann]1 _m ev5ts :i*1 z relat$ 9 ! language ( "s eye-witnesses1 appe>$ m>vell\s & incr$ible4 ,dolomieu also exam9$ ,calabria dur+ ! cata/rophe1 & wrote an acc\nt ( ! e>?quake1 correct+ a mi/ake into :i* ,hamilton _h fall51 :o suppos$ t a "p ( ! tract %ak5 _h consi/$ ( volcanic tuff4 ,x is1 inde$1 a circum/ance :i* enhances ! geological int]e/ ( ! commotions :i* s (t5 modify ! surface ( ,calabria1 t !y are conf9$ to a c\ntry :]e !re are nei!r anci5t nor mod]n rocks ( volcanic or trappean orig92 s t at "s future "t1 :5 ! era ( di/urbance %all h pass$ by1 ! cause ( =m] revolutions w be z lat5t z 9 p>ts ( ,great ,brita9 n[ occupi$ exclusively by anci5t m>9e =mations4 ,ext5t ( ! area convuls$4--,! convulsion ( ! e>?1 sea1 & air ext5d$ ov] ! :ole ( ,calabria ,ultra1 ! s\!a/ "p ( ,calabria ,citra1 & across ! sea to ,mess9a & its environs2 a di/rict ly+ betwe5 ! #ch? & #ci? degrees ( latitude4 ,! concussion 0 p]ceptible ov] a great "p ( ,sicily1 & z f> nor? z ,naples2 b ! surface ov] :i* ! %ocks act$ s =cibly z to excite int5se al>m did n g5]ally exce$ #ejj squ>e miles 9 area4 ,! soil ( t "p ( ,calabria is compos$ *iefly1 l ! s\!rn "p ( ,sicily1 ( calc>eo-argillace\s /rata ( great ?ickness1 conta9+ m>9e %ells4 ,?is clay is sometimes associat$ ) b$s ( s& & lime/one4 ,= ! mo/ "p ^! =mations resemble 9 appe>ance & consi/5cy ! ,subap5n9e m>ls1 ) _! accompany+ s&s & s&/ones2 & ! :ole gr\p be>s consid]able resemblance1 9 ! yield+ nature ( its mat]ials1 to mo/ ( our t]ti>y deposits 9 ,france & ,engl&4 ,*ronologically consid]$1 h[ev]1 ! ,calabrian =mations are comp>atively ( mod]n date1 (t5 ab\nd+ 9 fossil %ells ref]able to species n[ liv+ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,we le>n f ,viv5cio1 t on ! #bj? & #bf? ( ,m>*1 #aghc1 e>?quakes occurr$ 9 ! isl&s ( ,zante1 ,cephalonia1 & ,/4 ,maura2 & 9 ! la/-m5tion$ isl& sev]al public edifices & private h\ses 7 ov]?r[n1 & _m p de/roy$4 ,if ! city ( ,oppido1 9 ,calabria ,ultra1 be tak5 z a c5tre1 & r\nd t c5tre a circle be describ$1 ) a radius ( tw5ty-two miles1 ?is space w compreh5d ! surface ( ! c\ntry :i* suff]$ ! greate/ alt]ation1 & :]e all ! t[ns & villages 7 de/roy$4 ,! fir/ %ock1 ( ,febru>y #e?1 #aghc1 ?rew d[n1 9 two m9utes1 ! great] "p ( ! h\ses 9 all ! cities1 t[ns1 & villages1 f ! we/]n flanks ( ! ,ap5n9es 9 ,calabria ,ultra to ,mess9a 9 ,sicily1 & convuls$ ! :ole surface ( ! c\ntry4 ,ano!r occurr$ on ! #bh? ( ,m>*1 ) almo/ equal viol5ce4 ,! granitic *a9 :i* passes ?r\gh ,calabria f nor? to s\?1 & atta9s ! height ( _m ?\s& feet1 0 %ak5 b slightly by ! fir/ %ock1 b m rudely by "s :i* foll[$4 ,"s writ]s h ass]t$ t ! wave-l movem5ts :i* 7 propagat$ ?r\gh ! rec5t /rata1 f we/ to ea/1 became v viol5t :5 !y rea*$ ! po9t ( junction ) ! granite1 z if a reaction 0 produc$ :]e ! undulatory movem5t ( ! s(t /rata 0 sudd5ly arre/$ by ! m solid rocks4 ,b ! /atem5t ( ,dolomieu on ?is subject is mo/ int]e/+1 & p]haps1 9 a geological po9t ( view1 ! mo/ important ( all ! obs]vations :i* are record$4#fff ,! ,ap5n9es1 he says1 :i* consi/ 9 great "p ( h>d & solid granite1 ) "s micace\s & argillace\s s*i/s1 =m b>e m\nta9s ) /eep sides1 & exhibit m>ks ( great degradation4 ,at _! base new] /rata are se5 ( s& & clay1 m+l$ ) %ells2 a m>9e deposit conta9+ su* +r$i5ts z w\ld result f ! decomposition ( granite4 ,! surface ( ?is new] 7t]ti>y7 =mation con/itutes :at is call$ ! pla9 ( ,calabria--a plat=m :i* is flat & level1 except :]e int]sect$ by n>r[ valleys or rav9es1 :i* riv]s & torr5ts h excavat$ sometimes to ! dep? ( six hundr$ feet4 ,! sides ( ^! rav9es are almo/ p]p5dicul>2 = ! sup]ior /ratum1 be+ b\nd toge!r by ! roots ( trees1 prev5ts ! =mation ( a slop+ bank4 ,! usual effect ( ! e>?quake1 he cont9ues1 0 to disconnect all ^? masses :i* ei!r _h n suffici5t bases = _! bulk1 or :i* 0 support$ only by lat]al adh]5ce4 ,h5ce x foll[s t ?r\gh\t almo/ ! :ole l5g? ( ! *a91 ! soil :i* adh]$ to ! granite at ! base ( ! m\nta9s ,caulone1 ,esope1 ,sagra1 & ,aspramonte1 slid ov] ! solid & /eeply incl9$ nucleus1 & desc5d$ some:at l[]1 leav+ almo/ un9t]rupt$ly f ,/4 ,george to beyond ,/4 ,*ri/9a1 a di/ance ( f n9e to t5 miles1 a *asm betwe5 ! solid granitic nucleus & ! s&y soil4 ,_m l&s slipp+ ?us 7 c>ri$ to a consid]able di/ance f _! =m] position1 s z entirely to cov] o!rs2 & disputes arose z to :om ! prop]ty :i* _h ?us %ift$ its place %\ld belong4 ,f ?is acc\nt ( ,dolomieu we might anticipate1 z ! result ( a cont9uance ( su* e>?quakes1 fir/1 a longitud9al valley foll[+ ! l9e ( junction ( ! old] & new] rocks2 secondly1 great] di/urbance 9 ! new] /rata ne> ! po9t ( contact ?an at a great] di/ance f ! m\nta9s2 ph5om5a v common 9 o!r p>ts ( ,italy at ! junction ( ! ,ap5n9e & ,subap5n9e =mations4 ,mr4 ,mallet1 9 8 valuable essay on ! ,dynamics ( ,e>?quakes1#ffg (f]s ! foll[+ explanation ( ! fact to :i* ,dolomieu has call$ att5tion4 ,:5 a wave ( ela/ic compression1 ( :i* he consid]s ! e>?-wave to consi/1 passes abruptly f a body hav+ an extremely l[ ela/icity1 su* z clay & gravel1 into ano!r l granite1 ^: ela/icity is rem>kably high1 x *anges n only its velocity b 9 "p also its c\rse1 a portion be+ reflect$ & a portion refract$4 ,! wave be+ ?us s5t back aga9 produces a %ock 9 ! opposite direction1 do+ great damage to build+s on ! surface by ?us return+ ^u itself4 ,at ! same "t1 ! %ocks are at once eas$ :5 !y get into ! m ela/ic mat]ials ( ! granitic m\nta9s4 ,! surface ( ! c\ntry dur+ ! ,calabrian e>?quakes (t5 heav$ l ! bill[s ( a swell+ sea1 :i* produc$ a swimm+ 9 ! head1 l sea-sickness4 ,x is p>ticul>ly /at$1 9 almo/ all ! acc\nts1 t j be=e ea* %ock ! cl\ds appe>$ motionless2 &1 al?\gh no explanation is (f]$ ( ?is ph5om5on1 x is obvi\sly ! same z t obs]v$ 9 a %ip at sea :5 x pit*es viol5tly4 ,! cl\ds seem arre/$ 9 _! c>e] z (t5 z ! vessel rises 9 a direction contr>y to _! c\rse2 s t ! ,calabrians mu/ h exp]i5c$ precisely ! same motion on ! l&4 ,trees1 support$ by _! trunks1 sometimes b5t dur+ ! %ocks to ! e>?1 & t\*$ x ) _! tops4 ,?is is m5tion$ z a well-kn[n fact by ,dolomieu2 & he assures u t he 0 always on 8 gu>d aga9/ ! _s ( exagg]ation 9 :i* ! vulg> are ev] ready to indulge :5 relat+ ^! wond]ful occurr5ces4 ,x is impossible to suppose t ^! waves1 :i* are describ$ 9 ,italy & o!r regions ( e>?quakes z pass+ along ! solid surface ( ! e>? 9 a giv5 direction l a bill[ on ! sea1 h any /rict analogy ) ! undulations ( a fluid4 ,!y are d\btless ! effects ( vibrations1 radiat+ f "s deep-seat$ po9t1 ea* ( :i* on rea*+ ! surface lifts up ! gr\nd1 & !n all[s x aga9 to subside4 ,z ! di/ance betwe5 ! s\rce ( ! subt]ranean movem5t & ! surface mu/ v>y accord+ to ! outl9e ( ! c\ntry1 s ! vibratory j> w rea* diff]5t po9ts 9 succession4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,%ifts 9 ! /ones ( two obelisks 9 ! ,conv5t ( ,/ ,bruno4 ,! ,academicians relate t 9 "s ( ! cities ( ,calabria effects 7 produc$ seem+ to indicate a :irl+ or vorticose movem5t4 ,?us1 = example1 two obelisks 7fig4 #ge7 plac$ at ! extremities ( a magnific5t facade 9 ! conv5t ( ,s4 ,bruno1 9 a small t[n call$ ,/efano del ,bosco1 7 obs]v$ to h und]gone a movem5t ( a s+ul> k9d4 ,! %ock :i* agitat$ ! build+ is describ$ z hav+ be5 horizontal & vorticose4 ,! p$e/al ( ea* obelisk rema9$ 9 its orig9al place2 b ! sep>ate /ones above 7 turn$ p>tially r\nd1 & remov$ sometimes n9e in*es f _! position )\t fall+4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,d>w9 t ?is k9d ( displacem5t may be due to a vibratory r ?an a :irl+ motion2#ffh & m lately ,mr4 ,mallet1 9 ! pap] already cit$1 has (f]$ a v +5i\s solution ( ! problem4 ,he ref]s ! twi/+ simply to an ela/ic wave1 :i* has mov$ ! p$e/al =w>ds & back aga91 by an alt]nate horizontal motion )9 n>r[ limits1 & he has succe$$ 9 %[+ t a rectil9e> movem5t 9 ! gr\nd may h suffic$ to cause an incumb5t body to turn p>tially r\nd ^u its b$1 provid$ a c]ta9 relation exi/ betwe5 ! position ( ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! body & its c5tre ( adh]5ce4#ffi ,i %all n[ consid]1 9 ! fir/ place1 t class ( physical *anges produc$ by ! e>?quake :i* are connect$ ) alt]ations 9 ! relative level ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! l&2 & aft]w>ds describe ^? :i* are m imm$iately connect$ ) ! d]angem5t ( ! regul> dra9age ( ! c\ntry1 & :]e ! =ce ( runn+ wat] co-op]at$ ) t ( ! e>?quake4 ,difficulty ( asc]ta9+ *anges ( level4--,9 reg>d to alt]ations ( relative level1 none ( ! acc\nts e/abli% t !y 7 on a consid]able scale2 b x mu/ always be rememb]$ t1 9 proportion to ! area mov$ is ! difficulty ( prov+ t ! g5]al level has und]gone any *ange1 unless ! sea-coa/ happ5s to h p>ticipat$ 9 ! pr9cipal movem5t4 ,ev5 !n x is (t5 impossible to det]m9e :e!r an elevation or depression ev5 ( sev]al feet has occurr$1 because !re is no?+ to attract notice 9 a b& ( %+le & s& ( unequal bread? above ! level ( ! sea runn+ p>allel to a coa/2 su* b&s g5]ally m>k+ ! po9t rea*$ by ! waves dur+ spr+ tides1 or ! mo/ viol5t tempe/s4 ,! sci5tific inve/igator has n suffici5t topographical k to discov] :e!r ! ext5t ( bea* has dim9i%$ or increas$2 & he :o has ! necess>y local in=mation1 sc>cely ev] feels any int]e/ 9 asc]ta9+ ! am\nt ( ! rise or fall ( ! gr\nd4 ,add to ?is ! great difficulty ( mak+ correct obs]vations1 9 consequ5ce ( ! enorm\s waves :i* roll 9 ^u a coa/ dur+ an e>?quake1 & efface e l&m>k ne> ! %ore4 ,subsid5ce ( ! quay at ,mess9a4--,x is evid5tly 9 seaports alone t we c look = v accurate indications ( slight *anges ( level2 & :5 we f9d !m1 we may presume t !y w\ld n be r>e at o!r po9ts1 if equal facilities ( comp>+ relative altitudes 7 af=d$4 ,grimaldi /ates 7& 8 acc\nt is confirm$ by ,hamilton & o!rs71 t at ,mess9a1 9 ,sicily1 ! %ore 0 r5t2 & ! soil along ! port1 :i* be=e ! %ock 0 p]fectly level1 0 f\nd aft]w>ds to be incl9$ t[>ds ! sea1--! sea itself ne> ! ,ban*9a becom+ deep]1 & its bottom 9 sev]al places disord]$4 ,! quay also sunk d[n ab\t f\rte5 in*es bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 & ! h\ses 9 its vic9ity 7 mu* fissur$4 7,phil4 ,trans4 #aghc47 ,among v>i\s pro(s ( p>tial elevation & depression 9 ! int]ior1 ! ,academicians m5tion1 9 _! ,survey1 t ! gr\nd 0 sometimes on ! same level on bo? sides ( new rav9es & fissures1 b sometimes !re _h be5 a consid]able %ift+1 ei!r by ! upheav+ ( "o side1 or ! subsid5ce ( ! o!r4 ,?us1 on ! sides ( long r5ts 9 ! t]ritory ( ,soriano1 ! /ratifi$ masses _h alt]$ _! relative position to ! ext5t ( f eight to f\rte5 palms 7six to t5 & a half feet74 ,poli/5a4--,simil> %ifts 9 ! /rata are allud$ to 9 ! t]ritory ( ,poli/5a1 :]e !re appe>$ innum]able fissures 9 ! e>?4 ,"o ( ^! 0 ( great l5g? & dep?2 & 9 p>ts ! level ( ! correspond+ sides 0 greatly *ang$4 7,see fig4 #gf47 ,t]ranuova4--,9 ! t[n ( ,t]ranuova "s h\ses 7 se5 uplift$ above ! common level1 & o!rs adjo9+ sunk d[n into ! e>?4 ,9 sev]al /reets ! soil appe>$ ?ru/ up1 & abutt$ aga9/ ! walls ( h\ses3 a l>ge circul> t[] ( solid masonry1 "p ( :i* _h )/ood ! g5]al de/ruction1 0 divid$ by a v]tical r5t1 & "o side 0 uprais$1 & ! f\ndations heav$ out ( ! gr\nd4 ,x 0 comp>$ by ! ,academicians to a great too? half extract$ f ! alveolus1 ) ! upp] "p ( ! fangs expos$4 7,see fig4 #gg47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,deep fissure1 ne> ,poli/5a1 caus$ by ! e>?quake ( #aghc4 ,along ! l9e ( ?is %ift1 or fault1 z x w\ld be t]m$ te*nically by m9]s1 ! walls 7 f\nd to adh]e firmly to ea* o!r1 & to fit s well1 t ! only signs ( _! hav+ be5 disunit$ 0 ! want ( correspond5ce 9 ! c\rses ( /one on ei!r side ( ! r5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,%ift or fault 9 ! ,r\nd ,t[] ( ,t]ranuova 9 ,calabria1 occasion$ by ! e>?quake ( #aghc4 ,dolomieu saw a /one well 9 ! conv5t ( ! ,augu/9s at ,t]ranuova1 :i* _h ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 driv5 out ( ! e>?4 ,x resembl$ a small t[] eight or n9e feet 9 height1 & a little incl9$4 ,?is effect1 he says1 0 produc$ by ! consolidation & consequ5t s9k+ ( ! s&y soil 9 :i* ! well 0 dug4 ,9 "s walls :i* _h be5 ?r[n d[n1 or viol5tly %ak51 9 ,monteleone1 ! sep>ate /ones 7 p>t$ f ! mort>1 s z to leave an exact m\ld :]e !y _h re/$2 :]eas 9 o!r cases ! mort> 0 gr\nd to du/ betwe5 ! /ones4 ,x appe>s t ! wave-l motions (t5 produc$ effects ( ! mo/ caprici\s k9d4 ,?us1 9 "s /reets ( ,monteleone1 e h\se 0 ?r[n d[n b "o2 9 o!rs1 all b two2 & ! build+s :i* 7 sp>$ 7 (t5 sc>cely 9 ! lea/ degree injur$4 ,9 _m cities ( ,calabria1 all ! mo/ solid build+s 7 ?r[n d[n1 :ile ^? :i* 7 slightly built escap$2 b at ,ros>no1 z also at ,mess9a 9 ,sicily1 x 0 precisely ! rev]se1 ! massive edifices be+ ! only ones t /ood4 ,fissures4--,x appe>s evid5t t a great "p ( ! r5d+ & fissur+ ( ! gr\nd 0 ! effect ( a viol5t motion f bel[ upw>ds2 & 9 a multitude ( cases :]e ! r5ts & *asms op5$ & clos$ alt]nately1 we mu/ suppose t ! e>? 0 by turns heav$ up1 & !n let fall aga94#fgj ,we may conceive ! same effect to be produc$ on a small scale1 if1 by "s me*anical =ce1 a pavem5t compos$ ( l>ge flags ( /one %\ld be rais$ up1 & !n all[$ to fall sudd5ly1 s z to resume its orig9al position4 ,if any small pebbles happ5$ to be ly+ on ! l9e ( contact ( two flags1 !y w\ld fall into ! op5+ :5 ! pavem5t rose1 & be swall[$ up1 s t no trace ( !m w\ld appe> aft] ! subsid5ce ( ! /ones4 ,9 ! same mann]1 :5 ! e>? 0 upheav$1 l>ge h\ses1 trees1 cattle1 & m5 7 engulf$ 9 an in/ant 9 *asms & fissures2 & :5 ! gr\nd sank d[n aga91 ! e>? clos$ ^u !m1 s t no ve/ige ( !m 0 discov]able on ! surface4 ,9 _m in/ances1 individuals 7 swall[$ up by "o %ock1 & !n ?r[n out aga9 alive1 toge!r ) l>ge jets ( wat]1 by ! %ock :i* imm$iately succe$$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,fissures ne> ,j]oc>ne1 9 ,calabria1 caus$ by ! e>?quake ( #aghc4 ,at ,j]oc>ne1 a c\ntry :i*1 accord+ to ! ,academicians1 0 lac]at$ 9 a mo/ extraord9>y mann]1 ! fissures ran 9 e direction1 l cracks on a brok5 pane ( glass 7see fig4 #gh72 & z a great portion ( !m rema9$ op5 aft] ! %ocks1 x is v possible t ?is c\ntry 0 p]man5tly uprais$4 ,x 0 usual1 z we le>n f ,dolomieu1 = ! *asms & fissures ?r\gh\t ,calabria1 to ran p>allel to ! c\rse ( "s pre-exi/+ gorges 9 _! neighborhood4 ,h\ses engulf$4--,9 ! vic9ity ( ,oppido1 ! c5tral po9t f :i* ! e>?quake diffus$ its viol5t movem5ts1 _m h\ses 7 swall[$ up by ! yawn+ e>?1 :i* clos$ imm$iately ov] !m4 ,9 ! adjac5t di/rict1 also1 ( ,cannam>ia f\r f>m-h\ses1 sev]al oil-/ores1 & "s spaci\s dwell+-h\ses 7 s completely engulf$ 9 "o *asm1 t n a ve/ige ( !m 0 aft]w>ds disc]nible4 ,! same ph5om5a occurr$ at ,t]ranuova1 ,s4 ,*ri/9a1 & ,s9opoli4 ,! ,academicians /ate p>ticul>ly1 t :5 deep abysses _h op5$ 9 ! argillace\s /rata ( ,t]ranuova1 & h\ses _h sunk into !m1 ! sides ( ! *asms clos$ ) su* viol5ce1 t1 on excavat+ aft]w>ds to recov] articles ( value1 ! workm5 f\nd ! cont5ts & deta*$ p>ts ( ! build+s jamm$ toge!r s z to become "o compact mass4 ,x is unnecess>y to accumulate examples ( simil> occurr5ces2 b s _m are well au!nticat$ dur+ ?is e>?quake 9 ,calabria1 t we may1 )\t hesitation1 yield ass5t to ! acc\nts ( cata/rophes ( ! same k9d repeat$ aga9 & aga9 9 hi/ory1 :]e :ole t[ns are decl>$ to h be5 engulf$1 & no?+ b a pool ( wat] or tract ( s& left 9 _! place4 ,*asm =m$ ne> ,oppido4--,on ! slop+ side ( a hill ne> ,oppido a great *asm op5$2 &1 al?\gh a l>ge quantity ( soil 0 precipitat$ into ! abyss1 toge!r ) a consid]able numb] ( olive-trees & "p ( a v9ey>d1 a great gulf rema9$ aft] ! %ock1 9 ! =m ( an amphi!atre1 #ejj feet long & #bjj feet deep4 7,see fig4 #gi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,*asm =m$ by ! e>?quake ( #aghc1 ne> ,oppido 9 ,calabria4 ,dim5sions ( new fissures & *asms4--,accord+ to ,grimaldi1 _m fissures & *asms1 =m$ by ! fir/ %ock ( ,febru>y #e?1 7 greatly wid5$1 l5g!n$1 & deep5$ by ! viol5t convulsions ( ,m>* #bh?4 ,9 ! t]ritory ( ,san ,fili ?is obs]v] f\nd a new rav9e1 half a mile 9 l5g?1 two feet & a half broad1 & tw5ty-five feet deep2 & ano!r ( simil> dim5sions 9 ! t]ritory ( ,ros>no4 ,a rav9e ne>ly a mile long1 #aje feet broad & ?irty feet deep1 op5$ 9 ! di/rict ( ,plaisano1 :]e1 also1 two gulfs 7 caus$--"o 9 a place call$ ,c]zulle1 ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile long1 #aej feet broad1 & above "o hundr$ feet deep2 & ano!r at ,la ,=tuna1 ne>ly a qu>t] ( a mile long1 above ?irty feet 9 bread?1 & no less ?an #bbe feet deep4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,*asm 9 ! hill ( ,/4 ,angelo1 ne> ,soriano1 9 ,calabria1 caus$ by ! e>?quake ( #aghc4 ,9 ! di/rict ( ,fosolano ?ree gulfs op5$3 "o ( ^! measur$ #cjj feet squ>e1 & above ?irty feet deep2 ano!r 0 ne>ly half a mile long1 fifte5 feet broad1 & above ?irty-feet deep2 ! ?ird 0 #gej feet squ>e4 ,la/ly1 a calc>e\s m\nta91 call$ ,zefirio1 at ! s\!rn extremity ( ! ,italian p59sula1 0 cleft 9 two = ! l5g? ( ne>ly half a mile1 & an irregul> bread? ( _m feet4 ,"s ( ^! *asms 7 9 ! =m ( a cresc5t4 ,! annex$ cut 7fig4 #hj7 repres5ts "o by no means rem>kable = its dim5sions1 :i* rema9$ op5 by ! side ( a small pass ov] ! hill ( ,/4 ,angelo1 ne> ,soriano4 ,! small riv] ,mesima is se5 9 ! =egr\nd4 ,=mation ( circul> holl[s & new lakes4--,9 ! report ( ! ,academy1 we f9d t "s pla9s 7 cov]$ ) circul> holl[s1 = ! mo/ "p ab\t ! size ( c>riage-:eels1 b (t5 some:at l>g] or small]4 ,:5 fill$ ) wat] to )9 a foot or two ( ! surface1 !y appe>$ l wells2 b1 9 g5]al1 !y 7 fill$ ) dry s&1 sometimes ) a concave surface1 & at o!r times convex4 7,see fig4 #ha47 ,on digg+ d[n1 !y f\nd !m to be funnel-%ap$1 & ! moi/ loose s& 9 ! c5tre m>k$ ! tube up :i* ! wat] sp\t$4 ,! annex$ cut 7fig4 #hb7 repres5ts a section ( "o ( ^! inv]t$ cones :5 ! wat] _h disappe>$1 & no?+ b dry micace\s s& rema9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,circul> holl[s 9 ! pla9 ( ,ros>no1 =m$ by ! e>?quake ( #aghc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,section ( "o ( ! circul> holl[s =m$ 9 ! pla9 ( ,ros>no4 ,a small circul> pond ( simil> "* 0 =m$ n f> f ,poli/5a 7see fig4 #hc72 & 9 ! vic9ity ( ,sem9>a1 a lake 0 sudd5ly caus$ by ! op5+ ( a great *asm1 f ! bottom ( :i* wat] issu$4 ,?is lake 0 call$ ,lago del ,tolfilo4 ,x ext5d$ #aghe feet 9 l5g?1 by #icg 9 bread?1 & #eb 9 dep?4 ,! inhabitants1 dread+ ! miasma ( ?is /agnant pool1 endeavor$1 at great co/1 to dra9 x by canals1 b )\t success1 z x 0 f$ by spr+s issu+ f ! bottom ( ! deep *asm4 ,viv5zio /ates1 t ne> ,sitizzano a valley 0 ne>ly fill$ up to a level ) ! high gr\nds on ea* side1 by ! enorm\s masses deta*$ f ! b\nd>y hills1 & ca/ d[n into ! c\rse ( two /reams4 ,by ?is b>ri] a lake 0 =m$ ( great dep?1 ab\t two miles long & a mile broad4 ,! same au?or m5tions t1 ^u ! :ole1 !re 7 fifty lakes occasion$ dur+ ! convulsions3 & he assigns localities to all ( ^!4 ,! gov]nm5t surveyors enum]at$ #bae lakes2 b !y includ$ 9 ?is numb] _m small ponds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,circul> pond ne> ,poli/5a1 9 ,calabria1 caus$ by ! e>?quake 9 #aghc4 ,cones ( s& ?r[n up4--,_m ( ! appe>ances exhibit$ 9 ! alluvial pla9s1 su* z spr+s sp\t+ up _! wat] l f\nta9s at ! mom5t ( ! %ock1 h be5 suppos$ to indicate ! alt]nate ris+ & s9k+ ( ! gr\nd4 ,! fir/ effect ( ! m viol5t %ocks 0 usually to dry up ! riv]s1 b !y imm$iately aft]w>ds ov]fl[$ _! banks4 ,9 m>%y places1 an imm5se numb] ( cones ( s& 7 ?r[n up4 ,^! appe>ances ,hamilton expla9s1 by suppos+ t ! fir/ movem5t rais$ ! fissur$ pla9 f bel[ upw>ds1 s t ! riv]s & /agnant wat]s 9 bogs sank d[n1 or at lea/ 7 n uprais$ ) ! soil4 ,b :5 ! gr\nd return$ ) viol5ce to its =m] position1 ! wat] 0 ?r[n up 9 jets ?r\gh fissures4#fga ,! ph5om5on1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,mallet1 may be simply an accid5t cont+5t on ! pr9cipal cause ( di/urbance1 ! rapid transit ( ! e>?-wave4 ,! s\rces1 he says1 ( copi\s spr+s usually lie 9 flat plates or fissures fill$ ) wat]1 :e!r issu+ f solid rock1 or f loose mat]ials2 n[1 if a ve91 or ?9 flat cavity fill$ ) wat]1 be 9 su* a position t ! plane ( ! plate ( wat] or fissure be transv]se to ! l9e ( transit ( ! e>?-wave1 ! effect ( ! arrival ( ! e>?-wave at ! wat]y fissure w be1 at ! in/ant1 to compress its walls m or less toge!r1 & s squeeze out ! wat]1 :i* w1 = a mom5t1 gu% up at ! spr+-head l a f\nta91 & aga9 rema9 9 repose aft] ! transit ( ! wave4 ,gradual clos+ 9 ( fissures4--,sir ,w4 ,hamilton 0 %[n sev]al deep fissures 9 ! vic9ity ( ,mileto1 :i*1 al?\gh n "o ( !m 0 above a foot 9 bread?1 _h op5$ s wide dur+ ! e>?quake z to swall[ an ox & ne>ly "o hundr$ goats4 ,! ,academicians also f\nd1 on _! return ?r\gh di/ricts :i* !y _h pass$ at ! comm5cem5t ( _! t\r1 t _m r5ts _h1 9 t %ort int]val1 gradually clos$ 91 s t _! wid? _h dim9i%$ sev]al feet1 & ! opposite walls _h sometimes ne>ly met4 ,x is natural t ?is %\ld happ5 9 argillace\s /rata1 :ile1 9 m solid rocks1 we may expect t fissures w rema9 op5 = ages4 ,%\ld ?is be asc]ta9$ to be a g5]al fact 9 c\ntries convuls$ by e>?quakes1 x may af=d a satisfactory explanation ( a common ph5om5on 9 m9]al ve9s4 ,su* ve9s (t5 reta9 _! full size s long z ! rocks consi/ ( lime/one1 granite1 or o!r indurat$ mat]ials2 b !y contract _! dim5sions1 become m]e ?reads1 or are ev5 entirely cut (f1 :]e masses ( an argillace\s nature are int]pos$4 ,if we suppose ! fill+ up ( fissures ) metallic & o!r +r$i5ts to be a process requir+ ages = its completion1 x is obvi\s t ! opposite walls ( r5ts1 :]e /rata consi/ ( yield+ mat]ials1 mu/ collapse or approa* v ne> to ea* o!r be=e suffici5t "t is all[$ = ! accretion ( a l>ge quantity ( ve9/one4 ,!rmal wat]s augm5t$4--,x is /at$ by ,grimaldi1 t ! !rmal wat]s ( ,/4 ,eufemia1 9 ,t]ra di ,amato1 :i* fir/ bur/ out dur+ ! e>?quake ( #afch1 acquir$1 9 ,febru>y1 #aghc1 an augm5tation bo? 9 quantity & degree ( heat4 ,?is fact appe>s to indicate a connection betwe5 ! heat ( ! int]ior & ! fissures caus$ by ! ,calabrian e>?quakes1 not)/&+ ! abs5ce ( volcanic rocks1 ei!r anci5t or mod]n1 9 t di/rict4 ,b\nd+ ( deta*$ masses into ! air4--,! viol5ce ( ! movem5t ( ! gr\nd upw>ds 0 s+ul>ly illu/rat$ by :at ! ,academicians call ! sbalzo1 or b\nd+ into ! air1 to ! height ( sev]al y>ds1 ( masses slightly adh]+ to ! surface4 ,9 "s t[ns a great "p ( ! pavem5t /ones 7 ?r[n up1 & f\nd ly+ ) _! l[] sides upp]mo/4 ,9 ^! cases1 we mu/ suppose t !y 7 propell$ upw>ds by ! mom5tum :i* !y _h acquir$2 & t ! adhesion ( "o end ( ! mass be+ great] ?an t ( ! o!r1 a rotatory motion _h be5 communicat$ to !m4 ,:5 ! /one 0 project$ to a suffici5t height to p]=m some:at m ?an a qu>t] ( a revolution 9 ! air1 x pit*$ d[n on its edge1 & fell ) its l[] side upp]mo/4 ,effects ( e>?quakes on ! excavations ( valleys4--,! next class ( effects to be consid]$1 are ^? m imm$iately connect$ ) ! =mation ( valleys1 9 :i* ! action ( wat] 0 (t5 comb9$ ) t ( ! e>?quake4 ,! c\ntry agitat$ 0 compos$1 z be=e /at$1 *iefly ( argillace\s /rata1 int]sect$ by deep n>r[ valleys1 sometimes f #ejj to #fjj feet deep4 ,z ! b\nd>y cliffs 7 9 great "p v]tical1 x w readily be conceiv$ t1 amid/ ! v>i\s movem5ts ( ! e>?1 ! precipices ov]hang+ riv]s1 be+ )\t support on "o side1 7 (t5 ?r[n d[n4 ,we f9d1 inde$1 t inundations produc$ by ob/ructions 9 riv]-c\rses are among ! mo/ disa/r\s consequ5ces ( great e>?quakes 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 = ! alluvial pla9s 9 ! bottoms ( valleys are usually ! mo/ f]tile & well-peopl$ p>ts ( ! :ole c\ntry2 & :e!r ! site ( a t[n is above or bel[ a tempor>y b>ri] 9 ! *annel ( a riv]1 x is expos$ to injury by ! wat]s ei!r ( a lake or flood4 ,l&slips4--,f ea* side ( ! deep valley or rav9e ( ,t]ranuova enorm\s masses ( ! adjo9+ flat c\ntry 7 deta*$1 & ca/ d[n into ! c\rse ( ! riv]1 s z to give rise to great lakes4 ,oaks1 olive-trees1 v9ey>ds1 & corn1 7 (t5 se5 gr[+ at ! bottom ( ! rav9e1 z little injur$ z _! =m] companions1 :i* /ill cont9u$ to fl\ri% 9 ! pla9 above1 at lea/ #ejj feet high]1 & at ! di/ance ( ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( a mile4 ,9 "o "p ( ?is rav9e 0 an enorm\s mass1 #bjj feet high & ab\t #djj feet at its base1 :i* _h be5 deta*$ by "s =m] e>?quake4 ,x is well atte/$1 t ?is mass travell$ d[n ! rav9e ne>ly f\r miles1 hav+ be5 put 9 motion by ! e>?quake ( ! #e? ( ,febru>y4 ,hamilton1 aft] exam9+ ! spot1 decl>$ t ?is ph5om5on might be acc\nt$ = by ! declivity ( ! valley1 ! great abundance ( ra9 :i* fell1 & ! great weight ( ! alluvial matt] :i* press$ beh9d x4 ,dolomieu also alludes to ! fre% impulse d]iv$ f o!r masses fall+1 & press+ ^u ! re> ( ^? fir/ set 9 motion4 ,! fir/ acc\nt s5t to ,naples ( ! two great slides or l&slips above allud$ to1 :i* caus$ a great lake ne> ,t]ranuova1 0 c\*$ 9 ^! words3--,two m\nta9s on ! opposite sides ( a valley walk$ f _! orig9al position until !y met 9 ! middle ( ! pla91 & !re jo9+ toge!r1 !y int]cept$ ! c\rse ( a riv]1 c4 ,! expressions "h us$ resemble s+ul>ly ^? appli$ to ph5om5a1 probably v analog\s1 :i* are said to h occurr$ at ,fez1 dur+ ! great ,lisbon e>?quake1 z also 9 ,jamaica & ,java at o!r p]iods4 ,n f> f ,soriano1 :i* 0 levell$ to ! gr\nd by ! great %ock ( ,febru>y1 a small valley1 conta9+ a beautiful olive-grove1 call$ ,fra ,ramondo1 und]w5t a mo/ extraord9>y revolution4 ,innum]able fissures fir/ trav]s$ ! riv]-pla9 9 all directions1 & absorb$ ! wat] until ! argillace\s sub/ratum became soak$1 s t a great "p ( x 0 r$uc$ to a /ate ( fluid pa/e4 ,/range alt]ations 9 ! outl9e ( ! gr\nd 7 ! consequ5ce1 z ! soil to a great dep? 0 easily m\ld$ into any =m4 ,9 addition to ?is *ange1 ! ru9s ( ! neighbor+ hills 7 precipitat$ into ! holl[2 & :ile _m olives 7 uproot$1 o!rs rema9$ gr[+ on ! fall5 masses1 & incl9$ at v>i\s angles 7see fig4 #hd74 ,! small riv] ,c>idi 0 entirely conceal$ = _m days2 & :5 at l5g? x reappe>$1 x _h %ap$ = itself an entirely new *annel4 ,build+s transport$ entire to great di/ances4--,ne> ,sem9>a an ext5sive olive-gr\nd & or*>d 7 hurl$ to a di/ance ( two hundr$ feet1 into a valley sixty feet 9 dep?4 ,at ! same "t a deep *asm 0 riv5 9 ano!r "p ( ! high plat=m f :i* ! or*>d _h be5 deta*$1 & ! riv] imm$iately ent]$ ! fissure1 leav+ its =m] b$ completely dry4 ,a small inhabit$ h\se1 /&+ on ! mass ( e>? c>ri$ d[n into ! valley1 w5t along ) x entire1 & )\t injury to ! inhabitants4 ,! olive-trees1 also1 cont9u$ to gr[ on ! l& :i* _h slid into ! valley1 & bore ! same ye> an abundant crop ( fruit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,*anges ( ! surface at ,fra ,ramondo1 ne> ,soriano1 9 ,calabria4 #a1 ,portion ( a hill cov]$ ) olives ?r[n d[n4 #b1 ,new b$ ( ! riv] ,c>idi4 #c1 ,t[n ( ,soriano4 ,two tracts ( l& on :i* a great "p ( ! t[n ( ,poli/5a /ood1 consi/+ ( "s hundr$s ( h\ses1 7 deta*$ into a contigu\s rav9e1 & ne>ly across x1 ab\t half a mile f _! orig9al site2 & :at is mo/ extraord9>y1 sev]al ( ! inhabitants 7 dug out f ! ru9s alive & unhurt4 ,two t5em5ts1 ne> ,mileto1 call$ ! ,mac9i & ,vaticano1 occupy+ an ext5t ( gr\nd ab\t a mile long & half a mile broad1 7 c>ri$ = a mile d[n a valley4 ,a ?at*$ cottage1 toge!r ) l>ge olive & mulb]ry trees1 mo/ ( :i* rema9$ erect1 7 c>ri$ un9jur$ to ?is extraord9>y di/ance4 ,accord+ to ,hamilton1 ! surface remov$ _h be5 long und]m9$ by rivulets1 :i* 7 aft]w>ds 9 full view on ! b>e spot des]t$ by ! t5em5ts4 ,! e>?quake seems to h op5$ a passage 9 ! adjo9+ argillace\s hills1 :i* admitt$ wat] *>g$ ) loose soil into ! subt]ranean *annels ( ! rivulets imm$iately "u ! t5em5ts1 s t ! f\ndations ( ! gr\nd set 9 motion by ! e>?quake 7 loos5$4 ,ano!r example ( subsid5ce1 :]e ! edifices 7 n de/roy$1 is m5tion$ by ,grimaldi1 z hav+ tak5 place 9 ! city ( ,catanz>o1 ! capital ( ! prov9ce ( t "n4 ,! h\ses 9 ! qu>t] call$ ,san ,giuseppe subsid$ ) ! gr\nd to v>i\s dep?s f two to f\r feet1 b ! build+s rema9$ un9jur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,l&slips ne> ,c9quefrondi1 caus$ by ! e>?quake ( #aghc4 ,x w\ld be t$i\s1 & our space w\ld n p]mit u1 to foll[ ! diff]5t au?ors ?r\gh _! local details ( l&slips produc$ 9 m9or valleys2 b !y are highly int]e/+1 z %[+ to h[ great an ext5t ! p[] ( riv]s to wid5 valleys1 & to c>ry away l>ge portions ( soil t[>ds ! sea1 is increas$ :]e e>?quakes are ( p]iodical occurr5ce4 ,among o!r t]ritories1 t ( ,c9quefrondi1 0 greatly convuls$1 v>i\s portions ( soil be+ rais$ or sunk1 & innum]able fissures trav]s+ ! c\ntry 9 all directions 7see fig4 #he74 ,along ! flanks ( a small valley 9 ?is di/rict !re appe>s to h be5 an almo/ un9t]rupt$ l9e ( l&slips4 ,curr5ts ( mud4--,ne> ,s4 ,lucido1 among o!r places1 ! soil is describ$ z hav+ be5 dissolv$1 s t l>ge torr5ts ( mud inundat$ all ! l[ gr\nds1 l lava4 ,j em]g+ f ?is mud1 ! tops only ( trees & ( ! ru9s ( f>m-h\ses 7 se54 ,two miles f ,laureana1 ! swampy soil 9 two rav9es became fill$ ) calc>e\s matt]1 :i* ooz$ out f ! gr\nd imm$iately be=e ! fir/ great %ock4 ,?is mud1 rapidly accumulat+1 began1 ere long1 to roll onw>d1 l a flood ( lava1 into ! valley1 :]e ! two /reams unit+1 mov$ =w>d ) increas$ impetus f ea/ to we/4 ,x n[ pres5t$ a bread? ( #bbe feet by #ae 9 dep?1 &1 be=e x ceas$ to move1 cov]$ a surface equal 9 l5g? to an ,italian mile4 ,9 its progress x ov]:elm$ a flock ( ?irty goats1 & tore up by ! roots _m olive & mulb]ry trees1 :i* float$ l %ips ^u its surface4 ,:5 ?is calc>e\s lava _h ceas$ to move1 x gradually became dry & h>d1 dur+ :i* process ! mass 0 l[]$ sev5 feet & a half4 ,x conta9$ fragm5ts ( e>? ( a f]rug9\s color1 & emitt+ a sulphure\s smell4 ,fall ( ! sea-cliffs4--,along ! sea-coa/ ( ! ,/raits ( ,mess9a1 ne> ! celebrat$ rock ( ,scilla1 ! fall ( huge masses deta*$ f ! bold & l(ty cliffs ov]:elm$ _m villas & g>d5s4 ,at ,gian ,greco1 a cont9u\s l9e ( cliff1 = a mile 9 l5g?1 0 ?r[n d[n4 ,great agitation 0 frequ5tly obs]v$ 9 ! b$ ( ! sea dur+ ! %ocks1 &1 on ^? p>ts ( ! coa/ :]e ! movem5t 0 mo/ viol5t1 all k9ds ( fi% 7 tak5 9 abundance1 & ) unusual facility4 ,"s r>e species1 z t call$ ,cicirelli1 :i* usually lie buri$ 9 ! s&1 7 tak5 on ! surface ( ! wat]s 9 great quantity4 ,! sea is said to h boil$ up ne> ,mess9a1 & to h be5 agitat$ z if by a copi\s dis*>ge ( vapors f its bottom4 ,%ore ne> ,scilla inundat$4--,! pr9ce ( ,scilla _h p]suad$ a great "p ( 8 vassals to betake !mselves to _! fi%+-boats = safety1 & he himself _h gone on bo>d4 ,on ! night ( ! #e? ( ,febru>y1 :5 "s ( ! p 7 sleep+ 9 ! boats1 & o!rs on a level pla9 slightly elevat$ above ! sea1 ! e>? rock$1 & sudd5ly a great mass 0 torn f ! contigu\s ,m\nt ,jaci1 & ?r[n d[n ) a dreadful cra% ^u ! pla94 ,imm$iately aft]w>ds1 ! sea1 ris+ m ?an tw5ty feet above ! level ( ?is l[ tract1 roll$ foam+ ov] x1 & swept away ! multitude4 ,x !n retreat$1 b soon ru%$ back aga9 ) great] viol5ce1 br++ ) x "s ( ! p & animals x _h c>ri$ away4 ,at ! same "t e boat 0 sunk or da%$ aga9/ ! bea*1 & "s ( !m 7 swept f> inl&4 ,! ag$ pr9ce1 ) #adcj ( 8 p1 0 de/roy$4 ,/ate ( ,/romboli & ,etna dur+ ! %ocks4--,! inhabitants ( ,pizzo rem>k$ t on ! #e? ( ,febru>y1 #aghc1 :5 ! fir/ great %ock afflict$ ,calabria1 ! volcano ( ,/romboli1 :i* is 9 full view ( t t[n1 & at ! di/ance ( ab\t fifty miles1 smok$ less1 & ?rew up a less quantity ( inflam$ matt] ?an x _h done = "s ye>s previ\sly4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! great crat] ( ,etna is said to h giv5 out a consid]able quantity ( vapor t[>ds ! beg9n+1 & ,/romboli t[>ds ! close1 ( ! commotions4 ,b z no eruption happ5$ f ei!r ( ^! great v5ts dur+ ! :ole e>?quake1 ! s\rces ( ! ,calabrian convulsions1 & ( ! volcanic fires ( ,etna & ,/romboli1 appe> to be v indep5d5t ( ea* o!r2 unless1 inde$1 !y h ! same mutual relation z ,vesuvius & ! volcanoes ( ! ,phlegraean ,fields & ,is*ia1 a viol5t di/urbance 9 "o di/rict s]v+ z a safety-valve to ! o!r1 & bo? nev] be+ 9 full activity at once4 ,excavation ( valleys4--,x is impossible = ! geologi/ to consid] att5tively ! effect ( ?is s+le e>?quake ( #aghc1 & to look =w>d to ! alt]ations 9 ! physical condition ( ! c\ntry to :i* a cont9u$ s]ies ( su* movem5ts w h]eaft] give rise1 )\t p]ceiv+ t ! =mation ( valleys by runn+ wat] c nev] be und]/ood1 if we consid] ! "q indep5d5tly ( ! ag5cy ( e>?quakes4 ,x mu/ n be imag9$ t riv]s only beg9 to act :5 a c\ntry is already elevat$ f> above ! level ( ! sea1 = _! action mu/ ( necessity be mo/ p[]ful :ile l& is ris+ & s9k+ by successive movem5ts4 ,:e!r ,calabria is n[ und]go+ any consid]able *ange ( relative level1 9 reg>d to ! sea1 or is1 ^u ! :ole1 ne>ly /ation>y1 is a "q :i* our obs]vations1 conf9$ almo/ entirely to ! la/ half c5tury1 _c possibly enable u to det]m9e4 ,b we "k t /rata1 conta9+ species ( %ells id5tical ) ^? n[ liv+ 9 ! contigu\s p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 h be5 rais$ 9 t c\ntry1 z !y h 9 ,sicily1 to ! height ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,n[1 ^? geologi/s :o grant t ! pres5t c\rse ( ,nature 9 ! inanimate _w has cont9u$ ! same s9ce ! exi/+ species ( animals 7 9 be+1 w n feel surpris$ t ! ,calabrian /reams & riv]s h cut out ( su* comp>atively mod]n /rata a great sy/em ( valleys1 v>y+ 9 dep? f fifty to six hundr$ feet1 & (t5 sev]al miles wide1 if !y consid] h[ num]\s may h be5 ! %ocks :i* accompani$ ! uplift+ ( ^? rec5t m>9e /rata to s prodigi\s a height4 ,"s speculators1 inde$1 :o disreg>d ! analogy ( exi/+ nature1 & :o are always ready to assume t h] =ces 7 m en]getic 9 by-gone ages1 may disp5se ) a long s]ies ( movem5ts1 & suppose t ,calabria rose l an exhalation f ! deep1 aft] ! mann] ( ,milton's ,p&emonium4 ,b su* an hypo!sis w\ld deprive !m ( t peculi> remov+ =ce requir$ to =m a regul> sy/em ( deep & wide valleys2 = "t1 :i* !y are s unwill+ to assume1 is ess5tial to ! op]ation4 ,"t mu/ be all[$ 9 ! int]vals betwe5 di/9ct convulsions1 = runn+ wat] to cle> away ! ru9s caus$ by l&slips1 o!rwise ! fall5 masses w s]ve z buttresses1 & prev5t ! succe$+ e>?quake f ex]t+ its full p[]4 ,! sides ( ! valley mu/ be aga9 cut away by ! /ream1 & made to =m precipices & ov]-hang+ cliffs1 be=e ! next %ock c take effect 9 ! same mann]4 ,possibly ! direction ( ! succe$+ %ock may n co9cide ) t ( ! valley1 a great ext5t ( adjac5t c\ntry be+ equally %ak54 ,/ill x w usually happ5 t no p]man5t geographical *ange w be produc$ except 9 valleys4 ,9 !m alone w occur l&slips f ! b\nd>y cliffs1 & ^! w frequ5tly div]t ! /ream f its accu/om$ c\rse1 caus+ ! orig9al rav9e to become bo? wid] & m tortu\s 9 its direction4 ,if a s+le convulsion ( extreme viol5ce %\ld agitate at once an entire hydrographical bas91 or if ! %ocks %\ld foll[ ea* o!r too rapidly1 ! previ\sly exi/+ valleys w\ld be annihilat$1 in/ead ( be+ modifi$ & enl>g$4 ,e /ream might 9 t case be compell$ to beg9 its op]ations anew1 & to %ape out new *annels1 in/ead ( cont9u+ to deep5 & wid5 ^? already excavat$4 ,b if ! subt]ranean movem5ts h be5 int]mitt5t1 & if suffici5t p]iods h always int]v5$ betwe5 ! sev]] %ocks to all[ ! dra9age ( ! c\ntry to be ne>ly re/or$ to its orig9al /ate1 !n are bo? ! k9d & degree ( =ce suppli$ by :i* runn+ wat] may holl[ out valleys ( any dep? or size consi/5t ) ! elevation above ! sea :i* ! di/ricts dra9$ by !m may h atta9$4 ,:5 we read ( ! dry+ up & des]tion ( ! *annels ( riv]s1 ! acc\nts mo/ frequ5tly ref] to _! deflection into "s o!r "p ( ! same alluvial pla91 p]haps sev]al miles di/ant4 ,"u c]ta9 circum/ances a *ange ( level may und\bt$ly =ce ! wat] to fl[ ov] into "s di/9ct hydrographical bas92 b ev5 !n x w fall imm$iately into "s o!r sy/em ( valleys already =m$4 ,we le>n f hi/ory t1 ev] s9ce ! fir/ ,greek coloni/s settl$ 9 ,calabria1 t region has be5 subject to deva/ation by e>?quakes2 &1 = ! la/ c5tury & a half1 t5 ye>s h seldom elaps$ )\t a %ock2 b ! sev]] convulsions h n only be5 sep>at$ by int]vals ( tw5ty1 fifty1 or "o hundr$ ye>s1 b h n affect$ precisely ! same po9ts :5 !y recurr$4 ,?us ! e>?quake ( #aghc1 al?\gh conf9$ )9 ! same geographical limits z t ( #afch1 & n v inf]ior 9 viol5ce1 visit$1 accord+ to ,grimaldi1 v diff]5t di/ricts4 ,! po9ts :]e ! local int5sity ( ! =ce is develop$ be+ ?us p]petually v>i$1 m "t is all[$ = ! removal ( sep>ate m\nta9 masses ?r[n into riv]-*annels by ea* %ock4 ,numb] ( p]sons :o p]i%$ dur+ ! e>?quake4--,! numb] ( p]sons :o p]i%$ dur+ ! e>?quake 9 ! two ,calabrias & ,sicily1 is e/imat$ by ,hamilton at ab\t =ty ?\s&2 & ab\t tw5ty ?\s& m di$ by epidemics1 :i* 7 caus$ by insuffici5t n\ri%m5t1 exposure to ! atmosph]e1 & mal>ia1 aris+ f ! new /agnant lakes & pools4 ,by f> ! great] numb] 7 buri$ "u ! ru9s ( _! h\ses2 b _m 7 burnt to dea? 9 ! conflagrations :i* almo/ inv>iably foll[$ ! %ocks4 ,^! fires rag$ ! m viol5tly 9 "s cities1 su* z ,oppido1 f ! imm5se magaz9es ( oil :i* 7 consum$4 ,_m p]sons 7 engulf$ 9 deep fissures1 especially ! peasants :5 fly+ across ! op5 c\ntry1 & _! skeletons may p]haps be buri$ 9 ! e>? to ?is day1 at ! dep? ( sev]al hundr$ feet4 ,:5 ,dolomieu visit$ ,mess9a aft] ! %ock ( ,feb4 #e?1 he describes ! city z /ill pres5t+1 at lea/ at a di/ance1 an imp]fect image ( its anci5t spl5dor4 ,e h\se 0 injur$1 b ! walls 7 /&+2 ! :ole population _h tak5 refuge 9 wood5 huts 9 ! neighborhood1 & all 0 solitude & sil5ce 9 ! /reets3 x seem$ z if ! city _h be5 desolat$ by ! plague1 & ! impression made ^u 8 feel+s 0 t ( melan*oly & sadness4 ,b :5 ,i pass$ ov] to ,calabria1 & fir/ beheld ,poli/5a1 ! sc5e ( horror almo/ depriv$ me ( my faculties2 my m9d 0 fill$ ) m+l$ compassion & t]ror2 no?+ _h escap$2 all 0 levell$ ) ! du/2 n a s+le h\se or piece ( wall rema9$2 on all sides 7 heaps ( /one s de/itute ( =m1 t !y gave no conception ( !re ev] hav+ be5 a t[n on ! spot4 ,! /5* ( ! dead bodies /ill rose f ! ru9s4 ,i conv]s$ ) _m p]sons :o _h be5 buri$ = ?ree1 f\r1 & ev5 = five days2 ,i que/ion$ !m respect+ _! s5sations 9 s dreadful a situation1 & !y agre$ t ( all ! physical evils !y endur$1 ?ir/ 0 ! mo/ intol]able2 & t _! m5tal agony 0 increas$ by ! idea t !y 7 ab&on$ by _! fri5ds1 :o might h r5d]$ !m assi/ance4#fgb ,x is suppos$ t ab\t a f\r? "p ( ! inhabitants ( ,poli/5a1 & ( "s o!r t[ns1 7 buri$ alive1 & might h be5 sav$ _h !re be5 no want ( h&s2 b 9 s g5]al a calamity1 :]e ea* 0 occupi$ ) 8 own mis=tunes or ^? ( 8 family1 aid c\ld r>ely be obta9$4 ,nei!r te>s1 nor supplications1 nor promises ( high rew>ds 7 li/5$ to4 ,_m acts ( self-devotion1 prompt$ by p>5tal & conjugal t5d]ness1 or by fri5d%ip1 or ! gratitude ( fai?ful s]vants1 are record$2 b individual ex]tions 71 = ! mo/ "p1 ineffectual4 ,x frequ5tly happ5$1 t p]sons 9 se>* ( ^? mo/ de> to !m c\ld he> _! moans1--c\ld recognize _! voices--7 c]ta9 ( ! exact spot :]e !y lay buri$ b5ea? _! feet1 yet c\ld af=d !m no succor4 ,! pil$ mass resi/$ all _! /r5g?1 & r5d]$ _! ef=ts ( no avail4 ,at ,t]ranuova1 f\r ,augu/9 monks1 :o _h tak5 refuge 9 a vault$ sacri/y1 ! ar* ( :i* cont9u$ to support an imm5se pile ( ru9s1 made _! cries he>d = ! space ( f\r days4 ,"o only ( ! bre?r5 ( ! :ole conv5t 0 sav$1 & ( :at avail 0 8 /r5g? to remove ! enorm\s weight ( rubbi% :i* _h ov]:elm$ 8 companions8 ,he he>d _! voices die away gradually2 & :5 aft]w>ds _! f\r corpses 7 dis9t]r$1 !y 7 f\nd clasp$ 9 ea* o!r's arms4 ,affect+ n>ratives are pres]v$ ( mo!rs sav$ aft] ! fif?1 six?1 & ev5 sev5? day ( _! int]m5t1 :5 _! infants or *ildr5 _h p]i%$ ) hung]4 ,x might h be5 imag9$ t ! sight ( suff]+s su* z ^! w\ld h be5 suffici5t to awak5 s5tim5ts ( humanity & pity 9 ! mo/ savage brea/s2 b :ile "s acts ( h]oism are relat$1 no?+ c\ld exce$ ! g5]al atrocity ( conduct display$ by ! ,calabrian peasants3 !y ab&on$ ! f>ms1 & flock$ 9 great numb]s into ! t[ns--n to rescue _! c\ntrym5 f a l+]+ dea?1 b to plund]4 ,!y da%$ ?r\gh ! /reets1 fe>less ( dang]1 amid tott]+ walls & cl\ds ( du/1 trampl+ b5ea? _! feet ! bodies ( ! w\nd$ & half-buri$1 & (t5 /ripp+ !m1 :ile yet liv+1 ( _! clo!s4#fgc ,conclud+ rem>ks4--,b to ent] m fully into ^! details w\ld be =eign to ! purpose ( ! pres5t "w1 & sev]al volumes w\ld be requir$ to give ! read] a j idea ( ! suff]+s :i* ! inhabitants ( _m popul\s di/ricts h und]gone dur+ ! e>?quakes ( ! la/ #aej ye>s4 ,a b>e m5tion ( ! loss ( life--z t fifty or a hundr$ ?\s& s\ls p]i%$ 9 "o cata/rophe--conveys to ! read] no idea ( ! ext5t ( mis]y inflict$3 we mu/ le>n1 f ! n>ratives ( eye-witnesses1 ! v>i\s =ms 9 :i* dea? 0 enc\nt]$1 ! numb]s :o escap$ ) loss ( limbs or s]i\s bodily injuries1 & ! multitude :o 7 sudd5ly r$uc$ to p5ury & want4 ,x has be5 (t5 rem>k$1 t ! dread ( e>?quakes is /ronge/ 9 ! m9ds ( ^? :o h exp]i5c$ !m mo/ frequ5tly2 :]eas1 9 ! case ( almo/ e o!r dang]1 famili>ity ) p]il r5d]s m5 intrepid4 ,! reason is obvi\s--sc>cely any "p ( ! mis*ief appreh5d$ 9 ?is in/ance is imag9>y2 ! fir/ %ock is (t5 ! mo/ de/ructive2 &1 z x may occur 9 ! dead ( ! night1 or if by day1 )\t giv+ ! lea/ w>n+ ( its approa*1 no =e?\ght c gu>d aga9/ x2 & :5 ! convulsion has begun1 no skill1 or c\rage1 or pres5ce ( m9d1 c po9t out ! pa? ( safety4 ,dur+ ! int]vals1 ( unc]ta9 duration1 betwe5 ! m fatal %ocks1 slight tremors ( ! soil are n unfrequ5t2 & z ^! sometimes prec$e m viol5t convulsions1 !y become a s\rce ( anxiety & al>m4 ,! t]ror aris+ f ?is cause alone is ( itself no inconsid]able evil4 ,al?\gh s5tim5ts ( pure religion are frequ5tly awak5$ by ^! awful visitations1 yet we m commonly f9d t an habitual /ate ( fe>1 a s5se ( helplessness1 & a belief 9 ! futility ( all human ex]tions1 prep>e ! m9ds ( ! vulg> = ! influ5ce ( a demoraliz+ sup]/ition4 ,:]e e>?quakes are frequ5t1 !re c nev] be p]fect security ( prop]ty "u ! be/ gov]nm5t2 indu/ry _c be assur$ ( reap+ ! fruits ( its labor2 & ! mo/ d>+ acts ( outrage may occasionally be p]petrat$ ) impunity1 :5 ! arm ( ! law is p>alyz$ by ! g5]al con/]nation4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to add1 t ! progress ( civilization & national weal? mu/ be ret>d$ by convulsions :i* level cities to ! gr\nd1 de/roy h>bors1 r5d] roads impassable1 & cause ! mo/ cultivat$ valley-pla9s to be cov]$ ) lakes1 or ! ru9s ( adjo9+ hills4 ,^? geologi/s :o imag9e t1 at remote p]iods ere man became a soj\rn] on e>?1 ! volcanic ag5cy 0 m en]getic ?an n[1 %\ld be c>eful to f\nd _! op9ion on /rict geological evid5ce1 & n p]mit !mselves to be bias$1 z !y h (t5 be51 by a notion1 t ! di/urb+ =ce w\ld probably be mitigat$ = ! sake ( man4 ,i %all endeavor to po9t out 9 ! sequel1 t ! g5]al t5d5cy ( subt]ranean movem5ts1 :5 _! effects are consid]$ = a suffici5t lapse ( ages1 is em95tly b5eficial1 & t !y con/itute an ess5tial "p ( t me*anism by :i* ! integrity ( ! habitable surface is pres]v$1 & ! v exi/5ce & p]petuation ( dry l& secur$4 ,:y ! work+ ( ?is same ma*9]y %\ld be att5d$ ) s mu* evil1 is a my/]y f> beyond ! rea* ( our philosophy1 & mu/ probably rema9 s until we are p]mitt$ to inve/igate1 n our planet alone & its inhabitants1 b o!r p>ts ( ! moral & mat]ial univ]se ) :i* !y may be connect$4 ,c\ld our survey embrace o!r worlds1 & ! ev5ts1 n ( a few c5turies only1 b ( p]iods z indef9ite z ^? ) :i* geology r5d]s u famili>1 "s app>5t contradictions might be reconcil$1 & "s difficulties w\ld d\btless be cle>$ up4 ,b ev5 !n1 z our capacities are f9ite1 :ile ! s*eme ( ! univ]se may be inf9ite1 bo? 9 "t & space1 x is presumptu\s to suppose t all s\rces ( d\bt & p]plexity w\ld ev] be remov$4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y might1 p]haps1 g on augm5t+ 9 numb]1 al?\gh our confid5ce 9 ! wisdom ( ! plan ( ,nature %\ld increase at ! same "t2 = x has be5 ju/ly said1 t ! great] ! circle ( light1 ! great] ! b\nd>y ( d>kness by :i* x is surr\nd$4#fgd ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,e>?quakes--cont9u$4 ,e>?quake ( ,java1 #aggb--,truncation ( a l(ty cone--,/4 ,dom+o1 #aggj--,lisbon1 #agee--;,great area ov] :i* ! %ocks ext5d$--,retreat ( ! sea--,propos$ explanations--,conception ,bay1 #agej--,p]man5t elevation--,p]u1 #agdf--;,java1 #afii--,riv]s ob/ruct$ by l&slips--,subsid5ce 9 ,sicily1 #afic--,moluccas1 #afic--;,jamaica1 #afib--,l>ge tracts engulf$--,portion ( ,port ,royal sunk--,am\nt ( *ange 9 ! la/ #aej ye>s--,elevation & subsid5ce ( l& 9 ,bay ( ,baiae--,evid5ce ( ! same af=d$ by ! ,temple ( ,s]apis4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s we h consid]$ a small "p only ( ^? e>?quakes :i* h occurr$ dur+ ! la/ sev5ty ye>s1 ( :i* accurate & au!ntic descriptions happ5 to h be5 record$4 ,9 exam9+ ^? ( e>li] date1 we f9d _! numb] s great t allusion c be made to a few only respect+ :i* in=mation ( peculi> geological int]e/ has be5 obta9$4 ,java1 #aggb4--,truncation ( a l(ty cone4--,9 ! ye> #aggb1 ,pap&ayang1 =m]ly "o ( ! l(tie/ volcanoes 9 ! isl& ( ,java1 0 9 eruption4 ,be=e all ! inhabitants on ! declivities ( ! m\nta9 c\ld save !mselves by flight1 ! gr\nd began to give way1 & a great "p ( ! volcano fell 9 & disappe>$4 ,x is e/imat$ t an ext5t ( gr\nd ( ! m\nta9 itself & its imm$iate environs1 fifte5 miles long & full six broad1 0 by ?is commotion swall[$ up 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?4 ,=ty villages 7 de/roy$1 "s be+ engulf$ & "s cov]$ by ! sub/ances ?r[n out on ?is occasion1 & #bieg ( ! inhabitants p]i%$4 ,a proportionate numb] ( cattle 7 also kill$1 & mo/ ( ! plantations ( cotton1 indigo1 & c(fee 9 ! adjac5t di/ricts 7 buri$ "u ! volcanic matt]4 ,?is cata/rophe appe>s to h resembl$1 al?\gh on a gr&] scale1 t ( ! anci5t ,vesuvius 9 ! ye> #gi4 ,! cone 0 r$uc$ 9 height f #ijjj to ab\t #ejjj feet2 &1 z vapors /ill escape f ! crat] on its summit1 a new cone may "o day rise out ( ! ru9s ( ! anci5t m\nta91 z ! mod]n ,vesuvius has ris5 f ! rema9s ( ,somma4#fge ,/4 ,dom+o1 #aggj4--;,dur+ a trem5d\s e>?quake :i* de/roy$ a great "p ( ,/4 ,dom+o1 innum]able fissures 7 caus$ ?r\gh\t ! isl&1 f :i* mephitic vapors emanat$ & produc$ an epidemic4 ,hot spr+s bur/ =? 9 _m places :]e !re _h be5 no wat] be=e2 b aft] a "t !y ceas$ to fl[4#fgf ,9 a previ\s e>?quake1 9 ,novemb]1 #agea1 a viol5t %ock de/roy$ ! capital1 ,port au ,pr9ce1 & "p ( ! coa/1 tw5ty leagues 9 l5g?1 sank d[n1 & has ev] s9ce =m$ a bay ( ! sea4#fgg ,h9do/an1 #agfb4--,! t[n ( ,*ittagong1 9 ,b5gal1 0 viol5tly %ak5 by an e>?quake1 on ! #b;d ( ,april1 #agfb1 ! e>? op5+ 9 _m places1 & ?r[+ up wat] & mud ( a sulphure\s smell4 ,at a place call$ ,b>davan1 a l>ge riv] 0 dri$ up2 & at ,b> ,*>ra1 ne> ! sea1 a tract ( gr\nd sunk d[n1 & #bjj p1 ) all _! cattle1 7 lo/4 ,x is said1 t sixty squ>e miles ( ! ,*ittagong coa/ sudd5ly & p]man5tly subsid$ dur+ ?is e>?quake1 & t ,ces-lung-,toom1 "o ( ! ,mug m\nta9s1 entirely disappe>$1 & ano!r sank s l[1 t its summit only rema9$ visible4 ,f\r hills are also describ$ z hav+ be5 v>i\sly r5t asund]1 leav+ op5 *asms f ?irty to sixty feet 9 wid?4 ,t[ns :i* subsid$ sev]al cubits1 7 ov]fl[$ ) wat]2 among o!rs1 ,deep ,gong1 :i* 0 subm]g$ to ! dep? ( sev5 cubits4 ,two volcanoes are said to h op5$ 9 ! ,secta ,cunda hills4 ,! %ock 0 also felt at ,calcutta4#fgh ,:ile ! ,*ittagong coa/ 0 s9k+1 a correspond+ rise ( ! gr\nd took place at ! isl& ( ,ramree1 & at ,*$uba 7see ,map1 fig4 #ci1 p4 #cea74fgi ,lisbon1 #agee4--;,9 no "p ( ! volcanic region ( s\!rn ,europe has s trem5d\s an e>?quake occurr$ 9 mod]n times1 z t :i* began on ! #a/ ( ,novemb]1 #agee1 at ,lisbon4 ,a s\nd ( ?und] 0 he>d und]gr\nd1 & imm$iately aft]w>ds a viol5t %ock ?rew d[n ! great] "p ( t city4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ab\t six m9utes1 sixty ?\s& p]sons p]i%$4 ,! sea fir/ retir$ & laid ! b> dry2 x !n roll$ 91 ris+ fifty feet or m above its ord9>y level4 ,! m\nta9s ( ,arrabida1 ,e/rella1 ,julio1 ,m>van1 & ,c9tra1 be+ "s ( ! l>ge/ 9 ,portugal1 7 impetu\sly %ak51 z x 71 f _! v f\ndations2 & "s ( !m op5$ at _! summits1 :i* 7 split & r5t 9 a wond]ful mann]1 huge masses ( !m be+ ?r[n d[n into ! subjac5t valleys4#fhj ,flames are relat$ to h issu$ f ^! m\nta9s1 :i* are suppos$ to h be5 electric2 !y are also said to h smok$2 b va/ cl\ds ( du/ may h giv5 rise to ?is appe>ance4 ,! area ov] :i* ?is convulsion ext5d$ is v rem>kable4 ,x has be5 comput$1 says ,humboldt1#fha t on ! #a/ ,novemb]1 #agee1 a portion ( ! e>?'s surface f\r times great] ?an ! ext5t ( ,europe 0 simultane\sly %ak54 ,! %ock 0 felt 9 ! ,alps1 & on ! coa/ ( ,sw$51 9 small inl& lakes on ! %ores ( ! ,baltic1 9 ,?ur+ia1 & 9 ! flat c\ntry ( nor!rn ,g]many4 ,! !rmal spr+s ( ,toplitz dri$ up1 & aga9 return$1 inundat+ e ?+ ) wat] discolor$ by o*re4 ,9 ! isl&s ( ,antigua1 ,b>badoes1 & ,m>t9ique 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 :]e ! tide usually rises little m ?an two feet1 x sudd5ly rose above tw5ty feet1 ! wat] be+ discolor$ & ( an inky blackness4 ,! movem5t 0 also s5sible 9 ! great lakes ( ,canada4 ,at ,algi]s & ,fez1 9 ! nor? ( ,africa1 ! agitation ( ! e>? 0 z viol5t z 9 ,spa9 & ,portugal2 & at ! di/ance ( eight leagues f ,morocco1 a village ) ! inhabitants1 to ! numb] ( ab\t #hjjj or #aj1jjj p]sons1 are said to h be5 swall[$ up2 ! e>? soon aft]w>ds clos+ ov] !m4 ,subsid5ce ( ! quay4--,among o!r extraord9>y ev5ts relat$ to h occurr$ at ,lisbon dur+ ! cata/rophe 0 ! subsid5ce ( a new quay1 built entirely ( m>ble at an imm5se exp5se4 ,a great conc\rse ( p _h collect$ !re = safety1 z a spot :]e !y might be beyond ! rea* ( fall+ ru9s2 b sudd5ly ! quay sank d[n ) all ! p on x1 & n "o ( ! dead bodies ev] float$ to ! surface4 ,a great numb] ( boats & small vessels an*or$ ne> x1 all full ( p1 7 swall[$ up1 z 9 a :irlpool4#fhb ,no fragm5ts ( ^! wrecks ev] rose aga9 to ! surface1 & ! wat] 9 ! place :]e ! quay _h /ood is /at$1 9 _m acc\nts1 to be unfa?omable2 b ,:itehur/ says he asc]ta9$ x to be "o hundr$ fa?oms4#fhc ,circum/antial z are ! contempor>y n>ratives1 ,i le>n f a correspond5t1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,freeman1 9 #ahda1 t no "p ( ! ,tagus 0 !n m ?an ?irty feet deep at high tide1 & an exam9ation ( ! position ( ! new quay1 & ! memorials pres]v$ ( ! "t & mann] 9 :i* x 0 built1 r5d]$ ! /atem5t ( s great a subsid5ce 9 #agee q un9telligible4 ,p]haps a deep n>r[ *asm1 su* z 0 be=e describ$ 9 ,calabria 7p4 #dha71 op5$ & clos$ aga9 9 ! b$ ( ! ,tagus1 aft] swall[+ up "s incumb5t build+s & vessels4 ,we h already se5 t su* op5+s may collapse aft] ! %ock sudd5ly1 or1 9 places :]e ! /rata are ( s(t & yield+ mat]ials1 v gradually4 ,accord+ to ! obs]vations made at ,lisbon1 9 #ahcg1 by ,mr4 ,%>pe1 ! de/roy+ effects ( ?is e>?quake 7 conf9$ to ! t]ti>y /rata1 & 7 mo/ viol5t on ! blue clay1 on :i* ! l[] "p ( ! city is con/ruct$4 ,n a build+1 he says1 on ! second>y lime/one or ! basalt 0 injur$4#fhd ,%ocks felt at sea4--,! %ock 0 felt at sea1 on ! deck ( a %ip to ! we/ ( ,lisbon1 & produc$ v mu* ! same s5sation z on dry l&4 ,(f ,/4 ,luc>1 ! capta9 ( ! %ip ,nancy felt 8 vessel s viol5tly %ak51 t he ?\ght %e _h /ruck ! gr\nd2 b1 on heav+ ! lead1 f\nd a great dep? ( wat]4 ,capta9 ,cl>k1 f ,d5ia1 9 latitude #cf degrees #bd m9utes ,n41 betwe5 n9e & t5 9 ! morn+1 _h 8 %ip %ak5 & /ra9$ z if %e _h /ruck ^u a rock1 s t ! seams ( ! deck op5$1 & ! compass 0 ov]turn$ 9 ! b9nacle4 ,ano!r %ip1 =ty leagues we/ ( ,/4 ,v9c5t1 exp]i5c$ s viol5t a concussion1 t ! m5 7 ?r[n a foot & a half p]p5dicul>ly up f ! deck4 ,rate at :i* ! movem5t travell$4--,! agitation ( lakes1 riv]s1 & spr+s1 9 ,great ,brita91 0 rem>kable4 ,at ,lo* ,lomond1 9 ,scotl&1 = example1 ! wat]1 )\t1 ! lea/ app>5t cause1 rose aga9/ its banks1 & !n subsid$ bel[ its usual level4 ,! greate/ p]p5dicul> height ( ?is swell 0 two feet f\r in*es4 ,x is said t ! movem5t ( ?is e>?quake 0 undulatory1 & t x travell$ at ! rate ( tw5ty miles a m9ute1 its velocity be+ calculat$ by ! int]vals betwe5 ! "t :5 ! fir/ %ock 0 felt at ,lisbon1 & its "t ( occurr5ce at o!r di/ant places4#fhe ,great wave & retreat ( ! sea4--,a great wave swept ov] ! coa/ ( ,spa91 & is said to h be5 sixty feet high at ,cadiz4 ,at ,tangi]1 9 ,africa1 x rose & fell eighte5 times on ! coa/4 ,at ,fun*al1 9 ,madeira1 x rose full fifte5 feet p]p5dicul> above high-wat] m>k1 al?\gh ! tide1 :i* ebbs & fl[s !re sev5 feet1 0 !n at half-ebb4 ,besides ent]+ ! city1 & committ+ great havoc1 x ov]fl[$ o!r seaports 9 ! isl&4 ,at ,k9sale1 9 ,irel&1 a body ( wat] ru%$ into ! h>bor1 :irl$ r\nd sev]al vessels1 & p\r$ into ! m>ket-place4 ,x 0 be=e /at$ t ! sea fir/ retir$ at ,lisbon2 & ?is retreat ( ! ocean f ! %ore1 at ! comm5cem5t ( an e>?quake1 & its subsequ5t return 9 a viol5t wave1 is a common occurr5ce4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = ! ph5om5on1 ,mi*ell imag9$ a subsid5ce at ! bottom ( ! sea1 f ! giv+ way ( ! ro( ( "s cavity 9 consequ5ce ( a vacuum produc$ by ! cond5sation ( /eam4 ,su* cond5sation1 he obs]ves1 might be ! fir/ effect ( ! introduction ( a l>ge body ( wat] into fissures & cavities already fill$ ) /eam1 be=e !re has be5 suffici5t "t = ! heat ( ! inc&esc5t lava to turn s l>ge a supply ( wat] into /eam1 :i* be+ soon accompli%$ causes a great] explosion4 ,ano!r propos$ explanation is1 ! sudd5 rise ( ! l&1 :i* w\ld cause ! sea to ab&on imm$iately ! anci5t l9e ( coa/2 & if ! %ore1 aft] be+ ?us heav$ up1 %\ld fall aga9 to its orig9al level1 ! ocean w\ld return4 ,?is !ory1 h[ev]1 w n acc\nt = ! facts obs]v$ dur+ ! ,lisbon e>?quake2 = ! retreat prec$$ ! wave1 n only on ! coa/ ( ,portugal1 b also at ! isl& ( ,madeira1 & sev]al o!r places4 ,if ! upheav+ ( ! coa/ ( ,portugal _h caus$ ! retreat1 ! motion ( ! wat]s1 :5 propagat$ to ,madeira1 w\ld h produc$ a wave previ\s to ! retreat4 ,nor c\ld ! motion ( ! wat]s at ,madeira h be5 caus$ by a diff]5t local e>?quake2 = ! %ock travell$ f ,lisbon to ,madeira 9 two h\rs1 :i* agrees ) ! "t :i* x requir$ to rea* o!r places equally di/ant4#fhf ,! foll[+ is ano!r solution ( ! problem1 :i* has be5 (f]$3--,suppose a portion ( ! b$ ( ! sea to be sudd5ly upheav$2 ! fir/ effect w be to raise ov] ! elevat$ "p a body ( wat]1 ! mom5tum ( :i* w c>ry x mu* above ! level x w aft]w>ds assume1 caus+ a draught or rec$+ ( ! wat] f ! neighbor+ coa/s1 foll[$ imm$iately by ! return ( ! displac$ wat]1 :i* w also be impell$ by its mom5tum mu* f>!r & high] on ! coa/ ?an its =m] level4#fhg ,mr4 ,d>w91 :5 allud+ to simil> waves on ! coa/ ( ,*ili1 /ates 8 op9ion1 t ! :ole ph5om5on is due to a common undulation 9 ! wat]1 proce$+ f a l9e or po9t ( di/urbance "s little way di/ant4 ,if ! waves1 he says1 s5t (f f ! paddles ( a /eam-vessel be wat*$ break+ on ! slop+ %ore ( a /ill riv]1 ! wat] w be se5 fir/ to retire two or ?ree feet1 & !n to return 9 little break]s1 precisely analog\s to ^? consequ5t on an e>?quake4 ,he also adds1 t ! e>?quake-wave occurs "s "t aft] ! %ock1 ! wat] at fir/ retir+ bo? f ! %ores ( ! ma9l& & ( outly+ isl&s1 & !n return+ 9 m\nta9\s break]s4 ,_! size is modifi$ by ! =m ( ! neighbor+ coa/2 = x is asc]ta9$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 t places situat$ at ! head ( %oal+ bays h suff]$ mo/1 :]eas t[ns l ,valp>aiso1 seat$ close on ! bord] ( a pr(\nd ocean1 h nev] be5 inundat$1 ?\gh sev]ely %ak5 by e>?quakes4#fhh ,m rec5tly 7,febru>y1 #ahdf71 ,mr4 ,mallet1 9 8 memoir above cit$ 7p4 #dge71 has endeavor$ to br+ to be> on ?is difficult subject ! m advanc$ k obta9$ ( late ye>s respect+ ! true !ory ( waves4 ,he conceives t :5 ! orig9 ( ! %ock is b5ea? ! deep ocean1 "o wave is propagat$ ?r\gh ! l&1 & ano!r mov+ ) inf]ior velocity is =m$ on ! surface ( ! ocean4 ,?is la/ rolls 9 ^u ! l& long aft] ! e>?-wave has arriv$ & sp5t itself4 ,h[ev] irreconcilable x may be to our common notions ( solid bodies1 to imag9e !m capable ( transmitt+1 ) su* extreme velocity1 motions analog\s to tidal waves1 x seems nev]!less c]ta9 t su* undulations are produc$1 & x is suppos$ t :5 ! %ock passes a giv5 po9t1 ea* p>ticle ( ! solid e>? describes an ellipse 9 space4 ,! facility ) :i* all ! p>ticles ( a solid mass c be made to vibrate may be illu/rat$1 says ,gay ,lussac1 by _m famili> examples4 ,if we apply ! e> to "o end ( a long wood5 beam1 & li/5 att5tively :5 ! o!r end is /ruck by a p9's head1 we he> ! %ock di/9ctly2 :i* %[s t e fibre ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g? has be5 made to vibrate4 ,! rattl+ ( c>riages on ! pavem5t %akes ! l>ge/ edifices2 & 9 ! qu>ries und]nea? "s qu>t]s 9 ,p>is1 x is f\nd t ! movem5t is communicat$ ?r\gh a consid]able ?ickness ( rock4#fhi ,! great sea-wave orig9at+ directly ov] ! c5tre ( di/urbance is propagat$1 z ,mi*ell correctly /at$1 9 e direction1 l ! circle ^u a pond :5 a pebble is dropp$ into x1 ! diff]5t rates at :i* x moves dep5d+ 7z he also sugge/$7 on v>iations 9 ! dep? ( ! wat]4 ,?is wave ( ! sea1 says ,mr4 ,mallet1 is rais$ by ! impulse ( ! %ock imm$iately bel[ x1 :i* 9 great e>?quakes lifts up ! gr\nd two or ?ree feet p]p5dicul>ly4 ,! velocity ( ! %ock1 or e>?-wave1 is great] because x dep5ds ^u a function ( ! ela/icity ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 :]eas ! velocity ( ! sea-wave dep5ds ^u a function ( ! dep? ( ! sea4 ,al?\gh ! %ock 9 its passage "u ! deep ocean gives no trace ( its progress1 x no soon] gets into s\nd+s or %all[ wat]1 ?an x gives rise to ano!r & small] wave ( ! sea4 ,x c>ries1 z x 71 ^u its back1 ?is less] aque\s undulation2 a long n>r[ ridge ( wat] :i* corresponds 9 =m & velocity to itself1 be+ pu%$ up by ! p>tial elevation ( ! bottom4 ,x is ?is small wave1 call$ te*nically ! '=c$ sea-wave1' :i* communicates ! e>?quake-%ock to %ips at sea1 z if !y _h /ruck ^u a rock4 ,x breaks ^u a coa/ at ! same mom5t t ! %ock rea*es x1 & sometimes x may cause an app>5t slight recession f ! %ore1 foll[$ by its fl[+ up some:at high] ?an ! usual tide m>k3 ?is w happ5 :]e ! bea* is v slop+1 z is usual :]e ! sea is %all[1 = !n ! velocity ( ! l[ flat e>?-wave is su*1 t x slips z x 71 f "u ! undulation 9 ! fluid above4 ,x does ?is at ! mom5t ( rea*+ ! bea*1 :i* x elevates by a v]tical height equal to its own1 & z in/antly lets drop aga9 to its =m] level4 ,:ile ! %ock propagat$ ?r\gh ! solid e>? has ?us travell$ ) extra rapidity to ! l&1 ! great sea-wave has be5 foll[+ at a sl[] pace1 ?\gh advanc+ at ! rate ( sev]al miles 9 a m9ute4 ,x consi/s1 9 ! deep ocean1 ( a long l[ swell ( enorm\s volume1 hav+ an equal slope be=e & beh9d1 & t s g5tle t x might pass "u a %ip )\t be+ notic$4 ,b :5 x rea*es ! edge ( s\nd+s1 its front slope1 l t ( a tidal wave "u simil> circum/ances1 becomes %ort & /eep1 :ile its re> slope is long & g5tle4 ,if !re be wat] ( "s dep? close into %ore1 ?is great wave may roll 9 long aft] ! %ock1 & d little damage2 b if ! %ore be %elv+1 !re w be fir/ a retreat ( ! wat]1 & !n ! wave w break ^u ! bea* & roll 9 f> ^u ! l&4#fij ,! v>i\s op9ions :i* h be5 (f]$ by ,mi*ell & lat] writ]s1 respect+ ! remote causes ( e>?quake %ocks 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 w m prop]ly be discuss$ 9 ! ?irty-second *apt]4 ,*ili1 #agea4--,on ! #bd? ( ,may1 #agea1 ! anci5t t[n ( ,conception1 o!rwise call$ ,p5co1 0 totally de/roy$ by an e>?quake1 & ! sea roll$ ov] x4 7,see plan ( ! bay1 fig4 #gj1 p4 #dee47 ,! anci5t port 0 r5d]$ entirely useless1 & ! inhabitants built ano!r t[n ab\t t5 miles f ! sea-coa/1 9 ord] to be beyond ! rea* ( simil> inundations4 ,at ! same "t1 a colony rec5tly settl$ on ! sea-%ore ( ,juan ,f]n&ez 0 almo/ entirely ov]:elm$ by a wave :i* broke ^u ! %ore4 ,x has be5 already /at$1 t 9 #ahce1 or eighty-f\r ye>s aft] ! de/ruction ( ,p5co1 ! same coa/ 0 ov]:elm$ by a simil> flood f ! sea dur+ an e>?quake2 & x is also kn[n t tw5ty-"o ye>s be=e 7or 9 #agcj71 a l wave roll$ ov] ^! fat$ %ores1 9 :i* _m ( ! inhabitants p]i%$4 ,a s]ies ( simil> cata/rophes has also be5 track$ back z f> z ! ye> #aeij1fia beyond :i* we h no memorials save ^? ( oral tradition4 ,mol9a1 :o has record$ ! cu/oms & leg5ds ( ! aborig9es1 tells u1 t ! ,araucanian ,indians1 a tribe inhabit+ ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,&es & ! ,pacific1 includ+ ! "p n[ call$ ,*ili1 _h among !m a tradition ( a great deluge1 9 :i* only a few p]sons 7 sav$1 :o took refuge ^u a high m\nta9 call$ ,!g!g1 ! ?und]+1 :i* _h ?ree po9ts4 ,:5ev] a viol5t e>?quake occurs1 ^! p fly = safety to ! m\nta9s1 assign+ z a reason1 t !y are fe>ful1 aft] ! %ock1 t ! sea w aga9 return & deluge ! _w4#fib ,not)/&+ ! t5d5cy ( writ]s 9 8 day to ref] all tradition>y inundations to "o remote p]iod1 ,mol9a rem>ks t ?is flood ( ! ,araucanians 0 probably v diff]5t f t ( ,noah4 ,we h1 inde$1 no means ( conjectur+ h[ long ?is same tribe _h fl\ri%$ 9 ,*ili1 b we c sc>cely d\bt1 t if its exp]i5ce rea*$ back ev5 = ?ree or f\r c5turies1 sev]al inroads ( ! ocean mu/ h occurr$ )9 t p]iod4 ,b ! memory ( a succession ( physical ev5ts1 simil> 9 k9d1 ?\gh di/9ct 9 "t1 c nev] be pres]v$ by a p de/itute ( writt5 annals4 ,be=e two or ?ree g5]ations h pass$ away all dates are =gott51 & ev5 ! ev5ts !mselves1 unless !y h giv5 orig9 to "s cu/oms1 or religi\s rites & c]emonies4 ,(t5times ! incid5ts ( _m diff]5t e>?quakes & floods become bl5d$ toge!r 9 ! same n>rative2 & 9 su* cases ! s+le cata/rophe is describ$ 9 t]ms s exagg]at$1 or is s disguis$ by my?ological fictions1 z to be utt]ly valueless to ! antiqu>y or philosoph]4 ,pro(s ( elevation ( tw5ty-f\r feet4--,dur+ a late survey ( ,conception ,bay1 ,capta9 ,bee*ey & ,sir ,e4 ,bel*] discov]$ t ! anci5t h>bor1 :i* =m]ly admitt$ all l>ge m]*ant vessels :i* w5t r\nd ! ,cape1 is n[ occupi$ by a reef ( s&/one1 c]ta9 po9ts ( :i* project above ! sea at l[ wat]1 ! great] "p be+ v %all[4 ,a tract ( a mile & a half 9 l5g?1 :]e1 accord+ to ! report ( ! inhabitants1 ! wat] 0 =m]ly f\r or five fa?oms deep1 is n[ a %oal2 consi/+1 z our hydrograph]s f\nd1 ( h>d s&/one1 s t x _c be suppos$ to h be5 =m$ by rec5t deposits ( ! riv] ,biobio1 an arm ( :i* c>ries d[n loose micace\s s& into ! same bay4 ,x is impossible at ?is di/ance ( "t to affirm t ! b$ ( ! sea 0 uplift$ at once to ! height ( tw5ty-f\r feet1 dur+ ! s+le e>?quake ( #agea1 because o!r movem5ts may h occurr$ subsequ5tly2 b x is said1 t ev] s9ce ! %ock ( #agea1 no vessels h be5 able to approa* )9 a mile & a half ( ! anci5t port ( ,p5co4 7,see ,map1 p4 #dee47 ,9 pro( ( ! =m] elevation ( ! coa/ ne> ,p5co our surveyors f\nd above high-wat] m>k an enorm\s b$ ( %ells ( ! same species z ^? n[ liv+ 9 ! bay1 fill$ ) micace\s s& l t :i* ! ,biobio n[ conveys to ! bay4 ,^! %ells1 z well z o!rs1 :i* cov] ! adjo9+ hills ( mica-s*i/ to ! height ( sev]al hundr$ feet1 h lately be5 exam9$ by exp]i5c$ con*ologi/s 9 ,london1 & id5tifi$ ) ^? tak5 at ! same "t 9 a liv+ /ate f ! bay & its neighborhood4#fic ,ulloa1 !re=e1 0 p]fectly correct 9 8 /atem5t t1 at v>i\s heights above ! sea betwe5 ,talcahuano & ,conception1 m9es 7 f\nd ( v>i\s sorts ( %ells us$ = lime ( ! v same k9ds z ^? f\nd 9 ! adjo9+ sea4 ,among !m he m5tions ! great mussel call$ ,*oros1 & two o!rs :i* he describes4 ,"s ( ^!1 he says1 are entire1 & o!rs brok52 !y occur at ! bottom ( ! sea1 9 f\r1 six1 t51 or twelve fa?om wat]1 :]e !y adh]e to a sea-plant call$ ,co*ayuyo4 ,!y are tak5 9 dr$ges1 & h no resemblance to ^? f\nd on ! %ore or 9 %all[ wat]2 yet b$s ( !m occur at v>i\s heights on ! hills4 ,i 0 ! m pleas$ ) ! sight1 he adds1 z x appe>$ to me a conv9c+ pro( ( ! univ]sality ( ! deluge1 al?\gh ,i am n ignorant t "s h attribut$ _! position to o!r causes4#fid ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 asc]ta9$ t ! f\ndation ( ! ,ca/le ( ,p5co 0 s l[ 9 #ahce1 or at s inconsid]able an elevation above ! highe/ spr+ tides1 z to disc\nt5ance ! idea ( any p]man5t upheaval 9 mod]n times1 on ! site ( t anci5t port2 b no exact measurem5ts or levell+s appe> z yet to h be5 made to det]m9e ?is po9t1 :i* is ! m wor?y ( inve/igation1 because x may ?r[ "s light on an op9ion (t5 promulgat$ ( late ye>s1 t !re is a t5d5cy 9 ! ,*ilian coa/1 aft] ea* upheaval1 to s9k gradually & return t[>ds its =m] position4 ,p]u1 #agdf4--,p]u 0 visit$1 on ! #bh? ( ,octob]1 #agdf1 by a trem5d\s e>?quake4 ,9 ! fir/ tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 two hundr$ %ocks 7 exp]i5c$4 ,! ocean twice retir$ & return$ impetu\sly ^u ! l&3 ,lima 0 de/roy$1 & "p ( ! coa/ ne> ,callao 0 conv]t$ into a bay3 f\r o!r h>bors1 among :i* 7 ,cavalla & ,guanape1 %>$ ! same fate4 ,!re 7 tw5ty-?ree %ips & vessels1 great & small1 9 ! h>bor ( ,callao1 ( :i* n9ete5 7 sunk2 & ! o!r f\r1 among :i* 0 a frigate call$ ,/4 ,f]m91 7 c>ri$ by ! =ce ( ! waves to a great di/ance up ! c\ntry1 & left on dry gr\nd at a consid]able height above ! sea4 ,! numb] ( inhabitants 9 ?is city am\nt$ to f\r ?\s&4 ,two hundr$ only escap$1 tw5ty-two ( :om 7 sav$ on a small fragm5t ( ! =t ( ,v]a ,cruz1 :i* rema9$ z ! only memorial ( ! t[n aft] ?is dreadful inundation4 ,o!r portions ( its site 7 completely cov]$ ) heaps ( s& & gravel4 ,a volcano 9 ,lucanas bur/ =? ! same night1 & su* quantities ( wat] desc5d$ f ! cone t ! :ole c\ntry 0 ov]fl[$2 & 9 ! m\nta9 ne> ,pataz1 call$ ,conv]siones de ,caxam>quilla1 ?ree o!r volcanoes bur/ out1 & frightful torr5ts ( wat] swept d[n _! sides4#fie ,!re are sev]al records ( prior convulsions 9 ,p]u1 accompani$ by simil> inroads 9 ! sea1 "o ( :i* happ5$ fifty-n9e ye>s be=e 79 #afhg71 :5 ! ocean1 accord+ to ,ulloa1 fir/ retir$ & !n return$ 9 a m\nta9\s wave1 ov]:elm+ ,callao & its environs1 ) ! mis]able inhabitants4#fif ,?is same wave1 accord+ to ,lionel ,waf]1 c>ri$ %ips a league into ! c\ntry1 & dr[n$ man & bea/ = fifty leagues along ! %ore4#fig ,inundations ( /ill e>li] dates are c>efully record$ by ,ulloa1 ,waf]1 ,aco/a1 & v>i\s writ]s1 :o describe !m z hav+ exp5d$ _! *ief fury1 "s on "o "p ( ! coa/ & "s on ano!r4 ,b all au!ntic acc\nts cease :5 we asc5d to ! era ( ! conque/ ( ,p]u by ! ,spani>ds4 ,! anci5t ,p]uvians1 al?\gh f> remov$ f b>b>ism1 7 )\t writt5 annals1 & !re=e unable to pres]ve a di/9ct recollection ( a long s]ies ( natural ev5ts4 ,!y _h1 h[ev]1 accord+ to ,antonio de ,h]r]a1 :o1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 inve/igat$ _! antiquities1 a tradition1 t _m ye>s be=e ! reign ( ! ,incas1 at a "t :5 ! c\ntry 0 v popul\s1 !re happ5$ a great flood2 ! sea break+ out beyond its b\nds1 s t ! l& 0 cov]$ ) wat] & all ! p p]i%$4 ,to ?is ! ,guacas1 inhabit+ ! vale ( ,xausca1 & ! natives ( ,*iquito1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,callao1 add t "s p]sons rema9$ 9 ! holl[s & caves ( ! highe/ m\nta9s1 :o aga9 peopl$ ! l&4 ,o!rs ( ! m\nta9 p affirm t all p]i%$ 9 ! deluge1 only six p]sons be+ sav$ on a float1 f :om desc5d$ all ! inhabitants ( t c\ntry4#fih ,on ! ma9l& ne> ,lima1 & on ! neighbor+ isl& ( ,san ,lor5zo1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 f\nd pro(s t ! anci5t b$ ( ! sea _h be5 rais$ to ! height ( m ?an eighty feet above wat] )9 ! human epo*1 /rata hav+ be5 discov]$ at t altitude1 conta9+ pieces ( cotton ?read & plait$ ru%1 toge!r ) sea-we$ & m>9e %ells4#fii ,! same au?or le>nt f ,mr4 ,gill1 a civil eng9e]1 t he discov]$ 9 ! int]ior ne> ,lima1 betwe5 ,casma & ,hu>az1 ! dri$-up *annel ( a l>ge riv]1 sometimes worn ?r\gh solid rock1 :i*1 in/ead ( cont9ually asc5d+ t[>ds its s\rce1 has1 9 "o place1 a /eep d[nw>d slope 9 t direction1 = a ridge or l9e ( hills has be5 uplift$ directly across ! b$ ( ! /ream1 :i* is n[ ar*$4 ,by ^! *anges ! wat] has be5 turn$ into "s o!r c\rse2 & a di/rict1 once f]tile1 & /ill cov]$ ) ru9s1 & be>+ ! m>ks ( anci5t cultivation1 has be5 conv]t$ into a des]t4#gjj ,java1 #afii4--,on ! #e? ( ,janu>y1 #afii1 a t]rible e>?quake visit$ ,java1 & no less ?an #bjh consid]able %ocks 7 reckon$4 ,_m h\ses 9 ,batavia 7 ov]turn$1 & ! flame & noise ( a volcanic eruption 7 se5 & he>d 9 t city1 :i* 7 aft]w>ds f\nd to proce$ f ,m\nt ,salek1#gja a volcano six days' j\rney di/ant4 ,next morn+ ! ,batavian riv]1 :i* has its rise f t m\nta91 became v high & muddy1 & br\ght d[n abundance ( bu%es & trees1 half burnt4 ,! *annel ( ! riv] be+ /opp$ up1 ! wat] ov]fl[$ ! c\ntry r\nd ! g>d5s ab\t ! t[n1 & "s ( ! /reets1 s t fi%es lay dead 9 !m4 ,all ! fi% 9 ! riv]1 except ! c>ps1 7 kill$ by ! mud & turbid wat]4 ,a great numb] ( dr[n$ buffaloes1 tig]s1 rh9oc]oses1 de]1 apes1 & o!r wild bea/s1 7 br\ght d[n by ! curr5t2 &1 not)/&+1 obs]ves "o ( ! writ]s1 t a crocodile is amphibi\s1 sev]al ( !m 7 f\nd dead among ! re/4#gjb ,x is /at$ t sev5 hills b\nd+ ! riv] sank d[n2 by :i* is m]ely meant1 z by simil> expressions 9 ! description ( ! ,calabrian e>?quakes1 sev5 great l&slips4 ,^! hills1 desc5d+ "s f "o side ( ! valley & "s f ! o!r1 fill$ ! *annel1 & ! wat]s !n f9d+ _! way "u ! mass1 fl[$ out ?ick & muddy4 ,! ,tang>an riv] 0 also damm$ up by n9e hills1 & 9 its *annel 7 l>ge quantities ( drift trees4 ,sev5 ( its tribut>ies also are said to h be5 cov]$ up ) e>?4 ,a high tract ( =e/ l&1 betwe5 ! two great riv]s be=e m5tion$1 is describ$ z hav+ be5 *ang$ into an op5 c\ntry1 de/itute ( trees1 ! surface be+ spread ov] ) f9e r$ clay4 ,?is "p ( ! acc\nt may1 p]haps1 m]ely ref] to ! slid+ d[n ( woody tracts into ! valleys1 z happ5$ to s _m ext5sive v9ey>ds & olive-gr\nds 9 ,calabria1 9 #aghc4 ,! close pack+ ( l>ge trees 9 ! ,batavian riv] is repres5t$ z v rem>kable1 & x atte/s 9 a /rik+ mann] ! de/ruction ( soil bord]+ ! valleys :i* _h be5 caus$ by floods & l&slips4#gjc ,quito1 #afih4--;,9 ,quito1 on ! #ai? ( ,july1 #afih1 dur+ an e>?quake1 a great "p ( ! crat] & summit ( ! volcano ,c>guairazo fell 91 & a /ream ( wat] & mud issu$ f ! brok5 sides ( ! hill4#gjd ,sicily1 #afic4--,%ocks ( e>?quakes spread ov] all ,sicily 9 #afic1 & on ! #aa? ( ,janu>y ! city ( ,catania & =ty-n9e o!r places 7 levell$ to ! gr\nd1 & ab\t "o hundr$ ?\s& p kill$4 ,! bottom ( ! sea1 says ,vic5t9o ,bonajutus1 sank d[n consid]ably1 bo? 9 ports1 inclos$ bays1 & op5 p>ts ( ! coa/1 & wat] bubbl$ up along ! %ores4 ,num]\s long fissures ( v>i\s bread?s 7 caus$1 :i* ?rew out sulphur\s wat]2 & "o ( !m1 9 ! pla9 ( ,catania 7! delta ( ! ,simeto71 at ! di/ance ( f\r miles f ! sea1 s5t =? wat] z salt z ! sea4 ,! /one build+s ( a /reet 9 ! city ( ,noto1 = ! l5g? ( half a mile1 sank into ! gr\nd1 & rema9$ hang+ on "o side4 ,9 ano!r /reet1 an op5+ l>ge en\gh to swall[ a man & horse appe>$4#gje ,moluccas1 #afic4--,! small ,isle ( ,sorea1 :i* consi/s ( "o great volcano1 0 9 eruption 9 ! ye> #afic4 ,diff]5t p>ts ( ! cone fell1 "o aft] ! o!r1 into a deep crat]1 until almo/ half ! space ( ! isl& 0 conv]t$ into a fi]y lake4 ,mo/ ( ! inhabitants fl$ to ,b&a2 b great pieces ( ! m\nta9 cont9u$ to fall d[n1 s t ! lake ( lava became wid]2 & f9ally ! :ole population 0 compell$ to emigrate4 ,x is /at$ t1 9 proportion z ! burn+ lake increas$ 9 size1 ! e>?quakes 7 less vehem5t4#gjf ,jamaica1 #afib4--;,9 ! ye> #afib1 ! isl& ( ,jamaica 0 visit$ by a viol5t e>?quake2 ! gr\nd swell$ & heav$ l a roll+ sea1 & 0 trav]s$ by num]\s cracks1 two or ?ree hundr$ ( :i* 7 (t5 se5 at a "t1 op5+ & !n clos+ rapidly aga94 ,_m p 7 swall[$ up 9 ^! r5ts2 "s ! e>? caught by ! middle1 & squeez$ to dea?2 ! heads ( o!rs only appe>$ above gr\nd2 & "s 7 fir/ engulf$1 & !n ca/ up aga9 ) great quantities ( wat]4 ,su* 0 ! deva/ation1 t ev5 9 ,port ,royal1 !n ! capital1 :]e m h\ses are said to h be5 left /&+ ?an 9 ! :ole isl& besides1 ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! build+s1 toge!r ) ! gr\nd !y /ood on1 sank d[n ) _! inhabitants entirely "u wat]4 ,subsid5ce 9 ! h>bor4--,! l>ge /oreh\ses on ! h>bor side subsid$1 s z to be tw5ty-f\r1 ?irty-six1 & =ty-eight feet "u wat]2 yet _m ( !m appe> to h rema9$ /&+1 = x is /at$ t1 aft] ! e>?quake1 ! ma/-heads ( sev]al %ips wreck$ 9 ! h>bor1 toge!r ) ! *imney-tops ( h\ses1 7 j se5 project+ above ! waves4 ,a tract ( l& r\nd ! t[n1 ab\t a ?\s& acres 9 ext5t1 sank d[n 9 less ?an "o m9ute1 dur+ ! fir/ %ock1 & ! sea imm$iately roll$ 94 ,! ,swan frigate1 :i* 0 repair+ 9 ! :>f1 0 driv5 ov] ! tops ( _m build+s1 & !n ?r[n ^u "o ( ! ro(s1 ?r\gh :i* x broke4 ,! bread? ( "o ( ! /reets is said to h be5 d\bl$ by ! e>?quake4 ,accord+ to ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 ! "p ( ,port ,royal describ$ z hav+ sunk 0 built ^u newly =m$ l&1 consi/+ ( s&1 9 :i* piles _h be5 driv52 & ! settlem5t ( ?is loose s&1 *>g$ ) ! weight ( heavy h\ses1 may1 he sugge/s1 h giv5 rise to ! subsid5ce allud$ to4#gjg ,!re h und\bt$ly be5 in/ances 9 ,calabria & else:]e ( slides ( l& on :i* ! h\ses h /ill rema9$ /&+2 & x is possible t su* may h be5 ! case at ,port ,royal4 ,! fact at lea/ ( subm]g5ce is unque/ionable1 = ,i 0 in=m$ by ! late ,admiral ,sir ,*>les ,hamilton t he frequ5tly saw ! subm]g$ h\ses ( ,port ,royal 9 ! ye> #aghj1 9 t "p ( ! h>bor :i* lies betwe5 ! t[n & ! usual an*orage ( m5-(-w>4 ,bryan ,edw>ds also says1 9 8 hi/ory ( ! ,we/ ,indies1 t 9 #agic ! ru9s 7 visible 9 cle> wea!r f ! boats :i* sail$ ov] !m4#gjh ,la/ly1 ,lieut5ant ,b4 ,jeff]y1 ,r4 ,n41 tells me t1 be+ engag$ 9 a survey betwe5 ! ye>s #ahbd & #ahce1 he repeat$ly visit$ ! site 9 "q1 :]e ! dep? ( ! wat] is f f\r to six fa?oms1 & :5ev] !re 0 b little w9d p]ceiv$ di/9ct traces ( h\ses4 ,he saw ^! m cle>ly :5 he us$ ! in/rum5t call$ ! div]'s eye1 :i* is let d[n bel[ ! ripple ( ! wave4#gji ,at sev]al ?\s& places 9 ,jamaica ! e>? is relat$ to h op5$4 ,on ! nor? ( ! isl& sev]al plantations1 ) _! inhabitants1 7 swall[$ up1 & a lake appe>$ 9 _! place1 cov]+ above a ?\s& acres1 :i* aft]w>ds dri$ up1 leav+ no?+ b s& & gravel1 )\t ! lea/ sign t !re _h ev] be5 a h\se or a tree !re4 ,sev]al t5em5ts at ,yall[s 7 buri$ "u l&-slips2 & "o plantation 0 remov$ half a mile f its place1 ! crops cont9u+ to gr[ ^u x un9jur$4 ,betwe5 ,spani% ,t[n & ,sixte5-mile ,walk1 ! high & p]p5dicul> cliffs b\nd+ ! riv] fell 91 /opp$ ! passage ( ! riv] & flood$ ! latt] place = n9e days1 s t ! p conclud$ x _h be5 sunk z ,port ,royal 04 ,b ! flood at l5g? subsid$1 = ! riv] _h f\nd "s new passage at a great di/ance4 ,m\nta9s %att]$4--,! ,blue & o!r ( ! highe/ m\nta9s are decl>$ to h be5 /rangely torn & r5t4 ,!y appe>$ %att]$ & half-nak$1 no long] af=d+ a f9e gre5 prospect1 z be=e1 b /ripp$ ( _! woods & natural v]dure4 ,! riv]s on ^! m\nta9s fir/ ceas$ to fl[ = ab\t tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & !n br\ght d[n into ! sea1 at ,port ,royal & o!r places1 sev]al hundr$ ?\s& tons ( timb]1 :i* look$ l float+ isl&s on ! ocean4 ,! trees 7 9 g5]al b>k$1 mo/ ( _! bran*es hav+ be5 torn (f 9 ! desc5t4 ,x is p>ticul>ly rem>k$ 9 ?is1 z 9 ! n>ratives ( s _m e>?quakes1 t fi% 7 tak5 9 great numb]s on ! coa/ dur+ ! %ocks4 ,! correspond5ts ( ,sir ,hans ,sloane1 :o collect$ ) c>e ! acc\nts ( eye-witnesses ( ! cata/rophe1 ref] con/antly to subsid5ces1 & "s suppos$ ! :ole ( ,jamaica to h sunk d[n4#gaj ,reflections on ! am\nt ( *ange 9 ! la/ "o hundr$ & sixty ye>s4--,i h n[ only enum]at$ "s few ( ! e>?quakes ( ! la/ #afj ye>s1 respect+ :i* facts illu/rative ( geological inquiries are on record4 ,ev5 if my limits p]mitt$1 x w\ld be an unpr(itable task to exam9e all ! obscure & ambigu\s n>ratives ( simil> ev5ts ( e>li] epo*s2 al?\gh1 if ! places 7 n[ exam9$ by geologi/s well practis$ 9 ! art ( int]pret+ ! monum5ts ( physical *anges1 _m ev5ts :i* h happ5$ )9 ! hi/orical era might d\btless be /ill det]m9$ ) precision4 ,x mu/ n be imag9$ t1 9 ! above sket* ( ! occurr5ces ( a %ort p]iod1 ,i h giv5 an acc\nt ( all1 or ev5 ! great] "p1 ( ! mutations :i* ! e>? has und]gone by ! ag5cy ( subt]ranean movem5ts4 ,?us1 = example1 ! e>?quake ( ,aleppo1 9 ! pres5t c5tury1 & ( ,syria1 9 ! middle ( ! eighte5?1 w\ld d\btless h af=d$ num]\s ph5om5a1 ( great geological importance1 _h ^? cata/rophes be5 describ$ by sci5tific obs]v]s4 ,! %ocks 9 ,syria 9 #agei1 7 protract$ = ?ree mon?s1 ?r\gh\t a space ( t5 ?\s& squ>e leagues3 an area comp>$ to :i* t ( ! ,calabrian e>?quake 9 #aghc 0 insignificant4 ,accon1 ,saphat1 ,balbeck1 ,damascus1 ,sidon1 ,tripoli1 & _m o!r places1 7 almo/ entirely levell$ to ! gr\nd4 ,_m ?\s&s ( ! inhabitants p]i%$ 9 ea*2 &1 9 ! valley ( ,balbeck alone1 #bj1jjj m5 are said to h be5 victims to ! convulsion4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( sci5tific acc\nts1 x w\ld be z irrelevant to our pres5t purpose to ent] into a detail$ acc\nt ( su* calamities1 z to foll[ ! track ( an invad+ army1 to enum]ate ! cities burnt or ras$ to ! gr\nd1 & reckon ! numb] ( individuals :o p]i%$ by fam9e or ! sword4 ,defici5cy ( hi/orical records4--,if su*1 !n1 be ! am\nt ( asc]ta9$ *anges 9 ! la/ #afj ye>s1 not)/&+ ! extreme defici5cy ( our records dur+ t brief p]iod1 h[ important mu/ we presume ! physical revolutions to h be5 9 ! c\rse ( ?irty or =ty c5turies1 dur+ :i* "s c\ntries habitually convuls$ by e>?quakes h be5 peopl$ by civiliz$ nations6 ,t[ns engulf$ dur+ "o e>?quake may1 by repeat$ %ocks1 h sunk to great dep?s b5ea? ! surface1 :ile ! ru9s rema9 z imp]i%able z ! h>de/ rocks 9 :i* !y are inclos$4 ,build+s & cities1 subm]g$1 = a "t1 b5ea? seas or lakes1 & cov]$ ) s$im5t>y deposits1 mu/1 9 "s places1 h be5 re-elevat$ to consid]able heights above ! level ( ! ocean4 ,! signs ( ^! ev5ts h1 probably1 be5 r5d]$ visible by subsequ5t mutations1 z by ! encroa*m5ts ( ! sea ^u ! coa/1 by deep excavations made by torr5ts & riv]s1 by ! op5+ ( new rav9es1 & *asms1 & o!r effects ( natural ag5ts1 s active 9 di/ricts agitat$ by subt]ranean movem5ts4 ,if x be ask$ :y1 if su* wond]ful monum5ts exi/1 s few h hi!rto be5 br\ght to light1 we reply--because !y h n be5 se>*$ =4 ,9 ord] to rescue f oblivion ! memorials ( =m] occurr5ces1 ! inquir] mu/ "k :at he may reasonably expect to discov]1 & "u :at peculi> local circum/ances4 ,he mu/ be acqua9t$ ) ! action & effect ( physical causes1 9 ord] to recognize1 expla91 & describe correctly ! ph5om5a :5 !y pres5t !mselves4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ! great volcanic regions1 ( :i* ! b\nd>ies 7 sket*$ 9 ! tw5ty-second *apt]1 is t :i* includes ,s\!rn ,europe1 ,nor!rn ,africa1 & ,c5tral ,asia2 yet ne>ly ! :ole1 ev5 ( ?is region1 mu/ be laid d[n1 9 a geological map1 z ,t]ra ,incognita4 ,ev5 ,calabria may be reg>d$ z unexplor$1 z also ,spa91 ,portugal1 ! ,b>b>y ,/ates1 ! ,ionian ,isles1 ,asia ,m9or1 ,cyprus1 ,syria1 & ! c\ntries betwe5 ! ,caspian & ,black seas4 ,we are1 9 tru?1 beg9n+ to obta9 "s insight into "o small spot ( t great zone ( volcanic di/urbance1 ! di/rict ar\nd ,naples2 a tract by no means rem>kable = ! viol5ce ( ! e>?quakes :i* h convuls$ x4 ,if1 9 ?is "p ( ,campania1 we are enabl$ to e/abli% t consid]able *anges 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea h tak5 place s9ce ! ,*ri/ian era1 x is all t we c\ld h expect$2 & x is to rec5t antiqu>ian & geological rese>*1 n to hi/ory1 t we are pr9cipally indebt$ = ! in=mation4 ,i %all n[ proce$ to lay be=e ! read] "s ( ! results ( mod]n inve/igations 9 ! ,bay ( ,baiae & ! adjo9+ coa/4 ,,pro(s ,,( ,,elevation ,,& ,,subsid5ce ,,9 ,,! ,,bay ,,( ,,baiae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,gr\nd plan ( ! coa/ ( ! ,bay ( ,baiae1 9 ! environs ( ,puzzuoli4 ,temple ( ,jupit] ,s]apis4--,?is celebrat$ monum5t ( antiquity1 a repres5tation ( :i* is giv5 9 ! frontispiece1#gaa af=ds 9 itself alone1 unequivocal evid5ce t ! relative level ( l& & sea has *ang$ twice at ,puzzuoli s9ce ! ,*ri/ian era2 & ea* movem5t1 bo? ( elevation & subsid5ce1 has exce$$ tw5ty feet4 ,be=e exam9+ ^! pro(s1 ,i may obs]ve1 t a geological exam9ation ( ! coa/ ( ,baiae1 bo? on ! nor? & s\? ( ,puzzuoli1 e/abli%es1 9 ! mo/ satisfactory mann]1 an elevation1 at no remote p]iod1 ( m ?an tw5ty feet1 &1 at "o po9t1 ( m ?an ?irty feet2 & ! evid5ce ( ?is *ange w\ld h be5 complete1 if ev5 ! temple _h1 to ?is day1 rema9$ undiscov]$4 ,coa/ s\? ( ,puzzuoli4--,if we coa/ along ! %ore f ,naples to ,puzzuoli1 we f9d1 on approa*+ ! latt] place1 t ! l(ty & precipit\s cliffs ( indurat$ tuff1 resembl+ t ( :i* ,naples is built1 retire slightly f ! sea2 & t a l[ level tract ( f]tile l&1 ( a v diff]5t aspect1 int]v5es betwe5 ! pres5t sea-bea* & :at 0 evid5tly ! anci5t l9e ( coa/4 ,! inl& cliff may be se5 opposite ! small isl& ( ,nisida1 ab\t two miles & a half s\!a/ ( ,puzzuoli 7see ,map1 fig4 #dj1 p4 #cfa71 :]e1 at ! height ( ?irty-two feet above ! level ( ! sea1 ,mr4 ,babbage obs]v$ an anci5t m>k1 su* z might h be5 worn by ! waves2 &1 ^u f>!r exam9ation1 discov]$ t1 along t l9e1 ! face ( ! p]p5dicul> rock1 consi/+ ( v h>d tuff1 0 cov]$ ) b>nacles 7,balanus sulcatus1 ,lamk471 & drill$ by bor+ te/acea4 ,"s ( ! holl[s ( ! li?odomi conta9$ ! %ells2 :ile o!rs 7 fill$ ) ! valves ( a species ( ,area4#gab ,ne>] to ,puzzuoli1 ! inl& cliff is eighty feet high1 & z p]p5dicul> z if x 0 /ill und]m9$ by ! waves4 ,at its base1 a new deposit1 con/itut+ ! f]tile tract above allud$ to1 atta9s a height ( ab\t tw5ty feet above ! sea2 &1 s9ce x is compos$ ( regul> s$im5t>y deposits1 conta9+ m>9e %ells1 its position proves t1 subsequ5tly to its =mation1 !re has be5 a *ange ( m ?an tw5ty feet 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4 a1 ,antiquities on hill ,s4 ,e4 ( ,puzzuoli 7see gr\nd plan1 fig4 #hf74 b1 ,anci5t cliff n[ inl&4 c1 ,t]race compos$ ( rec5t subm>9e deposit4 ,! sea encroa*es on ^! new incoh]5t /rata2 & z ! soil is valuable1 a wall has be5 built = its protection2 b :5 ,i visit$ ! spot 9 #ahbh1 ! waves _h swept away "p ( ?is ramp>t1 & expos$ to view a regul> s]ies ( /rata ( tuff1 m or less argillace\s1 alt]nat+ ) b$s ( pumice & lapilli1 & conta9+ great abundance ( m>9e %ells1 ( species n[ common on ?is coa/1 & among/ !m ,c>dium ru/icum1 ,o/rea edulis1 ,donax trunculus1 ,lamk41 & o!rs4 ,! /rata v>y f ab\t a foot to a foot & a half 9 ?ickness1 & "o ( !m conta9s abundantly rema9s ( works ( art1 tiles1 squ>es ( mosaic pavem5t ( diff]5t colors1 & small sculptur$ ornam5ts1 p]fectly un9jur$4 ,int]mix$ ) ^! ,i collect$ "s tee? ( ! pig & ox4 ,^! fragm5ts ( build+ occur bel[ z well z above /rata conta9+ m>9e %ells4 ,puzzuoli itself /&s *iefly on a promontory ( ! old] tuface\s =mation1 :i* cuts (f ! new deposit1 al?\gh ,i detect$ a small pat* ( ! latt] 9 a g>d5 "u ! t[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,,view ,,( ,,bay ,,( ,,baiae4 #a4 ,puzzuoli4 #b4 ,temple ( ,s]apis4 #c4 ,caligula's ,bridge #d4 ,monte ,b>b>o4 #e4 ,monte ,nuovo4 #f4 ,ba?s ( ,n]o4 #g4 ,baiae4 #h4 ,ca/le ( ,baiae4 #i4 ,bauli4 #aj4 ,cape ,mis5um4 #aa4 ,m\nt ,epomeo 9 ,is*ia4 #ab4 ,s\? ,"p ( ,is*ia4 ,f ! t[n ! ru9s ( a mole1 call$ ,caligula's ,bridge1 run out into ! sea 7see fig4 #hh1 p4 #eji74gac ,?is mole1 :i* is believ$ to be eighte5 c5turies old1 consi/s ( a numb] ( pi]s & ar*es1 ?irte5 ( :i* are n[ /&+1 & two o!rs appe> to h be5 ov]?r[n4 ,mr4 ,babbage f\nd1 on ! six? pi]1 p]=ations ( li?odomi f\r feet above ! level ( ! sea2 &1 ne> ! t]m9ation ( ! mole on ! la/ pi] b "o1 m>ks ( ! same1 t5 feet above ! level ( ! sea1 toge!r ) great numb]s ( balani & flu/ra4 ,! dep? ( ! sea1 at a v small di/ance f mo/ ( ! pi]s1 is f ?irty to fifty feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4 a1 ,rema9s ( ,cic]o's villa1 ,n4 side ( ,puzzuoli4#gad b1 ,anci5t cliff n[ inl&4 c1 ,t]race 7call$ ,la ,/>za7 compos$ ( rec5t subm>9e deposits4 d1 ,temple ( ,s]apis4 ,coa/ nor? ( ,puzzuoli4--,if we !n pass to ! nor? ( ,puzzuoli1 & exam9e ! coa/ betwe5 t t[n & ,monte ,nuovo1 we f9d a repetition ( analog\s ph5om5a4 ,! slop+ sides ( ,monte ,b>b>o slant d[n )9 a %ort di/ance ( ! coa/1 & t]m9ate 9 an inl& cliff ( mod]ate elevation1 to :i* ! geologi/ p]ceives at once t ! sea mu/1 at "s =m] p]iod1 h ext5d$4 ,betwe5 ?is cliff & ! sea is a l[ pla9 or t]race1 call$ ,la ,/>za 7c1 fig4 #hi71 correspond+ to t be=e describ$ on ! s\!a/ ( ! t[n2 & z ! sea encroa*es rapidly1 fre% sections ( ! /rata may readily be obta9$1 ( :i* ! annex$ is an example4 ,section on ! %ore nor? ( ! t[n ( ,puzzuoli3-- ,ft4 ,94 #a4 ,vegetable soil #a #j #b4 ,horizontal b$s ( pumice & scoriae1 ) brok5 fragm5ts ( unroll$ bricks1 bones ( animals1 & m>9e %ells #a #f #c4 ,b$s ( lapilli1 conta9+ abundance ( m>9e %ells1 pr9cipally ,c>dium ru/icum1 ,donax trunculus1 ,lam41 ,o/rea edulis1 ,triton cutaceum1 ,lam41 & ,bucc9um s]ratum1 ,broc*i1 ! b$s v>y+ 9 ?ickness f "o to eighte5 in*es #aj #j #d4 ,argillace\s tuff1 conta9+ bricks & fragm5ts ( build+s n r\nd$ by attrition4 #a #f ,! ?ickness ( _m ( ^! b$s v>ies greatly z we trace !m along ! %ore1 & sometimes ! :ole gr\p rises to a great] height ?an at ! po9t above describ$4 ,! surface ( ! tract :i* !y compose appe>s to slope g5tly upw>ds t[>ds ! base ( ! old cliffs4 ,n[1 if su* appe>ances pres5t$ !mselves on ! coa/ ( ,engl&1 a geologi/ might endeavor to seek an explanation 9 "s local *ange 9 ! set ( ! tides & curr5ts3 b !re are sc>ce any tides 9 ! ,m$it]ranean2 &1 to suppose ! sea to h sunk g5]ally f tw5ty to tw5ty-five feet s9ce ! %ores ( ,campania 7 cov]$ ) sumptu\s build+s is an hypo!sis obvi\sly unt5able4 ,! obs]vations1 inde$1 made dur+ mod]n surveys on ! moles & co?ons 7docks7 con/ruct$ by ! anci5ts 9 v>i\s ports ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 h prov$ t !re has be5 no s5sible v>iation ( level 9 t sea dur+ ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s4#gae ,?us we arrive1 )\t ! aid ( ! celebrat$ temple1 at ! conclusion1 t ! rec5t m>9e deposit at ,puzzuoli 0 uprais$ 9 mod]n times above ! level ( ! sea1 & t n only ?is *ange ( position1 b ! accumulation ( ! mod]n /rata1 0 po/]ior to ! de/ruction ( _m edifices1 ( :i* !y conta9 ! imb$d$ rema9s4 ,if we next exam9e ! evid5ce af=d$ by ! temple itself1 x appe>s1 f ! mo/ au!ntic acc\nts1 t ! ?ree pill>s n[ /&+ erect cont9u$1 d[n to ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 almo/ buri$ 9 ! new m>9e /rata 7c1 fig4 #hi74 ,! upp] "p ( ea* protrud+ sev]al feet above ! surface 0 conceal$ by bu%es1 & _h n attract$1 until ! ye> #agdi1 ! notice ( antiqu>ies2 b1 :5 ! soil 0 remov$ 9 #agej1 !y 7 se5 to =m "p ( ! rema9s ( a spl5did edifice1 ! pavem5t ( :i* 0 /ill pres]v$1 & ^u x lay a numb] ( columns ( ,african breccia & ( granite4 ,! orig9al plan ( ! build+ c\ld be trac$ di/9ctly3 x 0 ( a quadrangul> =m1 sev5ty feet 9 diamet]1 & ! ro( _h be5 support$ by =ty-six noble columns1 tw5ty-f\r ( granite & ! re/ ( m>ble4 ,! l>ge c\rt 0 surr\nd$ by ap>tm5ts1 suppos$ to h be5 us$ z ba?+-rooms2 = a !rmal spr+1 /ill us$ = m$ic9al purposes1 issues j beh9d ! build+1 & ! wat] ( ?is spr+ appe>s to h be5 orig9ally convey$ by a m>ble duct1 /ill extant1 into ! *amb]s1 & !n across ! pavem5t by a groove an in* or two deep1 to a conduit made ( ,roman brickwork1 by :i* x ga9$ ! sea4 ,_m antiqu>ies h ent]$ into elaborate discussions z to ! deity to :i* ?is edifice 0 consecrat$4 ,x is admitt$ t1 among o!r images f\nd 9 excavat+ ! ru9s1 !re 0 "o ( ! god ,s]apis2 & at ,puzzuoli a m>ble column 0 dug up1 on :i* 0 c>v$ an anci5t inscription1 ( ! date ( ! build+ ( ,rome #fdh 7or ,b4 ,c4 #aje71 entitl$ ,lex p>ieti faciundo4 ,?is inscription1 writt5 9 v obscure ,lat91 sets =? a contract1 betwe5 ! municipality ( ! t[n1 & a company ( build]s :o und]took to keep 9 repair c]ta9 public edifices1 ! ,temple ( ,s]apis be+ m5tion$ among/ ! re/1 & describ$ z be+ ne> or t[>ds ! sea1 m>e vorsum4 ,sir ,edmund ,head1 aft] /udy+1 9 #ahbh1 ! topography & antiquities ( ?is di/rict1 & ! ,greek1 ,roman1 & ,italian writ]s on ! subject1 in=m$ me1 t at ,alex&ria1 on ! ,nile1 ! *ief seat ( ! wor%ip ( ,s]apis1 !re 0 a ,s]apeum ( ! same =m z ?is temple at ,puzzuoli1 & surr\nd$ 9 l mann] by *amb]s1 9 :i* ! devotees 7 accu/om$ to pass ! night1 9 ! hope ( receiv+ dur+ sleep a revelation f ! god1 z to ! nature & cure ( _! diseases4 ,h5ce x 0 v natural t ! prie/s ( ,s]apis1 a pan!i/ic div9ity1 :o1 among o!r usurpations1 _h appropriat$ to himself ! attributes ( ,esculapius1 %\ld reg>d ! hot spr+ z a suitable app5dage to ! temple1 al?\gh ! orig9al ,s]apeum ( ,alex&ria c\ld boa/ no su* m$ic9al wat]s4 ,signor ,c>elli#gaf & o!rs1 9 object+ to ^! views1 h insi/$ on ! fact1 t ! wor%ip ( ,s]apis1 :i* we "k prevail$ at ,rome 9 ! days ( ,catullus 79 ! fir/ c5tury be=e ,*ri/71 0 prohibit$ by ! ,roman ,s5ate1 dur+ ! reign ( ! ,emp]or ,tib]ius4 ,b !re is little d\bt t1 dur+ ! reigns ( t emp]or's successors1 ! %r9es ( ! ,egyptian god 7 aga9 ?rong$ by zeal\s vot>ies2 & 9 no place m s ?an at ,puteoli 7n[ ,puzzuoli71 "o ( ! pr9cipal m>ts = ! produce ( ,alex&ria4 ,)\t ent]+ f>!r into an inquiry :i* is n /rictly geological1 ,i %all designate ?is valuable relic ( antiquity by its g5]ally receiv$ "n1 & proce$ to consid] ! memorials ( physical *anges inscrib$ on ! ?ree /&+ columns 9 mo/ legible *>act]s by ! h& ( ,nature4 7,see ,frontispiece47 ,^! pill>s1 :i* h be5 c>v$ ea* out ( a s+le block ( m>ble1 are =ty feet ?ree in*es & a half 9 height4 ,a horizontal fissure ne>ly int]sects "o ( ! columns2 ! o!r two are entire4 ,!y are all slightly out ( ! p]p5dicul>1 incl9+ some:at to ! s\?we/1 t is1 t[>ds ! sea4#gag ,_! surface is smoo? & un9jur$ to ! height ( ab\t twelve feet above _! p$e/als4 ,above ?is is a zone1 ab\t n9e feet 9 height1 :]e ! m>ble has be5 pi]c$ by a species ( m>9e p]=at+ bivalve--,li?odomus1 ,cuv4#gah ,! holes ( ^! animals are pe>-%ap$1 ! ext]nal op5+ be+ m9ute1 & gradually increas+ d[nw>ds4 ,at ! bottom ( ! cavities1 _m %ells are /ill f\nd1 not)/&+ ! great numb]s t h be5 tak5 out by visitors2 9 _m ! valves ( a species ( arca1 an animal :i* conceals itself 9 small holl[s1 occur4 ,! p]=ations are s consid]able 9 dep? & size1 t !y manife/ a long-cont9u$ abode ( ! li?odomi 9 ! columns1 =1 z ! inhabitant gr[s old] & increases 9 size1 x bores a l>g] cavity1 to correspond ) ! increas$ magnitude ( its %ell4 ,we mu/1 consequ5tly1 inf] a long-cont9u$ imm]sion ( ! pill>s 9 sea-wat]1 at a "t :5 ! l[] "p 0 cov]$ up & protect$ by m>9e1 fre%-wat]1 & volcanic /rata1 aft]w>ds to be describ$1 & by ! rubbi% ( build+s2 ! highe/ "p1 at ! same "t1 project+ above ! wat]s1 & be+ consequ5tly wea!r$1 b n mat]ially injur$4 7,see fig4 #ij1 p4 #ead47 ,on ! pavem5t ( ! temple lie "s columns ( m>ble1 :i* are also p]=at$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts2 "o1 = example1 to ! l5g? ( eight feet1 :ile1 = ! l5g? ( f\r feet1 x is un9jur$4 ,sev]al ( ^! brok5 columns are eat5 into1 n only on ! ext]ior1 b on ! cross fracture1 &1 on "s ( !m1 o!r m>9e animals 7s]pulae1 c47 h fix$ !mselves4#gai ,all ! granite pill>s are unt\*$ by li?odomi4 ,! plat=m ( ! temple1 :i* is n p]fectly ev51 01 :5 ,i visit$ x 9 #ahbh1 ab\t "o foot bel[ high-wat] m>k 7= !re are small tides 9 ! bay ( ,naples72 & ! sea1 :i* 0 only "o hundr$ feet di/ant1 soak$ ?r\gh ! int]v5+ soil4 ,! upp] "p ( ! p]=ations1 !re=e1 7 at lea/ tw5ty-?ree feet above high-wat] m>k2 & x is cle> t ! columns mu/ h cont9u$ = a long "t 9 an erect position1 imm]s$ 9 salt wat]1 & !n ! subm]g$ portion mu/ h be5 uprais$ to ! height ( ab\t tw5ty-?ree feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,by excavations c>ri$ on 9 #ahbh1 bel[ ! m>ble pavem5t on :i* ! columns /&1 ano!r co/ly pavem5t ( mosaic 0 f\nd1 at ! dep? ( ab\t five feet bel[ ! upp] "o 7a1 b1 fig4 #ij74 ,! exi/5ce ( ^! two pavem5ts1 at diff]5t levels1 cle>ly implies "s subsid5ce previ\sly to ! build+ ( ! m mod]n temple :i* _h r5d]$ x necess>y to con/ruct ! new floor at a high] level4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,temple ( ,s]apis at its p]iod ( greate/ depression4 a b1 ,anci5t mosaic pavem5t4 c c1 ,d>k m>9e incru/ation4 d d1 ,fir/ fill+ up1 %[] ( a%es4 e e1 ,fre%wat] calc>e\s deposit4 f f1 ,second fill+ up4 ,a1 ,/adium4 ,we h already se5 7p4 #eab7 t a temple ( ,s]apis exi/$ long be=e ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,! *ange ( level j m5tion$ mu/ h tak5 place "s "t be=e ! end ( ! second c5tury1 = inscriptions h be5 f\nd 9 ! temple1 f :i* we le>n t ,septimius ,sev]us adorn$ its walls ) preci\s m>bles1 betwe5 ! ye>s #aid & #baa ( our era1 & ! emp]or ,alex&] ,sev]us display$ ! l munific5ce betwe5 ! ye>s #bbb & #bce4gbj ,f t era !re is an entire de>? ( hi/orical in=mation = a p]iod ( m ?an twelve c5turies1 except ! significant fact t ,al>ic & 8 ,go?s sack$ ,puzzuoli 9 #def1 & t ,g5s]ic did ! l 9 #ede1 ,a4 ,d4 ,yet we h =tunately a s]ies ( natural ar*ives self-regi/]$ dur+ ! d>k ages1 by :i* _m ev5ts :i* occurr$ 9 & ab\t ! temple are reveal$ to u4 ,^! natural records consi/ p>tly ( deposits1 :i* envelop ! pill>s bel[ ! zone ( li?odom\s p]=ations1 & p>tly ( ^? :i* surr\nd ! out] walls ( ! temple4 ,mr4 ,babbage1 aft] a m9ute exam9ation ( ^!1 has %[n 7see p4 #ejg1 note7 t incru/ations on ! walls ( ! ext]ior *amb]s & on ! floor ( ! build+ demon/rate t ! pavem5t did n s9k d[n sudd5ly1 b 0 depress$ by a gradual movem5t4 ,! sea fir/ ent]$ ! c\rt or atrium & m+l$ its wat]s p>tially ) ^? ( ! hot spr+4 ,f ?is bracki% m$ium a d>k calc>e\s precipitate 7c c1 fig4 #ij7 0 ?r[n d[n1 :i* became1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 m ?an two feet ?ick1 includ+ "s s]pulae 9 x4 ,! pres5ce ( ^! annelids tea*es u t ! wat] 0 salt or bracki%4 ,aft] ?is p]iod ! temple 0 fill$ up ) an irregul> mass ( volcanic tuff 7d d1 fig4 #ij71 probably d]iv$ f an eruption ( ! neighbor+ crat] ( ! ,solfat>a1 to ! height ( f five to n9e feet above ! pavem5t4 ,ov] ?is aga9 a purely fre%wat] deposit ( c>bonate ( lime 7e e1 fig4 #ij7 accumulat$ ) an unev5 bottom s9ce x necess>ily accommodat$ itself to ! irregul> outl9e ( ! upp] surface ( ! volcanic %[] be=e ?r[n d[n4 ,! top ( ! same deposit 7a fre%wat] lime/one7 0 p]fectly ev5 & flat1 bespeak+ an anci5t wat] level4 ,x is sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,babbage t ?is fre%wat] lake may h be5 caus$ by ! fall ( a%es :i* *ok$ up ! *annel previ\sly communicat+ ) ! sea1 s t ! hot spr+ ?rew d[n calc>e\s matt] 9 ! atrium1 )\t any m>9e int]mixture4 ,to ! fre%wat] lime/one succe$$ ano!r irregul> mass ( volcanic a%es & rubbi% 7f f1 fig4 #ij71 "s ( x p]haps wa%$ 9 by ! waves ( ! sea dur+ a /orm1 its surface ris+ to t5 or elev5 feet above ! pavem5t4 ,& ?us we arrive at ! p]iod ( greate/ depression express$ 9 ! accompany+ diagram1 :5 ! l[] half ( ! pill>s 7 envelop$ 9 ! deposits above enum]at$1 & ! upp]mo/ tw5ty feet 7 expos$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! rema9+ or middle portion1 ab\t n9e feet long1 be+ = ye>s imm]s$ 9 salt wat] & drill$ by p]=at+ bivalves4 ,aft] ?is p]iod o!r /rata1 consi/+ ( %[]s ( volcanic a%es & mat]ials wa%$ 9 dur+ /orms1 cov]$ up ! pill>s to ! height 9 "s places ( ?irty-five feet above ! pavem5t4 ,! exact "t :5 ^! envelop+ masses 7 heap$ up1 & h[ mu* ( !m 7 =m$ dur+ subm]g5ce1 & h[ mu* aft] ! re-elevation ( ! temple1 _c be made out ) c]ta9ty4 ,! p]iod ( deep subm]g5ce 0 c]ta9ly antec$5t to ! close ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,pr(essor ,james ,=bes#gba has rem9d$ u ( a passage 9 an old ,italian writ] ,l(fr$o1 :o says t 9 #aecj1 or fifty ye>s be=e he wrote1 :i* 0 9 #aehj1 ! sea wa%$ ! base ( ! hills :i* rise f ! flat l& call$ ,la ,/>za1 z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ij1 s t1 to quote 8 words1 a p]son might !n h fi%$ f ! site ( ^? ru9s :i* are n[ call$ ! /adium 7,a1 fig4 #ij74 ,b we "k f o!r evid5ce t ! upw>d movem5t _h begun be=e #aecj1 = ! ,canonico ,&rea di ,jorio cites two au!ntic docum5ts 9 illu/ration ( ?is po9t4 ,! fir/1 dat$ ,oct4 #aejc1 is a de$ writt5 9 ,italian1 by :i* ,f]d9& & ,isabella grant to ! ,univ]sity ( ,puzzuoli a portion ( l&1 :]e ! sea is dry+ up 7*e va secc&o el m>e72 ! second1 a docum5t 9 ,lat91 dat$ ,may #bc1 #aeaa1 or ne>ly eight ye>s aft]1 by :i* ,f]d9& grants to ! city a c]ta9 t]ritory ar\nd ,puzzuoli1 :]e ! gr\nd is dri$ up f ! sea 7desiccatum74#gbb ,! pr9cipal elevation1 h[ev]1 ( ! l[ tract unque/ionably took place at ! "t ( ! great eruption ( ,monte ,nuovo 9 #aech4 ,t ev5t & ! e>?quakes :i* prec$$ x h be5 already describ$ 7p4 #cfh72 & we h se5 t two ( ! eye-witnesses ( ! convulsion1 ,falconi & ,giacomo di ,tol$o1 agree 9 decl>+ t ! sea ab&on$ a consid]able tract ( ! %ore1 s t fi% 7 tak5 by ! inhabitants2 &1 among o!r ?+s1 ,falconi m5tions t he saw two spr+s 9 ! newly discov]$ ru9s4 ,! flat l&1 :5 fir/ uprais$1 mu/ h be5 m ext5sive ?an n[1 = ! sea encroa*es some:at rapidly1 bo? to ! nor? & s\!a/ ( ,puzzuoli4 ,! coa/ _h1 :5 ,i exam9$ x 9 #ahbh1 giv5 way m ?an a foot 9 a twelvemon?2 & ,i 0 assur$1 by fi%]m5 9 ! bay1 t x has lo/ gr\nd ne> ,puzzuoli1 to ! ext5t ( ?irty feet1 )9 _! memory4 ,x is1 moreov]1 v probable t ! l& rose to a great] height at fir/ be=e x ceas$ to move upw>ds1 ?an ! level at :i* x 0 obs]v$ to /& :5 ! temple 0 r$iscov]$ 9 #agdi1 = we le>n f a memoir1 ( ,niccol9i1 publi%$ 9 #ahch1 t s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ! temple ( ,s]apis has subsid$ m ?an two feet4 ,t le>n$ ar*itect visit$ ! ru9s frequ5tly1 = ! sake ( mak+ draw+s1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ye> #ahjg1 & 0 9 ! habit ( rema9+ !re ?r\gh\t ! day1 yet nev] saw ! pavem5t ov]fl[$ by ! sea1 except occasionally :5 ! s\? w9d blew viol5tly4 ,on 8 return1 sixte5 ye>s aft]1 to sup]9t5d "s excavations ord]$ by ! k+ ( ,naples1 he f\nd ! pavem5t cov]$ by sea-wat] twice e day at high tide1 s t he 0 oblig$ to place !re a l9e ( /ones to /& ^u4 ,?is induc$ him to make a s]ies ( obs]vations f ,oct4 #ahbb to ,july #ahch1 by :i* means he asc]ta9$ t ! gr\nd _h be5 & 0 s9k+1 at ! av]age rate ( ab\t sev5 millimetres a ye>1 or ab\t "o in* 9 f\r ye>s2 s t1 9 #ahch1 fi% 7 caught e day on t "p ( ! pavem5t :]e1 9 #ahjg1 !re 0 nev] a drop ( wat] 9 calm wea!r4#gbc ,on inquir+ /ill m rec5tly z to ! condition ( ! temple & ! cont9uance ( ! s9k+ ( ! gr\nd1 ,i le>n f ,signor ,scac*i 9 a lett]1 dat$ ,june #aheb1 t ! d[nw>d movem5t has ceas$ = sev]al ye>s1 or has at lea/ become almo/ inappreciable4 ,dur+ an exam9ation und]tak5 by him at my reque/ 9 ! summ] ( t ye> 7#aheb71 he obs]v$ t ! ris+ tide spread fir/ ov] ! seaw>d side ( ! flat surface ( ! p$e/als ( ea* column 7confirm+ ! fact previ\sly notic$ by o!rs1 t !y are out ( ! p]p5dicul>72 & he also rem>k$ t ! wat] ga9$ unequally on ! base ( ea* pill>1 9 su* a mann] z to prove t !y h nei!r ! same am\nt ( incl9ation1 nor lean precisely 9 ! same direction4 ,f :at 0 said be=e 7p4 #eaj71 we saw t ! m>9e %ells 9 ! /rata =m+ ! pla9 call$ ,la ,/>za1 consid]$ sep>ately1 e/abli% ! fact ( an upheaval ( ! gr\nd to ! height ( tw5ty-?ree feet & upw>ds4 ,! temple proves mu* m1 because x c\ld n h be5 built orig9ally "u wat]1 & mu/ !re=e fir/ h sunk d[n tw5ty feet at lea/ bel[ ! waves1 to be aft]w>ds re/or$ to its orig9al position4 ,yet if su* 0 ! ord] ( ev5ts we ought to meet ) o!r indep5d5t signs ( a l subsid5ce r\nd ! m>g9 ( a bay once s /udd$ ) build+s z ! ,bay ( ,baiae4 ,accord+ly memorials ( su* subm]g5ce are n want+4 ,ab\t a mile nor?we/ ( ! temple ( ,s]apis1 & ab\t #ejj feet f ! %ore1 are ! ru9s ( a temple ( ,neptune & o!rs ( a temple ( ! ,nymphs1 n[ und]wat]4 ,! columns ( ! =m] edifice /& erect 9 five feet ( wat]1 _! upp] portions j ris+ to ! surface ( ! sea4 ,! p$e/als are d\btless buri$ 9 ! s& or mud2 s t1 if ?is "p ( ! bottom ( ! bay %\ld h]eaft] be elevat$1 ! exhumation ( ^! temples might take place aft] ! mann] ( t ( ,s]apis4 ,bo? ^! build+s probably p>ticipat$ 9 ! movem5t :i* rais$ ! ,/>za2 b ei!r !y 7 deep] "u wat] ?an ! temple ( ,s]apis1 or !y 7 n rais$ up aga9 to s great a height4 ,!re are also two ,roman roads "u wat] 9 ! bay1 "o rea*+ f ,puzzuoli to ! ,lucr9e ,lake1 :i* may /ill be se51 & ! o!r ne> ! ca/le ( ,baiae 7,no4 #h1 fig4 #hh1 p4 #eji74 ,! anci5t mole1 too1 ( ,puzzuoli 7,no4 #d1 ibid47 be=e allud$ to1 has ! wat] up to a consid]able height ( ! ar*es2 :]eas ,brieslak ju/ly obs]ves1 x is next to c]ta9 t ! pi]s mu/ =m]ly h rea*$ ! surface be=e ! spr++ ( ! ar*es2#gbd s t1 al?\gh ! ph5om5a be=e describ$ prove t ?is mole has be5 uplift$ t5 feet above ! level at :i* x once /ood1 x is /ill evid5t t x has n yet be5 re/or$ to its orig9al position4 ,a mod]n writ] also rem9ds u1 t ^! effects are n s local z "s w\ld h u to believe2 = on ! opposite side ( ! ,bay ( ,naples1 on ! ,sorr5t9e coa/1 :i*1 z well z ,puzzuoli1 is subject to e>?quakes1 a road1 ) "s fragm5ts ( ,roman build+s1 is cov]$ to "s dep? by ! sea4 ,9 ! isl& ( ,capri1 also1 :i* is situat$ "s way out at sea1 9 ! op5+ ( ! ,bay ( ,naples1 "o ( ! palaces ( ,tib]ius is n[ cov]$ ) wat]4#gbe ,t build+s %\ld h be5 subm]g$1 & aft]w>ds upheav$1 )\t be+ entirely r$uc$ to a heap ( ru9s1 w appe> no anomaly1 :5 we recollect t1 9 ! ye> #ahai1 :5 ! delta ( ! ,indus sank d[n1 ! h\ses )9 ! =t ( ,s9dree subsid$ b5ea? ! waves )\t be+ ov]?r[n4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! ye> #afib1 ! build+s r\nd ! h>bor ( ,port ,royal1 9 ,jamaica1 desc5d$ sudd5ly to ! dep? ( betwe5 ?irty & fifty feet "u ! sea )\t fall+4 ,ev5 on small portions ( l& transport$ to a di/ance ( a mile d[n a declivity1 t5em5ts1 l ^? ne> ,mileto1 9 ,calabria1 7 c>ri$ entire4 ,at ,valp>aiso build+s 7 left /&+ 9 #ahbb1 :5 _! f\ndations1 toge!r ) a long tract ( ! ,*ilian coa/1 7 p]man5tly uprais$ to ! height ( sev]al feet4 ,x is /ill m easy to conceive t an edifice may escape fall+ dur+ ! upheaval or subsid5ce ( l&1 if ! walls are support$ on ! ext]ior & int]ior ) a deposit l t :i* surr\nd$ & fill$ to ! height ( t5 or elev5 feet ! temple ( ,s]apis all ! "t x 0 s9k+1 & :i* envelop$ x to m ?an twice t height :5 x 0 ris+ aga9 to its orig9al level4 ,we c sc>cely avoid ! conclusion1 z ,mr4 ,babbage has h9t$1 t ! action ( heat is 9 "s way or o!r ! cause ( ! ph5om5a ( ! *ange ( level ( ! temple4 ,its own hot spr+1 its imm$iate contiguity to ! ,solfat>a1 its ne>ness to ! ,monte ,nuovo1 ! hot spr+ at ! ba?s ( ,n]o 7,no4 #f1 fig4 #hh71 on ! opposite side ( ! ,bay ( ,baiae2 ! boil+ spr+s & anci5t volcanoes ( ,is*ia on "o side & ,vesuvius on ! o!r1 are ! mo/ prom95t ( a multitude ( facts :i* po9t to t conclusion4#gbf ,& :5 we reflect on ! dates ( ! pr9cipal oscillations ( level1 & ! volcanic hi/ory ( ! c\ntry be=e describ$ 7*ap4 #bc71 we seem to discov] a connection betwe5 ea* era ( upheaval & a local developm5t ( volcanic heat1 & aga9 betwe5 ea* era ( depression & ! local quiesc5ce or dormant condition ( ! subt]ranean igne\s causes4 ,?us = example1 be=e ! ,*ri/ian era1 :5 s _m v5ts 7 9 frequ5t eruption 9 ,is*ia1 & :5 ,av]nus & o!r po9ts 9 ! ,phlegraean ,fields 7 celebrat$ = _! volcanic aspect & "*1 ! gr\nd on :i* ! temple /ood 0 sev]al feet above wat]4 ,vesuvius 0 !n reg>d$ z a sp5t volcano2 b :51 aft] ! ,*ri/ian era1 ! fires ( t m\nta9 7 rek9dl$1 sc>cely a s+le outbur/ 0 ev] witness$ 9 ,is*ia1 or ar\nd ! ,bay ( ,baiae4 ,!n ! temple 0 s9k+4 ,vesuvius1 at a subsequ5t p]iod1 became ne>ly dormant = five c5turies prec$+ ! great outbreak ( #afca 7see p4 #cgd71 & 9 t int]val ! ,solfat>a 0 9 eruption ,a4 ,d4 #aaih1 ,is*ia 9 #acjb1 & ,monte ,nuovo 0 =m$ 9 #aech4 ,!n ! f\ndations on :i* ! temple /ood 7 ris+ aga94 ,la/ly1 ,vesuvius once m became a mo/ active v5t1 & has be5 s ev] s9ce1 & dur+ ! same lapse ( "t ! area ( ! temple1 s f> z we "k any ?+ ( its hi/ory1 has be5 subsid+4 ,^! ph5om5a w\ld agree well ) ! hypo!sis1 t :5 ! subt]ranean heat is on ! increase1 & :5 lava is =m+ )\t obta9+ an easy v5t1 l t af=d$ by a great habitual *imney1 su* z ,vesuvius1 ! incumb5t surface is uplift$2 b :5 ! heat$ rocks bel[ are cool+ & contract+1 & %eets ( lava are sl[ly consolidat+ & dim9i%+ 9 volume1 !n ! incumb5t l& subsides4 ,signor ,niccol9i1 :5 he asc]ta9$ 9 #ahch t ! relative levels ( ! floor ( ! temple & ( ! sea 7 sl[ly *ang+ f ye> to ye>1 embrac$ ! op9ion t x 0 ! sea :i* 0 ris+4 ,b ,signor ,capocci successfully controv]t$ ?is view1 appeal+ to _m appe>ances :i* atte/ ! local "* ( ! movem5ts ( ! adjo9+ c\ntry1 besides ! hi/orical fact t 9 #aech1 :5 ! sea retir$ p]man5tly #bjj y>ds f ! anci5t %ore at ,puzzuoli1 !re 0 no simultane\s retreat ( ! wat]s f ,naples1 ,ca/elam>e1 & ,is*ia4#gbg ,p]man5ce ( ! ocean's level4--,9 conclud+ ?is subject ,i may obs]ve1 t ! int]m9able controv]sies to :i* ! ph5om5a ( ! ,bay ( ,baiae gave rise1 h sprung f an extreme reluctance to admit t ! l&1 r ?an ! sea1 is subject alt]nately to rise & fall4 ,_h x be5 assum$ t ! level ( ! ocean 0 inv>iable1 on ! gr\nd t no fluctuations h z yet be5 cle>ly e/abli%$1 & t1 on ! o!r h&1 ! cont95ts are incon/ant 9 _! level1 z has be5 demon/rat$ by ! mo/ unequivocal pro(s aga9 & aga91 f ! "t ( ,/rabo to our own times1 ! appe>ances ( ! temple at ,puzzuoli c\ld nev] h be5 reg>d$ z enigmatical4 ,ev5 if contempor>y acc\nts _h n di/9ctly atte/$ ! uprais+ ( ! coa/1 ?is explanation %\ld h be5 propos$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance z ! mo/ natural1 in/ead ( be+ n[ adopt$ unwill+ly :5 all o!rs h fail$4 ,to ! /rong prejudices /ill exi/+ 9 reg>d to ! mobility ( ! l&1 we may attribute ! r>ity ( su* discov]ies z h be5 rec5tly br\ght to light 9 ! ,bay ( ,baiae & ! ,bay ( ,conception4 ,a false !ory1 x is well kn[n1 may r5d] u bl9d to facts :i* are oppos$ to our prepossessions1 or may conceal f u _! true import :5 we behold !m4 ,b x is "t t ! geologi/ %\ld1 9 "s degree1 ov]come ^? fir/ & natural impressions1 :i* induc$ ! poets ( old to select ! rock z ! emblem ( firmness--! sea z ! image ( incon/ancy4 ,our mod]n poet1 9 a m philosophical _s1 saw 9 ! sea ,! image ( et]nity1 & has f9ely contra/$ ! fleet+ exi/5ce ( ! successive empires :i* h fl\ri%$ & fall5 on ! bord]s ( ! ocean ) its own un*ang$ /ability4 ------,_! decay ,has dri$ up realms to des]ts3--n s ?\1 ,un*angeable1 save to ?y wild wave's play3 ,"t writes no wr9kle on ?9e azure br[2 ,su* z creation's dawn beheld1 ?\ rolle/ n[4 ,,*ilde ,,h>old1 ,canto iv4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,elevation ,,& ,,subsid5ce ,,( ,,l& ,,)\t ,,e>?quakes4 ,*anges 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea 9 regions n volcanic--,op9ion ( ,celsius t ! wat]s ( ! ,baltic ,sea & ,nor!rn ,ocean 7 s9k+--,objections rais$ to 8 op9ion--,pro(s ( ! /ability ( ! sea level 9 ! ,baltic--,playfair's hypo!sis t ! l& 0 ris+ 9 ,sw$5--,op9ion ( ,von ,bu*--,m>ks cut on ! rocks--,survey ( ^! 9 #ahbj--;,facility ( detect+ slight alt]ations ( level on coa/ ( ,sw$5--,%ores ( ! ocean also ris+--,area upheav$--,%elly deposits ( ,uddevalla--,( ,/ockholm1 conta9+ fossil %ells *>act]i/ic ( ! ,baltic--,subsid5ce 9 s\? ( ,sw$5--,fi%+ hut buri$ "u m>9e /rata--,upheaval 9 ,sw$5 n always 9 horizontal planes--,s9k+ ( l& 9 ,gre5l&--,be>+ ( ^! facts on geology4 ,we h n[ consid]$ ! ph5om5a ( volcanoes & e>?quakes accord+ to ! division ( ! subject be=e propos$ 7p4 #cde71 & h next to turn our att5tion to ^? sl[ & ins5sible *anges 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea :i* take place 9 c\ntries remote f volcanoes1 & :]e no viol5t e>?quakes h occurr$ )9 ! p]iod ( human obs]vation4 ,e>ly 9 ! la/ c5tury ! ,sw$i% naturali/1 ,celsius1 express$ 8 op9ion t ! wat]s1 bo? ( ! ,baltic & ,nor!rn ,ocean1 7 gradually subsid+4 ,f num]\s obs]vations1 he inf]r$ t ! rate ( depression 0 ab\t fifty ,sw$i% in*es 9 a c5tury4#gbh ,9 support ( ?is position1 he alleg$ t !re 7 _m rocks bo? on ! %ores ( ! ,baltic & ! ocean kn[n to h be5 once sunk5 reefs1 & dang]\s to navigators1 b :i* 7 9 8 "t above wat]--t ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia _h be5 gradually conv]t$ into l&1 sev]al anci5t ports hav+ be5 *ang$ into inl& cities1 small isl&s jo9$ to ! cont95t1 & old fi%+-gr\nds des]t$ z be+ too %all[1 or entirely dri$ up4 ,celsius also ma9ta9$1 t ! evid5ce ( ! *ange re/$ n only on mod]n obs]vations1 b on ! au?ority ( ! anci5t geograph]s1 :o _h /at$ t ,sc&9avia 0 =m]ly an isl&4 ,?is isl&1 he argu$1 mu/ 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies1 by ! gradual retreat ( ! sea1 h become connect$ ) ! cont95t2 an ev5t :i* he suppos$ to h happ5$ aft] ! "t ( ,pl9y1 & be=e ! n9? c5tury ( our era4 ,to ?is argum5t x 0 object$ t ! anci5ts 7 s ignorant ( ! geography ( ! mo/ nor!rn p>ts ( ,europe1 t _! au?ority 0 entitl$ to no weight2 & t _! repres5tation ( ,sc&9avia z an isl&1 might ) m propriety be adduc$ to prove ! scant9ess ( _! in=mation1 ?an to confirm s bold an hypo!sis4 ,x 0 also rem>k$ t if ! l& :i* connect$ ,sc&9avia ) ! ma9 cont95t 0 laid dry betwe5 ! "t ( ,pl9y & ! n9? c5tury1 to ! ext5t to :i* x is kn[n to h ris5 above ! sea at ! latt] p]iod1 ! rate ( depression c\ld n h be5 uni=m1 z 0 pret5d$2 = x ought to h fall5 mu* m rapidly betwe5 ! n9? & eighte5? c5turies4 ,_m ( ! pro(s reli$ on by ,celsius & 8 foll[]s 7 imm$iately controv]t$ by sev]al philosoph]s1 :o saw cle>ly t a fall ( ! sea 9 any "o region c\ld n take place )\t a g5]al s9k+ ( ! wat]s ov] ! :ole globe3 !y d5i$ t ?is 0 ! fact1 or t ! depression 0 univ]sal1 ev5 9 ! ,baltic4 ,9 pro( ( ! /ability ( ! level ( t sea1 !y appeal$ to ! position ( ! isl& ( ,sal?olm1 n f> f ,cop5hag54 ,?is isl& is s l[1 t 9 autumn & w9t] x is p]man5tly ov]fl[$2 & x is only dry 9 summ]1 :5 x s]ves = pa/ur+ cattle4 ,x appe>s1 f ! docum5ts ( ! ye> #abhj1 t ,sal?olm 0 !n also 9 ! same /ate1 & exactly on a level ) ! mean height ( ! sea1 in/ead ( hav+ be5 ab\t tw5ty feet "u wat]1 z x ought to h be51 accord+ to ! computation ( ,celsius4 ,sev]al t[ns1 also1 on ! %ores ( ! ,baltic1 z ,lubeck1 ,wism>1 ,ro/ock1 ,/ralsund1 & o!rs1 aft] six & ev5 eight hundr$ ye>s1 are z little elevat$ above ! sea z at ! era ( _! f\ndation1 be+ n[ close to ! wat]'s edge4 ,! l[e/ "p ( ,dantzic 0 no high] ?an ! mean level ( ! sea 9 ! ye> #ajjj2 & aft] eight c5turies its relative position rema9s exactly ! same4#gbi ,sev]al ( ! examples ( ! ga9 ( l& & %all[+ ( ! sea po9t$ out by ,celsius1 & aft]w>ds by ,l9naeus1 :o embrac$ ! same op9ions1 7 ascrib$ by o!rs to ! deposition ( s$im5t at po9ts :]e riv]s ent]$2 &1 und\bt$ly1 ,celsius _h n suffici5tly di/+ui%$ betwe5 *anges due to ^! causes & su* z w\ld arise if ! wat]s ( ! ocean itself 7 dim9i%+4 ,_m l>ge riv]s desc5d+ f a m\nta9\s c\ntry1 at ! head ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 ent] ! sea *>g$ ) s&1 mud1 & pebbles2 & x 0 said t 9 ^! places ! l[ l& _h advanc$ rapidly1 especially ne> ,torneo4 ,at ,piteo also1 half a mile _h be5 ga9$ 9 =ty-five ye>s2 at ,luleo1#gcj no less ?an a mile 9 tw5ty-eight ye>s2 facts :i* might all be admitt$ consi/5tly ) ! assumption t ! level ( ! ,baltic has rema9$ un*ang$1 l t ( ! ,adriatic1 dur+ a p]iod :5 ! pla9s ( ! ,po & ! ,adige h greatly ext5d$ _! area4 ,x 0 also alleg$ t c]ta9 insul> rocks1 once entirely cov]$ ) wat]1 _h at l5g? protrud$ !mselves above ! waves1 & gr[n1 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury & a half1 to be eight feet high4 ,! foll[+ attempt 0 made to expla9 away ?is ph5om5on3--,9 ! ,baltic1 l>ge erratic blocks1 z well z s& & small] /ones :i* lie on %oals1 are liable e ye> to be froz5 into ! ice1 :]e ! sea freezes to ! dep? ( five or six feet4 ,on ! melt+ ( ! sn[ 9 spr+1 :5 ! sea rises ab\t half a fa?om1 num]\s ice-isl&s float away1 be>+ up ^! rocky fragm5ts s z to convey !m to a di/ance2 & if !y are driv5 by ! waves ^u %oals1 !y may conv]t !m into isl&s by deposit+ ! blocks2 if /r&$ ^u l[ isl&s1 !y may consid]ably augm5t _! height4 ,br[allius1 also1 & "s o!r ,sw$i% naturali/s1 affirm$ t "s isl&s 7 l[] ?an =m]ly2 & t1 by ref]5ce to ?is k9d ( evid5ce1 !re 0 equally good reason = cont5d+ t ! level ( ! ,baltic 0 gradually ris+4 ,!y also add$ ano!r curi\s pro( ( ! p]man5cy ( ! wat] level1 at "s po9ts at lea/1 = _m c5turies4 ,on ! ,f9l& coa/ 7 "s l>ge p9es1 gr[+ close to ! wat]'s edge2 ^! 7 cut d[n1 &1 by c\nt+ ! conc5tric r+s ( annual gr[?1 z se5 9 a transv]se section ( ! trunk1 x 0 demon/rat$ t !y _h /ood !re = f\r hundr$ ye>s4 ,n[1 accord+ to ! ,celsian hypo!sis1 ! sea _h sunk ab\t fifte5 feet dur+ t p]iod1 9 :i* case ! g]m9ation & e>ly gr[? ( ^! p9es mu/ h be51 = _m seasons1 bel[ ! level ( ! wat]4 ,9 l mann] x 0 ass]t$1 t ! l[] walls ( _m anci5t ca/les1 su* z ^? ( ,sond]burg & ,abo1 rea*$ !n to ! wat]'s edge1 & mu/1 !re=e1 accord+ to ! !ory ( ,celsius1 h be5 orig9ally con/ruct$ bel[ ! level ( ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,9 reply to ?is la/ argum5t1 ,colonel ,hall/rom1 a ,sw$i% eng9e]1 well acqua9t$ ) ! ,f9l& coa/1 assur$ me1 t ! base ( ! walls ( ! ca/le ( ,abo is n[ t5 feet above ! wat]1 s t !re may h be5 a consid]able rise ( ! l& at t po9t s9ce ! build+ 0 erect$4 ,playfair1 9 8 ,illu/rations ( ! ,huttonian ,!ory1 9 #ahjb1 admitt$ ! suffici5cy ( ! pro(s adduc$ by ,celsius1 b attribut$ ! *ange ( level to ! movem5t ( ! l&1 r ?an to a dim9ution ( ! wat]s4 ,he obs]v$1 t 9 ord] to depress or elevate ! absolute level ( ! sea1 by a giv5 quantity1 9 any "o place1 we mu/ depress or elevate x by ! same quantity ov] ! :ole surface ( ! e>?2 :]eas no su* necessity exi/s ) respect to ! elevation or depression ( ! l&4#gca ,! hypo!sis ( ! ris+ ( ! l& he adds1 agrees well ) ! ,huttonian !ory1 :i* holds1 t our cont95ts are subject to be act$ ^u by ! expansive =ces ( ! m9]al regions2 t by ^! =ces !y h be5 actually rais$ up1 & are su/a9$ by !m 9 _! pres5t situation4#gcb ,9 ! ye> #ahjg1 ,von ,bu*1 aft] return+ f a t\r 9 ,sc&9avia1 ann\nc$ 8 conviction1 t ! :ole c\ntry1 f ,fr$]ick%all 9 ,norway to ,abo 9 ,f9l&1 & p]haps z f> z ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 0 sl[ly & ins5sibly ris+4 ,he also sugge/$ t ,sw$5 may rise m ?an ,norway1 & ! nor!rn m ?an ! s\!rn "p4#gcc ,he 0 l$ to ^! conclusions pr9cipally by in=mation obta9$ f ! inhabitants & pilots1 & 9 "p by ! occurr5ce ( m>9e %ells ( rec5t species1 :i* he _h f\nd at sev]al po9ts on ! coa/ ( ,norway above ! level ( ! sea4 ,he also m5tions ! m>ks set on ! rocks4 ,von ,bu*1 !re=e1 has ! m]it ( be+ ! fir/ geologi/ :o1 aft] a p]sonal exam9ation ( ! evid5ce1 decl>$ 9 favor ( ! rise ( l& 9 ,sc&9avia4 ,! att5tion excit$ by ?is subject 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! la/ c5tury1 induc$ _m philosoph]s 9 ,sw$5 to endeavor to det]m9e1 by accurate obs]vations1 :e!r ! /&>d level ( ! ,baltic 0 really subject to p]iodical v>iations2 & "u _! direction1 l9es or grooves1 indicat+ ! ord9>y level ( ! wat] on a calm day1 toge!r ) ! date ( ! ye>1 7 *isell$ out ^u ! rocks4 ,9 #ahbj-ba1 all ! m>ks made be=e ^? ye>s 7 exam9$ by ! (fic]s ( ! pilotage e/abli%m5t ( ,sw$52 & 9 _! report to ! ,royal ,academy ( ,/ockholm !y decl>$1 t on comp>+ ! level ( ! sea at ! "t ( _! obs]vations ) t indicat$ by ! anci5t m>ks1 !y f\nd t ! ,baltic 0 l[] relatively to ! l& 9 c]ta9 places1 b ! am\nt ( *ange dur+ equal p]iods ( "t _h n be5 ev]y:]e ! same4 ,dur+ _! survey1 !y cut new m>ks = ! guidance ( future obs]v]s1 sev]al ( :i* ,i _h an opportunity ( exam9+ f\rte5 ye>s aft] 79 ! summ] ( #ahcd71 & 9 t int]val ! l& appe>$ to me to h ris5 at c]ta9 places nor? ( ,/ockholm f\r or five in*es4 ,i also conv9c$ myself1 dur+ my visit to ,sw$51 aft] conv]s+ ) _m civil eng9e]s1 pilots1 & fi%]m51 & aft] exam9+ "s ( ! anci5t m>ks1 t ! evid5ce =m]ly adduc$ 9 favor ( ! *ange ( level1 bo? on ! coa/s ( ,sw$5 & ,f9l&1 0 full & satisfactory4#gcd ,! alt]ation ( level evid5tly dim9i%es z we proce$ f ! nor!rn p>ts ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia t[>ds ! s\?1 be+ v slight ar\nd ,/ockholm4 ,"s writ]s h inde$ repres5t$ ! rate ( depression ( ! wat]s at ,/ockholm z v consid]able1 because c]ta9 h\ses 9 t city :i* are built on piles h sunk d[n )9 ! memory ( p]sons /ill liv+1 s z to be out ( ! p]p5dicul>2 & ?is 9 consequ5ce ( ! tops ( ! piles giv+ way & decay+1 ow+ to a fall ( ! wat]s :i* has expos$ !m to be alt]nately wet & dry4 ,! h\ses allud$ to are situat$ on ! bord]s ( ,lake ,mael]1 a l>ge lake1 ! outlet ( :i* jo9s ! ,baltic1 9 ! middle ( ,/ockholm4 ,?is lake is c]ta9ly l[] ?an =m]ly2 b ! pr9cipal cause ( ! *ange is n ! elevation ( ! l&1 b ! removal ( two old bridges built on piles1 :i* =m]ly ob/ruct$ ! dis*>ge ( ! fre% wat] into ! sea4 ,ano!r cause is ! op5+1 9 ! ye> #ahai1 ( a new canal at ,sod]telje1 a place s\? ( ,/ockholm1 by means ( :i* a new l9e ( communication 0 =m$ betwe5 ,lake ,mael] & ! ,baltic4#gce ,x w naturally be ask$1 :e!r ! mean level ( a sea l ! ,baltic c ev] be det]m9$ s exactly z to p]mit u to appreciate a v>iation ( level1 am\nt+ only to "o or two feet4 ,9 reply1 ,i may obs]ve1 t1 except ne> ! ,cattegat1 !re are no tides 9 ! ,baltic2 & x is only :5 p>ticul> w9ds h prevail$ = sev]al days 9 succession1 or at c]ta9 seasons :5 !re has be5 an unusually abundant influx ( riv] wat]1 or :5 ^! causes h comb9$1 t ?is sea is made to rise two or ?ree feet above its /&>d level4 ,! fluctuations due to ^! causes are ne>ly ! same f ye> to ye>2 s t ! pilots & fi%]m5 believe & app>5tly ) reason1 t !y c m>k a deviation1 ev5 ( a few in*es1 f ! ord9>y or mean height ( ! wat]s4 ,!re are1 moreov]1 peculi>ities 9 ! configuration ( ! %ores ( ,norway & ,sw$51 :i* facilitate 9 a rem>kable degree ! appreciation ( slight *anges 9 ! relative level ( l& & wat]4 ,x has (t5 be5 said1 t !re are two coa/s1 an inn] & an out] "o2 ! inn] be+ ! %ore ( ! ma9 l&2 ! out] "o1 a fr+e ( c\ntless rocky isl&s ( all dim5sions1 call$ ! sk> 7%air74 ,boats & small vessels make _! coa/+ voyages )9 ?is sk>3 = "h !y may sail 9 smoo? wat]1 ev5 :5 ! sea )\t is /rongly agitat$4 ,b ! navigation is v intricate1 & ! pilot mu/ possess a p]fect acqua9tance ) ! bread? & dep? ( e n>r[ *annel1 & ! position ( innum]able sunk5 rocks4 ,if on su* a coa/ ! l& rises "o or two feet 9 ! c\rse ( half a c5tury1 ! m9ute topography ( ! sk> is entirely alt]$4 ,to a /rang]1 inde$1 :o revisits x aft] an int]val ( _m ye>s1 its g5]al aspect rema9s ! same2 b ! inhabitant f9ds t he c no long] p5etrate ) 8 boat ?r\gh *annels :]e he =m]ly pass$1 & he c tell ( c\ntless o!r *anges 9 ! height & bread? ( isolat$ rocks1 n[ expos$1 b once only se5 ?r\gh ! cle> wat]4 ,! rocks ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & qu>tz are usually v h>d on ?is coa/1 sl[ to decompose1 &1 :5 protect$ f ! break]s1 rema9+ = ages unalt]$ 9 _! =m4 ,h5ce x is easy to m>k ! /ages ( _! progressive em]g5ce by ! aid ( natural & artificial m>ks impr9t$ on !m4 ,besides ! summits ( fix$ rocks1 !re are num]\s erratic blocks ( va/ size /rew$ ov] ! %oals & isl&s 9 ! sk>1 :i* h be5 probably drift$ by ice 9 ! mann] be=e sugge/$4#gcf ,all ^! are obs]v$ to h increas$ 9 height & dim5sion ) ! la/ half c5tury4 ,"s1 :i* 7 =m]ly kn[n z dang]\s sunk5 rocks1 are n[ only hidd5 :5 ! wat] is highe/4 ,on _! fir/ appe>ance1 !y usually pres5t a smoo?1 b>e1 r\nd$ protub]ance1 a few feet or y>ds 9 diamet]2 & a s+le sea-gull (t5 appropriates to itself ?is re/+-place1 resort+ !re to dev\r its prey4 ,simil> po9ts1 9 ! mean "t1 h gr[n to long reefs1 & are con/antly :it5$ by a multitude ( sea-f[l2 :ile o!rs h be5 *ang$ f a reef1 annually subm]g$1 to a small islet1 on :i* a few li*5s1 a fir-se$l+1 & a few blades ( grass1 atte/ t ! %oal has at l5g? be5 fairly *ang$ into dry l&4 ,?\s&s ( wood$ isl&s ar\nd %[ ! great alt]ations :i* "t c "w4 ,9 ! c\rse ( c5turies also1 ! spaces int]v5+ betwe5 ! exi/+ isl&s may be laid dry1 & become grassy pla9s encircl$ by heights well clo!d ) l(ty firs4 ,?is la/ /ep ( ! process1 by :i* long fiords & n>r[ *annels1 once sep>at+ wood$ isl&s1 are des]t$ by ! sea1 has be5 exemplifi$ )9 ! memory ( liv+ witnesses on sev]al p>ts ( ! coa/4 ,_h ! app>5t fall ( ! wat]s be5 obs]v$ 9 ! ,baltic only1 we might h endeavor$ to expla9 ! ph5om5on by local causes affect+ t sea alone4 ,= in/ance1 ! *annel by :i* ! ,baltic dis*>ges its surplus wat]s into ! ,atlantic1 might be suppos$ to h be5 gradually wid5$ & deep5$ by ! waves & curr5ts1 9 :i* case a fall ( ! wat] l t be=e allud$ to 9 ,lake ,mael]1 might h occurr$4 ,b ! l[]+ ( level w\ld 9 t case h be5 uni=m & univ]sal1 & ! wat]s c\ld n h sunk at ,torneo1 :ile !y reta9$ _! =m] level at ,cop5hag54 ,su* an explanation is also unt5able on o!r gr\nds2 = x is a fact1 z ,celsius long ago affirm$1 t ! alt]ation ( level ext5ds to ! we/]n %ores ( ,sw$51 bord]+ ! ocean4 ,! signs ( elevation obs]v$ betwe5 ,uddevalla & ,go!nburg are z well e/abli%$ z ^? on ! %ores ( ! ,bo?nian ,gulf4 ,among ! places :]e !y may be /udi$1 are ! isl&s ( ,m>/r& & ,gulholm51 ! la/-m5tion$ locality be+ "o ( ^? p>ticul>ly po9t$ out by ,celsius4 ,! inhabitants !re & else:]e affirm1 t ! rate ( ! s9k+ ( ! sea 7or elevation ( l&7 v>ies 9 diff]5t & adjo9+ di/ricts1 be+ greate/ at po9ts :]e ! l& is l[4 ,b 9 ?is !y are deceiv$2 = !y measure ! am\nt ( rise by ! area ga9$1 :i* is mo/ consid]able :]e ! l& desc5ds ) a g5tle slope into ! sea4 ,9 ! same mann]1 "s advocates ( ! ,celsian !ory =m]ly appeal$ to ! increase ( l&s ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s1 n suffici5tly adv]t+ to ! fact1 t if ! b$ ( ! sea is ris+1 ! *ange w always be mo/ s5sible :]e ! bottom has be5 previ\sly r5d]$ %all[2 :]eas1 at a di/ance f ^! po9ts :]e ! sc>p$ granitic cliffs plunge at once into deep wat]1 a mu* great] am\nt ( elevation is necess>y to produce an equally conspicu\s *ange4 ,z to ! area 9 nor!rn ,europe :i* is subject to ?is sl[ upheav+ movem5t1 we h n z yet suffici5t data = e/imat+ x correctly4 ,x seems probable1 h[ev]1 t x rea*es f ,go!nburg to ,torneo1 & f !nce to ! ,nor? ,cape1 ! rate ( elevation increas+ always z we proce$ f>!r nor?w>ds4 ,! two extremities ( ?is l9e are m ?an a ?\s& geographical miles di/ant f ea* o!r2 & z bo? t]m9ate 9 ! ocean1 we "k n h[ mu* f>!r ! motion may be prolong$ "u wat]4 ,z to ! bread? ( ! tract1 its limits are equally unc]ta91 ?\gh x evid5tly ext5ds across ! wide/ p>ts ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 & may probably /ret* f> into ! int]ior1 bo? ( ,sw$5 & ,f9l&4 ,n[ if ! elevation cont9ue1 a l>g] "p ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia w be turn$ into l&1 z also m ( ! ocean (f ! we/ coa/ ( ,sw$5 betwe5 ,go!nburg & ,uddevalla2 & on ! o!r h&1 if ! *ange has be5 go+ on = ?\s&s ( ye>s at ! rate ( sev]al feet 9 a c5tury1 l>ge tracts ( :at is n[ l& mu/ h be5 subm>9e at p]iods comp>atively mod]n4 ,x is natural !re=e to inquire :e!r !re are any signs ( ! rec5t soj\rn ( ! sea on di/ricts n[ inl&8 ,! answ] is mo/ satisfactory4--,ne> ,uddevalla & ! neighbor+ coa/l&1 we f9d uprais$ deposits ( %ells belong+ to species su* z n[ live 9 ! ocean2 :ile on ! opposite or ea/]n side ( ,sw$51 ne> ,/ockholm1 ,gefle1 & o!r places bord]+ ! ,bo?nian ,gulf1 !re are analog\s b$s conta9+ %ells ( species *>act]i/ic ( ! ,baltic4 ,von ,bu* ann\nc$ 9 #ahjg1 t he _h discov]$ 9 ,norway & at ,uddevalla 9 ,sw$51 b$s ( %ells ( exi/+ species1 at consid]able heights above ! sea4 ,s9ce t "t1 o!r naturali/s h confirm$ 8 obs]vation2 &1 accord+ to ,/rom1 deposits occur at an elevation ( m ?an #djj feet above ! sea 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,norway4 ,m4 ,alex4 ,brongni>t1 :5 he visit$ ,uddevalla1 asc]ta9$ t "o ( ! pr9cipal masses ( %ells1 t ( ,capellback51 is rais$ m ?an #bjj feet above ! sea1 re/+ on rocks ( gneiss1 all ! species be+ id5tical ) ^? n[ inhabit+ ! contigu\s ocean4 ,! same naturali/ also /at$1 t on exam9+ ) c>e ! surface ( ! gneiss1 imm$iately above ! anci5t %elly deposit1 he f\nd b>nacles 7balani7 adh]+ to ! rocks1 %[+ t ! sea _h rema9$ !re = a long "t4 ,i 0 =tunate en\gh to be able to v]ify ?is obs]vation by f9d+ 9 ! summ] ( #ahcd1 at ,kur$1 ab\t two miles nor? ( ,uddevalla1 & at ! height ( m ?an #ajj feet above ! sea1 a surface ( gneiss newly laid op5 by ! p>tial removal ( a mass ( %ells us$ l>gely 9 ! di/rict = mak+ lime & repair+ ! roads4 ,s firmly did ^! b>nacles adh]e to ! gneiss1 t ,i broke (f portions ( ! rock ) ! %ells atta*$4 ,! face ( ! gneiss 0 also incru/$ ) small zoophytes 7,cellepora8 ,lam472 b _h ^! or ! b>nacles be5 expos$ 9 ! atmosph]e ev] s9ce ! elevation ( ! rocks above ! sea1 !y w\ld d\btless h decompos$ & be5 oblit]at$4 ,! t[n ( ,uddevalla 7see ,map1 p4 #ebc7 /&s at ! head ( a n>r[ creek ov]hung by /eep & b>r5 rocks ( gneiss1 ( :i* all ! adjac5t c\ntry is compos$1 except 9 ! l[ gr\nds & bottoms ( valleys1 :]e /rata ( s&1 clay1 & m>l frequ5tly hide ! fundam5tal rocks4 ,to ^! new] & horizontal deposits ! fossil %ells above m5tion$ belong1 & simil> m>9e rema9s are f\nd at v>i\s heights above ! sea on ! opposite isl& ( ,oru/4 ,! extreme di/ance f ! sea to :i* su* fossils ext5d is z yet unkn[n2 b !y h be5 already f\nd at ,trollhattan 9 digg+ ! canal !re1 & /ill f>!r inl& on ! nor!rn bord]s ( ,lake ,w5]1 fifty miles f ! sea1 at an elevation ( #bjj feet ne> ,lake ,rogv>p54 ,to pass to ! ,baltic3 ,i obs]v$ ne> its %ores at ,sod]telje1 sixte5 miles ,s4 ,w4 ( ,/ockholm1 /rata ( s&1 clay1 & m>l1 m ?an #ajj feet high1 & conta9+ %ells ( species n[ inhabit+ ! ,bo?nian ,gulf4 ,^! consi/ p>tly ( m>9e & p>tly ( fre%wat] species2 b !y are few 9 numb]1 ! bracki%ness ( ! wat] appe>+ to be v unfavorable to ! developm5t ( te/acea4 ,! mo/ abundant species are ! common cockle & ! common mussel & p]iw9kle ( our %ores 7,c>dium edule1 ,mytilus edulis1 & ,littor9a littorea71 toge!r ) a small tell9a 7,t4 ,baltica7 & a few m9ute univalves alli$ to ,palud9a ulva4 ,^! live 9 ! same wat] z a ,lymneus1 a ,n]it9a 7,n4 fluviatilis71 & "s o!r fre%-wat] %ells4 ,b ! m>9e mollusks ( ! ,baltic above m5tion$1 al?\gh v num]\s 9 individuals1 are dw>fi% 9 size1 sc>cely ev] atta9+ a ?ird ( ! av]age dim5sions :i* !y acquire 9 ! salt] wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,by ?is "* alone a geologi/ w\ld g5]ally be able to recognize an assemblage ( ,baltic fossils z di/+ui%$ f ^? d]iv$ f a deposit 9 ! ocean4 ,! abs5ce also ( oy/]s1 b>nacles1 :elks1 scallops1 limpets 7o/rea1 balanus1 bucc9um1 pect51 patella71 & _m o!r =ms ab\nd+ alike 9 ! sea ne> ,uddevalla1 & 9 ! fossilif]\s deposits ( mod]n date on t coa/1 supplies an additional negative "* ( ! greate/ value1 di/+ui%+ assemblages ( ,baltic f ^? ( oceanic %ells4 ,n[ ! /rata conta9+ ,baltic %ells are f\nd 9 _m localities ne> ,/ockholm1 ,upsala1 & ,gefle1 & w probably be discov]$ ev]y:]e ar\nd ! bord]s ( ! ,bo?nian ,gulf2 = ,i h se5 simil> rema9s br\ght f ,f9l&1 9 m>l resembl+ t f\nd ne> ,/ockholm4 ,! utmo/ di/ance to :i* ^! deposits h yet be5 trac$ inl&1 is on ! s\!rn %ores ( ,lake ,mael]1 at a place sev5ty miles f ! sea4#gcg ,h5ce x appe>s f ! di/9ct assemblage ( fossil %ells f\nd on ! ea/]n & we/]n coa/s ( ,sw$51 t ! ,baltic has be5 = a long p]iod sep>at$ z n[ f ! ocean1 al?\gh ! int]v5+ tract ( l& 0 once mu* n>r[]1 ev5 aft] bo? seas _h become inhabit$ by all ! exi/+ species ( te/acea4 ,z no accurate obs]vations on ! rise ( ! ,sw$i% coa/ ref] to p]iods m remote ?an a c5tury & a half f ! pres5t "t1 & z traditional in=mation1 & t d]iv$ f anci5t build+s on ! coa/1 d n enable ! antiqu>y to trace back any monum5ts ( *ange = m ?an five or six c5turies1 we _c decl>e :e!r ! rate ( ! upheav+ =ce is uni=m dur+ v long p]iods4 ,9 ^? di/ricts :]e ! fossil %ells are f\nd at ! height ( m ?an #bjj feet above ! ocean1 z at ,uddevalla1 ,oru/1 & ,lake ,rogv>p51 ! pres5t rate ( rise seems less ?an f\r feet 9 a c5tury4 ,ev5 at t rate x w\ld h requir$ five ?\s& ye>s to lift up ^? deposits4 ,b z ! movem5t is n[ v diff]5t 9 diff]5t places1 x may also h v>i$ mu* 9 int5sity at diff]5t eras4 ,we h1 moreov]1 yet to le>n n only :e!r ! motion proce$s always at ! same rate1 b also :e!r x has be5 uni=mly 9 "o direction4 ,! level ( ! l& may oscillate2 & = c5turies !re may be a depression1 & aft]w>ds a re-elevation1 ( ! same di/rict4 ,"s ph5om5a 9 ! neighborhood ( ,/ockholm appe> to me only explicable on ! supposition ( ! alt]nate ris+ & s9k+ ( ! gr\nd s9ce ! c\ntry 0 inhabit$ by man4 ,9 digg+ a canal1 9 #ahai1 at ,sod]telje1 ab\t sixte5 miles to ! s\? ( ,/ockholm1 to unite ,lake ,mael] ) ! ,baltic1 m>9e /rata1 conta9+ fossil %ells ( ,baltic species1 7 pass$ ?r\gh4 ,at a dep? ( ab\t sixty feet1 !y came d[n ^u :at seems to h be5 a buri$ fi%+-hut1 con/ruct$ ( wood 9 a /ate ( decomposition1 :i* soon crumbl$ away on exposure to ! air4 ,! l[e/ "p1 h[ev]1 :i* _h /ood on a level ) ! sea1 0 9 a m p]fect /ate ( pres]vation4 ,on ! floor ( ?is hut 0 a rude fireplace1 consi/+ ( a r+ ( /ones1 & )9 ?is 7 c9d]s & *>r$ wood4 ,on ! outside lay b\ghs ( ! fir1 cut z ) an axe1 ) ! leaves or ne$les /ill atta*$4 ,x seems v difficult to expla9 ! position ( ?is buri$ hut1 )\t imag9+1 z 9 ! case ( ! temple ( ,s]apis 7see p4 #dhf71 fir/ a subsid5ce to ! dep? ( m ?an sixty feet1 !n a re-elevation4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( subm]g5ce1 ! hut mu/ h become cov]$ ov] ) gravel & %elly m>l1 "u :i* n only ! hut1 b sev]al vessels also 7 f\nd1 ( a v antique =m1 & hav+ _! timb]s fa/5$ toge!r by wood5 pegs in/ead ( nails4#gch ,:e!r any ( ! l& 9 ,norway is n[ ris+1 mu/ be det]m9$ by future inve/igations4 ,m>9e fossil %ells1 ( rec5t species1 h be5 collect$ f inl& places ne> ,dron!im2 b ,mr4 ,ev]e/1 9 8 ,travels ?r\gh ,norway1 in=ms u t ! small isl& ( ,munkholm1 :i* is an insulat$ rock 9 ! h>bor ( ,dron!im1 af=ds conclusive evid5ce ( ! l& hav+ 9 t region rema9$ /ation>y = ! la/ eight c5turies4 ,! area ( ?is isle does n exce$ t ( a small village1 & by an (ficial survey1 its highe/ po9t has be5 det]m9$ to be tw5ty-?ree feet above ! mean high-wat] m>k1 t is1 ! mean betwe5 neap & spr+ tides4 ,n[1 a mona/]y 0 f\nd$ !re by ,canute ! ,great1 ,a4 ,d4 #ajbh1 & ?irty-?ree ye>s be=e t "t x 0 9 use z a common place ( execution4 ,accord+ to ! assum$ av]age rate ( rise 9 ,sw$5 7ab\t =ty in*es 9 a c5tury71 we %\ld be oblig$ to suppose t ?is isl& _h be5 ?ree feet eight in*es bel[ high-wat] m>k :5 x 0 orig9ally *os5 z ! site ( ! mona/]y4 ,pr(essor ,keilhau ( ,*ri/iania1 aft] collect+ ! obs]vations ( 8 pr$ecessors respect+ =m] *anges ( level 9 ,norway1 & comb9+ !m ) 8 own1 has made ! fact ( a g5]al *ange ( level at a mod]n p]iod1 t is to say1 )9 ! p]iod ( ! actual te/ace\s fauna1 v evid5t4 ,he inf]s t ! :ole c\ntry f ,cape ,l9desnaes to ,cape ,nor?1 & beyond t z f> z ! =tress ( ,v>dhuus1 has be5 gradually uprais$1 & on ! s\!a/ coa/ ! elevation has am\nt$ to m ?an #fjj feet4 ,! m>ks :i* d5ote ! anci5t coa/-l9e are s ne>ly horizontal t ! deviation f horizontality1 al?\gh ! measurem5ts h be5 made at a great numb] ( po9ts1 is too small to be appreciat$4 ,m rec5tly 7#ahdd71 h[ev]1 x appe>s f ! rese>*es ( ,m4 ,bravais1 memb] ( ! ,fr5* sci5tific commission ( ! ,nor?1 t 9 ! ,gulf ( ,alt5 9 ,f9m>k1 ! mo/ nor!rly "p ( ,norway1 !re are two di/9ct l9es ( uprais$ anci5t sea-coa/1 "o above ! o!r1 :i* are n p>allel1 & bo? ( !m imply t )9 a di/ance ( fifty miles a consid]able slope c be detect$ 9 su* a direction z to %[ t ! anci5t %ores h und]gone a great] am\nt ( upheaval 9 proportion z we advance inl&4#gci ,x has be5 already /at$1 t1 9 proce$+ f ! ,nor? ,cape to ,/ockholm1 ! rate ( upheaval dim9i%es f sev]al feet to a few in*es 9 a c5tury4 ,to ! s\? ( ,/ockholm1 ! upw>d movem5t ceases1 & at l5g? 9 ,scania1 or ! s\!rnmo/ "p ( ,sw$51 x appe>s to give place to a movem5t 9 an opposite direction4 ,9 pro( ( ?is fact1 ,pr(essor ,nilsson obs]ves1 9 ! fir/ place1 t !re are no elevat$ b$s ( rec5t m>9e %ells 9 ,scania l ^? f>!r to ! nor?4 ,secondly1 ,l9naeus1 ) a view ( asc]ta9+ :e!r ! wat]s ( ! ,baltic 7 retir+ f ! ,scanian %ore1 measur$1 9 #agdi1 ! di/ance betwe5 ! sea & a l>ge /one ne> ,trelleborg4 ,?is same /one 01 9 #ahcf1 a hundr$ feet ne>] ! wat]'s edge ?an 9 ,l9naeus's "t1 or eighty-sev5 ye>s be=e4 ,?irdly1 !re is also a subm]g$ peat moss1 consi/+ ( l& & fre%wat] plants1 b5ea? ! sea at a po9t to :i* no peat c\ld h be5 drift$ d[n by any riv]4 ,f\r?ly1 & :at is /ill m conclusive1 x is f\nd t 9 seaport t[ns1 all along ! coa/ ( ,scania1 !re are /reets bel[ ! high-wat] level ( ! ,baltic1 & 9 "s cases bel[ ! level ( ! l[e/ tide4 ,?us1 :5 ! w9d is high at ,malmo1 ! wat] ov]fl[s "o ( ! pres5t /reets1 & "s ye>s ago "s excavations %[$ an anci5t /reet 9 ! same place eight feet l[]1 & x 0 !n se5 t !re _h be5 an artificial rais+ ( ! gr\nd1 d\btless 9 consequ5ce ( t subsid5ce4 ,!re is also a /reet at ,trelleborg1 & ano!r at ,skanor1 a few in*es bel[ high-wat] m>k1 & a /reet at ,y/ad is exactly on a level ) ! sea1 at :i* x c\ld n h be5 orig9ally built4 ,! inf]5ces d$uc$ f ! =ego+ facts are 9 p]fect h>mony ) ! pro(s br\ght to light by two ,dani% inve/igators1 ,dr4 ,p+el & ,capta9 ,graah1 ( ! s9k+ d[n ( "p ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 = a space ( m ?an #fjj miles f nor? to s\?4 ,! obs]vations ( ,capta9 ,graah 7 made dur+ a survey ( ,gre5l& 9 #ahbc-bd2 & aft]w>ds 9 #ahbh-bi2 ^? by ,dr4 ,p+el 7 made 9 #ahcj-cb4 ,x appe>s f v>i\s signs & traditions1 t ! coa/ has be5 subsid+ = ! la/ f\r c5turies f ! fir? call$ ,igaliko1 9 lat4 #fj degrees #dc m9utes ,n4 to ,disco ,bay1 ext5d+ to ne>ly ! #fi? degree ( nor? latitude4 ,anci5t build+s on l[ rocky isl&s & on ! %ore ( ! ma9 l& h be5 gradually subm]g$1 & exp]i5ce has taught ! aborig9al ,gre5l&] nev] to build 8 hut ne> ! wat]'s edge4 ,9 "o case ! ,moravian settl]s h be5 oblig$ m ?an once to move inl& ! poles ^u :i* _! l>ge boats 7 set1 & ! old poles /ill rema9 b5ea? ! wat] z sil5t witnesses ( ! *ange4#gdj ,! probable cause ( ! movem5ts above allud$ to1 :e!r ( elevation or depression1 w be m appropriately discuss$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s1 :5 ! orig9 ( subt]ranean heat is consid]$4 ,b ,i may rem>k "h1 t ! rise ( ,sc&9avia has naturally be5 reg>d$ z a v s+ul> & sc>cely cr$ible ph5om5on1 because no region on ! globe has be5 m free )9 ! times ( au!ntic hi/ory f viol5t e>?quakes4 ,9 common1 inde$1 ) our own isl& & ) almo/ e spot on ! globe1 "s movem5ts h be51 at diff]5t p]iods1 exp]i5c$1 bo? 9 ,norway & ,sw$54 ,b "s ( ^!1 z = example dur+ ! ,lisbon e>?quake 9 #agee1 may h be5 m]e vibrations or undulatory movem5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ prolong$ f a great di/ance4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 h be5 suffici5tly local to indicate a s\rce ( di/urbance imm$iately "u ! c\ntry itself4 ,not)/&+ ^! %ocks1 ,sc&9avia has1 ^u ! :ole1 be5 z tranquil 9 mod]n times1 & z free f subt]ranean convulsions1 z any region ( equal ext5t on ! globe4 ,!re is also ano!r circum/ance :i* has made ! *ange ( level 9 ,sw$5 appe> anomal\s1 & has = a long "t caus$ ! pro(s ( ! fact to be receiv$ ) reluctance4 ,volcanic action1 z we h se51 is usually int]mitt5t3 & ! v>iations ( level to :i* x has giv5 rise h tak5 place by />ts1 n by a prolong$ & ins5sible movem5t simil> to t exp]i5c$ 9 ,sw$54 ,yet1 z we enl>ge our exp]i5ce ( mod]n *anges1 we discov] in/ances 9 :i* ! volcanic eruption1 ! e>?quake1 & ! p]man5t rise or fall ( l&1 :e!r sl[ or sudd51 are all connect$4 ,! union ( ^! v>i\s circum/ances 0 exemplifi$ 9 ! case ( ! temple ( ,s]apis1 describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 & we might d]ive o!r illu/rations f ! ev5ts ( ! pres5t c5tury 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,"s writ]s1 inde$1 h imag9$ t !re is geological evid5ce 9 ,norway1 ( ! sudd5 upheaval ( l& to a consid]able height at successive p]iods1 s9ce ! era :5 ! sea 0 inhabit$ by ! liv+ species ( te/acea4 ,!y po9t 9 pro( to c]ta9 horizontal l9es ( inl& cliffs & sea-bea*es conta9+ rec5t %ells at v>i\s heights above ! level ( ! sea4#gda ,b ^! appe>ances1 :5 truly int]pret$1 simply prove t !re h be5 long pauses 9 ! process ( upheaval or subsid5ce4 ,!y m>k eras at :i* ! level ( ! sea has rema9$ /ation>y = ages1 & dur+ :i* new /rata 7 deposit$ ne> ! %ore 9 "s places1 :ile 9 o!rs ! waves & curr5ts _h "t to holl[ out rocks1 und]m9e cliffs1 & ?r[ up long ranges ( %+le4 ,!y und\bt$ly %[ t ! movem5t has n be5 always uni=m or cont9u\s1 b !y d n e/abli% ! fact ( any sudd5 alt]ations ( level4 ,:5 we are once assur$ ( ! reality ( ! gradual rise ( a l>ge region1 x enables u to acc\nt = _m geological appe>ances o!rwise ( v difficult explanation4 ,!re are l>ge cont95tal tracts & high table-l&s :]e ! /rata are ne>ly horizontal1 be>+ no m>ks ( hav+ be5 ?r[n up by viol5t convulsions1 nor by a s]ies ( movem5ts1 su* z ^? :i* occur 9 ! ,&es1 & cause ! e>? to be r5t op51 & rais$ or depress$ f "t to "t1 :ile l>ge masses are engulf$ 9 subt]ranean cavities4 ,! result ( a s]ies ( su* e>?quakes might be to produce 9 a great lapse ( ages a c\ntry ( %att]$1 incl9$1 & p]haps v]tical /rata4 ,b a movem5t l t ( ,sc&9avia w\ld cause ! b$ ( ! sea1 & all ! /rata rec5tly =m$ 9 x1 to be upheav$ s gradually1 t x w\ld m]ely seem z if ! ocean _h =m]ly /ood at a high] level1 & _h sl[ly & tranquilly sunk d[n into its pres5t b$4 ,! fact also ( a v gradual & ins5sible elevation ( l& may expla9 _m geological movem5ts ( d5udation1 on a gr& scale4 ,if1 = example1 in/ead ( ! h>d granitic rocks ( ,norway & ,sw$51 a l>ge "p ( ! b$ ( ! ,atlantic1 consi/+ *iefly ( s(t /rata1 %\ld rise up c5tury aft] c5tury1 at ! rate ( ab\t half an in*1 or an in*1 9 a ye>1 h[ easily might oceanic curr5ts sweep away ! ?9 film ( matt] ?us br\ght up annually )9 ! sph]e ( aque\s d5udation6 ,! tract1 :5 x f9ally em]g$1 might pres5t table-l&s & ridges ( horizontal /rata1 ) int]v5+ valleys & va/ pla9s1 :]e orig9ally1 & dur+ its p]iod ( subm]g5ce1 ! surface 0 level & ne>ly uni=m4 ,^! speculations relate to sup]ficial *anges2 b o!rs mu/ be cont9ually 9 progress 9 ! subt]ranean regions4 ,! f\ndations ( ! c\ntry1 ?us gradually uplift$ 9 ,sw$51 mu/ be und]go+ important modifications4 ,:e!r we ascribe ^! to ! expansion ( solid matt] by cont9ually increas+ heat1 or to ! liquefaction ( rock1 or to ! cry/allization ( a d5se fluid1 or ! accumulation ( p5t-up gases1 9 :atev] conjectures we indulge1 we c nev] d\bt = a mom5t1 t at "s unkn[n dep? b5ea? ,sw$5 & ! ,baltic1 ! /ructure ( ! globe is 9 our own times becom+ *ang$ f day to day1 ?r\gh\t a space probably m ?an a ?\s& miles 9 l5g?1 & sev]al hundr$ 9 bread?4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,causes ,,( ,,e>?quakes ,,& ,,volcanoes4 ,intimate connection betwe5 ! causes ( volcanoes & e>?quakes--,suppos$ orig9al /ate ( fusion ( ! planet--,univ]sal fluidity n prov$ by sph]oidal figure ( ! e>?--,attempt to calculate ! ?ickness ( ! solid cru/ ( ! e>? by precessional motion--,heat 9 m9es increas+ ) ! dep?--,objections to ! suppos$ int5se heat ( a c5tral fluid--,:e!r *emical *anges may produce volcanic heat--,curr5ts ( electricity circulat+ 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,x w h>dly be que/ion$1 aft] ! description be=e giv5 ( ! ph5om5a ( e>?quakes & volcanoes1 t bo? ( ^! ag5ts h1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 a common orig92 & ,i may n[1 !re=e1 proce$ to inquire into _! probable causes4 ,b fir/1 x may be well to recapitulate "s ( ^? po9ts ( relation & analogy :i* lead naturally to ! conclusion t !y spr+ f a common s\rce4 ,! regions convuls$ by viol5t e>?quakes include )9 !m ! site ( all ! active volcanoes4 ,e>?quakes1 sometimes local1 sometimes ext5d+ ov] va/ areas1 (t5 prec$e volcanic eruptions4 ,! subt]ranean movem5t & ! eruption return aga9 & aga91 at irregul> int]vals ( "t1 & ) unequal degrees ( =ce1 to ! same spots4 ,! action ( ei!r may cont9ue = a few h\rs1 or = sev]al consecutive ye>s4 ,p>oxysmal convulsions are usually foll[$1 9 bo? cases1 by long p]iods ( tranquillity4 ,!rmal & m9]al spr+s are abundant 9 c\ntries ( e>?quakes & active volcanoes4 ,la/ly1 hot spr+s situat$ 9 di/ricts consid]ably di/ant f volcanic v5ts h be5 obs]v$ to h _! temp]ature sudd5ly rais$1 & ! volume ( _! wat] augm5t$1 by subt]ranean movem5ts4 ,all ^! appe>ances are evid5tly m or less connect$ ) ! passage ( heat f ! int]ior ( ! e>? to ! surface2 & :]e !re are active volcanoes1 !re mu/ exi/1 at "s unkn[n dep? bel[1 enorm\s masses ( matt] int5sely heat$1 &1 9 _m in/ances1 9 a con/ant /ate ( fusion4 ,we h fir/1 !n1 to inquire1 :5ce is ?is heat d]iv$8 ,x has long be5 a favorite conjecture1 t ! :ole ( our planet 0 orig9ally 9 a /ate ( igne\s fusion1 & t ! c5tral p>ts /ill reta9 a great portion ( _! primitive heat4 ,"s h imag9$1 ) ! late ,sir ,w4 ,h]s*el1 t ! elem5t>y matt] ( ! e>? may h be5 fir/ 9 a gase\s /ate1 resembl+ ^? nebulae :i* we behold 9 ! heav5s1 & :i* are ( dim5sions s va/1 t "s ( !m w\ld fill ! orbits ( ! remote/ planets ( our sy/em4 ,! increas$ p[] ( ! telescope has ( late ye>s resolv$ ! great] numb] ( ^! nebul\s appe>ances into clu/]s ( />s1 b s long z !y 7 confid5tly suppos$ to consi/ ( a]i=m matt] x 0 a favorite conjecture t !y might1 if conc5trat$1 =m solid sph]es2 & x 0 also imag9$ t ! evolution ( heat1 att5dant on cond5sation1 might reta9 ! mat]ials ( ! new globes 9 a /ate ( igne\s fusion4 ,)\t dwell+ on su* speculations1 :i* c only h a di/ant be>+ on geology1 we may consid] h[ f> ! sph]oidal =m ( ! e>? af=ds suffici5t gr\nd = presum+ t its primitive condition 0 "o ( univ]sal fluidity4 ,! discussion ( ?is "q w\ld be sup]flu\s1 7 ! doctr9e ( orig9al fluidity less popul>2 = x may well be ask$1 :y ! globe %\ld be suppos$ to h _h a pri/9e %ape diff]5t f ! pres5t "o8--:y ! t]re/rial mat]ials1 :5 fir/ call$ into exi/5ce1 or assembl$ toge!r 9 "o place1 %\ld n h be5 subject to rotation1 s z to assume at once t =m :i* alone c\ld reta9 _! sev]al p>ts 9 a /ate ( equilibrium8 ,let u1 h[ev]1 conc$e t ! /atical figure may be a modification ( "s o!r pre-exi/+ =m1 & suppose ! globe to h be5 at fir/ a p]fect & quiesc5t sph]e1 cov]$ ) a uni=m ocean--:at w\ld happ5 :5 x 0 made to turn r\nd on its axis ) its pres5t velocity8 ,?is problem has be5 consid]$ by ,playfair 9 8 ,illu/rations1 & he has decid$1 t if ! surface ( ! e>?1 z laid d[n 9 ,hutton's !ory1 has be5 repeat$ly *ang$ by ! transportation ( ! detritus ( ! l& to ! bottom ( ! sea1 ! figure ( ! planet mu/ 9 t case1 :atev] x may h be5 orig9ally1 be br\ght at l5g? to co9cide ) ! sph]oid ( equilibrium4#gdb ,sir ,john ,h]s*el also1 9 ref]5ce to ! same hypo!sis1 obs]ves1 a c5trifugal =ce w\ld 9 t case be g5]at$1 ^: g5]al t5d5cy w\ld be to urge ! wat] at e po9t ( ! surface to rec$e f ! axis4 ,a rotation might inde$ be conceiv$ s swift z to flirt ! :ole ocean f ! surface1 l wat] f a mop4 ,b ?is w\ld require a f> great] velocity ?an :at we n[ speak (4 ,9 ! case suppos$1 ! weight ( ! wat] w\ld /ill keep x on ! e>?2 & ! t5d5cy to rec$e f ! axis c\ld only be satisfi$ !re=e by ! wat] leav+ ! poles1 & fl[+ t[>ds ! equator2 !re heap+ itself up 9 a ridge1 & be+ reta9$ 9 opposition to its weight or natural t5d5cy t[>ds ! c5tre by ! pressure ?us caus$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c\ld n take place )\t lay+ dry ! pol> regions1 s t protub]ant l& w\ld appe> at ! poles1 & a zone ( ocean be dispos$ ar\nd ! equator4 ,?is w\ld be ! fir/ or imm$iate effect4 ,let u n[ see :at w\ld aft]w>ds happ5 if ?+s 7 all[$ to take _! natural c\rse4 ,! sea is con/antly beat+ on ! l&1 gr9d+ x d[n1 & scatt]+ its worn-(f p>ticles & fragm5ts1 9 ! /ate ( s& & pebbles1 ov] its b$4 ,geological facts af=d abundant pro( t ! exi/+ cont95ts h all ( !m und]gone ?is process ev5 m ?an once1 & be5 entirely torn 9 fragm5ts1 or r$uc$ to p[d]1 & subm]g$ & recon/ruct$4 ,l&1 9 ?is view ( ! subject1 loses its attribute ( fixity4 ,z a mass x might hold toge!r 9 opposition to =ces :i* ! wat] freely obeys2 b 9 its /ate ( successive or simultane\s degradation1 :5 dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! wat]1 9 ! /ate ( s& or mud1 x is subject to all ! impulses ( t fluid4 ,9 ! lapse ( "t1 !n1 ! protub]ant l& w\ld be de/roy$1 & spread ov] ! bottom ( ! ocean1 fill+ up ! l[] p>ts1 & t5d+ cont9ually to remodel ! surface ( ! solid nucleus1 9 correspond5ce ) ! =m ( equilibrium4 ,?us aft] a suffici5t lapse ( "t1 9 ! case ( an e>? 9 rotation1 ! pol> protub]ances w\ld gradually be cut d[n & disappe>1 be+ transf]r$ to ! equator 7z be+ !n ! deepe/ sea71 till ! e>? w\ld assume by degrees ! =m we obs]ve x to h--t ( a flatt5$ or oblate ellipsoid4 ,we are f> f mean+ "h to trace ! process by :i* ! e>? really assum$ its actual =m2 all we int5d is to %[ t ?is is ! =m to :i*1 "u a condition ( a rotation on its axis1 x mu/ t5d1 & :i* x w\ld atta9 ev5 if orig9ally & 7s to speak7 p]v]sely con/itut$ o!rwise4#gdc ,9 ?is passage1 ! au?or has contemplat$ ! sup]ficial effects ( aque\s causes only2 b nei!r he nor ,playfair seem to h foll[$ out ! same inquiry ) ref]5ce to ano!r "p ( ,hutton's sy/em2 namely1 t :i* assumes ! successive fusion by heat ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! solid e>?4 ,yet ! progress ( geology has cont9ually /r5g!n$ ! evid5ce 9 favor ( ! doctr9e t local v>iations ( temp]ature h melt$ "o "p aft] ano!r ( ! e>?'s cru/1 & ?is influ5ce has p]haps ext5d$ d[nw>ds to ! v c5tre4 ,if1 !re=e1 be=e ! globe _h assum$ its pres5t =m1 x 0 made to revolve on its axis1 all matt] to :i* fre$om ( motion 0 giv5 by fusion1 mu/ be=e consolidat+ h be5 impell$ t[>ds ! equatorial regions 9 ob$i5ce to ! c5trifugal =ce4 ,?us lava fl[+ out 9 sup]ficial /reams w\ld h its motion ret>d$ :5 its direction 0 t[>ds ! pole1 accel]at$ :5 t[>ds ! equator2 or if lakes & seas ( lava exi/$ b5ea? ! e>?'s cru/ 9 equatorial regions1 z probably n[ b5ea? ! ,p]uvian ,&es1 ! imprison$ fluid w\ld =ce outw>ds & p]man5tly upheave ! ov]ly+ rocks4 ,! /atical figure1 !re=e1 ( ! t]re/rial sph]oid 7( :i* ! longe/ diamet] exce$s ! %orte/ by ab\t tw5ty-five miles71 may h be5 ! result ( gradual & ev5 ( exi/+ causes1 & n ( a primitive1 univ]sal1 & simultane\s fluidity4#gdd ,exp]im5ts made ) ! p5dulum1 & obs]vations on ! mann] 9 :i* ! e>? attracts ! moon1 h %[n t our planet is n an empty sph]e1 b1 on ! contr>y1 t its int]ior1 :e!r solid or fluid1 has a high] specific gravity ?an ! ext]ior4 ,x has also be5 inf]r$1 t !re is a regul> increase 9 d5sity f ! surface t[>ds ! c5tre1 & t ! equatorial protub]ance is cont9u$ inw>ds2 t is to say1 t lay]s ( equal d5sity are arrang$ elliptically1 & symmetrically1 f ! ext]ior to ! c5tre4 ,^! conclusions1 h[ev]1 h be5 d$uc$ r z a consequ5ce ( ! hypo!sis ( primitive & simultane\s fluidity ?an prov$ by exp]im5t4 ,! inequalities 9 ! moon's motion1 by :i* "s h endeavor$ to confirm !m1 are s extremely slight1 t ! op9ion c be reg>d$ z little m ?an a probable conjecture4 ,! mean d5sity ( ! e>? has be5 comput$ by ,laplace to be ab\t #e-a_/b1 or m ?an five times t ( wat]4 ,n[ ! specific gravity ( _m ( our rocks is f #b-a_/b to #c1 & ! great] "p ( ! metals range betwe5 t d5sity & #ba4 ,h5ce "s h imag9$ t ! t]re/rial nucleus may be metallic--t x may correspond1 = example1 ) ! specific gravity ( iron1 :i* is ab\t #g4 ,b "h a curi\s "q arises 9 reg>d to ! =m :i* mat]ials1 :e!r fluid or solid1 might assume1 if subject$ to ! enorm\s pressure :i* mu/ obta9 at ! e>?'s c5tre4 ,wat]1 if x cont9u$ to decrease 9 volume accord+ to ! rate ( compressibility d$uc$ f exp]im5t1 w\ld h its d5sity d\bl$ at ! dep? ( n9ety-?ree miles1 & be z heavy z m]cury at ! dep? ( #cfb miles4 ,dr4 ,"y comput$ t1 at ! e>?'s c5tre1 /eel w\ld be compress$ into "o-f\r?1 & /one into "o-eigh? ( its bulk4#gde ,x is m ?an probable1 h[ev]1 t aft] a c]ta9 degree ( cond5sation1 ! compressibility ( bodies may be gov]n$ by laws altoge!r diff]5t f ^? :i* we c put to ! te/ ( exp]im5t2 b ! limit is /ill undet]m9$1 & ! subject is involv$ 9 su* obscurity1 t we _c wond] at ! v>iety ( notions :i* h be5 ent]ta9$ respect+ ! nature & conditions ( ! c5tral nucleus4 ,"s h conceiv$ x to be fluid1 o!rs solid2 "s h imag9$ x to h a cav]n\s /ructure1 & h ev5 endeavor$ to confirm ?is op9ion by appeal+ to obs]v$ irregul>ities 9 ! vibrations ( ! p5dulum 9 c]ta9 c\ntries4 ,an attempt has rec5tly be5 made by ,mr4 ,hopk9s to det]m9e ! lea/ ?ickness :i* c be assign$ to ! solid cru/ ( ! globe1 if we assume ! :ole to h be5 once p]fectly fluid1 & a c]ta9 portion ( ! ext]ior to h acquir$ solidity by gradual refrig]ation4 ,?is result he has endeavor$ to obta9 by a new solution ( ! delicate problem ( ! processional motion ( ! pole ( ! e>?4 ,x is well kn[n t :ile ! e>? revolves r\nd ! sun ! direction ( its axis rema9s v ne>ly ! same1 i4 e4 its diff]5t positions 9 space are all ne>ly p>allel to ea* o!r4 ,?is p>allelism1 h[ev]1 is n accurately pres]v$1 s t ! axis1 in/ead ( com+ exactly into ! position :i* x occupi$ a ye> be=e1 becomes incl9$ to x at a v small angle1 b always reta9+ v ne>ly ! same incl9ation to ! plane ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,?is motion ( ! pole *anges ! position ( ! equ9oxes by ab\t fifty seconds annually1 & always 9 ! same direction4 ,?us ! pole-/>1 aft] a c]ta9 "t1 w entirely lose its claim to t appellation1 until 9 ! c\rse ( some:at m ?an #be1jjj ye>s ! e>?'s axis %all aga9 occupy its pres5t angul> position1 & aga9 po9t v ne>ly z n[ to ! pole-/>4 ,?is motion ( ! axis is call$ precession4 ,x is caus$ by ! attraction ( ! sun & moon1 & pr9cipally ! moon1 on ! protub]ant p>ts ( ! e>?'s equator2 & if ^! p>ts 7 solid to a great dep?1 ! motion ?us produc$ w\ld diff] consid]ably f t :i* w\ld exi/ if !y 7 p]fectly fluid1 & incru/$ ov] ) a ?9 %ell only a few miles ?ick4 ,9 o!r words1 ! di/urb+ action ( ! moon w n be ! same ^u a globe all solid & ^u "o ne>ly all fluid1 or x w n be ! same ^u a globe 9 :i* ! solid %ell =ms "o-half ( ! mass1 & ano!r 9 :i* x =ms only "o-t5?4 ,mr4 ,hopk9s has1 !re=e1 calculat$ ! am\nt ( precessional motion :i* w\ld result if we assume ! e>? to be con/itut$ z above /at$2 i4 e4 fluid int]nally1 & envelop$ by a solid %ell2 & he f9ds t ! am\nt w n agree ) ! obs]v$ motion1 unless ! cru/ ( ! e>? be ( a c]ta9 ?ickness4 ,9 calculat+ ! exact am\nt "s ambiguity arises 9 consequ5ce ( our ignorance ( ! effect ( pressure 9 promot+ ! solidification ( matt] at high temp]atures4 ,! hypo!sis lea/ favorable = a great ?ickness is f\nd to be t :i* assumes ! pressure to produce no effect on ! process ( solidification4 ,ev5 on ?is extreme assumption ! ?ickness ( ! solid cru/ mu/ be ne>ly f\r hundr$ miles1 & ?is w\ld lead to ! rem>kable result t ! proportion ( ! solid to ! fluid "p w\ld be z #di to #ea1 or1 to speak 9 r\nd numb]s1 !re w\ld be ne>ly z mu* solid z fluid matt] 9 ! globe4 ,! conclusion1 h[ev]1 :i* ,mr4 ,hopk9s ann\nces z t to :i* 8 rese>*es h f9ally conduct$ him1 is ?us express$3 ,^u ! :ole1 !n1 we may v5ture to ass]t t ! m9imum ?ickness ( ! cru/ ( ! globe1 :i* c be deem$ consi/5t ) ! obs]v$ am\nt ( precession1 _c be less ?an "o-f\r? or "o-fif? ( ! e>?'s radius4 ,t is f #hjj to #ajjj miles4#gdf ,x w be rem>k$1 t ?is is a m9imum1 & any /ill great] am\nt w\ld be q consi/5t ) ! actual ph5om5a2 ! calculations n be+ oppos$ to ! supposition ( ! g5]al solidity ( ! entire globe4 ,nor d !y preclude u f imag9+ t great lakes or seas ( melt$ matt] may be di/ribut$ ?r\gh a %ell #djj or #hjj miles ?ick1 provid$ !y be s inclos$ z to move ) x1 :atev] motion ( rotation may be communicat$ by ! di/urb+ =ces ( ! sun & moon4 ,c5tral heat4--,! hypo!sis ( int]nal fluidity calls = ! m att5tive consid]ation1 z x has be5 f\nd t ! heat 9 m9es augm5ts 9 proportion z we desc5d4 ,obs]vations h be5 made1 n only on ! temp]ature ( ! air 9 m9es1 b on t ( ! rocks1 & on ! wat] issu+ f !m4 ,! mean rate ( increase1 calculat$ f results obta9$ 9 six ( ! deepe/ coal m9es 9 ,durham & ,nor?umb]l&1 is #a degrees ,fahr4 = a desc5t ( =ty-f\r ,engli% feet4#gdg ,a s]ies ( obs]vations1 made 9 sev]al ( ! pr9cipal lead & silv] m9es 9 ,saxony1 gave #a degrees ,fahr4 = e sixty-five feet4 ,9 ?is case1 ! bulb ( ! !rmomet] 0 introduc$ into cavities purposely cut 9 ! solid rock at dep?s v>y+ f #bjj to above #ijj feet4 ,b 9 o!r m9es ( ! same c\ntry1 x 0 necess>y to desc5d ?rice z f> = ea* degree ( temp]ature4#gdh ,a !rmomet] 0 fix$ 9 ! rock ( ! ,dolcoa? m9e1 9 ,cornwall1 by ,mr4 ,fox1 at ! great dep? ( #achj feet1 & frequ5tly obs]v$ dur+ eighte5 mon?s2 ! mean temp]ature 0 #fh degrees ,fahr41 t ( ! surface be+ #ej degrees1 :i* gives #a degrees = e sev5ty-five feet4 ,kupff]1 aft] an ext5sive comp>ison ( ! results 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 makes ! increase #a degrees ,f4 = ab\t e ?irty-sev5 ,engli% feet4#gdi ,m4 ,cordi] ann\nces1 z ! result ( 8 exp]im5ts & obs]vations on ! temp]ature ( ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 t ! heat increases rapidly ) ! dep?2 b ! increase does n foll[ ! same law ov] ! :ole e>?1 be+ twice or ?ree times z mu* 9 "o c\ntry z 9 ano!r1 & ^! diff]5ces are n 9 con/ant relation ei!r ) ! latitudes or longitudes ( places4#gej ,he is ( op9ion1 h[ev]1 t ! increase w\ld n be ov]/at$ at #a degrees ,c5t4 = e tw5ty-five metres1 or ab\t #a degrees ,f4 = e =ty-five feet4#gea ,! exp]im5tal well bor$ at ,gr5elle1 ne> ,p>is1 gave ab\t #a degrees ,f4 = e sixty ,engli% feet1 :5 !y _h rea*$ a dep? ( #acab feet4 ,"s writ]s h endeavor$ to ref] ^! ph5om5a 7:i*1 h[ev] discordant z to ! ratio ( increas+ heat1 appe> all to po9t "o way7 to ! cond5sation ( air con/antly desc5d+ f ! surface into ! m9es4 ,= ! air "u pressure w\ld give out lat5t heat1 on ! same pr9ciple z x becomes cold] :5 r>efi$ 9 ! high] regions ( ! atmosph]e4 ,b1 besides t ! quantity ( heat is great] ?an c\ld be suppos$ to fl[ f ?is s\rce1 ! argum5t has be5 answ]$ 9 a satisfactory mann] by ,mr4 ,fox1 :o has %[n1 t 9 ! m9es ( ,cornwall ! asc5d+ h g5]ally a high] temp]ature ?an ! desc5d+ a]ial curr5ts4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 !m 0 f\nd to v>y f #i degrees to #ag degrees ,f42 a pro( t1 in/ead ( imp>t+ heat1 ^! curr5ts actually c>ry (f a l>ge quantity f ! m9es4#geb ,if we adopt ,m4 ,cordi]'s e/imate ( #a degrees ,f4 = e #de feet ( dep? z ! mean result1 & assume1 ) ! advocates ( c5tral fluidity1 t ! increas+ temp]ature is cont9u$ d[nw>ds1 we %\ld rea* ! ord9>y boil+ po9t ( wat] at ab\t two miles bel[ ! surface1 & at ! dep? ( ab\t tw5ty-f\r miles %\ld arrive at ! melt+ po9t ( iron1 a heat suffici5t to fuse almo/ e kn[n sub/ance4 ,! temp]ature ( melt$ iron 0 e/imat$ at #ba1jjj degrees ,f41 by ,w$gwood2 b 8 pyromet] gives1 z is n[ demon/rat$1 v errone\s results4 ,pr(essor ,daniell asc]ta9$ t ! po9t ( fusion is #bghf degrees ,f4#gec ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,section ( ! e>?1 9 :i* ! bread? ( ! out] b\nd>y l9e repres5ts a ?ickness ( #be miles2 ! space betwe5 ! circles1 includ+ ! bread? ( ! l9es1 #bjj miles4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,daniell's scale1 we ought to enc\nt] ! int]nal melt$ matt] be=e p5etrat+ ?r\gh a ?ickness repres5t$ by t ( ! out] circul> l9e 9 ! annex$ diagram 7fig4 #ib72 :]eas1 if ! o!r or less correct scale be adopt$1 we %\ld meet ) x at "s po9t betwe5 ! two circles2 ! space betwe5 !m1 toge!r ) ! l9es !mselves1 repres5t+ a cru/ ( #bjj miles 9 dep?4 ,9 ei!r case1 we mu/ be prep>$ to ma9ta9 t a temp]ature _m times great] ?an t suffici5t to melt ! mo/ refractory sub/ances kn[n to u1 is su/a9$ at ! c5tre ( ! globe2 :ile a comp>atively ?9 cru/1 re/+ ^u ! fluid1 rema9s unmelt$2 or is ev51 accord+ to ,m4 ,cordi]1 increas+ 9 ?ickness1 by ! cont9ual addition ( new int]nal lay]s solidifi$ dur+ ! process ( refrig]ation4 ,! ma!matical calculations ( ,f\ri]1 on ! passage ( heat ?r\gh conduct+ bodies1 h be5 s9ce appeal$ to 9 support ( ^! views2 = he has %[n t x is compatible ) !ory t ! pres5t temp]ature ( ! surface might coexi/ ) an int5se heat at a c]ta9 dep? bel[4 ,b 8 reason+ seems to be conf9$ to ! conduction ( heat ?r\gh solid bodies2 & ! conditions ( ! problem are :olly alt]$ :5 we reason ab\t a fluid nucleus1 z we mu/ d if x be assum$ t ! heat augm5ts f ! surface to ! int]ior1 accord+ to ! rate obs]v$ 9 m9es4 ,= :5 ! heat ( ! l[] portion ( a fluid is increas$1 a circulation beg9s ?r\gh\t ! mass1 by ! asc5t ( hott]1 & ! desc5t ( cold] curr5ts4 ,& ?is circulation1 :i* is q di/9ct f ! mode 9 :i* heat is propagat$ ?r\gh solid bodies1 mu/ evid5tly occur 9 ! suppos$ c5tral ocean1 if ! laws ( fluids & ( heat are ! same !re z ^u ! surface4 ,9 ,mr4 ,daniell's exp]im5ts = obta9+ a measure ( ! heat ( bodies at _! po9t ( fusion1 he inv>iably f\nd t x 0 impossible to raise ! heat ( a l>ge crucible ( melt$ iron1 gold1 or silv]1 a s+le degree beyond ! melt+ po9t1 s long z a b> ( ! respective metals 0 kept imm]s$ 9 ! fluid portions4 ,s 9 reg>d to o!r sub/ances1 h[ev] great ! quantities fus$1 _! temp]ature c\ld n be rais$ :ile any solid pieces imm]s$ 9 !m rema9$ unmelt$2 e accession ( heat be+ in/antly absorb$ dur+ _! liquefaction4 ,^! results are1 9 fact1 no m ?an ! ext5sion ( a pr9ciple previ\sly e/abli%$1 t s long z a fragm5t ( ice rema9s 9 wat]1 we _c raise ! temp]ature ( ! wat] above #cb degrees ,f4 ,if1 !n1 ! heat ( ! e>?'s c5tre am\nt to #dej1jjj degrees ,f41 z ,m4 ,cordi] deems highly probable1 t is to say1 ab\t tw5ty times ! heat ( melt$ iron1 ev5 accord+ to ,w$gwood's scale1 & upw>ds ( #afj times accord+ to ! improv$ pyromet]1 x is cle> t ! upp] p>ts ( ! fluid mass c\ld n long h a temp]ature only j suffici5t to melt rocks4 ,!re mu/ be a cont9ual t5d5cy t[>ds a uni=m heat2 & until ?is 7 accompli%$1 by ! int]*ange ( portions ( fluid ( diff]5t d5sities1 ! surface c\ld n beg9 to consolidate4 ,nor1 on ! hypo!sis ( primitive fluidity1 c we conceive any cru/ to h be5 =m$ until ! :ole planet _h cool$ d[n to ab\t ! temp]ature ( incipi5t fusion4 ,x _c be object$ t hydro/atic pressure w\ld prev5t a t5d5cy to equalization ( temp]ature2 =1 z f> z obs]vations h yet be5 made1 x is f\nd t ! wat]s ( deep lakes & seas are gov]n$ by ! same laws z a %all[ pool2 & no exp]im5ts indicate t solids resi/ fusion "u high pressure4 ,! argum5ts1 inde$1 n[ controv]t$1 always proce$ on ! admission t ! int]nal nucleus is 9 a /ate ( fusion4 ,x may be said t we may /& ^u ! h>d5$ surface ( a lava-curr5t :ile x is /ill 9 motion1--nay1 may desc5d into ! crat] ( ,vesuvius aft] an eruption1 & /& on ! scoriae :ile e crevice %[s t ! rock is r$-hot two or ?ree feet bel[ u2 & at a some:at great] dep?1 all is1 p]haps1 9 a /ate ( fusion4 ,may n1 !n1 a mu* m int5se heat be expect$ at ! dep? ( sev]al hundr$ y>ds1 or miles8 ,! answ] is1--t until a great quantity ( heat has be5 giv5 (f1 ei!r by ! emission ( lava1 or 9 a lat5t =m by ! evolution ( /eam & gas1 ! melt$ matt] cont9ues to boil 9 ! crat] ( a volcano4 ,b ebullition ceases :5 !re is no long] a suffici5t supply ( heat f bel[1 & !n a cru/ ( lava may =m on ! top1 & %[]s ( scoriae may !n desc5d ^u ! surface1 & rema9 unmelt$4 ,if ! int]nal heat be rais$ aga91 ebullition w recomm5ce1 & soon fuse ! sup]ficial cru/4 ,s 9 ! case ( ! mov+ curr5t1 we may safely assume t no "p ( ! liquid b5ea? ! h>d5$ surface is mu* above ! temp]ature suffici5t to reta9 x 9 a /ate ( fluidity4 ,x may assi/ u 9 =m+ a cle>] view ( ! doctr9e n[ controv]t$1 if we consid] :at w\ld happ5 7 a globe ( homog5e\s composition plac$ "u circum/ances analog\s1 9 reg>d to ! di/ribution ( heat1 to ^? above /at$4 ,if ! :ole planet1 = example1 7 compos$ ( wat] cov]$ ) a sph]oidal cru/ ( ice fifty miles ?ick1 & ) an int]ior ocean hav+ a c5tral heat ab\t two hundr$ times t ( ! melt+ po9t ( ice1 or #fdjj degrees ,f42 & if1 betwe5 ! surface & ! c5tre1 !re 0 e int]m$iate degree ( temp]ature betwe5 t ( melt+ ice & t ( ! c5tral nucleus--c\ld su* a /ate ( ?+s la/ = a mom5t8 ,if x mu/ be conc$$1 9 ?is case1 t ! :ole sph]oid w\ld be in/antly 9 a /ate ( viol5t ebullition1 t ! ice 7in/ead ( be+ /r5g!n$ annually by new int]nal lay]s7 w\ld soon melt1 & =m "p ( an atmosph]e ( /eam--on :at pr9ciple c x he ma9ta9$ t analog\s effects w\ld n foll[1 9 reg>d to ! e>?1 "u ! conditions assum$ 9 ! !ory ( c5tral heat8#ged ,m4 ,cordi] admits t !re mu/ be tides 9 ! int]nal melt$ ocean2 b _! effect1 he says1 has become feeble1 al?\gh orig9ally1 :5 ! fluidity ( ! globe 0 p]fect1 ! rise & fall ( ^! anci5t l& tides c\ld n h be5 less ?an f ?irte5 to sixte5 feet4 ,n[1 grant+ = a mom5t1 t ^! tides h become s feeble z to be incapable ( caus+ ! fissur$ %ell ( ! e>? to be fir/ uplift$ & !n depress$ e six h\rs1 /ill may we n ask :e!r1 dur+ eruptions1 ! lava1 :i* is suppos$ to communicate ) a great c5tral ocean1 w\ld n rise & fall s5sibly 9 a crat] su* z ,/romboli1 :]e !re is always melt$ matt] 9 a /ate ( ebullition8 ,:e!r *emical *anges may produce volcanic heat4--,hav+ n[ expla9$ ! reasons :i* h induc$ me to "q ! hypo!sis ( c5tral heat z ! prim>y s\rce ( volcanic action1 x rema9s to consid] :at has be5 t]m$ ! *emical !ory ( volcanoes4 ,x is well kn[n t _m1 p]haps all1 ( ! sub/ances ( :i* ! e>? is compos$ are cont9ually und]go+ *emical *anges4 ,to :at dep? ^! processes may be cont9u$ d[nw>ds mu/1 9 a great degree1 be matt] ( conjecture2 b !re is no reason to suspect t1 if we c\ld desc5d to a great di/ance f ! surface1 we %\ld f9d elem5t>y sub/ances diff]+ ess5tially f ^? ) :i* we are acqua9t$4 ,all ! solid1 fluid1 & gase\s bodies kn[n to u consi/ ( a v small numb] ( ^! elem5t>y sub/ances v>i\sly comb9$3 ! total numb] ( elem5ts at pres5t kn[n is less ?an sixty2 & n half ( ^! ent] into ! composition ( ! m abundant inorganic productions4 ,"s portions ( su* comp\nds are daily und]go+ decomposition1 & _! con/itu5t p>ts be+ set free are pass+ into new comb9ations4 ,^! processes are by no means conf9$ to m9]als at ! e>?'s surface1 & are v (t5 accompani$ by ! evolution ( heat1 :i* is int5se 9 proportion to ! rapidity ( ! comb9ations4 ,at ! same "t !re is a developm5t ( electricity4 ,! spontane\s combu/ion ( b$s ( bitum9\s %ale1 & ( refuse coal ?r[n out ( m9es1 is g5]ally due to ! decomposition ( pyrites2 & x is ! contact ( air & wat] :i* br+s ab\t ! *ange4 ,heat results f ! oxidation ( ! sulphur & iron1 ?\gh on :at pr9ciple heat is g5]at$1 :5 two or m bodies hav+ a /rong aff9ity = ea* o!r unite sudd5ly1 is :olly unexpla9$4 ,electricity a s\rce ( volcanic heat4--,x has already be5 /at$1 t *emical *anges develop electricity2 :i*1 9 its turn1 becomes a p[]ful di/urb+ cause4 ,z a *emical ag5t1 says ,davy1 its sil5t & sl[ op]ation 9 ! economy ( nature is mu* m important ?an its gr& & impressive op]ation 9 lightn+ & ?und]4 ,x may be consid]$1 n only z directly produc+ an inf9ite v>iety ( *anges1 b z influ5c+ almo/ all :i* take place2 x w\ld seem1 inde$1 t *emical attraction itself is only a peculi> =m ( ! exhibition ( electrical attraction4#gee ,n[ t x has be5 demon/rat$ t magnetism & electricity are always associat$1 & are p]haps only diff]5t conditions ( ! same p[]1 ! ph5om5a ( t]re/rial magnetism h become ( no ord9>y int]e/ to ! geologi/4 ,soon aft] ! fir/ great discov]ies ( ,o]/$ 9 electro-magnetism1 ,amp]e sugge/$ t all ! ph5om5a ( ! magnetic ne$le might be expla9$ by suppos+ curr5ts ( electricity to circulate con/antly 9 ! %ell ( ! globe 9 directions p>allel to ! magnetic equator4 ,?is !ory has acquir$ additional consi/5cy ! f>!r we h advanc$ 9 sci5ce2 & accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr4 ,fox1 on ! electro-magnetic prop]ties ( metallif]\s ve9s1 "s trace ( electric curr5ts seems to h be5 detect$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?4#gef ,"s philosoph]s ascribe ^! curr5ts to ! *emical action go+ on 9 ! sup]ficial p>ts ( ! globe to :i* air & wat] h ! readie/ access2 :ile o!rs ref] !m1 9 "p at lea/1 to !rmo-electricity excit$ by ! sol> rays on ! surface ( ! e>? dur+ its rotation2 successive p>ts ( ! atmosph]e1 l&1 & sea be+ expos$ to ! influ5ce ( ! sun1 & !n cool$ aga9 9 ! night4 ,t ?is idea is n a m]e speculation1 is prov$ by ! correspond5ce ( ! diurnal v>iations ( ! magnet ) ! app>5t motion ( ! sun2 & by ! great] am\nt ( v>iation 9 summ] ?an 9 w9t]1 & dur+ ! day ?an 9 ! night4 ,m4 de la ,rive1 al?\gh conc$+ t su* m9or v>iations ( ! ne$le may be due to !rmo-electricity1 cont5ds t ! g5]al ph5om5a ( t]re/rial magnetism mu/ be attribut$ to curr5ts f> m int5se2 :i*1 ?\gh liable to secul> fluctuations1 act ) mu* great] con/ancy & regul>ity ?an ! causes :i* produce ! diurnal v>iations4#geg ,! rem>k seems j2 yet x is difficult to assign limits to ! accumulat$ influ5ce ev5 ( a v feeble =ce con/antly act+ on ! :ole surface ( ! e>?4 ,?is subject1 h[ev]1 mu/ evid5tly rema9 obscure1 until we become acqua9t$ ) ! causes :i* give a det]m9ate direction to ! suppos$ electric curr5ts4 ,already ! exp]im5ts ( ,f>aday on ! rotation ( magnets h l$ him to speculate on ! mann] 9 :i* ! e>?1 :5 once x _h become magnetic1 might produce electric curr5ts )9 itself1 9 consequ5ce ( its diurnal rotation4#geh ,we h se5 also 9 a =m] *apt] 7p4 #abi7 t ! rec5t obs]vations ( ,s*wabe1 #aheb1 h l$ ,col4 ,sab9e to ! discov]y ( a connection betwe5 c]ta9 p]iodical *anges1 :i* take place 9 ! spots on ! sun1 & a c]ta9 cycle ( v>iations 9 t]re/rial magnetism4 ,^! seem to po9t to ! exi/5ce ( a sol> magnetic p]iod1 & sugge/ ! idea ( ! sun's magnetism ex]t+ an influ5ce on ! mass ( our planet4 ,9 reg>d to !rmo-electricity1 ,i may rem>k1 t x may be g5]at$ by great inequalities ( temp]ature1 aris+ f a p>tial di/ribution ( volcanic heat4 ,:]ev]1 = example1 masses ( rock occur ( great horizontal ext5t1 & ( consid]able dep?1 :i* are at "o po9t 9 a /ate ( fusion 7z b5ea? "s active volcano72 at ano!r1 r$-hot2 & at a ?ird1 comp>atively cold--/rong !rmo-electric action may be excit$4 ,"s1 p]haps1 may object1 t ?is is reason+ 9 a circle2 fir/ to introduce electricity z "o ( ! prim>y causes ( volcanic heat1 & !n to d]ive ! same heat f !rmo-electric curr5ts4 ,b !re mu/1 9 tru?1 be mu* reciprocal action betwe5 ! ag5ts n[ "u consid]ation2 & x is v difficult to decide :i* %\ld be reg>d$ z ! prime mov]1 or to see :]e ! tra9 ( *anges1 once begun1 w\ld t]m9ate4 ,:e!r subt]ranean electric curr5ts if once excit$ might sometimes possess ! decompos+ p[] ( ! voltaic pile1 is a "q n p]haps easily answ]$ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce2 b su* a p[]1 if develop$1 w\ld at once supply u ) a nev]-fail+ s\rce ( *emical action f :i* volcanic heat might be d]iv$4 ,recapitulation4--,be=e ent]+1 9 ! next *apt]1 /ill f>!r into ! inquiry1 h[ f> ! ph5om5a ( volcanoes & e>?quakes accord ) ! hypo!sis ( a cont9u$ g5]ation ( heat by *emical action1 x may be desirable to recapitulate1 9 a few words1 ! conclusions already obta9$4 #a/4 ,! prim>y causes ( ! volcano & ! e>?quake are1 to a great ext5t1 ! same1 & mu/ be connect$ ) ! passage ( heat f ! int]ior to ! surface4 #b;dly4 ,?is heat has be5 ref]r$1 by _m1 to a suppos$ /ate ( igne\s fusion ( ! c5tral p>ts ( ! planet :5 x 0 fir/ creat$1 ( :i* a "p /ill rema9s 9 ! int]ior1 b is always dim9i%+ 9 int5sity4 #c;dly4 ,! sph]oidal figure ( ! e>?1 adduc$ 9 support ( ?is !ory1 does n ( necessity imply a univ]sal & simultane\s fluidity1 9 ! beg9n+2 = suppos+ ! orig9al figure ( our planet _h be5 /rictly sph]ical--:i*1 h[ev]1 is a gratuit\s assumption1 re/+ on no e/abli%$ analogy--/ill ! /atical figure mu/ h be5 assum$1 if suffici5t "t be all[$1 by ! gradual op]ation ( ! c5trifugal =ce1 act+ on ! mat]ials br\ght successively )9 its action by aque\s & igne\s causes4 #d?ly4 ,x appe>s1 f exp]im5t1 t ! heat 9 m9es increases progressively ) _! dep?2 & if ! ratio ( increase be cont9u$ uni=mly f ! surface to ! int]ior1 ! :ole globe1 ) ! exception ( a small ext]nal %ell1 mu/ be fluid1 & ! c5tral p>ts mu/ h a temp]ature _m times high] ?an t ( melt$ iron4 #e?ly4 ,b ! !ory adopt$ by ,m4 ,cordi] & o!rs1 :i* ma9ta9s ! actual exi/5ce ( su* a /ate ( ?+s1 seems :olly inconsi/5t ) ! laws :i* regulate ! circulation ( heat ?r\gh fluid bodies4 ,=1 if ! c5tral heat 7 z int5se z is repres5t$1 !re mu/ be a circulation ( curr5ts1 t5d+ to equalize ! temp]ature ( ! result+ fluids1 & ! solid cru/ itself w\ld be melt$4 #f?ly4 ,in/ead ( an orig9al c5tral heat1 we may1 p]haps1 ref] ! heat ( ! int]ior to *emical *anges con/antly go+ on 9 ! e>?'s cru/2 = ! g5]al effect ( *emical comb9ation is ! evolution ( heat & electricity1 :i* 9 _! turn become s\rces ( new *emical *anges4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,,causes ,,( ,,e>?quakes ,,& ,,volcanoes--cont9u$4 ,review ( ! pro(s ( int]nal heat--,!ory ( an unoxidat$ metallic nucleus--,:e!r ! decomposition ( wat] may be a s\rce ( volcanic heat--,geys]s ( ,icel&--,causes ( e>?quakes--,wavelike motion--,expansive p[] ( liquid gases--,connection betwe5 ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e & e>?quakes--,p]man5t upheaval & subsid5ce ( l&--,expansion ( rocks by heat--,! balance ( dry l& h[ pres]v$--,subsid5ce 9 excess--,conclusion4 ,:5 we reflect t ! l>ge/ m\nta9s are b insignificant protub]ances ^u ! surface ( ! e>?1 & t ^! m\nta9s are nev]!less compos$ ( diff]5t p>ts :i* h be5 =m$ 9 succession1 we may well feel surprise t ! c5tral fluidity ( ! planet %\ld h be5 call$ 9 to acc\nt = volcanic ph5om5a4 ,to suppose ! entire globe to be 9 a /ate ( igne\s fusion1 ) ! exception ( a solid %ell1 n m ?an f ?irty to "o hundr$ miles ?ick1 & to imag9e t ! c5tral heat ( ?is fluid sph]oid exce$s by m ?an two hundr$ times t ( liquid lava1 is to introduce a =ce altoge!r disproportionate to ! effects :i* x is requir$ to expla94 ,! ord9>y repose ( ! surface implies1 on ! contr>y1 an in]tness 9 ! int]nal mass :i* is truly wond]ful4 ,:5 we consid] ! combu/ible nature ( ! elem5ts ( ! e>?1 s f> z !y are kn[n to u1--! facility ) :i* _! comp\nds may be decompos$ & made to ent] into new comb9ations1--! quantity ( heat :i* !y evolve dur+ ^! processes2 :5 we recollect ! expansive p[] ( /eam1 & t wat] itself is compos$ ( two gases :i*1 by _! union1 produce int5se heat2 :5 we call to m9d ! numb] ( explosive & detonat+ comp\nds :i* h be5 already discov]$1 we may be all[$ to %>e ! a/oni%m5t ( ,pl9y1 t a s+le day %\ld pass )\t a g5]al conflagration3--,exc$it pr(ecto omnia miracula1 ullum diem fuisse quo non cuncta conflagr>5t4#gei ,! signs ( int]nal heat obs]vable on ! surface ( ! e>? d n necess>ily indicate ! p]man5t exi/5ce ( subt]ranean heat$ masses1 :e!r fluid or solid1 by any means s va/ z our cont95ts & seas2 yet h[ insignificant w\ld ^! appe> if di/ribut$ ?r\gh an ext]nal %ell ( ! globe "o or two hundr$ miles 9 dep?6 ,! pr9cipal facts 9 pro( ( ! accumulation ( heat bel[ ! surface may be summ$ up 9 a few words4 ,sev]al volcanoes are con/antly 9 eruption1 z ,/romboli & ,nic>agua2 o!rs are kn[n to h be5 active = p]iods ( #fj1 or ev5 #aej ye>s1 z ^? ( ,sangay 9 ,quito1 ,popocatepetl 9 ,mexico1 & ! volcano ( ! ,isle ( ,b\rbon4 ,_m crat]s emit hot vapors 9 ! int]vals betwe5 eruptions1 & solfat>as evolve incessantly ! same gases z volcanoes4 ,/eam ( high temp]ature has cont9u$ = m ?an tw5ty c5turies to issue f ! /ufas1 z ! ,italians call !m2 !rmal spr+s ab\nd n only 9 regions ( e>?quakes1 b are f\nd 9 almo/ all c\ntries1 h[ev] di/ant f active v5ts2 &1 la/ly1 ! temp]ature 9 ! m9es ( v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w is f\nd to increase 9 proportion z we desc5d4 ,! diagram 7fig4 #ic7 9 ! next page1 may convey "s idea ( ! proportion :i* our cont95ts & ! ocean be> to ! radius ( ! e>?4#gfj ,if all ! l& 7 ab\t z high z ! ,himalaya m\nta9s1 & ! ocean ev]y:]e z deep z ! ,pacific1 ! :ole ( bo? might be conta9$ )9 a space express$ by ! ?ickness ( ! l9e a b2 & masses ( ne>ly equal volume might be plac$ 9 ! space m>k$ by ! l9e c d1 9 ! int]ior4 ,seas ( lava1 !re=e1 ( ! size ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 or ev5 ( ! ,atlantic1 w\ld be z no?+ if di/ribut$ ?r\gh su* an out] %ell ( ! globe z is repres5t$ by ! %ad$ portion ( ! figure a b c d4 ,if ?r\gh\t t space we imag9e electro-*emical causes to be cont9ually 9 op]ation1 ev5 ( v feeble p[]1 !y might give rise to heat :i*1 if accumulat$ at c]ta9 po9ts1 might melt or r5d] r$-hot entire m\nta9s1 or su/a9 ! temp]ature ( /ufas & hot spr+s = ages4 ,!ory ( an unoxidat$ metallic nucleus4--,:5 ,sir ,h4 ,davy fir/ discov]$ ! metallic basis ( ! e>?s & alkalies1 he ?rew out ! idea t ^? metals might ab\nd 9 an unoxidiz$ /ate 9 ! subt]ranean regions to :i* wat] mu/ occasionally p5etrate4 ,:5ev] ?is happ5$1 gase\s matt] w\ld be set free1 ! metals w\ld comb9e ) ! oxyg5 ( ! wat]1 & suffici5t heat might be evolv$ to melt ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,?is hypo!sis1 al?\gh aft]w>ds ab&on$ by its au?or1 0 at fir/ v favorably receiv$ bo? by ! *emi/ & ! geologi/3 = silica1 alum9a1 lime1 soda1 & oxide ( iron1--sub/ances ( :i* lavas are pr9cipally compos$1--w\ld all result f ! contact ( ! inflammable metals allud$ to ) wat]4 ,b :5ce ?is abundant /ore ( unsaturat$ metals 9 ! int]ior8 ,x 0 assum$ t1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?+s1 ! nucleus ( ! e>? 0 ma9ly compos$ ( inflammable metals1 & t oxidation w5t on ) int5se en]gy at fir/2 till at l5g?1 :5 a sup]ficial cru/ ( oxides _h be5 =m$1 ! *emical action became m & m languid4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,?is speculation1 l all o!rs respect+ ! primitive /ate ( ! e>?'s nucleus1 re/s unavoidably on arbitr>y assumptions4 ,b we may fairly inquire :e!r any exi/+ causes may h ! p[] ( deoxidat+ ! e>?y & alkal9e comp\nds =m$ f "t to "t by ! action ( wat] ^u ! metallic bases4 ,if s1 & if ! orig9al cru/ or nucleus ( ! planet conta9$ di/ribut$ ?r\gh x "h & !re "s p>tial /ores ( potassium1 sodium1 & o!r metallic bases1 ^! might be oxidat$ & aga9 deoxidat$1 s z to su/a9 = ages a p]man5t *emical action4 ,yet ev5 !n we %\ld be unable to expla9 :y su* a cont9u\s circle ( op]ations1 aft] hav+ be5 kept up = ?\s&s ( ye>s 9 "o di/rict1 %\ld entirely cease1 & :y ano!r region1 :i* _h enjoy$ a respite f volcanic action = "o or _m geological p]iods1 %\ld become a !atre = ! developm5t ( subt]ranean heat4 ,x is well kn[n to *emi/s1 t ! metallization ( oxides1 ! mo/ difficult to r$uce1 may be effect$ by hydrog5 br\ght into contact ) !m at a r$ heat2 & x is m ?an probable t ! production ( potassium itself1 9 ! common gun-b>rel process1 is due to ! p[] ( nasc5t hydrog5 d]iv$ f ! wat] :i* ! hydrat$ oxide conta9s4 ,accord+ to ! rec5t exp]im5ts1 also1 ( ,f>aday1 x w\ld appe> t e case ( metallic r$uction by voltaic ag5cy1 f sal9e solutions1 9 :i* wat] is pres5t1 is due to ! second>y action ( hydrog5 ^u ! oxide2 bo? ( ^! be+ det]m9$ to ! negative pole & !n react+ ^u "o ano!r4 ,x is admitt$ t int5se heat w\ld be produc$ by ! occasional contact ( wat] ) ! metallic bases2 & x is c]ta9 t1 dur+ ! process ( saturation1 va/ volumes ( hydrog5 mu/ be evolv$4 ,! hydrog51 ?us g5]at$1 might p]meate ! cru/ ( ! e>? 9 diff]5t directions1 & become /or$ up = ages 9 fissures & cav]ns1 sometimes 9 a liquid =m1 "u ! necess>y pressure4 ,:5ev]1 at any subsequ5t p]iod1 9 consequ5ce ( ! *anges effect$ by e>?quakes 9 ! %ell ( ! e>?1 ?is gas happ5$ to come 9 contact ) metallic oxides at a high temp]ature1 ! r$uction ( ^! oxides might be ! result4 ,no !ory seems at fir/ m />tl+ ?an t :i* repres5ts wat] z af=d+ an inexhau/ible supply ( fuel to ! volcanic fires2 yet is x by no means vision>y4 ,x is a fact t mu/ n be ov]look$1 t :ile a great numb] ( volcanoes are entirely subm>9e1 ! rema9d] occur = ! mo/ "p 9 isl&s or m>itime tracts4 ,!re are a few exceptions2 b "s ( ^!1 obs]ves ,dr4 ,daub5y1 are ne> inl& salt lakes1 z 9 ,c5tral ,t>t>y2 :ile o!rs =m "p ( a tra9 ( volcanoes1 ! extremities ( :i* are ne> ! sea4 ,sir ,h4 ,davy sugge/$ t1 :5 ! sea is di/ant1 z 9 ! case ( "s ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican volcanoes1 !y may /ill be suppli$ ) wat] f subt]ranean lakes2 s9ce1 accord+ to ,humboldt1 l>ge quantities ( fi% are (t5 ?r[n out dur+ eruptions4#gfa ,mr4 ,dana also1 9 8 valuable & orig9al obs]vations on ! volcanoes ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 rem9ds u ( ! prodigi\s volume ( atmosph]ic wat] :i* mu/ be absorb$ into ! int]ior ( su* l>ge & l(ty domes1 compos$ z !y are entirely ( por\s lava4 ,to ?is s\rce alone he ref]s ! production ( ! /eam by :i* ! melt$ matt] is propell$ upw>ds1 ev5 to ! summit ( cones ?ree miles 9 height4#gfb ,:5 treat+ ( spr+s & ov]fl[+ wells1 ,i h /at$ t por\s rocks are p]colat$ by fre% wat] to great dep?s1 & t sea-wat] probably p5etrates 9 ! same mann] ?r\gh ! rocks :i* =m ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,b1 besides ?is univ]sal circulation 9 regions n f> f ! surface1 x mu/ be suppos$ t1 :]ev] e>?quakes prevail1 mu* l>g] bodies ( wat] w be =c$ by ! pressure ( ! ocean into fissures at great dep?s1 or swall[$ up 9 *asms2 9 ! same mann] z on ! l&1 t[ns1 h\ses1 cattle1 & trees are sometimes engulf$4 ,x w be rememb]$1 t ^! *asms (t5 close aga9 aft] h\ses h fall5 into !m2 & = ! same reason1 :5 wat] has p5etrat$ to a mass ( melt$ lava1 ! /eam into :i* x is conv]t$ may (t5 ru% out at a diff]5t ap]ture f t by :i* ! wat] ent]$4 ,! gases1 x is said1 exhal$ f volcanoes1 toge!r ) /eam1 are su* z w\ld result f ! decomposition ( salt wat]1 & ! fumes :i* escape f ! ,vesuvian lava h be5 obs]v$ to deposit common salt4#gfc ,! emission ( free muriatic acid gas 9 great quantities is also ?\ght by _m to favor ! !ory ( ! decomposition ( ! salt conta9$ 9 sea-wat]4 ,x has be5 object$1 h[ev]1 t ,m4 ,b\ss+ault did n meet ) ?is gas 9 8 exam9ation ( ! ela/ic fluids evolv$ f ! volcanoes ( equatorial ,am]ica2 :i* only give out aque\s vapor 79 v l>ge quantity71 c>bonic acid gas1 sulphur\s acid gas1 & sometimes fumes ( sulphur4#gfd ,9 reply1 ,dr4 ,daub5y has rem>k$1 t muriatic acid may h ceas$ to be dis5gag$1 because ! volcanic action has become languid 9 equatorial ,am]ica1 & sea-wat] may no long] obta9 admission4 ,m4 ,gay ,lussac1 :ile he av[s 8 op9ion t ! decomposition ( wat] contributes l>gely to volcanic action1 call$ att5tion1 nev]!less1 to ! suppos$ fact1 t hydrog5 _h n be5 detect$ 9 a sep>ate =m among ! gase\s products ( volcanoes2 nor c x1 he says1 be pres5t2 =1 9 t case1 x w\ld be inflam$ 9 ! air by ! r$-hot /ones ?r[n out dur+ an eruption4 ,dr4 ,davy1 9 8 acc\nt ( ,graham ,isl&1 says1 ,i wat*$ :5 ! lightn+ 0 mo/ vivid1 & ! eruption ( ! greate/ degree ( viol5ce1 to see if !re 0 any inflammation occasion$ by ?is natural electric sp>k--any indication ( ! pres5ce ( inflammable gas2 b 9 va94#gfe ,may n ! hydrog51 ,gay ,lussac inquires1 be comb9$ ) *lor9e1 & produce muriatic acid8 = ?is gas has be5 obs]v$ to be evolv$ f ,vesuvius--& ! *lor9e may h be5 d]iv$ f sea salt2 :i* 01 9 fact1 extract$ by simple wa%+ f ! ,vesuvian lava ( #ahbb1 9 ! proportion ( n9e p] c5t4#gff ,b x 0 answ]$1 t ,sir ,h4 ,davy's exp]im5ts _h %[n1 t hydrog5 is n combu/ible :5 mix$ ) muriatic acid gas2 s t if muriatic gas 0 evolv$ 9 l>ge quantities1 ! hydrog5 might be pres5t )\t inflammation4#gfg ,m4 ,abi*1 on ! o!r h&1 assures u1 t al?\gh x be true t vapor illum9at$ by inc&esc5t lava has (t5 be5 mi/ak5 = flame1 yet he cle>ly detect$ 9 ! eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahcd ! flame ( hydrog54#gfh ,m4 ,gay ,lussac1 9 ! memoir j allud$ to1 express$ d\bt z to ! pres5ce ( sulphur\s acid2 b ! abundant dis5gagem5t ( ?is gas dur+ eruptions has be5 s9ce asc]ta9$3 & ?us all difficulty 9 reg>d to ! g5]al abs5ce ( hydrog5 9 an inflammable /ate is remov$2 =1 z ,dr4 ,daub5y sugge/s1 ! hydrog5 ( decompos$ wat] may unite ) sulphur to =m sulphurett$ hydrog5 gas1 & ?is gas w !n be m+l$ ) ! sulphur\s acid z x rises to ! crat]4 ,x is %[n by exp]im5t1 t ^! gases mutually decompose ea* o!r :5 mix$ :]e /eam is pres5t2 ! hydrog5 ( ! "o imm$iately unit+ ) ! oxyg5 ( ! o!r to =m wat]1 :ile ! excess ( sulphur\s acid alone escapes into ! atmosph]e4 ,sulphur is at ! same "t precipitat$4 ,?is explanation is suffici5t2 b x may also be obs]v$ t ! flame ( hydrog5 w\ld r>ely be visible dur+ an eruption2 z t gas1 :5 inflam$ 9 a pure /ate1 burns ) a v fa9t blue flame1 :i* ev5 9 ! night c\ld h>dly be p]ceptible by ! side ( r$-hot & inc&esc5t c9d]s4 ,its imm$iate1 conv]sion into wat] :5 inflam$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 might also acc\nt = its n appe>+ 9 a sep>ate =m4 ,dr4 ,daub5y is ( op9ion t wat] conta9+ atmosph]ic air may desc5d f ! surface ( ! e>? to ! volcanic foci1 & t ! same process ( combu/ion by :i* wat] is decompos$ may deprive su* subt]ranean air ( its oxyg54 ,9 ?is mann] he expla9s ! great quantities ( nitrog5 evolv$ f volcanic v5ts & !rmal wat]s1 & ! fact t air dis5gag$ f ! e>? 9 volcanic regions is ei!r :olly or 9 "p depriv$ ( its oxyg54 ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 9 8 memoir on ! ,ph5om5a ( ,volcanoes1 rem>ks1 t !re 0 e reason to suppose 9 ,vesuvius ! exi/5ce ( a desc5d+ curr5t ( air2 & he imag9$ t subt]ranean cavities :i* ?rew out l>ge volumes ( /eam dur+ ! eruption1 might aft]w>ds1 9 ! quiet /ate ( ! volcano1 become fill$ ) atmosph]ic air4#gfi ,! pres5ce ( ammoniacal salts 9 volcanic emanations1 & ( ammonia 7:i* is 9 "p compos$ ( nitrog57 9 lava1 favors greatly ! notion ( air z well z wat] be+ deoxidat$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?4#ggj ,x has be5 alleg$ by ,pr(essor ,bis*(f t ! slight specific gravity ( ! metals ( ! alkalies is fatal to ,davy's hypo!sis1 = if ! mean d5sity ( ! e>?1 z det]m9$ by a/ronom]s1 surpass t ( all k9ds ( rocks1 ^! metals _c exi/1 at lea/ n 9 great quantities 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?4#gga ,b ,dr4 ,daub5y has %[n1 t if we take ! unit$ specific gravity ( potassium1 sodium1 silicon1 iron1 & all ! mat]ials :i*1 :5 unit$ ) oxyg51 con/itute ord9>y lava1 & !n comp>e _! weight ) lava ( equal bulk1 ! diff]5ce is n v mat]ial1 ! specific gravity ( ! lava only exce$+ by ab\t "o-f\r? t ( ! unoxidiz$ metals4 ,besides1 at great dep?s1 ! metallic bases ( ! e>?s & alkalies may v probably be r5d]$ heavi] by pressure4#ggb ,nor is x fair to emb>rass ! *emical !ory ( volcanoes ) a doctr9e s purely gratuit\s1 z t :i* supposes ! entire nucleus ( ! planet to h be5 at fir/ compos$ ( unoxidat$ metals4 ,pr(essor ,buns5 ( ,m>burg1 aft] analyz+ ! gases :i* escape f ! volcanic fum]oles & solfat>as ( ,icel&1 & aft] calculat+ ! quantity ( hydrog5 evolv$ betwe5 two eruptions1 affirms1 9 contradiction ( op9ions previ\sly ent]ta9$1 t ! hydrog5 be>s a p]fect relation 9 quantity to ! magnitude ( ! /reams ( lava1 assum+ ! fusion ( ^! la/ to h be5 ! result ( ! heat evolv$ dur+ ! oxidation ( alkal9e & e>?y metals1 & ?is to h be5 br\ght ab\t by ! decomposition ( wat]4 ,yet aft] hav+ ?us succe$$ 9 remov+ ! pr9cipal objection once s triumphantly urg$ aga9/ ,davy's hypo!sis1 ,buns5 concludes by decl>+ t ! hydrog5 evolv$ 9 volcanic regions _c h be5 g5]at$ by ! decomposition ( wat] com+ 9 contact ) alkal9e & e>?y metallic bases4 ,=1 says ! ,pr(essor1 ?is process presupposes ! preval5ce ( a temp]ature 9 :i* c>bonic acid _c exi/ 9 contact ) hydrog5 )\t suff]+ a p>tial r$uction to c>bonic oxide2 & n a trace ( c>bonic oxide is ev] f\nd 9 volcanic exhalations4#ggc ,at ! same "t x w be se51 by consult+ ! able memoirs ( ! ,m>burg *emi/1 t he supposes _m en]getic k9ds ( *emical action to be cont9ually go+ on 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 capable ( caus+ ! dis5gagem5t ( hydrog52 & !re c be no d\bt t ?is gas may be a s\rce ( innum]able new *anges1 capable ( produc+ ! local developm5t ( int]nal heat4 ,cause ( volcanic eruptions4--,! mo/ probable causes ( a volcanic outbur/ at ! surface h be5 9 a great degree anticipat$ 9 ! prec$+ speculations on ! liquefaction ( rocks & ! g5]ation ( gases4 ,:5 a m9ute hole is bor$ 9 a tube fill$ ) gas cond5s$ into a liquid1 ! :ole becomes in/antly a]i=m1 or1 z "s writ]s h express$ x1 fla%es into vapor1 & (t5 bur/s ! tube4 ,su* an exp]im5t may repres5t ! mode 9 :i* gase\s matt] may ru% ?r\gh a r5t 9 ! rocks1 & cont9ue to escape = days or weeks ?r\gh a small orifice1 ) an explosive p[] suffici5t to r$uce e sub/ance :i* opposes its passage into small fragm5ts or ev5 du/4 ,lava may be propell$ upw>ds at ! same "t1 & eject$ 9 ! =m ( scoriae4 ,9 "s places1 :]e ! fluid lava lies at ! bottom ( a deep fissure1 communicat+ on ! "o h& ) ! surface1 & on ! o!r ) a cav]n 9 :i* a consid]able body ( vapor has be5 =m$1 !re may be an efflux ( lava1 foll[$ by ! escape ( gas4 ,eruptions (t5 comm5ce & close ) ! dis*>ge ( vapor2 &1 :5 ?is is ! case1 ! next outbur/ may be expect$ to take place by ! same v5t1 = ! conclud+ evolution ( ela/ic fluids w keep op5 ! duct1 & leave x unob/ruct$4 ,! break+ out ( lava f ! side or base ( a l(ty cone1 r ?an f ! summit1 may be attribut$ to ! hydro/atic pressure to :i* ! flanks ( ! m\nta9 are expos$1 :5 ! column ( lava has ris5 to a great height4 ,or if1 be=e x has rea*$ ! top1 !re %\ld happ5 to be any /oppage 9 ! ma9 duct1 ! upw>d pressure ( ! asc5d+ column ( gas & lava may bur/ a lat]al op5+4 ,9 ! case h[ev] ( ,m\nt ,loa1 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 !re appe>s to be a s+ul> want ( connection or sympa?y betwe5 ! eruptions ( ! c5tral & ! great lat]al v5t4 ,! great volcanic cone allud$ to rises to ! height ( #ac1gfj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 hav+ a crat] at its summit1 f :i* p[]ful /reams ( lava h fl[$ 9 rec5t times1 & hav+ ano!r /ill l>g] crat]1 call$ ,kilauea1 on its s\!a/]n slope1 ab\t #djjj feet above ! sea4 ,?is lat]al cavity resembles a huge qu>ry cut 9 ! m\nta9's side1 be+ ab\t #ajjj feet deep :5 9 its ord9>y /ate4 ,x is sev5 miles & a half 9 circuit1 & scatt]$ ov] its bottom1 at diff]5t levels1 are lakes & pools ( lava1 always 9 a /ate ( ebullition4 ,! liquid 9 "o ( ^! w sometimes s9k #ajj or #aej feet1 :ile x is ov]fl[+ 9 ano!r at a high] elevation1 !re be+1 x %\ld seem1 no communication betwe5 !m4 ,9 l mann]1 lava ov]fl[s 9 ! summit crat] ( ,m\nt ,loa1 ne>ly #ad1jjj feet high1 :ile ! great lat]al cauldron j allud$ to 7( ,kilauea7 cont9ues z tranquil z usual1 af=d+ no relief to any "p ( ! gases or melt$ matt] :i* are =c+ _! way upw>ds 9 ! c5tre ( ! m\nta94 ,h[1 asks ,mr4 ,dana1 if !re 7 any subt]ranean *annel connect+ ! two great v5ts1 c\ld ?is want ( sympa?y exi/8 ,h[1 accord+ to ! laws ( hydro/atic pressure1 c a column ( fluid /& #aj1jjj feet high] 9 "o leg ( ! siphon ?an 9 ! o!r8 ,! eruptions1 he obs]ves1 are n p>oxysmal2 on ! contr>y1 ! lava rises sl[ly & gradually to ! summit ( ! l(ty cone1 & !n escapes !re )\t any commotion manife/+ itself 9 ,kilauea1 a gulf always op5 on ! flanks ( ! same m\nta94 ,"o conclusion1 he says1 is c]ta91 namely1 t volcanoes are no safety valves z !y h be5 call$2 = "h two indep5d5t & app>5tly isolat$ c5tres ( volcanic activity1 only sixte5 miles di/ant f ea* o!r1 are su/a9$ 9 "o & ! same cone4#ggd ,)\t pret5d+ to solve ?is enigma1 ,i _c refra9 f rem>k+1 t ! suppos$ indep5d5ce ( sev]al orifices ( eruption 9 "o crat] l ,kilauea1 :5 adduc$ 9 confirmation ( ! doctr9e ( two di/9ct s\rces ( volcanic action und]nea? "o m\nta91 proves too mu*4 ,no "o c d\bt1 t ! pools ( lava 9 ,kilauea h be5 d]iv$ f "s common res]voir1 & h result$ f a comb9ation ( causes commonly call$ volcanic1 :i* are at "w 9 ! int]ior at "s unkn[n di/ance bel[4 ,^! causes h giv5 rise 9 ,m\nt ,loa to eruptions f _m po9ts1 b pr9cipally f "o c5tre1 s t a va/ dome ( eject$ matt] has be5 pil$ up4 ,! subsidi>y crat] has evid5tly nev] giv5 mu* relief to ! imprison$1 heat$1 & liquefi$ matt]1 = ,kilauea does n =m a lat]al protub]ance int]f]+ ) ! g5]al %ape or uni=m outl9e ( ,m\nt ,loa4 ,geys]s ( ,icel&4--,z aque\s vapor con/itutes ! mo/ abundant ( ! a]i=m products ( volcanoes 9 eruption1 x may be well to consid] att5tively a case 9 :i* /eam is exclusively ! mov+ p[]--t ( ! ,geys]s ( ,icel&4 ,^! int]mitt5t hot spr+s occur 9 a di/rict situat$ 9 ! s\?we/]n division ( ,icel&1 :]e ne>ly "o hundr$ ( !m are said to break out )9 a circle ( two miles4 ,t ! wat] is ( atmosph]ic orig91 d]iv$ f ra9 & melt$ sn[1 is prov$1 says ,pr(essor ,buns51 by ! nitrog5 :i* rises f !m ei!r pure or mix$ ) o!r gases4 ,! spr+s rise ?r\gh a ?ick curr5t ( lava1 :i* may p]haps h fl[$ f ,m\nt ,hecla1 ! summit ( t volcano be+ se5 f ! spot at ! di/ance ( m ?an ?irty miles4 ,9 ?is di/rict ! ru%+ ( wat] is sometimes he>d 9 *asms b5ea? ! surface2 = "h1 z on ,etna1 riv]s fl[ 9 subt]ranean *annels ?r\gh ! por\s & cav]n\s lavas4 ,x has m ?an once happ5$1 aft] e>?quakes1 t "s ( ! boil+ f\nta9s h increas$ or dim9i%$ 9 viol5ce & volume1 or entirely ceas$1 or t new ones h made _! appe>ance--*anges :i* may be expla9$ by ! op5+ ( new r5ts & ! clos+ ( pre-exi/+ fissures4 ,few ( ! ,geys]s play long] ?an five or six m9utes at a "t1 al?\gh sometimes half an h\r4 ,! int]vals betwe5 _! eruptions are = ! mo/ "p v irregul>4 ,! ,great ,geys] rises out ( a spaci\s bas9 at ! summit ( a circul> m\nd compos$ ( silice\s incru/ations deposit$ f ! spray ( its wat]s4 ,! diamet] ( ?is bas91 9 "o direction1 is fifty-six feet1 & =ty-six 9 ano!r4 7,see fig4 #id47 ,9 ! c5tre is a pipe sev5ty-eight feet 9 p]p5dicul> dep?1 & f eight to t5 feet 9 diamet]1 b gradually wid5+1 z x rises into ! bas94 ,! inside ( ! bas9 is :iti%1 consi/+ ( a silice\s cru/1 & p]fectly smoo?1 z are likewise two small *annels on ! sides ( ! m\nd1 d[n :i* ! wat] escapes :5 ! b[l is fill$ to ! m>g94 ,! circul> bas9 is sometimes empty1 z repres5t$ 9 ! foll[+ sket*2 b is usually fill$ ) beautifully transp>5t wat] 9 a /ate ( ebullition4 ,dur+ ! rise ( ! boil+ wat] 9 ! pipe1 especially :5 ! ebullition is mo/ viol5t1 & :5 ! wat] is ?r[n up 9 jets1 subt]ranean noises are he>d1 l ! di/ant fir+ ( cannon1 & ! e>? is slightly %ak54 ,! s\nd !n increases & ! motion becomes m viol5t1 till at l5g? a column ( wat] is ?r[n up1 ) l\d explosions1 to ! height ( "o or two hundr$ feet4 ,aft] play+ = a "t l an artificial f\nta91 & giv+ (f great cl\ds ( vapor1 ! pipe or tube is empti$2 & a column ( /eam1 ru%+ up ) amaz+ =ce & a ?und]+ noise1 t]m9ates ! eruption4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,view ( ! ,crat] ( ! ,great ,geys] 9 ,icel&4#gge ,if /ones are ?r[n into ! crat]1 !y are in/antly eject$2 & su* is ! explosive =ce1 t v h>d rocks are sometimes %iv]$ by x into small pieces4 ,h5d]son f\nd t by ?r[+ a great quantity ( l>ge /ones into ! pipe ( ,/rockr1 "o ( ! ,geys]s1 he c\ld br+ on an eruption 9 a few m9utes4#ggf ,! fragm5ts ( /one1 z well z ! boil+ wat]1 7 ?r[n 9 t case to a mu* great] height ?an usual4 ,aft] ! wat] _h be5 eject$1 a column ( /eam cont9u$ to ru% up ) a deaf5+ ro> = ne>ly an h\r2 b ! ,geys]1 z if exhau/$ by ?is ef=t1 did n s5d out a fre% eruption :5 its usual int]val ( re/ _h elaps$4 ,! acc\nt giv5 by ,sir ,george ,mack5zie ( a ,geys] :i* he saw 9 eruption 9 #ahaj 7see fig4 #ie71 agrees p]fectly ) ! above description by ,h5d]son4 ,! /eam & wat] rose = half an h\r to ! height ( #gj feet1 & ! :ite column rema9$ p]p5dicul> not)/&+ a brisk gale ( w9d :i* 0 bl[+ aga9/ x4 ,/ones ?r[n into ! pipe 7 project$ to a great] height ?an ! wat]4 ,to leew>d ( ! vapor a heavy %[] ( ra9 0 se5 to fall4#ggg ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,eruption ( ! ,new ,geys] 9 #ahaj4 7,mack5zie47 ,among ! diff]5t !ories propos$ to acc\nt = ^! ph5om5a1 ,i %all fir/ m5tion "o sugge/$ by ,sir4 ,j4 ,h]s*el4 ,an imitation ( ^! jets1 he says1 may be produc$ on a small scale1 by heat+ r$ hot ! /em ( a tobacco pipe1 fill+ ! b[l ) wat]1 & s incl9+ ! pipe z to let ! wat] run ?r\gh ! /em4 ,its escape1 in/ead ( tak+ place 9 a cont9u$ /ream1 is !n p]=m$ by a succession ( viol5t explosions1 at fir/ ( /eam alone1 !n ( wat] mix$ ) /eam2 &1 z ! pipe cools1 almo/ :olly ( wat]4 ,at e su* p>oxysmal escape ( ! wat]1 a portion is driv5 back1 accompani$ ) /eam1 into ! b[l4 ,! int]vals betwe5 ! explosions dep5d on ! heat1 l5g?1 & incl9ation ( ! pipe2 _! cont9uance1 on its ?ickness & conduct+ p[]4#ggh ,! application ( ?is exp]im5t to ! ,geys]s m]ely requires t a subt]ranean /ream1 fl[+ ?r\gh ! pores & crevices ( lava1 %\ld sudd5ly rea* a fissure 9 :i* ! rock is r$ hot or ne>ly s4 ,/eam w\ld imm$iately be =m$1 :i*1 ru%+ up ! fissure1 might =ce up wat] along ) x to ! surface1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 "p ( ! /eam might drive back ! wat] ( ! supply = a c]ta9 di/ance t[>ds its s\rce4 ,& :51 aft] ! space ( "s m9utes1 ! /eam 0 all cond5s$1 ! wat] w\ld return1 & a repetition ( ! ph5om5a take place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,suppos$ res]voir & pipe ( a ,geys] 9 ,icel&4#ggi ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r mode ( expla9+ ! action ( ! ,geys]1 p]haps m probable ?an t above describ$4 ,suppose wat] p]colat+ f ! surface ( ! e>? to p5etrate into ! subt]ranean cavity ,a ,d 7fig4 #if7 by ! fissures ,f ,f1 :ile1 at ! same "t1 /eam at an extremely high temp]ature1 su* z is commonly giv5 out f ! r5ts ( lava curr5ts dur+ congelation1 emanates f ! fissures ,c4 ,a portion ( ! /eam is at fir/ cond5s$ into wat]1 :ile ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is rais$ by ! lat5t heat ?us evolv$1 till1 at la/1 ! l[] "p ( ! cavity is fill$ ) boil+ wat] & ! upp] ) /eam "u high pressure4 ,! expansive =ce ( ! /eam becomes1 at l5g?1 s great1 t ! wat] is =c$ up ! fissure or pipe ,e ,b1 & runs ov] ! rim ( ! bas94 ,:5 ! pressure is ?us dim9i%$1 ! /eam 9 ! upp] "p ( ! cavity ,a exp&s1 until all ! wat] ,d is driv5 into ! pipe2 & :5 ?is happ5s1 ! /eam1 be+ ! light] ( ! two fluids1 ru%es up ?r\gh ! wat] ) great velocity4 ,if ! pipe be *ok$ up artificially1 ev5 = a few m9utes1 a great increase ( heat mu/ take place2 = x is prev5t$ f escap+ 9 a lat5t =m 9 /eam2 s t ! wat] is made to boil m viol5tly1 & ?is br+s on an eruption4 ,pr(essor ,buns51 be=e cit$1 adopts ?is !ory to acc\nt = ! play ( ! ,little ,geys]1 b says x w n expla9 ! ph5om5a ( ! ,great "o4 ,he consid]s ?is1 l ! o!rs1 to be a !rmal spr+1 hav+ a n>r[ funnel-%ap$ tube 9 ! upp] "p ( its c\rse1 :]e ! walls ( ! *annel h become coat$ ov] ) silice\s incru/ations4 ,at ! m\? ( ?is tube ! wat] has a temp]ature1 correspond+ to ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 ( ab\t #bab degrees ,fahr41 b at a c]ta9 dep? bel[ x is mu* hott]4 ,?is ! pr(essor succe$$ 9 prov+ by exp]im5t2 a !rmomet] susp5d$ by a /r+ 9 ! pipe ris+ to #bff degrees ,fahr41 or no less ?an #dh degrees above ! boil+ po9t4 ,aft] ! column ( wat] has be5 expell$1 :at rema9s 9 ! bas9 & pipe is f\nd to be mu* cool$4 ,previ\sly to ^! exp]im5ts ( ,buns5 & ,descloizeaux1 made 9 ,icel& 9 #ahdf1 x w\ld sc>cely h be5 suppos$ possible t ! l[] "p ( a free & op5 column ( wat] c\ld be rais$ s mu* 9 temp]ature )\t caus+ a circulation ( asc5d+ & desc5d+ curr5ts1 foll[$ by an almo/ imm$iate equalization ( heat4 ,su* circulation is no d\bt imp$$ greatly by ! sides ( ! well n be+ v]tical1 & by num]\s contractions ( its diamet]1 b ! ph5om5on may be *iefly due to ano!r cause4 ,accord+ to rec5t exp]im5ts on ! cohesion ( liquids by ,mr4 ,donny ( ,gh5t1 x appe>s t :5 wat] is fre$ f all admixture ( air1 its temp]ature c be rais$1 ev5 "u ord9>y atmosph]ic pressure1 to #bge degrees ,fahr41 s mu* does ! cohesion ( its molecules increase#ghj :5 !y are n sep>at$ by p>ticles ( air4 ,z wat] long boil$ becomes m & m depriv$ ( air1 x is probably v free f su* int]mixture at ! bottom ( ! ,geys]s4 ,among o!r results ( ! exp]im5ts ( ,buns5 & 8 companion1 !y conv9c$ !mselves t ! column ( fluid fill+ ! tube is con/antly receiv+ accessions ( hot wat] f bel[1 :ile x becomes cool] above by evaporation on ! broad surface ( ! bas94 ,!y also came to a conclusion ( no small int]e/1 z be>+ on ! probable me*anism ( ord9>y volcanic eruptions1 namely t ! tube itself is ! ma9 seat or focus ( me*anical =ce4 ,?is 0 prov$ by lett+ d[n /ones susp5d$ by /r+s to v>i\s dep?s4 ,^? :i* 7 sunk to consid]able di/ances f ! surface 7 n ca/ up aga91 :]eas ^? ne>] ! m\? ( ! tube 7 eject$ to great heights4 ,o!r exp]im5ts also 7 made t5d+ to demon/rate ! s+ul> fact1 t !re is (t5 sc>ce any motion bel[1 :5 a viol5t ru% ( /eam & wat] is tak+ place above4 ,x seems t :5 a l(ty column ( wat] possesses a temp]ature increas+ ) ! dep?1 any slight ebullition or di/urbance ( equilibrium 9 ! upp] portion may fir/ =ce up wat] into ! bas91 & !n cause x to fl[ ov] ! edge4 ,a l[] portion1 ?us sudd5ly reliev$ ( "p ( its pressure1 exp&s & is conv]t$ into vapor m rapidly ?an ! fir/1 ow+ to its great] heat4 ,?is all[s ! next subjac5t /ratum1 :i* is mu* hott]1 to rise & fla% into a gase\s =m2 & ?is process goes on till ! ebullition has desc5d$ f ! middle to ne> ! bottom ( ! funnel4#gha ,9 speculat+1 !re=e1 on ! me*anism ( an ord9>y volcanic eruption1 we may suppose t l>ge subt]ranean cavities exi/ at ! dep? ( "s miles bel[ ! surface ( ! e>?1 9 :i* melt$ lava accumulates2 & :5 wat] conta9+ ! usual mixture ( air p5etrates into ^!1 ! /eam ?us g5]at$ may press ^u ! lava & =ce x up ! duct ( a volcano1 9 ! same mann] z a column ( wat] is driv5 up ! pipe ( a ,geys]4 ,9 o!r cases we may suppose a cont9u\s column ( liquid lava mix$ ) r$-hot wat] 7= wat] may exi/ 9 t /ate1 z ,pr(essor ,buns5 rem9ds u1 "u pressure71 & ?is column may h a temp]ature regul>ly increas+ d[nw>ds4 ,a di/urbance ( equilibrium may fir/ br+ on an eruption ne> ! surface1 by ! expansion & conv]sion into gas ( entangl$ wat] & o!r con/itu5ts ( :at we call lava1 s z to occasion a dim9ution ( pressure4 ,m /eam w\ld !n be lib]at$1 c>ry+ up ) x jets ( melt$ rock1 :i* be+ hurl$ up into ! air may fall 9 %[]s ( a%es on ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 & at l5g?1 by ! arrival ( lava & wat] m & m heat$ at ! orifice ( ! duct or ! crat] ( ! volcano1 expansive p[] may be acquir$ suffici5t to expel a massive curr5t ( lava4 ,aft] ! eruption has ceas$1 a p]iod ( tranquillity succe$s1 dur+ :i* fre% accessions ( heat are communicat$ f bel[1 & additional masses ( rock fus$ by degrees1 :ile at ! same "t atmosph]ic or sea wat] is desc5d+ f ! surface4 ,at l5g? ! conditions requir$ = a new outbur/ are obta9$1 & ano!r cycle ( simil> *anges is r5ew$4 ,causes ( e>?quakes--wave-l motion4--,i %all n[ proce$ to exam9e ! mann] 9 :i* ! heat ( ! int]ior may give rise to e>?quakes4 ,"o ( ! mo/ common ph5om5a att5d+ subt]ranean movem5ts1 is ! undulatory motion ( ! gr\nd4 ,& ?is1 says ,mi*ell1 w seem less extraord9>y1 if we call to m9d ! extreme ela/icity ( ! e>? & ! compressibility ( ev5 ! mo/ solid mat]ials4 ,l>ge di/ricts1 he sugge/s1 may re/ on fluid lava2 &1 :5 ?is is di/urb$1 its motions may be propagat$ ?r\gh ! incumb5t rocks4 ,he also adds ! foll[+ +5i\s speculation3--,z a small quantity ( vapor almo/ in/antly g5]at$ at "s consid]able dep? bel[ ! surface ( ! e>? w produce a vibratory motion1 s a v l>ge quantity 7:e!r x be g5]at$ almo/ in/antly1 or 9 any small portion ( "t7 w produce a wave-l motion4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ?is wave-l motion w be propagat$ may1 9 "s measure1 be repres5t$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t3--,suppose a l>ge clo?1 or c>pet 7spread ^u a floor71 to be rais$ at "o edge1 & !n sudd5ly br\ght d[n aga9 to ! floor2 ! air "u x1 be+ by ?is means propell$1 w pass along till x escapes at ! opposite side1 rais+ ! clo? 9 a wave all ! way z x goes4 ,9 l mann]1 a l>ge quantity ( vapor may be conceiv$ to raise ! e>? 9 a wave1 z x passes along betwe5 ! /rata1 :i* x may easily sep>ate 9 a horizontal direction1 !re be+ little or no cohesion betwe5 "o /ratum & ano!r4 ,! "p ( ! e>? t is fir/ rais$ be+ b5t f its natural =m1 w endeavor to re/ore itself by its ela/icity2 & ! p>ts next to x be+ to h _! weight support$ by ! vapor1 :i* w ins9uate itself "u !m1 w be rais$ 9 _! turn1 till x ei!r f9ds "s v5t1 or is aga9 cond5s$ by ! cold into wat]1 & by t means prev5t$ f proce$+ any f>!r4#ghb ,9 a memoir publi%$ 9 #ahdc1 on ! /ructure ( ! ,appala*ian *a91 by ! ,pr(essors ,rog]s1#ghc ! foll[+ hypo!sis is propos$ z simpl] & m 9 accordance ) dynamical consid]ations1 & ! record$ obs]vations on e>?quakes4--,9 place1 say !y1 ( suppos+ x possible = a body ( vapor or gase\s matt] to pass horizontally betwe5 ! /rata1 or ev5 betwe5 ! cru/ & ! fluid lava ^u :i* x floats1 & ) :i* x mu/ be closely entangl$1 we are incl9$ to attribute ! movem5t to an actual pulsation1 eng5d]$ 9 ! molt5 matt] itself1 by a l9e> disruption "u enorm\s t5sion1 giv+ v5t explosively to ela/ic vapors1 escap+ ei!r to ! surface1 or into cav]n\s spaces b5ea?4 ,accord+ to ?is supposition1 ! movem5t ( ! subt]ranean vapors w\ld be t[>ds1 & n f1 ! disrupt$ belt1 & ! oscillation ( ! cru/ w\ld orig9ate 9 ! trem5d\s & sudd5 di/urbance ( ! previ\s pressure on ! surface ( ! lava mass bel[1 br\ght ab\t by ! in/antane\s & viol5t r5d+ ( ! ov]ly+ /rata4 ,?is !ory requires u to admit t ! cru/ ( ! e>? is s flexible1 t x c assume ! =m1 & foll[ ! motion ( an undulation 9 ! fluid bel[4 ,ev5 if we grant ?is1 says ,mr4 ,mallet1 ano!r m s]i\s objection pres5ts itself1 viz4 ! great velocity attribut$ to ! transit ( ! wave 9 ! subt]ranean sea ( lava4 ,we are call$ ^u to admit t ! spe$ ( ! wave bel[ equals t ( ! true e>?quake %ock at ! surface1 :i* is s imm5se1 t x is n inf]ior to ! velocity ( s\nd 9 ! same solids4 ,b ! undulation 9 ! fluid bel[ mu/ foll[ ! laws ( a tidal wave1 or ( ! great sea-wave already spok5 (4 ,its velocity1 l t ( ! tidal wave ( our seas1 w be a function ( its l5g? & ( ! dep? ( ! fluid1 dim9i%$ 9 ?is case by c]ta9 consid]ations z to ! d5sity & degree ( viscidity ( ! liquid2 & al?\gh x w\ld be at pres5t impossible1 = want ( data1 to calculate ! exact velocity ) :i* ?is subt]rane\s lava-wave c\ld move1 x may be c]ta9ly affirm$ t its velocity w\ld be immeasurably %ort ( ! obs]v$ or !oretic velocity ( ! great e>?-wave1 or true %ock 9 e>?quakes4#ghd ,liquid gases4--,! r5d+ & upheav+ ( cont95tal masses are op]ations :i* are n difficult to expla91 :5 we are once conv9c$ t heat1 ( suffici5t p[]1 n only to melt b to r$uce to a gase\s =m a great v>iety ( sub/ances1 is accumulat$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! int]ior4 ,we see t ela/ic fluids are capable ( project+ solid masses to imm5se heights 9 ! air2 & ! volcano ( ,cotopaxi has be5 kn[n to ?r[ out1 to ! di/ance ( eight or n9e miles1 a mass ( rock ab\t "o hundr$ cubic y>ds 9 volume4 ,:5 we obs]ve ^! a]i=m fluids ru%+ out f p>ticul> v5ts = mon?s1 or ev5 ye>s1 cont9u\sly1 :at p[] may we n expect !m to ex]t 9 o!r places1 :]e !y happ5 to be conf9$ "u an enorm\s weight ( rock8 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,f>aday & o!rs h %[n1 )9 ! la/ twelve ye>s1 t _m ( ! gases1 includ+ all ^? :i* are mo/ copi\sly dis5gag$ f volcanic v5ts1 z ! c>bonic1 sulphur\s1 & muriatic acids1 may be cond5s$ into liquids by pressure4 ,at temp]atures ( f #cj degrees to #ej degrees ,f41 ! pressure requir$ = ?is purpose v>ies f fifte5 to fifty atmosph]es2 & ?is am\nt ( pressure we may reg>d z v insignificant 9 ! op]ations ( nature4 ,a column ( ,vesuvian lava t w\ld rea* f ! lip ( ! crat] to ! level ( ! sea1 mu/ be equal to ab\t ?ree hundr$ atmosph]es2 s t1 at dep?s :i* may be t]m$ mod]ate 9 ! int]ior ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 ! gases may be cond5s$ into liquids1 ev5 at v high temp]atures4 ,! me?od employ$ to r$uce "s ( ^! gases to a liquid /ate is1 to conf9e ! mat]ials1 f ! mutual action ( :i* !y are evolv$1 9 tubes h]metically seal$1 s t ! accumulat$ pressure ( ! vapor1 z x rises & exp&s1 may =ce "s "p ( x to assume ! liquid /ate4 ,a simil> process may1 & inde$ mu/1 frequ5tly take place 9 subt]ranean cav]ns & fissures1 or ev5 9 ! pores & cells ( _m rocks2 by :i* means1 a mu* great] /ore ( expansive p[] may be pack$ into a small space ?an c\ld happ5 if ^! vapors _h n ! prop]ty ( becom+ liquid4 ,=1 al?\gh ! gas occupies mu* less room 9 a liquid /ate1 yet x ex]ts exactly ! same pressure ^u ! sides ( ! conta9+ cavity z if x rema9$ 9 ! =m ( vapor4 ,if a tube1 :e!r ( glass or o!r mat]ials1 fill$ ) cond5s$ gas1 h its temp]ature slightly rais$1 x w (t5 bur/2 = a slight increm5t ( heat causes ! ela/icity ( ! gas to increase 9 a v high ratio4 ,we h only to suppose c]ta9 rocks1 p]meat$ by ^! liquid gases 7z por\s /rata are sometimes fill$ ) wat]71 to h _! temp]ature rais$ "s hundr$ degrees1 & we obta9 a p[] capable ( lift+ sup]9cumb5t masses ( almo/ any conceivable ?ickness2 :ile1 if ! dep? at :i* ! gas is conf9$ be great1 !re is no reason to suppose t any o!r appe>ances w\ld be witness$ by ! inhabitants ( ! surface ?an vibratory movem5ts & r5ts1 f :i* no vapor might escape4 ,9 mak+ _! way ?r\gh fissures a v few miles only 9 l5g?1 or 9 =c+ a passage ?r\gh s(t yield+ /rata1 ! vapors may be cool$ & absorb$ by wat]4 ,= wat] has a /rong aff9ity to sev]al ( ! gases1 & w absorb l>ge quantities1 ) a v slight increase ( volume4 ,9 ?is mann]1 ! heat or ! volume ( spr+s may be augm5t$1 & _! m9]al prop]ties made to v>y4 ,connection betwe5 ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e & e>?quakes4--,! inhabitants ( ,/romboli1 :o are mo/ly fi%]m51 are said to make use ( t volcano z a wea!r-glass1 ! eruptions be+ comp>atively feeble :5 ! sky is s]5e1 b increas+ 9 turbul5ce dur+ tempe/u\s wea!r1 s t 9 w9t] ! isl& (t5 seems to %ake f its f\ndations4 ,mr4 ,p4 ,scrope1 aft] call+ att5tion to ^! & o!r analog\s facts1 fir/ />t$ ! idea 7z long ago z ! ye> #ahbe7 t ! dim9i%$ pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 ! concomitant ( /ormy wea!r1 may modify ! int5sity ( ! volcanic action4 ,he sugge/s t :]e liquid lava communicates ) ! surface1 z 9 ! crat] ( ,/romboli1 x may rise or fall 9 ! v5t on ! same pr9ciple z m]cury 9 a b>omet]2 because ! ebullition or expansive p[] ( ! /eam conta9$ 9 ! lava w\ld be *eck$ by e increase1 & augm5t$ by e dim9ution ( weight4 ,9 l mann]1 if a b$ ( liquid lava be conf9$ at an imm5se dep? bel[ ! surface1 its expansive =ce may be c\nt]act$ p>tly by ! weight ( ! incumb5t rocks1 & also 9 "p by atmosph]ic pressure act+ contemporane\sly on a va/ sup]ficial area4 ,9 t case1 if ! upheav+ =ce increase gradually 9 en]gy1 x w at l5g? be re/ra9$ by only ! slighte/ degree ( sup]iority 9 ! antagoni/ or repressive p[]1 & !n ! equilibrium may be sudd5ly de/roy$ by any cause1 su* z an asc5d+ draught ( air1 :i* is capable ( depress+ ! b>omet]4 ,9 ?is mann] we may acc\nt = ! rem>kable co9cid5ce s frequ5tly obs]v$ betwe5 ! /ate ( ! wea!r & subt]ranean commotions1 al?\gh x mu/ be admitt$ t e>?quakes & volcanic eruptions react 9 _! turn ^u ! atmosph]e1 s t di/urbances ( ! latt] are g5]ally ! consequ5ces r ?an ! =]unn]s ( volcanic di/urbances4#ghe ,f an elaborate catalogue ( ! e>?quakes exp]i5c$ 9 ,europe & ,syria dur+ ! la/ fifte5 c5turies1 ,m4 ,alexis ,p]rey has d$uc$ ! conclusion t ! numb] :i* happ5 9 ! w9t] season prepond]ates ov] ^? :i* occur 9 any "o ( ! o!r seasons ( ! ye>1 !re be+1 h[ev]1 "s exceptions to ?is rule1 z 9 ! ,pyr5ees4 ,curi\s & valuable z are ^! data1 ,m4 d',ar*iac ju/ly rem>ks1 9 comm5t+ ^u !m1 t !y are n z yet suffici5tly ext5sive or accordant 9 diff]5t regions1 to entitle u to d$uce any g5]al conclusions f !m respect+ ! laws ( subt]ranean movem5ts ?r\gh\t ! globe4#ghf ,p]man5t elevation & subsid5ce4--,x is easy to conceive t ! %att]$ rocks may assume an ar*$ =m dur+ a convulsion1 s t ! c\ntry above may rema9 p]man5tly upheav$4 ,9 o!r cases gas may drive be=e x masses ( liquid lava1 :i* may ?us be inject$ into newly op5$ fissures4 ,! gas hav+ !n obta9$ m room1 by ! =c+ up ( ! incumb5t rocks1 may rema9 at re/2 :ile ! lava congeal+ 9 ! r5ts may af=d a solid f\ndation = ! newly rais$ di/rict4 ,exp]im5ts h rec5tly be5 made 9 ,am]ica1 by ,colonel ,tott51 to asc]ta9 ! ratio accord+ to :i* "s ( ! /ones commonly us$ 9 ar*itecture exp& ) giv5 increm5ts ( heat4#ghg ,x 0 f\nd impossible1 9 a c\ntry :]e ! annual v>iation ( temp]ature 0 m ?an #ij degrees ,f41 to make a cop+ ( /ones1 five feet 9 l5g?1 9 :i* ! jo9ts %\ld fit s tightly z n to admit wat] betwe5 ! /one & ! cem5t2 ! annual contraction & expansion ( ! /ones caus+1 at ! junctions1 small crevices1 ! wid? ( :i* v>i$ ) ! nature ( ! rock4 ,x 0 asc]ta9$ t f9e-gra9$ granite exp&$ ) #a degrees ,f4 at ! rate ( 4#jjjjjdhbe2 :ile cry/all9e m>ble 4#jjjjjeffh2 & r$ s&/one 4#jjjjjiecb1 or ab\t twice z mu* z granite4 ,n[1 accord+ to ?is law ( expansion1 a mass ( s&/one a mile 9 ?ickness1 :i* %\ld h its temp]ature rais$ #bjj degrees ,f41 w\ld lift a sup]impos$ lay] ( rock to ! height ( t5 feet above its =m] level4 ,b1 suppose a "p ( ! e>?'s cru/1 "o hundr$ miles 9 ?ickness & equally expansive1 to h its temp]ature rais$ #fjj degrees or #hjj degrees1 ?is might produce an elevation ( betwe5 two & ?ree ?\s& feet4 ,! cool+ ( ! same mass might aft]w>ds cause ! ov]ly+ rocks to s9k d[n aga9 & resume _! orig9al position4 ,by su* ag5cy we might expla9 ! gradual rise ( ,sc&9avia or ! subsid5ce ( ,gre5l&1 if ?is la/ ph5om5on %\ld also be e/abli%$ z a fact on f>!r inquiry4 ,x is also possible t z ! clay 9 ,w$gwood's pyromet] contracts1 by giv+ (f its wat]1 & !n1 by incipi5t vitrification2 s1 l>ge masses ( argillace\s /rata on ! e>?'s int]ior may %r9k1 :5 subject$ to heat & *emical *anges1 & all[ ! incumb5t rocks to subside gradually4 ,moreov]1 if we suppose t lava cool+ sl[ly at great dep?s may be conv]t$ into v>i\s granitic rocks1 we obta9 ano!r s\rce ( depression2 =1 accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,deville & ! calculations ( ,bis*(f1 ! contraction ( granite :5 pass+ f a melt$ or pla/ic to a solid & cry/all9e /ate mu/ be m ?an t5 p] c5t4#ghh ,! sudd5 subsid5ce ( l& may also be occasion$ by subt]ranean cav]ns giv+ way1 :5 gases are cond5s$1 or :5 !y escape ?r\gh newly-=m$ crevices4 ,! subtraction1 moreov]1 ( matt] f c]ta9 p>ts ( ! int]ior1 by ! fl[+ ( lava & ( m9]al spr+s1 mu/1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 cause vacuities bel[1 s t ! und]m9$ surface may at l5g? fall 94 ,! balance ( dry l&1 h[ pres]v$4--,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 we _c pret5d to e/imate ! av]age numb] ( e>?quakes :i* may happ5 9 ! c\rse ( a s+le ye>4 ,z ! area ( ! ocean is ne>ly ?ree times t ( ! l&1 x is probable t ab\t ?ree subm>9e e>?quakes may occur = "o exclusively cont95tal2 & :5 we consid] ! great frequ5cy ( slight movem5ts 9 c]ta9 di/ricts1 we c h>dly suppose t a day1 if1 inde$1 an h\r1 ev] passes )\t "o or m %ocks be+ exp]i5c$ 9 "s "p ( ! globe4 ,we h also se5 t 9 ,sw$51 & o!r c\ntries1 *anges 9 ! relative level ( sea & l& may take place )\t commotion1 & ^! p]haps produce ! mo/ important geographical & geological *anges2 = ! position ( l& may be alt]$ to a great] am\nt by an elevation or depression ( "o in* ov] a va/ area1 ?an by ! s9k+ ( a m limit$ tract1 su* z ! =e/ ( ,aripao1 to ! dep? ( _m fa?oms at once4#ghi ,x mu/ be evid5t1 f ! hi/orical details above giv51 t ! =ce ( subt]ranean movem5t1 :e!r int]mitt5t or cont9u\s1 :e!r ) or )\t di/urbance1 does n op]ate at r&om1 b is develop$ 9 c]ta9 regions only2 & al?\gh ! alt]ations produc$ dur+ ! "t requir$ = ! occurr5ce ( a few volcanic eruptions may be inconsid]able1 we c h>dly d\bt t1 dur+ ! ages necess>y = ! =mation ( l>ge volcanic cones1 compos$ ( ?\s&s ( lava curr5ts1 %oals might be conv]t$ into l(ty m\nta9s1 & l[ l&s into deep seas4 ,9 a =m] *apt] 7p4 #aih71 ,i h /at$ t aque\s & igne\s ag5ts may be reg>d$ z antagoni/ =ces2 ! aque\s labor+ incessantly to r$uce ! inequalities ( ! e>?'s surface to a level1 :ile ! igne\s are equally active 9 r5ew+ ! unev5ness ( ! surface4 ,by "s geologi/s x has be5 ?\ght t ! levell+ p[] ( runn+ wat] 0 oppos$ r to ! elevat+ =ce ( e>?quakes ?an to _! action g5]ally4 ,?is op9ion is1 h[ev]1 unt5able2 = ! s9k+ d[n ( ! b$ ( ! ocean is "o ( ! means by :i* ! gradual subm]sion ( l& is prev5t$4 ,! dep? ( ! sea _c be increas$ at any "o po9t )\t a univ]sal fall ( ! wat]s1 nor c any p>tial deposition ( s$im5t occur )\t ! displacem5t ( a quantity ( wat] ( equal volume1 :i* w raise ! sea1 ?\gh 9 an imp]ceptible degree1 ev5 to ! antipodes4 ,! pres]vation1 !re=e1 ( ! dry l& may sometimes be effect$ by ! subsid5ce ( "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ 7t "p1 namely1 :i* is cov]$ by ! ocean71 & 9 l mann] an upheav+ movem5t mu/ (t5 t5d to de/roy l&2 = if x r5d] ! b$ ( ! sea m %all[1 x w displace a c]ta9 quantity ( wat]1 & ?us t5d to subm]ge l[ tracts4 ,a/ronom]s hav+ prov$ 7see above1 p4 #abi7 t !re has be5 no *ange 9 ! diamet] ( ! e>? dur+ ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s1 we may assume x z probable1 t ! dim5sions ( ! planet rema9 uni=m4 ,if1 !n1 we inquire 9 :at mann] ! =ce ( e>?quakes mu/ be regulat$1 9 ord] to re/ore p]petually ! inequalities ( ! surface :i* ! levell+ p[] ( wat] t5ds to efface1 x w be f\nd1 t ! am\nt ( depression mu/ exce$ t ( elevation4 ,x w\ld be o!rwise if ! action ( volcanoes & m9]al spr+s 7 susp5d$2 = !n ! =c+ outw>ds ( ! e>?'s envelope ought to be no m ?an equal to its s9k+ 94 ,to und]/& ?is proposition m cle>ly1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 t ! deposits ( riv]s & curr5ts probably add z mu* to ! height ( l&s :i* are ris+1 z !y take f ^? :i* h ris54 ,suppose a l>ge riv] to br+ d[n s$im5t to a "p ( ! ocean two ?\s& feet deep1 & t ! dep? ( ?is "p is gradually r$uc$ by ! accumulation ( s$im5t till only a %oal rema9s1 cov]$ by wat] at high tides2 if n[ an upheav+ =ce %\ld uplift ?is %oal to ! height ( #bjjj feet1 ! result w\ld be a m\nta9 #bjjj feet high4 ,b _h ! movem5t rais$ ! same "p ( ! bottom ( ! sea be=e ! s$im5t ( ! riv] _h fill$ x up2 !n1 in/ead ( *ang+ a %oal into a m\nta9 #bjjj feet high1 x w\ld only h conv]t$ a deep sea into a %oal4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t ! op]ations ( ! e>?quake are (t5 su* z to cause ! levell+ p[] ( wat] to c\nt]act itself2 &1 al?\gh ! idea may appe> p>adoxical1 we may be sure1 :]ev] we f9d hills & m\nta9s compos$ ( /ratifi$ deposits1 t su* inequalities ( ! surface w\ld h _h no exi/5ce if wat]1 at "s =m] p]iod1 _h n be5 labor+ to r$uce ! e>?'s surface to "o level4 ,b1 besides ! transf] ( matt] by runn+ wat] f ! cont95ts to ! ocean1 !re is a con/ant transportation f bel[ upw>ds1 by m9]al spr+s & volcanic v5ts4 ,z m\nta9 masses are1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 creat$ by ! p\r+ =? ( successive /reams ( lava1 s /ratifi$ rocks1 ( great ext5t1 orig9ate f ! deposition ( c>bonate ( lime1 & o!r m9]al +r$i5ts1 ) :i* spr+s are impregnat$4 ,! surface ( ! l&1 & portions ( ! bottom ( ! sea1 be+ ?us rais$1 ! ext]nal accessions due to ^! op]ations w\ld cause ! dim5sions ( ! planet to enl>ge cont9ually1 if ! am\nt ( depression ( ! e>?'s cru/ 7 no m ?an equal to ! elevation4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 t ! mean diamet] ( ! e>? %\ld rema9 uni=m1 & ! unev5ness ( ! surface be pres]v$1 x is necess>y t ! am\nt ( subsid5ce %\ld be 9 excess4 ,& su* a pr$om9ance ( depression is f> f improbable1 on me*anical pr9ciples1 s9ce e upheav+ movem5t mu/ be expect$ ei!r to produce cav]ns 9 ! mass bel[1 or to cause "s dim9ution ( its d5sity4 ,vacuities mu/1 also1 arise f ! subtraction ( ! matt] p\r$ out f volcanoes & m9]al spr+s1 or f ! contraction ( argillace\s masses by subt]ranean heat2 & ! f\ndations hav+ be5 ?us weak5$1 ! e>?'s cru/1 %ak5 & r5t by reit]at$ convulsions1 mu/1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 fall 94 ,if we embrace ^! views1 important geological consequ5ces w foll[2 s9ce1 if !re be1 ^u ! :ole1 m subsid5ce ?an elevation1 ! av]age dep? to :i* =m] surfaces h sunk b5ea? _! orig9al level mu/ exce$ ! height :i* anci5t m>9e /rata h atta9$ above ! sea4 ,if1 = example1 m>9e /rata1 ab\t ! age ( our *alk & gre5s&1 h be5 lift$ up 9 ,europe to an extreme height ( m ?an elev5 ?\s& feet1 & a mean elevation ( "s hundr$s1 we may conclude t c]ta9 p>ts ( ! surface1 :i* exi/$ :5 ^? /rata 7 deposit$1 h sunk to an extreme dep? ( m ?an elev5 ?\s& feet bel[ _! orig9al level1 & to a mean dep? ( m ?an a few hundr$s4 ,9 reg>d to faults1 also1 we mu/ inf]1 accord+ to ! hypo!sis n[ propos$1 t a great] numb] h aris5 f ! s9k+ d[n ?an f ! elevation ( rocks4 ,to conclude3 x seems to be r5d]$ probable1 by ! views above expla9$1 t ! con/ant repair ( ! l&1 & ! subs]vi5cy ( our planet to ! support ( t]re/rial z well z aquatic species1 are secur$ by ! elevat+ & depress+ p[] ( causes act+ 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?2 :i*1 al?\gh s (t5 ! s\rce ( dea? & t]ror to ! inhabitants ( ! globe--visit+ 9 succession e zone1 & fill+ ! e>? ) monum5ts ( ru9 & disord]--are nev]!less ! ag5ts ( a cons]vative pr9ciple above all o!rs ess5tial to ! /ability ( ! sy/em4 ,,book ,,iii4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,,*anges ,,( ,,! ,,organic ,,_w ,,n[ ,,9 ,,progress4 ,division ( ! subject--,exam9ation ( ! "q1 ,:e!r species h a real exi/5ce 9 nature8--,importance ( ?is "q 9 geology--,sket* ( ,lam>ck's argum5ts 9 favor ( ! transmutation ( species1 & 8 conjectures respect+ ! orig9 ( exi/+ animals & plants--,8 !ory ( ! trans=mation ( ! orang-outang into ! human species4 ,! la/ book1 f *apt]s f\rte5 to ?irty-?ree inclusive1 0 occupi$ ) ! consid]ation ( ! *anges br\ght ab\t on ! e>?'s surface1 )9 ! p]iod ( human obs]vation1 by inorganic ag5ts2 su*1 = example1 z riv]s1 m>9e curr5ts1 volcanoes1 & e>?quakes4 ,b !re is ano!r class ( ph5om5a relat+ to ! organic _w1 :i* h an equal claim on our att5tion1 if we desire to obta9 possession ( all ! prep>atory k respect+ ! exi/+ c\rse ( nature1 :i* may be available 9 ! int]pretation ( geological monum5ts4 ,x appe>$ f our prelim9>y sket* ( ! progress ( ! sci5ce1 t ! mo/ lively int]e/ 0 excit$ among its e>li] cultivators1 by ! discov]y ( ! rema9s ( animals & plants 9 ! int]ior ( m\nta9s frequ5tly remote f ! sea4 ,mu* controv]sy arose respect+ ! nature ( ^! rema9s1 ! causes :i* may h br\ght !m into s s+ul> a position1 & ! want ( a specific agreem5t betwe5 !m & kn[n animals & plants4 ,to qualify ourselves to =m j views on ^! curi\s que/ions1 we mu/ fir/ /udy ! pres5t condition ( ! animate creation on ! globe4 ,?is bran* ( our inquiry naturally divides itself into two p>ts3 fir/1 we may exam9e ! vicissitudes to :i* species are subject2 secondly1 ! processes by :i* c]ta9 individuals ( ^! species occasionally become fossil4 ,! fir/ ( ^! divisions w lead u1 among o!r topics1 to inquire1 fir/1 :e!r species h a real & p]man5t exi/5ce 9 nature8 or :e!r !y are capable1 z "s naturali/s pret5d1 ( be+ indef9itely modifi$ 9 ! c\rse ( a long s]ies ( g5]ations8 ,secondly1 :e!r1 if species h a real exi/5ce1 ! individuals compos+ !m h be5 d]iv$ orig9ally f _m simil> /ocks1 or ea* f "o only1 ! desc5dants ( :i* h spread !mselves gradually f a p>ticul> po9t ov] ! habitable l&s & wat]s8 ,?irdly1 h[ f> ! duration ( ea* species ( animal & plant is limit$ by its dep5d5ce on c]ta9 fluctuat+ & tempor>y conditions 9 ! /ate ( ! animate & inanimate _w8 ,f\r?ly1 :e!r !re be pro(s ( ! successive ext]m9ation ( species 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature1 & :e!r !re be any reason = conjectur+ t new animals & plants are creat$ f "t to "t1 to supply _! place8 ,:e!r species h a real exi/5ce 9 nature4--,be=e we c advance a /ep 9 our propos$ inquiry1 we mu/ be able to def9e precisely ! mean+ :i* we atta* to ! t]m species4 ,?is is ev5 m necess>y 9 geology ?an 9 ! ord9>y /udies ( ! naturali/2 = !y :o d5y t su* a ?+ z a species exi/s1 conc$e nev]!less t a botani/ or zoologi/ may reason z if ! specific "* 7 con/ant1 because !y conf9e _! obs]vations to a brief p]iod ( "t4 ,j z ! geograph]1 9 con/ruct+ 8 maps f c5tury to c5tury1 may proce$ z if ! app>5t places ( ! fix$ />s rema9$ absolutely ! same1 & z if no alt]ation 7 br\ght ab\t by ! precession ( ! equ9oxes2 s1 x is said1 9 ! organic _w1 ! /ability ( a species may be tak5 z absolute1 if we d n ext5d our views beyond ! n>r[ p]iod ( human hi/ory2 b let a suffici5t numb] ( c5turies elapse1 to all[ ( important revolutions 9 climate1 physical geography1 & o!r circum/ances1 & ! *>act]s1 say !y1 ( ! desc5dants ( common p>5ts may deviate indef9itely f _! orig9al type4 ,n[1 if ^! doctr9es be t5able1 we are at once pres5t$ ) a pr9ciple ( incessant *ange 9 ! organic _w2 & no degree ( dissimil>ity 9 ! plants & animals :i* may =m]ly h exi/$1 & are f\nd fossil1 w\ld entitle u to conclude t !y may n h be5 ! prototypes & prog5itors ( ! species n[ liv+4 ,accord+ly ,m4 ,ge(froy ,/4 ,hilaire has decl>$ 8 op9ion1 t !re has be5 an un9t]rupt$ succession 9 ! animal k+dom1 effect$ by means ( g5]ation1 f ! e>lie/ ages ( ! _w up to ! pres5t day1 & t ! anci5t animals ^: rema9s h be5 pres]v$ 9 ! /rata1 h[ev] diff]5t1 may nev]!less h be5 ! ance/ors ( ^? n[ 9 be+4 ,?is notion is n v g5]ally receiv$1 b we are n w>rant$ 9 assum+ ! contr>y1 )\t fully expla9+ ! data & reason+ by :i* x may be refut$4 ,i %all beg9 by /at+ z concisely z possible all ! facts & +5i\s argum5ts by :i* ! !ory has be5 support$2 & = ?is purpose ,i _c d bett] ?an (f] ! read] a rapid sket* ( ,lam>ck's /atem5t ( ! pro(s :i* he reg>ds z confirmatory ( ! doctr9e1 & :i* he has d]iv$ p>tly f ! works ( 8 pr$ecessors & 9 "p f orig9al inve/igations4 ,8 pro(s & inf]5ces w be be/ consid]$ 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y appe> to h influ5c$ 8 m9d1 & ,i %all !n po9t out "s ( ! results to :i* he 0 l$ :ile boldly foll[+ out 8 pr9ciples to _! legitimate consequ5ces4 ,lam>ck's argum5ts 9 favor ( ! transmutation ( species4--,! "n ( species1 obs]ves ,lam>ck1 has be5 usually appli$ to e collection ( simil> individuals produc$ by o!r individuals l !mselves4#gij ,?is def9ition1 he admits1 is correct2 because e liv+ individual be>s a v close resemblance to ^? f :i* x spr+s4 ,b ?is is n all :i* is usually impli$ by ! t]m species2 = ! majority ( naturali/s agree ) ,l9naeus 9 suppos+ t all ! individuals propagat$ f "o /ock h c]ta9 di/+ui%+ *>act]s 9 common1 :i* w nev] v>y1 & :i* h rema9$ ! same s9ce ! creation ( ea* species4 ,9 ord] to %ake ?is op9ion1 ,lam>ck ent]s ^u ! foll[+ l9e ( argum5t3--,! m we advance 9 ! k ( ! diff]5t organiz$ bodies :i* cov] ! surface ( ! globe1 ! m our emb>rassm5t increases1 to det]m9e :at ought to be reg>d$ z a species1 & /ill m h[ to limit & di/+ui% g5]a4 ,9 proportion z our collections are enri*$1 we see almo/ e void fill$ up1 & all our l9es ( sep>ation effac$6 ,we are r$uc$ to arbitr>y det]m9ations1 & are sometimes fa9 to seize ^u ! slight diff]5ces ( m]e v>ieties1 9 ord] to =m *>act]s = :at we *oose to call a species2 & sometimes we are induc$ to pron\nce individuals b slightly diff]+1 & :i* o!rs reg>d z true species1 to be v>ieties4 ,! great] ! abundance ( natural objects assembl$ toge!r1 ! m d we discov] pro(s t e ?+ passes by ins5sible %ades into some?+ else2 t ev5 ! m rem>kable diff]5ces are evanesc5t1 & t nature has1 = ! mo/ "p1 left u no?+ at our disposal = e/abli%+ di/9ctions1 save trifl+1 &1 9 "s respects1 pu]ile p>ticul>ities4 ,we f9d t _m g5]a among/ animals & plants are ( su* an ext5t1 9 consequ5ce ( ! numb] ( species ref]r$ to !m1 t ! /udy & det]m9ation ( ^! la/ has become almo/ impracticable4 ,:5 ! species are arrang$ 9 a s]ies1 & plac$ ne> to ea* o!r1 ) due reg>d to _! natural aff9ities1 !y ea* diff] 9 s m9ute a degree f ^? next adjo9+1 t !y almo/ melt into ea* o!r1 & are 9 a mann] conf\nd$ toge!r4 ,if we see isolat$ species1 we may presume ! abs5ce ( "s m closely connect$1 & :i* h n yet be5 discov]$4 ,already are !re g5]a1 & ev5 entire ord]s--nay1 :ole classes1 :i* pres5t an approximation to ! /ate ( ?+s "h indicat$4 ,if1 :5 species h be5 ?us plac$ 9 a regul> s]ies1 we select "o1 & !n1 mak+ a leap ov] sev]al int]m$iate ones1 we take a second1 at "s di/ance f ! fir/1 ^! two w1 on comp>ison1 be se5 to be v dissimil>2 & x is 9 ?is mann] t e naturali/ beg9s to /udy ! objects :i* are at 8 own door4 ,he !n f9ds x an easy task to e/abli% g5]ic & specific di/9ctions2 & x is only :5 8 exp]i5ce is enl>g$1 & :5 he has made himself ma/] ( ! int]m$iate l9ks1 t 8 difficulties & ambiguities beg94 ,b :ile we are ?us compell$ to resort to trifl+ & m9ute *>act]s 9 our attempt to sep>ate ! species1 we f9d a /rik+ disp>ity betwe5 individuals :i* we "k to h desc5d$ f a common /ock2 & ^! newly acquir$ peculi>ities are regul>ly transmitt$ f "o g5]ation to ano!r1 con/itut+ :at are call$ races4 ,f a great numb] ( facts1 cont9ues ! au?or1 we le>n t 9 proportion z ! individuals ( "o ( our species *ange _! situation1 climate1 & mann] ( liv+1 !y *ange also1 by little & little1 ! consi/5ce & proportions ( _! p>ts1 _! =m1 _! faculties1 & ev5 _! organization1 9 su* a mann] t e ?+ 9 !m comes at la/ to p>ticipate 9 ! mutations to :i* !y h be5 expos$4 ,ev5 9 ! same climate1 a great diff]5ce ( situation & exposure causes individuals to v>y2 b if ^! individuals cont9ue to live & to be reproduc$ "u ! same diff]5ce ( circum/ances1 di/9ctions are br\ght ab\t 9 !m :i* become 9 "s degree ess5tial to _! exi/5ce4 ,9 a ^w1 at ! end ( _m successive g5]ations1 ^! individuals1 :i* orig9ally belong$ to ano!r species1 are trans=m$ into a new & di/9ct species4#gia ,?us1 = example1 if ! se$s ( a grass1 or any o!r plant :i* gr[s naturally 9 a moi/ mead[1 be accid5tally transport$1 fir/ to ! slope ( "s neighbor+ hill1 :]e ! soil1 al?\gh at a great] elevation1 is damp en\gh to all[ ! plant to live2 & if1 aft] hav+ liv$ !re1 & hav+ be5 sev]al times reg5]at$1 x rea*es by degrees ! dri] & almo/ arid soil ( a m\nta9 declivity1 x w !n1 if x succe$s 9 gr[+1 & p]petuates itself = a s]ies ( g5]ations1 be s *ang$ t botani/s :o meet ) x w reg>d x z a p>ticul> species4#gib ,! unfavorable climate 9 ?is case1 defici5cy ( n\ri%m5t1 exposure to ! w9ds1 & o!r causes1 give rise to a /unt$ & dw>fi% race1 ) "s organ m develop$ ?an o!rs1 & hav+ proportions (t5 q peculi>4 ,:at nature br+s ab\t 9 a great lapse ( "t1 we occasion sudd5ly by *ang+ ! circum/ances 9 :i* a species has be5 accu/om$ to live4 ,all are aw>e t vegetables tak5 f _! bir?place1 & cultivat$ 9 g>d5s1 und]go *anges :i* r5d] !m no long] recognizable z ! same plants4 ,_m :i* 7 naturally hairy become smoo?1 or ne>ly s2 a great numb] ( su* z 7 creep]s & trail$ along ! gr\nd1 re> _! /alks & gr[ erect4 ,o!rs lose _! ?orns or asp]ities2 o!rs1 aga91 f ! ligne\s /ate :i* _! /em possess$ 9 hot climates1 :]e !y 7 indig5\s1 pass to ! h]bace\s2 &1 among !m1 "s :i* 7 p]5nials become m]e annuals4 ,s well d botani/s "k ! effects ( su* *anges ( circum/ances1 t !y are av]se to describe species f g>d5 specim5s1 unless !y are sure t !y h be5 cultivat$ = a v %ort p]iod4 ,is n ! cultivat$ :eat 7,triticum sativum71 asks ,lam>ck1 a vegetable br\ght by man into ! /ate 9 :i* we n[ see x8 ,let any "o tell me 9 :at c\ntry a simil> plant gr[s wild1 unless :]e x has escap$ f cultivat$ fields8 ,:]e d we f9d 9 nature our cabbages1 lettuces1 & o!r cul9>y vegetables1 9 ! /ate 9 :i* !y appe> 9 our g>d5s8 ,is x n ! same 9 reg>d to a great quantity ( animals :i* dome/icity has *ang$ or consid]ably modifi$8#gic ,our dome/ic f[ls & pigeons are unlike any wild birds4 ,our dome/ic ducks & geese h lo/ ! faculty ( rais+ !mselves into ! high] regions ( ! air1 & cross+ ext5sive c\ntries 9 _! flight1 l ! wild ducks & wild geese f :i* !y 7 orig9ally d]iv$4 ,a bird :i* we bre$ 9 a cage _c1 :5 re/or$ to lib]ty1 fly l o!rs ( ! same species :i* h be5 always free4 ,?is small alt]ation ( circum/ances1 h[ev]1 has only dim9i%$ ! p[] ( flight1 )\t modify+ ! =m ( any "p ( ! w+s4 ,b :5 individuals ( ! same race are reta9$ 9 captivity dur+ a consid]able l5g? ( "t1 ! =m ev5 ( _! p>ts is gradually made to diff]1 especially if climate1 n\ri%m5t1 & o!r circum/ances be also alt]$4 ,! num]\s races ( dogs :i* we h produc$ by dome/icity are n[h]e to be f\nd 9 a wild /ate4 ,9 nature we %\ld seek 9 va9 = ma/iffs1 h>ri]s1 spaniels1 greyh\nds1 & o!r races1 betwe5 :i* ! diff]5ces are sometimes s great t !y w\ld be readily admitt$ z specific betwe5 wild animals2 yet all ^! h sprung orig9ally f a s+le race1 at fir/ approa*+ v ne> to a wolf1 if1 inde$1 ! wolf be n ! true type :i* at "s p]iod or o!r 0 dome/icat$ by man4 ,al?\gh important *anges 9 ! nature ( ! places :i* !y inhabit modify ! organization ( animals z well z vegetables2 yet ! =m]1 says ,lam>ck1 require m "t to complete a consid]able degree ( transmutation2 &1 consequ5tly1 we are less s5sible ( su* occurr5ces4 ,next to a div]sity ( ! m$ium 9 :i* animals or plants may live1 ! circum/ances :i* h mo/ influ5ce 9 modify+ _! organs are diff]5ces 9 exposure1 climate1 ! nature ( ! soil1 & o!r local p>ticul>s4 ,^! circum/ances are z v>i$ z are ! *>act]s ( ! species1 &1 l !m1 pass by ins5sible %ades into ea* o!r1 !re be+ e int]m$iate gradation betwe5 ! opposite extremes4 ,b ea* locality rema9s = a v long "t ! same1 & is alt]$ s sl[ly t we c only become consci\s ( ! reality ( ! *ange by consult+ geological monum5ts1 by :i* we le>n t ! ord] ( ?+s :i* h[ reigns 9 ea* place has n always prevail$1 & by inf]5ce anticipate t x w n always cont9ue ! same4#gid ,e consid]able alt]ation 9 ! local circum/ances 9 :i* ea* race ( animals exi/s causes a *ange 9 _! wants1 & ^! new wants excite !m to new actions & habits4 ,^! actions require ! m frequ5t employm5t ( "s p>ts be=e b slightly ex]cis$1 & !n great] developm5t foll[s z a consequ5ce ( _! m frequ5t use4 ,o!r organs no long] 9 use are impov]i%$ & dim9i%$ 9 size1 nay1 are sometimes entirely annihilat$1 :ile 9 _! place new p>ts are ins5sibly produc$ = ! dis*>ge ( new functions4#gie ,i mu/ "h int]rupt ! au?or's argum5t1 by obs]v+1 t no positive fact is cit$ to exemplify ! sub/itution ( "s entirely new s5se1 faculty1 or organ1 9 ! room ( "s o!r suppress$ z useless4 ,all ! in/ances adduc$ g only to prove t ! dim5sions & /r5g? ( memb]s & ! p]fection ( c]ta9 attributes may1 9 a long succession ( g5]ations1 be less5$ & enfeebl$ by disuse2 or1 on ! contr>y1 be matur$ & augm5t$ by active ex]tion2 j z we "k t ! p[] ( sc5t is feeble 9 ! greyh\nd1 :ile its swiftness ( pace & its acut5ess ( sight are rem>kable--t ! h>ri] & /ag-h\nd1 on ! contr>y1 are comp>atively sl[ 9 _! movem5ts1 b excel 9 ! s5se ( smell+4 ,x 0 necess>y to po9t out to ! read] ?is important *asm 9 ! *a9 ( evid5ce1 because he might o!rwise imag9e t ,i _h m]ely omitt$ ! illu/rations = ! sake ( brevity2 b ! pla9 tru? is1 t !re 7 no examples to be f\nd2 & :5 ,lam>ck talks ( ! ef=ts ( int]nal s5tim5t1 ! influ5ce ( subtle fluids1 & acts ( organization1 z causes :]eby animals & plants may acquire new organs1 he sub/itutes names = ?+s2 &1 ) a disreg>d to ! /rict rules ( induction1 resorts to fictions1 z ideal z ! pla/ic virtue1 & o!r phantoms ( ! geologi/s ( ! middle ages4 ,x is evid5t t1 if "s well-au!nticat$ facts c\ld h be5 adduc$ to e/abli% "o complete /ep 9 ! process ( trans=mation1 su* z ! appe>ance1 9 individuals desc5d+ f a common /ock1 ( a s5se or organ entirely new1 & a complete disappe>ance ( "s o!r enjoy$ by _! prog5itors1 "t alone might !n be suppos$ suffici5t to br+ ab\t any am\nt ( metamorphosis4 ,! gratuit\s assumption1 !re=e1 ( a po9t s vital to ! !ory ( transmutation1 0 unp>donable on ! "p ( its advocate4 ,b to proce$ ) ! sy/em3 x be+ assum$ z an und\bt$ fact1 t a *ange ( ext]nal circum/ances may cause "o organ to become entirely obsolete1 & a new "o to be develop$1 su* z nev] be=e belong$ to ! species1 ! foll[+ proposition is ann\nc$1 :i*1 h[ev] /agg]+ & absurd x may seem1 is logically d$uc$ f ! assum$ premises4 ,x is n ! organs1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! nature & =m ( ! p>ts ( ! body ( an animal1 :i* h giv5 rise to its habits1 & its p>ticul> faculties2 b1 on ! contr>y1 its habits1 its mann] ( liv+1 & ^? ( its prog5itors1 h 9 ! c\rse ( "t det]m9$ ! =m ( its body1 ! numb] & condition ( its organs--9 %ort1 ! faculties :i* x enjoys4 ,?us ott]s1 beav]s1 wat]f[l1 turtles1 & frogs1 7 n made web-foot$ 9 ord] t !y might swim2 b _! wants hav+ attract$ !m to ! wat] 9 se>* ( prey1 !y /ret*$ out ! toes ( _! feet to /rike ! wat] & move rapidly along its surface4 ,by ! repeat$ /ret*+ ( _! toes1 ! sk9 :i* unit$ !m at ! base acquir$ a habit ( ext5sion1 until1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 ! broad membranes :i* n[ connect _! extremities 7 =m$4 ,9 l mann]1 ! antelope & ! gazelle 7 n end[$ ) light agile =ms1 9 ord] t !y might escape by flight f c>nivor\s animals2 b1 hav+ be5 expos$ to ! dang] ( be+ dev\r$ by lions1 tig]s1 & o!r bea/s ( prey1 !y 7 compell$ to ex]t !mselves 9 runn+ ) great cel]ity2 a habit :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( _m g5]ations1 gave rise to ! peculi> sl5d]ness ( _! legs1 & ! agility & elegance ( _! =ms4 ,! camelop>d 0 n gift$ ) a long flexible neck because x 0 de/9$ to live 9 ! int]ior ( ,africa1 :]e ! soil 0 arid & devoid ( h]bage2 b1 be+ r$uc$ by ! nature ( t c\ntry to support itself on ! foliage ( l(ty trees1 x contract$ a habit ( /ret*+ itself up to rea* ! high b\ghs1 until its neck became s elongat$ t x c\ld raise its head to ! height ( tw5ty feet above ! gr\nd4 ,ano!r l9e ( argum5t is !n ent]$ ^u1 9 f>!r corroboration ( ! in/ability ( species4 ,9 ord]1 x is said1 t individuals %\ld p]petuate !mselves unalt]$ by g5]ation1 ^? belong+ to "o species ought nev] to ally !mselves to ^? ( ano!r2 b su* sexual unions d take place1 bo? among plants & animals2 & al?\gh ! (fspr+ ( su* irregul> connections are usually /]ile1 yet su* is n always ! case4 ,hybrids h sometimes prov$ prolific1 :]e ! disp>ity betwe5 ! species 0 n too great2 & by ?is means alone1 says ,lam>ck1 v>ieties may gradually be creat$ by ne> alliances1 :i* w\ld become races1 & 9 ! c\rse ( "t w\ld con/itute :at we t]m species4#gif ,b if ! s\ndness ( all ^! argum5ts & inf]5ces be admitt$1 we are next to inquire1 :at 7 ! orig9al types ( =m1 organization1 & in/9ct1 f :i* ! div]sities ( "*1 z n[ exhibit$ by animals & plants1 h be5 d]iv$8 ,we "k t individuals :i* are m]e v>ieties ( ! same species w\ld1 if _! p$igree c\ld be trac$ back f> en\gh1 t]m9ate 9 a s+le /ock2 s1 accord+ to ! tra9 ( reason+ be=e describ$1 ! species ( a g5us1 & ev5 ! g5]a ( a great family1 mu/ h _h a common po9t ( dep>ture4 ,:at1 !n1 0 ! s+le /em f :i* s _m v>ieties ( =m h ramifi$8 ,7 !re _m ( ^!1 or are we to ref] ! orig9 ( ! :ole animate creation1 z ! ,egyptian prie/s did t ( ! univ]se1 to a s+le egg8 ,9 ! abs5ce ( any positive data = fram+ a !ory on s obscure a subject1 ! foll[+ consid]ations 7 deem$ ( importance to guide conjecture4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 if we exam9e ! :ole s]ies ( kn[n animals1 f "o extremity to ! o!r1 :5 !y are arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( _! natural relations1 we f9d t we may pass progressively1 or1 at lea/1 ) v few int]ruptions1 f be+s ( m simple to ^? ( a m comp\nd /ructure2 &1 9 proportion z ! complexity ( _! organization increases1 ! numb] & dignity ( _! faculties increase also4 ,among plants1 a simil> approximation to a graduat$ scale ( be+ is app>5t1 ,secondly1 x appe>s1 f geological obs]vations1 t plants & animals ( m simple organization exi/$ on ! globe be=e ! appe>ance ( ^? ( m comp\nd /ructure1 & ! latt] 7 successively =m$ at m mod]n p]iods2 ea* new race be+ m fully develop$ ?an ! mo/ p]fect ( ! prec$+ era4 ,( ! tru? ( ! la/-m5tion$ geological !ory1 ,lam>ck seems to h be5 fully p]suad$2 & he also %[s t he 0 deeply impress$ ) a belief preval5t among/ ! old] naturali/s1 t ! primeval ocean inve/$ ! :ole planet long aft] x became ! habitation ( liv+ be+s2 & ?us he 0 incl9$ to ass]t ! priority ( ! types ( m>9e animals to ^? ( ! t]re/rial1 s z to fancy1 = example1 t ! te/acea ( ! ocean exi/$ fir/1 until "s ( !m1 by gradual evolution1 7 improv$ into ^? inhabit+ ! l&4 ,^! speculative views _h already be51 9 a great degree1 anticipat$ by ,demaillet 9 8 ,telliam$1 & by sev]al mod]n writ]s2 s t ! tables 7 completely turn$ on ! philosoph]s ( antiquity1 ) :om x 0 a receiv$ maxim1 t creat$ ?+s 7 always mo/ p]fect :5 !y came fir/ f ! h&s ( _! ,mak]2 & t !re 0 a t5d5cy to progressive det]ioration 9 sublun>y ?+s :5 left to !mselves-- ----omnia fatis ,9 pejus ru]e1 ac retro sublapsa ref]ri4 ,s deeply 0 ! fai? ( ! anci5t s*ools ( philosophy imbu$ ) ?is doctr9e1 t1 to *eck ?is univ]sal pron5ess to deg5]acy1 no?+ less ?an ! re9t]v5tion ( ! ,deity 0 ?\ght adequate2 & x 0 held1 t !reby ! ord]1 excell5ce1 & pri/9e en]gy ( ! moral & physical _w _h be5 repeat$ly re/or$4 ,b :5 ! possibility ( ! indef9ite modification ( individuals desc5d+ f common p>5ts 0 once assum$1 z also ! geological inf]5ce respect+ ! progressive developm5t ( organic life1 x 0 natural t ! anci5t dogma %\ld be reject$1 or r rev]s$1 & t ! mo/ simple & imp]fect =ms & faculties %\ld be conceiv$ to h be5 ! orig9als :5ce all o!rs 7 develop$4 ,accord+ly1 9 con=mity to ^! views1 in]t matt] 0 suppos$ to h be5 fir/ end[$ ) life2 until1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 s5sation 0 sup]add$ to m]e vitality3 sight1 he>+1 & ! o!r s5ses 7 aft]w>ds acquir$2 !n in/9ct & ! m5tal faculties2 until1 f9ally1 by virtue ( ! t5d5cy ( ?+s to progressive improvem5t1 ! irrational 0 develop$ 9 ! rational4 ,! read]1 h[ev]1 w imm$iately p]ceive t :5 all ! high] ord]s ( plants & animals 7 ?us suppos$ to be comp>atively mod]n1 & to h be5 d]iv$ 9 a long s]ies ( g5]ations f ^? ( m simple con=mation1 "s f>!r hypo!sis became indisp5sable1 9 ord] to expla9 :y1 aft] an indef9ite lapse ( ages1 !re 7 /ill s _m be+s ( ! simple/ /ructure4 ,:y h ! majority ( exi/+ creatures rema9$ /ation>y ?r\gh\t ?is long succession ( epo*s1 :ile o!rs h made su* prodigi\s advances8 ,:y are !re su* multitudes ( infusoria & polyps1 or ( conf]vae & o!r cryptogamic plants8 ,:y1 moreov]1 has ! process ( developm5t act$ ) su* unequal & irregul> =ce on ^? classes ( be+s :i* h be5 greatly p]fect$1 s t !re are wide *asms 9 ! s]ies2 gaps s enorm\s1 t ,lam>ck fairly admits we c nev] expect to fill !m up by future discov]ies8 ,! foll[+ hypo!sis 0 provid$ to meet ^! objections4 ,nature1 we are told1 is n an intellig5ce1 nor ! ,deity2 b a delegat$ p[]--a m]e in/rum5t--a piece ( me*anism act+ by necessity--an ord] ( ?+s con/itut$ by ! ,supreme ,be+1 & subject to laws :i* are ! expressions ( 8 w4 ,?is ,nature is oblig$ to proce$ gradually 9 all h] op]ations2 %e _c produce animals & plants ( all classes at once1 b mu/ always beg9 by ! =mation ( ! mo/ simple k9ds1 & out ( !m elaborate ! m comp\nd1 add+ to !m1 successively1 diff]5t sy/ems ( organs1 & multiply+ m & m _! numb] & en]gy4 ,?is nature is daily engag$ 9 ! =mation ( ! elem5t>y rudim5ts ( animal & vegetable exi/5ce1 :i* correspond to :at ! anci5ts t]m$ spontane\s g5]ation4 ,%e is always beg9n+ anew1 day by day1 ! "w ( creation1 by =m+ monads1 or r\gh draughts 7abau*es71 :i* are ! only liv+ ?+s %e gives bir? to directly4 ,!re are di/9ct prim>y rudim5ts ( plants & animals1 & probably ( ea* ( ! great divisions ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms4#gig ,^! are gradually develop$ into ! high] & m p]fect classes by ! sl[ b unceas+ ag5cy ( two influ5tial pr9ciples3 fir/1 ! t5d5cy to progressive advancem5t 9 organization1 accompani$ by great] dignity 9 in/9ct1 intellig5ce1 c42 secondly1 ! =ce ( ext]nal circum/ances1 or ( v>iations 9 ! physical condition ( ! e>?1 or ! mutual relations ( plants & animals4 ,=1 z species spread !mselves gradually ov] ! globe1 !y are expos$ f "t to "t to v>iations 9 climate1 & to *anges 9 ! quantity & quality ( _! food2 !y meet ) new plants & animals :i* assi/ or ret>d _! developm5t1 by supply+ !m ) nutrim5t1 or de/roy+ _! foes4 ,! nature1 also1 ( ea* locality1 is 9 itself fluctuat+2 s t1 ev5 if ! relation ( o!r animals & plants 7 inv>iable1 ! habits & organization ( species w\ld be modifi$ by ! influ5ce ( local revolutions4 ,n[1 if ! fir/ ( ^! pr9ciples1 ! t5d5cy to progressive developm5t1 7 left to ex]t itself ) p]fect fre$om1 x w\ld give rise1 says ,lam>ck1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 to a graduat$ scale ( be+1 :]e ! mo/ ins5sible transition might be trac$ f ! simple/ to ! mo/ comp\nd /ructure1 f ! humble/ to ! mo/ exalt$ degree ( intellig5ce4 ,b1 9 consequ5ce ( ! p]petual int]f]5ce ( ! ext]nal causes be=e m5tion$1 ?is regul> ord] is greatly int]f]$ )1 & an approximation only to su* a /ate ( ?+s is exhibit$ by ! animate creation1 ! progress ( "s races be+ ret>d$ by unfavorable1 & t ( o!rs accel]at$ by favorable1 comb9ations ( circum/ances4 ,h5ce1 all k9ds ( anomalies int]rupt ! cont9uity ( ! plan2 & *asms1 into :i* :ole g5]a or families might be ins]t$1 are se5 to sep>ate ! ne>e/ exi/+ portions ( ! s]ies4 ,lam>ck's !ory ( ! trans=mation ( ! orang-outang into ! human species4--,su* is ! ma*9]y ( ! ,lam>ckian sy/em2 b ! read] w h>dly1 p]haps1 be able to =m a p]fect conception ( s complicat$ a piece ( me*anism1 unless x is exhibit$ 9 motion1 s t we may see 9 :at mann] x c "w out1 "u ! au?or's guidance1 all ! extraord9>y effects :i* we behold 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! animate creation4 ,i h only space = exhibit+ a small "p ( ! entire process by :i* a complete metamorphosis is a*iev$1 & %all !re=e omit ! mode by :i*1 aft] a c\ntless succession ( g5]ations1 a small gelat9\s body is trans=m$ into an oak or an ape2 pass+ on at once to ! la/ gr& /ep 9 ! progressive s*eme1 by :i* ! orang-outang1 hav+ be5 already evolv$ out ( a monad1 is made sl[ly to atta9 ! attributes & dignity ( man4 ,"o ( ! races ( quadruman\s animals :i* _h rea*$ ! highe/ /ate ( p]fection1 lo/1 by con/ra9t ( circum/ances 7conc]n+ ! exact nature ( :i* tradition is un=tunately sil5t71 ! habit ( climb+ trees1 & ( hang+ on by grasp+ ! b\ghs ) _! feet z ) h&s4 ,! individuals ( ?is race be+ oblig$1 = a long s]ies ( g5]ations1 to use _! feet exclusively = walk+1 & ceas+ to employ _! h&s z feet1 7 trans=m$ into biman\s animals1 & :at be=e 7 ?umbs became m]e toes1 no sep>ation be+ requir$ :5 _! feet 7 us$ solely = walk+4 ,hav+ acquir$ a habit ( hold+ !mselves upright1 _! legs & feet assum$1 ins5sibly1 a con=mation fitt$ to support !m 9 an erect attitude1 till at la/ ^! animals c\ld no long] g on all-f\rs )\t mu* inconv5i5ce4 ,! ,angola orang 7,simia troglodytes1 ,l9n47 is ! mo/ p]fect ( animals2 mu* m s ?an ! ,indian orang 7,simia ,satyrus71 :i* has be5 call$ ! orang-outang1 al?\gh bo? are v inf]ior to man 9 corporeal p[]s & intellig5ce4 ,^! animals frequ5tly hold !mselves upright2 b _! organization has n yet be5 suffici5tly modifi$ to su/a9 !m habitually 9 ?is attitude1 s t ! /&+ po/ure is v uneasy to !m4 ,:5 ! ,indian orang is compell$ to take flight f press+ dang]1 he imm$iately falls d[n ^u all-f\rs1 %[+ cle>ly t ?is 0 ! orig9al position ( ! animal4 ,ev5 9 man1 ^: organization1 9 ! c\rse ( a long s]ies ( g5]ations1 has advanc$ s mu* f>!r1 ! upright po/ure is fatigu+1 & c be support$ only = a limit$ "t1 & by aid ( ! contraction ( _m muscles4 ,if ! v]tebral column =m$ ! axis ( ! human body1 & support$ ! head & all ! o!r p>ts 9 equilibrium1 !n might ! upright position be a /ate ( repose3 b1 z ! human head does n articulate 9 ! c5tre ( gravity1 z ! *e/1 belly1 & o!r p>ts press almo/ entirely =w>d ) _! :ole weight1 & z ! v]tebral column reposes ^u an oblique base1 a wat*ful activity is requir$ to prev5t ! body f fall+4 ,*ildr5 :o h l>ge heads & prom95t bellies c h>dly walk at ! end ev5 ( two ye>s2 & _! frequ5t tumbles indicate ! natural t5d5cy 9 man to resume ! quadrup$al /ate4 ,n[1 :5 s mu* progress _h be5 made by ! quadruman\s animals be=e m5tion$1 t !y c\ld hold !mselves habitually 9 an erect attitude1 & 7 accu/om$ to a wide range ( vision1 & ceas$ to use _! jaws = fight+ & te>+1 or = clipp+ h]bs = food1 _! sn\t became gradually %ort]1 _! incisor tee? became v]tical1 & ! facial angle grew m op54 ,among o!r ideas :i* ! natural t5d5cy to p]fection eng5d]$1 ! desire ( rul+ sugge/$ itself1 & ?is race succe$$ at l5g? 9 gett+ ! bett] ( ! o!r animals1 & made !mselves ma/]s ( all ^? spots on ! surface ( ! globe :i* be/ suit$ !m4 ,!y drove out ! animals :i* approa*$ ne>e/ !m 9 organization & intellig5ce1 & :i* 7 9 a condition to dispute ) !m ! good ?+s ( ?is _w1 =c+ !m to take refuge 9 des]ts1 woods1 & wild]nesses1 :]e _! multiplication 0 *eck$1 & ! progressive developm5t ( _! faculties ret>d$2 :ile1 9 ! mean "t1 ! dom9ant race spread itself 9 e direction1 & liv$ 9 l>ge companies1 :]e new wants 7 successively creat$1 excit+ !m to indu/ry1 & gradually p]fect+ _! means & faculties4 ,9 ! supremacy & increas$ intellig5ce acquir$ by ! rul+ race1 we see an illu/ration ( ! natural t5d5cy ( ! organic _w to gr[ m p]fect2 &1 9 _! influ5ce 9 repress+ ! advance ( o!rs1 an example ( "o ( ^? di/urb+ causes be=e enum]at$1 t =ce ( ext]nal circum/ances :i* causes su* wide *asms 9 ! regul> s]ies ( animat$ be+4 ,:5 ! individuals ( ! dom9ant race became v num]\s1 _! ideas greatly increas$ 9 numb]1 & !y felt ! necessity ( communicat+ !m to ea* o!r1 & ( augm5t+ & v>y+ ! signs prop] = ! communication ( ideas4 ,mean:ile ! inf]ior quadruman\s animals1 al?\gh mo/ ( !m 7 greg>i\s1 acquir$ no new ideas1 be+ p]secut$ & re/less 9 ! des]ts1 & oblig$ to fly & conceal !mselves1 s t !y conceiv$ no new wants4 ,su* ideas z !y already _h rema9$ unalt]$1 & !y c\ld disp5se ) ! communication ( ! great] "p ( ^!4 ,to make !mselves1 !re=e1 und]/ood by _! fell[s1 requir$ m]ely a few movem5ts ( ! body or limbs--:i/l+1 & ! utt]+ ( c]ta9 cries v>i$ by ! inflexions ( ! voice4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! individuals ( ! asc5dant race1 animat$ ) a desire ( int]*ang+ _! ideas1 :i* became m & m num]\s1 7 prompt$ to multiply ! means ( communication1 & 7 no long] satisfi$ ) m]e pantomimic signs1 nor ev5 ) all ! possible inflexions ( ! voice1 b made cont9ual ef=ts to acquire ! p[] ( utt]+ articulate s\nds1 employ+ a few at fir/1 b aft]w>ds v>y+ & p]fect+ !m accord+ to ! increase ( _! wants4 ,! habitual ex]cise ( _! ?roat1 tongue1 & lips1 ins5sibly modifi$ ! con=mation ( ^! organs1 until !y became fitt$ = ! faculty ( spee*4#gih ,9 effect+ ?is mighty *ange1 ! exig5cies ( ! individuals 7 ! sole ag5ts2 !y gave rise to ef=ts1 & ! organs prop] = articulat+ s\nds 7 develop$ by _! habitual employm5t4 ,h5ce1 9 ?is peculi> race1 ! orig9 ( ! admirable faculty ( spee*2 h5ce also ! div]sity ( languages1 s9ce ! di/ance ( places :]e ! individuals compos+ ! race e/abli%$ !mselves soon favor$ ! corruption ( conv5tional signs4#gii ,9 conclusion1 x may be prop] to obs]ve t ! above sket* ( ! ,lam>ckian !ory is no exagg]at$ picture1 & ^? passages :i* h probably excit$ ! greate/ surprise 9 ! m9d ( ! read] are lit]al translations f ! orig9al4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,,transmutation ,,( ,,species--,cont9u$4 ,recapitulation ( ! argum5ts 9 favor ( ! !ory ( transmutation ( species--,_! insuffici5cy--,causes ( difficulty 9 discrim9at+ species--,"s v>ieties possibly m di/9ct ?an c]ta9 individuals ( di/9ct species--,v>iability 9 a species consi/5t ) a belief t ! limits ( deviation are fix$--,no facts ( transmutation au!nticat$--,v>ieties ( ! ,dog--! ,dog & ,wolf di/9ct species--,mummies ( v>i\s animals f ,egypt id5tical 9 "* ) liv+ individuals--,se$s & plants f ! ,egyptian tombs--,modifications produc$ 9 plants by agriculture & g>d5+4 ,! !ory ( ! transmutation ( species1 consid]$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 has met ) "s degree ( favor f _m naturali/s1 f _! desire to disp5se1 z f> z possible1 ) ! repeat$ int]v5tion ( a ,fir/ ,cause1 z (t5 z geological monum5ts atte/ ! successive appe>ance ( new races ( animals & plants1 & ! ext9ction ( ^? pre-exi/+4 ,b1 indep5d5tly ( a pr$isposition to acc\nt1 if possible1 = a s]ies ( *anges 9 ! organic _w by ! regul> action ( second>y causes1 we h se5 t 9 tru? _m p]plex+ difficulties pres5t !mselves to "o :o attempts to e/abli% ! nature & reality ( ! specific "*4 ,& if once !re appe>s gr\nd ( reasonable d\bt1 9 reg>d to ! con/ancy ( species1 ! am\nt ( trans=mation :i* !y are capable ( und]go+ may seem to resolve itself into a m]e "q ( ! quantity ( "t assign$ to ! pa/ duration ( animate exi/5ce4 ,be=e ent]+ ^u ! reasons :i* may be adduc$ = reject+ ,lam>ck's hypo!sis1 ,i %all recapitulate1 9 a few words1 ! ph5om5a1 & ! :ole tra9 ( ?\ght1 by :i* ,i conceive x to h be5 sugge/$1 & :i* h ga9$ = ?is & analog\s !ories1 bo? 9 anci5t & mod]n times1 a consid]able numb] ( vot>ies4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! v>i\s gr\ps into :i* plants & animals may be ?r[n seem almo/ inv>iably1 to a beg9n]1 to be s natural1 t he is usually conv9c$ at fir/1 z 0 ,l9naeus to ! la/1 t g5]a are z mu* f\nd$ 9 nature z ! species :i* compose !m4#hjj ,:5 by exam9+ ! num]\s int]m$iate gradations ! /ud5t f9ds all l9es ( dem>cation to be 9 mo/ in/ances oblit]at$1 ev5 :]e !y at fir/ appe>$ mo/ di/9ct1 he gr[s m & m sceptical z to ! real exi/5ce ( g5]a1 & f9ally reg>ds !m z m]e arbitr>y & artificial signs1 inv5t$1 l ^? :i* s]ve to di/+ui% ! heav5ly con/ellations1 = ! conv5i5ce ( classification1 & hav+ z little pret5sions to reality4 ,d\bts are !n eng5d]$ 9 8 m9d z to :e!r species may n also be equally unreal4 ,! /ud5t is probably fir/ /ruck ) ! ph5om5on1 t "s individuals are made to deviate widely f ! ord9>y type by ! =ce ( peculi> circum/ances1 & ) ! /ill m extraord9>y fact1 t ! newly acquir$ peculi>ities are fai?fully transmitt$ to ! (fspr+4 ,h[ f>1 he asks1 may su* v>iations ext5d 9 ! c\rse ( indef9ite p]iods ( "t1 & dur+ great vicissitudes 9 ! physical condition ( ! globe8 ,8 gr[+ inc]titude is at fir/ *eck$ by ! reflection t nature has =bidd5 ! int]mixture ( ! desc5dants ( di/9ct orig9al /ocks1 or has1 at lea/1 entail$ /]ility on _! (fspr+1 !reby prev5t+ _! be+ conf\nd$ toge!r1 & po9t+ out t a multitude ( di/9ct types mu/ h be5 creat$ 9 ! beg9n+1 & mu/ h rema9$ pure & uncorrupt$ to ?is day4 ,rely+ on ?is g5]al law1 he endeavors to solve ea* difficult problem by direct exp]im5t1 until he is aga9 a/\nd$ by ! ph5om5on ( a prolific hybrid1 & /ill m by an example ( a hybrid p]petuat+ itself ?r\gh\t sev]al g5]ations 9 ! vegetable _w4 ,he !n feels himself r$uc$ to ! dilemma ( *oos+ betwe5 two alt]natives2 ei!r to reject ! te/1 or to decl>e t ! two species1 f ! union ( :i* ! fruitful prog5y has sprung1 7 m]e v>ieties4 ,if he pref] ! latt]1 he is compell$ to "q ! reality ( ! di/9ctness ( all o!r suppos$ species :i* diff] no m ?an ! p>5ts ( su* prolific hybrids2 = al?\gh he may n be enabl$ imm$iately to procure1 9 all su* in/ances1 a fruitful (fspr+2 yet exp]im5ts %[1 t aft] repeat$ failures1 ! union ( two recogniz$ species may at la/1 "u v favorable circum/ances1 give bir? to a f]tile prog5y4 ,su* circum/ances1 !re=e1 ! naturali/ may conceive to h occurr$ aga9 & aga91 9 ! c\rse ( a great lapse ( ages4 ,8 fir/ op9ions are n[ fairly unsettl$1 & e /ay at :i* he has caught has giv5 way "o aft] ano!r2 he is 9 dang] ( fall+ into any new & vision>y doctr9e :i* may be pres5t$ to him2 = he n[ reg>ds e "p ( ! animate creation z void ( /ability1 & 9 a /ate ( cont9ual flux4 ,9 ?is mood he enc\nt]s ! ,geologi/1 :o relates to him h[ !re h be5 endless vicissitudes 9 ! %ape & /ructure ( organic be+s 9 =m] ages--h[ ! approa* to ! pres5t sy/em ( ?+s has be5 gradual--t !re has be5 a progressive developm5t ( organization subs]vi5t to ! purposes ( life1 f ! mo/ simple to ! mo/ complex /ate--t ! appe>ance ( man is ! la/ ph5om5on 9 a long succession ( ev5ts--&1 f9ally1 t a s]ies ( physical revolutions c be trac$ 9 ! inorganic _w1 coeval & co-ext5sive ) ^? ( organic nature4 ,^! views seem imm$iately to confirm all 8 preconceiv$ d\bts z to ! /ability ( ! specific "*1 & he beg9s to ?9k !re may exi/ an insep>able connection betwe5 a s]ies ( *anges 9 ! inanimate _w1 & ! capability ( ! species to be indef9itely modifi$ by ! influ5ce ( ext]nal circum/ances4 ,h5ce=? 8 speculations "k no def9ite b\nds2 he gives ! re9 to conjecture1 & fancies t ! outw>d =m1 int]nal /ructure1 in/9ctive faculties1 nay1 t reason itself may h be5 gradually develop$ f "s ( ! simple/ /ates ( exi/5ce--t all animals1 t man himself1 & ! irrational be+s1 may h _h "o common orig92 t all may be p>ts ( "o cont9u\s & progressive s*eme ( developm5t1 f ! mo/ imp]fect to ! m complex2 9 f9e1 he r5\nces 8 belief 9 ! high g5ealogy ( 8 species1 & looks =w>d1 z if 9 comp5sation1 to ! future p]fectibility ( man 9 8 physical1 intellectual1 & moral attributes4 ,let u n[ proce$ to consid] :at is defective 9 evid5ce1 & :at fallaci\s 9 reason+1 9 ! gr\nds ( ^! /range conclusions4 ,blum5ba* judici\sly obs]ves1 t no g5]al rule c be laid d[n = det]m9+ ! di/9ctness ( species1 z !re is no p>ticul> class ( *>act]s :i* c s]ve z a crit]ion4 ,9 ea* case we mu/ be guid$ by analogy & probability4 ,! multitude1 9 fact1 & complexity ( ! pro(s to be weigh$ is s great1 t we c only hope to obta9 presumptive evid5ce1 & we mu/1 !re=e1 be ! m c>eful to d]ive our g5]al views z mu* z possible f ^? obs]vations :]e ! *ances ( deception are lea/4 ,we mu/ be on our gu>d n to tread 9 ! foot/eps ( ! naturali/s ( ! middle ages1 :o believ$ ! doctr9e ( spontane\s g5]ation to be applicable to all ^? p>ts ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms :i* !y lea/ und]/ood1 9 direct contradiction to ! analogy ( all ! p>ts be/ kn[n to !m2 & :o1 :5 at l5g? !y f\nd t insects & cryptogam\s plants 7 also propagat$ f eggs or se$s1 /ill p]si/$ 9 reta9+ _! old prejudices respect+ ! infusory animalcules & o!r m9ute be+s1 ! g5]ation ( :i* _h n !n be5 demon/rat$ by ! microscope to be gov]n$ by ! same laws4 ,lam>ck has1 inde$1 attempt$ to raise an argum5t 9 favor ( 8 sy/em1 out ( ! v confusion :i* has aris5 9 ! /udy ( "s ord]s ( animals & plants1 9 consequ5ce ( ! slight %ades ( diff]5ce :i* sep>ate ! new species discov]$ )9 ! la/ half c5tury4 ,t ! emb>rassm5t ( ^? :o attempt to classify & di/+ui% ! new acquisitions1 p\r$ 9 su* multitudes into our museums1 %\ld increase ) ! augm5tation ( _! numb]1 is q natural2 s9ce to obviate ?is1 x is n en\gh t our p[]s ( discrim9ation %\ld keep pace ) ! increase ( ! objects1 b we ought to possess great] opportunities ( /udy+ ea* animal & plant 9 all /ages ( its gr[?1 & to "k pr(\ndly _! hi/ory1 _! habits1 & physiological *>act]s1 ?r\gh\t sev]al g5]ations2 =1 9 proportion z ! s]ies ( kn[n animals gr[s m complete none c d\bt !re is a ne>] approximation to a graduat$ scale ( be+2 & ?us ! mo/ closely alli$ species w be f\nd to possess a great] numb] ( *>act]s 9 common4 ,causes ( ! difficulty ( discrim9at+ species4--,b1 9 po9t ( fact1 our new acquisitions consi/1 m & m z we advance1 ( specim5s br\ght f =eign & (t5 v di/ant & b>b>\s c\ntries4 ,a l>ge proportion h nev] ev5 be5 se5 alive by sci5tific inquir]s4 ,in/ead ( hav+ specim5s ( ! "y1 ! adult1 & ! ag$ individuals ( ea* sex1 & possess+ means ( inve/igat+ ! anatomical /ructure1 ! peculi> habits1 & in/9cts ( ea*1 :at is usually ! /ate ( our in=mation8 ,a s+le specim51 p]haps1 ( a dri$ plant1 or a /uff$ bird or quadrup$2 a %ell1 )\t ! s(t p>ts ( ! animal2 an insect 9 "o /age ( its num]\s trans=mations2--^! are ! scanty & imp]fect data :i* ! naturali/ possesses4 ,su* in=mation may enable u to sep>ate species :i* /& at a consid]able di/ance f ea* o!r2 b we h no "r to expect any ?+ b difficulty & ambiguity1 if we attempt1 f su* imp]fect opportunities1 to obta9 di/9ctive m>ks = def9+ ! *>act]s ( species :i* are closely relat$4 ,if ,lam>ck c\ld introduce s mu* c]ta9ty & precision into ! classification ( sev]al ?\s& species ( rec5t & fossil %ells1 not)/&+ ! extreme remot5ess ( ! organization ( ^! animals f ! type ( ^? v]tebrat$ species :i* are be/ kn[n1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( s _m ( ! liv+ inhabitants ( %ells1 we are l$ to =m an exalt$ conception ( ! degree ( exactness to :i* specific di/9ctions are capable ( be+ c>ri$1 r ?an to call 9 "q _! reality4 ,:5 our data are s defective1 ! mo/ acute naturali/ mu/ expect to be sometimes at fault1 &1 l ! novice1 to ov]look ess5tial po9ts ( diff]5ce1 pass+ unconsci\sly f "o species to ano!r1 until1 l "o :o is borne along 9 a curr5t1 he is a/oni%$ on look+ back1 at obs]v+ t he has rea*$ a po9t s remote f t :5ce he set out4 ,x is by no means improbable1 t1 :5 ! s]ies ( species ( c]ta9 g5]a is v full1 !y may be f\nd to diff] less widely f ea* o!r ?an d ! m]e v>ieties or races ( c]ta9 species4 ,if su* a fact c\ld be e/abli%$1 x w\ld1 und\bt$ly1 dim9i% ! *ance ( our obta9+ c]ta9ty 9 our results2 b x w\ld by no means ov]?r[ our confid5ce 9 ! reality ( species4 ,"s m]e v>ieties possibly m di/9ct ?an c]ta9 individuals ( di/9ct species4--,x is almo/ necess>y1 inde$1 to suppose t v>ieties w diff] 9 "s cases m decid$ly ?an "s species1 if we admit t !re is a graduat$ scale ( be+1 & assume t ! foll[+ laws prevail 9 ! economy ( ! animate creation3--fir/1 t ! organization ( individuals is capable ( be+ modifi$ to a limit$ ext5t1 by ! =ce ( ext]nal causes2 secondly1 t ^! modifications are1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 transmissible to _! (fspr+2 ?irdly1 t !re are fix$ limits1 beyond :i* ! desc5dants f common p>5ts c nev] deviate f a c]ta9 type2 f\r?ly1 t ea* species spr+s f "o orig9al /ock1 & c nev] be p]man5tly conf\nd$ by int]mix+ ) ! prog5y ( any o!r /ock2 fif?ly1 t ea* species %all endure = a consid]able p]iod ( "t4 ,n[1 let u assume1 = ! pres5t1 ^! rules hypo!tically1 & see :at consequ5ces may naturally be expect$ to result f !m4 ,we mu/ suppose t :5 ! ,au?or ( ,nature creates an animal or plant1 all ! possible circum/ances 9 :i* its desc5dants are de/9$ to live are =ese51 & t an organization is conf]r$ ^u x :i* w enable ! species to p]petuate itself & survive "u all ! v>y+ circum/ances to :i* x mu/ be inevitably expos$4 ,n[1 ! range ( v>iation ( circum/ances w diff] ess5tially 9 almo/ e case4 ,let u take1 = example1 any "o ( ! mo/ influ5tial conditions ( exi/5ce1 su* z temp]ature4 ,9 "s ext5sive di/ricts ne> ! equator1 ! !rmomet] might nev] v>y1 ?r\gh\t sev]al ?\s& c5turies1 = m ?an #bj degrees ,fahr5heit2 s t if a plant or animal be provid$ ) an organization fitt+ x to endure su* a range1 x may cont9ue on ! globe = t imm5se p]iod1 al?\gh e individual might be liable at once to be cut (f by ! lea/ possible excess ( heat or cold beyond ! det]m9ate degree4 ,b if a species be plac$ 9 "o ( ! temp]ate zones1 & h a con/itution conf]r$ on x capable ( support+ a simil> range ( temp]ature only1 x w inevitably p]i% be=e a s+le ye> has pass$ away4 ,humboldt has %[n t1 at ,cumana1 )9 ! tropics1 !re is a diff]5ce ( only #d degrees ,fahr4 betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! w>me/ & colde/ mon?s2 :]eas1 9 ! temp]ate zones1 ! annual v>iation am\nts to ab\t #fj degrees1 & ! extreme range ( ! !rmomet] 9 ,canada is n less ?an #ij degrees4 ,! same rem>k might be appli$ to any o!r condition1 z food1 = example2 x may be =ese5 t ! supply w be regul> ?r\gh\t indef9ite p]iods 9 "o "p ( ! _w1 & 9 ano!r v prec>i\s & fluctuat+ bo? 9 k9d & quantity4 ,diff]5t qualifications may be requir$ = enabl+ species to live = a consid]able "t "u circum/ances s *angeable4 ,if1 !n1 temp]ature & food be among ^? ext]nal causes :i*1 accord+ to c]ta9 laws ( animal & vegetable physiology1 modify ! organization1 =m1 or faculties1 ( individuals1 we in/antly p]ceive t ! degrees ( v>iability f a common /&>d mu/ diff] widely 9 ! two cases above suppos$2 s9ce !re is a necessity ( accommodat+ a species 9 "o case to a mu* great] latitude ( circum/ances ?an 9 ! o!r4 ,if x be a law1 = in/ance1 t scanty su/5ance %\ld *eck ^? individuals 9 _! gr[? :i* are enabl$ to accommodate !mselves to privations ( ?is k9d1 & t a p>5t1 prev5t$ 9 ?is mann] f atta9+ ! size prop] to its species1 %\ld produce a dw>fi% (fspr+1 a /unt$ race w arise1 z is rem>kably exemplifi$ 9 "s v>ieties ( ! horse & dog4 ,! diff]5ce ( /ature 9 "s races ( dogs1 :5 comp>$ to o!rs1 is z "o to five 9 l9e> dim5sions1 mak+ a diff]5ce ( a hundr$-fold 9 volume4#hja ,n[1 !re is a good reason to believe t species 9 g5]al are by no means susceptible ( exi/+ "u a div]sity ( circum/ances1 :i* may give rise to su* a disp>ity 9 size1 &1 consequ5tly1 !re w be a multitude ( di/9ct species1 ( :i* no two adult individuals c ev] dep>t s widely f a c]ta9 /&>d ( dim5sions z ! m]e v>ieties ( c]ta9 o!r species--! dog1 = in/ance4 ,n[1 we h only to suppose t :at is true ( size1 may also hold 9 reg>d to color & _m o!r attributes2 & x w at once foll[1 t ! degree ( possible discordance betwe5 v>ieties ( ! same species may1 9 c]ta9 cases1 exce$ ! utmo/ disp>ity :i* c arise betwe5 two individuals ( _m di/9ct species4 ,! same rem>ks may hold true 9 reg>d to in/9cts2 =1 if x be =ese5 t "o species w h to enc\nt] a great v>iety ( foes1 x may be necess>y to arm x ) great cunn+ & circumspection1 or ) c\rage or o!r qualities capable ( develop+ !mselves on c]ta9 occasions2 su*1 = example1 z ^? migratory in/9cts :i* are s rem>kably exhibit$ at p>ticul> p]iods1 aft] !y h rema9$ dormant = _m g5]ations4 ,! hi/ory & habits ( "o v>iety ( su* a species may (t5 diff] m consid]ably f "s o!r ?an ^? ( _m di/9ct species :i* h no su* latitude ( accommodation to circum/ances4 ,ext5t ( kn[n v>iability 9 species4--,lam>ck has some:at mis-/at$ ! idea commonly ent]ta9$ ( a species2 = x is n true t naturali/s 9 g5]al assume t ! organisation ( an animal or plant rema9s absolutely con/ant1 & t x c nev] v>y 9 any ( its p>ts4#hjb ,all mu/ be aw>e t circum/ances influ5ce ! habits1 & t ! habits may alt] ! /ate ( ! p>ts & organs2 b ! diff]5ce ( op9ion relates to ! ext5t to :i* ^! modifications ( ! habits & organs ( a p>ticul> species may be c>ri$4 ,n[1 let u fir/ inquire :at positive facts c be adduc$ 9 ! hi/ory ( kn[n species1 to e/abli% a great & p]man5t am\nt ( *ange 9 ! =m1 /ructure1 or in/9ct ( individuals desc5d+ f "s common /ock4 ,! be/ au!nticat$ examples ( ! ext5t to :i* species c be made to v>y may be look$ = 9 ! hi/ory ( dome/icat$ animals & cultivat$ plants4 ,x usually happ5s1 t ^? species1 bo? ( ! animal & vegetable k+dom1 :i* h ! greate/ pliability ( organisation1 ^? :i* are mo/ capable ( accommodat+ !mselves to a great v>iety ( new circum/ances1 are mo/ s]viceable to man4 ,^! only c be c>ri$ by him into diff]5t climates1 & c h _! prop]ties or in/9cts v>i\sly div]sifi$ by diff]5ces ( n\ri%m5t & habits4 ,if ! res\rces ( a species be s limit$1 & its habits & faculties be ( su* a conf9$ & local "*1 t x c only fl\ri% 9 a few p>ticul> spots1 x c r>ely be ( great utility4 ,we may consid]1 !re=e1 t 9 ! dome/ication ( animals & ! cultivation ( plants1 mank9d h fir/ select$ ^? species :i* h ! mo/ flexible frames & con/itutions1 & h !n be5 engag$ = ages 9 conduct+ a s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 ) mu* pati5ce & at great co/1 to asc]ta9 :at may be ! greate/ possible deviation f a common type :i* c be elicit$ 9 ^! extreme cases4 ,v>ieties ( ! dog--no transmutation4--,! modifications produc$ 9 ! diff]5t races ( dogs exhibit ! influ5ce ( man 9 ! mo/ /rik+ po9t ( view4 ,^! animals h be5 transport$ into e climate & plac$ 9 e v>iety ( circum/ances2 !y h be5 made1 z a mod]n naturali/ obs]ves1 ! s]vant1 ! companion1 ! gu>dian1 & ! intimate fri5d ( man1 & ! p[] ( a sup]ior g5ius has _h a wond]ful influ5ce n only on _! =ms1 b on _! mann]s & intellig5ce4#hjc ,diff]5t races h und]gone rem>kable *anges 9 ! quantity & color ( _! clo?+2 ! dogs ( ,gu9ea are almo/ nak$1 :ile ^? ( ! arctic circle are cov]$ ) a w>m coat bo? ( hair & wool1 :i* enables !m to be> ! mo/ int5se cold )\t inconv5i5ce4 ,!re are diff]5ces also ( ano!r k9d no less rem>kable1 z 9 size1 ! l5g? ( _! muzzles1 & ! convexity ( _! =eheads4 ,b1 if we look = "s ( ^? ess5tial *anges :i* w\ld be requir$ to l5d ev5 ! semblance ( a f\ndation = ! !ory ( ,lam>ck1 respect+ ! gr[? ( new organs & ! gradual oblit]ation ( o!rs1 we f9d no?+ ( ! k9d4 ,=1 9 all ^! v>ieties ( ! dog1 says ,cuvi]1 ! relation ( ! bones ) ea* o!r rema9s ess5tially ! same2 ! =m ( ! tee? nev] *anges 9 any p]ceptible degree1 except t1 9 "s individuals1 "o additional false gr9d] occasionally appe>s1 sometimes on ! "o side1 & sometimes on ! o!r4#hjd ,! greate/ dep>ture f a common type--& x con/itutes ! maximum ( v>iation z yet kn[n 9 ! animal k+dom--is exemplifi$ 9 ^? races ( dogs :i* h a sup]num]>y toe on ! h9d foot ) ! correspond+ t>sal bones2 a v>iety analog\s to "o pres5t$ by six-f+]$ families ( ! human race4#hje ,lam>ck has ?r[n out z a conjecture1 t ! wolf may h be5 ! orig9al ( ! dog2 & em95t naturali/s are /ill divid$ 9 op9ion on ?is subject4 ,x seems n[ admitt$ t bo? species agree 9 ! p]iod ( ge/ation1 & ,mr4 ,ow5 has be5 unable to confirm ! alleg$ diff]5ce 9 ! /ructure ( a "p ( ! inte/9al canal4#hjf ,mr4 ,bell incl9es to ! op9ion t all ! v>i\s races ( dogs h desc5d$ f "o common /ock1 ( :i* ! wolf is ! orig9al s\rce4 ,x is well kn[n t ! horse1 ! ox1 ! bo>1 & o!r dome/ic animals :i* h be5 introduc$ into ,s\? ,am]ica1 & h run wild 9 _m p>ts1 h entirely lo/ all m>ks ( dome/icity1 & h rev]t$ to ! orig9al *>act]s ( _! species4 ,b dogs h also become wild 9 ,cuba1 ,hayti1 & 9 all ! ,c>ibbean isl&s4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 !y hunt$ 9 packs f twelve to fifty1 or m1 9 numb]1 & fe>lessly attack$ h]ds ( wild bo>s & o!r animals4 ,x is natural1 !re=e1 to inquire to :at =m !y rev]t$8 ,n[1 !y are said by _m travell]s to h resembl$ v ne>ly ! %eph]d's dog2 b x is c]ta9 t !y 7 nev] turn$ into wolves4 ,!y 7 extremely savage1 & _! ravages appe> to h be5 z mu* dread$ z ^? ( wolves2 b :5 any ( _! :elps 7 caught1 & br\ght f ! woods to ! t[ns1 !y grew up 9 ! mo/ p]fect submission to man4#hjg ,_m examples might be adduc$ to prove t ! ext5t to :i* ! alt]ation ( species c be pu%$ 9 ! dome/ic /ate dep5ds on ! orig9al capacity ( ! species to admit ( v>iation4 ,! horse has be5 z long dome/icat$ z ! dog1 yet its diff]5t races dep>t mu* less widely f a common type2 ! ass has be5 /ill less *ang$1 ! camel sc>cely at all2 yet ^! species h probably be5 subject$ to ! influ5ce ( dome/ication z long z ! horse4 ,mummies ( animals 9 ,egyptian tombs id5tical ) species /ill liv+4--,z ! advocates ( ! !ory ( transmutation tru/ mu* to ! sl[ & ins5sible *anges :i* "t may "w1 !y are accu/om$ to lam5t ! abs5ce ( accurate descriptions1 & figures ( p>ticul> animals & plants1 h&$ d[n f ! e>lie/ p]iods ( hi/ory1 su* z might h af=d$ data = comp>+ ! condition ( species1 at two p]iods consid]ably remote4 ,b1 =tunately1 we are 9 "s measure indep5d5t ( su* evid5ce3 =1 by a s+ul> accid5t1 ! prie/s ( ,egypt h bequea!d to u1 9 _! cemet]ies1 t in=mation :i* ! museums & works ( ! ,greek philosoph]s h fail$ to transmit4 ,= ! c>eful inve/igation ( ^! docum5ts1 we are greatly indebt$ to ! skill & dilig5ce ( ^? naturali/s :o accompani$ ! ,fr5* armies dur+ _! brief occupation ( ,egypt3 t conque/ ( f\r ye>s1 f :i* we may date ! improvem5t ( ! mod]n ,egyptians 9 ! arts & sci5ces1 & ! rapid progress :i* has be5 made ( late 9 our k ( ! arts & sci5ces ( _! remote pr$ecessors4 ,in/ead ( wa/+ _! :ole "t1 z s _m prec$+ travell]s _h done1 9 exclusively collect+ human mummies1 ,m4 ,ge(frey & 8 associates exam9$ dilig5tly1 & s5t home great numb]s ( embalm$ bodies ( consecrat$ animals1 su* z ! bull1 ! dog1 ! cat1 ! ape1 ! i*neumon1 ! crocodile1 & ! ibis4 ,to ^? :o h nev] be5 accu/om$ to connect ! facts ( ,natural ,hi/ory ) philosophical speculations1 :o h nev] rais$ _! conceptions ( ! end & import ( su* /udies beyond ! m]e admiration ( isolat$ & beautiful objects1 or ! ex]tion ( skill 9 detect+ specific diff]5ces1 x w seem incr$ible t amid/ ! d9 ( arms1 & ! /irr+ excitem5t ( political movem5ts1 s mu* en?usiasm c\ld h be5 felt 9 reg>d to ^! preci\s rema9s4 ,9 ! (ficial report drawn up by ! ,pr(essors ( ! ,museum at ,p>is1 on ! value ( ^! objects1 !re are "s eloqu5t passages1 :i* may appe> extravagant1 unless we reflect h[ fully ^! naturali/s c\ld appreciate ! be>+ ( ! facts ?us br\ght to light on ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! globe4 ,x seems1 say !y1 z if ! sup]/ition ( ! anci5t ,egyptians _h be5 inspir$ by ,nature1 ) a view ( transmitt+ to aft] ages a monum5t ( h] hi/ory4 ,t extraord9>y & ecc5tric p1 by embalm+ ) s mu* c>e ! brutes :i* 7 ! objects ( _! /upid adoration1 h left u 9 _! secret grottoes1 cab9ets ( zoology almo/ complete4 ,! climate has conspir$ ) ! art ( embalm+ to pres]ve ! bodies f corruption1 & we c n[ assure ourselves by our own eyes :at 0 ! /ate ( a great numb] ( species ?ree ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,we c sc>cely re/ra9 ! transports ( our imag9ation1 on behold+ ?us pres]v$1 ) _! m9ute/ bones1 ) ! smalle/ portions ( _! sk91 & 9 e p>ticul> mo/ p]fectly recognizable1 _m an animal1 :i* at ,!bes or ,memphis1 two or ?ree ?\s& ye>s ago1 _h its own prie/s & alt>s4#hjh ,among ! ,egyptian mummies ?us procur$ 7 n only ^? ( num]\s wild quadrup$s1 birds1 & reptiles2 b :at 0 p]haps ( /ill high] importance 9 decid+ ! great "q "u discussion1 !re 7 ! mummies ( dome/ic animals1 among :i* ^? above m5tion$1 ! bull1 ! dog1 & ! cat1 7 frequ5t4 ,n[1 su* 0 ! con=mity ( ! :ole ( ^! species to ^? n[ liv+1 t !re 0 no m diff]5ce1 says ,cuvi]1 betwe5 !m ?an betwe5 ! human mummies & ! embalm$ bodies ( m5 ( ! pres5t day4 ,yet "s ( ^! animals h s9ce t p]iod be5 transport$ by man to almo/ e climate1 & =c$ to accommodate _! habits to ! greate/ v>iety ( circum/ances4 ,! cat1 = example1 has be5 c>ri$ ov] ! :ole e>?1 & )9 ! la/ ?ree c5turies1 has be5 naturaliz$ 9 e "p ( ! new _w1--f ! cold regions ( ,canada to ! tropical pla9s ( ,guiana2 yet x has sc>cely und]gone any p]ceptible mutation1 & is /ill ! same animal :i* 0 held sacr$ by ! ,egyptians4 ,( ! ox1 und\bt$ly1 !re are _m v di/9ct races2 b ! bull ,apis1 :i* 0 l$ 9 solemn processions by ! ,egyptian prie/s1 did n diff] f "s ( ^? n[ liv+4 ,! black cattle t h run wild 9 ,am]ica1 :]e !re 7 _m peculi>ities 9 ! climate n to be f\nd1 p]haps1 9 any "p ( ! old _w1 & :]e sc>cely a s+le plant on :i* !y f$ 0 ( precisely ! same species1 in/ead ( alt]+ _! =m & habits1 h actually rev]t$ to ! exact lik5ess ( ! aborig9al wild cattle ( ,europe4 ,9 answ] to ! argum5ts drawn f ! ,egyptian mummies1 ,lam>ck said !y 7 id5tical ) _! liv+ desc5dants 9 ! same c\ntry1 because ! climate & physical geography ( ! banks ( ! ,nile h rema9$ unalt]$ = ! la/ ?irty c5turies4 ,b :y1 x may be ask$1 h o!r individuals ( ^! species reta9$ ! same *>act]s 9 _m diff]5t qu>t]s ( ! globe1 :]e ! climate & _m o!r conditions are s v>i$8 ,se$s & plants f ! ,egyptian tombs4--,! evid5ce d]iv$ f ! ,egyptian monum5ts 0 n conf9$ to ! animal k+dom2 ! fruits1 se$s1 & o!r portions ( tw5ty diff]5t plants1 7 fai?fully pres]v$ 9 ! same mann]2 & among ^! ! common :eat 0 procur$ by ,delille1 f clos$ vessels 9 ! sepul*res ( ! k+s1 ! gra9 ( :i* reta9$ n only _! =m b ev5 _! color2 s effectual has prov$ ! process ( embalm+ ) bitum5 9 a dry & equable climate4 ,no diff]5ce c\ld be detect$ betwe5 ?is :eat & t :i* n[ gr[s 9 ! ,ea/ & else:]e2 & 9 reg>d to ! b>ley1 ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,br[n1 ! celebrat$ botani/1 t its id5tity ) ! gra9 ( our own times c be te/$ by ! close/ comp>ison4 ,on exam9+1 = example1 "o ( ! se$s f ,mr4 ,sam's ,egyptian collection 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 x is f\nd t ! /ructure ( ! husks or t "p ( ! fl[] :i* is p]si/5t1 agrees precisely ) ! b>ley ( ! pres5t day1 9 hav+ "o p]fect fl[] & ! fili=m rudim5ts ( a second4 ,"s naturali/s believe t ! p]fect id5tification ( ! anci5t ,egyptian c]ealia ) ! v>ieties n[ cultivat$ has be5 c>ri$ /ill fur!r1 by s[+ ! se$s tak5 out ( ! catacombs1 & rais+ plants f !m2 b we want m evid5ce ( ?is fact4 ,c]ta9 x is1 t :5 ! exp]im5t 0 rec5tly made 9 ! botanic g>d5 at ,kew1 ) #ajj se$s ( :eat1 b>ley1 & l5tils1 f ! ,egyptian collection be=e m5tion$ ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 n "o ( !m w\ld g]m9ate4#hji ,native c\ntry ( ! common :eat4--,& "h ,i may obs]ve t !re is an obvi\s answ] to ,lam>ck's objection1 t ! botani/ _c po9t out a c\ntry :]e ! common :eat gr[s wild1 unless 9 places :]e x may h be5 d]iv$ f neighbor+ cultivation4#haj ,all naturali/s are well aw>e t ! geographical di/ribution ( a great numb] ( species is extremely limit$2 t x 0 to be expect$ t e useful plant %\ld fir/ be cultivat$ successfully 9 ! c\ntry :]e x 0 indig5\s2 & t1 probably1 e /ation :i* x p>tially occupi$1 :5 gr[+ wild1 w\ld be select$ by ! agriculturi/ z be/ suit$ to x :5 artificially increas$4 ,pale/9e has be5 conjectur$1 by a late writ] on ! c]ealia1 to h be5 ! orig9al habitation ( :eat & b>ley2 a supposition :i* is r5d]$ ! m plausible by ,hebrew & ,egyptian traditions1 & by trac+ ! migrations ( ! wor%ip ( ,c]es1 z indicative ( ! migrations ( ! plant4#haa ,if we are to inf] t "s "o ( ! wild grasses has be5 trans=m$ into ! common :eat1 & t "s animal ( ! g5us ,canis1 /ill unreclaim$1 has be5 metamorphos$ into ! dog1 m]ely because we _c f9d ! dome/ic dog1 or ! cultivat$ :eat1 9 a /ate ( nature1 we may be next call$ ^u to make simil> admissions 9 reg>d to ! camel2 = x seems v d\btful :e!r any race ( ?is species ( quadrup$ is n[ wild4 ,*anges 9 plants produc$ by cultivation4--,b if agriculture1 x w be said1 does n supply examples ( extraord9>y *anges ( =m & organization1 ! horticulturi/ c1 at lea/1 appeal to facts :i* may conf\nd ! prec$+ tra9 ( reason+4 ,! crab has be5 trans=m$ into ! apple2 ! sloe into ! plum2 fl[]s h *ang$ _! color1 & become d\ble2 & ^! new *>act]s c be p]petuat$ by se$2 a bitt] plant1 ) wavy sea-gre5 leaves1 has be5 tak5 f ! sea-side1 :]e x grew l wild *>lock2 has be5 transplant$ into ! g>d51 lo/ its saltness1 & has be5 metamorphos$ into two di/9ct vegetables1 z unlike ea* o!r z is ea* to ! p>5t plant--! r$ cabbage & ! caulifl[]4 ,^!1 & a multitude ( analog\s facts1 are und\bt$ly among ! wond]s ( nature1 & atte/ m /rongly1 p]haps1 ! ext5t to :i* species may be modifi$1 ?an any examples d]iv$ f ! animal k+dom4 ,b 9 ^! cases we f9d t we soon rea* c]ta9 limits1 beyond :i* we are unable to cause ! individuals desc5d+ f ! same /ock to v>y2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 x is easy to %[ t ^! extraord9>y v>ieties c\ld seldom arise1 & c\ld nev] be p]petuat$ 9 a wild /ate = _m g5]ations1 "u any imag9able comb9ation ( accid5ts4 ,!y may be reg>d$ z extreme cases1 br\ght ab\t by human int]f]5ce1 & n z ph5om5a :i* indicate a capability ( indef9ite modification 9 ! natural _w4 ,! propagation ( a plant by buds or grafts1 & by cutt+s1 is obvi\sly a mode :i* nature does n employ2 & ?is multiplication1 z well z t produc$ by roots & lay]s1 seems m]ely to op]ate z an ext5sion ( ! life ( an individual1 & n z a reproduction ( ! species su* z happ5s by se$4 ,all plants increas$ by grafts or lay]s reta9 precisely ! peculi> qualities ( ! individual to :i* !y owe _! orig91 &1 l an individual1 !y h only a det]m9ate exi/5ce2 9 "s cases long]1 & 9 o!rs %ort]4#hab ,x seems n[ admitt$ by horticulturi/s1 t none ( our g>d5 v>ieties ( fruit are entitl$ to be consid]$ /rictly p]man5t1 b t !y we> out aft] a "t2#hac & we are ?us compell$ to resort aga9 to se$s2 9 :i* case !re is s decid$ a t5d5cy 9 ! se$l+s to rev]t to ! orig9al type1 t our utmo/ skill is sometimes baffl$ 9 attempt+ to recov] ! desir$ v>iety4 ,v>ieties ( ! cabbage4--,! diff]5t races ( cabbages af=d1 z 0 admitt$1 an a/oni%+ example ( deviation f a common type2 b we c sc>cely conceive !m to h orig9at$1 mu* less to h la/$ = sev]al g5]ations1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( man4 ,x is only by /rong manures t ^! v>ieties h be5 obta9$1 & 9 poor] soils !y in/antly deg5]ate4 ,if1 !re=e1 we suppose 9 a /ate ( nature ! se$ ( ! wild ,brassica ol]acea to h be5 waft$ f ! sea-side to "s spot enri*$ by ! dung ( animals1 & to h !re become a caulifl[]1 x w\ld soon diffuse its se$ to "s comp>atively /]ile soils ar\nd1 & ! (fspr+ w\ld relapse to ! lik5ess ( ! p>5t /ock4 ,b if we g s f> z to imag9e ! soil1 9 ! spot fir/ occupi$1 to be con/antly manur$ by h]ds ( wild animals1 s z to cont9ue z ri* z t ( a g>d51 /ill ! v>iety c\ld n be ma9ta9$2 because we "k t ea* ( ^! races is prone to fecundate o!rs1 & g>d5]s are compell$ to ex]t ! utmo/ dilig5ce to prev5t cross-bre$s4 ,! int]mixture ( ! poll5 ( v>ieties gr[+ 9 ! poor] soil ar\nd w\ld soon de/roy ! peculi> *>act]s ( ! race :i* occupi$ ! highly manur$ tract2 =1 if ^! accid5ts s cont9ually happ51 9 spite ( our c>e1 among ! cul9>y v>ieties1 x is easy to see h[ soon ?is cause might oblit]ate e m>k$ s+ul>ity 9 a wild /ate4 ,besides1 x is well kn[n t1 al?\gh ! pamp]$ races :i* we re> 9 our g>d5s = use or ornam5t may (t5 be p]petuat$ by se$1 yet !y r>ely produce se$ 9 su* abundance1 or s prolific 9 quality1 z wild individuals2 s t if ! c>e ( man 7 )drawn1 ! mo/ f]tile v>iety w\ld always1 9 ! end1 prevail ov] ! m /]ile4 ,simil> rem>ks may be appli$ to ! d\ble fl[]s1 :i* pres5t su* /range anomalies to ! botani/4 ,! ov>ium1 9 su* cases1 is frequ5tly abortive2 & ! se$s1 :5 prolific1 are g5]ally mu* few] ?an :]e ! fl[]s are s+le4 ,*anges caus$ by soil4--,"s curi\s exp]im5ts1 rec5tly made on ! production ( blue in/ead ( r$ fl[]s 9 ! ,hydrangea hort5sis1 illu/rate ! imm$iate effect ( c]ta9 soils on ! colors ( ! calyx & petals4 ,9 g>d5-m\ld or compo/1 ! fl[]s are inv>iably r$2 9 "s k9ds ( bog-e>? !y are blue2 & ! same *ange is always produc$ by a p>ticul> sort ( yell[ loam4 ,v>ieties ( ! primrose4--,l9naeus 0 ( op9ion t ! primrose1 oxlip1 c[slip1 & polyan?us1 7 only v>ieties ( ! same species4 ,! majority ( ! mod]n botani/s1 on ! contr>y1 consid] !m to be di/9ct1 al?\gh "s conceiv$ t ! oxlip might be a cross betwe5 ! c[slip & ! primrose4 ,mr4 ,h]b]t has lately record$ ! foll[+ exp]im5t3--,i rais$ f ! natural se$ ( "o umbel ( a highly manur$ r$ c[slip a primrose1 a c[slip1 oxlips ( ! usual & o!r colors1 a black polyan?us1 a hose-9-hose c[slip1 & a natural primrose be>+ its fl[] on a polyan?us /alk4 ,f ! se$ ( t v hose-9-hose c[slip ,i h s9ce rais$ a hose-9-hose primrose4 ,i !re=e consid] all ^! to be only local v>ieties1 dep5d+ ^u soil & situation4#had ,pr(essor ,h5sl[1 ( ,cambridge1 has s9ce confirm$ ?is exp]im5t ( ,mr4 ,h]b]t2 s t we h an example1 n only ( ! rem>kable v>ieties :i* ! flori/ c obta9 f a common /ock1 b ( ! di/9ctness ( analog\s races f\nd 9 a wild /ate4#hae ,on :at p>ticul> +r$i5t1 or quality 9 ! e>?1 ^! *anges dep5d1 has n yet be5 asc]ta9$4#haf ,b g>d5]s are well aw>e t p>ticul> plants1 :5 plac$ "u ! influ5ce ( c]ta9 circum/ances1 are *ang$ 9 v>i\s ways1 accord+ to ! species2 & z (t5 z ! exp]im5ts are repeat$1 simil> results are obta9$4 ,! nature ( ^! results1 h[ev]1 dep5ds ^u ! species1 & !y are1 !re=e1 "p ( ! specific "*2 !y exhibit ! same ph5om5a1 aga9 & aga91 & indicate c]ta9 fix$ & inv>iable relations betwe5 ! physiological peculi>ities ( ! plant1 & ! influ5ce ( c]ta9 ext]nal ag5ts4 ,!y af=d no gr\nd = que/ion+ ! in/ability ( species1 b r ! contr>y2 !y pres5t u ) a class ( ph5om5a1 :i*1 :5 !y are m ?or\ghly und]/ood1 may af=d "s ( ! be/ te/s = id5tify+ species1 & prov+ t ! attributes orig9ally conf]r$ endure s long z any issue ( ! orig9al /ock rema9s ^u ! e>?4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxv4 ,,:e!r ,,species ,,h ,a ,,real ,,exi/5ce ,,9 ,,nature--cont9u$4 ,limits ( ! v>iability ( species--,species susceptible ( modification may be alt]$ greatly 9 a %ort "t1 & 9 a few g5]ations2 aft] :i* !y rema9 /ation>y--,! animals n[ subject to man _h orig9ally an aptitude to dome/icity--,acquir$ peculi>ities :i* become h]$it>y h a close connexion ) ! habits or in/9cts ( ! species 9 a wild /ate--,"s qualities 9 c]ta9 animals h be5 conf]r$ ) a view ( _! relation to man--,wild elephant dome/icat$ 9 a few ye>s1 b its faculties incapable ( fur!r developm5t4 ,v>iability ( a species comp>$ to t ( an individual4--,i endeavor$1 9 ! la/ *apt]1 to %[1 t a belief 9 ! reality ( species is n inconsi/5t ) ! idea ( a consid]able degree ( v>iability 9 ! specific "*4 ,?is op9ion1 inde$1 is little m ?an an ext5sion ( ! idea :i* we mu/ ent]ta9 ( ! id5tity ( an individual1 ?r\gh\t ! *anges :i* x is capable ( und]go+4 ,if a quadrup$1 inhabit+ a cold nor!rn latitude1 & cov]$ ) a w>m coat ( hair or wool1 be transport$ to a s\!rn climate1 x w (t51 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s1 %$ a consid]able portion ( its coat1 :i* x gradually recov]s on be+ aga9 re/or$ to its native c\ntry4 ,ev5 !re ! same *anges are1 p]haps1 sup]9duc$ to a c]ta9 ext5t by ! return ( w9t] & summ]4 ,we "k t ! ,alp9e h>e 7,lepus v>iabilis1 ,pal47 & ! erm9e1 or /oat1 7,mu/ela erm9ea1 ,l9n47 become :ite dur+ w9t]1 & aga9 obta9 _! full color dur+ ! w>m] season2 t ! plumage ( ! pt>migan und]goes a l metamorphosis 9 color & quantity1 & t ! *ange is equally tempor>y4 ,we are aw>e t1 if we reclaim "s wild animal1 & modify its habits & in/9cts by dome/ication1 x may1 if x escapes1 become 9 a few ye>s ne>ly z wild & untractable z ev]2 & if ! same individual be aga9 retak51 x may be r$uc$ to its =m] tame /ate4 ,a plant is s[n 9 a prep>$ soil1 9 ord] t ! petals ( its fl[]s may multiply1 & _! color be height5$ or *ang$3 if we !n )hold our c>e1 ! fl[]s ( ?is same species become aga9 s+le4 ,9 ^!1 & innum]able o!r in/ances1 we mu/ suppose t ! species 0 produc$ ) a c]ta9 numb] ( qualities2 &1 9 ! case ( animals1 ) a v>iety ( in/9cts1 "s ( :i* may or may n be develop$ accord+ to circum/ances1 or :i*1 aft] hav+ be5 call$ =?1 may aga9 become lat5t :5 ! excit+ causes are remov$4 ,n[1 ! =mation ( races seems ! necess>y consequ5ce ( su* a capability 9 species to v>y1 if x be a g5]al law t ! (fspr+ %\ld v closely resemble ! p>5t4 ,b1 be=e we c inf] t !re are no limits to ! deviation f an orig9al type :i* may be br\ght ab\t 9 ! c\rse ( an indef9ite numb] ( g5]ations1 we ought to h "s pro( t1 9 ea* successive g5]ation1 individuals may g on acquir+ an equal am\nt ( new peculi>ities1 "u ! influ5ce ( equal *anges ( circum/ances4 ,! balance ( evid5ce1 h[ev]1 incl9es mo/ decid$ly on ! opposite side2 = 9 all cases we f9d t ! quantity ( div]g5ce dim9i%es aft] a few g5]ations 9 a v rapid ratio4 ,species susceptible ( modification may be greatly alt]$ 9 a few g5]ations4--,x _c be object$1 t x is out ( our p[] to g on v>y+ ! circum/ances 9 ! same mann] z might happ5 9 ! natural c\rse ( ev5ts dur+ "s great geological cycle4 ,= 9 ! fir/ place1 :]e a capacity is giv5 to individuals to adapt !mselves to new circum/ances1 x does n g5]ally require a v long p]iod = its developm5t3 if1 inde$1 su* 7 ! case1 x is n easy to see h[ ! modification w\ld answ] ! ends propos$1 = all ! individuals w\ld die be=e new qualities1 habits1 or in/9cts 7 conf]r$4 ,:5 we h succe$$ 9 naturaliz+ "s tropical plant 9 a temp]ate climate1 no?+ prev5ts u f attempt+ gradually to ext5d its di/ribution to high] latitudes1 or to great] elevations above ! level ( ! sea1 all[+ equal quantities ( "t1 or an equal numb] ( g5]ations1 = habituat+ ! species to successive increm5ts ( cold4 ,b e husb&man & g>d5] is aw>e t su* exp]im5ts w fail2 & we are m likely to succe$ 9 mak+ "s plants1 9 ! c\rse ( ! fir/ two g5]ations1 support a consid]able degree ( diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 ?an a v small diff]5ce aft]w>ds1 ?\gh we p]sev]e = _m c5turies4 ,x is ! same if we take any o!r cause in/ead ( temp]ature2 su* z ! quality ( ! food1 or ! k9d ( dang]s to :i* an animal is expos$1 or ! soil 9 :i* a plant lives4 ,! alt]ation 9 habits1 =m1 or organization1 is (t5 rapid dur+ a %ort p]iod2 b :5 ! circum/ances are made to v>y f>!r1 ?\gh 9 ev] s slight a degree1 all modification ceases1 & ! individual p]i%es4 ,?us "s h]bivor\s quadrup$s may be made to fe$ p>tially on fi% or fle%2 b ev5 ^! c nev] be taught to live on "s h]bs :i* !y reject1 & :i* w\ld ev5 poison !m1 al?\gh ! same may be v nutriti\s to o!r species ( ! same natural ord]4 ,s :5 man uses =ce or /ratagem aga9/ wild animals1 ! p]secut$ race soon becomes m cauti\s1 wat*ful1 & cunn+2 new in/9cts seem (t5 to be develop$1 & to become h]$it>y 9 ! fir/ two or ?ree g5]ations3 b let ! skill & address ( man increase1 h[ev] gradually1 no f>!r v>iation c take place1 no new qualities are elicit$ by ! increas+ dang]s4 ,! alt]ation ( ! habits ( ! species has rea*$ a po9t beyond :i* no ult]ior modification is possible1 h[ev] indef9ite ! lapse ( ages dur+ :i* ! new circum/ances op]ate4 ,extirpation !n foll[s1 r ?an su* a trans=mation z c\ld alone enable ! species to p]petuate itself "u ! new /ate ( ?+s4 ,animals n[ subject to man _h orig9ally an aptitude to dome/icity4--,x has be5 well obs]v$ by ,m4 ,f4 ,cuvi] & ,m4 ,dureau de la ,malle1 t unless "s animals _h manife/$ 9 a wild /ate an aptitude to second ! ef=ts ( man1 _! dome/ication w\ld nev] h be5 attempt$4 ,if !y _h all resembl$ ! wolf1 ! fox1 & ! hya5a1 ! pati5ce ( ! exp]im5tali/ w\ld h be5 exhau/$ by innum]able failures be=e he at la/ succe$$ 9 obta9+ "s imp]fect results2 s if ! fir/ advantages d]iv$ f ! cultivation ( plants _h be5 elicit$ by z t$i\s & co/ly a process z t by :i* we n[ make "s slight additional improvem5ts 9 c]ta9 races1 we %\ld h rema9$ to ?is day 9 ignorance ( ! great] numb] ( _! useful qualities4 ,acquir$ in/9cts ( "s animals become h]$it>y4--,x is und\bt$ly true1 t _m new habits & qualities h n only be5 acquir$ 9 rec5t times by c]ta9 races ( dogs1 b h be5 transmitt$ to _! (fspr+4 ,b 9 ^! cases x w be obs]v$1 t ! new peculi>ities h an intimate relation to ! habits ( ! animal 9 a wild /ate1 & !re=e d n atte/ any t5d5cy to a dep>ture to an indef9ite ext5t f ! orig9al type ( ! species4 ,a race ( dogs employ$ = hunt+ de] 9 ! plat=m ( ,sante ,fa1 9 ,mexico1 af=ds a beautiful illu/ration ( a new h]$it>y in/9ct4 ,! mode ( attack1 obs]ves ,m4 ,r\l91 :i* !y employ consi/s 9 seiz+ ! animal by ! belly & ov]turn+ x by a sudd5 ef=t1 tak+ advantage ( ! mom5t :5 ! body ( ! de] re/s only ^u ! =e-legs4 ,! weight ( ! animal ?us ?r[n ov] is (t5 six times t ( its antagoni/4 ,! dog ( pure bre$ inh]its a disposition to ?is k9d ( *ase1 & nev] attacks a de] f be=e :ile runn+4 ,ev5 %\ld ! de]1 n p]ceiv+ him1 come directly ^u him1 ! dog /eps aside & makes 8 assault on ! flank2 :]eas o!r hunt+ dogs1 ?\gh ( sup]ior /r5g?1 & g5]al sagacity1 :i* are br\ght f ,europe1 are de/itute ( ?is in/9ct4 ,= want ( simil> precautions1 !y are (t5 kill$ by ! de] on ! spot1 ! v]tebrae ( _! neck be+ dislocat$ by ! viol5ce ( ! %ock4#hag ,a new in/9ct has also become h]$it>y 9 a mongrel race ( dogs employ$ by ! inhabitants ( ! banks ( ! ,magdal5a almo/ exclusively 9 hunt+ ! :ite-lipp$ pec>i4 ,! address ( ^! dogs consi/s 9 re/ra9+ _! ardor1 & atta*+ !mselves to no animal 9 p>ticul>1 b keep+ ! :ole h]d 9 *eck4 ,n[1 among ^! dogs "s are f\nd1 :i* ! v fir/ "t !y are tak5 to ! woods1 are acqua9t$ ) ?is mode ( attack2 :]eas1 a dog ( ano!r bre$ />ts =w>d at once1 is surr\nd$ by ! pec>i1 &1 :atev] may be 8 /r5g?1 is de/roy$ 9 a mom5t4 ,"s ( our c\ntrym51 engag$ ( late 9 conduct+ "o ( ! pr9cipal m9+ associations 9 ,mexico1 t ( ,real del ,monte1 c>ri$ out ) !m "s ,engli% greyh\nds ( ! be/ bre$1 to hunt ! h>es :i* ab\nd 9 t c\ntry4 ,! great plat=m :i* is ! sc5e ( sport is at an elevation ( ab\t n9e ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & ! m]cury 9 ! b>omet] /&s habitually at ! height ( ab\t n9ete5 in*es4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! greyh\nds c\ld n support ! fatigues ( a long *ase 9 ?is att5uat$ atmosph]e1 & be=e !y c\ld come up ) _! prey1 !y lay d[n gasp+ = brea?2 b ^! same animals h produc$ :elps :i* h gr[n up1 & are n 9 ! lea/ degree incommod$ by ! want ( d5sity 9 ! air1 b run d[n ! h>es ) z mu* ease z ! fleete/ ( _! race 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! fix$ & delib]ate /& ( ! po9t] has ) propriety be5 reg>d$ z a m]e modification ( a habit1 :i* may h be5 useful to a wild race accu/om$ to w9d game1 & /eal ^u x by surprise1 fir/ paus+ = an in/ant1 9 ord] to spr+ ) un]r+ aim4 ,! faculty ( ! retriev]1 h[ev]1 may ju/ly be reg>d$ z m inexplicable & less easily ref]able to ! in/9ctive passions ( ! species4 ,m4 ,maj5die1 says a ,fr5* writ] 9 a rec5tly publi%$ memoir1 hav+ le>nt t !re 0 a race ( dogs 9 ,engl& :i* /opp$ & br\ght back game ( _! own accord1 procur$ a pair1 & hav+ obta9$ a :elp f !m1 kept x con/antly "u 8 eyes1 until he _h an opportunity ( assur+ himself t1 )\t hav+ receiv$ any in/ruction1 & on ! v fir/ day t x 0 c>ri$ to ! *ase1 x br\ght back game ) z mu* /ead9ess z dogs :i* _h be5 s*ool$ into ! same manoeuvre by means ( ! :ip & coll>4 ,attributes ( animals 9 _! relation to man4--,su* atta9m5ts1 z well z ! habits & dispositions :i* ! %eph]d's dog & _m o!rs inh]it1 seem to be ( a nature & ext5t :i* we c h>dly expla9 by suppos+ !m to be modifications ( in/9cts necess>y = ! pres]vation ( ! species 9 a wild /ate4 ,:5 su* rem>kable habits appe> 9 races ( ?is species we may reasonably conjecture t !y 7 giv5 ) no o!r view ?an = ! use ( man & ! pres]vation ( ! dog1 :i* ?us obta9s protection4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ,i fully agree ) ,m4 ,f4 ,cuvi]1 t1 9 /udy+ ! habits ( animals1 we mu/ attempt1 z f> z possible1 to ref] _! dome/ic qualities to modifications ( in/9cts :i* are implant$ 9 !m 9 a /ate ( nature2 & t writ] has successfully po9t$ out1 9 an admirable essay on ! dome/ication ( ! mammalia#hah1 ! true orig9 ( _m dispositions :i* are vulg>ly attribut$ to ! influ5ce ( education alone4 ,b we %\ld g too f> if we did n admit t "s ( ! qualities ( p>ticul> animals & plants may h be5 giv5 solely ) a view to ! connection :i* x 0 =ese5 w\ld exi/ betwe5 !m & man--especially :5 we see t connexion to be 9 _m cases s intimate1 t ! great] numb]1 & sometimes1 z 9 ! case ( ! camel1 all ! individuals ( ! species :i* exi/ on ! e>? are 9 subjection to ! human race4 ,we c p]ceive 9 a multitude ( animals1 especially 9 "s ( ! p>asitic tribes1 t c]ta9 in/9cts & organs are conf]r$ = ! purpose ( def5ce or attack aga9/ "s o!r species4 ,n[ if we are reluctant to suppose ! exi/5ce ( simil> relations betwe5 man & ! in/9cts ( _m ( ! inf]ior animals1 we adopt an hypo!sis no less viol5t1 ?\gh 9 ! opposite extreme to t :i* has l$ "s to imag9e ! :ole animate & inanimate creation to h be5 made solely = ! support1 gratification1 & in/ruction ( mank9d4 ,_m species1 mo/ ho/ile to our p]sons or prop]ty1 multiply1 9 spite ( our ef=ts to repress !m2 o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 are int5tionally augm5t$ _m hundr$ fold 9 numb] by our ex]tions4 ,9 su* in/ances1 we mu/ imag9e ! relative res\rces ( man1 & ( species fri5dly or inimical to him1 to h be5 prospectively calculat$ & adju/$4 ,to )hold ass5t to ?is supposition1 w\ld be to refuse :at we mu/ grant 9 respect to ! economy ( nature 9 e o!r "p ( ! organic creation2 = ! v>i\s species ( contempor>y plants & animals h obvi\sly _! relative =ces1 nicely balanc$1 & _! respective ta/es1 passions1 & in/9cts s contriv$1 t !y are all 9 p]fect h>mony ) ea* o!r4 ,9 no o!r mann] c\ld x happ5 t ea* species1 surr\nd$1 z x is1 by c\ntless dang]s1 %\ld be enabl$ to ma9ta9 its gr\nd = p]iods ( consid]able duration4 ,! docility ( ! individuals ( "s ( our dome/ic species1 ext5d+1 z x does1 to atta9m5ts =eign to _! natural habits & faculties1 may1 p]haps1 h be5 conf]r$ ) a view to _! association ) man4 ,b1 le/ species %\ld be !reby made to v>y indef9itely1 we f9d t su* habits are nev] transmissible by g5]ation4 ,a pig has be5 tra9$ to hunt & po9t game ) great activity & /ead9ess#hai2 & o!r le>n$ individuals1 ( ! same species1 h be5 taught to spell2 b su* =tuit\s acquirem5ts nev] become h]$it>y1 = !y h no relation :atev] to ! exig5cies ( ! animal 9 a wild /ate1 & _c1 !re=e1 be developm5ts ( any in/9ctive prop5sities4 ,influ5ce ( dome/ication4--,an animal 9 dome/icity1 says ,m4 ,f4 ,cuvi]1 is n ess5tially 9 a diff]5t situation1 9 reg>d to ! feel+ ( re/ra9t1 f "o left to itself4 ,x lives 9 society )\t con/ra9t1 because1 )\t d\bt1 x 0 a social animal2 & x con=ms itself to ! w ( man1 because x _h a *ief1 to :i*1 9 a wild /ate1 x w\ld h yield$ ob$i5ce4 ,!re is no?+ 9 its new situation t is n con=mable to its prop5sities2 x is satisfy+ its wants by submission to a ma/]1 & makes no sacrifice ( its natural incl9ations4 ,all ! social animals1 :5 left to !mselves1 =m h]ds m or less num]\s2 & all ! individuals ( ! same h]d "k ea* o!r1 are mutually atta*$1 & w n all[ a /range individual to jo9 !m4 ,9 a wild /ate1 moreov]1 !y obey "s individual1 :i*1 by its sup]iority1 has become ! *ief ( ! h]d4 ,our dome/ic species _h1 orig9ally1 ?is sociability ( disposition2 & no solit>y species1 h[ev] easy x may be to tame x1 has yet af=d$ true dome/ic races4 ,we m]ely1 !re=e1 develope1 to our own advantage1 prop5sities :i* propel ! individuals ( c]ta9 species to draw ne> to _! fell[s4 ,! %eep :i* we h re>$ is induc$ to foll[ u1 z x w\ld be l$ to foll[ ! flock among :i* x 0 br\ght up2 &1 :5 individuals ( greg>i\s species h be5 accu/om$ to "o ma/]1 x is he alone :om !y ackn[l$ge z _! *ief--he only :om !y obey4 ,! elephant all[s himself to be direct$ only by ! c>nac :om he has adopt$2 ! dog itself1 re>$ 9 solitude ) its ma/]1 manife/s a ho/ile disposition t[>ds all o!rs2 & e body kn[s h[ dang]\s x is to be 9 ! mid/ ( a h]d ( c[s1 9 pa/urages t are little frequ5t$1 :5 !y h n at _! head ! keep] :o takes c>e ( !m4 ,e ?+1 !re=e1 t5ds to conv9ce u1 t =m]ly m5 7 only ) reg>d to ! dome/ic animals1 :at ^? :o are p>ticul>ly *>g$ ) ! c>e ( !m /ill are--namely1 memb]s ( ! society :i* ^! animals =m among !mselves2 &1 t !y are only di/+ui%$1 9 ! g5]al mass1 by ! au?ority :i* !y h be5 enabl$ to assume f _! sup]iority ( intellect4 ,?us1 e social animal :i* recognizes man z a memb]1 & z ! *ief ( its h]d1 is a dome/ic animal4 ,x might ev5 be said1 t1 f ! mom5t :5 su* an animal admits man z a memb] ( its society1 x is dome/icat$1 z man c\ld n ent] into su* society )\t becom+ ! *ief ( x4#hbj ,b ! +5i\s au?or ^: obs]vations ,i h "h cit$1 admits t ! ob$i5ce :i* ! individuals ( _m dome/ic species yield indiff]5tly to e p]son1 is )\t analogy 9 any /ate ( ?+s :i* c\ld exi/ previ\sly to _! subjugation by man4 ,ea* troop ( wild horses1 x is true1 has "s /allion = its *ief1 :o draws aft] him all ! individuals ( :i* ! h]d is compos$2 b :5 a dome/icat$ horse has pass$ f h& to h&1 & has s]v$ sev]al ma/]s1 he becomes equally docile t[>ds any p]son1 & is subject$ to ! :ole human race4 ,x seems fair to presume t ! capability 9 ! in/9ct ( ! horse to be ?us modifi$1 0 giv5 to enable ! species to r5d] great] s]vices to man2 &1 p]haps1 ! facility ) :i* _m o!r acquir$ *>act]s become h]$it>y 9 v>i\s races ( ! horse1 may be explicable only on a l supposition4 ,! amble1 = example1 a pace to :i* ! dome/ic races 9 "s p>ts ( ,spani% ,am]ica are exclusively tra9$1 has1 9 ! c\rse ( sev]al g5]ations1 become h]$it>y1 & is assum$ by all ! "y colts be=e !y are brok5 94#hba ,x seems1 also1 reasonable to conclude1 t ! p[] be/[$ on ! horse1 ! dog1 ! ox1 ! %eep1 ! cat1 & _m species ( dome/ic f[ls1 ( support+ almo/ e climate1 0 giv5 expressly to enable !m to foll[ man ?r\gh\t all p>ts ( ! globe1 9 ord] t we might obta9 _! s]vices1 & !y our protection4 ,if x be object$ t ! elephant :i*1 by ! union ( /r5g?1 intellig5ce1 & docility1 c r5d] ! greate/ s]vices to mank9d1 is incapable ( liv+ 9 any b ! w>me/ latitudes1 we may obs]ve t ! quantity ( vegetable food requir$ by ?is quadrup$ w\ld r5d] its ma9t5ance 9 ! temp]ate zones too co/ly1 & 9 ! arctic impossible4 ,among ! *anges sup]9duc$ by man1 none appe>1 at fir/ sight1 m rem>kable ?an ! p]fect tam5ess ( c]ta9 dome/ic races4 ,x is well kn[n t1 at h[ev] e>ly an age we obta9 possession ( ! "y ( _m unreclaim$ races1 !y w reta91 ?r\gh\t life1 a consid]able timidity & appreh5siv5ess ( dang]2 :]eas1 aft] "o or two g5]ations1 ! desc5dants ( ! same /ock w habitually place ! mo/ implicit confid5ce 9 man4 ,!re is good reason1 h[ev]1 to suspect t su* *anges are n )\t analogy 9 a /ate ( nature2 or1 to speak m correctly1 9 situations :]e man has n int]f]$4 ,we le>n f ,mr4 ,d>w91 t 9 ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago1 plac$ directly "u ! equator1 & ne>ly #fjj miles we/ ( ! ,am]ican cont95t1 all ! t]re/rial birds1 z ! f9*es1 doves1 hawks1 & o!rs1 are s tame1 t !y may be kill$ ) a swit*4 ,"o day1 says ?is au?or1 a mock+ bird alight$ on ! edge ( a pit*] :i* ,i held 9 my h&1 & began quietly to sip ! wat]1 & all[$ me to lift x ) ! vessel f ! gr\nd4 ,yet =m]ly1 :5 ! fir/ ,europeans l&$1 & f\nd no inhabitants 9 ^! isl&s1 ! birds 7 ev5 tam] ?an n[3 already !y are beg9n+ to acquire t salut>y dread ( man :i* 9 c\ntries long settl$ is natural ev5 to "y birds :i* h nev] receiv$ any injury4 ,s 9 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 bo? ! birds & foxes are entirely )\t fe> ( man2 :]eas1 9 ! adjo9+ ma9l& ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 _m ( ! same species ( birds are extremely wild2 = !re !y h = ages be5 p]secut$ by ! natives4#hbb ,dr4 ,ri*>dson in=ms u1 9 8 able hi/ory ( ! habits ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican animals1 t1 9 ! retir$ p>ts ( ! m\nta9s :]e ! hunt]s _h seldom p5etrat$1 !re is no difficulty 9 approa*+ ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 %eep1 :i* !re exhibit ! simplicity ( "* s rem>kable 9 ! dome/ic species2 b :]e !y h be5 (t5 fir$ at1 !y are exce$+ly wild1 al>m _! companions1 on ! approa* ( dang]1 by a hiss+ noise1 & scale ! rocks ) a spe$ & agility t baffle pursuit4#hbc ,x is probable1 !re=e1 t z man1 9 diffus+ himself ov] ! globe1 has tam$ _m wild races1 s1 also1 he has made _m tame races wild4 ,_h "s ( ! l>g] c>nivor\s bea/s1 capable ( scal+ ! rocks1 made _! way into ! ,nor? ,am]ican m\nta9s be=e our hunt]s1 a simil> alt]ation 9 ! in/9cts ( ! %eep w\ld d\btless h be5 br\ght ab\t4 ,wild elephants dome/icat$ 9 a few ye>s4--,no animal af=ds a m /rik+ illu/ration ( ! pr9cipal po9ts :i* ,i h be5 endeav\r+ to e/abli% ?an ! elephant2 =1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! wond]ful sagacity ) :i* he accommodates himself to ! society ( man1 & ! new habits :i* he contracts1 are n ! result ( "t1 nor ( modifications produc$ 9 ! c\rse ( _m g5]ations4 ,^! animals w bre$ 9 captivity1 z is n[ asc]ta9$1 9 opposition to ! vulg> op9ion ( _m mod]n naturali/s1 & 9 con=mity to t ( ! anci5ts ,a,elian & ,columella#hbd3 yet x has always be5 ! cu/om1 z ! lea/ exp5sive mode ( obta9+ !m1 to capture wild individuals 9 ! =e/s1 usually :5 full gr[n2 &1 9 a few ye>s aft] !y are tak5--sometimes1 x is said1 9 ! space ( a few mon?s--_! education is complet$4 ,_h ! :ole species be5 dome/icat$ f an e>ly p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( man1 l ! camel1 _! sup]ior intellig5ce w\ld1 d\btless1 h be5 attribut$ to _! long & famili> int]c\rse ) ! "l ( ! creation2 b we "k t a few ye>s is suffici5t to br+ ab\t ?is wond]ful *ange ( habits2 & al?\gh ! same individual may cont9ue to receive tuition = a c5tury aft]w>ds1 yet x makes no f>!r progress 9 ! g5]al developm5t ( its faculties4 ,7 x o!rwise1 inde$1 ! animal w\ld soon des]ve m ?an ! poet's epi!t ( half-reason+4 ,f ! au?ority ( our c\ntrym5 employ$ 9 ! late ,burmese w>1 x appe>s1 9 corroboration ( old] acc\nts1 t :5 elephants are requir$ to execute extraord9>y tasks1 !y may be made to und]/& t !y w receive unusual rew>ds4 ,"s fav\rite da9ty is %[n to !m1 9 ! hope ( acquir+ :i* ! "w is done2 & s p]fectly does ! nature ( ! contract appe> to be und]/ood1 t ! brea* ( x1 on ! "p ( ! ma/]1 is (t5 att5d$ ) dang]4 ,9 ?is case1 a p[] has be5 giv5 to ! species to adapt _! social in/9cts to new circum/ances ) surpris+ rapidity2 b ! ext5t ( ?is *ange is def9$ by /rict & arbitr>y limits4 ,!re is no indication ( a t5d5cy to cont9u$ div]g5ce f c]ta9 attributes ) :i* ! elephant 0 orig9ally endu$--no gr\nd :atev] = anticipat+ t1 9 ?\s&s ( c5turies1 any mat]ial alt]ation c\ld ev] be effect$4 ,all t we c inf] f analogy is1 t "s m useful & peculi> races might probably be =m$1 if ! exp]im5t 7 fairly tri$2 & t "s individual *>act]i/ic1 n[ only casual & tempor>y1 might be p]petuat$ by g5]ation4 ,9 all cases1 !re=e1 :]e ! dome/ic qualities exi/ 9 animals1 !y seem to require no l5g!n$ process = _! developem5t2 & !y appe> to h be5 :olly d5i$ to "s classes1 :i*1 f _! /r5g? & social disposition1 might h r5d]$ great s]vices to man2 z1 = example1 ! great] "p ( ! quadrumana4 ,! orang-outang1 inde$1 :i*1 = its resemblance 9 =m to man1 & app>5tly = no o!r good reason1 has be5 assum$ by ,lam>ck to be ! mo/ p]fect ( ! inf]ior animals1 has be5 tam$ by ! savages ( ,borneo1 & made to climb l(ty trees1 & to br+ d[n ! fruit4 ,b he is said to yield to 8 ma/]s an unwill+ ob$i5ce1 & to be held 9 subjection only by sev]e discipl9e4 ,we "k no?+ ( ! faculties ( ?is animal :i* c sugge/ ! idea t x rivals ! elephant 9 intellig5ce2 mu* less any?+ :i* c c\nt5ance ! dreams ( ^? :o h fanci$ t x might h be5 transmut$ into ! dom9ant race4 ,"o ( ! baboons ( ,sumatra 7,simia c>polegus7 appe>s to be m docile1 & is frequ5tly tra9$ by ! inhabitants to asc5d trees1 = ! purpose ( ga!r+ cocoa-nuts2 a s]vice 9 :i* ! animal is v exp]t4 ,he selects1 says ,sir ,/am=d ,raffles1 ! ripe nuts1 ) great judgm5t1 & pulls no m ?an he is ord]$4#hbe ,! capu*9 & cacajao monkeys are1 accord+ to ,humboldt1 taught to asc5d trees 9 ! same mann]1 & to ?r[ d[n fruit on ! banks ( ! l[] ,or9oco4#hbf ,x is = ! ,lam>ckians to expla9 h[ x happ5s t ^? same savages ( ,borneo h n !mselves acquir$1 by d9t ( long+1 = _m g5]ations1 = ! p[] ( climb+ trees1 ! elongat$ arms ( ! ourang1 or ev5 ! preh5sile tails ( "s ,am]ican monkeys3 ,in/ead ( be+ r$uc$ to ! necessity ( subjugat+ /ubborn & untractable brutes1 we %\ld naturally h anticipat$ t _! wants w\ld h excit$ !m to ef=ts1 & t cont9u$ ef=ts w\ld h giv5 rise to new organs2 or r to ! re-acquisition ( organs :i*1 9 a mann] irreconcileable ) ! pr9ciple ( ! progressive sy/em1 h gr[n obsolete 9 tribes ( m5 :i* h su* con/ant ne$ ( !m4 ,recapitulation4--,x foll[s1 !n1 f ! diff]5t facts :i* h be5 consid]$ 9 ?is *apt]1 t a %ort p]iod ( "t is g5]ally suffici5t to effect ne>ly ! :ole *ange :i* an alt]ation ( ext]nal circum/ances c br+ ab\t 9 ! habits ( a species1 & t su* capacity ( accommodation to new circum/ances is enjoy$ 9 v diff]5t degrees1 by diff]5t species4 ,c]ta9 qualities appe> to be be/[$ exclusively ) a view to ! relations :i* are de/9$ to exi/ betwe5 diff]5t species1 &1 among o!rs1 betwe5 c]ta9 species & man2 b ^! latt] are always s ne>ly connect$ ) ! orig9al habits & prop5sities ( ea* species 9 a wild /ate1 t !y imply no indef9ite capacity ( v>y+ f ! orig9al type4 ,! acquir$ habits d]iv$ f human tuition are r>ely transmitt$ to ! (fspr+2 & :5 ?is happ5s1 x is almo/ univ]sally ! case ) ^? m]ely :i* h "s obvi\s connexion ) ! attributes ( ! species :5 9 a /ate ( indep5d5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxvi4 ,,:e!r ,,species ,,h ,a ,,real ,,exi/5ce ,,9 ,,nature--cont9u$4 ,ph5om5a ( hybrids--,hunt]'s op9ions--,mules n /rictly int]m$iate betwe5 p>5t species--,hybrid plants--,exp]im5ts ( ,kolreut] & ,wiegmann--,vegetable hybrids prolific ?r\gh\t sev]al g5]ations--,:y r>e 9 a wild /ate--,decundolle on hybrid plants--,! ph5om5a ( hybrids confirm ! di/9ctness ( species--,!ory ( ! gradation 9 ! intellig5ce ( animals z indicat$ by ! facial angle--,doctr9e t c]ta9 organs ( ! foetus 9 mammalia assume successively ! =ms ( fi%1 reptile1 & bird--,recapitulation4 ,ph5om5a ( hybrids4--,we h yet to consid] ano!r class ( ph5om5a1 ^? relat+ to ! production ( hybrids1 :i* h be5 reg>d$ 9 a v diff]5t light ) ref]5ce to _! be>+ on ! "q ( ! p]man5t di/9ctness ( species2 "s naturali/s consid]+ !m z af=d+ ! /ronge/ ( all pro(s 9 favor ( ! reality ( species2 o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 appeal+ to !m z c\nt5anc+ ! opposite doctr9e1 t all ! v>ieties ( organization & in/9ct n[ exhibit$ 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms may h be5 propagat$ f a small numb] ( orig9al types4 ,9 reg>d to ! mammif]s & birds x is f\nd t no sexual union w take place betwe5 races :i* are remote f ea* o!r 9 _! habits & organization2 & x is only 9 species t are v ne>ly alli$ t su* unions produce (fspr+4 ,x may be laid d[n z a g5]al rule1 admitt+ ( v few exceptions among quadrup$s1 t ! hybrid prog5y is /]ile2 & !re seem to be no well au!nticat$ examples ( ! cont9uance ( ! mule race beyond "o g5]ation4 ,! pr9cipal numb] ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts relate to ! mix$ (fspr+ ( ! horse & ! ass2 & 9 ?is case x is well e/abli%$ t ! he-mule c g5]ate1 & ! %e-mule produce4 ,su* cases occur 9 ,spa9 & ,italy1 & mu* m frequ5tly 9 ! ,we/ ,indies & ,new ,holl&2 b ^! mules h nev] br$ 9 cold climates1 seldom 9 w>m regions1 & /ill m r>ely 9 temp]ate c\ntries4 ,! hybrid (fspr+ ( ! %e-ass & ! /allion1 ! ,greek3 g9nos ( ,ari/otle1 & ! h9nus ( ,pl9y1 diff]s f ! mule1 or ! (fspr+ ( ! ass & m>e4 ,9 bo? cases1 says ,buffon1 ^! animals reta9 m ( ! dam ?an ( ! sire1 n only 9 ! magnitude1 b 9 ! figure ( ! body3 :]eas1 9 ! =m ( ! head1 limbs1 & tail1 !y be> a great] resemblance to ! sire4 ,! same naturali/ inf]s1 f v>i\s exp]im5ts respect+ cross-bre$s betwe5 ! he-goat & ewe1 ! dog & %e-wolf1 ! goldf9* & can>y-bird1 t ! male transmits 8 sex to ! greate/ numb]1 & t ! prepond]ance ( males ov] females exce$s t :i* prevails :]e ! p>5ts are ( ! same species4 ,hunt]'s op9ion4--,! celebrat$ ,john ,hunt] has obs]v$1 t ! true di/9ction ( species mu/ ultimately be ga!r$ f _! incapacity ( propagat+ ) ea* o!r1 & produc+ (fspr+ capable ( aga9 cont9u+ itself4 ,he 0 unwill+1 h[ev]1 to admit t ! horse & ! ass 7 ( ! same species1 because "s r>e in/ances _h be5 adduc$ ( ! bre$+ ( mules1 al?\gh he ma9ta9$ t ! wolf1 ! dog1 & ! jackal 7 all ( "o species2 because he _h f\nd1 by two exp]im5ts1 t ! dog w\ld bre$ bo? ) ! wolf & ! jackal2 & t ! mule1 9 ea* case1 w\ld bre$ aga9 ) ! dog4 ,9 ^! cases1 h[ev]1 x may be obs]v$1 t !re 0 always "o p>5t at lea/ ( pure bre$1 & no pro( 0 obta9$ t a true hybrid race c\ld be p]petuat$2 a fact ( :i* ,i believe no examples are yet record$1 ei!r 9 reg>d to mixtures ( ! horse & ass1 or any o!r ( ! mammalia4 ,%\ld ! fact be h]eaft] asc]ta9$1 t two mules c propagate _! k9d1 we mu/ /ill inquire :e!r ! (fspr+ may n be reg>d$ 9 ! light ( a mon/r\s bir?1 proce$+ f "s accid5tal cause1 or1 r1 to speak m philosophically1 f "s g5]al law n yet und]/ood1 b :i* may n be p]mitt$ p]man5tly to int]f]e ) ^? laws ( g5]ation by :i* species may1 9 g5]al1 be prev5t$ f becom+ bl5d$4 ,if1 = example1 we discov]$ t ! prog5y ( a mule race deg5]at$ greatly1 9 ! fir/ g5]ation1 9 =ce1 sagacity1 or any attribute necess>y = its pres]vation 9 a /ate ( nature1 we might inf] t1 l a mon/]1 x is a m]e tempor>y & =tuit\s v>iety4 ,nor does x seem probable t ! great] numb] ( su* mon/]s c\ld ev] occur unless obta9$ by art2 =1 9 ,hunt]'s exp]im5ts1 /ratagem or =ce 01 9 mo/ in/ances1 employ$ to br+ ab\t ! irregul> connexion4#hbg ,mules n /rictly int]m$iate betwe5 ! p>5t species4--,x seems r>ely to happ5 t ! mule (fspr+ is truly int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 ! two p>5ts4 ,?us ,hunt] m5tions t1 9 8 exp]im5ts1 "o ( ! hybrid pups resembl$ ! wolf mu* m ?an ! re/ ( ! litt]2 & we are in=m$ by ,wiegmann1 t1 9 a litt] lately obta9$ 9 ! ,royal ,m5ag]ie at ,b]l91 f a :ite po9t] & a %e-wolf1 two ( ! cubs resembl$ ! common wolf-dog1 b ! ?ird 0 l a po9t] ) hang+ e>s4 ,!re is und\bt$ly a v close analogy betwe5 ^! ph5om5a & ^? pres5t$ by ! int]mixture ( di/9ct races ( ! same species1 bo? 9 ! inf]ior animals & 9 man4 ,dr4 ,pri*>d1 9 8 ,physical ,hi/ory ( ,mank9d1 cites examples :]e ! peculi>ities ( ! p>5ts h be5 transmitt$ v unequally to ! (fspr+2 z :]e *ildr51 entirely :ite1 or p]fectly black1 h sprung f ! union ( ! ,european & ! negro4 ,sometimes ! col\r or o!r peculi>ities ( "o p>5t1 aft] hav+ fail$ to %[ !mselves 9 ! imm$iate prog5y1 reappe> 9 a subsequ5t g5]ation2 z :]e a :ite *ild is born ( two black p>5ts1 ! gr&fa!r hav+ be5 a :ite4#hbh ,! same au?or judici\sly obs]ves t1 if diff]5t species mix$ _! bre$1 & hybrid races 7 (t5 propagat$1 ! animal _w w\ld soon pres5t a sc5e ( confusion2 its tribes w\ld be e :]e bl5d$ toge!r1 & we %\ld p]haps f9d m hybrid creatures ?an g5u9e & uncorrupt$ races4#hbi ,hybrid plants4--,kolreut]'s exp]im5ts4--,! hi/ory ( ! vegetable k+dom has be5 ?\ght to af=d m decisive evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! !ory ( ! =mation ( new & p]man5t species f hybrid /ocks4 ,! fir/ accurate exp]im5ts 9 illu/ration ( ?is curi\s subject appe> to h be5 made by ,kolreut]1 :o obta9$ a hybrid f two species ( tobacco1 ,nicotiana ru/ica & ,n4 paniculata1 :i* diff] greatly 9 ! %ape ( _! leaves1 ! col\r ( ! corolla1 & ! height ( ! /em4 ,! /igma ( a plant ( ,n4 ru/ica 0 impregnat$ ) ! poll5 ( a plant ( ,n4 paniculata4 ,! se$ rip5$1 & produc$ a hybrid :i* 0 int]m$iate betwe5 ! two p>5ts1 & :i*1 l all ! hybrids :i* ?is botani/ br\ght up1 _h imp]fect /am5s4 ,he aft]w>ds impregnat$ ?is hybrid ) ! poll5 ( ,n4 paniculata1 & obta9$ plants :i* mu* m resembl$ ! la/4 ,?is he cont9u$ ?r\gh sev]al g5]ations1 until1 by due p]sev]ance1 he actually *ang$ ! ,nicotiana ru/ica into ! ,nicotiana paniculata4 ,! plan ( impregnation adopt$1 0 ! cutt+ (f ( ! an!rs ( ! plant int5d$ = fructification be=e !y _h %$ poll51 & !n lay+ on =eign poll5 ^u ! /igma4 ,wiegmann's exp]im5ts4--,! same exp]im5t has s9ce be5 repeat$ ) success by ,wiegmann1 :o f\nd t he c\ld br+ back ! hybrids to ! exact lik5ess ( ei!r p>5t1 by cross+ !m a suffici5t numb] ( times4 ,! bl5d+ ( ! *>act]s ( ! p>5t /ocks1 9 _m o!r ( ,wiegmann's exp]im5ts1 0 complete2 ! col\r & %ape ( ! leaves & fl[]s1 & ev5 ! sc5t1 be+ int]m$iate1 z 9 ! (fspr+ ( ! two species ( v]bascum4 ,an int]m>riage1 also1 betwe5 ! common onion & ! leek 7,allium cepa & ,a4 porrum7 gave a mule plant1 :i*1 9 ! "* ( its leaves & fl[]s1 approa*$ mo/ ne>ly to ! g>d5 onion1 b _h ! elongat$ bulb\s root & smell ( ! leek4 ,! same botani/ rem>ks1 t vegetable hybrids1 :5 n /rictly int]m$iate1 m frequ5tly approa* ! female ?an ! male p>5t species2 b !y nev] exhibit *>act]s =eign to bo?4 ,a re-cross ) "o ( ! orig9al /ocks g5]ally causes ! mule plant to rev]t t[>ds t /ock2 b ?is is n always ! case1 ! (fspr+ sometimes cont9u+ to exhibit ! "* ( a full hybrid4 ,9 g5]al1 ! success att5d+ ! production & p]petuity ( hybrids among plants dep5ds1 z 9 ! animal k+dom1 on ! degree ( proximity betwe5 ! species int]m>ri$4 ,if _! organization be v remote1 impregnation nev] takes place2 if some:at less di/ant1 se$s are =m$1 b always imp]fect & /]ile4 ,! next degree ( relation%ip yields hybrid se$l+s1 b ^! are b>r52 & x is only :5 ! p>5t species are v ne>ly alli$ t ! hybrid race may be p]petuat$ = sev]al g5]ations4 ,ev5 9 ?is case ! be/ au!nticat$ examples seem conf9$ to ! cross+ ( hybrids ) individuals ( pure bre$4 ,9 none ( ! exp]im5ts mo/ accurately detail$ does x appe> t bo? ! p>5ts 7 mules4 ,wiegmann div]sifi$ z mu* z possible 8 mode ( br++ ab\t ^! irregul> unions among plants4 ,he (t5 s[$ p>allel r[s1 ne> to ea* o!r1 ( ! species f :i* he desir$ to bre$2 &1 in/ead ( mutilat+1 aft] ,kolreut]'s fa%ion1 ! plants ( "o ( ! p>5t /ocks1 he m]ely wa%$ ! poll5 (f _! an!rs4 ,! bran*es ( ! plants 9 ea* r[ 7 !n g5tly b5t t[>ds ea* o!r & int]tw9$2 s t ! w9d1 & num]\s insects1 z !y pass$ f ! fl[]s ( "o to ^? ( ! o!r species1 c>ri$ ! poll5 & produc$ fecundation4 ,vegetable hybrids :y r>e 9 a wild slate4--,! same obs]v] saw a good exemplification ( ! mann] 9 :i* hybrids may be =m$ 9 a /ate ( nature4 ,"s wallfl[]s & p9ks _h be5 gr[+ 9 a g>d51 9 a dry sunny situation1 & _! /igmas _h be5 rip5$ s z to be moi/1 & to absorb poll5 ) avidity1 al?\gh _! an!rs 7 n yet develop$4 ,^! /igmas became impregnat$ by poll5 bl[n f "s o!r adjac5t plants ( ! same species2 b _h !y be5 ( diff]5t species1 & n too remote 9 _! organization1 mule races mu/ h result$4 ,:51 inde$1 we consid] h[ busily "s insects h be5 %[n to be engag$ 9 convey+ an!r-du/ f fl[] to fl[]1 especially bees1 fl[]-eat+ beetles1 & ! l1 x seems a mo/ enigmatical problem h[ x c happ5 t promiscu\s alliances betwe5 di/9ct species are n p]petually occurr+4 ,h[ cont9ually d we obs]ve ! bees dilig5tly employ$ 9 collect+ ! r$ & yell[ p[d] by :i* ! /am5s ( fl[]s are cov]$1 load+ x on _! h9d legs1 & c>ry+ x to _! hive = ! purpose ( fe$+ _! "y6 ,9 ?us provid+ = _! own prog5y1 ^! insects assi/ mat]ially ! process ( fructification4#hcj ,few p]sons ne$ be rem9d$ t ! /am5s 9 c]ta9 plants gr[ on diff]5t blossoms f ! pi/ils2 & unless ! summit ( ! pi/il be t\*$ ) ! f]tiliz+ du/1 ! fruit does n swell1 nor ! se$ arrive at maturity4 ,x is by ! help ( bees *iefly1 t ! developm5t ( ! fruit ( _m su* species is secur$1 ! p[d] :i* !y h collect$ f ! /am5s be+ unconsci\sly left by !m 9 visit+ ! pi/ils4 ,h[ (t51 dur+ ! heat ( a summ]'s day1 d we see ! males ( dioeci\s plants1 su* z ! yew-tree1 /&+ sep>ate f ! females1 & s5d+ (f into ! air1 ^u ! slighte/ brea? ( w9d1 cl\ds ( buoyant poll56 ,t ! zephyr %\ld s r>ely int]v5e to fecundate ! plants ( "o species ) ! an!r-du/ ( o!rs1 seems almo/ to realize ! conv]se ( ! miracle believ$ by ! cr$ul\s h]dsm5 ( ! ,lusitanian m>es-- ,ore omnes v]sae 9 ,zephyrum1 /ant rupibus altis ,exceptantque leves auras3 et saepe s9e ullis ,conjugiis1 v5to gravidae1 mirabile dictu4#hca ,b1 9 ! fir/ place1 x appe>s t !re is a natural av]sion 9 plants1 z well z 9 animals1 to irregul> sexual unions2 & 9 mo/ ( ! successful exp]im5ts 9 ! animal & vegetable _w1 "s viol5ce has be5 us$ 9 ord] to procure impregnation4 ,! /igma imbibes1 sl[ly & reluctantly1 ! granules ( ! poll5 ( ano!r species1 ev5 :5 x is abundantly cov]$ ) x2 & if x happ5 t1 dur+ ?is p]iod1 ev] s slight a quantity ( ! an!r-du/ ( its own species alight ^u x1 ?is is in/antly absorb$1 & ! effect ( ! =eign poll5 de/roy$4 ,besides1 x does n (t5 happ5 t ! male & female organs ( fructification1 9 diff]5t species1 arrive at a /ate ( maturity at precisely ! same "t4 ,ev5 :]e su* syn*ronism does prevail1 s t a cross impregnation is effect$1 ! *ances are v num]\s aga9/ ! e/abli%m5t ( a hybrid race4 ,if we consid] ! vegetable k+dom g5]ally1 x mu/ be recollect$ t ev5 ( ! se$s :i* are well rip5$1 a great "p are ei!r eat5 by insects1 birds1 & o!r animals1 or decay = want ( room & opportunity to g]m9ate4 ,unheal?y plants are ! fir/ :i* are cut (f by causes prejudicial to ! species1 be+ usually /ifl$ by m vigor\s individuals ( _! own k9d4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! relative fecundity or h>d9ess ( hybrids be 9 ! lea/ degree inf]ior1 !y _c ma9ta9 _! foot+ = _m g5]ations1 ev5 if !y 7 ev] produc$ beyond "o g5]ation 9 a wild /ate4 ,9 ! univ]sal /ruggle = exi/5ce1 ! "r ( ! /ronge/ ev5tually prevails2 & ! /r5g? & durability ( a race dep5d ma9ly on its prolificness1 9 :i* hybrids are ackn[l$g$ to be defici5t4 ,c5taurea hybrida1 a plant :i* nev] be>s se$1 & is suppos$ to be produc$ by ! frequ5t int]mixture ( two well-kn[n species ( ,c5taurea1 gr[s wild ^u a hill ne> ,tur94 ,ranunculus lac]us1 also /]ile1 has be5 produc$ accid5tally at ,gr5oble1 & ne> ,p>is1 by ! union ( two ,ranunculi2 b ?is occurr$ 9 g>d5s4#hcb ,mr4 ,h]b]t's exp]im5ts4--,mr4 ,h]b]t1 9 "o ( 8 +5i\s pap]s on mule plants1 endeavors to acc\nt = _! non-occurr5ce 9 a /ate ( nature1 f ! circum/ance t all ! comb9ations t 7 likely to occur h already be5 made _m c5turies ago1 & h =m$ ! v>i\s species ( botani/s2 b 9 our g>d5s1 he says1 :5ev] species1 hav+ a c]ta9 degree ( aff9ity to ea* o!r1 are transport$ f diff]5t c\ntries1 & br\ght = ! fir/ "t into contact1 !y give rise to hybrid species4#hcc ,b we h no data1 z yet1 to w>rant ! conclusion1 t a s+le p]man5t hybrid race has ev] be5 =m$1 ev5 9 g>d5s1 by ! int]m>riage ( two alli$ species br\ght f di/ant habitations4 ,until "s fact ( ?is k9d is fairly e/abli%$1 & a new species1 capable ( p]petuat+ itself 9 a /ate ( p]fect indep5d5ce ( man1 c be po9t$ out1 x seems reasonable to call 9 "q entirely ?is hypo!tical s\rce ( new species4 ,t v>ieties d sometimes spr+ up f cross-bre$s1 9 a natural way1 c h>dly be d\bt$2 b !y probably die out ev5 m rapidly ?an races propagat$ by grafts or lay]s4 ,op9ion ( ,de ,c&olle4--,de ,c&olle1 ^: op9ion on a philosophical "q ( ?is k9d des]ves ! greate/ att5tion1 has obs]v$1 9 8 ,essay on ,botanical ,geography1 t ! v>ieties ( plants range !mselves "u two g5]al heads3 ^? produc$ by ext]nal circum/ances1 & ^? =m$ by hybridity4 ,aft] adduc+ v>i\s argum5ts to %[ t nei!r ( ^! causes c expla9 ! p]man5t div]sity ( plants indig5\s 9 diff]5t regions1 he says1 9 reg>d to ! cross+ ( races1 ,i c p]fectly compreh5d )\t altoge!r %>+ ! op9ion1 t1 :]e _m species ( ! same g5]a occur ne> toge!r1 hybrid species may be =m$1 & ,i am aw>e t ! great numb] ( species ( c]ta9 g5]a :i* are f\nd 9 p>ticul> regions may be expla9$ 9 ?is mann]2 b ,i am unable to conceive h[ any "o c reg>d ! same explanation z applicable to species :i* live naturally at great di/ances4 ,if ! ?ree l>*es1 = example1 n[ kn[n 9 ! _w1 liv$ 9 ! same localities1 ,i might !n believe t "o ( !m 0 ! produce ( ! cross+ ( ! two o!rs2 b ,i nev] c\ld admit t ! ,sib]ian species has be5 produc$ by ! cross+ ( ^? ( ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,i see1 !n1 t !re exi/ 9 organiz$ be+s1 p]man5t diff]5ces :i* _c be ref]r$ to any "o ( ! actual causes ( v>iation1 & ^! diff]5ces are :at con/itute species4#hcd ,reality ( species confirm$ by ! ph5om5a ( hybrids4--,! mo/ decisive argum5ts p]haps1 among/ _m o!rs1 aga9/ ! probability ( ! d]ivation ( p]man5t species f cross-bre$s1 are to be drawn f ! fact allud$ to by ,de ,c&olle1 ( species hav+ a close aff9ity to ea* o!r occurr+ 9 di/9ct botanical prov9ces1 or c\ntries inhabit$ by gr\ps ( di/9ct species ( indig5\s plants2 = 9 ?is case naturali/s1 :o are n prep>$ to g ! :ole l5g? ( ! transmutationi/s1 are "u ! necessity ( admitt+ t1 9 "s cases1 species :i* approa* v ne> to ea* o!r 9 _! *>act]s1 7 s creat$ f _! orig92 an admission fatal to ! idea ( its be+ a g5]al law ( nature t a few orig9al types only %\ld be =m$1 & t all int]m$iate races %\ld spr+ f ! int]mixture ( ^? /ocks4 ,?is notion1 inde$1 is :olly at v>iance ) all t we "k ( hybrid g5]ation2 = ! ph5om5a entitle u to affirm1 t _h ! types be5 at fir/ some:at di/9ct1 no cross-bre$s w\ld ev] h be5 produc$1 mu* less ^? prolific races :i* we n[ recognize z di/9ct species4 ,9 reg>d1 moreov]1 to ! p]man5t propagation ( hybrid races among animals1 insup]able difficulties pres5t !mselves1 :5 we endeavor to conceive ! bl5d+ toge!r ( ! diff]5t in/9cts & prop5sities ( two species1 s z to insure ! pres]vation ( ! int]m$iate race4 ,! common mule1 :5 obta9$ by human art1 may be protect$ by ! p[] ( man2 b1 9 a wild /ate1 x w\ld n h precisely ! same wants ei!r z ! horse or ! ass2 & if 9 consequ5ce ( "s diff]5ce ( ?is k9d1 x /ray$ f ! h]d1 x w\ld soon be hunt$ d[n by bea/s ( prey1 & de/roy$4 ,if we take "s g5us ( insects1 su* z ! bee1 we f9d t ea* ( ! num]\s species has "s diff]5ce 9 its habits1 its mode ( collect+ honey1 or con/ruct+ its dwell+1 or provid+ = its "y1 & o!r p>ticul>s4 ,9 ! case ( ! common hive bee1 ! work]s are describ$1 by ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 z be+ end[$ ) no less ?an ?irty di/9ct in/9cts4#hce ,s also we f9d t1 among/ a mo/ num]\s class ( spid]s1 !re are ne>ly z _m diff]5t modes ( sp9n+ _! webs z !re are species4 ,:5 we recollect h[ complicat$ are ! relations ( ^! in/9cts ) co-exi/+ species1 bo? ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 x is sc>cely possible to imag9e t a ba/>d race c\ld spr+ f ! union ( two ( ^! species1 & reta9 j s mu* ( ! qualities ( ea* p>5t /ock z to pres]ve its gr\nd 9 spite ( ! dang]s :i* surr\nd x4 ,we might also ask1 if a few g5]ic types alone h be5 creat$ among insects1 & ! int]m$iate species h proce$$ f hybridity1 :]e are ^? orig9al types1 comb9+1 z !y ought to d1 ! elem5ts ( all ! in/9cts :i* h made _! appe>ance 9 ! num]\s d]ivative races8 ,s also 9 reg>d to animals ( all classes1 & ( plants2 if species are 9 g5]al ( hybrid orig91 :]e are ! /ocks :i* comb9e 9 !mselves ! habits1 prop]ties1 & organs1 ( :i* all ! int]v5+ species ought to af=d u m]e modifications8 ,recapitulation ( ! argum5ts f hybrids4--,i %all n[ conclude ?is subject by summ+ up1 9 a few words1 ! results to :i* ,i h be5 l$ by ! consid]ation ( ! ph5om5a ( hybrids4 ,x appe>s t ! av]sion ( individuals ( di/9ct species to ! sexual union is common to animals & plants2 & t x is only :5 ! species approa* ne> to ea* o!r 9 _! organization & habits1 t any (fspr+ are produc$ f _! connexion4 ,mules are ( extremely r>e occurr5ce 9 a /ate ( nature1 & no examples are yet kn[n ( _! hav+ procreat$ 9 a wild /ate4 ,b x has be5 prov$1 t hybrids are n univ]sally /]ile1 provid$ ! p>5t /ocks h a ne> aff9ity to ea* o!r1 al?\gh ! cont9uation ( ! mix$ race1 = sev]al g5]ations1 appe>s hi!rto to h be5 obta9$ only by cross+ ! hybrids ) individuals ( pure species2 an exp]im5t :i* by no means be>s out ! hypo!sis t a true hybrid race c\ld ev] be p]man5tly e/abli%$4 ,h5ce we may inf]1 t av]sion to sexual int]c\rse is1 9 g5]al1 a good te/ ( ! di/9ctness ( orig9al /ocks1 or ( species2 & ! procreation ( hybrids is a pro( ( ! ne> aff9ity ( species4 ,p]haps1 h]eaft]1 ! numb] ( g5]ations = :i* hybrids may be cont9u$1 be=e ! race dies out 7= x seems usually to deg5]ate rapidly71 may af=d ! zoologi/ & botani/ an exp]im5tal te/ ( ! diff]5ce 9 ! degree ( aff9ity ( alli$ species4 ,i may also rem>k1 t if x c\ld h be5 %[n t a s+le p]man5t species _h ev] be5 produc$ by hybridity 7( :i* !re is no satisfactory pro(71 x might c]ta9ly h l5t "s c\nt5ance to ! notions ( ! anci5ts respect+ ! gradual det]ioration ( creat$ ?+s1 b none :atev] to ,lam>ck's !ory ( _! progressive p]fectibility1 = obs]vations h hi!rto %[n t !re is a t5d5cy 9 mule animals & plants to deg5]ate 9 organization4 ,x 0 be=e rem>k$1 t ! !ory ( progressive developm5t arose p>tly f an attempt to +raft ! doctr9es ( ! transmutationi/s ^u "o ( ! mo/ popul> g5]alizations 9 geology4 ,b we h se5 9 ! n9? *apt]1 t ! mod]n rese>*es ( geologi/s h brok5 at _m po9ts ! *a9 ( evid5ce once suppos$ to exi/ 9 favor ( ! doctr9e1 t1 at ea* successive p]iod 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory1 animals & plants ( a high] grade1 or m complex organization1 h be5 creat$4 ,! rec5t orig9 ( man1 & ! abs5ce ( all signs ( any rational be+ hold+ an analog\s relation to =m] /ates ( ! animate _w1 af=ds "o1 & p]haps 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce ! only argum5t ( mu* weight 9 support ( ! hypo!sis ( a progressive s*eme2 b none :atev] 9 favor ( ! fanci$ evolution ( "o species out ( ano!r4 ,!ory ( ! gradation ( intellect z %[n by ! facial angle4--,:5 ! celebrat$ anatomi/1 ,camp]1 fir/ attempt$ to e/imate ! degrees ( sagacity ( diff]5t animals1 & ( ! races ( man1 by ! measurem5t ( ! facial angle1 "s speculators 7 bold en\gh to affirm t c]ta9 ,simiae1 or apes1 diff]$ z little f ! m savage races ( m51 z ^? d f ! human race 9 g5]al2 & t a scale might be trac$ f apes ) =eheads villan\s l[ to ! ,african v>iety ( ! human species1 & f t to ! ,european4 ,! facial angle 0 measur$ by draw+ a l9e f ! prom95t c5tre ( ! =ehead to ! mo/ advanc$ "p ( ! l[] jaw-bone1 & obs]v+ ! angle :i* x made ) ! horizontal l9e2 & x 0 affirm$1 t !re 0 a regul> s]ies ( su* angles f birds to ! mammalia4 ,! gradation f ! dog to ! monkey 0 said to be p]fect1 & f t aga9 to man4 ,"o ( ! ape tribe has a facial angle ( #db degrees2 & ano!r1 :i* approximat$ ne>e/ to man 9 figure1 an angle ( #ej degrees4 ,to ?is succe$s 7longo s$ proximus int]vallo7 ! head ( ! ,african negro1 :i*1 z well z t ( ! ,calmuck1 =ms an angle ( #gj degrees2 :ile t ( ! ,european conta9s #hj degrees4 ,! ,roman pa9t]s pref]r$ ! angle ( #ie degrees2 & ! "* ( beauty & sublimity s /rik+ 9 "s works ( ,grecian sculpture1 z 9 ! head ( ! ,apollo1 & 9 ! ,m$usa ( ,sisocles1 is giv5 by an angle :i* am\nts to #ajj degrees4#hcf ,a great numb] ( valuable facts & curi\s analogies 9 comp>ative anatomy 7 br\ght to light dur+ ! inve/igations :i* 7 made by ,camp]1 ,john ,hunt]1 & o!rs1 to illu/rate ?is scale ( organization2 & _! facts & g5]alizations mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! fanciful sy/ems :i* ,:ite & o!rs d$uc$ f !m4#hcg ,t !re is "s connexion betwe5 an elevat$ & capaci\s =ehead1 9 c]ta9 races ( m51 & a l>ge developem5t ( ! intellectual faculties1 seems highly probable2 & t a l[ facial angle is frequ5tly accompani$ ) inf]iority ( m5tal p[]s1 is c]ta92 b ! attempt to trace a gradual scale ( intellig5ce ?r\gh ! diff]5t species ( animals accompany+ ! modifications ( ! =m ( ! scull1 is a m]e vision>y speculation4 ,x has be5 f\nd necess>y to exagg]ate ! sagacity ( ! ape tribe at ! exp5se ( ! dog2 & /range contradictions h aris5 9 ! conclusions d$uc$ f ! /ructure ( ! elephant2 "s anatomi/s be+ dispos$ to d5y ! quadrup$ ! intellig5ce :i* he really possesses1 because !y f\nd t ! volume ( 8 bra9 0 small 9 comp>ison to t ( ! o!r mammalia2 :ile o!rs 7 incl9$ to magnify extravagantly ! sup]iority ( 8 intellect1 because ! v]tical height ( 8 skull is s great :5 comp>$ to its horizontal l5g?4 ,diff]5t races ( m5 are all ( "o species4--,x w\ld be irrelevant to our subject if we 7 to ent] into a f>!r discussion on ^! topics2 because1 ev5 if a graduat$ scale ( organization & intellig5ce c\ld h be5 e/abli%$1 x w\ld prove no?+ 9 favor ( a t5d5cy1 9 ea* species1 to atta9 a high] /ate ( p]fection4 ,i may ref] ! read] to ! writ+s ( ,blum5ba*1 ,pri*>d1 ,lawr5ce1 & m rec5tly ,la?am#hch1 = conv9c+ pro(s t ! v>ieties ( =m1 color1 & organization ( diff]5t races ( m51 are p]fectly consi/5t ) ! g5]ally receiv$ op9ion1 t all ! individuals ( ! species h orig9at$ f a s+le pair2 &1 :ile !y exhibit 9 man z _m div]sities ( a physiological nature z appe> 9 any o!r species1 !y confirm also ! op9ion ( ! slight deviation f a common /&>d ( :i* species are capable4 ,! p[] ( exi/+ & multiply+ 9 e latitude1 & 9 e v>iety ( situation & climate1 :i* has enabl$ ! great human family to ext5d itself ov] ! habitable globe1 is p>tly1 says ,lawr5ce1 ! result ( physical con/itution1 & p>tly ( ! m5tal pr]ogative ( man4 ,if he did n possess ! mo/ endur+ & flexible corporeal frame1 8 arts w\ld n enable him to be ! inhabitant ( all climates1 & to brave ! extremes ( heat & cold1 & ! o!r de/ructive influ5ces ( local situation4#hci ,yet1 not)/&+ ?is flexibility ( bodily frame1 we f9d no signs ( indef9ite dep>ture f a common /&>d1 & ! int]m>riages ( individuals ( ! mo/ remote v>ieties are n less fruitful ?an betwe5 ^? ( ! same tribe4 ,ti$emann on ! bra9 ( ! foetus 9 v]tebrat$ animals4--,!re is yet ano!r dep>tm5t ( anatomical discov]y to :i* ,i mu/ allude1 because x has appe>$ to "s p]sons to af=d a di/ant analogy1 at lea/1 to t progressive developm5t by :i* "s ( ! inf]ior species may h be5 gradually p]fect$ into ^? ( m complex organization4 ,ti$emann f\nd1 & 8 discov]ies h be5 mo/ fully confirm$ & elucidat$ by ,m4 ,s]res1 t ! bra9 ( ! foetus1 9 ! highe/ class ( v]tebrat$ animals1 assumes1 9 succession1 =ms1 be>+ a c]ta9 degree ( resemblance to ^? :i* belong to fi%es1 reptiles1 & birds1 be=e x acquires ! additions & modifications :i* are peculi> to ! mammif]\s tribe2 s t1 9 ! passage f ! embryo to ! p]fect mammif]1 !re is a typical repres5tation1 x is said1 ( all ^? trans=mations :i* ! primitive species are suppos$ to h und]gone1 dur+ a long s]ies ( g5]ations1 betwe5 ! pres5t p]iod & ! remote/ geological era4 ,if y exam9e ! bra9 ( ! mammalia1 says ,m4 ,s]res1 at an e>ly /age ( ut]9e life1 y p]ceive ! c]ebral hemisph]es consolidat$1 z 9 fi%1 9 two vesicles1 isolat$ "o f ! o!r2 at a lat] p]iod1 y see !m affect ! configuration ( ! c]ebral hemisph]es ( reptiles2 /ill lat] aga91 !y pres5t y ) ! =ms ( ^? ( birds2 f9ally !y acquire1 at ! era ( bir?1 & sometimes lat]1 ! p]man5t =ms :i* ! adult mammalia pres5t4 ,! c]ebral hemisph]es1 !n1 arrive at ! /ate :i* we obs]ve 9 ! high] animals only by a s]ies ( successive metamorphoses4 ,if we r$uce ! :ole ( ^! evolutions to f\r p]iods1 we %all see1 t 9 ! fir/ are born ! c]ebral lobes ( fi%es2 & ?is takes place homog5e\sly 9 all classes4 ,! second p]iod w give u ! organization ( reptiles2 ! ?ird1 ! bra9 ( birds2 & ! f\r?1 ! complex hemisph]es ( mammalia4 ,if we c\ld develop ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! bra9 ( ! inf]ior classes1 we %\ld make1 9 succession1 a reptile out ( a fi%1 a bird out ( a reptile1 & a mammif]\s quadrup$ out ( a bird4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 we c\ld />ve ?is organ 9 ! mammalia1 we might r$uce x successively to ! condition ( ! bra9 ( ! ?ree inf]ior classes4 ,nature (t5 pres5ts u ) ?is la/ ph5om5on 9 mon/]s1 b nev] exhibits ! fir/4 ,among ! v>i\s de=mities :i* organiz$ be+s may exp]i5ce1 !y nev] pass ! limits ( _! own classes to put on ! =ms ( ! class above !m4 ,nev] does a fi% elevate itself s z to assume ! =m ( ! bra9 ( a reptile2 nor does ! latt] ev] atta9 t ( birds2 nor ! bird t ( ! mammif]4 ,x may happ5 t a mon/] may h two heads2 b ! con=mation ( ! bra9 always rema9s circumscrib$ n>r[ly )9 ! limits ( its class4#hdj ,dr4 ,cl>k ( ,cambridge1 9 a memoir on ,foetal ,developm5t 7#ahde71 has %[n t ! concurr5t lab\rs ( ,val5t91 ,ratka1 & ,bis*(f disprove ! reality ( ! suppos$ anatomical analogy betwe5 ! embryo condition ( c]ta9 organs 9 ! high] ord]s1 & ! p]fect /ructure ( ! same organs 9 animals ( an inf]ior class4 ,! he>ts & bra9s1 = example1 ( birds & mammals d n pass ?r\gh =ms :i* are p]man5t 9 fi%es & reptiles2 !re is only j s mu* resemblance z may po9t to a unity ( plan runn+ ?r\gh ! organization ( ! :ole s]ies ( v]tebrat$ animals2 b :i* l5ds no support :atev] to ! notion ( a gradual transmutation ( "o species into ano!r2 lea/ ( all ( ! passage1 9 ! c\rse ( _m g5]ations1 f an animal ( a m simple to "o ( a m complex /ructure4 ,recapitulation4--,= ! reasons1 !re=e1 detail$ 9 ?is & ! two prec$+ *apt]s1 we may draw ! foll[+ inf]5ces 9 reg>d to ! reality ( species 9 nature3-- #a/4 ,t !re is a capacity 9 all species to accommodate !mselves1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 to a *ange ( ext]nal circum/ances1 ?is ext5t v>y+ greatly1 accord+ to ! species4 #bndly4 ,:5 ! *ange ( situation :i* !y c endure is great1 x is usually att5d$ by "s modifications ( ! =m1 col\r1 size1 /ructure1 or o!r p>ticul>s2 b ! mutations ?us sup]9duc$ are gov]n$ by con/ant laws1 & ! capability ( s v>y+1 =ms "p ( ! p]man5t specific "*4 #c;dly4 ,"s acquir$ peculi>ities1 ( =m1 /ructure1 & in/9ct1 are transmissible to ! (fspr+2 b ^! consi/ ( su* qualities & attributes only z are intimately relat$ to ! natural wants & prop5sities ( ! species4 #d?ly4 ,! entire v>iation f ! orig9al type1 :i* any giv5 k9d ( *ange c produce1 may usually be effect$ 9 a brief p]iod ( "t1 aft] :i* no f>!r deviation c be obta9$ by cont9u+ to alt] ! circum/ances1 ?\gh ev] s gradually2 indef9ite div]g5ce1 ei!r 9 ! way ( improvem5t or det]ioration1 be+ prev5t$1 & ! lea/ possible excess beyond ! def9$ limits be+ fatal to ! exi/5ce ( ! individual4 #e?ly4 ,! int]mixture ( di/9ct species is gu>d$ aga9/ by ! av]sion ( ! individuals compos+ !m to sexual union1 or by ! /]ility ( ! mule (fspr+4 ,x does n appe> t true hybrid races h ev] be5 p]petuat$ = sev]al g5]ations1 ev5 by ! assi/ance ( man2 = ! cases usually cit$ relate to ! cross+ ( mules ) individuals ( pure species1 & n to ! int]mixture ( hybrid ) hybrid4 #f?ly4 ,f ! above consid]ations1 x appe>s t species h a real exi/5ce 9 nature2 & t ea* 0 end[$1 at ! "t ( its creation1 ) ! attributes & organization by :i* x is n[ di/+ui%$4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxvii4 ,,laws ,,:i* ,,regulate ,,! ,,geographical ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,species4 ,analogy ( climate n att5d$ ) id5tity ( species--,botanical geography--,/ations--,habitations--,di/9 ct prov9ces ( indig5\s plants--,vegetation ( isl&s--,m>9e vegetation--,9 :at mann] plants become diffus$--,effects ( w9d1 riv]s1 m>9e curr5ts--,ag5cy ( animals--,_m se$s pass ?r\gh ! /oma*s ( animals & birds undige/$--,ag5cy ( man 9 ! disp]sion ( plants1 bo? volunt>y & involunt>y--,its analogy to t ( ! inf]ior animals4 ,next to det]m9+ ! "q :e!r species h a real exi/5ce1 ! consid]ation ( ! laws :i* regulate _! geographical di/ribution is a subject ( prim>y importance to ! geologi/4 ,x is only by /udy+ ^! laws ) att5tion1 by obs]v+ ! positions :i* gr\ps ( species occupy at pres5t1 & inquir+ h[ ^! may be v>i$ 9 ! c\rse ( "t by migrations1 by *anges 9 physical geography1 & o!r causes1 t we c hope to le>n :e!r ! duration ( species be limit$1 or 9 :at mann] ! /ate ( ! animate _w is affect$ by ! endless vicissitudes ( ! inanimate4 ,diff]5t regions inhabit$ by di/9ct species4--,t diff]5t regions ( ! globe are inhabit$ by entirely di/9ct animals & plants1 is a fact :i* has be5 famili> to all naturali/s s9ce ,buffon fir/ po9t$ out ! want ( specific id5tity betwe5 ! l& quadrup$s ( ,am]ica & ^? ( ! ,old ,_w4 ,! same ph5om5on has1 9 lat] times1 be5 =c$ 9 a /rik+ mann] ^u our att5tion1 by ! exam9ation ( ,new ,holl&1 :]e ! indig5\s species ( animals & plants 7 f\nd to be1 almo/ )\t exception1 di/9ct f ^? kn[n 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,b ! ext5t ( ?is p>cell+ out ( ! globe among/ diff]5t nations1 z !y h be5 t]m$1 ( plants & animals--! univ]sality ( a ph5om5on s extraord9>y & unexpect$1 may be consid]$ z "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ facts cle>ly e/abli%$ by ! advance ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,sc>cely f\rte5 hundr$ species ( plants appe> to h be5 kn[n & describ$ by ! ,greeks1 ,romans1 & ,arabians4 ,at pres5t1 m ?an ?ree ?\s& species are enum]at$1 z natives ( our own isl&4#hda ,9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w !re h be5 n[ collect$ 7#ahdf7 upw>ds ( #ajj1jjj species1 specim5s ( :i* are pres]v$ 9 ,european h]b>iums4 ,x 0 n to be suppos$1 !re=e1 t ! anci5ts %\ld h acquir$ any correct notions respect+ :at may be call$ ! geography ( plants1 al?\gh ! influ5ce ( climate on ! "* ( ! vegetation c\ld h>dly h escap$ _! obs]vation4 ,antec$5tly to inve/igation1 !re 0 no reason = presum+ t ! vegetable productions1 gr[+ wild 9 ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 %\ld be unlike ^? ( ! we/]n1 9 ! same latitude2 nor t ! plants ( ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope %\ld be unlike ^? ( ! s\? ( ,europe2 situations :]e ! climate is little dissimil>4 ,! contr>y supposition w\ld h seem$ m probable1 & we might h anticipat$ an almo/ p]fect id5tity 9 ! animals & plants :i* inhabit correspond+ p>allels ( latitude4 ,! discov]y1 !re=e1 t ea* sep>ate region ( ! globe1 bo? ( ! l& & wat]1 is occupi$ by di/9ct gr\ps ( species1 & t mo/ ( ! exceptions to ?is g5]al rule may be ref]r$ to dissem9at+ causes n[ 9 op]ation1 is em95tly calculat$ to excite curiosity1 & to /imulate u to seek "s hypo!sis respect+ ! fir/ introduction ( species :i* may be reconcileable ) su* ph5om5a4 ,botanical geography4--,a comp>ison ( ! plants ( diff]5t regions ( ! globe af=ds results m to be dep5d$ ^u 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k ?an ^? relat+ to ! animal k+dom1 because ! sci5ce ( botany is m advanc$1 & probably compreh5ds a great proportion ( ! total numb] ( ! vegetable productions ( ! :ole e>?4 ,humboldt1 9 sev]al eloqu5t passages ( 8 ,p]sonal ,n>rative1 0 among ! fir/ to promulgate philosophical views on ?is subject4 ,e hemisph]e1 says ?is travell]1 produces plants ( diff]5t species2 & x is n by ! div]sity ( climates t we c attempt to expla9 :y equ9octial ,africa has no ,laur9ae1 & ! ,new ,_w no ,hea?s2 :y ! ,calceol>iae are f\nd only 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e2 :y ! birds ( ! cont95t ( ,india gl[ ) colors less spl5did ?an ! birds ( ! hot p>ts ( ,am]ica3 f9ally1 :y ! tig] is peculi> to ,asia1 & ! orni?orhyn*us to ,new ,holl&4#hdb ,we c conceive1 he adds1 t a small numb] ( ! families ( plants1 = in/ance1 ! ,musaceae & ! ,palms1 _c belong to v cold regions1 on acc\nt ( _! int]nal /ructure & ! importance ( c]ta9 organs2 b we _c expla9 :y no "o ( ! family ( ,mela/omas vegetates nor? ( ! p>allel ( ?irty degrees2 or :y no rose-tree belongs to ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,analogy ( climates is (t5 f\nd 9 ! two cont95ts )\t id5tity ( productions4#hdc ,! lum9\s essay ( ,de ,c&olle on ,botanical ,geography pres5ts u ) ! fruits ( 8 own rese>*es & ^? ( ,humboldt1 ,br[n1 & o!r em95t botani/s1 s arrang$1 t ! pr9cipal ph5om5a ( ! di/ribution ( plants are exhibit$ 9 connexion ) ! causes to :i* !y are *iefly ref]rible4#hdd ,x might n1 p]haps1 be difficult1 obs]ves ?is writ]1 to f9d two po9ts1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & 9 ,europe1 or 9 ,equ9octial ,am]ica & ,africa1 :i* pres5t all ! same circum/ances3 z1 = example1 ! same temp]ature1 ! same height above ! sea1 a simil> soil1 an equal dose ( humidity2 yet ne>ly all1 p]haps all1 ! plants 9 ^! two simil> localities %all be di/9ct4 ,a c]ta9 degree ( analogy1 inde$1 ( aspect1 & ev5 ( /ructure1 might v possibly be discov]able betwe5 ! plants ( ! two localities 9 "q2 b ! species w\ld 9 g5]al be diff]5t4 ,circum/ances1 !re=e1 diff]5t f ^? :i* n[ det]m9e ! /ations1 h _h an influ5ce on ! habitations ( plants4 ,/ations & habitations ( plants4--,z ,i %all frequ5tly h occasion to speak ( ! /ations & habitations ( plants 9 ! te*nical s5se 9 :i* ! t]ms are us$ 9 ! above passage1 ,i may rem9d ! geologi/ t /ation indicates ! peculi> nature ( ! locality :]e ea* species is accu/om$ to gr[1 & has ref]5ce to climate1 soil1 humidity1 light1 elevation above ! sea1 & o!r analog\s circum/ances2 :]eas1 by habitation is meant a g5]al indication ( ! c\ntry :]e a plant gr[s wild4 ,?us ! /ation ( a plant may be a salt-m>%1 a hill-side1 ! b$ ( ! sea1 or a /agnant pool4 ,its habitation may be ,europe1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 or ,new ,holl&1 betwe5 ! tropics4 ,! /udy ( /ations has be5 /yl$ ! topography1 t ( habitations ! geography1 ( botany4 ,! t]ms ?us def9$1 express ea* a di/9ct class ( ideas1 :i* h be5 (t5 conf\nd$ toge!r1 & :i* are equally applicable 9 zoology4 ,9 f>!r illu/ration ( ! pr9ciple above allud$ to1 t diff]5ce ( longitude1 indep5d5tly ( any influ5ce ( temp]ature1 is accompani$ by a great1 & sometimes a complete1 div]sity 9 ! species ( plants1 ,de ,c&olle obs]ves1 t1 out ( #bhia species ( pha5ogam\s plants describ$ by ,pur%1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !re are only #che :i* are f\nd 9 nor!rn or temp]ate ,europe4 ,,mm4 ,humboldt & ,bonpl&1 9 all _! travels ?r\gh equ9octial ,am]ica1 f\nd only tw5ty-f\r species 7^! be+ all ,cyp]aceae & ,gram9eae7 common to ,am]ica & any "p ( ! ,old ,_w4 ,!y collect$1 x is true1 *iefly on ! m\nta9s1 or ! proportion w\ld h be5 l>g]2 = ,dr4 ,j4 ,hook] in=ms me t _m tropical plants ( ! ,new ,_w are id5tical ) ,african species4 ,nev]!less1 ! g5]al discordance ( ^! ,floras is v /rik+4 ,on comp>+ ,new ,holl& ) ,europe1 ,mr4 ,br[n asc]ta9$ t1 out ( #dajj species1 discov]$ 9 ,au/ralia1 !re 7 only #aff common to ,europe1 & ( ?is small numb] !re 7 "s few :i* may h be5 transport$ ?i!r by man4 ,almo/ all ( ! #aff species 7 cryptogamic1 & ! re/ consi/1 9 ne>ly e case1 ( pha5ogam\s plants :i* also inhabit int]v5+ regions4 ,b :at is /ill m rem>kable1 9 ! m widely sep>at$ p>ts ( ! anci5t cont95t1 not)/&+ ! exi/5ce ( an un9t]rupt$ l&-communication1 ! div]sity 9 ! specific "* ( ! respective vegetations is almo/ z /rik+4 ,?us !re is f\nd "o assemblage ( species 9 ,*9a1 ano!r 9 ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,black ,sea & ! ,caspian1 a ?ird 9 ^? surr\nd+ ! ,m$it]ranean1 a f\r? 9 ! great plat=ms ( ,sib]ia & ,t>t>y1 & s =?4 ,! di/9ctness ( ! gr\ps ( indig5\s plants1 9 ! same p>allel ( latitude1 is greate/ :]e cont95ts are disjo9$ by a wide expanse ( ocean4 ,9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ne> ! pole1 :]e ! extremities ( ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,am]ica unite or approa* ne> to "o ano!r1 a consid]able numb] ( ! same species ( plants are f\nd1 common to ! ?ree cont95ts4 ,b x has be5 rem>k$1 t ^! plants1 :i* are ?us s widely diffus$ 9 ! arctic regions1 are also f\nd 9 ! *a9 ( ! ,aleutian isl&s1 :i* /ret* almo/ across f ,am]ica to ,asia1 & :i* may probably h s]v$ z ! *annel ( communication = ! p>tial bl5d+ ( ! ,floras ( ! adjo9+ regions4 ,x has1 inde$1 be5 obs]v$ to be a g5]al rule1 t plants f\nd at two po9ts v remote f ea* o!r occur also 9 places int]m$iate4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,hook] in=ms me t 9 high latitudes 9 ! s\!rn ocean1 9 spite ( ! great ext5t ( ! sea1 ,floras ( widely disconnect$ isl&s conta9 _m species 9 common4 ,p]haps iceb]gs1 transport+ to va/ di/ances n only /ones1 b soil ) ! se$s ( plants1 may expla9 ?is unusually wide diffusion ( insul> plants4 ,9 isl&s v di/ant f cont95ts ! total numb] ( plants is comp>atively small2 b a l>ge proportion ( ! species are su* z occur n[h]e else4 ,9 s f> z ! ,flora ( su* isl&s is n peculi> to !m1 x conta9s1 9 g5]al1 species common to ! ne>e/ ma9 l&s4#hde ,! isl&s ( ! great s\!rn ocean exemplify ^! rules2 ! ea/]nmo/ conta9+ m ,am]ican1 & ! we/]n m ,indian plants4#hdf ,madeira & ,t5]iffe conta9 _m species1 & ev5 entire g5]a1 peculi> to !m2 b !y h also plants 9 common ) ,portugal1 ,spa91 ! ,azores1 & ! nor?-we/ coa/ ( ,africa4#hdg ,9 ! ,can>ies1 out ( #ecc species ( pha5ogam\s plants1 x is said t #caj are peculi> to ^! isl&s1 & ! re/ id5tical ) ^? ( ! ,african cont95t2 b 9 ! ,flora ( ,/4 ,hel5a1 :i* is s f> di/ant ev5 f ! we/]n %ores ( ,africa1 !re h be5 f\nd1 out ( ?irty native species ( ! pha5ogam\s class1 only "o or two :i* are to be f\nd 9 any o!r "p ( ! globe4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ( sixty cryptogamic plants1 collect$ by ,dr4 ,j4 ,hook] 9 ! same isl&1 twelve only 7 peculi>4 ,! natural hi/ory ( ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago1 describ$ by ,mr4 ,d>w91 af=ds ano!r v in/ructive illu/ration ( ! laws gov]n+ ! geographical di/ribution ( plants & animals 9 isl&s4 ,?is gr\p consi/s ( t5 pr9cipal isl&s1 situat$ 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean1 "u ! equator1 ab\t #fjj miles we/w>d ( ! coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,z !y are all =m$ ( volcanic rocks1 _m ( ! crat]s1 ( :i* !re are ab\t #bjjj 9 numb]1 hav+ a v fre% aspect1 we may reg>d ! :ole z mu* m mod]n 9 orig9 ?an ! mass ( ! adjo9+ cont95t2 yet nei!r has ! ,flora nor ,fauna be5 d]iv$ f ,s\? ,am]ica1 b consi/ ( species = ! mo/ "p indig5\s1 yet /amp$ ) a "* decid$ly ,s\? ,am]ican4 ,:at is /ill m s+ul>1 !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 ! species inhabit+ ! diff]5t isl&s4 ,( fl[]+ plants1 = example1 !re are #ahe species at pres5t kn[n1 & =ty cryptogamic1 mak+ toge!r #bbe4 ,"o hundr$ ( ! =m] class are new species1 probably conf9$ to ?is ar*ipelago2 & ( ! re/1 t5 at lea/ h be5 introduc$ by man4 ,( tw5ty-"o species ( ,compositae1 all b "o are peculi>1 & !y belong to twelve g5]a1 no less ?an t5 ( :i* g5]a are conf9$ to ! ,galapagos4 ,dr4 ,hook] obs]ves1 t ! type ( ?is ,flora has an und\bt$ relation to t ( ! we/]n side ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 & he detects 9 x no aff9ity ) t ( ! num]\s isl&s scatt]$ ov] o!r p>ts ( ! ,pacific4 ,s 9 reg>d to ! birds1 reptiles1 l&-%ells1 & insects1 ?is ar*ipelago1 /&+ z x does 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean1 is zoologically "p ( ,am]ica4 ,al?\gh ea* small isl& is n m ?an fifty or sixty miles ap>t1 & mo/ ( !m are 9 sight ( ea* o!r1 =m$ ( precisely ! same rocks1 ris+ ne>ly to an equal height1 & plac$ "u a simil> climate1 !y are t5ant$ ea* by a diff]5t set ( be+s1 ! tortoises1 mock+-?ru%es1 f9*es1 beetles1 sc>cely any ( !m ev] rang+ ov] ! :ole1 & (t5 n ev5 common to any two ( ! isl&s4 ,! ar*ipelago1 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 is a little _w )9 itself1 or r a satellite atta*$ to ,am]ica2 :5ce x has d]iv$ a few /ray coloni/s1 & has receiv$ ! g5]al "* ( its indig5\s productions4 ,"o is a/oni%$1 he adds1 at ! am\nt ( creative =ce display$ on s _m small1 b>r51 & rocky isl&s1 & /ill m s1 at its div]se1 yet analog\s action on po9ts s ne> ea* o!r4 ,i h said t ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago might be call$ a satellite atta*$ to ,am]ica1 b x %\ld r be call$ a gr\p ( satellites physically simil>1 organically di/9ct1 yet intimately relat$ to ea* o!r1 & all relat$ 9 a m>k$1 ?\gh mu* less] degree1 to ! great ,am]ican cont95t4#hdh ,numb] ( botanical prov9ces4--,de ,c&olle has enum]at$ tw5ty great botanical prov9ces inhabit$ by indig5\s or aborig9al plants2 & al?\gh _m ( ^! conta9 a v>iety ( species :i* are common to sev]al o!rs1 & sometimes to places v remote1 yet ! l9es ( dem>cation are1 ^u ! :ole1 a/oni%+ly well def9$4#hdi ,nor is x likely t ! be>+ ( ! evid5ce on :i* ^! g5]al views are f\nd$ w ev] be mat]ially affect$1 s9ce !y are already confirm$ by ! exam9ation ( ne>ly "o hundr$ ?\s& species ( plants4 ,! entire *ange ( op9ion :i* ! contemplation ( ^? ph5om5a has br\ght ab\t is wor?y ( rem>k4 ,! fir/ travell]s 7 p]suad$ t !y %\ld f9d1 9 di/ant regions1 ! plants ( _! own c\ntry1 & !y took a pleasure 9 giv+ !m ! same names4 ,x 0 "s "t be=e ?is illusion 0 dissipat$2 b s fully s5sible did botani/s at la/ become ( ! extreme smallness ( ! numb] ( pha5ogam\s plants common to diff]5t cont95ts1 t ! anci5t ,floras fell into disrepute4 ,all grew diffid5t ( ! pret5d$ id5tifications2 & we n[ f9d t e naturali/ is incl9$ to exam9e ea* suppos$ exception ) scrupul\s sev]ity4#hej ,if !y admit ! fact1 !y beg9 to speculate on ! mode :]eby ! se$s may h be5 transport$ f "o c\ntry into ! o!r1 or enquire on :i* ( two cont95ts ! plant 0 indig5\s1 assum+ t a species1 l an individual1 _c h two bir?places4 ,m>9e vegetation4--,! m>9e vegetation is divisible into diff]5t sy/ems1 l ^? prevail+ on ! l&2 b !y are mu* few]1 z we might h expect$1 ! temp]ature ( ! ocean be+ m uni=m ?an t ( ! atmosph]e1 & consequ5tly ! disp]sion ( species f "o zone to ano!r be+ less frequ5tly *eck$ by ! int]v5tion ( uncong5ial climates4 ,! proportion also ( l& to sea ?r\gh\t ! globe be+ small1 ! migration ( m>9e plants is n s (t5 /opp$ by b>ri]s ( l&1 z is t ( ! t]re/rial species by ! ocean4 ,! numb] ( hydrophytes1 z !y are t]m$1 is v consid]able1 & _! /ations are f\nd to be inf9itely m v>i$ ?an c\ld h be5 anticipat$2 = :ile "s plants are cov]$ & uncov]$ daily by ! tide1 o!rs live at ! dep? ( sev]al hundr$ feet4 ,among ! kn[n prov9ces ( ,algae1 we may m5tion1 #a/1 ,! nor? circumpol>1 f lat #fj degrees ,n4 to ! pole2 #b;dly1 ,! ,nor? ,atlantic or ! region ( ,fucus prop] & ,deless]iae1 ext5d+ f lat4 #dj degrees ,n4 to lat4 #fj degrees ,n42 #c;dly1 ,t ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 :i* may be reg>d$ z a sub-region ( ! f\r? or w>m] temp]ate zone ( ! ,atlantic1 betwe5 lat4 #bc degrees ,n4 & lat4 #dj degrees ,n42 #e?ly1 ,! ,tropical ,atlantic1 9 :i* ,s>gassum1 ,rhodomelia1 ,corall9ea1 & ,siphonia ab\nd2 #f?ly1 ,! ,s\? ,atlantic1 :]e ! ,fucus reappe>s2 #g?ly1 ,! ,ant>ctic ,am]ican1 compreh5d+ f ,*ili to ,cape ,horn1 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & !nce r\nd ! _w s\? ( latitude #ej degrees ,s42 #h?ly1 ,! ,au/ralian & ,new ,zeal&1 :i* is v peculi>1 be+ *>act]iz$1 among o!r g5]ic =ms1 by ,cy/oseiriae & ,fuceae2 #i?ly1 ,! ,indian ,ocean & ,r$ ,sea2 &1 #aj?ly1 ,! ,*9ese & ,japanese seas4#hea ,9 addition to ! above prov9ces1 !re are sev]al o!rs n yet well det]m9$ 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean & else:]e4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m species :i* range ?r\gh sev]al ( ^! geographical regions ( subaque\s vegetation1 be+ common to v remote c\ntries2 z1 = example1 to ! coa/s ( ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & o!rs1 to ,cape ,horn & ,van ,diem5's ,l&1 ! same plants ext5d+ also = ! mo/ "p to ! ,new ,zeal& sea4 ,( ! species /rictly ant>ctic 7exclud+ ! ,new ,zeal& & ,tasmanian gr\ps7 ,dr4 ,hook] has id5tifi$ n less ?an a fif? "p ( ! :ole ) ,briti% ,algae6 ,yet is !re a mu* small] proportion ( cosmopolite species among ! ,algae ?an among ! t]re/rial cellul> plants1 su* z li*5s1 mosses1 & ,hepaticae4 ,x mu/ always be borne 9 m9d1 t ! di/9ctness allud$ to betwe5 ! prov9ces1 :e!r ( subaque\s or t]re/rial plants1 relates /rictly to species1 & n to =ms4 ,9 reg>d to ! num]ical prepond]ance ( c]ta9 =ms1 & _m peculi>ities ( int]nal /ructure1 !re is usually a m>k$ agreem5t 9 ! vegetable productions ( di/ricts plac$ 9 correspond+ latitudes1 & "u simil> physical circum/ances1 h[ev] remote _! position4 ,?us !re are innum]able po9ts ( analogy betwe5 ! vegetation ( ! ,brazils1 equ9octial ,africa1 & ,india2 & !re are also po9ts ( diff]5ce :]e9 ! plants ( ^! regions are di/+ui%able f all extra-tropical gr\ps4 ,b !re is a v small proportion ( ! entire numb] ( species common to ! ?ree cont95ts4 ,! same may be said1 if we comp>e ! plants ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ) t ( ! middle ( ,europe2 ! species are di/9ct1 b ! =ms are (t5 s analog\s1 z to h be5 /yl$ geographical repres5tatives4 ,!re are v few species ( pha5ogam\s plants1 says ,dr4 ,j4 ,hook]1 common to ,van ,diem5's ,l&1 ,new ,zeal&1 & ,fuegia1 b a great _m g5]a1 & "s ( !m are conf9$ to ^? ?ree di/ant regions ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 be+ 9 _m in/ances ea* sev]ally repres5t$ by a s+le species4 ,! same naturali/ also obs]ves t ! s\!rn temp]ate z well z ! ant>ctic regions1 possess ea* ( !m repres5tatives ( "s ( ! g5]a ( ! analog\s climates ( ! opposite hemisph]e2 b v few ( ! species are id5tical unless !y be su* z are equally diffus$ ov] o!r c\ntries1 or :i* inhabit ! ,&es1 by ! aid ( :i* !y h evid5tly effect$ _! passage s\?w>ds4 ,mann] 9 :i* plants become diffus$4--,w9ds4--,let u n[ consid] :at means ( diffusion1 indep5d5tly ( ! ag5cy ( man1 are possess$ by plants1 :]eby1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 !y may be enabl$ to /ray f "o ( ! botanical prov9ces above m5tion$ to ano!r1 & to e/abli% new colonies at a great di/ance f _! bir?place4 ,! pr9cipal ( ! inanimate ag5ts provid$ by nature = scatt]+ ! se$s ( plants ov] ! globe1 are ! movem5ts ( ! atmosph]e & ( ! ocean1 & ! con/ant fl[ ( wat] f ! m\nta9s to ! sea4 ,to beg9 ) ! w9ds3 a great numb] ( se$s1 are furni%$ ) d[ny & fea!ry app5dages1 enabl+ !m1 :5 ripe1 to float 9 ! air1 & to be waft$ easily to great di/ances by ! mo/ g5tle breeze4 ,o!r plants are fitt$ = disp]sion by means ( an atta*$ w+1 z 9 ! case ( ! fir tree1 s t !y are caught up by ! w9d z !y fall f ! cone1 & are c>ri$ to a di/ance4 ,among/ ! comp>atively small numb] ( plants kn[n to ,l9naeus1 no less ?an #ach g5]a are enum]at$ z hav+ w+$ se$s4 ,z w9ds (t5 prevail = days1 weeks1 or ev5 mon?s toge!r1 9 ! same direction1 ^! means ( transportation may sometimes be )\t limits2 & ev5 ! heavi] gra9s may be borne ?r\gh consid]able spaces1 9 a v %ort "t1 dur+ ord9>y tempe/s2 = /rong gales1 :i* c sweep along gra9s ( s&1 (t5 move at ! rate ( ab\t =ty miles an h\r1 & if ! /orm be v viol5t1 at ! rate ( fifty-six miles4#heb ,! hurricanes ( tropical regions1 :i* root up trees & ?r[ d[n build+s1 sweep along at ! rate ( n9ety miles an h\r2 s t1 = h[ev] %ort a "t !y prevail1 !y may c>ry ev5 ! heavi] fruits & se$s ov] fri?s & seas ( consid]able wid?1 & d\btless are (t5 ! means ( introduc+ into isl&s ! vegetation ( adjo9+ cont95ts4 ,:irlw9ds are also in/rum5tal 9 be>+ along heavy vegetable sub/ances to consid]able di/ances4 ,slight ones may frequ5tly be obs]v$ 9 our fields1 9 summ] c>ry+ up haycocks into ! air1 & !n lett+ fall small tufts ( hay f> & wide ov] ! c\ntry2 b !y are sometimes s p[]ful z to dry up lakes & ponds1 & to break (f ! b\ghs ( trees1 & c>ry !m up 9 a :irl+ column ( air4 ,frankl9 tells u1 9 "o ( 8 lett]s1 t he saw1 9 ,m>yl&1 a :irlw9d :i* began by tak+ up ! du/ :i* lay 9 ! road1 9 ! =m ( a sug> loaf ) ! po9t$ end d[nw>ds1 & soon aft] grew to ! height ( =ty or fifty feet1 be+ tw5ty or ?irty 9 diamet]4 ,x advanc$ 9 a direction contr>y to ! w9d2 & al?\gh ! rot>y motion ( ! column 0 surpris+ly rapid1 its onw>d progress 0 suffici5tly sl[ to all[ a man to keep pace ) x on foot4 ,frankl9 foll[$ x on horseback1 accompani$ by 8 son1 = ?ree qu>t]s ( a mile1 & saw x ent] a wood1 :]e x twi/$ & turn$ r\nd l>ge trees ) surpris+ =ce4 ,^! 7 c>ri$ up 9 a spiral l9e1 & 7 se5 fly+ 9 ! air1 toge!r ) b\ghs & innum]able leaves1 :i*1 f _! height1 appe>$ r$uc$ to ! app>5t size ( flies4 ,z ?is cause op]ates at diff]5t int]vals ( "t ?r\gh\t a great portion ( ! e>?'s surface1 x may be ! means ( be>+ n only plants b insects1 l& te/acea & _! eggs1 ) _m o!r species ( animals1 to po9ts :i* !y c\ld nev] o!rwise h rea*$1 & f :i* !y may !n beg9 to propagate !mselves aga9 z f a new c5tre4 ,di/ribution ( cryptogam\s plants4--,x has be5 f\nd t a great num]ical proportion ( ! exceptions to ! limitation ( species to c]ta9 qu>t]s ( ! globe occur 9 ! v>i\s tribes ( cryptogamic plants4 ,l9naeus obs]v$ t1 z ! g]ms ( plants ( ?is class1 su* z mosses1 fungi1 & li*5s1 consi/ ( an impalpable p[d]1 ! p>ticles ( :i* are sc>cely visible to ! nak$ eye1 !re is no difficulty to acc\nt = _! be+ disp]s$ ?r\gh\t ! atmosph]e1 & c>ri$ to e po9t ( ! globe1 :]e !re is a /ation fitt$ = !m4 ,li*5s 9 p>ticul> asc5d to great elevations1 sometimes gr[+ two ?\s& feet above ! l9e ( p]petual sn[1 at ! utmo/ limits ( vegetation1 & :]e ! mean temp]ature is ne>ly at ! freez+ po9t4 ,?is elevat$ position mu/ contribute greatly to facilitate ! disp]sion ( ^? buoyant p>ticles ( :i* _! fructification consi/s4#hec ,"s h inf]r$1 f ! spr++ up ( mu%rooms :5ev] p>ticul> soils & decompos$ organic matt] are mix$ toge!r1 t ! production ( fungi is accid5tal1 & n analog\s to t ( p]fect plants4 ,b ,fries1 ^: au?ority on ^! que/ions is entitl$ to ! highe/ respect1 has %[n ! fallacy ( ?is argum5t 9 favor ( ! old doctr9e ( equivocal g5]ation4 ,! sporules ( fungi1 says ?is naturali/1 are s inf9ite1 t 9 a s+le individual ( ,reticul>ia maxima1 ,i h c\nt$ above t5 millions1 & s subtile z to be sc>cely visible1 (t5 resembl+ ?9 smoke2 s light t !y may be rais$ p]haps by evaporation into ! atmosph]e1 & disp]s$ 9 s _m ways by ! attraction ( ! sun1 by insects1 w9d1 ela/icity1 adhesion1 c41 t x is difficult to conceive a place f :i* !y may be exclud$4#hed ,! club-moss call$ ,lycopodium c]nuum af=ds a /rik+ example ( a cryptogam\s plant univ]sally di/ribut$ ov] all equ9octial c\ntries4 ,x sc>cely ev] passes beyond ! nor!rn tropic1 except 9 "o in/ance1 :]e x appe>s ar\nd ! hot-spr+s 9 ! ,azores1 al?\gh x is nei!r an inhabitant ( ! ,can>ies nor ,madeira4 ,d\btless its microscopic sporules are ev]y:]e pres5t1 ready to g]m9ate on any spot :]e !y c enjoy ?r\gh\t ! ye> ! prop] quantity ( w>m?1 moi/ure1 light1 & o!r conditions ess5tial to ! species4 ,almo/ e li*5 br\ght home f ! s\!rn hemisph]e by ! ant>ctic exp$ition "u ,sir ,james ,ross1 am\nt+ to no less ?an #bjj species1 0 asc]ta9$ to be also an inhabitant ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & almo/ all ( !m ,european4 ,ag5cy ( riv]s & curr5ts4--,9 consid]+1 9 ! next place1 ! in/rum5tality ( ! aque\s ag5ts ( disp]sion1 ,i _c d bett] ?an cite ! words ( "o ( our able/ botanical writ]s4 ,! m\nta9 /ream or torr5t1 obs]ves ,kei?1 wa%es d[n to ! valley ! se$s :i* may accid5tally fall into x1 or :i* x may happ5 to sweep f its banks :5 x sudd5ly ov]fl[s !m4 ,! broad & maje/ic riv]1 w9d+ along ! ext5sive pla91 & trav]s+ ! cont95ts ( ! _w1 conveys to ! di/ance ( _m hundr$s ( miles ! se$s t may h vegetat$ at its s\rce4 ,?us ! s\!rn %ores ( ! ,baltic are visit$ by se$s :i* grew 9 ! int]ior ( ,g]many1 & ! we/]n %ores ( ! ,atlantic by se$s t h be5 g5]at$ 9 ! int]ior ( ,am]ica4#hee ,fruits1 moreov]1 indig5\s to ,am]ica & ! ,we/ ,indies1 su* z t ( ! ,mimosa sc&5s1 ! ca%ewnut & o!rs1 h be5 kn[n to be drift$ across ! ,atlantic by ! ,gulf /ream1 on ! we/]n coa/s ( ,europe1 9 su* a /ate t !y might h vegetat$ _h ! climate & soil be5 fav\rable4 ,among ^! ! ,guil&9a ,bonduc1 a legum9\s plant1 is p>ticul>ly m5tion$1 z hav+ be5 rais$ f a se$ f\nd on ! we/ coa/ ( ,irel&4#hef ,sir ,hans ,sloane /ates1 t sev]al k9ds ( beans ca/ a%ore on ! ,orkney ,isles1 & ,irel&1 b none ( :i* appe> to h naturaliz$ !mselves1 are d]iv$ f trees :i* gr[ 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 & _m ( !m 9 ,jamaica4 ,he conjectures t !y might h be5 convey$ by riv]s into ! sea1 & !n by ! ,gulf /ream to great] di/ances1 9 ! same mann] z ! sea-we$ call$ ,l5ticula m>9a1 or ,s>gasso1 :i* gr[s on ! rocks ab\t ,jamaica1 is kn[n to be c>ri$ by ! w9ds & curr5t t[>ds ! coa/ ( ,florida1 & !nce into ! ,nor? ,am]ican ocean1 :]e x lies v ?ick on ! surface ( ! sea4#heg ,! abs5ce ( liquid matt] 9 ! composition ( se$s r5d]s !m comp>atively ins5sible to heat & cold1 s t !y may be c>ri$ )\t detrim5t ?r\gh climates :]e ! plants !mselves w\ld in/antly p]i%4 ,su* is _! p[] ( resi/+ ! effects ( heat1 t ,spallanzani m5tions "s se$s t g]m9at$ aft] hav+ be5 boil$ 9 wat]4#heh ,sir ,john ,h]s*el in=ms me t he has s[n at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope ! se$s ( ! ,acacia lophanta aft] !y _h rema9$ = twelve h\rs 9 wat] ( #adj degrees ,fahr5heit1 & !y g]m9at$ f> m rapidly ?an unboil$ se$s4 ,he also /ates t an em95t botani/1 ,b>on ,ludwig1 c\ld n get ! se$s ( a species ( c$> to gr[ at ! ,cape till !y 7 ?or\ghly boil$4 ,:5 !re=e1 a /rong gale1 aft] bl[+ viol5tly (f ! l& = a "t1 dies away1 & ! se$s alight ^u ! surface ( ! wat]s1 or :]ev] ! ocean1 by eat+ away ! sea-cliffs1 ?r[s d[n into its waves plants :i* w\ld nev] o!rwise rea* ! %ores1 ! tides & curr5ts become active in/rum5ts 9 assi/+ ! dissem9ation ( almo/ all classes ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,! p&anus & _m o!r plants h be5 di/ribut$ 9 ?is way ov] ! isl&s ( ! ,pacific4 ,i h be=e call$ att5tion 7p4 #fah47 to ! int]e/+ fact t "o-fif? ( all ! algae f\nd 9 ! ant>ctic regions 9 #ahda-c1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,hook]1 7 ( species common to ! ,briti% seas4 ,he has sugge/$ t cold curr5ts :i* prevail f ,cape ,horn to ! equator1 & are !re met by o!r cold wat]1 may by _! direct influ5ce1 z well z by _! temp]ature1 facilitate ! passage ( ant>ctic species to ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,9 l mann] ! migration ( c]ta9 m>9e animals f ! s\!rn to ! nor!rn hemisph]e may h be5 br\ght ab\t by ! same cause4 ,9 a collection ( six hundr$ plants f ! neighborhood ( ! riv] ,zaire1 9 ,africa1 ,mr4 ,br[n f\nd t ?irte5 species 7 also met ) on ! opposite %ores ( ,guiana & ,brazil4 ,he rem>k$ t mo/ ( ^! plants 7 f\nd only on ! l[] p>ts ( ! riv] ,zaire1 & 7 *iefly su* z produc$ se$s capable ( reta9+ _! vitality a long "t 9 ! curr5ts ( ! ocean4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,hook] in=ms me t aft] an exam9ation ( a great _m insul> floras1 he has f\nd t no "o ( ! l>ge natural ord]s is s ri* 9 species common to o!r c\ntries1 z ! ,legum9osae4 ,! se$s 9 ?is ord]1 :i* comprises ! l>ge/ proportion ( widely diffus$ littoral species1 are bett] adapt$ ?an ^? ( any o!r plants = wat]-c>riage4 ,! migration ( plants aid$ by isl&s4--,isl&s1 moreov]1 & ev5 ! smalle/ rocks1 play an important "p 9 aid+ su* migrations2 = :5 se$s alight ^u !m f ! atmosph]e1 or are ?r[n up by ! surf1 !y (t5 vegetate1 & supply ! w9ds & waves ) a repetition ( new & un9jur$ crops ( fruit & se$s4 ,^! may aft]w>ds pursue _! c\rse ?r\gh ! atmosph]e1 or along ! surface ( ! sea1 9 ! same direction4 ,! numb] ( plants f\nd at any giv5 "t on an islet af=ds u no te/ :atev] ( ! ext5t to :i* x may h co-op]at$ t[>ds ?is end1 s9ce a v>iety ( species may fir/ ?rive !re & !n p]i%1 & be foll[$ by o!r *ance-com]s l !mselves4 ,if nei!r ,/4 ,hel5a nor ,asc5sion h promot$ ! botanical int]c\rse betwe5 ! ,old & ,new ,worlds1 we may easily acc\nt = ! fact by rememb]+ t !y are n only extremely m9ute & isolat$ spots1 b are also b\nd$ by l(ty & precipit\s %ores )\t bea*es1 :]e ! se$s ( =eign species c\ld readily e/abli% !mselves4 ,curr5ts & w9ds 9 ! arctic regions drift along iceb]gs cov]$ ) an alluvial soil1 on :i* h]bs & p9e-sapl+s are se5 gr[+1 :i* may (t5 cont9ue to vegetate on "s di/ant %ore :]e ! ice-isl& is /r&$4 ,disp]sion ( m>9e plants4--,) respect to m>9e vegetation1 ! se$s1 be+ 9 _! native elem5t1 may rema9 imm]s$ 9 wat] )\t injury = indef9ite p]iods1 s t !re is no difficulty 9 conceiv+ ! diffusion ( species :]ev] uncong5ial climates1 contr>y curr5ts1 & o!r causes d n int]f]e4 ,all are famili> ) ! sight ( ! float+ sea-we$1 ,flung f ! rock on ocean's foam to sail1 ,:]e'er ! surge may sweep1 ! tempe/'s brea? prevail4 ,rem>kable accumulations ( t species ( sea-we$ g5]ally kn[n z gulf-we$1 or s>gasso1 occur on ea* side ( ! equator 9 ! ,atlantic1 ,pacific1 & ,indian ,oceans4 ,columbus & o!r navigators1 :o fir/ enc\nt]$ ^! banks ( algae 9 ! ,nor!rn ,atlantic1 comp>$ !m to va/ inundat$ mead[s1 & /ate t !y ret>d$ ! progress ( _! vessels4 ,! mo/ ext5sive bank is a little we/ ( ! m]idian ( ,fayal1 "o ( ! ,azores1 betwe5 latitudes #ce degrees & #cf degrees3 viol5t nor?-w9ds sometimes prevail 9 ?is space1 & drive ! sea-we$ to l[ latitudes1 z f> z ! #bd? or ev5 ! #bj? degree4#hei ,along ! nor!rn edge ( ! ,gulf /ream ,dr4 ,hook] f\nd ,fucus nodosus1 & ,f4 s]ratus1 :i* he trac$ all ! way f lat4 #cf degrees ,n4 to ,engl&4 ,! holl[ pod-l receptacle 9 :i* ! se$s ( _m algae are lodg$1 & ! filam5ts atta*$ to ! se$-vessels ( o!rs1 seem int5d$ to give buoyancy2 & ,i may obs]ve t ^! hydrophytes are 9 g5]al prolif]\s1 s t ! smalle/ fragm5t ( a bran* c be develop$ into a p]fect plant4 ,! se$s1 moreov]1 ( ! great] numb] ( species are envelop$ ) a muc\s matt] l t :i* surr\nds ! eggs ( "s fi%1 & :i* n only protects !m f injury1 b s]ves to atta* !m to float+ bodies or to rocks4 ,ag5cy ( animals 9 ! di/ribution ( plants4--,b we h z yet consid]$ "p only ( ! f]tile res\rces ( nature = convey+ se$s to a di/ance f _! place ( gr[?4 ,! v>i\s tribes ( animals are busily engag$ 9 fur!r+ an object :5ce !y d]ive su* important advantages4 ,sometimes an express provision is f\nd 9 ! /ructure ( se$s to enable !m to adh]e firmly by prickles1 hooks1 & hairs1 to ! coats ( animals1 or fea!rs ( ! w+$ tribe1 to :i* !y rema9 atta*$ = weeks1 or ev5 mon?s1 & are borne along into e region :i!r birds or quadrup$s may migrate4 ,l9naeus enum]ates fifty g5]a ( plants1 & ! numb] n[ kn[n to botani/s is mu* great]1 :i* are arm$ ) hooks1 by :i*1 :5 ripe1 !y adh]e to ! coats ( animals4 ,mo/ ( ^! vegetables1 he rem>ks1 require a soil enri*$ ) dung4 ,few h fail$ to m>k ! locks ( wool hang+ on ! ?orn-bu%es1 :]ev] ! %eep pass1 & x is probable t ! wolf or lion nev] give-*ase to h]bivor\s animals )\t be+ unconsci\sly subs]vi5t to ?is "p ( ! vegetable economy4 ,a de] has /ray$ f ! h]d :5 br[s+ on "s ri* pa/ure1 :5 he is sudd5ly al>m$ by ! approa* ( 8 foe4 ,he in/antly takes to flight1 da%+ ?r\gh _m a ?icket1 & swimm+ across _m a riv] & lake4 ,! se$s ( ! h]bs & %rubs :i* h adh]$ to 8 smok+ flanks are wa%$ (f aga9 by ! wat]s4 ,! ?orny spray is torn (f1 & fixes itself 9 its hairy coat1 until bru%$ (f aga9 9 o!r ?ickets & copses4 ,ev5 on ! spot :]e ! victim is dev\r$ _m ( ! se$s :i* he _h swall[$ imm$iately be=e ! *ase may be left on ! gr\nd un9jur$1 & ready to spr+ up 9 a new soil4 ,! passage1 inde$1 ( undige/$ se$s ?r\gh ! /oma*s ( animals is "o ( ! mo/ effici5t causes ( ! dissem9ation ( plants1 & is ( all o!rs1 p]haps1 ! mo/ likely to be ov]look$4 ,few are ignorant t a portion ( ! oats eat5 by a horse pres]ve _! g]m9at+ faculty 9 ! dung4 ,! fact ( _! be+ /ill nutriti\s is n lo/ on ! sagaci\s rook4 ,to _m1 says ,l9naeus1 x seems extraord9>y1 & some?+ ( a prodigy1 t :5 a field is well till$ & s[n ) ! be/ :eat1 x frequ5tly produces d>nel or ! wild oat1 especially if x be manur$ ) new dung2 !y d n consid] t ! f]tility ( ! small] se$s is n de/roy$ 9 ! /oma*s ( animals4#hfj ,ag5cy ( birds4--,"s birds ( ! ord] ,pass]es dev\r ! se$s ( plants 9 great quantities1 :i* !y eject aga9 9 v di/ant places1 )\t de/roy+ its faculty ( vegetation3 ?us a flight ( l>ks w fill ! cleane/ field ) a great quantity ( v>i\s k9ds ( plants1 z ! melilot trefoil 7,m$icago lupul9a71 & o!rs ^: se$s are s heavy t ! w9d is n able to scatt] !m to any di/ance4#hfa ,9 l mann]1 ! blackbird & missel?ru%1 :5 !y dev\r b]ries 9 too great quantities1 are kn[n to consign !m to ! e>? undige/$ 9 _! excrem5t4#hfb ,pulpy fruits s]ve quadrup$s & birds z food1 :ile _! se$s1 (t5 h>d & indige/ible1 pass un9jur$ ?r\gh ! inte/9es1 & are deposit$ f> f _! orig9al place ( gr[? 9 a condition peculi>ly fit = vegetation4#hfc ,s well are ! f>m]s1 9 "s p>ts ( ,engl&1 aw>e ( ?is fact1 t :5 !y desire to raise a quickset h$ge 9 ! %orte/ possible "t1 !y fe$ turkeys ) ! haws ( ! common :ite-?orn 7,crataegus ,oxyacan?a71 & !n s[ ! /ones :i* are eject$ 9 _! excrem5t1 :]eby !y ga9 an entire ye> 9 ! gr[? ( ! plant4#hfd ,birds1 :5 !y pluck *]ries1 sloes1 & haws1 fly away ) !m to "s conv5i5t place2 & :5 !y h dev\r$ ! fruit1 drop ! /one into ! gr\nd4 ,capta9 ,cook1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! volcanic isl& ( ,tanna1 "o ( ! ,new ,hebrides1 :i* he visit$ 9 8 second voyage1 makes ! foll[+ int]e/+ obs]vation3--,mr4 ,=/]1 9 8 botanical excursion ?is day1 %ot a pigeon1 9 ! craw ( :i* 0 a wild nutmeg4#hfe ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to p]ceive1 t birds 9 _! migrations to great di/ances1 & ev5 across seas1 may transport se$s to new isles & cont95ts4 ,! sudd5 dea?s to :i* great numb]s ( frugivor\s birds are annually expos$ mu/ n be omitt$ z auxili>y to ! transportation ( se$s to new habitations4 ,:5 ! sea retires f ! %ore1 & leaves fruits & se$s on ! bea*1 or 9 ! mud ( e/u>ies1 x might1 by ! return+ tide1 wa% !m away aga91 or de/roy !m by long imm]sion2 b :5 !y are ga!r$ by l& birds :i* frequ5t ! sea side1 or by wad]s & wat]-f[l1 !y are (t5 borne inl&2 & if ! bird to ^: crop !y h be5 consign$ is kill$1 !y may be left to gr[ up f> f ! sea4 ,let su* an accid5t happ5 b once 9 a c5tury1 or a ?\s& ye>s1 x w be suffici5t to spread _m ( ! plants f "o cont95t to ano!r2 = 9 e/imat+ ! activity ( ^! causes1 we mu/ n consid] :e!r !y act sl[ly 9 relation to ! p]iod ( our obs]vation1 b 9 ref]5ce to ! duration ( species 9 g5]al4 ,let u trace ! op]ation ( ?is cause 9 connection ) o!rs4 ,a tempe/u\s w9d be>s ! se$s ( a plant _m miles ?r\gh ! air1 & !n deliv]s !m to ! ocean2 ! oceanic curr5t drifts !m to a di/ant cont95t2 by ! fall ( ! tide !y become ! food ( num]\s birds1 & "o ( ^! is seiz$ by a hawk or eagle1 :i*1 so>+ across hill & dale to a place ( retreat1 leaves1 aft] dev\r+ its prey1 ! unpalatable se$s to spr+ up & fl\ri% 9 a new soil4 ,! ma*9]y be=e adv]t$ to1 is s capable ( dissem9at+ se$s ov] almo/ unb\nd$ spaces1 t 7 we m intimately acqua9t$ ) ! economy ( nature1 we might probably expla9 all ! in/ances :i* occur ( ! ab]ration ( plants to great di/ances f _! native c\ntries4 ,! real difficulty :i* mu/ pres5t itself to e "o :o contemplates ! pres5t geographical di/ribution ( species1 is ! small numb] ( exceptions to ! rule ( ! non-int]mixture ( diff]5t gr\ps ( plants4 ,:y h !y n1 suppos+ !m to h be5 ev] s di/9ct orig9ally1 become m bl5d$ & conf\nd$ toge!r 9 ! lapse ( ages8 ,ag5cy ( man 9 ! disp]sion ( plants4--,b 9 addition to all ! ag5ts already enum]at$ z in/rum5tal 9 diffus+ plants ov] ! globe1 we h /ill to consid] man--"o ( ! mo/ important ( all4 ,he transports ) him1 into e region1 ! vegetables :i* he cultivates = 8 wants1 & is ! involunt>y means ( spread+ a /ill great] numb] :i* are useless to him1 or ev5 noxi\s4 ,:5 ! introduction ( cultivat$ plants1 says ,de ,c&olle1 is ( rec5t date1 !re is no difficulty 9 trac+ _! orig92 b :5 x is ( high antiquity1 we are (t5 ignorant ( ! true c\ntry ( ! plants on :i* we fe$4 ,no "o conte/s ! ,am]ican orig9 ( ! maize or ! potatoe2 nor ! orig91 9 ! ,old ,_w1 ( ! c(fee-tree1 & ( :eat4 ,b !re are c]ta9 objects ( culture1 ( v anci5t date1 betwe5 ! tropics1 su* = example z ! banana1 ( :i* ! orig9 _c be v]ifi$4 ,armies1 9 mod]n times1 h be5 kn[n to c>ry1 9 all directions1 gra9 & cultivat$ vegetables f "o extremity ( ,europe to ! o!r2 & ?us h %[n u h[1 9 m anci5t times1 ! conque/s ( ,alex&]1 ! di/ant exp$itions ( ! ,romans1 & aft]w>ds ! crusades1 may h transport$ _m plants f "o "p ( ! _w to ! o!r4#hff ,b1 besides ! plants us$ 9 agriculture1 ! numb]s :i* h be5 naturaliz$ by accid5t1 or :i* man has spread un9t5tionally1 is consid]able4 ,"o ( our old au?ors1 ,josselyn1 gives a catalogue ( su* plants z _h1 9 8 "t1 sprung up 9 ! colony s9ce ! ,engli% plant$ & kept cattle 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,!y 7 two-&-tw5ty 9 numb]4 ,! common nettle 0 ! fir/ :i* ! settl]s notic$2 & ! planta9 0 call$ by ! ,indians ,engli%man's foot1 z if x sprung f _! foot/eps4#hfg ,we h introduc$ e :]e1 obs]ves ,de ,c&olle1 "s we$s :i* gr[ among our v>i\s k9ds ( :eat1 & :i* h be5 receiv$1 p]haps1 orig9ally f ,asia along ) !m4 ,?us1 toge!r ) ! ,b>b>y :eat1 ! inhabitants ( ! s\? ( ,europe h s[n1 = _m ages1 ! plants ( ,algi]s & ,tunis4 ,) ! wools & cottons ( ! ,ea/1 or ( ,b>b>y1 !re are (t5 br\ght into ,france ! gra9s ( exotic plants1 "s ( :i* naturalize !mselves4 ,( ?is ,i w cite a /rik+ example4 ,!re is1 at ! gate ( ,montpelli]1 a mead[ set ap>t = dry+ =eign wool1 aft] x has be5 wa%$4 ,!re h>dly passes a ye> )\t =eign plants be+ f\nd naturaliz$ 9 ?is dry+-gr\nd4 ,i h ga!r$ !re ,c5taurea p>viflora1 ,psoralea palae/9a1 & ,hyp]icum crispum4 ,?is fact is n only illu/rative ( ! aid :i* man l5ds inadv]t5tly to ! propagation ( plants1 b x also demon/rates ! multiplicity ( se$s :i* are borne ab\t 9 ! woolly & hairy coats ( wild animals4 ,! same botani/ m5tions in/ances ( plants naturaliz$ 9 seaports by ! balla/ ( %ips2 & sev]al examples ( o!rs :i* h spread ?r\gh ,europe f botanical g>d5s1 s z to h become m common ?an _m indig5\s species4 ,x is sc>cely a c5tury1 says ,l9naeus1 s9ce ! ,canadian erig]on1 or flea-bane1 0 br\ght f ,am]ica to ! botanical g>d5 at ,p>is2 & already ! se$s h be5 c>ri$ by ! w9ds s t x is diffus$ ov] ,france1 ! ,briti% isl&s1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,holl&1 & ,g]many4#hfh ,sev]al o!rs are m5tion$ by ! ,sw$i% naturali/1 z hav+ be5 disp]s$ by simil> means4 ,! common ?orn-apple 7,datura ,/ramonium71 obs]ves ,willd5[1 n[ gr[s z a noxi\s we$ ?r\gh\t all ,europe1 ) ! exception ( ,sw$51 ,lapl& & ,russia4 ,x came f ! ,ea/ ,indies & ,abyss9ia to u1 & 0 ?us univ]sally spread by c]ta9 quacks1 :o us$ its se$s z an emetic4#hfi ,! same plant is n[ abundant ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 along road-sides & ab\t f>m-y>ds4 ,! yell[ monkey-fl[]1 ,mimulus luteus1 a plant f ! nor?-we/ region ( ,am]ica1 has n[ e/abli%$ itself 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,engl&1 & is spread+ rapidly4 ,9 hot & ill-cultivat$ c\ntries1 su* naturalization takes place m easily4 ,?us ! ,*5opodium ambrosioides1 s[n by ,mr4 ,bur*ell on a po9t ( ,/4 ,hel5a1 multipli$ s fa/ 9 f\r ye>s z to become "o ( ! commone/ we$s 9 ! isl&1 & x has ma9ta9$ its gr\nd ev] s9ce #ahde4hgj ,! mo/ rem>kable pro(1 says ,de ,c&olle1 ( ! ext5t to :i* man is unconsci\sly ! in/rum5t ( disp]s+ & naturaliz+ species1 is f\nd 9 ! fact1 t 9 ,new ,holl&1 ,am]ica1 & ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 ! aborig9al ,european species exce$ 9 numb] all ! o!rs :i* h come f any di/ant regions2 s t1 9 ?is in/ance1 ! influ5ce ( man has surpass$ t ( all ! o!r causes :i* t5d to dissem9ate plants to remote di/ricts4 ,( ne>ly #afjj ,briti% fl[]+ plants1 x is suppos$ t ab\t #cjj species are naturaliz$2 b a l>ge proportion ( ^! w\ld p]i% ) ! discont9uance ( agriculture4 ,al?\gh we are b slightly acqua9t$1 z yet1 ) ! ext5t ( our in/rum5tality 9 naturaliz+ species1 yet ! facts asc]ta9$ af=d no small reason to suspect t ! numb] :i* we introduce un9t5tionally exce$s all ^? transport$ by design4 ,nor is x unnatural to suppose t ! functions1 :i* ! inf]ior be+s1 extirpat$ by man1 once dis*>g$ 9 ! economy ( nature1 %\ld devolve ^u ! human race4 ,if we drive _m birds ( passage f diff]5t c\ntries1 we are probably requir$ to fulfil _! (fice ( c>ry+ se$s1 eggs ( fi%1 insects1 mollusks1 & o!r creatures1 to di/ant regions3 if we extirpate quadrup$s1 we mu/ replace !m n m]ely z consum]s ( ! animal & vegetable sub/ances :i* !y dev\r1 b z dissem9ators ( plants1 & ( ! inf]ior classes ( ! animal k+dom4 ,i d n mean to ins9uate t ! v same *anges :i* man br+s ab\t1 w\ld h tak5 place by means ( ! ag5cy ( o!r species1 b m]ely t he sup]s$es a c]ta9 numb] ( ag5ts2 & s f> z he disp]ses plants un9t5tionally1 or aga9/ 8 w1 8 int]v5tion is /rictly analog\s to t ( ! species s extirpat$4 ,i may obs]ve1 moreov]1 t if1 at =m] p]iods1 ! animals inhabit+ any giv5 di/rict h be5 p>tially alt]$ by ! ext9ction ( "s species1 & ! introduction ( o!rs1 :e!r by new creations or by immigration1 a *ange mu/ h tak5 place 9 reg>d to ! p>ticul> plants convey$ ab\t ) !m to =eign c\ntries4 ,z1 = example1 :5 "o set ( migratory birds is sub/itut$ = ano!r1 ! c\ntries f & to :i* se$s are transport$ are imm$iately *ang$4 ,vicissitudes1 !re=e1 analog\s to ^? :i* man has occasion$1 may h previ\sly att5d$ ! spr++ up ( new relations betwe5 species 9 ! vegetable & animal worlds4 ,x may also be rem>k$1 t if man is ! mo/ active ag5t 9 enl>g+1 s also is he 9 circumscrib+ ! geographical b\nd>ies ( p>ticul> plants4 ,he promotes ! migration ( "s1 he ret>ds t ( o!r species2 s t1 :ile 9 _m respects he appe>s to be ex]t+ 8 p[] to bl5d & conf\nd ! v>i\s prov9ces ( indig5\s species1 he is1 9 o!r ways1 in/rum5tal 9 ob/ruct+ ! fusion into "o gr\p ( ! inhabitants ( contigu\s prov9ces4 ,?us1 = example1 :5 two botanical regions exi/ 9 ! same great cont95t1 su* z ! ,european region1 compreh5d+ ! c5tral p>ts ( ,europe1 & ^? surr\nd+ ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ! ,ori5tal region1 z x has be5 t]m$1 embrac+ ! c\ntries adjo9+ ! ,black ,sea & ! ,caspian1 ! int]position betwe5 ^! ( ?\s&s ( squ>e miles ( cultivat$ l&s1 opposes a new & p[]ful b>ri] aga9/ ! mutual int]*ange ( indig5\s plants4 ,botani/s are well aw>e t g>d5 plants naturalize & diffuse !mselves ) great facility 9 comp>atively unreclaim$ c\ntries1 b spread !mselves sl[ly & ) difficulty 9 di/ricts highly cultivat$4 ,!re are _m obvi\s causes = ?is diff]5ce2 by dra9age & culture ! natural v>iety ( /ations is dim9i%$1 & ^? /ray individuals by :i* ! passage ( a species f "o fit /ation to ano!r is effect$1 are no soon] detect$ by ! agriculturi/1 ?an !y are uproot$ z we$s4 ,! l>g] %rubs & trees1 9 p>ticul>1 c sc>cely ev] escape obs]vation1 :5 !y h atta9$ a c]ta9 size1 & w r>ely fail to be cut d[n if unpr(itable4 ,! same obs]vations are applicable to ! int]*ange ( ! insects1 birds1 & quadrup$s ( two regions situat$ l ^? above allud$ to4 ,no bea/s ( prey are p]mitt$ to make _! way across ! int]v5+ arable tracts4 ,_m birds1 & hundr$s ( insects1 :i* w\ld h f\nd "s palatable food among/ ! v>i\s h]bs & trees ( ! primeval wild]ness1 are unable to subsi/ on ! olive1 ! v9e1 ! :eat1 & a few trees & grasses favor$ by man4 ,9 addition1 !re=e1 to 8 direct int]v5tion1 man1 9 ?is case1 op]ates indirectly to imp$e ! dissem9ation ( plants1 by int]cept+ ! migration ( animals1 _m ( :i* w\ld o!rwise h be5 active 9 transport+ se$s f "o prov9ce to ano!r4 ,:e!r1 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 ! influ5ce ( man w t5d1 aft] a consid]able lapse ( ages1 to r5d] ! geographical range ( species 9 g5]al m ext5d$1 z ,de ,c&olle seems to anticipate1 or :e!r ! comp5sat+ ag5cy above allud$ to w n c\nt]balance ! exceptions caus$ by our naturalizations1 admits at lea/ ( "s d\bt4 ,9 ! attempt to =m an e/imate on ?is subject1 we mu/ be c>eful n to und]rate1 or almo/ ov]look1 z "s appe> to h done1 ! influ5ce ( man 9 *eck+ ! diffusion ( plants1 & re/rict+ _! di/ribution to n>r[] limits4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxviii4 ,,laws ,,:i* ,,regulate ,,! ,,geographical ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,species--cont9u$4 ,geographical di/ribution ( animals--,buffon on specific di/9ctness ( quadrup$s ( ,old & ,new ,_w--,doctr9e ( natural b>ri]s--,diff]5t regions ( indig5\s mammalia--,europe--,africa--,india1 & ,indian ,ar*ipelago--,au/ralia--,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica--,quadrup$s 9 isl&s--,range ( ! ,cetacea--,disp]sion ( quadrup$s--,_! p[]s ( swimm+--,migratory in/9cts--,drift+ ( animals on ice-floes--,on float+ isl&s ( drift-timb]--,migrations ( ,cetacea--,habitations ( birds--,_! migrations & facilities ( diffusion--,di/ribution ( reptiles1 & _! p[] ( dissem9ation4 ,geographical di/ribution ( animals4--,al?\gh 9 speculat+ on philosophical possibilities1 said ,buffon1 ! same temp]ature might h be5 expect$1 all o!r circum/ances be+ equal1 to produce ! same be+s 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! globe1 bo? 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 yet x is an und\bt$ fact1 t :5 ,am]ica 0 discov]$1 its indig5\s quadrup$s 7 all dissimil> to ^? previ\sly kn[n 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,! elephant1 ! rh9oc]os1 ! hippopotamus1 ! camelop>d1 ! camel1 ! drom$>y1 ! buffalo1 ! horse1 ! ass1 ! lion1 ! tig]1 ! apes1 ! baboons1 & a numb] ( o!r mammalia1 7 n[h]e to be met ) on ! new cont95t2 :ile 9 ! old1 ! ,am]ican species1 ( ! same great class1 7 n[h]e to be se5--! tapir1 ! lama1 ! pec>i1 ! jagu>1 ! c\gu>1 ! ag\ti1 ! paca1 ! coati1 & ! slo?4 ,^! ph5om5a1 al?\gh few 9 numb] relatively to ! :ole animate creation1 7 s /rik+ & s positive 9 _! nature1 t ! great ,fr5* naturali/ caught sight at once ( a g5]al law 9 ! geographical di/ribution ( organic be+s1 namely1 ! limitation ( gr\ps ( di/9ct species to regions sep>at$ f ! re/ ( ! globe by c]ta9 natural b>ri]s4 ,x 01 !re=e1 9 a truly philosophical _s t1 rely+ on ! cle>ness ( ! evid5ce obta9$ respect+ ! l>g] quadrup$s1 he v5tur$ to call 9 "q ! id5tifications ann\nc$ by "s contempor>y naturali/s ( species ( animals said to be common to ! s\!rn extremities ( ,am]ica & ,africa4#hga ,! migration ( quadrup$s f "o "p ( ! globe to ano!r1 obs]ves ,dr4 ,pri*>d1 is prev5t$ by uncong5ial climates & ! bran*es ( ! ocean :i* int]sect cont95ts4 ,h5ce1 by a ref]5ce to ! geographical site ( c\ntries1 we may divide ! e>? into a c]ta9 numb] ( regions fitt$ to become ! abodes ( p>ticul> gr\ps ( animals1 & we %all f9d1 on inquiry1 t ea* ( ^! prov9ces1 ?us conjecturally m>k$ out1 is actually inhabit$ by a di/9ct nation ( quadrup$s4#hgb ,x w be obs]v$ t ! language ( ,buffon respect+ natural b>ri]s1 :i* has s9ce be5 s popul>1 w\ld be :olly )\t mean+ if ! geographical di/ribution ( organic be+s _h n l$ naturali/s to adopt v g5]ally ! doctr9e ( specific c5tres1 or1 9 o!r words1 to believe t ea* species1 :e!r ( plant or animal1 orig9at$ 9 a s+le bir?-place4 ,reject ?is view1 & ! fact t n a s+le native quadrup$ is common to ,au/ralia1 ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 & ,s\? ,am]ica1 c 9 no ways be expla9$ by adv]t+ to ! wide ext5t ( int]v5+ ocean1 or to ! /]ile des]ts1 or ! great heat or cold ( ! climates1 ?r\gh :i* ea* species mu/ h pass$1 be=e x c\ld migrate f "o ( ^? di/ant regions to ano!r4 ,x might fairly be ask$ ( "o :o talk$ ( impassable b>ri]s1 :y ! same kang>oos1 rh9oc]oses1 or lamas1 %\ld n h be5 creat$ simultane\sly 9 ,au/ralia1 ,africa1 & ,s\? ,am]ica6 ,! horse1 ! ox1 & ! dog1 al?\gh =eign to ^! c\ntries until introduc$ by man1 are n[ able to support !mselves !re 9 a wild /ate1 & we c sc>cely d\bt t _m ( ! quadrup$s at pres5t peculi> to ,au/ralia1 ,africa1 & ,s\? ,am]ica1 might h cont9u$ 9 l mann] to inhabit ea* ( ! ?ree cont95ts _h !y be5 indig5\s or c\ld !y once h got a foot+ !re z new coloni/s4 ,at ! same "t e zoologi/ w be will+ to conc$e1 t ev5 if ! dep>ture ( ea* species f a s+le c5tre _h n appe>$ to be "p ( ! plan ( ,nature1 ! range ( species 9 g5]al mu/ h become limit$1 "u ! influ5ce ( a v>iety ( causes1 especially 9 ! class ( t]re/rial mammalia4 ,sc>cely any "o ( ^! c\ld be expect$ to reta9 z fair a claim to ! title ( cosmopolite z man1 al?\gh ev5 ! human race1 fitt$ z x is by its bodily con/itution & intellectual res\rces to spread v widely ov] ! e>?1 is f> f be+ /rictly cosmopolite4 ,x is exclud$ bo? f ! arctic & ant>ctic circles1 f _m a wide des]t & ! summits ( _m m\nta9-*a9s2 & la/ly1 f ?ree-f\r?s ( ! globe cov]$ by wat]1 :]e !re are l>ge areas v prolific 9 animal life1 ev5 9 ! highe/ ord] ( ! v]tebrate class4 ,b ! habitations ( species are1 z be=e /at$1 9 ref]5ce to plants 7see above1 p4 #fad71 circumscrib$ by causes diff]5t f ^? :i* det]m9e _! /ations1 & ^! causes are cle>ly connect$ ) ! "t & place ( ! orig9al creation ( ea* species4 ,z ! names & *>act]s ( l& quadrup$s are mu* bett] kn[n to ! g5]al read] ?an ^? ( o!r great families ( ! animal k+dom1 ,i %all select ?is class to exemplify ! zoological prov9ces into :i* species are divisible1 conf9+ myself1 h[ev]1 to ^? facts :i* may help to elucidate "s pr9ciple1 or rule app>5tly foll[$ by ! ,au?or ( ,nature1 9 reg>d to t my/]y ( my/]ies1 ! fir/ peopl+ ( ! e>? ) liv+ be+s4#hgc ,fir/1 !n1 ! ,european region compreh5ds1 besides ,europe1 ! bord]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ev5 ! nor? ( ,africa1 & ext5ds into ,asia1 beyond ! ,oural m\nta9s & ! ,caspian4 ,al?\gh ! species are almo/ all peculi>1 ! numb] ( *>act]i/ic g5]a is rem>kably small4 ,! be>1 ! fox1 ! h>e1 ! rabbit1 ! de]1 & almo/ e ,european =m is f\nd equally 9 sev]al ( ! o!r l>ge prov9ces ( mammalia1 :]e ! species are di/9ct4 ,ev5 ! mole 7,talpa71 al?\gh conf9$ to ! nor!rn p>ts ( ! old _w1 ranges ea/w>ds1 z f> z ! ,himalaya m\nta9s4 #b;dly4 ,! ,african ,fauna1 on ! o!r h&1 is s+ul>ly ri* 9 g5]ic =ms1 n met ) 9 a liv+ /ate 9 any o!r region4 ,! hippopotamus1 = example1 ( :i* two v di/9ct species are kn[n1 ! giraffe1 ! ,*impanzee1 ! blue-fac$ baboon1 ! f\r-f+]$ monkeys 7,colubus71 _m c>nivora1 su* z ,proteles1 alli$ to ! hya5a1 & a multitude ( o!r =ms1 are exclusively ,african4 ,a few ( ! species inhabit+ ! nor!rn conf9es ( ?is cont95t1 su* z ! drom$>y1 lion1 & jackall1 are also common to ,asia2 & a mu* l>g] numb] ( =ms belong equally to ! great ,asiatic prov9ce1 ! species be+ di/9ct4 ,! elephant1 = example1 ( ,africa is small]1 has a r\nd] head1 & l>g] e>s ?an ! ,indian "o1 & has only ?ree in/ead ( f\r nails on ea* h9d foot4 ,9 l mann]1 n "o ( ?ree ,african species ( ,rh9oc]os agrees ) "o ( ! ?ree ,indian k9ds4 #c;dly4 ,! ,s\!rn region ( ,africa1 :]e t cont95t ext5ds into ! temp]ate zone1 con/itutes ano!r sep>ate zoological prov9ce1 surr\nd$ z x is on ?ree sides by ! ocean1 & cut (f f ! c\ntries ( mild] climate 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 by ! int]v5+ torrid zone4 ,9 _m in/ances1 ?is region conta9s ! same g5]a :i* are f\nd 9 temp]ate climates to ! nor?w>d ( ! l9e3 b !n ! s\!rn are diff]5t f ! nor!rn species4 ,?us1 9 ! s\? we f9d ! quagga & ! zebra2 9 ! nor?1 ! horse1 ! ass1 & ! jiggetai ( ,asia4 ,! s\? ( ,africa is spread out into f9e level pla9s f ! tropic to ! ,cape4 ,9 ?is region1 says ,p5nant1 besides ! horse g5us1 ( :i* five species h be5 f\nd1 !re are also peculi> species ( rh9oc]os1 ! hog1 & ! hyrax1 among pa*yd]mat\s races2 & among/ ! rum9at+1 ! ,cape buffalo1 & a v>iety ( rem>kable antelopes1 z ! spr+bok1 ! oryx1 ! gn\1 ! leucophoa1 ! pyg>ga1 & sev]al o!rs4#hgd #d?ly4 ,! assemblage ( quadrup$s 9 ,madagasc> af=ds a /rik+ illu/ration ( ! laws be=e allud$ to1 z gov]n+ ! di/ribution ( species 9 isl&s4 ,sep>at$ f ,africa by ! ,mozambique *annel1 :i* is #cjj miles wide1 ,madagasc> =ms1 ) two or ?ree small isl&s 9 its imm$iate vic9ity1 a zoological prov9ce by itself1 all ! species except "o1 & ne>ly all ! g5]a1 be+ peculi>4 ,! only exception consi/s ( a small insectivor\s quadrup$ 7,c5tetes71 f\nd also 9 ! ,mauritius1 to :i* place x is suppos$ to h be5 tak5 9 %ips4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic feature ( ?is rem>kable fauna consi/s 9 ! numb] ( quadrumana ( ! ,lemur family1 no less ?an six g5]a ( ^! monkeys be+ exclusively met ) 9 ?is isl&1 & a sev5? g5us ( ! same1 call$ ,galago1 :i* alone has any =eign repres5tative1 be+ f\nd1 z we might f analogy h anticipat$1 9 ! ne>e/ ma9 l&4 ,_h ! species ( quadrup$s 9 ,madagasc> agre$ ) ^? ( ! contigu\s p>ts ( ,africa1 z d ^? ( ,engl& ) ! re/ ( ,europe1 ! naturali/ w\ld h inf]r$ t !re _h be5 a l& communication s9ce ! p]iod ( ! com+ 9 ( ! exi/+ quadrup$s1 :]eas we may n[ conclude t ! ,mozambique *annel has con/itut$ an insup]able b>ri] to ! fusion ( ! cont95tal fauna ) t ( ! great isl& dur+ ! :ole p]iod t has elaps$ s9ce ! liv+ species 7 creat$4 #e?ly4 ,ano!r ( ! great nations ( t]re/rial mammalia is t ( ,india1 conta9+ a great v>iety ( peculi> =ms1 su* z ! slo?-be> 7,pro*ilus71 ! musk-de] 7,moscus71 ! nylghau1 ! gibbon or long-arm$ ape1 & _m o!rs4 #f?ly4 ,a portion ( ! isl&s ( ! ,indian ar*ipelago might1 p]haps1 be consid]$ by "s geologi/s z an app5dage ( ! same prov9ce4 ,9 fact1 we f9d 9 ! l>ge isl&s ( ,java1 ,sumatra1 & ,borneo1 ! same g5]a1 = ! mo/ "p1 z on ! cont95t ( ,india1 & "s ( ! same species1 e4 g4 ! tapir 7,tapirus ,malayanus71 ! rh9oc]os ( ,sumatra1 & "s o!rs4 ,mo/ ( ! species1 h[ev]1 are di/9ct1 & ea* isl& has _m1 & ev5 a few g5]a1 peculi> to itself4 ,betwe5 eighty & n9ety species are kn[n to inhabit ,java1 & ne>ly ! same numb] occur 9 ,sumatra4 ,( ^!1 m ?an half are common to ! two isl&s4 ,borneo1 :i* is mu* less explor$1 has yield$ already upw>ds ( sixty species1 m ?an half ( :i* are met ) ei!r 9 ,java or ,sumatra4 ,( ! species inhabit+ ,sumatra & n f\nd 9 ,java1 ,borneo conta9s ! great] portion4 ,^u ! :ole1 if ^! ?ree l>ge isl&s 7 unit$1 & a fusion ( _! respective indig5\s mammalia %\ld take place1 !y w\ld pres5t a fauna relat$ to t ( cont95tal ,india1 & compris+ ab\t z _m species z we might expect f analogy to discov] 9 an area ( equal ext5t4 ,! ,philipp9e ,isl&s are peopl$ ) ano!r assemblage ( species g5]ically relat$ to ! great ,indian type4 #g?ly4 ,b ! isl&s ( ,celebes1 ,ambo9a1 ,timor1 & ,new ,gu9ea1 con/itute a diff]5t region ( mammalia m alli$ to ! ,au/ralian type1 z hav+ an int]mixture ( m>supial quadrup$s1 yet %[+ an aff9ity also to ! ,indian 9 su* =ms z ! de] 7,c]vus71 ! weasel 7,viv]ra71 ! pig 7,sus71 ! ,macaque monkey 7,c]copi!cus71 & o!rs4 ,z we proce$ 9 a s\?-we/]ly direction1 f ,celebes to ,ambo9a & !nce to ,new ,gu9ea1 we f9d ! ,indian types dim9i%+ 9 numb]1 & ! ,au/ralian 7i4 e4 m>supial =ms7 increas+4 ,?us 9 ,new ,gu9ea sev5 species ( p\*$ quadrup$s h be5 detect$1 & among !m two s+ul> tree-kang>oos2 yet only "o species ( ! :ole sev51 viz4 ! fly+ opossum 7,petauris ariel71 is common to ! ,indian ar*ipelago & ! ma9 l& ( ,au/ralia4 ,! great] ! zoological aff9ity1 !re=e1 betwe5 ! latt] & ! ,new ,gu9ea fauna1 al?\gh x seems 9 "s way connect$ ) geographical proximity1 is n to be expla9$ simply by ! mutual migration ( species f ! "o to ! o!r4 #h?ly4 ,:5 ,au/ralia 0 discov]$1 its l& quadrup$s1 belong+ almo/ exclusively to ! m>supial or p\*$ tribe1 su* z ! kang>oos1 wombats1 fly+ opossums1 kang>oo-rats1 & o!rs1 "s fe$+ on h]bs & fruits1 o!rs c>nivor\s1 7 s novel 9 _! /ructure & aspect1 t !y appe>$ to ! naturali/ almo/ z /range z if !y 7 ! inhabitants ( "s o!r planet4 ,we le>n f ! rec5t inve/igations ( ,mr4 ,wat]h\se1#hge t no less ?an #agj species ( m>supial quadrup$s h n[ be5 det]m9$1 & ( ! :ole numb] all b ?irty-two are exclusively re/rict$ to ,au/ralia4 ,( ^! ?irty-two1 n9e belong to ! isl&s 9 ! ,indian ar*ipelago be=e m5tion$1 & ! o!r tw5ty-?ree are all species ( opossum inhabit+ ! tropical p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 or a few ( !m ext5d+ into ,mexico & ,cali=nia1 & "o1 ! ,virg9ian opossum1 into ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #i?ly4 ,x only rema9s = me to say some?+ ( ! mammif]\s fauna ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,x has (t5 be5 said t1 :]e ! ?ree cont95ts ( ,asia1 ,europe1 & ,nor? ,am]ica1 approa* v ne> to ea* o!r t[>ds ! pole1 ! :ole arctic region =ms "o zoological & botanical prov9ce4 ,! n>r[ /raits :i* sep>ate ! old & new _w are froz5 ov] 9 w9t]1 & ! di/ance is f>!r less5$ by int]v5+ isl&s4 ,_m plants & animals ( v>i\s classes h accord+ly spread ov] all ! arctic l&s1 be+ sometimes c>ri$ 9 ! same mann] z ! pol> be>1 :5 x is drift$ on float+ ice f ,gre5l& to ,icel&4 ,b on a close inspection ( ! arctic mammalia1 x has be5 f\nd ( late ye>s t a v small numb] ( ! ,am]ican species are id5tical ) ^? ( ,europe or ,asia4 ,! g5]a are1 9 great "p1 ! same or ne>ly alli$2 b ! species are r>ely id5tical1 & are (t5 v unlike1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,am]ican badg] & t ( ,europe4 ,"s ( ! g5]a ( arctic ,am]ica1 su* z ! musk ox 7,ovibos71 are q peculi>1 & ! di/9ctness ( ! fauna ( ! great cont95ts goes on increas+ 9 proportion z we trace !m s\?w>ds1 or z !y rec$e f>!r f ea* o!r1 & become m & m sep>at$ by ! ocean4 ,at l5g? we f9d t ! ?ree gr\ps ( tropical mammalia1 belong+ sev]ally to ,am]ica1 ,africa1 & ,india1 h n a s+le species 9 common4 ,! pr$om9ant influ5ce ( climate ov] all ! o!r causes :i* limit ! range ( species 9 ! mammalia is p]haps n[h]e s conspicu\sly display$ z 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! arctic fauna1 s admirably describ$ by ,sir ,john ,ri*>dson1 has sc>cely any species 9 common ) ! fauna ( ! /ate ( ,new ,york1 :i* is #fjj miles f>!r s\?1 & comprises ab\t =ty di/9ct mammif]s4 ,if aga9 we travel f>!r s\? ab\t #fjj miles1 & ent] ano!r zone1 runn+ ea/ & we/1 9 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 ,georgia1 ,alabama1 & ! contigu\s /ates1 we aga9 meet ) a new assemblage ( l& quadrup$s1 & ?is aga9 diff]s f ! fauna ( ,texas1 :]e fro/s are unkn[n4 ,x w be obs]v$ t on ?is cont95t !re are no great geographical b>ri]s runn+ ea/ & we/1 su* z high sn[-clad m\nta9s1 b>r5 des]ts1 or wide arms ( ! sea1 capable ( *eck+ ! free migration ( species f nor? to s\?4 ,b not)/&+ ! di/9ctness ( ^? zones ( indig5\s mammalia1 !re are "s species1 su* z ! buffalo 7,bison ,am]icanus71 ! racoon 7,procyon lotor71 & ! ,virg9ian opossum 7,didelphis ,virg9iana71 :i* h a wid] habitation1 rang+ almo/ f ,canada to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico2 b !y =m exceptions to ! g5]al rule4 ,! opossum ( ,texas 7,didelphis c>nivora7 is diff]5t f t ( ,virg9ia1 & o!r species ( ! same g5us inhabit we/w>d ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 9 ,cali=nia1 = example1 :]e almo/ all ! mammalia diff] f ^? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #aj?ly4 ,! ,we/ ,indian l& quadrup$s are n num]\s1 b sev]al ( !m are peculi>2 & #aa?ly1 ,s\? ,am]ica is ! mo/ di/9ct1 ) ! exception ( ,au/ralia1 ( all ! prov9ces into :i* ! mammalia c be class$ geographically4 ,! v>i\s g5]a ( monkeys1 = example1 belong to ! family ,platyrrh9i1 a l>ge natural division ( ! quadrumana1 s nam$ f _! widely sep>at$ no/rils4 ,!y h a peculi> d5tition1 & _m ( !m preh5sile tails1 & are entirely unkn[n 9 o!r qu>t]s ( ! globe4 ,! slo?s & armadillos1 ! true blood-suck+ bats or vampyres 7,phyllo/omidae71 ! capyb>a1 ! l>ge/ ( ! rod5ts1 ! c>nivor\s coatimondi 7,nasua71 & a great _m o!r =ms1 are also exclusively *>act]i/ic ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,9 ,p]u & ,*ili1 says ,humboldt1 ! region ( ! grasses1 :i* is at an elevation ( f #ab1cjj to #ae1djj feet1 is inhabit$ by cr[ds ( lama1 guanaco1 & alpaca4 ,^! quadrup$s1 :i* "h repres5t ! g5us camel ( ! anci5t cont95t1 h n ext5d$ !mselves ei!r to ,brazil or ,mexico2 because1 dur+ _! j\rney1 !y mu/ necess>ily h desc5d$ into regions t 7 too hot = !m4#hgf ,9 ?is passage x w be se5 t ! doctr9e ( specific c5tres is tacitly assum$4 ,quadrup$s 9 ,isl&s4--,isl&s remote f cont95ts1 especially ^? ( small size1 are ei!r de/itute ( quadrup$s1 except su* z h be5 convey$ to !m by man1 or conta9 species peculi> to !m4 ,9 ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago no indig5\s quadrup$s 7 f\nd except "o m\se1 :i* is suppos$ to be di/9ct f any hi!rto f\nd else:]e4 ,a peculi> species ( fox is indig5\s 9 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & a rat 9 ,new ,zeal&1 :i* la/ c\ntry1 not)/&+ its magnitude1 is de/itute ( o!r mammalia1 except bats1 & ^!1 says ,dr4 ,pri*>d1 may h made _! way along ! *a9 ( isl&s :i* ext5d f ! %ores ( ,new ,gu9ea f> into ! ,s\!rn ,pacific4 ,! same au?or rem>ks1 t among ! v>i\s gr\ps ( f]tile isl&s 9 ! ,pacific1 no quadrup$s h be5 met ) except ! rat & a few bats z above m5tion$1 & ! dog & hog1 :i* appe> to h be5 convey$ ?i!r by ! natives f ,new ,gu9ea4 ,rats are to be f\nd ev5 on "s des]t isl&s1 :i!r !y may h be5 convey$ by canoes :i* h occasionally approa*$ ! %ore4 ,x is kn[n1 also1 t rats occasionally swim 9 l>ge numb]s to consid]able di/ances4#hgg ,geographical range ( ! ,cetacea4--,x is natural to suppose t ! geographical range ( ! diff]5t species ( ,cetacea %\ld be less correctly asc]ta9$ ?an t ( ! t]re/rial mammif]s4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 well kn[n t ! :ales :i* are obta9$ by our fi%]s 9 ! ,s\? ,seas are di/9ct f ^? ( ! ,nor?2 & ! same dissimil>ity has be5 f\nd 9 all ! o!r m>9e animals1 ( ! same class1 s f> z !y h yet be5 /udi$ by naturali/s4 ,disp]sion ( quadrup$s4--,let u n[ inquire :at facilities ! v>i\s l& quadrup$s enjoy ( spread+ !mselves ov] ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z _! numb]s multiply1 all ( !m1 :e!r !y fe$ on plants1 or prey on o!r animals1 are dispos$ to scatt] !mselves gradually ov] z wide an area z is accessible to !m4 ,b be=e !y h ext5d$ _! migrations ov] a l>ge space1 !y are usually arre/$ ei!r by ! sea1 or a zone ( uncong5ial climate1 or "s l(ty & unbrok5 *a9 ( m\nta9s1 or a tract already occupi$ by a ho/ile & m p[]ful species4 ,_! p[]s ( swimm+4--,riv]s & n>r[ fri?s c seldom int]f]e ) _! progress2 = ! great] "p ( !m swim well1 & few are )\t ?is p[] :5 urg$ by dang] & press+ want4 ,?us1 among/ bea/s ( prey1 ! tig] is se5 swimm+ ab\t among ! isl&s & creeks 9 ! delta ( ! ,ganges1 & ! jagu> trav]ses ) ease ! l>ge/ /reams 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4#hgh ,! be>1 also1 & ! bison1 cross ! curr5t ( ! ,mississippi4 ,! popul> error1 t ! common sw9e _c escape by swimm+ :5 ?r[n into ! wat]1 has be5 contradict$ by sev]al curi\s & well-au!nticat$ in/ances dur+ ! floods 9 ,scotl& ( #ahbi4 ,"o pig1 only six mon?s old1 aft] hav+ be5 c>ri$ d[n f ,g>m\? to ! b> at ! m\? ( ! ,spey1 a di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile1 swam f\r miles ea/w>d to ,port ,gordon1 & l&$ safe4 ,?ree o!rs1 ( ! same age & litt]1 swam1 at ! same "t1 five miles to ! we/1 & l&$ at ,blackhill4#hgi ,9 an adult & wild /ate1 ^! animals w\ld d\btless h be5 m /rong & active1 & might1 :5 h>d press$1 h p]=m$ a mu* long] voyage4 ,h5ce isl&s remote f ! cont95t may obta9 inhabitants by casualties :i*1 l ! late /orms 9 ,moray%ire1 may only occur once 9 _m c5turies1 or ?\s&s ( ye>s1 "u all ! same circum/ances4 ,x is obvi\s t p[]ful tides1 w9ds1 & curr5ts may sometimes c>ry along quadrup$s capable1 9 l mann]1 ( pres]v+ !mselves = h\rs 9 ! sea1 to v consid]able di/ances2 & 9 ?is way1 p]haps1 ! tapir 7,tapir ,indicus7 may h become common to ,sumatra & ! ,malayan p59sula4 ,to ! elephant1 9 p>ticul>1 ! p[] ( cross+ riv]s is ess5tial 9 a wild /ate1 = ! quantity ( food :i* a h]d ( ^! animals consumes r5d]s x necess>y t !y %\ld be con/antly mov+ f place to place4 ,! elephant crosses ! /ream 9 two ways4 ,if ! b$ ( ! riv] be h>d1 & ! wat] n ( too great a dep?1 he =ds x4 ,b :5 he crosses great riv]s1 su* z ! ,ganges & ! ,nig]1 ! elephant swims deep1 s deep1 t ! end ( 8 trunk only is out ( ! wat]2 = x is a matt] ( indiff]5ce to him :e!r 8 body be completely imm]s$1 provid$ he c br+ ! tip ( 8 trunk to ! surface1 s z to brea! ! ext]nal air4 ,animals ( ! de] k9d frequ5tly take to ! wat]1 especially 9 ! rutt+ season1 :5 ! /ags are se51 swimm+ = sev]al leagues at a "t1 f isl& to isl&1 9 se>* ( ! does1 especially 9 ! ,canadian lakes2 & 9 "s c\ntries :]e !re are isl&s ne> ! sea-%ore1 !y fe>lessly ent] ! sea & swim to !m4 ,9 hunt+ excursions1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! elk ( t c\ntry is frequ5tly pursu$ = great di/ances ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,! l>ge h]bivor\s animals1 :i* are greg>i\s1 c nev] rema9 long 9 a conf9$ region1 z !y consume s mu* vegetable food4 ,! imm5se h]ds ( bisons 7,bos ,am]icanus7 :i* (t51 9 ! great valleys ( ! ,mississippi & its tribut>ies black5 ! surface ( ! prairie l&s1 are cont9ually %ift+ _! qu>t]s1 foll[$ by wolves1 :i* pr[l ab\t 9 _! re>4 ,x is no exagg]ation1 says ,mr4 ,james1 to ass]t1 t 9 "o place1 on ! banks ( ! ,platte1 at lea/ t5 ?\s& bisons bur/ on our sight 9 an in/ant4 ,9 ! morn+1 we aga9 s\ght ! liv+ picture2 b ^u all ! pla91 :i* la/ ev5+ 0 s teem+ ) noble animals1 n "o rema9$4#hhj ,migratory in/9cts4--,besides ! disposition common to ! individuals ( e species sl[ly to ext5d _! range 9 se>* ( food1 9 proportion z _! numb]s augm5t1 a migratory in/9ct (t5 developes itself 9 an extraord9>y mann]1 :51 aft] an unusually prolific season1 or ^u a sudd5 sc>city ( provisions1 great multitudes are ?reat5$ by fam9e4 ,x may be useful to enum]ate "s examples ( ^! migrations1 because !y may put u ^u our gu>d aga9/ attribut+ a high antiquity to a p>ticul> species m]ely because x is diffus$ ov] a great space2 !y %[ cle>ly h[ soon1 9 a /ate ( nature1 a newly creat$ species might spread itself1 9 e direction1 f a s+le po9t4 ,9 v sev]e w9t]s1 great numb]s ( ! black be>s ( ,am]ica migrate f ,canada into ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b 9 mild] seasons1 :5 !y h be5 well f$1 !y rema9 & hyb]nate 9 ! nor?4#hha ,! re9-de]1 :i*1 9 ,sc&9avia1 c sc>cely exi/ to ! s\? ( ! sixty-fif? p>allel1 desc5ds1 9 consequ5ce ( ! great] coldness ( ! climate1 to ! fiftie? degree 9 ,*9ese ,t>t>y1 & (t5 roves into a c\ntry ( m s\!rn latitude ?an any "p ( ,engl&4 ,9 ,lapl&1 & o!r high latitudes1 ! common squirrels1 :5ev] !y are compell$1 by want ( provisions1 to quit _! usual abodes1 migrate 9 amaz+ numb]s1 & travel directly =w>ds1 all[+ nei!r rocks nor =e/s1 nor ! broade/ wat]s1 to turn !m f _! c\rse4 ,great numb]s are (t5 dr[n$ 9 attempt+ to pass fri?s & riv]s4 ,9 l mann] ! small ,norway rat sometimes pursues its migrations 9 a /raight l9e across riv]s & lakes2 & ,p5nant in=ms u1 t :5 ! rats1 9 ,kamts*atka1 become too num]\s1 !y ga!r toge!r 9 ! spr+1 & proce$ 9 great bodies we/w>d1 swimm+ ov] riv]s1 lakes1 & arms ( ! sea4 ,_m are dr[n$ or de/roy$ by wat]-f[l or fi%4 ,z soon z !y h cross$ ! riv] ,p5g9sk1 at ! head ( ! gulf ( ! same "n1 !y turn s\?w>d1 & rea* ! riv]s ,judoma & ,okotsk by ! middle ( ,july2 a di/rict m ?an #hjj miles di/ant f _! po9t ( dep>ture4 ,! lem+s1 also1 a small k9d ( rat1 are describ$ z natives ( ! m\nta9s ( ,kol51 9 ,lapl&2 & once or twice 9 a qu>t] ( a c5tury !y appe> 9 va/ numb]s1 advanc+ along ! gr\nd1 & dev\r+ e gre5 ?+4 ,innum]able b&s m>* f ! ,kol51 ?r\gh ,nordl& & ,f9m>k1 to ! ,we/]n ,ocean1 :i* !y imm$iately ent]2 & aft] swimm+ ab\t = "s "t1 p]i%4 ,o!r b&s take _! r\te ?r\gh ,sw$i% ,lapl&1 to ! ,bo?nian ,gulf1 :]e !y are dr[n$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,!y are foll[$ 9 _! j\rneys by be>s1 wolves1 & foxes1 :i* prey ^u !m incessantly4 ,!y g5]ally move 9 l9es1 :i* are ab\t ?ree feet f ea* o!r1 & exactly p>allel1 go+ directly =w>d ?r\gh riv]s & lakes2 & :5 !y meet ) /acks ( hay or corn1 gnaw+ _! way ?r\gh !m in/ead ( pass+ r\nd4#hhb ,^! excursions usually prec$e a rigor\s w9t]1 ( :i* ! lem+s seem 9 "s way =ew>n$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,! ,lem+1 or ,lapl& ,m>mot 7,mus ,lemmus1 ,l9n47 ,va/ troops ( ! wild ass1 or onag] ( ! anci5ts1 :i* inhabit ! m\nta9\s des]ts ( ,great ,t>t>y1 fe$1 dur+ ! summ]1 9 ! tracts ea/ & nor? ( ,lake ,aral4 ,9 ! autumn !y collect 9 h]ds ( hundr$s1 & ev5 ?\s&s1 & direct _! c\rse t[>ds ,p]sia1 to enjoy a w>m retreat dur+ w9t]4#hhc ,b&s ( two or ?ree hundr$ quaggas1 a species ( wild ass1 are sometimes se5 to migrate f ! tropical pla9s ( s\!rn ,africa to ! vic9ity ( ! ,malaleve5 ,riv]4 ,dur+ _! migrations !y are foll[$ by lions1 :o slaught] !m night by night4#hhd ,! migratory sw>ms ( ! spr+bok1 or ,cape antelope1 af=d ano!r illu/ration ( ! rapidity ) :i* a species "u c]ta9 circum/ances may be diffus$ ov] a cont95t4 ,:5 ! /agnant pools ( ! imm5se des]ts s\? ( ! ,orange ,riv] dry up1 :i* (t5 happ5s aft] int]vals ( ?ree or f\r ye>s1 myriads ( ^! animals des]t ! p>*$ soil1 & p\r d[n l a deluge on ! cultivat$ regions ne> ! ,cape4 ,! havoc committ$ by !m resembles t ( ! ,african locu/s2 & s cr[d$ are ! h]ds1 t ! lion has be5 se5 to walk 9 ! mid/ ( ! compress$ phalanx ) only z mu* room betwe5 him & 8 victims z ! fe>s ( ^? imm$iately ar\nd c\ld procure by press+ outw>ds4#hhe ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,mydaus meliceps1 or badg]-head$ ,mydaus4 ,l5g?1 includ+ ! tail1 #af in*es4 ,dr4 ,horsfield m5tions a s+ul> fact 9 reg>d to ! geographical di/ribution ( ! ,mydaus meliceps1 an animal int]m$iate betwe5 ! polecat & badg]4 ,x inhabits ,java1 & is conf9$ exclusively to ^? m\nta9s :i* h an elevation ( m ?an sev5 ?\s& feet above ! level ( ! ocean2 on ^! x occurs ) ! same regul>ity z _m plants4 ,! long ext5d$ surface ( ,java1 ab\nd+ ) conical po9ts :i* exce$ ?is elevation1 af=ds _m places favorable = its resort4 ,on asc5d+ ^! m\nta9s1 ! travell] sc>cely fails to meet ) ?is animal1 :i*1 f its peculi>ities1 is univ]sally kn[n to ! inhabitants ( ^! elevat$ tracts1 :ile to ^? ( ! pla9s x is z /range to an animal f a =eign c\nty4 ,9 my visits to ! m\nta9\s di/ricts1 ,i uni=mly met ) x2 &1 z f> z ! in=mation ( ! natives c be reli$ on1 x is f\nd on all ! m\nta9s4#hhf ,n[1 if ask$ to conjecture h[ ! ,mydaus arriv$ at ! elevat$ regions ( ea* ( ^! isolat$ m\nta9s1 we might say t1 be=e ! isl& 0 peopl$ by man1 by :om _! numb]s are n[ ?9n$1 !y may occasionally h multipli$ s z to be =c$ to collect toge!r & migrate3 9 :i* case not)/&+ ! sl[ness ( _! motions1 "s few w\ld succe$ 9 rea*+ ano!r m\nta91 "s tw5ty1 or ev51 p]haps1 fifty miles di/ant2 = al?\gh ! climate ( ! hot int]v5+ pla9s w\ld be unfav\rable to !m1 !y might support x = a "t1 & w\ld f9d !re abundance ( insects on :i* !y fe$4 ,volcanic eruptions1 :i*1 at diff]5t times h cov]$ ! summits ( "s ( ^? l(ty cones ) /]ile s& & a%es1 may h occasionally contribut$ to =ce on ^! migrations4 ,drift+ ( animals on ice-floes4--,! p[] ( ! t]re/rial mammalia to cross ! sea is v limit$1 & x 0 be=e /at$ t ! same species is sc>cely ev] common to di/ricts widely sep>at$ by ! ocean4 ,if !re be "s exceptions to ?is rule1 !y g5]ally admit ( explanation2 = !re are natural means :]eby "s animals may be float$ across ! wat]1 & ! sea may 9 ! c\rse ( ages we> a wide passage ?r\gh a neck ( l&1 leav+ individuals ( a species on ea* side ( ! new *annel4 ,pol> be>s are kn[n to h be5 frequ5tly drift$ on ! ice f ,gre5l& to ,icel&2 !y c also swim to consid]able di/ances1 = ,capta9 ,p>ry1 on ! return ( 8 %ips ?r\gh ,b>r['s ,/raits1 met ) a be> swimm+ 9 ! wat] ab\t midway betwe5 ! %ores1 :i* 7 ab\t =ty miles ap>t1 & :]e no ice 0 9 sight4#hhg ,ne> ! ea/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 obs]ves ,scoresby1 !y h be5 se5 on ! ice 9 su* quantities1 t !y 7 comp>$ to flocks ( %eep on a common2 & !y are (t5 f\nd on field-ice1 above two hundr$ miles f ! %ore4#hhh ,wolves1 9 ! arctic regions1 (t5 v5ture ^u ! ice ne> ! %ore1 = ! purpose ( prey+ ^u "y seals :i* !y surprise :5 asleep4 ,:5 ^! ice-floes get deta*$1 ! wolves are (t5 c>ri$ out to sea2 & ?\gh "s may be drift$ to isl&s or cont95ts1 ! great] "p ( !m p]i%1 & h be5 (t5 he>d 9 ?is situation h[l+ dreadfully1 z !y die by fam9e4#hhi ,dur+ ! %ort summ] :i* visits ,melville ,isl&1 v>i\s plants pu% =? _! leaves & fl[]s ! mom5t ! sn[ is (f ! gr\nd1 & =m a c>pet spangl$ ) ! mo/ lively col\rs4 ,^! seclud$ spots are rea*$ annually by h]ds ( musk-ox5 & re9de]1 :i* travel imm5se di/ances ov] dre>y & desolate regions1 to graze undi/urb$ on ^! luxuriant pa/ures4#hij ,! re9-de] (t5 pass along 9 ! same mann]1 by ! *a9 ( ! ,aleutian ,isl&s1 f ,behr+'s ,/raits to ,kamts*atka1 subsi/+ on ! moss f\nd 9 ^! isl&s dur+ _! passage4#hia ,b ! musk-ox1 not)/&+ its migratory habits1 & its long j\rneys ov] ! ice1 does n exi/1 ei!r 9 ,asia or ,gre5l&4#hib ,on float+ isl&s ( drift-wood4--,)9 ! tropics !re are no ice-floes2 b1 z if to comp5sate = t mode ( transportation1 !re are float+ islets ( matt$ trees1 :i* are (t5 borne along ?r\gh consid]able spaces4 ,^! are sometimes se5 sail+ at ! di/ance ( fifty or "o hundr$ miles f ! m\? ( ! ,ganges1 ) liv+ trees /&+ erect ^u !m4 ,! ,amazon1 ! ,congo1 & ! ,or9oco1 also produce ^! v]dant rafts1 :i* are =m$ 9 ! mann] already describ$ :5 speak+ ( ! great raft ( ! ,at*afalaya1 an arm ( ! ,mississippi1 :]e a natural bridge ( timb]1 t5 miles long1 & m ?an two hundr$ y>ds wide1 exi/$ = m ?an =ty ye>s1 support+ a luxuriant vegetation1 & ris+ & s9k+ ) ! wat] :i* fl[$ b5ea? x4 ,on ^! gre5 islets ( ! ,mississippi1 obs]ves ,malte-,brun1 "y trees take root1 & ! pi/ia & n5uph> display _! yell[ fl[]s3 s]p5ts1 birds1 & ! cayman alligator1 come to repose !re1 & all are sometimes c>ri$ to ! sea & engulph$ 9 its wat]s4#hic ,spix & ,m>tius relate t1 dur+ _! travels 9 ,brazil1 !y 7 expos$ to great dang] :ile asc5d+ ! ,amazon 9 a canoe1 f ! va/ quantity ( drift-wood con/antly propell$ aga9/ !m by ! curr5t2 s mu* s1 t _! safety dep5d$ on ! crew be+ always on ! al]t to turn aside ! trunks ( trees ) long poles4 ,! tops alone ( "s trees appe>$ above wat]1 o!rs _h _! roots atta*$ to !m ) s mu* soil t !y might be comp>$ to float+ islets4 ,on ^!1 say ! travell]s1 we saw "s v s+ul> assemblages ( animals1 pursu+ peacefully _! unc]ta9 way 9 /range companion%ip4 ,on "o raft 7 sev]al grave-look+ /orks1 p]*$ by ! side ( a p>ty ( monkeys1 :o made comical ge/ures1 & bur/ into l\d cries1 on see+ ! canoe4 ,on ano!r 0 se5 a numb] ( ducks & div]s1 sitt+ by a gr\p ( squirrels4 ,next came d[n ^u ! /em ( a l>ge rott5 c$> tree1 an enorm\s crocodile1 by ! side ( a tig]-cat1 bo? animals reg>d+ ea* o!r ) ho/ility & mi/ru/1 b ! saurian be+ evid5tly mo/ at 8 ease1 z consci\s ( 8 sup]ior /r5g?4#hid ,simil> gre5 rafts1 pr9cipally compos$ ( canes & bru%wood1 are call$ camelotes on ! ,p>ana 9 ,s\? ,am]ica2 & !y are occasionally c>ri$ d[n by inundations1 be>+ on !m ! tig]1 cayman1 squirrels1 & o!r quadrup$s1 :i* are said to be always t]ror-/rick5 on _! float+ habitation4 ,no less ?an f\r tig]s 7pumas7 7 l&$ 9 ?is mann] 9 "o night at ,monte ,video1 lat4 #ce degrees ,s41 to ! great al>m ( ! inhabitants1 :o f\nd !m pr[l+ ab\t ! /reets 9 ! morn+4#hie ,9 a memoir lately publi%$1 a naval (fic] relates t1 z he return$ f ,*9a by ! ea/]n passage1 he fell 91 among ! ,moluccas1 ) sev]al small float+ isl&s ( ?is k9d1 cov]$ ) mangrove trees int]wov5 ) und]wood4 ,! trees & %rubs reta9$ _! v]dure1 receiv+ n\ri%m5t f a /ratum ( soil :i* =m$ a :ite bea* r\nd ! m>g9 ( ea* raft1 :]e x 0 expos$ to ! wa%+ ( ! waves & ! rays ( ! sun4#hif ,! occurr5ce ( soil 9 su* situations may easily be expla9$2 = all ! natural bridges ( timb] :i* occasionally connect ! isl&s ( ! ,ganges1 ,mississippi1 & o!r riv]s1 ) _! banks1 are expos$ to floods ( wat]1 d5sely *>g$ ) s$im5t4 ,capta9 ,w4 ,h4 ,smy? in=ms me1 t1 :5 cruis+ 9 ! ,cornwallis amid/ ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s1 he has m ?an once se51 aft] ^? dreadful hurricanes call$ typhoons1 float+ masses ( wood1 ) trees gr[+ ^u !m1 & %ips h sometimes be5 9 imm95t p]il1 z (t5 z ^! isl&s 7 mi/ak5 = t]ra firma1 :51 9 fact1 !y 7 9 rapid motion4 ,x is highly int]e/+ to trace1 9 imag9ation1 ! effects ( ! passage ( ^! rafts f ! m\? ( a l>ge riv] to "s ar*ipelago1 su* z ^? 9 ! ,s\? ,pacific1 rais$ f ! deep1 9 comp>atively mod]n times1 by ! op]ations ( ! volcano & ! e>?quake1 & ! jo9t lab\rs ( coral animals & te/acea4 ,if a /orm arise1 & ! frail vessel be wreck$1 /ill _m a bird & insect may succe$ 9 ga9+1 by flight1 "s isl& ( ! newly =m$ gr\p1 :ile ! se$s & b]ries ( h]bs & %rubs1 :i* fall into ! waves1 may be ?r[n ^u ! /r&4 ,b if ! surface ( ! deep be calm1 & ! rafts are c>ri$ along by a curr5t1 or waft$ by "s slight brea? ( air fann+ ! foliage ( ! gre5 trees1 x may arrive1 aft] a passage ( sev]al weeks1 at ! bay ( an isl&1 into :i* its plants & animals may be p\r$ out z f an ark1 & ?us a colony ( sev]al hundr$ new species may at once be naturaliz$4 ,! read] %\ld be rem9d$1 t ,i m]ely adv]t to ! transportation ( ^! rafts z ( extremely r>e & accid5tal occurr5ce2 b x may acc\nt1 9 tropical c\ntries1 = "s ( ! r>e exceptions to ! g5]al law ( ! conf9$ range ( mammif]\s species4 ,migrations ( ! ,cetacea4--,_m ( ! ,cetacea1 ! :ales ( ! nor!rn seas = example1 are f\nd to des]t "o tract ( ! sea1 & to visit ano!r v di/ant1 :5 !y are urg$ by want ( food1 or dang]4 ,! seals also retire f ! coa/ ( ,gre5l& 9 ,july1 return aga9 9 ,septemb]1 & dep>t aga9 9 ,m>*1 to return 9 ,june4 ,!y proce$ 9 great droves nor?w>ds1 direct+ _! c\rse :]e ! sea is mo/ free f ice1 & are obs]v$ to be extremely fat :5 !y set out on ?is exp$ition1 & v lean :5 !y come home aga94#hig ,species ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 ,black ,sea1 & ,caspian id5tical4--,"s naturali/s h wond]$ t ! sea-calves1 dolph9s1 & o!r m>9e mammalia ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ,black ,sea1 %\ld be id5tical ) ^? f\nd 9 ! ,caspian3 & among o!r fanciful !ories1 !y h sugge/$ t !y may dive ?r\gh subt]ranean conduits1 & ?us pass f "o sea into ! o!r4 ,b z ! occurr5ce ( wolves & o!r noxi\s animals1 on bo? sides ( ! ,briti% ,*annel1 0 adduc$1 by ,v]/egan & ,desm>e/1 z "o ( _m argum5ts to prove t ,engl& & ,france 7 once unit$2 s ! correspond5ce ( ! aquatic species ( ! inl& seas ( ,asia ) ^? ( ! ,black ,sea t5d to confirm ! hypo!sis1 = :i* !re are abundance ( indep5d5t geological data1 t ^? seas 7 connect$ toge!r by /raits at no remote p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,geographical ,di/ribution & ,migrations ( ,birds4 ,i %all n[ (f] a few obs]vations on "s ( ! o!r divisions ( ! animal k+dom4 ,birds1 not)/&+ _! great locomotive p[]s1 =m no exception to ! g5]al rules already laid d[n2 b1 9 ?is class1 z 9 plants & t]re/rial quadrup$s1 diff]5t gr\ps ( species are circumscrib$ )9 def9ite limits4 ,we f9d1 = example1 "o assemblage 9 ! ,brazils1 ano!r 9 ! same latitudes 9 ,c5tral ,africa1 ano!r 9 ,india1 & a f\r? 9 ,new ,holl&4 ,( tw5ty-six diff]5t species ( l& birds f\nd 9 ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago1 all1 ) ! exception ( "o1 are di/9ct f ^? inhabit+ o!r p>ts ( ! globe2#hih & 9 o!r ar*ipelagos a s+le isl& sometimes conta9s a species f\nd 9 no o!r spot on ! :ole e>?2 z is exemplifi$ 9 "s ( ! p>rot tribes4 ,9 ?is ext5sive family1 :i* are1 ) few exceptions1 inhabitants ( tropical regions1 ! ,am]ican gr\p has n "o 9 common ) ! ,african1 nor ei!r ( ^! ) ! p>rots ( ,india4#hii ,ano!r illu/ration is af=d$ by t m9ute & beautiful tribe1 ! humm+-birds4 ,! :ole ( !m are1 9 ! fir/ place1 peculi> to ! new _w2 b "s species are conf9$ to ,mexico1 :ile o!rs exi/ only 9 "s ( ! ,we/ ,india ,isl&s1 & h n be5 f\nd else:]e 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e4 ,yet !re are species ( ?is family :i* h a va/ range1 z ! ,tro*ilus flammifrons 7or ,mellisuga ,k+ii71 :i* is f\nd ov] a space ( #bejj miles on ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 f ! hot dry c\ntry ( ,lima to ! humid =e/s ( ,ti]ra del ,fuego4 ,capta9 ,k+1 dur+ 8 survey 9 ! ye>s #ahbf-cj1 f\nd ?is bird at ! ,/raits ( ,magellan1 9 ! mon? ( ,may--! dep? ( w9t]--suck+ ! fl[]s ( a l>ge species ( fu*sia1 !n 9 bloom1 9 ! mid/ ( a %[] ( sn[4 ,! orni?ology ( our own c\ntry af=ds "o well-kn[n & /rik+ exemplification ( ! law ( a limit$ specific range2 = ! common gr\se 7,tetra scoticus7 occurs n[h]e 9 ! kn[n _w except 9 ! ,briti% isles4 ,"s species ( ! vulture tribe are said to be cosmopolites2 & ! common wild goose 7,anas ans]1 ,l9n471 if we may believe "s orni?ologi/s1 is a g5]al inhabitant ( ! globe1 be+ met ) f ,lapl& to ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 frequ5t 9 ,arabia1 ,p]sia1 ,*9a1 & ,japan1 & 9 ! ,am]ican cont95t f ,hudson's ,bay to ,s\? ,c>ol9a4#ijj ,an extraord9>y range has also be5 attribut$ to ! night+ale1 :i* ext5ds f we/]n ,europe to ,p]sia1 & /ill f>!r4 ,9 a "w entitl$ ,spec*io ,comp>ativo1#ija by ,*>les ,bonap>te1 _m species ( birds are enum]at$ z common to ,rome & ,philadelphia3 ! great] "p ( ^! are migratory1 b "s ( !m1 su* z ! long-e>$ owl 7,/rix otus71 are p]man5t 9 bo? c\ntries4 ,! correspond5ce ( ! orni?ological fauna ( ! ea/]n & we/]n hemisph]es increases consid]ably1 z might h be5 anticipat$1 9 high nor!rn latitudes4#ijb ,_! facilities ( diffusion4--,9 p>allel zones ( ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es1 a great g5]al correspond5ce ( =m is obs]vable1 bo? 9 ! aquatic & t]re/rial birds2 b !re is r>ely any specific id5tity2 & ?is ph5om5on is truly rem>kable1 :5 we recollect ! read9ess ) :i* "s birds1 n gift$ ) great p[]s ( flight1 %ift _! qu>t]s to diff]5t regions1 & ! facility ) :i* o!rs1 possess+ great /r5g? ( w+1 p]=m _! a>ial voyage4 ,"s migrate p]iodically f high latitudes1 to avoid ! cold ( w9t]1 & ! accompanim5ts ( cold1--sc>city ( insects & vegetable food2 o!rs1 x is said1 = "s p>ticul> k9ds ( nutrim5t requir$ = re>+ _! "y3 = ?is purpose !y (t5 trav]se ! ocean = ?\s&s ( miles1 & recross x at o!r p]iods1 ) equal security4 ,p]iodical migrations1 no less regul>1 are m5tion$ by ,humboldt1 ( _m ,am]ican wat]-f[l1 f "o "p ( ! tropics to ano!r1 9 a zone :]e !re is ! same temp]ature ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,imm5se flights ( ducks leave ! valley ( ! ,or9oco1 :5 ! increas+ dep? ( its wat]s & ! flood+ ( its %ores prev5t !m f cat*+ fi%1 insects1 & aquatic worms4 ,!y !n betake !mselves to ! ,rio ,negro & ,amazon1 hav+ pass$ f ! eigh? & ?ird degrees ( nor? latitude to ! fir/ & f\r? ( s\? latitude1 direct+ _! c\rse s\?-s\?-ea/4 ,9 ,septemb]1 :5 ! ,or9oco decreases & re-ent]s its *annel1 ^! birds return nor?w>ds4#ijc ,! insectivor\s swall[s :i* visit our isl& w\ld p]i% dur+ w9t]1 if !y did n annually repair to w>m] climes4 ,x is suppos$ t 9 ^! a]ial excursions ! av]age rapidity ( _! flight is n less ?an fifty miles an h\r2 s t1 :5 aid$ by ! w9d1 !y soon rea* w>m] latitudes4 ,spallanzani calculat$ t ! swall[ c fly at ! rate ( n9ety-two miles an h\r1 & conceiv$ t ! rapidity ( ! swift might be ?ree times great]4#ijd ,! rate ( flight ( ! eid] duck 7,anas mollissima7 is said to be n9ety miles an h\r2 & ,ba*man says t ! hawk1 wild pigeon 7,columba migratoria71 & sev]al species ( wild ducks1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 fly at ! rate ( =ty miles an h\r1 or ne>ly a ?\s& miles 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4#ije ,:5 we reflect h[ easily diff]5t species1 9 a great lapse ( ages1 may be ea* ov]tak5 by gales & hurricanes1 &1 ab&on+ !mselves to ! tempe/1 be scatt]$ at r&om ?r\gh v>i\s regions ( ! e>?'s surface1 :]e ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 ! vegetation1 & ! animal productions1 might be suit$ to _! wants1 we %all be prep>$ to f9d "s species caprici\sly di/ribut$1 & to be sometimes unable to det]m9e ! native c\ntries ( ea*4 ,capta9 ,smy? in=ms me1 t1 :5 engag$ 9 8 survey ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 he enc\nt]$ a gale 9 ! ,gulf ( ,lyons1 at ! di/ance ( betwe5 tw5ty & ?irty leagues f ! coa/ ( ,france1 :i* bore along _m l& birds ( v>i\s species1 "s ( :i* alight$ on ! %ip1 :ile o!rs 7 ?r[n ) viol5ce aga9/ ! sails4 ,9 ?is mann] isl&s become t5ant$ by species ( birds inhabit+ ! ne>e/ ma9l&4 ,geographical ,di/ribution & ,dissem9ation ( ,reptiles4 ,a few facts respect+ ! ?ird great class ( v]tebrat$ animals w suffice to %[ t ! plan ( nature 9 reg>d to _! location on ! globe is p]fectly analog\s to t already exemplifi$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ! organic creation1 & has probably be5 det]m9$ by simil> causes4 ,habitations ( reptiles4--,( ! great saurians1 ! gavials :i* inhabit ! ,ganges diff] f ! cayman ( ,am]ica1 or ! crocodile ( ! ,nile4 ,! monitor ( ,new ,holl& is specifically di/9ct f ! ,indian species2 ^! latt]1 aga91 f ! ,african1 & all f _! cong5]s 9 ! new _w4 ,s 9 reg>d to snakes2 we f9d ! boa ( ,am]ica repres5t$ by ! py?on1 a diff]5t ?\gh ne>ly alli$ g5us 9 ,india4 ,am]ica is ! c\ntry ( ! rattlesnake2 ,africa1 ( ! c]a/es2 & ,asia1 ( ! hood$ snake1 or cobra di capello4 ,! amphibi\s g5]a ,sir5 & ,m5opoma belong to ,nor? ,am]ica1 possess+ bo? lungs & gills1 & respir+ at pleasure ei!r air or wat]4 ,! only analog\s animal ( ! old _w is ! ,proteus angu9us ( ! lakes ( ,l[] ,c>niola1 & ! grotto ( ,adelsb]g betwe5 ,trie/e & ,vi5na4#ijf ,!re is a leg5d t ,/4 ,patrick expell$ all reptiles f ,irel&2 & c]ta9 x is t none ( ! ?ree species ( snakes common 9 ,engl&1 nor ! toad1 h be5 obs]v$ !re by naturali/s4 ,!y h our common frog1 & our wat]-newt1 & accord+ to ,ray 7,quad4 #bfd471 ! gre5 liz>d 7,lac]ta viridis74 ,migrations ( ! l>g] reptiles4--,! range ( ! l>ge reptiles is1 9 g5]al1 q z limit$ z t ( "s ord]s ( ! t]re/rial mammalia4 ,! great saurians sometimes cross a consid]able tract 9 ord] to pass f "o riv] to ano!r2 b _! motions by l& are g5]ally sl[] ?an ^? ( quadrup$s4 ,by wat]1 h[ev]1 !y may transport !mselves to di/ant situations m easily4 ,! l>g] alligator ( ! ,ganges sometimes desc5ds beyond ! bracki% wat] ( ! delta into ! sea2 & 9 su* cases x might *ance to be drift$ away by a curr5t1 & survive till x rea*$ a %ore at "s di/ance2 b su* casualties are probably v r>e4 ,turtles migrate 9 l>ge droves f "o "p ( ! ocean to ano!r dur+ ! oviposit+ season2 & !y f9d _! way annually to ! isl& ( ,asc5sion1 f :i* ! ne>e/ l& is ab\t #hjj miles di/ant4 ,dr4 ,flem+ m5tions1 t an individual ( ! hawk's bill turtle 7,*elonia imbricata71 s common 9 ! ,am]ican seas1 has be5 tak5 at ,papa ,/\r1 "o ( ! ,we/ ,zetl& ,isl&s2#ijg &1 accord+ to ,sibbald1 ! same animal came into ,orkney4 ,ano!r 0 tak51 9 #aggd1 9 ! ,sev]n1 accord+ to ,turton4 ,two in/ances1 also1 ( ! occurr5ce ( ! lea!rn tortoise 7,c4 coriacea71 on ! coa/ ( ,cornwall1 9 #agef1 are m5tion$ by ,borlase4 ,^! animals ( m s\!rn seas c be consid]$ only z /raggl]s1 attract$ to our %ores dur+ uncommonly w>m seasons by an abundant supply ( food1 or c>ri$ by ! ,gulf /ream1 or driv5 by /orms to high latitudes4 ,"s ( ! small] reptiles lay _! eggs on aquatic plants2 & ^! mu/ (t5 be borne rapidly by riv]s1 & convey$ to di/ant regions 9 a mann] simil> to ! disp]sion ( se$s be=e adv]t$ to4 ,b t ! l>g] ophidians may be !mselves transport$ across ! seas1 is evid5t f ! foll[+ mo/ int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! arrival ( "o at ! isl& ( ,/4 ,v9c5t4 ,x is wor?y ( be+ record$1 says ,mr4 ,guild+1 t a noble specim5 ( ! ,boa con/rictor 0 lately convey$ to u by ! curr5ts1 twi/$ r\nd ! trunk ( a l>ge s\nd c$> tree1 :i* _h probably be5 wa%$ out ( ! bank by ! floods ( "s great ,s\? ,am]ican riv]1 :ile its huge folds hung on ! bran*es1 z x wait$ = its prey4 ,! mon/] 0 =tunately de/roy$ aft] kill+ a few %eep1 & 8 skeleton n[ hangs be=e me 9 my /udy1 putt+ me 9 m9d h[ mu* reason ,i might h _h to fe> 9 my future rambles ?r\gh ! =e/s ( ,/4 ,v9c5t1 _h ?is =midable reptile be5 a pregnant female1 & escap$ to a safe retreat4#ijh ,,*apt] ,,xxxix4 ,,laws ,,:i* ,,regulate ,,! ,,geographical ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,species--cont9u$4 ,geographical di/ribution & migration ( ,fi%--( ,te/aoea--( ,zoophytes--,di/ribution ( ,insects--,migratory in/9cts ( "s species--,c]ta9 types *>act]ize p>ticul> c\ntries--,_! means ( dissem9ation--,geographical di/ribution & diffusion ( man--,speculations z to ! bir?-place ( ! human species--,progress ( human population--,drift+ ( canoes to va/ di/ances--,on ! involunt>y influ5ce ( man 9 ext5d+ ! range ( _m o!r species4 ,geographical ,di/ribution & ,migrations ( ,fi%4 ,al?\gh we are less acqua9t$ ) ! habitations ( m>9e animals ?an ) ! gr\p+ ( ! t]re/rial species be=e describ$1 yet x is well asc]ta9$ t _! di/ribution is gov]n$ by ! same g5]al laws4 ,! te/imony borne by ,,mm4 ,p>on & ,lesueur to ?is important fact is rem>kably /rong4 ,^! em95t naturali/s1 aft] collect+ & describ+ _m ?\s& species ( m>9e animals :i* !y br\ght to ,europe f ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 insi/ mo/ emphatically on _! di/9ctness f ^? nor? ( ! equator2 & ?is rem>k !y ext5d to animals ( all classes1 f ^? ( a m simple to ^? ( a m complex organization--f ! sponges & ,m$usae to ! ,cetacea4 ,among all ^? :i* we h be5 able to exam9e1 say !y1 ) our own eyes1 or ) reg>d to :i* x has appe>$ to u possible to pron\nce ) c]ta9ty1 !re is n a s+le animal ( ! s\!rn regions :i* is n di/+ui%$ by ess5tial *>act]s f ! analog\s species 9 ! nor!rn seas4#iji ,on comp>+ ! fre%wat] fi% ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,sir ,john ,ri*>dson rem>ks1 t ! only species :i* is unequivocally common to ! two cont95ts is ! pike 7,esox lucius72 & x is curi\s t ?is fi% is unkn[n to ! we/w>d ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 ! v coa/ :i* approa*es ne>e/ to ! old cont95t4#iaj ,accord+ to ! same au?or ! g5]a ( fre%wat] fi% 9 ,*9a agree closely ) ^? ( ! p59sula ( ,india1 b ! species are n ! same4 ,z 9 ! di/ribution1 he adds1 ( m>9e fi%1 ! int]position ( a cont95t /ret*+ f ! tropics f> into ! temp]ate or cold] p>ts ( ! ocean1 sep>ate diff]5t i*?yological gr\ps2 s ) respect to ! fre%wat] species1 ! intrusion ( arms ( ! sea runn+ f> to ! nor?w>ds1 or ! int]position ( a l(ty m\nta9-*a91 effects ! same ?+4 ,! fre%wat] fi% ( ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope & ! ,s\? ,am]ican ones1 are diff]5t f ^? ( ,india & ,*9a1 c4#iaa ,cuvi] & ,val5ci5nes1 9 _! ,hi/oire des ,poissons1 obs]ve1 t v few species ( fi% cross ! ,atlantic4 ,al?\gh _! /atem5t is correct1 x is f\nd t a great _m species are common to ! opposite sides ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 inhabit+ alike ! ,r$ ,sea1 ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,africa1 ,madagasc>1 ! ,mauritius1 ! ,indian ,ocean1 ! s\!rn seas ( ,*9a1 ! ,malay ar*ipelago1 ! nor!rn coa/s ( ,au/ralia1 & ! :ole ( ,polynesia6#iab ,?is v wide diffusion1 says ,sir ,j4 ,ri*>dson1 may h be5 promot$ by *a9s ( isl&s runn+ ea/ & we/1 :i* are want+ 9 ! deep ,atlantic4 ,an ar*ipelago ext5d+ f> 9 longitude1 fav\rs ! migration ( fi% by multiply+ ! places ( deposit = spawn along ! %ores ( isl&s1 & on int]v5+ coral banks2 & 9 su* places1 also1 fi% f9d _! appropriate food4 ,! fly+ fi% are f\nd 7"s /raggl]s except$7 only betwe5 ! tropics3 9 rec$+ f ! l9e1 !y nev] approa* a high] latitude ?an ! =tie? p>allel4 ,! c\rse ( ! ,gulf /ream1 h[ev]1 & ! w>m? ( its wat]1 enable "s tropical fi% to ext5d _! habitations f> into ! temp]ate zone2 ?us ! *aetodons :i* ab\nd 9 ! seas ( hot climates1 are f\nd among ! ,b]mudas on ! ?irty-second p>allel1 :]e !y are pres]v$ 9 bas9s inclos$ f ! sea1 z an important article ( food = ! g>rison & inhabitants4 ,o!r fi%1 foll[+ ! direction ( ! same great curr5t1 range f ! coa/ ( ,brazil to ! banks ( ,newf\ndl&4#iac ,all are aw>e t !re are c]ta9 fi% ( passage :i* h _! p]iodical migrations1 l "s tribes ( birds4 ,! salmon1 t[>ds ! season ( spawn+1 asc5ds ! riv]s = hundr$s ( miles1 leap+ up ! cat>acts :i* x meets 9 its c\rse1 & !n retreats aga9 into ! dep?s ( ! ocean4 ,! h]r+ & ! haddock1 aft] frequ5t+ c]ta9 %ores1 9 va/ %oals1 = a s]ies ( ye>s1 des]t !m aga91 & resort to o!r /ations1 foll[$ by ! species :i* prey on !m4 ,eels are said to desc5d into ! sea = ! purpose ( produc+ _! "y1 :i* are se5 return+ into ! fre% wat] by myriads1 extremely small 9 size1 b possess+ ! p[] ( surm\nt+ e ob/acle :i* occurs 9 ! c\rse ( a riv]1 by apply+ _! slimy & glut9\s bodies to ! surface ( rocks1 or ! gates ( a lock1 ev5 :5 dry1 & s climb+ ov] x4#iad ,be=e ! ye> #ahjj !re 7 no eels 9 ,lake ,w5]1 ! l>ge/ inl& lake 9 ,sw$51 :i* dis*>ges its wat]s by ! celebrat$ cat>acts ( ,trolhattan4 ,b ,i am in=m$ by ,pr(essor ,nilsson1 t s9ce ! canal 0 op5$ unit+ ! riv] ,go?a ) ! lake by a s]ies ( n9e locks1 ea* ( great height1 eels h be5 obs]v$ 9 abundance 9 ! lake4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t ?\gh !y 7 unable to asc5d ! falls1 !y h made _! way by ! locks1 by :i* 9 a v %ort space a diff]5ce ( level ( #aad feet is ov]come4 ,gmel9 says1 t ! ,ans]es 7wild geese1 ducks1 & o!rs7 subsi/1 9 _! migrations1 on ! spawn ( fi%2 & t (t5times1 :5 !y void ! spawn1 two or ?ree days aft]w>ds1 ! eggs reta9 _! vitality unimpair$4#iae ,:5 !re are _m disconnect$ fre%wat] lakes 9 a m\nta9\s region1 at v>i\s elevations1 ea* remote f ! o!r1 x has (t5 be5 deem$ inconceivable h[ !y c\ld all become /ock$ ) fi% f "o common s\rce2 b x has be5 sugge/$1 t ! m9ute eggs ( ^! animals may sometimes be entangl$ 9 ! fea!rs ( wat]-f[l4 ,^!1 :5 !y alight to wa% & plume !mselves 9 ! wat]1 may (t5 unconsci\sly contribute to propagate sw>ms ( fi%1 :i*1 9 due season1 w supply !m ) food4 ,"s ( ! wat]-beetles1 also1 z ! ,dyticidae1 are amphibi\s1 & 9 ! ev5+ quit _! lakes & pools1 &1 fly+ 9 ! air1 transport ! m9ute ova ( fi%es to di/ant wat]s4 ,9 ?is mann] "s naturali/s acc\nt = ! fry ( fi% appe>+ occasionally 9 small pools caus$ by heavy ra9s2 b ! %[]s ( small fi%1 /at$ 9 s _m acc\nts to h fall5 f ! atmosph]e1 require f>!r inve/igation4 ,geographical ,di/ribution & ,migrations ( ,te/acea4 ,! ,te/acea1 ( :i* s great a v>iety ( species occurs 9 ! sea1 are a class ( animals ( peculi> importance to ! geologi/2 because _! rema9s are f\nd 9 /rata ( all ages1 & g5]ally 9 a high] /ate ( pres]vation ?an ^? ( o!r organic be+s4 ,climate has a decid$ influ5ce on ! geographical di/ribution ( species 9 ?is class2 b z !re is mu* great] uni=mity ( temp]ature 9 ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 ?an 9 ! atmosph]e :i* inve/s ! l&1 ! diffusion ( m>9e mollusks is on ! :ole m ext5sive4 ,"s =ms atta9 _! fulle/ developm5t 9 w>m latitudes2 & are (t5 exclusively conf9$ to ! torrid zone1 z ,nautilus1 ,h>pa1 ,t]ebellum1 ,pyramidella1 ,delph9ula1 ,asp]gillum1 ,tridacna1 ,cucullaea1 ,crassatella1 ,corbis1 ,p]na1 & ,plicatula4 ,o!r =ms are limit$ to "o region ( ! sea1 z ! ,trigonia to p>ts ( ,au/ralia1 & ! ,con*olepas to ! we/]n coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! m>9e species inhabit+ ! ocean on ! opposite sides ( ! n>r[ i/hmus ( ,panama1 are f\nd to diff] almo/ entirely1 z we might h anticipat$1 s9ce a ,we/ ,indian mollusk _c ent] ! ,pacific )\t coa/+ r\nd ,s\? ,am]ica1 & pass+ ?r\gh ! inclem5t climate ( ,cape ,horn4 ,! cont9uity ( ! exi/+ l9es ( cont95t f nor? to s\?1 prev5ts any "o species f belt+ ! globe1 or f foll[+ ! direction ( ! iso!rmal l9es4 ,curr5ts also fl[+ p]man5tly 9 c]ta9 directions1 & ! influx at c]ta9 po9ts ( great bodies ( fre% wat]1 limit ! ext5sion ( _m species4 ,^? :i* love deep wat] are arre/$ by %oals2 o!rs1 fitt$ = %all[ seas1 _c migrate across unfa?omable abysses4 ,! nature also ( ! gr\nd has an important influ5ce on ! te/ace\s fauna1 bo? on ! l& & b5ea? ! wat]s4 ,c]ta9 species pref] a s&y1 o!rs a gravelly1 & "s a muddy sea-bottom4 ,on ! l&1 lime/one is ( all rocks ! mo/ fav\rable to ! numb] & propagation ( species ( ! g5]a ,helix1 ,clausilia1 ,bulimus1 & o!rs4 ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes has %[n z ! result ( 8 lab\rs 9 dr$g+ 9 ! ,a,egean ,sea1 t !re are eight well-m>k$ regions ( dep?1 ea* *>act]iz$ by its peculi> te/ace\s fauna4 ,! fir/ ( ^!1 call$ ! littoral zone1 ext5ds to a dep? ( two fa?oms only2 b ?is n>r[ belt is inhabit$ by m ?an "o hundr$ species4 ,! second region1 ( :i* t5 fa?oms is ! inf]ior limit1 is almo/ equally popul\s2 & a copi\s li/ ( species is giv5 z *>act]i/ic ( ea* region d[n to ! sev5?1 :i* lies betwe5 ! dep?s ( #hj & #aje fa?oms1 all ! inhabit$ space bel[ ?is be+ includ$ 9 ! eigh? prov9ce1 :]e no less ?an #fe species ( ,te/acea h be5 tak54 ,! majority ( ! %ells 9 ?is l[e/ zone are :ite or transp>5t4 ,only two species ( ,mollusca are common to all ! eight regions1 namely1 ,arca lactea & ,c]i?ium lima4#iaf ,great range ( "s prov9ces & species4--,9 ,europe con*ologi/s di/+ui% betwe5 ! arctic fauna1 ! s\!rn b\nd>y ( :i* corresponds ) ! iso!rmal l9e ( #cb degrees ,f41 & ! ,celtic1 :i*1 comm5c+ ) t limit z its nor!rn fronti]1 ext5ds s\?w>ds to ! m\? ( ! ,engli% ,*annel & ,cape ,f9i/]re1 9 ,france4 ,f t po9t beg9s ! ,lusitanian fauna1 :i*1 accord+ to ! rec5t obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,m',&rew 7#aheb71 ranges to ! ,can>y ,isl&s4 ,! ,m$it]ranean prov9ce is di/9ct f all ^? above enum]at$1 al?\gh x has "s species 9 common ) ea*4 ,! ,indo-,pacific region is by f> ! mo/ ext5sive ( all4 ,x rea*es f ! ,r$ ,sea & ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,africa1 to ! ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 & adjo9+ p>ts ( ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,to ! geologi/ x furni%es a fact ( no small int]e/1 by tea*+ u t "o gr\p ( liv+ species ( mollusca may prevail ?r\gh\t an area exce$+ 9 magnitude ! utmo/ limits we c z yet assign to any assemblage ( contemporane\s fossil species4 ,mr4 ,cum+ obta9$ m ?an a hundr$ species ( %ells f ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,africa id5tical ) ^? collect$ by himself at ! ,philipp9es & 9 ! ea/]n coral isl&s ( ! ,pacific ,ocean1 a di/ance equal to t f pole to pole4#iag ,c]ta9 species ( ! g5us ,ian?9a h a v wide range1 be+ common to seas nor? & s\? ( ! equator4 ,!y are all provid$ ) a beautifully contriv$ float1 :i* r5d]s !m buoyant1 facilitat+ _! disp]sion1 & enabl+ !m to become active ag5ts 9 dissem9at+ o!r species4 ,capta9 ,k+ took a specim5 ( ,ian?9a fragilis1 alive1 a little nor? ( ! equator1 s load$ ) b>nacles 7,p5telasmis7 & _! ova t ! upp] "p ( its %ell 0 invisible4 ,! ,rock ,:elk 7,purpura lapillus71 a well-kn[n ,briti% univalve1 inhabits bo? ! ,nor? ,atlantic & ,nor? ,pacific4 ,helix putris 7,succ9ea putris1 ,lam471 s common 9 ,europe1 :]e x rea*es f ,norway to ,italy1 is also said to occur 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & 9 ,newf\ndl&4 ,z ?is animal inhabits con/antly ! bord]s ( pools & /reams :]e !re is mu* moi/ure1 x is n impossible t diff]5t wat]-f[l h be5 ! ag5ts ( spread+ "s ( its m9ute eggs1 :i* may h be5 entangl$ 9 _! fea!rs4 ,! fre%wat] snail1 ,lymneus palu/ris1 s abundant 9 ,engli% ponds1 ranges un9t]rupt$ly f ,europe to ,ca%m]e1 & !nce to ! ea/]n p>ts ( ,asia4 ,helix asp]sa1 "o ( ! commone/ ( our l>g] l&-%ells1 is f\nd 9 ,/4 ,hel5a & o!r di/ant c\ntries4 ,"s con*ologi/s h conjectur$ t x 0 accid5tally import$ into ,/4 ,hel5a 9 "s %ip2 = x is an eatable species1 & ^! animals are capable ( reta9+ life dur+ long voyages1 )\t air or n\ri%m5t4#iah ,p]haps no species has a bett] claim to be call$ cosmopolite ?an "o ( our ,briti% bivalves1 ,saxicava rugosa4 ,x is spread ov] all ! nor?-pol> seas1 & ranges 9 "o direction ?r\gh ,europe to ,s5egal1 occurr+ on bo? sides ( ! ,atlantic2 :ile 9 ano!r x f9ds its way into ! ,nor? ,pacific1 & !nce to ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,nor d its migrations cease till x rea*es ! ,au/ralian seas4 ,a ,briti% bra*iopod1 nam$ ,t]ebratula caput-s]p5tis1 is common1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 to bo? sides ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 & to ! ,s\? ,african & ,*9ese seas4 ,conf9$ range ( o!r species4--,mr4 ,l[e1 9 a memoir publi%$ 9 ! ,cambridge ,transactions 9 #ahcd1 enum]ates sev5ty-"o species ( l& ,mollusca1 collect$ by him 9 ! isl&s ( ,madeira & ,porto ,santo1 sixty ( :i* belong$ to ! g5us ,helix alone1 includ+ z sub-g5]a ,bulimus & ,a*at9a1 & exclud+ ,vitr9a & ,clausilia2 =ty-f\r ( ^! are new4 ,x is rem>kable t v few ( ! above-m5tion$ species are common to ! neighb\r+ ar*ipelago ( ! ,can>ies2 b x is a /ill m /rik+ fact1 t ( ! sixty species ( ! ?ree g5]a above m5tion$1 ?irty-"o are natives ( ,porto ,santo2 :]eas1 9 ,madeira1 :i* conta9s t5 times ! sup]ficies1 7 f\nd b tw5ty-n9e4 ,( ^! only f\r 7 common to ! two isl&s1 :i* are sep>at$ by a di/ance ( only twelve leagues2 & two ev5 ( ^! f\r 7namely ,helix rhodo/oma & ,h4 v5trosa7 are species ( g5]al diffusion1 common to ,madeira1 ! ,can>ies1 & ! s\? ( ,europe4#iai ,! conf9$ range ( ^! mollusks may easily be expla9$1 if we admit t species h only "o bir?-place2 & ! only problem to be solv$ w\ld relate to ! exceptions--to acc\nt = ! dissem9ation ( "s species ?r\gh\t sev]al isl&s1 & ! ,european cont95t4 ,may n ! eggs1 :5 wa%$ into ! sea by ! und]m9+ ( cliffs1 or bl[n by a /orm f ! l&1 float un9jur$ to a di/ant %ore8 ,_! mode ( diffusion4--,not)/&+ ! prov]bially sl[ motion ( snails & mollusks 9 g5]al1 & al?\gh _m aquatic species adh]e con/antly to ! same rock = _! :ole lives1 !y are by no means de/itute ( provision = dissem9at+ !mselves rapidly ov] a wide area4 ,"s ,mollusca1 says ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 migrate 9 _! l>va /ate1 = all ( !m und]go a metamorphosis ei!r 9 ! egg or out ( ! egg4 ,! ga/]opoda comm5ce life "u ! =m ( a small spiral %ell1 & an animal furni%$ ) ciliat$ w+s1 or lobes1 l a pt]opod1 by means ( :i* x c swim freely1 & 9 ?is =m c migrate ) ease ?r\gh ! sea4#ibj ,we are accu/om$ to associate 9 our m9ds ! idea ( ! greate/ locomotive p[]s ) ! mo/ mature & p]fect /ate ( ea* species ( inv]tebrate animal1 especially :5 !y und]go a s]ies ( trans=mations2 b 9 all ! ,mollusca ! rev]se is true4 ,! "y fry ( ! cockle1 = example 7,c>dium71 possess1 :5 "y or 9 ! l>va /ate1 an app>atus :i* enables !m bo? to swim & to be c>ri$ along easily by a m>9e curr5t4 7,see fig4 #ii47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,tne "y fry ( a cockle 7,c>dium pygmaeum17 f ,lov5's ,kongl4 ,vet5skaps4 ,akadem4 ,h&l+1 #ahdh4 ,a1 ,! "y j hat*$1 magnifi$ #ajj diamet]s4 ,b1 ! same f>!r advanc$4 a1 ,! ciliat$ organ ( locomotion ) its filam5t\s app5dage b4 c1 ,! rudim5t>y inte/9e4 d1 ,! rudim5t>y %ell4 ,^! small bodies "h repres5t$1 :i* be> a consid]able resemblance to ! fry ( ! univalve1 or ga/]opod\s %ells above m5tion$1 are s m9ute at fir/ z to be j visible to ! nak$ eye4 ,!y beg9 to move ab\t f ! mom5t !y are hat*$1 by means ( ! long cilia1 a1 a1 plac$ on ! edges ( ! locomotive disk or velum4 ,?is disk %r9ks up z !y increase 9 size1 & gradually disappe>s1 no trace ( x be+ visible 9 ! p]fect animal4 ,"s species ( %ell-be>+ ,mollusca lay _! eggs 9 a sponge-l nidus1 :]e9 ! "y rema9 envelop$ = a "t aft] _! bir?2 & ?is buoyant sub/ance floats f> & wide z readily z sea-we$4 ,! "y ( o!r vivip>\s tribes are (t5 borne along entangl$ 9 sea-we$4 ,sometimes !y are s light1 t1 l gra9s ( s&1 !y c be easily mov$ by curr5ts4 ,balani & ,s]pulae are sometimes f\nd adh]+ to float+ cocoa-nuts1 & ev5 to fragm5ts ( pumice4 ,9 riv]s & lakes1 on ! o!r h&1 aquatic univalves usually atta* _! eggs to leaves & /icks :i* h fall5 into ! wat]1 & :i* are liable to be swept away dur+ floods1 f tribut>ies to ! ma9 /reams1 & f !nce to all p>ts ( ! same bas9s4 ,p>ticul> species may ?us migrate dur+ "o season f ! head wat]s ( ! ,mississippi1 or any o!r great riv]1 to c\ntries bord]+ ! sea1 at ! di/ance ( _m ?\s& miles4 ,an illu/ration ( ! mode ( atta*m5t ( ^! eggs w be se5 9 ! annex$ cut4 7,fig4 #ajj47 ,! habit ( "s ,te/acea to adh]e to float+ wood is prov$ by _! fix+ !mselves to ! bottoms ( %ips4 ,by ?is mode ( conveyance ,mytilus polymorphus1 previ\sly kn[n only 9 ! ,danube & ,wolga1 may h be5 br\ght to ! ,comm]cial ,docks 9 ! ,?ames1 & to ,hamburgh1 :]e ! species is n[ domicil$4 ,b ,mr4 ,gray sugge/s t z ! animal is kn[n to h ! faculty ( liv+ = a v long "t out ( wat]1 x is m probable t x 0 br\ght 9 ,russian timb]1 ?an borne un9jur$ ?r\gh ! salt wat] at ! bottom ( a vessel4#iba ,a lob/] 7,a/acus m>9us7 0 lately tak5 alive cov]$ ) liv+ mussels 7,mytilus edulis7#ibb2 & a l>ge female crab 7,canc] pagurus71 cov]$ ) oy/]s1 & be>+ also ,anomia ephippium1 & ,act9iae1 0 tak5 9 ,april1 #ahcb1 (f ! ,engli% coa/4 ,! oy/]s1 sev5 9 numb]1 include individuals ( six ye>s' gr[?1 & ! two l>ge/ are f\r in*es long & ?ree in*es & a half broad4 ,bo? ! crab & ! oy/]s 7 se5 alive by ,mr4 ,rob]t ,br[n4#ibc ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,eggs ( ,fre%wat] mollusks4 ,fig4 #a4 ,eggs ( ,ampull>ia ovata 7a fluviatile species7 fix$ to a small sprig :i* _h fall5 into ! wat]4 ,fig4 #b4 ,eggs ( ,planorbis albus1 atta*$ to a dead leaf ly+ "u wat]4 ,fig4 #c4 ,eggs ( ! common ,limneus 7,l4 vulg>is71 adh]+ to a dead /ick "u wat]4 ,f ?is example we le>n ! mann] 9 :i* oy/]s may be diffus$ ov] e "p ( ! sea :]e ! crab w&]s2 & if !y are at l5g? c>ri$ to a spot :]e !re is no?+ b f9e mud1 ! f\ndation ( a new oy/]-bank may be laid on ! dea? ( ! crab4 ,9 ?is in/ance ! oy/]s surviv$ ! crab _m days1 & 7 kill$ at la/ only by long exposure to ! air4 ,geographical ,di/ribution & ,migrations ( ,zoophytes4 ,zoophytes are v imp]fectly kn[n2 b !re c be little d\bt t ea* m>itime region possesses species peculi> to itself4 ,! ,madrepores1 or lamellif]\s ,polyp>ia1 are f\nd 9 _! fulle/ developm5t only 9 ! tropical seas ( ,polynesia & ! ,ea/ & ,we/ ,indies2 & ?is family is repres5t$ only by a few species 9 our seas4 ,! zoophytes ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 accord+ to ,ehr5b]g1 diff] almo/ entirely f ^? ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 al?\gh only sev5ty miles di/ant4 ,out ( #abj species ( ,an?ozoa1 only two are common to bo? seas4#ibd ,p>on & ,lesueur1 aft] /udy+ ! ,holo?uriae1 ,m$usae1 & o!r cong5]s ( delicate & *angeable =ms1 came to ! conclusion t ea* k9d has its place ( resid5ce det]m9$ by ! temp]ature necess>y to support its exi/5ce4 ,?us1 = example1 !y f\nd ! abode ( ,pyrosoma ,atlantica to be conf9$ to "o p>ticul> region ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean4#ibe ,let u n[ inquire h[ ! transportation ( zoophytes f "o "p ( ! globe to ano!r is effect$4 ,_m ( !m1 z 9 ! families ,flu/ra & ,s]tul>ia1 atta* !mselves to sea-we$1 & are occasionally drift$ along ) x4 ,_m fix !mselves to ! %ells ( ,mollusca1 & are ?us borne along by !m to %ort di/ances4 ,o!rs1 l "s species ( sea-p5s1 float ab\t 9 ! ocean1 & are usually believ$ to possess p[]s ( spontane\s motion4 ,b ! mo/ frequ5t mode ( transportation consi/s 9 ! buoyancy ( _! eggs1 or c]ta9 small vesicles1 :i* are deta*$1 & are capable ( becom+ ! f\ndation ( a new colony4 ,^! gems1 z !y are call$1 h1 9 _m in/ances1 a locomotive p[] ( _! own1 by :i* !y proce$ 9 a det]m9ate direction = sev]al days aft] sep>ation f ! p>5t4 ,!y are propell$ by means ( num]\s %ort ?reads or ciliae1 :i* are 9 con/ant & rapid vibration2 &1 :5 ?us support$ 9 ! wat]1 !y may be borne along by curr5ts to a great di/ance4 ,t "s zoophytes adh]e to float+ bodies1 is prov$ by _! be+ f\nd atta*$ to ! bottoms ( %ips1 l c]ta9 ,te/acea be=e allud$ to4 ,geographical ,di/ribution & ,migrations ( ,insects4 ,be=e ,i conclude ?is sket* ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! habitable p>ts ( ! e>? are %>$ out among p>ticul> assemblages ( organic be+s1 ,i mu/ (f] a few rem>ks on insects1 :i*1 by _! numb]s & ! v>iety ( _! p[]s & in/9cts1 ex]t a prodigi\s influ5ce 9 ! economy ( animate nature4 ,z a l>ge portion ( ^! m9ute creatures are /rictly dep5d5t = _! subsi/5ce on c]ta9 species ( vegetables1 ! entomological prov9ces mu/ co9cide 9 consid]able degree ) ! botanical4 ,all ! insects1 says ,latreille1 br\ght f ! ea/]n p>ts ( ,asia & ,*9a1 :atev] be _! latitude & temp]ature1 are di/9ct f ^? ( ,europe & ( ,africa4 ,! insects ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 al?\gh (t5 approa*+ v close to our own1 are1 ) v few exceptions1 specifically di/+ui%able by "s *>act]s4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! equ9octial l&s ( ,new ,granada & ,p]u on ! "o side1 & ( ,guiana on ! o!r1 conta9 = ! mo/ "p di/9ct gr\ps2 ! ,&es =m+ ! division1 & int]pos+ a n>r[ l9e ( sev]e cold betwe5 climates o!rwise v simil>4#ibf ,migratory in/9cts4--,ne>ly all ! insects ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada1 diff] specifically f ! ,european2 :ile ^? ( ,gre5l& appe> to be 9 a great measure id5tical ) our own4 ,"s insects are v local2 :ile a few1 on ! contr>y1 are common to remote c\ntries1 betwe5 :i* ! torrid zone & ! ocean int]v5e4 ,?us our pa9t$ lady butt]fly 7,vanessa c>dui7 re-appe>s at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope & 9 ,new ,holl& & ,japan ) sc>cely a v>y+ /reak4#ibg ,! same species is said to be "o ( ! few insects :i* are univ]sally disp]s$ ov] ! e>?1 be+ f\nd 9 ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 & ,am]ica2 & its wide range is ! m int]e/+1 because x seems expla9$ by its migratory in/9ct1 second$1 no d\bt1 by a capacity1 enjoy$ by few species1 ( endur+ a great div]sity ( temp]ature4 ,a va/ sw>m ( ?is species1 =m+ a column f t5 to fifte5 feet broad1 01 a few ye>s s9ce1 obs]v$ 9 ! ,canton de ,vaud2 !y trav]s$ ! c\ntry ) great rapidity f nor? to s\?1 all fly+ onw>ds 9 regul> ord]1 close toge!r1 & n turn+ f _! c\rse on ! approa* ( o!r objects4 ,pr(essor ,bonelli1 ( ,tur91 obs]v$1 9 ,m>* ( ! same ye>1 a simil> sw>m ( ! same species1 also direct+ _! flight f nor? to s\?1 9 ,pi$mont1 9 su* imm5se numb]s t at night ! fl[]s 7 lit]ally cov]$ ) !m4 ,!y _h be5 trac$ f ,coni1 ,raconi1 ,susa1 c4 ,a simil> flight at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury is record$ by ,m4 ,l\* 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy ( ,tur94 ,! fact is ! m wor?y ( notice1 because ! cat]pill>s ( ?is butt]fly are n greg>i\s1 b solit>y f ! mom5t t !y are hat*$2 & ?is in/9ct rema9s dormant1 :ile g5]ation aft] g5]ation passes away1 till x sudd5ly displays itself 9 full en]gy :5 _! numb]s happ5 to be 9 excess4 ,n only peculi> species1 b c]ta9 types1 di/+ui% p>ticul> c\ntries2 & !re are gr\ps1 obs]ves ,kirby1 :i* repres5t ea* o!r 9 di/ant regions1 :e!r 9 _! =m1 _! functions1 or 9 bo?4 ,?us ! honey & wax ( ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,africa1 are 9 ea* case prep>$ by bees cong5]\s ) our common hive-bee 7,apis1 ,latr472 :ile1 9 ,am]ica1 ?is g5us is n[h]e indig5\s1 b is replac$ by ,melipona1 ,trigona1 & ,euglossa2 & 9 ,new ,holl& by a /ill diff]5t b undescrib$ type4#ibh ,! ,european bee 7,apis mellifica71 al?\gh n a native ( ! new _w1 is n[ e/abli%$ bo? 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,x 0 introduc$ into ! ,unit$ ,/ates by "s ( ! e>ly settl]s1 & has s9ce ov]spread ! va/ =e/s ( ! int]ior1 build+ hives 9 ! decay$ trunks ( trees4 ,! ,indians1 says ,irv+1 consid] !m z ! h>b+] ( ! :ite man1 z ! buffalo is ( ! r$ man1 & say t 9 proportion z ! bee advances ! ,indian & ! buffalo retire4 ,x is said1 cont9ues ! same writ]1 t ! wild bee is seldom to be met ) at any great di/ance f ! fronti]1 & t !y h always be5 ! h]alds ( civilization1 prec$+ x z x advanc$ f ! ,atlantic bord]s4 ,"s ( ! anci5t settl]s ( ! we/ ev5 pret5d to give ! v ye> :5 ! honey-bee fir/ cross$ ! ,mississippi4#ibi ,! same species is n[ also naturaliz$ 9 ,van ,diem5's ,l& & ,new ,zeal&4 ,z almo/ all insects are w+$1 !y c readily spread !mselves :]ev] _! progress is n oppos$ by uncong5ial climates1 or by seas1 m\nta9s1 & o!r physical imp$im5ts2 & ^! b>ri]s !y c sometimes surm\nt by ab&on+ !mselves to viol5t w9ds1 :i*1 z ,i be=e /at$1 :5 speak+ ( ! disp]sion ( se$s 7p4 #fah471 may 9 a few h\rs c>ry !m to v consid]able di/ances4 ,on ! ,&es "s sph9xes & flies h be5 obs]v$ by ,humboldt1 at ! height ( #ai1ahj feet above ! sea1 & :i* appe>$ to him to h be5 involunt>ily c>ri$ into ^! regions by asc5d+ curr5ts ( air4#icj ,:ite m5tions a rem>kable %[] ( aphides :i* seem to h emigrat$1 ) an ea/ w9d1 f ! great hop plantations ( ,k5t & ,sussex1 & black5$ ! %rubs & vegetables :]e !y alight$ at ,selb\rne1 spread+ at ! same "t 9 great cl\ds all along ! vale f ,f>nham to ,alton4 ,^! aphides are sometimes accompani$ by va/ numb]s ( ! common lady-bird 7,cocc9ella septempunctata71 :i* fe$ ^u !m4#ica ,x is rem>kable1 says ,kirby1 t _m ( ! insects :i* are occasionally obs]v$ to emigrate1 z1 = in/ance1 ! ,libellulae1 ,cocc9ellae1 ,c>abi1 ,cicadae1 c4 are n usually social insects2 b seem to congregate1 l swall[s1 m]ely = ! purpose ( emigration4#icb ,"h1 !re=e1 we h an example ( an in/9ct develop+ itself on c]ta9 r>e em]g5cies1 caus+ unsocial species to become greg>i\s & to v5ture sometimes ev5 to cross ! ocean4 ,! armies ( locu/s :i* d>k5 ! air 9 ,africa1 & trav]se ! globe f ,turkey to our s\!rn c\nties 9 ,engl&1 are well kn[n to all4 ,:5 ! we/]n gales sweep ov] ! ,pampas !y be> along ) !m myriads ( insects ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,z a pro( ( ! mann] 9 :i* species may be ?us diffus$1 ,i may m5tion t :5 ! ,creole frigate 0 ly+ 9 ! out] roads (f ,bu5os ,ayres1 9 #ahai1 at ! di/ance ( six miles f ! l&1 h] decks & rigg+ 7 sudd5ly cov]$ by ?\s&s ( flies & gra9s ( s&4 ,! sides ( ! vessel _h j receiv$ a fre% coat ( pa9t1 to :i* ! insects adh]$ 9 su* numb]s z to spot & disfigure ! vessel1 & to r5d] x necess>y p>tially to r5ew ! pa9t4#icc ,capta9 ,w4 ,h4 ,smy? 0 oblig$ to repa9t 8 vessel1 ! ,adv5ture1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 f ! same cause4 ,he 0 on 8 way f ,malta to ,tripoli1 :5 a s\!rn w9d bl[+ f ! coa/ ( ,africa1 !n "o hundr$ miles di/ant1 drove su* myriads ( flies ^u ! fre% pa9t1 t n ! smalle/ po9t 0 left unoccupi$ by insects4 ,to ! s\?w>d ( ! riv] ,plate1 (f ,cape ,/4 ,antonio1 & at ! di/ance ( fifty miles f l&1 sev]al l>ge dragon-flies alight$ on ! ,adv5ture frigate1 dur+ ,capta9 ,k+'s late exp$ition to ! ,/raits ( ,magellan4 ,if ! w9d abates :5 insects are ?us cross+ ! sea1 ! mo/ delicate species are n necess>ily dr[n$2 = _m c repose )\t s9k+ on ! wat]4 ,! sl5d] long-legg$ tipulae h be5 se5 /&+ on ! surface ( ! sea1 :5 driv5 out f> f our coa/1 & took w+ imm$iately on be+ approa*$4#icd ,exotic beetles are sometimes ?r[n on our %ore1 :i* revive aft] hav+ be5 long dr5*$ 9 salt wat]2 & ! p]iodical appe>ance ( "s conspicu\s butt]flies among/ u1 aft] be+ unse5 "s = five o!rs = fifty ye>s1 has be5 ascrib$1 n )\t probability1 to ! ag5cy ( ! w9ds4 ,inundations ( riv]s1 obs]ves ,kirby1 if !y happ5 at any season except 9 ! dep?s ( w9t]1 always c>ry d[n a numb] ( insects1 float+ on ! surface ( bits ( /ick1 we$s1 c42 s t :5 ! wat]s subside1 ! entomologi/ may g5]ally reap a pl5tiful h>ve/4 ,9 ! dissem9ation1 moreov]1 ( ^! m9ute be+s1 z 9 t ( plants1 ! l>g] animals play _! "p4 ,insects are1 9 numb]less in/ances1 borne along 9 ! coats ( animals1 or ! fea!rs ( birds2 & ! eggs ( "s species are capable1 l se$s1 ( resi/+ ! dige/ive p[]s ( ! /oma*1 & aft] !y are swall[$ ) h]bage1 may be eject$ aga9 unh>m$ 9 ! dung4 ,geographical ,di/ribution & ,diffusion ( ,man4 ,i h res]v$ = ! la/ "s obs]vations on ! range & diffusion ( ! human species ov] ! e>?1 & ! influ5ce ( man 9 spread+ o!r animals & plants1 especially ! t]re/rial4 ,_m naturali/s h amus$ !mselves 9 speculat+ on ! probable bir?-place ( mank9d1 ! po9t f :i*1 if we assume ! :ole human race to h desc5d$ f a s+le pair1 ! tide ( emigration mu/ orig9ally h proce$$4 ,x has be5 always a favorite conjecture1 t ?is bir?-place 0 situat$ )9 or ne> ! tropics1 :]e p]petual summ] reigns1 & :]e fruits1 h]bs1 & roots are pl5tifully suppli$ ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,! climate ( ^! regions1 x has be5 said1 is suit$ to a be+ born )\t any cov]+1 & :o _h n yet acquir$ ! arts ( build+ habitations or provid+ clo!s4 ,progress ( ,human ,population4--,! hunt] /ate1 x has be5 argu$1 :i* ,montesquieu plac$ ! fir/1 0 probably only ! second /age to :i* mank9d arriv$2 s9ce s _m arts mu/ h be5 inv5t$ to cat* a salmon1 or a de]1 t society c\ld no long] h be5 9 its infancy :5 !y came into use4#ice ,:5 regions :]e ! spontane\s fruits ( ! e>? ab\nd became ov]peopl$1 m5 w\ld naturally diffuse !mselves ov] ! neighbor+ p>ts ( ! temp]ate zone2 b a consid]able "t w\ld probably elapse be=e ?is ev5t took place2 & x is possible1 z a writ] be=e cit$ obs]ves1 t 9 ! int]val be=e ! multiplication ( _! numb]s & _! increas+ wants _h compell$ !m to emigrate1 "s arts to take animals 7 inv5t$1 b f> inf]ior to :at we see practis$ at ?is day among savages4 ,z _! habitations gradually advanc$ into ! temp]ate zone1 ! new difficulties !y _h to enc\nt] w\ld call =? by degrees ! _s ( inv5tion1 & ! probability ( su* inv5tions always rises ) ! numb] ( p involv$ 9 ! same necessity4#icf ,a di/+ui%$ mod]n writ]1 :o co9cides = ! mo/ "p 9 ! views above m5tion$1 has introduc$ "o ( ! p]sons 9 8 second dialogue1 z object+ to ! !ory ( ! human race hav+ gradually advanc$ f a savage to a civiliz$ /ate1 on ! gr\nd t ! fir/ man mu/ h inevitably be5 de/roy$ by ! elem5ts or dev\r$ by savage bea/s1 s inf9itely 8 sup]iors 9 physical =ce4#icg ,he !n cont5ds aga9/ ! difficulty "h />t$ by v>i\s argum5ts1 all ( :i* 71 p]haps1 sup]flu\s2 = if a philosoph] is pleas$ to indulge 9 conjectures on ?is subject1 :y %\ld he n assign1 z ! orig9al seat ( man1 "s "o ( ^? l>ge isl&s )9 ! tropics1 :i* are z free f l>ge bea/s ( prey z ,van ,diem5's ,l& or ,au/ralia8 ,"h man may h rema9$ = a p]iod1 peculi> to a s+le isl&1 j z "s ( ! l>ge an?ropomorph\s species are n[ limit$ to "o isl& )9 ! tropics4 ,9 su* a situation1 ! new-born race might h liv$ 9 security1 ?\gh f> m helpless ?an ! ,new ,holl& savages1 & might h f\nd abundance ( vegetable food4 ,colonies may aft]w>ds h be5 s5t =? f ?is "m c\ntry1 & !n ! peopl+ ( ! e>? may h proce$$ accord+ to ! hypo!sis be=e allud$ to4 ,to =m a probable conjecture respect+ ! c\ntry f :5ce ! e>ly civilization ( ,india 0 d]iv$1 has be5 f\nd almo/ z difficult z to det]m9e ! orig9al bir?-place ( ! human race4 ,t ! dawn ( ori5tal civilization did n arise )9 ! limits ( ! tropics1 is ! conclusion to :i* ,b>on ,william von ,humboldt has come aft] mu* pati5t rese>* into ! div]sities ( ! /ructure ( language & _! influ5ce on ! m5tal developm5t ( ! human race4 ,accord+ to him ! anci5t ,z5d c\ntry f :5ce ! spread ( k & ! arts has be5 trac$ 9 a s\?-ea/]ly direction1 lay to ! nor?-we/ ( ! upp] ,indus4#ich ,z to ! "t ( ! fir/ appe>ance ( man ^u ! e>?1 if we are to judge f ! discordance ( op9ion among/ celebrat$ *ronolog]s1 n ev5 a rude approximation has yet be5 made t[>ds det]m9+ a po9t ( s mu* int]e/4 ,! problem seems hi!rto to h baffl$ ! curiosity ( ! antiqu>y1 if possible1 m completely ?an ! fix+ on a geographical site = ! orig9al habitation ( ! ance/ors ( ! human race4 ,! ,*evali] ,buns51 9 8 elaborate & philosophical "w on ,anci5t ,egypt1#ici has satisfi$ n a few ( ! le>n$1 by an appeal to monum5tal inscriptions /ill extant1 t ! successive dyna/ies ( k+s may be trac$ back )\t a break1 to ,m5es1 & t ! date ( 8 reign w\ld correspond ) ! ye> #cfdj ,b4 ,c4 ,he supposes at ! same "t1 :at is mo/ reasonable1 t ! ,egyptian p mu/ h exi/$ = a long p]iod 7probably at lea/ = five c5turies71 9 _! e>li] & less settl$ /ate1 be=e !y rea*$ ! po9t ( civilization at :i* ,m5es consolidat$ !m into a great & unit$ empire4 ,?is w\ld c>ry u back to upw>ds ( #djjj ye>s ,b4 ,c41 or to an epo* co9cid5t ) t commonly set d[n = ! creation ( ! _w 9 accordance ) computations f\nd$ on ! comb9$ ages ( ! successive ant$iluvian patri>*s4 ,x foll[s t ! same epo* ( ,m5es is ant]ior by a great _m c5turies to ! mo/ anci5t ( ! dates usually fix$ ^u = ! ,mosaic deluge4 ,! fact t no record or tradition ( any great & ov]:elm+ flood has be5 detect$ 9 ! my?ology1 or monum5tal annals ( ! ,egyptians1 w sugge/ _m reflections to a geologi/ :o has weigh$ well ! evid5ce we possess ( a v>iety ( p>tial deluges :i* h happ5$ 9 di/ricts n free l ,egypt1 = ! la/ #cjjj ye>s1 f e>?quakes & o!r causes ( great aque\s cata/rophes4 ,! tales & leg5ds ( calamit\s floods pres]v$ 9 ,greece1 ,asia ,m9or1 ! s\!rn %ores ( ! ,baltic1 ,*9a1 ,p]u1 & ,*ili1 h1 z we h se51 be5 all ( !m h&$ d[n to u by ! inhabitants ( regions 9 :i* ! op]ation ( natural causes 9 mod]n times1 & ! recurr5ce ( a succession ( disa/r\s floods1 af=d u data = int]pret+ ! mean+ ( ! obscure traditions ( an illit]ate age4#idj ,9 8 le>n$ treatise on anci5t *ronology1 ,dr4 ,hales has select$1 f a mu* great] numb]1 a li/ ( no less ?an #abj au?ors1 all ( :om give a diff]5t p]iod = ! epo* ( ! creation ( ! _w1 ! extreme range ( diff]5ce betwe5 !m am\nt+ to no less ?an #cbfh ye>s4 ,x appe>s t ev5 among/ au?orities1 :o 9 ,engl& are g5]ally reg>d$1 z or?odox1 !re is a v>iance1 n ( ye>s or ( "o or two c5turies1 b ( upw>ds ( a mill5nium1 accord+ z !y h pref]r$ to foll[ ! ,hebrew1 or ! ,sam>itan1 or ! ,greek v]sions ( ! ,mosaic writ+s4 ,c we !n wond] t !y :o deciph] ! monum5ts ( ,egypt1 or ! geologi/ :o int]prets ! e>?'s autobiography1 %\ld arrive at views respect+ ! date ( an anci5t empire1 or ! age ( our planet1 irreconcilable ) e "o ( ^! num]\s & conflict+ *ronologies8 ,! want ( agreem5t among/ ! le>n$ 9 reg>d to ! probable date ( ! deluge ( ,noah is a s\rce ( f> great] p]plexity & confusion ?an our extreme unc]ta9ty z to ! epo* ( ! creation1--! deluge be+ a comp>atively mod]n ev5t1 f :i* ! repeopl+ ( ! e>? & ! hi/ory ( ! pres5t races ( mank9d is made to beg94 ,naturali/s h long felt t to r5d] probable ! receiv$ op9ion t all ! lead+ v>ieties ( ! human family h orig9ally sprung f a s+le pair1 7a doctr9e aga9/ :i* !re appe>s to me to be no s\nd objection17 a mu* great] lapse ( "t is requir$ = ! sl[ & gradual =mation ( races1 7su* z ! ,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 & ,negro17 ?an is embrac$ 9 any ( ! popul> sy/ems ( *ronology4 ,! exi/5ce ( two ( ^? m>k$ v>ieties above m5tion$ c be trac$ back #cjjj ye>s be=e ! pres5t "t1 or to ! pa9t+ ( pictures1 pres]v$ 9 ! tombs or on ! walls ( buri$ temples 9 ,egypt4 ,9 ^! we behold ! ,negro & ,caucasian physiognomies portray$ z fai?fully & 9 z /rong contra/ z if ! lik5esses ( ^? races _h be5 tak5 ye/]day4 ,:5 we consid] !re=e ! extreme sl[ness ( ! *anges1 :i* climate & o!r modify+ causes h produc$ 9 mod]n times1 we mu/ all[ = a va/ s]ies ( antec$5t ages1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* ! long-cont9u$ influ5ce ( simil> ext]nal circum/ances gave rise to peculi>ities1 probably increas$ 9 _m successive g5]ations1 until !y 7 fix$ by h]$it>y transmission4 ,! *>act]i/ic =ms & features ?us acquir$ by c]ta9 tribes1 may h be5 aft]w>ds diffus$ by migration f a few c5tres ov] wide cont95tal spaces4 ,! !ory1 !re=e1 t all ! races ( man h come f "o common /ock receives support f e inve/igation :i* =ces u to exp& our ideas ( ! duration ( pa/ "t1 or :i* multiplies ! numb] ( ye>s t h pass$ away s9ce ! orig9 ( man4 ,hi!rto1 geology has nei!r enl>g$ nor circumscrib$ ! human p]iod2 b simply prov$ t 9 ! hi/ory ( animat$ nature x is comp>atively mod]n1 or ! la/ ( a long s]ies ( antec$5t epo*s1 9 ea* ( :i* ! e>? has be5 successively peopl$ by di/9ct species ( animals & plants4 ,9 an e>ly /age ( society ! necessity ( hunt+ acts z a pr9ciple ( repulsion1 caus+ m5 to spread ) ! greate/ rapidity ov] a c\ntry1 until ! :ole is cov]$ ) scatt]$ settlem5ts4 ,x has be5 calculat$ t eight hundr$ acres ( hunt+-gr\nd produce only z mu* food z half an acre ( arable l&4 ,:5 ! game has be5 9 a great measure exhau/$1 & a /ate ( pa/urage succe$s1 ! sev]al hunt] tribes1 be+ already scatt]$1 may multiply 9 a %ort "t into ! greate/ numb] :i* ! pa/oral /ate is capable ( su/a9+4 ,! necessity1 says ,br&1 ?us impos$ ^u ! two savage /ates1 ( disp]s+ !mselves f> & wide ov] ! c\ntry1 af=ds a reason :y1 at a v e>ly p]iod1 ! wor/ p>ts ( ! e>? may h become inhabit$4 ,b ?is reason1 x may be said1 is only applicable 9 z f> z reg>ds ! peopl+ ( a cont9u\s cont95t2 :]eas ! smalle/ isl&s1 h[ev] remote f cont95ts1 h almo/ always be5 f\nd inhabit$ by man4 ,/4 ,hel5a1 x is true1 af=d$ an exception2 = :5 t isl& 0 discov]$ 9 #aeja1 x 0 only inhabit$ by sea-f[l1 & occasionally by seals & turtles1 & 0 cov]$ ) a =e/ ( trees & %rubs1 all ( species peculi> to x1 ) "o or two exceptions1 & :i* seem to h be5 expressly creat$ = ?is remote & insulat$ spot4#ida ,! isl&s also ( ,mauritius1 ,b\rbon1 ,pitcairns1 & ,juan ,f]n&ez1 & ^? ( ! ,galapagos ar*ipelago1 "o ( :i* is sev5ty miles long1 7 inhabit$ :5 fir/ discov]$1 &1 :at is m rem>kable ?an all1 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 :i* toge!r are #abj miles 9 l5g? by #fj 9 bread?1 & ab\nd+ 9 food fit = ! support ( man4 ,drift+ ( canoes to va/ di/ances4--,b v few ( ! num]\s coral islets & volcanoes ( ! va/ ,pacific1 capable ( su/a9+ a few families ( m51 h be5 f\nd unt5ant$2 & we h1 !re=e1 to inquire :5ce & by :at means1 if all ! memb]s ( ! great human family h _h "o common s\rce1 c\ld ^? savages h migrat$4 ,cook1 ,=/]1 & o!rs1 h rem>k$ t p>ties ( savages 9 _! canoes mu/ h (t5 lo/ _! way1 & mu/ h be5 driv5 on di/ant %ores1 :]e !y 7 =c$ to rema91 depriv$ bo? ( ! means & ( ! requisite intellig5ce = return+ to _! own c\ntry4 ,?us ,capta9 ,cook f\nd on ! isl& ( ,wateoo ?ree inhabitants ( ,otaheite1 :o _h be5 drift$ ?i!r 9 a canoe1 al?\gh ! di/ance betwe5 ! two isles is #eej miles4 ,9 #afif1 two canoes1 conta9+ ?irty p]sons1 :o _h left ,ancorso1 7 ?r[n by contr>y w9ds & /orms on ! isl& ( ,sam>1 "o ( ! ,philipp9es1 at a di/ance ( #hjj miles4 ,9 #agba1 two canoes1 "o ( :i* conta9$ tw5ty-f\r1 & ! o!r six p]sons1 m51 wom51 & *ildr51 7 drift$ f an isl& call$ ,f>roilep to ! isl& ( ,guaham1 "o ( ! ,m>ians1 a di/ance ( #bjj miles4#idb ,kotzebue1 :5 inve/igat+ ! ,coral ,isles ( ,radack1 at ! ea/]n extremity ( ! ,c>ol9e ,isles1 became acqua9t$ ) a p]son ( ! "n ( ,kadu1 :o 0 a native ( ,ulea1 an isle #aejj miles di/ant1 f :i* he _h be5 drift$ ) a p>ty4 ,kadu & ?ree ( 8 c\ntrym5 "o day left ,ulea 9 a sail+ boat1 :5 a viol5t /orm arose1 & drove !m out ( _! c\rse3 !y drift$ ab\t ! op5 sea = eight mon?s1 accord+ to _! reckon+ by ! moon1 mak+ a knot on a cord at e new moon4 ,be+ exp]t fi%]m51 !y subsi/$ entirely on ! produce ( ! sea2 & :5 ! ra9 fell1 laid 9 z mu* fre% wat] z !y _h vessels to conta9 x4 ,kadu1 says ,kotzebue1 :o 0 ! be/ div]1 frequ5tly w5t d[n to ! bottom ( ! sea1 :]e x is well kn[n t ! wat] is n s salt1 ) a cocoa-nut %ell1 ) only a small op5+4#idc ,:5 ^! un=tunate m5 rea*$ ! isles ( ,radack1 e hope & almo/ e feel+ _h di$ )9 !m2 _! sail _h long be5 de/roy$1 _! canoe _h long be5 ! sport ( w9ds & waves1 & !y 7 pick$ up by ! inhabitants ( ,aur 9 a /ate ( ins5sibility2 b by ! hospitable c>e ( ^? isl&]s !y soon recov]$1 & 7 re/or$ to p]fect heal?4#idd ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 9 8 voyage to ! ,pacific1 fell 9 ) "s natives ( ! ,coral ,isl&s1 :o _h 9 a simil> mann] be5 c>ri$ to a great di/ance f _! native c\ntry4 ,!y _h emb>k$1 to ! numb] ( #aej s\ls1 9 ?ree d\ble canoes1 f ,anaa1 or ,*a9 ,isl&1 situat$ ab\t ?ree hundr$ miles to ! ea/w>d ( ,otaheite4 ,!y 7 ov]tak5 by ! monsoon1 :i* disp]s$ ! canoes2 & aft] driv+ !m ab\t ! ocean1 left !m becalm$1 s t a great numb] ( p]sons p]i%$4 ,two ( ! canoes 7 nev] he>d (2 b ! o!r 0 drift$ f "o un9habit$ isl& to ano!r1 at ea* ( :i* ! voyag]s obta9$ a few provisions2 & at l5g?1 aft] hav+ w&]$ = a di/ance ( #fjj miles1 !y 7 f\nd & c>ri$ to _! home 9 ! ,blossom4#ide ,mr4 ,crawfurd in=ms me t !re are sev]al well-au!nticat$ acc\nts ( canoes hav+ be5 drift$ f ,sumatra to ,madagasc>1 & by su* causes a portion ( ! ,malayan language1 ) "s useful plants1 h be5 transf]r$ to t isl&1 :i* is pr9cipally peopl$ by negroes4 ,! space trav]s$ 9 "s ( ^! in/ances 0 s great1 t simil> accid5ts might suffice to transport canoes f v>i\s p>ts ( ,africa to ! %ores ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 or f ,spa9 to ! ,azores1 & !nce to ,nor? ,am]ica2 s t man1 ev5 9 a rude /ate ( society1 is liable to be scatt]$ involunt>ily by ! w9ds & waves ov] ! globe1 9 a mann] s+ul>ly analog\s to t 9 :i* _m plants & animals are diffus$4 ,we ought n1 !n1 to wond]1 t dur+ ! ages requir$ = "s tribes ( ! human race to atta9 t advanc$ /age ( civilization :i* emp[]s ! navigator to cross ! ocean 9 all directions ) security1 ! :ole e>? %\ld h become ! abode ( rude tribes ( hunt]s & fi%]s4 ,7 ! :ole ( mank9d n[ cut (f1 ) ! exception ( "o family1 inhabit+ ! old or new cont95t1 or ,au/ralia1 or ev5 "s coral islet ( ! ,pacific1 we might expect _! desc5dants1 ?\gh !y %\ld nev] become m enlight5$ ?an ! ,s\? ,sea ,isl&]s or ! ,esquimaux1 to spread 9 ! c\rse ( ages ov] ! :ole e>?1 diffus$ p>tly by ! t5d5cy ( population to increase1 9 a limit$ di/rict1 beyond ! means ( subsi/5ce1 & p>tly by ! accid5tal drift+ ( canoes by tides & curr5ts to di/ant %ores4 ,involunt>y ,influ5ce ( ,man 9 diffus+ ,animals & ,plants4 ,_m ( ! g5]al rem>ks :i* h be5 made respect+ ! influ5ce ( man 9 spread+ or 9 *eck+ ! diffusion ( plants apply equally to 8 relations ) ! animal k+dom4 ,on a future occasion ,i %all be l$ to speak ( ! in/rum5tality ( our species 9 naturaliz+ useful animals & plants 9 new regions1 :5 expla9+ my views ( ! effects :i* ! spread+ & increase ( c]ta9 species ex]t 9 ! extirpation ( o!rs4 ,at pres5t ,i %all conf9e myself to a few rem>ks on ! involunt>y aid :i* man l5ds to ! dissem9ation ( species4 ,9 ! mammif]\s class our influ5ce is *iefly display$ 9 increas+ ! numb] ( quadrup$s :i* are s]viceable to u1 & 9 ext]m9at+ or r$uc+ ! numb] ( ^? :i* are noxi\s4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 we un9t5tionally promote ! multiplication ( inimical species1 z :5 we introduc$ ! rat1 :i* 0 n indig5\s 9 ! new _w1 into all p>ts ( ,am]ica4 ,!y h be5 convey$ ov] 9 %ips1 & n[ infe/ a great multitude ( isl&s & p>ts ( t cont95t4 ,9 l mann] ! ,norway rat 7,mus decumanus7 has be5 import$ into ,engl&1 :]e x plund]s our prop]ty 9 %ips & h\ses4 ,among birds1 ! h\se sp>r[ may be cit$ z a species kn[n to h ext5d$ its range ) ! tillage ( ! soil4 ,dur+ ! la/ c5tury x has spread gradually ov] ,asiatic ,russia t[>ds ! nor? & ea/1 always foll[+ ! progress ( cultivation4 ,x made its fir/ appe>ance on ! ,irtis* 9 ,tobolsk1 soon aft] ! ,russians _h pl\gh$ ! l&4 ,x came 9 #agce up ! ,obi to ,b]es[1 & f\r ye>s aft] to ,n>yn1 ab\t fifte5 degrees ( longitude f>!r ea/4 ,9 #agaj1 x _h be5 se5 9 ! high] p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ! ,l5a1 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ,irkutzk4 ,9 all ^! places x is n[ common1 b is n yet f\nd 9 ! uncultivat$ regions ( ,kamts*atka4#idf ,! great vip] 7,f] de lance71 a species no less v5om\s ?an ! rattlesnake1 :i* n[ ravages ,m>t9ique & ,/4 ,lucia1 0 accid5tally introduc$ by man1 & exi/s 9 no o!r "p ( ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,_m p>asitic insects :i* attack our p]sons1 & "s ( :i* are suppos$ to be peculi> to our species1 h be5 c>ri$ into all p>ts ( ! e>?1 & h z high a claim z man to a univ]sal geographical di/ribution4 ,a great v>iety ( insects h be5 transport$ 9 %ips f "o c\ntry to ano!r1 especially 9 w>m] latitudes4 ,! ,european h\se-fly has be5 introduc$ 9 ?is way into all ! ,s\? ,sea ,isl&s4 ,not)/&+ ! coldness ( our climate 9 ,engl& we h be5 unable to prev5t ! cockroa* 7,blatta ori5talis7 f ent]+ & diffus+ itself 9 our ov5s & knead+ tr\ghs1 & avail+ itself ( ! artificial w>m? :i* we af=d4 ,x is well kn[n also1 t beetles1 & _m o!r k9ds ( lignip]d\s insects1 h be5 introduc$ into ,great ,brita9 9 timb]2 especially sev]al ,nor? ,am]ican species4 ,! comm]cial relations1 says ,malte-,brun#idg1 betwe5 ,france & ,india h transport$ f ! latt] c\ntry ! aphis1 :i* de/roys ! apple tree1 & two sorts ( ,neuropt]a1 ! ,lucifuga & ,flavicola1 mo/ly conf9$ to ,prov5ce & ! neighb\rhood ( ,b\rdeaux1 :]e !y dev\r ! timb] 9 ! h\ses & naval ars5als4 ,among mollusks we may m5tion ! ,t]$o navalis1 :i* is a native ( equatorial seas1 b :i*1 by adh]+ to ! bottom ( %ips1 0 transport$ to ,holl&1 :]e x has be5 mo/ de/ructive to vessels & piles4 ,! same species has also become naturaliz$ 9 ,engl&1 & o!r c\ntries enjoy+ an ext5sive comm]ce4 ,bulimus undatus1 a l& species ( consid]able size1 native ( ,jamaica & o!r ,we/ ,indian isl&s1 has be5 import$1 adh]+ to tropical timb]1 into ,liv]pool2 &1 z ,i le>n f ,mr4 ,brod]ip1 is n[ naturaliz$ 9 ! woods ne> t t[n4 ,9 all ^! & innum]able o!r in/ances we may reg>d ! involunt>y ag5cy ( man z /rictly analog\s to t ( ! inf]ior animals4 ,l !m1 we unconsci\sly contribute to ext5d or limit ! geographical range & numb]s ( c]ta9 species1 9 ob$i5ce to g5]al rules 9 ! economy ( nature1 :i* are = ! mo/ "p beyond our control4 ,,*apt] ,,xl4 ,,!ories ,,respect+ ,,! ,,orig9al ,,introduction ,,( ,,species4 ,proposal ( an hypo!sis on ?is subject--,suppos$ c5tres or foci ( creation--,:y di/9ct prov9ces ( animals & plants h n become m bl5d$ toge!r--,broc*i's speculations on ! loss ( species--,/ations ( plants & animals--,causes on :i* !y dep5d--,/ations ( plants h[ affect$ by animals--,equilibrium 9 ! numb] ( species h[ pres]v$--,peculi> efficacy ( insects 9 ?is task--,rapidity ) :i* c]ta9 insects multiply or decrease 9 numb]s--,effect ( omnivor\s animals 9 pres]v+ ! equilibrium ( species--,reciprocal influ5ce ( aquatic & t]re/rial species on ea* o!r4 ,!ory ( ,l9naeus4--,x w\ld be sup]flu\s to exam9e ! v>i\s attempts :i* 7 made to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( ! di/ribution ( species allud$ to 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 9 ! infancy ( ! sci5ces ( botany1 zoology1 & physical geography4 ,! !ories or r conjectures !n indulg$ n[ /& refut$ by a simple /atem5t ( facts2 & if ,l9naeus 7 liv+ he w\ld be ! fir/ to r5\nce ! notions :i* he promulgat$4 ,= he imag9$ ! habitable _w to h be5 = a c]ta9 "t limit$ to "o small tract1 ! only portion ( ! e>?'s surface t 0 z yet laid b>e by ! subsid5ce ( ! primaeval ocean4 ,9 ?is f]tile spot he suppos$ ! orig9als ( all ! species ( plants :i* exi/ on ?is globe to h be5 congregat$ toge!r ) ! fir/ ance/ors ( all animals & ( ! human race4 ,9 qua commode habitav]9t animalia omnia1 et vegetabilia laete g]m9av]9t4 ,9 ord] to accommodate ! v>i\s habitudes ( s _m creatures1 & to provide a div]sity ( climate suit$ to _! sev]al natures1 ! tract 9 :i* ! creation took place 0 suppos$ to h be5 situat$ 9 "s w>m region ( ! e>?1 b to h conta9$ a l(ty m\nta9 range1 on ! heights & 9 ! declivities ( :i* 7 to be f\nd all temp]atures & e climate1 f t ( ! torrid to t ( ! froz5 zone4#idh ,t !re nev] 0 a univ]sal ocean s9ce ! planet 0 inhabit$1 or1 r1 s9ce ! olde/ gr\ps ( /rata yet kn[n to conta9 organic rema9s 7 =m$1 is prov$ by ! pres5ce ( t]re/rial plants or by indications ( %ores 9 all ! old] =mations2 & if ?is conclusion 0 n e/abli%$1 yet no geologi/ c\ld d5y t1 s9ce ! fir/ small portion ( ! e>? 0 laid dry1 !re h be5 _m entire *anges 9 ! species ( plants & animals inhabit+ ! l&4 ,b1 )\t dwell+ on ! above & o!r refut$ !ories1 let u inquire :e!r "s hypo!sis _c be sub/itut$ z simple z t ( ,l9naeus1 to :i* ! ph5om5a n[ asc]ta9$ 9 reg>d to ! di/ribution bo? ( aquatic & t]re/rial species may be ref]r$4 ,! foll[+ may1 p]haps1 be reconcileable ) kn[n facts3--,ea* species may h _h its orig9 9 a s+le pair1 or individual1 :]e an individual 0 suffici5t1 & species may h be5 creat$ 9 succession at su* times & 9 su* places z to enable !m to multiply & endure = an appo9t$ p]iod1 & occupy an appo9t$ space on ! globe4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ?is !ory1 let u suppose e liv+ ?+ to be de/roy$ 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e1 bo? on ! l& & 9 ! ocean1 & p]mission to be giv5 to man to p ?is great des]t1 by transport+ into x animals & plants f ! ea/]n hemisph]e1 a /rict prohibition be+ en=c$ aga9/ introduc+ two orig9al /ocks ( ! same species4 ,n[ x is easy to %[ t ! result ( su* a mode ( coloniz+ w\ld correspond exactly1 s f> z reg>ds ! gr\p+ ( animals & plants1 ) t n[ obs]v$ ?r\gh\t ! globe4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x w\ld be necess>y = naturali/s1 be=e !y import$ species into p>ticul> localities1 to /udy att5tively ! climate & o!r physical conditions ( ea* spot4 ,x w\ld be no less requisite to introduce ! diff]5t species 9 succession1 s t ea* plant & animal might h "t & opportunity to multiply be=e ! species de/9$ to prey ^u x 0 admitt$4 ,_m h]bs & %rubs1 = example1 mu/ spread f> & wide be=e ! %eep1 ! de]1 & ! goat c\ld be all[$ to ent]1 le/ !y %\ld dev\r & annihilate ! orig9al /ocks ( _m plants1 & !n p]i% !mselves = want ( food4 ,! above-m5tion$ h]bivor\s animals 9 _! turn mu/ be p]mitt$ to make consid]able progress be=e ! entrance ( ! fir/ pair ( wolves or lions4 ,insects mu/ be all[$ to sw>m be=e ! swall[ c\ld be p]mitt$ to skim ?r\gh ! air1 & fea/ on ?\s&s at "o repa/4 ,x is evid5t t1 h[ev] equally 9 ?is case our orig9al /ocks 7 di/ribut$ ov] ! :ole surface ( l& & wat]1 !re w\ld nev]!less arise di/9ct botanical & zoological prov9ces1 = !re are a great _m natural b>ri]s :i* oppose common ob/acles to ! advance ( a v>iety ( species4 ,?us1 = example1 almo/ all ! animals & plants naturaliz$ by u1 t[>ds ! extremity ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 w\ld be unable to spread beyond a c]ta9 limit1 t[>ds ! ea/1 we/1 & s\?2 because !y w\ld be /opp$ by ! ocean1 & a few ( !m only w\ld succe$ 9 rea*+ ! cool] latitudes ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 because !y w\ld be incapable ( be>+ ! heat ( ! tropics1 ?r\gh :i* !y mu/ pass4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ages1 und\bt$ly1 exceptions w\ld arise1 & "s species might become common to ! temp]ate & pol> regions1 or bo? sides ( ! equator2 = ,i h be=e %[n t ! p[]s ( diffusion conf]r$ on "s classes are v great4 ,b we might confid5tly pr$ict t ^! exceptions w\ld nev] become s num]\s z to invalidate ! g5]al rule4 ,"s ( ! plants & animals transplant$ by u to ! coa/ ( ,*ili & ,p]u w\ld nev] be able to cross ! ,&es1 s z to rea* ! ea/]n pla9s2 nor1 = a simil> reason1 w\ld ^? fir/ e/abli%$ 9 ! ,pampas1 or ! valleys ( ! ,amazon & ! ,or9oco1 ev] arrive at ! %ores ( ! ,pacific4 ,9 ! ocean an analog\s /ate ( ?+s w\ld prevail2 = !re1 also1 climate w\ld ex]t a great influ5ce 9 limit+ ! range ( species1 & ! l& w\ld /op ! migrations ( aquatic tribes z effectually z ! sea arre/s ! disp]sion ( ! t]re/rial4 ,z c]ta9 birds1 insects1 & ! se$s ( plants1 c nev] cross ! direction ( prevail+ w9ds1 s curr5ts =m natural b>ri]s to ! dissem9ation ( _m oceanic races4 ,a l9e ( %oals may be z impassable to deep-wat] species1 z are ! ,alps & ! ,&es to plants & animals peculi> to pla9s2 :ile deep abysses may prove insup]able ob/acles to ! migrations ( ! inhabitants ( %all[ wat]s4 ,suppos$ c5tres1 or foci1 ( creation4--,x is wor?y ( obs]vation1 t "o effect ( ! introduction ( s+le pairs ( ea* species mu/ be ! conf9$ range ( c]ta9 gr\ps 9 spots1 :i*1 l small isl&s1 or solit>y inl& lakes1 h few means ( int]*ang+ _! inhabitants ) adjo9+ regions4 ,n[ ?is congregat+ 9 a small space ( _m peculi> species1 w\ld give an appe>ance ( c5tres or foci ( creation1 z !y h be5 t]m$1 z if !y 7 fav\rite po9ts :]e ! creative en]gy has be5 9 great] action ?an 9 o!rs1 & :]e ! numb]s ( peculi> organic be+s h consequ5tly become m consid]able4 ,i d n mean to call 9 "q ! s\ndness ( ! inf]5ces ( "s botani/s1 z to ! =m] exi/5ce ( c]ta9 limit$ spots :5ce species ( plants h be5 propagat$1 radiat+1 z x 71 9 all directions f a common c5tre4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i conceive ^! ph5om5a to be ! necess>y consequ5ces ( ! plan ( nature be=e sugge/$1 op]at+ dur+ ! successive mutations ( ! surface1 "s ( :i* ! geologi/ c prove to h tak5 place subsequ5tly to ! p]iod :5 _m species n[ exi/+ 7 creat$4 ,9 ord] to exemplify h[ ?is arrangem5t ( plants may h be5 produc$1 let u imag9e t1 ab\t ?ree c5turies be=e ! discov]y ( ,/4 ,hel5a 7itself ( subm>9e volcanic orig971 a multitude ( new isl&s _h be5 ?r[n up 9 ! surr\nd+ sea1 & t ^! _h ea* become clo!d ) plants emigrat+ f ,/4 ,hel5a1 9 ! same mann] z ! wild plants ( ,campania h diffus$ !mselves ov] ,monte ,nuovo4 ,:5ev] ! fir/ botani/ inve/igat$ ! new ar*ipelago1 he w\ld1 9 all probability1 f9d a diff]5t assemblage ( plants 9 ea* ( ! isl&s ( rec5t =mation2 b 9 ,/4 ,hel5a itself1 he w\ld meet ) individuals ( e species1 belong+ to all p>ts ( ! ar*ipelago1 & "s1 9 addition1 peculi> to itself1 viz41 ^? :i* _h n be5 able to obta9 a passage into any "o ( ! surr\nd+ new-=m$ l&s4 ,9 ?is case x might be truly said t ! orig9al isl& 0 ! primitive focus1 or c5tre1 ( a c]ta9 type ( vegetation2 :]eas1 9 ! surr\nd+ isl&s1 !re w\ld be a small] numb] ( species1 yet all belong+ to ! same gr\p4 ,b ?is peculi> di/ribution ( plants w\ld n w>rant ! conclusion t1 9 ! space occupi$ by ,/4 ,hel5a1 !re _h be5 a great] ex]tion ( creative p[] ?an 9 ! spaces ( equal area occupi$ by ! new adjac5t l&s2 because1 )9 ! p]iod 9 :i* ,/4 ,hel5a _h acquir$ its peculi> vegetation1 ea* ( ! spots suppos$ to be subsequ5tly conv]t$ into l& may h be5 ! bir?-place ( a great numb] ( m>9e animals & plants1 :i* may h _h "t to scatt] !mselves f> & wide ov] ! s\!rn ,atlantic4 ,:y di/9ct prov9ces n m bl5d$4--,p]haps x may be object$ to "s p>ts ( ! =ego+ tra9 ( reason+1 t dur+ ! lapse ( pa/ ages1 especially dur+ _m p>tial revolutions ( ! globe ( comp>atively mod]n date1 diff]5t zoological & botanical prov9ces ought to h become m conf\nd$ & bl5d$ toge!r--t ! di/ribution ( species approa*es too ne>ly to :at might h be5 expect$1 if animals & plants _h be5 introduc$ into ! globe :5 its physical geography _h already assum$ ! features :i* x n[ we>s2 :]eas we "k t1 9 c]ta9 di/ricts1 consid]able geographical *anges h tak5 place s9ce species id5tical ) ^? n[ 9 be+ 7 creat$4 ,broc*i's speculations on loss ( species4--,^! & _m k9dr$ topics _c be fully discuss$ until we h consid]$1 n m]ely ! g5]al laws :i* may regulate ! fir/ introduction ( species1 b ^? :i* may limit _! duration on ! e>?4 ,broc*i rem>k$1 :5 haz>d+ "s int]e/+ conjectures respect+ ! loss ( species1 t a mod]n naturali/ _h no small assurance1 :o decl>$ t individuals alone 7 capable ( de/ruction1 & t species 7 s p]petuat$ t nature c\ld n annihilate !m1 s long z ! planet la/$1 or at lea/ t no?+ less ?an ! %ock ( a comet1 or "s simil> disa/]1 c\ld put an end to _! exi/5ce4#idi ,! ,italian geologi/1 on ! contr>y1 _h satisfi$ himself t _m species ( ,te/acea1 :i* =m]ly inhabit$ ! ,m$it]ranean1 _h become ext9ct1 al?\gh a great numb] ( o!rs1 :i* _h be5 ! contempor>ies ( ^? lo/ races1 /ill surviv$4 ,he came to ! op9ion t ab\t half ! species :i* peopl$ ! wat]s :5 ! ,subap5n9e /rata 7 deposit$ _h gone out ( exi/5ce2 & 9 ?is inf]5ce he does n appe> to h be5 f> wrong4 ,b1 in/ead ( seek+ a solution ( ?is problem2 l "s o!r geologi/s ( 8 "t1 9 a viol5t & g5]al cata/rophe1 ,broc*i endeav\r$ to imag9e "s regul> & con/ant law by :i* species might be made to disappe> f ! e>? gradually & 9 succession4 ,! dea?1 he sugge/$1 ( a species might dep5d1 l t ( individuals1 on c]ta9 peculi>ities ( con/itution conf]r$ ^u !m at _! bir?2 & z ! longevity ( ! "o dep5ds on a c]ta9 =ce ( vitality1 :i*1 aft] a p]iod1 gr[s weak] & weak]1 s ! duration ( ! o!r may be gov]n$ by ! quantity ( prolific p[] be/[$ ^u ! species :i*1 aft] a season1 may decl9e 9 en]gy1 s t ! fecundity & multiplication ( individuals may be gradually less5$ f c5tury to c5tury1 until t fatal t]m arrives :5 ! embryo1 incapable ( ext5d+ & develop+ itself1 ab&ons1 almo/ at ! in/ant ( its =mation1 ! sl5d] pr9ciple ( life by :i* x 0 sc>cely animat$1--& s all dies ) x4 ,n[ we may co9cide 9 op9ion ) ! ,italian naturali/1 z to ! gradual ext9ction ( species "o aft] ano!r1 by ! op]ation ( regul> & con/ant causes1 )\t admitt+ an inh]5t pr9ciple ( det]ioration 9 _! physiological attributes4 ,we might conc$e1 t _m species are on ! decl9e1 & t ! day is n f> di/ant :5 !y w cease to exi/2 yet deem x consi/5t ) :at we "k ( ! nature ( organic be+s1 to believe t ! la/ individuals ( ea* species reta9 _! prolific p[]s 9 _! full int5sity4 ,broc*i has himself speculat$ on ! %>e :i* a *ange ( climate may h _h 9 r5d]+ ! ,m$it]ranean unfit = ! habitation ( c]ta9 ,te/acea1 :i* /ill cont9u$ to ?rive 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 & ( o!rs :i* 7 n[ only repres5t$ by analog\s =ms )9 ! tropics4 ,he mu/ also h be5 aw>e t o!r extr9sic causes1 su* z ! progress ( human population1 or ! increase ( "s "o ( ! inf]ior animals1 might gradually lead to ! extirpation ( a p>ticul> species1 al?\gh its fecundity might rema9 to ! la/ unimpair$4 ,if1 !re=e1 amid ! vicissitudes ( ! animate & inanimate _w1 !re are kn[n causes capable ( br++ ab\t ! decl9e & extirpation ( species1 x became him ?or\ghly to inve/igate ! full ext5t to :i* ^! might op]ate1 be=e he speculat$ on any cause ( s purely hypo!tical a k9d z ! dim9ution ( ! prolific virtue4 ,if x c\ld h be5 %[n t "s wild plant _h ins5sibly dw9dl$ away & di$ out1 z sometimes happ5s to cultivat$ v>ieties propagat$ by cutt+s1 ev5 ?\gh climate1 soil1 & e o!r circum/ance1 %\ld cont9ue id5tically ! same--if any animal _h p]i%$ :ile ! physical condition ( ! e>?1 & ! numb] & =ce ( its foes1 ) e o!r extr9sic cause1 rema9 unalt]$1 !n might we h "s gr\nd = suspect+ t ! infirmities ( age creep on z naturally on species z ^u individuals4 ,b1 9 ! abs5ce ( su* obs]vations1 let u turn to ano!r class ( facts1 & exam9e att5tively ! circum/ances :i* det]m9e ! /ations ( p>ticul> animals & plants1 & p]haps we %all discov]1 9 ! vicissitudes to :i* ^! /ations are expos$1 a cause fully adequate to expla9 ! ph5om5a "u consid]ation4 ,/ations ( plants & animals4--,/ations compreh5d all ! circum/ances1 :e!r relat+ to ! animate or inanimate _w1 :i* det]m9e :e!r a giv5 plant or animal c exi/ 9 a giv5 place2 s t if x be %[n t /ations c become ess5tially modifi$ by ! influ5ce ( kn[n causes1 x w foll[ t species1 z well z individuals1 are mortal4 ,e naturali/ is famili> ) ! fact1 t al?\gh 9 a p>ticul> c\ntry1 su* z ,great ,brita91 !re may be m ?an ?ree ?\s& species ( plants1 t5 ?\s& insects1 & a great v>iety 9 ea* ( ! o!r classes2 yet !re w n be m ?an a hundr$1 p]haps n half t numb]1 inhabit+ any giv5 locality4 ,!re may be no want ( space 9 ! suppos$ tract3 x may be a l>ge m\nta91 or an ext5sive moor1 or a great riv] pla91 conta9+ room en\gh = individuals ( e species 9 our isl&2 yet ! spot w be occupi$ by a few to ! exclusion ( _m1 & ^! few are enabl$1 ?r\gh\t long p]iods1 to ma9ta9 _! gr\nd successfully aga9/ e intrud]1 not)/&+ ! facilities :i* species enjoy1 by virtue ( _! p[] ( diffusion1 ( invad+ adjac5t t]ritories4 ,! pr9cipal causes :i* enable a c]ta9 assemblage ( plants ?us to ma9ta9 _! gr\nd aga9/ all o!rs dep5d1 z is well kn[n1 on ! relations betwe5 ! physiological nature ( ea* species1 & ! climate1 exposure1 soil1 & o!r physical conditions ( ! locality4 ,"s plants live only on rocks1 o!rs 9 mead[s1 a ?ird class 9 m>%es4 ,( ! latt]1 "s delight 9 a fre%-wat] morass1--o!rs 9 salt m>%es1 :]e _! roots may copi\sly absorb sal9e p>ticles4 ,"s pref] an alp9e region 9 a w>m latitude1 :]e1 dur+ ! heat ( summ]1 !y are con/antly irrigat$ by ! cool wat]s ( melt+ sn[s4 ,to o!rs loose s&1 s fatal to ! g5]ality ( species1 af=ds ! mo/ prop] /ation4 ,! ,c>ex ar5>ia & ! ,elymus ar5>ius acquire _! full vigor on a s&y dune1 obta9+ an asc5dancy ov] ! v plants :i* 9 a /iff clay w\ld imm$iately /ifle !m4 ,:]e ! soil ( a di/rict is ( s peculi> a nature t x is extremely favorable to c]ta9 species1 & agrees ill ) e o!r1 ! =m] get exclusive possession ( ! gr\nd1 &1 z 9 ! case ( hea?s1 live 9 societies4 ,9 l mann] ! bog moss 7,sphagnum7 is fully develop$ 9 peaty swamps1 & becomes1 l ! hea?1 9 ! language ( botani/s1 a social plant4 ,su* monopolies1 h[ev]1 are n common1 = !y are *eck$ by v>i\s causes4 ,n only are _m species end[$ ) equal p[]s to obta9 & keep possession ( simil> /ations1 b ea* plant1 = reasons n fully expla9$ by ! physiologi/1 has ! prop]ty ( r5d]+ ! soil :]e x has gr[n less fitt$ = ! support ( o!r individuals ( its own species1 or ev5 o!r species ( ! same family4 ,yet ! same spot1 s f> f be+ impov]i%$1 is improv$1 = plants ( ano!r family4 ,oaks1 = example1 r5d] ! soil m f]tile = ! fir tribe1 & firs prep>e ! soil = oaks4 ,e agriculturi/ feels ! =ce ( ?is law ( ! organic _w1 & regulates accord+ly ! rotation ( 8 crops4 ,equilibrium 9 ! numb] ( species1 h[ pres]v$4--,all ! plants ( a giv5 c\ntry1 says ,de ,c&olle1 9 8 usual spirit$ /yle1 are at w> "o ) ano!r4 ,! fir/ :i* e/abli% !mselves by *ance 9 a p>ticul> spot t5d1 by ! m]e occupancy ( space1 to exclude o!r species--! great] *oke ! small]2 ! longe/ liv]s replace ^? :i* la/ = a %ort] p]iod2 ! m prolific gradually make !mselves ma/]s ( ! gr\nd1 :i* species multiply+ m sl[ly w\ld o!rwise fill4 ,9 ?is cont9ual /rife x is n always ! res\rces ( ! plant itself :i* enable x to ma9ta9 or ext5d its gr\nd4 ,its success dep5ds1 9 a great measure1 on ! numb] ( its foes or allies among ! animals & plants inhabit+ ! same region4 ,?us1 = example1 a h]b :i* loves ! %ade may multiply1 if "s tree ) spread+ b\ghs & d5se foliage fl\ri% 9 ! neighborhood4 ,ano!r1 :i*1 if unassi/$1 w\ld be ov]p[]$ by ! rank gr[? ( "s h>dy competitor1 is secure because its leaves are unpalatable to cattle2 :i*1 on ! o!r h&1 annually crop d[n its antagoni/1 & r>ely suff] x to rip5 its se$4 ,(t5times we see "s h]b :i* has fl[]$ 9 ! mid/ ( a ?orny %rub1 :5 all ! o!r individuals ( ! same species1 9 ! op5 fields ar\nd1 are eat5 d[n1 & _c br+ _! se$ to maturity4 ,9 ?is case1 ! %rub has l5t 8 armor ( sp9es & prickles to protect ! def5celess h]b aga9/ ! m\?s ( ! cattle1 & ?us a few individuals :i* occupi$1 p]haps1 ! mo/ unfavorable /ation 9 reg>d to exposure1 soil1 & o!r circum/ances1 may1 nev]!less1 by ! aid ( an ally1 become ! pr9cipal s\rce :]eby ! w9ds are suppli$ ) se$s :i* p]petuate ! species ?r\gh\t ! surr\nd+ tract4 ,?us1 9 ! ,new ,=e/ 9 ,hamp%ire1 ! "y oaks :i* are n consum$ by ! de]1 or uproot$ by ! sw9e1 are indebt$ to ! holly = _! escape4 ,9 ! above examples we see "o plant %ield+ ano!r f ! attacks ( animals2 b in/ances are1 p]haps1 /ill m num]\s1 :]e "s animal def5ds a plant aga9/ ! enmity ( "s o!r subject ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,sc>cely any bea/1 obs]ves a ,sw$i% naturali/1 w t\* ! nettle1 b fifty diff]5t k9ds ( insects are f$ by x4#iej ,"s ( ^! seize ^u ! root1 o!rs ^u ! /em2 "s eat ! leaves1 o!rs dev\r ! se$s & fl[]s2 b = ?is multitude ( enemies1 ! nettle 7,urtica dioica71 :i* is n[ f\nd 9 all ! f\r qu>t]s ( ! globe1 w\ld annihilate a great numb] ( plants4 ,l9naeus tells u1 9 8 ,t\r 9 ,scania1 t goats 7 turn$ into an isl& :i* ab\nd$ ) ! ,agro/is arund9acea1 :]e !y p]i%$ by fam9e2 b horses :i* foll[$ !m grew fat on ! same plant4 ,! goat1 also1 he says1 ?rives on ! mead[-sweet & wat]-hemlock1 plants :i* are injuri\s to cattle4#iea ,ag5cy ( insects4--,e plant1 obs]ves ,wilcke1 has its prop] insect allott$ to x to curb its luxuriancy1 & to prev5t x f multiply+ to ! exclusion ( o!rs4 ,?us grass 9 mead[s sometimes fl\ri%es s z to exclude all o!r plants2 "h ! ,phala5a gram9is 7,bombyx gram471 ) h] num]\s prog5y1 f9ds a well-spread table2 !y multiply 9 imm5se numb]s1 & ! f>m]1 = "s ye>s1 lam5ts ! failure ( 8 crop2 b ! grass be+ consum$1 ! mo?s die ) hung]1 or remove to ano!r place4 ,n[ ! quantity ( grass be+ greatly dim9i%$1 ! o!r plants1 :i* 7 be=e *ok$ by x1 spr+ up1 & ! gr\nd becomes v>iegat$ ) a multitude ( diff]5t species ( fl[]s4 ,_h n nature giv5 a commission to ?is m9i/] = t purpose1 ! grass w\ld de/roy a great numb] ( species ( vegetables1 ( :i* ! equilibrium is n[ kept up4#ieb ,9 ! above passage allusion is made to ! ravages committ$ 9 #agdj1 & ! two foll[+ ye>s1 9 _m prov9ces ( ,sw$51 by a mo/ de/ructive insect4 ,! same mo? is said nev] to t\* ! foxtail grass1 s t x may be class$ z a mo/ active ally & b5efactor ( t species1 & z peculi>ly in/rum5tal 9 pres]v+ x 9 its pres5t abundance4#iec ,a discov]y ( ,rol&]1 cit$ 9 ! treatise ( ,wilcke above m5tion$1 af=ds a good illu/ration ( ! *ecks & c\nt]-*ecks :i* nature has appo9t$ to pres]ve ! balance ( p[] among species4 ,! ,phala5a /robilella has ! fir cone assign$ to x to deposit its eggs ^u2 ! "y cat]pill>s com+ out ( ! %ell consume ! cone & sup]flu\s se$2 b1 le/ ! de/ruction %\ld be too g5]al1 ! ,i*neumon /robilellae lays its eggs 9 ! cat]pill>1 ins]t+ its long tail 9 ! op5+s ( ! cone till x t\*es ! includ$ insect1 = its body is too l>ge to ent]4 ,?us x fixes its m9ute egg ^u ! cat]pill>1 :i* be+ hat*$1 de/roys x4#ied ,entomologi/s enum]ate _m p>allel cases :]e insects1 appropriat$ to c]ta9 plants1 are kept d[n by o!r insects1 & ^! aga9 by p>asites expressly appo9t$ to prey on !m4#iee ,few p]haps are 9 ! habit ( duly appreciat+ ! ext5t to :i* insects are active 9 pres]v+ ! balance ( species among plants1 & ?us regulat+ indirectly ! relative numb]s ( _m ( ! high] ord]s ( t]re/rial animals4 ,! peculi>ity ( _! ag5cy consi/s 9 _! p[] ( sudd5ly multiply+ _! numb]s to a degree :i* c\ld only be accompli%$ 9 a consid]able lapse ( "t 9 any ( ! l>g] animals1 & !n z in/antane\sly relaps+1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( any viol5t di/urb+ cause1 into _! =m] insignificance4 ,if1 = ! sake ( employ+1 on diff]5t b r>e occasions1 a p[] ( _m hundr$ horses1 we 7 "u ! necessity ( fe$+ all ^! animals at great co/ 9 ! int]vals :5 _! s]vices 7 n requir$1 we %\ld greatly admire ! inv5tion ( a ma*9e1 su* z ! /eam-eng9e1 :i* 0 capable at any mom5t ( ex]t+ ! same degree ( /r5g? )\t any consumption ( food dur+ p]iods ( inaction4 ,! same k9d ( admiration is /rongly excit$ :5 we contemplate ! p[]s ( insect life1 9 ! creation ( :i* ! ,au?or ( nature has be5 s prodigal4 ,a scanty numb] ( m9ute individuals1 to be detect$ only by c>eful rese>*1 are ready 9 a few days1 weeks1 or mon?s1 to give bir? to myriads1 :i* may repress any degree ( monopoly 9 ano!r species1 or remove nuisances1 su* z dead c>cases1 :i* might ta9t ! air4 ,b no soon] has ! de/roy+ commission be5 execut$ ?an ! gigantic p[] becomes dormant--ea* ( ! mighty ho/ soon rea*es ! t]m ( its transi5t exi/5ce1 & ! season arrives :5 ! :ole species passes naturally into ! egg1 & !nce into ! l>va & pupa /ate4 ,9 ?is def5celess condition x may be de/roy$ ei!r by ! elem5ts1 or by ! augm5tation ( "s ( its num]\s foes :i* may prey ^u x 9 ! e>ly /ages ( its trans=mation3 or x (t5 happ5s t 9 ! foll[+ ye> ! season proves unfavorable to ! hat*+ ( ! eggs or ! developm5t ( ! pupae4 ,?us ! sw>m+ myriads dep>t :i* may h cov]$ ! vegetation l ! aphides1 or d>k5$ ! air l locu/s4 ,9 almo/ e season !re are "s species :i* 9 ?is mann] put =? _! /r5g?1 & !n1 l ,milton's spirits1 :i* ?rong$ ! spaci\s hall1 r$uce to smalle/ =ms _! %apes imm5se-- ----,s ?ick ! a>y cr[d ,sw>m'd & 7 /rait5'd2 till ! signal giv51 ,behold a wond]6 !y b h[ :o seem'd ,9 bigness to surpass e>?'s giant sons1 ,n[ less ?an smalle/ dw>fs4 ,a few examples w illu/rate ! mode 9 :i* ?is =ce op]ates4 ,x is well kn[n t1 among ! c\ntless species ( ! insect creation1 "s fe$ on animal1 o!rs on vegetable matt]2 & ^u consid]+ a catalogue ( eight ?\s& ,briti% ,insects & ,ara*nidae1 ,mr4 ,kirby f\nd t ^! two divisions 7 ne>ly a c\nt]poise to ea* o!r1 ! c>nivor\s be+ some:at prepond]ant4 ,!re are also di/9ct species1 "s appo9t$ to consume liv+1 o!rs dead or putrid animal & vegetable sub/ances4 ,"o female1 ( ,musca c>n>ia1 w give bir? to tw5ty ?\s& "y2 & ! l>vae ( _m fle%-flies dev\r s mu* food 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & gr[ s quickly1 z to increase _! weight two hundr$-fold6 ,9 five days aft] be+ hat*$ !y arrive at _! full gr[? & size1 s t !re 0 gr\nd1 says ,kirby1 = ! ass]tion ( ,l9naeus1 t ?ree flies ( ,m4 vomitoria c\ld dev\r a dead horse z quickly z a lion#ief2 & ano!r ,sw$i% naturali/ rem>ks1 t s great are ! p[]s ( propagation ( a s+le species ev5 ( ! smalle/ insects1 t ea* c commit1 :5 requir$1 m ravages ?an ! elephant4#ieg ,next to locu/s1 ! aphides1 p]haps1 ex]t ! greate/ p[] ov] ! vegetable _w1 &1 l !m1 are s sometimes s num]\s z to d>k5 ! air4 ,! multiplication ( ^! little creatures is )\t p>allel1 & almo/ e plant has its peculi> species4 ,reaumur has prov$ t 9 five g5]ations "o aphis may be ! prog5itor ( #e1ijd1ijj1jjj desc5dants2 & x is suppos$ t 9 "o ye> !re may be tw5ty g5]ations4#ieh ,mr4 ,curtis obs]ves t1 z among cat]pill>s we f9d "s t are con/antly & unalt]ably atta*$ to "o or m p>ticul> species ( plants1 & o!rs t fe$ indiscrim9ately on mo/ sorts ( h]bage1 s x is precisely ) ! aphides3 "s are p>ticul>1 o!rs m g5]al fe$]s2 & z !y resemble o!r insects 9 ?is respect1 s !y d also 9 be+ m abundant 9 "s ye>s ?an 9 o!rs4#iei ,9 #agic !y 7 ! *ief1 & 9 #agih ! sole1 cause ( ! failure ( ! hops4 ,9 #agid1 a season1 almo/ unp>allel$ = dr\ght1 ! hop 0 p]fectly free f !m2 :ile peas & beans1 especially ! =m]1 suff]$ v mu* f _! depr$ations4 ,! ravages ( ! cat]pill>s ( "s ( our small] mo?s af=d a good illu/ration ( ! tempor>y increase ( a species4 ,! oak-trees ( a consid]able wood h be5 /ripp$ ( _! leaves z b>e z 9 w9t] by ! cat]pill>s ( a small gre5 mo? 7,tortrix viridana71 :i* has be5 obs]v$ ! ye> foll[+ n to ab\nd4#ifj ,! silv] ,y mo? 7,plusia gamma71 al?\gh "o ( our common species1 is n dread$ by u = its deva/ations2 b legions ( _! cat]pill>s h at times creat$ al>m 9 ,france1 z 9 #agce4 ,reaumur obs]ves t ! female mo? lays ab\t f\r hundr$ eggs2 s t if tw5ty cat]pill>s 7 di/ribut$ 9 a g>d51 & all liv$ ?r\gh ! w9t] & became mo?s 9 ! succe$+ ,may1 ! eggs laid by ^!1 if half ( !m 7 female & all f]tile1 w\ld 9 ! next g5]ation produce #hjj1jjj cat]pill>s4#ifa ,a mod]n writ]1 !re=e1 ju/ly obs]ves t1 did n ,provid5ce put causes 9 op]ation to keep !m 9 due b\nds1 ! cat]pill>s ( ?is mo? alone1 leav+ out ( consid]ation ! two ?\s& o!r ,briti% species1 might soon de/roy m ?an half ( our vegetation4#ifb ,9 ! latt] "p ( ! la/ c5tury an ant mo/ de/ructive to ! sug>-cane 7,=mica sac*>ivora71 appe>$ 9 su* inf9ite ho/s 9 ! isl& ( ,granada1 z to put a /op to ! cultivation ( t vegetable4 ,_! numb]s 7 incr$ible4 ,! plantations & roads 7 fill$ ) !m2 _m dome/ic quadrup$s1 toge!r ) rats1 mice1 & reptiles1 & ev5 birds1 p]i%$ 9 consequ5ce ( ?is plague4 ,x 0 n till #aghj t !y 7 at l5g? annihilat$ by torr5ts ( ra91 :i* accompani$ a dreadful hurricane4#ifc ,deva/ations caus$ by locu/s4--,we may conclude by m5tion+ "s in/ances ( ! deva/ations ( locu/s 9 v>i\s c\ntries4 ,among o!r p>ts ( ,africa1 ,cyr5aica has be5 at diff]5t p]iods infe/$ by myriads ( ^! creatures1 :i* h consum$ ne>ly e gre5 ?+4 ,! effect ( ! havoc committ$ by !m may be e/imat$ by ! fam9e !y occasion$4 ,/4 ,augu/9 m5tions a plague ( ?is k9d 9 ,africa1 :i* de/roy$ no less ?an #hjj1jjj m5 9 ! k+dom ( ,mass9issa alone1 & _m m ^u ! t]ritories bord]+ ^u ! sea4 ,x is also relat$1 t 9 ! ye> #eia an inf9ite army ( locu/s migrat$ f ,africa into ,italy2 &1 aft] griev\sly ravag+ ! c\ntry1 7 ca/ into ! sea1 :5 !re arose a pe/il5ce f _! /5*1 :i* c>ri$ (f ne>ly a million ( m5 & bea/s4 ,9 ! ,v5etian t]ritory1 also1 9 #agdh1 m ?an ?irty ?\s& p]sons are said to h p]i%$ 9 a fam9e occasion$ by ?is sc\rge2 & o!r in/ances are record$ ( _! deva/ations 9 ,france1 ,spa91 ,italy1 ,g]many1 c4 ,9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,russia also1 ,hung>y1 & ,pol&1 9 ,arabia & ,india1 & o!r c\ntries1 _! visitations h be5 p]iodically exp]i5c$4 ,al?\gh !y h a pref]5ce = c]ta9 plants1 yet1 :5 ^! are consum$1 !y w attack almo/ all ! rema9d]4 ,9 ! acc\nts ( ! invasion ( locu/s1 ! /atem5ts :i* appe> mo/ m>vell\s relate to ! prodigi\s mass ( matt] :i* encumb]s ! sea :]ev] !y are bl[n into x1 & ! pe/il5ce aris+ f its putrefaction4 ,_! dead bodies are said to h be51 9 "s places1 heap$ "o ^u ano!r1 to ! dep? ( f\r feet1 9 ,russia1 ,pol& & ,li?uania2 & :51 9 ,s\!rn ,africa1 !y 7 driv5 into ! sea1 by a nor?-we/ w9d1 !y =m$1 says ,b>r[1 along ! %ore1 = fifty miles1 a bank ?ree or f\r feet high4#ifd ,b :5 we consid] t =e/s are /ripp$ ( _! foliage1 & ! e>? ( its gre5 g>m5t = ?\s&s ( squ>e miles1 x may well be suppos$ t ! volume ( animal matt] produc$ may equal t ( great h]ds ( quadrup$s & flights ( l>ge birds sudd5ly precipitat$ into ! sea4 ,! occurr5ce ( su* ev5ts1 at c]ta9 int]vals1 9 hot c\ntries1 l ! sev]e w9t]s & damp summ]s return+ aft] a s]ies ( ye>s 9 ! temp]ate zone1 may affect ! proportional numb]s ( almo/ all classes ( animals & plants1 & probably prove fatal to ! exi/5ce ( _m :i* w\ld o!rwise ?rive !re2 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 ! same occurr5ces c sc>cely fail to be favorable to c]ta9 species :i*1 if depriv$ ( su* aid1 might n ma9ta9 _! gr\nd4 ,al?\gh x may usually be rem>k$ t ! extraord9>y increase ( "s "o species is imm$iately foll[$ & *eck$ by ! multiplication ( ano!r1 yet ?is does n always happ52 p>tly because _m species fe$ 9 common on ! same k9ds ( food1 & p>tly because _m k9ds ( food are (t5 consum$ indiff]5tly by "o & ! same species4 ,9 ! =m] case1 :]e a v>iety ( diff]5t animals h precisely ! same ta/e1 z1 = example1 :5 _m insectivor\s birds & reptiles dev\r alike "s p>ticul> fly or beetle1 ! unusual numb]s ( ^! insects may cause only a slight & almo/ imp]ceptible augm5tation ( ea* ( ^! species ( bird & reptile4 ,9 ! o!r in/ances1 :]e "o animal preys on o!rs ( almo/ e class1 z = example1 :]e our ,engli% buzz>ds dev\r n only small quadrup$s1 z rabbits & field-mice1 b also birds1 frogs1 liz>ds1 & insects1 ! pr(usion ( any "o ( ^! la/ may cause all su* g5]al fe$]s to subsi/ m exclusively ^u ! species ?us 9 excess1 by :i* means ! balance may be re/or$4 ,ag5cy ( omnivor\s animals4--,! numb] ( species :i* are ne>ly omnivor\s is consid]able2 & al?\gh e animal has1 p]haps1 a pr$ilection = "s "o description ( food r ?an ano!r1 yet "s are n ev5 conf9$ to "o ( ! great k+doms ( ! organic _w4 ,?us1 :5 ! raccoon ( ! ,we/ ,indies c procure nei!r f[ls1 fi%1 snails1 nor insects1 x w attack ! sug>-canes1 & dev\r v>i\s k9ds ( gra94 ,! civets1 :5 animal food is sc>ce1 ma9ta9 !mselves on fruits & roots4 ,num]\s birds1 :i* fe$ indiscrim9ately on insects & plants1 are p]haps m in/rum5tal ?an any o!r ( ! t]re/rial tribes 9 pres]v+ a con/ant equilibrium betwe5 ! relative numb]s ( diff]5t classes ( animals & vegetables4 ,if ! insects become v num]\s & dev\r ! plants1 ^! birds w imm$iately d]ive a l>g] portion ( _! subsi/5ce f insects1 j z ! ,arabians1 ,syrians1 & ,hott5tots fe$ on locu/s1 :5 ! locu/s dev\r _! crops4 ,reciprocal influ5ce ( aquatic & t]re/rial species4--,! intimate relation ( ! inhabitants ( ! wat] to ^? ( ! l&1 & ! influ5ce ex]t$ by ea* on ! relative numb] ( species1 mu/ n be ov]look$ among/ ! complicat$ causes :i* det]m9e ! exi/5ce ( animals & plants 9 c]ta9 regions4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! amphibi\s quadrup$s & reptiles prey p>tly on aquatic plants & animals1 & 9 "p on t]re/rial2 & a defici5cy ( "o k9d ( prey causes !m to h imm$iate rec\rse to ! o!r4 ,! voracity ( c]ta9 insects1 z ! dragon-fly1 = example1 is conf9$ to ! wat] dur+ "o /age ( _! trans=mations1 & 9 _! p]fect /ate to ! air4 ,innum]able wat]-birds1 bo? ( riv]s & seas1 d]ive 9 l mann] _! food indiff]5tly f ei!r elem5t2 s t ! abundance or sc>city ( prey 9 "o induces !m ei!r to =sake or m con/antly to haunt ! o!r4 ,?us an intimate connection betwe5 ! /ate ( ! animate creation 9 a lake or riv]1 & 9 ! adjo9+ dry l&1 is ma9ta9$2 or betwe5 a cont95t1 ) its lakes & riv]s1 & ! ocean4 ,x is well kn[n t _m birds migrate1 dur+ /ormy seasons1 f ! sea-%ore into ! int]ior1 9 se>* ( food2 :ile o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 urg$ by l wants1 =sake _! inl& haunts1 & live on sub/ances reject$ by ! tide4 ,! migration ( fi% into riv]s dur+ ! spawn+ season supplies ano!r l9k ( ! same k9d4 ,suppose ! salmon to be r$uc$ 9 numb]s by "s m>9e foes1 z by seals & grampuses1 ! consequ5ce mu/ (t5 be1 t 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s ! ott]s at ! di/ance ( sev]al hundr$ miles inl& w be less5$ 9 numb] f ! sc>city ( fi%4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if !re be a de>? ( food = ! "y fry ( ! salmon 9 riv]s & e/u>ies1 s t few return to ! sea1 ! s& eels & o!r m>9e species1 :i* are usually kept d[n by ! salmon1 w sw>m 9 great] pr(usion4 ,x is unnecess>y to accumulate a great] numb] ( illu/rations 9 ord] to prove t ! /ations ( diff]5t plants & animals dep5d on a great complication ( circum/ances1--on an imm5se v>iety ( relations 9 ! /ate ( ! inanimate worlds4 ,e plant requires a c]ta9 climate1 soil1 & o!r conditions1 & (t5 ! aid ( _m animals1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 its gr\nd4 ,_m animals fe$ on c]ta9 plants1 be+ (t5 re/rict$ to a small numb]1 & sometimes to "o only2 o!r memb]s ( ! animal k+dom fe$ on plant-eat+ species1 & ?us become dep5d5t on ! conditions ( ! /ations n only ( _! prey1 b ( ! plants consum$ by !m4 ,hav+ duly reflect$ on ! nature & ext5t ( ^! mutual relations 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! organic & inorganic worlds1 we may next proce$ to exam9e ! results :i* may be anticipat$ f ! fluctuations n[ cont9ually 9 progress 9 ! /ate ( ! e>?'s surface1 & 9 ! geographical di/ribution ( its liv+ productions4 ,,*apt] ,,xli4 ,,ext9ction ,,( ,,species4--,,*anges ,,9 ,,! ,,/ations ,,( ,,animals4 ,ext5sion ( ! range ( "o species alt]s ! condition ( _m o!rs--,! fir/ appe>ance ( a new species causes ! *ief di/urbance--,*anges kn[n to h result$ f ! advance ( human population--,:e!r man increases ! productive p[]s ( ! e>?--,indig5\s quadrup$s & birds extirpat$ 9 ,great ,brita9--,ext9ction ( ! dodo--,rapid propagation ( dome/ic quadrup$s 9 ,am]ica--,p[] ( ext]m9at+ species no pr]ogative ( man--,conclud+ rem>ks4 ,we h se5 t ! /ations ( animals & plants dep5d n m]ely on ! influ5ce ( ext]nal ag5ts 9 ! inanimate _w1 & ! relations ( t influ5ce to ! /ructure & habits ( ea* species1 b also on ! /ate ( ! contempor>y liv+ be+s :i* inhabit ! same "p ( ! globe4 ,9 o!r words1 ! possibility ( ! exi/5ce ( a c]ta9 species 9 a giv5 place1 or ( its ?riv+ m or less !re91 is det]m9$ n m]ely by temp]ature1 humidity1 soil1 elevation1 & o!r circum/ances ( ! l k9d2 b also by ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce1 ! abundance or sc>city1 ( a p>ticul> assemblage ( o!r plants & animals 9 ! same region4 ,if x be %[n t bo? ^! classes ( circum/ances1 :e!r relat+ to ! animate or inanimate creation1 are p]petually *ang+1 x w foll[ t species are subject to incessant vicissitudes2 & if ! result ( ^! mutations1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 be s great z mat]ially to affect ! g5]al condition ( /ations1 x w foll[ t ! successive de/ruction ( species mu/ n[ be "p ( ! regul> & con/ant ord] ( nature4 ,ext5sion ( ! range ( "o species alt]s ! condition ( ! o!rs4--,x w be desirable1 fir/1 to consid] ! effects :i* e ext5sion ( ! numb]s or geographical range ( "o species mu/ produce on ! condition ( o!rs inhabit+ ! same regions4 ,:5 ! necess>y consequ5ces ( su* ext5sions h be5 fully expla9$1 ! read] w be prep>$ to appreciate ! important influ5ce :i* slight modifications 9 ! physical geography ( ! globe may ex]t on ! condition ( organic be+s4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is cle> t :5 any region is /ock$ ) z great a v>iety ( animals & plants z ! productive p[]s ( t region w enable x to support1 ! addition ( any new species1 or ! p]man5t num]ical increase ( "o previ\sly e/abli%$1 mu/ always be att5d$ ei!r by ! local ext]m9ation or ! num]ical decrease ( "s o!r species4 ,!re may und\bt$ly be consid]able fluctuations f ye> to ye>1 & ! equilibrium may be aga9 re/or$ )\t any p]man5t alt]ation2 =1 9 p>ticul> seasons1 a great] supply ( heat1 humidity1 or o!r causes1 may augm5t ! total quantity ( vegetable produce1 9 :i* case all ! animals subsi/+ on vegetable food1 & o!rs :i* prey on !m1 may multiply )\t any "o species giv+ way3 b :il/ ! aggregate quantity ( vegetable produce rema9s unalt]$1 ! progressive increase ( "o animal or plant implies ! decl9e ( ano!r4 ,all agriculturi/s & g>d5]s are famili> ) ! fact t :5 we$s intrude !mselves into ! space appropriat$ to cultivat$ species1 ! latt] are />v$ 9 _! gr[?1 or /ifl$4 ,if we ab&on = a %ort "t a field or g>d51 a ho/ ( indig5\s plants1 ,! d>nel1 hemlock1 & rank fumitory1 p\r 9 & obta9 ! ma/]y1 extirpat+ ! exotics1 or putt+ an end to ! monopoly ( "s native plants4 ,if we inclose a p>k1 & /ock x ) z _m de] z ! h]bage w support1 we _c add %eep )\t less5+ ! numb] ( ! de]2 nor c o!r h]bivor\s species be subsequ5tly introduc$1 unless ! individuals ( ea* species 9 ! p>k become few] 9 proportion4 ,s1 if !re be an isl& :]e leop>ds are ! only bea/s ( prey1 & ! lion1 tig]1 & hya5a aft]w>ds ent]1 ! leop>ds1 if !y /& _! gr\nd1 w be r$uc$ 9 numb]4 ,if ! locu/s !n arrive & sw>m greatly1 !y may deprive a l>ge numb] ( plant-eat+ animals ( _! food1 & !reby cause a fam9e1 n only among !m1 b among ! bea/s ( prey3 c]ta9 species p]haps1 :i* _h ! weake/ foot+ 9 ! isl&1 may ?us be annihilat$4 ,we h se5 h[ _m di/9ct geographical prov9ces !re are ( aquatic & t]re/rial species1 & h[ great are ! p[]s ( migration conf]r$ on diff]5t classes1 :]eby ! inhabitants ( "o region may be enabl$ f "t to "t to invade ano!r1 & d actually s migrate & diffuse !mselves ov] new c\ntries4 ,n[1 al?\gh our k ( ! hi/ory ( ! animate creation dates f s rec5t a p]iod1 t we c sc>cely trace ! advance or decl9e ( any animal or plant1 except 9 ^? cases :]e ! influ5ce ( man has int]v5$2 yet we c easily conceive :at mu/ happ5 :5 "s new colony ( wild animals or plants ent]s a region = ! fir/ "t1 & succe$s 9 e/abli%+ itself4 ,suppos$ effects ( ! fir/ entrance ( ! pol> be> into ,icel&4--,let u consid] h[ great are ! deva/ations committ$ at c]ta9 p]iods by ! ,gre5l& be>s1 :5 !y are drift$ to ! %ores ( ,icel& 9 consid]able numb]s on ! ice4 ,^! p]iodical invasions are =midable ev5 to man2 s t :5 ! be>s arrive1 ! inhabitants collect toge!r1 & g 9 pursuit ( !m ) fire-arms--ea* native :o slays "o be+ rew>d$ by ! ,k+ ( ,d5m>k4 ,! ,danes ( old1 :5 !y l&$ 9 _! m>aud+ exp$itions ^u our coa/1 h>dly excit$ m al>m1 nor did our isl&]s mu/] m promptly = ! def5ce ( _! lives & prop]ty aga9/ ! common enemy1 ?an ! mod]n ,icel&]s aga9/ ^! =midable brutes4 ,x (t5 happ5s1 says ,h5d]son1 t ! natives are pursu$ by ! be> :5 he has be5 long at sea1 & :5 8 natural f]ocity has be5 height5$ by ! ke5ness ( hung]2 if un>m$1 x is frequ5tly by /ratagem only t !y make _! escape4#ife ,let u ca/ our ?\ghts back to ! p]iod :5 ! fir/ pol> be>s rea*$ ,icel&1 be=e x 0 coloniz$ by ! ,norwegians 9 #hgd3 we may imag9e ! break+ up ( an imm5se b>ri] ( ice l t :i*1 9 #ahaf & ! foll[+ ye>1 disappe>$ f ! ea/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 :i* x _h surr\nd$ = f\r c5turies4 ,by ! aid ( su* means ( transportation a great numb] ( ^! quadrup$s might effect a l&+ at ! same "t1 & ! havoc :i* !y w\ld make among ! species previ\sly settl$ 9 ! isl& w\ld be t]rific4 ,! de]1 foxes1 seals1 & ev5 birds1 on :i* ^! animals sometimes prey1 w\ld be soon ?9n$ d[n4 ,b ?is w\ld be a "p only1 & probably an insignificant portion1 ( ! aggregate am\nt ( *ange br\ght ab\t by ! new invad]4 ,! plants on :i* ! de] f$1 be+ less consum$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! less5$ numb]s ( t h]bivor\s species1 w\ld soon supply m food to sev]al insects1 & probably to "s t]re/rial te/acea1 s t ! latt] w\ld ga9 gr\nd4 ,! increase ( ^! w\ld furni% o!r insects & birds ) food1 s t ! numb]s ( ^! la/ w\ld be augm5t$4 ,! dim9ution ( ! seals w\ld af=d a respite to "s fi% :i* !y _h p]secut$2 & ^! fi%1 9 _! turn1 w\ld !n multiply & press ^u _! peculi> prey4 ,_m wat]-f[ls1 ! eggs & "y ( :i* are dev\r$ by foxes1 w\ld increase :5 ! foxes 7 ?9n$ d[n by ! be>s2 & ! fi% on :i* ! wat]-f[ls subsi/$ w\ld !n1 9 _! turn1 be less num]\s4 ,?us ! num]ical proportions ( a great numb] ( ! inhabitants1 bo? ( ! l& & sea1 might be p]man5tly alt]$ by ! settl+ ( "o new species 9 ! region2 & ! *anges caus$ indirectly w\ld ramify ?r\gh all classes ( ! liv+ creation1 & be almo/ endless4 ,an actual illu/ration ( :at we h "h only propos$ hypo!tically1 is 9 "s degree af=d$ by ! selection ( small isl&s by ! eid] duck = its resid5ce dur+ ! season ( incubation1 its ne/ be+ seldom if ev] f\nd on ! %ores ( ! ma9 l&1 or ev5 ( a l>ge isl&4 ,! ,icel&]s are s well aw>e ( ?is1 t !y h exp5d$ a great deal ( labor 9 =m+ artificial isl&s1 by sep>at+ f ! ma9 l& c]ta9 promontories1 jo9$ to x by n>r[ i/hmuses4 ,?is insul> position is necess>y to gu>d aga9/ ! de/ruction ( ! eggs & "y birds1 by foxes1 dogs1 & o!r animals4 ,"o ye>1 says ,hook]1 x happ5$ t1 9 ! small isl& ( ,vidoe1 adjo9+ ! coa/ ( ,icel&1 a fox got ov] ^u ! ice1 & caus$ great al>m1 z an imm5se numb] ( ducks 7 !n sitt+ on _! eggs or "y ones4 ,x 0 long be=e he 0 tak51 :i* 0 at la/1 h[ev]1 effect$ by br++ ano!r fox to ! isl&1 & fa/5+ x by a /r+ ne> ! haunt ( ! =m]1 by :i* he 0 allur$ )9 %ot ( ! hunt]4#iff ,! fir/ appe>ance ( a new species causes ! *ief di/urbance4--,x is usually ! fir/ appe>ance ( an animal or plant1 9 a region to :i* x 0 previ\sly a /rang]1 t gives rise to ! *ief alt]ation2 s9ce1 aft] a "t1 an equilibrium is aga9 e/abli%$4 ,b x mu/ require ages be=e su* a new adju/m5t ( ! relative =ces ( s _m conflict+ ag5ts c be def9itely settl$4 ,! causes 9 simultane\s action are s num]\s1 t !y admit ( an almo/ inf9ite numb] ( comb9ations2 & x is necess>y t all ^! %\ld h occurr$ once be=e ! total am\nt ( *ange1 capable ( fl[+ f any new di/urb+ =ce1 c be e/imat$4 ,?us1 = example1 suppose t once 9 two c5turies a fro/ ( unusual int5sity1 or a volcanic eruption ( great viol5ce accompani$ by floods f ! melt+ ( glaci]s1 %\ld occur 9 ,icel&2 or an epidemic disease1 fatal to ! l>g] numb] ( individuals ( "s "o species1 & n affect+ o!rs1--^!1 & a v>iety ( o!r cont+5cies1 all ( :i* may occur at once1 or at p]iods sep>at$ by diff]5t int]vals ( "t1 ought to happ5 be=e x w\ld be possible = u to decl>e :at ultimate alt]ation ! pres5ce ( any new com]1 su* z ! be> be=e m5tion$1 might occasion 9 ! animal population ( ! isle4 ,e new condition 9 ! /ate ( ! organic or inorganic creation1 a new animal or plant1 an additional sn[-clad m\nta91 any p]man5t *ange1 h[ev] slight 9 comp>ison to ! :ole1 gives rise to a new ord] ( ?+s1 & may make a mat]ial *ange 9 reg>d to "s "o or m species4 ,yet a sw>m ( locu/s1 or a fro/ ( extreme int5sity1 or an epidemic disease1 may pass away )\t any great app>5t d]angem5t2 no species may be lo/1 & all may soon recov] _! =m] relative numb]s1 because ! same sc\rges may h visit$ ! region aga9 & aga91 at prec$+ p]iods4 ,e plant t 0 incapable ( resi/+ su* a degree ( cold1 e animal :i* 0 expos$ to be entirely cut (f by an epidemic or by fam9e caus$ by ! consumption ( vegetation by ! locu/s1 may h p]i%$ already1 s t ! subsequ5t recurr5ce ( simil> cata/rophes is att5d$ only by a tempor>y *ange4 ,*anges caus$ by ,man ,we are be/ acqua9t$ ) ! mutations br\ght ab\t by ! progress ( human population1 & ! gr[? ( plants & animals favor$ by man4 ,to ^!1 !re=e1 we %\ld 9 ! fir/ in/ance turn our att5tion4 ,if we conclude1 f ! concurr5t te/imony ( hi/ory & ( ! evid5ce yield$ by geological data1 t man is1 comp>atively speak+1 ( v mod]n orig91 we mu/ at once p]ceive h[ great a revolution 9 ! /ate ( ! animate _w ! increase ( ! human race1 consid]$ m]ely z consum]s ( a c]ta9 quantity ( organic matt]1 mu/ necess>ily cause4 ,:e!r man increases ! productive p[]s ( ! e>?4--,x may p]haps1 be said1 t man has1 9 "s degree1 comp5sat$ = ! appropriation to himself ( s mu* food1 by artificially improv+ ! natural productiv5ess ( soils1 by irrigation1 manure1 & a judici\s int]mixture ( m9]al +r$i5ts convey$ f diff]5t localities4 ,b x admits ( reasonable d\bt :e!r1 ^u ! :ole1 we f]tilize or impov]i% ! l&s :i* we occupy4 ,?is ass]tion may seem />tl+ to _m2 because !y are s mu* 9 ! habit ( reg>d+ ! /]ility or productiv5ess ( l& 9 relation to ! wants ( man1 & n z reg>ds ! organic _w g5]ally4 ,x is difficult1 at fir/1 to conceive1 if a morass is conv]t$ into arable l&1 & made to yield a crop ( gra91 ev5 ( mod]ate abundance1 t we h n improv$ ! capabilities ( ! habitable surface--t we h n emp[]$ x to support a l>g] quantity ( organic life4 ,9 su* cases1 h[ev]1 a tract1 be=e ( no utility to man1 may be reclaim$1 & become ( high agricultural importance1 ?\gh x may1 nev]!less1 yield a scanti] vegetation4 ,if a lake be dra9$1 & turn$ into a mead[1 ! space w provide su/5ance to man1 & _m t]re/rial animals s]viceable to him1 b n1 p]haps1 s mu* food z x previ\sly yield$ to ! aquatic races4 ,if ! pe/if]\s ,pont9e m>%es 7 dra9$1 & cov]$ ) corn1 l ! pla9s ( ! ,po1 !y might1 p]haps1 fe$ a small] numb] ( animals ?an !y d n[2 = ^! morasses are fill$ ) h]ds ( buffaloes & sw9e1 & !y sw>m ) birds1 reptiles1 & insects4 ,! fell+ ( d5se & l(ty =e/s1 :i* cov]$1 ev5 )9 ! records ( hi/ory1 a consid]able space on ! globe1 n[ t5ant$ by civiliz$ man1 mu/ g5]ally h less5$ ! am\nt ( vegetable food ?r\gh\t ! space :]e ^! woods grew4 ,we mu/ also take into our acc\nt ! area cov]$ by t[ns1 & a /ill l>g] surface occupi$ by roads4 ,if we =ce ! soil to be> extraord9>y crops "o ye>1 we are1 p]haps1 compell$ to let x lie fall[ ! next4 ,b no?+ s mu* c\nt]balances ! f]tiliz+ effects ( human art z ! ext5sive cultivation ( =eign h]bs & %rubs1 :i*1 al?\gh !y are (t5 m nutriti\s to man1 seldom ?rive ) ! same rank luxuriance z ! native plants ( a di/rict4 ,man is1 9 tru?1 cont9ually /riv+ to dim9i% ! natural div]sity ( ! /ations ( animals & plants 9 e c\ntry1 & to r$uce !m all to a small numb] fitt$ = species ( economical use4 ,he may succe$ p]fectly 9 atta9+ 8 object1 ev5 ?\gh ! vegetation be comp>atively meagre1 & ! total am\nt ( animal life be greatly less5$4 ,spix & ,m>tius h giv5 a lively description ( ! incr$ible numb] ( insects :i* lay wa/e ! crops 9 ,brazil1 besides sw>ms ( monkeys1 flocks ( p>rots1 & o!r birds1 z well z ! paca1 ag\ti1 & wild sw9e4 ,!y describe ! torm5t :i* ! plant] & ! naturali/ suff] f ! musquitoes1 & ! deva/ation ( ! ants & blattae2 !y speak ( ! dang]s to :i* !y 7 expos$ f ! jagu>1 ! poison\s s]p5ts1 crocodiles1 scorpions1 c5tip$es1 & spid]s4 ,b ) ! increas+ population & cultivation ( ! c\ntry1 say ^! naturali/s1 ^! evils w gradually dim9i%2 :5 ! inhabitants h cut d[n ! woods1 dra9$ ! m>%es1 made roads 9 all directions1 & f\nd$ villages & t[ns1 man w1 by degrees1 triumph ov] ! rank vegetation & ! noxi\s animals1 & all ! elem5ts w second & amply recomp5se 8 activity4#ifg ,! numb] ( human be+s n[ peopl+ ! e>? is suppos$ to am\nt to eight hundr$ millions1 s t we may easily und]/& h[ great a numb] ( bea/s ( prey1 birds1 & animals ( e class1 ?is prodigi\s population mu/ h displac$1 indep5d5tly ( ! /ill m important consequ5ces :i* h foll[$ f ! d]angem5t br\ght ab\t by man 9 ! relative num]ical /r5g? ( p>ticul> species4 ,indig5\s quadrup$s & birds extirpat$ 9 ,great ,brita94--,let u make "s inquiries into ! ext5t ( ! influ5ce :i* ! progress ( society has ex]t$ dur+ ! la/ sev5 or eight c5turies1 9 alt]+ ! di/ribution ( indig5\s ,briti% animals4 ,dr4 ,flem+ has prosecut$ ?is inquiry ) 8 usual zeal & ability2 & 9 a memoir on ! subject has enum]at$ ! be/-au!nticat$ examples ( ! decrease or extirpation ( c]ta9 species dur+ a p]iod :5 our population has made ! mo/ rapid advances4 ,i %all (f] a brief outl9e ( 8 results4#ifh ,! /ag1 z well z ! fall[ de] & ! roe1 7 =m]ly s abundant 9 our isl&1 t1 accord+ to ,lesley1 f five hundr$ to a ?\s& 7 sometimes sla9 at a hunt+ mat*2 b ! native races w\ld already h be5 ext+ui%$1 _h !y n be5 c>efully pres]v$ 9 c]ta9 =e/s4 ,! ott]1 ! m>t51 & ! polecat1 7 also 9 suffici5t numb]s to be pursu$ = ! sake ( _! fur2 b !y h n[ be5 r$uc$ )9 v n>r[ b\nds4 ,! wild cat & fox h also be5 sacrific$ ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ! c\ntry1 = ! security ( ! p\ltry-y>d or ! fold4 ,badg]s h be5 expell$ f ne>ly e di/rict1 :i* at =m] p]iods !y inhabit$4 ,besides ^!1 :i* h be5 driv5 out f _! favorite haunts1 & ev]y:]e r$uc$ 9 numb]1 !re are "s :i* h be5 :olly extirpat$2 su* z ! anci5t bre$ ( indig5\s horses1 & ! wild bo>2 ( ! wild ox5 a few rema9s are /ill pres]v$ 9 "s ( ! old ,engli% p>ks4 ,! beav]1 :i* is eag]ly s\ght aft] = its fur1 _h become sc>ce at ! close ( ! n9? c5tury2 &1 by ! twelf? c5tury1 0 only to be met )1 accord+ to ,giraldus de ,b>ri1 9 "o riv] 9 ,wales1 & ano!r 9 ,scotl&4 ,! wolf1 once s mu* dread$ by our ance/ors1 is said to h ma9ta9$ its gr\nd 9 ,irel& s late z ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury 7#agaj71 ?\gh x _h be5 extirpat$ 9 ,scotl& ?irty ye>s be=e1 & 9 ,engl& at a mu* e>li] p]iod4 ,! be>1 :i*1 9 ,wales1 0 reg>d$ z a bea/ ( ! *ase equal to ! h>e or ! bo>#ifi1 only p]i%$1 z a native ( ,scotl&1 9 ! ye> #ajeg4igj ,_m native birds ( prey h also be5 ! subjects ( unremitt+ p]secution4 ,! eagles1 l>g] hawks1 & rav5s1 h disappe>$ f ! m cultivat$ di/ricts4 ,! haunts ( ! mall>d1 ! snipe1 ! r$%ank1 & ! bitt]n1 h be5 dra9$ equally ) ! summ] dwell+s ( ! lapw+ & ! curlew4 ,b ^! species /ill l+] 9 "s portion ( ! ,briti% isles2 :]eas ! l>g] cap]cailzies or wood gr\se1 =m]ly natives ( ! p9e-=e/s ( ,irel& & ,scotl&1 h be5 de/roy$ )9 ! la/ sixty ye>s4 ,! egret & ! crane1 :i* appe> to h be5 =m]ly v common 9 ,scotl&1 are n[ only occasional visitants4#iga ,! bu/>d 7,otis t>da71 obs]ves ,graves1 9 8 ,briti% ,orni?ology#igb1 0 =m]ly se5 9 ! d[ns & hea?s ( v>i\s p>ts ( our isl&1 9 flocks ( =ty or fifty birds2 :]eas x is n[ a circum/ance ( r>e occurr5ce to meet ) a s+le individual4 ,bewick also rem>ks1 t !y 7 =m]ly m common 9 ?is isl& ?an at pres5t2 !y are n[ f\nd only 9 ! op5 c\nties ( ! s\? & ea/--9 ! pla9s ( ,wilt%ire1 ,dorset%ire1 & "s p>ts ( ,york%ire4#igc ,9 ! few ye>s t h elaps$ s9ce ,bewick wrote1 ?is bird has entirely disappe>$ f ,wilt%ire & ,dorset%ire4 ,^! *anges1 x may be obs]v$1 are d]iv$ f v imp]fect memorials1 & relate only to ! l>g] & m conspicu\s animals inhabit+ a small spot on ! globe2 b !y _c fail to exalt our conception ( ! enorm\s revolutions :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( sev]al ?\s& ye>s1 ! :ole human species mu/ h effect$4 ,ext9ction ( ! dodo4--,! kang>oo & ! emu are retreat+ rapidly be=e ! progress ( colonization 9 ,au/ralia2 & x sc>cely admits ( d\bt1 t ! g5]al cultivation ( t c\ntry mu/ lead to ! extirpation ( bo?4 ,! mo/ /rik+ example ( ! loss1 ev5 )9 ! la/ two c5turies1 ( a rem>kable species1 is t ( ! dodo--a bird fir/ se5 by ! ,dut*1 :5 !y l&$ on ! ,isle ( ,france1 at t "t un9habit$1 imm$iately aft] ! discov]y ( ! passage to ! ,ea/ ,indies by ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope4 ,x 0 ( a l>ge size1 & s+ul> =m2 its w+s %ort1 l ^? ( an o/ri*1 & :olly incapable ( su/a9+ its heavy body1 ev5 = a %ort flight4 ,9 its g5]al appe>ance x diff]$ f ! o/ri*1 cass[>y1 or any kn[n bird4#igd ,_m naturali/s gave figures ( ! dodo aft] ! comm5cem5t ( ! sev5te5? c5tury2 & !re is a pa9t+ ( x 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 :i* is said to h be5 tak5 f a liv+ individual4 ,b5ea? ! pa9t+ is a leg1 9 a f9e /ate ( pres]vation1 :i* orni?ologi/s are agre$ _c belong to any o!r kn[n bird4 ,9 ! museum at ,ox=d1 also1 !re is a foot & a head 9 an imp]fect /ate4 ,9 spite ( ! mo/ active se>*1 dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 no in=mation respect+ ! dodo 0 obta9$1 & "s au?ors h gone s f> z to pret5d t x nev] exi/$2 b a great mass ( satisfactory evid5ce 9 favor ( its rec5t exi/5ce has n[ be5 collect$ by ,mr4 ,brod]ip1#ige & by ,mr4 ,/rickl& & ,dr4 ,melville4 ,mr4 ,/rickl&1 agree+ ) ,pr(essor ,re9h>dt1 ( ,cop5hag51 9 ref]r+ ! dodo to ! ,columbidae1 calls x a vulture-l frugivor\s pigeon4 ,x appe>s1 also1 t ano!r %ort-w+$ bird ( ! same ord]1 call$ ,! ,solitaire1 inhabit$ ! small isl& ( ,rodrigues1 #cjj miles ea/ ( ! ,mauritius1 & has be5 ext]m9at$ by man1 z h "o or two diff]5t b alli$ birds ( ! ,isle ( ,b\rbon4#igf ,rapid propagation ( dome/ic quadrup$s ov] ! ,am]ican cont95t4--,next to ! direct ag5cy ( man1 8 indirect influ5ce 9 multiply+ ! numb]s ( l>ge h]bivor\s quadrup$s ( dome/icat$ races may be reg>d$ z "o ( ! mo/ obvi\s causes ( ! ext]m9ation ( species4 ,on ?is1 & on sev]al o!r gr\nds1 ! introduction ( ! horse1 ox1 & o!r mammalia1 into ,am]ica1 & _! rapid propagation ov] t cont95t )9 ! la/ ?ree c5turies1 is a fact ( great importance 9 natural hi/ory4 ,! extraord9>y h]ds ( wild cattle & horses :i* ov]ran ! pla9s ( ,s\? ,am]ica sprung f a v few pairs fir/ c>ri$ ov] by ! ,spani>ds2 & !y prove t ! wide geographical range ( l>ge species 9 great cont95ts does n necess>ily imply t !y h exi/$ !re f remote p]iods4 ,humboldt obs]ves1 9 8 ,travels1 on ! au?ority ( ,azz>a1 t x is believ$ !re exi/1 9 ! ,pampas ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 twelve million c[s & ?ree million horses1 )\t compris+1 9 ?is enum]ation1 ! cattle t h no ackn[l$g$ proprietor4 ,9 ! ,llanos ( ,c>accas1 ! ri* hat]os1 or proprietors ( pa/oral f>ms1 are entirely ignorant ( ! numb] ( cattle !y possess4 ,! "y are br&$ ) a m>k peculi> to ea* h]d1 & "s ( ! mo/ weal?y own]s m>k z _m z f\rte5 ?\s& a ye>4#igg ,9 ! nor!rn pla9s1 f ! ,or9oco to ! lake ( ,m>aycabo1 ,m4 ,depons reckon$ t #a1bjj1jjj ox51 #ahj1jjj horses1 & #ij1jjj mules1 w&]$ at l>ge4#igh ,9 "s p>ts ( ! valley ( ! ,mississippi1 especially 9 ! c\ntry ( ! ,osage ,indians1 wild horses are imm5sely num]\s4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( black cattle 9 ,am]ica dates f ,columbus's second voyage to ,/4 ,dom+o4 ,!y !re multipli$ rapidly2 & t isl& pres5tly became a k9d ( nurs]y f :i* ^! animals 7 successively transport$ to v>i\s p>ts ( ! cont95tal coa/1 & f !nce into ! int]ior4 ,not)/&+ ^! num]\s exportations1 9 tw5ty-sev5 ye>s aft] ! discov]y ( ! isl&1 h]ds ( f\r ?\s& head1 z we le>n f ,ovi$o1 7 n uncommon1 & !re 7 ev5 "s t am\nt$ to eight ?\s&4 ,9 #aehg1 ! numb] ( hides export$ f ,/4 ,dom+o alone1 accord+ to ,aco/a's report1 0 #ce1ddd2 & 9 ! same ye> !re 7 export$ #fd1cej f ! ports ( ,new ,spa94 ,?is 0 9 ! sixty-fif? ye> aft] ! tak+ ( ,mexico1 previ\s to :i* ev5t ! ,spani>ds1 :o came into t c\ntry1 _h n be5 able to engage 9 any?+ else ?an w>4#igi ,e "o is aw>e t ^! animals are n[ e/abli%$ ?r\gh\t ! ,am]ican cont95t f ,canada to ! ,/raits ( ,magellan4 ,! ass has ?riv5 v g5]ally 9 ! ,new ,_w2 & we le>n f ,ulloa1 t 9 ,quito !y ran wild1 & multipli$ 9 amaz+ numb]s1 s z to become a nuisance4 ,!y graz$ toge!r 9 h]ds1 & :5 attack$ def5d$ !mselves ) _! m\?s4 ,if a horse happ5$ to /ray into ! places :]e !y f$1 !y all fell ^u him1 & did n cease bit+ & kick+ till !y left him dead4#ihj ,! fir/ hogs 7 c>ri$ to ,am]ica by ,columbus1 & e/abli%$ 9 ! ,isl& ( ,/4 ,dom+o ! ye> foll[+ its discov]y1 9 ,novemb]1 #adic4 ,9 succe$+ ye>s !y 7 introduc$ into o!r places :]e ! ,spani>ds settl$2 &1 9 ! space ( half a c5tury1 !y 7 f\nd e/abli%$ 9 ! ,new ,_w1 f ! latitude ( #be degrees nor?1 to ! #dj? degree ( s\? latitude4 ,%eep1 also1 & goats h multipli$ enorm\sly 9 ! ,new ,_w1 z h also ! cat & ! rat2 :i* la/1 z be=e /at$1 has be5 import$ un9t5tionally 9 %ips4 ,! dogs introduc$ by man :i* h at diff]5t p]iods become wild 9 ,am]ica1 hunt$ 9 packs1 l ! wolf & ! jackall1 de/roy+ n only hogs1 b ! calves & foals ( ! wild cattle & horses4 ,ulloa 9 8 voyage1 & ,buffon on ! au?ority ( old writ]s1 relate a fact :i* illu/rates v cle>ly ! pr9ciple be=e expla9$1 ( ! *eck :i* ! increase ( "o animal necess>ily (f]s to t ( ano!r4 ,! ,spani>ds _h introduc$ goats into ! ,isl& ( ,juan ,f]n&ez1 :]e !y became s prolific z to furni% ! pirates :o infe/$ ^? seas ) provisions4 ,9 ord] to cut (f ?is res\rce f ! buccane]s1 a numb] ( dogs 7 turn$ loose into ! isl&2 & s num]\s did !y become 9 _! turn1 t !y de/roy$ ! goats 9 e accessible "p1 aft] :i* ! numb] ( ! wild dogs aga9 decreas$4#iha ,increase ( re9-de] import$ into ,icel&4--,z an example ( ! rapidity ) :i* a l>ge tract may become peopl$ by ! (fspr+ ( a s+le pair ( quadrup$s1 x may be m5tion$ t 9 ! ye> #aggc ?irte5 re9-de] 7 export$ f ,norway1 only ?ree ( :i* rea*$ ,icel&4 ,^! 7 turn$ loose into ! m\nta9s ( ,guldbr+e ,syssel1 :]e !y multipli$ s greatly1 9 ! c\rse ( =ty ye>s1 t x 0 n uncommon to meet ) h]ds1 consi/+ ( f =ty to "o hundr$1 9 v>i\s di/ricts4 ,! re9-de]1 obs]ves a mod]n writ]1 is 9 ,lapl& a los] by 8 connexion ) man1 b ,icel& w be ?is creature's p>adise4 ,!re is1 9 ! int]ior1 a tract :i* ,sir4 ,g4 ,mack5zie computes at n less ?an =ty ?\s& squ>e miles1 )\t a s+le human habitation1 & almo/ entirely unkn[n to ! natives !mselves4 ,!re are no wolves3 ! ,icel&]s w keep out ! be>s2 & ! re9de]1 be+ almo/ unmole/$ by man1 w h no enemy :atev]1 unless x has br\ght ) x its own torm5t+ gad-fly4#ihb ,besides ! quadrup$s be=e enum]at$1 our dome/ic f[ls h also succe$$ 9 ! ,we/ ,indies & ,am]ica1 :]e !y h ! common f[l1 ! goose1 ! duck1 ! peacock1 ! pigeon1 & ! gu9ea-f[l4 ,z ^! 7 (t5 tak5 sudd5ly f ! temp]ate to v hot regions1 !y 7 n re>$ at fir/ )\t mu* difficulty3 b aft] a few g5]ations1 !y became famili>iz$ to ! climate1 :i*1 9 _m cases1 approa*$ mu* ne>] ?an t ( ,europe to ! temp]ature ( _! orig9al native c\ntries4 ,! fact ( s _m millions ( wild & tame individuals ( our dome/ic species1 almo/ all ( !m ! l>ge/ quadrup$s & birds1 hav+ be5 propagat$ ?r\gh\t ! new cont95t )9 ! %ort p]iod t has elaps$ s9ce ! discov]y ( ,am]ica1 :ile no appreciable improvem5t c h be5 made 9 ! productive p[]s ( t va/ cont95t1 af=ds abundant evid5ce ( ! extraord9>y *anges :i* accompany ! diffusion & progressive advancem5t ( ! human race ov] ! globe4 ,t x %\ld h rema9$ = u to witness su* mighty revolutions is a pro(1 ev5 if !re 0 no o!r evid5ce1 t ! entrance ( man into ! planet is1 comp>atively speak+1 ( extremely mod]n date1 & t ! effects ( 8 ag5cy are only beg9n+ to be felt4 ,population :i* ! globe is capable ( support+4--,a mod]n writ] has e/imat$1 t !re are 9 ,am]ica upw>ds ( f\r million squ>e miles ( useful soil1 ea* capable ( support+ #bjj p]sons2 & ne>ly six million1 ea* mile capable ( support+ #dij p]sons4#ihc ,if ?is conjecture be true1 x w foll[1 z t au?or obs]ves1 t if ! natural res\rces ( ,am]ica 7 fully develop$1 x w\ld af=d su/5ance to five times z great a numb] ( inhabitants z ! entire mass ( human be+s exi/+ at pres5t ^u ! globe4 ,! new cont95t1 he ?9ks1 ?\gh less ?an half ! size ( ! old1 conta9s an equal quantity ( useful soil1 & mu* m ?an an equal am\nt ( productive p[]4 ,be ?is z x may1 we may safely conclude t ! am\nt ( human population n[ exi/+ con/itutes b a small proportion ( t :i* ! globe is capable ( support+1 or :i* x is de/9$ to su/a9 at no di/ant p]iod1 by ! rapid progress ( society1 especially 9 ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 & c]ta9 p>ts ( ! old cont95t4 ,p[] ( ext]m9at+ species no pr]ogative ( man4--,b if we reflect t _m millions ( squ>e miles ( ! mo/ f]tile l&1 occupi$ orig9ally by a b\ndless v>iety ( animal & vegetable =ms1 h be5 already br\ght "u ! dom9ion ( man1 & compell$1 9 a great measure1 to yield n\ri%m5t to him1 & to a limit$ numb] ( plants & animals :i* he has caus$ to increase1 we mu/ at once be conv9c$1 t ! annihilation ( a multitude ( species has already be5 effect$1 & w cont9ue to g on h]eaft]1 9 c]ta9 regions1 9 a /ill m rapid ratio1 z ! colonies ( highly civiliz$ nations spread !mselves ov] unoccupi$ l&s4 ,yet1 if we wield ! sword ( ext]m9ation z we advance1 we h no reason to rep9e at ! havoc committ$1 nor to fancy1 ) ! ,scotti% poet1 t we violate ! social union ( nature2 or compla91 ) ! melan*oly ,jacques1 t we ,are m]e usurp]s1 tyrants1 & :at's worse1 ,to fright ! animals & to kill !m up ,9 _! assign'd & native dwell+-place4 ,we h only to reflect1 t 9 ?us obta9+ possession ( ! e>? by conque/1 & def5d+ our acquisitions by =ce1 we ex]cise no exclusive pr]ogative4 ,e species :i* has spread itself f a small po9t ov] a wide area mu/1 9 l mann]1 h m>k$ its progress by ! dim9ution or ! entire extirpation ( "s o!r1 & mu/ ma9ta9 its gr\nd by a successful /ruggle aga9/ ! encroa*m5ts ( o!r plants & animals4 ,t m9ute p>asitic plant1 call$ ! ru/ 9 :eat1 has1 l ! ,hessian fly1 ! locu/1 & ! aphis1 caus$ fam9es ere n[ among/ ! lords ( ! creation4 ,! mo/ insignificant & dim9utive species1 :e!r 9 ! animal or vegetable k+dom1 h ea* slaught]$ _! ?\s&s1 z !y dissem9at$ !mselves ov] ! globe1 z well z ! lion1 :5 fir/ x spread itself ov] ! tropical regions ( ,africa4 ,conclud+ rem>ks4--,al?\gh we h z yet consid]$ "o class only ( ! causes 7! organic7 by :i* species may become ext]m9at$1 yet x _c b appe> evid5t t ! cont9u$ action ( ^! alone1 ?r\gh\t myriads ( future ages1 mu/ "w an entire *ange 9 ! /ate ( ! organic creation1 n m]ely on ! cont95ts & isl&s1 :]e ! p[] ( man is *iefly ex]t$1 b 9 ! great ocean1 :]e 8 control is almo/ unkn[n4 ,! m9d is prep>$ by ! contemplation ( su* future revolutions to look = ! signs ( o!rs1 ( an analog\s nature1 9 ! monum5ts ( ! pa/4 ,in/ead ( be+ a/oni%$ at ! pro(s !re manife/$ ( endless mutations 9 ! animate _w1 !y w appe> to "o :o has ?\ght pr(\ndly on ! fluctuations n[ 9 progress1 to af=d evid5ce 9 favor ( ! uni=mity ( ! sy/em1 unless1 inde$1 we are preclud$ f speak+ ( uni=mity :5 we *>act]ize a pr9ciple ( endless v>iation4 ,,*apt] ,,xlii4 ,,ext9ction ,,( ,,species4--,,influ5ce ,,( ,,inorganic ,,causes4 ,p[]s ( diffusion indisp5sable1 t ea* species may ma9ta9 its gr\nd--,h[ *anges 9 physical geography affect ! di/ribution ( species--,rate ( ! *ange ( species due to ?is cause _c be uni=m--,e *ange 9 ! physical geography ( l>ge regions t5ds to ! ext9ction ( species--,effects ( a g5]al alt]ation ( climate on ! migration ( species--,gradual refrig]ation w\ld cause species 9 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es to become di/9ct--,elevation ( temp]ature ! rev]se--,effects on ! condition ( species :i* mu/ result f inorganic *anges inconsi/5t ) ! !ory ( transmutation4 ,p[]s ( diffusion indisp5sable1 t ea* species may ma9ta9 its gr\nd4--,hav+ %[n 9 ! la/ *apt]1 h[ consid]ably ! num]ical increase or ! ext5sion ( ! geographical range ( any "o species mu/ d]ange ! numb]s & di/ribution ( o!rs1 let u n[ direct our att5tion to ! influ5ce :i* ! inorganic causes describ$ 9 ! second book are cont9ually ex]t+ on ! habitations ( species4 ,s great is ! in/ability ( ! e>?'s surface1 t if nature 7 n cont9ually engag$ 9 ! task ( s[+ se$s & coloniz+ animals1 ! depopulation ( a c]ta9 portion ( ! habitable sea & l& w\ld 9 a few ye>s be consid]able4 ,:5ev] a riv] transports s$im5t into a lake or sea1 s z mat]ially to dim9i% its dep?1 ! aquatic animals & plants :i* delight 9 deep wat] are expell$3 ! tract1 h[ev]1 is n all[$ to rema9 useless2 b is soon peopl$ by species :i* require m light & heat1 & ?rive :]e ! wat] is %all[4 ,e addition made to ! l& by ! encroa*m5t ( ! delta ( a riv] bani%es _m subaque\s species f _! native abodes2 b ! new-=m$ pla9 is n p]mitt$ to lie unoccupi$1 be+ in/antly cov]$ ) t]re/rial vegetation4 ,! ocean dev\rs cont9u\s l9es ( sea-coa/s1 & precipitates =e/s or ri* pa/ure l& into ! waves3 b ?is space is n lo/ to ! animate creation2 = %ells & sea-we$s soon adh]e to ! new-made cliffs1 & num]\s fi% p ! *annel :i* ! curr5t has scoop$ out = itself4 ,no soon] has a volcanic isl& be5 ?r[n up ?an "s li*5s beg9 to gr[ ^u x1 & x is sometimes clo!d ) v]dure :ile smoke & a%es are /ill occasionally ?r[n f ! crat]4 ,! cocoa1 p&anus1 & mangrove take root ^u ! coral reef be=e x has fairly ris5 above ! waves4 ,! burn+ /ream ( lava t desc5ds f ,etna rolls ?r\gh ! /ately =e/1 & conv]ts to a%es e tree & h]b :i* /&s 9 its way2 b ! black /rip ( l& ?us desolat$ is cov]$ aga9 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 ) oaks1 p9es1 & *e/nuts1 z luxuriant z ^? :i* ! fi]y torr5t swept away4 ,e flood & l&slip1 e wave :i* a hurricane or e>?quake ?r[s ^u ! %ore1 e %[] ( volcanic du/ & a%es :i* buries a c\ntry f> & wide to ! dep? ( _m feet1 e advance ( ! s&-flood1 e conv]sion ( salt wat] into fre% :5 riv]s alt] _! ma9 *annel ( dis*>ge1 e p]man5t v>iation 9 ! rise or fall ( tides 9 an e/u>y--^! & c\ntless o!r causes displace1 9 ! c\rse ( a few c5turies1 c]ta9 plants & animals f /ations :i* !y previ\sly occupi$4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! ,au?or ( nature _h n be5 prodigal ( ^? num]\s contrivances1 be=e allud$ to1 = spread+ all classes ( organic be+s ov] ! e>?--if he _h n orda9$ t ! fluctuations ( ! animate & inanimate creation %\ld be 9 p]fect h>mony ) ea* o!r1 x is evid5t t consid]able spaces1 n[ ! mo/ habitable on ! globe1 w\ld soon be z devoid ( life z are ! ,alp9e sn[s1 or ! d>k abysses ( ! ocean1 or ! mov+ s&s ( ! ,sah>a4 ,! p[]s1 !n1 ( migration & diffusion conf]r$ on animals & plants are indisp5sable to enable !m to ma9ta9 _! gr\nd1 & w\ld be necess>y1 ev5 ?\gh x 7 nev] int5d$ t a species %\ld gradually ext5d its geographical range4 ,b a facility ( %ift+ _! qu>t]s be+ once giv51 x _c fail to happ5 t ! inhabitants ( "o prov9ce %\ld occasionally p5etrate into "s o!r2 s9ce ! /ronge/ ( ^? b>ri]s :i* ,i be=e describ$ z sep>at+ di/9ct regions are all liable to be ?r[n d[n1 "o aft] ! o!r1 dur+ ! vicissitudes ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,h[ *anges 9 physical ,geography affect ! di/ribution ( species4--,! numb]s & di/ribution ( p>ticul> species are affect$ 9 two ways1 by *anges 9 ! physical geography ( ! e>?3--,fir/1 ^! *anges promote or ret>d ! migrations ( species2 secondly1 !y alt] ! physical conditions ( ! localities :i* species inhabit4 ,if ! ocean %\ld gradually we> its way ?r\gh an i/hmus1 l t ( ,suez1 x w\ld op5 a passage = ! int]mixture ( ! aquatic tribes ( two seas previ\sly disjo9$1 & w\ld1 at ! same "t1 close a free communication :i* ! t]re/rial plants & animals ( two cont95ts _h be=e enjoy$4 ,^! w\ld be1 p]haps1 ! mo/ important consequ5ces1 9 reg>d to ! di/ribution ( species1 :i* w\ld result f ! brea* made by ! sea 9 su* a spot2 b !re w\ld be o!rs ( a di/9ct nature1 su* z ! conv]sion ( a c]ta9 tract ( l&1 :i* =m$ ! i/hmus1 into sea4 ,?is space1 previ\sly occupi$ by t]re/rial plants & animals1 w\ld be imm$iately deliv]$ ov] to ! aquatic2 a local revolution :i* might h happ5$ 9 innum]able o!r p>ts ( ! globe1 )\t be+ att5d$ by any alt]ation 9 ! bl5d+ toge!r ( species ( two di/9ct prov9ces4 ,rate ( *ange ( species _c be uni=m4--,?is obs]vation leads me to po9t out "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ conclusions to :i* we are l$ by ! contemplation ( ! vicissitudes ( ! inanimate _w 9 relation to ^? ( ! animate4 ,x is cle> t1 if ! ag5cy ( inorganic causes be uni=m1 z ,i h suppos$1 !y mu/ op]ate v irregul>ly on ! /ate ( organic be+s1 s t ! rate accord+ to :i* ^! w *ange 9 p>ticul> regions w n be equal 9 equal p]iods ( "t4 ,i am n ab\t to advocate ! doctr9e ( g5]al cata/rophes recurr+ at c]ta9 int]vals1 z 9 ! anci5t ,ori5tal cosmogonies1 nor d ,i d\bt t1 if v consid]able p]iods ( equal duration c\ld be comp>$ "o ) ano!r1 ! rate ( *ange 9 ! liv+1 z well z 9 ! inorganic _w1 might be ne>ly uni=m2 b if we reg>d ea* ( ! causes sep>ately1 :i* we "k to be at pres5t ! mo/ in/rum5tal 9 remodell+ ! /ate ( ! surface1 we %all f9d t we mu/ expect ea* to be 9 action = ?\s&s ( ye>s1 )\t produc+ any ext5sive alt]ations 9 ! habitable surface1 & !n to give rise1 dur+ a v brief p]iod1 to important revolutions4 ,illu/ration d]iv$ f subsid5ces4--,i %all illu/rate ?is pr9ciple by a few ( ! mo/ rem>kable examples :i* pres5t !mselves4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ c5tury1 z we h se51 a consid]able numb] ( in/ances are record$ ( ! solid surface1 :e!r cov]$ by wat] or n1 hav+ be5 p]man5tly sunk or uprais$ by subt]ranean movem5ts4 ,mo/ ( ^! convulsions are only accompani$ by tempor>y fluctuations 9 ! /ate ( limit$ di/ricts1 & a cont9u$ repetition ( ^! ev5ts = ?\s&s ( ye>s might n produce any decid$ *ange 9 ! /ate ( _m ( ^? great zoological or botanical prov9ces ( :i* ,i h sket*$ ! b\nd>ies4 ,:51 = example1 l>ge p>ts ( ! ocean & ev5 ( inl& seas are a ?\s& fa?oms or upw>ds 9 dep?1 x is a matt] ( no mom5t to ! animate creation t va/ tracts %\ld be heav$ up _m fa?oms at c]ta9 int]vals1 or %\ld subside to ! same am\nt4 ,nei!r c any mat]ial revolution be produc$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica ei!r 9 ! t]re/rial or ! m>9e plants or animals by a s]ies ( %ocks on ! coa/ ( ,*ili1 ea* ( :i*1 l t ( ,p5co1 9 #agea1 %\ld uplift ! coa/ ab\t tw5ty-five feet4 ,nor if ! gr\nd s9ks fifty feet at a "t1 z 9 ! h>bor ( ,port ,royal1 9 ,jamaica1 9 #afib1 w su* alt]ations ( level "w any g5]al fluctuations 9 ! /ate ( organic be+s inhabit+ ! ,we/ ,indian ,isl&s1 or ! ,c>ibbean ,sea4 ,x is only :5 ! subt]ranean p[]s1 by %ift+ gradually ! po9ts :]e _! pr9cipal =ce is develop$1 happ5 to /rike ^u "s p>ticul> region :]e a slight *ange ( level imm$iately affects ! di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 or ! /ate ( ! climate1 or ! b>ri]s betwe5 di/9ct gr\ps ( species ov] ext5sive areas1 t ! rate ( fluctuation becomes accel]at$1 & may1 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s or c5turies1 "w mighti] *anges ?an _h be5 exp]i5c$ 9 myriads ( antec$5t ye>s4 ,?us1 = example1 a repetition ( subsid5ces caus+ ! n>r[ i/hmus ( ,panama to s9k d[n a few hundr$ feet1 w\ld1 9 a few c5turies1 br+ ab\t a great revolution 9 ! /ate ( ! animate creation 9 ! we/]n hemisph]e4 ,?\s&s ( aquatic species w\ld pass1 = ! fir/ "t1 f ! ,c>ibbean ,sea into ! ,pacific2 & ?\s&s ( o!rs1 be=e peculi> to ! ,pacific ,ocean1 w\ld make _! way into ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 & ! ,atlantic4 ,a consid]able modification w\ld probably be occasion$ by ! same ev5t 9 ! direction or volume ( ! ,gulf /ream1 & !reby ! temp]ature ( ! sea & ! contigu\s l&s might be alt]$ z f> z ! influ5ce ( t curr5t ext5ds4 ,a *ange ( climate might ?us be produc$ 9 ! ocean f ,florida to ,spitzb]g51 & 9 _m c\ntries ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,europe1 & ,gre5l&4 ,n m]ely ! heat1 b ! quantity ( ra9 :i* falls1 w\ld be alt]$ 9 c]ta9 di/ricts1 s t _m species w\ld be exclud$ f tracts :]e !y be=e fl\ri%$3 o!rs w\ld be r$uc$ 9 numb]2 & "s w\ld ?rive m & multiply4 ,! se$s also & ! fruits ( plants w\ld no long] be drift$ 9 precisely ! same directions1 nor ! eggs ( aquatic animals2 nei!r w\ld species be any long] imp$$ 9 _! migrations t[>ds p>ticul> /ations be=e %ut out f !m by _! inability to cross ! mighty curr5t4 ,let u take ano!r example f a "p ( ! globe :i* is at pres5t liable to suff] by e>?quakes1 namely1 ! l[ s&y tract :i* int]v5es betwe5 ! sea ( ,az( & ! ,caspian4 ,if !re %\ld occur a s9k+ d[n to a trifl+ am\nt1 & su* rav9es %\ld be =m$ z might be produc$ by a few e>?quakes1 n m consid]able ?an h fall5 )9 our limit$ obs]vation dur+ ! la/ #aej ye>s1 ! wat]s ( ! ,sea ( ,az( w\ld p\r rapidly into ! ,caspian1 :i*1 accord+ to ! measurem5ts lately made by ! ,academy ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 is #hd feet bel[ ! level ( ! ,black ,sea4#ihd ,! ,sea ( ,az( w\ld imm$iately borr[ f ! ,black ,sea1 t sea aga9 f ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ! ,m$it]ranean f ! ,atlantic1 s t an inexhau/ible curr5t w\ld p\r d[n into ! l[ tracts ( ,asia bord]+ ! ,caspian1 by :i* all ! s&y salt /eppes adjac5t to t sea w\ld be inundat$4 ,an area ( sev]al ?\s& squ>e leagues1 n[ bel[ ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 w\ld be conv]t$ f l& into sea4 ,illu/ration d]iv$ f ! elevation ( l&4--,let u next imag9e a few cases ( ! elevation ( l& ( small ext5t at c]ta9 critical po9ts1 z1 = example1 9 ! %all[e/ "p ( ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt>1 :]e ! deepe/ s\nd+s f ! ,african to ! ,european side give only #bbj fa?oms4 ,9 proportion z ?is subm>9e b>ri] ( rock 0 upheav$1 ! :ole *annel w\ld be contract$ 9 wid? & dep?1 & ! volume ( wat] :i* ! curr5t con/antly fl[+ f ! ,atlantic p\rs into ! ,m$it]ranean w\ld be less5$4 ,b ! loss ( ! inl& sea by evaporation w\ld rema9 ! same2 s t be+ no long] able to draw on ! ocean = a supply suffici5t to re/ore its equilibrium1 x mu/ s9k1 & leave dry a c]ta9 portion ( l& ar\nd its bord]s4 ,! curr5t :i* n[ fl[s con/antly out ( ! ,black ,sea into ! ,m$it]ranean w\ld !n ru% 9 m rapidly1 & ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean w\ld be !reby prev5t$ f fall+ s l[2 b ! level ( ! ,black ,sea w\ld1 = ! same reason1 s9k2 s t :51 by a cont9u$ s]ies ( elevatory movem5ts1 ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt> _h become completely clos$ up1 we might expect l>ge & level s&y /eppes to surr\nd bo? ! ,black ,sea & ,m$it]ranean1 l ^? occurr+ at pres5t on ! skirts ( ! ,caspian & ! ,lake ( ,aral4 ,! geographical range ( hundr$s ( aquatic species w\ld be !reby circumscrib$1 & t ( hundr$s ( t]re/rial plants & animals ext5d$4 ,a l9e ( subm>9e volcanos cross+ ! *annel ( "s /rait1 & gradually *ok+ x up ) a%es & lava1 might produce a new b>ri] z effectually z a s]ies ( e>?quakes2 especially if !rmal spr+s1 *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 silica1 & o!r m9]al +r$i5ts1 %\ld promote ! rapid multiplication ( corals & %ells1 & cem5t !m toge!r ) solid matt] precipitat$ dur+ ! int]vals betwe5 eruptions4 ,suppose 9 ?is mann] a /oppage to be caus$ ( ! ,bahama *annel betwe5 ! bank ( t "n & ! coa/ ( ,florida4 ,?is insignificant revolution1 conf9$ to a m]e spot 9 ! bottom ( ! ocean1 w\ld1 by div]t+ ! ma9 curr5t ( ! ,gulf /ream1 give rise to ext5sive *anges 9 ! climate & di/ribution ( animals & plants inhabit+ ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,illu/ration f ! =mation ( new isl&s4--,a repetition ( elevatory movem5ts ( e>?quakes might cont9ue ov] an area z ext5sive z ,europe1 = ?\s&s ( ages1 at ! bottom ( ! ocean1 9 c]ta9 regions1 & produce no visible effects2 :]eas1 if !y %\ld op]ate 9 "s %all[ p>ts ( ! ,pacific1 amid ! coral ar*ipelagos1 !y w\ld soon give bir? to a new cont95t4 ,hundr$s ( volcanic isl&s may be ?r[n up1 & become cov]$ ) vegetation1 )\t caus+ m ?an local fluctuations 9 ! animate _w2 b if a *a9 l ! ,aleutian ar*ipelago1 or ! ,kurile ,isles1 run = a di/ance ( _m hundr$ miles1 s z to =m an almo/ un9t]rupt$ communication betwe5 two cont95ts1 or two di/ant isl&s1 ! migrations ( plants1 birds1 insects1 & ev5 ( "s quadrup$s1 may cause1 9 a %ort "t1 an extraord9>y s]ies ( revolutions t5d+ to augm5t ! range ( "s animals & plants1 & to limit t ( o!rs4 ,a new ar*ipelago might be =m$ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 ! ,bay ( ,biscay1 & a ?\s& o!r places1 & might produce less important ev5ts ?an "o rock :i* %\ld rise up betwe5 ,au/ralia & ,java1 s plac$ t w9ds & curr5ts might cause an int]*ange ( ! plants1 insects1 & birds4 ,f ! we>+ ?r\gh ( an i/hmus4--,if we turn f ! igne\s to ! aque\s ag5ts1 we f9d ! same t5d5cy to an irregul> rate ( *ange1 naturally connect$ ) ! /ricte/ uni=mity 9 ! en]gy ( ^? causes4 ,:5 ! sea1 = example1 gradually encroa*es ^u bo? sides ( a n>r[ i/hmus1 z t ( ,sleswick1 sep>at+ ! ,nor? ,sea f ! ,baltic1 :]e1 z be=e /at$1 ! cliffs on bo? ! opposite coa/s are wa/+ away#ihe1 no mat]ial alt]ation results = ?\s&s ( ye>s1 save only t !re is a progressive conv]sion ( a small /rip ( l& into wat]4 ,a few feet only1 or a few y>ds1 are annually remov$2 b if1 at la/1 ! p>tition %\ld be brok5 d[n1 & ! tides ( ! ocean %\ld ent] by a direct passage into ! inl& sea1 in/ead ( go+ by a circuit\s r\te ?r\gh ! ,cattegat1 a body ( salt wat] w\ld sweep up z f> z ! ,gulfs ( ,bo?nia & ,f9l&1 ! wat]s ( :i* are n[ bracki%1 or almo/ fre%2 & ?is revolution w\ld be att5d$ by ! local annihilation ( _m species4 ,simil> consequ5ces mu/ h result$ on a small scale1 :5 ! sea op5$ its way ?r\gh ! ,i/hmus ( ,/av]5 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1 =m+ a union betwe5 an inl& lake & ! ocean1 & op5+1 9 ! c\rse ( "o c5tury1 a %all[ /rait1 m ?an half z wide z ! n>r[e/ "p ( t :i* divides ,engl& f ,france4 ,*anges 9 physical geography :i* mu/ occasion ext9ction ( species4--,x w almo/ seem sup]flu\s1 aft] ,i h ?us trac$ ! important modifications 9 ! condition ( liv+ be+s :i* fl[ f *anges ( trifl+ ext5t1 to argue t entire revolutions might be br\ght ab\t1 if ! climate & physical geography ( ! :ole globe 7 greatly alt]$4 ,x has be5 /at$1 t species are 9 g5]al local1 "s be+ conf9$ to extremely small spots1 & dep5d+ = _! exi/5ce on a comb9ation ( causes1 :i*1 if !y are to be met ) else:]e1 occur only 9 "s v remote region4 ,h5ce x mu/ happ5 t1 :5 ! nature ( ^! localities is *ang$1 ! species w p]i%2 = x w r>ely happ5 t ! cause :i* alt]s ! "* ( ! di/rict w af=d new facilities to ! species to e/abli% itself else:]e4 ,african des]ts4--,if we attribute ! orig9 ( a great "p ( ! des]t ( ,africa to ! gradual progress ( mov+ s&s driv5 ea/w>d by ! we/]ly w9ds1 we may safely inf] t a v>iety ( species mu/ h be5 annihilat$ by ?is cause alone4 ,! s&-flood has be5 inundat+1 f "t immemorial1 "s ( ! ri* l&s on ! we/ ( ! ,nile2 & we h only to multiply ?is effect a suffici5t numb] ( times 9 ord] to und]/& h[1 9 ! lapse ( ages1 a :ole gr\p ( t]re/rial animals & plants may become ext9ct4 ,! ,african des]t1 )\t includ+ ,born\ & ,d>f\r1 ext5ds1 accord+ to ! calculation ( ,humboldt1 ov] #aid1jjj squ>e leagues2 an area ne>ly ?ree times z great z t ( ,france4 ,9 a small portion ( s va/ a space1 we may inf] f analogy t !re 7 _m peculi> species ( plants & animals :i* mu/ h be5 bani%$ by ! s&1 & _! habitations invad$ by ! camel1 & by birds & insects =m$ = ! arid s&s4 ,!re is evid5tly no?+ 9 ! nature ( ! cata/rophe to favor ! escape ( ! =m] inhabitants to "s adjo9+ prov9ce2 no?+ to weak51 9 ! bord]+ l&s1 t p[]ful b>ri] aga9/ emigration--pre-occupancy4 ,nor1 ev5 if ! exclusion ( a c]ta9 gr\p ( species f a giv5 tract 7 comp5sat$ by an ext5sion ( _! range ov] a new c\ntry1 w\ld t circum/ance t5d to ! cons]vation ( species 9 g5]al2 = ! extirpation w\ld m]ely !n be transf]r$ to ! region s invad$4 ,if x be imag9$1 = example1 t ! aborig9al quadrup$s1 birds1 & o!r animals ( ,africa1 emigrat$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! advance ( drift-s&1 & coloniz$ ,arabia1 ! indig5\s ,arabian species mu/ h giv5 way be=e !m1 & h be5 r$uc$ 9 numb] or de/roy$4 ,let u next suppose t1 9 "s c5tral or m elevat$ p>ts ( ! great ,african des]t1 ! upheav+ p[] ( subt]ranean movem5ts %\ld be ex]t$ ?r\gh\t an imm5se s]ies ( ages1 accompani$1 at c]ta9 int]vals1 by volcanic eruptions1 su* z gave rise at once1 9 #agee1 to a m\nta9 #afjj feet high1 on ! ,mexican plateau4 ,:5 ! cont9u$ repetition ( ^! ev5ts _h caus$ a m\nta9-*a91 x is obvi\s t a complete trans=mation 9 ! /ate ( ! climate w\ld be br\ght ab\t ?r\gh\t a va/ area4 ,we may imag9e ! summits ( ! new *a9 to rise s high z to be cov]$1 l ,m\nt ,atlas1 = sev]al ?\s& feet1 ) sn[1 dur+ a great "p ( ! ye>4 ,! melt+ ( ^! sn[s1 dur+ ! greate/ heat1 w\ld cause ! riv]s to swell 9 ! season :5 ! greate/ dr\ght n[ prevails2 ! wat]s1 moreov]1 d]iv$ f ?is s\rce1 w\ld always be ( l[] temp]ature ?an ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 & w\ld ?us contribute to cool ! climate4 ,dur+ ! num]\s e>?quakes & volcanic eruptions suppos$ to accompany ! gradual =mation ( ! *a91 !re w\ld be _m floods caus$ by ! bur/+ ( tempor>y lakes1 & by ! melt+ ( sn[s by lava4 ,^! inundations might deposit alluvial matt] f> & wide ov] ! orig9al s&s1 z ! c\ntry assum$ v>i$ %apes1 & 0 modifi$ aga9 & aga9 by ! mov+ p[] f bel[1 & ! aque\s erosion ( ! surface above4 ,at l5g? ! ,sah>a might be f]tiliz$1 irrigat$ by riv]s & /reamlets int]sect+ x 9 e direction1 & cov]$ by jungle & morasses2 s t ! animals & plants :i* n[ p ,nor!rn ,africa w\ld disappe>1 & ! region w\ld gradually become fitt$ = ! reception ( a population ( species p]fectly dissimil> 9 _! =ms1 habits1 & organization4 ,!re are always "s peculi> & *>act]i/ic features 9 ! physical geography ( ea* l>ge division ( ! globe2 & on ^! peculi>ities ! /ate ( animal & vegetable life is dep5d5t4 ,if1 !re=e1 we admit incessant fluctuations 9 ! physical geography1 we mu/1 at ! same "t1 conc$e ! successive ext9ction ( t]re/rial & aquatic species to be "p ( ! economy ( our sy/em4 ,:5 "s great class ( /ations is 9 excess 9 c]ta9 latitudes1 z1 = example1 9 wide savannahs1 arid s&s1 l(ty m\nta9s1 or inl& seas1 we f9d a correspond+ developm5t ( species adapt$ = su* circum/ances4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e !re is a *a9 ( va/ inl& lakes ( fre% wat]1 we f9d an extraord9>y abundance & v>iety ( aquatic birds1 fre%-wat] fi%1 te/acea1 & small amphibi\s reptiles1 fitt$ = su* a climate4 ,! great] "p ( ^! w\ld p]i% if ! lakes 7 de/roy$1--an ev5t t might be br\ght ab\t by "s ( ! lea/ ( ^? important revolutions contemplat$ 9 geology4 ,x might happ5 t no fre%-wat] lakes ( correspond+ magnitude might !n exi/ on ! globe2 or t1 if !y occurr$ else:]e1 !y might be situat$ 9 ,new ,holl&1 ,s\!rn ,africa1 ,ea/]n ,asia1 or "s region s di/ant z to be q inaccessible to ! ,nor? ,am]ican species2 or !y might be situat$ )9 ! tropics1 9 a climate un9habitable by creatures fitt$ = a temp]ate zone2 or1 f9ally1 we may presume t !y w\ld be pre-occupi$ by indig5\s tribes4 ,a vivid description has be5 giv5 by ,mr4 ,d>w9 & ,sir ,w4 ,p>i% ( ! great dr\ghts :i* h sometimes visit$ ! ,pampas ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 = ?ree or f\r ye>s 9 succession1 dur+ :i* an incr$ible numb] ( wild animals1 cattle1 horses1 & birds1 h p]i%$ f want ( food & wat]4 ,sev]al hundr$ ?\s& animals 7 dr[n$ 9 ! ,p>ana alone1 hav+ ru%$ into ! riv] to dr9k1 & be+ too mu* exhau/$ by hung] to escape4#ihf ,su* dr\ghts are (t5 att5d$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & o!r hot climates by wide-spread+ conflagrations1 caus$ by lightn+1 :i* fires ! dri$ grass & bru%-wood4 ,?us quadrup$s1 birds1 insects1 & o!r creatures1 are de/roy$ by myriads4 ,h[ _m species1 bo? ( ! animal & vegetable _w1 :i* once fl\ri%$ 9 ! c\ntry betwe5 ! valley ( ! ,p>ana & ! ,/raits ( ,magellan1 may n h be5 annihilat$1 s9ce ! fir/ dr\ght or fir/ conflagration began6 ,to pursue ?is tra9 ( reason+ f>!r is unnecess>y2 ! geologi/ has only to reflect on :at has be5 said ( ! habitations & /ations ( organic be+s 9 g5]al1 & to consid] !m 9 relation to ^? effects :i* 7 contemplat$ 9 ! second book1 z result+ f ! igne\s & aque\s causes n[ 9 action1 & he w imm$iately p]ceive t1 amid/ ! vicissitudes ( ! e>?'s surface1 species _c be immortal1 b mu/ p]i%1 "o aft] ! o!r1 l ! individuals :i* compose !m4 ,!re is no possibility ( escap+ f ?is conclusion1 )\t resort+ to "s hypo!sis z viol5t z t ( ,lam>ck1 :o imag9$1 z we h be=e se51 t species are ea* ( !m end[$ ) indef9ite p[]s ( modify+ _! organization1 9 con=mity to ! endless *anges ( circum/ances to :i* !y are expos$4 ,effects ( a g5]al ,alt]ation 9 ,climate on ! ,di/ribution ( ,species4 ,"s ( ! effects :i* mu/ att5d e g5]al alt]ation ( climate are suffici5tly peculi> to claim a sep>ate consid]ation be=e conclud+ ! pres5t *apt]4 ,i h be=e /at$ t1 dur+ seasons ( extraord9>y sev]ity1 _m nor!rn birds1 & 9 "s c\ntries _m quadrup$s1 migrate s\?w>ds4 ,if ^! cold seasons 7 to become frequ5t1 9 consequ5ce ( a gradual & g5]al refrig]ation ( ! atmosph]e1 su* migrations w\ld be m & m regul>1 until1 at l5g?1 _m animals1 n[ conf9$ to ! arctic regions1 w\ld become ! t5ants ( ! temp]ate zone2 :ile ! inhabitants ( ! temp]ate zone w\ld approa* ne>] to ! equator4 ,at ! same "t1 _m species previ\sly e/abli%$ on high m\nta9s w\ld beg9 to desc5d1 9 e latitude1 t[>ds ! middle regions2 & ^? :i* 7 conf9$ to ! flanks ( m\nta9s w\ld make _! way into ! pla9s4 ,analog\s *anges w\ld also take place 9 ! vegetable k+dom4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! heat ( ! atmosph]e be on ! increase1 ! plants & animals ( l[ gr\nds w\ld asc5d to high] levels1 ! equatorial species w\ld migrate into ! temp]ate zone1 & ^? ( ! temp]ate into ! arctic circle4 ,b al?\gh "s species might ?us be pres]v$1 e great *ange ( climate mu/ be fatal to _m :i* c f9d no place ( retreat :5 _! orig9al habitations become unfit = !m4 ,= if ! g5]al temp]ature be on ! rise1 !n !re is no cool] region :i!r ! pol> species c take refuge2 if x be on ! decl9e1 !n ! animals & plants previ\sly e/abli%$ betwe5 ! tropics h no res\rce4 ,suppose ! g5]al heat ( ! atmosph]e to increase1 s t ev5 ! arctic region became too w>m = ! musk-ox1 & re9-de]1 x is cle> t !y mu/ p]i%2 s if ! torrid zone %\ld lose s mu* ( its heat1 by ! progressive refrig]ation ( ! e>?'s surface1 z to be an unfit habitation = apes1 boas1 bamboos1 & palms1 ^! tribes ( animals & plants1 or1 at lea/2 mo/ ( ! species n[ belong+ to !m1 w\ld become ext9ct1 = !re w\ld be no w>m] latitudes = _! reception4 ,x w foll[1 !re=e1 t z (t5 z ! climates ( ! globe are pass+ f ! extreme ( heat to t ( cold--f ! summ] to ! w9t] ( ! great ye> be=e allud$ to#ihg--! migratory movem5t w be direct$ con/antly f ! poles t[>ds ! equator2 & = ?is reason ! species inhabit+ p>allel latitudes1 9 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es1 mu/ become widely diff]5t4 ,= ,i assume1 on gr\nds be=e expla9$1 t ! orig9al /ock ( ea* species is introduc$ into "o spot ( ! e>? only1 &1 consequ5tly1 no species c be at once indig5\s 9 ! arctic & ant>ctic circles4 ,b :51 on ! contr>y1 a s]ies ( *anges 9 ! physical geography ( ! globe1 or any o!r suppos$ cause1 occasions an elevation ( ! g5]al temp]ature1--:5 !re is a passage f ! w9t] to "o ( ! v]nal or summ] seasons ( ! great cycle ( climate1--!n ! ord] ( ! migratory movem5t is inv]t$4 ,! diff]5t species ( animals & plants direct _! c\rse f ! equator t[>ds ! poles2 & ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es may become peopl$ to a c]ta9 limit$ ext5t by id5tical species4 ,i say limit$1 because we _c speculate on ! entire transposition ( a gr\p ( animals & plants f tropical to pol> latitudes1 or ! rev]se1 z a probable or ev5 possible ev5t4 ,we may believe ! mean annual temp]ature ( "o zone to be transf]able to ano!r1 b we "k t ! same climate _c be s transf]r$4 ,:atev] be ! g5]al temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface1 comp>ative equability ( heat w *>act]ize ! tropical regions2 :ile great p]iodical v>iations w belong to ! temp]ate1 & /ill m to ! pol> latitudes4 ,^!1 & _m o!r peculi>ities connect$ ) heat & light1 dep5d on fix$ a/ronomical causes1 su* z ! motion ( ! e>? & its position 9 relation to ! sun1 & n on ^? fluctuations ( its surface :i* may influ5ce ! g5]al temp]ature4 ,among _m ob/acles to su* ext5sive transf]5ce ( habitations1 we mu/ n =get ! imm5se lapse ( "t requir$1 accord+ to ! hypo!sis be=e sugge/$1 to br+ ab\t a consid]able *ange 9 climate4 ,dur+ a p]iod s va/1 ! o!r cause ( extirpation1 be=e enum]at$1 w\ld ex]t s p[]ful an influ5ce z to prev5t all1 save a v few h>dy species1 f pass+ f equatorial to pol> regions1 or f ! tropics to ! pole4#ihh ,b ! p[] ( accommodation to new circum/ances is great 9 c]ta9 species1 & might enable _m to pass f "o zone to ano!r1 if ! mean annual heat ( ! atmosph]e & ! ocean 7 greatly alt]$4 ,to ! m>9e tribes1 especially1 su* a passage w\ld be possible2 = !y are less imp$$ 9 _! migrations by b>ri]s ( l&1 ?an are ! t]re/rial by ! ocean4 ,add to ?is1 t ! temp]ature ( ! ocean is mu* m uni=m ?an t ( ! atmosph]e inve/+ ! l&2 s t we may easily suppose t mo/ ( ! te/acea1 fi%1 & o!r classes1 might pass f ! equatorial into ! temp]ate regions1 if ! mean temp]ature ( ^? regions 7 transpos$1 al?\gh a second expatriation ( ^! species ( tropical orig9 into ! arctic & ant>ctic circles w\ld probably be impossible4 ,let u n[ consid] m p>ticul>ly ! effect ( vicissitudes ( climate 9 caus+ "o species to give way be=e ! increas+ numb]s ( "s o!r4 ,:5 temp]ature =ms ! b>ri] :i* arre/s ! progress ( an animal or plant 9 a p>ticul> direction1 ! individuals are few] & less vigor\s z !y approa* ! extreme conf9es ( ! geographical range ( ! species4 ,b ^! /raggl]s are ready to multiply rapidly on ! slighte/ increase or dim9ution ( heat t may be favorable to !m1 j z p>ticul> insects increase dur+ a hot summ]1 & c]ta9 plants & animals ga9 gr\nd aft] a s]ies ( cong5ial seasons4 ,9 almo/ e di/rict1 especially if x be m\nta9\s1 !re are a v>iety ( species ! limits ( ^: habitations are cont]m9\s1 "s be+ unable to proce$ f>!r )\t enc\nt]+ too mu* heat1 o!rs too mu* cold4 ,individuals1 :i* are ?us on ! bord]s ( ! regions prop] to _! respective species1 are l ! outpo/s ( ho/ile armies1 ready to pr(it by e slight *ange ( circum/ances 9 _! favor1 & to advance ^u ! gr\nd occupi$ by _! neighbors & oppon5ts4 ,! proximity ( di/9ct climates produc$ by ! inequalities ( ! e>?'s surface1 br+s species possess+ v diff]5t con/itutions into su* imm$iate contact1 t _! naturalizations are v spe$y :5ev] opportunities ( advanc+ pres5t !mselves4 ,_m insects & plants1 = example1 are common to l[ pla9s )9 ! arctic circle1 & to l(ty m\nta9s 9 ,scotl& & o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,if ! climate1 !re=e1 ( ! pol> regions 7 transf]r$ to our own latitudes1 ! species 9 "q w\ld imm$iately desc5d f ^! elevat$ /ations to ov]run ! l[ gr\nds4 ,invasions ( ?is k9d1 att5d$ by ! expulsion ( ! pre-occupants1 are almo/ in/antane\s1 because ! *ange ( temp]ature n only places ! "o species 9 a m favorable position1 b r5d]s ! o!rs sickly & almo/ incapable ( def5ce4 ,^! *anges inconsi/5t ) ! !ory ( transmutation4--,lam>ck1 :5 speculat+ on ! transmutation ( species1 suppos$ e modification 9 organization & in/9ct to be br\ght ab\t sl[ly & ins5sibly 9 an indef9ite lapse ( ages4 ,b he does n appe> to h suffici5tly consid]$ h[ mu* e alt]ation 9 ! physical condition ( ! habitable surface *anges ! relations ( a great numb] ( coexi/+ species1 & t "s ( ^! w\ld be ready in/antly to avail !mselves ( ! slighte/ *ange 9 _! favor1 & to multiply to ! injury ( o!rs4 ,ev5 if we ?\ght x possible t ! palm or ! elephant1 :i* n[ fl\ri% 9 equatorial regions1 c\ld ev] le>n to be> ! v>iable seasons ( our temp]ate zone1 or ! rigors ( an arctic w9t]1 we might ) no less confid5ce affirm1 t !y mu/ p]i% be=e !y _h "t to become habituat$ to su* new circum/ances4 ,t !y w\ld be displac$ by o!r species z (t5 z ! climate v>i$1 may be inf]r$ f ! data be=e expla9$ respect+ ! local ext]m9ation ( species produc$ by ! multiplication ( o!rs4 ,suppose ! climate ( ! highe/ "p ( ! woody zone ( ,etna to be transf]r$ to ! sea-%ore ( ! base ( ! m\nta91 no botani/ w\ld anticipate t ! olive1 lemon-tree1 & prickly pe> 7,cactus ,opuntia7 w\ld be able to cont5d ) ! oak & *e/nut1 :i* w\ld beg9 =?) to desc5d to a l[] level2 or t ^! la/ w\ld be able to /& _! gr\nd aga9/ ! p9e1 :i* w\ld also1 9 ! space ( a few ye>s1 beg9 to occupy a l[] position4 ,we might =m "s k9d ( e/imate ( ! "t :i* might be requir$ = ! migrations ( ^! plants2 :]eas we h no data = conclud+ t any numb] ( ?\s&s ( ye>s w\ld be suffici5t = "o /ep 9 ! pret5d$ metamorphosis ( "o species into ano!r1 possess+ di/9ct attributes & qualities4 ,?is argum5t is applicable n m]ely to climate1 b to any o!r cause ( mutation4 ,h[ev] sl[ly a lake may be conv]t$ into a m>%1 or a m>% into a mead[1 x is evid5t t be=e ! lacu/r9e plants c acquire ! p[] ( liv+ 9 m>%es1 or ! m>%-plants ( liv+ 9 a less humid soil1 o!r species1 already exi/+ 9 ! region1 & fitt$ = ^! sev]al /ations1 w intrude & keep possession ( ! gr\nd4 ,s1 if a tract ( salt wat] becomes fre% by pass+ ?r\gh e int]m$iate degree ( bracki%ness1 /ill ! m>9e mollusks w nev] be p]mitt$ to be gradually metamorphos$ into fluviatile species2 because long be=e any su* trans=mation c take place by sl[ & ins5sible degrees1 o!r tribes1 already =m$ to delight 9 bracki% or fre% wat]1 w avail !mselves ( ! *ange 9 ! fluid1 & w1 ea* 9 _! turn1 monopolize ! space4 ,x is idle1 !re=e1 to dispute ab\t ! ab/ract possibility ( ! conv]sion ( "o species into ano!r1 :5 !re are kn[n causes s mu* m active 9 _! nature1 :i* mu/ always int]v5e & prev5t ! actual accompli%m5t ( su* conv]sions4 ,a fa9t image ( ! c]ta9 doom ( a species less fitt$ to /ruggle ) "s new condition 9 a region :i* x previ\sly inhabit$1 & :]e x has to cont5d ) a m vigor\s species1 is pres5t$ by ! extirpation ( savage tribes ( m5 by ! advanc+ colony ( "s civiliz$ nation4 ,9 ?is case ! conte/ is m]ely betwe5 two diff]5t races--two v>ieties1 moreov]1 ( a species :i* exce$s all o!rs 9 its aptitude to accommodate its habits to ! mo/ extraord9>y v>iations ( circum/ances4 ,yet few future ev5ts are m c]ta9 ?an ! spe$y ext]m9ation ( ! ,indians ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ! savages ( ,new ,holl& 9 ! c\rse ( a few c5turies1 :5 ^! tribes w be rememb]$ only 9 poetry or hi/ory4 ,conclud+ rem>ks4--,we (t5 he> a/oni%m5t express$ at ! disappe>ance f ! e>? 9 times comp>atively mod]n ( _m small z well z l>ge animals1 ! rema9s ( :i* h be5 f\nd 9 a fossil /ate1 "u circum/ances imply+ t nei!r any great geographical revolution1 nor ! ext]m9at+ influ5ce ( man has int]v5$ to acc\nt = _! ext9ction4 ,b 9 all su* cases we %\ld inquire :e!r we are suffici5tly acqua9t$ ) ! num]\s & complicat$ conditions on :i* ! p]petuation ( ea* species dep5ds1 to entitle u to wond] if x %\ld be sudd5ly cut (f4 ,mr4 ,d>w91 :5 call+ att5tion to ! fact t ! horse1 mega!rium1 megalonyx1 & _m contempor>y ,mammalia1 _h p]i%$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica aft] t cont95t _h acquir$ its pres5t configuration1 & :51 if we may judge by ! ,te/acea1 ! climate v ne>ly resembl$ ! pres5t1 obs]ves1 t 9 ! liv+ creation "o species is (t5 extremely r>e 9 a giv5 region1 :ile ano!r ( ! same g5us & ) closely alli$ habits is exce$+ly common4 ,a zoologi/ famili> ) su* ph5om5a1 if ask$ to expla9 !m1 usually replies1 t "s slight diff]5ce 9 climate1 food1 or ! numb] ( its enemies1 mu/ det]m9e ! relative /r5g? ( ! two species 9 "q1 al?\gh we may be unable to po9t out ! precise mann] ( ! action ( ! *eck4 ,we are1 !re=e1 driv5 to ! conclusion1 t causes g5]ally q inappreciable by u det]m9e :e!r a giv5 species %all be abundant or scanty 9 numb]s4 ,:y1 !n1 %\ld we feel a/oni%m5t if ! r>ity is occasionally c>ri$ a /ep f>!r1--to ext9ction8#ihi ,,*apt] ,,xliii4 ,,ext9ction ,,& ,,creation ,,( ,,species4 ,!ory ( ! successive ext9ction ( species consi/5t ) a limit$ geographical di/ribution--,op9ions ( botani/s respect+ ! c5tres f :i* plants h be5 diffus$--,:e!r !re are gr\nds = inf]r+ t ! loss1 f "t to "t1 ( c]ta9 animals & plants1 is comp5sat$ by ! introduction ( new species8--,:e!r any evid5ce ( su* new creations c\ld be expect$ )9 ! hi/orical era8--,! "q :e!r ! exi/+ species h be5 creat$ 9 succession mu/ be decid$ by geological monum5ts4 ,successive ,ext9ction ( ,species consi/5t ) _! limit$ ,geographical ,di/ribution4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ,i h po9t$ out ! /rict dep5d5ce ( ea* species ( animal & plant on c]ta9 physical conditions 9 ! /ate ( ! e>?'s surface1 & on ! numb] & attributes ( o!r organic be+s inhabit+ ! same region4 ,i h also endeavor$ to %[ t all ^! conditions are 9 a /ate ( cont9ual fluctuation1 ! igne\s & aque\s ag5ts remodell+1 f "t to "t1 ! physical geography ( ! globe1 & ! migrations ( species caus+ new relations to spr+ up successively betwe5 diff]5t organic be+s4 ,i h d$uc$ z a coroll>y1 t ! species exi/+ at any p>ticul> p]iod1 mu/1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 become ext9ct "o aft] ! o!r4 ,!y mu/ die out1 to borr[ an emphatical expression f ,buffon1 because ,"t fights aga9/ !m4 ,if ! views :i* ,i h tak5 are j1 !re w be no difficulty 9 expla9+ :y ! habitations ( s _m species are n[ re/ra9$ )9 exce$+ly n>r[ limits4 ,e local revolution1 su* z ^? contemplat$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 t5ds to circumscribe ! range ( "s species1 :ile x enl>ges t ( o!rs2 & if we are l$ to inf] t new species orig9ate 9 "o spot only1 ea* mu/ require "t to diffuse itself ov] a wide area4 ,x w foll[1 !re=e1 f ! adoption ( ?is hypo!sis1 t ! rec5t orig9 ( "s species1 & ! high antiquity ( o!rs1 are equally consi/5t ) ! g5]al fact ( _! limit$ di/ribution2 "s be+ local1 because !y h n exi/$ long en\gh to admit ( _! wide dissem9ation2 o!rs1 because circum/ances 9 ! animate or inanimate _w h occurr$ to re/rict ! range :i* !y may once h obta9$4 ,z a g5]al rule1 h[ev]1 species1 common to _m di/ant prov9ces1 or ^? n[ f\nd to inhabit v di/ant p>ts ( ! globe1 are to be reg>d$ z ! mo/ anci5t4 ,num]ically speak+1 !y may n p]haps be l>gely repres5t$1 b _! wide diffusion %[s t !y h _h a long "t to spread !mselves1 & h be5 able to survive _m important revolutions 9 physical geography4 ,aft] s mu* evid5ce has be5 br\ght to light by ! geologi/1 ( l& & sea hav+ *ang$ places 9 v>i\s regions s9ce ! exi/+ species 7 9 be+1 we c feel no surprise t ! zoologi/ & botani/ h hi!rto f\nd x difficult to ref] ! geographical di/ribution ( species to any cle> & det]m9ate pr9ciples1 s9ce !y h usually speculat$ on ! ph5om5a1 ^u ! assumption t ! physical geography ( ! globe _h und]gone no mat]ial alt]ation s9ce ! introduction ( ! species n[ liv+4 ,s long z ?is assumption 0 made1 ! facts relat+ to ! geography ( plants & animals appe>$ caprici\s 9 ! extreme1 & by _m ! subject 0 pron\nc$ to be s full ( my/]y & anomalies1 t ! e/abli%m5t ( a satisfactory !ory 0 hopeless4#iij ,c5tres f :i* plants h be5 diffus$4--,"s botani/s conceiv$1 9 accordance ) ! hypo!sis ( ,wild5[1 t m\nta9s 7 ! c5tres ( creation f :i* ! plants n[ inhabit+ l>ge cont95ts h radiat$2 to :i* ,de ,c&olle & o!rs1 ) mu* reason1 object$1 t m\nta9s1 on ! contr>y1 are (t5 ! b>ri]s betwe5 two prov9ces ( di/9ct vegetation4 ,! geologi/ :o is acqua9t$ ) ! ext5sive modifications :i* ! surface ( ! e>? has und]gone 9 v rec5t geological epo*s1 may be able1 p]haps1 to reconcile bo? ^! !ories 9 _! application to diff]5t regions4 ,a l(ty range ( m\nta9s1 :i* is s anci5t z to date f a p]iod :5 ! species ( animals & plants diff]$ f ^? n[ liv+1 w naturally =m a b>ri] betwe5 contigu\s prov9ces2 b a *a9 :i* has be5 rais$1 9 great "p1 )9 ! epo* ( exi/+ species1 & ar\nd :i* new l&s h aris5 f ! sea )9 t p]iod1 w be a c5tre ( peculi> vegetation4 ,9 ,france1 obs]ves ,de ,c&olle1 ! ,alps & ,cev5nes prev5t a great numb] ( ! plants ( ! s\? f spread+ !mselves to ! nor?w>d2 b x has be5 rem>k$ t "s species h made _! way ?r\gh ! gorges ( ^! *a9s1 & are f\nd on _! nor!rn sides1 pr9cipally 9 ^? places :]e !y are l[] & m int]rupt$4#iia ,n[ ! *a9s "h allud$ to h probably be5 ( consid]able height ev] s9ce ! era :5 ! exi/+ vegetation began to appe>1 & 7 x n = ! deep fissures :i* divide !m1 !y might h caus$ mu* m abrupt t]m9ations to ! ext5sion ( di/9ct assemblages ( species4 ,p>ts ( ! ,italian p59sula1 on ! o!r h&1 h ga9$ a consid]able portion ( _! pres5t height s9ce a majority ( ! m>9e species n[ inhabit+ ! ,m$it]ranean1 & probably1 also1 s9ce ! t]re/rial plants ( ! same region 7 9 be+4 ,l>ge tracts ( l& h be5 add$1 bo? on ! ,adriatic & ,m$it]ranean side1 to :at orig9ally con/itut$ a mu* n>r[] range ( m\nta9s1 if n a *a9 ( isl&s runn+ ne>ly nor? & s\?1 l ,corsica & ,s>d9ia4 ,x may !re=e be presum$ t ! ,ap5n9es h be5 a c5tre :5ce species h diffus$ !mselves ov] ! contigu\s l[] & new] regions4 ,9 ?is & all analog\s situations1 ! doctr9e ( ,wild5[1 t species h radiat$ f ! m\nta9s z f c5tres1 may be well f\nd$4 ,introduction ( ,new ,species4 ,if ! read] %\ld inf]1 f ! facts laid be=e him 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 t ! successive ext9ction ( animals & plants may be "p ( ! con/ant & regul> c\rse ( nature1 he w naturally inquire :e!r !re are any means provid$ = ! repair ( ^! losses8 ,is x "p ( ! economy ( our sy/em t ! habitable globe %\ld1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 become depopulat$ bo? 9 ! ocean & on ! l&2 or t ! v>iety ( species %\ld dim9i% until "s new era arrives :5 a new & extraord9>y ef=t ( creative en]gy is to be display$8 ,or is x possible t new species c be call$ into be+ f "t to "t1 & yet t s a/oni%+ a ph5om5on c escape ! obs]vation ( naturali/s8 ,humboldt has *>act]iz$ ^! subjects z among ! my/]ies :i* natural sci5ce _c rea*2 & he obs]ves t ! inve/igation ( ! orig9 ( be+s does n belong to zoological or botanical geography4 ,to geology1 h[ev]1 ^! topics d /rictly app]ta92 & ?is sci5ce is *iefly int]e/$ 9 inquiries into ! /ate ( ! animate creation z x n[ exi/s1 ) a view ( po9t+ out its relations to antec$5t p]iods :5 its condition 0 diff]5t4 ,be=e (f]+ any hypo!sis t[>ds ! solution ( s difficult a problem1 let u consid] :at k9d ( evid5ce we ought to expect1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce1 ( ! fir/ appe>ance ( new animals or plants1 if we c\ld imag9e ! successive creation ( species to con/itute1 l _! gradual ext9ction1 a regul> "p ( ! economy ( nature4 ,9 ! fir/ place x is obvi\sly m easy to prove t a species1 once num]\sly repres5t$ 9 a giv5 di/rict1 has ceas$ to be1 ?an t "s o!r :i* did n pre-exi/ has made its appe>ance--assum+ always1 = reasons be=e /at$1 t s+le /ocks only ( ea* animal & plant are orig9ally creat$1 & t individuals ( new species d n sudd5ly />t up 9 _m diff]5t places at once4 ,s imp]fect has ! sci5ce ( natural hi/ory rema9$ d[n to our own times1 t1 )9 ! memory ( p]sons n[ liv+1 ! numb]s ( kn[n animals & plants h be5 d\bl$1 or ev5 quadrupl$1 9 _m classes4 ,new & (t5 conspicu\s species are annually discov]$ 9 p>ts ( ! old cont95t1 long inhabit$ by ! mo/ civiliz$ nations4 ,consci\s1 !re=e1 ( ! limit$ ext5t ( our in=mation1 we always inf]1 :5 su* discov]ies are made1 t ! be+s 9 "q _h previ\sly elud$ our rese>*2 or _h at lea/ exi/$ else:]e1 & only migrat$ at a rec5t p]iod into ! t]ritories :]e we n[ f9d !m4 ,x is difficult1 ev5 9 contemplation1 to anticipate ! "t :5 we %all be entitl$ to make any o!r hypo!sis 9 reg>d to all ! m>9e tribes1 & to by f> ! great] numb] ( ! t]re/rial2--su* z birds1 :i* possess su* unlimit$ p[]s ( migration2 insects1 :i*1 besides ! v>iability ( ea* species 9 numb]1 are also s capable ( be+ diffus$ to va/ di/ances2 & cryptogam\s plants1 to :i*1 z to _m o!r classes1 bo? ( ! animal & vegetable k+dom1 simil> obs]vations are applicable4 ,:at k9d ( evid5ce ( new creations c\ld be expect$8--,:at k9d ( pro(s1 !re=e1 c\ld we reasonably expect to f9d ( ! orig9 at a p>ticul> p]iod ( a new species8 ,p]haps x may be said 9 reply t1 )9 ! la/ two or ?ree c5turies1 "s =e/ tree or new quadrup$ might h be5 obs]v$ to appe> sudd5ly 9 ^? p>ts1 ( ,engl& or ,france :i* _h be5 mo/ ?or\ghly inve/igat$2--t naturali/s might h be5 able to %[ t no su* liv+ be+ inhabit$ any o!r region ( ! globe1 & t !re 0 no tradition ( any?+ simil> hav+ be=e be5 obs]v$ 9 ! di/rict :]e x _h made its appe>ance4 ,n[1 al?\gh ?is objection may seem plausible1 yet its =ce w be f\nd to dep5d entirely on ! rate ( fluctuation :i* we suppose to prevail 9 ! animate _w1 & on ! proportion :i* su* conspicu\s subjects ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms be> to ^? :i* are less kn[n & escape our obs]vation4 ,!re are1 p]haps1 m ?an a million species ( plants & animals1 exclusive ( ! microscopic & infusory animalcules1 n[ inhabit+ ! t]raque\s globe4 ,! t]re/rial plants may am\nt1 says ,de ,c&olle1 to some:]e betwe5 #aaj1jjj & #abj1jjj2iib b ! data on :i* ?is conjecture is f\nd$ are consid]$ by _m botani/s to be vague & unsatisfactory4 ,spr5gel only enum]at$1 9 #ahbg1 ab\t #ca1jjj kn[n pha5ogam\s1 & #fjjj cryptogam\s plants2 b t naturali/ omitt$ _m1 p]haps #gjjj pha5ogam\s1 & #ajjj cryptogam\s species4 ,mr4 ,l9dley1 9 a lett] to ! au?or 9 #ahcf1 express$ 8 op9ion t x w\ld be ra% to speculate on ! exi/5ce ( m ?an #hj1jjj pha5ogam\s1 & #aj1jjj cryptogam\s plants4 ,if we take1 he says1 9 a lett] to ! au?or on ?is subject1 #cg1jjj z ! numb] ( publi%$ pha5ogam\s species1 & !n add1 = ! undiscov]$ species 9 ,asia & ,new ,holl&1 #ae1jjj1 9 ,africa #aj1jjj1 & 9 ,am]ica #ah1jjj1 we h #hj1jjj species2 & if #gjjj be ! numb] ( publi%$ cryptogam\s plants1 & we all[ #cjjj = ! undiscov]$ species 7mak+ #aj1jjj71 !re w\ld !n be1 on ! :ole1 #ij1jjj species4 ,b s9ce t p]iod "o catalogue1 z ,i le>n f ,dr4 ,j4 ,hook]1 conta9s a li/ ( ! names ( #gh1jjj pha5ogam\s plants :i* _h be5 publi%$ be=e #ahda4 ,x 0 suppos$ by ,l9naeus t !re 7 f\r or five species ( insects 9 ! _w = ea* pha5ogam\s plant3 b if we may judge f ! relative proportion ( ! two classes 9 ,great ,brita91 ! numb] ( insects mu/ be /ill great]2 = ! total numb] ( ,briti% insects1 accord+ to ! la/ c5sus1 is ab\t #ab1ejj2iic :]eas !re are only #aejj pha5ogam\s plants indig5\s to our isl&4 ,z ! insects are mu* m num]\s 9 hot c\ntries ?an 9 our temp]ate latitudes1 x seems difficult to avoid ! conclusion t !re are m ?an half a million species 9 ! _w4 ,! numb] ( kn[n mammif]s1 :5 ,temm9ck wrote1 exce$$ #hjj1 & ,mr4 ,wat]h\se in=ms me t m ?an #abjj are n[ 7#ahej7 asc]ta9$ to exi/4 ,b>on ,cuvi] e/imat$ ! am\nt ( kn[n fi%es at #fjjj2 & ,mr4 ,g4 ,gray1 9 8 ,g5]a ( ,birds1 enum]ates #hjjj species4 ,we h /ill to add ! reptiles1 & all ! inv]tebrat$ animals1 exclusive ( insects4 ,x rema9s1 9 a great degree1 m]e matt] ( conjecture :at proportion ! aquatic tribes may be> to ! d5iz5s ( ! l&2 b ! habitable surface b5ea? ! wat]s c h>dly be e/imat$ at less ?an d\ble t ( ! cont95ts & isl&s1 ev5 admitt+ t a v consid]able area is de/itute ( life1 9 consequ5ce ( great dep?1 cold1 d>kness1 & o!r circum/ances4 ,9 ! late pol> exp$ition x 0 f\nd t1 9 "s regions1 z 9 ,baff9's ,bay1 !re 7 m>9e animals inhabit+ ! bottom at great dep?s1 :]e ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 0 bel[ ! freez+ po9t4 ,t !re is life at mu* great] pr(undities 9 w>m] regions may be confid5tly inf]r$4 ,! ocean teems ) life--! class ( ,polyps alone are conjectur$ by ,lam>ck to be z /rong 9 individuals z insects4 ,e tropical reef is describ$ z cov]$ ) ,corals & ,sponges1 & sw>m+ ) ,cru/acea1 ,e*9i1 & ,te/acea2 :ile almo/ e tide-wa%$ rock 9 ! _w is c>pet$ ) ,fuci1 & supports "s ,corall9es1 ,act9iae1 & ,mollusca4 ,!re are innum]able =ms 9 ! seas ( ! w>m] zones1 :i* h sc>cely begun to attract ! att5tion ( ! naturali/2 & !re are p>asitic animals )\t numb]1 ?ree or f\r ( :i* are sometimes appropriat$ to "o g5us1 z to ! :ale 7,bala5a71 = example4 ,ev5 ?\gh we conc$e1 !re=e1 t ! geographical range ( m>9e species is m ext5sive 9 g5]al ?an t ( ! t]re/rial 7! temp]ature ( ! sea be+ m uni=m1 & ! l& imp$+ less ! migrations ( ! oceanic ?an ! ocean ^? ( ! t]re/rial species71 yet x seems probable t ! aquatic tribes f> exce$ 9 numb] ! inhabitants ( ! l&4 ,)\t insi/+ on ?is po9t1 x may be safe to assume1 t1 exclusive ( microscopic be+s1 !re are betwe5 "o & two millions ( species n[ inhabit+ ! t]raque\s globe2 s t if only "o ( ^! 7 to become ext9ct annually1 & "o new "o 7 to be e ye> call$ into be+1 mu* m ?an a million ( ye>s might be requir$ to br+ ab\t a complete revolution 9 organic life4 ,i am n haz>d+ at pres5t any hypo!sis z to ! probable rate ( *ange2 b none w d5y t :5 ! annual bir? & ! annual dea? ( "o species on ! globe is propos$ z a m]e speculation1 ?is at lea/ is to imag9e no slight degree ( in/ability 9 ! animate creation4 ,if we divide ! surface ( ! e>? into tw5ty regions ( equal area1 "o ( ^! might compreh5d a space ( l& & wat] ab\t equal 9 dim5sions to ,europe1 & might conta9 a tw5tie? "p ( ! million ( species :i* may be assum$ to exi/ 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,9 ?is region "o species only w\ld1 accord+ to ! rate ( mortality be=e assum$1 p]i% 9 tw5ty ye>s1 or only five out ( fifty ?\s& 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury4 ,b z a consid]able proportion ( ! :ole w\ld belong to ! aquatic classes1 ) :i* we h a v imp]fect acqua9tance1 we mu/ exclude !m f our consid]ation2 & if !y con/itute half ( ! entire numb]1 !n "o species only might be lo/ 9 =ty ye>s among ! t]re/rial tribes4 ,n[ ! ,mammalia1 :e!r t]re/rial or aquatic1 be> s small a proportion to o!r classes ( animals1 =m+ less1 p]haps1 ?an "o ?\s&? "p ( ! :ole1 t if ! longevity ( species 9 ! diff]5t ord]s 7 equal1 a va/ p]iod mu/ elapse be=e x w\ld come to ! turn ( ?is conspicu\s class to lose "o ( _! numb]4 ,if "o species only ( ! :ole animal k+dom di$ out 9 =ty ye>s1 no m ?an "o mammif] might disappe> 9 #dj1jjj ye>s 9 a region ( ! dim5sions ( ,europe4 ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to see1 t 9 a small portion ( su* an area1 9 c\ntries1 = example1 ( ! size ( ,engl& & ,france1 p]iods ( mu* great] duration mu/ elapse be=e x w\ld be possible to au!nticate ! fir/ appe>ance ( "o ( ! l>g] plants & animals1 assum+ ! annual bir? & dea? ( "o species to be ! rate ( vicissitude 9 ! animate creation ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,! obs]vations ( naturali/s ^u liv+ species may1 9 ! c\rse ( future c5turies1 accumulate positive data1 f :i* an insight into ! laws :i* gov]n ?is "p ( our t]re/rial sy/em may be d]iv$2 b1 9 ! pres5t defici5cy ( hi/orical records1 we h trac$ up ! subject to t po9t :]e geological monum5ts alone are capable ( lead+ u on to ! discov]y ( ult]ior tru?s4 ,to ^!1 !re=e1 we mu/ appeal1 c>efully exam9+ ! /rata ( rec5t =mation :]e9 ! rema9s ( liv+ species1 bo? animal & vegetable1 are kn[n to occur4 ,we mu/ /udy ^! /rata 9 /rict ref]5ce to _! *ronological ord]1 z d$uc$ f _! sup]position1 & o!r relations4 ,f ^! s\rces we may le>n :i* ( ! species1 n[ our contempor>ies1 h surviv$ ! greate/ revolutions ( ! e>?'s surface2 :i* ( !m h co-exi/$ ) ! greate/ numb] ( animals & plants n[ ext9ct2 & :i* h made _! appe>ance only :5 ! animate _w _h ne>ly atta9$ its pres5t condition4 ,f su* data we may be enabl$ to inf]1 :e!r species h be5 call$ into exi/5ce 9 succession1 or all at "o p]iod2 :e!r s+ly1 or by gr\ps simultane\sly2 :e!r ! antiquity ( man be z high z t ( any ( ! inf]ior be+s :i* n[ %>e ! planet ) him1 or :e!r ! human species is "o ( ! mo/ rec5t ( ! :ole4 ,to "s ( ^! que/ions we c ev5 n[ return a satisfactory answ]2 & ) reg>d to ! re/1 we h "s data to guide conjecture1 & to enable u to speculate ) advantage3 b 9 ord] to be fully qualifi$ to ent] ^u su* discussions ! read] mu/ /udy ! ample body ( mat]ials amass$ by ! indu/ry ( mod]n geologi/s4 ,,*apt] ,,xliv4 ,,effects ,,produc$ ,,by ,,! ,,p[]s ,,( ,,vitality ,,on ,,! ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,surface4 ,modifications 9 physical geography caus$ by organic be+s--,:y ! vegetable soil does n augm5t 9 ?ickness--,! !ory1 t vegetation is an antagoni/ p[] c\nt]balanc+ ! degradation caus$ by runn+ wat] unt5able--,cons]vative influ5ce ( vegetation--,ra9 dim9i%$ by fell+ ( =e/s--,di/ribution ( ,am]ican =e/s dep5d5t on direction ( pr$om9ant w9ds--,influ5ce ( man 9 modify+ ! physical geography ( ! globe4 ,! second bran* ( our inquiry1 respect+ *anges ( ! organic _w1 relates to ! processes by :i* ! rema9s ( animals & plants become fossil1 or1 to speak /ill m g5]ally1 to all ! effects produc$ by ! p[]s ( vitality on ! surface & %ell ( ! e>?4 ,be=e ent]+ on ! pr9cipal division ( ?is subject1 ! imb$d+ & pres]vation ( animal & vegetable rema9s1 ,i %all (f] a few rem>ks on ! sup]ficial modifications caus$ directly by ! ag5cy ( organic be+s1 z :5 ! gr[? ( c]ta9 plants cov]s ! slope ( a m\nta9 ) peat1 or conv]ts a swamp into dry l&2 or :5 vegetation prev5ts ! soil1 9 c]ta9 localities1 f be+ wa%$ away by runn+ wat]4 ,9 consid]+ alt]ations ( ?is k9d1 br\ght ab\t 9 ! physical geography ( p>ticul> tracts1 we are too apt to ?9k exclusively ( t "p ( ! e>?'s surface :i* has em]g$ f b5ea? ! wat]s1 & ) :i* alone1 z t]re/rial be+s1 we are famili>4 ,"h ! direct p[] ( animals & plants to cause any important v>iation is1 ( necessity1 v limit$1 except 9 *eck+ ! progress ( t decay ( :i* ! l& is ! *ief !atre4 ,b if we ext5d our views1 & in/ead ( contemplat+ ! dry l&1 consid] t l>g] portion :i* is assign$ to ! aquatic tribes1 we discov] ! great influ5ce ( ! liv+ creation1 9 imp>t+ v>ieties ( con=mation to ! solid ext]ior :i* ! ag5cy ( inanimate causes alone c\ld n produce4 ,?us1 :5 timb] is float$ into ! sea1 x is (t5 drift$ to va/ di/ances1 & subsides 9 spots :]e !re might h be5 no deposit1 at t "t & place1 if ! e>? _h n be5 t5ant$ by liv+ be+s4 ,if1 !re=e1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 a hill ( wood1 or lignite1 be ?us =m$ 9 ! subaque\s regions1 a *ange 9 ! subm>9e geography may be said to h result$ f ! action ( organic p[]s4 ,s 9 reg>d to ! gr[? ( coral reefs2 x is probable t a l>ge portion ( ! matt] ( :i* !y are compos$ is suppli$ by m9]al spr+s1 :i* (t5 rise up at ! bottom ( ! sea1 & :i*1 on l&1 ab\nd ?r\gh\t volcanic regions hundr$s ( leagues 9 ext5t4 ,! matt] ?us con/antly giv5 out c\ld n g on accumulat+ = ev] 9 ! wat]s1 b w\ld be precipitat$ 9 ! abysses ( ! sea1 ev5 if !re 7 no polyps & te/acea2 b ^! animals arre/ & secrete ! c>bonate ( lime on ! summits ( subm>9e m\nta9s1 & =m reefs _m hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 & hundr$s ( miles 9 l5g?1 :]e1 b = !m1 none might ev] h exi/$4 ,:y ! vegetable soil does n augm5t 9 ?ickness4--,if no su* volum9\s masses are =m$ on ! l&1 x is n f ! want ( solid matt] 9 ! /ructure ( t]re/rial animals & plants2 b m]ely because1 z ,i h s (t5 /at$1 ! cont95ts are ^? p>ts ( ! globe :]e accessions ( matt] c sc>cely ev] take place--:]e1 on ! contr>y1 ! mo/ solid p>ts already =m$ are1 ea* 9 _! turn1 expos$ to gradual degradation4 ,! quantity ( timb] & vegetable matt] :i* gr[s 9 a tropical =e/ 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury is enorm\s1 & multitudes ( animal skeletons are scatt]$ !re dur+ ! same p]iod1 besides innum]able l& %ells & o!r organic sub/ances4 ,! aggregate ( ^! mat]ials1 !re=e1 might con/itute a mass great] 9 volume ?an t :i* is produc$ 9 any coral-reef dur+ ! same lapse ( ye>s2 b1 al?\gh ?is process %\ld cont9ue on ! l& = ev]1 no m\nta9s ( wood or bone w\ld be se5 /ret*+ f> & wide ov] ! c\ntry1 or pu%+ out bold promontories into ! sea4 ,! :ole solid mass is ei!r dev\r$ by animals1 or decomposes1 z does a portion ( ! rock & soil on :i* ! animals & plants are support$4 ,! wa/e ( ! /rata !mselves1 accompani$ by ! decomposition ( _! organic rema9s1 & ! sett+ free ( _! alkal9e +r$i5ts1 is "o s\rce f :5ce runn+ wat] & ! atmosph]e may d]ive ! mat]ials :i* are absorb$ by ! roots & leaves ( plants4 ,ano!r s\rce is ! passage into a gase\s =m ( ev5 ! h>de/ p>ts ( animals & plants :i* die & putrefy 9 ! air1 :]e !y are soon resolv$ into ! elem5ts ( :i* !y are compos$3 & :ile a portion ( ^! con/itu5ts is volatiliz$1 ! re/ is tak5 up by ra9-wat]1 & s9ks into ! e>?1 or fl[s t[>ds ! sea2 s t !y ent] aga9 & aga9 into ! composition ( diff]5t organic be+s4 ,! pr9cipal elem5ts f\nd 9 plants are hydrog51 c>bon1 & oxyg52 s t wat] & ! atmosph]e conta9 all ( !m1 ei!r 9 _! own composition or 9 solution4#iid ,! con/ant supply ( ^! elem5ts is ma9ta9$ n only by ! putrefaction ( animal & vegetable sub/ances1 & ! decay ( rocks1 b also by ! copi\s evolution ( c>bonic acid & o!r gases f volcanoes & m9]al spr+s1 & by ! effects ( ord9>y evaporation1 :]eby aque\s vapors are made to rise f ! ocean1 & to circulate r\nd ! globe4 ,x is well kn[n1 t :5 two gases ( diff]5t specific gravity are br\ght into contact1 ev5 ?\gh ! heavi] be ! l[]mo/1 !y soon become uni=mly diffus$ by mutual absorption ?r\gh ! :ole space :i* !y occupy4 ,by virtue ( ?is law1 ! heavy c>bonic acid f9ds its way upw>ds ?r\gh ! light] air ( ! atmosph]e1 & conveys n\ri%m5t to ! li*5 :i* cov]s ! m\nta9 top4 ,if ! quantity ( food consum$ by t]re/rial animals1 & ! elem5ts imbib$ by ! roots & leaves ( plants1 7 d]iv$ entirely f t supply ( hydrog51 c>bon1 oxyg51 nitrog51 & o!r elem5ts1 giv5 out into ! atmosph]e & ! wat]s by ! putresc5ce ( organic sub/ances1 !n we might imag9e t ! vegetable m\ld w\ld1 aft] a s]ies ( ye>s1 nei!r ga9 nor lose a s+le p>ticle by ! action ( organic be+s2 & ?is conclusion is n f> f ! tru?2 b ! op]ation :i* r5ovates ! vegetable & animal m\ld is by no means s simple z t "h suppos$4 ,?\s&s ( c>cases ( t]re/rial animals are float$ d[n1 e c5tury1 into ! sea2 &1 toge!r ) =e/s ( drift-timb]1 are imb$d$ 9 subaque\s deposits1 :]e _! elem5ts are imprison$ 9 solid /rata1 & may !re rema9 lock$ up ?r\gh\t :ole geological epo*s be=e !y aga9 become subs]vi5t to ! purposes ( life4 ,on ! o!r h&1 fre% supplies are d]iv$ by ! atmosph]e & by runn+ wat]1 z be=e /at$1 f ! dis9tegration ( rocks & _! organic cont5ts1 & ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( m9]al spr+s f ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 f :5ce all ! elem5ts be=e m5tion$1 :i* ent] pr9cipally into ! composition ( animals & vegetables1 are cont9ually evolv$4 ,ev5 nitrog5 is f\nd1 by *emi/s1 to be conta9$ v g5]ally 9 ! wat]s ( m9]al spr+s4 ,vegetation n an antagoni/ p[] c\nt]balanc+ ! action ( runn+ wat]4--,if we suppose t ! copi\s supply f ! ne!r regions1 by spr+s & volcanic v5ts1 ( c>bonic acid & o!r gases1 toge!r ) ! decomposition ( rocks1 may be j suffici5t to c\nt]balance t loss ( matt] :i*1 hav+ already s]v$ = ! n\ri%m5t ( animals & plants1 is annually c>ri$ d[n 9 organiz$ =ms1 & buri$ 9 subaque\s /rata1 we conc$e ! utmo/ t is consi/5t ) probability4 ,an op9ion1 h[ev]1 has be5 express$1 t ! processes ( vegetable life1 by absorb+ v>i\s gases f ! atmosph]e1 cause s l>ge a mass ( solid matt] to accumulate on ! surface ( ! l&1 t ?is mass alone may con/itute a great c\nt]poise to all ! matt] transport$ to l[] levels by ! aque\s ag5ts ( decay4 ,torr5ts & riv]s1 x is said--! waves ( ! sea & m>9e curr5ts--act ^u l9es only2 b ! p[] ( vegetation to absorb ! ela/ic & non-ela/ic fluids circulat+ r\nd ! e>?1 ext5ds ov] ! :ole surface ( ! cont95ts4 ,by ! sil5t b univ]sal action ( ?is great antagoni/ p[]1 ! spoliation & wa/e caus$ by runn+ wat] on ! l&1 & by ! movem5ts ( ! ocean1 are neutraliz$1 & ev5 c\nt]balanc$4#iie ,9 opposition to ^! views1 ,i conceive t we %all =m a ju/] e/imate ( ! influ5ce ( vegetation1 if we consid] x z be+ 9 a slight degree cons]vative1 & capable ( ret>d+ ! wa/e ( l&1 b n ( act+ z an antagoni/ p[]4 ,! vegetable m\ld is seldom m ?an a few feet 9 ?ickness1 & frequ5tly does n exce$ a few in*es2 & we by no means f9d t its volume is m consid]able on ^? p>ts ( our cont95ts :i* we c prove1 by geological data1 to h be5 elevat$ at m anci5t p]iods1 & :]e1 consequ5tly1 !re has be5 ! greate/ "t = ! accumulation ( vegetable matt]1 produc$ ?r\gh\t successive zoological epo*s4 ,on ! contr>y1 ^! high] & old] regions are m frequ5tly d5ud$1 s z to expose ! b>e rock to ! action ( ! sun & air4 ,we f9d 9 ! torrid zone1 :]e ! gr[? ( plants is mo/ rank & luxuri\s1 t accessions ( matt] due to _! ag5cy are by no means ! mo/ conspicu\s4 ,inde$ x is 9 ^! latitudes1 :]e ! vegetation is mo/ active1 t1 = reasons to be expla9$ 9 ! next *apt]1 ev5 ^? sup]ficial peat mosses are unkn[n :i* cov] a l>ge area 9 "s p>ts ( our temp]ate zone4 ,if ! op]ation ( animal & vegetable life c\ld re/ore to ! g5]al surface ( ! cont95ts a portion ( ! elem5ts ( ^? dis9tegrat$ rocks ( :i* su* enorm\s masses are swept d[n annually into ! sea1 ! effects w\ld long ere ?is h con/itut$ "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ features 9 ! /ructure & composition ( our cont95ts4 ,all ! great /eppes & table-l&s ( ! _w1 :]e ! action ( runn+ wat] is feeble1 w\ld h become ! gr& repositories ( organic matt]1 accumulat$ )\t t int]mixture ( e>?y s$im5t :i* s g5]ally *>act]izes ! subaque\s /rata4 ,i h already /at$ t1 9 ! kn[n op]ation ( ! igne\s causes1 a real antagoni/ p[] is f\nd1 :i* may c\nt]balance ! levell+ action ( runn+ wat] 7p4 #efc72 & !re seems no good reason = presum+ t ! upheav+ & depress+ =ce ( e>?quakes1 toge!r ) ! ejection ( matt] by volcanoes1 may n be fully adequate to re/ore t inequality ( ! surface :i* riv]s & ! waves & curr5ts ( ! ocean annually t5d to less54 ,if a c\nt]poise be d]iv$ f ?is s\rce1 ! quantity & elevation ( l& above ! sea may = ev] rema9 ! same1 9 spite ( ! action ( ! aque\s causes1 :i*1 if ?us c\nt]act$1 may nev] be able to r$uce ! surface ( ! e>? m ne>ly to a /ate ( equilibrium ?an t :i* x has n[ atta9$2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! =ce ( ! aque\s ag5ts !mselves might ?us cont9ue = ev] unimpair$4 ,cons]vative influ5ce ( vegetation4--,if1 !n1 vegetation _c act z an antagoni/ p[] amid ! mighty ag5ts ( *ange :i* are always modify+ ! surface ( ! globe1 let u next inquire h[ f> its influ5ce is cons]vative1--h[ f> x may ret>d ! levell+ effects ( runn+ wat]1 :i* x _c oppose1 mu* less c\nt]balance4 ,x is well kn[n t a cov]+ ( h]bage & %rubs may protect a loose soil f be+ c>ri$ away by ra91 or ev5 by ! ord9>y action ( a riv]1 & may prev5t hills ( loose s& f be+ bl[n away by ! w9d2 = ! roots b9d toge!r ! sep>ate p>ticles into a firm mass1 & ! leaves int]cept ! ra9-wat]1 s t x dries up gradually1 in/ead ( fl[+ (f 9 a mass & ) great velocity4 ,! old ,italian hydrograph]s make frequ5t m5tion ( ! increas$ degradation :i* has foll[$ ! cle>+ away ( natural woods 9 sev]al p>ts ( ,italy4 ,a rem>kable example 0 af=d$ 9 ! ,upp] ,val d' ,arno1 9 ,tuscany1 on ! removal ( ! woods clo?+ ! /eep declivities ( ! hills by :i* t valley is b\nd$4 ,:5 ! anci5t =e/ laws 7 aboli%$ by ! ,gr& ,duke ,joseph1 dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 a consid]able tract ( surface 9 ! ,cass5t9a 7! ,claus5t9ium ( ! ,romans7 0 d5ud$1 & imm$iately ! quantity ( s& & soil wa%$ d[n into ! ,arno increas$ enorm\sly4 ,frisi1 allud+ to su* occurr5ces1 obs]ves1 t z soon z ! bu%es & plants 7 remov$1 ! wat]s fl[$ (f m rapidly1 &1 9 ! mann] ( floods1 swept away ! vegetable soil4#iif ,?is effect ( vegetation is ( high int]e/ to ! geologi/1 :5 he is consid]+ ! =mation ( ^? valleys :i* h be5 pr9cipally due to ! action ( riv]s4 ,! spaces int]v5+ betwe5 valleys1 :e!r !y be flat or ridgy1 :5 cov]$ ) vegetation1 may sc>cely und]go ! slighte/ wa/e1 z ! surface may be protect$ by ! gre5 sw>d ( grass2 & ?is may be r5ew$1 9 ! mann] be=e describ$1 f elem5ts d]iv$ f ra9-wat] & ! atmosph]e4 ,h5ce1 :ile ! riv] is cont9ually be>+ d[n matt] 9 ! alluvial pla91 & und]m9+ ! cliffs on ea* side ( e valley1 ! height ( ! int]v5+ ris+ gr\nds may rema9 /ation>y4 ,9 ?is mann]1 a cone ( loose scoriae1 s&1 & a%es1 su* z ,monte ,nuovo1 may1 :5 x has once become d5sely clo!d ) h]bage & %rubs1 suff] sc>cely any fur!r dilapidation2 & ! p]fect /ate ( ! cones ( hundr$s ( ext9ct volcanoes 9 ,france1 ! ,neapolitan t]ritory1 ,sicily1 & else:]e1 may prove no?+ :atev]1 ei!r z to _! relative or absolute antiquity4 ,we may be enabl$ to inf]1 f ! integrity ( su* conical hills ( incoh]5t mat]ials1 t no flood c h pass$ ov] ! c\ntries :]e !y are situat$1 s9ce _! =mation2 b ! atmosph]ic action alone1 9 spots :]e !re happ5 to be no torr5ts1 & :]e ! surface 0 clo!d ) vegetation1 c\ld sc>cely 9 any lapse ( ages h de/roy$ !m4 ,dur+ a t\r 9 ,spa91 9 #ahcj1 ,i 0 surpris$ to see a di/rict ( g5tly undulat+ gr\nd 9 ,catalonia1 consi/+ ( r$ & gray s&/one1 & 9 "s p>ts ( r$ m>l1 almo/ entirely d5ud$ ( h]bage2 :ile ! roots ( ! p9es1 holm oaks1 & "s o!r trees1 7 half expos$1 z if ! soil _h be5 wa%$ away by a flood4 ,su* is ! /ate ( ! =e/s1 = example1 betwe5 ,ori/o & ,vi*1 & ne> ,san ,lor5zo4 ,b1 be+ ov]tak5 by a viol5t ?und]-/orm1 9 ! mon? ( ,augu/1 ,i saw ! :ole surface1 ev5 ! highe/ levels ( "s flat-topp$ hills1 /ream+ ) mud1 :ile on e declivity ! deva/ation ( torr5ts 0 t]rific4 ,! peculi>ities 9 ! physiognomy ( ! di/rict 7 at once expla9$2 & ,i 0 taught t1 9 speculat+ on ! great] effects :i* ! direct action ( ra9 may once h produc$ on ! surface ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ,engl&1 we ne$ n rev]t to p]iods :5 ! heat ( ! climate 0 tropical4 ,9 ! torrid zone ! degradation ( l& is g5]ally m rapid2 b ! wa/e is by no means proportion$ to ! sup]ior quantity ( ra9 or ! sudd5ness ( its fall1 ! transport+ p[] ( wat] be+ c\nt]act$ by a great] luxuriance ( vegetation4 ,a geologi/ :o is no /rang] to tropical c\ntries obs]ves1 t ! s(t] rocks w\ld spe$ily be wa%$ away 9 su* regions1 if ! num]\s roots ( plants 7 n matt$ toge!r 9 su* a mann] z to produce consid]able resi/ance to ! de/ructive p[] ( ! ra9s4 ,! p>asitical & creep+ plants also entw9e 9 e possible direction1 s z to r5d] ! =e/s ne>ly imp]vi\s1 & ! trees possess =ms & leaves be/ calculat$ to %oot (f ! heavy ra9s2 :i*1 :5 !y h ?us be5 brok5 9 _! fall1 are quickly absorb$ by ! gr\nd b5ea?1 or1 :5 ?r[n into ! dra9age depressions1 give rise to furi\s torr5ts4#iig ,influ5ce ( ,man 9 modify+ ! ,physical ,geography ( ! ,globe4 ,be=e conclud+ ?is *apt]1 ,i %all (f] a few obs]vations on ! influ5ce ( man 9 modify+ ! physical geography ( ! globe2 = we mu/ class 8 ag5cy among ! p[]s ( organic nature4 ,fell+ ( =e/s4--,! fell+ ( =e/s has be5 att5d$1 9 _m c\ntries1 by a dim9ution ( ra91 z 9 ,b>badoes & ,jamaica4#iih ,= 9 tropical c\ntries1 :]e ! quantity ( aque\s vapor 9 ! atmosph]e is great1 b :]e1 on ! o!r h&1 ! direct rays ( ! sun are mo/ p[]ful1 any imp$im5t to ! free circulation ( air1 or any scre5 :i* %ades ! e>? f ! sol> rays1 becomes a s\rce ( humidity2 & :]ev] dampness & cold h begun to be g5]at$ by su* causes1 ! cond5sation ( vapor cont9ues4 ,! leaves1 moreov]1 ( all plants are alembics1 & "s ( ^? 9 ! torrid zone h ! rem>kable prop]ty ( di/ill+ wat]1 ?us contribut+ to prev5t ! e>? f becom+ p>*$ up4 ,di/ribution ( ! ,am]ican =e/s4--,!re c be no d\bt !n1 t ! /ate ( ! climate1 especially ! humidity ( ! atmosph]e1 influ5ces vegetation1 & t1 9 its turn1 vegetation re-acts ^u ! climate3 b "s writ]s seem to h attribut$ too mu* importance to ! influ5ce ( =e/s1 p>ticul>ly ^? ( ,am]ica1 z if !y 7 ! prim>y cause ( ! moi/ure ( ! climate4 ,! !ory ( a mod]n au?or on ?is subject t =e/s exi/ 9 ^? p>ts ( ,am]ica only :]e ! pr$om9ant w9ds c>ry ) !m a consid]able quantity ( moi/ure f ! ocean1 seems f> m rational4 ,9 all c\ntries1 he says1 hav+ a summ] heat exce$+ #gj degrees1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( natural woods1 & _! great] or less luxuriance1 may be tak5 z a measure ( ! am\nt ( humidity1 & ( ! f]tility ( ! soil4 ,%ort & heavy ra9s 9 a w>m c\ntry w produce grass1 :i*1 hav+ its roots ne> to ! surface1 spr+s up 9 a few days1 & )]s :5 ! moi/ure is exhau/$2 b transitory ra9s1 h[ev] heavy1 w n n\ri% trees2 because1 aft] ! surface is saturat$1 ! rema9d] ( ! wat] runs (f1 & ! moi/ure lodg$ 9 ! soil nei!r s9ks deep en\gh1 nor is 9 suffici5t quantity1 to furni% ! giants ( ! =e/s ) ! necess>y su/5ance4 ,x may be assum$ t tw5ty in*es ( ra9 fall+ mod]ately or at int]vals1 w leave a great] p]man5t supply 9 ! soil ?an =ty in*es fall+1 z x sometimes does 9 ! torrid zone1 9 z _m h\rs4#iii ,9 all regions1 he cont9ues1 :]e ranges ( m\nta9s int]cept ! c\rse ( ! con/ant or pr$om9ant w9ds1 ! c\ntry on ! w9dw>d side ( ! m\nta9s w be moi/1 & t on ! leew>d dry2 & h5ce p>*$ des]ts w g5]ally be f\nd on ! we/ side ( c\ntries )9 ! tropics1 & on ! ea/ side ( ^? beyond !m1 ! prevail+ w9ds 9 ^! cases be+ g5]ally 9 opposite directions4 ,on ?is pr9ciple1 ! position ( =e/s 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica may be expla9$4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ! region )9 ! ?irtie? p>allel1 ! moi/ure swept up by ! trade-w9d f ! ,atlantic is precipitat$ 9 "p ^u ! m\nta9s ( ,brazil1 :i* are b l[1 & s di/ribut$ z to ext5d f> into ! int]ior4 ,! portion :i* rema9s is borne we/w>d1 &1 los+ a little z x proce$s1 is at l5g? arre/$ by ! ,&es1 :]e x falls d[n 9 %[]s on _! summits4 ,! a>ial curr5t1 n[ depriv$ ( all ! humidity ) :i* x c "p1 arrives 9 a /ate ( complete exsiccation at ,p]u1 :]e consequ5tly no ra9 falls4 ,b 9 ! region ( ,am]ica1 beyond ! ?irtie? p>allel1 ! ,&es s]ve z a scre5 to int]cept ! moi/ure br\ght by ! prevail+ w9ds f ! ,pacific ,ocean3 ra9s are copi\s on _! summits1 & 9 ,*ili on _! we/]n declivities2 b none falls on ! pla9s to ! ea/w>d1 except occasionally :5 ! w9d bl[s f ! ,atlantic4#ajjj ,i h be5 m p>ticul> 9 expla9+ ^! views1 because !y appe> to place 9 a true light ! dep5d5ce ( vegetation on climate1 ! humidity be+ increas$1 & m uni=mly diffus$ ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 by ! gradual spread+ ( wood4 ,x has be5 affirm$1 t =m]ly1 :5 ,france & ,engl& 7 cov]$ ) wood1 ,europe 0 mu* cold] ?an at pres5t2 t ! w9t]s 9 ,italy 7 long]1 & t ! ,se9e1 & _m o!r riv]s1 froze m regul>ly e w9t] ?an n[4 ,m4 ,arago1 9 an essay on ?is subject1 has endeavor$ to %[1 by tables ( obs]vations on ! congelation ( ! ,rh9e1 ,danube1 ,rhone1 ,po1 ,se9e1 & o!r riv]s1 at diff]5t p]iods1 t !re is no reason to believe ! cold to h be5 9 g5]al m int5se 9 anci5t times4#ajja ,he admits1 h[ev]1 t ! climate ( ,tuscany has be5 s f> modifi$1 by ! removal ( wood1 z t ! w9t]s are less cold2 b ! summ]s also1 he cont5ds1 are less hot ?an ( old2 & ! summ]s1 accord+ to him1 7 =m]ly hott] 9 ,france ?an 9 our own times4 ,8 evid5ce is d]iv$ *iefly f docum5ts %[+ t w9e 0 made ?ree c5turies ago 9 ! ,viv>ais & sev]al o!r prov9ces1 at an e>li] season1 at great] elevations1 & 9 high] latitudes1 ?an are n[ f\nd suitable to ! v9e4 ,!re seems little d\bt t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica ! rapid cle>+ ( ! c\ntry has r5d]$ ! w9t]s less sev]e & ! summ]s less hot2 9 o!r words1 ! extreme temp]atures ( ,janu>y & ,july h be5 obs]v$ f ye> to ye> to approa* some:at ne>] to ea* o!r4 ,:e!r 9 ?is case1 or 9 ,france1 ! mean temp]ature has be5 rais$1 seems by no means z yet decid$2 b !re is no d\bt t ! climate has become1 z ,buffon w\ld h said1 less excessive4 ,i h be=e %[n1 :5 treat+ ( ! excavation ( new e/u>ies 9 ,holl& by inroads ( ! ocean1 z also ( ! *anges on our own coa/s1 t al?\gh ! conv]sion ( sea into l& by artificial labors may be great1 yet x mu/ always be 9 subord9ation to ! p[] ( ! tides & curr5ts1 or to ! great movem5ts :i* alt] ! relative level ( ! l& & sea1 7,*ap4 ,,xx47 ,if1 9 addition to ! assi/ance obta9$ by p>liam5t>y grants = def5d+ ,dunwi* f ! waves1 all ! res\rces ( ,europe _h be5 direct$ to ! same end1 ! exi/5ce ( t port might p]haps h be5 prolong$ = sev]al c5turies 7p4 #caj47 ,b 9 ! mean "t1 ! curr5t w\ld h cont9u$ to sweep away portions f ! adjo9+ cliffs on ea* side1 giv+ to ! :ole l9e ( coa/ its pres5t =m1 until at l5g? ! t[n1 project+ z a n>r[ promontory1 mu/ h become expos$ to ! irresi/ible fury ( ! waves4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to obs]ve1 t ! control :i* man c obta9 ov] ! igne\s ag5ts is less ev5 ?an t :i* he may ex]t ov] ! aque\s4 ,he _c modify ! upheav+ or depress+ =ce ( e>?quakes1 or ! p]iods or degree ( viol5ce ( volcanic eruptions2 & on ^! causes ! inequalities ( ! e>?'s surface1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! %ape ( ! sea & l&1 appe> ma9ly to dep5d4 ,! utmo/ t man c hope to effect 9 ?is respect is occasionally to div]t ! c\rse ( a lava-/ream1 & to prev5t ! burn+ matt]1 = a season1 f ov]:elm+ a city1 or "s o!r ( ! pr\de/ works ( human indu/ry4 ,if all ! nations ( ! e>? %\ld attempt to qu>ry away ! lava :i* fl[$ dur+ "o eruption f ! ,icel&ic volcanoes 9 #aghc1 & ! two foll[+ ye>s1 & %\ld attempt to consign x to ! deepe/ abysses ( ! ocean1 !y might toil = ?\s&s ( ye>s & n accompli% _! task4 ,yet ! matt] borne d[n to ! sea by two great riv]s1 ! ,ganges & ,burrampoot]1 9 ea* qu>t] ( a c5tury1 probably equals 9 weight & volume ! mass ( ,icel&ic lava produc$ by t great eruption 7p4 #bhb74 ,s insignificant is ! aggregate =ce ex]t$ by man1 :5 contra/$ ) ! ord9>y op]ations ( aque\s or igne\s ag5ts 9 ! natural _w4 ,no application1 p]haps1 ( human skill & labor t5ds s greatly to v>y ! /ate ( ! habitable surface1 z t employ$ 9 ! dra9age ( lakes & m>%es1 s9ce n only ! /ations ( _m animals & plants1 b ! g5]al climate ( a di/rict1 may ?us be modifi$4 ,x is also a k9d ( alt]ation to :i* x is difficult to f9d any?+ analog\s 9 ! ag5cy ( inf]ior be+s2 = we ought always1 be=e we decide t any "p ( ! influ5ce ( man is novel & anomal\s1 c>efully to consid] ! p[]s ( all o!r animat$ ag5ts :i* may be limit$ or sup]s$$ by him4#ajjb ,_m :o h reason$ on ^! subjects seem to h =gott5 t ! human race (t5 succe$s to ! dis*>ge ( functions previ\sly fulfill$ by o!r species4 ,suppose ! gr[? ( "s ( ! l>g] t]re/rial plants1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! ext5t ( =e/1 to be dim9i%$ by man1 & ! climate to be !reby modifi$1 x does n foll[ t ?is k9d ( innovation is unprec$5t$4 ,x is a *ange 9 ! /ate ( vegetation1 & su* may (t5 h be5 ! result ( ! appe>ance ( new species ^u ! e>?4 ,! multiplication1 = example1 ( c]ta9 insects 9 p>ts ( ,g]many1 dur+ ! la/ c5tury1 de/roy$ m trees ?an man1 p]haps1 c\ld h fell$ dur+ an equal p]iod4 ,x w\ld be ra%1 h[ev]1 to affirm t ! p[] ( man to modify ! surface may n diff] 9 k9d or degree f t ( o!r liv+ be+s2 al?\gh ! problem is c]ta9ly m complex ?an _m :o h speculat$ on su* topics h imag9$4 ,if l& be rais$ f ! sea1 ! greate/ alt]ation 9 its physical condition1 :i* c\ld ev] arise f ! influ5ce ( organic be+s1 w\ld probably be produc$ by ! fir/ immigration ( t]re/rial plants1 :]eby ! new tract w\ld become cov]$ ) vegetation4 ,! *ange next 9 importance w\ld seem to be :5 animals fir/ ent]1 & modify ! proportionate numb]s ( c]ta9 species ( plants4 ,if !re be any anomaly 9 ! int]v5tion ( man1 9 f>!r v>y+ ! relative numb]s 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 x may n s mu* consi/ 9 ! k9d or absolute quantity ( alt]ation1 z 9 ! circum/ance t a s+le species1 9 ?is case1 w\ld ex]t1 by its sup]ior p[] & univ]sal di/ribution1 an influ5ce equal to t ( hundr$s ( o!r t]re/rial animals4 ,if we inquire :e!r man1 by 8 direct p[]1 or by ! *anges :i* he may give rise to indirectly1 t5ds1 ^u ! :ole1 to less5 or increase ! inequalities ( ! e>?'s surface1 we %all incl9e1 p]haps1 to ! op9ion t he is a levell+ ag5t4 ,9 m9+ op]ations he conveys upw>ds a c]ta9 quantity ( mat]ials f ! b[els ( ! e>?2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 mu* rock is tak5 annually f ! l&1 9 ! %ape ( balla/1 & aft]w>ds ?r[n into ! sea1 & by ?is means1 9 spite ( prohibitory laws1 _m h>bors1 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 h be5 block$ up4 ,we r>ely transport heavy mat]ials to high] levels1 & our pyramids & cities are *iefly con/ruct$ ( /one br\ght d[n f m elevat$ situations4 ,by pl\gh+ up ?\s&s ( squ>e miles1 & expos+ a surface = "p ( ! ye> to ! action ( ! elem5ts1 we assi/ ! abrad+ =ce ( ra91 & dim9i% ! cons]vative effects ( vegetation4 ,,*apt] ,,xlv4 ,,inclos+ ,,( ,,fossils ,,9 ,,peat1 ,,br[n ,,s&1 ,,& ,,volcanic ,,ejections4 ,division ( ! subject--,imb$d+ ( organic rema9s 9 deposits on em]g$ l&--,gr[? ( peat--,site ( anci5t =e/s 9 ,europe n[ occupi$ by peat--,bog iron-ore--,pres]vation ( animal sub/ances 9 peat--,mir+ ( quadrup$s--,bur/+ ( ! ,solway moss--,great ,dismal ,swamp--,imb$d+ ( organic bodies & human rema9s 9 bl[n s&--,mov+ s&s ( ,african des]ts--,de ,luc on _! rec5t orig9--,buri$ temple ( ,ipsambul--,dri$ c>cases 9 ! s&s--,t[ns ov]:elm$ by s&-floods--,imb$d+ ( organic & o!r rema9s 9 volcanic =mations on ! l&4 ,division ( ! subject4--,! next subject ( inquiry is ! mode 9 :i* ! rema9s ( animals & plants become fossil1 or are buri$ 9 ! e>? by natural causes4 ,m4 ,con/ant ,prevo/ has obs]v$1 t ! effects ( geological causes are divisible into two great classes2 ^? produc$ dur+ ! subm]sion ( l& b5ea? ! wat]s1 & ^? :i* take place aft] its em]sion4 ,agreeably to ?is classification1 ,i %all consid]1 fir/1 9 :at mann] animal & vegetable rema9s become includ$ & pres]v$ 9 deposits on em]g$ l&1 or t "p ( ! surface :i* is n p]man5tly cov]$ by wat]1 :e!r ( seas or lakes2 secondly1 ! mann] 9 :i* organic rema9s become imb$d$ 9 subaque\s deposits4 ,"u ! fir/ division1 ,i %all treat ( ! foll[+ topics3--#a/1 ! gr[? ( peat1 & ! pres]vation ( vegetable & animal rema9s !re92--#b;dly1 ! bury+ ( organic rema9s 9 bl[n s&2--#c;dly1 ( ! same 9 ! ejections & alluviums ( volcanoes2--#d?ly1 9 alluviums g5]ally1 & 9 ! ru9s ( l&slips2--#e?ly1 9 ! mud & /alagmite ( caves & fissures4 ,gr[? ( ,peat1 & ,pres]vation ( ,vegetable & ,animal ,rema9s !re94 ,! g5]ation ( peat1 :5 n completely "u wat]1 is conf9$ to moi/ situations1 :]e ! temp]ature is l[1 & :]e vegetables may decompose )\t putrefy+4 ,x may consi/ ( any ( ! num]\s plants :i* are capable ( gr[+ 9 su* /ations2 b a species ( moss 7,sphagnum7 con/itutes a consid]able "p ( ! peat f\nd 9 m>%es ( ! nor? ( ,europe2 ?is plant hav+ ! prop]ty ( ?r[+ up new %oots 9 its upp] "p1 :ile its l[] extremities are decay+4#ajjc ,re$s1 ru%es1 & o!r aquatic plants may usually be trac$ 9 peat2 & _! organization is (t5 s entire t !re is no difficulty 9 discrim9at+ ! di/9ct species4 ,analysis ( peat4--,9 g5]al1 says ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 "o hundr$ p>ts ( dry peat conta9 f sixty to n9ety-n9e p>ts ( matt] de/ructible by fire2 & ! residuum consi/s ( e>?s usually ( ! same k9d z ! sub/ratum ( clay1 m>l1 gravel1 or rock1 on :i* !y are f\nd1 toge!r ) oxide ( iron4 ,! peat ( ! *alk c\nties ( ,engl&1 obs]ves ! same writ]1 conta9s mu* gypsum3 b ,i h f\nd v little 9 any specim5s f ,irel& or ,scotl&1 & 9 g5]al ^! peats conta9 v little sal9e matt]4#ajjd ,f ! rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 x appe>s t peat is int]m$iate betwe5 simple vegetable matt] & lignite1 ! conv]sion ( peat to lignite be+ gradual1 & be+ br\ght ab\t by a prolong$ action ( wat]4#ajje ,peat abundant 9 cold & humid climates4--,peat is sometimes =m$ on a declivity 9 m\nta9\s regions1 :]e !re is mu* moi/ure2 b 9 su* situations x r>ely1 if ev]1 exce$s f\r feet 9 ?ickness4 ,9 bogs1 & 9 l[ gr\nds into :i* alluvial peat is drift$1 x is f\nd =ty feet ?ick1 & upw>ds2 b 9 su* cases x g5]ally owes "o half ( its volume to ! wat] :i* x conta9s4 ,x has seldom1 if ev]1 be5 discov]$ )9 ! tropics2 & x r>ely occurs 9 ! valleys1 ev5 9 ! s\? ( ,france & ,spa94 ,x ab\nds m & m1 9 proportion z we advance f>!r f ! equator1 & becomes n only m frequ5t b m inflammable 9 nor!rn latitudes4#ajjf ,! same ph5om5on is repeat$ 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,no peat is f\nd 9 ,brazil1 nor ev5 9 ! swampy p>ts ( ! c\ntry dra9$ by ! ,la ,plata on ! ea/ side ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 or 9 ! isl& ( ,*iloe on ! we/2 yet :5 we rea* ! #de? degree ( latitude & exam9e ! ,*onos ,ar*ipelago or ! ,falkl& ,isl&s1 & ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 we meet ) an abundant gr[? ( ?is sub/ance4 ,almo/ all plants contribute "h by _! decay to ! production ( peat1 ev5 ! grasses2 b x is a s+ul> fact1 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 z contra/$ ) :at occurs 9 ,europe1 t no k9d ( moss ent]s into ! composition ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican peat1 :i* is =m$ by _m plants1 b *iefly by t call$ by ,br[n ,a/elia pumila4#ajjg ,i le>n f ,dr4 ,=*hamm] 7#ahdi7 t wat] *>g$ ) vegetable matt] 9 solution does n ?r[ d[n a deposit ( peat 9 c\ntries :]e ! mean temp]ature ( ! ye> is above #dc degrees or #dd degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,fro/ causes ! precipitation ( su* peaty matt]1 b 9 w>m climates ! attraction ( ! c>bon = ! oxyg5 ( ! air me*anically mix$ ) ! wat] increases ) ! increas+ temp]ature1 & ! dissolv$ vegetable matt] or humic acid 7:i* is organic matt] 9 a progressive /ate ( decomposition7 be+ conv]t$ into c>bonic acid1 rises & is absorb$ into ! atmosph]e1 & ?us disappe>s4 ,ext5t ( surface cov]$ by peat4--,!re is a va/ ext5t ( surface 9 ,europe cov]$ ) peat1 :i*1 9 ,irel&1 is said to ext5d ov] a t5? ( ! :ole isl&4 ,"o ( ! mosses on ! ,%annon is describ$ z be+ fifty miles long1 by two or ?ree broad2 & ! great m>% ( ,montoire1 ne> ! m\? ( ! ,loire1 is m5tion$1 by ,blavi]1 z be+ m ?an fifty leagues 9 circumf]5ce4 ,x is a curi\s & well-asc]ta9$ fact1 t _m ( ^! mosses ( ! nor? ( ,europe occupy ! place ( =e/s ( p9e & oak1 :i* h1 _m ( !m1 disappe>$ )9 ! hi/orical era4 ,su* *anges are br\ght ab\t by ! fall ( trees & ! /agnation ( wat]1 caus$ by _! trunks & bran*es ob/ruct+ ! free dra9age ( ! atmosph]ic wat]s1 & giv+ rise to a m>%4 ,9 a w>m climate1 su* decay$ timb] w\ld imm$iately be remov$ by insects1 or by putrefaction2 b1 9 ! cold temp]ature n[ prevail+ 9 our latitudes1 _m examples are record$ ( m>%es orig9at+ 9 ?is s\rce4 ,?us1 9 ,m> =e/1 9 ,ab]de5%ire1 l>ge trunks ( ,scot* fir1 :i* _h fall5 f age & decay1 7 soon immur$ 9 peat1 =m$ p>tly out ( _! p]i%+ leaves & bran*es1 & 9 "p f ! gr[? ( o!r plants4 ,we also le>n1 t ! ov]?r[ ( a =e/ by a /orm1 ab\t ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 gave rise to a peat-moss ne> ,lo*broom1 9 ,ross-%ire1 :]e1 9 less ?an half a c5tury aft] ! fall ( ! trees1 ! inhabitants dug peat4#ajjh ,dr4 ,walk] m5tions a simil> *ange1 :51 9 ! ye> #agef1 ! :ole wood ( ,drumlaurig 9 ,dumfries-%ire 0 ov]set by ! w9d4 ,su* ev5ts expla9 ! occurr5ce1 bo? 9 ,brita9 & on ! ,cont95t1 ( mosses :]e ! trees are all brok5 )9 two or ?ree feet ( ! orig9al surface1 & :]e _! trunks all lie 9 ! same direction4#ajji ,x may h[ev] be sugge/$ 9 ^! cases1 t ! soil _h become exhau/$ = trees1 & t1 on ! pr9ciple ( t natural rotation :i* prevails 9 ! vegetable _w1 "o set ( plants di$ out & ano!r succe$$4 ,x is c]ta9ly a rem>kable fact t 9 ! ,dani% isl&s1 & 9 ,jutl& & ,hol/e91 fir wood ( v>i\s species1 especially ,scot* fir1 is f\nd at ! bottom ( ! peat-mosses1 al?\gh x is well asc]ta9$ t = ! la/ five c5turies no ,conif]ae h gr[n wild 9 ^! c\ntries2 ! conif]\s trees :i* n[ fl\ri% !re hav+ be5 all plant$ t[>ds ! close ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,no?+ is m common ?an ! occurr5ce ( buri$ trees at ! bottom ( ! ,iri% peat-mosses1 z also 9 mo/ ( ^? ( ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,holl&2 & !y h be5 s (t5 obs]v$ ) p>ts ( _! trunks /&+ erect1 & ) _! roots fix$ to ! subsoil1 t no d\bt c be ent]ta9$ ( _! hav+ g5]ally gr[n on ! spot4 ,!y consi/1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( ! fir1 ! oak1 & ! bir*3 :]e ! subsoil is clay1 ! rema9s ( oak are ! mo/ abundant2 :]e s& is ! sub/ratum1 fir prevails4 ,9 ! m>% ( ,curragh1 9 ! ,isle ( ,man1 va/ trees are discov]$ /&+ firm on _! roots1 ?\gh at ! dep? ( eighte5 or tw5ty feet bel[ ! surface4 ,"s naturali/s h desir$ to ref] ! imb$d+ ( timb] 9 peat-mosses to aque\s transportation1 s9ce riv]s are well kn[n to float wood into lakes2 b ! facts above m5tion$ %[ t1 9 num]\s in/ances1 su* an hypo!sis is inadmissible4 ,x has1 moreov]1 be5 obs]v$1 t 9 ,scotl&1 z also 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,cont95t1 ! l>ge/ trees are f\nd 9 ^? peat-mosses :i* lie 9 ! lea/ elevat$ regions1 & t ! trees are proportionally small] 9 ^? :i* lie at high] levels2 f :i* fact ,de ,luc & ,walk] h bo? inf]r$ t ! trees grew on ! spot1 = !y w\ld naturally atta9 a great] size 9 l[] & w>m] levels4 ,! leaves1 also1 & fruits ( ea* species1 are cont9ually f\nd imm]s$ 9 ! moss along ) ! p>5t trees2 z1 = example1 ! leaves & acorns ( ! oak1 ! cones & leaves ( ! fir1 & ! nuts ( ! hazel4 ,rec5t orig9 ( "s peat-mosses4--,9 ,hatfield moss1 9 ,york%ire1 :i* appe>s cle>ly to h be5 a =e/ eighte5 hundr$ ye>s ago1 fir-trees h be5 f\nd n9ety feet long1 & sold = ma/s & keels ( %ips2 oaks h also be5 discov]$ !re above "o hundr$ feet long4 ,! dim5sions ( an oak f ?is moss are giv5 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,no4 #bge1 :i* mu/ h be5 l>g] ?an any tree n[ exi/+ 9 ! ,briti% dom9ions4 ,9 ! same moss ( ,hatfield1 z well z 9 t ( ,k9c>d9e1 9 ,scotl&1 & sev]al o!rs1 ,roman roads h be5 f\nd cov]$ to ! dep? ( eight feet by peat4 ,all ! co9s1 axes1 arms1 & o!r ut5sils f\nd 9 ,briti% & ,fr5* mosses1 are also ,roman2 s t a consid]able portion ( ! peat 9 ,european peat-bogs is evid5tly n m anci5t ?an ! age ( ,julius ,caes>4 ,nor c any ve/iges ( ! anci5t =e/s describ$ by t g5]al1 along ! l9e ( ! great ,roman way 9 ,brita91 be discov]$1 except 9 ! ru9$ trunks ( trees 9 peat4 ,de ,luc asc]ta9$ t ! v sites ( ! aborig9al =e/s ( ,h]c9ia1 ,semana1 ,ard5nes1 & sev]al o!rs1 are n[ occupi$ by mosses & f5s2 & a great "p ( ^! *anges h1 ) mu* probability1 be5 attribut$ to ! /rict ord]s giv5 by ,sev]us1 & o!r emp]ors1 to de/roy all ! wood 9 ! conqu]$ prov9ces4 ,sev]al ( ! ,briti% =e/s1 h[ev]1 :i* are n[ mosses1 7 cut at diff]5t p]iods1 by ord] ( ! ,engli% p>liam5t1 because !y h>bor$ wolves or outlaws4 ,?us ! ,wel% woods 7 cut & burn$1 9 ! reign ( ,edw>d ,i42 z 7 _m ( ^? 9 ,irel&1 by ,h5ry ,,ii41 to prev5t ! natives f h>bor+ 9 !m1 & h>ass+ 8 troops4 ,x is curi\s to reflect t consid]able tracts h1 by ^! accid5ts1 be5 p]man5tly /]iliz$1 & t1 dur+ a p]iod :5 civilization has be5 mak+ great progress1 l>ge areas 9 ,europe h1 by human ag5cy1 be5 r5d]$ less capable ( adm9i/]+ to ! wants ( man4 ,r5nie obs]ves1#ajaj ) tru?1 t 9 ^? regions alone :i* ! ,roman eagle nev] rea*$--9 ! remote circles ( ! ,g]man empire1 9 ,pol& & ,prussia1 & /ill m 9 ,norway1 ,sw$51 & ! va/ empire ( ,russia--c we see :at ,europe 0 be=e x yield$ to ! p[] ( ,rome4 ,desolation n[ reigns :]e /ately =e/s ( p9e & oak once fl\ri%$1 su* z might n[ h suppli$ all ! navies ( ,europe ) timb]4 ,s\rces ( bog iron-ore4--,at ! bottom ( peat-mosses !re is sometimes f\nd a cake1 or pan1 z x is t]m$1 ( oxide ( iron1 & ! frequ5cy ( bog iron-ore is famili> to ! m9]alogi/4 ,! oak1 :i* is s (t5 dy$ black 9 peat1 owes its color to ! same metal4 ,f :at s\rce ! iron is d]iv$ has (t5 be5 a subject ( discussion1 until ! discov]ies ( ,ehr5b]g seem at l5g? to h remov$ ! difficulty4 ,he _h obs]v$ 9 ! m>%es ab\t ,b]l9 a sub/ance ( a deep o*re yell[ pass+ into r$1 :i* cov]$ ! bottom ( ! dit*es1 & :i*1 :]e x _h become dry aft] ! evaporation ( ! wat]1 appe>$ exactly l oxide ( iron4 ,b "u ! microscope x 0 f\nd to consi/ ( sl5d] articulat$ ?reads or plates1 p>tly silice\s & p>tly f]rug9\s1 ( :at he consid]$ an animalcule1 ,gaillonella f]rug9ea1 b :i* mo/ naturali/s n[ reg>d z a plant4#ajaa ,!re c be little d\bt1 !re=e1 t bog iron-ore consi/s ( an aggregate ( millions ( ^! organic bodies invisible to ! nak$ eye4#ajab ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,gaillonella f]rug9ea4 a4 #bjjj times magnifi$4 ,pres]vation ( animal sub/ances 9 peat4--,"o int]e/+ circum/ance att5d+ ! hi/ory ( peat mosses is ! high /ate ( pres]vation ( animal sub/ances buri$ 9 !m = p]iods ( _m ye>s4 ,9 ,june1 #agdg1 ! body ( a woman 0 f\nd six feet deep1 9 a peat-moor 9 ! ,isle ( ,axholm1 9 ,l9coln%ire4 ,! antique s&als on h] feet af=d$ evid5ce ( h] hav+ be5 buri$ !re = _m ages3 yet h] nails1 hair1 & sk91 are describ$ z hav+ %[n h>dly any m>ks ( decay4 ,on ! e/ate ( ! ,e>l ( ,moira1 9 ,irel&1 a human body 0 dug up1 a foot deep 9 gravel1 cov]$ ) elev5 feet ( moss2 ! body 0 completely clo!d & ! g>m5ts seem$ all to be made ( hair4 ,be=e ! use ( wool 0 kn[n 9 t c\ntry ! clo?+ ( ! inhabitants 0 made ( hair1 s t x w\ld appe> t ?is body _h be5 buri$ at t e>ly p]iod2 yet x 0 fre% & unimpair$4#ajac ,9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions we f9d an example record$ ( ! bodies ( two p]sons hav+ be5 buri$ 9 moi/ peat1 9 ,d]by%ire1 9 #afgd1 ab\t a y>d deep1 :i* 7 exam9$ tw5ty-eight ye>s & n9e mon?s aft]w>ds2 ! color ( _! sk9 0 fair & natural1 _! fle% s(t z t ( p]sons newly dead4#ajad ,among o!r analog\s facts we may m5tion1 t 9 digg+ a pit = a well ne> ,dulv]ton1 9 ,som]set%ire1 _m pigs 7 f\nd 9 v>i\s po/ures1 /ill entire4 ,_! %ape 0 well pres]v$1 ! sk91 :i* reta9$ ! hair1 hav+ assum$ a dry1 membran\s appe>ance4 ,_! :ole sub/ance 0 conv]t$ into a :ite1 friable1 lam9at$1 inodor\s1 & ta/eless sub/ance2 b :i*1 :5 expos$ to heat1 emitt$ an odor precisely simil> to broil$ bacon4#ajae ,cause ( ! antiseptic prop]ty ( peat4--,we naturally ask :5ce peat d]ives ?is antiseptic prop]ty8 ,x has be5 attribut$ by "s to ! c>bonic & gallic acids :i* issue f decay$ wood1 z also to ! pres5ce ( *>r$ wood 9 ! l[e/ /rata ( _m peat-mosses1 = *>coal is a p[]ful antiseptic1 & capable ( purify+ wat] already putrid4 ,vegetable gums & res9s also may op]ate 9 ! same way4#ajaf ,! tann9 occasionally pres5t 9 peat is ! produce1 says ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 ( torm5tilla1 & "s o!r plants2 b ! quantity he ?9ks too small1 & its occurr5ce too casual1 to give rise to effects ( any importance4 ,he h9ts t ! s(t p>ts ( animal bodies1 pres]v$ 9 peat-bogs1 may h be5 conv]t$ into adipocire by ! action ( wat] m]ely2 an explanation :i* appe>s cle>ly applicable to "s ( ! cases above enum]at$4#ajag ,mir+ ( quadrup$s4--,! mann]1 h[ev]1 9 :i* peat contributes to pres]ve1 = indef9ite p]iods1 ! h>d] p>ts ( t]re/rial animals1 is a subject ( m imm$iate int]e/ to ! geologi/4 ,!re are two ways 9 :i* animals become occasionally buri$ 9 ! peat ( m>%y gr\nds2 !y ei!r s9k d[n into ! semifluid mud1 und]ly+ a turfy surface ^u :i* !y h ra%ly v5tur$1 or1 at o!r times1 z we %all see 9 ! sequel1 a bog bur/s1 & animals may be involv$ 9 ! peaty alluvium4 ,9 ! ext5sive bogs ( ,newf\ndl&1 cattle are sometimes f\nd buri$ ) only _! heads & necks above gr\nd2 & aft] hav+ rema9$ = days 9 ?is situation1 !y h be5 drawn out by ropes & sav$4 ,9 ,scotl&1 also1 cattle v5tur+ on ! quak+ moss are (t5 mir$1 or lair$1 z x is t]m$2 & 9 ,irel&1 ,mr4 ,k+ ass]ts t ! numb] ( cattle :i* are lo/ 9 sl\ghs is q incr$ible4#ajah ,solway moss4--,! description giv5 ( ! ,solway moss w s]ve to illu/rate ! g5]al "* ( ^! boggy gr\nds4 ,t moss1 obs]ves ,gilp91 is a flat area1 ab\t sev5 miles 9 circumf]5ce1 situat$ on ! we/]n conf9es ( ,engl& & ,scotl&4 ,its surface is cov]$ ) grass & ru%es1 pres5t+ a dry cru/ & a fair appe>ance2 b x %akes "u ! lea/ pressure1 ! bottom be+ uns\nd & semifluid4 ,! adv5tur\s pass5g]1 !re=e1 :o sometimes 9 dry seasons trav]ses ?is p]il\s wa/e1 to save a few miles1 picks 8 cauti\s way ov] ! ru%y tussocks z !y appe> be=e him1 = "h ! soil is firme/4 ,if 8 foot slip1 or if he v5ture to des]t ?is m>k ( security1 x is possible he may nev] m be he>d (4 ,at ! battle ( ,solway1 9 ! "t ( ,h5ry ,,viii4 7#aedb71 :5 ! ,scot* army1 comm&$ by ,oliv] ,s9clair1 0 r\t$1 an un=tunate troop ( horse1 driv5 by _! fe>s1 plung$ into ?is morass1 :i* in/antly clos$ ^u !m4 ,! tale 0 traditional1 b x is n[ au!nticat$2 a man & horse1 9 complete armor1 hav+ be5 f\nd by peat-digg]s1 9 ! place :]e x 0 always suppos$ ! affair _h happ5$4 ,! skeleton ( ea* 0 well pres]v$1 & ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! armor easily di/+ui%$4#ajai ,! same moss1 on ! #af? ( ,decemb]1 #aggb1 hav+ be5 fill$ l a great sponge ) wat] dur+ heavy ra9s1 swell$ to an unusual height above ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 & !n bur/4 ,! turfy cov]+ seem$ = a "t to act l ! sk9 ( a bladd] reta9+ ! fluid )91 till x =c$ a passage = itself1 :5 a /ream ( black half-consolidat$ mud began at fir/ to creep ov] ! pla91 resembl+1 9 ! rate ( its progress1 an ord9>y lava-curr5t4 ,no lives 7 lo/1 b ! deluge totally ov]:elm$ "s cottages1 & cov]$ #djj acres4 ,! highe/ p>ts ( ! orig9al moss subsid$ to ! dep? ( ab\t tw5ty-five feet2 & ! height ( ! moss1 on ! l[e/ p>ts ( ! c\ntry :i* x invad$1 0 at lea/ fifte5 feet4 ,bur/+ ( a peat-moss 9 ,irel&4--,a rec5t inundation 9 ,sligo 7,janu>y1 #ahca71 af=ds ano!r example ( ?is ph5om5on4 ,aft] a sudd5 ?aw ( sn[1 ! bog betwe5 ,bloomfield & ,geevah gave way2 & a black deluge1 c>ry+ ) x ! cont5ts ( a hundr$ acres ( bog1 took ! direction ( a small /ream & roll$ on ) ! viol5ce ( a torr5t1 sweep+ along hea?1 timb]1 mud1 & /ones1 & ov]:elm+ _m mead[s & arable l&4 ,on pass+ ?r\gh "s boggy l&1 ! flood swept out a wide & deep rav9e1 & "p ( ! road lead+ f ,bloomfield to ,/4 ,james's ,well 0 completely c>ri$ away f bel[ ! f\ndation = ! bread? ( #bjj y>ds4 ,great ,dismal ,swamp4--,i h describ$1 9 my ,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1#ajbj an ext5sive swamp or morass1 =ty miles long f nor? to s\?1 & tw5ty-five wide1 betwe5 ! t[ns ( ,norfolk 9 ,virg9ia1 & ,weldon 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,x is call$ ! ,great ,dismal1 & has some:at ! appe>ance ( an inundat$ riv]-pla9 cov]$ ) aquatic trees & %rubs1 ! soil be+ z black z t ( a peat bog4 ,x is high] on all sides except "o ?an ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 t[>ds :i* x s5ds =? /reams ( wat] to ! nor?1 ea/1 & s\?1 receiv+ a supply f ! we/ only4 ,9 its c5tre x rises #ab feet above ! flat region :i* b\nds x4 ,! soil1 to ! dep? ( #ae feet1 is =m$ ( vegetable matt] )\t any admixture1 ( e>?y p>ticles1 & (f]s an exception to a g5]al rule be=e allud$ to1 namely1 t su* peaty accumulations sc>cely ev] occur s f> s\? z lat4 #cf degrees1 or 9 any region :]e ! summ] heat is s great z 9 ,virg9ia4 ,9 digg+ canals ?r\gh ! morass = ! purpose ( obta9+ timb]1 mu* ( ! black soil has be5 ?r[n out f "t to "t1 & expos$ to ! sun & air1 9 :i* case x soon rots away s t no?+ rema9s beh9d1 %[+ cle>ly t x owes its pres]vation to ! %ade af=d$ by a luxuriant vegetation & to ! con/ant evaporation ( ! spongy soil by :i* ! air is cool$ dur+ ! hot mon?s4 ,! surface ( ! bog is c>pet$ ) mosses1 & d5sely cov]$ ) f]ns & re$s1 above :i* _m ev]gre5 %rubs & trees fl\ri%1 especially ! ,:ite ,c$> 7,cupressus ?yoides71 :i* /&s firmly support$ by its long tap roots 9 ! s(te/ p>ts ( ! quagmire4 ,ov] ! :ole ! decidu\s cypress 7,taxodium di/i*um7 is se5 to t[] ) its spread+ top1 9 full leaf 9 ! season :5 ! sun's rays are hotte/1 & :51 if n int]cept$ by a scre5 ( foliage1 !y might soon cause ! fall5 leaves & dead plants ( ! prec$+ autumn to decompose1 in/ead ( add+ _! contributions to ! peaty mass4 ,on ! surface ( ! wide morass lie innum]able trunks ( l>ge & tall trees1 :ile ?\s&s ( o!rs1 bl[n d[n by ! w9ds1 are buri$ at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! black mire bel[4 ,!y rem9d ! geologi/ ( ! pro/rate position ( l>ge /ems ( ,sigill>ia & ,lepidod5dron1 conv]t$ into coal 9 anci5t c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,bones ( h]bivor\s quadrup$s 9 peat4--,! antl]s ( l>ge & full-gr[n /ags are among/ ! mo/ common & conspicu\s rema9s ( animals 9 peat4 ,!y are n horns :i* h be5 %$2 = portions ( ! skull are f\nd atta*$1 prov+ t ! :ole animal p]i%$4 ,bones ( ! ox1 hog1 horse1 %eep1 & o!r h]bivor\s animals1 also occur4 ,m4 ,morr5 has discov]$ 9 ! peat ( ,fl&]s ! bones ( ott]s & beav]s#ajba2 b no rema9s h be5 met ) belong+ to ^? ext9ct quadrup$s1 ( :i* ! liv+ cong5]s inhabit w>m] latitudes1 su* z ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 hippopotamus1 hya5a1 & tig]1 ?\gh ^! are s common 9 sup]ficial deposits ( silt1 mud1 s&1 or /alactite1 9 v>i\s di/ricts ?r\gh\t ,great ,brita94 ,_! abs5ce seems to imply t !y _h ceas$ to live be=e ! atmosph]e ( ?is "p ( ! _w acquir$ t cold & humid "* :i* favors ! gr[? ( peat4 ,rema9s ( %ips1 c41 9 peat mosses4--,f ! facts be=e m5tion$1 t mosses occasionally bur/1 & desc5d 9 a fluid /ate to l[] levels1 x w readily be se5 t lakes & arms ( ! sea may occasionally become ! receptacles ( drift peat4 ,( ?is1 accord+ly1 !re are num]\s examples2 & h5ce ! alt]nations ( clay & s& ) diff]5t deposits ( peat s frequ5t on "s coa/s1 z on ^? ( ! ,baltic & ,g]man ,ocean4 ,we are in=m$ by ,degu]1 t rema9s ( %ips1 nautical in/rum5ts1 & o>s1 h be5 f\nd 9 _m ( ! ,dut* mosses2 & ,g]>d1 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ! ,valley ( ! ,somme1 m5tions t 9 ! l[e/ ti] ( t moss 0 f\nd a boat load$ ) bricks1 prov+ t ^! mosses 7 at "o p]iod navigable lakes & arms ( ! sea1 z 7 also _m mosses on ! coa/ ( ,pic>dy1 ,zeal&1 & ,friesl&1 f :i* soda & salt are procur$4#ajbb ,! canoes1 /one hat*ets1 & /one arr[-heads f\nd 9 peat 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,great ,brita91 lead to simil> conclusions4 ,imb$d+ ( human & o!r rema9s1 & works ( ,art1 9 ,bl[n ,s&4 ,! drift+ ( s& may next be consid]$ among ! causes capable ( pres]v+ organic rema9s & works ( art on ! em]g$ l&4 ,african ,s&s4--,! s&s ( ! ,african des]ts h be5 driv5 by ! we/ w9ds ov] "p ( ! arable l& ( ,egypt1 on ! we/]n bank ( ! ,nile1 9 ^? places :]e valleys op5 into ! pla91 or :]e !re are gorges ?r\gh ! ,libyan m\nta9s4 ,by simil> s&-drifts ! ru9s ( anci5t cities h be5 buri$ betwe5 ! temple ( ,jupit] ,ammon & ,nubia4 ,m4 ,g4 ,a4 ,de ,luc attempt$ to inf] ! rec5t orig9 ( our cont95ts1 f ! fact t ^! mov+ s&s h arriv$ only 9 mod]n times at ! f]tile pla9s ( ! ,nile4 ,! same sc\rge1 he said1 w\ld h afflict$ ,egypt = ages ant]ior to ! times ( hi/ory1 _h ! cont95ts ris5 above ! level ( ! sea sev]al hundr$ c5turies be=e our era4#ajbc ,b ! au?or proce$$ 9 ?is1 z 9 all 8 o!r *ronological computations1 on a multitude ( gratuit\s assumptions4 ,he ought1 9 ! fir/ place1 to h demon/rat$ t ! :ole cont95t ( ,africa 0 rais$ above ! level ( ! sea at "o p]iod2 = unless ?is po9t 0 e/abli%$1 ! region f :5ce ! s&s began to move might h be5 ! la/ addition made to ,africa1 & ! comm5cem5t ( ! s&-flood might h be5 long po/]ior to ! lay+ dry ( ! great] portion ( t cont95t4 ,t ! diff]5t p>ts ( ,europe 7 n all elevat$ at "o "t is n[ g5]ally admitt$4 ,de ,luc %\ld also h po9t$ out ! dep? ( drift s& 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! great ,libyan des]ts1 & h %[n :e!r any valleys ( l>ge dim5sions _h be5 fill$ up--h[ long ^! may h arre/$ ! progress ( ! s&s1 & h[ f> ! flood _h ^u ! :ole advanc$ s9ce ! times ( hi/ory4 ,we h se5 t ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,wilk9son is ( op9ion t1 :ile ! s&-drift is mak+ aggressions at c]ta9 po9ts ^u ! f]tile soil ( ,egypt1 ! alluvial deposit ( ! ,nile is advanc+ v g5]ally ^u ! des]t2 & t1 ^u ! :ole1 ! balance is greatly 9 favor ( ! f]tiliz+ mud4#ajbd ,no mode ( int]m5t c be conceiv$1 m favorable to ! cons]vation ( monum5ts = indef9ite p]iods ?an t n[ s common 9 ! region imm$iately we/w>d ( ! ,nile4 ,! s& :i* surr\nd$ & fill$ ! great temple ( ,ipsambul1 fir/ discov]$ by ,burckh>dt1 & aft]w>ds p>tially uncov]$ by ,belzoni & ,bee*ey1 0 s f9e z to resemble a fluid :5 put 9 motion4 ,nei!r ! features ( ! colossal figures1 nor ! color ( ! /ucco ) :i* "s 7 cov]$1 nor ! pa9t+s on ! walls1 _h receiv$ any injury f be+ envelop$ = ages 9 ?is dry impalpable du/4#ajbe ,at "s future p]iod1 p]haps :5 ! pyramids %all h p]i%$1 ! action ( ! sea1 or an e>?quake1 may lay op5 to ! day "s ( ^! buri$ temples4 ,or we may suppose ! des]t to rema9 undi/urb$1 & *anges 9 ! surr\nd+ sea & l& to modify ! climate & ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds1 s t ^! may !n waft away ! ,libyan s&s z gradually z !y once br\ght !m to ^? regions4 ,?us1 _m a t[n & temple ( high] antiquity ?an ,!bes or ,memphis may reappe> 9 _! orig9al antiquity1 & a "p ( ! gloom :i* ov]hangs ! hi/ory ( ! e>li] nations be dispell$4 ,:ole c>avans are said to h be5 ov]:elm$ by ! ,libyan s&s2 & ,burckh>dt in=ms u t aft] pass+ ! ,akaba ne> ! head ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 ! bones ( dead camels are ! only guides ( ! pilgrim ?r\gh ! wa/es ( s&4--,we did n see1 says ,capta9 ,lyon1 speak+ ( a pla9 ne> ! ,s\dah m\nta9s1 9 ,nor!rn ,africa1 ! lea/ appe>ance ( vegetation2 b obs]v$ _m skeletons ( animals1 :i* _h di$ ( fatigue on ! des]t1 & occasionally ! grave ( "s human be+4 ,all ^! bodies 7 s dri$ by ! heat ( ! sun1 t putrefaction appe>s n to h tak5 place aft] dea?4 ,9 rec5tly expir$ animals ,i c\ld n p]ceive ! slighte/ (f5sive smell2 & 9 ^? long dead1 ! sk9 ) ! hair on x rema9$ unbrok5 & p]fect1 al?\gh s brittle z to break ) a slight bl[4 ,! s&-w9ds nev] cause ^! c>cases to *ange _! places2 =1 9 a %ort "t1 a slight m\nd is =m$ r\nd !m1 & !y become /ation>y4#ajbf ,t[ns ov]:elm$ by s& floods4--,! bury+ ( sev]al t[ns & villages 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,jutl&1 by bl[n s&1 is on record2 ?us1 = example1 ne> ,/4 ,pol de ,leon1 9 ,brittany1 a :ole village 0 completely buri$ b5ea? drift s&1 s t no?+ 0 se5 b ! spire ( ! *ur*4#ajbg ,9 ,jutl& m>9e %ells adh]+ to sea-we$ are sometimes bl[n by ! viol5ce ( ! w9d to ! height ( #ajj feet1 & buri$ 9 simil> hills ( s&4 ,9 ,suffolk1 9 ! ye> #afhh1 "p ( ,d[nham 0 ov]:elm$ by s&s :i* _h brok5 loose ab\t #ajj ye>s be=e1 f a w>r5 five miles to ! s\?-we/4 ,?is s& _h1 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury1 travell$ five miles1 & cov]$ m ?an #ajjj acres ( l&4#ajbh ,a consid]able tract ( cultivat$ l& on ! nor? coa/ ( ,cornwall has be5 inundat$ by drift s&1 =m+ hills sev]al hundr$ feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & compos$ ( comm9ut$ m>9e %ells1 9 :i* "s t]re/rial %ells are enclos$ entire4 ,by ! %ift+ ( ^! s&s ! ru9s ( anci5t build+s h be5 discov]$2 & 9 "s cases :]e wells h be5 bor$ to a great dep?1 di/9ct /rata1 sep>at$ by a vegetable cru/1 are visible4 ,9 "s places1 z at ,new ,quay1 l>ge masses h become suffici5tly indurat$ to be us$ = ar*itectural purposes4 ,! lapidification1 :i* is /ill 9 progress1 appe>s to be due to oxide ( iron held 9 solution by ! wat] :i* p]colates ! s&4#ajbi ,imb$d+ ( ,organic & o!r ,rema9s 9 ,volcanic ,=mations on ! ,l&4 ,i h 9 "s degree anticipat$ ! subject ( ?is section 9 =m] *apt]s1 :5 speak+ ( ! buri$ cities ar\nd ,naples1 & ^? on ! flanks ( ,etna 7pp4 #che4 #djj474 ,f ! facts ref]r$ to1 x appe>$ t ! pres]vation ( human rema9s & works ( art is frequ5tly due to ! desc5t ( floods caus$ by ! copi\s ra9s :i* accompany eruptions4 ,^! aque\s lavas1 z !y are call$ 9 ,campania1 fl[ ) great rapidity1 & 9 #ahbb surpris$ & suffocat$1 z 0 /at$1 sev5 p]sons 9 ! villages ( ,/4 ,seba/ian & ,massa1 on ! flanks ( ,vesuvius4 ,9 ! tuffs1 moreov]1 or solidifi$ mud1 deposit$ by ^! aque\s lavas1 impressions ( leaves & ( trees h be5 obs]v$4 ,"s ( ^?1 =m$ aft] ! eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahbb1 are n[ pres]v$ 9 ! museum at ,naples4 ,lava itself may become indirectly ! means ( pres]v+ t]re/rial rema9s1 by ov]fl[+ b$s ( a%es1 pumice1 & eject$ matt]1 :i* may h be5 %[]$ d[n ^u animals & plants1 or ^u human rema9s4 ,few sub/ances are bett] non-conductors ( heat ?an volcanic du/ & scoriae1 s t a b$ ( su* mat]ials is r>ely melt$ by a sup]impos$ lava-curr5t4 ,aft] consolidation1 ! lava af=ds secure protection to ! light] & m removable mass bel[1 9 :i* ! organic relics may be envelop$4 ,! ,h]culanean tuffs conta9+ ! rolls ( papyrus1 ( :i* ! *>act]s are /ill legible1 h1 z 0 be=e rem>k$1 be5 = ages cov]$ by lava4 ,ano!r mode by :i* lava may t5d to ! cons]vation ( imb$d$ rema9s1 at lea/ ( works ( human art1 is by its ov]fl[+ !m :5 x is n int5sely heat$1 9 :i* case !y sometimes suff] little or no injury4 ,?us :5 ! ,etnean lava-curr5t ( #affi cov]$ f\rte5 t[ns & villages1 & "p ( ! city ( ,catania1 x did n melt d[n a great numb] ( /atues & o!r articles 9 ! vaults ( ,catania2 & at ! dep? ( ?irty-five feet 9 ! same curr5t1 on ! site ( ,mompili]e1 "o ( ! buri$ t[ns1 ! bell ( a *ur* & "s /atues 7 f\nd un9jur$ 7p4 #dja474 ,we read ( sev]al buri$ cities 9 ,c5tral ,india1 & among o!rs ( ,ouje9 7or ,ooja97 :i* ab\t fifty ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era 0 ! seat ( empire1 ( art1 & ( le>n+2 b :i* 9 ! "t ( ! ,rajah ,vicramaditya1 0 ov]:elm$1 accord+ to tradition1 toge!r ) m ?an eighty o!r l>ge t[ns 9 ! prov9ces ( ,malwa & ,bagur1 by a %[] ( e>?4 ,! city :i* n[ be>s ! "n is situat$ a mile to ! s\?w>d ( ! anci5t t[n4 ,on digg+ on ! spot :]e ! latt] is suppos$ to h /ood1 to ! dep? ( fifte5 or eighte5 feet1 !re are frequ5tly discov]$1 says ,mr4 ,hunt]1 entire brick walls1 pill>s ( /one1 & pieces ( wood ( an extraord9>y h>dness1 besides ut5sils ( v>i\s k9ds1 anci5t co9s1 & occasionally buri$ :eat 9 a /ate resembl+ *>coal4#ajcj ,! soil :i* cov]s ,ouje9 is describ$ z be+ ( an a%-gray color1 ) m9ute specks ( black s&4#ajca ,& ! %[] ( e>?1 said to h fall5 f heav51 has be5 attribut$ by "s travell]s to volcanic ag5cy4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 no active volcanoes 9 ,c5tral ,india1 ! ne>e/ to ,ouje9 be+ ,d5odur hill ne> ,bhooj1 ! capital ( ,cut*1 #cjj geographical miles di/ant1 if inde$ t hill has ev] p\r$ out lava 9 hi/orical times1 :i* is d\bt$ by _m4#ajcb ,! late/ writ]s on ,ouje9 av[ _! suspicion t ! suppos$ cata/rophe 0 no?+ m ?an ! political decl9e & f9al ab&onm5t ( a great city :i*1 l ,n9eveh or ,babylon1 & _m an anci5t seat ( empire 9 ! ,ea/1 aft] los+ its importance z a metropolis1 became a heap ( ru9s4 ,! rapidity ) :i* ! sun-dri$ bricks1 ( :i* ev5 ! mo/ spl5did ori5tal palaces are (t5 con/ruct$1 crumble d[n :5 expos$ to ra9 & sun1 & are conv]t$ into m\nds ( ord9>y e>? & clay1 is well kn[n4 ,accord+ to ,capta9 ,dang]field1 trap tuff & column> basalt con/itute ! rocks 9 ! environs ( ,ouje9#ajcc1 & ! volcanic nature ( ^! =mations1 f :i* ! mat]ials ( ! bricks 7 orig9ally d]iv$1 may h l$ to ! idea ( ! city hav+ be5 ov]:elm$ by a volcanic eruption4 ,,*apt] ,,xlvi4 ,,bury+ ,,( ,,fossils ,,9 ,,alluvial ,,deposits ,,& ,,9 ,,caves4 ,fossils 9 alluvium--,effects ( sudd5 inundations--t]re/rial animals mo/ abundantly pres]v$ 9 alluvium :]e e>?quakes prevail--,m>9e alluvium--,buri$ t[n--,effects ( ,l&slips--,organic rema9s 9 fissures & caves--,=m & dim5sions ( cav]ns--_! probable orig9--,clos$ bas9s & subt]ranean riv]s ( ! ,morea--,katavo?ra--,=mation ( breccias ) r$ cem5t--,human rema9s imb$d$ 9 ,morea--,int]mixture1 9 caves ( ,s\? ( ,france & else:]e1 ( human rema9s & bones ( ext9ct quadrup$s1 no pro( ( =m] co-exi/5ce ( man ) ^? lo/ species4 ,fossils 9 alluvium4--,! next subject = our consid]ation1 accord+ to ! division be=e propos$1 is ! emb$d+ ( organic bodies 9 alluvium4 ,! gravel1 s&1 & mud 9 ! b$ ( a riv] does n (t5 conta9 any animal or vegetable rema9s2 = ! :ole mass is s cont9ually %ift+ its place1 & ! attrition ( ! v>i\s p>ts is s great1 t ev5 ! h>de/ rocks conta9$ 9 x are1 at l5g?1 gr\nd d[n to p[d]4 ,b :5 s& & s$im5t are sudd5ly swept by a flood1 & !n let fall ^u ! l&1 su* an alluvium may envelop trees or ! rema9s ( animals1 :i*1 9 ?is mann]1 are (t5 p]man5tly pres]v$4 ,9 ! mud & s& produc$ by ! floods 9 ,scotl&1 9 #ahbi1 ! dead & mutilat$ bodies ( h>es1 rabbits1 moles1 mice1 p>tridges1 & ev5 ! bodies ( m51 7 f\nd p>tially buri$4#ajcd ,b 9 ^! & simil> cases "o flood usually effaces ! memorials left by ano!r1 & !re is r>ely a suffici5t dep? ( undi/urb$ transport$ matt]1 9 any "o spot1 to pres]ve ! organic rema9s = ages f de/ruction4 ,:]e e>?quakes prevail1 & ! levels ( a c\ntry are *ang$ f "t to "t1 ! rema9s ( animals may m easily be inhum$ & protect$ f dis9tegration4 ,portions ( pla9s1 load$ ) alluvial accumulations by transi5t floods1 may be gradually uprais$2 &1 if any organic rema9s h be5 imb$d$ 9 ! transport$ mat]ials1 !y may1 aft] su* elevation1 be plac$ beyond ! rea* ( ! erosive p[] ( /reams4 ,9 di/ricts :]e ! dra9age is repeat$ly d]ang$ by subt]ranean movem5ts1 e fissure1 e holl[ caus$ by ! s9k+ 9 ( l&1 becomes a depository ( organic & inorganic sub/ances1 hurri$ along by transi5t floods4 ,m>9e alluvium4--,9 ,may1 #aghg1 a dreadful inundation ( ! sea 0 caus$ at ,cor+a1 ,+]am1 & o!r places1 on ! coa/ ( ,corom&el1 9 ! ,ea/ ,indies1 by a hurricane bl[+ f ! ,n4 ,e41 :i* rais$ ! wat]s s t !y roll$ inl& to ! di/ance ( ab\t tw5ty miles f ! %ore1 swept away _m villages1 dr[n$ m ?an #aj1jjj p1 & left ! c\ntry cov]$ ) m>9e mud1 on :i* ! c>casses ( ab\t #ajj1jjj head ( cattle 7 /rew$4 ,an old tradition ( ! natives ( a simil> flood1 said to h happ5$ ab\t a c5tury be=e1 01 till ?is ev5t1 reg>d$ z fabul\s by ! ,european settl]s4#ajce ,! same coa/ ( ,corom&el 01 s late z ,may1 #ahcb1 ! sc5e ( ano!r cata/rophe ( ! same k9d2 & :5 ! inundation subsid$1 sev]al vessels 7 se5 gr\nd$ 9 ! fields ( ! l[ c\ntry ab\t ,cor+a4 ,_m ( ! /orms t]m$ hurricanes h evid5tly be5 connect$ ) subm>9e e>?quakes1 z is %[n by ! atmosph]ic ph5om5a att5dant on !m1 & by ! s\nds he>d 9 ! gr\nd & ! odors emitt$4 ,su* 7 ! circum/ances :i* accompani$ ! swell ( ! sea 9 ,jamaica1 9 #aghj1 :5 a great wave desolat$ ! we/]n coa/1 & bur/+ ^u ,savanna la ,m>1 swept away ! :ole t[n 9 an in/ant1 s t n a ve/ige ( man1 bea/1 or habitation1 0 se5 ^u ! surface4#ajcf ,h\ses & works ( art 9 alluvial deposits4--,a v anci5t subt]ranean t[n1 app>5tly ( ,h9doo orig91 0 discov]$ 9 ,india 9 #ahcc1 9 digg+ ! ,doab canal4 ,its site is nor? ( ,sah>unpore1 ne> ! t[n ( ,behat1 & sev5te5 feet bel[ ! pres5t surface ( ! c\ntry4 ,m ?an #agj co9s ( silv] & copp] h already be5 f\nd1 & _m articles 9 metal & e>!nw>e4 ,! ov]ly+ deposit consi/$ ( ab\t five feet ( riv] s&1 ) a sub/ratum ab\t twelve feet ?ick ( r$ alluvial clay4 ,9 ! neighborhood are sev]al riv]s & torr5ts1 :i* desc5d f ! m\nta9s *>g$ ) va/ quantities ( mud1 s&1 & %+le2 & )9 ! memory ( p]sons n[ liv+ ! mod]n ,behat has be5 ?reat5$ by an inundation1 :i*1 aft] retreat+1 left ! neighbor+ c\ntry /rew$ ov] ) a sup]ficial cov]+ ( s& sev]al feet ?ick4 ,9 s9k+ wells 9 ! environs1 masses ( %+le & b\ld]s h be5 rea*$ resembl+ ^? n[ 9 ! riv]-*annels ( ! same di/rict1 "u a deposit ( ?irty feet ( r$di% loam4 ,capta9 ,cautley1 !re=e1 :o direct$ ! excavations1 supposes t ! matt] dis*>g$ by torr5ts has gradually rais$ ! :ole c\ntry skirt+ ! base ( ! l[] hills2 & t ! anci5t t[n1 hav+ be5 orig9ally built 9 a holl[1 0 subm]g$ by floods1 & cov]$ ov] ) s$im5t sev5te5 feet 9 ?ickness4#ajcg ,we are in=m$1 by ,m4 ,boblaye1 t 9 ! ,morea1 ! =mation t]m$ c>amique1 consi/+ ( pott]y1 tiles1 & bricks1 int]mix$ ) v>i\s works ( art1 ent]s s l>gely into ! alluvium & vegetable soil ^u ! pla9s ( ,greece1 & into h>d & cry/all9e breccias :i* h be5 =m$ at ! foot ( declivities1 t x con/itutes an important /ratum :i* might1 9 ! abs5ce ( zoological *>act]s1 s]ve to m>k our epo* 9 a mo/ inde/ructible mann]4#ajch ,l&slips4--,! l&slip1 by sudd5ly precipitat+ l>ge masses ( rock & soil into a valley1 ov]:elms a multitude ( animals1 & sometimes buries p]man5tly :ole villages1 ) _! inhabitants & l>ge h]ds ( cattle4 ,?us ?ree villages1 ) _! entire population1 7 cov]$1 :5 ! m\nta9 ( ,piz fell 9 #aggb1 9 ! di/rict ( ,treviso1 9 ! /ate ( ,v5ice1#ajci & "p ( ,m\nt ,gr5i]1 s\? ( ,*amb]y1 9 ,savoy1 :i* fell d[n 9 ! ye> #abdh1 buri$ five p>i%es1 includ+ ! t[n & *ur* ( ,/4 ,&ra1 ! ru9s occupy+ an ext5t ( ab\t n9e squ>e miles4#ajdj ,! numb] ( lives lo/ by ! slide ( ! ,rossb]g1 9 ,switz]l&1 9 #ahjf1 0 e/imat$ at m ?an #hjj1 a great numb] ( ! bodies1 z well z sev]al villages & scatt]$ h\ses1 be+ buri$ deep "u mud & rock4 ,9 ! same c\ntry1 sev]al hundr$ cottages1 ) eighte5 ( _! inhabitants & a great numb] ( c[s1 goats1 & %eep1 7 victims to ! sudd5 fall ( a b$ ( /ones1 ?irty y>ds deep1 :i* desc5d$ f ! summits ( ! ,diabl]ets 9 ,vallais4 ,9 ! ye> #afah1 a portion ( ,m\nt ,conto fell1 9 ! c\nty ( ,*iav5na1 9 ,switz]l&1 & buri$ ! t[n ( ,pleurs ) all its inhabitants1 to ! numb] ( #bdcj4 ,x is unnecess>y to multiply examples ( simil> local cata/rophes1 :i* h[ev] num]\s !y may h be5 9 m\nta9\s p>ts ( ,europe1 )9 ! hi/orical p]iod1 h be51 nev]!less1 ( r>e occurr5ce :5 comp>$ to ev5ts ( ! same k9d :i* h tak5 place 9 regions convuls$ by e>?quakes4 ,x is !n t enorm\s masses ( rock & e>?1 ev5 9 comp>atively l[ & level c\ntries1 are deta*$ f ! sides ( valleys1 & ca/ d[n into ! riv] c\rses1 & (t5 s unexpect$ly t !y ov]:elm1 ev5 9 ! daytime1 e liv+ ?+ ^u ! pla9s4 ,pres]vation ( ,organic ,rema9s 9 ,fissures & ,caves4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( e>?quakes x 0 %[n t _m hundr$s ( new fissures & *asms _h op5$ 9 c]ta9 regions dur+ ! la/ #aej ye>s1 "s ( :i* are describ$ z be+ ( unfa?omable dep?4 ,we also p]ceive t m\nta9 masses h be5 viol5tly fractur$ & dislocat$1 dur+ _! rise above ! level ( ! sea2 & ?us we may acc\nt = ! exi/5ce ( _m cavities 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>? by ! simple ag5cy ( e>?quakes2 b !re are "s cav]ns1 especially 9 lime/one rocks1 :i*1 al?\gh usually1 if n always1 connect$ ) r5ts1 are nev]!less ( su* =ms1 & dim5sions1 alt]nately exp&+ into spaci\s *amb]s1 & !n contract+ aga9 into n>r[ passages1 t x is difficult to conceive t !y c owe _! orig9 to ! m]e fractur+ & displacem5t ( solid masses4 ,9 ! lime/one ( ,k5tucky1 9 ! bas9 ( ,gre5 ,riv]1 "o ( ! tribut>ies ( ! ,ohio1 a l9e ( und]gr\nd cavities has be5 trac$ 9 "o direction = a di/ance ( t5 miles1 )\t any t]m9ation2 & "o ( ! *amb]s1 ( :i* !re are _m1 all connect$ by n>r[ tunnels1 is no less ?an t5 acres 9 area & #aej feet 9 its greate/ height4 ,besides ! pr9cipal s]ies ( antres va/1 !re are a great _m lat]al embran*m5ts n yet explor$4#ajda ,! cav]n\s /ructure "h allud$ to is n altoge!r conf9$ to calc>e\s rocks2 = x has lately be5 obs]v$ 9 micace\s & argillace\s s*i/ 9 ! ,grecian isl& ( ,!rmia 7,cy?nos ( ! anci5ts71 "o ( ! ,cyclades4 ,"h also spaci\s halls1 ) r\nd$ & irregul> walls1 are connect$ toge!r by n>r[ passages or tunnels1 & !re are _m lat]al bran*es :i* h no outlet4 ,a curr5t ( wat] has evid5tly at "s p]iod fl[$ ?r\gh ! :ole1 & left a muddy deposit ( blui% clay ^u ! floor2 b ! erosive action ( ! /ream _c be suppos$ to h giv5 rise to ! excavations 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,m4 ,virlet sugge/s t fissures 7 fir/ caus$ by e>?quakes1 & t ^! fissures became ! *imneys or v5ts = ! dis5gagem5t ( gas1 g5]at$ bel[ by volcanic heat4 ,gases1 he obs]ves1 su* z ! muriatic1 sulphuric1 fluoric1 & o!rs1 might1 if rais$ to a high temp]ature1 alt] & decompose ! rocks :i* !y trav]se4 ,!re are signs ( ! =m] action ( su* vapors 9 r5ts ( ! micace\s s*i/ ( ,!rmia1 & !rmal spr+s n[ issue f ! grottoes ( t isl&4 ,we may suppose t aft]w>ds ! elem5ts ( ! decompos$ rocks 7 gradually remov$ 9 a /ate ( solution by m9]al wat]s2 a !ory :i*1 accord+ to ,m4 ,virlet1 is confirm$ by ! effect ( heat$ gases :i* escape f r5ts 9 ! i/hmus ( ,cor9?1 & :i* h greatly alt]$ & corrod$ ! h>d silice\s & jaspide\s rocks4#ajdb ,:5 we reflect on ! quantity ( c>bonate ( lime annually p\r$ out by m9]al wat]s1 we are prep>$ to admit t l>ge cavities mu/1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 be =m$ at consid]able dep?s bel[ ! surface 9 calc>e\s rocks4#ajdc ,^! rocks1 x w be rememb]$1 are at once m soluble1 m p]meable1 & m fragile1 ?an any o!rs1 at lea/ all ! compact v>ieties are v easily brok5 by ! movem5ts ( e>?quakes1 :i* w\ld produce only flexures 9 argillace\s /rata4 ,fissures once =m$ 9 lime/one are n liable1 z 9 _m o!r =mations1 to become clos$ up by imp]vi\s clayey matt]1 & h5ce a /ream ( acidul\s wat] might = ages obta9 a free & unob/ruct$ passage4#ajdd ,morea4--,no?+ is m common 9 lime/one di/ricts ?an ! engulfm5t ( riv]s1 :i* aft] hold+ a subt]ranean c\rse = _m miles escape aga9 by "s new outlet4 ,z !y are usually *>g$ ) f9e s$im5t1 & (t5 ) s& & pebbles :]e !y ent]1 :]eas !y are usually pure & limpid :]e !y fl[ out aga91 !y mu/ deposit mu* matt] 9 empty spaces 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,9 addition to ! mat]ials ?us introduc$1 /alagmite1 or c>bonate ( lime1 drops f ! ro(s ( cav]ns1 & 9 ?is mixture ! bones ( animals wa%$ 9 by riv]s are (t5 entomb$4 ,9 ?is mann] we may acc\nt = ^? bony breccias :i* we (t5 f9d 9 caves1 "s ( :i* are ( high antiquity :ile o!rs are v rec5t & 9 daily progress4 ,9 no di/rict are engulf$ /reams m conspicu\s ?an 9 ! ,morea1 :]e ! ph5om5a att5d+ !m h be5 lately /udi$ & describ$ 9 great detail by ,m4 ,boblaye & 8 fell[-labor]s ( ! ,fr5* exp$ition to ,greece4#ajde ,_! acc\nt is peculi>ly int]e/+ to geologi/s1 because x ?r[s light on ! r$ osse\s breccias conta9+ ! bones ( ext9ct quadrup$s :i* are s common 9 almo/ all ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,x appe>s t ! num]\s cav]ns ( ! ,morea occur 9 a compact lime/one1 ( ! age ( ! ,engli% *alk1 imm$iately bel[ :i* are ar5ace\s /rata ref]r$ to ! p]iod ( our gre5s&4 ,9 ! m elevat$ di/ricts ( t p59sula !re are _m deep l&-lock$ valleys1 or bas9s1 clos$ r\nd on all sides by m\nta9s ( fissur$ & cav]n\s lime/one4 ,! ye> is divid$ almo/ z di/9ctly z betwe5 ! tropics into a ra9y season1 :i* la/s upw>ds ( f\r mon?s1 & a season ( dr\ght ( ne>ly eight mon?s' duration4 ,:5 ! torr5ts are swoll5 by ! ra9s1 !y ru% f surr\nd+ heights into ! inclos$ bas9s2 b1 in/ead ( giv+ rise to lakes1 z w\ld be ! case 9 mo/ o!r c\ntries1 !y are receiv$ into gulfs or *asms1 call$ by ! ,greeks ,katavo?ra1 & :i* correspond to :at are t]m$ swall[-holes 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&4 ,! wat] ( ^! torr5ts is *>g$ ) pebbles & r$ o*re\s e>?1 resembl+ precisely ! well-kn[n cem5t ( ! osse\s breccias ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,x dissolves 9 acids ) eff]vesc5ce1 & leaves a residue ( hydrat$ oxide ( iron1 granul> iron1 impalpable gra9s ( silex1 & small cry/als ( qu>tz4 ,soil ( ! same description ab\nds ev]y:]e on ! surface ( ! decompos+ lime/one 9 ,greece1 t rock conta9+ 9 x mu* silice\s & f]rug9\s matt]4 ,_m ( ! ,katavo?ra be+ insuffici5t to give passage to all ! wat] 9 ! ra9y season1 a tempor>y lake is =m$ r\nd ! m\? ( ! *asm1 :i* !n becomes /ill f>!r ob/ruct$ by pebbles1 s&1 & r$ mud1 ?r[n d[n f ! turbid wat]s4 ,! lake be+ ?us rais$1 its wat]s g5]ally escape ?r\gh o!r op5+s1 at high] levels1 ar\nd ! bord]s ( ! pla91 con/itut+ ! bottom ( ! clos$ bas94 ,9 "s places1 z at ,kav>os & ,tripolitza1 :]e ! pr9cipal dis*>ge is by a gulf 9 ! middle ( ! pla91 no?+ c be se5 ov] ! op5+ 9 summ]1 :5 ! lake dries up1 b a deposit ( r$ mud1 crack$ 9 all directions4 ,b ! ,katavo?ron is m commonly situat$ at ! foot ( ! surr\nd+ esc>pm5t ( lime/one2 & 9 t case !re is sometimes room en\gh to all[ a p]son to ent]1 9 summ]1 & ev5 to p5etrate f> into ! int]ior4 ,)9 is se5 a suite ( *amb]s1 communicat+ ) ea* o!r by n>r[ passages2 & ,m4 ,virlet relates1 t 9 "o in/ance he obs]v$1 ne> ! entrance1 human bones imb$d$ 9 rec5t r$ mud1 m+l$ ) ! rema9s ( plants & animals ( species n[ inhabit+ ! ,morea4 ,x is n wond]ful1 he says1 t ! bones ( man %\ld be met ) 9 su* receptacles2 = s murd]\s h be5 ! late w>s 9 ,greece1 t skeletons are (t5 se5 ly+ expos$ on ! surface ( ! c\ntry4#ajdf ,9 summ]1 :5 no wat] is fl[+ into ! ,katavo?ron1 its m\?1 half clos$ up ) r$ mud1 is mask$ by a vigor\s vegetation1 :i* is *]i%$ by ! moi/ure ( ! place4 ,x is !n ! favorite hid+-place & d5 ( foxes & jackals2 s t ! same cavity s]ves at "o season ( ! ye> = ! habitation ( c>nivor\s bea/s1 & at ano!r z ! *annel ( an engulf$ riv]4 ,ne> ! m\? ( "o *asm1 ,m4 ,boblaye & 8 companions saw ! c>cass ( a horse1 9 "p dev\r$1 ! size ( :i* seem$ to h prev5t$ ! jackals f dragg+ x 93 ! m>ks ( _! tee? 7 obs]v$ on ! bones1 & x 0 evid5t t ! floods ( ! ensu+ w9t] w\ld wa% 9 :atsoev] might rema9 ( ! skeleton4 ,x has be5 /at$ t ! wat]s ( all ^! torr5ts ( ! ,morea are turbid :]e !y are engulf$2 b :5 !y come out aga91 (t5 at ! di/ance ( _m leagues1 !y are p]fectly cle> & limpid1 be+ only *>g$ occasionally ) a slight quantity ( calc>e\s s&4 ,! po9ts ( efflux are usually ne> ! sea-%ores ( ! ,morea1 b sometimes !y are subm>9e2 & :5 ?is is ! case1 ! s&s are se5 to boil up = a consid]able space1 & ! surface ( ! sea1 9 calm wea!r1 swells 9 l>ge convex waves4 ,x is curi\s to reflect1 t :5 ?is dis*>ge fails 9 seasons ( dr\ght1 ! pressure ( ! sea may =ce its salt wat]s into subt]rane\s cav]ns1 & c>ry 9 m>9e s& & %ells1 to be m+l$ ) ossif]\s mud1 & ! rema9s ( t]re/rial animals4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 ! efflux ( wat] at ^! inf]ior op5+s is surpris+ly uni=m4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 t ! l>ge cav]ns 9 ! int]ior mu/ s]ve z res]voirs1 & t ! wat] escapes gradually f !m1 9 consequ5ce ( ! smallness ( ! r5ts & passages by :i* !y communicate ) ! surface4 ,! ph5om5a above describ$ are n conf9$ to ! ,morea1 b occur 9 ,greece g5]ally1 & 9 ^? p>ts ( ,italy1 ,spa91 ,asia ,m9or1 & ,syria1 :]e ! =mations ( ! ,morea ext5d4 ,! ,copaic lake 9 ,boeotia has no outlet1 except by und]gr\nd *annels2 & h5ce we c expla9 ^? traditional & hi/orical acc\nts ( its hav+ ga9$ on ! surr\nd+ pla9s & ov]fl[$ t[ns1 z su* floods mu/ h happ5$ :5ev] ! outlet 0 p>tially *ok$ up by mud1 gravel1 or ! subsid5ce ( rocks1 caus$ by e>?quakes4 ,:5 speak+ ( ! num]\s fissures 9 ! lime/one ( ,greece1 ,m4 ,boblaye rem9ds u ( ! fam\s e>?quake ( #dfi ,b4,c41 :51 z we le>n f ,cic]o1 ,plut>*1 ,/rabo1 & ,pl9y1 ,sp>ta 0 laid 9 ru9s1 "p ( ! summit ( ,m\nt ,taygetus torn (f1 & num]\s gulfs & fissures caus$ 9 ! rocks ( ,laconia4 ,dur+ ! great e>?quake ( #afic1 9 ,sicily1 sev]al ?\s& p 7 at once entomb$ 9 ! ru9s ( cav]ns 9 lime/one1 at ,sort9o ,vec*io2 &1 at ! same "t1 a l>ge /ream1 :i* _h issu$ = ages f "o ( ! grottoes bel[ t t[n1 *ang$ sudd5ly its subt]ranean c\rse1 & came out f ! m\? ( a cave l[] d[n ! valley1 :]e no wat] _h previ\sly fl[$4 ,to ?is new po9t ! anci5t wat]-mills 7 transf]r$1 z ,i le>nt :5 ,i visit$ ! spot 9 #ahbi4 ,:5 ! c\rses ( engulf$ riv]s are ?us liable to *ange1 f "t to "t1 by alt]ations 9 ! levels ( a c\ntry1 & by ! r5d+ & %att]+ ( m\nta9 masses1 we mu/ suppose t ! d5s ( wild bea/s w sometimes be inundat$ by subt]ranean floods1 & _! c>casses buri$ "u heaps ( alluvium4 ,! bones1 moreov]1 ( individuals :i* h di$ 9 ! recesses ( caves1 or ( animals :i* h be5 c>ri$ 9 = prey1 may be drift$ along1 & mix$ up ) mud1 s&1 & fragm5ts ( rocks1 s z to =m osse\s breccias4 ,9 #ahcc ,i _h an opportunity ( exam9+ ! celebrat$ caves ( ,franconia1 & among o!rs t ( ,rab5/e91 newly discov]$4 ,_! g5]al =m1 & ! nature & arrangem5t ( _! cont5ts1 appe>$ to me to agree p]fectly ) ! notion ( _! hav+ once s]v$ z ! *annels ( subt]ranean riv]s4 ,?is mode ( acc\nt+ = ! introduction ( transport$ matt] into ! ,franconian & o!r caves1 fill$ up z !y (t5 are ev5 to _! ro(s ) osse\s breccia1 0 long ago propos$ by ,m4 ,c4 ,prevo/1#ajdg & seems at l5g? to be v g5]ally adopt$4 ,b ,i d n d\bt t be>s inhabit$ "s ( ! ,g]man caves1 or t ! cav]n ( ,kirkdale1 9 ,york%ire1 0 once ! d5 ( hya5as4 ,! abundance ( bony dung1 associat$ ) hya5as' bones1 has be5 po9t$ out by ,dr4 ,buckl&1 & ) reason1 z confirmatory ( ?is op9ion4 ,! same au?or obs]v$ 9 e cave exam9$ by him 9 ,g]many1 t deposits ( mud & s&1 ) or )\t roll$ pebbles & angul> fragm5ts ( rock1 7 cov]$ ov] ) a s+le cru/ ( /alagmite4#ajdh ,9 ! ,engli% caves he rem>k$ a simil> abs5ce ( alt]ations ( alluvium & /alagmite4 ,b ,dr4 ,s*m]l+ has discov]$ 9 a cav]n at ,*ocki]1 ab\t two leagues f ,liege1 ?ree di/9ct b$s ( /alagmite1 & betwe5 ea* ( !m a mass ( breccia1 & mud mix$ ) qu>tz pebbles1 & 9 ! ?ree deposits ! bones ( ext9ct quadrup$s4#ajdi ,?is exception does n invalidate ! g5]ality ( ! ph5om5on po9t$ out by ,dr4 ,buckl&1 "o cause ( :i* may p]haps be ?is1 t if sev]al floods pass at diff]5t int]vals ( "t ?r\gh a subt]ranean passage1 ! la/1 if x has p[] to drift along fragm5ts ( rock1 w also te> up any alt]nat+ /alagmitic & alluvial b$s t may h be5 previ\sly =m$4 ,ano!r cause may be1 t a p>ticul> l9e ( cav]ns w r>ely be s situat$1 9 relation to ! l[e/ levels ( a c\ntry1 z to become1 at two di/9ct epo*s1 ! receptacle ( engulf$ riv]s2 & if ?is %\ld happ51 "s ( ! caves1 or at lea/ ! tunnels ( communication1 may at ! fir/ p]iod be entirely *ok$ up ) transport$ matt]1 s z n to all[ ! subsequ5t passage ( wat] 9 ! same direction4 ,z ! same *asms may rema9 op5 ?r\gh\t p]iods ( indef9ite duration1 ! species inhabit+ a c\ntry may 9 ! meantime be greatly *ang$1 & ?us ! rema9s ( animals belong+ to v diff]5t epo*s may become m+l$ toge!r 9 a common tomb4 ,= ?is reason x is (t5 difficult to sep>ate ! monum5ts ( ! human epo* f ^? relat+ to p]iods long antec$5t1 & x 0 n )\t great c>e & skill t ,dr4 ,buckl& 0 enabl$ to gu>d aga9/ su* ana*ronisms 9 8 inve/igations ( sev]al ( ! ,engli% caves4 ,he m5tions t human skeletons 7 f\nd 9 ! cave ( ,wokey ,hole1 ne> ,wells1 9 ! ,m5dips1 disp]s$ ?r\gh r$di% mud & clay1 & "s ( !m unit$ by /alagmite into a firm osse\s breccia4 ,! spot on :i* !y lie is )9 rea* ( ! highe/ floods ( ! adjac5t riv]1 & ! mud 9 :i* !y are buri$ is evid5tly fluviatile4#ajej ,9 speak+ ( ! cave ( ,pavil& on ! coa/ ( ,glamorgan%ire ! same au?or /ates t ! entire mass ?r\gh :i* bones 7 disp]s$ appe>$ to h be5 di/urb$ by anci5t digg+s1 s t ! rema9s ( ext9ct animals _h become mix$ ) rec5t bones & %ells4 ,9 ! same cave 0 a human skeleton1 & ! rema9s ( rec5t te/acea ( eatable species1 :i* may h be5 c>ri$ 9 by man4 ,9 sev]al cav]ns on ! banks ( ! ,meuse1 ne> ,liege1 ,dr4 ,s*m]l+ has f\nd human bones 9 ! same mud & breccia ) ^? ( ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 be>1 & o!r quadrup$s ( ext9ct species4 ,he has obs]v$ none ( ! dung ( any ( ^! animals3 & f ?is circum/ance1 & ! appe>ance ( ! mud & pebbles1 he concludes t ^! cav]ns 7 nev] inhabit$ by wild bea/s1 b wa%$ 9 by a curr5t ( wat]4 ,z ! human skulls & bones 7 9 fragm5ts1 & no entire skeleton _h be5 f\nd1 he does n believe t ^! caves 7 places ( sepulture1 b t ! human rema9s 7 wa%$ 9 at ! same "t z ! bones ( ext9ct quadrup$s1 & t ^! lo/ species ( mammalia co-exi/$ on ! e>? ) man4 ,cav]ns 9 ! s\? ( ,france4--,simil> associations 9 ! s\? ( ,france1 ( human bones & works ( art1 ) rema9s ( ext9ct quadrup$s1 h induc$ o!r geologi/s to ma9ta9 t man 0 an inhabitant ( t "p ( ,europe be=e ! rh9oc]os1 hya5a1 tig]1 & _m fossil species disappe>$4 ,i may fir/ m5tion ! cav]n ( ,bize1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,aude1 :]e ,m4 ,m>cel de ,s]res met ) a small numb] ( human bones mix$ ) ^? ( ext9ct animals & ) l& %ells4 ,!y occur 9 a calc>e\s /ony mass1 b\nd toge!r by a cem5t ( /alagmite4 ,on exam9+ ! same cav]ns1 ,m4 ,t\rnal f\nd n only 9 ^! calc>e\s b$s1 b also 9 a black mud :i* ov]lies a r$ osse\s mud1 sev]al human tee?1 toge!r ) brok5 angul> fragm5ts ( a rude k9d ( pott]y1 & also rec5t m>9e & t]re/rial %ells4 ,! tee? pres]ve _! enamel2 b ! fangs are s mu* alt]$ z to adh]e /rongly :5 appli$ to ! tongue4 ,( ! t]re/rial %ells ?us associat$ ) ! bones & pott]y1 ! mo/ common are ,cyclo/oma elegans1 ,bulimus decollatus1 ,helix nemoralis1 & ,h4 nitida4 ,among ! m>9e are f\nd ,pect5 jacobaeus1 ,mytilus edulis1 & ,natica mille-punctata1 all ( !m eatable k9ds1 & :i* may h be5 br\ght !re = food4 ,bones 7 f\nd 9 ! same mass belong+ to ?ree new species ( de]1 ! br[n be> 7,ursus arctoideus71 & ! wild bull 7,bos urus71 =m]ly a native ( ,g]many4#ajea ,9 ! same p>ts ( ,france1 ,m4 de ,*ri/ol has f\nd 9 cav]ns 9 a t]ti>y lime/one at ,pondres & ,s\vign>gues1 two leagues nor? ( ,lunel-viel1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,h]ault1 human bones & pott]y confus$ly mix$ ) rema9s ( ! rh9oc]os1 be>1 hya5a1 & o!r t]re/rial mammif]s4 ,!y 7 imb$d$ 9 alluvial mud1 ( ! solidity ( calc>e\s tufa1 & conta9+ "s fl9t pebbles & fragm5ts ( ! lime/one ( ! c\ntry4 ,b5ea? ?is mix$ accumulation1 :i* sometimes atta9$ a ?ickness ( ?irte5 feet1 is ! orig9al floor ( ! cav]n1 ab\t a foot ?ick1 cov]$ ) bones & ! dung ( animals 7album graecum71 9 a s&y & tuface\s cem5t4 ,! human bones 9 ^! cav]ns ( ,pondres & ,s\vign>gues 7 f\nd1 ^u a c>eful analysis1 to h p>t$ ) _! animal matt] to z great a degree z ^? ( ! hya5a :i* accompany !m1 & are equally brittle1 & adh]e z /rongly to ! tongue4 ,9 ord] to comp>e ! degree ( alt]ation ( ^! bones ) ^? kn[n to be ( high antiquity1 ,m4 ,m>cel de ,s]res & ,m4 ,ball>d1 *emi/s ( ,montpeli]1 procur$ "s f a ,gauli% s>cophagus1 9 ! pla9 ( ,lunel1 suppos$ to h be5 buri$ = f\rte5 or fifte5 c5turies at lea/4 ,9 ^! ! cellul> tissue 0 empty1 b !y 7 m solid ?an fre% bones4 ,!y did n adh]e to ! tongue 9 ! same mann] z ^? ( ! cav]ns ( ,bize & ,pondres1 yet !y _h lo/ at lea/ ?ree f\r?s ( _! orig9al animal matt]4 ,! sup]ior solidity ( ! ,gauli% bones to ^? 9 a fre% skeleton is a fact 9 p]fect accordance ) ! obs]vations made by ,dr4 ,mantell on bones tak5 f a ,saxon tumulus ne> ,lewes4 ,m4 ,tessi] has also describ$ a cav]n ne> ,mialet1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,g>d1 :]e ! rema9s ( ! be> & o!r animals 7 m+l$ confus$ly ) human bones1 co>se pott]y1 tee? pi]c$ = amulets1 po9t$ fragm5ts ( bone1 bracelets ( bronze1 & a ,roman urn4 ,"p ( ?is deposit rea*$ to ! ro( ( ! cavity1 & adh]$ firmly to x4 ,! au?or sugge/s t ! ext]ior portion ( ! grotto may at "o p]iod h be5 a d5 ( be>s1 & t aft]w>ds ! aborig9al inhabitants ( ! c\ntry took possession ( x ei!r = a dwell+ or a burial-place1 & left !re ! co>se pott]y1 amulets1 & po9t$ pieces ( bone4 ,at a ?ird p]iod ! ,romans may h us$ ! cav]n z a place ( sepulture or concealm5t1 & to !m may h belong$ ! urn & bracelets ( metal4 ,if we !n suppose ! c\rse ( ! neighbor+ riv] to be imp$$ by "s tempor>y cause1 a flood w\ld be occasion$1 :i*1 ru%+ into ! op5 grotto1 may h wa%$ all ! rema9s into ! int]ior caves & tunnels1 heap+ ! :ole confus$ly toge!r4#ajeb ,9 ! controv]sy :i* has aris5 on ?is subject1 ,,mm4 ,m>cel de ,s]res1 ,de ,*ri/ol1 ,t\rnal1 & o!rs1 h cont5d$1 t ! ph5om5a ( ?is & o!r cav]ns 9 ! s\? ( ,france prove t ! fossil rh9oc]os1 hya5a1 be>1 & sev]al o!r lo/ species1 7 once contemporane\s inhabitants ( ! c\ntry1 toge!r ) man2 :ile ,m4 ,desnoy]s has support$ ! opposite op9ion4 ,! fl9t hat*ets & arr[-heads1 he says1 & ! po9t$ bones & co>se pott]y ( _m ,fr5* & ,engli% caves1 agree precisely 9 "* ) ^? f\nd 9 ! tumuli1 & "u ! dolm5s 7rude alt>s ( unhewn /one7 ( ! primitive inhabitants ( ,gaul1 ,brita91 & ,g]many4 ,! human bones1 !re=e1 9 ! caves :i* are associat$ ) su* fabricat$ objects1 mu/ belong n to ant$iluvian p]iods1 b to a p 9 ! same /age ( civilization z ^? :o con/ruct$ ! tumuli & alt>s4 ,9 ! ,gauli% monum5ts we f9d1 toge!r ) ! objects ( indu/ry above m5tion$1 ! bones ( wild & dome/ic animals ( species n[ inhabit+ ,europe1 p>ticul>ly ( de]1 %eep1 wild-bo>s1 dogs1 horses1 & ox54 ,?is fact has be5 asc]ta9$ 9 ,qu]cy1 & o!r prov9ces2 & x is suppos$ by antiqu>ies t ! animals 9 "q 7 plac$ b5ea? ! ,celtic alt>s 9 memory ( sacrifices (f]$ to ! ,gauli% div9ity ,hesus1 & 9 ! tombs to commemorate fun]al repa/s1 & also f a supposition preval5t among savage nations1 :i* induces !m to lay up provisions = ! manes ( ! dead 9 a future life4 ,b 9 none ( ^! anci5t monum5ts h any bones be5 f\nd ( ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 hya5a1 tig]1 & o!r quadrup$s1 su* z are f\nd 9 caves1 z might c]ta9ly h be5 expect$ _h ^! species cont9u$ to fl\ri% at ! "t t ?is "p ( ,gaul 0 inhabit$ by man4#ajec ,we are also rem9d$ by ,m4 ,desnoy]s ( a passage 9 ,florus1 9 :i* x is relat$ t ,caes> ord]$ ! caves into :i* ! ,aquitanian ,gauls _h retreat$ to be clos$ up4#ajed ,x is also on record1 t s late z ! eigh? c5tury1 ! ,aquitanians def5d$ !mselves 9 cav]ns aga9/ ,k+ ,pep94 ,z _m ( ^! cav]ns1 !re=e1 may h s]v$ 9 succession z temples & habitations1 z places ( sepulture1 concealm5t1 or def5ce1 x is easy to conceive t human bones1 & ^? ( animals1 9 osse\s breccias ( mu* old] date1 may h be5 swept away toge!r1 by inundations1 & !n buri$ 9 "o promiscu\s heap4 ,x is n on ! evid5ce ( su* int]mixtures t we ought readily to admit ei!r ! high antiquity ( ! human race1 or ! rec5t date ( c]ta9 lo/ species ( quadrup$s4 ,among ! v>i\s modes 9 :i* ! bones ( animals become pres]v$1 indep5d5tly ( ! ag5cy ( l& floods & engulf$ riv]s1 ,i may m5tion t op5 fissures (t5 s]ve z natural pitfalls 9 :i* h]bivor\s animals p]i%4 ,?is may happ5 ! m readily :5 !y are *as$ by bea/s ( prey1 or :5 surpris$ :ile c>elessly br[s+ on ! %rubs :i* s (t5 ov]gr[ & conceal ! edges ( fissures4#ajee ,dur+ ! excavations rec5tly made ne> ,behat 9 ,india1 ! bones ( two de] 7 f\nd at ! bottom ( an anci5t well :i* _h be5 fill$ up ) alluvial loam4 ,_! horns 7 brok5 to pieces1 b ! jaw bones & o!r p>ts ( ! skeleton rema9$ tol]ably p]fect4 ,_! pres5ce1 says ,capta9 ,cautley1 is easily acc\nt$ =1 z a great numb] ( ^! & o!r animals are con/antly lo/ 9 gallop+ ov] ! jungles & among ! high grass by fall+ into des]t$ wells4#ajef ,above ! village ( ,selside1 ne> ,+lebor\gh 9 ,york%ire1 a *asm ( enorm\s b unkn[n dep? occurs 9 ! sc>-lime/one1 a memb] ( ! c>bonif]\s s]ies4 ,! *asm1 says ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 is surr\nd$ by grassy %elv+ banks1 & _m animals1 tempt$ t[>ds its br9k1 h fall5 d[n & p]i%$ 9 x4 ,! approa* ( cattle is n[ prev5t$ by a /rong l(ty wall2 b !re c be no d\bt t1 dur+ ! la/ two or ?ree ?\s& ye>s1 great masses ( bony breccia mu/ h accumulat$ 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! great fissure1 :i* probably desc5ds ?r\gh ! :ole ?ickness ( ! sc>-lime/one1 to ! dep? ( p]haps five or six hundr$ feet4#ajeg ,:5 any ( ^! natural pit-falls happ5 to communicate ) l9es ( subt]ranean cav]ns1 ! bones1 e>?1 & breccia1 may s9k by _! own weight1 or be wa%$ into ! vaults bel[4 ,at ! nor? extremity ( ! rock ( ,gibralt> are p]p5dicul> fissures1 on ! l$ges ( :i* a numb] ( hawks ne/le & re> _! "y 9 ! bre$+ season4 ,!y ?r[ d[n f _! ne/s ! bones ( small birds1 mice1 & o!r animals1 on :i* !y fe$1 & ^! are gradually unit$ into a breccia ( angul> fragm5ts ( ! decompos+ lime/one ) a cem5t ( r$ e>?4 ,at ! pass ( ,escr9et 9 ,france1 on ! nor!rn esc>pm5t ( ! ,coiron hills1 ne> ,aub5as1 ,i h se5 a breccia 9 ! act ( =m+4 ,small pieces ( dis9tegrat+ lime/one are transport$1 dur+ heavy ra9s1 by a /reamlet1 to ! foot ( ! declivity1 :]e l& %ells are v abundant4 ,! %ells & pieces ( /one soon become cem5t$ toge!r by /alagmite into a compact mass1 & ! talus ?us =m$ is 9 "o place fifty feet deep1 & five hundr$ y>ds wide4 ,s firmly is ! l[e/ portion consolidat$1 t x is qu>ri$ = mill-/ones4 ,rec5t1 /alagmitic lime/one ( ,cuba4--,"o ( ! mo/ s+ul> examples ( ! rec5t gr[? ( /alagmitic lime/one 9 caves & fissures is t describ$ by ,mr4 ,r4 ,c4 ,taylor1 z obs]vable on ! nor?-ea/ "p ( ! isl& ( ,cuba4#ajeh ,! c\ntry !re is compos$ ( a :ite m>ble1 9 :i* are num]\s cavities1 p>tially fill$ ) a calc>e\s deposit ( a brick-r$ color4 ,9 ?is r$ deposit are %ells1 or (t5 ! holl[ ca/s ( %ells1 *iefly ref]able to eight or n9e species ( l& snails1 a few scatt]$ bones ( quadrup$s1 &1 :at is /ill m s+ul>1 m>9e univalve %ells1 (t5 at ! height ( _m hundr$1 or ev5 "o ?\s& feet above ! sea4 ,! foll[+ explanation is giv5 ( ! gradual increase ( ?is deposit4 ,l& snails ( ! g5]a ,helix1 ,cyclo/oma1 ,pupa1 & ,clausilia1 retire into ! caves1 ! floors ( :i* are /rew$ ) myriads ( _! dead & unoccupi$ %ells1 at ! same "t t wat] infilt]$ ?r\gh ! m\nta9 ?r[s d[n c>bonate ( lime1 envelop+ ! %ells1 toge!r ) fragm5ts ( ! :ite lime/one :i* occasionally falls f ! ro(4 ,multitudes ( bats resort to ! caves2 & _! dung1 :i* is ( a bright r$ color1 7probably d]iv$ f ! b]ries on :i* !y fe$17 imp>ts its r$ hue to ! mass4 ,sometimes also ! ,hutia1 or great ,indian rat ( ! isl&1 dies & leaves its bones 9 ! caves4 ,at c]ta9 seasons ! soldi]-crabs resort to ! sea-%ore1 & !n return f _! pilgrimage1 ea* c>ry+ ) !m1 or r dragg+1 ! %ell ( "s m>9e univalve = _m a we>y mile4 ,!y may be trac$ ev5 at ! di/ance ( eight or t5 miles f ! %ore1 on ! summit ( m\nta9s #abjj feet high1 l ! pilgrims ( ! old5 times1 ea* be>+ 8 %ell to d5ote ! "* & ext5t ( 8 w&]+s4 ,by ?is means sev]al species ( m>9e te/acea ( ! g5]a ,tro*us1 ,turbo1 ,littor9a1 & ,monodonta1 are convey$ into inl& cav]ns1 & ent] into ! composition ( ! newly =m$ rock4 ,,*apt] ,,xlvii4 ,,imb$d+ ,,( ,,organic ,,rema9s ,,9 ,,subaque\s ,,deposits4 ,division ( ! subject--,imb$d+ ( t]re/rial animals & plants--,increas$ specific gravity ( wood sunk to great dep?s 9 ! sea--,drift-timb] ( ! ,mack5zie 9 ,slave ,lake & ,pol> ,sea--,float+ trees 9 ! ,mississippi--9 ! ,gulf ,/ream--on ! coa/ ( ,icel&1 ,spitzb]g51 & ,labrador--,subm>9e =e/s--,example on coa/ ( ,hamp%ire--,m9]alization ( plants--,imb$d+ ( m>9e plants--( insects--( reptiles--,bones ( birds :y r>e--,imb$d+ ( t]re/rial quadrup$s by riv] floods--,skeletons 9 rec5t %ell m>l--,imb$d+ ( mammif]\s rema9s 9 m>9e /rata4 ,division ( ! subject4--,hav+ treat$ ( ! imb$d+ ( organic rema9s 9 deposits =m$ ^u ! l&1 ,i %all next consid] ! includ+ ( ! same 9 deposits =m$ "u wat]4 ,x w be conv5i5t to divide ?is bran* ( our subject into ?ree p>ts2 consid]+1 fir/1 ! v>i\s modes :]eby ! relics ( t]re/rial species may be buri$ 9 subaque\s =mations2 secondly1 ! modes :]eby animals & plants inhabit+ fre% wat] may be s entomb$2 ?irdly1 h[ m>9e species may become pres]v$ 9 new /rata4 ,! ph5om5a above enum]at$ dem& a full] %>e ( att5tion ?an ^? previ\sly exam9$1 s9ce ! deposits :i* orig9ate ^u dry l& are insignificant 9 ?ickness1 sup]ficial ext5t1 & durability1 :5 contra/$ ) ^? ( subaque\s orig94 ,at ! same "t1 ! /udy ( ! latt] is beset ) great] difficulties2 = we are "h conc]n$ ) ! results ( processes mu* f>!r remov$ f ! sph]e ( ord9>y obs]vation4 ,!re is1 inde$1 no circum/ance :i* s s]i\sly imp$es ! acquisition ( j views 9 our sci5ce z an habitual disreg>d ( ! important fact1 t ! reproductive effects ( ! pr9cipal ag5ts ( *ange are conf9$ to ano!r elem5t--to t l>g] portion ( ! globe1 f :i* by our v organization we are almo/ entirely exclud$4#ajei ,imb$d+ ( ,t]re/rial ,plants4 ,:5 a tree falls into a riv] f ! und]m9+ ( ! banks or f be+ wa%$ 9 by a torr5t or flood1 x floats on ! surface1 n because ! woody portion is specifically light] ?an wat]1 b because x is full ( pores conta9+ air4 ,:5 soak$ = a consid]able "t1 ! wat] makes its way into ^! pores1 & ! wood becomes wat]logg$ & s9ks4 ,! "t requir$ = ?is process v>ies 9 diff]5t woods2 b sev]al k9ds may be drift$ to great di/ances1 sometimes across ! ocean1 be=e !y lose _! buoyancy4 ,wood sunk to a great dep? 9 ! sea4--,if wood be sunk to va/ dep?s 9 ! sea1 x may be impregnat$ ) wat] sudd5ly4 ,capta9 ,scoresby in=ms u1 9 8 ,acc\nt ( ! ,arctic ,regions1 t on "o occasion a :ale1 on be+ h>poon$1 ran out all ! l9es 9 ! boat1 :i* x !n dragg$ "u wat]1 to ! dep? ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 ! m5 hav+ j "t to escape to a piece ( ice4 ,:5 ! fi% return$ to ! surface to bl[1 x 0 /ruck a second "t1 & soon aft]w>ds kill$4 ,! mom5t x expir$ x began to s9k1--an unusual circum/ance1 :i* 0 f\nd to be caus$ by ! weight ( ! sunk5 boat1 :i* /ill rema9$ atta*$ to x4 ,by means ( h>poons & ropes ! fi% 0 prev5t$ f s9k+1 until x 0 releas$ f ! weight by connect+ a rope to ! l9es ( ! atta*$ boat1 :i* 0 no soon] done ?an ! fi% rose aga9 to ! surface4 ,! sunk5 boat 0 !n haul$ up ) great labor2 = s heavy 0 x1 t al?\gh be=e ! accid5t x w\ld h be5 buoyant :5 full ( wat]1 yet x n[ requir$ a boat at ea* end to keep x f s9k+4 ,:5 x 0 hoi/$ into ! %ip1 ! pa9t came (f ! wood 9 l>ge %eets2 & ! planks1 :i* 7 ( wa9scot1 7 z completely soak$ 9 e pore z if !y _h la9 at ! bottom ( ! sea s9ce ! flood6 ,a wood5 app>atus t accompani$ ! boat 9 its progress ?r\gh ! deep1 consi/+ *iefly ( a piece ( ?ick deal1 ab\t fifte5 in*es squ>e1 happ5$ to fall ov]bo>d1 &1 ?\gh x orig9ally consi/$ ( ! lighte/ fir1 sank 9 ! wat] l a /one4 ,! boat 0 r5d]$ useless2 ev5 ! wood ( :i* x 0 built1 on be+ (f]$ to ! cook = fuel1 0 tri$ & reject$ z incombu/ible4#ajfj ,capta9 ,scoresby f\nd t1 by s9k+ pieces ( fir1 elm1 a%1 c41 to ! dep? ( f\r ?\s& & sometimes six ?\s& feet1 !y became impregnat$ ) sea-wat]1 & :5 drawn up aga91 aft] imm]sion = an h\r1 w\ld no long] float4 ,! effect ( ?is impregnation 0 to increase ! dim5sions z well z ! specific gravity ( ! wood1 e solid in* hav+ increas$ "o-tw5tie? 9 size & tw5ty-"o tw5ty-fif?s 9 weight4#ajfa ,drift-wood ( ! ,mack5zie ,riv]4--,:5 timb] is drift$ d[n by a riv]1 x is (t5 arre/$ by lakes2 &1 becom+ wat]-logg$1 x may s9k & be imb$d$ 9 lacu/r9e /rata1 if any be !re =m+2 sometimes a portion floats on till x rea*es ! sea4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! ,mack5zie ,riv] we h an example ( va/ accumulations ( vegetable matt] n[ 9 progress "u bo? ^! circum/ances4 ,9 ,slave ,lake 9 p>ticul>1 :i* vies 9 dim5sions ) "s ( ! great fre%-wat] seas ( ,canada1 ! quantity ( drift-timb] br\ght d[n annually is enorm\s4 ,z ! trees1 says ,dr4 ,ri*>dson1 reta9 _! roots1 :i* are (t5 load$ ) e>? & /ones1 !y readily s9k1 especially :5 wat]-soak$2 &1 accumulat+ 9 ! eddies1 =m %oals1 :i* ultimately augm5t into isl&s4 ,a ?icket ( small will[s cov]s ! new-=m$ isl& z soon z x appe>s above wat]1 & _! fibr\s roots s]ve to b9d ! :ole firmly toge!r4 ,sections ( ^! isl&s are annually made by ! riv]1 assi/$ by ! fro/2 & x is int]e/+ to /udy ! div]sity ( appe>ances !y pres5t1 accord+ to _! diff]5t ages4 ,! trunks ( ! trees gradually decay until !y are conv]t$ into a blacki% br[n sub/ance resembl+ peat1 b :i* /ill reta9s m or less ( ! fibr\s /ructure ( ! wood2 & lay]s ( ?is (t5 alt]nate ) lay]s ( clay & s&1 ! :ole be+ p5etrat$1 to ! dep? ( f\r or five y>ds or m1 by ! long fibr\s roots ( ! will[s4 ,a deposition ( ?is k9d1 ) ! aid ( a little infiltration ( bitum9\s matt]1 w\ld produce an excell5t imitation ( coal1 ) vegetable impressions ( ! will[-roots4 ,:at appe>$ mo/ rem>kable 0 ! horizontal slaty /ructure t ! old alluvial banks pres5t$1 or ! regul> curve t ! /rata assum$ f unequal subsid5ce4 ,x 0 9 ! riv]s only t we c\ld obs]ve sections ( ^! deposits2 b ! same op]ation goes on1 on a mu* m magnific5t scale1 9 ! lakes4 ,a %oal ( _m miles 9 ext5t is =m$ on ! s\? side ( ,a?abasca ,lake1 by ! drift-timb] & vegetable debris br\ght d[n by ! ,elk ,riv]2 & ! ,slave ,lake itself mu/ 9 process ( "t be fill$ up by matt]s daily convey$ into x f ,slave ,riv]4 ,va/ quantities ( drift-timb] are buri$ "u ! s& at ! m\? ( ! riv]1 & enorm\s piles ( x are accumulat$ on ! %ores ( e "p ( ! lake4#ajfb ,! banks ( ! ,mack5zie display almo/ ev]y:]e horizontal b$s ( wood coal1 alt]nat+ ) bitum9\s clay1 gravel1 s&1 & friable s&/one2 sections1 9 %ort1 ( su* deposits z are n[ evid5tly =m+ at ! bottom ( ! lakes :i* x trav]ses4 ,not)/&+ ! va/ =e/s int]cept$ by ! lakes1 a /ill great] mass ( drift-wood is f\nd :]e ! ,mack5zie rea*es ! sea1 9 a latitude :]e no wood gr[s at pres5t except a few /unt$ will[s4 ,at ! m\?s ( ! riv] ! alluvial matt] has =m$ a b>ri] ( isl&s & %oals1 :]e we may expect a great =mation ( coal at "s di/ant p]iod4 ,! abundance ( float+ timb] on ! ,mack5zie is ow+1 z ,dr4 ,ri*>dson in=ms me1 to ! direction & to ! l5g? ( ! c\rse ( ?is riv]1 :i* runs f s\? to nor?1 s t ! s\rces ( ! /ream lie 9 mu* w>m] latitudes ?an its m\?s4 ,9 ! c\ntry1 !re=e1 :]e ! s\rces are situat$1 ! fro/ breaks up at an e>li] season1 :ile yet ! wat]s 9 ! l[] "p ( its c\rse are ice-b\nd4 ,h5ce ! curr5t ( wat]1 ru%+ d[n nor?w>d1 rea*es a po9t :]e ! ?aw has n begun1 &1 f9d+ ! *annel ( ! riv] block$ up ) ice1 x ov]fl[s ! banks1 sweep+ ?r\gh =e/s ( p9es1 & c>ry+ away ?\s&s ( uproot$ trees4 ,drift-timb] on coa/s ( ,icel&1 ,spitzb]g51 c4--,! anci5t =e/s ( ,icel&1 obs]ves ,malte-,brun1 h be5 improvid5tly exhau/$2 b1 al?\gh ! ,icel&] c obta9 no timb] f ! l&1 he is suppli$ ) x abundantly by ! ocean4 ,an imm5se quantity ( ?ick trunks ( p9es1 firs1 & o!r trees1 are ?r[n ^u ! nor!rn coa/ ( ! isl&1 especially ^u ! ,nor? ,cape & ,cape ,langaness1 & are !n c>ri$ by ! waves along ^! two promontories to o!r p>ts ( ! coa/1 s z to af=d suffici5cy ( wood = fuel & = con/ruct+ boats4 ,timb] is also c>ri$ to ! %ores ( ,labrador & ,gre5l&2 & ,crantz assures u t ! masses ( float+ wood ?r[n by ! waves ^u ! isl& ( ,john de ,may5 (t5 equal ! :ole ( t isl& 9 ext5t4#ajfc ,9 a simil> mann] ! bays ( ,spitzb]g5 are fill$ ) drift-wood1 :i* accumulates also ^u ^? p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,sib]ia t are expos$ to ! ea/1 consi/+ ( l>* trees1 p9es1 ,sib]ian c$>s1 firs1 & ,p]nambuco & ,campea*y woods4 ,^! trunks appe> to h be5 swept away by ! great riv]s ( ,asia & ,am]ica4 ,"s ( !m are br\ght f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico by ! ,bahama /ream2 :ile o!rs are hurri$ =w>d by ! curr5t :i*1 to ! nor? ( ,sib]ia1 con/antly sets 9 f ea/ to we/4 ,"s ( ^! trees h be5 depriv$ ( _! b>k by friction1 b are 9 su* a /ate ( pres]vation z to =m excell5t build+ timb]4#ajfd ,p>ts ( ! bran*es & almo/ all ! roots rema9 fix$ to ! p9es :i* h be5 drift$ into ! ,nor? ,sea1 into latitudes too cold = ! gr[? ( su* timb]1 b ! trunks are usually b>k$4 ,! leaves & light] p>ts ( plants are seldom c>ri$ out to sea1 9 any "p ( ! globe1 except dur+ tropical hurricanes among isl&s1 & dur+ ! agitations ( ! atmosph]e :i* sometimes accompany e>?quakes & volcanic eruptions4 ,comp>ative numb] ( liv+ & fossiliz$ species ( plants4--,x w appe> f ^! obs]vations t1 al?\gh ! rema9s ( t]re/rial vegetation1 borne d[n by aque\s causes f ! l&1 are *iefly deposit$ at ! bottom ( lakes or at ! m\?s ( riv]s1 yet a consid]able quantity is drift$ ab\t 9 all directions by curr5ts1 & may become imb$d$ 9 any m>9e =mation1 or may s9k d[n1 :5 wat]-logg$1 to ! bottom ( unfa?omable abysses1 & !re accumulate )\t int]mixture ) o!r sub/ances4 ,x may be ask$ :e!r we h any data = inf]r+ t ! rema9s ( a consid]able proportion ( ! exi/+ species ( plants w be p]man5tly pres]v$1 s z to be h]eaft] recognizable1 suppos+ ! /rata n[ 9 progress to be at "s future p]iod uprais$8 ,to ?is inquiry x may be answ]$1 t !re are no reasons = expect+ t m ?an a small numb] ( ! plants n[ fl\ri%+ 9 ! globe w become fossiliz$2 s9ce ! entire habitations ( a great numb] ( !m are remote f lakes & seas1 & ev5 :]e !y gr[ ne> to l>ge bodies ( wat]1 ! circum/ances are q accid5tal & p>tial :i* favor ! imb$d+ & cons]vation ( vegetable rema9s4 ,suppose1 = example1 t ! species ( plants inhabit+ ! hydrographical bas9 ( ! ,rh9e1 or t region1 ext5d+ f ! ,alps to ! sea1 :i* is wat]$ by ! ,rh9e & its num]\s tribut>ies1 to be ab\t #bejj 9 numb]1 exclusive ( ! cryptogamic class4 ,?is e/imate is by no means exagg]at$2 yet if a geologi/ c\ld explore ! deposits :i* h result$ f ! s$im5t ( ! ,rh9e 9 ! ,lake ( ,con/ance1 & (f ! coa/ ( ,holl&1 he c\ld sc>cely expect to obta9 f ! rec5t /rata ! leaves1 wood1 & se$s ( fifty species 9 su* a /ate ( pres]vation z to enable a botani/ to det]m9e _! specific *>act]s ) c]ta9ty4 ,^? naturali/s1 !re=e1 :o inf] t ! anci5t flora ( ! globe 01 at c]ta9 p]iods1 less v>i$ ?an n[1 m]ely because !y h z yet discov]$ only a few hundr$ fossil species ( a p>ticul> epo*1 :ile !y c enum]ate m ?an "o hundr$ ?\s& liv+ ones1 are reason+ on a false basis1 & _! /&>d ( comp>ison is n ! same 9 ! two cases4 ,subm>9e =e/s on coa/ ( ,hants4--,we h already se5 t ! subm>9e position ( sev]al =e/s1 or ! rema9s ( trees /&+ 9 a v]tical position on ! ,briti% %ores1 has be5 due1 9 "s in/ances1 to ! subsid5ce ( l&4#ajfe ,!re are "s cases :i* require a diff]5t explanation4 ,my fri5d1 ,mr4 ,*>les ,h>ris1 discov]$1 9 #ahca1 evid5t traces ( a fir-wood b5ea? ! mean level ( ! sea1 at ,b\rnm\?1 9 ,hamp%ire1 ! =mation hav+ be5 laid op5 dur+ a l[ spr+ tide4 ,x is compos$ ( peat & wood1 & is situat$ betwe5 ! bea* & a b> ( s& ab\t #bjj y>ds (f1 & ext5ds fifty y>ds along ! %ore4 ,x also lies 9 ! direct l9e ( ! ,b\rnm\? ,valley1 f ! t]m9ation ( :i* x is sep>at$ by #bjj y>ds ( %+le & drift-s&4 ,d[n ! valley fl[s a l>ge brook1 trav]s+ ne> its m\? a consid]able tract ( r\gh1 boggy1 & hea?y gr\nd1 :i* produces a few bir*-trees1 & a great abundance ( ! ,myrica gale4 ,sev5ty-six r+s ( annual gr[? 7 c\nt$ 9 a transv]se section ( "o ( ! buri$ fir-trees1 :i* 0 f\rte5 in*es 9 diamet]4 ,besides ! /umps & roots ( fir1 pieces ( ald] & bir* are f\nd 9 ! peat2 & x is a curi\s fact1 t a "p ( _m ( ! trees h be5 conv]t$ into iron pyrites4 ,! peat re/s on pebbly /rata1 precisely simil> to ! s& & pebbles occurr+ on ! adjo9+ hea?s4 ,z ! sea is encroa*+ on ?is %ore1 we may suppose t at "s =m] p]iod ! ,b\rne ,valley ext5d$ f>!r1 & t its extremity consi/$1 z at pres5t1 ( boggy gr\nd1 p>tly clo!d ) fir-trees4 ,! bog re/$ on t b$ ( pebbles :i* we n[ see bel[ ! peat2 & ! sea1 9 its progressive encroa*m5ts1 ev5tually laid b>e1 at l[ wat]1 ! s&y f\ndations2 ^u :i* a /ream ( fre% wat]1 ru%+ ?r\gh ! s& at ! fall ( ! tides1 c>ri$ out loose s& ) x4 ,! sup]/ratum ( vegetable matt]1 be+ matt$ & b\nd toge!r by ! roots ( trees1 rema9$2 b be+ und]m9$1 sank d[n bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 & !n ! waves wa%$ s& & %+le ov] x4 ,9 support ( ?is hypo!sis1 x may be obs]v$1 t small /reams ( fre% wat] (t5 pass "u ! s&s ( ! sea-bea*1 s t !y may be cross$ dry-%od2 & ! wat] is se51 at ! po9t :]e x issues1 to c>ry out s& & ev5 pebbles4 ,m9]alization ( plants--,al?\gh ! botani/ & *emi/ h z yet be5 unable to expla9 fully ! mann] 9 :i* wood becomes petrifi$1 x is nev]!less asc]ta9$ t1 "u favorable circum/ances1 ! lapidify+ process is n[ cont9ually go+ on4 ,a piece ( wood 0 lately procur$ by ,mr4 ,/okes1 f an anci5t ,roman aqu$uct 9 ,we/phalia1 9 :i* "s portions 7 conv]t$ into sp9dle-%ap$ bodies1 consi/+ ( c>bonate ( lime1 :ile ! re/ ( ! wood rema9$ 9 a comp>atively un*ang$ /ate4#ajff ,x appe>s t 9 "s cases ! mo/ p]i%able1 9 o!rs ! mo/ durable1 portions ( plants are pres]v$1 v>iations :i* d\btless dep5d on ! "t :5 ! m9]al matt] 0 suppli$4 ,if introduc$ imm$iately1 on ! fir/ comm5cem5t ( decomposition1 !n ! mo/ de/ructible p>ts are lapidifi$1 :ile ! m durable d n wa/e away till aft]w>ds1 :5 ! supply has fail$1 & s nev] become petrifi$4 ,! conv]se ( ^! circum/ances gives rise to exactly opposite results4 ,pr(essor ,gopp]t1 ( ,breslau1 has in/itut$ a s]ies ( curi\s exp]im5ts1 9 :i* he has succe$$ 9 produc+ "s v rem>kable imitations ( fossil petrifactions4 ,he plac$ rec5t f]ns betwe5 s(t lay]s ( clay1 dri$ ^! 9 ! %ade1 & !n sl[ly & gradually heat$ !m1 till !y 7 r$-hot4 ,! result 0 ! production ( s p]fect a c\nt]p>t ( fossil plants z might h deceiv$ an exp]i5c$ geologi/4 ,accord+ to ! diff]5t degrees ( heat appli$1 ! plants 7 obta9$ 9 a br[n or p]fectly c>boniz$ condition2 & sometimes1 b m r>ely1 !y 7 9 a black %9+ /ate1 adh]+ closely to ! lay] ( clay4 ,if ! r$ heat 0 su/a9$ until all ! organic matt] 0 burnt up1 only an impression ( ! plant rema9$4 ,! same *emi/ /eep$ plants 9 a mod]ately /rong solution ( sulphate ( iron1 & left !m imm]s$ 9 x = sev]al days1 until !y 7 ?or\ghly soak$ 9 ! liquid4 ,!y 7 !n dri$1 & kept heat$ until !y w\ld no long] %r9k 9 volume1 & until e trace ( organic matt] _h disappe>$4 ,on cool+ !m he f\nd t ! oxide =m$ by ?is process _h tak5 ! =m ( ! plants4 ,a v>iety ( o!r exp]im5ts 7 made by /eep+ animal & vegetable sub/ances 9 silice\s1 calc>e\s1 & metallic solutions1 & all t5d$ to prove t ! m9]alization ( organic bodies c be c>ri$ mu* f>!r 9 a %ort "t ?an _h be5 previ\sly suppos$4#ajfg ,imb$d+ ( ! ,rema9s ( ,insects4 ,i h obs]v$ ! elytra & o!r p>ts ( beetles 9 a b& ( fissile clay1 sep>at+ two b$s ( rec5t %ell-m>l1 9 ! ,lo* ( ,k9nordy 9 ,=f>%ire4 ,among/ ^!1 ,mr4 ,curtis recogniz$ ,elator l9catus & ,atopa c]v9a1 species /ill liv+ 9 ,scotl&4 ,^!1 z well z o!r rema9s :i* accompani$ !m1 appe> to belong to t]re/rial1 n aquatic species1 & mu/ h be5 c>ri$ d[n 9 muddy wat] dur+ an inundation4 ,9 ! lacu/r9e peat ( ! same locality1 ! elytra ( beetles are n uncommon2 b 9 ! deposits ( dra9$ lakes g5]ally1 & 9 ! silt ( our e/u>ies1 ! relics ( ?is class ( ! animal k+dom are r>e4 ,9 ! blue clay ( v mod]n orig9 ( ,lewes levels1 ,dr4 ,mantell has f\nd ! ,indusia1 or cases ( ! l>vae ( ,phryganea1 9 abundance1 ) m9ute %ells belong+ to ! g5]a ,planorbis1 ,limnea1 c41 adh]+ to !m4#ajfh ,:5 speak+ ( ! migrations ( insects1 ,i po9t$ out t an imm5se numb] are float$ into lakes & seas by riv]s1 or bl[n by w9ds f> f ! l&2 b !y are s buoyant t we c only suppose !m1 "u v peculi> circum/ances1 to s9k to ! bottom be=e !y are ei!r dev\r$ by insectivor\s animals or decompos$4 ,rema9s ( ,reptiles4 ,z ! bodies ( sev]al crocodiles 7 f\nd 9 ! mud br\ght d[n to ! sea by ! riv] inundation :i* att5d$ an e>?quake 9 ,java1 9 ! ye> #afii1 we may imag9e t extraord9>y floods ( mud may /ifle _m individuals ( ! %oals ( alligators & o!r reptiles :i* frequ5t lakes & ! deltas ( riv]s 9 tropical climates4 ,?\s&s ( frogs 7 f\nd leap+ ab\t among ! wreck1 c>ri$ into ! sea by ! inundations 9 ,moray%ire1 9 #ahbi2ajfi & x is evid5t t :5ev] a sea-cliff is und]m9$1 or l& is swept by o!r viol5t causes into ! sea1 l& reptiles may be c>ri$ 94 ,rema9s ( ,birds4 ,we might h anticipat$ t ! imb$d+ ( ! rema9s ( birds 9 new /rata w\ld be ( v r>e occurr5ce2 = _! p[]s ( flight insure !m aga9/ p]i%+1 by num]\s casualties to :i* quadrup$s are expos$ dur+ floods2 & if !y *ance to be dr[n$1 or to die :5 swimm+ on ! wat]1 x w sc>cely ev] happ5 t !y w be subm]g$ s z to become pres]v$ 9 s$im5t>y deposits4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! holl[ tubul> /ructure ( _! bones & ! quantity ( _! fea!rs1 !y are extremely light 9 proportion to _! volume2 s t :5 fir/ kill$ !y d n s9k to ! bottom l quadrup$s1 b float on ! surface until ! c>cass ei!r rots away or is dev\r$ by pr$ace\s animals4 ,to ^! causes we may ascribe ! abs5ce ( any ve/ige ( ! bones ( birds 9 ! rec5t m>l =mations ( ,scotl&2 al?\gh ^! lakes1 until ! mom5t :5 !y 7 artificially dra9$1 7 frequ5t$ by a great abundance ( wat]f[l4 ,imb$d+ ( ,t]re/rial ,quadrup$s4 ,riv] inundations recur 9 mo/ climates at v irregul> int]vals1 & exp5d _! fury on ^? ri* alluvial pla9s :]e h]ds ( h]bivor\s quadrup$s congregate toge!r4 ,^! animals are (t5 surpris$2 &1 be+ unable to /em ! curr5t1 are hurri$ along until !y are dr[n$1 :5 !y s9k at fir/ imm$iately to ! bottom4 ,"h _! bodies are drift$ along1 toge!r ) s$im5t1 into lakes or seas1 & may !n be cov]$ by a mass ( mud1 s&1 & pebbles1 ?r[n d[n ^u !m4 ,if !re be no s$im5t sup]impos$1 ! gases g5]at$ by putrefaction usually cause ! bodies to rise aga9 to ! surface ab\t ! n9?1 or at late/ ! f\rte5? day4 ,! pressure ( a ?9 cov]+ ( mud w\ld n be suffici5t to reta9 !m at ! bottom2 = we see ! putrid c>casses ( dogs & cats1 ev5 9 riv]s1 float+ ) consid]able weights atta*$ to !m1 & 9 sea-wat] !y w\ld be /ill m buoyant4 ,:]e ! body is s buri$ 9 drift s&1 or mud accumulat$ ^u x1 z nev] to rise aga91 ! skeleton may be pres]v$ entire2 b if x comes aga9 to ! surface :ile 9 ! process ( putrefaction1 ! bones commonly fall piecemeal f ! float+ c>cass1 & may 9 t case be scatt]$ at r&om ov] ! bottom ( ! lake1 e/u>y1 or sea2 s t a jaw may aft]w>ds be f\nd 9 "o place1 a rib 9 ano!r1 a hum]us 9 a ?ird--all includ$1 p]haps1 9 a matrix ( f9e mat]ials1 :]e !re may be evid5ce ( slight transport+ p[] 9 ! curr5t1 or ev5 ( none1 b simply ( "s *emical precipitate4 ,a l>ge numb] ( ! bodies ( dr[n$ animals1 if !y float into ! sea or a lake1 especially 9 hot climates1 are in/antly dev\r$ by %>ks1 alligators1 & o!r c>nivor\s bea/s1 :i* may h p[] to dige/ ev5 ! bones2 b dur+ extraord9>y floods1 :5 ! greate/ numb] ( l& animals are de/roy$1 ! wat]s are commonly s turbid1 especially at ! bottom ( ! *annel1 t ev5 aquatic species are compell$ to escape into "s retreat :]e !re is cle>] wat]1 le/ !y %\ld be /ifl$4 ,= ?is reason1 z well z ! rapidity ( s$im5t>y deposition at su* seasons1 ! probability ( c>casses becom+ p]man5tly imb$d$ is consid]able4 ,flood 9 ! ,solway ,fir?1 #agid4--,"o ( ! mo/ memorable floods ( mod]n date1 9 our isl&1 is t :i* visit$ "p ( ! s\!rn bord]s ( ,scotl&1 on ! #bd? ( ,janu>y1 #agid1 & :i* spread p>ticul> deva/ation ov] ! c\ntry adjo9+ ! ,solway ,fir?4 ,we le>n f ! acc\nt ( ,capta9 ,napi]1 t ! heavy ra9s _h swoll5 e /ream :i* ent]$ ! ,fir? ( ,solway2 s t ! inundation n only c>ri$ away a great numb] ( cattle & %eep1 b _m ( ! h]dsm5 & %eph]ds1 wa%+ d[n _! bodies into ! e/u>y4 ,aft] ! /orm1 :5 ! flood subsid$1 an extraord9>y spectacle 0 se5 on a l>ge s&-bank call$ ! b$s ( ,esk1 :]e !re is a meet+ ( ! tidal wat]s1 & :]e heavy bodies are usually left /r&$ aft] great floods4 ,on ?is s+le bank 7 f\nd collect$ toge!r ! bodies ( #i black cattle1 #c horses1 #ahdj %eep1 #de dogs1 #ahj h>es1 besides a great numb] ( small] animals1 &1 m+l$ ) ! re/1 ! corpses ( two m5 & "o woman4#ajgj ,floods 9 ,scotl&1 #ahbi4--;,9 ^? m rec5t floods 9 ,scotl&1 9 ,augu/1 #ahbi1 :]eby a f]tile di/rict on ! ea/ coa/ became a sc5e ( dreadful desolation1 a va/ numb] ( animals & plants 7 wa%$ f ! l&1 & f\nd scatt]$ ab\t aft] ! /orm1 ar\nd ! m\?s ( ! pr9cipal riv]s4 ,an eye-witness ?us describes ! sc5e :i* pres5t$ itself at ! m\? ( ! ,spey1 9 ,moray%ire3--,= sev]al miles along ! bea* cr[ds 7 employ$ 9 endeavor+ to save ! wood & o!r wreck ) :i* ! heavy-roll+ tide 0 load$2 :il/ ! m>g9 ( ! sea 0 /rew$ ) ! c>casses ( dome/ic animals1 & ) millions ( dead h>es & rabbits4#ajga ,savannahs ( ,s\? ,am]ica4--,we are in=m$ by ,humboldt1 t dur+ ! p]iodical swell+s ( ! l>ge riv]s 9 ,s\? ,am]ica great numb]s ( quadrup$s are annually dr[n$4 ,( ! wild horses1 = example1 :i* graze 9 imm5se troops 9 ! savannahs1 ?\s&s are said to p]i% :5 ! riv] ,apure1 a tribut>y ( ! ,or9oco1 is swoll51 be=e !y h "t to rea* ! ris+ gr\nd ( ! ,llanos4 ,! m>es1 dur+ ! season ( high wat]1 may be se51 foll[$ by _! colts1 swimm+ ab\t & fe$+ on ! grass1 ( :i* ! top alone waves above ! wat]s4 ,9 ?is /ate !y are pursu$ by crocodiles2 & _! ?ighs frequ5tly be> ! pr9ts ( ! tee? ( ^! c>nivor\s reptiles4 ,su* is ! pliability1 obs]ves ! celebrat$ travell]1 ( ! organization ( ! animals :i* man has subject$ to 8 sway1 t horses1 c[s1 & o!r species ( ,european orig91 lead1 = a "t1 an amphibi\s life1 surr\nd$ by crocodiles1 wat]-s]p5ts1 & manatees4 ,:5 ! riv]s return aga9 into _! b$s1 !y roam 9 ! savannah1 :i* is !n spread ov] ) a f9e odorif]\s grass1 & enjoy1 z 9 _! native climate1 ! r5ew$ vegetation ( spr+4#ajgb ,floods ( ! ,p>ana4--,! great numb] ( animals :i* are dr[n$ 9 seasons ( dr\ght 9 ! tribut>ies ( ! ,plata1 0 be=e m5tion$4 ,sir ,w4 ,p>i% /ates1 t ! ,p>ana1 fl[+ f ! m\nta9s ( ,brazil to ! e/u>y ( ! ,plata1 is liable to great floods1 & dur+ "o ( ^!1 9 ! ye> #ahab1 va/ quantities ( cattle 7 c>ri$ away1 & :5 ! wat]s began to subside1 & ! isl&s :i* !y _h cov]$ became aga9 visible1 ! :ole atmosph]e = a "t 0 poison$ by ! effluvia f ! innum]able c>casses ( skunks1 capyb>as1 tig]s1 & o!r wild bea/s :i* _h be5 dr[n$4#ajgc ,floods ( ! ,ganges4--,we f9d x cont9ually /at$1 by ^? :o describe ! ,ganges & ,burrampoot]1 t ^! riv]s c>ry be=e !m1 dur+ ! flood season1 n only floats ( re$s & timb]1 b dead bodies ( m51 de]1 & ox54#ajgd ,9 ,java1 #afii4--;,i h already ref]r$ to ! effects ( a flood :i* att5d$ an e>?quake 9 ,java 9 #afii1 :5 ! turbid wat]s ( ! ,batavian riv] de/roy$ all ! fi% except ! c>p2 & :5 dr[n$ buffaloes1 tig]s1 rh9oc]oses1 de]1 apes1 & o!r wild bea/s1 7 br\ght d[n to ! sea-coa/ by ! curr5t1 ) sev]al crocodiles :i* _h be5 /ifl$ 9 ! mud4 7,see above1 p4 #ejc47 ,on ! we/]n side ( ! same isl&1 9 ! t]ritory ( ,galongoon1 9 ! ,reg5cies1 a m rec5t volcanic eruption 7t ( #ahbb1 be=e describ$7 7see above1 p4 #dca7 0 att5d$ by a flood1 dur+ :i* ! riv] ,t&oi bore d[n hundr$s ( c>casses ( rh9oc]oses & buffaloes1 & swept away m ?an "o hundr$ m5 & wom5 f a multitude assembl$ on its banks to celebrate a fe/ival4 ,:e!r ! bodies rea*$ ! sea1 or 7 deposit$1 ) drift matt]1 9 "s l>ge int]v5+ alluvial pla9s1 we are n in=m$4#ajge ,sumatra4--,on ! coa/ ( ,orissa1 says ,heynes1 ,i h se5 tig]s & :ole h]ds ( black cattle c>ri$ along by :at are call$ fre%es1 & trees ( imm5se size4#ajgf ,9 ,virg9ia1 #agga4--;,i might enum]ate a great numb] ( local deluges t h swept ?r\gh ! f]tile l&s bord]+ on l>ge riv]s1 especially 9 tropical c\ntries1 b ,i %\ld surpass ! limits assign$ to ?is "w4 ,i may obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t ! de/ruction ( ! isl&s1 9 riv]s1 is (t5 att5d$ ) great loss ( lives4 ,?us :5 ! pr9cipal riv] 9 ,virg9ia rose1 9 #agga1 to ! height ( tw5ty-five feet above its ord9>y level1 x swept entirely away ,elk ,isl&1 on :i* 7 sev5 hundr$ head ( quadrup$s1--horses1 ox51 %eep1 & hogs1--& ne>ly "o hundr$ h\ses4#ajgg ,! read] w ga!r1 f :at 0 be=e said respect+ ! deposition ( s$im5t by aque\s causes1 t ! great] numb] ( ! rema9s ( quadrup$s drift$ away by riv]s mu/ be int]cept$ by lakes be=e !y rea* ! sea1 or buri$ 9 fre%wat] =mations ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s4 ,if !y are c>ri$ /ill f>!r1 ! probabilities are increas$ ( _! ris+ to ! surface 9 a /ate ( putrefaction1 &1 9 t case1 ( be+ !re dev\r$ by aquatic bea/s ( prey1 or ( subsid+ into "s spots :i!r no s$im5t is convey$1 &1 consequ5tly1 :]e e ve/ige ( !m w1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 disappe>4 ,skeletons ( animals 9 rec5t %ell-m>l1 ,scotl&4--,9 "s in/ances1 ! skeletons ( quadrup$s are met ) abundantly 9 rec5t %ell-m>ls 9 ,scotl&1 :]e we _c suppose !m to h be5 imb$d$ by ! action ( riv]s or floods4 ,!y all belong to species :i* n[ inhabit1 or are kn[n to h be5 indig5\s 9 ,scotl&4 ,! rema9s ( sev]al hundr$ skeletons h be5 procur$ )9 ! la/ c5tury f five or six small lakes 9 ,=f>%ire1 :]e %ell-m>l has be5 work$4 ,^? ( ! /ag 7,c]vus ,elaphas7 are mo/ num]\s2 & if ! o!rs be arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( _! relative abundance1 !y w ne>ly foll[ ?us--! ox1 ! bo>1 ! horse1 ! %eep1 ! dog1 ! h>e1 ! fox1 ! wolf1 & ! cat4 ,! beav] seems extremely r>e2 b x has be5 f\nd 9 ! %ell-m>l ( ,lo* ,m>lie1 9 ,p]?%ire1 & 9 ! p>i% ( ,edrom1 9 ,b]wick%ire4 ,9 ! great] "p ( ^! lake-deposits !re are no signs ( floods2 & ! expanse ( wat] 0 orig9ally s conf9$1 t ! smalle/ ( ! above-m5tion$ quadrup$s c\ld h cross$1 by swimm+ f "o %ore to ! o!r4 ,de]1 & su* species z take readily to ! wat]1 may (t5 h be5 mir$ 9 try+ to l&1 :]e ! bottom 0 s(t & quaggy1 & 9 _! ef=ts to escape may h plung$ deep] into ! m>ly bottom4 ,"s individuals1 ,i suspect1 ( diff]5t species1 h fall5 9 :5 cross+ ! froz5 surface 9 w9t]2 = no?+ c be m trea*]\s ?an ! ice :5 cov]$ ) sn[1 9 consequ5ce ( ! spr+s1 :i* are num]\s1 & :i*1 reta9+ always an equal temp]ature1 cause ! ice1 9 c]ta9 spots1 to be extremely ?91 :ile 9 e o!r "p ( ! lake x is /rong en\gh to be> ! heavie/ weights4 ,mammif]\s rema9s 9 m>9e /rata4--,z ! bones ( mammalia are (t5 s abundantly pres]v$ 9 peat1 & su* lakes z h j be5 describ$1 ! encroa*m5ts ( a sea ^u a coa/ may sometimes ?r[ d[n ! imb$d$ skeletons1 s t !y may be c>ri$ away by tides & curr5ts1 & entomb$ 9 subm>9e =mations4 ,"s ( ! small] quadrup$s1 also1 :i* burr[ 9 ! gr\nd1 z well z reptiles & e species ( plant1 are liable to be ca/ d[n into ! waves by ?is cause1 :i* mu/ n be ov]look$1 al?\gh probably ( comp>atively small importance among/ ! num]\s ag5ts :]eby t]re/rial organic rema9s are includ$ 9 subm>9e /rata4 ,dur+ ! great e>?quake ( ,conception 9 #ahce1 "s cattle1 :i* 7 /&+ on ! /eep sides ( ! isl& ( ,quiriqu9a1 7 roll$ by ! %ock into ! sea1 :ile on a l[ isl& at ! head ( ! ,bay ( ,conception sev5ty animals 7 wa%$ (f by a great wave & dr[n$4#ajgh ,,*apt] ,,xlviii4 ,,imb$d+ ,,( ,,! ,,rema9s ,,( ,,man ,,& ,,8 ,,works ,,9 ,,subaque\s ,,/rata4 ,drift+ ( human bodies to ! sea by riv] inundations--,de/ruction ( bridges & h\ses--,loss ( lives by %ipwreck--,h[ human corpses may be pres]v$ 9 rec5t deposits--,numb] ( wreck$ vessels--,fossil skeletons ( m5--,fossil canoes1 %ips1 & works ( art--,*emical *anges :i* metallic articles h und]gone aft] long subm]g5ce--,imb$d+ ( cities & =e/s 9 subaque\s /rata by subsid5ce--,e>?quake ( ,cut* 9 #ahai--;,buri$ ,temples ( ,ca%m]e--,b]keley's argum5ts = ! rec5t date ( ! creation ( man--,conclud+ rem>ks4 ,i %all n[ proce$ to inquire 9 :at mann] ! mortal rema9s ( man & ! works ( 8 h&s may be p]man5tly pres]v$ 9 subaque\s /rata4 ,( ! _m hundr$ million human be+s :i* p]i% 9 ! c\rse ( e c5tury on ! l&1 e ve/ige is usually de/roy$ 9 ! c\rse ( a few ?\s& ye>s2 b ( ! small] numb] t p]i% 9 ! wat]s1 a c]ta9 proportion mu/ be entomb$ "u circum/ances t may enable p>ts ( !m to endure ?r\gh\t entire geological epo*s4 ,! bodies ( m51 toge!r ) ^? ( ! inf]ior animals1 are occasionally wa%$ d[n dur+ riv] inundations into seas & lakes4 7,see pp4 #gbf-gbh47 ,belzoni witness$ a flood on ! ,nile 9 ,septemb]1 #ahah1 :]e1 al?\gh ! riv] rose only ?ree feet & a half above its ord9>y level1 sev]al villages1 ) "s hundr$s ( m51 wom51 & *ildr51 7 swept away4#ajgi ,x 0 be=e m5tion$ t a rise ( six feet ( wat] 9 ! ,ganges1 9 #agfc1 0 att5d$ ) a mu* great] loss ( lives4 7,see above1 p4 #bgh47 ,9 ! ye> #agga1 :5 ! inundations 9 ! nor? ( ,engl& appe> to h equall$ ! floods ( ,moray%ire 9 #ahbi1 a great numb] ( h\ses & _! inhabitants 7 swept away by ! riv]s ,tyne1 ,c1 ,we>1 ,tees1 & ,greta2 & no less ?an tw5ty-"o bridges 7 de/roy$ 9 ! c\rses ( ^! riv]s4 ,at ! village ( ,bywell ! flood tore ! dead bodies & c(f9s out ( ! *ur*y>d1 & bore !m away1 toge!r ) _m ( ! liv+ inhabitants4 ,dur+ ! same tempe/ an imm5se numb] ( cattle1 horses1 & %eep1 7 also transport$ to ! sea1 :ile ! :ole coa/ 0 cov]$ ) ! wreck ( %ips4 ,f\r c5turies be=e 79 #acch71 ! same di/rict _h be5 visit$ by a simil> cont9uance ( heavy ra9s1 foll[$ by disa/r\s floods1 & x is n improbable t ^! cata/rophes may recur p]iodically1 ?\gh at unc]ta9 int]vals4 ,z ! population increases1 & build+s & bridges are multipli$1 we mu/ expect ! loss ( lives & prop]ty to augm5t4#ajhj ,fossilization ( human bodies 9 ! b$ ( ! sea4--,if to ! hundr$s ( human bodies committ$ to ! deep 9 ! way ( ord9>y burial we add ^? ( individuals lo/ by %ipwrecks1 we %all f9d t 9 ! c\rse ( a s+le ye>1 a great numb] ( human rema9s are consign$ to ! subaque\s regions4 ,i %all h]eaft] adv]t to a calculation by :i* x appe>s t m ?an five hundr$ ,briti% vessels alone1 av]ag+ ea* a bur!n ( ab\t #abj tons1 are wreck$1 & s9k to ! bottom1 annually4 ,( ^! ! crews = ! mo/ "p escape1 al?\gh x sometimes happ5s t all p]i%4 ,9 "o great naval action sev]al ?\s& individuals sometimes %>e a wat]y grave4 ,_m ( ^! corpses are in/antly dev\r$ by pr$ace\s fi%1 sometimes be=e !y rea* ! bottom2 /ill m frequ5tly :5 !y rise aga9 to ! surface1 & float 9 a /ate ( putrefaction4 ,_m decompose on ! floor ( ! ocean1 :]e no s$im5t is ?r[n d[n ^u !m2 b if !y fall ^u a reef :]e corals & %ells are becom+ agglut9at$ into a solid rock1 or subside :]e ! delta ( a riv] is advanc+1 !y may be pres]v$ = an incalculable s]ies ( ages4 ,(t5 at ! di/ance ( a few hundr$ feet f a coral reef1 :]e wrecks are n unfrequ5t1 !re are no s\nd+s at ! dep? ( _m hundr$ fa?oms4 ,canoes1 m]*ant vessels1 & %ips ( w>1 may h sunk & h be5 envelop$1 9 su* situations1 9 calc>e\s s& & breccia1 deta*$ by ! break]s f ! summit ( a subm>9e m\nta94 ,%\ld a volcanic eruption happ5 to cov] su* rema9s ) a%es & s&1 & a curr5t ( lava be aft]w>ds p\r$ ov] !m1 ! %ips & human skeletons might rema9 un9jur$ b5ea? ! sup]9cumb5t mass1 l ! h\ses & works ( art 9 ! subt]ranean cities ( ,campania4 ,already _m human rema9s may h be5 ?us pres]v$ b5ea? =mations m ?an a ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness2 =1 9 "s volcanic ar*ipelagoes1 a p]iod ( ?irty or =ty c5turies might well be suppos$ suffici5t = su* an accumulation4 ,x 0 /at$1 t at ! di/ance ( ab\t =ty miles f ! base ( ! delta ( ! ,ganges !re is an elliptical space ab\t fifte5 miles 9 diamet]1 :]e s\nd+s ( f #ajj to #cjj fa?oms sometimes fail to rea* ! bottom4 7,see above1 p4 #bgi47 ,z dur+ ! flood season ! quantity ( mud & s& p\r$ by ! great riv]s into ! ,bay ( ,b5gal is s great t ! sea only recov]s its transp>5cy at ! di/ance ( sixty miles f ! coa/1 ?is depression mu/ be gradually %oal+1 especially z dur+ ! monsoons1 ! sea load$ ) mud & s&1 is beat5 back 9 t direction t[>ds ! delta4 ,n[1 if a %ip or human body s9k to ! bottom 9 su* a spot1 x is by no means improbable t x may become buri$ "u a dep? ( a ?\s& feet ( s$im5t 9 ! same numb] ( ye>s4 ,ev5 on t "p ( ! floor ( ! ocean to :i* no accession ( drift matt] is c>ri$ 7a "p :i* probably con/itutes1 at any giv5 p]iod1 by f> ! l>g] proportion ( ! :ole subm>9e area71 !re are circum/ances accompany+ a wreck :i* favor ! cons]vation ( skeletons4 ,= :5 ! vessel fills sudd5ly ) wat]1 especially 9 ! night1 _m p]sons are dr[n$ betwe5 decks & 9 _! cab9s1 s t _! bodies are prev5t$ f ris+ aga9 to ! surface4 ,! vessel (t5 /rikes ^u an unev5 bottom1 & is ov]turn$2 9 :i* case ! balla/1 consi/+ ( s&1 %+le1 & rock1 or ! c>go1 frequ5tly compos$ ( heavy & durable mat]ials1 may be ?r[n d[n ^u ! c>casses4 ,9 ! case ( %ips ( w>1 cannon1 %ot1 & o!r w>like /ores1 may press d[n ) _! weight ! timb]s ( ! vessel z !y decay1 & b5ea? ^! & ! metallic sub/ances ! bones ( man may be pres]v$4 ,numb] ( wreck$ vessels4--,:5 we reflect on ! numb] ( curi\s monum5ts consign$ to ! b$ ( ! ocean 9 ! c\rse ( e naval w> f ! e>lie/ times1 our conceptions are greatly rais$ respect+ ! multiplicity ( la/+ memorials :i* man is leav+ ( 8 labors4 ,dur+ our la/ great /ruggle ) ,france1 ?irty-two ( our %ips ( ! l9e w5t to ! bottom 9 ! space ( tw5ty-two ye>s1 besides sev5 #ej-;gun %ips1 eighty-six frigates1 & a multitude ( small] vessels4 ,! navies ( ! o!r ,european p[]s1 ,france1 ,holl&1 ,spa91 & ,d5m>k1 7 almo/ annihilat$ dur+ ! same p]iod1 s t ! aggregate ( _! losses mu/ h _m times exce$$ t ( ,great ,brita94 ,9 e "o ( ^! %ips 7 batt]ies ( cannon con/ruct$ ( iron or brass1 :]e( a great numb] _h ! dates & places ( _! manufacture inscrib$ ^u !m 9 lett]s ca/ 9 metal4 ,9 ea* !re 7 co9s ( copp]1 silv]1 & (t5 _m ( gold1 capable ( s]v+ z valuable hi/orical monum5ts2 9 ea* 7 an inf9ite v>iety ( in/rum5ts ( ! arts ( w> & peace2 _m =m$ ( mat]ials1 su* z glass & e>!nw>e1 capable ( la/+ = indef9ite ages :5 once remov$ f ! me*anical action ( ! waves1 & buri$ "u a mass ( matt] :i* may exclude ! corrod+ action ( sea-wat]4 ,! quantity1 moreov]1 ( timb] :i* is convey$ f ! l& to ! b$ ( ! sea by ! s9k+ ( %ips ( a l>ge size is enorm\s1 = x is comput$ t #bjjj tons ( wood are requir$ = ! build+ ( "o #gd-;gun %ip2 & reckon+ fifty oaks ( #ajj ye>s gr[? to ! acre1 x w\ld require =ty acres ( oak =e/ to build "o ( ^! vessels4#ajha ,x w\ld be an error to imag9e t ! fury ( w> is m conducive ?an ! peaceful _s ( comm]cial ent]prise to ! accumulation ( wreck$ vessels 9 ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,f an exam9ation ( ,lloyd's li/s1 f ! ye> #agic to ! comm5cem5t ( #ahbi1 ,capta9 ,w4 ,h4 ,smy? asc]ta9$ t ! numb] ( ,briti% vessels alone lo/ dur+ t p]iod am\nt$ on an av]age to no less ?an "o & a half daily2 an ext5t ( loss :i* w\ld h>dly h be5 anticipat$1 al?\gh we le>n f ,moreau's tables t ! numb] ( m]*ant vessels employ$ at "o "t1 9 ! navigation ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 am\nts to ab\t tw5ty ?\s&1 hav+ "o ) ano!r a mean bur!n ( #abj tons4#ajhb ,my fri5d1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l4 ,prevo/1 also in=ms me t on inspect+ ,lloyd's li/ = ! ye>s #ahbi1 #ahcj1 & #ahca1 he f9ds t no less ?an #aiec vessels 7 lo/ 9 ^? ?ree ye>s1 _! av]age tonnage be+ ab\t #aej tons1 or 9 all ne>ly #cjj1jjj tons1 be+ at ! enorm\s rate ( #ajj1jjj tons annually ( ! m]*ant vessels ( "o nation only4 ,?is increas$ loss arises1 ,i presume1 f increas+ activity 9 comm]ce4 ,out ( #eea %ips ( ! royal navy lo/ to ! c\ntry dur+ ! p]iod above m5tion$1 only #afj 7 tak5 or de/roy$ by ! enemy1 ! re/ hav+ ei!r /r&$ or f\nd]$1 or hav+ be5 burnt by accid5t2 a /rik+ pro( t ! dang]s ( our naval w>f>e1 h[ev] great1 may be f> exce$$ by ! /orm1 ! %oal1 ! lee-%ore1 & all ! o!r p]ils ( ! deep4#ajhc ,durable nature ( _m ( _! cont5ts4--,millions ( silv] doll>s & o!r co9s h be5 sometimes subm]g$ 9 a s+le %ip1 & on ^!1 :5 !y happ5 to be envelop$ 9 a matrix capable ( protect+ !m f *emical *anges1 mu* in=mation ( hi/orical int]e/ w rema9 inscrib$1 & endure = p]iods z indef9ite z h ! delicate m>k+s ( zoophytes or lapidifi$ plants 9 "s ( ! anci5t second>y rocks4 ,9 almo/ e l>ge %ip1 moreov]1 !re are "s preci\s /ones set 9 seals1 & o!r articles ( use & ornam5t compos$ ( ! h>de/ sub/ances 9 nature1 on :i* lett]s & v>i\s images are c>v$--engrav+s :i* !y may reta9 :5 includ$ 9 subaque\s /rata1 z long z a cry/al pres]ves its natural =m4 ,x 01 !re=e1 a spl5did boa/1 t ! de$s ( ! ,engli% *ivalry at ,ag9c\rt made ,h5ry's *ronicle ----z ri* ) praise ,z is ! ooze & bottom ( ! deep ,) sunk5 wreck & sumless treasuries = x is probable t a great] numb] ( monum5ts ( ! skill & indu/ry ( man w1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 be collect$ toge!r 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean1 ?an w exi/ at any "o "t on ! surface ( ! cont95ts4 ,if our species be ( z rec5t a date z is g5]ally suppos$1 x w be va9 to seek = ! rema9s ( man & ! works ( 8 h&s imb$d$ 9 subm>9e /rata1 except 9 ^? regions :]e viol5t e>?quakes are frequ5t1 & ! alt]ations ( relative level s great1 t ! b$ ( ! sea may h be5 conv]t$ into l& )9 ! hi/orical era4 ,we ne$ n despair1 h[ev]1 ( ! discov]y ( su* monum5ts1 :5 ^? regions :i* h be5 peopl$ by man f ! e>lie/ ages1 & :i* are at ! same "t ! pr9cipal !atres ( volcanic action1 %all be exam9$ by ! jo9t skill ( ! antiqu>y & geologi/4 ,p[] ( human rema9s to resi/ decay4--,!re c be no d\bt t human rema9s are z capable ( resi/+ decay z are ! h>d] p>ts ( ! inf]ior animals2 & ,i h already cit$ ! rem>k ( ,cuvi]1 t 9 anci5t fields ( battle ! bones ( m5 h suff]$ z little decomposition z ^? ( horses :i* 7 buri$ 9 ! same grave4 7,see above1 p4 #adg47 ,9 ! delta ( ! ,ganges bones ( m5 h be5 f\nd 9 digg+ a well at ! dep? ( n9ety feet2#ajhd b z t riv] frequ5tly %ifts its c\rse & fills up its anci5t *annels1 we are n call$ ^u to suppose t ^! bodies are ( extremely high antiquity1 or t !y 7 buri$ :5 t "p ( ! surr\nd+ delta :]e !y occur 0 fir/ ga9$ f ! sea4 ,fossil skeletons ( m54--,sev]al skeletons ( m51 m or less mutilat$1 h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 on ! nor?-we/ coa/ ( ! ma9 l& ( ,guadal\pe1 9 a k9d ( rock :i* is kn[n to be =m+ daily1 & :i* consi/s ( m9ute fragm5ts ( %ells & corals1 incru/$ ) a calc>e\s cem5t resembl+ trav]t91 by :i* also ! diff]5t gra9s are b\nd toge!r4 ,! l5s %[s t "s ( ! fragm5ts ( coral compos+ ?is /one /ill reta9 ! same r$ color :i* is se5 9 ! reefs ( liv+ coral :i* surr\nd ! isl&4 ,! %ells belong to species ( ! neighbor+ sea int]mix$ ) "s t]re/rial k9ds :i* n[ live on ! isl&1 & among !m is ! ,bulimus ,gaudal\p5sis ( ,f>ussac4 ,! human skeletons /ill reta9 "s ( _! animal matt]1 & all _! phosphate ( lime4 ,"o ( !m1 ( :i* ! head is want+1 may n[ be se5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 & ano!r 9 ! ,royal ,cab9et at ,p>is4 ,accord+ to ,m4 ,konig1 ! rock 9 :i* ! =m] is inclos$ is h>d] "u ! mason's saw & *isel ?an /atu>y m>ble4 ,x is describ$ z =m+ a k9d ( glacis1 probably an indurat$ bea*1 :i* slants f ! /eep cliffs ( ! isl& to ! sea1 & is ne>ly all subm]g$ at high tide4 ,simil> =mations are 9 progress 9 ! :ole ( ! ,we/ ,indian ar*ipelago1 & !y h greatly ext5d$ ! pla9 ( ,cayes 9 ,/4 ,dom+o1 :]e fragm5ts ( vases & o!r human works h be5 f\nd at a dep? ( tw5ty feet4 ,9 digg+ wells also ne> ,catania1 9 ,sicily1 tools h be5 discov]$ 9 a rock some:at simil>4 ,buri$ %ips1 canoes1 & works ( art4--,:5 a vessel is /r&$ 9 %all[ wat]1 x usually becomes ! nucleus ( a s&-bank1 z has be5 exemplifi$ 9 sev]al ( our h>bors1 & ?is circum/ance t5ds greatly to its pres]vation4 ,betwe5 ! ye>s #aghj & #agij a vessel f ,purbeck1 lad5 ) ?ree hundr$ tons ( /one1 /ruck on a %oal (f ! entrance ( ,poole h>bor & f\nd]$2 ! crew 7 sav$1 b ! vessel & c>go rema9 to ?is day at ! bottom4 ,s9ce t p]iod ! %oal at ! entrance ( ! h>bor has s ext5d$ itself 9 a we/]ly direction t[>ds ,pev]il ,po9t 9 ,purbeck1 t ! navigable *annel is ?r[n a mile ne>] t po9t4#ajhe ,! cause is obvi\s2 ! tidal curr5t deposits ! s$im5t ) :i* x is *>g$ ar\nd any object :i* *ecks its velocity4 ,matt] also drift$ along ! bottom is arre/$ by any ob/acle1 & accumulates r\nd x1 j z ! ,african s&-w9ds1 be=e describ$1 raise a small hillock ov] ! c>cass ( e dead camel expos$ on ! surface ( ! des]t4 ,i be=e allud$ to an anci5t ,dut* vessel1 discov]$ 9 ! des]t$ *annel ( ! riv] ,ro!r 9 ,sussex1 ( :i* ! oak wood 0 mu* black5$1 b its texture un*ang$4 7,see above1 p4 #caf47 ,! int]ior 0 fill$ ) fluviatile silt1 z 0 also ! case 9 reg>d to a vessel discov]$ 9 a =m] b$ ( ! ,m]sey1 & ano!r dis9t]r$ :]e ! ,/4 ,ka!r9e ,docks are excavat$ 9 ! alluvial pla9 ( ! ,?ames4 ,9 l mann] _m %ips h be5 f\nd pres]v$ entire 9 mod]n /rata1 =m$ by ! silt+ up ( e/u>ies along ! s\!rn %ores ( ! ,baltic1 especially 9 ,pom]ania4 ,betwe5 ,bromb]g & ,nakel1 = example1 a vessel & two an*ors 9 a v p]fect /ate 7 dug up f> f ! sea4#ajhf ,sev]al vessels h be5 lately detect$ half buri$ 9 ! delta ( ! ,indus1 9 ! num]\s des]t$ bran*es ( t riv]1 f> f :]e ! /ream n[ fl[s4 ,"o ( ^! f\nd ne> ,vikk> 9 ,s9de1 0 #djj tons 9 bur!n1 old fa%ion$1 & pi]c$ = f\rte5 guns1 & 9 a region :]e x _h be5 matt] ( dispute :e!r ! ,indus _h ev] be5 navigable by l>ge vessels4#ajhg ,at ! m\? ( a riv] 9 ,nova ,scotia1 a s*oon] ( ?irty-two tons1 lad5 ) live /ock1 0 ly+ ) h] side to ! tide1 :5 ! bore1 or tidal wave1 :i* rises !re ab\t t5 feet 9 p]p5dicul> height1 ru%$ into ! e/u>y1 & ov]turn$ ! vessel1 s t x in/antly disappe>$4 ,aft] ! tide _h ebb$1 ! s*oon] 0 s totally buri$ 9 ! s&1 t ! taffrel or upp] rail ov] ! /]n 0 alone visible4#ajhh ,we are in=m$ by ,leigh t1 on dra9+ ,m>t9 ,me]1 a lake eighte5 miles 9 circumf]5ce1 9 ,lanca%ire1 a b$ ( m>l 0 laid dry1 :]e9 no few] ?an eight canoes 7 f\nd imb$d$4 ,9 figure & dim5sions !y 7 n unlike ^? n[ us$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,9 a morass ab\t n9e miles di/ant f ?is ,me] a :et/one & an axe ( mix$ metal 7 dug up4#ajhi ,9 ,ayr%ire1 also1 ?ree canoes 7 f\nd 9 ,lo* ,doon "s few ye>s ago2 & dur+ ! ye> #ahca f\r o!rs1 ea* hewn out ( sep>ate oak trees4 ,!y 7 tw5ty-?ree feet 9 l5g?1 two & a half 9 dep?1 & ne>ly f\r feet 9 bread? at ! /]n4 ,9 ! mud :i* fill$ "o ( !m 0 f\nd a w>-club ( oak & a /one battle-axe4 ,a canoe ( oak 0 also f\nd 9 #ahbj1 9 peat ov]ly+ ! %ell-m>l ( ! ,lo* ( ,k9nordy1 9 ,=f>%ire4#ajij ,mann] 9 :i* %ips may be pres]v$ 9 a deep sea4--,x is extremely possible t ! subm]g$ woodwork ( %ips :i* h sunk :]e ! sea is two or ?ree miles deep has und]gone great] *emical *anges 9 an equal space ( "t1 ?an 9 ! cases above m5tion$2 = ! exp]im5ts ( ,scoresby %[ t wood may at c]ta9 dep?s be impregnat$ 9 a s+le h\r ) salt wat]1 s t its specific gravity is entirely alt]$4 ,x may (t5 happ5 t hot spr+s1 *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 silex1 & o!r m9]al +r$i5ts1 may issue at great dep?s1 9 :i* case e pore ( ! vegetable tissue may be inject$ ) ! lapidify+ liquid1 :e!r calc>e\s or silice\s1 be=e ! smalle/ decay comm5ces4 ,! conv]sion1 also1 ( wood into lignite is probably m rapid "u enorm\s pressure4 ,b ! *ange ( ! timb] into lignite or coal w\ld n prev5t ! orig9al =m ( a %ip f be+ di/+ui%$2 = z we f9d1 9 /rata ( ! c>bonif]\s era1 ! b>k ( ! holl[ re$-l trees conv]t$ into coal1 & ! c5tral cavity fill$ ) s&/one1 s might we trace ! outl9e ( a %ip 9 coal2 :ile 9 ! indurat$ mud1 s&/one1 or lime/one1 fill+ ! int]ior1 we might discov] in/rum5ts ( human art1 balla/ consi/+ ( rocks =eign to ! re/ ( ! /ratum1 & o!r cont5ts ( ! %ip4 ,subm]g$ metallic sub/ances4--,_m ( ! metallic sub/ances :i* fall into ! wat]s probably lose1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 ! =ms artificially imp>t$ to !m2 b "u c]ta9 circum/ances ^! may be pres]v$ = indef9ite p]iods4 ,! cannon enclos$ 9 a calc>e\s rock1 drawn up f ! delta ( ! ,rhone1 :i* is n[ 9 ! museum at ,montpelli]1 might probably h endur$ z long z ! calc>e\s matrix2 b ev5 if ! metallic matt] _h be5 remov$1 & _h ent]$ into new comb9ations1 /ill a m\ld ( its orig9al %ape w\ld h be5 left1 correspond+ to ^? impressions ( %ells :i* we see 9 rocks1 f :i* all ! c>bonate ( lime has be5 subtract$4 ,ab\t ! ye> #aggf1 says ,mr4 ,k+1 "s fi%]m51 sweep+ = an*ors 9 ! ,gulf /ream 7a "p ( ! sea ne> ! ,d[ns71 drew up a v curi\s old swivel gun1 ne>ly eight feet 9 l5g?4 ,! b>rel1 :i* 0 ab\t five feet long1 0 ( brass2 b ! h&le by :i* x 0 trav]s$ 0 ab\t ?ree feet 9 l5g?1 & ! swivel & pivot on :i* x turn$ 7 ( iron4 ,ar\nd ^! latt] 7 =m$ incru/ations ( s& conv]t$ into a k9d ( /one1 ( exce$+ly /rong texture & firmness2 :]eas r\nd ! b>rel ( ! gun1 except :]e x 0 ne> adjo9+ to ! iron1 !re 7 no su* incru/ations1 ! great] "p ( x be+ clean1 & 9 good condition1 j z if x _h /ill cont9u$ 9 use4 ,9 ! incru/+ /one1 adh]+ to x on ! outside1 7 a numb] ( %ells & corall9es1 j z !y are (t5 f\nd 9 a fossil /ate4 ,^! 7 all s /rongly atta*$1 t x requir$ z mu* =ce to sep>ate !m f ! matrix z to break a fragm5t (f any h>d rock4#ajia ,9 ! ye> #agde1 cont9ues ! same writ]1 ! ,fox man-(-w> 0 /r&$ on ! coa/ ( ,ea/ ,lo?ian1 & w5t to pieces4 ,ab\t ?irty-?ree ye>s aft]w>ds a viol5t /orm laid b>e a "p ( ! wreck1 & ?rew up ne> ! place sev]al masses1 consi/+ ( iron1 ropes1 & balls1 cov]$ ov] ) o*re\s s&1 concret$ & h>d5$ into a k9d ( /one4 ,! sub/ance ( ! rope 0 v little alt]$4 ,! consolidat$ s& reta9$ p]fect impressions ( p>ts ( an iron r+1 j z impressions ( extrane\s fossil bodies are f\nd 9 v>i\s k9ds ( /rata4#ajib ,aft] a /orm 9 ! ye> #ahbd1 :i* occasion$ a consid]able %ift+ ( ! s&s ne> ,/4 ,&rew's1 9 ,scotl&1 a gun-b>rel ( anci5t con/ruction 0 f\nd1 :i* is conjectur$ to h belong$ to "o ( ! wreck$ vessels ( ! ,spani% ,armada4 ,x is n[ 9 ! museum ( ! ,antiqu>ian ,society ( ,scotl&1 & is incru/$ ov] by a ?9 coat+ ( s&1 ! gra9s ( :i* are cem5t$ by br[n f]rug9\s matt]4 ,atta*$ to ?is coat+ are fragm5ts ( v>i\s %ells1 z ( ! common c>dium1 mya1 c4 ,_m o!r examples are record$ ( iron in/rum5ts tak5 up f ! b$ ( ! sea ne> ! ,briti% coa/1 incas$ by a ?ick coat+ ( conglom]ate1 consi/+ ( pebbles & s&1 cem5t$ by oxide ( iron4 ,dr4 ,davy describes a bronze helmet1 ( ! antique ,grecian =m1 tak5 up 9 #ahbe1 f a %all[ "p ( ! sea1 betwe5 ! citadel ( ,corfu & ! village ( ,ca/rades4 ,bo? ! int]ior & ext]ior ( ! helmet 7 p>tially incru/$ ) %ells1 & a deposit ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,! surface g5]ally1 bo? "u ! incru/ation1 & :]e fre$ f x1 0 ( a v>iegat$ color1 mottl$ ) spots ( gre51 dirty :ite1 & r$4 ,on m9ute inspection ) a l5s1 ! gre5 & r$ pat*es prov$ to consi/ ( cry/als ( ! r$ oxide & c>bonate ( copp]1 & ! dirty :ite *iefly ( oxide ( t94 ,! m9]aliz+ process1 says ,dr4 ,davy1 :i* has produc$ ^! new comb9ations1 has1 9 g5]al1 p5etrat$ v little into ! sub/ance ( ! helmet4 ,! incru/ation & ru/ remov$1 ! metal is f\nd bright b5ea?2 9 "s places consid]ably corrod$1 9 o!rs v slightly4 ,x proves1 on analysis1 to be copp]1 alloy$ ) #ah4e p] c5t4 ( t94 ,its color is t ( our common brass1 & x possesses a consid]able degree ( flexibility4 ,x is a curi\s "q1 he adds1 h[ ! cry/als 7 =m$ 9 ! helmet1 & on ! adh]+ calc>e\s deposit4 ,!re be+ no reason to suppose deposition f solution1 are we n "u ! necessity ( inf]r+1 t ! m9]aliz+ process dep5ds on a small motion & sep>ation ( ! p>ticles ( ! orig9al comp\nd8 ,?is motion may h be5 due to ! op]ation ( electro-*emical p[]s :i* may h sep>at$ ! diff]5t metals ( ! alloy4#ajic ,effects ( ! ,subsid5ce ( ,l&1 9 imb$d+ ,cities & ,=e/s 9 subaque\s ,/rata4 ,we h hi!rto consid]$ ! transportation ( plants & animals f ! l& by aque\s ag5ts1 & _! inhumation 9 lacu/r9e or subm>9e deposits1 & we may n[ inquire :at t5d5cy ! subsid5ce ( tracts ( l& may h to produce analog\s effects4 ,sev]al examples ( ! s9k+ d[n ( build+s1 & portions ( t[ns ne> ! %ore1 to v>i\s dep?s b5ea? ! level ( ! sea dur+ subt]ranean movem5ts1 7 be=e enum]at$ 9 treat+ ( ! *anges br\ght ab\t by inorganic causes4 ,! ev5ts allud$ to 7 compris$ )9 a brief portion ( ! hi/orical p]iod1 & conf9$ to a small numb] ( ! regions ( active volcanoes4 ,yet ^! au!ntic facts1 relat+ m]ely to ! la/ c5tury & a half1 gave indications ( consid]able *anges 9 ! physical geography ( ! globe1 & we are n to suppose t ^! 7 ! only spots ?r\gh\t ! surr\nd+ l& & sea :i* suff]$ simil> depressions4 ,if1 dur+ ! %ort p]iod s9ce ,s\? ,am]ica has be5 coloniz$ by ,europeans1 we h pro( ( alt]ations ( level at ! ?ree pr9cipal ports on ! we/]n %ores1 ,callao1 ,valp>aiso1 & ,conception1#ajid we _c = a mom5t suspect t ^! cities1 s di/ant f ea* o!r1 h be5 select$ z ! peculi> po9ts :]e ! desolat+ p[] ( ! e>?quake has exp5d$ its *ief fury4 ,on consid]+ h[ small is ! area occupi$ by ! seaports ( ?is di/urb$ region--po9ts :]e alone ea* slight *ange ( ! relative level ( ! sea & l& c be recogniz$1--& reflect+ on ! pro(s 9 our possession ( ! local revolutions t h happ5$ on ! site ( ea* port1 )9 ! la/ c5tury & a half1--our conceptions mu/ be greatly exalt$ respect+ ! magnitude ( ! alt]ations :i* ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,&es & ! sea may h und]gone1 ev5 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ six ?\s& ye>s4 ,cut* e>?quake4--,! mann] 9 :i* a l>ge ext5t ( surface may be subm]g$1 s t ! t]re/rial plants & animals may be imb$d$ 9 subaque\s /rata1 _c be bett] illu/rat$ ?an by ! e>?quake ( ,cut*1 9 #ahai1 be=e allud$ to 7p4 #dfj74 ,x is /at$1 t1 = "s ye>s aft] t e>?quake1 ! )]$ tam>isks & o!r %rubs protrud$ _! tops above ! waves1 9 p>ts ( ! lagoon =m$ by subsid5ce1 on ! site ( ! village ( ,s9dree & its environs2 b1 aft] ! flood ( #ahbf1 !y 7 se5 no long]4 ,e geologi/ w at once p]ceive1 t =e/s sunk by su* subt]ranean movem5ts may become imb$d$ 9 subaque\s deposits1 bo? fluviatile & m>9e1 & ! trees may /ill rema9 erect1 or sometimes ! roots & "p ( ! trunks may cont9ue 9 _! orig9al position1 :ile ! curr5t may h brok5 (f1 or levell$ ) ! gr\nd1 _! upp] /ems & bran*es4 ,build+s h[ pres]v$ "u wat]4--,"s ( ! build+s :i* h at diff]5t times subsid$ b5ea? ! level ( ! sea h be5 imm$iately cov]$ up to a c]ta9 ext5t ) /rata ( volcanic matt] %[]$ d[n ^u !m4 ,su* 0 ! case at ,tomboro 9 ,sumbawa1 9 ! pres5t c5tury1 & at ! site ( ! ,temple ( ,s]apis1 9 ! environs ( ,puzzuoli1 probably ab\t ! #ab? c5tury4 ,! entrance ( a riv] *>g$ ) s$im5t 9 ! vic9ity may /ill m frequ5tly occasion ! rapid envelopm5t ( build+s 9 regul>ly /ratifi$ =mations4 ,b if no =eign matt] be introduc$1 ! build+s1 :5 once remov$ to a dep? :]e ! action ( ! waves is ins5sible1 & :]e no great curr5t happ5s to fl[1 may la/ = indef9ite p]iods1 & be z durable z ! floor ( ! ocean itself1 :i* may (t5 be compos$ ( ! v same mat]ials4 ,!re is no reason to d\bt ! tradition m5tion$ by ! classic writ]s1 t ! subm]g$ ,grecian t[ns ( ,bura & ,helice 7 se5 "u wat]2 & x has be5 already m5tion$ t diff]5t eye-witnesses h obs]v$ ! h\ses ( ,port ,royal1 at ! bottom ( ! sea1 at int]vals ( #hh1 #aja1 & #adc ye>s aft] ! convulsion ( #afib4 7p4 #eje47 ,buri$ temples ( ,ca%m]e4--,! celebrat$ valley ( ,ca%m]e 7or ,ka%mir7 9 ,india1 situat$ at ! s\!rn foot ( ! ,himalaya range1 is ab\t #fj miles 9 l5g?1 & #bj 9 bread?1 surr\nd$ by m\nta9s :i* rise abruptly f ! pla9 to ! height ( ab\t #ejjj feet4 ,9 ! cliffs ( ! riv] ,jelam & its tribut>ies1 :i* trav]se ?is beautiful valley1 /rata consi/+ ( f9e clay1 s&1 s(t s&/one1 pebbles1 & conglom]ate are expos$ to view4 ,!y conta9 fre%wat] %ells1 ( ! g5]a ,lymneus1 ,palud9a1 & ,cyr5a1 ) l& %ells1 all ( rec5t species1 & are precisely su* deposits z w\ld be =m$ if ! :ole valley 7 n[ conv]t$ into a great lake1 & if ! num]\s riv]s & torr5ts desc5d+ f ! surr\nd+ m\nta9s 7 all[$ suffici5t "t to fill up ! lake-bas9 ) f9e s$im5t & gravel4 ,fragm5ts ( pott]y met ) at ! dep? ( #dj & #ej feet 9 ?is lacu/r9e =mation %[ t ! upp] "p ( x at lea/ has accumulat$ )9 ! human epo*4 ,dr4 ,?omas ,?omson1 :o visit$ ,ca%m]e 9 #ahdh1 obs]ves t sev]al ( ! lakes :i* /ill exi/ 9 ! great valley1 su* z t ne> ! t[n ( ,ca%m]e1 five miles 9 diamet]1 & "s o!rs1 are deep] ?an ! adjo9+ riv]-*annels1 & may h be5 =m$ by subsid5ce dur+ ! num]\s e>?quakes :i* h convuls$ t region 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ #bjjj ye>s4 ,x is also probable t ! fre%wat] /rata se5 to ext5d f> & wide ov] ! :ole ( ,ca%m]e orig9at$ n 9 "o cont9u\s %eet ( wat] once occupy+ ! entire valley1 b 9 _m lakes ( limit$ area1 =m$ & fill$ 9 succession4 ,among o!r pro(s ( su* lake-bas9s ( mod]ate dim5sions hav+ once exi/$ & hav+ be5 conv]t$ into l& at diff]5t p]iods1 ,dr4 ,?omson m5tions t ! ru9s ( ,avantipura1 n f> f ! mod]n village ( t "n1 /& on an old] fre%wat] deposit at ! base ( ! m\nta9s1 & t]m9ate abruptly t[>ds ! pla9 9 a /raight l9e1 su* z admits ( no o!r explanation ?an by suppos+ t ! advance ( ! t[n 9 t direction 0 arre/$ by a lake1 n[ dra9$ or repres5t$ only by a m>%4 ,9 t neighborhood1 z v g5]ally ?r\gh\t ,ca%m]e1 ! riv]s run 9 *annels or alluvial flats1 b\nd$ by cliffs ( lacu/r9e /rata1 horizontally /ratifi$1 & ^! /rata =m l[ table-l&s f #bj to #ej feet high betwe5 ! diff]5t wat]c\rses4 ,on a table-l& ( ?is k9d ne> ,avantipura1 portions ( two buri$ temples are se51 :i* h be5 p>tially explor$ by ,major ,cunn+ham1 :o1 9 #ahdg1 discov]$ t 9 "o ( ! build+s a magnific5t colonnade ( sev5ty-f\r pill>s is pres]v$ und]gr\nd4 ,he expos$ to view ?ree ( ! pill>s 9 a cavity /ill op54 ,all ! ar*itectural decorations bel[ ! level ( ! soil are z p]fect & fre%-look+ z :5 fir/ execut$4 ,! spaci\s quadrangle mu/ h be5 silt$ up gradually at fir/1 = "s unsightly alt]ations1 n 9 accordance ) ! g5]al plan & /yle ( ar*itecture1 7 detect$1 evid5tly ( subsequ5t date1 & su* z c\ld only h be5 requir$ :5 ! wat] & s$im5t _h already ga9$ a c]ta9 height 9 ! int]ior ( ! temple4 ,?is edifice is suppos$ to h be5 erect$ ab\t ! ye> #hej ( our era1 & 0 c]ta9ly subm]g$ be=e ! ye> #adaf1 :5 ! ,mahom$an k+1 ,sik&>1 call$ ,but%ikan or ! idol-break]1 de/roy$ all ! images ( ,h9doo temples 9 ,ca%m]e4 ,f]i%ta ! hi/orian p>ticul>ly alludes to ,sik&> hav+ demoli%$ e ,ca%m]ian temple save "o1 d$icat$ to ,mahadava1 :i* escap$ 9 consequ5ce ( its f\ndations be+ bel[ ! neighbor+ wat]4 ,! unh>m$ condition ( ! human-head$ birds & o!r images 9 ! buri$ edifice ne> ,avantipura leaves no d\bt t !y escap$ ! fury ( ! iconocla/ by be+ "u wat]1 & p]haps silt$ up be=e ! date ( 8 conque/4#ajie ,b]keley's argum5ts = ! rec5t date ( ! creation ( man4--,i _c conclude ?is *apt] )\t recall+ to ! read]'s m9d a memorable passage writt5 by ,bi%op ,b]keley a c5tury ago1 9 :i* he inf]r$1 on gr\nds :i* may be t]m$ /rictly geological1 ! rec5t date ( ! creation ( man4 ,to any "o1 says he1 :o consid]s t on digg+ into ! e>?1 su* quantities ( %ells1 & 9 "s places1 bones & horns ( animals1 are f\nd s\nd & entire1 aft] hav+ la9 !re 9 all probability "s ?\s&s ( ye>s2 x %\ld seem probable t guns1 m$als1 & implem5ts 9 metal or /one1 might h la/$ entire1 buri$ "u gr\nd =ty or fifty ?\s& ye>s1 if ! _w _h be5 s old4 ,h[ comes x !n to pass t no rema9s are f\nd1 no antiquities ( ^? num]\s ages prec$+ ! ,scripture acc\nts ( "t2 t no fragm5ts ( build+s1 no public monum5ts1 no intaglios1 cameos1 /atues1 basso-relievos1 m$als1 inscriptions1 ut5sils1 or artificial works ( any k9d1 are ev] discov]$1 :i* may be> te/imony to ! exi/5ce ( ^? mighty empires1 ^? successions ( mon>*s1 h]oes1 & demi-gods1 = s _m ?\s& ye>s8 ,let u look =w>d & suppose t5 or tw5ty ?\s& ye>s to come1 dur+ :i* "t we w suppose t plagues1 fam9e1 w>s1 & e>?quakes %all h made great havoc 9 ! _w1 is x n highly probable t at ! end ( su* a p]iod1 pill>s1 vases1 & /atues n[ 9 be+1 ( granite1 or porphyry1 or jasp] 7/ones ( su* h>dness z we "k !m to h la/$ two ?\s& ye>s above gr\nd1 )\t any consid]able alt]ation71 w\ld be> record ( ^! & pa/ ages8 ,or t "s ( our curr5t co9s might !n be dug up1 or old walls & ! f\ndations ( build+s %[ !mselves1 z well z ! %ells & /ones ( ! primeval _w1 :i* are pres]v$ d[n to our times4#ajif ,t _m signs ( ! ag5cy ( man w\ld h la/$ at lea/ z long z ! %ells ( ! primeval _w1 _h our race be5 s anci5t1 we may feel z fully p]suad$ z ,b]keley2 & we may anticipate ) confid5ce t _m edifices & implem5ts ( human workman%ip & ! skeletons ( m51 & ca/s ( ! human =m1 w cont9ue to exi/ :5 a great "p ( ! pres5t m\nta9s1 cont95ts1 & seas h disappe>$4 ,assum+ ! future duration ( ! planet to be indef9itely protract$1 we c =esee no limit to ! p]petuation ( "s ( ! memorials ( man1 :i* are cont9ually entomb$ 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? or 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean1 unless we c>ry =w>d our views to a p]iod suffici5t to all[ ! v>i\s causes ( *ange1 bo? igne\s & aque\s1 to remodel m ?an once ! entire cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,"o complete revolution w be inadequate to efface e monum5t ( our exi/5ce2 = _m works ( art might ent] aga9 & aga9 into ! =mations ( successive eras1 & escape oblit]ation ev5 ?\gh ! v rocks 9 :i* !y _h be5 = ages imb$d$ 7 de/roy$1 j z pebbles includ$ 9 ! conglom]ates ( "o epo* (t5 conta9 ! organiz$ rema9s ( be+s :i* fl\ri%$ dur+ a prior era4 ,yet x is no less true1 z a late di/+ui%$ philosoph] has decl>$1 t none ( ! works ( a mortal be+ c be et]nal4#ajig ,!y are 9 ! fir/ place wre/$ f ! h&s ( man1 & lo/ z f> z reg>ds _! subs]vi5cy to 8 use1 by ! in/rum5tality ( ^? v causes :i* place !m 9 situations :]e !y are enabl$ to endure = indef9ite p]iods4 ,& ev5 :5 !y h be5 includ$ 9 rocky /rata1 :5 !y h be5 made to ent] z x 7 into ! solid framework ( ! globe itself1 !y mu/ nev]!less ev5tually p]i%2 = e ye> "s portion ( ! e>?'s cru/ is %att]$ by e>?quakes1 or melt$ by volcanic fire1 or gr\nd to du/ by ! mov+ wat]s on ! surface4 ,! riv] ( ,le!1 z ,bacon eloqu5tly rem>ks1 runne? z well above gr\nd z bel[4#ajih ,,*apt] ,,xlix4 ,,imb$d+ ,,( ,,aquatic ,,species ,,9 ,,subaque\s ,,/rata4 ,inhumation ( fre% wat] plants & animals--,%ell m>l--,fossiliz$ se$-vessels & /ems ( *>a--,rec5t deposits 9 ,am]ican lakes--,fre%wat] species drift$ into seas & e/u>ies--,lewes levels--,alt]nations ( m>9e & fre%wat] /rata1 h[ caus$--,imb$d+ ( m>9e plants & animals--,cetacea /r&$ on our %ores--,littoral & e/u>y ,te/acea swept into ! deep sea--,burr[+ %ells--,liv+ ,te/acea f\nd at consid]able dep?s--,bl5d+ ( organic rema9s ( diff]5t ages4 ,hav+ treat$ ( ! imb$d+ ( t]re/rial plants & animals1 & ( human rema9s1 9 deposits n[ =m+ b5ea? ! wat]s1 ,i come next to consid] 9 :at mann] aquatic species may be entomb$ 9 /rata =m$ 9 _! own elem5t4 ,fre%wat] plants & animals4--,! rema9s ( species belong+ to ^? g5]a ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms :i* are m or less exclusively conf9$ to fre% wat] are = ! mo/ "p pres]v$ 9 ! b$s ( lakes or e/u>ies1 b !y are (t5times swept d[n by riv]s into ! sea1 & !re int]m+l$ ) ! exuviae ( m>9e races4 ,! ph5om5a att5d+ _! inhumation 9 lacu/r9e deposits are sometimes reveal$ to our obs]vation by ! dra9age ( small lakes1 su* z are ^? 9 ,scotl&1 :i* h be5 laid dry = ! sake ( obta9+ %ell m>l = agricultural uses4 ,9 ^! rec5t =mations1 z se5 9 ,=f>%ire1 two or ?ree b$s ( calc>e\s m>l are sometimes obs]v$ sep>at$ f ea* o!r by lay]s ( drift peat1 s&1 or fissile clay4 ,! m>l (t5 consi/s almo/ entirely ( an aggregate ( %ells ( ! g5]a ,limnea1 ,planorbis1 ,valvata1 & ,cyclas1 ( species n[ exi/+ 9 ,scotl&4 ,a consid]able proportion ( ! ,te/acea appe> to h di$ v "y1 & few ( ! %ells are ( a size :i* indicates _! hav+ atta9$ a /ate ( maturity4 ,! %ells are sometimes entirely decompos$1 =m+ a pulv]ul5t m>l2 sometimes 9 a /ate ( good pres]vation4 ,!y are frequ5tly int]mix$ ) /ems ( ,*>ae & o!r aquatic vegetables1 ! :ole be+ matt$ toge!r & compress$1 =m+ lam9ae (t5 z ?9 z pap]4 ,fossiliz$ se$-vessels & /ems ( ,*>a4--,z ! ,*>a is an aquatic plant :i* occurs frequ5tly fossil 9 =mations ( diff]5t eras1 & is (t5 ( mu* importance to ! geologi/ 9 *>act]iz+ entire gr\ps ( /rata1 ,i %all describe ! mann] 9 :i* ,i h f\nd ! rec5t species 9 a petrifi$ /ate4 ,!y occur 9 a m>l-lake 9 ,=f>%ire1 inclos$ 9 nodules1 & sometimes 9 a cont9u\s /ratum ( a k9d ( trav]t94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,se$-vessel ( ,*>a hispida4 a1 ,"p ( ! /em ) ! se$-vessel atta*$4 ,magnifi$4 b1 ,natural size ( ! se$ vessel4 c1 ,integum5t ( ! ,gyrogonite1 or petrifi$ se$-vessel ( ,*>a hispida1 f\nd 9 ! ,scot* m>l-lakes4 ,magnifi$4 d1 ,section %[+ ! nut )9 ! integum5t4 e1 ,l[] end ( ! integum5t to :i* ! /em 0 atta*$4 f1 ,upp] end ( ! integum5t to :i* ! /igmata 7 atta*$4 g1 ,"o ( ! spiral valves ( c4 ,! se$-vessel ( ^! plants is rem>kably t\gh & h>d1 & consi/s ( a membran\s nut cov]$ by an integum5t 7d1 fig4 #ajb47 bo? ( :i* are spirally /riat$ or ribb$4 ,! integum5t is compos$ ( five spiral valves1 ( a quadrangul> =m 7g74 ,9 ,*>a hispida1 :i* ab\nds 9 ! lakes ( ,=f>%ire1 & :i* has become fossil 9 ! ,bakie ,lo*1 ea* ( ! spiral valves ( ! se$-vessel turns r m ?an twice r\nd ! circumf]5ce1 ! :ole toge!r mak+ betwe5 t5 & elev5 r+s4 ,! numb] ( ^! r+s diff]s greatly 9 diff]5t species1 b 9 ! same appe>s to be v con/ant4 ,! /ems ( ,*>ae occur fossil 9 ! ,scot* m>l 9 great abundance4 ,9 "s species1 z 9 ,*>a hispida1 ! plant :5 liv+ conta9s s mu* c>bonate ( lime 9 its vegetable organization1 indep5d5tly ( calc>e\s incru/ation1 t x eff]vesces /rongly ) acids :5 dry4 ,! /ems ( ,*>a hispida are longitud9ally /riat$1 ) a t5d5cy to be spiral4 ,^! /riae1 z appe>s to be ! case ) all ,*>ae1 turn always l ! worm ( a screw f "r to left1 :ile ^? ( ! se$-vessel w9d r\nd 9 a contr>y direction4 ,a cross section ( ! /em exhibits a curi\s /ructure1 = x is compos$ ( a l>ge tube surr\nd$ by small] tubes 7fig4 #ajc41 b1 c7 z is se5 9 "s ext9ct z well z rec5t species4 ,9 ! /ems ( sev]al species1 h[ev]1 !re is only a s+le tube4#ajii ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,/em & bran*es ( ,*>a hispida4 a1 ,/em & bran*es ( ! natural size4 b1 ,section ( ! /em magnifi$4 c1 ,%[+ ! c5tral tube surr\nd$ by two r+s ( small] tubes4 ,! valves ( a small animal call$ cypris 7,c4 ornata8 ,lam47 occur completely fossiliz$1 l ! /ems ( ,*>ae1 9 ! ,scot* trav]t9 above m5tion$4 ,! same cypris inhabits ! lakes & ponds ( ,engl&1 :]e1 toge!r ) _m o!r species1 x is n uncommon4 ,al?\gh extremely m9ute1 !y are visible to ! nak$ eye1 & may be obs]v$ 9 great numb]s1 swimm+ swiftly ?r\gh ! wat]s ( our /agnant pools & dit*es4 ,! ant5nae1 at ! end ( :i* are f9e p5cils ( hair1 are ! pr9cipal organs = swimm+1 & are mov$ ) great rapidity4 ,! animal resides )9 two small valves1 n unlike ^? ( a bivalve %ell1 & m\lts its integum5ts annually1 :i* ! con*if]\s mollusks d n4 ,! ca/-(f %ells1 resembl+ ?9 scales1 & occurr+ 9 c\ntless myriads 9 _m anci5t fre%wat] m>ls1 imp>t to !m a divisional /ructure1 l t s frequ5tly d]iv$ f plates ( mica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,cypris unifasciata1 a liv+ species1 greatly magnifi$4 a1 ,upp] "p4 b1 ,side view ( ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,cypris vidua1 a liv+ species1 greatly magnifi$4#aajj ,! rec5t /rata ( lacu/r9e orig9 above allud$ to are ( v small ext5t1 b analog\s deposits on ! gr&e/ scale are =m+ 9 ! great ,canadian lakes1 z 9 ,lakes ,sup]ior & ,huron1 :]e b$s ( s& & clay are se5 inclos+ %ells ( exi/+ species4#aaja ,! ,*>a also plays ! same "p 9 ! subaque\s vegetation ( ,nor? ,am]ica z 9 ,europe4 ,i obs]v$ along ! bord]s ( sev]al fre%wat] lakes 9 ! /ate ( ,new ,york a luxuriant crop ( ?is plant 9 cle> wat] ( mod]ate dep?1 r5d]+ ! bottom z v]dant z a grassy mead[4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we may expect "s ( ! t\gh se$ vessels to be pres]v$ 9 mud1 j z we detect !m fossil 9 ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ,hamp%ire1 or 9 ! neighborhood ( ,p>is1 & _m o!r c\ntries4 ,imb$d+ ( fre%wat] ,species 9 ,e/u>y & ,m>9e ,deposits4 ,9 ,lewes levels4--,we h sometimes an opportunity ( exam9+ ! deposits :i* )9 ! hi/orical p]iod h silt$ up "s ( our e/u>ies2 & excavations made = wells & o!r purposes1 :]e ! sea has be5 f9ally exclud$1 enable u to obs]ve ! /ate ( ! organic rema9s 9 ^! tracts4 ,! valley ( ! ,ouze betwe5 ,ne:av5 & ,lewes is "o ( sev]al e/u>ies f :i* ! sea has retir$ )9 ! la/ sev5 or eight c5turies2 & "h1 z appe>s f ! rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,mantell1 /rata ?irty feet & upw>ds 9 ?ickness h accumulat$4 ,at ! top1 b5ea? ! vegetable soil1 is a b$ ( peat ab\t five feet ?ick1 inclos+ _m trunks ( trees4 ,next bel[ is a /ratum ( blue clay conta9+ fre%wat] %ells ( ab\t n9e species1 su* z n[ inhabit ! di/rict4 ,int]mix$ ) ^! 0 obs]v$ ! skeleton ( a de]4 ,l[] d[n1 ! lay]s ( blue clay conta91 ) ! above-m5tion$ fre%wat] %ells1 sev]al m>9e species well kn[n on our coa/4 ,9 ! l[e/ b$s1 (t5 at ! dep? ( ?irty-six feet2 ^! m>9e ,te/acea occur )\t ! slighte/ int]mixture ( fluviatile species1 & among/ !m ! skull ( ! n>wal1 or sea unicorn 7,monodon monoc]os71 has be5 detect$4 ,und]nea? all ^! deposits is a b$ ( pipe-clay1 d]iv$ f ! subjac5t *alk4#aajb ,if we _h no hi/orical in=mation respect+ ! =m] exi/5ce ( an inlet ( ! sea 9 ?is valley & ( its gradual oblit]ation1 ! inspection ( ! section above describ$ w\ld %[1 z cle>ly z a writt5 *ronicle1 ! foll[+ sequ5ce ( ev5ts4 ,fir/1 !re 0 a salt-wat] e/u>y peopl$ = _m ye>s by species ( m>9e ,te/acea id5tical ) ^? n[ liv+1 & into :i* "s ( ! l>g] ,cetacea occasionally ent]$4 ,secondly1 ! inlet grew %all[]1 & ! wat] became bracki%1 or alt]nately salt & fre%1 s t ! rema9s ( fre%wat] & m>9e %ells 7 m+l$ 9 ! blue argillace\s s$im5t ( its bottom4 ,?irdly1 ! %oal+ cont9u$ until ! riv]-wat] prevail$1 s t x 0 no long] habitable by m>9e ,te/acea1 b fitt$ only = ! abode ( fluviatile species & aquatic insects4 ,f\r?ly1 a peaty swamp or morass 0 =m$1 :]e "s trees grew1 or p]haps 7 drift$ dur+ floods1 & :]e t]re/rial quadrup$s 7 mir$4 ,f9ally1 ! soil be+ flood$ by ! riv] only at di/ant int]vals1 became a v]dant mead[4 ,9 delta ( ,ganges & ,indus4--,x 0 be=e /at$1 t on ! sea-coa/1 9 ! delta ( ! ,ganges1 !re are eight great op5+s1 ea* ( :i* has evid5tly1 at "s anci5t p]iod1 s]v$ 9 its turn z ! pr9cipal *annel ( dis*>ge4#aajc ,z ! base ( ! delta is #bjj miles 9 l5g?1 x mu/ happ5 t1 z (t5 z ! great volume ( riv]-wat] is ?r[n into ! sea by a new m\?1 ! sea w at "o po9t be conv]t$ f salt to fre%1 & at ano!r f fre% to salt2 =1 ) ! exception ( ^? p>ts :]e ! pr9cipal dis*>ge takes place1 ! salt wat] n only wa%es ! base ( ! delta1 b ent]s f> into e creek & lagoon4 ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t repeat$ alt]nations ( b$s conta9+ fre%wat] %ells1 ) o!rs fill$ ) m>9e exuviae1 may "h be =m$4 ,x has also be5 %[n by artesian bor+s at ,calcutta 7see above1 p4 #bfg71 t ! delta once ext5d$ mu* f>!r ?an n[ into ! gulf1 & t ! riv] is only recov]+ f ! sea ! gr\nd :i* _h be5 lo/ by subsid5ce at "s =m] p]iod4 ,analog\s ph5om5a mu/ sometimes be occasion$ by su* alt]nate elevation & depression z has occurr$ 9 mod]n times 9 ! delta ( ! ,indus4#aajd ,b ! subt]ranean movem5ts affect b a small numb] ( ! deltas =m$ at "o p]iod on ! globe2 :]eas ! silt+ up ( "s ( ! arms ( great riv]s & ! op5+ ( o!rs1 & ! consequ5t v>iation ( ! po9ts :]e ! *ief volume ( _! wat]s is dis*>g$ into ! sea1 are ph5om5a common to almo/ e delta4 ,! v>iety ( species ( ,te/acea conta9$ 9 ! rec5t calc>e\s m>l ( ,scotl&1 be=e m5tion$1 is v small1 b ! abundance ( individuals extremely great1 a circum/ance v *>act]i/ic ( fre%wat] =mations 9 g5]al1 z comp>$ to m>9e2 = 9 ! latt]1 z is se5 on sea-bea*es1 coral-reefs1 or 9 ! bottom ( ! seas exam9$ by dr$g+1 :]ev] ! individual %ells are exce$+ly num]\s1 !re r>ely fails to be a va/ v>iety ( species4 ,imb$d+ ( ! ,rema9s ( ,m>9e ,plants & ,animals4 ,m>9e plants4--,! l>ge banks ( drift sea-we$ :i* occur on ea* side ( ! equator 9 ! ,atlantic1 ,pacific1 & ,indian oceans1 7 be=e allud$ to4#aaje ,^!1 :5 !y subside1 may (t5 produce consid]able b$s ( vegetable matt]4 ,9 ,holl&1 subm>9e peat is d]iv$ f ,fuci1 & on p>ts ( our own coa/ f ,zo/]a m>9a4 ,9 places :]e ,algae d n g5]ate peat1 !y may nev]!less leave traces ( _! =m impr9t$ on argillace\s & calc>e\s mud1 z !y are usually v t\gh 9 _! texture4 ,sea-we$s are (t5 ca/ up 9 su* abundance on our %ores dur+ heavy gales1 t we _c d\bt t occasionally va/ numb]s ( !m are imb$d$ 9 littoral deposits n[ 9 progress4 ,we le>n f ! rese>*es ( ,dr4 ,=*hamm]1 t besides supply+ 9 common ) l& plants ! mat]ials ( coal1 ! ,algae mu/ give rise to important *emical *anges 9 ! composition ( /rata 9 :i* !y are imb$d$4 ,^! plants always conta9 sulphuric acid1 & sometimes 9 z l>ge a quantity z #h-a_/b p] c5t41 comb9$ ) pota%3 magnesia also & phosphoric acid are con/ant +r$i5ts4 ,:5ev] l>ge masses ( sea-we$s putrefy 9 contact ) f]rug9\s clay1 sulphuret ( iron1 or iron pyrites1 is =m$ by ! union ( ! sulphur ( ! plants ) ! iron ( ! clay2 :ile ! pota%1 releas$ f its union ) ! clay 7i4 e4 silicate ( alum9a71 =ms ) x a peculi> comp\nd4 ,_m ( ! m9]al *>act]i/ics ( anci5t rocks1 especially ! alum slates1 & ! pyrites :i* occur 9 clay slate1 & ! fragm5ts ( an?racite 9 m>9e ,silurian /rata1 may be expla9$ by ! decomposition ( fucoids or sea-we$s4#aajf ,imb$d+ ( cetacea4--,x is n uncommon = ! l>g] ,cetacea1 :i* c float only 9 a consid]able dep? ( wat]1 to be c>ri$ dur+ /orms or high tides into e/u>ies1 or ^u l[ %ores1 :]e1 ^u ! retir+ ( high wat]1 !y are /r&$4 ,?us a n>wal 7,monodon monoc]os7 0 f\nd on ! bea*1 ne> ,bo/on 9 ,l9coln%ire1 9 ! ye> #ahjj1 ! :ole ( its body buri$ 9 ! mud4 ,a fi%]man go+ to 8 boat saw ! horn1 & tri$ to pull x out1 :5 ! animal began to /ir itself4#aajg ,an individual ( ! common :ale 7,bala5a my/icetus71 :i* measur$ sev5ty feet1 came a%ore ne> ,pet]head1 9 #afhb4 ,_m individuals ( ! g5us ,bala5opt]a h met ! same fate4 ,x w be suffici5t to ref] to ^? ca/ on %ore ne> ,burnt ,isl&1 & at ,alloa1 record$ by ,sibbald & ,neill4 ,! o!r individual m5tion$ by ,sibbald1 z hav+ come a%ore at ,boyne1 9 ,banff%ire1 0 probably a razor-back4 ,( ! g5us ,catodon 7,ca*alot71 ,ray m5tions a l>ge "o /r&$ on ! we/ coa/ ( ,holl& 9 #aeih1 & ! fact is also commemorat$ 9 a ,dut* engrav+ ( ! "t ( mu* m]it4 ,sibbald1 too1 records t a h]d ( ,ca*alots1 upw>ds ( #ajj 9 numb]1 7 f\nd /r&$ at ,cair/on1 9 ,orkney4 ,! dead bodies ( ! l>g] ,cetacea are sometimes f\nd float+ on ! surface ( ! wat]s1 z 0 ! case ) ! imm5se :ale exhibit$ 9 ,london 9 #ahca4 ,& ! c>case ( a sea-c[ or ,lamant9e 7,halicora7 01 9 #aghe1 ca/ a%ore ne> ,lei?4 ,to "s accid5t ( ?is k9d we may ref] ! position ( ! skeleton ( a :ale1 sev5ty-?ree feet long1 :i* 0 f\nd at ,air?rey1 on ! ,=?1 ne> ,/irl+1 imb$d$ 9 clay tw5ty feet high] ?an ! surface ( ! highe/ tide ( ! riv] ,=? at ! pres5t day4 ,f ! situation ( ! ,roman /ation & causeways at a small di/ance f ! spot1 x is conclud$ t ! :ale mu/ h be5 /r&$ !re at a p]iod prior to ! ,*ri/ian era4#aajh ,o!r fossil rema9s ( ?is class h also be5 f\nd 9 e/u>ies kn[n to h be5 silt$ up 9 rec5t times1 "o example ( :i* has be5 already m5tion$ ne> ,lewes1 9 ,sussex4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,fossil eggs ( turtles f ! ,isl& ( ,asc5sion4#aaji ,m>9e reptiles4--,"s s+ul> fossils h lately be5 discov]$ 9 ! ,isl& ( ,asc5sion1 9 a /one said to be cont9ually =m+ on ! bea*1 :]e ! waves ?rew up small r\nd$ fragm5ts ( %ells & corals1 :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 become firmly agglut9at$ toge!r1 & con/itute a /one us$ l>gely = build+ & mak+ lime4 ,9 a qu>ry on ! ,n4 ,w4 side ( ! isl&1 ab\t #ajj y>ds f ! sea1 "s fossil eggs ( turtles h be5 discov]$ 9 ! h>d rock ?us =m$4 ,! eggs mu/ h be5 ne>ly hat*$ at ! "t :5 !y p]i%$2 = ! bones ( ! "y turtle are se5 9 ! int]ior1 ) _! %ape fully develop$1 ! int]/ices betwe5 ! bones be+ entirely fill$ ) gra9s ( s&1 :i* are cem5t$ toge!r1 s t :5 ! egg-%ells are remov$ p]fect ca/s ( _! =m rema9 9 /one4 ,9 ! s+le specim5 "h figur$ 7fig4 #ajf71 :i* is only five in*es 9 its longe/ diamet]1 no less ?an sev5 eggs are pres]v$4#aaaj ,to expla9 ! /ate 9 :i* !y occur fossil1 x seems necess>y to suppose t aft] ! eggs 7 almo/ hat*$ 9 ! w>m s&1 a great wave ?rew ^u !m s mu* m s& z to prev5t ! rays ( ! sun f p5etrat+1 s t ! yolk 0 *ill$ & depriv$ ( vitality4 ,! %ells 71 p]haps1 slightly brok5 at ! same "t1 s t small gra9s ( s& might gradually be introduc$ into ! int]ior by wat] z x p]colat$ ?r\gh ! bea*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,"o ( ! eggs 9 fig4 #ajf1 ( ! natural size1 %[+ ! bones ( ! foetus :i* _h be5 ne>ly hat*$4 ,m>9e te/acea4--,! aquatic animals & plants :i* inhabit an e/u>y are liable1 l ! trees & l& animals :i* p ! alluvial pla9s ( a great riv]1 to be swept f "t to "t f> into ! deep2 = z a riv] is p]petually %ift+ its c\rse1 & und]m9+ a portion ( its banks ) ! =e/s :i* cov] !m1 s ! m>9e curr5t alt]s its direction f "t to "t1 & be>s away ! banks ( s& & mud aga9/ :i* x turns its =ce4 ,^! banks may consi/ 9 great measure ( %ells peculi> to %all[ & sometimes bracki% wat]1 :i* may h be5 accumulat+ = c5turies1 until at l5g? !y are c>ri$ away & spread out along ! bottom ( ! sea1 at a dep? at :i* !y c\ld n h liv$ & multipli$4 ,?us littoral & e/u>y %ells are m frequ5tly liable ev5 ?an fre%wat] species1 to be int]mix$ ) ! exuviae ( pelagic tribes4 ,aft] ! /orm ( ,febru>y #d1 #ahca1 :5 sev]al vessels 7 wreck$ 9 ! e/u>y ( ! ,=?1 ! curr5t 0 direct$ aga9/ a b$ ( oy/]s ) su* =ce1 t great heaps ( !m 7 ?r[n alive ^u ! bea*1 & rema9$ above high-wat] m>k4 ,i collect$ _m ( ^! oy/]s1 z also ! common eatable :elks 7,bucc9a71 ?r[n up ) !m1 & obs]v$ t1 al?\gh /ill liv+1 _! %ells 7 worn by ! long attrition ( s& :i* _h pass$ ov] !m z !y lay 9 _! native b$1 & :i* _h evid5tly n result$ f ! m]e action ( ! tempe/ by :i* !y 7 ca/ a%ore4 ,f ^! facts we le>n t ! union ( ! two p>ts ( a bivalve %ell does n prove t x has n be5 transport$ to a di/ance2 & :5 we f9d %ells worn1 & ) all _! prom95t p>ts rubb$ (f1 !y may /ill h be5 imb$d$ :]e !y grew4 ,burr[+ %ells4--,x sometimes appe>s extraord9>y1 :5 we obs]ve ! viol5ce ( ! break]s on our coa/1 & see ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t 9 remov+ cliffs1 & sweep+ out new *annels1 t _m t5d] & fragile %ells %\ld inhabit ! sea 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ?is turmoil4 ,b a great numb] ( ! bivalve ,te/acea1 & _m also ( ! turb9at$ univalves1 burr[ 9 s& or mud4 ,! ,sol5 & ! ,c>dium1 = example1 :i* are usually f\nd 9 %all[ wat] ne> ! %ore1 pi]ce ?r\gh a s(t bottom )\t injury to _! %ells2 & ! ,pholas c drill a cavity ?r\gh mud ( consid]able h>dness4 ,! species ( ^! & _m o!r tribes c s9k1 :5 al>m$1 ) consid]able rapidity1 (t5 to ! dep? ( sev]al feet1 & c also p5etrate upw>ds aga9 to ! surface1 if a mass ( matt] be heap$ ^u !m4 ,! hurricane1 !re=e1 may exp5d its fury 9 va91 & may sweep away ev5 ! upp] "p ( banks ( s& or mud1 or may roll pebbles ov] !m1 & yet ^! ,te/acea may rema9 bel[ secure & un9jur$4 ,%ells become fossil at consid]able dep?s4--,i h already /at$ t1 at ! dep? ( #iej fa?oms1 betwe5 ,gibralt> & ,ceuta1 ,capta9 ,smi? f\nd a gravelly bottom1 ) fragm5ts ( brok5 %ells1 c>ri$ ?i!r probably f ! comp>atively %all[ p>ts ( ! neighbor+ /raits1 ?r\gh :i* a p[]ful curr5t fl[s4 ,b$s ( %elly s& might "h1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 be accumulat$ sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick4 ,b1 )\t ! aid ( ! drift+ p[] ( a curr5t1 %ells may accumulate 9 ! spot :]e !y live & die1 at great dep?s f ! surface1 if s$im5t be ?r[n d[n ^u !m2 = ev5 9 our own cold] latitudes1 ! dep?s at :i* liv+ m>9e animals ab\nd is v consid]able4 ,capta9 ,vidal asc]ta9$1 by s\nd+s made (f ,tory ,isl&1 on ! nor?we/ coa/ ( ,irel&1 t ,cru/acea1 ,/>-fi%1 & ,te/acea occurr$ at v>i\s dep?s betwe5 fifty & "o hundr$ fa?oms2 & he drew up ,d5talia f ! mud ( ,galway ,bay1 9 #bcj & #bdj fa?oms wat]4 ,! same hydrograph] discov]$ on ! ,rockhall ,bank l>ge quantities ( %ells at dep?s v>y+ f #de to #aij fa?oms4 ,! %ells 7 = ! mo/ "p pulv]iz$1 & evid5tly rec5t1 z !y reta9$ _! colors4 ,9 ! same region a b$ ( fi% bones 0 obs]v$ ext5d+ = two miles along ! bottom ( ! sea 9 eighty & n9ety fa?oms wat]4 ,at ! ea/]n extremity also ( ,rockhall ,bank1 fi%bones 7 met )1 m+l$ ) pieces ( fre% %ell1 at ! dep? ( #bce fa?oms4 ,analog\s =mations are 9 progress 9 ! subm>9e tracts ext5d+ f ! ,%etl& ,isles to ! nor? ( ,irel&1 :]ev] s\nd+s c be procur$4 ,a cont9u\s deposit ( s& & mud1 replete ) brok5 & entire %ells1 ,e*9i1 c41 has be5 trac$ = upw>ds ( tw5ty miles to ! ea/w>d ( ! ,f>oe ,isl&s1 usually at ! dep? ( f =ty to "o hundr$ fa?oms4 ,9 "o "p ( ?is tract 7lat4 #fa degrees #ej m9utes1 long4 #f degrees #cj m9utes7 fi%-bones occur 9 extraord9>y pr(usion1 s t ! lead _c be drawn up )\t "s v]tebrae be+ atta*$4 ,?is bone b$1 z x 0 call$ by our surveyors1 is ?ree miles & a half 9 l5g?1 & =ty-five fa?oms "u wat]1 & conta9s a few %ells int]m+l$ ) ! bones4 ,9 ! ,briti% seas1 ! %ells & o!r organic rema9s lie 9 s(t mud or loose s& & gravel2 :]eas1 9 ! b$ ( ! ,adriatic1 ,donati f\nd !m frequ5tly inclos$ 9 /one ( rec5t orig94 ,?is is precisely ! diff]5ce 9 "* :i* we might h expect$ to exi/ betwe5 ! ,briti% m>9e =mations n[ 9 progress & ^? ( ! ,adriatic2 = calc>e\s & o!r m9]al spr+s ab\nd 9 ! ,m$it]ranean & l&s adjo9+1 :ile !y are almo/ entirely want+ 9 our own c\ntry4 ,i h already adv]t$ to ! eight regions ( diff]5t dep?s 9 ! ,a,egean ,sea1 ea* *>act]iz$ by a peculi> assemblage ( %ells1 :i* h be5 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 :o explor$ !m by dr$g+4 7,see above1 p4 #fdi47 ,dur+ 8 survey ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa1 ,capta9 ,sir ,e4 ,bel*] f\nd1 by frequ5t s\nd+s betwe5 ! tw5ty-?ird & tw5tie? degrees ( nor? latitude1 t ! bottom ( ! sea1 at ! dep? ( f tw5ty to ab\t fifty fa?oms1 consi/s ( s& ) a great int]mixture ( %ells1 (t5 entire1 b sometimes f9ely comm9ut$4 ,betwe5 ! elev5? & n9? degrees ( nor? latitude1 on ! same coa/1 at s\nd+s v>y+ f tw5ty to ab\t eighty fa?oms1 he br\ght up abundance ( corals & %ells mix$ ) s&4 ,^! also 7 9 "s p>ts entire1 & 9 o!rs worn & brok54 ,9 all ^! cases1 x is only necess>y t !re %\ld be "s deposition ( s$im5t>y matt]1 h[ev] m9ute1 su* z may be suppli$ by riv]s dra9+ a cont95t1 or curr5ts prey+ on a l9e ( cliffs1 9 ord] t /ratifi$ =mations1 hundr$s ( feet 9 ?ickness1 & replete ) organic rema9s1 %\ld result 9 ! c\rse ( ages4 ,b al?\gh "s deposits may ?us ext5d cont9u\sly = a ?\s& miles or m ne> c]ta9 coa/s1 ! great] "p ( ! b$ ( ! ocean1 remote f cont95ts & isl&s1 may v probably receive1 at ! same "t1 no new accessions ( drift matt]1 all s$im5t be+ int]cept$ by int]v5+ holl[s1 9 :i* a m>9e curr5t mu/ cle> its wat]s z ?or\ghly z a turbid riv] 9 a lake4 ,errone\s !ories 9 geology may be =m$ n only f ov]look+ ! great ext5t ( simultane\s deposits n[ 9 progress1 b also f ! assumption t su* =mations may be univ]sal or coext5sive ) ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,we frequ5tly obs]ve1 on ! sea bea*1 v p]fect specim5s ( fossil %ells1 q deta*$ f _! matrix1 :i* h be5 wa%$ out ( old] =mations1 con/itut+ ! sea-cliffs4 ,!y may be all ( ext9ct species1 l ! ,eoc5e fre%wat] & m>9e %ells /rew$ ov] ! %ores ( ,hamp%ire1 yet :5 !y become m+l$ ) ! %ells ( ! pres5t p]iod1 & buri$ 9 ! same deposits ( mud & s&1 !y w\ld appe>1 if uprais$ & exam9$ by future geologi/s1 to h be5 all ( ! same age4 ,t su* int]mixture & bl5d+ ( organic rema9s ( diff]5t ages h actually tak5 place 9 =m] times1 is unque/ionable1 ?\gh ! occurr5ce appe>s to be v local & exceptional4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a class ( accid5ts m likely ?an almo/ any o!r to lead to s]i\s ana*ronisms 9 geological *ronology4 ,,*apt] ,l4 ,,=mation ,,( ,,coral ,,reefs4 ,gr[? ( coral *iefly conf9$ to tropical regions--,pr9cipal g5]a ( coral-build+ zoophytes--,_! rate ( gr[?--,seldom fl\ri% at great] dep?s ?an tw5ty fa?oms--,atolls or annul> reefs ) lagoons--,maldive ,isles--,orig9 ( ! circul> =m--,coral reefs n bas$ on subm]g$ volcanic crat]s--,mr4 ,d>w9's !ory ( subsid5ce 9 explanation ( atolls1 encircl+ & b>ri] reefs--,:y ! w9dw>d side ( atolls highe/--,subsid5ce expla9s :y all atolls are ne>ly on "o level--,alt]nate areas ( elevation & subsid5ce--,orig9 ( op5+s into ! lagoons--,size ( atolls & b>ri] reefs--,objection to ! !ory ( subsid5ce consid]$--,composition1 /ructure1 & /ratifi$ arrangem5t ( rocks n[ =m+ 9 coral reefs--,lime1 :5ce d]iv$--,suppos$ increase ( calc>e\s matt] 9 mod]n epo*s controv]t$--,conclud+ rem>ks4 ,! p[]s ( ! organic creation 9 modify+ ! =m & /ructure ( ! e>?'s cru/1 are mo/ conspicu\sly display$ 9 ! labors ( ! coral animals4 ,we may comp>e ! op]ation ( ^! zoophytes 9 ! ocean1 to ! effects produc$ on a small] scale ^u ! l& by ! plants :i* g5]ate peat4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,sphagnum1 ! upp] "p vegetates :ile ! l[] "p is ent]+ into a m9]al mass1 9 :i* ! traces ( organization rema9 :5 life has entirely ceas$4 ,9 corals1 9 l mann]1 ! m durable mat]ials ( ! g5]ation t has pass$ away s]ve z ! f\ndation on :i* ! liv+ animals cont9ue to re> a simil> /ructure4 ,! /ony "p ( ! lamelli=m zoophyte may be lik5$ to an int]nal skeleton2 = x is always m or less surr\nd$ by a s(t animal sub/ance capable ( exp&+ itself2 yet1 :5 al>m$1 x has ! p[] ( contract+ & draw+ itself almo/ entirely into ! cells & holl[s ( ! h>d coral4 ,al?\gh (t5times beautifully color$ 9 _! own elem5t1 ! s(t p>ts become :5 tak5 f ! sea no?+ m 9 appe>ance ?an a br[n slime spread ov] ! /ony nucleus4#aaaa ,! gr[? ( ^? corals :i* =m reefs ( solid /one is entirely conf9$ to ! w>m] regions ( ! globe1 r>ely ext5d+ beyond ! tropics above two or ?ree degrees1 except "u peculi> circum/ances1 z 9 ! ,b]muda ,isl&s1 9 lat4 #cb degrees ,n41 :]e ! ,atlantic is w>m$ by ! ,gulf /ream4 ,! ,pacific ,ocean1 ?r\gh\t a space compreh5d$ betwe5 ! ?irtie? p>allels ( latitude on ea* side ( ! equator1 is extremely productive ( coral2 z also are ! ,arabian & ,p]sian ,gulfs4 ,coral is also abundant 9 ! sea betwe5 ! coa/ ( ,malab> & ! isl& ( ,madagasc>4 ,fl9d]s describes a reef ( coral on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,new ,holl& z hav+ a l5g? ( ne>ly #ajjj miles1 & z be+ 9 "o "p unbrok5 = a di/ance ( #cej miles4 ,"s gr\ps ( coral isl&s 9 ! ,pacific are f #aajj to #abjj miles 9 l5g?1 by #cjj or #djj 9 bread?1 z ! ,dang]\s ,ar*ipelago1 = example1 & t call$ ,radack by ,kotzebue2 b ! isl&s )9 ^! spaces are always small po9ts1 & (t5 v ?9ly s[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,me&r9a labyr9?ica1 ,lam4 ,( ! num]\s species ( zoophytes :i* are engag$ 9 ! production ( coral banks1 "s ( ! mo/ common belong to ! ,lam>ckian g5]a ,a/rea1 ,porites1 ,madrepora1 ,millepora1 ,c>yophyllia1 & ,me&r9a4 ,rate ( ! gr[? ( ,coral4--,v diff]5t op9ions h be5 ent]ta9$ 9 reg>d to ! rate at :i* coral reefs increase4 ,9 ,capta9 ,bee*ey's late exp$ition to ! ,pacific1 no positive in=mation c\ld be obta9$ ( any *annel hav+ be5 fill$ up )9 a giv5 p]iod2 & x seems e/abli%$1 t sev]al reefs _h rema9$ = m ?an half a c5tury1 at ab\t ! same dep? f ! surface4 ,ehr5b]g also que/ions ! fact ( *annels & h>bors hav+ be5 clos$ up 9 ! ,r$ ,sea by ! rapid increase ( coral lime/one4 ,he supposes ! notion to h aris5 f ! circum/ance ( hav5s hav+ be5 occasionally fill$ up 9 "s places ) coral s&1 9 o!rs ) l>ge quantities ( balla/ ( coral rock ?r[n d[n f vessels4 ,illu/ration3 ,g5]a ( ,zoophytes mo/ common 9 coral reefs4 ,fig4 #aji4 ,a/rea dipsacea1 ,lam4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,extremity ( bran* ( ,madrepora muricata1 ,l94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,c>yophyllia fa/igiata1 ,lam4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,porites clav>ia1 ,lam4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,ocul9a hirtella1 ,lam4 ,! natives ( ! ,b]muda ,isl&s po9t out c]ta9 corals n[ gr[+ 9 ! sea1 :i*1 accord+ to tradition1 h be5 liv+ 9 ! same spots = c5turies4 ,x is suppos$ t "s ( !m may vie 9 age ) ! mo/ anci5t trees ( ,europe4 ,ehr5b]g also obs]v$ s+le corals ( ! g5]a ,me&r9a & ,favia1 hav+ a globul> =m1 f six to n9e feet 9 diamet]1 :i* mu/ 7he says7 be ( imm5se antiquity1 probably sev]al ?\s& ye>s old1 s t ,ph>aoh may h look$ ^u ^! same individuals 9 ! ,r$ ,sea4#aaab ,!y c]ta9ly imply1 z he rem>ks1 t ! reef on :i* !y gr[ has increas$ at a v sl[ rate4 ,aft] collect+ m ?an #ajj species1 he f\nd none ( !m cov]$ ) p>asitic zoophytes1 nor any in/ance ( a liv+ coral gr[+ on ano!r liv+ coral4 ,to ?is repulsive p[] :i* !y ex]t :il/ liv+1 aga9/ all o!rs ( _! own class1 we owe ! beautiful symmetry ( "s l>ge ,me&r9ae1 & o!r species :i* adorn our museums4 ,yet ,balani & ,s]pulae c atta* !mselves to liv+ corals1 & holes are excavat$ 9 !m by saxicav\s mollusca4 ,at ! isl& call$ ,taaopoto1 9 ! ,s\? ,pacific1 ! an*or ( a %ip1 wreck$ ab\t #ej ye>s be=e1 0 obs]v$ 9 sev5 fa?oms wat]1 /ill pres]v+ its orig9al =m1 b entirely incru/$ by coral4#aaac ,?is fact w\ld seem to imply a sl[ rate ( augm5tation2 b to =m a correct e/imate ( ! av]age rate mu/ be v difficult1 s9ce x mu/ v>y n only accord+ to ! species ( coral1 b accord+ to ! circum/ances "u :i* ea* species may be plac$2 su*1 = example1 z ! dep? f ! surface1 ! quantity ( light1 ! temp]ature ( ! wat]1 its fre$om f s& or mud1 or ! abs5ce or pres5ce ( break]s1 :i* is favorable to ! gr[? ( "s k9ds & is fatal to t ( o!rs4 ,x %\ld also be obs]v$ t ! app>5t /ation>y condition ( "s coral reefs1 :i* accord+ to ,bee*ey h rema9$ = c5turies at ! same dep? "u wat]1 may be due to subsid5ce1 ! upw>d gr[? ( ! coral hav+ be5 j suffici5t to keep pace ) ! s9k+ ( ! solid f\ndation on :i* ! zoophytes h built4 ,we %all aft]w>ds see h[ f> ?is hypo!sis is borne out by o!r evid5ce 9 ! regions ( annul> reefs or atolls4 ,9 "o ( ! ,maldive isl&s a coral reef1 :i*1 )9 a few ye>s1 exi/$ on an islet be>+ cocoa-nut trees1 0 f\nd by ,lieut5ant ,pr5tice1 entirely cov]$ ) live coral & madrepore4 ,! natives /at$ t ! islet _h be5 wa%$ away by a *ange 9 ! curr5ts1 & x is cle> t a coat+ ( gr[+ coral _h be5 =m$ 9 a %ort "t4#aaad ,exp]im5ts1 also1 ( ,dr4 ,allan1 on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,madagasc>1 prove ! possibility ( coral gr[+ to a ?ickness ( ?ree feet 9 ab\t half a ye>1#aaae s t ! rate ( increase may1 "u favorable circum/ances1 be v f> f sl[4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! calc>e\s masses t]m$ coral reefs are exclusively ! "w ( zoophytes3 a great v>iety ( %ells1 &1 among !m1 "s ( ! l>ge/ & heavie/ ( kn[n species1 contribute to augm5t ! mass4 ,9 ! ,s\? ,pacific1 great b$s ( oy/]s1 mussels1 ,p9nae m>9ae1 ,*amoe 7or ,tridacnae71 & o!r %ells1 cov] 9 pr(usion almo/ e reef2 & on ! bea* ( coral isl&s are se5 ! %ells ( e*9i & brok5 fragm5ts ( cru/ace\s animals4 ,l>ge %oals ( fi% are also disc]nible ?r\gh ! cle> blue wat]1 & _! tee? & h>d palates _c fail to be (t5 pres]v$ al?\gh _! s(t c>tilag9\s bones may decay4 ,x 0 ! op9ion ( ! ,g]man naturali/ ,=/]1 9 #aghj1 aft] 8 voyage r\nd ! _w ) ,capta9 ,cook1 t coral animals _h ! p[] ( build+ up /eep & almo/ p]p5dicul> walls f great dep?s 9 ! sea1 a notion aft]w>ds adopt$ by ,capta9 ,fl9d]s & o!rs2 b x is n[ v g5]ally believ$ t ^! zoophytes _c live 9 wat] ( great dep?s4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 has come to ! conclusion1 t ^? species :i* are mo/ effective 9 ! con/ruction ( reefs1 r>ely fl\ri% at a great] dep? ?an #bj fa?oms1 or #abj feet4 ,9 "s lagoons1 h[ev]1 :]e ! wat] is b little agitat$1 !re are1 accord+ to ,kotzebue1 b$s ( liv+ coral 9 #be fa?oms ( wat]1 or #aej feet2 b ^! may p]haps h begun to live 9 %all[] wat]1 & may h be5 c>ri$ d[nw>ds by ! subsid5ce ( ! reef4 ,!re are also v>i\s species ( zoophytes1 & among !m "s :i* are provid$ ) calc>e\s z well z horny /ems1 :i* live 9 mu* deep] wat]1 ev5 9 "s cases to a dep? ( #ahj fa?oms2 b ^! d n appe> to give orig9 to /ony reefs4 ,!re is e v>iety ( =m 9 coral reefs1 b ! mo/ rem>kable & num]\s 9 ! ,pacific consi/ ( circul> or oval /rips ( dry l&1 enclos+ a %all[ lake or lagoon ( /ill wat]1 9 :i* zoophytes & mollusca ab\nd4 ,^! annul> reefs j raise !mselves above ! level ( ! sea1 & are surr\nd$ by a deep & (t5 unfa?omable ocean4 ,9 ! annex$ cut 7fig4 #aad71 "o ( ^! circul> isl&s is repres5t$1 j ris+ above ! waves1 cov]$ ) ! cocoa-nut & o!r trees1 & inclos+ )9 a lagoon ( tranquil wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,view ( ,:itsunday ,isl&4 7,capt4 ,bee*ey47#aaaf ,! accompany+ section w enable ! read] to compreh5d ! usual =m ( su* isl&s4 7,fig4 #aae47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,section ( a ,coral ,isl&4 a1 a1 ,habitable "p ( ! isl&1 consi/+ ( a /rip ( coral1 inclos+ ! lagoon4 b1 b1 ,! lagoon4 ,! subjo9$ cut 7fig4 #aaf47 exhibits a small "p ( ! section ( a coral isl& on a l>g] scale4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,section ( "p ( a ,coral ,isl&4 a1 b1 ,habitable "p ( ! isl&4 b1 c1 ,slope ( ! side ( ! isl&1 plung+ at an angle ( =ty-five to ! dep? ( fifte5 hundr$ feet4 c1 c1 ,"p ( ! lagoon4 d1 d1 ,knolls ( coral 9 ! lagoon1 ) ov]hang+ masses ( coral resembl+ ! capitals ( columns4 ,( ?irty-two ( ^! coral isl&s visit$ by ,bee*ey 9 8 voyage to ! ,pacific1 tw5ty-n9e _h lagoons 9 _! c5tres4 ,! l>ge/ 0 #cj miles 9 diamet]1 & ! smalle/ less ?an a mile4 ,all 7 increas+ _! dim5sions by ! active op]ations ( ! li?ophytes1 :i* appe>$ to be gradually ext5d+ & br++ ! imm]s$ p>ts ( _! /ructure to ! surface4 ,! sc5e pres5t$ by ^! annul> reefs is equally /rik+ = its s+ul>ity & beauty4 ,a /rip ( l& a few hundr$ y>ds wide is cov]$ by l(ty cocoa-nut trees1 above :i* is ! blue vault ( heav54 ,?is b& ( v]dure is b\nd$ by a bea* ( glitt]+ :ite s&1 ! out] m>g9 ( :i* is encircl$ ) a r+ ( sn[-:ite break]s1 beyond :i* are ! d>k heav+ wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,! inn] bea* incloses ! /ill cle> wat] ( ! lagoon1 re/+ 9 its great] "p on :ite s&1 & :5 illum9at$ by a v]tical sun1 ( a mo/ vivid gre54#aaag ,c]ta9 species ( zoophytes ab\nd mo/ 9 ! lagoon1 o!rs on ! ext]ior m>g91 :]e !re is a great surf4 ,! ocean1 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 ?r[+ its break]s on ^! out] %ores1 appe>s an inv9cible enemy1 yet we see x resi/$ & ev5 conqu]$ by means :i* at fir/ seem mo/ weak & ineffici5t4 ,no p]iods ( repose are grant$1 & ! long swell caus$ by ! /eady action ( ! trade w9d nev] ceases4 ,! break]s exce$ 9 viol5ce ^? ( our temp]ate regions1 & x is impossible to behold !m )\t feel+ a conviction t rocks ( granite or qu>tz w\ld ultimately yield & be demoli%$ by su* irresi/ible =ces4 ,yet ^! l[ insignificant coral islets /& & are victori\s1 = "h ano!r p[]1 z antagoni/ to ! =m]1 takes "p 9 ! conte/4 ,! organic =ces sep>ate ! atoms ( c>bonate ( lime "o by "o f ! foam+ break]s1 & unite !m into a symmetrical /ructure2 myriads ( ar*itects are at "w night & day1 mon? aft] mon?1 & we see _! s(t & gelat9\s bodies ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! vital laws conqu]+ ! great me*anical p[] ( ! waves ( an ocean1 :i* nei!r ! art ( man1 nor ! inanimate works ( nature c\ld successfully resi/4#aaah ,z ! coral animals require to be cont9ually imm]s$ 9 salt wat]1 !y _c raise !mselves by _! own ef=ts1 above ! level ( ! l[e/ tides4 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! reefs are conv]t$ into isl&s above ! level ( ! sea is ?us describ$ by ,*amisso1 a naturali/1 :o accompani$ ,kotzebue 9 8 voyages3--,:5 ! reef1 says he1 is ( su* a height t x rema9s almo/ dry at l[ wat] ! corals leave (f build+4 ,above ?is l9e a cont9u\s mass ( solid /one is se5 compos$ ( ! %ells ( mollusks & e*9i1 ) _! brok5-(f prickles & fragm5ts ( coral1 unit$ by calc>e\s s&1 produc$ by ! pulv]ization ( %ells4 ,! heat ( ! sun (t5 p5etrates ! mass ( /one :5 x is dry1 s t x splits 9 _m places1 & ! =ce ( ! waves is !reby enabl$ to sep>ate & lift blocks ( coral1 frequ5tly six feet long & ?ree or f\r 9 ?ickness1 & ?r[ !m ^u ! reef1 by :i* means ! ridge becomes at l5g? s high t x is cov]$ only dur+ "s seasons ( ! ye> by ! spr+ tides4 ,aft] ?is ! calc>e\s s& lies undi/urb$1 & (f]s to ! se$s ( trees & plants ca/ ^u x by ! waves a soil ^u :i* !y rapidly gr[1 to ov]%ad[ its dazzl+ :ite surface4 ,entire trunks ( trees1 :i* are c>ri$ by ! riv]s f o!r c\ntries & isl&s1 f9d "h1 at l5g?1 a re/+-place aft] _! long w&]+s3 ) ^! come "s small animals su* z insects & liz>ds1 z ! fir/ inhabitants4 ,ev5 be=e ! trees =m a wood1 ! sea-birds ne/le "h2 /ray l&-birds take refuge 9 ! bu%es2 &1 at a mu* lat] p]iod1 :5 ! "w has be5 long s9ce complet$1 man appe>s & builds 8 hut on ! fruitful soil4#aaai ,9 ! above description ! solid /one is /at$ to consi/ ( %ell & coral1 unit$ by s&2 b masses ( v compact lime/one are also f\nd ev5 9 ! upp]mo/ & newe/ p>ts ( ! reef1 su* z c\ld only h be5 produc$ by *emical precipitation4 ,pr(essor ,agassiz also in=ms me t 8 obs]vations on ! ,florida reefs 7:i* confirm ,d>w9's !ory ( atolls to be m5tion$ 9 ! sequel7 h conv9c$ him1 t l>ge blocks are loos5$1 n by %r9kage 9 ! sun's heat1 z ,*amisso imag9$1 b by innum]able p]=ations ( li?odomi & o!r bor+ te/acea4 ,! c>bonate ( lime may h be5 pr9cipally d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( corals & te/acea2 = :5 ! animal matt] und]goes putrefaction1 ! calc>e\s residuum mu/ be set free "u circum/ances v favorable to precipitation1 especially :5 !re are o!r calc>e\s sub/ances1 su* z %ells & corals1 on :i* x may be deposit$4 ,?us organic bodies may be inclos$ 9 a solid cem5t1 & become portions ( rocky masses4#aabj ,! wid? ( ! circul> /rip ( dead coral =m+ ! isl&s explor$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 exce$$ 9 no in/ance half a mile f ! usual wa% ( ! sea to ! edge ( ! lagoon1 &1 9 g5]al1 0 only ab\t ?ree or f\r hundr$ y>ds4#aaba ,! dep? ( ! lagoons is v>i\s2 9 "s1 ent]$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 x 0 f tw5ty to ?irty-eight fa?oms4 ,! two o!r peculi>ities :i* are mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! annul> reef or atoll are fir/1 t ! /rip ( dead coral is inv>iably highe/ on ! w9dw>d side1 & secondly1 t !re is v g5]ally an op5+ at "s po9t 9 ! reef af=d+ a n>r[ passage1 (t5 ( consid]able dep?1 f ! sea into ! lagoon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,maldive & ,laccadive ,isles4--,! *a9 ( reefs & islets call$ ! ,maldives 7see fig4 #aag471 situat$ 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 to ! s\?-we/ ( ,malab>1 =ms a *a9 #dgj geographical miles 9 l5g?1 runn+ due nor? & s\?1 ) an av]age bread? ( ab\t #ej miles4 ,x is compos$ ?r\gh\t ( a s]ies ( circul> assemblages ( islets1 all =m$ ( coral1 ! l>g] gr\ps be+ f =ty to n9ety miles 9 _! longe/ diamet]4 ,capta9 ,horsburgh1 ^: *>t ( ^! isl&s is subjo9$1 /ates1 t outside ( ea* circle or atoll1 z x is t]m$1 !re are coral reefs sometimes ext5d+ to ! di/ance ( two or ?ree miles1 beyond :i* !re are no s\nd+s at imm5se dep?s4 ,b 9 ! c5tre ( ea* atoll !re is a lagoon f fifte5 to =ty-n9e fa?oms deep4 ,9 ! *annels betwe5 ! atolls no s\nd+s c usually be obta9$ at ! dep? ( #aej or ev5 #bej fa?oms1 b dur+ ,capta9 ,moresby's survey1 s\nd+s 7 /ruck at #aej & #bjj fa?oms1 ! only in/ances z yet kn[n ( ! bottom hav+ be5 rea*$1 ei!r 9 ! ,indian or ,pacific oceans1 9 a space int]v5+ betwe5 two sep>ate & well *>act]iz$ atolls4 ,! s+ul>ity 9 ! =m ( ! atolls ( ?is ar*ipelago consi/s 9 _! be+ made up1 n ( "o cont9u\s circul> reef b ( a r+ ( small coral islets sometimes m ?an a hundr$ 9 numb]1 ea* ( :i* is a m9iature atoll 9 itself2 9 o!r words1 a r+-%ap$ /rip ( coral surr\nd+ a lagoon ( salt wat]4 ,to acc\nt = ! orig9 ( ^!1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 supposes ! l>g] annul> reef to h be5 brok5 up into a numb] ( fragm5ts1 ea* ( :i* acquir$ its peculi> configurations "u ! influ5ce ( causes simil> to ^? to :i* ! /ructure ( ! p>5t atoll has be5 due4 ,_m ( ! m9or r+s are no less ?an ?ree1 & ev5 five miles 9 diamet]1 & "s are situat$ 9 ! mid/ ( ! pr9cipal lagoon2 b ?is happ5s only 9 cases :]e ! sea c ent] freely ?r\gh brea*es 9 ! out] or m>g9al reef4 ,! rocks ( ! ,maldives are compos$ ( s&/one =m$ ( brok5 %ells & corals1 su* z may be obta9$ 9 a loose /ate f ! bea*1 & :i* is se5 :5 expos$ = a few days to ! air to become h>d5$4 ,! s&/one is sometimes obs]v$ to be an aggregate ( brok5 %ells1 corals1 pieces ( wood1 & %ells ( ! cocoa-nut4#aabb ,! ,laccadive isl&s run 9 ! same l9e ) ! ,maldives1 on ! nor?1 z d ! isles ( ! ,*agos ,ar*ipelago1 on ! s\?2 s t ^! may be cont9uations ( ! same *a9 ( subm]g$ m\nta9s1 cre/$ 9 a simil> mann] by coral lime/ones4 ,orig9 ( ! circul> =m--n volcanic4--,! circul> & oval %ape ( s _m reefs1 ea* hav+ a lagoon 9 ! c5tre1 & be+ surr\nd$ on all sides by a deep ocean1 naturally sugge/$ ! idea t !y 7 no?+ m ?an ! cre/s ( subm>9e volcanic crat]s ov]gr[n by coral2 & ?is !ory ,i myself advocat$ 9 ! e>li] editions ( ?is "w4 ,al?\gh ,i am n[ ab\t to %[ t x mu/ be ab&on$1 x may /ill be in/ructive to po9t out ! gr\nds on :i* x 0 =m]ly embrac$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x _h be5 rem>k$ t !re 7 _m active volcanoes 9 ! coral region ( ! ,pacific1 & t 9 "s places1 z 9 ,gambi]'s gr\p1 rocks compos$ ( por\s lava rise up 9 a lagoon bord]$ by a circul> reef1 j z ! two cones ( eruption call$ ! ,kam5is h made _! appe>ance 9 ! times ( hi/ory )9 ! circul> gulf ( ,santor94#aabc ,x 0 also obs]v$ t1 z 9 ,s4 ,%etl&1 ,b>r5 ,isl&1 & o!rs ( volcanic orig91 !re is "o n>r[ brea* 9 ! walls ( ! out] cone by :i* %ips may ent] a circul> gulf1 s 9 l mann] !re is (t5 a s+le deep passage lead+ into ! lagoon ( a coral isl&1 ! lagoon itself seem+ to repres5t ! holl[ or gulf j z ! r+ ( dry coral recalls to our m9ds ! rim ( a volcanic crat]4 ,m lately1 inde$1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 has %[n t ! num]\s volcanic crat]s ( ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago 9 ! ,pacific h all ( !m _! s\!rn sides ! l[e/1 or 9 _m cases q brok5 d[n1 s t if !y 7 subm]g$ & incru/$ ) coral1 !y w\ld resemble true atolls 9 %ape4#aabd ,ano!r argum5t :i* ,i adduc$ :5 =m]ly def5d+ ?is doctr9e 0 d]iv$ f ,ehr5b]g's /atem5t1 t "s banks ( coral 9 ! ,r$ ,sea 7 squ>e1 :ile _m o!rs 7 ribbon-l /rips1 ) flat tops1 & )\t lagoons4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 all ! g5]a & _m ( ! species ( zoophytes 9 ! ,r$ ,sea agre$ ) ^? :i* else:]e con/ruct lagoon isl&s1 x foll[$ t ! /one-mak+ zoophytes are n guid$ by _! own in/9ct 9 ! =mation ( annul> reefs1 b t ?is peculi> %ape & ! position ( su* reefs 9 ! mid/ ( a deep ocean mu/ dep5d on ! outl9e ( ! subm>9e bottom1 :i* resembles no?+ else 9 nature b ! crat] ( a l(ty subm]g$ volcanic cone4 ,! enorm\s size1 x is true1 ( "s atolls1 made x necess>y = me to ascribe to ! crat]s ( _m subm>9e volcanoes a magnitude :i* 0 />tl+1 & :i* _h (t5 be5 appeal$ to z a s]i\s objection to ! volcanic !ory4 ,t s _m ( !m 7 ( ! same height1 or j level ) ! wat]1 did n pres5t a difficulty s long z we rema9$ ignorant ( ! fact t ! reef-build+ species d n gr[ at great] dep?s ?an tw5ty-five fa?oms4 ,may be expla9$ by subsid5ce4--,mr4 ,d>w91 aft] exam9+ a v>iety ( coral =mations 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! globe1 0 induc$ to reject ! op9ion t _! %ape repres5t$ ! =m ( ! orig9al bottom4 ,in/ead ( admitt+ t ! r+ ( dead coral re/$ on a circul> or oval ridge ( rock1 or t ! lagoon correspond$ to a preexi/+ cavity1 he advanc$ a new op9ion1 :i* mu/1 at fir/ sight1 seem p>adoxical 9 ! extreme2 namely1 t ! lagoon is precisely 9 ! place once occupi$ by ! highe/ "p ( a m\nta9\s isl&1 or1 9 o!r cases1 by ! top ( a %oal4 ,! foll[+ is a brief sket* ( ! facts & argum5ts 9 favor ( ?is new view3--,besides ^? r+s ( dry coral :i* enclose lagoons1 !re are o!rs hav+ a simil> =m & /ructure :i* encircle l(ty isl&s4 ,( ! latt] k9d is ,vanikoro1 7see map1 fig4 #ci1 p4 #cea17 celebrat$ on acc\nt ( ! %ipwreck ( ,la ,peyr\se1 :]e ! coral reef runs at ! di/ance ( two or ?ree miles f ! %ore1 ! *annel betwe5 x & ! l& hav+ a g5]al dep? ( betwe5 #bjj & #cjj feet4 ,?is *annel1 !re=e1 is analog\s to a lagoon1 b ) an isl& /&+ 9 ! middle l a picture 9 its frame4 ,9 l mann] 9 ,tahiti we see a m\nta9\s l&1 ) ev]y:]e r\nd its m>g9 a lake or zone ( smoo? salt wat]1 sep>at$ f ! ocean by an encircl+ reef ( coral1 on :i* a l9e ( break]s is always foam+4 ,s also ,new ,cal$onia1 a long n>r[ isl& ea/ ( ,new ,holl&1 9 :i* ! rocks are granitic1 is surr\nd$ by a reef :i* runs = a l5g? ( #djj miles4 ,?is reef encompasses n only ! isl& itself1 b a ridge ( rocks :i* are prolong$ 9 ! same direction b5ea? ! sea4 ,no "o1 !re=e1 w cont5d = a mom5t t 9 ?is case ! corals are bas$ ^u ! rim ( a volcanic crat]1 9 ! middle ( :i* /&s a m\nta9 or isl& ( granite4 ,! great b>ri] reef1 already m5tion$ z runn+ p>allel to ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,au/ralia = ne>ly #ajjj miles1 is ano!r mo/ rem>kable example ( a long /rip ( coral runn+ p>allel to a coa/4 ,its di/ance f ! ma9l& v>ies f tw5ty to sev5ty miles1 & ! dep? ( ! great arm ( ! sea ?us enclos$ is usually betwe5 t5 & tw5ty fa?oms1 b t[>ds "o end f =ty to sixty4 ,?is great reef w\ld ext5d mu* f>!r1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,jukes1 if ! gr[? ( coral 7 n prev5t$ (f ! %ores ( ,new ,gu9ea by a muddy bottom1 caus$ by riv]s *>g$ ) s$im5t :i* fl[ f ! s\!rn coa/ ( t great isl&4#aabe ,two classes ( reefs1 !re=e1 h n[ be5 consid]$2 fir/1 ! atoll1 &1 secondly1 ! encircl+ & b>ri] reef1 all agree+ p]fectly 9 /ructure1 & ! sole diff]5ce ly+ 9 ! abs5ce 9 ! case ( ! atoll ( all l&1 & 9 ! o!rs ! pres5ce ( l& b\nd$ ei!r by an encircl+ or a b>ri] reef4 ,b !re is /ill a ?ird class ( reefs1 call$ by ,mr4 ,d>w9 fr++ reefs1 :i* approa* mu* ne>] ! l& ?an ^? ( ! encircl+ & b>ri] class1 & :i* inde$ s ne>ly t\*$ ! coa/ z to leave no?+ 9 ! int]v5+ space resembl+ a lagoon4 ,t ^! reefs are n atta*$ q close to ! %ore appe>s to be ! result ( two causes2 fir/1 t ! wat] imm$iately adjo9+ ! bea* is r5d]$ turbid by ! surf1 & !re=e injuri\s to all zoophytes2 &1 secondly1 t ! l>g] & effici5t k9ds only fl\ri% on ! out] edge amid/ ! break]s ( ! op5 sea4#aabf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,suppos$ section ( an isl& ) an encircl+ reef ( coral4 ,a1 ,! isl&4 b1 c1 ,highe/ po9ts ( ! encircl+ reef betwe5 :i* & ! coa/ is se5 a space occupi$ by /ill wat]4 ,x w at once be conc$$ t !re is s mu* analogy betwe5 ! =m & position ( ! /rip ( coral 9 ! atoll1 & 9 ! encircl+ & b>ri] reef1 t no explanation c be satisfactory :i* does n include ! :ole4 ,if we turn 9 ! fir/ place to ! encircl+ & b>ri] reefs1 & endeavor to expla9 h[ ! zoophytes c\ld h f\nd a bottom on :i* to beg9 to build1 we are met at once ) a great difficulty4 ,x is a g5]al fact1 long s9ce rem>k$ by ,dampi]1 t high l& & deep seas g toge!r4 ,9 o!r words1 /eep m\nta9s com+ d[n abruptly to ! sea-%ore are g5]ally cont9u$ ) ! same slope b5ea? ! wat]4 ,b :]e ! reef1 z at b & c 7fig4 #aah71 is di/ant sev]al miles f a /eep coa/1 a l9e drawn p]p5dicul>ly d[nw>ds f its out] edges b c to ! fundam5tal rock d e1 mu/ desc5d to a dep? exce$+ by sev]al ?\s& feet ! limits at :i* ! effici5t /one-build+ corals c exi/1 = we h se5 t !y cease to gr[ 9 wat] :i* is m ?an #abj feet deep4 ,t ! orig9al root imm$iately b5ea? ! po9ts b c is actually z f> f ! surface z d e1 is n m]ely inf]r$ f ,dampi]'s rule1 b confirm$ by ! fact1 t1 imm$iately outside ! reef1 s\nd+s are ei!r n met ) at all1 or only at enorm\s dep?s4 ,9 %ort1 ! ocean is z deep !re z might h be5 anticipat$ 9 ! neighborhood ( a bold coa/2 & x is obvi\sly ! pres5ce ( ! coral alone :i* has giv5 rise to ! anomal\s exi/5ce ( %all[ wat] on ! reef & betwe5 x & ! l&4 ,aft] /udy+ 9 m9ute detail all ! ph5om5a above describ$1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 has (f]$ 9 explanation a !ory n[ v g5]ally adopt$4 ,! coral-=m+ polypi1 he /ates1 beg9 to build 9 wat] ( a mod]ate dep?1 & :ile !y are yet at "w1 ! bottom ( ! sea subsides gradually1 s t ! f\ndation ( _! edifice is c>ri$ d[nw>ds at ! same "t t !y are rais+ ! sup]/ructure4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! rate ( subsid5ce be n too rapid1 ! gr[+ coral w cont9ue to build up to ! surface2 ! mass always ga9+ 9 height above its orig9al base1 b rema9+ 9 o!r respects 9 ! same position4 ,n s ) ! l&2 ea* in* lo/ is irreclaimably gone2 z x s9ks1 ! wat] ga9s foot by foot on ! %ore1 till 9 _m cases ! highe/ peak ( ! orig9al isl& disappe>s4 ,:at 0 be=e l& is !n occupi$ by ! lagoon1 ! position ( ! encircl+ coral rema9+ unalt]$1 ) ! exception ( a slight contraction ( its dim5sions4 ,9 ?is mann] are encircl+ reefs & atolls produc$2 & 9 confirmation ( 8 views ,mr4 ,d>w9 has po9t$ out examples :i* illu/rate e int]m$iate /ate1 f t ( l(ty isl&s1 su* z ,otaheite1 encircl$ by coral1 to t ( ,gambi]'s gr\p1 :]e a few peaks only ( l& rise out ( a lagoon1 & la/ly1 to ! p]fect atoll1 hav+ a lagoon sev]al hundr$ feet deep1 surr\nd$ by a reef ris+ /eeply f an unfa?om$ ocean4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,if we embrace ^! views1 x is cle>1 t 9 regions ( gr[+ coral a simil> subsid5ce mu/ give rise to b>ri] reefs along ! %ores ( a cont95t4 ,?us suppose ,a 7fig4 #aai71 to repres5t ! nor?-ea/ portion ( ,au/ralia1 & b c ! anci5t level ( ! sea1 :5 ! coral reef d 0 =m$4 ,if ! l& s9k s t x is subm]g$ m & m1 ! sea mu/ at l5g? /& at ! level e f1 ! reef 9 ! mean "t hav+ be5 enl>g$ & rais$ to ! po9t g4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! %ore f1 & ! b>ri] reef g1 is n[ mu* great] ?an orig9ally betwe5 ! %ore c & ! reef d1 & ! long] ! subsid5ce cont9ues ! f>!r w ! coa/ ( ! ma9l& rec$e4 ,:5 ! fir/ edition ( ?is "w appe>$ 9 #ahca1 sev]al ye>s be=e ,mr4 ,d>w9 _h inve/igat$ ! facts on :i* 8 !ory is f\nd$1 ,i _h come to ! op9ion t ! l& 0 subsid+ at ! bottom ( ^? p>ts ( ! ,pacific :]e atolls are num]\s1 al?\gh ,i fail$ to p]ceive t su* a subsid5ce1 if conc$$1 w\ld equally solve ! enigma z to ! =m bo? ( annul> & b>ri] reefs4 ,i %all cite ! passage ref]r$ to1 z publi%$ by me 9 #ahca3--;,x is a rem>kable circum/ance t !re %\ld be s va/ an area 9 ,ea/]n ,oceanica1 /udd$ ) m9ute isl&s1 )\t "o s+le spot :]e !re is a wid] ext5t ( l& ?an belongs to su* isl&s z ,otaheite1 ,o:yhee1 & a few o!rs1 :i* ei!r h be5 or are /ill ! seats ( active volcanoes4 ,if an equilibrium only 7 ma9ta9$ betwe5 ! upheav+ & depress+ =ce ( e>?quakes1 l>ge isl&s w\ld v soon be =m$ 9 ! ,pacific2 =1 9 t case1 ! gr[? ( lime/one1 ! fl[+ ( lava1 & ! ejection ( volcanic a%es1 w\ld comb9e ) ! upheav+ =ce to =m new l&4 ,suppose a %oal1 #fjj miles 9 l5g?1 to s9k fifte5 feet1 & !n to rema9 unmov$ = a ?\s& ye>s2 dur+ t int]val ! gr[+ coral may aga9 approa* ! surface4 ,!n let ! mass be re-elevat$ fifte5 feet1 s t ! orig9al reef is re/or$ to its =m] position3 9 ?is case1 ! new coral =m$ s9ce ! fir/ subsid5ce w con/itute an isl& #fjj miles long4 ,an analog\s result w\ld h occurr$ if a lava-curr5t fifte5 feet ?ick _h ov]fl[$ ! subm]g$ reef4 ,! abs5ce1 !re=e1 ( m ext5sive tracts ( l& 9 ! ,pacific1 seems to %[ t ! am\nt ( subsid5ce by e>?quakes exce$s1 9 t qu>t] ( ! globe1 at pres5t1 ! elevation due to ! same cause4#aabg ,ano!r pro( also ( subsid5ce d]iv$ f ! /ructure ( atolls1 0 po9t$ out by me 9 ! foll[+ passage 9 all =m] editions4 ,! l[ coral isl&s ( ! ,pacific1 says ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 foll[ "o g5]al rule 9 hav+ _! w9dw>d side high] & m p]fect ?an ! o!r4 ,at ,gambia & ,matilda isl&s ?is inequality is v conspicu\s1 ! wea!r side ( bo? be+ wood$1 & ( ! =m] inhabit$1 :ile ! o!r sides are f tw5ty to ?irty feet "u wat]2 :]e1 h[ev]1 !y may be p]ceiv$ to be equally n>r[ & well def9$4 ,x is on ! leew>d side also t ! entrances into ! lagoons occur2 & al?\gh !y may sometimes be situat$ on a side t runs 9 ! direction ( ! w9d1 z at ,b[ ,isl&1 yet !re are none to w9dw>d4 ,^! obs]vations ( ,capta9 ,bee*ey accord ) ^? :i* ,capta9 ,horsburgh & o!r hydrograph]s h made 9 reg>d to ! coral isl&s ( o!r seas4 ,f ?is =tunate circum/ance %ips c ent] & sail out ) ease2 :]eas if ! n>r[ inlets 7 to w9dw>d1 vessels :i* once ent]$ might n succe$ = mon?s 9 mak+ _! way out aga94 ,! well-kn[n security ( _m ( ^! h>bors dep5ds entirely on ?is =tunate peculi>ity 9 _! /ructure4 ,9 :at mann] is ?is s+ul> con=mation to be acc\nt$ =8 ,! action ( ! waves is se5 to be ! cause ( ! sup]ior elevation ( "s reefs on _! w9dw>d sides1 :]e s& & l>ge masses ( coral rock are ?r[n up by ! break]s2 b !re is a v>iety ( cases :]e ?is cause alone is inadequate to solve ! problem2 = reefs subm]g$ at consid]able dep?s1 :]e ! movem5ts ( ! sea _c ex]t mu* p[]1 h1 nev]!less1 ! same con=mation1 ! leew>d be+ mu* l[] ?an ! w9dw>d side4#aabh ,i am in=m$ by ,capta9 ,k+1 t1 on exam9+ ! reefs call$ ,r[ley ,%oals1 :i* lie (f ! nor?-we/ coa/ ( ,au/ralia1 :]e ! ea/ & we/ monsoons prevail alt]nately1 he f\nd ! op5 side ( "o cresc5t-%ap$ reef1 ! ,imp>ieuse1 turn$ to ! ea/1 & ( ano!r1 ! ,m]maid1 turn$ to ! we/2 :ile a ?ird oval reef1 ( ! same gr\p1 0 entirely subm]g$4 ,?is want ( con=mity is exactly :at we %\ld expect1 :]e ! w9ds v>y p]iodically4 ,x seems impossible to ref] ! ph5om5on n[ "u consid]ation to any orig9al uni=mity 9 ! configuration ( subm>9e volcanoes1 on ! summits ( :i* we may suppose ! coral reefs to gr[2 = al?\gh x is v common = crat]s to be brok5 d[n on "o side only1 we _c imag9e any cause t %\ld brea* !m all 9 ! same direction4 ,b ! difficulty w1 p]haps1 be remov$1 if we call 9 ano!r "p ( ! volcanic ag5cy--subsid5ce by e>?quakes4 ,suppose ! w9dw>d b>ri] to h be5 rais$ by ! me*anical action ( ! waves to ! height ( two or ?ree y>ds above ! wall on ! leew>d side1 & !n ! :ole isl& to s9k d[n a few fa?oms1 ! appe>ances describ$ w\ld !n be pres5t$ by ! subm]g$ reef4 ,a repetition ( su* op]ations1 by ! alt]nate elevation & depression ( ! same mass 7an hypo!sis /rictly con=mable to analogy71 might produce /ill great] inequality 9 ! two sides1 especially z ! viol5t efflux ( ! tide has probably a /rong t5d5cy to *eck ! accumulation ( ! m t5d] corals on ! leew>d reef2 :ile ! action ( ! break]s contributes to raise ! w9dw>d b>ri]4#aabi ,previ\sly to my adv]t+ to ! signs above enum]at$ ( a d[nw>d movem5t 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean1 ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 & _m o!r writ]s1 _h %[n t masses ( rec5t coral _h be5 laid dry at v>i\s heights above ! sea-level1 bo? 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 ! isl&s ( ! ,pacific1 & 9 ! ,ea/ & ,we/ ,indies4 ,aft] describ+ ?irty-two coral isl&s 9 ! ,pacific1 ,capta9 ,bee*ey m5tion$ t !y 7 all =m$ ( liv+ coral except "o1 :i*1 al?\gh ( coral =mation1 0 rais$ ab\t sev5ty or eighty feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & 0 encompass$ by a reef ( liv+ coral4 ,x is call$ ,elizabe? or ,h5d]son's ,isl&1 & is five miles 9 l5g? by "o 9 bread?4 ,x has a flat surface1 &1 on all sides1 except ! nor?1 is b\nd$ by p]p5dicul> cliffs ab\t fifty feet high1 compos$ entirely ( dead coral1 m or less por\s1 honey-comb$ at ! surface1 & h>d5+ into a compact calc>e\s mass1 :i* possesses ! fracture ( second>y lime/one1 & has a species ( millepore int]sp]s$ ?r\gh x4 ,^! cliffs are consid]ably und]m9$ by ! action ( ! waves1 & "s ( !m appe> on ! eve ( precipitat+ _! sup]9cumb5t weight into ! sea4 ,^? :i* are less injur$ 9 ?is way pres5t no alt]nate ridges or indication ( ! diff]5t levels :i* ! sea might h occupi$ at diff]5t p]iods2 b a smoo? surface1 z if ! isl&1 :i* has probably be5 rais$ by volcanic ag5cy1 _h be5 =c$ up by "o great subt]rane\s convulsion4#aacj ,at ! di/ance ( a few hundr$ y>ds f ?is isl&1 no bottom c\ld be ga9$ ) #bjj fa?oms ( l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,elizabe?1 or ,h5d]son's ,isl&4 ,x w be se51 f ! annex$ sket*1 communicat$ to me by ,lieut5ant ,smi?1 ( ! ,blossom1 t ! trees came d[n to ! bea* t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! isl&2 a break at fir/ sight resembl+ ! op5+s :i* usually lead into lagoons2 b ! trees /& on a /eep slope1 & no holl[ ( an anci5t lagoon 0 p]ceiv$4 ,bee*ey also rem>ks1 t ! surface ( ,h5d]son's ,isl& is flat1 & t 9 ,que5 ,*>lotte's ,isl&1 "o ( ! same gr\p1 b "u wat]1 !re 0 no lagoon1 ! coral hav+ gr[n up ev]y:]e to "o level4 ,! probable cause ( ?is oblit]ation ( ! c5tral bas9 or lagoon w be consid]$ 9 ! sequel4 ,t ! b$ ( ! ,pacific & ,indian oceans1 :]e atolls are frequ5t1 mu/ h be5 s9k+ = ages1 might be inf]r$1 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 f simply reflect+ on two facts2 fir/1 t ! effici5t coral-build+ zoophytes d n fl\ri% 9 ! ocean at a great] dep? ?an #abj feet2 &1 secondly1 t !re are spaces occupy+ areas ( _m hundr$ ?\s& squ>e miles1 :]e all ! isl&s consi/ ( coral1 & yet none ( :i* rise to a great] height ?an may be acc\nt$ = by ! action ( ! w9ds & waves on brok5 & triturat$ coral4 ,7 we to take = grant$ t ! floor ( ! ocean _h rema9$ /ation>y f ! "t :5 ! coral began to gr[1 we %\ld be compell$ to assume t an incr$ible numb] ( subm>9e m\nta9s ( va/ height 7= ! ocean is always deep1 & (t5 unfa?omable betwe5 ! diff]5t atolls7 _h all come to )9 #abj feet ( ! surface1 & yet no "o m\nta9 _h ris5 above wat]4 ,b no soon] d we admit ! !ory ( subsid5ce1 ?an ?is great1 difficulty vani%es4 ,h[ev] v>i$ may h be5 ! altitude ( diff]5t isl&s1 or ! sep>ate peaks ( p>ticul> m\nta9-*a9s1 all may h be5 r$uc$ to "o uni=m level by ! gradual subm]g5ce ( ! l(tie/ po9ts1 & ! additions made to ! calc>e\s capp+s ( ! less elevat$ summits z !y subsid$ to great dep?s4 ,op5+s into ! lagoons4--,9 ! g5]al description ( atolls & encircl+ reefs1 x 0 m5tion$ t !re is almo/ always a deep n>r[ passage op5+ into ! lagoon1 or into ! /ill wat] betwe5 ! reef & ! %ore1 :i* is kept op5 by ! efflux ( ! sea z ! tide goes d[n4 ,! orig9 ( ?is *annel mu/1 accord+ to ! !ory ( subsid5ce be=e expla9$1 be trac$ back to causes :i* 7 9 action dur+ ! exi/5ce ( ! encircl+ reef1 & :5 an isl& or m\nta9-top rose )9 x1 = su* a reef prec$es ! atoll 9 ! ord] ( =mation4 ,n[ 9 ^? isl&s 9 ! ,pacific1 :i* are l>ge en\gh to fe$ small riv]s1 !re is g5]ally an op5+ or *annel 9 ! surr\nd+ coral reef at ! po9t :]e ! /ream ( fre% wat] ent]s ! sea4 ,! dep? ( ^! *annels r>ely exce$s tw5ty-five feet2 & !y may be attribut$1 says ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 to ! av]sion ( ! li?ophytes to fre% wat]1 & to ! probable abs5ce ( ! m9]al matt] ( :i* !y con/ruct _! habitations4#aaca ,mr4 ,d>w91 h[ev]1 has %[n1 t mud at ! bottom ( riv]-c\rses is f> m influ5tial ?an ! fre%ness ( ! wat] 9 prev5t+ ! gr[? ( ! polypi1 = ! walls :i* inclose ! op5+s are p]p5dicul>1 & d n slant (f gradually1 z w\ld be ! case1 if ! nature ( ! elem5t pres5t$ ! only ob/acle to ! increase ( ! coral-build+ animals4 ,:5 a brea* has ?us be5 made 9 ! reef1 x w be prev5t$ f clos+ up by ! efflux ( ! sea at l[ tides2 = x is suffici5t t a reef %\ld rise a few feet above l[-wat] m>k to cause ! wat]s to collect 9 ! lagoon at high tide1 & :5 ! sea falls1 to ru% out at "o or m po9ts :]e ! reef happ5s to be l[e/ or weake/4 ,?is ev5t is /rictly analog\s to t witness$ 9 our e/u>ies1 :]e a body ( salt wat] accumulat$ dur+ ! fl[ issues ) great velocity at ! ebb ( ! tide1 & sc\rs out or keeps op5 a deep passage ?r\gh ! b>1 :i* is almo/ always =m$ at ! m\? ( a riv]4 ,at fir/ !re are probably _m op5+s1 b ! gr[? ( ! coral t5ds to ob/ruct all ^? :i* d n s]ve z ! pr9cipal *annels ( dis*>ge2 s t _! numb] is gradually r$uc$ to a few1 & (t5 f9ally to "o4 ,! fact obs]v$ univ]sally1 t ! pr9cipal op5+ fronts a consid]able valley 9 ! encircl$ isl&1 betwe5 ! %ores ( :i* & ! out] reef !re is (t5 deep wat]1 sc>cely leaves any d\bt z to ! real orig9 ( ! *annel 9 all ^? c\ntless atolls :]e ! nucleus ( l& has vani%$4 ,size ( atolls & b>ri] reefs4--,9 reg>d to ! dim5sions ( atolls1 x 0 /at$ t "s ( ! smalle/ obs]v$ by ,bee*ey 9 ! ,pacific 7 only a mile 9 diamet]4 ,if _! ext]nal slope "u wat] equals ^u an av]age an angle ( #de degrees1 !n w\ld su* an atoll at ! dep? ( half a mile1 or #bfdj feet1 h a diamet] ( two miles4 ,h5ce x w\ld appe> t !re mu/ be a t5d5cy 9 e atoll to gr[ small]1 except 9 ^? cases :]e oscillations ( level enl>ge ! base on :i* ! coral gr[s by ?r[+ d[n a talus ( detrital matt] all r\nd ! orig9al cone ( lime/one4 ,b[ ,isl& is describ$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey z sev5ty miles 9 circumf]5ce1 & ?irty 9 its greate/ diamet]1 b we h se5 t "s ( ! ,maldives are mu* l>g]4 ,z ! %ore ( an isl& or cont95t :i* is subsid+ w rec$e f a coral reef at a sl[ or rapid rate accord+ z ! surface ( ! l& has a /eep or g5tle slope1 we _c measure ! ?ickness ( ! coral by its di/ance f ! coa/2 yet1 z a g5]al rule1 ^? reefs :i* are f>!/ f ! l& imply ! greate/ am\nt ( subsid5ce4 ,we le>n f ,fl9d]s1 t ! b>ri] reef ( nor?-ea/]n ,au/ralia is 9 "s places sev5ty miles f ! ma9l&1 & x %\ld seem t a calc>e\s =mation is !re 9 progress #ajjj miles long f nor? to s\?1 ) a bread? v>y+ f tw5ty to sev5ty miles4 ,x may n1 inde$1 be cont9u\s ov] ?is va/ area1 = d\btless innum]able isl&s h be5 subm]g$ "o aft] ano!r betwe5 ! reef & ma9l&1 l "s :i* /ill rema91 z1 = example1 ,murray's ,isl&s1 lat4 #i degrees #ed m9utes ,s4 ,we are also told t "s p>ts ( ! gulf inclos$ )9 a b>ri] are #djj feet deep1 s t ! effici5t rock-build+ corals _c be gr[+ !re1 & 9 o!r p>ts ( x isl&s appe> encircl$ by reefs4 ,x w foll[ z "o ( ! consequ5ces ( ! !ory already expla9$ t1 provid$ ! bottom ( ! sea does n s9k too fa/ to all[ ! zoophytes to build upw>ds at ! same pace1 ! ?ickness ( coral w be great 9 proportion to ! rapidity ( subsid5ce1 s t if "o area s9ks two feet :ile ano!r s9ks "o1 ! mass ( coral 9 ! fir/ area w be d\ble t 9 ! second4 ,b ! d[nw>d movem5t mu/ 9 g5]al h be5 v sl[ & uni=m1 or :]e int]mitt5t1 mu/ h consi/$ ( a great numb] ( depressions1 ea* ( slight am\nt1 o!rwise ! bottom ( ! sea w\ld h be5 c>ri$ d[n fa/] ?an ! corals c\ld build upw>ds1 & ! isl& or cont95t w\ld be p]man5tly subm]g$1 hav+ rea*$ a dep? ( #abj or #aej feet1 at :i* ! effective reef-con/ruct+ zoophytes cease to live4 ,if1 !n1 ! subsid5ce requir$ to acc\nt = all ! exi/+ atolls mu/ h am\nt$ to ?ree or f\r ?\s& feet1 or ev5 sometimes m1 we are br\ght to ! conclusion t !re has be5 a sl[ & gradual s9k+ to ?is enorm\s ext5t4 ,su* an inf]5ce is p]fectly 9 h>mony ) views :i* ! gr& scale ( d5udation1 ev]y:]e obs]vable 9 ! old] rocks1 has l$ geologi/s to adopt 9 ref]5ce to upw>d movem5ts4 ,!y mu/ also h be5 gradual & cont9u\s ?r\gh\t indef9ite ages to all[ ! waves & curr5ts ( ! ocean to op]ate ) adequate p[]4 ,! map con/ruct$ by ,mr4 ,d>w9 to display at "o view ! geographical position ( all ! coral reefs ?r\gh\t ! globe is ( ! highe/ geological int]e/ 7see above1 p4 #cea471 lead+ to spl5did g5]alizations1 :5 we h once embrac$ ! !ory t all atolls & b>ri] reefs indicate rec5t subsid5ce1 :ile ! pres5ce ( fr++ reefs proves ! l& to be /ation>y or ris+4 ,^! two classes ( coral =mations are depict$ by diff]5t colors2 & "o ( ! /rik+ facts br\ght to light by ! same classification ( coral =mations is ! abs5ce ( active volcanoes 9 ! areas ( subsid5ce1 & _! frequ5t pres5ce 9 ! areas ( elevation4 ,! only suppos$ exception to ?is rem>kable co9cid5ce at ! "t :5 ,mr4 ,d>w9 wrote1 9 #ahdb1 0 ! volcano ( ,torres ,/rait1 at ! nor!rn po9t ( ,au/ralia1 plac$ on ! bord]s ( an area ( subsid5ce2 b x has be5 s9ce prov$ t ?is volcano has no exi/5ce4 ,we see1 !re=e1 an evid5t connection1 fir/1 betwe5 ! bur/+ =? e n[ & !n ( volcanic matt] ?r\gh r5ts & fissures1 & ! expansion or =c+ outw>ds ( ! e>?'s cru/1 &1 secondly1 betwe5 a dormant & less en]getic developm5t ( subt]ranean heat1 & an am\nt ( subsid5ce suffici5tly great to cause m\nta9s to disappe> ov] ! broad face ( ! ocean1 leav+ only small & scatt]$ lagoon isl&s1 or gr\ps ( atolls1 to indicate ! spots :]e ^? m\nta9s once /ood4 ,on a review ( ! diff]5tly-color$ reefs on ! map allud$ to1 x w be se5 t !re are l>ge spaces 9 :i* upheaval1 & o!rs 9 :i* depression prevails1 & ^! are plac$ alt]nately1 :ile !re are a few small] areas :]e movem5ts ( oscillation occur4 ,?us if we comm5ce ) ! we/]n %ores ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 betwe5 ! summit ( ! ,&es & ! ,pacific 7a region ( e>?quakes & active volcanoes71 we f9d signs ( rec5t elevation1 n atte/$ inde$ by coral =mations1 :i* are want+ !re1 b by uprais$ banks ( m>9e %ells4 ,!n proce$+ we/w>d1 we trav]se a deep ocean )\t isl&s1 until we come to a b& ( atolls & encircl$ isl&s1 includ+ ! ,dang]\s & ,society ar*ipelagoes1 & con/itut+ an area ( subsid5ce m ?an #djjj miles long & #fjj broad4 ,/ill f>!r1 9 ! same direction1 we rea* ! *a9 ( isl&s to :i* ! ,new ,hebrides1 ,salomon1 & ,new ,irel& belong1 :]e fr++ reefs & masses ( elevat$ coral indicate ano!r area ( upheaval4 ,aga91 to ! we/w>d ( ! ,new ,hebrides we meet ) ! encircl+ reef ( ,new ,cal$onia & ! great ,au/ralian b>ri]1 imply+ a second area ( subsid5ce4 ,! only objection des]v+ att5tion :i* has hi!rto be5 advanc$ aga9/ ! !ory ( atolls1 z be=e expla9$ 7p4 #gei471 is t propos$ by ,mr4 ,macl>54#aacb ,on ! outside1 he obs]ves1 ( coral reefs v highly incl9$1 no bottom is sometimes f\nd ) a l9e ( #bjjj or #cjjj feet1 & ?is is by no means a r>e case4 ,x foll[s t ! reef ought to h ?is ?ickness2 & ,mr4 ,d>w9's diagrams %[ t he und]/ood x s4 ,n[1 if su* masses ( coral exi/ "u ! sea1 !y ought some:]e to be f\nd on t]ra firma2 = !re is evid5ce t all ! l&s yet visit$ by geologi/s1 h be5 at "o "t subm]g$4 ,b nei!r 9 ! great volcanic *a91 ext5d+ f ,sumatra to ,japan1 nor 9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 nor 9 any o!r region yet explor$1 has a b$ or =mation ( coral ev5 #ejj feet ?ick be5 discov]$1 s f> z we "k4 ,:5 consid]+ ?is objection1 x is evid5t t ! fir/ "q we h to deal ) is1 :e!r geologi/s h n already discov]$ calc>e\s masses ( ! requir$ ?ickness & /ructure1 or precisely su* z ! upheaval ( atolls might be expect$ to expose to view8 ,we are call$ ^u1 9 %ort1 to make up our m9ds bo? z to ! int]nal composition ( ! rocks t mu/ result f ! gr[? ( corals1 :e!r 9 lagoon isl&s or b>ri] reefs1 & ! ext]nal %ape :i* ! reefs w\ld reta9 :5 uprais$ gradually to a va/ height1--a task by no means s easy z "s may imag9e4 ,if ! read] has pictur$ to himself l>ge masses ( entire corals1 pil$ "o ^u ano!r1 = a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 he unque/ionably mi/akes altoge!r ! nature ( ! accumulations n[ 9 progress4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! /rata at pres5t =m+ v ext5sively ov] ! bottom ( ! ocean1 )9 su* b>ri] reefs z ^? ( ,au/ralia & ,new ,cal$onia1 are kn[n to consi/ *iefly ( horizontal lay]s ( calc>e\s s$im5t1 :ile "h & !re an int]mixture mu/ occur ( ! detritus ( granitic & o!r rocks br\ght d[n by riv]s f ! adjo9+ l&s1 or wa%$ f sea-cliffs by ! waves & curr5ts4 ,secondly1 9 reg>d to atolls1 ! /one-mak+ polypif]s gr[ mo/ luxuriantly on ! out] edge ( ! isl&1 to a ?ickness ( a few feet only4 ,beyond ?is m>g9 brok5 pieces ( coral & calc>e\s s& are /rew$ by ! break]s ov] a /eep seaw>d slope1 & z ! subsid5ce cont9ues ! next coat+ ( live coral does n gr[ v]tically ov] ! fir/ lay]1 b on a n>r[ annul> space )9 x1 ! reef1 z 0 be=e /at$ 7p4 #gfa71 con/antly contract+ its dim5sions z x s9ks4 ,?irdly1 )9 ! lagoon ! accumulation ( calc>e\s matt] is *iefly s$im5t>y1 a k9d ( *alky mud d]iv$ f ! decay ( ! s(t] corall9es1 ) a mixture ( calc>e\s s& swept by ! w9ds & waves f ! surr\nd+ circul> reef4 ,"h & !re1 b only 9 p>tial clumps1 are f\nd liv+ corals1 :i* gr[ 9 ! middle ( ! lagoon1 & mix$ ) f9e mud & s&1 a great v>iety ( %ells1 & fragm5ts ( te/acea & e*9od]ms4 ,we owe to ,lieut5ant ,nelson ! discov]y t 9 ! ,b]mudas ! calc>e\s mud result+ f ! decomposition ( ! s(t] corall9es is absolutely undi/+ui%able :5 dri$ f ! ord9>y :ite *alk ( ,europe1#aacc & ?is mud is c>ri$ to great di/ances by curr5ts1 & spread f> & wide ov] ! floor ( ! ocean4 ,we also h opportunities ( see+ 9 uprais$ atolls1 su* z ,elizabe? ,isl&1 ,tonga1 & ,hapai1 :i* rise above ! level ( ! sea to heights v>y+ f t5 to eighty feet1 t ! rocks ( :i* !y consi/ d n diff] 9 /ructure or 9 ! /ate ( pres]vation ( _! includ$ zoophytes & %ells f "s ( ! olde/ lime/ones kn[n to ! geologi/4 ,capta9 ,bee*ey rem>ks t ! dead coral 9 ,elizabe? ,isl& is m or less por\s & honeycomb$ at ! surface1 & h>d5+ into a compact rock :i* has ! fracture ( second>y lime/one4#aacd ,! isl& ( ,pulo ,nias1 (f ,sumatra 7see ,map1 fig4 #ci4 p4 #cea71 :i* is ab\t #cjjj feet high1 is describ$ by ,dr4 ,jack z be+ ov]spread by coral & l>ge %ells ( ! ,*ama 7,tridacna7 gigas1 :i* re/ on qu>tzose & ar5ace\s rocks1 at v>i\s levels f ! sea-coa/ to ! summit ( ! highe/ hills4 ,! cliffs ( ! isl& ( ,timor 9 ! ,indian ,ocean are compos$1 says ,mr4 ,jukes1 ( a rais$ coral reef ab\nd+ 9 ,a/raea1 ,me&r9a1 & ,porites1 ) %ells ( ,/rombus1 ,conus1 ,n]ita1 ,arca1 ,pect51 ,v5us1 & ,luc9a4 ,on a l$ge ab\t #aej feet above ! sea1 a ,tridacna 7or l>ge clam %ell71 two feet across1 0 f\nd b$d$ 9 ! rock ) clos$ valves1 j z !y are (t5 se5 9 b>ri] reefs4 ,?is =mation 9 ! isl&s ( ,s&lewood1 ,sumbawa1 ,madura1 & ,java1 :]e x is expos$ 9 sea cliffs1 0 f\nd to be f #bjj to #cjj feet ?ick1 & is believ$ to asc5d to mu* great] heights 9 ! int]ior4 ,x has usually ! =m ( a *alk-l rock1 :ite :5 brok51 b 9 ! wea!r$ surface turn+ ne>ly black4#aace ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 premature to ass]t t !re are no rec5t coral =mations uplift$ to great heights1 = we are only beg9n+ to be acqua9t$ ) ! geological /ructure ( ! rocks ( equatorial regions4 ,"s ( ! uprais$ isl&s1 su* z ,elizabe? & ,que5 ,*>lotte1 9 ! ,pacific1 al?\gh plac$ 9 regions ( atolls1 are describ$ by ,capta9 ,bee*ey & o!rs z flat-topp$1 & exhibit+ no traces ( lagoons4 ,9 explanation ( ! fact1 we may presume t aft] !y _h be5 s9k+ = ages1 ! desc5d+ movem5t 0 relax$2 & :ile x 0 9 ! c\rse ( be+ conv]t$ into an asc5d+ "o1 ! gr\nd rema9$ = a long season almo/ /ation>y1 9 :i* case ! corals )9 ! lagoon w\ld build up to ! surface1 & rea* ! level already atta9$ by ^? on ! m>g9 ( ! reef4 ,9 ?is mann] ! lagoon w\ld be effac$1 & ! isl& acquire a flat summit4 ,x may1 h[ev]1 be ?\ght /range t _m examples h n be5 notic$ ( fr++ reefs uplift$ above ! level ( ! sea4 ,mr4 ,d>w91 inde$1 cites "o in/ance :]e ! reef pres]v$1 on dry l& 9 ! ,mauritius1 its peculi> moat-l /ructure2 b !y ought1 he says1 to be ( r>e occurr5ce1 = 9 ! case ( atolls or ( b>ri] or fr++ reefs1 ! *>act]i/ic outl9e mu/ usually be de/roy$ by d5udation z soon z a reef beg9s to rise2 s9ce x is imm$iately expos$ to ! action ( ! break]s1 & ! l>ge & conspicu\s corals on ! out] rim ( ! atoll or b>ri] are ! fir/ to be de/roy$ & to fall to ! bottom ( v]tical & und]m9$ cliffs4 ,aft] sl[ & cont9u$ upheaval a wreck alone c rema9 ( ! orig9al reef4 ,if1 !re=e1 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 at "s p]iod z f> 9 futurity z ! second>y rocks are 9 ! pa/1 ! b$ ( ! ,pacific ) its atolls & b>ri] reefs %\ld be conv]t$ into a cont95t1 we may conceive t sc>cely any or none ( ! exi/+ reefs w\ld be pres]v$1 b only widely spread /rata ( calc>e\s matt] d]iv$ f _! we> & te>4#aacf ,:5 x is urg$ 9 support ( ! objection be=e /at$ 7p4 #gfg71 t ! !ory ( atolls by subsid5ce implies ! accumulation ( calc>e\s =mations #bjjj or #cjjj feet ?ick1 x mu/ be conc$$ t ?is e/imate ( ! m9imum d5sity ( ! deposits is by no means exagg]at$4 ,on ! contr>y1 :5 we consid] t ! space ov] :i* atolls are scatt]$ 9 ,polynesia & ! ,indian oceans may be comp>$ to ! :ole cont95t ( ,asia1 we _c b inf] f analogy t ! diff]5ces 9 level 9 s va/ an area h am\nt$1 antec$5tly to subsid5ce1 to #ejjj or ev5 a great] numb] ( feet4 ,:atev] 0 ! diff]5ce 9 height betwe5 ! l(tie/ & l[e/ ( ! orig9al m\nta9s or m\nta9\s isl&s on :i* ! diff]5t atolls are bas$1 t diff]5ce mu/ repres5t ! ?ickness ( coral :i* has n[ r$uc$ all ( !m to "o level4 ,fl9d]s1 !re=e1 by no means exagg]at$ ! volume ( ! lime/one1 :i* he conceiv$ to h be5 ! "w ( coral animals2 he 0 m]ely mi/ak5 z to ! mann] 9 :i* !y 7 enabl$ to build reefs 9 an unfa?om$ ocean4 ,b is x reasonable to expect1 aft] ! wa/e caus$ by d5udation1 t calc>e\s masses1 gradually upheav$ 9 an op5 sea1 %\ld reta9 su* va/ ?icknesses8 ,or may n ! lime/ones ( ! cretace\s & oolitic epo*s1 :i* atta9 9 ! ,alps & ,pyr5ees a d5sity ( #cjjj or #djjj feet1 & are 9 great "p made up ( corall9e & %elly matt]1 pres5t u ) a true geological c\nt]p>t ( ! rec5t coral reefs ( equatorial seas8 ,be=e we atta* s]i\s importance to argum5ts f\nd$ on negative evid5ce1 & oppos$ to a !ory :i* s admirably expla9s a great v>iety ( complicat$ ph5om5a1 we ought to rememb] t ! upheaval to ! height ( #djjj feet ( atolls 9 :i* ! corall9e lime/one w\ld be #djjj feet ?ick1 implies1 fir/1 a sl[ subsid5ce ( #djjj feet1 &1 secondly1 an elevation ( ! same am\nt4 ,ev5 if ! rev]se or asc5d+ movem5t began ! in/ant ! d[nw>d "o ceas$1 we mu/ all[ a great lapse ( ages = ! accompli%m5t ( ! :ole op]ation4 ,we mu/ also assume t at ! comm5cem5t ( ! p]iod 9 "q1 ! equatorial regions 7 z fitt$ z n[ = ! support ( reef-build+ zoophytes4 ,?is po/ulate w\ld dem& ! cont9uance ( a complicat$ v>iety ( conditions ?r\gh\t a mu* long] p]iod ?an !y are usually p]si/5t 9 "o place4 ,to %[ ! difficulty ( speculat+ on ! p]man5ce ( ! geographical & climatal circum/ances requisite = ! gr[? ( reef-build+ corals1 we h only to /ate ! fact t !re are no reefs 9 ! ,atlantic1 (f ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa1 nor among ! isl&s ( ! ,gulf ( ,gu9ea1 nor 9 ,/4 ,hel5a1 ,asc5sion1 ! ,cape ,v]des1 or ,/4 ,paul's4 ,) ! exception ( ,b]muda1 !re is n a s+le coral reef 9 ! c5tral expanse ( ! ,atlantic1 al?\gh 9 "s p>ts ! waves1 z at ,asc5sion1 are *>g$ to excess ) calc>e\s matt]4 ,?is caprici\s di/ribution ( coral reefs is probably ow+ to ! abs5ce ( fit /ations = ! reef-build+ polypif]s1 o!r organic be+s 9 ^? regions obta9+ 9 ! great /ruggle = exi/5ce a ma/]y ov] !m4 ,_! abs5ce1 9 :atev] mann] x be acc\nt$ =1 %\ld put u on our gu>d aga9/ expect+ uprais$ reefs at all =m] geological epo*s1 simil> to ^? n[ 9 progress4 ,lime1 :5ce d]iv$4--,dr4 ,macullo*1 9 8 sy/em ( ,geology1 vol4 i4 p4 #bai1 express$ himself 9 favor ( ! !ory ( "s ( ! e>li] geologi/s1 t all lime/ones h orig9at$ 9 organiz$ sub/ances4 ,if we exam9e1 he says1 ! quantity ( lime/one 9 ! prim>y /rata1 x w be f\nd to be> a mu* small] proportion to ! silice\s & argillace\s rocks ?an 9 ! second>y2 & ?is may h "s connexion ) ! r>ity ( te/ace\s animals 9 ! anci5t ocean4 ,he f>!r inf]s1 t 9 consequ5ce ( ! op]ations ( animals1 ! quantity ( calc>e\s e>? deposit$ 9 ! =m ( mud or /one is always increas+2 & t z ! second>y s]ies f> exce$s ! prim>y 9 ?is respect1 s a ?ird s]ies may h]eaft] arise f ! dep?s ( ! sea1 :i* may exce$ ! la/ 9 ! proportion ( its calc>e\s /rata4 ,if ^! propositions w5t no f>!r ?an to sugge/ t e p>ticle ( lime t n[ ent]s into ! cru/ ( ! globe1 may possibly 9 its turn h be5 subs]vi5t to ! purposes ( life1 by ent]+ into ! composition ( organiz$ bodies1 ,i %\ld n deem ! speculation improbable2 b1 :5 x is h9t$ t lime may be an animal product comb9$ by ! p[]s ( vitality f "s simple elem5ts1 ,i c discov] no suffici5t gr\nds = su* an hypo!sis1 & _m facts militate aga9/ x4 ,if a l>ge pond be made 9 almo/ any soil1 & fill$ ) ra9 wat]1 x may usually become t5ant$ by te/acea2 = c>bonate ( lime is almo/ univ]sally diffus$ 9 small quantities4 ,b if no calc>e\s matt] be suppli$ by wat]s fl[+ f ! surr\nd+ high gr\nds1 or by spr+s1 no tufa or %ell-m>l are =m$4 ,! ?9 %ells ( "o g5]ation ( mollusks decompose1 s t _! elem5ts af=d nutrim5t to ! succe$+ races2 & x is only :]e a /ream ent]s a lake1 :i* may introduce a fre% supply ( calc>e\s matt]1 or :]e ! lake is f$ by spr+s1 t %ells accumulate & =m m>l4 ,all ! lakes 9 ,=f>%ire :i* h produc$ deposits ( %ell-m>l h be5 ! sites ( spr+s1 :i* /ill evolve mu* c>bonic acid1 & a small quantity ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,b !re is no m>l 9 ,lo* ,fi?ie1 ne> ,=f>1 :]e !re are no spr+s1 al?\gh t lake is surr\nd$ by ^! calc>e\s deposits1 & al?\gh1 9 e o!r respect1 ! site is favorable to ! accumulation ( aquatic te/acea4 ,we f9d ^? ,*>ae :i* secrete ! l>ge/ quantity ( calc>e\s matt] 9 _! /ems to ab\nd ne> spr+s impregnat$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,we "k t1 if ! common h5 be depriv$ altoge!r ( calc>e\s nutrim5t1 ! %ells ( h] eggs w become ( too slight a consi/5cy to protect ! cont5ts2 & "s birds eat *alk gre$ily dur+ ! bre$+ season4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we turn to ! ph5om5a ( inorganic nature1 we obs]ve t1 9 volcanic c\ntries1 !re is an enorm\s evolution ( c>bonic acid1 ei!r free1 9 a gase\s =m1 or mix$ ) wat]2 & ! spr+s ( su* di/ricts are usually impregnat$ ) c>bonate ( lime 9 great abundance4 ,no "o :o has travell$ 9 ,tuscany1 ?r\gh ! region ( ext9ct volcanos & its conf9es1 or :o has se5 ! map con/ruct$ by ,t>gioni 7#ahbg71 to %[ ! pr9cipal sites ( m9]al spr+s1 c d\bt1 = a mom5t1 t if ?is t]ritory 0 subm]g$ b5ea? ! sea1 x might supply mat]ials = ! mo/ ext5sive coral reefs4 ,! importance ( ^! spr+s is n to be e/imat$ by ! magnitude ( ! rocks :i* !y h ?r[n d[n on ! slant+ sides ( hills1 al?\gh ( ^! alone l>ge cities might be built1 nor by a coat+ ( trav]t9 t cov]s ! soil 9 "s di/ricts = miles 9 l5g?4 ,! great] "p ( ! calc>e\s matt] passes d[n 9 a /ate ( solution to ! sea1 & 9 all c\ntries ! riv]s :i* fl[ f *alk & o!r m>ly & calc>e\s rocks c>ry d[n va/ quantities ( lime into ! ocean4 ,lime is also "o ( ! compon5t p>ts ( augite & o!r volcanic & hypog5e m9]als1 & :5 ^! decompose is set free1 & may !n f9d its way 9 a /ate ( solution to ! sea4 ,! lime1 !re=e1 conta9$ g5]ally 9 sea wat]1 & secret$ s pl5tifully by ! te/acea & corals ( ! ,pacific1 may h be5 d]iv$ ei!r f spr+s ris+ up 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean1 or f riv]s f$ by calc>e\s spr+s1 or impregnat$ ) lime d]iv$ f dis9tegrat$ rocks1 bo? volcanic & hypog5e4 ,if ?is be admitt$1 ! great] proportion ( lime/one 9 ! m mod]n =mations z comp>$ to ! mo/ anci5t1 w be expla9$1 = spr+s 9 g5]al hold no argillace\s1 & b a small quantity ( silice\s matt] 9 solution1 b !y are cont9ually subtract+ calc>e\s matt] f ! inf]ior rocks4 ,! con/ant transf]1 !re=e1 ( c>bonate ( lime f ! l[] or old] portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ to ! surface1 mu/ cause at all p]iods & ?r\gh\t an indef9ite succession ( geological epo*s1 a prepond]ance ( calc>e\s matt] 9 ! new] z contra/$ ) ! old] =mations4 ,,! ,,end4 ,,conclud+ ,,rem>ks4 ,9 ! conclud+ *apt]s ( ! fir/ book1 ,i exam9$ 9 detail a great v>iety ( argum5ts :i* h be5 adduc$ to prove ! di/9ctness ( ! /ate ( ! e>?'s cru/ at remote & rec5t epo*s4 ,among o!r suppos$ pro(s ( ?is di/9ctness1 ! de>? ( calc>e\s matt]1 9 ! anci5t rocks above adv]t$ to1 might h be5 consid]$4 ,b x w\ld h be5 endless to enum]ate all ! objections urg$ aga9/ ^? geologi/s :o repres5t ! c\rse ( nature at ! e>lie/ p]iods z resembl+ 9 all ess5tial circum/ances ! /ate ( ?+s n[ e/abli%$4 ,we h se5 t1 9 opposition to ?is doctr9e1 a /rong desire has be5 manife/$ to discov] 9 ! anci5t rocks ! signs ( an epo* :5 ! planet 0 un9habit$1 & :5 its surface 0 9 a *aotic condition & un9habitable4 ,! opposite op9ion1 inde$1 t ! olde/ ( ! rocks n[ visible may be ! la/ monum5ts ( an antec$5t era 9 :i* liv+ be+s may already h peopl$ ! l& & wat]1 has be5 decl>$ to be equival5t to ! assumption t !re nev] 0 a beg9n+ to ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s4 ,) equal ju/ice might an a/ronom] be accus$ ( ass]t+ t ! works ( creation ext5d$ ?r\gh\t inf9ite space1 because he refuses to take = grant$ t ! remote/ />s n[ se5 9 ! heav5s are on ! utmo/ v]ge ( ! mat]ial univ]se4 ,e improvem5t ( ! telescope has br\ght ?\s&s ( new worlds into view2 & x w\ld1 !re=e1 be ra% & unphilosophical to imag9e t we already survey ! :ole ext5t ( ! va/ s*eme1 or t x w ev] be br\ght )9 ! sph]e ( human obs]vation4 ,b no argum5t c be drawn f su* premises 9 favor ( ! inf9ity ( ! space t has be5 fill$ ) worlds2 & if ! mat]ial univ]se has any limits1 x !n foll[s1 t x mu/ occupy a m9ute & inf9itesimal po9t 9 inf9ite space4 ,s if1 9 trac+ back ! e>?'s hi/ory1 we arrive at ! monum5ts ( ev5ts :i* may h happ5$ millions ( ages be=e our times1 & if we /ill f9d no decid$ evid5ce ( a comm5cem5t1 yet ! argum5ts f analogy 9 support ( ! probability ( a beg9n+ rema9 un%ak52 & if ! pa/ duration ( ! e>? be f9ite1 !n ! aggregate ( geological epo*s1 h[ev] num]\s1 mu/ con/itute a m]e mom5t ( ! pa/1 a m]e inf9itesimal portion ( et]nity4 ,x has be5 argu$1 t1 z ! diff]5t /ates ( ! e>?'s surface1 & ! diff]5t species by :i* x has be5 inhabit$ h all _h _! orig91 & _m ( !m _! t]m9ation1 s ! entire s]ies may h comm5c$ at a c]ta9 p]iod4 ,x has also be5 urg$1 t1 z we admit ! creation ( man to h occurr$ at a comp>atively mod]n epo*--z we conc$e ! a/oni%+ fact ( ! fir/ introduction ( a moral & intellectual be+--s also we may conceive ! fir/ creation ( ! planet itself4 ,i am f> f d5y+ ! weight ( ?is reason+ f analogy2 b1 al?\gh x may /r5g!n our conviction1 t ! pres5t sy/em ( *ange has n gone on f et]nity1 x _c w>rant u 9 presum+ t we %all be p]mitt$ to behold ! signs ( ! e>?'s orig91 or ! evid5ces ( ! fir/ introduction into x ( organic be+s4 ,we aspire 9 va9 to assign limits to ! works ( creation 9 space1 :e!r we exam9e ! />ry heav5s1 or t _w ( m9ute animalcules :i* is reveal$ to u by ! microscope4 ,we are prep>$1 !re=e1 to f9d t 9 "t also ! conf9es ( ! univ]se lie beyond ! rea* ( mortal k54 ,b 9 :atev] direction we pursue our rese>*es1 :e!r 9 "t or space1 we discov] ev]y:]e ! cle> pro(s ( a ,creative ,intellig5ce1 & ( ,8 =esight1 wisdom1 & p[]4 ,z geologi/s1 we le>n t x is n only ! pres5t condition ( ! globe :i* has be5 suit$ to ! accommodation ( myriads ( liv+ creatures1 b t _m =m] /ates also h be5 adapt$ to ! organization & habits ( prior races ( be+s4 ,! disposition ( ! seas1 cont95ts1 & isl&s1 & ! climates1 h v>i$2 ! species likewise h be5 *ang$2 & yet !y h all be5 s modell$1 on types analog\s to ^? ( exi/+ plants & animals1 z to indicate1 ?r\gh\t1 a p]fect h>mony ( design & unity ( purpose4 ,to assume t ! evid5ce ( ! beg9n+ or end ( s va/ a s*eme lies )9 ! rea* ( our philosophical inquiries1 or ev5 ( our speculations1 appe>s to be inconsi/5t ) a j e/imate ( ! relations :i* subsi/ betwe5 ! f9ite p[]s ( man & ! attributes ( an ,inf9ite & ,et]nal ,be+4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,essays on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,h9doos4 #b ,in/itutes ( ,h9doo ,law1 or ! ,ord9ances ( ,m5u1 f ! ,sanscrit1 translat$ by ,sir ,william ,jones1 #agif4 #c ,m5u1 ,in/4 c4 i4 #ff1 & #fg4 #d ,h]odot4 ,eut]pe1 #ab4 #e ,a ,p]sian ,,ms4 copy ( ! hi/orian ,f]i%ta1 9 ! libr>y ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company1 relat+ to ! rise & progress ( ! ,mahom$an empire 9 ,india1 0 procur$ by ,colonel ,briggs f ! libr>y ( ,tippoo ,sultan 9 #agii2 :i* has be5 ref]r$ to at "s l5g? by ,dr4 ,buckl&4 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 ii4 "p iii4 p4 #chi47 #f ,see ,davis on ,! ,*9ese1 publi%$ by ! ,soc4 = ! ,diffus4 ( ,use4 ,"k4 vol4 i4 pp4 #acg1 #adg4 #g ,humboldt et ,bonpl&1 ,voy4 ,relat4 ,hi/4 vol4 i4 p4 #cj4 #h ,pri*>d's ,egypt4 ,my?ol4 p4 #agg4 #i ,plut4 de ,defectu ,oraculorum1 cap4 #ab4 ,c5sor9us de ,die ,natali4 ,see also ,pri*>d's ,egypt4 ,my?ol4 p4 #ahb4 #aj ,pri*>d's ,egypt4 ,my?ol4 p4 #ahb4 #aa ,pri*>d's ,egypt4 ,my?ol4 p4 #aic4 #ab ,plato's ,timaeus4 #ac ,ovid's ,metamor4 lib4 #ae4 #ad ,eluvie mons e/ d$uctus 9 aequor1 v4 #bfg4 ,! mean+ ( ?is la/ v]se is some:at obscure2 b1 tak5 ) ! context1 may be suppos$ to allude to ! abrad+ p[] ( floods1 torr5ts1 & riv]s4 #ae ,! impregnation f new m9]al spr+s1 caus$ by e>?quakes 9 volcanic c\ntries1 is p]haps "h allud$ to4 #af ,t is probably an allusion to ! escape ( inflammable gas1 l t 9 ! di/rict ( ,baku1 we/ ( ! ,caspian2 at ,pietramala1 9 ! ,tuscan ,ap5n9es2 & sev]al o!r places4 #ag ,_m ( ^? describ$ seem fanciful fictions1 l ! virtue /ill s commonly attribut$ to m9]al wat]s4 #ah ,raspe1 9 a le>n$ & judici\s essay 7,de ,novis ,insulis1 cap4 #ai71 has made x appe> extremely probable t all ! traditions ( c]ta9 isl&s 9 ! ,m$it]ranean hav+ at "s =m] "t frequ5tly %ift$ _! positions1 & at l5g? become /ation>y1 orig9at$ 9 ! great *ange produc$ 9 _! =m by e>?quakes & subm>9e eruptions1 ( :i* !re h be5 mod]n examples 9 ! new isl&s rais$ 9 ! "t ( hi/ory4 ,:5 ! s]ies ( convulsions end$1 ! isl& 0 said to become fix$4 #ai ,x is n inconsi/5t ) ! ,h9doo my?ology to suppose t ,py?agoras might h f\nd 9 ! ,ea/ n only ! sy/em ( univ]sal & viol5t cata/rophes & p]iods ( repose 9 endless succession1 b also t ( p]iodical revolutions1 effect$ by ! cont9u$ ag5cy ( ord9>y causes4 ,= ,brahma1 ,vi%nu1 & ,siva1 ! fir/1 second1 & ?ird p]sons ( ! ,h9doo triad1 sev]ally repres5t$ ! ,creative1 ! ,pres]v+1 & ! ,de/roy+ p[]s ( ! ,deity4 ,! coexi/5ce ( ^! ?ree attributes1 all 9 simultane\s op]ation1 might well accord ) ! notion ( p]petual b p>tial alt]ations f9ally br++ ab\t a complete *ange4 ,b ! fiction express$ 9 ! v]ses be=e quot$ f ,m5u ( et]nal vicissitudes 9 ! vigils & slumb]s ( ,brahma seems accommodat$ to ! sy/em ( great g5]al cata/rophes foll[$ by new creations & p]iods ( repose4 #bj ,meteor4 lib4 i4 cap4 #ab4 #ba ,de ,die ,nat4 #bb ,lib4 ii4 cap4 #ad1 #ae1 & #af4 #bc ,lib4 ii4 cap4 #ad1 #ae1 & #af4 #bd ,omne ex integro animal g5]abitur1 dabiturque t]ris homo inscius scel]um4--,quae/4 ,nat4 iii4 c4 #bi4 #be ,?is au?or 0 ,regius ,pr(essor ( ,syriac & ,arabic at ,p>is1 :]e1 9 #afhe1 he publi%$ a ,lat9 translation ( _m ,arabian ,,mss4 on diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( philosophy4 ,?is "w has always be5 consid]$ ( high au?ority4 #bf ,g]banitae docebant s+ulos trig9ta sex mille annos quadr+5tos1 vig9ti qu9que b9a ex s+ulis animalium speciebus produci1 m>em scilicet ac fem9am ex quibus animalia propagantur1 huncque inf]iorem incolunt orbem4 ,absoluta autem coele/ium orbium circulatione1 quae illo annorum conficitur spatio1 it]um alia producuntur animalium g5]a et species1 quemadmodum et plant>um ali>umque r]um1 et primus de/ruitur ordo1 sicque 9 inf9itum producitur4--,hi/or4 ,ori5t ,suppl4 p] ,abrahamum ,ec*ell5sem1 ,syrum ,m>onitam1 cap4 #g4 et #h4 ad calcem ,*ronici ,ori5tali4 ,p>isiis1 e ,typ4 ,regia4 #afhe1 fol4 ,i h giv5 ! punctuation z 9 ! ,p>is edition1 !re be+ no comma aft] qu9que2 b1 at ! sugge/ion ( ,m4 de ,s*legel1 ,i h ref]r$ ! numb] tw5ty-five to ! p]iod ( ye>s1 & n to ! numb] ( pairs ( ea* species creat$ at "o "t1 z ,i _h done 9 ! two fir/ editions4 ,=tis inf]r$ t tw5ty-five new species only 7 creat$ at a "t2 a con/ruction :i* ! passage w n admit4 ,mam4 sur l',hi/4 ,nat4 de l',italie1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjb4 #bg ,quod enim hoc attollitur aut subsidit1 et vel inundat qua$am loca1 vel ab iis rec$it1 ejus rei causa non e/1 quod alia aliis sola humiliora s9t aut altiora2 s$ quod idem solum modo attollitur modo deprimitur1 simulque etiam modo attollitur modo deprimitur1 m>e3 itaque vel exundat vel 9 suum r$it locum4 ,po/ea1 p4 #hh4 ,re/at1 ut causam adscribamus solo1 sive quod m>i sube/ sive quod inundatur2 potius tam5 ei quod m>i sube/4 ,hoc enim multo e/ mobilius1 et quod ob humiditatem cel]ius mult>i possit4--,/rabo1 ,geog4 ,edit4 ,almelov4 ,am/4 #agjg1 lib4 #a4 #bh ,volcanic eruptions1 eruptiones flatuum1 9 ! ,lat9 translations1 & 9 ! orig9al ,greek1 ,greek3 anaphysemata1 gase\s eruptions8 or inflations ( l&8--,ibid4 p4 #ic4 #bi ,/rabo1 lib4 vi4 p4 #cif4 #cj ,book iv4 #ca ,l4 vi4 *4 xiii4 #cb ,mod4 ,univ4 ,hi/4 vol4 ii4 *ap4 iv4 section iii4 #cc ,montes qu&oque fiunt ex causa ess5tiali1 qu&oque ex causa accid5tali4 ,ex ess5tiali causa1 ut ex vehem5ti motu t]rae elevatur t]ra1 et fit mons4 ,accid5tali1 c4--,de ,congelatione ,lapidum1 ed4 ,g$ani1 #afhb4 #cd ,von ,h(f1 ,ges*i*te d] ,v]&]ung5 d] ,erdob]fla*e1 vol4 i4 p4 #djf1 :o cites ,delisle1 bey ,hismann ,welt- und ,volk]ges*i*te4 ,alte ,ges*i*te #at] !il1 s4 #bcd4--,! ,arabian p]secutions = h]etical dogmas 9 !ology 7 (t5 v sangu9>y4 ,9 ! same ages :]e9 le>n+ 0 mo/ 9 e/eem1 ! ,mahometans 7 divid$ into two sects1 "o ( :om ma9ta9$ t ! ,koran 0 increate1 & _h subsi/$ 9 ! v ess5ce ( ,god f all et]nity2 & ! o!r1 ! ,motazalites1 :o1 admitt+ t ! ,koran 0 in/itut$ by ,god1 conceiv$ x to h be5 fir/ made :5 reveal$ to ! ,prophet at ,mecca1 & accus$ _! oppon5ts ( believ+ 9 two et]nal be+s4 ,! op9ions ( ea* ( ^! sects 7 tak5 up by diff]5t caliphs 9 succession1 & ! foll[]s ( ea* sometimes submitt$ to be behead$1 or flogg$ till at ! po9t ( dea?1 r ?an r5\nce _! cre$4--,mod4 ,univ4 ,hi/4 vol4 ii4 *4 iv4 #ce ,koran1 *ap4 xli4 #cf ,sale's ,koran1 *ap4 xi4 see note4 #cg ,ibid4 #ch ,kossa1 appo9t$ ma/] to ! ,caliph ,al ,mamud1 0 au?or ( a book entitl$ ,! hi/ory ( ! ,patri>*s & ,prophets1 f ! ,creation ( ! ,_w4--,mod4 ,univ4 ,hi/4 vol4 ii4 *4 iv4 #ci ,translat$ by ,,mm4 ,*ezy & ,de ,sacy1 & cit$ by ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 #ahcb4 #dj ,see ,v5turi's extracts f ,da ,v9ci's ,,mms4 n[ 9 ,libr>y ( ,in/itute ( ,france4 ,!y are n m5tion$ by ,broc*i1 & my att5tion 0 fir/ call$ to !m by ,mr4 ,hallam4 ,l4 da ,v9ci di$ ,a4 ,d4 #aeai4 #da ,museum ,calceol4--,see ,broc*i's ,disc\rse on ! ,progress ( ! ,/udy ( ,fossil ,con*ology 9 ,italy1 :]e "s ( ! foll[+ notices on ,italian writ]s w be f\nd m at l>ge4 #db ,9 ,sicily1 9 p>ticul>1 ! title-de$s ( _m valuable grants ( l& to ! mona/]ies are head$ by su* preambles1 compos$ by ! te/ators ab\t ! p]iod :5 ! good ,k+ ,rog] 0 expell+ ! ,s>ac5s f t isl&4 #dc ,de ,fossilib4 pp4 #aji1 #agf4 #dd ,ari/otle1 ,on ,animals1 *aps4 #a1 #ae4 #de ,broc*i1 ,con4 ,fos4 ,subap4 ,disc1 sui ,progressi4 vol4 i4 p4 #eg4 #df ,de ,metallicis4 #dg ,dies ,canicul>es4 #dh ,/oria ,naturale4 #di ,oss]v4 sugli ,animali aquat4 e t]re/4 #afbf4 #ej ,sex itaque di/9ctas ,etruriae facies agnoscimus1 dum bis fluida1 bis plana1 et sicca1 bis asp]a fu]it1 c4 #ea ,scilla quotes ! rem>k ( ,cic]o on ! /ory t a /one 9 ,*ios _h be5 cleft op51 & pres5t$ ! head ( ,paniscus 9 relief3--,i believe1 said ! orator1 t ! figure bore "s resemblance to ,paniscus1 b n su* t y w\ld h deem$ x sculptur$ by ,scopas2 = *ance nev] p]fectly imitates ! tru?4 #eb ,de ,te/aceis fossilibus ,mus4 ,septaliani4 #ec ,! op9ions ( ,boyle1 allud$ to by ,quir9i1 7 publi%$ a few ye>s be=e1 9 a %ort article entitl$ ,on ! ,bottom ( ! ,sea4 ,f obs]vations collect$ f ! div]s ( ! pe>l fi%]y1 ,boyle inf]r$ t1 :5 ! waves 7 six or sev5 feet high above ! surface ( ! wat]1 !re 7 no signs ( agitation at ! dep? ( fifte5 fa?oms2 & t ev5 dur+ heavy gales ( w9d1 ! motion ( ! wat] 0 exce$+ly dim9i%$ at ! dep? ( twelve or fifte5 feet4 ,he _h also le>nt f "s ( 8 in=mants1 t !re 7 curr5ts runn+ 9 opposite directions at diff]5t dep?s4--,boyle's ,works1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aaj4 ,london1 #agdd4 #ed ,see ,conybe>e & ,phillips1 ,outl9es ( ! ,geology ( ,engl& & ,wales1 p4 #ab4 #ee ,unde jam duplex origo intelligitur primorum corporum1 una1 cum ab ignis fusione refrigesc]5t1 alt]a1 cum reconcresc]5t ex solutione aqu>um4 #ef ,r$eunte mox simili causa /rata sub9de alia aliis impon]5tur1 et facies t5]i adhuc orbis saepius novata e/4 ,donec quiesc5tibus causis1 atque aequilibratis1 consi/5tior em]g]et r]um /atus4--,= an able analysis ( ! views ( ,leibnitz1 9 8 ,protogoea1 see ,mr4 ,conybe>e's ,report to ! ,brit4 ,assoc4 on ! ,progress ( ,geological ,sci5ce1 #ahcb4 #eg ,betwe5 ! ye> #afhh & 8 dea?1 9 #agjc1 he read sev]al memoirs to ! ,royal ,society1 & deliv]$ lectures on v>i\s subjects1 relat+ to fossil rema9s & ! effects ( e>?quakes4 #eh ,po/h4 ,works1 ,lecture1 ,feb4 #bi1 #afhh4 #ei ,po/h4 ,works1 p4 #cbg4 #fj ,po/h4 ,works1 ,lecture1 ,feb4 #ae1 #afhh4 ,hooke expla9$ ) consid]able cle>ness ! diff]5t modes :]e9 organic sub/ances may become lapidifi$2 &1 among o!r illu/rations1 he m5tions "s silicifi$ palm-wood br\ght f ,africa1 on :i* ,m4 de la ,hire _h read a memoir to ! ,royal ,academy ( ,france 7,june1 #afib71 :]e9 he _h po9t$ out1 n only ! tubes runn+ ! l5g? ( ! trunk1 b ! roots at "o extremity4 ,de la ,hire1 says ,hooke1 also treat$ ( c]ta9 trees f\nd petrifi$ 9 ! riv] t passes by ,bakan1 9 ! k+dom ( ,ava1 & :i* has = ! space ( t5 leagues ! virtue ( petrify+ wood4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t ! silicifi$ wood ( ! ,irawadi %\ld h attract$ att5tion m ?an "o hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,rem>kable discov]ies h be5 made !re 9 lat] times ( fossil animals & vegetables1 by ,mr4 ,crawfurd & ,dr4 ,walli*4--,see ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 "p iii4 p4 #cgg1 second s]ies4 ,de la ,hire cites ,fa!r ,du*atz1 9 ! second volume ( ,obs]vations made 9 ! ,indies by ! ,jesuits4 #fa ,po/h4 ,works1 ,lecture1 ,may #bi1 #afhi4 #fb ,po/h4 ,works1 p4 #cab4 #fc ,po/h4 ,works1 p4 #daj4 #fd ,ray's ,physico-!ological ,disc\rses 7 ( some:at lat] date ?an ,hooke's great "w on e>?quakes4 ,he speaks ( ,hooke z "o :om = 8 le>n+ & deep insight into ! my/]ies ( nature he des]v$ly honor$4--,on ! ,deluge1 *ap4 iv4 #fe ,essay t[>ds a ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?1 #afie4 ,preface4 #ff ,ibid4 #fg ,consequ5ces ( ! ,deluge1 p4 #afe4 #fh ,fir/ publi%$ 9 ,lat9 betwe5 ! ye>s #afhj & #afij4 #fi ,an ,exam9ation ( ,dr4 ,burnet's ,!ory1 c41 #b;d ed4 #agcd4 #gj ,ramazz9i ev5 ass]t$1 t ! ideas ( ,burnet 7 ma9ly borr[$ f a dialogue ( "o ,patrizio2 b ,broc*i1 aft] read+ t dialogue1 assures u t !re 0 sc>cely any o!r correspond5ce betwe5 ^! sy/ems1 except t bo? 7 equally :imsical4 #ga ,dei ,corpi ,m>9i1 ,lett]e criti*e1 c4 #agba4 #gb ,broc*i1 p4 #bh4 #gc ,ibid4 p4 #cc4 #gd ,ibid4 #ge ,sui ,cro/acei ed altri ,corpi ,m>9i *e si trovano sui ,monti4 #gf ,moro does n cite ! works ( ,hooke & ,ray2 & al?\gh s _m ( 8 views 7 9 accordance ) !irs1 he 0 probably ignorant ( _! writ+s1 = !y _h n be5 translat$4 ,z he always ref]s to ! ,lat9 edition ( ,burnet1 & a ,fr5* translation ( ,woodw>d1 we may presume t he did n read ,engli%4 #gg ,saggio fisico intorno alla ,/oria del ,m>e1 "p i4 p4 #bd4 #gh ,abbom9o al sommo qualsivoglia si/ema1 *e sia di pianta fabbricato 9 aria2 massime qu&o e tale1 *e non possa so/5]si s5za un miracolo1 c4--,de' ,cro/acei e di altre ,produz4 del ,m>e1 c4 #agdi4 #gi ,s5za viol5ze1 s5za f9zioni1 s5za suppo/i1 s5za miracoli4 ,de' ,cro/acei e di altre ,produz4 del ,m>e1 c4 #agdi4 #hj ,sui ,te/acei della ,sicilia4 #ha ,hi/4 ,nat4 tom4 v4 ad4 de l',imp4 ,royale1 ,p>is1 #agfi4 #hb ,essai d'une ,hi/4 ,nat4 des ,c\*es de la ,t]re1 #agei4 #hc ,john ,gesn] publi%$ at ,leyd51 9 ,lat94 #hd ,"p ii4 *ap4 #i4 #he ,giornale del ,crisel9i1 #agei4 #hf ,see a sket* ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,geology1 by ,dr4 ,fitton1 9 ,ed9b4 ,rev4 ,feb4 #ahah1 re-edit$ ,lond4 & ,ed9b4 ,phil4 ,mag4 vols4 i4 & ii4 #ahcb-c4 ,"s ( ,mi*ell's obs]vations anticipate 9 s rem>kable a mann] ! !ories e/abli%$ =ty ye>s aft]w>ds1 t 8 writ+s w\ld probably h =m$ an era 9 ! sci5ce1 if 8 rese>*es _h be5 un9t]rupt$4 ,he held1 h[ev]1 8 pr(essor%ip only eight ye>s1 :5 8 c>e] 0 sudd5ly cut %ort by pref]m5t to a b5efice4 ,f t "t he appe>s to h be5 engag$ 9 8 cl]ical duties1 & to h entirely discont9u$ 8 sci5tific pursuits1 exemplify+ ! work+ ( a sy/em /ill 9 =ce at ,ox=d & ,cambridge1 :]e ! *airs ( ma!matics1 natural philosophy1 *emi/ry1 botany1 a/ronomy1 geology1 m9]alogy1 & o!rs1 be+ frequ5tly fill$ by cl]gym51 ! rew>d ( success disqualifies !m1 if !y consci5ti\sly dis*>ge _! new duties1 f f>!r advanc+ ! cause ( sci5ce1 & t1 too1 at ! mom5t :5 _! labors w\ld naturally be> ! ri*e/ fruits4 #hg ,sui ,corpi ,m>9i del ,feltr9o1 #agfa4 #hh ,de ,novis e ,m>i ,natis ,insulis4 ,raspe 0 also ! editor ( ! ,philosophical ,works ( ,leibnitz4 ,am/4 et ,leipzig1 #agfe2 also au?or ( ,tassie's ,gems1 & ,b>on ,mun*aus5's ,travels4 #hi ,acta ,academiae ,electoralis ,magunt9ae1 vol4 ii4 ,erfurt4 #ij ,?is acc\nt ( ,fu*sel is d]iv$ f an excell5t analysis ( 8 memoirs by ,m4 ,kef]/e94 ,j\rn4 de ,gaologie1 tom4 ii4 ,oct4 #ahcj4 #ia ,saggio orittografico1 c4 #aghj1 & o!r ,works4 #ib ,lett4 sui ,pesci ,fossili di ,bolca4 ,milan1 #agic4 #ic ,?is argum5t ( ,te/a has be5 /r5g!n$ ( late ye>s by ! discov]y t deal]s 9 %ells _h long be5 9 ! habit ( sell+ ,m$it]ranean species z %ells ( m s\!rn & di/ant latitudes1 = ! sake ( enhanc+ _! price4 ,x appe>s1 moreov]1 f sev]al hundr$ exp]im5ts made by t di/+ui%$ hydrograph]1 ,capt4 ,smi?1 on ! wat] )9 eight fa?oms ( ! surface1 t ! temp]ature ( ! ,m$it]ranean is on an av]age #c-a_/b degrees ( ,fahr5heit high] ?an ! we/]n "p ( ! ,atlantic ocean2 an important fact1 :i* 9 "s degree may help to expla9 :y _m species are common to tropical latitudes & to ! ,m$it]ranean4 #id ,inquiry into ! ,orig9al ,/ate & ,=mation ( ! ,e>?1 #aggh4 #ie ,obs]v4 on ! ,=mation ( ,m\nta9s4 ,act ,petrop4 ann4 #aggh1 "p i4 #if ,nov4 comm4 ,petr4 ,,xvii4 ,cuvi]1 ,eloge de ,pallas4 #ig ,cuvi]1 ,eloge de ,w]n]4 #ih ,i am indebt$ = ?is in=mation p>tly to ,messrs4 ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison1 :o h inve/igat$ ! c\ntry1 & p>tly to ,dr4 ,*>les ,h>tmann1 ! translator ( ?is "w into ,g]man4 #ii ,cuvi]1 ,eloge de ,desm>e/4 #ajj ,j\rn4 de ,phys4 vol4 xiii4 p4 #aae2 & ,mam4 de l',in/41 ,sci5ces ,ma?amat4 et4 ,phys4 vol4 vi4 p4 #bai4 #aja ,j\rn4 de ,phys4 tom4 xxxv4 p4 #aia4 #ajb ,ib4 tom4 xxxvii4 "p ii4 p4 #bjj4 #ajc ,cuvi]1 ,eloge de ,desm>e/4 #ajd ,ed4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aghh4 #aje ,playfair's ,works1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ge4 #ajf ,be=e me ?+s create 7 none1 save ?+s ,et]nal4--,dante's ,inf]no1 canto iii4 ,c>y's ,translation4 #ajg ,playfair's ,works1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ee4 #ajh ,9 allusion to ! !ories ( ,burnet1 ,woodw>d1 & o!r physico-!ological writ]s1 he decl>$ t !y 7 z fond ( *anges ( sc5e on ! face ( ! globe1 z 7 ! populace at a play4 ,e "o ( !m de/roys & r5ovates ! e>? aft] 8 own fa%ion1 z ,desc>tes fram$ x3 = philosoph]s put !mselves )\t c]emony 9 ! place ( ,god1 & ?9k to create a univ]se ) a ^w4--,diss]tation envoyae a l',academie de ,b\logne1 sur les ,*angem5s arrivas dans notre ,globe4 ,un=tunately1 ?is & simil> ridicule direct$ aga9/ ! cosmogoni/s 0 too well des]v$4 #aji ,see ! *apt] on ,des ,pi]res figuras4 #aaj ,9 t essay he lays x d[n1 t all naturali/s are n[ agre$ t deposits ( %ells 9 ! mid/ ( ! cont95ts are monum5ts ( ! cont9u$ occupation ( ^! di/ricts by ! ocean4 ,9 ano!r place also1 :5 speak+ ( ! fossil %ells ( ,t\ra9e1 he admits _! true orig94 #aaa ,z an in/ance ( 8 desire to ?r[ d\bt indiscrim9ately on all geological data1 we may recall ! passage :]e he says1 t ! bones ( a re9de] & hippopotamus discov]$ ne> ,etempes did n prove1 z "s w\ld h x1 t ,lapl& & ! ,nile 7 once on a t\r f ,p>is to ,orleans1 b m]ely t a lov] ( curiosities once pres]v$ !m 9 8 cab9et4 #aab ,"s drill & bore ,! solid e>?1 & f ! /rata !re ,extract a regi/]1 by :i* we le>n ,t he :o made x1 & reveal$ its date ,to ,moses1 0 mi/ak5 9 its age4 ,! ,task1 book iii4 ,! ,g>d54 #aac ,p4 #egg4 #aad ,p4 #ei4 #aae ,introd4 p4 #b4 #aaf ,london1 #ahji4 #aag ,9 a mo/ able article1 by ,mr4 ,dr9kwat]1 on ! ,life ( ,galileo1 publi%$ 9 ! ,libr>y ( ,useful ,k1 x is /at$ t bo? ,galileo's "w1 & ! book ( ,cop]nicus1 ,nisi corrigatur 7=1 ) ! omission ( c]ta9 passages1 x 0 sanction$71 7 /ill to be se5 on ! =bidd5 li/ ( ! ,index at ,rome1 9 #ahbh4 ,i 01 h[ev]1 assur$ 9 ! same ye>1 by ,pr(essor ,sc>pell9i1 at ,rome1 t ,pius ,,vii41 a pontiff di/+ui%$ = 8 love ( sci5ce1 _h procur$ a repeal ( ! edicts aga9/ ,galileo & ! ,cop]nican sy/em4 ,he _h assembl$ ! ,congregation2 & ! late ,c>d9al ,toriozzi1 assessor ( ! ,sacr$ ,(fice1 propos$ t !y %\ld wipe (f ?is sc&al f ! *ur*4 ,! repeal 0 c>ri$1 ) ! diss5ti5t voice ( "o ,dom9ican only4 ,long be=e t "t ! ,newtonian !ory _h be5 taught 9 ! ,sapi5za1 & all ,ca?olic univ]sities 9 ,europe 7) ! exception1 ,i am told1 ( ,salamanca72 b x 0 always requir$ ( pr(essors1 9 def]5ce to ! decrees ( ! *ur*1 to use ! t]m hypo!sis1 in/ead ( !ory4 ,!y n[ speak ( ! ,cop]nican !ory4 #aah ,elem5t>y ,treatise on ,geology4 ,london1 #ahji4 ,translat$ by ,de la ,fite4 #aai ,see ,dr4 ,fitton's ,memoir1 be=e cit$1 p4 #eg4 #abj ,:ewell1 ,briti% ,critic1 ,no4 xvii4 p4 #ahg1 #ahca4 #aba ,disc\rs sur les ,ravol4 c4 #abb ,niebuhr's ,hi/4 ( ,rome1 vol4 i4 p4 #e4 ,h>e & ,?irlwall's translation4 #abc ,gibbon1 ,decl9e & ,fall1 *ap4 xxxiii4 #abd ,id4 ,ibid4 #abe ,9 ! e>li] editions ( ?is "w1 a f\r? book 0 add$ on ,geology ,prop]1 or ,sy/ematic ,geology1 conta9+ an acc\nt ( ! =m] *anges ( ! animate & inanimate creation1 br\ght to light by an exam9ation ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,?is ,i aft]w>ds 79 #ahch7 exp&$ into a sep>ate publication call$ ! ,elem5ts ( ,manual ,geology1 ( :i* a f\r? edition appe>$ ,decemb]1 #ahea4 #abf ,see two articles by ! ,rev4 ,dr4 ,flem+1 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 xii4 p4 #bgg1 ,april1 #ahbi2 & ,no4 xv4 p4 #fe1 ,jan4 #ahcj4 #abg ,book iii4 *aps4 #df1 #dg1 c4 #abh ,macacus plioc5us1 ,ow51 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 ,intr4 p4 #cg1 f\nd ) ! ext9ct elephant1 c4 9 ! mod]n fre%wat] b$s at ,grays ,?urrock 7,essex71 9 ! valley ( ! ,?ames4 #abi ,geol4 ,proce$+s1 ,no4 xxxvi4 ,june1 #ahcd4 #acj ,phil4 ,mag41 ,sept4 #ahbi1 & ,jan4 #ahcj4 #aca ,flem+1 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,no4 xii4 p4 #bhb1 #ahbi4 ,! zebra1 h[ev]1 inhabits *iefly ! extra-tropical p>ts ( ,africa4 #acb ,humboldt1 ,fragm5s de ,gaologie1 c41 tome ii4 p4 #chh4 ,ehr5b]g1 ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat41 tome xxi4 p4 #chg4 #acc ,ehr5b]g1 ibid4 p4 #cij4 #acd ,j\rn4 ( ,asiat4 ,soc41 vol4 i4 p4 #bdj4 #ace ,raf9esque1 ,atlantic ,j\rn41 p4 #ah4 #acf ,d>w9's ,j\rnal ( ,travels 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 c41 #ahcb to #ahcf1 9 ,voyage ( ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,beagle1 p4 #aei4 #acg ,ehr5b]g1 ibid4 #ach ,! speculations :i* foll[1 on ! anci5t physical geography ( ,sib]ia1 & its =m] fitness z a resid5ce = ! mammo?1 7 fir/ giv5 9 _! pres5t =m 9 my #d? edition1 ,june1 #ahce4 ,rec5tly ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison & 8 companions 9 _! great "w on ! ,geology ( ,russia1 #ahde 7vol4 i4 p4 #dig71 h1 9 cit+ ?is *apt]1 decl>$ t _! inve/igations h l$ !m to simil> conclusions4 ,pr(essor ,ow51 9 8 excell5t ,hi/ory ( ,briti% ,fossil ,mammalia1 #ahdd1 p4 #bfa1 et seq41 obs]ves t ! tee? ( ! mammo? diff] f ^? ( ! liv+ ,asiatic or ,african elephant 9 hav+ a l>g] proportion ( d5se enamel1 :i* may h enabl$ x to subsi/ on ! co>s] ligne\s tissues ( trees & %rubs4 ,9 %ort1 he is ( op9ion1 t ! /ructure ( its tee?1 z well z ! nature ( its epid]mis & cov]+s1 may h made x a meet companion = ! re9de]4 #aci ,pallas1 ,reise 9 ,russ4 ,rei*e1 pp4 #dji1 #daj4 #adj ,nov4 ,com4 ,petrop4 vol4 xvii4 p4 #ehd4 #ada ,nov4 ,com4 ,petrop4 vol4 xvii4 p4 #eia4 #adb ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,lond4 vol4 iv4 p4 #aj1 ,memoirs4 #adc ,j\rnal du ,nord1 ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 #ahjg4 #add ,flem+1 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,no4 xii4 p4 #bhe4 ,bi%op ,heb] in=ms u 7,n>r4 ( a ,j\rney ?r\gh ! ,upp] ,prov9ces ( ,india1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aff-bai71 t 9 ! l[] range ( ! ,himalaya m\nta9s1 9 ! nor!a/]n bord]s ( ! ,delhi t]ritory1 betwe5 lat4 #bi degrees & #cj degrees1 he saw an ,indian elephant ( a small size1 cov]$ ) %aggy hair4 ,b ?is v>iety mu/ be exce$+ly r>e2 = ,mr4 ,royle 7late sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company's ,botanic ,g>d5 at ,sah>unpore7 has assur$ me1 t be+ 9 ,india :5 ,heb]'s ,j\rnal appe>$1 & hav+ nev] se5 or he>d ( su* elephants1 he made ! /ricte/ inquiries respect+ ! fact1 & 0 nev] able to obta9 any evid5ce 9 corroboration4 ,mr4 ,royle resid$ at ,sah>unpore1 lat4 #cj degrees ,n41 ^u ! extreme nor!rn limits ( ! range ( ! elephant4 ,mr4 ,ev]e/ also decl>es t he has be5 equally unsuccessful 9 f9d+ any "o aw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( su* a v>iety or bre$ ( ! animal1 ?\gh "o solit>y individual 0 m5tion$ to him z hav+ be5 se5 at ,delhi1 ) a good deal ( long hair ^u x4 ,! greate/ elevation1 says ,mr4 ,e41 at :i* ! wild elephant is f\nd 9 ! m\nta9s to ! nor? ( ,b5gal1 is at a place call$ ,nahun1 ab\t #djjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & 9 ! #ca/ degree ( ,n4 lat41 :]e ! mean ye>ly temp]ature may be ab\t #fd degrees ,fahr5heit1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 w9t] & summ] v great1 equal to ab\t #cf degrees ,f41 ! mon? ( ,janu>y av]ag+ #de degrees1 & ,june1 ! hotte/ mon?1 #ha degrees ,f4 7,ev]e/ on climate ( ,foss4 ,eleph41 ,j\rn4 ( ,asiat4 ,soc41 ,no4 #be1 p4 #ba47 #ade ,see ,dr4 ,buckl&'s description ( ^! bones1 ,app54 to ,bee*y's ,voy4 #adf ,d>w91 ,j\rnal ( ,travels 9 ,s4 ,am]ica1 c41 #ahcb-cf1 9 voyage ( ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,beagle1 p4 #ih4 #b;d ,ed4 ,london1 #ahde1 p4 #hf4 #adg ,d>w91 ,j\rnal ( ,travels 9 ,s4 ,am]ica1 c41 p4 #ii1 #b;d ,ed4 p4 #he4 #adh ,bur*ell1 cit$ by ,d>w91 ibid4 p4 #aja4 #b;d ,ed4 p4 #hg4 #adi ,s9ce ! above passage 0 fir/ pr9t$ 9 a =m] edition1 ,june1 #ahce1 x has be5 %[n by ! obs]vations ( ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 ,m4 de ,v]neuil1 & ,c\nt ,keys]l+1 & m rec5tly by ,m4 ,midd5dorf 7see above1 p4 #ha71 t ! ,l[l& ( ,sib]ia has actually be5 ext5d$1 s9ce ! exi/+ species ( %ells inhabit$ ! nor!rn seas4 #aej ,humboldt1 ,fragm5s ,asiatiques1 tom4 ii4 p4 #cic4 #aea ,reb\l4 ,geol4 de la ,p>iode ,quat]naire1 :o cites ,obs]v4 sur la ,sib>ie1 ,bibl4 ,univ41 ,juillet1 #ahcb4 #aeb ,conjectur$ to be ! wild /ock ( ,bos grunni5s4 #aec ,recollections ( a ,j\rney ?r\gh ,t>t>y1 ,?ibet1 & ,*9a 7*4 xv4 p4 #bcd71 by ,m4 ,huc4 ,longman1 #aheb4 #aed ,= an acc\nt ( ! m mod]n *anges ( ! t]ti>y fauna & flora ( ! ,briti% ,isles & adjo9+ c\ntries1 & p>ticul>ly ^? facts :i* relate to ! glacial epo*1 see an admirable essay by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,memoirs ( ,geol4 ,survey ( ,great ,brit4 vol4 i4 p4 #ccf4 ,london1 #ahdf4 ,to ?is important memoir ,i %all h frequ5t occasion to ref] 9 ! sequel4 #aee ,see a pap] by ,*>les ,j4 ,f4 ,bunbury1 ,esq41 ,j\rn4 ( ,geol4 ,soc41 ,london1 ,no4 #f1 p4 #hh4 #ahdf4 #aef ,! ,calamites 7 =m]ly reg>d$ by ,adolphe ,brongni>t z belong+ to ! tribe ( ,equisetaceae2 b he is n[ incl9$ to ref] !m to ! class ( gymnog5s1 or gymnosp]m\s exog5s1 :i* includes ! ,conif]ae & ,cycadeae4 ,lepidod5dron appe>s to h be5 ei!r a gigantic =m ( ! lycopodium tribe1 or1 z ,dr4 ,l9dley ?9ks1 int]m$iate betwe5 ! lycopodia & ! fir tribe4 ,! ,sigill>iae 7 =m]ly suppos$ by ,ad4 ,brongni>t1 to be arboresc5t f]ns2 b ! discov]y ( _! int]nal /ructure1 & ( _! leaves1 has s9ce prov$ t !y h no real aff9ity to f]ns4 ,accord+ to ! view n[ tak5 ( _! /ructure1 _! ne>e/ allies 9 ! rec5t _w are ! g5]a ,cycas & ,zamia2 :ile ,corda1 on ! o!r h&1 ma9ta9s t !y 7 closely relat$ to ! succul5t euphorbias4 ,/igm>ia is n[ g5]ally admitt$ to h be5 m]ely ! root ( sigill>ia4 ,! scal>i=m vessels ( ^! two g5]a are n conclusive 9 prov+ !m to h a real aff9ity ) f]ns1 z ,mr4 ,br[n has discov]$ ! same /ructure ( vessels 9 ,myzod5dron1 a g5us alli$ to ! mi/letoe2 & ,corda has lately %[n t 9 two species ( ,/igm>ia1 h>dly di/+ui%able by ext]nal *>act]s1 ! vessels ( ! "o are scal>i=m1 & ( ! o!r dott$4 #aeg ,mr4 ,l9dley endeavor$ =m]ly 7#ahcd7 to %[1 9 ! ,fossil ,flora1 t ,trigonoc>pum ,noegg]a?ii1 a fruit f\nd 9 ! coal measures1 has ! true /ructure ( a palm-fruit2 b ,ad4 ,brongni>t has s9ce incl9$ to reg>d x z cycade\s2 nor is ! ,fr5* botani/ satisfi$ t "s specim5s ( suppos$ palm wood f ! coal-m9es ( ,radnitz 9 ,bohemia1 describ$ by ,corda1 really belong to palms4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,corda has prov$ ,flabell>ia borassifolia ( ,/]nb]g to be an exog5\s plant1 & ,brongni>t cont5ds t x 0 alli$ to ! ,cycadeae4 ,see ,tableau des ,g5res de ,vagataux ,fossiles4 ,p>is1 #ahdi4 #aeh ,prodrome d'une ,hi/4 des ,vagat4 ,foss4 p4 #agi4 ,see also a late pap]1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,geol4 ,soc4 ,london1 #ahdf1 9 :i* coal-plants ( ,alabama1 lat4 #cc degrees ,n41 collect$ by ! au?or1 are id5tifi$ by ,mr4 ,bunbury ) ,briti% fossil species1 %[+ ! great s\!rn ext5sion ( ?is flora4 #aei ,konig1 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci41 vol4 xv4 p4 #bj4 ,mr4 ,konig in=ms me t he no long] believes any ( ^! fossils to be tree f]ns1 z he at fir/ /at$1 b t !y agree g5]ically ) plants 9 our ,engli% coal-b$s4 ,! ,melville ,isl& specim5s1 n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 are v obscure impressions4 #afj ,fossil ,flora ( ,great ,brita91 by ,john ,l9dley & ,william ,hutton1 ,esqrs41 ,no4 ,,iv4 #afa ,fossil ,flora ( ,great ,brita91 by ,john ,l9dley & ,william ,hutton1 ,esqrs4 ,no4 ,,iv4 #afb ,fossil ,flora1 ,no4 ,x4 #afc ,?is has be5 prov$ by ,mr4 ,l9dley's exp]im5ts1 ibid4 ,no4 ,,xvii4 #afd ,i h treat$ ( ?is subject 9 my ,manual ( ,geology1 & /ill m fully 9 my ,travels 9 ,n4 ,am]ica1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agh4 ,= a full acc\nt ( ! facts at pres5t kn[n1 & ! !ories ent]ta9$ by ! mo/ em95t geologi/s & botani/s on ?is subject1 see ,mr4 ,horn]'s ,anniv]s>y ,address to ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 ,febru>y1 #ahdf4 ,consult also ,sir ,h4 de la ,be*e1 on ! =mation ( rocks 9 ,s\? ,wales1 ,memoirs ( ,geol4 ,survey ( ,great ,brita91 #ahdf1 p4 #a to #bif4 #afe ,! !ory propos$ 9 ?is & ! foll[+ *apt]s1 to acc\nt = =m] fluctuations ( climate at successive geological p]iods1 agrees 9 e ess5tial p>ticul>1 & has inde$ be5 repr9t$ almo/ v]batim f t publi%$ by me tw5ty ye>s ago 9 ! fir/ edition ( my ,pr9ciples1 #ahcj4 ,x 0 ref]r$ to by ,sir ,john ,f4 ,w4 ,h]s*el 9 8 ,disc\rse on ,natural ,philosophy1 publi%$ 9 #ahcj4 ,9 prec$+ works ! gradual dim9ution ( ! e>?'s c5tral heat 0 almo/ ! only cause assign$ = ! ackn[l$g$ dim9ution ( ! sup]ficial temp]ature ( our planet4 #aff ,we are indebt$ to ,b>on ,alex4 von ,humboldt = hav+ fir/ collect$ toge!r ! scatt]$ data on :i* he f\nd$ an approximation to a true !ory ( ! di/ribution ( heat ov] ! globe4 ,_m ( ^! data 7 d]iv$ f ! au?or's own obs]vations1 & _m f ! works ( ,m4 ,pi]re ,prevo/1 ( ,g5]a1 on ! radiation ( heat1 & f o!r writ]s4--,see ,humboldt on ,iso!rmal ,l9es1 ,mamoires d',arcueil1 tom4 iii4 translat$ 9 ! ,ed94 ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 iii4 ,july1 #ahbj4 ,! map ( ,iso!rmal ,l9es1 rec5tly publi%$ by ,humboldt & ,dove 7#ahdh71 supplies a l>ge body ( well-e/abli%$ data = su* inve/igations1 ( :i* ,mr4 ,hopk9s has mo/ ably avail$ himself 9 an essay ,on ! ,causes :i* may h produc$ ,*anges 9 ! e>?'s ,sup]ficial ,temp]ature4--,q4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #aheb1 p4 #ef4 #afg ,sir ,j4 ,ri*>dson's ,app5dix to ,sir ,g4 ,ba*'s ,j\rnal1 #ahdc-ahde1 p4 #dgh4 #afh ,malte-,brun1 ,phys4 ,geol4 book xvii4 #afi ,on ,iso!rmal ,l9es1 c4 #agj ,r5nell on ,curr5ts1 p4 #if4 ,london1 #ahcb4 #aga ,ibid4 p4 #aec4 #agb ,ibid4 p4 #be4 #agc ,scoresby's ,arctic ,regions1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjh4--;,dr4 ,latta's ,obs]vations on ! ,glaci]s ( ,spitzb]g51 c4 ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 iii4 p4 #ig4 #agd ,r5nell on ,curr5ts1 p4 #ie4 #age ,humboldt on ,iso!rmal ,l9es4 #agf ,j\rn4 ( ,travels 9 ,s4 ,am]ica1 c4 p4 #bgb4 #agg ,d>w9's travels 9 ,s4 ,am]ica1 p4 #bga4 #agh ,mr4 ,hopk9s raises ! "q :e!r1 9 ,s\? ,georgia1 ! desc5t ( glaci]s to ! m>g9 ( ! sea might n h be5 mi/ak5 by ,capt4 ,cook = ! desc5t ( ! sn[-l9e to ! sea level4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 p4 #he1 #aheb4 ,! great navigator is g5]ally v accurate1 & !re seem to be no obs]vations ( m rec5t date ei!r to confirm or invalidate 8 /atem5ts4 #agi ,aft] all ^! mod]n discov]ies1 ! area /ill unexplor$1 )9 ! ant>ctic circle1 is m ?an d\ble ! area ( ,europe4 ,! surface ( ! latt] conta9s ab\t #b1gic1jjj squ>e geographical miles4 ,! unexplor$ ant>ctic region1 z calculat$ = me by ,mr4 ,g>dn]1 9 #ahdj1 equall$ ab\t #g1fbj1jjj squ>e miles4 #ahj ,on iceb]gs 9 l[ latitudes1 by ,capt4 ,horsburgh1 by :om ! sket* 0 made4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcj4 #aha ,scoresby's ,arctic ,regions1 vol4 i4 p4 #bcd4 #ahb ,?is foll[s1 obs]ves ,h]s*el1 f a v simple !orem1 :i* may be ?us /at$3--,! am\nt ( heat receiv$ by ! e>? f ! sun1 :ile describ+ any "p ( its orbit1 is proportional to ! angle describ$ r\nd ! sun's c5tre4 ,s t if ! orbit be divid$ into two portions by a l9e drawn 9 any direction ?r\gh ! sun's c5tre1 ! heat receiv$ 9 describ+ ! two unequal segm5ts ( ! eclipse s produc$ w be equal4 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 iii4 "p4 ii4 p4 #bih2 second s]ies4 #ahc ,on ,iso!rmal ,l9es4 #ahd ,a full consid]ation ( ! effect ( *anges 9 physical geography on ! di/ribution & ext9ction ( species is giv5 9 book iii4 #ahe ,= calculations f\nd$ on a/ronomical data1 see ,"y's ,nat4 ,phil41 ,lect4 xlvii42 ,mrs4 ,som]ville's ,connex4 ( ,phys4 ,sci41 sect4 #ad1 p4 #aaj4 ,laplace1 endeavor+ to e/imate ! probable dep? ( ! sea f "s ( ! ph5om5a ( ! tides1 says ( ! ocean g5]ally1 que sa pr(ondeur moy5ne e/ du meme ordre que la hauteur moy5ne des cont95s et des isles au-dessus de son niveau1 hauteur qui ne surpasse pas mille metres 7#cbhj ft47 ,mec4 ,cale/e1 tom4 xi4 et ,sy/4 du ,monde1 p4 #bed4 ,! expression du meme ordre admits 9 ma!matical language ( consid]able latitude ( signification1 & does n mean t ! dep? ( ! wat] bel[ ! level ( ! sea corresponds exactly to ! height ( ! l& above x4 ,x appe>$ f ! obs]vations ( ,sir ,james ,ross1 communicat$ to me 9 #ahdi1 by himself1 & 8 fell[ voyag]1 ,dr4 ,joseph ,hook]1 t 9 latitude #ae degrees #c m9utes ,s41 longitude #bc degrees #ad m9utes ,w4 7! isl& ( ,tr9idad1 ! ne>e/ l&1 be+ #dhf miles di/ant1 & be>+ ,s4 #dg ,w471 !y s\nd$ ) a weight ( #gf lbs41 & #dfjj fa?oms ( l9e1 :i* ran out to ! v end1 )\t f9d+ bottom4 ,"h !re=e 9 mid-ocean ! dep? exce$$ #bg1fjj feet4 ,"o ( ! %all[e/ s\nd+s ev] obta9$ 9 ! op5 sea dur+ ! same survey1 /ruck bottom ) #bfgg fa?oms1 or #af1jfb feet1 latitude #cc degrees #ba m9utes ,s41 longitude #i degrees #d m9utes ,e4 ,! surveyors arriv$ at ! conclusion1 t at a mod]ate di/ance f ! %ore1 ! dep? ( ! great ocean always exce$s #djjj feet4 ,dur+ ! ,am]ican survey 9 #ahdi1 a mu* great] dep?1 or #egjj fa?oms 7#cd1bjj feet71 0 s\nd$ 9 ! ,atlantic by ,lieut4 ,wal%1 )\t rea*+ ! bottom1 9 lat4 #ca degrees #ei m9utes ,n41 long4 #eh degrees #dc m9utes ,w41 or betwe5 ! ,b]mudas & ! ,azores4 ,b ! deepe/ s\nd+s yet publi%$ 7 tak5 ,oct4 #cj? #aheb1 by ,capt4 ,h5ry ,m4 ,d5ham1 ,r4 ,n41 :o rea*$ bottom at #ggjf fa?oms 7#df1bcf feet71 lat4 #cf degrees #di m9utes ,s41 long4 #cg degrees #f m9utes ,w41 ! ne>e/ l& be+ at ! m\? ( ! ,riv] ,plate4 ,a weight ( #i lbs4 0 atta*$ to ! l9e1 :i* 0 "o-t5? ( an in* 9 diamet]2 ! day 0 calm1 & ! l9e took #i h\rs #bd m9utes to run out4 ,:5 ! bottom 0 /ruck ! l9e 0 rais$ #ej fa?oms1 & !n all[$ to run out aga94 ,x /ruck at ! same po9t z be=e1 v]ify+ ! obs]vations4 ,nev]!less "s exp]i5c$ surveyors h rem>k$ t ! exp]im5t w\ld h be5 m satisfactory _h ! weight be5 great]4 ,! highe/ summits ( ! ,himalaya are ab\t #bh1jjj feet2 ! ,pacific1 accord+ to ?is s\nd+1 is probably at "s po9ts twice z deep z ! ,himalaya are high4 #ahf ,mr4 ,hopk9s1 reason+ on data furni%$ by ,dove's ,iso!rmal maps1 has arriv$ at ! v int]e/+ conclusion1 t bo? on ,sn[don & ! l[] m\nta9s ( ! ,we/ ( ,irel& ! sn[-l9e w\ld desc5d to )9 #ajjj feet ( ! sea level1 & glaci]s rea* ! sea1 if we c\ld simply assume ! ?ree foll[+ geographical *anges3-- #a/1 ,! div]sion ( ! ,gulf /ream f its pres5t nor!rly c\rse2 #b;dly1 ! depression ( ! exi/+ l& ( ,nor!rn & ,we/]n ,europe1 to ! am\nt ( no m ?an #ejj feet2 & #c;dly1 a cold curr5t f ! ,nor? sweep+ ov] ! subm]g$ area4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #aheb1 p4 #he4 #ahg ,daniell's ,meteorological ,essays1 p4 #ajc4 #ahh ,obs]v$ by ,j4 ,crawfurd1 ,esq4 #ahi ,9 speak+ ( ! circulation ( air & wat] 9 ?is *apt]1 no allusion is made to ! trade w9ds1 or to irregul>ities 9 ! direction ( curr5ts1 caus$ by ! rot>y motion ( ! e>?4 ,^! causes prev5t ! movem5ts f be+ direct f nor? to s\?1 or f s\? to nor?1 b !y d n affect ! !ory ( a con/ant circulation4 #aij ,see ,scoreby's ,arctic ,regions1 vol4 i4 p4 #cgh4 #aia ,ibid4 p4 #cbj4 #aib ,?is is %[n by project+ a map on ! horizon ( ,london1 t is to say1 by suppos+ ! eye ( ! obs]v] to be plac$ above t city1 & to see f !nce "o half ( ! globe4 ,= x s happ5s t f t po9t1 & no o!r1 we %\ld behold ! greate/ possible quantity ( l&2 & if we are !n transf]r$ to ! opposite or antipodal po9t1 we %\ld see ! greate/ possible quantity ( wat]4 7,see figs4 #c & #d47 ,a s+ul> fact1 fir/ po9t$ out by ,mr4 ,james ,g>dn]1 namely1 t only "o tw5ty-sev5? "p ( ! dry l& has any l& opposite to x1 is intimately connect$ ) ?is excess ( l& 9 "o ( ! two hemisph]es above allud$ to4 ,?us1 9 fig4 #c1 ! l& %ad$ black 9 "p ( ,*9a answ]s to t portion ( ! extremity ( ,s\? ,am]ica & ,ti]ra del ,fuego :i* is opposite or antipodal to x1 :il/ ! d>k spots 9 ! nor!rn & c5tral p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica repres5t ,borneo1 ,sumatra1 & o!r antipodal isl&s 9 ! ,ea/]n ,ar*ipelago4 ,see ,g>dn]1 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,proce$+s1 #ahcc1 vol4 i4 p4 #dhh4 #aic ,humboldt on ,iso!rmal ,l9es #aid ,humboldt1 ,tableaux de la ,nature1 tom4 i4 p4 #aab4 #aie ,ad4 ,brongni>t1 ,consid4 ,gan>ales sur la ,nat4 de la ,vagat4 c4 ,ann4 des ,sci5ces ,nat41 ,nov4 #ahbh4 #aif ,sir ,j4 ,ri*>dson1 ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #g1 p4 #fh1 ,m>*1 #ahbh4 #aig ,ad4 ,brongni>t1 ,consid4 ,gan>ales sur la ,nat4 de la ,vagat4 c41 ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat41 ,nov4 #ahbh4 #aih ,see a ,memoir on ! ,alps1 by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick & ,sir ,rod4 ,mur*ison1 ,trans4 ( ,geol4 ,soc4 second s]4 vol4 iii4 accompani$ by a map4 #aii ,see ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ccd4 #bjj ,x may be obs]v$1 t ! facts & inf]5ces exhibit$ 9 ?is map be> n m]ely on ! !ory ( climate above propos$1 b s]ve also to illu/rate ! views expla9$ 9 ! ?ird book respect+ ! migration ( animals & plants & ! gradual ext9ction ( species4 #bja ,see ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison's ,pap] on ! ,alps1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 v4 & my ,anniv]s>y ,address = #ahej1 ibid4 vol4 vi4 #bjb ,allgeme9e ,lit]atur ,zeitung1 ,no4 cxxxix4 ,july1 #ahcc4 #bjc ,9 ?is e/imate1 ! space )9 ! ant>ctic circle is n tak5 into acc\nt3 if includ$1 x w\ld probably add to ! excess ( dry l&2 = ! late discov]ies ( ,capt4 ,sir ,james ,ross1 :o p5etrat$ to lat4 #gh degrees #aj m9utes ,s41 confirm ! conjecture ( ,capta9 ,cook t ! accumulation ( ant>ctic ice implies ! pres5ce ( a c]ta9 quantity ( t]ra firma4 ,! numb] ( squ>e miles on ! surface ( ! globe are #adh1ebb1jjj1 ! "p occupi$ by ! sea be+ #aaj1hdi1jjj1 & t by l&1 #cg1fgc1jjj2 s t ! l& is v ne>ly to ! sea z #a "p 9 #d4 ,i am in=m$ by ,mr4 ,g>dn] t1 accord+ to a r\gh approximation1 ! l& betwe5 ! #cj degrees ,n4 lat4 & ! pole occupies a space ab\t equal to t ( ! sea1 & ! l& betwe5 ! #cj degrees ,s4 lat4 & ! ant>ctic circle ab\t "o-sixte5? ( t zone4 #bjd ,see pap]s by ,mr4 ,smi? ( ,jordanhill1 ,f4 ,g4 ,s41 & ! au?or1 ,proce$+s ,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #fc1 #ahci1 also t ( ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes1 be=e cit$1 p4 #hf1 note4 #bje ,! !orem is ?us /at$3--,! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit v>y+1 ! total quantity ( heat receiv$ by ! e>? f ! sun 9 "o revolution is inv]sely proportional to ! m9or axis ( ! orbit4 ,! major axis is inv>iable1 & !re=e1 ( c\rse1 ! absolute l5g? ( ! ye>3 h5ce x foll[s t ! mean annual av]age ( heat w also be 9 ! same inv]se ratio ( ! m9or axis4--,geol4 ,trans4 second s]ies1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bie4 #bjf ,ann4 du ,bur4 des ,long4 #ahcd4 #bjg ,poisson1 ,?aorie ,ma?amat4 de la ,*aleur1 ,comptes ,r5dus de l',acad4 des ,sci41 ,jan4 #cj1 #ahcg4 #bjh ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #aheb1 p4 #fb4 #bji ,proce$+s ,roy4 ,a/ronom4 ,soc4 ,no4 iii4 ,jan4 #ahdj4 #baj ,see a ,memoir on ! ,temp]ature ( ! ,t]re/rial ,globe1 & ! ,planet>y ,spaces1 ,ann4 de ,*imie et ,phys4 tom4 xxvii4 p4 #acf4 ,oct4 #ahbd4 #baa ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 ,consolations 9 ,travel3 ,dialogue ,,iii4 ,! ,unkn[n4 #bab ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #aheb4 #bac ,buckl&'s ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #dji4 #bad ,ow5's ,report on ,briti% ,fossil ,reptiles1 to ,brit4 ,soc4 #ahda1 p4 #bjj4 #bae ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #f1 p4 #if4 #baf ,see ,hit*cock's ,report on ,geol4 ( ,massa*usetts1 & ,lyell's ,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 *ap4 #ab4 #bag ,see ,manual ( ,geol4 by ! ,au?or1 index ,microle/es4 #bah ,?is figure 7,no4 #h7 is f a draw+ by ,pr(essor ,c4 ,prevo/1 publi%$ ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 ,avril1 #ahbe4 ,! fossil is a l[] jaw1 adh]+ by its inn] side to ! slab ( oolite1 9 :i* x is sunk4 ,! =m ( ! condyle1 or po/]ior process ( ! jaw1 is convex1 agree+ ) ! mammif]\s type1 & is di/9ctly se51 an impression ( x be+ left on ! /one1 al?\gh 9 ?is specim5 ! bone is want+4 ,! ant]ior "p ( ! jaw has be5 p>tially brok5 away1 s t ! d\ble fangs ( ! mol> tee? are se5 fix$ 9 _! sockets1 ! =m ( ! fangs be+ *>act]i/ic ( ! mammalia4 ,t5 mol>s are pres]v$1 & ! place ( an elev5? is believ$ to be app>5t4 ,! enamel ( "s ( ! tee? is well pres]v$4 #bai ,a color$ figure ( ?is small & elegant quadrup$ is giv5 9 ! ,trans4 ,zool4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 pl4 #bh4 ,x is insectivor\s1 & 0 tak5 9 a holl[ tree1 9 a c\ntry ab\nd+ 9 ant-hills1 n9ety miles to ! s\!a/ ( ! m\? ( ,swan ,riv] 9 ,au/ralia4--,x is ! fir/ liv+ m>supial species kn[n to h n9e mol> tee? 9 ! l[] jaw1 & "s ( ! tee? are widely sep>at$ f o!rs1 "o ( ! peculi>ities 9 ! ?ylaco!rium ( ,/onesfield1 :i* at fir/ induc$ ,m4 ,bla9ville to ref] t creature to ! class ( reptiles4 #bbj ,?is figure 7,no4 #aj7 0 tak5 f ! orig9al1 =m]ly 9 ,mr4 ,brod]ip's collection1 & n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,x consi/s ( ! "r half ( a l[] jaw1 ( :i* ! inn] side is se54 ,! jaw conta9s sev5 mol> tee?1 "o can9e1 & ?ree incisors2 b ! end ( ! jaw is fractur$1 & traces ( ! alveolus ( a f\r? incisor are se54 ,) ?is addition1 ! numb] ( tee? w\ld agree exactly ) ^? ( a l[] jaw ( a didelphis4 ,! fossil is well pres]v$ 9 a slab ( oolitic /ructure conta9+ %ells ( trigoniae & o!r m>9e rema9s4 ,two or ?ree o!r simil> jaws1 besides ^? above repres5t$1 h be5 procur$ f ! qu>ries ( ,/onesfield4--,see ,brod]ip1 ,zool4 ,j\rn4 vol4 ii4 p4 #djh4 ,ow51 ,proce$+s ,geol4 ,soc41 ,novemb]1 #ahch4 #bba ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 *ap4 #ai4 ,lyell's ,manual ( ,geol4 *ap4 #ba1 p4 #bgi4 #bbb ,taylor's ,annals ( ,nat4 ,hi/4 ,nov4 #ahci4 #bbc ,see notice by ! ,au?or1 & ,pr(essor ,ow51 ,taylor's ,annals ( ,nat4 ,hi/4 ,nov4 #ahci4 #bbd ,see ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 #a/ ed4 #ahcj1 vol4 i p4 #aeb4 #bbe ,! fir/ quadruman\s fossils discov]$ 9 ,india 7 obs]v$ 9 #ahcf 9 ! ,sewalik ,hills1 a l[] range ( ! ,himalayan ,m\nta9s1 by ,lieut5ants ,bak] & ,durond1 by :om _! o/eological *>act]s 7 det]m9$ 7,j\rn4 ( ,asiat4 ,soc4 ( ,b5gal1 vol4 v4 p4 #gci71 & 9 ! ye> foll[+1 o!r fossils ( ! same class 7 br\ght to light & describ$ by ,capt4 ,cantley & ,dr4 ,falcon]4 ,^! 7 imb$d$1 l ! =m]1 9 t]ti>y /rata ( conglom]ate1 s&1 m>l1 & clay1 9 ! ,sub-,himalayan ,m\nta9s4 7,ibid4 vol4 v4 p4 #cgi4 ,nov4 #ahcf2 & vol4 vi4 p4 #ced4 ,may1 #ahcg47 ,! ,brazilian quadrumane 0 f\nd1 ) a great _m o!r ext9ct species ( animals1 by a ,dani% naturali/1 ,dr4 ,lund1 betwe5 ! riv]s ,francisco & ,velhas1 9 #ahcg4 ,! gibbon ( ! ,s\? ( ,france 0 f\nd by ,m4 ,l>tet 9 ! beg9n+ ( #ahcg1 & det]m9$ by ,m4 de ,bla9ville4 ,x occurr$ ne> ,au*1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,g]s1 ab\t =ty miles we/ ( ,t\l\se1 9 fre%wat] m>l1 lime/one1 & s&4 ,!y 7 accompani$ by ! rema9s ( ! ma/odon1 d9o!rium1 palaeo!rium1 rh9oc]os1 gigantic slo?1 & o!r ext9ct quadrup$s4 7,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,geol4 de ,france1 tom4 viii4 p4 #ib47 ,! ,briti% quadrumane 0 discov]$ 9 #ahci1 by ,messrs4 ,william ,col*e/] & ,se>les ,wood1 at ,kyson1 ne> ,woodbridge1 9 ,suffolk1 & 0 ref]r$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 to ! g5us ,macacus4 7,mag4 ( ,nat4 ,hi/4 ,sept4 #ahci4 ,taylor1 ,annals ( ,nat4 ,hi/4 ,no4 xxiii4 ,nov4 #ahci47 #bbf ,ow5's ,introduction to ,briti% ,fossil ,mammals1 p4 #df4 #bbg ,proce$+s ( ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sci4 ,philad4 ,dec4 #i1 #ahea4 #bbh ,see *4 #dh4 #bbi ,ibid4 #bcj ,ibid4 #bca ,phys4 ,hi/4 ( ,mank9d1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eid4 #bcb ,virgil1 ,eclog4 iv4 ,= an acc\nt ( ^! doctr9es1 see ,dugald ,/ew>t's ,elem5ts ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1 vol4 ii4 *ap4 ii4 sect4 #d1 & ,pri*>d's ,egypt4 ,my?ol4 p4 #agg4 #bcc ,see *4 #da4 #bcd ,see *4 #ce4 #bce ,see *4 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #da4 #bcf ,see also ,manual ( ,geology1 *4 #aa1 #ab4 #bcg ,x has be5 suspect$ ev] s9ce ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 t ! ,caspian 0 l[] ?an ! ocean1 x be+ kn[n t 9 ,a/rakhan ! m]cury 9 ! b>omet] g5]ally /&s above ?irty in*es4 ,9 #ahaa1 ,,mm4 ,engelh>dt & ,p>rot attempt$ to det]m9e ! exact am\nt ( diff]5ce by a s]ies ( levell+s & b>ometrical measurem5ts across ! i/hmus at two diff]5t places ne> ! foot ( ,m\nt ,caucasus4 ,! result ( _! op]ations l$ !m to ! op9ion t ! ,caspian 0 m ?an #cjj feet bel[ ! ,black ,sea4 ,b ! correctness ( ! obs]vations hav+ aft]w>ds be5 call$ 9 "q1 ,m4 ,p>rot revisit$ ! gr\nd 9 #ahbi & #ahcj1 & inf]r$ f new levell+s1 t ! m\? ( ! ,don 0 betwe5 ?ree & f\r feet l[] ?an t ( ! ,wolga2 9 o!r words1 t ! sea ( ,az(1 :i* communicates ) ! ,black ,sea1 0 actually l[] ?an ! ,caspian6 ,o!r /atem5ts1 no less contradictory1 hav+ be5 made by o!r obs]v]s1 ! ,russian gov]nm5t at l5g? direct$ ! ,academy ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg to s5d an exp$ition1 9 #ahcf1 to decide ! po9t by a trigonometrical survey1 f :i* x appe>$ t ! ,caspian is #aja ,russian1 or #ajh ,engli%1 feet l[] ?an ! ,black ,sea4 7,= au?orities1 see ,j\rn4 ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 viii4 p4 #ace74 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 h[ev]1 concludes1 9 #ahde1 f ! be/ ,russian au?orities1 t ! depression ( ! ,caspian is only #hc feet #f in*es4 ,! measurem5ts ( ,major ,an?ony ,symonds1 s9ce confirm$ by ,fr5* au?orities1 make ! ,dead ,sea to be #abjj feet bel[ ! ,m$it]ranean4 #bch ,see ,lyell's ,travels 9 ,n4 ,am]ica1 *4 #b & #be4 #bci ,see ,manual ( ,geology1 *ap4 #bi to #cc1 inclusive4 #bdj ,see *4 #bf1 infra4 #bda ,see *4 #bg1 infra4 #bdb ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat41 ,septembre1 ,novembre1 et ,dacembre1 #ahbi4 ,revue ,francaise1 ,no4 #ae1 ,may1 #ahcj4 ,bullet9 de la ,sociata ,gaol4 de ,france1 p4 #hfd1 ,may1 #ahdg4 ,! late/ edition ( ,m4 de ,beaumont's !ory w be f\nd 9 ! #ab? vol4 ( ! ,dictionnaire ,univ]sel d',hi/4 ,nat4 #aheb1 art4 ,sy/emes des ,montagues2 also ! same pr9t$ sep>ately4 #bdc ,sy/eme de ,mont4 p4 #gfb4 #bdd ,ibid4 pp4 #gfa & #ggc4 #bde ,phil4 ,mag4 & ,annals1 ,no4 #eh4 ,new ,s]ies1 p4 #bdb4 #bdf ,sy/eme de ,montagnes1 #aheb1 p4 #dbi4 #bdg ,phil4 ,mag4 & ,annals1 ,no4 #eh4 ,new s]ies1 p4 #bdc4 #bdh ,sy/eme de ,montagnes1 #aheb1 p4 #dbi4 #bdi ,= page1 see ,index1 ,hopk9s4 #bej ,art4 ,sy/eme de ,montagnes1 p4 #gge4 #bea ,m4 ,e de ,beaumont 9 8 lat] inquiries 7,comptes r5dus1 ,sept4 #ahej1 & ,sy/emes des ,montagnes7 has come to ! conclusion1 t ! pr9cipal m\nta9 ranges1 if prolong$1 w\ld int]sect ea* o!r at c]ta9 angles1 s z to produce a regul> geometric arrangem5t1 :i* he calls a p5tagonal network4 ,?is !ory has be5 ably discuss$ & controv]t$ by ,mr4 ,hopk9s1 9 8 ,anniv]s>y ,address z ,presid5t ( ! ,geol4 ,soc41 ,feb4 #ahec4 #beb ,d>w9's ,geology ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 p4 #bdh4 ,london1 #ahdf4 #bec ,sy/eme de ,montagnes1 p4 #gdh4 #bed ,see ,lyell's ,manual ( ,elem5t>y ,geology1 *4 #e4 #bee ,see ! ,au?or's ,anniv]s>y ,address1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahej1 vol4 vi4 p4 #df1 f :i* "s ( ! above passages are extract$4 #bef ,see ,lyell's ,manual ( ,elem5t>y ,geology4 #beg ,reports to ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdb1 #ahdc1 & ,introd4 to ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mamm4 p4 #ca4 ,! con*ological evid5ce respect+ ! ,briti% ,mioc5e1 ,plioc5e1 & ,plei/oc5e fossils1 exam9$ by ,mr4 ,=bes1 9 ! pap] be=e cit$1 p4 #hh1 note1 be> out "s ( ! mo/ important conclusions ( ,m4 ,de%ayes1 quot$ by me 9 ! fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9ciples1 #ahca1 & ! rec5t obs]vations ( ,philippi 9 reg>d to ! passage ( species f "o =mation to ano!r4 ,i ref] to ^! au?orities m especially because ?is doctr9e ( a gradual transition has be5 oppos$ by "s liv+ naturali/s ( high di/9ction1 among :om ,i may m5tion ,m4,a4 d',orbigny & ,m4 ,agassiz4 ,i h long be5 conv9c$ t we mu/ ab&on _m ( ! id5tifications =m]ly made ( ,eoc5e ) rec5t %ells2 b "s errors ( ?is k9d d n affect ! g5]al reason+ on ! subject4 ,see a discussion on ?is "q1 ,qu>t]ly ,j\rn4 ( ,geog4 ,soc41 ,no4 #e1 p4 #dg ,feb4 #ahdf4 #beh ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 p4 #afc4 #b;d4 ed4 p4 #aci4 #bei ,j\rn4 ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #adb4 #bfj ,book iii4 *4 #ej4 #bfa ,d>w9's ,s4 ,am]ica1 pp4 #acf1 #aci4 #bfb ,mill]1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahea1 p4 #aee4 #bfc ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahej1 p4 #ced4 #bfd ,hook]'s ,himalayan ,j\rnal1 in$4 #bfe ,ibid4 #bff ,see ,manual ( ,geology1 ,index1 ,ra9-pr9ts4 #bfg ,see ,lyell on rec5t & fossil ra9s4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahea1 vol4 vii4 p4 #bci4 #bfh ,lyell's ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #ahdf1 vol4 ii4 p4 #be4 #bfi ,encyc4 ,brit4 art4 ,riv]s4 #bgj ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,laud]'s ,acc\nt ( ! ,great ,floods 9 ,moray%ire1 ,augu/1 #ahbi4 #bga ,qu>t]ly ,j\r4 ( ,sci4 c4 ,no4 xii4 ,new ,s]ies1 p4 #cca4 #bgb ,culley1 ,proce$4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahbi4 #bgc ,silliman's ,j\rnal1 vol4 xv4 ,no4 #b1 p4 #baf4 ,jan4 #ahbi4 #bgd ,silliman's ,j\rnal1 vol4 xxxiv4 p4 #aae4 #bge ,see ,lyell's ,second ,visit to ! ,u4 ,s4 vol4 i4 p4 #fi4 #bgf ,?is block 0 measur$ by ,capt4 ,b4 ,hall1 ,r4 ,n4 #bgg ,inundation ( ! ,val de ,bagnes1 9 #ahah1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn41 vol4 i4 p4 #ahg1 f memoir ( ,m4 ,es*]4 #bgh ,lib4 viii4 ,epi/4 #ag4 #bgi ,:5 at ,tivoli1 9 #ahbi1 ,i receiv$ ?is acc\nt f eye-witnesses ( ! ev5t4 #bhj ,illu/r4 ( ,hutt4 ,!ory1 ,section #c1 p4 #adg4 #bha ,quadro ,i/orico dell' ,etna1 #ahbd4 #bhb ,! read] w f9d 9 my ,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 vol4 i4 *4 #b1 a color$ geological map & section ( ! ,niag>a di/rict1 also a bird's-eye view ( ! ,falls & adjac5t c\ntry1 color$ geologically1 ( :i* ! fir/ idea 0 sugge/$ by ! excell5t orig9al sket* giv5 by ,mr4 ,bakewell4 ,i h ref]r$ m fully to ^! & to ,mr4 ,hall's ,report on ! ,geology ( ,new ,york1 z well z to ! e>li] writ+s ( ,h5nep9 & ,kalm 9 ! same "w1 & h speculat$ on ! orig9 ( ! esc>pm5t ov] :i* ! ,falls may h be5 orig9ally precipitat$4 ,vol4 i4 p4 #cb1 & vol4 ii4 p4 #ic4 #bhc ,consid4 sur les ,blocs ,errat4 #ahbi4 #bhd ,capt4 ,bayfield1 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,proce$+s1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbc4 #bhe ,m4 ,arago1 ,annuaire1 c4 #ahcc2 & ,rev4 ,j4 ,f>quh>son1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 p4 #cbi4 #bhf ,j\rn4 ( ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 vi4 p4 #daf4 #bhg ,see ,sy/eme ,glaciaire1 by ,agassiz1 ,guyot1 & ,desor1 pp4 #dcf1 #dcg1 #dde4 ,mr4 ,agassiz1 at p4 #dfb1 /ates t he publi%$ 9 ! ,deuts*e ,vi]teljahrs*rift = #ahda1 ?is result z to ! c5tral motion be+ great] ?an t ( ! sides1 & 01 !re=e1 ! fir/ to correct 8 own previ\s mi/ake4 #bhh ,j4 ,=bes4 #h? ,lett] on ,glaci]s1 ,aug4 #ahdd4 #bhi ,see ,mr4 ,hopk9s on ,motion ( ,glaci]s1 ,cambridge ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahdd1 & ,phil4 ,mag4 #ahde4 ,"s ( ! late concessions ( ?is au?or z to a c]ta9 pla/icity 9 ! mass1 appe> to me to make ! diff]5ce betwe5 him & ,pr(essor ,=bes little m ?an "o ( degree4 7,= ! late/ summ>y ( ,pr(4 ,=bes' views1 see ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahdf1 pt4 #b47 #bij ,?is exp]im5t is cit$ by ,mr4 ,=bes1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahdf1 p4 #bjf2 & ,i h conv]s$ ) ,mr4 ,*ri/ie on ! subject4 #bia ,etudes sur les ,glaci]s1 #ahdj4 #bib ,see ,manual ( ,geol4 *4 xi4 #bic ,agassiz1 ,jam4 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 #ed1 p4 #chh4 #bid ,*>p5ti]1 ,ann4 des ,m9es1 tom4 viii42 see also ,pap]s by ,,mm4 ,v5etz & ,agassiz4 #bie ,voyage 9 #ahbb1 p4 #bcc4 #bif ,travels 9 ,norway4 #big ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 p4 #bhc4 #bih ,j\rn4 ( ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 ix4 p4 #ebf4 #bii ,j\rn4 ( ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 ix4 p4 #ebi4 #cjj ,ibid4 vol4 viii4 p4 #bba4 #cja ,9 my ,travels 9 ,n4 ,am]ica1 pp4 #ai1 #bc1 c41 & ,second ,visit to ! ,u4 ,s41 vol4 i4 *4 #b1 also 9 my ,manual ( ,geology1 a m full acc\nt ( ! action ( float+ ice & coa/-ice1 & its be>+ on geology1 w be f\nd4 #cjb ,jam4 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 xlviii4 p4 #dci4 #cjc ,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 #ahdg1 tom4 iv4 pp4 #aahb1 #aahc4 #cjd ,consult ,j4 ,pre/wi*1 ,wat]-be>+ ,/rata ar\nd ,london4 #ahea4 7,van ,voor/7 #cje ,sab9e1 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 ,no4 xxxiii4 p4 #gb4 #ahbd4 #cjf ,h>ic>t de ,?ury1 ,puits ,=as1 p4 #di4 #cjg ,pre/wi*1 p4 #fi4 #cjh ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 iii4 p4 #aid4 #cji ,b\a ,rasuma des ,prog4 de la ,gaol4 en #ahcb1 p4 #ahd4 #caj ,sev5? ,rep4 ,brit4 ,ass4 #ahcg1 p4 #ff4 #caa ,h4 de ,?ury1 p4 #bie4 #cab ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol de ,france1 tom4 i4 p4 #ic4 #cac ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bdh4 #cad ,see ,gloss>y1 ,tufa1 ,trav]t94 #cae ,dr4 ,grosse on ! ,ba?s ( ,san ,filippo1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 ii p4 #bib4 #caf ,consolations 9 ,travel1 pp4 #abc-abe4 #cag ,ibid4 p4 #abg4 #cah ,c4 ,prevo/1 ,essai sur la ,con/itution ,physique du ,bass9 de ,vi5ne1 p4 #aj4 #cai ,travels across ! ,&es1 p4 #bdj4 #cbj ,annal5 d] ,*em4 #ahdg4 #cba ,daub5y on ,volcanoes1 p4 #bbb4 #cbb ,dr4 ,web/] on ! ,hot ,spr+s ( ,furnas1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 vi4 p4 #cjf4 #cbc ,see a cut ( ! ,icel&ic geys]1 *ap4 #cb4 #cbd ,m4 ,rob]t1 ,bullat9 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 vii4 p4 #aa4 #cbe ,b>r['s ,icel&1 p4 #bji4 #cbf ,see ,lyell's ,manual ( ,elem5t>y ,geology2 & ,dr4 ,turn]1 ,jam4 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 xxx4 p4 #bdf4 #cbg ,l4 ,horn]1 ,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 ii4 p4 #id4 #cbh ,ann4 de l',auv]gne1 tome i4 p4 #bcd4 #cbi ,ann4 ,sci5t4 de l',auv]gne1 tome ii4 ,june1 #ahbi4 #ccj ,ed9b4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,oct4 #ahci4 #cca ,see ,lyell's ,travels 9 ,n4 ,am]ica1 vol4 i p4 #aej4 #ccb ,symes1 ,embassy to ,ava1 vol4 ii4 ,geol4 ,trans4 second s]ies1 vol4 ii4 "p iii4 p4 #chh4 #ccc ,dr4 ,nug5t1 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 i4 p4 #fi4 #ccd ,ibid4 p4 #fg4 #cce ,de la ,be*e1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ajg4 ,jan4 #ahbj4 #ccf ,de la ,be*e1 ,,ms4 #ccg ,de la ,be*e1 ,,ms4 #cch ,trans4 ( ,lit4 & ,hi/4 ,soc4 ( ,quebec1 vol4 i4 p4 #e1 #ahbi4 #cci ,prony1 see ,cuvi]1 ,disc4 ,prelim1 p4 #adf4 #cdj ,see ,de ,beaumont1 ,gaologie ,pratique1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbc1 #ahdd4 #cda ,prony1 cit$ by ,cuvi]1 ,disc\rs ,pralim94 #cdb ,broc*i1 ,con*4 ,foss4 ,subap4 vol4 i4 p4 #aah4 #cdc ,ar*iac1 ,hi/oire des ,progras de la ,gaol4 #ahdh1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bcb4 #cdd ,broc*i1 ,con*4 ,foss4 ,subap4 vol4 i4 p4 #ci4 #cde ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #id4 #cdf ,mam4 d',a/ruc1 cit$ by ,von ,h(f1 vol4 i4 p4 #bhh4 #cdg ,lib4 ii4 c4 v4 #cdh ,b\*e1 ,*orographie et ,hi/4 de ,prov5ce1 vol4 i4 p4 #bc1 cit$ by ,von ,h(t1 vol4 i4 p4 #bij4 #cdi ,hi/4 ,phys4 de la ,m]4 #cej ,k>amania1 or a brief ,description ( ! ,coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or1 c4 ,london1 #ahag4 #cea ,geog4 ,sy/4 ( ,h]od1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ajg4 #ceb ,eut]pe1 ,,xi4 #cec ,j\rn4 ( ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 ix4 p4 #dcb4 #ced ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 v42 ,memoirs1 p4 #bj2 & ,lassaigue1 ,j\rn4 ,ph>m4 t4 v4 p4 #dfh4 #cee ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahdh1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cdb4 #cef ,fl9t's ,geography1 vol4 i4 p4 #adb4 ,lyell's ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 ii *aps4 #bh to #cd4 #ceg ,geograph4 ,descrip4 ( ,l\isiana1 by ,w4 ,d>by1 ,philadelphia1 #ahaf1 p4 #ajb4 #ceh ,fl9t's ,geography1 vol4 i4 p4 #aeb4 #cei ,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cfa4 #cfj ,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cfb4 #cfa ,! boats are fitt$1 says ,capta9 ,hall1 ) :at is call$ a snag-*amb]2--a p>tition =m$ ( /\t planks1 :i* is calk$1 & made s effectually wat]-tight t ! =emo/ end ( ! vessel is cut (f z entirely f ! re/ ( ! hold z if x belong$ to ano!r boat4 ,if ! /eam-vessel happ5 to run aga9/ a snag1 & t a hole is made 9 h] b[1 "u ! surface1 ?is *amb] m]ely fills ) wat]4--,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cfc4 #cfb ,d>by's ,l\isiana1 p4 #cc4 #cfc ,fea!r/onhaugh1 ,geol4 ,report1 ,wa%+ton1 #ahce1 p4 #hd4 #cfd ,trees subm]g$ 9 an upright position h be5 obs]v$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ,n4 ,am]ica4 ,?us ,capta9s ,cl>k & ,lewis f\nd1 ab\t ! ye> #ahjg1 a =e/ ( p9es /&+ erect "u wat] 9 ! body ( ! ,columbia riv]1 :i* !y suppos$1 f ! appe>ance ( ! trees1 to h be5 subm]g$ only ab\t tw5ty ye>s4 7,travels1 c4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bda47 ,m lately 7#ahce71 ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,p>k] obs]v$ on ! same riv] 7lat4 #de degrees ,n41 long4 #aba degrees ,w47 trees /&+ 9 _! natural position 9 spots :]e ! wat] 0 m ?an tw5ty feet deep4 ,! tops ( ! trees _h disappe>$2 b betwe5 high & l[ wat]-m>k ! trunks 7 only p>tially decay$2 & ! roots 7 se5 ?r\gh ! cle> wat]1 spread+ z !y _h gr[n 9 _! native =e/4 7,t\r beyond ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 p4 #acb47 ,"s h inf]r$ f ^! facts t a tract ( l&1 m ?an tw5ty miles 9 l5g?1 mu/ h subsid$ v]tically2 b ,capt4 ,fremont1 ,dec4 #ahde 7,rep4 ( ,explor4 ,exp$4 p4 #aie71 satisfi$ himself t ! subm]g$ =e/s h be5 =m$ by imm5se l&-slides f ! m\nta9s1 :i* "h closely %ut 9 ! riv]4 #cfe ,= an acc\nt ( ! sunk c\ntry1 %ak5 by ! e>?quake ( #ahaa-ab1 see ,lyell's ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 *4 #cc4 #cff ,d>by's ,l\isiana1 p4 #ajc4 #cfg ,! calculations "h giv5 7 communicat$ to ! ,briti% ,association1 9 a lecture :i* ,i deliv]$ at ,s\?ampton 9 ,septemb]1 #ahdf4 7,see ,a!naeum ,j\rnal1 ,sept4 #bf1 #ahdf1 & ,report ( ,briti% ,association1 #ahdf1 p4 #aag47 ,dr4 ,riddell has s9ce repeat$ 8 exp]im5ts on ! quantity ( s$im5t 9 ! riv] at ,new ,orleans )\t any mat]ial v>iation 9 ! results4 ,mr4 ,=%ey1 9 a memoir on ! ,physics ( ! ,mississippi1 publi%$ 9 #ahej1 adopts ,dr4 ,riddell's e/imate = ! quantity ( mud1 b takes #ddg1aii cubic feet p] second z ! av]age dis*>ge ( wat] = ! ye> at ,c>rolton1 n9e miles above ,new ,orleans1 a result d$uc$ f ?irty ye>s ( obs]vations4 ,?is be+ "o-t5? m ?an ,i _h assum$1 w\ld add a t5? to ! s$im5t1 & w\ld dim9i% by "o-elev5? ! numb] ( ye>s requir$ to accompli% ! task above allud$ to4 ,! cubic cont5ts ( s$im5t>y matt]1 says ,=%ey1 are equal to #d1jhc1ccc1ccc1 & ?is s$im5t w\ld annually cov] twelve miles squ>e "o foot deep4 #cfh ,! ,mississippi is cont9ually %ift+ its c\rse 9 ! great alluvial pla91 cutt+ frequ5tly to ! dep? ( #ajj1 & ev5 sometimes to ! dep? ( #bej feet4 ,z ! old *annels become aft]w>ds fill$ up1 or 9 a great degree oblit]at$1 ?is excavation alone mu/ h giv5 a consid]able dep? to ! bas91 :i* receives ! alluvial deposit1 & subsid5ces l ^? accompany+ ! e>?quake ( ,new ,madrid 9 #ahaa-ab may h giv5 /ill m dep?4 #cfi ,acc\nt ( ! ,ganges & ,burrampoot] riv]s1 by ,major ,r5nell1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agha4 #cgj ,trans4 ( ! ,asiatic ,society1 vol4 vii4 p4 #ad4 #cga ,cuvi] ref]r$ ! true crocodiles ( ! ,ganges to a s+le species1 ,c4 biporcatus4 ,b ,i le>n f ,dr4 ,falcon] t !re are ?ree well-m>k$ species1 ,c4 biporcatus1 ,c4 palu/ris1 & ,c4 bombifrons4 ,c4 bombifrons occurs 9 ! nor!rn bran*es ( ! ,ganges1 #ajjj miles f ,calcutta2 ,c4 biporcatus appe>s to be conf9$ to ! e/u>y2 & ,c4 palu/ris1 to range f ! e/u>y to ! c5tral p>ts ( ,b5gal4 ,! g>ial is f\nd along ) ,c4 bombifrons 9 ! nor?1 & desc5ds to ! region ( ,c4 biporcatus 9 ! e/u>y4 #cgb ,see bel[1 *4 #bb & #bi4 #cgc ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ade4 #cgd ,asiatic ,rese>*es1 vol4 xvii4 p4 #dff4 #cge ,lyell's ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 ii4 *ap4 #cd4 #cgf ,see ,manual ( ,geology by ! ,au?or4 #cgg ,see p4 #ac4 #cgh ,geog4 ( ,h]od1 vol ii4 p4 #cca4 #cgi ,ibid4 p4 #cbh4 #chj ,romme1 ,v5ts et ,c\rans1 vol4 ii4 p4 #b4 ,rev4 ,f4 ,fall[s1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce1 ,m>*1 #ahbi4 #cha ,! heights ( ^! tides 7 giv5 me by ! late ,capta9 ,hewett1 ,r4 ,n4 #chb ,on ! au?ority ( ,admiral ,sir ,f4 ,beau=t1 ,r4 ,n4 #chc ,consult ! map ( ,curr5ts by ,capt4 ,f4 ,bee*y1 ,r4 ,n41 ,admiralty ,manual1 #ahdi1 ,london4 #chd ,r5nell on ,curr5ts1 p4 #eh4 #che ,r5nell on ! ,*annel curr5t4 #chf ,an4 du ,bureau des ,long4 #ahcf4 #chg ,second ,p>liam5t>y ,report on ,/eam ,communication ) ,india1 ,july1 #ahea4 #chh ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcj1 p4 #ei4 #chi ,see ,capt4 ,b4 ,hall1 ,on ,!ory ( ,trade ,w9ds1 ,fragm5ts ( ,voy4 second s]ies1 vol4 i41 & ,app5dix to ,daniell's ,meteorology4 #cij ,treatise on ,a/ronomy1 *ap4 #c4 #cia ,descrip4 ( ,%etl& ,isl&s1 p4 #ebg1 ,ed94 #ahbb1 to :i* "w ,i am indebt$ = ! foll[+ repres5tations ( rocks 9 ! ,%etl& ,isles4 #cib ,dr4 ,hibb]t1 f ,,mss4 ( ,rev4 ,george ,l[1 ( ,fetl>4 #cic ,hibb]t1 p4 #ebh4 #cid ,hibb]t1 p4 #eai4 #cie ,acc\nt ( ,erection ( ,bell ,rock ,ligh?\se1 p4 #afc4 #cif ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 iii4 p4 #ed1 #ahbj4 #cig ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 c41 ,no4 xiii4 ,n4 ,s4 ,m>*1 #ahcj4 #cih ,bui/1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,agricult41 ,no4 xlv4 p4 #cd1 ,june1 #ahci4 #cii ,phillips's ,geology ( ,york%ire1 p4 #fa4 #djj ,riv]s1 ,m\nta9s1 & ,sea-coa/ ( ,york%ire p4 #abb1 #ahec1 ,london4 #dja ,arctic ,zoology1 vol4 i4 p4 #aj1 ,introduction4 #djb ,phillips's ,geol4 ( ,york4 p4 #fj4 #djc ,arct4 ,zool4 vol4 i4 p4 #ac1 ,introd4 #djd ,taylor's ,geology ( ,ea/ ,norfolk1 p4 #cb4 #dje ,ibid4 #djf ,de ,beaumont1 ,gaologie ,pratique1 p4 #bah4 #djg ,taylor's ,geology ( ,ea/ ,norfolk1 p4 #aj4 #djh ,f ,mr4 ,r4 ,c4 ,taylor's ,mem41 see ,phil4 ,mag41 ,oct4 #ahbg1 p4 #big4 #dji ,consequ5ces ( ! ,deluge1 ,phys4 ,!ol4 ,disc\rses4 #daj ,hi/ory ( ,briti% ,birds1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbj ed4 #ahba4 #daa ,tidal ,h>bor ,commission]s' ,fir/ ,report1 #ahde1 p4 #agf4 #dab ,on au?ority ( ,dr4 ,mit*ell1 ,f4 ,g4 ,s4 #dac ,on ! au?ority ( ,w4 ,gunnell1 ,esq41 & ,w4 ,ri*>dson1 ,esq41 ,f4 ,g4 ,s4 #dad ,vol4 ii4 ,new ,s]4 #ahji1 p4 #hja4 #dae ,geog4 ( ,h]od4 vol4 ii4 p4 #cbf4 #daf ,dodsley's ,ann4 ,regi/4 #aggb4 #dag ,see ,j4 ,b4 ,r$man on ,*anges ( ,s4 ,e4 ,coa/ ( ,engl&1 ,proce$4 ,in/it4 ,civil ,eng94 vol4 ii4 #ahea1 #aheb4 #dah ,/ev5son1 ,ed4 ,phil ,j\rn4 ,no4 v4 p4 #de1 & ,dr4 ,fitton1 ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 iv4 plate #i4 #dai ,on ! au?ority ( ,mr4 ,j4 ,m]yon1 ( ,rye4 #dbj ,r$man1 ibid1 see p4 #cae4 #dba ,ed94 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 ,no4 xix4 p4 #ef4 #dbb ,r$man z cit$1 p4 #cae4 #dbc ,web/]1 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aib1 #a/ s]ies4 #dbd ,mantell1 ,geology ( ,sussex1 p4 #bic4 #dbe ,see ,palm] on ,%+le ,bea*es1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcd1 p4 #efh4 #dbf ,gro9s are =m$ ( piles & wood5 planks1 or ( fagots /ak$ d[n & are us$ ei!r to break ! =ce ( ! waves1 or to reta9 ! bea*4 #dbg ,r$man z cit$1 p4 #cae4 #dbh ,rob4 ,a4 ,c4 ,au/5 on ! ,valley ( ! ,engli% ,*annel1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,g4 ,s4 vol4 vi4 p4 #gb4 #dbi ,see ,palm] on ,motion ( ,%+le ,bea*es1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcd1 p4 #efh2 & ,col4 ,sir ,w4 ,reid1 ,pap]s ( ,royal ,eng9e]s1 #ahch1 vol ii4 p4 #abh4 #dcj ,de la ,be*e1 ,geolog4 ,manual1 p4 #hb4 #dca ,accord+ to ! measurem5t ( ,c>p5t] ( ,lyme4 #dcb ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybe>e1 lett] dat$ ,axm9/]1 ,dec4 #ca1 #ahci4 #dcc ,london1 ,j4 ,murray1 #ahdj4 #dcd ,boase1 ,trans4 ,royal ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,cornwall1 vol4 ii4 p4 #abi4 #dce ,boase1 ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ace4 #dcf ,de la ,be*e's ,report on ! ,geology ( ,devon1 c4 *ap4 xiii4 #dcg ,geol4 ,trans4 #a/ s]ies1 vol4 iii4 p4 #chc4 #dch ,boase1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acj4 #dci ,/ev5son1 ,jameson's ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 #h1 p4 #chf4 #ddj ,camd51 :o cites ,gyraldus2 also ,ray1 ,on ! ,deluge1 ,phys4 ,!ol4 p4 #bbh4 #dda ,meyrick's ,c>digan4 #ddb ,von ,h(f1 ,ges*i*te1 c4 vol4 i4 p4 #di4 #ddc ,e4 de ,beaumont1 ,gaologie ,pratique1 vol4 i4 p4 #caf1 & ibid4 p4 #bfj4 #ddd ,belpaire1 ,mam4 de l',acad4 ,roy4 de ,bruxelles1 tom4 x4 #ahcg4 ,dumont1 ,bullet9 ( ! same ,soc4 tom4 v4 p4 #fdc4 #dde ,von ,h(f1 vol4 i4 p4 #cfd4 #ddf ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iv4 p4 #cb2 ,memoirs4 #ddg ,see examples 9 ,von ,h(f2 vol4 i4 p4 #gc1 :o cites ,pisansky4 #ddh ,book vii4 ,cimbri4 #ddi ,lib4 iii4 cap #c4 #dej ,new ,mon?ly ,mag4 vol4 vi4 p4 #fi4 #dea ,von ,h(f1 vol4 i4 p4 #if4 #deb ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcc1 p4 #bjd4 #dec ,see ,lyell's ,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 #ahdb1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aff4 ,london1 #ahde4 #ded ,r5nell1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #agha4 #dee ,,ms4 ( ,capt4 ,bayfield1 ,r4 ,n4 #def ,silliman's ,j\rn4 vol4 xxxiv4 p4 #cdi4 #deg ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbi1 "p i4 p4 #bi4 #deh ,phil4 ,trans4 #agbd4 #dei ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol de ,france1--,rasuma1 p4 #gb1 #ahcb4 #dfj ,cl>ke's ,travels 9 ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,africa1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #cdj & #cfc1 #d? edition4 #dfa ,n\velle ,*ronique de la ,ville de ,bayonne1 pp4 #aac1 #aci3 #ahbg4 #dfb ,/ev5son on b$ ( ,g]man ,ocean1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 v4 p4 #dd3 #ahbj4 #dfc ,/ev5son1 ibid4 p4 #dg3 #ahbj4 #dfd ,robt4 ,a4 ,c4 ,au/51 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 vi4 p4 #gf4 #dfe ,exp]im5ts to det]m9e ! ,figure ( ! ,e>?1 c4 p4 #dde4 #dff ,lo*ead on ,nat4 ,hi/4 ( ,guiana1 ,ed94 ,trans4 vol4 iv4 #dfg ,on ! au?ority ( ,mr4 ,f>aday4 #dfh ,on ! au?ority ( ,mr4 ,r4 ,phillips4 #dfi ,see ,von ,bu*'s ,description ( ,can>y ,isl&s 7,p>is1 ed4 #ahcf7 = a valuable sket* ( ! pr9cipal volcanoes ( ! globe4 #dgj ,d>w91 ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 v4 p4 #fab4 #dga ,ibid4 p4 #fjf4 #dgb ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 tom4 vi4 p4 #ee4 #dgc ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 vi4 p4 #ef4 #dgd ,caldeleugh1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcf1 p4 #bg4 #dge ,comptes ,r5dus1 #ahdi1 vol4 xxix4 p4 #eca4 #dgf ,see map ( volcanic l9es 9 ,von ,bu*'s "w on ! ,can>ies4 #dgg ,von ,bu*1 ibid4 p4 #dji4 #dgh ,d>w91 ,/ructure & ,di/rib4 ( ,coral reefs1 c41 ,london1 #ahdb4 ,9 ! subjo9$ map1 fig4 #ci1 ,i h copi$ ) p]mission a small "p ( ! valuable map accompany+ ?is "w4 #dgi ,von ,bu*1 ,descrip4 des ,iles ,can>4 p4 #dej1 :o cites ,erman & o!rs4 #dhj ,pap] read at meet+ ( ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,s\?ampton1 ,sept4 #ahdf4 #dha ,macclell&1 ,report on ,coal & ,m94 ,res\rces ( ,india4 ,calcutta1 #ahch4 #dhb ,geology ( ! ,am]ican ,explor+ ,exp$ition4 ,see also ,lyell's ,manual1 ,s&wi* ,i4 ,volcanoes--,index4 #dhc ,/rabo1 ed ,fal41 p4 #ijj4 #dhd ,rese>*es 9 ,asia ,m9or1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ci4 #dhe ,virlet1 ,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 iii4 p4 #aji4 #dhf ,daub5y on ,m\nt ,vultur1 ,a%molean ,memoirs4 ,ox=d1 #ahce4 #dhg ,book v4 *4 xlvi4--,see lett] ( ,m4 ,virlet1 ,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #cda4 #dhh ,see *4 #cb1 ,cause ( ,volcanic ,eruptions4 #dhi ,v]neur1 ,j\rnal des ,voyages1 tom4 iv4 p4 #aaa4 ,von ,h(f1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bge4 #dij ,lib4 v4 #dia ,nat4 ,hi/4 lib4 iii4 c4 #f4 #dib ,see ,p\lett ,scrope1 ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 ii4 pl4 #cd4 #dic ,de ,r]um ,nat4 vi4 #gdj4--;,=bes1 on ,bay ( ,naples1 ,ed94 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 ,no iii4 new s]ies1 p4 #hg4 ,jan4 #ahcj4 #did ,humboldt1 ,voy4 p4 #cag4 #die ,von ,bu*1 ,ueb] e95 vulcanis*5 ,ausbru* auf d] ,insel ,lanz]ote4 #dif ,hau/ae aut obrutae urbes4--,hi/4 lib4 i4 #dig ,hi/4 ,rom4 lib4 lxvi4 #dih ,! e>lie/ au?ority1 says ,mr4 ,=bes1 giv5 = ?is fact1 appe>s to be ,capaccio1 quot$ 9 ! ,t]ra ,tremante ( ,bonito4--,ed94 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 c4 ,no4 i4 new s]ies1 p4 #abg4 ,july1 #ahbi4 #dii ,geol4 ,trans4 second s]ies1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cdf4 #ejj ,lib4 vi4 de ,bello ,neap4 9 ,graevii ,!saur4 #eja ,prodig4 libel4 c4 cxiv4 #ejb ,?is repres5tation ( ! ,phlegraean ,fields is r$uc$ f "p ( ,plate xxxi4 ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's great "w ,campi ,phlegraei4 ,! fai?fulness ( 8 color$ del9eations ( ! sc5]y ( t c\ntry _c be too highly prais$4 #ejc ,campi ,phlegraei1 p4 #gj4 #ejd ,campi ,phlegraei1 p4 #gg4 #eje ,p4 #cdg4 ,p>is1 #ahcf4 #ejf ,magnus t]rae tractus1 qui int] radices montis1 quem ,b>b>um incolae appellant1 et m>e juxta ,av]num jacet1 sese erig]e videbatur1 et montis subito nasc5tis figuram imit>i4 ,eo ipso die hora noctis ,,ii41 i/e t]rae cumulus1 ap]to veluti ore1 magno cum fremitu1 magnos ignes evomuit2 pumicesque1 et lapides1 c9]esque4--,porzio1 ,op]a ,omnis1 ,m$ica1 ,phil41 et ,ma!mat41 9 unum collecta1 #agcf1 cit$ by ,dufranoy1 ,mam4 p\r s]vir a une ,description ,gaologique de la ,france1 tom4 iv4 p4 #bgd4 #ejg ,see ,neues ,jahr ,bu* = #ahdf1 & a translation 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,j\rn4 ( ! ,geol4 ,soc4 = #ahdg1 vol iii4 p4 #bj1 ,memoirs4 #ejh ,mem4 ,roy4 ,acad4 ,nap4 #ahdi4 #eji ,v]um quod omnem sup]at admirationem1 mons circum eam vorag9em ex pummicibus et c9c]e plusquam mille passuum altitud9e una nocte conge/us aspicitur4 #eaj ,mam4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #ia4 #eaa ,dufranoy1 ,mem4 p\r s]vir1 c4 p4 #bgg4 #eab ,d>w9's ,volcanic ,isl&s1 #ajf1 note4 #eac ,geology ( ! ,am]ican ,explor+ ,exp$ition1 9 #ahch-ahdb1 p4 #ced4 #ead ,ibid4 p4 #cbh4 #eae ,see *ap4 #bi4 #eaf ,hamilton 7writ+ 9 #aggj7 says1 ! new m\nta9 produces z yet b a v sl5d] vegetation4--,campi ,phlegraei1 p4 #fi4 ,?is rem>k 0 no long] applicable :5 ,i saw x1 9 #ahbh4 #eag ,hamilton's ,campi ,phlegraei1 folio1 vol4 i4 p4 #fb2 & ,brieslak1 ,campanie1 tome i4 p4 #ahf4 #eah ,acc\nt ( ! ,eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 ,octob]1 #ahbb1 by ,g4 ,p4 ,scrope1 ,esq41 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 c4 vol4 xv4 p4 #age4 #eai ,mr4 ,=bes1 ,acc\nt ( ,m\nt ,vesuvius1 ,ed94 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 ,no4 xviii4 p4 #aie4 ,oct4 #ahbh4 #ebj ,ibid4 p4 #aid4 #eba ,monticelli & ,covelli1 ,/oria di ,f5on4 del ,vesuv4 en #ahba-bc4 #ebb ,campi ,phlegraei4 #ebc ,ott]'s ,life ( ,dr4 ,cl>ke4 #ebd ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahdf1 p4 #aed4 #ebe ,ibid4 p4 #adh4 #ebf ,ibid4 p4 #bda4 #ebg ,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 vii4 p4 #dc2 & ,illu/rations ( ,vesuvius & ,etna1 p4 #c4 #ebh ,geogno/4 ,beoba*tung51 c41 p4 #ahb4 ,b]l91 #ahci4 #ebi ,von ,bu*1 ,descrip4 ,phys4 des ,iles ,can>ies1 p4 #cdb4 ,p>is1 #ahcf4 #ecj ,vues ,illu/4 de ,phanom4 ,gaol4 ,obs]v4 sur le ,vasuve et l',etna4 ,b]l91 #ahcg4 #eca ,ibid4 p4 #b4 #ecb #b;d edit4 #ahdh1 p4 #baf4 #ecc ,s call$ f travell]s leav+ _! horses & mules !re :5 !y prep>e to asc5d ! cone on foot4 #ecd ,dufranoy1 ,mam4 p\r s]vir a une ,descrip4 ,geol4 de la ,france1 tom4 iv4 p4 #bid4 #ece ,descrip4 ,phys4 des ,iles ,can>ies1 p4 #cdd4 #ecf ,see ,daub5y's ,volcanoes1 p4 #djj4 #ecg ,geol4 ( ,am]ican ,explor4 ,exp$4 p4 #cei1 note4 ,mr4 ,dana in=m$ me 7,sept4 #aheb71 t an angle ( #fj degrees in/ead ( #cj degrees1 0 giv5 by mi/ake 9 8 "w4 #ech ,ibid4 p4 #ced4 #eci ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cda4 #edj ,see a pap] by ! ,au?or on ,crat]s ( ,d5udation1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahej4 #eda ,dufranoy1 ,mam4 p\r s]vir1 c4 tom4 iv4 p4 #bhe4 #edb ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 xv4 p4 #agg4 #edc ,voy4 dans la ,campanie1 tome i4 p4 #bja4 #edd ,mr4 ,=bes1 ,ed94 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 ,no4 xviii4 ,oct4 #ahbh4 #ede ,daub5y on ,volcanoes1 p4 #afi4 #edf ,scrope1 ,geol4 ,trans4 second s]ies1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cdf4 #edg ,monticelli & ,covelli1 ,prodrom4 della ,m9]al4 ,vesuv4 #edh ,! great eruption1 9 #ahbb1 caus$ a cov]+ only a few in*es ?ick on ,pompeii4 ,sev]al feet are m5tion$ by ,pr(4 ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes4--,ed4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce1 ,no4 xix4 p4 #aha1 ,jan4 #ahbi4 ,b he mu/ h measur$ 9 spots :]e x _h drift$4 ,! du/ & a%es 7 five feet ?ick at ! top ( ! crat]1 & decreas$ gradually to t5 in*es at ,torre del ,annunziata4 ,! size & weight ( ! eject$ fragm5ts dim9i%$ v regul>ly 9 ! same cont9u\s /ratum1 z ! di/ance f ! c5tre ( projection 0 great]4 #edi ,=bes1 ,ed4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 ,no4 xix4 p4 #acj1 ,jan4 #ahbi4 #eej ,scrope1 ,geol4 ,trans4 second s]ies1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cdf4 #eea ,napoli1 #ahaf4 #eeb ,n a few ( ! organic bodies1 call$ by ,ehr5b]g infusoria1 su* z ,galionella & ,bacill>ia1 h be5 rec5tly claim$ by _m botani/s z belong+ to ! vegetable k+dom1 & are ref]r$ to ! classes call$ ,diatomaceae & ,desmidiae4 #eec ,see ,ehr5b]g1 ,proce$+s 7,b]i*te7 ( ! ,royal ,acad4 ( ,sci4 ,b]l91 #ahdd1 #ahde1 & an excell5t ab/ract ( 8 pap]s by ,mr4 ,an/$ 9 ! ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ! ,geol4 ,soc4 ,london1 ,no4 #g1 ,aug4 #ahdf4 ,9 reg>d to m>9e infusoria f\nd 9 volcanic tuff2 x is well kn[n t on ! %ores ( ! isl& ( ,cephalonia 9 ! ,m$it]ranean 7,proce$+s1 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbj71 !re is a cavity 9 ! rock1 into :i* ! sea has be5 fl[+ = ages1 & _m o!rs d\btless exi/ 9 ! leaky bottom ( ! ocean4 ,! m>9e curr5t has be5 ru%+ 9 = _m ye>s1 & z ! infusoria inhabit+ ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean are exce$+ly abundant1 a va/ /ore ( _! cases may accumulate 9 subm>9e cav]ns 7! wat]1 p]haps1 be+ conv]t$ into /eam1 & s escap+ upw>ds71 & !y may !n be ca/ up aga9 to furni% ! mat]ials ( volcanic tuff1 %\ld an eruption occur l t :i* produc$ ,graham ,isl&1 (f ! coa/ ( ,sicily1 9 #ahca4 #eed ,hamilton1 ,obs]v4 on ,m\nt ,vesuvius1 p4 #id4 ,london1 #aggd4 #eee ,sw9burne & ,lal&e4 ,pad]ni1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ageh1 vol4 i4 p4 #fai4 #eef ,pr(4 ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes1 ,ed94 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 ,no4 xix4 p4 #acj1 ,jan4 #ahbi4 #eeg ,9 "o ( ! manuscripts :i* 0 9 ! h&s ( ! int]pret]s :5 ,i visit$ ! museum 9 #ahbh1 ! au?or indulges 9 ! speculation t all ! ,hom]ic p]sonages 7 allegorical--t ,agamemnon 0 ! e!r1 ,a*illes ! sun1 ,hel5 ! e>?1 ,p>is ! air1 ,hector ! moon1 c4 #eeh ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 ,consolations 9 ,travel1 p4 #ff4 #eei ,=sy?'s ,italy1 vol4 ii4 #efj ,9 #ahae1 ,capta9 ,smy? asc]ta9$1 trigonometrically1 t ! height ( ,etna 0 #aj1hgd feet4 ,! ,catanians1 disappo9t$ t _! m\nta9 _h lo/ ne>ly #bjjj feet ( ! height assign$ to x by ,recup]o1 refus$ to acquiesce 9 ! decision4 ,aft]w>ds1 9 #ahbd1 ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el1 n be+ aw>e ( ,capta9 ,smy?'s conclusions1 det]m9$ by c>eful b>ometrical measurem5t t ! height 0 #aj1hgb-a_/b feet4 ,?is s+ul> agreem5t ( results s diff]5tly obta9$ 0 spok5 ( by ,h]s*el z a happy accid5t2 b ,dr4 ,wolla/on rem>k$ t x 0 "o ( ^? accid5ts :i* w\ld n h happ5$ to two fools4 #efa ,book iii4 at ! end4 #efb ,! hill :i* ,i h "h introduc$ 0 call$ by my guide ,vampol>a1 b ! "n giv5 9 ! text is ! ne>e/ to ?is :i* ,i f9d 9 ,gemmell>o's ,catalogue ( ,m9or ,cones4 #efc ,mam4 p\r s]vir1 c4 tom4 iv4 p4 #aaf4 #efd ,see ,pr(4 ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahdf1 p4 #aee1 on ,velocity ( ,lava4 #efe ,f]r>a1 ,descriz4 dell' ,etna1 p4 #ajh4 #eff ,f]r>a1 ,descriz4 dell' ,etna4 ,pal]mo1 #ahah4 #efg ,?is view is tak5 f a sket* made by ,mr4 ,james ,bridges1 correct$ aft] comp>ison ) sev]al sket*es ( my own4 #efh ,scrope on ,volcanoes1 p4 #aec4 #efi ,?is draw+ is "p ( a panoramic sket* :i* ,i made f ! summit ( ! cone1 ,decemb] #a1 #ahbh1 :5 e "p ( ,etna 0 free f cl\ds except ! ,val del ,bove4 ,! small cone1 & ! crat] ne>e/ ! =egr\nd1 7 among ^? =m$ dur+ ! eruptions ( #ahaj & #ahaa4 #egj ,scrope on ,volcanoes1 p4 #ajb4 #ega ,f]>a1 ,descriz4 dell' ,etna1 p4 #aaf4 #egb ,mr4 ,nasmy?1 ! inv5tor ( ! /eam-hamm]1 has lately illu/rat$1 by a v /rik+ exp]im5t1 ! non-conductibility ( a ?9 lay] ( dry s& & clay4 ,into a caldron ( iron "o-f\r? ( an in* ?ick1 l9$ ) s& & clay five-eigh?s ( an in* ?ick1 he p\r$ eight tons ( melt$ iron at a :ite heat4 ,aft] ! fus$ metal _h be5 tw5ty m9utes 9 ! caldron ! palm ( ! h& c\ld be appli$ to ! outside )\t inconv5i5ce1 & aft] =ty m9utes !re 0 n heat en\gh to s+e writ+-pap]4 ,?is fact may help u to expla9 h[ /rata 9 contact ) dikes1 or b$s ( fus$ matt]1 h sometimes escap$ )\t p]ceptible alt]ation by heat4 #egc ,j\rn4 ( ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 vol4 i4 p4 #fd4 #egd ,h(fman1 ,geogno/4 ,beoba*tung51 p4 #gja4 ,b]l91 #ahci4 #ege ,mam4 p\r s]vir1 c41 tom4 iv4 ,p>is1 #ahch4 #egf ,geogno/4 ,beoba*tung51 c4 ,b]l91 #ahci4 #egg ,de ,beaumont1 ,mam4 p\r s]vir1 c4 tom4 iv4 pp4 #ahg1 #ahh4 #egh ,mam4 p\r s]vir1 tom4 iv4 p4 #adi4 #egi ,p4 #fb1 supra4 #ehj ,see p4 #cff4 #eha ,on ! ,longevity ( ,trees1 ,bibliot4 ,univ41 ,may1 #ahca4 #ehb ,s$gwick1 ,anniv4 ,address to ,geol4 ,soc4 p4 #ce4 ,feb4 #ahca4 #ehc ,von ,h(f1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cic4 #ehd ,! fir/ n>rative ( ! eruption 0 drawn up by ,/eph5son1 !n ,*ief ,ju/ice 9 ,icel&1 appo9t$ ,commission] by ! ,k+ ( ,d5m>k = e/imat+ ! damage done to ! c\ntry1 t relief might be af=d$ to ! suff]]s4 ,h5d]son 0 enabl$ to correct "s ( ! measurem5ts giv5 by ,/eph5son1 ( ! dep?1 wid?1 & l5g? ( ! lava curr5ts1 by ref]5ce to ! ,,ms4 ( ,mr4 ,paulson1 :o visit$ ! tract 9 #agid1 & exam9$ ! lava ) att5tion4 7,j\rnal ( a ,resid5ce 9 ,icel&1 c4 p4 #bbi47 ,"s ( ! pr9cipal facts are also corroborat$ by ,sir ,william ,hook]1 9 8 ,t\r 9 ,icel&1 vol4 ii4 p4 #abh4 #ehe ,h5d]son's ,j\rnal1 c4 p4 #bbh4 #ehf ,jameson's ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 xxvi4 p4 #bia4 #ehg ,tableau des ,t]ra9s qui compos5t l',ecorce du ,globe1 p4 #eb4 ,p>is1 #ahbi4 #ehh ,daub5y on ,volcanoes1 p4 #ccg4 #ehi ,see ,scrope on ,volcanoes1 p4 #bfg4 #eij ,leonh>d & ,bronn's ,neues ,jahrbu*1 #ahce1 p4 #cf4 #eia ,van d] ,boon ,mes*1 de ,inc5diis ,montium ,javae1 c4 ,lugd4 ,bat4 #ahbf2 & ,(ficial ,report ( ! ,presid5t1 ,b>on ,van d] ,capell52 also1 ,von ,bu*1 ,iles ,can>4 p4 #dbd4 #eib ,j\rn4 de ,gaol4 tome i4 #eic ,9 a =m] edition1 ,i select$ ! "n ( ,sciacca out ( sev5 :i* _h be5 propos$2 b ! ,royal & ,geographical ,societies h n[ adopt$ ,graham ,isl&2 a "n giv5 by ,capt4 ,s5h\se1 ,r4 ,n41 ! fir/ :o succe$$ 9 l&+ on x4 ,! sev5 rival names are ,n]ita1 ,f]d9&a1 ,ho?am1 ,graham1 ,corrao1 ,sciacca1 ,julia4 ,z ! isle 0 visible = only ab\t ?ree mon?s1 ?is is an in/ance ( a wanton multiplication ( synonyms :i* has sc>cely ev] be5 outdone ev5 9 ! annals ( zoology & botany4 #eid ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcb1 p4 #bee4 #eie ,j\rn4 ( ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 #ahcj-ca4 #eif ,phil4 ,trans4 "p4 ii4 #ahcb1 r$uc$ f draw+s by ,capt4 ,wodeh\se1 ,r4 ,n4 #eig ,9 ! annex$ sket* 7fig4 #fj71 drawn by ,m4 ,jo9ville1 :o accompani$ ,m4 ,c4 ,prevo/1 ! b$s seem to slope t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! crat]2 b ,i am in=m$ by ,m4 ,prevo/ t ^! l9es 7 n int5d$ by ! arti/ to repres5t ! dip ( ! b$s4 #eih ,see ,memoir by ,m4 ,c4 ,prevo/1 ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 tom4 xxiv4 #eii ,geol4 ( ,fife & ! ,lo?ians1 p4 #da4 ,ed94 #ahci4 #fjj ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcb1 p4 #bdc4 #fja ,ibid4 p4 #bdi4 #fjb ,d>w9's ,volcanic ,isl&s1 p4 #ib4 #fjc ,ibid4 p4 #f4 #fjd ,?is acc\nt 0 pr9cipally d]iv$ by ,von ,bu* f ! ,,ms4 ( ,don ,&rea ,lor5zo ,curbeto1 curate ( ,yaira1 ! po9t :]e ! eruption began4--,ueb] e95 vulcanis*5 ,ausbru* auf d] ,insel ,lanz]ote4 #fje ,f>ussac1 ,bullet9 des ,sci4 ,nat4 tome v4 p4 #de3 #ahbe4 #fjf ,comptes ,r5dus ,acad4 ,sci4 ,p>is1 ,ju91 #ahdf4 #fjg ,virlet1 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 iii4 p4 #ajc4 #fjh ,phil4 ,trans4 ,no4 #ccb4 #fji ,e4 ,=bes1 ,brit4 ,association1 ,report = #ahdc4 #faj ,see a pap] read to ! ,geographical ,society 9 #ahdi4 #faa ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tome iii4 #fab ,virlet1 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tome iii4 p4 #ajc4 #fac ,pogg5dorf's ,annal51 #ahcf1 p4 #ahc4 #fad ,see ,admiralty ,*>t1 ) views & sections1 #ahdb4 #fae ,= height ( cone & ref]5ces1 see ,bui/1 ,volcanoes ( ,india1 ,trans4 ,bombay ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 x4 p4 #adc4 #faf ,humboldt's ,cosmos4 #fag ,daub5y1 ,volcanoes1 p4 #bfg4 #fah ,see ,bui/1 ,volcanoes ( ,india1 ,trans4 ,bombay ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 x4 p4 #aed1 & ,capta9 ,rob]tson1 ,j\rn4 ( ,roy4 ,asiat4 ,soc4 #ahej4 #fai ,see ,gloss>y4 #fbj ,buns51 ,volcanic ,rocks ( ,icel&4 #fba ,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bjf4 #fbb ,s9ce ! publication ( ! fir/ edition ( ?is "w1 num]\s acc\nts ( rec5t e>?quakes h be5 publi%$2 b z !y d n illu/rate any new pr9ciple1 ,i _c ins]t !m1 z !y w\ld enl>ge too mu* ! size ( my "w4 ,! late ,von ,h(f publi%$ f "t to "t1 9 ,pogg5dorf's ,annal51 li/s ( e>?quakes :i* happ5$ betwe5 #ahba & #ahcf2 &1 by consult+ ^!1 ! read] w p]ceive t e mon? is signaliz$ by "o or _m convulsions 9 "s "p ( ! globe4 ,see also ,mallet's ,dynamics ( ,e>?quakes1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,iri% ,acad4 #ahdf2 & ,e>?quakes1 ,admiralty ,manual1 #ahdi2 also ,hopk9s' ,report1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdg-h4 #fbc ,d>w91 ,geol4 ,proce$+s1 vol4 ii4 p4 #feh4 #fbd ,dum\l91 ,comptes ,r5dus de l',acad4 des ,sci4 ,oct4 #ahch1 p4 #gjf4 #fbe ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcf1 p4 #ba4 #fbf ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbf4 #fbg ,d>w9's ,j\rn4 ( ,travels 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,voyage ( ,beagle1 p4 #cgb4 #fbh ,biblio?4 ,univ4 ,oct4 #ahbh1 p4 #aeg4 #fbi ,phil4 ,mag4 ,july #ahbh1 p4 #cg4 #fcj ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 i4 #b;d s]41 & ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 #ahbd1 vol4 xvii4 p4 #dj4 #fca ,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 i4 #b;d s]4 p4 #dae4 #fcb ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 vol4 xvii4 p4 #db4 #fcc ,reise um die ,erde2 & see ,dr4 ,mey5's lett] cit$ ,=eign ,qu>t4 ,rev4 ,no4 #cc1 p4 #ac1 #ahcf4 #fcd ,geol4 ,soc4 ,proce$+s1 ,no4 xl4 p4 #agi1 ,feb4 #ahce4 #fce ,proce$4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ddg4 #fcf ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 i4 #b;d s]4 p4 #dae4 #fcg ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 xvii4 pp4 #dj1 #de4 #fch ,see ,asiatic ,j\rnal1 vol4 i4 #fci ,macmurdo ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn4 iv4 #ajf4 #fdj ,i 0 indebt$ to my fri5d ! late ,sir ,alex&] ,burnes = ! accompany+ sket* 7fig4 #gb7 ( ! =t ( ,s9dree1 z x appe>$ elev5 ye>s be=e ! e>?quake4 #fda ,?is ,memoir is n[ 9 ! ,libr>y ( ! ,royal ,asiatic ,society ( ,london4 #fdb ,sev]al p>ticul>s n giv5 9 ! e>li] edition 7 aft]w>ds obta9$ by me f p]sonal communication ) ,sir ,a4 ,burnes 9 ,london4 #fdc ,capt4 ,burnes' ,acc\nt4 #fdd ,capt4 ,macmurdo's ,memoir1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ajf4 #fde ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ajc4 #fdf ,,ms4 ( ,j4 ,crawfurd1 ,esq4 #fdg ,raffles' ,java1 vol4 i4 p4 #bh4 #fdh ,raffles' ,hi/1 ( ,java1 vol4 i4 p4 #be4 ,ed4 ,phil ,j\rn4 vol4 iii4 p4 #chi4 #fdi ,life & ,s]vices ( ,sir ,/am=d ,raffles1 p4 #bda4 ,london1 #ahcj4 #fej ,humboldt's ,p]s4 ,n>4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ab2 & ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 i4 p4 #bgb3 #ahai4 #fea ,cram]'s ,navigator1 p4 #bdc4 ,pittsburgh1 #ahba4 #feb ,long's ,exp$4 to ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 vol4 iii4 p4 #ahd4 #fec ,silliman's ,j\rn4 ,jan4 #ahbi4 #fed ,see ,lyell's ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 *4 xxxiii4 #fee ,bem]kung5 auf e9] ,reise um die ,welt4 bd4 ii4 s4 #bji4 #fef ,neue ,allgem4 ,geogr4 ,ephem]4 bd4 iii4 s4 #cdh4 #feg ,cavanilles1 ,j\rn4 de ,phys4 tome xlix4 p4 #bcj4 ,gilb]t's ,annal51 bd4 vi4 ,humboldt's ,voy4 p4 #cag4 #feh ,humboldt's ,voy41 ,relat4 ,hi/41 "p4 i4 p4 #cji4 #fei ,macgregor's ,travels 9 ,am]ica4 #ffj ,humboldt's ,voy41 ,relat4 ,hi/41 "p4 ii4 p4 #fcb4 #ffa ,f]r>a1 ,camp4 fl41 p4 #ea4 #ffb ,batav4 ,trans1 vol4 viii4 p4 #ada4 #ffc ,i/oria de',tremuoti della ,calabria del #aghc4 #ffd ,descriz de',tremuoti ,accad4 nelle ,calabria nel #aghc4 ,napoli1 #aghd4 #ffe ,i/oria de' ,f5om5i del ,tremoto1 c41 nell' ,an4 #aghc1 po/a 9 luce dalla ,real4 ,accad41 c4 di ,nap4 ,napoli1 #aghc1 fol4 #fff ,diss]tation on ! ,calabrian ,e>?quake1 c41 translat$ 9 ,p9k]ton's ,voyages & ,travels1 vol4 v4 #ffg ,proce$4 ,roy4 ,iri% ,acad4 #ahdf1 p4 #bf4 #ffh ,j\rnal ( a ,naturali/1 p4 #cgf1 & ii4 ib4 #cjh4 #ffi ,proce$+s ,roy4 ,iri% ,acad4 #ahdf1 pp4 #ad-af4 #fgj ,see ,mr4 ,mallet's attempt to controv]t ?is view1 p4 #cb ibid4 #fga ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 lxxiii4 p4 #ahj4 #fgb ,p9k]ton's ,voyages & ,travels1 vol4 v4 z cit$ above1 p4 #dee1 note4 #fgc ,dolomieu1 ibid4 #fgd ,sir ,h4 ,davy's ,consolations 9 ,travel1 p4 #bdf4 #fge ,dr4 ,horsfield1 ,batav4 ,trans4 vol4 viii4 p4 #bf4 ,dr4 ,h4 in=ms me t he has se5 ?is truncat$ m\nta92 &1 ?\gh he did n asc5d x1 he has conv]s$ ) ^? :o h exam9$ x4 ,raffles' acc\nt 7,hi/ory ( ,java1 vol4 i47 is d]iv$ f ,horsfield4 #fgf ,essai sur l',hi/4 ,nat4 de l',isle de ,/4 ,dom+ue4 ,p>is1 #aggf4 #fgg ,hi/4 de l',acad4 des ,sci5ces4 #ageb1 ,p>is4 #fgh ,m',clell&'s ,report on ,m94 ,res\rces ( ,india3 #ahch1 ,calcutta4 ,= o!r p>ticul>s1 see ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 liii4 #fgi ,j\rn4 ,asiat4 ,soc4 ,b5gal1 vol4 x4 pp4 #cea1 #dcc4 #fhj ,hi/1 & ,philos4 ( ,e>?quakes1 p4 #cag4 #fha ,cosmos1 vol4 i4 #fhb ,rev4 ,c4 ,davy's ,lett]s1 vol4 ii4 ,lett] ii4 p4 #ab1 :o 0 at ,lisbon at ! "t1 & asc]ta9$ t ! boats & vessels said to h be5 swall[$ 7 miss+4 #fhc ,on ! ,=mation ( ! ,e>?1 p4 #ee4 #fhd ,geol4 ,soc4 ,proce$+s1 ,no4 #fj1 p4 #cf4 #ahch4 #fhe ,mi*ell on ,e>?quakes1 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 li4 p4 #eff4 #agfj4 #fhf ,mi*ell1 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 li4 p4 #fad4 #fhg ,qu>t]ly ,review1 ,no4 lxxxvi4 p4 #dei4 #fhh ,d>w9's ,travels 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 c41 #ahcb to #ahcf4 ,voyage ( ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,beagle1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cgg4 #fhi ,ann4 de ,*4 et de ,ph41 tom4 xxii4 p4 #dbh4 #fij ,mallet1 ,proce$4 ,roy4 ,iri% ,acad4 #ahdf4 #fia ,see ,fa!r ,aco/a's "w2 & ,sir ,woodb9e ,p>i%1 ,geol ,soc4 ,proce$+s1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bae4 #fib ,mol9a1 ,hi/4 ( ,*ili1 vol4 ii4 #fic ,capta9 ,bel*] has %[n me ^! %ells1 & ! collection has be5 exam9$ by ,mr4 ,brod]ip4 #fid ,ulloa's ,voyage to ,s\? ,am]ica1 vol4 ii4 book viii4 *4 vi4 #fie ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 book vii4 *4 vii4 #fif ,ulloa's ,voyage1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hb4 #fig ,waf]1 cit$ by ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%1 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,proce$+s1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bae4 #fih ,hi/4 ( ,am]ica1 decad4 iii4 book xi4 *4 i4 #fii ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 p4 #dea4 #gjj ,ibid4 p4 #dac4 #gja ,misspelt ,sales 9 ,hooke's ,acc\nt4 #gjb ,hooke's ,po/hum\s ,works1 p4 #dcg4 #agje4 #gjc ,phil4 ,trans4 #agjj4 #gjd ,humboldt1 ,atl4 ,pit4 p4 #ajf4 #gje ,phil4 ,trans4 #afic-d4 #gjf ,phil4 ,trans4 #afic4 #gjg ,manual ( ,geol4 p4 #acc1 second edition4 #gjh ,vol4 i4 p4 #bce1 #hvo ed4 #c vols4 #ahja4 #gji ,lett] to ! ,au?or1 ,may1 #ahch4 #gaj ,phil4 ,trans4 #afid4 #gaa ,?is view ( ! temple 7sub/itut$ = "o by ,a4 de ,jorio1 giv5 9 ! e>li] editions7 has be5 r$uc$ f "p ( a beautiful color$ draw+ tak5 9 #ahcf1 ) ! aid ( ! cam]a lucida1 by ,mr4 l',anson to illu/rate a pap] by ,mr4 ,babbage on ! temple1 read ,m>*1 #ahcd1 & publi%$ 9 ! ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ! ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,london1 vol4 iii4 #ahdg4 #gab ,mr4 ,babbage exam9$ ?is spot 9 company ) ,sir ,edmund ,head 9 ,june1 #ahbh1 & has %[n me num]\s specim5s ( ! %ells collect$ !re1 & 9 ! ,temple ( ,s]apis4 #gac ,?is view is tak5 f ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton1 ,campi ,phlegraei1 plate #bf4 #gad ,?is spot "h indicat$ on ! summit ( ! cliff is t f :i* ,hamilton's view1 plate #bf1 ,campi ,phlegraei 7r$uc$ 9 fig4 #hh1 p4 #eji7 is tak51 & on :i*1 he says1 ,cic]o's villa1 call$ ! ,academia1 anci5tly /ood4 #gae ,on ! au?ority ( ,capta9 ,w4 ,h4 ,smy?1 ,r4 ,n4 #gaf ,diss]tazione sulla ,sagra ,ar*ittetura degli ,anti*i4 #gag ,?is appe>s f ! measurem5t ( ,capta9 ,basil ,hall1 ,r4 ,n41 ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc41 ,no4 #ch1 p4 #aad2 see also ,pat*work1 by ! same au?or1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aeh4 ,! fact ( ! ?ree /&+ columns hav+ be5 ea* =m$ out ( a s+le /one 0 fir/ po9t$ out to me by ,mr4 ,james ,hall1 & is important1 z help+ to expla9 :y !y 7 n %ak5 d[n4 #gah ,modiola li?ophaga1 ,lam4 ,mytilus li?ophagus1 ,l9n4 #gai ,s]pula contortuplicata1 ,l9n41 & ,v]milia triquetra1 ,lam4 ,^! species1 z well z ! ,li?odomus1 are n[ inhabitants ( ! neighbor+ sea4 #gbj ,brieslak1 ,voy4 dans la ,campanie1 tom4 ii4 p4 #afg4 #gba ,ed4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce1 new s]ies1 ,no4 ,,ii4 p4 #bha4 #gbb ,sul ,tempio di ,s]ap4 *4 viii4 #gbc ,tavola ,metrica ,*ronologica1 c4 ,napoli1 #ahch4 ,mr4 ,smi?1 ( ,jordan ,hill1 writ+ 9 #ahdg1 e/imat$ ! rate ( subsid5ce1 at t p]iod1 at "o in* annually4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bcg4 #gbd ,voy4 dans la ,campanie1 tome ii4 p4 #afb4 #gbe ,mr4 ,=bes1 ,physical ,notices ( ! ,bay ( ,naples4 ,ed4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci41 ,no4 ,,ii41 new s]ies1 p4 #bhj4 ,octob]1 #ahbi4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ,puzzuoli1 & arriv$ at ! above conclusions1 ,i knew no?+ ( ,mr4 ,=bes's obs]vations1 :i* ,i fir/ saw on my return to ,engl& ! ye> foll[+4 #gbf ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahdg1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bjc4 #gbg ,nuove ,ric]*e sul ,temp4 di ,s]ap4 #gbh ,! ,sw$i% measure sc>cely diff]s f ours2 ! foot be+ divid$ into twelve in*es1 & be+ less ?an ours by ?ree-eigh?s ( an in* only4 #gbi ,= a full acc\nt ( ! ,celsian controv]sy1 we may ref] our read]s to ,von ,h(f1 ,ges*i*te1 c4 vol4 i4 p4 #dci4 #gcj ,piteo1 ,luleo1 & ,obo are spelt1 9 _m ,engli% maps1 ,pitea1 ,lulea1 ,abo2 ! a is n s\nd$ 9 ! ,sw$i% diph?ong ao or a4 #gca ,sect4 #cic4 #gcb ,sect4 #cih4 #gcc ,transl4 ( 8 ,travels1 p4 #chg4 #gcd ,9 ! e>li] editions ,i express$ _m d\bts z to ! validity ( ! pro(s ( a gradual rise ( l& 9 ,sw$54 ,a detail$ /atem5t ( ! obs]vations :i* ,i made 9 #ahcd1 & :i* l$ me to *ange my op9ion1 w be f\nd 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahce1 "p i4 #gce ,see ,pr(essor ,john/on's ,pap]1 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 #bi1 ,july #ahcc2 & my rem>ks1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 p4 #ab4 #gcf ,see p4 #ebb2 also *ap4 #ae1 supra4 #gcg ,see a pap] by ! ,au?or1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 "p i4 #gch ,see my pap] be=e ref]r$ to1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahhe1 "p i4 p4 #h1 #i4 ,attempts h be5 s9ce made to expla9 away ! position ( ?is hut1 by conjectur+ t a m rec5t tr5* _h be5 previ\sly dug "h1 :i* _h become fill$ up 9 "t by s& drift$ by ! w9d4 ,! eng9e]s :o sup]9t5d$ ! works 9 #ahai1 & ) :om ,i conv]s$1 _h consid]$ e hypo!sis ( ! k9d1 b c\ld n s expla9 ! facts4 #gci ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #d1 p4 #ecd4 ,m4 ,bravais' obs]vations 7 v]ifi$ 9 #ahdi by ,mr4 ,r4 ,*amb]s 9 8 ,trac+s ( ,n4 ( ,europe1 p4 #bjh4 #gdj ,see ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #db1 p4 #bjh4 ,i also conv]s$ ) ,dr4 ,p+el on ! subject at ,cop5hag5 9 #ahcd4 #gda ,keilhau1 ,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,gaol de ,france1 tom4 vii4 p4 #ah4 #gdb ,illu/4 ( ,hutt4 ,!ory1 ,section #dce-ddc4 #gdc ,h]s*el's ,a/ronomy1 *ap4 iii4 #gdd ,see ,h5nessy1 ,on ,*anges 9 ,e>?'s ,figure1 c4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,dubl91 #ahdi2 & ,proc4 ,roy4 ,iri% ,acad4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ccg4 #gde ,"y's ,lectures1 & ,mrs4 ,som]ville's ,connection ( ! ,physical ,sci5ces1 p4 #ij4 #gdf ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahci1 & ,rese>*es 9 ,physical ,geology1 #a/1 #b;d1 & #c;d s]ies1 ,london1 #ahci-ahdb2 also on ,ph5om5a & ,!ory ( ,volcanoes1 ,report ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdg4 #gdg ,ed4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 ,april1 #ahcb4 #gdh ,cordi]1 ,mam4 de l',in/it4 tom4 vii4 #gdi ,pog4 ,ann4 tom4 xv4 p4 #aei4 #gej ,see ,m4 ,cordi]'s ,memoir on ! ,temp]ature ( ! ,int]ior ( ! ,e>?1 read to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 #d? ,june1 #ahbg4--;,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 ,no4 viii4 p4 #bgc4 #gea ,cordi]1 ,mam4 de l',in/it4 tom4 vii4 #geb ,phil4 ,mag4 & ,ann4 ,feb4 #ahcj4 #gec ,! heat 0 measur$ 9 ,w$gwood's pyromet] by ! contraction ( pure clay1 :i* is r$uc$ 9 volume :5 heat$1 fir/ by ! loss ( its wat] ( comb9ation1 & aft]w>ds1 on ! application ( m int5se heat1 by incipi5t vitrification4 ,! expansion ( plat9a is ! te/ employ$ by ,mr4 ,daniell 9 8 pyromet]1 & ?is has be5 f\nd to yield uni=m & con/ant results1 su* z are 9 p]fect h>mony ) conclusions drawn f v>i\s o!r indep5d5t s\rces4 ,! in/rum5t = :i* ! au?or receiv$ ! ,rum=d ,m$al f ! ,royal ,society1 9 #ahcc1 is describ$ 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcj1 "p ii41 & #ahca1 "p ii4 #ged ,! above rem>ks are repr9t$ v]batim f my ?ird edition1 ,may1 #ahcd4 ,a memoir 0 aft]w>ds communicat$ by ,m4 ,poisson to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ,janu>y1 #ahcg1 on ! solid p>ts ( ! globe1 conta9+ an epitome ( a "w entitl$ ,?aorie ,ma?amatique de la ,*aleur1 publi%$ 9 #ahce4 ,9 ?is memoir he controv]ts ! doctr9e ( ! high temp]ature ( a c5tral fluid on simil> gr\nds to ^? above /at$4 ,he imag9es1 t if ! globe ev] pass$ f a liquid to a solid /ate by radiation ( heat1 ! c5tral nucleus mu/ h begun to cool & consolidate fir/4 #gee ,consolations 9 ,travel1 p4 #bga4 #gef ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcj1 p4 #cii4 #geg ,biblio?4 ,univ]s4 #ahcc1 ,electricita4 #geh ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcb1 p4 #agf2 also pp4 #agb1 #agc1 c4 #gei ,hi/4 ,mundi1 lib4 ii4 c4 #ajg4 #gfj ,r$uc$1 by p]mission1 f a figure 9 plate #dj ( ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e's ,geological ,sections & ,views4 #gfa ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbh1 p4 #bej4 #gfb ,geology ( ,am]ican ,explor+ ,exp$ition1 p4 #cfi4 #gfc ,davy1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbh1 p4 #bdd4 #gfd ,ann4 de ,*im4 et de ,phys4 tom4 iii4 p4 #aha4 #gfe ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcb1 p4 #bdj4 #gff ,ann4 de ,*im4 et de ,phys4 tom4 xxii4 #gfg ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 #ahbc1 p4 #acb1 note by editor4 #gfh ,ph5om4 ,gaol4 c4 p4 #c4 #gfi ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahbh4 #ggj ,see ,daub5y1 ,encyc4 ,metrop4 "p #dj4 #gga ,jam4 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 li4 p4 #ca4 #ggb ,see ,daub5y's ,reply to ,bis*(f1 ,jam4 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 lii4 p4 #bia2 & note 9 ,no4 liii4 p4 #aeh4 #ggc ,pogg5d4 ,ann4 #ahea translat$1 ,sci4 ,mem4 #aheb4 #ggd ,proce$4 ,am]ic4 ,assoc4 #ahdi4 #gge ,r$uc$ f a sket* giv5 by ,sir ,w4 ,j4 ,hook]1 9 8 ,t\r 9 ,icel&1 vol4 i4 p4 #adi4 #ggf ,j\rnal ( a ,resid5ce 9 ,icel&1 p4 #gd4 #ggg ,mack5zie's ,icel&4 #ggh ,,ms4 read to ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,london1 ,feb4 #bi1 #ahcb4 #ggi ,f ,sir ,george ,mack5zie's ,icel&4 #ghj ,see ,mr4 ,horn]'s ,anniv]s>y ,address1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahdg1 liii4 #gha ,liebig's ,annal5 d] ,*imie und ,ph>macie1 translat$ 9 ,reports & ,memoirs ( ,cav5di% ,soc4 ,london1 #ahdh4 #ghb ,on ! ,cause & ,ph5om5a ( ,e>?quakes1 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 li4 sec4 #eh1 #agfj4 #ghc ,trans4 ( ,assoc4 ( ,am]ican ,geol4 #ahdj-ahdb1 p4 #ebj4 #ghd ,mallet1 p4 #ci4 #ghe ,scrope on ,volcanoes1 pp4 #eh-fj4 #ghf ,ar*iac1 ,hi/1 des ,progras de la ,gaol1 #ahdg1 vol4 i4 pp4 #fje-faj4 #ghg ,silliman's ,am]ican ,j\rn4 vol4 xxii4 p4 #acf4 ,! application ( ^! results to ! !ory ( e>?quakes 0 fir/ sugge/$ to me by ,mr4 ,babbage4 #ghh ,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 iv4 p4 #acab4 #ghi ,see p4 #dfh4 #gij ,phil4 ,zool4 tom4 i4 p4 #hd4 #gia ,phil4 ,zool4 tom4 i4 p4 #fb4 #gib ,ibid4 #gic ,phil4 ,zool4 tom4 i4 p4 #bbg4 #gid ,ibid4 p4 #bcb4 #gie ,phil4 ,zool4 tom4 i4 p4 #bcd4 #gif ,phil4 ,zool4 p4 #fd4 #gig ,animaux sans ,v]t4 tom4 i4 p4 #ef1 ,introduction4 #gih ,lam>ck's ,phil4 ,zool4 tom4 i4 p4 #cef4 #gii ,ibid4 p4 #ceg4 #hjj ,g5us omne e/ naturale1 9 primordio tale creatum1 c4 ,phil4 ,bot4 ,section #aei4 ,see also ibid4 ,section #afb4 #hja ,cuvi]1 ,disc\rs ,pralim94 p4 #abh4 #hjb ,phil4 ,zool4 tom4 i4 p4 #bff4 #hjc ,dureau de la ,malle1 ,an4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 tom4 xxi4 p4 #ec4 ,sept4 #ahcj4 #hjd ,disc4 ,pral4 p4 #aci4 six? edition4 #hje ,ibid4 #hjf ,guld5/adt1 cit$ by ,prit*>d1 ,phys4 ,hi/4 ( ,mank9d1 vol4 i4 p4 #if4 #hjg ,hi/ory ( ,briti% ,quadrup$s1 p4 #bjj4 #ahcg4 #hjh ,ann4 du ,musaum d',hi/4 ,nat4 tom4 i4 p4 #bcd4 #ahjb4 ,! report]s 7 ,,mm4 ,cuvi]1 ,lacap$e1 & ,lam>ck4 #hji ,i by no means wi% to express an op9ion t se$s _c reta9 _! vitality aft] an entombm5t ( #c1jjj ye>s2 b "o ( my botanical fri5ds :o ent]ta9$ a philosophical d\bt on ?is subject1 be+ desir\s ( asc]ta9+ ! tru? ( ?ree or f\r alleg$ in/ances ( ! g]m9ation ( mummy :eat1 discov]$1 on communicat+ ) sev]al ,egyptian travell]s1 t !y _h procur$ ! gra9s 9 "q1 n directly f ! catacombs1 b f ! ,arabs1 :o are always ready to supply /rang]s ) an article n[ v frequ5tly 9 dem&4 ,! pres5ce ( an occasional gra9 ( ,indian corn or maize 9 sev]al ( ! p>cels ( gra9 %[n to my fri5d z com+ f ! catacombs confirm$ 8 scepticism4 #haj ,phil4 ,zool41 tom4 i4 p4 #bbg4 #haa ,l',orig9e et la ,patrie des ,c>aales1 c41 ,annales des ,sci5ces ,natur41 tom4 ix4 p4 #fa4 #hab ,smi?'s ,introduction to ,botany1 p4 #ach1 edit4 #ahjg4 #hac ,see ,mr4 ,knight's ,obs]vations1 ,hort ,trans41 vol4 ii4 p4 #afj4 #had ,hort4 ,trans4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ai4 #hae ,l\don's ,mag4 ( ,nat4 ,hi/41 ,sept4 #ahcj1 vol4 iii4 p4 #djh4 #haf ,hort4 ,trans4 vol4 iii4 p4 #agc4 #hag ,m4 ,r\l91 ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 tom4 xvi4 p4 #af4 #ahbi4 #hah ,mem4 du ,mus4 d',hi/4 ,nat4--,jameson1 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,nos4 #f1 #g1 #h4 #hai ,9 ! ,new ,=e/1 ne> ,r+wood1 ,hants1 by ,mr4 ,toom]1 keep] ( ,broomy ,lodge4 ,i h conv]s$ ) witnesses ( ! fact4 #hbj ,mam4 du ,mus4 d',hi/4 ,nat4 #hba ,dureau de la ,malle4 ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat41 tom4 xxi4 p4 #eh4 #hbb ,d>w9's ,j\rn4 9 ,voyage ( ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle1 p4 #dge4 #hbc ,fauna ,boreali-,am]icana1 p4 #bgc4 #hbd ,mr4 ,corse on ! ,habits1 c4 ( ! ,elephant1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #agii4 #hbe ,l9n4 ,trans4 vol4 xiii4 p4 #bdd4 #hbf ,p]s4 ,n>r4 ( ,travels to ! ,equ9octial ,regions ( ! ,new ,cont95t 9 ! ye>s #aggi-ahjd4 #hbg ,phil4 ,trans4 #aghg4 ,additional ,rem>ks1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aghi4 ,see also ,essays by ! late ,dr4 ,samuel ,g4 ,morton1 on ,prolific ,hybrids1 c42 & on ,hybridity z a ,te/ ( ,species4--,am]ican ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce1 vol4 iii4 #ahdg4 #hbh ,pri*>d1 vol4 i4 p4 #bag4 #hbi ,ibid4 p4 #ig4 #hcj ,see ,b>ton on ! ,geography ( ,plants1 p4 #fg4 #hca ,georg4 lib4 iii4 #bgc4 #hcb ,hon4 & ,rev4 ,w4 ,h]b]t1 ,hort4 ,trans41 vol4 iv4 p4 #da4 #hcc ,ibid4 #hcd ,essai ,elam5taire1 c41 #cme p>tie4 #hce ,intr4 to ,entom4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ejd4 ed4 #ahag4 #hcf ,pri*>d's ,phys4 ,hi/4 ( ,mank9d1 vol4 i4 p4 #aei4 #hcg ,*4 ,:ite on ! ,regul> ,gradation 9 ,man1 c4 #agii4 #hch ,r4 ,g4 ,la?am1 ,! ,nat4 ,hi/4 ( ! ,v>ieties ( ,man1 #hvo4 ,london1 #ahej4 #hci ,lawr5ce1 ,lectures on ,phys4 ,zool4 & ,nat4 ,hi/4 ( ,man1 p4 #aij4 ,ed4 #ahbc4 #hdj ,e4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s]res1 ,anatomie comp>ae du ,c]veau1 illu/rat$ by num]\s plates1 tome i4 #ahbd4 #hda ,b>ton's ,lectures on ! ,geography ( ,plants1 p4 #b4 #ahbg4 #hdb ,p]s4 ,n>41 vol4 v4 p4 #ahj4 #hdc ,ibid4 #hdd ,essai ,elam5taire de ,gaographie ,botanique4 ,extrait du #ahme vol4 du ,dict4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 #hde ,pri*>d1 vol4 i4 p4 #cf4 ,br[n1 ,app5dix to ,fl9d]s4 #hdf ,fo/]1 ,obs]vations1 c4 #hdg ,humboldt1 ,p]s4 ,n>41 vol4 i4 p4 #bgj ( ! translation4 ,pri*>d1 ,phys4 ,hi/4 ( ,mank9d1 vol4 i4 p4 #cg4 #hdh ,voyage ( ! ,beagle1 #b;d edition1 #ahde1 p4 #cgg4 #hdi ,see a f>!r subdivision1 by :i* tw5ty-sev5 prov9ces are made1 by ,m4 ,alph4 ,de ,c&olle1 son ( ,de ,c&olle4 ,monogr4 des ,campanulaes4 ,p>is1 #ahcj4 #hej ,de ,c&olle1 ,essai ,elam54 de ,gaog4 ,botan41 p4 #de4 #hea ,i am indebt$ = ! above sket* ( di/9ct regions ( algae to my fri5d ,dr4 ,joseph ,hook]1 :o ref]s ! botanical /ud5t to ! labors ( ,dr4 ,h>vey1 ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl94 #heb ,annuaire du ,bureau des ,longitudes4 #hec ,l9n41 ,t\r 9 ,lapl&1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bhb4 #hed ,fries1 cit$ by ,l9dley1 ,introd4 to ,nat4 ,sy/4 ( ,botany4 #hee ,sy/em ( ,physiological ,botany1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dje4 #hef ,br[n1 ,app5d4 to ,tuckey1 ,no4 v4 p4 #dha4 #heg ,phil4 ,trans4 #afif4 #heh ,sy/em ( ,physiological ,botany1 vol4 ii4 p4 #djc4 #hei ,greville1 ,introduction to ,algae ,britannicae1 p4 #ab4 #hfj ,l9naeus1 ,amo54 ,acad41 vol4 ii4 p4 #dji4 #hfa ,amo54 ,acad41 vol4 iv4 ,essay #ge4 ,section #h4 #hfb ,ibid41 vol4 vi4 ,section #bb4 #hfc ,smi?'s ,introd4 to ,phys4 & ,sy/4 ,botany1 p4 #cjd4 #ahjg4 #hfd ,?is in=mation 0 communicat$ to me by ,pr(essor ,h5sl[1 ( ,cambridge4 #hfe ,book iii4 *4 iv4 #hff ,de ,c&olle1 ,essai ,elam54 c41 p4 #ej4 #hfg ,qu>t]ly ,review1 vol4 xxx4 p4 #h4 #hfh ,essay on ! ,habitable ,e>?1 ,amo54 ,acad41 vol4 ii4 p4 #dji4 #hfi ,pr9ciples ( ,botany1 p4 #chi4 #hgj ,ibid4 #hga ,buffon1 vol4 v4--,on ! 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figure is tak54 #hhg ,app5d4 to ,p>ry's ,second ,voyage1 ye>s #ahai-bj4 #hhh ,acc\nt ( ! ,arctic ,regions1 vol4 i4 p4 #eah4 #hhi ,turton 9 a note to ,goldsmi?'s ,nat4 ,hi/41 vol4 iii4 p4 #dc4 #hij ,supplem5t to ,p>ry's ,fir/ ,voyage ( ,discov]y1 p4 #ahi4 #hia ,goldman's ,am]ican ,nat4 ,hi/41 vol4 i4 p4 #bb4 #hib ,dr4 ,ri*>dson1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 vol4 v4 p4 #afa4 #hic ,sy/em ( ,geography1 vol4 v4 p4 #aeg4 #hid ,spix & ,m>tius1 ,reise1 c41 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ajaa4 #ajac4 #hie ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%'s ,bu5os ,ayres1 p4 #ahg41 & ,rob]tson's ,lett]s on ,p>aguay1 p4 #bbj4 #hif ,unit$ ,s]vice ,j\rnal1 ,no4 xxiv4 p4 #fig4 #hig ,krantz1 vol4 i4 p4 #abi41 cit$ by ,goldsmi?1 ,nat4 ,hi/41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bfj4 #hih ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 c41 p4 #dfa4 #hii ,pri*>d1 vol4 i4 p4 #dg4 #ijj ,bewick's ,birds1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bid41 :o cites ,la?am4 #ija ,pisa1 #ahbg 7n sold74 #ijb ,ba*man1 ,silliman's ,am]4 ,j\rn41 ,no4 #fa1 p4 #ib4 #ijc ,voyage aux ,ragions ,equ9oxiales1 tome vii4 p4 #dbi4 #ijd ,flem+1 ,phil4 ,zool41 vol4 ii4 p4 #dc4 #ije ,silliman's ,am]4 ,j\rn41 ,no4 #fa4 p4 #hc4 #ijf ,ri*>dson1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep41 vol4 v4 p4 #bjb4 #ijg ,brit4 ,animals1 p4 #adi41 :o cites ,sibbald4 #ijh ,zool4 ,j\rn4 vol iii4 p4 #djf4 ,dec4 #ahbg4 #iji ,sur les ,habitations des ,animaux ,m>9s4--,ann4 du ,mus41 tome4 xv41 cit$ by ,pri*>d1 ,phys4 ,hi/4 ( ,mank9d1 vol4 i4 p4 #ea4 #iaj ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,reports1 vol4 v4 p4 #bjc4 #iaa ,report to ! ,brit4 ,assoc41 #ahde1 p4 #aib4 #iab ,ri*>dson1 ibid4 p4 #aij4 #iac ,sir ,j4 ,ri*>dson1 ibid4 p4 #aij4 #iad ,phil4 ,trans4 #agdg1 p4 #cie4 #iae ,amo54 ,acad41 ,essay #ge4 #iaf ,report to ! ,brit ,assoc4 #ahdc1 p4 #acj4 #iag ,qu>t4 ,j\rn41 ,geol4 ,soc41 #ahdf1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bfh4 #iah ,f\r individuals ( a l>ge species ( l& %ell 7,bulimus71 f ,valp>aiso1 7 br\ght to ,engl& by ,lieut5ant ,graves1 :o accompani$ ,capta9 ,k+ 9 8 exp$ition to ! ,/raits ( ,magellan4 ,!y _h be5 pack$ up 9 a box1 & envelop$ 9 cotton3 two = a space ( ?irte51 "o = sev5te51 & a f\r? = upw>ds ( tw5ty mon?s3 b1 on be+ expos$ by ,mr4 ,brod]ip to ! w>m? ( a fire 9 ,london1 & provid$ ) tepid wat] & leaves1 !y reviv$1 & liv$ = sev]al mon?s 9 ,mr4 ,loddiges' palm-h\se1 till accid5tally dr[n$4 #iai ,camb4 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 iv4 #ahca4 #ibj ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,april #ahdd4 #iba ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 p4 #cjc4 #ibb ,! specim5 is pres]v$ 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,zool4 ,soc4 ( ,london4 #ibc ,?is specim5 is 9 ! collection ( my fri5d ,mr4 ,brod]ip1 :o obs]ves1 t ?is crab1 :i* 0 app>5tly 9 p]fect heal?1 c\ld n h ca/ h] %ell = six ye>s1 :]eas "s naturali/s h /at$ t ! species m\lts annually1 )\t limit+ ! m\lt+ p]iod to ! e>ly /ages ( ! gr[? ( ! animal4 #ibd ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iv4 p4 #ccf4 #ibe ,voy4 aux ,t]res ,au/rales1 tom4 i4 p4 #dib4 #ibf ,gaographie ,gan>ale des ,insectes et des ,ara*nides4 ,mam4 du ,mus4 d',hi/4 ,nat41 tom4 iii4 #ibg ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 vol4 iv4 p4 #dhg2 & o!r au?ors4 #ibh ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 vol4 iv4 p4 #dig4 #ibi ,wa%+ton ,irv+'s ,t\r 9 ! ,prairies1 *4 ix4 #icj ,malte-,brun1 vol4 v4 p4 #cgi4 #ica ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 vol4 ii4 p4 #i4 #ahag4 #icb ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ab4 #ahag4 #icc ,i am indebt$ to ,lieut5ant ,graves1 ,r4,n41 = ?is in=mation4 #icd ,i /ate ?is fact on ! au?ority ( my fri5d1 ,mr4 ,john ,curtis4 #ice ,br&'s ,select ,diss]t4 f ! ,amo54 ,acad41 vol4 i4 p4 #aah4 #icf ,ibid4 #icg ,sir ,h4 ,davy1 ,consolations 9 ,travel1 p4 #gd4 #ich ,w4 von ,humboldt1 ,on ! ,kawi ,language1 c4 cit$ 9 ,cosmos4 ,introduction4 #ici ,egypt5's ,/elle1 c4 ,egypt re/or$ to h] ,place 9 ,univ]sal ,hi/ory1 by ,c4 ,c4 ,j4 ,buns54 #ahde4 #idj ,= ,grecian & ,asiatic deluges1 see above1 p4 #cef42 ,cimbrian1 p4 #cca41 ,*9ese1 p4 #g4 ,p]uvian1 p4 #ejb42 ,*ilian or ,araucanian deluge1 p4 #ejj4 #ida ,see p4 #fae4 #idb ,malte-,brun's ,geography1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dai4 #idc ,*amisso /ates t ! wat] :i* !y br\ght up 0 cool]1 & 9 _! op9ion1 less salt4 ,x is difficult to conceive its be+ fre%] ne> ! bottom1 except :]e subm>9e spr+s may happ5 to rise4 #idd ,kotzebue's ,voyage1 #ahae-ahah4 ,qu>t]ly ,review1 vol4 xxvi4 p4 #cfa4 #ide ,n>rative ( a ,voyage to ! ,pacific1 c41 9 ! ye>s #ahbe1 #ahbf1 #ahbg1 #ahbh1 p4 #agj4 #idf ,glog]1 ,ab&4 d] ,vogel1 p4 #ajc42 ,pallas1 ,zoog4 ,rosso-,asiat41 tom4 ii4 p4 #aig4 #idg ,sy/4 ( ,geog41 vol4 viii4 p4 #afi4 #idh ,de t]ra habitabili increm5to2 also ,pri*>d1 ,phys4 ,hi/1 ( ,mank9d1 vol4 i4 p4 #ag41 :]e ! hypo!ses ( diff]5t naturali/s are enum]at$4 #idi ,neck]1 ,phytozool4 ,philosoph4 p4 #ba42 ,broc*i1 ,con*4 ,foss4 ,subap41 tome i4 p4 #bbi4 #iej ,amo54 ,acad4 vol4 vi4 p4 #ag4 ,section #ab4 #iea ,ibid4 vol4 vii4 p4 #dji4 #ieb ,amo54 ,acad41 vol4 vi4 p4 #ag4 ,section #aa1 #ab4 #iec ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 vol4 i4 p4 #agh4 #ied ,amo54 ,acad41 vol4 vi4 p4 #bf4 ,section #ad4 #iee ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bah4 #ief ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 vol4 i4 p4 #bej4 #ieg ,wilcke1 ,amo54 ,acad4 c4 ii4 #ieh ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 vol4 i4 p4 #agd4 #iei ,trans4 ,l9n4 ,soc41 vol4 vi4 #ifj ,lib4 ,ent4 ,"k41 ,insect ,trans41 p4 #bjc4 ,see ,hawor?1 ,lep4 #ifa ,reaumur1 ii4 #ccg4 #ifb ,lib4 ,ent4 ,"k41 ,insect ,trans41 p4 #bab4 #ifc ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 vol4 i4 p4 #ahc4 ,ca/le1 ,phil4 ,trans41 xxx4 #cdf4 #ifd ,travels 9 ,africa1 p4 #beg4 ,kirby & ,sp5ce1 vol4 i4 p4 #bae4 #ife ,j\rnal ( a ,resid5ce 9 ,icel&1 p4 #bgf4 #iff ,t\r 9 ,icel&1 vol4 i4 p4 #fd1 #bnd edit4 #ifg ,travels 9 ,brazil1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfj4 #ifh ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,no4 xxii p4 #bhg4 ,oct4 #ahbd4 #ifi ,ray4 ,syn4 ,quad41 p4 #bad4 #igj ,flem+1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,no4 xxii4 p4 #bie4 #iga ,flem+1 ibid41 p4 #bib4 #igb ,vol4 iii4 ,london1 #ahba4 #igc ,l& ,birds1 vol4 i4 p4 #caf4 ed4 #ahba4 #igd ,"s h compla9$ t inscriptions on tomb-/ones convey no g5]al in=mation1 except t individuals 7 born & di$1 accid5ts :i* mu/ happ5 alike to all m54 ,b ! dea? ( a species is s rem>kable an ev5t 9 natural hi/ory t x des]ves commemoration1 & x is ) no small int]e/ t we le>n1 f ! ar*ives ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d1 ! exact day & ye> :5 ! rema9s ( ! la/ specim5 ( ! dodo1 :i* _h be5 p]mitt$ to rot 9 ! ,a%molean ,museum1 7 ca/ away4 ,! relics1 we are told1 7 a musaeo subducta1 annu5te vice-cancell>io aliisque curatoribus1 ad ea lu/r&a convocatis1 die ,janu>ii #hvo1 ,a4,d4 #agee4 ,zool4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 #ab4 p4 #eei4 #ahbh4 #ige ,p5ny ,cyclopa$ia1 ,dodo4 #ahcg4 #igf ,messrs4 ,/rickl& & ,melville on ! ,dodo & its ,k9dr$4 ,london1 #ahdh4 #igg ,p]s4 ,n>4 vol4 iv4 #igh ,qu>t]ly ,review1 vol4 xxi4 p4 #cce4 #igi ,ibid4 #ihj ,ulloa's ,voyage4 ,wood's ,zoog4 vol4 i4 p4 #i4 #iha ,buffon1 vol4 v4 p4 #ajj4 ,ulloa's ,voyage1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbj4 #ihb ,travels 9 ,icel& 9 #ahaj1 p4 #cdb4 #ihc ,macl>51 art4 ,am]ica1 ,encyc4 ,brit4 #ihd ,see a note on ?is subject1 *ap4 x4 p4 #aeg4 #ihe ,see above1 p4 #cag4 #ihf ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 p4 #aef41 #b;d ed4 p4 #acc4 ,sir ,w4 ,p>i%1 ,bu5os ,ayres1 c4 p4 #cga4 & #aea4 #ihg ,see above1 *ap4 vii4 p4 #aab4 #ihh ,see above1 *aps4 vi4 vii4 & viii4 #ihi ,j\rn4 ( ,nat4 ,hi/4 c4 #b;d edit41 #ahde1 p4 #age2 also ,lyell's #b;d ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 i4 p4 #cea4 #iij ,?is & ! prec$+ *apt]1 on ! causes ( ext9ction ( species & _! pres5t geographical di/ribution1 are repr9t$ almo/ v]batim f ! orig9al edition ( ! second volume ( ,! ,pr9ciples1 publi%$ 9 ,janu>y1 #ahcb4 ,x 0 ,i believe ! fir/ attempt to po9t out h[ =m] *anges 9 ! geography & local climate ( _m p>ts ( ! globe mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt :5 we endeavor to expla9 ! actual prov9ces ( plants & animals1 ! *anges allud$ to hav+ be5 prov$ by geological evid5ce to be subsequ5t to ! creation ( a great proportion ( ! species n[ liv+1 & ^! hav+ be51 accord+ to ! view :i* ,i advocat$1 introduc$ 9 succession1 & n all at "o geological epo*4 ,9 my ?ird volume1 publi%$ 9 ,may1 #ahcc1 ,i ann\nc$ my conviction t ! great] "p ( ! exi/+ ,fauna & ,flora ( ,sicily 7 old] ?an ! m\nta9s1 pla9s1 & riv]s1 :i* ! same species ( animals & plants n[ inhabit4 7,pr94 ( ,geol41 vol4 iii4 *4 ix42 repeat$ 9 ,elem5ts ( ,geol41 #b;d edit41 vol4 i4 p4 #big47 ,?is l9e ( reason+ has s9ce be5 ably foll[$ up & elucidat$ by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes 9 an excell5t pap] 7publi%$ 9 #ahdf7 already allud$ to4 7,see page #hf47 #iia ,essai ,elam5taire1 c4 p4 #df4 #iib ,geog4 des ,plantes4 ,diet4 des ,sci4 #iic ,see ,catalogue ( ,brit4 ,insects1 by ,john ,curtis1 ,esq4 #iid ,see "s good rem>ks on ! ,=mation ( ,soils1 ,bakewell's ,geology1 *ap4 xviii4 #iie ,see ,pr(essor ,s$gwick's ,anniv]s>y ,address to ! ,geological ,society1 ,feb4 #ahca1 p4 #bd4 #iif ,treatise on ,riv]s & ,torr5ts1 p4 #e4 ,g>/on's translation4 #iig ,de la ,be*e1 ,geol4 ,man41 p4 #ahd41 #a/ ed4 #iih ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bid4 #iii ,macl>51 art4 ,am]ica1 ,encyc4 ,britannica4 #ajjj ,macl>51 art4 ,am]ica1 ,encyc4 ,britannica1 :]e ! position ( ! ,am]ican =e/s1 9 accordance ) ?is !ory1 is laid d[n 9 a map4 #ajja ,annuaire du ,bureau des ,long4 #ahcd4 #ajjb ,s9ce ?is 0 writt5 ,i h se5 9 ,new ,brunswick 7#aheb7 a lake =m$ by beav]s :o _h ?r[n a dam1 consi/+ ( /akes1 /ones1 & mud1 across ! c\rse ( a small /reamlet1 betwe5 ,dor*e/] & ! ,portage s\? ( ! ,peticodiac riv]4 ,! beav]s h s9ce be5 extirpat$ by man1 b ! lake rema9s1 & musk rats h tak5 possession ( ! %all[ p>ts ( ! lake to build _! habitations 9 !m4 #ajjc ,= a catalogue ( plants :i* =m peat1 see ,rev4 ,dr4 ,r5nie's ,essays on ,peat1 p4 #aga2 & ,dr4 ,mac,culloch's ,we/]n ,isles1 vol4 i4 p4 #abi4 #ajjd ,iri% ,bog ,reports1 p4 #bji4 #ajje ,sy/em ( ,geology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cec4 #ajjf ,rev4 ,dr4 ,r5nie on ,peat1 p4 #bfj4 #ajjg ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 p4 #cdi42 #b;d ed4 p4 #bhg4 #ajjh ,r5nie's ,essays on ,peat1 p4 #fe4 #ajji ,ibid4 p4 #cj4 #ajaj ,essays on ,peat1 c41 p4 #gd4 #ajaa ,see above1 p4 #chh1 note4 #ajab ,ehr5b]g1 ,taylor's ,sci5tific ,mem4 vol4 i4 "p iii4 p4 #djb4 #ajac ,dr4 ,r5nie1 on ,peat1 p4 #eba2 :]e sev]al o!r in/ances are ref]r$ to4 #ajad ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 xxxviii4 #agcd4 #ajae ,dr4 ,r5nie1 on ,peat1 c41 p4 #eba4 #ajaf ,sy/4 ( ,geol4 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cdj-cdf4 #ajag ,ibid4 p4 #eca4 #ajah ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 xv4 p4 #idi4 #ajai ,gilp91 ,obs]v4 on ,picturesque ,beauty1 c41 #aggb4 #ajbj ,travels1 c41 9 #ahda1 #ahdb1 vol4 i4 p4 #adc4 #ajba ,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bf4 #ajbb ,dr4 ,r5nie1 ,essays on ,peat ,moss1 p4 #bje4 #ajbc ,m4 ,g4 ,a4 ,de ,luc1 ,m]cure de ,france1 ,sept4 #ahji4 #ajbd ,see p4 #bfb4 #ajbe ,/ratton1 ,ed4 ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,no4 v4 p4 #fb4 #ajbf ,travels 9 ,nor? ,africa 9 ! ,ye>s #ahah1 #ahai1 & #ahbj1 p4 #hc4 #ajbg ,mam4 de l',acad4 des ,sci4 de ,p>is1 #aggb4 ,see also ! case ( ! buri$ *ur* ( ,eccles1 above1 p4 #cjf4 #ajbh ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 ii4 p4 #gbb4 #ajbi ,boase on ,subm]sion ( ,"p ( ! ,m\nt's ,bay1 c41 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,cornwall1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adj4 #ajcj ,n>rative ( ,j\rney f ,agra to ,ouje91 ,asiatic ,rese>*es1 vol4 vi4 p4 #cf4 #ajca ,asiatic ,j\rnal1 vol4 ix4 p4 #ce4 #ajcb ,see above1 p4 #dfj4 #ajcc ,sir ,j4 ,malcolm's ,c5tral ,india4 ,app5dix1 ,no4 #b4 p4 #cbd4 #ajcd ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,laud]1 ,b>t41 on ,floods 9 ,moray%ire1 ,aug4 #ahci1 p4 #agg4 #ajce ,dodsley's ,ann4 ,regi/41 #aghh4 #ajcf ,edw>ds1 ,hi/4 ( ,we/ ,indies1 vol4 i4 p4 #bce1 ed4 #ahja4 #ajcg ,j\rn4 ( ,asiat4 ,soc41 ,nos4 xxv4 & xxix41 #ahcd4 #ajch ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 tom4 xxii4 p4 #aag1 ,feb4 #ahca4 #ajci ,malte-,brun's ,geog41 vol4 i4 p4 #dce4 #ajdj ,bakewell1 ,travels 9 ! ,t>5taise1 vol4 i4 p4 #bja4 #ajda ,nahum ,w>d1 ,trans4 ( ,antiq4 ,soc4 ( ,massa*usetts4 ,holmes's ,unit$ ,/ates1 p4 #dch4 #ajdb ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #cbi4 #ajdc ,see above1 p4 #bdj4 #ajdd ,see rem>ks by ,m4 ,boblaye1 ,ann4 des ,m9es1 #cme s>ie1 tom4 iv4 #ajde ,ann4 des ,m9es1 #cme s>ie1 tom4 iv41 #ahcc4 #ajdf ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 iii4 p4 #bbc4 #ajdg ,mam4 de la ,soc4 d',hi/1 ,nat4 de ,p>is1 tom4 iv4 #ajdh ,reliquiae ,diluvianae1 p4 #ajh4 #ajdi ,j\rn4 de ,gaol41 tom4 i4 p4 #bhf4 ,july1 #ahcj4 #ajej ,reliquiae ,diluvianae1 p4 #afe4 #ajea ,m4 ,m>cel de ,s]res1 ,gaognosie des ,t]ra9s ,t]tiaires1 p4 #fd4 ,introduction4 #ajeb ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 pp4 #ef-fc4 #ajec ,desnoy]s1 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,gaol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #beb4 #ajed ,hi/4 ,rom4 ,epit41 lib4 iii4 c4 #aj4 #ajee ,buckl&1 ,reliquiae ,diluvianae1 p4 #be4 #ajef ,see above1 pp4 #gcj1 #gca4 #ajeg ,on ! ,lake ,m\nta9s ( ,nor? ( ,engl&1 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,jan4 #e1 #ahca4 #ajeh ,notes on ,geol4 ( ,cuba1 #ahcf1 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,july1 #ahcg4 #ajei ,see above1 p4 #fg4 #ajfj ,acc\nt ( ! ,arctic ,regions1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aic4 #ajfa ,ibid4 p4 #bjb4 #ajfb ,dr4 ,ri*>dson's ,geogno/ ,obs4 on ,capt4 ,frankl9's ,pol> ,exp$ition4 #ajfc ,malte-,brun1 ,geog41 vol4 v4 "p #a4 p4 #aab4--;,brantz1 ,hi/4 ( ,gre5l&1 tom4 #a4 pp4 #ec1 #ed4 #ajfd ,olafs51 ,voyage to ,icel&1 tom4 i4--,malte-,brun's ,geog41 vol4 v4 "p i4 p4 #aab4 #ajfe ,see above1 pp4 #cjc & #cbc4 #ajff ,geol4 ,trans41 second s]ies1 vol4 v4 p4 #bab4 #ajfg ,gopp]t1 ,pogg5dorff's ,annal5 d] ,physik und ,*emie1 vol4 xxxviii4 "p iv41 ,leipsic1 #ahcf4 ,see also ,lyell's ,manual ( ,geol41 p4 #dj4 #ajfh ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iii4 "p i4 p4 #bja1 second s]ies4 #ajfi ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,laud]'s ,acc\nt1 #b;d4 ed41 p4 #cab4 #ajgj ,treatise on ,practical ,/ore ,f>m+1 p4 #be4 #ajga ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,laud]'s ,floods 9 ,moray%ire1 #ahbi2 & above1 p4 #aif4 #ajgb ,humboldt's ,p]s4 ,n>41 vol4 iv4 p4 #cid4 #ajgc ,bu5os ,ayres & ,la ,plata1 p4 #ahg4 #ajgd ,malte-,brun's ,geog41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bb4 #ajge ,?is acc\nt ,i _h f ,mr4 ,baumhau]1 ,director-,g5]al ( ,f9ances 9 ,java4 #ajgf ,tracts on ,india1 p4 #cig4 #ajgg ,scots ,mag41 vol4 xxxiii4 #ajgh ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 p4 #cgb4 #b;d ed41 #ahde1 p4 #cjd4 #ajgi ,n>rative ( ,discov]y 9 ,egypt1 c41 ,london1 #ahbj4 #ajhj ,scots ,mag41 vol4 xxxiii41 #agga4 #ajha ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,agricult41 ,no4 ix p4 #dcc4 #ajhb ,caes> ,moreau's ,tables ( ! ,navigation ( ,great ,brita94 #ajhc ,i give ^! results on ! au?ority ( ,capta9 ,w4 ,h4 ,smy?1 ,r4 ,n4 #ajhd ,von ,h(f1 vol4 i4 p4 #cgi4 #ajhe ,?is acc\nt ,i receiv$ f ! ,honorable & ,rev4 ,*>les ,h>ris4 #ajhf ,von ,h(f1 vol4 i4 p4 #cfh4 #ajhg ,lieut4 ,c>less1 ,geograph4 ,j\rn41 vol4 viii4 p4 #cch4 #ajhh ,silliman's ,geol4 ,lectures1 p4 #gh1 :o cites ,p5n4 #ajhi ,leigh's ,lanca%ire1 p4 #ag1 ,a4 ,d4 #agjj4 #ajij ,geol4 ,trans41 second s]ies1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hg4 #ajia ,phil4 ,trans41 #agii4 #ajib ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 lxix41 #aggi4 #ajic ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahbf1 "p4 ii4 p4 #ee4 #ajid ,see above1 pp4 #dec4 #deg4 #dii4 #eja4 #ajie ,?omson's ,we/]n ,himalaya & ,?ibet1 p4 #bib4 ,london1 #aheb4 ,cunn+ham1 vol4 xvii4 ,j\rn4 ,asiat4 ,soc4 ,b5gal1 pp4 #bda1 #bgg4 #ajif ,alciphron1 or ! ,m9ute ,philosoph]1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #hd1 #he1 #agcb4 #ajig ,davy1 ,consolations 9 ,travel1 p4 #bgf4 #ajih ,essay on ! ,vicissitude ( ,?+s4 #ajii ,on ,fre%wat] ,m>l1 c4 ,by ,c4 ,lyell4 ,geol4 ,trans41 vol4 ii41 second s]ies1 p4 #gc4 #aajj ,see ,desm>e/'s ,cru/acea1 pl4 #ee4 #aaja ,dr4 ,bigsby1 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce1 c4 ,no4 xxxvii4 pp4 #bfb1 #bfc4 #aajb ,mantell1 ,geol4 ( ,sussex1 p4 #bhe2 also ,catalogue ( ,org4 ,rem41 ,geol4 ,trans41 vol4 iii4 "p i p4 #bja41 #bnd s]ies4 #aajc ,page #bgf4 #aajd ,page #dfj4 #aaje ,page #eii4 #aajf ,=*hamm]1 ,report ,briti% ,assoc4 #ahdd4 #aajg ,flem+'s ,brit4 ,animals1 p4 #cg2 9 :i* "w o!r cases are enum]at$4 #aajh ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,lit4 ,sci41 c41 ,no4 xv41 p4 #agb4 ,oct4 #ahai4 #aaji ,?is specim5 has be5 pres5t$ by ,mr4 ,lonsdale to ! ,geological ,society ( ,london4 #aaaj ,! mo/ conspicu\s ( ! bones repres5t$ )9 ! %ell 9 fig4 #ajg1 appe> to be ! clavicle & coracoid bone4 ,!y are holl[2 & = ?is reason resemble1 at fir/ sight1 ! bones ( birds r ?an ( reptiles2 = ! latt] h no m$ull>y cavity4 ,pr(4 ,ow51 ( ! ,college ( ,surgeons1 9 ord] to elucidate ?is po9t1 dissect$ = me a v "y turtle1 & f\nd t ! ext]ior portion only ( ! bones 0 ossifi$1 ! int]ior be+ /ill fill$ ) c>tilage4 ,?is c>tilage soon dri$ up & %rank to a m]e ?read ^u ! evaporation ( ! spirits ( w9e 9 :i* ! specim5 _h be5 pres]v$1 s t 9 a %ort "t ! bones became z empty z ^? ( birds4 #aaaa ,ehr5b]g1 ,nat4 und ,bild4 d] ,corall59seln4 c41 ,b]l91 #ahcd4 #aaab ,see ,ehr5b]g's "w above cit$1 p4 #gea4 #aaac ,/ut*bury1 ,we/ ( ,engl& ,j\rnal1 ,no4 i4 p4 #di4 #aaad ,d>w9's ,coral ,reefs1 p4 #gg4 #aaae ,ibid4 #gh4 #aaaf ,voyage to ! ,pacific1 c4 9 #ahbe-bh4 #aaag ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 c41 p4 #edj1 & new edit41 ( #ahde1 p4 #dec4 #aaah ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 c41 pp4 #edg1 #edh41 & #b;d edit41 ( #ahde1 p4 #dfj4 #aaai ,kotzebue's ,voy41 #ahae-ah1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #cca-ccc4 #aabj ,/ut*bury1 ,we/ ( ,eng4 ,j\rn41 ,no4 i4 p4 #ej4 #aaba ,capta9 ,bee*ey1 "p i4 p4 #ahh4 #aabb ,capta9 ,moresby on ! ,maldives1 ,j\rn4 ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc41 vol4 ,v4 "p ii4 p4 #djj4 #aabc ,see above1 p4 #ddb4 #aabd ,d>w91 ,volcanic ,isl&s1 p4 #aac4 #aabe ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #d4 ,,xciii4 #aabf ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 p4 #eeg4 #b;d edit4 *ap4 #bj1 & ,coral ,isl&s1 *apt]s #a1 #b1 #c4 #aabg ,see ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 #a/ edit41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bif4 #aabh ,voyage to ! ,pacific1 c41 p4 #ahi4 #aabi ,see ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 #a/ ed41 #ahcb1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bic4 #aacj ,bee*ey's ,voyage to ! ,pacific1 c41 p4 #df4 #aaca ,voyage to ! ,pacific1 c41 p4 #aid4 #aacb ,scotsman1 ,nov4 #ahdb1 & ,jameson's ,ed94 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce1 #ahdc4 #aacc ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,london1 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 v4 #aacd ,bee*ey's ,voyage1 vol4 i4 p4 #de4 #aace ,pap] read to ,brit4 ,assoc41 ,s\?ampton1 #ahdf4 #aacf ,lett] to ,mr4 ,macl>51 ,scotsman1 #ahdc4 ,,gloss>y ,,( ,,geological ,,& ,,o!r ,,sci5tific ,,t]ms ,,us$ ,,9 ,,?is ,,"w4 ,,acephal\s4 ,! ,acephala are t division ( mollusc\s animals :i*1 l ! oy/] & scallop1 are )\t heads4 ,! class ,acephala ( ,cuvi] compreh5ds _m g5]a ( animals ) bivalve %ells1 & a few :i* are devoid ( %ells4 ,etym41 ,greek3 a1 a1 )\t1 & ,greek3 kephale1 cephale1 ! head4 ,,acidul\s4 ,slightly acid4 ,,acrog5s4 ,"o ( five classes into :i* all plants may be divid$2 x includes su* fl[]less ones z gr[ f ! top only1 & ^: /ems consequ5tly d n increase mat]ially 9 bulk1 z ,mosses1 ,f]ns1 ,lycopodiums1 ,equisetums1 c4 ,! trunk ( a tree f]n is a good example4 ,!y are also call$ ,acrobrya4 ,etym41 ,greek3 akron1 acron1 ! top1 & ,greek3 g5esis1 g5esis1 increase4 ,,adipocire4 ,a sub/ance app>5tly int]m$iate betwe5 fat & wax1 into :i* dead animal matt] is conv]t$ :5 buri$ 9 ! e>?1 & 9 a c]ta9 /age ( decomposition4 ,etym41 adeps1 fat1 & c]a1 wax4 ,,albite4 ,see ,felsp>4 ,,alembio4 ,an app>atus = di/ill+4 ,,algae4 ,an ord] or division ( ! cryptogamic class ( plants4 ,! :ole ( ! sea-we$s are compreh5d$ "u ?is division1 & ! application ( ! t]m 9 ?is "w is to m>9e plants4 ,etym41 alga1 sea-we$4 ,,alluvial4 ,! adjective ( alluvium1 :i* see4 ,,alluvion4 ,synonym\s ) alluvium1 :i* see4 ,,alluvium4 ,e>?1 s&1 gravel1 /ones1 & o!r transport$ matt] :i* has be5 wa%$ away & ?r[n d[n by riv]s1 floods1 or o!r causes ^u l& n p]man5tly subm]g$ b5ea? ! wat]s ( lakes or seas4 ,etym41 alluo1 to wa% ^u1 or alluvio1 an inundation4 ,,alum-,,/one1 ,,alum51 ,,alum9\s4 ,alum is ! base ( pure clay1 & /rata ( clay are (t5 met ) conta9+ mu* iron pyrites4 ,:5 ! latt] sub/ance decomposes1 sulphuric acid is produc$1 :i* unites ) ! alum9\s e>? ( ! clay to =m sulphate ( alum9e1 or common alum4 ,:]e manufactories are e/abli%$ = obta9+ ! alum1 ! indurat$ b$s ( clay employ$ are call$ ,alum-/one4 ,,ammonite4 ,an ext9ct & v num]\s g5us ( ! ord] ( mollusc\s animals call$ ,cephalopoda1 alli$ to ! mod]n g5us ,nautilus1 :i* inhabit$ a *amb]$ %ell1 curv$ l a coil$ snake4 ,species ( x are f\nd 9 all geological p]iods ( ! second>y /rata2 b !y h n be5 se5 9 ! t]ti>y b$s4 ,!y are nam$ f _! resemblance to ! horns on ! /atues ( ,jupit] ,ammon4 ,,amorph\s4 ,bodies devoid ( regul> =m4 ,etym41 ,greek3 a1 a1 )\t1 & ,greek3 morphe1 morphe1 =m4 ,,amygdaloid4 ,"o ( ! =ms ( ! ,trap-rocks1 9 :i* agates & simple m9]als appe> to be scatt]$ l almonds 9 a cake4 ,etym41 ,greek3 amygdala1 amygdala1 an almond4 ,,analcime4 ,a simple m9]al ( ! ,zeolite family1 also call$ ,cubizite1 ( frequ5t occurr5ce 9 ! ,trap-rocks4 ,,analogue4 ,a body t resembles or corresponds ) ano!r body4 ,a rec5t %ell ( ! same species z a fossil %ell is ! analogue ( ! latt]4 ,,angoiosp]ms4 ,a t]m appli$ to all fl[]+ plants 9 :i* ! ovules are inclos$ 9 an ov>y1 & ! se$s 9 a p]ic>p or cov]+1 z 9 all fl[]+ plants except ^? m5tion$ "u gymnosp]ms & gymnog5s1 :i* see4 ,etym41 ,greek3 angos1 angos1 a vessel1 & ,greek3 sp]ma1 a se$4 ,,anoplo!rium4 ,a fossil ext9ct quadrup$ belong+ to ! ord] ,pa*yd]mata1 resembl+ a pig4 ,x has receiv$ its "n because ! animal mu/ h be5 s+ul>ly want+ 9 means ( def5ce1 f ! =m ( its tee? & ! abs5ce ( claws1 ho(s1 & horns4 ,etym41 ,greek3 anoplos1 anoplos1 un>m$1 & ,greek3 !rion1 !rion1 a wild bea/4 ,,antagoni/ ,,p[]4 ,two p[]s 9 nature1 ! action ( ! "o c\nt]act+ t ( ! o!r1 by :i* a k9d ( equilibrium or balance is ma9ta9$1 & ! de/ructive effect prev5t$ t w\ld be produc$ by "o op]at+ )\t a *eck4 ,,ant5nae4 ,! articulat$ horns ) :i* ! heads ( insects are inv>iably furni%$4 ,,an?racite4 ,a %9+ sub/ance l black-lead2 a species ( m9]al *>coal4 ,etym41 ,greek3 an?rax1 an?rax1 coal4 ,,an?raco!rium4 ,a "n giv5 to an ext9ct quadrup$1 suppos$ to belong to ! ,pa*yd]mata1 ! bones ( :i* 7 fir/ f\nd 9 lignite & coal ( ! t]ti>y /rata4 ,etym41 ,greek3 an?rax1 an?rax1 coal1 & ,greek3 !rion1 !rion1 wild bea/4 ,,an?ropomorph\s4 ,hav+ a =m resembl+ ! human4 ,etym41 ,greek3 an?ropos1 an?ropos1 a man1 & ,greek3 morphe1 morphe1 =m4 ,,antiseptic4 ,sub/ances :i* prev5t corruption 9 animal & vegetable matt]1 z common salt does1 are said to be antiseptic4 ,etym41 ,greek3 anti1 anti1 aga9/1 & ,greek3 sepo1 sepo1 to putrefy4 ,,ar5ace\s4 ,s&y4 ,etym41 ar5a1 s&4 ,,argillace\s4 ,clayey1 compos$ ( clay4 ,etym41 argilla1 clay4 ,,arragonite4 ,a simple m9]al1 a v>iety ( c>bonate ( lime1 s call$ f hav+ be5 fir/ f\nd 9 ,aragon 9 ,spa94 ,,atolls4 ,coral isl&s ( an annul> =m1 or consi/+ ( a circul> /rip or r+ ( coral surr\nd+ a c5tral lagoon4 ,,augite4 ,a simple m9]al ( a d>k gre51 or black color1 :i* =ms a con/itu5t "p ( _m v>ieties ( volcanic rocks4 ,"n appli$ by ,pl9y to a p>ticul> m9]al1 f ! ,greek ,greek3 auge1 auge1 lu/re4 ,,avalan*es4 ,masses ( sn[ :i*1 be+ deta*$ f great heights 9 ! ,alps1 acquire enorm\s bulk by fre% accumulations z !y desc5d2 & :5 !y fall into ! valleys bel[ (t5 cause great de/ruction4 ,!y are also call$ lavanges & lavan*es 9 ! dialects ( ,switz]l&4 ,,basalt4 ,"o ( ! mo/ common v>ieties ( ! ,trap-rocks4 ,x is a d>k gre5 or black /one1 compos$ ( augite & felsp>1 v compact 9 texture1 & ( consid]able h>dness1 (t5 f\nd 9 regul> pill>s ( ?ree or m sides call$ basaltic columns4 ,rem>kable examples ( ?is k9d are se5 at ! ,giant's ,causeway1 9 ,irel&1 & at ,f+al's ,cave1 9 ,/affa1 "o ( ! ,hebrides4 ,! t]m is us$ by ,pl9y1 & is said to come f basal1 an ,a,ethiopian ^w signify+ iron4 ,! rock (t5 conta9s mu* iron4 ,,bas9 ( ,p>is1 ,,bas9 ( ,london4 ,deposits ly+ 9 a holl[ or tr\gh1 =m$ ( old] rocks2 sometimes us$ 9 geology almo/ synonym\sly ) =mations1 to express ! deposits ly+ 9 a c]ta9 cavity or depression 9 old] rocks4 ,,belemnite4 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ! ord] ( mollusc\s animals call$ ,cephalopoda1 hav+ a long1 /raight1 & *amb]$ conical %ell4 ,etym41 ,greek3 belemnon1 belemnon1 a d>t4 ,,bitum54 ,m9]al pit*1 ( :i* ! t>-l sub/ance :i* is (t5 se5 to ooze out ( ! ,newca/le coal :5 on ! fire1 & :i* makes x cake1 is a good example4 ,etym41 bitum51 pit*4 ,,bitum9\s ,,%ale4 ,an argillace\s %ale1 mu* impregnat$ ) bitum51 :i* is v common 9 ! ,coal ,measures4 ,,bl5de4 ,a metallic ore1 a comp\nd ( ! metal z9c ) sulphur4 ,x is (t5 f\nd 9 br[n %9+ cry/als2 h5ce its "n among ! ,g]man m9]s1 f ! ^w bl5d51 to dazzle4 ,,bluffs4 ,high banks pres5t+ a precipit\s front to ! sea or a riv]4 ,a t]m us$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,,botryoidal4 ,resembl+ a bun* ( ,grapes4 ,etym41 ,greek3 botrys1 botrys1 a bun* ( grapes1 & ,greek3 eidos1 eidos1 =m4 ,,b\ld]s4 ,a prov9cial t]m = l>ge r\nd$ blocks ( /one ly+ on ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 or sometimes imb$d$ 9 loose soil1 diff]5t 9 composition f ! rocks 9 _! vic9ity1 & :i* h be5 !re=e transport$ f a di/ance4 ,,breccia4 ,a rock compos$ ( angul> fragm5ts connect$ toge!r by lime or o!r m9]al sub/ance4 ,an ,italian t]m4 ,,calc ,,s9t]4 ,a ,g]man "n = ! deposits f spr+s hold+ c>bonate ( lime 9 solution--petrify+ spr+s4 ,etym41 kalk1 lime1 & s9t]n1 to drop4 ,,calcaire ,,grossi]4 ,an ext5sive /ratum1 or r s]ies ( /rata1 f\nd 9 ! ,p>is ,bas91 belong+ to ! ,eoc5e t]ti>y p]iod4 ,etym41 calcaire1 lime/one1 & grossi]1 co>se4 ,,calc>e\s ,,rock4 ,lime/one4 ,etym41 calx1 lime4 ,,calc>e\s ,,sp>4 ,cry/alliz$ c>bonate ( lime4 ,,c>bon4 ,an undecompos$ inflammable sub/ance1 "o ( ! simple elem5t>y bodies4 ,*>coal is almo/ entirely compos$ ( x4 ,etym41 c>bo1 coal4 ,,c>bonate ,,( ,,lime4 ,lime comb9es ) great avidity ) c>bonic acid1 a gase\s acid only obta9$ fluid :5 unit$ ) wat]1--& all comb9ations ( x ) o!r sub/ances are call$ ,c>bonates4 ,all lime/ones are c>bonates ( lime1 & quicklime is obta9$ by driv+ (f ! c>bonic acid by heat4 ,,c>bonat$ ,,spr+s4 ,spr+s ( wat]1 conta9+ c>bonic acid gas4 ,!y are v common1 especially 9 volcanic c\ntries2 & sometimes conta9 s mu* gas1 t if a little sug> be ?r[n into ! wat] x eff]vesces l soda-wat]4 ,,c>bonic ,,acid ,,gas4 ,a natural gas :i* (t5 issues f ! gr\nd1 especially 9 volcanic c\ntries4 ,etym41 c>bo1 coal2 because ! gas is obta9$ by ! sl[ burn+ ( *>coal4 ,,c>bonif]\s4 ,a t]m usually appli$1 9 a te*nical s5se1 to an anci5t gr\p ( second>y /rata2 b any b$ conta9+ coal may be said to be c>bonif]\s4 ,etym41 c>bo1 coal1 & f]o1 to be>4 ,,cataclysm4 ,a deluge4 ,etym41 ,greek3 kataklyzo1 catacluzo1 to deluge4 ,,cephalopoda4 ,a class ( mollusc\s animals1 hav+ _! organs ( motion arrang$ r\nd _! head4 ,etym41 ,greek3 kephale1 cephale1 head1 & ,greek3 poda1 poda1 feet4 ,,cetacea4 ,an ord] ( v]tebrat$ mammif]\s animals inhabit+ ! sea4 ,! :ale1 dolph91 & n>wal are examples4 ,etym41 cete1 :ale4 ,,*alc$ony4 ,a silice\s simple m9]al1 uncry/alliz$4 ,agates are p>tly compos$ ( *alc$ony4 ,,*alk4 ,a :ite e>?y lime/one1 ! upp]mo/ ( ! second>y s]ies ( /rata4 ,,*]t4 ,a silice\s m9]al1 ne>ly alli$ to *alc$ony & fl9t1 b less homog5e\s & simple 9 texture4 ,a gradual passage f *]t to lime/one is n uncommon4 ,,*loritic ,,s&4 ,s& color$ gre5 by an admixture ( ! simple m9]al *lorite4 ,etym41 ,greek3 *lorys1 *lorus1 gre54 ,,cleavage4 ,c]ta9 rocks1 usually call$ ,slate-rocks1 may be cleav$ into an indef9ite numb] ( ?9 lam9ae :i* are p>allel to ea* o!r1 b :i* are g5]ally n p>allel to ! planes ( ! true /rata or lay]s ( deposition4 ,! planes ( cleavage1 !re=e1 are di/+ui%able f ^? ( /ratification4 ,,cl9k/one1 call$ also phonolite1 a felspa?ic rock ( ! trap family1 usually fissile4 ,x is sonor\s :5 /ruck ) a hamm]1 :5ce its "n4 ,,coal ,,=mation4 ,?is t]m is g5]ally und]/ood to mean ! same z ! ,coal ,measures1 or ,c>bonif]\s gr\p4 ,,coleopt]a4 ,an ord] ( insects 7,beetles7 :i* h f\r w+s1 ! upp] pair be+ cru/ace\s & =m+ a %ield4 ,etym41 ,greek3 koleos1 coleos1 a %ea?1 & ,greek3 pt]on1 pt]on1 a w+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,,con=mable4 ,:5 ! planes ( "o set ( /rata are g5]ally p>allel to ^? ( ano!r set :i* are 9 contact1 !y are said to be con=mable4 ,?us ! set a1 b1 ,fig4 #ih1 re/ con=mably on ! inf]ior set c1 d2 b c1 d re/ uncon=mably on ,e4 ,,cong5]s4 ,species :i* belong to ! same g5us4 ,,conglom]ate1 or ,,pudd+/one4 ,r\nd$ wat]-worn fragm5ts ( rock or pebbles1 cem5t$ toge!r by ano!r m9]al sub/ance1 :i* may be ( a silice\s1 calc>e\s1 or argillace\s nature4 ,etym41 con1 toge!r1 glom]o1 to heap4 ,,conif]ae4 ,an ord] ( plants1 all ( :i* h disks 9 _! wood fibres1 by :i* !y are recogniz$ 9 a fossil /ate4 ,_! ovules are nak$ 7see ,,gymnog5s74 ,mo/ ( ! nor!rn k9ds be> ! se$s 9 cones2 b ! yew does n1 nor d a ho/ ( tropical & s\? temp]ate species4 ,etym41 conus1 a cone1 & f]o1 to be>4 ,,cosmogony1 ,,cosmology4 ,words synonym\s 9 mean+1 appli$ to speculations respect+ ! fir/ orig9 or mode ( creation ( ! e>?4 ,etym41 ,greek3 kosmos1 kosmos1 ! _w1 & ,greek3 gone1 gonee1 g5]ation1 or ,greek3 logos1 logos1 disc\rse4 ,,crag4 ,a prov9cial "n 9 ,norfolk & ,suffolk = c]ta9 t]ti>y deposits usually compos$ ( s& ) %ells1 belong+ to ! ,old] ,plioc5e p]iod4 ,,crat]4 ,! circul> cavity at ! summit ( a volcano1 f :i* ! volcanic matt] is eject$4 ,etym41 crat]1 a great cup or b[l4 ,,cretace\s4 ,belong+ to *alk4 ,etym41 creta1 *alk4 ,,crop ,,out4 ,a m9]'s or m9]al surveyor's t]m1 to express ! ris+ up or exposure at ! surface ( a /ratum or s]ies ( /rata4 ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,see ,e>?'s cru/4 ,,cru/ace\s4 ,animals hav+ a %elly coat+ or cru/ :i* !y ca/ p]iodically4 ,crabs1 %rimps1 & lob/]s are examples4 ,,cryptogamic4 ,asexual1 fl[]less1 or ,acotyl$on\s plants2 a t]m appli$ to half ! vegetable k+dom 9 contradi/9ction to ,pha5ogamic1 sexual1 or fl[]+ plants4 ,x includes ,fungi1 ,sea-we$s1 ,li*5s1 ,mosses1 ,f]ns1 c41 :i* h no obvi\s fl[]s1 & no cotyl$ons 7se$-lobes7 to _! spores or se$s4 ,etym41 ,greek3 kryptos1 cruptos1 conceal$1 & ,greek3 gamos1 gamos1 m>riage4 ,,cry/als4 ,simple m9]als are frequ5tly f\nd 9 regul> =ms1 ) facets l ! drops ( cut glass ( *&eli]s4 ,qu>tz be+ (t5 met ) 9 rocks 9 su* =ms1 & beautifully transp>5t l ice1 0 call$ rock-cry/al1 ,greek3 kry/allos1 cry/allos1 be+ ,greek = ice4 ,h5ce ! regul> =ms ( o!r m9]als are call$ cry/als1 :e!r !y be cle> or opake4 ,,cry/alliz$4 ,a m9]al :i* is f\nd 9 regul> =ms or cry/als is said to be cry/alliz$4 ,,cry/all9e4 ,! int]nal texture :i* regul> cry/als exhibit :5 brok51 or a confus$ assemblage ( ill-def9$ cry/als4 ,loaf-sug> & /atu>y-m>ble h a cry/all9e texture4 ,sug>-c&y & calc>e\s sp> are cry/alliz$4 ,,cuprif]\s4 ,copp]-be>+4 ,etym41 cuprum1 copp]1 & f]o1 to be>4 ,,cycadeae4 ,a small & v anomal\s ord] ( fl[]+ plants1 *iefly f\nd 9 ,mexico1 ! ,ea/ ,indian ,isl&s1 ,s\? ,africa1 & ,au/ralia4 ,!y are ,gymnog5s z to ovules1 & nei!r ,exog5s nor ,endog5s 9 ! wood ( _! %ort1 simple1 or bran*$ trunks1 & !y h dicotyl$on\s se$s4 ,! leaves are p9nat$ 7l ^? ( cocoa-nut palms71 & :5 "y are roll$ inw>ds z 9 ,f]ns4 ,! wood fibres are curi\sly p]=at$1 & m>k$1 by :i* !y are recogniz$ 9 a fossil /ate z well z by ! trunk & foliage1 & ! cones1 :i* conta9 ! male fl[]s4 ,! t]m is d]iv$ f ,greek3 kykas1 cycas1 a "n appli$ by ! anci5t ,greek naturali/ ,?reophra/us to a palm4 ,,cyp]aceae4 ,a tribe ( plants answ]+ to ! ,engli% s$ges2 !y are di/+ui%$ f grasses by _! /ems be+ solid1 & g5]ally triangul>1 in/ead ( be+ holl[ & r\nd4 ,toge!r ) ,gram9eae1 !y con/itute :at writ]s on botanical geography (t5 call glumaceae4 ,,debacle4 ,a great ru% ( wat]s1 :i*1 break+ d[n all oppos+ b>ri]s1 c>ries =w>d ! brok5 fragm5ts ( rocks1 & spreads !m 9 its c\rse4 ,etym41 dabacl]1 ,fr5*1 to unb>1 to break up z a riv] does at ! cessation ( a long-cont9u$ fro/4 ,,delta4 ,:5 a great riv]1 be=e x ent]s ! sea1 divides into sep>ate /reams1 !y (t5 div]ge & =m two sides ( a triangle1 ! sea be+ ! base4 ,! l& includ$ by ! ?ree l9es1 & :i* is inv>iably alluvial1 0 fir/ call$1 9 ! case ( ! ,nile a delta1 f its resemblance to ! lett] ( ! ,greek alphabet :i* goes by t "n ,greek3 ,d4 ,geologi/s apply ! t]m to alluvial l& =m$ by a riv] at its m\?1 )\t ref]5ce to its precise %ape4 ,,d5udation4 ,! c>ry+ away by ! action ( runn+ wat] ( a portion ( ! solid mat]ials ( ! l&1 by :i* inf]ior rocks are laid b>e4 ,etym41 d5udo1 to lay b>e4 ,,deoxidiz$1 ,,deoxidat$4 ,depriv$ ( oxyg54 ,disunit$ f oxyg54 ,,desiccation4 ,! art ( dry+ up4 ,etym41 desicco1 to dry up4 ,,detritus4 ,matt] worn or rubb$ (f f rocks4 ,etym41 de1 f1 & t]o1 to rub4 ,,dicotyl$on\s4 ,a gr& division ( ! vegetable k+dom1 f\nd$ on ! plant hav+ two cotyl$ons1 or se$-lobes4 ,etym41 ,greek3 dis1 dis1 d\ble1 & ,greek3 kotyl$on1 cotyl$on4 ,,dikes4 ,:5 a mass ( ! un/ratifi$ or igne\s rocks1 su* z granite1 trap1 & lava1 appe>s z if inject$ into a r5t 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks1 cutt+ across ! /rata1 x =ms a dike4 ,!y are sometimes se5 runn+ along ! gr\nd1 & project+1 l a wall1 f ! s(t] /rata on bo? sides ( !m hav+ wa/$ away2 :5ce !y 7 fir/ call$ 9 ! nor? ( ,engl& & 9 ,scotl& dikes1 a prov9cial "n = wall4 ,x is n easy to draw ! l9e betwe5 dikes & ve9s4 ,! =m] are g5]ally ( l>g] dim5sions1 & h _! sides p>allel = consid]able di/ances2 :ile ve9s h g5]ally _m ramifications1 & ^! (t5 ?9 away into sl5d] ?reads4 ,,diluvium4 ,^? accumulations ( gravel & loose mat]ials1 :i*1 by "s geologi/s1 are said to h be5 produc$ by ! action ( a diluvian wave or deluge sweep+ ov] ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,etym41 diluvium1 deluge4 ,,dip4 ,:5 a /ratum does n lie horizontally1 b is incl9$1 x is said to dip t[>ds "s po9t ( ! compass1 & ! angle x makes ) ! horizon is call$ ! angle ( dip or incl9ation4 ,,dipt]a4 ,an ord] ( insects1 compris+ ^? :i* h only two w+s4 ,etym41 ,greek3 dis1 dis1 d\ble1 & ,greek3 pt]on1 pt]on1 w+4 ,,dol]ite4 ,"o ( ! v>ieties ( ! ,trap-rocks1 compos$ ( augite & felsp>4 ,,dolomite4 ,a cry/all9e lime/one1 conta9+ magnesia z a con/itu5t "p4 ,nam$ aft] ! ,fr5* geologi/ ,dolomieu4 ,,dunes4 ,l[ hills ( bl[n s& t skirt ! %ores ( ,holl&1 ,engl&1 ,spa91 & o!r c\ntries4 ,,e>?',s ,,cru/4 ,su* sup]ficial p>ts ( our planet z are accessible to human obs]vation4 ,,eopyrosis4 ,a ,greek t]m = a de/ruction by fire4 ,,elytra4 ,! w+-%ea?s1 or upp] cru/ace\s membranes1 :i* =m ! sup]ior w+s 9 ! tribe ( beetles4 ,!y cov] ! body1 & protect ! true membran\s w+4 ,etym41 ,greek3 elytron1 elytron1 a %ea?4 ,,endog5s4 ,a class ( fl[]+ plants1 ^: /ems pres5t no di/9ction ( wood1 pi?1 & b>k4 ,! wood is dispos$ 9 bundles1 plac$ ne>] ! axis ?an ^? ( ! previ\s ye>1 z 9 palm trunks4 ,?is class answ]s to ! ,monocotyl$ones ( ,jussieu4 ,etym41 ,greek3 endon1 endon1 )91 & ,greek3 g5esis1 g5esis1 increase4 ,,entomo/raca4 ,cuvi]'s second section ( ,cru/acea2 s call$ f _! relation%ip to insects4 ,etym41 ,greek3 entoma1 entoma1 insects4 ,,eoc5e4 ,a "n giv5 to ! l[e/ division ( ! t]ti>y /rata1 conta9+ an extremely small p]c5tage ( liv+ species among/ its fossil %ells1 :i* indicate ! fir/ comm5cem5t or dawn ( ! exi/+ /ate ( ! animate creation4 ,etym41 ,greek3 eos1 eos1 aurora or ! dawn1 & ,greek3 ka9os1 ka9os1 rec5t4 ,,esc>pm5t4 ,! abrupt face ( a ridge ( high l&4 ,etym41 esc>p]1 ,fr5*1 to cut /eep4 ,,e/u>ies4 ,inlets ( ! l&1 :i* are ent]$ bo? by riv]s & ! tides ( ! sea4 ,?us we h ! e/u>ies ( ! ,?ames1 ,sev]n1 ,tay1 c4 ,etym41 ae/us1 ! tide4 ,,exog5s4 ,a class ( fl[]+ plants ^: /ems h b>k1 wood1 & pi?4 ,! b>k is increas$ by lay]s deposit$ )9 ! previ\sly =m$ lay]s & ! wood ( lay]s or r+s plac$ outside ( ^? ( ! previ\s ye>4 ,?is class answ]s to ! ,dicotyl$ones ( ,jussieu1 & includes all common ,engli% trees except p9es1 c4 7,see ,,gymnog5s47 ,etym41 ,greek3 exo1 exo1 outside1 ,greek3 g5esis1 g5esis1 increase4 ,,exp]im5tum ,,crucis4 ,a decisive exp]im5t1 s call$1 because1 l a cross or direction-po/1 x directs m5 to true k2 or1 z "s expla9 x1 because x is a k9d ( torture :]eby ! nature ( ! ?+ is extort$1 z x 71 by viol5ce4 ,,exuviae4 ,prop]ly speak+1 ! transi5t p>ts ( c]ta9 animals :i* !y put (f or lay d[n to assume new ones1 z s]p5ts & cat]pill>s %ift _! sk9s2 b 9 geology x ref]s n only to ! ca/-(f cov]+s ( animals1 b to fossil %ells & o!r rema9s :i* animals h left 9 ! /rata ( ! e>?4 ,etym41 exu]e1 to put (f or dive/4 ,,faluns4 ,a ,fr5* prov9cial "n = "s t]ti>y /rata ab\nd+ 9 %ells 9 ,t\ra9e1 :i* resemble 9 li?ological *>act]s ! ,crag ( ,norfolk & ,suffolk4 ,,fault1 9 ! language ( m9]s1 is ! sudd5 int]ruption ( ! cont9uity ( /rata 9 ! same plane1 accompani$ by a crack or fissure1 v>y+ 9 wid? f a m]e l9e to sev]al feet1 :i* is g5]ally fill$ ) brok5 /one1 clay1 c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,! /rata1 a1 b1 c1 c41 mu/ at "o "t h be5 cont9u\s2 b a fracture hav+ tak5 place at ! fault ,f1 ei!r by ! upheav+ ( ! portion ,a1 or ! s9k+ ( ! portion ,b1 ! /rata 7 s displac$ t ! b$ a 9 ,b is _m feet l[] ?an ! same b$ a 9 ! portion ,a4 ,,fauna4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( animals peculi> to a c\ntry con/itute its ,,fauna1 z ! v>i\s k9ds ( plants con/itute its ,,flora4 ,! t]m is d]iv$ f ! ,,fauni1 or rural deities1 9 ,roman ,my?ology4 ,,felsp>4 ,a simple m9]al1 :i*1 next to qu>tz1 con/itutes ! *ief mat]ial ( rocks4 ,! :ite angul> portions 9 granite are felsp>4 ,?is m9]al always conta9s "s alkali 9 its composition4 ,9 common felsp> ! alkali is pota%2 9 ano!r v>iety1 call$ ,albite or ,cleavl&ite1 x is soda4 ,glassy felsp> is a t]m appli$ :5 ! cry/als h a consid]able degree ( transp>5cy4 ,compact felsp> is a "n ( m vague signification4 ,! sub/ance s call$ appe>s to conta9 bo? pota% & soda4 ,,felspa?ic4 ,( or belong+ to felsp>4 ,,f]rug9\s4 ,any ?+ conta9+ iron4 ,etym41 f]rum1 iron4 ,,fissile1 easily cleft1 divid+ readily into an indef9ite numb] ( p>allel lam9ae1 l slates4 ,,floetz ,,rocks4 ,a ,g]man t]m appli$ to ! second>y /rata by ! geologi/s ( t c\ntry1 because ^! rocks 7 suppos$ to occur mo/ frequ5tly 9 flat horizontal b$s4 ,etym41 flotz1 a lay] or /ratum4 ,,flora4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( trees & plants f\nd 9 any c\ntry con/itute ! ,,flora ( t c\ntry 9 ! language ( botani/s4 ,,fluviatile4 ,belong+ to a riv]4 ,etym41 fluvius1 a riv]4 ,,=am9if]a4 ,a "n giv5 by ,d',orbigny to a family ( microscopic %ells4 ,_! diff]5t *amb]s are unit$ by a small p]=ation or =am54 ,rec5t obs]vation has %[n t "s at lea/ are n ,cephalopoda1 z ,d',orbigny suppos$4 ,,=mation4 ,a gr\p1 :e!r ( alluvial deposits1 s$im5t>y /rata1 or igne\s rocks1 ref]r$ to a common orig9 or p]iod4 ,,fossil4 ,all m9]als 7 once call$ fossils1 b geologi/s n[ use ! ^w only to express ! rema9s ( animals & plants f\nd buri$ 9 ! e>?4 ,etym41 fossilis1 any ?+ t may be dug out ( ! e>?4 ,,fossilif]\s4 ,conta9+ organic rema9s4 ,,gal5a4 ,a metallic ore1 a comp\nd ( lead & sulphur4 ,x has (t5 ! appe>ance ( highly poli%$ lead4 ,etym41 ,greek3 galeo1 galeo1 to %9e4 ,,g>net4 ,a simple m9]al1 g5]ally ( a deep r$ color1 cry/alliz$2 mo/ commonly met ) 9 mica slate1 b also 9 granite & o!r igne\s rocks4 ,,ga/]opods4 ,a division ( ! ,te/acea1 9 :i*1 z 9 ! limpet1 ! foot is atta*$ to ! body4 ,etym41 ,greek3 ga/]1 ga/]1 belly1 & ,greek3 poda1 poda1 feet4 ,,gault4 ,a prov9cial "n 9 ! ea/ ( ,engl& = a s]ies ( b$s ( clay & m>l1 ! geological position ( :i* is betwe5 ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,,gavial4 ,a k9d ( crocodile f\nd 9 ,india4 ,,gem1 or ,,gemmule1 f ! ,lat9 gemma1 a bud4 ,! t]m1 appli$ to zoophytes1 means a "y animal n conf9$ )9 an envelope or egg4 ,,geology1 ,,geognosy4 ,bo? mean ! same ?+2 b ) an unnecess>y degree ( ref9em5t 9 t]ms1 x has be5 propos$ to call our description ( ! /ructure ( ! e>? geognosy 7,etym41 ,greek3 gea1 gea1 e>?1 & ,greek3 g9osco1 g9osco1 to "k71 & our !oretical speculations z to its =mation geology 7,etym41 ,greek3 gea1 & ,greek3 logos1 logos1 a disc\rse74 ,,glaci]4 ,va/ accumulations ( ice & h>d5$ sn[ 9 ! ,alps & o!r l(ty m\nta9s4 ,etym41 glace1 ,fr5* = ice4 ,,glacis4 ,a t]m borr[$ f ! language ( =tification1 :]e x means an easy ins5sible slope or declivity1 less /eep ?an a talus1 :i* see4 ,,gneiss4 ,a /ratifi$ prim>y rock1 compos$ ( ! same mat]ials z granite1 b hav+ usually a l>g] proportion ( mica & a lam9at$ texture4 ,! ^w is a ,g]man m9]'s t]m4 ,,gram9eae4 ,! ord] ( plants to :i* grasses belong4 ,etym41 gram51 grass4 ,,granite4 ,an un/ratifi$ or igne\s rock1 g5]ally f\nd inf]ior to or associat$ ) ! olde/ ( ! /ratifi$ rocks1 & sometimes p5etrat+ !m 9 ! =m ( dikes & ve9s4 ,x is usually compos$ ( ?ree simple m9]als1 felsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica1 & d]ives its "n f hav+ a co>se granul> /ructure2 granum1 ,lat9 = gra94 ,wat]loo bridge1 & ! pav+-/ones 9 ! c>riage-way ( ! ,london /reets1 af=d good examples ( ! mo/ common v>ieties ( granite4 ,,gre5s&4 ,b$s ( s&1 s&/one1 lime/one1 belong+ to ! ,cretace\s ,p]iod4 ,! "n is giv5 to ^! b$s because !y (t51 b n always1 conta9 an abundance ( gre5 e>? or *lorite scatt]$ ?r\gh ! sub/ance ( ! s&/one1 lime/one1 c4 ,,gre5/one4 ,a v>iety ( trap1 compos$ ( hornbl5de & felsp>4 ,,greywacke4 ,grauwacke1 a ,g]man "n1 g5]ally adopt$ by geologi/s = "s ( ! mo/ anci5t fossilif]\s /rata4 ,! rock is v (t5 ( a gray color2 h5ce ! "n1 grau1 be+ ,g]man = gray1 & wacke1 be+ a prov9cial m9]'s t]m4 ,,grit4 ,a prov9cial "n = a co>se-gra9$ s&/one4 ,,gymnosp]m\s4 ,etym41 ,greek3 gymnos1 gymnos1 nak$1 & ,greek3 sp]ma1 sp]ma1 a se$4 7,see ,,gymnog5s47 ,,gymnog5s4 ,a class ( fl[]+ plants1 9 :i* ! ovules are n inclos$ 9 an ov>y4 ,!y are also call$ gymnosp]ms1 ! se$s 9 l mann] n be+ inclos$ 9 a p]ic>p4 ,x includes all ,conif]ae1 z p9e1 fir1 junip]1 cypress1 yew1 c$>1 c41 & ,cycadeae4 ,all are ,dicotyl$on\s 7a few h _m cotyl$ons71 & all ,exog5\s1 except ,cycas1 ! gr[? ( :i* is anomal\s4 ,! t]m is appli$ 9 contradi/9ction to ,angiosp]ms1 :i* see4 ,etym41 ,greek3 gymnos1 nak$1 & ,greek3 g5esis1 increase4 ,,gypsum4 ,a m9]al compos$ ( lime & sulphuric acid1 h5ce call$ also sulphate ( lime4 ,pla/] & /ucco are obta9$ by expos+ gypsum to a /rong heat4 ,x is f\nd s abundantly ne> ,p>is1 t pla/] ( ,p>is is a common t]m 9 ?is c\ntry = ! :ite p[d] ( :i* ca/s are made4 ,! t]m is us$ by ,pl9y = a /one us$ = ! same purposes by ! anci5ts4 ,! d]ivation is unkn[n4 ,,gypse\s1 ( or belong+ to gypsum4 ,,gyrogonites4 ,bodies f\nd 9 fre%wat] deposits1 orig9ally suppos$ to be microscopic %ells1 b subsequ5tly discov]$ to be se$-vessels ( fre%wat] plants ( ! g5us ,*>a4 ,see above p4 #gdb4 ,etym41 ,greek3 gyros1 gyros1 curv$1 & ,greek3 gonos1 gonos1 se$1 on acc\nt ( _! ext]nal /ructure4 ,,hemipt]a4 ,an ord] ( insects1 s call$ f a peculi>ity 9 _! w+s1 ! sup]ior be+ coriace\s at ! base & membran\s at ! apex1 ,greek3 hemisy1 hemisu1 half1 & ,greek3 pt]on1 pt]on1 w+4 ,,hornbl5de4 ,a simple m9]al ( a d>k gre5 or black color1 :i* ent]s l>gely into ! composition ( sev]al v>ieties ( ! ,trap-,rocks4 ,,horn/one4 ,a silice\s m9]al sub/ance1 sometimes approa*+ ne>ly to fl9t1 or common qu>tz4 ,x has a con*oidal fracture1 & is infusible1 :i* di/+ui%es x f compact felsp>4 ,,hum]us4 ,! bone ( ! upp] arm4 ,,hydrophytes4 ,plants :i* gr[ 9 wat]4 ,etym41 ,greek3 hydor1 hydor1 wat]1 & ,greek3 phyton1 phyton1 plant4 ,,hypog5e ,,rocks4 ,^? rocks :i* are ne!r-=m$1 or :i* h n assum$ _! pres5t =m & /ructure at ! surface1 su* z granite1 gneiss1 c4 ,! t]m1 :i* includes bo? ! plutonic & metamorphic rocks1 is sub/itut$ = prim>y1 because "s memb]s ( bo? ^! classes1 su* z granite & gneiss1 are po/]ior to _m second>y or fossilif]\s rocks4 ,etym41 ,greek3 hypo1 hypo1 "u1 & ,greek3 g9omai1 g9omai1 to be =m$ or produc$4 ,,iceb]g4 ,great masses ( ice1 (t5 ! size ( hills1 :i* float 9 ! pol> & adjac5t seas4 ,etym41 ice1 & b]g1 ,g]man = hill4 ,,i*?yosaurus4 ,a gigantic fossil m>9e reptile1 alli$ 9 "p ( its /ructure to a fi%4 ,etym41 ,greek3 i*?us1 i*?us1 a fi%1 & ,greek3 saura1 saura1 a liz>d4 ,,igne\s ,,rocks4 ,all rocks1 su* z lava1 trap1 & granite1 kn[n or suppos$ to h be5 melt$ by volcanic heat4 ,,inc&esc5t4 ,:ite hot--hav+ a m int5se degree ( heat ?an r$ heat4 ,,induction4 ,a consequ5ce1 inf]5ce1 or g5]al pr9ciple drawn f a numb] ( p>ticul> facts or ph5om5a4 ,! inductive philosophy1 says ,mr4 ,:ewell1 has be5 rightly describ$ z a sci5ce :i* asc5ds f p>ticul> facts to g5]al pr9ciples1 & !n desc5ds aga9 f ^! g5]al pr9ciples to p>ticul> applications4 ,,infusory ,,animalcules4 ,m9ute liv+ creatures f\nd 9 _m infusions2 & ! t]m infusori has be5 giv5 to all su* animalcules1 :e!r f\nd 9 infusions or 9 /agnant wat]1 v9eg>1 c4 ,,inspissat$4 ,?ick5$4 ,etym41 spissus1 ?ick4 ,,inv]tebrat$ ,,animals4 ,animals :i* are n furni%$ ) a back-bone4 ,= a fur!r explanation1 see ,v]tebrat$ ,animals4 ,,iso!rmal4 ,su* zones or divisions ( ! l&1 ocean1 or atmosph]e1 :i* h an equal degree ( mean annual w>m?1 are said to be iso!rmal1 f ,greek3 isos1 isos1 equal1 & ,greek3 !rme1 !rme1 heat4 ,,io9ts4 ,fissures or l9es ( p>t+ 9 rocks1 (t5 at "r angles to ! planes ( /ratification4 ,! p>t+s :i* divide column> basalt into prisms are jo9ts4 ,,iura ,,lime/one4 ,! lime/ones belong+ to ! ,oolite ,gr\p con/itute ! *ief "p ( ! m\nta9s ( ,jura betwe5 ,france & ,switz]l&2 & h5ce ! geologi/s ( ! ,cont95t h giv5 ! "n to ! gr\p4 ,,keup]4 ,a ,g]man "n = a memb] ( ! ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,,kimm]idge ,,clay4 ,a ?ick b$ ( clay1 con/itut+ a memb] ( ! ,oolite ,gr\p4 ,s call$ because x is f\nd well develop$ at ,kimm]idge1 9 ! ,isle ( ,purbeck1 ,dorset%ire4 ,,lacu/r9e4 ,belong+ to a lake4 ,etym41 lacus1 a lake4 ,,lamant9e4 ,a liv+ species ( ! h]bivor\s ,cetacea or :ale tribe :i* inhabits ! m\? ( riv]s on ! coa/s ( ,africa & ,s\? ,am]ica3 ! sea-c[4 ,,lamellif]\s4 ,hav+ a /ructure consi/+ ( ?9 plates or leaves l pap]4 ,etym41 lamella1 ! dim9utive ( lam9a1 plate1 & f]o1 to be>4 ,,lam9ae4 ,lat9 = plates2 us$ 9 geology = ! small] lay]s ( :i* a /ratum is frequ5tly compos$4 ,,l&slip4 ,a portion ( l& t has slid d[n 9 consequ5ce ( di/urbance by an e>?quake1 or f be+ und]m9$ by wat] wa%+ away ! l[] b$s :i* support$ x4 ,,lapidification4 ,lapidify+ process4 ,conv]sion into /one4 ,etym41 lapis1 /one1 & fio1 to make4 ,,lapilli4 ,small volcanic c9d]s4 ,lapillus1 a little /one4 ,,lava4 ,! /one :i* fl[s 9 a melt$ /ate f a volcano4 ,,lepidod5dron1 a g5us ( fossil plants ( ! ,coal ,measures1 int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 ! ,lycopodiums & conif]\s plants4 ,,leucite4 ,a simple m9]al f\nd 9 volcanic rocks1 cry/alliz$1 & ( a :ite color4 ,etym41 ,greek3 leucos1 leucos1 :ite4 ,,lias4 ,a prov9cial "n = an argillace\s lime/one1 *>act]iz$ toge!r ) its associat$ b$s by peculi> fossils1 & =m+ a p>ticul> gr\p ( /rata1 int]pos$ betwe5 ! ,oolite & ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,,lignip]d\s4 ,a t]m appli$ to insects :i* de/roy wood4 ,etym41 lignum1 wood1 & p]do1 to de/roy4 ,,lignite4 ,wood conv]t$ into a k9d ( coal4 ,etym41 lignum1 wood4 ,,li?odomi4 ,mollusc\s animals :i* =m holes 9 ! solid rocks 9 :i* !y lodge !mselves4 ,! holes are n p]=at$ me*anically1 b ! rock appe>s to be dissolv$4 ,etym41 ,greek3 li?os1 li?os1 /one1 & ,greek3 demo1 demo1 to build4 ,,li?og5\s ,,polyps4 ,animals :i* =m coral4 ,,li?ographic ,,/one4 ,a slaty compact lime/one1 ( a yell[i% color & f9e gra91 us$ 9 li?ography1 :i* is ! art ( draw+ ^u & pr9t+ f /one ,etym41 ,greek3 li?os1 li?os1 /one1 & ,greek3 grapho1 grapho1 to write4 ,,li?oidal4 ,hav+ a /ony /ructure4 ,,li?ological4 ,a t]m express+ ! /ony /ructure or "* ( a m9]al mass4 ,we speak ( ! li?ological "* ( a /ratum z di/+ui%$ f its zoological "*4 ,etym41 ,greek3 li?os1 li?os1 /one1 & ,greek3 logos1 logos1 disc\rse4 ,,li?ophagi4 ,mollusc\s animals :i* =m holes 9 solid /ones4 ,see ,li?odomi4 ,etym41 ,greek3 li?os1 li?os1 /one1 & ,greek3 phage91 phage91 to eat4 ,,li?ophites4 ,! animals :i* =m ,/one-coral4 ,,littoral4 ,belong+ to ! %ore4 ,etym41 littus1 ! %ore4 ,,loam4 ,a mixture ( s& & clay4 ,,lophiodon4 ,a g5us ( ext9ct quadrup$s1 alli$ to ! tapir1 nam$ f em95ces on ! tee?4 ,,lycopodiaceae4 ,plants ( an inf]ior degree ( organization to ,conif]ae1 "s ( :i* !y v mu* resemble 9 foliage1 b all rec5t species are inf9itely small]4 ,_m ( ! fossil species are z gigantic z rec5t ,conif]ae4 ,_! mode ( reproduction is analog\s to t ( f]ns4 ,9 ,engli% !y are call$ club-mosses1 g5]ally f\nd 9 m\nta9\s hea?s 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&4 ,,lydian ,,/one4 ,fl9ty slate2 a k9d ( qu>tz or fl9t1 alli$ to ,horn/one1 b ( a grayi% black color4 ,,macigno4 ,9 ,italy ?is t]m has be5 appli$ to a silice\s s&/one sometimes conta9+ calc>e\s gra9s1 mica1 c4 ,,madrepore4 ,a g5us ( corals1 b g5]ally appli$ to all ! corals di/+ui%$ by sup]ficial />-%ap$ cavities4 ,!re are sev]al fossil species4 ,,magnesian ,,lime/one4 ,an ext5sive s]ies ( b$s1 ! geological position ( :i* is imm$iately above ! ,coal ,measures2 s call$1 because ! lime/one1 ! pr9cipal memb] ( ! s]ies1 conta9s mu* ( ! e>? magnesia z a con/itu5t "p4 ,,mammif]\s4 ,mammif]s4 ,animals :i* give suck to _! "y4 ,to ?is class all ! w>m-blood$ quadrup$s1 & ! ,cetacea1 or :ales1 belong4 ,etym41 mamma1 a brea/1 f]o1 to be>4 ,,mammill>y4 ,a surface :i* is /udd$ ov] ) r\nd$ projections4 ,etym41 mammilla1 a little brea/ or pap4 ,,mammo?4 ,an ext9ct species ( ! elephant 7,e4 primig5ius71 ( :i* ! fossil bones are frequ5tly met ) 9 v>i\s c\ntries4 ,! "n is ( ,t>t> orig91 & is us$ 9 ,sib]ia = animals t burr[ "u gr\nd4 ,,manati4 ,"o ( ! ,cetacea1 ! sea-c[1 or lamant9e 7,tri*e*us manatus1 ,l947 ,,m>l4 ,a mixture ( clay & lime2 usually s(t1 b sometimes h>d1 9 :i* case x is call$ indurat$ m>l4 ,,m>supial ,,animals4 ,a tribe ( quadrup$s hav+ a sack or p\* "u ! belly1 9 :i* !y c>ry _! "y4 ,! kang>oo is a well-kn[n example4 ,etym41 m>supium1 a purse4 ,,ma/odon4 ,a g5us ( fossil ext9ct quadrup$s alli$ to ! elephants2 s call$ f ! =m ( ! h9d tee? or gr9d]s1 :i* h _! surface cov]$ ) conical mammill>y cre/s4 ,etym41 ,greek3 ma/os1 ma/os1 pap1 & ,greek3 odon1 odon1 too?4 ,,matrix4 ,if a simple m9]al or %ell1 9 place ( be+ deta*$1 be /ill fix$ 9 a portion ( rock1 x is said to be 9 its matrix4 ,matrix1 womb4 ,,me*anical ,,orig91 ,,rocks ,,(4 ,rocks compos$ ( s&1 pebbles1 or fragm5ts1 are s call$ to di/+ui% !m f ^? ( a uni=m cry/all9e texture1 :i* are ( *emical orig94 ,,m$usae4 ,a g5us ( m>9e radiat$ animals1 )\t %ells2 s call$1 because _! organs ( motion spread out l ! snaky hair ( ! fabul\s ,m$usa4 ,,megalosaurus4 ,a fossil gigantic amphibi\s animal ( ! saurian or liz>d & crocodile tribe4 ,etym41 ,greek3 megale1 megale1 great1 & ,greek3 saura1 saura1 liz>d4 ,,mega!rium4 ,a fossil ext9ct quadrup$1 resembl+ a gigantic slo?4 ,etym41 ,greek3 mega1 mega1 great1 & ,greek3 !rion1 !rion1 wild bea/4 ,,mela/oma4 ,a g5us ( ,,mela/omacea1 an ord] ( exotic plants ( ! ev]gre5 tree & %rubby k9ds4 ,etym41 ,greek3 melas1 melas1 black1 & ,greek3 /oma1 /oma1 m\?2 because ! fruit ( "o ( ^! species /a9s ! lips4 ,,mesotype4 ,a simple m9]al1 :ite1 & ne$le-%ap$1 "o ( ! ,zeolite family1 frequ5tly met ) 9 ! ,trap-rocks4 ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,a /ratifi$ division ( hypog5e rocks1 highly cry/all9e1 su* z gneiss & mica-s*i/1 & s nam$ because !y h be5 alt]$ by plutonic action4 ,etym41 ,greek3 meta1 meta1 trans1 & ,greek3 morphe1 morphe1 =m4 ,,mica4 ,a simple m9]al1 hav+ a %9+ silv]y surface1 & capable ( be+ split into v ?9 ela/ic leaves or scales4 ,x is (t5 call$ talc 9 common life2 b m9]alogi/s apply ! t]m talc to a diff]5t m9]al4 ,! brilliant scales 9 granite are mica4 ,etym41 mico1 to %9e4 ,,mica-,,slate1 ,,mica-,,s*i/1 ,,micace\s ,,s*i/us4 ,"o ( ! metamorphic or cry/all9e /ratifi$ rocks ( ! hypog5e class1 :i* is *>act]iz$ by be+ compos$ ( a l>ge proportion ( mica unit$ ) qu>tz4 ,,mioc5e4 ,a division ( t]ti>y /rata int]v5+ betwe5 ! ,eoc5e & ,plioc5e =mations2 s call$1 because a m9ority ( its fossil %ells are ref]able to liv+ species4 ,etym41 ,greek3 meion1 meion1 less1 & ,greek3 ka9os1 ka9os1 rec5t4 ,,molasse4 ,a prov9cial "n = a s(t gre5 s&/one1 associat$ ) m>l & conglom]ates1 belong+ to ! ,mioc5e ,t]ti>y ,p]iod1 ext5sively develop$ 9 ! l[] c\ntry ( ,switz]l&4 ,etym41 ,fr5*1 molle1 s(t4 ,,mollusca1 ,,mollusc\s ,,animals4 ,animals1 su* z %ell-fi%1 :i*1 be+ devoid ( bones1 h s(t bodies4 ,etym41 mollis1 s(t4 ,,monad4 ,! smalle/ ( visible animalcules1 spok5 ( by ,buffon & 8 foll[]s z con/itut+ ! elem5t>y molecules ( organic be+s4 ,,monitor4 ,an animal ( ! saurian or liz>d tribe1 species ( :i* are f\nd 9 bo? ! fossil & rec5t /ate4 ,,monocotyl$on\s4 ,a gr& division ( ! vegetable k+dom 7includ+ palms1 grasses1 ,lilaceae1 c471 f\nd$ on ! plant hav+ only "o cotyl$on1 or se$-lobe4 ,etym41 ,greek3 monos1 monos1 s+le4 ,,mora9e1 a ,swiss t]m = ! dabris ( rocks br\ght into valleys by glaci]s4 ,see p4 #bbh4 ,,mos*us4 ,a quadrup$ resembl+ ! *amois or m\nta9 goat1 f :i* ! p]fume musk is obta9$4 ,,m\nta9 ,,lime/one1 ,,or ,,c>bonif]\s ,,lime/one4 ,a s]ies ( lime/one /rata ( m>9e orig91 usually =m+ ! l[e/ memb] ( ! ,coal ,measures4 ,,moya4 ,a t]m appli$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica to mud p\r$ out f volcanoes dur+ eruptions4 ,,multilocul>4 ,_m-*amb]$2 a t]m appli$ to ^? %ells :i*1 l ! nautilus1 ammonite1 & o!rs1 are divid$ into _m comp>tm5ts4 ,etym41 multus1 _m1 & loculus1 a p>tition4 ,,muriate ,,( ,,soda4 ,! sci5tific "n = common cul9>y salt1 because x is compos$ ( muriatic acid & ! alkali soda4 ,,musaceae4 ,a family ( tropical monocotyl$on\s plants1 includ+ ! banana & planta9s4 ,,mus*elkalk4 ,a lime/one1 belong+ to ! ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one gr\p4 ,its position is betwe5 ! ,magnesian ,lime/one & ! ,lias4 ,?is =mation has n yet be5 f\nd 9 ,engl&1 & ! ,g]man "n is adopt$ by ,engli% geologi/s4 ,! ^w means %ell lime/one4 ,etym41 mus*el1 %ell1 & kalk/e91 lime/one4 ,,naph?a4 ,a v ?91 volatile1 inflammable1 & fluid m9]al sub/ance1 ( :i* !re are spr+s 9 _m c\ntries1 p>ticul>ly 9 volcanic di/ricts4 ,,n5uph>4 ,a yell[ wat]-lily4 ,p4 #fah4 ,,new ,,r$ ,,s&/one4 ,a =mation s nam$1 because x consi/s *iefly ( s&y & argillace\s /rata1 ! pr$om9ant color ( :i* is brick-r$1 b conta9+ portions :i* are ( a gre5i%-gray4 ,^! occur (t5 9 spots & /ripes1 s t ! s]ies has sometimes be5 call$ ! v>iegat$ s&/one4 ,?is =mation is divid$ into ! ,upp] ,new ,r$ 9 :i* ! ,mus*elkalk is includ$1 & ! ,l[] ,new ,r$1 ( :i* ! ,magnesian ,lime/one is a memb]4 ,,nodule4 ,a r\nd$ irregul>-%ap$ lump or mass4 ,etym41 dim9utive ( nodus1 knot4 ,,normal ,,gr\ps4 ,gr\ps ( c]ta9 rocks tak5 z a rule or /&>d4 ,etym41 norma1 rule or patt]n4 ,,nucleus4 ,a solid c5tral piece1 ar\nd :i* o!r matt] is collect$4 ,! ^w is ,lat9 = k]nel4 ,,nummulites4 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ! ord] ( mollusc\s animals1 call$ ,cephalopoda1 ( a ?9 l5ticul> %ape1 int]nally divid$ into small *amb]s4 ,etym41 nummus1 ,lat9 = money1 & ,greek3 li?os1 li?os1 /one1 f its resemblance to a co94 ,,obsidian4 ,a volcanic product1 or species ( lava1 v l common gre5 bottle glass1 :i* is almo/ black 9 l>ge masses1 b semi-transp>5t 9 ?9 fragm5ts4 ,pumice-/one is obsidian 9 a fro?y /ate2 produc$1 mo/ probably1 by wat] t 0 conta9$ 9 or _h access to ! melt$ /one1 & conv]t$ into /eam4 ,!re are v (t5 portions 9 masses ( solid obsidian1 :i* are p>tially conv]t$ into pumice4 ,,o*re4 ,a yell[ p[d]1 a comb9ation ( "s e>? ) oxide ( iron4 ,,ogygian ,,deluge4 ,a great inundation m5tion$ 9 fabul\s hi/ory1 suppos$ to h tak5 place 9 ! reign ( ,ogyges 9 ,attica1 ^: dea? is fix$ 9 ,blair's ,*ronological ,tables 9 ! ye> #agfd be=e ,*ri/4 ,see p4 #cda4 ,,old ,,r$ ,,s&/one4 ,a =mation imm$iately bel[ ! ,c>bonif]\s ,gr\p4 ,! t]m ,devonian has be5 rec5tly propos$ = /rata ( ?is age1 because 9 ,devon%ire !y are l>gely develop$1 & conta9 _m organic rema9s4 ,,oligoclase4 ,a m9]al ( ! felsp> family4 ,,oliv9e4 ,an olive-color$1 semi-transp>5t1 simple m9]al1 v (t5 occurr+ 9 ! =m ( gra9s & ( cry/als 9 basalt & lava4 ,,oolite1 ,,oolitic4 ,a lime/one2 s nam$ because x is compos$ ( r\nd$ p>ticles l ! roe or eggs ( a fi%4 ,! "n is also appli$ to a l>ge gr\p ( /rata1 *>act]iz$ by peculi> fossils1 9 :i* lime/one ( ?is texture occurs4 ,etym41 ,greek3 oon1 oon1 egg1 & ,greek3 li?os1 li?os1 /one4 ,,opaliz$ ,,wood4 ,wood petrifi$ by silice\s e>?1 & acquir+ a /ructure simil> to ! simple m9]al call$ opal4 ,,ophidi\s ,,reptiles4 ,v]tebrat$ animals1 su* z snakes & s]p5ts4 ,etym41 ,greek3 ophis1 ophis1 a s]p5t4 ,,organic ,,rema9s4 ,! rema9s ( animals & plants 7organiz$ bodies7 f\nd 9 a fossil /ate4 ,,or?oc]ata ,,or ,,oh?oc]ae4 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ! ord] ( mollusc\s animals1 call$ ,cephalopoda1 t inhabit$ a long-*amb]$ conical %ell1 l a /raight horn4 ,etym41 ,greek3 or?os1 or?os1 /raight1 & ,greek3 k]as1 c]as1 horn4 ,,osse\s ,,breccia4 ,! cem5t$ mass ( fragm5ts ( bones ( ext9ct animals f\nd 9 cav]ns & fissures4 ,osse\s is a ,lat9 adjective1 signify+ bony4 ,,o/eology4 ,t division ( anatomy :i* treats ( ! bones2 f ,greek3 o/eon1 o/eon1 bone1 & ,greek3 logos1 logos1 a disc\rse4 ,,outli]s4 ,:5 a portion ( a /ratum occurs at "s di/ance1 deta*$ f ! g5]al mass ( ! =mation to :i* x belongs1 "s practical m9]al surveyors call x an outli]1 & ! t]m is adopt$ 9 geological language4 ,,ovate4 ,! %ape ( an egg4 ,etym41 ovum1 egg4 ,,oviposit+4 ,! lay+ ( eggs4 ,,oxide4 ,! comb9ation ( a metal ) oxyg52 ru/ is oxide ( iron4 ,,oxyg54 ,"o ( ! con/itu5t p>ts ( ! air ( ! atmosph]e2 t "p :i* supports life4 ,= a f>!r explanation ( ! ^w1 consult elem5t>y works on *emi/ry4 ,,pa*yd]mata4 ,an ord] ( quadrup$s1 includ+ ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 horse1 pig1 c41 di/+ui%$ by hav+ ?ick sk9s4 ,etym41 ,greek3 pa*us1 pa*us1 ?ick1 & ,greek3 d]ma1 d]ma1 sk91 or hide4 ,,pa*yd]mat\s4 ,belong+ to ,pa*yd]mata4 ,,palaeo!rium1 ,,paleo!re4 ,a fossil ext9ct quadrup$1 belong+ to ! ord] ,pa*yd]mata1 resembl+ a pig1 or tapir1 b ( great size4 ,etym41 ,greek3 palaios1 palaios1 anci5t1 & ,greek3 !rion1 !rion1 wild bea/4 ,,paleontology4 ,! sci5ce :i* treats ( fossil rema9s1 bo? animal & vegetable4 ,etym41 ,greek3 palaios1 palaios1 anci5t1 ,greek3 onta1 onta1 be+s1 & ,greek3 logos1 logos1 a disc\rse4 ,,pelagian1 ,,pelagic4 ,belong+ to ! deep sea4 ,etym41 pelagus1 sea4 ,,pep]9o4 ,an ,italian "n = a p>ticul> k9d ( volcanic rock1 =m$ l tuff1 by ! cem5t+ toge!r ( volcanic s&1 c9d]s1 or scoriae1 c4 ,,petroleum4 ,a liquid m9]al pit*1 s call$ because x is se5 to ooze l oil out ( ! rock4 ,etym41 petra1 rock1 & oleum1 oil4 ,,pha5ogam\s or ,,phan]ogamic ,,plants4 ,a "n giv5 by ,l9naeus to ^? plants 9 :i* ! reproductive organs are app>5t4 ,etym41 ,greek3 phan]os1 phan]os1 evid5t1 or ,greek3 pha9o1 pha9o1 to %[1 & ,greek3 gamos1 gamos1 m>riage4 ,,phlegraean ,,fields4 ,campi ,phlegraei1 or ! ,burnt ,fields4 ,! c\ntry ar\nd ,naples1 s nam$ by ! ,greeks1 f ! traces ( igne\s action ev]y:]e visible4 ,,phonolite4 ,see ,cl9k/one4 ,,phryganea4 ,a g5us ( f\r-w+$ insects1 ! l>vae ( :i*1 call$ caddis-worms1 are us$ by angl]s z a bait4 ,,physics4 ,! dep>tm5t ( sci5ce :i* treats ( ! prop]ties ( natural bodies1 laws ( motion1 c42 sometimes call$ natural philosophy & me*anical philosophy4 ,etym41 ,greek3 physis1 physis1 nature4 ,,phytology1 ,,phytological4 ,! dep>tm5t ( sci5ce :i* relates to plants--synonym\s )1 botany & botanical4 ,etym41 ,greek3 phyton1 phyton1 plant1 & ,greek3 logos1 logos1 disc\rse4 ,,phytophag\s4 ,plant-eat+4 ,etym41 ,greek3 phyton1 phyton1 plant1 & ,greek3 phage91 phage91 to eat4 ,,pisolite4 ,a /one possess+ a /ructure l an agglut9ation ( peas4 ,etym41 ,greek3 pison1 pison1 pea1 & ,greek3 li?os1 li?os1 /one4 ,,pi/ia4 ,p4 #fah4 ,! plant m5tion$ by ,malte-,brun is probably ! ,pi/ia ,/ratiotes1 a float+ plant1 relat$ to ,engli% duckwe$1 b v mu* l>g]4 ,,pit ,,coal4 ,ord9>y coal2 call$ s1 because x is obta9$ by s9k+ pits 9 ! gr\nd4 ,,pit*/one4 ,a rock ( a uni=m texture1 belong+ to ! un/ratifi$ & volcanic classes1 :i* has an unctu\s appe>ance l indurat$ pit*4 ,,pla/ic ,,clay4 ,"o ( ! b$s ( ! ,eoc5e ,t]ti>y ,p]iod2 s call$1 because x is us$ = mak+ pott]y4 ,! =mation to :i* ?is "n is appli$ is a s]ies ( b$s *iefly s&s1 ) :i* ! clay is associat$4 ,etym41 ,greek3 plasso1 plasso1 to =m or fa%ion4 ,,plesiosaurus4 ,a fossil ext9ct amphibi\s animal1 resembl+ ! saurian1 or liz>d & crocodile tribe4 ,etym41 ,greek3 plesion1 plesion1 ne> to1 & ,greek3 saura1 saura1 a liz>d4 ,,plioc5e1 ,,old] & ,,new]4 ,two divisions ( ! ,t]ti>y ,p]iod :i* are ! mo/ mod]n1 & ( :i* ! l>ge/ "p ( ! fossil %ells are ( rec5t species4 ,etym41 ,greek3 pleion1 pleion1 m1 & ,greek3 ka9os1 ka9os1 rec5t4 ,,plutonic ,,action4 ,! influ5ce ( volcanic heat & o!r subt]ranean causes "u pressure4 ,,plutonic ,,rocks4 ,granite1 porphyry1 & o!r igne\s rocks suppos$ to h consolidat$ f a melt$ /ate at a great dep? f ! surface4 ,,polip>ia4 ,,corals4 ,a num]\s class ( inv]tehrat$ animals1 belong+ to ! great division call$ ,radiata4 ,,porphyry4 ,an un/ratifi$ or igne\s rock4 ,! t]m is z old z ! "t ( ,pl9y1 & 0 appli$ to a r$ rock ) small1 angul>1 :ite bodies diffus$ ?r\gh x1 :i* are cry/alliz$ felsp>1 br\ght f ,egypt4 ,! t]m is h5ce appli$ to e species ( un/ratifl$ rock 9 :i* deta*$ cry/als or felsp> or "s o!r m9]al are diffus$ ?r\gh a base ( o!r m9]al composition4 ,etym41 ,greek3 porphyra1 porphyra1 purple4 ,,portl& ,,lime/one1 ,,portl& ,,b$s4 ,a s]ies ( lime/one /rata1 belong+ to ! upp] "p ( ! ,oolite ,gr\p1 f\nd *iefly 9 ,engl& 9 ! ,isl& ( ,portl& on ! coa/ ( ,dorset%ire4 ,! great supply ( ! build+-/one us$ 9 ,london is f ^! qu>ries4 ,,pozzuolana4 ,volcanic a%es1 l>gely us$ z mort> = build+s1 simil> 9 nature to :at is call$ 9 ?is c\ntry ,roman cem5t4 ,x gets its "n f ,puzzuoli1 a t[n 9 ! ,bay ( ,naples1 f :i* x is %ipp$ 9 l>ge quantities to all p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,,precipitate4 ,sub/ances :i*1 hav+ be5 dissolv$ 9 a fluid1 are sep>at$ f x by comb9+ *emically & =m+ a solid1 :i* falls to ! bottom ( ! fluid4 ,?is process is ! opposite to t ( *emical solution4 ,,producta4 ,an ext9ct g5us ( fossil bivalve %ells occurr+ only 9 ! old] second>y rocks4 ,x is closely alli$ to ! liv+ g5us ,t]ebratula4 ,,pt]odactyl4 ,a fly+ reptile3 species ( ?is g5us h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,oolite & ,mus*elkalk4 ,"s ( ! f+]-jo9ts are l5g!n$1 s z to s]ve z ! expansors ( a membran\s w+4 ,h5ce ! "n w+-f+]$4 ,etym41 ,greek3 pt]on1 pt]on1 a w+1 & ,greek3 daktylos1 dactylos1 a f+]4 ,,pubesc5ce4 ,! s(t hairy d[n on insects4 ,etym41 pubesco1 ! fir/ gr[? ( ! be>d4 ,,pudd+/one4 ,see ,conglom]ate4 ,,pumice4 ,a light spongy lava1 *iefly felspa?ic1 ( a :ite color1 produc$ by gases or wat]y vapor gett+ access to ! p>ticul> k9d ( glassy lava call$ obsidian1 :5 9 a /ate ( fusion2 x may be call$ ! fro? ( melt$ volcanic glass4 ,! ^w comes f ! ,lat9 "n ( ! /one1 pumex4 ,,purbeck ,,lime/one1 ,,purbeck ,,b$s4 ,lime/one /rata1 belong+ to ! ,weald5 ,gr\p1 :i* int]v5es betwe5 ! ,gre5s& & ! ,oolite4 ,,pyrites4 7,iron47 ,a comp\nd ( sulphur & iron1 f\nd usually 9 yell[ %9+-cry/als l brass1 & 9 almo/ e rock1 /ratifi$ & uu/ratifl$4 ,! %9+ metallic bodies s (t5 se5 9 common ro(+ slate are a famili> example ( ! m9]al4 ,! ^w is ,greek1 & comes f ,greek3 pyr1 pyr1 fire2 because t9d] p>ticul> circum/ances1 ! /one produces spontane\s heat1 & ev5 inflammation4 ,,pyromet]4 ,an in/rum5t = measur+ int5se degrees ( heat4 ,,quadrumana4 ,! ord] ( mammif]\s animals to :i* apes belong4 ,etym41 quadrus1 a d]ivative ( ! ,lat9 ^w = ! numb] f\r1 & manus1 h&1 ! f\r feet ( ^? animals be+ 9 "s degree usable z h&s4 ,,qua-,,qua-,,v]sal ,,dip4 ,! dip ( b$s to all po9ts ( ! compass ar\nd a c5tre1 z 9 ! case ( b$s ( lava r\nd ! crat] ( a volcano4 ,etym41 qua-qua-v]sum1 on e side4 ,,qu>tz4 ,a ,g]man prov9cial t]m1 univ]sally adopt$ 9 sci5tific language = a simple m9]al compos$ ( pure silex1 or e>? ( fl9ts3 rock-cry/al is an example4 ,,qu>tzite or ,,qu>tz ,,rock4 ,an aggregate ( gra9s ( qu>tz1 sometimes pass+ into compact qu>tz4 ,,r$ ,,m>l4 ,a t]m (t5 appli$ to ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,,reticulate4 ,a /ructure ( cross l9es1 l a net1 is said to be reticulat$1 f rete1 a net4 ,,rock ,,salt4 ,common cul9>y salt1 or muriate ( soda1 f\nd 9 va/ solid masses or b$s1 9 diff]5t =mations1 ext5sively 9 ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one =mation1 z 9 ,*e%ire2 & x is !n call$ rock-salt4 ,,rubble4 ,a t]m appli$ by qu>ry-m5 to ! upp] fragm5t>y & decompos$ portion ( a mass ( /one4 ,,rum9antia4 ,animals :i* rum9ate or *ew ! cud1 su* z ! ox1 de]1 c4 ,etym41 ! ,lat9 v]b rum9o1 mean+ ! same ?+4 ,,sac*>oid1 ,,sac*>9e4 ,:5 a /one has a texture resembl+ t ( loaf-sug>4 ,etym41 ,greek3 sak*>1 sac*>1 sug>1 & ,greek3 eidos1 eidos1 =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,,sali5t ,,angle4 ,9 a zigzag l9e a a are ! sali5t angles1 b b ! re-ent]+ angles4 ,etym41 salire1 to leap or b\nd =w>d4 ,,salt ,,spr+s4 ,spr+s ( wat] conta9+ a l>ge quantity ( common salt4 ,!y are v abundant 9 ,*e%ire & ,worce/]%ire1 & cul9>y salt is obta9$ f !m by m]e evaporation4 ,,s&/one4 ,any /one :i* is compos$ ( an agglut9ation ( gra9s ( s&1 :e!r calc>e\s1 silice\s1 or ( any o!r m9]al nature4 ,,saurian4 ,any animal belong+ to ! liz>d tribe4 ,etym41 ,greek3 saura1 saura1 a liz>d4 ,,saxicav\s4 ,holl[+ out /one4 ,,s*i/ is (t5 us$ z synonym\s ) slate2 b x may be v useful to di/+ui% betwe5 a s*i/ose & a slaty /ructure4 ,! hypog5e or prim>y s*i/s1 z !y are t]m$1 su* z gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & o!rs1 _c be split into an indef9ite numb] ( p>allel lam9ae l rocks :i* h a true slaty cleavage4 ,! unev5 s*i/ose lay]s ( mica-s*i/ & gneiss are probably lay]s ( deposition1 :i* h assum$ a cry/all9e texture4 ,see ,cleavage4 ,etym41 s*i/us1 adj4 ,lat91 t :i* may be split4 ,,s*i/ose ,,rocks4 ,see ,s*i/4 ,,scoriae4 ,volcanic c9d]s4 ,! ^w is ,lat9 = c9d]s4 ,,seams4 ,?9 lay]s :i* sep>ate two /rata ( great] magnitude4 ,,second>y ,,/rata4 ,an ext5sive s]ies ( ! /ratifi$ rocks :i* compose ! cru/ ( ! globe1 ) c]ta9 *>act]s 9 common1 :i* di/+ui% !m f ano!r s]ies bel[ !m call$ prim>y1 & f a ?ird s]ies above !m call$ t]ti>y4 ,,secul> ,,refrig]ation4 ,! p]iodical cool+ & consolidation ( ! globe f a suppos$ orig9al /ate ( fluidity f heat4 ,saeculum1 age or p]iod4 ,,s$im5t>y ,,rocks are ^? :i* h be5 =m$ by _! mat]ials hav+ be5 ?r[n d[n f a /ate ( susp5sion or solution 9 wat]4 ,,sel5ite4 ,cry/alliz$ gypsum1 or sulphate ( lime--a simple m9]al4 ,,sept>ia4 ,flatt5$ balls ( /one1 g5]ally a k9d ( iron-/one1 :i*1 on be+ split1 are se5 to be sep>at$ 9 _! int]ior into irregul> masses4 ,etym41 septa1 inclosures4 ,,s]p5t9e4 ,a rock usually conta9+ mu* magnesian e>?1 = ! mo/ "p un/ratifi$1 b sometimes appe>+ to be an alt]$ or metamorphic /ratifi$ rock4 ,its "n is d]iv$ f frequ5tly pres5t+ contra/s ( color1 l ! sk9 ( "s s]p5ts4 ,,%ale4 ,a prov9cial t]m1 adopt$ by geologi/s1 to express an indurat$ slaty clay4 ,etym41 ,g]man s*al51 to peel1 to split4 ,,%ell ,,m>l4 ,a deposit ( clay1 peat1 & o!r sub/ances mix$ ) %ells1 :i* collects at ! bottom ( lakes4 ,,%+le4 ,! loose & completely wat]-worn gravel on ! sea-%ore4 ,,silex4 ,! "n ( "o ( ! pure e>?s1 be+ ! ,lat9 ^w = fl9t1 :i* is :olly compos$ ( t e>?4 ,fr5* geologi/s h appli$ x z a g5]ic "n = all m9]als compos$ entirely ( t e>?1 ( :i* !re are _m ( diff]5t ext]nal =ms4 ,,silica4 ,"o ( ! pure e>?s4 ,etym41 silex1 fl9t1 because f\nd 9 t m9]al4 ,,silicate4 ,a *emical comp\nd ( silica & ano!r sub/ance1 su* z silicate ( iron4 ,consult elem5t>y works on *emi/ry4 ,,silice\s4 ,( or belong+ to ! e>? ( fl9t4 ,etym41 silex1 :i* see4 ,a silice\s rock is "o ma9ly compos$ ( silex4 ,,silicifi$4 ,any sub/ance t is petrifi$ or m9]aliz$ by silice\s e>?4 ,,silt4 ,! m comm9ut$ s&1 clay1 & e>?1 :i* is transport$ by runn+ wat]4 ,x is (t5 accumulat$ by curr5ts 9 banks4 ,?us ! m\? ( a riv] is silt$ up :5 its entrance into ! sea is imp$$ by su* accumulation ( loose mat]ials4 ,,simple ,,m9]al4 ,individual m9]al sub/ances1 z di/+ui%$ f rocks1 :i* la/ are usually an aggregation ( simple m9]als4 ,!y are n simple 9 reg>d to _! nature2 = :5 subject$ to *emical analysis1 !y are f\nd to consi/ ( a v>iety ( diff]5t sub/ances4 ,pyrites is a simple m9]al 9 ! s5se we use ! t]m1 b x is a *emical comp\nd ( sulphur & iron4 ,,s9t]1 ,,calc>e\s ,,or ,,silice\s4 ,a ,g]man "n = a rock precipitat$ f m9]al wat]s4 ,etym41 s9t]n1 to drop4 ,,slate4 ,see ,cleavage & ,s*i/4 ,,solfat>a4 ,a volcanic v5t f :i* sulphur1 sulphure\s1 wat]y1 & acid vapors & gases are emitt$4 ,,sporules4 ,! reproductory corpuscula 7m9ute bodies7 ( cryptogamic plants4 ,etym41 ,greek3 spora1 spora1 a se$4 ,,/alactite4 ,:5 wat] hold+ lime 9 solution deposits x z x drops f ! ro( ( a cav]n1 long rods ( /one hang d[n l icicles1 & ^! are call$ /alactites4 ,etym41 ,greek3 /alazo1 /alazo1 to drop4 ,,/alagmite4 ,:5 wat] hold+ lime 9 solution drops on ! floor ( a cav]n1 ! wat] evaporat+ leaves a cru/ compos$ ( lay]s ( lime/one3 su* a cru/ is call$ /alagmite1 f ,greek3 /alagma1 /alagma1 a drop1 9 opposition to /alactite1 :i* see4 ,,/atical ,,figure4 ,! figure :i* results f ! equilibrium ( =ces4 ,f ,greek3 /atos1 /atos1 /able1 or /&+ /ill4 ,,/]num4 ,! brea/-bone1 or ! flat bone occupy+ ! front ( ! *e/4 ,,/ilbite4 ,a cry/alliz$ simple m9]al1 usually :ite1 "o ( ! ,zeolite family1 frequ5tly includ$ 9 ! mass ( ! ,trap-rocks4 ,,/ratifi$4 ,rocks arrang$ 9 ! =m ( /rata1 :i* see4 ,,/ratification4 ,an arrangem5t ( rocks 9 /rata1 :i* see4 ,,/rata1 ,,/ratum4 ,! t]m /ratum1 d]iv$ f ! ,lat9 v]b /ruo1 to /rew or lay out1 means a b$ or mass ( matt] spread out ov] a c]ta9 surface by ! action ( wat]1 or 9 "s cases by w9d4 ,! deposition ( successive lay]s ( s& & gravel 9 ! b$ ( a riv]1 or 9 a canal1 af=ds a p]fect illu/ration bo? ( ! =m & orig9 ( /ratification4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! masses con/itut+ ! e>?'s cru/ are ?us /ratifi$1 ! successive /rata ( a giv5 rock pres]v+ a g5]al p>allelism to ea* o!r2 b ! planes ( /ratification n be+ p]fectly p>allel ?r\gh\t a great ext5t l ! planes ( cleavage1 :i* see4 ,,/rike4 ,! direction or l9e ( be>+ ( /rata1 :i* is always at "r angles to _! prevail+ dip4 ,,/ufas4 ,jets ( /eam issu+ f fissures 9 volcanic regions at a temp]ature (t5 above ! boil+ po9t4 ,,subap5n9es4 ,l[ hills :i* skirt or lie at ! foot ( ! great *a9 ( ! ,ap5n9es 9 ,italy4 ,! t]m4 ,subap5n9e is appli$ geologically to a s]ies ( /rata ( ! ,old] ,plioc5e ,p]iod4 ,,sy5ite4 ,a k9d ( granite2 s call$1 because x 0 br\ght f ,sy5e 9 ,egypt4 ,,talus4 ,:5 fragm5ts are brok5 (f by ! action ( ! wea!r f ! face ( a /eep rock1 z !y accumulate at its foot1 !y =m a slop+ heap1 call$ a talus4 ,! t]m is borr[$ f ! language ( =tification1 :]e talus means ! outside ( a wall ( :i* ! ?ickness is dim9i%$ by degrees1 z x rises 9 height1 to make x ! firm]4 ,,t>si4 ,! feet 9 insects1 :i* are articulat$1 & =m$ ( five or a less numb] ( jo9ts4 ,,t]ti>y ,,/rata4 ,a s]ies ( s$im5t>y rocks1 ) *>act]s :i* di/+ui% !m f two o!r great s]ies ( /rata--! second>y & prim>y--:i* lie b5ea? !m4 ,,te/acea4 ,mollusc\s animals1 hav+ a %elly cov]+4 ,etym41 te/a1 a %ell1 su* z snails1 :elks1 oy/]s1 c4 ,,?allog5s4 ,a class ( fl[]less plants includ+ all ^? t h no def9$ axis1 /em1 or leaves2 z ,li*5s1 ,seawe$s1 & ,fungi4 ,etym41 ,greek3 ?allos1 ?allos1 a bran*1 & ,greek3 g5esis1 g5esis1 increase4 ,,!rmal4 ,hot4 ,etym41 ,greek3 !rmos1 !rmos1 hot4 ,,!rmo-,,electricity4 ,electricity develop$ by heat4 ,,?9 ,,out4 ,:5 a /ratum1 9 ! c\rse ( its prolongation 9 any direction1 becomes gradually less 9 ?ickness1 ! two surfaces approa* ne>] & ne>]2 & :5 at la/ !y meet1 ! /ratum is said to ?9 out or disappe>4 ,,tra*yte4 ,a v>iety ( lava ess5tially compos$ ( glassy felsp>1 & frequ5tly hav+ deta*$ cry/als ( felsp> 9 ! base or body ( ! /one1 giv+ x ! /ructure ( porphyry4 ,x sometimes conta9s hornbl5de & augite2 & :5 ^! la/ pr$om9ate1 ! tra*yte passes into ! v>ieties ( trap1 call$ ,gre5/one1 ,basalt1 ,dolorite1 c4 ,! t]m is d]iv$ f ,greek3 tra*us1 tra*us1 r\gh1 because ! rock has a peculi> r\gh feel4 ,,trap & ,,trappean ,,rocks4 ,volcanic rocks compos$ ( felsp>1 augite1 & hornbl5de4 ,! v>i\s proportions & /ate ( aggregation ( ^! simple m9]als1 & diff]5ces 9 ext]nal =ms1 give rise to v>ieties1 :i* h receiv$ di/9ct appellations1 su* z ,basalt1 ,amygdaloid1 ,dolorite1 ,gre5/one1 & o!rs4 ,! t]m is d]iv$ f trappa1 a ,sw$i% ^w = /air1 because ! rocks ( ?is class sometimes occur 9 l>ge tabul> masses1 ris+ "o above ano!r l /eps4 ,,trav]t94 ,a :ite concretion>y lime/one1 usually h>d & semi-cry/all9e1 deposit$ f ! wat] ( spr+s hold+ lime 9 solution4--,etym4 ,?is /one 0 call$ by ! anci5ts ,lapis ,tiburt9us1 ! /one be+ =m$ 9 great quantity by ! riv] ,anio1 at ,tibur1 ne> ,rome4 ,"s suppose trav]t9 to be an abbreviation ( tra/]v]9o f tran/iburt9us4 ,,tripoli4 ,! "n ( a p[d] us$ = poli%+ metals & /ones1 fir/ import$ f ,tripoli1 :i*1 z well z a c]ta9 k9d ( silice\s /one ( ! same "n1 has be5 lately f\nd to be compos$ ( ! fl9ty cases ( ,infusoria4 ,,trophi1 ( ,insects4 ,organs :i* =m ! m\?1 consi/+ ( an upp] & "u lip1 & compris+ ! p>ts call$ m&ibles1 maxillae1 & palpi4 ,,tufa1 ,,calc>e\s4 ,a por\s rock deposit$ by calc>e\s wat]s on _! exposure to ! air1 & usually conta9+ portions ( plants & o!r organic sub/ances incru/$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,! m solid =m ( ! same deposit is call$ trav]t91 into :i* x passes4 ,,tufa1 ,,volcanic4 ,see ,tuff4 ,,tuface\s4 ,a rock ) ! texture ( tuff1 or tufa1 :i* see4 ,,tuff1 or ,,tufa ,,volcanic4 ,an ,italian "n = a v>iety ( volcanic rock ( an e>?y texture1 seldom v compact1 & compos$ ( an agglut9ation ( fragm5ts ( scoriae & loose mat]ials eject$ f a volcano4 ,,turb9at$4 ,%ells :i* h a spiral or screw-=m /ructure4 ,etym41 turb9atus1 made l a top4 ,,turrilite4 ,an ext9ct g5us ( *amb]$ %ells1 alli$ to ! ,ammonites1 hav+ ! siphuncle ne> ! dorsal m>g94 ,,uncon=mable4 ,see ,con=mable4 ,,unoxidiz$1 ,,unoxidat$4 ,n comb9$ ) oxyg54 ,,ve9s1 ,,m9]al4 ,cracks 9 rocks fill$ up by sub/ances diff]5t f ! rock1 :i* may ei!r be e>?y or metallic4 ,ve9s are sometimes _m y>ds wide2 & !y ramify or bran* (f into innum]able small] p>ts1 (t5 z sl5d] z ?reads1 l ! ve9s 9 an animal1 h5ce _! "n4 ,,v]tebrat$ ,,animals4 ,a great division ( ! animal k+dom1 includ+ all ^? :i* are furni%$ ) a back-bone1 z ! mammalia1 birds1 reptiles1 & fi%es4 ,! sep>ate jo9ts ( ! back-bone are call$ v]tebrae1 f ! ,lat9 v]b v]to1 to turn4 ,,vesicle4 ,a small1 circul>1 inclos$ space1 l a little bladd]4 ,etym41 dim9utive ( vesica1 ,lat9 = a bladd]4 ,,vitrification4 ,! conv]sion ( a body into glass by heat4 ,,volcanic ,,bombs4 ,volcanoes ?r[ out sometimes deta*$ masses ( melt$ lava1 :i*1 z !y fall1 assume r\nd$ =ms 7l bomb-%ells71 & are (t5 elongat$ into a pe>-%ape4 ,,volcanic ,,foci4 ,! subt]ranean c5tres ( action 9 volcanoes1 :]e ! heat is suppos$ to be 9 ! highe/ degree ( en]gy4 ,,wacke4 ,a rock ne>ly alli$ to basalt1 ( :i* x may be reg>d$ z a s(t & e>?y v>iety4 ,,w>p4 ,! deposit ( muddy wat]s1 artificially introduc$ into l[ l&s4 ,see p4 #cbf4 ,,zeolite4 ,a family ( simple m9]als1 includ+ /ilbite1 mesotype1 analcime1 & "s o!rs1 usually f\nd 9 ! trap or volcanic rocks4 ,"s ( ! mo/ common v>ieties swell or boil up :5 expos$ to ! bl[-pipe1 & h5ce ! "n ( ,greek3 zeo1 zeo1 to boil1 & ,greek3 li?os1 li?os1 /one4 ,,zoophites4 ,corals1 sponges1 & o!r aquatic animals alli$ to !m2 s call$ because1 :ile !y are ! habitation ( animals1 !y are fix$ to ! gr\nd1 & h ! =m ( plants4 ,etym41 ,greek3 zoon1 zoon1 animal1 & ,greek3 phyton1 phyton1 plant4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,abi*1 ,m41 on eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahcd1 #cgh1 #chj1 #eej4 ,abo1 #ebb1 #ebc4 ,aco/a cit$1 #dii1 #ejb4 ,adams1 ,mr41 on fossil elephant1 #hj4 ,adanson on age ( ! baobab tree1 #dbb4 ,addison on ,burnet's !ory1 #cb4 ,adige1 embankm5t ( !1 #bee4 ----1 delta ( !1 #beg4 ,ad\r1 ,r41 new passage =m$ by1 #cch4 ,adria1 =m]ly a seaport1 #bef4 ,adriatic1 deposits 91 #cf1 #hh1 #ga1 #beg1 #ggd4 ,a,egean ,sea1 ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes dr$g+ 91 #fdi4 ,africa1 fossil %ells (1 m5tion$ by anci5ts1 #ae4 ----1 indig5\s quadrup$s (1 #hb4 ----1 heat radiat$ by1 #id4 ----1 curr5ts on coa/ (1 #bib1 #cdb4 ----1 drift s&s ( des]ts1 #gbf4 ----1 deva/ations ( locu/s 91 #fgd4 ----1 /rata =m+ (f tropical coa/ (1 #ggd4 ----1 des]t ( its area1 #fid4 ,agassiz1 ,m41 on fi% ( coal =mation1 #acf4 ----1 on abrupt transition f "o fossil fauna to ano!r1 #ahd4 ----1 on motion1 c41 ( glaci]s1 #bbd1 #bbf4 ,agricola on fossil rema9s1 #ba4 ,air?rey1 fossil :ale f\nd at1 #gga4 ,alabama1 coal plants1 #hh4 ,alaska1 volcanoes 91 #ceb4 ,aldbor\gh1 incursions ( sea at1 #caa4 ,ald]ney1 race (1 #bic4 ,aleutian ,isles1 eruptions1 c41 91 #ceb1 #dfh4 ,alex&ria1 temple ( ,s]apis at1 #eab4 ,algae1 kn[n prov9ces (1 #fag4 ,allan1 ,dr41 on coral 9 ,madagasc>1 #ggh4 ,alloa1 :ale ca/ a%ore at1 #gga4 ,alluvium1 imb$d+ ( organic rema9s 91 #ghj4 ----1 volcanic1 #chf4 ----1 /alagmite1 alt]nat+ )1 9 caves1 #gcf4 ,alps1 ,saussure on !1 #de4 ----1 t]ti>y rocks ( !1 #aai4 ----1 greatly rais$ dur+ t]ti>y epo*1 #abd4 ----1 signs ( lat]al pressure 9 !1 #aga4 ,alt]$ rocks1 #agg4 ,amazon1 ,r41 l& =m$ by its deposits1 #cdb4 ----1 animals float$ d[n on drift-wood by1 #fdj4 ,am]ica1 its coa/ und]m9$1 #cca4 ----1 rec5t /rata 9 lakes (1 #bed1 #gfh4 ----1 specific di/9ctness ( animals (1 #fab1 #fbi4 ----1 dome/icat$ animals run wild 91 #ehe1 #fhe4 ----1 ,n41 cont9u\s b$s ( coal 91 #aae4 ----1 ,n41 deposit ,new r$ l ,engli%1 #aeh4 ----1 ,n4 & ,s41 mammif]\s fauna (1 #fcc4 ,ammonia 9 lavas1 #eej4 ,amonoosuck1 flood 9 valley (1 #bji4 ,amp]e1 ,m41 on electric curr5ts 9 ! e>?1 #edc4 ,amphi!rium1 9 oolite ( ,/onesfleld1 #ach4 ,&es1 *anges ( level 91 #gfb4 ----1 height ( p]petual sn[ on1 #aab4 ----1 volcanoes (1 #cdf4 ----1 sudd5 upheaval (1 #agj4 ----1 signs ( lat]al pressure 91 #aga4 ,&esite1 rock describ$1 #cdg4 ,angiosp]m\s plants want+ 9 old] rocks1 #acc4 ,animals1 ext9ction (1 #gjj4 ----1 quantity ( food requir$ by l>ge1 #hb4 ----1 ,lam>ck on production ( new organs 91 #efh4 ----1 import$ into ,am]ica h ran wild1 #ehe1 #fhe4 ----1 aptitude ( "s k9ds to dome/ication1 #eic1 #eih4 ----1 h]$it>y in/9cts (1 #eic4 ----1 dome/ic qualities (1 #eib1 #eie4 ----1 _! acquir$ habits r>ely transmissible1 #eie1 #fjj4 ----1 *anges 9 bra9 ( foetus 91 #fji4 ----1 plants diffus$ by1 #fbc4 ----1 _! geographical di/ribution1 #gf1 #gg4 ----1 migrations (1 #fhe4 ----1 causes :i* det]m9e ! /ations (1 #ffi1 #fgf4 ----1 influ5ce ( man on _! di/ribution1 #fhb4 ----1 fossil1 9 peat caves1 c41 #gbb1 #gbe1 #gcj1 #gcb1 #gdi1 #geb4 ,anio1 ,r41 flood ( !1 #bab4 ----1 trav]t9 =m$ by1 #bdd4 ,anoplo!rium1 fossil ( ,isle ( ,wight1 #adb4 ,ant>ctic circle1 area /ill unexplor$1 #ii4 ,antw]p1 sunk region ne>1 #cbg4 ,ap5n9es1 _! relative age1 #aai1 #abd4 ,aphides1 acc\nt ( a %[] (1 #fef4 ----1 _! multiplication1 #fgc4 ,aque\s causes1 suppos$ =m] int5sity (1 #aec4 ----1 _! action describ$1 #aih4 ,aque\s lavas1 description (1 #cgd1 #che1 #gbh4 ,arabian ,gulf fill+ ) coral1 #ggf4 ,arabian writ]s1 #ag4 ,arago1 ,m41 on influ5ce ( =e/s on climate1 #gae4 ----1 on sol> radiation1 #abg4 ----1 on level ( ,m$it]ranean & ,r$ ,sea1 #bid4 ----1 on =mation ( gr\nd ice1 #bba4 ,araucanian tradition ( a flood1 #dii4 ,arauc>ia1 fir 9 coal1 #hh4 ,arbroa?1 h\ses1 c41 swept away by sea at1 #cjb4 ,ar*iac1 ,m41 #beg4 ,arctic fauna ext5d$ f>!r s\? ?an n[1 #abe4 ,ardu9o1 memoirs (1 #da4 ----1 on subm>9e volcanoes1 #da1 #ga4 ,areas ( elevation & subsid5ce prov$ by coral isl&s1 #gib4 ,ari/>*us1 #bab4 ,ari/otle1 op9ions (1 #ab4 ----1 on spontane\s g5]ation1 #bb4 ----1 on deluge ( ,deucalion1 #cef4 ,arkansas1 ,r41 #bfd4 ----1 floods (1 #bgj4 ,arso1 volcanic eruption (1 9 ,is*ia1 #cfe4 ,artesian well at ,p>is1 temp]ature ( wat]1 #bcd4 ----1 well1 at ,=t ,william1 ne> ,calcutta1 #bhj4 ----1 well 9 delta ( ,po1 #beg4 ,artesian wells ne> ,london1 #bcd4 ----1 wells1 ph5om5a br\ght to light by1 #bcc1 #ech4 ,arve1 s$im5t transport$ by !1 #beh4 ----1 section ( dabris deposit$ by1 #bhi4 ,asc5sion1 ,isl& (1 b\nd$ by l(ty %ores1 #fbb4 ----1 fossil eggs ( turtle f1 #gga4 ,a%es1 volcanic1 transport$ to great di/ances1 #ajf1 #cdi1 #dfd4 ,asia1 subject to e>?quakes1 #i4 ----1 coa/ (1 *ang$1 #ah4 ----1 causes ( extreme cold ( "p (1 #id4 ----1 ,m9or1 ga9 ( l& on coa/ (1 #bfj4 ----1 ,we/]n1 great cavity 91 #fib4 ,ass1 wild1 #fch1 #fhf4 ,a/ruc1 on ,delta ( ,rhone1 #beh4 ,at*afalaya1 ,r41 #bfd4 ----1 drift-wood 91 #bfg4 ,atlantic1 mean dep? (1 #ajd4 ----1 its relative level1 #bid4 ----1 rise ( ! tide 91 #bie4 ----1 abs5ce ( coral reefs 91 #gif4 ,atlantis1 subm]sion (1 #i4 ,atolls describ$1 #ghb1 #ghf4 ----1 !ory (1 ,mr4 ,macl>5's objections to1 #gib4 ,atrio del ,cavallo1 #cha4 ,aub5as1 fissures fill$ ) breccia ne>1 #gda4 ,au/51 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,c41 on %ores ( ,engli% ,*annel1 #cai4 ----1 on new /rata =m$ 91 #cda4 ,au/ralia1 animals (1 #aci1 #adc1 #fhd4 ----1 coral reefs (1 #ggf1 #ghd4 ----1 l& quadrup$s (1 #fcc4 ,auv]gne1 salt spr+s 91 #bdh4 ----1 c>bonic acid gas dis5gag$ 91 #bdh4 ----1 /ate ( 9 t]ti>y p]iod1 #abb4 ----1 fossils 9 volcanic a%es (1 #cdi4 ----1 volcanic rocks (1 #dh4 ----1 t]ti>y r$ m>l & s&/one (1 #aeh4 ,ava1 fossils (1 #bh4 ,avantipura1 9 ,ca%m]e1 #gfc4 ,av]nus lake1 #cfh4 ,avic5na on cause ( m\nta9s1 #ag4 ,axm\?1 great l&slip ne>1 #cba4 ,azores1 iceb]gs drift$ to1 #ii4 ----1 volcanic l9e f1 to c5tral ,asia1 #ced4 ----1 silice\s spr+s (1 #bdf4 ,b4 ,babbage1 ,mr41 on ! coa/ ne> ,puzzuoli1 #ejg4 ----1 on ,temple ( ,s]apis1 #eag4 ----1 on expansion ( rocks by heat1 #efb4 ,ba*man1 ,mr41 on birds1 #fdc1 #fdd4 ,bacon1 ,"l1 cit$1 #gfe4 ,bad51 gypse\s spr+s (1 #bde4 ,baff9's ,bay1 iceb]gs 91 #if4 ,bagnes1 valley (1 bur/+ ( a lake 9 !1 #baj4 ,baiae1 *anges on coa/ ( ! bay (1 #ejg4 ----1 gr\nd plan ( ! coa/ (1 #ejg4 ----1 sections 9 bay (1 #ejh1 #eaj4 ,bak]1 on ,caspian1 mud volcanoes at1 #ddh4 ,bak]1 ,lieut41 on fossil quadrumana1 #add4 ,bakewell1 ,mr41 on =mation ( soils1 #gji4 ----1 on fall ( ,m\nt ,gr5i]1 #ghb4 ,bakewell1 ,mr4 jun41 on ,falls ( ,niag>a1 #bag4 ,bakie lo*1 *>ae fossil 91 #gfg4 ,baku1 inflammable gas (1 #aa1 #cee4 ,bal>uc1 !rmal wat]s (1 #bei4 ,baldass>i1 on ,si5ese fossils1 #ci4 ,balize1 m\? ( ,mississippi1 #bfc1 #bgb4 ,baltic ,sea1 l[]+ ( level (1 #ebj4 ----1 drift+ ( rocks by ice 91 #bai1 #bca4 ----1 curr5ts on its %ores1 #ccj4 ,banks ( ,mississippi high] ?an alluvial pla91 #bff4 ,baobab tree1 its size1 probable age1 c41 #dbb4 ,b>badoes1 ra9 dim9i%$ by fell+ ( =e/s 91 #gac4 ,b>r5 ,isl& describ$1 #ddg4 ,b>r[1 ,mr41 on a bank =m$ 9 sea by locu/s1 #fge4 ,b>r[1 ,mr4 jun41 on ! ,geys]s ( ,icel&1 #bdg4 ,b>ton1 ,mr41 on geography ( plants1 #fab4 ,basalt1 op9ions ( ! e>ly writ]s on1 #dh1 #ga4 ,batavia1 effects ( e>?quake at1 #ejb4 ,baton ,r\ge1 9 ,l\isiana1 #bfe4 ,bay ( ,b5gal1 its dep?1 rec5t deposits 91 c41 #bgi4 ,bayfield1 ,capt41 on geology ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 #bed4 ----1 on drift+ ( rock by ice1 #bba1 #bcj4 ----1 on bur/+ ( a p59sula by ,lake ,erie1 #ccc4 ----1 on e>?quakes 9 ,canada1 #dgj4 ,bea*es1 rais$1 #ahd4 ,bea*ey ,head1 #cag4 ,be>s1 once num]\s 9 ,wales1 #fhc4 ----1 black1 migrations (1 #fcg4 ----1 drift$ on ice1 #fgi4 ,beau=t1 ,sir ,f41 on ga9 ( l& 9 ,asia ,m9or1 #bfj4 ----1 on rise ( tides1 #bia4 ,beaumont1 ,m4 ,elie de1 geological map ( ,france1 #abb4 ----1 on p5tagonal network ( m\nta9 *a9s1 #agj4 ----1 8 !ory ( contemporane\s orig9 ( p>allel m\nta9 *a9s consid]$1 #afc4 ----1 on /ructure & orig9 ( ,etna1 #djj1 #daf4 ----1 on s&-dunes1 #cjg4 ----1 on inroads ( sea 9 ,holl&1 #cbg4 ,beav] once inhabit$ ,scotl& & ,wales1 #fhc4 ----1 fossil 9 ,p]?%ire1 #geb4 ----1 lake =m$ by1 9 ,new ,brunswick1 #gaf4 ,be*e1 ,sir ,h4 de la4 ,see ,de la ,be*e4 ,bee1 migrations ( !1 #fee4 ,bee*ey1 ,capt41 upheaval ( ,bay ( ,conception1 #ejj4 ----1 on drift+ ( canoes1 #ffb4 ----1 on temple ( ,ipsambul1 #gbg4 ----1 on coral isl&s1 #ghj1 #ghb1 #ghg4 ----1 on *anges ( level 9 ,pacific1 #ghh4 ----1 on dead coral 9 ,elizabe? ,isl&1 #gid4 ,beila1 9 ,india1 mud volcanoes1 #ddi4 ,bel*]1 ,sir ,e41 on upheaval ( ,conception1 #ejj4 ----1 on /rata =m+ (f coa/ ( ,africa1 #ggd4 ,bell1 ,mr41 on ! ,dog1 #ehe4 ,bell rock1 /ones ?r[n up by /orms on1 #cjb4 ,belzoni1 on temple ( ,ipsambul1 #gbf4 ----1 on a flood ( ! ,nile1 #gec4 ,b591 curr5ts 9 ,bay (1 #bib4 ,b>>d1 ,m41 on dep? & temp]ature ( ,m$it]ranean1 #bif1 #ccf4 ,b]keley1 on rec5t orig9 ( man1 #gfd4 ,b]mudas1 only coral reef f> out 9 ,atlantic1 #gif4 ----1 coral reefs ( !1 #ggf1 #ggh4 ,bewick cit$1 #caj1 #fdc1 #fhc4 ,bhooj1 9 ,cut*1 de/roy$ by e>?quake1 #dei4 ----1 volcanic eruption at1 #dfj1 #gbi4 ,bies ,bos* =m$1 #cbh4 ,bigsby1 ,dr41 on ,nor? ,am]ican lakes1 #gfh4 ,birds1 diffusion ( plants by1 #fbd4 ----1 geographical di/ribution (1 #fdb1 #ffc4 ----1 fossils 9 second>y rocks1 #acg4 ----1 tam5ess (1 9 un9habit$ ,isl&s1 #eig4 ----1 rate ( flight (1 #fdd4 ----1 migrations (1 #fdc4 ----1 rec5t ext]m9ation ( "s species (1 #fhc4 ----1 bones (1 9 ,gibralt> breccia1 #gda4 ----1 r>ity ( _! rema9s 9 new /rata1 #gdh4 ----1 r>e 9 deposits ( all ages1 #acg4 ,bis*(f1 ,pr(essor1 on volcanoes1 #eea4 ----1 on c>bonic acid 9 ext9ct crat]s on ,rh9e1 #bdh4 ,biscoe1 ,capt41 discov]ies 9 s\? ,pol> ,seas1 #ii4 ,bison1 fossil1 9 ,york%ire1 #gf4 ,bisons1 9 ,mississippi valley1 #fcf4 ,bi/9eau lake1 #bfi4 ,bitum51 ooz+ f bottom ( sea1 ne> ,tr9idad1 #bej4 ,bitum9\s spr+s1 #bej4 ,black ,sea1 salt by evaporation 91 #cce4 ----1 ,see ,eux9e4 ,blue m\nta9s 9 ,jamaica1 #eje4 ,bluffs ( ,mississippi describ$1 #bfd4 ,boa con/rictor1 migration (1 #fdf4 ,boase1 ,mr41 on inroads ( sea 9 ,cornwall1 #cbc4 ----1 on drift-s& 9 ,cornwall1 #gbh4 ,boblaye1 ,m41 on c]amique1 9 ,morea1 #gca4 ----1 on engulf$ riv]s & caves 9 ,morea1 #gcd4 ----1 on e>?quakes 9 ,greece1 #gcf4 ,bog iron-ore1 :5ce d]iv$1 #gbb4 ,bogota1 e>?quake (1 #deg4 ,bonpl&1 on plants common to ,old & ,new ,_w1 #fad4 ,bore1 a tidal wave frequ5t 9 ,bri/ol ,*annel & ,ganges1 #ccb4 ,bory de ,/4 ,v9c5t1 ,m41 on isle ( ,santor91 #dde4 ,bosphorus1 #ccd4 ----1 traditions ( deluges on %ores ( !1 #cef4 ,botanical evid5ce be>+ on !ory ( progressive developm5t1 #acc4 ----1 geography1 #fac4 ----1 prov9ces1 _! numb]1 #faf1 #fff1 #ffh4 ,bo?nia1 ,gulf1 gradual elevation ( coa/ (1 #ebj4 ,b\rbon1 isl&1 volcanic1 #edf4 ,b\rnm\?1 subm>9e =e/ at1 #gdf4 ,b\ss+ault4 ,m41 on volcanoes 9 ,&es1 #cdh4 ----1 on gases evolv$ by volcanoes1 #edi4 ,b[51 ,lieut41 on drift+ ( rocks by ice1 #bbj1 #bcj4 ,boyle1 on bottom ( ! sea1 #bf4 ,brac9i1 on ,vesuvius be=e #afca1 #cgd4 ,brahmapootra1 delta (1 #bge1 #bgh4 ,brahm9s1 _! doctr9es1 #d4 ,br&]1 on fossils ( ,hamp%ire1 #df4 ,br&t1 ,pr(essor1 cit$1 #hj4 ----1 on ,wilui rh9oc]os1 #hj4 ,bravais1 ,m41 on uprais$ sea-coa/ 9 ,f9m>k1 #ecj4 ,breccias1 9 ,val del ,bove1 #daa4 ----1 9 caves n[ =m+ 9 ! ,morea1 #gcd4 ,br5ta1 delta ( !1 #bef4 ,brieslak1 on temple ( ,s]apis1 #eag4 ----1 on ,vesuvius1 #cha1 #chd4 ,briggs1 ,mr41 8 discov]y ( wat] 9 ,african des]t1 #bce4 ,brighton1 wa/e ( cliffs (1 #cag4 ,br9e spr+s1 #bdg4 ,bri/ol ,*annel1 curr5ts 91 #bic4 ,brittany1 village1 buri$ "u bl[n s&1 #gbg4 ----1 m>9e t]ti>y /rata (1 #abb4 ----1 wa/e ( coa/ (1 #cbd4 ,broc*i1 on fossil con*ology1 #bj4 ----1 on ,burnet's !ory1 #cd4 ----1 on delta ( ,po1 #beg4 ----1 on ext9ction ( species1 #ffh4 ----1 on ! ,subap5n9es1 #aah4 ,brod]ip1 ,mr41 on opossum ( ,/onesfield1 #aci4 ----1 on %ells f ,conception ,bay1 #ejj4 ----1 on bulimi reviv$1 #fej4 ----1 on m\lt+ ( crabs1 #fec4 ----1 on naturalization ( a =eign l&%ell1 #ffd4 ----1 on ! ,dodo1 #fhd4 ,brongni>t1 ,m4 ,adolphe1 #hg4 ----1 on fossil plants ( coal1 #hh1 #aag1 #acc4 ----1 on plants 9 isl&s1 #aab4 ,brongni>t1 ,m4 ,alex41 on mod]n lava /reams1 #dbg4 ----1 on elevat$ bea*es 9 ,sw$51 #ebg4 ,br[n1 ,mr4 ,r41 on /ructure ( vessels 9 myzod5dron1 #hh4 ----1 on plants common to ,africa1 ,guiana1 & ,brazil1 #fba4 ----1 on :eat 9 ,egyptian tombs1 #ehg4 ,bu*4 ,see ,von ,bu*4 ,buckl&1 ,rev4 ,dr41 on l&slip ne> ,axm\?1 #cba4 ----1 on fossil elephants1 c41 9 ,india1 #g4 ----1 on fossils f ,es*s*oltz's ,bay1 #hb4 ----1 on fossils 9 caves & fissures1 #gci1 #gdj4 ----1 on ,val del ,bove1 #djb4 ,buffon1 8 !ory ( ! e>?1 #ci4 ----1 reprov$ by ! ,sorbonne1 #ci4 ----1 on geographical di/ribution ( animals1 #eij1 #fab1 #fbi4 ----1 on ext9ction ( species1 #gja4 ,bui/1 ,mr41 on subm>9e =e/s 9 ! e/u>y ( ,tay1 #cjc4 ----1 on mud volcanoes 9 ,india1 #ddh4 ,bunbury1 ,mr41 on coal plants ( ,alabama1 #hh4 ----1 on f]ns 9 c>bonif]\s era1 #hg4 ,buns51 ,*evali]1 on ,anci5t ,egypt1 #fei4 ,buns51 ,pr(essor1 on ,geys]s ( ,icel&1 #eeh4 ----1 on m9]al spr+s 9 ,icel&1 #bdf4 ----1 on mud volcanoes ( ,icel&1 #ddg4 ----1 on solfat>as ( ,icel&1 #eea4 ,bunt] ,s&/e91 fossils (1 #aic4 ,bura1 subm]g$ ,grecian t[n1 #ae1 #gfb4 ,buri$ cones on ,etna1 section (1 #cig4 ----1 temples ( ,ca%m]e1 #gfb4 ,burnes1 ,sir ,a41 on ,cut*1 e>?quake (1 #dfa1 #dfd4 ,burnet1 8 !ory ( ! e>?1 #ca4 ,burntisl&1 :ale ca/ a%ore ne>1 #gga4 ,burrampoot]1 ,r41 delta ( !1 #bge4 ,see ,brahmapootra4 ----1 bodies ( m51 de]1 c4 float$ (f by1 #gea4 ,bu/>ds rec5tly extirpat$ 9 ,engl&1 #fhh4 ,c4 ,calabria1 geological description (1 #dgd4 ----1 e>?quake ( #aghc 91 #dga4 ----1 t]ti>y /rata (1 #gd4 ,calanna1 lava ( ,etna turn$ f its c\rse by hill (1 #dji1 #daj4 ----1 valley (1 #djb1 #djd4 ,calc>e\s spr+s1 #bci4 ,calcutta1 artesian well at1 #bhj4 ,caldcleugh1 ,mr41 on e>?quake 9 ,*ili1 #ahce1 #dec4 ----1 on eruption ( ,cosegu9a1 #cdi4 ,cali=nia1 volcanoes 91 #cdi4 ,callao t[n de/roy$ by sea1 #ejb4 ----1 *anges caus$ by e>?quakes at1 #eja1 #gfa4 ,camels1 c>casses (1 imb$d$ 9 drift s&1 #gbg4 ,campagna di ,roma1 calc>e\s deposits (1 #bdb4 ,campania1 aque\s lavas 91 #gbh4 ,camp]1 on facial angle1 #fjh4 ,canada1 e>?quakes frequ5t 91 #dgj4 ----1 climate (1 #ehb4 ----1 probably cold] 9 newe/ t]ti>y p]iod1 #abe4 ,can>y ,isl&s1 eruptions 91 #dcf4 ,cannon 9 calc>e\s rock1 #gei4 ----1 acc\nt ( "o tak5 up ne> ! ,d[ns1 #gbf4 ,canoes drift$ to great di/ances1 #ffa4 ----1 fossil1 #gei4 ,cape ,may1 encroa*m5t ( sea at1 #ccb4 ----1 ( ,good ,hope1 iceb]gs se5 (f1 #ajj4 ,capocci1 ,m41 on temple ( ,s]apis1 #eah4 ,c>accas1 e>?quakes 91 #dfe1 #dgj4 ,c>ang ,assam volcano1 #dfe4 ,c>bonat$ spr+s1 #bdh4 ,c>bonic acid1 suppos$ atmosph]e (1 #bdh4 ----1 gas1 its effects on rocks1 #bdi4 ,c>bonif]\s s]ies1 #aae1 #acg4 ----1 era1 pr$om9ance ( f]ns 91 #hg4 ----1 era1 climate 91 #hg4 ----1 flora1 k (1 rec5tly acquir$1 #abf4 ----1 p]iod1 va/ duration (1 #bdi4 ----1 ,see ,coal4 ,c>digan%ire1 tradition ( loss ( l& 91 #cbd4 ,c>dium1 locomotive p[]s :5 "y1 #feb4 ,c>ibbean ,sea1 tides 91 #cdb4 ,c>p5t]1 ,dr41 obs]vations on ,mississippi ,r41 #bgb4 ----1 on encroa*m5t ( sea at ,lyme ,regis1 #cba4 ,c>r>a m>ble1 #agg4 ,ca%m]e1 temples buri$ 9 fre%wat] /rata1 #gfb4 ,caspian1 ,pallas on =m] ext5t (1 #de4 ----1 evaporation ( !1 #bfj4 ----1 its level1 #aef1 #fib4 ,catalonia1 deva/ation ( torr5ts 91 #gac4 ,catania1 9 "p ov]:elm$ by lava1 #djj1 #gbh4 ----1 de/roy$ by e>?quakes1 #ejc4 ----1 tools discov]$ 9 digg+ a well at1 #gec4 ,cata/rophes1 !ories respect+1 #g4 ,catcott1 on deluges 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 #db4 ,cattegat1 deva/ations caus$ by curr5t 9 !1 #cca4 ,cautley1 ,capt41 on buri$ ,h9doo t[n1 #gca4 ----1 on fossil quadrumana1 #add4 ----1 on bones 9 anci5t wells1 #gdj4 ,caves1 organic rema9s 91 #gcb4 ----1 alt]nations (1 & /alagmite 91 #gcf4 ----1 on ,etna1 #dja4 ,cele/ial ,m\nta9s1 #gg1 #cee4 ,celsius1 on dim9ution ( ,baltic1 #cc1 #eba4 ,c5tral ,am]ica1 volcanoes (1 #cdi4 ----1 ,asia1 volcanic l9e f1 to ! ,azores1 #ced4 ----1 ,france1 lavas excavat$ 91 #bac4 ----1 ,france1 comp>ison betwe5 ! lavas ( ,icel& &1 #dbf1 #dbg4 ,c5tres1 specific doctr9e (1 #fcj4 ,c5trifugal =ce1 #ecd1 #edd4 ,cephalonia1 e>?quakes 91 #dgd4 ----1 infusoria 9 subm>9e cav]ns 91 #chi4 ,cesalp9o1 on organic rema9s1 #bb4 ,cetacea1 geographical range (1 #fce4 ----1 migrations ( !1 #fdb4 ----1 imb$d+ (1 9 rec5t /rata1 #ggj4 ----1 fossil1 abs5ce ( 9 second>y rocks1 #ade4 ----1 fossil 9 ,new ,j]sey *alk1 #ade4 ----1 r>ity ( 9 second>y rocks1 #ade4 ,*agos coral isles1 #ghc4 ,*aluzet1 calc>e\s spr+ at1 #bci4 ----1 volcanic cone (1 #bdh4 ,*amb]s1 ,rob]t1 cit$1 #ecj4 ,*amisso1 ,m41 on coral isl&s1 #gha4 ,*am\ni1 glaci]s (1 #bbc4 ,*>a1 gr[+ 9 lakes ( ,n4 ,am]ica1 #gfh4 ,*>ae1 fossiliz$1 #gfg4 ,*>levoix1 *>t ( coa/ ( ,gulf ( ,mexico1 #bgb4 ,*>p5ti]1 ,m41 on glaci]s1 #bbc1 #bbg4 ,*eiro!rium1 9 old r$ s&/one & coal1 #acf4 ,*emical !ory ( volcanoes1 #edb1 #edf4 ,*ep/[1 rise ( ! tides at1 #bia4 ,*e%ire1 br9e spr+s (1 #bdg4 ----1 wa/e ( coa/ (1 #cbd4 ,*esil bank1 #cbj4 ,*esilton1 ov]:elm$ by sea1 #cbj4 ,*ili1 e>?quakes 91 #fe1 #cdg1 #ceg1 #dec1 #deg4 ----1 num]\s volcanoes 91 #cdf4 ----1 coa/ (1 upheav$1 #agj1 #agb1 #cdg1 #dee1 #deg4 ,*iloe1 #cdi4 ,*imborazo1 height (1 #ajb4 ,*9a1 climate (1 #ie4 ----1 e>?quakes 91 #cee4 ,*9ese deluge1 #g4 ,*9es1 or n>r[ rav9es1 describ$1 #cai4 ,*ittagong1 e>?quakes at1 #dgf4 ,*ocki]1 cave at1 #gcf4 ,*onos ar*ipelago1 rise ( l& 91 #dec4 ,*ri/*ur* ,head promontory1 #cai4 ,*ri/ie1 ,mr41 on pla/icity ( ice1 #bbf4 ,*ri/ol1 ,m4 de1 on fossils 9 caves1 #gch1 #gci4 ,*ronology ( ,hebrew ,scriptures1 #fei4 ----1 ( ,dr4 ,hales1 #fei4 ,cimbrian deluge1 #cca4 ,ci/]na on ,etna1 h[ =m$1 #dad4 ,cities engulf$1 #agc4 ,civita ,vec*ia1 spr+s at1 #bdc4 ,cl>ke1 ,dr41 on lava 9 motion1 #cgg4 ,cleavage1 or slaty /ructure1 #agf4 ,cl]mont1 calc>e\s spr+s at1 #bci4 ,climate ( ,europe1 ,raspe on =m]1 #dc4 ----1 *anges ( #ge1 #hf4 ----1 *ange (1 9 nor!rn hemisph]e1 #gc1 #abc4 ----1 on causes ( vicissitudes 91 #ib4 ----1 a/ronomical causes ( fluctuations 91 #abf4 ----1 its influ5ce on di/ribution ( plants1 #fac4 ----1 effect ( *anges 91 on range ( species1 #fif4 ----1 influ5ce ( vegetation on1 #gac4 ,climates1 insul> & excessive1 #id4 ,coal1 mod]n1 at m\?s ( ,mack5zie1 #gdc4 ----1 anci5t b$s1 =m$ ( plants1 #ij4 ----1 anci5t1 =m$ 9 deltas1 #aaf4 ----1 fields1 ,am]ican1 #aae4 ----1 =m$ by plants :i* gr[ on ! spot1 #aae4 ----1 p]iod1 w>m?1 moi/ure1 c4 ( climate1 #abf4 ----1 =mation1 fossil plants ( !1 #hh1 #aae1 #acc4 ----1 climate indicat$ by1 #ia4 ----1 reptilian fossils 91 #acf4 ----1 ,see ,c>bonif]\s4 ,col*e/]1 ,mr4 ,w41 on fossil quadrumana1 #add4 ,colebrooke1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,t41 on age ( ,v$as1 #d4 ----1 on crocodiles ( ! ,ganges1 #bgg4 ----1 ,major ,r4 ,h41 on ! ,ganges1 #bgg4 ,colle1 trav]t9 (1 #bdj4 ,colombia1 e>?quakes 91 #def4 ,colonna1 on organic rema9s1 #bc4 ,columbia1 ,r41 subm]g$ =e/ 91 #bgj4 ,conception1 e>?quakes at1 #dec1 #def1 #dii1 #gfa4 ,conglom]ates1 n[ =m$ by riv]s1 c41 #bhi4 ----1 volcanic1 #daa1 #dch4 ,conif]ae ( coal1 #acc4 ----1 ,arauc>ian1 9 coal1 #hh4 ,consolidation ( /rata1 #age4 ,conybe>e1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,d41 on ,li/]1 #bf4 ----1 on l&slip ne> ,axm\?1 #cba1 #cbb4 ,cook1 ,capta91 on drift+ ( canoes f>1 #ffa4 ----1 on highl& ne> ! ,s\? ,pole1 #ih1 #ii4 ,copaic lake1 #gce4 ,cop]nican !ory1 edicts aga9/1 repeal$ at ,rome1 #ef4 ,copiapo1 e>?quakes at1 #cdg4 ----1 rais$ banks ( %ells at1 #deh4 ,coral isl&s1 #gge1 #ggf1 #gic4 ----1 orig9 ( _! circul> =m1 #ghc4 ----1 l9e> direction (1 #ghb4 ----1 rate ( gr[?1 #ggf4 ----1 d[nw>d movem5t sl[ & uni=m1 #gia4 ----1 abs5ce (1 9 ,atlantic1 c41 #gif4 ,corall9e crag fossils1 #adb4 ,corda1 on palm wood 9 ,bohemian coal1 #hh4 ----1 cit$1 #acc4 ,cordi]1 ,m41 on rate ( increase ( heat 9 m9es1 #ech1 #eci4 ----1 8 !ory on c5tral heat & fluidity1 #edj4 ----1 on tides 9 ! int]nal melt$ ocean1 #eda4 ,cordill]as %ak5 by e>?quakes1 #deg1 #dff4 ----1 p>allel ridges successively upheav$1 #agj4 ,cor9?1 decomposition ( rocks 91 #gcc4 ,cornwall1 wa/e ( cliffs (1 #cbc4 ----1 l& inundat$ by drift-s& 91 #gbg4 ----1 temp]ature ( m9es 91 #ech4 ,corom&el1 inundations ( sea on coa/ (1 #gcj4 ,cosegu9a volcano1 great eruption (1 #cdg4 ,cosmogony di/9ct f geology1 #c4 ----1 ( ! ,h9doos1 #d4 ----1 ,egyptian1 #h4 ----1 ( ! ,koran1 #ah4 ,cosmopolite %ells1 #fej4 ,co/e1 ,capt41 on elevation caus$ by e>?quakes1 #dec4 ,cotopaxi1 #cdh1 #efj4 ,covelli1 ,m41 on hot spr+ 9 ,is*ia1 #def4 ----1 on ,vesuvian m9]als1 #che4 ,c[p]1 ! poet1 on age ( e>?1 #ee4 ,crag /rata1 fossils ( !1 #adb4 ,crat]s ( elevation1 !ory (1 #cga1 #chj1 #dae4 ,crawfurd1 ,mr41 8 discov]y ( fossils 9 ,ava1 #bh4 ----1 on eruption 9 ,sumbawa1 #ajf1 #dfd1 #dfe4 ----1 on drift+ ( canoes1 #ffb4 ,creation1 suppos$ c5tres or foci (1 #ffg4 ----1 epo* (1 diff]5ce ( op9ion on1 #ffj4 ,cremona1 lakes fill$ up ne>1 #bee4 ,crocodiles imb$d$ by a riv] inundation 9 ,java1 #ejc1 #gdh4 ,crom]1 wa/e ( cliffs (1 #cjf4 ,crop?orn1 fossils f\nd at1 #gf4 ,cruick%anks1 ,mr4 ,a41 on ,*ilian e>?quake1 #deg4 ,cuba1 fossils 9 caves (1 #gda4 ,culv]1 cliff1 #cah4 ,cumana1 e>?quake (1 #dgj4 ,cunn+ham1 ,major1 on buri$ temples ( ,ca%m]e1 #gfd4 ,cupressus ?yoides1 #gbe4 ,curr5ts f equatorial regions1 #if4 ----1 f ! pole to ! equator1 #ajg4 ----1 causes & velocity (1 #bic4 ----1 pol> & tropical1 direction (1 #bie4 ----1 de/roy+ & transport+ p[] (1 #big1 #cdj4 ----1 9 e/u>ies1 _! p[]1 #ccg4 ----1 9 ! ,/raits ( ,gibralt>1 #ccc4 ,curr5ts1 reproductive effects (1 #ccg4 ----1 on ! ,briti% %ores1 #cci4 ----1 convey species f ,ant>ctic to ,arctic ,ocean1 #fbb4 ,curtis1 ,mr41 on ravages caus$ by aphides1 #fgd4 ----1 on p[] ( ! ,tipulae to cross ! sea1 #feg4 ----1 on numb] ( ,briti% insects1 #gje4 ----1 on fossil insects1 #gdh4 ,curves ( ! ,mississippi1 #bfe4 ,cut*1 *anges caus$ by e>?quake ( #ahai 91 #dfi1 #gfa4 ,cuvi] on durability ( bones ( m51 #adg1 #geg4 ----1 on crocodiles ( ,ganges1 #bgg4 ----1 on v>iability 9 species1 #ehc1 #ehd4 ----1 on fi% n cross+ ! ,atlantic1 #fdg4 ----1 on id5tity ( ,egyptian mummies ) liv+ species1 #ehf4 ----1 on numb] ( fi%es1 #gje4 ,cuvi]1 ,m4 ,f41 on aptitude ( "s animals to dome/ication1 #eic4 ----1 on influ5ce ( dome/ication1 #eie4 ,cypris1 fossil & liv+1 #gfh4 ,d4 ,dana1 ,mr41 on ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 #ced1 #cgb1 #chc1 #edh4 ----1 on fragm5ts ( rec5t coral ?r[n up by ,polynesian volcanoes1 #cgb4 ----1 on ,m\nt ,loa1 volcano1 #eeb4 ----1 on volcanoes no safety-valves1 #eeb4 ,dang]field1 ,capt ,f41 on buri$ cities ,9 ,india1 #gbi4 ----1 on ,onje91 #gbi4 ,daniell1 ,pr(essor1 on ! trade w9ds1 #ajf4 ----1 on melt+ po9t ( iron1 #eci4 ,dante cit$1 #eb1 #bef4 ,dantzic1 wa/e ( l& ne>1 #cca4 ,d>by1 on lakes =m$ by ,r$ ,riv]1 #bfi4 ----1 on delta ( ,mississippi1 #bgb4 ,d>w91 ,mr4 ,c41 on di/ribution ( animals & plants1 #gg1 #ih1 #ada4 ----1 on vegetation requir$ = support ( l>ge quadrup$s1 #hb4 ----1 ,mr4 ,c41 on drift+ ( rocks by ice1 #bbh4 ----1 on e>?quakes1 #cdg1 #deh1 #def1 #dgf1 #gec4 ----1 on e>?quake waves1 #dig4 ----1 on rise ( l&1 #deh1 #ejb4 ----1 on oolitic trav]t91 #dci4 ----1 on great dr\ghts 9 ,s4 ,am]ica1 #fif4 ----1 on peat ( ,s4 ,am]ica1 #gai4 ----1 on coral isl&s1 #ggi1 #ghj1 #ghb1 #ghe1 #ghi4 ----1 geology ( ,s4 ,am]ica1 #agj4 ----1 on rec5t %ells 9 ,*ili1 #aij4 ----1 on %+le on coa/ ( ,s4 ,am]ica1 #cdb4 ----1 map ( coral reefs1 #ceb1 #gia1 #gid4 ----1 on crat]i=m hills ( ,galapagos1 #cgb4 ----1 infusoria br\ght home by1 #chh4 ----1 on new isl&s =m+ 9 ,atlantic1 #dcf4 ----1 on nat4 hi/4 ( ,galapagos1 #ada1 #eig1 #fae1 #faf1 #fdb4 ----1 on ext9ction ( animals1 #gjj4 ,daub5y1 ,dr41 on spr+s1 #bcg4 ----1 on ,m\nt ,vultur1 #cef4 ----1 on ,vesuvius1 #chj4 ----1 on decomposition ( tra*yte1 #che4 ----1 on fl[+ ( lava "u wat]1 #chc4 ----1 on volcanoes1 #edh1 #edi1 #eej1 #eea4 ,d',aubuisson cit$1 #eh1 #daa4 ,davis1 ,mr41 on ,*9ese deluge1 #g4 ,davy1 ,sir ,h41 on lake ( ! ,solfat>a1 #bdc4 ----1 on =mation ( trav]t91 #bdc4 ----1 on !ory ( progressive developm5t1 #aca4 ----1 on eruption ( ,vesuvius1 #cgh4 ----1 on *emical ag5cy ( electricity1 #edb4 ----1 8 !ory ( unoxidat$ metallic nucleus1 #edf4 ----1 on ag5cy ( air & wat] 9 volcanoes1 #edh1 #eej4 ----1 8 analysis ( peat1 #gah4 ,davy1 ,dr41 on ,graham ,isl&1 #dcf1 #edi4 ----1 on helmet tak5 f sea ne> ,corfu1 #gfj4 ,de ,beaumont4 ,see ,beaumont1 ,de4 ,debey1 ,dr41 ( ,aix1 on cretace\s dicotyl$ons1 #acc4 ,de ,c&olle1 on hybrid plants1 #fje4 ----1 on di/ribution ( plants1 #fac1 #faf4 ----1 on ag5cy ( man 9 disp]sion ( plants1 #fbe4 ----1 on /ations ( plants1 #fgj4 ----1 on b>ri]s sep>at+ botanical prov9ces1 #gjc4 ----1 on numb] ( l& plants1 #gje4 ----1 on longevity ( trees1 #dbb4 ,de*51 ,von1 map ( ,g]many1 c41 #abc4 ,dee1 ,r41 bridge ov]1 swept away by floods1 #bjh4 ,de]1 _! p[]s ( swimm+1 #fcf4 ----1 dim9i%$ numb] 9 ,great ,brita91 #fhc4 ----1 rema9s (1 9 m>l lakes1 #geb4 ,de la ,be*e1 ,sir ,h41 on rocks 9 ,s4 ,wales1 #ia4 ----1 on delta ( ,rhone 9 ,lake ( ,g5eva1 #bec4 ----1 on /orm ( ,nov41 #ahbd1 #cba4 ----1 on subm>9e =e/s1 #cbc4 ----1 on e>?quake ( ,jamaica1 #afib1 #ejd4 ----1 on action ( ra9 9 ! tropics1 #gac4 ,de la ,hire1 on fossil wood f ,ava1 #afib1 #bh4 ,delhi t]ritory1 elephants 91 #ha4 ,delta ( ! ,adige & ,br5ta1 #bef4 ----1 ( ! ,brahmapootra or ,burrampoot]1 #bge4 ----1 ( ! ,ganges1 #bge to #bhd4 ----1 ( ! ,mississippi1 #bfc to #bge4 ----1 ( ! ,mississippi1 antiquity (4 #bga4 ----1 ( ! ,nile1 #bfa4 ----1 ( ! ,po1 #bef4 ----1 ( ,rhone1 9 ,lake ( ,g5eva1 #beb4 ----1 ( ,rhone1 9 ,m$it]ranean1 #beh4 ,deltas1 *ronological computations ( age (1 #bec1 #bhe4 ----1 ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 #bec4 ----1 gr\p+ ( /rata 91 #bhf4 ,de ,luc1 8 treatise on ,geology1 #ef4 ----1 on conv]sion ( =e/s into peat mosses1 #gba4 ,de ,luc1 ,m4 ,g4 ,a41 8 natural *ronomet]s1 #gbf4 ,deluge1 anci5t !ories on1 #ah1 #bc1 #be1 #ca1 #db1 #aee4 ----1 fossil %ells ref]r$ to !1 #bj4 ,deluges1 local1 h[ caus$1 #g1 #bfi4 ----1 traditions ( diff]5t1 #g1 #aa1 #db1 #cca1 #cef1 #ejj1 #eja4 ,demaillet1 speculative views (1 #egb4 ,d5udation c only keep pace ) deposition1 #aed4 ----1 effects (1 #gjh4 ,deposition ( s$im5t1 %ift+ ( ! area (1 #ahh4 ----1 & d5udation p>ts ( ! same process1 #aed4 ,de%ayes1 ,m41 on fossils ( t]ti>y1 #ahd4 ,desm>e/1 8 def9ition ( geology1 #c4 ----1 on ,auv]gne1 #di4 ,desnoy]s1 ,m41 on human rema9s 9 caves1 #gci4 ,desor1 ,m41 on glaci] motion1 #bbd4 ,deucalion's deluge1 #ab4 ,deville1 ,m41 on contraction ( granite1 #agc4 ----1 on tra*ytes1 #ddj4 ,devonian /rata =m$ 9 deep seas1 #aag4 ,diatomaceae1 #chh4 ,dikes1 composition & position (1 #cgi4 ----1 h[ caus$1 #cgi4 ,diluvial waves1 no signs ( on ,etna1 #dbc4 ----1 !ory ( e>li] geologi/s1 #be4 ,diodorus ,siculus cit$1 #ceg4 ,dion ,cassius cit$1 #cfd4 ,dodo1 rec5t ext9ction ( !1 #fhd4 ,dog1 v>ieties ( !1 #egj1 #ehd4 ----1 hybrids betwe5 wolf &1 #fja4 ----1 acquir$ in/9cts h]$it>y 91 #eic4 ----1 has run wild 9 ,am]ica1 #fhf4 ,dogg]bank1 #cdj4 ,doll>t1 =mation ( e/u>y ( !1 #cbi4 ,dolomieu on ,val di ,noto1 ,vic5t91 & ,tyrol1 #di4 ----1 on lavas ( ,etna1 #di4 ----1 on decomposition ( granite1 #bdi4 ----1 on e>?quake ( #aghc 9 ,calabria1 #dgc1 #dge1 #dgh1 #dhj4 ,dome/ication1 aptitude ( "s animals =1 #eic1 #eii4 ----1 influ5ce (1 #eie4 ,don1 riv]1 rocks transport$ by1 #bjh4 ,donati on b$ ( ,adriatic1 #ch1 #ga1 #ggd4 ,donny1 ,mr41 cit$1 #eeg4 ,d',orbigny1 ,m4 ,a41 on abrupt transition f "o fossil fauna to ano!r1 #ahd4 ,dorset%ire1 l&slip 91 #cba4 ----1 wa/e ( cliffs (1 #cai4 ,dove1 ,mr41 map ( iso!rmal l9es1 #ic4 ,dov]1 wa/e ( *alk cliffs (1 #cad4 ----1 dep? ( sea ne>1 #cae4 ----1 =mation ( ,/raits (1 #cae4 ----1 /rata at foot ( cliffs (1 #cad4 ,d[nham buri$ by bl[n s&1 #gbg4 ,dranse1 ,r41 #baj4 ,drift1 nor!rn1 fossil m>9e %ells 91 #ahf4 ,drift-s&1 fossils 91 #gbg4 ,drift-wood ( ,mississippi1 #bfh4 ----1 abundant 9 ,nor? ,sea1 #gdd4 ,dron!im1 #ebi4 ,dr\ghts 9 ,s4 ,am]ica1 animals de/roy$ by1 #fif4 ,druids1 _! doctr9es1 #af4 ,dufresnoy1 ,m41 geological map ( ,france1 #abb4 ----1 on =mation ( ,monte ,nuovo1 #cga1 #cgb4 ----1 on tuffs ( ,somma1 #chb4 ----1 on lavas ( ,vesuvius1 #chd4 ,duj>d91 ,m41 on %ells1 c41 br\ght up by artesian well at ,t\rs1 #bcf4 ,dumont1 ,m41 cit$1 #abj1 #cbh4 ,dum\l91 ,m4 on e>?quakes 9 ,*ili1 #dec4 ,dunes1 hills ( bl[n s&1 #cje1 #cjg4 ,dunwi* de/roy$ by ! sea1 #caj4 ,dur&1 ,lieut41 on fossil quadrumana1 #add4 ,dureau de la ,malle1 ,m41 cit$1 #ehd1 #eic4 ,durham1 wa/e ( coa/ (1 #cjc4 ,d',urville1 ,capt1 on temp]ature ( ,m$it]ranean1 #bif4 ,e4 ,e>?1 antiquity ( !1 #ba4 ----1 on *anges 9 its axis1 #hj4 ----1 proportion ( l& & sea on surface1 #abe4 ----1 sph]oidal =m ( !1 #ecd4 ----1 mean d5sity ( !1 #ece4 ----1 attempt to calculate ?ickness ( its cru/1 #ecf4 ,e>?1 electric curr5ts 9 !1 #edc4 ----1 sections ( ! 7see figs4 #gj1 #ga71 #eci4 ----1 effects produc$ by p[]s ( vitality on surface1 #gjh4 ,e>?quakes1 *ronologically describ$1 #deh1 et seq4 ----1 en]gy (1 probably uni=m1 #eh4 ----1 e>?'s surface cont9ually remodell$ by1 #ajb4 ----1 recurr5ce (1 at /at$ p]iods1 accid5tal1 #cde4 ----1 felt at sea1 #ceh4 ----1 l& elevat$ by1 #deh1 #dee1 #deg1 #dfb4 ----1 all c\ntries liable to slight %ocks (1 #ceh4 ----1 ph5om5a att5d+1 #deb4 ----1 9 ,cut*1 #ahai 7see ,map71 #dfj4 ----1 9 ,calabria1 #aghc1 #dga4 ----1 difficulty ( measur+ ! effects (1 #dgg4 ----1 *asms =m$ by1 #dgi4 ----1 excavation ( valleys aid$ by1 #dhh4 ----1 r5ovat+ effects (1 #efe4 ----1 cause ( ! wave-l motion (1 #dge1 #eeh4 ----1 cause ( great waves & retreat ( sea dur+1 #dif1 #dih4 ----1 ravages caus$ by sea dur+1 #dii1 #eja1 #gcj4 ----1 connection betwe5 /ate ( atmosph]e &1 #efa4 ----1 p entomb$ 9 cav]ns dur+1 #gcf4 ----1 causes ( volcanoes &1 #ecc4 ----1 recurr5ce (1 9 c]ta9 zones ( c\ntry1 #agb4 ----1 ( ,lisbon1 area ov] :i* x ext5d$1 #dif4 ----1 m frequ5t 9 w9t]1 #efa4 ,eccles1 old *ur* (1 buri$ "u bl[n s&1 #cjf4 ,edmon/one ,isl&1 #bgi4 ,eels1 migration (1 #fdg4 ,egypt ne>ly exempt f e>?quakes1 #i1 #ceh4 ,egypt1 t[ns buri$ "u drift-s& 91 #gbf4 ----1 date ( civilization (1 accord+ to ,buns51 #fcf4 ,egyptian cosmogony1 #h4 ----1 mummies id5tical ) liv+ species1 #ehe4 ,ehr5b]g1 on ,b5gal tig] 9 ,sib]ia1 #gg4 ----1 on orig9 ( bog-iron ore1 #gbb4 ----1 on corals ( ,r$ ,sea1 #ggg4 ----1 on a%es envelop+ ,pompeii1 #chh4 ----1 on infusoria 9 volcanic tuff1 #chi4 ,electricity1 a s\rce ( volcanic heat1 #edb4 ----1 :5ce d]iv$1 #edc4 ,elephant1 fossil1 9 ice1 #de1 #hj4 ----1 cov]$ ) hair 9 ,delhi1 #ha4 ----1 sagacity (1 n attributable to int]c\rse ) man1 #eih4 ----1 _! p[]s ( swimm+1 #fcf4 ,elevation ( l&1 h[ caus$1 #bi1 #ddh1 #ddd1 #dec1 #dee1 #deg4 ----1 pro(s (1 sl[ & gradual1 #agj1 #ahd1 #eah1 #efc4 ,elevation & subsid5ce1 proportion (1 #efd4 ----1 alt]nate areas (1 9 ,pacific1 #gij4 ,elevation crat] !ory1 #cga1 #chj1 #dbj4 ,elevation1 valleys (1 #dbj4 ,elizabe? or ,h5d]son's ,isl&1 uprais$ atoll (1 #ghh1 #gid4 ,elsa1 trav]t9 =m$ by !1 #bci4 ,embankm5t1 sy/em (1 9 ,italy1 #bee4 ,emu 9 ,au/ralia w become ext]m9at$1 #fhd4 ,engleh>dt on ! ,caspian ,sea1 #aeg4 ,engl&1 wa/e ( cliffs on coa/ (1 #cjc4 ----1 slight e>?quakes felt 91 #ceh4 ----1 height ( tides on coa/ (1 #bia1 #cjh4 ----1 t]ti>y /rata (1 #gf4 ,eoc5e p]iod1 fossils ( !1 #adb1 #add1 #ahc4 ,epomeo1 ,m\nt1 9 ,is*ia1 #cfb4 ,equatorial curr5t1 #ie4 ,equ9oxes1 precession ( !1 #ajj1 #ecg4 ,erebus1 ,m\nt1 ! active volcano (1 #ii4 ,erie1 ,lake1 p59sula cut ?r\gh by1 #ccc4 ----1 wa/e ( cliffs 91 #ccc4 ,erman1 ,m41 on eruptions 9 ,kams*atka1 #cec4 ,erratic blocks1 #abb1 #aed1 #bbj4 ----1 iceb]gs *>g$ )1 #hf4 ,erratic blocks1 subm>9e1 laid dry by upheaval1 #bbi4 ,eruptions1 volcanic1 numb] ( p] ye>1 #dej4 ----1 cause (1 #ecc4 ,erzgebirge1 mica slate ( !1 #dh4 ,es*]1 ,m41 on flood 9 valley ( ,bagnes1 #baa4 ,es*s*oltz ,bay1 fossils (1 #hb4 ,essex1 t]ti>y /rata (1 #gf4 ----1 inroads ( sea on coa/ (1 #caa4 ,e/u>ies1 h[ =m$1 #cbg1 #ccg4 ----1 imb$d+ ( fre%wat] species 91 #gfh4 ,etna1 description ( & its eruptions1 #cif to #dbd4 ----1 t[ns ov]fl[$ by lava (1 #djj1 #gbh4 ----1 subt]ranean cav]ns on1 #dja4 ----1 a glaci] "u lava on1 #dab4 ----1 m>9e =mations at its base1 #dja4 ----1 antiquity ( cone (1 #dbb4 ,euganean ,hills1 lavas (1 #cei4 ,euphrates1 delta ( advanc+ rapidly1 #bhd4 ,eux9e bur/ its b>ri]1 accord+ to ,/rabo1 #ad4 ----1 gradually fill+ up1 #ad4 ----1 ,see ,black ,sea4 ,evaporation1 wat] c>ri$ (f by1 #bfj1 #bid1 #ccd4 ----1 curr5ts caus$ by1 #bid4 ,ev]e/1 ,rev4 ,e41 on climate ( fossil elephant1 #ha4 ----1 on s$im5t ( ,ganges1 #bhb4 ,excavation ( valleys1 #dhh4 ,expansion ( rocks by heat1 #efj4 ,ext9ction ( species1 #fig1 #gja4 ----1 ( animals1 #gjj1 #gjb4 ,f4 ,fabio ,colonna1 #bc4 ,facial angle1 #fjh4 ,fair ,isl&1 action ( ! sea on1 #cja4 ,falcon]1 ,dr41 on fossil quadrumana1 #add4 ----1 on crocodiles ( ,ganges1 #bgg4 ,falcon]1 ,dr41 on peat ne> ,calcutta1 #bhj4 ,falconi on elevation ( coa/ ( ,baiae1 #cfg4 ,falkl& ,isl&s1 quadrup$s (1 #ada1 #fce4 ,falloppio on fossils1 #ba4 ,falls ( ,niag>a1 #bad4 ----1 ( ,/4 ,m>y1 #bed4 ,faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 #adb4 ,f>aday1 ,mr41 on wat] ( ! ,geys]s1 #bdf4 ----1 on sl[ deposition ( sulphate ( b>yta1 #cdc4 ----1 on electric curr5ts ,9 ! e>?1 #edc4 ----1 on metallic r$uction by voltaic ag5cy1 #edh4 ----1 on liquefaction ( gases1 #efj4 ,f>oe ,isl&s1 deposits =m+ ne> !1 #ggd4 ,f>quh>son1 ,rev4 ,j41 on floods 9 ,scotl&1 #bjh4 ----1 on =mation ( gr\nd ice1 #bbb4 ,faujas1 on ,velay & ,viv>ais1 #aggi1 #di4 ,faults1 #afb4 ,fauna =m]ly z div]sifi$ z n[1 #afj4 ----1 arctic1 describ$ by ,sir ,j4 ,ri*>dson1 #fcd4 ,felsp>1 decomposition (1 #bdg4 ,f]r>a on lavas ( ,etna1 #bhc4 ----1 on floods on ,etna1 #dab4 ----1 on e>?quake 9 ,sicily1 #dga4 ,f]rug9\s spr+s1 #bdg4 ,fez1 e>?quakes 91 #ceh4 ,fife1 trap rocks (1 #afj4 ----1 coa/ (1 subm>9e =e/s on1 #cjc4 ----1 encroa*m5ts ( sea on1 #bjc4 ,f9dhorn t[n swept away by sea1 #cjb4 ,fi%1 _! di/ribution1 & migrations1 #fdf4 ----1 fossil1 #gde4 ----1 fossil ( coal =mation1 #acf4 ,fissures1 sulphur1 c41 eject$ by1 #dgj4 ----1 caus$ by ,calabrian e>?quake1 #dgi1 #dhj1 #dha4 ----1 caus$ by e>?quake ne> ,new ,madrid1 #dfh4 ----1 pres]vation ( organic rema9s 91 #gcb4 ,fitton1 ,dr41 on hi/ory ( ,engli% geology1 #ea4 ,fitzroy1 ,capt41 on e>?quake 9 ,*ili1 #ahce1 #dec1 #dee4 ,flambor\gh ,head1 wa/e (1 #cjc4 ,flem+1 ,dr41 on uni=mity 9 climate1 #gd4 ----1 on fossil elephant1 #gf4 ----1 on subm>9e =e/s1 #cjc4 ----1 on rapid flight ( birds1 #fdf4 ----1 on turtles tak5 on coa/ ( ,engl&1 #fde4 ----1 on *anges 9 ! animal k+dom caus$ by man1 #fhc4 ----1 on /r&+ ( cetacea1 #gga4 ,fl9d]s on coral reefs1 #ggf1 #gia4 ,fl9t on c\rse ( ,mississippi1 c41 #bfd1 #bfe4 ----1 on e>?quakes 9 ,mississippi valley1 #dff4 ,floods1 by bur/+ ( lakes1 #bfi4 ----1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 #bji4 ----1 9 valley ( ,bagnes1 #baj4 ----1 9 ,scotl&1 #bjg1 #gej4 ----1 traditions (1 #dii1 #eja4 ----1 causes :i* may give rise to1 #aef4 ----1 at ,tivoli1 #baa4 ----1 caus$ by melt+ ( sn[ by lava1 #cdh1 #daa4 ----1 ,see ,deluge4 ,flys*1 ( ! ,alps1 eoc5e1 #abd4 ,folk/one1 subsid5ce ( l& at1 #caf4 ,font5elle1 8 eulogy on ,palissy1 #bc4 ,foot-m>ks1 fossil1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 #acf4 ,=bes1 ,pr(4 ,e41 on glacial epo*1 #hf4 ----1 on fossils ( t]ti>y1 #ahd4 ----1 on new isl& 9 ,gulf ( ,santor91 #ddc4 ----1 on regions ( dep? 9 ,a,egean ,sea1 #fdi4 ----1 on migration ( mollusca1 #fea4 ----1 cit$1 #gjc4 ,=bes1 ,pr(4 ,j4 ,d41 on glaci] motion1 #bbd4 ----1 on rate ( fl[+ ( lava1 #cgh1 #djj4 ----1 on temple ( ,s]apis1 #eae1 #eag4 ,=*hamm]1 ,dr41 on b\ld]s drift$ by ice1 #bca4 ----1 on peat1 #gai4 ,=e/s1 influ5ce (1 #gab1 #gac1 #gae4 ----1 sites (1 n[ cov]$ by peat1 #gbj4 ----1 de/roy$ by insects1 #gag4 ----1 subm>9e1 #cjc1 #cbc1 #gdf4 ,=e/s1 subm]g$4 ,9 ,colombia ,r4 by l&slides1 #bae4 ,=f>%ire1 wa/e ( coa/ (1 #cjb4 ----1 m>l lakes (1 #gff1 #gif4 ,=%ey1 ,mr41 on ,mississippi1 #bfd1 #bga4 ,=/]1 ,mr41 on coral reefs1 #ggh4 ,=sy? on climate ( ,italy1 #cie4 ,=tis cit$1 #db4 ----1 views ( ,ardu9o confirm$ by1 #dh4 ----1 & ,te/a on fossil fi%1 #dd4 ,=t ,william1 ne> ,calcutta1 artesian well1 #bhj4 ,fossilif]\s =mations1 breaks 9 ! s]ies1 #ahj4 ,fossilization ( organic rema9s on em]g$ l&1 #gah1 #gge4 ----1 9 peat mosses1 #gbb4 ----1 ,9 caves & fissures1 #gcb4 ----1 9 alluvium & l&slips1 #gcj4 ----1 9 volcanic =mations on l&1 #cdi1 #gbh4 ----1 9 subaque\s deposits1 #gdb1 #gec4 ----1 9 m>l lakes1 #geb4 ,fossils1 e>ly speculations conc]n+ _! nature1 #ai1 #bd to #bg4 ----1 di/9ctness ( second>y & t]ti>y1 #aai4 ----1 mammif]\s ( t]ti>y eras1 #acg1 #adj4 ----1 :y di/9ct 9 successive gr\ps1 #aij4 ----1 ,see ,organic ,rema9s4 ,fossil trees1 upright position ( "s1 #ia4 ,f\ri]1 ,b>on1 on temp]ature ( spaces surr\nd+ our atmosph]e1 #ajh4 ----1 on c5tral heat1 #abg4 ----1 on radiation ( heat1 #abg4 ,fox1 ,mr41 on heat 9 m9es1 #ech4 ----1 on electric curr5ts 9 ! e>?1 #edc4 ,france1 wa/e ( coa/ (1 #cbd4 ----1 caves (1 #gcg4 ,franconia1 caves (1 #gcf4 ,frankl91 on a :irlw9d 9 ,m>yl&1 #fai4 ,fremont1 ,capt41 on subm]g$ =e/s 9 ,columbia1 #bgj4 ,fre%wat] plants & animals fossiliz$1 #gff1 #gfh4 ----1 /rata 9 ,ca%m]e1 #gfb4 ,freyb]g1 s*ool at1 #df1 #eb4 ,fries1 on disp]sion ( cryptogamic plants1 #fbj4 ,fr++ reef1 nature & orig9 (1 #ghe4 ----1 uprais$1 #gid4 ,fu*sel1 op9ions (1 #agfb1 #dc4 ,fun*al4 rise ( sea at1 dur+ e>?quake1 #dif4 ,fundy1 ,bay (1 wave call$ ! bore 91 #ccb4 ,g4 ,gaillonella f]rug9ea1 #gbb4 ,galapagos1 peculi> "* ( ! fauna ( #aci1 #fce1 #fdc4 ----1 isl&1 tam5ess ( birds 91 #eig4 ----1 ,ar*ipelago1 crat]s =m hills 91 #cgb4 ,galongoon1 great eruption (1 #cec1 #dcj4 ,gambi] coral isl&1 #ghc1 #ghg4 ,ganges1 delta (1 & ,brahmapootra1 #bge to #bhd4 ----1 antiquity ( delta (1 #bha4 ----1 quantity ( s$im5t 9 wat]s (1 #bgh4 ----1 isl&s =m$ by !1 #bgf4 ----1 bones ( m5 f\nd 9 delta (4 #geg4 ----1 artesian bor+s 9 delta (1 #bfh4 ,g>dn]1 ,mr41 on unexplor$ ,ant>ctic l&1 #ii4 ,gases1 liquefaction (1 #efj4 ----1 evolv$ by volcanoes1 #edi4 ,gefle1 uprais$ %elly deposits ne>1 #ebf1 #ebh4 ,gemmell>o on ,etna1 #djh4 ----1 on ice "u lava1 #dab4 ,g5]ation1 spontane\s1 !ory (1 #bb4 ,g5]elli4 on /ate ( geology 9 ,europe 9 middle ( eighte5? c5tury1 #ce1 #ec4 ,g5eva1 lake (1 delta ( ,rhone 91 #beb4 ,geognosy ( ,w]n]1 #df4 ,geographical di/ribution ( plants1 #fac4 ----1 ( animals1 #fbi4 ----1 ( birds1 #fdb4 ----1 ( reptiles1 #fdd4 ----1 ( fi%es1 #fdf4 ----1 ( te/acea4 #fdi4 ----1 ( zoophytes1 #fec4 ,geographical di/ribution ( insects1 #fed4 ----1 ( man1 #fei4 ,geography1 pro(s ( =m] *anges 9 physical1 #aad1aba4 ----1 effect ( *anges 91 on species1 #fij4 ,geological society ( ,london1 #ei4 ----1 !ories1 causes ( error 91 #fa4 ,geology def9$1 #a4 ----1 di/9ct f cosmogony1 #c4 ----1 causes ( its ret>dation1 #bd1 #ee1 #fa4 ----1 /ate (1 be=e eighte5? c5tury1 #hf4 ----1 mod]n progress (1 #eh4 ,georgia1 ,isl& (1 sn[ to level ( sea 91 #ii1 #ajh4 ----1 ,u4 ,s41 new rav9es =m$ 91 #bje4 ,g]banites1 an ,arabian sect1 _! doctr9es1 #ad4 ,g]man ,ocean1 fill+ up1 #cdj4 ,gesn]1 ,john1 on organic rema9s1 #da4 ,geys]s ( ,icel&1 #ecc1 #eec4 ----1 cause ( _! int]mitt5t action1 #eee4 ,gibralt>1 birds' bones 9 breccia at1 #gdj4 ----1 ,/raits (1 #chc4 ,gironde1 tides 9 its e/u>y1 #cch4 ,glacial epo*1 #ge4 ,glaci] "u lava1 on ,etna1 #dab4 ----1 mora9es (1 #bbc4 ----1 view (1 #bbc4 ,glaci]s1 =mation (1 #bbb to #bbg4 ----1 motion (1 #bbh4 ----1 ( ,spitzb]g51 #if4 ----1 transportation ( rocks by1 #aee4 ,gl5 ,tilt1 granite ve9s (1 #ea4 ,gl\ce/]%ire1 ga9 ( l& 91 #cbd4 ,gmel9 on di/ribution ( fi%1 #fdh4 ,goats1 multiplication (1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #fhf4 ,goepp]t1 ,pr(41 #hg4 ----1 on fossilization ( plants1 #gdg4 ,gold5 age1 doctr9e :5ce d]iv$1 #i4 ,goodw9 ,s&s1 #had4 ,go!nburg1 rise ( l& ne>1 #ebf4 ,graab1 ,capt41 on subsid5ce ( ,gre5l&1 #ecj4 ,graham1 ,mrs41 on e>?quake ( ,*ili 9 #ahbb1 #dei4 ,graham ,isl&1 newly =m$ 9 #ahca1 #dcb4 ----1 suppos$ section (1 #dce4 ,granite ( ! ,h>tz1 ,w]n] on1 #dg4 ----1 dis9tegration (1 #bba1 #cdf4 ----1 =m$ at diff]5t p]iods1 #agg4 ----1 ve9s obs]v$ by ,hutton 9 ,gl5 ,tilt1 #ea4 ,grant1 ,capt41 on ,*ilian e>?quake1 #dfb4 ,graves1 ,capt41 on diffusion ( insects by w9ds1 #fef4 ----1 survey ( ,santor9 by1 #dda4 ,gray1 ,mr41 on ,mytilus polymorphus1 #feh4 ,great ,dismal ,swamp1 ,virg9ia1 #gbd4 ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 new isles ( !1 #dc4 ----1 volcanoes ( !1 #cee1 #ddb1 #dej4 ,greece1 e>?quakes 91 #cee4 ----1 traditions ( deluges 91 #cef4 ,greeks1 geology (1 #ac4 ,gre5l&1 :y cold] ?an ,lapl&1 #id4 ----1 gradual subsid5ce (1 #ecj1 #efb4 ----1 timb] drift$ to %ores (1 #gde4 ,grevllle1 ,dr41 on drift sea-we$1 #fbc4 ,gro9s describ$1 #hah4 ,grooves 9 rocks =m$ by glaci]s1 #aee1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,grotto del ,cane1 #bdh4 ,gr\nd ice1 #bba4 ----1 transport+ rocks 9 ,baltic1 #bca4 ,guadalonpe1 human skeletons ( #geg4 ,guatemala1 active volcanoes 91 #cdi4 ,gulana1 p>tly =m$ by s$im5t ( ,amazon1 #cdb4 ,guild+1 ,rev4 ,l41 on migration ( ,boa ,con/rictor1 #fdf4 ,gu9ea curr5t1 #bif4 ,gu9ea1 ,new1 mammalia (1 #fhb4 ,gulf /ream1 #if1 #bib1 #bid4 #fba4 ----1 /ream aids migration ( fi%1 #fdh4 ,guyot1 ,m41 on glaci] motion1 #bbd4 ,gyrogonite describ$1 #gff4 ,h4 ,habitations ( plants describ$1 #fad4 ,hales1 ,dr41 on epo* ( ! creation1 #fei4 ,hall1 ,sir ,j41 8 exp]im5ts on rocks1 #ea4 ----1 ,capta9 ,b41 on flood 9 valley ( ,bagnes1 #baa4 ----1 on ! trade-w9ds1 #bie4 ----1 on temple ( ,s]apis1 #eab4 ----1 ,mr41 ,/ate ,geologi/ ( ,new ,york1 #baf1 #bah4 ----1 ,mr4 ,j41 on temple ( ,s]apis1 #eab4 ,hamilton1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,j41 on volcanoes ne> ,smyrna1 #cee4 ----1 ,sir ,w41 on ,h]culaneum1 #chi4 ----1 on e>?quake 9 ,calabria1 #dgc1 #dhc1 #dhe4 ----1 ,sir ,w41 on =mation ( ,monte ,nuovo1 #cfg4 ----1 on eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 #aggi1 #cgg4 ,hamilton1 ,sir ,c41 on subm]g$ h\ses 9 ,port ,royal1 #ejd4 ,hamp%ire1 ,br&] on fossils (1 #dd4 ----1 subm>9e =e/ on coa/ (1 #gdf4 ,h>c\rt1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,v4 ,v41 on bones ( mammo?1 c41 9 ,york%ire1 #gf4 ,h>ris1 ,hon4 ,c41 on sunk vessel ne> ,poole1 #geh4 ----1 on subm>9e =e/1 ,hamp%ire1 #gdf4 ,h>tmann1 ,dr41 on fossils ( ,h>tz1 #dh4 ,h>tz m\nta9s1 #dh4 ,h>wi*1 wa/e ( cliffs at1 #haa4 ,hatfleld moss1 trees f\nd 91 #gba4 ,head1 ,sir ,edmund1 on temple ( ,s]apis1 #eab4 ,heat1 laws :i* gov]n ! diffusion (1 #ic4 ,heat1 :e!r gradual decl9e (1 9 globe1 #abi4 ----1 expansion ( rocks by1 #efa4 ,heb]1 ,bi%op1 on animals ( ,himalaya1 #ha4 ,hecla1 column> basalt (1 #dh4 ----1 eruptions (1 #dbd4 ,hel5a1 ,/1 b\nd$ by l(ty %ores1 #fbb4 ,heligol&1 inroads ( sea on1 #cbi4 ,helix1 range ( species (1 #fej4 ,h5d]son on eruption ( ,skapt> ,jokul1 #aghc1 #dbe4 ,h5d]son's ,isl& describ$1 #ghh4 ,h5sl[1 ,rev4 ,pr(41 on ! c[slip1 #eij4 ----1 on diffusion ( plants1 #fbd4 ,h]b]t1 ,hon4 ,mr41 on v>ieties & hybrids 9 plants1 #eij1 #fje4 ,h]culaneum1 #che1 #chi4 ,h]ne ,bay1 wa/e ( cliffs 91 #cab4 ,h]odotus cit$1 #h1 #bfa4 ,h]s*el1 ,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,w1 on v>y+ heat receiv$ by ! two hemisph]es1 #ajj4 ----1 on a/ronomical causes ( *anges 9 climate1 #abf4 ----1 on v>iable spl5dor ( />s1 #abh4 ----1 on ! trade-w9ds1 #big4 ----1 on height ( ,etna1 #cif4 ----1 on =m ( ! e>?1 #ecd4 ----1 on ,geys]s ( ,icel&1 #eee4 ----1 on ! effects ( heat on se$s1 #fba4 ----1 on ! au?or's !ory ( climate1 #ib4 ,h]s*el1 ,sir ,w41 on ! elem5t>y matt] ( ! e>?1 #ecc4 ,hewett1 ,capt1 on rise ( tides1 #bia4 ----1 on curr5ts1 #bic4 ----1 on banks 9 ,nor? ,sea1 #hjh1 #hdj4 ,hibb]t1 ,dr41 on ! ,%etl& ,isl&s1 #bii1 #cjj4 ,hilaire1 ,m4 ,ge(4 ,/41 on animal k+dom1 #efg4 ,himalaya m\nta9s1 animals inhabit+ !1 #ha4 ----1 height ( p]petual sn[ on1 #aab4 ,h9doo cosmogony1 #d4 ----1 t[n buri$1 #gca4 ,h9do/an1 e>?quakes 91 #did4 ,hippopotamus indicates w>m? ( riv]1 #ge4 ,hit*cock1 ,report on ,geol4 ( ,massa*usetts1 #acg4 ,h(f1 ,von1 on level ( ,caspian1 #ah4 ----1 on encroa*m5ts ( sea1 #cca1 #ccb4 ----1 on e>?quakes1 #cei4 ----1 on human rema9s 9 delta ( ,ganges1 #geg4 ----1 on a buri$ vessel1 #geh4 ,h(fmann1 ,m41 on lavas ( ,vesuvius1 #cgi4 ----1 on ,etna1 #dae1 #daf4 ,holl&1 gradual s9k+ ( coa/1 #cbg4 ----1 inroads ( sea 91 #cbh4 ----1 subm>9e peat 91 #ggj4 ,hooke on duration ( species1 #bg1 #bh4 ----1 on e>?quakes1 #bg1 #bi1 #ejc4 ,hook]1 ,dr4 ,j41 on ,iceb]gs 9 ant>ctic seas1 #bbi4 ----1 on tropical plants1 #fad4 ----1 floras ( isl&s 9 ,s\!rn ,ocean1 #fae4 ----1 on flora ( ,galapagos ,isl&s1 #faf4 ----1 on wide range ( c]ta9 plants1 #fah1 #fba1 #fbc4 ----1 on delta ( ,ganges1 #bhj4 ----1 on ra9 9 ,india1 #bjj4 ,hock]1 ,sir ,w41 on eruption ( ,skapt> ,jokul1 #dbe4 ----1 8 view ( ! crat] ( ! great ,geys]1 #eed4 ----1 on drift+ ( a fox on ice1 #fhj4 ,hopk9s1 ,mr41 on glaci] motion1 #bbd1 #bbe4 ----1 on ?ickness ( e>?'s cru/1 #ecf4 ,hopk9s1 ,mr41 on a/ronomical causes ( *ange ( climate1 #abh4 ----1 on *anges ( climate1 #ic4 ----1 on e>?quakes1 #dec4 ----1 on ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont's !ory ( m\nta9 *a9s1 #agj4 ,hordwell1 loss ( l& at1 #cah4 ,horn]1 ,mr41 on br9e spr+s1 #bdg4 ----1 on subm>9e =e/ 9 ,som]set%ire1 #cbc4 ----1 diss]tation on coal1 #ia4 ,horsburgh1 ,capt1 on iceb]gs 9 l[ latitudes1 #ii4 ,horsburgh on coral isl&s1 #ghb1 #ghg4 ,horses dr[n$ 9 riv]s 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #gej4 ,horsfield1 ,dr41 on e>?quakes 9 ,java1 #dga1 #did4 ----1 on di/ribution ( ,mydaus meliceps 9 ,java1 #fci4 ,hubb>d1 ,pr(41 cit$1 #baj4 ,huc1 on ,yaks froz5 9 ice 9 ,?ibet1 #he4 ,human race geologically mod]n1 #ffj4 ,human rema9s 9 peat mosses1 #gbb4 ----1 9 caves1 #gce1 #gcf1 #gci4 ----1 _! durability1 #adg1 #geg4 ----1 9 delta ( ,ganges1 #geg4 ----1 9 calc>e\s rock at ,guadal\pe1 #geg4 ----1 9 breccias 9 ! ,morea1 #gce4 ,humb]1 w>p ( !1 #bhh4 ----1 encroa*m5t ( sea 9 its e/u>y1 #cjd4 ,humboldt on laws regulat+ diffusion ( heat1 #ic4 ----1 on pres]vation ( animals 9 froz5 mud1 #he4 ----1 on di/ribution ( l& & sea1 #aji4 ----1 on transportation ( s$im5t by curr5ts1 #cdb4 ----1 8 def9ition ( volcanic action1 #cde4 ----1 on mud eruptions 9 ! ,&es1 #cdh4 ----1 on volcanic eruptions 9 ,t>t>y1 #cee4 ----1 on eruption ( ,jorullo1 #dbh4 ----1 on e>?quakes1 #dff1 #dgj4 ----1 on di/ribution ( species1 #fac1 #fad4 ----1 on migrations ( animals1 #fdd1 #fef1 #fhe4 ----1 cit$1 #h1 #gg1 #hd4 ----1 on e>?quake 9 ,new ,madrid1 #dff4 ----1 on e>?quake ( ,lisbon1 #die4 ----1 on mud volcanoes1 #ddh4 ,humboldt1 ,w4 von1 on dawn ( ori5tal civilization1 #fei4 ,humm+-birds1 di/ribution1 c41 #ig1 #fdc4 ,hunt]1 ,john1 on mule animals1 #fja4 ,huron1 ,lake1 rec5t /rata (1 #gfh4 ,hurricanes connect$ ) e>?quakes1 #gca4 ----1 plants drift$ to sea by1 #gde4 ,hur/ ,ca/le %+le bank1 #cah4 ,hut*9son1 ,john1 8 ,moses's ,pr9cipia1 #cc4 ,hutton1 di/+ui%$ geology f cosmogony1 #c4 ----1 on igne\s rocks & granite1 #ea4 ----1 repres5t$ olde/ rock z d]ivatives1 #eb4 ,huttonian !ory1 #ea1 #eg4 ,hybrid races1 ,lam>ck on1 #egb4 ----1 animals1 #fjj4 ----1 plants1 #fjb4 ,hydrog51 deoxidat+ p[] (1 #edg4 ----1 flame (2 se5 9 eruption ( ,vesuvius1 #cgh4 ----1 :y n f\nd 9 a sep>ate =m among volcanic gases1 #edh4 ,hydrophytes1 di/ribution (1 #fag1 #fbc4 ,hydro/atic pressure ( asc5d+ lava1 #daf1 #eec4 ,hypog5e rocks1 #agh4 ,hyraco!rium1 ,eoc5e mammif]1 #adb4 ,hy!1 encroa*m5ts ( sea at1 #caf4 ,i4 ,ian?9a fragilis1 its range1 c41 #fej4 ,ice1 animals imb$d$ 91 #hc4 ,ice ( riv]s1 transport+ p[] (1 #bai4 ----1 drift1 influ5ce (1 on temp]ature1 #ie4 ----1 pr$om9ance (1 9 ant>ctic circle1 #ih4 ----1 =mation ( field1 #ajg4 ----1 transportation ( rocks by1 #aee1 #bai1 #eba4 ,iceb]gs1 =mation (1 #if1 #ig4 ----1 di/ance to :i* !y float1 #ajj1 #bbg4 ----1 limits ( glaci]s &1 #bbh4 ----1 plants & animals transport$ by1 #fbb1 #fci4 ----1 action (1 :5 /r&$1 #bbh4 ----1 rocks transport$ by4 ,see ,ice4 ----1 float+ 9 ,nor!rn hemisph]e1 #hf4 ----1 n all =m$ by glaci]s1 #bbh4 ,icel&1 iceb]gs /r&$ on1 #ig4 ----1 geys]s (1 #bdf1 #eec1 #eee4 ,icel&1 volcanic eruptions 91 #dbd4 ----1 comp>ison betwe5 ! lavas ( ,c5tral ,france &1 #dbf4 ----1 new isl& ne>1 #dbe4 ----1 pol> be> drift$ to1 #fgi4 ,igne\s action4 ,see ,volcanic4 ,igne\s causes4 ,see ,book ,,ii4 ----1 ! antagoni/ p[] to action ( runn+ wat]1 #aih1 #efc1 #gaa4 ,il=d1 t]ti>y /rata at1 #gf4 ,imb$d+ ( organic rema9s4 ,see ,fossilization4 ,india1 buri$ cities 91 #gbi1 #gca4 ----1 t]re/rial mammalia (1 #fcb4 ,indo-pacific prov9ce ( mollusca1 #fdi4 ,indus1 delta (4 rec5t *anges 91 #dei1 #gfi4 ----1 buri$ %ips 91 #geh4 ,infusoria 9 bog iron-ore1 #gbb4 ----1 9 volcanic rocks 9 ,mexico1 ,p]u1 c41 #chh4 ,infusorial tuff1 ,pompeii1 #chh4 ,inl& cliffs1 no pro( ( sudd5 elevation1 #eca4 ----1 seas1 deltas (1 #bee4 ,insects1 geographical di/ribution (1 #fed4 ----1 c]ta9 types (1 di/+ui% p>ticul> c\ntries1 #fee4 ----1 _! ag5cy 9 pres]v+ an equilibrium ( species1 #fga4 ----1 fossil1 #gdh4 ,in/9cts1 migratory1 occasional developm5t (1 9 animals1 #fdb4 ----1 h]$it>y1 #eic1 #eif4 ----1 modifi$ by dome/ication1 #eie4 ,insul> climates1 description (1 #id4 ,inv]ness-%ire1 inroads ( sea on coa/ (1 #cjb4 ,irawadi1 ,r41 silicifi$ wood (1 notic$ 9 #afib1 #bh4 ,irel&1 rais$ bea*es on coa/ (1 #abb4 ----1 reptiles (1 #fde4 ----1 peat (1 & fossils 91 #gai1 #gbj1 #gbd4 ----1 deposits 9 progress (f coa/ (1 #ggd4 ,iron1 melt+ po9t (1 #eci4 ----1 9 wood1 peat1 c41 #gbb4 ----1 in/rum5ts tak5 up f sea1 #gfj4 ,is*ia1 hot spr+s (1 #bdg1 #def4 ----1 eruptions & e>?quakes 91 #cfj1 #cfe1 #def4 ,isl&s1 vegetation ( small1 #aab1 #fae1 #ffg4 ----1 animals 91 #fce4 ----1 =m$ by ! ,ganges1 #bgf4 ----1 migrations ( plants aid$ by1 #fbb4 ----1 new volcanic1 #dc1 #dbe1 #dcb1 #dfh4 ----1 coral1 #gge4 ----1 ( driftwood1 #fdj4 ,isle ( ,purbeck1 v]tical *alk 91 #cah4 ,isle ( ,wight1 mammif]\s fossils (1 #adb4 ----1 wa/e ( its %ores1 #cag4 ,iso!rmal l9es1 ,humboldt on1 #ie4 ,italian geologi/s1 _! priority1 #ai1 #bc4 ----1 ( ! #ah? c5tury1 #cc4 ,italy1 t]ti>y /rata (1 #fd1 #gd4 ,j4 ,jack1 ,dr41 on isl& ( ,pulo ,nias1 #gid4 ,jamaica1 e>?quakes 91 #cej1 #ejd1 #eag4 ----1 subsid5ce 91 #ejd1 #eag4 ----1 ra9 dim9i%$ 91 by fell+ ( =e/s1 #gac4 ----1 a t[n swept away by sea 91 #gca4 ,java1 volcanoes & e>?quakes 91 #ced1 #dfd1 #dih1 #ejb4 ----1 valley ( poison 91 #cec4 ----1 subsid5ce ( volcano ( ,pap&ayang 91 #dic4 ----1 riv]-floods 91 #ejc1 #gdh1 #gea4 ,jones1 ,sir ,w41 on ,in/itutes ( ,h9doo law1 #e4 ,jorullo1 eruption (1 #cdi1 #dbh4 ,juan ,f]n&ez1 #ceg1 #dec1 #dii1 #fhf4 ,jukes1 ,mr41 on cliffs 9 ,isl& ( ,timor1 #gid4 ----1 on volcanic isl&s ne> ,java1 #ced4 ----1 on coral reef1 #ghd4 ,jura1 ,saussure on !1 #de4 ,jutl&1 inroads ( sea 91 #ccj4 ,k4 ,kamts*atka1 volcanoes 91 #cec4 ----1 new isl& ne>1 #dfh4 ,kang>oo1 extirpation (2 to ,au/ralia1 #fhd4 ,ka%mir4 ,see ,ca%m]e4 ,katavo?rons ( ,greece1 breccias =m$ 91 #gcd4 ,kazw9i on *anges 9 position ( l& & sea1 #ai4 ,keilhan1 ,pr(41 ( ,*ri/iana1 on *anges ( level 9 ,norway1 #ebi1 #eca4 ,kei? on disp]sion ( plants1 #fbj4 ,k5t1 loss ( l& on coa/ (1 #cab4 ,k5tucky1 caves 9 lime/one1 #gcc4 ,keys]l+1 ,c\nt1 on l[l& ( ,sib]ia1 #hd4 ,k9c>d9e%ire1 village 91 wa%$ away by sea1 #cjb4 ,k+1 ,capta9 ,p41 on humm+ birds 9 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 #ig1 #fdc4 ----1 on curr5ts 9 ,/raits ( ,magellan1 #bic4 ----1 on coral reefs1 #ghh4 ,k+1 ,mr41 on cattle lo/ 9 bogs 9 ,irel&1 #gbc4 ----1 on subm]g$ cannon1 #gei4 ,k9nordy1 ,lo* (1 insects 9 m>l 91 #gdh4 ----1 canoe 9 peat (1 #gei4 ,kirby1 ,rev4 ,mr41 on insects1 #fjf1 #fee1 #fgc1 #fgd4 ,kirwan1 8 geological ,essays1 #ef4 ----1 on connection ( geology & religion1 #ef4 ,knight1 ,mr41 on v>ieties ( fruit trees1 #ehi4 ,konig1 ,mr41 on ,guadal\pe human skeleton1 #geg4 ----1 on fossils f ,melville ,isl&1 #hh4 ,koran1 cosmogony ( !1 #ag4 ,kotzebue on drift$ canoe1 #ffb4 ,kunk]1 concretion>y lime/one ( ,ganges1 #bhj4 ,kurile ,isles1 active volcanoes 91 #cec4 ,l4 ,labrador1 drift-timb] (1 #gde4 ----1 rocks drift$ by ice on coa/ (1 #bcj4 ,laccadive ,isl&s1 #ghb4 ,lagoons1 or salt lakes1 9 delta ( ,rhone1 #bei4 ----1 ( coral isl&s1 #ghj4 ,lagullas curr5t1 #ie4 ,lagunes on coa/ ( ,adriatic1 #bef4 ,lake ,erie4 ,see ,erie1 ,lake4 ----1 ( ,g5eva4 ,see ,g5eva1 ,lake (4 ----1 ,mael]1 #ebd1 #ebh4 ----1 ,sup]ior4 ,see ,sup]ior1 ,lake4 ,lakes1 fill+ up ( #beb4 ----1 =mation (2 9 bas9 ( ,mississippi1 #dff1 #bfi4 ----1 =m$ by e>?quakes1 #dff1 #dha1 #eje4 ----1 cresc5t-%ap$1 9 pla9 ( ,mississippi1 #bff4 ----1 ,canadian1 /rata =m+ 91 #gfh4 ,lam>ck1 8 def9ition ( species1 #efg4 ----1 on transmutation ( species1 #efg1 #ehg1 #fif1 #fii4 ----1 on conv]sion ( orang into man1 #ege4 ----1 on numb]s ( polyps1 #gjf4 ,lanca%ire1 fossil canoes 91 #gei4 ,lanc]ote1 eruptions 91 #dcf1 #dci4 ,l&1 quantity (1 9 nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es1 #ajb1 #aji1 #aaj4 ----1 uprais$ at successive p]iods1 #aah1 #aai4 ----1 pro(s ( exi/5ce (1 at all p]iods1 #ahh4 ----1 proportion ( sea &1 #abd4 ----1 elevation (1 h[ caus$1 #aga1 #dec1 #deg1 #dei1 #efb4 ,l&slips1 #cai1 #cba1 #dhe1 #eje4 ----1 imb$d+ ( organic rema9s by1 #gcb4 ,langu$oc1 deposits on coa/ (1 #bfj4 ,laplace on *ange 9 ! e>?'s axis1 #cb4 ----1 on mean dep? ( ,atlantic & ,pacific1 #ajd4 ----1 on no contraction ( globe1 #abi4 ----1 on mean d5sity ( ! e>?1 #ecf4 ,lapl&1 :y mild] ?an ,gre5l&1 #id4 ----1 migrations ( animals 91 #fcg4 ,lat]al pressure caus$ by l&slips1 #cbb4 ----1 pressure 9 ,&es & ,alps1 #aga4 ,la?am1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,g41 on ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,man1 #fji4 ,laud]1 ,sir ,t4 ,d41 on floods 9 ,scotl&1 #bjh1 #fhf1 #gcj1 #gdh4 ,lava excavat$ by riv]s1 #bac4 ----1 effects ( decomposition on1 #che4 ----1 fl[+ (1 "u wat]1 #chc4 ----1 hydro/atic pressure ( asc5d+1 #eeb4 ----1 ( ,icel& & ,c5tral ,france1 #dbf1 #dbg4 ----1 comp>ative volume ( anci5t & mod]n1 #afa1 #dbg4 ----1 pret5d$ di/9ction betwe5 anci5t & mod]n1 #dch4 ----1 m9]al composition (1 #ddi1 #eea4 ----1 rate ( fl[+1 #cgh1 #djj4 ,lazz>o ,moro1 ,see ,moro4 ,lehman1 treatise (1 #agei1 #dj4 ,leibnitz1 !ory (1 #bf4 ,leidy1 ,dr41 on ,priscodelph9us1 #ade4 ,lem+s1 migrations (1 #fcg4 ,l5a1 ,r41 fossil bones on banks (1 #gh1 #hj4 ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 #ai4 ,lewes1 human bones 9 tumulus ne>1 #gci4 ----1 e/u>y rec5tly fill$ up ne>1 #gdh1 #gfh4 ,liege1 caves ne>1 #gcg4 ,light1 influ5ce (1 on plants1 #hi4 ,lightn+1 effect (1 9 ,%etl& ,isl&s1 #bii4 ,lignite1 conv]sion ( wood into1 #gei4 ,lima de/roy$ by e>?quake1 #eja4 ----1 elevat$ rec5t m>9e /rata at1 #ejb4 ,lime1 :5ce d]iv$1 #gif4 ,l9coln%ire1 inroads ( sea on coa/ (1 #cjd4 ,l9dley1 ,dr41 on fossil plants ( ,melville ,isl&s1 #hh4 ----1 on numb] ( plants1 #gje4 ----1 on disp]sion ( plants1 #fbj4 ----1 on fossil plants ( coal1 #hh1 #acc4 ----1 cit$1 #acc4 ,l9naeus on fill+ up ( ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 #eba4 ----1 on subsid5ce ( ,scania1 #ecj4 ----1 on con/ancy ( species1 #efh4 ----1 on real exi/5ce ( g5]a1 #egh4 ----1 on diffusion ( plants1 #fbd1 #fbf4 ----1 on introduction ( species1 #ffe4 ----1 cit$1 #fga4 ,lionnesse tradition 9 ,cornwall1 #cbd4 ,lippi on ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii1 #chg4 ,lipsius1 #ab4 ,lisbon1 e>?quakes at1 #ceh1 #die4 ,li/]1 fir/ propos$ geological maps1 #bf4 ----1 on fossil %ells1 #bf4 ,lloyd1 ,mr41 on levels ( ,atlantic & ,pacific1 #bid4 ,loa1 ,m\nt1 volcano ( ,s&wi* ,isles1 #eeb4 ,locu/s1 deva/ations (1 #fgd4 ----1 bank =m$ 9 sea by1 #fge4 ,loess ( ! ,rh9e1 #ahe4 ----1 ( ! ,mississippi valley1 #bfe4 ,loire1 t]ti>y /rata ( !1 #adb4 ,london1 artesian wells ne>1 #bcd4 ,london bas91 t]ti>y deposits (1 #aba4 ----1 clay1 its fossils1 #adb1 #add4 ,l[e/(f ,ness describ$1 #cji4 ----1 cliffs und]m9$ ne>1 #cji4 ,l[l& ( ,sib]ia1 #gh1 #hj1 #hc1 #he4 ,luckip\r1 on ! ,ganges1 #bgf1 #bgg4 ----1 new isl&s =m$ ne>1 #bgf4 ,luckput1 subsid5ce ne>1 #dfj4 ,lund1 ,dr41 on fossil quadrumana1 #add4 ,lybian s&s1 c>avans ov]:elm$ by1 #gbg4 ,lyme ,regis1 wa/e ( cliffs at1 #cba4 ,lym-,fiord1 brea*es made by ! sea 91 #ccj4 ,m4 ,mac,clelland1 ,dr41 on e>?quakes ,9 ,*ittagong1 #did4 ----1 on volcanic l9e ,9 ,bay ( ,b5gal1 #ced4 ,mac,culloch1 ,dr41 on gradation f peat to coal1 #gai4 ----1 on orig9 ( lime/ones1 #gif4 ,macacus plioc5us ( ,ow51 fossil 9 valley ( ,?ames1 #add4 ----1 ,suffolk ,eoc5e species1 #add4 ,macaluba1 9 ,sicily1 mud volcanoes1 #ddg4 ,mack5zie1 ,sir ,g41 8 section ( geys]1 #eef4 ----1 on re9de] 9 ,icel&1 #fhf4 ,mack5zie ,riv]1 driftwood (1 #ij1 #gdc4 ----1 floods (1 #hd4 ,macl>51 ,mr4 ,c41 on ,graham ,isl&1 #dce4 ----1 on quantity ( useful soil 9 ,am]ica1 #fhg4 ----1 on position ( ,am]ican =e/s1 #gad4 ----1 rem>ks1 !ory ( atolls1 #gib4 ,macmurdo1 ,capta91 on e>?quake ( ,cut*1 #dfj4 ,madagasc>1 ext5t ( coral ne>1 #ggf4 ----1 assemblage ( quadrup$s 91 #fcb4 ,madrid1 ,new1 great e>?quake at1 #dff4 ----1 sunk c\ntry ne> x1 #bgj4 ,mael]1 lake1 #ebd1 #ebh4 ,magellan1 ,/raits (1 tides 91 #bia1 #bic4 ,magnesia deposit$ by spr+s1 #bhc4 ,magnesian lime/one & trav]t9 comp>$1 #bdj4 ,magnetism1 t]re/rial1 ph5om5a (1 #edc4 ----1 sol>1 #abi4 ,mahomet1 8 cosmogony1 #ah4 ,malab>1 coral ne>1 #ggf4 ,maldive ,isl&s1 coral reefs (1 #ggh1 #ghb4 ,mallet1 ,capta91 on petroleum ( ,tr9idad1 #bej4 ,mallet1 ,mr41 on ! dynamics ( e>?quakes1 #dec1 #dge4 ----1 on :irl+ motion dur+ e>?quakes1 #dgf4 ----1 cit$1 #efj4 ----1 on transit ( ! e>?-wave1 #dhc4 ----1 on !ory ( waves1 #dih4 ,mammalia1 diff]5t regions ( indig5\s1 #fbi4 ----1 fossil1 ( successive t]ti>y p]iods4 #ach1 #aci4 ----1 imb$d+ (1 9 subaque\s /rata1 #gdi1 #gec4 ,mammif]1 fossil ( trias1 #acg4 ,mammo?1 ,sib]ian1 #ge4 ----1 bones (1 9 ,york%ire1 #gf4 ,man1 rec5t orig9 (1 #adg1 #ahb1 #fhg1 #gfd4 ----1 :y able to live 9 all climates1 #fji4 ----1 diffusion (1 #feg4 ----1 *anges caus$ by1 #aej1 #ahb1 #fcj1 #ffc1 #fha1 #gac4 ----1 durability ( ! bones (1 #adg1 #geg4 ----1 rema9s (1 9 osse\s breccias ( ,morea1 #gce4 ----1 8 rema9s & works fossil1 #gec4 ,mane?o1 #fc4 ,mantell1 ,dr41 on bones f ,saxon tumulus1 #ghh4 ----1 on ,lewes levels1 #gdh1 #gfh4 ,map ( ,sib]ia1 #gi4 ----1 ( ,_w1 %[+ pres5t unequal di/ribution ( l& & sea1 #aaj4 ----1 %[+ position ( l& & sea1 :i* might produce extremes ( heat & cold1 #aaa4 ----1 ( ,europe1 %[+ ext5t ( l& cov]$ by sea s9ce comm5cem5t ( t]ti>y p]iod 7,pl4 ,i471 #aba4 ,map ( coa/ f ,nieuport to m\? ( ,elbe1 #cbf4 ----1 ( volcanoes f ,philipp9e ,isl&s to ,b5gal1 #cea4 ----1 ( volcanic di/rict ( ,naples1 #cfa4 ----1 ( ,gulf ( ,santor91 #ddb4 ----1 ( ,*ili1 #ded1 #dee4 ----1 ( ,cut*1 #dfj4 ----1 ( ,calabria1 #dgb4 ----1 ( ,sw$51 #ebb4 ,m>acaybo1 ,lake1 #dff4 ,m>9e deposits1 imb$d+ ( l& quadrup$s 91 #gdi1 #geb4 ----1 ( human rema9s & works ( art 91 #gef4 ----1 ( fre%wat] species 91 #gfh4 ----1 plants & animals imb$d$ 91 #ggj4 ,m>9e vegetation4 #fag1 #fbb4 ,m>l lakes ( ,scotl&1 animals & plants fossiliz$ 91 #geb1 #gff4 ,m>sili1 on arrangem5t ( %ells 9 ,adriatic1 #cf1 #ch1 #dj4 ----1 on deposits ( coa/s ( ,langu$oc1 #bfj4 ,m>supial animals1 di/ribution (1 #fcc4 ----1 fossil1 #ach4 ,m>tigny de/roy$ by floods1 #baa4 ,m>tius1 on drift+ ( animals by ! ,amazon1 #fda4 ----1 on ,brazil1 #fhb4 ,m>yl&1 :irlw9d 91 #fai4 ,mattani on fossils ( ,volt]ra1 #cd4 ,mattioli on organic rema9s1 #ba4 ,mauritius1 reef uplift$ above level ( sea1 #gid4 ,m$it]ranean1 microscopic te/acea (1 #dd4 ----1 deposition ( salt 9 !1 #ccd4 ----1 new isl& 91 #dcb4 ----1 its temp]ature1 dep?1 level1 c41 #de1 #bid1 #ccd1 #eaj4 ----1 same level z ,r$ ,sea1 #bid4 ,megna1 ,r41 arm ( ,brahmapootra1 #bgi4 ,melville ,isl&1 fossils (1 #ij4 ----1 migrations ( animals into1 #fdj4 ,melville1 ,dr41 on dodo1 #fhd4 ,memphis1 9 delta ( ,nile1 #bfa4 ,m5dip ,hills1 caves (1 #gcg4 ,m5u's ,in/itutes1 #d1 #e4 ,m]cati on organic rema9s1 #bb4 ,m]sey1 vessel 9 b$ (1 #geh4 ,mess9a1 tide 9 ,/raits (1 #bij4 ----1 e>?quakes at1 #dgg1 #dhh1 #dij4 ,metallic nucleus1 !ory ( an unoxidat$1 #ede4 ,metallic sub/ances *ang$ by subm]sion1 #gei4 ,metamorphic rocks1 h[ =m$1 #agg4 ----1 ( ! ,alps1 #agh4 ----1 :y ^? visible to u mu/ be v anci5t1 #agh4 ,mexico1 ,gulf (1 tides 91 #bie4 ----1 curr5ts 91 #if1 #bib4 ----1 volcanoes (1 #cdi1 #edf4 ,mey51 ,dr41 on e>?quake 9 ,*ili1 #ahbb1 #deh4 ,mi*ell on ph5om5a ( e>?quakes1 #da4 ----1 on ! geology ( ,york%ire1 #db4 ----1 on e>?quake at ,lisbon1 #ceh1 #dig4 ----1 on retreat ( ! sea dur+ e>?quakes1 #dih4 ----1 on wave-l motion ( e>?quakes1 #eeh4 ----1 on e>?quakes cit$1 #dii4 ,microle/es1 triassic mammif]1 #ach1 #ade4 ,midd5dorf1 ,mr41 on ,sib]ian mammo?1 #ha4 ,migrations ( plants1 #fah4 ----1 ( animals1 #fce1 #fcf4 ----1 ( cetacea1 #fdb4 ----1 ( birds1 #fdb4 ----1 ( fi%1 #fdf4 ----1 ( zoophytes1 #fec4 ----1 ( insects1 #fee4 ,migratory p[]s indisp5sable to animals1 #fhi4 ,mil=d ,hav51 rise ( tides at1 #bia4 ,mill5nium1 #bj1 #cb4 ,m9]al wat]s1 _! connection ) volcanoes1 #bcg4 ----1 +r$i5ts mo/ common 94 ,see ,spr+s1 #bcg4 ,m9]alization ( plants1 #gdg4 ,m9es1 heat 91 augm5ts ) ! dep?1 #ech4 ,mioc5e /rata ( ,suffolk1 fossils (1 #adb4 ----1 proportion ( liv+ species 9 fossil %ells ( !1 #ahc4 ,mississippi1 its c\rse1 delta1 c41 #bfh1 #bge4 ----1 drift-wood ( !1 #bfa4 ----1 e>?quakes 9 valley (1 #bgj1 #cej4 ----1 antiquity ( delta (1 #bgb4 ----1 e>?quake region (1 #dfg4 ----1 banks high] ?an swamps1 #bff4 ,miss\ri1 ,r41 #bfd4 ,mit*ell1 ,dr41 on wa/e ( cliffs1 #caa4 ,moel ,tryfane1 rec5t m>9e %ells on1 #abb4 ,mollusca4 ,see ,te/acea4 ----1 prov9ces (1 #fdi4 ,mollusc\s animals1 longevity ( species (1 #gf4 ,moluccas1 eruptions 9 !1 #ejd4 ,monkeys1 fossil1 #add4 ,monte ,b>b>o1 description (1 #cgc4 ----1 ,bolca1 fossil fi% (1 #dd4 ----1 ,nuovo1 =mation (1 #cfi1 #eah4 ----1 ,somma1 /ructure (1 #chb4 ,monti ,rossi on ,etna describ$1 #cig1 #cii1 #dbb4 ,montlosi]1 on ,auv]gne1 #di4 ,mora9es ( glaci]s1 #bbc1 #bbf1 #bbh4 ,moray%ire1 t[n 91 de/roy$ by sea1 #cjb4 ----1 effect ( floods 91 #bjh1 #gcj4 ,morea1 ,c>amiqne (1 #gca4 ----1 osse\s breccias n[ =m+ 9 !1 #gcd4 ----1 human rema9s imb$d$ 91 #gce4 ,moriot1 on subsid5ce 9 ,adriatic1 #beg4 ,moro1 ,lazz>o1 8 geological views1 #cd4 ----1 on prim>y rocks1 #eb4 ,morocco1 e>?quakes at1 #ceh4 ,morton1 ,dr4 ,s4 ,g41 on hybrids & species1 #fja4 ,m\nta9 *a9s1 on ! elevation (1 #fe4 ----1 !ory ( sudd5 rise (1 #afc4 ,moya ( ! ,&es describ$1 #cdh1 #dgj4 ,mud eruptions 9 ,quito1 #agig1 #cdh4 ----1 volcanoes1 #ddg4 ,mules sometimes prolific1 #fja4 ,mur*ison1 ,sir ,r41 on ! ,h>tz m\nta9s1 #dh4 ----1 on t]ti>y deposits ( ! ,alps1 #aai4 ----1 on geography ( ,sib]ia1 #gh1 #hd1 #abd4 ----1 map ( ,russia1 #abc4 ----1 on depression ( ,caspian1 #aeg4 ----1 on trav]t9 ( ,tivoli1 #bde4 ----1 on t]ti>y deposits ( ,alps1 #abd4 ,mus*elkalk1 #aic4 ,mydaus meliceps1 #fci4 ,myrmecobius1 fasciatus1 #ach4 ,mytilus polymorphus1 #feb4 ,n4 ,nantucket1 banks (1 #bic4 ,naples1 volcanic di/rict r\nd1 #cfa4 ----1 rec5t t]ti>y /rata ne>1 #gd4 ,n>wal /r&$ ne> ,bo/on1 #gga4 ----1 fossil ne> ,lewes1 #gfi4 ,nasmy?1 ,mr41 on non-conductibility ( dry s& & clay1 #dah4 ,ne$les ( ,isle ( ,wight1 #cah4 ,negro physiognomy trac$ back #cjjj ye>s1 #ffj4 ,neill on :ales /r&$1 #gga4 ,nelson1 ,lieut1 on coral reefs1 #gih4 ,neptune1 temple (1 "u wat]1 #eaf4 ,neptuni/s & ,vulcani/s1 rival factions (1 #ej1 #ee4 ,n]buddah1 riv]1 #gje4 ,newbold1 ,lieut41 on mud ( ,nile1 #bfb4 ,newf\ndl& cattle mir$ 9 bogs (1 #gbc4 ,ne:av51 its cliffs und]m9$1 #cag4 ,new ,holl&1 plants (1 #aab1 #fad4 ----1 animals (1 #fcj4 ----1 coral reefs (1 #ggf1 #gia4 ,new ,kam5i1 =mation (1 #ddc4 ,new ,madrid1 ,u4 ,s41 e>?quakes at1 #cej1 #dff4 ,new ,zeal&1 animals 91 #fce4 ----1 tree f]ns 91 #hi4 ,niag>a1 ,falls (1 #bad4 ----1 _! recession1 #bag1 #bah4 ----1 height (1 #baf4 ,niccol9i1 ,m41 on ,temple ( ,s]apis1 #eah4 ,nicolosi de/roy$ by e>?quake1 #cii4 ,nile1 ,r41 delta ( !1 #bfa4 ----1 cities buri$ "u bl[n s& ne> !1 #gbf4 ----1 swept away by flood (1 #gec4 ,nilson1 ,m41 on subsid5ce ( ,scania1 #ecj4 ----1 on migrations ( eels1 #fdh4 ,nitrog5 9 spr+s1 #gaj4 ,nom5clature ( geology1 rem>ks on1 #aeh4 ,norfolk1 wa/e ( cliffs (1 #cje4 ----1 ga9 ( l& on coa/ (1 #cjh4 ,nor? ,cape1 drift-wood on1 #gde4 ,nor?umb]l&1 l& de/roy$ by sea 91 #cjc4 ,norway free f e>?quakes1 #eca4 ----1 rise ( l& 91 #aib1 #ebg1 #ebi4 ,norwi* once situat$ on an arm ( ! sea1 #cjg4 ,norwi* ,crag1 fossils (1 #adb4 ,nova ,scotia1 rise ( tides 91 #ccb4 ,nummulitic lime/one1 #abd4 ,nymphs1 temple (1 "u wat]1 #eaf4 ,nyoe1 a new isl& =m$ 9 #aghc1 #dbe1 #dcb4 ,o4 ,obi1 ,e41 fossils on %ores (1 #ha4 ,ocean1 p]man5cy ( its level1 #eah4 ,odo>di on t]ti>y /rata ( ,italy1 #db4 ,o]/$1 discov]ies (1 #edc4 ,ogygian deluge1 #cdi1 #cef4 ,ohio1 junction (1 ) ,mississippi1 #bfd4 ,oldham1 ,mr41 on rais$ sea bea*es 9 ,irel&1 #abb4 ,old r$ s&/one =mation1 fossils (1 #ace1 #aic4 ,old r$ s&/one1 reptile 91 #ace4 ,olivi on fossil rema9s1 #bb4 ,om>1 an ,arabian writ]1 #ag4 ,ont>io1 ,lake1 di/ance f ,niag>a1 #baf4 ,oolite1 fossils ( !1 #acg4 ,oolitic /ructure1 rec5t1 9 ,lanc]ote1 c41 #dci4 ,orang-outang1 *ange (1 to man1 #ege4 ,orbigny1 ,m4 ,a4 de1 on ,pampean mud1 #agj4 ,organic rema9s1 controv]sy z to real nature (1 #ai4 ----1 imb$d+ (4 ,see ,fossillzation4 ----1 importance ( ! /udy (1 #fj4 ----1 abrupt transition f ^? ( ! second>y to ^? ( ! t]ti>y rocks1 #abj4 ----1 ,see also ,fossils4 ,ori5tal philosoph]s1 #aj4 ,ori5tal cosmogony1 #g4 ,orkney ,isl&s1 wa/e (1 #cja4 ,orleans1 ,new1 gr\nd s9k+1 #bfh4 ----1 trunks ( trees 9 soil ( delta1 #bfh4 ,osse\s breccias1 #gce1 #gcf1 #gda4 ,otaheite1 coral reefs (1 #ghd1 #ghf4 ,ouje91 buri$ ,indian city1 #gbi4 ,ouse1 ,r41 has fill$ up an arm ( ! ,sea1 #gdd4 ,ovid cit$1 #aj1 #cde4 ,ow51 ,pr(41 on bones ( turtles1 #ggb4 ----1 on ! dog & wolf1 #ehd4 ----1 on t]ti>y mammalia1 #adb1 #add4 ----1 quot$1 #ahd4 ----1 tee? ( mammo?1 #gh4 ----1 on ,briti% fossil mammalia & birds1 #acg4 ,o:yhee1 #ghg4 ,oy/]s1 c41 ?r[n a%ore alive by /orm1 #ggc4 ----1 migrations (1 #feb4 ,p4 ,pacific ,ocean1 dep? (1 #ajd4 ----1 its height above ! ,atlantic1 #bid4 ----1 subsid5ce great] ?an elevation 91 #ghg4 ----1 coral & volcanic isl&s (1 #ced1 #ggf1 #ghj1 #ghg4 ,palaeo!rium ( ,isle ( ,wight1 #adb4 ,pale/9e %ak5 by e>?quakes1 #cee4 ,palissy on organic rema9s1 #bc4 ,pallas on m\nta9s ( ,sib]ia1 #de4 ----1 on ,caspian ,sea1 #de4 ----1 on fossil bones ( ,sib]ia1 #de1 #gh1 #hj4 ----1 cit$1 #ccc4 ,palm]1 ,mr41 on %+le bea*es1 #cac1 #cbj4 ,palms1 r>e 9 c>bonif]\s gr\p1 #hh4 ,pampas1 gradual rise (1 #agj4 ,panama1 tides 9 ,bay (1 #bie4 ,pap&ayang1 eruption (1 #dic4 ----1 its cone truncat$1 #dic4 ,papyrus rolls 9 ,h]culaneum1 #cib4 ,p>adise1 ,burnet on seat (1 #cb4 ,p>ana1 ,r41 animals drift$ d[n on rafts by1 #fda4 ----1 animals dr[n$ 91 #fif4 ,p>is bas91 =mations ( !1 #aba4 ----1 fossils ( !1 #adb4 ,p>i%1 ,sir ,w41 on inroads ( sea dur+ e>?quakes1 #dii1 #ejb4 ----1 on drift+ ( animals on float+ rafts1 #fda4 ----1 on great dr\ghts 9 ,s4 ,am]ica1 #fif4 ----1 on floods ( ,p>ana ,r41 #gea4 ,p>ma1 t]ti>y /rata ne>1 #gd4 ,p>oxysmal en]gy ( anci5t causes controv]t$1 #agd4 ,p>rot1 on ,caspian ,sea1 #aeg4 ,p>rots ne> ,cape ,horn1 #ig4 ,p>ry1 ,capta91 highe/ nor!rn latitude rea*$ by1 #ih4 ----1 on migration ( pol> be>1 #fdj4 ----1 on animals ( ,melville ,isl&1 #fdj4 ,patagonia1 tides on coa/ (1 #bia4 ,pavil& cave1 #gcg4 ,peat 9 delta ( ,ganges1 #bhj4 ----1 on pres]vation ( fossils 91 #gaa1 #gah1 #gbb4 ----1 di/ribution (1 #gai4 ----1 bogs1 bur/+ (1 #gbd4 ----1 subm>9e1 #gbe4 ,peat ( ,great ,dismal ,swamp1 ,virg9ia1 #gbd4 ,pembroke%ire1 loss ( l& 91 #cbd4 ,p5co de/roy$ by e>?quake1 #dii4 ----1 elevation ne>1 #ejj4 ,p5nant on wa/e ( ,york%ire coa/1 #cjd4 ----1 on migration ( animals1 #gg1 #fca1 #fcg4 ,p5tagonal network ( m\nta9 *a9s1 ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont on1 #agj4 ,p5zance1 loss ( l& ne>1 #cbc4 ,p]mian rocks1 reptiles 91 #acf4 ,p>on on di/ribution ( species1 #fdg4 ,p]rey1 ,m4 ,alexis1 on frequ5cy ( e>?quakes 9 w9t]1 #efa4 ,p]sian ,gulf1 coral 91 #ggf4 ,p]u1 volcanoes 91 #cdg4 ----1 e>?quakes 91 #cdg1 #eja4 ,p]uvian tradition ( a great flood1 #h1 #ejb4 ,pet]head1 :ale /r&$ ne>1 #gga4 ,phascolo!rium ,buckl&i1 #aci4 ,philippi1 ,dr4 ,a41 on fossil t]ti>y %ells ( ,sicily1 #ahc4 ,phillips1 ,mr4 ,j41 on wa/e ( ,york%ire coa/1 #cjd4 ,phlegraean fields1 volcanoes (1 #cgc4 ,physical ,geography4 ,see ,geography4 ,pietra ,mala1 inflammable gas (1 #aa4 ,pigs1 in/9cts (1 #eie4 ----1 swim to great di/ances1 #fce4 ----1 fossil1 #gbc4 ,pilla1 ,m41 on ,monte ,somma1 #chb4 ,p9d> cit$1 #cih4 ,p+el1 ,dr41 on subsid5ce ( ,gre5l&1 #ecj4 ,pisolitic lime/one ( ,france1 #abj4 ,pit* lake ( ,tr9idad1 #bej4 ,plants1 c>bonif]\s1 wide geographical range1 #afj4 ----1 v>ieties 91 produc$ by horticulture1 #ehh4 ----1 ext5t ( v>iation 91 #ehi4 ----1 _! geographical di/ribution1 #ig1 #aab1 #fac4 ----1 disp]sion (1 #fah4 ----1 /ations (1 #fad1 #ffi4 ----1 equilibrium among1 kept up by insects1 #fgb4 ----1 numb] ( t]re/rial1 #gje4 ----1 imb$d+ (1 9 subaque\s deposits1 #gdb1 #gfe1 #ggj4 ----1 on numb] :i* are n[ becom+ fossil1 #gde4 ----1 m9]alization (1 #gdg4 ,plants1 fossil1 ( ! coal /rata1 #hg1 #aae1 #acc4 ,pla/ic clay fossils1 #adb4 ,pla/ic =ce1 fossil %ell ascrib$ to1 #bj4 ,playfair on ,huttonian !ory1 #ec1 #eg4 ----1 on in/ability ( ! e>?'s surface1 #bab4 ----1 on gradual rise ( ,sw$51 #ebc4 ----1 on =m ( ! e>?1 #ecd4 ,pli5+]1 ,pr(essor1 on triassic mammif]1 #acg4 ,pl9y ! ,eld]1 #af4 ----1 on delta ( ,rhone1 #beh4 ----1 on ,isl&s at ! m\? ( ! ,texel1 #cbi4 ----1 kill$ by eruption ( ,vesuvius1 ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 #cfd4 ,pl9y ! ,y\ng]1 on ,vesuvius1 #cfd4 ,plioc5e /rata1 fossils (1 #adc4 ,plot on organic rema9s1 #bf4 ,plu*e1 !ory (1 #agcb1 #hc4 ,plutonic rocks1 h[ =m$1 #afa4 ----1 action1 *anges produc$ by1 #agf1 #agh4 ,po1 ,r41 #bjg4 ----1 frequ5tly %ifts to c\rse1 #bee4 ----1 embankm5t ( !1 #bef4 ----1 delta ( !1 #bef1 #bhd4 ----1 subsid5ce 9 delta (1 #beg4 ,poisson1 ,m41 on a/ronomical causes ( *anges 9 climate1 #abg4 ,polyps4 ,see ,zoophytes4 ,pom]ania1 fossil %ips 91 #geh4 ,pompeii1 h[ de/roy$1 #cfe1 #che1 #chg4 ----1 section ( ! mass envelop+1 #chf4 ----1 objects pres]v$ 91 #cij4 ----1 infusorial b$s cov]+ x1 #chh4 ,pont ,gibaud1 gneiss decompos$ at1 #bdh4 ----1 calc>e\s spr+s ne>1 #bci4 ,poole ,bay cut into by sea1 #cai4 ,popayan1 volcanoes & e>?quakes 91 #cdi4 ,portl&1 fossil ammonites (1 #bh4 ----1 its p59sula wa/+4 #cai4 ,port ,royal1 subsid5ce (1 #ejd1 #eag1 #fia1 #gfb4 ,porto ,praya1 ,azores1 calc>e\s /ratum1 #dcf4 ,portugal1 e>?quakes 91 #ceh4 ,porzio on =mation ( ,monte ,nuovo1 #cfi1 #cga4 ,po/-t]ti>y =mations1 #ahd4 ,precession ( ! equ9oxes1 #ajj1 #ecg4 ,pr5tice1 ,lieut1 on coral reef 9 ,maldives1 #ggh4 ,pressure1 effects (1 #aga4 ,pre/wi*1 ,mr41 on artesian wells1 #bcd4 ,prevo/ ,con/41 on ,/onefield fossil mammalia1 #ach4 ----1 ,con/41 on gypse\s spr+s1 #bde4 ----1 on r5ts =m$ by upheaval1 #cga4 ----1 on new isl& 9 ,m$it]ranean1 #dcc4 ----1 on geological causes1 #gah4 ----1 on osse\s breccias ( caves1 #gcf4 ,prevo/1 ,pi]re1 on radiation ( heat1 #ic4 ,prevo/1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,l41 on numb] ( wreck$ vessels1 #gef4 ,prim>y fossilif]\s rocks1 fossils (1 #aad4 ,priscodelph9us1 cetacean1 ( *alk1 #ade4 ,prit*>d1 ,dr41 on ,egyptian cosmogony1 #h4 ----1 on rec5t orig9 ( man1 #adg4 ----1 on hybrid races1 #fjb4 ----1 on facial angle1 #fjh4 ----1 on di/ribution ( animals1 #fbi1 #fca4 ,procida1 isl& (1 anci5t writ]s on1 #cfj4 ,progressive developm5t1 !ory (1 #acj-aec4 ----1 9 animals1 ,lam>ck's !ory (1 #efg4 ,prov9ces1 geographical1 ( ,te/acea1 #fdi4 ,prov9ces1 zoological & l& quadrup$s1 #fca4 ,pt]odactyles1 #acg4 ,pulo ,nias1 uprais$ coral 91 #gid4 ,purbeck1 its p59sula wa/+1 #cai4 ,pur% on plants ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #fad4 ,puzzuoli1 ,temple ( ,s]apis ne>1 #ejg4 ----1 inl& cliffs ne>1 #ejh1 #eaj4 ----1 date ( re-elevation ( coa/ (1 #eae1 #eah4 ----1 encroa*m5t ( sea ne>1 #eae4 ----1 coa/ ne>1 n[ subsid+1 #eaf4 ,pyr5ees1 _! relative age1 height1 c41 #abj1 #aff4 ,py?agoras1 sy/em (1 #aj4 ----1 on ,etna1 #cde4 ,q4 ,quadrumana1 fossil1 #add4 ,quadrup$s1 dome/ic1 multiply 9 ,am]ica1 #ehd1 #fhe4 ----1 regions ( indig5\s1 #fcj1 #fcf4 ----1 imb$d+ ( t]re/rial1 #gdi4 ,quaggas1 migrations (1 #fch4 ,quebec1 climate (1 #ie4 ----1 e>?quakes 91 #dgj4 ,que5/[n1 ,canada1 table l& t]m9ates at1 #baf4 ,qu9t]o elevat$ by e>?quake ( #ahbb1 #deg4 ,quiriui1 !ory (1 #be4 ,quito1 e>?quakes & volcanoes 91 #cdf1 #cdh1 #dfi4 ,r4 ,rab5/e9 cave1 #gcf4 ,race ( ,ald]ney1 its velocity1 #bic4 ,races1 tidal curr5ts s call$1 #cda4 ,raffles1 ,sir ,s41 cit$1 #dfe1 #eii4 ,rafts1 drift-timb] 9 ,mississippi1 c41 #bfg4 ,ra91 action (1 #gac4 ----1 dim9i%$ by fell+ ( =e/s1 #gac4 ----1 fall (1 9 bas9 ( ,ganges1 #bgh4 ----1 ,huttonian !ory (1 #aii4 ----1 fall (1 v>y+ ) latitude1 #aii4 ----1 fall (1 9 ,ea/]n ,b5gal1 #bjj4 ,ra9-pr9ts1 rec5t1 on mud 9 ,nova ,scotia1 #bjb4 ,rais$ bea*es1 #ahd4 ,ramree1 volcanic isl&1 #ced4 ,raspe on isl&s %ift+ _! position 7note71 #aa4 ----1 8 !ory1 #agfc1 #db1 #dc1 #dh4 ,rats1 migrations (1 #fcg4 ----1 introduc$ by man into ,am]ica1 #ffc1 #fhf4 ,rawl9son1 ,col41 on delta ( ,tigris1 #bhe4 ,ray1 8 physico-!ology1 c41 #cj1 #ca4 ----1 cit$1 #fde1 #fhc4 ,reaumur on insects1 #fgd4 ,reculv] cliff2 action ( sea on1 #cab4 ,rocup]o on fl[+ ( lava1 #dja4 ,r$ ,crag1 fossils (1 #adb4 ,r$man1 ,j4 ,b41 on *anges ( ,engli% coa/1 #cae1 #caf1 #cai4 ,r$ m>l1 suppos$ univ]sality (1 #aeh4 ,r$ ,riv]1 new lakes =m$ by1 #bfi4 ----1 drift-wood 91 #bfg4 ----1 & ,mississippi1 _! junction rec5t1 #bfd1 #bhd4 ,r$ ,sea1 level (1 & ( ,m$it]ranean1 #bid4 ----1 coral reefs (1 #ggg1 #ghd4 ,reefs1 coral1 outl9e de/roy$ by d5udation1 #gie4 ,refrig]ation1 ,leibnitz's !ory (1 #bf4 ----1 causes :i* might produce ! extreme (1 #ajf4 ,reid1 ,col41 on motion ( %+le bea*es1 #cbj4 ,re9-de]1 geographical range (1 #fcg4 ----1 migrations (1 #fdj4 ----1 import$ into ,icel&1 #fhf4 ,r5nel1 ,major1 on delta ( ,ganges1 #bge4 ----1 on delta ( ,nile1 #bfa4 ----1 on curr5ts1 #ie1 #ig1 #bia1 #bib1 #bic4 ----1 on ! tide-wave call$ ! ,bore1 #ccc4 ,r5nel1 ,mr41 on delta ( ,ganges1 #bge4 ,r5nie1 ,rev4 ,dr41 on peat1 & fossils 9 peat1 #gah1 #gai1 #gbj1 #gbb4 ,reptiles1 _! geographical di/ribution1 #fde4 ----1 _! p[]s ( diffusion1 #fde4 ----1 9 c>bonif]\s epo*1 #acf4 ----1 9 ,irel&1 #fde4 ----1 imb$d$ 9 subaque\s /rata1 #gdh1 #gga4 ----1 fossil1 9 old r$ s&/one1 #ace4 ----1 9 coal1 #acf4 ,rh9e1 ,r41 description1 ( its c\rse1 #cbe4 ----1 its delta1 #cbf4 ----1 tuff made ( silice\s cases ( infusoria1 #chh4 ,rh9oc]os1 fossil1 food (1 #hj4 ,rhone1 delta (1 9 ,m$it]ranean1 #beh4 ----1 delta (1 9 ,lake ( ,g5eva1 #ahi1 #beb1 #bhf4 ----1 deposits at its conflu5ce ) ! ,arve1 #bhh4 ,rhone1 a cannon 9 calc>e\s rock 9 its delta1 #gei4 ,ri*>dson1 ,sir ,j41 on rocks ne> ,mack5zie ,riv]1 #aae4 ----1 on %eep ( ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 #eih4 ----1 on di/ribution ( animals1 #fdj1 #fde4 ----1 on drift timb]1 9 ,slave ,lake1 #gdc4 ----1 on arctic fauna1 #fcd4 ----1 on diffusion ( fi%1 #fdg4 ----1 on iso!rmal l9es1 #id4 ,ri*>dson1 ,mr4 ,w41 on ,h]ne ,bay1 #cab4 ,riddell1 ,dr41 on s$im5t ( ,mississippi1 #bgc4 ,rive1 ,m4 de la1 on t]re/rial magnetism1 #edc4 ,riv]-ice1 c>ry+ p[] (1 #bai4 ,riv]s1 diff]5ce 9 ! s$im5t (1 #ahi1 #beh4 ----1 s9uosities (1 #bje4 ----1 subm>9e1 9 ,!ssaly1 c41 #ceg4 ----1 :5 conflu5t1 d n occupy b$ ( proportionally l>g] surface1 #bjg4 ,rob]t1 ,m41 on geys]s ( ,icel&1 #bdf4 ,rob]tson1 ,capt41 on mud volcanoes1 #ddi4 ,rockhall bank1 rec5t deposits on1 #ggh4 ,rocks1 specific gravity (1 #bjf4 ----1 diff]5ce 9 texture ( old] & new]1 #age4 ----1 alt]$ by subt]ranean gases1 #bdh4 ----1 orig9 ( ! prim>y1 #agf4 ----1 p]si/5cy ( m9]al "* 91 #aeg4 ----1 old]1 :y mo/ solid & di/urb$1 #afb4 ----1 action ( fro/ on1 #bba1 #bca4 ----1 transportation (1 by ice1 #aee1 #bai4 ----1 groov$ by glacial action1 #aee1 #bbg1 #bbi4 ,rog]s1 ,pr(41 on ,appala*ian *a91 #eei4 ,roman roads "u wat] 9 ,bay ( ,baiae1 #eag4 ,romney ,m>%1 ga9$ f sea1 #caf4 ,rose1 ,m4 ,g41 on hornbl5de & augite1 #ddi4 ,ross1 ,sir ,j41 on cold ( ant>ctic regions1 #ii4 ----1 obta9$ s\nd+s at dep? ( #bg1fjj feet1 #ajd4 ----1 confirms ,cook z to ant>ctic ice1 #abe4 ----1 on iceb]gs1 #ih1 #bbi4 ,rossb]g1 slide ( !1 #gcb4 ,rotation ( ! e>?1 curr5ts caus$ by1 #bif4 ----1 ( crops1 #fgj1 #gbj4 ,ro!r1 ,riv]1 vessel f\nd 9 its old b$1 #caf1 #geh4 ,royle1 ,mr41 #ha4 ,runn ( ,cut* describ$1 #dfc4 ,rye =m]ly de/roy$ by sea1 #caf4 ,s4 ,sa>buck1 reptiles 9 coal /rata at1 #acf4 ,sab9e1 ,capt41 on well at ,*iswick1 #bcd4 ----1 on wat]s ( ,amazon discolor+ ! sea1 #cdb4 ,sab9e1 ,col41 on sol> magnetic p]iod1 #abi1 #edd4 ,sabr9a1 isl& (1 #dcb4 ,saco1 ,r41 flood on1 #bji4 ,sahrunpore1 buri$ t[n ne>1 #gca4 ,/4 ,&rew's1 loss ( l& at1 #cjc4 ----1 gun-b>rel1 fossil1 ne>1 #gfj4 ,/4 ,dom+o1 hot spr+s caus$ by e>?quake 91 #did4 ----1 fossil human skeleton 91 #geh4 ,/4 ,hel5a1 tides at1 #bia4 ,/4 ,jago1 e>?quake at1 #deg4 ,/4 ,ka!r9e's ,docks1 a fossil vessel f\nd 91 #geh4 ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 ,gulf (1 e>?quakes 91 #dgj4 ----1 rocks drift$ by ice 9 !1 #bbj4 ,/4 ,maura1 e>?quakes 91 #dgd4 ,/4 ,mi*ael1 silice\s spr+s (1 #bdf4 ,/4 ,mi*ael's ,m\nt1 #cbc4 ,/4 ,paul1 volcanic isl&1 #ddf4 ,/4 ,v9c5t's1 volcanoes (1 #dff4 ----1 c\nt]-curr5ts 9 ! air prov$ by eruption 91 #ajf4 ----1 boa con/rictor convey$ on drift-wood to1 #fdf4 ,salt1 on its deposition 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 #ccd4 ,salt spr+s #ah1 #bdg4 ,sal?olm1 isl& (1 #ebj4 ,samo?racian deluge1 #cef4 ,s& b>s along we/]n coa/ ( ,adriatic1 #beg4 ----1 drift1 e/u>ies block$ up by1 #cjg4 ,s&1 imb$d+ ( t[ns1 c4 91 #gbf4 ----1 cones ( ?r[n up dur+ e>?quake1 #dhc4 ,s&[n ,bay1 excavat$ by sea1 #cah4 ,s&wi* ,isl&s volcanoes1 #ced1 #cgb1 #chc1 #dbi1 #edh1 #eeb4 ,s&wi* ,l&1 p]petual sn[ to level ( sea-bea* 91 #ii4 ,san ,filippo1 trav]t9 (1 #bda4 ,san ,lio1 on ,etna1 fissures 9 pla9 (1 #cii4 ,santa ,m>ia1 isl& (1 rais$ #aj feet1 #dee4 ,santor91 geological /ructure (1 #dde4 ----1 *>t & section (1 #ddb4 ----1 new isl&s 9 ,gulf (1 #dda4 ,s>ac5s1 le>n+ ( !1 #ag4 ,saussure on ! ,alps & ,jura1 #de4 ----1 on glaci]s 9 ,alps1 #bbc4 ,savanna la ,m>1 swept away by sea1 #gca4 ,saxicava rugosa1 cosmopolite %ell1 #fej4 ,sc&9avia call$ an isl& by ! anci5ts1 #ebj4 ----1 gradual rise (1 #ebj1 #efc4 ----1 ,see ,sw$54 ,scania1 gradual subsid5ce (1 #ecj4 ,scac*i1 ,sig41 on temple ( ,s]apis1 #eaf4 ----1 on orig9 ( ,monte ,nuovo1 #cga4 ,s*eu*z]1 8 !ory1 #agjh1 #cc4 ,s*m]l+1 ,dr41 on fossils 9 caves1 #gcg4 ,s*wabe1 ,m41 on spots 9 ! sun1 #abi1 #edd4 ,sciacca1 isl& (4 ,see ,graham ,isl&4 ,scilla on organic rema9s1 #afgj1 #bd4 ,scilla1 rock (1 #dhh4 ,scoresby1 ,capt1 on ! ,gulf /ream1 #if4 ----1 on =mation ( field ice1 #ajh4 ----1 on weight ( rocks transport$ by iceb]gs1 #bbg4 ----1 cit$1 #fdj1 #gdc4 ,scotl&1 floods 91 #bjg1 #gej4 ----1 cold] climate indicat$ by newe/ t]ti>y /rata (1 #abe4 ----1 wa/e ( isl&s & coa/ (1 #bih4 ----1 slight e>?quakes felt 91 #ceh4 ----1 peat-mosses (1 #gbj1 #gbc4 ----1 m>l lakes (1 #geb1 #gff1 #ggj4 ,scrope1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,p41 on eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahbb1 #cge4 ----1 on column> basalts ( ,vesuvius1 #che4 ----1 on pisolitic globules at ,pompeii1 #chg4 ----1 on eruptions ( ,etna1 #djh1 #daj4 ----1 on cause ( convexity ( pla9 ( ,malpais1 #dbi4 ----1 on connection betwe5 /ate ( atmosph]e & e>?quakes1 #efa4 ,sea does n *ange its level1 b l&1 #ae4 ----1 its influ5ce on climate1 #ig4 ----1 area cov]$ by1 #abd4 ----1 its encroa*m5ts on coa/s1 #bih1 #cjb1 #cbd4 ----1 its rise & retreat dur+ e>?quakes1 #djg4 ,sea-bea*es1 rais$1 9 ,irel&1 #abb4 ----1 progressive motion (1 #caf4 ,seals1 migration (1 #fdb4 ,sea-we$1 banks =m$ by drift1 #fbb1 #ggj4 ,second>y rocks1 fossils ( !1 #hf4 ----1 orig9 ( !1 #aag4 ,s$gwick1 ,pr(essor1 on ! ,h>tz m\nta9s1 #dh4 ----1 on t]ti>y deposits ( ! ,alps1 #aai4 ----1 on ! antagoni/ p[] ( vegetation1 #gaa4 ----1 on organic rema9s 9 fissures1 #gdj4 ----1 on diluvial waves1 #dbc4 ,s$im5t ( ! ,mississippi1 #bgb4 ----1 laws gov]n+ deposition (1 #ahh1 #hdb4 ----1 9 riv] wat]1 #bgj4 ----1 ( ,ganges comp>$ to lavas ( ,etna1 #bhc4 ----1 rate ( subsid5ce ( "s k9ds (1 #cdb4 ----1 area ov] :i* x may be transport$ by curr5ts1 #cdc4 ,s$im5t>y deposition1 causes :i* occasion a %ift+ ( ! areas (1 #ahi4 ,se$s1 vitality (1 #ehg4 ----1 ( ,legum9osae adapt$ = wat]-c>riage1 #fbb4 ,s]apis1 temple (1 #ejg4 ----1 gr\nd-plan ( environs (1 #ejg4 ----1 date ( its re-elevation1 #eab4 ----1 n[ aga9 subsid+1 #eaf4 ----1 wor%ip (1 9 ,italy1 #eab4 ,s]res1 ,e4 ,r4 ,a41 on *anges 9 bra9 ( foetus1 #fji4 ,s]res1 ,e4 ,m>cel de1 on fossil human rema9s1 #gch4 ,sev]n1 tides 9 e/u>y (1 #bia4 ----1 ga9 ( l& 9 its e/u>y1 #cbd4 ,%akspe>e's cliff1 wa/e (1 #cad4 ,%ambles1 a %oal (f ,portl& ,bill1 #cb4 ,%>pe1 ,mr4 ,d41 on e>?quake ( ,lisbon1 #dif4 ,%eep1 multiplication (1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #fhf4 ,%ell m>l1 fossils 91 #geb1 #gff1 #gfi4 ,%ells1 fossil ( old] /rata buri$ 9 new] or rec5t b$s1 #gge4 ,see ,te/acea4 ,%eppey1 wa/e ( cliffs1 #cab4 ,%etl& ,isl&s1 action ( ! sea on1 #bih4 ----1 rock masses drift$ by sea 91 #bih4 ----1 effect ( lightn+ on rocks 91 #bii4 ----1 =mation 9 progress ne>1 #ggd4 ,%+le bea*es1 #cah1 #cbj4 ,%ips1 numb] ( ,briti%1 wreck$ annually1 #ged1 #gee4 ----1 fossil1 #caf1 #gbe1 #geh4 ,sib]ia1 rh9oc]os entire 9 froz5 soil (1 #de1 #hb4 ----1 map (1 #gi4 ----1 ! ,b5gal tig] f\nd 91 #gh4 ----1 l[l& (1 #gh1 #hc1 #he4 ----1 drift timb] on coa/ (1 #gde4 ,sib]ian l[l&s1 climate (1 #hc4 ----1 mammo?s1 #hj4 ,sicily1 e>?quakes 91 #ceg1 #dgj1 #dgg1 #dgi1 #ejc1 #gcf4 ----1 geological /ructure (1 #gd1 #afg1 #ahc4 ----1 mud volcanoes (1 #ddg4 ,si5na1 fossil %ells (1 #ci1 #gd4 ,sigill>iae1 /ructure (1 #hh4 ,silex1 deposit$ by spr+s1 #bdf4 ,silliman1 ,pr(essor1 cit$1 #gei4 ,silurian rocks1 wide range ( ! fossils1 #afj4 ----1 fauna1 no l& or fre%wat] plants 91 #acd4 ----1 horizontal1 #ahg4 ----1 alt]$1 #agg4 ----1 /rata =m$ 9 deep seas1 #aag4 ,simeto1 ,r41 lava excavat$ by1 #bac4 ,s9dree1 *anges caus$ by e>?quakes ( #ahai1 ne>1 #dfa1 #dfd1 #gfa4 ----1 view ( ! =t (1 be=e ! e>?quake 7see ,pl4 xi471 #dfa4 ----1 its appe>ance 9 #ahch1 #dfc4 ,skapt> ,jokul1 eruption (1 #dbe4 ,slave ,lake1 drift timb] 91 #gdc4 ,sleswick1 wa/e ( coa/ (1 #ccj1 #fid4 ,sligo1 bur/+ ( a peat-moss 91 #gbd4 ,sloane1 ,sir ,h41 on e>?quake 9 ,jamaica1 #eje4 ----1 on disp]sion ( plants1 #fba4 ,smi?1 ,william1 agreem5t ( 8 sy/em ) ,w]n]'s1 #dh4 ----1 8 ,tabul> ,view ( ! ,briti% ,/rata1 #agij1 #eh4 ----1 8 map ( ,engl&1 #eh4 ----1 priority ( 8 arrangem5t1 #eh4 ,smi?1 ,mr41 ( ,jordan ,hill1 on ! cold] climate ( newe/ t]ti>y p]iod1 #abf4 ----1 on temple ( ,s]apis1 #eaf4 ,smyrna1 volcanic c\ntry r\nd1 #cee4 ,smy?1 ,capt4 ,w4 ,h41 on ! ,m$it]ranean1 #de1 #bei1 #bif1 #eaa4 ----1 on height ,( ,etna1 #cif4 ----1 on ,/raits ( ,gibralt>1 #ccc1 #ccf4 ----1 on dep? ( sea f :i* ,graham ,isl& rose1 #dcb4 ----1 on float+ isl&s ( drift-wood1 #fda4 ----1 on drift+ ( birds by ! w9d1 #fde4 ----1 on diffusion ( insects1 #feg4 ----1 on av]age numb] ( ,briti% %ips lo/1 f #agic to #ahbi1 #gee4 ----1 f\nd %ells at great dep?s betwe5 ,gibralt> & ,ceuta1 #ggc4 ,sn[1 height ( p]petual1 9 ! ,&es1 #aab4 ----1 9 ,himalaya m\nta9s1 #aab4 ----1 l[e/ limits ( p]petual1 at equator1 #bbb4 ----1 l[e/ limits ( p]petual1 at ,swiss ,alps1 #bbb4 ,sod]telje1 buri$ hut 9 canal (1 #ebd1 #ebh4 ,soil1 its influ5ce on plants1 #eij4 ,soils1 on =mation (1 #gji4 ----1 influ5ce ( plants on1 #fgj4 ,soldani1 on microscopic %ells ( ,m$it]ranean1 #dd4 ----1 on ! ,p>is bas91 #dd4 ,sol5t1 its *annel wid5+1 #cah4 ,solfat>a1 lake (1 #bdc4 ----1 volcano1 #ceh1 #cfc1 #cfg1 #che4 ,solitaire1 rec5tly ext9ct bird1 #fhd4 ,solway ,moss1 #gbc4 ,solway ,fir?1 animals wa%$ by riv] floods into1 #gfj4 ,som]set%ire1 l& ga9$ 91 #cbd4 ----1 subm>9e =e/ on coa/ (1 #cbc4 ,som]ville1 ,mrs41 on dep? ( ocean1 #ajd4 ,somma1 esc>pm5t (1 #cha4 ----1 dikes (1 #chb4 ----1 suppos$ section ( ,vesuvius &1 #cha4 ,sorbonne1 ,college ( !1 #ci4 ,sort+ p[] ( wat]1 #bhg4 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 e>?quake 91 #dff4 ,s\? ,d[ns1 wa/e ( pla/ic clay on1 #cag4 ,spa91 e>?quakes 91 #ceh4 ,spallanzani on effects ( heat on se$s1 #fba4 ----1 on flight ( birds1 #fdd4 ,species1 def9ition ( ! t]m1 #efg4 ----1 ,l9naeus on con/ancy (1 #efh4 ----1 ,lam>ck's !ory ( transmutation (1 #efg1 #ehj1 #fii4 ----1 reality (1 9 nature1 #ehc1 #eia1 #eib1 #faa4 ----1 geographical di/ribution (1 #fab4 ----1 !ories respect+ _! orig91 #fff1 #gjc4 ----1 ,broc*i on ext9ction (1 #ffh4 ----1 reciprocal influ5ce ( aquatic & t]re/rial1 #fgf4 ----1 _! successive creation & ext9ction1 #fgh1 #fhi1 #gjg4 ----1 effect ( *anges 9 geography1 climate1 c41 on _! di/ribution1 #aje1 #fij1 #fig4 ----1 sup]ior longevity ( mollusc\s1 #gf4 ,specific c5tres1 doctr9e (1 #fcj4 ,sp5ce1 ,mr41 on insects1 cit$1 #fjf1 #fee1 #fgc4 ,spitzb]g51 glaci]s (1 #if4 ,spix1 ,m41 on animals drift$ by ,amazon1 #fda4 ----1 on ,brazil1 #fhb4 ,spontane\s g5]ation1 !ory (1 #bb4 ,spr+s1 orig9 (1 #bcb4 ----1 ! !ory (1 illu/rat$ by bor$ wells1 #bcc4 ----1 mo/ abundant 9 volcanic regions1 #bcg4 ----1 affect$ by e>?quake1 #bcg1 #dec1 #def1 #dhc1 #did4 ----1 transport+ p[] (1 #bch4 ----1 calc>e\s1 #bci4 ----1 sulphure\s & gypse\s1 #bde4 ----1 silice\s1 #bdf4 ----1 f]rug9\s1 #bdi4 ----1 br9e1 #bdg4 ----1 c>bonat$1 #bdh4 ----1 petroleum1 #bej4 ,squirrels1 migrations (1 #fcg4 ,/abiae1 buri$ city (1 #cid4 ,/alagmite alt]nat+ ) alluvium 9 caves1 #gcg4 ,/>s1 v>iable spl5dor (1 #abh4 ,/atical figure ( ! e>?1 #ecd1 #edd4 ,/ations ( plants1 description (1 #fad4 ----1 ( animals1 #fgg4 ,/elluti on organic rema9s1 #bc4 ,/5o1 op9ions (1 #bc4 ,/eph5son on eruption 9 ,icel&1 #dbe4 ,/eph5son1 ,mr4 ,r41 on level ( ,r$ ,sea & ,m$it]ranean1 #bid4 ,/ev5son1 ,mr41 on drift /ones on ,bell-,rock1 #cjb4 ----1 on ! ,g]man ,ocean1 #cae1 #cdj4 ----1 on wa/e ( cliffs1 #cbd4 ,/ockholm1 rise ( l& ne>1 #ebf1 #ebg4 ,/okes1 ,mr41 on m9]alization ( plants1 #gdg4 ,/onesfleld1 fossils (1 #ach1 #ade4 ,/orm ( ,novemb]1 #ahbd1 effect (1 #cag1 #cah1 #cbj4 ,/rabo cit$1 #ad1 #bfj1 #cee1 #cfa4 ----1 geology (1 #ad4 ,/ra*ey1 ,capt1 ,r41 on delta ( ,ganges1 #bhc4 ,/raits ( ,dov]1 =mation (1 #cae4 ----1 _! dep?1 #cae4 ,/raits ( ,gibralt>1 curr5ts 91 c41 #ccc1 #cce4 ,/rata1 laws gov]n+ deposition (1 #ahh4 ----1 sl[ deposition (1 prov$ by fossils1 #aed4 ----1 on consolidation (1 #age4 ,/ratifications 9 deltas1 causes (1 #bhg4 ----1 ( debris deposit$ by curr5ts1 #bhh4 ----1 uncon=mable1 inf]5ces d]iv$ f1 #ahg4 ,/rabo1 hypo!sis (1 #ad4 ,/rickl&1 ,mr41 on t]ti>y /rata1 ,crop?orn1 #gf4 ----1 on dodo1 #fhd4 ,/romboli1 its appe>ance dur+ ,calabrlan e>?quakes1 #dhh4 ----1 con/ancy 9 eruption1 #edf1 #efa4 ,/ufas1 jets ( /eam 9 volcanic regions1 #bcg1 #edf4 ,/ut*bury1 ,mr41 on coral isl&s1 #ggh1 #ghb4 ,subap5n9e /rata1 #gd4 ----1 e>ly ,italian geologi/s on1 #db1 #ga4 ,subm>9e =e/s1 #cjc1 #cbc1 #gdf4 ----1 peat1 #gbd1 #ggj4 ----1 riv]s1 #ceg4 ----1 volcanoes1 #dca1 #ded4 ----1 eruptions 9 mid ,atlantic1 #dcf4 ,subsid5ce ( l&1 #dfj1 #dfe1 #dgj1 #dgg1 #die1 #ejc1 #ejd1 #ejg1 #fia1 #gfa1 #gfb4 ----1 great areas (1 #agj1 #gij4 ----1 great] ?an elevation1 #efc1 #ghg4 ----1 simultane\s 9 ,mioc5e epo*1 #aib4 ----1 ( l&1 delta ( ,mississippi1 #bga4 ----1 ( coral isl&s1 sl[ & uni=m1 #gia4 ,subt]ranean movem5ts1 uni=mity (1 #ahf4 ----1 movem5ts ne> ,new ,madrid1 #ahaa-ab1 #bgj4 ,suffolk1 cliffs und]m9$1 #cji4 ----1 t]ti>y /rata (1 #adb4 ,sulphuric acid1 lake (1 9 ,java1 #cec4 ,sulphure\s spr+s1 #bde4 ,sumatra1 volcanoes 91 #ced4 ----1 animals de/roy$ by riv] floods 91 #gea4 ,sumbawa1 subsid5ce 9 isl& (1 #ahae1 #dfd1 #gfb4 ----1 a%es1 transport$ to great di/ances by eruptions (1 #ajf4 ,sun1 v>iations 9 spots (1 #abi4 ,sunda1 ,isles (1 volcanic region (1 #cej4 ,sund]bunds1 "p ( delta ( ,ganges1 #bgf4 ,sunk c\ntry1 we/ ( ,new ,madrid 9 ,u4 ,s41 #dfg4 ,sup]ior1 ,lake1 deltas (1 #bed4 ----1 rec5t deposits 91 #bed1 #gfh4 ----1 its dep?1 ext5t1 c41 #bed4 ----1 bur/+ (1 w\ld cause a flood1 #aef4 ,sussex1 wa/e ( its coa/1 #cag4 ,sutlej1 ,r41 fossils ne>1 #f4 ,swanage ,bay1 excavat$ by sea1 #cah4 ,sw$51 gradual rise (1 #ebj1 #efc4 ----1 gradual subsid5ce ( s\? (1 #ecj4 ----1 e>?quakes 91 #eca4 ----1 l& ris+1 #aib4 ----1 ,see also ,sc&9avia4 ,switz]l&1 t[ns de/roy$ by l&slips 91 #gcb4 ,syria1 e>?quakes 91 #cee1 #dec4 ,t4 ,tacitus cit$1 #cfd4 ,tagliam5to1 ,r41 delta ( !1 #beh4 ,t>gioni1 on geology ( ,tuscany1 #dj4 ,t>t>y1 volcanoes 91 #cee4 ,taxodium di/i*um 9 ,great ,dismal ,swamp1 #gbe4 ,tay1 e/u>y (1 encroa*m5t ( sea 91 #cjb4 ----1 subm>9e =e/s 91 #cjc4 ,taylor1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,c41 on wa/e ( cliff's1 #cjf4 ----1 on ga9 ( l& on coa/ ( ,norfolk1 #cjh4 ----1 on caves 9 isle ( ,cuba1 #gda4 ,t*ihat*(f1 ,m41 map ( ,italy1 #abc4 ,teissi]1 ,m41 on human bones 9 caves1 c41 #gci4 ,temp]ature1 great *anges 91 #ib4 ----1 diff]5ce (1 9 places 9 same latitudes1 #ie4 ----1 w>m] 9 t]ti>y p]iods1 #ge4 ----1 oscillation (1 #abe4 ----1 ,see ,climate4 ,temples1 buri$1 9 ,egypt1 #gbf4 ----1 "u wat] 9 ,bay ( ,baiae1 #eah4 ----1 buri$ 9 ,ca%m]e1 #gfb4 ,t5]iffe1 volcanic eruptions 91 #dci4 ,t]ra del ,fuego1 fauna (1 #ada4 ,t]ranuova1 subsid5ce ne>1 #dgj4 ----1 fault 9 ! t[] (1 #dgh4 ----1 l&slips ne>1 #dhe4 ,t]ti>y =mations1 g5]al rem>ks on1 #ada1 #ahb1 #ahc4 ----1 geographical *anges impli$ by1 #aah4 ----1 glacial 9 ,scotl&1 #abf4 ----1 orig9 ( successive p]iods1 #ahb4 ----1 circum/ances "u :i* ^! & ! second>y =mations may h orig9at$1 #aag1 #aah4 ----1 fossils ( ! newe/1 #ahc4 ----1 fossil mammals ( successive1 #adb4 ----1 =mations ( ,engl&1 #gf1 #adb4 ----1 ( ! ,p>is bas91 #adb4 ----1 deposits1 climate ( w>m]1 #hf4 ,te/acea1 _! geographical di/ribution1 #fdi4 ----1 fossil1 importance (1 #ahc4 ----1 m>9e1 imb$d+ (1 #gfh4 ----1 fre%wat]1 #ggj4 ----1 burr[+1 #ggc4 ----1 longevity ( species (1 #gf4 ----1 numb] ( rec5t1 9 diff]5t t]ti>y p]iods1 #adb1 #ahc4 ,texel1 wa/e ( isl&s ne> !1 #cbh4 ,?ames1 valley (1 t]ti>y /rata 91 #gf4 ----1 ga9 & loss ( l& 9 its e/u>y1 #cab4 ----1 tide 9 its e/u>y1 #cch4 ----1 buri$ vessels 9 alluvial pla9 ( !1 #geh4 ,?anet1 ,isle (1 loss ( l& 91 #cac4 ,!rmo-electricity1 #edc4 ,?ibet1 yak or wild ox (1 9 ice1 #he4 ,?omson1 ,dr4 ,t41 on ,we/]n ,himalaya & ,?ibet1 #gfc4 ----1 on buri$ temples 9 ,ca%m]e1 #gfc4 ,?race subject to e>?quakes1 #cee4 ,?ury1 ,m4 ,h]ic>t de1 on artesian wells1 #bcd1 #bcf4 ,?ylaco!rium ,prevo/ii1 #ach4 ,tib]1 gr[? ( its delta1 #bdc4 ,tide wave ( ! ,atlantic1 #cjh4 ,tides1 height to :i* !y rise1 #bgi1 #bij4 ----1 effect ( w9ds on !1 #bie4 ----1 effects (1 on wells ne> ,london1 #bcc4 ----1 _! de/roy+ & transport+ p[]1 #bia4 ----1 _! reproductive effects1 #ccg4 ----1 & curr5ts1 drift+ rema9s ( animals by1 #gec4 ,ti$emann on *anges 9 bra9 ( foetus1 #fji4 ,tig] ( ,b5gal f\nd 9 ,sib]ia1 #gg4 ,tigris & ,euphrates1 _! union a mod]n ev5t1 #bhd4 ,tigris1 riv]1 delta (1 advanc+1 #bhd4 ,tilesius on ,sib]ian mammo?1 #ha4 ,"t1 prepossessions 9 reg>d to ! duration ( pa/1 #fb4 ,tivoli1 flood at1 #baa4 ----1 trav]t9 (1 #bdd4 ,tomboro1 volcano1 eruption (1 #dfe4 ----1 t[n (1 subm]g$1 #dfe4 ,torre del ,greco ov]fl[$ by lava1 #cid4 ----1 column> lavas (1 #chd4 ,torr5ts1 action (1 9 wid5+ valleys1 #bjd4 ,torres' ,/rait1 volcano (1 #gib4 ,tott51 ,col41 on expansion ( rocks by heat1 #efb4 ,t\rnal1 ,m41 on ,fr5* caves1 #gch1 #gci4 ,t[ns de/roy$ by l&slips1 #gcb4 ,trade-w9ds1 #ajf1 #bie4 ,traditions ( losses ( l&1 #cbd1 #cbg4 ----1 ( floods1 #ejj1 #eja4 ,transition texture1 #agf4 ----1 =mations1 #agg4 ,trap rocks ( _m diff]5t ages1 #afj4 ,trav]t9 ( ! ,elsa1 #bci4 ----1 ( ,san ,vignone1 #bdj4 ----1 ( ,san ,filippo1 #bda4 ----1 sph]oidal /ructure (1 #bdb4 ----1 comp>$ to ,engli% magnesian lime/one1 #bdc4 ----1 ( ,tivoli1 #bdd4 ,trav]t9 politic1 rec5t1 9 ,lanc]ote1 #dci4 ,tree-f]ns1 di/ribution (1 #hh4 ,tree-f]ns1 ext5d m s\? ?an nor? ( equator1 #hf4 ,trees1 longevity (1 #dbb4 ,trias1 fossil mammif] (1 #acg4 ,trimm]1 ,mr41 on rec5t m>9e %ells 9 ,wales1 #abb4 ,tr9idad1 subsid5ce 91 #bej4 ----1 pit* lake (1 #bej4 ,trip]gola1 #cgj1 #cga1 #cie4 ,tripolitza1 pla9 (1 breccias 91 #gcd4 ,trollhattan1 #ebg4 ,truncation ( volcanic cones1 #ceb1 #dic4 ,tufa4 ,see ,trav]t94 ,tuff1 infusorial1 #chh4 ,turn]1 ,dr41 on decomposition ( felsp>1 #bdg4 ,turtles1 migrations (1 #fde4 ----1 eggs (1 fossil1 #gga4 ,turton cit$1 #fdf4 ,tuscany1 geology (1 #bc1 #dj4 ----1 calc>e\s spr+s (1 #bci4 ,tyrol1 ,dolomieu on !1 #di4 ,u4 ,uddevalla1 uprais$ deposits at1 #ahd1 #ebg4 ,uliah ,bund1 =mation ( !1 #dfb4 ,ulloa cit$1 #eja1 #ejb1 #fhe4 ,uncon=mable /rata1 inf]5ces d]iv$ f1 #ahg4 ,uni=mity ( laws ( nature1 #ga1 #adi1 #cgc4 ----1 ( sy/em ( pa/ *anges 9 animate & inanimate _w1 #aha4 ,univ]sal =mations1 !ory (1 #di1 #aed4 ,univ]sal ocean1 !ory (1 #bf1 #cd4 ----1 disprov$ by organic rema9s1 #aia4 ,upsala1 /rata ne>1 #ebh4 ,v4 ,val d',arno1 ,upp]1 effect ( de/ruction ( =e/s 91 #gab4 ,val del ,bove on ,etna describ$1 #djc4 ----1 =m1 composition1 & orig9 ( dikes 91 #djf4 ----1 lavas & breccias ( !1 #daa4 ----1 orig9 ( !1 #dac4 ----1 floods 91 #daa4 ,val di ,calanna1 #dje1 #djg1 #daj4 ,val di ,noto1 ,dolomieu on !1 #di4 ,valdivia1 e>?quake at1 #dec4 ,val5ci5nes1 ,m41 on fi% n cross+ ! ,atlantic1 #fdg4 ,valley1 newly =m$ 9 ,georgia1 ,u4 ,s41 #bje4 ,valleys1 ,t>gioni on orig9 (1 #dj4 ----1 excavation (1 9 ,c5tral ,france1 #bac4 ----1 ( elevation1 section (1 #dbj4 ----1 on ,etna1 acc\nt (1 #djd4 ----1 ! excavation (1 assi/$ by e>?quakes1 #dhd4 ,vallisn]i on ! orig9 ( spr+s1 #cc4 ----1 on m>9e deposits ( ,italy1 #cd4 ----1 cit$1 #cd1 #ce1 #eb4 ,valp>aiso1 *anges caus$ by e>?quakes at1 #deg1 #eag1 #gfa4 ,van ,dieman's ,l&1 climate (1 #ig4 ,v$as1 sacr$ hymns (1 #d4 ,vegetable soil1 :y x does n increase1 #gji4 ----1 h[ =m$1 #gaj4 ,vegetation1 luxuriant1 n requir$ to support l>ge animals1 #hb4 ----1 c5tres (1 #gjc4 ----1 its cons]vative influ5ce1 #gaj1 #gaa4 ----1 its influ5ce on climate1 #gac4 ,ve9s1 m9]al1 on _! =mation1 #dhd4 ----1 ( lava4 ,see ,dikes4 ,v]neuil1 ,m4 de1 on l[l& ( ,sib]ia1 #hd4 ,v]ona1 fossils (1 #bj1 #bb1 #cd4 ----1 ,ardu9o on m\nta9s (1 #da4 ,v]/egan1 on sep>ation ( ,engl& f ,france1 #cae1 #fdb4 ,v]tebrat$ animals 9 olde/ /rata1 #ace4 ,vessels1 fossil4 ,see ,%ips4 ,ve/a1 temple (1 #bab4 ,vesuvius1 excavation ( tuff on1 #bac4 ----1 hi/ory (1 #bfc1 #cgd4 ----1 eruptions (1 #cfd1 #cgd4 ----1 dikes (1 #cgi4 ----1 lava (1 #chd4 ----1 /ructure & orig9 ( ! cone (1 #chc4 ----1 & ,somma1 probable section (1 #cha4 ----1 volcanic alluvium on1 #gbh4 ,vic5t91 ,dolomieu on !1 #di4 ----1 subm>9e lavas ( !1 #ga4 ,victoria l&1 skirt$ by ice1 #ii4 ,vidal1 ,capt41 on ,rockhall bank1 #ggc4 ,villages buri$ by l&slips1 #gcb4 ,virlet1 ,m41 on ,samo?racian deluge1 #cef4 ----1 on volcanoes ( ,greece1 #cee4 ----1 on ,santor91 #ddc1 #dde1 #ddf4 ----1 on corrosion ( rocks by gases1 #gcc4 ----1 on human bones imb$d$ 9 ,morea1 #gce4 ,viv>ais1 basalts ( !1 #dh4 ,volcanic action1 def9$1 #cde4 ----1 p[] adequate to effect lat]al pressure1 #agb4 ----1 l9es1 #afi1 #ceb4 ----1 crat]s 9 ,galapagos ) s\!rn side l[e/1 #ghc4 ----1 action1 uni=mity (1 #afb1 #gaa4 ----1 cones1 truncation (1 #ceb1 #dic4 ----1 _! p]fect /ate no pro( ( relative age1 #gab4 ----1 conglom]ates1 #dch4 ----1 dikes4 ,see ,dikes4 ----1 eruptions1 causes (1 #edb4 ----1 av]age numb] (1 p] annum1 #dej4 ----1 =mations1 fossils 91 #cdi1 #gbh4 ----1 products1 m9]al composition (1 #ddi4 ----1 regions1 _! geographical b\nd>ies1 #cdf4 ----1 map %[+ ext5t (1 #cea4 ----1 rocks1 subt]ranean1 #agh1 #dej4 ----1 ( all geological p]iods1 #afj4 ,volcanoes1 safety-valves accord+ to ,/rabo1 #ae4 ----1 rem>ks on _! position1 #cdf1 #cee4 ----1 & e>?quakes1 effects ( same causes1 #cde4 ----1 ag5cy ( wat] 91 #ede4 ----1 mode ( comput+ ! age (1 #dbj4 ----1 sometimes inactive = c5turies1 #cdf1 #dba4 ----1 ( ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 #ced1 #cgb1 #edh1 #chc1 #dbi4 ----1 *emical !ory (1 #edf4 ----1 mud1 #ddg4 ----1 no safety-valves1 ,dana on1 #eec4 ,voltaire on sy/ems ( geology1 #ed4 ,volt]ra1 ,mattani1 on fossils (1 #cd4 ,von ,ba]1 ,pr(41 on froz5 soil ( ,sib]ia1 #hd4 ----1 on ice-drift$ rocks1 #bca4 ,von ,bu* on rise ( l& 9 ,sw$51 #ebc1 #ebf4 ----1 on volcanic l9es1 #ceb4 ----1 on volcanoes ( ,greece1 #cee4 ----1 on =mation ( ,monte ,nuovo1 #cfi4 ----1 on ,vesuvius & ,somma1 #cfg1 #chj1 #chb1 #chd4 ----1 on eruption 9 ,lanc]ote1 #dcf4 ----1 on glaci]s1 #bbh4 ----1 on new isl&s1 #dfh4 ----1 on volcanic regions1 #cdf4 ,von ,h(f4 ,see ,h(f4 ,vulcani/s & ,neptuni/s1 factions (1 #ej1 #ee4 ,vultur1 ,m\nt1 #cef4 ,vultures1 range (1 #fdc4 ,w4 ,wall]ius1 !ory (1 #de4 ,walli*1 ,dr41 on ,ava fossils1 #bh4 ----1 on wood 9 peat ne> ,calcutta1 #bhj4 ,w>p+1 l& ga9$ by1 #bhh1 #cci4 ,wat]1 action ( runn+1 #bjd4 ----1 its p[] on freez+1 #bjd4 ----1 excavat+ p[] (1 #bjd4 ----1 transport+ p[] (1 #bjd4 ----1 sort+ p[] (1 #bhf4 ----1 ag5cy (1 9 volcanoes1 #edh4 ,wat]h\se1 ,mr41 ( ,briti% ,museum1 on prov9ces ( indig5\s l& quadrup$s1 #fca4 ,weald5 /rata1 fossils (1 #aag1 #acg1 #adj4 ,web/]1 ,dr41 ( ,nova ,scotia1 on ra9-pr9ts1 #bjb4 ,wells1 artesian1 #bcc4 ,w5]1 ,lake1 /rata ne>1 #ebg4 ,w]n]1 ,pr(essor ( ,m9]alogy at ,freyb]g1 #agge1 #df4 ----1 8 lecture1 #dg4 ----1 on granite ( ! ,h>tz1 #dg4 ----1 pr9cipal m]it ( 8 sy/em1 #dh4 ----1 te*nical t]ms (1 #eh4 ----1 on transition rocks1 #agf4 4 ,we/ ,indian l& quadrup$s1 #fcd4 ,we/ ,indies1 e>?quakes 91 #bi1 #cej1 #eje4 ----1 active volcanoes 91 #cej4 ,:ales /r&$1 #gga4 ,:ewell1 ,rev4 ,dr41 on mod]n progress ( geology1 #ei4 ----1 on ! tides1 #ccb4 ,:irlw9ds1 viol5t1 dur+ eruption 9 ,sumbawa1 #dfe4 ,:irlw9d1 disp]sion ( se$s by1 #fai4 ,:i/on1 8 !ory ( ! e>?1 #cb4 ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 l&slips 9 !1 #bji4 ,:itehur/1 !ory (1 #aggh1 #de4 ----1 on subsid5ce at ,lisbon1 #die4 ,wild5[ on diffusion ( plants by man1 #fbf4 ----1 on c5tres ( vegetable creation1 #gjc4 ,wilk9son1 ,sir ,j4 ,g41 on deposits ( ,nile1 #bfb4 ----1 on s& drift 9 ,egypt1 #gbf4 ,wilson1 ,pr(41 on cosmogony ( ,v$as1 #d4 ,w9ds1 trade1 #ajf1 #bie4 ----1 curr5ts caus$ by !1 #bic4 ----1 s& drift$ by !1 #cjg1 #gbf4 ,wolf1 & dog1 di/9ct species1 #ehe4 ----1 hybrids betwe5 !1 #fja4 ----1 drift$ to sea on ice1 #fdj4 ----1 extirpat$ 9 ,great ,brita91 #fhc4 ,wolla/on1 ,dr41 on wat] ( ,m$it]ranean1 #ccd4 ,wood1 ,mr4 ,s41 on fossil quadrumana1 #add4 ,wood impregnat$ ) salt wat] :5 sunk to great dep?s1 #gdc4 ----1 drift1 #ij1 #bfh1 #fdj1 #gdc4 ----1 conv]t$ into lignite1 #gei4 ,woodw>d1 !ory (1 #ca1 #hd1 #ed1 #ff4 ,wrecks1 numb] (1 annually1 #ged1 #gee4 ,x4 ,xan?us1 ! ,lydian1 8 !ory1 #ad4 ,y4 ,yak1 wild ox ( ,?ibet1 froz5 9 ice1 #he4 ,yakutzt1 froz5 soil (1 #hd4 ,ya\1 flood (1 #g4 ,y>m\?1 e/u>y silt$ up at1 #cjg4 ----1 rise ( ! tide at1 #bia1 #cjg4 ,y5esei1 ,r41 fossils on banks (1 #gi4 ,york%ire1 bones ( mammo? 91 #gf4 ----1 wa/e ( its coa/s1 #cjc4 ,"y1 ,dr41 on effects ( compression at e>?'s c5tre1 #ecf4 ,z4 ,zante1 e>?quakes 9 isl& (1 #dgd4 ,zeal&1 ,new1 numb] ( f]ns1 #aaf4 ----1 resemblance ( plants ) anci5t c>bonif]\s flora1 #aaf4 ----1 l5g? & bread? (1 #aaf4 ,zeuglodon1 eoc5e cetacea1 #ade4 ,zoological prov9ces h[ =m$1 #fff4 ----1 :y n m bl5d$ toge!r1 #ffh4 ,zoophytes1 _! geographical di/ribution1 #fea4 ----1 _! p[]s ( diffusion1 #fed4 ----1 abundance (1 #gjf4 ----1 :i* =m coral reefs1 #ggf4 ,zuyd] ,zee1 =mation1 #cbh4 ----1 great mosses on ! site (1 #cbg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4 ,,publi%4 ,,uni=m ,,) ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,geology1 ,a ,,manual ( ,,elem5t>y ,,geology2 ,or1 ! ,anci5t ,*anges ( ! ,e>? & its ,inhabitants1 ,,z ,,illu/rat$ ,,by ,,geological ,,monum5ts4 ,,by ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lyell1 ,m4 ,a41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 ,au?or ( ,pr9ciples ( ,geology c41 c4 ,repr9t$ f ! la/ ,london1 ,entirely ,revis$ ,edition4 ,illu/rat$ ) ,five ,hundr$ ,wood-,cuts4 ,"o h&some volume1 l>ge #hvo4 ,price #a #ge4 ,! au?or ( ?is "w /&s 9 ! v front rank ( sci5tific m51 & 8 works ^u ! sci5ces1 to :i* he has devot$ 8 great p[]s1 & 8 ,indefatigable /udy1 are ! /&>d books ^u ^? subjects4 ,?is ,manual has _h a v great sale 9 ,engl&1 & its successive editions h kept pace ) ! /eady progress ( geological sci5ce4 ,to ! la/ edition1 new & important pages h be5 add$1 conta9+ ! late/ discov]ies ,9 geology4 ,?is /udy has nev] be=e receiv$ s great att5tion z at pres5t1 & 9 no o!r c\ntry c x be /udi$ s pr(itably & ) su* practical results z 9 ?is4--,provid5ce ,j\rnal4 ,?is is a /&>d "w1 on "o ( ! mo/ wond]ful ( mod]n sci5ces4 ,9 connection ) ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 by ! same au?or1 x gives a complete survey ( ! sci5ce at its pres5t /age ( advancem5t4 ,we comm5d ^! works to ! s]i\s att5tion ( ^? fossil !ologians :o e/eem x _! duty to br+ ! ,bible1 if !y c1 into conflict ) ! inductive sci5ces1 & :o ?9k t _! int]pretation ( ,g5esis is a suffici5t reply to all ! inductions ( ,geology4--,record]4 ,! au?or ( ?is volume is among ! mo/ em95t ( geologi/s1 & is well qualifi$ to make an exposition ( ! sci5ce4 ,?is ,manual is n int5d$ z an epitome ( ano!r "w1 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 b occupies a di/9ct place1 ! ,pr9ciples conta9+ a view ( ! ,mod]n *anges ( ! ,e>? & its inhabitants1 :ile ! ,manual relates to ! ,monum5ts ( ,anci5t *anges4 ,! au?or recomm5ds to ! /ud5t ( geology :o wi%es to exam9e 8 works1 to comm5ce ) ! ,pr9ciples1 a new & ?or\ghly revis$ edition ( :i* is j ab\t tube issu$ by ! ,publi%]s ( ! pres5t volume4 ,we are n among ^? :o appreh5d injury to ! cause ( ,scripture tru?1 by ! /udy ( ?is sci5ce1 & we only wi% x 7 m g5]ally & ?or\ghly inve/igat$ by s\nd m9ds4 ,x is imp]ative on all !ologians1 & ^? design+ to become su*1 to make ?is a bran*1 ( /udy1 & ?us to be prep>$ to def5d ! tru? :5 x is assay$1 z x has be5 by m5 ( sci5ce4 ,! tru? has no?+ to fe>1 b e ?+ to ga9 ev5 f sci5tific inve/igation4--,obs]v]4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co4 ,,h ,,j ,,publi%$1 ,a ,,new ,,& ,,enl>g$ ,,edition ,,( ,,dr4 ,,ure',s ,,diction>y ,,( ,,arts1 ,,manufactures ,,& ,,m9es4 ,conta9+ a cle> exposition ( _! ,pr9ciples & ,practice4 ,illu/rat$ ) ov] #afjj ,wood ,engrav+s4 ,complete 9 two l>ge #hvo4 volumes ( ov] #bjjj pages4 ,price #e #jj4 ,,new ,,& ,,useful ,,works4 ,,j ,,publi%$ ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,company ,a new & mu* enl>g$ edition ( ,,dr4 ,,ure',s ,,diction>y ,,( ,,arts1 ,,manufactures ,,& ,,m9es4 ,conta9+ a cle> ,exposition ( _! pr9ciples & practice4 ,illu/rat$ ) ne>ly #a1fjj engrav+s4 ,complete 9 two l>ge #hvo4 volumes2 c\nts ov] #b1jjj pages4 ,price #e4jj4 ,?is new edition is ne>ly a qu>t] ( a c5tury 9 advance ( any previ\s "o4 ,x conta9s "o ?ird m matt] ?an ! late/ previ\s "o4 ,! /ati/ics1 inv5tions1 & improvem5ts1 are all br\ght d[n to ! pres5t "t4 ,! results ( ! ,london ,exhibition on ! respective subjects ( :i* ! ,diction>y treats1 are pres5t$ ) great fulness & accurracy4 ,! num]\s errors 9 ! typography ( ! ,london edition h be5 correct$ 9 ?is4 ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lyell',s ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,geology2 ,or1 ! ,mod]n ,*anges ( ! ,e>? & its ,inhabitants1 consid]$ z illu/rative ( ,geology4 ,a new & mu* enl>g$ edition4 ,illu/rat$ ) maps1 plates1 & wood-cuts4 #a vol4 #hvo41 ( #hej pages4 ,price #b4be4 ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lyell',s ,,manual ,,( ,,elem5t>y ,,geology2 ,or1 ! ,anci5t ,*anges ( ! ,e>? & its ,inhabitants1 z illu/rat$ by ,geological ,monum5ts4 ,a new & greatly enl>g$ edition4 ,illu/rat$ ) #ejj wood-cuts4 #a vol4 #hvo4 ,price #a4ge4 999999 ,! au?or ( ^! works1 /&s 9 ! v front rank ( sci5tific m51 & 8 works ^u ! sci5ce to :i* he has devot$ 8 great p[]s & 8 indefatigable /udy1 are ! /&>d books ^u ^! subjects4 ,,appleton',s ,,mod]n ,,atlas ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,) an ,alphabetical ,index ( ! ,latitudes & ,longitudes ( #ah1jjj places4 ,?irty-f\r beautifully engrav$ & color$ maps1 ) ,temp]ature ,scales4 #dto4 size1 b\nd 9 #a vol41 royal #hvo4 ,price #c4ej4 ,?is is ! only complete portable ,mod]n ,atlas yet publi%$4 ,! maps are engrav$ on /eel1 & execut$ ) great cle>ness1 di/9ctness & accuracy4 ,! del9eations ( m\nta9\s di/ricts1 ! s\rces ( riv]s & b\nd>y l9es1 h be5 made ) great c>e4 ,x is design$ = ! table ( ! ,/ud5t & ! (fice ( ! ,pr(essional ,man & is issu$ 9 a v f9i%$ & elegant /yle1 & embraces ext5sive details ( all ! important p>ts ( ! ,e>?4